prompt
stringlengths 2.39k
20.2k
| answer
stringlengths 1
535
| weight
float64 0.3
0.3
⌀ |
|---|---|---|
If a space that is lacking walls or a roof is continuously dampened from above, data may be collected to inform those living there about the results. The information would be
0. measuring distance
1. creating rain
2. measuring dampness
3. enjoying nature
or qualities of the atmosphere that can be measured. rain, which can be observed, or seen anywhere and anytime was one of the first atmospheric qualities measured historically. also, two other accurately measured qualities are wind and humidity. neither of these can be seen but can be felt. the devices to measure these three sprang up in the mid - 15th century and were respectively the rain gauge, the anemometer, and the hygrometer. many attempts had been made prior to the 15th century to construct adequate equipment to measure the many atmospheric variables. many were faulty in some way or were simply not reliable. even aristotle noted this in some of his work as the difficulty to measure the air. sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists. they give a snapshot of a variety of weather conditions at one single location and are usually at a weather station, a ship or a weather buoy. the measurements taken at a weather station can include any number of atmospheric observables. usually, temperature, pressure, wind measurements, and humidity are the variables that are measured by a thermometer, barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer, respectively. professional stations may also include air quality sensors ( carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, dust, and smoke ), ceilometer ( cloud ceiling ), falling precipitation sensor, flood sensor, lightning sensor, microphone ( explosions, sonic booms, thunder ), pyranometer / pyrheliometer / spectroradiometer ( ir / vis / uv photodiodes ), rain gauge / snow gauge, scintillation counter ( background radiation, fallout, radon ), seismometer ( earthquakes and tremors ), transmissometer ( visibility ), and a gps clock for data logging. upper air data are of crucial importance for weather forecasting. the most widely used technique is launches of radiosondes. supplementing the radiosondes a network of aircraft collection is organized by the world meteorological organization. remote sensing, as used in meteorology, is the concept of collecting data from remote weather events and subsequently producing weather information. the common types of remote sensing are radar, lidar, and satellites ( or photogrammetry ). each collects data about the atmosphere from a remote location and, usually, stores the data where the instrument is located. radar and lidar are not passive because both use em radiation to illuminate a specific portion of the atmosphere. weather satellites along with more general - purpose earth - observing satellites circling
damp proofing in construction is a type of moisture control applied to building walls and floors to prevent moisture from passing into the interior spaces. dampness problems are among the most frequent problems encountered in residences. damp proofing is defined by the american society for testing and materials ( astm ) as a material that resists the passage of water with no hydrostatic pressure. waterproof is defined by the astm as a treatment that resists the passage of water under pressure. generally, damp proofing keeps exterior moisture from entering a building ; vapor barriers, a separate category, keep interior moisture from getting into walls. moisture resistance is not necessarily absolute ; it is usually stated in terms of acceptable limits based on engineering tolerances and a specific test method. = = methods = = damp proofing is accomplished several ways including : a damp - proof course ( dpc ) is a barrier through the structure designed to prevent moisture rising by capillary action such as through a phenomenon known as rising damp. rising damp is the effect of water rising from the ground into property. the damp proof course may be horizontal or vertical. a dpc layer is usually laid below all masonry walls, regardless if the wall is a load bearing wall or a partition wall. a damp - proof membrane ( dpm ) is a membrane material applied to prevent moisture transmission. a common example is polyethylene sheeting laid under a concrete slab to prevent the concrete from gaining moisture through capillary action. a dpm may be used for the dpc. integral damp proofing in concrete involves adding materials to the concrete mix to make the concrete itself impermeable. surface suppressant coating with thin water proof materials such as epoxy resin for resistance to non - pressurized moisture such as rain water or a coating of cement sprayed on such as shotcrete which can resist water under pressure. cavity wall construction, such as rainscreen construction, is where the interior walls are separated from the exterior walls by a cavity. pressure grouting cracks and joints in masonry materials. = = materials = = materials widely used for damp proofing include : flexible materials like butyl rubber, hot bitumen ( asphalt ), plastic sheets, bituminous felts, sheets of lead, copper, etc. semi - rigid materials like mastic asphalt rigid materials, like impervious brick, stone, slate, cement mortar, or cement concrete painted with bitumen, etc. stones mortar with waterproofing compounds coarse sand layers under floors continuous plastic sheets under floors = = masonry construction
would be corrected for surface topography. seismic travel times would be converted to depths. often a target of the survey will be revealed as an anomaly, a region that has data values above or below the surrounding region. = = = data processing = = = the reduced data may not provide a good enough image because of background noise. the signal - to - noise ratio may be improved by repeated measurements of the same quantity followed by some sort of averaging such as stacking or signal processing. = = = modeling = = = once a good profile is obtained of the physical property that is directly measured, it must be converted to a model of the property that is being investigated. for example, gravity measurements are used to obtain a model of the density profile under the surface. this is called an inverse problem. given a model of the density, the gravity measurements at the surface can be predicted ; but in an inverse problem the gravity measurements are known and the density must be inferred. this problem has uncertainties due to the noise and limited coverage of the surface, but even with perfect coverage many possible models of the interior could fit the data. thus, additional assumptions must be made to constrain the model. depending on the data coverage, the model may only be a 2d model of a profile. or a set of parallel transects may be interpreted using a 2½d model, which assumes that relevant features are elongated. for more complex features, a 3d model may be obtained using tomography. = = = geological interpretation = = = the final step in a project is the geological interpretation. a positive gravity anomaly may be an igneous intrusion, a negative anomaly a salt dome or void. a region of higher electrical conductivity may have water or galena. for a good interpretation the geophysics model must be combined with geological knowledge of the area. = = seismology = = seismology makes use of the ability of vibrations to travel through rock as seismic waves. these waves come in two types : pressure waves ( p - waves ) and shear waves ( s - waves ). p - waves travel faster than s - waves, and both have trajectories that bend as the wave speeds change with depth. refraction seismology makes use of these curved trajectories. in addition, if there are discontinuities between layers in the rock or sediment, seismic waves are reflected. reflection seismology identifies these layer boundaries by the reflections. = = = reflection seismology = = = seismic reflection is used for imaging
environmental data rescue is a collection of processes, including photography and scanning, that stores historical and modern environmental data in a usable format. the data is then analyzed and used in scientific models. historical weather information helps meteorologists and climatologists understand past trends in weather changes, which helps them forecast and predict future weather. one method takes digital photographs of environmental datum stored on paper medium and then ships the images to a facility where they are entered into a database. throughout the world, some estimate 700, 000 pieces of data are lost every day due to inks fading, paper deteriorating, magnetic tape print - through etc. a rough estimate of 100 billion parameter values that are still on paper exists, microfiche, microfilm, and magnetic tape that are in a format unusable by computers and scientists alike, which need to be digitized. this data is stored on a variety of media from paper, microfiche, to older magnetic tapes that are going bad. once data is digitized, it can be used to help a large range of people from farmers to engineers and in scientific pursuits such as climate studies. historical environmental data are also used as a basis for " disease vectorization " where the areal spread of airborne diseases are correlated to historical weather conditions so that in future outbreaks, health care teams can predict the direction and rate of spread of the disease so that remedial actions can begin before the disease reaches the vulnerable population. historic data are also used in designing structures such as bridges and buildings, assist the 1. 8 billion subsistence farmers throughout the world better plan crops alleviating starvation. national climatic data center is the current collection point for this data within the national oceanic & atmospheric administration. the international environmental data rescue organization, a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization has also already participated in the rescue and digitization of one million historic weather observations in africa and south america. = = see also = = citizen science data archiving = = references = =
. geophysical sensors are often used to monitor soil moisture continuously in agricultural and scientific applications. = = = = satellite remote sensing method = = = = satellite microwave remote sensing is used to estimate soil moisture based on the large contrast between the dielectric properties of wet and dry soil. the microwave radiation is not sensitive to atmospheric variables, and can penetrate through clouds. also, microwave signal can penetrate, to a certain extent, the vegetation canopy and retrieve information from ground surface. the data from microwave remote sensing satellites such as windsat, amsr - e, radarsat, ers - 1 - 2, metop / ascat, and smap are used to estimate surface soil moisture. = = = wood moisture measurement = = = in addition to the primary methods above, another method exists to measure the moisture content of wood : an electronic moisture meter. pin and pinless meters are the two main types of moisture meters. pin meters require driving two pins into the surface of the wood while making sure that the pins are aligned with the grain and not perpendicular to it. pin meters provide moisture content readings by measuring the resistance in the electrical current between the two pins. the drier the wood, the more resistance to the electrical current, when measuring below the fiber saturation point of wood. pin meters are generally preferred when there is no flat surface of the wood available to measure pinless meters emit an electromagnetic signal into the wood to provide readings of the wood's moisture content and are generally preferred when damage to the wood's surface is unacceptable or when a high volume of readings or greater ease of use is required. = = classification and uses = = moisture may be present as adsorbed moisture at internal surfaces and as capillary condensed water in small pores. at low relative humidities, moisture consists mainly of adsorbed water. at higher relative humidities, liquid water becomes more and more important, depending or not depending on the pore size can also be an influence of volume. in wood - based materials, however, almost all water is adsorbed at humidities below 98 % rh. in biological applications there can also be a distinction between physisorbed water and " free " water — the physisorbed water being that closely associated with and relatively difficult to remove from a biological material. the method used to determine water content may affect whether water present in this form is accounted for. for a better indication of " free " and " bound " water, the water activity of a material should be considered.
Answer:
|
measuring dampness
| null |
If a space that is lacking walls or a roof is continuously dampened from above, data may be collected to inform those living there about the results. The information would be
0. measuring distance
1. creating rain
2. measuring dampness
3. enjoying nature
or qualities of the atmosphere that can be measured. rain, which can be observed, or seen anywhere and anytime was one of the first atmospheric qualities measured historically. also, two other accurately measured qualities are wind and humidity. neither of these can be seen but can be felt. the devices to measure these three sprang up in the mid - 15th century and were respectively the rain gauge, the anemometer, and the hygrometer. many attempts had been made prior to the 15th century to construct adequate equipment to measure the many atmospheric variables. many were faulty in some way or were simply not reliable. even aristotle noted this in some of his work as the difficulty to measure the air. sets of surface measurements are important data to meteorologists. they give a snapshot of a variety of weather conditions at one single location and are usually at a weather station, a ship or a weather buoy. the measurements taken at a weather station can include any number of atmospheric observables. usually, temperature, pressure, wind measurements, and humidity are the variables that are measured by a thermometer, barometer, anemometer, and hygrometer, respectively. professional stations may also include air quality sensors ( carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, dust, and smoke ), ceilometer ( cloud ceiling ), falling precipitation sensor, flood sensor, lightning sensor, microphone ( explosions, sonic booms, thunder ), pyranometer / pyrheliometer / spectroradiometer ( ir / vis / uv photodiodes ), rain gauge / snow gauge, scintillation counter ( background radiation, fallout, radon ), seismometer ( earthquakes and tremors ), transmissometer ( visibility ), and a gps clock for data logging. upper air data are of crucial importance for weather forecasting. the most widely used technique is launches of radiosondes. supplementing the radiosondes a network of aircraft collection is organized by the world meteorological organization. remote sensing, as used in meteorology, is the concept of collecting data from remote weather events and subsequently producing weather information. the common types of remote sensing are radar, lidar, and satellites ( or photogrammetry ). each collects data about the atmosphere from a remote location and, usually, stores the data where the instrument is located. radar and lidar are not passive because both use em radiation to illuminate a specific portion of the atmosphere. weather satellites along with more general - purpose earth - observing satellites circling
damp proofing in construction is a type of moisture control applied to building walls and floors to prevent moisture from passing into the interior spaces. dampness problems are among the most frequent problems encountered in residences. damp proofing is defined by the american society for testing and materials ( astm ) as a material that resists the passage of water with no hydrostatic pressure. waterproof is defined by the astm as a treatment that resists the passage of water under pressure. generally, damp proofing keeps exterior moisture from entering a building ; vapor barriers, a separate category, keep interior moisture from getting into walls. moisture resistance is not necessarily absolute ; it is usually stated in terms of acceptable limits based on engineering tolerances and a specific test method. = = methods = = damp proofing is accomplished several ways including : a damp - proof course ( dpc ) is a barrier through the structure designed to prevent moisture rising by capillary action such as through a phenomenon known as rising damp. rising damp is the effect of water rising from the ground into property. the damp proof course may be horizontal or vertical. a dpc layer is usually laid below all masonry walls, regardless if the wall is a load bearing wall or a partition wall. a damp - proof membrane ( dpm ) is a membrane material applied to prevent moisture transmission. a common example is polyethylene sheeting laid under a concrete slab to prevent the concrete from gaining moisture through capillary action. a dpm may be used for the dpc. integral damp proofing in concrete involves adding materials to the concrete mix to make the concrete itself impermeable. surface suppressant coating with thin water proof materials such as epoxy resin for resistance to non - pressurized moisture such as rain water or a coating of cement sprayed on such as shotcrete which can resist water under pressure. cavity wall construction, such as rainscreen construction, is where the interior walls are separated from the exterior walls by a cavity. pressure grouting cracks and joints in masonry materials. = = materials = = materials widely used for damp proofing include : flexible materials like butyl rubber, hot bitumen ( asphalt ), plastic sheets, bituminous felts, sheets of lead, copper, etc. semi - rigid materials like mastic asphalt rigid materials, like impervious brick, stone, slate, cement mortar, or cement concrete painted with bitumen, etc. stones mortar with waterproofing compounds coarse sand layers under floors continuous plastic sheets under floors = = masonry construction
would be corrected for surface topography. seismic travel times would be converted to depths. often a target of the survey will be revealed as an anomaly, a region that has data values above or below the surrounding region. = = = data processing = = = the reduced data may not provide a good enough image because of background noise. the signal - to - noise ratio may be improved by repeated measurements of the same quantity followed by some sort of averaging such as stacking or signal processing. = = = modeling = = = once a good profile is obtained of the physical property that is directly measured, it must be converted to a model of the property that is being investigated. for example, gravity measurements are used to obtain a model of the density profile under the surface. this is called an inverse problem. given a model of the density, the gravity measurements at the surface can be predicted ; but in an inverse problem the gravity measurements are known and the density must be inferred. this problem has uncertainties due to the noise and limited coverage of the surface, but even with perfect coverage many possible models of the interior could fit the data. thus, additional assumptions must be made to constrain the model. depending on the data coverage, the model may only be a 2d model of a profile. or a set of parallel transects may be interpreted using a 2½d model, which assumes that relevant features are elongated. for more complex features, a 3d model may be obtained using tomography. = = = geological interpretation = = = the final step in a project is the geological interpretation. a positive gravity anomaly may be an igneous intrusion, a negative anomaly a salt dome or void. a region of higher electrical conductivity may have water or galena. for a good interpretation the geophysics model must be combined with geological knowledge of the area. = = seismology = = seismology makes use of the ability of vibrations to travel through rock as seismic waves. these waves come in two types : pressure waves ( p - waves ) and shear waves ( s - waves ). p - waves travel faster than s - waves, and both have trajectories that bend as the wave speeds change with depth. refraction seismology makes use of these curved trajectories. in addition, if there are discontinuities between layers in the rock or sediment, seismic waves are reflected. reflection seismology identifies these layer boundaries by the reflections. = = = reflection seismology = = = seismic reflection is used for imaging
environmental data rescue is a collection of processes, including photography and scanning, that stores historical and modern environmental data in a usable format. the data is then analyzed and used in scientific models. historical weather information helps meteorologists and climatologists understand past trends in weather changes, which helps them forecast and predict future weather. one method takes digital photographs of environmental datum stored on paper medium and then ships the images to a facility where they are entered into a database. throughout the world, some estimate 700, 000 pieces of data are lost every day due to inks fading, paper deteriorating, magnetic tape print - through etc. a rough estimate of 100 billion parameter values that are still on paper exists, microfiche, microfilm, and magnetic tape that are in a format unusable by computers and scientists alike, which need to be digitized. this data is stored on a variety of media from paper, microfiche, to older magnetic tapes that are going bad. once data is digitized, it can be used to help a large range of people from farmers to engineers and in scientific pursuits such as climate studies. historical environmental data are also used as a basis for " disease vectorization " where the areal spread of airborne diseases are correlated to historical weather conditions so that in future outbreaks, health care teams can predict the direction and rate of spread of the disease so that remedial actions can begin before the disease reaches the vulnerable population. historic data are also used in designing structures such as bridges and buildings, assist the 1. 8 billion subsistence farmers throughout the world better plan crops alleviating starvation. national climatic data center is the current collection point for this data within the national oceanic & atmospheric administration. the international environmental data rescue organization, a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization has also already participated in the rescue and digitization of one million historic weather observations in africa and south america. = = see also = = citizen science data archiving = = references = =
. geophysical sensors are often used to monitor soil moisture continuously in agricultural and scientific applications. = = = = satellite remote sensing method = = = = satellite microwave remote sensing is used to estimate soil moisture based on the large contrast between the dielectric properties of wet and dry soil. the microwave radiation is not sensitive to atmospheric variables, and can penetrate through clouds. also, microwave signal can penetrate, to a certain extent, the vegetation canopy and retrieve information from ground surface. the data from microwave remote sensing satellites such as windsat, amsr - e, radarsat, ers - 1 - 2, metop / ascat, and smap are used to estimate surface soil moisture. = = = wood moisture measurement = = = in addition to the primary methods above, another method exists to measure the moisture content of wood : an electronic moisture meter. pin and pinless meters are the two main types of moisture meters. pin meters require driving two pins into the surface of the wood while making sure that the pins are aligned with the grain and not perpendicular to it. pin meters provide moisture content readings by measuring the resistance in the electrical current between the two pins. the drier the wood, the more resistance to the electrical current, when measuring below the fiber saturation point of wood. pin meters are generally preferred when there is no flat surface of the wood available to measure pinless meters emit an electromagnetic signal into the wood to provide readings of the wood's moisture content and are generally preferred when damage to the wood's surface is unacceptable or when a high volume of readings or greater ease of use is required. = = classification and uses = = moisture may be present as adsorbed moisture at internal surfaces and as capillary condensed water in small pores. at low relative humidities, moisture consists mainly of adsorbed water. at higher relative humidities, liquid water becomes more and more important, depending or not depending on the pore size can also be an influence of volume. in wood - based materials, however, almost all water is adsorbed at humidities below 98 % rh. in biological applications there can also be a distinction between physisorbed water and " free " water — the physisorbed water being that closely associated with and relatively difficult to remove from a biological material. the method used to determine water content may affect whether water present in this form is accounted for. for a better indication of " free " and " bound " water, the water activity of a material should be considered.
Answer:
|
measuring distance
| 0.3 |
What will be more available in an area when rainfall increases?
0. air
1. fire
2. H2O
3. dirt
##lenish groundwater supplies and reduce the amount of surface runoff. additionally, vegetation helps to slow down water flow, reducing the risk of flooding and erosion. in suburban areas, impervious surfaces typically only cover 5 – 10 percent of the land. in contrast, central urban areas are filled with impervious surfaces, which can account for about 90 – 100 percent of the land cover. in these regions, nearly all rainfall is converted into surface runoff, which frequently overwhelms stormwater management systems. runoff volumes in urban areas can be two to ten times higher than in an undeveloped area. this dramatic increase in runoff contributes to downstream flooding, erosion, and pollutant transport into aquatic ecosystems. rain gardens serve as decentralized stormwater controls to help restore more natural hydrologic function in built environments. = = = effects of urban runoff = = = in developed urban areas, naturally occurring depressions where storm water would pool are typically covered by impermeable surfaces, such as asphalt, pavement, or concrete, and are leveled for automobile use. stormwater is directed into storm drains which may cause overflows of combined sewer systems or pollution, erosion, or flooding of waterways receiving the storm water runoff. redirected stormwater is often warmer than the groundwater normally feeding a stream, and has been linked to upset in some aquatic ecosystems primarily through the reduction of dissolved oxygen ( do ). stormwater runoff is also a source of a wide variety of pollutants washed off hard or compacted surfaces during rain events. these pollutants may include volatile organic compounds, pesticides, herbicides, hydrocarbons and trace metals. = = = stormwater management systems = = = stormwater management occurs on a watershed scale to prevent downstream impacts on urban water quality. a watershed is maintained through the cyclical accumulation, storage, and flow of groundwater. naturally occurring watersheds are damaged when they are sealed by an impervious surface, which diverts pollutant - carrying stormwater runoff into streams. urban watersheds are affected by greater quantities of pollutants due to the consequences of anthropogenic activities within urban environments. rainfall on impermeable surfaces accumulates surface runoff containing oil, bacteria, and sediment that eventually makes its way to streams and groundwater. stormwater control strategies such as infiltration gardens treat contaminated surface runoff and return processed water to the underlying soil, helping to restore the watershed system. the effectiveness of stormwater control systems is measured by the reduction of the amount of rainfall that becomes runoff ( retention ),
in hydrology, moisture recycling or precipitation recycling refer to the process by which a portion of the precipitated water that evapotranspired from a given area contributes to the precipitation over the same area. moisture recycling is thus a component of the hydrologic cycle. the ratio of the locally derived precipitation ( pl ) to total precipitation ( p ) is known as the recycling ratio, ρ : the recycling ratio is a diagnostic measure of the potential for interactions between land surface hydrology and regional climate. land use changes, such as deforestation or agricultural intensification, have the potential to change the amount of precipitation that falls in a region. the recycling ratio for the entire world is one, and for a single point is zero. estimates for the recycling ratio for the amazon basin range from 24 % to 56 %, and for the mississippi basin from 21 % to 24 %. the concept of moisture recycling has been integrated into the concept of the precipitationshed. a precipitationshed is the upwind ocean and land surface that contributes evaporation to a given, downwind location's precipitation. in much the same way that a watershed is defined by a topographically explicit area that provides surface runoff, the precipitationshed is a statistically defined area within which evaporation, traveling via moisture recycling, provides precipitation for a specific point. = = see also = = water cycle precipitationshed land surface effects on climate al baydha project = = references = =
changes affect " precipitation, evaporation, flooding, groundwater, and the availability of freshwater for a variety of uses ". : 1153 examples of common land use changes include urbanization, agricultural expansion, and deforestation. these changes can increase soil compaction and impervious surface cover which decrease the infiltration capacity of soils and result in greater surface runoff rates. deforestation has local and regional effects ; at the local level it reduces soil moisture, evaporation, rainfall, and snowfall ; at the regional level it can cause temperature changes that affect that affect rainfall patterns. : 1153 water management structures such as dams, stormwater drains, and sewage pipes can also alter local hydrologic conditions. dams can alter natural flow rates, decrease water quality, and lead to a loss of habitat for aquatic species. stormwater drains function to decrease runoff rates, regulate flow rates, and increase groundwater recharge. leakage from sewage pipes may artificially contribute to groundwater recharge, resulting in higher stream baseflow conditions and groundwater contamination. groundwater depletion, however, remains an ongoing concern as groundwater is being pumped at unsustainable rates to meet municipal, industrial, and agricultural water demands. = = = water cycle intensification due to climate change = = = since the middle of the 20th century, human - caused climate change has resulted in observable changes in the global water cycle. : 85 the ipcc sixth assessment report in 2021 predicted that these changes will continue to grow significantly at the global and regional level. : 85 these findings are a continuation of scientific consensus expressed in the ipcc fifth assessment report from 2007 and other special reports by the intergovernmental panel on climate change which had already stated that the water cycle will continue to intensify throughout the 21st century. = = related processes = = = = = biogeochemical cycling = = = while the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle, flow of water over and beneath the earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals. runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus from land to waterbodies. the salinity of the oceans is derived from erosion and transport of dissolved salts from the land. cultural eutrophication of lakes is primarily due to phosphorus, applied in excess to agricultural fields in fertilizers, and then transported overland and down rivers. both runoff and groundwater flow play significant roles in transporting nitrogen from the land to waterbodies. the dead
upward seepage, natural drainage, pumping from wells ). the other water balance components ( like downward percolation, upward capillary rise, subsurface drainage ) are given as output. the quantity of drainage water, as an output, is determined by two drainage intensity factors for drainage above and below drain level respectively ( to be given with the input data ), a drainage reduction factor ( to simulate a limited operation of the drainage system ), and the height of the water table, resulting from the computed water balance. variation of the drainage intensity factors and the drainage reduction factor gives the opportunity to simulate the effect of different drainage options. = = = agricultural data = = = the input data on irrigation, evaporation, and surface runoff are to be specified per season for three kinds of agricultural practices, which can be chosen at the discretion of the user : a : irrigated land with crops of group a b : irrigated land with crops of group b u : non - irrigated land with rainfed crops or fallow land the groups, expressed in fractions of the total area, may consist of combinations of crops or just of a single kind of crop. for example, as the a type crops one may specify the lightly irrigated cultures, and as the b type the more heavily irrigated ones, such as sugarcane and rice. but one can also take a as rice and b as sugarcane, or perhaps trees and orchards. the a, b and / or u crops can be taken differently in different seasons, e. g. a = wheat + barley in winter and a = maize in summer while b = vegetables in winter and b = cotton in summer. un - irrigated land can be specified in two ways : ( 1 ) as u = 1−a−b and ( 2 ) as a and / or b with zero irrigation. a combination can also be made. further, a specification must be given of the seasonal rotation of the different land uses over the total area, e. g. full rotation, no rotation at all, or incomplete rotation. this occurs with a rotation index. the rotations are taken over the seasons within the year. to obtain rotations over the years it is advisable to introduce annual input changes. when a fraction a1, b1 and / or u1 in the first season differs from fractions are a2, b2 and / or u2 in the second season, because the irrigation regimes in the seasons differ, the program will detect that a certain rotation occurs
of 98 % of water, : 2 need to intensify debate, and need to harmonize public / private sectors : 28 = = issues = = = = = environmental = = = freshwater resources on earth are under increasing stress and depletion because of pollution, climate change, and consumptive use. = = = = flood = = = = water can produce a natural disaster in the form of tsunamis, hurricanes, rogue waves and storm surge. land - based floods can originate from infrastructural issues like bursting dams or levee failure during surges, as well as environmental phenomena like rivers overflowing their banks during increased rainfall events, urban stormwater flooding, or snowmelt. the increased magnitude and frequency of floods are a result of urbanization and climate change. urbanization increases stormwater runoff during large rain events. surface runoff is water that flows when heavy rains do not infiltrate soil ; excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources flowing over the land. this is a major component of the water cycle. runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. when runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants including, but not limited to petroleum, pesticides, or fertilizers that become discharge or nonpoint source pollution. water resource policy encompasses flood risk management and development of infrastructure to mitigate damages from floods. water resource policy solutions to flooding include land drainage for agriculture, urban planning focused on flood prevention, rainwater harvesting, and permeable surfacing of developed areas. = = = = drought = = = = a drought is defined as a period of dry conditions with either less precipitation or more depleted water reserves than normal. because droughts are defined relative to the area's normal weather patterns and water availability, the definition varies from place to place. overall, defining a drought takes into consideration 1. ) the duration, intensity, and area of lessened precipitation or water availability and 2. ) the estimated environmental, social and economic impact of the limited water. for example, in colorado, paleohydrologic data, or tree rings from areas affected by drought, have been used to define drought extent and understand the impact of past droughts to improve future water resource planning and decision making. with climate change, the frequency and intensity of droughts have been increasing but water resource policy is typically reactive instead of proactive. droughts have negative economic impacts on many sectors including agriculture, environment, energy production and
Answer:
|
H2O
| null |
What will be more available in an area when rainfall increases?
0. air
1. fire
2. H2O
3. dirt
##lenish groundwater supplies and reduce the amount of surface runoff. additionally, vegetation helps to slow down water flow, reducing the risk of flooding and erosion. in suburban areas, impervious surfaces typically only cover 5 – 10 percent of the land. in contrast, central urban areas are filled with impervious surfaces, which can account for about 90 – 100 percent of the land cover. in these regions, nearly all rainfall is converted into surface runoff, which frequently overwhelms stormwater management systems. runoff volumes in urban areas can be two to ten times higher than in an undeveloped area. this dramatic increase in runoff contributes to downstream flooding, erosion, and pollutant transport into aquatic ecosystems. rain gardens serve as decentralized stormwater controls to help restore more natural hydrologic function in built environments. = = = effects of urban runoff = = = in developed urban areas, naturally occurring depressions where storm water would pool are typically covered by impermeable surfaces, such as asphalt, pavement, or concrete, and are leveled for automobile use. stormwater is directed into storm drains which may cause overflows of combined sewer systems or pollution, erosion, or flooding of waterways receiving the storm water runoff. redirected stormwater is often warmer than the groundwater normally feeding a stream, and has been linked to upset in some aquatic ecosystems primarily through the reduction of dissolved oxygen ( do ). stormwater runoff is also a source of a wide variety of pollutants washed off hard or compacted surfaces during rain events. these pollutants may include volatile organic compounds, pesticides, herbicides, hydrocarbons and trace metals. = = = stormwater management systems = = = stormwater management occurs on a watershed scale to prevent downstream impacts on urban water quality. a watershed is maintained through the cyclical accumulation, storage, and flow of groundwater. naturally occurring watersheds are damaged when they are sealed by an impervious surface, which diverts pollutant - carrying stormwater runoff into streams. urban watersheds are affected by greater quantities of pollutants due to the consequences of anthropogenic activities within urban environments. rainfall on impermeable surfaces accumulates surface runoff containing oil, bacteria, and sediment that eventually makes its way to streams and groundwater. stormwater control strategies such as infiltration gardens treat contaminated surface runoff and return processed water to the underlying soil, helping to restore the watershed system. the effectiveness of stormwater control systems is measured by the reduction of the amount of rainfall that becomes runoff ( retention ),
in hydrology, moisture recycling or precipitation recycling refer to the process by which a portion of the precipitated water that evapotranspired from a given area contributes to the precipitation over the same area. moisture recycling is thus a component of the hydrologic cycle. the ratio of the locally derived precipitation ( pl ) to total precipitation ( p ) is known as the recycling ratio, ρ : the recycling ratio is a diagnostic measure of the potential for interactions between land surface hydrology and regional climate. land use changes, such as deforestation or agricultural intensification, have the potential to change the amount of precipitation that falls in a region. the recycling ratio for the entire world is one, and for a single point is zero. estimates for the recycling ratio for the amazon basin range from 24 % to 56 %, and for the mississippi basin from 21 % to 24 %. the concept of moisture recycling has been integrated into the concept of the precipitationshed. a precipitationshed is the upwind ocean and land surface that contributes evaporation to a given, downwind location's precipitation. in much the same way that a watershed is defined by a topographically explicit area that provides surface runoff, the precipitationshed is a statistically defined area within which evaporation, traveling via moisture recycling, provides precipitation for a specific point. = = see also = = water cycle precipitationshed land surface effects on climate al baydha project = = references = =
changes affect " precipitation, evaporation, flooding, groundwater, and the availability of freshwater for a variety of uses ". : 1153 examples of common land use changes include urbanization, agricultural expansion, and deforestation. these changes can increase soil compaction and impervious surface cover which decrease the infiltration capacity of soils and result in greater surface runoff rates. deforestation has local and regional effects ; at the local level it reduces soil moisture, evaporation, rainfall, and snowfall ; at the regional level it can cause temperature changes that affect that affect rainfall patterns. : 1153 water management structures such as dams, stormwater drains, and sewage pipes can also alter local hydrologic conditions. dams can alter natural flow rates, decrease water quality, and lead to a loss of habitat for aquatic species. stormwater drains function to decrease runoff rates, regulate flow rates, and increase groundwater recharge. leakage from sewage pipes may artificially contribute to groundwater recharge, resulting in higher stream baseflow conditions and groundwater contamination. groundwater depletion, however, remains an ongoing concern as groundwater is being pumped at unsustainable rates to meet municipal, industrial, and agricultural water demands. = = = water cycle intensification due to climate change = = = since the middle of the 20th century, human - caused climate change has resulted in observable changes in the global water cycle. : 85 the ipcc sixth assessment report in 2021 predicted that these changes will continue to grow significantly at the global and regional level. : 85 these findings are a continuation of scientific consensus expressed in the ipcc fifth assessment report from 2007 and other special reports by the intergovernmental panel on climate change which had already stated that the water cycle will continue to intensify throughout the 21st century. = = related processes = = = = = biogeochemical cycling = = = while the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle, flow of water over and beneath the earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemicals. runoff is responsible for almost all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus from land to waterbodies. the salinity of the oceans is derived from erosion and transport of dissolved salts from the land. cultural eutrophication of lakes is primarily due to phosphorus, applied in excess to agricultural fields in fertilizers, and then transported overland and down rivers. both runoff and groundwater flow play significant roles in transporting nitrogen from the land to waterbodies. the dead
upward seepage, natural drainage, pumping from wells ). the other water balance components ( like downward percolation, upward capillary rise, subsurface drainage ) are given as output. the quantity of drainage water, as an output, is determined by two drainage intensity factors for drainage above and below drain level respectively ( to be given with the input data ), a drainage reduction factor ( to simulate a limited operation of the drainage system ), and the height of the water table, resulting from the computed water balance. variation of the drainage intensity factors and the drainage reduction factor gives the opportunity to simulate the effect of different drainage options. = = = agricultural data = = = the input data on irrigation, evaporation, and surface runoff are to be specified per season for three kinds of agricultural practices, which can be chosen at the discretion of the user : a : irrigated land with crops of group a b : irrigated land with crops of group b u : non - irrigated land with rainfed crops or fallow land the groups, expressed in fractions of the total area, may consist of combinations of crops or just of a single kind of crop. for example, as the a type crops one may specify the lightly irrigated cultures, and as the b type the more heavily irrigated ones, such as sugarcane and rice. but one can also take a as rice and b as sugarcane, or perhaps trees and orchards. the a, b and / or u crops can be taken differently in different seasons, e. g. a = wheat + barley in winter and a = maize in summer while b = vegetables in winter and b = cotton in summer. un - irrigated land can be specified in two ways : ( 1 ) as u = 1−a−b and ( 2 ) as a and / or b with zero irrigation. a combination can also be made. further, a specification must be given of the seasonal rotation of the different land uses over the total area, e. g. full rotation, no rotation at all, or incomplete rotation. this occurs with a rotation index. the rotations are taken over the seasons within the year. to obtain rotations over the years it is advisable to introduce annual input changes. when a fraction a1, b1 and / or u1 in the first season differs from fractions are a2, b2 and / or u2 in the second season, because the irrigation regimes in the seasons differ, the program will detect that a certain rotation occurs
of 98 % of water, : 2 need to intensify debate, and need to harmonize public / private sectors : 28 = = issues = = = = = environmental = = = freshwater resources on earth are under increasing stress and depletion because of pollution, climate change, and consumptive use. = = = = flood = = = = water can produce a natural disaster in the form of tsunamis, hurricanes, rogue waves and storm surge. land - based floods can originate from infrastructural issues like bursting dams or levee failure during surges, as well as environmental phenomena like rivers overflowing their banks during increased rainfall events, urban stormwater flooding, or snowmelt. the increased magnitude and frequency of floods are a result of urbanization and climate change. urbanization increases stormwater runoff during large rain events. surface runoff is water that flows when heavy rains do not infiltrate soil ; excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources flowing over the land. this is a major component of the water cycle. runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. when runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants including, but not limited to petroleum, pesticides, or fertilizers that become discharge or nonpoint source pollution. water resource policy encompasses flood risk management and development of infrastructure to mitigate damages from floods. water resource policy solutions to flooding include land drainage for agriculture, urban planning focused on flood prevention, rainwater harvesting, and permeable surfacing of developed areas. = = = = drought = = = = a drought is defined as a period of dry conditions with either less precipitation or more depleted water reserves than normal. because droughts are defined relative to the area's normal weather patterns and water availability, the definition varies from place to place. overall, defining a drought takes into consideration 1. ) the duration, intensity, and area of lessened precipitation or water availability and 2. ) the estimated environmental, social and economic impact of the limited water. for example, in colorado, paleohydrologic data, or tree rings from areas affected by drought, have been used to define drought extent and understand the impact of past droughts to improve future water resource planning and decision making. with climate change, the frequency and intensity of droughts have been increasing but water resource policy is typically reactive instead of proactive. droughts have negative economic impacts on many sectors including agriculture, environment, energy production and
Answer:
|
dirt
| 0.3 |
Which relationship is true?
0. wind is renewable; metal is nonrenewable
1. wind is recyclable, metal is other
2. wind is happy, metal is other
3. wind is nonrenewable; metal is renewable
with the lower galvanic number ( i. e., the anode ). over time, the anode metal dissolves into the electrolyte. metals are ranked according to galvanic numbers as a qualitative measure of their nobility. these numbers qualify the resistance to corrosion of any metal when in contact with other metals. a larger difference in the galvanic number between two metals in contact with each other indicates a greater potential for corrosion. the galvanic numbers of the most common metals used in construction are ranked as follows : 1. aluminium ; 2. zinc ; 3. steel ; 4. iron ; 5. stainless steel - active ; 6. tin ; 7. lead ; 8. copper ; 9. stainless steel - passive. galvanic corrosion is a primary concern with metal roof maintenance. marine environments present an additional concern due to the higher concentration of salts in the air and water. copper is one of the most noble metals. it will not be harmed by contact with other metals but it will cause corrosion to some other metals if contacted directly. the principal metals of concern regarding direct contact with copper are aluminium, light - gauge steel, and zinc. aluminium and steel flashings and galvanized steel fasteners should not be used with copper. runoff from a copper roof corrodes aluminium and steel guttering. it is not necessary to isolate copper from lead, tin or many stainless steels under most circumstances. when it is not possible to avoid contact, an effective method of material separation is required. if paints or coatings are used for isolation, they should be compatible with both metals. bituminous or zinc chromate primers can be used between copper and aluminium. bituminous, zinc chromate, or a red lead primer can be effective in separating copper from iron and other ferrous metals. taping or gasketing with non - absorptive materials or sealants are effective in separating copper from all other metals. in areas with severe exposure, lead or similar gasketing materials should be used, except between copper and aluminium. water draining from copper surfaces should be prevented from exposure to aluminium and galvanized steel as traces of copper salts may accelerate corrosion. in some cases, anodizing may protect thicker aluminium, such as aluminium window system mullions. = = natural patinas = = copper goes through a natural oxidation process that forms a unique protective patina on the metal. the surface of the metal undergoes a series of color changes : from irides
of metals. wulfsberg distinguishes : very electropositive metals with electronegativity values below 1. 4 electropositive metals with values between 1. 4 and 1. 9 ; and electronegative metals with values between 1. 9 and 2. 54. from the image, the group 1 – 2 metals and the lanthanides and actinides are very electropositive to electropositive ; the transition metals in groups 3 to 12 are very electropositive to electronegative ; and the post - transition metals are electropositive to electronegative. the noble metals, inside the dashed border ( as a subset of the transition metals ) are very electronegative. = = see also = = reactivity ( chemistry ), which discusses the inconsistent way that the term'reactivity'is used in chemistry. = = references = = = = external links = = science line chemistry
energy as was used for its production. less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined. in concentrated solar power, solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a heat engine. concentrated solar power can support dispatchable power generation, as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. in addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly ; solar thermal heating systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination. = = = = wind power = = = = wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6 % of global electricity in 2019. electricity from onshore wind farms is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher. onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. while collisions with wind turbines kill both bats and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and transmission lines. the noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier - to - recycle blades is ongoing. = = = = hydropower = = = = hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. in 2020, hydropower supplied 17 % of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20 % in the mid - to - late 20th century. in conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. they can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available. compared to reservoir - based facilities, run - of - the - river hydroelectricity generally has less environmental impact. however, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and
for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of a zero net energy building. = = conversion factor conventions = = where primary energy is used to describe fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy and around two thirds is typically lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy. there are very much less significant conversion losses when hydroelectricity, wind and solar power produce electricity, but today's un conventions on energy statistics counts the electricity made from hydroelectricity, wind and solar as the primary energy itself for these sources. one consequence of employing primary energy as an energy metric is that the contribution of hydro, wind and solar energy is under reported compared to fossil energy sources, and there is hence an international debate on how to count energy from non - thermal renewables, with many estimates having them undercounted by a factor of about three. the false notion that all primary energy from thermal fossil fuel sources has to be replaced by an equivalent amount of non - thermal renewables ( which is not necessary as conversion losses do not need to be replaced ) has been termed the " primary energy fallacy ". = = see also = = energy industry energy development energy mix energy system list of countries by total primary energy consumption and production = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = kydes, andy ( lead author ) ; cutler j. cleveland ( topic editor ). 2007. " primary energy. " in : encyclopedia of earth. eds. cutler j. cleveland ( washington, d. c. : environmental information coalition, national council for science and the environment ). [ first published in the encyclopedia of earth june 1, 2006 ; last revised august 14, 2007 ; retrieved november 15, 2007. øvergaard, sara ( september 2008 ). definition of primary and secondary energy ( pdf ). norway : statistics norway. retrieved 2016 - 12 - 17. = = external links = = the encyclopedia of earth : primary energy our energy futures glossary : primary energy sources
##tropic sun - tracking systems to maximize the solar energy capture. = = = = air - flow responsive systems = = = = they are those related to natural ventilation and wind electricity. the first ones have the goal of exhausting the excess of carbon dioxide, water vapor, odors and pollutants that tend to accumulate in an indoor space. at the same time, they must replace it with new and fresh air, usually coming from the outside. some examples of this type of technology are kinetic roof structure and double skin facades. other less common types of cabs are the ones generating wind electricity. thus, they convert wind energy into electrical energy via small scale wind turbines integrated into buildings. this can be for example as wind turbines fitted horizontally between each floor. other examples may be found in buildings such as the dynamic tower, the cor building in miami and the greenway self - park garage in chicago. = = = = other natural sources systems = = = = they may account for the use of rain, snow and additional natural supplies. unfortunately, no extra information related to this issue was found. = = = based on the time frame scale = = = as dynamic technologies, cabs can show different configurations over time, extending from seconds up to changes appreciable during the lifetime of the building. thus, the four types of adaptations based on the time frame scales are seconds, minutes, hours, and seasons the variation that takes place just in seconds are found randomly in nature. some examples may be short - term variations in wind speed and direction that may cause shifts in wind - based skins. an example of a shift that occurs within minutes is the cloud cover which has an impact on the daylight availability. therefore, cabs that use this kind of energy may also fall into this category. some changes that adjust in the order of hours are fluctuations in air temperature, and the track of sun through the sky ( although sun movement around the sky is a continuous process, its track is done in this time scale ). finally, some cabs can adapt across seasons, and therefore are expected to offer extensive performance benefits. = = = based on the scale of change = = = the adaptive behavior of cabs is related to how its mechanisms work. therefore, they are either based on a change in behavior ( macro - scale ) or properties ( micro - scale ). = = = = macro - scale changes = = = = it is often also referred to as “ kinetic envelopes ”, which implies that a certain kind of observable
Answer:
|
wind is renewable; metal is nonrenewable
| null |
Which relationship is true?
0. wind is renewable; metal is nonrenewable
1. wind is recyclable, metal is other
2. wind is happy, metal is other
3. wind is nonrenewable; metal is renewable
with the lower galvanic number ( i. e., the anode ). over time, the anode metal dissolves into the electrolyte. metals are ranked according to galvanic numbers as a qualitative measure of their nobility. these numbers qualify the resistance to corrosion of any metal when in contact with other metals. a larger difference in the galvanic number between two metals in contact with each other indicates a greater potential for corrosion. the galvanic numbers of the most common metals used in construction are ranked as follows : 1. aluminium ; 2. zinc ; 3. steel ; 4. iron ; 5. stainless steel - active ; 6. tin ; 7. lead ; 8. copper ; 9. stainless steel - passive. galvanic corrosion is a primary concern with metal roof maintenance. marine environments present an additional concern due to the higher concentration of salts in the air and water. copper is one of the most noble metals. it will not be harmed by contact with other metals but it will cause corrosion to some other metals if contacted directly. the principal metals of concern regarding direct contact with copper are aluminium, light - gauge steel, and zinc. aluminium and steel flashings and galvanized steel fasteners should not be used with copper. runoff from a copper roof corrodes aluminium and steel guttering. it is not necessary to isolate copper from lead, tin or many stainless steels under most circumstances. when it is not possible to avoid contact, an effective method of material separation is required. if paints or coatings are used for isolation, they should be compatible with both metals. bituminous or zinc chromate primers can be used between copper and aluminium. bituminous, zinc chromate, or a red lead primer can be effective in separating copper from iron and other ferrous metals. taping or gasketing with non - absorptive materials or sealants are effective in separating copper from all other metals. in areas with severe exposure, lead or similar gasketing materials should be used, except between copper and aluminium. water draining from copper surfaces should be prevented from exposure to aluminium and galvanized steel as traces of copper salts may accelerate corrosion. in some cases, anodizing may protect thicker aluminium, such as aluminium window system mullions. = = natural patinas = = copper goes through a natural oxidation process that forms a unique protective patina on the metal. the surface of the metal undergoes a series of color changes : from irides
of metals. wulfsberg distinguishes : very electropositive metals with electronegativity values below 1. 4 electropositive metals with values between 1. 4 and 1. 9 ; and electronegative metals with values between 1. 9 and 2. 54. from the image, the group 1 – 2 metals and the lanthanides and actinides are very electropositive to electropositive ; the transition metals in groups 3 to 12 are very electropositive to electronegative ; and the post - transition metals are electropositive to electronegative. the noble metals, inside the dashed border ( as a subset of the transition metals ) are very electronegative. = = see also = = reactivity ( chemistry ), which discusses the inconsistent way that the term'reactivity'is used in chemistry. = = references = = = = external links = = science line chemistry
energy as was used for its production. less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined. in concentrated solar power, solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a heat engine. concentrated solar power can support dispatchable power generation, as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. in addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly ; solar thermal heating systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination. = = = = wind power = = = = wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6 % of global electricity in 2019. electricity from onshore wind farms is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher. onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. while collisions with wind turbines kill both bats and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and transmission lines. the noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier - to - recycle blades is ongoing. = = = = hydropower = = = = hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. in 2020, hydropower supplied 17 % of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20 % in the mid - to - late 20th century. in conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. they can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available. compared to reservoir - based facilities, run - of - the - river hydroelectricity generally has less environmental impact. however, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and
for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of a zero net energy building. = = conversion factor conventions = = where primary energy is used to describe fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy and around two thirds is typically lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy. there are very much less significant conversion losses when hydroelectricity, wind and solar power produce electricity, but today's un conventions on energy statistics counts the electricity made from hydroelectricity, wind and solar as the primary energy itself for these sources. one consequence of employing primary energy as an energy metric is that the contribution of hydro, wind and solar energy is under reported compared to fossil energy sources, and there is hence an international debate on how to count energy from non - thermal renewables, with many estimates having them undercounted by a factor of about three. the false notion that all primary energy from thermal fossil fuel sources has to be replaced by an equivalent amount of non - thermal renewables ( which is not necessary as conversion losses do not need to be replaced ) has been termed the " primary energy fallacy ". = = see also = = energy industry energy development energy mix energy system list of countries by total primary energy consumption and production = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = kydes, andy ( lead author ) ; cutler j. cleveland ( topic editor ). 2007. " primary energy. " in : encyclopedia of earth. eds. cutler j. cleveland ( washington, d. c. : environmental information coalition, national council for science and the environment ). [ first published in the encyclopedia of earth june 1, 2006 ; last revised august 14, 2007 ; retrieved november 15, 2007. øvergaard, sara ( september 2008 ). definition of primary and secondary energy ( pdf ). norway : statistics norway. retrieved 2016 - 12 - 17. = = external links = = the encyclopedia of earth : primary energy our energy futures glossary : primary energy sources
##tropic sun - tracking systems to maximize the solar energy capture. = = = = air - flow responsive systems = = = = they are those related to natural ventilation and wind electricity. the first ones have the goal of exhausting the excess of carbon dioxide, water vapor, odors and pollutants that tend to accumulate in an indoor space. at the same time, they must replace it with new and fresh air, usually coming from the outside. some examples of this type of technology are kinetic roof structure and double skin facades. other less common types of cabs are the ones generating wind electricity. thus, they convert wind energy into electrical energy via small scale wind turbines integrated into buildings. this can be for example as wind turbines fitted horizontally between each floor. other examples may be found in buildings such as the dynamic tower, the cor building in miami and the greenway self - park garage in chicago. = = = = other natural sources systems = = = = they may account for the use of rain, snow and additional natural supplies. unfortunately, no extra information related to this issue was found. = = = based on the time frame scale = = = as dynamic technologies, cabs can show different configurations over time, extending from seconds up to changes appreciable during the lifetime of the building. thus, the four types of adaptations based on the time frame scales are seconds, minutes, hours, and seasons the variation that takes place just in seconds are found randomly in nature. some examples may be short - term variations in wind speed and direction that may cause shifts in wind - based skins. an example of a shift that occurs within minutes is the cloud cover which has an impact on the daylight availability. therefore, cabs that use this kind of energy may also fall into this category. some changes that adjust in the order of hours are fluctuations in air temperature, and the track of sun through the sky ( although sun movement around the sky is a continuous process, its track is done in this time scale ). finally, some cabs can adapt across seasons, and therefore are expected to offer extensive performance benefits. = = = based on the scale of change = = = the adaptive behavior of cabs is related to how its mechanisms work. therefore, they are either based on a change in behavior ( macro - scale ) or properties ( micro - scale ). = = = = macro - scale changes = = = = it is often also referred to as “ kinetic envelopes ”, which implies that a certain kind of observable
Answer:
|
wind is nonrenewable; metal is renewable
| 0.3 |
it's important to recycle metals because they are
0. dangerous to produce
1. nonrenewable
2. hard to mine
3. expensive
consumed during every phase of each lifecycle in mj / m2 ), co2 generation, and cost. = = = recyclability = = = recyclability is a key factor of a sustainable material. it reduces the need to mine new resources and requires less energy than mining. copper and its alloys are virtually 100 % recyclable and can be recycled infinitely without any loss of quality ( i. e., copper does not degrade ( i. e., downcycle ) after each recycling loop as do most non - metallic materials, if they are recyclable at all ). copper retains much of its primary metal value : premium - grade scrap normally contains at least 95 % of the value of primary metal from newly mined ore. scrap values for competing materials range from about 60 % down to 0 %. and copper recycling requires only around 20 % of the energy needed to extract and process primary metal. currently, around 40 % of europe's annual copper demand and about 55 % of copper used in architecture come from recycled sources. new copper coil and sheet often have 75 % - 100 % recycled content. by 1985, more copper was recycled than the total amount of copper that was consumed in 1950. this is due to the relative ease of reusing processing waste and salvaging copper from products after their useful life.. = = = cost effectiveness = = = performance, maintenance, service life, and recovery costs from recycling are factors that determine the cost effectiveness of building components. while copper's initial cost is higher than some other architectural metals, it usually does not need to be replaced during the life of a building. due to its durability, low maintenance, and ultimate salvage value, the additional cost for copper may be insignificant over the life of a roofing system. copper roofing is considerably less expensive than lead, slate, or hand - made clay tiles. its costs are comparable with zinc, stainless steel, aluminium and even some clay and concrete tiles when considering overall roofing costs ( including structure ). some studies indicate that copper is a more cost - effective material on a life cycle basis than other roof materials with a lifetime of 30 years or more. a european study comparing roofing costs of copper with other metals, concrete and clay tiles, slate, and bitumen found that in the medium to long - term ( for lives of 60 to 80 years and 100 years and over ), copper and stainless steel were the most cost effective roofing materials of all materials examined. installation techniques such as
, that rate could be greatly increased. the energy efficiency of the production and recycling methods has also to be developed. information about the location of deposits of rare metals is scarce. in 2013, the us doe created the critical materials institute, whose intended role was to focus on finding and commercializing ways to reduce reliance on the critical materials essential for american competitiveness in the clean energy technologies. on 3 september 2020, the european commission presented its strategy to both strengthen and better control its supply of some thirty materials deemed critical, in particular rare earths. the list includes, for example : graphite, lithium and cobalt, used in the manufacture of electric batteries ; silicon, an essential component of solar panels ; rare earths used for magnets, conductive seeds and electronic components. where european resources are insufficient, the commission promises to strengthen long - term partnerships, notably with canada, africa and australia. = = issues = = there are many issues about these resources and they concern a large number of people and human activities. it is possible to distinguish : economic : the price of metals increases when their scarcity or inaccessibility increases, and not only according to demand for them. as part of transition management, the circular economy invites citizens to recycle these resources as well as to save them and / or to replace them with alternatives when it is possible. geostrategic : these rare products are necessary for computer and other communications equipment and can themselves be the subject of armed conflict or simply provide armed conflict with a source of funding. both coltan and blood diamonds have been examples of the resource curse that plagues some parts of africa. social : increasing globalization and mobility of people, means that telecoms and social networks depend more and more on the availability of these resources. health : several critical metals or minerals are toxic or reprotoxic. paradoxically, some cytotoxins are used in cancer therapy ( and then also improperly discarded although really dangerous for the environment ; the average cost of the treatment of a lung cancer varies between 20, 000 and 27, 000 euros ). thus, toxic and cancer - causing platinum is also widely used in cancer chemotherapy in the form of carboplatin and cisplatin, both cytotoxins combined with other molecules, including for example gemcitabine ( gem ), vinorelbine ( vin ), docetaxel ( doc ), and paclitaxel ( pac ). energy : production of these metals and their compounds requires a significant and increasing amount of
petroleum is used in vehicles. the battery supply chain includes : upstream activities include mining for required raw materials, which include critical materials such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, manganese, and graphite as well as other required minerals such as copper. midstream activities include refining and smelting of raw mineral ores with heat or chemical treatment to achieve the high - purity materials required for batteries, as well as the manufacture of cathodes and anodes for battery cells. lower environmental impacts for refining can be achieved by decarbonized electricity generation, automated process control, exhaust gas cleaning, and recycling used electrolytes. downstream activities include manufacturing of the batteries and end goods for the consumer. the production of lithium batteries in china has nearly three times higher emissions than the us because electricity generation in china relies more on coal. end of life activities include recycling or recovery of materials when possible. disposal of spent libs without recycling could be detrimental to the environment. recycling lithium - ion batteries reduces energy consumption, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and results in 51. 3 % natural resource savings when compared to discarding them in landfills. recycling can potentially lower the overall energy emissions of battery production as the lib recycling industry grows larger. when not recycled, the disposal of cobalt extraction involves non - sulfidic tailings, which has an impact on land use. even in the recycling process, co2 emissions are still produced, continuing to impact the environment regardless of how libs are disposed. recycling of battery minerals is limited but is expected to rise in the 2030s when there are more spent batteries. increasing recycling would bring considerable social and environmental benefits. = = = other components = = = evs have fewer parts than ices. on average, a motor for an electric car has about 20 moving parts, but a comparable ice would have 200 or more. some electric vehicles motors are permanent magnet motors that require rare - earth elements such as neodymium and dysprosium. production of these materials is also dominated by china and poses environmental problems. an alternative motor is the ac induction motor, which does not use these minerals but requires additional copper. these components also contribute to the environmental justice issues caused by the extraction of cobalt and other mineral resources, just as batteries do. radioactive dust and mine sewage from mining for these resources contribute to environmental impacts. another aspect of the pipeline, metal refining, contributes to the environmental impacts through production of electrolytes, electricity consumption, and used cathodes. used cathodes amplify the
recycle most plastic products regardless of their ric. this has led some communities to instruct residents to refer to the form of packaging ( i. e. " bottles ", " tubs ", " lids ", etc. ) when determining what to include in a curbside recycling bin, rather than instructing them to rely on the ric. to further alleviate consumer confusion, the american chemistry council launched the " recycling terms & tools " program to promote standardized language that can be used to educate consumers about how to recycle plastic products. however, even when it is technically possible to recycle a particular plastic, it is often economically unfeasible to recycle it, and this can mislead consumers into thinking that more plastic is recycled than really is. in the u. s. in 2018, only 8. 5 % of plastic waste was recycled. = = see also = = list of symbols recycling codes plastic recycling thermoplastic — softens with heat thermosetting polymer — does not soften with heat = = references = = = = external links = = official website
in metallurgy, non - ferrous metals are metals or alloys that do not contain iron ( allotropes of iron, ferrite, and so on ) in appreciable amounts. generally more costly than ferrous metals, non - ferrous metals are used because of desirable properties such as low weight ( e. g. aluminium ), higher conductivity ( e. g. copper ), non - magnetic properties or resistance to corrosion ( e. g. zinc ). some non - ferrous materials are also used in the iron and steel industries. for example, bauxite is used as flux for blast furnaces, while others such as wolframite, pyrolusite, and chromite are used in making ferrous alloys. important non - ferrous metals include aluminium, copper, lead, tin, titanium, and zinc, and alloys such as brass. precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum and exotic or rare metals such as mercury, tungsten, beryllium, bismuth, cerium, cadmium, niobium, indium, gallium, germanium, lithium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium, vanadium, and zirconium are also non - ferrous. they are usually obtained through minerals such as sulfides, carbonates, and silicates. non - ferrous metals are usually refined through electrolysis. = = recycling and pollution control = = due to their extensive use, non - ferrous scrap metals are usually recycled. the secondary materials in scrap are vital to the metallurgy industry, as the production of new metals often needs them. some recycling facilities re - smelt and recast non - ferrous materials ; the dross is collected and stored onsite while the metal fumes are filtered and collected. non - ferrous scrap metals are sourced from industrial scrap materials, particle emissions and obsolete technology ( for example, copper cables ) scrap. = = ancient history = = non - ferrous metals were the first metals used by humans for metallurgy. gold, silver and copper existed in their native crystalline yet metallic form. these metals, though rare, could be found in quantities sufficient to attract the attention of humans. less susceptible to oxygen than most other metals, they can be found even in weathered outcroppings. copper was the first metal to be forged ; it was soft enough to be fashioned
Answer:
|
nonrenewable
| null |
it's important to recycle metals because they are
0. dangerous to produce
1. nonrenewable
2. hard to mine
3. expensive
consumed during every phase of each lifecycle in mj / m2 ), co2 generation, and cost. = = = recyclability = = = recyclability is a key factor of a sustainable material. it reduces the need to mine new resources and requires less energy than mining. copper and its alloys are virtually 100 % recyclable and can be recycled infinitely without any loss of quality ( i. e., copper does not degrade ( i. e., downcycle ) after each recycling loop as do most non - metallic materials, if they are recyclable at all ). copper retains much of its primary metal value : premium - grade scrap normally contains at least 95 % of the value of primary metal from newly mined ore. scrap values for competing materials range from about 60 % down to 0 %. and copper recycling requires only around 20 % of the energy needed to extract and process primary metal. currently, around 40 % of europe's annual copper demand and about 55 % of copper used in architecture come from recycled sources. new copper coil and sheet often have 75 % - 100 % recycled content. by 1985, more copper was recycled than the total amount of copper that was consumed in 1950. this is due to the relative ease of reusing processing waste and salvaging copper from products after their useful life.. = = = cost effectiveness = = = performance, maintenance, service life, and recovery costs from recycling are factors that determine the cost effectiveness of building components. while copper's initial cost is higher than some other architectural metals, it usually does not need to be replaced during the life of a building. due to its durability, low maintenance, and ultimate salvage value, the additional cost for copper may be insignificant over the life of a roofing system. copper roofing is considerably less expensive than lead, slate, or hand - made clay tiles. its costs are comparable with zinc, stainless steel, aluminium and even some clay and concrete tiles when considering overall roofing costs ( including structure ). some studies indicate that copper is a more cost - effective material on a life cycle basis than other roof materials with a lifetime of 30 years or more. a european study comparing roofing costs of copper with other metals, concrete and clay tiles, slate, and bitumen found that in the medium to long - term ( for lives of 60 to 80 years and 100 years and over ), copper and stainless steel were the most cost effective roofing materials of all materials examined. installation techniques such as
, that rate could be greatly increased. the energy efficiency of the production and recycling methods has also to be developed. information about the location of deposits of rare metals is scarce. in 2013, the us doe created the critical materials institute, whose intended role was to focus on finding and commercializing ways to reduce reliance on the critical materials essential for american competitiveness in the clean energy technologies. on 3 september 2020, the european commission presented its strategy to both strengthen and better control its supply of some thirty materials deemed critical, in particular rare earths. the list includes, for example : graphite, lithium and cobalt, used in the manufacture of electric batteries ; silicon, an essential component of solar panels ; rare earths used for magnets, conductive seeds and electronic components. where european resources are insufficient, the commission promises to strengthen long - term partnerships, notably with canada, africa and australia. = = issues = = there are many issues about these resources and they concern a large number of people and human activities. it is possible to distinguish : economic : the price of metals increases when their scarcity or inaccessibility increases, and not only according to demand for them. as part of transition management, the circular economy invites citizens to recycle these resources as well as to save them and / or to replace them with alternatives when it is possible. geostrategic : these rare products are necessary for computer and other communications equipment and can themselves be the subject of armed conflict or simply provide armed conflict with a source of funding. both coltan and blood diamonds have been examples of the resource curse that plagues some parts of africa. social : increasing globalization and mobility of people, means that telecoms and social networks depend more and more on the availability of these resources. health : several critical metals or minerals are toxic or reprotoxic. paradoxically, some cytotoxins are used in cancer therapy ( and then also improperly discarded although really dangerous for the environment ; the average cost of the treatment of a lung cancer varies between 20, 000 and 27, 000 euros ). thus, toxic and cancer - causing platinum is also widely used in cancer chemotherapy in the form of carboplatin and cisplatin, both cytotoxins combined with other molecules, including for example gemcitabine ( gem ), vinorelbine ( vin ), docetaxel ( doc ), and paclitaxel ( pac ). energy : production of these metals and their compounds requires a significant and increasing amount of
petroleum is used in vehicles. the battery supply chain includes : upstream activities include mining for required raw materials, which include critical materials such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, manganese, and graphite as well as other required minerals such as copper. midstream activities include refining and smelting of raw mineral ores with heat or chemical treatment to achieve the high - purity materials required for batteries, as well as the manufacture of cathodes and anodes for battery cells. lower environmental impacts for refining can be achieved by decarbonized electricity generation, automated process control, exhaust gas cleaning, and recycling used electrolytes. downstream activities include manufacturing of the batteries and end goods for the consumer. the production of lithium batteries in china has nearly three times higher emissions than the us because electricity generation in china relies more on coal. end of life activities include recycling or recovery of materials when possible. disposal of spent libs without recycling could be detrimental to the environment. recycling lithium - ion batteries reduces energy consumption, reduces greenhouse gas emissions, and results in 51. 3 % natural resource savings when compared to discarding them in landfills. recycling can potentially lower the overall energy emissions of battery production as the lib recycling industry grows larger. when not recycled, the disposal of cobalt extraction involves non - sulfidic tailings, which has an impact on land use. even in the recycling process, co2 emissions are still produced, continuing to impact the environment regardless of how libs are disposed. recycling of battery minerals is limited but is expected to rise in the 2030s when there are more spent batteries. increasing recycling would bring considerable social and environmental benefits. = = = other components = = = evs have fewer parts than ices. on average, a motor for an electric car has about 20 moving parts, but a comparable ice would have 200 or more. some electric vehicles motors are permanent magnet motors that require rare - earth elements such as neodymium and dysprosium. production of these materials is also dominated by china and poses environmental problems. an alternative motor is the ac induction motor, which does not use these minerals but requires additional copper. these components also contribute to the environmental justice issues caused by the extraction of cobalt and other mineral resources, just as batteries do. radioactive dust and mine sewage from mining for these resources contribute to environmental impacts. another aspect of the pipeline, metal refining, contributes to the environmental impacts through production of electrolytes, electricity consumption, and used cathodes. used cathodes amplify the
recycle most plastic products regardless of their ric. this has led some communities to instruct residents to refer to the form of packaging ( i. e. " bottles ", " tubs ", " lids ", etc. ) when determining what to include in a curbside recycling bin, rather than instructing them to rely on the ric. to further alleviate consumer confusion, the american chemistry council launched the " recycling terms & tools " program to promote standardized language that can be used to educate consumers about how to recycle plastic products. however, even when it is technically possible to recycle a particular plastic, it is often economically unfeasible to recycle it, and this can mislead consumers into thinking that more plastic is recycled than really is. in the u. s. in 2018, only 8. 5 % of plastic waste was recycled. = = see also = = list of symbols recycling codes plastic recycling thermoplastic — softens with heat thermosetting polymer — does not soften with heat = = references = = = = external links = = official website
in metallurgy, non - ferrous metals are metals or alloys that do not contain iron ( allotropes of iron, ferrite, and so on ) in appreciable amounts. generally more costly than ferrous metals, non - ferrous metals are used because of desirable properties such as low weight ( e. g. aluminium ), higher conductivity ( e. g. copper ), non - magnetic properties or resistance to corrosion ( e. g. zinc ). some non - ferrous materials are also used in the iron and steel industries. for example, bauxite is used as flux for blast furnaces, while others such as wolframite, pyrolusite, and chromite are used in making ferrous alloys. important non - ferrous metals include aluminium, copper, lead, tin, titanium, and zinc, and alloys such as brass. precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum and exotic or rare metals such as mercury, tungsten, beryllium, bismuth, cerium, cadmium, niobium, indium, gallium, germanium, lithium, selenium, tantalum, tellurium, vanadium, and zirconium are also non - ferrous. they are usually obtained through minerals such as sulfides, carbonates, and silicates. non - ferrous metals are usually refined through electrolysis. = = recycling and pollution control = = due to their extensive use, non - ferrous scrap metals are usually recycled. the secondary materials in scrap are vital to the metallurgy industry, as the production of new metals often needs them. some recycling facilities re - smelt and recast non - ferrous materials ; the dross is collected and stored onsite while the metal fumes are filtered and collected. non - ferrous scrap metals are sourced from industrial scrap materials, particle emissions and obsolete technology ( for example, copper cables ) scrap. = = ancient history = = non - ferrous metals were the first metals used by humans for metallurgy. gold, silver and copper existed in their native crystalline yet metallic form. these metals, though rare, could be found in quantities sufficient to attract the attention of humans. less susceptible to oxygen than most other metals, they can be found even in weathered outcroppings. copper was the first metal to be forged ; it was soft enough to be fashioned
Answer:
|
dangerous to produce
| 0.3 |
reptiles lay what?
0. live young
1. rocks
2. dirt
3. oval whites
phenotypic difference ( matches best with the substrate ) of the light colored population coinciding with the least amount of gene flow between the populations and the highest genetic differences when compared to the other two lizard species. new mexico's white sands are a recent geologic formation ( approximately 6000 years old to possibly 2000 years old ). this recent origin of these gypsum sand dunes suggests that species exhibiting lighter - colored variations have evolved in a relatively short time frame. the three lizard species previously mentioned have been found to display variable social signal coloration in coexistence with their ecotonal variants. not only have the three species convergently evolved their lighter variants due to the selection pressures from the environment, they have also evolved ecomorphological differences : morphology, behavior ( in this case, escape behavior ), and performance ( in this case, sprint speed ) collectively. roches'work found surprising results in the escape behavior of h. maculata and s. undulatus. when dark morphs were placed on white sands, their startle response was significantly diminished. this result could be due to varying factors relating to sand temperature or visual acuity ; however, regardless of the cause, "... failure of mismatched lizards to sprint could be maladaptive when faced with a predator ". = = evidence from speciation = = speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. biologists research species using different theoretical frameworks for what constitutes a species ( see species problem and species complex ) and there exists debate with regard to delineation. nevertheless, much of the current research suggests that, "... speciation is a process of emerging genealogical distinctness, rather than a discontinuity affecting all genes simultaneously " and, in allopatry ( the most common form of speciation ), " reproductive isolation is a byproduct of evolutionary change in isolated populations, and thus can be considered an evolutionary accident ". speciation occurs as the result of the latter ( allopatry ) ; however, a variety of differing agents have been documented and are often defined and classified in various forms ( e. g. peripatric, parapatric, sympatric, polyploidization, hybridization, etc. ). instances of speciation have been observed in both nature and the laboratory. a. - b florin and a. odeen note that, " strong laboratory evidence for allopatric speciation is lacking... " ; however, contrary to
##s ( gorilla beringei ), males of the upper tertile, regarding their frequency of interaction with young gorillas, regardless of the young's parentage, fathered five times more offspring than males of the lower - two affiliative tertiles. further, male burying beetles ( nicrophorus vespilloides ) attracted three times more females when given the opportunity to breed and provide parental care, compared to males that were not presented with a breeding opportunity. species such as gorilla beringei and nicrophorus vespilloides indicate that selection may promote male parental care in non - monogamous species. = = = maternal care = = = in mammalian species, female parents possess adaptations that may predispose them to care more for offspring. these adaptations include gestation and the production of milk. in invertebrates, maternal care is known to be a prerequisite for the evolution of permanent family grouping and eusociality. in spiders, permanent sociality is dependent on extended maternal care following hatching. females of some species of reptiles may remain with their clutch to provide care, by curling around their eggs for the duration of the incubation period. the most intricate example of maternal care in this group can be seen in crocodilian species, as mothers may stay with their young for multiple months. the general mammalian tendency for female parents to invest more in offspring was focused on in the development of early hypotheses to describe sex differences in paternal care. it was initially suggested that different levels of investment by each sex in terms of gamete size and number may have led to the evolution of female - only care. this early hypothesis suggested that because females invest more in the production of fewer and larger gametes, compared with males who produce many, smaller gametes, maternal care would be favoured. this is because females have initially invested more, and would thus stand more to lose if they did not continue to invest in the offspring. = = = biparental care = = = biparental care tends to be favoured when sexual selection is not intense, and when the adult sex ratio of males to females is not strongly skewed. for two parents to cooperate in caring for young, the mates must be coordinated with each other as well as with the requirements of the developing young, and the demands of the environment. the selection of biparental care as a behavioural strategy is considered to be an important factor driving the evolution of monogamy, if the value of exclusive cooperation in care
eusocial. two potential examples of primitively eusocial mammals are the naked mole - rat and the damaraland mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber and fukomys damarensis, respectively ). both species are diploid and highly inbred, and they aid in raising their siblings and relatives, all of whom are born from a single reproductive queen ; they usually live in harsh or limiting environments. a study conducted by o'riain and faulkes in 2008 suggests that, due to regular inbreeding avoidance, mole rats sometimes outbreed and establish new colonies when resources are sufficient. eusociality has arisen among some crustaceans that live in groups in a restricted area. synalpheus regalis are snapping shrimp that rely on fortress defense. they live in groups of closely related individuals, amidst tropical reefs and sponges. each group has one breeding female ; she is protected by a large number of male defenders who are armed with enlarged snapping claws. as with other eusocial societies, there is a single shared living space for the colony members, and the non - breeding members act to defend it. = = = human eusociality = = = e. o. wilson and bert holldobler controversially claimed in 2005 that humans exhibit sufficient sociality to be counted as a eusocial species. = = see also = = = = references = =
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
( 2003 ). palaeobiology ii. malden, massachusetts : blackwell publishing. isbn 0 - 632 - 05147 - 7 and isbn 0 - 632 - 05149 - 3. the second edition of an acclaimed british textbook. robert l. carroll ( 1998 ). patterns and processes of vertebrate evolution. cambridge paleobiology series. cambridge, england : cambridge university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 47809 - 0 and isbn 0 - 521 - 47809 - x. applies paleobiology to the adaptive radiation of fishes and quadrupeds. matthew t. carrano, timothy gaudin, richard blob, and john wible, eds. ( 2006 ). amniote paleobiology : perspectives on the evolution of mammals, birds and reptiles. chicago : university of chicago press. isbn 0 - 226 - 09478 - 2 and isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 09478 - 6. this new book describes paleobiological research into land vertebrates of the mesozoic and cenozoic eras. robert b. eckhardt ( 2000 ). human paleobiology. cambridge studies in biology and evolutionary anthropology. cambridge, england : cambridge university press. isbn 0 - 521 - 45160 - 4 and isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 45160 - 4. this book connects paleoanthropology and archeology to the field of paleobiology. douglas h. erwin ( 2006 ). extinction : how life on earth nearly ended 250 million years ago. princeton : princeton university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 00524 - 9. an investigation by a paleobiologist into the many theories as to what happened during the catastrophic permian - triassic transition. brian keith hall and wendy m. olson, eds. ( 2003 ). keywords and concepts in evolutionary biology. cambridge, massachusetts : harvard university press. isbn 0 - 674 - 00904 - 5 and isbn 978 - 0 - 674 - 00904 - 2. david jablonski, douglas h. erwin, and jere h. lipps ( 1996 ). evolutionary paleobiology. chicago : university of chicago press, 492 pages. isbn 0 - 226 - 38911 - 1 and isbn 0 - 226 - 38913 - 8. a fine american textbook. masatoshi nei and sudhir kumar ( 2000 ). molecular evolution and phylogenetics. oxford, england : oxford university
Answer:
|
oval whites
| null |
reptiles lay what?
0. live young
1. rocks
2. dirt
3. oval whites
phenotypic difference ( matches best with the substrate ) of the light colored population coinciding with the least amount of gene flow between the populations and the highest genetic differences when compared to the other two lizard species. new mexico's white sands are a recent geologic formation ( approximately 6000 years old to possibly 2000 years old ). this recent origin of these gypsum sand dunes suggests that species exhibiting lighter - colored variations have evolved in a relatively short time frame. the three lizard species previously mentioned have been found to display variable social signal coloration in coexistence with their ecotonal variants. not only have the three species convergently evolved their lighter variants due to the selection pressures from the environment, they have also evolved ecomorphological differences : morphology, behavior ( in this case, escape behavior ), and performance ( in this case, sprint speed ) collectively. roches'work found surprising results in the escape behavior of h. maculata and s. undulatus. when dark morphs were placed on white sands, their startle response was significantly diminished. this result could be due to varying factors relating to sand temperature or visual acuity ; however, regardless of the cause, "... failure of mismatched lizards to sprint could be maladaptive when faced with a predator ". = = evidence from speciation = = speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. biologists research species using different theoretical frameworks for what constitutes a species ( see species problem and species complex ) and there exists debate with regard to delineation. nevertheless, much of the current research suggests that, "... speciation is a process of emerging genealogical distinctness, rather than a discontinuity affecting all genes simultaneously " and, in allopatry ( the most common form of speciation ), " reproductive isolation is a byproduct of evolutionary change in isolated populations, and thus can be considered an evolutionary accident ". speciation occurs as the result of the latter ( allopatry ) ; however, a variety of differing agents have been documented and are often defined and classified in various forms ( e. g. peripatric, parapatric, sympatric, polyploidization, hybridization, etc. ). instances of speciation have been observed in both nature and the laboratory. a. - b florin and a. odeen note that, " strong laboratory evidence for allopatric speciation is lacking... " ; however, contrary to
##s ( gorilla beringei ), males of the upper tertile, regarding their frequency of interaction with young gorillas, regardless of the young's parentage, fathered five times more offspring than males of the lower - two affiliative tertiles. further, male burying beetles ( nicrophorus vespilloides ) attracted three times more females when given the opportunity to breed and provide parental care, compared to males that were not presented with a breeding opportunity. species such as gorilla beringei and nicrophorus vespilloides indicate that selection may promote male parental care in non - monogamous species. = = = maternal care = = = in mammalian species, female parents possess adaptations that may predispose them to care more for offspring. these adaptations include gestation and the production of milk. in invertebrates, maternal care is known to be a prerequisite for the evolution of permanent family grouping and eusociality. in spiders, permanent sociality is dependent on extended maternal care following hatching. females of some species of reptiles may remain with their clutch to provide care, by curling around their eggs for the duration of the incubation period. the most intricate example of maternal care in this group can be seen in crocodilian species, as mothers may stay with their young for multiple months. the general mammalian tendency for female parents to invest more in offspring was focused on in the development of early hypotheses to describe sex differences in paternal care. it was initially suggested that different levels of investment by each sex in terms of gamete size and number may have led to the evolution of female - only care. this early hypothesis suggested that because females invest more in the production of fewer and larger gametes, compared with males who produce many, smaller gametes, maternal care would be favoured. this is because females have initially invested more, and would thus stand more to lose if they did not continue to invest in the offspring. = = = biparental care = = = biparental care tends to be favoured when sexual selection is not intense, and when the adult sex ratio of males to females is not strongly skewed. for two parents to cooperate in caring for young, the mates must be coordinated with each other as well as with the requirements of the developing young, and the demands of the environment. the selection of biparental care as a behavioural strategy is considered to be an important factor driving the evolution of monogamy, if the value of exclusive cooperation in care
eusocial. two potential examples of primitively eusocial mammals are the naked mole - rat and the damaraland mole - rat ( heterocephalus glaber and fukomys damarensis, respectively ). both species are diploid and highly inbred, and they aid in raising their siblings and relatives, all of whom are born from a single reproductive queen ; they usually live in harsh or limiting environments. a study conducted by o'riain and faulkes in 2008 suggests that, due to regular inbreeding avoidance, mole rats sometimes outbreed and establish new colonies when resources are sufficient. eusociality has arisen among some crustaceans that live in groups in a restricted area. synalpheus regalis are snapping shrimp that rely on fortress defense. they live in groups of closely related individuals, amidst tropical reefs and sponges. each group has one breeding female ; she is protected by a large number of male defenders who are armed with enlarged snapping claws. as with other eusocial societies, there is a single shared living space for the colony members, and the non - breeding members act to defend it. = = = human eusociality = = = e. o. wilson and bert holldobler controversially claimed in 2005 that humans exhibit sufficient sociality to be counted as a eusocial species. = = see also = = = = references = =
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
( 2003 ). palaeobiology ii. malden, massachusetts : blackwell publishing. isbn 0 - 632 - 05147 - 7 and isbn 0 - 632 - 05149 - 3. the second edition of an acclaimed british textbook. robert l. carroll ( 1998 ). patterns and processes of vertebrate evolution. cambridge paleobiology series. cambridge, england : cambridge university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 47809 - 0 and isbn 0 - 521 - 47809 - x. applies paleobiology to the adaptive radiation of fishes and quadrupeds. matthew t. carrano, timothy gaudin, richard blob, and john wible, eds. ( 2006 ). amniote paleobiology : perspectives on the evolution of mammals, birds and reptiles. chicago : university of chicago press. isbn 0 - 226 - 09478 - 2 and isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 09478 - 6. this new book describes paleobiological research into land vertebrates of the mesozoic and cenozoic eras. robert b. eckhardt ( 2000 ). human paleobiology. cambridge studies in biology and evolutionary anthropology. cambridge, england : cambridge university press. isbn 0 - 521 - 45160 - 4 and isbn 978 - 0 - 521 - 45160 - 4. this book connects paleoanthropology and archeology to the field of paleobiology. douglas h. erwin ( 2006 ). extinction : how life on earth nearly ended 250 million years ago. princeton : princeton university press. isbn 978 - 0 - 691 - 00524 - 9. an investigation by a paleobiologist into the many theories as to what happened during the catastrophic permian - triassic transition. brian keith hall and wendy m. olson, eds. ( 2003 ). keywords and concepts in evolutionary biology. cambridge, massachusetts : harvard university press. isbn 0 - 674 - 00904 - 5 and isbn 978 - 0 - 674 - 00904 - 2. david jablonski, douglas h. erwin, and jere h. lipps ( 1996 ). evolutionary paleobiology. chicago : university of chicago press, 492 pages. isbn 0 - 226 - 38911 - 1 and isbn 0 - 226 - 38913 - 8. a fine american textbook. masatoshi nei and sudhir kumar ( 2000 ). molecular evolution and phylogenetics. oxford, england : oxford university
Answer:
|
live young
| 0.3 |
What type of aspect can be made from the moving winds?
0. snow
1. wood
2. bananas
3. electricity
##tropic sun - tracking systems to maximize the solar energy capture. = = = = air - flow responsive systems = = = = they are those related to natural ventilation and wind electricity. the first ones have the goal of exhausting the excess of carbon dioxide, water vapor, odors and pollutants that tend to accumulate in an indoor space. at the same time, they must replace it with new and fresh air, usually coming from the outside. some examples of this type of technology are kinetic roof structure and double skin facades. other less common types of cabs are the ones generating wind electricity. thus, they convert wind energy into electrical energy via small scale wind turbines integrated into buildings. this can be for example as wind turbines fitted horizontally between each floor. other examples may be found in buildings such as the dynamic tower, the cor building in miami and the greenway self - park garage in chicago. = = = = other natural sources systems = = = = they may account for the use of rain, snow and additional natural supplies. unfortunately, no extra information related to this issue was found. = = = based on the time frame scale = = = as dynamic technologies, cabs can show different configurations over time, extending from seconds up to changes appreciable during the lifetime of the building. thus, the four types of adaptations based on the time frame scales are seconds, minutes, hours, and seasons the variation that takes place just in seconds are found randomly in nature. some examples may be short - term variations in wind speed and direction that may cause shifts in wind - based skins. an example of a shift that occurs within minutes is the cloud cover which has an impact on the daylight availability. therefore, cabs that use this kind of energy may also fall into this category. some changes that adjust in the order of hours are fluctuations in air temperature, and the track of sun through the sky ( although sun movement around the sky is a continuous process, its track is done in this time scale ). finally, some cabs can adapt across seasons, and therefore are expected to offer extensive performance benefits. = = = based on the scale of change = = = the adaptive behavior of cabs is related to how its mechanisms work. therefore, they are either based on a change in behavior ( macro - scale ) or properties ( micro - scale ). = = = = macro - scale changes = = = = it is often also referred to as “ kinetic envelopes ”, which implies that a certain kind of observable
##s can provide more air circulation though their shade is sparser and more open. not only can tree shade be used to reduce the cooling load in building, it can also be used in parking lot, driveways, and playgrounds. = = = windbreak = = = planting or building windbreaks to slow winds near buildings, which reduces heat loss. homes loses heat through infiltration in the winter. windbreaks should be designed to intercept and redirect the winter winds before they reach the house and outdoor areas with playgrounds or sensitive plants. the windbreak in the winter should also be designed so that they would not block the sunlight in the winder or block the wind in the summer. = = = wall sheltering with shrubbery or vines = = = planting shrubs near the wall creates an insulating air space around the wall. this is a similar idea to the use of a tree windbreak. shrubs should be planted at least 2 feet ( 0. 61 m ) from the wall to prevent moisture and insect problems. = = = taking advantage of natural landform = = = earth sheltering is an example of using natural landform and geological condition to save energy in building a structure. it is believed to save energy in multiple ways : by using the rock or strong soil as wall and ground as the floor, construction cost is greatly reduced, because the structure will need less load bearing material and there is no need for excavation and foundation construction ; the wall and the floor made of natural material likely will have better insulation than artificial wall and floors ; natural walls and floors can also reduce fire hazard, because they are hard to be ignited thus reduce the need for flame retardants. in a study of simulating a structure with varying depth submerged in the ground to understand the insulating effect of natural wall and ground in cold climate, it was found that the thermal transmittance of the earth - sheltered walls and floor is 16 % - 45 % lower than that of the structure totally above ground. other than earth sheltering, a simpler way of taking advantage of natural landform is using geology, such as mountains, for shade. = = = green roofs = = = often, landscape design and architecture refers to the design in ground surface ; in many contexts, specifically, the design guidance and topics are for a typical residential landscape in suburban housing, where there is a yard ( garden ), a driveway, and a house. in the crowded urban area, however, there is not abundant ground surface for landscape design. green roofs, then
meters ( 6 ft ). many desert features once attributed to wind abrasion, including wind caves, mushroom rocks, and the honeycomb weathering called tafoni, are now attributed to differential weathering, rainwash, deflation rather than abrasion, or other processes. yardangs are one kind of desert feature that is widely attributed to wind abrasion. these are rock ridges, up to tens of meters high and kilometers long, that have been streamlined by desert winds. yardangs characteristically show elongated furrows or grooves aligned with the prevailing wind. they form mostly in softer material such as silts. abrasion produces polishing and pitting, grooving, shaping, and faceting of exposed surfaces. these are widespread in arid environments but geologically insignificant. polished or faceted surfaces called ventifacts are rare, requiring abundant sand, powerful winds, and a lack of vegetation for their formation. in parts of antarctica wind - blown snowflakes that are technically sediments have also caused abrasion of exposed rocks. = = = attrition = = = attrition is the wearing down by collisions of particles entrained in a moving fluid. it is effective at rounding sand grains and at giving them a distinctive frosted surface texture. collisions between windborne particles is a major source of dust in the size range of 2 - 5 microns. most of this is produced by the removal of a weathered clay coating from the grains. = = transport = = wind dominates the transport of sand and finer sediments in arid environments. wind transport is also important in periglacial areas, on river flood plains, and in coastal areas. coastal winds transport significant amounts of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments inland, while wind storms and dust storms can carry clay and silt particles great distances. wind transports much of the sediments deposited in deep ocean basins. in ergs ( desert sand seas ), wind is very effective at transporting grains of sand size and smaller. particles are transported by winds through suspension, saltation ( skipping or bouncing ) and creeping ( rolling or sliding ) along the ground. the minimum wind velocity to initiate transport is called the fluid threshold or static threshold and is the wind velocity required to begin dislodging grains from the surface. once transport is initiated, there is a cascade effect from grains tearing loose other grains, so that transport continues until the wind velocity drops below the dynamic threshold or impact threshold, which is usually less than the fluid threshold. in other words, there
processes generally fall into ( 1 ) the production of regolith by weathering and erosion, ( 2 ) the transport of that material, and ( 3 ) its eventual deposition. primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, chemical dissolution, mass wasting, groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial action, tectonism, and volcanism. other more exotic geomorphic processes might include periglacial ( freeze - thaw ) processes, salt - mediated action, changes to the seabed caused by marine currents, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact. = = = aeolian processes = = = aeolian processes pertain to the activity of the winds and more specifically, to the winds'ability to shape the surface of the earth. winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated sediments. although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as deserts. = = = biological processes = = = the interaction of living organisms with landforms, or biogeomorphologic processes, can be of many different forms, and is probably of profound importance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. biology can influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from biogeochemical processes controlling chemical weathering, to the influence of mechanical processes like burrowing and tree throw on soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. terrestrial landscapes in which the role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as mars. = = = fluvial processes = = = rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of sediment. the water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as bed load, suspended load or dissolved load. the rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river's discharge. rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and forming new sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the surrounding hillslopes. in this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large - scale landscape evolution in nonglacial environments.
on land through the process of weathering, where rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller particles through the action of wind, rain, water flow, temperature - or ice - induced cracking, and other erosive processes. these small eroded particles are then transported to the oceans through a variety of mechanisms : streams and rivers : various forms of runoff deposit large amounts of sediment into the oceans, mostly in the form of finer - grained particles. about 90 % of the lithogenous sediment in the oceans is thought to have come from river discharge, particularly from asia. most of this sediment, especially the larger particles, will be deposited and remain fairly close to the coastline, however, smaller clay particles may remain suspended in the water column for long periods of time and may be transported great distances from the source. wind : windborne ( aeolian ) transport can take small particles of sand and dust and move them thousands of kilometres from the source. these small particles can fall into the ocean when the wind dies down, or can serve as the nuclei around which raindrops or snowflakes form. aeolian transport is particularly important near desert areas. glaciers and ice rafting : as glaciers grind their way over land, they pick up lots of soil and rock particles, including very large boulders, that get carried by the ice. when the glacier meets the ocean and begins to break apart or melt, these particles get deposited. most of the deposition will happen close to where the glacier meets the water, but a small amount of material is also transported longer distances by rafting, where larger pieces of ice drift far from the glacier before releasing their sediment. gravity : landslides, mudslides, avalanches, and other gravity - driven events can deposit large amounts of material into the ocean when they happen close to shore. waves : wave action along a coastline will erode rocks and will pull loose particles from beaches and shorelines into the water. volcanoes : volcanic eruptions emit vast amounts of ash and other debris into the atmosphere, where it can then be transported by wind to eventually get deposited in the oceans. gastroliths : another, relatively minor, means of transporting lithogenous sediment to the ocean are gastroliths. gastrolith means " stomach stone ". many animals, including seabirds, pinnipeds, and some crocodiles deliberately swallow stones and regurgitate them latter. stones swallowed on land can be regurgitated at sea. the stones can help grind food in the stomach or act as
Answer:
|
electricity
| null |
What type of aspect can be made from the moving winds?
0. snow
1. wood
2. bananas
3. electricity
##tropic sun - tracking systems to maximize the solar energy capture. = = = = air - flow responsive systems = = = = they are those related to natural ventilation and wind electricity. the first ones have the goal of exhausting the excess of carbon dioxide, water vapor, odors and pollutants that tend to accumulate in an indoor space. at the same time, they must replace it with new and fresh air, usually coming from the outside. some examples of this type of technology are kinetic roof structure and double skin facades. other less common types of cabs are the ones generating wind electricity. thus, they convert wind energy into electrical energy via small scale wind turbines integrated into buildings. this can be for example as wind turbines fitted horizontally between each floor. other examples may be found in buildings such as the dynamic tower, the cor building in miami and the greenway self - park garage in chicago. = = = = other natural sources systems = = = = they may account for the use of rain, snow and additional natural supplies. unfortunately, no extra information related to this issue was found. = = = based on the time frame scale = = = as dynamic technologies, cabs can show different configurations over time, extending from seconds up to changes appreciable during the lifetime of the building. thus, the four types of adaptations based on the time frame scales are seconds, minutes, hours, and seasons the variation that takes place just in seconds are found randomly in nature. some examples may be short - term variations in wind speed and direction that may cause shifts in wind - based skins. an example of a shift that occurs within minutes is the cloud cover which has an impact on the daylight availability. therefore, cabs that use this kind of energy may also fall into this category. some changes that adjust in the order of hours are fluctuations in air temperature, and the track of sun through the sky ( although sun movement around the sky is a continuous process, its track is done in this time scale ). finally, some cabs can adapt across seasons, and therefore are expected to offer extensive performance benefits. = = = based on the scale of change = = = the adaptive behavior of cabs is related to how its mechanisms work. therefore, they are either based on a change in behavior ( macro - scale ) or properties ( micro - scale ). = = = = macro - scale changes = = = = it is often also referred to as “ kinetic envelopes ”, which implies that a certain kind of observable
##s can provide more air circulation though their shade is sparser and more open. not only can tree shade be used to reduce the cooling load in building, it can also be used in parking lot, driveways, and playgrounds. = = = windbreak = = = planting or building windbreaks to slow winds near buildings, which reduces heat loss. homes loses heat through infiltration in the winter. windbreaks should be designed to intercept and redirect the winter winds before they reach the house and outdoor areas with playgrounds or sensitive plants. the windbreak in the winter should also be designed so that they would not block the sunlight in the winder or block the wind in the summer. = = = wall sheltering with shrubbery or vines = = = planting shrubs near the wall creates an insulating air space around the wall. this is a similar idea to the use of a tree windbreak. shrubs should be planted at least 2 feet ( 0. 61 m ) from the wall to prevent moisture and insect problems. = = = taking advantage of natural landform = = = earth sheltering is an example of using natural landform and geological condition to save energy in building a structure. it is believed to save energy in multiple ways : by using the rock or strong soil as wall and ground as the floor, construction cost is greatly reduced, because the structure will need less load bearing material and there is no need for excavation and foundation construction ; the wall and the floor made of natural material likely will have better insulation than artificial wall and floors ; natural walls and floors can also reduce fire hazard, because they are hard to be ignited thus reduce the need for flame retardants. in a study of simulating a structure with varying depth submerged in the ground to understand the insulating effect of natural wall and ground in cold climate, it was found that the thermal transmittance of the earth - sheltered walls and floor is 16 % - 45 % lower than that of the structure totally above ground. other than earth sheltering, a simpler way of taking advantage of natural landform is using geology, such as mountains, for shade. = = = green roofs = = = often, landscape design and architecture refers to the design in ground surface ; in many contexts, specifically, the design guidance and topics are for a typical residential landscape in suburban housing, where there is a yard ( garden ), a driveway, and a house. in the crowded urban area, however, there is not abundant ground surface for landscape design. green roofs, then
meters ( 6 ft ). many desert features once attributed to wind abrasion, including wind caves, mushroom rocks, and the honeycomb weathering called tafoni, are now attributed to differential weathering, rainwash, deflation rather than abrasion, or other processes. yardangs are one kind of desert feature that is widely attributed to wind abrasion. these are rock ridges, up to tens of meters high and kilometers long, that have been streamlined by desert winds. yardangs characteristically show elongated furrows or grooves aligned with the prevailing wind. they form mostly in softer material such as silts. abrasion produces polishing and pitting, grooving, shaping, and faceting of exposed surfaces. these are widespread in arid environments but geologically insignificant. polished or faceted surfaces called ventifacts are rare, requiring abundant sand, powerful winds, and a lack of vegetation for their formation. in parts of antarctica wind - blown snowflakes that are technically sediments have also caused abrasion of exposed rocks. = = = attrition = = = attrition is the wearing down by collisions of particles entrained in a moving fluid. it is effective at rounding sand grains and at giving them a distinctive frosted surface texture. collisions between windborne particles is a major source of dust in the size range of 2 - 5 microns. most of this is produced by the removal of a weathered clay coating from the grains. = = transport = = wind dominates the transport of sand and finer sediments in arid environments. wind transport is also important in periglacial areas, on river flood plains, and in coastal areas. coastal winds transport significant amounts of siliciclastic and carbonate sediments inland, while wind storms and dust storms can carry clay and silt particles great distances. wind transports much of the sediments deposited in deep ocean basins. in ergs ( desert sand seas ), wind is very effective at transporting grains of sand size and smaller. particles are transported by winds through suspension, saltation ( skipping or bouncing ) and creeping ( rolling or sliding ) along the ground. the minimum wind velocity to initiate transport is called the fluid threshold or static threshold and is the wind velocity required to begin dislodging grains from the surface. once transport is initiated, there is a cascade effect from grains tearing loose other grains, so that transport continues until the wind velocity drops below the dynamic threshold or impact threshold, which is usually less than the fluid threshold. in other words, there
processes generally fall into ( 1 ) the production of regolith by weathering and erosion, ( 2 ) the transport of that material, and ( 3 ) its eventual deposition. primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, chemical dissolution, mass wasting, groundwater movement, surface water flow, glacial action, tectonism, and volcanism. other more exotic geomorphic processes might include periglacial ( freeze - thaw ) processes, salt - mediated action, changes to the seabed caused by marine currents, seepage of fluids through the seafloor or extraterrestrial impact. = = = aeolian processes = = = aeolian processes pertain to the activity of the winds and more specifically, to the winds'ability to shape the surface of the earth. winds may erode, transport, and deposit materials, and are effective agents in regions with sparse vegetation and a large supply of fine, unconsolidated sediments. although water and mass flow tend to mobilize more material than wind in most environments, aeolian processes are important in arid environments such as deserts. = = = biological processes = = = the interaction of living organisms with landforms, or biogeomorphologic processes, can be of many different forms, and is probably of profound importance for the terrestrial geomorphic system as a whole. biology can influence very many geomorphic processes, ranging from biogeochemical processes controlling chemical weathering, to the influence of mechanical processes like burrowing and tree throw on soil development, to even controlling global erosion rates through modulation of climate through carbon dioxide balance. terrestrial landscapes in which the role of biology in mediating surface processes can be definitively excluded are extremely rare, but may hold important information for understanding the geomorphology of other planets, such as mars. = = = fluvial processes = = = rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of sediment. the water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as bed load, suspended load or dissolved load. the rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river's discharge. rivers are also capable of eroding into rock and forming new sediment, both from their own beds and also by coupling to the surrounding hillslopes. in this way, rivers are thought of as setting the base level for large - scale landscape evolution in nonglacial environments.
on land through the process of weathering, where rocks and minerals are broken down into smaller particles through the action of wind, rain, water flow, temperature - or ice - induced cracking, and other erosive processes. these small eroded particles are then transported to the oceans through a variety of mechanisms : streams and rivers : various forms of runoff deposit large amounts of sediment into the oceans, mostly in the form of finer - grained particles. about 90 % of the lithogenous sediment in the oceans is thought to have come from river discharge, particularly from asia. most of this sediment, especially the larger particles, will be deposited and remain fairly close to the coastline, however, smaller clay particles may remain suspended in the water column for long periods of time and may be transported great distances from the source. wind : windborne ( aeolian ) transport can take small particles of sand and dust and move them thousands of kilometres from the source. these small particles can fall into the ocean when the wind dies down, or can serve as the nuclei around which raindrops or snowflakes form. aeolian transport is particularly important near desert areas. glaciers and ice rafting : as glaciers grind their way over land, they pick up lots of soil and rock particles, including very large boulders, that get carried by the ice. when the glacier meets the ocean and begins to break apart or melt, these particles get deposited. most of the deposition will happen close to where the glacier meets the water, but a small amount of material is also transported longer distances by rafting, where larger pieces of ice drift far from the glacier before releasing their sediment. gravity : landslides, mudslides, avalanches, and other gravity - driven events can deposit large amounts of material into the ocean when they happen close to shore. waves : wave action along a coastline will erode rocks and will pull loose particles from beaches and shorelines into the water. volcanoes : volcanic eruptions emit vast amounts of ash and other debris into the atmosphere, where it can then be transported by wind to eventually get deposited in the oceans. gastroliths : another, relatively minor, means of transporting lithogenous sediment to the ocean are gastroliths. gastrolith means " stomach stone ". many animals, including seabirds, pinnipeds, and some crocodiles deliberately swallow stones and regurgitate them latter. stones swallowed on land can be regurgitated at sea. the stones can help grind food in the stomach or act as
Answer:
|
snow
| 0.3 |
All of the following but which would be considered renewable energy sources?
0. Solar
1. Wind
2. Natural Gas
3. Hydropower
for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of a zero net energy building. = = conversion factor conventions = = where primary energy is used to describe fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy and around two thirds is typically lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy. there are very much less significant conversion losses when hydroelectricity, wind and solar power produce electricity, but today's un conventions on energy statistics counts the electricity made from hydroelectricity, wind and solar as the primary energy itself for these sources. one consequence of employing primary energy as an energy metric is that the contribution of hydro, wind and solar energy is under reported compared to fossil energy sources, and there is hence an international debate on how to count energy from non - thermal renewables, with many estimates having them undercounted by a factor of about three. the false notion that all primary energy from thermal fossil fuel sources has to be replaced by an equivalent amount of non - thermal renewables ( which is not necessary as conversion losses do not need to be replaced ) has been termed the " primary energy fallacy ". = = see also = = energy industry energy development energy mix energy system list of countries by total primary energy consumption and production = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = kydes, andy ( lead author ) ; cutler j. cleveland ( topic editor ). 2007. " primary energy. " in : encyclopedia of earth. eds. cutler j. cleveland ( washington, d. c. : environmental information coalition, national council for science and the environment ). [ first published in the encyclopedia of earth june 1, 2006 ; last revised august 14, 2007 ; retrieved november 15, 2007. øvergaard, sara ( september 2008 ). definition of primary and secondary energy ( pdf ). norway : statistics norway. retrieved 2016 - 12 - 17. = = external links = = the encyclopedia of earth : primary energy our energy futures glossary : primary energy sources
megajoule ( mj ) of electricity produced by a hydroelectric plant is equivalent to 3 mj of oil. sunlight is a main source of primary energy, which can be transformed into plants and then into coal, oil and gas. solar power and wind power are other derivatives of sunlight. note that although coal, oil and natural gas are derived from sunlight, they are considered primary energy sources which are extracted from the earth ( fossil fuels ). natural uranium is also a primary energy source extracted from the earth but does not come from the decomposition of organisms ( mineral fuel ). = = see also = = capital goods coefficient of performance embedded energy energy and society energy crisis energy pay - back energy resource energy source energy storage energyware entropy exergy future energy development hydrogen economy iso 14000 liquid nitrogen economy lithium economy methanol economy metal energy carriers renewable resource vegetable oil economy renewable energy = = references = = = = further reading = = european nuclear society info pool / glossary : energy carrier archived september 27, 2006, at the wayback machine our energy futures glossary : energy carriers storungsdienst, elektriker ( in german ) = = external links = = " boron : a better energy carrier than hydrogen? " paper by graham cowan iso 13600 technical energy systems - - basic concepts : gives the basic concepts needed to define and describe technical energy systems.
to a zero - carbon energy system will bring strong co - benefits for human health : the world health organization estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 1. 5 °c could save millions of lives each year from reductions to air pollution alone. with good planning and management, pathways exist to provide universal access to electricity and clean cooking by 2030 in ways that are consistent with climate goals. historically, several countries have made rapid economic gains through coal usage. however, there remains a window of opportunity for many poor countries and regions to " leapfrog " fossil fuel dependency by developing their energy systems based on renewables, given adequate international investment and knowledge transfer. = = = integrating variable energy sources = = = to deliver reliable electricity from variable renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems require flexibility. most electrical grids were constructed for non - intermittent energy sources such as coal - fired power plants. as larger amounts of solar and wind energy are integrated into the grid, changes have to be made to the energy system to ensure that the supply of electricity is matched to demand. in 2019, these sources generated 8. 5 % of worldwide electricity, a share that has grown rapidly. there are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. in many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale : there is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low. linking different geographical regions through long - distance transmission lines allows for further cancelling out of variability. energy demand can be shifted in time through energy demand management and the use of smart grids, matching the times when variable energy production is highest. with grid energy storage, energy produced in excess can be released when needed. further flexibility could be provided from sector coupling, that is coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via power - to - heat - systems and electric vehicles. building overcapacity for wind and solar generation can help ensure that enough electricity is produced even during poor weather. in optimal weather, energy generation may have to be curtailed if excess electricity cannot be used or stored. the final demand - supply mismatch may be covered by using dispatchable energy sources such as hydropower, bioenergy, or natural gas. = = = = energy storage = = = = energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy and is an important aspect of a sustainable energy system. the most commonly used and available storage method is pumped - storage hydroelectricity, which requires locations with large differences in height and access to water.
energy as was used for its production. less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined. in concentrated solar power, solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a heat engine. concentrated solar power can support dispatchable power generation, as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. in addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly ; solar thermal heating systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination. = = = = wind power = = = = wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6 % of global electricity in 2019. electricity from onshore wind farms is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher. onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. while collisions with wind turbines kill both bats and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and transmission lines. the noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier - to - recycle blades is ongoing. = = = = hydropower = = = = hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. in 2020, hydropower supplied 17 % of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20 % in the mid - to - late 20th century. in conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. they can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available. compared to reservoir - based facilities, run - of - the - river hydroelectricity generally has less environmental impact. however, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and
heating is another example of secondary energy. according to the laws of thermodynamics, primary energy sources cannot be produced. they must be available to society to enable the production of energy carriers. conversion efficiency varies. for thermal energy, electricity and mechanical energy production is limited by carnot's theorem, and generates a lot of waste heat. other non - thermal conversions can be more efficient. for example, while wind turbines do not capture all of the wind's energy, they have a high conversion efficiency and generate very little waste heat since wind energy is low entropy. in principle solar photovoltaic conversions could be very efficient, but current conversion can only be done well for narrow ranges of wavelength, whereas solar thermal is also subject to carnot efficiency limits. hydroelectric power is also very ordered, and converted very efficiently. the amount of usable energy is the exergy of a system. = = = site and source energy = = = site energy is the term used in north america for the amount of end - use energy of all forms consumed at a specified location. this can be a mix of primary energy ( such as natural gas burned at the site ) and secondary energy ( such as electricity ). site energy is measured at the campus, building, or sub - building level and is the basis for energy charges on utility bills. source energy, in contrast, is the term used in north america for the amount of primary energy consumed in order to provide a facility's site energy. it is always greater than the site energy, as it includes all site energy and adds to it the energy lost during transmission, delivery, and conversion. while source or primary energy provides a more complete picture of energy consumption, it cannot be measured directly and must be calculated using conversion factors from site energy measurements. for electricity, a typical value is three units of source energy for one unit of site energy. however, this can vary considerably depending on factors such as the primary energy source or fuel type, the type of power plant, and the transmission infrastructure. one full set of conversion factors is available as technical reference from energy star. either site or source energy can be an appropriate metric when comparing or analyzing energy use of different facilities. the u. s energy information administration, for example, uses primary ( source ) energy for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of
Answer:
|
Natural Gas
| null |
All of the following but which would be considered renewable energy sources?
0. Solar
1. Wind
2. Natural Gas
3. Hydropower
for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of a zero net energy building. = = conversion factor conventions = = where primary energy is used to describe fossil fuels, the embodied energy of the fuel is available as thermal energy and around two thirds is typically lost in conversion to electrical or mechanical energy. there are very much less significant conversion losses when hydroelectricity, wind and solar power produce electricity, but today's un conventions on energy statistics counts the electricity made from hydroelectricity, wind and solar as the primary energy itself for these sources. one consequence of employing primary energy as an energy metric is that the contribution of hydro, wind and solar energy is under reported compared to fossil energy sources, and there is hence an international debate on how to count energy from non - thermal renewables, with many estimates having them undercounted by a factor of about three. the false notion that all primary energy from thermal fossil fuel sources has to be replaced by an equivalent amount of non - thermal renewables ( which is not necessary as conversion losses do not need to be replaced ) has been termed the " primary energy fallacy ". = = see also = = energy industry energy development energy mix energy system list of countries by total primary energy consumption and production = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = kydes, andy ( lead author ) ; cutler j. cleveland ( topic editor ). 2007. " primary energy. " in : encyclopedia of earth. eds. cutler j. cleveland ( washington, d. c. : environmental information coalition, national council for science and the environment ). [ first published in the encyclopedia of earth june 1, 2006 ; last revised august 14, 2007 ; retrieved november 15, 2007. øvergaard, sara ( september 2008 ). definition of primary and secondary energy ( pdf ). norway : statistics norway. retrieved 2016 - 12 - 17. = = external links = = the encyclopedia of earth : primary energy our energy futures glossary : primary energy sources
megajoule ( mj ) of electricity produced by a hydroelectric plant is equivalent to 3 mj of oil. sunlight is a main source of primary energy, which can be transformed into plants and then into coal, oil and gas. solar power and wind power are other derivatives of sunlight. note that although coal, oil and natural gas are derived from sunlight, they are considered primary energy sources which are extracted from the earth ( fossil fuels ). natural uranium is also a primary energy source extracted from the earth but does not come from the decomposition of organisms ( mineral fuel ). = = see also = = capital goods coefficient of performance embedded energy energy and society energy crisis energy pay - back energy resource energy source energy storage energyware entropy exergy future energy development hydrogen economy iso 14000 liquid nitrogen economy lithium economy methanol economy metal energy carriers renewable resource vegetable oil economy renewable energy = = references = = = = further reading = = european nuclear society info pool / glossary : energy carrier archived september 27, 2006, at the wayback machine our energy futures glossary : energy carriers storungsdienst, elektriker ( in german ) = = external links = = " boron : a better energy carrier than hydrogen? " paper by graham cowan iso 13600 technical energy systems - - basic concepts : gives the basic concepts needed to define and describe technical energy systems.
to a zero - carbon energy system will bring strong co - benefits for human health : the world health organization estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 1. 5 °c could save millions of lives each year from reductions to air pollution alone. with good planning and management, pathways exist to provide universal access to electricity and clean cooking by 2030 in ways that are consistent with climate goals. historically, several countries have made rapid economic gains through coal usage. however, there remains a window of opportunity for many poor countries and regions to " leapfrog " fossil fuel dependency by developing their energy systems based on renewables, given adequate international investment and knowledge transfer. = = = integrating variable energy sources = = = to deliver reliable electricity from variable renewable energy sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems require flexibility. most electrical grids were constructed for non - intermittent energy sources such as coal - fired power plants. as larger amounts of solar and wind energy are integrated into the grid, changes have to be made to the energy system to ensure that the supply of electricity is matched to demand. in 2019, these sources generated 8. 5 % of worldwide electricity, a share that has grown rapidly. there are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. in many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale : there is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low. linking different geographical regions through long - distance transmission lines allows for further cancelling out of variability. energy demand can be shifted in time through energy demand management and the use of smart grids, matching the times when variable energy production is highest. with grid energy storage, energy produced in excess can be released when needed. further flexibility could be provided from sector coupling, that is coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via power - to - heat - systems and electric vehicles. building overcapacity for wind and solar generation can help ensure that enough electricity is produced even during poor weather. in optimal weather, energy generation may have to be curtailed if excess electricity cannot be used or stored. the final demand - supply mismatch may be covered by using dispatchable energy sources such as hydropower, bioenergy, or natural gas. = = = = energy storage = = = = energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy and is an important aspect of a sustainable energy system. the most commonly used and available storage method is pumped - storage hydroelectricity, which requires locations with large differences in height and access to water.
energy as was used for its production. less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined. in concentrated solar power, solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a heat engine. concentrated solar power can support dispatchable power generation, as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. in addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly ; solar thermal heating systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination. = = = = wind power = = = = wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6 % of global electricity in 2019. electricity from onshore wind farms is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher. onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. while collisions with wind turbines kill both bats and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and transmission lines. the noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier - to - recycle blades is ongoing. = = = = hydropower = = = = hydroelectric plants convert the energy of moving water into electricity. in 2020, hydropower supplied 17 % of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20 % in the mid - to - late 20th century. in conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible, dispatchable electricity supply. they can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available. compared to reservoir - based facilities, run - of - the - river hydroelectricity generally has less environmental impact. however, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and
heating is another example of secondary energy. according to the laws of thermodynamics, primary energy sources cannot be produced. they must be available to society to enable the production of energy carriers. conversion efficiency varies. for thermal energy, electricity and mechanical energy production is limited by carnot's theorem, and generates a lot of waste heat. other non - thermal conversions can be more efficient. for example, while wind turbines do not capture all of the wind's energy, they have a high conversion efficiency and generate very little waste heat since wind energy is low entropy. in principle solar photovoltaic conversions could be very efficient, but current conversion can only be done well for narrow ranges of wavelength, whereas solar thermal is also subject to carnot efficiency limits. hydroelectric power is also very ordered, and converted very efficiently. the amount of usable energy is the exergy of a system. = = = site and source energy = = = site energy is the term used in north america for the amount of end - use energy of all forms consumed at a specified location. this can be a mix of primary energy ( such as natural gas burned at the site ) and secondary energy ( such as electricity ). site energy is measured at the campus, building, or sub - building level and is the basis for energy charges on utility bills. source energy, in contrast, is the term used in north america for the amount of primary energy consumed in order to provide a facility's site energy. it is always greater than the site energy, as it includes all site energy and adds to it the energy lost during transmission, delivery, and conversion. while source or primary energy provides a more complete picture of energy consumption, it cannot be measured directly and must be calculated using conversion factors from site energy measurements. for electricity, a typical value is three units of source energy for one unit of site energy. however, this can vary considerably depending on factors such as the primary energy source or fuel type, the type of power plant, and the transmission infrastructure. one full set of conversion factors is available as technical reference from energy star. either site or source energy can be an appropriate metric when comparing or analyzing energy use of different facilities. the u. s energy information administration, for example, uses primary ( source ) energy for its energy overviews but site energy for its commercial building energy consumption survey and residential building energy consumption survey. the us environmental protection agency's energy star program recommends using source energy, and the us department of energy uses site energy in its definition of
Answer:
|
Hydropower
| 0.3 |
Feeling is when a living thing senses through what?
0. sight
1. smell
2. contact
3. taste
touch ), taste and olfaction ( smell ), as listed above. it has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality. in short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind. the receptive field is the specific part of the world to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. for instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field ; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field. receptive fields have been identified for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory system, so far. research attention is currently focused not only on external perception processes, but also to " interoception ", considered as the process of receiving, accessing and appraising internal bodily signals. maintaining desired physiological states is critical for an organism's well - being and survival. interoception is an iterative process, requiring the interplay between perception of body states and awareness of these states to generate proper self - regulation. afferent sensory signals continuously interact with higher order cognitive representations of goals, history, and environment, shaping emotional experience and motivating regulatory behavior. = = features = = = = = constancy = = = perceptual constancy is the ability of perceptual systems to recognize the same object from widely varying sensory inputs. : 118 – 120 for example, individual people can be recognized from views, such as frontal and profile, which form very different shapes on the retina. a coin looked at face - on makes a circular image on the retina, but when held at angle it makes an elliptical image. in normal perception these are recognized as a single three - dimensional object. without this correction process, an animal approaching from the distance would appear to gain in size. one kind of perceptual constancy is color constancy : for example, a white piece of paper can be recognized as such under different colors and intensities of light. another example is roughness constancy : when a hand is drawn quickly across a surface, the touch nerves are stimulated more intensely. the brain compensates for this, so the speed of contact does not affect the perceived roughness. other constancies include melody, odor, brightness and words. these constancies are not always total, but the variation in the percept is much less than the variation in the physical stimulus. the perceptual systems
perception ( from latin perceptio'gathering, receiving') is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. all perception involves signals that go through the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sensory system. vision involves light striking the retina of the eye ; smell is mediated by odor molecules ; and hearing involves pressure waves. perception is not only the passive receipt of these signals, but it is also shaped by the recipient's learning, memory, expectation, and attention. sensory input is a process that transforms this low - level information to higher - level information ( e. g., extracts shapes for object recognition ). the following process connects a person's concepts and expectations ( or knowledge ) with restorative and selective mechanisms, such as attention, that influence perception. perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th century, psychology's understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the physical qualities of the sensory input and perception. sensory neuroscience studies the neural mechanisms underlying perception. perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process. perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver. although people traditionally viewed the senses as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre - consciously attempt to make sense of their input. there is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary. the perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. human and other animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. some of these modules take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. these different modules are interconnected and influence each other. for instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell. = = process and terminology = = the process of perception begins with an object in the real world, known
or gustatory calyculi. the human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly - ten thousand taste buds. traditionally, there have been four primary tastes : sweetness, bitterness, sourness, and saltiness. the recognition and awareness of umami, which is considered the fifth primary taste, is a relatively recent development in western cuisine. other tastes can be mimicked by combining these basic tastes, all of which contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth. other factors include smell, which is detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose ; texture, which is detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc. ; and temperature, which is detected by thermoreceptors. all basic tastes are classified as either appetitive or aversive, depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial. = = = smell = = = smell is the process of absorbing molecules through olfactory organs, which are absorbed by humans through the nose. these molecules diffuse through a thick layer of mucus ; come into contact with one of thousands of cilia that are projected from sensory neurons ; and are then absorbed into a receptor ( one of 347 or so ). it is this process that causes humans to understand the concept of smell from a physical standpoint. smell is also a very interactive sense as scientists have begun to observe that olfaction comes into contact with the other sense in unexpected ways. it is also the most primal of the senses, as it is known to be the first indicator of safety or danger, therefore being the sense that drives the most basic of human survival skills. as such, it can be a catalyst for human behavior on a subconscious and instinctive level. = = = social = = = social perception is the part of perception that allows people to understand the individuals and groups of their social world. thus, it is an element of social cognition. = = = = speech = = = = speech perception is the process by which spoken language is heard, interpreted and understood. research in this field seeks to understand how human listeners recognize the sound of speech ( or phonetics ) and use such information to understand spoken language. listeners manage to perceive words across a wide range of conditions, as the sound of a word can vary widely according to words that surround it and the tempo of the speech, as well as the physical characteristics, accent, tone, and mood of the speaker. reverberation, signifying
then used the following as examples of absolute threshold : visual – on a clear, dark night a candle can be seen from approximately 30 miles away. olfactory – a person can smell a single drop of perfume after it has diffused into 3 rooms. auditory – in a silent area, a person can hear a watch tick from approximately 20 feet. vestibular – a person is able to tell of a tilt that when on a clock face is seen to be less than half a minute. gustatory – a person can taste a single teaspoon of sugar which is diluted in 2 gallons of water. tactile – a person can feel a fly's wing dropped from 3 feet above them falling onto their cheek. through these conditions, galanter was able to show that human's sensory organs are often more sensitive than originally thought. = = notes = = = = references = =
in physiology, a stimulus is a change in a living thing's internal or external environment. this change can be detected by an organism or organ using sensitivity, and leads to a physiological reaction. sensory receptors can receive stimuli from outside the body, as in touch receptors found in the skin or light receptors in the eye, as well as from inside the body, as in chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors. when a stimulus is detected by a sensory receptor, it can elicit a reflex via stimulus transduction. an internal stimulus is often the first component of a homeostatic control system. external stimuli are capable of producing systemic responses throughout the body, as in the fight - or - flight response. in order for a stimulus to be detected with high probability, its level of strength must exceed the absolute threshold ; if a signal does reach threshold, the information is transmitted to the central nervous system ( cns ), where it is integrated and a decision on how to react is made. although stimuli commonly cause the body to respond, it is the cns that finally determines whether a signal causes a reaction or not. = = types = = = = = internal = = = = = = = homeostatic imbalances = = = = homeostatic outbalances are the main driving force for changes of the body. these stimuli are monitored closely by receptors and sensors in different parts of the body. these sensors are mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors and thermoreceptors that, respectively, respond to pressure or stretching, chemical changes, or temperature changes. examples of mechanoreceptors include baroreceptors which detect changes in blood pressure, merkel's discs which can detect sustained touch and pressure, and hair cells which detect sound stimuli. homeostatic imbalances that can serve as internal stimuli include nutrient and ion levels in the blood, oxygen levels, and water levels. deviations from the homeostatic ideal may generate a homeostatic emotion, such as pain, thirst or fatigue, that motivates behavior that will restore the body to stasis ( such as withdrawal, drinking or resting ). = = = = blood pressure = = = = blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiac output are measured by stretch receptors found in the carotid arteries. nerves embed themselves within these receptors and when they detect stretching, they are stimulated and fire action potentials to the central nervous system. these impulses inhibit the const
Answer:
|
contact
| null |
Feeling is when a living thing senses through what?
0. sight
1. smell
2. contact
3. taste
touch ), taste and olfaction ( smell ), as listed above. it has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality. in short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind. the receptive field is the specific part of the world to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. for instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field ; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field. receptive fields have been identified for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory system, so far. research attention is currently focused not only on external perception processes, but also to " interoception ", considered as the process of receiving, accessing and appraising internal bodily signals. maintaining desired physiological states is critical for an organism's well - being and survival. interoception is an iterative process, requiring the interplay between perception of body states and awareness of these states to generate proper self - regulation. afferent sensory signals continuously interact with higher order cognitive representations of goals, history, and environment, shaping emotional experience and motivating regulatory behavior. = = features = = = = = constancy = = = perceptual constancy is the ability of perceptual systems to recognize the same object from widely varying sensory inputs. : 118 – 120 for example, individual people can be recognized from views, such as frontal and profile, which form very different shapes on the retina. a coin looked at face - on makes a circular image on the retina, but when held at angle it makes an elliptical image. in normal perception these are recognized as a single three - dimensional object. without this correction process, an animal approaching from the distance would appear to gain in size. one kind of perceptual constancy is color constancy : for example, a white piece of paper can be recognized as such under different colors and intensities of light. another example is roughness constancy : when a hand is drawn quickly across a surface, the touch nerves are stimulated more intensely. the brain compensates for this, so the speed of contact does not affect the perceived roughness. other constancies include melody, odor, brightness and words. these constancies are not always total, but the variation in the percept is much less than the variation in the physical stimulus. the perceptual systems
perception ( from latin perceptio'gathering, receiving') is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory information in order to represent and understand the presented information or environment. all perception involves signals that go through the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or chemical stimulation of the sensory system. vision involves light striking the retina of the eye ; smell is mediated by odor molecules ; and hearing involves pressure waves. perception is not only the passive receipt of these signals, but it is also shaped by the recipient's learning, memory, expectation, and attention. sensory input is a process that transforms this low - level information to higher - level information ( e. g., extracts shapes for object recognition ). the following process connects a person's concepts and expectations ( or knowledge ) with restorative and selective mechanisms, such as attention, that influence perception. perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness. since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th century, psychology's understanding of perception has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships between the physical qualities of the sensory input and perception. sensory neuroscience studies the neural mechanisms underlying perception. perceptual systems can also be studied computationally, in terms of the information they process. perceptual issues in philosophy include the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver. although people traditionally viewed the senses as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre - consciously attempt to make sense of their input. there is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary. the perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. human and other animal brains are structured in a modular way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information. some of these modules take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of the brain's surface. these different modules are interconnected and influence each other. for instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell. = = process and terminology = = the process of perception begins with an object in the real world, known
or gustatory calyculi. the human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on each of its roughly - ten thousand taste buds. traditionally, there have been four primary tastes : sweetness, bitterness, sourness, and saltiness. the recognition and awareness of umami, which is considered the fifth primary taste, is a relatively recent development in western cuisine. other tastes can be mimicked by combining these basic tastes, all of which contribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food in the mouth. other factors include smell, which is detected by the olfactory epithelium of the nose ; texture, which is detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, muscle nerves, etc. ; and temperature, which is detected by thermoreceptors. all basic tastes are classified as either appetitive or aversive, depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial. = = = smell = = = smell is the process of absorbing molecules through olfactory organs, which are absorbed by humans through the nose. these molecules diffuse through a thick layer of mucus ; come into contact with one of thousands of cilia that are projected from sensory neurons ; and are then absorbed into a receptor ( one of 347 or so ). it is this process that causes humans to understand the concept of smell from a physical standpoint. smell is also a very interactive sense as scientists have begun to observe that olfaction comes into contact with the other sense in unexpected ways. it is also the most primal of the senses, as it is known to be the first indicator of safety or danger, therefore being the sense that drives the most basic of human survival skills. as such, it can be a catalyst for human behavior on a subconscious and instinctive level. = = = social = = = social perception is the part of perception that allows people to understand the individuals and groups of their social world. thus, it is an element of social cognition. = = = = speech = = = = speech perception is the process by which spoken language is heard, interpreted and understood. research in this field seeks to understand how human listeners recognize the sound of speech ( or phonetics ) and use such information to understand spoken language. listeners manage to perceive words across a wide range of conditions, as the sound of a word can vary widely according to words that surround it and the tempo of the speech, as well as the physical characteristics, accent, tone, and mood of the speaker. reverberation, signifying
then used the following as examples of absolute threshold : visual – on a clear, dark night a candle can be seen from approximately 30 miles away. olfactory – a person can smell a single drop of perfume after it has diffused into 3 rooms. auditory – in a silent area, a person can hear a watch tick from approximately 20 feet. vestibular – a person is able to tell of a tilt that when on a clock face is seen to be less than half a minute. gustatory – a person can taste a single teaspoon of sugar which is diluted in 2 gallons of water. tactile – a person can feel a fly's wing dropped from 3 feet above them falling onto their cheek. through these conditions, galanter was able to show that human's sensory organs are often more sensitive than originally thought. = = notes = = = = references = =
in physiology, a stimulus is a change in a living thing's internal or external environment. this change can be detected by an organism or organ using sensitivity, and leads to a physiological reaction. sensory receptors can receive stimuli from outside the body, as in touch receptors found in the skin or light receptors in the eye, as well as from inside the body, as in chemoreceptors and mechanoreceptors. when a stimulus is detected by a sensory receptor, it can elicit a reflex via stimulus transduction. an internal stimulus is often the first component of a homeostatic control system. external stimuli are capable of producing systemic responses throughout the body, as in the fight - or - flight response. in order for a stimulus to be detected with high probability, its level of strength must exceed the absolute threshold ; if a signal does reach threshold, the information is transmitted to the central nervous system ( cns ), where it is integrated and a decision on how to react is made. although stimuli commonly cause the body to respond, it is the cns that finally determines whether a signal causes a reaction or not. = = types = = = = = internal = = = = = = = homeostatic imbalances = = = = homeostatic outbalances are the main driving force for changes of the body. these stimuli are monitored closely by receptors and sensors in different parts of the body. these sensors are mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors and thermoreceptors that, respectively, respond to pressure or stretching, chemical changes, or temperature changes. examples of mechanoreceptors include baroreceptors which detect changes in blood pressure, merkel's discs which can detect sustained touch and pressure, and hair cells which detect sound stimuli. homeostatic imbalances that can serve as internal stimuli include nutrient and ion levels in the blood, oxygen levels, and water levels. deviations from the homeostatic ideal may generate a homeostatic emotion, such as pain, thirst or fatigue, that motivates behavior that will restore the body to stasis ( such as withdrawal, drinking or resting ). = = = = blood pressure = = = = blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiac output are measured by stretch receptors found in the carotid arteries. nerves embed themselves within these receptors and when they detect stretching, they are stimulated and fire action potentials to the central nervous system. these impulses inhibit the const
Answer:
|
smell
| 0.3 |
When a creature experiences feeling, they are likely
0. making really good choices
1. taking the next train
2. sensing a thing's texture
3. dead from complete exhaustion
an intermodal mental representation of both their peers and humans. they associate faces, smells, voices, and expectations based on past experiences. horses deprived of one sense are likely to compensate by relying on their remaining senses to recognize individuals. = = = interspecific communication = = = horses can communicate with humans when they feel the need to do so. they are capable of drawing attention to gain access to a food source, such as through their gaze or, in some cases, by making physical contact. the horse is the second domestic animal species, after the dog, in which this ability has been demonstrated. horses appear to be more interested in humans when they anticipate being provided with food, the training method used may influence their interspecific learning abilities. training that incorporates ethological principles tends to yield better results. a study has identified a " symbolic communication primer " between humans and horses, which allows horses to express their preference for wearing a blanket or not. according to the 2016 study, horses can learn the meaning of symbols through positive reinforcement ( one symbol for putting on a blanket, one for staying as they are, and one for removing the blanket ), and can use these symbols to communicate their preferences to humans. in interspecific communication, horses can consider a human's perspective. in an experiment where two people are present — one knowing where food is hidden and inaccessible to the horse — the horse will instinctively ask for help from the person who knows where the food is. this ability, once thought to be exclusive to large primates and dogs, is considered complex. experiments on horses ’ sensitivity to human pointing gestures ( e. g., pointing at an object containing food with a finger ) have shown that horses value these gestures, though it remains unclear whether they interpret them as communicative signals directed at them.. four different pointing methods were tested ; horses performed well in all tasks except for distal dynamic - momentary pointing, which was significantly more cognitively demanding than the other styles. horses are also sensitive to human attention and are more likely to approach a person who is looking at them while feeding them than one who is not. young horses do not seem to be inherently predisposed to recognize or respond to human attention, suggesting that they acquire this skill through learning as they age. = = = interspecific learning = = = horses can acquire new skills by observing humans. in one experiment, humans demonstrated to horses how to press a button to open a feeder, while another group of horses did not
sexual arousal may arise without physical stimulation, achieving orgasm usually requires physical sexual stimulation ( stimulation of the krause - finger corpuscles found in erogenous zones of the body. ) = = = other senses = = = other senses enable perception of body balance ( vestibular sense ) ; acceleration, including gravity ; position of body parts ( proprioception sense ). they can also enable perception of internal senses ( interoception sense ), such as temperature, pain, suffocation, gag reflex, abdominal distension, fullness of rectum and urinary bladder, and sensations felt in the throat and lungs. = = reality = = in the case of visual perception, some people can see the percept shift in their mind's eye. others, who are not picture thinkers, may not necessarily perceive the'shape - shifting'as their world changes. this esemplastic nature has been demonstrated by an experiment that showed that ambiguous images have multiple interpretations on the perceptual level. the confusing ambiguity of perception is exploited in human technologies such as camouflage and biological mimicry. for example, the wings of european peacock butterflies bear eyespots that birds respond to as though they were the eyes of a dangerous predator. there is also evidence that the brain in some ways operates on a slight " delay " in order to allow nerve impulses from distant parts of the body to be integrated into simultaneous signals. perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. the oldest quantitative laws in psychology are weber's law, which states that the smallest noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is proportional to the intensity of the reference ; and fechner's law, which quantifies the relationship between the intensity of the physical stimulus and its perceptual counterpart ( e. g., testing how much darker a computer screen can get before the viewer actually notices ). the study of perception gave rise to the gestalt school of psychology, with an emphasis on a holistic approach. = = physiology = = a sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. a sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, somatic sensation ( touch ), taste and olfaction ( smell ), as listed above. it has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality. in short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind
unconditioned response. an unconditioned response is one that " elicits a national, reflexive response. " ( weseley & mcentarffer, 2014, p. 136 ). subsequent encounters will elicit a conditioned response has been developed through the learning that occurred with the intervening encounters with the stimulus. this learning is bedrock knowledge on which one draws when responding to a given situation. ( weseley & mcentarffer, 2014 ). if the first time one ate ice cream the experience was pleasant, the second experience will be informed from the firs. the second experience will generate salient pleasant cognitions, salivation, and other biological responses that will reinforce the pleasant salience of the experience. if on the other hand, the first encounter was negative ( disgust, pain or nausea ), the second encounter will generate the feeling of pain in the stomach awful memories of the first encounter. which will reinforce the negative salience of the first and second experience. another key aspect of whether a particular memory or knowledge will be activated is whether it is applicable to the situation. if it is not applicable, it will not be salient and is unlikely to be activated for that situation. " according to the synapse model …, the process begins with the stimulus, which increases the excitation level of stored knowledge as a function of the features of the match between the attended features of the stimulus and the features of the stored knowledge. " ( higgins, 1996, p. 137 ). the stimulus information creates a pathway to the knowledge, which is then evaluated for a salience match to the stimulus. if there is a match, then the knowledge will be activated. our minds and bodies are bombarded by relevant and irrelevant knowledge and experiences every day. we will tune into salient ones ( crane the ears to more fully hear enjoyable music ) and tune - out non - salient ones ( cover our ears from jackhammer noise ). there is difference between seeing something and looking at it. in seeing, the capacity of our retina to take in the light energy is engaged and the brain processes that information into an image. when one looks at an object, not only are visual perceptive capacities engaged, but other mental processes for evaluation and ordering of the object are activated ( skinner, 1974 ). humans have gatekeeper mental mechanisms that allow certain information in and keeps others out. this discrimination process can be viewed a defensive mechanism the protects and enhances our life experience. our processes of making cognitions " also involve
used to study simple ethical interactions, such as the classical thought experiment where there are more people than a life raft can hold, and someone must leave the boat to save the rest. however, more neurorobots used in the study of action selection contend with much simpler persuasions such as self - preservation or perpetuation of the population of robots in the study. these neurorobots are modeled after the neuromodulation of synapses to encourage circuits with positive results. in biological systems, neurotransmitters such as dopamine or acetylcholine positively reinforce neural signals that are beneficial. one study of such interaction involved the robot darwin vii, which used visual, auditory, and a simulated taste input to " eat " conductive metal blocks. the arbitrarily chosen good blocks had a striped pattern on them while the bad blocks had a circular shape on them. the taste sense was simulated by conductivity of the blocks. the robot had positive and negative feedbacks to the taste based on its level of conductivity. the researchers observed the robot to see how it learned its action selection behaviors based on the inputs it had. other studies have used herds of small robots which feed on batteries strewn about the room, and communicate its findings to other robots. = = = sensory perception = = = neurorobots have also been used to study sensory perception, particularly vision. these are primarily systems that result from embedding neural models of sensory pathways in automatas. this approach gives exposure to the sensory signals that occur during behavior and also enables a more realistic assessment of the degree of robustness of the neural model. it is well known that changes in the sensory signals produced by motor activity provide useful perceptual cues that are used extensively by organisms. for example, researchers have used the depth information that emerges during replication of human head and eye movements to establish robust representations of the visual scene. = = biological robots = = biological robots are not officially neurorobots in that they are not neurologically inspired ai systems, but actual neuron tissue wired to a robot. this employs the use of cultured neural networks to study brain development or neural interactions. these typically consist of a neural culture raised on a multielectrode array ( mea ), which is capable of both recording the neural activity and stimulating the tissue. in some cases, the mea is connected to a computer which presents a simulated environment to the brain tissue and translates brain activity into actions in the simulation, as well
touch ), taste and olfaction ( smell ), as listed above. it has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality. in short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind. the receptive field is the specific part of the world to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. for instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field ; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field. receptive fields have been identified for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory system, so far. research attention is currently focused not only on external perception processes, but also to " interoception ", considered as the process of receiving, accessing and appraising internal bodily signals. maintaining desired physiological states is critical for an organism's well - being and survival. interoception is an iterative process, requiring the interplay between perception of body states and awareness of these states to generate proper self - regulation. afferent sensory signals continuously interact with higher order cognitive representations of goals, history, and environment, shaping emotional experience and motivating regulatory behavior. = = features = = = = = constancy = = = perceptual constancy is the ability of perceptual systems to recognize the same object from widely varying sensory inputs. : 118 – 120 for example, individual people can be recognized from views, such as frontal and profile, which form very different shapes on the retina. a coin looked at face - on makes a circular image on the retina, but when held at angle it makes an elliptical image. in normal perception these are recognized as a single three - dimensional object. without this correction process, an animal approaching from the distance would appear to gain in size. one kind of perceptual constancy is color constancy : for example, a white piece of paper can be recognized as such under different colors and intensities of light. another example is roughness constancy : when a hand is drawn quickly across a surface, the touch nerves are stimulated more intensely. the brain compensates for this, so the speed of contact does not affect the perceived roughness. other constancies include melody, odor, brightness and words. these constancies are not always total, but the variation in the percept is much less than the variation in the physical stimulus. the perceptual systems
Answer:
|
sensing a thing's texture
| null |
When a creature experiences feeling, they are likely
0. making really good choices
1. taking the next train
2. sensing a thing's texture
3. dead from complete exhaustion
an intermodal mental representation of both their peers and humans. they associate faces, smells, voices, and expectations based on past experiences. horses deprived of one sense are likely to compensate by relying on their remaining senses to recognize individuals. = = = interspecific communication = = = horses can communicate with humans when they feel the need to do so. they are capable of drawing attention to gain access to a food source, such as through their gaze or, in some cases, by making physical contact. the horse is the second domestic animal species, after the dog, in which this ability has been demonstrated. horses appear to be more interested in humans when they anticipate being provided with food, the training method used may influence their interspecific learning abilities. training that incorporates ethological principles tends to yield better results. a study has identified a " symbolic communication primer " between humans and horses, which allows horses to express their preference for wearing a blanket or not. according to the 2016 study, horses can learn the meaning of symbols through positive reinforcement ( one symbol for putting on a blanket, one for staying as they are, and one for removing the blanket ), and can use these symbols to communicate their preferences to humans. in interspecific communication, horses can consider a human's perspective. in an experiment where two people are present — one knowing where food is hidden and inaccessible to the horse — the horse will instinctively ask for help from the person who knows where the food is. this ability, once thought to be exclusive to large primates and dogs, is considered complex. experiments on horses ’ sensitivity to human pointing gestures ( e. g., pointing at an object containing food with a finger ) have shown that horses value these gestures, though it remains unclear whether they interpret them as communicative signals directed at them.. four different pointing methods were tested ; horses performed well in all tasks except for distal dynamic - momentary pointing, which was significantly more cognitively demanding than the other styles. horses are also sensitive to human attention and are more likely to approach a person who is looking at them while feeding them than one who is not. young horses do not seem to be inherently predisposed to recognize or respond to human attention, suggesting that they acquire this skill through learning as they age. = = = interspecific learning = = = horses can acquire new skills by observing humans. in one experiment, humans demonstrated to horses how to press a button to open a feeder, while another group of horses did not
sexual arousal may arise without physical stimulation, achieving orgasm usually requires physical sexual stimulation ( stimulation of the krause - finger corpuscles found in erogenous zones of the body. ) = = = other senses = = = other senses enable perception of body balance ( vestibular sense ) ; acceleration, including gravity ; position of body parts ( proprioception sense ). they can also enable perception of internal senses ( interoception sense ), such as temperature, pain, suffocation, gag reflex, abdominal distension, fullness of rectum and urinary bladder, and sensations felt in the throat and lungs. = = reality = = in the case of visual perception, some people can see the percept shift in their mind's eye. others, who are not picture thinkers, may not necessarily perceive the'shape - shifting'as their world changes. this esemplastic nature has been demonstrated by an experiment that showed that ambiguous images have multiple interpretations on the perceptual level. the confusing ambiguity of perception is exploited in human technologies such as camouflage and biological mimicry. for example, the wings of european peacock butterflies bear eyespots that birds respond to as though they were the eyes of a dangerous predator. there is also evidence that the brain in some ways operates on a slight " delay " in order to allow nerve impulses from distant parts of the body to be integrated into simultaneous signals. perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. the oldest quantitative laws in psychology are weber's law, which states that the smallest noticeable difference in stimulus intensity is proportional to the intensity of the reference ; and fechner's law, which quantifies the relationship between the intensity of the physical stimulus and its perceptual counterpart ( e. g., testing how much darker a computer screen can get before the viewer actually notices ). the study of perception gave rise to the gestalt school of psychology, with an emphasis on a holistic approach. = = physiology = = a sensory system is a part of the nervous system responsible for processing sensory information. a sensory system consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. commonly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, hearing, somatic sensation ( touch ), taste and olfaction ( smell ), as listed above. it has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality. in short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind
unconditioned response. an unconditioned response is one that " elicits a national, reflexive response. " ( weseley & mcentarffer, 2014, p. 136 ). subsequent encounters will elicit a conditioned response has been developed through the learning that occurred with the intervening encounters with the stimulus. this learning is bedrock knowledge on which one draws when responding to a given situation. ( weseley & mcentarffer, 2014 ). if the first time one ate ice cream the experience was pleasant, the second experience will be informed from the firs. the second experience will generate salient pleasant cognitions, salivation, and other biological responses that will reinforce the pleasant salience of the experience. if on the other hand, the first encounter was negative ( disgust, pain or nausea ), the second encounter will generate the feeling of pain in the stomach awful memories of the first encounter. which will reinforce the negative salience of the first and second experience. another key aspect of whether a particular memory or knowledge will be activated is whether it is applicable to the situation. if it is not applicable, it will not be salient and is unlikely to be activated for that situation. " according to the synapse model …, the process begins with the stimulus, which increases the excitation level of stored knowledge as a function of the features of the match between the attended features of the stimulus and the features of the stored knowledge. " ( higgins, 1996, p. 137 ). the stimulus information creates a pathway to the knowledge, which is then evaluated for a salience match to the stimulus. if there is a match, then the knowledge will be activated. our minds and bodies are bombarded by relevant and irrelevant knowledge and experiences every day. we will tune into salient ones ( crane the ears to more fully hear enjoyable music ) and tune - out non - salient ones ( cover our ears from jackhammer noise ). there is difference between seeing something and looking at it. in seeing, the capacity of our retina to take in the light energy is engaged and the brain processes that information into an image. when one looks at an object, not only are visual perceptive capacities engaged, but other mental processes for evaluation and ordering of the object are activated ( skinner, 1974 ). humans have gatekeeper mental mechanisms that allow certain information in and keeps others out. this discrimination process can be viewed a defensive mechanism the protects and enhances our life experience. our processes of making cognitions " also involve
used to study simple ethical interactions, such as the classical thought experiment where there are more people than a life raft can hold, and someone must leave the boat to save the rest. however, more neurorobots used in the study of action selection contend with much simpler persuasions such as self - preservation or perpetuation of the population of robots in the study. these neurorobots are modeled after the neuromodulation of synapses to encourage circuits with positive results. in biological systems, neurotransmitters such as dopamine or acetylcholine positively reinforce neural signals that are beneficial. one study of such interaction involved the robot darwin vii, which used visual, auditory, and a simulated taste input to " eat " conductive metal blocks. the arbitrarily chosen good blocks had a striped pattern on them while the bad blocks had a circular shape on them. the taste sense was simulated by conductivity of the blocks. the robot had positive and negative feedbacks to the taste based on its level of conductivity. the researchers observed the robot to see how it learned its action selection behaviors based on the inputs it had. other studies have used herds of small robots which feed on batteries strewn about the room, and communicate its findings to other robots. = = = sensory perception = = = neurorobots have also been used to study sensory perception, particularly vision. these are primarily systems that result from embedding neural models of sensory pathways in automatas. this approach gives exposure to the sensory signals that occur during behavior and also enables a more realistic assessment of the degree of robustness of the neural model. it is well known that changes in the sensory signals produced by motor activity provide useful perceptual cues that are used extensively by organisms. for example, researchers have used the depth information that emerges during replication of human head and eye movements to establish robust representations of the visual scene. = = biological robots = = biological robots are not officially neurorobots in that they are not neurologically inspired ai systems, but actual neuron tissue wired to a robot. this employs the use of cultured neural networks to study brain development or neural interactions. these typically consist of a neural culture raised on a multielectrode array ( mea ), which is capable of both recording the neural activity and stimulating the tissue. in some cases, the mea is connected to a computer which presents a simulated environment to the brain tissue and translates brain activity into actions in the simulation, as well
touch ), taste and olfaction ( smell ), as listed above. it has been suggested that the immune system is an overlooked sensory modality. in short, senses are transducers from the physical world to the realm of the mind. the receptive field is the specific part of the world to which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. for instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its receptive field ; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its receptive field. receptive fields have been identified for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory system, so far. research attention is currently focused not only on external perception processes, but also to " interoception ", considered as the process of receiving, accessing and appraising internal bodily signals. maintaining desired physiological states is critical for an organism's well - being and survival. interoception is an iterative process, requiring the interplay between perception of body states and awareness of these states to generate proper self - regulation. afferent sensory signals continuously interact with higher order cognitive representations of goals, history, and environment, shaping emotional experience and motivating regulatory behavior. = = features = = = = = constancy = = = perceptual constancy is the ability of perceptual systems to recognize the same object from widely varying sensory inputs. : 118 – 120 for example, individual people can be recognized from views, such as frontal and profile, which form very different shapes on the retina. a coin looked at face - on makes a circular image on the retina, but when held at angle it makes an elliptical image. in normal perception these are recognized as a single three - dimensional object. without this correction process, an animal approaching from the distance would appear to gain in size. one kind of perceptual constancy is color constancy : for example, a white piece of paper can be recognized as such under different colors and intensities of light. another example is roughness constancy : when a hand is drawn quickly across a surface, the touch nerves are stimulated more intensely. the brain compensates for this, so the speed of contact does not affect the perceived roughness. other constancies include melody, odor, brightness and words. these constancies are not always total, but the variation in the percept is much less than the variation in the physical stimulus. the perceptual systems
Answer:
|
taking the next train
| 0.3 |
Which have a positive impact on the environment?
0. driving gas guzzlers
1. canvas grocery sacks
2. littering
3. unchecked consumerism
to move flexibly from place to place has far - reaching implications for the nature of societies. = = environmental effects = = car production and use has a large number of environmental impacts : it causes local air pollution plastic pollution and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. cars and vans caused 10 % of energy - related carbon dioxide emissions in 2022. as of 2023, electric cars produce about half the emissions over their lifetime as diesel and petrol cars. this is set to improve as countries produce more of their electricity from low - carbon sources. cars consume almost a quarter of world oil production as of 2019. cities planned around cars are often less dense, which leads to further emissions, as they are less walkable for instance. a growing demand for large suvs is driving up emissions from cars. cars are a major cause of air pollution, which stems from exhaust gas in diesel and petrol cars and from dust from brakes, tyres, and road wear. larger cars pollute more. heavy metals and microplastics ( from tyres ) are also released into the environment, during production, use and at the end of life. mining related to car manufacturing and oil spills both cause water pollution. animals and plants are often negatively affected by cars via habitat destruction and fragmentation from the road network and pollution. animals are also killed every year on roads by cars, referred to as roadkill. more recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigation in their designs, such as green bridges ( designed to allow wildlife crossings ) and creating wildlife corridors. governments use fiscal policies, such as road tax, to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars ; vehicle emission standards ban the sale of new highly pollution cars. many countries plan to stop selling fossil cars altogether between 2025 and 2050. various cities have implemented low - emission zones, banning old fossil fuel and amsterdam is planning to ban fossil fuel cars completely. some cities make it easier for people to choose other forms of transport, such as cycling. many chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars, = = social issues = = mass production of personal motor vehicles in the united states and other developed countries with extensive territories such as australia, argentina, and france vastly increased individual and group mobility and greatly increased and expanded economic development in urban, suburban, exurban and rural areas. growth in the popularity of cars and commuting has led to traffic congestion. moscow, istanbul, bogota, mexico city and sao paulo were the world's most congested cities in 2018 according to inrix, a
actual needs ) ; owning and using less ( often ) appliances and electronic products ; sharing equipment between businesses ; flying less ; favouring low - energy transport modes ( walking, cycling... ) ; sharing vehicles ; promoting remote work and flextime ; prolonging the lifetime of products through repairing, re - using, and fighting obsolescence ; refraining from fast fashion ; favouring local low - techs over high - techs ; switching to vegan and vegetarian diets ; buying locally - produced food ; avoiding food waste and packaging waste. = = sufficiency drivers and policies = = one of the main barriers to sufficiency, often put forward by sceptics, is the dominant social paradigm in liberal societies which values material possession, greed, power, individualism, social differentiation through consumption, and other mindsets that conflict with the mentalities that sufficiency requires ( temperance, moderation, downsizing, etc. ). however, as environmental concerns grow, there are also signs showing the potential beginning of sufficiency trends. three examples are : the growth of cycling for daily trips in an increasing number of cities worldwide ; the " flight shame " movement ; the reduction of average beef consumption in some countries ( e. g. france ). the role of intentionality in sufficiency is debated. while for many authors sufficiency requires ( as a starting point ) a profound and voluntary reassessment of personal and collective priorities in light of the earth's limits, for others, audiences could be " nudged " or persuaded into taking some sufficiency actions without either being engaged with the issue or being primarily motivated by environmental concerns. there appear to be many co - benefits to sufficiency actions that could encourage their uptake, e. g. health and animal welfare for vegetarian diets, air pollution reduction for driving less, children's health for limiting screen use, biodiversity protection for limiting artificial lights, etc. there is increasing research into the role of policies in fostering sufficiency, although sufficiency is still in conflict with the ideological orientation of many decision - makers who are reluctant to engage with this idea. policies that are viewed as supportive of sufficiency include : energy / resource taxation, especially progressive taxation ( at a sufficient level to genuinely trigger behaviour change ) ; personal carbon allowances ; phase - out or restrictions on certain highly intensive energy / resource - based services ; investments in alternative mobility infrastructures ( cycling lanes, etc. ) ; alternative urban planning reducing the need for individual
see also = = = = references = = = = further reading = = greenfield, patrick ( march 2, 2023 ). " overconsumption by the rich must be tackled, says acting un biodiversity chief ". the guardian. hickel, jason ( 2020 ). less is more : how degrowth will save the world. penguin random house. isbn 978 - 1 - 78515 - 249 - 8. ivanova, diana ; stadler, konstantin ; steen - olsen, kjartan ; wood, richard ; vita, gibran ; tukker, arnold ; hertwich, edgar g. ( 18 december 2015 ). " environmental impact assessment of household consumption ". journal of industrial ecology. 20 ( 3 ) : 526 – 536. doi : 10. 1111 / jiec. 12371. s2cid 155524615. fifty possible ways to challenge over - commercialism by albert j. fritsch, sj, phd why people hate fat americans by daniel ben - ami = = external links = = mother pelican a journal of sustainability optimum population trust un division for sustainable development, agenda 21, chapter 4 – " changing consumption patterns " footprint for nations the story of stuff archived 2011 - 11 - 19 at the wayback machine ( video ) energy statistics - oil consumption by country world energy use graph global gdp by country archived 2020 - 08 - 06 at the wayback machine [ 1 ]
public communication about climate change and the lack of behavioural change has also been observed in the general public. likewise, doubts are raised about the observance of social norms as an influencing predominant factor that affects action on climate change. what is more, disparate evidence also showed that even agents highly engaged in mitigation ( engagement is a mediation factor ) actions fail ultimately to respond. = = = limited behaviour = = = limited behaviour barriers may include people choosing easier, yet less effective, pro - environmental behavioural changes ( e. g. recycling, metal straws ), and the rebound effect, which occurs when a positive environmental behaviour is followed by one that negates it ( e. g. saving money with an electric car to then buy a plane ticket ). = = contextual barriers = = = = = social and cultural factors = = = research has also shown that how people support and engage in pro - environmental behaviour is also affected by contextual factors ( i. e. social, economic, and cultural ) ; people with diverse cultural backgrounds have different perspectives and priorities, and thus, they may respond to the same policies and interventions in different ways with regionally differentiated world views playing an important role. this means that people will use different excuses for their behaviours depending on contextual factors. research has shown that information has a greater impact on behaviour if it is tailored to the personal situations of consumers and resonates with their important values. this suggests that, for example, policies developed to reduce and mitigate climate change would be more effective if they were developed specifically for the people whose behaviour they were targeting. people are social beings who respond to group norms : behaviour and decision - making has been shown to be affected by social norms and contexts. demographic variables like age, gender and education, can have a variety of effects on pro - environmental behaviour, depending on the issue and context. however, when considering the effects of socio - demographics on individual perceptions of climate change, a recent study reported a meta - analysis which found that the largest demographic correlation with the belief of human - caused climate change is political affiliation ( e. g. conservative views often mean less support for climate mitigation ). = = = economic factors = = = the cost of sustainable alternatives and financial measures used to support new technologies can also be a barrier to pro - environmental behaviour. households may have severe budgetary constraints that discourage them from investing in energy - efficient measures. in addition, individuals may fear that project costs will not be recovered prior to a future
, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. lack of household management, such as screening, pesticides, and bed nets leads to significant levels of malaria today. with increased development as indicated in dollars of gross domestic product / capita, adjusted for purchasing power ( $ ppp / capita ) the household environmental risks declined considerably. between poor and rich countries as determined by $ ppp / capita, there was a more than two orders of magnitude decline observed in household risks. = = = = community = = = = the following names major environmental risks are present at the community level : urban outdoor air pollution. lead pollution from gasoline and industrial sources. occupational risks such as carcinogens, injuries, noise, and poor ergonomics. traffic accidents for both drivers and pedestrians. it has been found that there are more rises and falls in community risks with development in comparison to household risks, and the pattern of risk is more complicated and not as pronounced. however, a general pattern of overall rising with development, then following can be seen in traffic accidents and air pollution. lead and occupational risks, however, displayed varying significantly. = = = = global = = = = the who cra only analyzed one environmental risk that presents itself at the global level : climate change, which currently has relatively insignificant impact on human health. no data was collected for other global risks such as ozone depletion and land - use changes for the project. it has been found that climate change has thus far had minimal impact on human health worldwide. however, exposure to climate change will continue to increase in future years, which may magnify prevalent risks such as malaria. results show that risks from climate change decreased with increased development, highlighting that poorer populations are more susceptible and in contact with the diseases affected by climate change. this contradicts the environmental transition framework since it takes account of where the risk is experienced rather than where it originates from. however, it remains true, that as development proceeds, the global risk of climate change expands as well. = = = limitations = = = many important environmental health risks could not be addressed and analyze throughout the study. considered, a " super distal risk factor ", environmental risk factors have some influence in every disease. thus, the study assigned at least 5 % of environmental burden of disease of every disease to the environment, with larger proportions to diseases like diarrhea with direct attribution to environmental factors. with no better and reasonable method of accounting for environmental factors, the uniform 5 % distribution is not realistic, but was
Answer:
|
canvas grocery sacks
| null |
Which have a positive impact on the environment?
0. driving gas guzzlers
1. canvas grocery sacks
2. littering
3. unchecked consumerism
to move flexibly from place to place has far - reaching implications for the nature of societies. = = environmental effects = = car production and use has a large number of environmental impacts : it causes local air pollution plastic pollution and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. cars and vans caused 10 % of energy - related carbon dioxide emissions in 2022. as of 2023, electric cars produce about half the emissions over their lifetime as diesel and petrol cars. this is set to improve as countries produce more of their electricity from low - carbon sources. cars consume almost a quarter of world oil production as of 2019. cities planned around cars are often less dense, which leads to further emissions, as they are less walkable for instance. a growing demand for large suvs is driving up emissions from cars. cars are a major cause of air pollution, which stems from exhaust gas in diesel and petrol cars and from dust from brakes, tyres, and road wear. larger cars pollute more. heavy metals and microplastics ( from tyres ) are also released into the environment, during production, use and at the end of life. mining related to car manufacturing and oil spills both cause water pollution. animals and plants are often negatively affected by cars via habitat destruction and fragmentation from the road network and pollution. animals are also killed every year on roads by cars, referred to as roadkill. more recent road developments are including significant environmental mitigation in their designs, such as green bridges ( designed to allow wildlife crossings ) and creating wildlife corridors. governments use fiscal policies, such as road tax, to discourage the purchase and use of more polluting cars ; vehicle emission standards ban the sale of new highly pollution cars. many countries plan to stop selling fossil cars altogether between 2025 and 2050. various cities have implemented low - emission zones, banning old fossil fuel and amsterdam is planning to ban fossil fuel cars completely. some cities make it easier for people to choose other forms of transport, such as cycling. many chinese cities limit licensing of fossil fuel cars, = = social issues = = mass production of personal motor vehicles in the united states and other developed countries with extensive territories such as australia, argentina, and france vastly increased individual and group mobility and greatly increased and expanded economic development in urban, suburban, exurban and rural areas. growth in the popularity of cars and commuting has led to traffic congestion. moscow, istanbul, bogota, mexico city and sao paulo were the world's most congested cities in 2018 according to inrix, a
actual needs ) ; owning and using less ( often ) appliances and electronic products ; sharing equipment between businesses ; flying less ; favouring low - energy transport modes ( walking, cycling... ) ; sharing vehicles ; promoting remote work and flextime ; prolonging the lifetime of products through repairing, re - using, and fighting obsolescence ; refraining from fast fashion ; favouring local low - techs over high - techs ; switching to vegan and vegetarian diets ; buying locally - produced food ; avoiding food waste and packaging waste. = = sufficiency drivers and policies = = one of the main barriers to sufficiency, often put forward by sceptics, is the dominant social paradigm in liberal societies which values material possession, greed, power, individualism, social differentiation through consumption, and other mindsets that conflict with the mentalities that sufficiency requires ( temperance, moderation, downsizing, etc. ). however, as environmental concerns grow, there are also signs showing the potential beginning of sufficiency trends. three examples are : the growth of cycling for daily trips in an increasing number of cities worldwide ; the " flight shame " movement ; the reduction of average beef consumption in some countries ( e. g. france ). the role of intentionality in sufficiency is debated. while for many authors sufficiency requires ( as a starting point ) a profound and voluntary reassessment of personal and collective priorities in light of the earth's limits, for others, audiences could be " nudged " or persuaded into taking some sufficiency actions without either being engaged with the issue or being primarily motivated by environmental concerns. there appear to be many co - benefits to sufficiency actions that could encourage their uptake, e. g. health and animal welfare for vegetarian diets, air pollution reduction for driving less, children's health for limiting screen use, biodiversity protection for limiting artificial lights, etc. there is increasing research into the role of policies in fostering sufficiency, although sufficiency is still in conflict with the ideological orientation of many decision - makers who are reluctant to engage with this idea. policies that are viewed as supportive of sufficiency include : energy / resource taxation, especially progressive taxation ( at a sufficient level to genuinely trigger behaviour change ) ; personal carbon allowances ; phase - out or restrictions on certain highly intensive energy / resource - based services ; investments in alternative mobility infrastructures ( cycling lanes, etc. ) ; alternative urban planning reducing the need for individual
see also = = = = references = = = = further reading = = greenfield, patrick ( march 2, 2023 ). " overconsumption by the rich must be tackled, says acting un biodiversity chief ". the guardian. hickel, jason ( 2020 ). less is more : how degrowth will save the world. penguin random house. isbn 978 - 1 - 78515 - 249 - 8. ivanova, diana ; stadler, konstantin ; steen - olsen, kjartan ; wood, richard ; vita, gibran ; tukker, arnold ; hertwich, edgar g. ( 18 december 2015 ). " environmental impact assessment of household consumption ". journal of industrial ecology. 20 ( 3 ) : 526 – 536. doi : 10. 1111 / jiec. 12371. s2cid 155524615. fifty possible ways to challenge over - commercialism by albert j. fritsch, sj, phd why people hate fat americans by daniel ben - ami = = external links = = mother pelican a journal of sustainability optimum population trust un division for sustainable development, agenda 21, chapter 4 – " changing consumption patterns " footprint for nations the story of stuff archived 2011 - 11 - 19 at the wayback machine ( video ) energy statistics - oil consumption by country world energy use graph global gdp by country archived 2020 - 08 - 06 at the wayback machine [ 1 ]
public communication about climate change and the lack of behavioural change has also been observed in the general public. likewise, doubts are raised about the observance of social norms as an influencing predominant factor that affects action on climate change. what is more, disparate evidence also showed that even agents highly engaged in mitigation ( engagement is a mediation factor ) actions fail ultimately to respond. = = = limited behaviour = = = limited behaviour barriers may include people choosing easier, yet less effective, pro - environmental behavioural changes ( e. g. recycling, metal straws ), and the rebound effect, which occurs when a positive environmental behaviour is followed by one that negates it ( e. g. saving money with an electric car to then buy a plane ticket ). = = contextual barriers = = = = = social and cultural factors = = = research has also shown that how people support and engage in pro - environmental behaviour is also affected by contextual factors ( i. e. social, economic, and cultural ) ; people with diverse cultural backgrounds have different perspectives and priorities, and thus, they may respond to the same policies and interventions in different ways with regionally differentiated world views playing an important role. this means that people will use different excuses for their behaviours depending on contextual factors. research has shown that information has a greater impact on behaviour if it is tailored to the personal situations of consumers and resonates with their important values. this suggests that, for example, policies developed to reduce and mitigate climate change would be more effective if they were developed specifically for the people whose behaviour they were targeting. people are social beings who respond to group norms : behaviour and decision - making has been shown to be affected by social norms and contexts. demographic variables like age, gender and education, can have a variety of effects on pro - environmental behaviour, depending on the issue and context. however, when considering the effects of socio - demographics on individual perceptions of climate change, a recent study reported a meta - analysis which found that the largest demographic correlation with the belief of human - caused climate change is political affiliation ( e. g. conservative views often mean less support for climate mitigation ). = = = economic factors = = = the cost of sustainable alternatives and financial measures used to support new technologies can also be a barrier to pro - environmental behaviour. households may have severe budgetary constraints that discourage them from investing in energy - efficient measures. in addition, individuals may fear that project costs will not be recovered prior to a future
, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and lung cancer. lack of household management, such as screening, pesticides, and bed nets leads to significant levels of malaria today. with increased development as indicated in dollars of gross domestic product / capita, adjusted for purchasing power ( $ ppp / capita ) the household environmental risks declined considerably. between poor and rich countries as determined by $ ppp / capita, there was a more than two orders of magnitude decline observed in household risks. = = = = community = = = = the following names major environmental risks are present at the community level : urban outdoor air pollution. lead pollution from gasoline and industrial sources. occupational risks such as carcinogens, injuries, noise, and poor ergonomics. traffic accidents for both drivers and pedestrians. it has been found that there are more rises and falls in community risks with development in comparison to household risks, and the pattern of risk is more complicated and not as pronounced. however, a general pattern of overall rising with development, then following can be seen in traffic accidents and air pollution. lead and occupational risks, however, displayed varying significantly. = = = = global = = = = the who cra only analyzed one environmental risk that presents itself at the global level : climate change, which currently has relatively insignificant impact on human health. no data was collected for other global risks such as ozone depletion and land - use changes for the project. it has been found that climate change has thus far had minimal impact on human health worldwide. however, exposure to climate change will continue to increase in future years, which may magnify prevalent risks such as malaria. results show that risks from climate change decreased with increased development, highlighting that poorer populations are more susceptible and in contact with the diseases affected by climate change. this contradicts the environmental transition framework since it takes account of where the risk is experienced rather than where it originates from. however, it remains true, that as development proceeds, the global risk of climate change expands as well. = = = limitations = = = many important environmental health risks could not be addressed and analyze throughout the study. considered, a " super distal risk factor ", environmental risk factors have some influence in every disease. thus, the study assigned at least 5 % of environmental burden of disease of every disease to the environment, with larger proportions to diseases like diarrhea with direct attribution to environmental factors. with no better and reasonable method of accounting for environmental factors, the uniform 5 % distribution is not realistic, but was
Answer:
|
unchecked consumerism
| 0.3 |
something in a cold place becomes what?
0. warmish
1. toasty
2. hot
3. chilly
room temperature, colloquially, denotes the range of air temperatures most people find comfortable indoors while dressed in typical clothing. comfortable temperatures can be extended beyond this range depending on humidity, air circulation, and other factors. in certain fields, like science and engineering, and within a particular context, room temperature can mean different agreed - upon ranges. in contrast, ambient temperature is the actual temperature, as measured by a thermometer, of the air ( or other medium and surroundings ) in any particular place. the ambient temperature ( e. g. an unheated room in winter ) may be very different from an ideal room temperature. food and beverages may be served at " room temperature ", meaning neither heated nor cooled. = = comfort temperatures = = comfort temperature is interchangeable with neutral temperature in the scientific literature, which can be calculated through regression analysis between thermal sensation votes and indoor temperature. the neutral temperature is the solution of the resulting regression model by setting the thermal sensation vote as zero. the american heritage dictionary of the english language identifies room temperature as around 20 – 22 °c ( 68 – 72 °f ; 293 – 295 k ), while the oxford english dictionary states that it is " conventionally taken as about 20 °c ( 68 °f ; 293 k ) ". ideal room temperature varies vastly depending on the surrounding climate. studies from indonesia have shown that the range of comfortable temperature is 24 – 29 °c ( 75 – 84 °f ) for local residents. studies from nigeria show a comfortable temperature range of 26 – 28 °c ( 79 – 82 °f ), comfortably cool 24 – 26 °c ( 75 – 79 °f ) and comfortably warm 28 – 30 °c ( 82 – 86 °f ). a field study conducted in hyderabad, india returned a comfort band of 26 – 32. 45 °c ( 79 – 90 °f ) with a mean of 29. 23 °c ( 85 °f ). a study conducted in jaipur, india among healthy young men showed that the neutral thermal comfort temperature was analyzed to be 30. 15 °c ( 86 °f ), although a range of 25. 9 – 33. 8 °c ( 79 – 93 °f ) was found. people are highly sensitive to even small differences in environmental temperature. at 24 °c ( 75 °f ), a difference of 0. 38 °c ( 0. 68 °f ) can be detected between the temperature of two rooms. owing to variations in humidity and ( likely ) clothing, recommendations for summer and winter may vary ; a suggested typical range for summer is 23 – 25. 5 °c ( 73 – 78 °f ), with that for winter
bellows to evaporate the ether. with each subsequent evaporation, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °f ( −14 °c ). another thermometer showed that the room temperature was constant at 65 °f ( 18 °c ). in his letter cooling by evaporation, franklin noted that, " one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day. " = = = latent heat = = = the english word latent comes from latin latens, meaning lying hidden. the term latent heat was introduced into calorimetry around 1750 by joseph black, commissioned by producers of scotch whisky in search of ideal quantities of fuel and water for their distilling process to study system changes, such as of volume and pressure, when the thermodynamic system was held at constant temperature in a thermal bath. it was known that when the air temperature rises above freezing — air then becoming the obvious heat source — snow melts very slowly and the temperature of the melted snow is close to its freezing point. in 1757, black started to investigate if heat, therefore, was required for the melting of a solid, independent of any rise in temperature. as far black knew, the general view at that time was that melting was inevitably accompanied by a small increase in temperature, and that no additional heat was needed beyond what this increase in temperature would require in itself. soon, however, black was able to show that much more heat was required during melting than could be explained by the increase in temperature alone. he was also able to show that heat is released by a liquid during its freezing ; again, much more than could be explained by the decrease of its temperature alone. black would compare the change in temperature of two identical quantities of water, heated by identical means, one of which was, say, melted from ice, whereas the other was heated from merely cold liquid state. by comparing the resulting temperatures, he could conclude that, for instance, the temperature of the sample melted from ice was 140 °f lower than the other sample, thus melting the ice absorbed 140 " degrees of heat " that could not be measured by the thermometer, yet needed to be supplied, thus it was " latent " ( hidden ). black also deduced that as much latent heat as was supplied into boiling the distillate ( thus giving the quantity of fuel needed ) also had to be absorbed to condense it again ( thus giving the cooling water required ). = = =
also deduced that as much latent heat as was supplied into boiling the distillate ( thus giving the quantity of fuel needed ) also had to be absorbed to condense it again ( thus giving the cooling water required ). = = = = quantifying latent heat = = = = in 1762, black announced the following research and results to a society of professors at the university of glasgow. black had placed equal masses of ice at 32 °f ( 0 °c ) and water at 33 °f ( 0. 6 °c ) respectively in two identical, well separated containers. the water and the ice were both evenly heated to 40 °f by the air in the room, which was at a constant 47 °f ( 8 °c ). the water had therefore received 40 – 33 = 7 “ degrees of heat ”. the ice had been heated for 21 times longer and had therefore received 7 × 21 = 147 “ degrees of heat ”. the temperature of the ice had increased by 8 °f. the ice had thus absorbed 8 “ degrees of heat ”, which black called sensible heat, manifest as a temperature increase, which could be felt and measured. in addition to that, 147 – 8 = 139 “ degrees of heat ” were absorbed as latent heat, manifest as phase change rather than as temperature change. black next showed that a water temperature of 176 °f was needed to melt an equal mass of ice until it was all 32 °f. so now 176 – 32 = 144 “ degrees of heat ” seemed to be needed to melt the ice. the modern value for the heat of fusion of ice would be 143 “ degrees of heat ” on the same scale ( 79. 5 “ degrees of heat celsius ” ). finally, black increased the temperature of a mass of water, then vaporized an equal mass of water by even heating. he showed that 830 “ degrees of heat ” was needed for the vaporization ; again based on the time required. the modern value for the heat of vaporization of water would be 967 “ degrees of heat ” on the same scale. = = = james prescott joule = = = later, james prescott joule characterised latent energy as the energy of interaction in a given configuration of particles, i. e. a form of potential energy, and the sensible heat as an energy that was indicated by the thermometer, relating the latter to thermal energy. = = specific latent heat = = a specific latent heat ( l ) expresses the amount of energy in the form of heat ( q ) required
can detect calcium as a taste. whether the perception exists or not in humans is unknown. = = = temperature = = = temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. heat can accentuate some flavors and decrease others by varying the density and phase equilibrium of a substance. food and drink that — in a given culture — is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. for example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups — again, with exceptions — are usually only eaten hot. a cultural example are soft drinks. in north america it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season. = = = starchiness = = = a 2016 study suggested that humans can taste starch ( specifically, a glucose oligomer ) independently of other tastes such as sweetness, without suggesting an associated chemical receptor. = = nerve supply and neural connections = = the glossopharyngeal nerve innervates a third of the tongue including the circumvallate papillae. the facial nerve innervates the other two thirds of the tongue and the cheek via the chorda tympani. the pterygopalatine ganglia are ganglia ( one on each side ) of the soft palate. the greater petrosal, lesser palatine and zygomatic nerves all synapse here. the greater petrosal carries soft palate taste signals to the facial nerve. the lesser palatine sends signals to the nasal cavity, which is why spicy foods cause nasal drip. the zygomatic sends signals to the lacrimal nerve that activate the lacrimal gland, which is the reason that spicy foods can cause tears. both the lesser palatine and the zygomatic are maxillary nerves ( from the trigeminal nerve ). the special visceral afferents of the vagus nerve carry taste from the epiglottal region of the tongue. the lingual nerve ( trigeminal, not shown in diagram ) is deeply interconnected with the chorda tympani in that it provides all other sensory info from the anterior two - thirds of the tongue. this info is processed separately ( nearby ) in the rostral lateral subdivision of the nucleus of the solitary tract ( nst ). the nst receives input from the amygdala ( regulates oculomotor nuclei output ), bed nuclei of stria terminalis, h
horseradish. the piquant ( " hot " or " spicy " ) sensation provided by such foods and spices plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world — especially in equatorial and sub - tropical climates, such as ethiopian, peruvian, hungarian, indian, korean, indonesian, lao, malaysian, mexican, new mexican, pakistani, singaporean, southwest chinese ( including sichuan cuisine ), vietnamese, and thai cuisines. this particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly ; the sensation interpreted as " hot " results from the stimulation of somatosensory ( pain / temperature ) fibers on the tongue. many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors ( such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound ) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. = = = coolness = = = some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. this " fresh " or " minty " sensation can be tasted in peppermint and spearmint and is triggered by substances such as menthol, anethol, ethanol, and camphor. caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, trpm8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon. = = = numbness = = = both chinese and batak toba cooking include the idea of ( ma ) or mati rasa, a tingling numbness caused by spices such as sichuan pepper. the cuisines of sichuan province in china and of the indonesian province of north sumatra often combine this with chili pepper to produce a mala, " numbing - and - hot ", or " mati rasa " flavor. typical in northern brazilian cuisine, jambu is an herb used in dishes like tacaca. these sensations, although not taste, fall into a category of chemesthesis. = = = astringency = = = some foods, such as unripe fruits, contain tannins or calcium oxalate that cause an astringent or puckering sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. examples include tea, red wine, or rhubarb. other terms for the astringent
Answer:
|
chilly
| null |
something in a cold place becomes what?
0. warmish
1. toasty
2. hot
3. chilly
room temperature, colloquially, denotes the range of air temperatures most people find comfortable indoors while dressed in typical clothing. comfortable temperatures can be extended beyond this range depending on humidity, air circulation, and other factors. in certain fields, like science and engineering, and within a particular context, room temperature can mean different agreed - upon ranges. in contrast, ambient temperature is the actual temperature, as measured by a thermometer, of the air ( or other medium and surroundings ) in any particular place. the ambient temperature ( e. g. an unheated room in winter ) may be very different from an ideal room temperature. food and beverages may be served at " room temperature ", meaning neither heated nor cooled. = = comfort temperatures = = comfort temperature is interchangeable with neutral temperature in the scientific literature, which can be calculated through regression analysis between thermal sensation votes and indoor temperature. the neutral temperature is the solution of the resulting regression model by setting the thermal sensation vote as zero. the american heritage dictionary of the english language identifies room temperature as around 20 – 22 °c ( 68 – 72 °f ; 293 – 295 k ), while the oxford english dictionary states that it is " conventionally taken as about 20 °c ( 68 °f ; 293 k ) ". ideal room temperature varies vastly depending on the surrounding climate. studies from indonesia have shown that the range of comfortable temperature is 24 – 29 °c ( 75 – 84 °f ) for local residents. studies from nigeria show a comfortable temperature range of 26 – 28 °c ( 79 – 82 °f ), comfortably cool 24 – 26 °c ( 75 – 79 °f ) and comfortably warm 28 – 30 °c ( 82 – 86 °f ). a field study conducted in hyderabad, india returned a comfort band of 26 – 32. 45 °c ( 79 – 90 °f ) with a mean of 29. 23 °c ( 85 °f ). a study conducted in jaipur, india among healthy young men showed that the neutral thermal comfort temperature was analyzed to be 30. 15 °c ( 86 °f ), although a range of 25. 9 – 33. 8 °c ( 79 – 93 °f ) was found. people are highly sensitive to even small differences in environmental temperature. at 24 °c ( 75 °f ), a difference of 0. 38 °c ( 0. 68 °f ) can be detected between the temperature of two rooms. owing to variations in humidity and ( likely ) clothing, recommendations for summer and winter may vary ; a suggested typical range for summer is 23 – 25. 5 °c ( 73 – 78 °f ), with that for winter
bellows to evaporate the ether. with each subsequent evaporation, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °f ( −14 °c ). another thermometer showed that the room temperature was constant at 65 °f ( 18 °c ). in his letter cooling by evaporation, franklin noted that, " one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day. " = = = latent heat = = = the english word latent comes from latin latens, meaning lying hidden. the term latent heat was introduced into calorimetry around 1750 by joseph black, commissioned by producers of scotch whisky in search of ideal quantities of fuel and water for their distilling process to study system changes, such as of volume and pressure, when the thermodynamic system was held at constant temperature in a thermal bath. it was known that when the air temperature rises above freezing — air then becoming the obvious heat source — snow melts very slowly and the temperature of the melted snow is close to its freezing point. in 1757, black started to investigate if heat, therefore, was required for the melting of a solid, independent of any rise in temperature. as far black knew, the general view at that time was that melting was inevitably accompanied by a small increase in temperature, and that no additional heat was needed beyond what this increase in temperature would require in itself. soon, however, black was able to show that much more heat was required during melting than could be explained by the increase in temperature alone. he was also able to show that heat is released by a liquid during its freezing ; again, much more than could be explained by the decrease of its temperature alone. black would compare the change in temperature of two identical quantities of water, heated by identical means, one of which was, say, melted from ice, whereas the other was heated from merely cold liquid state. by comparing the resulting temperatures, he could conclude that, for instance, the temperature of the sample melted from ice was 140 °f lower than the other sample, thus melting the ice absorbed 140 " degrees of heat " that could not be measured by the thermometer, yet needed to be supplied, thus it was " latent " ( hidden ). black also deduced that as much latent heat as was supplied into boiling the distillate ( thus giving the quantity of fuel needed ) also had to be absorbed to condense it again ( thus giving the cooling water required ). = = =
also deduced that as much latent heat as was supplied into boiling the distillate ( thus giving the quantity of fuel needed ) also had to be absorbed to condense it again ( thus giving the cooling water required ). = = = = quantifying latent heat = = = = in 1762, black announced the following research and results to a society of professors at the university of glasgow. black had placed equal masses of ice at 32 °f ( 0 °c ) and water at 33 °f ( 0. 6 °c ) respectively in two identical, well separated containers. the water and the ice were both evenly heated to 40 °f by the air in the room, which was at a constant 47 °f ( 8 °c ). the water had therefore received 40 – 33 = 7 “ degrees of heat ”. the ice had been heated for 21 times longer and had therefore received 7 × 21 = 147 “ degrees of heat ”. the temperature of the ice had increased by 8 °f. the ice had thus absorbed 8 “ degrees of heat ”, which black called sensible heat, manifest as a temperature increase, which could be felt and measured. in addition to that, 147 – 8 = 139 “ degrees of heat ” were absorbed as latent heat, manifest as phase change rather than as temperature change. black next showed that a water temperature of 176 °f was needed to melt an equal mass of ice until it was all 32 °f. so now 176 – 32 = 144 “ degrees of heat ” seemed to be needed to melt the ice. the modern value for the heat of fusion of ice would be 143 “ degrees of heat ” on the same scale ( 79. 5 “ degrees of heat celsius ” ). finally, black increased the temperature of a mass of water, then vaporized an equal mass of water by even heating. he showed that 830 “ degrees of heat ” was needed for the vaporization ; again based on the time required. the modern value for the heat of vaporization of water would be 967 “ degrees of heat ” on the same scale. = = = james prescott joule = = = later, james prescott joule characterised latent energy as the energy of interaction in a given configuration of particles, i. e. a form of potential energy, and the sensible heat as an energy that was indicated by the thermometer, relating the latter to thermal energy. = = specific latent heat = = a specific latent heat ( l ) expresses the amount of energy in the form of heat ( q ) required
can detect calcium as a taste. whether the perception exists or not in humans is unknown. = = = temperature = = = temperature can be an essential element of the taste experience. heat can accentuate some flavors and decrease others by varying the density and phase equilibrium of a substance. food and drink that — in a given culture — is traditionally served hot is often considered distasteful if cold, and vice versa. for example, alcoholic beverages, with a few exceptions, are usually thought best when served at room temperature or chilled to varying degrees, but soups — again, with exceptions — are usually only eaten hot. a cultural example are soft drinks. in north america it is almost always preferred cold, regardless of season. = = = starchiness = = = a 2016 study suggested that humans can taste starch ( specifically, a glucose oligomer ) independently of other tastes such as sweetness, without suggesting an associated chemical receptor. = = nerve supply and neural connections = = the glossopharyngeal nerve innervates a third of the tongue including the circumvallate papillae. the facial nerve innervates the other two thirds of the tongue and the cheek via the chorda tympani. the pterygopalatine ganglia are ganglia ( one on each side ) of the soft palate. the greater petrosal, lesser palatine and zygomatic nerves all synapse here. the greater petrosal carries soft palate taste signals to the facial nerve. the lesser palatine sends signals to the nasal cavity, which is why spicy foods cause nasal drip. the zygomatic sends signals to the lacrimal nerve that activate the lacrimal gland, which is the reason that spicy foods can cause tears. both the lesser palatine and the zygomatic are maxillary nerves ( from the trigeminal nerve ). the special visceral afferents of the vagus nerve carry taste from the epiglottal region of the tongue. the lingual nerve ( trigeminal, not shown in diagram ) is deeply interconnected with the chorda tympani in that it provides all other sensory info from the anterior two - thirds of the tongue. this info is processed separately ( nearby ) in the rostral lateral subdivision of the nucleus of the solitary tract ( nst ). the nst receives input from the amygdala ( regulates oculomotor nuclei output ), bed nuclei of stria terminalis, h
horseradish. the piquant ( " hot " or " spicy " ) sensation provided by such foods and spices plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world — especially in equatorial and sub - tropical climates, such as ethiopian, peruvian, hungarian, indian, korean, indonesian, lao, malaysian, mexican, new mexican, pakistani, singaporean, southwest chinese ( including sichuan cuisine ), vietnamese, and thai cuisines. this particular sensation, called chemesthesis, is not a taste in the technical sense, because the sensation does not arise from taste buds, and a different set of nerve fibers carry it to the brain. foods like chili peppers activate nerve fibers directly ; the sensation interpreted as " hot " results from the stimulation of somatosensory ( pain / temperature ) fibers on the tongue. many parts of the body with exposed membranes but no taste sensors ( such as the nasal cavity, under the fingernails, surface of the eye or a wound ) produce a similar sensation of heat when exposed to hotness agents. = = = coolness = = = some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors even when not at low temperatures. this " fresh " or " minty " sensation can be tasted in peppermint and spearmint and is triggered by substances such as menthol, anethol, ethanol, and camphor. caused by activation of the same mechanism that signals cold, trpm8 ion channels on nerve cells, unlike the actual change in temperature described for sugar substitutes, this coolness is only a perceived phenomenon. = = = numbness = = = both chinese and batak toba cooking include the idea of ( ma ) or mati rasa, a tingling numbness caused by spices such as sichuan pepper. the cuisines of sichuan province in china and of the indonesian province of north sumatra often combine this with chili pepper to produce a mala, " numbing - and - hot ", or " mati rasa " flavor. typical in northern brazilian cuisine, jambu is an herb used in dishes like tacaca. these sensations, although not taste, fall into a category of chemesthesis. = = = astringency = = = some foods, such as unripe fruits, contain tannins or calcium oxalate that cause an astringent or puckering sensation of the mucous membrane of the mouth. examples include tea, red wine, or rhubarb. other terms for the astringent
Answer:
|
hot
| 0.3 |
A glacier is made from
0. the same stuff as pencils are made from
1. the same stuff as steam
2. the same stuff as the gas that lights up signs
3. the same stuff as the gas that fills up balloons
glacier morphology, or the form a glacier takes, is influenced by temperature, precipitation, topography, and other factors. the goal of glacial morphology is to gain a better understanding of glaciated landscapes and the way they are shaped. types of glaciers can range from massive ice sheets, such as the greenland ice sheet, to small cirque glaciers found perched on mountain tops. glaciers can be grouped into two main categories : ice flow is constrained by the underlying bedrock topography ice flow is unrestricted by surrounding topography = = unconstrained glaciers = = = = = ice sheets and ice caps = = = ice sheets and ice caps cover the largest areas of land in comparison to other glaciers, and their ice is unconstrained by the underlying topography. they are the largest glacial ice formations and hold the vast majority of the world's fresh water. = = = = ice sheets = = = = ice sheets are the largest form of glacial formation. they are continent - sized ice masses that span areas over 50, 000 square kilometers ( 19, 000 square miles ). they are dome - shaped and, like ice caps, exhibit radial flow. as ice sheets expand over the ocean, they become ice shelves. ice sheets contain 99 % of all the freshwater ice found on earth, and form as layers of snowfall accumulate and slowly start to compact into ice. there are only two ice sheets present on earth today : the antarctic ice sheet and the greenland ice sheet. although only a tenth of modern earth is covered by ice sheets, the pleistocene epoch was characterized by ice sheets that covered a third of the planet. this was also known as the last glacial maximum. = = = = ice caps = = = = an ice cap can be defined as a dome - shaped mass of ice that exhibits a radial flow. they are often easily confused with ice sheets, but these ice structures are smaller than 50, 000 km2, and obscure the entirety of the topography they span. they mainly form in polar and sub - polar regions with particularly high elevation but flat ground. ice caps can be round, circular, or irregular in shape. ice caps often gradually merge into ice sheets making them difficult to track and document. examples include : jostedal glacier, norway devon ice cap, canada barnes ice cap, canada vatnajokull, iceland flade isblink, greenland = = = ice domes = = = an ice dome is a part of an ice cap or ice sheet that is characterized by upstanding ice surface located in the accumulation zone
dissolution and deposition. = = = = phases of ice and water = = = = the normal form of ice on the surface of earth is ice ih, a phase that forms crystals with hexagonal symmetry. another with cubic crystalline symmetry, ice ic, can occur in the upper atmosphere. as the pressure increases, ice forms other crystal structures. as of 2024, twenty have been experimentally confirmed and several more are predicted theoretically. the eighteenth form of ice, ice xviii, a face - centred - cubic, superionic ice phase, was discovered when a droplet of water was subject to a shock wave that raised the water's pressure to millions of atmospheres and its temperature to thousands of degrees, resulting in a structure of rigid oxygen atoms in which hydrogen atoms flowed freely. when sandwiched between layers of graphene, ice forms a square lattice. the details of the chemical nature of liquid water are not well understood ; some theories suggest that its unusual behavior is due to the existence of two liquid states. = = = taste and odor = = = pure water is usually described as tasteless and odorless, although humans have specific sensors that can feel the presence of water in their mouths, and frogs are known to be able to smell it. however, water from ordinary sources ( including mineral water ) usually has many dissolved substances that may give it varying tastes and odors. humans and other animals have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water in order to avoid water that is too salty or putrid. = = = color and appearance = = = pure water is visibly blue due to absorption of light in the region c. 600 – 800 nm. the color can be easily observed in a glass of tap - water placed against a pure white background, in daylight. the principal absorption bands responsible for the color are overtones of the o – h stretching vibrations. the apparent intensity of the color increases with the depth of the water column, following beer's law. this also applies, for example, with a swimming pool when the light source is sunlight reflected from the pool's white tiles. in nature, the color may also be modified from blue to green due to the presence of suspended solids or algae. in industry, near - infrared spectroscopy is used with aqueous solutions as the greater intensity of the lower overtones of water means that glass cuvettes with short path - length may be employed. to observe the fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or of an aqueous solution in the region around 3
contained carbon dioxide gas ( soda water ). radioactive springs contain traces of radioactive substances such as radium or uranium. = = deposits = = types of sedimentary rock – usually limestone ( calcium carbonate ) – are sometimes formed by the evaporation, or rapid precipitation, of minerals from spring water as it emerges, especially at the mouths of hot mineral springs. in cold mineral springs, the rapid precipitation of minerals results from the reduction of acidity when the co2 gas bubbles out. ( these mineral deposits can also be found in dried lakebeds. ) spectacular formations, including terraces, stalactites, stalagmites and'frozen waterfalls'can result ( see, for example, mammoth hot springs ). one light - colored porous calcite of this type is known as travertine and has been used extensively in italy and elsewhere as building material. travertine can have a white, tan, or cream - colored appearance and often has a fibrous or concentric'grain '. another type of spring water deposit, containing siliceous as well as calcareous minerals, is known as tufa. tufa is similar to travertine but is even softer and more porous. chaybeate springs may deposit iron compounds such as limonite. some such deposits were large enough to be mined as iron ore. = = see also = = list of hot springs sweet springs, those with no detectable sulfur or salt content = = references = = cohen, stan ( revised 1981 edition ), springs of the virginias : a pictorial history, charleston, west virginia : quarrier press. lamoreaux, philip e. ; tanner, judy t, eds. ( 2001 ), springs and bottled water of the world : ancient history, source, occurrence, quality and use, berlin / heidelberg / new york : springer - verlag, isbn 3 - 540 - 61841 - 4, retrieved 13 july 2010
to 50 metres ( 130 to 160 ft ). the gouge is not always straight but varies in orientation. this event is thought to be about 2000 years old. recent episodes of grounding, gouging and fragmentation of large antarctic icebergs have been observed to produce powerful hydroacoustic and seismic signals that further illuminate the dynamics of the process. = = the ice features = = in the offshore environment, the gouging features are made up of two kinds of ice : glacial ice and sea ice. = = = glacial ice = = = physically and mechanically, glacial ice is akin to lake ice, river ice and icicles. the reason is that they all form from freshwater ( non saline water ). ice sheets, ice caps and glaciers essentially consist of glacial ice. since glacial ice spreads sideways and down - slope ( as a result of gravity ), in some areas this ice reaches the coastline. where this happens, depending on topography, the ice may break up into pieces that fall in the sea, a mechanism called ice calving, and drift away. alternatively, ice sheets may spread offshore into extensive floating ice platforms called ice shelves, which can ultimately also calve. the features produced by these calving processes are known as icebergs and may range in size from meter to kilometer scale. the very large ones, referred to as ice islands, are typically tabular in shape. these may be responsible for extreme gouging events. = = = sea ice = = = sea ice is the outcome of freezing seawater. it is porous and mechanically weaker than glacial ice. sea ice dynamics are highly complex. driven by winds and currents, sea ice may ultimately develop into pressure ridges, a pile - up of ice fragments, or rubble, making up long, linear features. these are a very common source of seabed gouges. pressure ridges are often enclosed inside expanses of drifting pack ice, such that gouging activity from sea ice ridge keels is closely related with pack ice motion. stamukhi are also pile - ups of broken sea ice but they are grounded and are therefore relatively stationary. they result from the interaction between fast ice and the drifting pack ice. stamukhi can penetrate the seabed to a considerable depth, and this also poses a risk to subsea pipelines at shore approaches. = = gouging dynamics = = = = = keel reaction = = = because of the differences in the nature of glacial ice and pressure ridges, gouging events from these
bituminite is an autochthonous maceral that is a part of the liptinite group in lignite, that occurs in petroleum source rocks originating from organic matter such as algae which has undergone alteration or degradation from natural processes such as burial. it occurs as fine - grained groundmass, laminae or elongated structures that appear as veinlets within horizontal sections of lignite and bituminous coals, and also occurs in sedimentary rocks. its occurrence in sedimentary rocks is typically found surrounding alginite, and parallel along bedding planes. bituminite is not considered to be bitumen because its properties are different from most bitumens. it is described to have no definite shape or form when present in bedding and can be identified using different kinds of visible and fluorescent lights. there are three types of bituminite : type i, type ii and type iii, of which type i is the most common. the presence of bituminite in oil shales, other oil source rocks and some coals plays an important factor when determining potential petroleum - source rocks. = = physical properties = = the internal structure of bituminite varies from deposit to deposit. it may be homogeneous, streaky, fluidal or finely granular. these properties of internal structure, however, are only visible when particles are irradiated with blue or violet light. bituminite is commonly found in the size and shape of irregular, discoidal particles that are typically 100 – 200 μm in diameter. when observed under transmitted light with oil immersion, the color of bituminite is orange, reddish to brown. under reflected light, bituminite is dark brown to dark grey and sometimes black in color. bituminite has an approximate density of ≈1. 2 – 1. 3 g / cm3, which was determined by gradient centrifuging. bituminite has a very low polishing hardness. it usually smears during the polishing process because it is unconsolidated and very soft. = = occurrence = = bituminite is found in oxic to anoxic lacustrine and marine environments commonly associated with other maceral minerals such as alginite and liptodetrinite. the organic material undergoes diagenesis, forming an amorphous matrix. framboidal pyrite is a common feature associated with bituminite. this is caused by bacterial reworking of the digestible organic matter. due to
Answer:
|
the same stuff as steam
| null |
A glacier is made from
0. the same stuff as pencils are made from
1. the same stuff as steam
2. the same stuff as the gas that lights up signs
3. the same stuff as the gas that fills up balloons
glacier morphology, or the form a glacier takes, is influenced by temperature, precipitation, topography, and other factors. the goal of glacial morphology is to gain a better understanding of glaciated landscapes and the way they are shaped. types of glaciers can range from massive ice sheets, such as the greenland ice sheet, to small cirque glaciers found perched on mountain tops. glaciers can be grouped into two main categories : ice flow is constrained by the underlying bedrock topography ice flow is unrestricted by surrounding topography = = unconstrained glaciers = = = = = ice sheets and ice caps = = = ice sheets and ice caps cover the largest areas of land in comparison to other glaciers, and their ice is unconstrained by the underlying topography. they are the largest glacial ice formations and hold the vast majority of the world's fresh water. = = = = ice sheets = = = = ice sheets are the largest form of glacial formation. they are continent - sized ice masses that span areas over 50, 000 square kilometers ( 19, 000 square miles ). they are dome - shaped and, like ice caps, exhibit radial flow. as ice sheets expand over the ocean, they become ice shelves. ice sheets contain 99 % of all the freshwater ice found on earth, and form as layers of snowfall accumulate and slowly start to compact into ice. there are only two ice sheets present on earth today : the antarctic ice sheet and the greenland ice sheet. although only a tenth of modern earth is covered by ice sheets, the pleistocene epoch was characterized by ice sheets that covered a third of the planet. this was also known as the last glacial maximum. = = = = ice caps = = = = an ice cap can be defined as a dome - shaped mass of ice that exhibits a radial flow. they are often easily confused with ice sheets, but these ice structures are smaller than 50, 000 km2, and obscure the entirety of the topography they span. they mainly form in polar and sub - polar regions with particularly high elevation but flat ground. ice caps can be round, circular, or irregular in shape. ice caps often gradually merge into ice sheets making them difficult to track and document. examples include : jostedal glacier, norway devon ice cap, canada barnes ice cap, canada vatnajokull, iceland flade isblink, greenland = = = ice domes = = = an ice dome is a part of an ice cap or ice sheet that is characterized by upstanding ice surface located in the accumulation zone
dissolution and deposition. = = = = phases of ice and water = = = = the normal form of ice on the surface of earth is ice ih, a phase that forms crystals with hexagonal symmetry. another with cubic crystalline symmetry, ice ic, can occur in the upper atmosphere. as the pressure increases, ice forms other crystal structures. as of 2024, twenty have been experimentally confirmed and several more are predicted theoretically. the eighteenth form of ice, ice xviii, a face - centred - cubic, superionic ice phase, was discovered when a droplet of water was subject to a shock wave that raised the water's pressure to millions of atmospheres and its temperature to thousands of degrees, resulting in a structure of rigid oxygen atoms in which hydrogen atoms flowed freely. when sandwiched between layers of graphene, ice forms a square lattice. the details of the chemical nature of liquid water are not well understood ; some theories suggest that its unusual behavior is due to the existence of two liquid states. = = = taste and odor = = = pure water is usually described as tasteless and odorless, although humans have specific sensors that can feel the presence of water in their mouths, and frogs are known to be able to smell it. however, water from ordinary sources ( including mineral water ) usually has many dissolved substances that may give it varying tastes and odors. humans and other animals have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the potability of water in order to avoid water that is too salty or putrid. = = = color and appearance = = = pure water is visibly blue due to absorption of light in the region c. 600 – 800 nm. the color can be easily observed in a glass of tap - water placed against a pure white background, in daylight. the principal absorption bands responsible for the color are overtones of the o – h stretching vibrations. the apparent intensity of the color increases with the depth of the water column, following beer's law. this also applies, for example, with a swimming pool when the light source is sunlight reflected from the pool's white tiles. in nature, the color may also be modified from blue to green due to the presence of suspended solids or algae. in industry, near - infrared spectroscopy is used with aqueous solutions as the greater intensity of the lower overtones of water means that glass cuvettes with short path - length may be employed. to observe the fundamental stretching absorption spectrum of water or of an aqueous solution in the region around 3
contained carbon dioxide gas ( soda water ). radioactive springs contain traces of radioactive substances such as radium or uranium. = = deposits = = types of sedimentary rock – usually limestone ( calcium carbonate ) – are sometimes formed by the evaporation, or rapid precipitation, of minerals from spring water as it emerges, especially at the mouths of hot mineral springs. in cold mineral springs, the rapid precipitation of minerals results from the reduction of acidity when the co2 gas bubbles out. ( these mineral deposits can also be found in dried lakebeds. ) spectacular formations, including terraces, stalactites, stalagmites and'frozen waterfalls'can result ( see, for example, mammoth hot springs ). one light - colored porous calcite of this type is known as travertine and has been used extensively in italy and elsewhere as building material. travertine can have a white, tan, or cream - colored appearance and often has a fibrous or concentric'grain '. another type of spring water deposit, containing siliceous as well as calcareous minerals, is known as tufa. tufa is similar to travertine but is even softer and more porous. chaybeate springs may deposit iron compounds such as limonite. some such deposits were large enough to be mined as iron ore. = = see also = = list of hot springs sweet springs, those with no detectable sulfur or salt content = = references = = cohen, stan ( revised 1981 edition ), springs of the virginias : a pictorial history, charleston, west virginia : quarrier press. lamoreaux, philip e. ; tanner, judy t, eds. ( 2001 ), springs and bottled water of the world : ancient history, source, occurrence, quality and use, berlin / heidelberg / new york : springer - verlag, isbn 3 - 540 - 61841 - 4, retrieved 13 july 2010
to 50 metres ( 130 to 160 ft ). the gouge is not always straight but varies in orientation. this event is thought to be about 2000 years old. recent episodes of grounding, gouging and fragmentation of large antarctic icebergs have been observed to produce powerful hydroacoustic and seismic signals that further illuminate the dynamics of the process. = = the ice features = = in the offshore environment, the gouging features are made up of two kinds of ice : glacial ice and sea ice. = = = glacial ice = = = physically and mechanically, glacial ice is akin to lake ice, river ice and icicles. the reason is that they all form from freshwater ( non saline water ). ice sheets, ice caps and glaciers essentially consist of glacial ice. since glacial ice spreads sideways and down - slope ( as a result of gravity ), in some areas this ice reaches the coastline. where this happens, depending on topography, the ice may break up into pieces that fall in the sea, a mechanism called ice calving, and drift away. alternatively, ice sheets may spread offshore into extensive floating ice platforms called ice shelves, which can ultimately also calve. the features produced by these calving processes are known as icebergs and may range in size from meter to kilometer scale. the very large ones, referred to as ice islands, are typically tabular in shape. these may be responsible for extreme gouging events. = = = sea ice = = = sea ice is the outcome of freezing seawater. it is porous and mechanically weaker than glacial ice. sea ice dynamics are highly complex. driven by winds and currents, sea ice may ultimately develop into pressure ridges, a pile - up of ice fragments, or rubble, making up long, linear features. these are a very common source of seabed gouges. pressure ridges are often enclosed inside expanses of drifting pack ice, such that gouging activity from sea ice ridge keels is closely related with pack ice motion. stamukhi are also pile - ups of broken sea ice but they are grounded and are therefore relatively stationary. they result from the interaction between fast ice and the drifting pack ice. stamukhi can penetrate the seabed to a considerable depth, and this also poses a risk to subsea pipelines at shore approaches. = = gouging dynamics = = = = = keel reaction = = = because of the differences in the nature of glacial ice and pressure ridges, gouging events from these
bituminite is an autochthonous maceral that is a part of the liptinite group in lignite, that occurs in petroleum source rocks originating from organic matter such as algae which has undergone alteration or degradation from natural processes such as burial. it occurs as fine - grained groundmass, laminae or elongated structures that appear as veinlets within horizontal sections of lignite and bituminous coals, and also occurs in sedimentary rocks. its occurrence in sedimentary rocks is typically found surrounding alginite, and parallel along bedding planes. bituminite is not considered to be bitumen because its properties are different from most bitumens. it is described to have no definite shape or form when present in bedding and can be identified using different kinds of visible and fluorescent lights. there are three types of bituminite : type i, type ii and type iii, of which type i is the most common. the presence of bituminite in oil shales, other oil source rocks and some coals plays an important factor when determining potential petroleum - source rocks. = = physical properties = = the internal structure of bituminite varies from deposit to deposit. it may be homogeneous, streaky, fluidal or finely granular. these properties of internal structure, however, are only visible when particles are irradiated with blue or violet light. bituminite is commonly found in the size and shape of irregular, discoidal particles that are typically 100 – 200 μm in diameter. when observed under transmitted light with oil immersion, the color of bituminite is orange, reddish to brown. under reflected light, bituminite is dark brown to dark grey and sometimes black in color. bituminite has an approximate density of ≈1. 2 – 1. 3 g / cm3, which was determined by gradient centrifuging. bituminite has a very low polishing hardness. it usually smears during the polishing process because it is unconsolidated and very soft. = = occurrence = = bituminite is found in oxic to anoxic lacustrine and marine environments commonly associated with other maceral minerals such as alginite and liptodetrinite. the organic material undergoes diagenesis, forming an amorphous matrix. framboidal pyrite is a common feature associated with bituminite. this is caused by bacterial reworking of the digestible organic matter. due to
Answer:
|
the same stuff as the gas that lights up signs
| 0.3 |
If a large inanimate thing is moving across arctic seas, it is likely
0. freshwater fish
1. oily stones
2. hardened dampness
3. old sheep
for weeks before reaching the ocean floor. however, most organic components of marine snow are consumed by microbes, zooplankton and other filter - feeding animals within the first 1, 000 metres of their journey, that is, within the epipelagic zone. in this way marine snow may be considered the foundation of deep - sea mesopelagic and benthic ecosystems : as sunlight cannot reach them, deep - sea organisms rely heavily on marine snow as an energy source. some deep - sea pelagic groups, such as the lanternfish, ridgehead, marine hatchetfish, and lightfish families are sometimes termed pseudoceanic because, rather than having an even distribution in open water, they occur in significantly higher abundances around structural oases, notably seamounts and over continental slopes. the phenomenon is explained by the likewise abundance of prey species which are also attracted to the structures. the fish in the different pelagic and deep water benthic zones are physically structured, and behave in ways, that differ markedly from each other. groups of coexisting species within each zone all seem to operate in similar ways, such as the small mesopelagic vertically migrating plankton - feeders, the bathypelagic anglerfishes, and the deep water benthic rattails. " ray finned species, with spiny fins, are rare among deep sea fishes, which suggests that deep sea fish are ancient and so well adapted to their environment that invasions by more modern fishes have been unsuccessful. the few ray fins that do exist are mainly in the beryciformes and lampriformes, which are also ancient forms. most deep sea pelagic fishes belong to their own orders, suggesting a long evolution in deep sea environments. in contrast, deep water benthic species, are in orders that include many related shallow water fishes. the umbrella mouth gulper is a deep sea eel with an enormous loosely hinged mouth. it can open its mouth wide enough to swallow a fish much larger than itself, and then expand its stomach to accommodate its catch. = = sea floor = = = = = vents and seeps = = = hydrothermal vents along the mid - ocean ridge spreading centers act as oases, as do their opposites, cold seeps. such places support unique marine biomes and many new marine microorganisms and other lifeforms have been discovered at these locations. = = = trenches = = = the deepest recorded oceanic trenches measure to date is the mariana trench
##elagic depths for safety when there is daylight. these vertical migrations often occur over large vertical distances. fish undertake these migrations with the assistance of a swimbladder. the swimbladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, due to the high pressures in the mesopelagic zone, this requires significant energy. as the fish ascends, the pressure in the swimbladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. when the fish wants to return to the depths, the swimbladder is deflated. some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between 10 and 20 °c, thus displaying considerable tolerances for temperature change. in 1998, sampling via deep trawling indicated lanternfish account for as much as 65 % of all deep sea fish biomass. lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. the previous estimated global biomass of lanternfish was 550 – 660 million tonnes, about six times the annual tonnage captured worldwide by fisheries. however, this was revised upwards as these fish have a special gland for detecting movement from up to 30 metres away ( e. g. fishing nets and fish sampling nets ). in 2007 global sonar detectors indicated a more accurate figure for the global biomass was between 5 and 10 billion tonnes : a truly massive weight of living mass. = = see also = = diel vertical migration false bottom ( sea ice ) = = references = = = = further references = = bone q and moore rh ( 2008 ) biology of fishes taylor & francis group. isbn 978 - 0 - 415 - 37562 - 7 = = external links = = deep scattering layer britannica online.
found around deep - sea hydrothermal vents. the magnitude of their impacts on biological systems is demonstrated by the varying range of viral - to - prokaryote abundance ratios ranging from 1 - 223, this indicates that there are the same amount or more viruses than prokaryotes. = = = fauna = = = = = = = fish ecology = = = = despite the lack of light, vision plays a role in life within the bathypelagic with bioluminescence a trait among both nektonic and planktonic organisms. in contrast to organisms in the water column, benthic organisms in this region tend to have limited to no bioluminescence. the bathypelagic zone contains sharks, squid, octopuses, and many species of fish, including deep - water anglerfish, gulper eel, amphipods, and dragonfish. the fish are characterized by weak muscles, soft skin, and slimy bodies. the adaptations of some of the fish that live there include small eyes and transparent skin. however, this zone is difficult for fish to live in since food is scarce ; resulting in species evolving slow metabolic rates in order to conserve energy. occasionally, large sources of organic matter from decaying organisms, such as whale falls, create a brief burst of activity by attracting organisms from different bathypelagic communities. = = = = diel vertical migration = = = = some bathypelagic species undergo vertical migration, which differs from the diel vertical migration of mesopelagic species in that it is not driven by sunlight. instead, the migration of bathypelagic organisms is driven by other factors, most of which remain unknown. some research suggests the movement of species within the overlying pelagic region could prompt individual bathypelagic species to migrate, such as sthenoteuthis sp., a species of squid. in this particular example, sthenoteuthis sp. appears to migrate individually over the course of ~ 4 – 5 hours towards the surface and then form into groups. while in most regions migration patterns can be driven by predation, in this particular region, the migration patterns are not believed to result solely from predator - prey relations. instead, these relations are commensalistic, with the species who remain in the bathypelagic benefitting from the pom mixing caused by the upward movement of another species. in addition, the vertical migrating species'timing bathypelagic appears linked to the lunar cycle. however, the exact indicators causing this timing are
seeds, fruits, and leaves. abiotic rafts are usually floating woods or plastics, including buoys and discarded trash. sea ice is also an important dispersal vector. some arctic species rely on sea ice to disperse their eggs, like daphnia pulex. drifting, as discussed above, can help marine mammals move efficiently. it has been shown that intertidal invertebrates at the deepest part of their habitats will travel up to multiple kilometers using sea ice. = = = freshwater dispersal = = = freshwater dispersal mainly occurs through flowing water transporting dispersal units. permanent water bodies need outside forms of dispersal to retain biodiversity, so hydrochory via freshwater is vital for the success of landlocked water sources. lakes remain genetically diverse thanks to rivers connecting them to new sources of biodiversity. in lakes that lack connecting rivers, some organisms have developed adaptations that use the wind, while in a water body, to disperse reproductive units. in these cases, the dispersal units are moved to new aquatic habitats by utilizing the wind instead of the water in their habitat. running water is the only form of long distance dispersal present in freshwater sources, so rivers act as the main aquatic terrestrial dispersal vector. like in marine ecosystems, organisms take advantage of flowing water via passive transport of drifting along on a raft. the distance traveled by floating or drifting organisms is dependent on the amount of time that organism or unit is able to be buoyant. freshwater is important for the dispersal of non - aquatic terrestrial organisms as well. bryophytes require an external source of water in order to sexually reproduce. some of them use falling rain drops to disperse their spores as far as possible. = = = extreme weather = = = extreme weather events ( tropical cyclones, floods and heavy rains, hurricanes, and thunderstorms ) are the most intense examples of water functioning as a vector. the heavy and intense rain that comes with these events facilitate long distance dispersal. overflows are side effects of heavy rains impacting one specific area. they have been proven to be effective in increasing biodiversity in temporary lakes and ponds. the overflow of pool water can be an important passive form of hydrochory when it ( pool water ) acts as an agent. floods also displace plants and organisms, whether or not overflow occurs. flood pulses can transport aquatic plants and organisms as small as zooplankton. hurricanes can also be dispersal vectors. after the 2004 hurricane charley struck florida, more propagules of red mangrove trees were dispersed. if a hurricane strikes in the later summer months
, and is one of the 100 soundscapes of japan. the sea of okhotsk is the southernmost area in the northern hemisphere where drift ice may be observed. = = gallery = = = = see also = = drifting ice station – research stations built on the ice of the high latitudes of the arctic ocean iceberg – large piece of freshwater ice broken off a glacier or ice shelf and floating in open water ice shove – ice pushed onshore due to water movements or wind lead ( sea ice ) – fracture that opens up in an expanse of sea ice polynya – area of unfrozen sea within an ice pack pressure ridge ( ice ) – linear accumulation of ice blocks resulting from the convergence between floes seabed gouging by ice – outcome of the interaction between drifting ice and the seabed sea ice – outcome of seawater as it freezes shelf ice – ice formed on a lake and washed up on the shore = = references = = = = external links = = " ice in the sea " : chapter from nathaniel bowditch's american practical navigator cryosphere today : current arctic sea ice conditions archived 2011 - 02 - 23 at the wayback machine data source for sea ice picture marine modeling and analysis branch archived 2011 - 04 - 02 at the wayback machine everything you ever wanted to know about sea ice but were afraid to ask animation of the movement of sea ice, september 2003 through may 2004 atlas of antarctic sea ice drift the papers of paul gordienko on ice and ice drifts at dartmouth college library
Answer:
|
hardened dampness
| null |
If a large inanimate thing is moving across arctic seas, it is likely
0. freshwater fish
1. oily stones
2. hardened dampness
3. old sheep
for weeks before reaching the ocean floor. however, most organic components of marine snow are consumed by microbes, zooplankton and other filter - feeding animals within the first 1, 000 metres of their journey, that is, within the epipelagic zone. in this way marine snow may be considered the foundation of deep - sea mesopelagic and benthic ecosystems : as sunlight cannot reach them, deep - sea organisms rely heavily on marine snow as an energy source. some deep - sea pelagic groups, such as the lanternfish, ridgehead, marine hatchetfish, and lightfish families are sometimes termed pseudoceanic because, rather than having an even distribution in open water, they occur in significantly higher abundances around structural oases, notably seamounts and over continental slopes. the phenomenon is explained by the likewise abundance of prey species which are also attracted to the structures. the fish in the different pelagic and deep water benthic zones are physically structured, and behave in ways, that differ markedly from each other. groups of coexisting species within each zone all seem to operate in similar ways, such as the small mesopelagic vertically migrating plankton - feeders, the bathypelagic anglerfishes, and the deep water benthic rattails. " ray finned species, with spiny fins, are rare among deep sea fishes, which suggests that deep sea fish are ancient and so well adapted to their environment that invasions by more modern fishes have been unsuccessful. the few ray fins that do exist are mainly in the beryciformes and lampriformes, which are also ancient forms. most deep sea pelagic fishes belong to their own orders, suggesting a long evolution in deep sea environments. in contrast, deep water benthic species, are in orders that include many related shallow water fishes. the umbrella mouth gulper is a deep sea eel with an enormous loosely hinged mouth. it can open its mouth wide enough to swallow a fish much larger than itself, and then expand its stomach to accommodate its catch. = = sea floor = = = = = vents and seeps = = = hydrothermal vents along the mid - ocean ridge spreading centers act as oases, as do their opposites, cold seeps. such places support unique marine biomes and many new marine microorganisms and other lifeforms have been discovered at these locations. = = = trenches = = = the deepest recorded oceanic trenches measure to date is the mariana trench
##elagic depths for safety when there is daylight. these vertical migrations often occur over large vertical distances. fish undertake these migrations with the assistance of a swimbladder. the swimbladder is inflated when the fish wants to move up, and, due to the high pressures in the mesopelagic zone, this requires significant energy. as the fish ascends, the pressure in the swimbladder must adjust to prevent it from bursting. when the fish wants to return to the depths, the swimbladder is deflated. some mesopelagic fishes make daily migrations through the thermocline, where the temperature changes between 10 and 20 °c, thus displaying considerable tolerances for temperature change. in 1998, sampling via deep trawling indicated lanternfish account for as much as 65 % of all deep sea fish biomass. lanternfish are among the most widely distributed, populous, and diverse of all vertebrates, playing an important ecological role as prey for larger organisms. the previous estimated global biomass of lanternfish was 550 – 660 million tonnes, about six times the annual tonnage captured worldwide by fisheries. however, this was revised upwards as these fish have a special gland for detecting movement from up to 30 metres away ( e. g. fishing nets and fish sampling nets ). in 2007 global sonar detectors indicated a more accurate figure for the global biomass was between 5 and 10 billion tonnes : a truly massive weight of living mass. = = see also = = diel vertical migration false bottom ( sea ice ) = = references = = = = further references = = bone q and moore rh ( 2008 ) biology of fishes taylor & francis group. isbn 978 - 0 - 415 - 37562 - 7 = = external links = = deep scattering layer britannica online.
found around deep - sea hydrothermal vents. the magnitude of their impacts on biological systems is demonstrated by the varying range of viral - to - prokaryote abundance ratios ranging from 1 - 223, this indicates that there are the same amount or more viruses than prokaryotes. = = = fauna = = = = = = = fish ecology = = = = despite the lack of light, vision plays a role in life within the bathypelagic with bioluminescence a trait among both nektonic and planktonic organisms. in contrast to organisms in the water column, benthic organisms in this region tend to have limited to no bioluminescence. the bathypelagic zone contains sharks, squid, octopuses, and many species of fish, including deep - water anglerfish, gulper eel, amphipods, and dragonfish. the fish are characterized by weak muscles, soft skin, and slimy bodies. the adaptations of some of the fish that live there include small eyes and transparent skin. however, this zone is difficult for fish to live in since food is scarce ; resulting in species evolving slow metabolic rates in order to conserve energy. occasionally, large sources of organic matter from decaying organisms, such as whale falls, create a brief burst of activity by attracting organisms from different bathypelagic communities. = = = = diel vertical migration = = = = some bathypelagic species undergo vertical migration, which differs from the diel vertical migration of mesopelagic species in that it is not driven by sunlight. instead, the migration of bathypelagic organisms is driven by other factors, most of which remain unknown. some research suggests the movement of species within the overlying pelagic region could prompt individual bathypelagic species to migrate, such as sthenoteuthis sp., a species of squid. in this particular example, sthenoteuthis sp. appears to migrate individually over the course of ~ 4 – 5 hours towards the surface and then form into groups. while in most regions migration patterns can be driven by predation, in this particular region, the migration patterns are not believed to result solely from predator - prey relations. instead, these relations are commensalistic, with the species who remain in the bathypelagic benefitting from the pom mixing caused by the upward movement of another species. in addition, the vertical migrating species'timing bathypelagic appears linked to the lunar cycle. however, the exact indicators causing this timing are
seeds, fruits, and leaves. abiotic rafts are usually floating woods or plastics, including buoys and discarded trash. sea ice is also an important dispersal vector. some arctic species rely on sea ice to disperse their eggs, like daphnia pulex. drifting, as discussed above, can help marine mammals move efficiently. it has been shown that intertidal invertebrates at the deepest part of their habitats will travel up to multiple kilometers using sea ice. = = = freshwater dispersal = = = freshwater dispersal mainly occurs through flowing water transporting dispersal units. permanent water bodies need outside forms of dispersal to retain biodiversity, so hydrochory via freshwater is vital for the success of landlocked water sources. lakes remain genetically diverse thanks to rivers connecting them to new sources of biodiversity. in lakes that lack connecting rivers, some organisms have developed adaptations that use the wind, while in a water body, to disperse reproductive units. in these cases, the dispersal units are moved to new aquatic habitats by utilizing the wind instead of the water in their habitat. running water is the only form of long distance dispersal present in freshwater sources, so rivers act as the main aquatic terrestrial dispersal vector. like in marine ecosystems, organisms take advantage of flowing water via passive transport of drifting along on a raft. the distance traveled by floating or drifting organisms is dependent on the amount of time that organism or unit is able to be buoyant. freshwater is important for the dispersal of non - aquatic terrestrial organisms as well. bryophytes require an external source of water in order to sexually reproduce. some of them use falling rain drops to disperse their spores as far as possible. = = = extreme weather = = = extreme weather events ( tropical cyclones, floods and heavy rains, hurricanes, and thunderstorms ) are the most intense examples of water functioning as a vector. the heavy and intense rain that comes with these events facilitate long distance dispersal. overflows are side effects of heavy rains impacting one specific area. they have been proven to be effective in increasing biodiversity in temporary lakes and ponds. the overflow of pool water can be an important passive form of hydrochory when it ( pool water ) acts as an agent. floods also displace plants and organisms, whether or not overflow occurs. flood pulses can transport aquatic plants and organisms as small as zooplankton. hurricanes can also be dispersal vectors. after the 2004 hurricane charley struck florida, more propagules of red mangrove trees were dispersed. if a hurricane strikes in the later summer months
, and is one of the 100 soundscapes of japan. the sea of okhotsk is the southernmost area in the northern hemisphere where drift ice may be observed. = = gallery = = = = see also = = drifting ice station – research stations built on the ice of the high latitudes of the arctic ocean iceberg – large piece of freshwater ice broken off a glacier or ice shelf and floating in open water ice shove – ice pushed onshore due to water movements or wind lead ( sea ice ) – fracture that opens up in an expanse of sea ice polynya – area of unfrozen sea within an ice pack pressure ridge ( ice ) – linear accumulation of ice blocks resulting from the convergence between floes seabed gouging by ice – outcome of the interaction between drifting ice and the seabed sea ice – outcome of seawater as it freezes shelf ice – ice formed on a lake and washed up on the shore = = references = = = = external links = = " ice in the sea " : chapter from nathaniel bowditch's american practical navigator cryosphere today : current arctic sea ice conditions archived 2011 - 02 - 23 at the wayback machine data source for sea ice picture marine modeling and analysis branch archived 2011 - 04 - 02 at the wayback machine everything you ever wanted to know about sea ice but were afraid to ask animation of the movement of sea ice, september 2003 through may 2004 atlas of antarctic sea ice drift the papers of paul gordienko on ice and ice drifts at dartmouth college library
Answer:
|
oily stones
| 0.3 |
Disregarding nuclear holocausts, how many suns will be in the sunset?
0. 2
1. 1
2. 20
3. 42
k. as 2. 574 = 43. 5, it follows from the law that the temperature of the sun is 2. 57 times greater than the temperature of the lamella, so stefan got a value of 5430 °c or 5700 k. this was the first sensible value for the temperature of the sun. before this, values ranging from as low as 1800 °c to as high as 13000000 °c were claimed. the lower value of 1800 °c was determined by claude pouillet ( 1790 – 1868 ) in 1838 using the dulong – petit law. pouillet also took just half the value of the sun's correct energy flux. = = = temperature of stars = = = the temperature of stars other than the sun can be approximated using a similar means by treating the emitted energy as a black body radiation. so : l = 4 π r 2 σ t 4 { \ displaystyle l = 4 \ pi r ^ { 2 } \ sigma t ^ { 4 } } where l is the luminosity, σ is the stefan – boltzmann constant, r is the stellar radius and t is the effective temperature. this formula can then be rearranged to calculate the temperature : t = l 4 π r 2 σ 4 { \ displaystyle t = { \ sqrt [ { 4 } ] { \ frac { l } { 4 \ pi r ^ { 2 } \ sigma } } } } or alternatively the radius : r = l 4 π σ t 4 { \ displaystyle r = { \ sqrt { \ frac { l } { 4 \ pi \ sigma t ^ { 4 } } } } } the same formulae can also be simplified to compute the parameters relative to the sun : l l = ( r r ) 2 ( t t ) 4 t t = ( l l ) 1 / 4 ( r r ) 1 / 2 r r = ( t t ) 2 ( l l ) 1 / 2 { \ displaystyle { \ begin { aligned } { \ frac { l } { l _ { \ odot } } } & = \ left ( { \ frac { r } { r _ { \ odot } } } \ right ) ^ { 2 } \ left ( { \ frac { t } { t _ { \ odot } } } \ right ) ^ { 4 } \ \ [ 1ex ] { \ frac { t } { t _ { \ odot } } }
##ing known values for the mass and radius of the sun, and then dividing by the known luminosity of the sun ( note that this will involve another approximation, as the power output of the sun has not always been constant ) : u r l ≈ 1. 1 × 10 41 j 3. 828 × 10 26 w = 2. 874 × 10 14 s ≈ 8 900 000 years, { \ displaystyle { \ frac { u _ { \ text { r } } } { l _ { \ odot } } } \ approx { \ frac { 1. 1 \ times 10 ^ { 41 } ~ { \ text { j } } } { 3. 828 \ times 10 ^ { 26 } ~ { \ text { w } } } } = 2. 874 \ times 10 ^ { 14 } ~ \ mathrm { s } \, \ approx 8 \, 900 \, 000 ~ { \ text { years } }, } where l { \ displaystyle l _ { \ odot } } is the luminosity of the sun. while giving enough power for considerably longer than many other physical methods, such as chemical energy, this value was clearly still not long enough due to geological and biological evidence that the earth was billions of years old. it was eventually discovered that thermonuclear energy was responsible for the power output and long lifetimes of stars. the flux of internal heat for jupiter is given by the derivative according to the time of the total energy d u r d t = − 3 g m 2 10 r 2 d r d t = − 1. 46 × 10 28 [ j / m ] × d r d t [ m / s ]. { \ displaystyle { \ frac { du _ { r } } { dt } } = { \ frac { - 3gm ^ { 2 } } { 10r ^ { 2 } } } { \ frac { dr } { dt } } = - 1. 46 \ times 10 ^ { 28 } ~ { \ text { [ j / m ] } } ~ \ times { \ frac { dr } { dt } } ~ { \ text { [ m / s ] } }. } with a shrinking of − 1 m m y r = − 0. 001 m y r = − 3. 17 × 10 − 11 m s { \ textstyle - 1 \ mathrm { \ frac { ~ mm } { yr } } = - 0. 001
kinetic energy per nucleus satisfies : 3 2 k b t = 1 2 e g m n m = c 3 10 g m m n r { \ displaystyle { \ frac { 3 } { 2 } } k _ { b } t = { \ frac { 1 } { 2 } } e _ { g } { \ frac { m _ { n } } { m } } = c { \ frac { 3 } { 10 } } { \ frac { gmm _ { n } } { r } } } where the temperature t is averaged over the star and c is a factor of order one related to the stellar structure and can be estimated from the star approximate polytropic index. note that this does not hold for large enough stars, where the radiation pressure is larger than the gas pressure in the radiation zone, hence the relation between temperature, mass and radius is different, as elaborated below. wrapping up everything, we also take r to be equal to r up to a factor, and ne at r is replaced by its stellar average up to a factor. the combined factor is approximately 1 / 15 for the sun, and we get : l = − 4 π r 2 d ∂ u ∂ r ≈ 4 π r 2 d u r l ≈ 1 15 64 π 2 9 σ b σ e ⋅ γ r 4 t 4 m n m ≈ 1 15 2 π 3 9 ⋅ 5 5 g 4 m e 2 m n 5 α 2 5 m 3 = 4 ⋅ 10 26 w ( m m ) 3 { \ displaystyle { \ begin { aligned } l & = - 4 \ pi \, r ^ { 2 } d { \ frac { \ partial u } { \ partial r } } \ approx 4 \ pi \, r ^ { 2 } d { \ frac { u } { r } } \ \ l & \ approx { \ frac { 1 } { 15 } } { \ frac { 64 \ pi ^ { 2 } } { 9 } } { \ frac { \ sigma _ { b } } { \ sigma _ { e \ cdot \ gamma } } } { \ frac { r ^ { 4 } t ^ { 4 } m _ { n } } { m } } \ \ & \ approx { \ frac { 1 } { 15 } } { \ frac { 2 \ pi ^ { 3 } } { 9 \ cdot 5 ^ { 5 } } } { \ frac { g
which the sun has risen so far. specifically, assuming p has an a - priori distribution that is uniform over the interval [ 0, 1 ], and that, given the value of p, the sun independently rises each day with probability p, the desired conditional probability is : pr ( sun rises tomorrow it has risen k times previously ) = 0 1 p k + 1 d p 0 1 p k d p = k + 1 k + 2. { \ displaystyle \ pr ( { \ text { sun rises tomorrow } } \ mid { \ text { it has risen } } k { \ text { times previously } } ) = { \ frac { \ int _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } p ^ { k + 1 } \, dp } { \ int _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } p ^ { k } \, dp } } = { \ frac { k + 1 } { k + 2 } }. } by this formula, if one has observed the sun rising 10000 times previously, the probability it rises the next day is 10001 / 10002 ≈ 0. 99990002 { \ displaystyle 10001 / 10002 \ approx 0. 99990002 }. expressed as a percentage, this is approximately a 99. 990002 % { \ displaystyle 99. 990002 \ % } chance. however, laplace recognized this to be a misapplication of the rule of succession through not taking into account all the prior information available immediately after deriving the result : but this number [ the probability of the sun coming up tomorrow ] is far greater for him who, seeing in the totality of phenomena the principle regulating the days and seasons, realizes that nothing at present moment can arrest the course of it. e. t. jaynes noted that laplace's warning had gone unheeded by workers in the field. a reference class problem arises : the plausibility inferred will depend on whether we take the past experience of one person, of humanity, or of the earth. a consequence is that each referent would hold different plausibility of the statement. in bayesianism, any probability is a conditional probability given what one knows. that varies from one person to another. = = see also = = rule of succession problem of induction doomsday argument : a similar problem that raises intense philosophical debate newcomb's paradox unsolved problems in statistics additive smoothing ( also called laplace smoothing )
= { \ left ( { \ frac { l _ { o } \ left ( 1 - a _ { b } \ right ) } { 16 \ \ sigma \ \ pi \ d ^ { 2 } } } \ right ) } ^ { 1 / 4 } } where l 0 { \ displaystyle l _ { 0 } } is the luminosity of the sun ( 3, 828 ⋅ 10 26 { \ displaystyle 3, 828 \ cdot 10 ^ { 26 } } w ), and d { \ displaystyle d } the distance between the planet and the sun, then : t e q = 1. 07652 ⋅ 10 8 ( ( 1 − a b ) d 2 ) 1 / 4 { \ displaystyle t _ { \ mathrm { eq } } = 1. 07652 \ cdot 10 ^ { 8 } { \ left ( { \ frac { \ left ( 1 - a _ { b } \ right ) } { d ^ { 2 } } } \ right ) } ^ { 1 / 4 } } ( with d { \ displaystyle d } in metres ), or : t e q = 3, 404. 255 ⋅ ( ( 1 − a b ) d 2 ) 1 / 4 { \ displaystyle t _ { \ mathrm { eq } } = 3, 404. 255 \ cdot { \ left ( { \ frac { \ left ( 1 - a _ { b } \ right ) } { d ^ { 2 } } } \ right ) } ^ { 1 / 4 } } ( with d { \ displaystyle d } in million kilometres ). = = calculation for extrasolar planets = = for a planet around another star, i o { \ displaystyle i _ { o } } ( the incident stellar flux on the planet ) is not a readily measurable quantity. to find the equilibrium temperature of such a planet, it may be useful to approximate the host star's radiation as a blackbody as well, such that : f s t a r = σ t s t a r 4 { \ displaystyle f _ { \ rm { star } } = \ sigma t _ { \ rm { star } } ^ { 4 } } the luminosity ( l { \ displaystyle l } ) of the star, which can be measured from observations of the star's apparent brightness, can then be written as : l = 4 π r s t a r 2 σ t s t a r 4
Answer:
|
1
| null |
Disregarding nuclear holocausts, how many suns will be in the sunset?
0. 2
1. 1
2. 20
3. 42
k. as 2. 574 = 43. 5, it follows from the law that the temperature of the sun is 2. 57 times greater than the temperature of the lamella, so stefan got a value of 5430 °c or 5700 k. this was the first sensible value for the temperature of the sun. before this, values ranging from as low as 1800 °c to as high as 13000000 °c were claimed. the lower value of 1800 °c was determined by claude pouillet ( 1790 – 1868 ) in 1838 using the dulong – petit law. pouillet also took just half the value of the sun's correct energy flux. = = = temperature of stars = = = the temperature of stars other than the sun can be approximated using a similar means by treating the emitted energy as a black body radiation. so : l = 4 π r 2 σ t 4 { \ displaystyle l = 4 \ pi r ^ { 2 } \ sigma t ^ { 4 } } where l is the luminosity, σ is the stefan – boltzmann constant, r is the stellar radius and t is the effective temperature. this formula can then be rearranged to calculate the temperature : t = l 4 π r 2 σ 4 { \ displaystyle t = { \ sqrt [ { 4 } ] { \ frac { l } { 4 \ pi r ^ { 2 } \ sigma } } } } or alternatively the radius : r = l 4 π σ t 4 { \ displaystyle r = { \ sqrt { \ frac { l } { 4 \ pi \ sigma t ^ { 4 } } } } } the same formulae can also be simplified to compute the parameters relative to the sun : l l = ( r r ) 2 ( t t ) 4 t t = ( l l ) 1 / 4 ( r r ) 1 / 2 r r = ( t t ) 2 ( l l ) 1 / 2 { \ displaystyle { \ begin { aligned } { \ frac { l } { l _ { \ odot } } } & = \ left ( { \ frac { r } { r _ { \ odot } } } \ right ) ^ { 2 } \ left ( { \ frac { t } { t _ { \ odot } } } \ right ) ^ { 4 } \ \ [ 1ex ] { \ frac { t } { t _ { \ odot } } }
##ing known values for the mass and radius of the sun, and then dividing by the known luminosity of the sun ( note that this will involve another approximation, as the power output of the sun has not always been constant ) : u r l ≈ 1. 1 × 10 41 j 3. 828 × 10 26 w = 2. 874 × 10 14 s ≈ 8 900 000 years, { \ displaystyle { \ frac { u _ { \ text { r } } } { l _ { \ odot } } } \ approx { \ frac { 1. 1 \ times 10 ^ { 41 } ~ { \ text { j } } } { 3. 828 \ times 10 ^ { 26 } ~ { \ text { w } } } } = 2. 874 \ times 10 ^ { 14 } ~ \ mathrm { s } \, \ approx 8 \, 900 \, 000 ~ { \ text { years } }, } where l { \ displaystyle l _ { \ odot } } is the luminosity of the sun. while giving enough power for considerably longer than many other physical methods, such as chemical energy, this value was clearly still not long enough due to geological and biological evidence that the earth was billions of years old. it was eventually discovered that thermonuclear energy was responsible for the power output and long lifetimes of stars. the flux of internal heat for jupiter is given by the derivative according to the time of the total energy d u r d t = − 3 g m 2 10 r 2 d r d t = − 1. 46 × 10 28 [ j / m ] × d r d t [ m / s ]. { \ displaystyle { \ frac { du _ { r } } { dt } } = { \ frac { - 3gm ^ { 2 } } { 10r ^ { 2 } } } { \ frac { dr } { dt } } = - 1. 46 \ times 10 ^ { 28 } ~ { \ text { [ j / m ] } } ~ \ times { \ frac { dr } { dt } } ~ { \ text { [ m / s ] } }. } with a shrinking of − 1 m m y r = − 0. 001 m y r = − 3. 17 × 10 − 11 m s { \ textstyle - 1 \ mathrm { \ frac { ~ mm } { yr } } = - 0. 001
kinetic energy per nucleus satisfies : 3 2 k b t = 1 2 e g m n m = c 3 10 g m m n r { \ displaystyle { \ frac { 3 } { 2 } } k _ { b } t = { \ frac { 1 } { 2 } } e _ { g } { \ frac { m _ { n } } { m } } = c { \ frac { 3 } { 10 } } { \ frac { gmm _ { n } } { r } } } where the temperature t is averaged over the star and c is a factor of order one related to the stellar structure and can be estimated from the star approximate polytropic index. note that this does not hold for large enough stars, where the radiation pressure is larger than the gas pressure in the radiation zone, hence the relation between temperature, mass and radius is different, as elaborated below. wrapping up everything, we also take r to be equal to r up to a factor, and ne at r is replaced by its stellar average up to a factor. the combined factor is approximately 1 / 15 for the sun, and we get : l = − 4 π r 2 d ∂ u ∂ r ≈ 4 π r 2 d u r l ≈ 1 15 64 π 2 9 σ b σ e ⋅ γ r 4 t 4 m n m ≈ 1 15 2 π 3 9 ⋅ 5 5 g 4 m e 2 m n 5 α 2 5 m 3 = 4 ⋅ 10 26 w ( m m ) 3 { \ displaystyle { \ begin { aligned } l & = - 4 \ pi \, r ^ { 2 } d { \ frac { \ partial u } { \ partial r } } \ approx 4 \ pi \, r ^ { 2 } d { \ frac { u } { r } } \ \ l & \ approx { \ frac { 1 } { 15 } } { \ frac { 64 \ pi ^ { 2 } } { 9 } } { \ frac { \ sigma _ { b } } { \ sigma _ { e \ cdot \ gamma } } } { \ frac { r ^ { 4 } t ^ { 4 } m _ { n } } { m } } \ \ & \ approx { \ frac { 1 } { 15 } } { \ frac { 2 \ pi ^ { 3 } } { 9 \ cdot 5 ^ { 5 } } } { \ frac { g
which the sun has risen so far. specifically, assuming p has an a - priori distribution that is uniform over the interval [ 0, 1 ], and that, given the value of p, the sun independently rises each day with probability p, the desired conditional probability is : pr ( sun rises tomorrow it has risen k times previously ) = 0 1 p k + 1 d p 0 1 p k d p = k + 1 k + 2. { \ displaystyle \ pr ( { \ text { sun rises tomorrow } } \ mid { \ text { it has risen } } k { \ text { times previously } } ) = { \ frac { \ int _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } p ^ { k + 1 } \, dp } { \ int _ { 0 } ^ { 1 } p ^ { k } \, dp } } = { \ frac { k + 1 } { k + 2 } }. } by this formula, if one has observed the sun rising 10000 times previously, the probability it rises the next day is 10001 / 10002 ≈ 0. 99990002 { \ displaystyle 10001 / 10002 \ approx 0. 99990002 }. expressed as a percentage, this is approximately a 99. 990002 % { \ displaystyle 99. 990002 \ % } chance. however, laplace recognized this to be a misapplication of the rule of succession through not taking into account all the prior information available immediately after deriving the result : but this number [ the probability of the sun coming up tomorrow ] is far greater for him who, seeing in the totality of phenomena the principle regulating the days and seasons, realizes that nothing at present moment can arrest the course of it. e. t. jaynes noted that laplace's warning had gone unheeded by workers in the field. a reference class problem arises : the plausibility inferred will depend on whether we take the past experience of one person, of humanity, or of the earth. a consequence is that each referent would hold different plausibility of the statement. in bayesianism, any probability is a conditional probability given what one knows. that varies from one person to another. = = see also = = rule of succession problem of induction doomsday argument : a similar problem that raises intense philosophical debate newcomb's paradox unsolved problems in statistics additive smoothing ( also called laplace smoothing )
= { \ left ( { \ frac { l _ { o } \ left ( 1 - a _ { b } \ right ) } { 16 \ \ sigma \ \ pi \ d ^ { 2 } } } \ right ) } ^ { 1 / 4 } } where l 0 { \ displaystyle l _ { 0 } } is the luminosity of the sun ( 3, 828 ⋅ 10 26 { \ displaystyle 3, 828 \ cdot 10 ^ { 26 } } w ), and d { \ displaystyle d } the distance between the planet and the sun, then : t e q = 1. 07652 ⋅ 10 8 ( ( 1 − a b ) d 2 ) 1 / 4 { \ displaystyle t _ { \ mathrm { eq } } = 1. 07652 \ cdot 10 ^ { 8 } { \ left ( { \ frac { \ left ( 1 - a _ { b } \ right ) } { d ^ { 2 } } } \ right ) } ^ { 1 / 4 } } ( with d { \ displaystyle d } in metres ), or : t e q = 3, 404. 255 ⋅ ( ( 1 − a b ) d 2 ) 1 / 4 { \ displaystyle t _ { \ mathrm { eq } } = 3, 404. 255 \ cdot { \ left ( { \ frac { \ left ( 1 - a _ { b } \ right ) } { d ^ { 2 } } } \ right ) } ^ { 1 / 4 } } ( with d { \ displaystyle d } in million kilometres ). = = calculation for extrasolar planets = = for a planet around another star, i o { \ displaystyle i _ { o } } ( the incident stellar flux on the planet ) is not a readily measurable quantity. to find the equilibrium temperature of such a planet, it may be useful to approximate the host star's radiation as a blackbody as well, such that : f s t a r = σ t s t a r 4 { \ displaystyle f _ { \ rm { star } } = \ sigma t _ { \ rm { star } } ^ { 4 } } the luminosity ( l { \ displaystyle l } ) of the star, which can be measured from observations of the star's apparent brightness, can then be written as : l = 4 π r s t a r 2 σ t s t a r 4
Answer:
|
20
| 0.3 |
Earthquakes can shake
0. fish
1. flying birds
2. clouds
3. smoke
proposed. tremor has been demonstrated to be influenced by tides or variable fluid flow through a fixed volume. tremor has also been attributed to shear slip at the plate interface. recent contributions in mathematical modelling reproduce the sequences of cascadia and hikurangi ( new zealand ), and suggest in - situ dehydration as the cause for the episodic tremor and slip events. = = see also = = geodynamics plate tectonics seismology slow earthquake = = references = = = = external links = = natural resources canada
a harmonic tremor is a sustained release of seismic and infrasonic energy typically associated with the underground movement of magma, the venting of volcanic gases from magma, or both in volcanoes, and with repetitive stick - slip or other impulsive activity in non - volcanic systems. it is a long - duration release of seismic energy, often containing distinct spectral lines. volcanic tremor often precedes or accompanies a volcanic eruption. being a long - duration continuous signal from a temporally extended source tremor contrasts distinctly with transient and often impulsive sources of seismic radiation typically associated with earthquakes and explosions. nonvolcanic, episodic tremor at plate boundaries ( particularly in subduction zones ) has been attributed to swarms of long - period earthquakes and is distinguished by the term episodic tremor and slip ( ets ) and may occur during slow earthquakes. iceberg impacts with the seafloor or other icebergs can also generate distinct iceberg harmonic tremor signals that propagate to large distances as ocean acoustic and solid earth seismic wavefields. the source process of iceberg harmonic tremor has been attributed to highly repetitive quasi - periodic stick - slip at ice - seafloor or ice - ice contacts. the relation between long - period events and an imminent eruption was first observed by bernard chouet, a volcanologist who was working at the united states geological survey. = = see also = = volcano tectonic earthquake = = notes = = = = external links = = vogfjord, k. s. ( 2006 ). " seismicity, low frequency events and tremor at the katla subglacial volcano, iceland ". agu fall meeting abstracts. 2006. bibcode : 2006agufm. v41a1694v. the harmonic tremors of a volcanic eruption archived 2012 - 03 - 16 at the wayback machine
could predict an earthquake before it happened. however, they are simply more sensitive to ground vibrations than humans and are able to detect the subtler body waves that precede love waves, like the p - waves and the s - waves. = = basic theory = = the conservation of linear momentum of a linear elastic material can be written as ∇ ⋅ ( c : ∇ u ) = ρ u ¨ { \ displaystyle { \ boldsymbol { \ nabla } } \ cdot ( { \ mathsf { c } } : { \ boldsymbol { \ nabla } } \ mathbf { u } ) = \ rho ~ { \ ddot { \ mathbf { u } } } } where u { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { u } } is the displacement vector and c { \ displaystyle { \ mathsf { c } } } is the stiffness tensor. love waves are a special solution ( u { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { u } } ) that satisfy this system of equations. we typically use a cartesian coordinate system ( x, y, z { \ displaystyle x, y, z } ) to describe love waves. consider an isotropic linear elastic medium in which the elastic properties are functions of only the z { \ displaystyle z } coordinate, i. e., the lame parameters and the mass density can be expressed as λ ( z ), μ ( z ), ρ ( z ) { \ displaystyle \ lambda ( z ), \ mu ( z ), \ rho ( z ) }. displacements ( u, v, w ) { \ displaystyle ( u, v, w ) } produced by love waves as a function of time ( t { \ displaystyle t } ) have the form u ( x, y, z, t ) = 0, v ( x, y, z, t ) = v ^ ( x, z, t ), w ( x, y, z, t ) = 0. { \ displaystyle u ( x, y, z, t ) = 0 ~, ~ ~ v ( x, y, z, t ) = { \ hat { v } } ( x, z, t ) ~, ~ ~ w ( x, y, z, t ) = 0 \,. } these are therefore antiplane shear waves perpendicular to the ( x, z ) { \ displaystyle ( x, z ) } plane. the function v ^ ( x, z,
, and origin. seismic waves generated by earthquakes are high - frequency and short - lived. these characteristics allow seismologists to determine the hypocentre of an earthquake using first - arrival methods. in contrast, tremor signals are weak and extended in duration. furthermore, while earthquakes are caused by the rupture of faults, tremor is generally attributed to underground movement of fluids ( magmatic or hydrothermal ). as well as in subduction zones, tremor has been detected in transform faults such as the san andreas. in both the cascadia and nankai subduction zones, slow slip events are directly associated with tremor. in the cascadia subduction zone, slip events and seismological tremor signals are spatially and temporally coincident, but this relationship does not extend to the mexican subduction zone. furthermore, this association is not an intrinsic characteristic of slow slip events. in the hikurangi subduction zone, new zealand, episodic slip events are associated with distinct, reverse - faulted microearthquakes. two types of tremor have been identified : one associated with geodetic deformation ( as described above ), and one associated with 5 to 10 second bursts excited by distant earthquakes. the second type of tremor has been detected worldwide ; for example, it has been triggered in the san andreas fault by the 2002 denali earthquake and in taiwan by the 2001 kunlun earthquake. = = geological interpretation = = tremor is commonly associated with the underground movement of magmatic or hydrothermal fluids. as a plate is subducted into the mantle, it loses water from its porespace and due to phase changes of hydrous minerals ( such as amphibole ). it has been proposed that this liberation of water generates a supercritical fluid at the plate interface, lubricating plate motion. this supercritical fluid may open fractures in the surrounding rock, and that tremor is the seismological signal of this process. mathematical modelling has successfully reproduced the periodicity of episodic tremor and slip in the cascadia region by incorporating this dehydration effect. in this interpretation, tremor may be enhanced where the subducting oceanic crust is young, hot, and wet as opposed to older and colder. however, alternative models have also been proposed. tremor has been demonstrated to be influenced by tides or variable fluid flow through a fixed volume. tremor has also been attributed to shear slip at the plate interface. recent contributions in mathematical modelling reproduce the sequences of cascadia and hikurangi
a quake is the result when the surface of a planet, moon or star begins to shake, usually as the consequence of a sudden release of energy transmitted as seismic waves, and potentially with great violence. the types of quakes include earthquake, moonquake, marsquake, venusquake, sunquake, starquake, and mercuryquake. they can also all be referred to generically as earthquakes. = = earthquake = = an earthquake is a phenomenon that results from the sudden release of stored energy in the earth's crust that creates seismic waves. at the earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground and sometimes cause tsunamis, which may lead to loss of life and destruction of property. an earthquake is caused by tectonic plates ( sections of the earth's crust ) getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground. the strain becomes so great that rocks give way and fault lines occur. = = moonquake = = a moonquake is the lunar equivalent of an earthquake ( i. e., a quake on the moon ) although moonquakes are caused in different ways. they were first discovered by the apollo astronauts. the largest moonquakes are much weaker than the largest earthquakes, though their shaking can last for up to an hour, due to fewer attenuating factors to damp seismic vibrations. information about moonquakes comes from seismometers placed on the moon from 1969 through 1972. the instruments placed by the apollo 12, 14, 15 and 16 missions functioned perfectly until they were switched off in 1977. there are at least four kinds of moonquake : deep moonquakes ( ~ 700 km below the surface, probably tidal in origin ) meteorite impact vibrations thermal moonquakes ( the frigid lunar crust expands when sunlight returns after the two - week lunar night ) shallow moonquakes ( 50 – 220 kilometers below the surface ) the first three kinds of moonquakes mentioned above tend to be mild ; however, shallow moonquakes can register up to mb = 5. 5 on the body - wave magnitude scale. between 1972 and 1977, 28 shallow moonquakes were observed. deep moonquakes tend to occur within isolated kilometer - scale patches, sometimes referred to as nests or clusters. = = marsquake = = a marsquake is a quake that occurs on the planet mars. a 2012 study suggests that marsquakes may occur every million years. this suggestion is related to evidence found then of mars's
Answer:
|
fish
| null |
Earthquakes can shake
0. fish
1. flying birds
2. clouds
3. smoke
proposed. tremor has been demonstrated to be influenced by tides or variable fluid flow through a fixed volume. tremor has also been attributed to shear slip at the plate interface. recent contributions in mathematical modelling reproduce the sequences of cascadia and hikurangi ( new zealand ), and suggest in - situ dehydration as the cause for the episodic tremor and slip events. = = see also = = geodynamics plate tectonics seismology slow earthquake = = references = = = = external links = = natural resources canada
a harmonic tremor is a sustained release of seismic and infrasonic energy typically associated with the underground movement of magma, the venting of volcanic gases from magma, or both in volcanoes, and with repetitive stick - slip or other impulsive activity in non - volcanic systems. it is a long - duration release of seismic energy, often containing distinct spectral lines. volcanic tremor often precedes or accompanies a volcanic eruption. being a long - duration continuous signal from a temporally extended source tremor contrasts distinctly with transient and often impulsive sources of seismic radiation typically associated with earthquakes and explosions. nonvolcanic, episodic tremor at plate boundaries ( particularly in subduction zones ) has been attributed to swarms of long - period earthquakes and is distinguished by the term episodic tremor and slip ( ets ) and may occur during slow earthquakes. iceberg impacts with the seafloor or other icebergs can also generate distinct iceberg harmonic tremor signals that propagate to large distances as ocean acoustic and solid earth seismic wavefields. the source process of iceberg harmonic tremor has been attributed to highly repetitive quasi - periodic stick - slip at ice - seafloor or ice - ice contacts. the relation between long - period events and an imminent eruption was first observed by bernard chouet, a volcanologist who was working at the united states geological survey. = = see also = = volcano tectonic earthquake = = notes = = = = external links = = vogfjord, k. s. ( 2006 ). " seismicity, low frequency events and tremor at the katla subglacial volcano, iceland ". agu fall meeting abstracts. 2006. bibcode : 2006agufm. v41a1694v. the harmonic tremors of a volcanic eruption archived 2012 - 03 - 16 at the wayback machine
could predict an earthquake before it happened. however, they are simply more sensitive to ground vibrations than humans and are able to detect the subtler body waves that precede love waves, like the p - waves and the s - waves. = = basic theory = = the conservation of linear momentum of a linear elastic material can be written as ∇ ⋅ ( c : ∇ u ) = ρ u ¨ { \ displaystyle { \ boldsymbol { \ nabla } } \ cdot ( { \ mathsf { c } } : { \ boldsymbol { \ nabla } } \ mathbf { u } ) = \ rho ~ { \ ddot { \ mathbf { u } } } } where u { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { u } } is the displacement vector and c { \ displaystyle { \ mathsf { c } } } is the stiffness tensor. love waves are a special solution ( u { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { u } } ) that satisfy this system of equations. we typically use a cartesian coordinate system ( x, y, z { \ displaystyle x, y, z } ) to describe love waves. consider an isotropic linear elastic medium in which the elastic properties are functions of only the z { \ displaystyle z } coordinate, i. e., the lame parameters and the mass density can be expressed as λ ( z ), μ ( z ), ρ ( z ) { \ displaystyle \ lambda ( z ), \ mu ( z ), \ rho ( z ) }. displacements ( u, v, w ) { \ displaystyle ( u, v, w ) } produced by love waves as a function of time ( t { \ displaystyle t } ) have the form u ( x, y, z, t ) = 0, v ( x, y, z, t ) = v ^ ( x, z, t ), w ( x, y, z, t ) = 0. { \ displaystyle u ( x, y, z, t ) = 0 ~, ~ ~ v ( x, y, z, t ) = { \ hat { v } } ( x, z, t ) ~, ~ ~ w ( x, y, z, t ) = 0 \,. } these are therefore antiplane shear waves perpendicular to the ( x, z ) { \ displaystyle ( x, z ) } plane. the function v ^ ( x, z,
, and origin. seismic waves generated by earthquakes are high - frequency and short - lived. these characteristics allow seismologists to determine the hypocentre of an earthquake using first - arrival methods. in contrast, tremor signals are weak and extended in duration. furthermore, while earthquakes are caused by the rupture of faults, tremor is generally attributed to underground movement of fluids ( magmatic or hydrothermal ). as well as in subduction zones, tremor has been detected in transform faults such as the san andreas. in both the cascadia and nankai subduction zones, slow slip events are directly associated with tremor. in the cascadia subduction zone, slip events and seismological tremor signals are spatially and temporally coincident, but this relationship does not extend to the mexican subduction zone. furthermore, this association is not an intrinsic characteristic of slow slip events. in the hikurangi subduction zone, new zealand, episodic slip events are associated with distinct, reverse - faulted microearthquakes. two types of tremor have been identified : one associated with geodetic deformation ( as described above ), and one associated with 5 to 10 second bursts excited by distant earthquakes. the second type of tremor has been detected worldwide ; for example, it has been triggered in the san andreas fault by the 2002 denali earthquake and in taiwan by the 2001 kunlun earthquake. = = geological interpretation = = tremor is commonly associated with the underground movement of magmatic or hydrothermal fluids. as a plate is subducted into the mantle, it loses water from its porespace and due to phase changes of hydrous minerals ( such as amphibole ). it has been proposed that this liberation of water generates a supercritical fluid at the plate interface, lubricating plate motion. this supercritical fluid may open fractures in the surrounding rock, and that tremor is the seismological signal of this process. mathematical modelling has successfully reproduced the periodicity of episodic tremor and slip in the cascadia region by incorporating this dehydration effect. in this interpretation, tremor may be enhanced where the subducting oceanic crust is young, hot, and wet as opposed to older and colder. however, alternative models have also been proposed. tremor has been demonstrated to be influenced by tides or variable fluid flow through a fixed volume. tremor has also been attributed to shear slip at the plate interface. recent contributions in mathematical modelling reproduce the sequences of cascadia and hikurangi
a quake is the result when the surface of a planet, moon or star begins to shake, usually as the consequence of a sudden release of energy transmitted as seismic waves, and potentially with great violence. the types of quakes include earthquake, moonquake, marsquake, venusquake, sunquake, starquake, and mercuryquake. they can also all be referred to generically as earthquakes. = = earthquake = = an earthquake is a phenomenon that results from the sudden release of stored energy in the earth's crust that creates seismic waves. at the earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground and sometimes cause tsunamis, which may lead to loss of life and destruction of property. an earthquake is caused by tectonic plates ( sections of the earth's crust ) getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground. the strain becomes so great that rocks give way and fault lines occur. = = moonquake = = a moonquake is the lunar equivalent of an earthquake ( i. e., a quake on the moon ) although moonquakes are caused in different ways. they were first discovered by the apollo astronauts. the largest moonquakes are much weaker than the largest earthquakes, though their shaking can last for up to an hour, due to fewer attenuating factors to damp seismic vibrations. information about moonquakes comes from seismometers placed on the moon from 1969 through 1972. the instruments placed by the apollo 12, 14, 15 and 16 missions functioned perfectly until they were switched off in 1977. there are at least four kinds of moonquake : deep moonquakes ( ~ 700 km below the surface, probably tidal in origin ) meteorite impact vibrations thermal moonquakes ( the frigid lunar crust expands when sunlight returns after the two - week lunar night ) shallow moonquakes ( 50 – 220 kilometers below the surface ) the first three kinds of moonquakes mentioned above tend to be mild ; however, shallow moonquakes can register up to mb = 5. 5 on the body - wave magnitude scale. between 1972 and 1977, 28 shallow moonquakes were observed. deep moonquakes tend to occur within isolated kilometer - scale patches, sometimes referred to as nests or clusters. = = marsquake = = a marsquake is a quake that occurs on the planet mars. a 2012 study suggests that marsquakes may occur every million years. this suggestion is related to evidence found then of mars's
Answer:
|
clouds
| 0.3 |
An earthquake causes the ground to do what?
0. rain
1. erupt
2. calm
3. quiver
##4 / 2003 – you can identify the following categories : category a : homogeneous rock formations category b : compact granular or clayey soil category c : quite compact granular or clayey soil category d : not much compact granular or clayey soil category e : alluvial surface layer grounds ( very low quality soil ) the type of foundations is selected according to the type of ground ; for instance, in the case of homogeneous rock formations connected plinths are selected, while in the case of very low quality grounds plates are chosen. for further information about the various ways of building foundations see foundation ( architecture ). both grounds and structures can be more or less deformable ; their combination can or cannot cause the amplification of the seismic effects on the structure. ground, in fact, is a filter with respect to all the main seismic waves, as stiffer soil fosters high - frequency seismic waves while less compact soil accommodates lower frequency waves. therefore, a stiff building, characterized by a high fundamental frequency, suffers amplified damage when built on stiff ground and then subjected to higher frequencies. for instance, suppose there are two buildings that share the same high stiffness. they stand on two different soil types : the first, stiff and rocky — the second, sandy and deformable. if subjected to the same seismic event, the building on the stiff ground suffers greater damage. the second interaction effect, tied to mechanical properties of soil, is about the lowering ( sinking ) of foundations, worsened by the seismic event itself, especially about less compact grounds. this phenomenon is called soil liquefaction. = = mitigation = = the methods most used to mitigate the problem of the ground - structure interaction consist of the employment of the before - seen isolation systems and of some ground brace techniques, which are adopted above all on the low - quality ones ( categories d and e ). the most diffused techniques are the jet grouting technique and the pile work technique. the jet - grouting technique consists of injecting in the subsoil some liquid concrete by means of a drill. when this concrete hardens it forms a sort of column that consolidates the surrounding soil. this process is repeated on all areas of the structure. the pile work technique consists of using piles, which, once inserted in the ground, support the foundation and the building above, by moving the loads or the weights towards soil layers that are deeper and therefore more compact and movement - resistant. = = references = = = = external links =
a quake is the result when the surface of a planet, moon or star begins to shake, usually as the consequence of a sudden release of energy transmitted as seismic waves, and potentially with great violence. the types of quakes include earthquake, moonquake, marsquake, venusquake, sunquake, starquake, and mercuryquake. they can also all be referred to generically as earthquakes. = = earthquake = = an earthquake is a phenomenon that results from the sudden release of stored energy in the earth's crust that creates seismic waves. at the earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground and sometimes cause tsunamis, which may lead to loss of life and destruction of property. an earthquake is caused by tectonic plates ( sections of the earth's crust ) getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground. the strain becomes so great that rocks give way and fault lines occur. = = moonquake = = a moonquake is the lunar equivalent of an earthquake ( i. e., a quake on the moon ) although moonquakes are caused in different ways. they were first discovered by the apollo astronauts. the largest moonquakes are much weaker than the largest earthquakes, though their shaking can last for up to an hour, due to fewer attenuating factors to damp seismic vibrations. information about moonquakes comes from seismometers placed on the moon from 1969 through 1972. the instruments placed by the apollo 12, 14, 15 and 16 missions functioned perfectly until they were switched off in 1977. there are at least four kinds of moonquake : deep moonquakes ( ~ 700 km below the surface, probably tidal in origin ) meteorite impact vibrations thermal moonquakes ( the frigid lunar crust expands when sunlight returns after the two - week lunar night ) shallow moonquakes ( 50 – 220 kilometers below the surface ) the first three kinds of moonquakes mentioned above tend to be mild ; however, shallow moonquakes can register up to mb = 5. 5 on the body - wave magnitude scale. between 1972 and 1977, 28 shallow moonquakes were observed. deep moonquakes tend to occur within isolated kilometer - scale patches, sometimes referred to as nests or clusters. = = marsquake = = a marsquake is a quake that occurs on the planet mars. a 2012 study suggests that marsquakes may occur every million years. this suggestion is related to evidence found then of mars's
, and origin. seismic waves generated by earthquakes are high - frequency and short - lived. these characteristics allow seismologists to determine the hypocentre of an earthquake using first - arrival methods. in contrast, tremor signals are weak and extended in duration. furthermore, while earthquakes are caused by the rupture of faults, tremor is generally attributed to underground movement of fluids ( magmatic or hydrothermal ). as well as in subduction zones, tremor has been detected in transform faults such as the san andreas. in both the cascadia and nankai subduction zones, slow slip events are directly associated with tremor. in the cascadia subduction zone, slip events and seismological tremor signals are spatially and temporally coincident, but this relationship does not extend to the mexican subduction zone. furthermore, this association is not an intrinsic characteristic of slow slip events. in the hikurangi subduction zone, new zealand, episodic slip events are associated with distinct, reverse - faulted microearthquakes. two types of tremor have been identified : one associated with geodetic deformation ( as described above ), and one associated with 5 to 10 second bursts excited by distant earthquakes. the second type of tremor has been detected worldwide ; for example, it has been triggered in the san andreas fault by the 2002 denali earthquake and in taiwan by the 2001 kunlun earthquake. = = geological interpretation = = tremor is commonly associated with the underground movement of magmatic or hydrothermal fluids. as a plate is subducted into the mantle, it loses water from its porespace and due to phase changes of hydrous minerals ( such as amphibole ). it has been proposed that this liberation of water generates a supercritical fluid at the plate interface, lubricating plate motion. this supercritical fluid may open fractures in the surrounding rock, and that tremor is the seismological signal of this process. mathematical modelling has successfully reproduced the periodicity of episodic tremor and slip in the cascadia region by incorporating this dehydration effect. in this interpretation, tremor may be enhanced where the subducting oceanic crust is young, hot, and wet as opposed to older and colder. however, alternative models have also been proposed. tremor has been demonstrated to be influenced by tides or variable fluid flow through a fixed volume. tremor has also been attributed to shear slip at the plate interface. recent contributions in mathematical modelling reproduce the sequences of cascadia and hikurangi
deforestation excavation loading water management ( groundwater drawdown and water leakage ) land use ( e. g. construction of roads, houses etc. ) mining and quarrying vibration occasionally, even after detailed investigations, no trigger can be determined – this was the case in the large aoraki / mount cook landslide in new zealand 1991. it is unclear as to whether the lack of a trigger in such cases is the result of some unknown process acting within the landslide, or whether there was in fact a trigger, but it cannot be determined. the trigger may be due to a slow but steady decrease in material strength associated with the weathering of the rock – at some point the material becomes so weak that failure must occur. hence, the trigger is the weathering process, but this is not detectable externally. in most cases a trigger is thought as an external stimulus that induces an immediate or near - immediate response in the slope, in this case in the form of the movement of the landslide. generally, this movement is induced either because the stresses in the slope are altered by increasing shear stress or decreasing the effective normal stress, or by reducing the resistance to the movement perhaps by decreasing the shear strength of the materials within the landslide. = = = rainfall = = = in the majority of cases the main trigger of landslides is heavy or prolonged rainfall. generally this takes the form of either an exceptional short lived event, such as the passage of a tropical cyclone or even the rainfall associated with a particularly intense thunderstorm or of a long duration rainfall event with lower intensity, such as the cumulative effect of monsoon rainfall in south asia. in the former case it is usually necessary to have very high rainfall intensities, whereas in the latter the intensity of rainfall may be only moderate – it is the duration and existing pore water pressure conditions that are important. the importance of rainfall as a trigger for landslides cannot be overestimated. a global survey of landslide occurrence in the 12 months to the end of september 2003 revealed that there were 210 damaging landslide events worldwide. of these, over 90 % were triggered by heavy rainfall. one rainfall event for example in sri lanka in may 2003 triggered hundreds of landslides, killing 266 people and rendering over 300, 000 people temporarily homeless. in july 2003 an intense rain band associated with the annual asian monsoon tracked across central nepal, triggering 14 fatal landslides that killed 85 people. the reinsurance company swiss re estimated that rainfall induced landslides associated with the 1997 – 1998 el nino event triggered landslides along the west coast of
material in which the fragipan may develop through pedogenesis. = = mitigation methods = = mitigation methods have been devised by earthquake engineers and include various soil compaction techniques such as vibro compaction ( compaction of the soil by depth vibrators ), dynamic compaction, and vibro stone columns. these methods densify soil and enable buildings to avoid soil liquefaction. existing buildings can be mitigated by injecting grout into the soil to stabilize the layer of soil that is subject to liquefaction. another method called ips ( induced partial saturation ) is now practicable to apply on larger scale. in this method, the saturation degree of the soil is decreased. = = quicksand = = quicksand forms when water saturates an area of loose sand, and the sand is agitated. when the water trapped in the batch of sand cannot escape, it creates liquefied soil that can no longer resist force. quicksand can be formed by standing or ( upwards ) flowing underground water ( as from an underground spring ), or by earthquakes. in the case of flowing underground water, the force of the water flow opposes the force of gravity, causing the granules of sand to be more buoyant. in the case of earthquakes, the shaking force can increase the pressure of shallow groundwater, liquefying sand and silt deposits. in both cases, the liquefied surface loses strength, causing buildings or other objects on that surface to sink or fall over. the saturated sediment may appear quite solid until a change in pressure, or a shock initiates the liquefaction, causing the sand to form a suspension with each grain surrounded by a thin film of water. this cushioning gives quicksand, and other liquefied sediments, a spongy, fluidlike texture. objects in the liquefied sand sink to the level at which the weight of the object is equal to the weight of the displaced sand / water mix and the object floats due to its buoyancy. = = quick clay = = quick clay, known as leda clay in canada, is a water - saturated gel, which in its solid form resembles highly sensitive clay. this clay has a tendency to change from a relatively stiff condition to a liquid mass when it is disturbed. this gradual change in appearance from solid to liquid is a process known as spontaneous liquefaction. the clay retains a solid structure despite its high - water content
Answer:
|
quiver
| null |
An earthquake causes the ground to do what?
0. rain
1. erupt
2. calm
3. quiver
##4 / 2003 – you can identify the following categories : category a : homogeneous rock formations category b : compact granular or clayey soil category c : quite compact granular or clayey soil category d : not much compact granular or clayey soil category e : alluvial surface layer grounds ( very low quality soil ) the type of foundations is selected according to the type of ground ; for instance, in the case of homogeneous rock formations connected plinths are selected, while in the case of very low quality grounds plates are chosen. for further information about the various ways of building foundations see foundation ( architecture ). both grounds and structures can be more or less deformable ; their combination can or cannot cause the amplification of the seismic effects on the structure. ground, in fact, is a filter with respect to all the main seismic waves, as stiffer soil fosters high - frequency seismic waves while less compact soil accommodates lower frequency waves. therefore, a stiff building, characterized by a high fundamental frequency, suffers amplified damage when built on stiff ground and then subjected to higher frequencies. for instance, suppose there are two buildings that share the same high stiffness. they stand on two different soil types : the first, stiff and rocky — the second, sandy and deformable. if subjected to the same seismic event, the building on the stiff ground suffers greater damage. the second interaction effect, tied to mechanical properties of soil, is about the lowering ( sinking ) of foundations, worsened by the seismic event itself, especially about less compact grounds. this phenomenon is called soil liquefaction. = = mitigation = = the methods most used to mitigate the problem of the ground - structure interaction consist of the employment of the before - seen isolation systems and of some ground brace techniques, which are adopted above all on the low - quality ones ( categories d and e ). the most diffused techniques are the jet grouting technique and the pile work technique. the jet - grouting technique consists of injecting in the subsoil some liquid concrete by means of a drill. when this concrete hardens it forms a sort of column that consolidates the surrounding soil. this process is repeated on all areas of the structure. the pile work technique consists of using piles, which, once inserted in the ground, support the foundation and the building above, by moving the loads or the weights towards soil layers that are deeper and therefore more compact and movement - resistant. = = references = = = = external links =
a quake is the result when the surface of a planet, moon or star begins to shake, usually as the consequence of a sudden release of energy transmitted as seismic waves, and potentially with great violence. the types of quakes include earthquake, moonquake, marsquake, venusquake, sunquake, starquake, and mercuryquake. they can also all be referred to generically as earthquakes. = = earthquake = = an earthquake is a phenomenon that results from the sudden release of stored energy in the earth's crust that creates seismic waves. at the earth's surface, earthquakes may manifest themselves by a shaking or displacement of the ground and sometimes cause tsunamis, which may lead to loss of life and destruction of property. an earthquake is caused by tectonic plates ( sections of the earth's crust ) getting stuck and putting a strain on the ground. the strain becomes so great that rocks give way and fault lines occur. = = moonquake = = a moonquake is the lunar equivalent of an earthquake ( i. e., a quake on the moon ) although moonquakes are caused in different ways. they were first discovered by the apollo astronauts. the largest moonquakes are much weaker than the largest earthquakes, though their shaking can last for up to an hour, due to fewer attenuating factors to damp seismic vibrations. information about moonquakes comes from seismometers placed on the moon from 1969 through 1972. the instruments placed by the apollo 12, 14, 15 and 16 missions functioned perfectly until they were switched off in 1977. there are at least four kinds of moonquake : deep moonquakes ( ~ 700 km below the surface, probably tidal in origin ) meteorite impact vibrations thermal moonquakes ( the frigid lunar crust expands when sunlight returns after the two - week lunar night ) shallow moonquakes ( 50 – 220 kilometers below the surface ) the first three kinds of moonquakes mentioned above tend to be mild ; however, shallow moonquakes can register up to mb = 5. 5 on the body - wave magnitude scale. between 1972 and 1977, 28 shallow moonquakes were observed. deep moonquakes tend to occur within isolated kilometer - scale patches, sometimes referred to as nests or clusters. = = marsquake = = a marsquake is a quake that occurs on the planet mars. a 2012 study suggests that marsquakes may occur every million years. this suggestion is related to evidence found then of mars's
, and origin. seismic waves generated by earthquakes are high - frequency and short - lived. these characteristics allow seismologists to determine the hypocentre of an earthquake using first - arrival methods. in contrast, tremor signals are weak and extended in duration. furthermore, while earthquakes are caused by the rupture of faults, tremor is generally attributed to underground movement of fluids ( magmatic or hydrothermal ). as well as in subduction zones, tremor has been detected in transform faults such as the san andreas. in both the cascadia and nankai subduction zones, slow slip events are directly associated with tremor. in the cascadia subduction zone, slip events and seismological tremor signals are spatially and temporally coincident, but this relationship does not extend to the mexican subduction zone. furthermore, this association is not an intrinsic characteristic of slow slip events. in the hikurangi subduction zone, new zealand, episodic slip events are associated with distinct, reverse - faulted microearthquakes. two types of tremor have been identified : one associated with geodetic deformation ( as described above ), and one associated with 5 to 10 second bursts excited by distant earthquakes. the second type of tremor has been detected worldwide ; for example, it has been triggered in the san andreas fault by the 2002 denali earthquake and in taiwan by the 2001 kunlun earthquake. = = geological interpretation = = tremor is commonly associated with the underground movement of magmatic or hydrothermal fluids. as a plate is subducted into the mantle, it loses water from its porespace and due to phase changes of hydrous minerals ( such as amphibole ). it has been proposed that this liberation of water generates a supercritical fluid at the plate interface, lubricating plate motion. this supercritical fluid may open fractures in the surrounding rock, and that tremor is the seismological signal of this process. mathematical modelling has successfully reproduced the periodicity of episodic tremor and slip in the cascadia region by incorporating this dehydration effect. in this interpretation, tremor may be enhanced where the subducting oceanic crust is young, hot, and wet as opposed to older and colder. however, alternative models have also been proposed. tremor has been demonstrated to be influenced by tides or variable fluid flow through a fixed volume. tremor has also been attributed to shear slip at the plate interface. recent contributions in mathematical modelling reproduce the sequences of cascadia and hikurangi
deforestation excavation loading water management ( groundwater drawdown and water leakage ) land use ( e. g. construction of roads, houses etc. ) mining and quarrying vibration occasionally, even after detailed investigations, no trigger can be determined – this was the case in the large aoraki / mount cook landslide in new zealand 1991. it is unclear as to whether the lack of a trigger in such cases is the result of some unknown process acting within the landslide, or whether there was in fact a trigger, but it cannot be determined. the trigger may be due to a slow but steady decrease in material strength associated with the weathering of the rock – at some point the material becomes so weak that failure must occur. hence, the trigger is the weathering process, but this is not detectable externally. in most cases a trigger is thought as an external stimulus that induces an immediate or near - immediate response in the slope, in this case in the form of the movement of the landslide. generally, this movement is induced either because the stresses in the slope are altered by increasing shear stress or decreasing the effective normal stress, or by reducing the resistance to the movement perhaps by decreasing the shear strength of the materials within the landslide. = = = rainfall = = = in the majority of cases the main trigger of landslides is heavy or prolonged rainfall. generally this takes the form of either an exceptional short lived event, such as the passage of a tropical cyclone or even the rainfall associated with a particularly intense thunderstorm or of a long duration rainfall event with lower intensity, such as the cumulative effect of monsoon rainfall in south asia. in the former case it is usually necessary to have very high rainfall intensities, whereas in the latter the intensity of rainfall may be only moderate – it is the duration and existing pore water pressure conditions that are important. the importance of rainfall as a trigger for landslides cannot be overestimated. a global survey of landslide occurrence in the 12 months to the end of september 2003 revealed that there were 210 damaging landslide events worldwide. of these, over 90 % were triggered by heavy rainfall. one rainfall event for example in sri lanka in may 2003 triggered hundreds of landslides, killing 266 people and rendering over 300, 000 people temporarily homeless. in july 2003 an intense rain band associated with the annual asian monsoon tracked across central nepal, triggering 14 fatal landslides that killed 85 people. the reinsurance company swiss re estimated that rainfall induced landslides associated with the 1997 – 1998 el nino event triggered landslides along the west coast of
material in which the fragipan may develop through pedogenesis. = = mitigation methods = = mitigation methods have been devised by earthquake engineers and include various soil compaction techniques such as vibro compaction ( compaction of the soil by depth vibrators ), dynamic compaction, and vibro stone columns. these methods densify soil and enable buildings to avoid soil liquefaction. existing buildings can be mitigated by injecting grout into the soil to stabilize the layer of soil that is subject to liquefaction. another method called ips ( induced partial saturation ) is now practicable to apply on larger scale. in this method, the saturation degree of the soil is decreased. = = quicksand = = quicksand forms when water saturates an area of loose sand, and the sand is agitated. when the water trapped in the batch of sand cannot escape, it creates liquefied soil that can no longer resist force. quicksand can be formed by standing or ( upwards ) flowing underground water ( as from an underground spring ), or by earthquakes. in the case of flowing underground water, the force of the water flow opposes the force of gravity, causing the granules of sand to be more buoyant. in the case of earthquakes, the shaking force can increase the pressure of shallow groundwater, liquefying sand and silt deposits. in both cases, the liquefied surface loses strength, causing buildings or other objects on that surface to sink or fall over. the saturated sediment may appear quite solid until a change in pressure, or a shock initiates the liquefaction, causing the sand to form a suspension with each grain surrounded by a thin film of water. this cushioning gives quicksand, and other liquefied sediments, a spongy, fluidlike texture. objects in the liquefied sand sink to the level at which the weight of the object is equal to the weight of the displaced sand / water mix and the object floats due to its buoyancy. = = quick clay = = quick clay, known as leda clay in canada, is a water - saturated gel, which in its solid form resembles highly sensitive clay. this clay has a tendency to change from a relatively stiff condition to a liquid mass when it is disturbed. this gradual change in appearance from solid to liquid is a process known as spontaneous liquefaction. the clay retains a solid structure despite its high - water content
Answer:
|
erupt
| 0.3 |
What does the earth orbit that causes the seasons to change?
0. venus
1. pluto
2. neptune
3. plasma star
/ s, in neptune's atmosphere. several large storm systems have been identified, including the great dark spot, a cyclonic storm system the size of eurasia, the scooter, a white cloud group further south than the great dark spot, and the wizard's eye / dark spot 2, a southern cyclonic storm. neptune, the farthest planet from earth, has increased in brightness since 1980. neptune's brightness is statistically correlated with its stratospheric temperature. hammel and lockwood hypothesize that the change in brightness includes a solar variation component as well as a seasonal component, though they did not find a statistically significant correlation with solar variation. they propose that the resolution of this issue will be clarified by brightness observations in the next few years : forcing by a change in sub - solar latitude should be reflected in a flattening and decline of brightness, while solar forcing should be reflected in a flattening and then resumed rise of brightness. = = other bodies in the solar system = = = = = natural satellites = = = ten of the many natural satellites in the solar system are known to have atmospheres : europa, io, callisto, enceladus, ganymede, titan, rhea, dione, triton and earth's moon. ganymede and europa both have very tenuous oxygen atmospheres, thought to be produced by radiation splitting the water ice present on the surface of these moons into hydrogen and oxygen. io has an extremely thin atmosphere consisting mainly of sulfur dioxide ( so2 ), arising from volcanism and sunlight - driven sublimation of surface sulfur dioxide deposits. the atmosphere of enceladus is also extremely thin and variable, consisting mainly of water vapor, nitrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide vented from the moon's interior through cryovolcanism. the extremely thin carbon dioxide atmosphere of callisto is thought to be replenished by sublimation from surface deposits. = = = = moon = = = = = = = = titan = = = = titan has by far the densest atmosphere of any moon. the titanian atmosphere is in fact denser than earth's, with a surface pressure of 147 kpa, one and a half times that of the earth. the atmosphere is 94. 2 % nitrogen, 5. 65 % methane, and 0. 099 % hydrogen, with the remaining 1. 6 % composed of other gases such as hydrocarbons ( including ethane
spacecraft orbits, sun - synchronous orbits, have orbital periods that are a fraction of a synodic day. combined with a nodal precession, this allows them to always pass over a location on earth's surface at the same mean solar time. = = the moon = = due to tidal locking with earth, the moon's synodic day ( the lunar day or synodic rotation period ) is the same as its synodic period with earth and the sun ( the period of the lunar phases, the synodic lunar month, which is the month of the lunar calendar ). = = venus = = due to the slow retrograde rotational speed of venus, its synodic rotation period of 117 earth days is about half the length of its sidereal rotational period ( sidereal day ) and even its orbital period. = = mercury = = due to mercury's slow rotational speed and fast orbit around the sun, its synodic rotation period of 176 earth days is three times longer than its sidereal rotational period ( sidereal day ) and twice as long as its orbital period. = = see also = = noon § solar noon orbital period rotation period sidereal time solar rotation solar time sun transit time synodic month day length fluctuations = = references = =
cyclostratigraphy is a subdiscipline of stratigraphy that studies astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions. = = orbital changes = = astronomical cycles ( also known as milankovitch cycles ) are variations of the earth's orbit around the sun due to the gravitational interaction with other masses within the solar system. due to this cyclicity, solar irradiation differs through time on different hemispheres and seasonality is affected. these insolation variations have influence on earth's climate and on the deposition of sedimentary rocks. the main orbital cycles are precession with main periods of 19 and 23 kyr, obliquity with main periods of 41 kyr, and 1. 2 myr, and eccentricity with main periods of around 100 kyr, 405 kyr, and 2. 4 myr. precession influences how much insolation each hemisphere receives. obliquity controls the intensity of the seasons. eccentricity influences how much insolation the earth receives altogether. varied insolation directly influences earth's climate, and changes in precipitation and weathering are revealed in the sedimentary record. the 405 kyr eccentricity cycle helps correct chronologies in rocks or sediment cores when variable sedimentation makes them difficult to assign. indicators of these cycles in sediments include rock magnetism, geochemistry, biological composition, and physical features like color and facies changes. = = dating methods and applications = = to determine the time range of a cyclostratigraphic study, rocks are dated using radiometric dating and other stratigraphic methods. once the time range is calibrated, the rocks are examined for milankovitch signals. from there, ages can be assigned to the sediment layers based on the astronomical signals they contain. cyclostratigraphic studies of rock records can lead to accurate dating of events in the geological past, to increase understanding of cause and consequences of earth's ( climate ) history, and to better understand controls on depositional mechanisms of sediments and the behaviour of sedimentary systems. cyclostratigraphy also aids the study of planetary physics, because it provides information on astronomical cycles that extends beyond 50 ma ( astronomical models are not accurate beyond this ). assigning time ranges to these astronomical cycles can be used to calibrate 40ar / 39ar dating. = = limitations = = uncertainties also arise when using cyclostratigraphy. using radioisotope dating to set parameters for time scales introduces a degree of
ecliptic latitude is low. this happens when the moon is around either of the two orbital nodes on the ecliptic at the time of the syzygy. of course, to produce an eclipse, the sun must also be around a node at that time – the same node for a solar eclipse or the opposite node for a lunar eclipse. = = recurrences = = up to three eclipses may occur during an eclipse season, a one - or two - month period that happens twice a year, around the time when the sun is near the nodes of the moon's orbit. an eclipse does not occur every month, because one month after an eclipse the relative geometry of the sun, moon, and earth has changed. as seen from the earth, the time it takes for the moon to return to a node, the draconic month, is less than the time it takes for the moon to return to the same ecliptic longitude as the sun : the synodic month. the main reason is that during the time that the moon has completed an orbit around the earth, the earth ( and moon ) have completed about 1⁄13 of their orbit around the sun : the moon has to make up for this in order to come again into conjunction or opposition with the sun. secondly, the orbital nodes of the moon precess westward in ecliptic longitude, completing a full circle in about 18. 60 years, so a draconic month is shorter than a sidereal month. in all, the difference in period between synodic and draconic month is nearly 2 + 1⁄3 days. likewise, as seen from the earth, the sun passes both nodes as it moves along its ecliptic path. the period for the sun to return to a node is called the eclipse or draconic year : about 346. 6201 days, which is about 1⁄20 year shorter than a sidereal year because of the precession of the nodes. if a solar eclipse occurs at one new moon, which must be close to a node, then at the next full moon the moon is already more than a day past its opposite node, and may or may not miss the earth's shadow. by the next new moon it is even further ahead of the node, so it is less likely that there will be a solar eclipse somewhere on earth. by the next month, there will certainly be no event. however, about 5 or 6 lunations later the new moon will fall close to the opposite node
phenomena influenced by the solar wind include aurora, geomagnetic storms, and the plasma tails of comets. solstice either of the two precise times of year when the sun reaches its most northerly or most southerly point in the sky as seen from earth ; or, equivalently, when the sun's apparent geocentric longitude is either 90 degrees or 270 degrees. the solstices occur on or near june 20 and december 21 each year. the june solstice, called the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere, is the annual date featuring the longest duration of daylight and the shortest duration of nighttime for any given point in the northern hemisphere ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere, where the june date is the winter solstice. spectral classification see stellar classification. spectroscopic binary a type of binary star system where the individual components have not been resolved with a telescope. instead, the evidence for the binarity comes from shifts observed in the spectrum. this is caused by the doppler effect as the radial velocity of the components change over the course of each orbit. spectroscopy speed of light spherical astronomy also positional astronomy. a branch of observational astronomy which is used to locate the positions of astronomical objects on the celestial sphere as they would appear from a particular date, time, and location on earth. it relies on the mathematical methods of spherical geometry and the measurements of astrometry. spiral galaxy standard gravity ( ɡ0 or ɡn ) also standard acceleration due to gravity. the nominal gravitational acceleration of an object in a vacuum near the surface of the earth, as a result of earth's gravity and, less importantly, the centrifugal force generated by its rotation. it is by definition equal to 9. 80665 m / s2 ( approximately 32. 17405 ft / s2 ). star a massive, luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity which, for at least a portion of its life, radiates energy into outer space due to the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium within its core. astronomers can determine the mass, age, platemperature, chemical composition, and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space, its luminosity, and its emission spectrum. star catalogue also spelled star catalog. star cluster star system also stellar system. any small number of stars that orbit each other, bound by gravitational attraction, such as a binary star system. in the broadest sense, very large groups of stars
Answer:
|
plasma star
| null |
What does the earth orbit that causes the seasons to change?
0. venus
1. pluto
2. neptune
3. plasma star
/ s, in neptune's atmosphere. several large storm systems have been identified, including the great dark spot, a cyclonic storm system the size of eurasia, the scooter, a white cloud group further south than the great dark spot, and the wizard's eye / dark spot 2, a southern cyclonic storm. neptune, the farthest planet from earth, has increased in brightness since 1980. neptune's brightness is statistically correlated with its stratospheric temperature. hammel and lockwood hypothesize that the change in brightness includes a solar variation component as well as a seasonal component, though they did not find a statistically significant correlation with solar variation. they propose that the resolution of this issue will be clarified by brightness observations in the next few years : forcing by a change in sub - solar latitude should be reflected in a flattening and decline of brightness, while solar forcing should be reflected in a flattening and then resumed rise of brightness. = = other bodies in the solar system = = = = = natural satellites = = = ten of the many natural satellites in the solar system are known to have atmospheres : europa, io, callisto, enceladus, ganymede, titan, rhea, dione, triton and earth's moon. ganymede and europa both have very tenuous oxygen atmospheres, thought to be produced by radiation splitting the water ice present on the surface of these moons into hydrogen and oxygen. io has an extremely thin atmosphere consisting mainly of sulfur dioxide ( so2 ), arising from volcanism and sunlight - driven sublimation of surface sulfur dioxide deposits. the atmosphere of enceladus is also extremely thin and variable, consisting mainly of water vapor, nitrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide vented from the moon's interior through cryovolcanism. the extremely thin carbon dioxide atmosphere of callisto is thought to be replenished by sublimation from surface deposits. = = = = moon = = = = = = = = titan = = = = titan has by far the densest atmosphere of any moon. the titanian atmosphere is in fact denser than earth's, with a surface pressure of 147 kpa, one and a half times that of the earth. the atmosphere is 94. 2 % nitrogen, 5. 65 % methane, and 0. 099 % hydrogen, with the remaining 1. 6 % composed of other gases such as hydrocarbons ( including ethane
spacecraft orbits, sun - synchronous orbits, have orbital periods that are a fraction of a synodic day. combined with a nodal precession, this allows them to always pass over a location on earth's surface at the same mean solar time. = = the moon = = due to tidal locking with earth, the moon's synodic day ( the lunar day or synodic rotation period ) is the same as its synodic period with earth and the sun ( the period of the lunar phases, the synodic lunar month, which is the month of the lunar calendar ). = = venus = = due to the slow retrograde rotational speed of venus, its synodic rotation period of 117 earth days is about half the length of its sidereal rotational period ( sidereal day ) and even its orbital period. = = mercury = = due to mercury's slow rotational speed and fast orbit around the sun, its synodic rotation period of 176 earth days is three times longer than its sidereal rotational period ( sidereal day ) and twice as long as its orbital period. = = see also = = noon § solar noon orbital period rotation period sidereal time solar rotation solar time sun transit time synodic month day length fluctuations = = references = =
cyclostratigraphy is a subdiscipline of stratigraphy that studies astronomically forced climate cycles within sedimentary successions. = = orbital changes = = astronomical cycles ( also known as milankovitch cycles ) are variations of the earth's orbit around the sun due to the gravitational interaction with other masses within the solar system. due to this cyclicity, solar irradiation differs through time on different hemispheres and seasonality is affected. these insolation variations have influence on earth's climate and on the deposition of sedimentary rocks. the main orbital cycles are precession with main periods of 19 and 23 kyr, obliquity with main periods of 41 kyr, and 1. 2 myr, and eccentricity with main periods of around 100 kyr, 405 kyr, and 2. 4 myr. precession influences how much insolation each hemisphere receives. obliquity controls the intensity of the seasons. eccentricity influences how much insolation the earth receives altogether. varied insolation directly influences earth's climate, and changes in precipitation and weathering are revealed in the sedimentary record. the 405 kyr eccentricity cycle helps correct chronologies in rocks or sediment cores when variable sedimentation makes them difficult to assign. indicators of these cycles in sediments include rock magnetism, geochemistry, biological composition, and physical features like color and facies changes. = = dating methods and applications = = to determine the time range of a cyclostratigraphic study, rocks are dated using radiometric dating and other stratigraphic methods. once the time range is calibrated, the rocks are examined for milankovitch signals. from there, ages can be assigned to the sediment layers based on the astronomical signals they contain. cyclostratigraphic studies of rock records can lead to accurate dating of events in the geological past, to increase understanding of cause and consequences of earth's ( climate ) history, and to better understand controls on depositional mechanisms of sediments and the behaviour of sedimentary systems. cyclostratigraphy also aids the study of planetary physics, because it provides information on astronomical cycles that extends beyond 50 ma ( astronomical models are not accurate beyond this ). assigning time ranges to these astronomical cycles can be used to calibrate 40ar / 39ar dating. = = limitations = = uncertainties also arise when using cyclostratigraphy. using radioisotope dating to set parameters for time scales introduces a degree of
ecliptic latitude is low. this happens when the moon is around either of the two orbital nodes on the ecliptic at the time of the syzygy. of course, to produce an eclipse, the sun must also be around a node at that time – the same node for a solar eclipse or the opposite node for a lunar eclipse. = = recurrences = = up to three eclipses may occur during an eclipse season, a one - or two - month period that happens twice a year, around the time when the sun is near the nodes of the moon's orbit. an eclipse does not occur every month, because one month after an eclipse the relative geometry of the sun, moon, and earth has changed. as seen from the earth, the time it takes for the moon to return to a node, the draconic month, is less than the time it takes for the moon to return to the same ecliptic longitude as the sun : the synodic month. the main reason is that during the time that the moon has completed an orbit around the earth, the earth ( and moon ) have completed about 1⁄13 of their orbit around the sun : the moon has to make up for this in order to come again into conjunction or opposition with the sun. secondly, the orbital nodes of the moon precess westward in ecliptic longitude, completing a full circle in about 18. 60 years, so a draconic month is shorter than a sidereal month. in all, the difference in period between synodic and draconic month is nearly 2 + 1⁄3 days. likewise, as seen from the earth, the sun passes both nodes as it moves along its ecliptic path. the period for the sun to return to a node is called the eclipse or draconic year : about 346. 6201 days, which is about 1⁄20 year shorter than a sidereal year because of the precession of the nodes. if a solar eclipse occurs at one new moon, which must be close to a node, then at the next full moon the moon is already more than a day past its opposite node, and may or may not miss the earth's shadow. by the next new moon it is even further ahead of the node, so it is less likely that there will be a solar eclipse somewhere on earth. by the next month, there will certainly be no event. however, about 5 or 6 lunations later the new moon will fall close to the opposite node
phenomena influenced by the solar wind include aurora, geomagnetic storms, and the plasma tails of comets. solstice either of the two precise times of year when the sun reaches its most northerly or most southerly point in the sky as seen from earth ; or, equivalently, when the sun's apparent geocentric longitude is either 90 degrees or 270 degrees. the solstices occur on or near june 20 and december 21 each year. the june solstice, called the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere, is the annual date featuring the longest duration of daylight and the shortest duration of nighttime for any given point in the northern hemisphere ; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere, where the june date is the winter solstice. spectral classification see stellar classification. spectroscopic binary a type of binary star system where the individual components have not been resolved with a telescope. instead, the evidence for the binarity comes from shifts observed in the spectrum. this is caused by the doppler effect as the radial velocity of the components change over the course of each orbit. spectroscopy speed of light spherical astronomy also positional astronomy. a branch of observational astronomy which is used to locate the positions of astronomical objects on the celestial sphere as they would appear from a particular date, time, and location on earth. it relies on the mathematical methods of spherical geometry and the measurements of astrometry. spiral galaxy standard gravity ( ɡ0 or ɡn ) also standard acceleration due to gravity. the nominal gravitational acceleration of an object in a vacuum near the surface of the earth, as a result of earth's gravity and, less importantly, the centrifugal force generated by its rotation. it is by definition equal to 9. 80665 m / s2 ( approximately 32. 17405 ft / s2 ). star a massive, luminous spheroid of plasma held together by its own gravity which, for at least a portion of its life, radiates energy into outer space due to the thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium within its core. astronomers can determine the mass, age, platemperature, chemical composition, and many other properties of a star by observing its motion through space, its luminosity, and its emission spectrum. star catalogue also spelled star catalog. star cluster star system also stellar system. any small number of stars that orbit each other, bound by gravitational attraction, such as a binary star system. in the broadest sense, very large groups of stars
Answer:
|
neptune
| 0.3 |
Shelter is one of the basic human needs along with food, water, and
0. companionship
1. art
2. tools
3. music
terms of'waves'of different needs overlapping at the same time. as illustrated, the peak of an earlier main set of needs must be passed before the next'higher'need can begin to assume a dominant role. other schematic illustrations of the hierarchy use overlapping triangles to depict the interaction of the different needs. one such updated hierarchy proposes that self - actualization is removed from its privileged place atop the pyramid because it is largely subsumed within status ( esteem ) and mating - related motives in the new framework. = = needs = = = = = physiological needs = = = physiological needs are the base of the hierarchy. these needs are the biological component for human survival. according to maslow's hierarchy of needs, physiological needs are factored into internal motivation. according to maslow's theory, humans are compelled to satisfy physiological needs first to pursue higher levels of intrinsic satisfaction. to advance higher - level needs in maslow's hierarchy, physiological needs must be met first. this means that if a person is struggling to meet their physiological needs, they are unwilling to seek safety, belonging, esteem, and self - actualization on their own. physiological needs include : air, water, food, heat, clothes, reproduction, shelter and sleep. many of these physiological needs must be met for the human body to remain in homeostasis. air, for example, is a physiological need ; a human being requires air more urgently than higher - level needs, such as a sense of social belonging. physiological needs are critical to " meet the very basic essentials of life ". this allows for cravings such as hunger and thirst to be satisfied and not disrupt the regulation of the body. = = = safety needs = = = once a person's physiological needs are satisfied, their safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. in the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, etc. and / or in the absence of economic safety – ( due to an economic crisis and lack of work opportunities ) these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. this level is more likely to predominate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe – especially children who have disabilities. adults are also impacted by this, typically in economic matters ; " adults are not immune to the need of safety ". it includes shelter, job security
##inate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe – especially children who have disabilities. adults are also impacted by this, typically in economic matters ; " adults are not immune to the need of safety ". it includes shelter, job security, health, and safe environments. if a person does not feel safe in an environment, they will seek safety before attempting to meet any higher level of survival. this is why the " goal of consistently meeting the need for safety is to have stability in one's life ", stability brings back the concept of homeostasis for humans which our bodies need. safety needs include : health personal security emotional security financial security = = = love and social needs = = = after physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness. according to maslow, humans possess an effective need for a sense of belonging and acceptance among social groups, regardless of whether these groups are large or small ; being a part of a group is crucial, regardless if it is work, sports, friends or family. the sense of belongingness is " being comfortable with and connection to others that results from receiving acceptance, respect, and love. " for example, some large social groups may include clubs, co - workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs or online communities. some examples of small social connections include family members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. humans need to love and be loved – both sexually and non - sexually – by others according to maslow. many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element. this need is especially strong in childhood and it can override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. deficiencies due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. can adversely affect the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general. mental health can be a huge factor when it comes to an individual's needs and development. when an individual's needs are not met, it can cause depression during adolescence. when an individual grows up in a higher - income family, it is much more likely that they will have a lower rate of depression. this is because all of their basic needs are met. studies have shown that when a family goes through financial stress for a prolonged time, depression rates are higher, not only because their basic needs are not
in creating attachment. in these experiments, infant monkeys were separated from their biological mothers and given the choice between two inanimate surrogate mothers : one made of wire and wood and one made of foam and cloth. in addition, the monkeys were assigned one of two conditions : one condition where the wire mother provided milk while the cloth mother had no food to offer, and the other condition where the cloth mother provided food while the wire mother did not. in both conditions, the infant monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother, clinging to it for comfort and security even though it did not provide nourishment. the infant monkeys'preference highlighted the importance of comfort, warmth, and emotional security over mere sustenance. harlow ’ s work provided strong support for bowlby ’ s claim that the need for affection and emotional security is a fundamental aspect of earlier development, also influencing later social and emotional outcomes. clearly, children need more than just food and shelter ; they require emotional attunement and a reliable source of comfort to develop a sense of security. this introduces the importance of having a “ secure base. ” a secure base allows children to confidently explore their environment, knowing that they have a supportive caregiver to return to when distressed. this level of responsiveness, as well as warmth and responsiveness, is critical for successful relationships and attachment. the attachment theory has also been extended into the adult relationship domain. adult romantic attachment has been reviewed by fraley and shaver ( 2000 ), who advocated that attachment behaviors are observed in infancy. seeking proximity and secure base responses were also present in adult romantic relationships this review illustrates how the attachment framework can be applied across the lifespan and highlights ongoing debates about continuity, measurements, and individual differences. together, both the theoretical advances and empirical studies underscore the importance of early relational experiences. it also supports the broader application of attachment theory in various contexts across developmental stages and relationships. = = attachment patterns = = the strength of a child's attachment behaviour in a given circumstance does not indicate the " strength " of the attachment bond. some insecure children will routinely display very pronounced attachment behaviours, while many secure children find that there is no great need to engage in either intense or frequent shows of attachment behaviour. individuals with different attachment styles have different beliefs about romantic love period, availability, trust capability of love partners and love readiness. = = = secure attachment = = = a toddler who is securely attached to his or her parent ( or other familiar caregiver ) will explore freely while the caregi
person to build his own house is made available to society, supported by the emergence of new materials such as plastics, which are characterized by their lightness and ease of transport, as well as making it possible to simplify the joining of different parts. each person is the owner of their own environment, their own habitat. it is possible for the individual to become a contemporary nomad. moreover, the user is the one who decides whether it works and must remain or whether it has finished its task. = = main authors = = = = = antfarm = = = at the end of the 60s in the united states, antfarm, a collective of architects, philosophers, filmmakers and artists arose that produced numerous performances, audiovisuals, collections of slides such as the enviro - images, television programs clandestine top value television, inflatable architecture manuals like the inflatocookbook, manifestos like the nomadic cowboy, or bound books like reality, all with the aim of proposing new environments for a new way of life. a proposal with different mobile, inflatable, mechanical and technological elements that produce the necessary effects to make any support habitable with a vital, alternative, nomadic, utopian and experimental architecture, as he believes that " today's ambiguous society forces static patterns of life. " = = = archigram = = = founded in 1962 by warren chalk, peter cook, dennis crompton, david greene, rom herrom and michael webb, archigram made a series of technological, futuristic and utopian proposals that bet on an ephemeral architecture destined to be consumed like any other product of society. = = = future systems = = = based in england and founded by jan kaplicky and amanda levete, future systems propose three technological, mobile, transformable, autonomous, sustainable, capsule, prefabricated, lightweight houses, using solar energy and wind energy. on the one hand, they could be understood as a revision and updating of the fundamental aspects raised from buckminster fuller to the generation of the masters of the 60s with whom kaplicky and levete were trained, and on the other hand, as visionaries of the world to come from the 21st century. = = = shigeru ban = = = shigeru ban manages to develop an emergency architecture from the social responsibility of the architect through experimentation and new ( old ) materials, the low cost, the temporal dimension, the low tech, the existing, the structural design, the
spaces allocated to them in state - run camps at the city ’ s outskirts as their living spaces and relocate to the city centre. in search of alternative forms of habitation, they enact appropriation against private property institutions and practices, which often take the form of squats of abandoned buildings in the city centre in collaboration with local solidarity groups. once occupied, these buildings become novel forms of habitation with strong elements of commoning and cohabitation. hundreds of newcomers experiment with these forms of co - living and togetherness, often together with local and european activists. apart from meeting housing needs, these housing forms become significant tools for refugees to participate in the urban social and political life. therefore, though precarious, vulnerable and ephemeral, these new forms of cohabitation produced by refugees claim a right to the city ; they act,'cry and demand'freedom of movement, appropriation of housing, cohabitation and collective participation in a'renewed urban life '. given these characteristics, [ tsavdaroglou and kaika ] argue that the lefebvrian concept of the right to the city is most appropriate for understanding and explaining the refugees'self - organised housing practices. " = = criticism = = later versions of the concept were criticised with concerns on how the original vision of henri lefevbre was reduced to a " citizenship vision ", focused only on the implementation of social and economic rights in the city, leaving aside the transformatory nature and the role of social conflict of the original concept. marcelo lopes de souza has for instance argued that as the right to the city has become " fashionable these days ", " the price of this has often been the trivialisation and corruption of lefebvre's concept " and called for fidelity to the original radical meaning of the idea. = = see also = = human rights city progressivism decommodification = = references = = = = further reading = = samara, tony roshan ( june 2007 ). " grassroots organizing : right to the city ". z magazine. 20 ( 6 ). archived from the original on 2007 - 11 - 06. = = external links = = world charter for the right to the city ( pdf ) z world charter for the right to the city ( html ) proposal for a charter for women's right to the city proposals and experiencies towards the right to the city, ana sugranyes and charlotte mathivet ( editors ) 03 - 16 - 2010
Answer:
|
companionship
| null |
Shelter is one of the basic human needs along with food, water, and
0. companionship
1. art
2. tools
3. music
terms of'waves'of different needs overlapping at the same time. as illustrated, the peak of an earlier main set of needs must be passed before the next'higher'need can begin to assume a dominant role. other schematic illustrations of the hierarchy use overlapping triangles to depict the interaction of the different needs. one such updated hierarchy proposes that self - actualization is removed from its privileged place atop the pyramid because it is largely subsumed within status ( esteem ) and mating - related motives in the new framework. = = needs = = = = = physiological needs = = = physiological needs are the base of the hierarchy. these needs are the biological component for human survival. according to maslow's hierarchy of needs, physiological needs are factored into internal motivation. according to maslow's theory, humans are compelled to satisfy physiological needs first to pursue higher levels of intrinsic satisfaction. to advance higher - level needs in maslow's hierarchy, physiological needs must be met first. this means that if a person is struggling to meet their physiological needs, they are unwilling to seek safety, belonging, esteem, and self - actualization on their own. physiological needs include : air, water, food, heat, clothes, reproduction, shelter and sleep. many of these physiological needs must be met for the human body to remain in homeostasis. air, for example, is a physiological need ; a human being requires air more urgently than higher - level needs, such as a sense of social belonging. physiological needs are critical to " meet the very basic essentials of life ". this allows for cravings such as hunger and thirst to be satisfied and not disrupt the regulation of the body. = = = safety needs = = = once a person's physiological needs are satisfied, their safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. in the absence of physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood abuse, etc. and / or in the absence of economic safety – ( due to an economic crisis and lack of work opportunities ) these safety needs manifest themselves in ways such as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. this level is more likely to predominate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe – especially children who have disabilities. adults are also impacted by this, typically in economic matters ; " adults are not immune to the need of safety ". it includes shelter, job security
##inate in children as they generally have a greater need to feel safe – especially children who have disabilities. adults are also impacted by this, typically in economic matters ; " adults are not immune to the need of safety ". it includes shelter, job security, health, and safe environments. if a person does not feel safe in an environment, they will seek safety before attempting to meet any higher level of survival. this is why the " goal of consistently meeting the need for safety is to have stability in one's life ", stability brings back the concept of homeostasis for humans which our bodies need. safety needs include : health personal security emotional security financial security = = = love and social needs = = = after physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third level of human needs is interpersonal and involves feelings of belongingness. according to maslow, humans possess an effective need for a sense of belonging and acceptance among social groups, regardless of whether these groups are large or small ; being a part of a group is crucial, regardless if it is work, sports, friends or family. the sense of belongingness is " being comfortable with and connection to others that results from receiving acceptance, respect, and love. " for example, some large social groups may include clubs, co - workers, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs or online communities. some examples of small social connections include family members, intimate partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. humans need to love and be loved – both sexually and non - sexually – by others according to maslow. many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression in the absence of this love or belonging element. this need is especially strong in childhood and it can override the need for safety as witnessed in children who cling to abusive parents. deficiencies due to hospitalism, neglect, shunning, ostracism, etc. can adversely affect the individual's ability to form and maintain emotionally significant relationships in general. mental health can be a huge factor when it comes to an individual's needs and development. when an individual's needs are not met, it can cause depression during adolescence. when an individual grows up in a higher - income family, it is much more likely that they will have a lower rate of depression. this is because all of their basic needs are met. studies have shown that when a family goes through financial stress for a prolonged time, depression rates are higher, not only because their basic needs are not
in creating attachment. in these experiments, infant monkeys were separated from their biological mothers and given the choice between two inanimate surrogate mothers : one made of wire and wood and one made of foam and cloth. in addition, the monkeys were assigned one of two conditions : one condition where the wire mother provided milk while the cloth mother had no food to offer, and the other condition where the cloth mother provided food while the wire mother did not. in both conditions, the infant monkeys overwhelmingly preferred the cloth mother, clinging to it for comfort and security even though it did not provide nourishment. the infant monkeys'preference highlighted the importance of comfort, warmth, and emotional security over mere sustenance. harlow ’ s work provided strong support for bowlby ’ s claim that the need for affection and emotional security is a fundamental aspect of earlier development, also influencing later social and emotional outcomes. clearly, children need more than just food and shelter ; they require emotional attunement and a reliable source of comfort to develop a sense of security. this introduces the importance of having a “ secure base. ” a secure base allows children to confidently explore their environment, knowing that they have a supportive caregiver to return to when distressed. this level of responsiveness, as well as warmth and responsiveness, is critical for successful relationships and attachment. the attachment theory has also been extended into the adult relationship domain. adult romantic attachment has been reviewed by fraley and shaver ( 2000 ), who advocated that attachment behaviors are observed in infancy. seeking proximity and secure base responses were also present in adult romantic relationships this review illustrates how the attachment framework can be applied across the lifespan and highlights ongoing debates about continuity, measurements, and individual differences. together, both the theoretical advances and empirical studies underscore the importance of early relational experiences. it also supports the broader application of attachment theory in various contexts across developmental stages and relationships. = = attachment patterns = = the strength of a child's attachment behaviour in a given circumstance does not indicate the " strength " of the attachment bond. some insecure children will routinely display very pronounced attachment behaviours, while many secure children find that there is no great need to engage in either intense or frequent shows of attachment behaviour. individuals with different attachment styles have different beliefs about romantic love period, availability, trust capability of love partners and love readiness. = = = secure attachment = = = a toddler who is securely attached to his or her parent ( or other familiar caregiver ) will explore freely while the caregi
person to build his own house is made available to society, supported by the emergence of new materials such as plastics, which are characterized by their lightness and ease of transport, as well as making it possible to simplify the joining of different parts. each person is the owner of their own environment, their own habitat. it is possible for the individual to become a contemporary nomad. moreover, the user is the one who decides whether it works and must remain or whether it has finished its task. = = main authors = = = = = antfarm = = = at the end of the 60s in the united states, antfarm, a collective of architects, philosophers, filmmakers and artists arose that produced numerous performances, audiovisuals, collections of slides such as the enviro - images, television programs clandestine top value television, inflatable architecture manuals like the inflatocookbook, manifestos like the nomadic cowboy, or bound books like reality, all with the aim of proposing new environments for a new way of life. a proposal with different mobile, inflatable, mechanical and technological elements that produce the necessary effects to make any support habitable with a vital, alternative, nomadic, utopian and experimental architecture, as he believes that " today's ambiguous society forces static patterns of life. " = = = archigram = = = founded in 1962 by warren chalk, peter cook, dennis crompton, david greene, rom herrom and michael webb, archigram made a series of technological, futuristic and utopian proposals that bet on an ephemeral architecture destined to be consumed like any other product of society. = = = future systems = = = based in england and founded by jan kaplicky and amanda levete, future systems propose three technological, mobile, transformable, autonomous, sustainable, capsule, prefabricated, lightweight houses, using solar energy and wind energy. on the one hand, they could be understood as a revision and updating of the fundamental aspects raised from buckminster fuller to the generation of the masters of the 60s with whom kaplicky and levete were trained, and on the other hand, as visionaries of the world to come from the 21st century. = = = shigeru ban = = = shigeru ban manages to develop an emergency architecture from the social responsibility of the architect through experimentation and new ( old ) materials, the low cost, the temporal dimension, the low tech, the existing, the structural design, the
spaces allocated to them in state - run camps at the city ’ s outskirts as their living spaces and relocate to the city centre. in search of alternative forms of habitation, they enact appropriation against private property institutions and practices, which often take the form of squats of abandoned buildings in the city centre in collaboration with local solidarity groups. once occupied, these buildings become novel forms of habitation with strong elements of commoning and cohabitation. hundreds of newcomers experiment with these forms of co - living and togetherness, often together with local and european activists. apart from meeting housing needs, these housing forms become significant tools for refugees to participate in the urban social and political life. therefore, though precarious, vulnerable and ephemeral, these new forms of cohabitation produced by refugees claim a right to the city ; they act,'cry and demand'freedom of movement, appropriation of housing, cohabitation and collective participation in a'renewed urban life '. given these characteristics, [ tsavdaroglou and kaika ] argue that the lefebvrian concept of the right to the city is most appropriate for understanding and explaining the refugees'self - organised housing practices. " = = criticism = = later versions of the concept were criticised with concerns on how the original vision of henri lefevbre was reduced to a " citizenship vision ", focused only on the implementation of social and economic rights in the city, leaving aside the transformatory nature and the role of social conflict of the original concept. marcelo lopes de souza has for instance argued that as the right to the city has become " fashionable these days ", " the price of this has often been the trivialisation and corruption of lefebvre's concept " and called for fidelity to the original radical meaning of the idea. = = see also = = human rights city progressivism decommodification = = references = = = = further reading = = samara, tony roshan ( june 2007 ). " grassroots organizing : right to the city ". z magazine. 20 ( 6 ). archived from the original on 2007 - 11 - 06. = = external links = = world charter for the right to the city ( pdf ) z world charter for the right to the city ( html ) proposal for a charter for women's right to the city proposals and experiencies towards the right to the city, ana sugranyes and charlotte mathivet ( editors ) 03 - 16 - 2010
Answer:
|
music
| 0.3 |
The more matter a planet is made up, the more likely other bodies are to
0. Triangle it
1. kiss it
2. punch it
3. be dragged in
a hypothetical solar system object is a planet, natural satellite, subsatellite or similar body in the solar system whose existence is not known, but has been inferred from observational scientific evidence. over the years a number of hypothetical planets have been proposed, and many have been disproved. however, even today there is scientific speculation about the possibility of planets yet unknown that may exist beyond the range of our current knowledge. = = planets = = counter - earth, a planet situated on the other side of the sun from that of the earth. fifth planet ( hypothetical ), historical speculation about a planet between the orbits of mars and jupiter. phaeton, a planet situated between the orbits of mars and jupiter whose destruction supposedly led to the formation of the asteroid belt. this hypothesis is now considered unlikely, since the asteroid belt has far too little mass to have resulted from the explosion of a large planet. in 2018, a study from researchers at the university of florida found the asteroid belt was created from the fragments of at least five or six ancient planetary - sized objects instead of a single planet. krypton, named after the destroyed native world of superman, theorized by michael ovenden to have been a gas giant between mars and jupiter nearly as large as saturn and also attributed for the formation of the asteroid belt planet v, a planet thought by john chambers and jack lissauer to have once existed between mars and the asteroid belt, based on computer simulations. various planets beyond neptune : planet nine, a planet proposed to explain apparent alignments in the orbits of a number of distant trans - neptunian objects. planet x, a hypothetical planet beyond neptune. initially employed to account for supposed perturbations ( systematic deviations ) in the orbits of uranus and neptune, belief in its existence ultimately inspired the search for pluto. the concept has since been abandoned following more precise measurements of neptune's mass, which accounted for all observed perturbations. hyperion, a planet hypothesized in 1848 by jacques babinet. " planet ten ", a large distant 10th planet theorized in 2000 to have had an effect on kuiper belt formation. tyche, a hypothetical planet in the oort cloud supposedly responsible for producing the statistical excess in long period comets in a band. results from the wise telescope survey in 2014 have ruled it out. up to three planets at 42 ( named oceanus ), 56, and 72 au ( both unnamed ) from the sun respectively, proposed by thomas jefferson jackson
is a list of planets and dwarf planets ranked by margot's planetary discriminant π, in decreasing order. for all eight planets defined by the iau, π is orders of magnitude greater than 1, whereas for all dwarf planets, π is orders of magnitude less than 1. also listed are stern – levison's λ and soter's μ ; again, the planets are orders of magnitude greater than 1 for λ and 100 for μ, and the dwarf planets are orders of magnitude less than 1 for λ and 100 for μ. also shown are the distances where π = 1 and λ = 1 ( where the body would change from being a planet to being a dwarf planet ). the mass of sedna is not known ; it is very roughly estimated here as 1021 kg, on the assumption of a density of about 2 g / cm3. = = disagreement = = stern, the principal investigator of the new horizons mission to pluto, disagreed with the reclassification of pluto on the basis of its inability to clear a neighbourhood. he argued that the iau's wording is vague, and that — like pluto — earth, mars, jupiter and neptune have not cleared their orbital neighbourhoods either. earth co - orbits with 10, 000 near - earth asteroids ( neas ), and jupiter has 100, 000 trojans in its orbital path. " if neptune had cleared its zone, pluto wouldn't be there ", he said. the iau category of'planets'is nearly identical to stern's own proposed category of'uberplanets '. in the paper proposing stern and levison's λ discriminant, they stated, " we define an uberplanet as a planetary body in orbit about a star that is dynamically important enough to have cleared its neighboring planetesimals... " and a few paragraphs later, " from a dynamical standpoint, our solar system clearly contains 8 uberplanets " — including earth, mars, jupiter, and neptune. although stern proposed this to define dynamical subcategories of planets, he rejected it for defining what a planet is, advocating the use of intrinsic attributes over dynamical relationships. = = see also = = list of solar system objects list of gravitationally rounded objects of the solar system list of solar system objects by size list of notable asteroids sphere of influence ( astrodynamics ) = = notes = = = = references = =
- neptunian objects 150 to 250 au hills cloud a large hypothetical circumstellar disc = = planets = = solar system planets and dwarf planets listed for distances comparison to belts. the solar system planets all orbit in near circular orbits. planets : mercury 0. 39 au venus 0. 72 au earth 1 au mars 1. 52 au jupiter 5. 2 au saturn 9. 54 au uranus 19. 2 au neptune 30. 06 au dwarf planets : dwarf planets, other than ceres, are plutoids that have elliptical orbits : ceres, 2. 8 au in the asteroid belt orcus 39. 4 au, trans - neptunian - kuiper belt object pluto 39 au, kuiper belt ( a planet until 2006 ) haumea 43 au, kuiper belt makemake 45. 8 au, kuiper belt eris 95. 6 au, kuiper belt gonggong scattered disc object, 34 to 101 au quaoar kuiper belt object, 41. 9 to 45. 4 au sedna 76 to 506 au = = see also = = near - earth object planetary migration late heavy bombardment list of gravitationally rounded objects of the solar system list of solar system objects by size lists of geological features of the solar system list of solar system extremes outline of the solar system = = references = = = = external links = = expected science return of spatially - extended in - situ exploration at small solar system bodies
smaller object, with the timing depending on the initial size of the objects and mass of the planetesimal disk. binary objects such as patroclus - menoetius would be separated due to the collisions if the instability was late. patroclus and menoetius are a pair of ~ 100 km objects orbiting with a separation of 680 km and relative velocities of ~ 11 m / s. while this binary remains in a massive planetesimal disk it is vulnerable to being separated due to collision. roughly ~ 90 % of similar binaries are separated per hundred million years in simulations and after 400 million years its survival probabilities falls to 7 × 10−5. the presence of patroclus - menoetius among the jupiter trojans requires that the giant planet instability occurred within 100 million years of the formation of the solar system. interactions between pluto - massed objects in the outer planetesimal disk can result in an early instability. gravitational interactions between the largest planetesimals dynamically heat the disk, increasing the eccentricities of their orbits. the increased eccentricities also lower their perihelion distances causing some of them to enter orbits that cross that of the outer giant planet. gravitational interactions between the planetesimals and the planet allow it to escape from the resonance chain and drive its outward migration. in simulations this often leads to resonance crossings and an instability within 100 million years. the bombardment produced by the nice model may not match the late heavy bombardment. an impactor size distribution similar to the asteroids would result in too many large impact basins relative to smaller craters. the innermost asteroid belt would need a different size distribution, perhaps due to its small asteroids being the result of collisions between a small number of large asteroids, to match this constraint. while the nice model predicts a bombardment by both asteroids and comets, most evidence ( although not all ) points toward a bombardment dominated by asteroids. this may reflect the reduced cometary bombardment in the five - planet nice model and the significant mass loss or the break - up of comets after entering the inner solar system, potentially allowing the evidence of cometary bombardment to have been lost. however, two recent estimates of the asteroid bombardment find it is also insufficient to explain the late heavy bombardment. reproducing the lunar craters and impact basins identified with the late heavy bombardment, about 1 / 6 of the craters larger than 15 km in diameter, and the craters on mars may be possible if a different crater - scaling law is used. the remaining lunar
##mia hypothesis holds that life itself may have been deposited on earth in this way, although this idea is not widely accepted. = = = planetary migration = = = according to the nebular hypothesis, the outer two planets may be in the " wrong place ". uranus and neptune ( known as the " ice giants " ) exist in a region where the reduced density of the solar nebula and longer orbital times render their formation there highly implausible. the two are instead thought to have formed in orbits near jupiter and saturn ( known as the " gas giants " ), where more material was available, and to have migrated outward to their current positions over hundreds of millions of years. the migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the solar system's outermost regions. beyond neptune, the solar system continues into the kuiper belt, the scattered disc, and the oort cloud, three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed comets. at their distance from the sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. the kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 au from the sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 au, and the distant oort cloud begins at about 50, 000 au. originally, however, the kuiper belt was much denser and closer to the sun, with an outer edge at approximately 30 au. its inner edge would have been just beyond the orbits of uranus and neptune, which were in turn far closer to the sun when they formed ( most likely in the range of 15 – 20 au ), and in 50 % of simulations ended up in opposite locations, with uranus farther from the sun than neptune. according to the nice model, after the formation of the solar system, the orbits of all the giant planets continued to change slowly, influenced by their interaction with the large number of remaining planetesimals. after 500 – 600 million years ( about 4 billion years ago ) jupiter and saturn fell into a 2 : 1 resonance : saturn orbited the sun once for every two jupiter orbits. this resonance created a gravitational push against the outer planets, possibly causing neptune to surge past uranus and plough into the ancient kuiper belt. the planets scattered the majority of the small icy bodies inwards, while themselves moving outwards. these planetesimals then scattered off the next planet
Answer:
|
be dragged in
| null |
The more matter a planet is made up, the more likely other bodies are to
0. Triangle it
1. kiss it
2. punch it
3. be dragged in
a hypothetical solar system object is a planet, natural satellite, subsatellite or similar body in the solar system whose existence is not known, but has been inferred from observational scientific evidence. over the years a number of hypothetical planets have been proposed, and many have been disproved. however, even today there is scientific speculation about the possibility of planets yet unknown that may exist beyond the range of our current knowledge. = = planets = = counter - earth, a planet situated on the other side of the sun from that of the earth. fifth planet ( hypothetical ), historical speculation about a planet between the orbits of mars and jupiter. phaeton, a planet situated between the orbits of mars and jupiter whose destruction supposedly led to the formation of the asteroid belt. this hypothesis is now considered unlikely, since the asteroid belt has far too little mass to have resulted from the explosion of a large planet. in 2018, a study from researchers at the university of florida found the asteroid belt was created from the fragments of at least five or six ancient planetary - sized objects instead of a single planet. krypton, named after the destroyed native world of superman, theorized by michael ovenden to have been a gas giant between mars and jupiter nearly as large as saturn and also attributed for the formation of the asteroid belt planet v, a planet thought by john chambers and jack lissauer to have once existed between mars and the asteroid belt, based on computer simulations. various planets beyond neptune : planet nine, a planet proposed to explain apparent alignments in the orbits of a number of distant trans - neptunian objects. planet x, a hypothetical planet beyond neptune. initially employed to account for supposed perturbations ( systematic deviations ) in the orbits of uranus and neptune, belief in its existence ultimately inspired the search for pluto. the concept has since been abandoned following more precise measurements of neptune's mass, which accounted for all observed perturbations. hyperion, a planet hypothesized in 1848 by jacques babinet. " planet ten ", a large distant 10th planet theorized in 2000 to have had an effect on kuiper belt formation. tyche, a hypothetical planet in the oort cloud supposedly responsible for producing the statistical excess in long period comets in a band. results from the wise telescope survey in 2014 have ruled it out. up to three planets at 42 ( named oceanus ), 56, and 72 au ( both unnamed ) from the sun respectively, proposed by thomas jefferson jackson
is a list of planets and dwarf planets ranked by margot's planetary discriminant π, in decreasing order. for all eight planets defined by the iau, π is orders of magnitude greater than 1, whereas for all dwarf planets, π is orders of magnitude less than 1. also listed are stern – levison's λ and soter's μ ; again, the planets are orders of magnitude greater than 1 for λ and 100 for μ, and the dwarf planets are orders of magnitude less than 1 for λ and 100 for μ. also shown are the distances where π = 1 and λ = 1 ( where the body would change from being a planet to being a dwarf planet ). the mass of sedna is not known ; it is very roughly estimated here as 1021 kg, on the assumption of a density of about 2 g / cm3. = = disagreement = = stern, the principal investigator of the new horizons mission to pluto, disagreed with the reclassification of pluto on the basis of its inability to clear a neighbourhood. he argued that the iau's wording is vague, and that — like pluto — earth, mars, jupiter and neptune have not cleared their orbital neighbourhoods either. earth co - orbits with 10, 000 near - earth asteroids ( neas ), and jupiter has 100, 000 trojans in its orbital path. " if neptune had cleared its zone, pluto wouldn't be there ", he said. the iau category of'planets'is nearly identical to stern's own proposed category of'uberplanets '. in the paper proposing stern and levison's λ discriminant, they stated, " we define an uberplanet as a planetary body in orbit about a star that is dynamically important enough to have cleared its neighboring planetesimals... " and a few paragraphs later, " from a dynamical standpoint, our solar system clearly contains 8 uberplanets " — including earth, mars, jupiter, and neptune. although stern proposed this to define dynamical subcategories of planets, he rejected it for defining what a planet is, advocating the use of intrinsic attributes over dynamical relationships. = = see also = = list of solar system objects list of gravitationally rounded objects of the solar system list of solar system objects by size list of notable asteroids sphere of influence ( astrodynamics ) = = notes = = = = references = =
- neptunian objects 150 to 250 au hills cloud a large hypothetical circumstellar disc = = planets = = solar system planets and dwarf planets listed for distances comparison to belts. the solar system planets all orbit in near circular orbits. planets : mercury 0. 39 au venus 0. 72 au earth 1 au mars 1. 52 au jupiter 5. 2 au saturn 9. 54 au uranus 19. 2 au neptune 30. 06 au dwarf planets : dwarf planets, other than ceres, are plutoids that have elliptical orbits : ceres, 2. 8 au in the asteroid belt orcus 39. 4 au, trans - neptunian - kuiper belt object pluto 39 au, kuiper belt ( a planet until 2006 ) haumea 43 au, kuiper belt makemake 45. 8 au, kuiper belt eris 95. 6 au, kuiper belt gonggong scattered disc object, 34 to 101 au quaoar kuiper belt object, 41. 9 to 45. 4 au sedna 76 to 506 au = = see also = = near - earth object planetary migration late heavy bombardment list of gravitationally rounded objects of the solar system list of solar system objects by size lists of geological features of the solar system list of solar system extremes outline of the solar system = = references = = = = external links = = expected science return of spatially - extended in - situ exploration at small solar system bodies
smaller object, with the timing depending on the initial size of the objects and mass of the planetesimal disk. binary objects such as patroclus - menoetius would be separated due to the collisions if the instability was late. patroclus and menoetius are a pair of ~ 100 km objects orbiting with a separation of 680 km and relative velocities of ~ 11 m / s. while this binary remains in a massive planetesimal disk it is vulnerable to being separated due to collision. roughly ~ 90 % of similar binaries are separated per hundred million years in simulations and after 400 million years its survival probabilities falls to 7 × 10−5. the presence of patroclus - menoetius among the jupiter trojans requires that the giant planet instability occurred within 100 million years of the formation of the solar system. interactions between pluto - massed objects in the outer planetesimal disk can result in an early instability. gravitational interactions between the largest planetesimals dynamically heat the disk, increasing the eccentricities of their orbits. the increased eccentricities also lower their perihelion distances causing some of them to enter orbits that cross that of the outer giant planet. gravitational interactions between the planetesimals and the planet allow it to escape from the resonance chain and drive its outward migration. in simulations this often leads to resonance crossings and an instability within 100 million years. the bombardment produced by the nice model may not match the late heavy bombardment. an impactor size distribution similar to the asteroids would result in too many large impact basins relative to smaller craters. the innermost asteroid belt would need a different size distribution, perhaps due to its small asteroids being the result of collisions between a small number of large asteroids, to match this constraint. while the nice model predicts a bombardment by both asteroids and comets, most evidence ( although not all ) points toward a bombardment dominated by asteroids. this may reflect the reduced cometary bombardment in the five - planet nice model and the significant mass loss or the break - up of comets after entering the inner solar system, potentially allowing the evidence of cometary bombardment to have been lost. however, two recent estimates of the asteroid bombardment find it is also insufficient to explain the late heavy bombardment. reproducing the lunar craters and impact basins identified with the late heavy bombardment, about 1 / 6 of the craters larger than 15 km in diameter, and the craters on mars may be possible if a different crater - scaling law is used. the remaining lunar
##mia hypothesis holds that life itself may have been deposited on earth in this way, although this idea is not widely accepted. = = = planetary migration = = = according to the nebular hypothesis, the outer two planets may be in the " wrong place ". uranus and neptune ( known as the " ice giants " ) exist in a region where the reduced density of the solar nebula and longer orbital times render their formation there highly implausible. the two are instead thought to have formed in orbits near jupiter and saturn ( known as the " gas giants " ), where more material was available, and to have migrated outward to their current positions over hundreds of millions of years. the migration of the outer planets is also necessary to account for the existence and properties of the solar system's outermost regions. beyond neptune, the solar system continues into the kuiper belt, the scattered disc, and the oort cloud, three sparse populations of small icy bodies thought to be the points of origin for most observed comets. at their distance from the sun, accretion was too slow to allow planets to form before the solar nebula dispersed, and thus the initial disc lacked enough mass density to consolidate into a planet. the kuiper belt lies between 30 and 55 au from the sun, while the farther scattered disc extends to over 100 au, and the distant oort cloud begins at about 50, 000 au. originally, however, the kuiper belt was much denser and closer to the sun, with an outer edge at approximately 30 au. its inner edge would have been just beyond the orbits of uranus and neptune, which were in turn far closer to the sun when they formed ( most likely in the range of 15 – 20 au ), and in 50 % of simulations ended up in opposite locations, with uranus farther from the sun than neptune. according to the nice model, after the formation of the solar system, the orbits of all the giant planets continued to change slowly, influenced by their interaction with the large number of remaining planetesimals. after 500 – 600 million years ( about 4 billion years ago ) jupiter and saturn fell into a 2 : 1 resonance : saturn orbited the sun once for every two jupiter orbits. this resonance created a gravitational push against the outer planets, possibly causing neptune to surge past uranus and plough into the ancient kuiper belt. the planets scattered the majority of the small icy bodies inwards, while themselves moving outwards. these planetesimals then scattered off the next planet
Answer:
|
kiss it
| 0.3 |
Reflectors are used to reflect light on
0. cardboard
1. paint
2. buses
3. birds
analysis. mirror box artificial type is used in universities such as : at cept university, a mirror box artificial sky is installed at their laboratories of center for advanced research in buildings and energy ( carbse ) for daylight analysis. in the university's living laboratory for net zero energy building ( nzeb ), the test chamber includes a mirror box artificial sky for both scholarly research and industry testing. at the university of westminster ( custom - made artificial sky ), the fabrication lab designed a custom - made mirror box artificial sky. within an interior dimension of 2. 5mx2. 5m, the tool can contain large scale architectural models to measure daylight factor. = = = reflectors = = = the reflecting dome sky simulator is formed with a reflective opaque dome surface to reproduce uniform and non - uniform skies. the lighting system on the interior of the dome is formed to stimulate sky distributions that are different from a standard overcast sky. the artificial dome uses a reflective surface to illuminate sky distributions and evaluate daylighting on scale models placed on a rotatable tabletop. also, it can be integrated with the artificial sun to replicate sunlight. compared to mirror boxes, reflecting dome skies are more adjustable in utilization and their variants are widely available in the market. reflecting artificial sky is available in university and research laboratories such as : slovak academy of sciences, bratislava, slovakia, the facility built a flexible reflecting dome in the institute of construction and architecture 1973. the 8m diameter hemispherical artificial sky is fully adjustable to uniform and non - uniform overcast skies with an artificial sun, a parabolic mirror of diameter 1. 2m. the artificial sky is a tubular construction that consists of gypsum plaster on metal mesh and designed on a circular ‘ horizon ’ tube suspended from the ceiling of the laboratory like a large white chandelier. lawrence berkeley laboratory, california, usa, built the 7. 32m diameter reflecting dome in 1981 which was designed to replicate a uniform sky, an overcast sky and various clear - sky luminance distributions. the sun simulator of diameter 1. 5 m is used. the metal dome was kept at a height of a seven - foot - high cylindrical plywood wall which enables large models to be transferred in and out through the large doors. the reflectivity of up to 80 % is achievable due to high - reflectance white paint sprayed on the interiors. the illumination system of high - output fluorescent lamps and ballasts provides an illumination level of around 5000 lx for a uniform sky, 3500
images that can be associated with an actual ( real ) or extrapolated ( virtual ) location in space. diffuse reflection describes non - glossy materials, such as paper or rock. the reflections from these surfaces can only be described statistically, with the exact distribution of the reflected light depending on the microscopic structure of the material. many diffuse reflectors are described or can be approximated by lambert's cosine law, which describes surfaces that have equal luminance when viewed from any angle. glossy surfaces can give both specular and diffuse reflection. in specular reflection, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the angle the incident ray makes with the surface normal, a line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray hits. the incident and reflected rays and the normal lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that between the incident ray and the normal. this is known as the law of reflection. for flat mirrors, the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and the same distance behind the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. the image size is the same as the object size. the law also implies that mirror images are parity inverted, which we perceive as a left - right inversion. images formed from reflection in two ( or any even number of ) mirrors are not parity inverted. corner reflectors produce reflected rays that travel back in the direction from which the incident rays came. this is called retroreflection. mirrors with curved surfaces can be modelled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. for mirrors with parabolic surfaces, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common focus. other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. in particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical aberration. curved mirrors can form images with a magnification greater than or less than one, and the magnification can be negative, indicating that the image is inverted. an upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen. = = = = refractions = = = = refraction occurs when light travels through an area of space that has a changing index of refraction ; this principle allows for lenses and the focusing of light. the simplest case of refraction occurs when there is an interface between a uniform
gain from the sun and increasing heat removal through radiation. radiative cooling thus offers potential for passive cooling for residential and commercial buildings. traditional building surfaces, such as paint coatings, brick and concrete have high emittances of up to 0. 96. they radiate heat into the sky to passively cool buildings at night. if made sufficiently reflective to sunlight, these materials can also achieve radiative cooling during the day. the most common radiative coolers found on buildings are white cool - roof paint coatings, which have solar reflectances of up to 0. 94, and thermal emittances of up to 0. 96. the solar reflectance of the paints arises from optical scattering by the dielectric pigments embedded in the polymer paint resin, while the thermal emittance arises from the polymer resin. however, because typical white pigments like titanium dioxide and zinc oxide absorb ultraviolet radiation, the solar reflectances of paints based on such pigments do not exceed 0. 95. in 2014, researchers developed the first daytime radiative cooler using a multi - layer thermal photonic structure that selectively emits long wavelength infrared radiation into space, and can achieve 5 °c sub - ambient cooling under direct sunlight. later researchers developed paintable porous polymer coatings, whose pores scatter sunlight to give solar reflectance of 0. 96 - 0. 99 and thermal emittance of 0. 97. in experiments under direct sunlight, the coatings achieve 6 °c sub - ambient temperatures and cooling powers of 96 w / m2. other notable radiative cooling strategies include dielectric films on metal mirrors, and polymer or polymer composites on silver or aluminum films. silvered polymer films with solar reflectances of 0. 97 and thermal emittance of 0. 96, which remain 11 °c cooler than commercial white paints under the mid - summer sun, were reported in 2015. researchers explored designs with dielectric silicon dioxide or silicon carbide particles embedded in polymers that are translucent in the solar wavelengths and emissive in the infrared. in 2017, an example of this design with resonant polar silica microspheres randomly embedded in a polymeric matrix, was reported. the material is translucent to sunlight and has infrared emissivity of 0. 93 in the infrared atmospheric transmission window. when backed with silver coating, the material achieved a midday radiative cooling power of 93 w / m2 under direct sunshine along with high - throughput, economical roll - to - roll manufacturing.
well known and interesting to the general public ( unlike many other insects ) and are easily spotted by non - experts, and, due to their sensibility and rapid response to environmental changes, good bioindicators for artificial night lighting. significant declines in some insect populations have been suggested as being at least partially mediated by artificial lights at night. a 2009 study also suggests deleterious impacts on animals and ecosystems because of perturbation of polarized light or artificial polarization of light ( even during the day, because direction of natural polarization of sun light and its reflection is a source of information for a lot of animals ). this form of pollution is named polarized light pollution ( plp ). unnatural polarized light sources can trigger maladaptive behaviors in polarization - sensitive taxa and alter ecological interactions. lights on tall structures can disorient migrating birds. estimates by the u. s. fish and wildlife service of the number of birds killed after being attracted to tall towers range from four to five million per year to an order of magnitude higher. the fatal light awareness program ( flap ) works with building owners in toronto, ontario, canada and other cities to reduce mortality of birds by turning out lights during migration periods. another study has found that the lights produced by the post tower has affected 25 bird species. as a result, they discovered that decreasing the use of excessive lights increased the survival rate of bird species. similar disorientation has also been noted for bird species migrating close to offshore production and drilling facilities. studies carried out by nederlandse aardolie maatschappij b. v. ( nam ) and shell have led to the development and trial of new lighting technologies in the north sea. in early 2007, the lights were installed on the shell production platform l15. the experiment proved a great success since the number of birds circling the platform declined by 50 to 90 %. birds migrate at night for several reasons. they save water from dehydration in hot day flying, and part of the bird's navigation system works with stars in some way. with city light outshining the night sky, birds ( and also about mammals ) no longer navigate by stars. sea turtle hatchlings emerging from nests on beaches are another casualty of light pollution. it is a common misconception that hatchling sea turtles are attracted to the moon. rather, they find the ocean by moving away from the dark silhouette of dunes and their vegetation, a behavior with which artificial lights interfere. the breeding activity and reproductive phenology
be used. these lamps are advantageous over other lamps such as mercury and metal halide lamps because low - pressure sodium lamps emit lower intensity, monochromatic light. observatories can filter the sodium wavelength out of their observations and virtually eliminate the interference from nearby urban lighting. full cutoff streetlights also reduce light pollution by reducing the amount of light that is directed at the sky, which also improves the luminous efficiency of the light. = = = = ecosystems = = = = streetlights can impact biodiversity and ecosystems — for instance, disrupting the migration of some nocturnally migrating bird species. in the netherlands, philips found that birds can get disoriented by the red wavelengths in street lighting, and in response developed alternative lighting that only emit in the green and blue wavelengths of the visible spectrum. the lamps were installed on ameland in a small - scale test. if successful, the technology could be used on ships and offshore installations to avoid luring birds towards the open sea at night. bats can be negatively impacted by streetlights, with evidence showing that red light can be least harmful. as a result, some areas have installed red led streetlights to minimise disruption to bats. a study published in science advances reported that streetlights in southern england had detrimental impacts on local insect populations. streetlights can also impact plant growth and the number of insects that depend on plants for food. = = = energy consumption = = = as of 2017, globally 70 % of all electricity was generated by burning fossil fuels, a source of air pollution and greenhouse gases, and also globally there are approximately 300 million streetlights using that electricity. cities are exploring more efficient energy use, reducing streetlight power consumption by dimming lights during off - peak hours and switching to led streetlights which illuminate a smaller area to a lower level of luminance. many councils are using a part - night lighting scheme to turn off lighting at quieter times of night. this is typically midnight to 5 : 30 am, as seen by the sign on the right. there have, however, been questions about the impact on crime rates. typical collector road lighting in new york state costs $ 6, 400 / mile / year for high pressure sodium at 8. 5 kw / mile or $ 4, 000 for light - emitting diode luminaires at 5. 4 kw / mile. improvements can be made by optimising directionality and shape, however. transitioning to wide angle lights enabled the doubling of distance between streetlights in flanders from
Answer:
|
buses
| null |
Reflectors are used to reflect light on
0. cardboard
1. paint
2. buses
3. birds
analysis. mirror box artificial type is used in universities such as : at cept university, a mirror box artificial sky is installed at their laboratories of center for advanced research in buildings and energy ( carbse ) for daylight analysis. in the university's living laboratory for net zero energy building ( nzeb ), the test chamber includes a mirror box artificial sky for both scholarly research and industry testing. at the university of westminster ( custom - made artificial sky ), the fabrication lab designed a custom - made mirror box artificial sky. within an interior dimension of 2. 5mx2. 5m, the tool can contain large scale architectural models to measure daylight factor. = = = reflectors = = = the reflecting dome sky simulator is formed with a reflective opaque dome surface to reproduce uniform and non - uniform skies. the lighting system on the interior of the dome is formed to stimulate sky distributions that are different from a standard overcast sky. the artificial dome uses a reflective surface to illuminate sky distributions and evaluate daylighting on scale models placed on a rotatable tabletop. also, it can be integrated with the artificial sun to replicate sunlight. compared to mirror boxes, reflecting dome skies are more adjustable in utilization and their variants are widely available in the market. reflecting artificial sky is available in university and research laboratories such as : slovak academy of sciences, bratislava, slovakia, the facility built a flexible reflecting dome in the institute of construction and architecture 1973. the 8m diameter hemispherical artificial sky is fully adjustable to uniform and non - uniform overcast skies with an artificial sun, a parabolic mirror of diameter 1. 2m. the artificial sky is a tubular construction that consists of gypsum plaster on metal mesh and designed on a circular ‘ horizon ’ tube suspended from the ceiling of the laboratory like a large white chandelier. lawrence berkeley laboratory, california, usa, built the 7. 32m diameter reflecting dome in 1981 which was designed to replicate a uniform sky, an overcast sky and various clear - sky luminance distributions. the sun simulator of diameter 1. 5 m is used. the metal dome was kept at a height of a seven - foot - high cylindrical plywood wall which enables large models to be transferred in and out through the large doors. the reflectivity of up to 80 % is achievable due to high - reflectance white paint sprayed on the interiors. the illumination system of high - output fluorescent lamps and ballasts provides an illumination level of around 5000 lx for a uniform sky, 3500
images that can be associated with an actual ( real ) or extrapolated ( virtual ) location in space. diffuse reflection describes non - glossy materials, such as paper or rock. the reflections from these surfaces can only be described statistically, with the exact distribution of the reflected light depending on the microscopic structure of the material. many diffuse reflectors are described or can be approximated by lambert's cosine law, which describes surfaces that have equal luminance when viewed from any angle. glossy surfaces can give both specular and diffuse reflection. in specular reflection, the direction of the reflected ray is determined by the angle the incident ray makes with the surface normal, a line perpendicular to the surface at the point where the ray hits. the incident and reflected rays and the normal lie in a single plane, and the angle between the reflected ray and the surface normal is the same as that between the incident ray and the normal. this is known as the law of reflection. for flat mirrors, the law of reflection implies that images of objects are upright and the same distance behind the mirror as the objects are in front of the mirror. the image size is the same as the object size. the law also implies that mirror images are parity inverted, which we perceive as a left - right inversion. images formed from reflection in two ( or any even number of ) mirrors are not parity inverted. corner reflectors produce reflected rays that travel back in the direction from which the incident rays came. this is called retroreflection. mirrors with curved surfaces can be modelled by ray tracing and using the law of reflection at each point on the surface. for mirrors with parabolic surfaces, parallel rays incident on the mirror produce reflected rays that converge at a common focus. other curved surfaces may also focus light, but with aberrations due to the diverging shape causing the focus to be smeared out in space. in particular, spherical mirrors exhibit spherical aberration. curved mirrors can form images with a magnification greater than or less than one, and the magnification can be negative, indicating that the image is inverted. an upright image formed by reflection in a mirror is always virtual, while an inverted image is real and can be projected onto a screen. = = = = refractions = = = = refraction occurs when light travels through an area of space that has a changing index of refraction ; this principle allows for lenses and the focusing of light. the simplest case of refraction occurs when there is an interface between a uniform
gain from the sun and increasing heat removal through radiation. radiative cooling thus offers potential for passive cooling for residential and commercial buildings. traditional building surfaces, such as paint coatings, brick and concrete have high emittances of up to 0. 96. they radiate heat into the sky to passively cool buildings at night. if made sufficiently reflective to sunlight, these materials can also achieve radiative cooling during the day. the most common radiative coolers found on buildings are white cool - roof paint coatings, which have solar reflectances of up to 0. 94, and thermal emittances of up to 0. 96. the solar reflectance of the paints arises from optical scattering by the dielectric pigments embedded in the polymer paint resin, while the thermal emittance arises from the polymer resin. however, because typical white pigments like titanium dioxide and zinc oxide absorb ultraviolet radiation, the solar reflectances of paints based on such pigments do not exceed 0. 95. in 2014, researchers developed the first daytime radiative cooler using a multi - layer thermal photonic structure that selectively emits long wavelength infrared radiation into space, and can achieve 5 °c sub - ambient cooling under direct sunlight. later researchers developed paintable porous polymer coatings, whose pores scatter sunlight to give solar reflectance of 0. 96 - 0. 99 and thermal emittance of 0. 97. in experiments under direct sunlight, the coatings achieve 6 °c sub - ambient temperatures and cooling powers of 96 w / m2. other notable radiative cooling strategies include dielectric films on metal mirrors, and polymer or polymer composites on silver or aluminum films. silvered polymer films with solar reflectances of 0. 97 and thermal emittance of 0. 96, which remain 11 °c cooler than commercial white paints under the mid - summer sun, were reported in 2015. researchers explored designs with dielectric silicon dioxide or silicon carbide particles embedded in polymers that are translucent in the solar wavelengths and emissive in the infrared. in 2017, an example of this design with resonant polar silica microspheres randomly embedded in a polymeric matrix, was reported. the material is translucent to sunlight and has infrared emissivity of 0. 93 in the infrared atmospheric transmission window. when backed with silver coating, the material achieved a midday radiative cooling power of 93 w / m2 under direct sunshine along with high - throughput, economical roll - to - roll manufacturing.
well known and interesting to the general public ( unlike many other insects ) and are easily spotted by non - experts, and, due to their sensibility and rapid response to environmental changes, good bioindicators for artificial night lighting. significant declines in some insect populations have been suggested as being at least partially mediated by artificial lights at night. a 2009 study also suggests deleterious impacts on animals and ecosystems because of perturbation of polarized light or artificial polarization of light ( even during the day, because direction of natural polarization of sun light and its reflection is a source of information for a lot of animals ). this form of pollution is named polarized light pollution ( plp ). unnatural polarized light sources can trigger maladaptive behaviors in polarization - sensitive taxa and alter ecological interactions. lights on tall structures can disorient migrating birds. estimates by the u. s. fish and wildlife service of the number of birds killed after being attracted to tall towers range from four to five million per year to an order of magnitude higher. the fatal light awareness program ( flap ) works with building owners in toronto, ontario, canada and other cities to reduce mortality of birds by turning out lights during migration periods. another study has found that the lights produced by the post tower has affected 25 bird species. as a result, they discovered that decreasing the use of excessive lights increased the survival rate of bird species. similar disorientation has also been noted for bird species migrating close to offshore production and drilling facilities. studies carried out by nederlandse aardolie maatschappij b. v. ( nam ) and shell have led to the development and trial of new lighting technologies in the north sea. in early 2007, the lights were installed on the shell production platform l15. the experiment proved a great success since the number of birds circling the platform declined by 50 to 90 %. birds migrate at night for several reasons. they save water from dehydration in hot day flying, and part of the bird's navigation system works with stars in some way. with city light outshining the night sky, birds ( and also about mammals ) no longer navigate by stars. sea turtle hatchlings emerging from nests on beaches are another casualty of light pollution. it is a common misconception that hatchling sea turtles are attracted to the moon. rather, they find the ocean by moving away from the dark silhouette of dunes and their vegetation, a behavior with which artificial lights interfere. the breeding activity and reproductive phenology
be used. these lamps are advantageous over other lamps such as mercury and metal halide lamps because low - pressure sodium lamps emit lower intensity, monochromatic light. observatories can filter the sodium wavelength out of their observations and virtually eliminate the interference from nearby urban lighting. full cutoff streetlights also reduce light pollution by reducing the amount of light that is directed at the sky, which also improves the luminous efficiency of the light. = = = = ecosystems = = = = streetlights can impact biodiversity and ecosystems — for instance, disrupting the migration of some nocturnally migrating bird species. in the netherlands, philips found that birds can get disoriented by the red wavelengths in street lighting, and in response developed alternative lighting that only emit in the green and blue wavelengths of the visible spectrum. the lamps were installed on ameland in a small - scale test. if successful, the technology could be used on ships and offshore installations to avoid luring birds towards the open sea at night. bats can be negatively impacted by streetlights, with evidence showing that red light can be least harmful. as a result, some areas have installed red led streetlights to minimise disruption to bats. a study published in science advances reported that streetlights in southern england had detrimental impacts on local insect populations. streetlights can also impact plant growth and the number of insects that depend on plants for food. = = = energy consumption = = = as of 2017, globally 70 % of all electricity was generated by burning fossil fuels, a source of air pollution and greenhouse gases, and also globally there are approximately 300 million streetlights using that electricity. cities are exploring more efficient energy use, reducing streetlight power consumption by dimming lights during off - peak hours and switching to led streetlights which illuminate a smaller area to a lower level of luminance. many councils are using a part - night lighting scheme to turn off lighting at quieter times of night. this is typically midnight to 5 : 30 am, as seen by the sign on the right. there have, however, been questions about the impact on crime rates. typical collector road lighting in new york state costs $ 6, 400 / mile / year for high pressure sodium at 8. 5 kw / mile or $ 4, 000 for light - emitting diode luminaires at 5. 4 kw / mile. improvements can be made by optimising directionality and shape, however. transitioning to wide angle lights enabled the doubling of distance between streetlights in flanders from
Answer:
|
cardboard
| 0.3 |
The BP disaster caused what to go into what?
0. fuel into Gulf
1. satellites into space
2. lightning into forests
3. lava into park
by dynamic oscillations in a 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) wind. the de havilland comet disasters of 1954, later determined to be structural failures due to greater metal fatigue than anticipated at the corners of windows. the 62 banqiao dams failure event in china in 1975, due to typhoon nina. approximately 86, 000 people died from flooding and another 145, 000 died from subsequent diseases, a total of 231, 000 deaths. the hyatt regency walkway collapse of 1981, where a suspended walkway in a hotel lobby in kansas city, missouri, collapsed completely, killing over 100 people on and below the structure. the space shuttle challenger disaster of 1986, in which an o - ring of a rocket booster failed, causing the external fuel tank to break up and making the shuttle veer off course, subjecting it to aerodynamic forces beyond design tolerances ; the entire crew of 7 and vehicle were lost. the nuclear reactor at the chernobyl power plant, which exploded in april 26, 1986 causing the release of a substantial amount of radioactive materials. the collapse of the warsaw radio mast of 1991, which had up to that point held the title of world's tallest structure. the sampoong department store collapse of 1995, which happened due to structural weaknesses, killed 502 people and injured 937. the terrorist attacks and subsequent fire at the world trade center on september 11, 2001, weakened the floor joists to the point of catastrophic failure. the space shuttle columbia disaster of 2003, where damage to a wing during launch resulted in total loss upon re - entry. the collapse of the multi - span i - 35w mississippi river bridge on august 1, 2007. the collapse of the olivos - tezonco mexico city metro overpass of 2021, which had structurally weakened over the years. = = see also = = dragon king theory list of bridge disasters progressive collapse seismic performance structural collapse structural failure resonance disaster risks to civilization, humans and planet earth = = references = = = = further reading = = feynman, richard ; leighton, ralph ( 1988 ). what do you care what other people think?. w. w. norton. isbn 0 - 553 - 17334 - 0. lewis, peter r. ( 2004 ). beautiful railway bridge of the silvery tay : reinvestigating the tay bridge disaster of 1879. tempus. isbn 0 - 7524 - 3160 - 9.
often supported by ground surveys, eo provides critical information to researchers, decision - makers, and planners. it has revolutionized our ability to map and monitor geohazards with precision and timeliness. = = in paleohistory = = eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurred in the past 250 million years, resulting in large volcanic provinces, creating lava plateaus and mountain ranges on earth. large igneous provinces have been connected to five mass extinction events. the timing of six out of eleven known provinces coincide with periods of global warming and marine anoxia / dysoxia. thus, suggesting that volcanic co2 emissions can force an important effect on the climate system. = = known hazards = = 2004 indian ocean earthquake and tsunami 2008 sichuan earthquake 2011 tohoku earthquake and tsunami the barrier ( located in garibaldi provincial park ) usoi dam a natural landslide dam = = see also = = earthquake engineering physical impacts of climate change = = references = = = = external links = = media related to geological hazards at wikimedia commons international centre for geohazards ( icg )
factual. on the other hand, they may include numeric data and / or diagrams – as those of shell do ( and in the process gain by the acid test of more measurable'predictions'). = = = step 6 – identify issues arising = = = the final stage of the process is to examine these scenarios to determine what are the most critical outcomes ; the'branching points'relating to the'issues'which will have the greatest impact ( potentially generating'crises') on the future of the organisation. the subsequent strategy will have to address these – since the normal approach to strategy deriving from scenarios is one which aims to minimise risk by being'robust'( that is it will safely cope with all the alternative outcomes of these'life and death'issues ) rather than aiming for performance ( profit ) maximisation by gambling on one outcome. = = use of scenarios = = scenarios may be used in a number of ways : a ) containers for the drivers / event strings most basically, they are a logical device, an artificial framework, for presenting the individual factors / topics ( or coherent groups of these ) so that these are made easily available for managers'use – as useful ideas about future developments in their own right – without reference to the rest of the scenario. it should be stressed that no factors should be dropped, or even given lower priority, as a result of producing the scenarios. in this context, which scenario contains which topic ( driver ), or issue about the future, is irrelevant. b ) tests for consistency at every stage it is necessary to iterate, to check that the contents are viable and make any necessary changes to ensure that they are ; here the main test is to see if the scenarios seem to be internally consistent – if they are not then the writer must loop back to earlier stages to correct the problem. though it has been mentioned previously, it is important to stress once again that scenario building is ideally an iterative process. it usually does not just happen in one meeting – though even one attempt is better than none – but takes place over a number of meetings as the participants gradually refine their ideas. c ) positive perspectives perhaps the main benefit deriving from scenarios, however, comes from the alternative'flavors'of the future their different perspectives offer. it is a common experience, when the scenarios finally emerge, for the participants to be startled by the insight they offer – as to what the general shape of the future might be – at this stage it no longer is a theoretical exercise but becomes a
even then. under the very high emission scenario rcp8. 5, 46 % of industrial and contaminated sites would start thawing by 2050, and virtually all of them would be affected by the thaw by 2100. organochlorines and other persistent organic pollutants are of a particular concern, due to their potential to repeatedly reach local communities after their re - release through biomagnification in fish. at worst, future generations born in the arctic would enter life with weakened immune systems due to pollutants accumulating across generations. a notable example of pollution risks associated with permafrost was the 2020 norilsk oil spill, caused by the collapse of diesel fuel storage tank at norilsk - taimyr energy's thermal power plant no. 3. it spilled 6, 000 tonnes of fuel into the land and 15, 000 into the water, polluting ambarnaya, daldykan and many smaller rivers on taimyr peninsula, even reaching lake pyasino, which is a crucial water source in the area. state of emergency at the federal level was declared. the event has been described as the second - largest oil spill in modern russian history. another issue associated with permafrost thaw is the release of natural mercury deposits. an estimated 800, 000 tons of mercury are frozen in the permafrost soil. according to observations, around 70 % of it is simply taken up by vegetation after the thaw. however, if the warming continues under rcp8. 5, then permafrost emissions of mercury into the atmosphere would match the current global emissions from all human activities by 2200. mercury - rich soils also pose a much greater threat to humans and the environment if they thaw near rivers. under rcp8. 5, enough mercury will enter the yukon river basin by 2050 to make its fish unsafe to eat under the epa guidelines. by 2100, mercury concentrations in the river will double. contrastingly, even if mitigation is limited to rcp4. 5 scenario, mercury levels will increase by about 14 % by 2100, and will not breach the epa guidelines even by 2300. = = = revival of ancient organisms = = = = = = = microorganisms = = = = bacteria are known for being able to remain dormant to survive adverse conditions, and viruses are not metabolically active outside of host cells in the first place. this has motivated concerns that permafrost thaw could free previously unknown microorg
##igation activities, and effort spent for the risk management. = = = megaprojects ( infrastructure ) = = = megaprojects ( sometimes also called " major programs " ) are large - scale investment projects, typically costing more than $ 1 billion per project. megaprojects include major bridges, tunnels, highways, railways, airports, seaports, power plants, dams, wastewater projects, coastal flood protection schemes, oil and natural gas extraction projects, public buildings, information technology systems, aerospace projects, and defense systems. megaprojects have been shown to be particularly risky in terms of finance, safety, and social and environmental impacts. risk management is therefore particularly pertinent for megaprojects and special methods and special education have been developed for such risk management. = = = natural disasters = = = it is important to assess risk in regard to natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, and so on. outcomes of natural disaster risk assessment are valuable when considering future repair costs, business interruption losses and other downtime, effects on the environment, insurance costs, and the proposed costs of reducing the risk. the sendai framework for disaster risk reduction is a 2015 international accord that has set goals and targets for disaster risk reduction in response to natural disasters. there are regular international disaster and risk conferences in davos to deal with integral risk management. several tools can be used to assess risk and risk management of natural disasters and other climate events, including geospatial modeling, a key component of land change science. this modeling requires an understanding of geographic distributions of people as well as an ability to calculate the likelihood of a natural disaster occurring. = = = wilderness = = = the management of risks to persons and property in wilderness and remote natural areas has developed with increases in outdoor recreation participation and decreased social tolerance for loss. organizations providing commercial wilderness experiences can now align with national and international consensus standards for training and equipment such as ansi / nasbla 101 - 2017 ( boating ), uiaa 152 ( ice climbing tools ), and european norm 13089 : 2015 + a1 : 2015 ( mountaineering equipment ). the association for experiential education offers accreditation for wilderness adventure programs. the wilderness risk management conference provides access to best practices, and specialist organizations provide wilderness risk management consulting and training. the text outdoor safety – risk management for outdoor leaders, published by the new zealand mountain safety council, provides a view of wilderness risk management from the new zealand perspective, recognizing the value of national outdoor safety legislation and devoting considerable attention to the
Answer:
|
fuel into Gulf
| null |
The BP disaster caused what to go into what?
0. fuel into Gulf
1. satellites into space
2. lightning into forests
3. lava into park
by dynamic oscillations in a 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) wind. the de havilland comet disasters of 1954, later determined to be structural failures due to greater metal fatigue than anticipated at the corners of windows. the 62 banqiao dams failure event in china in 1975, due to typhoon nina. approximately 86, 000 people died from flooding and another 145, 000 died from subsequent diseases, a total of 231, 000 deaths. the hyatt regency walkway collapse of 1981, where a suspended walkway in a hotel lobby in kansas city, missouri, collapsed completely, killing over 100 people on and below the structure. the space shuttle challenger disaster of 1986, in which an o - ring of a rocket booster failed, causing the external fuel tank to break up and making the shuttle veer off course, subjecting it to aerodynamic forces beyond design tolerances ; the entire crew of 7 and vehicle were lost. the nuclear reactor at the chernobyl power plant, which exploded in april 26, 1986 causing the release of a substantial amount of radioactive materials. the collapse of the warsaw radio mast of 1991, which had up to that point held the title of world's tallest structure. the sampoong department store collapse of 1995, which happened due to structural weaknesses, killed 502 people and injured 937. the terrorist attacks and subsequent fire at the world trade center on september 11, 2001, weakened the floor joists to the point of catastrophic failure. the space shuttle columbia disaster of 2003, where damage to a wing during launch resulted in total loss upon re - entry. the collapse of the multi - span i - 35w mississippi river bridge on august 1, 2007. the collapse of the olivos - tezonco mexico city metro overpass of 2021, which had structurally weakened over the years. = = see also = = dragon king theory list of bridge disasters progressive collapse seismic performance structural collapse structural failure resonance disaster risks to civilization, humans and planet earth = = references = = = = further reading = = feynman, richard ; leighton, ralph ( 1988 ). what do you care what other people think?. w. w. norton. isbn 0 - 553 - 17334 - 0. lewis, peter r. ( 2004 ). beautiful railway bridge of the silvery tay : reinvestigating the tay bridge disaster of 1879. tempus. isbn 0 - 7524 - 3160 - 9.
often supported by ground surveys, eo provides critical information to researchers, decision - makers, and planners. it has revolutionized our ability to map and monitor geohazards with precision and timeliness. = = in paleohistory = = eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurred in the past 250 million years, resulting in large volcanic provinces, creating lava plateaus and mountain ranges on earth. large igneous provinces have been connected to five mass extinction events. the timing of six out of eleven known provinces coincide with periods of global warming and marine anoxia / dysoxia. thus, suggesting that volcanic co2 emissions can force an important effect on the climate system. = = known hazards = = 2004 indian ocean earthquake and tsunami 2008 sichuan earthquake 2011 tohoku earthquake and tsunami the barrier ( located in garibaldi provincial park ) usoi dam a natural landslide dam = = see also = = earthquake engineering physical impacts of climate change = = references = = = = external links = = media related to geological hazards at wikimedia commons international centre for geohazards ( icg )
factual. on the other hand, they may include numeric data and / or diagrams – as those of shell do ( and in the process gain by the acid test of more measurable'predictions'). = = = step 6 – identify issues arising = = = the final stage of the process is to examine these scenarios to determine what are the most critical outcomes ; the'branching points'relating to the'issues'which will have the greatest impact ( potentially generating'crises') on the future of the organisation. the subsequent strategy will have to address these – since the normal approach to strategy deriving from scenarios is one which aims to minimise risk by being'robust'( that is it will safely cope with all the alternative outcomes of these'life and death'issues ) rather than aiming for performance ( profit ) maximisation by gambling on one outcome. = = use of scenarios = = scenarios may be used in a number of ways : a ) containers for the drivers / event strings most basically, they are a logical device, an artificial framework, for presenting the individual factors / topics ( or coherent groups of these ) so that these are made easily available for managers'use – as useful ideas about future developments in their own right – without reference to the rest of the scenario. it should be stressed that no factors should be dropped, or even given lower priority, as a result of producing the scenarios. in this context, which scenario contains which topic ( driver ), or issue about the future, is irrelevant. b ) tests for consistency at every stage it is necessary to iterate, to check that the contents are viable and make any necessary changes to ensure that they are ; here the main test is to see if the scenarios seem to be internally consistent – if they are not then the writer must loop back to earlier stages to correct the problem. though it has been mentioned previously, it is important to stress once again that scenario building is ideally an iterative process. it usually does not just happen in one meeting – though even one attempt is better than none – but takes place over a number of meetings as the participants gradually refine their ideas. c ) positive perspectives perhaps the main benefit deriving from scenarios, however, comes from the alternative'flavors'of the future their different perspectives offer. it is a common experience, when the scenarios finally emerge, for the participants to be startled by the insight they offer – as to what the general shape of the future might be – at this stage it no longer is a theoretical exercise but becomes a
even then. under the very high emission scenario rcp8. 5, 46 % of industrial and contaminated sites would start thawing by 2050, and virtually all of them would be affected by the thaw by 2100. organochlorines and other persistent organic pollutants are of a particular concern, due to their potential to repeatedly reach local communities after their re - release through biomagnification in fish. at worst, future generations born in the arctic would enter life with weakened immune systems due to pollutants accumulating across generations. a notable example of pollution risks associated with permafrost was the 2020 norilsk oil spill, caused by the collapse of diesel fuel storage tank at norilsk - taimyr energy's thermal power plant no. 3. it spilled 6, 000 tonnes of fuel into the land and 15, 000 into the water, polluting ambarnaya, daldykan and many smaller rivers on taimyr peninsula, even reaching lake pyasino, which is a crucial water source in the area. state of emergency at the federal level was declared. the event has been described as the second - largest oil spill in modern russian history. another issue associated with permafrost thaw is the release of natural mercury deposits. an estimated 800, 000 tons of mercury are frozen in the permafrost soil. according to observations, around 70 % of it is simply taken up by vegetation after the thaw. however, if the warming continues under rcp8. 5, then permafrost emissions of mercury into the atmosphere would match the current global emissions from all human activities by 2200. mercury - rich soils also pose a much greater threat to humans and the environment if they thaw near rivers. under rcp8. 5, enough mercury will enter the yukon river basin by 2050 to make its fish unsafe to eat under the epa guidelines. by 2100, mercury concentrations in the river will double. contrastingly, even if mitigation is limited to rcp4. 5 scenario, mercury levels will increase by about 14 % by 2100, and will not breach the epa guidelines even by 2300. = = = revival of ancient organisms = = = = = = = microorganisms = = = = bacteria are known for being able to remain dormant to survive adverse conditions, and viruses are not metabolically active outside of host cells in the first place. this has motivated concerns that permafrost thaw could free previously unknown microorg
##igation activities, and effort spent for the risk management. = = = megaprojects ( infrastructure ) = = = megaprojects ( sometimes also called " major programs " ) are large - scale investment projects, typically costing more than $ 1 billion per project. megaprojects include major bridges, tunnels, highways, railways, airports, seaports, power plants, dams, wastewater projects, coastal flood protection schemes, oil and natural gas extraction projects, public buildings, information technology systems, aerospace projects, and defense systems. megaprojects have been shown to be particularly risky in terms of finance, safety, and social and environmental impacts. risk management is therefore particularly pertinent for megaprojects and special methods and special education have been developed for such risk management. = = = natural disasters = = = it is important to assess risk in regard to natural disasters like floods, earthquakes, and so on. outcomes of natural disaster risk assessment are valuable when considering future repair costs, business interruption losses and other downtime, effects on the environment, insurance costs, and the proposed costs of reducing the risk. the sendai framework for disaster risk reduction is a 2015 international accord that has set goals and targets for disaster risk reduction in response to natural disasters. there are regular international disaster and risk conferences in davos to deal with integral risk management. several tools can be used to assess risk and risk management of natural disasters and other climate events, including geospatial modeling, a key component of land change science. this modeling requires an understanding of geographic distributions of people as well as an ability to calculate the likelihood of a natural disaster occurring. = = = wilderness = = = the management of risks to persons and property in wilderness and remote natural areas has developed with increases in outdoor recreation participation and decreased social tolerance for loss. organizations providing commercial wilderness experiences can now align with national and international consensus standards for training and equipment such as ansi / nasbla 101 - 2017 ( boating ), uiaa 152 ( ice climbing tools ), and european norm 13089 : 2015 + a1 : 2015 ( mountaineering equipment ). the association for experiential education offers accreditation for wilderness adventure programs. the wilderness risk management conference provides access to best practices, and specialist organizations provide wilderness risk management consulting and training. the text outdoor safety – risk management for outdoor leaders, published by the new zealand mountain safety council, provides a view of wilderness risk management from the new zealand perspective, recognizing the value of national outdoor safety legislation and devoting considerable attention to the
Answer:
|
satellites into space
| 0.3 |
A thing which moves very little over quite a lot of time is a
0. pack of wolves
1. racing horses
2. falling rocks
3. giant ice brick
##ou and deer will flee, but sometimes deer also make a stand. if the targeted animal stands its ground, wolves either ignore it or try to intimidate it into running. wolves, or even a wolf on its own, will attempt to frighten a herd into panicking and dispersing. when wolves encounter prey that flees, they give chase. the speed of sprinting prey is closely related to the speed of their main predators. wolves can run at 56 – 64 km / h ( 35 – 40 mph ) across several kilometers and will often pursue prey for at least 1 km ( 0. 62 mi ). one wolf chased a caribou for 8 km ( 5 mi ), another chased and tracked a deer for 20 km ( 12 mi ), and one 11 - year - old wolf chased and caught an arctic hare after seven minutes. most wolf prey will try to run to water, where they will either escape or be better placed to attempt to ward off the wolves. = = = disablement = = = the wolf must give chase and gain on its fleeing prey, slow it down by biting through thick hair and hide, and then disable it enough to begin feeding. after chasing and then confronting a large prey animal, the wolf makes use of its 6 cm ( 2 + 1⁄2 in ) fangs and its powerful masseter muscles to deliver a bite force of 28 kg / cm2 ( 400 lbf / in2 ), which is capable of breaking open the skulls of many of its prey animals. the wolf leaps at its quarry and tears at it. one wolf was observed being dragged for dozens of meters attached to the hind leg of a moose ; another was seen being dragged over a fallen log while attached to a bull elk's nose. the most common point of wolf attacks on moose is the upper hind legs. hind leg wounds are inflicted from the rear, midway up the hock with the canine teeth. these leave gaping skin perforations over 4 cm ( 1 + 1⁄2 in ) in diameter. although blood loss, muscle damage, and tendon exposure may occur, there is no evidence of hamstringing. attacks also occur on the fleshy nose, the back and sides of the neck, the ears, and the perineum. wolves may wound large prey and then lie around resting for hours before killing it when it is weaker due to blood loss, thereby lessening the risk of injury to themselves. with medium - sized prey, such as roe deer or sheep, wolves kill
several organisms are capable of rolling locomotion. however, true wheels and propellers — despite their utility in human vehicles — do not play a significant role in the movement of living things ( with the exception of the corkscrew - like flagella of many prokaryotes ). biologists have offered several explanations for the apparent absence of biological wheels, and wheeled creatures have appeared often in speculative fiction. given the ubiquity of wheels in human technology, and the existence of biological analogues of many other technologies ( such as wings and lenses ), the lack of wheels in nature has seemed, to many scientists, to demand explanation — and the phenomenon is broadly explained by two factors : first, there are several developmental and evolutionary obstacles to the advent of a wheel by natural selection, and secondly, wheels have several drawbacks relative to other means of propulsion ( such as walking, running, or slithering ) in natural environments, which would tend to preclude their evolution. this environment - specific disadvantage has also led humans in certain regions to abandon wheels at least once in history. = = known instances of rotation in biology = = there exist two distinct modes of locomotion using rotation : first, simple rolling ; and second, the use of wheels or propellers, which spin on an axle or shaft, relative to a fixed body. while many creatures employ the former mode, the latter is restricted to microscopic, single - celled organisms. : 396 = = = rolling = = = some organisms use rolling as a means of locomotion. these examples do not constitute the use of a wheel, as the organism rotates as a whole, rather than employing separate parts which rotate independently. several species of elongate organisms form their bodies into a loop to roll, including certain caterpillars ( which do so to escape danger ), tiger beetle larvae, myriapods, mantis shrimp, armadillidiidae, and mount lyell salamanders. other species adopt more spherical postures, primarily to protect their bodies from predators ; this posture has been seen in pangolins, wheel spiders, hedgehogs, armadillos, armadillo girdled lizards, isopods, and fossilized trilobites. pangolins and wheel spiders have been observed to purposely roll away from predators. these species may roll passively ( under the influence of gravity or wind ) or actively, typically by altering their shape to generate a propulsive force. tumbleweeds, which are the above -
. wolves may wound large prey and then lie around resting for hours before killing it when it is weaker due to blood loss, thereby lessening the risk of injury to themselves. with medium - sized prey, such as roe deer or sheep, wolves kill by biting the throat, severing nerve tracks and the carotid artery, thus causing the animal to die within a few seconds to a minute. with small, mouselike prey, wolves leap in a high arc and immobilize it with their forepaws. when prey is vulnerable and abundant, wolves may occasionally surplus kill. such instances are common with domestic animals but rare with wild prey. in the wild, surplus killing occurs primarily during late winter or spring, when snow is unusually deep ( thus impeding the movements of prey ) or during the denning period, when den - bound wolves require a ready supply of meat. medium - sized prey are especially vulnerable to surplus killing, as the swift throat - biting method allows wolves to kill one animal quickly and move on to another. = = feeding = = once prey is brought down, wolves begin to feed excitedly, ripping and tugging at the carcass in all directions, and bolting down large chunks of it. the breeding pair typically monopolizes food to continue producing pups. when food is scarce, this is done at the expense of other family members, especially non - pups. the breeding pair typically eats first. they usually work the hardest at killing prey, and may rest after a long hunt and allow the rest of the family to eat undisturbed. once the breeding pair has finished eating, the rest of the family tears off pieces of the carcass and transports them to secluded areas where they can eat in peace. wolves typically commence feeding by consuming the larger internal organs, like the heart, liver, lungs, and stomach lining. the kidneys and spleen are eaten once they are exposed, followed by the muscles. a wolf can eat 15 – 19 % of its body weight in a single feeding. = = references = = = = = bibliography = = = mech, l. david ( 1981 ). the wolf : the ecology and behaviour of an endangered species. university of minnesota press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8166 - 1026 - 6. mech, l. david ; boitani, luigi, eds. ( 2003 ). wolves : behaviour, ecology and conservation. university of chicago press. isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 51696 - 7. mech
in game theory a move by nature is a decision or move in an extensive form game made by a player who has no strategic interests in the outcome. the effect is to add a player, " nature ", whose practical role is to act as a random number generator. for instance, if a game of poker requires a dealer to choose which cards a player is dealt, the dealer plays the role of the nature player. moves by nature are an integral part of games of incomplete information. = = see also = = games of chance = = references = = fudenberg, drew ; tirole, jean ( 1995 ). game theory. mit press. pp. 336 – 337. isbn 0 - 262 - 06141 - 4.
obstacles in their path that do not hinder creatures with limbs. in the latter half of the 20th century, wheeled or wheel - using creatures featured in works by fantasy and science fiction writers including clifford d. simak, piers anthony, david brin, k. a. applegate, philip pullman, and writing partners ian stewart and jack cohen. some of these works address the developmental and biomechanical constraints on wheeled creatures : brin's creatures suffer from arthritic axles, : 109 and pullman's mulefa are not born with wheels, but roll on seed pods with which they coevolved. = = see also = = biomimicry, which includes biologically inspired engineering projectile use by living systems, another adaptation commonly associated with human technology issus, one of many genera of planthoppers which use gear mechanisms to synchronize their legs while jumping = = notes = = = = references = = = = external links = = " animal olympians : gymnastics " on youtube, featuring a rolling golden wheel spider " rolling salamanders & caterpillars " on youtube, from bbc's weird nature
Answer:
|
giant ice brick
| null |
A thing which moves very little over quite a lot of time is a
0. pack of wolves
1. racing horses
2. falling rocks
3. giant ice brick
##ou and deer will flee, but sometimes deer also make a stand. if the targeted animal stands its ground, wolves either ignore it or try to intimidate it into running. wolves, or even a wolf on its own, will attempt to frighten a herd into panicking and dispersing. when wolves encounter prey that flees, they give chase. the speed of sprinting prey is closely related to the speed of their main predators. wolves can run at 56 – 64 km / h ( 35 – 40 mph ) across several kilometers and will often pursue prey for at least 1 km ( 0. 62 mi ). one wolf chased a caribou for 8 km ( 5 mi ), another chased and tracked a deer for 20 km ( 12 mi ), and one 11 - year - old wolf chased and caught an arctic hare after seven minutes. most wolf prey will try to run to water, where they will either escape or be better placed to attempt to ward off the wolves. = = = disablement = = = the wolf must give chase and gain on its fleeing prey, slow it down by biting through thick hair and hide, and then disable it enough to begin feeding. after chasing and then confronting a large prey animal, the wolf makes use of its 6 cm ( 2 + 1⁄2 in ) fangs and its powerful masseter muscles to deliver a bite force of 28 kg / cm2 ( 400 lbf / in2 ), which is capable of breaking open the skulls of many of its prey animals. the wolf leaps at its quarry and tears at it. one wolf was observed being dragged for dozens of meters attached to the hind leg of a moose ; another was seen being dragged over a fallen log while attached to a bull elk's nose. the most common point of wolf attacks on moose is the upper hind legs. hind leg wounds are inflicted from the rear, midway up the hock with the canine teeth. these leave gaping skin perforations over 4 cm ( 1 + 1⁄2 in ) in diameter. although blood loss, muscle damage, and tendon exposure may occur, there is no evidence of hamstringing. attacks also occur on the fleshy nose, the back and sides of the neck, the ears, and the perineum. wolves may wound large prey and then lie around resting for hours before killing it when it is weaker due to blood loss, thereby lessening the risk of injury to themselves. with medium - sized prey, such as roe deer or sheep, wolves kill
several organisms are capable of rolling locomotion. however, true wheels and propellers — despite their utility in human vehicles — do not play a significant role in the movement of living things ( with the exception of the corkscrew - like flagella of many prokaryotes ). biologists have offered several explanations for the apparent absence of biological wheels, and wheeled creatures have appeared often in speculative fiction. given the ubiquity of wheels in human technology, and the existence of biological analogues of many other technologies ( such as wings and lenses ), the lack of wheels in nature has seemed, to many scientists, to demand explanation — and the phenomenon is broadly explained by two factors : first, there are several developmental and evolutionary obstacles to the advent of a wheel by natural selection, and secondly, wheels have several drawbacks relative to other means of propulsion ( such as walking, running, or slithering ) in natural environments, which would tend to preclude their evolution. this environment - specific disadvantage has also led humans in certain regions to abandon wheels at least once in history. = = known instances of rotation in biology = = there exist two distinct modes of locomotion using rotation : first, simple rolling ; and second, the use of wheels or propellers, which spin on an axle or shaft, relative to a fixed body. while many creatures employ the former mode, the latter is restricted to microscopic, single - celled organisms. : 396 = = = rolling = = = some organisms use rolling as a means of locomotion. these examples do not constitute the use of a wheel, as the organism rotates as a whole, rather than employing separate parts which rotate independently. several species of elongate organisms form their bodies into a loop to roll, including certain caterpillars ( which do so to escape danger ), tiger beetle larvae, myriapods, mantis shrimp, armadillidiidae, and mount lyell salamanders. other species adopt more spherical postures, primarily to protect their bodies from predators ; this posture has been seen in pangolins, wheel spiders, hedgehogs, armadillos, armadillo girdled lizards, isopods, and fossilized trilobites. pangolins and wheel spiders have been observed to purposely roll away from predators. these species may roll passively ( under the influence of gravity or wind ) or actively, typically by altering their shape to generate a propulsive force. tumbleweeds, which are the above -
. wolves may wound large prey and then lie around resting for hours before killing it when it is weaker due to blood loss, thereby lessening the risk of injury to themselves. with medium - sized prey, such as roe deer or sheep, wolves kill by biting the throat, severing nerve tracks and the carotid artery, thus causing the animal to die within a few seconds to a minute. with small, mouselike prey, wolves leap in a high arc and immobilize it with their forepaws. when prey is vulnerable and abundant, wolves may occasionally surplus kill. such instances are common with domestic animals but rare with wild prey. in the wild, surplus killing occurs primarily during late winter or spring, when snow is unusually deep ( thus impeding the movements of prey ) or during the denning period, when den - bound wolves require a ready supply of meat. medium - sized prey are especially vulnerable to surplus killing, as the swift throat - biting method allows wolves to kill one animal quickly and move on to another. = = feeding = = once prey is brought down, wolves begin to feed excitedly, ripping and tugging at the carcass in all directions, and bolting down large chunks of it. the breeding pair typically monopolizes food to continue producing pups. when food is scarce, this is done at the expense of other family members, especially non - pups. the breeding pair typically eats first. they usually work the hardest at killing prey, and may rest after a long hunt and allow the rest of the family to eat undisturbed. once the breeding pair has finished eating, the rest of the family tears off pieces of the carcass and transports them to secluded areas where they can eat in peace. wolves typically commence feeding by consuming the larger internal organs, like the heart, liver, lungs, and stomach lining. the kidneys and spleen are eaten once they are exposed, followed by the muscles. a wolf can eat 15 – 19 % of its body weight in a single feeding. = = references = = = = = bibliography = = = mech, l. david ( 1981 ). the wolf : the ecology and behaviour of an endangered species. university of minnesota press. isbn 978 - 0 - 8166 - 1026 - 6. mech, l. david ; boitani, luigi, eds. ( 2003 ). wolves : behaviour, ecology and conservation. university of chicago press. isbn 978 - 0 - 226 - 51696 - 7. mech
in game theory a move by nature is a decision or move in an extensive form game made by a player who has no strategic interests in the outcome. the effect is to add a player, " nature ", whose practical role is to act as a random number generator. for instance, if a game of poker requires a dealer to choose which cards a player is dealt, the dealer plays the role of the nature player. moves by nature are an integral part of games of incomplete information. = = see also = = games of chance = = references = = fudenberg, drew ; tirole, jean ( 1995 ). game theory. mit press. pp. 336 – 337. isbn 0 - 262 - 06141 - 4.
obstacles in their path that do not hinder creatures with limbs. in the latter half of the 20th century, wheeled or wheel - using creatures featured in works by fantasy and science fiction writers including clifford d. simak, piers anthony, david brin, k. a. applegate, philip pullman, and writing partners ian stewart and jack cohen. some of these works address the developmental and biomechanical constraints on wheeled creatures : brin's creatures suffer from arthritic axles, : 109 and pullman's mulefa are not born with wheels, but roll on seed pods with which they coevolved. = = see also = = biomimicry, which includes biologically inspired engineering projectile use by living systems, another adaptation commonly associated with human technology issus, one of many genera of planthoppers which use gear mechanisms to synchronize their legs while jumping = = notes = = = = references = = = = external links = = " animal olympians : gymnastics " on youtube, featuring a rolling golden wheel spider " rolling salamanders & caterpillars " on youtube, from bbc's weird nature
Answer:
|
pack of wolves
| 0.3 |
Vitamin D heals what?
0. vision
1. human frame
2. sadness
3. brain damage
other body systems including the kidneys, brain, central nervous system, blood system, lungs, and heart. there is no cure for sle but treatments aim to control inflammation, alleviate pain and damage to the joints, prevent disease flares, and minimize organ damage. several environmental factors such as smoking, viral infections, various chemicals, and uv light, have been found to induce oxidative stress that leads to inhibition or reduction of dnmt1 levels, which reduces dna methylation in cd4 + t - cells and can prompt autoimmunity. in patients with sle, the disease can be triggered or induced by exposure to uv light with its effects appearing to be dose dependent. uv - b light can induce apoptosis of dermal cells, and this can release large amounts of autoantigens and pro - inflammatory cytokines, which can trigger systematic inflammation. additionally, vitamin d has been found to have a role in sle activity. vitamin d has a protective role in regulating the immune system and possibly in the regulation of gene expression important for sle pathogenesis. deficiency of vitamin d has also been shown to be associated with higher lupus disease activity as there seems to be a decrease in the proliferation and production of the igg immunoglobulin. although there is no clear association, smoking and drinking have also been reported as potential environmental risk factors for sle. = = = systemic sclerosis ( ssc ) = = = systemic sclerosis ( ssc ) is an autoimmune disease characterized by system wide excessive collagen deposits. it can affect several bodily systems including the skin, internal organs, lungs, heart, kidneys, musculoskeletal system, and the gastrointestinal tract. it causes the patient's skin and connective tissues to tighten and harden due to the uncontrolled accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins on the joints and various internal organ system which can lead to premature death in patients. fli1 is a transcription factor that negatively regulates collagen production such that the higher the fli gene expression, the less collagen is produced. in ssc patients, hypermethylation of cpg islands in the fli1 promoter region is observed, inhibiting transcription of the fli gene and increasing collagen production beyond normal levels causing collagen build - up and an overproduction of fibrous connective tissue. this causes joint damage, scarring, and thickening of the skin. patients
stereopsis recovery, also recovery from stereoblindness, is the phenomenon of a stereoblind person gaining partial or full ability of stereo vision ( stereopsis ). recovering stereo vision as far as possible has long been established as an approach to the therapeutic treatment of stereoblind patients. treatment aims to recover stereo vision in very young children, as well as in patients who had acquired but lost their ability for stereopsis due to a medical condition. in contrast, this aim has normally not been present in the treatment of those who missed out on learning stereopsis during their first few years of life. in fact, the acquisition of binocular and stereo vision was long thought to be impossible unless the person acquired this skill during a critical period in infancy and early childhood. this hypothesis normally went unquestioned and has formed the basis for the therapeutic approaches to binocular disorders for decades. it has been put in doubt in recent years. in particular since studies on stereopsis recovery began to appear in scientific journals and it became publicly known that neuroscientist susan r. barry achieved stereopsis well into adulthood, that assumption is in retrospect considered to have held the status of a scientific dogma. very recently, there has been a rise in scientific investigations into stereopsis recovery in adults and youths who have had no stereo vision before. while it has now been shown that an adult may gain stereopsis, it is currently not yet possible to predict how likely a stereoblind person is to do so, nor is there general agreement on the best therapeutic procedure. also the possible implications for the treatment of children with infantile esotropia are still under study. = = clinical management of strabismus and stereoblindness = = in cases of acquired strabismus with double vision ( diplopia ), it is long - established state of the art to aim at curing the double vision and at the same time recovering a patient's earlier ability for stereo vision. for example, a patient may have had full stereo vision but later had diplopia due to a medical condition, losing stereo vision. in this case, medical interventions, including vision therapy and strabismus surgery, may remove the double vision and recover the stereo vision which had temporarily been absent in the patient. also when children with congenital ( infantile ) strabismus ( e. g. infantile esotropia ) receive strabismus surgery within the first few years or two of their life, this goes along with
##ic children were three times lower than those of the brain tissue of children not affected by asd. this lower - than - normal b12 profile persisted throughout life in the brain tissues of patients with autism. these deficiencies are not visible by conventional blood sampling. as for the classic deficiency of vitamin b12, it would affect up to 40 % of the population, its prevalence has not yet been studied in autism spectrum disorders. vitamin b12 deficiency is one of the most serious. vitamin b9 ( folic acid ) : studies have been conducted regarding folic acid supplementation in autism in children. " the results showed that folic acid supplementation significantly improved certain symptoms of autism such as sociability, verbal / preverbal cognitive language, receptive language, and emotional expression and communication. in addition, this treatment improved the concentrations of folic acid, homocysteine and redox metabolism of standardized glutathione. " vitamin a : vitamin a can induce mitochondrial dysfunction. according to a non - specific study on asd : " vitamin a and its derivatives, retinoids, are micronutrients necessary for the human diet in order to maintain several cellular functions of human development in adulthood as well as during aging... although it is either an essential micronutrient, used in clinical applications, vitamin a has several toxic effects on the redox environment and mitochondrial function. a decline in the quality of life and an increase in the mortality rate among users of vitamin a supplements have been reported. although the exact mechanism by which vitamin a causes its deleterious effects is not yet clear... vitamin a and its derivatives, retinoids, disrupt mitochondrial function by a mechanism that is not fully understood. " zinc : zinc deficiency incidence rates in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 43. 5 %, 28. 1 % and 3. 3 % for boys and at 52. 5 %, 28. 7 % and 3. 5 % among girls. magnesium : incidence rates of magnesium deficiency in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 27 %, 17. 1 % and 4. 2 % for boys and at 22. 9 %, 12. 7 % and 4. 3 % among girls. calcium : incidence rates of calcium deficiency in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 years and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 10. 4 %, 6. 1 % and 0. 4 % for boys and at
sod2 codes for a superoxide disputes enzyme, which scavenges free radicals and prevents oxidative damage to cells. lsd1 may play a major role in diabetic retinopathy through the downregulation of sod2 in retinal vascular tissue, leading to oxidative damage in those cells. mmp - 9 is believed to be involved in cellular apoptosis, and is similarly downregulated, which may help to propagate the effects of diabetic retinopathy. several avenues to epigenetic treatment of diabetic retinopathy have been studied. one approach is to inhibit the methylation of the sod2 and mmp - 9. the dnmt inhibitors 5 - azacytidine and 5 - aza - 20 - deoxycytidine have both been approved by the fda for the treatment of other conditions, and studies have examined the effects of those compounds on diabetic retinopathy, where they seem to inhibit these methylation patterns with some success at reducing symptoms. the dna methylation inhibitor zebularine has also been studied, although results are currently inconclusive. a second approach is to attempt to reduce the mirnas observed at elevated levels in retinopathic patients, although the exact role of those mirnas is still unclear. the histone acetyltransferase ( hat ) inhibitors epigallocatechin - 3 - gallate, vorinostat, and romidepsin have also been the subject of experimentation for this purpose, with some limited success. the possibility of using small interfering rnas, or sirnas, to target the mirnas mentioned above has been discussed, but there are currently no known methods to do so. this method is somewhat hindered by the difficulty involved in delivering the sirnas to the affected tissues. type 2 diabetes mellitus ( t2dm ) has many variations and factors that influence how it affects the body. dna methylation is a process by which methyl groups attach to dna structure causing the gene to not be expressed. this is thought to be an epigenetic cause of t2dm by causing the body to develop an insulin resistance and inhibit the production of beta cells in the pancreas. because of the repressed genes the body does not regulate blood sugar transport to cells, causing a high concentration of glucose in the blood stream. another variation of t2dm is mitochondrial reactive oxygen species ( ros ) which causes a lack of antioxidants
dna damage in neurons. in neuronal progenitor cells, dna damage is associated with increased secretion of amyloid beta proteins aβ40 and aβ42. this association supports the existence of a causal relationship between oxidative dna damage and aβ accumulation and suggests that oxidative dna damage may contribute to alzheimer's disease ( ad ) pathology. ad is associated with an accumulation of dna damage ( double - strand breaks ) in vulnerable neuronal and glial cell populations from early stages onward, and dna double - strand breaks are increased in the hippocampus of ad brains compared to non - ad control brains. = = antioxidants as supplements = = the use of antioxidants to prevent some diseases is controversial. in a high - risk group like smokers, high doses of beta carotene increased the rate of lung cancer since high doses of beta - carotene in conjunction of high oxygen tension due to smoking results in a pro - oxidant effect and an antioxidant effect when oxygen tension is not high. in less high - risk groups, the use of vitamin e appears to reduce the risk of heart disease. however, while consumption of food rich in vitamin e may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease in middle - aged to older men and women, using vitamin e supplements also appear to result in an increase in total mortality, heart failure, and hemorrhagic stroke. the american heart association therefore recommends the consumption of food rich in antioxidant vitamins and other nutrients, but does not recommend the use of vitamin e supplements to prevent cardiovascular disease. in other diseases, such as alzheimer's, the evidence on vitamin e supplementation is also mixed. since dietary sources contain a wider range of carotenoids and vitamin e tocopherols and tocotrienols from whole foods, ex post facto epidemiological studies can have differing conclusions than artificial experiments using isolated compounds. astrazeneca's radical scavenging nitrone drug nxy - 059 shows some efficacy in the treatment of stroke. oxidative stress ( as formulated in denham harman's free - radical theory of aging ) is also thought to contribute to the aging process. while there is good evidence to support this idea in model organisms such as drosophila melanogaster and caenorhabditis elegans, recent evidence from michael ristow's laboratory suggests that oxidative stress may also promote life expectancy
Answer:
|
human frame
| null |
Vitamin D heals what?
0. vision
1. human frame
2. sadness
3. brain damage
other body systems including the kidneys, brain, central nervous system, blood system, lungs, and heart. there is no cure for sle but treatments aim to control inflammation, alleviate pain and damage to the joints, prevent disease flares, and minimize organ damage. several environmental factors such as smoking, viral infections, various chemicals, and uv light, have been found to induce oxidative stress that leads to inhibition or reduction of dnmt1 levels, which reduces dna methylation in cd4 + t - cells and can prompt autoimmunity. in patients with sle, the disease can be triggered or induced by exposure to uv light with its effects appearing to be dose dependent. uv - b light can induce apoptosis of dermal cells, and this can release large amounts of autoantigens and pro - inflammatory cytokines, which can trigger systematic inflammation. additionally, vitamin d has been found to have a role in sle activity. vitamin d has a protective role in regulating the immune system and possibly in the regulation of gene expression important for sle pathogenesis. deficiency of vitamin d has also been shown to be associated with higher lupus disease activity as there seems to be a decrease in the proliferation and production of the igg immunoglobulin. although there is no clear association, smoking and drinking have also been reported as potential environmental risk factors for sle. = = = systemic sclerosis ( ssc ) = = = systemic sclerosis ( ssc ) is an autoimmune disease characterized by system wide excessive collagen deposits. it can affect several bodily systems including the skin, internal organs, lungs, heart, kidneys, musculoskeletal system, and the gastrointestinal tract. it causes the patient's skin and connective tissues to tighten and harden due to the uncontrolled accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins on the joints and various internal organ system which can lead to premature death in patients. fli1 is a transcription factor that negatively regulates collagen production such that the higher the fli gene expression, the less collagen is produced. in ssc patients, hypermethylation of cpg islands in the fli1 promoter region is observed, inhibiting transcription of the fli gene and increasing collagen production beyond normal levels causing collagen build - up and an overproduction of fibrous connective tissue. this causes joint damage, scarring, and thickening of the skin. patients
stereopsis recovery, also recovery from stereoblindness, is the phenomenon of a stereoblind person gaining partial or full ability of stereo vision ( stereopsis ). recovering stereo vision as far as possible has long been established as an approach to the therapeutic treatment of stereoblind patients. treatment aims to recover stereo vision in very young children, as well as in patients who had acquired but lost their ability for stereopsis due to a medical condition. in contrast, this aim has normally not been present in the treatment of those who missed out on learning stereopsis during their first few years of life. in fact, the acquisition of binocular and stereo vision was long thought to be impossible unless the person acquired this skill during a critical period in infancy and early childhood. this hypothesis normally went unquestioned and has formed the basis for the therapeutic approaches to binocular disorders for decades. it has been put in doubt in recent years. in particular since studies on stereopsis recovery began to appear in scientific journals and it became publicly known that neuroscientist susan r. barry achieved stereopsis well into adulthood, that assumption is in retrospect considered to have held the status of a scientific dogma. very recently, there has been a rise in scientific investigations into stereopsis recovery in adults and youths who have had no stereo vision before. while it has now been shown that an adult may gain stereopsis, it is currently not yet possible to predict how likely a stereoblind person is to do so, nor is there general agreement on the best therapeutic procedure. also the possible implications for the treatment of children with infantile esotropia are still under study. = = clinical management of strabismus and stereoblindness = = in cases of acquired strabismus with double vision ( diplopia ), it is long - established state of the art to aim at curing the double vision and at the same time recovering a patient's earlier ability for stereo vision. for example, a patient may have had full stereo vision but later had diplopia due to a medical condition, losing stereo vision. in this case, medical interventions, including vision therapy and strabismus surgery, may remove the double vision and recover the stereo vision which had temporarily been absent in the patient. also when children with congenital ( infantile ) strabismus ( e. g. infantile esotropia ) receive strabismus surgery within the first few years or two of their life, this goes along with
##ic children were three times lower than those of the brain tissue of children not affected by asd. this lower - than - normal b12 profile persisted throughout life in the brain tissues of patients with autism. these deficiencies are not visible by conventional blood sampling. as for the classic deficiency of vitamin b12, it would affect up to 40 % of the population, its prevalence has not yet been studied in autism spectrum disorders. vitamin b12 deficiency is one of the most serious. vitamin b9 ( folic acid ) : studies have been conducted regarding folic acid supplementation in autism in children. " the results showed that folic acid supplementation significantly improved certain symptoms of autism such as sociability, verbal / preverbal cognitive language, receptive language, and emotional expression and communication. in addition, this treatment improved the concentrations of folic acid, homocysteine and redox metabolism of standardized glutathione. " vitamin a : vitamin a can induce mitochondrial dysfunction. according to a non - specific study on asd : " vitamin a and its derivatives, retinoids, are micronutrients necessary for the human diet in order to maintain several cellular functions of human development in adulthood as well as during aging... although it is either an essential micronutrient, used in clinical applications, vitamin a has several toxic effects on the redox environment and mitochondrial function. a decline in the quality of life and an increase in the mortality rate among users of vitamin a supplements have been reported. although the exact mechanism by which vitamin a causes its deleterious effects is not yet clear... vitamin a and its derivatives, retinoids, disrupt mitochondrial function by a mechanism that is not fully understood. " zinc : zinc deficiency incidence rates in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 43. 5 %, 28. 1 % and 3. 3 % for boys and at 52. 5 %, 28. 7 % and 3. 5 % among girls. magnesium : incidence rates of magnesium deficiency in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 27 %, 17. 1 % and 4. 2 % for boys and at 22. 9 %, 12. 7 % and 4. 3 % among girls. calcium : incidence rates of calcium deficiency in children aged 0 to 3, 4 to 9 years and 10 to 15 years were estimated at 10. 4 %, 6. 1 % and 0. 4 % for boys and at
sod2 codes for a superoxide disputes enzyme, which scavenges free radicals and prevents oxidative damage to cells. lsd1 may play a major role in diabetic retinopathy through the downregulation of sod2 in retinal vascular tissue, leading to oxidative damage in those cells. mmp - 9 is believed to be involved in cellular apoptosis, and is similarly downregulated, which may help to propagate the effects of diabetic retinopathy. several avenues to epigenetic treatment of diabetic retinopathy have been studied. one approach is to inhibit the methylation of the sod2 and mmp - 9. the dnmt inhibitors 5 - azacytidine and 5 - aza - 20 - deoxycytidine have both been approved by the fda for the treatment of other conditions, and studies have examined the effects of those compounds on diabetic retinopathy, where they seem to inhibit these methylation patterns with some success at reducing symptoms. the dna methylation inhibitor zebularine has also been studied, although results are currently inconclusive. a second approach is to attempt to reduce the mirnas observed at elevated levels in retinopathic patients, although the exact role of those mirnas is still unclear. the histone acetyltransferase ( hat ) inhibitors epigallocatechin - 3 - gallate, vorinostat, and romidepsin have also been the subject of experimentation for this purpose, with some limited success. the possibility of using small interfering rnas, or sirnas, to target the mirnas mentioned above has been discussed, but there are currently no known methods to do so. this method is somewhat hindered by the difficulty involved in delivering the sirnas to the affected tissues. type 2 diabetes mellitus ( t2dm ) has many variations and factors that influence how it affects the body. dna methylation is a process by which methyl groups attach to dna structure causing the gene to not be expressed. this is thought to be an epigenetic cause of t2dm by causing the body to develop an insulin resistance and inhibit the production of beta cells in the pancreas. because of the repressed genes the body does not regulate blood sugar transport to cells, causing a high concentration of glucose in the blood stream. another variation of t2dm is mitochondrial reactive oxygen species ( ros ) which causes a lack of antioxidants
dna damage in neurons. in neuronal progenitor cells, dna damage is associated with increased secretion of amyloid beta proteins aβ40 and aβ42. this association supports the existence of a causal relationship between oxidative dna damage and aβ accumulation and suggests that oxidative dna damage may contribute to alzheimer's disease ( ad ) pathology. ad is associated with an accumulation of dna damage ( double - strand breaks ) in vulnerable neuronal and glial cell populations from early stages onward, and dna double - strand breaks are increased in the hippocampus of ad brains compared to non - ad control brains. = = antioxidants as supplements = = the use of antioxidants to prevent some diseases is controversial. in a high - risk group like smokers, high doses of beta carotene increased the rate of lung cancer since high doses of beta - carotene in conjunction of high oxygen tension due to smoking results in a pro - oxidant effect and an antioxidant effect when oxygen tension is not high. in less high - risk groups, the use of vitamin e appears to reduce the risk of heart disease. however, while consumption of food rich in vitamin e may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease in middle - aged to older men and women, using vitamin e supplements also appear to result in an increase in total mortality, heart failure, and hemorrhagic stroke. the american heart association therefore recommends the consumption of food rich in antioxidant vitamins and other nutrients, but does not recommend the use of vitamin e supplements to prevent cardiovascular disease. in other diseases, such as alzheimer's, the evidence on vitamin e supplementation is also mixed. since dietary sources contain a wider range of carotenoids and vitamin e tocopherols and tocotrienols from whole foods, ex post facto epidemiological studies can have differing conclusions than artificial experiments using isolated compounds. astrazeneca's radical scavenging nitrone drug nxy - 059 shows some efficacy in the treatment of stroke. oxidative stress ( as formulated in denham harman's free - radical theory of aging ) is also thought to contribute to the aging process. while there is good evidence to support this idea in model organisms such as drosophila melanogaster and caenorhabditis elegans, recent evidence from michael ristow's laboratory suggests that oxidative stress may also promote life expectancy
Answer:
|
brain damage
| 0.3 |
This organ will help in providing nutrients to your body
0. lungs
1. esophagus
2. kidney
3. bladder
##denum, pancreatic enzymes break down the protective glycoprotein. the freed vitamin b12 then binds to intrinsic factor which is then absorbed by the enterocytes in the ileum. the stomach is a distensible organ and can normally expand to hold about one litre of food. this expansion is enabled by a series of gastric folds in the inner walls of the stomach. the stomach of a newborn baby will only be able to expand to retain about 30 ml. = = = spleen = = = the spleen is the largest lymphoid organ in the body but has other functions. it breaks down both red and white blood cells that are spent. this is why it is sometimes known as the'graveyard of red blood cells '. a product of this digestion is the pigment bilirubin, which is sent to the liver and secreted in the bile. another product is iron, which is used in the formation of new blood cells in the bone marrow. medicine treats the spleen solely as belonging to the lymphatic system, though it is acknowledged that the full range of its important functions is not yet understood. : 1751 = = = liver = = = the liver is the second largest organ ( after the skin ) and is an accessory digestive gland which plays a role in the body's metabolism. the liver has many functions some of which are important to digestion. the liver can detoxify various metabolites ; synthesise proteins and produce biochemicals needed for digestion. it regulates the storage of glycogen which it can form from glucose ( glycogenesis ). the liver can also synthesise glucose from certain amino acids. its digestive functions are largely involved with the breaking down of carbohydrates. it also maintains protein metabolism in its synthesis and degradation. in lipid metabolism it synthesises cholesterol. fats are also produced in the process of lipogenesis. the liver synthesises the bulk of lipoproteins. the liver is located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen and below the diaphragm to which it is attached at one part, the bare area of the liver. this is to the right of the stomach and it overlies the gall bladder. the liver synthesises bile acids and lecithin to promote the digestion of fat. = = = = bile = = = = bile produced by the liver is made up of water ( 97 % ), bile salts, mucus and pigments
function of chloride and bicarbonate exchange. protein dra's reuptake of chloride is critical to creating an osmotic gradient that allows the intestine to reabsorb water. another well - studied chloride - bicarbonate antiporter is anion exchanger 1 ( ae1 ), which is also known as band 3 anion transport protein or solute carrier family 4 member 1 ( slc4a1 ). this exchanger is found in red blood cells, where it helps transport bicarbonate and carbon dioxide between the lungs and tissues to maintain acid - base homeostasis. ae1 also expressed in the basolateral side of cells of the renal tubules. it is crucial in the collecting duct of the nephron, which is where its acid - secreting α - intercalated cells are located. these cells use carbon dioxide and water to generate hydrogen and bicarbonate ions, which is catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase. the hydrogen is exchanged across the membrane into the lumen of the collecting duct, and thus acid is excreted into the urine. because of its importance to the reabsorption of water in the intestine, mutations in protein dra cause a condition called congenital chloride diarrhea ( ccd ). this disorder is caused by an autosomal recessive mutation in the dra gene on chromosome 7. ccd symptoms in newborns are chronic diarrhea with failure to thrive, and the disorder is characterized by diarrhea that causes metabolic alkalosis. mutations of kidney ae1 can lead to distal renal tubular acidosis, a disorder characterized by the inability to secrete acid into the urine. this causes metabolic acidosis, where the blood is too acidic. a chronic state of metabolic acidosis can the health of the bones, kidneys, muscles, and cardiovascular system. mutations in erythrocyte ae1 cause alterations of its function, leading to changes in red blood cell morphology and function. this can have serious consequences because the shape of red blood cells is closely tied to their function of gas exchange in the lungs and tissues. one such condition is hereditary spherocytosis, a genetic disorder characterized by spherical red blood cells. another is southeast asian ovalocytosis, where a deletion in the ae1 gene generates oval - shaped erythrocytes. finally, overhydrated hereditary stomatocytosis is a rare genetic disorder where red blood cells have an abnormally high volume,
the heart is a muscular organ found in humans and other animals. this organ pumps blood through the blood vessels. heart and blood vessels together make the circulatory system. the pumped blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the tissue, while carrying metabolic waste such as carbon dioxide to the lungs. in humans, the heart is approximately the size of a closed fist and is located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest, called the mediastinum. in humans, the heart is divided into four chambers : upper left and right atria and lower left and right ventricles. commonly, the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the right heart and their left counterparts as the left heart. in a healthy heart, blood flows one way through the heart due to heart valves, which prevent backflow. the heart is enclosed in a protective sac, the pericardium, which also contains a small amount of fluid. the wall of the heart is made up of three layers : epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. the heart pumps blood with a rhythm determined by a group of pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node. these generate an electric current that causes the heart to contract, traveling through the atrioventricular node and along the conduction system of the heart. in humans, deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and passes to the right ventricle. from here, it is pumped into pulmonary circulation to the lungs, where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium, passes through the left ventricle and is pumped out through the aorta into systemic circulation, traveling through arteries, arterioles, and capillaries — where nutrients and other substances are exchanged between blood vessels and cells, losing oxygen and gaining carbon dioxide — before being returned to the heart through venules and veins. the adult heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute. exercise temporarily increases the rate, but lowers it in the long term, and is good for heart health. cardiovascular diseases were the most common cause of death globally as of 2008, accounting for 30 % of all human deaths. of these more than three - quarters are a result of coronary artery disease and stroke. risk factors include : smoking, being overweight, little exercise, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and poorly controlled diabetes, among others. cardiovascular diseases
= the pharynx is a part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system and also a part of the digestive system. it is the part of the throat immediately behind the nasal cavity at the back of the mouth and above the esophagus and larynx. the pharynx is made up of three parts. the lower two parts — the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx are involved in the digestive system. the laryngopharynx connects to the esophagus and it serves as a passageway for both air and food. air enters the larynx anteriorly but anything swallowed has priority and the passage of air is temporarily blocked. the pharynx is innervated by the pharyngeal plexus of the vagus nerve. : 1465 muscles in the pharynx push the food into the esophagus. the pharynx joins the esophagus at the oesophageal inlet which is located behind the cricoid cartilage. = = = esophagus = = = the esophagus, commonly known as the foodpipe or gullet, consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. the esophagus is continuous with the laryngopharynx. it passes through the posterior mediastinum in the thorax and enters the stomach through a hole in the thoracic diaphragm — the esophageal hiatus, at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra ( t10 ). its length averages 25 cm, varying with an individual's height. it is divided into cervical, thoracic and abdominal parts. the pharynx joins the esophagus at the esophageal inlet which is behind the cricoid cartilage. at rest the esophagus is closed at both ends, by the upper and lower esophageal sphincters. the opening of the upper sphincter is triggered by the swallowing reflex so that food is allowed through. the sphincter also serves to prevent back flow from the esophagus into the pharynx. the esophagus has a mucous membrane and the epithelium which has a protective function is continuously replaced due to the volume of food that passes inside the esophagus. during swallowing, food passes from the mouth through the pharynx into the esopha
a vestigial structure in some reptiles and birds, it is otherwise absorbed into the right atrium and is no longer distinguishable. = = = invertebrates = = = arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system. in this system, deoxygenated blood collects around the heart in cavities ( sinuses ). this blood slowly permeates the heart through many small one - way channels. the heart then pumps the blood into the hemocoel, a cavity between the organs. the heart in arthropods is typically a muscular tube that runs the length of the body, under the back and from the base of the head. instead of blood the circulatory fluid is haemolymph which carries the most commonly used respiratory pigment, copper - based haemocyanin as the oxygen transporter. haemoglobin is only used by a few arthropods. in some other invertebrates such as earthworms, the circulatory system is not used to transport oxygen and so is much reduced, having no veins or arteries and consisting of two connected tubes. oxygen travels by diffusion and there are five small muscular vessels that connect these vessels that contract at the front of the animals that can be thought of as " hearts ". squids and other cephalopods have two " gill hearts " also known as branchial hearts, and one " systemic heart ". the branchial hearts have two atria and one ventricle each, and pump to the gills, whereas the systemic heart pumps to the body. only the chordates ( including vertebrates ) and the hemichordates have a central " heart ", which is a vesicle formed from the thickening of the aorta and contracts to pump blood. this suggests a presence of it in the last common ancestor of these groups ( may have been lost in the echinoderms ). = = additional images = = = = notes = = = = references = = this article incorporates text from the cc by book : openstax college, anatomy & physiology. openstax cnx. 30 july 2014. = = bibliography = = hall, john ( 2011 ). guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology ( 12th ed. ). philadelphia : saunders / elsevier. isbn 978 - 1 - 4160 - 4574 - 8. longo, dan ; fauci, anthony ; kasper, dennis ; hauser, stephen ; jameson, j. ;
Answer:
|
esophagus
| null |
This organ will help in providing nutrients to your body
0. lungs
1. esophagus
2. kidney
3. bladder
##denum, pancreatic enzymes break down the protective glycoprotein. the freed vitamin b12 then binds to intrinsic factor which is then absorbed by the enterocytes in the ileum. the stomach is a distensible organ and can normally expand to hold about one litre of food. this expansion is enabled by a series of gastric folds in the inner walls of the stomach. the stomach of a newborn baby will only be able to expand to retain about 30 ml. = = = spleen = = = the spleen is the largest lymphoid organ in the body but has other functions. it breaks down both red and white blood cells that are spent. this is why it is sometimes known as the'graveyard of red blood cells '. a product of this digestion is the pigment bilirubin, which is sent to the liver and secreted in the bile. another product is iron, which is used in the formation of new blood cells in the bone marrow. medicine treats the spleen solely as belonging to the lymphatic system, though it is acknowledged that the full range of its important functions is not yet understood. : 1751 = = = liver = = = the liver is the second largest organ ( after the skin ) and is an accessory digestive gland which plays a role in the body's metabolism. the liver has many functions some of which are important to digestion. the liver can detoxify various metabolites ; synthesise proteins and produce biochemicals needed for digestion. it regulates the storage of glycogen which it can form from glucose ( glycogenesis ). the liver can also synthesise glucose from certain amino acids. its digestive functions are largely involved with the breaking down of carbohydrates. it also maintains protein metabolism in its synthesis and degradation. in lipid metabolism it synthesises cholesterol. fats are also produced in the process of lipogenesis. the liver synthesises the bulk of lipoproteins. the liver is located in the upper right quadrant of the abdomen and below the diaphragm to which it is attached at one part, the bare area of the liver. this is to the right of the stomach and it overlies the gall bladder. the liver synthesises bile acids and lecithin to promote the digestion of fat. = = = = bile = = = = bile produced by the liver is made up of water ( 97 % ), bile salts, mucus and pigments
function of chloride and bicarbonate exchange. protein dra's reuptake of chloride is critical to creating an osmotic gradient that allows the intestine to reabsorb water. another well - studied chloride - bicarbonate antiporter is anion exchanger 1 ( ae1 ), which is also known as band 3 anion transport protein or solute carrier family 4 member 1 ( slc4a1 ). this exchanger is found in red blood cells, where it helps transport bicarbonate and carbon dioxide between the lungs and tissues to maintain acid - base homeostasis. ae1 also expressed in the basolateral side of cells of the renal tubules. it is crucial in the collecting duct of the nephron, which is where its acid - secreting α - intercalated cells are located. these cells use carbon dioxide and water to generate hydrogen and bicarbonate ions, which is catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase. the hydrogen is exchanged across the membrane into the lumen of the collecting duct, and thus acid is excreted into the urine. because of its importance to the reabsorption of water in the intestine, mutations in protein dra cause a condition called congenital chloride diarrhea ( ccd ). this disorder is caused by an autosomal recessive mutation in the dra gene on chromosome 7. ccd symptoms in newborns are chronic diarrhea with failure to thrive, and the disorder is characterized by diarrhea that causes metabolic alkalosis. mutations of kidney ae1 can lead to distal renal tubular acidosis, a disorder characterized by the inability to secrete acid into the urine. this causes metabolic acidosis, where the blood is too acidic. a chronic state of metabolic acidosis can the health of the bones, kidneys, muscles, and cardiovascular system. mutations in erythrocyte ae1 cause alterations of its function, leading to changes in red blood cell morphology and function. this can have serious consequences because the shape of red blood cells is closely tied to their function of gas exchange in the lungs and tissues. one such condition is hereditary spherocytosis, a genetic disorder characterized by spherical red blood cells. another is southeast asian ovalocytosis, where a deletion in the ae1 gene generates oval - shaped erythrocytes. finally, overhydrated hereditary stomatocytosis is a rare genetic disorder where red blood cells have an abnormally high volume,
the heart is a muscular organ found in humans and other animals. this organ pumps blood through the blood vessels. heart and blood vessels together make the circulatory system. the pumped blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the tissue, while carrying metabolic waste such as carbon dioxide to the lungs. in humans, the heart is approximately the size of a closed fist and is located between the lungs, in the middle compartment of the chest, called the mediastinum. in humans, the heart is divided into four chambers : upper left and right atria and lower left and right ventricles. commonly, the right atrium and ventricle are referred together as the right heart and their left counterparts as the left heart. in a healthy heart, blood flows one way through the heart due to heart valves, which prevent backflow. the heart is enclosed in a protective sac, the pericardium, which also contains a small amount of fluid. the wall of the heart is made up of three layers : epicardium, myocardium, and endocardium. the heart pumps blood with a rhythm determined by a group of pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node. these generate an electric current that causes the heart to contract, traveling through the atrioventricular node and along the conduction system of the heart. in humans, deoxygenated blood enters the heart through the right atrium from the superior and inferior venae cavae and passes to the right ventricle. from here, it is pumped into pulmonary circulation to the lungs, where it receives oxygen and gives off carbon dioxide. oxygenated blood then returns to the left atrium, passes through the left ventricle and is pumped out through the aorta into systemic circulation, traveling through arteries, arterioles, and capillaries — where nutrients and other substances are exchanged between blood vessels and cells, losing oxygen and gaining carbon dioxide — before being returned to the heart through venules and veins. the adult heart beats at a resting rate close to 72 beats per minute. exercise temporarily increases the rate, but lowers it in the long term, and is good for heart health. cardiovascular diseases were the most common cause of death globally as of 2008, accounting for 30 % of all human deaths. of these more than three - quarters are a result of coronary artery disease and stroke. risk factors include : smoking, being overweight, little exercise, high cholesterol, high blood pressure, and poorly controlled diabetes, among others. cardiovascular diseases
= the pharynx is a part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system and also a part of the digestive system. it is the part of the throat immediately behind the nasal cavity at the back of the mouth and above the esophagus and larynx. the pharynx is made up of three parts. the lower two parts — the oropharynx and the laryngopharynx are involved in the digestive system. the laryngopharynx connects to the esophagus and it serves as a passageway for both air and food. air enters the larynx anteriorly but anything swallowed has priority and the passage of air is temporarily blocked. the pharynx is innervated by the pharyngeal plexus of the vagus nerve. : 1465 muscles in the pharynx push the food into the esophagus. the pharynx joins the esophagus at the oesophageal inlet which is located behind the cricoid cartilage. = = = esophagus = = = the esophagus, commonly known as the foodpipe or gullet, consists of a muscular tube through which food passes from the pharynx to the stomach. the esophagus is continuous with the laryngopharynx. it passes through the posterior mediastinum in the thorax and enters the stomach through a hole in the thoracic diaphragm — the esophageal hiatus, at the level of the tenth thoracic vertebra ( t10 ). its length averages 25 cm, varying with an individual's height. it is divided into cervical, thoracic and abdominal parts. the pharynx joins the esophagus at the esophageal inlet which is behind the cricoid cartilage. at rest the esophagus is closed at both ends, by the upper and lower esophageal sphincters. the opening of the upper sphincter is triggered by the swallowing reflex so that food is allowed through. the sphincter also serves to prevent back flow from the esophagus into the pharynx. the esophagus has a mucous membrane and the epithelium which has a protective function is continuously replaced due to the volume of food that passes inside the esophagus. during swallowing, food passes from the mouth through the pharynx into the esopha
a vestigial structure in some reptiles and birds, it is otherwise absorbed into the right atrium and is no longer distinguishable. = = = invertebrates = = = arthropods and most mollusks have an open circulatory system. in this system, deoxygenated blood collects around the heart in cavities ( sinuses ). this blood slowly permeates the heart through many small one - way channels. the heart then pumps the blood into the hemocoel, a cavity between the organs. the heart in arthropods is typically a muscular tube that runs the length of the body, under the back and from the base of the head. instead of blood the circulatory fluid is haemolymph which carries the most commonly used respiratory pigment, copper - based haemocyanin as the oxygen transporter. haemoglobin is only used by a few arthropods. in some other invertebrates such as earthworms, the circulatory system is not used to transport oxygen and so is much reduced, having no veins or arteries and consisting of two connected tubes. oxygen travels by diffusion and there are five small muscular vessels that connect these vessels that contract at the front of the animals that can be thought of as " hearts ". squids and other cephalopods have two " gill hearts " also known as branchial hearts, and one " systemic heart ". the branchial hearts have two atria and one ventricle each, and pump to the gills, whereas the systemic heart pumps to the body. only the chordates ( including vertebrates ) and the hemichordates have a central " heart ", which is a vesicle formed from the thickening of the aorta and contracts to pump blood. this suggests a presence of it in the last common ancestor of these groups ( may have been lost in the echinoderms ). = = additional images = = = = notes = = = = references = = this article incorporates text from the cc by book : openstax college, anatomy & physiology. openstax cnx. 30 july 2014. = = bibliography = = hall, john ( 2011 ). guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology ( 12th ed. ). philadelphia : saunders / elsevier. isbn 978 - 1 - 4160 - 4574 - 8. longo, dan ; fauci, anthony ; kasper, dennis ; hauser, stephen ; jameson, j. ;
Answer:
|
kidney
| 0.3 |
A creature native to a place with vines and canopies, when compared to a creature native to a space with prickly plants and hot soil, will
0. spend more time wet
1. live in a desert
2. spend more time dry
3. live in an arid climate
and drying. = = advantages = = no fertilization required no additional water more water available for other uses and other people zero to near zero work needed for maintenance no lawn mowing erosion reduced to a minimum natural landscaped plants take full advantage of rainfall when water restrictions are implemented, native landscaped plants will survive, while other plants may not increased habitat for native flora and fauna increased beneficial insect population reduces pests where heavily forested, provides shade on homes and businesses saving energy native plants rarely become invasive more carbon storage = = disadvantages = = not good for outdoor games that require a manicured turf. in certain areas, wildfires or brushfires may be of great concern. may look less conventionally attractive due to reduced available range of plants to choose from. may be hard to find native plants which produce adequate quantities of edible matter. = = effect of new construction = = in new construction, builders can either avoid clear cutting or clearing an entire property and disturbing other large flora or builders can completely clear an area of all flora to save construction time and replace the clearing with juvenile specimens once the job is complete. the downside to this is additional costs involved with purchasing replacements. the builder may also choose to plant additional native trees and other flora after construction to help the property blend with natural surroundings. in some planned developments, natural landscaping is the requirement. builders may not remove trees larger than a specific diameter and owners may not arbitrarily cut trees without a permit. = = land reclamation = = throughout the world, forested areas are often turned into cattle grazing or farmland. often this land is then turned into residential or commercial use property. by returning the land back to its original state prior to human disturbance, vast amounts of energy usage and increasing pollution can be reduced. natural landscaping costs less to install than traditional landscaping and, after the initial few years, reduces maintenance costs, combats erosion, and accommodates storm and flood waters better. = = native plant societies = = in many parts of the world there are societies, clubs or local groups, such as bushcare or australian native plants society in australia, the north american native plant society, pennsylvania native plant society, or the california native plant society, which are made up of gardeners interested in growing plants local to their area, state or country. in the united states, wild ones — native plants, natural landscapes is a national organization with local chapters in many states. new england wildflower society, and lady bird johnson wildflower center. provide information on native plants and promote natural landscaping. these organizations
of native plants, including trees, shrubs, groundcover, and grasses which are indigenous to the geographic area of the garden. natural landscaping is adapted to the climate, geography and hydrology and should require no pesticides, fertilizers and watering to maintain, given that native plants have adapted and evolved to local conditions over thousands of years. however, these applications may be necessary for some preventive care of trees and other vegetation in areas of degraded or weedy landscapes. native plants suit today's interest in low - maintenance gardening and landscaping, with many species vigorous and hardy and able to survive winter cold and summer heat. once established, they can flourish without irrigation or fertilization, and are resistant to most pests and diseases. many municipalities have quickly recognized the benefits of natural landscaping due to municipal budget constraints and reductions and the general public is now benefiting from the implementation of natural landscaping techniques to save water and create more personal time. native plants provide suitable habitat for native species of butterflies, birds, pollinators, and other wildlife. they provide more variety in gardens by offering myriad alternatives to the often planted introduced species, cultivars, and invasive species. the indigenous plants have co - evolved with animals, fungi and microbes, to form a complex network of relationships. they are the foundation of their native habitats and ecosystems, or natural communities. such gardens often benefit from the plants being evolved and habituated to the local climate, pests and herbivores, and soil conditions, and so may require fewer to no soil amendments, irrigation, pesticides, and herbicides for a lower maintenance, more sustainable landscape. = = = contemporary garden = = = the contemporary style garden has gained popularity in the uk in the last ten years. this is partly due to the increase of modern housing with small gardens as well as the cultural shift towards contemporary design. this style of garden can be defined by the use " clean " design lines, with focus on hard landscaping materials like stone, hardwood, rendered walls. planting style is bold but simple with the use of drifts of one or two plants that repeat throughout the design. grasses are a very popular choice for this style of design. garden lighting plays an integral role in modern garden design. subtle lighting effects can be achieved with the use of carefully placed low voltage led lights incorporated into paving and walls. with the combination of increasing demand for more efficient lighting, increasing availability of sustainable designs, light pollution considerations, and aesthetic and safety concerns, the methods and equipment of outdoor illumination have been evolving
natural landscaping, also called native gardening, is the use of native plants including trees, shrubs, groundcover, and grasses which are local to the geographic area of the garden. = = benefits = = = = = maintenance = = = natural landscaping is adapted to the climate, geography and hydrology and should require no pesticides, fertilizers and watering to maintain, given that native plants have adapted and evolved to local conditions over thousands of years. however, these applications may be necessary for some preventive care of trees and other vegetation. native plants suit today's interest in " low - maintenance " gardening and landscaping, with many species vigorous and hardy and able to survive winter cold and summer heat. once established, they can flourish without irrigation or fertilization, and are resistant to most pests and diseases. many municipalities have quickly recognized the benefits of natural landscaping due to municipal budget constraints and reductions and the general public is now benefiting from the implementation of natural landscaping techniques to save water and create more personal time. = = = ecology and habitat = = = native plants provide suitable habitat for native species of butterflies, birds, pollinators, and other wildlife. they provide more variety in gardens by offering myriad alternatives to the often planted introduced species, cultivars, and invasive species. the indigenous plants have co - evolved with animals, fungi and microbes, to form a complex network of relationships. they are the foundation of their native habitats and ecosystems, or natural communities. such gardens often benefit from the plants being evolved and habituated to the local climate, pests and herbivores, and soil conditions, and so may require fewer to no soil amendments, irrigation, pesticides, and herbicides for a beautiful, lower maintenance, and more sustainable landscape. = = = = habitat challenges = = = = however, while local provenance plants have adapted to local conditions ( which includes climate, soil, and other native plants and animals ), there will often be instances, especially in cities, where one or more of these will have been radically altered. examples include : building rubble used as landfill may raise soil ph ( i. e. create alkaline soil ), which can be problematic in regions of acidic soils ( with local plants adapted to acid soils ). buildings cast a substantial shade, this may give rise to conditions substantially shadier than needed by local plants. soil which is high in organic material and nutrients is often introduced into gardens, or many gardeners will have used fertilizers. plants from some
poorly suited to them. however, in britain research by the university of sheffield as part of the bugs project ( biodiversity in urban gardens in sheffield ) has revealed that for many invertebrates – the majority of wild animals in most gardens – it is not just native plants which can sustain them. the findings were published in popular form in ken thompson's book'no nettles required : the truth about wildlife gardening'he confirms the approach which chris baines had promoted in'how to make a wildlife garden '. some ecosystems may benefit from any increase in biomass, from the introduction of certain non - native species, or any increase in biodiversity. in the case of disturbed areas some exotic / non - native plants may fare better than the displaced, native inhabitants, in the process increasing the biodiversity and biological biomass. = = types = = = = = in general = = = native gardens include the following kinds : fully forested with leaf debris on the forest floor, including coarse woody debris if possible ; desert with arid loving plants and succulents ; grassy meadow with a variety of wildflowers and water features ; lowland savanna with grasses and native trees ; and oceanic dunescape with tall, salt tolerant grasses. = = = wildflower gardens = = = " wildflower " in some nations denominates the numerous showy flowers from some drier climates, most notably southwest western australia, southern africa, and north america. some wildflower gardens attempt to recreate a prairie, including native grasses along with flowering plants, i. e. forbs. such gardens benefit the local wildlife, often attracting birds, butterflies, and small mammals. by carefully choosing the plants for the garden, some of these animals can be encouraged to visit the garden. one popular type of wildflower garden specializes in attracting butterflies and is thus denominated a " butterfly garden ". the native plants cultivated in wildflower gardens often have deep roots, and therefore are effective selections for absorbing surface runoff and allowing the water to infiltrate into the local water table. wildflower gardens cultivated for capturing runoff in this mode are denominated " rain gardens ". = = = rain gardens = = = rain gardens absorb rainwater from gutters and impervious surfaces and function much better when planted with native plants which tolerate the alternation of flooding and drying. = = advantages = = no fertilization required no additional water more water available for other uses and other people zero to near zero work needed for maintenance no lawn mowing erosion reduced to a minimum natural landscaped plants take full advantage of
##nt concentration, altered stream morphology, increased dominance of dominant species, and decreased biodiversity the two primary causes of urban stream syndrome are storm water runoff and wastewater treatment plant effluent. = = = changes in diversity = = = diversity is normally reduced at intermediate - low levels of urbanization but is always reduced at high levels of urbanization. these effects have been observed in vertebrates and invertebrates while plant species tend to increase with intermediate - low levels of urbanization but these general trends do not apply to all organisms within those groups. for example, mckinney's ( 2006 ) review did not include the effects of urbanization on fishes and of the 58 studies on invertebrates, 52 included insects while only 10 included spiders. there is also a geographical bias as most of the studies either took place in north america or europe. the effects of urbanization also depend on the type and range of resources used by the organism. generalist species, those that use a wide range of resources and can thrive under a large range of living conditions, are likely to survive in uniform environments. specialist species, those that use a narrow range of resources and can only cope with a narrow range of living conditions, are unlikely to cope with uniform environments. there will likely be a variable effect on these two groups of organisms as urbanization alters habitat uniformity. endangered plant species have been reported to occur throughout a wide range of urban ecosystems, many of them being novel ecosystems. a study of 463 bird species reported that urban species share dietary traits. specifically, urban species were larger, consumed more vertebrates and carrion, and fed more frequently on the ground or aerially, and also had broader diets than non ‐ urban species. = = = cause of diversity change = = = the urban environment can decrease diversity through habitat removal and species homogenization — the increasing similarity between two previously distinct biological communities. habitat degradation and habitat fragmentation reduces the amount of suitable habitat by urban development and separates suitable patches by inhospitable terrain such as roads, neighborhoods, and open parks. although this replacement of suitable habitat with unsuitable habitat will result in extinctions of native species, some shelter may be artificially created and promote the survival of non - native species ( e. g. house sparrow and house mice nests ). urbanization promotes species homogenization through the extinction of native endemic species and the introduction of non - native species that already have a widespread abundance. changes to the habitat may promote both the extinction of native endemic species and the introduction of non - native
Answer:
|
spend more time wet
| null |
A creature native to a place with vines and canopies, when compared to a creature native to a space with prickly plants and hot soil, will
0. spend more time wet
1. live in a desert
2. spend more time dry
3. live in an arid climate
and drying. = = advantages = = no fertilization required no additional water more water available for other uses and other people zero to near zero work needed for maintenance no lawn mowing erosion reduced to a minimum natural landscaped plants take full advantage of rainfall when water restrictions are implemented, native landscaped plants will survive, while other plants may not increased habitat for native flora and fauna increased beneficial insect population reduces pests where heavily forested, provides shade on homes and businesses saving energy native plants rarely become invasive more carbon storage = = disadvantages = = not good for outdoor games that require a manicured turf. in certain areas, wildfires or brushfires may be of great concern. may look less conventionally attractive due to reduced available range of plants to choose from. may be hard to find native plants which produce adequate quantities of edible matter. = = effect of new construction = = in new construction, builders can either avoid clear cutting or clearing an entire property and disturbing other large flora or builders can completely clear an area of all flora to save construction time and replace the clearing with juvenile specimens once the job is complete. the downside to this is additional costs involved with purchasing replacements. the builder may also choose to plant additional native trees and other flora after construction to help the property blend with natural surroundings. in some planned developments, natural landscaping is the requirement. builders may not remove trees larger than a specific diameter and owners may not arbitrarily cut trees without a permit. = = land reclamation = = throughout the world, forested areas are often turned into cattle grazing or farmland. often this land is then turned into residential or commercial use property. by returning the land back to its original state prior to human disturbance, vast amounts of energy usage and increasing pollution can be reduced. natural landscaping costs less to install than traditional landscaping and, after the initial few years, reduces maintenance costs, combats erosion, and accommodates storm and flood waters better. = = native plant societies = = in many parts of the world there are societies, clubs or local groups, such as bushcare or australian native plants society in australia, the north american native plant society, pennsylvania native plant society, or the california native plant society, which are made up of gardeners interested in growing plants local to their area, state or country. in the united states, wild ones — native plants, natural landscapes is a national organization with local chapters in many states. new england wildflower society, and lady bird johnson wildflower center. provide information on native plants and promote natural landscaping. these organizations
of native plants, including trees, shrubs, groundcover, and grasses which are indigenous to the geographic area of the garden. natural landscaping is adapted to the climate, geography and hydrology and should require no pesticides, fertilizers and watering to maintain, given that native plants have adapted and evolved to local conditions over thousands of years. however, these applications may be necessary for some preventive care of trees and other vegetation in areas of degraded or weedy landscapes. native plants suit today's interest in low - maintenance gardening and landscaping, with many species vigorous and hardy and able to survive winter cold and summer heat. once established, they can flourish without irrigation or fertilization, and are resistant to most pests and diseases. many municipalities have quickly recognized the benefits of natural landscaping due to municipal budget constraints and reductions and the general public is now benefiting from the implementation of natural landscaping techniques to save water and create more personal time. native plants provide suitable habitat for native species of butterflies, birds, pollinators, and other wildlife. they provide more variety in gardens by offering myriad alternatives to the often planted introduced species, cultivars, and invasive species. the indigenous plants have co - evolved with animals, fungi and microbes, to form a complex network of relationships. they are the foundation of their native habitats and ecosystems, or natural communities. such gardens often benefit from the plants being evolved and habituated to the local climate, pests and herbivores, and soil conditions, and so may require fewer to no soil amendments, irrigation, pesticides, and herbicides for a lower maintenance, more sustainable landscape. = = = contemporary garden = = = the contemporary style garden has gained popularity in the uk in the last ten years. this is partly due to the increase of modern housing with small gardens as well as the cultural shift towards contemporary design. this style of garden can be defined by the use " clean " design lines, with focus on hard landscaping materials like stone, hardwood, rendered walls. planting style is bold but simple with the use of drifts of one or two plants that repeat throughout the design. grasses are a very popular choice for this style of design. garden lighting plays an integral role in modern garden design. subtle lighting effects can be achieved with the use of carefully placed low voltage led lights incorporated into paving and walls. with the combination of increasing demand for more efficient lighting, increasing availability of sustainable designs, light pollution considerations, and aesthetic and safety concerns, the methods and equipment of outdoor illumination have been evolving
natural landscaping, also called native gardening, is the use of native plants including trees, shrubs, groundcover, and grasses which are local to the geographic area of the garden. = = benefits = = = = = maintenance = = = natural landscaping is adapted to the climate, geography and hydrology and should require no pesticides, fertilizers and watering to maintain, given that native plants have adapted and evolved to local conditions over thousands of years. however, these applications may be necessary for some preventive care of trees and other vegetation. native plants suit today's interest in " low - maintenance " gardening and landscaping, with many species vigorous and hardy and able to survive winter cold and summer heat. once established, they can flourish without irrigation or fertilization, and are resistant to most pests and diseases. many municipalities have quickly recognized the benefits of natural landscaping due to municipal budget constraints and reductions and the general public is now benefiting from the implementation of natural landscaping techniques to save water and create more personal time. = = = ecology and habitat = = = native plants provide suitable habitat for native species of butterflies, birds, pollinators, and other wildlife. they provide more variety in gardens by offering myriad alternatives to the often planted introduced species, cultivars, and invasive species. the indigenous plants have co - evolved with animals, fungi and microbes, to form a complex network of relationships. they are the foundation of their native habitats and ecosystems, or natural communities. such gardens often benefit from the plants being evolved and habituated to the local climate, pests and herbivores, and soil conditions, and so may require fewer to no soil amendments, irrigation, pesticides, and herbicides for a beautiful, lower maintenance, and more sustainable landscape. = = = = habitat challenges = = = = however, while local provenance plants have adapted to local conditions ( which includes climate, soil, and other native plants and animals ), there will often be instances, especially in cities, where one or more of these will have been radically altered. examples include : building rubble used as landfill may raise soil ph ( i. e. create alkaline soil ), which can be problematic in regions of acidic soils ( with local plants adapted to acid soils ). buildings cast a substantial shade, this may give rise to conditions substantially shadier than needed by local plants. soil which is high in organic material and nutrients is often introduced into gardens, or many gardeners will have used fertilizers. plants from some
poorly suited to them. however, in britain research by the university of sheffield as part of the bugs project ( biodiversity in urban gardens in sheffield ) has revealed that for many invertebrates – the majority of wild animals in most gardens – it is not just native plants which can sustain them. the findings were published in popular form in ken thompson's book'no nettles required : the truth about wildlife gardening'he confirms the approach which chris baines had promoted in'how to make a wildlife garden '. some ecosystems may benefit from any increase in biomass, from the introduction of certain non - native species, or any increase in biodiversity. in the case of disturbed areas some exotic / non - native plants may fare better than the displaced, native inhabitants, in the process increasing the biodiversity and biological biomass. = = types = = = = = in general = = = native gardens include the following kinds : fully forested with leaf debris on the forest floor, including coarse woody debris if possible ; desert with arid loving plants and succulents ; grassy meadow with a variety of wildflowers and water features ; lowland savanna with grasses and native trees ; and oceanic dunescape with tall, salt tolerant grasses. = = = wildflower gardens = = = " wildflower " in some nations denominates the numerous showy flowers from some drier climates, most notably southwest western australia, southern africa, and north america. some wildflower gardens attempt to recreate a prairie, including native grasses along with flowering plants, i. e. forbs. such gardens benefit the local wildlife, often attracting birds, butterflies, and small mammals. by carefully choosing the plants for the garden, some of these animals can be encouraged to visit the garden. one popular type of wildflower garden specializes in attracting butterflies and is thus denominated a " butterfly garden ". the native plants cultivated in wildflower gardens often have deep roots, and therefore are effective selections for absorbing surface runoff and allowing the water to infiltrate into the local water table. wildflower gardens cultivated for capturing runoff in this mode are denominated " rain gardens ". = = = rain gardens = = = rain gardens absorb rainwater from gutters and impervious surfaces and function much better when planted with native plants which tolerate the alternation of flooding and drying. = = advantages = = no fertilization required no additional water more water available for other uses and other people zero to near zero work needed for maintenance no lawn mowing erosion reduced to a minimum natural landscaped plants take full advantage of
##nt concentration, altered stream morphology, increased dominance of dominant species, and decreased biodiversity the two primary causes of urban stream syndrome are storm water runoff and wastewater treatment plant effluent. = = = changes in diversity = = = diversity is normally reduced at intermediate - low levels of urbanization but is always reduced at high levels of urbanization. these effects have been observed in vertebrates and invertebrates while plant species tend to increase with intermediate - low levels of urbanization but these general trends do not apply to all organisms within those groups. for example, mckinney's ( 2006 ) review did not include the effects of urbanization on fishes and of the 58 studies on invertebrates, 52 included insects while only 10 included spiders. there is also a geographical bias as most of the studies either took place in north america or europe. the effects of urbanization also depend on the type and range of resources used by the organism. generalist species, those that use a wide range of resources and can thrive under a large range of living conditions, are likely to survive in uniform environments. specialist species, those that use a narrow range of resources and can only cope with a narrow range of living conditions, are unlikely to cope with uniform environments. there will likely be a variable effect on these two groups of organisms as urbanization alters habitat uniformity. endangered plant species have been reported to occur throughout a wide range of urban ecosystems, many of them being novel ecosystems. a study of 463 bird species reported that urban species share dietary traits. specifically, urban species were larger, consumed more vertebrates and carrion, and fed more frequently on the ground or aerially, and also had broader diets than non ‐ urban species. = = = cause of diversity change = = = the urban environment can decrease diversity through habitat removal and species homogenization — the increasing similarity between two previously distinct biological communities. habitat degradation and habitat fragmentation reduces the amount of suitable habitat by urban development and separates suitable patches by inhospitable terrain such as roads, neighborhoods, and open parks. although this replacement of suitable habitat with unsuitable habitat will result in extinctions of native species, some shelter may be artificially created and promote the survival of non - native species ( e. g. house sparrow and house mice nests ). urbanization promotes species homogenization through the extinction of native endemic species and the introduction of non - native species that already have a widespread abundance. changes to the habitat may promote both the extinction of native endemic species and the introduction of non - native
Answer:
|
spend more time dry
| 0.3 |
Where do mushrooms thrive?
0. the Amazon
1. the arctic
2. international space station
3. the Sahara
tuber magnatum ( piemont white truffle ) tuber melanosporum ( perigord truffle ) t. melanosporum x t. magnatum ( khanaqa truffle ) terfezia sp. ( desert truffle ) ustilago maydis ( corn smut ), a fungal pathogen of the maize plant. also called the mexican truffle, although not a true truffle. volvariella volvacea ( the " paddy straw mushroom. " ) volvariella mushrooms account for 16 % of total production of cultivated mushrooms in the world. = = production regions in north america = = pennsylvania is the top - producing mushroom state in the united states, and celebrates september as " mushroom month ". the borough of kennett square is a historical and present leader in mushroom production. it currently leads production of agaricus - type mushrooms, followed by california, florida and michigan. other mushroom - producing states : east : connecticut, delaware, florida, maryland, new york, pennsylvania, tennessee, maine, and vermont central : illinois, oklahoma, texas, and wisconsin west : california, colorado, montana, oregon, utah and washington the lower fraser valley of british columbia, which includes vancouver, has a significant number of producers – about 60 as of 1998 –. = = production in europe = = oyster mushroom cultivation has taken off in europe as of late. many entrepreneurs nowadays find it as a quite profitable business, a start - up with a small investment and good profit. italy with 785, 000 tonnes and netherlands with 307, 000 tonnes are between the top ten mushroom producing countries in the world. the world's biggest producer of mushroom spawn is also situated in france. according to a research carried out on production and marketing of mushrooms : global and national scenario poland, netherlands, belgium, lithuania are the major exporting mushrooms countries in europe and countries like uk, germany, france, russia are considered to be the major importing countries. = = education and training = = oyster mushroom cultivation is a sustainable business where different natural resources can be used as a substrate. the number of people becoming interested in this field is rapidly increasing. the possibility of creating a viable business in urban environments by using coffee grounds is appealing for many entrepreneurs. since mushroom cultivation is not a subject available at school, most urban farmers learned it by doing. the time to master mushroom cultivation is time consuming and costly in missed revenue. for this reason there are numerous companies in europe specialized in mushroom cultivation that are
., vera b. mcknight, national audubon society. a field guide to mushrooms, north america. houghton mifflin, 1998. isbn 0395421012. phillips, roger, geoffrey kibby, nicky foy. mushrooms and other fungi of north america. firefly books, 2005. isbn 1554071151. turner, nancy j., adam f. szczawinski. common poisonous plants and mushrooms of north america. timber press, 1991. isbn 0881921793. = = = = plants = = = = bailey, liberty hyde & ethel zoe bailey. hortus third : a concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the united states and canada. macmillan, 3rd ed., 1976. barker, joan. the encyclopedia of north american wild flowers. parragon, 2004. isbn 1405430354. beckett, kenneth a. the rhs encyclopedia of house plants including greenhouse plants. salem house, 1987. brickell, christopher. the american horticultural society encyclopedia of garden plants. macmillan, 1989. brickell, christopher, trevor j. cole, american horticultural society. american horticultural society encyclopedia of plants and flowers. dk publishing, 2002. isbn 0789489937. burrows, george e. toxic plants of north america. wiley - blackwell, 2012. isbn 978 - 0 - 8138 - 2034 - 7, doi : 10. 1002 / 9781118413425. dirr, michael. dirr's hardy trees and shrubs : an illustrated encyclopedia. timber press, 1997. isbn 0881924040. flora of north america association. flora of north america. flora of north america association. [ 17 ]. flora of north america editorial committee. flora of north america north of mexico. oxford university press, 1993 – 2006. isbn 0195057139. gerard, john, thomas johnson. the herbal ; or, general history of plants. dover publications, 1975. isbn 048623147x. graf, alfred byrd. exotica series 4 international : pictorial cyclopedia of exotic plants from tropical and near - tropical regions. scribner's, 12th ed., 1985. graf, alfred byrd. hortica : a color cyclopedia of garden flora in all climates and indoor plants. macmillan, 1992. graf, alfred byrd. tropica : color cyclopedia of exotic plants. scribner's, 3rd ed., 1986. her
off from the atmosphere = = alpine and permafrost lichens = = in high alpine and polar regions, lichens have to cope with conditions of high uv fluxes low temperatures and arid environments. this is especially so when the two factors, polar regions and high altitudes are combined. these conditions occur in the high mountains of antarctica, where lichens grow at altitudes up to 2, 000 meters with no liquid water, just snow and ice. researchers described this as the most mars - like environment on the earth. = = see also = = life on mars – scientific assessments on the microbial habitability of mars terrestrial analogue sites – places on earth used to mimic extraterrestrial locationspages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets = = references = =
fungiculture is the cultivation of fungi such as mushrooms. cultivating fungi can yield foods ( which include mostly mushrooms ), medicine, construction materials and other products. a mushroom farm is involved in the business of growing fungi. the word is also commonly used to refer to the practice of cultivation of fungi by animals such as leafcutter ants, termites, ambrosia beetles, and marsh periwinkles. = = overview = = as fungi, mushrooms require different conditions than plants for optimal growth. plants develop through photosynthesis, a process that converts atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, especially cellulose. while sunlight provides an energy source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their growth medium, through biochemical decomposition processes. this does not mean that light is an irrelevant requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal for fruiting. however, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. mushrooms grow well at relative humidity levels of around 95 – 100 %, and substrate moisture levels of 50 to 75 %. instead of seeds, mushrooms reproduce through spores. spores can be contaminated with airborne microorganisms, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop. mycelium, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on a substrate — usually sterilized grains such as rye or millet — and induced to grow into those grains. this is called inoculation. inoculated grains ( or plugs ) are referred to as spawn. spores are another inoculation option, but are less developed than established mycelium. since they are also contaminated easily, they are only manipulated in laboratory conditions with a laminar flow cabinet. = = techniques = = all mushroom growing techniques require the correct combination of humidity, temperature, substrate ( growth medium ) and inoculum ( spawn or starter culture ). wild harvests, outdoor log inoculation and indoor trays all provide these elements. = = = outdoor logs = = = mushrooms can be grown on logs placed outdoors in stacks or piles, as has been done for hundreds of years. sterilization is not performed as part of this method. since production may be unpredictable and seasonal, less than 5 % of commercially sold mushrooms are produced this way. here, tree logs are inoculated with spawn, then allowed to grow as they would in wild conditions. fruiting, or pinning, is triggered by seasonal changes, or by briefly soaking the logs in cool water. shiita
biologists reported that aerobic microorganisms ( mainly ) in " quasi - suspended animation " were found in organically poor sediment 76. 2 m ( 250 ft ) below the seafloor in the south pacific gyre ( spg ) ( " the deadest spot in the ocean " ). microbes have been found in the atacama desert in chile, one of the driest places on earth, and in deep - sea hydrothermal vent environments which can reach temperatures over 400°c. microbial communities can also survive in cold permafrost conditions down to - 25°c. under certain test conditions, life forms have been observed to survive in the vacuum of outer space. more recently, studies conducted on the international space station found that bacteria could survive in outer space. in february 2023, findings of a " dark microbiome " of microbial dark matter of unfamiliar microorganisms in the atacama desert in chile, a mars - like region of planet earth, were reported. = = geochemical evidence = = the age of earth is about 4. 54 billion years ; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on earth dates from at least 3. 5 billion years ago according to the stromatolite record. some computer models suggest life began as early as 4. 5 billion years ago. the oldest evidence of life is indirect in the form of isotopic fractionation processes. microorganisms will preferentially use the lighter isotope of an atom to build biomass, as it takes less energy to break the bonds for metabolic processes. biologic material will often have a composition that is enriched in lighter isotopes compared to the surrounding rock it's found in. carbon isotopes, expressed scientifically in parts per thousand difference from a standard as δ13c, are frequently used to detect carbon fixation by organisms and assess if purported early life evidence has biological origins. typically, life will preferentially metabolize the isotopically light 12c isotope instead of the heavier 13c isotope. biologic material can record this fractionation of carbon. the oldest disputed geochemical evidence of life is isotopically light graphite inside a single zircon grain from the jack hills in western australia. the graphite showed a δ13c signature consistent with biogenic carbon on earth. other early evidence of life is found in rocks both from the akilia sequence and the isua supracrustal belt ( isb ) in greenland. these 3. 7 ga metasedime
Answer:
|
the Amazon
| null |
Where do mushrooms thrive?
0. the Amazon
1. the arctic
2. international space station
3. the Sahara
tuber magnatum ( piemont white truffle ) tuber melanosporum ( perigord truffle ) t. melanosporum x t. magnatum ( khanaqa truffle ) terfezia sp. ( desert truffle ) ustilago maydis ( corn smut ), a fungal pathogen of the maize plant. also called the mexican truffle, although not a true truffle. volvariella volvacea ( the " paddy straw mushroom. " ) volvariella mushrooms account for 16 % of total production of cultivated mushrooms in the world. = = production regions in north america = = pennsylvania is the top - producing mushroom state in the united states, and celebrates september as " mushroom month ". the borough of kennett square is a historical and present leader in mushroom production. it currently leads production of agaricus - type mushrooms, followed by california, florida and michigan. other mushroom - producing states : east : connecticut, delaware, florida, maryland, new york, pennsylvania, tennessee, maine, and vermont central : illinois, oklahoma, texas, and wisconsin west : california, colorado, montana, oregon, utah and washington the lower fraser valley of british columbia, which includes vancouver, has a significant number of producers – about 60 as of 1998 –. = = production in europe = = oyster mushroom cultivation has taken off in europe as of late. many entrepreneurs nowadays find it as a quite profitable business, a start - up with a small investment and good profit. italy with 785, 000 tonnes and netherlands with 307, 000 tonnes are between the top ten mushroom producing countries in the world. the world's biggest producer of mushroom spawn is also situated in france. according to a research carried out on production and marketing of mushrooms : global and national scenario poland, netherlands, belgium, lithuania are the major exporting mushrooms countries in europe and countries like uk, germany, france, russia are considered to be the major importing countries. = = education and training = = oyster mushroom cultivation is a sustainable business where different natural resources can be used as a substrate. the number of people becoming interested in this field is rapidly increasing. the possibility of creating a viable business in urban environments by using coffee grounds is appealing for many entrepreneurs. since mushroom cultivation is not a subject available at school, most urban farmers learned it by doing. the time to master mushroom cultivation is time consuming and costly in missed revenue. for this reason there are numerous companies in europe specialized in mushroom cultivation that are
., vera b. mcknight, national audubon society. a field guide to mushrooms, north america. houghton mifflin, 1998. isbn 0395421012. phillips, roger, geoffrey kibby, nicky foy. mushrooms and other fungi of north america. firefly books, 2005. isbn 1554071151. turner, nancy j., adam f. szczawinski. common poisonous plants and mushrooms of north america. timber press, 1991. isbn 0881921793. = = = = plants = = = = bailey, liberty hyde & ethel zoe bailey. hortus third : a concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the united states and canada. macmillan, 3rd ed., 1976. barker, joan. the encyclopedia of north american wild flowers. parragon, 2004. isbn 1405430354. beckett, kenneth a. the rhs encyclopedia of house plants including greenhouse plants. salem house, 1987. brickell, christopher. the american horticultural society encyclopedia of garden plants. macmillan, 1989. brickell, christopher, trevor j. cole, american horticultural society. american horticultural society encyclopedia of plants and flowers. dk publishing, 2002. isbn 0789489937. burrows, george e. toxic plants of north america. wiley - blackwell, 2012. isbn 978 - 0 - 8138 - 2034 - 7, doi : 10. 1002 / 9781118413425. dirr, michael. dirr's hardy trees and shrubs : an illustrated encyclopedia. timber press, 1997. isbn 0881924040. flora of north america association. flora of north america. flora of north america association. [ 17 ]. flora of north america editorial committee. flora of north america north of mexico. oxford university press, 1993 – 2006. isbn 0195057139. gerard, john, thomas johnson. the herbal ; or, general history of plants. dover publications, 1975. isbn 048623147x. graf, alfred byrd. exotica series 4 international : pictorial cyclopedia of exotic plants from tropical and near - tropical regions. scribner's, 12th ed., 1985. graf, alfred byrd. hortica : a color cyclopedia of garden flora in all climates and indoor plants. macmillan, 1992. graf, alfred byrd. tropica : color cyclopedia of exotic plants. scribner's, 3rd ed., 1986. her
off from the atmosphere = = alpine and permafrost lichens = = in high alpine and polar regions, lichens have to cope with conditions of high uv fluxes low temperatures and arid environments. this is especially so when the two factors, polar regions and high altitudes are combined. these conditions occur in the high mountains of antarctica, where lichens grow at altitudes up to 2, 000 meters with no liquid water, just snow and ice. researchers described this as the most mars - like environment on the earth. = = see also = = life on mars – scientific assessments on the microbial habitability of mars terrestrial analogue sites – places on earth used to mimic extraterrestrial locationspages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets = = references = =
fungiculture is the cultivation of fungi such as mushrooms. cultivating fungi can yield foods ( which include mostly mushrooms ), medicine, construction materials and other products. a mushroom farm is involved in the business of growing fungi. the word is also commonly used to refer to the practice of cultivation of fungi by animals such as leafcutter ants, termites, ambrosia beetles, and marsh periwinkles. = = overview = = as fungi, mushrooms require different conditions than plants for optimal growth. plants develop through photosynthesis, a process that converts atmospheric carbon dioxide into carbohydrates, especially cellulose. while sunlight provides an energy source for plants, mushrooms derive all of their energy and growth materials from their growth medium, through biochemical decomposition processes. this does not mean that light is an irrelevant requirement, since some fungi use light as a signal for fruiting. however, all the materials for growth must already be present in the growth medium. mushrooms grow well at relative humidity levels of around 95 – 100 %, and substrate moisture levels of 50 to 75 %. instead of seeds, mushrooms reproduce through spores. spores can be contaminated with airborne microorganisms, which will interfere with mushroom growth and prevent a healthy crop. mycelium, or actively growing mushroom culture, is placed on a substrate — usually sterilized grains such as rye or millet — and induced to grow into those grains. this is called inoculation. inoculated grains ( or plugs ) are referred to as spawn. spores are another inoculation option, but are less developed than established mycelium. since they are also contaminated easily, they are only manipulated in laboratory conditions with a laminar flow cabinet. = = techniques = = all mushroom growing techniques require the correct combination of humidity, temperature, substrate ( growth medium ) and inoculum ( spawn or starter culture ). wild harvests, outdoor log inoculation and indoor trays all provide these elements. = = = outdoor logs = = = mushrooms can be grown on logs placed outdoors in stacks or piles, as has been done for hundreds of years. sterilization is not performed as part of this method. since production may be unpredictable and seasonal, less than 5 % of commercially sold mushrooms are produced this way. here, tree logs are inoculated with spawn, then allowed to grow as they would in wild conditions. fruiting, or pinning, is triggered by seasonal changes, or by briefly soaking the logs in cool water. shiita
biologists reported that aerobic microorganisms ( mainly ) in " quasi - suspended animation " were found in organically poor sediment 76. 2 m ( 250 ft ) below the seafloor in the south pacific gyre ( spg ) ( " the deadest spot in the ocean " ). microbes have been found in the atacama desert in chile, one of the driest places on earth, and in deep - sea hydrothermal vent environments which can reach temperatures over 400°c. microbial communities can also survive in cold permafrost conditions down to - 25°c. under certain test conditions, life forms have been observed to survive in the vacuum of outer space. more recently, studies conducted on the international space station found that bacteria could survive in outer space. in february 2023, findings of a " dark microbiome " of microbial dark matter of unfamiliar microorganisms in the atacama desert in chile, a mars - like region of planet earth, were reported. = = geochemical evidence = = the age of earth is about 4. 54 billion years ; the earliest undisputed evidence of life on earth dates from at least 3. 5 billion years ago according to the stromatolite record. some computer models suggest life began as early as 4. 5 billion years ago. the oldest evidence of life is indirect in the form of isotopic fractionation processes. microorganisms will preferentially use the lighter isotope of an atom to build biomass, as it takes less energy to break the bonds for metabolic processes. biologic material will often have a composition that is enriched in lighter isotopes compared to the surrounding rock it's found in. carbon isotopes, expressed scientifically in parts per thousand difference from a standard as δ13c, are frequently used to detect carbon fixation by organisms and assess if purported early life evidence has biological origins. typically, life will preferentially metabolize the isotopically light 12c isotope instead of the heavier 13c isotope. biologic material can record this fractionation of carbon. the oldest disputed geochemical evidence of life is isotopically light graphite inside a single zircon grain from the jack hills in western australia. the graphite showed a δ13c signature consistent with biogenic carbon on earth. other early evidence of life is found in rocks both from the akilia sequence and the isua supracrustal belt ( isb ) in greenland. these 3. 7 ga metasedime
Answer:
|
the arctic
| 0.3 |
Which is taught?
0. walking upright
1. red hair
2. avoiding unpleasant smells
3. mopping the floor
was known as the " bell and pad ", where a sensor detected when a child had wet themselves at night, and triggered an alarm to act as a form of conditioning. similar alarm systems have been studied that sense wetness in undergarments, especially as it concerns the toilet training of those with intellectual disabilities. this has been applied more recently in the production of potties, that play an audible cheer or other form of encouragement when used by a child. : 170 – 2 trainers may choose to employ different choices of undergarments to facilitate training. this includes switching from traditional diapers or nappies to training pants ( pull - ups ), or the use of non - absorbent cotton underwear of the type adults may wear. these are typically employed later in the training process, and not as initial step. : 175 children who experience repeated accidents after transitioning to cotton undergarments may be allowed to resume the use of diapers. most widely used techniques recommend the use of specialized children's potties, and some recommend that parents consider using snacks or drinks as rewards. = = see also = = = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = schum, t. r. ; kolb, t. m. ; mcauliffe, t. l. ; simms, m. d. ; underhill, r. l. ; lewis, m. ( 2002 ). " sequential acquisition of toilet training skills : a descriptive study of gender and age differences in normal children ". pediatrics. 109 ( 3 ) : e48. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 109. 3. e48. pmid 11875176. blum nj, taubman b, nemeth n ( 2003 ). " relationship between age at initiation of toilet training and duration of training : a prospective study ". pediatrics. 111 ( 4 pt 1 ) : 810 – 4. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 111. 4. 810. pmid 12671117. devries, mw ; devries, mr ( 1977 ). " cultural relativity of toilet training readiness : a perspective from east africa ". pediatrics. 60 ( 2 ) : 170 – 7. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 60. 2. 170. pmid 887331. s2cid 36154293. cavanagh, sheila l. ( 2017 ). " toilet training : the gender and sexual body politics of the
, infants usually learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a chair, and they often can stand alone by about 10 to 12 months of age. there is a new device called a " standing dani " developed to help special needs children with their posture. = = learning to walk = = walking upright requires being able to stand up and balance position from one foot to the other. although infants usually learn to walk around the time of their first birthday, the neural pathways that control the leg alternation component of walking are in place from a very early age, possibly even at birth or before. when 1 - to 2 - month - olds are given support with their feet in contact with a motorized treadmill, they show well - coordinated, alternating steps. if it were not for the problem of switching balance from one foot to the other, babies could walk earlier. tests were performed on crawling and walking babies where slopes were placed in front of the path and the babies had to decide whether or not it was safe. the tests proved that babies who just learned how to walk did not know what they were capable of and often went down slopes that were not safe, whereas experienced walkers knew what they could do. practice plays a big part in teaching a child how to walk. vision does not have an effect on muscle growth, however it could slow down the child's process of learning to walk. according to the nonprofit blind children center, " without special training, fully capable infants who are visually impaired may not learn to crawl or walk at an appropriate age and gross and fine motor skills will not properly develop. " when the child is not able to see an object then there is no motivation for the child to try to reach for it. therefore, they do not want to learn independently. children with visual impairments often experience a delay in achieving static balance, and use objects, such as furniture, for balance longer than children with normal vision. learning to walk is done by modeling others and watching them. children when put in environments with older children will observe and try and copy their movements. this helps the child learn through trial and error. children learning to walk will imitate other children, developing walking and balance skills more quickly than if relying on their own errors. visually impaired children may need physical therapy to help them learn these gross motor skills faster. one hour of therapy each week is not sufficient so parents have to make sure they are involved in this process. the parent can help by telling the baby the direction where an object is and encourage them to get it. parents
, and the " toilet training in a day " approach developed by nathan azrin and richard m. foxx. according to the american academy of family physicians, both the brazelton and the azrin / foxx approaches are effective for developmentally normal children, although the evidence has been limited, and no study has directly compared the effectiveness of the two. recommendations by the american academy of pediatrics follow closely with brazelton, and at least one study has suggested that the azrin / foxx method was more effective than that proposed by spock. opinions may vary greatly among parents regarding what the most effective approach to toilet training is, and success may require multiple or varied techniques according to what a child is most responsive to. these may include the use of educational material, like children's books, regularly querying a child about their need to use the bathroom, demonstration by a parent, or some type of reward system. some children may respond more positively to more brief but intense toilet training, while others may be more successful adjusting more slowly over a longer period of time. : 12 – 3 regardless of the techniques used, the american academy of pediatrics recommends that the strategy utilize as much parental involvement and encouragement as possible, while avoiding negative judgement. : 18 – 9 the canadian paediatric society makes a number of specific recommendations for toilet training techniques. these include : using a toilet seat adapter, foot stool, or potty chair to ensure easy access for the child encouraging and praising the child when they inform caregivers of their need to evacuate, even when done after the fact being attentive to a child's behavioural cues that may indicate their need to evacuate prefer encouragement and praise and avoid punishment or negative reinforcement ensure all caregivers are consistent with their approach consider transition to cotton underwear or training pants once the child achieves repeated success = = = timeline = = = as psychologist johnny l. matson observes, using the toilet can be a complex process to master, from the ability to recognize and control bodily functions, to the skills required to carry out proper hygiene practices, the requisite dexterity to dress and undress oneself, and the communication skills to inform others of the need to use the toilet. : 2 – 3 usually around one year of age, a child will begin to recognize the need to evacuate, which might be observed through changes in behavior immediately prior to urination or defecation. although they may recognize the need, children younger than 18 months may not yet be able to consciously control the muscles
to a person's age, but on the ability of the person to complete increasingly complex hierarchical tasks. for one task to be more hierarchically complex than another, the new task must meet three requirements : 1 ) it must be defined in terms of the lower stage actions ; 2 ) it must coordinate the lower stage actions ; 3 ) it must do so in a non - arbitrary way. the following are the common's 15 stages of development which demonstrate the increasingly complex nature of development. 0 calculatory - exact computations only, no generalizations are made 1 sensory and motor - organisms respond to a single stimulus in a reflexive way 2 circular sensory - motor - basic movements like turning head, moving limbs, view objects and movements 3 sensory - motor - form concepts, respond to stimuli in a class 4 nominal - make connections between concepts 5 sentential - imitate and acquire sequences, follow commands and short sequential acts 6 preoperational - make simple deductions, follow longer lists of sequential acts, tell stories 7 primary - apply simple logical rules, able to perform simple arithmetic 8 concrete - able to do complex arithmetic, plan deals 9 abstract - discriminate variables and stereotypes, make propositions 10 formal - argue using linear, one dimensional logic 11 systematic - construct multivariate systems and matrices 12 metasystematic - combine or compare systems to make multi - systems 13 paradigmatic - put metasystems together to create paradigms 14 cross - paradigmatic - put paradigms together to form fields 15 meta - cross - paradigmatic - reflect on the cross - paradigmatic implications and limitations = = = carl jung's theory = = = carl jung, a swiss psychoanalyst, formulated four stages of development and believed that development was a function of reconciling opposing forces. childhood : ( birth to puberty ) childhood has two substages. the archaic stage is characterized by sporadic consciousness, while the monarchic stage represents the beginning of logical and abstract thinking. the ego starts to develop. " jung believed that consciousness is formed in a child starting when a child can say the word " i ". and through that, the more a child distinguish him / herself from others and the world, the more ego develops. according to jung, the psyche assumes a definite content not until puberty. that is when a teenager struggles through difficulties ; he / she also begins to fantasize. " youth : ( age 15 - 39 ) maturing sexuality, growing consciousness, and a realization that the carefree days of childhood are gone
infant potty training : a gentle and primeval method adapted to modern living is a book about toilet training by laurie boucke. it is an expansion of ideas that were originally presented in a small self - published volume called trickle treat in 1991. infant potty training was first published in 2000, is now in its third edition ( 2008 ), and has editions in german, dutch, italian and japanese. infant potty training is traditionally used in at least 80 countries. boucke's method of infant potty training is based on an ancient means of toilet training stemming from cultures that don't use diapers and washing machines, and that has been adapted to a modern urban lifestyle in various ways, including the use of a potty or toilet, part - time pottying and part - time diapering. instead of always letting a baby eliminate in a diaper, parents start to offer some potty or toilet visits, usually at a much earlier age than with contemporary toilet training. = = overview of the book = = the book consists of four parts : part i is a how - to guide that also includes chapters on current medical research on infant potty training, historical writings, environmental considerations, and diapers. part ii gives detailed testimonials by experienced parents in the united states. part iii consists of testimonials from 13 other countries. part iv covers cross - cultural studies in the form of anthropological reports from many different societies and cultures in asia, africa, the arctic regions and the americas. = = synopsis of the practice = = the key is to create cue associations that can be used as a means of communication. this is done by learning and responding to body language and vocalizations, as well as to elimination timing and patterns. as a child matures, he starts to intentionally signal about his toilet needs. as with other means of toilet training, there is no fixed length or guaranteed outcome. the four main steps for beginners are : observation / familiarization parents watch and take note of the child's : timing ( elimination frequency in relation to waking and feeding ) body language ( example : grimacing ) sounds ( example : grunting ) anticipation / intuition parents anticipate when the child needs to go, then at that moment, give a cue signal ( a sound, hand signal, word or phrase ). the child will associate these with potty time. position / location after establishing a comfortable position — whether it be in - arms for an infant or on a potty or toilet
Answer:
|
mopping the floor
| null |
Which is taught?
0. walking upright
1. red hair
2. avoiding unpleasant smells
3. mopping the floor
was known as the " bell and pad ", where a sensor detected when a child had wet themselves at night, and triggered an alarm to act as a form of conditioning. similar alarm systems have been studied that sense wetness in undergarments, especially as it concerns the toilet training of those with intellectual disabilities. this has been applied more recently in the production of potties, that play an audible cheer or other form of encouragement when used by a child. : 170 – 2 trainers may choose to employ different choices of undergarments to facilitate training. this includes switching from traditional diapers or nappies to training pants ( pull - ups ), or the use of non - absorbent cotton underwear of the type adults may wear. these are typically employed later in the training process, and not as initial step. : 175 children who experience repeated accidents after transitioning to cotton undergarments may be allowed to resume the use of diapers. most widely used techniques recommend the use of specialized children's potties, and some recommend that parents consider using snacks or drinks as rewards. = = see also = = = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = schum, t. r. ; kolb, t. m. ; mcauliffe, t. l. ; simms, m. d. ; underhill, r. l. ; lewis, m. ( 2002 ). " sequential acquisition of toilet training skills : a descriptive study of gender and age differences in normal children ". pediatrics. 109 ( 3 ) : e48. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 109. 3. e48. pmid 11875176. blum nj, taubman b, nemeth n ( 2003 ). " relationship between age at initiation of toilet training and duration of training : a prospective study ". pediatrics. 111 ( 4 pt 1 ) : 810 – 4. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 111. 4. 810. pmid 12671117. devries, mw ; devries, mr ( 1977 ). " cultural relativity of toilet training readiness : a perspective from east africa ". pediatrics. 60 ( 2 ) : 170 – 7. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 60. 2. 170. pmid 887331. s2cid 36154293. cavanagh, sheila l. ( 2017 ). " toilet training : the gender and sexual body politics of the
, infants usually learn to pull themselves up and hold on to a chair, and they often can stand alone by about 10 to 12 months of age. there is a new device called a " standing dani " developed to help special needs children with their posture. = = learning to walk = = walking upright requires being able to stand up and balance position from one foot to the other. although infants usually learn to walk around the time of their first birthday, the neural pathways that control the leg alternation component of walking are in place from a very early age, possibly even at birth or before. when 1 - to 2 - month - olds are given support with their feet in contact with a motorized treadmill, they show well - coordinated, alternating steps. if it were not for the problem of switching balance from one foot to the other, babies could walk earlier. tests were performed on crawling and walking babies where slopes were placed in front of the path and the babies had to decide whether or not it was safe. the tests proved that babies who just learned how to walk did not know what they were capable of and often went down slopes that were not safe, whereas experienced walkers knew what they could do. practice plays a big part in teaching a child how to walk. vision does not have an effect on muscle growth, however it could slow down the child's process of learning to walk. according to the nonprofit blind children center, " without special training, fully capable infants who are visually impaired may not learn to crawl or walk at an appropriate age and gross and fine motor skills will not properly develop. " when the child is not able to see an object then there is no motivation for the child to try to reach for it. therefore, they do not want to learn independently. children with visual impairments often experience a delay in achieving static balance, and use objects, such as furniture, for balance longer than children with normal vision. learning to walk is done by modeling others and watching them. children when put in environments with older children will observe and try and copy their movements. this helps the child learn through trial and error. children learning to walk will imitate other children, developing walking and balance skills more quickly than if relying on their own errors. visually impaired children may need physical therapy to help them learn these gross motor skills faster. one hour of therapy each week is not sufficient so parents have to make sure they are involved in this process. the parent can help by telling the baby the direction where an object is and encourage them to get it. parents
, and the " toilet training in a day " approach developed by nathan azrin and richard m. foxx. according to the american academy of family physicians, both the brazelton and the azrin / foxx approaches are effective for developmentally normal children, although the evidence has been limited, and no study has directly compared the effectiveness of the two. recommendations by the american academy of pediatrics follow closely with brazelton, and at least one study has suggested that the azrin / foxx method was more effective than that proposed by spock. opinions may vary greatly among parents regarding what the most effective approach to toilet training is, and success may require multiple or varied techniques according to what a child is most responsive to. these may include the use of educational material, like children's books, regularly querying a child about their need to use the bathroom, demonstration by a parent, or some type of reward system. some children may respond more positively to more brief but intense toilet training, while others may be more successful adjusting more slowly over a longer period of time. : 12 – 3 regardless of the techniques used, the american academy of pediatrics recommends that the strategy utilize as much parental involvement and encouragement as possible, while avoiding negative judgement. : 18 – 9 the canadian paediatric society makes a number of specific recommendations for toilet training techniques. these include : using a toilet seat adapter, foot stool, or potty chair to ensure easy access for the child encouraging and praising the child when they inform caregivers of their need to evacuate, even when done after the fact being attentive to a child's behavioural cues that may indicate their need to evacuate prefer encouragement and praise and avoid punishment or negative reinforcement ensure all caregivers are consistent with their approach consider transition to cotton underwear or training pants once the child achieves repeated success = = = timeline = = = as psychologist johnny l. matson observes, using the toilet can be a complex process to master, from the ability to recognize and control bodily functions, to the skills required to carry out proper hygiene practices, the requisite dexterity to dress and undress oneself, and the communication skills to inform others of the need to use the toilet. : 2 – 3 usually around one year of age, a child will begin to recognize the need to evacuate, which might be observed through changes in behavior immediately prior to urination or defecation. although they may recognize the need, children younger than 18 months may not yet be able to consciously control the muscles
to a person's age, but on the ability of the person to complete increasingly complex hierarchical tasks. for one task to be more hierarchically complex than another, the new task must meet three requirements : 1 ) it must be defined in terms of the lower stage actions ; 2 ) it must coordinate the lower stage actions ; 3 ) it must do so in a non - arbitrary way. the following are the common's 15 stages of development which demonstrate the increasingly complex nature of development. 0 calculatory - exact computations only, no generalizations are made 1 sensory and motor - organisms respond to a single stimulus in a reflexive way 2 circular sensory - motor - basic movements like turning head, moving limbs, view objects and movements 3 sensory - motor - form concepts, respond to stimuli in a class 4 nominal - make connections between concepts 5 sentential - imitate and acquire sequences, follow commands and short sequential acts 6 preoperational - make simple deductions, follow longer lists of sequential acts, tell stories 7 primary - apply simple logical rules, able to perform simple arithmetic 8 concrete - able to do complex arithmetic, plan deals 9 abstract - discriminate variables and stereotypes, make propositions 10 formal - argue using linear, one dimensional logic 11 systematic - construct multivariate systems and matrices 12 metasystematic - combine or compare systems to make multi - systems 13 paradigmatic - put metasystems together to create paradigms 14 cross - paradigmatic - put paradigms together to form fields 15 meta - cross - paradigmatic - reflect on the cross - paradigmatic implications and limitations = = = carl jung's theory = = = carl jung, a swiss psychoanalyst, formulated four stages of development and believed that development was a function of reconciling opposing forces. childhood : ( birth to puberty ) childhood has two substages. the archaic stage is characterized by sporadic consciousness, while the monarchic stage represents the beginning of logical and abstract thinking. the ego starts to develop. " jung believed that consciousness is formed in a child starting when a child can say the word " i ". and through that, the more a child distinguish him / herself from others and the world, the more ego develops. according to jung, the psyche assumes a definite content not until puberty. that is when a teenager struggles through difficulties ; he / she also begins to fantasize. " youth : ( age 15 - 39 ) maturing sexuality, growing consciousness, and a realization that the carefree days of childhood are gone
infant potty training : a gentle and primeval method adapted to modern living is a book about toilet training by laurie boucke. it is an expansion of ideas that were originally presented in a small self - published volume called trickle treat in 1991. infant potty training was first published in 2000, is now in its third edition ( 2008 ), and has editions in german, dutch, italian and japanese. infant potty training is traditionally used in at least 80 countries. boucke's method of infant potty training is based on an ancient means of toilet training stemming from cultures that don't use diapers and washing machines, and that has been adapted to a modern urban lifestyle in various ways, including the use of a potty or toilet, part - time pottying and part - time diapering. instead of always letting a baby eliminate in a diaper, parents start to offer some potty or toilet visits, usually at a much earlier age than with contemporary toilet training. = = overview of the book = = the book consists of four parts : part i is a how - to guide that also includes chapters on current medical research on infant potty training, historical writings, environmental considerations, and diapers. part ii gives detailed testimonials by experienced parents in the united states. part iii consists of testimonials from 13 other countries. part iv covers cross - cultural studies in the form of anthropological reports from many different societies and cultures in asia, africa, the arctic regions and the americas. = = synopsis of the practice = = the key is to create cue associations that can be used as a means of communication. this is done by learning and responding to body language and vocalizations, as well as to elimination timing and patterns. as a child matures, he starts to intentionally signal about his toilet needs. as with other means of toilet training, there is no fixed length or guaranteed outcome. the four main steps for beginners are : observation / familiarization parents watch and take note of the child's : timing ( elimination frequency in relation to waking and feeding ) body language ( example : grimacing ) sounds ( example : grunting ) anticipation / intuition parents anticipate when the child needs to go, then at that moment, give a cue signal ( a sound, hand signal, word or phrase ). the child will associate these with potty time. position / location after establishing a comfortable position — whether it be in - arms for an infant or on a potty or toilet
Answer:
|
red hair
| 0.3 |
A learned behavior is exhibited when
0. squinting in bright light
1. nailing up a picture frame
2. blinking and gulping air
3. inhaling and exhaling during sleep
eyeblink conditioning ( ebc ) is a form of classical conditioning that has been used extensively to study neural structures and mechanisms that underlie learning and memory. the procedure is relatively simple and usually consists of pairing an auditory or visual stimulus ( the conditioned stimulus ( cs ) ) with an eyeblink - eliciting unconditioned stimulus ( us ) ( e. g. a mild puff of air to the cornea or a mild shock ). naive organisms initially produce a reflexive, unconditioned response ( ur ) ( e. g. blink or extension of nictitating membrane ) that follows us onset. after many cs - us pairings, an association is formed such that a learned blink, or conditioned response ( cr ), occurs and precedes us onset. the magnitude of learning is generally gauged by the percentage of all paired cs - us trials that result in a cr. under optimal conditions, well - trained animals produce a high percentage of crs ( > 90 % ). the conditions necessary for, and the physiological mechanisms that govern, eyeblink cr learning have been studied across many mammalian species, including mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, ferrets, cats, and humans. historically, rabbits have been the most popular research subjects. = = cs - us contingency = = the order in which stimuli are presented is an important factor in all forms of classical conditioning. forward conditioning describes a presentation format in which the cs precedes the us in time. that is, from the perspective of the research subject, experiencing the us is contingent upon having just experienced the cs. ebc is usually, but not always, conducted in this manner. other stimulus contingencies include backward conditioning, in which us comes before cs, and simultaneous conditioning, in which cs and us are presented at the same time. in any case, the time between cs onset and us onset is the interstimulus interval ( isi ). animals are usually trained with a shorter isi than humans, which can make interspecies comparisons difficult. = = = the delay and trace procedures = = = in delay ebc, the cs onset precedes the us onset and the two stimuli overlap and coterminate, with the stimuli converging in the cerebellar cortex and interpositus nucleus. in the trace ebc, the cs precedes the us and there is a stimulus free period ( trace interval ) between cs offset and us onset. while both of
he is not distracted. the lowest - level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. in any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in human beings is the same as in amphibians. the phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilised on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. this is a very interesting phenomenon. when a person looks at an immobile object, " fixes " it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile ; they make small involuntary movements. as a result, the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. the image " marks time " in the vicinity of this point. = = = use in contemporary social psychology = = = the halo effect can be explained through the application of gestalt theories to social information processing. the constructive theories of social cognition are applied to the expectations of individuals. they have been perceived in this manner and the person judging the individual is continuing to view them in this positive manner. gestalt's theories of perception reinforce individuals'tendency to perceive actions and characteristics as a whole rather than isolated parts ; therefore, humans are inclined to build a coherent and consistent impression of objects and behaviors in order to achieve an acceptable shape and form. the halo effect is what forms patterns for individuals, the halo effect being classified as a cognitive bias which occurs during impression formation. the halo effect can also be altered by physical characteristics, social status and many other characteristics. as well, the halo effect can have real repercussions on the individual's perception of reality, either negatively or positively, meaning to construct negative or positive images about other individuals or situations, something that could lead to self - fulfilling prophesies, stereotyping, or even discrimination. = = = contemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology = = = some of the central criticisms of gestaltism are based on the preference gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting gestalt ideas. this is not necessarily a fair criticism, as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on gestalt perception. researchers continue to test hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying gestalt principles such as the principle of similarity. other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many physiological assumptions made by gestaltists and lack of
certain criteria and determines whether the sequence is legitimate. sequential decision making or sequence generation through actions breaks down into three variations : goal - oriented, trajectory - oriented, and reinforcement - maximizing. these three variations all want to pick the action ( s ) or step ( s ) that will lead to the goal in the future. these sequence learning problems reflect hierarchical organization of plans because each element in the sequences builds on the previous elements. in a classic experiment published in 1967, alfred l. yarbus demonstrated that though subjects viewing portraits reported apprehending the portrait as a whole, their eye movements successively fixated on the most informative parts of the image. these observations suggest that underlying an apparently parallel process of face perception, a serial oculomotor process is concealed. it is a common observation that when a skill is being acquired, we are more attentive in the initial phase, but after repeated practice, the skill becomes nearly automatic ; this is also known as unconscious competence. we can then concentrate on learning a new action while performing previously learned actions skillfully. thus, it appears that a neural code or representation for the learned skill is created in our brain, which is usually called procedural memory. the procedural memory encodes procedures or algorithms rather than facts. = = ongoing research = = there are many other areas of application for sequence learning. how humans learn sequential procedures has been a long - standing research problem in cognitive science and currently is a major topic in neuroscience. research work has been going on in several disciplines, including artificial intelligence, neural networks, and engineering. for a philosophical perspective, see inductive reasoning and problem of induction. for a theoretical computer - science perspective, see solomonoff's theory of inductive inference and inductive programming. for a mathematical perspective, see extrapolation. = = references = = = = further reading = = sun, ron ; giles, c. lee, eds. ( 2001 ). sequence learning paradigms, algorithms, and applications. lecture notes in computer science. vol. 1828. new york / berlin : springer. isbn 978 - 3 - 540 - 41597 - 8. keshet, joseph ; bengio, samy, eds. ( 2009 ). automatic speech and speaker recognition : large margin and kernel methods. chichester, uk / hoboken, new jersey : j. wiley & sons. isbn 978 - 0 - 470 - 74204 - 4. riolo, rick ; trent mcconaghy ; ekaterina vladislavlev
. = = = defensive immobilization = = = ioannis tsoukalas of stockholm university has hypothesized that rem sleep is an evolutionary transformation of a well - known defensive mechanism, the tonic immobility reflex. this reflex, also known as animal hypnosis or death feigning, functions as the last line of defense against an attacking predator and consists of the total immobilization of the animal so that it appears dead. tsoukalas argues that the neurophysiology and phenomenology of this reaction shows striking similarities to rem sleep ; for example, both reactions exhibit brainstem control, cholinergic neurotransmission, paralysis, hippocampal theta rhythm, and thermoregulatory changes. = = = shift of gaze = = = according to " scanning hypothesis ", the directional properties of rem sleep are related to a shift of gaze in dream imagery. against this hypothesis is that such eye movements occur in those born blind and in fetuses in spite of lack of vision. also, binocular rems are non - conjugated ( i. e., the two eyes do not point in the same direction at a time ) and so lack a fixation point. in support of this theory, research finds that in goal - oriented dreams, eye gaze is directed towards the dream action, determined from correlations in the eye and body movements of rem sleep behavior disorder patients who enact their dreams. = = = oxygen supply to cornea = = = dr. david m. maurice, an eye specialist and former adjunct professor at columbia university, proposed that rem sleep was associated with oxygen supply to the cornea, and that aqueous humor, the liquid between cornea and iris, was stagnant if not stirred. among the supportive evidence, he calculated that if aqueous humor was stagnant, oxygen from the iris had to reach the cornea by diffusion through aqueous humor, which was not sufficient. according to the theory, when the organism is awake, eye movement ( or cool environmental temperature ) enables the aqueous humor to circulate. when the organism is sleeping, rem provides the much needed stir to aqueous humor. this theory is consistent with the observation that fetuses, as well as eye - sealed newborn animals, spend much time in rem sleep, and that during a normal sleep, a person's rem sleep episodes become progressively longer deeper
– at the start of an activity that requires concentration, establishing a deliberate objective to remain focused, such as " i am going to let my mind be steady. " • remaining awake and alert to the environment - the brain cannot pay attention when sleep - deprived. for example, sitting up in a straight posture helps as this sends information to the reticular formation, which is involved in consciousness, telling it to stay vigilant to environmental stimuli. another technique is taking deep breaths. this increases oxygen in the brain, which keeps it awake. • silencing the mind. when the mind is silenced, there are fewer things to distract attention. for example, by creating an awareness of the whole body. involved in this process is the right hemisphere, which represents whole - body processing. by initiating activities as such that the right hemisphere specializes in, the verbal babble of the left hemisphere is silenced. = = = physical and psychological health benefits = = = as the pns is activated through meditation, it quietens the sns, which is responsible for a majority of human psychological suffering. the activation and alteration of brain structure has also been related to a number of physical and psychological health benefits : • a resilient affective style and increased mood. the absence of stress hormones in sns activation allows for prefrontal activation and regulation of the amygdala, both of which are necessary for the experience of these states. • strengthening of the immune system as a result of an increase in antibodies. this is the result of activation of the left - sided anterior through meditation practice. • increase in empathy and compassion. the cultivation of positive affect through mental training stimulates the activation of the anterior cingulate cortices that have been previously linked to empathic responses to another person's pain. = = references = =
Answer:
|
nailing up a picture frame
| null |
A learned behavior is exhibited when
0. squinting in bright light
1. nailing up a picture frame
2. blinking and gulping air
3. inhaling and exhaling during sleep
eyeblink conditioning ( ebc ) is a form of classical conditioning that has been used extensively to study neural structures and mechanisms that underlie learning and memory. the procedure is relatively simple and usually consists of pairing an auditory or visual stimulus ( the conditioned stimulus ( cs ) ) with an eyeblink - eliciting unconditioned stimulus ( us ) ( e. g. a mild puff of air to the cornea or a mild shock ). naive organisms initially produce a reflexive, unconditioned response ( ur ) ( e. g. blink or extension of nictitating membrane ) that follows us onset. after many cs - us pairings, an association is formed such that a learned blink, or conditioned response ( cr ), occurs and precedes us onset. the magnitude of learning is generally gauged by the percentage of all paired cs - us trials that result in a cr. under optimal conditions, well - trained animals produce a high percentage of crs ( > 90 % ). the conditions necessary for, and the physiological mechanisms that govern, eyeblink cr learning have been studied across many mammalian species, including mice, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, ferrets, cats, and humans. historically, rabbits have been the most popular research subjects. = = cs - us contingency = = the order in which stimuli are presented is an important factor in all forms of classical conditioning. forward conditioning describes a presentation format in which the cs precedes the us in time. that is, from the perspective of the research subject, experiencing the us is contingent upon having just experienced the cs. ebc is usually, but not always, conducted in this manner. other stimulus contingencies include backward conditioning, in which us comes before cs, and simultaneous conditioning, in which cs and us are presented at the same time. in any case, the time between cs onset and us onset is the interstimulus interval ( isi ). animals are usually trained with a shorter isi than humans, which can make interspecies comparisons difficult. = = = the delay and trace procedures = = = in delay ebc, the cs onset precedes the us onset and the two stimuli overlap and coterminate, with the stimuli converging in the cerebellar cortex and interpositus nucleus. in the trace ebc, the cs precedes the us and there is a stimulus free period ( trace interval ) between cs offset and us onset. while both of
he is not distracted. the lowest - level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. in any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in human beings is the same as in amphibians. the phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilised on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. this is a very interesting phenomenon. when a person looks at an immobile object, " fixes " it with his eyes, the eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile ; they make small involuntary movements. as a result, the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. the image " marks time " in the vicinity of this point. = = = use in contemporary social psychology = = = the halo effect can be explained through the application of gestalt theories to social information processing. the constructive theories of social cognition are applied to the expectations of individuals. they have been perceived in this manner and the person judging the individual is continuing to view them in this positive manner. gestalt's theories of perception reinforce individuals'tendency to perceive actions and characteristics as a whole rather than isolated parts ; therefore, humans are inclined to build a coherent and consistent impression of objects and behaviors in order to achieve an acceptable shape and form. the halo effect is what forms patterns for individuals, the halo effect being classified as a cognitive bias which occurs during impression formation. the halo effect can also be altered by physical characteristics, social status and many other characteristics. as well, the halo effect can have real repercussions on the individual's perception of reality, either negatively or positively, meaning to construct negative or positive images about other individuals or situations, something that could lead to self - fulfilling prophesies, stereotyping, or even discrimination. = = = contemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology = = = some of the central criticisms of gestaltism are based on the preference gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting gestalt ideas. this is not necessarily a fair criticism, as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on gestalt perception. researchers continue to test hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying gestalt principles such as the principle of similarity. other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many physiological assumptions made by gestaltists and lack of
certain criteria and determines whether the sequence is legitimate. sequential decision making or sequence generation through actions breaks down into three variations : goal - oriented, trajectory - oriented, and reinforcement - maximizing. these three variations all want to pick the action ( s ) or step ( s ) that will lead to the goal in the future. these sequence learning problems reflect hierarchical organization of plans because each element in the sequences builds on the previous elements. in a classic experiment published in 1967, alfred l. yarbus demonstrated that though subjects viewing portraits reported apprehending the portrait as a whole, their eye movements successively fixated on the most informative parts of the image. these observations suggest that underlying an apparently parallel process of face perception, a serial oculomotor process is concealed. it is a common observation that when a skill is being acquired, we are more attentive in the initial phase, but after repeated practice, the skill becomes nearly automatic ; this is also known as unconscious competence. we can then concentrate on learning a new action while performing previously learned actions skillfully. thus, it appears that a neural code or representation for the learned skill is created in our brain, which is usually called procedural memory. the procedural memory encodes procedures or algorithms rather than facts. = = ongoing research = = there are many other areas of application for sequence learning. how humans learn sequential procedures has been a long - standing research problem in cognitive science and currently is a major topic in neuroscience. research work has been going on in several disciplines, including artificial intelligence, neural networks, and engineering. for a philosophical perspective, see inductive reasoning and problem of induction. for a theoretical computer - science perspective, see solomonoff's theory of inductive inference and inductive programming. for a mathematical perspective, see extrapolation. = = references = = = = further reading = = sun, ron ; giles, c. lee, eds. ( 2001 ). sequence learning paradigms, algorithms, and applications. lecture notes in computer science. vol. 1828. new york / berlin : springer. isbn 978 - 3 - 540 - 41597 - 8. keshet, joseph ; bengio, samy, eds. ( 2009 ). automatic speech and speaker recognition : large margin and kernel methods. chichester, uk / hoboken, new jersey : j. wiley & sons. isbn 978 - 0 - 470 - 74204 - 4. riolo, rick ; trent mcconaghy ; ekaterina vladislavlev
. = = = defensive immobilization = = = ioannis tsoukalas of stockholm university has hypothesized that rem sleep is an evolutionary transformation of a well - known defensive mechanism, the tonic immobility reflex. this reflex, also known as animal hypnosis or death feigning, functions as the last line of defense against an attacking predator and consists of the total immobilization of the animal so that it appears dead. tsoukalas argues that the neurophysiology and phenomenology of this reaction shows striking similarities to rem sleep ; for example, both reactions exhibit brainstem control, cholinergic neurotransmission, paralysis, hippocampal theta rhythm, and thermoregulatory changes. = = = shift of gaze = = = according to " scanning hypothesis ", the directional properties of rem sleep are related to a shift of gaze in dream imagery. against this hypothesis is that such eye movements occur in those born blind and in fetuses in spite of lack of vision. also, binocular rems are non - conjugated ( i. e., the two eyes do not point in the same direction at a time ) and so lack a fixation point. in support of this theory, research finds that in goal - oriented dreams, eye gaze is directed towards the dream action, determined from correlations in the eye and body movements of rem sleep behavior disorder patients who enact their dreams. = = = oxygen supply to cornea = = = dr. david m. maurice, an eye specialist and former adjunct professor at columbia university, proposed that rem sleep was associated with oxygen supply to the cornea, and that aqueous humor, the liquid between cornea and iris, was stagnant if not stirred. among the supportive evidence, he calculated that if aqueous humor was stagnant, oxygen from the iris had to reach the cornea by diffusion through aqueous humor, which was not sufficient. according to the theory, when the organism is awake, eye movement ( or cool environmental temperature ) enables the aqueous humor to circulate. when the organism is sleeping, rem provides the much needed stir to aqueous humor. this theory is consistent with the observation that fetuses, as well as eye - sealed newborn animals, spend much time in rem sleep, and that during a normal sleep, a person's rem sleep episodes become progressively longer deeper
– at the start of an activity that requires concentration, establishing a deliberate objective to remain focused, such as " i am going to let my mind be steady. " • remaining awake and alert to the environment - the brain cannot pay attention when sleep - deprived. for example, sitting up in a straight posture helps as this sends information to the reticular formation, which is involved in consciousness, telling it to stay vigilant to environmental stimuli. another technique is taking deep breaths. this increases oxygen in the brain, which keeps it awake. • silencing the mind. when the mind is silenced, there are fewer things to distract attention. for example, by creating an awareness of the whole body. involved in this process is the right hemisphere, which represents whole - body processing. by initiating activities as such that the right hemisphere specializes in, the verbal babble of the left hemisphere is silenced. = = = physical and psychological health benefits = = = as the pns is activated through meditation, it quietens the sns, which is responsible for a majority of human psychological suffering. the activation and alteration of brain structure has also been related to a number of physical and psychological health benefits : • a resilient affective style and increased mood. the absence of stress hormones in sns activation allows for prefrontal activation and regulation of the amygdala, both of which are necessary for the experience of these states. • strengthening of the immune system as a result of an increase in antibodies. this is the result of activation of the left - sided anterior through meditation practice. • increase in empathy and compassion. the cultivation of positive affect through mental training stimulates the activation of the anterior cingulate cortices that have been previously linked to empathic responses to another person's pain. = = references = =
Answer:
|
squinting in bright light
| 0.3 |
As altitude increases, the air temperature will do what?
0. rise
1. go up
2. nosedive
3. elevate
) ^ { 1 / 2 } v ^ { 3 } \ sim { \ text { w } } / { \ text { m } } ^ { 2 } } where r n { \ displaystyle r _ { n } } is the effective nose radius. the constant k = 1. 74153 × 10 − 4 { \ displaystyle k = 1. 74153 \ times 10 ^ { - 4 } } for earth. then the altitude and value of peak convective heating may be found : h q max ″ = h log ( − β sin γ 3 h ρ 0 ) q max ″ = k − β sin γ 3 h r n e v atm 3 { \ displaystyle h _ { { \ dot { q } } _ { \ max }'' } = h \ log \ left ( - { \ frac { \ beta \ sin \ gamma } { 3h \ rho _ { 0 } } } \ right ) \ implies { \ dot { q } } _ { \ max }'' = k { \ sqrt { - { \ frac { \ beta \ sin \ gamma } { 3hr _ { n } e } } } } v _ { \ text { atm } } ^ { 3 } } = = = equilibrium glide condition = = = another commonly encountered simplification is a lifting entry with a shallow, slowly - varying, flight path angle. the velocity as a function of altitude can be derived from two assumptions : the flight path angle is shallow, meaning that : cos γ ≈ 1, sin γ ≈ γ { \ displaystyle \ cos \ gamma \ approx 1, \ sin \ gamma \ approx \ gamma }. the flight path angle changes very slowly, such that d γ / d t ≈ 0 { \ displaystyle d \ gamma / dt \ approx 0 }. from these two assumptions, we may infer from the second equation of motion that : [ 1 r + ρ 2 β ( l d ) cos σ ] v 2 = g v ( h ) = g r 1 + ρ r 2 β ( l d ) cos σ { \ displaystyle \ left [ { \ frac { 1 } { r } } + { \ frac { \ rho } { 2 \ beta } } \ left ( { \ frac { l } { d } } \ right ) \ cos \ sigma \ right ] v ^ { 2 } = g \ implies v ( h ) = { \ sq
standard atmosphere ( isa ) with a temperature lapse rate of 6. 50 °c / km ( 3. 56 °f or 1. 98 °c / 1, 000 ft ) from sea level to 11 km ( 36, 090 ft or 6. 8 mi ). from 11 km up to 20 km ( 65, 620 ft or 12. 4 mi ), the constant temperature is −56. 5 °c ( −69. 7 °f ), which is the lowest assumed temperature in the isa. the standard atmosphere contains no moisture. unlike the idealized isa, the temperature of the actual atmosphere does not always fall at a uniform rate with height. for example, there can be an inversion layer in which the temperature increases with altitude. = = cause = = the temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of the interaction between radiative heating from sunlight, cooling to space via thermal radiation, and upward heat transport via natural convection ( which carries hot air and latent heat upward ). above the tropopause, convection does not occur and all cooling is radiative. within the troposphere, the lapse rate is essentially the consequence of a balance between ( a ) radiative cooling of the air, which by itself would lead to a high lapse rate ; and ( b ) convection, which is activated when the lapse rate exceeds a critical value ; convection stabilizes the environmental lapse rate. sunlight hits the surface of the earth ( land and sea ) and heats them. the warm surface heats the air above it. in addition, nearly a third of absorbed sunlight is absorbed within the atmosphere, heating the atmosphere directly. thermal conduction helps transfer heat from the surface to the air ; this conduction occurs within the few millimeters of air closest to the surface. however, above that thin interface layer, thermal conduction plays a negligible role in transferring heat within the atmosphere ; this is because the thermal conductivity of air is very low. : 387 the air is radiatively cooled by greenhouse gases ( water vapor, carbon dioxide, etc. ) and clouds emitting longwave thermal radiation to space. if radiation were the only way to transfer energy within the atmosphere, then the lapse rate near the surface would be roughly 40 °c / km and the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 k ( 60 °c ; 140 °f ). : 59 – 60 however, when air gets hot or humid, its density decreases. thus, air which has been heated by the surface tends
effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 k ( 60 °c ; 140 °f ). : 59 – 60 however, when air gets hot or humid, its density decreases. thus, air which has been heated by the surface tends to rise and carry internal energy upward, especially if the air has been moistened by evaporation from water surfaces. this is the process of convection. vertical convective motion stops when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation. convection carries hot, moist air upward and cold, dry air downward, with a net effect of transferring heat upward. this makes the air below cooler than it would otherwise be and the air above warmer. because convection is available to transfer heat within the atmosphere, the lapse rate in the troposphere is reduced to around 6. 5 °c / km and the greenhouse effect is reduced to a point where earth has its observed surface temperature of around 288 k ( 15 °c ; 59 °f ). = = convection and adiabatic expansion = = as convection causes parcels of air to rise or fall, there is little heat transfer between those parcels and the surrounding air. air has low thermal conductivity, and the bodies of air involved are very large ; so transfer of heat by conduction is negligibly small. also, intra - atmospheric radiative heat transfer is relatively slow and so is negligible for moving air. thus, when air ascends or descends, there is little exchange of heat with the surrounding air. a process in which no heat is exchanged with the environment is referred to as an adiabatic process. air expands as it moves upward, and contracts as it moves downward. the expansion of rising air parcels, and the contraction of descending air parcels, are adiabatic processes, to a good approximation. when a parcel of air expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing thermodynamic work. since the upward - moving and expanding parcel does work but gains no heat, it loses internal energy so that its temperature decreases. downward - moving and contracting air has work done on it, so it gains internal energy and its temperature increases. adiabatic processes for air have a characteristic temperature - pressure curve. as air circulates vertically, the air takes on that characteristic gradient, called the adiabatic lapse rate. when the air contains little water, this lapse rate is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate : the rate of temperature
meteorology, particularly within the troposphere. they are used to determine if the parcel of rising air will rise high enough for its water to condense to form clouds, and, having formed clouds, whether the air will continue to rise and form bigger shower clouds, and whether these clouds will get even bigger and form cumulonimbus clouds ( thunder clouds ). as unsaturated air rises, its temperature drops at the dry adiabatic rate. the dew point also drops ( as a result of decreasing air pressure ) but much more slowly, typically about 2 °c per 1, 000 m. if unsaturated air rises far enough, eventually its temperature will reach its dew point, and condensation will begin to form. this altitude is known as the lifting condensation level ( lcl ) when mechanical lift is present and the convective condensation level ( ccl ) when mechanical lift is absent, in which case, the parcel must be heated from below to its convective temperature. the cloud base will be somewhere within the layer bounded by these parameters. the difference between the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the rate at which the dew point drops is around 4. 5 °c per 1, 000 m. given a difference in temperature and dew point readings on the ground, one can easily find the lcl by multiplying the difference by 125 m / °c. if the environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely stable — rising air will cool faster than the surrounding air and lose buoyancy. this often happens in the early morning, when the air near the ground has cooled overnight. cloud formation in stable air is unlikely. if the environmental lapse rate is between the moist and dry adiabatic lapse rates, the air is conditionally unstable — an unsaturated parcel of air does not have sufficient buoyancy to rise to the lcl or ccl, and it is stable to weak vertical displacements in either direction. if the parcel is saturated it is unstable and will rise to the lcl or ccl, and either be halted due to an inversion layer of convective inhibition, or if lifting continues, deep, moist convection ( dmc ) may ensue, as a parcel rises to the level of free convection ( lfc ), after which it enters the free convective layer ( fcl ) and usually rises to the equilibrium level ( el ). if the environmental lapse
air circulates vertically, the air takes on that characteristic gradient, called the adiabatic lapse rate. when the air contains little water, this lapse rate is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate : the rate of temperature decrease is 9. 8 °c / km ( 5. 4 °f per 1, 000 ft ) ( 3. 0 °c / 1, 000 ft ). the reverse occurs for a sinking parcel of air. when the environmental lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse rate the atmosphere is stable and convection will not occur. : 63 the environmental lapse is forced towards the adiabatic lapse rate whenever air is convecting vertically. only the troposphere ( up to approximately 12 kilometres ( 39, 000 ft ) of altitude ) in the earth's atmosphere undergoes convection : the stratosphere does not generally convect. however, some exceptionally energetic convection processes, such as volcanic eruption columns and overshooting tops associated with severe supercell thunderstorms, may locally and temporarily inject convection through the tropopause and into the stratosphere. energy transport in the atmosphere is more complex than the interaction between radiation and dry convection. the water cycle ( including evaporation, condensation, precipitation ) transports latent heat and affects atmospheric humidity levels, significantly influencing the temperature profile, as described below. = = mathematics of the adiabatic lapse rate = = the following calculations derive the temperature as a function of altitude for a packet of air which is ascending or descending without exchanging heat with its environment. = = = dry adiabatic lapse rate = = = thermodynamics defines an adiabatic process as : p d v = − v d p γ { \ displaystyle p \, \ mathrm { d } v = - { \ frac { v \, \ mathrm { d } p } { \ gamma } } } the first law of thermodynamics can be written as m c v d t − v d p γ = 0 { \ displaystyle mc _ { \ text { v } } \, \ mathrm { d } t - { \ frac { v \, \ mathrm { d } p } { \ gamma } } = 0 } also, since the density ρ = m / v { \ displaystyle \ rho = m / v } and γ = c p / c v { \ displaystyle \ gamma = c _ { \ text { p }
Answer:
|
nosedive
| null |
As altitude increases, the air temperature will do what?
0. rise
1. go up
2. nosedive
3. elevate
) ^ { 1 / 2 } v ^ { 3 } \ sim { \ text { w } } / { \ text { m } } ^ { 2 } } where r n { \ displaystyle r _ { n } } is the effective nose radius. the constant k = 1. 74153 × 10 − 4 { \ displaystyle k = 1. 74153 \ times 10 ^ { - 4 } } for earth. then the altitude and value of peak convective heating may be found : h q max ″ = h log ( − β sin γ 3 h ρ 0 ) q max ″ = k − β sin γ 3 h r n e v atm 3 { \ displaystyle h _ { { \ dot { q } } _ { \ max }'' } = h \ log \ left ( - { \ frac { \ beta \ sin \ gamma } { 3h \ rho _ { 0 } } } \ right ) \ implies { \ dot { q } } _ { \ max }'' = k { \ sqrt { - { \ frac { \ beta \ sin \ gamma } { 3hr _ { n } e } } } } v _ { \ text { atm } } ^ { 3 } } = = = equilibrium glide condition = = = another commonly encountered simplification is a lifting entry with a shallow, slowly - varying, flight path angle. the velocity as a function of altitude can be derived from two assumptions : the flight path angle is shallow, meaning that : cos γ ≈ 1, sin γ ≈ γ { \ displaystyle \ cos \ gamma \ approx 1, \ sin \ gamma \ approx \ gamma }. the flight path angle changes very slowly, such that d γ / d t ≈ 0 { \ displaystyle d \ gamma / dt \ approx 0 }. from these two assumptions, we may infer from the second equation of motion that : [ 1 r + ρ 2 β ( l d ) cos σ ] v 2 = g v ( h ) = g r 1 + ρ r 2 β ( l d ) cos σ { \ displaystyle \ left [ { \ frac { 1 } { r } } + { \ frac { \ rho } { 2 \ beta } } \ left ( { \ frac { l } { d } } \ right ) \ cos \ sigma \ right ] v ^ { 2 } = g \ implies v ( h ) = { \ sq
standard atmosphere ( isa ) with a temperature lapse rate of 6. 50 °c / km ( 3. 56 °f or 1. 98 °c / 1, 000 ft ) from sea level to 11 km ( 36, 090 ft or 6. 8 mi ). from 11 km up to 20 km ( 65, 620 ft or 12. 4 mi ), the constant temperature is −56. 5 °c ( −69. 7 °f ), which is the lowest assumed temperature in the isa. the standard atmosphere contains no moisture. unlike the idealized isa, the temperature of the actual atmosphere does not always fall at a uniform rate with height. for example, there can be an inversion layer in which the temperature increases with altitude. = = cause = = the temperature profile of the atmosphere is a result of the interaction between radiative heating from sunlight, cooling to space via thermal radiation, and upward heat transport via natural convection ( which carries hot air and latent heat upward ). above the tropopause, convection does not occur and all cooling is radiative. within the troposphere, the lapse rate is essentially the consequence of a balance between ( a ) radiative cooling of the air, which by itself would lead to a high lapse rate ; and ( b ) convection, which is activated when the lapse rate exceeds a critical value ; convection stabilizes the environmental lapse rate. sunlight hits the surface of the earth ( land and sea ) and heats them. the warm surface heats the air above it. in addition, nearly a third of absorbed sunlight is absorbed within the atmosphere, heating the atmosphere directly. thermal conduction helps transfer heat from the surface to the air ; this conduction occurs within the few millimeters of air closest to the surface. however, above that thin interface layer, thermal conduction plays a negligible role in transferring heat within the atmosphere ; this is because the thermal conductivity of air is very low. : 387 the air is radiatively cooled by greenhouse gases ( water vapor, carbon dioxide, etc. ) and clouds emitting longwave thermal radiation to space. if radiation were the only way to transfer energy within the atmosphere, then the lapse rate near the surface would be roughly 40 °c / km and the greenhouse effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 k ( 60 °c ; 140 °f ). : 59 – 60 however, when air gets hot or humid, its density decreases. thus, air which has been heated by the surface tends
effect of gases in the atmosphere would keep the ground at roughly 333 k ( 60 °c ; 140 °f ). : 59 – 60 however, when air gets hot or humid, its density decreases. thus, air which has been heated by the surface tends to rise and carry internal energy upward, especially if the air has been moistened by evaporation from water surfaces. this is the process of convection. vertical convective motion stops when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation. convection carries hot, moist air upward and cold, dry air downward, with a net effect of transferring heat upward. this makes the air below cooler than it would otherwise be and the air above warmer. because convection is available to transfer heat within the atmosphere, the lapse rate in the troposphere is reduced to around 6. 5 °c / km and the greenhouse effect is reduced to a point where earth has its observed surface temperature of around 288 k ( 15 °c ; 59 °f ). = = convection and adiabatic expansion = = as convection causes parcels of air to rise or fall, there is little heat transfer between those parcels and the surrounding air. air has low thermal conductivity, and the bodies of air involved are very large ; so transfer of heat by conduction is negligibly small. also, intra - atmospheric radiative heat transfer is relatively slow and so is negligible for moving air. thus, when air ascends or descends, there is little exchange of heat with the surrounding air. a process in which no heat is exchanged with the environment is referred to as an adiabatic process. air expands as it moves upward, and contracts as it moves downward. the expansion of rising air parcels, and the contraction of descending air parcels, are adiabatic processes, to a good approximation. when a parcel of air expands, it pushes on the air around it, doing thermodynamic work. since the upward - moving and expanding parcel does work but gains no heat, it loses internal energy so that its temperature decreases. downward - moving and contracting air has work done on it, so it gains internal energy and its temperature increases. adiabatic processes for air have a characteristic temperature - pressure curve. as air circulates vertically, the air takes on that characteristic gradient, called the adiabatic lapse rate. when the air contains little water, this lapse rate is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate : the rate of temperature
meteorology, particularly within the troposphere. they are used to determine if the parcel of rising air will rise high enough for its water to condense to form clouds, and, having formed clouds, whether the air will continue to rise and form bigger shower clouds, and whether these clouds will get even bigger and form cumulonimbus clouds ( thunder clouds ). as unsaturated air rises, its temperature drops at the dry adiabatic rate. the dew point also drops ( as a result of decreasing air pressure ) but much more slowly, typically about 2 °c per 1, 000 m. if unsaturated air rises far enough, eventually its temperature will reach its dew point, and condensation will begin to form. this altitude is known as the lifting condensation level ( lcl ) when mechanical lift is present and the convective condensation level ( ccl ) when mechanical lift is absent, in which case, the parcel must be heated from below to its convective temperature. the cloud base will be somewhere within the layer bounded by these parameters. the difference between the dry adiabatic lapse rate and the rate at which the dew point drops is around 4. 5 °c per 1, 000 m. given a difference in temperature and dew point readings on the ground, one can easily find the lcl by multiplying the difference by 125 m / °c. if the environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate, the air is absolutely stable — rising air will cool faster than the surrounding air and lose buoyancy. this often happens in the early morning, when the air near the ground has cooled overnight. cloud formation in stable air is unlikely. if the environmental lapse rate is between the moist and dry adiabatic lapse rates, the air is conditionally unstable — an unsaturated parcel of air does not have sufficient buoyancy to rise to the lcl or ccl, and it is stable to weak vertical displacements in either direction. if the parcel is saturated it is unstable and will rise to the lcl or ccl, and either be halted due to an inversion layer of convective inhibition, or if lifting continues, deep, moist convection ( dmc ) may ensue, as a parcel rises to the level of free convection ( lfc ), after which it enters the free convective layer ( fcl ) and usually rises to the equilibrium level ( el ). if the environmental lapse
air circulates vertically, the air takes on that characteristic gradient, called the adiabatic lapse rate. when the air contains little water, this lapse rate is known as the dry adiabatic lapse rate : the rate of temperature decrease is 9. 8 °c / km ( 5. 4 °f per 1, 000 ft ) ( 3. 0 °c / 1, 000 ft ). the reverse occurs for a sinking parcel of air. when the environmental lapse rate is less than the adiabatic lapse rate the atmosphere is stable and convection will not occur. : 63 the environmental lapse is forced towards the adiabatic lapse rate whenever air is convecting vertically. only the troposphere ( up to approximately 12 kilometres ( 39, 000 ft ) of altitude ) in the earth's atmosphere undergoes convection : the stratosphere does not generally convect. however, some exceptionally energetic convection processes, such as volcanic eruption columns and overshooting tops associated with severe supercell thunderstorms, may locally and temporarily inject convection through the tropopause and into the stratosphere. energy transport in the atmosphere is more complex than the interaction between radiation and dry convection. the water cycle ( including evaporation, condensation, precipitation ) transports latent heat and affects atmospheric humidity levels, significantly influencing the temperature profile, as described below. = = mathematics of the adiabatic lapse rate = = the following calculations derive the temperature as a function of altitude for a packet of air which is ascending or descending without exchanging heat with its environment. = = = dry adiabatic lapse rate = = = thermodynamics defines an adiabatic process as : p d v = − v d p γ { \ displaystyle p \, \ mathrm { d } v = - { \ frac { v \, \ mathrm { d } p } { \ gamma } } } the first law of thermodynamics can be written as m c v d t − v d p γ = 0 { \ displaystyle mc _ { \ text { v } } \, \ mathrm { d } t - { \ frac { v \, \ mathrm { d } p } { \ gamma } } = 0 } also, since the density ρ = m / v { \ displaystyle \ rho = m / v } and γ = c p / c v { \ displaystyle \ gamma = c _ { \ text { p }
Answer:
|
rise
| 0.3 |
You're more likely to shiver on a
0. seaside coast
1. high mountain peak
2. ocean island
3. sunny beach
beach " for the landward element of a flat coast at all. they describe the region between the mean low - water mark and the mean high - water mark of the tides as the intertidal zone or foreshore and that area above the average high - water mark as the supratidal zone or backshore that is only directly attacked by water during storms. because the backshore is often considerably flatter in appearance than the foreshore, which slopes clearly down towards the sea, it is also often referred to as a beach platform, which is why this part of the shore can be considered in practice to be the actual beach. the farthest point inland that is reached by storm surges is bounded by a belt of dunes, where floods can form a dune cliff. = = = berm = = = on the beach ( the beach platform ) there is very often a bank of sand or a gravel ridge parallel to the shoreline and a few tens of centimetres high, known as the berm. on its landward side there is often a shallow runnel. the berm is formed by material transported by the breaking waves that is thrown beyond the average level of the sea. the coarse - grained material that can no longer be washed away by the backwash remains behind. the location and size of the berm is subject to seasonal changes. for example, a winter berm that has been thrown up by storm surges in winter is usually much more prominent and higher up the beach than berms formed by summer high tides. a similar landform is a beach ridge. = = beach losses and gains = = beaches are usually heavily eroded during storm surges and the beach profile steepened, whereas normal wave action on flat coasts tends to raise the beach. not infrequently a whole series of parallel berms is formed, one behind the other. there is a consequent gradual increase in height with the result that, over time, the shoreline advances seawards. a striking example of land - forming system of berms is skagen odde on the northern tip of vendsyssel in the extreme north of denmark. this headland is still growing today as more berms are added. coastal defences against erosion are groynes, stone walls, or tetrapods of concrete, which act as breakwaters. the first plants to colonise the dunes include sea buckthorn or beach grass which prevent wind erosion. = = references = = = = literature = = klaus duphorn
, and relatively weak, and there are no strong tidal currents. maximum tidal range at simon's town is 2. 0 m at highest astronomical tide, with minimum range of about 0. 56 m at mean neap tides. when large waves break at macassar on a high tide the beach is known to be dangerous for swimming and beach erosion is increased. : 16 the circulation patterns of false bay are variable over time, with seasonal and longer term cycles. there are cold - water upwelling events associated with south - easterly winds in summer, and periodic intrusions of warm water eddies from the agulhas current of the south coast, both of which contribute to the biodiversity. four main surface circulation patterns have been observed in false bay. wind is the dominant forcing influence on surface circulation, with tidal and inertial currents of secondary importance, mainly when the winds are weak. gordon's bay is in the wind shadow of the hottentots - holland mountains for south easterly winds, and this causes a semi - permanent anticyclonic eddy and associated anticlockwise gyre, in the opposite direction to the usual cyclonic circulation of the main part of the bay. a clockwise rotation driven by the south - easterly winds mostly occurs during summer. this circulation is partly set up by west - north - westerly flow south of the bay splitting at cape point. the northerly component sets up flow towards the equator on the western shores. south - easterly winds cause this clockwise pattern to dominate. north - westerly winds cause an anti - clockwise circulation, with an eastward current flowing south of the bay and entering at cape hangklip. when there is no strong wind forcing, tidal forcing can occur on the incoming and outgoing tides. a fairly uniform northward flow occurs during flooding tides, and southward during ebbing tides, with bathymetry affecting the flow direction in shallow areas. these currents are most noticeable along the coastline and in the shallow northern parts of the bay between simon's town and gordon's bay. in the deeper areas of the mouth of the bay, tidal and inertial currents appear to contribute to the variability of the deeper part of the water column, along with the effects of wind forcing. wave energy focused by the various shoal areas outside and inside the bay is a driver of nearshore currents, particularly in the northern parts of the bay. in summer false bay is thermally stratified, with a vertical temperature variation of 5 to between the warmer surface water and
##al areas outside and inside the bay is a driver of nearshore currents, particularly in the northern parts of the bay. in summer false bay is thermally stratified, with a vertical temperature variation of 5 to between the warmer surface water and cooler depths below 50 m, while in winter the water column is at nearly constant temperature at all depths. the development of a thermocline is strongest around late december and peaks in late summer to early autumn. : 8 in summer the south easterly winds generate a zone of upwelling near cape hangklip, where surface water temperatures can be 6 to 7 °c colder than the surrounding areas, and bottom temperatures below 12 °c. : 10 in the summer to early autumn ( january – march ), cold water upwelling near cape hangklip causes a strong surface temperature gradient between the south - western and north - eastern corners of the bay. in winter the surface temperature tends to be much the same everywhere. in the northern sector surface temperature varies a bit more ( 13 to 22 °c ) than in the south ( 14 to 20 °c ) during the year. surface temperature variation from year to year is linked to the el nino – southern oscillation. during el nino years the south atlantic high is shifted, reducing the south - easterly winds, so upwelling and evaporative cooling are reduced and sea surface temperatures throughout the bay are warmer, while in la nina years there is more wind and upwelling and consequently lower temperatures. surface water heating during el nino increases vertical stratification. the relationship is not linear. water density dynamics are mostly temperature dependent, with only weak influences from salinity. the major influence on temperature distribution is wind driven upwelling and advection of cold water, which is most notable north - west of hangklip, and less marked near gordon's bay, due to strong south - easterly winds, with insolation as a secondary effect, mostly in the shallow waters of the northern and north - easterly regions. waves may have more influence on nearshore temperature than wind. upwelling outside the bay along the coast east of hangklip can also supply cold water to the bay = = = rivers and drainage = = = drainage into false bay can be considered from four watersheds : the east - flowing streams of the southern cape peninsula, the cape flats, the helderberg basin, and the south - westwards drainage of the hottentots - holland mountains of the overberg, extending south as far
90 m ( 295 + 1⁄2 ft ) in above - ground height and are ~ 800 m ( 2, 624 + 1⁄2 ft ) in basal ( underground ) height are likely to rapidly collapse under their own weight once the ice shelves propping them up are gone. the collapse then exposes the ice masses following them to the same instability, potentially resulting in a self - sustaining cycle of cliff collapse and rapid ice sheet retreat. this theory had been highly influential – in a 2020 survey of 106 experts, the 2016 paper which suggested 1 m ( 3 + 1⁄2 ft ) or more of sea level rise by 2100 from antarctica alone, was considered even more important than the 2014 ipcc fifth assessment report. even more rapid sea level rise was proposed in a 2016 study led by jim hansen, which hypothesized multi - meter sea level rise in 50 – 100 years as a plausible outcome of high emissions, but it remains a minority view amongst the scientific community. marine ice cliff instability had also been very controversial, since it was proposed as a modelling exercise, and the observational evidence from both the past and the present is very limited and ambiguous. so far, only one episode of seabed gouging by ice from the younger dryas period appears truly consistent with this theory, but it had lasted for an estimated 900 years, so it is unclear if it supports rapid sea level rise in the present. modelling which investigated the hypothesis after 2016 often suggested that the ice shelves in the real world may collapse too slowly to make this scenario relevant, or that ice melange – debris produced as the glacier breaks down – would quickly build up in front of the glacier and significantly slow or even outright stop the instability soon after it began. due to these uncertainties, some scientists – including the originators of the hypothesis, robert deconto and david pollard – have suggested that the best way to resolve the question would be to precisely determine sea level rise during the last interglacial. mici can be effectively ruled out if slr at the time was lower than 4 m ( 13 ft ), while it is very likely if the slr was greater than 6 m ( 19 + 1⁄2 ft ). as of 2023, the most recent analysis indicates that the last interglacial slr is unlikely to have been higher than 2. 7 m ( 9 ft ), as higher values in other research, such as 5. 7 m ( 18 + 1⁄2 ft ), appear inconsistent with the new paleoc
sea surface temperature ( or ocean surface temperature ) is the temperature of ocean water close to the surface. the exact meaning of surface varies in the literature and in practice. it is usually between 1 millimetre ( 0. 04 in ) and 20 metres ( 70 ft ) below the sea surface. sea surface temperatures greatly modify air masses in the earth's atmosphere within a short distance of the shore. the thermohaline circulation has a major impact on average sea surface temperature throughout most of the world's oceans. warm sea surface temperatures can develop and strengthen cyclones over the ocean. tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake. this is due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 metres ( 100 ft ) of the ocean. sea surface temperature changes during the day. this is like the air above it, but to a lesser degree. there is less variation in sea surface temperature on breezy days than on calm days. coastal sea surface temperatures can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling, which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses, but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer. onshore winds can cause a considerable warm - up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant, such as the northwest coast of south america. the values are important within numerical weather prediction as the sea surface temperature influences the atmosphere above, such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog. it is very likely that global mean sea surface temperature increased by 0. 88 °c between 1850 – 1900 and 2011 – 2020 due to global warming, with most of that warming ( 0. 60 °c ) occurring between 1980 and 2020. : 1228 the temperatures over land are rising faster than ocean temperatures. this is because the ocean absorbs about 90 % of excess heat generated by climate change. = = definitions = = sea surface temperature ( sst ), or ocean surface temperature, is the water temperature close to the ocean's surface. the exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used, but it is between 1 millimetre ( 0. 04 in ) and 20 metres ( 70 ft ) below the sea surface. for comparison, the sea surface skin temperature relates to the top 20 or so micrometres of the ocean's surface. the definition proposed by ipcc for sea surface temperature does not specify the number of metres but focuses more on measurement techniques : sea surface temperature is " the subsurface bulk temperature in the top few metres of the ocean, measured by ships, buoys and drifters. [.
Answer:
|
high mountain peak
| null |
You're more likely to shiver on a
0. seaside coast
1. high mountain peak
2. ocean island
3. sunny beach
beach " for the landward element of a flat coast at all. they describe the region between the mean low - water mark and the mean high - water mark of the tides as the intertidal zone or foreshore and that area above the average high - water mark as the supratidal zone or backshore that is only directly attacked by water during storms. because the backshore is often considerably flatter in appearance than the foreshore, which slopes clearly down towards the sea, it is also often referred to as a beach platform, which is why this part of the shore can be considered in practice to be the actual beach. the farthest point inland that is reached by storm surges is bounded by a belt of dunes, where floods can form a dune cliff. = = = berm = = = on the beach ( the beach platform ) there is very often a bank of sand or a gravel ridge parallel to the shoreline and a few tens of centimetres high, known as the berm. on its landward side there is often a shallow runnel. the berm is formed by material transported by the breaking waves that is thrown beyond the average level of the sea. the coarse - grained material that can no longer be washed away by the backwash remains behind. the location and size of the berm is subject to seasonal changes. for example, a winter berm that has been thrown up by storm surges in winter is usually much more prominent and higher up the beach than berms formed by summer high tides. a similar landform is a beach ridge. = = beach losses and gains = = beaches are usually heavily eroded during storm surges and the beach profile steepened, whereas normal wave action on flat coasts tends to raise the beach. not infrequently a whole series of parallel berms is formed, one behind the other. there is a consequent gradual increase in height with the result that, over time, the shoreline advances seawards. a striking example of land - forming system of berms is skagen odde on the northern tip of vendsyssel in the extreme north of denmark. this headland is still growing today as more berms are added. coastal defences against erosion are groynes, stone walls, or tetrapods of concrete, which act as breakwaters. the first plants to colonise the dunes include sea buckthorn or beach grass which prevent wind erosion. = = references = = = = literature = = klaus duphorn
, and relatively weak, and there are no strong tidal currents. maximum tidal range at simon's town is 2. 0 m at highest astronomical tide, with minimum range of about 0. 56 m at mean neap tides. when large waves break at macassar on a high tide the beach is known to be dangerous for swimming and beach erosion is increased. : 16 the circulation patterns of false bay are variable over time, with seasonal and longer term cycles. there are cold - water upwelling events associated with south - easterly winds in summer, and periodic intrusions of warm water eddies from the agulhas current of the south coast, both of which contribute to the biodiversity. four main surface circulation patterns have been observed in false bay. wind is the dominant forcing influence on surface circulation, with tidal and inertial currents of secondary importance, mainly when the winds are weak. gordon's bay is in the wind shadow of the hottentots - holland mountains for south easterly winds, and this causes a semi - permanent anticyclonic eddy and associated anticlockwise gyre, in the opposite direction to the usual cyclonic circulation of the main part of the bay. a clockwise rotation driven by the south - easterly winds mostly occurs during summer. this circulation is partly set up by west - north - westerly flow south of the bay splitting at cape point. the northerly component sets up flow towards the equator on the western shores. south - easterly winds cause this clockwise pattern to dominate. north - westerly winds cause an anti - clockwise circulation, with an eastward current flowing south of the bay and entering at cape hangklip. when there is no strong wind forcing, tidal forcing can occur on the incoming and outgoing tides. a fairly uniform northward flow occurs during flooding tides, and southward during ebbing tides, with bathymetry affecting the flow direction in shallow areas. these currents are most noticeable along the coastline and in the shallow northern parts of the bay between simon's town and gordon's bay. in the deeper areas of the mouth of the bay, tidal and inertial currents appear to contribute to the variability of the deeper part of the water column, along with the effects of wind forcing. wave energy focused by the various shoal areas outside and inside the bay is a driver of nearshore currents, particularly in the northern parts of the bay. in summer false bay is thermally stratified, with a vertical temperature variation of 5 to between the warmer surface water and
##al areas outside and inside the bay is a driver of nearshore currents, particularly in the northern parts of the bay. in summer false bay is thermally stratified, with a vertical temperature variation of 5 to between the warmer surface water and cooler depths below 50 m, while in winter the water column is at nearly constant temperature at all depths. the development of a thermocline is strongest around late december and peaks in late summer to early autumn. : 8 in summer the south easterly winds generate a zone of upwelling near cape hangklip, where surface water temperatures can be 6 to 7 °c colder than the surrounding areas, and bottom temperatures below 12 °c. : 10 in the summer to early autumn ( january – march ), cold water upwelling near cape hangklip causes a strong surface temperature gradient between the south - western and north - eastern corners of the bay. in winter the surface temperature tends to be much the same everywhere. in the northern sector surface temperature varies a bit more ( 13 to 22 °c ) than in the south ( 14 to 20 °c ) during the year. surface temperature variation from year to year is linked to the el nino – southern oscillation. during el nino years the south atlantic high is shifted, reducing the south - easterly winds, so upwelling and evaporative cooling are reduced and sea surface temperatures throughout the bay are warmer, while in la nina years there is more wind and upwelling and consequently lower temperatures. surface water heating during el nino increases vertical stratification. the relationship is not linear. water density dynamics are mostly temperature dependent, with only weak influences from salinity. the major influence on temperature distribution is wind driven upwelling and advection of cold water, which is most notable north - west of hangklip, and less marked near gordon's bay, due to strong south - easterly winds, with insolation as a secondary effect, mostly in the shallow waters of the northern and north - easterly regions. waves may have more influence on nearshore temperature than wind. upwelling outside the bay along the coast east of hangklip can also supply cold water to the bay = = = rivers and drainage = = = drainage into false bay can be considered from four watersheds : the east - flowing streams of the southern cape peninsula, the cape flats, the helderberg basin, and the south - westwards drainage of the hottentots - holland mountains of the overberg, extending south as far
90 m ( 295 + 1⁄2 ft ) in above - ground height and are ~ 800 m ( 2, 624 + 1⁄2 ft ) in basal ( underground ) height are likely to rapidly collapse under their own weight once the ice shelves propping them up are gone. the collapse then exposes the ice masses following them to the same instability, potentially resulting in a self - sustaining cycle of cliff collapse and rapid ice sheet retreat. this theory had been highly influential – in a 2020 survey of 106 experts, the 2016 paper which suggested 1 m ( 3 + 1⁄2 ft ) or more of sea level rise by 2100 from antarctica alone, was considered even more important than the 2014 ipcc fifth assessment report. even more rapid sea level rise was proposed in a 2016 study led by jim hansen, which hypothesized multi - meter sea level rise in 50 – 100 years as a plausible outcome of high emissions, but it remains a minority view amongst the scientific community. marine ice cliff instability had also been very controversial, since it was proposed as a modelling exercise, and the observational evidence from both the past and the present is very limited and ambiguous. so far, only one episode of seabed gouging by ice from the younger dryas period appears truly consistent with this theory, but it had lasted for an estimated 900 years, so it is unclear if it supports rapid sea level rise in the present. modelling which investigated the hypothesis after 2016 often suggested that the ice shelves in the real world may collapse too slowly to make this scenario relevant, or that ice melange – debris produced as the glacier breaks down – would quickly build up in front of the glacier and significantly slow or even outright stop the instability soon after it began. due to these uncertainties, some scientists – including the originators of the hypothesis, robert deconto and david pollard – have suggested that the best way to resolve the question would be to precisely determine sea level rise during the last interglacial. mici can be effectively ruled out if slr at the time was lower than 4 m ( 13 ft ), while it is very likely if the slr was greater than 6 m ( 19 + 1⁄2 ft ). as of 2023, the most recent analysis indicates that the last interglacial slr is unlikely to have been higher than 2. 7 m ( 9 ft ), as higher values in other research, such as 5. 7 m ( 18 + 1⁄2 ft ), appear inconsistent with the new paleoc
sea surface temperature ( or ocean surface temperature ) is the temperature of ocean water close to the surface. the exact meaning of surface varies in the literature and in practice. it is usually between 1 millimetre ( 0. 04 in ) and 20 metres ( 70 ft ) below the sea surface. sea surface temperatures greatly modify air masses in the earth's atmosphere within a short distance of the shore. the thermohaline circulation has a major impact on average sea surface temperature throughout most of the world's oceans. warm sea surface temperatures can develop and strengthen cyclones over the ocean. tropical cyclones can also cause a cool wake. this is due to turbulent mixing of the upper 30 metres ( 100 ft ) of the ocean. sea surface temperature changes during the day. this is like the air above it, but to a lesser degree. there is less variation in sea surface temperature on breezy days than on calm days. coastal sea surface temperatures can cause offshore winds to generate upwelling, which can significantly cool or warm nearby landmasses, but shallower waters over a continental shelf are often warmer. onshore winds can cause a considerable warm - up even in areas where upwelling is fairly constant, such as the northwest coast of south america. the values are important within numerical weather prediction as the sea surface temperature influences the atmosphere above, such as in the formation of sea breezes and sea fog. it is very likely that global mean sea surface temperature increased by 0. 88 °c between 1850 – 1900 and 2011 – 2020 due to global warming, with most of that warming ( 0. 60 °c ) occurring between 1980 and 2020. : 1228 the temperatures over land are rising faster than ocean temperatures. this is because the ocean absorbs about 90 % of excess heat generated by climate change. = = definitions = = sea surface temperature ( sst ), or ocean surface temperature, is the water temperature close to the ocean's surface. the exact meaning of surface varies according to the measurement method used, but it is between 1 millimetre ( 0. 04 in ) and 20 metres ( 70 ft ) below the sea surface. for comparison, the sea surface skin temperature relates to the top 20 or so micrometres of the ocean's surface. the definition proposed by ipcc for sea surface temperature does not specify the number of metres but focuses more on measurement techniques : sea surface temperature is " the subsurface bulk temperature in the top few metres of the ocean, measured by ships, buoys and drifters. [.
Answer:
|
seaside coast
| 0.3 |
Doing this in national parks and many other wooded areas is illegal because it harms the environment
0. existing
1. talking
2. wasting your time
3. ditching your junk
##cilitation of poaching of flora and fauna = = = roads that run through forests that house edible animals may encourage or facilitate poaching. especially in poor areas, the construction of roads has promoted not only poaching for personal consumption but also for sale ( for consumption or as a pet ) to third parties. similarly, the construction of roads in forested areas has also promoted illegal logging as it becomes easier for illegal loggers to transport the wood. = = mitigation efforts = = = = = awareness = = = awareness needs to be spread among drivers particularly those driving on forest road on maintaining speed limits and being vigilant. environment conservation group had initiated an awareness drive named path an acronym for provide animals safe transit on highways covering more than 17, 000 km in india to highlighting the importance of safe driving on forest roads. = = = road permeability = = = wildlife crossings that allow animals to safely cross human - made barriers such as roads, are intended not only to reduce roadkill, but ideally to provide connectivity of habitat areas, combating habitat fragmentation. wildlife crossings may include : underpass tunnels, viaducts, and overpasses. = = = habitat construction and planting = = = in washington county, north carolina, along highway 64, a study was conducted to analyze the effects of wildlife underpasses on the local wildlife. three wildlife underpasses were built with fencing around the highway in the study zones. the study showed that deer used the underpasses the most and made up 93 % of all crossings. mortality rates were calculated and showed that the numbers of deaths were lower near underpasses. this cannot be said about all animals. some have smaller home ranges so they were not inclined to travel to underpasses to cross the road. underpass would most likely benefit larger mammals such as bears, deer, and cougars. underpasses were seen to lower mortality rates and increase local species ability to adapt to a habitat along a major road. structural elements such as fencing or walls along road bridges can encourage birds and bats to fly higher over roads or underneath bridges, which lowers the chances of vehicle collisions. some animals, such as birds, are more vulnerable to disturbances during certain periods of the year, such as the breeding season. = = = recycling = = = materials removed from a road can be reused in construction within the same project or in other locations. road construction can also use waste materials from other industries. asphalt pavement is one of the most recycled materials in the united states. it is estimated
and legal frameworks. the only realistic method of conserving forests is to apply and practice sustainable forest management to risk further loss. there is a high industrial demand for wood, pulp, paper, and other resources which the forest can provide with, thus businesses which will want more access to the cutting of forests to gain those resources. the rainforest alliance has efficiently been able to put into place an approach to sustainable forest management, and they established this in the late 1980s. their conservation was deemed successful as it has saved over nearly half a billion acres of land around the world. a few approaches and measures which can be taken in order to conserve forests are methods by which erosion can be minimized, waste is properly disposed, conserve native tree species to maintain genetic diversity, and setting aside forestland ( provides habitat for critical wildlife species ). additionally, forest fires can also occur frequently and measures can also be taken to further prevent forest fires from occurring. for example, in guatemala ’ s culturally and ecologically significant peten region, researchers were able to find over a 20 - year period, actively managed fsc - certified forests experienced substantially lower rates of deforestation than nearby protected areas, and forest fires only affected 0. 1 percent of certified land area, compared to 10. 4 percent of protected areas. however, it must be duly noted that short term decisions regarding forest sector employment and harvest practices can have long - term effects on biodiversity. planted forests become increasingly important as they supply approximately a quarter of global industrial roundwood production and are predicted to account for 50 % of global output within two decades ( brown, 1998 ; jaakko poyry, 1999 ). although there have been many difficulties, the implementation of forest certification has been quite prominent in being able to raise effective awareness and disseminating knowledge on a holistic concept, embracing economic, environmental and social issues, worldwide. while also providing a tool for a range of other applications than assessment of sustainability, such as e. g. verifying carbon sinks. = = approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation = = two approaches are typically used to understand habitat fragmentation and its ecological impacts. = = = species - oriented approach = = = the species - oriented approach focuses specifically on individual species and how they each respond to their environment and habitat changes with in it. this approach can be limited because it does only focus on individual species and does not allow for a broad view of the impacts of habitat fragmentation across species. = = = = pattern - oriented approach = = = = the pattern - oriented approach is based on
( 1. 5 m ) from walls ; this is a bare dirt no - grow zone, optional to use mowed green lawn grass and non - combustible mulch with sparse deciduous plants. keep trees from growing within 30 feet ( 9. 1 m ) of the structure. keep vegetation thinned within 100 feet ( 30 m ) of the structure. guidelines for outdoor maintenance : prune tree limbs back 10 feet ( 3. 0 m ) from roofs. separate tree branches from power lines. clear fallen debris from roof, gutters, window wells, and under decks. prune tree branches 6 feet ( 1. 8 m ) up from the ground. burn ground of leaf litter and needles. remove and dispose of dead trees and shrubs. guidelines for flammables : keep clear of flammables 30 feet ( 9. 1 m ) around primary and auxiliary structures including firewood piles. keep clear 10 feet ( 3. 0 m ) around propane tanks or fuel oil tanks. = = = = challenges to risk management = = = = there are three challenges. wildfires are an ecological process that naturally contribute to the development of ecosystems and many wildlands are historically predisposed to periodic fire ; eradication of fires in wui regions is not feasible. coordination of wildfire management efforts is difficult since wildfires are capable of spreading far distances ; communities vary in wildfire risk and preparedness. actual wildfire risk and sociopolitical expectations of wildland fire management services are mismatched ; real dangers are hidden by overconfidence. an example of the fire - adapted communities performance was demonstrated in november 2018 when the camp fire passed through the community of concow in butte county, california. the concow community was a fire - adapted community. this late season fire provided a stress test of the fire - adapted communities theory. the concow community was destroyed. the wildfire continued through the community without demonstrating the expected slowing of the flame front. if there was a slowing it was less than anticipated though any slowing contributed to allowing residents to evacuate ahead of the flame front. the wildfire continued through wildlands between the community of concow and the town of paradise, california. the wildfire then destroyed the town of paradise which was in the process of developing into a fire - adapted community. the wildfire ignition is suspected to have originated with unhardened electrical transmission line infrastructure which had recently been redesigned though had not been reconstructed and the new design did not include hardening against ignition where it passed through
idea that promotes the concept of leaving the forest without using this area for its ecosystem goods and services. both of these methods to mitigate deforestation are being used throughout the world. the u. s. forest service predicts that urban and developing terrain in the u. s. will expand by 41 percent in 2060. these conditions cause displacement for the wildlife and limited resources for the environment to maintain a sustainable balance. = = see also = = = = references = =
would protect livestock in a way that didn ’ t harm predators. however, this approach has been largely unsuccessful at bolstering the native wolf population because of continued shooting of wolves, both illegally and permitted by the usfws. = = = = new york = = = = fresh kills landfill, located on staten island, was once home to 150 million tons of trash. however, plans created between 2001 and 2006 reimagined it as a 2, 200 acre park, the largest park built in the state of new york in over a century. construction began in 2008 to restore the area back to its original wetland ecosystem, complete with open waterways, sweet - gum swamps, prairies, and meadows of wildflowers. part of initial plans involved removing invasive reed species and replacing them native marsh grasses. the project is slated to take up to thirty years to complete, with the end goal of combining ecological restoration with recreational activities. while planning for fresh kills park, new york state initiated an even more ambitious program focused on protecting the broader ecosystem around staten island by restoring the hudson river. in 2005, the organizations involved came up with a few goals for the project : re - invigorating the river ’ s fisheries, improving water quality by removing contaminants, and preserving shoreline and forested habitats upriver. when the project is complete, it will affect fifty thousand acres containing six different habitat types. = = = = mexico = = = = in the mexican state of sonora, the northern jaguar project bought 45, 000 acres of land by 2007 devoted to protecting the northernmost breeding population of jaguars. the group also encouraged local people to help them monitor the population by offering a $ 500 reward for each photograph of a living cat taken by ranch owners who promised not to shoot jaguars on their property. in its first year, the program paid out $ 6, 500 for photos of jaguars, mountain lions, and ocelots. = = = central america = = = = = = = paseo pantera / mesoamerican biological corridor = = = = in the early 1990s, the wildlife conservation society proposed a plan for a major corridor project that would span from southern mexico down into panama, connecting existing reserves, parks, and undisturbed forests of all seven central american countries and the lower five mexican states. they called the plan “ paseo pantera, ” or “ the path of the panther, ” named so because of the movement of mountain lions throughout the area. the plan attracted a lot of controversy : indigenous peoples were concerned that
Answer:
|
ditching your junk
| null |
Doing this in national parks and many other wooded areas is illegal because it harms the environment
0. existing
1. talking
2. wasting your time
3. ditching your junk
##cilitation of poaching of flora and fauna = = = roads that run through forests that house edible animals may encourage or facilitate poaching. especially in poor areas, the construction of roads has promoted not only poaching for personal consumption but also for sale ( for consumption or as a pet ) to third parties. similarly, the construction of roads in forested areas has also promoted illegal logging as it becomes easier for illegal loggers to transport the wood. = = mitigation efforts = = = = = awareness = = = awareness needs to be spread among drivers particularly those driving on forest road on maintaining speed limits and being vigilant. environment conservation group had initiated an awareness drive named path an acronym for provide animals safe transit on highways covering more than 17, 000 km in india to highlighting the importance of safe driving on forest roads. = = = road permeability = = = wildlife crossings that allow animals to safely cross human - made barriers such as roads, are intended not only to reduce roadkill, but ideally to provide connectivity of habitat areas, combating habitat fragmentation. wildlife crossings may include : underpass tunnels, viaducts, and overpasses. = = = habitat construction and planting = = = in washington county, north carolina, along highway 64, a study was conducted to analyze the effects of wildlife underpasses on the local wildlife. three wildlife underpasses were built with fencing around the highway in the study zones. the study showed that deer used the underpasses the most and made up 93 % of all crossings. mortality rates were calculated and showed that the numbers of deaths were lower near underpasses. this cannot be said about all animals. some have smaller home ranges so they were not inclined to travel to underpasses to cross the road. underpass would most likely benefit larger mammals such as bears, deer, and cougars. underpasses were seen to lower mortality rates and increase local species ability to adapt to a habitat along a major road. structural elements such as fencing or walls along road bridges can encourage birds and bats to fly higher over roads or underneath bridges, which lowers the chances of vehicle collisions. some animals, such as birds, are more vulnerable to disturbances during certain periods of the year, such as the breeding season. = = = recycling = = = materials removed from a road can be reused in construction within the same project or in other locations. road construction can also use waste materials from other industries. asphalt pavement is one of the most recycled materials in the united states. it is estimated
and legal frameworks. the only realistic method of conserving forests is to apply and practice sustainable forest management to risk further loss. there is a high industrial demand for wood, pulp, paper, and other resources which the forest can provide with, thus businesses which will want more access to the cutting of forests to gain those resources. the rainforest alliance has efficiently been able to put into place an approach to sustainable forest management, and they established this in the late 1980s. their conservation was deemed successful as it has saved over nearly half a billion acres of land around the world. a few approaches and measures which can be taken in order to conserve forests are methods by which erosion can be minimized, waste is properly disposed, conserve native tree species to maintain genetic diversity, and setting aside forestland ( provides habitat for critical wildlife species ). additionally, forest fires can also occur frequently and measures can also be taken to further prevent forest fires from occurring. for example, in guatemala ’ s culturally and ecologically significant peten region, researchers were able to find over a 20 - year period, actively managed fsc - certified forests experienced substantially lower rates of deforestation than nearby protected areas, and forest fires only affected 0. 1 percent of certified land area, compared to 10. 4 percent of protected areas. however, it must be duly noted that short term decisions regarding forest sector employment and harvest practices can have long - term effects on biodiversity. planted forests become increasingly important as they supply approximately a quarter of global industrial roundwood production and are predicted to account for 50 % of global output within two decades ( brown, 1998 ; jaakko poyry, 1999 ). although there have been many difficulties, the implementation of forest certification has been quite prominent in being able to raise effective awareness and disseminating knowledge on a holistic concept, embracing economic, environmental and social issues, worldwide. while also providing a tool for a range of other applications than assessment of sustainability, such as e. g. verifying carbon sinks. = = approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation = = two approaches are typically used to understand habitat fragmentation and its ecological impacts. = = = species - oriented approach = = = the species - oriented approach focuses specifically on individual species and how they each respond to their environment and habitat changes with in it. this approach can be limited because it does only focus on individual species and does not allow for a broad view of the impacts of habitat fragmentation across species. = = = = pattern - oriented approach = = = = the pattern - oriented approach is based on
( 1. 5 m ) from walls ; this is a bare dirt no - grow zone, optional to use mowed green lawn grass and non - combustible mulch with sparse deciduous plants. keep trees from growing within 30 feet ( 9. 1 m ) of the structure. keep vegetation thinned within 100 feet ( 30 m ) of the structure. guidelines for outdoor maintenance : prune tree limbs back 10 feet ( 3. 0 m ) from roofs. separate tree branches from power lines. clear fallen debris from roof, gutters, window wells, and under decks. prune tree branches 6 feet ( 1. 8 m ) up from the ground. burn ground of leaf litter and needles. remove and dispose of dead trees and shrubs. guidelines for flammables : keep clear of flammables 30 feet ( 9. 1 m ) around primary and auxiliary structures including firewood piles. keep clear 10 feet ( 3. 0 m ) around propane tanks or fuel oil tanks. = = = = challenges to risk management = = = = there are three challenges. wildfires are an ecological process that naturally contribute to the development of ecosystems and many wildlands are historically predisposed to periodic fire ; eradication of fires in wui regions is not feasible. coordination of wildfire management efforts is difficult since wildfires are capable of spreading far distances ; communities vary in wildfire risk and preparedness. actual wildfire risk and sociopolitical expectations of wildland fire management services are mismatched ; real dangers are hidden by overconfidence. an example of the fire - adapted communities performance was demonstrated in november 2018 when the camp fire passed through the community of concow in butte county, california. the concow community was a fire - adapted community. this late season fire provided a stress test of the fire - adapted communities theory. the concow community was destroyed. the wildfire continued through the community without demonstrating the expected slowing of the flame front. if there was a slowing it was less than anticipated though any slowing contributed to allowing residents to evacuate ahead of the flame front. the wildfire continued through wildlands between the community of concow and the town of paradise, california. the wildfire then destroyed the town of paradise which was in the process of developing into a fire - adapted community. the wildfire ignition is suspected to have originated with unhardened electrical transmission line infrastructure which had recently been redesigned though had not been reconstructed and the new design did not include hardening against ignition where it passed through
idea that promotes the concept of leaving the forest without using this area for its ecosystem goods and services. both of these methods to mitigate deforestation are being used throughout the world. the u. s. forest service predicts that urban and developing terrain in the u. s. will expand by 41 percent in 2060. these conditions cause displacement for the wildlife and limited resources for the environment to maintain a sustainable balance. = = see also = = = = references = =
would protect livestock in a way that didn ’ t harm predators. however, this approach has been largely unsuccessful at bolstering the native wolf population because of continued shooting of wolves, both illegally and permitted by the usfws. = = = = new york = = = = fresh kills landfill, located on staten island, was once home to 150 million tons of trash. however, plans created between 2001 and 2006 reimagined it as a 2, 200 acre park, the largest park built in the state of new york in over a century. construction began in 2008 to restore the area back to its original wetland ecosystem, complete with open waterways, sweet - gum swamps, prairies, and meadows of wildflowers. part of initial plans involved removing invasive reed species and replacing them native marsh grasses. the project is slated to take up to thirty years to complete, with the end goal of combining ecological restoration with recreational activities. while planning for fresh kills park, new york state initiated an even more ambitious program focused on protecting the broader ecosystem around staten island by restoring the hudson river. in 2005, the organizations involved came up with a few goals for the project : re - invigorating the river ’ s fisheries, improving water quality by removing contaminants, and preserving shoreline and forested habitats upriver. when the project is complete, it will affect fifty thousand acres containing six different habitat types. = = = = mexico = = = = in the mexican state of sonora, the northern jaguar project bought 45, 000 acres of land by 2007 devoted to protecting the northernmost breeding population of jaguars. the group also encouraged local people to help them monitor the population by offering a $ 500 reward for each photograph of a living cat taken by ranch owners who promised not to shoot jaguars on their property. in its first year, the program paid out $ 6, 500 for photos of jaguars, mountain lions, and ocelots. = = = central america = = = = = = = paseo pantera / mesoamerican biological corridor = = = = in the early 1990s, the wildlife conservation society proposed a plan for a major corridor project that would span from southern mexico down into panama, connecting existing reserves, parks, and undisturbed forests of all seven central american countries and the lower five mexican states. they called the plan “ paseo pantera, ” or “ the path of the panther, ” named so because of the movement of mountain lions throughout the area. the plan attracted a lot of controversy : indigenous peoples were concerned that
Answer:
|
wasting your time
| 0.3 |
If someone has a bag of old sandwich wrappers, they way that they can do damage to the area they live in is to
0. recycle them
1. re-purpose them
2. discard them
3. reuse them
##bbalin ( " garbage men ", in literary arabic ) in egypt, cartoneros in argentina, chifonye in haiti, kacharawala in delhi, tokai in bangladesh, kabaris in karachi, pepenadores in mexico, basuriegos in colombia, catadores in brazil, boujouman in senegal, pemulung in indonesia... : these names often refer to the main materials ( cardboard, rags... ) that are recovered. = = types of waste collected and their uses = = the waste collected is globally of three main types : for short term subsistence, for possible refurbishment and resale, and finally for " diverted " use of a creative or scientific nature. waste with immediate reuse : this is generally edible waste, such as leftover food, products that have been thrown away because they are past their expiration date but still good ; these products are intended to be consumed soon afterwards. they are found around markets, or in supermarkets and restaurants in developed countries. waste for resale : many discarded items can be given a market value at low cost, thus providing a means of livelihood, which is essential in places where poverty is widespread and unemployment high. this type of use creates work in its own right, and remains the dominant form of recovery in developing countries. waste for " professional " use : this case remains extremely marginal compared to the other two ; it concerns in particular the collection of waste made " for the thrill ", for an artistic creation, for a sociological study or for a survey. in addition to these three uses, waste can have other uses. in flood - prone areas, waste can be used as fill if no other material is immediately available : for example, in the areas of cap - haitien built on mangrove swamps, 50 % of the soil is made up of domestic waste. the waste is also used to form makeshift dikes against high tides and waves. illustration of the different possible uses of the recovered waste = = activities = = while collection is the most visible activity ( as it is often the most shocking image ), it is not the only activity involved in recovery. these activities include collection ( at source, on the streets and in landfills ), recovery and / or transformation, buy - back and resale. at this point, what was waste finds its way back into the formal economy or industry as recycled material. = = = activity description = = = collection can take place at different points. upstream collectors may buy back waste from
on the atmosphere if released. there have been reports of refrigerators exploding if the refrigerant leaks isobutane in the presence of a spark. if the coolant leaks into the refrigerator, at times when the door is not being opened ( such as overnight ) the concentration of coolant in the air within the refrigerator can build up to form an explosive mixture that can be ignited either by a spark from the thermostat or when the light comes on as the door is opened, resulting in documented cases of serious property damage and injury or even death from the resulting explosion. disposal of discarded refrigerators is regulated, often mandating the removal of doors for safety reasons. children have been asphyxiated while playing with discarded refrigerators, particularly older models with latching doors. since the 1950s regulations in many places have mandated using refrigerator doors that can be pushed opened from inside. modern units use a magnetic door gasket that holds the door sealed but allows it to be pushed open from the inside. this gasket was invented, developed and manufactured by max baermann ( 1903 – 1984 ) of bergisch gladbach / germany. regarding total life - cycle costs, many governments offer incentives to encourage recycling of old refrigerators. one example is the phoenix refrigerator program launched in australia. this government incentive picked up old refrigerators, paying their owners for " donating " the refrigerator. the refrigerator was then refurbished, with new door seals, a thorough cleaning, and the removal of items such as the cover that is strapped to the back of many older units. the resulting refrigerators, now over 10 % more efficient, were then given to low - income families. the united states also has a program for collecting and replacing older, less - efficient refrigerators and other white goods. these programs seek to replace large appliances that are old and inefficient or faulty by newer, more energy - efficient appliances, to reduce the cost imposed on lower - income families, and reduce pollution caused by the older appliances. = = gallery = = = = see also = = = = references = = = = further reading = = rees, jonathan. refrigeration nation : a history of ice, appliances, and enterprise in america ( johns hopkins university press ; 2013 ) 256 pages refrigerators and food preservation in foreign countries. united states bureau of statistics, department of state. 1890. = = external links = = u. s. patent 1, 126, 605 refrigerating apparatus u. s. patent 1, 222
a short time, but where actually only a small number is in use at the same time. with object resurrection, a pooling technique would reduce the unnecessary overhead of creation and destruction. here, a pool manager would get onto its object stack information in the form of a reference to the object, if it is currently to be destructed. the pool manager will keep the object for reuse later. = = see also = = object lifetime = = notes = = = = references = =
a short time, but where actually only a small number is in use at the same time. with object resurrection, a pooling technique would reduce the unnecessary overhead of creation and destruction. here, a pool manager would get onto its object stack information in the form of a reference to the object, if it is currently to be destructed. the pool manager will keep the object for reuse later. = = see also = = object lifetime = = notes = = = = references = =
and lead, which have a high market value. " scavenging " is still very much frowned upon by the rest of the population, including poor people who have not reached this extreme. the act itself is not usually illegal, except when the bin is in a private place, but the stigma is significant and is associated with a loss of dignity, often linked to homelessness. = = = other uses = = = some people scavenge not out of economic necessity, but for the thrill of fishing or to stimulate and fulfil their creative fibre : repairing used objects, recovering raw materials for their art, etc. garbage collection can become a conscious choice as part of an alternative lifestyle. for example, freeganism and deketarianism are practised by people who collect food from the bins of department stores and restaurants, primarily for the ethical purpose of combating waste. others simply find it more convenient to collect an item from downstairs rather than going to the shop. garbage collection is also the preferred tool of waste sociologists, who study the sociology and waste of modern life. finally, rubbish bins are a privileged place for collecting information, used, for example, for espionage purposes. even if they are not really waste, we should also mention the frequent case of recovery by the managers of sales depots and second - hand goods dealers, as well as the " ressourceries - recycleries " in france ( as well as in belgium and canada under other names ), which collect and recover waste in order to resell reused objects at a modest price and which raise awareness among their public of eco - citizen gestures to reduce waste ( choice of consumption, maintenance of objects, second - life products, sorting, etc. ), hence the 3rs concept ( reduce, reuse and recycle waste ). ), hence the concept of the 3rs ( reduce, reuse and recycle waste ). = = appendices = = = = = bibliography = = = there is not a great deal of background material on waste pickers, and there are currently no global statistics on the subject. the sources are mainly reports from international institutions such as the international labour organisation and the united nations children's fund ( unicef ), although they have a greater interest in child labour in this context : for example, the ilo's 2004 thematic evaluation conducted jointly with the dutch waste institute is arguably the largest compilation of research to date. other notable sources come from research institutes such as the uk's wedc
Answer:
|
discard them
| null |
If someone has a bag of old sandwich wrappers, they way that they can do damage to the area they live in is to
0. recycle them
1. re-purpose them
2. discard them
3. reuse them
##bbalin ( " garbage men ", in literary arabic ) in egypt, cartoneros in argentina, chifonye in haiti, kacharawala in delhi, tokai in bangladesh, kabaris in karachi, pepenadores in mexico, basuriegos in colombia, catadores in brazil, boujouman in senegal, pemulung in indonesia... : these names often refer to the main materials ( cardboard, rags... ) that are recovered. = = types of waste collected and their uses = = the waste collected is globally of three main types : for short term subsistence, for possible refurbishment and resale, and finally for " diverted " use of a creative or scientific nature. waste with immediate reuse : this is generally edible waste, such as leftover food, products that have been thrown away because they are past their expiration date but still good ; these products are intended to be consumed soon afterwards. they are found around markets, or in supermarkets and restaurants in developed countries. waste for resale : many discarded items can be given a market value at low cost, thus providing a means of livelihood, which is essential in places where poverty is widespread and unemployment high. this type of use creates work in its own right, and remains the dominant form of recovery in developing countries. waste for " professional " use : this case remains extremely marginal compared to the other two ; it concerns in particular the collection of waste made " for the thrill ", for an artistic creation, for a sociological study or for a survey. in addition to these three uses, waste can have other uses. in flood - prone areas, waste can be used as fill if no other material is immediately available : for example, in the areas of cap - haitien built on mangrove swamps, 50 % of the soil is made up of domestic waste. the waste is also used to form makeshift dikes against high tides and waves. illustration of the different possible uses of the recovered waste = = activities = = while collection is the most visible activity ( as it is often the most shocking image ), it is not the only activity involved in recovery. these activities include collection ( at source, on the streets and in landfills ), recovery and / or transformation, buy - back and resale. at this point, what was waste finds its way back into the formal economy or industry as recycled material. = = = activity description = = = collection can take place at different points. upstream collectors may buy back waste from
on the atmosphere if released. there have been reports of refrigerators exploding if the refrigerant leaks isobutane in the presence of a spark. if the coolant leaks into the refrigerator, at times when the door is not being opened ( such as overnight ) the concentration of coolant in the air within the refrigerator can build up to form an explosive mixture that can be ignited either by a spark from the thermostat or when the light comes on as the door is opened, resulting in documented cases of serious property damage and injury or even death from the resulting explosion. disposal of discarded refrigerators is regulated, often mandating the removal of doors for safety reasons. children have been asphyxiated while playing with discarded refrigerators, particularly older models with latching doors. since the 1950s regulations in many places have mandated using refrigerator doors that can be pushed opened from inside. modern units use a magnetic door gasket that holds the door sealed but allows it to be pushed open from the inside. this gasket was invented, developed and manufactured by max baermann ( 1903 – 1984 ) of bergisch gladbach / germany. regarding total life - cycle costs, many governments offer incentives to encourage recycling of old refrigerators. one example is the phoenix refrigerator program launched in australia. this government incentive picked up old refrigerators, paying their owners for " donating " the refrigerator. the refrigerator was then refurbished, with new door seals, a thorough cleaning, and the removal of items such as the cover that is strapped to the back of many older units. the resulting refrigerators, now over 10 % more efficient, were then given to low - income families. the united states also has a program for collecting and replacing older, less - efficient refrigerators and other white goods. these programs seek to replace large appliances that are old and inefficient or faulty by newer, more energy - efficient appliances, to reduce the cost imposed on lower - income families, and reduce pollution caused by the older appliances. = = gallery = = = = see also = = = = references = = = = further reading = = rees, jonathan. refrigeration nation : a history of ice, appliances, and enterprise in america ( johns hopkins university press ; 2013 ) 256 pages refrigerators and food preservation in foreign countries. united states bureau of statistics, department of state. 1890. = = external links = = u. s. patent 1, 126, 605 refrigerating apparatus u. s. patent 1, 222
a short time, but where actually only a small number is in use at the same time. with object resurrection, a pooling technique would reduce the unnecessary overhead of creation and destruction. here, a pool manager would get onto its object stack information in the form of a reference to the object, if it is currently to be destructed. the pool manager will keep the object for reuse later. = = see also = = object lifetime = = notes = = = = references = =
a short time, but where actually only a small number is in use at the same time. with object resurrection, a pooling technique would reduce the unnecessary overhead of creation and destruction. here, a pool manager would get onto its object stack information in the form of a reference to the object, if it is currently to be destructed. the pool manager will keep the object for reuse later. = = see also = = object lifetime = = notes = = = = references = =
and lead, which have a high market value. " scavenging " is still very much frowned upon by the rest of the population, including poor people who have not reached this extreme. the act itself is not usually illegal, except when the bin is in a private place, but the stigma is significant and is associated with a loss of dignity, often linked to homelessness. = = = other uses = = = some people scavenge not out of economic necessity, but for the thrill of fishing or to stimulate and fulfil their creative fibre : repairing used objects, recovering raw materials for their art, etc. garbage collection can become a conscious choice as part of an alternative lifestyle. for example, freeganism and deketarianism are practised by people who collect food from the bins of department stores and restaurants, primarily for the ethical purpose of combating waste. others simply find it more convenient to collect an item from downstairs rather than going to the shop. garbage collection is also the preferred tool of waste sociologists, who study the sociology and waste of modern life. finally, rubbish bins are a privileged place for collecting information, used, for example, for espionage purposes. even if they are not really waste, we should also mention the frequent case of recovery by the managers of sales depots and second - hand goods dealers, as well as the " ressourceries - recycleries " in france ( as well as in belgium and canada under other names ), which collect and recover waste in order to resell reused objects at a modest price and which raise awareness among their public of eco - citizen gestures to reduce waste ( choice of consumption, maintenance of objects, second - life products, sorting, etc. ), hence the 3rs concept ( reduce, reuse and recycle waste ). ), hence the concept of the 3rs ( reduce, reuse and recycle waste ). = = appendices = = = = = bibliography = = = there is not a great deal of background material on waste pickers, and there are currently no global statistics on the subject. the sources are mainly reports from international institutions such as the international labour organisation and the united nations children's fund ( unicef ), although they have a greater interest in child labour in this context : for example, the ilo's 2004 thematic evaluation conducted jointly with the dutch waste institute is arguably the largest compilation of research to date. other notable sources come from research institutes such as the uk's wedc
Answer:
|
re-purpose them
| 0.3 |
Which of these could contribute to a species' demise?
0. An abundance of vegetation
1. A good supply of prey
2. Adequate shelter and companionship
3. A long period without rainfall
survive. for example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling. diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. = = = predation, competition, and disease = = = in the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to : extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, interspecific competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions ( particularly sudden changes ) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as a new mega - predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally ( e. g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food ) and sometimes accidentally ( e. g. rats escaping from boats ). in most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them ; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. according to the " overkill hypothesis ", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as australia ( 40, 000 years before present ), north and south america ( 12, 000 years before present ), madagascar, hawaii ( ad 300 – 1000 ), and new zealand ( ad 1300 – 1500 ), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques. = = = coextinction = = = coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another ; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. coextinction can also occur when a species loses
in biology, overabundant species refers to an excessive number of individuals and occurs when the normal population density has been exceeded. increase in animal populations is influenced by a variety of factors, some of which include habitat destruction or augmentation by human activity, the introduction of invasive species and the reintroduction of threatened species to protected reserves. population overabundance can have a negative impact on the environment, and in some cases on the public as well. there are various methods through which populations can be controlled such as hunting, contraception, chemical controls, disease and genetic modification. overabundant species is an important area of research as it can potentially impact the biodiversity of ecosystems. most research studies have examined negative impacts of overabundant species, whereas very few have documented or performed an in - depth examination on positive impacts. as a result, this article focuses on the negative impact of overabundant species. = = definitions = = when referring to animals as “ overabundant ”, various definitions apply. the following classes explore the different associations with overabundance : the inconvenience of animals in a certain region or area that threatens human livelihood, for example the tropics are considered to contain an overabundant population of the anopheles mosquito which carries the malaria parasite. the population density of a preferred species has been reduced by another species population which is then considered as overabundant, for example predator populations of lions and hyenas reducing zebra and wildebeest numbers. a species population within a specific habitat exceeds the carrying capacity, for example national parks reducing herbivore populations to maintain and manage habitat equilibrium. the entire equilibrium consisting of animal and plant organisations is already out of balance, for example existing populations colonising new habitat. out of all these classifications, class 4 is considered the most significant due to consequent ecological impacts. = = causes = = overabundance may occur naturally, for example after weather events such as a period of high rainfall in which habitat conditions become optimal. however, other contributing factors include : = = = anthropogenic disturbances = = = natural habitats are altered by human activity resulting in habitat fragmentation, decrease in forest densities and wild fires. other human disturbances include restrictions on hunting, agricultural land modification and predator removal or control within a region or area. the consequent change in land use and the presence or withdrawal of human influence can trigger a rapid increase in both native and non - native species populations. = = = invasive
after human impacts on species halt. = = causes = = extinction debt is caused by many of the same drivers as extinction. the most well - known drivers of extinction debt are habitat fragmentation and habitat destruction. these cause extinction debt by reducing the ability of species to persist via immigration to new habitats. under equilibrium conditions, a species may become extinct in one habitat patch yet continue to survive because it can disperse to other patches. however, as other patches have been destroyed or rendered inaccessible due to fragmentation, this " insurance " effect is reduced and the species may ultimately become extinct. pollution may also cause extinction debt by reducing a species'birth rate or increasing its death rate so that its population slowly declines. extinction debts may also be caused by invasive species or by climate change. extinction debt may also occur due to the loss of mutualist species. in new zealand, the local extinction of several species of pollinating birds in 1870 has caused a long - term reduction in the reproduction of the shrub species rhabdothamnus solandri, which requires these birds to produce seeds. however, as the plant is slow - growing and long - lived, its populations persist. jablonski recognized at least four patterns in the fossil record following mass extinctions : ( 1 ) survival without recovery also called “ dead clade walking ” – a group dwindling to extinction or relegation to precarious, minor ecological niches ( 2 ) continuity with setbacks patterns disturbed by the extinction event but soon continuing on the previous trajectory ( 3 ) unbroken continuity large - scale patterns continuing with little disruption ( 4 ) unbridled diversification an increase in diversity and species richness, as in the mammals following the end - cretaceous extinction event = = rate of extinction = = jablonski found that the extinction rate of marine invertebrates was significantly higher in the stage ( major subdivision of an epoch – typically 2 – 10 million years'duration ) following a mass extinction than in the stages preceding the mass extinction. his analysis focused on marine molluscs since they constitute the most abundant group of fossils and are therefore the least likely to produce sampling errors. jablonski suggested that two possible explanations deserved further study : post - extinction physical environments differed from pre - extinction environments in ways which were disadvantageous to the " dead clades walking ". ecosystems that developed after recoveries from mass extinctions may have been less favorable for the " dead clades walking ". = = time scale = = the time to " payoff " of extinction debt can be very long. islands that lost
##una. aboriginal hunting practices, which included burning large sections of forest at a time, eventually altered and changed australia's vegetation so much that many herbivorous megafauna species were left with no habitat and were driven into extinction. once herbivorous megafauna species became extinct, carnivorous megafauna species soon followed. in the recent past, humans have been responsible for causing more extinctions within a given period of time than ever before. deforestation, pollution, anthropogenic climate change and human settlements have all been driving forces in altering or destroying habitats. the destruction of ecosystems such as rainforests has resulted in countless habitats being destroyed. these biodiversity hotspots are home to millions of habitat specialists, which do not exist beyond a tiny area. once their habitat is destroyed, they cease to exist. this destruction has a follow - on effect, as species which coexist or depend upon the existence of other species also become extinct, eventually resulting in the collapse of an entire ecosystem. these time - delayed extinctions are referred to as the extinction debt, which is the result of destroying and fragmenting habitats. as a result of anthropogenic modification of the environment, the extinction rate has climbed to the point where the earth is now within a sixth mass extinction event, as commonly agreed by biologists. this has been particularly evident, for example, in the rapid decline in the number of amphibian species worldwide. = = approaches and methods of habitat conservation = = adaptive management addresses the challenge of scientific uncertainty in habitat conservation plans by systematically gathering and applying reliable information to enhance conservation strategies over time. this approach allows for adjustments in management practices based on new insights, making conservation efforts more effective. determining the size, type and location of habitat to conserve is a complex area of conservation biology. although difficult to measure and predict, the conservation value of a habitat is often a reflection of the quality ( e. g. species abundance and diversity ), endangerment of encompassing ecosystems, and spatial distribution of that habitat. = = habitat restoration = = habitat restoration is a subset of habitat conservation and its goals include improving the habitat and resources ranging from one species to several species the society for ecological restoration's international science and policy working group define restoration as " the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. " the scale of habitat restoration efforts can range from small to large areas of land depending on the goal of the project. elements of habitat restoration include developing a plan and embedding goals
##bolus spp., glacial ice with a variety of bacteria and fungi ; and snowfields on which algae grow. = = habitat change = = whether from natural processes or the activities of man, landscapes and their associated habitat types change over time. there are the slow geomorphological changes associated with the geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence, and the more rapid changes associated with earthquakes, landslides, storms, flooding, wildfires, coastal erosion, deforestation and changes in land use. then there are the changes in habitat types brought on by alterations in farming practices, tourism, pollution, fragmentation and climate change. loss of habitat is the single greatest threat to any species. if an island on which an endemic organism lives becomes uninhabitable for some reason, the species will become extinct. any type of habitat surrounded by a different habitat is in a similar situation to an island. if a forest is divided into parts by logging, with strips of cleared land separating woodland blocks, and the distances between the remaining fragments exceeds the distance an individual animal is able to travel, that species becomes especially vulnerable. small populations generally lack genetic diversity and may be threatened by increased predation, increased competition, disease and unexpected catastrophe. at the edge of each forest fragment, increased light encourages secondary growth of fast - growing species and old growth trees are more vulnerable to logging as access is improved. the birds that nest in their crevices, the epiphytes that hang from their branches and the invertebrates in the leaf litter are all adversely affected and biodiversity is reduced. habitat fragmentation can be ameliorated to some extent by the provision of wildlife corridors connecting the fragments. these can be a river, ditch, strip of trees, hedgerow or even an underpass to a highway. without the corridors, seeds cannot disperse and animals, especially small ones, cannot travel through the hostile territory, putting populations at greater risk of local extinction. habitat disturbance can have long - lasting effects on the environment. bromus tectorum is a vigorous grass from europe which has been introduced to the united states where it has become invasive. it is highly adapted to fire, producing large amounts of flammable detritus and increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires. in areas where it has become established, it has altered the local fire regimen to such an extant that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing it to become even more dominant. a marine example is when sea urchin populations " explode " in coastal waters and
Answer:
|
A long period without rainfall
| null |
Which of these could contribute to a species' demise?
0. An abundance of vegetation
1. A good supply of prey
2. Adequate shelter and companionship
3. A long period without rainfall
survive. for example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling. diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing competition to other species that previously occupied that area. sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. = = = predation, competition, and disease = = = in the natural course of events, species become extinct for a number of reasons, including but not limited to : extinction of a necessary host, prey or pollinator, interspecific competition, inability to deal with evolving diseases and changing environmental conditions ( particularly sudden changes ) which can act to introduce novel predators, or to remove prey. recently in geological time, humans have become an additional cause of extinction of some species, either as a new mega - predator or by transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another. such introductions have been occurring for thousands of years, sometimes intentionally ( e. g. livestock released by sailors on islands as a future source of food ) and sometimes accidentally ( e. g. rats escaping from boats ). in most cases, the introductions are unsuccessful, but when an invasive alien species does become established, the consequences can be catastrophic. invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them ; or indirectly by destroying or degrading their habitat. human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. according to the " overkill hypothesis ", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as australia ( 40, 000 years before present ), north and south america ( 12, 000 years before present ), madagascar, hawaii ( ad 300 – 1000 ), and new zealand ( ad 1300 – 1500 ), resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques. = = = coextinction = = = coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another ; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. coextinction can also occur when a species loses
in biology, overabundant species refers to an excessive number of individuals and occurs when the normal population density has been exceeded. increase in animal populations is influenced by a variety of factors, some of which include habitat destruction or augmentation by human activity, the introduction of invasive species and the reintroduction of threatened species to protected reserves. population overabundance can have a negative impact on the environment, and in some cases on the public as well. there are various methods through which populations can be controlled such as hunting, contraception, chemical controls, disease and genetic modification. overabundant species is an important area of research as it can potentially impact the biodiversity of ecosystems. most research studies have examined negative impacts of overabundant species, whereas very few have documented or performed an in - depth examination on positive impacts. as a result, this article focuses on the negative impact of overabundant species. = = definitions = = when referring to animals as “ overabundant ”, various definitions apply. the following classes explore the different associations with overabundance : the inconvenience of animals in a certain region or area that threatens human livelihood, for example the tropics are considered to contain an overabundant population of the anopheles mosquito which carries the malaria parasite. the population density of a preferred species has been reduced by another species population which is then considered as overabundant, for example predator populations of lions and hyenas reducing zebra and wildebeest numbers. a species population within a specific habitat exceeds the carrying capacity, for example national parks reducing herbivore populations to maintain and manage habitat equilibrium. the entire equilibrium consisting of animal and plant organisations is already out of balance, for example existing populations colonising new habitat. out of all these classifications, class 4 is considered the most significant due to consequent ecological impacts. = = causes = = overabundance may occur naturally, for example after weather events such as a period of high rainfall in which habitat conditions become optimal. however, other contributing factors include : = = = anthropogenic disturbances = = = natural habitats are altered by human activity resulting in habitat fragmentation, decrease in forest densities and wild fires. other human disturbances include restrictions on hunting, agricultural land modification and predator removal or control within a region or area. the consequent change in land use and the presence or withdrawal of human influence can trigger a rapid increase in both native and non - native species populations. = = = invasive
after human impacts on species halt. = = causes = = extinction debt is caused by many of the same drivers as extinction. the most well - known drivers of extinction debt are habitat fragmentation and habitat destruction. these cause extinction debt by reducing the ability of species to persist via immigration to new habitats. under equilibrium conditions, a species may become extinct in one habitat patch yet continue to survive because it can disperse to other patches. however, as other patches have been destroyed or rendered inaccessible due to fragmentation, this " insurance " effect is reduced and the species may ultimately become extinct. pollution may also cause extinction debt by reducing a species'birth rate or increasing its death rate so that its population slowly declines. extinction debts may also be caused by invasive species or by climate change. extinction debt may also occur due to the loss of mutualist species. in new zealand, the local extinction of several species of pollinating birds in 1870 has caused a long - term reduction in the reproduction of the shrub species rhabdothamnus solandri, which requires these birds to produce seeds. however, as the plant is slow - growing and long - lived, its populations persist. jablonski recognized at least four patterns in the fossil record following mass extinctions : ( 1 ) survival without recovery also called “ dead clade walking ” – a group dwindling to extinction or relegation to precarious, minor ecological niches ( 2 ) continuity with setbacks patterns disturbed by the extinction event but soon continuing on the previous trajectory ( 3 ) unbroken continuity large - scale patterns continuing with little disruption ( 4 ) unbridled diversification an increase in diversity and species richness, as in the mammals following the end - cretaceous extinction event = = rate of extinction = = jablonski found that the extinction rate of marine invertebrates was significantly higher in the stage ( major subdivision of an epoch – typically 2 – 10 million years'duration ) following a mass extinction than in the stages preceding the mass extinction. his analysis focused on marine molluscs since they constitute the most abundant group of fossils and are therefore the least likely to produce sampling errors. jablonski suggested that two possible explanations deserved further study : post - extinction physical environments differed from pre - extinction environments in ways which were disadvantageous to the " dead clades walking ". ecosystems that developed after recoveries from mass extinctions may have been less favorable for the " dead clades walking ". = = time scale = = the time to " payoff " of extinction debt can be very long. islands that lost
##una. aboriginal hunting practices, which included burning large sections of forest at a time, eventually altered and changed australia's vegetation so much that many herbivorous megafauna species were left with no habitat and were driven into extinction. once herbivorous megafauna species became extinct, carnivorous megafauna species soon followed. in the recent past, humans have been responsible for causing more extinctions within a given period of time than ever before. deforestation, pollution, anthropogenic climate change and human settlements have all been driving forces in altering or destroying habitats. the destruction of ecosystems such as rainforests has resulted in countless habitats being destroyed. these biodiversity hotspots are home to millions of habitat specialists, which do not exist beyond a tiny area. once their habitat is destroyed, they cease to exist. this destruction has a follow - on effect, as species which coexist or depend upon the existence of other species also become extinct, eventually resulting in the collapse of an entire ecosystem. these time - delayed extinctions are referred to as the extinction debt, which is the result of destroying and fragmenting habitats. as a result of anthropogenic modification of the environment, the extinction rate has climbed to the point where the earth is now within a sixth mass extinction event, as commonly agreed by biologists. this has been particularly evident, for example, in the rapid decline in the number of amphibian species worldwide. = = approaches and methods of habitat conservation = = adaptive management addresses the challenge of scientific uncertainty in habitat conservation plans by systematically gathering and applying reliable information to enhance conservation strategies over time. this approach allows for adjustments in management practices based on new insights, making conservation efforts more effective. determining the size, type and location of habitat to conserve is a complex area of conservation biology. although difficult to measure and predict, the conservation value of a habitat is often a reflection of the quality ( e. g. species abundance and diversity ), endangerment of encompassing ecosystems, and spatial distribution of that habitat. = = habitat restoration = = habitat restoration is a subset of habitat conservation and its goals include improving the habitat and resources ranging from one species to several species the society for ecological restoration's international science and policy working group define restoration as " the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. " the scale of habitat restoration efforts can range from small to large areas of land depending on the goal of the project. elements of habitat restoration include developing a plan and embedding goals
##bolus spp., glacial ice with a variety of bacteria and fungi ; and snowfields on which algae grow. = = habitat change = = whether from natural processes or the activities of man, landscapes and their associated habitat types change over time. there are the slow geomorphological changes associated with the geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence, and the more rapid changes associated with earthquakes, landslides, storms, flooding, wildfires, coastal erosion, deforestation and changes in land use. then there are the changes in habitat types brought on by alterations in farming practices, tourism, pollution, fragmentation and climate change. loss of habitat is the single greatest threat to any species. if an island on which an endemic organism lives becomes uninhabitable for some reason, the species will become extinct. any type of habitat surrounded by a different habitat is in a similar situation to an island. if a forest is divided into parts by logging, with strips of cleared land separating woodland blocks, and the distances between the remaining fragments exceeds the distance an individual animal is able to travel, that species becomes especially vulnerable. small populations generally lack genetic diversity and may be threatened by increased predation, increased competition, disease and unexpected catastrophe. at the edge of each forest fragment, increased light encourages secondary growth of fast - growing species and old growth trees are more vulnerable to logging as access is improved. the birds that nest in their crevices, the epiphytes that hang from their branches and the invertebrates in the leaf litter are all adversely affected and biodiversity is reduced. habitat fragmentation can be ameliorated to some extent by the provision of wildlife corridors connecting the fragments. these can be a river, ditch, strip of trees, hedgerow or even an underpass to a highway. without the corridors, seeds cannot disperse and animals, especially small ones, cannot travel through the hostile territory, putting populations at greater risk of local extinction. habitat disturbance can have long - lasting effects on the environment. bromus tectorum is a vigorous grass from europe which has been introduced to the united states where it has become invasive. it is highly adapted to fire, producing large amounts of flammable detritus and increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires. in areas where it has become established, it has altered the local fire regimen to such an extant that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires, allowing it to become even more dominant. a marine example is when sea urchin populations " explode " in coastal waters and
Answer:
|
Adequate shelter and companionship
| 0.3 |
Which likely would win in a race?
0. a slug
1. a sardine
2. an Olympic swimmer
3. an orca
inshore waters of ningaloo reef, and the southwest, at the bremer region. genetic evidence shows that the orcas of new zealand and northwest and southwest australia form three distinct populations. new zealand orcas mainly prey on sharks and rays. = = = antarctic = = = around 25, 000 orcas are estimated around the antarctic, and four types have been documented. two dwarf species, named orcinus nanus and orcinus glacialis, were described during the 1980s by soviet researchers, but most cetacean researchers are skeptical about their status, and linking these directly to the types described below is difficult. type a or antarctic orcas look like a " typical " orca, a large, black - and - white form with a medium - sized white eye patch, living in open water and feeding mostly on minke whales. type b1 or pack ice orcas are smaller than type a. it has a large white eye patch. most of the dark parts of its body are medium grey instead of black, although it has a dark grey patch called a " dorsal cape " stretching back from its forehead to just behind its dorsal fin. the white areas are stained slightly yellow. it feeds mostly on seals. type b1 orca are abundant between adelaide island and the mainland antarctic peninsula. type b2 or gerlache orcas are morphologically similar to type b1, but smaller. this ecotype has been recorded feeding on penguins and seals, and is often found in the gerlache strait. type c or ross sea orcas are the smallest ecotype and live in larger groups than the others. its eye patch is distinctively slanted forwards, rather than parallel to the body axis. like type b, it is primarily white and medium grey, with a dark grey dorsal cape and yellow - tinged patches. its only observed prey is the antarctic cod. type d or sub - antarctic orcas were first identified based on photographs of a 1955 mass stranding in new zealand and six at - sea sightings since 2004. the first video record of this type was made in 2014 between the kerguelen and crozet islands, and again in 2017 off the coast of cape horn, chile. it is recognizable by its small white eye patch, narrower and shorter than usual dorsal fin, bulbous head ( similar to a pilot whale ), and smaller teeth. its geographic range appears to be circumglobal in sub - antarctic waters between latitudes 40°s and 60°s. although its diet
., the swimmer size ) ; and μ is the viscosity of the fluid. taking the suspending fluid to be water, and using experimentally observed values for u, one can determine that inertia is important for macroscopic swimmers like fish ( re = 100 ), while viscosity dominates the motion of microscale swimmers like bacteria ( re = 10−4 ). the overwhelming importance of viscosity for swimming at the micrometer scale has profound implications for swimming strategy. this has been discussed memorably by e. m. purcell, who invited the reader into the world of microorganisms and theoretically studied the conditions of their motion. in the first place, propulsion strategies of large scale swimmers often involve imparting momentum to the surrounding fluid in periodic discrete events, such as vortex shedding, and coasting between these events through inertia. this cannot be effective for microscale swimmers like bacteria : due to the large viscous damping, the inertial coasting time of a micron - sized object is on the order of 1 μs. the coasting distance of a microorganism moving at a typical speed is about 0. 1 angstroms ( a ). purcell concluded that only forces that are exerted in the present moment on a microscale body contribute to its propulsion, so a constant energy conversion method is essential. microorganisms have optimized their metabolism for continuous energy production, while purely artificial microswimmers ( microrobots ) must obtain energy from the environment, since their on - board - storage - capacity is very limited. as a further consequence of the continuous dissipation of energy, biological and artificial microswimmers do not obey the laws of equilibrium statistical physics, and need to be described by non - equilibrium dynamics. mathematically, purcell explored the implications of low reynolds number by taking the navier - stokes equation and eliminating the inertial terms : μ ∇ 2 u − ∇ p = 0 { \ displaystyle { \ begin { aligned } \ mu \ nabla ^ { 2 } \ mathbf { u } - { \ boldsymbol { \ nabla } } p & = { \ boldsymbol { 0 } } \ \ \ end { aligned } } } where u { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { u } } is the velocity of the fluid and ∇ p { \ displaystyle { \ boldsymbol { \ nabla } } p } is the gradient of the
usual dorsal fin, bulbous head ( similar to a pilot whale ), and smaller teeth. its geographic range appears to be circumglobal in sub - antarctic waters between latitudes 40°s and 60°s. although its diet is not determined, it likely includes fish, as determined by photographs around longline vessels, where type d orcas appeared to be preying on patagonian toothfish. types b and c live close to the ice, and diatoms in these waters may be responsible for the yellowish colouring of both types. mitochondrial dna sequences support the theory that these are recently diverged separate species. more recently, complete mitochondrial sequencing indicates the types b and c be recognized as distinct species, as should the north pacific transients, leaving the others as subspecies pending additional data. advanced methods that sequenced the entire mitochondrial genome revealed systematic differences in dna between different populations. a 2019 study of type d orcas also found them to be distinct from other populations and possibly even a unique species. = = references = = = = = sources = = = baird, robin w. ( april 1999 ). status of killer whales in canada ( pdf ) ( report ). committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada. archived from the original ( pdf ) on november 8, 2011. carwardine, mark ( 2001 ). killer whales. london : bbc worldwide. isbn 978 - 0 - 7894 - 8266 - 2. ford, john k. b. ; ellis, graeme m. ; balcomb, kenneth c. ( 2000 ). killer whales ( second ed. ). vancouver, bc : ubc press. isbn 978 - 0 - 7748 - 0800 - 2. nmfs ( 2005 ). " conservation plan for southern resident killer whales ( orcinus orca ) " ( pdf ). seattle, u. s. : national marine fisheries service ( nmfs ) northwest regional office. archived from the original ( pdf ) on june 26, 2008. retrieved january 2, 2009.
##phyta is monotypic, containing the single class ginkgoopsida. this class is also monotypic, containing the single order ginkgoales. = = = animals = = = the aardvark is the only extant member of the genus orycteropus, the family orycteropodidae, and the order tubulidentata. the madrone butterfly is the only species in the monotypic genus eucheira. however, there are two subspecies of this butterfly, e. socialis socialis and e. socialis westwoodi, which means the species e. socialis is not monotypic. erithacus rubecula, the european robin, is the only extant member of its genus. delphinapterus leucas or the beluga whale is the only member of its genus and lacks subspecies. dugong dugon is the only species in the monotypic genus dugong. homo sapiens ( humans ) are monotypic, as they have too little genetic diversity to harbor any living subspecies. the narwhal is a medium - sized cetacean that is the only member of the monotypic genus monodon. the palmchat is the only member of the genus dulus and the only member of the family dulidae. the platypus is the only member of the monotypic genus ornithorhynchus. the salamanderfish ( lepidogalaxias salamandroides ) is the only member of the order lepidogalaxiiformes, which is the sister group to the remaining euteleosts. ozichthys albimaculosus, the cream - spotted cardinalfish, found in tropical australia and southern new guinea, is the type species of the monotypic genus ozichthys. the bearded reedling is the only species in the monotypic genus panurus, which is the only genus in the monotypic family panuridae. canines form the only living subfamily of the dog family, canidae. = = = other = = = picomonas judraskeda is the only known species in the division picozoa. = = see also = = glossary of scientific naming monophyly = = references = = = = external links = = the dictionary definition of monotypic at wiktionary
organismal performance ( or whole - organism performance ) refers to the ability of an organism to conduct a task when maximally motivated. various aspects of performance are of primary concern in human athletics, horse racing, and dog racing. performance in swimming tasks has been a subject of fisheries research since the 1960s. in a broader biological context, the term first came to prominence with studies of locomotor abilities in lizards and snakes in the late 1970s and early 1980s. = = paradigm = = a seminal paper by stevan j. arnold in 1983 focused on the importance of performance as an intermediary between lower - level traits and how natural selection acts. in particular, selection should act more directly on performance than on the subordinate traits ( e. g., aspects of morphology, physiology, neurobiology ) that determine performance abilities. in other words, how fast a lizard can run is more important in escaping from predators than are the lengths of its legs, because they only party determine its ability to run fast. since then, others have pointed out that behavior often acts as a " filter " between selection and performance because animals do not always behave in ways that use their maximal performance abilities. for example, if a lizard that saw a predator approaching did not choose to run, then its ability to sprint would be irrelevant. in any case, the original version of the conceptual model has stimulated much research in integrative organismal biology. however, contrary to the hypothesis that selection should be stronger on whole - organism functional performance traits ( such as sprinting ability ) than on correlated morphological traits, a review of empirical studies did not find evidence that selection measured in the wild was stronger on performance. = = in plants = = although organismal performance is more commonly studied in animals ( including human beings ) than in plants, various studies have focused on whole - plant performance in a similar vein. for example, suction feeding abilities have been measured in carnivorous plants ( bladderworts ). although plants do not have either a nervous system or muscles, they can be said to have behavior. how such " behavior " may serve as a filter between performance and selection apparently has not been studied. = = see also = = = = references = =
Answer:
|
an orca
| null |
Which likely would win in a race?
0. a slug
1. a sardine
2. an Olympic swimmer
3. an orca
inshore waters of ningaloo reef, and the southwest, at the bremer region. genetic evidence shows that the orcas of new zealand and northwest and southwest australia form three distinct populations. new zealand orcas mainly prey on sharks and rays. = = = antarctic = = = around 25, 000 orcas are estimated around the antarctic, and four types have been documented. two dwarf species, named orcinus nanus and orcinus glacialis, were described during the 1980s by soviet researchers, but most cetacean researchers are skeptical about their status, and linking these directly to the types described below is difficult. type a or antarctic orcas look like a " typical " orca, a large, black - and - white form with a medium - sized white eye patch, living in open water and feeding mostly on minke whales. type b1 or pack ice orcas are smaller than type a. it has a large white eye patch. most of the dark parts of its body are medium grey instead of black, although it has a dark grey patch called a " dorsal cape " stretching back from its forehead to just behind its dorsal fin. the white areas are stained slightly yellow. it feeds mostly on seals. type b1 orca are abundant between adelaide island and the mainland antarctic peninsula. type b2 or gerlache orcas are morphologically similar to type b1, but smaller. this ecotype has been recorded feeding on penguins and seals, and is often found in the gerlache strait. type c or ross sea orcas are the smallest ecotype and live in larger groups than the others. its eye patch is distinctively slanted forwards, rather than parallel to the body axis. like type b, it is primarily white and medium grey, with a dark grey dorsal cape and yellow - tinged patches. its only observed prey is the antarctic cod. type d or sub - antarctic orcas were first identified based on photographs of a 1955 mass stranding in new zealand and six at - sea sightings since 2004. the first video record of this type was made in 2014 between the kerguelen and crozet islands, and again in 2017 off the coast of cape horn, chile. it is recognizable by its small white eye patch, narrower and shorter than usual dorsal fin, bulbous head ( similar to a pilot whale ), and smaller teeth. its geographic range appears to be circumglobal in sub - antarctic waters between latitudes 40°s and 60°s. although its diet
., the swimmer size ) ; and μ is the viscosity of the fluid. taking the suspending fluid to be water, and using experimentally observed values for u, one can determine that inertia is important for macroscopic swimmers like fish ( re = 100 ), while viscosity dominates the motion of microscale swimmers like bacteria ( re = 10−4 ). the overwhelming importance of viscosity for swimming at the micrometer scale has profound implications for swimming strategy. this has been discussed memorably by e. m. purcell, who invited the reader into the world of microorganisms and theoretically studied the conditions of their motion. in the first place, propulsion strategies of large scale swimmers often involve imparting momentum to the surrounding fluid in periodic discrete events, such as vortex shedding, and coasting between these events through inertia. this cannot be effective for microscale swimmers like bacteria : due to the large viscous damping, the inertial coasting time of a micron - sized object is on the order of 1 μs. the coasting distance of a microorganism moving at a typical speed is about 0. 1 angstroms ( a ). purcell concluded that only forces that are exerted in the present moment on a microscale body contribute to its propulsion, so a constant energy conversion method is essential. microorganisms have optimized their metabolism for continuous energy production, while purely artificial microswimmers ( microrobots ) must obtain energy from the environment, since their on - board - storage - capacity is very limited. as a further consequence of the continuous dissipation of energy, biological and artificial microswimmers do not obey the laws of equilibrium statistical physics, and need to be described by non - equilibrium dynamics. mathematically, purcell explored the implications of low reynolds number by taking the navier - stokes equation and eliminating the inertial terms : μ ∇ 2 u − ∇ p = 0 { \ displaystyle { \ begin { aligned } \ mu \ nabla ^ { 2 } \ mathbf { u } - { \ boldsymbol { \ nabla } } p & = { \ boldsymbol { 0 } } \ \ \ end { aligned } } } where u { \ displaystyle \ mathbf { u } } is the velocity of the fluid and ∇ p { \ displaystyle { \ boldsymbol { \ nabla } } p } is the gradient of the
usual dorsal fin, bulbous head ( similar to a pilot whale ), and smaller teeth. its geographic range appears to be circumglobal in sub - antarctic waters between latitudes 40°s and 60°s. although its diet is not determined, it likely includes fish, as determined by photographs around longline vessels, where type d orcas appeared to be preying on patagonian toothfish. types b and c live close to the ice, and diatoms in these waters may be responsible for the yellowish colouring of both types. mitochondrial dna sequences support the theory that these are recently diverged separate species. more recently, complete mitochondrial sequencing indicates the types b and c be recognized as distinct species, as should the north pacific transients, leaving the others as subspecies pending additional data. advanced methods that sequenced the entire mitochondrial genome revealed systematic differences in dna between different populations. a 2019 study of type d orcas also found them to be distinct from other populations and possibly even a unique species. = = references = = = = = sources = = = baird, robin w. ( april 1999 ). status of killer whales in canada ( pdf ) ( report ). committee on the status of endangered wildlife in canada. archived from the original ( pdf ) on november 8, 2011. carwardine, mark ( 2001 ). killer whales. london : bbc worldwide. isbn 978 - 0 - 7894 - 8266 - 2. ford, john k. b. ; ellis, graeme m. ; balcomb, kenneth c. ( 2000 ). killer whales ( second ed. ). vancouver, bc : ubc press. isbn 978 - 0 - 7748 - 0800 - 2. nmfs ( 2005 ). " conservation plan for southern resident killer whales ( orcinus orca ) " ( pdf ). seattle, u. s. : national marine fisheries service ( nmfs ) northwest regional office. archived from the original ( pdf ) on june 26, 2008. retrieved january 2, 2009.
##phyta is monotypic, containing the single class ginkgoopsida. this class is also monotypic, containing the single order ginkgoales. = = = animals = = = the aardvark is the only extant member of the genus orycteropus, the family orycteropodidae, and the order tubulidentata. the madrone butterfly is the only species in the monotypic genus eucheira. however, there are two subspecies of this butterfly, e. socialis socialis and e. socialis westwoodi, which means the species e. socialis is not monotypic. erithacus rubecula, the european robin, is the only extant member of its genus. delphinapterus leucas or the beluga whale is the only member of its genus and lacks subspecies. dugong dugon is the only species in the monotypic genus dugong. homo sapiens ( humans ) are monotypic, as they have too little genetic diversity to harbor any living subspecies. the narwhal is a medium - sized cetacean that is the only member of the monotypic genus monodon. the palmchat is the only member of the genus dulus and the only member of the family dulidae. the platypus is the only member of the monotypic genus ornithorhynchus. the salamanderfish ( lepidogalaxias salamandroides ) is the only member of the order lepidogalaxiiformes, which is the sister group to the remaining euteleosts. ozichthys albimaculosus, the cream - spotted cardinalfish, found in tropical australia and southern new guinea, is the type species of the monotypic genus ozichthys. the bearded reedling is the only species in the monotypic genus panurus, which is the only genus in the monotypic family panuridae. canines form the only living subfamily of the dog family, canidae. = = = other = = = picomonas judraskeda is the only known species in the division picozoa. = = see also = = glossary of scientific naming monophyly = = references = = = = external links = = the dictionary definition of monotypic at wiktionary
organismal performance ( or whole - organism performance ) refers to the ability of an organism to conduct a task when maximally motivated. various aspects of performance are of primary concern in human athletics, horse racing, and dog racing. performance in swimming tasks has been a subject of fisheries research since the 1960s. in a broader biological context, the term first came to prominence with studies of locomotor abilities in lizards and snakes in the late 1970s and early 1980s. = = paradigm = = a seminal paper by stevan j. arnold in 1983 focused on the importance of performance as an intermediary between lower - level traits and how natural selection acts. in particular, selection should act more directly on performance than on the subordinate traits ( e. g., aspects of morphology, physiology, neurobiology ) that determine performance abilities. in other words, how fast a lizard can run is more important in escaping from predators than are the lengths of its legs, because they only party determine its ability to run fast. since then, others have pointed out that behavior often acts as a " filter " between selection and performance because animals do not always behave in ways that use their maximal performance abilities. for example, if a lizard that saw a predator approaching did not choose to run, then its ability to sprint would be irrelevant. in any case, the original version of the conceptual model has stimulated much research in integrative organismal biology. however, contrary to the hypothesis that selection should be stronger on whole - organism functional performance traits ( such as sprinting ability ) than on correlated morphological traits, a review of empirical studies did not find evidence that selection measured in the wild was stronger on performance. = = in plants = = although organismal performance is more commonly studied in animals ( including human beings ) than in plants, various studies have focused on whole - plant performance in a similar vein. for example, suction feeding abilities have been measured in carnivorous plants ( bladderworts ). although plants do not have either a nervous system or muscles, they can be said to have behavior. how such " behavior " may serve as a filter between performance and selection apparently has not been studied. = = see also = = = = references = =
Answer:
|
an Olympic swimmer
| 0.3 |
Breath includes which of the following?
0. Energy
1. Chemical
2. Vapor
3. Cells
cellular waste products are formed as a by - product of cellular respiration, a series of processes and reactions that generate energy for the cell, in the form of atp. one example of cellular respiration creating cellular waste products are aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration. each pathway generates different waste products. = = aerobic respiration = = when in the presence of oxygen, cells use aerobic respiration to obtain energy from glucose molecules. simplified theoretical reaction : c6h12o6 ( aq ) + 6o2 ( g ) → 6co2 ( g ) + 6h2o ( l ) + ~ 30atp cells undergoing aerobic respiration produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide, 6 molecules of water, and up to 30 molecules of atp ( adenosine triphosphate ), which is directly used to produce energy, from each molecule of glucose in the presence of surplus oxygen. in aerobic respiration, oxygen serves as the recipient of electrons from the electron transport chain. aerobic respiration is thus very efficient because oxygen is a strong oxidant. aerobic respiration proceeds in a series of steps, which also increases efficiency - since glucose is broken down gradually and atp is produced as needed, less energy is wasted as heat. this strategy results in the waste products h2o and co2 being formed in different amounts at different phases of respiration. co2 is formed in pyruvate decarboxylation, h2o is formed in oxidative phosphorylation, and both are formed in the citric acid cycle. the simple nature of the final products also indicates the efficiency of this method of respiration. all of the energy stored in the carbon - carbon bonds of glucose is released, leaving co2 and h2o. although there is energy stored in the bonds of these molecules, this energy is not easily accessible by the cell. all usable energy is efficiently extracted. = = anaerobic respiration = = anaerobic respiration is done by aerobic organisms when there is not sufficient oxygen in a cell to undergo aerobic respiration as well as by cells called anaerobes that selectively perform anaerobic respiration even in the presence of oxygen. in anaerobic respiration, weak oxidants like sulfate and nitrate serve as oxidants in the place of oxygen. generally, in anaerobic respiration sugars are broken down into carbon dioxide and other waste products that are dictated by the oxidant the cell
, and buildings. these surfaces absorb solar radiation during the day and release it at night, resulting in higher night temperatures. urban metabolism – the functional flow of materials and energy required by cities. = = v = = veloway - cycle track ; cycleway ; contrasts with freeway. vinyl - a type of plastic ( usually pvc ) used to make products such as fruit juice bottles, credit cards, pipes and hoses. virtual water - the volume of water required to produce a commodity or service. first coined by professor j. a. allan of the university of london in the early 1990s, though this is now more widely known as cf. embedded ( embodied ) water. visual waste audit - observing, estimating and recording data on waste streams and practices without physical weighing. volatile organic compound ( voc ) – molecules containing carbon and differing proportions of other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine and chlorine. with sunlight and heat they form ground - level ozone. volt - the unit of potential difference between two points is the volt ( v ) ( commonly called voltage ). one thousand volts equals 1 kilovolt ( kv ). = = w = = waste - any material ( liquid, solid or gaseous ) that is produced by domestic households and commercial, institutional, municipal or industrial organisations, and which cannot be collected and recycled in any way for further use. for solid wastes, this involves materials that currently go to landfills, even though some of the material is potentially recyclable. waste analysis - the quantifying of different waste streams, recording and detailing of it as a proportion of the total waste stream, determining its destination and recording details of waste practices. waste assessment - observing, measuring, and recording data and collecting and analysing waste samples. some practitioners consider an assessment to be one where observations are carried out visually, without sorting and measuring individual streams ( see visual waste audit ). waste audit - see waste assessment. waste avoidance – primary pillar of the waste hierarchy ; avoidance works on the principle that the greatest gains result from efficiency - centred actions that remove or reduce the need to consume materials in the first place, but deliver the same outcome. waste factors - ( used in round - wood calculations ) give the ratio of one cubic metre of round wood used per cubic metre ( or tonne ) of product. waste generation - generation of unwanted materials including recyclables as well as garbage. waste generation = materials recycled + waste to landfill. waste hierarchy ( waste management hierarchy
} \ times { \ frac { t _ { 2 } } { t _ { 1 } } } \ times { \ frac { p _ { 1 } - p _ { w, 1 } } { p _ { 2 } - p _ { w, 2 } } } } where, in addition to terms used in the ideal gas law : pw is the partial pressure of gaseous water during condition 1 and 2, respectively for example, calculating how much 1 liter of air ( a ) at 0 °c, 100 kpa, pw = 0 kpa ( known as stpd, see below ) would fill when breathed into the lungs where it is mixed with water vapor ( l ), where it quickly becomes 37 °c ( 99 °f ), 100 kpa, pw = 6. 2 kpa ( btps ) : v l = 1 l × 310 k 273 k × 100 k p a − 0 k p a 100 k p a − 6. 2 k p a = 1. 21 l { \ displaystyle v _ { l } = 1 \ \ mathrm { l } \ times { \ frac { 310 \ \ mathrm { k } } { 273 \ \ mathrm { k } } } \ times { \ frac { 100 \ \ mathrm { kpa } - 0 \ \ mathrm { kpa } } { 100 \ \ mathrm { kpa } - 6. 2 \ \ mathrm { kpa } } } = 1. 21 \ \ mathrm { l } } = = = common conditions = = = some common expressions of gas volume with defined or variable temperature, pressure and humidity inclusion are : atps : ambient temperature ( variable ) and pressure ( variable ), saturated ( humidity depends on temperature ) atpd : ambient temperature ( variable ) and pressure ( variable ), dry ( no humidity ) btps : body temperature ( 37 °c or 310 k ) and pressure ( generally same as ambient ), saturated ( 47 mmhg or 6. 2 kpa ) stpd : standard temperature ( 0 °c or 273 k ) and pressure ( 760 mmhg ( 101. 33 kpa ) or 100 kpa ( 750. 06 mmhg ) ), dry ( no humidity ) = = = conversion factors = = = the following conversion factors can be used to convert between expressions for volume of a gas : = = = partial volume = = = the partial volume of a particular gas is a fraction of the total volume occupied by the gas mixture, with
sacs in the lungs amino acid – any of twenty organic compounds that are subunits of protein in the human body anabolic – of or relating to the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy ; constructive metabolism ( contrast catabolic ) anaerobic – refers to a process or reaction which does not require oxygen, but produces energy by other means ( contrast aerobic ) anion transporter ( organic ) – molecules that play an essential role in the distribution and excretion of numerous endogenous metabolic products and exogenous organic anions antigen – any substance ( as an immunogen or a hapten ) foreign to the body that evokes an immune response either alone or after forming a complex with a larger molecule ( as a protein ) and that is capable of binding with a component ( as an antibody or t cell ) of the immune system atp – ( adenosine triphosphate ) – an organic molecule containing high energy phosphate bonds used to transport energy within a cell catabolic – of or relatig to the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy ; destructive metabolism ( contrast anabolic ) chemokine – are a family of small cytokines, or signaling proteins secreted by cells codon – a sequence of three nucleotides which specify which amino acid will be added next during protein synthesis corpuscle – obsolete name for red blood cell cytoadherance – infected red blood cells may adhere to blood vellel walls and uninfected red blood cells cytoplasm – clear jelly - like substance, mostly water, inside a cell diathesis – a tendency to suffer from a particular medical condition dna – deoxyribonucleic acid, the hereditary material of the genome drosophila – a kind of fruit fly used for genetic experimentation because of ease of reproduction and manipulation of its genome endocytic – the transport of solid matter or liquid into a cell by means of a coated vacuole or vesicle endogamy – the custom of marrying only within the limits of a local community, clan, or tribe endothelial – of or referring to the thin inner surface of blood vessels enzyme – a protein that promotes a cellular process, much like a catalyst in an ordinary chemical reaction epidemiology – the study of the spread of disease within a population erythrocyte – red blood cell, which with the leucocytes make up the cellular content of
in respiratory physiology, the oxygen cascade describes the flow of oxygen from air to mitochondria, where it is consumed in aerobic respiration to release energy. oxygen flows from areas with high partial pressure of oxygen ( po2, also known as oxygen tension ) to areas of lower po2. air is typically around 21 % oxygen, and at sea level, the po2 of air is typically around 159 mmhg. humidity dilutes the concentration of oxygen in air. as air is inhaled into the lungs, it mixes with water and exhaust gasses including co2, further diluting the oxygen concentration and lowering the po2. as oxygen continues to flow down the concentration gradient from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration, it must pass through barriers such as the alveoli walls, capillary walls, capillary blood plasma, red blood cell membrane, interstitial space, other cell membranes, and cell cytoplasm. the partial pressure of oxygen drops across each barrier. = = table = = table 1 gives the example of a typical oxygen cascade for skeletal muscle of a healthy, adult male at rest who is breathing air at atmospheric pressure at sea level. actual values in a person may vary widely due to ambient conditions, health status, tissue type, and metabolic demands. = = see also = = alveolar – arterial gradient alveolar gas equation blood gas tension = = references = =
Answer:
|
Vapor
| null |
Breath includes which of the following?
0. Energy
1. Chemical
2. Vapor
3. Cells
cellular waste products are formed as a by - product of cellular respiration, a series of processes and reactions that generate energy for the cell, in the form of atp. one example of cellular respiration creating cellular waste products are aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration. each pathway generates different waste products. = = aerobic respiration = = when in the presence of oxygen, cells use aerobic respiration to obtain energy from glucose molecules. simplified theoretical reaction : c6h12o6 ( aq ) + 6o2 ( g ) → 6co2 ( g ) + 6h2o ( l ) + ~ 30atp cells undergoing aerobic respiration produce 6 molecules of carbon dioxide, 6 molecules of water, and up to 30 molecules of atp ( adenosine triphosphate ), which is directly used to produce energy, from each molecule of glucose in the presence of surplus oxygen. in aerobic respiration, oxygen serves as the recipient of electrons from the electron transport chain. aerobic respiration is thus very efficient because oxygen is a strong oxidant. aerobic respiration proceeds in a series of steps, which also increases efficiency - since glucose is broken down gradually and atp is produced as needed, less energy is wasted as heat. this strategy results in the waste products h2o and co2 being formed in different amounts at different phases of respiration. co2 is formed in pyruvate decarboxylation, h2o is formed in oxidative phosphorylation, and both are formed in the citric acid cycle. the simple nature of the final products also indicates the efficiency of this method of respiration. all of the energy stored in the carbon - carbon bonds of glucose is released, leaving co2 and h2o. although there is energy stored in the bonds of these molecules, this energy is not easily accessible by the cell. all usable energy is efficiently extracted. = = anaerobic respiration = = anaerobic respiration is done by aerobic organisms when there is not sufficient oxygen in a cell to undergo aerobic respiration as well as by cells called anaerobes that selectively perform anaerobic respiration even in the presence of oxygen. in anaerobic respiration, weak oxidants like sulfate and nitrate serve as oxidants in the place of oxygen. generally, in anaerobic respiration sugars are broken down into carbon dioxide and other waste products that are dictated by the oxidant the cell
, and buildings. these surfaces absorb solar radiation during the day and release it at night, resulting in higher night temperatures. urban metabolism – the functional flow of materials and energy required by cities. = = v = = veloway - cycle track ; cycleway ; contrasts with freeway. vinyl - a type of plastic ( usually pvc ) used to make products such as fruit juice bottles, credit cards, pipes and hoses. virtual water - the volume of water required to produce a commodity or service. first coined by professor j. a. allan of the university of london in the early 1990s, though this is now more widely known as cf. embedded ( embodied ) water. visual waste audit - observing, estimating and recording data on waste streams and practices without physical weighing. volatile organic compound ( voc ) – molecules containing carbon and differing proportions of other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine and chlorine. with sunlight and heat they form ground - level ozone. volt - the unit of potential difference between two points is the volt ( v ) ( commonly called voltage ). one thousand volts equals 1 kilovolt ( kv ). = = w = = waste - any material ( liquid, solid or gaseous ) that is produced by domestic households and commercial, institutional, municipal or industrial organisations, and which cannot be collected and recycled in any way for further use. for solid wastes, this involves materials that currently go to landfills, even though some of the material is potentially recyclable. waste analysis - the quantifying of different waste streams, recording and detailing of it as a proportion of the total waste stream, determining its destination and recording details of waste practices. waste assessment - observing, measuring, and recording data and collecting and analysing waste samples. some practitioners consider an assessment to be one where observations are carried out visually, without sorting and measuring individual streams ( see visual waste audit ). waste audit - see waste assessment. waste avoidance – primary pillar of the waste hierarchy ; avoidance works on the principle that the greatest gains result from efficiency - centred actions that remove or reduce the need to consume materials in the first place, but deliver the same outcome. waste factors - ( used in round - wood calculations ) give the ratio of one cubic metre of round wood used per cubic metre ( or tonne ) of product. waste generation - generation of unwanted materials including recyclables as well as garbage. waste generation = materials recycled + waste to landfill. waste hierarchy ( waste management hierarchy
} \ times { \ frac { t _ { 2 } } { t _ { 1 } } } \ times { \ frac { p _ { 1 } - p _ { w, 1 } } { p _ { 2 } - p _ { w, 2 } } } } where, in addition to terms used in the ideal gas law : pw is the partial pressure of gaseous water during condition 1 and 2, respectively for example, calculating how much 1 liter of air ( a ) at 0 °c, 100 kpa, pw = 0 kpa ( known as stpd, see below ) would fill when breathed into the lungs where it is mixed with water vapor ( l ), where it quickly becomes 37 °c ( 99 °f ), 100 kpa, pw = 6. 2 kpa ( btps ) : v l = 1 l × 310 k 273 k × 100 k p a − 0 k p a 100 k p a − 6. 2 k p a = 1. 21 l { \ displaystyle v _ { l } = 1 \ \ mathrm { l } \ times { \ frac { 310 \ \ mathrm { k } } { 273 \ \ mathrm { k } } } \ times { \ frac { 100 \ \ mathrm { kpa } - 0 \ \ mathrm { kpa } } { 100 \ \ mathrm { kpa } - 6. 2 \ \ mathrm { kpa } } } = 1. 21 \ \ mathrm { l } } = = = common conditions = = = some common expressions of gas volume with defined or variable temperature, pressure and humidity inclusion are : atps : ambient temperature ( variable ) and pressure ( variable ), saturated ( humidity depends on temperature ) atpd : ambient temperature ( variable ) and pressure ( variable ), dry ( no humidity ) btps : body temperature ( 37 °c or 310 k ) and pressure ( generally same as ambient ), saturated ( 47 mmhg or 6. 2 kpa ) stpd : standard temperature ( 0 °c or 273 k ) and pressure ( 760 mmhg ( 101. 33 kpa ) or 100 kpa ( 750. 06 mmhg ) ), dry ( no humidity ) = = = conversion factors = = = the following conversion factors can be used to convert between expressions for volume of a gas : = = = partial volume = = = the partial volume of a particular gas is a fraction of the total volume occupied by the gas mixture, with
sacs in the lungs amino acid – any of twenty organic compounds that are subunits of protein in the human body anabolic – of or relating to the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy ; constructive metabolism ( contrast catabolic ) anaerobic – refers to a process or reaction which does not require oxygen, but produces energy by other means ( contrast aerobic ) anion transporter ( organic ) – molecules that play an essential role in the distribution and excretion of numerous endogenous metabolic products and exogenous organic anions antigen – any substance ( as an immunogen or a hapten ) foreign to the body that evokes an immune response either alone or after forming a complex with a larger molecule ( as a protein ) and that is capable of binding with a component ( as an antibody or t cell ) of the immune system atp – ( adenosine triphosphate ) – an organic molecule containing high energy phosphate bonds used to transport energy within a cell catabolic – of or relatig to the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy ; destructive metabolism ( contrast anabolic ) chemokine – are a family of small cytokines, or signaling proteins secreted by cells codon – a sequence of three nucleotides which specify which amino acid will be added next during protein synthesis corpuscle – obsolete name for red blood cell cytoadherance – infected red blood cells may adhere to blood vellel walls and uninfected red blood cells cytoplasm – clear jelly - like substance, mostly water, inside a cell diathesis – a tendency to suffer from a particular medical condition dna – deoxyribonucleic acid, the hereditary material of the genome drosophila – a kind of fruit fly used for genetic experimentation because of ease of reproduction and manipulation of its genome endocytic – the transport of solid matter or liquid into a cell by means of a coated vacuole or vesicle endogamy – the custom of marrying only within the limits of a local community, clan, or tribe endothelial – of or referring to the thin inner surface of blood vessels enzyme – a protein that promotes a cellular process, much like a catalyst in an ordinary chemical reaction epidemiology – the study of the spread of disease within a population erythrocyte – red blood cell, which with the leucocytes make up the cellular content of
in respiratory physiology, the oxygen cascade describes the flow of oxygen from air to mitochondria, where it is consumed in aerobic respiration to release energy. oxygen flows from areas with high partial pressure of oxygen ( po2, also known as oxygen tension ) to areas of lower po2. air is typically around 21 % oxygen, and at sea level, the po2 of air is typically around 159 mmhg. humidity dilutes the concentration of oxygen in air. as air is inhaled into the lungs, it mixes with water and exhaust gasses including co2, further diluting the oxygen concentration and lowering the po2. as oxygen continues to flow down the concentration gradient from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration, it must pass through barriers such as the alveoli walls, capillary walls, capillary blood plasma, red blood cell membrane, interstitial space, other cell membranes, and cell cytoplasm. the partial pressure of oxygen drops across each barrier. = = table = = table 1 gives the example of a typical oxygen cascade for skeletal muscle of a healthy, adult male at rest who is breathing air at atmospheric pressure at sea level. actual values in a person may vary widely due to ambient conditions, health status, tissue type, and metabolic demands. = = see also = = alveolar – arterial gradient alveolar gas equation blood gas tension = = references = =
Answer:
|
Energy
| 0.3 |
With extended feet, this creature may grab bass from overhead.
0. bees
1. shark
2. sparrow
3. eagle
= search = = = predators have a choice of search modes ranging from sit - and - wait to active or widely foraging. the sit - and - wait method is most suitable if the prey are dense and mobile, and the predator has low energy requirements. wide foraging expends more energy, and is used when prey is sedentary or sparsely distributed. there is a continuum of search modes with intervals between periods of movement ranging from seconds to months. sharks, sunfish, insectivorous birds and shrews are almost always moving while web - building spiders, aquatic invertebrates, praying mantises and kestrels rarely move. in between, plovers and other shorebirds, freshwater fish including crappies, and the larvae of coccinellid beetles ( ladybirds ), alternate between actively searching and scanning the environment. prey distributions are often clumped, and predators respond by looking for patches where prey is dense and then searching within patches. where food is found in patches, such as rare shoals of fish in a nearly empty ocean, the search stage requires the predator to travel for a substantial time, and to expend a significant amount of energy, to locate each food patch. for example, the black - browed albatross regularly makes foraging flights to a range of around 700 kilometres ( 430 miles ), up to a maximum foraging range of 3, 000 kilometres ( 1, 860 miles ) for breeding birds gathering food for their young. with static prey, some predators can learn suitable patch locations and return to them at intervals to feed. the optimal foraging strategy for search has been modelled using the marginal value theorem. search patterns often appear random. one such is the levy walk, that tends to involve clusters of short steps with occasional long steps. it is a good fit to the behaviour of a wide variety of organisms including bacteria, honeybees, sharks and human hunter - gatherers. = = = assessment = = = having found prey, a predator must decide whether to pursue it or keep searching. the decision depends on the costs and benefits involved. a bird foraging for insects spends a lot of time searching but capturing and eating them is quick and easy, so the efficient strategy for the bird is to eat every palatable insect it finds. by contrast, a predator such as a lion or falcon finds its prey easily but capturing it requires a lot of effort. in that case, the predator is more selective. one of the factors to consider is size. prey that is too small may not be worth the trouble for
commercial boat based fishery, restricted to 316 boats between port nolloth and cape infanta. catch limits on most species apply, with the exception of snoek, which is now by far the largest part of reported catch. catches have become relatively stable since the early 2000s, though white stumpnose have continued to decline. recreational fishing is the largest and most economically important fishery in the bay. it includes boat based angling and shore angling both from the rocky coast and from sandy beaches, and angling in estuaries, spearfishing and cast netting. in the first part of the 20th century most shore angling was for reef fish from the rocky east and west coasts of the bay, but a decline in the targeted species on the shoreline reefs and availability of four - wheel drive vehicles led to a move towards beach angling from the northern shore and targeting kob, white steenbras and slender bellman. catches have declined and elasmobranchs are increasingly targeted by sports fishers. there has also been a move towards catch and release, and recent limitations on catch and closed areas in marine protected areas have slightly relieved the pressure, but stock of the top five target species have continued to diminish. the beach - seine or treknet fishery has provided fish for over 300 years. for much of that time it has been in conflict with other fisheries, some of which have been discontinued. before 1975 there were more than 100 licensed operators, but this number has been reduced and as of 2019 stands at only five. despite claims that the fishery is detrimental to stocks, large quantities of juveniles and other bycatch are affected, and the nets damage the benthic ecosystem, an investigation found that the licence holders had a right to continue targeting traditional species and that the impacts on the ecosystem are insignificant. traditional fishing communities account for a large part of the traditional line - fish, lobster, and beach - seine fisheries, as crew or rights - holders, or by illegal fishing. snoek and harder are an important part of the informal trade system in the traditional fishing communities, and contribute towards local food security. chondrichthyans were traditionally a minor component of the catch or were often bycatch, but have recently become target of the demersal shark longline fishery, and are now more likely to be retained in other fisheries, which has led to concern whether the exploitation levels are sustainable. the commercially important west coast rock lobster fishery was historically concentrated on the west coast, but catches east of cape point have increased
animals into their jaws. an excellent example of this is the angler fish, as it has a light lure protruding in front of its mouth from a unique appendage on its head which provides navigation and as bait for smaller animals. some animals can cross between the photic and aphotic zones in search of food. for example, the sperm whale and the southern elephant seal occasionally hunt in the aphotic zone despite the water pressure squashing their bodies ; however, not fatally. = = aphotic zone migration = = after sunset, millions of organisms swarm up from the depths to feed on the microorganisms floating in the warm epipelagic zone. many copepods and invertebrate larvae come up to shallower waters to eat the phytoplankton, which attracts many predators like squid, hatchetfish, and lantern fish. the migration of the many bioluminescent animals is visible to the naked eye. this nightly vertical migration is the largest ( in terms of the number of animals ) on our planet. = = see also = = abyssal zone benthic zone hadal zone pelagic zone photic zone = = references = =
the foundation is also highly involved with conservation initiatives in the bahamas, with projects including the bahamas flats fishing alliance that aims to assemble multiple stakeholders to promote the conservation of valuable flats fisheries, and the island school poster series, which engages high school students in important current environmental issues. = = selected publications = = = = = books = = = philipp, d. p. & ridgway, m. s. ( editors ). black bass : ecology, conservation, and management. american fisheries society. 740 pp. ( 2003 ). cooke, s. j. & philipp, d. p. ( editors ). centrarchid fishes : diversity, biology, and conservation. john wiley & sons. 560 pp. ( 2009 ). = = = journal publications = = = parkos, j. j., wahl. d. h., & philipp, d. p. influence of behavior and mating success on brood - specific contribution to fish recruitment. ecological applications 21, 2576 – 2586 ( 2011 ). brooks, e. j., et al. the physiological response of the caribbean reef shark ( carcharhinus perezi ) to longline capture. comparative biochemistry and physiology part a, 159, 1 – 6 ( 2011 ) barthel, b. l. et al. genetic relationships among populations of florida bass. transactions of the american fisheries society 139, 1615 – 1641 ( 2010 ). philipp, d. p. et al. selection for vulnerability to angling in largemouth bass. trans. am. fish. soc. 138, 189 – 199 ( 2009 ). cooke, s. j., suski, c. d., ostrand, k. g., wahl, d. h. & philipp, d. p. physiological and behavioral consequences of long - term artificial selection for vulnerability to recreational angling in a teleost fish. physiological and biochemical zoology 80, 480 – 490 ( 2007 ). cooke, s. j. & philipp, d. p. behavior and mortality of caught - and - released bonefish ( albula spp. ) in bahamian waters with implications for a sustainable recreational fishery. biol. conserv. 118, 599 – 607 ( 2004 ). 1997 jennings, m. j., claussen, j. e., & philipp, d. p. effect of population size structure on reproductive investment of male bluegill. n. am. j. fish. manage 17, 516 – 524
. the elephant has, paley argues, a short neck because its head is so heavy, but in compensation it has a long trunk, enabling it to reach out. similarly the spider has no wings to enable it to chase its flying prey, but has a web, and organs adapted to produce it, which compensates for the lack. chapter xvii. the relation of animated bodies to inanimate nature organs such as the wings of birds and the fins of fish are expressly adapted to the surrounding'elements'of air or water in which they operate. chapter xviii. instincts instincts enable newly hatched young of salmon to find food, and later to migrate to the sea and finally back to their rivers to spawn. chapter xix. of insects " we are not writing a system of natural history ", begins paley, apologising for not covering every class systematically. he mentions insects for some examples unique to them, as the antennae, elytra ( scaly wing - cases ), ovipositors ( he calls them'awls') for laying eggs deep in plants or wood, stings, the proboscis of bees, the light - producing organ of the glow - worm and so on. chapter xx. of plants admitting that plants generally have less obvious evidence of'a designed and studied mechanism'than animals, still paley adds some examples, as of the parts of the seed, the delicate germ being protected by a tough or spiny husk, and dispersed by wings or other appendages. chapter xxi. of the elements paley considers how the'elements'of water, air etc. are exactly as needed. chapter xxii. astronomy paley admits that astronomy is not the best proof of'the agency of an intelligent creator ', but all the same it shows his magnificence. chapter xxiii. personality of the deity all the above items show the'contrivances'in existence, which paley argues prove the personality of the deity, arguing that only persons can contrive or design. chapter xxiv. of the natural attributes of the deity the attributes of god must, paley argues, be'adequate to the magnitude, extent, and multiplicity of his operations '. chapter xxv. of the unity of the deity paley argues that the uniformity of plan seen in the universe indicates a single god. chapter xxvi. the goodness of the deity god must be good, paley argues, because in many cases the designs seen
Answer:
|
eagle
| null |
With extended feet, this creature may grab bass from overhead.
0. bees
1. shark
2. sparrow
3. eagle
= search = = = predators have a choice of search modes ranging from sit - and - wait to active or widely foraging. the sit - and - wait method is most suitable if the prey are dense and mobile, and the predator has low energy requirements. wide foraging expends more energy, and is used when prey is sedentary or sparsely distributed. there is a continuum of search modes with intervals between periods of movement ranging from seconds to months. sharks, sunfish, insectivorous birds and shrews are almost always moving while web - building spiders, aquatic invertebrates, praying mantises and kestrels rarely move. in between, plovers and other shorebirds, freshwater fish including crappies, and the larvae of coccinellid beetles ( ladybirds ), alternate between actively searching and scanning the environment. prey distributions are often clumped, and predators respond by looking for patches where prey is dense and then searching within patches. where food is found in patches, such as rare shoals of fish in a nearly empty ocean, the search stage requires the predator to travel for a substantial time, and to expend a significant amount of energy, to locate each food patch. for example, the black - browed albatross regularly makes foraging flights to a range of around 700 kilometres ( 430 miles ), up to a maximum foraging range of 3, 000 kilometres ( 1, 860 miles ) for breeding birds gathering food for their young. with static prey, some predators can learn suitable patch locations and return to them at intervals to feed. the optimal foraging strategy for search has been modelled using the marginal value theorem. search patterns often appear random. one such is the levy walk, that tends to involve clusters of short steps with occasional long steps. it is a good fit to the behaviour of a wide variety of organisms including bacteria, honeybees, sharks and human hunter - gatherers. = = = assessment = = = having found prey, a predator must decide whether to pursue it or keep searching. the decision depends on the costs and benefits involved. a bird foraging for insects spends a lot of time searching but capturing and eating them is quick and easy, so the efficient strategy for the bird is to eat every palatable insect it finds. by contrast, a predator such as a lion or falcon finds its prey easily but capturing it requires a lot of effort. in that case, the predator is more selective. one of the factors to consider is size. prey that is too small may not be worth the trouble for
commercial boat based fishery, restricted to 316 boats between port nolloth and cape infanta. catch limits on most species apply, with the exception of snoek, which is now by far the largest part of reported catch. catches have become relatively stable since the early 2000s, though white stumpnose have continued to decline. recreational fishing is the largest and most economically important fishery in the bay. it includes boat based angling and shore angling both from the rocky coast and from sandy beaches, and angling in estuaries, spearfishing and cast netting. in the first part of the 20th century most shore angling was for reef fish from the rocky east and west coasts of the bay, but a decline in the targeted species on the shoreline reefs and availability of four - wheel drive vehicles led to a move towards beach angling from the northern shore and targeting kob, white steenbras and slender bellman. catches have declined and elasmobranchs are increasingly targeted by sports fishers. there has also been a move towards catch and release, and recent limitations on catch and closed areas in marine protected areas have slightly relieved the pressure, but stock of the top five target species have continued to diminish. the beach - seine or treknet fishery has provided fish for over 300 years. for much of that time it has been in conflict with other fisheries, some of which have been discontinued. before 1975 there were more than 100 licensed operators, but this number has been reduced and as of 2019 stands at only five. despite claims that the fishery is detrimental to stocks, large quantities of juveniles and other bycatch are affected, and the nets damage the benthic ecosystem, an investigation found that the licence holders had a right to continue targeting traditional species and that the impacts on the ecosystem are insignificant. traditional fishing communities account for a large part of the traditional line - fish, lobster, and beach - seine fisheries, as crew or rights - holders, or by illegal fishing. snoek and harder are an important part of the informal trade system in the traditional fishing communities, and contribute towards local food security. chondrichthyans were traditionally a minor component of the catch or were often bycatch, but have recently become target of the demersal shark longline fishery, and are now more likely to be retained in other fisheries, which has led to concern whether the exploitation levels are sustainable. the commercially important west coast rock lobster fishery was historically concentrated on the west coast, but catches east of cape point have increased
animals into their jaws. an excellent example of this is the angler fish, as it has a light lure protruding in front of its mouth from a unique appendage on its head which provides navigation and as bait for smaller animals. some animals can cross between the photic and aphotic zones in search of food. for example, the sperm whale and the southern elephant seal occasionally hunt in the aphotic zone despite the water pressure squashing their bodies ; however, not fatally. = = aphotic zone migration = = after sunset, millions of organisms swarm up from the depths to feed on the microorganisms floating in the warm epipelagic zone. many copepods and invertebrate larvae come up to shallower waters to eat the phytoplankton, which attracts many predators like squid, hatchetfish, and lantern fish. the migration of the many bioluminescent animals is visible to the naked eye. this nightly vertical migration is the largest ( in terms of the number of animals ) on our planet. = = see also = = abyssal zone benthic zone hadal zone pelagic zone photic zone = = references = =
the foundation is also highly involved with conservation initiatives in the bahamas, with projects including the bahamas flats fishing alliance that aims to assemble multiple stakeholders to promote the conservation of valuable flats fisheries, and the island school poster series, which engages high school students in important current environmental issues. = = selected publications = = = = = books = = = philipp, d. p. & ridgway, m. s. ( editors ). black bass : ecology, conservation, and management. american fisheries society. 740 pp. ( 2003 ). cooke, s. j. & philipp, d. p. ( editors ). centrarchid fishes : diversity, biology, and conservation. john wiley & sons. 560 pp. ( 2009 ). = = = journal publications = = = parkos, j. j., wahl. d. h., & philipp, d. p. influence of behavior and mating success on brood - specific contribution to fish recruitment. ecological applications 21, 2576 – 2586 ( 2011 ). brooks, e. j., et al. the physiological response of the caribbean reef shark ( carcharhinus perezi ) to longline capture. comparative biochemistry and physiology part a, 159, 1 – 6 ( 2011 ) barthel, b. l. et al. genetic relationships among populations of florida bass. transactions of the american fisheries society 139, 1615 – 1641 ( 2010 ). philipp, d. p. et al. selection for vulnerability to angling in largemouth bass. trans. am. fish. soc. 138, 189 – 199 ( 2009 ). cooke, s. j., suski, c. d., ostrand, k. g., wahl, d. h. & philipp, d. p. physiological and behavioral consequences of long - term artificial selection for vulnerability to recreational angling in a teleost fish. physiological and biochemical zoology 80, 480 – 490 ( 2007 ). cooke, s. j. & philipp, d. p. behavior and mortality of caught - and - released bonefish ( albula spp. ) in bahamian waters with implications for a sustainable recreational fishery. biol. conserv. 118, 599 – 607 ( 2004 ). 1997 jennings, m. j., claussen, j. e., & philipp, d. p. effect of population size structure on reproductive investment of male bluegill. n. am. j. fish. manage 17, 516 – 524
. the elephant has, paley argues, a short neck because its head is so heavy, but in compensation it has a long trunk, enabling it to reach out. similarly the spider has no wings to enable it to chase its flying prey, but has a web, and organs adapted to produce it, which compensates for the lack. chapter xvii. the relation of animated bodies to inanimate nature organs such as the wings of birds and the fins of fish are expressly adapted to the surrounding'elements'of air or water in which they operate. chapter xviii. instincts instincts enable newly hatched young of salmon to find food, and later to migrate to the sea and finally back to their rivers to spawn. chapter xix. of insects " we are not writing a system of natural history ", begins paley, apologising for not covering every class systematically. he mentions insects for some examples unique to them, as the antennae, elytra ( scaly wing - cases ), ovipositors ( he calls them'awls') for laying eggs deep in plants or wood, stings, the proboscis of bees, the light - producing organ of the glow - worm and so on. chapter xx. of plants admitting that plants generally have less obvious evidence of'a designed and studied mechanism'than animals, still paley adds some examples, as of the parts of the seed, the delicate germ being protected by a tough or spiny husk, and dispersed by wings or other appendages. chapter xxi. of the elements paley considers how the'elements'of water, air etc. are exactly as needed. chapter xxii. astronomy paley admits that astronomy is not the best proof of'the agency of an intelligent creator ', but all the same it shows his magnificence. chapter xxiii. personality of the deity all the above items show the'contrivances'in existence, which paley argues prove the personality of the deity, arguing that only persons can contrive or design. chapter xxiv. of the natural attributes of the deity the attributes of god must, paley argues, be'adequate to the magnitude, extent, and multiplicity of his operations '. chapter xxv. of the unity of the deity paley argues that the uniformity of plan seen in the universe indicates a single god. chapter xxvi. the goodness of the deity god must be good, paley argues, because in many cases the designs seen
Answer:
|
sparrow
| 0.3 |
A plum tree's purple leaves uses light energy to
0. produce philosophy
1. create nourishment
2. distribute government propaganda
3. create noxious fumes
no3 - ( nitrate ). inside the plastic domes is installed a spiral tube 10 m ( 33 ft ) long that has holes positioned every 15 cm ( 5. 9 in ) functioning as seedbeds, for a total of 60 holes in each biosphere and a total of 150 to 200 plants. every semi - sphere has monitoring sensors that detect and record physical and chemical data such as : air temperature, humidity rate ( controlled through fans powered by solar energy ), luminosity, levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide. the garden is provided with an irrigation system situated in a tank in the lowest part of the spiral tube. the irrigation water is obtained thanks to the phenomenon of condensation caused by the difference between the air temperature inside of the biospheres and the surrounding water temperature. the water obtained is stored in the tanks and mixed with fertilizers and redistributed to the plants through a pump powered by solar energy that pushes the water from the bottom to the top of the spiral tube. the water then descends by gravity reaching the plants. the main renewable energy source is solar energy and fresh water is obtained through the process of desalination of water. in absence of solar energy, led lights are employed to provide light. the species of herbs, vegetables and flowers selected for the project are : stevia rebaudiana, salvia elegans, eschscholzia californica, vinca, calendula, pansy, small tomatoes, lemon balm, basil, thyme, orchids, sophora, goji, oregano, mentha and beans. the aim is to observe how different plants can survive and grow in this kind of environment. = = sustainability = = one of the most significant systems for modern farming is industrial agriculture based on large - scale monoculture. this method takes into account the increasing importance of sustainability, but the many improvements in this branch, like plant breeding and the use of agrochemicals, have caused significant ecological damage and are known to have negative health effects on humans. water is the main resource for agriculture and its management is particularly important, especially in countries where rainfalls are insufficient or variable. in the last years, the availability of freshwater has started to decrease rising the public's concearn and opening the way to new possible more sustainable agricultural methods like the one used in nemo's garden. gamberini's new underwater system hopes to help overcome problems related to the use of harmful pesticides, known to damage
leathers created from mushroom, pineapple skin, or cactus are now seen as viable alternatives. it is also seen that to feel, and be, closer to nature and animals to destroy them in the pursuit of this is counter - productive and in conflict with the philosophy of biophilia. natural colors : natural colors or " earth - tones ", are those that are commonly found in nature and are often subdued tones of brown, green, and blue. when using colors in buildings, they should represent these natural tones. brighter colors should only be used sparingly – one study found that red flowers on plants were found to be fatiguing and distracting by occupants. simulations of natural light and air : in areas where natural forms of ventilation and light cannot be achieved, creative use of interior lighting and mechanical ventilation can be used to mimic these natural features. designers can do this through variations in lighting through different lighting types, reflective mediums, and natural geometries that the fixture can shine through ; natural airflow can be imitated through mild changes in temperature, humidity, and air velocity. naturalistic shapes : natural shapes and forms can be achieved in architectural design through columns and nature - based patterns on facades - including these different elements into spaces can change a static space into an intriguing and appealing complex area. evoking nature : this uses characteristics found in nature to influence the structural design of the project. these may be things that may not occur in nature, rather elements that represent natural landscapes such as mimicking different plant heights found in ecosystems, and or mimicking particular animal, water, or plant features. information richness : this can be achieved by providing complex, yet not noisy environments that invoke occupant curiosity and thought. many ecosystems are complex and filled with different abiotic and biotic elements – in such the goal of this attribute is to include these elements into the environment of the building. change and the patina of time : people are intrigued by nature and how it changes, adapts, and ages over time, much like ourselves. in buildings, this can be accomplished by using organic materials that are susceptible to weathering and color change – this allows for us to observe slight changes in our built environment over time. natural geometries : the design of facades or structural components can include the use of repetitive, varied patterns that are seen in nature ( fractals ). these geometries can also have hierarchically organized scales and winding flow rather than be straight with harsh angles. for instance, commonly used natural
include harassing, using profanity, threatening someone physically and insulting them, and being annoying. = = = production = = = this area of business ethics usually deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not needlessly cause harm. since few goods and services can be produced and consumed with zero risks, determining the ethical course can be difficult. in some case, consumers demand products that harm them, such as tobacco products. production may have environmental impacts, including pollution, habitat destruction and urban sprawl. the downstream effects of technologies nuclear power, genetically modified food and mobile phones may not be well understood. while the precautionary principle may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences are not fully understood, that principle would have prohibited the newest technology introduced since the industrial revolution. product testing protocols have been attacked for violating the rights of both humans and animals. there are sources that provide information on companies that are environmentally responsible or do not test on animals. = = = property = = = the etymological root of property is the latin proprius, which refers to'nature ','quality ','one's own ','special characteristic ','proper ','intrinsic ','inherent ','regular ','normal ','genuine ','thorough, complete, perfect'etc. the word property is value loaded and associated with the personal qualities of propriety and respectability, also implies questions relating to ownership. a'proper'person owns and is true to herself or himself, and is thus genuine, perfect and pure. = = = = modern history of property rights = = = = modern discourse on property emerged by the turn of the 17th century within theological discussions of that time. for instance, john locke justified property rights saying that god had made " the earth, and all inferior creatures, [ in ] common to all men ". in 1802 utilitarian jeremy bentham stated, " property and law are born together and die together ". one argument for property ownership is that it enhances individual liberty by extending the line of non - interference by the state or others around the person. seen from this perspective, property right is absolute and property has a special and distinctive character that precedes its legal protection. blackstone conceptualized property as the " sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe ". = = = = = slaves as
effective in preserving common resources. selective punishments for overuse can be effective in promoting domestic water and energy conservation – for example, through installing water and electricity meters in houses. selective rewards work, provided that they are open to everyone. an experimental carpool lane in the netherlands failed because car commuters did not feel they were able to organize a carpool. the rewards do not have to be tangible. in canada, utilities considered putting " smiley faces " on electricity bills of customers below the average consumption of that customer's neighborhood. = = solutions = = articulating solutions to the tragedy of the commons is one of the main problems of political philosophy. in some situations, locals implement ( often complex ) social schemes that work well. when these fail, there are many possible governmental solutions such as privatization, internalizing the externalities, and regulation. = = = non - governmental solution = = = robert axelrod contends that even self - interested individuals will often find ways to cooperate, because collective restraint serves both the collective and individual interests. anthropologist g. n. appell criticised those who cited hardin to " impos [ e ] their own economic and environmental rationality on other social systems of which they have incomplete understanding and knowledge. " political scientist elinor ostrom, who was awarded 2009's nobel memorial prize in economic sciences for her work on the issue, and others revisited hardin's work in 1999. they found the tragedy of the commons not as prevalent or as difficult to solve as hardin maintained, since locals have often come up with solutions to the commons problem themselves. for example, another group found that a commons in the swiss alps has been run by a collective of farmers there to their mutual and individual benefit since 1517, in spite of the farmers also having access to their own farmland. in general, it is in the interest of the users of a commons to keep them functioning and so complex social schemes are often invented by the users for maintaining them at optimum efficiency. another prominent example of this is the deliberative process of granting legal personhood to a part of nature, for example rivers, with the aim of preserving their water resources and prevent environmental degradation. this process entails that a river is regarded as its own legal entity that can sue against environmental damage done to it while being represented by an independently appointed guardian advisory group. this has happened as a bottom - up process in new zealand : here debates initiated by the whanganui iwi tribe have resulted in legal personhood for the river. the river is considered
, and photoperiodism. photosynthesis provides the energy required to produce the energy source of plants. phototropism is the effect of light on plant growth that causes the plant to grow toward or away from the light. photoperiodism is a plant's response or capacity to respond to photoperiod, a recurring cycle of light and dark periods of constant length. = = = sunlight = = = while sunlight is not always easily controlled by the gardener, it is an important element of garden design. the amount of available light is a critical factor in determining what plants may be grown. sunlight will, therefore, have a substantial influence on the character of the garden. for example, a rose garden is generally not successful in full shade, while a garden of hostas may not thrive in hot sun. as another example, a vegetable garden may need to be placed in a sunny location, and if that location is not ideal for the overall garden design goals, the designer may need to change other aspects of the garden. in some cases, the amount of available sunlight can be influenced by the gardener. the location of trees, other shade plants, garden structures, or, when designing an entire property, even buildings, might be selected or changed based on their influence in increasing or reducing the amount of sunlight provided to various areas of the property. in other cases, the amount of sunlight is not under the gardener's control. nearby buildings, plants on other properties, or simply the climate of the local area, may limit the available sunlight. or, substantial changes in the light conditions of the garden may not be within the gardener's means. in this case, it is important to plan a garden that is compatible with the existing light conditions. = = notable garden designers = = = = types of gardens = = = = = islamic gardens = = = garden design and the islamic garden tradition began with creating the paradise garden in ancient persia, in western asia. it evolved over the centuries, and in the different cultures islamic dynasties came to rule in asia, the near east, north africa, and the iberian peninsula. = = = = examples = = = = some styles and examples include : persian gardens eram garden fin garden mughal gardens nishat bagh shalimar gardens ( lahore ) yadavindra gardens ( pinjore ) charbagh taj mahal tomb of humayun gardens bagh ( garden ) bagh - e babur shalimar bagh ( srinagar ) al - andal
Answer:
|
create nourishment
| null |
A plum tree's purple leaves uses light energy to
0. produce philosophy
1. create nourishment
2. distribute government propaganda
3. create noxious fumes
no3 - ( nitrate ). inside the plastic domes is installed a spiral tube 10 m ( 33 ft ) long that has holes positioned every 15 cm ( 5. 9 in ) functioning as seedbeds, for a total of 60 holes in each biosphere and a total of 150 to 200 plants. every semi - sphere has monitoring sensors that detect and record physical and chemical data such as : air temperature, humidity rate ( controlled through fans powered by solar energy ), luminosity, levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide. the garden is provided with an irrigation system situated in a tank in the lowest part of the spiral tube. the irrigation water is obtained thanks to the phenomenon of condensation caused by the difference between the air temperature inside of the biospheres and the surrounding water temperature. the water obtained is stored in the tanks and mixed with fertilizers and redistributed to the plants through a pump powered by solar energy that pushes the water from the bottom to the top of the spiral tube. the water then descends by gravity reaching the plants. the main renewable energy source is solar energy and fresh water is obtained through the process of desalination of water. in absence of solar energy, led lights are employed to provide light. the species of herbs, vegetables and flowers selected for the project are : stevia rebaudiana, salvia elegans, eschscholzia californica, vinca, calendula, pansy, small tomatoes, lemon balm, basil, thyme, orchids, sophora, goji, oregano, mentha and beans. the aim is to observe how different plants can survive and grow in this kind of environment. = = sustainability = = one of the most significant systems for modern farming is industrial agriculture based on large - scale monoculture. this method takes into account the increasing importance of sustainability, but the many improvements in this branch, like plant breeding and the use of agrochemicals, have caused significant ecological damage and are known to have negative health effects on humans. water is the main resource for agriculture and its management is particularly important, especially in countries where rainfalls are insufficient or variable. in the last years, the availability of freshwater has started to decrease rising the public's concearn and opening the way to new possible more sustainable agricultural methods like the one used in nemo's garden. gamberini's new underwater system hopes to help overcome problems related to the use of harmful pesticides, known to damage
leathers created from mushroom, pineapple skin, or cactus are now seen as viable alternatives. it is also seen that to feel, and be, closer to nature and animals to destroy them in the pursuit of this is counter - productive and in conflict with the philosophy of biophilia. natural colors : natural colors or " earth - tones ", are those that are commonly found in nature and are often subdued tones of brown, green, and blue. when using colors in buildings, they should represent these natural tones. brighter colors should only be used sparingly – one study found that red flowers on plants were found to be fatiguing and distracting by occupants. simulations of natural light and air : in areas where natural forms of ventilation and light cannot be achieved, creative use of interior lighting and mechanical ventilation can be used to mimic these natural features. designers can do this through variations in lighting through different lighting types, reflective mediums, and natural geometries that the fixture can shine through ; natural airflow can be imitated through mild changes in temperature, humidity, and air velocity. naturalistic shapes : natural shapes and forms can be achieved in architectural design through columns and nature - based patterns on facades - including these different elements into spaces can change a static space into an intriguing and appealing complex area. evoking nature : this uses characteristics found in nature to influence the structural design of the project. these may be things that may not occur in nature, rather elements that represent natural landscapes such as mimicking different plant heights found in ecosystems, and or mimicking particular animal, water, or plant features. information richness : this can be achieved by providing complex, yet not noisy environments that invoke occupant curiosity and thought. many ecosystems are complex and filled with different abiotic and biotic elements – in such the goal of this attribute is to include these elements into the environment of the building. change and the patina of time : people are intrigued by nature and how it changes, adapts, and ages over time, much like ourselves. in buildings, this can be accomplished by using organic materials that are susceptible to weathering and color change – this allows for us to observe slight changes in our built environment over time. natural geometries : the design of facades or structural components can include the use of repetitive, varied patterns that are seen in nature ( fractals ). these geometries can also have hierarchically organized scales and winding flow rather than be straight with harsh angles. for instance, commonly used natural
include harassing, using profanity, threatening someone physically and insulting them, and being annoying. = = = production = = = this area of business ethics usually deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not needlessly cause harm. since few goods and services can be produced and consumed with zero risks, determining the ethical course can be difficult. in some case, consumers demand products that harm them, such as tobacco products. production may have environmental impacts, including pollution, habitat destruction and urban sprawl. the downstream effects of technologies nuclear power, genetically modified food and mobile phones may not be well understood. while the precautionary principle may prohibit introducing new technology whose consequences are not fully understood, that principle would have prohibited the newest technology introduced since the industrial revolution. product testing protocols have been attacked for violating the rights of both humans and animals. there are sources that provide information on companies that are environmentally responsible or do not test on animals. = = = property = = = the etymological root of property is the latin proprius, which refers to'nature ','quality ','one's own ','special characteristic ','proper ','intrinsic ','inherent ','regular ','normal ','genuine ','thorough, complete, perfect'etc. the word property is value loaded and associated with the personal qualities of propriety and respectability, also implies questions relating to ownership. a'proper'person owns and is true to herself or himself, and is thus genuine, perfect and pure. = = = = modern history of property rights = = = = modern discourse on property emerged by the turn of the 17th century within theological discussions of that time. for instance, john locke justified property rights saying that god had made " the earth, and all inferior creatures, [ in ] common to all men ". in 1802 utilitarian jeremy bentham stated, " property and law are born together and die together ". one argument for property ownership is that it enhances individual liberty by extending the line of non - interference by the state or others around the person. seen from this perspective, property right is absolute and property has a special and distinctive character that precedes its legal protection. blackstone conceptualized property as the " sole and despotic dominion which one man claims and exercises over the external things of the world, in total exclusion of the right of any other individual in the universe ". = = = = = slaves as
effective in preserving common resources. selective punishments for overuse can be effective in promoting domestic water and energy conservation – for example, through installing water and electricity meters in houses. selective rewards work, provided that they are open to everyone. an experimental carpool lane in the netherlands failed because car commuters did not feel they were able to organize a carpool. the rewards do not have to be tangible. in canada, utilities considered putting " smiley faces " on electricity bills of customers below the average consumption of that customer's neighborhood. = = solutions = = articulating solutions to the tragedy of the commons is one of the main problems of political philosophy. in some situations, locals implement ( often complex ) social schemes that work well. when these fail, there are many possible governmental solutions such as privatization, internalizing the externalities, and regulation. = = = non - governmental solution = = = robert axelrod contends that even self - interested individuals will often find ways to cooperate, because collective restraint serves both the collective and individual interests. anthropologist g. n. appell criticised those who cited hardin to " impos [ e ] their own economic and environmental rationality on other social systems of which they have incomplete understanding and knowledge. " political scientist elinor ostrom, who was awarded 2009's nobel memorial prize in economic sciences for her work on the issue, and others revisited hardin's work in 1999. they found the tragedy of the commons not as prevalent or as difficult to solve as hardin maintained, since locals have often come up with solutions to the commons problem themselves. for example, another group found that a commons in the swiss alps has been run by a collective of farmers there to their mutual and individual benefit since 1517, in spite of the farmers also having access to their own farmland. in general, it is in the interest of the users of a commons to keep them functioning and so complex social schemes are often invented by the users for maintaining them at optimum efficiency. another prominent example of this is the deliberative process of granting legal personhood to a part of nature, for example rivers, with the aim of preserving their water resources and prevent environmental degradation. this process entails that a river is regarded as its own legal entity that can sue against environmental damage done to it while being represented by an independently appointed guardian advisory group. this has happened as a bottom - up process in new zealand : here debates initiated by the whanganui iwi tribe have resulted in legal personhood for the river. the river is considered
, and photoperiodism. photosynthesis provides the energy required to produce the energy source of plants. phototropism is the effect of light on plant growth that causes the plant to grow toward or away from the light. photoperiodism is a plant's response or capacity to respond to photoperiod, a recurring cycle of light and dark periods of constant length. = = = sunlight = = = while sunlight is not always easily controlled by the gardener, it is an important element of garden design. the amount of available light is a critical factor in determining what plants may be grown. sunlight will, therefore, have a substantial influence on the character of the garden. for example, a rose garden is generally not successful in full shade, while a garden of hostas may not thrive in hot sun. as another example, a vegetable garden may need to be placed in a sunny location, and if that location is not ideal for the overall garden design goals, the designer may need to change other aspects of the garden. in some cases, the amount of available sunlight can be influenced by the gardener. the location of trees, other shade plants, garden structures, or, when designing an entire property, even buildings, might be selected or changed based on their influence in increasing or reducing the amount of sunlight provided to various areas of the property. in other cases, the amount of sunlight is not under the gardener's control. nearby buildings, plants on other properties, or simply the climate of the local area, may limit the available sunlight. or, substantial changes in the light conditions of the garden may not be within the gardener's means. in this case, it is important to plan a garden that is compatible with the existing light conditions. = = notable garden designers = = = = types of gardens = = = = = islamic gardens = = = garden design and the islamic garden tradition began with creating the paradise garden in ancient persia, in western asia. it evolved over the centuries, and in the different cultures islamic dynasties came to rule in asia, the near east, north africa, and the iberian peninsula. = = = = examples = = = = some styles and examples include : persian gardens eram garden fin garden mughal gardens nishat bagh shalimar gardens ( lahore ) yadavindra gardens ( pinjore ) charbagh taj mahal tomb of humayun gardens bagh ( garden ) bagh - e babur shalimar bagh ( srinagar ) al - andal
Answer:
|
produce philosophy
| 0.3 |
What would a sedimentary rock likely hold?
0. a trilobyte
1. a cookie
2. a wheatgrass shake
3. a diner
a rock fragment, in sedimentary geology, is a sand - sized particle or sand grain that is made up of multiple grains that are connected on the grain scale. these can include grains which are sand - sized themselves ( a granitic rock fragment ), or finer - grained materials ( shale fragments ). this definition is used for qfr ternary diagrams, provenance analysis, and in the folk classification scheme, mainly in sandstones. = = see also = = floaters = = references = = folk, r. l., 1974, petrology of sedimentary rocks : austin, tx, hemphill press, second edition, 182 p.
combination of organic matter, silts and clays to create oil shales or coal deposits. = = see also = = glaciolacustrine deposits = = references = = prothero, donald r., and fred schwab. sedimentary geology. macmillan, 2004. apa 1950. web. < https : / / scholarworks. iu. edu / dspace / bitstream / handle / 2022 / 205 / b04. pdf? sequence = 1 >. krzic m., k. watson, s. grand, a. bomke, s. smith, s. dyanatkar, c. crowley, and g. lascu. 2010. soil formation and parent material. the university of british columbia, vancouver, thompson rivers university, kamloops, and agriculture and agri - food canada, summerland. [ 1 ]
lignite – soft, brown, combustible, sedimentary rock limestone – type of sedimentary rock marl – lime - rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt mudstone – fine grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or muds oil shale – organic - rich fine - grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen oolite – sedimentary rock formed from ooids phosphorite – sedimentary rock containing large amounts of phosphate minerals – a non - detrital sedimentary rock that contains high amounts of phosphate minerals sandstone – type of sedimentary rock shale – fine - grained, clastic sedimentary rock siltstone – sedimentary rock which has a grain size in the silt range sylvinite – sedimentary rock made of a mechanical mixture of sylvite and halite tillite – till which has been indurated or lithified by burial travertine – form of limestone deposited by mineral springs tufa – porous limestone rock formed when carbonate minerals precipitate out of ambient temperature water turbidite – geologic deposit of a turbidity current wackestone – mud - supported carbonate rock that contains greater than 10 % grains = = metamorphic rocks = = anthracite – hard, compact variety of coal amphibolite – metamorphic rock type blueschist – type of metavolcanic rock cataclasite – rock found at geological faults – a rock formed by faulting eclogite – metamorphic rock formed under high pressure gneiss – common high - grade metamorphic rock granulite – class of high - grade medium to coarse grained metamorphic rocks greenschist – metamorphic rock – a mafic metamorphic rock dominated by green amphiboles hornfels – group of metamorphic rocks calcflinta – calc - silicate hornfels jadeitite – metamorphic rock found in blueschist - grade metamorphic terranes litchfieldite – nepheline syenite gneiss marble – type of metamorphic rock – a metamorphosed limestone migmatite – mixture of metamorphic rock and igneous rock mylonite – metamorphic rock – a metamorphic rock formed by shearing metaconglomerate - a type of metamorphic rock formed through the recrystallization of conglomerates metapelite – metamorphic rockpages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – a metamorphic rock with a protolith of clay - rich ( si
##asts with different sizes. the statistical distribution of grain sizes is different for different rock types and is described in a property called the sorting of the rock. when all clasts are more or less of the same size, the rock is called'well - sorted ', and when there is a large spread in grain size, the rock is called'poorly sorted '. the form of the clasts can reflect the origin of the rock. for example, coquina, a rock composed of clasts of broken shells, can only form in energetic water. the form of a clast can be described by using four parameters : surface texture describes the amount of small - scale relief of the surface of a grain that is too small to influence the general shape. for example, frosted grains, which are covered with small - scale fractures, are characteristic of eolian sandstones. rounding describes the general smoothness of the shape of a grain. sphericity describes the degree to which the grain approaches a sphere. grain form describes the three - dimensional shape of the grain. chemical sedimentary rocks have a non - clastic texture, consisting entirely of crystals. to describe such a texture, only the average size of the crystals and the fabric are necessary. = = = mineralogy = = = most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz ( siliciclastic rocks ) or calcite ( carbonate rocks ). in contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks, a sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals. however, the origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more complex than in an igneous rock. minerals in a sedimentary rock may have been present in the original sediments or may formed by precipitation during diagenesis. in the second case, a mineral precipitate may have grown over an older generation of cement. a complex diagenetic history can be established by optical mineralogy, using a petrographic microscope. carbonate rocks predominantly consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite, aragonite or dolomite. both the cement and the clasts ( including fossils and ooids ) of a carbonate sedimentary rock usually consist of carbonate minerals. the mineralogy of a clastic rock is determined by the material supplied by the source area, the manner of its transport to the place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral. the resistance of rock - forming minerals to weathering is expressed by the goldich dissolution series. in this series, quartz is the most stable, followed by feldspar, micas, and
##ructure are interchangeable, with the latter preferred in modern geological literature. however, texture is still acceptable because it is a useful means of identifying the origin of rocks, how they formed, and their appearance. = = sedimentary microstructures = = description of sedimentary rock microstructure aims to provide information on the conditions of deposition of the sediment, the paleoenvironment, and the provenance of the sedimentary material. methods involve description of clast size, sorting, composition, rounding or angularity, sphericity and description of the matrix. sedimentary microstructures, specifically, may include microscopic analogs of larger sedimentary structural features such as cross - bedding, syn - sedimentary faults, sediment slumping, cross - stratification, etc. = = = maturity = = = the maturity of a sediment is related not only to the sorting ( mean grain size and deviations ), but also to the fragment sphericity, rounding and composition. quartz - only sands are more mature than arkose or greywacke. = = = fragment shape = = = fragment shape gives information on the length of sediment transport. the more rounded the clasts, the more water or wind - worn they are. particle shape includes form and rounding. form indicates whether a grain is more equant ( round, spherical ) or platy ( flat, disc - like, oblate ) ; as well as sphericity. = = = = roundness = = = = roundness refers to the degree of sharpness of the corners and edges of a grain. the surface texture of grains may be polished, frosted, or marked by small pits and scratches. this information can usually be seen best under a binocular microscope, not in a thin section. = = = composition = = = composition of the clasts can give clues as to the derivation of a rock's sediments. for instance, volcanic fragments, fragments of cherts, well - rounded sands all imply different sources. = = = matrix and cement = = = the matrix of a sedimentary rock and the mineral cement ( if any ) holding it together are all diagnostic. = = = diagenetic features = = = usually diagenesis results in a weak bedding - plane foliation. other effects can include flattening of grains, pressure dissolution and sub - grain deformation. mineralogical changes may include zeolite or other authigenic minerals forming in low - grade metamorphic conditions. = =
Answer:
|
a trilobyte
| null |
What would a sedimentary rock likely hold?
0. a trilobyte
1. a cookie
2. a wheatgrass shake
3. a diner
a rock fragment, in sedimentary geology, is a sand - sized particle or sand grain that is made up of multiple grains that are connected on the grain scale. these can include grains which are sand - sized themselves ( a granitic rock fragment ), or finer - grained materials ( shale fragments ). this definition is used for qfr ternary diagrams, provenance analysis, and in the folk classification scheme, mainly in sandstones. = = see also = = floaters = = references = = folk, r. l., 1974, petrology of sedimentary rocks : austin, tx, hemphill press, second edition, 182 p.
combination of organic matter, silts and clays to create oil shales or coal deposits. = = see also = = glaciolacustrine deposits = = references = = prothero, donald r., and fred schwab. sedimentary geology. macmillan, 2004. apa 1950. web. < https : / / scholarworks. iu. edu / dspace / bitstream / handle / 2022 / 205 / b04. pdf? sequence = 1 >. krzic m., k. watson, s. grand, a. bomke, s. smith, s. dyanatkar, c. crowley, and g. lascu. 2010. soil formation and parent material. the university of british columbia, vancouver, thompson rivers university, kamloops, and agriculture and agri - food canada, summerland. [ 1 ]
lignite – soft, brown, combustible, sedimentary rock limestone – type of sedimentary rock marl – lime - rich mud or mudstone which contains variable amounts of clays and silt mudstone – fine grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or muds oil shale – organic - rich fine - grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen oolite – sedimentary rock formed from ooids phosphorite – sedimentary rock containing large amounts of phosphate minerals – a non - detrital sedimentary rock that contains high amounts of phosphate minerals sandstone – type of sedimentary rock shale – fine - grained, clastic sedimentary rock siltstone – sedimentary rock which has a grain size in the silt range sylvinite – sedimentary rock made of a mechanical mixture of sylvite and halite tillite – till which has been indurated or lithified by burial travertine – form of limestone deposited by mineral springs tufa – porous limestone rock formed when carbonate minerals precipitate out of ambient temperature water turbidite – geologic deposit of a turbidity current wackestone – mud - supported carbonate rock that contains greater than 10 % grains = = metamorphic rocks = = anthracite – hard, compact variety of coal amphibolite – metamorphic rock type blueschist – type of metavolcanic rock cataclasite – rock found at geological faults – a rock formed by faulting eclogite – metamorphic rock formed under high pressure gneiss – common high - grade metamorphic rock granulite – class of high - grade medium to coarse grained metamorphic rocks greenschist – metamorphic rock – a mafic metamorphic rock dominated by green amphiboles hornfels – group of metamorphic rocks calcflinta – calc - silicate hornfels jadeitite – metamorphic rock found in blueschist - grade metamorphic terranes litchfieldite – nepheline syenite gneiss marble – type of metamorphic rock – a metamorphosed limestone migmatite – mixture of metamorphic rock and igneous rock mylonite – metamorphic rock – a metamorphic rock formed by shearing metaconglomerate - a type of metamorphic rock formed through the recrystallization of conglomerates metapelite – metamorphic rockpages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – a metamorphic rock with a protolith of clay - rich ( si
##asts with different sizes. the statistical distribution of grain sizes is different for different rock types and is described in a property called the sorting of the rock. when all clasts are more or less of the same size, the rock is called'well - sorted ', and when there is a large spread in grain size, the rock is called'poorly sorted '. the form of the clasts can reflect the origin of the rock. for example, coquina, a rock composed of clasts of broken shells, can only form in energetic water. the form of a clast can be described by using four parameters : surface texture describes the amount of small - scale relief of the surface of a grain that is too small to influence the general shape. for example, frosted grains, which are covered with small - scale fractures, are characteristic of eolian sandstones. rounding describes the general smoothness of the shape of a grain. sphericity describes the degree to which the grain approaches a sphere. grain form describes the three - dimensional shape of the grain. chemical sedimentary rocks have a non - clastic texture, consisting entirely of crystals. to describe such a texture, only the average size of the crystals and the fabric are necessary. = = = mineralogy = = = most sedimentary rocks contain either quartz ( siliciclastic rocks ) or calcite ( carbonate rocks ). in contrast to igneous and metamorphic rocks, a sedimentary rock usually contains very few different major minerals. however, the origin of the minerals in a sedimentary rock is often more complex than in an igneous rock. minerals in a sedimentary rock may have been present in the original sediments or may formed by precipitation during diagenesis. in the second case, a mineral precipitate may have grown over an older generation of cement. a complex diagenetic history can be established by optical mineralogy, using a petrographic microscope. carbonate rocks predominantly consist of carbonate minerals such as calcite, aragonite or dolomite. both the cement and the clasts ( including fossils and ooids ) of a carbonate sedimentary rock usually consist of carbonate minerals. the mineralogy of a clastic rock is determined by the material supplied by the source area, the manner of its transport to the place of deposition and the stability of that particular mineral. the resistance of rock - forming minerals to weathering is expressed by the goldich dissolution series. in this series, quartz is the most stable, followed by feldspar, micas, and
##ructure are interchangeable, with the latter preferred in modern geological literature. however, texture is still acceptable because it is a useful means of identifying the origin of rocks, how they formed, and their appearance. = = sedimentary microstructures = = description of sedimentary rock microstructure aims to provide information on the conditions of deposition of the sediment, the paleoenvironment, and the provenance of the sedimentary material. methods involve description of clast size, sorting, composition, rounding or angularity, sphericity and description of the matrix. sedimentary microstructures, specifically, may include microscopic analogs of larger sedimentary structural features such as cross - bedding, syn - sedimentary faults, sediment slumping, cross - stratification, etc. = = = maturity = = = the maturity of a sediment is related not only to the sorting ( mean grain size and deviations ), but also to the fragment sphericity, rounding and composition. quartz - only sands are more mature than arkose or greywacke. = = = fragment shape = = = fragment shape gives information on the length of sediment transport. the more rounded the clasts, the more water or wind - worn they are. particle shape includes form and rounding. form indicates whether a grain is more equant ( round, spherical ) or platy ( flat, disc - like, oblate ) ; as well as sphericity. = = = = roundness = = = = roundness refers to the degree of sharpness of the corners and edges of a grain. the surface texture of grains may be polished, frosted, or marked by small pits and scratches. this information can usually be seen best under a binocular microscope, not in a thin section. = = = composition = = = composition of the clasts can give clues as to the derivation of a rock's sediments. for instance, volcanic fragments, fragments of cherts, well - rounded sands all imply different sources. = = = matrix and cement = = = the matrix of a sedimentary rock and the mineral cement ( if any ) holding it together are all diagnostic. = = = diagenetic features = = = usually diagenesis results in a weak bedding - plane foliation. other effects can include flattening of grains, pressure dissolution and sub - grain deformation. mineralogical changes may include zeolite or other authigenic minerals forming in low - grade metamorphic conditions. = =
Answer:
|
a cookie
| 0.3 |
Some frogs may do what for their young
0. use magic
1. space travel
2. urinate on them
3. eat candle wax
achieve nighttime dryness by developing one or both of these abilities. there appear to be some hereditary factors in how and when these develop. the first ability is a hormone cycle that reduces the body's urine production. at about sunset each day, the body releases a minute burst of antidiuretic hormone ( also known as arginine vasopressin or avp ). this hormone burst reduces the kidney's urine output well into the night so that the bladder does not get full until morning. this hormone cycle is not present at birth. many children develop it between the ages of two and six years old, others between six and the end of puberty, and some not at all. the second ability that helps people stay dry is waking when the bladder is full. this ability develops in the same age range as the vasopressin hormone, but is separate from that hormone cycle. the typical development process begins with one - and two - year - old children developing larger bladders and beginning to sense bladder fullness. two - and three - year - old children begin to stay dry during the day. four - and five - year - olds develop an adult pattern of urinary control and begin to stay dry at night. = = diagnosis = = thorough history regarding frequency of bedwetting, any period of dryness in between, associated daytime symptoms, constipation, and encopresis should be sought. = = = voiding diary = = = people are asked to observe, record and measure when and how much their child voids and drinks, as well as associated symptoms. a voiding diary in the form of a frequency volume chart records voided volume along with the time of each micturition for at least 24 hours. the frequency volume chart is enough for patients with complaints of nocturia and frequency only. if other symptoms are also present then a detailed bladder diary must be maintained. in a bladder diary, times of micturition and voided volume, incontinence episodes, pad usage, and other information such as fluid intake, the degree of urgency, and the degree of incontinence are recorded. = = = physical examination = = = each child should be examined physically at least once at the beginning of treatment. a full pediatric and neurological exam is recommended. measurement of blood pressure is important to rule out any renal pathology. external genitalia and lumbosacral spine should be examined thoroughly. a spinal defect, such as a dimple, hair tuft,
was known as the " bell and pad ", where a sensor detected when a child had wet themselves at night, and triggered an alarm to act as a form of conditioning. similar alarm systems have been studied that sense wetness in undergarments, especially as it concerns the toilet training of those with intellectual disabilities. this has been applied more recently in the production of potties, that play an audible cheer or other form of encouragement when used by a child. : 170 – 2 trainers may choose to employ different choices of undergarments to facilitate training. this includes switching from traditional diapers or nappies to training pants ( pull - ups ), or the use of non - absorbent cotton underwear of the type adults may wear. these are typically employed later in the training process, and not as initial step. : 175 children who experience repeated accidents after transitioning to cotton undergarments may be allowed to resume the use of diapers. most widely used techniques recommend the use of specialized children's potties, and some recommend that parents consider using snacks or drinks as rewards. = = see also = = = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = schum, t. r. ; kolb, t. m. ; mcauliffe, t. l. ; simms, m. d. ; underhill, r. l. ; lewis, m. ( 2002 ). " sequential acquisition of toilet training skills : a descriptive study of gender and age differences in normal children ". pediatrics. 109 ( 3 ) : e48. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 109. 3. e48. pmid 11875176. blum nj, taubman b, nemeth n ( 2003 ). " relationship between age at initiation of toilet training and duration of training : a prospective study ". pediatrics. 111 ( 4 pt 1 ) : 810 – 4. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 111. 4. 810. pmid 12671117. devries, mw ; devries, mr ( 1977 ). " cultural relativity of toilet training readiness : a perspective from east africa ". pediatrics. 60 ( 2 ) : 170 – 7. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 60. 2. 170. pmid 887331. s2cid 36154293. cavanagh, sheila l. ( 2017 ). " toilet training : the gender and sexual body politics of the
, the female basilar papilla is biased towards a lower - than - average “ chuck ” portion of a male call. experiments that measure the vocal responses and approaches shows these attenuations. = = = mode of sound communication = = = calls are often sent through the air, but other mediums have been discovered. some species call while they are underwater and the sound travels through the water. this is adaptive in a region with multiple species competing for air time. narins has found female frog species that use solid surfaces, such as blades of grass and logs, upon which they tap rhythmically to attract mates. also, feng, narins and colleagues have found that some species of frogs use ultrasound. = = sound production = = the smallest frogs expend much energy to produce calls. in order for vocalizations to be produced, the respiratory airflow goes from the lungs, passing through the larynx, and into the oral cavity. the vocal cords then oscillate as a result. in addition, vocalizing muscles can make up 15 % of a male spring peeper's body mass, while the same muscles are only 3 % of females. frogs produce sound from the air sac below their mouth that from the outside, is seen to inflate and deflate. air from the lungs is channeled to the air sac, which resonates to make the sound louder. the larynx is larger and more developed in males, though not significantly different from females. frogs produce two types of calls that most experiments tend to focus on, which are release calling and mating calling. only the male frogs are able to produce mating calls to attract gravid female frogs. when male and non - gravid female frogs are clasped by sexually active male frogs, they produce a release call. in the leopard frog, there are three movements for their sound production. first, there are body wall contradictions to serve as a way for the intra - pulmonary pressure to increase. second, in order for air flow to pass through the larynx, the glottis must be open. third and last, in the larynx, the vocal cords must oppose each other at the midline so that the air flow can cause them to vibrate. in addition, their release calls and movements of their throats and sides are correlated with laryngeal calling movements. for the concave - eared torrent frog ( amolops tormotus ), they produce sounds in the ultrasonic
nocturnal enuresis ( ne ), also informally called bedwetting, is involuntary urination while asleep after the age at which bladder control usually begins. bedwetting in children and adults can result in emotional stress. complications can include urinary tract infections. most bedwetting is a developmental delay — not an emotional problem or physical illness. only a small percentage ( 5 to 10 % ) of bedwetting cases have a specific medical cause. bedwetting is commonly associated with a family history of the condition. nocturnal enuresis is considered primary when a child has not yet had a prolonged period of being dry. secondary nocturnal enuresis is when a child or adult begins wetting again after having stayed dry. treatments range from behavioral therapy, such as bedwetting alarms, to medication, such as hormone replacement, and even surgery such as urethral dilatation. since most bedwetting is simply a developmental delay, most treatment plans aim to protect or improve self - esteem. treatment guidelines recommend that the physician counsel the parents, warning about psychological consequences caused by pressure, shaming, or punishment for a condition children cannot control. bedwetting is the most common childhood complaint. = = impact = = a review of medical literature shows doctors consistently stressing that a bedwetting child is not at fault for the situation. many medical studies state that the psychological impacts of bedwetting are more important than the physical considerations. " it is often the child's and family members'reaction to bedwetting that determines whether it is a problem or not. " = = = self - esteem = = = whether bedwetting causes low self - esteem remains a subject of debate, but several studies have found that self - esteem improved with management of the condition. children questioned in one study ranked bedwetting as the third most stressful life event, after " parental war of words ", divorce and parental fighting. adolescents in the same study ranked bedwetting as tied for second with parental fighting. bedwetters face problems ranging from being teased by siblings, being punished by parents, the embarrassment of still having to wear diapers, and being afraid that friends will find out. psychologists report that the amount of psychological harm depends on whether the bedwetting harms self - esteem or development of social skills. key factors are : how much the bedwetting limits social activities like sleep - overs and campouts the degree of the social ostracism by peers ( perceived ) anger, punishment, refusal and rejection by
one of the smallest extant vertebrates. other families of fish which have sound - generating mechanisms involving the swim bladder include : mormyrids characids batrachoidids triglids gadids = = in amphibians = = frogs possess vocal sacs which serve to enhance their nuptial calls. to call, the frog closes its mouth, then expels air from its lungs, through its larynx, and into the vocal sac ; the larynx's vibration causes the vocal sac to resonate. additionally, some frogs may call from inside structures that further amplify their calls ; metaphrynella sundana call from inside tree hollows with water pooling at the bottom, tuning their own calls to the resonant frequency of their specific tree hollow. mientien tree frogs ( kurixalus idiootocus ) residing in urban areas utilize storm drains to improve their calls ; frogs calling within the drains called louder and for longer periods. = = in amniotes = = = = = mammals = = = = = = = primates = = = = the larynx is the primary vocal organ of mammals. in humans, it acts as a resonator only for high frequencies, due to its small volume ; the pharynx, oral -, and nasal cavities, descending in order, are the most important resonators in humans. several non - human primates are adapted to producing loud calls, and they often rely on resonance chambers to produce it. the howler monkeys possess extralaryngeal airsacs along with a pneumatized ( hollow ) hyoid bone ; it is suggested that the hollow hyoid acts as a resonating chamber, allowing the howler monkey to produce its namesake call. gibbons are also well known for their loud territorial calls ; the siamang has a particularly well developed gular sac that acts as a resonating chamber. male orangutans also use their throat pouches for the purpose of enhancing their calls. male gorillas'airways have air sacs that penetrate into the soft tissue of the chest. these airsacs amplify the sound produced by his percussive chest - beating. = = = = laurasiatheres = = = = horseshoe bats ( of the family rhinolophidae ) are a bat genus that possess air pouches, or chambers, around their larynx which act as helmholtz resonators. the male hammerhead bat
Answer:
|
urinate on them
| null |
Some frogs may do what for their young
0. use magic
1. space travel
2. urinate on them
3. eat candle wax
achieve nighttime dryness by developing one or both of these abilities. there appear to be some hereditary factors in how and when these develop. the first ability is a hormone cycle that reduces the body's urine production. at about sunset each day, the body releases a minute burst of antidiuretic hormone ( also known as arginine vasopressin or avp ). this hormone burst reduces the kidney's urine output well into the night so that the bladder does not get full until morning. this hormone cycle is not present at birth. many children develop it between the ages of two and six years old, others between six and the end of puberty, and some not at all. the second ability that helps people stay dry is waking when the bladder is full. this ability develops in the same age range as the vasopressin hormone, but is separate from that hormone cycle. the typical development process begins with one - and two - year - old children developing larger bladders and beginning to sense bladder fullness. two - and three - year - old children begin to stay dry during the day. four - and five - year - olds develop an adult pattern of urinary control and begin to stay dry at night. = = diagnosis = = thorough history regarding frequency of bedwetting, any period of dryness in between, associated daytime symptoms, constipation, and encopresis should be sought. = = = voiding diary = = = people are asked to observe, record and measure when and how much their child voids and drinks, as well as associated symptoms. a voiding diary in the form of a frequency volume chart records voided volume along with the time of each micturition for at least 24 hours. the frequency volume chart is enough for patients with complaints of nocturia and frequency only. if other symptoms are also present then a detailed bladder diary must be maintained. in a bladder diary, times of micturition and voided volume, incontinence episodes, pad usage, and other information such as fluid intake, the degree of urgency, and the degree of incontinence are recorded. = = = physical examination = = = each child should be examined physically at least once at the beginning of treatment. a full pediatric and neurological exam is recommended. measurement of blood pressure is important to rule out any renal pathology. external genitalia and lumbosacral spine should be examined thoroughly. a spinal defect, such as a dimple, hair tuft,
was known as the " bell and pad ", where a sensor detected when a child had wet themselves at night, and triggered an alarm to act as a form of conditioning. similar alarm systems have been studied that sense wetness in undergarments, especially as it concerns the toilet training of those with intellectual disabilities. this has been applied more recently in the production of potties, that play an audible cheer or other form of encouragement when used by a child. : 170 – 2 trainers may choose to employ different choices of undergarments to facilitate training. this includes switching from traditional diapers or nappies to training pants ( pull - ups ), or the use of non - absorbent cotton underwear of the type adults may wear. these are typically employed later in the training process, and not as initial step. : 175 children who experience repeated accidents after transitioning to cotton undergarments may be allowed to resume the use of diapers. most widely used techniques recommend the use of specialized children's potties, and some recommend that parents consider using snacks or drinks as rewards. = = see also = = = = notes = = = = references = = = = further reading = = schum, t. r. ; kolb, t. m. ; mcauliffe, t. l. ; simms, m. d. ; underhill, r. l. ; lewis, m. ( 2002 ). " sequential acquisition of toilet training skills : a descriptive study of gender and age differences in normal children ". pediatrics. 109 ( 3 ) : e48. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 109. 3. e48. pmid 11875176. blum nj, taubman b, nemeth n ( 2003 ). " relationship between age at initiation of toilet training and duration of training : a prospective study ". pediatrics. 111 ( 4 pt 1 ) : 810 – 4. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 111. 4. 810. pmid 12671117. devries, mw ; devries, mr ( 1977 ). " cultural relativity of toilet training readiness : a perspective from east africa ". pediatrics. 60 ( 2 ) : 170 – 7. doi : 10. 1542 / peds. 60. 2. 170. pmid 887331. s2cid 36154293. cavanagh, sheila l. ( 2017 ). " toilet training : the gender and sexual body politics of the
, the female basilar papilla is biased towards a lower - than - average “ chuck ” portion of a male call. experiments that measure the vocal responses and approaches shows these attenuations. = = = mode of sound communication = = = calls are often sent through the air, but other mediums have been discovered. some species call while they are underwater and the sound travels through the water. this is adaptive in a region with multiple species competing for air time. narins has found female frog species that use solid surfaces, such as blades of grass and logs, upon which they tap rhythmically to attract mates. also, feng, narins and colleagues have found that some species of frogs use ultrasound. = = sound production = = the smallest frogs expend much energy to produce calls. in order for vocalizations to be produced, the respiratory airflow goes from the lungs, passing through the larynx, and into the oral cavity. the vocal cords then oscillate as a result. in addition, vocalizing muscles can make up 15 % of a male spring peeper's body mass, while the same muscles are only 3 % of females. frogs produce sound from the air sac below their mouth that from the outside, is seen to inflate and deflate. air from the lungs is channeled to the air sac, which resonates to make the sound louder. the larynx is larger and more developed in males, though not significantly different from females. frogs produce two types of calls that most experiments tend to focus on, which are release calling and mating calling. only the male frogs are able to produce mating calls to attract gravid female frogs. when male and non - gravid female frogs are clasped by sexually active male frogs, they produce a release call. in the leopard frog, there are three movements for their sound production. first, there are body wall contradictions to serve as a way for the intra - pulmonary pressure to increase. second, in order for air flow to pass through the larynx, the glottis must be open. third and last, in the larynx, the vocal cords must oppose each other at the midline so that the air flow can cause them to vibrate. in addition, their release calls and movements of their throats and sides are correlated with laryngeal calling movements. for the concave - eared torrent frog ( amolops tormotus ), they produce sounds in the ultrasonic
nocturnal enuresis ( ne ), also informally called bedwetting, is involuntary urination while asleep after the age at which bladder control usually begins. bedwetting in children and adults can result in emotional stress. complications can include urinary tract infections. most bedwetting is a developmental delay — not an emotional problem or physical illness. only a small percentage ( 5 to 10 % ) of bedwetting cases have a specific medical cause. bedwetting is commonly associated with a family history of the condition. nocturnal enuresis is considered primary when a child has not yet had a prolonged period of being dry. secondary nocturnal enuresis is when a child or adult begins wetting again after having stayed dry. treatments range from behavioral therapy, such as bedwetting alarms, to medication, such as hormone replacement, and even surgery such as urethral dilatation. since most bedwetting is simply a developmental delay, most treatment plans aim to protect or improve self - esteem. treatment guidelines recommend that the physician counsel the parents, warning about psychological consequences caused by pressure, shaming, or punishment for a condition children cannot control. bedwetting is the most common childhood complaint. = = impact = = a review of medical literature shows doctors consistently stressing that a bedwetting child is not at fault for the situation. many medical studies state that the psychological impacts of bedwetting are more important than the physical considerations. " it is often the child's and family members'reaction to bedwetting that determines whether it is a problem or not. " = = = self - esteem = = = whether bedwetting causes low self - esteem remains a subject of debate, but several studies have found that self - esteem improved with management of the condition. children questioned in one study ranked bedwetting as the third most stressful life event, after " parental war of words ", divorce and parental fighting. adolescents in the same study ranked bedwetting as tied for second with parental fighting. bedwetters face problems ranging from being teased by siblings, being punished by parents, the embarrassment of still having to wear diapers, and being afraid that friends will find out. psychologists report that the amount of psychological harm depends on whether the bedwetting harms self - esteem or development of social skills. key factors are : how much the bedwetting limits social activities like sleep - overs and campouts the degree of the social ostracism by peers ( perceived ) anger, punishment, refusal and rejection by
one of the smallest extant vertebrates. other families of fish which have sound - generating mechanisms involving the swim bladder include : mormyrids characids batrachoidids triglids gadids = = in amphibians = = frogs possess vocal sacs which serve to enhance their nuptial calls. to call, the frog closes its mouth, then expels air from its lungs, through its larynx, and into the vocal sac ; the larynx's vibration causes the vocal sac to resonate. additionally, some frogs may call from inside structures that further amplify their calls ; metaphrynella sundana call from inside tree hollows with water pooling at the bottom, tuning their own calls to the resonant frequency of their specific tree hollow. mientien tree frogs ( kurixalus idiootocus ) residing in urban areas utilize storm drains to improve their calls ; frogs calling within the drains called louder and for longer periods. = = in amniotes = = = = = mammals = = = = = = = primates = = = = the larynx is the primary vocal organ of mammals. in humans, it acts as a resonator only for high frequencies, due to its small volume ; the pharynx, oral -, and nasal cavities, descending in order, are the most important resonators in humans. several non - human primates are adapted to producing loud calls, and they often rely on resonance chambers to produce it. the howler monkeys possess extralaryngeal airsacs along with a pneumatized ( hollow ) hyoid bone ; it is suggested that the hollow hyoid acts as a resonating chamber, allowing the howler monkey to produce its namesake call. gibbons are also well known for their loud territorial calls ; the siamang has a particularly well developed gular sac that acts as a resonating chamber. male orangutans also use their throat pouches for the purpose of enhancing their calls. male gorillas'airways have air sacs that penetrate into the soft tissue of the chest. these airsacs amplify the sound produced by his percussive chest - beating. = = = = laurasiatheres = = = = horseshoe bats ( of the family rhinolophidae ) are a bat genus that possess air pouches, or chambers, around their larynx which act as helmholtz resonators. the male hammerhead bat
Answer:
|
eat candle wax
| 0.3 |
A frog would most likely eat
0. a cockroach
1. another frog
2. a maple leaf
3. a mouse
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
cane toad was deliberately introduced to control agricultural pests ( platenberg ). similar to the cuban treefrog, the cane toad is also omnivorous. cane toad tadpoles compete for limited freshwater resources with the white - lipped frog, a native species, thus limiting their resources ( platenberg ). in general, when the introduction of a nonnative species results in extinction, the ecosystem experiences losses in some trophic levels ( platenberg ). for example, vertebrate herbivores that are prone to extinction change the ecosystem function in plant communities. this phenomenon is seen in new zealand, where the loss of bird species may have changed dynamics in avian - induced vegetation communities and impacted abundances of forest plants ( platenberg ). also in new zealand, small mammalian predators such as rodents have little direct effect on vegetation but have greater effect on island faunas through extinction and displacement ( wood et al. ). pacific rats, for example, were thought to be causing the local extinction of large, nocturnal ground - dwelling lizards, and they were assumed to have minimal effect on diurnal species, those that sleep at night, such as shore skinks ( wood et al. ). in places where pacific rats were removed, however, shore skink populations rapidly changed, indicating that the rats ’ impact has been underestimated ( wood et al. ). the loss of a keystone species, a species that all other species in the ecosystem depend on such as seabirds, can also have significant effects ( towns ). seabirds are essential to the structure of the ecosystem because they transport large amounts of nutrients into ecosystems and burrow into soils, helping vegetation ( towns ). however, since human settlement, seabird communities have been severely impacted on islands across the globe ( towns ). while some exotic species may perform ecological roles similar to those of extinct species, there are many roles that cannot be fulfilled by other species. therefore, similar exotic species do not offer complete replacement for extinct species in the community ( towns ). even if the number of species introduced to an island is roughly the same as the number of extinct ones, the ecological traits are not comparable enough to make up for losses ( towns ). = = = global warming = = = global warming is emerging as a strong cause of species loss on islands. this can be due to sea level rise, the intrusion of salt water into freshwater habitats, or species inability to adapt to increasing temperatures and extreme weather events. plant species are particularly susceptible. in more isolated areas, such
, attheyella spp. ) and cyclopoid copepods ( bryocyclops spp., tropocyclops jamaicensis ). in tropical and subtropical rainforest habitats, many species of frogs specialize on phytotelma as a readily available breeding ground, such as some microhylids ( in pitcher plants ), poison dart frogs and some tree frogs ( in bromeliads ). many insects use them for breeding and foraging, for instance odonates, water bugs, beetles and dipterans. some species also are of great practical significance ; for example, immature stages of some mosquitoes, such as some anopheles and aedes species that are important disease vectors, develop in phytotelmata. as these are such small systems, there may be great risk of nitrogenous waste eventually putrefying phytotelmata, killing their inhabitants. potentially relevant is that tadpoles of the species kurixalus eiffingeri have been found to avoid defecation until after metamorphosis, when they have vacated phytotelmata. this may evidence selection for social sanitation, and the discoverers surmise this may be a selective pressure for other denizens of phytotelmata as well. = = see also = = nepenthes infauna bromeliaceae = = references = = = = external links = = [ 1 ] bromeliad biota [ 2 ] heliconia biota [ 3 ] video footage of a beech tree - hole
, like in bombus terrestris, where the queen has considerable control in forcing a 1 : 1 ratio. = = = in amphibians = = = many species of frogs and salamanders display complex social behavior with highly involved parental care that includes egg attendance, tadpole transport, and tadpole feeding. = = = = energy expenditure = = = = both males and females of the strawberry poison - dart frog care for their offspring, however, females invest in more costly ways. females of certain poison frog species produce unfertilized, non - developing trophic eggs which provide nutrition to her tadpoles. the tadpoles vibrate vigorously against mother frogs to solicit nutritious eggs. these maternal trophic eggs are beneficial for offspring, positively influencing larval survival, size at metamorphosis, and post metamorphic survival. in the neotropical, foam - nesting pointedbelly frog ( leptodactylus podicipinus ), females providing parental care to tadpoles have reduced body condition and food ingestion. females that are attending to her offspring have significantly lower body mass, ovary mass, and stomach volume. this indicates that the cost of parental care in the pointedbelly frog has the potential to affect future reproduction of females due to the reaction in body condition and food intake. in the puerto rican common coqui, parental care is performed exclusively by males and consists of attending to the eggs and tadpoles at an oviposition site. when brooding, males have a higher frequency of empty stomachs and lose a significant portion of their initial body mass during parental care. abdominal fat bodies of brooding males during the middle of parental care were significantly smaller than those of non - brooding males. another major behavioral component of parental care is nest defense against conspecific egg cannibals. this defense behavior includes aggressive calling, sustained biting, wrestling, and blocking directed against the nest intruder. females of the allegheny mountain dusky salamander exhibit less activity and become associated with the nest site well in advance of oviposition in preparation for the reproductive season. this results in a reduced food intake and a decrease in body weight over the brooding period. females either stop or greatly reduce their foraging activities and instead will eat opportunistically following oviposition. since nutritional intake is reduced, there is a decrease in body weight in females. females of the red - backed salamander make a substantial parental investment in terms of clutch size and brooding behavior. when brooding
buildings. many tropical species prefer even warmer environments. cockroaches are mainly nocturnal and run away when exposed to light. an exception to this is the asian cockroach, which flies mostly at night but is attracted to brightly lit surfaces and pale colors. = = = collective decision - making = = = gregarious cockroaches display collective decision - making when choosing food sources. when a sufficient number of individuals ( a " quorum " ) exploits a food source, this signals to newcomer cockroaches that they should stay there longer rather than leave for elsewhere. other mathematical models have been developed to explain aggregation dynamics and conspecific recognition. cooperation and competition are balanced in cockroach group decision - making behavior. cockroaches appear to use just two pieces of information to decide where to go, namely how dark it is and how many other cockroaches there are. a study used specially scented roach - sized robots that seem real to the roaches to demonstrate that once there are enough insects in a place to form a critical mass, the roaches accepted the collective decision on where to hide, even if this was an unusually lit place. = = = social behavior = = = when reared in isolation, german cockroaches show behavior that is different from behavior when reared in a group. in one study, isolated cockroaches were less likely to leave their shelters and explore, spent less time eating, interacted less with conspecifics when exposed to them, and, among males, took longer to recognize receptive females. because these changes occurred in many contexts, the authors suggested them as constituting a behavioral syndrome. these effects might have been due either to reduced metabolic and developmental rates in isolated individuals or the fact that the isolated individuals had not had a training period to learn about what others were like via their antennae. individual american cockroaches appear to have consistently different " personalities " regarding how they seek shelter. in addition, group personality is not simply the sum of individual choices, but reflects conformity and collective decision - making. the gregarious german and american cockroaches have elaborate social structure, chemical signaling, and " social herd " characteristics. lihoreau and his fellow researchers stated : the social biology of domiciliary cockroaches... can be characterized by a common shelter, overlapping generations, non - closure of groups, equal reproductive potential of group members, an absence of task specialization, high levels of social dependence, central place foraging,
Answer:
|
a cockroach
| null |
A frog would most likely eat
0. a cockroach
1. another frog
2. a maple leaf
3. a mouse
acutus ), mallard ( anas platyrhynchos ), lesser scaup ( anas affinis ), lesser white - fronted goose ( aythya erythropus ), tufted duck ( aythya fuligule ), white - headed duck ( oxyura leucocephala ), common shelduck ( tadorna tadora ) tyzzeria peomysci - white - footed mouse ( peromyscus leucopus ), deer mouse'peromyscus maniculatus ) tyzzeria perniciosa - lesser scaup ( aythya affinis ) tyzzeria typhlopis - european blind snake ( typhlops vermicularis ) = = references = =
cane toad was deliberately introduced to control agricultural pests ( platenberg ). similar to the cuban treefrog, the cane toad is also omnivorous. cane toad tadpoles compete for limited freshwater resources with the white - lipped frog, a native species, thus limiting their resources ( platenberg ). in general, when the introduction of a nonnative species results in extinction, the ecosystem experiences losses in some trophic levels ( platenberg ). for example, vertebrate herbivores that are prone to extinction change the ecosystem function in plant communities. this phenomenon is seen in new zealand, where the loss of bird species may have changed dynamics in avian - induced vegetation communities and impacted abundances of forest plants ( platenberg ). also in new zealand, small mammalian predators such as rodents have little direct effect on vegetation but have greater effect on island faunas through extinction and displacement ( wood et al. ). pacific rats, for example, were thought to be causing the local extinction of large, nocturnal ground - dwelling lizards, and they were assumed to have minimal effect on diurnal species, those that sleep at night, such as shore skinks ( wood et al. ). in places where pacific rats were removed, however, shore skink populations rapidly changed, indicating that the rats ’ impact has been underestimated ( wood et al. ). the loss of a keystone species, a species that all other species in the ecosystem depend on such as seabirds, can also have significant effects ( towns ). seabirds are essential to the structure of the ecosystem because they transport large amounts of nutrients into ecosystems and burrow into soils, helping vegetation ( towns ). however, since human settlement, seabird communities have been severely impacted on islands across the globe ( towns ). while some exotic species may perform ecological roles similar to those of extinct species, there are many roles that cannot be fulfilled by other species. therefore, similar exotic species do not offer complete replacement for extinct species in the community ( towns ). even if the number of species introduced to an island is roughly the same as the number of extinct ones, the ecological traits are not comparable enough to make up for losses ( towns ). = = = global warming = = = global warming is emerging as a strong cause of species loss on islands. this can be due to sea level rise, the intrusion of salt water into freshwater habitats, or species inability to adapt to increasing temperatures and extreme weather events. plant species are particularly susceptible. in more isolated areas, such
, attheyella spp. ) and cyclopoid copepods ( bryocyclops spp., tropocyclops jamaicensis ). in tropical and subtropical rainforest habitats, many species of frogs specialize on phytotelma as a readily available breeding ground, such as some microhylids ( in pitcher plants ), poison dart frogs and some tree frogs ( in bromeliads ). many insects use them for breeding and foraging, for instance odonates, water bugs, beetles and dipterans. some species also are of great practical significance ; for example, immature stages of some mosquitoes, such as some anopheles and aedes species that are important disease vectors, develop in phytotelmata. as these are such small systems, there may be great risk of nitrogenous waste eventually putrefying phytotelmata, killing their inhabitants. potentially relevant is that tadpoles of the species kurixalus eiffingeri have been found to avoid defecation until after metamorphosis, when they have vacated phytotelmata. this may evidence selection for social sanitation, and the discoverers surmise this may be a selective pressure for other denizens of phytotelmata as well. = = see also = = nepenthes infauna bromeliaceae = = references = = = = external links = = [ 1 ] bromeliad biota [ 2 ] heliconia biota [ 3 ] video footage of a beech tree - hole
, like in bombus terrestris, where the queen has considerable control in forcing a 1 : 1 ratio. = = = in amphibians = = = many species of frogs and salamanders display complex social behavior with highly involved parental care that includes egg attendance, tadpole transport, and tadpole feeding. = = = = energy expenditure = = = = both males and females of the strawberry poison - dart frog care for their offspring, however, females invest in more costly ways. females of certain poison frog species produce unfertilized, non - developing trophic eggs which provide nutrition to her tadpoles. the tadpoles vibrate vigorously against mother frogs to solicit nutritious eggs. these maternal trophic eggs are beneficial for offspring, positively influencing larval survival, size at metamorphosis, and post metamorphic survival. in the neotropical, foam - nesting pointedbelly frog ( leptodactylus podicipinus ), females providing parental care to tadpoles have reduced body condition and food ingestion. females that are attending to her offspring have significantly lower body mass, ovary mass, and stomach volume. this indicates that the cost of parental care in the pointedbelly frog has the potential to affect future reproduction of females due to the reaction in body condition and food intake. in the puerto rican common coqui, parental care is performed exclusively by males and consists of attending to the eggs and tadpoles at an oviposition site. when brooding, males have a higher frequency of empty stomachs and lose a significant portion of their initial body mass during parental care. abdominal fat bodies of brooding males during the middle of parental care were significantly smaller than those of non - brooding males. another major behavioral component of parental care is nest defense against conspecific egg cannibals. this defense behavior includes aggressive calling, sustained biting, wrestling, and blocking directed against the nest intruder. females of the allegheny mountain dusky salamander exhibit less activity and become associated with the nest site well in advance of oviposition in preparation for the reproductive season. this results in a reduced food intake and a decrease in body weight over the brooding period. females either stop or greatly reduce their foraging activities and instead will eat opportunistically following oviposition. since nutritional intake is reduced, there is a decrease in body weight in females. females of the red - backed salamander make a substantial parental investment in terms of clutch size and brooding behavior. when brooding
buildings. many tropical species prefer even warmer environments. cockroaches are mainly nocturnal and run away when exposed to light. an exception to this is the asian cockroach, which flies mostly at night but is attracted to brightly lit surfaces and pale colors. = = = collective decision - making = = = gregarious cockroaches display collective decision - making when choosing food sources. when a sufficient number of individuals ( a " quorum " ) exploits a food source, this signals to newcomer cockroaches that they should stay there longer rather than leave for elsewhere. other mathematical models have been developed to explain aggregation dynamics and conspecific recognition. cooperation and competition are balanced in cockroach group decision - making behavior. cockroaches appear to use just two pieces of information to decide where to go, namely how dark it is and how many other cockroaches there are. a study used specially scented roach - sized robots that seem real to the roaches to demonstrate that once there are enough insects in a place to form a critical mass, the roaches accepted the collective decision on where to hide, even if this was an unusually lit place. = = = social behavior = = = when reared in isolation, german cockroaches show behavior that is different from behavior when reared in a group. in one study, isolated cockroaches were less likely to leave their shelters and explore, spent less time eating, interacted less with conspecifics when exposed to them, and, among males, took longer to recognize receptive females. because these changes occurred in many contexts, the authors suggested them as constituting a behavioral syndrome. these effects might have been due either to reduced metabolic and developmental rates in isolated individuals or the fact that the isolated individuals had not had a training period to learn about what others were like via their antennae. individual american cockroaches appear to have consistently different " personalities " regarding how they seek shelter. in addition, group personality is not simply the sum of individual choices, but reflects conformity and collective decision - making. the gregarious german and american cockroaches have elaborate social structure, chemical signaling, and " social herd " characteristics. lihoreau and his fellow researchers stated : the social biology of domiciliary cockroaches... can be characterized by a common shelter, overlapping generations, non - closure of groups, equal reproductive potential of group members, an absence of task specialization, high levels of social dependence, central place foraging,
Answer:
|
another frog
| 0.3 |
What would cause a flood?
0. overpopulation of an area
1. Mount Everest losing soil
2. lake erie getting too much rain water
3. a river running dry
of 98 % of water, : 2 need to intensify debate, and need to harmonize public / private sectors : 28 = = issues = = = = = environmental = = = freshwater resources on earth are under increasing stress and depletion because of pollution, climate change, and consumptive use. = = = = flood = = = = water can produce a natural disaster in the form of tsunamis, hurricanes, rogue waves and storm surge. land - based floods can originate from infrastructural issues like bursting dams or levee failure during surges, as well as environmental phenomena like rivers overflowing their banks during increased rainfall events, urban stormwater flooding, or snowmelt. the increased magnitude and frequency of floods are a result of urbanization and climate change. urbanization increases stormwater runoff during large rain events. surface runoff is water that flows when heavy rains do not infiltrate soil ; excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources flowing over the land. this is a major component of the water cycle. runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. when runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants including, but not limited to petroleum, pesticides, or fertilizers that become discharge or nonpoint source pollution. water resource policy encompasses flood risk management and development of infrastructure to mitigate damages from floods. water resource policy solutions to flooding include land drainage for agriculture, urban planning focused on flood prevention, rainwater harvesting, and permeable surfacing of developed areas. = = = = drought = = = = a drought is defined as a period of dry conditions with either less precipitation or more depleted water reserves than normal. because droughts are defined relative to the area's normal weather patterns and water availability, the definition varies from place to place. overall, defining a drought takes into consideration 1. ) the duration, intensity, and area of lessened precipitation or water availability and 2. ) the estimated environmental, social and economic impact of the limited water. for example, in colorado, paleohydrologic data, or tree rings from areas affected by drought, have been used to define drought extent and understand the impact of past droughts to improve future water resource planning and decision making. with climate change, the frequency and intensity of droughts have been increasing but water resource policy is typically reactive instead of proactive. droughts have negative economic impacts on many sectors including agriculture, environment, energy production and
##s result in leakage and possible contamination of drinking water. in kenya ’ s major cities, nairobi and mombasa, between 40 and 50 % of drinking water is lost through leakage. in such cases, replacements and repairs are clearly needed. = = flooding = = flooding, either from weather events, rising sea levels or infrastructure failures are a major cause of death, disease and economic losses throughout the world. climate change and rapidly expanding urban settlements are two factors that increase occurrence and severity of urban flooding, especially in the developing world. storm surges can affect coastal cities and are caused by low pressure weather systems, like cyclones and hurricanes. flash floods and river floods can affect any city within a floodplain or with inadequate drainage infrastructure. these can be caused by large quantities of rain or heavy rapid snow melt. with all forms of flooding, cities are more vulnerable because of the large quantity of paved and concrete surfaces ; these impermeable surfaces cause massive amounts of runoff that can quickly overwhelm the limited infrastructure of storm drains, flood canals and intentional floodplains. many cities in the developing world simply have no infrastructure whatsoever to redirect floodwaters. around the world, floods kill thousands of people every year and are responsible for billions of dollars in damages and economic losses. in cities with poor or absent drainage infrastructure, flooding can also lead to the contamination of drinking water sources ( aquifers, wells, inland waterways ) with salt water, chemical pollution, and most frequently, viral and bacterial contaminants. flooding, much like heat waves and droughts, can also wreak havoc on agricultural areas, quickly destroying large amounts of crops. = = = flood flow in urban environment = = = the flood flow in urbanized areas constitutes a hazard to population and infrastructure. some recent catastrophes included the inundations of vaison - la - romaine ( france ) in 1992, nimes ( france ) in 1998, new orleans ( usa ) in 2005, and the flooding in rockhampton, bundaberg, and brisbane in queensland ( australia ) during the summer of 2010 – 2011. flood flows in urban environments have been studied only relatively recently despite many centuries of flood events. several studies looked into the flow patterns and redistribution in streets during storm events and the implication in terms of flood modelling. some research considered the criteria for safe evacuation of individuals in flooded areas. but some recent field measurements during the 2010 – 2011 queensland floods showed that any criterion solely based upon the flow velocity, water depth or specific momentum cannot fully account
##ation usually comes with deadly consequences for fish and other aquatic organisms. excessive stream bank erosion may cause flooding and property damage. for many years governments have often responded to urban stream erosion problems by modifying the streams through construction of hardened embankments and similar control structures using concrete and masonry materials. use of these hard materials destroys habitat for fish and other animals. such a project may stabilize the immediate area where flood damage occurred, but often it simply shifts the problem to an upstream or downstream segment of the stream. see river engineering. there are many different ways that polluted urban runoff could harm humans, such as by contaminating drinking water, disrupting food sources and even causing parts of beaches to be closed off due to a risk of illness. after heavy rainfall events that cause stormwater overflows, contaminated water can impact waterways in which people recreate or fish, causing the beaches or water - based activities to be closed. this is because the runoff has likely caused a spike in harmful bacterial growth or inorganic chemical pollution in the water. the contaminants that we often think of as the most damaging are gasoline and oil spillage, but we often overlook the impact that fertilizers and insecticides have. when plants are watered and fields irrigated, the chemicals that lawns and crops have been treated with can be washed into the water table. the new environments that these chemicals are introduced to suffer due to their presence as they kill native vegetation, invertebrates, and vertebrates. = = prevention and mitigation = = effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. these techniques, called best management practices for water pollution ( bmps ) in some countries, may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions. pollution prevention practices include low impact development ( lid ) or green infrastructure techniques - known as sustainable drainage systems ( suds ) in the uk, and water - sensitive urban design ( wsud ) in australia and the middle east - such as the installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling ( e. g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers, pesticides and roadway deicers ). runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins, and similar devices. providing effective urban runoff solutions often requires proper city programs that take into
major contamination source in many watersheds throughout the united states. : vii the report explained that "... further declines in water quality remain likely if the land - use changes that typify more diffuse sources of pollution are not addressed... these include land - disturbing agricultural, silvicultural, urban, industrial, and construction activities from which hard - to - monitor pollutants emerge during wet - weather events. pollution from these landscapes has been almost universally acknowledged as the most pressing challenge to the restoration of waterbodies and aquatic ecosystems nationwide. " : 24 the runoff also increases temperatures in streams, harming fish and other organisms. ( a sudden burst of runoff from a rainstorm can cause a fish - killing shock of hot water. ) also, road salt used to melt snow on sidewalks and roadways can contaminate streams and groundwater aquifers. one of the most pronounced effects of urban runoff is on watercourses that historically contained little or no water during dry weather periods ( often called ephemeral streams ). when an area around such a stream is urbanized, the resultant runoff creates an unnatural year - round streamflow that hurts the vegetation, wildlife and stream bed of the waterway. containing little or no sediment relative to the historic ratio of sediment to water, urban runoff rushes down the stream channel, ruining natural features such as meanders and sandbars, and creates severe erosion — increasing sediment loads at the mouth while severely carving the stream bed upstream. as an example, on many southern california beaches at the mouth of a waterway, urban runoff carries trash, pollutants, excessive silt, and other wastes, and can pose moderate to severe health hazards. because of fertilizer and organic waste that urban runoff often carries, eutrophication often occurs in waterways affected by this type of runoff. after heavy rains, organic matter in the waterway is relatively high compared with natural levels, spurring growth of algae blooms that soon consume most of the oxygen. once the naturally occurring oxygen in the water is depleted, the algae blooms die, and their decomposition causes further eutrophication. these algae blooms mostly occur in areas with still water, such as stream pools and the pools behind dams, weirs, and some drop structures. eutrophication usually comes with deadly consequences for fish and other aquatic organisms. excessive stream bank erosion may cause flooding and property damage. for many years governments have often responded to urban stream erosion problems by modifying the streams through construction of hardened embankments and similar control structures
. dams retain large quantities of water, which is stored on land rather than flowing into the sea, though the total quantity stored will vary from time to time. on the other hand, humans extract water from lakes, wetlands and underground reservoirs for drinking and food production. this often causes subsidence. furthermore, the hydrological cycle is influenced by climate change and deforestation. in the 20th century, these processes had approximately cancelled out each other's impact on sea level rise, but dam building has slowed down and is expected to stay low for the 21st century. : 1155 water redistribution caused by irrigation moving groundwater into the oceans, was estimated at 2, 150 gt between 1993 and 2010 - equivalent to a global sea level rise of 6. 24 millimetres ( 0. 246 in ), but which could not be directly measured. the net movement of water was also expected to cause caused a drift of earth's rotational pole by 78. 48 centimetres ( 30. 90 in ), which was confirmed in 2023. = = impacts = = = = = on people and societies = = = sea - level rise has many impacts. they include higher and more frequent high - tide and storm - surge flooding and increased coastal erosion. other impacts are inhibition of primary production processes, more extensive coastal inundation, and changes in surface water quality and groundwater. these can lead to a greater loss of property and coastal habitats, loss of life during floods and loss of cultural resources. there are also impacts on agriculture and aquaculture. there can also be loss of tourism, recreation, and transport - related functions. : 356 land use changes such as urbanisation or deforestation of low - lying coastal zones exacerbate coastal flooding impacts. regions already vulnerable to rising sea level also struggle with coastal flooding. this washes away land and alters the landscape. changes in emissions are likely to have only a small effect on the extent of sea level rise by 2050. so projected sea level rise could put tens of millions of people at risk by then. scientists estimate that 2050 levels of sea level rise would result in about 150 million people under the water line during high tide. about 300 million would be in places flooded every year. this projection is based on the distribution of population in 2010. it does not take into account the effects of population growth and human migration. these figures are 40 million and 50 million more respectively than the numbers at risk in 2010. by 2100, there would be another 40 million people under the water line during high tide if sea level
Answer:
|
lake erie getting too much rain water
| null |
What would cause a flood?
0. overpopulation of an area
1. Mount Everest losing soil
2. lake erie getting too much rain water
3. a river running dry
of 98 % of water, : 2 need to intensify debate, and need to harmonize public / private sectors : 28 = = issues = = = = = environmental = = = freshwater resources on earth are under increasing stress and depletion because of pollution, climate change, and consumptive use. = = = = flood = = = = water can produce a natural disaster in the form of tsunamis, hurricanes, rogue waves and storm surge. land - based floods can originate from infrastructural issues like bursting dams or levee failure during surges, as well as environmental phenomena like rivers overflowing their banks during increased rainfall events, urban stormwater flooding, or snowmelt. the increased magnitude and frequency of floods are a result of urbanization and climate change. urbanization increases stormwater runoff during large rain events. surface runoff is water that flows when heavy rains do not infiltrate soil ; excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources flowing over the land. this is a major component of the water cycle. runoff that occurs on surfaces before reaching a channel is also called a nonpoint source. when runoff flows along the ground, it can pick up soil contaminants including, but not limited to petroleum, pesticides, or fertilizers that become discharge or nonpoint source pollution. water resource policy encompasses flood risk management and development of infrastructure to mitigate damages from floods. water resource policy solutions to flooding include land drainage for agriculture, urban planning focused on flood prevention, rainwater harvesting, and permeable surfacing of developed areas. = = = = drought = = = = a drought is defined as a period of dry conditions with either less precipitation or more depleted water reserves than normal. because droughts are defined relative to the area's normal weather patterns and water availability, the definition varies from place to place. overall, defining a drought takes into consideration 1. ) the duration, intensity, and area of lessened precipitation or water availability and 2. ) the estimated environmental, social and economic impact of the limited water. for example, in colorado, paleohydrologic data, or tree rings from areas affected by drought, have been used to define drought extent and understand the impact of past droughts to improve future water resource planning and decision making. with climate change, the frequency and intensity of droughts have been increasing but water resource policy is typically reactive instead of proactive. droughts have negative economic impacts on many sectors including agriculture, environment, energy production and
##s result in leakage and possible contamination of drinking water. in kenya ’ s major cities, nairobi and mombasa, between 40 and 50 % of drinking water is lost through leakage. in such cases, replacements and repairs are clearly needed. = = flooding = = flooding, either from weather events, rising sea levels or infrastructure failures are a major cause of death, disease and economic losses throughout the world. climate change and rapidly expanding urban settlements are two factors that increase occurrence and severity of urban flooding, especially in the developing world. storm surges can affect coastal cities and are caused by low pressure weather systems, like cyclones and hurricanes. flash floods and river floods can affect any city within a floodplain or with inadequate drainage infrastructure. these can be caused by large quantities of rain or heavy rapid snow melt. with all forms of flooding, cities are more vulnerable because of the large quantity of paved and concrete surfaces ; these impermeable surfaces cause massive amounts of runoff that can quickly overwhelm the limited infrastructure of storm drains, flood canals and intentional floodplains. many cities in the developing world simply have no infrastructure whatsoever to redirect floodwaters. around the world, floods kill thousands of people every year and are responsible for billions of dollars in damages and economic losses. in cities with poor or absent drainage infrastructure, flooding can also lead to the contamination of drinking water sources ( aquifers, wells, inland waterways ) with salt water, chemical pollution, and most frequently, viral and bacterial contaminants. flooding, much like heat waves and droughts, can also wreak havoc on agricultural areas, quickly destroying large amounts of crops. = = = flood flow in urban environment = = = the flood flow in urbanized areas constitutes a hazard to population and infrastructure. some recent catastrophes included the inundations of vaison - la - romaine ( france ) in 1992, nimes ( france ) in 1998, new orleans ( usa ) in 2005, and the flooding in rockhampton, bundaberg, and brisbane in queensland ( australia ) during the summer of 2010 – 2011. flood flows in urban environments have been studied only relatively recently despite many centuries of flood events. several studies looked into the flow patterns and redistribution in streets during storm events and the implication in terms of flood modelling. some research considered the criteria for safe evacuation of individuals in flooded areas. but some recent field measurements during the 2010 – 2011 queensland floods showed that any criterion solely based upon the flow velocity, water depth or specific momentum cannot fully account
##ation usually comes with deadly consequences for fish and other aquatic organisms. excessive stream bank erosion may cause flooding and property damage. for many years governments have often responded to urban stream erosion problems by modifying the streams through construction of hardened embankments and similar control structures using concrete and masonry materials. use of these hard materials destroys habitat for fish and other animals. such a project may stabilize the immediate area where flood damage occurred, but often it simply shifts the problem to an upstream or downstream segment of the stream. see river engineering. there are many different ways that polluted urban runoff could harm humans, such as by contaminating drinking water, disrupting food sources and even causing parts of beaches to be closed off due to a risk of illness. after heavy rainfall events that cause stormwater overflows, contaminated water can impact waterways in which people recreate or fish, causing the beaches or water - based activities to be closed. this is because the runoff has likely caused a spike in harmful bacterial growth or inorganic chemical pollution in the water. the contaminants that we often think of as the most damaging are gasoline and oil spillage, but we often overlook the impact that fertilizers and insecticides have. when plants are watered and fields irrigated, the chemicals that lawns and crops have been treated with can be washed into the water table. the new environments that these chemicals are introduced to suffer due to their presence as they kill native vegetation, invertebrates, and vertebrates. = = prevention and mitigation = = effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as reducing pollutant discharges. local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. these techniques, called best management practices for water pollution ( bmps ) in some countries, may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform both functions. pollution prevention practices include low impact development ( lid ) or green infrastructure techniques - known as sustainable drainage systems ( suds ) in the uk, and water - sensitive urban design ( wsud ) in australia and the middle east - such as the installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling ( e. g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers, pesticides and roadway deicers ). runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins, and similar devices. providing effective urban runoff solutions often requires proper city programs that take into
major contamination source in many watersheds throughout the united states. : vii the report explained that "... further declines in water quality remain likely if the land - use changes that typify more diffuse sources of pollution are not addressed... these include land - disturbing agricultural, silvicultural, urban, industrial, and construction activities from which hard - to - monitor pollutants emerge during wet - weather events. pollution from these landscapes has been almost universally acknowledged as the most pressing challenge to the restoration of waterbodies and aquatic ecosystems nationwide. " : 24 the runoff also increases temperatures in streams, harming fish and other organisms. ( a sudden burst of runoff from a rainstorm can cause a fish - killing shock of hot water. ) also, road salt used to melt snow on sidewalks and roadways can contaminate streams and groundwater aquifers. one of the most pronounced effects of urban runoff is on watercourses that historically contained little or no water during dry weather periods ( often called ephemeral streams ). when an area around such a stream is urbanized, the resultant runoff creates an unnatural year - round streamflow that hurts the vegetation, wildlife and stream bed of the waterway. containing little or no sediment relative to the historic ratio of sediment to water, urban runoff rushes down the stream channel, ruining natural features such as meanders and sandbars, and creates severe erosion — increasing sediment loads at the mouth while severely carving the stream bed upstream. as an example, on many southern california beaches at the mouth of a waterway, urban runoff carries trash, pollutants, excessive silt, and other wastes, and can pose moderate to severe health hazards. because of fertilizer and organic waste that urban runoff often carries, eutrophication often occurs in waterways affected by this type of runoff. after heavy rains, organic matter in the waterway is relatively high compared with natural levels, spurring growth of algae blooms that soon consume most of the oxygen. once the naturally occurring oxygen in the water is depleted, the algae blooms die, and their decomposition causes further eutrophication. these algae blooms mostly occur in areas with still water, such as stream pools and the pools behind dams, weirs, and some drop structures. eutrophication usually comes with deadly consequences for fish and other aquatic organisms. excessive stream bank erosion may cause flooding and property damage. for many years governments have often responded to urban stream erosion problems by modifying the streams through construction of hardened embankments and similar control structures
. dams retain large quantities of water, which is stored on land rather than flowing into the sea, though the total quantity stored will vary from time to time. on the other hand, humans extract water from lakes, wetlands and underground reservoirs for drinking and food production. this often causes subsidence. furthermore, the hydrological cycle is influenced by climate change and deforestation. in the 20th century, these processes had approximately cancelled out each other's impact on sea level rise, but dam building has slowed down and is expected to stay low for the 21st century. : 1155 water redistribution caused by irrigation moving groundwater into the oceans, was estimated at 2, 150 gt between 1993 and 2010 - equivalent to a global sea level rise of 6. 24 millimetres ( 0. 246 in ), but which could not be directly measured. the net movement of water was also expected to cause caused a drift of earth's rotational pole by 78. 48 centimetres ( 30. 90 in ), which was confirmed in 2023. = = impacts = = = = = on people and societies = = = sea - level rise has many impacts. they include higher and more frequent high - tide and storm - surge flooding and increased coastal erosion. other impacts are inhibition of primary production processes, more extensive coastal inundation, and changes in surface water quality and groundwater. these can lead to a greater loss of property and coastal habitats, loss of life during floods and loss of cultural resources. there are also impacts on agriculture and aquaculture. there can also be loss of tourism, recreation, and transport - related functions. : 356 land use changes such as urbanisation or deforestation of low - lying coastal zones exacerbate coastal flooding impacts. regions already vulnerable to rising sea level also struggle with coastal flooding. this washes away land and alters the landscape. changes in emissions are likely to have only a small effect on the extent of sea level rise by 2050. so projected sea level rise could put tens of millions of people at risk by then. scientists estimate that 2050 levels of sea level rise would result in about 150 million people under the water line during high tide. about 300 million would be in places flooded every year. this projection is based on the distribution of population in 2010. it does not take into account the effects of population growth and human migration. these figures are 40 million and 50 million more respectively than the numbers at risk in 2010. by 2100, there would be another 40 million people under the water line during high tide if sea level
Answer:
|
Mount Everest losing soil
| 0.3 |
When an animal gets any kind of illness, his physical health will
0. inevitably be worse
1. get better
2. fly away
3. nothing
sickness behavior is a coordinated set of adaptive behavioral changes that develop in ill individuals during the course of an infection. they usually, but not always, accompany fever and aid survival. such illness responses include lethargy, depression, anxiety, malaise, loss of appetite, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, reduction in grooming and failure to concentrate. sickness behavior is a motivational state that reorganizes the organism's priorities to cope with infectious pathogens. it has been suggested as relevant to understanding depression, and some aspects of the suffering that occurs in cancer. = = history = = sick animals have long been recognized by farmers as having different behavior. initially it was thought that this was due to physical weakness that resulted from diverting energy to the body processes needed to fight infection. however, in the 1960s, it was shown that animals produced a blood - carried factor x that acted upon the brain to cause sickness behavior. in 1987, benjamin l. hart brought together a variety of research findings that argued for them being survival adaptations that if prevented would disadvantage an animal's ability to fight infection. in the 1980s, the blood - borne factor was shown to be proinflammatory cytokines produced by activated leukocytes in the immune system in response to lipopolysaccharides ( a cell wall component of gram - negative bacteria ). these cytokines acted by various humoral and nerve routes upon the hypothalamus and other areas of the brain. further research showed that the brain can also learn to control the various components of sickness behavior independently of immune activation. in 2015, shakhar and shakhar suggested instead that sickness behavior developed primarily because it protected the kin of infected animals from transmissible diseases. according to this theory, termed the eyam hypothesis, after the english parish of eyam, sickness behavior protects the social group of infected individuals by limiting their direct contacts, preventing them from contaminating the environment, and broadcasting their health status. kin selection would help promote such behaviors through evolution. in a highly prosocial species like humans, however, sickness behavior may act as a signal to motivate others to help and care for the sick individual. = = advantages = = = = = general advantage = = = sickness behavior in its different aspects causes an animal to limit its movement ; the metabolic energy not expended in activity is diverted to the fever responses, which involves raising body temperature. this also limits an animal's exposure to predators while it is cognitively and
flu symptoms usually include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis and, in severe cases, severe breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. the severity of the infection will depend to a large part on the state of the infected person's immune system and if the victim has been exposed to the strain before, and is therefore partially immune. no one knows if these or other symptoms will be the symptoms of a humanized h5n1 flu. highly pathogenic h5n1 avian influenza in a human appears to be far worse, killing over 50 % of humans reported infected with the virus, although it is unknown how many cases ( with milder symptoms ) go unreported. in one case, a boy with h5n1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu - like symptoms. as of february 2008, the " median age of patients with influenza a ( h5n1 ) virus infection is approximately 18 years [... ] the overall case fatality proportion is 61 % [... ] handling of sick or dead poultry during the week before the onset of illness is the most commonly recognized risk factor [... ] the primary pathologic process that causes death is fulminant viral pneumonia. " there have been studies of the levels of cytokines in humans infected by the h5n1 flu virus. of particular concern is elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor - alpha ( tnfα ), a protein that is associated with tissue destruction at sites of infection and increased production of other cytokines. flu virus - induced increases in the level of cytokines is also associated with flu symptoms including fever, chills, vomiting and headache. tissue damage associated with pathogenic flu virus infection can ultimately result in death. the inflammatory cascade triggered by h5n1 has been called a'cytokine storm'by some, because of what seems to be a positive feedback process of damage to the body resulting from immune system stimulation. h5n1 type flu virus induces higher levels of cytokines than the more common flu virus types such as h1n1. other important mechanisms also exist " in the acquisition of virulence in avian influenza viruses " according to the cdc. the ns1 protein of the highly pathogenic avian h5n1 viruses circulating in poultry and waterfowl in southeast asia is currently believed to be responsible for the enhanced proinflammatory cytokine
in its different aspects causes an animal to limit its movement ; the metabolic energy not expended in activity is diverted to the fever responses, which involves raising body temperature. this also limits an animal's exposure to predators while it is cognitively and physically impaired. = = = specific advantages = = = the individual components of sickness behavior have specific individual advantages. anorexia limits food ingestion and therefore reduces the availability of iron in the gut ( and from gut absorption ). iron may aid bacterial reproduction, so its reduction is useful during sickness. plasma concentrations of iron are lowered for this anti - bacterial reason in fever. lowered threshold for pain ensures that an animal is attentive that it does not place pressure on injured and inflamed tissues that might disrupt their healing. reduced grooming is adaptive since it reduces water loss. = = = inclusive fitness advantages = = = according to the'eyam hypothesis ', sickness behavior, by promoting immobility and social disinterest, limits the direct contacts of individuals with their relatives. by reducing eating and drinking, it limits diarrhea and defecation, reducing environmental contamination. by reducing self - grooming and changing stance, gait and vocalization, it also signals poor health to kin. all in all, sickness behavior reduces the rate of further infection, a trait that is likely propagated by kin selection. = = = social advantage = = = humans helped each other in case of sickness or injury throughout their hunter - gatherer past and afterwards. convincing others of being badly in need of relief, assistance, and care heightened the chance of survival of the sick individual. high direct costs, such as energy spent on fever and potential harm caused by high body temperatures, and high opportunity costs, as caused by inactivity, social disinterest, and lack of appetite, make sickness behavior a highly costly and therefore credible signal of need. = = immune control = = lipopolysaccharides trigger the immune system to produce proinflammatory cytokines il - 1, il - 6, and tumor necrosis factor ( tnf ). these peripherally released cytokines act on the brain via a fast transmission pathway involving primary input through the vagus nerves, and a slow transmission pathway involving cytokines originating from the choroid plexus and circumventricular organs and diffusing into the brain parenchyma by volume transmission. peripheral cytokines are capable of entering the brain directly but
" one medicine " in a veterinary medical textbook in 1964 to reflect the similarities between animal and human medicine and stress the importance of collaboration between veterinarians and physicians to help solve global health problems. he established a department at the university of california, davis, to jointly address issues in the animal and human health sciences. in 2004, the wildlife conservation society held a conference called " one world, one health " at rockefeller university in new york. out of that conference the twelve manhattan principles were created to describe a unified approach to preventing epidemic diseases. these principles emphasized links between humans, animals, and the environment, their importance in understanding disease dynamics, and the need for interdisciplinary approaches to prevention, education, investment, and policy development. due to global scares surrounding the h5n1 influenza outbreaks of the early - mid 2000s, the american veterinary medical association established a one health initiative task force in 2006, the american medical association passed a one health resolution to promote partnering between veterinary and human medical organizations in 2007, and a one health approach was recommended for responses to global disease outbreaks in 2007. building on these initiatives, the food and agriculture organization ( fao ), world organisation for animal health ( oie ), and world health organization ( who ) came together with the united nations children's fund ( unicef ), united nations system influenza coordination, and the world bank to develop a framework entitled contributing to one world, one health - a strategic framework for reducing risks of infectious diseases at the animal - human - ecosystems interface in 2008, reiterating recommendations for a one health approach to global health. this framework was expanded and implementable policies were developed at stone mountain, georgia in may 2010. international meetings on one health were held in 2011 in africa and australia. in 2012, barbara natterson - horowitz, a physician, and kathryn bowers, a science journalist, published the book zoobiquity, coining the term as they drew parallels between animal and human health through vivid case studies. they called for the biomedical scientific and clinical communities to rediscover comparative medicine and reexamine human and animal health in terms of evolution and the environment. a new york times bestseller, the book has been described as " easy to read and entertaining " in its presentation of ideas similar to the " one health " concept, but also criticized as lacking depth and failing to recognize the extent to which animals and humans have differently evolved as complex systems. in 2016, the one health commission, one health platform, and one health initiative team deemed international one
one health is an approach calling for " the collaborative efforts of multiple disciplines working locally, nationally, and globally, to attain optimal health for people, animals and our environment ", as defined by the one health initiative task force ( ohitf ). it developed in response to evidence of the spreading of zoonotic diseases between species and increasing awareness of " the interdependence of human and animal health and ecological change ". : 205 in this viewpoint, public health is no longer seen in purely human terms. due to a shared environment and highly conserved physiology, animals and humans not only suffer from the same zoonotic diseases but can also be treated by either structurally related or identical drugs. for this reason, special care must be taken to avoid unnecessary or over - treatment of zoonotic diseases, particularly in the context of drug resistance in infectious microbes. a number of organizations throughout the world support the objectives of " one health " including the one health commission ( ohc ), one health initiative, one health platform, cdc one health office, and the quadripartite organizations. the quadripartite organizations are : the food and agriculture organization of the united nations ( fao ), the world health organization ( who ), the world organisation for animal health ( woah, formerly oie ), and the united nations environment programme ( unep ) ), and others. in particular, the one health high level expert panel, an independent advisory group to the quadripartite organizations, provided a comprehensive definition of one health, whereby : " one health is an integrated, unifying approach that aims to sustainably balance and optimize the health of humans, animals, plants and ecosystems. it recognizes the health of humans, domestic and wild animals, plants and the wider environment ( including ecosystems ) are closely linked and interdependent. the approach mobilizes multiple sectors, disciplines and communities at varying levels of society to work together to foster well - being and tackle threats to health and ecosystems, while addressing the collective need for clean water, energy and air, safe and nutritious food, taking action on climate change, and contributing to sustainable development. " = = history = = calvin schwabe, a veterinarian trained in public health, coined the term " one medicine " in a veterinary medical textbook in 1964 to reflect the similarities between animal and human medicine and stress the importance of collaboration between veterinarians and physicians to help solve global health problems. he established a department at the university of california, davis
Answer:
|
inevitably be worse
| null |
When an animal gets any kind of illness, his physical health will
0. inevitably be worse
1. get better
2. fly away
3. nothing
sickness behavior is a coordinated set of adaptive behavioral changes that develop in ill individuals during the course of an infection. they usually, but not always, accompany fever and aid survival. such illness responses include lethargy, depression, anxiety, malaise, loss of appetite, sleepiness, hyperalgesia, reduction in grooming and failure to concentrate. sickness behavior is a motivational state that reorganizes the organism's priorities to cope with infectious pathogens. it has been suggested as relevant to understanding depression, and some aspects of the suffering that occurs in cancer. = = history = = sick animals have long been recognized by farmers as having different behavior. initially it was thought that this was due to physical weakness that resulted from diverting energy to the body processes needed to fight infection. however, in the 1960s, it was shown that animals produced a blood - carried factor x that acted upon the brain to cause sickness behavior. in 1987, benjamin l. hart brought together a variety of research findings that argued for them being survival adaptations that if prevented would disadvantage an animal's ability to fight infection. in the 1980s, the blood - borne factor was shown to be proinflammatory cytokines produced by activated leukocytes in the immune system in response to lipopolysaccharides ( a cell wall component of gram - negative bacteria ). these cytokines acted by various humoral and nerve routes upon the hypothalamus and other areas of the brain. further research showed that the brain can also learn to control the various components of sickness behavior independently of immune activation. in 2015, shakhar and shakhar suggested instead that sickness behavior developed primarily because it protected the kin of infected animals from transmissible diseases. according to this theory, termed the eyam hypothesis, after the english parish of eyam, sickness behavior protects the social group of infected individuals by limiting their direct contacts, preventing them from contaminating the environment, and broadcasting their health status. kin selection would help promote such behaviors through evolution. in a highly prosocial species like humans, however, sickness behavior may act as a signal to motivate others to help and care for the sick individual. = = advantages = = = = = general advantage = = = sickness behavior in its different aspects causes an animal to limit its movement ; the metabolic energy not expended in activity is diverted to the fever responses, which involves raising body temperature. this also limits an animal's exposure to predators while it is cognitively and
flu symptoms usually include fever, cough, sore throat, muscle aches, conjunctivitis and, in severe cases, severe breathing problems and pneumonia that may be fatal. the severity of the infection will depend to a large part on the state of the infected person's immune system and if the victim has been exposed to the strain before, and is therefore partially immune. no one knows if these or other symptoms will be the symptoms of a humanized h5n1 flu. highly pathogenic h5n1 avian influenza in a human appears to be far worse, killing over 50 % of humans reported infected with the virus, although it is unknown how many cases ( with milder symptoms ) go unreported. in one case, a boy with h5n1 experienced diarrhea followed rapidly by a coma without developing respiratory or flu - like symptoms. as of february 2008, the " median age of patients with influenza a ( h5n1 ) virus infection is approximately 18 years [... ] the overall case fatality proportion is 61 % [... ] handling of sick or dead poultry during the week before the onset of illness is the most commonly recognized risk factor [... ] the primary pathologic process that causes death is fulminant viral pneumonia. " there have been studies of the levels of cytokines in humans infected by the h5n1 flu virus. of particular concern is elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor - alpha ( tnfα ), a protein that is associated with tissue destruction at sites of infection and increased production of other cytokines. flu virus - induced increases in the level of cytokines is also associated with flu symptoms including fever, chills, vomiting and headache. tissue damage associated with pathogenic flu virus infection can ultimately result in death. the inflammatory cascade triggered by h5n1 has been called a'cytokine storm'by some, because of what seems to be a positive feedback process of damage to the body resulting from immune system stimulation. h5n1 type flu virus induces higher levels of cytokines than the more common flu virus types such as h1n1. other important mechanisms also exist " in the acquisition of virulence in avian influenza viruses " according to the cdc. the ns1 protein of the highly pathogenic avian h5n1 viruses circulating in poultry and waterfowl in southeast asia is currently believed to be responsible for the enhanced proinflammatory cytokine
in its different aspects causes an animal to limit its movement ; the metabolic energy not expended in activity is diverted to the fever responses, which involves raising body temperature. this also limits an animal's exposure to predators while it is cognitively and physically impaired. = = = specific advantages = = = the individual components of sickness behavior have specific individual advantages. anorexia limits food ingestion and therefore reduces the availability of iron in the gut ( and from gut absorption ). iron may aid bacterial reproduction, so its reduction is useful during sickness. plasma concentrations of iron are lowered for this anti - bacterial reason in fever. lowered threshold for pain ensures that an animal is attentive that it does not place pressure on injured and inflamed tissues that might disrupt their healing. reduced grooming is adaptive since it reduces water loss. = = = inclusive fitness advantages = = = according to the'eyam hypothesis ', sickness behavior, by promoting immobility and social disinterest, limits the direct contacts of individuals with their relatives. by reducing eating and drinking, it limits diarrhea and defecation, reducing environmental contamination. by reducing self - grooming and changing stance, gait and vocalization, it also signals poor health to kin. all in all, sickness behavior reduces the rate of further infection, a trait that is likely propagated by kin selection. = = = social advantage = = = humans helped each other in case of sickness or injury throughout their hunter - gatherer past and afterwards. convincing others of being badly in need of relief, assistance, and care heightened the chance of survival of the sick individual. high direct costs, such as energy spent on fever and potential harm caused by high body temperatures, and high opportunity costs, as caused by inactivity, social disinterest, and lack of appetite, make sickness behavior a highly costly and therefore credible signal of need. = = immune control = = lipopolysaccharides trigger the immune system to produce proinflammatory cytokines il - 1, il - 6, and tumor necrosis factor ( tnf ). these peripherally released cytokines act on the brain via a fast transmission pathway involving primary input through the vagus nerves, and a slow transmission pathway involving cytokines originating from the choroid plexus and circumventricular organs and diffusing into the brain parenchyma by volume transmission. peripheral cytokines are capable of entering the brain directly but
" one medicine " in a veterinary medical textbook in 1964 to reflect the similarities between animal and human medicine and stress the importance of collaboration between veterinarians and physicians to help solve global health problems. he established a department at the university of california, davis, to jointly address issues in the animal and human health sciences. in 2004, the wildlife conservation society held a conference called " one world, one health " at rockefeller university in new york. out of that conference the twelve manhattan principles were created to describe a unified approach to preventing epidemic diseases. these principles emphasized links between humans, animals, and the environment, their importance in understanding disease dynamics, and the need for interdisciplinary approaches to prevention, education, investment, and policy development. due to global scares surrounding the h5n1 influenza outbreaks of the early - mid 2000s, the american veterinary medical association established a one health initiative task force in 2006, the american medical association passed a one health resolution to promote partnering between veterinary and human medical organizations in 2007, and a one health approach was recommended for responses to global disease outbreaks in 2007. building on these initiatives, the food and agriculture organization ( fao ), world organisation for animal health ( oie ), and world health organization ( who ) came together with the united nations children's fund ( unicef ), united nations system influenza coordination, and the world bank to develop a framework entitled contributing to one world, one health - a strategic framework for reducing risks of infectious diseases at the animal - human - ecosystems interface in 2008, reiterating recommendations for a one health approach to global health. this framework was expanded and implementable policies were developed at stone mountain, georgia in may 2010. international meetings on one health were held in 2011 in africa and australia. in 2012, barbara natterson - horowitz, a physician, and kathryn bowers, a science journalist, published the book zoobiquity, coining the term as they drew parallels between animal and human health through vivid case studies. they called for the biomedical scientific and clinical communities to rediscover comparative medicine and reexamine human and animal health in terms of evolution and the environment. a new york times bestseller, the book has been described as " easy to read and entertaining " in its presentation of ideas similar to the " one health " concept, but also criticized as lacking depth and failing to recognize the extent to which animals and humans have differently evolved as complex systems. in 2016, the one health commission, one health platform, and one health initiative team deemed international one
one health is an approach calling for " the collaborative efforts of multiple disciplines working locally, nationally, and globally, to attain optimal health for people, animals and our environment ", as defined by the one health initiative task force ( ohitf ). it developed in response to evidence of the spreading of zoonotic diseases between species and increasing awareness of " the interdependence of human and animal health and ecological change ". : 205 in this viewpoint, public health is no longer seen in purely human terms. due to a shared environment and highly conserved physiology, animals and humans not only suffer from the same zoonotic diseases but can also be treated by either structurally related or identical drugs. for this reason, special care must be taken to avoid unnecessary or over - treatment of zoonotic diseases, particularly in the context of drug resistance in infectious microbes. a number of organizations throughout the world support the objectives of " one health " including the one health commission ( ohc ), one health initiative, one health platform, cdc one health office, and the quadripartite organizations. the quadripartite organizations are : the food and agriculture organization of the united nations ( fao ), the world health organization ( who ), the world organisation for animal health ( woah, formerly oie ), and the united nations environment programme ( unep ) ), and others. in particular, the one health high level expert panel, an independent advisory group to the quadripartite organizations, provided a comprehensive definition of one health, whereby : " one health is an integrated, unifying approach that aims to sustainably balance and optimize the health of humans, animals, plants and ecosystems. it recognizes the health of humans, domestic and wild animals, plants and the wider environment ( including ecosystems ) are closely linked and interdependent. the approach mobilizes multiple sectors, disciplines and communities at varying levels of society to work together to foster well - being and tackle threats to health and ecosystems, while addressing the collective need for clean water, energy and air, safe and nutritious food, taking action on climate change, and contributing to sustainable development. " = = history = = calvin schwabe, a veterinarian trained in public health, coined the term " one medicine " in a veterinary medical textbook in 1964 to reflect the similarities between animal and human medicine and stress the importance of collaboration between veterinarians and physicians to help solve global health problems. he established a department at the university of california, davis
Answer:
|
fly away
| 0.3 |
Illness has a negative impact on the health of what?
0. rocks
1. bricks
2. llamas
3. plastics
health effects ( or health impacts ) are changes in health resulting from exposure to a source. health effects are an important consideration in many areas, such as hygiene, pollution studies, occupational safety and health, ( [ nutrition ] ) and health sciences in general. some of the major environmental sources of health effects are air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, noise pollution and over - illumination. a non - stochastic or deterministic health effect has a severity that is dependent on dose and is believed to have a threshold level for which no effect is seen. stochastic health effects occur by chance, generally occurring without a threshold level of dose, whose probability is proportional to the dose and whose severity is independent of the dose, such as cancer and genetic effects. occasionally, lack of exposure to certain effectors has detrimental consequences on an individual's health. examples of such effectors include sunlight and exercise. = = see also = = environment and health health effects of alcohol health effects of caffeine health effects of coal ash health effects of pesticides health effects of pollution health effects of sawdust health effects of tobacco health effects of wood smoke health impact of asbestos effects of the car on societies category : radiation health effects health # determinants material safety data sheet risk factor social determinants of health
our environment affects us in many ways. minerals and rocks have an impact on human and animal populations because that is what the earth is composed of. medical geology brings professionals from both the medicine field and the geology field to help us understand this relationship. there are two priorities that have been established within the medical geology field, " ( 1 ) the study of trace elements, especially their bioavailability and ( 2 ) a need to establish baseline, or background levels of contaminants / xenobiotics / potentially harmful but naturally occurring materials in water, soil, air, food, and animal tissue. " the elements and minerals in the land affect people and animals immensely, especially when there is a close relationship between the two. those who depend heavily on the land are faced with one of two problems. first, those who live in places such as maputaland, south africa are exposed to heavily impoverished soils which result in a number of diseases caused by mineral imbalances. secondly, those in areas such as india and bangladesh are often exposed to an excess of elements in the land, resulting in mineral toxicity. all living organisms need some naturally occurring elements ; however, excessive amounts can be detrimental to health. there is a direct link between health and the earth because all humans ingest and breath in these chemicals and for the most part it is done unknowingly. = = = sources of chemical exposure = = = there are many ways in which humans come into contact with the earth's elements and below are only a few ways in which we become exposed to them. volcanoes are one of the main sources that bring all the toxicity from inside the earth to the outside. they bring out chemicals such as ; arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, mercury, lead, radon, and uranium. rocks are also one of the leading sources in exposure to these elements. " they are essentially the source of all the naturally occurring chemical elements found on the earth. " = = diseases = = = = = iodine deficiency = = = one of the biggest geochemical diseases is iodine deficiency. thirty percent of the world is at risk for it and insufficient intake is the most common cause of intellectual disability and brain damage. the sea is a major source of iodine and those who are further from it are at a disadvantage. another source of it is in soil ; however, goitrogens such as humus and clay trap the iodine, making it hard for people to access it. some cultures actually consume the earth's minerals by
illness prevention, including from swimming pools, spas and ocean and freshwater bathing places. solid waste management, including landfills, recycling facilities, composting and solid waste transfer stations. toxic chemical exposure whether in consumer products, housing, workplaces, air, water or soil. toxins from molds and algal blooms. vector control, including the control of mosquitoes, rodents, flies, cockroaches and other animals that may transmit pathogens. according to recent estimates, about 5 to 10 % of disability - adjusted life years ( dalys ) lost are due to environmental causes in europe. by far the most important factor is fine particulate matter pollution in urban air. similarly, environmental exposures have been estimated to contribute to 4. 9 million ( 8. 7 % ) deaths and 86 million ( 5. 7 % ) dalys globally. in the united states, superfund sites created by various companies have been found to be hazardous to human and environmental health in nearby communities. it was this perceived threat, raising the specter of miscarriages, mutations, birth defects, and cancers that most frightened the public. = = = air quality = = = air quality includes ambient outdoor air quality and indoor air quality. large concerns about air quality include environmental tobacco smoke, air pollution by forms of chemical waste, and other concerns. = = = = outdoor air quality = = = = air pollution is globally responsible for over 6. 5 million deaths each year. air pollution is the contamination of an atmosphere due to the presence of substances that are harmful to the health of living organisms, the environment or climate. these substances concern environmental health officials since air pollution is often a risk - factor for diseases that are related to pollution, like lung cancer, respiratory infections, asthma, heart disease, and other forms of respiratory - related illnesses. reducing air pollution, and thus developing air quality, has been found to decrease adult mortality. common products responsible for emissions include road traffic, energy production, household combustion, aviation and motor vehicles, and other forms of pollutants. these pollutants are responsible for the burning of fuel, which can release harmful particles into the air that humans and other living organisms can inhale or ingest. air pollution is associated with adverse health effects like respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, related illnesses, and even death. the risk of air pollution is determined by the pollutant's hazard and the amount of exposure that affects a person. for example, a child who plays outdoor sports will have a higher likelihood of
ncds globally. for instance, china is expected to lose roughly $ 558 billion in national income between 2005 and 2015 due to early deaths. in 2005, heart disease, stroke and diabetes caused an estimated loss in international dollars of national income of 9 billion in india and 3 billion in brazil. following up on the 2023 edition of the fao report – the state of food and agriculture – the subsequent edition provides a detailed breakdown of the hidden costs associated with unhealthy dietary patterns and non - communicable diseases for 156 countries. these hidden costs were measured as productivity losses due to disease - burden. the report finds that in 2020, global health hidden costs amounted 8. 1 trillion 2020 ppp dollars, 70 percent of all of the hidden costs of agrifood systems. diets low in whole grains are the leading concern ( 18 percent of global quantified health hidden costs ), alongside diets high in sodium and low in fruits ( 16 percent each ), although there is significant variation across countries. = = = absenteeism and presenteeism = = = the burden of chronic ncds including mental health conditions is felt in workplaces around the world, notably due to elevated levels of absenteeism, or absence from work because of illness, and presenteeism, or productivity lost from staff coming to work and performing below normal standards due to poor health. for example, the united kingdom experienced a loss of about 175 million days in 2006 to absence from illness among a working population of 37. 7 million people. the estimated cost of absences due to illness was over 20 billion pounds in the same year. the cost due to presenteeism is likely even larger, although methods of analyzing the economic impacts of presenteeism are still being developed. methods for analyzing the distinct workplace impacts of ncds versus other types of health conditions are also still being developed. = = key diseases = = = = = cancer = = = for the vast majority of cancers, risk factors are environmental or lifestyle - related, thus cancers are mostly preventable ncd. greater than 30 % of cancer is preventable via avoiding risk factors including : tobacco, being overweight or obesity, low fruit and vegetable intake, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections, and air pollution. infectious agents are responsible for some cancers, for instance almost all cervical cancers are caused by human papillomavirus infection. = = = cardiovascular disease = = = the first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in 1949 by jerry morris using occupational health data
, but also dampness in buildings. while there is a proven correlation between mold exposure and the development of upper and lower respiratory syndromes, there are still fewer incidences of negative health effects than one might expect. barbeau and colleagues suggested that studies do not show a greater impact from mold exposure for several reasons : 1 ) the types of health effects are not severe and are therefore not caught ; 2 ) people whose homes have flooded find alternative housing to prevent exposure ; 3 ) self - selection, the healthier people participated in mold clean - up and were less likely to get sick ; 4 ) exposures were time - limited as result of remediation efforts and ; 5 ) the lack of access to health care post - flooding may result in fewer illnesses being discovered and reported for their association with mold. there are also certain notable scientific limitations in studying the exposure effects of dampness and molds on individuals because there are currently no known biomarkers that can prove that a person was exclusively exposed to molds. thus, it is currently impossible to prove correlation between mold exposure and symptoms. = = mold - associated conditions = = health problems associated with high levels of airborne mold spores include allergic reactions, asthma episodes, irritations of the eye, nose and throat, sinus congestion, and other respiratory problems. several studies and reviews have suggested that childhood exposure to dampness and mold might contribute to the development of asthma. for example, residents of homes with mold are at an elevated risk for both respiratory infections and bronchitis. when mold spores are inhaled by an immunocompromised individual, some mold spores may begin to grow on living tissue, attaching to cells along the respiratory tract and causing further problems. generally, when this occurs, the illness is an epiphenomenon and not the primary pathology. also, mold may produce mycotoxins, either before or after exposure to humans, potentially causing toxicity. = = = fungal infection = = = a serious health threat from mold exposure for immunocompromised individuals is systemic fungal infection ( systemic mycosis ). immunocompromised individuals exposed to high levels of mold, or individuals with chronic exposure may become infected. sinuses and digestive tract infections are most common ; lung and skin infections are also possible. mycotoxins may or may not be produced by the invading mold. dermatophytes are the parasitic fungi that cause skin infections such as athlete's foot and tinea cruris. most dermatophyte fungi
Answer:
|
llamas
| null |
Illness has a negative impact on the health of what?
0. rocks
1. bricks
2. llamas
3. plastics
health effects ( or health impacts ) are changes in health resulting from exposure to a source. health effects are an important consideration in many areas, such as hygiene, pollution studies, occupational safety and health, ( [ nutrition ] ) and health sciences in general. some of the major environmental sources of health effects are air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, noise pollution and over - illumination. a non - stochastic or deterministic health effect has a severity that is dependent on dose and is believed to have a threshold level for which no effect is seen. stochastic health effects occur by chance, generally occurring without a threshold level of dose, whose probability is proportional to the dose and whose severity is independent of the dose, such as cancer and genetic effects. occasionally, lack of exposure to certain effectors has detrimental consequences on an individual's health. examples of such effectors include sunlight and exercise. = = see also = = environment and health health effects of alcohol health effects of caffeine health effects of coal ash health effects of pesticides health effects of pollution health effects of sawdust health effects of tobacco health effects of wood smoke health impact of asbestos effects of the car on societies category : radiation health effects health # determinants material safety data sheet risk factor social determinants of health
our environment affects us in many ways. minerals and rocks have an impact on human and animal populations because that is what the earth is composed of. medical geology brings professionals from both the medicine field and the geology field to help us understand this relationship. there are two priorities that have been established within the medical geology field, " ( 1 ) the study of trace elements, especially their bioavailability and ( 2 ) a need to establish baseline, or background levels of contaminants / xenobiotics / potentially harmful but naturally occurring materials in water, soil, air, food, and animal tissue. " the elements and minerals in the land affect people and animals immensely, especially when there is a close relationship between the two. those who depend heavily on the land are faced with one of two problems. first, those who live in places such as maputaland, south africa are exposed to heavily impoverished soils which result in a number of diseases caused by mineral imbalances. secondly, those in areas such as india and bangladesh are often exposed to an excess of elements in the land, resulting in mineral toxicity. all living organisms need some naturally occurring elements ; however, excessive amounts can be detrimental to health. there is a direct link between health and the earth because all humans ingest and breath in these chemicals and for the most part it is done unknowingly. = = = sources of chemical exposure = = = there are many ways in which humans come into contact with the earth's elements and below are only a few ways in which we become exposed to them. volcanoes are one of the main sources that bring all the toxicity from inside the earth to the outside. they bring out chemicals such as ; arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, mercury, lead, radon, and uranium. rocks are also one of the leading sources in exposure to these elements. " they are essentially the source of all the naturally occurring chemical elements found on the earth. " = = diseases = = = = = iodine deficiency = = = one of the biggest geochemical diseases is iodine deficiency. thirty percent of the world is at risk for it and insufficient intake is the most common cause of intellectual disability and brain damage. the sea is a major source of iodine and those who are further from it are at a disadvantage. another source of it is in soil ; however, goitrogens such as humus and clay trap the iodine, making it hard for people to access it. some cultures actually consume the earth's minerals by
illness prevention, including from swimming pools, spas and ocean and freshwater bathing places. solid waste management, including landfills, recycling facilities, composting and solid waste transfer stations. toxic chemical exposure whether in consumer products, housing, workplaces, air, water or soil. toxins from molds and algal blooms. vector control, including the control of mosquitoes, rodents, flies, cockroaches and other animals that may transmit pathogens. according to recent estimates, about 5 to 10 % of disability - adjusted life years ( dalys ) lost are due to environmental causes in europe. by far the most important factor is fine particulate matter pollution in urban air. similarly, environmental exposures have been estimated to contribute to 4. 9 million ( 8. 7 % ) deaths and 86 million ( 5. 7 % ) dalys globally. in the united states, superfund sites created by various companies have been found to be hazardous to human and environmental health in nearby communities. it was this perceived threat, raising the specter of miscarriages, mutations, birth defects, and cancers that most frightened the public. = = = air quality = = = air quality includes ambient outdoor air quality and indoor air quality. large concerns about air quality include environmental tobacco smoke, air pollution by forms of chemical waste, and other concerns. = = = = outdoor air quality = = = = air pollution is globally responsible for over 6. 5 million deaths each year. air pollution is the contamination of an atmosphere due to the presence of substances that are harmful to the health of living organisms, the environment or climate. these substances concern environmental health officials since air pollution is often a risk - factor for diseases that are related to pollution, like lung cancer, respiratory infections, asthma, heart disease, and other forms of respiratory - related illnesses. reducing air pollution, and thus developing air quality, has been found to decrease adult mortality. common products responsible for emissions include road traffic, energy production, household combustion, aviation and motor vehicles, and other forms of pollutants. these pollutants are responsible for the burning of fuel, which can release harmful particles into the air that humans and other living organisms can inhale or ingest. air pollution is associated with adverse health effects like respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, related illnesses, and even death. the risk of air pollution is determined by the pollutant's hazard and the amount of exposure that affects a person. for example, a child who plays outdoor sports will have a higher likelihood of
ncds globally. for instance, china is expected to lose roughly $ 558 billion in national income between 2005 and 2015 due to early deaths. in 2005, heart disease, stroke and diabetes caused an estimated loss in international dollars of national income of 9 billion in india and 3 billion in brazil. following up on the 2023 edition of the fao report – the state of food and agriculture – the subsequent edition provides a detailed breakdown of the hidden costs associated with unhealthy dietary patterns and non - communicable diseases for 156 countries. these hidden costs were measured as productivity losses due to disease - burden. the report finds that in 2020, global health hidden costs amounted 8. 1 trillion 2020 ppp dollars, 70 percent of all of the hidden costs of agrifood systems. diets low in whole grains are the leading concern ( 18 percent of global quantified health hidden costs ), alongside diets high in sodium and low in fruits ( 16 percent each ), although there is significant variation across countries. = = = absenteeism and presenteeism = = = the burden of chronic ncds including mental health conditions is felt in workplaces around the world, notably due to elevated levels of absenteeism, or absence from work because of illness, and presenteeism, or productivity lost from staff coming to work and performing below normal standards due to poor health. for example, the united kingdom experienced a loss of about 175 million days in 2006 to absence from illness among a working population of 37. 7 million people. the estimated cost of absences due to illness was over 20 billion pounds in the same year. the cost due to presenteeism is likely even larger, although methods of analyzing the economic impacts of presenteeism are still being developed. methods for analyzing the distinct workplace impacts of ncds versus other types of health conditions are also still being developed. = = key diseases = = = = = cancer = = = for the vast majority of cancers, risk factors are environmental or lifestyle - related, thus cancers are mostly preventable ncd. greater than 30 % of cancer is preventable via avoiding risk factors including : tobacco, being overweight or obesity, low fruit and vegetable intake, physical inactivity, alcohol, sexually transmitted infections, and air pollution. infectious agents are responsible for some cancers, for instance almost all cervical cancers are caused by human papillomavirus infection. = = = cardiovascular disease = = = the first studies on cardiovascular health were performed in 1949 by jerry morris using occupational health data
, but also dampness in buildings. while there is a proven correlation between mold exposure and the development of upper and lower respiratory syndromes, there are still fewer incidences of negative health effects than one might expect. barbeau and colleagues suggested that studies do not show a greater impact from mold exposure for several reasons : 1 ) the types of health effects are not severe and are therefore not caught ; 2 ) people whose homes have flooded find alternative housing to prevent exposure ; 3 ) self - selection, the healthier people participated in mold clean - up and were less likely to get sick ; 4 ) exposures were time - limited as result of remediation efforts and ; 5 ) the lack of access to health care post - flooding may result in fewer illnesses being discovered and reported for their association with mold. there are also certain notable scientific limitations in studying the exposure effects of dampness and molds on individuals because there are currently no known biomarkers that can prove that a person was exclusively exposed to molds. thus, it is currently impossible to prove correlation between mold exposure and symptoms. = = mold - associated conditions = = health problems associated with high levels of airborne mold spores include allergic reactions, asthma episodes, irritations of the eye, nose and throat, sinus congestion, and other respiratory problems. several studies and reviews have suggested that childhood exposure to dampness and mold might contribute to the development of asthma. for example, residents of homes with mold are at an elevated risk for both respiratory infections and bronchitis. when mold spores are inhaled by an immunocompromised individual, some mold spores may begin to grow on living tissue, attaching to cells along the respiratory tract and causing further problems. generally, when this occurs, the illness is an epiphenomenon and not the primary pathology. also, mold may produce mycotoxins, either before or after exposure to humans, potentially causing toxicity. = = = fungal infection = = = a serious health threat from mold exposure for immunocompromised individuals is systemic fungal infection ( systemic mycosis ). immunocompromised individuals exposed to high levels of mold, or individuals with chronic exposure may become infected. sinuses and digestive tract infections are most common ; lung and skin infections are also possible. mycotoxins may or may not be produced by the invading mold. dermatophytes are the parasitic fungi that cause skin infections such as athlete's foot and tinea cruris. most dermatophyte fungi
Answer:
|
plastics
| 0.3 |
A thing that may assist a living being in prolonging life is
0. making bad decisions
1. quitting when tired
2. calibrating to changes
3. living in danger
all human beings want to stay alive as long as possible up to the point when life becomes unbearable, when death becomes a preferable alternative. for each person that point is different and must be determined and reviewed periodically. preventing premature death and disability can best be accomplished by preferentially implementing preventive strategies with the highest potential impact. a goal - directed approach therefore emphasizes the prioritization of preventive strategies. that process of prioritization includes consideration of all measures that a person might be willing to take to extend their life or prevent disability including primary, secondary, and tertiary preventive strategies. = = = maximization of current quality of life = = = health - related quality of life is the ability to participate in both necessary and meaningful activities, defined broadly to include physical, cognitive, and interpersonal activities. the specific components of quality of life for each person are unique, and so measures taken to preserve and enhance quality of life will also differ. this tenet is fundamental to the fields of occupational therapy and sports medicine and is routinely applied in palliative care, which utilizes a goal directed approach for patients with serious, chronic illnesses that balances prevention of death with optimizing quality of life. = = = optimization of personal growth and development = = = growth and development are most often emphasized during childhood. within the goal - directed health care framework, growth and development are lifelong goals including not only childhood developmental tasks or milestones, but also resilience and coherence throughout life. this requires the provider and patient to discuss personal growth and development goals and consider them when determining a treatment plan. = = = improving the chances of a good death = = = making a good death a goal increases the importance of advance directives for all adults. beyond legal forms, it is also important to help patients document their values and preferences and discuss them with family members and caregivers utilizing prioritization to make sure relevant information is available at the point where critical decisions must be made. = = research in the field = = a number of articles have been written describing the implementation and potential benefits of various aspects of goal - oriented care and how to integrate it into our health system. several books have been written to help guide patients and practitioners. = = references = =
at all. while some of these concerns represent a misunderstanding of what is meant by the value of a statistical life, many express concerns with the project of valuing lives. elizabeth anderson and other philosophers have argued that the methods for measuring the value of a statistical life are insufficiently accurate as they rely on wage studies that are conducted in non - competitive labor markets where workers have insufficient information about their working conditions to accurately determine the risk of death from taking a particular job. further these philosophers contend that some goods ( including mortality risk, as well as environmental goods ) are simply incommensurate, it is impossible to compare them, and therefore impossible to monetize them and put them on a single scale, making the very practice of valuing a statistical life problematic. economists have responded to the more superficial concerns by advocating renaming or rebranding the value of a statistical life as a " micromort " or the amount someone would be willing to pay to reduce a one in one million risk of death, though philosophers contend that this does not resolve the underlying issues. = = see also = = alarp disability - adjusted life year hedonic damages intrinsic value ( ethics ) incremental cost - effectiveness ratio psychological significance and value in life rational choice theory utilitarianism value ( personal and cultural ) = = references = = = = further reading = = murphy, kevin m. ; topel, robert h. ( 2006 ). " the value of health and longevity " ( pdf ). journal of political economy. 114 ( 5 ) : 871 – 904. doi : 10. 1086 / 508033. s2cid 19755649. schelling, thomas c. ( 1987 ). " value of life ". the new palgrave : a dictionary of economics. vol. 4. pp. 793 – 96. viscusi, w. kip ( 2003 ). the value of life : estimates with risks by occupation and industry ( pdf ). discussion paper no. 422. cambridge, mass. : harvard law school. issn 1045 - 6333. retrieved 17 july 2023. = = external links = = " motor vehicle accident costs ". us department of transportation. 31 october 1994.
classic theories = = adult development is a somewhat new area of study in the field of psychology. previously it was assumed that development would cease at the end of adolescence. further research has concluded that development continues well after adolescence and into late adulthood. this new field of research was influenced by the aging population of the " baby boomer " generation. the population of americans who are the age of 65 or over was at roughly 9 million in 1940. in just 60 years that total has grown to over 35 million people. this rise in population and life expectancy had shined a light on the manifestation of development throughout adulthood. changes in adulthood have been described by several theories and metatheories, which serve as a framework for adult development research. one of which is erik erikson who went beyond childhood stages and introduced the concept of continuing development until death. = = = lifespan development theory = = = life span development can be defined as age - relating experiences that occur from birth to the entirety of a human's life. the theory considers the lifelong accumulation of developmental additions and subtractions, with the relative proportion of gains to losses diminishing over an individual's lifetime. according to this theory, life span development has multiple trajectories ( positive, negative, stable ) and causes ( biological, psychological, social, and cultural ). individual variation is a hallmark of this theory – not all individuals develop and age at the same rate and in the same manner. bronfenbrenner's ecological theory bronfenbrenner's ecological theory is an environmental system theory and social ecological model which focuses on five environmental systems : microsystem : this system is the immediate environment of an individual. it includes relationships and interactions that are closest to the individual, therefore, having a very significant and direct impact. structures in the microsystem may include family, school, peers, or work environments. mesosystem : this system portrays the connections and interactions between an individual's microsystem structures. this could be demonstrated by the relationship between an individual's family and school. exosystem : this system contains structures that an individual does not directly interact with and is not directly impacted by ; rather, the structures indirectly affect the individual through one of their microsystems. if the individual was a child their exosystem may include elements such as the legal services, their parents'work, or the school board. these elements do not directly impact the child, but they may impact some of the child '
that nonpatients consistently underestimate the quality of life associated with chronic health conditions and disability. the so - called " disability paradox " states the discrepancy between self - reported levels of happiness amongst chronically ill people versus the predictions of their happiness levels by healthy people. the implications of this forecasting error in medical decision making can be severe, because judgments about future quality of life often inform health decisions. inaccurate forecasts can lead patients, or more commonly their health care agent, to refuse life - saving treatment in cases when the treatment would involve a drastic change in lifestyle, for example, the amputation of a leg. a patient, or health care agent, who falls victim to focalism would fail to take into account all the aspects of life that would remain the same after losing a limb. although halpern and arnold suggest interventions to foster awareness of forecasting errors and improve medical decision making amongst patients, the lack of direct research in the impact of biases in medical decisions provides a significant challenge. research also indicates that affective forecasts about future quality of life are influenced by the forecaster's current state of health. whereas healthy individuals associate future low health with low quality of life, less healthy individuals do not forecast necessarily low quality of life when imagining having poorer health. thus, patient forecasts and preferences about their own quality of life may conflict with public notions. because a primary goal of healthcare is maximizing quality of life, knowledge about patients'forecasts can potentially inform policy on how resources are allocated. some doctors suggest that research findings in affective forecasting errors merit medical paternalism. others argue that although biases exist and should support changes in doctor - patient communication, they do not unilaterally diminish decision - making capacity and should not be used to endorse paternalistic policies. this debate captures the tension between medicine's emphasis on protecting the autonomy of the patient and an approach that favors intervention in order to correct biases. = = improving forecasts = = individuals who recently have experienced an emotionally charged life event will display the impact bias. the individual predicts they will feel happier than they actually feel about the event. another factor that influences overestimation is focalism which causes individuals to concentrate on the current event. individuals often fail to realize that other events will also influence how they currently feel. lam et al. ( 2005 ) found that the perspective that individuals take influences their susceptibility to biases when making predictions about their feelings. a perspective that overrides
the value of life is an economic value used to quantify the benefit of avoiding a fatality. it is also referred to as the cost of life, value of preventing a fatality ( vpf ), implied cost of averting a fatality ( icaf ), and value of a statistical life ( vsl ). in social and political sciences, it is the marginal cost of death prevention in a certain class of circumstances. in many studies the value also includes the quality of life, the expected life time remaining, as well as the earning potential of a given person especially for an after - the - fact payment in a wrongful death claim lawsuit. as such, it is a statistical term, the value of reducing the average number of deaths by one. it is an important issue in a wide range of disciplines including economics, health care, adoption, political economy, insurance, worker safety, environmental impact assessment, globalization, and process safety. the motivation for placing a monetary value on life is to enable policy and regulatory analysts to allocate the limited supply of resources, infrastructure, labor, and tax revenue. estimates for the value of a life are used to compare the life - saving and risk - reduction benefits of new policies, regulations, and projects against a variety of other factors, often using a cost - benefit analysis. estimates for the statistical value of life are published and used in practice by various government agencies. in western countries and other liberal democracies, estimates for the value of a statistical life typically range from us $ 1 million – us $ 10 million ; for example, the united states fema estimated the value of a statistical life at us $ 7. 5 million in 2020. = = treatment in economics and methods of calculation = = there is no standard concept for the value of a specific human life in economics. however, when looking at risk / reward trade - offs that people make with regard to their health, economists often consider the value of a statistical life ( vsl ). the vsl is very different from the value of an actual life. it is the value placed on changes in the likelihood of death, not the price someone would pay to avoid certain death. this is best explained by way of an example. from the epa's website : suppose each person in a sample of 100, 000 people were asked how much he or she would be willing to pay for a reduction in their individual risk of dying by 1 in 100, 000, or 0. 001 %, over the next year. since this reduction in
Answer:
|
calibrating to changes
| null |
A thing that may assist a living being in prolonging life is
0. making bad decisions
1. quitting when tired
2. calibrating to changes
3. living in danger
all human beings want to stay alive as long as possible up to the point when life becomes unbearable, when death becomes a preferable alternative. for each person that point is different and must be determined and reviewed periodically. preventing premature death and disability can best be accomplished by preferentially implementing preventive strategies with the highest potential impact. a goal - directed approach therefore emphasizes the prioritization of preventive strategies. that process of prioritization includes consideration of all measures that a person might be willing to take to extend their life or prevent disability including primary, secondary, and tertiary preventive strategies. = = = maximization of current quality of life = = = health - related quality of life is the ability to participate in both necessary and meaningful activities, defined broadly to include physical, cognitive, and interpersonal activities. the specific components of quality of life for each person are unique, and so measures taken to preserve and enhance quality of life will also differ. this tenet is fundamental to the fields of occupational therapy and sports medicine and is routinely applied in palliative care, which utilizes a goal directed approach for patients with serious, chronic illnesses that balances prevention of death with optimizing quality of life. = = = optimization of personal growth and development = = = growth and development are most often emphasized during childhood. within the goal - directed health care framework, growth and development are lifelong goals including not only childhood developmental tasks or milestones, but also resilience and coherence throughout life. this requires the provider and patient to discuss personal growth and development goals and consider them when determining a treatment plan. = = = improving the chances of a good death = = = making a good death a goal increases the importance of advance directives for all adults. beyond legal forms, it is also important to help patients document their values and preferences and discuss them with family members and caregivers utilizing prioritization to make sure relevant information is available at the point where critical decisions must be made. = = research in the field = = a number of articles have been written describing the implementation and potential benefits of various aspects of goal - oriented care and how to integrate it into our health system. several books have been written to help guide patients and practitioners. = = references = =
at all. while some of these concerns represent a misunderstanding of what is meant by the value of a statistical life, many express concerns with the project of valuing lives. elizabeth anderson and other philosophers have argued that the methods for measuring the value of a statistical life are insufficiently accurate as they rely on wage studies that are conducted in non - competitive labor markets where workers have insufficient information about their working conditions to accurately determine the risk of death from taking a particular job. further these philosophers contend that some goods ( including mortality risk, as well as environmental goods ) are simply incommensurate, it is impossible to compare them, and therefore impossible to monetize them and put them on a single scale, making the very practice of valuing a statistical life problematic. economists have responded to the more superficial concerns by advocating renaming or rebranding the value of a statistical life as a " micromort " or the amount someone would be willing to pay to reduce a one in one million risk of death, though philosophers contend that this does not resolve the underlying issues. = = see also = = alarp disability - adjusted life year hedonic damages intrinsic value ( ethics ) incremental cost - effectiveness ratio psychological significance and value in life rational choice theory utilitarianism value ( personal and cultural ) = = references = = = = further reading = = murphy, kevin m. ; topel, robert h. ( 2006 ). " the value of health and longevity " ( pdf ). journal of political economy. 114 ( 5 ) : 871 – 904. doi : 10. 1086 / 508033. s2cid 19755649. schelling, thomas c. ( 1987 ). " value of life ". the new palgrave : a dictionary of economics. vol. 4. pp. 793 – 96. viscusi, w. kip ( 2003 ). the value of life : estimates with risks by occupation and industry ( pdf ). discussion paper no. 422. cambridge, mass. : harvard law school. issn 1045 - 6333. retrieved 17 july 2023. = = external links = = " motor vehicle accident costs ". us department of transportation. 31 october 1994.
classic theories = = adult development is a somewhat new area of study in the field of psychology. previously it was assumed that development would cease at the end of adolescence. further research has concluded that development continues well after adolescence and into late adulthood. this new field of research was influenced by the aging population of the " baby boomer " generation. the population of americans who are the age of 65 or over was at roughly 9 million in 1940. in just 60 years that total has grown to over 35 million people. this rise in population and life expectancy had shined a light on the manifestation of development throughout adulthood. changes in adulthood have been described by several theories and metatheories, which serve as a framework for adult development research. one of which is erik erikson who went beyond childhood stages and introduced the concept of continuing development until death. = = = lifespan development theory = = = life span development can be defined as age - relating experiences that occur from birth to the entirety of a human's life. the theory considers the lifelong accumulation of developmental additions and subtractions, with the relative proportion of gains to losses diminishing over an individual's lifetime. according to this theory, life span development has multiple trajectories ( positive, negative, stable ) and causes ( biological, psychological, social, and cultural ). individual variation is a hallmark of this theory – not all individuals develop and age at the same rate and in the same manner. bronfenbrenner's ecological theory bronfenbrenner's ecological theory is an environmental system theory and social ecological model which focuses on five environmental systems : microsystem : this system is the immediate environment of an individual. it includes relationships and interactions that are closest to the individual, therefore, having a very significant and direct impact. structures in the microsystem may include family, school, peers, or work environments. mesosystem : this system portrays the connections and interactions between an individual's microsystem structures. this could be demonstrated by the relationship between an individual's family and school. exosystem : this system contains structures that an individual does not directly interact with and is not directly impacted by ; rather, the structures indirectly affect the individual through one of their microsystems. if the individual was a child their exosystem may include elements such as the legal services, their parents'work, or the school board. these elements do not directly impact the child, but they may impact some of the child '
that nonpatients consistently underestimate the quality of life associated with chronic health conditions and disability. the so - called " disability paradox " states the discrepancy between self - reported levels of happiness amongst chronically ill people versus the predictions of their happiness levels by healthy people. the implications of this forecasting error in medical decision making can be severe, because judgments about future quality of life often inform health decisions. inaccurate forecasts can lead patients, or more commonly their health care agent, to refuse life - saving treatment in cases when the treatment would involve a drastic change in lifestyle, for example, the amputation of a leg. a patient, or health care agent, who falls victim to focalism would fail to take into account all the aspects of life that would remain the same after losing a limb. although halpern and arnold suggest interventions to foster awareness of forecasting errors and improve medical decision making amongst patients, the lack of direct research in the impact of biases in medical decisions provides a significant challenge. research also indicates that affective forecasts about future quality of life are influenced by the forecaster's current state of health. whereas healthy individuals associate future low health with low quality of life, less healthy individuals do not forecast necessarily low quality of life when imagining having poorer health. thus, patient forecasts and preferences about their own quality of life may conflict with public notions. because a primary goal of healthcare is maximizing quality of life, knowledge about patients'forecasts can potentially inform policy on how resources are allocated. some doctors suggest that research findings in affective forecasting errors merit medical paternalism. others argue that although biases exist and should support changes in doctor - patient communication, they do not unilaterally diminish decision - making capacity and should not be used to endorse paternalistic policies. this debate captures the tension between medicine's emphasis on protecting the autonomy of the patient and an approach that favors intervention in order to correct biases. = = improving forecasts = = individuals who recently have experienced an emotionally charged life event will display the impact bias. the individual predicts they will feel happier than they actually feel about the event. another factor that influences overestimation is focalism which causes individuals to concentrate on the current event. individuals often fail to realize that other events will also influence how they currently feel. lam et al. ( 2005 ) found that the perspective that individuals take influences their susceptibility to biases when making predictions about their feelings. a perspective that overrides
the value of life is an economic value used to quantify the benefit of avoiding a fatality. it is also referred to as the cost of life, value of preventing a fatality ( vpf ), implied cost of averting a fatality ( icaf ), and value of a statistical life ( vsl ). in social and political sciences, it is the marginal cost of death prevention in a certain class of circumstances. in many studies the value also includes the quality of life, the expected life time remaining, as well as the earning potential of a given person especially for an after - the - fact payment in a wrongful death claim lawsuit. as such, it is a statistical term, the value of reducing the average number of deaths by one. it is an important issue in a wide range of disciplines including economics, health care, adoption, political economy, insurance, worker safety, environmental impact assessment, globalization, and process safety. the motivation for placing a monetary value on life is to enable policy and regulatory analysts to allocate the limited supply of resources, infrastructure, labor, and tax revenue. estimates for the value of a life are used to compare the life - saving and risk - reduction benefits of new policies, regulations, and projects against a variety of other factors, often using a cost - benefit analysis. estimates for the statistical value of life are published and used in practice by various government agencies. in western countries and other liberal democracies, estimates for the value of a statistical life typically range from us $ 1 million – us $ 10 million ; for example, the united states fema estimated the value of a statistical life at us $ 7. 5 million in 2020. = = treatment in economics and methods of calculation = = there is no standard concept for the value of a specific human life in economics. however, when looking at risk / reward trade - offs that people make with regard to their health, economists often consider the value of a statistical life ( vsl ). the vsl is very different from the value of an actual life. it is the value placed on changes in the likelihood of death, not the price someone would pay to avoid certain death. this is best explained by way of an example. from the epa's website : suppose each person in a sample of 100, 000 people were asked how much he or she would be willing to pay for a reduction in their individual risk of dying by 1 in 100, 000, or 0. 001 %, over the next year. since this reduction in
Answer:
|
making bad decisions
| 0.3 |
During a vigorous workout which will need to increase?
0. Balance
1. Pulse
2. Perspiration
3. Strength
90 – 95 % of vo2 max ) induces a greater degree of physiological cardiac hypertrophy than moderate exercise ( 40 to 70 % of vo2 max ), but it is unknown whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and / or mortality. both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume ( aerobic exercise ), or myocardial thickness ( strength training ). ventricular hypertrophy, the thickening of the ventricular walls, is generally beneficial and healthy if it occurs in response to exercise. = = = central nervous system = = = the effects of physical exercise on the central nervous system may be mediated in part by specific neurotrophic factor hormones released into the blood by muscles, including bdnf, igf - 1, and vegf. = = public health measures = = community - wide and school campaigns are often used in an attempt to increase a population's level of physical activity. studies to determine the effectiveness of these types of programs need to be interpreted cautiously as the results vary. there is some evidence that certain types of exercise programmes for older adults, such as those involving gait, balance, co - ordination and functional tasks, can improve balance. following progressive resistance training, older adults also respond with improved physical function. brief interventions promoting physical activity may be cost - effective, however this evidence is weak and there are variations between studies. environmental approaches appear promising : signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, may increase exercise levels. the city of bogota, colombia, for example, blocks off 113 kilometers ( 70 mi ) of roads on sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. such pedestrian zones are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases and to maintain a healthy bmi. parents can promote physical activity by modelling healthy levels of physical activity or by encouraging physical activity. according to the centers for disease control and prevention in the united states, children and adolescents should do 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. implementing physical exercise in the school system and ensuring an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle is essential. the european commission's directorate - general for education and culture ( dg eac ) has dedicated programs and funds for health enhancing physical activity ( hepa ) projects within its horizon 2020 and erasmus + program, as research showed that too many europeans are not physically active enough. financing is available for increased collaboration between players active in this
far more oxygen from the blood than they do at rest. alternatively, in order to find the efficiency of the lungs in replenishing blood oxygen levels, the a - vo2 diff may instead be taken by comparing blood from the pulmonary artery and the pulmonary vein ; in this case a negative value for a - vo2 diff would be obtained as the oxygen content of the blood would have increased. = = impacts of exercise = = physical exercise leads to an increase in the arteriovenous oxygen difference in all individuals. as exercise intensities increase, the muscles increase the amount of oxygen they extract from the blood, and this therefore results in further increases in a - vo2 diff. the maximum a - vo2 diff is also usually greater in trained athletes than in untrained individuals. this is a result of aerobic exercise leading to hypertrophy of the slow twitch muscle fibres mainly due to increased capillarisation. the increase in capillary beds in the muscle means that blood supply to that muscle can be greater and diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other metabolites increases. with training the muscles also improve in their ability to extract oxygen from the blood and process the oxygen, possibly due to adaptations of the mitochondria and an increase in the muscle's myoglobin content. research has shown that following the commencement of exercise there is a delay in the increase of the a - vo2 diff, and that a - vo2 diff only has a marginal impact in the total change in vo2 in the early stages of exercise. the bulk of the early increase in oxygen consumption after a sudden change in exercise levels results from increased cardiac output. however it has also been found that the increase in the maximal a - vo2 diff resulting from adaptations to a physical training program can account for most of the difference in vo2 max in subjects participating in sub - maximal exercise. = = in medicine = = arteriovenous oxygen difference is also used in other areas of study such as medicine and medical research. for example, the a - vo2 diff has been used to measure cerebral blood flow in comatose patients, assisting with their diagnosis and treatment. the a - vo2 diff has also been used to determine the effects of physical training in coronary patients. = = see also = = blood gas oxygen saturation = = references = = = = sources = = malpeli, robert ; et al. ( 2010 ). physical education : vce units 3
proficiency in motor skills results in a more sedentary lifestyle. the type and intensity of physical activity performed may have an effect on a person's fitness level. there is some weak evidence that high - intensity interval training may improve a person's vo2 max slightly more than lower intensity endurance training. however, unscientific fitness methods could lead to sports injuries. = = = cardiovascular system = = = the beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. there is a direct correlation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular disease, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease. low levels of physical exercise increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases mortality. children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness. studies have shown that academic stress in youth increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in later years ; however, these risks can be greatly decreased with regular physical exercise. there is a dose - response relationship between the amount of exercise performed from approximately 700 – 2000 kcal of energy expenditure per week and all - cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle - aged and elderly men. the greatest potential for reduced mortality is seen in sedentary individuals who become moderately active. studies have shown that since heart disease is the leading cause of death in women, regular exercise in aging women leads to healthier cardiovascular profiles. the most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate - intensity activity ( 40 – 60 % of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age ). after a myocardial infarction, survivors who changed their lifestyle to include regular exercise had higher survival rates. sedentary people are most at risk for mortality from cardiovascular and all other causes. according to the american heart association, exercise reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attack and stroke. some have suggested that increases in physical exercise might decrease healthcare costs, increase the rate of job attendance, as well as increase the amount of effort women put into their jobs. = = = immune system = = = although there have been hundreds of studies on physical exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness. epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human immune system ; an effect which is modeled in a j curve. moderate exercise has been associated with a 29 % decreased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections ( urti ), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high - intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of
increase exponentially ( simply meaning that the greatest gains are seen during the first weeks of training ). successful training produces hypertrophy of muscle fibers as an adaptation to the training regimen. in order to make further gains, greater workout intensity is required with heavier loads and more repetitions, although improvement in skill can contribute to gains in ability. when a bodily constituent adjusts exponentially over time, it usually attains a new stable level as a result of the plateau principle. the new level may be higher than the initial level ( hypertrophy ) in the case of strength training or lower in the case of dieting or disuse atrophy. this adjustment contributes to homeostasis but does not require feedback regulation. gradual, asymptotic approach to a new balance between synthesis and degradation produces a stable level. because of this, the plateau principle is sometimes called the stability principle. mathematically, the result is linear dynamics despite the fact that most biological processes are non - linear ( see nonlinear system ) if considered over a very broad range of inputs. = = = changes in body composition when food is restricted = = = data from the minnesota starvation experiment by ancel keys and others demonstrate that during food restriction, total body mass, fat mass and lean body mass follow an exponential approach to a new steady state. the observation that body mass changes exponentially during partial or complete starvation seems to be a general feature of adaptation to energy restriction. = = the plateau principle in biochemistry = = each cell produces thousands of different kinds of protein and enzymes. one of the key methods of cellular regulation is to change the rate of transcription of messenger rna, which gives rise to a change in the rate of synthesis for the protein that the messenger rna encodes. the plateau principle explains why the concentration of different enzymes increases at unique rates in response to a single hormone. because each enzyme is degraded with at a unique rate ( each has a different half - life ), the rate of change differs even when the same stimulus is applied. this principle has been demonstrated for the response of liver enzymes that degrade amino acids to cortisone, which is a catabolic hormone. the method of approach to steady state has also been used to analyze the change in messenger rna levels when synthesis or degradation changes, and a model has also been reported in which the plateau principle is used to connect the change in messenger rna synthesis to the expected change in protein synthesis and concentration as a function of time. = = the plateau principle in physiology = = excessive gain in body
nutritional support under the care of a doctor in individuals with muscle wasting due to hiv / aids or cancer, to promote wound healing following surgery or injury, or when otherwise recommended by a medical professional. juven, a nutrition product which contains 3 grams of hmb - ca, 14 grams of l - arginine, and 14 grams of l - glutamine per two servings, has been shown to improve lean body mass during clinical trials in individuals with aids and cancer, but not rheumatoid cachexia. further research involving the treatment of cancer cachexia with juven over a period of several months is required to adequately determine treatment efficacy. = = = enhancing performance = = = with an appropriate exercise program, dietary supplementation with 3 grams of hmb per day has been shown to increase exercise - induced gains in muscle size, muscle strength and power, and lean body mass, reduce exercise - induced skeletal muscle damage, and expedite recovery from high - intensity exercise. based upon limited clinical research, hmb supplementation may also improve aerobic exercise performance and increase gains in aerobic fitness when combined with high - intensity interval training. these effects of hmb are more pronounced in untrained individuals and athletes who perform high intensity resistance or aerobic exercise. in resistance - trained populations, the effects of hmb on muscle strength and lean body mass are limited. hmb affects muscle size, strength, mass, power, and recovery in part by stimulating myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown through various mechanisms, including the activation of mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 ( mtorc1 ) and inhibition of proteasome - mediated proteolysis in skeletal muscles. the efficacy of hmb supplementation for reducing skeletal muscle damage from prolonged or high - intensity exercise is affected by the time that it is used relative to exercise. the greatest reduction in skeletal muscle damage from a single bout of exercise has been shown to occur when hmb - ca is ingested 1 – 2 hours prior to exercise or hmb - fa is ingested 30 – 60 minutes prior to exercise. in 2006, only about 2 % of college student athletes in the united states used hmb as a dietary supplement. as of 2017, hmb has found widespread use as an ergogenic supplement among athletes. as of 2018, hmb has not been banned by the national collegiate athletic association, world anti - doping agency, or any other prominent national or international athletic organization. = = side effects =
Answer:
|
Pulse
| null |
During a vigorous workout which will need to increase?
0. Balance
1. Pulse
2. Perspiration
3. Strength
90 – 95 % of vo2 max ) induces a greater degree of physiological cardiac hypertrophy than moderate exercise ( 40 to 70 % of vo2 max ), but it is unknown whether this has any effects on overall morbidity and / or mortality. both aerobic and anaerobic exercise work to increase the mechanical efficiency of the heart by increasing cardiac volume ( aerobic exercise ), or myocardial thickness ( strength training ). ventricular hypertrophy, the thickening of the ventricular walls, is generally beneficial and healthy if it occurs in response to exercise. = = = central nervous system = = = the effects of physical exercise on the central nervous system may be mediated in part by specific neurotrophic factor hormones released into the blood by muscles, including bdnf, igf - 1, and vegf. = = public health measures = = community - wide and school campaigns are often used in an attempt to increase a population's level of physical activity. studies to determine the effectiveness of these types of programs need to be interpreted cautiously as the results vary. there is some evidence that certain types of exercise programmes for older adults, such as those involving gait, balance, co - ordination and functional tasks, can improve balance. following progressive resistance training, older adults also respond with improved physical function. brief interventions promoting physical activity may be cost - effective, however this evidence is weak and there are variations between studies. environmental approaches appear promising : signs that encourage the use of stairs, as well as community campaigns, may increase exercise levels. the city of bogota, colombia, for example, blocks off 113 kilometers ( 70 mi ) of roads on sundays and holidays to make it easier for its citizens to get exercise. such pedestrian zones are part of an effort to combat chronic diseases and to maintain a healthy bmi. parents can promote physical activity by modelling healthy levels of physical activity or by encouraging physical activity. according to the centers for disease control and prevention in the united states, children and adolescents should do 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. implementing physical exercise in the school system and ensuring an environment in which children can reduce barriers to maintain a healthy lifestyle is essential. the european commission's directorate - general for education and culture ( dg eac ) has dedicated programs and funds for health enhancing physical activity ( hepa ) projects within its horizon 2020 and erasmus + program, as research showed that too many europeans are not physically active enough. financing is available for increased collaboration between players active in this
far more oxygen from the blood than they do at rest. alternatively, in order to find the efficiency of the lungs in replenishing blood oxygen levels, the a - vo2 diff may instead be taken by comparing blood from the pulmonary artery and the pulmonary vein ; in this case a negative value for a - vo2 diff would be obtained as the oxygen content of the blood would have increased. = = impacts of exercise = = physical exercise leads to an increase in the arteriovenous oxygen difference in all individuals. as exercise intensities increase, the muscles increase the amount of oxygen they extract from the blood, and this therefore results in further increases in a - vo2 diff. the maximum a - vo2 diff is also usually greater in trained athletes than in untrained individuals. this is a result of aerobic exercise leading to hypertrophy of the slow twitch muscle fibres mainly due to increased capillarisation. the increase in capillary beds in the muscle means that blood supply to that muscle can be greater and diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other metabolites increases. with training the muscles also improve in their ability to extract oxygen from the blood and process the oxygen, possibly due to adaptations of the mitochondria and an increase in the muscle's myoglobin content. research has shown that following the commencement of exercise there is a delay in the increase of the a - vo2 diff, and that a - vo2 diff only has a marginal impact in the total change in vo2 in the early stages of exercise. the bulk of the early increase in oxygen consumption after a sudden change in exercise levels results from increased cardiac output. however it has also been found that the increase in the maximal a - vo2 diff resulting from adaptations to a physical training program can account for most of the difference in vo2 max in subjects participating in sub - maximal exercise. = = in medicine = = arteriovenous oxygen difference is also used in other areas of study such as medicine and medical research. for example, the a - vo2 diff has been used to measure cerebral blood flow in comatose patients, assisting with their diagnosis and treatment. the a - vo2 diff has also been used to determine the effects of physical training in coronary patients. = = see also = = blood gas oxygen saturation = = references = = = = sources = = malpeli, robert ; et al. ( 2010 ). physical education : vce units 3
proficiency in motor skills results in a more sedentary lifestyle. the type and intensity of physical activity performed may have an effect on a person's fitness level. there is some weak evidence that high - intensity interval training may improve a person's vo2 max slightly more than lower intensity endurance training. however, unscientific fitness methods could lead to sports injuries. = = = cardiovascular system = = = the beneficial effect of exercise on the cardiovascular system is well documented. there is a direct correlation between physical inactivity and cardiovascular disease, and physical inactivity is an independent risk factor for the development of coronary artery disease. low levels of physical exercise increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases mortality. children who participate in physical exercise experience greater loss of body fat and increased cardiovascular fitness. studies have shown that academic stress in youth increases the risk of cardiovascular disease in later years ; however, these risks can be greatly decreased with regular physical exercise. there is a dose - response relationship between the amount of exercise performed from approximately 700 – 2000 kcal of energy expenditure per week and all - cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle - aged and elderly men. the greatest potential for reduced mortality is seen in sedentary individuals who become moderately active. studies have shown that since heart disease is the leading cause of death in women, regular exercise in aging women leads to healthier cardiovascular profiles. the most beneficial effects of physical activity on cardiovascular disease mortality can be attained through moderate - intensity activity ( 40 – 60 % of maximal oxygen uptake, depending on age ). after a myocardial infarction, survivors who changed their lifestyle to include regular exercise had higher survival rates. sedentary people are most at risk for mortality from cardiovascular and all other causes. according to the american heart association, exercise reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attack and stroke. some have suggested that increases in physical exercise might decrease healthcare costs, increase the rate of job attendance, as well as increase the amount of effort women put into their jobs. = = = immune system = = = although there have been hundreds of studies on physical exercise and the immune system, there is little direct evidence on its connection to illness. epidemiological evidence suggests that moderate exercise has a beneficial effect on the human immune system ; an effect which is modeled in a j curve. moderate exercise has been associated with a 29 % decreased incidence of upper respiratory tract infections ( urti ), but studies of marathon runners found that their prolonged high - intensity exercise was associated with an increased risk of
increase exponentially ( simply meaning that the greatest gains are seen during the first weeks of training ). successful training produces hypertrophy of muscle fibers as an adaptation to the training regimen. in order to make further gains, greater workout intensity is required with heavier loads and more repetitions, although improvement in skill can contribute to gains in ability. when a bodily constituent adjusts exponentially over time, it usually attains a new stable level as a result of the plateau principle. the new level may be higher than the initial level ( hypertrophy ) in the case of strength training or lower in the case of dieting or disuse atrophy. this adjustment contributes to homeostasis but does not require feedback regulation. gradual, asymptotic approach to a new balance between synthesis and degradation produces a stable level. because of this, the plateau principle is sometimes called the stability principle. mathematically, the result is linear dynamics despite the fact that most biological processes are non - linear ( see nonlinear system ) if considered over a very broad range of inputs. = = = changes in body composition when food is restricted = = = data from the minnesota starvation experiment by ancel keys and others demonstrate that during food restriction, total body mass, fat mass and lean body mass follow an exponential approach to a new steady state. the observation that body mass changes exponentially during partial or complete starvation seems to be a general feature of adaptation to energy restriction. = = the plateau principle in biochemistry = = each cell produces thousands of different kinds of protein and enzymes. one of the key methods of cellular regulation is to change the rate of transcription of messenger rna, which gives rise to a change in the rate of synthesis for the protein that the messenger rna encodes. the plateau principle explains why the concentration of different enzymes increases at unique rates in response to a single hormone. because each enzyme is degraded with at a unique rate ( each has a different half - life ), the rate of change differs even when the same stimulus is applied. this principle has been demonstrated for the response of liver enzymes that degrade amino acids to cortisone, which is a catabolic hormone. the method of approach to steady state has also been used to analyze the change in messenger rna levels when synthesis or degradation changes, and a model has also been reported in which the plateau principle is used to connect the change in messenger rna synthesis to the expected change in protein synthesis and concentration as a function of time. = = the plateau principle in physiology = = excessive gain in body
nutritional support under the care of a doctor in individuals with muscle wasting due to hiv / aids or cancer, to promote wound healing following surgery or injury, or when otherwise recommended by a medical professional. juven, a nutrition product which contains 3 grams of hmb - ca, 14 grams of l - arginine, and 14 grams of l - glutamine per two servings, has been shown to improve lean body mass during clinical trials in individuals with aids and cancer, but not rheumatoid cachexia. further research involving the treatment of cancer cachexia with juven over a period of several months is required to adequately determine treatment efficacy. = = = enhancing performance = = = with an appropriate exercise program, dietary supplementation with 3 grams of hmb per day has been shown to increase exercise - induced gains in muscle size, muscle strength and power, and lean body mass, reduce exercise - induced skeletal muscle damage, and expedite recovery from high - intensity exercise. based upon limited clinical research, hmb supplementation may also improve aerobic exercise performance and increase gains in aerobic fitness when combined with high - intensity interval training. these effects of hmb are more pronounced in untrained individuals and athletes who perform high intensity resistance or aerobic exercise. in resistance - trained populations, the effects of hmb on muscle strength and lean body mass are limited. hmb affects muscle size, strength, mass, power, and recovery in part by stimulating myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis and inhibiting muscle protein breakdown through various mechanisms, including the activation of mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 ( mtorc1 ) and inhibition of proteasome - mediated proteolysis in skeletal muscles. the efficacy of hmb supplementation for reducing skeletal muscle damage from prolonged or high - intensity exercise is affected by the time that it is used relative to exercise. the greatest reduction in skeletal muscle damage from a single bout of exercise has been shown to occur when hmb - ca is ingested 1 – 2 hours prior to exercise or hmb - fa is ingested 30 – 60 minutes prior to exercise. in 2006, only about 2 % of college student athletes in the united states used hmb as a dietary supplement. as of 2017, hmb has found widespread use as an ergogenic supplement among athletes. as of 2018, hmb has not been banned by the national collegiate athletic association, world anti - doping agency, or any other prominent national or international athletic organization. = = side effects =
Answer:
|
Perspiration
| 0.3 |
A wire can be caused to heat up when what kind of current flows through it?
0. wind
1. rocky
2. water
3. zapping power
gathers more, and so on. as a limited amount of sediment can be carried by a certain amount of water, more water must become laded with sediment, until a huge, destructive current is washing down some marine hillside. it is theorized that submarine depths, such as the marianas trench have been caused in part by this action. there is one additional effect of turbidity currents : upwelling. all of the water rushing into ocean valleys displaces a significant amount of water. this water literally has nowhere to go but up. the upwelling current goes almost straight up. this spreads the nutrient rich ocean life to the surface, feeding some of the world ’ s largest fisheries. this current also helps thermohaline currents return to the surface. = = ekman spiral = = an entirely different class of subsurface current is caused by friction with surface currents and objects. when the wind or some other surface force compels surface currents into motion, some of this is translated into subsurface motion. the ekman spiral, named after vagn walfrid ekman, is the standard for this transfer of energy. the ekman spiral works as follows : when the surface moves, the subsurface inherits some - but not all - of this motion. due to the coriolis effect, however, the current moves at a angle to the right of the first ( left in the southern hemisphere ). the current below is slower yet, and moves at a angle to the right. this process continues in the same manner, until, at about 100 meters below the surface, the current is moving in the opposite direction of the surface current. = = subsidence = = the final type of subsurface current is subsidence, caused when forces push water against some obstacle ( like a rock ), causing it to pile up there. the water at the bottom of the pileup flows away from it, causing a subsidence current. = = wave patterns = = various subsurface currents conflict at times, causing bizarre wave patterns. one of the most noticeable of these is the maelstrom. the word is derived from nordic words meaning to grind and stream. essentially, the maelstrom is a large, very powerful whirlpool, a large swirling body of water being drawn down and inward toward its center. this is usually the result of tidal currents. = = effect = = subsurface currents have a large effect on life on earth. they flow beneath
that lines maintain minimum clearances. adverse weather conditions, such as high winds and low temperatures, interrupt transmission. wind speeds as low as 23 knots ( 43 km / h ) can permit conductors to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a flashover and loss of supply. oscillatory motion of the physical line is termed conductor gallop or flutter depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation. = = = underground = = = electric power can be transmitted by underground power cables. underground cables take up no right - of - way, have lower visibility, and are less affected by weather. however, cables must be insulated. cable and excavation costs are much higher than overhead construction. faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair. in some metropolitan areas, cables are enclosed by metal pipe and insulated with dielectric fluid ( usually an oil ) that is either static or circulated via pumps. if an electric fault damages the pipe and leaks dielectric, liquid nitrogen is used to freeze portions of the pipe to enable draining and repair. this extends the repair period and increases costs. the temperature of the pipe and surroundings are monitored throughout the repair period. underground lines are limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re - rating lines. long underground ac cables have significant capacitance, which reduces their ability to provide useful power beyond 50 miles ( 80 kilometres ). dc cables are not limited in length by their capacitance. = = history = = commercial electric power was initially transmitted at the same voltage used by lighting and mechanical loads. this restricted the distance between generating plant and loads. in 1882, dc voltage could not easily be increased for long - distance transmission. different classes of loads ( for example, lighting, fixed motors, and traction / railway systems ) required different voltages, and so used different generators and circuits. thus, generators were sited near their loads, a practice that later became known as distributed generation using large numbers of small generators. transmission of alternating current ( ac ) became possible after lucien gaulard and john dixon gibbs built what they called the secondary generator, an early transformer provided with 1 : 1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit, in 1881. the first long distance ac line was 34 kilometres ( 21 miles ) long, built for the 1884 international exhibition of electricity in turin, italy. it was powered by a 2 kv, 130 hz siemens & halske alternator and featured several gaulard transformers with primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent
direct current ( dc ) is one - directional flow of electric charge. an electrochemical cell is a prime example of dc power. direct current may flow through a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. the electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current ( ac ). a term formerly used for this type of current was galvanic current. the abbreviations ac and dc are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they modify current or voltage. direct current may be converted from an alternating current supply by use of a rectifier, which contains electronic elements ( usually ) or electromechanical elements ( historically ) that allow current to flow only in one direction. direct current may be converted into alternating current via an inverter. direct current has many uses, from the charging of batteries to large power supplies for electronic systems, motors, and more. very large quantities of electrical energy provided via direct - current are used in smelting of aluminum and other electrochemical processes. it is also used for some railways, especially in urban areas. high - voltage direct current is used to transmit large amounts of power from remote generation sites or to interconnect alternating current power grids. = = history = = direct current was produced in 1800 by italian physicist alessandro volta's battery, his voltaic pile. the nature of how current flowed was not yet understood. french physicist andre - marie ampere conjectured that current travelled in one direction from positive to negative. when french instrument maker hippolyte pixii built the first dynamo electric generator in 1832, he found that as the magnet used passed the loops of wire each half turn, it caused the flow of electricity to reverse, generating an alternating current. at ampere's suggestion, pixii later added a commutator, a type of " switch " where contacts on the shaft work with " brush " contacts to produce direct current. the late 1870s and early 1880s saw electricity starting to be generated at power stations. these were initially set up to power arc lighting ( a popular type of street lighting ) running on very high voltage ( usually higher than 3, 000 volts ) direct current or alternating current. this was followed by the widespread use of low voltage direct current for indoor electric lighting in business and homes after inventor thomas edison launched his incandescent bulb based electric " utility " in 1882. because of the significant advantages of
law the circular eddy currents ( e ) are directed in a counterclockwise direction. on the lefthand side nearest to the other wire ( 1 ) the eddy current is now in the same direction as the main current, so it adds to the main current, increasing it. on the righthand side ( 2 ) the eddy current is in the opposite direction to the main current, reducing it. in contrast to the previous case, the net effect is to redistribute the current into a thin strip on the side adjacent to the other wire. = = effects = = the additional resistance increases power losses which, in power circuits, can generate undesirable heating. proximity and skin effect significantly complicate the design of efficient transformers and inductors operating at high frequencies, used for example in switched - mode power supplies. in radio frequency tuned circuits used in radio equipment, proximity and skin effect losses in the inductor reduce the q factor, broadening the bandwidth. to minimize this, special construction is used in radio frequency inductors. the winding is usually limited to a single layer, and often the turns are spaced apart to separate the conductors. in multilayer coils, the successive layers are wound in a crisscross pattern to avoid having wires lying parallel to one another ; these are sometimes referred to as " basket - weave " or " honeycomb " coils. since the current flows on the surface of the conductor, high frequency coils are sometimes silver - plated, or made of litz wire. = = dowell method for determination of losses = = this one - dimensional method for transformers assumes the wires have rectangular cross - section, but can be applied approximately to circular wire by treating it as square with the same cross - sectional area. the windings are divided into'portions ', each portion being a group of layers which contains one position of zero mmf. for a transformer with a separate primary and secondary winding, each winding is a portion. for a transformer with interleaved ( or sectionalised ) windings, the innermost and outermost sections are each one portion, while the other sections are each divided into two portions at the point where zero m. m. f occurs. the total resistance of a portion is given by r ac = r dc ( re ( m ) + ( m 2 − 1 ) re ( d ) 3 ) { \ displaystyle r _ { \ text { ac } } = r _ { \ text { dc } } \ left ( \
regelation is the phenomenon of ice melting under pressure and refreezing when the pressure is reduced. this can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice, with a heavy weight attached to it. the pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally, permitting the wire to pass through the entire block. the wire's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved, so the ice block will remain intact even after wire passes completely through. this experiment is possible for ice at −10 °c or cooler, and while essentially valid, the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex. the phenomenon works best with high thermal conductivity materials such as copper, since latent heat of fusion from the top side needs to be transferred to the lower side to supply latent heat of melting. in short, the phenomenon in which ice converts to liquid due to applied pressure and then re - converts to ice once the pressure is removed is called regelation. regelation was discovered by michael faraday. it occurs only for substances such as ice, that have the property of expanding upon freezing, for the melting points of those substances decrease with the increasing external pressure. the melting point of ice falls by 0. 0072 °c for each additional atm of pressure applied. for example, a pressure of 500 atmospheres is needed for ice to melt at −4 °c. = = surface melting = = for a normal crystalline ice far below its melting point, there will be some relaxation of the atoms near the surface. simulations of ice near to its melting point show that there is significant melting of the surface layers rather than a symmetric relaxation of atom positions. nuclear magnetic resonance provided evidence for a liquid layer on the surface of ice. in 1998, using atomic force microscopy, astrid doppenschmidt and hans - jurgen butt measured the thickness of the liquid - like layer on ice to be roughly 32 nm at −1 °c, and 11 nm at −10 °c. the surface melting can account for the following : low coefficient of friction of ice, as experienced by skaters. ease of compaction of ice high adhesion of ice surfaces = = examples of regelation = = a glacier can exert a sufficient amount of pressure on its lower surface to lower the melting point of its ice. the melting of the ice at the glacier's base allows it to move from a higher elevation to a lower elevation. liquid water may flow from the base of a glacier at lower elevations when the
Answer:
|
zapping power
| null |
A wire can be caused to heat up when what kind of current flows through it?
0. wind
1. rocky
2. water
3. zapping power
gathers more, and so on. as a limited amount of sediment can be carried by a certain amount of water, more water must become laded with sediment, until a huge, destructive current is washing down some marine hillside. it is theorized that submarine depths, such as the marianas trench have been caused in part by this action. there is one additional effect of turbidity currents : upwelling. all of the water rushing into ocean valleys displaces a significant amount of water. this water literally has nowhere to go but up. the upwelling current goes almost straight up. this spreads the nutrient rich ocean life to the surface, feeding some of the world ’ s largest fisheries. this current also helps thermohaline currents return to the surface. = = ekman spiral = = an entirely different class of subsurface current is caused by friction with surface currents and objects. when the wind or some other surface force compels surface currents into motion, some of this is translated into subsurface motion. the ekman spiral, named after vagn walfrid ekman, is the standard for this transfer of energy. the ekman spiral works as follows : when the surface moves, the subsurface inherits some - but not all - of this motion. due to the coriolis effect, however, the current moves at a angle to the right of the first ( left in the southern hemisphere ). the current below is slower yet, and moves at a angle to the right. this process continues in the same manner, until, at about 100 meters below the surface, the current is moving in the opposite direction of the surface current. = = subsidence = = the final type of subsurface current is subsidence, caused when forces push water against some obstacle ( like a rock ), causing it to pile up there. the water at the bottom of the pileup flows away from it, causing a subsidence current. = = wave patterns = = various subsurface currents conflict at times, causing bizarre wave patterns. one of the most noticeable of these is the maelstrom. the word is derived from nordic words meaning to grind and stream. essentially, the maelstrom is a large, very powerful whirlpool, a large swirling body of water being drawn down and inward toward its center. this is usually the result of tidal currents. = = effect = = subsurface currents have a large effect on life on earth. they flow beneath
that lines maintain minimum clearances. adverse weather conditions, such as high winds and low temperatures, interrupt transmission. wind speeds as low as 23 knots ( 43 km / h ) can permit conductors to encroach operating clearances, resulting in a flashover and loss of supply. oscillatory motion of the physical line is termed conductor gallop or flutter depending on the frequency and amplitude of oscillation. = = = underground = = = electric power can be transmitted by underground power cables. underground cables take up no right - of - way, have lower visibility, and are less affected by weather. however, cables must be insulated. cable and excavation costs are much higher than overhead construction. faults in buried transmission lines take longer to locate and repair. in some metropolitan areas, cables are enclosed by metal pipe and insulated with dielectric fluid ( usually an oil ) that is either static or circulated via pumps. if an electric fault damages the pipe and leaks dielectric, liquid nitrogen is used to freeze portions of the pipe to enable draining and repair. this extends the repair period and increases costs. the temperature of the pipe and surroundings are monitored throughout the repair period. underground lines are limited by their thermal capacity, which permits less overload or re - rating lines. long underground ac cables have significant capacitance, which reduces their ability to provide useful power beyond 50 miles ( 80 kilometres ). dc cables are not limited in length by their capacitance. = = history = = commercial electric power was initially transmitted at the same voltage used by lighting and mechanical loads. this restricted the distance between generating plant and loads. in 1882, dc voltage could not easily be increased for long - distance transmission. different classes of loads ( for example, lighting, fixed motors, and traction / railway systems ) required different voltages, and so used different generators and circuits. thus, generators were sited near their loads, a practice that later became known as distributed generation using large numbers of small generators. transmission of alternating current ( ac ) became possible after lucien gaulard and john dixon gibbs built what they called the secondary generator, an early transformer provided with 1 : 1 turn ratio and open magnetic circuit, in 1881. the first long distance ac line was 34 kilometres ( 21 miles ) long, built for the 1884 international exhibition of electricity in turin, italy. it was powered by a 2 kv, 130 hz siemens & halske alternator and featured several gaulard transformers with primary windings connected in series, which fed incandescent
direct current ( dc ) is one - directional flow of electric charge. an electrochemical cell is a prime example of dc power. direct current may flow through a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. the electric current flows in a constant direction, distinguishing it from alternating current ( ac ). a term formerly used for this type of current was galvanic current. the abbreviations ac and dc are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as when they modify current or voltage. direct current may be converted from an alternating current supply by use of a rectifier, which contains electronic elements ( usually ) or electromechanical elements ( historically ) that allow current to flow only in one direction. direct current may be converted into alternating current via an inverter. direct current has many uses, from the charging of batteries to large power supplies for electronic systems, motors, and more. very large quantities of electrical energy provided via direct - current are used in smelting of aluminum and other electrochemical processes. it is also used for some railways, especially in urban areas. high - voltage direct current is used to transmit large amounts of power from remote generation sites or to interconnect alternating current power grids. = = history = = direct current was produced in 1800 by italian physicist alessandro volta's battery, his voltaic pile. the nature of how current flowed was not yet understood. french physicist andre - marie ampere conjectured that current travelled in one direction from positive to negative. when french instrument maker hippolyte pixii built the first dynamo electric generator in 1832, he found that as the magnet used passed the loops of wire each half turn, it caused the flow of electricity to reverse, generating an alternating current. at ampere's suggestion, pixii later added a commutator, a type of " switch " where contacts on the shaft work with " brush " contacts to produce direct current. the late 1870s and early 1880s saw electricity starting to be generated at power stations. these were initially set up to power arc lighting ( a popular type of street lighting ) running on very high voltage ( usually higher than 3, 000 volts ) direct current or alternating current. this was followed by the widespread use of low voltage direct current for indoor electric lighting in business and homes after inventor thomas edison launched his incandescent bulb based electric " utility " in 1882. because of the significant advantages of
law the circular eddy currents ( e ) are directed in a counterclockwise direction. on the lefthand side nearest to the other wire ( 1 ) the eddy current is now in the same direction as the main current, so it adds to the main current, increasing it. on the righthand side ( 2 ) the eddy current is in the opposite direction to the main current, reducing it. in contrast to the previous case, the net effect is to redistribute the current into a thin strip on the side adjacent to the other wire. = = effects = = the additional resistance increases power losses which, in power circuits, can generate undesirable heating. proximity and skin effect significantly complicate the design of efficient transformers and inductors operating at high frequencies, used for example in switched - mode power supplies. in radio frequency tuned circuits used in radio equipment, proximity and skin effect losses in the inductor reduce the q factor, broadening the bandwidth. to minimize this, special construction is used in radio frequency inductors. the winding is usually limited to a single layer, and often the turns are spaced apart to separate the conductors. in multilayer coils, the successive layers are wound in a crisscross pattern to avoid having wires lying parallel to one another ; these are sometimes referred to as " basket - weave " or " honeycomb " coils. since the current flows on the surface of the conductor, high frequency coils are sometimes silver - plated, or made of litz wire. = = dowell method for determination of losses = = this one - dimensional method for transformers assumes the wires have rectangular cross - section, but can be applied approximately to circular wire by treating it as square with the same cross - sectional area. the windings are divided into'portions ', each portion being a group of layers which contains one position of zero mmf. for a transformer with a separate primary and secondary winding, each winding is a portion. for a transformer with interleaved ( or sectionalised ) windings, the innermost and outermost sections are each one portion, while the other sections are each divided into two portions at the point where zero m. m. f occurs. the total resistance of a portion is given by r ac = r dc ( re ( m ) + ( m 2 − 1 ) re ( d ) 3 ) { \ displaystyle r _ { \ text { ac } } = r _ { \ text { dc } } \ left ( \
regelation is the phenomenon of ice melting under pressure and refreezing when the pressure is reduced. this can be demonstrated by looping a fine wire around a block of ice, with a heavy weight attached to it. the pressure exerted on the ice slowly melts it locally, permitting the wire to pass through the entire block. the wire's track will refill as soon as pressure is relieved, so the ice block will remain intact even after wire passes completely through. this experiment is possible for ice at −10 °c or cooler, and while essentially valid, the details of the process by which the wire passes through the ice are complex. the phenomenon works best with high thermal conductivity materials such as copper, since latent heat of fusion from the top side needs to be transferred to the lower side to supply latent heat of melting. in short, the phenomenon in which ice converts to liquid due to applied pressure and then re - converts to ice once the pressure is removed is called regelation. regelation was discovered by michael faraday. it occurs only for substances such as ice, that have the property of expanding upon freezing, for the melting points of those substances decrease with the increasing external pressure. the melting point of ice falls by 0. 0072 °c for each additional atm of pressure applied. for example, a pressure of 500 atmospheres is needed for ice to melt at −4 °c. = = surface melting = = for a normal crystalline ice far below its melting point, there will be some relaxation of the atoms near the surface. simulations of ice near to its melting point show that there is significant melting of the surface layers rather than a symmetric relaxation of atom positions. nuclear magnetic resonance provided evidence for a liquid layer on the surface of ice. in 1998, using atomic force microscopy, astrid doppenschmidt and hans - jurgen butt measured the thickness of the liquid - like layer on ice to be roughly 32 nm at −1 °c, and 11 nm at −10 °c. the surface melting can account for the following : low coefficient of friction of ice, as experienced by skaters. ease of compaction of ice high adhesion of ice surfaces = = examples of regelation = = a glacier can exert a sufficient amount of pressure on its lower surface to lower the melting point of its ice. the melting of the ice at the glacier's base allows it to move from a higher elevation to a lower elevation. liquid water may flow from the base of a glacier at lower elevations when the
Answer:
|
rocky
| 0.3 |
It is very difficult for carrots to grow in
0. topsoil
1. Kansas
2. peat
3. adobe
), gartons tall fescue ( 1955 ), marbury meadow fescue ( 1957 ), barmere timothy ( 1958 ). clover varieties : clover varieties bred and introduced to uk agriculture include giant cowgrass in 1898, perennial cowgrass ( 1898 ), perennialized broad red clover ( 1898 ), gartons white clover ( 1898 ) and broad red clover ( 1907 ). field cabbage varieties : field cabbage varieties bred and introduced to uk agriculture include early ox heart in 1900, extra early express ( 1900 ), early drumhead ( 1900 ), selected drumhead savoy ( 1902 ), selected ormskirk savoy ( 1902 ), gartons cattle drumhead ( 1904 ), giant purple flat poll ( 1917 ), utility ( 1924 ), intermediate drumhead ( 1924 ), gartons primo ( 1939 ). field carrot varieties : field carrot varieties bred and introduced to uk agriculture include scarlet intermediate in 1900, mid season scarlet ( 1911 ), mammoth white ( 1924 ), intermediate stump rooted ( 1935 ), red cored early market ( 1935 ), short stump rooted ( 1938 ), giant white ( 1939 ). lupin, parsnip, potato, sprouting broccoli, winter beans and winter rye varieties : other crop varieties bred and introduced to uk agriculture include gartons lupin in 1922, gartons field parsnips ( 1902 ), gartons number 12 potato ( 1912 ), gartons purple sprouting broccoli ( 1903 ), gartons giant winter bean ( 1922 ), gs giant winter bean ( 1950 ), p / l 14 giant winter bean ( 1954 ), gartons giant large grained winter rye ( 1922 ). = = references = =
hunting and gathering, as well as small - scale agriculture near terra firme forests. = = = = indonesia = = = = in indonesia there are three areas that could be the example of paludiculture practices such as beje system in kutai and banjar tribes in east kalimantan, nut plantations in segedong west kalimantan, and sago farming in meranti island district and riau province. sago is cultivated semi - wild near rivers in riau. jelutong is grown in monocultures and mixed plantings in central kalimantanm and in south sumatra and jambi, and has been traded since the mid - 1800s. this trade has been stiffed by 2006 tariffs and sanctions, and growing jelutong in monocultures is considered less efficient than crops like smallholder oil palm. besides commercial production, peatland communities in indonesia have developed less impactful practices for extracting resources. for example, dayak communities only cultivate peatlands shallower than three meters for small - scale farming of sago and jelutong in coastal areas where the sea inputs nutrients. in sumatra, timber harvested in peat swamp forests are transported with wooden sleighs, rails and small canals in a traditional method called ongka which is less destructive than commercial logging transport. peat subsidence and co2 emissions have still been found present in agroforestry small - holdings in re - wetted peatlands in jambi and central kalimantan, even those with native species. = = = = malaysia = = = = in malaysia, sago plantations are mostly semi - wild, situated near rivers such as in sarawak, although malaysia also imports sago from sumatra to make noodles. peatlands are also used by the jakun people in south east pahang for hunting, gathering and fishing. = = = = peru = = = = mestizo communities in loreto, peru use peatlands for hunting and gathering, and sustainably cultivating native palms, which they replant to restore the resource. they are conscious of the limits to the resource and the need to avoid wasteful felling during harvest. = = = northern peatlands = = = the greater part of the world's peatlands occur in the northern hemisphere, encompassing both boreal and temperate regions. global estimates indicate that northern peatlands cover 3, 794, 000 km2, storing about 450 gt of c at a density of approximately 118, 318 t c km−2. peat
control with irrigated ditches. the economic feasibility of sphagnum cultivation on peat bogs are however still unclear. the basis for paludiculture is however very different in the south, among other things because of higher population and economic pressure on peatland. = = locations = = = = = tropical peatlands = = = tropical peatlands extensively occur in southeast asia, mainland east asia, the caribbean and central america, south america, and southern africa. often located in lowlands, tropical peatlands are uniquely identified by rapid rates of peat soil formation, under high precipitation and high temperature regimes. in contrast, a high temperature climate accelerates decomposition rates, causing degraded tropical peatlands to contribute more substantially to global green house gas emissions. although tropical peatlands cover only 587, 000 km2, they store 119. 2 gigatonnes c at a density per unit area of 203, 066 tonnes c km−2. for decades, these large carbon stores have succumbed to draining in order to cater for humanity's socio - economic needs. between 1990 and 2015, cultivation ( for management including industrial and small - holder agriculture ) had increased from 11 to 50 % of forested peatlands in peninsular malaysia, sumatra, and borneo. in malaysia and indonesia in the last twenty years, peat swamp forests have retreated from covering 77 % of peatlands to 36 %, endangering many mammals and birds in the region. in 2010, industrial agriculture covers about 3 - 3. 1 million hectares, with oil palm accounting for 2. 15 million hectares of this area. the conversion of natural tropical peatlands into other land uses leads to peat fires and the associated health effects, soil subsidence increasing flood risks, substantial greenhouse gas emissions and loss of biodiversity. today efforts are being made to restore degraded tropical peatlands through paludiculture. paludiculture is researched as a sustainable solution to reduce and reverse the degradation of peat swamp forests, and includes traditional local agricultural practices which predate the use of the term. commercial paludiculture has not been trialled to the extent that it has in northern peatlands. below are examples of paludiculture practices in tropical peatlands. = = = = congo basin = = = = the bantu people in cuvette central use peatlands for fishing, hunting and gathering, as well as small - scale agriculture near terra firme forests. = = = = indonesia = = = = in indonesia there are three areas that could be the example of paludiculture practices such as beje system in kutai
areas raw materials can be grown on peatlands without competing with food production for land in other areas. the growing of crops extracts phosphate from the land, which is important in wetlands ; it also helps to extract other nutrients from water, making it suitable for post - water treatment purposes in many tropical countries, cultivating semi - wild native crops in peat swamp forests is a traditional livelihood which can be sustainable. restored reed beds can obstruct nitrogen and phosphorus run - off from agriculture higher up in the river system and so protect lower waters. paludiculture areas can act as habitat corridors and ecological buffer zones between traditional agriculture and intact peatlands abc = = = debates around the sustainability of paludiculture = = = the application of the term " paludiculture " is debated as it is contingent on whether different peatland agricultural practices are considered sustainable. in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, how sustainable a paludiculture practice is deemed to be depends on the greenhouse gas measured, the species of plant and the water table level of the peatland. " paludiculture " been used to refer to cultivating native and non - native crops on intact or re - wetted peatlands. in the eu's common agricultural policy, it is defined as the productive land use of wet and rewetted peatlands that preserves the peat soil and thereby minimizes co2 emissions and subsidence. a 2020 review of tropical peatland paludiculture from the national university of singapore evaluated wet and re - wetted management pathways in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon sequestration and concluded that commercial paludiculture is only suited to re - wetted peatlands, where it is carbon negative or neutral, as opposed to intact peatlands, where it increases emissions. after decades of re - wetting, can still contribute to global warming to a greater extent than intact peatlands. exceptions where paludiculture on intact peatlands may be sustainable are some traditions of cultivating native crops semi - wild in intact peat swamp forest, or gathering peatland products without active cultivation. the review also suggests that, to be sustainable, paludiculture should only use native vegetation to restore peatlands whilst producing biomass, as opposed to any wetland plants which have the possibility of surviving. this is because using non - native species may create negative peatland conditions for other native plants, and non - native plants tend to have a lower yield and lifespan in undrained or re - wetted peatlands than when grown in their native habitats or drained wetlands. = = = paludiculture
give some relief, but is cumbersome and labor - intensive. in kerala, india, the main coconut pests are the coconut mite, the rhinoceros beetle, the red palm weevil, and the coconut leaf caterpillar. research into countermeasures to these pests has as of 2009 yielded no results ; researchers from the kerala agricultural university and the central plantation crop research institute, kasaragode, continue to work on countermeasures. the krishi vigyan kendra, kannur under kerala agricultural university has developed an innovative extension approach called the compact area group approach to combat coconut mites. = = cultivation = = coconut palms are normally cultivated in hot and wet tropical climates. they need year - round warmth and moisture to grow well and fruit. coconut palms are hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation ; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated ; fruit also tends to be shed. the extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats, such as mangroves ; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the petenes mangroves of the yucatan. unique among plants, coconut trees can be irrigated with sea water. although that is recommended for coconut plants that are over 2 years old. [ 1 ] = = = cultivars = = = coconut has a number of commercial and traditional cultivars. they can be sorted mainly into tall cultivars, dwarf cultivars, and hybrid cultivars ( hybrids between talls and dwarfs ). some of the dwarf cultivars such as'malayan dwarf'have shown some promising resistance to lethal yellowing, while other cultivars such as'jamaican tall'are highly affected by the same plant disease. some cultivars are more drought resistant such as'west coast tall'( india ) while others such as'hainan tall'( china ) are more cold tolerant. other aspects such as seed size, shape and weight, and copra thickness are also important factors in the selection of new cultivars. some cultivars such as'fiji dwarf'form a large bulb at the lower stem and others are cultivated to produce very sweet coconut water with orange - colored husks ( king coconut ) used entirely in fruit stalls for drinking ( sri lanka, india ). = = = harvesting = = = the two most common harvesting methods are the climbing method and the pole method.
Answer:
|
adobe
| null |
It is very difficult for carrots to grow in
0. topsoil
1. Kansas
2. peat
3. adobe
), gartons tall fescue ( 1955 ), marbury meadow fescue ( 1957 ), barmere timothy ( 1958 ). clover varieties : clover varieties bred and introduced to uk agriculture include giant cowgrass in 1898, perennial cowgrass ( 1898 ), perennialized broad red clover ( 1898 ), gartons white clover ( 1898 ) and broad red clover ( 1907 ). field cabbage varieties : field cabbage varieties bred and introduced to uk agriculture include early ox heart in 1900, extra early express ( 1900 ), early drumhead ( 1900 ), selected drumhead savoy ( 1902 ), selected ormskirk savoy ( 1902 ), gartons cattle drumhead ( 1904 ), giant purple flat poll ( 1917 ), utility ( 1924 ), intermediate drumhead ( 1924 ), gartons primo ( 1939 ). field carrot varieties : field carrot varieties bred and introduced to uk agriculture include scarlet intermediate in 1900, mid season scarlet ( 1911 ), mammoth white ( 1924 ), intermediate stump rooted ( 1935 ), red cored early market ( 1935 ), short stump rooted ( 1938 ), giant white ( 1939 ). lupin, parsnip, potato, sprouting broccoli, winter beans and winter rye varieties : other crop varieties bred and introduced to uk agriculture include gartons lupin in 1922, gartons field parsnips ( 1902 ), gartons number 12 potato ( 1912 ), gartons purple sprouting broccoli ( 1903 ), gartons giant winter bean ( 1922 ), gs giant winter bean ( 1950 ), p / l 14 giant winter bean ( 1954 ), gartons giant large grained winter rye ( 1922 ). = = references = =
hunting and gathering, as well as small - scale agriculture near terra firme forests. = = = = indonesia = = = = in indonesia there are three areas that could be the example of paludiculture practices such as beje system in kutai and banjar tribes in east kalimantan, nut plantations in segedong west kalimantan, and sago farming in meranti island district and riau province. sago is cultivated semi - wild near rivers in riau. jelutong is grown in monocultures and mixed plantings in central kalimantanm and in south sumatra and jambi, and has been traded since the mid - 1800s. this trade has been stiffed by 2006 tariffs and sanctions, and growing jelutong in monocultures is considered less efficient than crops like smallholder oil palm. besides commercial production, peatland communities in indonesia have developed less impactful practices for extracting resources. for example, dayak communities only cultivate peatlands shallower than three meters for small - scale farming of sago and jelutong in coastal areas where the sea inputs nutrients. in sumatra, timber harvested in peat swamp forests are transported with wooden sleighs, rails and small canals in a traditional method called ongka which is less destructive than commercial logging transport. peat subsidence and co2 emissions have still been found present in agroforestry small - holdings in re - wetted peatlands in jambi and central kalimantan, even those with native species. = = = = malaysia = = = = in malaysia, sago plantations are mostly semi - wild, situated near rivers such as in sarawak, although malaysia also imports sago from sumatra to make noodles. peatlands are also used by the jakun people in south east pahang for hunting, gathering and fishing. = = = = peru = = = = mestizo communities in loreto, peru use peatlands for hunting and gathering, and sustainably cultivating native palms, which they replant to restore the resource. they are conscious of the limits to the resource and the need to avoid wasteful felling during harvest. = = = northern peatlands = = = the greater part of the world's peatlands occur in the northern hemisphere, encompassing both boreal and temperate regions. global estimates indicate that northern peatlands cover 3, 794, 000 km2, storing about 450 gt of c at a density of approximately 118, 318 t c km−2. peat
control with irrigated ditches. the economic feasibility of sphagnum cultivation on peat bogs are however still unclear. the basis for paludiculture is however very different in the south, among other things because of higher population and economic pressure on peatland. = = locations = = = = = tropical peatlands = = = tropical peatlands extensively occur in southeast asia, mainland east asia, the caribbean and central america, south america, and southern africa. often located in lowlands, tropical peatlands are uniquely identified by rapid rates of peat soil formation, under high precipitation and high temperature regimes. in contrast, a high temperature climate accelerates decomposition rates, causing degraded tropical peatlands to contribute more substantially to global green house gas emissions. although tropical peatlands cover only 587, 000 km2, they store 119. 2 gigatonnes c at a density per unit area of 203, 066 tonnes c km−2. for decades, these large carbon stores have succumbed to draining in order to cater for humanity's socio - economic needs. between 1990 and 2015, cultivation ( for management including industrial and small - holder agriculture ) had increased from 11 to 50 % of forested peatlands in peninsular malaysia, sumatra, and borneo. in malaysia and indonesia in the last twenty years, peat swamp forests have retreated from covering 77 % of peatlands to 36 %, endangering many mammals and birds in the region. in 2010, industrial agriculture covers about 3 - 3. 1 million hectares, with oil palm accounting for 2. 15 million hectares of this area. the conversion of natural tropical peatlands into other land uses leads to peat fires and the associated health effects, soil subsidence increasing flood risks, substantial greenhouse gas emissions and loss of biodiversity. today efforts are being made to restore degraded tropical peatlands through paludiculture. paludiculture is researched as a sustainable solution to reduce and reverse the degradation of peat swamp forests, and includes traditional local agricultural practices which predate the use of the term. commercial paludiculture has not been trialled to the extent that it has in northern peatlands. below are examples of paludiculture practices in tropical peatlands. = = = = congo basin = = = = the bantu people in cuvette central use peatlands for fishing, hunting and gathering, as well as small - scale agriculture near terra firme forests. = = = = indonesia = = = = in indonesia there are three areas that could be the example of paludiculture practices such as beje system in kutai
areas raw materials can be grown on peatlands without competing with food production for land in other areas. the growing of crops extracts phosphate from the land, which is important in wetlands ; it also helps to extract other nutrients from water, making it suitable for post - water treatment purposes in many tropical countries, cultivating semi - wild native crops in peat swamp forests is a traditional livelihood which can be sustainable. restored reed beds can obstruct nitrogen and phosphorus run - off from agriculture higher up in the river system and so protect lower waters. paludiculture areas can act as habitat corridors and ecological buffer zones between traditional agriculture and intact peatlands abc = = = debates around the sustainability of paludiculture = = = the application of the term " paludiculture " is debated as it is contingent on whether different peatland agricultural practices are considered sustainable. in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, how sustainable a paludiculture practice is deemed to be depends on the greenhouse gas measured, the species of plant and the water table level of the peatland. " paludiculture " been used to refer to cultivating native and non - native crops on intact or re - wetted peatlands. in the eu's common agricultural policy, it is defined as the productive land use of wet and rewetted peatlands that preserves the peat soil and thereby minimizes co2 emissions and subsidence. a 2020 review of tropical peatland paludiculture from the national university of singapore evaluated wet and re - wetted management pathways in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon sequestration and concluded that commercial paludiculture is only suited to re - wetted peatlands, where it is carbon negative or neutral, as opposed to intact peatlands, where it increases emissions. after decades of re - wetting, can still contribute to global warming to a greater extent than intact peatlands. exceptions where paludiculture on intact peatlands may be sustainable are some traditions of cultivating native crops semi - wild in intact peat swamp forest, or gathering peatland products without active cultivation. the review also suggests that, to be sustainable, paludiculture should only use native vegetation to restore peatlands whilst producing biomass, as opposed to any wetland plants which have the possibility of surviving. this is because using non - native species may create negative peatland conditions for other native plants, and non - native plants tend to have a lower yield and lifespan in undrained or re - wetted peatlands than when grown in their native habitats or drained wetlands. = = = paludiculture
give some relief, but is cumbersome and labor - intensive. in kerala, india, the main coconut pests are the coconut mite, the rhinoceros beetle, the red palm weevil, and the coconut leaf caterpillar. research into countermeasures to these pests has as of 2009 yielded no results ; researchers from the kerala agricultural university and the central plantation crop research institute, kasaragode, continue to work on countermeasures. the krishi vigyan kendra, kannur under kerala agricultural university has developed an innovative extension approach called the compact area group approach to combat coconut mites. = = cultivation = = coconut palms are normally cultivated in hot and wet tropical climates. they need year - round warmth and moisture to grow well and fruit. coconut palms are hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation ; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated ; fruit also tends to be shed. the extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats, such as mangroves ; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the petenes mangroves of the yucatan. unique among plants, coconut trees can be irrigated with sea water. although that is recommended for coconut plants that are over 2 years old. [ 1 ] = = = cultivars = = = coconut has a number of commercial and traditional cultivars. they can be sorted mainly into tall cultivars, dwarf cultivars, and hybrid cultivars ( hybrids between talls and dwarfs ). some of the dwarf cultivars such as'malayan dwarf'have shown some promising resistance to lethal yellowing, while other cultivars such as'jamaican tall'are highly affected by the same plant disease. some cultivars are more drought resistant such as'west coast tall'( india ) while others such as'hainan tall'( china ) are more cold tolerant. other aspects such as seed size, shape and weight, and copra thickness are also important factors in the selection of new cultivars. some cultivars such as'fiji dwarf'form a large bulb at the lower stem and others are cultivated to produce very sweet coconut water with orange - colored husks ( king coconut ) used entirely in fruit stalls for drinking ( sri lanka, india ). = = = harvesting = = = the two most common harvesting methods are the climbing method and the pole method.
Answer:
|
topsoil
| 0.3 |
It is easiest for a rose to grow
0. in concrete jungles
1. on tilled ground
2. in someone's stomach
3. on a brick
soil. once it reaches the surface, it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air. beans, tamarind, and papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way. = = = = hypogeal = = = = germination can also be done by hypogeal germination ( or hypogeous germination ), where the epicotyl elongates and forms the hook. in this type of germination, the cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose. for example : peas, chickpeas and mango germinate this way. = = = monocot germination = = = in monocot seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a coleorhiza and coleoptile, respectively. the coleorhiza is the first part to grow out of the seed, followed by the radicle. the coleoptile is then pushed up through the ground until it reaches the surface. there, it stops elongating and the first leaves emerge. = = = precocious germination = = = when a seed germinates without undergoing all four stages of seed development, i. e., globular, heart shape, torpedo shape, and cotyledonary stage, it is known as precocious germination. = = pollen germination = = another germination event during the life cycle of gymnosperms and flowering plants is the germination of a pollen grain after pollination. like seeds, pollen grains are severely dehydrated before being released to facilitate their dispersal from one plant to another. they consist of a protective coat containing several cells ( up to 8 in gymnosperms, 2 – 3 in flowering plants ). one of these cells is a tube cell. once the pollen grain lands on the stigma of a receptive flower ( or a female cone in gymnosperms ), it takes up water and germinates. pollen germination is facilitated by hydration on the stigma, as well as by the structure and physiology of the stigma and style. pollen can also be induced to germinate in vitro ( in a petri dish or test tube ). during germination, the tube cell elongates into a pollen tube. in the flower, the pollen tube then grows towards the ovule where it discharges the sperm produced
out a perfectly clean sample with a much heavier yield per acre than common wheat. in china there is an indigenous species of oat botanically known as avena nuda or naked oat. the peculiar feature of this species is that the grains ( which are very small ) grow without any husk, being protected only by the chaff. the habit of the plant is likewise quite unique, four or five grains being suspended upon a thread - like filament about half an inch long. the mating of this species with cultivated varieties has produced new breeds giving yields 50 to 100 per cent. heavier than the original cultivated parents, with a corresponding decrease in the thickness of the skin. the wild or land oat, avena fatua, of great britain has likewise been used with marked success in the production of new breeds in conjunction with the cultivated varieties. in the wild oat there is hardiness of constitution, vigour, strength of straw, and remarkable fertility. all these qualities have been retained in the new breeds produced. another part of our system is the improvement of existing varieties of agricultural plants. the method is similar to that adopted by the breeder of stock for the improvement of his animals, when fresh blood of the same breed is introduced from some other herd. by crossing two distinct plants of the same variety the resulting progeny is more vigorous and robust in constitution, whilst the habit and individual character of the variety is maintained. a year later, these explanatory notes come from the gartons seed catalogue for spring 1901 : for over 20 years the work of cross - fertilising crop plants, with the object of producing new and improved breeds, has been carried on at newton - le - willows in lancashire. it has there for the first time been demonstrated to scientific botanists as well as to agriculturists that all the corn crops ( cereals ) and nearly all the other common crops of the farm are self fertilising. in other words, each individual plant provides the pollen which is required in the process of producing seed, to fertilise the female organs of its own flowers. this natural process results in a perfect system of in - breeding which has been going on for an indefinite period, making it possible to grow the different varieties of crops of the same kind in close proximity to each other, and even as mixed crops without any danger of crosses being produced. if crossing could have occurred in nature it would have been quite impossible to maintain the purity of any variety of crop plant
burnished yellow, orange, or will remain green when ripe. the megafaunal dispersal syndrome refers to those attributes of fruits that evolved in order to attract megafauna ( animals that weigh or weighed more than 44 kilograms ) as primary dispersal agents. following the late pleistocene megafaunal extinctions, most species of large herbivores have become extinct outside of africa ( and to a lesser extent asia ), thereby reducing the effectiveness of seed dispersal — except for the fruits that attracted cultivation by humans. = = = common megafaunal dispersal traits = = = large fruit, best suited to be consumed whole by large animals without seed loss. fruit grows on or close to the trunk, or on stout branches. indehiscent fruit that retains its seeds upon ripening. seeds deter or elude being ground up by teeth through having a thick, tough or hard endocarp ; or bitter, peppering or nauseating toxins. they are also difficult to separate from the pulp, which is tasty and soft, to deter seed spitting. the seeds benefit from — or even require — physical or chemical abrasion to germinate. if tropical, the fruit drops on or just before ripening, stopping monkeys from eating them. in colder climates, the fruit stays on the branch for a prolonged time, keeping it away from predation by ineffectual seed dispersers like rodents. " looks, feels, smells, and tastes " like other fruits known to be dispersed by megafauna where megafauna still exists. = = = ecological indicators of missing dispersal partners = = = the fruit either rots where it falls or is ineffectually disseminated by current dispersal agents. the plant is more common where livestock ( proxy for megafauna ) are present. the seeds germinate and grow well in upland habitats where planted, but the species almost exclusively inhabits floodplains ( where water flow disperses the seeds ) in the wild. the geographic range is inexplicably patchy or restricted. = = proposed examples in plants = = = = = afrotropical realm = = = = = = = madagascar = = = = = = = australasian realm = = = = = = = new zealand = = = = = = = indomalayan realm = = = = = = nearctic realm = = = = = = neotropical realm = = = = = = oceanian realm = = = = = = palearctic realm = = = = = proposed examples in
. the susie graham reeves rose garden contains 286 rose bushes, representing over 150 varieties of roses, including floribundas and hybrid teas laid out in a traditional circle - in - a - square design. the central feature of the rose garden is a cherub fountain from the reeves period. old fashioned roses flank the formal garden, and climbing roses are trained on posts and chains. features : wesson nature grove, lilac garden, herb garden, vernal pool, woodland trails ( hiking paths ), and tours. = = programs & events = = daffodil day over 30, 000 daffodils bloom in a glacial bowl in front of wisner house each april. the arboretum hosts its annual daffodil day event to celebrate. the original flowers were planted by susie graham reeves in the 1920s. since 2014, the arboretum has used a small herd of nubian goats to remove excess vegetation and weeds. celebrate fall annually, the arboretum hosts a celebration of autumn with events such as cidering, seasonal cooking demonstrations and pumpkin carving. other events at the garden have included a maple sugar fest, great american backyard campout, holiday house tour, and sounds of a summer night. features : wesson nature grove, lilac garden, herb garden, vernal pool, woodland trails ( hiking paths ), and tours. square foot gardening a pilot program started in 2018 is designed to provide children with a connection to nature through organic vegetable gardening. educational programs children in school groups visit the arboretum for field trips on science topics, and scout groups earn badges from special programs. in summer, kids attend a wide variety of weekly nature - themed camps, organized by age. adults visit for sessions such as gardening 101 and backyard bird feeding tips, as well as related special collaborations with arts organizations. = = see also = = list of botanical gardens in the united states = = references = = = = external links = = reeves - reed arboretum
and maintenance. antagonistic pleiotropy is permanent unless a mutation that modifies the effects of the primary locus occurs. although antagonistic pleiotropy is a prevailing theory today, this is largely by default, and has not been well verified. research has shown that this is not true for all genes and may be thought of as partial validation of the theory, but it cuts the core premise : that genetic trade - offs are the root cause of ageing. in breeding experiments, michael r. rose selected fruit flies for long lifespan. based on antagonistic pleiotropy, rose expected that this would surely reduce their fertility. his team found that they were able to breed flies that lived more than twice as long as the flies they started with, but to their surprise, the long - lived, inbred flies actually laid more eggs than the short - lived flies. this was another setback for pleiotropy theory, though rose maintains it may be an experimental artifact. = = = disposable soma theory = = = a third mainstream theory, proposed in 1977 by thomas kirkwood, presumes that the body must budget the resources available to it. the body uses resources derived from the environment for metabolism, for reproduction, and for repair and maintenance, and the body must compromise when there is a finite supply of resources. the theory states that this compromise causes the body to reallocate energy to the repair function that causes the body to gradually deteriorate with age. a caveat to this theory suggests that this reallocation of energy is based on time instead of limiting resources. this concept focuses on the evolutionary pressure to reproduce in a set, optimal time period that is dictated by age and ecological niche. the way that this is successful is through the allocation of time and energy in damage repair at the cellular level resulting in an accumulation of damage and a decreased lifespan relative to organisms with longer gestation. this concept stems from a comparative analysis of genomic stability in mammalian cells. one opposing argument is based on the effect of caloric restriction, which lengthens life. however, dietary restriction has not been shown to increase lifetime reproductive success ( fitness ), because when food availability is lower, reproductive output is also lower. moreover, calories are not the only resource of possibly limited supply to an organism that could have an effect on multiple dimensions of fitness. = = = dna damage / error theory = = = just like dna mutation and expression have phenotypic effects on organisms, dna damage and
Answer:
|
on tilled ground
| null |
It is easiest for a rose to grow
0. in concrete jungles
1. on tilled ground
2. in someone's stomach
3. on a brick
soil. once it reaches the surface, it straightens and pulls the cotyledons and shoot tip of the growing seedlings into the air. beans, tamarind, and papaya are examples of plants that germinate this way. = = = = hypogeal = = = = germination can also be done by hypogeal germination ( or hypogeous germination ), where the epicotyl elongates and forms the hook. in this type of germination, the cotyledons stay underground where they eventually decompose. for example : peas, chickpeas and mango germinate this way. = = = monocot germination = = = in monocot seeds, the embryo's radicle and cotyledon are covered by a coleorhiza and coleoptile, respectively. the coleorhiza is the first part to grow out of the seed, followed by the radicle. the coleoptile is then pushed up through the ground until it reaches the surface. there, it stops elongating and the first leaves emerge. = = = precocious germination = = = when a seed germinates without undergoing all four stages of seed development, i. e., globular, heart shape, torpedo shape, and cotyledonary stage, it is known as precocious germination. = = pollen germination = = another germination event during the life cycle of gymnosperms and flowering plants is the germination of a pollen grain after pollination. like seeds, pollen grains are severely dehydrated before being released to facilitate their dispersal from one plant to another. they consist of a protective coat containing several cells ( up to 8 in gymnosperms, 2 – 3 in flowering plants ). one of these cells is a tube cell. once the pollen grain lands on the stigma of a receptive flower ( or a female cone in gymnosperms ), it takes up water and germinates. pollen germination is facilitated by hydration on the stigma, as well as by the structure and physiology of the stigma and style. pollen can also be induced to germinate in vitro ( in a petri dish or test tube ). during germination, the tube cell elongates into a pollen tube. in the flower, the pollen tube then grows towards the ovule where it discharges the sperm produced
out a perfectly clean sample with a much heavier yield per acre than common wheat. in china there is an indigenous species of oat botanically known as avena nuda or naked oat. the peculiar feature of this species is that the grains ( which are very small ) grow without any husk, being protected only by the chaff. the habit of the plant is likewise quite unique, four or five grains being suspended upon a thread - like filament about half an inch long. the mating of this species with cultivated varieties has produced new breeds giving yields 50 to 100 per cent. heavier than the original cultivated parents, with a corresponding decrease in the thickness of the skin. the wild or land oat, avena fatua, of great britain has likewise been used with marked success in the production of new breeds in conjunction with the cultivated varieties. in the wild oat there is hardiness of constitution, vigour, strength of straw, and remarkable fertility. all these qualities have been retained in the new breeds produced. another part of our system is the improvement of existing varieties of agricultural plants. the method is similar to that adopted by the breeder of stock for the improvement of his animals, when fresh blood of the same breed is introduced from some other herd. by crossing two distinct plants of the same variety the resulting progeny is more vigorous and robust in constitution, whilst the habit and individual character of the variety is maintained. a year later, these explanatory notes come from the gartons seed catalogue for spring 1901 : for over 20 years the work of cross - fertilising crop plants, with the object of producing new and improved breeds, has been carried on at newton - le - willows in lancashire. it has there for the first time been demonstrated to scientific botanists as well as to agriculturists that all the corn crops ( cereals ) and nearly all the other common crops of the farm are self fertilising. in other words, each individual plant provides the pollen which is required in the process of producing seed, to fertilise the female organs of its own flowers. this natural process results in a perfect system of in - breeding which has been going on for an indefinite period, making it possible to grow the different varieties of crops of the same kind in close proximity to each other, and even as mixed crops without any danger of crosses being produced. if crossing could have occurred in nature it would have been quite impossible to maintain the purity of any variety of crop plant
burnished yellow, orange, or will remain green when ripe. the megafaunal dispersal syndrome refers to those attributes of fruits that evolved in order to attract megafauna ( animals that weigh or weighed more than 44 kilograms ) as primary dispersal agents. following the late pleistocene megafaunal extinctions, most species of large herbivores have become extinct outside of africa ( and to a lesser extent asia ), thereby reducing the effectiveness of seed dispersal — except for the fruits that attracted cultivation by humans. = = = common megafaunal dispersal traits = = = large fruit, best suited to be consumed whole by large animals without seed loss. fruit grows on or close to the trunk, or on stout branches. indehiscent fruit that retains its seeds upon ripening. seeds deter or elude being ground up by teeth through having a thick, tough or hard endocarp ; or bitter, peppering or nauseating toxins. they are also difficult to separate from the pulp, which is tasty and soft, to deter seed spitting. the seeds benefit from — or even require — physical or chemical abrasion to germinate. if tropical, the fruit drops on or just before ripening, stopping monkeys from eating them. in colder climates, the fruit stays on the branch for a prolonged time, keeping it away from predation by ineffectual seed dispersers like rodents. " looks, feels, smells, and tastes " like other fruits known to be dispersed by megafauna where megafauna still exists. = = = ecological indicators of missing dispersal partners = = = the fruit either rots where it falls or is ineffectually disseminated by current dispersal agents. the plant is more common where livestock ( proxy for megafauna ) are present. the seeds germinate and grow well in upland habitats where planted, but the species almost exclusively inhabits floodplains ( where water flow disperses the seeds ) in the wild. the geographic range is inexplicably patchy or restricted. = = proposed examples in plants = = = = = afrotropical realm = = = = = = = madagascar = = = = = = = australasian realm = = = = = = = new zealand = = = = = = = indomalayan realm = = = = = = nearctic realm = = = = = = neotropical realm = = = = = = oceanian realm = = = = = = palearctic realm = = = = = proposed examples in
. the susie graham reeves rose garden contains 286 rose bushes, representing over 150 varieties of roses, including floribundas and hybrid teas laid out in a traditional circle - in - a - square design. the central feature of the rose garden is a cherub fountain from the reeves period. old fashioned roses flank the formal garden, and climbing roses are trained on posts and chains. features : wesson nature grove, lilac garden, herb garden, vernal pool, woodland trails ( hiking paths ), and tours. = = programs & events = = daffodil day over 30, 000 daffodils bloom in a glacial bowl in front of wisner house each april. the arboretum hosts its annual daffodil day event to celebrate. the original flowers were planted by susie graham reeves in the 1920s. since 2014, the arboretum has used a small herd of nubian goats to remove excess vegetation and weeds. celebrate fall annually, the arboretum hosts a celebration of autumn with events such as cidering, seasonal cooking demonstrations and pumpkin carving. other events at the garden have included a maple sugar fest, great american backyard campout, holiday house tour, and sounds of a summer night. features : wesson nature grove, lilac garden, herb garden, vernal pool, woodland trails ( hiking paths ), and tours. square foot gardening a pilot program started in 2018 is designed to provide children with a connection to nature through organic vegetable gardening. educational programs children in school groups visit the arboretum for field trips on science topics, and scout groups earn badges from special programs. in summer, kids attend a wide variety of weekly nature - themed camps, organized by age. adults visit for sessions such as gardening 101 and backyard bird feeding tips, as well as related special collaborations with arts organizations. = = see also = = list of botanical gardens in the united states = = references = = = = external links = = reeves - reed arboretum
and maintenance. antagonistic pleiotropy is permanent unless a mutation that modifies the effects of the primary locus occurs. although antagonistic pleiotropy is a prevailing theory today, this is largely by default, and has not been well verified. research has shown that this is not true for all genes and may be thought of as partial validation of the theory, but it cuts the core premise : that genetic trade - offs are the root cause of ageing. in breeding experiments, michael r. rose selected fruit flies for long lifespan. based on antagonistic pleiotropy, rose expected that this would surely reduce their fertility. his team found that they were able to breed flies that lived more than twice as long as the flies they started with, but to their surprise, the long - lived, inbred flies actually laid more eggs than the short - lived flies. this was another setback for pleiotropy theory, though rose maintains it may be an experimental artifact. = = = disposable soma theory = = = a third mainstream theory, proposed in 1977 by thomas kirkwood, presumes that the body must budget the resources available to it. the body uses resources derived from the environment for metabolism, for reproduction, and for repair and maintenance, and the body must compromise when there is a finite supply of resources. the theory states that this compromise causes the body to reallocate energy to the repair function that causes the body to gradually deteriorate with age. a caveat to this theory suggests that this reallocation of energy is based on time instead of limiting resources. this concept focuses on the evolutionary pressure to reproduce in a set, optimal time period that is dictated by age and ecological niche. the way that this is successful is through the allocation of time and energy in damage repair at the cellular level resulting in an accumulation of damage and a decreased lifespan relative to organisms with longer gestation. this concept stems from a comparative analysis of genomic stability in mammalian cells. one opposing argument is based on the effect of caloric restriction, which lengthens life. however, dietary restriction has not been shown to increase lifetime reproductive success ( fitness ), because when food availability is lower, reproductive output is also lower. moreover, calories are not the only resource of possibly limited supply to an organism that could have an effect on multiple dimensions of fitness. = = = dna damage / error theory = = = just like dna mutation and expression have phenotypic effects on organisms, dna damage and
Answer:
|
in someone's stomach
| 0.3 |
Which sustains life yet stopped growing?
0. air
1. a bush
2. a rock
3. a felled tree
the number of individual species of life is constantly in some degree of flux, with new species appearing and others ceasing to exist on a continual basis. the total number of species is in rapid decline. = = = evolution = = = the origin of life on earth is not well understood, but it is known to have occurred at least 3. 5 billion years ago, during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial earth that had a substantially different environment than is found at present. these life forms possessed the basic traits of self - replication and inheritable traits. once life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural selection resulted in the development of ever - more diverse life forms. species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct. however, the fossil record retains evidence of many of these older species. current fossil and dna evidence shows that all existing species can trace a continual ancestry back to the first primitive life forms. when basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sun's energy could be harvested to create conditions which allowed for more complex life forms. the resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer. the incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of yet more complex cells called eukaryotes. cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. with the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, life colonized the surface of earth. = = = microbes = = = the first form of life to develop on the earth were unicellular, and they remained the only form of life until about a billion years ago when multi - cellular organisms began to appear. microorganisms or microbes are microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see. microorganisms can be single - celled, such as bacteria, archaea, many protista, and a minority of fungi. these life forms are found in almost every location on the earth where there is liquid water, including in the earth's interior. their reproduction is both rapid and profuse. the combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer ability makes them highly adaptable, and able to survive in new and sometimes very harsh environments, including outer space. they form an essential part of the planetary ecosystem. however, some microorganisms are pathogenic and can post health risk to other organisms. viruses are infectious agents, but they are not autonomous life forms, as it is the case for
the number of individual species of life is constantly in some degree of flux, with new species appearing and others ceasing to exist on a continual basis. the total number of species is in rapid decline. = = = evolution = = = the origin of life on earth is not well understood, but it is known to have occurred at least 3. 5 billion years ago, during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial earth that had a substantially different environment than is found at present. these life forms possessed the basic traits of self - replication and inheritable traits. once life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural selection resulted in the development of ever - more diverse life forms. species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct. however, the fossil record retains evidence of many of these older species. current fossil and dna evidence shows that all existing species can trace a continual ancestry back to the first primitive life forms. when basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sun's energy could be harvested to create conditions which allowed for more complex life forms. the resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer. the incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of yet more complex cells called eukaryotes. cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. with the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, life colonized the surface of earth. = = = microbes = = = the first form of life to develop on the earth were unicellular, and they remained the only form of life until about a billion years ago when multi - cellular organisms began to appear. microorganisms or microbes are microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see. microorganisms can be single - celled, such as bacteria, archaea, many protista, and a minority of fungi. these life forms are found in almost every location on the earth where there is liquid water, including in the earth's interior. their reproduction is both rapid and profuse. the combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer ability makes them highly adaptable, and able to survive in new and sometimes very harsh environments, including outer space. they form an essential part of the planetary ecosystem. however, some microorganisms are pathogenic and can post health risk to other organisms. viruses are infectious agents, but they are not autonomous life forms, as it is the case for
of eukaryotes, and many of the theories focus on the idea that a bacterium first became an endosymbiont of an anaerobic archean and then fused with it to become one organism. if such endosymbiosis was an important factor, microbial mats would have encouraged it. there are two known variations of this scenario : the boundary between the oxygenated and oxygen - free zones of a mat would have moved up when photosynthesis shut down at night and back down when photosynthesis resumed after the next sunrise. symbiosis between independent aerobic and anaerobic organisms would have enabled both to live comfortably in the zone that was subject to oxygen " tides ", and subsequent endosymbiosis would have made such partnerships more mobile. the initial partnership may have been between anaerobic archea that required molecular hydrogen ( h2 ) and heterotrophic bacteria that produced it and could live both with and without oxygen. = = = life on land = = = microbial mats from ~ 1, 200 million years ago provide the first evidence of life in the terrestrial realm. = = = the earliest multicellular animals = = = the ediacara biota are the earliest widely accepted evidence of multicellular animals. most ediacaran strata with the " elephant skin " texture characteristic of microbial mats contain fossils, and ediacaran fossils are hardly ever found in beds that do not contain these microbial mats. adolf seilacher categorized the animals as : " mat encrusters ", which were permanently attached to the mat ; " mat scratchers ", which grazed the surface of the mat without destroying it ; " mat stickers ", suspension feeders that were partially embedded in the mat ; and " undermat miners ", which burrowed underneath the mat and fed on decomposing mat material. = = = the cambrian substrate revolution = = = in the early cambrian, however, organisms began to burrow vertically for protection or food, breaking down the microbial mats, and thus allowing water and oxygen to penetrate a considerable distance below the surface and kill the oxygen - intolerant microorganisms in the lower layers. as a result of this cambrian substrate revolution, marine microbial mats are confined to environments in which burrowing is non - existent or negligible : very harsh environments, such as hyper - saline lagoons or brackish estuaries, which are uninhabitable for the burrowing organisms that broke up the mats ; rocky " floors "
found microbial communities apparently based on the products of reactions between water and the constituents of rocks. these communities have not been studied much, but may be an important part of the global carbon cycle. rock in mines two miles deep also harbour microbes ; these live on minute traces of hydrogen produced in slow oxidizing reactions inside the rock. these metabolic reactions allow life to exist in places with no oxygen or light, an environment that had previously been thought to be devoid of life. the intertidal zone and the photic zone in the oceans are relatively familiar habitat types. however the vast bulk of the ocean is inhospitable to air - breathing humans, with scuba divers limited to the upper 50 m ( 160 ft ) or so. the lower limit for photosynthesis is 100 to 200 m ( 330 to 660 ft ) and below that depth the prevailing conditions include total darkness, high pressure, little oxygen ( in some places ), scarce food resources and extreme cold. this habitat is very challenging to research, and as well as being little - studied, it is vast, with 79 % of the earth's biosphere being at depths greater than 1, 000 m ( 3, 300 ft ). with no plant life, the animals in this zone are either detritivores, reliant on food drifting down from surface layers, or they are predators, feeding on each other. some organisms are pelagic, swimming or drifting in mid - ocean, while others are benthic, living on or near the seabed. their growth rates and metabolisms tend to be slow, their eyes may be very large to detect what little illumination there is, or they may be blind and rely on other sensory inputs. a number of deep sea creatures are bioluminescent ; this serves a variety of functions including predation, protection and social recognition. in general, the bodies of animals living at great depths are adapted to high pressure environments by having pressure - resistant biomolecules and small organic molecules present in their cells known as piezolytes, which give the proteins the flexibility they need. there are also unsaturated fats in their membranes which prevent them from solidifying at low temperatures. hydrothermal vents were first discovered in the ocean depths in 1977. they result from seawater becoming heated after seeping through cracks to places where hot magma is close to the seabed. the under - water hot springs may gush forth at temperatures of over 340 °c ( 640 °f ) and support unique communities of organisms in their
have been studied beyond noting their existence. the vast majority of earth's species are microbial. contemporary biodiversity physics is " firmly fixated on the visible [ macroscopic ] world ". for example, microbial life is metabolically and environmentally more diverse than multicellular life ( see e. g., extremophile ). " on the tree of life, based on analyses of small - subunit ribosomal rna, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. the inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher on the evolutionary ladder — to a first approximation, all multicellular species on earth are insects ". insect extinction rates are high — supporting the holocene extinction hypothesis. = = biodiversity changes ( other than losses ) = = = = = natural seasonal variations = = = biodiversity naturally varies due to seasonal shifts. spring's arrival enhances biodiversity as numerous species breed and feed, while winter's onset temporarily reduces it as some insects perish and migrating animals leave. additionally, the seasonal fluctuation in plant and invertebrate populations influences biodiversity. = = = introduced and invasive species = = = barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the process of allopatric speciation. the term invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them constrained. without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often supplanting native species by occupying their niches, or by using resources that would normally sustain native species. species are increasingly being moved by humans ( on purpose and accidentally ). some studies say that diverse ecosystems are more resilient and resist invasive plants and animals. many studies cite effects of invasive species on natives, but not extinctions. invasive species seem to increase local ( alpha diversity ) diversity, which decreases turnover of diversity ( beta diversity ). overall gamma diversity may be lowered because species are going extinct because of other causes, but even some of the most insidious invaders ( e. g. : dutch elm disease, emerald ash borer, chestnut blight in north america ) have not caused their host species to become extinct. extirpation, population decline and homogenization of regional biodiversity are much more common. human activities have frequently been the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers, by introducing them for food and other purposes. human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas ( and thus become invasive ) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have
Answer:
|
a felled tree
| null |
Which sustains life yet stopped growing?
0. air
1. a bush
2. a rock
3. a felled tree
the number of individual species of life is constantly in some degree of flux, with new species appearing and others ceasing to exist on a continual basis. the total number of species is in rapid decline. = = = evolution = = = the origin of life on earth is not well understood, but it is known to have occurred at least 3. 5 billion years ago, during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial earth that had a substantially different environment than is found at present. these life forms possessed the basic traits of self - replication and inheritable traits. once life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural selection resulted in the development of ever - more diverse life forms. species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct. however, the fossil record retains evidence of many of these older species. current fossil and dna evidence shows that all existing species can trace a continual ancestry back to the first primitive life forms. when basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sun's energy could be harvested to create conditions which allowed for more complex life forms. the resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer. the incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of yet more complex cells called eukaryotes. cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. with the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, life colonized the surface of earth. = = = microbes = = = the first form of life to develop on the earth were unicellular, and they remained the only form of life until about a billion years ago when multi - cellular organisms began to appear. microorganisms or microbes are microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see. microorganisms can be single - celled, such as bacteria, archaea, many protista, and a minority of fungi. these life forms are found in almost every location on the earth where there is liquid water, including in the earth's interior. their reproduction is both rapid and profuse. the combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer ability makes them highly adaptable, and able to survive in new and sometimes very harsh environments, including outer space. they form an essential part of the planetary ecosystem. however, some microorganisms are pathogenic and can post health risk to other organisms. viruses are infectious agents, but they are not autonomous life forms, as it is the case for
the number of individual species of life is constantly in some degree of flux, with new species appearing and others ceasing to exist on a continual basis. the total number of species is in rapid decline. = = = evolution = = = the origin of life on earth is not well understood, but it is known to have occurred at least 3. 5 billion years ago, during the hadean or archean eons on a primordial earth that had a substantially different environment than is found at present. these life forms possessed the basic traits of self - replication and inheritable traits. once life had appeared, the process of evolution by natural selection resulted in the development of ever - more diverse life forms. species that were unable to adapt to the changing environment and competition from other life forms became extinct. however, the fossil record retains evidence of many of these older species. current fossil and dna evidence shows that all existing species can trace a continual ancestry back to the first primitive life forms. when basic forms of plant life developed the process of photosynthesis the sun's energy could be harvested to create conditions which allowed for more complex life forms. the resultant oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the ozone layer. the incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of yet more complex cells called eukaryotes. cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. with the ozone layer absorbing harmful ultraviolet radiation, life colonized the surface of earth. = = = microbes = = = the first form of life to develop on the earth were unicellular, and they remained the only form of life until about a billion years ago when multi - cellular organisms began to appear. microorganisms or microbes are microscopic, and smaller than the human eye can see. microorganisms can be single - celled, such as bacteria, archaea, many protista, and a minority of fungi. these life forms are found in almost every location on the earth where there is liquid water, including in the earth's interior. their reproduction is both rapid and profuse. the combination of a high mutation rate and a horizontal gene transfer ability makes them highly adaptable, and able to survive in new and sometimes very harsh environments, including outer space. they form an essential part of the planetary ecosystem. however, some microorganisms are pathogenic and can post health risk to other organisms. viruses are infectious agents, but they are not autonomous life forms, as it is the case for
of eukaryotes, and many of the theories focus on the idea that a bacterium first became an endosymbiont of an anaerobic archean and then fused with it to become one organism. if such endosymbiosis was an important factor, microbial mats would have encouraged it. there are two known variations of this scenario : the boundary between the oxygenated and oxygen - free zones of a mat would have moved up when photosynthesis shut down at night and back down when photosynthesis resumed after the next sunrise. symbiosis between independent aerobic and anaerobic organisms would have enabled both to live comfortably in the zone that was subject to oxygen " tides ", and subsequent endosymbiosis would have made such partnerships more mobile. the initial partnership may have been between anaerobic archea that required molecular hydrogen ( h2 ) and heterotrophic bacteria that produced it and could live both with and without oxygen. = = = life on land = = = microbial mats from ~ 1, 200 million years ago provide the first evidence of life in the terrestrial realm. = = = the earliest multicellular animals = = = the ediacara biota are the earliest widely accepted evidence of multicellular animals. most ediacaran strata with the " elephant skin " texture characteristic of microbial mats contain fossils, and ediacaran fossils are hardly ever found in beds that do not contain these microbial mats. adolf seilacher categorized the animals as : " mat encrusters ", which were permanently attached to the mat ; " mat scratchers ", which grazed the surface of the mat without destroying it ; " mat stickers ", suspension feeders that were partially embedded in the mat ; and " undermat miners ", which burrowed underneath the mat and fed on decomposing mat material. = = = the cambrian substrate revolution = = = in the early cambrian, however, organisms began to burrow vertically for protection or food, breaking down the microbial mats, and thus allowing water and oxygen to penetrate a considerable distance below the surface and kill the oxygen - intolerant microorganisms in the lower layers. as a result of this cambrian substrate revolution, marine microbial mats are confined to environments in which burrowing is non - existent or negligible : very harsh environments, such as hyper - saline lagoons or brackish estuaries, which are uninhabitable for the burrowing organisms that broke up the mats ; rocky " floors "
found microbial communities apparently based on the products of reactions between water and the constituents of rocks. these communities have not been studied much, but may be an important part of the global carbon cycle. rock in mines two miles deep also harbour microbes ; these live on minute traces of hydrogen produced in slow oxidizing reactions inside the rock. these metabolic reactions allow life to exist in places with no oxygen or light, an environment that had previously been thought to be devoid of life. the intertidal zone and the photic zone in the oceans are relatively familiar habitat types. however the vast bulk of the ocean is inhospitable to air - breathing humans, with scuba divers limited to the upper 50 m ( 160 ft ) or so. the lower limit for photosynthesis is 100 to 200 m ( 330 to 660 ft ) and below that depth the prevailing conditions include total darkness, high pressure, little oxygen ( in some places ), scarce food resources and extreme cold. this habitat is very challenging to research, and as well as being little - studied, it is vast, with 79 % of the earth's biosphere being at depths greater than 1, 000 m ( 3, 300 ft ). with no plant life, the animals in this zone are either detritivores, reliant on food drifting down from surface layers, or they are predators, feeding on each other. some organisms are pelagic, swimming or drifting in mid - ocean, while others are benthic, living on or near the seabed. their growth rates and metabolisms tend to be slow, their eyes may be very large to detect what little illumination there is, or they may be blind and rely on other sensory inputs. a number of deep sea creatures are bioluminescent ; this serves a variety of functions including predation, protection and social recognition. in general, the bodies of animals living at great depths are adapted to high pressure environments by having pressure - resistant biomolecules and small organic molecules present in their cells known as piezolytes, which give the proteins the flexibility they need. there are also unsaturated fats in their membranes which prevent them from solidifying at low temperatures. hydrothermal vents were first discovered in the ocean depths in 1977. they result from seawater becoming heated after seeping through cracks to places where hot magma is close to the seabed. the under - water hot springs may gush forth at temperatures of over 340 °c ( 640 °f ) and support unique communities of organisms in their
have been studied beyond noting their existence. the vast majority of earth's species are microbial. contemporary biodiversity physics is " firmly fixated on the visible [ macroscopic ] world ". for example, microbial life is metabolically and environmentally more diverse than multicellular life ( see e. g., extremophile ). " on the tree of life, based on analyses of small - subunit ribosomal rna, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. the inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher on the evolutionary ladder — to a first approximation, all multicellular species on earth are insects ". insect extinction rates are high — supporting the holocene extinction hypothesis. = = biodiversity changes ( other than losses ) = = = = = natural seasonal variations = = = biodiversity naturally varies due to seasonal shifts. spring's arrival enhances biodiversity as numerous species breed and feed, while winter's onset temporarily reduces it as some insects perish and migrating animals leave. additionally, the seasonal fluctuation in plant and invertebrate populations influences biodiversity. = = = introduced and invasive species = = = barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the process of allopatric speciation. the term invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them constrained. without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often supplanting native species by occupying their niches, or by using resources that would normally sustain native species. species are increasingly being moved by humans ( on purpose and accidentally ). some studies say that diverse ecosystems are more resilient and resist invasive plants and animals. many studies cite effects of invasive species on natives, but not extinctions. invasive species seem to increase local ( alpha diversity ) diversity, which decreases turnover of diversity ( beta diversity ). overall gamma diversity may be lowered because species are going extinct because of other causes, but even some of the most insidious invaders ( e. g. : dutch elm disease, emerald ash borer, chestnut blight in north america ) have not caused their host species to become extinct. extirpation, population decline and homogenization of regional biodiversity are much more common. human activities have frequently been the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers, by introducing them for food and other purposes. human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas ( and thus become invasive ) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have
Answer:
|
a bush
| 0.3 |
If a tree falls then it is what?
0. alive
1. expired
2. lush
3. growing
long lifespan and a low mortality rate that will allow them to reproduce multiple times with a high offspring survival rate. some organisms that are very r - selected are semelparous, only reproducing once before they die. semelparous organisms may be short - lived, like annual crops. however, some semelparous organisms are relatively long - lived, such as the african flowering plant lobelia telekii which spends up to several decades growing an inflorescence that blooms only once before the plant dies, or the periodical cicada which spends 17 years as a larva before emerging as an adult. organisms with longer lifespans are usually iteroparous, reproducing more than once in a lifetime. however, iteroparous organisms can be more r - selected than k - selected, such as a sparrow, which gives birth to several chicks per year but lives only a few years, as compared to a wandering albatross, which first reproduces at ten years old and breeds every other year during its 40 - year lifespan. r - selected organisms usually : mature rapidly and have an early age of first reproduction have a relatively short lifespan have a large number of offspring at a time, and few reproductive events, or are semelparous have a high mortality rate and a low offspring survival rate have minimal parental care / investment k - selected organisms usually : mature more slowly and have a later age of first reproduction have a longer lifespan have few offspring at a time and more reproductive events spread out over a longer span of time have a low mortality rate and a high offspring survival rate have high parental investment = = = variation = = = variation is a major part of what lht studies, because every organism has its own life history strategy. differences between strategies can be minimal or great. for example, one organism may have a single offspring while another may have hundreds. some species may live for only a few hours, and some may live for decades. some may reproduce dozens of times throughout their lifespan, and others may only reproduce one or twice. = = = trade - offs = = = an essential component of studying life history strategies is identifying the trade - offs that take place for any given organism. energy use in life history strategies is regulated by thermodynamics and the conservation of energy, and the " inherent scarcity of resources ", so not all traits or tasks can be invested in at the same time. thus, organisms must choose between tasks, such as growth, reproduction, and survival, prior
of the wood should be left completely unmanaged, with fallen trees permitted to pile up, providing habitat and insect food for a variety of wildlife. around the calcareous tufa springs, there is specialised plant life. this plant life depends on the minerals from the springs, and the springs depend on protection of the aquifer below. therefore, the site should be protected against commercial and agricultural water extraction or ground pollution by waste, fertiliser, herbicide and insecticide. = = development and risk assessment = = the whole site is covered by upland " broadleaved, mixed and yew woodland, " which natural england has measured out in two large units and one smaller unit. when the site was assessed on 28 may 2012, the first two larger units were judged to be in favourable condition. unit one, 17. 5165 hectares ( 0. 1752 km2 ; 0. 06763 sq mi ) in the north, had mature woodland with old and young trees, fallen deadwood and some sycamore but not too much. its ground flora met with approval. unit two, 17. 3069 hectares ( 0. 1731 km2 ; 0. 06682 sq mi ) in the centre of the site, had been in less favourable condition but was now acceptable, with varied woodland, diverse flora and sycamore whose expansion had been cut back sufficiently but still required monitoring. the report mentions issues with previous " scrubbing up of the tufa, " which had now been addressed. the third unit, 8. 1285 hectares ( 0. 08128 km2 ; 0. 03138 sq mi ) in the east, was judged " unfavourable, recovering. " it was considered mostly acceptable, with " diverse ground flora, " and especially wood fescue ( festuca altissima ). there was plenty of bilberry above raven scar, which was given approval. the unfavourable assessment was due to the overwhelming amount of sycamore. there was too little regeration of plant life other than sycamore. there was no perceived immediate threat to the condition of any part of the site. harrogate borough council's conservation document of 2011 provides full information on the quality of the site and public consultation obligations. = = see also = = listed buildings in grewelthorpe there are about eight sssis in the harrogate region, others being bishop monkton ings, brimham rocks, cow myers, farnham mires, hay -
the soil. the way that roots interact with the soil is intricate but for engineering purposes the available force contributions may be measured with in situ pull out tests. = = = root morphology and modes of failure = = = the root length and the type of root branching effects the way that root failure occurs three different modes of failure have been identified in hawthorn roots which relate to the root soil relationship which is shown in the shape of the roots and the shape of the failure curve. roots which have no branches tend to fail in tension and pull straight out of the ground with minimal resistance. roots which have multiple branches generally fail in stages as each branch breaks inside the soil. these roots can then separated into two different groups : 1 ) those that initially reach their maximum peak force and then maintain a high force that progressively decreases as the root branches fail after significant strain and 2 ) those that break with increasingly applied force. in a number of tests considerable adhesion between a segment of the root and the soil can be measured prior to the root eventually slipping out of the soil mass. = = = type a failure = = = roots that do not have branches generally fail in tension and pull straight out of the ground with only minimal resistance. the root reaches its maximum pullout resistance then rapidly fails at a weak point. the root easily slips out of the soil due to the gradual tapering ( progressive decrease in root diameter along its length ) which means that as the root is pulled out it is moving through a space that is larger than its diameter which consequently has no further bonds or interaction with the surrounding soil. = = = type b failure = = = type b failure occurs when branched roots initially reach their maximum peak resistance then sustain a high resistance which slowly reduces as the branches of the roots fail after significant strain. in some tests considerable adhesion between a section of the root and the soil mass can be measured before the root eventually slips out. forked roots require a greater force to be pulled out as the cavity above the fork is thinner than the root which is trying to move through the cavity, this can then result in deformation of the soil as the root moves through the soil. = = = type c failure = = = roots that have multiple branches or forked branches also can undergo tensile failure but predominantly fail in stages as each branch breaks within the soil. these roots break with increasingly applied force in stages in the form of stepped peaks corresponding to the progressive breaking of roots of greater diameters. the root progressively releases its bonds with the soil until final tensile failure. in
to canopy light, while usurping resources that would otherwise be available to their host. host trees have widely varying levels of tolerance to infestation of their crowns by lianas. = = see also = = eichler's rule generalist and specialist species harrison's rule = = references = =
to the soil as biomass burns. many plants and animals benefit from disturbance conditions. some species are particularly suited for exploiting recently disturbed sites. vegetation with the potential for rapid growth can quickly take advantage of the lack of competition. in the northeastern united states, shade - intolerant trees ( trees stenotopic to shade ) like pin cherry and aspen quickly fill in forest gaps created by fire or windstorm ( or human disturbance ). silver maple and eastern sycamore are similarly well adapted to floodplains. they are highly tolerant of standing water and will frequently dominate floodplains where other species are periodically wiped out. when a tree is blown over, gaps typically are filled with small herbaceous seedlings but, this is not always the case ; shoots from the fallen tree can develop and take over the gap. the sprouting ability can have major impacts on the plant population, plant populations that typically would have exploited the tree fall gap get over run and can not compete against the shoots of the fallen tree. species adaptation to disturbances is species specific but how each organism adapts affects all the species around them. another species well adapted to a particular disturbance is the jack pine in boreal forests exposed to crown fires. they, as well as some other pine species, have specialized serotinous cones that only open and disperse seeds with sufficient heat generated by fire. as a result, this species often dominates in areas where competition has been reduced by fire. species that are well adapted for exploiting disturbance sites are referred to as pioneers or early successional species. these shade - intolerant species are able to photosynthesize at high rates and as a result grow quickly. their fast growth is usually balanced by short life spans. furthermore, although these species often dominate immediately following a disturbance, they are unable to compete with shade - tolerant species later on and replaced by these species through succession. however these shifts may not reflect the progressive entry to the community of the taller long - lived forms, but instead, the gradual emergence and dominance of species that may have been present, but inconspicuous directly after the disturbance. disturbances have also been shown to be important facilitators of non - native plant invasions. while plants must deal directly with disturbances, many animals are not as immediately affected by them. most can successfully evade fires, and many thrive afterwards on abundant new growth on the forest floor. new conditions support a wider variety of plants, often rich in nutrients compared to pre - disturbance vegetation. the plants in turn support a variety of
Answer:
|
expired
| null |
If a tree falls then it is what?
0. alive
1. expired
2. lush
3. growing
long lifespan and a low mortality rate that will allow them to reproduce multiple times with a high offspring survival rate. some organisms that are very r - selected are semelparous, only reproducing once before they die. semelparous organisms may be short - lived, like annual crops. however, some semelparous organisms are relatively long - lived, such as the african flowering plant lobelia telekii which spends up to several decades growing an inflorescence that blooms only once before the plant dies, or the periodical cicada which spends 17 years as a larva before emerging as an adult. organisms with longer lifespans are usually iteroparous, reproducing more than once in a lifetime. however, iteroparous organisms can be more r - selected than k - selected, such as a sparrow, which gives birth to several chicks per year but lives only a few years, as compared to a wandering albatross, which first reproduces at ten years old and breeds every other year during its 40 - year lifespan. r - selected organisms usually : mature rapidly and have an early age of first reproduction have a relatively short lifespan have a large number of offspring at a time, and few reproductive events, or are semelparous have a high mortality rate and a low offspring survival rate have minimal parental care / investment k - selected organisms usually : mature more slowly and have a later age of first reproduction have a longer lifespan have few offspring at a time and more reproductive events spread out over a longer span of time have a low mortality rate and a high offspring survival rate have high parental investment = = = variation = = = variation is a major part of what lht studies, because every organism has its own life history strategy. differences between strategies can be minimal or great. for example, one organism may have a single offspring while another may have hundreds. some species may live for only a few hours, and some may live for decades. some may reproduce dozens of times throughout their lifespan, and others may only reproduce one or twice. = = = trade - offs = = = an essential component of studying life history strategies is identifying the trade - offs that take place for any given organism. energy use in life history strategies is regulated by thermodynamics and the conservation of energy, and the " inherent scarcity of resources ", so not all traits or tasks can be invested in at the same time. thus, organisms must choose between tasks, such as growth, reproduction, and survival, prior
of the wood should be left completely unmanaged, with fallen trees permitted to pile up, providing habitat and insect food for a variety of wildlife. around the calcareous tufa springs, there is specialised plant life. this plant life depends on the minerals from the springs, and the springs depend on protection of the aquifer below. therefore, the site should be protected against commercial and agricultural water extraction or ground pollution by waste, fertiliser, herbicide and insecticide. = = development and risk assessment = = the whole site is covered by upland " broadleaved, mixed and yew woodland, " which natural england has measured out in two large units and one smaller unit. when the site was assessed on 28 may 2012, the first two larger units were judged to be in favourable condition. unit one, 17. 5165 hectares ( 0. 1752 km2 ; 0. 06763 sq mi ) in the north, had mature woodland with old and young trees, fallen deadwood and some sycamore but not too much. its ground flora met with approval. unit two, 17. 3069 hectares ( 0. 1731 km2 ; 0. 06682 sq mi ) in the centre of the site, had been in less favourable condition but was now acceptable, with varied woodland, diverse flora and sycamore whose expansion had been cut back sufficiently but still required monitoring. the report mentions issues with previous " scrubbing up of the tufa, " which had now been addressed. the third unit, 8. 1285 hectares ( 0. 08128 km2 ; 0. 03138 sq mi ) in the east, was judged " unfavourable, recovering. " it was considered mostly acceptable, with " diverse ground flora, " and especially wood fescue ( festuca altissima ). there was plenty of bilberry above raven scar, which was given approval. the unfavourable assessment was due to the overwhelming amount of sycamore. there was too little regeration of plant life other than sycamore. there was no perceived immediate threat to the condition of any part of the site. harrogate borough council's conservation document of 2011 provides full information on the quality of the site and public consultation obligations. = = see also = = listed buildings in grewelthorpe there are about eight sssis in the harrogate region, others being bishop monkton ings, brimham rocks, cow myers, farnham mires, hay -
the soil. the way that roots interact with the soil is intricate but for engineering purposes the available force contributions may be measured with in situ pull out tests. = = = root morphology and modes of failure = = = the root length and the type of root branching effects the way that root failure occurs three different modes of failure have been identified in hawthorn roots which relate to the root soil relationship which is shown in the shape of the roots and the shape of the failure curve. roots which have no branches tend to fail in tension and pull straight out of the ground with minimal resistance. roots which have multiple branches generally fail in stages as each branch breaks inside the soil. these roots can then separated into two different groups : 1 ) those that initially reach their maximum peak force and then maintain a high force that progressively decreases as the root branches fail after significant strain and 2 ) those that break with increasingly applied force. in a number of tests considerable adhesion between a segment of the root and the soil can be measured prior to the root eventually slipping out of the soil mass. = = = type a failure = = = roots that do not have branches generally fail in tension and pull straight out of the ground with only minimal resistance. the root reaches its maximum pullout resistance then rapidly fails at a weak point. the root easily slips out of the soil due to the gradual tapering ( progressive decrease in root diameter along its length ) which means that as the root is pulled out it is moving through a space that is larger than its diameter which consequently has no further bonds or interaction with the surrounding soil. = = = type b failure = = = type b failure occurs when branched roots initially reach their maximum peak resistance then sustain a high resistance which slowly reduces as the branches of the roots fail after significant strain. in some tests considerable adhesion between a section of the root and the soil mass can be measured before the root eventually slips out. forked roots require a greater force to be pulled out as the cavity above the fork is thinner than the root which is trying to move through the cavity, this can then result in deformation of the soil as the root moves through the soil. = = = type c failure = = = roots that have multiple branches or forked branches also can undergo tensile failure but predominantly fail in stages as each branch breaks within the soil. these roots break with increasingly applied force in stages in the form of stepped peaks corresponding to the progressive breaking of roots of greater diameters. the root progressively releases its bonds with the soil until final tensile failure. in
to canopy light, while usurping resources that would otherwise be available to their host. host trees have widely varying levels of tolerance to infestation of their crowns by lianas. = = see also = = eichler's rule generalist and specialist species harrison's rule = = references = =
to the soil as biomass burns. many plants and animals benefit from disturbance conditions. some species are particularly suited for exploiting recently disturbed sites. vegetation with the potential for rapid growth can quickly take advantage of the lack of competition. in the northeastern united states, shade - intolerant trees ( trees stenotopic to shade ) like pin cherry and aspen quickly fill in forest gaps created by fire or windstorm ( or human disturbance ). silver maple and eastern sycamore are similarly well adapted to floodplains. they are highly tolerant of standing water and will frequently dominate floodplains where other species are periodically wiped out. when a tree is blown over, gaps typically are filled with small herbaceous seedlings but, this is not always the case ; shoots from the fallen tree can develop and take over the gap. the sprouting ability can have major impacts on the plant population, plant populations that typically would have exploited the tree fall gap get over run and can not compete against the shoots of the fallen tree. species adaptation to disturbances is species specific but how each organism adapts affects all the species around them. another species well adapted to a particular disturbance is the jack pine in boreal forests exposed to crown fires. they, as well as some other pine species, have specialized serotinous cones that only open and disperse seeds with sufficient heat generated by fire. as a result, this species often dominates in areas where competition has been reduced by fire. species that are well adapted for exploiting disturbance sites are referred to as pioneers or early successional species. these shade - intolerant species are able to photosynthesize at high rates and as a result grow quickly. their fast growth is usually balanced by short life spans. furthermore, although these species often dominate immediately following a disturbance, they are unable to compete with shade - tolerant species later on and replaced by these species through succession. however these shifts may not reflect the progressive entry to the community of the taller long - lived forms, but instead, the gradual emergence and dominance of species that may have been present, but inconspicuous directly after the disturbance. disturbances have also been shown to be important facilitators of non - native plant invasions. while plants must deal directly with disturbances, many animals are not as immediately affected by them. most can successfully evade fires, and many thrive afterwards on abundant new growth on the forest floor. new conditions support a wider variety of plants, often rich in nutrients compared to pre - disturbance vegetation. the plants in turn support a variety of
Answer:
|
alive
| 0.3 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.