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The Ministry of the Environment requires that schools with 350 students or more:
- conduct a waste audit
- complete and post a yearly Waste Reduction Work Plan
- have source separation programs for specified wastes and ensure the wastes are recycled
These requirements are often managed at the school board level to ensure consistency and efficiency among schools in each board – but each school has a role to play in how it manages its own waste.
Minimizing waste means using less stuff, reusing what you can and recycling as much as possible.
Reducing or recycling waste has many benefits:
- It cuts back on greenhouse gas emissions by diverting waste from landfills and reducing the energy required to extract, process and transport resources.
- It makes your school more environmentally friendly.
- It’s an immediate and measurable way to improve your school’s environmental performance.
- It helps you comply with Ontario’s 3Rs Regulations.
- It can help improve school morale and image.
Stay current! Sign up for email updates. | Jump down to:
The Ministry of the Environment requires that schools with 350 students or more:
- conduct a waste audit
- complete and post a yearly Waste Reduction Work Plan
- have source separation programs for specified wastes and ensure the wastes are recycled
These requirements are often managed at the school board level to ensure consistency and efficiency among schools in each board – but ea | {
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OFFICE OF PUBLIC INFORMATION
JET PROPULSION LABORATORY
CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
PASADENA, CALIFORNIA. TELEPHONE (213) 354-50ll FOR RELEASE
APRIL 13, 1976
Martian dust storms are very much like the severe ones on Earth--"only more so," Jet Propulsion Laboratory planetary scientist says.
The towering storms which obscured Mars' southern hemisphere in 1971 appear to have been triggered by the same mechanism which kicks up giant dust clouds on Earth in winter and spring--polar air sweeping down onto warmer mountain slope, basin or plain.
Peter M. Woiceshyn of JPL reported this finding after twoyear comparative study of Martian and Earth dust storm data. He said Martian storms, particularly in the Hellas area, are "quite similar" to some in the arid regions of Russia, Persia, the high plains of the United States, and the Arizona and Sahara deserts.
The JPL investigator used Lowell Observatory data on July l9, 1971, Martian dust storm to determine that wall of dust over 30 miles high (50 kilometers) swept down the west slopes of Hellas at speeds greater than 300 miles per hour. Mariner 9 radio occultation data provided by Dr. Arvidas J. Kliore, also of JPL, verified that such high-velocity winds would be required to raise surface dust in Mars' low atmospheric pressure.
(Air density on Mars is only l/l00th that on Earth. Mariner 9 is the unmanned spacecraft laboratory which JPL sent to orbit Mars in 1970-71 for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.)
When Mariner 9 arrived in November, 1971, second dust storm had been in progress several weeks. Dust cloud tops were estimated by Mariner 9 experimenters at heights of 50 to 70 kilometers (30 to 40 miles) above the surface.
In their joint written report, Woiceshyn and Kliore said the two 1971 storms (and another in 1956) began in the same location on Hellas slopes and apparently were triggered by cold jet stream from the Martian north pole, funneling down long valley across the planet's equator.
Hellas extends from about 65 degrees to 30 degrees south latitude on Mars. Its long sloping topography is strong factor in producing giant dusters--the bottom of the Hellas basin lying 8 km (5 miles) lower than the highest rim of the surrounding mountains.
"The gravity flow produced from cold air streaming over the top of mountain ridge is like combination of waterfall and tidal wave," Woiceshyn told members of the Division of planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society in Austin, Tex., March 30. He will make further report at the annual spring meeting of the American Geophysical Union April 11 in Washington, D.C.
Such frigid air cascade over mountain barrier onto slope and plain is known to meteorologists as bora, or norther. The best Earth examples, Woiceshyn points out, are found in Russia, where polar winds sweep the steppes; in the mountain-ringed valleys of Persia, and to some extent on the U.S. plains just east of the Rockies.
Typical dust storms on these plains have been reported to reach heights of more than 20,000 feet, with winds near the surface ranging from 60 to l00 miles per hour. recent (March 19) dust storm obscured the Colorado-Kansas border region, whipped by 80 to l00 mph winds.
Data from Project Dustorm (cq), organized by the Aerosol Project Group and headed by Dr. Ed Danielsen of the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colo., is now being analyzed to determine the soil erosion damage caused by severe dusters in this country and around the world.
The most intense and dangerous storms on Earth have occurred during prolonged periods of drought, such as the early 1930s in the U.S. dustbowl area. In Russia winds of prolonged 1928 storm raised more than 15 million tons of black earth dust from an area of 250 million acres, according to Woiceshyn's research.
Similar erosion is caused by the heavy winds on Mars, too, Mariner 9 revealed. And there were indications other factors may be at work on the Red Planet.
The yellow cast of the Mars' dust clouds gave them the appear ance of so-called desert dusters, known as haboobs (Arabic for wild winds). Haboobs are the dust-laden gusts which occasionally cool Sahara and Arizona desert regions during the summer. But there is no firm proof yet that the right conditions exist to produce that type of storm on Mars.
However, more conclusive data on Martian storms could be provided in the coming year by the two 1976 Viking soacecraft and their landers. Viking arrives at Mars in mid-June and drops its lander on or about July 4. Viking II reaches Mars in mid-August, with lander descendinq about Sept. 4.
The Woiceshyn-Kliore study was sponsored by NASA's Office of Space Science. Caltech operates JPL for NASA. | OFFICE OF PUBLIC INFORMATION
JET PROPULSION LABORATORY
CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
PASADENA, CALIFORNIA. TELEPHONE (213) 354-50ll FOR RELEASE
APRIL 13, 1976
Martian dust storms are very much like the severe ones on Earth--"only more so," Jet Propulsion Laboratory planetary scientist says.
The towering storms which obscured Mars' southern hemisph | {
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August 10, 2009
Augusta – The Maine Department of Labor hosted a forum and planning session today for Maine groups and organizations seeking Recovery Act Grants to train workers for green jobs.
Representatives from dozens of non-profit organizations were on hand to get information on grants offered by the US Department of Labor to fund workforce development initiatives for the energy and green sectors of the economy. Up to $500 million will be made available nationwide.
“This was an opportunity for Maine groups to coordinate, find potential partners, and be competitive on a national field in applying for these grants,” said Maine Labor Commissioner Laura Fortman.
Speakers included the Director of Governor’s Office of Energy Independence and Security, Cabinet members from the Department of Labor, Public Utilities Commission, Maine Housing, and the Department of Community and Economic Development.
Presentations focused on green and energy initiatives currently underway in the state. Participants discussed challenges and opportunities for developing a “green” workforce in the state.
“We know that the energy sector provides enormous opportunity for growth in the years ahead,” said Governor Baldacci. “These grants will help align the skills of Maine’s workforce, with the efforts already underway to attract and grow jobs in that industry.” | August 10, 2009
Augusta – The Maine Department of Labor hosted a forum and planning session today for Maine groups and organizations seeking Recovery Act Grants to train workers for green jobs.
Representatives from dozens of non-profit organizations were on hand to get information on grants offered by the US Department of Labor to fund workforce development initiatives for the energy and green sec | {
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| Recently, a twenty-two year old rock drill operator with one-year of mining experience was fatally injured at a dimension stone quarry. The victim was spot drilling along the highwall with a rock drill/slot drill when his clothing became entangled in the rotating drill steel while trying to free a dust suction hose. Since 1984, five operators of machine mounted rock drills have been killed as a result of entanglement in rotating drill steel.
- Always establish written policies for the type of clothing and methods to secure clothing when working around equipment and ensure these policies are followed. Never wear loose/bulky clothing around drilling or other equipment with rotating or exposed moving parts.
- Always provide safe routing of hoses and cables on and around drilling equipment. Design proper hangers, guides, stand-offs and entrances to eliminate the necessity of handling hoses or cables in close proximity to rotating/moving equipment and to eliminate tripping hazards.
- Always ensure controls are located/positioned to provide safe performance in all operating conditions. As necessary, the controls should be designed to adapt to the mining conditions and the operator's size, height, and reach.
- Always ensure machine controls and safety devices are operating properly. Never over-ride, bypass, tie-down, or jumper out machine control safety equipment.
- Always provide emergency stop/shut-off switches, panic bars, dead man devices, tethers, slap bars, rope switches, two handed controls, spring loaded controls, etc in easily accessible locations.
- Always provide danger zone guarding between controls and rotating equipment (i.e. drill steel). Design guarding to be adaptable to mine conditions and the operators size, height, reach, etc.
- Always practice good housekeeping around drilling equipment.
- Always incorporate written safe operating procedures into safety and training programs. The procedures should be made available and regularly reviewed with drill operators. Standard safe operating procedures should emphasize the importance of shutting down the drills when performing tasks near the rotating steel.
- Always wear proper personal protective equipment (safety glasses, hardhat, boots and gloves) when operating drilling equipment.
- Always thoroughly examine for hazardous conditions when working adjacent to highwalls. | | Recently, a twenty-two year old rock drill operator with one-year of mining experience was fatally injured at a dimension stone quarry. The victim was spot drilling along the highwall with a rock drill/slot drill when his clothing became entangled in the rotating drill steel while trying to free a dust suction hose. Since 1984, five operators of machine mounted rock drills have been killed as a | {
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Prescribe fires are set in the spring to deter exotic plants from germinating.
NPS Photo by John Moeykens
In 1997, the park used fire for the first time as a management tool. The objective for using fire is to protect and interpret the ecosystem along the Knife and Missouri Rivers and the cultural resources, which resulted from centuries of human habitation. Of primary importance is the management of the park as a natural ecosystem, influenced by human activities over time, and the continuation of a natural process. Fire being used as a tool has been around for centuries and it is well documented that the Native Americans we adept at using fire as a tool in their environment. Yearly burns have had many benefits within the park. Some of these include the reintroduction of natural conditions for a fire dependent ecosystem, reducing fire hazards in and an round developed areas, stimulating the natural ecological process which have been retarded by past fire suppression polices and reducing exotic plant reproduction. | Prescribe fires are set in the spring to deter exotic plants from germinating.
NPS Photo by John Moeykens
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Birthday Observance for President Lyndon B. Johnson Set for August 27
Contact: Sherry Justus, 830-868-7128 ext 245
Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park will celebrate the 101st anniversary of President Johnson’s birth on Thursday, August 27. This free celebration begins at 10:00 a.m. with the laying of a wreath on his gravesite in the Johnson family cemetery on the LBJ Ranch. The wreath will be placed by representatives from Randolph Air Force Base in San Antonio, followed by remarks by Colonel Jackie Van Ovost.
After the ceremony, and throughout the day, Lyndon Johnson’s reconstructed birthplace will be open for public tours. A special treat will be the appearance of actor Michael Stuart, portraying President Johnson as he reads excerpts from Johnson’s 1971 book, The Vantage Point. The president autographed copies of his book from time to time on the birthplace porch and also gave visitors tours of the house.
In the ranch airplane hangar, a new exhibit will be unveiled for the first time on August 27. Entitled “A More Abiding Commitment to Freedom: LBJ’s Civil Rights Legacy,” this permanent exhibit will draw parallels between the civil rights struggles and legislative milestones of the twentieth century and the ongoing progress and promise that has resulted in this century.
In addition, the “Texas White House,” President and Mrs. Johnson’s home on the ranch, is now open for touring four downstairs rooms, the presidential office, the living room, the dining room and the kitchen. Tours begin in the airplane hangar/visitor contact station and cost $1.00.
Lyndon B. Johnson State Park and Historic Site, the national historical park’s partner since the 1970s, will honor the late president with free refreshments and offer traditional children’s games and amusements at the Sauer-Beckmann Farm. The state park visitor center, just off U.S. Highway 290, 14 miles west of Johnson City or one mile east of Stonewall, is where visitors to either park can pick up a free vehicle permit, map and CD in order to tour the LBJ Ranch in their own private vehicles.
For more information on this and other park events, view www.nps.gov/lyjo or call (830) 868-7128, ext. 231 or 244.
Did You Know?
More National Park Service sites were designated or expanded during the Johnson administration than during any other administration. LBJ traveled to only one--the Statue of Liberty-Ellis Island. Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park | Birthday Observance for President Lyndon B. Johnson Set for August 27
Contact: Sherry Justus, 830-868-7128 ext 245
Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park will celebrate the 101st anniversary of President Johnson’s birth on Thursday, August 27. This free celebration begins at 10:00 a.m. with the laying of a wreath on his gravesite in the Johnson family cemetery on the LBJ Ranch. The wreath will | {
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Operational Changes Took Effect on May 1
The Lighthouse Visitor Center is now only open Fridays through Mondays. The Kenneth C. Patrick Visitor Center will be closed through late December 2013. More »
2013 Harbor Seal Pupping Season Closures
From March 1 through June 30, the park implements closures of certain Tomales Bay beaches and Drakes Estero to water-based recreation to protect harbor seals during the pupping season. Please avoid disturbing seals to ensure a successful pupping season. More »
Snowy Plover Critical Habitat Protection Measures at Point Reyes National Seashore for 2004
Contact: John Dell’Osso, 415-464-5135
Contact: Dawn Adams, 415-464-5202
The federally-listed threatened snowy plover nesting season is underway. Point Reyes National Seashore has approximately 30 – 35 adult plovers that breed on the beaches here. With the partnership of Point Reyes Bird Observatory Conservation Science, the snowy plover population has been monitored annually since 1995. Efforts to protect the plovers include roping off breeding habitat on upper sections of beaches and the construction of “exclosures” around their inconspicuous nests immediately after an egg is laid. To assure success occurs this nesting season, the annual closure of a small stretch of the Point Reyes Beach to dogs will be initiated again.
“It is critical to minimize disturbance to nesting plovers and chicks during the nesting season for these birds to have a chance of surviving.” stated Superintendent Don Neubacher. He added, “We must do what we can to help this species survive over the long-term and this is one step we can take to reach this goal. We ask everyone’s help in this effort. We appreciate everyone’s support for closures in past years.”
Closing a small stretch of the 12-mile beach to dogs is important to minimize disturbance during this critical time. The stretch of beach starting at ¼ mile north of the North Beach parking lot and continuing to a point ¼ mile south of Kehoe Beach, will be closed to dogs from Saturday, March 13th through Monday, September 6th, 2004. The closures encompass less than five miles of this 12-mile beach area. Other popular beaches such as Limantour and Kehoe Beaches remain open as alternatives for park visitors with dogs. All dogs are required to be on leash.
Exclosures are wire fencing with twine wrapped around the top, erected at the nest site. The plovers have easy access in and out of the wire mesh but the eggs are protected from their number one predator, ravens, as well as other predators.
Since 2001, the Seashore has received funds from the Point Reyes National Seashore Association to hire a ranger to coordinate the snowy plover docent program. The program uses volunteer docents to provide information and education on the snowy plovers at beach trailheads during the highest visitation period on weekends. This program was successful in reaching more visitors with information on closures and their importance to increasing the plover population at Point Reyes. Rangers and volunteer docents will be on-site again this season from Memorial Day through Labor Day. For more information on volunteering at Point Reyes National Seashore, call (415) 464-5145.
As part of a long-term strategy to improve the critical dune habitat for plovers and other rare species, the Seashore initiated a long-term dune restoration project in 2001. Nonnative European beachgrass has been removed from over 30 acres near Abbotts Lagoon since the project began. In 2003, four of the twenty-two plover nests were in this restored dune habitat providing a great measure of success.
Did You Know?
The Point Reyes Lighthouse was completed in 1870, 16 years after Congress initially appropriated funds for its construction. It still stands in its original location, having weathered over 140 years at what is considered to be the windiest, foggiest location on the US west coast. More... | Operational Changes Took Effect on May 1
The Lighthouse Visitor Center is now only open Fridays through Mondays. The Kenneth C. Patrick Visitor Center will be closed through late December 2013. More »
2013 Harbor Seal Pupping Season Closures
From March 1 through June 30, the park implements closures of certain Tomales Bay beaches and Drakes Estero to water-based recreation to protect harbor seals | {
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Primer on Lean Six Sigma (NUREG/BR-0470)
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Download complete document
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Date Published: January 2010
Office of Executive Director for Operations
In 2007, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) launched an initiative to develop Lean Six Sigma capability at the NRC. The agency deployed a Lean Six Sigma program to improve the quality and timeliness of products and services, increase efficiency, and improve operational effectiveness.
This primer is part of an effort to communicate Lean Six Sigma knowledge throughout the NRC. It provides readers with basic information about Lean Six Sigma and the Lean Six Sigma program activities at the agency. The primer is organized into the following three parts:
- Part 1 presents an overview of Lean Six Sigma, including its benefits and implementation difficulties.
- Part 2 provides a general practice guide for Lean Six Sigma.
- Part 3 describes the Lean Six Sigma infrastructure, internal resources, and potential applications at the NRC. | Primer on Lean Six Sigma (NUREG/BR-0470)
On this page:
Download complete document
This page includes links to files in non-HTML format. See Plugins, Viewers, and Other Tools for more information.
Date Published: January 2010
Office of Executive Director for Operations
In 2007, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) launched an initiative to develop Lean Six Sigma capability at the NRC. The a | {
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SOUTH 'GOES GREEN' WITH CFL KICK-OFF!
Residents are critical to NYCHA's green
initiative, said Board Member López. "You need
to switch it off."
The country's largest
public housing development, Queensbridge Houses, is
going green! On a surprisingly chilly April 21st-the day before Earth Day-the
New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA), joined the Clinton Climate
Initiative (CCI), Citi (formerly Citibank), and the
energy-solution company Ameresco, to begin
installing 9,600 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs)
in 1,600 apartments at Queensbridge South. It is
estimated that once all standard bulbs in the development's 3,142 apartments
are replaced with CFLs, electricity costs for Queensbridge alone will drop by over 17%, saving the
Housing Authority $367,000 annually, and cutting carbon dioxide emissions by
1,400 tons a year! That's the equivalent of taking 600 cars off the road.
Residents of all ages gathered in the interior courtyard of
the Jacob Riis
at the Long Island
City development to
hear the morning's speakers. Those speakers addressed the crowd from a stage
covered with AstroTurf, beneath a 35-foot-long cast
stone relief, entitled "Community Life." The relief was created by
an Italian immigrant, Cesare Stea,
in the 1940s under the Works Progress Administration Program.
"Since Queensbridge is the
largest development, utility costs are enormous," said Queens Borough
Director Carolyn Jasper, who served as Mistress of Ceremonies for the event.
"NYCHA must find new ways of conserving energy. CFLs
are the stepping stone for more energy-efficient projects."
Congress Member Carolyn Maloney reaffirmed her support for
public housing and green initiatives, focusing on current legislation to
require that all cars get 35 miles to the gallon by the year 2020.
Deputy Mayor Dennis Walcott brought greetings from Mayor
Michael R. Bloomberg. "On behalf of the Mayor, I am here to compliment
NYCHA for its green initiatives," the Deputy Mayor said.
Queensbridge is the second NYCHA
development to benefit from a collaboration between
NYCHA and ReLightNY, a youth-run nonprofit
organization that seeks to educate and inspire people to live in
environmentally friendly ways by raising money to replace traditional light
bulbs with CFLs.
Citi's Community Relations
Director Eileen Auld noted that Citi was proud to
donate $20,000 to RelightNY for the bulbs, and has
its own ten-year, $50 billion commitment to reverse climate change.
"Ameresco is very excited
about this collaboration, not only to preserve the environment but to
preserve public housing and create jobs," said Ameresco
Executive Vice-President David Anderson. Ameresco,
one of the nation's leading energy-saving companies, is donating the labor
and also hired six Queensbridge residents for the
"green collar" jobs.
"The most important partner of all is each of you and
your families, who will lead by example," said Clinton Climate
Initiative (CCI) New York Representative Kathy Baczko.
The CCI is providing the Housing Authority with technical support for green
initiatives and is now working in over 40 cities around the world to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions.
That message was amplified by the final speaker of the
morning, Board Member Margarita López, who was
appointed by Chairman Tino Hernandez and Mayor
Michael R. Bloomberg last year to be NYCHA's Green
Coordinator. "Residents are critical to helping the Mayor fulfill his
dream of installing CFLs in every NYCHA
development. The CFLs will contribute to energy
savings but you must 'switch it off,'" she said, flicking the switch on
a portable panel of light bulbs, to emphasize the importance of turning off
lights when not in use. "It's that easy."
"This is an excellent opportunity, an excellent
idea," said Patricia Goodson, a 23-year resident of Queensbridge,
who was hired to install the bulbs. "People are really excited about
this," Ms. Goodson added, while checking her cell phone. "They keep
calling and asking, 'When are you coming to my building?'" | SOUTH 'GOES GREEN' WITH CFL KICK-OFF!
Residents are critical to NYCHA's green
initiative, said Board Member López. "You need
to switch it off."
The country's largest
public housing development, Queensbridge Houses, is
going green! On a surprisingly chilly April 21st-the day before Earth Day-the
New York City Housing Authority (NYCHA), joined the Clinton Climate
Initiative (CCI), Citi (formerly Cit | {
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|Property damage to vessels||$334,741,172||$126,709,033||$151,717,872||$170,192,689||$127,363,573|
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Coast Guard, Office of Information Resources, Data Division, as of September 2006.
NOTES: Fatalities include the number of people who died or were declared missing as the result of a marine casualty. Data in this table include only vessel related marine casualties verified as reportable under 46 Code of Federal Regulations 4.05. Data include incidents involving both U.S. and foreign-flag vessels in U.S. waters, but only incidents involving U.S. flag vessels outside U.S. waters. Incidents involving only a pollution release or personal injury without vessel involvement are not included. More than one vessel may be involved in a single marine casualty. Injuries and deaths resulting from existing medical condition, assault, homicide, suicide or self-inflicted injuries are not included. Incidents involving natural disasters are not included. | |Property damage to vessels||$334,741,172||$126,709,033||$151,717,872||$170,192,689||$127,363,573|
SOURCE: U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Coast Guard, Office of Information Resources, Data Division, as of September 2006.
NOTES: Fatalities include the number of people who died or were declared missing as the result of a marine casualty. Data in this table include only vessel related mar | {
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|> back to statements||
Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Philippines to the United Nations
It is an honor to engage in this debate on the assessment of global progress to curb the HIV/AIDS pandemic. I would like to thank the UN Secretariat for preparing the background report that gives us a picture of the global HIV/AIDS situation and outlines a number of important key recommendations that we should consider.
Mr. President and distinguished colleagues,
We used to think that the HIV/AIDS situation in the Philippines was always “low and slow”. While the overall number of HIV-infected persons in the country remains below 0.1% of our population, half of those cases were detected only in the last seven years. This “hidden and growing” situation is reason not to be complacent in our efforts. Moreover, because HIV/AIDS affects Filipinos during the peak of their economically productive years, HIV/AIDS is not just a health concern; it is a developmental concern. Therefore, the major thrust of the country’s efforts on HIV/AIDS remains the prevention of its further spread and acting ahead of the epidemic. Our efforts are anchored on our national law on HIV/AIDS, the Philippine AIDS Prevention and Control Act, to which amendments are currently being contemplated to make it more responsive to the evolving dynamics of the disease. The “Three Ones” are also in place in the country. With the Philippine National AIDS Council as the coordination hub, we have developed medium term plans, including a costed operational plan, to determine where resources could make the greatest impact and what strategies and interventions need to be prioritized. The Secretary-General’s report once again highlighted that, despite the impressive resources mobilized, the gap between resources and actual needs continues to increase annually. We, therefore, call for enhanced resources and for these resources to be targeted to the high-impact areas that serve the needs of concerned countries.
At the national level, the Philippine government has developed guidelines, standards and protocols for HIV case reporting; voluntary counseling and testing; treatment, including the provision of anti-retroviral drugs, as well as care and support. We have also strengthened the capacities of health care providers and created HIV/AIDS Core Teams made up of medical specialists and social workers in government hospitals, in partnership with NGOs. Through our Department of Labor, we have developed a National Workplace Policy that gives guidance on how to deal with HIV/AIDS in the workplace. Moreover, in order to sensitize our embassies and consulates on HIV/AIDS issues, we have integrated HIV/AIDS and migration in the training of our foreign service personnel.
The work to fight HIV/AIDS can only be successful if it closely involves the community and the groups that are most-at-risk. Because of our decentralized system of governance, our local government units are charged with integrating HIV/AIDS into their local health systems. A growing number of local government units have institutionalized HIV/AIDS and STD prevention and control programs in their local development plans and matched them with the corresponding budgets. Furthermore, through community-based approaches, which include information dissemination, health services and even behavior change strategies, we are able to strategically reach out to people and target the vulnerable groups. Influencing the local leaders is by no means an easy task, so that we highlight good practices and models for local leaders to emulate. For example, we have publicly featured the impressive work on HIV/AIDS of model cities, such as Laoag City , a city to the north of the capital Manila , and Zamboanga City , in the south, to inspire other cities to do the same. In addition, despite the negative perception on harm reduction programs, we have managed to use these programs as examples of involving and empowering persons mostly at risk, such as injecting drug users (IDU) and men having sex with men (MSM)
Indeed, systematic monitoring and evaluation is key to knowing the epidemic and knowing what steps to take to avert its spread. The establishment of a monitoring and evaluation system in the Philippines is a continuing multi-stakeholder effort that requires the partnership of national and local government, as well as civil society. In setting this up, we have uncovered critical issues such as the need to develop better data collection and compatibility, the importance of having the right technologies and capacities for documentation and monitoring, as well as the need to improve communication lines with stakeholders, involving government and civil society actors.
We have only two years to go before the universal access targets. We are also already halfway towards the Millennium Development Goals. Can we still make it? The people on the ground working against HIV/AIDS are clamoring for real political leadership. Even at this time, not all leaders are aware of the seriousness of the issue, and so while we have the words and the plans, more often that not, we don’t have the corresponding implementation. We also do not have the corresponding resources. For our plans to have a real impact on the disease, we need to sustain our actions and sustain our resources. Can we intensify our cooperation, among governments, with international organizations and non-governmental organizations to generate more resources and share our knowledge, capacities and technologies? HIV/AIDS finds an easy breeding ground in environments of poverty, ignorance, discrimination, social marginalization and gender inequalities. This means that if we are to stamp out HIV/AIDS in the long term, it will require grounding our response to a broader development and human rights framework.
Philippine Center Building | 556 5th Avenue
New York, NY 10036 | (Between 45th and 46th)
Tel:(212)764-1300 | Fax:(212)840-8602 | E-mail: [email protected] | |> back to statements||
Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Philippines to the United Nations
It is an honor to engage in this debate on the assessment of global progress to curb the HIV/AIDS pandemic. I would like to thank the UN Secretariat for preparing the background report that gives us a picture of the global HIV/AIDS situation and outlines a number of important key recommendations that | {
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May 15, 2012
FOR RELEASE AT WILL
Despite the fact that Yorktown’s Civil War “Siege of 1862” ended in early May, the York County Civil War Sesquicentennial Committee and the National Park Service are focusing commemoration of the 150th anniversary of the Civil War in York County around Memorial Day weekend.
Upcoming events, leading into and during Memorial Day weekend, include:
- May 10 through May 28: Tabb Library will host, “An American Turning Point - The Civil War in Virginia,” a traveling panel exhibit comprised of images, interpretive text, and a companion website, detailing Virginia’s role in the Civil War. Tabb Library is located at 100 Long Green Boulevard. Call 757-890-5100 for library hours. Free.
- May 17 and 18, 7 - 9 p.m.: Dr. James L. Green, Director of Planetary Science, at NASA, in Washington, D.C., will present, “Civil War Balloons During the Peninsula Campaign.” This lecture will emphasize the exciting details of how the balloons were used on the Peninsula and their subsequent impact on the war from both sides. On Thursday, May 17, Dr. Green will speak at the Main Street Preservation Trust, 6894 Main St., in Gloucester, and on Friday, May 18, Dr. Green will speak at York Hall, 301 Main Street, in Yorktown. For more information, call 804‑693-0014 in Gloucester or 757‑890-3508 in Yorktown. Free.
- May 20, 3 p.m.: J. Michael Moore, Historian and Curator at Lee Hall Mansion and Endview Plantation, will lecture on many well-known and not-so-well-known facts about the Peninsula Campaign and why it failed to end the war in the spring of 1862. York Hall, 301 Main Street, Yorktown. Sponsored by the York County Historical Committee. Call 757‑890-3508. Free.
- May 26, 10 a.m. – 2 p.m.: Civil War Balloon Exhibit - Kevin Knapp, retired Army Officer, professional balloon pilot, and Civil War Balloon Corps enthusiast will share separate presentations on how balloons were used for observation and surveillance by both the North and the South. His hourly presentations will include the complete history of balloon operations from their first appearance in 1861 to the end of the Balloon Corps in 1863. Yorktown Battlefield. Call 757-890-3508 or 757-898-2410. Free. This exhibit will also be on display on Monday, May 28, 10 a.m. – 3 pm, at the Gloucester Main Street Library, 6920 Main Street, in Gloucester.
- May 26 – 27, 9 a.m. – 5 p.m.: Civil War Weekend - Tactical demonstrations, encampments and a Confederate field hospital interpret the role Yorktown played during the Peninsula Campaign. On Sunday special memorial ceremonies will take place at the Yorktown National Cemetery and Confederate Cemetery. Yorktown Battlefield. Call 757-898-2410 or visit www.nps.gov/colo. Entrance Fee.
- May 26 - 28, Sat - Sun, 9 a.m. – 5 p.m.; Mon, 9 a.m. – noon: Virginia Civil War HistoryMobile - The Civil War 150 HistoryMobile is an interactive “museum on wheels” housed in a 53-foot expandable tractor-trailer. The four-year tour launched on July 21, 2011, in conjunction with the 150th anniversary commemoration of the First Battle of Manassas. The HistoryMobile draws together stories from all over Virginia and uses state-of-the-art technology and immersive exhibit spaces to present individual stories of the Civil War. Yorktown Battlefield. Call 757‑898-2410 or visit www.nps.gov/colo. Free.
- May 28, noon: Memorial Day Ceremony - Includes the posting of colors, historical re-enactors, a guest speaker, the placing of flowers, and the presentation of awards to student winners of the “York County Remembers” Poster Essay Contest. The ceremony will take place at the War Memorial in front of York Hall, 301 Main St., Yorktown. Call 757‑890‑3500. Free.
The York County Civil War Sesquicentennial Committee is comprised of representatives from York County, the City of Newport News, the National Park Service, the Peninsula Campaign Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederacy, the City of Poquoson, the United States Naval Weapons Station Yorktown, the Watermen’s Museum, the York County Historical Committee, the York County Historical Museum, and the York County Historical Society.
Many of the events are made possible by grants or services provided by 1st Advantage Federal Credit Union; Ferguson Bath, Kitchen, and Lighting Gallery; Big Top Entertainment; Digital Design and Imaging Service, Inc.; AVPC, Inc./Affordable DJs; Peninsula Campaign Chapter, United Daughters of the Confederacy; York County Historical Museum; York County Historical Committee; Ben & Jerry’s Scoop Shop/Green Mountain Roasters Café; Just Plumbing; VFW, Chapter 12; and the County of York. | May 15, 2012
FOR RELEASE AT WILL
Despite the fact that Yorktown’s Civil War “Siege of 1862” ended in early May, the York County Civil War Sesquicentennial Committee and the National Park Service are focusing commemoration of the 150th anniversary of the Civil War in York County around Memorial Day weekend.
Upcoming events, leading into and during Memorial Day weekend, include:
- May 10 through May | {
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Preliminary Guidance for Title I, Part C
Public Law 103-382
High Standards for all Children--with the Elements of Education Aligned, so that Everything is Working Together to Help Students Reach those Standards
Accountability for Helping Migrant Students Achieve to High Standards
In 1992, the National Association of State Directors of Migrant Education noted that "the education of too many migrant students is characterized by low expectations, inferior resources, and differential treatment." They also issued the following challenge to educators who work with migrant students:
"Mobilize students, staff, and parents around a vision of a school in which all students can achieve. Migrant students not only can and do graduate from high schools, but graduate with honors." (Rethinking Migrant Education, 1992)
The goal of the reauthorized ESEA is to improve teaching and learning for all students, including migrant students, by fostering an ethic of learning across America. Its fundamental premise is that high standards, the same high standards for all children, must replace minimal standards and low expectations. The research is clear; high expectations lead to high achievement. Low expectations do not.
Many states have developed or begun to develop challenging content and student performance standards, and many more are expected to do so as part of their state reform or Goals 2000 initiatives or under Title I of the ESEA. To enable children to reach high state standards, all components of school systems and schools must be aligned to these standards. Thus, under the reauthorized ESEA, the MEP is integral to, not separate from, state and local education reforms that center on high expectations for all children. As described in the section of this guidance entitled "Links with Other Education Legislation," the ESEA, Goals 2000, and School-to-Work legislation can support educators as they work together to make high expectations a daily reality for migrant students.
Standards and Assessments Under Title I
Title I of the ESEA aligns instruction, assessment, and accountability procedures with high-quality state content standards and challenging student performance standards.
Specify what children are expected to know and be able to do in academic subjects;
Contain coherent and rigorous content; and
Encourage the teaching of advanced skills.
Student performance standards under Title I:
Are aligned with the state's content standards;
Describe at least two levels of high performance--proficient and advanced--that determine how well children are mastering the material in the state content standards; and
Describe a third level--partially proficient--to provide information on the progress of lower-performing children.
Performance standards are benchmarks that determine how well students are mastering the subject matter content. Student performance standards are used to establish progressively higher levels of achievement for all students with the ultimate goal being t o move all children to the advanced level.
To measure progress in reaching this goal, each state must demonstrate that it has developed or adopted a set of high-quality annual assessments. These assessments will be used as the primary means of determining the yearly performance of each local educ ation agency and school served under Title I. Performance is defined by how effectively the agency enables all children served under Title I to meet the state's challenging content standards in the grade levels to be tested. Such assessments must measure performance in at least mathematics and reading/language arts, but need not be focused solely on these subjects. (For example, an assessment in a subject such as social studies may sufficiently measure performance in reading/ language arts.)
Annual state assessments for the Title I program will, among other things:
Be the same assessments used to measure the performance of all children, if the state measures the performance of all children;
Be aligned with the state's challenging content and student performance standards and provide coherent information about student attainment of such standards;
Include limited English proficient students, who shall be assessed, to the extent possible, in their primary language;
Enable results to be disaggregated in each state, local education agency, and school by gender, by each major racial and ethnic group, by English proficiency status, by migrant program eligibility, by students with disabiliti es as compared to non-disabled students, and by economically disadvantaged students as compared to students who are not economically disadvantaged.
A state that does not have the required assessments may propose to use a transitional set of yearly statewide assessments. Migrant educators should be aware that these transitional assessments may not meet the requirements listed above.
If a state has not adopted content or student performance standards for all students in at least math and reading/language arts, it must do so for Title I students by 1997-98, or adopt the standards of another state with an approved Title I, Part A plan. A state that does not have the required assessments must develop and field test such assessments by 2000-2001.
Assessing the Achievement of LEP Students
Limited English proficient students participating in Title I, including the MEP, are to be included in the state assessments described above. When a state's final assessments are developed, students are to be assessed, to the extent practicable, in the l anguage and form most likely to yield accurate information to determine student mastery of skills in subjects other than English. If a state uses a transitional set of yearly assessments while developing assessments that meet the requirements of Title I, LEP students participating in Title I programs, including the MEP, are to be included in those assessments. The ESEA directs the Office of Bilingual Education and Minority Languages Affairs (OBEMLA) to provide assistance i n developing linguistically appropriate assessments.
Evaluation of State and Local MEP Programs
Each SEA and operating agency receiving funds under the MEP has the responsibility to determine the effectiveness of its program and projects in providing migrant students with the opportunity to meet the state's content and student performance standa rds. In order to do so, SEAs and local operating agencies should, if feasible, use the same high-quality yearly assessments or transitional assessments that the state has established to meet the requirements of Part A of Title I. (34 CFR 200.42(a) and (b)) The results of state wide assessments should then be used by SEAs and operating agencies to improve the services provided to migrant children. (34 CFR 200.43)
In some cases it may not be feasible to use the statewide assessments to determine the effectiveness of an MEP project. In a project where it is not feasible to use the statewide student assessments, such as a summer-only project or a project where no mi grant students are enrolled at the time the state-established assessment takes place, some other reasonable process or processes for examining student learning must be adopted. (34 CFR 200.42(c))
Example of an Evolving State Evaluation Plan
Pennsylvania's Migrant Education Program is working with the Region B Technical Assistance Center to develop a strategic plan that aligns instruction and evaluation in migrant summer projects with the state's content standards, including 54 "learner outco mes" required by the Pennsylvania legislature. Because school districts are in the process of developing transitional assessment systems aligned with the learner outcomes, the Pennsylvania MEP plans to implement an interim evaluation process based on student portfolios. Flexible yet consistent portfolio guidelines, aligned with the state learner outcomes, are being developed for all migrant summer projects to use in assessing student achievement and determining program effectiveness.
- Jerry Bennett, Educational Research Coordinator
State Department of Education
333 Market Street, 7th Floor
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17126-0333
For more information on aligning accountability with state standards and assessments, see the relevant section of the guidance for programs under Title I, Part A.
Reporting Requirements for the MEP
Annual reporting requirements for the MEP are undergoing significant change. While the prior statute stressed the importance of norm-referenced testing and required the aggregation of scores from the local to national levels, the new law encourages states to set their own challenging content standards and establish related assessment systems. Because these standards and assessments will differ among states and even districts, national aggreg ation of student outcome data is no longer feasible or desirable. However, basic data about program administration and participation will continue to be collected in order to provide information to policy makers and program administrators about the numbers and characteristics of migrant children served, and the nature of services provided.
For the 1994-95 school year, a performance report similar to reports used in previous years will be used to collect descriptive information about student participation and program services. The report has been significantly simplified, however, by elimin ating the portions dealing with achievement and desired outcomes, and by eliminating the need to break out service counts by grade levels.
A new performance report format is being designed for use in 1995-96 and thereafter. In addition to the child counts to be used for funding, the preliminary draft includes data categories similar to those in the simplified 1994-95 report:
Counts of students residing in the state and counts of students participating in the program, by sex, ethnicity, school term, grade level, and services received;
Counts of project sites, including break-outs for schoolwide projects and projects that use extended-time strategies; and
Counts of staff by various categories.
These data will provide basic information about how MEP funds are being used. While the Department may request from SEAs the results of their statewide student assessments, achievement data for migrant students will no longer be collected nationally thro ugh MEP performance reports.
Federal Evaluation of the MEP and Other Title I Programs
If funding is available, the Department will carry out a number of evaluation activities to determine how well schools, local education agencies, and the states are helping children receiving Title I services meet challenging state standards that all chil dren are expected to meet. In addition, Section 1501 mandates certain key studies and activities, including:
A study of how schoolwide programs are meeting the needs of children from migrant families.
A national assessment of Title I to gauge how well schools, LEAs, and states are accomplishing the purposes of the new Title I.
A longitudinal study, which would track cohorts of students in schools with differing concentrations of poverty for at least three years in order to provide a picture of the Title I program's effectiveness.
A study of barriers to effective parental involvement in educating children served by Title I and successful local programs and policies that improve parental involvement and the performance of children served by Title I. | Preliminary Guidance for Title I, Part C
Public Law 103-382
High Standards for all Children--with the Elements of Education Aligned, so that Everything is Working Together to Help Students Reach those Standards
Accountability for Helping Migrant Students Achieve to High Standards
In 1992, the National Association of State Directors of Migrant Education noted that "the education of too many migrant | {
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What are the official state holidays in 2013?
A list of the official Louisiana state holidays for 2013 is available at: http://doa.louisiana.gov/osp/aboutus/holidays.htm
Louisiana Revised Statute 1:55 declares days of public rest and legal holidays: http://www.legis.state.la.us/lss/lss.asp?doc=74097
Other dates may be proclaimed as holidays by the Governor. Dates proclaimed as holidays by the Governor are found in the Civil Service "General Circulars" at: http://www.civilservice.louisiana.gov/Publications/GeneralCirculars.aspx | What are the official state holidays in 2013?
A list of the official Louisiana state holidays for 2013 is available at: http://doa.louisiana.gov/osp/aboutus/holidays.htm
Louisiana Revised Statute 1:55 declares days of public rest and legal holidays: http://www.legis.state.la.us/lss/lss.asp?doc=74097
Other dates may be proclaimed as holidays by the Governor. Dates proclaimed as holidays by the Gove | {
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OK, I've never actually met anyone who doesn't like ice cream, except this one guy who said he could take it or leave it. Maybe he was having personal problems — or perhaps he was lactose intolerant.
Tantalizing in taste, texture and temperature, there is something almost unbearably sensual about ice cream. It starts as a creamy solid and melts slowly, extravagantly around your tongue, releasing its sweetness and the secrets of its more delicate flavors into your mouth.
I'll never forget the look on my daughter's face when she first tasted ice cream as a toddler. Initially shocked and confused, she puckered her lips against the sudden cold. As the rich chocolate seeped through, her eyes widened in delight and her mouth parted into an eager smile, little hands reaching for the cone.
Frozen desserts have been tempting us for thousands of years. Nero (A.D. 37-68) was a fan of ice flavored with honey and fruit, and there is some evidence that the Chinese created the first iced dairy delicacy. America has literally grown up on ice cream; both Washington and Jefferson were known for serving it to their guests and our first public ice cream parlor opened in New York in 1776.
Ice cream represents democracy at its best. Price points range from about 50 cents for kid-friendly pushups to thousand dollar sundaes served in a crystal goblet with an 18-carat gold spoon at Manhattan's Serendipity 3. Ice cream flavors have been designed to meet the needs of every personality and mood: from traditional vanilla, fruity strawberry and nutty Rocky Road, to abstract Blue Moon and even exotic wasabi.
What makes ice cream ice cream? While many desserts are made from its key ingredients of cream, milk, sugar and flavorings, to be labeled "ice cream" according to the International Dairy Foods Association (IFDA), the confection in question must contain at least 10% milk fat and weigh at least 4.5 pounds per gallon.
Frozen custard is the same as ice cream, but also contains at least 1.4% egg yolk. Sherbet has between 1-2% milk fat and slightly more sweetener than ice cream. The Italian version, gelato, differs in that it usually has more intense flavor and is served semi-frozen. Sorbet, the oldest form of frozen dessert, contains no dairy and is made of sweetened ice flavored with fruit, chocolate, wine or liqueur. Frozen yogurt is exactly what it says — frozen yogurt.
For my taste, Ben & Jerry's New York Super Fudge Chunk® is the best of the best. To date, Oink's Dutch Treat in New Buffalo, Michigan is my favorite ice cream parlor. Offering 55 flavors, Oink's make it hard to choose (try the cherry with chocolate flakes).
Perhaps it's no coincidence that I have landed in Evanston, IL, a town that lays claim to naming the ice cream sundae (duking it out with Ithaca, NY and Two Rivers, WI for the bragging rights). In a cup or a cone, in a sundae or alone, ice cream may be the perfect food — except the part where it's bad for your diet … and your cholesterol … and your thighs.
Here's where living in Evanston meets my needs in a whole new way. The other day, my girl friend called and said: "Pick me up. I need frozen yogurt." Why bother, I thought. "This stuff is the best," she said, reading my mind, "and only 90 calories for a small." I have assiduously avoided the nutrition information on Ben & Jerry cartons, but for the purposes of this essay, I thought I better do the research. Those who don't want to know should skip on down to the next paragraph. New York Super Fudge Chunk contains 300 calories per 1/2 cup serving. Yikes.
So, we went to the new frozen yogurt place in town, Red Mango™. It was two minutes to closing and the place was mobbed. I looked up at the menu to discover that they offer only two flavors — original and green tea. The cynic in me could barely justify a late night dessert run that did not include chocolate, but since my friend was buying, I tried a small original with fresh raspberries.
Look out, B&J, I may have found a new home. Curiously satisfying, this treat offers all the fun of ice cream for less than a third of the caloric price. It has a little bit of sour mixed with the sweet, and you can add fresh fruit, as well as some weird dry toppings (Fruity Pebbles, anyone?). It even claims to be good for you, containing no artificial anything and something called probiotics, credited with improving digestive health and the immune system.
So, if you're lucky enough to live in Illinois, California, Nevada, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Utah or Washington, then get yourself to Red Mango (unless you live in Evanston; then you should stay home, because the line is already too long). I know it sounds like I've gone over to the dark side, but this is a true ice cream lover talking, so you can trust me.
If you're drooling over your keyboard now, you may be happy to learn that July is National Ice Cream Month and that, this year, National Ice Cream Day will be celebrated on Sunday, July 20. Click here to let me know how you plan to celebrate.
Photo credit: Ice Cream Cone ~ 8 scoops + 3 Diamond Rings by Tiffany by Prayitno via a Creative Commons license. | OK, I've never actually met anyone who doesn't like ice cream, except this one guy who said he could take it or leave it. Maybe he was having personal problems — or perhaps he was lactose intolerant.
Tantalizing in taste, texture and temperature, there is something almost unbearably sensual about ice cream. It starts as a creamy solid and melts slowly, extravagantly around your tongue, releasing i | {
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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2003 November 13
Explanation: Nestled in the central US, the state of Oklahoma is noted for its gorgeous prairie skies and wide-open spaces, but not for frequent visitations of the northern lights. Still, following the intense solar activity late last month, aurora did come sweeping down the Oklahoma plains and skywatcher Dave Ewoldt managed to catch up with this photogenic apparition 40 miles northwest of Oklahoma City at about 3am CST on October 29. Anticipating aurora sightings, Ewoldt had spent the evening photographing nighttime views of small towns in the area while keeping an eye toward the north. He reports, "I was just about ready to call it a night when the show started. When it did, it was like someone turned on a lightswitch. I wish it would have lasted longer... [it] seemed like it was completely done in about 25 minutes." Watery reflections of the colorful show highlight the foreground in the stunning image while stars of the Big Dipper and the northern sky shine behind the dazzling Oklahoma auroral display.
Tomorrow's picture: a cloudy day on Jupiter
Authors & editors:
NASA Web Site Statements, Warnings, and Disclaimers
NASA Official: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply.
A service of: LHEA at NASA / GSFC
& Michigan Tech. U. | Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2003 November 13
Explanation: Nestled in the central US, the state of Oklahoma is noted for its gorgeous prairie skies and wide-open spaces, but not for frequent visitations of the northern lights. Still, following the intense s | {
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Recycled product purchasing — Federal product standards.
(1) The federal product standards, adopted under 42 U.S.C. Sec. 6962(e) as it exists on July 1, 2001, are adopted as the minimum standards for the state of Washington. These standards shall be implemented for at least the products listed in this subsection, unless the director finds that a different standard would significantly increase recycled product availability or competition.
(a) Organic recovered materials;
(b) Latex paint products;
(c) Products for lower value uses containing recycled plastics;
(d) Retread and remanufactured tires;
(e) Lubricating oils;
(f) Automotive batteries;
(g) Building products and materials;
(h) Panelboard; and
(i) Compost products.
(2) By July 1, 2001, the director shall adopt product standards for strawboard manufactured using as an ingredient straw that is produced as a by-product in the production of cereal grain or turf or grass seed and product standards for products made from strawboard.
(3) The standards required by this section shall be applied to recycled product purchasing by the department, other state agencies, and state postsecondary educational institutions. The standards may be adopted or applied by any other local government in product procurement. The standards shall provide for exceptions under appropriate circumstances to allow purchases of recycled products that do not meet the minimum content requirements of the standards.
[2009 c 356 § 3; 2001 c 77 § 1; 1996 c 198 § 1; 1995 c 269 § 1406; 1991 c 297 § 3.]
| Effective date -- 2001 c 77: "This act is necessary for the immediate preservation of the public peace, health, or safety, or support of the state government and its existing public institutions, and takes effect July 1, 2001." [2001 c 77 § 2.]|
Effective date -- Part headings not law -- Severability -- 1995 c 269: See notes following RCW 18.16.050. | Recycled product purchasing — Federal product standards.
(1) The federal product standards, adopted under 42 U.S.C. Sec. 6962(e) as it exists on July 1, 2001, are adopted as the minimum standards for the state of Washington. These standards shall be implemented for at least the products listed in this subsection, unless the director finds that a different standard would significantly increase recy | {
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by Laurie J. Schmidt
|Ocean color data from the SeaWiFS and MODIS sensors enable researchers to examine the link between phytoplankton blooms and fish and bird health.|
When you're a juvenile salmon trying to survive into adulthood, timing is everything. If you're lucky enough to be born in a year when there's an ample supply of zooplankton, then this food source helps keep your predators at bay. If, however, you're born during a lean plankton season, there's a good chance you might become a snack for fish like pollock and herring.
Oceanographers have long known that food web dynamics influence fish and bird populations in marine coastal areas. But new evidence has led some researchers to suspect that Mother Nature may have a unique way of sustaining populations by bringing young fish, like salmon, into the world when food sources are at their maximum.
The marine food chain starts with microscopic plants called phytoplankton, which typically float close to the surface where there is sunlight for photosynthesis. Phytoplankton are eaten by slightly larger, more mobile, herbivores called zooplankton, which range in size from single-celled organisms to jellyfish. In turn, zooplankton provide food for krill and some small fish.
Sudden explosive increases in phytoplankton, called "blooms," occur in the ocean when nutrient and sunlight conditions are just right. The timing of these blooms plays a large role in maintaining marine ecosystems, and is crucial to the survival of certain fish and bird species. "In theory, you have to have high levels of phytoplankton to support a high abundance of zooplankton, which then supports an abundance of small feeder fish," said oceanographer Scott Pegau.
This SeaWiFS image shows a spring phytoplankton (chlorophyll) bloom over the Gulf of Alaska. Red represents high chlorophyll levels and blue represents low concentrations. The timing and location of these blooms are crucial to fish and bird populations. (Image courtesy of Scott Pegau, Kachemak Bay Research Reserve)
Pegau, a researcher at the Kachemak Bay Research Reserve in Homer, Alaska, has been using satellite data to look at the possible link between phytoplankton blooms and fisheries and bird health. By analyzing imagery from ocean color sensors, like the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), Pegau and his colleagues can get a good look at both the timing and location of phytoplankton blooms and, hopefully, identify significant patterns that might lead to better fisheries management. "All fish are tied back to phytoplankton somewhere along the line," said Pegau. "So, most of the coastal fisheries could benefit from understanding bloom patterns and being able to make inferences to survival rates."
Kachemak Bay is located off the shores of Homer, Alaska, on the southwest side of the Kenai Peninsula — a region dependent on recreational and commercial fishing for its livelihood. "Fisheries are extremely important to coastal Alaska," said Pegau. "Many of the communities are strictly fishing communities — it's the sole dimension to their economy."
But during the past 10 years, several fisheries have collapsed in the Kachemak Bay area, including king crab, tanner crab, Dungeness crab, and shrimp. According to Pegau, these collapses are due partly to ocean circulation changes, but they also can be traced to a poor understanding of the variables that can influence fish populations in a given year. "We're still getting millions of pounds of salmon from this area, but better fishery management techniques could help ensure that the industry as a whole survives," said Pegau.
This example of a marine food web in Alaska illustrates the relationships between producers (plants that make their own food using chlorophyll and the Sun's energy) and consumers (animals that eat producers and other animals). It also shows the relationship between predators (animals that hunt and eat other animals) and prey (the animals that are hunted). (Image courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey)
Understanding phytoplankton bloom patterns and their effects on fish populations could spawn new management practices that help safeguard the future of the Alaska fishing industry. But without satellite data, Pegau and his team wouldn't be able to see an area large enough to detect any clear trends. "Kachemak Bay has 320 miles of coastline, and it's just a small dot on the Alaska map," said Pegau. "There is no way we can monitor what's happening in coastal Alaska without ocean color sensor data — SeaWiFS gives us the opportunity to see the big picture."
In the world's oceans, color varies according to the concentration of chlorophyll and other plant pigments in the water. Satellite sensors that detect these subtle changes in ocean color are critical tools for scientists studying ocean productivity. By analyzing data from SeaWiFS and MODIS, Pegau and his team discovered two patterns in the Gulf of Alaska: high chlorophyll concentrations show up in April/May, and then again in September/October. But the satellite data also show a third bloom that occurs in late June or early July.
The bloom timing is significant to both fish and birds because it determines when food sources are available. "If you're a fish getting ready for winter, then a fall bloom will provide a food source that will allow you to fatten up enough to get through the winter," Pegau said. "Conversely, if you're a bird, you want the bloom to happen just before your eggs hatch in the spring. If the bloom happens in late July, then it may be too late to be of any value to you."
But exactly what causes the blooms to occur when they do is still a mystery to oceanographers. One theory, Pegau explained, is that the timing may be related to the strength of winter storms. Like all plants, phytoplankton need light, and getting light in the ocean means being able to stay near the surface. If an area is plagued by continual storms, then the phytoplankton keep getting mixed down into deeper water — away from the light. But at the same time, they need the storms to bring nutrients up from the deep and fertilize the ocean surface. "It's a tricky balance," said Pegau. "You need enough storms to bring the nutrients up, but then you also need the storms to cease early enough to allow things to grow."
The team is also using the ocean color data to look at the spatial patterns of blooms, which are believed to have a significant effect on bird populations. "If the area that has a lot of phytoplankton is located far offshore, then the parent birds have to fly farther out to get it and, therefore, have less energy to provide for their offspring when they return," he said. "They eat up more of their food flying than they would if conditions kept the blooms closer to shore."
Having phytoplankton blooms occur far from shore poses risks not only to birds, but to salmon as well. "If food sources are located farther offshore, the juvenile salmon are forced to move away from shore to a place where they're more vulnerable to predators," said Pegau. "The farther out they have to swim to find food, the more likely they are to be taken by predators."
While many fish spend their entire lives in the ocean, other fish — such as salmon — spend a portion of their lives at sea and then return to rivers to spawn. "The ocean provides a much larger food source than the rivers and lakes where these fish are born," said Pegau. "By going out into the ocean to feed, they can grow more rapidly and reach the size and maturity that allows them to spawn. And the faster a fish can grow, the sooner it stops being prey."
Many communities in coastal Alaska are dependent on recreational and commercial fishing for their livelihood. (Image from Photos.com)
Ted Cooney, Professor Emeritus in the Institute of Marine Sciences at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks, believes predators play a significant role in the relationship between salmon and plankton. He and his colleagues have been looking at survival rates of juvenile salmon in Prince William Sound, a large region of protected waters located on the east side of the Kenai Peninsula. "About 800 million juvenile salmon enter Prince William Sound from streams and hatcheries in April and May each year," said Cooney. "These small fish immediately encounter a host of predators, including walleye pollock, Pacific herring, cod, and various seabirds and marine mammals."
The record in the Prince William Sound area suggests that when zooplankton stocks are high in the spring, pollock and herring derive most of their energy from that source, Cooney said. But when zooplankton stocks are low, they're forced to derive more of their energy by feeding on small fishes — like juvenile salmon.
Pegau's team has taken an important first step by identifying the fall and spring bloom patterns, but more work needs to be done before long-term trends can be reported with certainty, he said. "Our hunch is that we're eventually going to find a connection between juvenile salmon and bird survival rates and the phytoplankton bloom patterns," he said.
"The big thing is being able to manage the fisheries more effectively — knowing which years you can expect a big return to come in, and which years aren't going to produce much. You don't want to end up over-harvesting if the ocean isn't supporting the fish that year." | by Laurie J. Schmidt
|Ocean color data from the SeaWiFS and MODIS sensors enable researchers to examine the link between phytoplankton blooms and fish and bird health.|
When you're a juvenile salmon trying to survive into adulthood, timing is everything. If you're lucky enough to be born in a year when there's an ample supply of zooplankton, then this food source helps keep your predators at bay. | {
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Documents & Filing Filing Software & Tools
The .csv files have been given an extension of .txt. This was done deliberately so that when clicked on, they will be opened with either Notepad or Wordpad. The contents are identical to the contents of a .csv file. This way, the actual data appearance, as it should be, can be seen. These files could simply be renamed to have a .csv extension and they would import into the system. | Documents & Filing Filing Software & Tools
The .csv files have been given an extension of .txt. This was done deliberately so that when clicked on, they will be opened with either Notepad or Wordpad. The contents are identical to the contents of a .csv file. This way, the actual data appearance, as it should be, can be seen. These files could simply be renamed to have a .csv extension and they wou | {
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Has the ROSAT clock lost time?
Yes. The clock lost about 1.5 seconds in the first 200 days of the mission. A linear fit to the O-C relation for 1990 leaves a parabolic- shaped residual plot. A quadratic fit applied to the data after they are divided into three subsamples leaves residuals of less than two msec. For 1991, information is only available to June. Here, a linear fit leaves residuals of about 2.5 msec. Further details are available in files to be found in the ftp rosat/doc/ subdirectory.
Select another question related to data analysis
Please use the Feedback link if you have questions on ROSAT. | Has the ROSAT clock lost time?
Yes. The clock lost about 1.5 seconds in the first 200 days of the mission. A linear fit to the O-C relation for 1990 leaves a parabolic- shaped residual plot. A quadratic fit applied to the data after they are divided into three subsamples leaves residuals of less than two msec. For 1991, information is only available to June. Here, a linear fit leaves residuals of | {
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History of the Borough
7: The borough seal
Huntingdon had a common seal from the 15th century onwards. The application of the seal to the bottom of a written document gave that document the same legal force as a personal signature on a contract. The earliest known picture of it appears in Camden's Visitations of Huntingdonshire of 1613.
The seal shows a hunter with his bow and arrows, standing next to a deer being attacked by two hounds, while a bird sits on the branch of a tree. The legend round the edge of the seal says
which means 'Seal of the Corporation of Huntingdon.' The orginal 17th century engraver probably meant to write 'Hunterisdune' but made a mistake, replacing the D with an O. The spelling 'Hunterisdune' is itself a false archaism, reflecting what 17th century people believed the original Saxon spelling might have been.
It is important to note that a seal is not the same as a Coat of Arms. A seal is usually circular in shape, occasionally oval, but never in the form of a shield. Huntingdon never had a Coat of Arms, though the later Borough of Huntingdon and Godmanchester (1961-1974) did have one. | History of the Borough
7: The borough seal
Huntingdon had a common seal from the 15th century onwards. The application of the seal to the bottom of a written document gave that document the same legal force as a personal signature on a contract. The earliest known picture of it appears in Camden's Visitations of Huntingdonshire of 1613.
The seal shows a hunter with his bow and arrows, standing nex | {
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Supernovae were named because they were objects that appeared to be bright
'new' stars, that hadn't been observed before in the well-known heavens.
Of course, the name is actually a bit ironic, since supernovae are
actually stars at the end of their life cycle, stars that are going out
with a bang, so to speak. | Supernovae were named because they were objects that appeared to be bright
'new' stars, that hadn't been observed before in the well-known heavens.
Of course, the name is actually a bit ironic, since supernovae are
actually stars at the end of their life cycle, stars that are going out
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Amendment to the existing Government orders inorder to follow Caste Reservation in the appointment of Anganwadi workers and helpers-orders issued.
ICDS-Renewed directives for appointing temporarily appointed Anganwadi worker/helper in permanent vaccancies-orders issued.
Following the reservation principals in the appointment if ICDS/USNP/Anganwadi helper/worker-regarding.
Amending directives for appointing Anganwadi helpers in the post of workers-Sanctioned-Orders issued.
Age limit for Anganawadi Workers and Anganawadi Helpers under ICDS Scheme-reg.
ICDS-Amendment to the Government order dated 6-1-2007, regarding the appointment of temporary Anganwadi worker/helper in permanent posts.
Leave without allowance to the Anganwadi workers/helpers going to other States seeking job-extending the period of leave-reg.
Formation of Co-ordination Committees-Reg.
Anganwadi Workers Grievance Redressal Cell District Committee-Responsibility for nominating the Social Worker to the District Social Welfare Officer-Sanctioned-Orders issued.
Age limit for Anganwadi Workers and Anganwadi Helpers under ICDS Scheme - reg.
Integrated Child Welfare Scheme-considerations in selection for the appointment of Anganwadi workers and helpers-new directives-sanctioned-orders issued.
Temporary appointment of Anganwadi worker/helper-explanation-regarding.
ICDS-Renewed directives to appoint the temporary Anganwadi worker/helper in the permanent posts-amended-orders issued.
I.C.D.S Project - Enhancement of honorarium to Anganawadi Workers and Helpers - Sanctioned - Orders issued.
W.P.C No. 27784/2003-W filed by Anganawadi Workers/Helpers Association and W.P.C 27913/-3-W filed by Kanakamma and others - Interim order of the High Court - compliance - reg.
Decentralisation-Handing over Special Nutrition Programme under I.C.D.S, U.S.N.P Projects to the Local Self Government Bodies-Directives about plan implementation-Orders issued.
Directives for appointing Anganvadi workers and helpers on temporary basis in ICDS projects-sanctioned-orders issued.
State wide drive for the distribution of Anganwadi Karyakathri Beema Yojana benefits-reg.
Fixing the age of retirement of Anganwadi Workers and Helpers - Demands of various organisations - Reg. | Amendment to the existing Government orders inorder to follow Caste Reservation in the appointment of Anganwadi workers and helpers-orders issued.
ICDS-Renewed directives for appointing temporarily appointed Anganwadi worker/helper in permanent vaccancies-orders issued.
Following the reservation principals in the appointment if ICDS/USNP/Anganwadi helper/worker-regarding.
Amending directives for a | {
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NIH Research Matters
April 21, 2008
Uncovering Factors That Influence Premature Infant Health
Researchers have identified several factors that influence an extremely low birth weight infant's chances for survival and disability. The findings will help physicians and families to choose the most appropriate treatments.
Extremely low birth weight infants are the smallest, most frail category of preterm infants. Weighing less than 2.2 pounds, they make up about 1%, roughly 40,000, of babies born in the United States each year. Some survive and reach adulthood relatively unaffected, but many die soon after birth. Others live with lifelong disabilities ranging from minor hearing loss to blindness, cerebral palsy or profound intellectual disability.
Physicians and family members may be reluctant to expose an infant to painful life support procedures if the newborn's unlikely to survive. In such cases, they may opt for "comfort care," which provides for an infant's basic needs but foregoes painful medical procedures. Because an infant's gestational age—the week into a pregnancy that the infant is born—is known to play a large role in infant survival, it heavily influences decisions about the kind of care to provide. A full-term pregnancy lasts about 40 weeks.
In many facilities, intensive care is likely to be routinely given to infants born in the 25th week of pregnancy. Infants born in the 22nd week may be more likely to receive comfort care. However, it is often difficult to assess gestational age, and an estimate that's inaccurate by only a week could result in inappropriate care.
To identify factors that influence survival and disability risk in these infants, researchers in the nationwide Neonatal Research Network studied 4,446 infants born at 22-25 weeks' gestational age. The researchers measured the mental development, vision and hearing of the surviving infants from 18-22 months after their full-term due date. The Network is supported by NIH's Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD). Additional funding for the study came from NIH's National Center for Research Resources (NCRR).
The researchers reported in the April 17, 2008, issue of the New England Journal of Medicine that 49% of the infants had died, 24% lived with some degree of disability and 27% lived without any sign of disability at the 18-22 month evaluations. The infants were more likely to survive, the researchers found—and more likely to survive without disability—if they were of older gestational age, higher birth weight, female, born single rather than in a multiple birth, and if the baby's mother was given medication during pregnancy to help the development of the baby's lungs. Such drugs are typically given to women during, or at risk for, premature labor.
"Many neonatal intensive care units base treatment decisions mainly on gestational age," says study co-author Dr. Rosemary Higgins of NICHD. "We found that it's much more accurate if the assessment is based on the combination of 5 factors, rather than just on gestational age."
The researchers have used their data to develop a tool, now available online, to help physicians and family members make the most informed treatment decisions possible.
- Premature Babies:
- The NICHD Neonatal Research Network:
- Video Interview with Dr. Higgins:
- Online Tool:
NIH Research Matters
Bldg. 31, Rm. 5B64A, MSC 2094
Bethesda, MD 20892-2094
About NIH Research Matters
Harrison Wein, Ph.D., Editor
Vicki Contie, Assistant Editor
NIH Research Matters is a weekly update of NIH research highlights from the Office of Communications and Public Liaison, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. | NIH Research Matters
April 21, 2008
Uncovering Factors That Influence Premature Infant Health
Researchers have identified several factors that influence an extremely low birth weight infant's chances for survival and disability. The findings will help physicians and families to choose the most appropriate treatments.
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One year ago, MESSENGER became the first spacecraft ever to orbit Mercury. On March 18, 2012, MESSENGER completed its one-year primary mission and began a yearlong extended mission that includes a number of new scientific observation campaigns. The image shown here was acquired yesterday and is the first of MESSENGER's extended mission.
This image was acquired as a high-resolution targeted observation. Targeted observations are images of a small area on Mercury's surface at resolutions much higher than the 200-meter/pixel morphology base map. It is not possible to cover all of Mercury's surface at this high resolution, but typically several areas of high scientific interest are imaged in this mode each week.
Date acquired: March 18, 2012
Image Mission Elapsed Time (MET): 240541431
Image ID: 1531424
Instrument: Narrow Angle Camera (NAC) of the Mercury Dual Imaging System (MDIS)
Center Latitude: 24.41°
Center Longitude: 6.77° E
Resolution: 42 meters/pixel
Scale: This image is approximately 43 kilometers (27 miles) across
Incidence Angle: 28.95°
Emission Angle: 10.21°
Phase Angle: 29.40
The MESSENGER spacecraft is the first ever to orbit the planet Mercury, and the spacecraft's seven scientific instruments and radio science investigation are unraveling the history and evolution of the Solar System's innermost planet. Visit the Why Mercury? section of this website to learn more about the key science questions that the MESSENGER mission is addressing. During the one-year primary mission, MDIS acquired 88,746 images and extensive other data sets. MESSENGER is now in a year-long extended mission, during which plans call for the acquisition of more than 80,000 additional images to support MESSENGER's science goals.
These images are from MESSENGER, a NASA Discovery mission to conduct the first orbital study of the innermost planet, Mercury. For information regarding the use of images, see the MESSENGER image use policy. | One year ago, MESSENGER became the first spacecraft ever to orbit Mercury. On March 18, 2012, MESSENGER completed its one-year primary mission and began a yearlong extended mission that includes a number of new scientific observation campaigns. The image shown here was acquired yesterday and is the first of MESSENGER's extended mission.
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Final Report: Detailed Analysis
F1. Income support payments
The primary focus of the income support system is poverty alleviation through the provision of a minimum adequate standard of living to people unable to support themselves through work, savings or other means.
Societies can choose to meet this objective in a number of ways. They include negative income taxes, social insurance and category-based mean-tested approaches. A negative income tax system could be based on a single basic level of income paid to everybody and taxed at a single rate. Alternatively there could be a number of category-based minimum-income payments with different tax rates. A pure negative income tax system with an adequate basic income would involve a very high tax rate as every individual would be paid a transfer. This would be unlikely to gain public acceptance in the face of perceptions that people are being paid regardless of need, obligations or behaviour. To date, no country has instituted a pure negative income tax based scheme.
Most countries provide assistance to people's category-based life circumstances or contingencies such as old age, disability, sickness and unemployment. The two main models are social insurance and general revenue-financed means tested assistance payments. Many countries combine both approaches; however, Australia has opted for category-based means-tested assistance payments supplemented by private superannuation (including a mandatory component — the superannuation guarantee), industrial entitlements (including sick leave) and State government workers' compensation schemes.
Social insurance is based on income-related contributions and pays income-related benefits. History has shown that there is unlikely to be support for a major shift in Australia to social insurance as there is an underlying social preference for payments targeted to poverty alleviation rather than to income maintenance. Also, the transition costs of moving to a social insurance scheme could be particularly high. This would be the case even if payment levels were not increased because more people would receive a payment, or an increase in payment, which would have to be funded by higher taxes on those already in the workforce. While history and revealed preferences should not rule out major policy changes, current approaches are widely supported. For those who wish to make additional provision for possible risks, insurance arrangements are generally available.
While there is currently no strong case for a shift away from a categorical approach, the number and structure of categories — including differences in rates of payment, means tests and activity requirements — can and should reflect changing social expectations such as attitudes to work (and retirement), parenthood and disability.
Categorical distinctions — such as single parenthood, disability or unemployment — assist in targeting support to those with varying need and capacity to support themselves. Such distinctions also give effect to various social judgements about who should receive assistance.
Within a categorical means tested system of income support, the most important design elements — aside from the eligibility criteria for different payments — are the adequacy or rate of the payment, means tests (how assistance is withdrawn as income rises and need falls), and participation or activity requirements. Participation requirements primarily define who is and who is not expected to undertake an approved activity in return for assistance. Requirements are based on social expectations of particular groups to undertake paid work in order to support themselves. For unemployed adults, the primary activity requirement is to look for full-time work, while primary carers are subject to part-time activity requirements when their youngest child is aged six. Disability Support Pension and Carer Payment are not subject to participation requirements, as recipients are either unable or unavailable to participate in significant part-time work in the open labour market.
Another argument in favour of categorisation is that different groups of people respond differently to the incentives they face, particularly in relation to work. Total costs and disincentives to work may be minimised if rates of payment and means tests reflect group differences (Akerlof 1978). However, there can also be significant differences within groups, and this may impact on the effectiveness of incentives targeted to a particular group (Viard 2001).The practical effect of varying the incentives faced by different groups of people is to maximise the number of hours worked in the economy — maximising full-time work by those able and available to work full-time and maximising part-time work by those who are not able, not available or not expected to work full-time (Saez 2001; Kaplow 2006).
A disadvantage of categorical income support systems is that they are complex. There is also a tendency to increase complexity by creating new categories of payment and additional means tests in an attempt to target the payments ever more tightly to need, while ensuring that no deserving group is left out. There is certainly an optimal level of categorisation2, though determining this would be difficult in practice. The level would in any event vary with social, economic and labour market conditions. However, one factor to take into account in determining the effectiveness of existing categories is the extent to which differences in rates and conditions of payment give people an incentive to change their category.
To the extent that it is possible for the same person to be eligible for different payment categories, or to experience large changes in assistance without commensurate change in circumstance, there will inevitably be concerns with horizontal equity (that is, treating people in similar economic circumstances similarly). For example, a person with disability who is assessed as being able to work 14 hours a week rather than 15 hours a week can receive a higher level of assistance and lower rate of withdrawal of income support. Another example occurs for single parents on their youngest child's eighth birthday. Even if the single parent was already working 20 hours a week, their disposable income would fall significantly on the birthday of their child.
Income support payment categories should be limited in number and reflect current social expectations about the responsibilities that individuals in different circumstances have to look for work.
Differences in the treatment of individuals in similar circumstances on different payments should be limited to minimise horizontal inequities and disincentives to work created by categorical differences. This means that minor changes in personal or family circumstances should lead to only minor changes in payment conditions.
There is no single agreed definition of income poverty, nor is there an agreed way to measure the adequacy of support rates. What would have been seen as an adequate level of payment according to 'community standards' in 1950 might not be seen as adequate today, and what might be seen as adequate today might not be seen as adequate in 2020. Aside from changes in living standards and the distribution of work and income, views about the best way to avoid or alleviate poverty can also change.
The level of payment has to be balanced with incentives to work. It also needs to be seen as affordable, sustainable and fair by the community. These considerations would support a lower level of payment for those expected to work full-time compared to those not expected to work and likely to be reliant on income support for a long time. For all those not expected to work, maintaining incentives to work is not as crucial. Social expectations that individuals would be able to share resources such as income or accommodation — with parents or a partner — may also justify different rates of payment.
While there is no clear principle for establishing the level of payment for those who are expected to work, the rate once determined should be maintained against some measure of community living standards. One measure that has been used for pensions is a wages benchmark. Alternatively, there could be indexation to some other measure with regular review of whether this was continuing to meet community standards. Indexation of the payment solely to prices can reduce adequacy relative to members of the community who work.
The highest level of payment — pensions — should be paid to those who are not able or expected to work and who are likely to be reliant on income support for a long time. Rates of payment for those who are able and expected to undertake significant levels of work — allowances — should be lower in order to maintain incentives to work.
Relativities between pension and allowance rates of payment should be maintained by indexing all rates by the same measure of community standards.
The higher the level of income support for people of working age, the more likely it is a disincentive to work. The point at which an individual will choose to work will vary with individual characteristics (such as skills, experience and capability reflected in a person's potential wage rate), work preferences (for example, to work full-time, part-time or not at all), and the design of the tax and transfer system (such as income support participation requirements and withdrawal rates as income from work increases).
Participation requirements ensure that income support recipients with the capacity to undertake paid work actively seek such work. Participation requirements also provide assurance to the broader society ('taxpayers') that those experiencing a period without sufficient means are not only provided with an adequate level of income but are obliged to make appropriate efforts to reduce their reliance on government assistance.
Another consideration is the level of income support relative to minimum wages, and minimum wages relative to median earnings, as this will determine the number of people whose workforce incentives may be affected.
These factors interact. For example, where there is a high minimum wage and a moderate payment rate, it is possible to have a high income support withdrawal rate with little impact on incentives to work. This would occur where individuals wish to work full-time and income support is withdrawn well before the minimum wage. This conclusion would be less clear if there were limited labour demand for low-paid full-time work, but some demand for low-paid part-time work.
In addition, some people prefer part-time work to non-employment but prefer non-employment to full-time work, such as some people with caring responsibilities or primary care of young children. Others may not be able to work full-time (due, say, to disability) and would be adversely affected by an incentive structure that favoured full-time work.
If income support is withdrawn beyond the minimum wage there would be limited impact on incentives to work for individuals who prefer part-time work. This is likely to be the case for many primary carers of young children. However, such a design may create disincentives to work if individuals prefer full-time work.
In considering the effect of any incentives to work, it is important to consider both substitution effects and income effects. A substitution effect is where an improvement in the return from work, for example due to either a withdrawal rate or marginal tax rate reduction, leads to an increase in the hours worked, with a reduction in the return from work leading to a fall in the hours worked. Income effects occur when additional income — for example, from an income support rate increase or an effective tax rate reduction — reduces hours worked, as the person can achieve a similar standard of living with less work. Conversely, the income effect could mean that a rate reduction or withdrawal rate increase would lead to an increase in hours worked.
These effects are present together in almost any change to the financial arrangements of income support. It is important to consider both effects at the same time. For example, a reduction in the withdrawal rate of Parenting Payment Single (PPS) may have the effect of increasing the return from working. But it may also increase disposable income for those on PPS, thereby reducing or negating the positive effect of the reduction in the withdrawal rate. Put another way, if people can achieve an adequate standard of living by only a limited amount of work they are more likely to do so. In any given change, which of these effects dominates is a matter of empirical evidence — theory will not tell us which is more important. However, in most circumstances the substitution effect tends to dominate the income effect where income levels are low, in which case higher taxes and tighter means tests will reduce the amount of work by those who face them. This is less of an issue where a person is highly motivated to work and can attain enough work to get off payment altogether.
Ideally, the rate of payment to people expected to take up full-time work should remain well below the minimum wage and cut out before the minimum wage. This would help to ensure that people can see a clear benefit from work. The effectiveness of this minimum wage constraint depends on a number of factors, including how easy it is for people to qualify for higher-rate payments such as the Disability Support Pension or Parenting Payment Single, and the structure of payments for children as parents increase their work effort. It will also depend on the overall need to ensure that recipients take up part-time or intermittent work where it is the only work available to them.
The trade-off between payment adequacy and program affordability or sustainability is outlined in Box F1-1. To reduce disincentives to work without reducing payments for income support recipients would involve either relaxing (or removing) means tests or targeting payments to people according to characteristics such as age or duration on payment. The income support system uses both of these strategies.
Box F1-1: Balancing adequacy, incentives and affordability
With any income support payment, there is an 'iron triangle' associated with means testing (see Chart F1-1). The generosity of the payment (including the breadth of its coverage) needs to be balanced by how much it costs taxpayers, and the incentive for people to get off the payment by earning income. Improving one of these worsens one or both of the others.
Chart F1-1: Iron triangle of means testing
To improve incentives without reducing the payment level there are only two possible strategies:
- relax or remove some means tests — apart from raising inevitable questions of 'middle class welfare' and 'churning', this would greatly increase the cost to taxpayers and jeopardise affordability; or
- reduce or remove the payments to some people on grounds other than income, such as age or an expectation that duration on income support will be short — this would reduce the total income of those people and may compromise adequacy.
Whether the pattern of incentives is changed by adjusting the means test or using a tax instrument such as an earned income tax credit does not affect this trade-off; it simply changes it from a question of welfare design to a question of tax design. Which is the better approach depends on other issues such as administrative practicalities, signalling effects (such as the weight given to work), and tax churning.
2 This can be defined as 'the point where the marginal social benefit equals the marginal social cost in terms of distortions in decisions of what group to belong to' (Moffitt 2008, p. 11).
Next Page – F1–2: Arrangements need to reflect changing realities >>
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F1. Income support payments
The primary focus of the income support system is poverty alleviation through the provision of a minimum adequate standard of living to people unable to support themselves through work, savings or other means.
Societies can choose to meet this objective in a number of ways. They include negative income taxes, social insurance and category | {
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Super Typhoon Sepat came ashore in Taiwan on August 17, 2007, after bringing torrential rain and flooding to the Philippines the day before. Flights to and from Taipei, Taiwan’s capital, were canceled, and Chinese authorities were taking emergency measures in anticipation of the powerful typhoon coming ashore on the mainland, said news reports. The typhoon reached Category 5 typhoon, the very top of the scale, with sustained winds of 184 kilometers per hour (114 miles per hour), according to CNN.
This data visualization of the storm shows observations from the QuikSCAT satellite on August 17, 2007, at 5:39 p.m. local time (9:39 UTC). At this time, Sepat was poised to come ashore onto Taiwan. Peak winds were around 220 km/hr (130 mph; 120 knots), according to Unisys Weather’s Hurricane Information page, a Category Four strength typhoon. The image depicts wind speed in color and wind direction with small barbs. White barbs point to areas of heavy rain.
QuikSCAT measurements of the wind strength of Sepat and other tropical cyclones can be slower than actual wind speeds. QuikSCAT’s scatterometer sends pulses of microwave energy through the atmosphere to the ocean surface and measures the energy that bounces back from the wind-roughened surface. The energy of the microwave pulses changes depending on wind speed and direction.
To relate the radar signal to actual wind speed, scientists compare measurements taken from buoys and other ground stations to data the satellite acquired at the same time and place. Because the high wind speeds generated by cyclones are rare, scientists do not have corresponding ground information to know how to translate data from the satellite for wind speeds above 50 knots (about 93 km/hr or 58 mph).
Also, the unusually heavy rain found in a cyclone distorts the microwave pulses in a number of ways, making a conversion to exact wind speed difficult. Instead, the scatterometer provides a nice picture of the relative wind speeds within the storm and shows wind direction. | Super Typhoon Sepat came ashore in Taiwan on August 17, 2007, after bringing torrential rain and flooding to the Philippines the day before. Flights to and from Taipei, Taiwan’s capital, were canceled, and Chinese authorities were taking emergency measures in anticipation of the powerful typhoon coming ashore on the mainland, said news reports. The typhoon reached Category 5 typhoon, the very top | {
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State Water Resources Research Institute Program
Project ID: 2008WY44B
Title: Water Quality Criteria for Wyoming Livestock and Wildlife
Project Type: Research
Start Date: 3/01/2008
End Date: 2/28/2011
Congressional District: 1
Focus Categories: Water Quality, Water Supply, Agriculture
Keywords: Water Quality, Animal Health, Livestock, Wildlife
Principal Investigators: Raisbeck, Merl ; Smith, Michael A. (Univ. Wyoming); Tate, Cynthia
Federal Funds: $ 52,561
Non-Federal Matching Funds: $ 43,277
Abstract: Water is an essential nutrient, arguably the most essential nutrient. Livestock and big game in the arid areas of the West usually have few choices when it comes to this essential nutrient; often there is no recourse but water produced by oil and gas development ("produced water") that may be of dubious quality. For example, much of the water produced by coalbed methane and conventional oil treater facilities in Wyoming is discharged into on and off-channel reservoirs, or directly to stream channels, thereby providing a significant, and sometimes critical, source of drinking water for livestock and wildlife. Produced water stored in reservoirs may exhibit water quality that changes over time due to evaporation of the water and subsequent concentration of potentially toxic elements. Water quality standards, that govern surface discharges for protection of stock and wildlife consumption (enumerated in "appendix H" of Wyoming DEQ regulations) governing surface discharges, are based upon science that is several decades old and have recently been challenged. That the challenges were themselves based upon dubious information is, in itself, a reflection of the generally sad state of current water quality recommendations by various public institutions. In many cases newer, presumably better, data are available. The data just haven't trickled down to a useful level. In other cases, mineral production has itself created questions (e.g. chronic toxicity of barium in water to ruminants) that never had to be answered before. It is important for members of the agricultural, industrial, and regulatory communities to be able to understand potential risks associated with using produced water from oil and gas facilities for livestock and wildlife watering. This project will provide a tool to facilitate that understanding.
We recently completed a literature review of several water quality elements important to Wyoming wildlife and livestock health for the Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality (Raisbeck et al., 2007). Time constraints and the nature of the MOU limited this effort to elements (sulfate, TDS, etc.) currently on the DEQ's "front burner". We propose expanding the DEQ-funded effort to include other elements such as iron, uranium, chromium and cadmium which, while not of immediate concern in produced waters, are likely to be so in the future or are of interest because they occur naturally in Western waters and are extremely toxic. As a minor part of this proposal we will continue to update the previous document.
Progress/Completion Report, 2009, PDF
Progress/Completion Report, 2010, PDF | State Water Resources Research Institute Program
Project ID: 2008WY44B
Title: Water Quality Criteria for Wyoming Livestock and Wildlife
Project Type: Research
Start Date: 3/01/2008
End Date: 2/28/2011
Congressional District: 1
Focus Categories: Water Quality, Water Supply, Agriculture
Keywords: Water Quality, Animal Health, Livestock, Wildlife
Principal Investigators: Raisbeck, Merl ; Smith, Micha | {
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Position 51° 43'.23 N 05° 40'.10 W
Photo by Ian Cowe
For over 200 years the Smalls Lighthouse has been acting as a guide and hazard warning to passing ships. John Phillips, a Welshman, first conceived the idea of setting a lighthouse on the Smalls, one of two tiny clusters of rocks lying close together in the Irish Sea, 21 miles off St. David's Head in Wales, the highest peak of which projects only 3.5 metres above the highest tides. He advertised for designs and chose one submitted by Henry Whiteside, a musical instrument maker from Liverpool. Whiteside had designed an octagonal house or hut of timber, 4.5 metres in diameter, perched on nine legs or pillars, five of wood and three of cast iron, spaced around central timber post. During the Winter 1775-1776, Whiteside erected the whole structure temporarily at Solva, a small Welsh Haven over 25 miles from the Smalls. In the Spring of 1776, and thanks to the preliminary assembly during which the parts were carefully fitted together, work proceeded so well that by September the oil lamps were lit.
Drastic repairs and alterations became necessary after the storms of December 1777, but Phillips had no funds to carry them out. He discharged the keepers and extinguished the light and made over his interest to a Committee of Liverpool Traders. They induced Trinity House to obtain an Act of Parliament in 1778 which authorised the Brethren to repair, rebuild and maintain the lighthouse and to collect and levy reasonable dues. In view of Phillips' services and his financial losses, they granted him a lease on 3rd June, 1778 for 99 years at a rent of £5.
Authoritative accounts of this lighthouse bear witness to a tragic episode which appears to have occurred before 1801. Apparently one of the two keepers on the station died and the survivor, fearing that he might be suspected of murder if he committed the body to the deep, put it into a box which he made from the interior woodwork of the house and lashed it to the lantern rail. Passing ships noted this strange object but raised no alarm before the usual relief boat arrived to succour the unhappy survivor. After this episode three keepers were appointed to the lighthouse.
Although the lighthouse was described in 1801 as a "raft of timber rudely put together" it survived for 80 years. Whiteside's design of raising a super-structure on piles so that the sea could pass through them with "but little obstruction" has been adopted since for hundreds of sea structures.
The present lighthouse was built under the supervision of Trinity House Chief Engineer, James Douglass. Its design was based on Smeaton’s Eddystone tower and it took just two years to build being completed in 1861.
In 1978 a helideck was erected above the lantern and the lighthouse was automated in 1987. In June 1997 the red and white stripes that had distinguished the tower were no longer considered necessary for navigation and the tower was grit blasted back to natural granite.
|Established||1776 (Present Tower 1861)|
|Height Of Tower||41 Metres|
|Height Of Light Above Mean High Water||36 Metres|
|Lamp||400 Watt Mbi|
|Optic||1st Order Catadioptric|
|Character||White Group Flashing 3 Times Every 15 Seconds|
|Range Of Light||25 nautical miles|
|Fog Signal Character||Two Blasts Every 60 Seconds| | Position 51° 43'.23 N 05° 40'.10 W
Photo by Ian Cowe
For over 200 years the Smalls Lighthouse has been acting as a guide and hazard warning to passing ships. John Phillips, a Welshman, first conceived the idea of setting a lighthouse on the Smalls, one of two tiny clusters of rocks lying close together in the Irish Sea, 21 miles off St. David's Head in Wales, the highest peak of which projects onl | {
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Born at Bedford, England, 14 March 1947.
After graduating from the University of Cambridge in 1968, he was a postgraduate at the New York Botanical Garden and the University of Texas at Austin. His PhD was awarded in 1972 for a revision of Heterocentron (Melastomataceae), which involved field work in tropical parts of Mexico and Central America. Since 1972 he has been a lecturer in the Department of Botany, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Vic. Dr Whifflin has been a member of many learned societies associated with his occupation - FLS (London), ASBS, ASPT, IAPT etc.
He forged a fruitful link with Bernie Hyland and others at CSIRO Atherton and this continued until Bernie’s retirement. This collaboration culminated in 2003 in the publication of the computer-operated, interactive identification system ‘Australian Tropical Rain Forest Plants: Trees, Shrubs & Vines’, by Hyland, Whiffin et al. (CSIRO: Melbourne).
Trevor made plant collections in all major rainforest areas of eastern Australia from northern New South Wales northwards and also collected on brief trips to Papua New Guinea. For the Flora of Australia project, he prepared the accounts for Melastomataceae and Monimiaceae.
Trevor Whiffin retired in May 2008 after 36 years of research and teaching in plant systematics in the Department of Botany, LaTrobe University.Source: Extracted from: Hall, N. (1992) Suppliment No. 3 to 'Botanists of the eucalypts - 1978'. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Melbourne; ASBS Newletter No.135, June 2008, retirement notice. | Born at Bedford, England, 14 March 1947.
After graduating from the University of Cambridge in 1968, he was a postgraduate at the New York Botanical Garden and the University of Texas at Austin. His PhD was awarded in 1972 for a revision of Heterocentron (Melastomataceae), which involved field work in tropical parts of Mexico and Central America. Since 1972 he has been a lecturer in the Department | {
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A Hormone for
Hunger in Humans May Leave Chickens Feeling Full
April 21, 2003
Last year, foreign scientists
discovered that while a hormone called ghrelin may boost the appetite of
humans, the chicken version of the hormone may have the opposite effect in
broiler birds. Now Agricultural Research
Service scientists are looking for the genetic components of ghrelin that
govern feed intake and calorie expenditure in chickens.
Egg-laying chickens and broiler birds exhibit a significant difference in
appetites, with broilers having voracious ones. Animal scientist Mark Richards,
of the ARS Growth Biology
Laboratory in Beltsville, Md., is looking at the gene for ghrelin in each
of these bird types for clues to the difference in appetite. Richards and other
scientists have already sequenced portions of the gene that produces the
ghrelin hormone, and they are now exploring the genetic differences between the
two types of chickens.
Poultry producers have intensively selected for lines of chickens and
turkeys that grow faster and produce more meat than previous generations.
Unfortunately, along with these improvements have come some unintended changes
in feed intake and body composition. Modern commercial strains of broiler
chickens tend to overeat when given free access to feed. This can lead to
obesity and other health-related problems if the birds are not put on a strict
Within the central nervous system, specific centers of the brain--the
brainstem and the hypothalamus--play critical roles in the regulation of
appetite and metabolism. Both food intake and energy balance are biological
functions that are orchestrated by intricate biochemical processes involving
enzymes, hormones and other types of proteins, each the product of a unique
Scientists do not yet have a complete understanding of the genetic basis for
the regulation of these functions in chickens. A better understanding of the
genes associated with controlling feed intake and energy balance and how they
are regulated by nutritional and hormonal inputs should bring new insights for
improving poultry breeding and management practices.
ARS is the U.S. Department of
Agriculture's chief scientific research agency. | A Hormone for
Hunger in Humans May Leave Chickens Feeling Full
April 21, 2003
Last year, foreign scientists
discovered that while a hormone called ghrelin may boost the appetite of
humans, the chicken version of the hormone may have the opposite effect in
broiler birds. Now Agricultural Research
Service scientists are looking for the genetic components of ghrelin that
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Submitted to: HortScience
Publication Type: Abstract Only
Publication Acceptance Date: March 14, 2000
Publication Date: N/A
Strawberry fruit phyllody, production of leaves and other vegetative organs from fruit tissue around achenes, has been ascribed to physiological causes due to temperature conditions during transplant cold storage, plant response to changing seasonal conditions at flower initiation time, and to phytoplasma infection. In examination of phylloid fruits from different strawberry clones and from different locations and sources, we found four distinct phytoplasmas associated with phyllody of strawberry fruit: strawberry multicipita (SM) phytoplasma (16S rRNA group VI, subgroup B), STRAWB2 phytoplasma (16S rRNA group I, subgroup K), clover yellow edge phytoplasma (16S rRNA group III, subgroup A), and a new Group III phytoplasma. The SM and STRAWB2 phytoplasmas were detected in plants with phylloid fruit that also exhibited stunting and crown proliferation (SM phytoplasma) or stunting and leaf chlorosis (STRAWB2 phytoplasma). In no instances did we fail to detect phytoplasmas in phylloid fruits. This is the first report to associate strawberry fruit phyllody with the presence of these phytoplasmas, and to report that phytoplasmas other than those belonging to 16S rRNA group I (aster yellows group) can also be associated with strawberry fruit phyllody. | Submitted to: HortScience
Publication Type: Abstract Only
Publication Acceptance Date: March 14, 2000
Publication Date: N/A
Strawberry fruit phyllody, production of leaves and other vegetative organs from fruit tissue around achenes, has been ascribed to physiological causes due to temperature conditions during transplant cold storage, plant response to changing seasonal conditions at flower initi | {
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Enjoy a day in Southeastern Arizona
Indian Bread Rocks Picnic Area is administered by the Bureau of Land Management, Safford Field Office. Many uses occur in this beautiful setting located south of Bowie, Arizona. The surrounding mountains provide picnickers, hikers and hunters with a glorious view of the unique rock formations in the mountains. Facilities consist of 5 picnic tables and a newly constructed vault toilet is available. Camping is also available in undeveloped sites.
Location and Description:
Indian Bread Rocks Picnic Area is the access point to the Dos Cabezas Mountains Wilderness. The Dos Cabezas Mountains Wilderness consists of 11,700 acres and lies 20 miles east of Willcox and 7 miles south of Bowie, Arizona in Cochise County.
Consisting of the rugged slopes of the Dos Cabezas Mountains, elevations range from 4,080 feet to 7,500 feet, allowing for a variety of plant and animal life, as well as excellent recreational opportunities. Visitors will find a diverse terrain consisting of steep mountain slopes, granite outcroppings and vegetated canyon floors. This rugged and remote environment provides a rich wilderness experience. The Dos Cabezas Mountains Wilderness provides outstanding opportunities for hiking, backpacking, camping, rock scrambling and sightseeing. Sightseeing from the higher mountains and ridges offer outstanding long distance views of Sulphur Springs, San Simon Valley and numerous other mountain ranges.
From Bowie travel south on Apache Pass Road then west on the dirt road leading to Happy Camp Canyon.
Some lands adjacent to the wilderness are not federally administered. Please respect the property rights of the owners and do not cross the use of these lands without their permission.
As in other types of outdoor activities, wilderness travel poses some potential hazards. You may encounter flashfloods, poisonous snakes and insects, poisonous plants, or lightening storms. Be aware of your exposure to heat or cold. Don't panic if you get lost. Carry an ample supply of water with you since many areas may have inadequate or contaminated water sources.
7.5-minute: Luzena, Bowie Mountain North and Dos Cabezas
Arizona Game & Fish Management Unit - 30A
For further information contact:
Safford Field Office
711 14th Avenue
Safford, AZ 85546-3337
Phone: (928) 348-4400
Fax: (928) 348-4450
Field Manager: Scott Cooke
Hours: 8:00 a.m. – 4:00 p.m., M-F | Enjoy a day in Southeastern Arizona
Indian Bread Rocks Picnic Area is administered by the Bureau of Land Management, Safford Field Office. Many uses occur in this beautiful setting located south of Bowie, Arizona. The surrounding mountains provide picnickers, hikers and hunters with a glorious view of the unique rock formations in the mountains. Facilities consist of 5 picnic tables and a newly co | {
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT NEWS RELEASE
Pinedale Field Office
|Release Date: 12/06/10|
Pinedale BLM Winter Land Closures Protect Big Game
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Pinedale Field Office (PFO) is notifying the public that BLM-administered big game winter ranges will be closed to all motorized vehicle travel (e.g., snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, pickups, and sport utility vehicles) from Jan. 1 through Apr. 30.
Use of these areas by non-motorized means (i.e., walking, horseback, cross-country skiing, mountain biking) is still allowed. Highways, county, and oil and gas roads are not affected unless posted otherwise. Motorized vehicle use on public land the remainder of the year is limited to existing roads and two-track trails.
This annual closure has been in effect since 2008 and is necessary to protect elk, moose, pronghorn, and mule deer from disruptive human activities which, during the difficult winter months, can increase the mortality rate for these animals. Signs will be posted at key locations going into the closed areas.
The following BLM-administered lands are included in this closure:
Exceptions to this closure include:
As a reminder, elk winter feedground areas are closed from Nov. 15 to Apr. 30 each winter to all motorized use and human presence. These include the Franz, Finnegan, Bench Corral, Fall Creek, Scab Creek, North Piney, and Black Butte feedgrounds.
A map of the closed areas can be found at http://www.blm.gov/wy/st/en/field_offices/Pinedale/recreation/closures.html.
For more information, please contact Rusty Kaiser at 307-367-5317 or visit the BLM Pinedale Field Office at 1625 West Pine Street, Pinedale, Wyo.
The BLM manages more than 245 million acres of public land, the most of any Federal agency. This land, known as the National System of Public Lands, is primarily located in 12 Western states, including Alaska. The BLM also administers 700 million acres of sub-surface mineral estate throughout the nation. In Fiscal Year (FY) 2011, recreational and other activities on BLM-managed land contributed more than $130 billion to the U.S. economy and supported more than 600,000 American jobs. The Bureau is also one of a handful of agencies that collects more revenue than it spends. In FY 2012, nearly $5.7 billion will be generated on lands managed by the BLM, which operates on a $1.1 billion budget. The BLM's multiple-use mission is to sustain the health and productivity of the public lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future generations. The Bureau accomplishes this by managing such activities as outdoor recreation, livestock grazing, mineral development, and energy production, and by conserving natural, historical, cultural, and other resources on public lands.
Pinedale Field Office PO Box 768 Pinedale WY 82941
|Last updated: 12-06-2010|
|USA.GOV | No Fear Act | DOI | Disclaimer | About BLM | Notices | Social Media Policy| | U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
BUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT NEWS RELEASE
Pinedale Field Office
|Release Date: 12/06/10|
Pinedale BLM Winter Land Closures Protect Big Game
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Pinedale Field Office (PFO) is notifying the public that BLM-administered big game winter ranges will be closed to all motorized vehicle travel (e.g., snowmobiles, all-terrain vehicles, pickups, | {
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Traffic and transport
Brisbane City Council has a number of road and transport projects in progress to improve Brisbane's road, pedestrian and public transport networks. If you're cycling, driving or on public transport, getting around Brisbane is easy when you have the latest traffic and public transport information. Find out about traffic management, school transport and Brisbane's public transport.
Find out about parking zones, traffic controlled areas, parking permits and applying for temporary road closures.
Brisbane City Council operates one of the largest bus fleets in Australia, as well as CityCats and the CityFerry network. Find information about buses, CityCats, CityFerries, Council Cab and other transport services.
Brisbane City Council is responsible for many of the major road and bikeways infrastructure. Find out more about Council's Transport Plan, school road safety and major projects.
Information about traffic management in Brisbane, traffic reports, permits and the Traffic Management Centre. | Traffic and transport
Brisbane City Council has a number of road and transport projects in progress to improve Brisbane's road, pedestrian and public transport networks. If you're cycling, driving or on public transport, getting around Brisbane is easy when you have the latest traffic and public transport information. Find out about traffic management, school transport and Brisbane's public transp | {
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You are here:
Home > Departments > Police Department > Bicycle Unit
The Brooklyn Police Department Bicycle Unit consists of 8 officers. Almost all of these officers are IPMBA (International Police Mountain Bike Association) Trained.
Mountain bicycles are one of the fastest growing trends in law enforcement today. Quiet, cost efficient, and amazingly effective, mountain bikes are able to bridge the gap between automobiles and foot patrol. Experience has shown that citizens are more likely to approach a bike patrol officer than even a neighborhood beat officer, optimizing community oriented or problem oriented policing efforts. Bicycle officers are better able to use all of their senses, including smell and hearing to detect and address crime. Bike patrol officers are often able to approach suspects virtually unnoticed, even in full uniform.
Mountain bikes have proven effective in a number of different environments. They are swift and agile in busy urban areas where traffic snarls and crowds delay motorized units. Bikes are also effective in less urban areas for park patrol, parking lots, residential patrol, business security, athletic or civic events, and specialized details such as, Safe Routes to School. They can be operated on streets, sidewalks, alleys, trails, and in any areas that are difficult to access with motor vehicles. | You are here:
Home > Departments > Police Department > Bicycle Unit
The Brooklyn Police Department Bicycle Unit consists of 8 officers. Almost all of these officers are IPMBA (International Police Mountain Bike Association) Trained.
Mountain bicycles are one of the fastest growing trends in law enforcement today. Quiet, cost efficient, and amazingly effective, mountain bikes are able to bridge the | {
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Combination Chemotherapy and Radiation Therapy Followed By Surgery in Treating Patients With Stage IIB or Stage IIIA Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
Recruitment status was Active, not recruiting
RATIONALE: Drugs used in chemotherapy use different ways to stop tumor cells from dividing so they stop growing or die. Radiation therapy uses high-energy x-rays to damage tumor cells. Combining these treatments before surgery may kill more tumor cells in patients with non-small cell lung cancer.
PURPOSE: Phase II trial to study the effectiveness of combining chemotherapy with radiation therapy before surgery in treating patients who have stage IIB non-small cell lung cancer or stage IIIA non-small cell lung cancer.
Procedure: conventional surgery
Procedure: neoadjuvant therapy
Radiation: radiation therapy
|Study Design:||Primary Purpose: Treatment|
|Official Title:||Phase II Trial of Concurrent Paclitaxel, Carboplatin and External Beam Radiotherapy Followed by Surgical Resection in Stage IIIA (N2) Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer|
- Pathologic response rate as measured by pathology of the resected specimen and chest x-ray at 3 and 5 years after completion of study treatment [ Designated as safety issue: No ]
- Disease-free and overall survival at 3 and 5 years after completion of study treatment [ Designated as safety issue: No ]
|Study Start Date:||August 1999|
- Determine the response rate, duration of response, and survival in patients with bulky stage IIB or stage IIIA non-small cell lung cancer treated with paclitaxel, carboplatin, and radiotherapy followed by surgical resection.
- Assess the toxicity of this regimen in this patient population.
OUTLINE: This is a multicenter study.
Patients receive paclitaxel IV over 1 hour and carboplatin IV over 30 minutes weekly for 5 weeks. Patients also undergo concurrent radiotherapy daily 5 days a week for 5 weeks in the absence of unacceptable toxicity. At approximately 4 weeks after completion of chemoradiotherapy, patients with stable or regressive disease undergo surgical resection. If disease is unresectable, patients receive an additional 2 weeks of radiotherapy.
Patients are followed every 3 months for 2 years, every 6 months for 3 years, and then annually thereafter.
PROJECTED ACCRUAL: A total of 29-30 patients will be accrued for this study.
|United States, District of Columbia|
|Washington Cancer Institute at Washington Hospital Center|
|Washington, District of Columbia, United States, 20010|
|United States, Maryland|
|Harry and Jeanette Weinberg Cancer Institute at Franklin Square Hospital Center|
|Baltimore, Maryland, United States, 21237|
|Study Chair:||David J. Perry, MD||Washington Hospital Center| | Combination Chemotherapy and Radiation Therapy Followed By Surgery in Treating Patients With Stage IIB or Stage IIIA Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
Recruitment status was Active, not recruiting
RATIONALE: Drugs used in chemotherapy use different ways to stop tumor cells from dividing so they stop growing or die. Radiation therapy uses high-energy x-rays to damage tumor cells. Combining these treatment | {
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DENVER — Colorado Attorney General John Suthers thanked Gov. John Hickenlooper today for issuing a proclamation in honor of Safe2Tell, a school-safety program within the Office of the Attorney General.
“Colorado has seen more than its share of school violence, including the high profile shootings at Columbine, Platte Canyon and Deer Creek Middle School,” Suthers said. “The key to preventing these tragedies and other instances of bullying, substance abuse, suicide and all of the other issues facing our children today is prevention. The best way to keep these tragedies from happening is to give kids a way to proactively reach out to law enforcement and educators. Safe2Tell provides just that.”
Safe2Tell is a program based on the Columbine Commission Report’s recommendation that students need a safe and anonymous way to keep lines of communication open between themselves, educators and law enforcement. The commission’s report emphasized that tragedies can be prevented if students have a way to tell someone ahead of time without worrying about facing retaliation from their peers.
“There is no question that Colorado school children are safer and law enforcement are better able to respond to dangerous situations and intervene early because young people and adults are using Safe2Tell,” said Susan Payne, director of the Safe2Tell program. “We are thankful that Gov. Hickenlooper has chosen to recognize that Safe2Tell has been incredibly successful and is a core component of preventing tragedies and saving lives by proclaiming February 21 to February 25 ‘Safe2Tell Week.’”
One hundred and forty-seven school districts across Colorado participate in Safe2Tell. Since its inception in 2003, Safe2Tell has helped prevent school attacks and suicides and has helped law enforcement and school officials intervene before problems get out of control.
For example, Safe2Tell has helped address:
- 858 cases of bullying;
- 561 instances of drug or alcohol abuse;
- 387 threats of violence;
- 372 suicide preventions;
- 236 reports of sexual misconduct;
- 232 responses to harassment;
- 219 reports of guns or other weapons on school property;
- 207 reports of child abuse;
- 123 fights prevented; and
- 28 prevented planned school attacks.
Students can file a tip or a report with Safe2Tell by calling 1-877-542-7233 or by submitting a tip through the program’s Web site, www.safe2tell.org. | DENVER — Colorado Attorney General John Suthers thanked Gov. John Hickenlooper today for issuing a proclamation in honor of Safe2Tell, a school-safety program within the Office of the Attorney General.
“Colorado has seen more than its share of school violence, including the high profile shootings at Columbine, Platte Canyon and Deer Creek Middle School,” Suthers said. “The key to preventing these | {
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Small parts and small children can be a deadly combination. To prevent young children from choking, children’s toys and games, as well as balloons, have warning labels. These labels help you keep small things away from your little ones.
But what are small parts? And why should parents be concerned about them?
First, this is a small parts tester:
The cylinder is 2.25 inches long by 1.25 inches wide. That’s about the size of a 3-year-old’s throat. The opening is slightly wider than a quarter or about the width of two fingers:
Note: Some parents use a toilet paper roll as a practical alternative to a small parts tester. Parents should be aware that the toilet paper roll is wider and longer than the official tester.
If a toy or a piece of a toy intended for a child younger than 3 fits fully into the cylinder, that toy is banned. This federal law has been around for decades and has helped prevent children from choking on products. Small parts can get stuck in a child’s throat and be deadly.
In 2010, 9 of the17 toy-related deaths were associated with young children swallowing balloons, small balls and parts of toys or games. From reports that provided details, we know that some of those deaths were from items that fit into the tester. High-powered magnets that we wrote about earlier this month fit in there, too, as do button batteries that power musical holiday cards, remote controls, flashlights and other products in many homes.
Toys and games intended for children ages 3 to 6 that have small parts must have a warning label. This holiday season, as you buy presents for the young children on your list, look closely for warning labels like this:
Be mindful that age labels on toys are not just based on your children’s smarts, but are also for their safety.
If a toy warns that it’s not for children younger than 3, then really, that toy is NOT safe for young children. If your younger child has older siblings around, make sure that big sister or brother’s toys and toy parts are out of reach at all times.
This address for this post is: http://www.cpsc.gov/onsafety/2011/12/small-parts-what-parents-need-to-know/
What’s wrong with this picture?
Let’s start with that TV. It’s up high on the dresser. A TV on a dresser or any tall piece of furniture is a recipe for disaster when you have an active toddler or young child in the house. And it doesn’t matter what kind of TV – large tube TVs, flat screens, big or small consoles. Instead, try to place your TV on a sturdy, low base.
Children like to climb. (Just look at the boy in the picture.) See the remote control on top of the TV? A child knows the remote turns on the TV. Kids are likely to try to get to it – or to try to reach any toys on or near the TV as well – any way they can.
So, what’s wrong with that? Too many times, the furniture and the TV fall over onto children, killing them. In fact, one child dies every two weeks when a TV, furniture or appliance falls on him or her. In addition, each year, more than 22,000 children 8 years old or younger are taken to the hospital with injuries.
Here are some real incidents that have happened this year:
Knowing what you’ve learned so far, take a look at that dresser. It seems stable enough, but don’t be fooled – it is not stable. That same dresser pictured here actually fell over when a young child pulled out all the drawers. As part of your childproofing, it’s important to anchor all furniture to the wall or the floor.
As for those TVs, CPSC recommends anchoring them or strapping them to the wall. CPSC staff has found anchors and straps for furniture and flat-screen and tube TVs for sale at retail and hardware stores.
This address for this post is: http://www.cpsc.gov/onsafety/2011/10/anchor-and-protect/
The right way to bathe your baby: Always within arm’s reach.
A few inches of water. A short lapse in supervision.
That’s all it takes for a child to drown.
Maybe mom, dad or the caregiver left the bathroom to answer the phone. Maybe they left to get a towel. Maybe an older sibling was left to watch a younger one.
These are some of the reasons bathtubs are the second-leading location, after pools, where young children drown.
A new report from CPSC shows that there were 431 in-home drowning deaths involving children younger than 5 years old from 2005 to 2009. The majority of the victims were younger than age 2. Most of the incidents (a startling 83 percent) involved bath or bath-related products.
You can prevent these drownings from happening. Here’s how:
- NEVER leave young children alone near any water for ANY amount of time. EVER. As we mentioned above, young children can drown in even small amounts of water.
- ALWAYS keep a young child within arm’s reach in a bathtub. If you must leave the room, take the child with you.
- Don’t leave a baby or young child in a bathtub under the care of another young child.
- Never leave a bucket containing even a small amount of liquid unattended. Toddlers are top-heavy and they can fall headfirst into buckets and drown. After you use a bucket, always empty it and store it where young children cannot reach it. Don’t leave buckets outside where they can collect rainwater.
- Learn CPR. It can be a lifesaver when seconds count.
This address for this post is: http://www.cpsc.gov/onsafety/2011/09/a-baby%e2%80%99s-bath-what-you-need-to-know/
Watch this video. Get the tips. Save a life.
To watch this video in Adobe Flash format, you may need to download
the Adobe Flash player. You can also watch the video in Windows Media
(Watch in Windows Media format.)
This address for this post is: http://www.cpsc.gov/onsafety/2011/03/prevent-a-poisoning/
What’s wrong with this picture?
Do you see that video baby monitor cord? Yes, the one the baby has in his hand.
Cords close to your baby’s crib are not safe.
Yes, it’s tempting. Parents reviewing video monitors online report placing monitors at the edge of the crib to get a close-up image of their child sleeping: Read some examples:
“We didn’t want to put a perminant (sic) screw into the edge of the crib, so I have the base of the camera attached to the end of the crib with clear tape, which works well enough for now I guess.”
“Our baby monitor … broke when our little one managed to knock it over off his crib.”
“For watching your child close up (e.g. to see if he/she’s breathing or not) you do need to be pretty close to him/her (we just have it at the edge of the crib)….”
Do NOT place corded video cameras or audio or movement monitor receivers in cribs or on crib rails. Infants have strangled and died after becoming tangled in cords, like this:
CPSC knows of 7 deaths and 3 near strangulations since 2002 involving baby monitors. These include video, audio and movement monitors. In addition, CPSC has received reports of at least a dozen other incidents in which babies and young children accessed monitors or monitor cords – that were either in the crib or close enough to the crib for a young child to grab.
Some monitors have permanent warning labels on the product or cord. Others, like some Summer Infant corded video baby monitors, do not have a prominent warning label on the camera or the cord.
Always keep ALL cords and monitor parts out of the reach of babies and young children. Think about 3 feet from any side of the crib –- top, bottom and all four sides.
When buying a video monitor, look for one that takes the picture from far away. The further away the camera and its cord are from your baby or toddler, the safer your child will be. If you use a movement monitor, make sure the cords are taut and not dangling to reduce the strangulation risk. The manufacturers’ instructions show parents how to handle the cords.
CPSC urges parents and caregivers to immediately check the location of your baby monitors, including those mounted on the wall, to make sure that the electrical cords are out of the child’s reach. Check that location periodically to make sure the cords stay out of reach as your child grows.
This address for this post is: http://www.cpsc.gov/onsafety/2011/02/baby-monitor-cords-have-strangled-children/ | Small parts and small children can be a deadly combination. To prevent young children from choking, children’s toys and games, as well as balloons, have warning labels. These labels help you keep small things away from your little ones.
But what are small parts? And why should parents be concerned about them?
First, this is a small parts tester:
The cylinder is 2.25 inches long by 1.25 inches wide | {
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Children and Young People's Services has a duty to continue to 'advise, assist and befriend' young people leaving the care of the Local Authority until the age of 21.
Children and Young People's Services has 3 dedicated Care Leaver’s Teams to help give young people leaving care the support and encouragement they need and deserve.
All young people who have been in care in Devon will be allocated to the appropriate team when they are 15-16 years old. Their current care manager will arrange this.
Recent investment by the government has enabled us to give young people in care further access to Information and Communications Technology. Computers, including laptops and PC's, are currently being purchased for the sole use of care leavers. - see 4U2. There are also plans to introduce a web site in the near future for young people both looked after and those leaving care.
Whilst the teams work closely with young people on a one-to- one basis, the teams also work with other partners such as Housing agencies and Exeter YMCA, Connexions, Devon Youth Association, Youth Offending Teams and others to provide an holistic service as possible to young people.
This support is planned before the young person leaves care, and will be arranged by the young person's current care manager.
Find out more
Also on devon.gov.uk
Other Web Sites | Children and Young People's Services has a duty to continue to 'advise, assist and befriend' young people leaving the care of the Local Authority until the age of 21.
Children and Young People's Services has 3 dedicated Care Leaver’s Teams to help give young people leaving care the support and encouragement they need and deserve.
All young people who have been in care in Devon will be allocated to | {
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|Search This Record Series:|
This database is an index to the Paha Cemetery in Adams County, Washington.
There are 30 names listed. Death dates range from 1888-1944
Location Lat: 47° 01' 24"N, Lon: 118° 29' 17"W T18N R34E S25
Cemetery Directions The Paha cemetery lies about 3/4 mile north of Paha on Paha Rd or 5.7 miles south of I-90 taking a left onto Paha Rd. from the Freeway.
Transcription Notes This cemetery is overtaken with cheatgrass and shoulder high weeds, which camouflage huge badger holes.
When I revisited July 16, 2005, the cemetery had been cleaned out better than last time I was there. Some new metal crosses were placed over about 3 unknown burial sites, and several others had a white metal marker with the cross arm at the top of the upright, with the name on the crossarm. I found 8 new listings, but there have been no new burials since 1944.
I surveyed the cemetery on Oct 02, 1999, reading all the markers I could find. I used a digital camera to read it this last time, so I have a photo of all existing markers and stones. ~ Maggie Rail
Earliest birth date listed - 1840 Earliest death date listed - 1888 Most recent death date listed - 1944
Abbreviations s/w = stone with
c/o = child of
d/o = daughter of
h/o = husband of
w/o = wife of
b. = born
d. = died
s/o = son of
P = Plot
|Citation:||Database: Paha Cemetery 1888-1944. ONLINE 2009. Washington Secretary of State. This index and cemetery history, description and transcription notes were donated to the Washington Historical Records Project by Maggie Rail, August 2009. Available: http://www.digitalarchives.wa.gov| | |Search This Record Series:|
This database is an index to the Paha Cemetery in Adams County, Washington.
There are 30 names listed. Death dates range from 1888-1944
Location Lat: 47° 01' 24"N, Lon: 118° 29' 17"W T18N R34E S25
Cemetery Directions The Paha cemetery lies about 3/4 mile north of Paha on Paha Rd or 5.7 miles south of I-90 taking a left onto Paha Rd. from the Freeway.
Transcription Note | {
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What’s at Stake with Regards to Governance for “Rio +20”
In order to provide sustainable development with a solid and durable base for meeting future challenges, it is essential to achieve an ambitious outcome regarding the institutional framework for sustainable development, one of two official themes for Rio +20. Indeed, social, economic, and environmental pillars of sustainable development are complementary, but the existing institutional framework has difficulty implementing the necessary synergies. Moreover, the environmental pillar is too weak: it is essential to develop a capacity for political leadership and management to meet the challenges. This diagnosis is very widely shared: This is why France will be committed with determination to this subject at Rio +20.
France’s Commitments with Regards to Governance for “Rio +20”
France, with its European partners, is committed to an ambitious outcome regarding governance for Rio +20. France will defend:
These reforms should provide an opportunity to better develop, within the new institutional framework, the role of civil society and non-state actors. This is a question of democracy as well as efficiency. | What’s at Stake with Regards to Governance for “Rio +20”
In order to provide sustainable development with a solid and durable base for meeting future challenges, it is essential to achieve an ambitious outcome regarding the institutional framework for sustainable development, one of two official themes for Rio +20. Indeed, social, economic, and environmental pillars of sustainable development are | {
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NPL Site Narrative for Joliet Army Ammunition Plant (Load-Assembly-Packing Area)
JOLIET ARMY AMMUNITION PLANT (LOAD-ASSEMBLY-PACKING AREA)
Federal Register Notice: March 13, 1989
Conditions at proposal (April 10, 1985): The Joliet Army Ammunition Plant (JAAP) is an inactive Army munitions installation located in northeastern Illinois near Chicago. JAAP is divided into two major functional areas: the Manufacturing Area, which was proposed for the NPL in October 1984, and the Load-Assembly-Packing Area (LAP Area).
This NPL site consists of the LAP Area, which covers about 22 square miles of JAAP east of Illinois State Highway 53. During its operating life (the early 1940s to 1977), high explosive artillery projectiles, aerial bombs, and a variety of ammunition component items were loaded, assembled, and packaged. Other activities included testing of ammunition, washout and renovation of projectiles, and burning and demolition of explosives. Since 1977, JAAP has been maintained in nonoperating standby condition by the contractor/operator (Uniroyal, Inc.).
JAAP is participating in the Installation Restoration Program (IRP), the specially funded program established in 1978. Under this program, the Department of Defense seeks to identify, investigate, and clean up contamination from hazardous materials. As part of IRP, the Army has documented releases into ground water and surface water of munitions-related contaminants--including trinitrotoluene (TNT), dinitrotoluene, and heavy metals--attributable to production activities in the LAP Area. The main source of waste water from this area was "pink water" resulting from washout of rejected bombs and from washing of equipment and floors. Munitions-related contaminants have been found in monitoring wells located near a former leaching pond in the washout facility. About 260 people depend on wells within 3 miles of the site as a source of drinking water. Munitions-related contaminants have also been found downstream in Prairie Creek sediments and in Doyle Lake sediments.
Status (March 13, 1989): EPA, the State, and the Army are finalizing an Interagency Agreement for further cleanup activities at both the LAP and Manufacturing Area.
This site was reproposed on July 22, 1987 to be consistent with EPA's recently proposed policy for placing on the NPL sites located on Federally owned or operated facilities subject to the corrective action authorities of Subtitle C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). EPA solicited comments on the Hazard Ranking System score for the site, which includes areas subject to RCRA Subtitle C corrective action authorities. EPA has finalized the NPL/RCRA policy for Federal facility sites and is placing this site on the NPL under the policy.
For more information about the hazardous substances identified in this narrative summary, including general information regarding the effects of exposure to these substances on human health, please see the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) ToxFAQs. ATSDR ToxFAQs can be found on the Internet at ATSDR - ToxFAQs (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/index.asp) or by telephone at 1-888-42-ATSDR or 1-888-422-8737. | NPL Site Narrative for Joliet Army Ammunition Plant (Load-Assembly-Packing Area)
JOLIET ARMY AMMUNITION PLANT (LOAD-ASSEMBLY-PACKING AREA)
Federal Register Notice: March 13, 1989
Conditions at proposal (April 10, 1985): The Joliet Army Ammunition Plant (JAAP) is an inactive Army munitions installation located in northeastern Illinois near Chicago. JAAP is divided into two major functional areas: t | {
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Federal Election Commission
Plain Writing Act of 2010 - Compliance Report
April 13, 2012
Plain Language Officials
- Greg Scott, Assistant Staff Director, Information Division, Office of Communications, is the Federal Election Commission’s Senior Official Responsible for Plain Writing.
- The FEC’s Plain Language Coordinators are Amy Kort, Deputy Assistant Staff Director for Publications, Information Division, Office of Communications, and Catherine Kelley, Attorney, General Law and Advice Division, Office of General Counsel.
Communications in Plain Language
The FEC has a long-standing commitment to using plain language in its publications and other documents. Specific examples include:
Informing and Educating Agency Staff
- We have posted information on the agency’s intranet site that describes requirements of the Plain Writing Act of 2010, including a PowerPoint presentation and links to additional resources. This information reached all FEC employees.
- We have encouraged agency staff to take our on-line training course that reviews plain language principles and provides specific examples of plain writing. Many staff members who routinely communicate with the public have completed the course.
- Deputy Assistant Staff Director Amy Kort and Attorney Catherine Kelley are the agency’s primary contacts for compliance issues. Ms. Kelley focuses on documents produced by the Office of General Counsel, while Ms. Kort is responsible for all other covered publications and documents.
- Ms. Kort and Ms. Kelley not only monitor our use of plain language, they also document and respond to public feedback through our [email protected] e-mail account. They keep detailed records of this activity to help measure our success and for use in our annual Plain Writing Act compliance reports. During the past year, we have not received any comments or questions about our Plain Language program.
Plain Language Web Page
Evaluating Customer Satisfaction
Over the years, we have periodically asked our customers to evaluate our services, including the clarity of our publications. While responses to these mail-in surveys have generally been favorable, we continue to seek public input to improve not only our use of plain language, but all of our public services. We continue to expand and improve our evaluation process by using e-mail, the web and other technologies. Robust interaction between the agency and the public is essential to the success of our plain language program.
During the past year, we have received consistently favorable feedback regarding our outreach materials, including materials distributed at agency conferences and on our website and YouTube page. | Federal Election Commission
Plain Writing Act of 2010 - Compliance Report
April 13, 2012
Plain Language Officials
- Greg Scott, Assistant Staff Director, Information Division, Office of Communications, is the Federal Election Commission’s Senior Official Responsible for Plain Writing.
- The FEC’s Plain Language Coordinators are Amy Kort, Deputy Assistant Staff Director for Publications, Informatio | {
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- Environmental Sustainability
- Establishing Sustainability Goals
- Assessing Sustainability in the Transportation System
- Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Total GHG From Transportation
- GHG Emissions per Passenger Mile or Ton Mile
- Improving System Efficiency and Reducing VMT Growth
- Integrated Land-Use Planning
- Transitioning to Fuel-Efficient Vehicles and Alternative Fuels
- Recycling in Transportation
- Recycled Materials
- Other Environmental Issues
- Other Sustainability Strategies
- Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Sustainability in the Transportation Planning Process
- Context Sensitive Solutions
Transportation is crucial to our economy and quality of life; but the process of building, operating, and maintaining transportation systems has environmental consequences. The U.S. Department of Transportation's (U.S. DOT's) goal is to foster more sustainable approaches to transportation in order to avoid negative impacts now and to ensure that future generations will be able to enjoy the same or better standards of living and mobility as the current one. A sustainable transportation system is holistic, "one in which (a) current social and economic transportation needs are met in an environmentally conscious manner and (b) the ability of future generations to meet their needs is not compromised."1 Sustainable transportation focuses on environmental impacts such as improving energy efficiency, reducing dependence on oil, reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and not harming the natural environment. A more extensive coverage of the definition of sustainability and sustainable transportation systems is provided in the Introduction to Part III, "Sustainable Transportation Systems."
Although the capital investment needs analyses presented in Part II of this report take increases in emissions (including GHG) into account as a societal cost (disbenefit) in their computation of the benefits and costs of infrastructure investment, they do not fully address the long-term societal benefits that could be obtained from more sustainable approaches to transportation services. The three chapters included in Part III of this report address the broader range of issues associated with moving toward more sustainable transportation systems. This chapter focuses on environmental sustainability issues, including GHG emissions attributable to the transportation sector. Chapter 12 examines issues pertaining to climate change adaptation, anticipating potential future changes in climate and the resulting impact on transportation infrastructure. Chapter 13 focuses on the livability of communities, addressing issues related to the human environment (in contrast with the focus on the natural environment in this chapter).
Given the impact of transportation on the natural environment and on society as a whole, it is important to measure the changing environmental, economic, and social impacts of the transportation system. This chapter provides a discussion of the goals and benefits of sustainability as it relates to transportation and looks at accomplishment made as well as the development of potential metrics for sustainable transportation trends. Given the range of issues related to environmental sustainability, this chapter does not attempt to explore all of them in depth.
Chapter 2 describes the extent and use of the Nation's highway, bridge, and transit systems. In addition to these modes, travel by railroads, waterways, and air also play a key role in passenger and freight transportation, while pipelines move oil, gas, water, and other commodities. This transportation system has fostered new communities; connected cities, towns, and regions; and supported the growth of the national economy, but much of the movement on the system comes from the use of vehicles that rely on fossil fuels. From a sustainability perspective, the heavy reliance of the transportation system on such fuels is of significant concern, as they are non-renewable, generate air pollution, and contribute to the buildup of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other pollutants that cause global warming. The transportation sector consumes 29 percent of the total energy used in the United States, and almost all of it is in the form of petroleum. Of all the fossil fuels, petroleum is the largest contributor to CO2 emissions.2
The transportation sector was responsible for 29 percent of U.S. GHG emissions and 33 percent of U.S. CO2 emissions in 2008.3 CO2 is the most prominent GHG and contributor to global climate change by far. About 60 percent of the transportation emissions are from passenger cars and light-duty trucks, 20 percent from medium and heavy-duty trucks, and the remaining 20 percent from other modes of transportation, such as commercial aircraft and other non-road vehicles (ships, boats, rail, and pipelines).
Over the past four decades, progress has been made in reducing emissions of air pollutants both nationally and from the transportation sector in particular. Since 1970, transportation-sector emissions of carbon monoxide have been reduced by 67 percent, emissions of volatile organic compounds have been reduced by 68 percent, and emissions of nitrogen dioxide have been reduced by 38 percent.4 These reductions have been achieved, notwithstanding a 50 percent increase in the population, a tripling of real gross domestic product (GDP), and a 150 percent increase in passenger-miles traveled.5 Nonetheless, as of 2007, some 158.5 million Americans lived in regions that exceeded health-based national ambient-air-quality standards for at least one regulated air pollutant. Significant challenges remain, particularly as national ambient-air-quality standards are revised to be more protective of public health.
Sustainability in transportation should be addressed with the mindset that transportation is one part of a larger economic system, and represents an integral part of sustainable development. To seek more sustainable options, transportation programs will need to focus on integrating transportation decision-making with environmental considerations, including planning multimodal transportation systems in conjunction with land use in order to maximize efficiencies, reducing the environmental impact of construction and maintenance, and improving the operating efficiency of the system. Transportation agencies at all levels of government and their partners are uniquely positioned to work collaboratively in support of the Nation's environmental sustainability efforts.
Establishing Sustainability Goals
The U.S. DOT is collaborating with other Federal agencies, including HUD and EPA, to develop performance metrics that support the advance of environmentally sustainable polices in the transportation community. One area of focus is the development of performance metrics that will assist in GHG reduction. Determining the necessary research and data needed to develop these metrics is required. In some cases, data are not available or difficult to capture; as a starting point, the U.S. DOT is implementing metrics where data and information are readily available as a quantifiable measure. For example, information is readily available for States that have Climate Change Action plans, and one way to assist in GHG reduction is to encourage more States to implement them and to provide assistance in improving them, as needed. Work will continue to identify additional measures over time.
|What initial "Environmental Sustainability" performance measures have been identified by the FHWA and FTA?|
The FHWA has established an initial target to increase the number of States with State Climate Action Plans that reduce greenhouse gas emissions from transportation from 35 in FY 2010 to between 38 and 40 in FY 2011.
Climate Action Plans can help States to determine the steps they can take to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and assess the vulnerability of various transportation assets to climate impacts. The FHWA provides technical and financial assistance to States in the form of workshops, webinars, and peer exchanges to assist in incorporating transportation elements into their Plans. The FHWA encourages its Division offices to review the transportation-related sections of the report as part of the assistance efforts. The FHWA is preparing a template that can be used to collect information on State climate activities, which will be useful in tracking progress.
The FTA has established three sustainability performance metrics:
These metrics are to support the outcomes of:
The FHWA and FTA continue to analyze and assess options for developing additional performance measures.
A March 2010 report prepared for the FHWA entitled "Criteria and Tools for Sustainable Highways" explores additional performance measures for sustainability. One of the struggles in creating sustainability performance measures is the need for shifting from automobile-centric (and operations-focused) measures to more holistic indicators, even if they are more difficult to measure.6 The report also notes the paradigm shift required to capture sustainability concerns, moving from measuring mobility to accessibility, and from assessing outputs to outcomes.7
At the Federal level, environmental sustainability has been adopted as a strategic planning goal in the U.S. DOT Strategic Plan FY 2010–2015. The goal is to: "Advance environmentally sustainable polices and investments that reduce carbon and other harmful emissions from transportation sources."
At the State level, transportation agencies are in various stages of developing performance metrics that address sustainability criteria and monitor progress toward the goal of more sustainable roadways. Many State transportation agencies have increasingly integrated the concept of sustainability into their activities. In the United States, over 40 percent of State transportation agencies have incorporated sustainability into their vision or mission statements.8 Some are also developing specific sustainability goals and performance measures to assess their progress toward these goals. Sixty-eight public transportation agencies and private-sector transit industry members have signed the American Public Transportation Association Sustainability Commitment. Under this commitment, signatories commit to a core set of actions on sustainability, measure environmental impacts in key areas, and meet reduction targets.9 By quantifying outcomes, a transportation sustainability performance metric can encourage more sustainable practices, allow informed decisions and trade-offs regarding roadway sustainability, enable transportation organizations to confer benefits on sustainable road projects and programs, and communicate roadway sustainability to stakeholders.
Assessing Sustainability of the Transportation System
Developing performance measures to evaluate sustainability is important in order to assess the progress of States, localities, and the Nation as a whole in meeting the goal. It involves looking through different lenses in order to ensure that all aspects of the concept are represented. In this section, some of the categories of measures that could be used to evaluate sustainability are explored. These categories include reducing GHG emissions, improving system efficiency and reducing the growth of VMT, transitioning to fuel-efficient vehicles and alternative fuels, and increasing the use of recycled materials in transportation. A list of some additional metrics for consideration is provided at the end of this section. Selected initiatives relating to the issues discussed in this section are presented in callout boxes, which include references to where more information is available.
Infrastructure Voluntary Evaluation Sustainability Tool (INVEST)
The FHWA has launched an initiative to support transportation agencies in making highway projects more sustainable. This new initiative provides a practical tool, called the Infrastructure Voluntary Evaluation Sustainability Tool (INVEST), for integrating sustainability best practices into transportation projects and programs. The tool is innovative in that it is a self-evaluation tool that allows users to assess for themselves how sustainable their programs or projects may be. Participation in the initiative and application of the tool are voluntary, allowing users to determine for themselves how best to achieve a desired level of sustainability in their programs and projects.
Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs), State departments of transportation (DOTs), and transit agencies have recently begun to consider strategies available for immediate and future implementation, and some are implementing them. Ultimately, mitigation of GHG emissions reduces the extent of climate change experienced by current and future generations; but, given the large increases in concentrations of GHG over the last two centuries, some level of climate change is inevitable and is in fact already occurring.10 GHGs, such as CO2, trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), GHG emissions from human activities, principally the burning of fossil fuels, are the primary cause of global warming with projected impacts including sea level rise, more intense storms and droughts, biodiversity loss, reduced agricultural yields, and stress on the water supply. An IPCC report finds that GHG emissions must be reduced by 50 to 85 percent by 2050 in order to limit global warming to 4 degrees Fahrenheit, avoiding many of the worst impacts of climate change.11 While widespread climate impacts are occurring now and are expected to increase, the extent of climate change and its impacts depend on choices made today to mitigate human-caused emissions of GHGs.12 CO2 makes up 96 percent of all transportation GHG emissions. Other human-induced GHG emissions created by transportation and other sectors are methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
California Senate Bill 375
The State of California has enacted "The Sustainable Communities and Climate Protection Act of 2008" (SB 375), which is an example of how State governments are beginning to adopt strategies to promote more sustainable communities. A requirement of this act is to establish GHG emission reduction targets for passenger vehicles by 2020 and 2035, for each of the State's 18 MPOs. Each MPO will prepare a Sustainable Communities Strategy (SCS) that will demonstrate how the region will meet GHG reduction targets through integrated land use, housing, and transportation planning. SCSs will then be incorporated into each MPO's Regional Transportation Plan (RTP). More information on SB 375 can be found at http://www.arb.ca.gov/cc/sb375/sb375.htm.
Initial measures of environmental performance of the Nation's transportation system, specifically related to climate change outcomes, use metrics of total GHG emissions from transportation, GHG emissions per capita from transportation, and GHG emissions per passenger mile or ton mile.
Total GHG From Transportation
As shown in Exhibit 11-1, the transportation sector is a major contributor to GHG emissions. Burning fuel to power U.S. vehicles results in 2.1 billion metric tons of CO2 equivalent (CO2e), or 29 percent of all U.S. GHG emissions and 5 percent of global emissions (on-road vehicles comprise the largest share). The inclusion of life-cycle emissions—such as the production and distribution of fuel, the manufacture of vehicles, and the construction and maintenance of transportation infrastructure—increase transportation GHG emissions by around 50 percent.13 GHGs from the transportation sector grew 27 percent from 1990 to 2006. Freight-truck GHGs have grown faster than those of any other transportation mode, growing 77 percent between 1990 and 2006. Emissions from light-duty vehicles grew 24 percent over the same time period, due to increases in VMT of over twice the population growth and a stagnation of vehicle fuel economy. Although airline passenger miles increased 69 percent over the period, commercial aircraft emissions increased only 4 percent, due primarily to increased passenger loads.14
The FTA developed an action plan that promotes green building practices in transit facilities. Several transit agencies, including Santa Clara Transit and the Chicago Transit Authority, have obtained Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold certification from the Green Building Council. Additional information on the FTA Green Building Action Plan can be found at http://www.fta.dot.gov/12907_10318.html.
The Energy Information Administration's (EIA's) Annual Energy Outlook (AEO) 2010 projects little growth in transportation GHG emissions through 2030. In the light-duty-vehicle sector, the AEO projects that increased Federal fuel-economy standards and the renewable-fuels standard will offset VMT growth and lead to a net 12 percent decline in light-duty-vehicle emissions. Freight trucks, on the other hand, show a 20 percent increase in emissions, while domestic aviation climbs 27 percent. AEO takes into account existing government legislation and regulations.15
GHG Emissions per Passenger Mile or Ton Mile
The fuel economy of light-duty vehicles increased with Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards in the 1970s and 1980s and had remained roughly stagnant until recently.16 The number of passengers per vehicle had declined since the 1970s to an average of 1.68 per trip and 1.10 for work trips.17 This has led to increased GHG per passenger mile traveled (PMT), with passenger cars at 261 grams CO2 equivalent per PMT and light-duty trucks at 301 grams CO2e per PMT in 2006.18 These estimates include vehicle operating emissions and not additional life-cycle components. With new fuel-economy standards promulgated by the U.S. DOT in 2010, fuel economy of new light-duty vehicles will average 35.5 mpg in 2016.
Freight-trucking GHG emissions per ton-mile carried increased almost 13 percent between 1990 and 2005, reflecting the stagnant fuel economy and decreased loads per truck resulting from structural changes in the economy that produced higher-value, lower-weight, time-sensitive shipments. The National Academy of Sciences completed a study in March 2010 of medium- and heavy-duty-vehicles' efficiency and found significant opportunities for cost-effective engine and aerodynamic improvements. In May 2010, it was announced that EPA and NHTSA would establish joint GHG and fuel-economy regulations for medium- and heavy-duty vehicles under existing statutory authority. This will improve the fuel efficiency of work trucks, delivery trucks, tractor trailers, buses, and other medium- and heavy-duty vehicles.
As shown in Exhibit 11-2, CO2 operating emissions for transit per passenger mile can be lower than that of automobiles with a single occupant, when ridership levels result in more people moving in fewer vehicles. Exhibit 11-3 shows that GHG efficiency for heavy rail systems varies greatly by region. One factor in this variation is typical vehicle occupancy for different transit systems; a full train has half as much emission per passenger mile as a half-full train. Differences in electricity sources in different regions also play a role; to the extent that electricity is produced by nuclear or hydroelectric plants versus coal-fired plants can have a significant impact on public transportation GHG efficiency. Differences in equipment, such as the weight and energy efficiencies of different types of trains, also play a role.
Through the Transit Investment for Greenhouse Gas and Energy Reduction (TIGGER) Program, the FTA works directly with public transit agencies to implement new strategies for reducing GHG emissions and energy use in their operations. Examples of projects supported by the program include on-board vehicle energy management, electrification of accessories, bus design, rail transit energy management, and locomotive design. Additional information on this program can be found at http://www.fta.dot.gov/assistance/research_11424.html.
Improving System Efficiency and Reducing VMT Growth
One of the primary indicators of system inefficiency is congestion. Congestion occurs when the demand for travel is greater than supply in the transportation system. As discussed in Chapter 4, the Texas Transportation Institute estimates drivers in large metropolitan areas experienced 4.2 billion hours of delay due to congestion in 2007, resulting in 2.8 billion gallons of wasted fuel and congestion costs of $87 billion. Traffic volume is expected to grow, with freight movement expected to double by 2020. Chapter 4 presents a number of potential congestion reduction strategies. While the strategic addition of road capacity can play a role, the traditional approach of building new routes or adding lanes to existing routes is not sustainable due to the effects of induced demand. The implementation of system management and operations strategies, including the deployment of intelligent transportation systems, provides opportunities to make more productive use of existing infrastructure assets. The use of congestion pricing can help create an efficient transportation market by addressing one of congestion's root causes, namely that most travelers do not pay the full cost of transportation services. Finally, building livable communities that consider the impacts of development on transportation demand can begin to reduce travel demands by providing more transportation choices and considering the impact of development and the transportation network.
Chapter 1 provides information on how households in America make trips. According to the 2009 NHTS, 94 percent of trips over 2 miles are made by vehicle and 60 percent of those trips shorter than one-half of a mile are walking trips. Most survey respondents reported that the greatest barriers to walking are the perception of too much traffic, not enough street lighting, or wide road crossings. People were also concerned about crime, had no nearby paths or sidewalks, and were too busy to walk more often. Improving access to pedestrian and biking infrastructure can encourage an increase in walking or riding a bike. To the extent travelers substitute car travel for travel by foot and bicycle, those travelers would experience improved health and lower travel costs. If total VMT by car falls as a consequence, then emissions and congestion will also fall. When biking or walking are not viable options, increased transit use and ride sharing are other means of reducing VMT.
Nonmotorized Transportation Pilot Program (NTPP)
The NTPP encourages bicycling and walking by promoting and building a network of nonmotorized transportation infrastructure facilities—including sidewalks, bicycle lanes, and trails—that connect directly with transit stations, schools, residences, businesses, and recreation areas. Pilot programs have been started in four communities: Columbia, Missouri; Marin County, California; Minneapolis, Minnesota; and Sheboygan County, Wisconsin. For more information on the program, see www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/bikeped/ntpp.htm.
New Starts Program
New Starts provides Federal financial resources to locally planned, implemented, and operated transit "guideway" capital investment projects. The goal of the program is to improve mobility, reduce congestion, improve air quality, and foster livable communities. For more information on the program, see www.fta.dot.gov/planning/planning_environment_5221.html.
Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)
FTA promotes mixed-use development near transit facilities and access to transportation and housing for people of all ages and incomes. TOD activities that are eligible for Federal funding include walkways, open spaces, intermodal transfer facilities, and bicycle improvements. Through planning and land use, TOD activities can help decrease traffic congestion, improve air quality, and improve public health through increased walking. For more information on TOD, see http://www.fta.dot.gov/about_FTA_6932.html.
Integrated Land-Use Planning
Coordinating land use with transportation planning and development helps to preserve and enhance natural and cultural resources and facilitates sustainable communities by fostering a balance of mixed-use space for housing, educational, employment, recreational, and service opportunities. The U.S. DOT encourages local and State governments to coordinate land use and development in their planning process through activities such as Transit Oriented Development and Brownfield Redevelopment. These options focus on increased infill development, smart growth, and a concentration of development around established activity centers—with increased multimodal access to transit, accessible roads, walkways, and bike paths. Additional information on integrated land-use planning can be found at www.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/landuse/index.htm.
Brownfields are abandoned or underused properties available for redevelopment but that may contain residual hazardous materials from the land's previous use. According to a study of the Brownfield Program, brownfield revitalization efforts have resulted in a 33- to 57-percent reduction in VMT due to compact development and transit expansion, and a 47- to 62-percent reduction in stormwater runoff in redeveloped project sites that were evaluated.i U.S. DOT encourages State and local transportation agencies to incorporate redevelopment sites into transportation improvement projects.ii For more information on this program see www.epa.gov/brownfields.
i EPA, "The EPA Brownfields Program Produces Widespread Environmental and Economic Benefits," April 2010, http://www.epa.gov/brownfields/overview/Brownfields-Benefits-postcard.pdf.
Transitioning to Fuel-Efficient Vehicles and Alternative Fuels
The types of fuels commonly used today (primarily gasoline and diesel) together with vehicles with low fuel efficiency both negatively impact the environment. According to the EIA, as of 2007, there were 249 million vehicles (including cars, buses, and trucks) in the United States. Personal vehicles, such as cars and light trucks, comprised 60 percent of the total energy consumed in the transportation sector. Gasoline and diesel made up 84 percent of the total energy used in transportation.19 This has occurred while GHG emissions related to transportation grew 27 percent from 1990 to 2006. Emissions can be reduced by transitioning to more fuel-efficient vehicles and alternative fuels that decrease the use of high-emission fuels such as gasoline and diesel. As mentioned earlier, new U.S. DOT fuel economy standards for light-duty vehicles and heavy and medium-duty trucks will improve the fuel efficiency of the fleet.
Clean Fuels Grant Program
This FTA program assists nonattainment and maintenance areas achieve or maintain the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for ozone and carbon monoxide. Funding is available to transit agencies for clean fuel buses, clean fuel bus facilities, and electrical recharging facilities, and to support other projects related to clean fuel, biodiesel, hybrid electric, or zero-emissions technology buses. For more information, see http://www.fta.dot.gov/funding/grants/grants_financing_3560.html.
Over the past 30 years, numerous programs and projects have been established to decrease the transportation sector's energy consumption through the development of more fuel-efficient vehicles and the use of renewable energy to decrease fossil-fuel consumption. As of 2008, there were 1.5 million personal alternative-fuel vehicles and 2,565 alternative-fuel buses (transit, intercity, and school). Alternative fuels included types such as biodiesel, compressed natural gas, propane/liquefied petroleum, hydrogen, and liquefied natural gas. Obstacles to increasing the number of vehicles that use alternative fuels include the scarcity of fueling stations and other infrastructure necessities. Although the number of alternative-fuel stations in the United States has increased from 3,691 to 6,411 since 1992, these stations are not spread evenly across the country.
There are even fewer electric charging stations nationwide where users can charge a plug-in hybrid or electric vehicle. Most States do not have any of these stations or have fewer than 10. In 2008, only two States had more than 10 charging stations—Oregon had 34 and California had 420.20
|Has the number of alternative fuel and electric charging stations increased since 2008?|
Yes. The Department of Energy Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Data Center provides the most current information on alternative fuel stations and electric charging stations on the website: http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/stations.html.
By 2010, the number of alternative fuel stations increased nationwide from 6,411 in 2008 to around 9,000. Electric charging stations numbered around 2,400 by 2010 with over 500 in California; over 100 each in Texas and Washington; and over 50 each in Oregon and Florida. Approximately half of all States still have 10 or fewer stations.
Recycling in Transportation
Developing roads, bridges, transit systems, and other infrastructure by using materials and methods that reduce the negative impact on the environment is essential to sustainable transportation. This section describes where recycled materials are being used to reduce the adverse impact of transportation construction on the environment.
Every Day Counts
In 2009, FHWA launched the Every Day Counts (EDC) initiative, designed to identify and deploy technologies that shorten project delivery time, enhance the safety of roadways, and protect the environment through the use of cost-effective techniques that help to reduce energy use and to increase recycling and greener transportation options. For more information on EDC, see http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/everydaycounts/.
Aggregate is crushed rock or gravel used to produce concrete. The process of mining and transporting aggregate material creates environmental impacts in the form of GHG emissions, making the reprocessing or recycling of aggregate materials a more sustainable option. Currently, many State departments of transportation (DOTs) are using reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) in highway construction to reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions and to preserve nonrenewable resources. In addition, recycled materials are expected to provide significant cost savings on transportation projects. Transit organizations also participate in recycling efforts. Cost savings and environmental benefits can also occur through reuse and rehabilitation of existing facilities where practical, especially non-renewable historic resources. The greenest bridge may be one that is already built, saving not only the energy that would be required to produce new materials, but also the energy that is embodied in the existing structure. This is consistent with practical design and minimizing the use of non-renewable resources.
Recycling in Transit
There are numerous recycling initiatives in public transportation. Many transit agencies reuse and recycle oil, oil filters, paint and other chemicals, scrap metal, bus and train batteries, and bus and train wash water either on-site or off-site in order to reduce operation costs. Some agencies, such as in Los Angeles, have agreements in place with tire companies to send all used tires back to the company for recycling into crumb rubber, which can be used for mats or in asphalt. TriMet in Portland, Oregon, reuses plastic billboards in the paved portions of its train tracks and also uses recycled tires in its sound walls along tracks.
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
RAP is made using a recycling process that mixes removed or reprocessed pavement materials, including asphalt and aggregates, with virgin aggregate.i On average, State DOTs use 12 percent RAP in hot-mix asphalt (HMA) mixtures. Currently, 44 State DOTs allow 25 percent RAP in at least one layer of HMA, with 23 allowing it in all layers. Twenty-seven States have increased their use of RAP since 2007.ii
i Audrey Copeland, Cecil Jones, and John Bukowski, "Reclaiming Roads," Public Roads, March/April 2010, Vol. 73, No.5; available at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/publicroads/10mar/06.cfm.
Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA)
WMA is made using a process that allows pavement materials to be produced at lower temperatures than other mixes and that reduces energy consumption and emissions in the production process. It is estimated that increased use of WMA will reduce CO2 and sulfur dioxide emissions by 45 percent, nitrogen oxide by 60 percent, and use of organic material by 41 percent.i
For more information on WMA go to www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavemenet/asphalt/wma.cfm.
Other Environmental Issues
The U.S. DOT focuses on many issues concerning environmental protection and enhancement. As discussed earlier in this chapter, GHG emissions have gained much attention as a measure of the impacts of transportation. In addition to GHG, there are other environmental concerns surrounding air quality, water quality (including storm water and waste management), and wetlands preservation. The transportation planning and project development process must take these types of considerations into account.
"Green Streets" is an approach that encourages the use of natural systems for stormwater management that mimic natural hydrology, such as using swells and protected boxes that contain trees, bushes, shrubs, and grasses to allow stormwater to funnel through. The approach protects ecologically sensitive areas, reduces or minimizes heat islands, improves air quality, reduces stormwater pollutants, and is aesthetically attractive.
Transportation agencies must follow the requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), which provides guidelines for protection of the environment as part of the process for project planning and design. Through the use of NEPA, the U.S. DOT provides a balanced and streamlined approach to transportation decision-making that takes into account the impacts of human and natural resources and the public's need for safe and efficient transportation improvements. NEPA has not only served as the framework for the environmental process, but as a precursor for current sustainable transportation system efforts as well. Additional information about NEPA can be found at http://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov/projdev/index.asp.
Surfaces such as roads and sidewalks can collect a variety of pollutants from usage, maintenance, and natural conditions. These pollutants become a potential threat when they are washed away in stormwater runoff. Best practices for stormwater management include implementing rain gardens, landscapes that filter rainwater, and the use of permeable paving that absorbs rainwater into underground reservoirs.i
i EPA, "EPA Headquarters Low Impact Development Program," April 2010, http://www.epa.gov/greeningepa/stormwater/hq_lid.htm; and "Low Impact Development (LID)," August 2009, http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/greeninfrastructure/information.cfm#glossary.
Wastewater runoff associated with transportation projects can contain numerous pollutants that can be released into stormwater systems. Vehicle washing and steam cleaning can generate wastewater that contains oil, grease, and other detergents, which can wash into the sewer system. FTA is working with transit agencies on methods that limit wastewater runoff. New transit project proposals are now required to include methods of reducing runoff and preventing stormwater pollutants in their environmental documents. Existing transit facilities are encouraged to control the use of chemicals and detergents to prevent runoff. For more information on this issue, see http://www.fta.dot.gov/12347_2230.html.
Wetlands protection is another environmental concern because wetland habitats shelter endangered plant and animal species.i Using a wetland-banking "credits" system, Federally funded transportation projects must "bank" 1.5 acres of healthy wetland for every 1.0 acre of wetlands impacted by projects. As of 2006, Federal-aid highway projects banked, on average, 2.6 acres of wetlands for every acre impactedii.
i FHWA, "Wetlands and Highways: A Natural Approach," 1995, http://www.environment.fhwa.dot.gov/ecosystems/wet_wetlands.asp.
Other Sustainability Strategies
Because of the limitations in discussing all potential metrics and strategies fully, Exhibit 11-4 summarizes other sustainability strategies in transportation and briefly describes each.21
Transportation organizations are increasingly focusing on projects and programs that support the creation of a sustainable transportation system. Much has been accomplished, and much more is planned. Marking progress made in these endeavors is also in the works, although these efforts are still in the early phases for many transportation organizations. Efforts to collect information and data on best practices, select measures, and evaluate progress are in various phases of development among Federal, State, and local governments.
|Improving System Efficiency|
|Transit Signal Priority||Uses sensors to detect approaching transit vehicles and alter signal timings.|
|Speed Limit Reductions||Reduces speed limits to 55 mph nationally.|
|Truck Idling Reduction||Equips sleeper cabs with on-board auxiliary power units for heating and cooling, truck stop electrification, and anti-idling ordinances.|
|Lane Control||Controls signs, supported by surveillance and detection technologies, allowing temporary lane closures to avoid incidents on freeways.|
|Reducing Growth in VMT|
|Ridesharing||Promotes carpools, vanpools, and other ridesharing techniques.|
|Combining Trips||Promotes and makes it easier to link multiple trips into one or two.|
|Transitioning to Fuel-Efficient Vehicles and Alternative Fuels|
|CAFE Standards||Increases CAFE standards to increase the number of highly fuel efficient vehicles.|
|National Fuel Cell Bus Program||Develops new fuel cell technologies that improve fuel efficiency of transit.|
|Alternative Fuel Infrastructure||Improves and increases alternative-fuel infrastructure through tax credits, grant programs, and/or mandates.|
|Protection and Preservation of Native Species||Uses native plants that have adapted to natural surroundings; protects endangered species.|
|Habitat Restoration||Restores or preserves natural habitats during/after transportation construction projects.|
|Reducing Construction Environmental Impacts|
|Sustainable Paving Processes||Includes roller-compacted concrete and two-lift construction.|
|Local Materials||Promotes use of local aggregate in highway construction projects.|
|Have performance measures been developed at the national level?|
Currently, a number of sustainable transportation system performance indicators show progress at the national level. A good example of this is the information collected to date on GHG emissions, although comprehensive data are not readily available in other areas at this point.
However, before more data and information are collected, there must be agreement on what should be measured. With the wide range of possible areas of emphasis and impact, the product of this agreement will likely be a collection of sustainability metrics. Discussion is underway as the U.S. DOT and partner agencies work toward gaining consensus on which metrics will be the focus.
Sustainability in the Transportation Planning Process
The transportation planning process plays a fundamental role in identifying and implementing the vision and strategic goals of a State, region, or community for its future. The long-range planning process is an opportunity for transportation stakeholders to consider the long-term costs and benefits involved in developing transportation projects—including sustainability—in their community. One recent study indicates that even though most transportation agencies have not explicitly mentioned sustainability in their long-range planning, a majority of them are incorporating sustainable transportation system concerns—such as environment, future needs, and social equity—into their transportation planning process.22
|What are some examples of States incorporating sustainability into their transportation planning process?|
State transportation agencies are increasingly incorporating sustainable practices into their transportation programs for planning, design, operations, maintenance, and performance measurement. For example, Oregon DOT has adopted Solar Highways, using renewal energy for highway lighting. New York is using the GreenLITES (Green Leadership in Transportation Environmental Sustainability) rating system to recognize transportation projects that incorporate a high level of environmental sustainability. For more information on these, as well as other state initiatives, see http://environment.transportation.org/environmental_issues/sustainability/case_studies.aspx
State DOTs also have project-level planning and design requirements. The NEPA process provides a framework in which planners and stakeholders can consider many factors, including sustainability, prior to construction of a proposed project. At present, Federal planning and NEPA-related legislation do not specifically reference sustainability per se. However, many of the factors that are commonly requirements for consideration during project-level planning and NEPA review are directly related to the types of sustainability-related issues identified in this chapter.
One example of efforts to respond to the challenge of creating a sustainable transportation system is the increased use of context sensitive solutions (CSS). A CSS approach requires that transportation planning consider the interactions between transportation systems and tailor them to the local area human, cultural, and natural environment.
Context Sensitive Solutions
The U.S. DOT is already using CSS to actively engage stakeholders in a collaborative, interdisciplinary, decision-making approach. CSS is a collaborative problem-solving model where transportation agencies consider and build on ideas generated by stakeholders. CSS projects consider communities' characteristics and visions, new and emerging technologies, bicycle and pedestrian facilities, transit and multimodal connections, stormwater management, and use of recycled materials and structures. The approach also preserves and enhances scenic, aesthetic, and historic community and environmental resources while improving or maintaining safety, mobility, and infrastructure conditions.23
CSS can be applied to all aspects of project development from planning and design to construction, operation, and maintenance. CSS has been utilized most frequently for difficult and complex projects with major impact. Increasingly, however, State DOTs are seeking to use CSS from the onset of project planning and in more routine projects. CSS does not represent a philosophy to be selectively applied to certain categories of projects, but an approach to transportation planning, design, construction, and maintenance that is scalable to use on every transportation project.
The application of CSS principles within the transportation planning process assists regions and communities in reaching their transportation goals by encouraging the integration of land use, transportation, and infrastructure. When transportation planning reflects community input and takes into consideration the impacts on both natural and human environments, it also promotes partnerships that lead to more balanced decisionmaking. Use of the CSS philosophy and approaches during project development can improve project decisionmaking; expedite project delivery; and enhance mobility, safety, livability, and environmental sustainability.
1 W.R. Black, "Sustainable Transport: Definitions and Responses," Integrating Sustainability into the Transportation Planning Process, Conference Proceedings 37, Committee for the Conference on Introducing Sustainability into Surface Transportation Planning, July 11–13, 2004, Baltimore, Transportation Research Board, Washington DC, 2005, pages 35–43.
5 "Transportation Air Quality Selected Facts and Figures, 2006," http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/air_quality/publications/fact_book/page06.cfm.
6 Tara Ramani, "Criteria and Tools for Sustainable Highways," March 31, 2010, page 8.
7 Ibid, page 8.
8 Christy Mihyeon Jeon, Dissertation: Incorporating Sustainability into Transportation Planning and Decisionmaking, Georgia Institute of Technology, December 2007.
9 American Public Transportation Association, Sustainability Commitment, 2010, http://www.apta.com/resources/hottopics/sustainability/Documents/APTA-Sustainability-Commitment.pdf.
10 See U.S. Global Change Research Program, Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States, June 2009, http://www.globalchange.gov/what-we-do/assessment/previous-assessments/global-climate-change-impacts-in-the-us-2009.
11 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Fourth Assessment Report, 2007, http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_and_data_reports.shtml#1.
12 U.S. Global Change Research Program, Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States, June 2009.
13 U.S. DOT, Transportation's Role in Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, April 2010.
14 U.S. EPA, Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2006, 2008.
15 EIA, Annual Energy Outlook 2010, May 2010, http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/archive/aeo10/index.html.
16 U.S. EPA, Light Duty Automotive Technology and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 through 2007, Document #EPA420-S-07-001, September 2007.
17 2001 National Household Transportation Survey.
18 U.S. DOT, Transportation's Role in Reducing U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions, April 2010, Vol. 1, pages 2–19.
19 EIA, "Use of Energy in the United States: Energy Use for Transportation," 2010, http://www.eia.doe.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=us_energy_transportation#tab1.
20 EIA, Alternative Fuels & Advanced Vehicles Data Center, "Alternative Fueling Station Locator," http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/locator/stations/state.
21 FHWA, Performance Evaluation of Various Rehabilitation and Preservation Treatments, January 2010, page 31.
22 C. Jeon and A. Amekudzi, "Addressing Sustainability in Transportation Systems: Definitions, Indicators, and Metrics," Journal of Infrastructure Systems, Vol. 11, March 2005, pages 31–50.
23 "What is Context Sensitive Solutions?," FHWA and Center for Transportation and the Environment at North Carolina State University, National Dialog for Context Sensitive Solutions, http://cssnationaldialog.org/index.asp.
To view PDF files, you need the Acrobat® Reader®. | - Environmental Sustainability
- Establishing Sustainability Goals
- Assessing Sustainability in the Transportation System
- Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
- Total GHG From Transportation
- GHG Emissions per Passenger Mile or Ton Mile
- Improving System Efficiency and Reducing VMT Growth
- Integrated Land-Use Planning
- Transitioning to Fuel-Efficient Vehicles and Alternative Fuels
- Recycling | {
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Open, but some materials continue to be national security classified and restricted. Access is governed by the donor’s deed of gift, a copy of which is available on request, and National Archives and Records Administration regulations (36 CFR 1256).
Gerald Ford has donated to the United States of America his copyrights in all of his unpublished writings in National Archives collections. The copyrights to materials written by other individuals or organizations are presumed to remain with them. Works prepared by U.S. Government employees as part of their official duties are in the public domain.
Prepared by Helmi Raaska, 1998; Revised by Geir Gundersen, March 2004
[s:\bin\findaid\nsc\presidential correspondence with foreign leaders.doc] | 1.5 linear feet (ca. 3,000 pages)
Gerald R. Ford (accession number 77-118)
Open, but some materials continue to be national security classified and restricted. Access is governed by the donor’s deed of gift, a copy of which is available on request, and National Archives and Records Administration regulations (36 CFR 1256).
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(20 ILCS 3954/5)
Findings and purpose.
Daily government operations have an impact on environmental quality and use of natural resources, including the energy and water consumed, the solid waste generated, the buildings constructed, and the goods and services purchased. The purpose of this Act is to demonstrate the State's commitment to reducing negative environmental impacts, reducing greenhouse gases, and preserving resources for current and future generations. This Act will also strengthen the capacity of units of local government and educational institutions to transition to a more environmentally sustainable future.
(Source: P.A. 95-657, eff. 10-10-07.) | (20 ILCS 3954/5)
Findings and purpose.
Daily government operations have an impact on environmental quality and use of natural resources, including the energy and water consumed, the solid waste generated, the buildings constructed, and the goods and services purchased. The purpose of this Act is to demonstrate the State's commitment to reducing negative environmental impacts, reducing greenhouse g | {
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COAL MINE FATALITY
- COAL MINE FATALITY - On Friday December 26, 1997, a continuous mining machine operator was tramming the continuous mining machine in the over ten-foot high No. 3 entry toward the face. A twenty-three foot length of the right side rib fell suddenly onto the continuous mining machine operator inflicting fatal injuries.
This is the 30th coal mine fatality in 1997. As of December 26 of last year there had been 39 fatalities. This death is the third classified as FALL OF RIB in 1997.
Drawing of Accident Scene
For more information: MSHA's Fatal Accident Investigation Report [FTL97C30] | COAL MINE FATALITY
- COAL MINE FATALITY - On Friday December 26, 1997, a continuous mining machine operator was tramming the continuous mining machine in the over ten-foot high No. 3 entry toward the face. A twenty-three foot length of the right side rib fell suddenly onto the continuous mining machine operator inflicting fatal injuries.
This is the 30th coal mine fatality in 1997. As of December | {
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Many southern and border states devised legal barriers to circumvent the Fifteenth Amendment and prohibit black voting. These barriers included poll taxes, literacy tests, “grandfather clauses,” and the “white primary.” In 1910 Oklahoma passed a constitutional amendment, which held that only residents whose grandfathers had voted in 1865 could vote, thus disqualifying the descendants of slaves. The NAACP persuaded the U.S. attorney general to challenge the constitutionality of the “grandfather clause,” encouraged by a Maryland Circuit Court decision in 1913. Oklahoma appealed the case to the Supreme Court. Moorfield Storey was granted permission to argue the case on behalf of the NAACP. In June 1915, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously in Guinn v. United States that the “grandfather clause” was in violation of the Fifteenth Amendment. | Many southern and border states devised legal barriers to circumvent the Fifteenth Amendment and prohibit black voting. These barriers included poll taxes, literacy tests, “grandfather clauses,” and the “white primary.” In 1910 Oklahoma passed a constitutional amendment, which held that only residents whose grandfathers had voted in 1865 could vote, thus disqualifying the descendants of slaves. Th | {
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Sustainable Development at the Northern Ireland Assembly
The Northern Ireland Assembly Commission (The Commission) is committed to becoming an exemplar organisation in respect of Sustainable Development. Over the course of this year, the Commission has already undertaken significant steps to reduce and manage its environmental impact through the implementation of Environmental Management Systems (EMS) to the ISO 14001:2004 International Standard. This commitment will continue as we set environmental performance targets for waste, paper usage, energy emissions and sustainable travel.
The Commission has become a platinum member of Business in the Community Northern Ireland (BITCNI). Membership includes access to the ARENA Network Survey, Northern Ireland’s leading environmental benchmarking survey. The Commission took part in the survey in 2010 and will continue to undertake the benchmarking exercise to continually improve our environmental management and performance.
Study our data including information on energy consumption, carbon emissions and recycling within Parliament Buildings.
Strategies & Polices
A Sustainable Development Policy Statement was introduced in December 2009, which sets out the Commission’s aspirations to operate more sustainably.
To support the Policy Statement, a Sustainable Development Strategy was published in April 2010. The three year Strategy includes annual action plans to enhance existing responsible business practice with a view to achieving the aspirations detailed within the Policy Statement and Strategy.
An Environmental Policy Statement was also published in July 2010 which outlines the Commission’s commitment to continual improvement, complying with all environmental legislation and to reduce and prevent pollution where possible. | Sustainable Development at the Northern Ireland Assembly
The Northern Ireland Assembly Commission (The Commission) is committed to becoming an exemplar organisation in respect of Sustainable Development. Over the course of this year, the Commission has already undertaken significant steps to reduce and manage its environmental impact through the implementation of Environmental Management Systems ( | {
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Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) Programs
The Small Business Innovation Research Program supports research and development by small businesses of innovative technologies that have the potential to succeed commercially or provide significant societal benefits. The Small Business Technology Transfer Program has the same objectives, but requires academic research involvement. In DDTR the SBIR and STTR programs support research aimed at the development and validation of new methods and techniques to advance understanding, prevention, and treatment of child psychopathology.
Areas of Emphasis
- Development of novel pharmacologic or behavioral interventions for the treatment of child psychopathology.
- Use of biomedical computation to advance and test new models of child psychopathology.
- Development of biomarkers to assess pediatric mental function and dysfunction as related to mental illness.
- Development of novel diagnostic tools and innovative measures of treatment response and disease progression, preclinical or clinical efficacy testing, or toxicity measures for drug development.
- Development of hardware and software tools to enable refined physiological and behavioral assessment of normal and atypical infant and child development.
- Web-based tools to enhance prevention, early identification and treatment of pediatric mental disorders by various educational and health professionals.
- Development of hardware and software tools to support operations of multi-site clinical trials.
Margaret C. Grabb, Ph.D.
6001 Executive Boulevard, Room 7203, MSC 9645
- Neurobehavioral Mechanisms of Mental Disorders Branch
- Developmental Trajectories of Mental Disorders Branch
- Research Training and Career Development Program
- Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) Programs
- Division of Developmental Translational Research (DDTR) | Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) and Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) Programs
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Cliff Dwellings Closed June 3 through 7; TJ Site Tours Offered
The Gila Cliff Dwellings will be closed from June 3 through 7, 2013 for hazard rock removal from the cliff face directly above the dwellings. Ranger-guided tours of the TJ Site will be offered at 11 am and 2 pm while the cliff dwellings are closed. More »
Did You Know?
Stone axes made it challenging for the ancient Puebloans of the Mogollon area to cut down trees for vigas (roof beams) in the Gila Cliff Dwellings. So, before chopping the tree trunks, they would burn a small fire around the base of the trunk to weaken it so their axes could cut it down more easily. | Cliff Dwellings Closed June 3 through 7; TJ Site Tours Offered
The Gila Cliff Dwellings will be closed from June 3 through 7, 2013 for hazard rock removal from the cliff face directly above the dwellings. Ranger-guided tours of the TJ Site will be offered at 11 am and 2 pm while the cliff dwellings are closed. More »
Did You Know?
Stone axes made it challenging for the ancient Puebloans of the Mog | {
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On May 20, 1995, at 1355 central daylight time, a Cessna 150G, N4774X, sustained substantial damage when it nosed over during landing roll in Stockton, Missouri. The solo student pilot reported no injuries. The 14 CFR Part 91 instructional flight originated in Pittsburg, Kansas, at 1325. Visual meteorological conditions prevailed and no flight plan was filed. Use your browsers 'back' function to return to synopsisReturn to Query Page
In his written statement, the student pilot reported the winds were from the west-southwest at 12 gusting to 15 knots. He reported that while he was landing on runway 19L, the right wing came up. He lost control of the airplane and it slid off the left side of the runway into wet grass. The airplane slid into a ditch and nosed over sustaining damage to the right wing and minor damage to the empennage, left wing, and forward fuselage. | On May 20, 1995, at 1355 central daylight time, a Cessna 150G, N4774X, sustained substantial damage when it nosed over during landing roll in Stockton, Missouri. The solo student pilot reported no injuries. The 14 CFR Part 91 instructional flight originated in Pittsburg, Kansas, at 1325. Visual meteorological conditions prevailed and no flight plan was filed. Use your browsers 'back' function to r | {
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The Elements of Plain LanguageJoe Kimble, a law professor and a major force in plain language in the United States, published this October 2002 article, The Elements of Plain Language, in the Michigan Bar Journal.
I originally published these guidelines in 1992, in the Thomas M. Cooley Law Review.(1) Although I think they hold up pretty well after ten years, I have tinkered with them recently. So here is the 2002 edition:
A. In General
1. As the starting point and at every point, design and write the document in a way that best serves the reader. Your main goal is to convey your ideas with the greatest possible clarity.
2. Resist the urge to sound formal. Relax and be natural (but not too informal). Try for the same unaffected tone you would use if you were speaking to the reader in person.
3. Omit unnecessary detail. Boil down the information to what your reader needs to know.
4. Use examples as needed to help explain the text.
5. Whenever possible, test consumer documents on a small group of typical users—and improve the documents as need be.
1. Make a table of contents for long documents.
2. Use at least 10- to 12-point type for text, and a readable serif typeface.
3. Try to use between 50 and 70 characters a line.
4. Use ample white space in margins, between sections, and around headings and other special items.
5. Use highlighting techniques such as boldface, italics, and bullet dots. But don't overdo them, and be consistent throughout the document.
6. Avoid using all-capital letters. And avoid overusing initial capitals for common nouns (this agreement, trust, common stock).
7. Use diagrams, tables, and charts as needed to help explain the text.
1. Use short sections, or subdivide longer ones.
2. Put related material together.
3. Order the parts in a logical sequence. Normally, put the more important before the less important, the general before the specific, and the ordinary before the extraordinary.
4. Use informative headings for the main divisions and subdivisions. In consumer documents, try putting the main headings in the form of a question.
5. Minimize cross-references.
6. Minimize definitions. If you have more than a few, put them in a separate schedule or glossary at the end of the document.
(The next four items apply to analytical documents, such as briefs and memos, and to most informational documents.)
7. Try to begin the document and the main divisions with one or two paragraphs that introduce and summarize what follows, including your answer.(2)
8. Use a topic sentence to summarize the main idea of each paragraph or of a series of paragraphs on the same topic.
9. Make sure that each paragraph develops the main idea through a logical sequence of sentences.
10. Use transitions to link your ideas and to introduce new ideas.
1. Prefer short and medium-length sentences. As a guideline, keep the average length to about 20 words.
2. In most sentences, put the subject near the beginning; keep it short and concrete; make it something the reader already knows about; and make it the agent of the action in the verb.
3. Put the central action in strong verbs, not in abstract nouns. ("If the seller delivers the goods late, the buyer may cancel the contract." Not: "Late delivery of the goods may result in cancellation of the contract.")
4. Keep the subject near the verb, and the verb near the object (or complement). Avoid intrusive phrases and clauses.
5. Try to put the main subject and verb toward the beginning; don't pile up conditions or qualifiers before the main clause.
6. Put the strongest point, your most important information, at the end—where the emphasis falls.
7. Prefer the active voice. Use the passive voice if the agent is unknown or unimportant. Or use it if, for continuity, you want to focus attention on the object of the action instead of the agent. ("No more legalese. It has been ridiculed long enough.")
8. Connect modifying words to what they modify. Be especially careful with a series: make clear whether the modifier applies to one or more than one item. (Examples of ambiguity: "educational institutions or corporations"; "a felony or misdemeanor involving dishonesty.")
9. Use parallel structure for parallel ideas. Consider using a list if the items are at all complicated, as when you have multiple conditions, consequences, or rules. And put the list at the end of the sentence.
1. Prefer familiar words—usually the shorter ones—that are simple and direct and human. (3)
2. Avoid legal jargon: stuffy old formalisms (Now comes; In witness whereof); here-, there-, and where- words (hereby, therein, wherefore); unnecessary Latin (arguendo, inter alia); and all the rest (and/or, provided that, pursuant to, the instant case). (4)
3. Avoid doublets and triplets (any and all; give, devise, and bequeath).
4. In consumer documents, explain technical terms that you cannot avoid using.
5. Omit unnecessary words.
6. Replace wordy phrases (prior to, with regard to, in the event that). (5)
7. Give shall the boot; use must instead.
8. In consumer documents, consider making the consumer "you."
9. Avoid multiple negatives.
10. Be consistent; use the same term for the same thing, without thinking twice.
(Articles are by the author.)
1. Plain English: A Charter for Clear Writing, 9 T.M. Cooley L. Rev. 1, 11–14 (1992).
2. See First Things First: The Lost Art of Summarizing, Court Rev., Summer 2001, at 30.
3. See Plain Words (Part One), Mich. B.J., Aug. 2001, at 72.
4. See Plain Words (Part Two), Mich. B.J., Sept. 2001, at 72, 73.
5. See id. at 72. | The Elements of Plain LanguageJoe Kimble, a law professor and a major force in plain language in the United States, published this October 2002 article, The Elements of Plain Language, in the Michigan Bar Journal.
I originally published these guidelines in 1992, in the Thomas M. Cooley Law Review.(1) Although I think they hold up pretty well after ten years, I have tinkered with them recently. So | {
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Business Expenses and Tax Deductions Explained; A 101 for Small Business Owners
by Caron_Beesley, Community Moderator
- Created: June 29, 2010, 5:05 am
- Updated: March 28, 2013, 3:49 pm
Well, yes, if you know where to find them and apply them correctly.
For small business owners, these tax breaks often come in the form of tax deductions- which can offer a nice little instant cash savings' if you know how to navigate tax law and claim the deductions you deserve (not what you believe you are entitled to).
Large tax deductions are a notorious red flag for the IRS, with home-based businesses, in particular, facing an increase in tax audits due to suspicious deduction activity on income tax returns.
To help you navigate the complex world of business tax deductions, here is some foundational guidance that will help you take the deductions you deserve.
1. Understanding Terminology: Business Expenses vs. Capital Expenses
Before you even start, knowing the difference between these two tax concepts is vital.
- Business expenses are expenses associated with the cost of doing business, e.g. property rental costs, business travel, client entertainment, etc. If you are a for-profit, these expenses are usually tax deductible.
- Capital expenses are the costs associated with purchasing fixed business assets, such as property and equipment, and must be capitalized rather than deducted as expenses.
2. Common Business Expenses
Below are the most typical types of business expenses that qualify for deductions.
Car Expenses' To take the business deduction for the use of your car, you must determine what percentage of the vehicle was used for business. Deductible costs can include the cost of traveling from one workplace to another, making business trips to visit customers or to attend meetings, or traveling to temporary workplaces. Be sure to maintain complete mileage records. When it comes to claiming car expenses there are two methods:
a) Actual Expenses
b) Standard Mileage Rate
- 50 cents per mile for business miles driven
- 16.5 cents per mile driven for medical or moving purposes
- 14 cents per mile driven in service of charitable organizations
Business Use of Your Home' If you use part of your home for your business, you may be able to deduct expenses for items such as mortgage interest, insurance, utilities, repairs, and depreciation. To qualify you must meet the following criteria:
a) The business part of your home must be used exclusively and regularly for your trade or business. However, there are exceptions for daycare facilities or storage of inventory/product samples.
b) The business part of your home must be:
- The principal place of business, or
- A place where you meet or deal with patients, clients, or customers in the normal course of your business, or
- A separate structure (not attached to your home) used in connection with your business
For a full explanation of tax deductions for your home office refer to Business Use of Your Home (IRS Publication 587) or take a look at this quick video on the Business.gov YouTube* channel to understand more about the home office business deduction*.
Entertainment Expenses' This includes any activity considered to provide entertainment, amusement or recreation. To be deductible, you must generally show that entertainment expenses (including meals) are directly related to, or associated with, the conduct of your business. Record keeping is essential' you will need to keep a history of the business purpose, the amount of each expense, the date and place of the entertainment, and the business relationship of the persons entertained. Entertainment expenses are usually subject to a 50 percent limit.
Travel Expenses - These are ordinary and necessary expenses while away from home when the primary purpose is conducting business. Again, you must keep all receipts and travel records for lodging, transportation and meals (save receipts for amounts of $75 or more). You can either track the actual costs of your meals, or use the standard meal allowance, if you qualify. You can only claim a deduction for 50 percent of the reimbursed cost of your meals. The IRS provides more detail on business travel expenses.
Gift Expenses - If you give gifts in the course of business, you can deduct all or part of the cost. Generally, you can deduct no more than $25 for business gifts you give directly or indirectly to each person during the tax year.
3. How to Deduct Capital Expenses
There are two ways to deduct capital expenses. You can 'depreciate' them by deducting a portion of the total cost each year over an asset's useful life; or you might be able to deduct the cost in one year as a Section 179 deduction. For more information on depreciation refer to the Business.gov Small Business Expenses and Tax Deductions guide (scroll halfway down the page).
- IRS Online Tax Workshop - Check out Lesson 2 for easy-to-understand information about claiming business tax deductions.
- Using Your Personal Vehicle for Business Purposes - Tax Deductions, Insurance and the Like!
- How to Claim the Tax Deduction for Business Use of Your Home
- Cash vs Accrual Accounting for Taxable Income and Expenses
- Setting the Record Straight with the IRS: Fixing Tax Errors, Handling Disputes & Avoiding Audits
- IRS.gov Undergoes a Quiet Evolution - Revealing Invaluable Online Tax Tools for Small Business
- When Avoiding a Tax Audit - the Best Offense is a Good Defense
*Note: Hyperlink directs reader to non-government Web site.
About the Author
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General small business tips and tricks. | Business Expenses and Tax Deductions Explained; A 101 for Small Business Owners
by Caron_Beesley, Community Moderator
- Created: June 29, 2010, 5:05 am
- Updated: March 28, 2013, 3:49 pm
Well, yes, if you know where to find them and apply them correctly.
For small business owners, these tax breaks often come in the form of tax deductions- which can offer a nice little instant cash savings' if you | {
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Since 2000, USAID has supported three national learning assessments in Ethiopia, which revealed that students’ learning achievements were below standards. Rapid growth in enrollment, large classes and a lack of teaching materials in the classroom have challenged efforts to improve educational quality. Meanwhile, girls and migratory pastoralists are less likely to be enrolled in school.
USAID is helping millions of Ethiopian students advance in their education while building the capacity of teachers and institutions. The program has particularly focused teaching reading at earlier ages and on educational opportunities for pastoral and other marginalized children. USAID has also partnered with the Peace Corps to improve English language skills among Ethiopian students.
To close the education gap between boys and girls, USAID identifies gender-related obstacles and implements remedies to remove and overcome them. Greater educational attainment, especially for girls, has been proven to result in better health and nutrition, reduced infant mortality due in part to delayed marriage and child bearing, increased infant birth weight, age-appropriate entry into school, and lower risk of contracting HIV/AIDS.
Youth and Workforce Development
Young people under 25 make up almost two-thirds of Ethiopia’s population, making them one of the country’s largest potential resources. However, barriers to Internet access inhibit the development of youth civil society, as their peers in other countries have been profoundly shaped by information and communication technology and social media access. USAID’s programming enhances the role of youth as positive and active members of their communities, especially in conflict mitigation and reconciliation. To address the needs of youth and the community as a whole, USAID is working to help develop relevant and useful curriculum for meaningful training that leads to meeting the needs of employers. Training and activities take place in a number of settings, including university campuses, and address topics ranging from life skills to leadership and business planning.
Last updated: May 10, 2013 | Since 2000, USAID has supported three national learning assessments in Ethiopia, which revealed that students’ learning achievements were below standards. Rapid growth in enrollment, large classes and a lack of teaching materials in the classroom have challenged efforts to improve educational quality. Meanwhile, girls and migratory pastoralists are less likely to be enrolled in school.
USAID is he | {
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Let’s Move Outside! is about putting children on the path to a healthy and active future, and on March 30, New Melones Park Ranger Tracy Neal led 34 students from the Chinese Camp Elementary school in Chinese Camp, California, along with their teachers and parents for a second annual trip to explore the top of Table Mountain. During the 2-hour hike, they used their guide books to search for and identify wildflowers. At the seasonal vernal pools, the kids enjoyed getting wet while they searched for aquatic creatures. They took a magnified look at insects ranging from water striders, diving beetles, tadpoles, water mites, and dragonfly nymphs. The group then hiked to a location with a panoramic view of New Melones Lake. As they sat on top of an ancient lava flow overlooking the Table Mountain formation, they visualized how it was once an ancient river valley, which came to be a mountain. The hike ended with shared ideas on how they could help protect the ecosystems.
Let’s Move! is a comprehensive initiative, launched by the First Lady, dedicated to solving the challenge of childhood obesity within a generation, so that children born today will grow up healthier and able to pursue their dreams.
Released: April 06, 2012 | Let’s Move Outside! is about putting children on the path to a healthy and active future, and on March 30, New Melones Park Ranger Tracy Neal led 34 students from the Chinese Camp Elementary school in Chinese Camp, California, along with their teachers and parents for a second annual trip to explore the top of Table Mountain. During the 2-hour hike, they used their guide books to search for and id | {
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Retrieval system to locate websites on publications and compilations on biological resources. Searches can be made by type, such as checklists, distribution, and regional overviews, by taxon, and by geography, including global, U.S., and Canada.
The Raptor Information System (RIS) collection and bibliographic database have been transferred to The Peregrine Fund. The RIS records are being subsumed into the bibliography posted on the website of the Global Raptor Information Network (GRIN).
Portal of the South Florida Information Access (SOFIA) system providing multiple links to projects, products, information, and data for research, decision-making, and resource management of the South Florida ecosystem restoration effort. | Retrieval system to locate websites on publications and compilations on biological resources. Searches can be made by type, such as checklists, distribution, and regional overviews, by taxon, and by geography, including global, U.S., and Canada.
The Raptor Information System (RIS) collection and bibliographic database have been transferred to The Peregrine Fund. The RIS records are being subsumed | {
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1. Periodic Report Summary - OGPLIE (Ortega y Gasset's philosophy of life and his idea of Europe)
Record Control Number:
Quality Validation Date:
Abstract: In the 'OGPLIE' project I examined the work of José Ortega y Gasset in the four following stages:
1. Ortega´s philosophy as an integrative philosophy of life
2. Ortega´s attempt at a synthesis of Mediterranean and German thinking tradition; his affinities to Husserl, Heidegger, Dilthey and Simmel
3. Ortega´s concept of historical reason, and
4. Ortega´s notion of Europe.
As I studied Ortega's life and culture philosophy for many years, I focussed my research project on 'Ortega´s notion of Europe'. According to Ortega, European identity consisted of a system of convictions, beliefs and common values, which resulted in a system of specific European collective habits, a European public opinion, a European law and, last but not least, a European balance of power. According to Ortega, among all these perspectives, the beliefs and the common habits were the most important things.
Ortega distinguished between beliefs and ideas, stating that whereas we were conscious of our ideas, we lived in our beliefs making unconsciously use of them. In this sense, Europe was a belief in which we lived, the reality in which we existed and projected our lives. As I pointed out in my project, there were three fundamental beliefs, which were characteristic for the European culture. One of the three pillars, or fundamental beliefs, i.e. 'creencias', upon which European identity was based, was, firstly, the belief in the universality of reason and, secondly, the belief in the inalienable dignity and uniqueness of each human individual.
Furthermore, the discovery of reason as an independent reality, as a system and method which rendered science, technology and, above all, philosophy possible, was to be seen, according to Ortega, as a genuinely Greek accomplishment. One of the definitive characteristics of the belief in reason consisted in the further belief that thought could apprehend reality by means of concepts and ideas. Nevertheless, this assumed that not only our thought but also the world as it is had a conceptual, rational structure. And this, in turn, was an assumption which expressed a condition for the possibility of objective knowledge and a form of science, which was independent of tradition and culture. The other definitive characteristic consisted in the belief that man was to be distinguished from other living things by the fact that he had privileged access to the rationality which inhabited the world, which was a cosmos ordered according to principles of reason. And, because of this special human privilege, man was able to communicate with others of his kind concerning what was 'true' and 'false'. Both these assumptions led, already in antiquity and particularly in the early Stoa, to the recognition of the uniqueness and dignity of every human person, and thus to a first form of humanism with a 'cosmopolitan bent'. Therefore, Ortega stated that Socrates' discovery of reason was the discovery of Europe.
The third pillar of European identity was the belief in the importance of the single person in his individuality. 'Europeans are', according to Ortega y Gasset, 'the kind of human beings who have invested all the labour and devotion of their history into the creation of personality'. For Ortega, the recognition of the single person and the creation of his personality was an accomplishment of the European humanism, which was the most important unifying power in Europe. From the belief in the importance of the single person in his individuality arose the task of the university, which Ortega developed in his famous writing 'La mission de la Universidad'.
Subject Descriptors: Anthropology; Information analysis
Subject Index Codes: Information and communication technology applications ; Life Sciences | 1. Periodic Report Summary - OGPLIE (Ortega y Gasset's philosophy of life and his idea of Europe)
Record Control Number:
Quality Validation Date:
Abstract: In the 'OGPLIE' project I examined the work of José Ortega y Gasset in the four following stages:
1. Ortega´s philosophy as an integrative philosophy of life
2. Ortega´s attempt at a synthesis of Mediterranean and German thinking tradition; his | {
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The EU Expert Group on Education and Training in Sport held its first meeting in Innsbruck on 13 January 2012. The EU Expert Group on Anti-Doping held its second meeting in Brussels on 8 February 2012. The reports from both meetings are now available.
The Expert Groups are among the six Expert Groups established by the Council's Resolution on an EU Work Plan for Sport for 2011-2014 to carry out specific tasks within the 2011-2014 timeframe. They are composed of experts appointed by the Member States with support from the Commission and report to the Council Working Party on Sport.
The Group on Education and Training in Sport is mandated by the Council to prepare a proposal for European guidelines on dual careers (the combination of high-level sports training and general education) and to follow up the inclusion of sport-related qualifications in National Qualification Frameworks (NQFs) with reference to the European Qualification Framework (EQF). At its first meeting [180 KB] , the Group agreed on a work schedule that includes two concrete deliverables.
The EU Expert Group on Anti-Doping held its second meeting [168 KB] on 08 February and finalised a proposal for a first EU contribution to the revision of the World Anti-Doping Code. This text was later adopted by the EU Council and sent to the World Anti-Doping Agency by the Danish EU Presidency. More information | The EU Expert Group on Education and Training in Sport held its first meeting in Innsbruck on 13 January 2012. The EU Expert Group on Anti-Doping held its second meeting in Brussels on 8 February 2012. The reports from both meetings are now available.
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Modular Threshold Ramps
Threshold ramps are used to modify door thresholds and other small rises to remove barriers that changes in level landing create, particularly with regards to access by people with disabilities. Modular threshold ramps are typically used for retrofitting buildings to comply with the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) of 1968, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990. Modular threshold ramps made from rubber, aluminum, and steel can be made from recovered materials.
Recommended Recovered Materials
- Additional Links
EPA's Recovered Materials Advisory Notice (RMAN) recommends recycled-content levels for purchasing modular threshold ramps as shown in the table below.
|Material||Postconsumer Content (%)||Total Recovered Materials Content (%)|
šThe recommended recovered materials content levels for steel in this table reflect the fact that the designated item may contain steel manufactured in either a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) or an Electric Arc Furnace (EAF), or a combination of both. Steel from the BOF process contains 25% - 30% total recovered steel, of which 16% is postconsumer. Steel from the EAF process contains 100% total recovered steel, of which 67% is postconsumer. According to industry sources, modular threshold ramps containing a combination of BOF and EAF steel would contain 25% - 85% total recovered steel, of which 16% - 67% would be postconsumer. Since there is no way of knowing which type of steel was used in the manufacture of the item, the postconsumer and total recovered material content ranges in this table encompass the whole range of possibilities, i.e., the use of EAF steel only, BOF steel only, or a combination of the two. These recommendations are for modular threshold ramps. EPA understands that ramps may also be constructed of cement and concrete. For these ramps, procuring agencies should follow the procurement guidelines for cement and concrete containing recovered materials.
Although the federal government is not governed by ADA, the Access Board's ADA standards are more current than the UFAS and are therefore generally used by federal facilities. According to the "Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities" (28 CFR Part 36), published in the Federal Register, July 26, 1991, ground and floor surfaces along accessible routes and in accessible rooms and spaces including floors, walks, ramps, stairs, and curb ramps, must be stable, firm, and slip-resistant. The guidelines do not define what is meant by "stable, firm, and slip-resistant," but the Access Board recommends static coefficient of friction values of 0.8 for ramps and 0.6 for accessible routes.
of Manufacturers and Suppliers
This database identifies manufacturers and suppliers of modular threshold ramps containing recovered materials.
Buy-Recycled Series: Construction Products (PDF) (11 pp, 104K, About PDF)
This fact sheet highlights the construction products designated in the CPG and includes recommended recovered-content levels and a list of resources.
This background document includes EPA's product research on modular threshold ramps as well as a more detailed overview of the history and regulatory requirements of the CPG process. | Modular Threshold Ramps
Threshold ramps are used to modify door thresholds and other small rises to remove barriers that changes in level landing create, particularly with regards to access by people with disabilities. Modular threshold ramps are typically used for retrofitting buildings to comply with the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) of 1968, the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Uniform Federa | {
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Title: Digital Beamforming Synthetic Aperture Radar (DBSAR) Polametric Upgrade
Author: Rafael Rincon
Organization: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
For several years NASA/GSFC has been investing through internal research and development (IRAD) in the development of a new generation airborne L-Band radar system known as the Digital Beamforming Synthetic Aperture Radar (DBSAR). DBSAR combines advanced radar technologies, real-time on-board processing, and innovative signal processing techniques in order to enable multi-mode radar techniques in a single radar architecture. Although DBSAR's original configuration had a dual-polarization antenna, the rest of the system had been designed for single polarization operation. Nevertheless, polarimetric measurements provide more accurate estimates of important scientific parameters and are critical in supporting future airborne and spaceborne applications.
DBSAR's upgrade to polarimetric operation was accomplished through an ESTO awarded project aimed at enhancing DBSARís capability as a science instrument. Two polarimetric designs were chosen after considering several design options. The first approach modified the existing radar architecture to enable interleaved polarimetric operation (e.g., sequentially transmit and receive horizontal and vertical polarizations). Although this option did not provide the full polarimetric capability, it was less risky, made use of a proven architecture, and provided all radar polarizations in a sequential manner. The second approach developed new polarimetric L-band transceivers that can enable a full polarimetric operation (e.g., simultaneously transmit and receive orthogonal polarizations). The new transceivers were to be designed on printed circuit boards and made use of surface mount miniature components, reducing the size by a factor 4 while exhibiting an RF performance similar to the exiting transceivers.
Both approaches were successfully carried out and will be demonstrated in 2011/2012 campaigns as the DBSAR system is flown on board of the NASA P3 aircraft over forest on the US East Coast to characterize biomass and ecosystem structure, as well as planetary analog terrains. | Title: Digital Beamforming Synthetic Aperture Radar (DBSAR) Polametric Upgrade
Author: Rafael Rincon
Organization: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
For several years NASA/GSFC has been investing through internal research and development (IRAD) in the development of a new generation airborne L-Band radar system known as the Digital Beamforming Synthetic Aperture Radar (DBSAR). DBSAR combines advanc | {
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The following routines write or read data values in the current ASCII or binary table extension. If a write operation extends beyond the current size of the table, then the number of rows in the table will automatically be increased and the NAXIS2 keyword value will be updated. Attempts to read beyond the end of the table will result in an error.
Automatic data type conversion is performed for numerical data types (only) if the data type of the column (defined by the TFORMn keyword) differs from the data type of the array in the calling routine. ASCII and binary tables support the following data type values: TSTRING, TBYTE, TSBYTE, TSHORT, TUSHORT, TINT, TUINT, TLONG, TLONGLONG, TULONG, TFLOAT, or TDOUBLE. Binary tables also support TLOGICAL (internally mapped to the `char' data type), TCOMPLEX, and TDBLCOMPLEX.
Note that it is *not* necessary to insert rows in a table before writing data to those rows (indeed, it would be inefficient to do so). Instead, one may simply write data to any row of the table, whether that row of data already exists or not.
Individual bits in a binary table 'X' or 'B' column may be read/written to/from a *char array by specifying the TBIT datatype. The *char array will be interpreted as an array of logical TRUE (1) or FALSE (0) values that correspond to the value of each bit in the FITS 'X' or 'B' column. Alternatively, the values in a binary table 'X' column may be read/written 8 bits at a time to/from an array of 8-bit integers by specifying the TBYTE datatype.
Note that within the context of these routines, the TSTRING data type corresponds to a C 'char**' data type, i.e., a pointer to an array of pointers to an array of characters. This is different from the keyword reading and writing routines where TSTRING corresponds to a C 'char*' data type, i.e., a single pointer to an array of characters. When reading strings from a table, the char arrays obviously must have been allocated long enough to hold the whole FITS table string.
Numerical data values are automatically scaled by the TSCALn and TZEROn keyword values (if they exist).
In the case of binary tables with vector elements, the 'felem' parameter defines the starting element (beginning with 1, not 0) within the cell (a cell is defined as the intersection of a row and a column and may contain a single value or a vector of values). The felem parameter is ignored when dealing with ASCII tables. Similarly, in the case of binary tables the 'nelements' parameter specifies the total number of vector values to be read or written (continuing on subsequent rows if required) and not the number of table cells.
int fits_write_col / ffpcl (fitsfile *fptr, int datatype, int colnum, LONGLONG firstrow, LONGLONG firstelem, LONGLONG nelements, DTYPE *array, > int *status) int fits_write_colnull / ffpcn (fitsfile *fptr, int datatype, int colnum, LONGLONG firstrow, LONGLONG firstelem, LONGLONG nelements, DTYPE *array, DTYPE *nulval, > int *status) int fits_write_col_null / ffpclu (fitsfile *fptr, int colnum, LONGLONG firstrow, LONGLONG firstelem, LONGLONG nelements, > int *status) int fits_write_nullrows / ffprwu (fitsfile *fptr, LONGLONG firstrow, LONGLONG nelements, > int *status)
Any column, regardless of it's intrinsic data type, may be read as a string. It should be noted however that reading a numeric column as a string is 10 - 100 times slower than reading the same column as a number due to the large overhead in constructing the formatted strings. The display format of the returned strings will be determined by the TDISPn keyword, if it exists, otherwise by the data type of the column. The length of the returned strings (not including the null terminating character) can be determined with the fits_get_col_display_width routine. The following TDISPn display formats are currently supported:
Iw.m Integer Ow.m Octal integer Zw.m Hexadecimal integer Fw.d Fixed floating point Ew.d Exponential floating point Dw.d Exponential floating point Gw.d General; uses Fw.d if significance not lost, else Ew.dwhere w is the width in characters of the displayed values, m is the minimum number of digits displayed, and d is the number of digits to the right of the decimal. The .m field is optional.
int fits_read_col / ffgcv (fitsfile *fptr, int datatype, int colnum, LONGLONG firstrow, LONGLONG firstelem, LONGLONG nelements, DTYPE *nulval, DTYPE *array, int *anynul, int *status) int fits_read_colnull / ffgcf (fitsfile *fptr, int datatype, int colnum, LONGLONG firstrow, LONGLONG firstelem, LONGLONG nelements, DTYPE *array, char *nullarray, int *anynul, int *status) | The following routines write or read data values in the current ASCII or binary table extension. If a write operation extends beyond the current size of the table, then the number of rows in the table will automatically be increased and the NAXIS2 keyword value will be updated. Attempts to read beyond the end of the table will result in an error.
Automatic data type conversion is performed for num | {
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Answers about General Banking Issues
What is an operating subsidiary of a national bank?
A company that is owned by the bank and does business directly with consumers. An operating subsidiary provides products and services to individuals to be used primarily for personal, family, or household purposes. (Examples would be a mortgage company or auto finance corporation that is owned by the bank: "Bank X doing business as Ivy Auto Loans.")
To find out if a company is an operating subsidiary of a national bank visit Is My Bank A National Bank? | Answers about General Banking Issues
What is an operating subsidiary of a national bank?
A company that is owned by the bank and does business directly with consumers. An operating subsidiary provides products and services to individuals to be used primarily for personal, family, or household purposes. (Examples would be a mortgage company or auto finance corporation that is owned by the bank: "Ba | {
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bond_coeff N args
bond_coeff 5 80.0 1.2 bond_coeff * 30.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 bond_coeff 1*4 30.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 bond_coeff 1 harmonic 200.0 1.0
Specify the bond force field coefficients for one or more bond types. The number and meaning of the coefficients depends on the bond style. Bond coefficients can also be set in the data file read by the read_data command or in a restart file.
N can be specified in one of two ways. An explicit numeric value can be used, as in the 1st example above. Or a wild-card asterisk can be used to set the coefficients for multiple bond types. This takes the form "*" or "*n" or "n*" or "m*n". If N = the number of bond types, then an asterisk with no numeric values means all types from 1 to N. A leading asterisk means all types from 1 to n (inclusive). A trailing asterisk means all types from n to N (inclusive). A middle asterisk means all types from m to n (inclusive).
Note that using a bond_coeff command can override a previous setting for the same bond type. For example, these commands set the coeffs for all bond types, then overwrite the coeffs for just bond type 2:
bond_coeff * 100.0 1.2 bond_coeff 2 200.0 1.2
A line in a data file that specifies bond coefficients uses the exact same format as the arguments of the bond_coeff command in an input script, except that wild-card asterisks should not be used since coefficients for all N types must be listed in the file. For example, under the "Bond Coeffs" section of a data file, the line that corresponds to the 1st example above would be listed as
5 80.0 1.2
Here is an alphabetic list of bond styles defined in LAMMPS. Click on the style to display the formula it computes and coefficients specified by the associated bond_coeff command.
Note that here are also additional bond styles submitted by users which are included in the LAMMPS distribution. The list of these with links to the individual styles are given in the bond section of this page.
This command must come after the simulation box is defined by a read_data, read_restart, or create_box command.
A bond style must be defined before any bond coefficients are set, either in the input script or in a data file. | bond_coeff N args
bond_coeff 5 80.0 1.2 bond_coeff * 30.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 bond_coeff 1*4 30.0 1.5 1.0 1.0 bond_coeff 1 harmonic 200.0 1.0
Specify the bond force field coefficients for one or more bond types. The number and meaning of the coefficients depends on the bond style. Bond coefficients can also be set in the data file read by the read_data command or in a restart file.
N can be specified in o | {
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||Advancement Project - Voter Protection, Hurricane Katrina, Power and Democracy
||Advancement Project is a democracy and justice action group. Using law, public policy and strategic communications, we act in partnership with local communities to advance universal opportunity, equity and access for those left behind in America. Programs include Voter Protection, Hurricane Katrina relief and more.
||October 22, 2008 - November 26, 2008
United States--Politics and government--2001-
|URL at time of capture:
Election 2008 Web Archive | ||Advancement Project - Voter Protection, Hurricane Katrina, Power and Democracy
||Advancement Project is a democracy and justice action group. Using law, public policy and strategic communications, we act in partnership with local communities to advance universal opportunity, equity and access for those left behind in America. Programs include Voter Protection, Hurricane Katrina relief and more.
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Marine Debris 101 is your information source for marine debris as well as tips on how you can get involved and help tackle this global problem.
If you're looking for outreach materials and resources, visit our Educational Resources page.
And, if you're looking for publications and reports on marine debris, including NOAA tech memos, scientific references, and even international reports, you can find helpful bibliographies and links on our Publications page.
For the most up-to-date and accurate information on marine debris "hot topics" such as the "Great Pacific Garbage Patch," check out our Popular Topics section on our Marine Debris Information page.
We hope you find these pages helpful!
If you have a specific question on marine debris, feel free to contact us at [email protected]. | Marine Debris 101 is your information source for marine debris as well as tips on how you can get involved and help tackle this global problem.
If you're looking for outreach materials and resources, visit our Educational Resources page.
And, if you're looking for publications and reports on marine debris, including NOAA tech memos, scientific references, and even international reports, you can fi | {
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Prevent Child Abuse America
PCA America: Since 1972, Prevent Child Abuse America (PCA America) has led the way in building awareness, providing education, and inspiring hope to everyone involved in the effort to prevent the child abuse and neglect of our nation's children. Working with state chapters, PCA America provides leadership to promote and implement prevention efforts at both the national and local levels. With the help of state chapters and concerned individuals PCA America is valuing children, strengthening families, and engaging communities nationwide.
PCA Michigan's History: From 1999-2009, The Michigan Children's Trust Fund served in partnership with the former Children's Charter of the Courts of Michigan as co-chapters of Prevent Child Abuse Michigan.
PCA Michigan's Future: The Children's Trust Fund is positioned for the future in it's key leadership role of child abuse and neglect prevention in Michigan. In the Fall of 2009, The Children's Trust Fund successfully completed a rechartering process with PCA America and took over sole responsibility as the PCA Michigan chapter.
CTF through it's partnership with PCA America will:
Provide leadership in state-level advocacy to enhance prevention policies and programs in Michigan.
Increase public awareness of child abuse prevention through the development and distribution of resource materials, and by working with PCA-America on the promotion of national media campaigns.
Evaluate programs and act as a source of comprehensive information and research on child abuse prevention.
Promote promising strategies, supported by evidence based research, at both the state and local levels so that communities have access to the information, skills and resources necessary to provide meaningful services for families with young children. | Prevent Child Abuse America
PCA America: Since 1972, Prevent Child Abuse America (PCA America) has led the way in building awareness, providing education, and inspiring hope to everyone involved in the effort to prevent the child abuse and neglect of our nation's children. Working with state chapters, PCA America provides leadership to promote and implement prevention efforts at both the national | {
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2006 Congestion Study
Section 216(a) of the Federal Power Act requires the Department of Energy to issue a national transmission congestion study (Congestion Study) for comment by August 2006 and every three years thereafter.
The Congestion Study issued on August 8, 2006 is the Department of Energy's first congestion study. It examines transmission congestion and constraints and identifies constrained transmission paths in many areas of the Nation, based on examination of historical studies of transmission conditions, existing studies of transmission expansion needs, and unprecedented region-wide modeling of both the Eastern and Western Interconnections.
Public comment documents submitted for the National Electric Transmission Congestion Study are available for online browsing or downloading.
2009 Congestion Study
The next Congestion Study is due August 8, 2009. A Web site for the 2009 National Electric Tranmission Congestion study is available.
2006 Congestion Study and Related Documents
The following documents are in PDF format, which requires the free Adobe Acrobat Reader. | 2006 Congestion Study
Section 216(a) of the Federal Power Act requires the Department of Energy to issue a national transmission congestion study (Congestion Study) for comment by August 2006 and every three years thereafter.
The Congestion Study issued on August 8, 2006 is the Department of Energy's first congestion study. It examines transmission congestion and constraints and identifies constra | {
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Press Release 10-031
NSF Builds Science and Engineering Capacity in Communities Around the United States
Funding awarded for the creation of five Science Technology Centers
A conceptual rendering of a biological machine showing circuitry on a biological material background
Credit and Larger Version
February 22, 2010
The National Science Foundation (NSF) announced five new Science and Technology Center (STC) awards as a result of a recent, merit-based competition. The STC program supports integrative partnerships that require large-scale, long-term funding to produce research and education of the highest quality. In October of 2008, NSF received 247 preliminary proposals. Following extensive panel review, 45 full proposals were invited and reviewed by both panel and ad hoc experts, 11 sites were visited, and 5 were recommended for awards by a Blue Ribbon panel. Well over 100 program directors from throughout NSF assisted in the review process. "These five new STCs will involve world class teams of researchers and educators, integrate learning and discovery in innovative ways, tackle complex problems that require the long-term support afforded by this program, and lead to the development of new technologies with significant impact well into the future," said NSF Director Arden L. Bement.
Brief descriptions of the new STCs follow:
Center for Dark Energy Biosphere Investigations (C-DEBI)
Katrina J. Edwards from the University of Southern California in partnership with faculty members at the University of Alaska-Fairbanks, University of California (UC)-Santa Cruz, University of Hawaii, Pacific Northwest National Lab, University of Rhode Island, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Japan Agency for Marine Earth Science & Technology, Harvard University and the University of Bremen will establish a center to facilitate exploration of the Earth's "deep biosphere" beneath the oceans. Although nearly half of the total biomass on Earth resides in sub-surface habitats such as mines, aquifers, soils on the continents and sediments and rocks below the ocean floor, little is known about these sub-surface communities. C-DEBI will explore such fundamental questions as: What type of life exists in the deep biosphere? What are the physical and chemical conditions that promote or limit life? How does this biosphere influence global energy and material cycles such as the carbon cycle? A number of educational and outreach activities such as "science at sea" will inspire students and the public.
BEACON: An NSF Center for the Study of Evolution in Action
Erik D. Goodman from Michigan State University in partnership with colleagues at the University of Texas-Austin, University of Washington, North Carolina A&T State University, and the University of Idaho will establish a center that will promote the transfer of discoveries from biology into computer science and engineering design, and use novel computational methods to address complex biological questions that are difficult or impossible to study using natural organisms. BEACON will bring together scientists who, through research in their own disciplines, hold the interlocking keys to solving complex and fundamental problems in domains as diverse as cyber-security, epidemiology, and environmental sustainability. BEACON education and human resource development plans include K-12 programs, novel curricula development, undergraduate and graduate training, a mentoring program for faculty and post-docs, and outreach programs to educate the general public.
Emergent Behaviors of Integrated Cellular Systems
Roger D. Kamm from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in partnership with researchers at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) and Georgia Institute of Technology will establish a center to develop the science and technology to engineer clusters of living cells or "biological machines" that have desired functionalities and can perform prescribed tasks. This research will help to establish the nascent field of engineering biological systems. The center will develop programs aimed at attracting students to STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) fields, and particularly to the growing area of bioengineering. An integrated inter-institutional graduate program will be developed and courses will be made accessible via OpenCourseWare.
Emerging Frontiers of Science of Information
Wojciech Szpankowski from Purdue University in partnership with colleagues at Bryn Mawr College, Howard University, MIT, Princeton, Stanford, UC Berkeley, UC San Diego, and UIUC will establish a Center for the Science of information that has the potential to launch the next information revolution. These researchers will develop a unifying set of principles to guide the extraction, manipulation, and exchange of information integrating elements of space, time, structure, semantics & context. The center will bring together researchers from diverse fields (physics, life science, chemistry, computer science, economics, etc.) to develop models and methods to apply to these diverse applications. The center will also build an active community of scholars through education and mentoring activities.
Center for Energy Efficient Electronics Science (E3S)
Eli Yablonovitch from University of California Berkeley in partnership with faculty members at MIT, Stanford, Contra Costa College, Los Angeles Trade Technical College and the Tuskegee Institute, proposed a center that will take on the challenge of increasing the energy efficiency of electronic information-processing equipment. Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the share of electricity usage from electronics, and the trend is expected to continue unless fundamental changes are made to the power requirements of the basic logic switch. E3S will research concepts and scientific principles that could enable a few millivolt electronic switch as a successor to the transistor, laying the foundation for a million-fold reduction in power consumption by electronics. The center will also support a number of educational programs and promote energy awareness through outreach activities.
Lisa-Joy Zgorski, NSF (703) 292-8311 [email protected]
Chad Galts, MIT [email protected]
Carl Marziali, USC 213-740-4751 [email protected]
Sarah Yang, UC Berkeley 510-643-7741 [email protected]
Elizabeth Gardner, Purdue University 765/494-2081 [email protected]
Laura Seeley, Michigan State University 517-432-1303 [email protected]
Joan M. Frye, NSF (703) 292-8040 [email protected]
NSF awards $24.5 million for center to stem increase of electronics power draw: /news/longurl.cfm?id=191
With $25 million grant, NSF funds center to investigate the creation of biological machines: http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2010/001897654-nsf-grant
MSU awarded $25 million for NSF center to study evolution in action: http://news.msu.edu/story/7459/
Purdue awarded $25 million for first NSF science and technology center in the state: /news/longurl.cfm?id=190
USC Awarded $25 Million NSF Grant for New Center to Study the Deep Biosphere: http://college.usc.edu/news/stories/692/usc-awarded-25-million-nsf-grant-for-new-center-to-study-the-dee/
Georgia Tech to participate in project to develop biological machines: http://gtresearchnews.gatech.edu/biological-machines/
Illinois EBICS to participate in development of biological machines: http://engineering.illinois.edu/news/2010/02/18/illinois-a-partner-new-nsf-center-investigate-creation-biological-machines
NSF's Celebration of Five Leading Science and Technology Centers: http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=116332&org=OLPA&from=news
Science Technology Centers: http://www.nsf.gov/od/oia/programs/stc/
Office of Integrated Activities: http://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=OIA
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering. In fiscal year (FY) 2012, its budget was $7.0 billion. NSF funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2,000 colleges, universities and other institutions. Each year, NSF receives about 50,000 competitive requests for funding, and makes about 11,500 new funding awards. NSF also awards about $593 million in professional and service contracts yearly.
Get News Updates by Email
Useful NSF Web Sites:
NSF Home Page: http://www.nsf.gov
NSF News: http://www.nsf.gov/news/
For the News Media: http://www.nsf.gov/news/newsroom.jsp
Science and Engineering Statistics: http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/
Awards Searches: http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/ | Press Release 10-031
NSF Builds Science and Engineering Capacity in Communities Around the United States
Funding awarded for the creation of five Science Technology Centers
A conceptual rendering of a biological machine showing circuitry on a biological material background
Credit and Larger Version
February 22, 2010
The National Science Foundation (NSF) announced five new Science and Technology Ce | {
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Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
Autism therapies attempt to lessen the deficits and family distress associated with autism and other autism spectrum disorders (ASD), and to increase the quality of life and functional independence of autistic individuals, especially children. No single treatment is best, and treatment is typically tailored to the child's needs. Treatments fall into two major categories: educational interventions and medical management. Training and support are also given to families of those with ASD.
Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children with ASD acquire self-care, social, and job skills, and often can improve functioning, and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated. Available approaches include applied behavior analysis (ABA), developmental models, structured teaching, speech and language therapy, social skills therapy, and occupational therapy. Educational interventions have some effectiveness in children: intensive ABA treatment has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children, and is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children. Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators, resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided. The limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results.
Many medications are used to treat problems associated with ASD. More than half of U.S. children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. Aside from antipsychotics, there is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. A person with ASD may respond atypically to medications, the medications can have adverse effects, and no known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.
Many alternative therapies and interventions are available, ranging from elimination diets to chelation therapy. Few are supported by scientific studies. Treatment approaches lack empirical support in quality-of-life contexts, and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real-world relevance. Scientific evidence appears to matter less to service providers than program marketing, training availability, and parent requests. Even if they do not help, conservative treatments such as changes in diet are expected to be harmless aside from their bother and cost. Dubious invasive treatments are a much more serious matter: for example, in 2005, botched chelation therapy killed a five-year-old autistic boy.
Treatment is expensive; indirect costs are more so. For someone born in 2000, a U.S. study estimated an average discounted lifetime cost of $Template:Formatprice (2013 dollars, inflation-adjusted from 2003 estimateTemplate:Inflation-fn), with about 10% medical care, 30% extra education and other care, and 60% lost economic productivity. A UK study estimated discounted lifetime costs at ₤Template:Formatprice and ₤Template:Formatprice for an autistic person with and without intellectual disability, respectively (2013 pounds, inflation-adjusted from 2005/06 estimateTemplate:Inflation-fn). Legal rights to treatment are complex, vary with location and age, and require advocacy by caregivers. Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child, and unreimbursed out-of-pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems; one 2008 U.S. study found a 14% average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD, and a related study found that ASD is associated with higher probability that child care problems will greatly affect parental employment. After childhood, key treatment issues include residential care, job training and placement, sexuality, social skills, and estate planning.
Educational interventions attempt to help children not only to learn academic subjects and gain traditional readiness skills, but also to improve functional communication and spontaneity, enhance social skills such as joint attention, gain cognitive skills such as symbolic play, reduce disruptive behavior, and generalize learned skills by applying them to new situations. Several model programs have been developed, which in practice often overlap and share many features, including:
- early intervention that does not wait for a definitive diagnosis;
- intense intervention, at least 25 hours/week, 12 months/year;
- low student/teacher ratio;
- family involvement, including training of parents;
- interaction with neurotypical peers;
- structure that includes predictable routine and clear physical boundaries to lessen distraction; and
- ongoing measurement of a systematically planned intervention, resulting in adjustments as needed.
Several educational intervention methods are available, as discussed below. They can take place at home, at school, or at a center devoted to autism treatment; they can be done by parents, teachers, speech and language therapists, and occupational therapists. A 2007 study found that augmenting a center-based program with weekly home visits by a special education teacher improved cognitive development and behavior.
Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy. Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence, suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment, the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor, their clinical results are mostly tentative, and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options. Concerns about outcome measures, such as their inconsistent use, most greatly affect how the results of scientific studies are interpreted. A 2009 Minnesota study found that parents follow behavioral treatment recommendations significantly less often than they follow medical recommendations, and that they adhere more often to reinforcement than to punishment recommendations. Intensive, sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self-care, social, and job skills, and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated.
Applied behavior analysisEdit
- Further information: Applied behavior analysis
Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is the applied research field of the science of behavior analysis, and it underpins a wide range of techniques used to treat autism and many other behaviors and diagnoses. ABA-based interventions focus on teaching tasks one-on-one using the behaviorist principles of stimulus, response and reward, and on reliable measurement and objective evaluation of observed behavior. There is wide variation in the professional practice of behavior analysis and among the assessments and interventions used in school-based ABA programs. Many interventions rely heavily on discrete trial teaching (DTT) methods, which use stimulus-response-reward techniques to teach foundational skills such as attention, compliance, and imitation. However, children have problems using DTT-taught skills in natural environments. In functional assessment, a common technique, a teacher formulates a clear description of a problem behavior, identifies antecedents, consequents, and other environmental factors that influence and maintain the behavior, develops hypotheses about what occasions and maintains the behavior, and collects observations to support the hypotheses. A few more-comprehensive ABA programs use multiple assessment and intervention methods individually and dynamically.
ABA-based techniques have demonstrated effectiveness in several controlled studies: children have been shown to make sustained gains in academic performance, adaptive behavior, and language, with outcomes significantly better than control groups. A 2009 review of educational interventions for children, whose mean age was six years or less at intake, found that the higher-quality studies all assessed ABA, that ABA is well-established and no other educational treatment is considered probably-efficacious, and that intensive ABA treatment, carried out by trained therapists, is demonstrated effective in enhancing global functioning in pre-school children. A 2008 evidence-based review of comprehensive treatment approaches found that ABA is well-established for improving intellectual performance of young children with ASD. A 2009 comprehensive synthesis of early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI), a form of ABA treatment, found that EIBI produces strong effects, suggesting that it can be effective for some children with autism; it also found that the large effects might be an artifact of comparison groups with treatments that have yet to be empirically validated, and that no comparisons between EIBI and other widely recognized treatment programs have been published. A 2009 systematic review came to the same principal conclusion that EIBI is effective for some but not all children, with wide variability in response to treatment; it also suggested that any gains are likely to be greatest in the first year of intervention. A 2009 meta-analysis concluded that EIBI has a large effect on full-scale intelligence and a moderate effect on adaptive behavior. However, a 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis found that applied behavior intervention (ABI), another name for EIBI, did not significantly improve outcomes compared with standard care of preschool children with ASD in the areas of cognitive outcome, expressive language, receptive language, and adaptive behavior.
Pivotal response therapyEdit
- Main article: Pivotal response therapy
Pivotal response therapy or treatment (PRT) is a naturalistic intervention derived from ABA principles. Instead of individual behaviors, it targets pivotal areas of a child's development, such as motivation, responsivity to multiple cues, self-management, and social initiations; it aims for widespread improvements in areas that are not specifically targeted. The child determines activities and objects that will be used in a PRT exchange. Intended attempts at the target behavior are rewarded with a natural reinforcer: for example, if a child attempts a request for a stuffed animal, the child receives the animal, not a piece of candy or other unrelated reinforcer.
Treatment and education of autistic and related communication handicapped children (TEACCH), which has come to be called "structured teaching", emphasizes structure by using organized physical environments, predictably sequenced activities, visual schedules and visually structured activities, and structured work/activity systems where each child can practice various tasks. Parents are taught to implement the treatment at home. A 1998 controlled trial found that children treated with a TEACCH-based home program improved significantly more than a control group.
Communication interventions fall into two major categories. First, many autistic children do not speak, or have little speech, or have difficulties in effective use of language. Interventions that attempt to improve communication are commonly conducted by speech and language therapists, and work on joint attention, communicative intent, and alternative or augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) methods such as visual methods. Little solid research supports the efficacy of speech therapy for autism; AAC methods do not appear to impede speech and may result in modest gains. A 2006 study reported benefits both for joint attention intervention and for symbolic play intervention, and a 2007 study found that joint attention intervention is more likely than symbolic play intervention to cause children to engage later in shared interactions.
Second, social skills treatment attempts to increase social and communicative skills of autistic individuals, addressing a core deficit of autism. A wide range of intervention approaches is available, including modeling and reinforcement, adult and peer mediation strategies, peer tutoring, social games and stories, self-management, pivotal response therapy, video modeling, direct instruction, visual cuing, circle of friends, and social-skills groups. A 2007 meta-analysis of 55 studies of school-based social skills intervention found that they were minimally effective for children and adolescents with ASD, and a 2007 review found that social skills training has minimal empirical support for children with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism.
Unusual responses to sensory stimuli are more common and prominent in children with autism, although there is not good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders. Several therapies have been developed to treat Sensory Integration Dysfunction. Some of these treatments (for example, sensorimotor handling) have a questionable rationale and have no empirical evidence. Other treatments have been studied, with small positive outcomes, but few conclusions can be drawn due to methodological problems with the studies. These treatments include prism lenses, physical exercise, auditory integration training, and sensory stimulation or inhibition techniques such as "deep pressure"—firm touch pressure applied either manually or via an apparatus such as a hug machine or a pressure garment. Weighted vests, a popular deep-pressure therapy, have only a limited amount of scientific research available, which on balance indicates that the therapy is ineffective. Although replicable treatments have been described and valid outcome measures are known, gaps exist in knowledge related to sensory integration dysfunction and therapy. Because empirical support is limited, systematic evaluation is needed if these interventions are used.
Music therapy uses the elements of music to let people express their feelings and communicate. Two small studies have reported short-term improvement in verbal and gestural communication skills of autistic children from a week's work of daily sessions; no significant effects on behavior problems were observed.
Animal-assisted therapy, where an animal such as a dog or a horse becomes a basic part of a person's treatment, is a controversial treatment for some symptoms. A 2007 meta-analysis found that animal-assisted therapy is associated with a moderate improvement in autism spectrum symptoms. Reviews of published dolphin-assisted therapy (DAT) studies have found important methodological flaws and have concluded that there is no compelling scientific evidence that DAT is a legitimate therapy or that it affords any more than fleeting improvements in mood.
Neurofeedback has been hypothesized to improve focusing and decrease anxiety in individuals with ASD. One pilot study investigated this hypothesis in ten adolescent boys diagnosed with Asperger syndrome. Five boys dropped out during the study; results on the remaining boys were positive but were not statistically significant.
- Main article: Son-Rise
Son-Rise is a home-based program that emphasizes eye contact, accepting the child without judgment, and joining in with the child's repetitive and restricted behaviors. Proponents claim that children will decide to become non-autistic after parents accept them for who they are and engage them in play. Initially, parents and their child go to live at the Autism Treatment Center of America—which is based at the Option Institute—for a week and sometimes longer. Staff from the center help parents with their personal problems in order to teach them how to drop their judgements and beliefs. Staff also request to families to be hopeful for their child's future.
The program was started by the parents of Raun Kaufman, who is claimed to have gone from being autistic to normal via the treatment in the early 1970s. No independent study has tested the efficacy of the program, but a 2003 study found that involvement with the program led to more drawbacks than benefits for the involved families over time, and a 2006 study found that the program is not always implemented as it is typically described in the literature, which suggests it will be difficult to evaluate its efficacy.
In packing, children are wrapped tightly for up to an hour in wet sheets that have been refrigerated, with only their heads left free. The treatment is repeated several times a week, and can continue for years. It is intended as treatment for autistic children who harm themselves; most of these children cannot speak. Similar envelopment techniques have been used for centuries, such as to calm violent patients in Germany in the 19th century; its modern use in France began in the 1960s, based on psychoanalytic theories such as the theory of the refrigerator mother. Packing is currently used in hundreds of French clinics. There is no scientific evidence for the effectiveness of packing, and some concern about risk of adverse health effects.
The Judge Rotenberg Educational Center uses aversion therapy, notably contingent shock (electric shock delivered to the skin for a few seconds), to control the behavior of its patients, many of which are autistic. The practice is controversial.
Patterning is a set of exercises that attempts to improve the organization of a child's neurologic impairments. It has been used for decades to treat children with several unrelated neurologic disorders, including autism. The method, taught at the The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential, is based on oversimplified theories and is not supported by carefully designed research studies.
Parent mediated interventionsEdit
Parent mediated interventions offer support and practical advice to parents of autistic children. Randomized and controlled studies suggest that parent training leads to reduced maternal depression, improved maternal knowledge of autism and communication style, and improved child communicative behavior. A 2006 randomized controlled trial (RCT) found that a twenty-week parent education and behavior management (PEBM) program provided significant improvements in parental mental health and well-being, particularly for parents with preexisting mental health problems. A 2008 pilot trial of Parent-Child Interaction Therapy, a parent coaching intervention model, for boys aged 5–12 with high-functioning ASD and behavioral problems, found increases in child adaptability and reductions in parent perceptions of child problem behaviors.
Drugs, supplements, or diets are often used to alter physiology in an attempt to relieve common autistic symptoms such as seizures, sleep disturbances, irritability, and hyperactivity that can interfere with education or social adaptation or (more rarely) cause autistic individuals to harm themselves or others. There is plenty of anecdotal evidence to support medical treatment; many parents who try one or more therapies report some progress, and there are a few well-publicized reports of children who are able to return to mainstream education after treatment, with dramatic improvements in health and well-being. However, this evidence may be confounded by improvements seen in autistic children who grow up without treatment, by the difficulty of verifying reports of improvements, and by the lack of reporting of treatments' negative outcomes. Only a very few medical treatments are well supported by scientific evidence using controlled experiments.
Many medications are used to treat problems associated with ASD. More than half of U.S. children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants, with the most common drug classes being antidepressants, stimulants, and antipsychotics. Only the antipsychotics have clearly demonstrated efficacy.
Research has focused on atypical antipsychotics, especially risperidone, which has the largest amount of evidence that consistently shows improvements in irritability, self-injury, aggression, and tantrums associated with ASD. Risperidone is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treating symptomatic irritability in autistic children and adolescents. In short-term trials (up to six months) most adverse events were mild to moderate, with weight gain, drowsiness, and high blood sugar requiring monitoring; long term efficacy and safety have not been fully determined. It is unclear whether risperidone improves autism's core social and communication deficits. The FDA's decision was based in part on a study of autistic children with severe and enduring problems of tantrums, aggression, and self-injury; risperidone is not recommended for autistic children with mild aggression and explosive behavior without an enduring pattern.
Other drugs are prescribed off-label in the U.S., which means they have not been approved for treating ASD. Large placebo-controlled studies of olanzapine and aripiprazole were underway in early 2008. Some selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and dopamine blockers can reduce some maladaptive behaviors associated with ASD. Although SSRIs reduce levels of repetitive behavior in autistic adults, a 2009 multisite randomized controlled study found no benefit and some adverse effects in children from the SSRI citalopram, raising doubts whether SSRIs are effective for treating repetitive behavior in autistic children. One study found that the psychostimulant methylphenidate was efficacious against hyperactivity associated with ASD, though with less response than in neurotypical children with ADHD. Of the many medications studied for treatment of aggressive and self-injurious behavior in children and adolescents with autism, only risperidone and methylphenidate demonstrate results that have been replicated. A 1998 study of the hormone secretin reported improved symptoms and generated tremendous interest, but several controlled studies since have found no benefit. Oxytocin may play a role in autism and may be an effective treatment for repetitive and affiliative behaviors; two related studies in adults found that oxytocin decreased repetitive behaviors and improved interpretation of emotions, but these preliminary results do not necessarily apply to children. An experimental drug STX107 has stopped overproduction of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 in rodents, and it has been hypothesized that this may help in about 5% of autism cases, but this hypothesis has not been tested in humans.
Aside from antipsychotics, there is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD. Results of the handful of randomized control trials that have been performed suggest that risperidone, the SSRI fluvoxamine, and the typical antipsychotic haloperidol may be effective in reducing some behaviors, that haloperidol may be more effective than the tricyclic antidepressant clomipramine, and that the opiate antagonist naltrexone hydrochloride is not effective. A person with ASD may respond atypically to medications, the medications can have adverse side effects, and no known medication relieves autism's core symptoms of social and communication impairments.
Many parents give their children vitamin and other nutritional supplements in an attempt to treat autism or to alleviate its symptoms. The range of supplements given is wide; few are supported by scientific data, but most have relatively mild side effects.
Proponents of orthomolecular psychiatry have claimed that nutritional supplementation with high dose pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and magnesium (HPDM) alleviate the symptoms of autism; this is one of the most popular complementary and alternative medicine choices for autism. Three small randomized controlled trials have studied this therapy; the smallest one (with 8 individuals) found improved verbal IQ in the treatment group and the other two (with ten and fifteen individuals, respectively) found no significant difference. Due to the limited data it is difficult to tell whether this treatment approach has effects greater than placebo. The short-term side effects seem to be mild, but there may be significant long-term side effects, as high doses of pyridoxine cause peripheral neuropathy in adults, high doses of magnesium can cause reduced heart rate and weakened reflexes, and high magnesium concentrations are associated with seizures. High dose pyridoxine can cause side effects such as irritability and sensitivity to sound, which can be managed through the use of magnesium.
Dimethylglycine (DMG) is hypothesized to improve speech and reduce autistic behaviors, and is a commonly used supplement. Two double-blind, placebo-controlled studies found no statistically significant effect on autistic behaviors, and reported few side effects. No peer-reviewed studies have addressed treatment with the related compound trimethylglycine.
Vitamin C decreased stereotyped behavior in a small 1993 study. The study has not been replicated, and vitamin C has limited popularity as an autism treatment. High doses might cause kidney stones or gastrointestinal upset such as diarrhea.
Probiotics containing potentially beneficial bacteria are hypothesized to relieve some symptoms of autism by minimizing yeast overgrowth in the colon. The hypothesized yeast overgrowth has not been confirmed by endoscopy, the mechanism connecting yeast overgrowth to autism is only hypothetical, and no clinical trials to date have been published in the peer-reviewed literature. No negative side effects have been reported.
Melatonin is sometimes used to manage sleep problems in developmental disorders. Adverse effects are generally reported to be mild, including drowsiness, headache, dizziness, and nausea; however, an increase in seizure frequency is reported among susceptible children. A 2008 open trial found that melatonin appears to be a safe and well-tolerated treatment for insomnia in children with ASD. and suggested controlled trials to determine efficacy; a small 2009 retrospective study had similar results for adults.
Although omega-3 fatty acids, which are polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), are a popular treatment for children with ASD, there is very little scientific evidence supporting their effectiveness, and further research is needed.
Several other supplements have been hypothesized to relieve autism symptoms, including carnosine, cholesterol, cyproheptadine, D-cycloserine, folic acid, glutathione, metallothionein promoters, other PUFA such as omega-6 fatty acids, tryptophan, tyrosine, thiamine (see Chelation therapy), vitamin B12, and zinc. These lack reliable scientific evidence of efficacy or safety in treatment of autism.
- Further information: Gluten-free, casein-free diet
Atypical eating behavior occurs in about three-quarters of children with ASD, to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator. Selectivity is the most common problem, although eating rituals and food refusal also occur; this does not appear to result in malnutrition. Although some children with autism also have gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, there is a lack of published rigorous data to support the theory that autistic children have more or different GI symptoms than usual; studies report conflicting results, and the relationship between GI problems and ASD is unclear.
In the early 1990s, it was hypothesized that autism can be caused or aggravated by opioid peptides like casomorphine that are metabolic products of gluten and casein. Based on this hypothesis, diets that eliminate foods containing either gluten or casein, or both, are widely promoted, and many testimonials can be found describing benefits in autism-related symptoms, notably social engagement and verbal skills. Studies supporting these claims have had significant flaws, so the data are inadequate to guide treatment recommendations.
Other elimination diets have also been proposed, targeting salicylates, food dyes, yeast, and simple sugars. No scientific evidence has established the efficacy of such diets in treating autism in children. An elimination diet may create nutritional deficiencies that harm overall health unless care is taken to assure proper nutrition. For example, a 2008 study found that autistic boys on casein-free diets have significantly thinner bones than usual, presumably because the diets contribute to calcium and vitamin D deficiencies.
Based on the speculation that heavy metal poisoning may trigger the symptoms of autism, particularly in small subsets of individuals who cannot excrete toxins effectively, some parents have turned to alternative medicine practitioners who provide detoxification treatments via chelation therapy. However, evidence to support this practice has been anecdotal and not rigorous. Strong epidemiological evidence refutes links between environmental triggers, in particular thimerosal containing vaccines, and the onset of autistic symptoms. No scientific data supports the claim that the mercury in the vaccine preservative thiomersal causes autism or its symptoms, and there is no scientific support for chelation therapy as a treatment for autism.
Intravenous EDTA (using the drug edetate calcium disodium) chelation has been used safely for over 40 years for treating lead-poisoned children. It is approaved by the FDA for this purpose. The FDA has received reports of 11 deaths associated with the use of edetate disodium (instead of the edetate calcium disodium form). These deaths were reported over the time period from 1971 through 2007. Most recently, two reports were received in 2003, two reports in 2005 and one report was received in 2007. Nine of the deaths were reported following the administration of edetate disodium (by its specific name). A specific EDTA drug was not identified in two cases. Instead, these two death reports simply referred to use of "EDTA." http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm113738.htm
Thiamine tetrahydrofurfuryl disulfide (TTFD) is hypothesized to act as a chelating agent in children with autism. A 2002 pilot study administered TTFD rectally to ten autism spectrum children, and found beneficial clinical effect. This study has not been replicated, and a 2006 review of thiamine by the same author did not mention thiamine's possible effect on autism. There is not sufficient evidence to support the use of thiamine (vitamin B1) to treat autism.
Chiropractic is an alternative medical practice whose main hypothesis is that mechanical disorders of the spine affect general health via the nervous system, and whose main treatment is spinal manipulation. A significant portion of the profession rejects vaccination, as traditional chiropractic philosophy equates vaccines to poison. Most chiropractic writings on vaccination focus on its negative aspects, claiming that it is hazardous, ineffective, and unnecessary, and in some cases suggesting that vaccination causes autism or that chiropractors should be the primary contact for treatment of autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders. Chiropractic treatment has not been shown to be effective for medical conditions other than back pain, and there is insufficient scientific evidence to make conclusions about chiropractic care for autism.
Craniosacral therapy is based on the theory that restrictions at cranial sutures of the skull affect rhythmic impulses conveyed via cerebrospinal fluid, and that gentle pressure on external areas can improve the flow and balance of the supply of this fluid to the brain, relieving symptoms of many conditions. There is no scientific support for major elements of the underlying model, there is little scientific evidence to support the therapy, and research methods that could conclusively evaluate the therapy's effectiveness have not been applied.
Studies indicate that 12–17% of adolescents and young adults with autism satisfy diagnostic criteria for catatonia, which is loss of or hyperactive motor activity. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) has been used to treat cases of catatonia and related conditions in people with autism. However, no controlled trials have been performed of ECT in autism, and there are serious ethical and legal obstacles to its use.
Hyperbaric oxygen therapyEdit
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) can compensate for decreased blood flow by increasing the oxygen content in the body. It has been postulated that HBOT might relieve some of the core symptoms of autism. A small 2009 double-blind study of autistic children found that 40 hourly treatments of 24% oxygen at 1.3 atmospheres provided significant improvement in the children's behavior immediately after treatment sessions. The study has not been independently confirmed; further studies are planned or in progress.
Unlike conventional neuromotor prostheses, neurocognitive prostheses would sense or modulate neural function in order to physically reconstitute cognitive processes such as executive function and language. No neurocognitive prostheses are currently available but the development of implantable neurocognitive brain-computer interfaces has been proposed to help treat conditions such as autism.
Affective computing devices, typically with image or voice recognition capabilities, have been proposed to help autistic individuals improve their social communication skills. These devices are still under development. Robots have also been proposed as educational aids for autistic children.
Stem cell therapyEdit
The Table Talk of Martin Luther contains the story of a 12-year-old boy who may have been severely autistic. According to Luther's notetaker Mathesius, Luther thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil, and suggested that he be suffocated. In 2003 an autistic boy in Wisconsin suffocated during an exorcism in which he was wrapped in sheets.
Ultraorthodox Jewish parents sometimes use spiritual and mystical interventions such as prayers, blessings, recitations of religious text, holy water, amulets, changing the child's name, and exorcism.
One study has suggested that spirituality and not religious activities involving the mothers of autistic children were associated with better outcomes for the child. Religion has also been studied by Pargament as an assist in helping families cope with autism.
- ↑ Powell K (2004). Opening a window to the autistic brain. PLoS Biol 2 (8): E267.
- ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 Myers SM, Johnson CP, Council on Children with Disabilities (2007). Management of children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics 120 (5): 1162–82.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Ospina MB, Krebs Seida J, Clark B et al. (2008). Behavioural and developmental interventions for autism spectrum disorder: a clinical systematic review. PLoS ONE 3 (11): e3755.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Krebs Seida J, Ospina MB, Karkhaneh M, Hartling L, Smith V, Clark B (2009). Systematic reviews of psychosocial interventions for autism: an umbrella review. Dev Med Child Neurol 51 (2): 95–104.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Rogers SJ, Vismara LA (2008). Evidence-based comprehensive treatments for early autism. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol 37 (1): 8–38.
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Howlin P, Magiati I, Charman T (2009). Systematic review of early intensive behavioral interventions for children with autism. Am J Intellect Dev Disabil 114 (1): 23–41.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 Eikeseth S (2009). Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism. Res Dev Disabil 30 (1): 158–78.
- ↑ Kanne SM, Randolph JK, Farmer JE (2008). Diagnostic and assessment findings: a bridge to academic planning for children with autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychol Rev 18 (4): 367–84.
- ↑ Van Bourgondien ME, Reichle NC, Schopler E (2003). Effects of a model treatment approach on adults with autism. J Autism Dev Disord 33 (2): 131–40.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 Leskovec TJ, Rowles BM, Findling RL (2008). Pharmacological treatment options for autism spectrum disorders in children and adolescents. Harv Rev Psychiatry 16 (2): 97–112.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 Medications for U.S. children with ASD:
- Oswald DP, Sonenklar NA (2007). Medication use among children with autism spectrum disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 17 (3): 348–55.
- Mandell DS, Morales KH, Marcus SC, Stahmer AC, Doshi J, Polsky DE (2008). Psychotropic medication use among Medicaid-enrolled children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics 121 (3): e441–8.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 Posey DJ, Stigler KA, Erickson CA, McDougle CJ (2008). Antipsychotics in the treatment of autism. J Clin Invest 118 (1): 6–14.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Angley M, Young R, Ellis D, Chan W, McKinnon R (2007). Children and autism—part 1—recognition and pharmacological management. Aust Fam Physician 36 (9): 741–4.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Broadstock M, Doughty C, Eggleston M (2007). Systematic review of the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments for adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Autism 11 (4): 335–48.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 Buitelaar JK (2003). Why have drug treatments been so disappointing?. Novartis Found Symp 251: 235–44; discussion 245–9, 281–97.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 16.8 16.9 Angley M, Semple S, Hewton C, Paterson F, McKinnon R (2007). Children and autism—part 2—management with complementary medicines and dietary interventions. Aust Fam Physician 36 (10): 827–30.
- ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 Francis K (2005). Autism interventions: a critical update. Dev Med Child Neurol 47 (7): 493–9.
- ↑ 18.0 18.1 Herbert JD, Sharp IR, Gaudiano BA (2002). Separating fact from fiction in the etiology and treatment of autism: a scientific review of the evidence. S ci Rev Ment Health Pract 1 (1): 23–43.
- ↑ 19.0 19.1 Rao PA, Beidel DC, Murray MJ (2008). Social skills interventions for children with Asperger's syndrome or high-functioning autism: a review and recommendations. J Autism Dev Disord 38 (2): 353–61.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Schechtman MA (2007). Scientifically unsupported therapies in the treatment of young children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatr Ann 36 (8): 497–8, 500–2, 504–5.
- ↑ Lack of support for interventions:
- Howlin P (2005). "The effectiveness of interventions for children with autism" Fleischhacker WW, Brooks DJ Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 101–19, Springer.PMID 16355605.
- Sigman M, Spence SJ, Wang AT (2006). Autism from developmental and neuropsychological perspectives. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2: 327–55.
- Williams White S, Keonig K, Scahill L (2007). Social skills development in children with autism spectrum disorders: a review of the intervention research. J Autism Dev Disord 37 (10): 1858–68.
- ↑ Burgess AF, Gutstein SE (2007). Quality of life for people with autism: raising the standard for evaluating successful outcomes. Child Adolesc Ment Health 12 (2): 80–6.
- ↑ Stahmer AC, Collings NM, Palinkas LA (2005). Early intervention practices for children with autism: descriptions from community providers. Focus Autism Other Dev Disabl 20 (2): 66–79.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Christison GW, Ivany K (2006). Elimination diets in autism spectrum disorders: any wheat amidst the chaff?. J Dev Behav Pediatr 27 (2 Suppl 2): S162–71.
- ↑ Hazards of chelation therapy:
- Brown MJ, Willis T, Omalu B, Leiker R (2006). Deaths resulting from hypocalcemia after administration of edetate disodium: 2003–2005. Pediatrics 118 (2): e534–6.
- Baxter AJ, Krenzelok EP (2008). Pediatric fatality secondary to EDTA chelation. Clin Toxicol 46 (10): 1083–4.
- ↑ Shimabukuro TT, Grosse SD, Rice C (2008). Medical expenditures for children with an autism spectrum disorder in a privately insured population. J Autism Dev Disord 38 (3): 546–52.
- ↑ Ganz ML (2007). The lifetime distribution of the incremental societal costs of autism. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 161 (4): 343–9.
- ↑ Knapp M, Romeo R, Beecham J (2009). Economic cost of autism in the UK. Autism 13 (3): 317–36.
- ↑ 29.0 29.1 Aman MG (2005). Treatment planning for patients with autism spectrum disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 66 (Suppl 10): 38–45.
- ↑ Sharpe DL, Baker DL (2007). Financial issues associated with having a child with autism. J Fam Econ Iss 28 (2): 247–64.
- ↑ Montes G, Halterman JS (2008). Association of childhood autism spectrum disorders and loss of family income. Pediatrics 121 (4): e821–6.
- ↑ Montes G, Halterman JS (2008). Child care problems and employment among families with preschool-aged children with autism in the United States. Pediatrics 122 (1): e202–8.
- ↑ Case-Smith J, Arbesman M (2008). Evidence-based review of interventions for autism used in or of relevance to occupational therapy. Am J Occup Ther 62 (4): 416–29.
- ↑ Rickards AL, Walstab JE, Wright-Rossi RA, Simpson J, Reddihough DS (2007). A randomized, controlled trial of a home-based intervention program for children with autism and developmental delay. J Dev Behav Pediatr 28 (4): 308–16.
- ↑ Wheeler D, Williams K, Seida J, Ospina M (2008). The Cochrane Library and Autism Spectrum Disorder: an overview of reviews. Evid Based Child Health 3 (1): 3–15.
- ↑ Moore TR, Symons FJ (2009). Adherence to behavioral and medical treatment recommendations by parents of children with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord.
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- ↑ Gulsrud AC, Kasari C, Freeman S, Paparella T (2007). Children with autism's response to novel stimuli while participating in interventions targeting joint attention or symbolic play skills. Autism 11 (6): 535–46.
- ↑ Matson JL, Matson ML, Rivet TT (2007). Social-skills treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders: an overview. Behav Modif 31 (5): 682–707.
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- ↑ Baranek GT (2002). Efficacy of sensory and motor interventions for children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord 32 (5): 397–422.
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- ↑ Schaaf RC, Miller LJ (2005). Occupational therapy using a sensory integrative approach for children with developmental disabilities. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 11 (2): 143–8.
- ↑ Hodgetts S, Hodgetts W (2007). Somatosensory stimulation interventions for children with autism: literature review and clinical considerations. Can J Occup Ther 74 (5): 393–400.
- ↑ Gold C, Wigram T, Elefant C (2006). Music therapy for autistic spectrum disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD004381.
- ↑ Nimer J, Lundahl B (2007). Animal-assisted therapy: a meta-analysis. Anthrozoos 20 (3): 225–38.
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Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5017
The fluvial geomorphology of the Molalla River, which demonstrates features typical of many rivers draining the Western Cascade Range, has unique characteristics and fluvial responses that warrant a focused investigation. The geomorphology of the Molalla River was analyzed using available remotely sensed data sets, including LiDAR and aerial imagery, as well as field-collected data.
Observations from reconnaissance trips to the Molalla River during the early stages of this study led to hypotheses that guided subsequent geomorphic analysis. For example, fresh gravel deposits and abandoned channels upstream from Canby (GR3, fig. 2) suggested increased channel-migration activity might have resulted from excess sediment load arriving from upstream. Elevated gravel and cobble bars upstream of the Highway 211 Bridge suggested the possibility of increased sedimentation in the upstream reaches of the study area. It was hypothesized that the river corridor might be subject to widespread aggradation, which, in turn, was leading to increased flooding and channel migration. Subsequent analysis showed systematic aggradation was not widespread and observed sedimentation was due to localized effects and proximity to channel-constraining bedrock.
The geomorphic flood plain of the Molalla River was delineated to provide a static reference frame for analysis of temporal changes in the channel morphology. The geomorphic flood plain was also intended to represent the spatial extent of the lateral movement of the river during the Holocene, typically spanning the valley bottom between bedrock or alluvial bluffs that act to confine channel movement. In analyzing both the geomorphic flood plain and other geomorphic and physical characteristics of the river corridor, six reaches exhibiting unique physical traits were identified. These unique geomorphic reaches were determined using LiDAR-derived hill-shade maps that revealed distinct transitions in channel width, presence of secondary channels, and channel-migration potential.
For the Molalla River, two separate bare-earth LiDAR data sets were obtained through the Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries. LiDAR data spanning Rkm 0.0–22.36 (northern region) were collected between March 16, 2007, and April 15, 2007; LiDAR data encompassing Rkm 22.52–39.41 (southern region) were collected on October 26, 2008, November 1-4, 2008, and March 18, 2009 (Watershed Sciences, 2009a; 2009b). The LiDAR data sets contained topographic points at 0.91-m grid resolution, with vertical accuracy of 5-8 cm in the northern region and 1-3 cm in the southern region.
Interfaces between geomorphic reaches were also determined by identifying narrow points in the geomorphic flood plain (fig. 6) that indicated natural transitions. The geomorphic flood plain within an individual reach tended to have a relatively consistent width.
The geomorphic reaches were numbered from one to six from the confluence with the Willamette River to the upstream extent of the study area (table 5; fig. 3). Geomorphic reach 1 (GR1) extended from the Willamette River (FPkm 0.0) to the confluence of the Molalla River with the Pudding River (FPkm 2.0). Geomorphic reach 2 (GR2) extended from the confluence with the Pudding River to Goods Bridge at Highway 170 (FPkm 9.0) just south of Canby and adjacent gaging station, Molalla River near Canby (14200000). Geomorphic reach 3 (GR3) extended from Goods Bridge to a relatively narrow point in the geomorphic flood plain at FPkm 15.4 (fig. 6) located just upstream of where the Milk Creek tributary enters the Molalla River geomorphic flood plain. Geomorphic reach 4 (GR4) extended from FPkm 15.4 upstream to another relatively narrow point in the geomorphic flood plain (FPkm 26.1). Geomorphic reach 5 (GR5) extended from FPkm 26.1 to FPkm 33.0, where the overall geomorphic flood plain narrows markedly (fig. 3 and fig. 6), and geomorphic reach 6 (GR6) encompassed the remainder of the study area upstream to Glen Avon Bridge at FPkm 35.7.
Channel Characterization within Geomorphic Reaches
The upstream-most geomorphic reach (GR6) is a relatively narrow, 2.7-km-long fluvial corridor constrained by sandstone and conglomerate bedrock on both banks. Numerous bedrock exposures in the channel bottom throughout GR6 indicate that alluvial fill is thin and the river has incised into bedrock in recent geologic history or is currently downcutting. As a result of bedrock control, there are no secondary or side channels in GR6; however, pools are frequent in GR6, commonly eroded directly into exposed bedrock just downstream of steep riffles. Some tributaries have deposited large boulder assemblages into the main stem that appear to be eroded debris-flow or landslide deposits. From Glen Avon Bridge to the North Fork of the Molalla River (Rkm 43.8), the river has a plane-bed morphology, that is, a relatively flat cobble-bed channel lacking discrete bars that has a low width to depth ratio and large relative roughness (Montgomery and Buffington, 1997). Downstream of the North Fork Molalla River, large floods with ample stream power have mobilized particles and reworked the coarse-grained sediment into a pool-riffle morphologic structure (Montgomery and Buffington, 1997) with boulder bars establishing and controlling the riffle structure. Boulders are the dominant sediment-size class of the large channel-forming bars. LiDAR data were not available for GR6, which precluded a complete analysis of slope, although a coarse calculation from USGS topographic maps showed reach slope to be about 0.005 m/m. A relatively small number of engineered revetments in GR6 mantle bedrock to protect structures built on top of adjacent strath terraces but do not restrict channel movement any more than the underlying bedrock. The narrow, constrained river corridor in GR6, combined with established and mature riparian vegetation, results in a well-shaded channel with riffles and pools (fig. 7A) that keep the water well oxygenated. Despite the established riparian corridor, large woody debris in GR6 is rare due to limited recruitment from channel migration and efficient transport from the reach during high flows.
Leaving the constrained bedrock corridor of GR6, the river enters the alluvial, 6.9-km-long GR5.The mean river slope is about 0.005 m/m. Compared to GR6, the active channel of GR5 is wider and riparian vegetation is farther from the river centerline, resulting in less overall shade. Compared to downstream reaches, however, GR5 is relatively narrow and well shaded (fig. 7B). The morphologic structure of GR5 is pool-riffle, but sediment particle size in the channel-forming bars declines progressively in the downstream direction: fluvially deposited boulder bars are numerous in the upper extent of GR5 and rare in the lower extent; gravel and cobble deposits are common throughout the reach. Sandstone and conglomerate bedrock crops out along the channel bed throughout GR5, but less abundantly than in GR6. Similarly, laterally constraining bedrock occurs sparsely and only where the main stem approaches the outer extents of the wider geomorphic flood plain on both river-right and left. In contrast to GR6, a high-flow alluvial flood terrace, 1 to 4 m higher than the river, is prevalent on both sides of the river throughout GR5, indicative of a river with some degree of active channel migration over the recent geologic time frame. Revetments are infrequent in GR5, but they do restrict channel migration into the alluvial flood plain in strategic locations. Secondary channels occur in the downstream section of GR5. Pools are numerous in GR5, and the deepest pools are located where the channel approaches lateral bedrock at the periphery of the geomorphic flood plain. There is relatively little large woody debris within GR5.
In GR4, a wide and open active channel within a wider geomorphic flood plain, the Molalla River assumes the characteristics typical throughout most of the lower extent of the study area (fig. 7C). The length of GR4 is 10.7 km and the slope of the river here is about 0.0035 m/m. The same units of sandstone and conglomerate bedrock present in GR5 and GR6 underlie much of the channel throughout this reach. Lateral bedrock constrains the river in GR4 only on the right (northeast) extent of the geomorphic flood plain as the left edge of the geomorphic flood plain in GR4 is exclusively a terrace of Pleistocene alluvium. Revetments to protect property, agriculture, and infrastructure are common throughout GR4; they are prevalent on the left side of the river because confinement on the right side of the river is commonly governed by bedrock. The morphologic structure is pool-riffle throughout GR4, and pools, although present throughout the reach, tend to be deeper near confining bedrock or revetments. Particle size in alluvial channel-forming bars progressively finer downstream, with boulder bars giving way to cobble and gravel bars. Secondary channels are not widespread, but are more common than farther upstream. Shade in GR4 becomes sparse as much of the riparian vegetation along the river channel has been removed, exposing more of the water surface to direct sunlight. Limited assemblages of large wood begin to appear in the lower section of GR4, sourced, presumably, from active channel migration within the reach.
As it enters the wide, alluvial geomorphic flood plain of GR3, the Molalla River is active with historical tendencies toward flooding and rapid channel migration, which presents major challenges for people living and working along its banks. The total length of this reach of the geomorphic flood plain is 6.4 km, and the mean slope along the river is about 0.003 m/m. Whereas bedrock is present in the channel of the upper 1 km of GR3 and at one location along the right bank near FPkm 14.8, bedrock is absent from the lower 5 km of GR3, indicating the river here flows over alluvium of unknown depth. The coarse-grained fan of Lake Missoula Flood deposits (O’Connor and others, 2001) in the lower 1 km of GR3, however, does restrict lateral movement of the river to the north. The morphologic structure of the river in GR3 is pool-riffle with island-braided characteristics (Beechie and others, 2006), and numerous cobble and gravel bars occupy a wide and exposed active channel (fig. 7D). Pools are frequent in GR3. Secondary channels are common, due in part to active channel movement during historical peak flows and a relative paucity of revetments. Few revetments exist in the reach and are predominantly placed on river left to protect property and infrastructure. The largest of these is a 0.6-km-long revetment near FPkm 14 that protects the railroad line on river left. Of all the reaches, riparian vegetation and shade is least common in GR3 (fig. 7D) although recruitment and collection of large woody debris on the channel margin from channel migration appears to be an active process.
As the Molalla River flows past the city of Canby, it enters the relatively confined 7.0-km-long corridor of GR2 (fig. 7E). The overall active channel width in GR2 is narrow and the mean river slope is about 0.0016 m/m. Much of the eastern boundary of the geomorphic flood plain in the downstream section of GR2 is confined by the coarse-grained fan from Lake Missoula Floods spilling through the Oregon City gap (O’Connor and others, 2001). Away from the Lake Missoula Floods deposits, the river flows between Holocene alluvial terraces. Although geologically speaking the river probably swept across the wider geomorphic flood plain in GR2, strategically placed revetments along the river in this reach have restricted the location of the river during the past four decades. No lateral bedrock exists in GR2, but channel bedrock is common and widespread from FPkm 8 downstream to FPkm 2.6. This channel bedrock consists of weakly cemented, fluvially deposited gravels probably emplaced by a Pleistocene-era Willamette River and is distinctly different from the sandstone and conglomerate units present in GR4 and farther upstream. Although not confirmed, the exposed bedrock in GR2 probably is the Linn Formation (O’Connor and others, 2001). The morphologic structure of GR2 alternates between pool-riffle and a straight channel (Beechie and others, 2006), and gravel bars are present along the channel margins although they are not as large or as common as the gravel bars found in GR3. Pools are frequent in GR2, and the deepest pool recorded in the study (6.6 m) was located near the downstream end of GR2. Riparian vegetation is common, and the narrow channel generates more shade than in GR3. There is almost no large woody debris in GR2, possibly due to the relative lack of channel movement, which in turn reduces local recruitment.
From the confluence of the Pudding River to the Willamette River, the Molalla River is a 2.0-km-long, wide river with an underlying pool-riffle morphology (fig. 7F). Unfettered by lateral bedrock or revetments, the river meanders widely and actively across the geomorphic flood plain with large gravel point and lateral bars throughout GR1. Bedrock is not exposed in GR1. No secondary active channels were apparent in the 2009 river configuration although secondary channels were probably common throughout the Holocene. Because GR1 is relatively wide, there is little shade over the water surface, but recruitment and deposition of ample large woody debris in the channel increase ecologic complexity and provide fish habitat.
Following the methodology of Jones (2006), height above water surface (HAWS) maps were generated where LiDAR data were available to visualize fluvial features along the geomorphic flood plain. Along transects drawn orthogonally to the river centerline, elevation of the flood plain is subtracted from the presumed water-surface elevation—determined from LiDAR where the river centerline intersects the transect of interest—to create an elevation of the flood plain relative to the river’s water-surface elevation. Despite inaccuracies in the underlying LiDAR data and water-surface elevation, the resulting HAWS maps, when viewed as a raster data set, allowed qualitative insight of the position of the river in the recent geologic past. Specifically, the HAWS maps enabled the identification of relict morphologic features in the flood plain created by the river, such as abandoned channels, meander bends, and oxbows.
The HAWS maps show the Molalla River has actively meandered across the width of the geomorphic flood plain in GR1, combining with the Pudding River in the lower 2 km of the river corridor (fig. 8). HAWS maps in GR2 show the distinct morphology of the Molalla River and the Pudding River. The level of sinuosity of the Pudding River, on the western side of GR2, over the late Holocene has been greater than the main-stem Molalla River. Although also meandering, the Molalla River in GR2 has not been as sinuous as its western tributary. Based on the absence of fluvial features in the flood-plain surface between the two rivers toward the southern extent of the geomorphic flood plain, there is no evidence the two rivers have joined upstream of about FPkm 6.1 within the recent geologic past. The HAWS maps of GR3 show the dominant geomorphic influence of the railroad, and its long, fortified structure dissecting the flood plain. The HAWS maps show active movement of the river before construction of the railroad line within the upstream section of GR3. This railroad line was constructed in 1913 (Cole and others, 2004). The maps also show a pre-settlement river that swept across the flood plain with braided or island-braided characteristics. It is apparent from the HAWS maps that the Molalla River in GR3 has been active, with migrating meanders and channel avulsions (that is, the rapid abandonment of a river channel and formation of a new channel), even before European settlement. Similarly, the Molalla River in GR4 has migrated actively across the geomorphic flood plain, but the process of movement has been dominated by avulsions in a pool-riffle or island-braided morphology and less so by lateral meandering of the main channel (fig. 8). The HAWS maps in GR5 indicate that the river in this reach has been a predominantly pool-riffle or island-braided system prior to development, not unlike the river today, although contemporary channel movement in GR5 was likely suppressed by bank stabilization projects. LiDAR data were not available for GR6, precluding the generation of HAWS maps; however, field observation confirmed that the river in GR6 is bedrock controlled and not subject to active channel migration.
Key Longitudinal Trends along the River Corridor
Longitudinal trends along the river corridor were analyzed on the basis of a combination of LiDAR data, aerial imagery, and field data collection. A longitudinal profile of water-surface elevation was generated by projecting the river centerline onto LiDAR data. Three kayak float trips covering the Molalla River from Glen Avon Bridge to the Willamette River were made in July 2010 to gather river-depth data, catalogue the locations of confining bedrock and revetments, and to photograph river characteristics. Measured depths, combined with the LiDAR-derived water-surface elevation profile, were used to generate a bed-elevation profile and characterize pools in the river. Finally, field work in September 2010 provided particle-size data and bathymetric data for multiple locations in the study reach.
A water-surface elevation profile was constructed from LiDAR data from Rkm 0.0 to Rkm 39.41 (fig. 9). An available 10-m digital elevation model (DEM) upstream of Rkm 39.41 was too coarse to accurately determine water-surface elevation. Airborne LiDAR systems work by firing a laser at the ground and measuring the return time of the beam reflected off the target surface (Wehr and Lohr, 1999). Although some systems were designed specifically for the purpose of mapping aqueous and subaqueous surfaces, the LiDAR flown over the Molalla River was tuned to measure terrestrial relief, and LiDAR returns from aqueous surfaces were probably discarded and topography at water features were likely interpolated from the nearest known ground points. Thus, the vertical accuracy of points in the main stem of the river is subject to errors associated with these interpolated surfaces. Differences in river discharge during different flight days over different sections of the river also create uncertainty in the final water surface. To generate a water-surface elevation profile of the river centerline, the river centerline was projected on the LiDAR data and elevation points were sampled at 1-m increments and then plotted in an x-y coordinate system. From the raw centerline elevation data, outlier points, those points that obviously misrepresented the water-surface profile, were removed, and depressions and convexities were smoothed to create a realistic profile. The vertical accuracy of the constructed water-surface profile could not be determined independently, however, the profile at any given point along the river centerline probably is within 1 m of the actual water surface. Moreover, for the analyses completed for this study, the degree of accuracy in vertical elevation is adequate to discern general trends of the water-surface profile with respect to the flood-plain scale in terms of slope, profile convexities, profile concavities, and residual pool depth.
The longitudinal water-surface elevation profile of the Molalla River (fig. 9) is generally concave, consistent with graded rivers that have adjusted their slope to sediment transport supplied from upstream (Macklin, 1948; Knighton, 1998). If the profiles are examined closely, however, they show that the Molalla River deviates from the concave profile of a graded river near Rkm 18 along the interface of GR3 and GR4 (fig. 9A). This change in curvature is more visible when the longitudinal profile is plotted on a semi-logarithmic scale (fig. 9B). The slope of the average water-surface (fig. 9C), computed as a 5-km moving average, shows the steepest portions of the river in the study area to be in the upstream extent with the gradient generally decreasing in the downstream direction to the Pudding River tributary. The increased slope at the upstream end of GR3 is also apparent in the slope data shown in figure 9C.
Water Depth and Residual Depths
A series of three float trips, using a two-person inflatable kayak, was completed in July 2010 to measure water depth and to map bedrock and revetments on the Molalla River from Glen Avon Bridge to the confluence with the Willamette River. The section of the Molalla River from Highway 211 to Goods Bridge was floated on July 13, 2010 (the mean discharge for the day was 6.60 m3/s, or 233 ft3/s). The section of river from Goods Bridge downstream to its confluence with the Willamette River was floated on July 14, 2010 (the mean daily discharge was 6.06 m3/s, or 214 ft3/s). The section of river from Glen Avon Bridge to the Molalla River at Highway 211 was floated on July 22, 2010 (the mean daily discharge was 4.79 m3/s, or 169 ft3/s).
During each float, water depth was measured using a global-positioning system (GPS) referenced fathometer mounted on the boat, with a specified horizontal accuracy of less than 15 m and an estimated depth accuracy of 0.2 m. The GPS-referenced water depths were recorded every 5 seconds and were limited by the instrument capability and boat dimensions to values greater than about 0.3 m. During each float, a conscious effort was made to pilot the boat as close to the thalweg (channel invert, or minimum elevation in the river bed) as possible.
During the floats, bedrock outcrops and engineered revetments were mapped using a hand-held GPS, with a horizontal accuracy of about 10 m. All observed outcrops of bedrock along the banks of the river and along the bed of the river were identified during the float trip and categorized as being within the channel or on the left or right bank. Also, lengths of observed hardened embankments, revetments, and other man-made structures visible from the river were mapped to quantify the current degree of the anthropogenic influence on the river. It is important to note that revetments away from the river or those obscured by vegetation were not mapped; thus the revetment data presented in this report does not represent a rigorous inventory of all revetments in the river corridor.
Water-depth data measured during the study were related to the river centerline and plotted for the entire study area in figure 10. By joining the measured depth data to the nearest 1-m stationing point along the river centerline and the corresponding longitudinal water-surface elevation, a longitudinal bed-elevation profile was generated. Residual pool depth is defined as the difference between the maximum water depth of a pool and the limiting elevation of the riffle at the downstream extent of the pool (Lisle, 1987). After generating the bed-elevation profile, residual pool depth was computed from Rkm 0 to Rkm 39.41 using an algorithm and software developed by Madej (1999). The Madej algorithm identifies only pools deeper than a user-specified threshold, which was set to 1.0 m for the current study consistent with the threshold used by Madej and Ozaki (2009) for Redwood Creek, California. Redwood Creek, in the California Coastal Range where hydrology is similar to that in northwestern Oregon, drains 720 km2, a drainage comparable to the Molalla River.
Residual pool depth statistics generated by the Madej (1999) software showed the average residual pool depth was consistent throughout the river corridor, and ranged from 1.8 to 2.1 m (table 6). Pool frequency per river kilometer ranged from 1.6 to 3.4, with the largest pool frequencies in GR1 and the smallest pool frequency in GR5. Pool frequency generally increased in the downstream direction. The maximum residual pool depth ranged from 3.6 to 6.3 m, with the maximum residual pool depth in GR2.
Convexities in long river profiles are sometimes used to identify regions of alluvial accumulation (for example, Hanks and Webb, 2006) or to identify incision knickpoints (for example, Stock and Montgomery, 1999). To gain insight into morphologic evolution of the Molalla River, a second-order polynomial trend line representing a graded profile (Mackin, 1948) was fit to the longitudinal profile of water-surface elevation, and the elevation differences between the long profile and the idealized fit were plotted (fig. 11). The bed elevation profile and observations of channel bedrock are also shown in figure 11. Where observed, the channel bedrock was assumed to have the same elevation as the channel bottom, determined by water-depth measurements. The placement of bedrock points in figure 11 is not intended to represent the precise elevation of individual outcrops of bedrock; rather, the points are intended to show generally where bedrock is exposed along the river corridor. The plot shows a strong convexity centered near Rkm 18 that spans GR3 and GR4. A first interpretation might attribute this convexity to the presence of an alluvial wedge; however, the proximity of channel bedrock to the water surface from Rkm 18 to Rkm 38 shows there is little accumulated sediment upstream of Rkm 18, and that the river from GR6 downstream through GR4 flows over a terrace of bedrock positioned just below the water surface. Farther downstream, the outcrops of channel bedrock in GR2 indicate that from Rkm 4 to Rkm 10, the river also flows over a bedrock terrace with a relatively thin mantle of alluvium. Although not determined, it appears that 2–3 m of sediment mantles bedrock in GR1, between the Pudding River and the Willamette River. Between Rkm 10 and Rkm 18, some unknown thickness of alluvium covers the bedrock, but the differenced elevation profile (fig. 11) shows no convexity between Rkm 10 and Rkm 18 that might indicate accumulating sediment. Instead, the Molalla River in this section is well graded to the long profile between bedrock outcrops, suggesting the river can effectively transport sediment from upstream through this reach. Furthermore, as a transport reach, the section of river between Rkm 10 and Rkm 18 is not accumulating new sediment to significant depths.
Though beyond the scope of this study, a possible explanation for the lack of bedrock exposures in GR3 may be the presence of a previously unmapped thrust fault near Rkm 18, where the eastern side has risen relative to the western side. Prior work by the USGS identified an area of geomagnetic anomaly near Rkm 18, possibly indicating a geologic fault (Richard Blakely, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 2010). Another explanation for the lack of bedrock exposures is that unique bedrock units upstream and downstream of GR3 led to differential incision rates east and west of Canby that is manifested in the river profile as a change in slope at Rkm 18. Observations during float trips that the sandstone and conglomerate units upstream of GR3 are distinctly different from the conglomerate lithology of bedrock in GR2 support this second hypothesis. The two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive and both mechanisms could have affected the underlying geologic structure.
Particle-size data were collected from exposed bars in September and October 2010. Using the methodology of Wolman (1954), pebble counts were conducted at nine sample locations in all geomorphic reaches except GR1 (fig. 3; table 2). At each site, prominent, unvegetated, recently deposited gravel or cobble bars near the main-stem river were selected for characterization using an approach similar to the one employed by Wallick and others (2010a). For each site, particle-size data were collected along two parallel transects placed on the sampled bars, and a total of 200 particles were measured. The pebble-count transects were typically 2-4 m from the water’s edge and parallel to the flow direction of the river. The particle data were then bracketed into respective phi classes and analyzed (Garcia, 2008). It is important to note that sampled bars were generally at a lower elevation, thus representing bars deposited or reworked by flows within the past one to two years. As a result, the magnitudes of the flows depositing or reworking the sampled bars are much smaller than the peak flows that control the geomorphology of the river and would deposit the highest elevation bars and coarsest particles. Thus the particle-size data presented herein well represents the clasts typically mobilized in a bankfull event.
Figure 12 shows the median particle-size (D50), the 90th percentile particle-size (D90), and the 10th percentile particle-size (D10) data for the nine sampled bars in the Molalla River (appendix A). GR6 had the coarsest collection of particles, and median size decreased generally in the downstream direction, with GR2 having the finest particles. The farthest upstream location, just upstream of Glen Avon Bridge at Rkm 44.32, had a median particle size of 139 mm and a D90 of 405 mm. The bar just downstream of Glen Avon Bridge, at Rkm 44.12, had a median particle size of 76 mm and a D90 of 227 mm. This section of river, upstream of the North Fork Molalla River, had a plane-bed morphology with few recently deposited cobble bars. The sampled region upstream of Glen Avon Bridge, in particular, was a higher, exposed part of the main channel-forming bed composed of coarse particles and was not an accurate representation of the particles mobilized in a bankfull event. Instead, the sampled bar downstream of Glen Avon Bridge, with a smaller overall particle-size distribution, better represented the material mobilized in a bankfull event. Indeed, from this bar downstream of Glen Avon Bridge through GR3, the median grain size on the bars remained relatively constant, suggesting efficient transport, although there was a general downward trend in D90 (fig. 12). The one sampling location in GR2 showed a median size of 42 mm and a D90 of 77 mm.
Sand-size particles (diameter less than 2 mm) were noted in the pebble counts, although not counted in the computations of particle-size statistics. Sand counts in the eight upstream-most pebble-count locations were less than 2 percent. The farthest downstream sample site in GR2 had a sand count of 5.5 percent. Overall, the Molalla River is a unimodal, gravel-bedded system with little sand.
During September 2010, five bathymetric cross sections were surveyed near bridges throughout the study area to characterize channel geometry of the Molalla River. The cross section near Highway 213 was surveyed on September 1, 2010 (the mean daily discharge was 2.49 m3/s, or 87.9 ft3/s). The other cross sections (at the Glen Avon Bridge, Feyrer Park Road, Highway 211 Bridge, and Goods Bridge) were surveyed on September 2, 2010, when the mean daily discharge was 3.40 m3/s, or 120 ft3/s. All cross sections were surveyed using a total-station survey instrument and reflective prism on a stadia rod. The relative accuracy between surveyed points was about 0.03 m. The five cross sections were surveyed relative to the centerline of the bridges and referenced to benchmarks near the bridges. The cross sections were aligned and positioned using aerial imagery and, therefore, were not accurately geo-referenced to a global horizontal or vertical datum. The cross section at the Glen Avon Bridge was surveyed to the top of the banks. For the other cross sections, only the unvegetated channel was surveyed, and the topographic data for the remainder of the cross sections in the wider flood plain were obtained from the LiDAR data.
The five surveyed cross sections (fig. 3; fig. 13) show a general trend of increasing channel width downstream. At the Glen Avon Bridge, the river is relatively confined within the canyon. At the other cross sections, the river is less confined, with gravel and cobble bars (near the right bank at Feyrer Park, Highway 211, and Highway 213) and low terraces or benches (near the right bank at Highway 211 and Highway 213, and near the left bank at Goods Bridge) within the river banks.
Analysis of Stage-Discharge Relation at Gaging Station
Following the approach of Klingeman (1973) and Smelser and Schmidt (1998), long-term aggradation trends in the Molalla River were analyzed using stage-discharge relations at the Molalla River near Canby gaging station (14200000). By analyzing the reported stage-discharge relation for the period of record that extends discontinuously back to 1928, the stage for a given discharge was determined. Stage at the gaging station is dependent on downstream hydraulic control and can be used to infer trends in aggradation or incision in the section of river downstream of the gaging station.
For the analysis, four target discharge values were used: 570 m3/s (20,100 ft3/s), which represented the approximate discharge of a 5-year recurrence-interval peak event in the lower Molalla River; 110 m3/s (3,800 ft3/s), the value of discharge exceeded 5 percent of the time; 19 m3/s (670 ft3/s), the value of discharge exceeded 50 percent of the time (median discharge); and 1.7 m3/s (60 ft3/s), the value of discharge exceeded 95 percent of the time. Reported changes in the gaging-site location or the reference datum were noted and used to correct the raw stage data to a common datum.
Figure 14 shows the overall trends in stage in the Molalla River near Canby (14200000) from 1928 to 2010. Each data point represents the reported stage for a given discharge value on that date. Two gaps in the data show when the gaging station was not in operation: November 1958 to October 1963 and November 1977 to October 2000. All data were corrected to accommodate station moves or shifts in the datum such that all the points shown in figure 14 are displayed relative to a common datum. As a result, all stage values for a given discharge are directly comparable, even across data gaps when the gaging station was not operating. From 1928 to about 1948, stage at all analyzed discharge values was relatively constant, shifting by no more than a few centimeters. From 1948 to 1953, stage decreased about 0.25 m for all discharge values, indicating a general trend of incision. This decrease may have been associated with gravel mining commonly practiced along the Molalla River in the middle 20th century (Cole and others, 2004). Between cessation of gaging station operation in 1958 and reactivation of the gaging station in 1963, low-flow stage increased about 0.25 m and high-flow stage decreased a similar amount. From 1958 to 1977, stage decreased at a steady rate. Between 1977 and 2000, the second period when the gaging station was not in operation, stage decreased by another 0.25 m. From 2000 to 2010, stage has fluctuated slightly, but there has been no consistent upward or downward trend. Taken as a whole, the gaging record at Canby shows a general trend of incision for the latter half of the 20th century. More importantly, there was no appreciable aggradation downstream of the gaging station in the past 10 years. Notably, the river downstream of the gaging station did not change appreciably after the December 1964 peak of record.
Spatial Analysis of Flood Plain
Morphologic trends along the Molalla River were determined from historical aerial imagery (table 7). Orthorectified aerial imagery collected in 1994, 2000, 2005, and 2009 was used to digitize channel features and quantitatively analyze changes in the active channel during the last two decades. Note that 1994 imagery for the Molalla River was available as part of the 1995 USGS DOQ imagery set (table 7). Older aerial imagery, from 1936 to 1988, that were not orthorectified allowed for the qualitative analysis of river response over a longer period. Knowledge of the Molalla River flood hydrology between 1994 and 2009 allowed the quantitative analysis of river response to unique peak-flow conditions. For example, the 1994–2000 imagery bounds the large February 2, 1996, high flow that has an estimated discharge of about 900 m3/s (32,000 ft3/s). Similarly, the 2005–2009 imagery bounds a smaller, yet still significant, January 2, 2009, peak event of 691 m3/s (24,400 ft3/s). In contrast, the 2000–2005 imagery bounds a series of modest peak flows, the largest of which was the February 1, 2003, event of 467 m3/s (16,500 ft3/s).
Methodology of Digitization
Areas of channel migration and flood-plain morphology were digitized using methodology previously developed by the USGS for analysis of the Chetco and Umpqua Rivers. Mapping guidelines and definitions are briefly summarized below; however, a more detailed description of the standard mapping methodology can be found in Wallick and others (2010a; 2010b).
Digitization of channel morphology was completed at a scale of 1:3,000 and only channel features larger than 300 m2 were digitized. Features smaller than 300 m2 were integrated into larger, adjacent features. Mapping of morphologic features was primarily confined to the regions adjacent to the active channel, defined as the area typically inundated during annual high flows (Church, 1988). Each digitized data set was reviewed by another team member for quality, accuracy, and consistency.
Base layers used to map geomorphic features within the active channel of the Molalla River include LiDAR-derived imagery (Oregon Department of Geology and Mineral Industries, 2010), digital orthophoto quads from 1994 (1995 DOQ Molalla River imagery) and 2000 (Oregon Geospatial Enterprise Office, 2010); and orthoimagery from 2005 and 2009 (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2010). For each of the four imagery sets (1994, 2000, 2005, 2009), regions along the river corridor were mapped into one of five general morphologic features: (1) the wetted channel, (2) gravel bars, (3) secondary water features, (4) bedrock outcrops, and (5) flood plain.
For mapped wetted channels, two discrete units were classified. First, the “primary channel” of the Molalla River was mapped on the basis of the visible extent of the wetted perimeter. Then for large tributaries, such as the Pudding River and Milk Creek, the wetted perimeter of the “tributary channel” was mapped roughly 500 m upstream of its confluence with the Molalla River. Next, gravel bars, defined as features greater than 300 m2 containing exposed bed-material sediment, were delineated and classified as either “flood-plain bar” (adjacent to flood plain) or “island bar” (surrounded by wetted channel). In addition, the amount of vegetation was estimated for all flood-plain-bar and island-bar features as containing bare (less than 10 percent), moderate (10–50 percent), or dense (greater than 50 percent) vegetation cover. Secondary water features, including side channels, backwater sloughs, and disconnected water bodies, were also mapped. Bedrock outcrops, as visible in the aerial imagery, were mapped along the river’s active channel. However, only a few outcrops were identified and mapped, which demonstrates the limitation of using aerial imagery to identify bedrock along a vegetated river corridor where subsequent field observations identified extensive bedrock outcrops along most of the corridor. The remaining area that might typically be inundated during annual high flows, based on vegetation distribution and development, was classified as “flood plain,” allowing for baseline comparison of morphologic features between different time periods. In addition, the approximate channel centerline of the main-stem Molalla River was digitized for each of the four sets of imagery.
Mapping of channel features was affected by the quality and resolution of available imagery. Some areas of imagery had varying degrees of glare, shadows, or local obstructions of channel features. Errors were introduced by imprecise line placement and orthorectification inaccuracies. To minimize errors and increase the overall precision of the interpretive mapping, all delineated features were regularly checked and quality controlled by other members of the project team.
An important consideration when viewing results from the digitization is that biases in the size of respective morphologic features may exist due to differences in discharge. Although all imagery was acquired during periods of relatively low flow, even a small change in discharge can affect the width of the wetted channel and the area of exposed bars. Discharge data for the Molalla River were not available for all four imagery time periods, so the digitization was not corrected to accommodate for differences in discharge. As a result, no comparative analysis was completed using only the area of the wetted channel.
Channel sinuosity was determined for 1994, 2000, 2005, and 2009 along the main channel of the Molalla River with respect to the geomorphic flood plain. Sinuosity values were determined for each of the geomorphic flood-plain reaches by dividing the reach-segregated channel centerline length by the corresponding geomorphic flood-plain centerline length for that reach.
The active channel, that section of the river corridor relatively free of vegetation that conveys the majority of the water and sediment during high flow, was defined to include the wetted channel, flood-plain and island bars (less than 50 percent vegetation), secondary water features, and bedrock outcrops forming low benches within the channel. Morphologic features that did not contribute to the active channel included flood-plain or island bars with dense (greater than 50 percent) vegetation, flood plain, bedrock forming steep banks, and tributary features. Also excluded from the category of active channel were any secondary water features, island bars, or flood-plain bars that did not form a collective, continuous arc with an upstream and downstream connection to the main active channel. Active-channel width was then determined by dividing the total active-channel area in a given 1-FPkm subreach of the geomorphic flood plain by the length of that subreach. The average active-channel width was determined for each 1-FPkm subreach segment for each of the four years.
Channel centerlines from 1994, 2000, 2005, and 2009 were used to compute average annual migration rates for each of the three time periods between aerial imagery with channel migration averaged over each 1-FPkm subreach segment. The sum migration distance between two sets of aerial imagery was divided by time elapsed between images to determine an average annual migration rate.
The percentage of bank confinement due to bedrock outcrops and revetments, as digitized using observations from the float trips, was quantified for each of the six geomorphic flood-plain reaches. For each geomorphic flood-plain reach, the total length of hardened banks was divided by twice the length of the 2009 channel centerline (to account for the left and right banks separately) in order to determine the percentage of the 2009 channel margin that was confined by bedrock, revetments, or coarse-grained Missoula Flood deposits.
Specific bar area for a given 1-FPkm segment was defined as the total bar area divided by the length along the geomorphic flood-plain centerline. Specific bar area was determined for both the island bars and flood-plain bars, and the three classifications of bar vegetation density (bare, moderate, and dense) were reported along 1-FPkm subreach segments.
Channel sinuosity was highest in GR1, GR3, and GR4, where the channel meandered significantly during the study period (fig, 15). Sinuosity was lowest in GR2, where the channel was relatively straight and ran along the right extent of a wide geomorphic flood plain.
Average active-channel widths were largest and most variable from 1994 to 2009 in GR3 (fig. 16). The smallest and least variable active-channel widths were in GR2 and GR6. The relatively narrow active-channel width in GR2 was due to the numerous confinements, and the narrow active-channel width in GR6 was due to bedrock confining both edges of the channel. GR1 was characterized by relatively large active-channel widths that remained relatively constant through time. In general, active-channel widths in GR3, GR4, and GR5 were variable over time. Indeed, the continuous river corridor from GR5 downstream to GR3 exhibited a large variability in active-channel width from 1994 to 2009 consistent with the pool-riffle morphology, active meandering, and relatively few revetments or confining bedrock walls. Although observed changes in active-channel width of GR1, GR2, and GR6 were largely constant for the four sets of imagery, active-channel width in GR4 and GR5 was largest in the imagery acquired in 2000, after the large February 1996 high flow. By 2005, the active-channel width in GR4 and GR5 had decreased to a value similar to that in 1994. Although the active-channel width in 2009 in GR4 and GR5 did not increase greatly in response to the January 2009 high flow, the active-channel width in GR3 increased significantly.
Consistent with the observed trends in active-channel width, calculated channel-migration rates were largest from GR5 downstream to GR3, and overall channel-migration rates were largest in GR3 (fig. 17), the reach of river prone to extensive management issues for residents living along the banks. In general, channel-migration rates were smallest from 2000 to 2005 throughout the entire study reach, which is indicative of a hydrologic period with smaller peak flows (fig. 5). Channel migration was largest within GR3 for all three periods, with the largest channel-migration rates occurring between 2005 and 2009. From 1994 to 2000, the period bracketing the large February 1996 high flow, channel-migration rates in GR4 and GR5 were generally larger than during the other two periods (fig. 17).
The increased channel-migration rates observed from GR5 downstream to GR3 were due, at least partially, to the presence of fewer channel confinements (fig. 18). The percentage of channel margins confined by bedrock outcrops, revetments, or coarse-grained Missoula Flood deposits varied from 0 percent in GR1, where there were no significant revetments or bedrock outcrops on the banks, to nearly 45 percent in GR6 (fig. 18). In GR2, there were numerous revetments on both the left and right banks. Additionally, the right-bank channel abuts Missoula Flood deposits throughout much of GR2. Although there are revetments in GR3, most notably along the railroad bridge, along Missoula Flood deposits, and at strategic locations along the left bank, much of the GR3 is free of confinement, which allowed a more active channel between 1994 and 2009. The channel in GR4 is moderately confined by numerous bedrock outcrops along the right bank and by numerous revetments, primarily along the left bank. However, strategic placement of revetments, acting in concert with lateral bedrock outcrops on river right, has helped to constrain channel movement in GR4. There is a general tendency for the river to remain positioned along prominent lateral bedrock outcrops or along strongly armored revetments with relatively little hydraulic roughness. Qualitative observations of pool depths suggest a spatial correlation between deeper pools and lateral bedrock or well-engineered revetments, which in turn indicates that these erosion-resistant features create hydraulic conditions during large flows that promote effective sediment transport along the bedrock or revetment face, thereby holding the position of the river against the lateral feature over decades. GR5 is confined by a mix of bedrock and revetments on both the left and right banks distributed throughout the reach. GR6 has the highest percentage of confined banks due to bedrock on both the left and right banks, occurring concomitantly on both banks in several sections. Because the revetment data used to generate figure 18 were based on field observations from 2010, the data best describe plan-form conditions of the rivers as determined from the 2009 imagery. Although not evaluated in this study, it is possible that many left-bank revetments, plentiful in GR5 and GR4, were constructed or enhanced following the 1996 flood, which in turn suppressed channel movement in GR5 and GR4 during the 2009 flood.
Specific vegetated bar area (the total height of the columns on the graph) was greatest in GR3, indicative of active channel migration and a large riparian corridor (fig. 19). In contrast, specific bar area was smallest from restricted channel migration in GR2 and GR6 for all four time periods. Specific bar area is variable temporally in portions of GR3, GR4, and GR5. In 1994, most of the flood-plain and island bars were densely vegetated. From 1994 to 2000 there was a shift toward a larger proportion of bare flood-plain bars throughout most of the study reach as well as a greater area of island bars in GR3, a river response to the February 1996 high flow. Progressing to 2005, after a period of smaller high flows, the flood-plain bars shifted toward a greater proportion with moderate or dense vegetation coverage as vegetation grew and reclaimed some of the active channel. By 2009, following the January 2009 high flow, some channel-margin vegetation was removed and fresh gravel-bar deposits resulted in a larger proportion of exposed morphologic features.
Qualitative Trends after the 1930s
Geomorphic changes between 1936 and 1988 were qualitatively assessed using historical aerial imagery (table 7). These older images were not rectified and digitized, but general trends of channel width, bar growth, vegetation, and channel migration were analyzed. This qualitative assessment of historical imagery, along with the quantitative analysis from 1994 to 2009, demonstrates the qualitative trends of geomorphic change from 1936 to 2009.
Because problems caused by flooding and channel migration have been most acute in GR3 in recent years, the qualitative analysis was focused here. Figure 20 shows paneled mosaics of aerial imagery for all the available aerial images. In 1936, the Molalla River in GR3 was meandering with established riparian vegetation, extensive gravel point bars, and a wide active channel that appeared to be in a state of continual migration into the adjacent flood plain consistent with the fluvial mechanics of other alluvial rivers in the Willamette River Valley and the greater Pacific Northwest. Qualitatively, the Molalla River of 1936 in GR3 had a geomorphic plan-form appearance similar to the contemporary river (in 2009). The plan-form characteristics of the river in GR3, including sinuosity and active-channel width, changed little from 1936 to 1948, although large areas of exposed gravel bars appeared in the upper extent of GR3 just upstream of the railroad bridge (fig. 20B). These new gravel bars were probably deposited by the relatively large 711 m3/s (25,100 ft3/s, with a recurrence interval of about 10 years; table 4) flow that occurred in January 1948, six months prior to acquisition of the 1948 imagery (table 7).
By autumn 1964 (fig. 20C), the river in GR3 had straightened noticeably as a number of meanders were cut off; however, active-channel width and the extent of vegetation was not greatly different between 1948 and 1964. The imagery collected in 1964 predates the large December 1964 peak of record of 1,240 m3/s (43,600 ft3/s), and channel straightening probably occurred in response to the high flow of November 1960 (fig. 5), estimated to be 980 m3/s (34,500 ft3/s) on the basis of a 7.62 m high-water mark (relative to the gage datum) recorded by the Canby Fire Department (Andy Bryant, National Weather Service, written commun., 2010). The discharge based on this high-water mark was determined using the current (2011) stage-discharge relation at the Molalla River near Canby gaging station (14200000), but because the trends in stage elevation have been decreasing since 1960 (fig. 14), this discharge estimate is likely too large. The geomorphic effects of the December 1964 peak of record are apparent in figure 20D. Imagery taken in 1970 shows a wide active channel with large, extensive gravel bars free of vegetation in a relatively straight channel of low sinuosity.
By 1980, the active channel was starting to become constricted by encroaching riparian vegetation and meanders were again developing. From 1988 to 1994, a hydrologically quiet period of time with relatively small peak flows (fig. 5), vegetation growth was extensive and the river increased its sinuosity and channel migration. Images acquired in 2000 (fig. 20H), show that the February 1996 high flow again widened the active channel but did not straighten the channel like the 1960 high flow, as evidenced by the 1964 imagery. As discussed earlier, vegetation encroached upon the active channel through 2005 and was subsequently removed by the relatively large January 2009 flood (fig. 5). The active-channel width in the 2009 imagery in GR3 increased, and at least two prominent meanders were cut off (fig.20J). These meander cut offs appeared to supply a large volume of gravel that was deposited locally within 1 km of the cut off, as evidenced by exposed gravel bars in GR3. This locally derived gravel also appears to have caused the marked increase in active-channel width in GR3 near FPkm 12.5 (fig. 16).
Anthropogenic effects on GR3 can also be deduced from the aerial imagery. Although agriculture and timber harvest from the riparian corridor is evident in 1936, neither activity is widespread nor well established, and buildings and other structures are relatively rare. By 1948, agricultural fields started to increase in number and extent on the southern edge of the river, reaching a peak of activity around 1970. From 1970 to 1994, imagery appears to show that agricultural activity waned slightly, but a number of buildings and houses were constructed on the southern edge of the river. It is important to note that the increases in development along the river corridor in GR3 coincided with the relative stasis in hydrologic peak-flow activity from the middle 1970s to 1996. As a result of fewer and less severe floods, the river channel in GR3 between 1975 and 1996 was relatively inactive. It is also worth noting that the railroad bridge at FPkm 14 and Goods Bridge at FPkm 9 have been stable structures since at least 1936, controlling channel movement near each end of GR3. As a result, most channel-migration activity in GR3 has occurred in the reach between the railroad bridge and Goods Bridge.
Downstream in GR2, overall channel-migration activity and geomorphic changes have been relatively modest (compared to that in upstream study reaches) between 1936 and 2009 (fig. 21). These historical trends are consistent with the quantitative trends analyzed for GR2 and can be attributed to significant channel confinement (fig. 18) and a relative lack of gravel accumulation, an observation confirmed with available historical aerial imagery.
Within GR1, the active channel in 2009 was slightly wider than the active channel in 1936, and agriculture has encroached slightly on the outer edges of the wider flood plain (fig. 22). However, the overall geomorphic plan form of the primary river corridor is similar between 1936 and 2009. Riparian vegetation is extensive and well established, and overall sinuosity is similar. One significant change between the dates is that although GR1 in 2009 included the total surface-water flow of the combined Pudding and Molalla Rivers, in 1936 the two rivers were almost separate down to the confluence with the Willamette River (fig. 22A). Although the rivers shared a channel in 1936 for a short distance in the middle of GR1, each river flowed mostly in its own channel and the imagery suggests mixing was negligible.
The 1936 imagery extended no farther upstream than the middle of GR4, but active-channel width, sinuosity, and extent of riparian vegetation in GR4 in 1936 was similar to the geomorphic state of the river in 2009. By 1948, however, GR4 had noticeably changed relative to 1936. The active-channel width was markedly larger, sinuosity had decreased, and a number of avulsions had occurred (fig. 23). Sections of the river corridor in GR4 near FPkm 20 contained extensive bare gravel bars as wide as 200 m. These gravel bars and the active channel in 1948 were significantly larger than exposed bars observed in any section of the contemporary river corridor. Farther upstream in GR5, active-channel width also appears to have increased by 1948, although the amount of widening was not as severe. Furthermore, the 1948 imagery of GR6, still farther upstream, showed neither a widening of the active channel nor extensive gravel deposits. The 1948 imagery, however, does show aggressive logging and dendritic road networks that were presumably used to access forested lands in the catchment away from the river. Although a large high flow could, in theory, cause the geomorphic response observed in the 1948 imagery of GR4, neither the gaging station record (fig. 5) nor the 1948 imagery from GR1, GR2, GR3 (fig. 20), or GR6 support such a hypothesis. Taken in context, it appears that active logging in the upper Molalla River catchment mobilized substantial amounts of sediment that exceeded the transport capacity of the channel in GR4, resulting in a significantly wider active channel and extensive gravel-bar deposits in 1948. Subsequent imagery in 1964 suggests this pulse of sediment both moved downstream and was extracted by gravel-mining operations that were apparent in the imagery.
In GR5, the 1964 imagery shows that the high flow of November 1960 widened the active channel but did not lead to major avulsions. The channel response in GR6 that is visible in the 1964 imagery was not significant. By 1970, however, imagery shows that there was widespread geomorphic change from GR6 downstream through GR4. Vegetation was removed throughout the upper river corridor, and new and reworked gravel bars appeared in GR5 and GR4. The 1970 imagery of GR6, which showed a removal of vegetation, did not show widespread deposits of new sediment. By 1980, riparian vegetation had begun to constrict the active channel throughout GR4, GR5, and GR6, and this process of revegetation and suppressed channel migration continued through the 1994 imagery set, resulting from the relatively quiet hydrologic period from 1975 to 1996.
Channel Response to Flooding
Inferences about the response of the Molalla River to the magnitude of high flows recorded in the gaging station record were made by comparing aerial imagery acquired from 1936 to 2009. As with other lowland rivers in western Oregon and Washington (for example, O’Connor and others, 2003; Beechie and others, 2006), the Molalla River is subject to a flashy peak-flow regime that acts to promote a relatively wide active channel, large channel migration rates, and frequent avulsions. In turn, vegetation growth works to reduce the active-channel width. In the Molalla River, geomorphic response is dependent on the size of the high flows as well as on anthropogenic constraints, revetments, and the underlying controls of the specific geomorphic reach. Pulses of sediment, whether generated from the catchment and transported through the river corridor or derived locally from channel migration and avulsions, can also drive geomorphic change in some sections of the river. The most upstream reach, GR6, appears to be relatively insensitive to the high flows or pulses of sediment. Although the large recorded high flow of December 1964 widened the active channel slightly within GR6, changes in plan-form position were modest. GR6 is also largely a transport reach as little sediment seems to gather. In contrast, the relatively alluvial reaches of GR5 down through GR3 are sensitive to both high flows and pulses of sediment. Wide gravel bars, active channel migration, and occasional avulsions have been common in GR5, GR4, and GR3 since 1936. In the absence of large flows, vegetation encroachment acts to reduce active-channel width and increase sinuosity. Revetments, however, more effectively stabilize the channel plan form. Although anecdotal accounts of active channel movement in GR3 have suggested increased channel mobility in the past 10–20 years, historical aerial imagery shows that channel mobility of the Molalla River in GR3 is likely no greater in the 21st century than it has been historically back to 1936. Relative to GR5 and GR4, the larger quantitative rates of channel migration and active-channel width in GR3 is a function of the few revetments and sparse bedrock control. Farther downstream, GR2 has been restricted by revetments and channel bedrock that have limited channel mobility relative to that in other reaches. It also appears that GR2 has not been subject to widespread sedimentation. GR1 is a reach subject to gradual channel migration across the geomorphic flood plain that reflects the fluvial processes of the pre-development river.
First posted February 29, 2012
For additional information contact:
Part or all of this report is presented in Portable Document Format (PDF); the latest version of Adobe Reader or similar software is required to view it. Download the latest version of Adobe Reader, free of charge. | Scientific Investigations Report 2012–5017
The fluvial geomorphology of the Molalla River, which demonstrates features typical of many rivers draining the Western Cascade Range, has unique characteristics and fluvial responses that warrant a focused investigation. The geomorphology of the Molalla River was analyzed using available remotely sensed data sets, including LiDAR and aerial imagery, as w | {
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Two breeds of white-fronted geese winter in the UK - the endangered Greenland and the more common Eurasian (or European). The proposal recognises the difficulty of distinguishing between the two breeds under field conditions.
The UK is an important migration destination for the Greenland white-front, with around half the world’s population visiting during winter. The Welsh Government wants to take steps to increase protection of these geese and meet its international conservation obligations.
The Minister said:
“The Welsh Government is committed to conserving the wildlife of Wales. I encourage anyone with an interest in this matter to contribute to our consultation.”
Under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981, these breeds of goose may be killed outside of the ‘closed season’ in England and Wales. The closed season is 1 February – 31 August or, for wild geese, in or over any area below high-water mark of ordinary spring tides, between 21 February – 31 August.
The consultation can be accessed on the Welsh Government website and will close on 19 April. | Two breeds of white-fronted geese winter in the UK - the endangered Greenland and the more common Eurasian (or European). The proposal recognises the difficulty of distinguishing between the two breeds under field conditions.
The UK is an important migration destination for the Greenland white-front, with around half the world’s population visiting during winter. The Welsh Government wants to take | {
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Water: Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments
Table 7-1. Effectiveness of Wetlands and Riparian Areas for NPS Pollution Control
1 - Tar River Basin, North Carolina
This study looks at how various soil types affect the buffer width necessary for effectiveness of riparian forests to reduce loadings of agricultural nonpoint source pollutants.
- A hypothetical buffer with a width of 30 m and designed to remove 90% of the nitrate nitrogen from runoff volumes typical of 50 acres of row crop on relatively poorly drained soils was used as a standard.
- Udic upland soils and sandy entisols met or exceeded these standards.
- The study also concluded that slope gradient was the most important contributor to the variation in effectiveness. Phillips, J.D. 1989. Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Effectiveness of Riparian Forests Along a Coastal Plain River. Journal of Hydrology, 110 (1989):221-237.
2 - Lake Tahoe, Nevada
Three years of research on a headwaters watershed has shown this area to be capable of removing over 99% of the incoming nitrate nitrogen. Wetlands and riparian areas in a watershed appear to be able to "clean up" nitrate-containing waters with a very high degree of efficiency and are of major value in providing natural pollution controls for sensitive waters. Rhodes, J., C.M. Skau, D. Greenlee, and D. Brown. 1985. Quantification of Nitrate Uptake by Riparian Forests and Wetlands in an Undisturbed Headwaters Watershed. In Riparian Ecosystems and Their Management: Reconciling Conflicting Issues. USDA Forest Service GTR RM-120, pp. 175-179.
3 - Atchafalaya, Louisiana
Overflow areas in the Atchafalaya Basin had large areal net exports of total nitrogen (predominantly organic nitrogen) and dissolved organic carbon but acted as a sink for phosphorus. Ammonia levels increased dramatically during the summer. The Atchafalaya Basin floodway acted as a sink for total organic carbon mainly through particulate organic carbon (POC). Net export of dissolved organic carbon was very similar to that of POC for all three areas. Lambou, V.W. 1985. Aquatic Organic Carbon and Nutrient Fluxes, Water Quality, and Aquatic Productivity in the Atchafalaya Basin, Louisiana. In Riparian Ecosystems and Their Management: Reconciling Conflicting Issues. USDA Forest Service GTR RM-120, pp. 180-185.
4 - Wyoming
The Green River drains 12,000 mi2 of western Wyoming and northern Utah and incorporates a diverse spectrum of geology, topography, soils, and climate. Land use is predominantly range and forest. A multiple regression model was used to associate various riparian and nonriparian basin attributes (geologic substrate, land use, channel slope, etc.) with previous measurements of phosphorus, nitrate, and dissolved solids. Fannin,T.E., M. Parker, and T.J. Maret. 1985. Multiple Regression Analysis for Evaluating Non-point Source Contributions to Water Quality in the Green River, Wyoming. In Riparian Ecosystems and Their Management: Reconciling Conflicting Issues. USDA Forest Service GTR RM-120, pp. 201-205.
5 - Rhode River Subwater-shed, Maryland
A case study focusing on the hydrology and below-ground processing of nitrate and sulfate was conducted on a riparian forest wetland. Nitrate and sulfate entered the wetland from cropland ground-water drainage and from direct precipitation. Data collected for 3 years to construct monthly mass balances of the fluxes of nitrate and sulfate into and out of the soils of the wetland showed:
- Averages of 86% of nitrate inputs were removed in the wetland.
- Averages of 25% of sulfates were removed in the wetland.
- Annual removal of nitrates varied from 87% in the first year to 84% in the second year.
- Annual removal of sulfate varied from 13% in the second year to 43% in the third year.
- On average, inputs of nitrate and sulfate were highest in the winter.
- Nitrate outputs were always highest in the winter.
- Nitrate removal was always highest in the fall (average of 96%) when input fluxes were lowest and lowest in winter (average of 81%) when input fluxes were highest. Correll, D.L., and D.E. Weller. 1989. Factors Limiting Processes in Freshwater: An Agricultural Primary Stream Riparian Forest. In Freshwater Wetlands and Wildlife, ed. R.R. Sharitz and J.W. Gibbons, pp. 9-23. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Science and Technology, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. DOE Symposium Series #61.
6 - Carmel River, California
Ground water is closely coupled with streamflow to maintain water supply to riparian vegetation, particularly where precipitation is seasonal. A case study is presented where Mediterranean climate and ground-water extraction are linked with the decline of riparian vegetation and subsequent severe bank erosion on the Carmel River. Groenveld, D. P., and E. Griepentrog. 1985. Interdependence of Groundwater, Riparian Vegetation, and Streambank Stability: A Case Study. In Riparian Ecosystems and their Management: Reconciling Conflicting Issues. USDA Forest Service GTR RM-120, pp. 201-205.
7 - Cashe River, Arkansas
A long-term study is being conducted to determine the chemical and hydrological functions of bottomland hardwood wetlands. Hydrologic gauging stations have been established at inflow and outflow points on the river, and over 25 chemical constituents have been measured. Preliminary results for the 1988 water year indicated:
- Retention of total and inorganic suspended solids and nitrate;
- Exportation of organic suspended solids, total and dissolved organic carbon, inorganic carbon, total phosphorus, soluble reactive phosphorus, ammonia, and total Kjeldahl nitrogen;
- All measured constituents were exported during low water when there was limited contact between the river and the wetlands; and
- All measured constituents were retained when the Cypress-Tupelo part of the floodplain was inundated. Kleiss, B. et al. 1989. Modification of Riverine Water Quality by an Adjacent Bottomland Hardwood Wetland. In Wetlands: Concerns and Successes, pp. 429-438. American Water Resources Association.
8Scotsman Valley, New Zealand
Nitrate removal in riparian areas was determined using a mass balance procedure in a small New Zealand headwater stream. The results of 12 surveys showed:
- The majority of nitrate removal occurred in riparian organic soils (56-100%) even though the soils occupied only 12% of the stream's border.
- The disproportionate role of organic soils in removing nitrate was due in part to their location in the riparian zone. A high percentage (37-81%) of ground water flowed through these areas on its passage to the stream.
- Anoxic conditions and high concentrations of denitrifying enzymes and available carbon in the soils also contributed to the role of the organic soils in removing nitrates. Cooper, A.B. 1990. Nitrate Depletion in the Riparian Zone and Stream Channel of a Small Headwater Catchment. Hydrobiologia, 202:13-26.
9 - Wye Island, Maryland
Changes in nitrate concentrations in ground water between an agricultural field planted in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea) and riparian zones vegetated by leguminous or nonleguminous trees were measured to:
- Determine the effectiveness of riparian vegetation management practices in the reduction of nitrate concentrations in ground water;
- Identify effects of leguminous and nonleguminous trees on riparian attenuation of nitrates; and
- Measure the seasonal variability of riparian vegetation's effect on the chemical composition of ground water.
Based on the analysis of shallow ground-water samples, the following patterns were observed:
- Ground-water nitrate concentrations beneath non-leguminous riparian trees decreased toward the shoreline, and removal of the trees resulted in increased nitrate concentrations.
- Nitrate concentrations did not decrease from the field to the riparian zone in ground water below leguminous trees, and removal of the trees resulted in decreased ground-water nitrate concentrations.
- Maximum attenuation of nitrate concentrations occurred in the fall and winter under non-leguminous trees. James, B.R., B.B. Bagley, and P.H. Gallagher, P.H. 1990. Riparian Zone Vegetation Effects on Nitrate Concentrations in Shallow Groundwater. Submitted for publication in the Proceedings of the 1990 Chesapeake Bay Research Conference. University of Maryland, Soil Chemistry Laboratory, College Park, Maryland.
10 - Little Lost Man Creek, Humboldt, California
Nitrate retention was evaluated in a third-order stream under background conditions and during four intervals of modified nitrate concentration caused by nutrient amendments or storm-enhanced discharge. Measurements of the stream response to nitrate loading and storm discharge showed:
- Under normal background conditions, nitrate was exported from the subsurface (11% greater than input).
- With increased nitrate input, there was an initial 39% reduction from the subsurface followed by a steady state reduction of 14%.
- During a storm event, the subsurface area exported an increase of 6%. Triska, F.J., V.C. Kennedy, R.J. Avanzino, G.W. Zellweger, and K.E. Bencala. 1990. In Situ Retention-Transport Response to Nitrate Loading and Storm Discharge in a Third-Order Stream. Journal of North American Benthological Society, 9(3):229-239.
11 - Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Field enrichments of nitrate in two spring-fed drainage lines showed an absence of nitrate depletion within the riparian zone of a woodland stream. The results of the study indicated:
- The efficiency of nitrate removal within the riparian zone may be limited by short water residence times.
- The characteristics of the substrate and the routes of ground-water movement are important in determining nitrate attenuation within riparian zones. Warwick, J., and A.R. Hill. 1988. Nitrate Depletion in the Riparian Zone in a Small Woodland Stream. Hydrobiologia, 157:231-240.
12 - Little River, Tifton, Georgia Riparian
A study was conducted on riparian forests located adjacent to agricultural uplands to test their ability to intercept and utilize nutrients (N, P, K, Ca) transported from these uplands. Tissue nutrient concentrations, nutrient accretion rates, and production rates of woody plants on these sites were compared to control sites. Data from this study provide evidence that young (bloom state) riparian forests within agricultural ecosystems absorb nutrients lost from agricultural uplands. Fail, J.L. Jr., Haines, B.L., and Todd, R.L. Undated. Riparian Forest Communities and Their Role in Nutrient Conservation in an Agricultural Watershed. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, II(3):114-120.
13 - Chowan River Watershed, North Carolina
A study was conducted to determine the trapping efficiency for sediments deposited over a 20-year period in the riparian areas of two watersheds. 137CS data and soil morphology were used to determine areal extent and thickness of the sediments. Results of the study showed:
- approximately 80% of the sediment measured was deposited in the floodplain swamp.
- Areater than 50% of the sediment was deposited within the first 100 m adjacent to cultivated fields.
- aediment delivery estimates indicated that 84% to 90% of the sediment removed from cultivated fields remained in the riparian areas of a watershed. Cooper, J.R., J.W. Gilliam, R.B. Daniels, and W.P. Robarge. 1987. Riparian Areas as Filters for Agriculture Sediment. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 51(6):417-420.
14 - New Zealand
Several recent studies in agricultural fields and forests showed evidence of significant nitrate removal from drainage water by riparian zones. The results of these studies showed:
- d typical removal of nitrate of greater than 85% and
- dn increase of nitrate removal by denitrification where greater contact occurred between leaching nitrate and decaying vegetative matter. Schipper, L.A., A.B. Cooper, and W.J. Dyck. 1989. Mitigating Non-point Source Nitrate Pollution by Riparian Zone Denitrification. Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, New Zealand.
15 - Georgia
A streamside, mixed hardwood, riparian forest near Tifton, Georgia, set in an agricultural watershed was effective in retaining nitrogen (67%), phosphorus (25%), calcium (42%), and magnesium (22%). Nitrogen was removed from subsurface water by plant uptake and microbial processes. Riparian land use was also shown to affect the nutrient removal characteristics of the riparian area. Forested areas were more effective in nutrient removal than pasture areas, which were more effective than croplands. Lowrance, R.R., R.L. Todd, and L.E. Asmussen. 1983. Waterborne Nutrient Budgets for the Riparian Zone of an Agricultural Watershed. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 10:371-384.
16 - North Carolina
Riparian forests are effective as sediment and nutrient (N and P) filters. The optimal width of a riparian forest for effective filtering is based on the contributing area, slope, and cultural practices on adjacent fields. Cooper, J. R., J. W. Gilliam, and T. C. Jacobs. 1986. Riparian Areas as a Control of Nonpoint Pollutants. In Watershed Research Perspectives, ed. D. Correll, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.
17 - Unknown
A riparian forest acted as an efficient sediment trap for most observed flow rates, but in extreme storm events suspended solids were exported from the riparian area. Karr, J.R., and O.T. Gorman. 1975. Effects of Land Treatment on the Aquatic Environment. In U.S. EPA Non-Point Source Pollution Seminar, pp. 4-1 to 4-18. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. EPA 905/9-75-007.
18 - Arkansas
The Army Corps of Engineers studied a 20-mile stretch of the Cashe River in Arkansas where floodplain deposition reduced suspended solids by 50%, nitrates by 80%, and phosphates by 50%. Stuart, G., and J. Greis. 1991. Role of Riparian Forests in Water Quality on Agricultural Watersheds.
19 - Maryland
Phosphorus export from the forest was nearly evenly divided between surface runoff (59%) and ground-water flow (41%), for a total P removal of 80%. The mean annual concentration of dissolved total P changed little in surface runoff. Most of the concentration changes occurred during the first 19 m of the riparian forest for both dissolved and particulate pollutants. Dissolved nitrogen compounds in surface runoff also declined. Total reductions of 79% for nitrate, 73% for ammonium-N and 62% for organic N were observed. Changes in mean annual ground-water concentrations indicated that nitrate concentrations decreased significantly (90-98%) while ammonium-N concentrations increased in concentration greater than threefold. Again, most of the nitrate loss occurred within the first 19 m of the riparian forest. Thus it appears that the major pathway of nitrogen loss from the forest was in subsurface flow (75% of the total N), with a total removal efficiency of 89% total N. Peterjohn, W.T., and D.L. Correll. 1984. Nutrient Dynamics in an Agricultural Watershed: Observations on the Role of a Riparian Forest. Ecology, 65:1466-1475.
20 - France
Denitrification explained the reduction of the nitrate load in ground water beneath the riparian area. Models used to explain the nitrogen dynamics in the riparian area of the Lounge River indicate that the frequency, intensity, and duration of flooding influence the nitrogen-removal capacity of the riparian area.
Three management practices in riparian areas would enhance the nitrogen-removal characteristics, including:
- fiver flow regulation to enhance flooding in riparian areas, which increases the waterlogged soil areas along the entire stretch of river;
- feduced land drainage to raise the water table, which increases the duration and area of waterlogged soils; and
- fecreased deforestation of riparian forests, which maintains the amount of carbon (i.e., the energetic input that allows for microbial denitrification). Pinay, G., and H. Decamps. 1988. The Role of Riparian Woods in Regulating Nitrogen Fluxes Between the Alluvial Aquifer and Aurface Water: A Conceptual Model. Regulated Rivers: Research and Management, 2:507-516.
21 - Georgia
Processes within the riparian area apparently converted primarily inorganic N (76% nitrate, 6% ammonia, 18% organic N) into primarily organic N (10% nitrate, 14% ammonia, 76% organic N). Lowrance, R.R., R.L. Todd, and L.E. Assmussen. 1984. Nutrient Cycling in an Agricultural Watershed: Phreatic Movement. Journal of Environmental Quality, 13(1):22-27.
22 - North Carolina
Subsurface nitrate leaving agricultural fields was reduced by 93% on average. Jacobs, T.C., and J.W. Gilliam. 1985. Riparian Losses of Nitrate from Agricultural Drainage Waters. Journal of Environmental Quality, 14(4):472-478.
23 - North Carolina
Over the last 20 years, a riparian forest provided a sink for about 50% of the phosphate washed from cropland. Cooper, J.R., and J.W. Gilliam. 1987. Phosphorus Redistribution from Cultivated Fields into Riparian Areas. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 51(6):1600-1604.
24 - Illinois
Small streams on agriculture watersheds in Illinois had the greatest water temperature problems. The removal of shade increased water temperature 10-15 degrees Fahrenheit. Slight increases in water temperature over 60 øF caused a significant increase in phosphorus release from sediments. Karr, J.R., and I.J. Schlosser. 1977. Impact of Nearstream Vegetation and Stream Morphology on Water Quality and Stream Biota. Ecological Research Series, EPA-600/3-77-097. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. | Water: Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments
Table 7-1. Effectiveness of Wetlands and Riparian Areas for NPS Pollution Control
1 - Tar River Basin, North Carolina
This study looks at how various soil types affect the buffer width necessary for effectiveness of riparian forests to reduce loadings of agricultural nonpoint source pollutants.
- A hypothetical buffer with a width of 30 m and desi | {
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Design champions are central to better public buildings
12 December 2006
The Better Public Building report outlines the steps that public bodies must take to ensure that everyone who uses public services benefits from good design.
Speaking at the first national conference for local authority design champions Tessa Jowell, the government's design champion, said
'The Better Public Building initiative provides the evidence that good design makes places work better. We want to see design champions in every relevant public body, and certainly in every local authority: people who will constantly demand the best for their communities and persuade their colleagues of the benefits of good design. We need people with ambition, leadership and determination who insist on excellence and resist mediocrity. Good design doesn't happen by accident. That's why the government has told local authorities that they need to drive improved design quality for housing and neighbourhoods.'
Despite a regulatory framework which now embeds good design in the planning process, too much poor design still gets approval, as shown by CABE's recent school and housing audits.
The new report Better public building , published for HM Government by CABE and the Department for Culture, Media and Sport, sets out the steps that public bodies now need to follow to ensure that everyone who uses public services benefits from good design. It encourages every new public building to maximise its contribution towards mitigating climate change. The report shows that this does not need to cost more, provided that environmental sustainability is integrated fully into the design process from the beginning. | Design champions are central to better public buildings
12 December 2006
The Better Public Building report outlines the steps that public bodies must take to ensure that everyone who uses public services benefits from good design.
Speaking at the first national conference for local authority design champions Tessa Jowell, the government's design champion, said
'The Better Public Building initiativ | {
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SENTINEL keeps an eye on GPS
21 Dec 2010
UK Company Chronos Technology is leading a consortium developing a system that monitors the correct performance of GPS, the Global Positioning Service that drives today’s satellite navigation devices.
Funded by a research and development investment by the Technology Strategy Board, SENTINEL will continuously monitor GPS signals and warn users of interference, whether from nature or from hostile sources. Today we not only use GPS to navigate in our cars but we also rely on GPS and signals from space as a timing signal to synchronise a wide range of computer based systems, including communication systems.
Charles Curry, Managing Director of Chronos Technology, explains: “The SENTINEL project aims to take prototype GPS interference probes that we have already developed forward to real world deployment and applications to research, verify and pinpoint the nature and extent of interference and to alert the authorities where this is as a result of illegal activity or where it could impact on safety.
With the increasing occurrence of GPS interference, both intentional and unintentional (including natural events such as solar flares) together with the increasing reliance of a wide range of users on such systems, from navigation and safety to mission-critical uses, being able to detect interference or a jamming device – and even pinpoint its location – is an important tool
By being able to not only identify that there is interference to GPS but also to say if it is due to the sun, criminal activity or other interference will be useful in preparing a response and contingency actions. Jim Hammond from the Association of Chief Police Officers, commented:
”As we face an increased occurrence of GPS interference it is important to be able to detect, quantify and locate the source of such interference to be able to warn critical users of GPS. This includes the capability to detect when this is linked to criminal activity, to enable the law enforcement agencies to take action. Tools such as SENTINEL will help us to do this.”
The consortium led by Chronos Technology includes ACPO-ITS, a working group of the Association of Chief Police Officers, the General Lighthouse Authority, Ordnance Survey, the National Physical Laboratory, the University of Bath and Thatcham. The consortium represents the breadth of interest in the public sector and the commercial interests of industry, coupled with applied expertise from the UK’s academic sector.
Financial support for this project has evolved through the Technology Strategy Board’s work supporting research and development in satellite navigation systems and in network security, and its co-operation with the newly-formed UK Space Agency. The SENTINEL project illustrates how space technology is exploited in traditionally non-space domains, reflecting the growing importance of space applications to the wider community.
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21 Dec 2010
UK Company Chronos Technology is leading a consortium developing a system that monitors the correct performance of GPS, the Global Positioning Service that drives today’s satellite navigation devices.
Funded by a research and development investment by the Technology Strategy Board, SENTINEL will continuously monitor GPS signals and warn users of interferenc | {
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ToxFAQs™ for Benzene
This fact sheet answers the most frequently asked health questions (FAQs) about benzene. For more information, call the ATSDR Information Center at 1-800-232-4636. This fact sheet is one in a series of summaries about hazardous substances and their health effects. It is important you understand this information because this substance may harm you. The effects of exposure to any hazardous substance depend on the dose, the duration, how you are exposed, personal traits and habits, and whether other chemicals are present.
Benzene is a widely used chemical formed from both natural processes and human activities. Breathing benzene can cause drowsiness, dizziness, and unconsciousness; long-term benzene exposure causes effects on the bone marrow and can cause anemia and leukemia. Benzene has been found in at least 1,000 of the 1,684 National Priority List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
What is benzene?
Benzene is a colorless liquid with a sweet odor. It evaporates into the air very quickly and dissolves slightly in water. It is highly flammable and is formed from both natural processes and human activities.
Benzene is widely used in the United States; it ranks in the top 20 chemicals for production volume. Some industries use benzene to make other chemicals which are used to make plastics, resins, and nylon and other synthetic fibers. Benzene is also used to make some types of rubbers, lubricants, dyes, detergents, drugs, and pesticides. Natural sources of benzene include emissions from volcanoes and forest fires. Benzene is also a natural part of crude oil, gasoline, and cigarette smoke.
What happens to benzene when it enters the environment?
- Industrial processes are the main source of benzene in the environment.
- Benzene can pass into the air from water and soil.
- It reacts with other chemicals in the air and breaks down within a few days.
- Benzene in the air can attach to rain or snow and be carried back down to the ground.
- It breaks down more slowly in water and soil, and can pass through the soil into underground water.
- Benzene does not build up in plants or animals.
How might I be exposed to benzene
- Outdoor air contains low levels of benzene from tobacco smoke, automobile service stations, exhaust from motor vehicles, and industrial emissions.
- Vapors (or gases) from products that contain benzene, such as glues, paints, furniture wax, and detergents, can also be a source of exposure.
- Air around hazardous waste sites or gas stations will contain higher levels of benzene.
- Working in industries that make or use benzene.
How can benzene affect my health?
Breathing very high levels of benzene can result in death, while high levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, headaches, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. Eating or drinking foods containing high levels of benzene can cause vomiting, irritation of the stomach, dizziness, sleepiness, convulsions, rapid heart rate, and death.
The major effect of benzene from long-term exposure is on the blood. Benzene causes harmful effects on the bone marrow and can cause a decrease in red blood cells leading to anemia. It can also cause excessive bleeding and can affect the immune system, increasing the chance for infection.
Some women who breathed high levels of benzene for many months had irregular menstrual periods and a decrease in the size of their ovaries, but we do not know for certain that benzene caused the effects. It is not known whether benzene will affect fertility in men.
How likely is benzene to cause cancer?
Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene in the air can cause leukemia, particularly acute myelogenous leukemia, often referred to as AML. This is a cancer of the bloodforming organs. The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that benzene is a known carcinogen. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the EPA have determined that benzene is carcinogenic to humans.
How can benzene affect children?
Children can be affected by benzene exposure in the same ways as adults. It is not known if children are more susceptible to benzene poisoning than adults.
Benzene can pass from the mother?s blood to a fetus. Animal studies have shown low birth weights, delayed bone formation, and bone marrow damage when pregnant animals breathed benzene.
How can families reduce the risks of exposure to benzene?
Benzene exposure can be reduced by limiting contact with gasoline and cigarette smoke. Families are encouraged not to smoke in their house, in enclosed environments, or near their children.
Is there a medical test to show whether I've been exposed to benzene?
Several tests can show if you have been exposed to benzene. There is a test for measuring benzene in the breath; this test must be done shortly after exposure. Benzene can also be measured in the blood; however, since benzene disappears rapidly from the blood, this test is only useful for recent exposures
In the body, benzene is converted to products called metabolites. Certain metabolites can be measured in the urine. The metabolite S-phenylmercapturic acid in urine is a sensitive indicator of benzene exposure. However, this test must be done shortly after exposure and is not a reliable indicator of how much benzene you have been exposed to, since the metabolites may be present in urine from other sources.
Has the federal government made recommendations to protect human health?
The EPA has set the maximum permissible level of benzene in drinking water at 5 parts benzene per billion parts of water (5 ppb).
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set limits of 1 part benzene per million parts of workplace air (1 ppm) for 8 hour shifts and 40 hour work weeks.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR). 2007. Toxicological Profile for Benzene (Update). Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service.
Where can I get more information?
If you have questions or concerns, please contact your community or state health or environmental quality department or:
For more information, contact:
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Division of Toxicology and and Human Health Sciences
1600 Clifton Road NE, Mailstop F-57
Atlanta, GA 30333
Phone: 1-800-CDC-INFO · 888-232-6348 (TTY)
ATSDR can also tell you the location of occupational and environmental health clinics. These clinics specialize in recognizing, evaluating, and treating illnesses resulting from exposure to hazardous substances.
Information line and technical assistance:
To order toxicological profiles, contact:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
Phone: 800-553-6847 or 703-605-6000
All ATSDR Toxicological Profile, Public Health Statement and ToxFAQs PDF files are electronic conversions from paper copy or other electronic ASCII text files. This conversion may have resulted in character translation or format errors. Users are referred to the original paper copy of the toxicological profile for the official text, figures, and tables. Original paper copies can be obtained via the directions on the toxicological profile home page, which also contains other important information about the profiles.
- Page last reviewed: February 12, 2013
- Page last updated: October 25, 2011
- Content source: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry | On This Page
ToxFAQs™ for Benzene
This fact sheet answers the most frequently asked health questions (FAQs) about benzene. For more information, call the ATSDR Information Center at 1-800-232-4636. This fact sheet is one in a series of summaries about hazardous substances and their health effects. It is important you understand this information because this substance may harm you. The effects of e | {
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Chairman Faircloth and Members of the Subcommittee. my name is Bruce L. Hammonds and I am Senior Vice Chairman and Chief Operating Officer of MBNA Corporation ("MBNA") 1, My responsibilities include overseeing MBNA's credit, loss prevention, customer satisfaction, consumer finance and loan review activities. I have 28 years of experience in consumer lending, and have been a member of the MBNA management team since 1982.
I appreciate the opportunity to appear today before the Financial Institutions and Regulatory Relief Subcommittee ("Subcommittee") of the Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, to discuss our views on consumer bankruptcy issues. I hope that this statement will be helpful to the Subcommittee in its deliberations on the nature of the consumer bankruptcy reforms that are presently needed.
Despite an extraordinarily strong economy, personal bankruptcy filings in the U.S. have skyrocketed in recent years. During 1997, there were more than 1.3 million personal bankruptcy filings, an all-time record and nearly a 19% increase over the number of consumer bankruptcy filings in 1996. By comparison, the number of consumer bankruptcy filings in 1980 totaled 287,570. This means that the number of consumer bankruptcy filings in 1997 represents an increase of more than 360% since 1980.
These bankruptcy filings generate huge losses. While MBNA's credit card losses have consistently been among the lowest in the business, this precipitous increase in the number of consumer bankruptcy filings has impacted virtually every lender, large and small, in nearly every sector of the credit granting community. In fact, it is estimated that more than $40 billion in consumer debt -approximately $400 for each American family -- was erased as a result of bankruptcy in 1997, up from $30 billion in 1996. Inevitably, these losses are passed on to all consumers in the form of higher rates and higher prices for goods and services.
Despite the magnitude of these losses, bankcard issuers and the credit granting community more broadly believe that bankruptcy is an important protection for consumers who are severely overburdened financially. It should be noted, however, that as bankruptcy losses grow, it is those American consumers who continue to pay their debts who ultimately suffer the most because it is they who bear the cost of bankruptcy losses in the form of higher credit prices. Consumers also are harmed by increased bankruptcies when creditors, in an effort to reduce losses, tighten their credit standards and thereby decrease credit availability. As the Congress considers reform of the Federal bankruptcy system, it is critically important to keep in mind the adverse consequences bankruptcy has on the vast majority of consumers who continue to pay their debts. The basic requirements of fairness demand that a balance be struck between the interests of these consumers and the interests of those consumers who need bankruptcy relief.
Unfortunately, today's consumer bankruptcy system does not strike that balance. The current bankruptcy system unnecessarily harms consumers and creditors alike because of a fundamental flaw -- it allows a debtor to discharge debts even if the debtor can repay some or all of those debts. In fact, under the current Bankruptcy Code, an individual debtor may obtain a discharge from contractual debt obligations without ever demonstrating actual need for this relief To put it in context, this means that in 1997 alone, the Federal consumer bankruptcy system provided an estimated $40 billion of relief to debtors without either objective standards or systematic procedures for determining the actual relief needed by debtors.
This flaw undermines not only the integrity of the U.S. bankruptcy system, but also traditional obligations of individual responsibility. Moreover, the current bankruptcy system also fails the debtors it is intended to help, because it provides short-term relief without helping debtors avoid the same financial failure in the future. In short, the lack of objective and systematic procedures for determining debtor relief produces a bankruptcy process which, for both debtors and creditors, is needlessly costly and time consuming. The bottom line is that this flaw must be remedied if the consumer bankruptcy system is to be workable and fair to consumers and creditors alike.
In order to address this flaw, the Bankruptcy Code must be amended so that a debtor who needs bankruptcy protection will receive it. but only to the extent of that need. This approach would match the bankruptcy relief provided by the Code to the debtor's actual need and is essential to ensure fairness for all parties impacted by the bankruptcy process.
This can be achieved by incorporating three very simple concepts into the Code. First, the Code must be amended to establish uniform and objective standards for determining a debtor's need for bankruptcy relief and the amount of relief needed. If the debtor has the ability to repay some portion of his or her debts above a prescribed minimum from disposable income, the debtor should be required to repay that portion through a repayment plan, such as under Chapter 13, if the debtor seeks the protection of the Bankruptcy Code. If the debtor cannot repay, the debtor's case should be handled under Chapter 7.
Second, there must be an efficient mechanism for determining whether the income and expense information filed by the debtor is reliable. With respect to income information, this can be accomplished with relative ease by requiring the debtor to file recent tax returns and pay stubs. For purposes of assessing the accuracy of expense numbers filed by debtors, there are a number of options which could be considered. For example, we believe that random audits would be helpful in this regard. In order to ensure the integrity of the process, however, some additional checking for accuracy also must be required, and I would like to mention just one possible approach.
The Department of Labor already gathers substantial information on the cost of living throughout the country. This information includes costs for food, clothing, shelter, ftiel, transportation, charges for doctors and dentist services, medicine, and other costs of day-to-day living. This information can be used to develop expense models which show some base-line measure of expenses appropriate for different geographic regions. These expense models could then be used as a reference point to assess the accuracy of expenses filed by a debtor, and to highlight expense categories on a debtors' filing which may warrant further investigation. Under this approach, disputes about the accuracy of information would be limited to the exceptional case. This is just one example of how the system could efficiently ensure that there is some integrity with respect to the information filed in bankruptcy cases,
Third, based on the statutory eligibility standards and the reliable information filed by the debtor, the Code should be amended to prescribe efficient administrative procedures for assigning debtors to the appropriate chapter -- that is. to Chapter 7 or to Chapter 13 -- at an early point in the process. This would drastically reduce the number of costly and time consuming disputes that occur in today's system, in which a debtor's Chapter 7 filing usually may be challenged only after the case is well under way and only through a separate judicial procedure. Once these three concepts are incorporated into the Code and a needsbased bankruptcy system is established, the Federal bankruptcy system will largely run itself and disputes will be limited to exceptional cases.
This brings me to a very important point. While fundamental fairness alone dictates that a needs-based bankruptcy system be adopted, it should be noted that the implementation of a needs-based bankruptcy approach also would introduce enormous efficiencies into the bankruptcy system. A needs-based bankruptcy approach would actually reduce the overall costs of consumer bankruptcy by decreasing the litigation and disputes that result from today's arbitrary bankruptcy system. Under needs-based bankruptcy, based on a simple calculation performed by the debtor and easily verified by the trustee, individuals who can repay some portion of their debt would automatically enter a Chapter 13 repayment plan, and those who cannot would automatically enter into Chapter 7. As noted above, a needs-based bankruptcy system will largely run itself- the vast majority of bankruptcy cases will travel routinely and efficiently through the system, and disputes will be limited to exceptional cases.
In short, a needs-based bankruptcy relief system can be implemented efficiently and effectively. Without needs-based bankruptcy relief, the system will continue to be arbitrary, wasteful and ftindamentally unfair to the great majority of consumers who pay for the system but do not use it. Unless this flaw is addressed, controversy surrounding consumer bankruptcy will intensify, not diminish.
Chairman Faircloth also has asked me to comment on proposed bankruptcy legislation. Bankcard issuers believe that the needs-based approach contained in H.R. 3150, recently introduced in the House of Representatives by Representatives Gekas, McCollum, Boucher and Moran, would efficiently, effectively and fairly implement the kind of needs-based bankruptcy approach that is necessary. In addition, H.R. 3150 contains a number of other amendments to the Bankruptcy Code that address specific inequities and other problems in the Code. We are joined in our strong support for H.R. 3150 by representatives of virtually every segment of the consumer credit granting community. 2
Furthermore, we are concerned that other proposed approaches which do not contain specific guidelines for determining a debtor's need at the time of filing may not adequately address the current bankruptcy problem. Moreover, we believe that these other approaches would not introduce the same administrative efficiencies as a more systematic needs-based bankruptcy approach, such as that contained in H.R. 3150.
Finally, I would like to take a moment to address a couple of myths that you are likely to hear repeated, possibly today and certainly in the coming months. One is that bankruptcy reform legislation is unnecessary because the system is not broken. Some will claim that credit cards are the real cause of the explosion in personal bankruptcies, and that restricting the availability of credit through credit cards would solve this nation's bankruptcy crisis. I understand that for many this is a tempting and popular position, but it is false. The evidence simply does not support such a contention.
Instead, let's look at the facts. More than 96% of credit card accounts pay as agreed, and only about I% end up in bankruptcy. Moreover, bankcard debt represents less than 16% of total debt on the average bankruptcy petition and, according to a Federal Reserve Board survey last year, credit cards account for a mere 3.7% of consumer debt -- hardly large enough figures to be the cause of the bankruptcy cr - isis.
Another popular myth is that credit grantors are intentionally offering credit willy-nilly to people who cannot handle it. Once again, this contention simply is not true. Card issuers use highly sophisticated and expensive "prescreening" underwriting techniques, which involve consideration of as many as hundreds of factors about a consumer, to ensure that consumers who receive "pre-approved" offers of credit have a demonstrated ability and willingness to repay their debts.
Let me tell you specifically how we do it at MBNA. MBNA is the second largest lender through credit cards in the world. We receive an application from every customer, pull a ftill credit report on that customer, and do a debt-to-income analysis. We call back over 20% of the customers to develop additional information. A credit analyst will then make a decision to approve or decline the account. If the account is approved, a risk rating is applied and, in many cases. a senior lender sign-off is also required. We believe we are making the right decision every time. The majority of bankruptcies in our file are on customers who have been on the books for more than three years and have had some significant change in their financial condition. Less than 5% of our bankruptcies occur in connection with accounts that have been opened within the past twelve months.
The fact is, the overwhelming majority of Americans use credit wisely and successfully. Americans use their cards to pay at the gas pump, the grocery store and literally millions of other places. With the advance of on-line security systems, consumers are increasingly using their cards to conduct business and make purchases over the Internet. And credit has made opportunities available for millions of Americans who might not otherwise have had them, across a huge range of income levels.
In addition, the lending industry spends millions of dollars every year on education programs designed to help consumers use credit wisely. The bankcard industry works particularly closely with the more than 1,200 Consumer Credit Counseling Services offices around the country, which help many thousands of consumers get control of their finances and repay their debts. We are proud of the lending community's far-reaching efforts to inform, educate and assist consumers.
Once again, I want to thank you for the opportunity to appear before you today.
Please let me know if we can be of any further assistance to the Subcommittee or its staff.
1 MBNA Corporation is a bank holding company. Its principal subsidiary is MBNA America Bank, N.A., a national bank. MBNA America Bank is the largest independent credit card lender in the world and one of the two largest credit card lenders overall. MBNA has $49.4 billion in managed loans outstanding and almost 20,000 employees in 28 offices located in the U.S., the United Kingdom and Canada.
2 For instance, H.R. 3150 is strongly supported by the National Consumer Bankruptcy Coalition, which is comprised of the American Bankers Association, America's Community Bankers, American Financial Services Association, Consumer Bankers Association, Credit Union National Association, Independent Bankers Association of America, MasterCard International Incorporated, National Retail Federation and VISA U.S.A. Inc.
Home | Menu | Links | Info | Chairman's Page | Chairman Faircloth and Members of the Subcommittee. my name is Bruce L. Hammonds and I am Senior Vice Chairman and Chief Operating Officer of MBNA Corporation ("MBNA") 1, My responsibilities include overseeing MBNA's credit, loss prevention, customer satisfaction, consumer finance and loan review activities. I have 28 years of experience in consumer lending, and have been a member of the MBNA mana | {
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Public Health and Aging: Atrial Fibrillation as a Contributing Cause of Death and Medicare Hospitalization --- United States, 1999
Stroke is the leading cause in the United States of serious long-term disability and the third leading cause of death. One of the major risk factors for stroke is atrial fibrillation (AF), a common cardiac disorder characterized by cardiac arrhythmia and the absence of coordinated contractions, which increases the risk for blood stasis, clot formation, and embolic stroke. AF affects approximately 2.2 million adults in the United States (1,2) and is the most common sustained heart rhythm disturbance observed in clinical practice (3). The rate of AF increases with age, from <1% among persons aged <60 years to approximately 10% among persons aged >80 years (4). The frequency with which AF is reported on death certificates as a contributing cause of death has increased since 1980 (5). To assess the burden of AF-related deaths and hospitalizations among U.S. residents, CDC analyzed national and state multiple-cause mortality statistics and Medicare hospital claims for persons with AF in 1999 (the latest year for which data were available) for the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The findings indicate that AF as a contributing cause of death and hospitalization affects primarily persons aged >75 years and that death and hospitalization rates vary by state. Public and medical education are needed to prevent and reduce AF-related disability and death.
National and state multiple-cause mortality statistics were obtained from death certificates in state vital statistics offices and compiled by CDC. AF-related deaths are those for which the contributing cause of death* (any one of the 20 possible conditions listed on the death certificate) listed by a physician or a coroner is classified as code I48 according to the International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10). Among decedents who had AF, the proportion of those who had an underlying cause of death listed as AF (ICD-10 I48), coronary heart disease (ICD-10 I20--I25), or stroke (ICD-10 I60--I69) also was assessed. Demographic data (age, sex, and race/ethnicity) on death certificates were reported by funeral directors or provided by family members of the decedent. The denominators for death rates were obtained from 1999 census records and included only U.S. residents.
Medicare (Part A) hospital claims and enrollment records from the Medicare Provider Analysis and Review files were obtained from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. AF-related hospitalizations among Medicare enrollees aged >65 years were classified as code 427.3 according to the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) as one of six diagnoses on the hospital claims during 1999. The denominators for hospitalization rates were obtained from Medicare enrollment records and included enrollees aged >65 years who were entitled to Medicare Part A benefits on July 1, 1999 (excluding 15.7% of members with coverage from health maintenance organizations). Among persons hospitalized with AF, the proportion of those who had a primary hospital diagnosis of AF (ICD-9 427.3), coronary heart disease (ICD-9 410--414, 429.2), or stroke (ICD-9 430--434, 436--438) also was assessed.
AF-related death rates for groups defined by age, sex, race/ethnicity, and state were determined by dividing the number of deaths by the population at risk (denominator) in each group. Rates of hospitalizations among Medicare enrollees aged >65 years with AF for each group were determined by dividing the number of hospitalizations by the population at risk (denominator) in the group. Age-adjusted death rates (per 100,000 population) and hospitalization rates (per 1,000 Medicare enrollees) were calculated by using the 2000 U.S. standard population (6).
In 1999, a total of 66,875 deaths with AF as a contributing cause occurred, resulting in an age-adjusted death rate of 24.7 per 100,000 population. Of these deaths, 56,138 (84.0%) were among persons aged >75 years. The greatest proportion of these AF-related deaths occurred among persons aged >85 years (47.4%), followed by those aged 75--84 years (36.6%), aged 65--74 years (12.3%), and aged <65 years (3.7%). Age-specific death rates increased for successive age groups (Table 1). Age-adjusted death rates for AF were highest among whites (25.7) and blacks (16.4) and higher for men (34.7) than women (22.8). In 1999, for all decedents who had AF, the most common underlying causes of death were coronary heart disease (28.0%), AF (12.4%), and stroke (10.8%).
In 1999, a total of 1,765,304 hospitalizations (137.1 per 1,000 Medicare enrollees) were reported among persons with AF in the Medicare population (Table 1). Rates increased among successive age groups. The rate of hospitalization among persons with AF was higher among whites (142.7) than among blacks (100.4). Although 55.7% of these hospitalizations were among women, men (162.9) had a higher rate of AF-related hospitalization than women (121.2). The most common diseases listed as the primary diagnosis for persons hospitalized with AF were congestive heart failure (11.8%), followed by AF (10.9%), coronary heart disease (9.9%), and stroke (4.9%).
The state-specific age-adjusted death rates for AF ranged from 13.1 in Arizona to 37.4 in Maryland (Figure). The age-adjusted rate of hospitalizations among persons with AF ranged from 90.2 in New Mexico to 177.5 in West Virginia (Table 2).
Reported by: C Ayala, PhD, WA Wattigney, MS, JB Croft, PhD, A Hyduk, MPH, GA Mensah, MD, Div of Adult and Community Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion; H Davis, PhD, EIS Officer, CDC.
The findings in this report confirm that AF is a contributing cause of death among older persons, particularly those aged >75 years, and that state-specific AF-related death rates vary. These findings are consistent with other trends of AF-related deaths (5). Patterns in the rate of AF-related hospitalization among Medicare enrollees are similar to those for death rates. The high proportion of AF-related deaths and hospitalizations occurring among persons aged >75 years suggests that as the population ages, AF might be diagnosed more frequently. A cohort study of hospitalized Medicare patients indicated that medical costs were greater for patients with AF than for those without AF (7). In addition, effective therapies for AF reduced the risk for stroke by >70%. Patients who have coronary heart disease, hypertensive disease, or stroke diagnosed and who live longer might be at risk for AF if effective therapy is not maintained (8). Serious complications among patients with uncontrolled AF also can include congestive heart failure, myocardial infarction, and thrombotic stroke.
Initial treatment of AF should be directed at controlling the ventricular rate with a calcium channel blocker, beta-blocker, or digitalis (3). Medical or electrical cardioversion to restore sinus rhythm is the next step in patients who remain in AF. Effective therapies in preventing stroke and cardiovascular complications include anticoagulation, heart rate control, conversion of AF to normal heart rhythm, and catheter-based and surgical interventions (3).
Educating the public to recognize the signs of cardiac arrhythmia can help identify persons with AF. Persons can identify an irregular heartbeat by monitoring their wrist pulse for 1 minute. The irregularity of these beats is detected and the next beat cannot be predicted. Persons who identify the signs of cardiac arrhythmia should seek medical care to determine the presence of AF or other heart disorders. The Research Center for Stroke and Heart Disease (http://www.strokeheart.org), has initiated the educational campaign, "Take Your Pulse For Life." This initiative recommends that persons, particularly those aged >55 years, monitor their pulse for 1 minute the first day of every month. Assessing whether a patient has AF can be easy and inexpensive through using electrocardiography (ECG) (3); the availability of more advanced diagnostic tools, such as ECG monitoring, might contribute to AF diagnosis in persons suspected to have cardiac arrhythmia. Delay in diagnosis occurs when the rhythm has not been documented specifically and additional monitoring is necessary (3). All persons should know how to take a pulse for themselves or their family members.
The findings in this report are subject to at least two limitations. First, data are subject to misclassification of race/ethnicity both in the population census and on death certificates, possibly resulting in overreporting among blacks and whites and underreporting among other racial/ethnic groups (9). Second, it was not possible to determine the accuracy of physician or administrative reporting, the validity of the ICD codes, or multiple hospitalizations on Medicare hospital claims.
Because AF is one of the major treatable risk factors for stroke, prevention of AF through public and medical education for early identification and appropriate treatment should become an important focus of public health efforts to reduce stroke- related deaths and disability. Prevention efforts should include broad-based public health efforts to increase public awareness of AF and to foster timely and appropriate diagnostic evaluation and effective treatment from health-care providers.
* Contributing cause of death was defined as the subsequent diagnosis considered with the cause of death, and underlying cause of death was defined as the primary diagnosis associated with the death.
Disclaimer All MMWR HTML versions of articles are electronic conversions from ASCII text into HTML. This conversion may have resulted in character translation or format errors in the HTML version. Users should not rely on this HTML document, but are referred to the electronic PDF version and/or the original MMWR paper copy for the official text, figures, and tables. An original paper copy of this issue can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC 20402-9371; telephone: (202) 512-1800. Contact GPO for current prices.
**Questions or messages regarding errors in formatting should be addressed to [email protected].
Page converted: 2/20/2003
This page last reviewed 2/20/2003 | Public Health and Aging: Atrial Fibrillation as a Contributing Cause of Death and Medicare Hospitalization --- United States, 1999
Stroke is the leading cause in the United States of serious long-term disability and the third leading cause of death. One of the major risk factors for stroke is atrial fibrillation (AF), a common cardiac disorder characterized by cardiac arrhythmia and the absence of | {
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|Governor Ammons appointed a Women's Peace
Association to investigate the "Ludlow Massacre" in
May. The following is their report. It shows the close
correlation between immigration and labor at the time as a
large number of immigrants worked in the factories and
the mines throughout the country earning low wages and
sometimes working in appalling conditions. | |Governor Ammons appointed a Women's Peace
Association to investigate the "Ludlow Massacre" in
May. The following is their report. It shows the close
correlation between immigration and labor at the time as a
large number of immigrants worked in the factories and
the mines throughout the country earning low wages and
sometimes working in appalling conditions. | {
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Low pressure will take an east to northeast track into southwest Minnesota later tonight, and across northern Wisconsin on Wednesday, as depicted by the image below:
Increasing south to southeast winds ahead of this system will continue to pull warmer air and deep moisture rapidly northward this evening and overnight. The warmer air will be surging into southern Wisconsin at the time that areas of widespread precipitation are expected to start developing later this afternoon and this evening. These conditions will result in a mixture of snow, sleet and rain developing this afternoon and evening.
The warmer air this evening will eventually change most of the mixture over to rain. An exception will be across the Fond du Lac, Sheboygan, Westfield and Berlin areas, where a mix of rain and snow is expected through most of tonight. A rumble or two of thunder is even possible across southern Wisconsin during the evening and overnight hours.
See the image below for the latest Warnings and Advisories across the country. Note the purple shading in the Upper Midwest and northern Plains indicates a Winter Weather Advisory, and the pink indicates a Winter Storm Warning:
The following graphic highlights where the heaviest snow is expected over the region, as well as the various precipitation types expected over southern Wisconsin:
The graphic below depicts the expected total snowfall amounts over southern Wisconsin from this evening into Wednesday evening, based on the current forecast trends. Much of the accumulation from around Madison to Milwaukee and southward would occur later Wednesday afternoon and into the evening, as colder air filters in. Any shifts in the low pressure track would result in a change in the location of the heavier snow, though confidence in this storm track continues to increase.
The image below is the statewide expected snowfall for the same time frame:
Stay tuned to the latest forecasts and statements regarding this winter weather event.
To submit a snowfall report, click here.
NWS Milwaukee/Sullivan, WI | Low pressure will take an east to northeast track into southwest Minnesota later tonight, and across northern Wisconsin on Wednesday, as depicted by the image below:
Increasing south to southeast winds ahead of this system will continue to pull warmer air and deep moisture rapidly northward this evening and overnight. The warmer air will be surging into southern Wisconsin at the time that areas of | {
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Ann Keeley, Branch Chief
Dr. Keeley is a Research Microbiologist in GWERD’s Subsurface Remediation Branch. She has a B.S. in Health with emphasis in clinical microbiology, and an M.S. and Ph.D. in Environmental Microbiology from Mississippi State University. Her research area is combined treatment technologies.
Dr. Keeley focuses her research on examining the impact of subsurface microorganisms in natural or enhanced remedial systems as the sole remedy or in combination with other treatment technologies. A major component of her research is the development or modification of sampling and analysis methods by using molecular and genomic tools to characterize microbial communities in various matrices in order to better understand the physicochemical processes controlling their activities, mobility, and survival.
Specifically, her field and laboratory research areas of interest includes:
- Monitored natural attenuation of organic/inorganic contaminants in groundwater to address a critical EPA need to develop more direct evidence for the efficacy of MNA of organic compounds. Research is conducted to develop methods for collecting relevant environmental data on liquid and solid matrices. A subset of this research is expanded to the fields of combined remedies and permeable reactive barriers.
- Impact of enhanced bioremediation on contaminant transport designed to enhance our understanding of the biogeochemical processes governing contaminant fate and transport in engineered systems. Field research is conducted to evaluate data collection methods and requirements to support conceptual remedial models.
- Fate and transport of microorganisms in subsurface systems are designed to expand EPA’s knowledge base with regard to the fate of microbes in groundwater and sediments. A major component of this research is the development or modification of sampling and analysis methods to characterize microbial communities in order to better understand the processes controlling their mobility and survival. A subset of this research is expanded to the Homeland Security Research Center.
Keeley, A. and B.R. Faulkner. (2008). “Influence of Land Use and Watershed Characteristics on Protozoa Contamination in a Potential Drinking Water Resources Reservoir.” Water Research J., 42: 2803–2813.
Azadpour-Keeley, A. and M.J. Barcelona. (2006). “Design of a MTBE Remediation Technology Evaluation.” Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation J., 26, 2: 103–113.
Azadpour-Keeley, A. (2005). “Microbial Field Sampling and Instrumentation in Assessment of Soil and Ground Water Pollution.” Chapter 32 in Environmental Instrumentation and Analysis Handbook. Edited by R.D. Down. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, New York, pp. 701–734. | Ann Keeley, Branch Chief
Dr. Keeley is a Research Microbiologist in GWERD’s Subsurface Remediation Branch. She has a B.S. in Health with emphasis in clinical microbiology, and an M.S. and Ph.D. in Environmental Microbiology from Mississippi State University. Her research area is combined treatment technologies.
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Kingdoms of Night
Over the last week or so, I have been tracking several articles about the “outsiders” and the hostility surrounding them. Maharashtra of course has been of course very prominently covered, because of the ranting of the Thackerays. But of course Maharashtra is not the only state in the country plagued by xenophobia – it just so happens that every one has their correspondent stationed there and so what happens there gets around faster. But this trait of us vs them is every where. In Manipur. In parts of West Bengal. The rabidly ethnic Amra Bangali and Kannada Chalvali and many more of the kind.
Somehow in India things do not reach extremes – they get sorted out along the way but if any one wants to know the logical direction that these quasi fascist movements take, then they ought to pick up Ellie Wiesel’s riveting book Night. Of course, there are many, many books written on the holocaust – The Diary of Anne Frank being one of the most famous but Night is different because the author survived to not just retell a story but also be a prophetic voice into the future – for which he received the Nobel Peace prize in 1986.
Wiesel was first ghettoized and then deported along with his family from Hungary to Germany where he was separated from his mother and three sisters as men and women were separated. He and his father stayed together and survived for a while before age, deprivation and the sub human living conditions felled the father. Watching his father die before his eyes and watching other sons betray their fathers in a dog eat dog environment scarred him forever.
When the ethnic cleansing of the Jews began in Hungary, Wiesel and his family as well most other Jews are in denial that any thing more drastic than some minor harassment will ever take place. Wiesel remembers asking his father “Can this be true ? This is the twentieth century, not the middle ages. Who would allow such crimes to be committed ? How could the world remain silent ?”
Well the twentieth century came and went and many other episodes of ethnic cleansing and genocide came and went – Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia. These are of course the more well documented ones. There are numerous other hot spots of a smaller scale and many within our country. Although we have crossed the calendar into the twenty first century, it is still possible to ask in Wiesel’s child like fashion as to whether any acts spurred by anger or bitterness or hatred that make less than half a column’s worth of news will lead to any thing more.
Most of us believe that responding to what happens when a group of people in one part of the country act and believe that those others who are different from them are migrants and infiltrators or “unwanted” by one or the other name, the responsibility for action lies with the government and a bunch of professional human rights groups like PUCL. Such an attitude is common as most of us do not know what to do and how to get involved and some times as these issues are politically tinged, we want to be extra cautious.
In his acceptance speech for the Nobel Peace Prize, Elie Wiesel recounted how surviving the holocaust forever changed his view of life. He says that after the war was over and he was finally released, he swore never to be silent whenever and wherever human beings endure suffering and humiliation. He emphatically says that “ We must take sides. Neutrality helps the oppressor, never the victim. Silence encourages the tormentor, never the tormented….”
Looking at my own apathy and the apathy of most people around me, I wonder if the principal problem for most of us is that we have not been victims – yet and so we know nothing of the psyche of the wounded. The sufficiently insulated lives that we lead, kind of ensure that we remain protected. and as yet Elie Wiesel discovered, assurances can be misleading and walls and barricades can be broken.
Tags: Jews , Holocaust , Nobel Prize , Amra Bangali , Maharashtra
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. | Kingdoms of Night
Over the last week or so, I have been tracking several articles about the “outsiders” and the hostility surrounding them. Maharashtra of course has been of course very prominently covered, because of the ranting of the Thackerays. But of course Maharashtra is not the only state in the country plagued by xenophobia – it just so happens that every one has their correspondent statio | {
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The percentage of moving in US is increasing rapidly!
Most Americans are constantly on the lookout for a job improvement. At times like these, the first thing people look into is a new locality that would help them save their hard-earned dollars. But that’s not going to help much. It’s, indeed, going to get your pockets pinched which nobody understands. This is one of the reasons for the frequent moves. According to statistical reports, every year, 1 out of 6 Americans relocate for a better job. An American, on an average, relocates 11 to 12 times in his life time. The count is indeed surprising. Isn’t it?
When it comes to moving, home owners sell their house and buy a new house while tenants search for rented house in new localities. In the search for job improvement to make profit, people tend to spend a lot. And moving to new locality is one among the most stressful situations that people could face in their lives. Especially when it comes to long distance moving, you need to hire a good moving company that can provide you with the right moving supplies and boxes at affordable rates. Regardless of what you get, moving is anyway a tedious task. Moving companies describe it as - “It really doesn’t matter if you’ve got checklists, moving is tedious anyway. Packing could be even more daunting."
But, why is the percentage of moving increasing? What’s the reason? Is income the only reason? Yes, of course, it’s the only reason. While it’s true that the U.S. Economy has gained 2.8 million jobs since 2010*, we can’t deny the fact that 8 million jobs have been lost also. According to the Income, Poverty and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2011 stats,
“Median family household income declined by 1.7 percent in real terms between 2010 and 2011 to $62,273”.
While it’s true that leaving friends and family is very hard, it’s even more daunting to cope up with poverty.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License. | The percentage of moving in US is increasing rapidly!
Most Americans are constantly on the lookout for a job improvement. At times like these, the first thing people look into is a new locality that would help them save their hard-earned dollars. But that’s not going to help much. It’s, indeed, going to get your pockets pinched which nobody understands. This is one of the reasons for the frequent | {
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Communicable Diseases Intelligence, Volume 27, Issue number 4 - December 2003
Reporting of communicable disease conditions under surveillance by the APSU, 1 January to 30 June 2003
This report published in Communicable Diseases Intelligence Volume 27, No 4, December 2003 contains the six monthly report fo the Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit (APSU) for the first half of 2003.
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Communicable Diseases Surveillance
Communicable Diseases Intelligence
A print friendly PDF version is available from this Communicable Diseases Intelligence issue's table of contents.
Compiled by Elizabeth Elliott, Donna Rose
Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit
The Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit (APSU) was established in 1993 and is a unit of the Division of Paediatrics and Child Health, Royal Australasian College of Physicians. The activities of the APSU are funded in part by the Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing through the communicable diseases program. The APSU is a founding member of the International Network of Paediatric Surveillance Units (INoPSU). INoPSU now has 14 member units who employ a similar methodology.
The APSU conducts national active surveillance of rare diseases of childhood, including infectious and vaccine preventable diseases, genetic disorders, childhood injuries and mental health conditions. Surveillance through the APSU provides the only available method of national data collection for most of the childhood conditions studied.
The primary aim of the APSU is to document the epidemiology of the conditions under surveillance, their clinical features, current management and short-term outcome. The APSU's secondary aims are to provide a mechanism for national collaborative research and to disseminate data acquired by the Unit to inform best practice, appropriate prevention strategies and optimal health resource allocation.
Contributors to the APSU are clinicians known to be working in paediatrics and child health in Australia. In 2002 over 1,050 clinicians participated in the monthly surveillance of 14 conditions, with an overall response rate of 96 per cent.
As 100 per cent case ascertainment is unlikely to be achieved by any one surveillance scheme, rates reported below represent estimates of minimum incidence in the relevant population. Where available, additional data sources are used to supplement or verify case finding through the APSU. For further information please contact the APSU on telephone: 02 9845 2200 or email: [email protected]
The Table shows the confirmed cases of communicable diseases reported to the APSU between 1 January and 30 June 2003.
Table. Confirmed cases of communicable diseases reported to the Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit between 1 January and 30 June 2003*
|Previous reporting period Jan–Dec 2002||Current reporting period Jan–Jun 2003*|
|Acute flaccid paralysis||
confirmed (< 3 weeks of age)
suspected (3–52 weeks of age)
|Perinatal exposure to HIV||
|Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection||
|Hepatitis C virus infection||
* Surveillance data are provisional and subject to revision.
† Two imported cases i.e. children born to mothers who had rubella in Indonesia. One child was born in Indonesia, one child born in Australia. A third infant was born in Victoria in 2001, but was not notified to the APSU until 2002. The parents were Fijian, it is not known where the mother acquired her infection.
Acute flaccid paralysis
Heath Kelly, Bruce Thorley, Kerri Anne Brussen, Jayne Antony, Elizabeth Elliott, Anne Morris
Acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) surveillance in children under 15 years of age was initiated in 1995 to help meet the World Health Organization certification standards for poliomyelitis eradication. To the end of 2002 there were 262 confirmed cases of non-polio AFP. Based on these data, the reported incidence of non-polio AFP is 0.86 (95% CI 0.76-0.97) per 100,000 children under 15 years. In 2002, the reporting of AFP was down on the preceding year with non-polio AFP 0.75 (95% CI 0.51-1.08) per 100,000. As noted previously, Guillain-Barré syndrome was the most common cause of AFP (27% of confirmed cases), followed by transverse myelitis (17%) and trauma (13%).
Congenital cytomegalovirus infection
William Rawlinson, Daniel Trincado, Gillian Scott, Sian Munro, Pamela Palasanthiran, Mark Ferson, David Smith, Geoff Higgins, Michael Catton, Alistair McGregor, Dominic Dwyer, Alisson Kesson
Congenital cytomegalovirus infection (CMV) surveillance in children up to 12 months of age commenced through the APSU in 1999. Between January 1999 and December 2001 there were 25 confirmed cases of CMV, that is with CMV being isolated in blood, urine, saliva or tissue in the first three weeks of life. The estimated incidence of congenital CMV is 2.61 (95% CI 1.71-3.83) per 100,000 live births. An additional eight cases of suspected CMV infection, in which the diagnosis was made between 3 weeks and 12 months of age, were identified in 2002.
Margaret Burgess, Jill Forrest, Cheryl Anne Jones, Peter McIntyre
Surveillance of newly diagnosed congenital rubella in children and adolescents under 16 commenced in 1993. Forty-five children with congenital rubella were identified through the APSU between May 1993 and December 2002. Twenty-nine of these children were born in Australia and 22 of these infants had defects attributable to congenital rubella. Several of these children had mothers who were born overseas and were not vaccinated. The estimated incidence of congenital rubella in children born in Australia is 1.20 (95% CI 0.80 -1.73) per 100,000 live births. The incidence of congenital rubella with defects is estimated to be 0.91 (95% CI 0.57 -1.38) per 100,000 live births. There have been two recent reports of congenital rubella infection in children born to Australian-born mothers in Queensland in 2003. These are the first such cases reported since 1999.1
HIV infection, AIDS and perinatal exposure to HIV
Ann McDonald, John Kaldor, Michelle Good, John Ziegler
This study monitors new cases of HIV/AIDS infection in children under 16 years and perinatal exposure to HIV. Perinatal exposure to HIV is now the most frequently reported source of HIV infection in Australian children. Between January 1997 and December 2002, 122 children with perinatal exposure to HIV were reported through the APSU and/or the National HIV/AIDS surveillance program. The estimated incidence of perinatal HIV exposure is 8.16 (95% CI 6.78 -9.75) per 100,000 live births. HIV transmission during the perinatal period may be reduced from 25 per cent to less than two per cent among women whose HIV infection is diagnosed prior to delivery through the use of antiretroviral therapy, elective caesarean delivery and the avoidance of breast feeding.
Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection
Cheryl Anne Jones, David Isaacs, Peter McIntyre, Tony Cunningham, Suzanne Garland
Surveillance of herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection in children aged up to 28 days commenced in 1997. There were 54 confirmed cases of neonatal HSV infection in infants up to 28 days of age between January 1997 and December 2002. The estimated incidence is 3.61 (95% CI 2.71-4.71) per 100,000 live births. Herpes simplex type 1 remains the predominant isolate causing neonatal disease in Australia.
Hepatitis C virus infection
John Kaldor, Cheryl Anne Jones, Elizabeth Elliott, Winita Hardikar, Alisson Kesson, Susan Polis, Catherine Mews
Surveillance of hepatitis C infection in children commenced in January 2003. APSU contributors are asked to report any child less than 15 years of age with:
- at least one confirmed positive anti-HCV antibody test performed at age greater than or equal to 18 months OR;
- a positive anti-HCV antibody test on a single occasion AND a positive test for HCV RNA (PCR or RT-PCR) on single occasion at any age greater than 1 month of age OR;
- a positive HCV RNA test (PCR or RT-PCR) on two separate occasions.
Six cases of hepatitis C virus infection were confirmed between January and June 2003.
1. Forrest JM, Burgess M, Donovan T. A resurgence of congenital rubella in Australia? Commun Dis Intell 2003;27:533-536.
This article was published in Communicable Diseases Intelligence Volume 27 No 4, December 2003. | Communicable Diseases Intelligence, Volume 27, Issue number 4 - December 2003
Reporting of communicable disease conditions under surveillance by the APSU, 1 January to 30 June 2003
This report published in Communicable Diseases Intelligence Volume 27, No 4, December 2003 contains the six monthly report fo the Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit (APSU) for the first half of 2003.
Communicable D | {
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President of Peru, Alan Garcia, considered that to have been
connected to 1,834 districts countrywide with telephone and internet
services is a "formidable achievement", which helps to
strengthen the identity of the nation and promote social inclusion.
said that communication between people separated by a difficult
geography, as the Peruvian, and also which has cultural differences,
helps to create a "common collective soul" among all
is the vital and historical sense that these (telephone connections
and internet) have: managed to link all the districts of Peru and its
surrounding towns through telephony and internet, which is also a
gateway to the world".
the President reiterated that have connected to that number of
districts is a "formidable achievement" for which he
thanked everyone who contributed their work and effort to achieve it.
Today we find that finally 1.834 districts are communicated by
telephone and included in Internet communication, is a formidable
achievement for which I thank all employees and those who have made
that these districts can be included".
President of Peru added that the connection of people inside the
country has not only a social impact, but also enormous economic
impact, as all of these districts can use these communication
services as a platform for commercial activities.
Andina News – Peru) | President of Peru, Alan Garcia, considered that to have been
connected to 1,834 districts countrywide with telephone and internet
services is a "formidable achievement", which helps to
strengthen the identity of the nation and promote social inclusion.
said that communication between people separated by a difficult
geography, as the Peruvian, and also which has cultural differences,
helps to creat | {
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|Automobile interiors can become unbearably hot. Car
makers in Detroit traditionally have solved the cooling problem with the use of large,
heavy, and inefficient air conditioners, typically of the same size that would be used to
cool a small house. Now, researchers are exploring an alternative approach, one that
could save more than a billion gallons of gasoline per year.
Using energy-efficient technologies developed for buildings, they have created the world's first thermally insulated car. Engineers recently completed an evaluation of the experimental vehicle. Tests show that the car's heating and cooling loads were reduced by 80 and 75 percent, respectively.
Insulating a vehicle allows the downsizing of heating and cooling systems. This downsizing translates into lighter, more energy-efficient transportation and much more comfortable vehicles.
"This is the first time that a car manufacturer is studying thermal insulation to
reduce heating and cooling loads," says Deb Hopkins of Berkeley Lab's Engineering
BENEFITS OF THERMAL INSULATION
The Thermal Management Project teams the Lab's Engineering and Environmental Energy Technologies divisions with Visteon Automotive Systems and the U.S. Government's Partnership for a Next Generation of Vehicles (PNGV). Hopkins collaborators here at the Lab include Daniel Turler, Howdy Goudey, and Brent Griffith.
Several months ago, researchers here in Berkeley retrofitted a conventional passenger automobile (1998 Ford Taurus) with advanced lightweight insulation and window technologies. Berkeley Lab's patented gas-filled panel (GFP) insulation is a winning technology for transportation applications because of the panel's high performance-to-weight ratio.
GFPs use thin polymer-film cellular baffles and low-conductivity gas to create a lightweight device with extraordinary thermal insulation properties. These hermetic plastic bags can take on a variety of shapes and sizes and can be up to three times as effective as conventional foam insulation. The weight savings achieved by GFPs over other insulation options made it possible to retrofit the test vehicle with double pane windows.
The Berkeley Lab team fabricated double-pane insulated glazing units for the side and back windows. Then, a spectrally-selective film that rejects ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths was applied to the inner surface of the outer pane and to the inner surface of the front windshield. Additionally, a low-emissivity (Low-E) film was applied to the inner surface of the inner pane of the side and back windows. The Low-E film suppresses radiative heat loss, helping to maintain comfortable conditions in the passenger compartment in both hot and cold weather.
To measure the degree of success of the project, the experimental vehicle was tested under driving conditions for both hot (55° C) and cold (-18° C) temperatures in a wind tunnel testing facility in Canada.
Tests showed that the thermal performance of the vehicle exceeded design goals. Using advanced insulation and window technologies, the vehicle's heating and cooling loads were reduced by 80 and 75 percent, respectively.
Hopkins says advanced insulation and window technologies provide a cascade of benefits. They include: | |Automobile interiors can become unbearably hot. Car
makers in Detroit traditionally have solved the cooling problem with the use of large,
heavy, and inefficient air conditioners, typically of the same size that would be used to
cool a small house. Now, researchers are exploring an alternative approach, one that
could save more than a billion gallons of gasoline per year.
Using energy-efficient t | {
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Award-winning pipa virtuoso Wu Man and aboriginal performers from Taiwan to showcase indigenous tunes
Newly awarded as Instrumentalist of the Year 2013 by Musical America, pipa virtuoso Wu Man will perform at the Hong Kong City Hall this Thursday (November 15) together with aboriginal musicians and singers from Taiwan. Featuring a Paiwan tribe children's choir and the Bunun tribe's "Pasibutbut", the concert presents a spiritual dialogue between the 2,000-year-old pipa and the indigenous tunes of Taiwan's aboriginal music.
Pipa virtuoso Wu Man is one of the core members of the Silk Road Project, led by acclaimed cellist Yo-Yo Ma. As a soloist, Wu has collaborated with many of the world's most distinguished orchestras and musicians over the past 20 years, including the New York Philharmonic, the Kronos Quartet, Emanuel Ax and Philip Glass. In addition to putting the pipa on the music world map, Wu has successfully developed a contemporary language for the ancient instrument. She has also played music for the films "The Last Emperor" and "The Wedding Banquet".
Wu has reached out to explore many musical landscapes. She has taken indigenous folk groups from remote villages in rural China to Carnegie Hall in New York, has visited Central Asia in search of the pipa's origins and, most recently, has headed into the mountains of Taiwan for in-depth exchanges with aboriginal musicians.
In the coming concert, Wu turns emotions into pipa improvisation, producing an enthralling dialogue with the soft, lyrical lalindan (nose flute) of Taiwan's Paiwan people and the clear voices of one of their children's choirs. The remarkable programme is brought to a soaring close with "Pasibutbut", a leading example of a unique form of traditional singing associated with the Bunun people. In this breathtaking song, complex harmonies reverberate, filling the air with the humming, flowing purity of nature and reverence for the divine.
The lalindan is a 40- to 60-centimetre flute-like instrument played by blowing through the nose. Many aboriginal communities in Taiwan play the instrument at weddings and funerals. It is also used for courting and daily entertainment. Its timbre is darker and more full-bodied than that of a flute, and it produces melodious notes that are both stirring and stately.
Sung in polyphonic harmony without lyrics, "Pasibutbut" (also known as "Prayer for the Abundant Millet Harvest") is performed by a circle of Bunun tribesmen. The song starts with the chief singer guiding the others to hum, their sounds gradually rising in pitch from low to amazingly high while overlapping the tones, which sound like eight heterophonic voices, intermingling and melding into a powerfully resonant and unified whole.
Two fringe activities will be held to tie in with the concert. Details are as follows:
Date: November 14 (Wednesday)
Time: 7.30pm to 9pm
Venue: AC1, Level 4, Administration Building, Hong Kong Cultural Centre
Paiwan and Bunun musicians will join Wu Man to share their experience of performing together. The talk will cover the aboriginal lifestyle in Taiwan, the relationship between music and life, and the historical significance of their musical instruments and repertoire. Demonstrations and a question-and-answer session will provide further understanding of aboriginal music and culture. The talk will be presented in Putonghua. Admission is free, with limited seats available on a first-come, first-served basis.
2. Foyer performance
Date: November 14 (Wednesday)
Time: 6pm to 6.30pm
Venue: Hong Kong Cultural Centre Foyer
Aboriginal musicians from Taiwan's mountain region will introduce the pure, elemental sounds characteristic of their distinctive musical culture. Admission is free.
The concert performed by Wu Man and Aboriginal Friends from Taiwan is one of the programmes of the New Vision Arts Festival organised by the Leisure and Cultural Services Department. It will be staged on November 15 at 8pm at the Hong Kong City Hall Concert Hall. A meet-the-artist session will be held after the performance. Tickets priced at $320, $240, $180 and $130 are now available at URBTIX.
Half-price tickets are available for full-time students, senior citizens aged 60 and above, people with disabilities and their minders, and Comprehensive Social Security Assistance recipients. Other booking discounts of up to 20 per cent are available.
Programme brochures are available at URBTIX outlets or at the website, www.newvisionfestival.gov.hk.
For programme enquiries, call 2370 1044. For telephone credit card bookings, call 2111 5999. Internet bookings can be made at www.urbtix.hk.
Ends/Tuesday, November 13, 2012
Pipa virtuoso Wu Man, an artist who has been a key exponent of the pipa internationally, will perform at the Hong Kong City Hall on November 15 together with aboriginal musicians and singers from Taiwan.
The lalindan is a flute-like instrument played by blowing through the nose. Its timbre is darker and more full-bodied than that of a flute, and it produces melodious notes that are both stirring and stately.
Sung in polyphonic harmony without lyrics, "Pasibutbut" (Prayer for the Abundant Millet Harvest) is performed by a circle of Bunun tribesmen.
In the coming concert, Wu turns emotions into pipa improvisation, producing an enthralling dialogue with the soft, lyrical lalindan of Taiwan's Paiwan people and the clear voices of one of their children's choirs. | Award-winning pipa virtuoso Wu Man and aboriginal performers from Taiwan to showcase indigenous tunes
Newly awarded as Instrumentalist of the Year 2013 by Musical America, pipa virtuoso Wu Man will perform at the Hong Kong City Hall this Thursday (November 15) together with aboriginal musicians and singers from Taiwan. Featuring a Paiwan tribe children's choir and the Bunun tribe's "Pasibutbut", t | {
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January 23, 2009
General Mike Cox today filed an amicus brief in the case
California v EPA,
arguing that automobile greenhouse gas emissions should be regulated solely by
the federal government, not by a separate set of state regulations. Currently,
the federal government has mandated that auto manufacturers reach 35 miles per
gallon (mpg) by 2020, however in order to comply with California's emission
regulations, the car companies would have to reach an unreasonable fuel
efficiency standard of 49 mpg by 2020.
"The auto industry is working hard to reform and retool. Allowing
state-by-state fuel efficiency standards would be devastating to the auto
industry," said Cox. "As an environmentalist, we need to be conscious of
measures that will maintain a clean environment for our children. However, in
order to address global greenhouse gas emissions, we need a national strategy,
not a one-state or multi-state solution."
Cox filed his brief today, arguing that the Clean Air Act and the Energy Policy
and Conservation Act preempt California from independently regulating auto
emissions in an attempt to address a global problem, and from establishing de
facto fuel economy standards. Cox points out that in enacting these statutes,
Congress made clear that it intended to protect automobile manufacturers from
individual state regulation that could harm the U.S. automobile industry.
"If California and a handful of other states are allowed to dictate
environmental policy for the entire country on a state-by-state basis and not a
uniform basis, our nation's economy will become further weakened," said Cox. "I
will not stand by silently while a handful of states try to drown the U.S. auto
industry in new regulation."
Cox's brief also points out that the National Highway Transportation and Safety
Administration (NHTSA) already set fuel economy standards for 2008-2011 for
light tracks, and Congress has set a target of 35 mpg for passenger cars and
trucks combined by 2020. These standards were set by taking into account the
economic practicalities of achieving the fuel standards. California's standards
do not account for the potential costs of the regulation, and according to
automakers, would impose further economic hardship on the U.S. automakers.
Cox has been a strong proponent for the U.S. auto industry. In January 2008,
Cox testified in front of the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment & Public
Works. Earlier this month, Cox had an opinion piece published in the Washington
Post inviting members of Congress to attend the North American International
Auto Show (NAIAS). The opinion piece prompted Senator Bob Corker, a strong
critic of the auto industry, to attend the NAIAS. He later admitted that
American manufacturers are building world class vehicles.
- 30 - | January 23, 2009
General Mike Cox today filed an amicus brief in the case
California v EPA,
arguing that automobile greenhouse gas emissions should be regulated solely by
the federal government, not by a separate set of state regulations. Currently,
the federal government has mandated that auto manufacturers reach 35 miles per
gallon (mpg) by 2020, however in order to comply with California's emis | {
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NIH Research Matters
March 4, 2013
Compound Induces Antitumor Protein
Researchers identified a small compound that can boost production of a known tumor-suppressing protein. The finding may improve on current approaches—now in clinical trials—that target this biological pathway.
Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, is the process by which the body eliminates unwanted cells, such as those damaged beyond repair. Apoptosis also plays a role in cancer, as cells that avoid apoptosis can divide uncontrollably and develop into tumors. Researchers have been searching for ways to selectively boost apoptosis in cancer cells without harming normal cells.
TRAIL (Tumor necrosis factor–related apoptosis-inducing ligand) is a protein the body produces to regulate apoptosis. It can induce apoptosis in a wide range of human cancer cell lines. Ongoing clinical trials are testing modified versions of the protein as well as antibodies that activate its receptor on the surfaces of cancer cells. However, these TRAIL-based therapies face several practical obstacles, including cost.
A research team led Dr. Wafik El-Deiry at the Penn State College of Medicine and Penn State Hershey Cancer Institute set out to try a different approach. They screened a collection of small molecules from NIH’s National Cancer Institute (NCI), looking for molecules capable of up-regulating TRAIL gene expression in human cancer cells. The study, funded in part by NCI, appeared on February 6, 2013, in Science Translational Medicine.
The scientists found a small molecule called TIC10 that increased activity of the TRAIL pathway. The compound induced apoptosis in a broad range of cancer cell lines but not in normal cells. In live mice, TIC10 caused regression of several types of human tumor grafts more effectively than TRAIL itself. The compound also helped prolonged survival in mouse models of cancer. The researchers saw no adverse effects at doses up to 10 times a therapeutic dose.
TIC10 boosted levels of TRAIL throughout the mouse body, including the brain. This suggested that, unlike many chemotherapy agents, TIC10 can cross the intact blood-brain barrier. The compound could induce apoptosis in laboratory cells from glioblastoma multiforme, the most common type of malignant brain tumor in adults. TIC10 also helped double the survival of mice bearing grafts of these human tumors and, when given in combination with the drug bevacizumab (Avastin), tripled survival.
Further experiments revealed the mechanism by which TIC10 exerts its effects. The compound inactivates 2 proteins called Akt and ERK. These regulate another protein called Foxo3a, which in turn regulates TRAIL expression. The net effect of TIC10 is to cause Foxo3a to boost TRAIL production. This information will be important for the clinical translation of TIC10. Other agents targeting these biological pathways can now also be explored.
“I was surprised and impressed that we were able to do this,” El-Deiry says. “Using a small molecule to significantly boost and overcome limitations of the TRAIL pathway appears to be a promising way to address difficult-to-treat cancers using a safe mechanism already used in those with a normal effective immune system. This candidate new drug, a first-in-its-class, shows activity against a broad range of tumor types in mice and appears safe at this stage.”
The team is planning to bring TIC10, also now known as ONC201, into clinical trials.
—by Harrison Wein, Ph.D.
- Breaking Down Pancreatic Tumor Defenses:
- Neighbors Help Cancer Cells Resist Treatment:
- Cancer Therapy:
Reference: Sci Transl Med. 2013 Feb 6;5(171):171ra17. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3004828. PMID: 23390247.
NIH Research Matters
Bldg. 31, Rm. 5B64A, MSC 2094
Bethesda, MD 20892-2094
About NIH Research Matters
Harrison Wein, Ph.D., Editor
Vicki Contie, Assistant Editor
NIH Research Matters is a weekly update of NIH research highlights from the Office of Communications and Public Liaison, Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. | NIH Research Matters
March 4, 2013
Compound Induces Antitumor Protein
Researchers identified a small compound that can boost production of a known tumor-suppressing protein. The finding may improve on current approaches—now in clinical trials—that target this biological pathway.
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Clara Barton Monument
Clara Barton was instrumental in the successful effort to identify the graves of most of the dead at Andersonville and the establishment of the Andersonville National Cemetery.
This monument is a tribute to these efforts in particular and to her many services to the soldiers in general.
It was created in 1914 under the direction of the Woman's Relief Corps and was dedicated on Memorial Day 30 May 1915. It is located on the prison site near the North Deadline and about 105 feet east of the west wall.
Did You Know?
About 150 African-American soldiers were believed to have been held at Andersonville. Of those 150, over 30 are known to have died at Andersonville. A number of the African-American prisoners were from the famed 54th Massachusetts Infantry. More... | Clara Barton Monument
Clara Barton was instrumental in the successful effort to identify the graves of most of the dead at Andersonville and the establishment of the Andersonville National Cemetery.
This monument is a tribute to these efforts in particular and to her many services to the soldiers in general.
It was created in 1914 under the direction of the Woman's Relief Corps and was dedicated o | {
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Support Your Park
Making purchases from the bookstore helps support park activities.
You can also help by becoming a volunteer in our Volunteer-In-Parks Program. Visiting Natchez National Historical Park and paying the Melrose house tour fee helps support many projects within the park as well.
Learn more about our bookstore, volunteering and our cooperative association by clicking the above links.
How to Donate
Superintendent Kathleen Jenkins
Donations can also include historical museum objects which support the mission of Natchez National Historical Park and fit within the park’s Scope of Collections Statement. See statement below from the Scope of Collections.
Objects to be considered for acquisition include any objects associated with any of the inhabitants of the Melrose estate (enslaved or free); inhabitants of the William Johnson House (enslaved or free), as well as any of Johnson’s other properties; any of McMurran’s other properties; any of the sites in the Natchez region contemporary to the primary times of interpretation; objects associated with the early efforts of the local preservation movement; and objects that document the ongoing relationships between park partners.
Please contact the Museum Curator at 601-445-5395 for more information on donating objects to the park.
Did You Know?
Located in Natchez, Mississippi, Forks of the Road was one of the largest slave markets in the south. | Support Your Park
Making purchases from the bookstore helps support park activities.
You can also help by becoming a volunteer in our Volunteer-In-Parks Program. Visiting Natchez National Historical Park and paying the Melrose house tour fee helps support many projects within the park as well.
Learn more about our bookstore, volunteering and our cooperative association by clicking the above links. | {
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News From the Field
New TB Test Promises To Be Cheap and Fast
May 22, 2012
Biomedical engineers at University of California, Davis, have developed a microfluidic chip to test for latent tuberculosis. They hope the test will be cheaper, faster and more reliable than current testing for the disease.
University of California, Davis
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency that supports fundamental research and education across all fields of science and engineering. In fiscal year (FY) 2012, its budget was $7.0 billion. NSF funds reach all 50 states through grants to nearly 2,000 colleges, universities and other institutions. Each year, NSF receives about 50,000 competitive requests for funding, and makes about 11,500 new funding awards. NSF also awards about $593 million in professional and service contracts yearly.
Get News Updates by Email
Useful NSF Web Sites:
NSF Home Page: http://www.nsf.gov
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For the News Media: http://www.nsf.gov/news/newsroom.jsp
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Awards Searches: http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/ | News From the Field
New TB Test Promises To Be Cheap and Fast
May 22, 2012
Biomedical engineers at University of California, Davis, have developed a microfluidic chip to test for latent tuberculosis. They hope the test will be cheaper, faster and more reliable than current testing for the disease.
University of California, Davis
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agenc | {
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3. History of alcohol management
Elliott has a long history of local action around controlling supplies of alcohol. In 1983 there was an agreement reached between the (now defunct) Gurungu Council and Elliott licensees not to sell takeaway wine and spirits to Aboriginal residents and their visitors.4 However by 1990, the extent of alcohol related harm was reaching serious proportions.5 The Health Centre staff prepared a submission to the NT Sessional Committee on the Use and Abuse of Alcohol by the Community that documented the range of alcohol related problems, both physical and social, that they were treating. These included fighting injuries (averaging one per 48 hours), delirium tremens (from alcohol withdrawal), fitting, vomiting blood, underweight babies and newborns with foetal alcohol syndrome, and other forms of child neglect. The Gurungu Council also wrote a submission pointing out the detrimental effects of alcohol on children (eg poor nutrition, poor health), on workers (tiredness) and on families and the community (domestic violence, sexual assaults, drunk driving). The Health Centre and the Gurungu Council continued to use every opportunity to put forth their case to a task force into licenses and an inquiry into roadside inns created under the Living with Alcohol Strategy (the NT Government’s response to the Sessional Committees report). They pointed out that having two outlets licensed for takeaways ‘created easy availability’ of alcohol.
On 11 December 1992, alcohol problems in Elliott reached crisis proportions. There was an alcohol fuelled ‘riot’ at the Elliott Hotel following a fight between a European employee from Newcastle Waters and a local Aboriginal man. It gained NT media attention and consequently, political attention. In January, a number of Community meetings were held about what to do about alcohol. The Gurungu Council proposed limitations on alcohol sales (half a carton) and reduced trading hours in a letter to the Liquor Commission. In February 1993 the Chairman of the Liquor Commission attended a Community meeting to listen to community views. He undertook to talk to the licensees to see if an agreement could be reached that addressed the Community’s concerns about alcohol availability. As a result, in house trading hours were reduced by three hours and takeaway trading hours by six and not selling wine and spirits to Aboriginal residents was reaffirmed. There was to be a review after six months. Not surprisingly, people with alcohol related injuries and problems continued to present at the Health Centre. The Health Centre Manager requested assistance from the Health Promotion Program to develop an approach that would enable community members to express their views in such a way that the Liquor Commission would take notice. It was decided that the best way was for a secret vote to take place, managed by Health Promotion staff who were not residents.
In August 1993, 65 per cent of eligible adults participated in a survey (in the form of a secret ballot) about restricting alcohol in Elliott.6 The results of the survey were presented to the Liquor Commissioner at a meeting. Forty-nine per cent voted for a six pack takeaway while the remainder of the vote was split between no change in restrictions and a dozen. With the community’s support, the six pack takeaway was put into place for everyone, including people passing through town. There were to be no takeaways on Sunday. No children were to be allowed in the Elliott Hotel bar. The Commission formally amended the two licences and the changes took effect on 13 September 1993. There was a commitment to review the changes after a six month trial period.
The positive impact of the reduction in alcohol supply was immediate. There were fewer call outs for both the Health Centre and Police. People reported that the town was quieter and more money was being spent on food and clothing. The Principal observed that children were more attentive and more able to take part in school activities after a good night’s sleep. Given these results, the restrictions were continued after the trial period. A review undertaken in 1995 asked whether the benefits of the reduced supply had been sustained. In short, the result was mixed, with alcohol related treatments returning to 1992 levels and police attending more call outs to the Hotel and the highway than to the town camps. The highly visible public drinking by Aboriginal people was a cause for concern for non Aboriginal residents; other community members were concerned that intoxicated people wandering alongside and across the Stuart Highway were in danger from heavy traffic. The report concluded:
It would appear, then, that restricting sales allowed a reprieve from the heavy levels of drinking and associated social trauma, distress and health damage that led up to the intervention – however, the underlying contributory factors remain...In the words of one Aboriginal resident: ‘This place will be all European soon - no Aboriginal people. All die from grog, you’ll see.’ (June 1995)
Just over ten years later in 2006, it was reported that the town was “experiencing a lot of public drunkenness and disturbances in the main street and around the community centres”7. As a result of this, and with the arrival of a new police officer in August 2006, there was a concerted effort by the Elliott Police and the two Aboriginal Community Police Officers (ACPOs), to reduce public drinking and encourage people to drink primarily in their own homes, through enforcement of the NT Two Kilometre legislation. There was a social order campaign. (Some Aboriginal people who wished to keep their homes and yards alcohol-free placed hand painted signs in front of their property, proclaiming “DRY AREA NO GROG ALLOWED”. The Police reported that they would attend calls made from those houses if people attempted to bring alcohol onto the property, or were intoxicated.) As a result, between August and December 2006, public drinking declined markedly. Police reported tipping out 30 to 40 litres of liquor a week at the beginning of the campaign to around 1 or 2 litres a week by December 20068, and the results were also apparent in alcohol related health data (see Table 1). The Police continue to have a zero tolerance to public drunkenness as well and will apprehend intoxicated people and lock them up for the night.
The situation described above continued until the houses and entire areas of the town camps were declared dry Prescribed Areas under the NTER, on 15 September 2007.
4. N.T. Government, Northern Territory Alcohol Framework. Interim Report 2004, p. 68.
5. The following information is based on an unpublished paper titled ‘Information for Community Action – The Elliott Story’ by Tess Lea, nd
6. Gwen Walley and Darrin Trindall, ‘Strengthening Community Action in the Northern Territory’, 1994
7. Elliott District Community Government Council (2007). Elliott Recovery Plan, p 5.
8. These figures were reported to us directly by Police, and are reported in the Elliott Recovery Plan 2007. | 3. History of alcohol management
Elliott has a long history of local action around controlling supplies of alcohol. In 1983 there was an agreement reached between the (now defunct) Gurungu Council and Elliott licensees not to sell takeaway wine and spirits to Aboriginal residents and their visitors.4 However by 1990, the extent of alcohol related harm was reaching serious proportions.5 The Health | {
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9/11 Health Services in Lower Manhattan Community Receive Federal Funding for the First Time
October 2, 2008
The federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has awarded New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation (HHC) $10 million to provide health screening, monitoring and treatment services to Lower Manhattan area workers, residents and students who were affected by the collapse of the World Trade Center (WTC). The WTC Environmental Health Center is the sole recipient of the competitive grant which will be administered by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) and provide up to $30 million over the next three years. This is the first time the federal government has funded 9/11 health services for people who are not eligible for treatment at the WTC Medical Monitoring and Treatment Program which serves people who participated in WTC rescue, recovery and clean-up operations.
HHC President Alan Aviles thanked both the City and the New York Congressional delegation for their support. According to Aviles, because of this funding the WTC Environmental Health Center "will have the resources to expand access to treatment for the clean-up workers, local business owners, students, families who lived downtown and the other children and adults who still struggle with the physical effects or the psychological and emotional trauma caused by this attack on the nation." To date, more than 3,000 people have received care at the three clinics that comprise a program that was begun with charitable contributions and expanded with City funding. Many more New Yorkers are expected to seek services as a result of a new multi-media advertising campaign promoting the Center with the tagline "Lived There? Worked There? You Deserve Care."
In the CDC grant announcement, Dr. Christine Branch, the acting director of NIOSH, said, "We look forward to working with HHC, particularly Bellevue, on this effort to expand health services and treatment to residents, students and others who were in the vicinity of the attacks of September 11, 2001."
> Read the HHC statement
> Read the CDC press release | 9/11 Health Services in Lower Manhattan Community Receive Federal Funding for the First Time
October 2, 2008
The federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has awarded New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation (HHC) $10 million to provide health screening, monitoring and treatment services to Lower Manhattan area workers, residents and students who were affected by the collapse | {
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Critical energy infrastructure protection and resilience
About critical infrastructure protection and resilience
Critical energy infrastructure are those physical energy facilities, energy supply chains, information technologies and communication networks that, if destroyed, degraded or rendered unavailable for an extended period, would significantly impact on energy security and energy supply, as well as the overall social and economic well-being of the nation.
The responsibility for protecting critical infrastructure is shared between:
- critical infrastructure owners and operators
- Commonwealth government
- state and territory governments.
A key initiative in building the necessary business-government relationships is the Trusted Information Sharing Network for Critical Infrastructure Resilience (TISN), led by the Attorney-General’s Department.
The TISN provides an environment where business and government can share vital information on security issues relevant to the protection of our critical infrastructure and the continuity of essential services in the face of all hazards.
The TISN agenda is driven by critical infrastructure owners and operators from seven Sector Groups and is overseen by the Critical Infrastructure Advisory Council (CIAC).
The Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism (RET) is part of the TISN. It is responsible for providing strategic secretariat support to the Energy Sector Group (ESG), a business-government partnership which seeks to share information on hazards and vulnerabilities, and identify mitigation strategies to address them and to enhance the resilience of the electricity, gas and liquid fuels sectors.
It also shares information with other sector groups, such as banking and finance and communications on the interdependencies between these sectors and the energy sector.
In 2004, the International Electricity Infrastructure Assurance Forum (IEIAF) was established to promote international collaboration and mutual assistance on issues related to electricity infrastructure assurance amongst countries with common infrastructure assurance challenges.
The forum consists of government and electricity industry representatives from these five participating countries of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom and the United States.
For more information about critical infrastructure protection and resilience email [email protected]. | Critical energy infrastructure protection and resilience
About critical infrastructure protection and resilience
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The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice.
There was no change in the status of respect for religious freedom during the period covered by this report, and government policy continued to contribute to the generally free practice of religion. In April 2002, the Government registered the Estonian Orthodox Church subordinate to the Moscow Patriarchate.
The generally amicable relationship among religions in society contributed to religious freedom.
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights.
Section I. Religious Demography
The country has a total area of 17,666 square miles and a population of 1.36 million inhabitants (65 percent ethnic Estonian and 35 percent Russian-speaking). The Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church (EELC) is the largest denomination, with 165 congregations and approximately 177,230 members as of May 2001. The Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church (EAOC) has 59 congregations with approximately 18,000 members and the Estonian Orthodox Church, subordinated to the Moscow Patriarchate (EOCMP), has 32 congregations with approximately 100,000 members. There are smaller communities of Baptist, Roman Catholic, members of Jehovah's Witnesses, Pentecostal, Old Believers, Methodist, and other denominations. There is a small Jewish community with 2,500 members. In December 2000, the country's only synagogue was opened in the Jewish school facility. There are also communities of Muslims, Buddhists, and many other denominations and faiths; however, each of these minority faiths has fewer than 6,000 adherents.
Forty years of communism diminished the role of religion in society. Many neighborhoods built since World War II do not have religious centers, and many of the surviving churches require extensive renovations. Church attendance, which had seen a surge coinciding with the independence movement in the early 1990s, now has decreased significantly. Anecdotal evidence from local Lutheran churches indicates a 76 percent decrease in registered confirmations between 1990 and 2000.
Many groups have sent foreign missionaries into the country in recent years; the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons) has the largest number of missionaries.
Section II. Status of Religious Freedom
The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice. The Government at all levels strives to protect this right in full, and does not tolerate its abuse, either by governmental or private actors. The Constitution states that there is no state church, thus establishing the separation of church and state. However, this has not been interpreted strictly in administrative practice. For example, the Churches and Congregations Act decrees that the commanding officer of each military unit shall ensure conscripts the opportunity to practice their religion; however, the coordination of chaplains' services to the prisons is delegated to one of the Lutheran diaconal centers. In response to an order by the Prime Minister, the center carries out this responsibility in a way that does not discriminate against non-Lutherans.
There also are other laws and regulations that directly or indirectly regulate individual and collective freedom of religion. The 1993 law on churches and religious organizations requires that all religious organizations have at least 12 members and to register with the Religious Affairs Department under the Ministry of Interior Affairs (MIA). Leaders of religious organizations must be citizens with at least 5 years residence in the country. The minutes of the constitutive meeting, a copy of statutes, and a notarized copy of three founders' signatures serve as supporting documents to the registration application.
In June 2001, Parliament adopted a revised law on churches and congregations that contained a provision barring the registry of any church or union of congregations whose permanent or temporary administrative or economic management is performed by a leader or institution situated outside Estonia. The Orthodox Church, Moscow Patriarchate, and the Estonian Council of Churches expressed concern that such a provision could have prevented the registry of churches and congregations that traditionally had been active in the country. Former President Lennert Meri refused to promulgate the law, declaring, in part, that it constituted an intrusion into the sphere of autonomy of religious institutions. In February 2002, Parliament adopted unanimously a revised Law on Churches and Religious Organizations with amendments, which removed the earlier disputed provision. On February 27, 2002, President Arnold Ruutel promulgated the law. It was scheduled to take effect on July 1, 2002.
On April 17, 2002, the MIA registered the Estonian Orthodox Church (EOC), Moscow Patriarchate and ended a series of disputes over the registration of the name EAOC. In 1993 the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church (EAOC), independent since 1919, subordinate to Constantinople since 1923, and exiled under the Soviet occupation, reregistered under its 1935 statute. A group of ethnic Russian and Estonian parishes that preferred to remain under the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church structure imposed during the Soviet occupation, attempted, unsuccessfully, to claim the EAOC name. In May 2001, the MIA had declined to approve an application by representatives of the Moscow Patriarchate, explaining that it could not formally register this church under its desired name as it would be confused too easily with the EAOC (Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church).
In March 2002, the MIA rejected a second application by the Satanists to register as a religious organization. The Religious Affairs Department of the MIA returned the registration documents to the applicants saying that they were not in line with the legal requirements. Estonian Satanists made their first--unsuccessful--attempt to register three years ago. During the period covered by this report, no further attempts for registration by the Satanists had been made.
A program of basic Christian ecumenical religious instruction is available in public schools. In primary school parents decide whether their children will participate in these religious studies; at the gymnasium level pupils decide themselves if they will attend these classes. Only 35 schools and approximately 1,800 students participate in such programs. Comparative religious studies are available in public and private schools on an elective basis. There are three private church schools that have a religion-based curriculum, two in Tartu and one in Johvi.
The property restitution process largely has been completed except for those properties disputed by the two main branches of the Orthodox faith - the EAOC and the EOCMP. The specific details of EOCMP registration have significant implications for which branch of the Orthodox Church may receive legal title to church property. During the period covered by this report, most church properties, including those being used by the EOCMP legally belonged to the EAOC. Once the EOCMP became registered and acquired the legal capacity of a juridical person, it then obtained the right to initiate court proceedings to gain de jure control over the properties that it has used on a de facto basis with the permission of the EAOC. Although the EOCMP has this legal capacity, no such legal proceedings had been undertaken as of June 30, 2002.
The issue of the ownership of the Aleksander Nevski Cathedral, a prominent and valuable Tallinn landmark, remains unsettled. The Cathedral is owned by the city of Tallinn and rented out to its Russian Orthodox congregation on a several decade lease basis. According to local Jewish leaders, property restitution is not an issue for the community, as most prewar religious buildings were rented, not owned.
Good Friday, Easter Sunday, Christmas day, Pentecost, and Boxing Day are national holidays.
Restrictions on Religious Freedom
Government policy and practice contributed to the generally free practice of religion.
The Churches and Congregations Act decrees that the commanding officer of each military unit shall ensure conscripts the opportunity to practice their religion. However, it is not clear whether or how this freedom is implemented in practice. The military chaplaincy is delegated by an order of the Prime Minister to an organization operated by the Lutheran Church.
There were no reports of religious prisoners or detainees.
Forced Religious Conversion
There were no reports of forced religious conversion, including of minor U.S. citizens who had been abducted or illegally removed from the United States, or of the refusal to allow such citizens to be returned to the United States.
Section III. Societal Attitudes
Relations between the various religious communities are generally amicable. Although the majority of citizens are nominally Lutheran, ecumenical services during national days, Christian holidays, or at public events are common. Tension between the ethnic Estonian and ethnic Russian populations generally does not extend to religious matters; however, the hierarchical dispute and legal conflict over church property has resulted in some resentment on the part of Christian Orthodox believers belonging to the Moscow Patriarchate (see Section II).
Most of the religious adherents among the country's Russian-speaking population are Orthodox, while the Estonian majority is predominantly Lutheran. There is a deep-seated tradition of tolerance of other denominations and religions. Although citizens are generally tolerant of new religions and foreign missionaries, some groups that are regarded widely as "cults" cause apprehension.
On November 1, 2000 (All Soul's Day), over 100 grave sites were destroyed in a cemetery in Tartu. The Tartu Police arrested 2 youths (ages 15 and 16) who described themselves as Satanists and subsequently confessed to hooliganism.
While no churches were vandalized during the period covered by this report, earlier thefts of church property prompted the Estonian Council of Churches and the board of antiquities to initiate a database of items under protection. The database, which is comprised of digital photos and detailed descriptions, will be shared with law enforcement agencies as needed.
Section IV. U.S. Government Policy
The U.S. Government discusses religious freedom issues with the Government in the context of its overall dialog and policy of promoting human rights. Officials of the U.S. Embassy met regularly during the period covered by this report with appropriate government agencies, nongovernmental organizations, and a wide range of figures in religious circles. Embassy officials met with representatives of both sides in the dispute between the Estonian Apostolic Orthodox Church and the Russian Orthodox Church. | The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respects this right in practice.
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NEWS RELEASE 01-028; March 1, 2001
March 1, 2001
News Release 01-028
U.S. COTTON TRADE SURPLUS DECLINES, REPORTS ITC
The United States experienced a declining trade surplus in cotton from 1995 to 1999, fueled by
decreasing exports to East Asian markets, reports the U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC)
in its publication Industry and Trade Summary: Cotton.
The ITC, an independent, nonpartisan, factfinding federal agency, recently released the report as
part of an ongoing series of reports on thousands of products imported into and exported from
the United States. Following are highlights from the report:
- The United States is an important producer of cotton, supplying approximately 20 percent
of world output. Production totaled 3.7 million metric tons in marketing year (MY) 1999,
of which 147,000 metric tons was extra-long staple (ELS) cotton. Other major producers
include China, India, Pakistan, the Republic of Uzbekistan, Franc-Zone Africa, and
- U.S. cotton farming and ginning is becoming increasingly concentrated, while at the same
time, total harvested acreage is increasing. In 1969, nearly 200,000 cotton farms harvested
11.5 million acres (4.7 million hectares); by 1997, only 31,456 farms were harvesting
13.2 million acres (5.3 million hectares). Over the last twenty years, the number of
domestic cotton gins declined nearly 52 percent, from 2,251 to 1,084. Per acre yields
inched upward and costs declined during 1995-99 through the use of transgenic seeds,
insect eradication programs, and land management techniques.
- Domestic cotton farmers are supported by a patchwork of government programs designed
to stabilize income during severe price volatility, provide timely cash flow, and maintain
competitiveness in U.S. and foreign markets. Some of the programs include marketing loss
assistance payments, marketing assistance loans, loan deficiency payments, and a three-
step competitiveness program.
- The United States remains by far the largest exporter of raw cotton, accounting for
18 percent-27 percent of annual world exports during MY 1995-99. In 1999, the United
States held an $832 million trade surplus with its trading partners, down from $2.5 billion
in 1998. Major export markets include textile-producing countries in East Asia, such as
Indonesia, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, as well as Canada, Mexico, and Turkey. U.S.
imports of cotton in 1999 totaled $136 million, and major suppliers included Greece,
China, Syria, Egypt, and Argentina. Imports fluctuated substantially during 1995-1999,
varying from a high of $283 million in 1996 to a low of $3 million in 1997. Import
suppliers also shifted considerably over the five-year period.
- The U.S. consumers of raw cotton are textile mills that process the fibers into yarns and
threads. These intermediate products are then consumed downstream producing hundreds
of items, including wearing apparel; home furnishings, such as draperies, upholstery
fabrics; towels, wash cloths, sheets, pillowcases; and rugs; and industrial use products,
such as medical supplies and industrial thread. Consumer demand for cotton is closely
linked to fashion trends, home sales, and competitive pricing vis-a-vis man-made fibers.
The foregoing information is from the ITC report Industry and Trade Summary: Cotton (USITC
Publication 3391, January 2001).
ITC Industry and Trade Summary reports include information on product uses, U.S. and foreign
producers, and customs treatment of the products being studied: they analyze the basic factors
affecting trends in consumption, production, and trade of the commodities, as well as factors
bearing on the competitiveness of the U.S. industry in domestic and foreign markets.
This report will be available on the ITC Internet web site at www.usitc.gov. A printed copy may
be requested by calling 202-205-1809, or by writing the Office of the Secretary, U.S.
International Trade Commission, 500 E Street SW, Washington, DC 20436. Requests may be
faxed to 202-205-2104.
-- 30 -- | Error processing SSI file
NEWS RELEASE 01-028; March 1, 2001
March 1, 2001
News Release 01-028
U.S. COTTON TRADE SURPLUS DECLINES, REPORTS ITC
The United States experienced a declining trade surplus in cotton from 1995 to 1999, fueled by
decreasing exports to East Asian markets, reports the U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC)
in its publication Industry and Trade Summary: Cotton.
The ITC, an | {
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VicHealth Programs & Projects: overview
VicHealth’s programs and projects focus on improving the health of all people in Victoria, while reducing the differences in health status between different population groups.
With research and evidence guiding programs, VicHealth invests in a range of activities in sectors as diverse as sport and active recreation, the arts, education, planning and built environment, community and local government.
These programs promote change in policy and practice that can influence people’s ability to sustain a healthy lifestyle.
The activities we have supported since the Foundation's establishment in 1987 have contributed significantly to public health improvements in Victoria. For instance, the reduction of smoking prevalence among adults is just one of our success stories in the effectiveness of comprehensive, well-funded and sustained programs for improving health.
We work with a range of partner organisations to deliver innovative responses to the complex social, economic, cultural and environmental factors that influence the health of all Victorians.
In particular, VicHealth seeks to influence those things that determine individual health outcomes that can be changed, related to non-communicable diseases, and that are aligned with national and state health priorities.
We have identified health priority areas in which we focus our funding, developmental work, research, evaluation and advocacy. The selection of priorities for VicHealth is guided primarily by their relevance to the vision, mission and aims and objectives of VicHealth, which reflect the Tobacco Act 1987 and are founded on principles of equity.
VicHealth’s continued innovation and responsiveness to current and emerging health promotion challenges has been the cornerstone of our success. | VicHealth Programs & Projects: overview
VicHealth’s programs and projects focus on improving the health of all people in Victoria, while reducing the differences in health status between different population groups.
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Feasibility of elimination FAQ
Is the goal of elimination reasonable and feasible? What urgent actions must be taken now to ensure the attainment of the goal?
The goal of eliminating leprosy is both reasonable and feasible. However, progress being made in some countries remains slow, mainly because the geographic coverage of MDT services is still not wide enough, or the services are too rigid or too sophisticated to reach every patient in every village.
A move away from "vertical" - often highly centralised - leprosy services is underway in most endemic countries, although this process is being implemented at different rates and different levels of success. This more simplified approach to treatment uses the general health worker at village level and making the MDT services "patient-friendly" and uncomplicated, and will reduce the stigma of patients having to attend "specialised" clinics, often segregated from other patients.
Measures previously taken to stimulate public awareness in the community and detect "hidden" cases will need to be continued. MDT needs to be made readily available at the community level, and special projects may be necessary to tackle difficult-to-reach areas and populations. Careful monitoring to measure the impact of these activities at district, regional and national levels will be essential. In addition, the momentum gained so far needs to be solidly maintained and accelerated still further.
This is an historic opportunity to erase leprosy from the long list of diseases that confront many communities in the world.
What are the essential requirements for attaining the elimination goal?
The ingredients for success are as follows:
- sustained high levels of MDT coverage, especially in terms of reaching every patient in every village
- high levels of compliance and treatment completion rates
- effective case-detection to the point where all leprosy cases of consequence in the community are promptly cured with MDT
- accelerating the national plans of action and constant monitoring of the progress made
- increased political commitment and mobilization of additional resources. | Feasibility of elimination FAQ
Is the goal of elimination reasonable and feasible? What urgent actions must be taken now to ensure the attainment of the goal?
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Subsets and Splits