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zh | N/A | N/A | 浅议循环经济理论下桂林旅游可持续发展的对策
王利朋，李茂青2
(1.桂林工学院，广西桂林541004；2.桂林光大国际旅游公司，广西桂林541001)
摘 要：在对桂林旅游可持续发展面临问题的分析基础上，从企业、政府、社会三个层面提出循环经济理论下桂林旅游可持续发展应采取的对策。
关键词：循环经济；桂林；旅游；可持续发展 中图分类号： F592.767
A Preliminary Study on the Countermeasures for the Sustainable Development of Guilin's Tourism under the Theory of Recycle Economy
WANG Li -peng'， LI Mao - qing
(1. Guilin University of Technology， Guilin Guangxi 541004；
2\. Guilin Everbright International Tourist Corporation， Guilin Guangxi 541004)
Abstract： After an analysis on the problems that Guilins tourism faces， the paper puts forward the countermeas-ures for the sustainable development of Guilins tourism under the theory of recycle economy from three levels including the enterprise， government and society.
Key words： recycle economy； Guilin； tourism； sustainable development
文献标识码：A. 文章编号：1008-6781(2007)02-0040-03
循环经济倡导以环境友好的方式利用自然资源和环境容量，实现经济活动的生态化转向，这种要求与以旅游资源为依托的旅游业发展模式是一致的。伴随着旅游业在世界范围内的迅速发展，旅游业所带来的负面效应也越来越明显，包括对景区旅游资源及环境的破坏、就业环境的恶化、传统文化价值的衰退等。这些影响主要是由于对旅游资源的无序开发利用、旅游基础设施盲目建设、无节制的交通运输及旅游活动产生的污染所造成的。近年来，学术界一直在呼吁旅游业的发展必须走可持续发展的模式。旅游的可持续发展要求旅游资源的开发与环境保护理念相结合，促进资源的保护与循环利用。目前，循环经济正成为一股潮流和趋势，发展循环经济是21世纪旅游业实施可持续发展战略的重要载体和最佳模式。
“循环经济”由美国经济学家K·波尔丁在20世纪60年代初步提出，是针对直线单向传统线性经济模式而言的。传统线性经济模式是“资源-产品-污染排放”，其特点为两头(开采、排放)高、中间(利用)低；循环经济则是一种“资源一产品一再生资源”的反馈式流程，特点是两头低、中间高。循环经济就是认识到地球资源的有限性，从而提出应该循环有效地利用各种资源，并融环境保护理念于资源的开发利用中。
循环经济倡导以环境友好的方式利用自然资源和环境容量，实现经济活动的生态化，希望从根本上消除长期以来经济发展与环境保护之间的强烈冲突。循环经济有其可以遵循的“3R原则”，即减量化原则 (Reduce)、再利用原则 (Reuse)、再循环原则(Recycle)。
收稿日期：2006-08-10.
王利朋(1979-
)，女，河南洛阳人，桂林工学院2004级硕士研究生，研究方向为旅游企业管理；李茂青(1976-
)，男，广西桂林人，桂林光大国际旅游公司。
旅游的可持续发展要求旅游资源的开发利用以及旅游活动的进行有必要利用循环经济的原则指导各种旅游活动的进行，在旅游活动尤其是旅游资源的开发利用中应尽量减少对旅游资源的破坏和污染，系统地进行合理的资源规划，并有效考虑旅游资源以及环境的自我修复功能和各种资源及环境的资源化转化问题，从而促进旅游资源的最大化利用，同时应该利用智力资源产生的科技水平和旅游活动所带来的资金，对废弃旅游物品和环境资源进行重新规划开发，以产生新的旅游资源2。近年来在旅游业的各个方面已经开始贯彻可持续发展的策略，其基本思想也正符合循环经济的相关理论。改变旅游业“重开发、轻保护，重经营、轻管理”的传统模式，通过预防代替末端治理，强调各个环节全方位地节约资源和保护环境，这是在循环经济理论下桂林旅游可持续发展首先应考虑的问题。
一、桂林旅游可持续发展面临的问题
桂林是世界著名的风景游览城市和中国的历史文化名城，自古享有“桂林山水甲天下”之美誉。桂林拥有许多独特的自然景观和悠久的历史文化，为其旅游业发展奠定了丰富和坚实的物质基础，然而随着桂林市旅游业的快速发展，尤其是进入二次发展期后，桂林市旅游资源环境污染和破坏程度日益严重，这在某种程度上制约着旅游业的可持续发展。
1.旅游资源开发缺乏统一规划，重复建设。桂林市的各级党委、政府都认识到发展旅游业带来的多种效益和旅游业在国民经济中的地位，逐步加大了对旅游资源开发的投人，但是部分县仍缺乏旅游总体规划的指导，对县域范围内的河流、洞穴、一般的水库(湖泊)盲目开发，效果令人失望，或一开始就失败，或只有短时间的兴旺就很快进人衰退时期。有的景区在地理上本是一个完整的有机体，在规划和管理中去被生硬地分成两部分，缺乏整体的考虑和统一的规划，导致出现旅游资源浪费和重复建设现象。
2.旅游资源保护意识不强，存在建设性破坏现象。桂林的旅游资源优势在于风景资源，而桂林风景资源的主题是具有自然美的山水，但是，在开发建设过程中，有些景区内建造了一些与周围环境不协调的人造景点，对自然景观破坏较大，而且很多景区的环境卫生较差，废弃物到处乱丢。另外，有些开发程度较低的景区，由于交通不方便，影响了景区内农村经济的发展，当地农民脱贫致富的迫切心情与落后的基础设施形成的矛盾，导致村民盲目地修路架桥，破坏了景区的自然景色；同时，由于村庄人口的增加，缺乏景区规划和村庄建设规划的指导，村民修建的民居建筑从景观、外形、体量、结构等存在着与传统的建筑风格不协调的现象，在一定程度上破坏了传统建筑的景观。
3.旅游投入不足，基础设施需进一步改善。由于桂林市国民经济建设总量偏低，旅游投资还显不足，旅游基础设施和配套设施薄弱。部分景区道路交通不畅，可进入性差。对桂林市区及十二县的景区交通情况调查表明：旅游景点交通状况好的占7.7%，状况较好的占15.4%，状况一般的76.9%。多数旅游景区通讯设备匮乏，旅游宣传经费短缺，促销乏力。
4.旅游产品结构发展不平衡、效益不高。目前桂林市市区及各县的各个景区的游览方式基本上还是单一的观光型。据统计，2004年桂林市入境游客中，以观光为目的占77.5%，商务旅游的占12.7%，会议旅游占0.3%，探亲访友者约占2.9%，桂林“气候宜人，森林覆盖率高，山青水秀，环境优美”的休闲度假胜地优势并未发挥；作为国际旅游名城，会议旅游、商务旅游的特点也未展现。消费结构上，购物和娱乐消费所占比重低，2004年桂林市游客的消费结构是：长途交通约占29.9%，旅行社支出约占4%，住宿约占10%，餐饮约占10.5%，娱乐约占11.1%， 购物约占26.2%， 邮电通讯约占3.2%，市内交通约占3%，其他约占2.1%41。
二、循环经济理论下桂林旅游可持续发展对策
1.在企业层面，把循环经济理论应用于经营管理之中，增强发展后劲。桂林市旅游景区的开发者、旅游饭店的经营者及其他旅游企业应遵循循环经济的思想，以循环经济的理论来规范自己，将循
国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库
环经济的“3R原则”应用于企业的经营管理之中。从旅游企业长远发展来看，采用清洁生产技术，最大化减少旅游资源的使用量，可以尽量减少或避免人类活动造成的对旅游资源的滥用和破坏，对旅游景区环境污染和生态的干扰和破坏，从而保证旅游区的生态性和吸引力，同时也不断提高自身发展循环经济的能力。
旅游景区方面，旅游景区的管理者要以提高资源利用效率为目标，降低景区污染物的排放；应考虑旅游景区的生态承受能力，尽量减少景区的生态成本投入；有针对性地编制旅游解说系统，加强游客对景区旅游资源的认识与生态环境保护，同时引导规范游客和工作人员的行为符合循环经济模式，通过生态教育使旅游可持续观念深人人心。
旅游饭店方面，按照清洁生产的要求，采用新的设计和技术，将单位产品的各项消耗和污染物的排放量限定在先进标准许可的范围内。除此之外，选址应处于交通便利之处，减少因交通带来的物质与能源消耗；餐饮剩余物用于动物的饲养；减少一次性用品的使用并逐渐开始使用可循环重复使用的日常用品等。
旅行社方面，在产品的设计方面贯彻循环经济原则，重点开发推介生态旅游产品和低能耗的旅游产品，在旅游要素的组合中偏向注重循环经济的企业，如绿色饭店餐馆等；在接待服务的过程中通过导游员的作用对游客施加影响，方便推广循环经济的理念。
旅游交通方面，通过使用清洁能源、控制噪音从而达到控制污染和治理污染的作用，景区内旅游交通的建设，应尽可能使用太阳能或电能驱动的交通工具，或者以步代车。
2.在政府层面，完善评价体系，建立旅游可持续发展绿色管理体系，把绿色 GDP 作为经济发展的重要指标旧。目前桂林衡量旅游发展的指标以游客人数、旅游收人创汇水平、就业率等指标为主，并没有考虑自然界的投人贡献，没有考虑对生态环境的损失多少，从系统角度看这些指标具有片面性。有必要建立一套新的绿色指标评价体系，从社会、经济、文化、环境、生态等多角度、全方位来衡量桂林的旅游发展。针对桂林旅游可持续发展面临的问题，应理顺旅游业管理体制，加大主管机构的执法力度，加强旅游法规的完善，建立旅游可持续发展绿色管理体系，确保旅游市场向旅游资源优化、管理现代化、环保增值方向发展。
3.在社会层通，重视旅游可持续发展伦理教育，促进旅游循环经济理念的实现。社会层面要求桂林市政府、旅游管理者、公众共同参与旅游发展，倡导包括抵达桂林的游人、当地居民、旅游经营者的旅游可持续发展伦理教育，对桂林旅游业各相关利益团体进行环保教育，通过社会舆论、行政力量、榜样感化和利益约束等手段，确保各利益团体按可持续发展要求，调整自身行为，以营造良好的伦理环境，促进旅游循环经济理念的实现。桂林市政府还应宏观调控旅游的发展，对公众进行生态教育，在公众中大力倡导生态旅游和绿色消费，对旅游业发展循环经济给予政策上的鼓励和扶持。
参考文献：
\[1\]诸大建.从可持续发展到循环型经济\[J\].世界环境，2000(3)：6~12
\[2\]李伟，黄远水，基于循环经济的旅游资源开发与保护\[J\].桂林旅专学报， 2003(6)22~25.
\[3\]李丰生，王利朋.环境库兹涅茨曲线下桂林旅游业的可持续发展\[J\]. 桂林旅专学报，2006(1)： 35~38.
\[4\]桂林市统计局.桂林经济社会统计年鉴\[Z\].2005.
\[5\]何智能.试论循环经济与旅游业发展\[J\].湖南农业大学学报(社科版)，2005 (6)： 40~42.
\[6\]邓念梅，魏卫.试论发展旅游业循环经济\[J\]. 青海社会科学，2005(1)：37~39.
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zh | N/A | N/A | 以过程为导向的网络课程建设研究与实践
董永辉
(湖北理工学院，湖北黄石 435003
\[摘 要\] 本文从网络课程的现状分析入手，探讨网络课程在过程建设方面的不足，分析基于过程为导向的网络课程建设原则、模式，以国家开放大学精品课程《职业生涯规划》为例，探讨以过程为导向的网络课程的设计与开发。
**\[关键词\]开放大学；网络课程；过程导向；信息技术**
\[中图分类号\] G431 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1008-7427(2015)01-0003-04
**随着开放大学建设的推进，网络课程建设还远远不能适应学习者多样化、个性化的需求，表现之一是重视教学内容、轻视教学过程。设计和开发以过程为导向的网络课程是适应开放大学人才培养模式变革的要求，也是信息技术融入教育的切入点和结合点。**
**一、问题聚焦：网络课程在过程设计上的不足**
作为开放大学教学资源的重要组成部分，网络课程在信息技术与学科课程整合方面发挥了重要作用。在取得可喜成绩同时，我们也应该看到一些网络课程存在一定的不足，突出表现在重视内容的提供、轻视过程的设计。
(一)重”教”轻”学'
有些网络课程以教师为中心，以教师的专业结构、兴趣偏好为出发点设计和开发资源，受传统教育观念的影响，网络课程主要是知识性的资源，缺少基于能力提升性的资源，没有更多考虑学习者的需求，特别是以职业人为主体的职业能力提升的需求，缺乏相应的网上交互工具的设计与应用，缺少导学和个性化的支持服务，缺少真正意义上的协作学习。
(二)重知识轻实践
有些网络课程侧重于知识的呈现和记忆，缺少知识的建构和反思，缺少实践应用环节的内容，缺
**少实践性、技能型知识；教学过程的设计缺少基于探究式、体验式以及问题导向、任务驱动的学习，存在重知识、轻实践的倾向。**
(三)重教学资源的呈现，轻学习环境的设计
有些网络课程是书本的搬家、课件的展示，是课堂教学的翻版，学习者不愿看、不愿学；有的网络课程教学资源比较全面，制作也比较精美，但大多是静态资源呈现，缺少学习环境的设计，缺少教学活动的组织，缺少人与人的互动。
(四)重终结性评价，轻过程性评价
**有些网络课程采取了测评的方式但大多是终结性评价，侧重于分数的评价，缺少过程性评价，缺少学习过程的记录和监控特别是阶段性的学习任务的控制，更缺少学习者的学习兴趣和学习质量的评价。**
产生这些问题的原因，既有传统教学模式的影响，也有信息技术的制约，还包括观念认识不到位等多方面的因素。随着教学观念的更新、教学技术的发展，促进信息技术与教育的深度融合，构建以过程为导向的网络课程势在必行。
**二、观念探究：过程导向是网络课程的应有之义**
(一)过程导向是网络课程的内在要求
**课程一词是从拉丁语 currere” 一词派生出来的，原意指”跑的过程与经历"。美国新教育百科词典认**
**\[收稿日期\]2014-11-10**
**\[基金项目\]** **本文系湖北省高等学校省级教学研究项目基于网络平台的《职业生涯规划》体验式教学模式研究(2010314)湖北省现代远程教育研究会专项研究课题基于MOOCs 模式的《职业生涯规划》课程建设研究'(hbyyzx201409 )研究成果。**
\[作者简介\] **董永辉(1972-)男湖北黄州人湖北理工学院副教授，硕士，研究方向职业生涯管理、创业教育、远程教育研究。**
**为：课程是指在学校的教师指导下出现的学生学习活动的总体，其中包含了教育目标、教学内容、教学活动乃至评价方法在内的广泛的概念”。”王策三教授把课程定义为”教学内容和进程的总和”。!李秉德教授则认为：课程就是课堂教学、课外学习以及自学活动的内容纲要和目标体系，是教学和学生各种学习活动的总体规划及其过程”。从课程的定义可以看出，课程应该是为促进学习者的学习而制定的关于某一学科或多个学科的总体教学活动计划其中既有活动内容的规定，又有活动过程的规定。**
**网络课程属于课程的范畴。关于网络课程，目前国内外有多种不同的定义与表述。马红亮在梳理传统“课程”概念的基础上，将”网络”作为”课程概念的定语，把网络课程定义为”在 Internet 上表现的课堂教学、课外学习的内容和目标体系，以及教与学的总体规划及其进程'。\[4\]教育部现代远程教育资源建设委员会《现代远程教育资源建设技术规范》对网络课程的定义：网络课程就是通过网络表现的某门学科的教学内容及实施的教学活动的总和”。白\[5\]**
网络课程内涵可以从四个方面来理解：第一，“课程”属性，包含”课程”的一切特征，如：教育目标、教学内容、教学活动、教学评价等。第二，“网络”属性。网络课程以互联网作为传播的媒介，通过计算机来呈现。第三“活动'属性。网络课程不仅仅是教学资源的呈现，更是教学活动实现的载体。第四”过程”属性，网络课程不仅仅是教学内容的呈现，还包括教学活动的设计与实施，教学过程的组织与控制。网络教育过程是一个以学习者为中心的学习过程，特别是教与学相互促进的过程。
(二)过程导向是人才培养的客观要求
**以职业能力为导向，是开放大学人才培养模式的重要基点。开放大学人才培养模式改革要”适应我国经济社会、现代信息技术和远程教育发展趋势，改革传统人才培养模式，探索建立与国家开放大学人才培养目标相适应，以提升职业能力为核心的新的人才培养模式”，职业人学习的特点是注重知识的应用，注重实践能力的提高，这就更需要学习环境的支持，也更加突出了过程导向的引领作用。**
网络教育既是一个资源的供给，更是一个服务的供给。换句话说，网络课程既要提供资源又要提供服务，学习资源是伴随着学习过程的，需要以平台作为支撑，以人力资源作为保障，以学习与服务的交互过程来实现其教学过程。
(三)过程导向是资源建设的现实需求
**国家级网络教育精品资源共享课遴选指标是网络课程建设的导向标。以《2012年国家级网络教育精品资源共享课遴选指标》为例，在课程建设标准上突出了教学活动和教学过程的要求。**
**在一级指标”教学理念与课程设计”中，突出“活动设计”的理念，明确提出”能够根据远程教育规律、成人学习特点、网上学习支持要求进行教学一体化设计与自主学习活动设计”、以学生为中心设计学习活动'；在一级指标"学习支持及学习效果”中，对教学活动、教学过程有明确的要求，如”有明确的学习活动目标；能运用多种方式、多种手段开展学生的学习活动；有必要的指导，能为学生提供帮助；提供支持学生自主学习和协作学习的条件"能够根据课程特点采用作业、在线练习等多种评价方式””能记录学习和交互过程””采用信息技术促进实践教学'”提供人工支持、在线系统等多种方式的支持'。**
**三、模式构建：信息技术与教育融合下的网络课程过程导向模式**
**教育信息化实质是信息技术与教育深度融合的过程，信息技术与教育融合的载体是什么?如何融合?我们认为，基于过程导向的网络课程是两者融合的切入点。我们构建了”基于信息技术与教育融合的网络课程设计模式图”(如图1)**
**图1 基于信息技术与教育融合的网络课程设计模式图(一)信息技术与教育的融合共构网络课程**
网络课程就是通过网络表现的某门学科的教学内容及实施的教学活动的总和。它包括两个组成部分：按一定的教学目标、教学策略组织起来的教学内容和网络教学支撑环境。从广义上理解，教学内容属于课程资源方面，具有教育的属性。而网络教学支撑环境主要体现在网络平台方面。没有平台支
**撑的网络课程不是真正意义上的网络课程，顶多算是网络课件或课程网页。**
(二)信息技术支撑网络平台
**随着信息技术的发展，先进的教育技术更多地应用到教育上，其应用的方式也是多种多样的。既有信息技术在传播方式方面的应用，如QQ、博客、微信、RSS、 WIKI 等交互式工具，加快了信息的传播，使学习更加方便、快捷；也有信息技术在网络平台开发方面的运用，如Web2.0技术运用在网络平台开发上，实现了网络平台的升级更加适应交互式学习的需求。**
**(三)社会需求催生教育内容**
在终身教育的视野下，人们不仅仅满足于学历教育的需求还希望课程满足他们履行岗位职责的需要、职业发展的需要、转换岗位的需要、兴趣发展的需要、充实自我的需要以及休闲娱乐的需要。这样，在网络课程内容安排上应满足职业人更新知识与提升能力的需要，应突出知识的实用性和实效性。在教学内容的呈现方面更加个性化、多样化，可采取微课等形式，适应学习者网络化、碎片化学习的需求。
**(四)教学理念引领教育变革**
教育信息化是教育理念和教学模式的一场深刻革命。信息技术突破了学习围墙，拓展了学习的手段与范围，使师生拥有了获取信息的平等地位，有助于构建师生积极互动的教育新模式。教与学从以教为中心向以学为中心转变，从知识传授为主向能力培养为主转变，从课堂学习为主向多种学习方式转变。随着网络课程的发展，网络课程从以教师为中心向以学习者为中心转变，从资源供给到服务供给转变，从教学内容到教学服务转变，从终结性评价到过程性评价转变。这些观念的改变带来了教育的变革，也带来了新的教学模式改革。
(五)过程导向驱动多元交互
基于网络平台的网络课程，实现了学习者与学习者之间的交互、学习者与教师之间的交互、学习者与网络平台之间的交互。在这些交互过程中，根据不同的课程形式，采取基于项目任务驱动、基于问题探究、基于实践体验的学习活动，实现了多元互动。新的信息技术运用，特别是 Web2.0的应用，为教学过程提供了新的手段，教师不再是资源的唯一供给者，学习者既是资源的阅读者，也是资源的生产者。
**四、实践应用：三用”和'三动'的过程教学设计**
在网络课程存在重内容轻过程背景下，如何建设
学习者”有用”、”有效果”的网络课程，如何将远程学习变成可以交互的、个性化的学习过程，进一步满足学习者个性化、多样化的学习需求，结合过程导向的网络课程，可将采用的手段概括为三用'和三动'。
(一)”三用”：用起来
一是”有用”。有用主要体现是需求性，网络课程适应学习者的学习需求，为学习者给提供个性化、多样化的学习资源和学习环境，为职业发展提供学习平台和成长的通道。
二是”易用”。易用主要体现是便捷性，网络课程应操作简便导航清晰符合认知规律和网络学习习惯。
三是”实用”。实用主要体现是应用性，网络课程要适合职业人的发展需求，学习者能将学习到的知识运用到实践中。
(二)"三动'：动起来
一是服务主动'。网络课程不仅提供教学资源，更重要的是提供支持服务。要搭建教学服务平台，组建教学服务团队，开展教学服务活动，为学习者提供导学、督学和助学等一系列的学习支持服务，提供资源的导航与推送服务，解决学习者在学习过程中遇到的困难和问题。
**二是教学"互动'。在教学方式上提供多种互动工具和环境，包括BBS、QQ、微信、博客、 wiki 等交流和互动工具和交互环境。**
三是过程“活动'。活动是基于教学方式来实现的。通过任务驱动、问题探究、实践体验式等学习方式实现教学内容与教学过程的统一。
五、行动案例：构建过程导向的网络学习平台
**国家开放大学精品课程《职业生涯规划》对以过程为导向的网络课程教学模式进行了实践和探索。该网络课程以学习者为中心，以学习过程为导向，以体验式学习为引领，以项目任务为驱动，为学习者提供个性化学习支持服务。**
(一)设计理念
**1.学习内容模块化**
按照课程需求，将课程分解为7个模块，每一章按知识的前趋与后继关系，划分成若干学习项目，每个项目提供知识、案例、测试、实践单元，实现学习、测试、评价一体化。
**2.学习过程活动化**
**设计了通用的学习流程。设置”学习指南→注册登录→课程学习→交流互动→网上测试→教学**
评价”学习活动流程。根据学习者的学习需求以及学习兴趣的差异，学习者可以随时进入任一步骤开始学习。多入口进入学习，多方式参与学习，多角色体验学习，给学习者完全自主的学习空间。
**3.学习空间个性化**
在学习平台中，学习者的个人资料、学习过程和阶段情况等跟踪记录，有助于教师因材施教，指导个性化。在每个学习界面，还为学习者准备了笔记、书签等学习工具，为学习者提供了交流学习平台。
**4.评价体系多元化**
评价体系主要包括作业评价、在线讨论、在线练习反馈、模拟试卷等。多维化的评价体系将提升教学人员对学习者学习过程的引领和指导，同时也促进了学习者自身的学习内动力的激发。
(二)活动设计
**1.体验式学习**
学习者在体验式学习平台中，在案例引导、教学参与、讨论交流、情景再现等环节的体验和实践中，认知自我，认知社会，确定职业生涯目标，执行生涯方案，不断提高自我素质提升职业能力和职业生涯发展水平。
**2.模块化活动**
**课程采用"活动+实践”的教学手段，通过前导性的活动导图和活动思考、知识性的活动知识掌握、体验性的生涯故事和技能型的实践操作等元素并结合网络资源和IT 系统，创新式地改善教学模式，全面提升学习者的学习激情从而提高学习效率和效果。**
(三)过程设计
**基于职业生涯规划的理论知识体系与实践应用工具和手段，设计开发的体验式学习平台，进行相关实践活动的模拟操作和训练。**
**1.任务驱动**
**开学前，教师在课程论坛上发布学期教学大纲、学习手册和学习注意事项等，帮助学生了解课程的教学安排熟悉课程的教学重点尽快进入学习状态。**
**2.情景设计**
针对成人教育与远程教育的特点，对教学活动的各个环节进行精心的设计。在”学习资源”中，课程的每一讲都设置了脉络清晰的课程导航，指引学生每一步的学习。在”体验活动”环节，根据学习进程协助学生制定个性化的学习计划。
**3.学习引领**
针对网络教育的特点，为增强学生对课程知识点的掌握，精心设计”跟我学”学习板块。发布重要知识点，在阐述相关内容的同时，提出学习的具体目标和要求。帮助学生把每一天的学习目的、内容、练习、拓展和讨论量化，方便学生合理安排学习任务，巩固学习成果，通过每天的学习积累最终达到系统学习、全面掌握课程学习任务的目标。
**4.交互评价**
设计和开发学习论坛、个人博客，开发基于课程的个人学习空间，提供案例库、资源库、视频库、测试库，为学生提供多样化、、个性化的学习资源和支持服务；引入职业生涯规划书、行动方案、个人发展评价量规等应用性成果作为学习评价内容。
课程建设网络课程是教学资源与教学服务的统一，也是教学内容与教学过程的统一。在信息技术深度融合教育的背景下，我们要积极开展网络课程探索与研究，设计和开发更适合学生的网络课程，为实现人人可学、处处可学、时时可学的终身学习提供服务。
**\[参考文献\]**
**\[1\]钟启泉.现代课程论\[M\].上海：上海教育出版社，2003：85-87.**
**\[2\]王策三.教学论稿\[M\].北京：人民教育出版社，2006：127-131.**
**\[3\]李秉德.教学论\[M\].北京：人民教育出版社2001：201-204.**
**\[4\]马红亮.网络课程的概念及特征\[J\].电化教育研究，2001(1)：15-18.**
**\[5\]刘延东.把握机遇加快推进开创教育信息化工作新局面\[N\].中国教育报，2012-11-14(2)**
**Research and Practice on Process-oriented Network Course Construction**
DONG Yong-hui
(Hubei Polytechnic University， Huangshi， Hubei 435003)
**Abstract小This paper starts with the analysis of the current situation of network course， and discuses the disadvantages in the pro-cess of construction. It also analyzes the principles and modes based on the process-oriented network course. Then the paper makes a case study on Career Planning Course， which is the top-quality course of the National Open University to explore the design and the de-velopment of network course.**
**\[Key words\] Open University；； network course；process-oriented：informational technology** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 脚踩大地心怀浪漫仰望星空
——农民工诗人杨成军诗歌解读
谭朝霞
在2012年东方卫视《中国达人秀》的节目舞台上，48岁的农民工杨成军朗诵了一首自创的表现农民工生活的诗歌《哥们别想家》，备受瞩目，他也成为了以诗歌晋级的第一人。“相信梦想、相信奇迹”的节目核心价值在这个普通农民工身上得以彰显。此后，杨成军以“农民工诗人”的身份陆续出现在各级媒体的重要报道和节目中。《新闻直播间》《新闻联播》《焦点访谈》《朝闻天下》等四个栏目对其进行跟踪报道，一时间杨成军成为了百姓眼中家喻户晓的名人。
杨成军，吉林长春德惠市夏家店镇的普通农民，只有初中文化的他，家中堆满了名著名作。他酷爱写诗，曾在二十多年前写诗投稿失败，被编辑质疑模仿匈牙利著名诗人裴多菲的诗歌，从此决心再不写诗。为供两个儿子上学，1998年外出打工。长期在外的漂泊生涯，想家了就给在家务
农的妻子发短信进行交流，用诗歌来宣泄情感，妻子曾是他第一个也是唯一的读者。打工归来，把自己创作的诗歌写了满满的一册子。
......长夜对谁言/绵绵相思寄短信/预发怕扰你睡眠/在外打工难”(《无题》)
家乡，有诗句栖落在树枝上/还有一片舒婷那叮当响的月光/我站城市的在夜空下仰望/工友说是无聊/诗友说是感伤/其实，我什么都没想……只有泪水/滴落在了远方”(《远方》)
睡板铺/住陋房/佳人晨起劈柴忙/玉碗斧柄握/香汗滴滴长/轻轻举/慢慢扬/小小佳人下厨房……(《工棚做饭女》)
常年的打工生活，往返于城市与农村之间，杨成军对农民工的感受最清楚。十四五个小时的劳作之余，每当夜深人静，工友熟睡之后，他拿出手机将自己对生活和对农民工群体的感悟，创作成随笔、诗歌写在手机里发给妻子分享。凭着自已质朴率真的笔触打动无数观众和读者。现如
今，有越来越多的读者了解到了他的生活，感受到他的所思所想。生活的积淀，他的诗歌更多地描绘农民工这个群体。通过真实地写这个群体，让更多人关注打工者，关注他们的生活，为农民工书写一直是杨成军最大的心愿。《农民工》《哥们别想家》《我的锤子不再年轻》《我的乡愁》我的一天》《心中有一条大道连着我的家》《家事》《我是一个建筑工人》等大量作品均是杨成军为农民工抒写的诗篇。
一根根钢筋/无休止地戳向天空/太阳把我疲惫的身影/缩短又拉长/最后，被碘钨灯/轻轻地拾起/顶尖的呻吟不时/从脚下传来/锤子的轰响是最美妙的打击乐/不妨把吊车的转动声/当作一种和弦/而不是叹息/那么，锯齿发出的声音/绝不比大提琴拉出的声音差/暂且把工头的吆喝/算作一个休止符吧……我们就像一盆汤上面的浮油/汤需要我们的点缀/而我们却融不进汤里/我们共同拥有一个/好听又特别的名字/叫农民工(《农民工》)
节气还没有立冬/我的心已结冰/混凝土泵车喘息沉重/承载梁的支撑/显得弱不禁风/黑心棉衣变得单薄/瑟瑟耐不住寒风/尽管戴了手套/手指也成了钢钉……街对通的鲜花店门前/烤鸽子老哥生意正隆/锯子的声音木讷/手里的锤子/已不再年轻(《我的锤子不再年轻》)
我的乡愁是村口路上彳于的脚步/我的乡愁是车站码头/躺在编织袋上呆滞的眼神/我的乡愁是钢筋混凝土旁/挥汗如雨的身影/我的乡愁是工棚中/夹在书页里的一声扁扁的叹息……我的乡愁是永远也走不完的/工地与家的那一段距离”(《我的乡愁》)
有学者认为打工诗歌“是新世纪诗坛的又一风景，它是打工者写作的诗歌，带着鲜明的弱者立场和强烈的底层生活体验”。杨成军的诗歌通
过表现农民工生活、工作场景来表达农民工的无奈、愤懑和坚守。
虽然杨成军“抒发的是一已的、个人的小场景，但作为生命的个体，这种‘小场景'又往往能以小见大，一滴水见大海”2。十几年的打工生活就像一种生活积淀，杨成军通过自己的创作心路历程，完成了出诗集的心愿。从他的诗歌中我们能体会到，杨成军是一个有情怀、有使命的诗人。诗作中有歌哭言笑、有汉子的筋骨、更有春风般的温暖，温暖世道人心。农民工群体通过杨成军的抒写，不但获得了主流媒体的关注，也受到了整个社会的关注。
二、作品：杨成军的诗意生活
杨成军虽然文化程度不高，但始终坚持向真向善向美的诗歌趣味和审美价值。他的诗中有真情、有真意，诗中有千千万万农民工的真实生活。他的真诚、他的朴实无不给人一种情感上的认同；他的诗歌中充满了对妻儿、家庭、农民工兄弟、社会浓浓的爱意，让人感受到了温暖。他的诗追逐一个个朴素的梦想，也带着人们一起逐梦飞翔。“脚踩大地的真，心怀浪漫的爱，仰望星空的美”是杨成军诗歌创作的美学体验和精神世界。
(一)脚踩大地、质朴感人
杨成军的诗歌主要表现农民工真实的生活状况和精神面貌。近二十年的打工生活是其诗歌创作的主要源泉，他将自己的所见所闻所思所想倾注在诗词表达中。虽诗词话语简单直白、朴素，但催人泪下。如作品《我是一个木匠X《在东北》《夜班》《祝福》《夫妻夜话》《哥们别想家》我的锤子不再年轻》《我是一个建筑工人》《我是一个农村妇女》等表现的主要内容是农民工和农民工妻子的生活及内心情感等。
......在远方打工的男人渴望/把钱甩在炕上/女人那笑脸就像成熟的玉米/渴望被收割/如果再给秋天一点颜色/一车一车的感情一定装满了农人的心窝(《成熟》)
杨成军曾说：我的诗歌形式多数介于诗和歌词之间，希望能有机会谱曲传唱，为农民工代言。杨成军的诗歌没有华丽的辞藻，多为直白的写作手法，因为都是真实的生活、真情实感，用普通百姓的大白话更容易让人理解和接受，也更容易为农民工赢得更多关注。
诗作《哥们别想家》用朴实的大白话让人心酸不已，热泪盈眶。
知心工友三五个/灯光暗淡围着坐/拼凑几块木床板/一盆散白轮着喝/没有好看的电视/没有女人来陪着/一碟咸菜花生米/忧伤开心别装着/哥们喝醉了/千万别想家/三亩五亩地/有咱媳妇哪/哥们喝醉了/千万别想家/孩子和爹妈/有咱媳妇哪……哥们不是跟你吹/大楼一天一层高/哥们没喝醉/咱也不想家/三斤二斤酒/那不算个啥/哥们喝不醉/咱也不想家咱的家里边/还有一枝花(《哥们别想家》)
杨成军的作品通过写实的手法，不但把农民工的真实生活展示出来，也写他们真实的内心世界，写他们对家庭、对孩子、对社会的爱，更写出了农民工也是有血有肉的存在，有一颗颗炽热的心。最真诚、最质朴的情感也是最易打动人心的。诗里有真情，唯有真情能流动，流出眼眶叫动容。
或许还有/天边的一勾月牙/挂在树梢/或许还有异乡的风/趴在窗台/都会在夜里/喊醒你的乡愁/然后悄悄数着泪声/一滴、两滴、三滴的/等待黎明/最听不得的是乡音/一句土掉渣东北话/坚强这东西刹那/就会像决堤的大坝/一溃千里(《想家》)
打工的汉子你慢慢地走/留下小妹我/你知
道我有多难受/牵着你的手/跟在你身后/哥这一去呀/啥时能回头/早知打工郎这么没有谱!不如在家里当个老丫头/打工的汉子你要好好地走/你要把小妹时刻挂心头/工地活累不要拼命地干/伙食不好常到外面吃点肉(《送你到村口》)
正是作品中最质朴的心里话，才最真诚也最感动人。创作者倾注了自己所有的情感去创作，怎能不打动人。诗人的感性，想到动人时刻，先感动了自己，从而让人潸然泪下。杨成军的诗歌，可以让更多人走进他的内心世界，让更多人体味到农民工的酸甜苦辣和丰富多彩的世界。
(二)心存浪漫、唯爱永存
作为一个极为普通的农民家庭，杨成军与妻子的生活时常伴有风雨雷电、云雾阴霾，然而几十年来夫妻二人依然心存浪漫，把爱绽放。老杨会给过本命年的妻子送漂亮红毛衣，会为她写诗并为她念诗，还与她许下浪漫的约定。
如果有可能/我带你去远行/躺在德德玛的草原上/数最亮的星……你曾经说：等老的时候/开上一部车/装着我们的故事/一直开到梦的尽头/你曾经说/你曾经说/你曾经说- 一走在爱的旅途/我们的脚步多么轻松(《如果有可能，我带你去远行》)
外出打工的日子里，妻子始终是他的精神支柱，家里都靠妻子来操持。杨妻十几年如一日，毫无怨言，并且理解、支持和鼓励杨成军写诗，让他很感动，这些为妻子而作的诗歌中表达对妻子的歉意和感激之情，更充满了对妻子浓浓的爱意。因此，杨成军很多的诗歌为妻子而作，诗中洋溢着浪漫的情怀和至上的真爱。
......蜂儿酿蜜蚕吐丝/自己辛苦自己知/莫道伊人劳作苦/苦尽甘来秋收时”(《插秧女
\-
\-
\_
写给妻子》)
那一年我们相约去看海/对海的向往就一直萦绕在了心间/这一天我们来到了松花江边/海的宽阔就瘦成了窄窄的对岸/你说江那边青青的山/绿色绵延成此刻的心情/就当是梦里的海在天边的蓝/我说江的尽头一定是蓝蓝的海/你看沙滩下有贝壳在倾听潮的呼唤……你有你无忧无虑的生活我有我虔诚般的浪漫/慢慢地太阳亲吻了红色的水面/慢慢地一条小船划过了一道江湾/就像淘气的孩子头枕着妈妈的臂弯/一天就归结于孩子般甜甜睡去的笑脸(《假装看海》)
今夜就要触摸你的厚度/心情是儿时的马驹子/蹦跳着撒欢/秋天已经打好行囊/只要小村的媳妇一个电话/就能风驰电掣地回家/有一种收割不能提前预支/但可以提前思念/小村已经把镰刀磨得锃亮/期待着某种体验/累死累活的季节/被诗人写成了浪漫(《打工的农民和秋天的故事》)
杨成军有些诗歌以妻子的口吻进行写作，如作品《送你到村口》：“牵着你的手/跟在你身后/村口这条路/长长没有尽头/沉重的行囊/背在哥肩上/就像一座山/压在妹心头//打工的汉子你慢慢地走/扔下小妹我/你知道有多难受……”
像大多数家庭一样，杨成军夫妇生活中有辛苦、孤独和抱怨，但更多的是他们之间相依相偎，相互扶持的信念，尤其是诗歌背后传递的真情与浪漫，并没有因为生活的磨砺而褪色，反而在他们的相互思念和携手前行当中更加深厚和持久，他们朴实的生活当中流露出来的幸福感，让人感到非常温暖。这份爱让杨成军家庭永远幸福美
好。
种地的女人/把生命的全部/种进了这一片土地/也种进了/土地，男人的心里(《种地的女
人》)
爱/就是绵绵雨丝/苦苦的相恋/绿色就丰满了/疯长了整个夏天……爱/就是牵着你的手/无论前边有多么坎坷/心都是甜的/直到永远……(《爱》)
朴实无华的语言，流露出了夫妻间坚不可摧的浓厚情感。在杨成军的心里有着“那一片漫山遍野的烂漫”(《春天的味道》)。
著名诗人韩作荣用一个“爱”字来概括杨成军的所有作品，表示“如果没有爱，杨成军的文学作品就失去了体温。”\[3正是这一个“爱”字，让我们感受到了作品的温度，获得了情感上的认同。
(三)仰望星空、逐梦诗歌
当有人虚度年华，浑浑噩噩生活时，杨成军选择用诗歌来追梦，不负人生美好时光。杨成军酷爱写诗，梦想自己的诗歌能够传唱大街小巷，梦想带着自己的妻子去旅行。憧憬希望，仰望星空、追求美好生活，在杨成军的诸多诗歌中可见。我们在《四月(相约春暖花开)》蛰伏》期待一场春风》《我看到了春天》《像风一样飞》《天空下》等作品中感受到杨成军的逐梦之旅。
从今天起，向梦开始的方向出发/寻找最初的想法…最后，把来时的路重新走一遍/这样就能知道怎样去填平小路上的坑洼/让思想开始润滑/让石头重新开出灿烂的花(《向梦开始的地方出发》)
在小村/与秋天相遇/季节都在饱满中欣喜欲狂/把干瘪的诗句放在农田里喂养/奶色的果浆让思想逐渐肥胖/在阳光下顺着小路前行/感觉就是方向/有触角伸进时间的痒处/寻觅一种叫做休闲的时光/在曲径通幽山转峰回处/相约一场远离尘世的田园风景(《在小村的秋天，相约一场快乐》)
我有一个美满的家/因此我对她充满了幻
想/我想让我的老婆穿上好看的时装/我想让我的孩子接受良好的教养/我想让我的家住上宽敞明亮的楼房……(《我有一个美满的家》)
在诗歌里追逐自己的梦想，燃起心中的希望，现实生活中一个个普通的梦想得以实现，杨成军的诗歌插上了翅膀，带着人们去逐梦飞翔。
作为家长，杨成军带孩子追梦。他以身作则，通过读书提高自己的精神境界，从而引导孩子，开阔视野。写诗、读书改变他和孩子的生活，改变全家的生活状态。如今，杨成军的儿子学习优异，考上了重点大学。
作为老公，杨成军带妻子追梦。妻子曾经的梦想，就是想走出屯子，抛掉一切烦恼，去草原享受那份宁静。杨成军带着妻子在自己的诗中逐梦：“如果有可能/我带你去远行/躺在德德玛的草原上/数最亮的星/如果有可能/我带你去远行/坐在外婆的沙滩/看最白的帆影……”
上有老，下有小，得了强直性脊柱炎，身体状态不佳的杨成军，在巨大的生活压力下，他用文学、诗歌中强大的信念来支撑，与妻子进行心灵上的沟通，依然憧憬远方，踏上逐梦之路。
“星星最亮的地方，时常在梦里向你张望”。央视科教频道《世界读书日特别节目》中，著名作家毕淑敏老师谈读杨成军的诗歌时表示：“读杨成军的诗歌是对我们心灵的一种濡养，特别是在特别艰苦的物质生活当中，我们不放弃希望，感知幸福，令人感动。
杨成军在诗中追梦，终梦想成真。他带着妻子第一次坐飞机，第一次来北京，第一次到天安门看升国旗；第一次与著名作家、诗人面对面交流；作家出版社与其签约出版诗集；著名作曲家徐沛东老师邀约作曲家们为其诗歌谱曲，并请他参加“2012中国打工歌曲演唱大赛”。一个普通农民工的普通梦想，上了央视《新闻联播》。著名歌
唱家德德玛被夫妻二人的故事感动，邀请杨成军夫妇到内蒙古草原做客，还专门为夫妇创作了一首歌曲《我有一个梦》。
作为诗人，带着农民工追梦。杨成军希望将自己创作的诗歌谱写成歌词传唱，让更多的人来关心身边农民工的生活和内心世界。将诗歌变成歌声，唱给千万农民工，唱给城里的不了解农民工生活的人去听。在“2012全国打工歌曲创作演唱大赛”中，杨成军作为这次大赛中唯一一位农民工参赛者，创作的诗歌《工棚酒歌》(原名《哥们别想家》《如果有可能，我带你去远行》获得铜奖，《出门人》获得银奖。
诗如其人，活得有意义有价值。杨成军的经历，给所有农民工带来了巨大的精神支持。杨成军虽然生活在偏僻的农村，物质生活不是很富足，但是拥有丰富的精神财富。他的生活像写的诗歌一样朴实无华却充满热情、乐观、温暖和爱。“人生自有诗意”，生活有诗就有希望，用诗温暖自己和家人，温暖农民工兄弟，也温暖读者的心。
我不能把这时光留住/那就锁进我最初的梦里/让花朵尽情地绽放/让绿草凄凄，在山坡上美丽(《在鲁院的日子》)
仰望星空，逐梦诗歌。在诗歌的道路上、在生活道路上、在人生的道路上，杨成军还有更多的梦去圆。
三、立场：重塑农民的工文化身份
杨成军的诗歌虽也有表达打工者身处他乡的苦闷彷徨，但已不再是对“农民工”文化身份的焦虑与困惑的“苦难叙事”，他的笔下始终充满着乐观的情绪情感和昂扬向上的精神。正如诗作《农民工》中写道：
我们是一群离阳光最近的人/我们是一群穿
裙子的季节穿棉袄的人/我们是一群城市里/播种楼房同时也播种梦想的/农村人
如果给我/一首诗般的感动/我就会繁衍出/满眼的绿色和澄黄/给季节增添魅力(《盼雨》)
就算在人生路上一再地失败/也胜似在一个岗位上/重复着昨天、今天甚至明天/不如做一枚流星/即使瞬间的美丽/也要照彻人间(《无题》)
无论是城市的街道/像河流一样寻找出口/也无论是农村的玉米匍匐在地/像被子铺满了我的心情/苞米累了，需要休息/我也累了，但是我要坚持/要么还真的是一个丰收年哪/我时常这样想(《在路上》)
长期以来，掌握着主流话语权的城镇人对农民工多关注外在，不太关心他们的内心世界，甚至很多人漠视这个群体，对他们投射了异样和不友好的眼光。农民工在人们心里一直是“扛着一个编织袋或大麻袋，拎着一床破棉被，天南海北四处窜，车站码头到处是，地上随便一铺就能睡”的整体形象。因此，杨成军表示，希望通过自己的诗歌，借助大众媒体的力量，改变社会对农民工的固有认识。在杨成军的笔下，农民工有可爱、令人动容的一面，他们有情感、有思想，有对家庭、妻儿的责任和爱，有对工作的艰辛付出，有对社会的无私奉献等等，他们的内心世界也是丰富多彩的。
2012年，杨成军第一次与著名诗人、诗评家面对面交流。中国作家出版社举行了杨成军的诗歌专门研讨会，中国作协副主席、中国作家出版社社长何建明、著名诗人韩作荣等人做了专门评点。何建明表示：“期待像杨成军这样的非职业文学爱好者、文学工作者，参与我们国家的文化、文
学大繁荣、大发展大潮当中。”从此，杨成军的诗歌受到了主流文化的认同与接纳，从而进一步重塑了农民工的文化身份。由于杨成军的诗歌获得了主流媒体的广泛传播，大众通过感受杨成军的诗歌，从而关注中国千万农民工群体，关注他们的生活、生存环境、内心世界以及梦想。农民工也有诗一般的生活，有火热的生活体验，有深厚的认识积淀，有炽热的情感，更有需要发泄的内心情绪。他们为城市发展艰辛付出，渴望被城市理解包容；他们有爱，渴望被爱；他们有梦，渴望圆梦。
“农民工诗人”杨成军的出名源于一场选秀，但是他的生活绝不是作秀，他的成功是来自于他真诚的生活态度，来自于他和妻子之间浪漫的情怀，更是来自于他对诗歌的热爱和追逐梦想的力量。“至于热议或关注，说一千道一万，还是要回到诗歌本身，有时人为地或刻意热捧、热议，反而会伤害到诗歌和诗人。9\[5\]
作者单位：首都师范大学科德学院，中国传媒大学
注释：
\[1\]王万森，吴义勤，房福贤：《中国当代文学50年》，中国海洋大学出版社2006年版，第288-289页。
\[2\]\[5\]张健，宋静思：《诗歌指向世道人心》(文学期刊掌门人·对话中国文学期刊掌门人⑤——对话《诗歌月刊》主编王明韵)，《人民日报》，2015年11年17日第24版。
\[3\]\[4\]2012年1月26日，央视《新闻联播》对杨成军的专访。 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | “化学与航天”专题复习教学设计
王 锋
(厦门湖滨中学，福建 厦门 361004】
摘 要：新一轮课改从关注课程的“知识性”“学术性”到重视课程的“社会性”，相应的专题复习模式应从“知识——建构——应用”转变为“主题情境—―意义建构——全面发展”。以“化学与航天”为案例，谈新课程下开发航天科技这一热点素材资源，应用于化学专题复习教学设计。
传统教学观是以知识为中心，教学目标通常指向某一知识重点或难点。建立在这一基础上的专题复习模式通常是：以某一重难点知识为目标，通过寻找知识点的内在联系建构知识网络；通过多方向地对知识归纳和综合从而保证知识体系的完整性；最后立足于清晰的知识体系上，再进一步解决知识的应用难点。这种以“知识——建构——应用”专题复习模式，可以帮助学生理解难重点知识，梳理知识点间联系，以进一步形成清晰完整的知识体系。但这种基于对知识为核心的专题复习模式，带有明显的机械向心性或收缩性的特点，必将教学带入应试教育的死角，不利于学生的全面发展；也容易导致以教师为中心、学生被动学习的结果，不利于调动学生的学习积极性。
新一轮课改从关注课程的“知识性”“学术性”到重视课程的“社会性”，强调教学贴近生活生产与现代科技，学生在“真实"情境中有意义地建构知识，在生动活泼的过程中形成科学的方法，并达到情感态度价值观的升华。因此，新课程的专题复习更提倡“主题情境——意义建构——全面发展”模式：通过以热点资源作为情境进行化学专题复习，把一些难重点课程月标移植到这一情境中，充分挖掘情境对所要实现的教学目标的教育功能，实现专题复习的“小题大做”。这种专题复习模式不再局限于实现知识目标，而是更加地关切课程三维月标整体和谐达成：在一定主题情境下的复习，让教学内容与学生的社会生活背景发生联系，不仅增进了学生对知识更有意义的建构，更重要的是为达成过程与方法、情感态度价值观维度目标创造了条件：此外，生动活泼的情境调动学生学习积极性，能较好地提高学生课堂学习兴趣。下面以“化学与航天”专题复习为例，以上述指导思想进行新课程化学专题复习教学设计。
“化学与航天”专题复习
教学目标
知识与技能
复习巩固质量守恒定律、化学式和化学方程式的含义及书写、根据化学式及化学方程式进行一些基本
作者简介：王锋(1975-)男，福建厦门人，中学一级教师，教育硕士。
计算等内容。
过程与方法
“性质、结构、用途"三者关系等原理在实际生产和生活中的应用方法。
情感态度价值观
通过应用化学知识解释、解决生产和生活中实际问题，进一步体会化学学科价值；通过了解我国的航天历史及所做的贡献，激发学生爱国主义热情。
教学重点、难点
灵活应用化学知识解释、解决与“化学与航天”中的有关问题。
教学过程
情景导课：从今回溯到中国古代航天史，明代有一个心灵手巧的木匠叫万虎，他和其他工匠设计了会飞的“飞龙”火箭，这种木质雕刻的火箭筒已可以飞行1000m(展示古今火箭资料图)。在美国的航空和航天博物馆中也标示着：“最早的行器是中国的风筝和火箭”。那时，火箭靠什么做动力上天(升空)呢?
教学活动主题一航天的动力——燃料
情景一：黑火药是我国古代四大发明之一、把木炭、硫(黄)粉和硝酸钾(KNO)按一定比例混合就可以制得黑火药。黑火药(自身)燃烧时，短时间内反应就很剧烈，同时生成大量的气体，放出大量的热，并使气体生成物的体积骤然膨胀，控制好体积然膨胀的生成物的喷出方向，就会在相反方向上产生巨大的推进力(结合古代火器图)。
①黑火药属于\_\_物(填“混合”或"纯净”)。
②经过查阅资料，我知道黑火药燃烧时共生成了三种新物质：一种固体叫硫化钾，化学式为
\_；另
一种是能使澄清石灰水变浑浊的气体；还有一种是单质，它的化学名称为 \_ .因此，黑火药燃烧的化学方程式为：
③利用黑火药的燃烧推动“火箭”飞行，此过程能量转化是由 转化为
情景二：氢是自然界最普遍存在的元素，由其组成的氢气是可贵的既高能又洁净的理想燃料，是一种极其优越的新能源。液氢已在宇宙火箭、航天飞机、导弹、燃氢汽车等方面应用(如1960年液氢就已用作航天动力燃料，1970年美国发射的“阿波罗”登月飞船使用的起飞火箭也是用液氯作燃料)，中国也曾用液氧作火箭燃料。但氢能源因许多技术问题至现在仍未能解决而导致其不能被广泛应用。
你如何理解段中“高能又洁净”呢?请写出有关反应的化学方程式并加以解释。
情景三：中国自1999年11月20日起陆续发射了“神舟”系列号飞船，2003年10月15日发射的“神五”和2005年10月12日发射的“神六”的推进火箭均使用近450吨的偏二甲肼液体作燃料，为神舟加注过此特种燃料的“特燃兵”杨兴国说：“偏二甲肼带有强烈的鱼脑臭味，是一种易燃、易爆的有剧毒的燃料，它只要一遇到火花就会发生爆炸，极其危险!!”以下让我们探知一下偏二甲肼：
①偏二甲肼的化学式CHN，你知道哪些信息(即化学式表示的意义)?请写出至少两点：
②在火箭发射时，偏二甲肼和四氧化二氨(NO)发生剧烈反应，释放出大量的热量。
点燃该反应的化学方程式如下：CHN+2N043N+2X+4H.O
则X的化学式为
C
1假定 450 t的CHN已完全反应，则生成X的质量为\_\_\_。(计算结果精确到0.01，所需相对原子质量自查)
③你敢当“特燃兵”吗?
情景四：未来新型固体燃料之一——含固体石蜡的燃料。。它具有一系列优点：燃烧产物(只有CO，和HO)无毒害、运输无需特殊安全设施、火箭添加燃料过程简单和燃烧强度比其他类型固体燃料高3倍。石蜡的主要成分为正E二十二烷C22H46和正二十八烷CH38，其中之一-与O反应的化学方程式如下：aCHas+bO(充足)然 c H，0+44 CO.，则b=
讨论题：航天燃料及其使用对环境的影响。
教学活动主题二：航天飞船(舱内)的“空调”(环境控制和生命保障系统)
情景五：专家为“神六”舱内安装的“空调”，可以吸收热量，维持宇航舱内恒温；还装有氧气供应系统，为宇航员提供足够多的氧气，在散播氧气时，还可以吸收宇航员呼出的大量二氧化碳和水分。某“空调”的部分工作原理图如下：
A(空气、00，、H0)
①必须经过严格 的(达标)空气才能被带上飞船。
②装置「的作用是分离空气，水和二氧化碳。A中的 CO，HO主要来自
装置Ⅱ是让二氧化碳和氢气反应的特殊装置。装置Ⅲ发生反应的化学方程式为 二装置Ⅳ是利用余下的氢气和氧气反应制成的电池，此时能量由 转化为
③在太空生存，能源是极其宝贵的，此“空调”不仅是舱内环境控制系统，请你从能源利用角度评价此“空调”。
教学活动主题三：太空中字航员的生活污水等处理系统。
情景六：载人飞船必须建立水的循环体系，以保证宇航员的生活用水并减少飞船的携水量。请你将下图各项用“→”(箭号)连接成水的循环体系。
A氢氧燃.
C宁脑员生
料电池.
活川术
我国宇航员在太空饮用的水取自宇航训练中心的地下“纯净水”，这种地下水属于
A.纯净物B.混合物C.化合物D.单质
教学活动主题四：聚焦航天飞船(机)的防热瓦材料之一——氮化硅陶瓷
情景七：让我们镜头从太空生活回到地球、仁(如神六)飞船回家之路并不轻松，再人大气层的返回过程对航天员和飞船的危险最大，由于飞船对大气的高速摩擦和对周围空气的压缩，它的大部分动能变成了热能，使飞船变成一团火球，达到上千摄氏度的高温。因此需在飞船表面加装特殊有效的防热和隔热材料，让飞船返回舱安全闯过“烧蚀关”回家!氮化硅陶瓷就是一种特殊有效的防热和隔热材料。
情景八：氮化硅陶瓷是一种烧结时不收缩的无机材料。它是用高纯硅作原料，在高温下经两次氮化(即
与纯氮气反应)制成。氮化硅的强度很高，龙其是热压氮化硅，是世界上最坚硬的物质之一。它极耐高温，并有惊人的耐化学(如耐酸碱)腐蚀性能；同时又是一种高性能电绝缘材料；氮化硅摩擦系数很小；耐急冷急热性好。氮化硅陶瓷还有良好的透微波性能、介电性以及高温强度。因此，其在高科技方面用途广。
①N的原子结构示意图为氮化硅的化学式为Si，N其中氮显负价，硅显价。
②根据性质，推测氮化硅陶瓷的用途是 )
A.制气轮机燃烧室B. 制有色玻璃C.制雷达天线罩D. 制造高温轴承
③为什么航天飞机(船)要加装结构紧密的氮化硅结构陶瓷防热瓦?此瓦如何防热?(友情提示：SiN，+30，高温
3SiO+2N2，Sio，性质稳定)
本课教学小结：航天与化学
以上说明航天与化学是息息相关的，离开了化学，航天便是幻想。未来美好的生活也离不开化学，那么在化学方面你最喜欢什么?
①化学材料：钛合金、宇航服材料、太阳能电池板等
②航天燃料
③化肥
④医药
⑤你有自己的研究对象
【本节知识体系总结】
元索结构
纯净物性质用途(利弊评价)
原子变化规律
对环境社会的影响
新材料等重要性
原子结构示意图(联系离子)
【升华】同学们，当今社会科学技术在飞速发展，国际竞争与j挑战日趋激烈、我们成功发射“神六”是我信中国人自信的面对竞争与挑战的胜利。但有人形容这与他国的航天伟业相比--一龟兔赛跑。确实，我们不能沉醉于古代文明，而应正视现在，落后就要挨打。希望你们思忧患、挑重任，自信白强，刚结合作，不仅成为合格的中学生，更应成为投身科学技术的先锋和真正的爱国者!
案例评析：
本案例能以“主题情境一意义建构——全面发展”为设计思路，围绕“航天与化学”作为主题情境，进行专题复习的各个环节的设计：教学中充分地创设生动活泼的教学情境，极大地激发了学生学习兴趣，很自然地引导学生参与各种教学活动，增强了复习教学的有效性。同时，精心设计了各种问题情境，引导学生应用化学知识在解释、解决生产和生活的实际问题中，有意义地建构知识，形成科学的方法，达到情感态度价值观的升华，提高了新课三维回标培养的针对性。
参考文献
\[1\]顾小清.主题学习设计：信息技术与课程整合的实用模式围北京：教育科学出版社，2005.
\[2\]傅兴春.新课程活动元教学设计和教学原理\[M\].天津：天津教育出版社，2003.
\[3\]张志勇.唤醒情感：情境体验教学研究\[M\].山东教育出版社，2007.
\[4\]章青.情境材料专题复习初探\[J\].南京：中学生物学，2001，6.
成
3
2008研培的瞬间。
供稿) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **女性视角下英国荒岛文学中女性形象缺失研究**
**吴玉琳**
**(信阳农林学院 外语系，河南 信阳 464000)**
**摘 要：无边的海洋将英国与欧洲大陆隔开，独特的地理位置使英国的历史，文学，艺术等自始至终与岛屿有着不可分割的联系。本文运用了文化分析和文本分析相结合的方法，对《鲁宾逊漂流记》，《蝇王》和《珊瑚岛》中女性缺席的现象进行新的解读和评析。认为作品中女性形象的缺失不仅体现着笛福，戈尔丁和巴兰坦的不同的女性观而且体现了荒岛文学的特征。**
**关键词：荒岛文学；女权批评主；女性缺失**
**中图分类号：I561 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1673-2596(2015)05-0149-03**
**在 60年代，女权运动的第二高潮时期，在文化领域的知识发现与男性女权主义者的作品，尤其是在文学创作和文学批评的主流，性别歧视尤为突出。在这种情况下，一种不同的、全新的方式针对清算和暴露的性别歧视在男性文本中女性文学创作的困境的研究，即女性主义文学批评，应运而生。其研究对象包括女性形象，读书的能力和女性的创作。这就要求我们在女性主义文学作品的新解读。鉴于此，本文试图对英国荒岛文学的分析。蝇王，珊瑚岛和鲁滨逊，他们是荒岛文学不同时期的代表作品。巴兰坦的特点提出了根本性好；而笛福和戈尔丁的都知道，他们是邪恶的。鲁滨逊漂流记是一部现实主义小说。它使个人的创造力和表达作者的依赖上帝。珊瑚岛是一个浪漫意味着双方的儿童教学和娱乐了大英帝国的精神表达清楚。蝇王又是一个寓言，呈现出社会对儿童的成人世界的一个缩影。它爆炸的纯真和把我们带回到邪恶误放巴兰坦“其他”和过于简单化的笛福的问题。**
**一、荒岛文学源起**
**在荒岛文学中，故事往往发生在开化的原始海岛。岛上气候炎热、环境恶劣、丛林密布、野兽出没。在如此远离人群又险象横生的蛮荒之地，男性的坚强意志和顽强人格毫无疑问地很容易表现出来，美丽而又“脆弱”的女性自然就被拒绝在外。在传统的文学作品中，男人总是被认为代表着整个人类，而女主人公在文学作品中一般都是男性作者想象的投射。而随着女性主义批评的兴起，评论家们越来越关注文学作品中的女性形象，女性缺场现象已经引起了学者的重视。在英国荒岛文学作品中，女性形象又大多数都以附庸的形式出现或者是缺席，这**
**实质上是一种“隐性”的女性缺席。这种现象在某种程度上如实地反映了女性在当时的社会地位，也揭露了男性的支配权。**
**英国荒岛文学的形成，与英伦三岛的地理位置、英国的殖民发展史以及英国人的冒险精神密切相关。因此，荒岛自然而然地成为英国文学中不可或缺的一个主题。从16世纪床期莎士比亚的《暴风雨》到17世纪丹尼尔·笛福的《鲁滨逊飘流记》，从19世纪R·M·巴兰坦的《珊瑚岛》到当代作家威廉·戈尔丁的《蝇王》，英国文学史上产生了一系列以荒岛为题材的文学作品，我们称这类作品为荒岛文学。荒岛文学并非宣传籍荒岛来寻求逃避社会的处所，荒岛只是一种载体，是表达主题的一种手段。它们或是表现人与自然的冲突，或寻求一种改造社会的手段，或宣传作者的社会、政治和哲学观点。然而，随着20世纪60年代女权主义运动的蓬勃发展，西方女权主义运动深入到文化、文学领域，女权主义文学批评应运而生，本文在此基础上对荒岛文学进行全新的解读，以重新审视历来以来以男性为中心的历史传统.**
**二、荒岛文学中女性形象诠释**
**从 20世纪60年代初第二次女权运动兴起以来，女性主义已经蓬勃发展了40年，它从来不是铁板一块，而是流派众多，理论繁杂，多彩纷呈且变动不居的复合构成。就理论层面而言，女性主义可以概括为如下特点：1.多元并存、时空重叠。2.根植现实、不断丰富。其次是女权主义理论的发展，它有以下几个阶段：1.从主张平等、消除差异的自由女性到提倡独特、优越的激进女性主义(70一80年代初)。2.强调多色彩与不同处境：黑人女性主义与第**
**三世界女性主义(80年代中期至90年代中期)。3.从身份差异到差异政治：后现代女性主义与心理分析女性主义(90年代一)。女性主义理论的重要贡献及其在文学批评中的运用也分为几个阶段：1.父权制：从“女性形象批评”到“父女中心批评”。它包括两个部分，第一，性别政治是对父权制的沉重一击。第二，“厌女症”女勾画她们自己的文学史。2.社会性别理论与文学批评理论的新建树。这对我们更深得去了解女权主义有很大的帮助。**
**在不列颠岛的文学作品中的女性形象，主要形式是不存在或附庸，这在本质上是一种“无形”的女性缺席。妇女解放运动之前，所有的妇女在社会中的地位卑微，生活和文化等，女性基本上与日常生活的联系，即使从上层阶级地位的女人；他们仍然被视为美化和男人的财产。因此，女性自然失去了被困在荒岛上被暴风雨或海难造成的经验。作品中的人物，他们的身份，行为，和他们对自然和人文环境的态度，以及他们与坏境的关系，这些都可以被视为当下的社会精神和世界观的思考。《鲁滨逊漂流记》中的荒岛主体部分并无女性出现，这一现象表明了当时是个男权主义当道的时期，鲁宾逊一个人在荒岛上自由白在的生活，他自己能够熟练的操作男女分丁的各项工作，甚至最后出现了一个男性奴隶来陪伴他，说明他根本不需要女性，当时的社会根本不需要女性的出现。《珊瑚岛》中的女性是以土著人的身份出现的，表明此时社会对女性虽有一定的需要，但是女性仍然处于受奴役的地位。女人的出现并无其本身意义，她只不过是一个用来衬托维多利亚时期男性自大自满的一个道具。而在20世纪小说《蝇王》中的女性却又一次缺席。当时女性地位虽已有了极大提高，但男女两性的不平衡现象仍然存在。正是女性的缺失导致了《蝇王》中的不和谐、残忍的荒岛社会。通过以上分析得出，这三部荒岛文学作品中女性的缺失不是一个独立的现象。首先，这是对英国荒岛文学作品传统特征的继承和深化。其次，这是英国荒岛文学的发展过程，从18世纪女性的完全缺失到19世纪女性处于奴役地位再到20世纪女性再次完全缺失，这不仅仅反映了在这三个世纪中女性的地位，同时还暗示着女性的地位在英国荒岛文学中有一个发展的过程。英国荒岛文学的发展来自于英国政府，社会的发展，它们有着不可分割的联系。因此，女性地位的边缘化反映了通过社会的发展，人们已经意识到了男女两性中的不平衡现象，而这种不平衡最终导致了社会的不和谐。**
**(一)鲁滨逊漂流记中女性形象分析**
**国家 鲁滨逊漂流记是一个世界上最流行的冒险小**
**说。小说最精彩的部分是成功的斗争，鲁滨逊独自面对大自然的无情的军队在岛上的现实的考虑。在那里，鲁滨逊是一个真正的英雄，而他性格的最好的品质是显示全部：他的工作他非凡的能力，克服困难的无穷的精力和毅力。他苦苦挣扎与自然使她屈从他的意志。所有这些让鲁滨逊看起来大胆潇洒地在女性形象是缺席的岛上。鲁滨逊漂流记的特点是在其发展的早期阶段的英国资产阶级的代表。鲁滨逊的每一次航行与一些商业企业。他拥有一个种植园黑人奴隶的剥削。在启蒙时代，自由平等的观念的影响下，英国妇女的社会，政治和经济状况有所改善，但基督教鼓吹“妇女都属于人”仍然是根深蒂固的。女人是根据时代特点的男人的附件，学者发现，我们从来没有在小说中看到一个积极的妇女形象。只有一个隐性的人物——“山羊”(雌性山羊)最好的。小说中的山羊屠宰意味着女性自己仍然无法逃脱的人的控制。另一方面，他不仅是一个资产阶级，而且作为一名劳动者。我们可以发现，从分工的暗示。鲁滨逊不仅知道陶瓷，露营生活，那人的技能的木工和家畜，但他也在食品，是女人的工作相当熟练的生产。本文介绍了很多关于鲁滨逊的，如日常琐碎的事情，他做的衣服从杀害动物的皮，收集野生葡萄和葡萄干擦干，驯化野生山羊，烟肉，盐。变得聪明有经验的劳动，他自信使岛上的生活。在荒岛上的鲁滨逊建立了天堂中没有妇女的参与的需要是显而易见的。**
**(二)珊瑚岛中女性形象分析**
**珊瑚岛是在一个大但无人居住的波利尼西亚岛珊瑚礁海难的唯一幸存者。起初他们的岛上的生活是田园诗；食品，水果的形状，鱼类和野生的猪，是丰富的，并利用自己仅有的财产，一个破碎的望远镜，一个铁桨和一把小斧子，他们让一个庇护所甚至建立一条小船。他们与其他人的第一次接触是在几个月之后当他们观察到两个大型独木舟在海滩上的土地。在岛上，他看到了岛上的生活的所有方面，包括冲浪的流行的运动，以及杀婴儿的行为，强奸，和吃人。不断上千的紧张导致居民海盗攻击，留下的只有拉尔夫活着和血腥比尔致命伤。然而，他们设法在帆船逃跑。比尔死后，他的邪恶的生活制造死亡床悔改，拉尔夫经营驶回珊瑚岛是他的老友重逢。三个男孩航行到芒果的岛，那里的传教士把基督教人口的一部分。孩子们发现自己在一个之间的转化和非转化岛民的冲突中，并在试图干预是囚犯。他们的另一个传教士的到来后，一个月后释放，和剩下的岛民的转换。这部小说是舒适的，活泼的，它充满了孩子的天真和智慧，有趣的冒险。它也充满了乐观积极的精神，成为维多利亚时代典型的**
**小说。在维多利亚时期，社会相对稳定，经济，工业，殖民扩张和殖民剥削的顶峰。社会矛盾也趋于缓和。但是，旧的传统偏见，性别歧视仍然在政治，经济生活存在，教育和社会地位。妇女仍然被视为二等公民。但在小说中，女性没有明显的抑制；巴兰坦让女性出现在被绑架的方式。尽管是野蛮部落管辖，三英雄勇敢地救出了本地的女孩，那个被抢走的野人。虽然故事发生在遥远的沙漠岛，但当地的女孩仍然被描绘成一个典型的维多利亚时代的女性，并遵守她生活的社会和道德约束的条约。从外观开始时我们可以看到，她注定要成为一个受害者的方式，它显然也揭示了绝对优势地位的维多利亚时代的人。由此，女性土著囚犯是不是一个完整的三维图像，而不是真正的英雄，但路人只。因此，尽管在女性角色出现在珊瑚岛，但她作为实施箔的勇气，智慧，和能力的男子，她没有自己的意义。**
**(三)蝇王中女性形象分析**
**苍蝇的主是讲述一群英国男生困在一个荒凉的小岛上的故事。它讲述了一个看似简单却发人深省的故事。蝇王讲述的一组英国男生被闲和变得孤立的岛屿上的命运的故事，是关于人性的悲剧寓言。蝇王不是作为一个睡前故事看来，但故事的启示不为孩子，是父母教育的现实目标。戈尔丁的关注，是目前一种人性的视觉和自然的世界通过一组儿童的经验，扔到一个荒凉的岛。在一个寓言的水平，中心主题是对文明生活的规则冲突的冲动，和平与和谐，对权力意志。不同的科目包括群体思维和个性之间的张力，理性和情感反应之间的关系，道德和不道德的行为。如何发挥出，和不同的人如何感受到这些影响，形成蝇王主要潜台词。**
**在苍蝇耶和华是充满男性气息浓厚，“存在”的人对“无”的妇女的背景。女孩似乎已经完全被抛到了战争，他们完全灭绝了。与小说中的母性特征只有一个是播种，让她成为他者的唯一标志，它也可以被视为一种隐喻和“缺席”的女性的象征。让我们在她的命运看起来就会像。“在某处的羊群稍分开，最大的一个-老母猪躺在那里，现在深深地沉浸在家庭生活的幸福。”杰克后发出命令，它将为老母猪，沉浸在天伦之乐逃避大屠杀是很困难的。和屠宰场成为地球上的鲜花在盛开的天堂，蝴蝶的舞蹈。作为狩猎的过程中神的祭祀品，母亲的母猪血液(象征女性)的表达与交流，它的功能也让人觉得女性的悲剧。所以血液成为女性的最重要的隐喻。但是，生命的结束并不意味着结束她的血液的影响；还可以不洗的男性焦虑。男人把女人的象征性的社会秩序的边缘；在一定程度上，有自我否定部**
**分在同一时间，因为两性关系本身所具有的社会属性。但在差异性和异性的死亡，他们开始互相残杀同性之间，我们可以看到，在沙漠中，女性缺席是流行的混乱，野蛮和谋杀，这也显示了另一方面的女性存在的必要性和合理性。在小说的结尾，烈火说，不合理的社会，杰克试图建立是一个彻底的失败，它还声明了一个社会没有女人的存在是不完整的。精神分析的方法是检查在蝇王妇女没有说明缺席女人提供了一个理想的状况，摆脱文化约束、回归自然的行为的男孩。此外，妇女没有加重的男孩救了小说结尾的疑问。男孩子们都保存在一个没有女人的世界。他们可以存活时间，但迟早会崩溃，人类世界的妇女缺乏，只有男孩和男人不能生孩子。在这个意义上，在这部小说中女性的缺失反映非常需要女人的存在。**
**三、结语**
**这篇文章运用了文化分析和文本分析相结合的方法，对女性缺席的现象进行了新的解读和评析，认为作品中女性的缺席不仅体现着笛福和戈尔丁不同的女性观，而且体现了孤岛文学特征，深化了主题意义，使人物形象得到了更为生动的塑造，并构成了其独具特色的叙述艺术从经济个人主义和18世纪的自满骄傲的男性沙文主义，在19世纪的两性失衡到20世纪，在三个世纪的女性观反映分别在三部经典。妇女构成家庭基本的社会因素。无家的女人，社会，文化，文明中不存在。因此，和谐社会应该由男性和女性共同建立。**
**参考文献：**
**〔1\]陈光明.天真的神话：《鲁滨逊漂流记》《珊瑚岛》和《蝇王》比较研究\[.安庆师范学院学报(社会科学版)，2004(4)：69.**
**\[2\]笛福.鲁滨逊漂流记\[M\].北京：外文出版社，2000.**
**\[3\]魏颖超.英国荒岛文学\[MJ.北京：外语教学与研究出版社，2001.**
**〔4\]段汉武.论《鲁宾逊漂流记》和《蝇王》中的女性缺席JI.宁波大学学报(人文科学版)，2006(2)：36.**
**〔5\]张京媛.当代女性主义文学批评\[M\].北京：北京大学出版社，1992.**
**\[6\]刘炳善.英国文学简史\[M\].河南：河南人民出版社，2007.**
**〔7\]丁锐，高东军.探析荒岛文学中女性的缺失打.安徽文学(文教研究)，2009(11)：55.**
**{责任编辑** **姜黎梅)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
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author: Schell, Edwin A. (Edwin Allison), 1859-1937
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IN PORTS AFAR
By
EDWIN A. SCHELL
THE ABINGDON PRESS
^ztn Sorh Cincinnati
COPTBIGHT, 1914,
Bt Edwin A. Schell
TO
^. anb (Mrs. 5?- ^^ ^vauux^
TRAVELERS ACROSS ALL MERIDIANS OF LONGITUDE,
GRACIOUS IN HOSPITALITY,
GENEROUS AS PROSPEROUS,
PERSONAL FRIENDS
.\ND FRIENDS OF MY WORK, THE COLLEGE,
WITH GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. Foreword and Wanderlust, > . - - 9
II. Two Weeks with the Greek Army, - - 29
III. The Wats of Trade, 44
IV. The Country of Jesus, 67
V. England All the Way, 84
VI. The Gre.^.t Circle of India — I, - - - 98
VII. The Great Circle of India— II, - - - 120
VIII. Half Way, 137
IX. The Great American Adventure, - - - 154
X. Education in the Philippines, - - - I68
XI. Content and Per Contr.\, 181
XII. The Fourteenth AidENOMENT in the Phiuppines, 193
XIII. Funeral, Feast, and Function, - - - - 211
XIV. The Modern Antony, 223
XV. America and Japan, 236
XVI. Trans-Pacific, ------- 252
IN PORTS AFAR
Chaptee I
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
rriHE "wanderlust," like religion, is soul blown
*■• in the race. Some subtle taint from the mi-
gratory experiences of mankind remains as an
infection of yearning and restlessness in us all. It
does not need the advertisements of travel, pictures
of galleries, tales of adventure, or maps of battle-
fields to lure one abroad. It is innate, like honor,
courage, and the instinct to command. The moun-
tains that lift themselves into the sky, the stars on
which we gaze, and the seas over which we rush are
the same age after age; likewise the desire to see
them renews itself in every generation, and just
as each man by some noble capacity may expand
into knowledge of God and love and duty, so each
heart opens to the curiosity and inquiry of what is
beyond. Disappointment does not obliterate it,
nor time heal it. No matter how long repressed
by the discipline of life, it is yet like some latent
bud ready to flower at opportunity. The Odyssey,
iEneid, Anabasis fan it like a blow-pipe ; some pic-
9
IN PORTS AFAR
ture of Balboa overlooking the Pacific, some head-
line of Stanley breathless from the vast interior of
Africa, or Peary, hooded and deep-chested from
the frozen pole, summons us like some call of the
wild, and renews the vows of our youth,
"To sail beyond the sunset, and the baths
Of all the western stars, until I die."
Doubtless you have seen America from the Maine
^voods to the utmost fringes of Alaska; feasted
3'our eyes on the gorgeous colorings of the Yellow-
stone and Grand Canon; followed the trails and
heard the voices of Yosemite, and pierced every
pass in the Rockies, from Banff to the Royal ^ ._
Gorge ; have followed the beaten path over Europe, CQ ^
and rode in a Pullman through Mexico; but still,
like Ulysses, you feel,
"I can not rest from travel."
Then some day comes a strange official envelope
without a postage stamp, as though you had been
appointed postmaster. It invited you to lecture
for a whole month as a Government official to the
Teachers' Assembly, Baguio, at the end of the
Benguet Road, in the far-away mountain province
of Luzon, and incidentally view Corregidor and
10
2i
<
<5
'^
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
Manila Bay, that already bulk so large In Ameri-
can history ; Chicago University professors have
preceded you, a doctor professor from Columbia
will be your colleague; it is the first invitation ex-
tended to a denominational college president; will
you go? The archbishop, who is neighbor at
Ludingion-on-the-Lake, knowing Washington and
what Uncle Sam's commission means, says, "Of
course." His j^ounger colleague, fresh from the
day's work and ready for the day's sport, remarks,
"Such invitations come only to a few and once in
a lifetime," both of which help to confirm the ad-
venture as an opportunity. Then, once we had
offered ourselves for foreign work, only to be re-
jected and the appointment given to another; and,
though always encouraging missions and preaching
about them, it was in the vague fashion those are
compelled to use who speak without personal knowl-
edge. The circumnavigation trip would give op-
portunity to cross India, visit some one of its
villages, sojourn in the leading stations, attend a
Conference, touch China, talk with the leading
missionaries, and thus get a student's view of the
missionary idea, rather than a hotel view with
which most travelers are satisfied. This would
11
IN PORTS AFAR
bring us to the actual residences of no less than
seven Iowa Wesley an alumni who, following the
lead of Dr. Vernon and Miss Lawson, have volun-
teered for sei'vice on the picket line of missions.
One of our daughters is given to the same work.
We could inspect also the great colonies of France,
Algiers, Tunis, and Indo-China ; would see Egypt,
India and the Straits Settlements, the principal
colonies of England, and thus be able intelligently
to estimate the worth and spirit of our own ad-
venture in the PhiHppines.
And so it came about that on a mid- winter day,
lofty with anticipation after a day \^ith the Wel-
come Hall Settlement, Buffalo, in charge of Dr.
William E. McLennan, we make the rounds of the
big Fifth Avenue building, say good-bye to Homer
Eaton for the last time on earth, and, with a for-
mer student to take a farewell snapshot, we sail
out past Sandy Hook with a bundle of steamer
letters in our hands and a blur of mist and love
in our eyes.
The world was present when New York was
founded, and it remains truly cosmopolitan. Its
geographical situation determines its greatness.
Every European event affects its fortunes, the
12
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
growth of every State in the Union contributes to
its prosperity; it is unchallengeably the greatest
harbor on the planet; it is in the east, and there-
fore rising; it is by the sea, and from it we may
take a swift sea-chariot to the ends of the earth,
or the smoking steam demon to Mexico City or
Puget Sound. That big five-masted schooner is
bound for Rio; the one racing neck and neck with
it is off for New Zealand. Amierican Liner, Cu-
narder, Nord-Deutscher, Hamburger Nachrichten,
Spaniard, Frenchman, all sail for the Mediterra-
nean the same day, almost the same hour. We
wonder why more cabins are not taken on our
ship ; she is booked for Naples, but is bound for
Patras, and will reach the Italian port five days
late. New Yorkers know and the Naples steerage
inquirer learns, but we do not. Husbands wait for
wives and children five days at Naples, and wives
for husbands; there is inconvenience, broken jour-
neys, and general dissatisfaction. The men who
control the line let you ship, wire you for your
passage money, and then, months after, coolly
write :
"All steamship companies' sailing schedules are
'subject to change without notice;' furthermore, we
13
IN PORTS AFAR
are covered by clause No. 2 of the passage contract,
which reads as follows:
" 'The vessel shall have liberty to deviate from
the direct or customary course — the company does
not assume responsibility for missing a connection
with other steamships.' "
Thus their Chicago agent. In the language of
Holy Writ, "Go not thou in the way with them."
So we do not see Naples again, nor inspect our
mission there, nor join dextram ad dextram with
the Greenmans ; w^e buy no cameos, nor bring back
the bronzes which we know are waiting for us,
and just where. It is less loss because when the
world was young we had traveled across Campania,
looked out across the bay, located the ancient
Baiae, where the Romans, to the indignation of
Horace, built their palaces out into the sea; had
seen Cumje, and Virgil's tomb, and even fancied the
exact spot where the Alexandrian cornship with
Paul on board had dropped its anchor. It is yet
like a picture veiled in a golden haze, into which
all colors and hopes resolve themselves. It is an
event in any man's lifetime to come upon the foot-
steps of St. Paul, as it was an event to Latin, Jew,
and pagan to have him come to Rome. It was
14
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
the accomplishment of a purpose long held in his
mind, though not attained as he had expected. In
the days of the Csesars a crossroad led to Capua,
there joining the Appian Way. Yearning to help
Rome, chained to a Roman legionary, St. Paul
marches along the Alban slopes matching his spirit
calmly against the Roman legions and empire. His
own countrymen will not hear him, but he preaches
to the soldiers in the barracks ; exclusiveness dies
hard, but it was dying even then ; it was the last
chance of the Jew ; rabbis who w^ill not make terms
with Christ must pass into silence and oblivion.
The Greeks and Romans who crowded the forum
gave him no hearing, only contemptuous indiffer-
ence; but heathenism was wounded to the heart at
his coming, and no forum could hold the myriads
who now read the letters of the captivity. It took
the Mamertine to give us the Epistles to Timothy,
but they are worth it. Many an old hero of the
faith still turns on his last pillow with the words
of the imprisoned Paul on his lips, "I have fought
a good fight; I have finished m}' course; I have
kept the faith."
There is a special charm in sailing for the ]Medi-
terranean. The North Atlantic route, involving
15
IN PORTS AFAR
as it does a shorter voyage, according to the mathe-
matics of the great circle, and bringing us direct
to our blood Norse brothers, the English and the
German, is much more used. But the romance of
sea history belongs to a journey in lower latitudes.
The ship follo\^'s the forty-first parallel until it
approaches the Portuguese coast, thence south for
Gibraltar and Algiers. The great mariners of
history all sailed the same waters. Phoenicians,
Carthagenians, Greeks, Romans, 'Norsemen, Ital-
ians, Spaniards, French, English, all have pointed
their ships over the same sea, by the same stars,
and sailed or drifted into the Azores. Here passed
Columbus "Westward Ho," and Santa Cruz, fa-
mous marquis, greatest of the Spanish admirals,
who took his title from the Bay of Santa Cruz;
here sailed Drake, pirate and wrecker of Spanish
galleons and, according to Lope de Vega's "Drag-
ontea," the Dragon of the Apocalypse. Rodney,
Decatur, Nelson, and others of whose names his-
tory is full, all burning with the fires of hope and
purpose, have seen these shores rise into sight and
sink below the horizon. Their eyes, like mine, saw
Draco winding among the stars of the Bear, best
known of the northern constellations, and the Dip-
16
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
per make its nightly circuit about the pole. Their
little ships serve as models in the museums now,
and their faded portraits hang on the walls of
the galleries men travel abroad to see, but their
great names are a part of that perpetual heritage
with which the past endows the present.
The weather is much warmer than we had ex-
pected for a winter voyage, and we walk our five
miles daily, play shuffle-board and deck golf, read
and get acquainted with our fellow passengers sit-
ting about in steamer chairs. Chess is a fine game
for a long voyage. Sea travel affords the leisure
chess requires. A German and an East-shore
Marylander played a game every evening after din-
ner in the reading-room. Their games averaged
two hours in length. Temperamentally both were
fitted for the game : phlegmatic, tenacious, and with
a certain military fire and dash at times. We
watched them by the hour, and once, when the
German was all but checkmated, he used the same
moves we had seen Bishop FitzGerald use in an
almost similar impasse. No one better than the
good bishop kne^\ how to use the knight for pur-
poses of attack, and he had a subtle sense of values
that told him when it was profit and when loss to
« 17
IN PORTS AFAR
exchange a bishop for the knight. Every game was
a campaign to him, and he carried it all in his
mind. He alone of all the men it has been my
profit to know could perfectly play chess without
board or pieces. He could begin with queen's
pawn to queen's third, and through the most in-
volved game know the exact location of every pawn
and piece. That marked one of his aptitudes for
the episcopal office. When there were three hun-
dred appointments to make, each of the presiding
elders knew their part of them — or let us hope and
suppose they did — but he knew them all and car-
ried them all in his great, frictionless mind. Just
as Bishop Walden had a genius for figures, and
would have made a great chancellor of the ex-
chequer, so Bishop FitzGerald had a talent for ad-
ministration. Few chess experts played the game
better, and no bishop ever made uniformly better
appointments. Some of the Conferences were in
almost open revolt at his refusal to move men at
the end of the first year. Young men from the
colleges and on their way to preferment and con-
spicuous places, he thought, could afford to go
back for a second year; the bishop believed that
to move men in the rank and file at the end of
18
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
the first year meant, without exception, that the
man was inefficient. In his theory men who moved
every year ought to study to increase their effi-
ciency, learn how to stay acceptabl}^ or leave the
itinerancy. The settled pastorate to him was put-
ting the king in the "castle."
And following these games forward on the look-
out, and in the silent solitude of night and sea,
unanswerable questions thrust themselves upon us
unasked. Are men like queen, bishop, knight,
rook, and pawn, lifted here and there and placed
by some skillful player's hand, traded, pocketed,
or lost by capture for the general good in some
great "game," or do we by native force, training,
and happy use of adventitious moments become
"pieces," and no longer pawns ; like the queen mov-
ing all ways, or as a bishop narrowed to the white
or black diagonal, or as the knight with his two
paces forward and one to the right, while others
lacking the force, teacher, or circumstance, remain
pawns.? Either conclusion is preferable to the
theory that we are subject to chance. Yet the first
hypothesis challenges liberty, and the second me-
diates against justice. The one leans toward
authority, and the other tends toward democracy.
19
IN PORTS AFAR
Yet in the singular sciences predicated upon them
respectively, theology and politics, we are left at
last to choose our own creed and elect our own
governors. Two things germane to each hypothesis
seem plain ; first, that it is comforting to believe
that we are put upon particular squares by the
guiding authority of an unseen hand, and second,
that there is no success possible to men, churches,
or nations but in finding their real superiors and
obeying them.
Parallel to this is Kant's question as to whether
a necessary condition of existence is to have had
being in space and time. For example, is Julius
Caesar more to us because he actually lived, and is
Ben-Hur less because he is the creature of the im-
agination of General Wallace.'^ Csesar surely would
be less to us were he not embellished by the liis-
torical fancy of Plutarch and the imaginative fac-
ulty of Shakespeare. But what is the test of
Realitv.'^ Does it, in the case of Caesar, lie in the
proof that he walked the Forum, or in the imag-
ination of his contemporaries and of after-times?
Would Ben-Hur be a greater "reality" had he
actually served in the galleys, walked in the grove
of Daphne, and won the chariot race.^ He was
SO
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
not subject to conditions of space and time, but
he has been actually created, unless creation is
purely physical, and not psychical nor moral.
Boys are nam.ed after him, a fraternal insurance
company every week celebrates his courage and
virtues in a ritual, and as you pass through Craw-
fordsville even now men and women say, "Here
Ben-Hur lived." This is not intellectual quibbling ;
it is the Kantian proof of Christianity. Historical
tiTith is a question of space and time; Reality lies
in the recognition \\hich the mind gives as con-
forming to and representing universal experience.
This is the real test of the canonicity of a book.
The merit of the Galatians is not that Paul wrote
it, but what Paul wrote, and its weight and import
as it appeals to me for broadmindedness and
charity. If Galatians is more to me than other
uncanonical letters, it is because Paul wrote such a
message that its answering nobleness appealed to
the bishops and believers who composed the Council
of Carthage, and who therefore put it in the Canon.
So Christianity, having taken possession of the
spiritual convictions of mankind by conformity
with universal experience, carries with it its own
evidence, and every new generation may have —
21
IN PORTS AFAR
nay, must have — Its own conclusive proof. Such
evidence is the only final barrier to formality and
Indifference, and without it religion becomes a mat-
ter of altar-cloths and ritual.
We carried with us besides our guide-books the
"Will to Believe," by the late William James, and
the eight books of the Odyssey — sixth to the tlilr-
teenth, inclusive — recounting the experiences of
Ulysses among the Phaeacians. It may have been
the Greeks on board or the long-determined pleas-
ure of the re-reading, but the story of the Phae-
acians took on a new meaning as we coasted along
in sight of ^tna, Ithaca, and up the Ionian Sea.
The big university by the lake, and the academy
recitation-room came back as we read, and at the
same timie we recalled the failure to memorize the
first ten lines of the sixth book as attested by the
professor's recitation mark. Glancing again at
the pages, the billowy hexameters all but recite
themselves :
fis 6 fjikv ev6a KaOevSe TroAvrXas Stos ^08vcraev<s
Some have thought that In the incident of the Phae-
acians we have the earliest description of the Phoe-
22
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
niclan colonies. It is hardly necessary to press
such a meaning. It gives opportunity for the ex-
tension of princely hospitality to the hero at the
time of his sorest need and a resting-place for the
recital of his adventures.
The Odyssey, one of the morning poems of lit-
erature, is rich in womanly character. Indeed, it is
the "eternal feminine" which gives it the height-
ened approval of every new generation. Even
Shakespeare, who lacks so little in any respect,
must yield the palm for womanly character to the
old Greek bards who sang of Penelope, Arete, and
Nausicaa. Miranda is often compared to Nau-
sicaa. Each dwelt in an island home ; both are por-
trayed in that flying moment of girlhood ; each has
purity, grace, and freshness, with beauty, reserve,
and versatility; Shakespeare has dra^vn Miranda
as Homer has drawn Nausicaa, without saying
much of her personal chaim, which is left for us
to interpret, but the simplicity, naivete, and force-
fulness of the Greek maiden seems to me incom-
parably superior. Ulysses is himself set apart by
the word "polutlas," used five times in the Iliad
and thirty-five times in the Odyssey. He possessed
the beauty of human form which the Greeks did
23
IN PORTS AFAR
not retain for the women alone, but bestowed upon
all their heroes. There, by the far-resounding sea,
w^e can imagine Robert Browning meeting Eliza-
beth Barrett, and the address which Ulysses makes
to Nausicaa is deserving the comment that Homer
makes of it, "Straightway a gracious and winning
speech he spake." Beauty was one of the three
great gifts of the gods to men, and both the man
who speaks and the woman addressed have it. The
words need to be winsome; and Homer, whose
speeches are everywhere wonderful specimens of
eloquence, has never surpassed the admirably con-
trived appeal which the shipwrecked hero makes to
the maiden. Beginning with the assumption that
she is a goddess, he likens her to Artemis; but
if she is mortal, her beauty must be the joy of all
dear to her; anything comparable to it he never
saw save once, a springing palm at Delos. Rever-
ence for her beauty is so mingled with his admira-
tion that it sustains and elevates a flattery which
would be too open and unblushing in itself. After
referring to his former importance in the world
and claiming the right of hospitality, he closes
with the wish that the gods who persecute him may
shower upon her the choicest blessings they have
^4
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
in store for maiden virtue and maiden hope, —
a husband, home, and fondest mutual affection.
Only Naomi wishing her daughters-in-law rest in
the "house of a husband" equals it. Nausicaa is
not outdone by the "wily" traveler, for when at
last he departs laden with gifts, she does not under-
rate the part she took in his welcome, and says
with sweetness and dignity,
"Stranger, farewell! and in thy native land,
Remember thou hast owed thy life to me."
Her mother. Arete, as well as the daughter and
Penelope, are called "/?aaiAeta," which never occurs
in the Iliad, and the word betokens the increased
influence of women due to the absence of their
husbands at Troy and the cares of state devolving
upon them. She is even more remarkable than her
charming daughter. Fifty maids stand attentive
at her slightest call, and she is well known for
activity in public miatters. She is prophetic of the
modem feminine movement, which really is as old
as the race, retarded and delayed by the religions
of the far East, Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Mo-
hammedanism, and the dreadful crimes against
womanhood and childhood which they have counte-
rs
IN PORTS AFAR
nanced. Arete shares with Alcinous the govern-
ment of the realm:
"From their hearts
Her children pay her reverence, and the king,
And all the people, for they look on her
As if she were a goddess. When she goes
Abroad into the streets, all welcome her
With acclamations. Never does she fail
In wise discernm;ent, but decides disputes
Kindly and justly between man and man."
She has the beauty, the position, and occupation of
the wife, and is the second of the incomparable
group of women that remain from the Odyssey.
Penelope belongs later in the Epic, and makes the
third, and though it is not relevant to discuss her,
she is the lo3^al woman who, through all the heart-
breaking years, refuses to believe her husband dead,
and by the far-reaching spell of her own womanli-
ness holds the wanderer against all Circes and Ca-
lypsos, who would retain him for their own immor-
tality.
The Phaeacian episode closes with the people in
the agora at prayer before their tutelary deity.
They stand in great fear of some catastrophe if
they do not obey the god; this explains the ethical
purpose of the poet, and doubtless his literary in-
26
FOREWORD AND WANDERLUST
tent is to protect himself against the critics of his
time; if they ask why the Phseacians can not be
found, he will reply that perhaps the god de-
stroyed them; if they are found, then he will be
able to say that the intercession before the altar
and the sacrifice propitiated the wrath of Poseidon
so that they were spared. Poetic interest in the
fate of the Phaeacians is thus secured, and kneeling
about their patrial altar the people appear as
unique and winning as the individual characters
portraj^ed. The quick setting of the scene in the
first line of the sixth book, the introduction of the
goddess in the second line, the splendor of the
palace, the symmetry, serenity and regularity of
the garden, the frankness and simplicity of the per-
sonages, and the religious faith of the people
sketches a story of animate and inanimate beauty
which is nowhere surpassed.
The State universities have almost banished
Greek from the curricula, and put their entire
emphasis on "gainful occupations." The sure re-
mains of Greek is found only in the letters of the
fraternities. It may be economically profitable,
but it is a serious educational loss. So long as the
Parthenon is pictured as the ideal of the world's
n
IN PORTS AFAR
fairest building, the Venus de ^lilo as its greatest
model, while the Attic orators, historians, and tra-
gedians remain unsurpassed, and the Odyssey
stands the world's greatest imaginative work, a
man gives proof of his culture by getting ac-
quainted with and keeping alive his interest in
Greek.
After the Phaeacians, William James is steady-
ing, and then we select "Vanit}^ Fair" from the
ship's library bulging with novels, which we finish
just in time to find the lights on Cape St. Vincent.
S8
Chapter II
TWO WEEKS WITH THE GREEK ARMY
T^7E traveled to Patras with 2,188 Greeks,
* ^ third reservists, going home for war or
peace. The London negotiations were at a dead-
lock \vhen we sailed, and the sea a welter of foam-
ing mountains, whipped into fury by the gales
which swept up the coast on January 3d and 4th,
raising the oscillation of the Manhattan sky-
scrapers to a maximum. Tourists and Greeks alike
had trouble in finding their sea-legs ; thereafter an
intimate observation of cabin by steerage and steer-
age by cabin ripened into mutual understanding
and good wishes. They were tall, husky laborers,
such as you see on the huge Keokuk dam and in
railway construction gangs. They cheered the
shoals of porpoises at the vessel's side, shouted at
passing ships, and roared their interest when the
wireless messages were read to them. One became
a little ashamed at maritime commercialism when
seeing them pay over their scanty earnings to hear
29
IN PORTS AFAR
the news. Every man among them had property,
family, or friends dependent upon their loyalty,
and the self-sacrificing way they rose to that in-
definable passion for country and home we call pa-
triotism, was as sturdy as it was pathetic.
The first climax came on Saturday night. The
report of the threatened withdrawal of the Turkish
envoys from the peace negotiations was read. On
the instant spahr, saloon, and main decks aft were
s^^ arming with a veritable mob. The second-cabin
Greeks pressed up to the rail, and a sea of angry,
determined faces were silhouetted against the black
night. A young, muscular chap, a student for a
few months at Roberts College, foreman in a bridge
construction gang, climbed up to the hurricane
deck and made a speech, which he reproduced for
me on Sunday morning. Flashlight kodak, steno-
graphic notes, and the voice of Demosthenes would
be needed to give any hint of its real effect. He
was waving a photograph when he began, and the
speech was about as follows:
"This is a picture of four brothers; three of
them are now in the army, and I go with the third
reserves, so all of us will fight the Fez. To-night
the news is for war ; to-morrow we shall hear again.
30
TWO WEEKS WITH THE GREEK ARMY
We want no peace until the Islands, Crete, and
Salonica belong to Hellas. By the blessed Virgin,
by the blessed Joseph, by the blessed ikons in the
churches, by the blessed America, ^^here I have hard
work [meaning, I think, a good job], plenty to
eat, and am treated like a free man, I say, 'Down
with the Fez ; long live Hellas !' "
Just at this time a Greek flag was flung out on
the mdzzen, and the 2,188 sang the Greek hymn.
Then there were shouts like the yelps of wolves
and the roar of lions, "Down with the Fez !" Then
eight or ten groups joined hands and with hand-
kerchiefs, like children, played ring-around-a-rosy ;
after an hour of effervescence and slow subsidence
of feeling one of the Greeks raised "America," and
we heard these aliens sing the new hymn already
grown dear.
The Laconia, with another 3,000, was in the
harbor of Algiers at the same time our ship was
there. The two ships lay at anchor scarcely 150
feet apart. After our tour of the city and its
environs we sat on deck and watched the different
groups call to each other. Then, as late in the
afternoon the Laconia pulled out, the air w^as rent
with cannon crackers, torpedoes, and the 5,000
31
IN PORTS AFAR
joined In the Greek hymn. To hear them sing
made me think of the Germans after the Battle of
Leuthen. Frederick's army, 28,000 strong, had
beaten the Austrians with 80,000. It was there
that Frederick got his schrdge Stellung to work
with such precision and success as it had not been
used since Alexander employed it at Arbela. When
the pursuit was over and the army drew into camp,
a grenadier started up an old church hymn. The
military bands fell in, and soon the whole army
was singing. Many-voiced like the Covenanters,
it sounded across the hills to the watchful King:
"Gib, dass ich's thu' mit Fleiss was mir zu thun gebiihret,
Wozu mich Dein Befehl in meinem Stande fiihret;
Gib, dass ich's thiie bald, zu der Zeit ich's soil
Und wenn ich's thu', so gib dass es gerathe wohl."
The Greek chorals and the German hymns add
vastly to the enthusiasm of a brigade. The Ger-
mans sing better; no oratorio can equal the music
made by a brigade of the German army one night
at Mainz as they sang "Wacht am Rhein" and
"Nun danket." But the Greeks sing w^ell, and
when, at 11.30 o'clock of the day we landed at
Patras, 670 were entrained and pulled out of the
depot for the siege of Janina, which three weeks
32
TWO WEEKS WITH THE GREEK ARMY
later surrendered, they y^ere still singing the Greek
hymn, interspersing it with the yell, "Down with
the Fez !" We visited the hospital, where 400
Greek wounded were in charge, saw 500 Turkish
prisoners in barracks, and after two ^^eeks with
them we offer two observations : The Greeks have
the great hatred which is requisite for strong per-
sonalities and a great nationality — at present it is
hatred of the Turk ; by and by, if the Home Mis-
sionary Society reaches them, it will be hatred of
things un-American. Then they have the great
love which unifies and clarifies. Now it is for
Hellas, but by and by it will be love for American
ideals. The po^^er of this great antipathy and
affection is primal for future Americanism. Pa-
triotism burns among them with a steady glow.
Tens of thousands have hurried from America
to help drive the Turk out of Europe ; everywhere
in Patras we were told that the best soldiers in
the army came from America. They brought with
them a spirit and fortitude which animated the
rank and file and reached up to the officers and in-
spired even the throne itself. The United States
is the university for the world's democracy. It
beckons to its educative influence the peoples of all
3 33
IN PORTS AFAR
lands. The Government is missionary in the Phil- .
ippine Islands, must sooner or later become police-
man in Mexico and Central America ; but teacher,
with schoolhouse, laboratory, and courses in op-
portunity for self-help, self-support, self-control,
the United States has been, is, and must remain.
It takes a world-voyage to learn how the common
people yearn to go to America. Here speaks the
sovereign voice in the coming fortunes of mankind.
From Patras we sailed up the Ionian Sea past
Ithaca and Corfu to Brindisi. The rocky coast,
the ancient Acarnania, looks uninhabitable. Far
across an inlet w^ith our field-glasses we could lo-
cate Missilonghi. Ithaca deserves the line of Ten-
•^ ' "Among these barren crags."
Greece, as compared wdth New^ England, is bar-
ren, and that to an lowan is extreme. The flocks
winding along the steep slopes, or back and forth
on the zigzags ; the lights which twinkle from the
rocks as day begins to fail ; the moan of the sea,
and the heavy beat of the surf on the rocks is weird
and fascinating. But the passengers on the Derna,
an Italian ship, are even more interesting than the
rock}', precipitous coast, though we stayed late on
S4i
TWO WEEKS WITH THE GREEK ARMY
deck. James Anthony Froude is reported to have
said once in CaHfornia, when they were trying to
persuade him to go to Yosemite, that he "would
rather travel a thousand miles to talk to a sensible
man than to walk to the end of the street for the
finest view in America." We had both the view
and the interesting people on the Derna. When
the air began to grow chill we adjourned to the
saloon to cultivate the acquaintance of a dozen
Italian army officers going home from the conquest
and occupation of Rhodes, and two nurses of the
Italian Red Cross service, who had been doing vol-
unteer work in the Greek hospitals. These latter
told the most piteous tales of the tennble hunger
of the Turkish wounded ; their last request before
taking the anjEsthetic, and the first after the effects
of the anaesthesia had passed, was "bread." The
Turks, according to their report, were simpl}^ starv-
ing on the campaign ; an army goes on its belly ;
they simply could not fight. The nurses were evi-
dently superior in birth and education to the men,
spoke excellent English, and acted as our interpre-
ters for a conversation with the senior officer, a
major, who seemed to regard the war between Italy
and Turkey as of tremendous import. They w^re
35
IN PORTS AFAR
all happy over the taking of Tripoli, and they were
willing to talk about that the whole evening. Bis-
marck offered Tunis to Italy a generation ago, and
the Italians have repented their failure to take it
ever since. Now the Tripolitan war, entered upon
to protect the Banca de Roma from loss by reason
of large investments in oases land, has fired the
national heart and coalesced the different factions
— Italy has always been a land of faction — into
something approaching nationality. The nurse re-
ferred rather proudly to the failure of the pope
to punish a bishop who had entered into the war
on the popular side, and the major retorted that
he "would never be made a cardinal." The women
dismissed the Methodists as socially unimportant,
either in America or Italy, but the major set great
store by their patriotism, because Miss Italia Gari-
baldi had given her adhesion to the despised sect.
They scorned both Fairbanks and Roosevelt, but
the major to my great enjoyment insisted that they
were Masons, and not Methodists at all. The major
was plainly less loyal to the Church, and wished to
discuss the disendowment of certain convents and
monasteries, which the women, while disdaining any
interest in the recluse life, sniffed at as though they
36
TWO WEEKS WITH THE GREEK AR:\IY
were listening to a discussion of the Fourth Dniien-
sion or a plan to erect a signal station to attract
the attention of the planet IVIars. The major went
further and stated it as an economic problem In
Italy requiring solution as to how to restrict the
number who should be permitted to join the mo-
nastic orders; he wanted a larger navy, a better-
paid army, and was free to criticise the administra-
tion for its peace treaty with Turkey and the sup-
port of the Austrian diplomatic attempt to keep
Servia from the Adriatic, by Italy.
Horace described the Romans of Ills day as "in-
ferior to sires who were in turn Inferior to theirs,"
and as "likely to leave an offspring more degraded
than themselves." It seems utterly untrue of mod-
ern Italy. Victor Immanuel, like a Cassar, sleeps
under the open dome of the Pantheon ; King Hum-
bert, when suddenly the plague broke out In
Naples, sent the message to Borodino, where he
had promised to attend a festa, "At Borodino they
miake merry, at Naples they die ; I go to Naples !"
All their foreign secretaries have stood solidly by
the Dreibund, and the Influence of Germany has
been steadying and commendable. Tripoli seems
to us an entire economic loss, but nations, like men,
37
IN PORTS AFAR
find their lives by losing them. Both Italy and
Greece have a new spirit, and not since the division
of the Eastern and Western empires have so many
strong formative influences been felt in the Hellenic
and Italian peninsulas.
It is profitless to speculate on what might have
happened; for example, if Alexander, of Alexan-
dria, had not been elected to the presidency of the
Nicene Council ; and if Hosius, of Cordova, had not
given adhesion to the Athanasian party, and if the
Arian heresy had gained the decision, what would
have been the ultimate effect? Would Christianity
have gone forward by the same tremendous leaps,
or would it have displa^j^ed the lack of passion and
organizing power so characteristic of modern Arian-
ism? Is there something apostolic and missionary
in that insoluble mystery we call the Trinity, which
vitalizes indifference into zeal and gives initiative
and radiation to missionary effort ? And so we in-
quire about the Council of Trent. Before the Ref-
ormation, notably in the eighth, tenth, and twelfth
centuries, the mediaeval Church was accompanied
and confronted by tremendous reforming forces.
Many concessions were wrung from the hierarchy
by its enemies, and one can not but admire the
38
TWO WEEKS WITH THE GREEK ARMY
graceful wa}'^ the church, prior to the Reformation,
yielded to the inevitable and was ready to acqui-
esce in the spirit, "so the church has always
taught." Want of accommodation to the spirit
of the age produced the Reformation. The found-
ing of the Order of the Jesuits, whose members
speedily gained control of the Council, made the
body intolerant instead of concessive ; then certain
secular rulers discerned the democratic elements
which were inherent in the movements for ecclesi-
astical freedom, and tacitly consented to the reform
of the church to the standards of St. Francis.
One is bewildered when he reflects on the unity and
power of the ecclesia, had the spirit of accommoda-
tion prevailed and the body remained undivided.
Whatever else the Reformation accomplished or
failed to accomplish, it gave what from that day
we must call the Roman Church a critic and a rival.
Both Roman Catholic and Protestant were recog-
nized by the Treaty of Augsburg, and this recog-
nition brought the doctrines and practices of each
before the tribunal of public opinion. Henceforth
a cardinal's cap for a boy of thirteen, and the in-
dulgence tickets of Dr. Tetzel would be held up to
the merciless criticism of a rival. The value of
39
IN PORTS AFAR
such criticismi is inestimable. In Spain, without
this corrective influence the condition of the Church
is less encouraging; but in Italy, pressed upon as
Romanism is by a vigorous Protestantism, which
is in hearty alliance with the civil rulers, the refor-
mation is reforming. Then there is less hostility
to the spirit of accommodation. The laity have
been called into greater activity, and that very fact
reduces ceremonies and officialism to a minimum.
In America, where the fires of denominational criti-
cism are hottest, the Roman Church is really the
strongest. In the same way the Italian Church,
by reason of the enlarging consciousness of the
nation, its political affiliation with Germany, the
swarms of tourists who treat the pope as one of the
sights of Europe rather than as the Spiritually In-
fallible, the break-away of France from even the
semblance of adherence to the Holy Roman Eccle-
sia, grows strong, and if the great ecclesiastical
foundations w^hich imperil the economic independ-
ence of the kingdom can be dissolved or in some
way restored to a proper share in the burdens of
the kingdom, the Italian Church will once more be
out in the w^orld a disembodied spiritual existence,
and the Reformation, though late in amving, will
40
TWO WEEKS WITH THE GREEK ARMY
have completed its work. The Italians, like the
Greeks are in a constant flux coming and going to
America; it is this which gives Protestantism such
modifying power. For the first time in a decade
for the fiscal year which closed with June, 1913,
the Italians were equaled in the number of immi-
grants they sent to America by the Poles ; they
are tied now; hitherto they have led. In the last
four years 900,000 Italians have arrived in Amer-
ica, and 500,000 have gone home. A big world-
education must be involved in this tremendous folk-
wandering. That this affects the whole fabric of
Church and State in Italy can not for one moment
be doubted.
Apart from the Spanish domination of the papal
Curia, the merciless way in which certain personal
acquaintances, modernists, have been compelled to
see their books go into the Index ExpurgatoriuSy
and the economic problem referred to by the major,
there is much to commend. All over the East we
could not but feel that the Latin priests and sister-
hoods, wherever we met them, were superior to the
like orders of the Russian Church. They have the
greatest religious earnestness; they refuse to have
anything to do with the "civil contract" idea of
41
IN PORTS AFAR
marriage, and the Church remains unquaHfied in
its opposition to divorce. It seems to me idle to
raise an alarm about the increasing power of po-
litical Romanism in America, just as it is unthink-
able to doubt the patriotism of the American
bishops. We venture the opinion that if the name
of Woodrow Wilson were substituted for that of
Queen Elizabeth in the bull of excommunication of
1570, that not one American bishop would support
it. Likewise w^e feel certain that the Archbishop of
Manila is pained beyond words at the foolish re-
quests the young clerks in the office of the papal
ablegate prefer to the Island government in his
name, and is grieved to the heart at the lapses ac-
cording to the standards of the English-Irish-
American priests, of his mestizo and Tagalog
clergy. No propagandism can turn the ages back-
ward. They will not preach an infallible Church
by and by; fewer and few^er will choose patron
saints ; less and less traditions of doubtful credence
will find acceptance, and in the good time coming,
with the election to the papal chair of some liberal
cardinal the Church will come to be as compre-
hensive as even Protestants desire.
With musings like these we bade these new-found
42
TWO WEEKS WITH THE GREEK ARMY
friends good-bye, took a final look at Corfu and a
turn on the deck, and woke to find the Derna ap-
proaching Brindisi, whence Porapey set out to
battle with the pirates, to which Horace came on
the "excursion," and where Frederick Barbarossa,
on his cinisade, built the great castle which is still
associated with his name. Brindisi is the naval base
of Italy, and the castle houses the clerks and
draughtsmen associated with the department of
naval construction. It is the port of departure
for the English mails brought overland by fast
trains from London and Paris. At Algiers and
Patras we had gone on shore by tugs and lighters ;
here at Brindisi we part company with docks. Ex-
cept at Singapore, where the work of dock con-
struction has been undertaken, and at Calcutta,
where, if the river is at the right level, you may
go aboard by a gang-plank ; but everywhere else
in the East it is the "lighter" that carries you back
and forth. Only when you reach Manila and go up
to a dock once more, do you appreciate your fellow
countrymen at their full trade value.
43
Chapter III
i
THE WAYS OF TRADE
AT Brindlsi we first felt the commercial rivalry
^ between the English and Germans. Brindisi
as a port is attempting to rival Naples. The Ger-
mans use the latter ; it is headquarters for the Nord-
deutscher Lloyd, while the English, looking for
the most direct routes and shortest lines, have con-
centrated at Brindisi. The Peninsular and Ori-
ental Company are the immediate English repre-
sentatives. While each port has shipping of all
nationalities, Brindisi is the one Italian port where
the Dreibund does not avail. The virulence of the
fight for trade between the two countries is that they
are practically one blood, both Protestant, and by
intermarriage of the Hannoverians, who were Ger-
man to begin with, and the Hohenzollerns the fami-
lies are immediately as well as remotely one. By all
the laws of family comlity, past friendship, and
national ideals, they should be allies, and that Eng-
44
THE WAYS OF TRADE
land should continue to be fast friends with France
and Russia, and Germany remain in political alli-
ance \^ith Austria and Italy is one of the anomalies.
One prefers to think of the brave old days when
Frederick II of Prussia, now called Der Grosse,
and liis little kingdom was rimmed round by a
wall of enemies; Marie Theresa, the Austrian she-
wolf, in full cry for the recapture of Silesia, the
French urged on by Madame Pompadour, the Rus-
sians with Elizabeth, the Saxons, and the Heilige
Romische Reich, and the S\^edes bought up by the
Russians and the French were all in one vast camp
against him. Happily for Protestantism, England
happened to have a king for five years in that crisis.
We do not refer to George II, then living at Wind-
sor, though he was full uncle to Frederick, nor in-
deed to any one of the Georges. They probably
desen-ed the scintillating observation of Lord Mac-
aulay, that "each particular George was a little
more stupid than the George who immediately pre-
ceded him." We speak of William Pitt, the only
king England had in that century, and he, like a
Methodist preacher, had to move on at the end of
five years. And Frederick sent to Pitt, asking
men for his line and money for his war chest. Pitt
45
IN PORTS AFAR
had recruiting troubles of his own, and annual
deficiencies for his budget also, as even then the
British war debt was in process of making. But
Pitt sent him his blundering Hanoverian troops,
and Frederick loaned him a general who made them
an army. Then he made a treaty to furnish him
£600,000 each year for five years. Never, accord-
ing to Carlyle, did the English get such good fight-
ing for so small a subsidy. In those five years Pitt
and Frederick ladeled out destiny to the world for
five hundred years to come. Pitt conquered in
America, laid the beginnings of the Indian Empire,
established England in South Africa, and even cap-
tured Manila. What a difference it might have
made if some minister other than Bute had settled
the details of the treaty. And Frederick did full
share, for he beat the French at Rossbach, and
then, one month later, whipped the Austrians at
Leuthen, and in approximately six months gave the
Russians such a drubbing at Zorndorf that they
have respected the Germans ever since. He kept
Silesia and made good the "brotherhood" plighted
between the Duke of Silesia and the INIarquis of
Brandenburg 200 years before. And these two na-
tions ought to be in the same camp now, and yet
46
THE WAYS OF TRADE
their diplomacy threatens more to world's peace
than anything on the chess-board of affairs. Ger-
many woke to colonizing enterprises late, and has
found the English ready to maneuver them out
anj^where they can. The Germans have been fore-
stalled; it is no idle boast to repeat that "Eng-
land has a man-of-war twenty-four hours from
everywhere." It ^^ould rejoice me to see the Ger-
mans take Syria, and England would in the long
run profit by her consent to this desirable consum-
mation.
While the Germans are doing exceedingly well in
their commercial enterprises, the English have set
the world an example of the meaning of the
"mails." The overland mails arrive at Brindisi at
11 P. M., and supposedly the mail steamer sails
directly after midnight. The Isis and the Osiris^
twin ships of 1,728 tons, w^hich carry the mail to
Port Said, are built with reference to speed and
the actuality of not sailing on time. On our par-
ticular sailing date the mail was forty minutes late
in arriving at the docks, and unusually heavy. Al-
most 9,000 sacks were to be transferred to the Isis.
The porters are each given a lath-shaped tally-
stick, notched, and about 15 inches long. The
47
IN PORTS AFAR
tally-sheet is a big bucket with at least ten com-
partments, each containing ten sticks. The buckets
are tallied on a blackboard. Each porter picked
up a sack of mail from the wharf, where others de-
posited them when taken from the train, and as he
passed the tallyman, was given one of these sticks,
which he gave up to another tallyman on the ship's
deck. Two shifts of ten porters each, not counting
the men who arranged the bags, or who stowed them
in the hold, made the transfer. The men made a
round-trip in just one minute, so that each shift
deposited ten sacks each minute from 11.40 o'clock
before midnight until the moment we sailed, at 6.55
A. M. They were exactly 7 hours and 15 minutes
in transferring the mlail from dock aboard ship.
We need not have stayed up to see the process;
we saw it again at Port Said, Aden, and Bombay,
but nowhere so heavy as at Brindisi and Port Said.
We left Brindisi full six hours late, but the speed
of the his remedied that. The engineer speeded
the little flj^er up to 21 knots per hour, and we
pulled into Port Said after 47 hours "on time."
The mail is there transferred to the P. & O. steam-
ship, which had sailed from the Thames the week
preceding. That "mail" is a world institution, and
48
THE WAYS OF TRADE
the sure bond of union between the tight little island
and its far-flung battle-line of dune, headland, and
fertile empires in the south continent. It is the
letters, papers, books, and packages which the mail
carries that keep alive the sense of home and braces
the young Englishmen the world over to put on
his dresscoat and "dine." No matter how remote
from men and women of his own stock, these things
he does: he dines, reads the Times, Telegraph, or
Mail, and dates all mortal events from the time he
"came out" or "went home." The basic fact of
English solidarity is "the mail."
So we rush forward on the Isis past Corfu again,
see Argolis, alongside Zante, through the Stroph-
ades, following the general coast line and laying a
course so as to pass Crete on the west and south,
with islands, lights, and ships to give interest to
every waking moment. Contrary to all the pre-
dictions by "old sailors," "experienced travelers,"
and daring tourists in charge of "Cook," the Isis
rode like a duck, and while the tremendous speed
caused a good deal of vibration, she was steady,
the small gi'oup of passengers friendly, and the
voyage
"Over tlie sea, past Crete,"
4 49
IN PORTS AFAR
to the land of the lotus-eaters and the Nile was all
too short. The massive statue of De Lesseps
greeted us at the entrance to the harbor. It was
dedicated with great pageantry, the Emperor Na-
poleon III and his empress, Eugenie, attended by
M. Oliver, heralded in his day as a great minister
of finance, attended the fete. The statue is all
that remains to associate the big ditch with the
French people. They began the Panama Canal
also, and our countrymen are just finishing it.
Some plodding persistence, some final tenacity the
French seem to lack. They made an expedition to
Egypt in 1798. It was thus that Napoleon came
to be associated with the two other great generals
of the ages, Alexander and Caesar, in the affairs
of Egypt. The directory planned the campaign
with a double object in view: to open a way for
attacking the English in India, and to remove
Bonaparte, for a time at least, from France. The
independent behavior of that general in his Italian
campaigns, his genius for military affairs, and his
ambition, which could not be entirely concealed un-
der a studied simplicity of manners, rendered liis
presence dangerous to their authority. Had Na-
poleon stayed in Egypt, he would have antedated
50
THE WAYS OF TRADE
the English colonizing policy. His constinjctive
talents were shown there in striking ^^ ays ; he caused
strict justice to be practiced between man and man,
gave free passage to pilgrims going to and from
Mecca, and encouraged all kinds of commerce. He
gave land to the slaves, to be cultivated on their
own account. He granted equal rights of inherit-
ance to the children of the same parents, and im-
proved the condition of the women by giving them
a certain portion of the husband's property at his
decease. He endeavored to restrain polygamy, en-
couraged mamage between his soldiers and the
natives, and established schools for the instruction
of the young French, Copts, and Arabs in geog-
raphy, mathematics, and the French language, and
was a friend to shows, public games, and other
diversions. Here we have the origin of the great
civilizing movements felt in the East to-day. Con-
templating the effects of his invasion, it may be
questioned whether his influence was greater upon
the East or upon Europe. The Egyptian expe-
dition came like a thunderbolt upon that part of
the world. To them it had remained unchange-
able, and seemed inaccessible to modification. Like
all heathenism, the petty nations subject to the
51
IN PORTS AFAR
Sublime Porte believed themselves invincible. The
exaggerated opinion they held of their own im-
portance was necessarily strengthened by the con-
duct of European powers who for a long series of
years permitted the Barbary pirates to make war,
impose tribute and ransom upon every government
of Christendom with impunity. The successes of
the French in Egypt caught the imagination of
the Mussulmen, and their experiences taught them
to appreciate the mjilitary superiority of the peoples
of the West. Then came the United States, and
Decatur finished what Bonaparte had begun.
The De Lesseps statue was dedicated in 1869.
One year after. Napoleon III withered at Sedan,
the Germans were in full swing for Paris, and on
a gorgeous autumn day out at Versailles, on the
steps of the great palace of Louis XIV, Bismarck,
Von Moltke, and William I promulgated with much
blare of trumpets and many "Lebe hochs" the
German Empire.
You land by the Cook's boat and learn once for
all that harbor graft is peculiarly Oriental. That
at Port Said is typical ; rowers, boat, health officer,
customs, and viseing of passports brings it up to
the high level of its justly celebrated sister port
52
THE WAYS OF TRADE
Jaffa. That will be the one and only appearance
of a "passport" to be "viseed" if you learn quickly
at school, as we suspect you do. The single ex-
cellence of Port Said, beyond giving entrance to
the Suez Canal, is that it is four hours only from
Cairo, whither by fast train de luxe we are whirled ;
along the canal embankment, steam shovels pump-
ing its enlargement; stretches of desert, land of
Goshen, Tel-el-Kebir, the thousand quaintnesses
of Oriental life, the mailtiform devices for hfting
the Nile water to the desert sand, the long caravans
of camels, the nodding palms, the pyramids which
thirty miles away from Cairo you see lifting them-
selves above the plain, and the mysterious Nile, are
like flashes of holy vision, quick passing and
abiding.
We followed the regular order in Cairo: saw the
mosques, the museum, old Cairo, rode camels out
to the pyramids, saw the secretary bird in the zo-
ological gardens, took street-car to the shapely,
shining obelisk of Heliopolis, and were properly
impressed by the sleeping cave of Joseph and
Mary, the place where Pharaoh's daughter drew
Moses from the water, and shopped to our pocket-
book's discontent in the bazaars. But we were more
53
IN PORTS AFAR
interested in the great dams the EngHsh have
builded, and the canals which lead the water for
irrigation purposes over millions of acres that pre-
vious to the English occupation were desert ; in the
electric lights they have introduced, the trams they
have installed, the fine macadam roads they have
laid, and the eye clinics they maintain. What an
uproar it made in the world when Gladstone bom-
barded Alexandria ! He had his hand forced in
the Egyptian matter. He had spent liis life in
opposition to the Jingo, and \^hen, on a sudden, he
seemed to throw away the traditions of a lifetime,
the world stood aghast. His enemies cursed him
for what they privately supposed was his political
sagacity, and his friends hesitated, fearing that he
had been overwhelmed b}" some strange lust or
greed of power. The English never forgave him
for the death of Gordon, but if any work of merit
might atone for the delays which caused the Khar-
toum tragedy, the results of the English occupation
of Egypt should be counted full atonement. Once
■^^e heard liim speak in the House of Commons ;
that was worth going to England to hear. He was
just coming back with a liberal majority for his
last premiership ; he was no longer the young man
54
THE WAYS OF TRADE
who had phrased the adjectives still in use, "The
Unspeakable Turk," and changed the Roman ora-
toi^s platform ''Civis Romanus Sum'* into "I am
an Englishman," to the delight of the galleries and
the discomfiture of the Tories ; but his voice still
had the bugle call in it, and there spake a man
with "authority." The old scribes of the days of
Christ discovered the note of authority in Christ's
teacliing, and hasted from His presence, saying,
"He taught as one that had authority." That
authority of character and commission, the only
"authority" there is, Christ had and Gladstone
had. The ordination of our deacons and elders
always appealed to me. It is worshipful to hear
in some great church, packed for the Conference
occasion, a bishop v,ith a melodious voice say,
"Take thou authority." As a matter of ritual,
we all assent to it, but as more than that we should
all object. Authority is neither a thing that a
man can have by natural descent, nor by gift; it
is a matter of character like Christ, and Gladstone
accumulated his by fifty years spent in the service
of every good cause. Then for a few brief years
he was the people of England. Lotze says the
soul is where it acts, and with the commission of
55
IN PORTS AFAR
the English Commons behind him, he did such an
act of high sovereignty as no premier had accom-
phshed since Wilham Pitt. The immediate effect
was the Battle of Tel-el-Kebir, but the actual out-
come was the suppression of Madhist fanatics from
Cairo to the Soudan, the better economic conditions
which no\^' bless the Egyptian fellahin, the trans-
formation of several palaces into modem hotels,
and the two great dams across the Nile at Cairo
and Assouan, which alone make the bombardment
of Alexandria with its consequent occupation of
Egypt the crowning act of Gladstone's career.
Of course to-day, with improved facilities for
travel, land values immensely enhanced, trade
flourishing, order maintained, and the beginnings
of decency and sanitation inaugurated, the cry
goes up, "Egypt for the Egyptians." It is, of
course, assumed that those raising this cry are the
"Egyptians." They have not forgiven Roosevelt
yet for having told them point blank out that in
assassinating public officials they were using "li-
cense," not liberty.
Three celebrities we saw in Cairo, two of whose
names all readers will recognize. The first was Gen-
eral Lord Kitchener, adviser to His Majesty the
56
THE WAYS OF TRADE
Khedive, Consul General and English Government
combined. We saw several "residents;" each of
the native Indian States has one, and whoever may
happen to be called king, khedive, rajah, maha-
rajah, nawab, gaekwar, or begum, be sure before-
hand that he is actually subordinate to the afore-
said "resident." Lord Kitchener is chief of all
the residents, though the Indian viceroy might
equal him. The khedive's part in the Egyptian
Government is to go to mosque, and spend the
millions Tvith which a paternal English Government
solaces his idleness. General Kitchener, like all the
residents, is quartered in great state. The doors
to his audience chamber are kept by many attend-
ants, and he is hedged in by the pomp and circum-
stance in which Oriental and European peoples seem
to delight. He was in uniform with yards of gilt
and gold brocade, a decoration on his breast, and in
the moment of our view was in the act of stepping
into a State carriage. An escort waited upon his
going, and yet, with all his equipage, he did not ex-
ceed in fuss and feathers Lord Hardinge at Delhi.
His predecessor in this high office was Lord Cromer.
These two represent England's contribution to the
pacification, development, and control of Egypt.
57
IN PORTS AFAR
It was our good fortune also to see General Por-
forio Diaz, former president of Mexico, walking
on the porch of the Shepheards. The old general
was rather short of stature, and looked and walked
as did the former president of Iowa Wesleyan, the
late Senator Harlan, one timie Secretary of the In-
terior in Lincoln's Cabinet. He had an attendant
walking on either side of him: a physician and a
valet, we were told. He walked back and forth
several times on the long balcony overlooking the
street, as those who have been at Shepheards will
remember. Doughty old veteran he looked. My
predecessor calls him "Diaz the immortal." That
was before the recent revolution, however. Diaz
is to Mexico what Charles Magnus was to Ger-
many: a far-flashing beacon illuminating the cen-
turies of ignorance which preceded him, and the
darkest century of the Dark Ages which followed
him. Diaz w^as preceded by lawlessness and fol-
lowed by anarchy. Madero had the spirit but not
the strength of a great ruler. We shall yet ap-
plaud President Wilson for refusing to recognize
Huerta as even provisional president, and the
policy of refusing recognition to military usurpers
will make an end of many "revolutions" in our
58
THE WAYS OF TRADE
sister republics to the south. What a pretty penny
we would have given for Diaz's thoughts as he
promenaded up and down the hotel veranda!
The third of these men, though only a Cairo
guide, was as interesting to me. He had been to
Mecca, and was therefore hadji, and had the def-
erence of his achievement accorded to him by all
those who appreciated what it means to drink from
the holy well and wash in the water of the Caaba.
He wore a purple turban, and was our guide for
five days; walked with us through the mosques of
Hasan, Iben Tulone, and the alabaster one of Mo-
hammed Ali; recounted reverently and, at our
request, briefly the miracles of Mohammed, the
proofs of them, and showed us with becoming
dignity the university where all the professors
teach the Koran, and then showed us about
the library, where the only book, in many edi-
tions and languages, is the Koran. We talked
much also of the present status of the faith of
Islam. He had but one ^^fe, deeming one sufficient
for caring for his house. Did not Mahomet keep
women too much in subjection, and will not his re-
ligion fail because of this very subjection.^ "Allah
made them so," was his Delphic response. Again,
59
IN PORTS AFAR
we asked him about the Turk "raising a holy war"
— that scare with which the daily papers regale us
T^ith every disaster to Turkish policy or arms. The
hadji slowly shook his head and replied dolefully;
"Allah is great," said he. "The Turk is brought
very low. Twenty millions of the Faithful in India
and North Africa would give their lives for the
Faith; but of what avail .^ There is no war equip-
ment for them. Forts, battleships, and munitions
of war are all in the hands of the Unbelieving
powers; one Maxim would shoot down a thousand
of the Faithful before they could rush up a para-
pet and capture it. Allah only is great !"
Egypt has never recovered from the plague of
flies; and had another of those enumerated, in-
stead of boils or murain of beasts, been granulated
eyelids, it would confinn the whole seven mentioned
in the Exodus and establish the passing of the
Red Sea for good measure. The nation was verg-
ing toward blindness when the English came, and
one of the most beautiful things the missionaries
do is to treat those poor, afflicted human eyes.
There can be no question that flies carry several
forms of eye infection as well as the typhoid and
other enteric germs. The United States, by sani-
60
THE WAYS OF TRADE
tation and war on contagious diseases, has made
Manila, filthy in 1898 as compared \^ith Cairo, a
much wholesomer place. But, then, the Americans
have been much more abrupt and drastic in their
methods in handling alien peoples, though always
really democratic, than the English, who bear
themselves with much greater seeming deference to
native custom and opinion. But England is the
first medical missionary and, like some older prac-
titioner, is just a little slow to learn from your
Uncle Sam, fresh from medical college, with an ex-
perience as interne in a modem hospital, and as
health officer extraordinary in Cuba, Porto Rico,
Panama, and the Philippines. We have studied
hymns for years, as most pastors do, and supposed
we knew the literary merit and didactic value of
the lines :
"At even, ere the sun was set.
The sick, O Lord, around Thee lay;
O with what divers pains they met!
O with what joy they went away!"
But the eye-sick of Egypt and the leprous poor
of Syria, the famine-smitten of India, and the
pestilence-stricken of Burmah and China gives the
hymn a place, not because it is fine poetry, but
61
IN PORTS AFAR
because of its underl3ang actuality. It is one
phase of Oriental life embodied in literature, and
flowing back from literature to bless life with hope
and healing. They sing that hymn dozens of
times where we do not sing it once.
The two speculative questions which assault the
mind in Egypt are the age of man on this planet,
and whether derived from a common stock so re-
motely as to constitute five independent breeds, or
did they bear apart when, as creatures endowed
with mental life, they began to be influenced by
innumierable conditions of environment that still
operate upon us.^*
Anthropological studies have long since demon-
strated the enormous antiquity of man. However,
the dates of a geologist necessarily can not be fixed,
but move within the widest limits. From the archae-
ological standpoint we begin in Egypt. Great
tribute must be paid by the scientist to the early
dwellers along the Nile. The Eg3^ptians early de-
termined the length of the year as 365 days, not
being aware of the one-quarter, or nearly one-
quarter, of the day additional. They divided this
year, divorcing it from the phases of the moon, into
twelve months of thirty days each, with an inter-
62
THE WAYS OF TRADE
calary period of five days at the end of the year.
This, the first practical calendar ever evolved by
an ancient people, remained an achievement un-
paralleled in any other civilization. Now, we know
that in the period from 14)0-144 A. D. the calen-
dar exactly coincided with the season, and that in
one of the years mentioned the rising of Sothis
took place on the first day of the calendar year.
An entire revolution had- been completed at that
time. Of course, the revolution began 1,460 years
earlier; viz., in 1320 B. C. The next earlier revo-
lution would therefore have begun in 2780 B. C.
But it is impossible that this calendar was intro-
duced as late as the twenty-eighth century B. C,
for that was in the miidst of the highest culture of
the old kingdom. Moreover, the intercalary days
are mentioned in what they call the pyramid manu-
scripts, far older than the old kingdom. Then,
as it was doubtless formulated at a time \\hen the
seasons coincided, roughly at least, with nature, we
must go back another 1,460 years, and more likely
2,920 years, so that the oldest date in history is
at least 4240 B. C, and altogether likely 5700
B. C. But the cavemen go back to 25000 B. C,
and even employing the oldest date, we shall have
63
IN PORTS AFAR
historical records only for one-third of man's life
on the planet.
The hypothesis of the original unity of the race
can not be disproved. There is an aversion to its
acceptance on the part of scientific inquirers, based
on certain forcible natural analogies, yet in our
judgment inadequate to compel belief in a plurality
of primitive types. There is a general equation
of the human being with several constants and
many variables. In our ignorance of this equation,
not knowing the ratio of the constants to the vari-
ables, nor the method of its physical realization,
we assume, just as in the case of plants, an original
generic form, and the races as modifications of the
general type. No race possesses any physiologic-
ally important organ denied to another ; the normal
number of multiple parts, such as fingers and toes,
is the same in all five; no single joint of a skeleton
is formed or situated on different plans in different
races; all are erect and capable of speech; there
are no distinguishing differences in physiological
processes, duration of life, pregnancy, attainment
of puberty; and finally the different races can be
propagated by crossing. The hypothesis that the
white man, by the blazing sun of the tropics, dark-
64
THE WAYS OF TRADE
ened into the Negro is natural and easy, and its
counterpart is that the primeval black man, under
favorable conditions, has been transformed into a
Caucasian. We are told that the facts do not
justify these expectations, and it is replied that
the whole of the continent of North America, ex-
tending through all the zones, was inhabited by a
cinnamon race, in spite of several modifications,
identical throughout, to which only the tribes lying
in the polar region do not belong. In the tropical
zone of the old world, going from west to east, we
find Negro, brown Malay, white Caucasian races
living under hardly distinguishable climatic condi-
tions. Then we are told that — inter-racial mar-
riages excluded — the Caucasian does not take on
the kinky hair, velvety complexion, and shape of
the head of the Negro, nor the Negro the Cau-
casian cast of countenance, though in a colder and
uncongenial clime. But is this not somewhat beg-
ging the question ? Then the Hebrew t^^pe, though
dispersed to all climates, has been preserved un-
changed. Now, if we knew the value of the con-
stants in the generic equation, these facts might
settle it, but when we are asked to throw out all
past inter-racial marriages in order to establish five
5 65
IN PORTS AFAR
races, we are asked to assume a factor little prece-
dent in nature. Mestizos of a hundred living va-
rieties give denial to it. The easy answer to this
unending speculation is that of St. Paul, "And
hath made of one blood all nations of men for to
dwell on all the face of the earth."
66
Chapter IV
THE COUNTRY OF JESUS
T T is not easy to reach the Holy Land. The jour-
-*■ ne}^ from Egypt to Palestine is the matter of
a night's traveh Palestine touches Egypt, and
though it does not lie in the commercial zone, the
strange magnetism that centuries have not short-
circuited still pulls a throng of pilgrims to it year
by year. Half a dozen lines of steamers ply up
and down the coast, stopping when the weather
permits at Jaffa, and at Haifa and Beirut. We
went by the Kosseir, of the Khedivial Line, leaving
Port Said late on Sunday afternoon. She is
manned by Scotch officers, Italian stewards, and
carries various nationalities as a deck crew. Two
Mormon missionaries, of the Southern Iowa-Mis-
souri branch ; an ecclesiastic of the English Church ;
a young Methodist preacher, "fellow" at Drew,
with his wife, besides a large Hamburg- American
party, several Cook and Aboosh escorted travelers
made up the passenger list. The night w^as gor-
67
IN PORTS AFAR
geous with stars, the yellow waves danced in the
moonlight, the sea was on its good behavior, and
walking down the ship's side on a stairw^ay at Jaffa
to the lighter was easy as any landing could well
be. The passengers were finally sorted out and pro-
rated by the various tourist agencies, and after a
hurried visit to our hotel we were off for a ride
about Jaffa, along roads fragrant with orange or-
chards, into various hospices, past Tabitha's Foun-
tain, and lingering long in the traditional "house
of Simon the tanner, w^io dwelt by the seaside."
The port at least is beyond question the one where
Solomon landed the beams of cedar for the temple,
and up the steep banks the workmen dragged them.
The Emperor Vespasian sacked the town, and the
banner of Richard the Lion-hearted flaunted from
its citadel. The purpling dawn, the olive trees,
miles of orange groves with their "apples of gold
in pictures of silver," the golden sheen of midday,
the sun glinting on the violet hills, with the opal-
escence of the sky as evening gathered, would have
given a hundred pictures to Turner. It was a day
of days. Grove and sea, sky and mountain, and
the pageantry of nature inwrought into the fabric
of Christianity were all as Jesus saw themi. We
68
THE COUNTRY OF JESUS
had not 3^et felt the disappointment and disillusion-
ment which the cluttering of churches, mosques,
monasteries, hospices, and memorials on every little
plot of daylight is sure to hring. The Christian
faith is most expansive in open spaces, and needs
for its setting flowers, the rustle of palms, the
soughing of great cedars, and a skyline rising to
the mountains. These Jaffa gives.
The railroads have broken into Syria in three
places : from Jaffa to Jerusalem, from jNIount Car-
mel to Galilee, and thence on up to Damascus, and
again from Beirut to Damascus. Then there are
macadam roads fronn Jerusalem to Jericho, She-
chem and Tiberias, and winding around Bethany,
Bethlehem, and the great ridge to the east
called the ]\Iount of Olives. These latter were
built to render the visit of the Geraian Emperor
pleasurable. These new roads are not as lamentable,
to our thinking, as some travelers would have us be-
lieve. They help to give you a view^ of "The Land
of the Book" through modern perspective. To
ride a donkey across the valley of Ajalon may aid
to keep the perfunctory view of the famous battle,
but to trundle by at a horse-car rate on a railway
train means definite awakenment to the hyperbole of
69
IN PORTS AFAR
the Oriental mind. All the commentaries you have
studied and the multitudinous tales of travelers you
have read do not impress you with the vast imag-
ination of the Eastern literature like the first hour
on a railroad train from Jaffa to Jerusalem. We
saw the sun well down toward the horizon shining
on the wondrous valley where Israel and the Amor-
ites in battle's wrinkled front fought by thousands.
The parade-ground of the Michigan National
Guard at Ludington would accommodate armies
ten times the muster that could crowd themselves
into rank in the valley of Ajalon. The poetry
of that story, not the event it pictures ; the perfec-
tion of its beauty, not its scientific veracity, — is
the pledge of its perpetual recital. The deeper we
enter into it as poetry, the closer we come to its
truth. The Old Testament ought to be read in
this way. That old library of thirty-nine books
is not a collection of documents from a recorder's
office — old deeds musty and faded, but accurate.
It is the story-loving Orientalist exciting his hear-
ers with the glamour, imagery, and magniloquence
of the East.
Once we wrote for the Methodist Revww a pro-
posed explanation of the meaning of the "double"
70
THE COUNTRY OF JESUS
in Isaiah, and commented upon it, like the refer-
ence Bibles do, in explaining the passage, "Turn
to the stronghold, ye prisoners of hope," by saying
that it was an urgent request on the part of the
prophet that they should look in the "strong-box"
where the old keepsakes and documents were kept,
and that there they would find the "quittance,"
"receipt," "double," which at the coming of the
jubilee would give back the patrimony for years
alienated. How the Hebrew scholars did pull their
lexicons on the Scotch (not the Irish) Kelley — and
the poor writer! It was "not in the dictionary" —
well, of course, only by the dictionary could it be
known. But if you should see some old hill family
in Bethlehem telling over its treasures, counted
generation after generation, you will know the
truth even if it is not in the dictionary, and you
may grow bold and tell the "graybeards" in the
theological seminaries that we are going to make
the lexicons from the Book. The danger of a dic-
tionary is that it tends to become static. That is
the trouble with a "creed." The Council of Trent,
for example, added a dozen articles to the Nicene
creed, thinking they were helping to elucidate, but
in reality adding details already insufferably in-
71
IN PORTS AFAR
numerable. It is the purpose of all definition to
limit and circumscribe: Jesus said, "The Kingdom
of heaven is like ;" and He said, "I am the Light of
the world." The poetry, gorgeous fancy, superb
imagery of that brief assertion dominates all cen-
turies since. But literalists would have the solar
system dislocated because as Israel moved to battle
the warriors sang an old song, —
"Sun, stand thou still upon Gibeon;
And thou, moon, in the valley of Ajalon."
The conflict was shortened by the day, not the day
by the conflict. There was time, as there always
is in God's plan, for victory.
And so we "go up to Jerusalem." The journey
runs at first through cultivated fields. Green
stretches of growing grain and vegetable gardens
delight the eye. The orange trees hang heavy with
fruit, the palms nod their tall plumes, and olive
groves with their delicate shades relieve the raucous
green. But the scene takes character from the
camels, donkeys, flocks of goats, peasants in skirts,
and white-robed women with veiled faces. Cactus
and eucalyptus remind you of the semi-tropical
lands, but the folks and animal-world nominate the
72
THE COUNTRY OF JESUS
straggling, unkempt, stately East. As we leave
the city we enter upon the Plain of Sharon, famous
in song and story. It is at once garden and battle-
field. Some German colonists, Templers, intending
to reform the world to the standards of the Old
Testament prophets after the lovely harv-ests are
all gathered, keep every available rood with the
most scrupulous care. The armies that have fer-
tilized its acres with their blood, and whitened it
with their bleaching bones, would fill a catalogue.
Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Persian, Roman,
Austrian, German, Spanish, French, English have
all marched, charged, won or lost on this ensan-
guined plain. Here the royal poet of the school of
Solomon sang, "I am the Rose of the Plain," as
millions of the same "roses" we see, the narcissi,
bared their soft breasts to the gentle wind and
flushed the whole plain with their crimson loveli-
ness. The mountains of Judea stretched along the
eastern horizon. The ancient church at Lydda and
the noble tower commemorative of the forty mar-
tyrs at Ramleh, Mizpah, and the Ancient Gezer
lift themselves into the landscape and above the
surrounding villages as the train moves forward.
Many points of interest recall the Crusaders, who
73
IN PORTS AFAR
with rich blazonry and in full panoply of mail
marched across the plain : Godfrey, Prederick Bar-
barossa, Richard, Saladin are the men of blood
and iron that modem annals have not allowed to
grow dim. Every great rock and almost each
scraggy oak has a name or association, and the
ride, at first a slow ascent, becoming a heavy grade,
needing double engines to accomplish, gives happy
time to recall the ancient lore and allow fancy and
memory to fling about the names and places their
subtle pageantry. The impregnability of almost
every point against assault, except by famine and
disease, is seen at a glance. "The strength of the
hills" was the happy portion of Judah and Ben-
jamin. We enter the sacred city through the
breach in the wall alongside the Jaffa gate, made
to accommodate the kaiser, and just inside we find
the Grand Hotel, with its welcome of a blazing fire,
grateful in that altitude of 2,500 feet, after the
warm airs of Jaffa and Cairo. We hear the Mc-
Watters Quartet sing in St. Andrew's Church, and
sit late into the night planning our eight days in
the out-of-door spaces of the Holy Land.
It is easy to go to Jericho since the macadam
road was built for the Kaiser. After all, he did not
74
THE COUNTRY OF JESUS
go lest a gainsaying diplomatic world should say,
"Let him go to Jericho." Likewise the Mount of
Olives, Shechem, and Bethlehem are easy of access,
because the Turk built the roads to them in hos-
pitality to their last friend and ally. We went
to the three Jerichos : saw Elisha's Fountain, drove
across the valley — where now utter desolation ob-
tains, rode a boat in the swift current of the Jor-
dan, went swimming in the Dead Sea, saw Horeb
and Pisgah, wondered if that might be the Mount
of Temptation, followed the devious windings of
the brook Cherith, and climbed on foot the weary,
precipitous path up which Christ toiled for the
final scenes on Calvary. We stopped at Bethany,
saw the reputed tomb of Lazarus and the neglected
home of the two sisters ; we also went to Bethlehem,
visited the Church of the Nativity and the well at
the gate, for whose sweet water King David yearned
and whither fought his "worthies" and came back
with it; meditated with delight upon the "Field of
Boaz;" rode donkeys about the walls of Jerusa-
lem, visited the Mosque of Omar, descended into
King Solomon's stables, saw his quarry, Bethesda,
the tombs of the kings, surveyed the hills to the
north of the city, from whence the successful attack
75
IN PORTS AFAR
finally came ; saw the Dead Sea, the Jordan Valley,
and the Hol}'^ City from the great rocky ridge
called the IVIount of Olives ; we too searched out
the "stations of the cross" located by photogra-
phers some years ago, where the light would be
sure to give good films, and turned sadly from the
Church of the Holy Sepulcher, where an obese Rus-
sian priest, standing in the veritable "sepulcher,"
took "alms" of five roubles each from three hundred
Mujik pilgrims that afternoon; and sought out
what is colloquiall}^ called "Gordon's Calvary," be-
cause the great Englishman, on his way to Khar-
toum, pronounced it, in liis judgment, the true site.
The "Wailing Place," which we saw on Friday,
in a pelting rain, is the scene which beggars all
description. We had visited "the upper room" and
the house of Calaphas, and came by narrow streets,
filthy beyond words, to the abrupt fortress-like wall
adjacent to the temple inclosure. Here a crowd
of Jews, both men and women, were gathered to
lament the fallen greatness of their beloved Zion ;
they looked poor, distrait, and hopeless ; they
wailed, read out of greasy-looking books, patted
the wall affectionately, kissed it, prayed, and one
old man with a long beard, his back to the wall,
76
THE COUNTRY OF JESUS
fists thrown out and menacing, cursed rather than
prayed. Meanwhile beggars phed their trade, and
the walls made no answer. No wonder some ge-
ogi'aphers think this wailing-place the valley of
Baca. They have been doing that every Friday
since Titus battered down the walls, and the in-
iTishing Roman cohorts tore the crown of beauty
from the queenly head of Jerusalem ; 1 ,843 years
is a long time through which to pei'petuate the
tragedy of degeneracy and greed, and the folly
of factions, as illustrated in the decline and fall
of the once proud city. But older than that is the
Supper which forty years earlier in the upper
room He taught us to keep.
There is nothing in the Holy Land that has the
atmosphere of Protestant Christianity save what
is still out of doors. The Mount of Olives, or so
much of it as is still unbuilt upon ; Gordon's Cal-
vary, with its "place of the skull," and "the sepul-
cher in the garden" outside the present north gate,
the Plain of Sharon, and the Field of Boaz, ad-
jacent to Bethlehem, hint at what the land was
when the drama of humanity centered in such un-
forgettable scenes. The flowers, stars, mountains,
and human hearts that "smile and weep" alone do
77
IN PORTS AFAR
not change. Not in the myriad commemorative
buildings, but along the rugged paths and ancient
highways we see with our hearts
"Those holy fields
Over whose acres walked those blessed feet
Which, nineteen hundred years ago, were nail'd
For our advantage on the bitter cross" —
The Church of the Holy Sepulcher, on the con-
trary, raises an interrogation as to whether it is
Christian or pagan. The Sultan of Turkey owns
it, and Greeks, Syrians, Latins, Armenians, Copts,
and even the Anglicans celebrate the mass in it.
The simple-hearted kiss the stairs and stones, kneel,
weep, walk upstairs and downstairs with business-
like devotion, put relics on the altars to be sprin-
kled with holy water by the priests, and express in
a thousand different ways the nameless thirst and
passion of the soul for goodness, holiness, and God.
We are certain of only one fact; that is, that no
one knows the site of the crucifixion; and it is
almost equally certain that it was not where now
the Church of the Holy Sepulcher rises. The at-
tempt to show that the old wall was near at hand
and within, is clumsy in the extreme. But if it
were, Christianity is not a superstition, nor does it
78
THE COUNTRY OF JESUS
get its character from altars of gold and pealing
organs, nor chanting choirs. St. Peter's, St. Paul's,
St. John's, St. Mark's and all the other saints have
justification, but the Church of the Holy Sepulchre
is a century-long misrepresentation of Jesus and
His followers, and seems to be an occasion of in-
fidelity, and not of faith. It is superior to Monte
Carlo because it appeals to the weary-hearted, sick,
and contrite, but it is a sad travesty upon belief
in the self-sacrificing Savior, who was crucified
under the open sky, appeared to many in the walks
and highways about Jerusalem!, and in His human
life loved the sky, the mountain, and the lake.
Out at Bethlehem, where there is some little vari-
ation to the utter poverty of the land by reason of
the mother-of-pearl industry, a Syrian said to me,
"Would that either the Kaiser or the King would
take Syria." The war between the Balkan allies
and the Turks had just been renewed, the flood of
Turkish brass coins from Tripoli had greatly re-
duced the purchasing power of the currency, and
my orator was complaining about the enormities
of taxation as practiced at Bethlehem. We heard
the same wish expressed in more responsible quar-
ters. Many look at Egypt and yearn for the same
79
IN PORTS AFAR
regeneration the English have wrought there, and
thinking that only the English can bring it to
pass. Others credit the improvement in Palestine
in the years since the German Emperor was there
to the Germans, and wish for the Kaiser. The Ger-
mans ought to have Syria, and they would have it
were it not for the desolating fear in England that
it would mean the loss of the Suez Canal, and thus
their route to India and Australia. The confused
thinking that the German military training is only
to make soldiers and incite the young Germans to
martial ambition, obtains in America as well, but
it is an obsession in England. If the English
could appreciate what an asset such a taking over
would be to world-peace, they would encourage,
not look askance at it. An economic revival would
begin the first year of the German occupation ; the
second would see the desert of Tekoa irrigated by
Jordan water through all its wide extent ; they
would plant it to cabbages, raise vegetables, pas-
ture it with kine and swine, make all kinds and
varieties of wurst, and get great profit for them-
selves and all mankind. If either the Germans or
English take Palestine, let us hope they will re-
quire building permits for any new church, mosque,
80
THE COUNTRY OF JESUS
convent, or m)onastery, to be granted only by
Reichstag or Commons, who we shall hope will be
opposed thereto, and perhaps denude the Mount of
Olives of every non-economic building wliich now
disfigures it. At the same time corporation taxes
ought to fall with size and certainty of non-evasion
upon the indolent brotherhoods that fatten upon
the simple-hearted from every land who seek to
renew for themselves in Palestine the imperishable
miracle of Christ formed within us the hope of
The nonconformist foothold in Jerusalem is
limited to the American colony and the work of the
Missionary Alliance, under independent auspices,
related to it. The Methodists have the beginnings
of a fine plant given by the late Mrs. (Bishop)
Newman, with an endowment, and accepted by the
General Committee of Foreign Missions some four
years ago. The building has been made habitable
as a residence, and a summer assembly inaugurated.
The underlying pui^ose of maintaining a school
for post-graduate and missionary study meets a real
need. The lot adjacent should be purchased, and
when interested friends can be found to erect a suit-
able auditorium and commons, it is certain to bc-
6 81
IN PORTS AFAR
come a student center of the greatest importance to
the whole Church. The question of an auditorium,
while not immediately pressing, is an urgent duty
laid upon the denomination. The Methodists, who
as tourists by the hundred visit the Holy City,
ought to have a church properly fitted up for
simple worship, and a pulpit available where Meth-
odist ministers can preach Jesus and the Resurrec-
tion in the locality of its origin. We appear to be
the only ecclesia led by the providence of events into
opportunity with its accompanying responsibility.
The alternative is to perpetuate Protestant Chris-
tianity in the city of David by the English, Scotch,
and German State establishments, already well-
housed and with formalities of long standing. If
nonconformity has a mission anywhere, it is in
Jerusalem, where spiritual freedom has been cor-
rupted and repressed by hierarchies for three thou-
sand years. Ecclesiastics are the harsh "realisms"
of faith; the "romanticism" of our holy religion,
with its love, laughter, and passion, should be some-
what looked to.
We turn from the Holy City, the loftiest out-
look on the globe over spiritual history, with a
new glow on our souls and a heightened under-
82
THE COUNTRY OF JESUS
standing of what Christ means to the world of
ideals and individuals. Christianity could not long
keep Jerusalem for its capital. It is a world-
religion : catholic, all-embracing, expansive. Pal-
estine was too small, too remote from the tides of
war, adventure, and trade, which must bear it to
all lands. Christianity must be represented more
and more as an affair of actual life, the result of
man's reaction upon his environment, and of his
own experiment in the things of the Spirit. It
has its genesis in the lives of persons and communi-
ties. It is the religious life of each person. There
is no such thing as doctrinal Christianity ; as a vital
force it exists only in the Hves of individual Chris-
tians. It is an attainment rather than a donation
imposed upon man from without. We can exem-
plify it in any country, but its dissemination is
not by might and by power. That it enlarges year
by year, century after century, is high proof of
the dispensation of the Spirit under which we live.
83
Chapter V
ENGLAND ALL THE WAY
WE returned to Port Said by the Kossier.
The embarkment at Jaffa was memorable,
if peril of life by launching through a foaming
surf, risk of limb by leaping at a flying staii-way
on the side of the ship, sea-sickness meanwhile, and
triumph in success afterwards, can make it so. The
ship was late in weighing anchor, and it was mid-
forenoon of the next day before, for the third
time, we greeted the statue of De Lesseps pointing
to his world-transforming ditch. The traffic of
Port Said is peculiar to itself. Ships of all nations
come and go ; some wait for passage through the
canal, others coal; mail transfers go on; rows of
Egyptian sailboats, with long lateen yards, dirty
thwarts, high prows, and low sides, with rowboats
shuttling back and forth, and half a dozen sullen
battleships, among them the Hamediyeh, just es-
caped from the Greeks, made the harbor an ani-
mated scene. The town is nothing but a transfer
84
ENGLAND ALL THE WAY
station from shipboard to rail and from rail to
sliip ; the hotels, liquor saloons, houses of doubtful
character are such as invariably gather about large
transient temiinals. We feel about Port Said as
Christian did when he climbed back from the castle
of Giant Despair into the pilgrim path again,
"Into that place may we enter no more." The re-
mainder of the day was spent ashore, and after
dinner, wdth the first bundle of letters from home
which we had received, we were rowed out to the
Moldavia, just as the Smart Set from the ship
were rowing in for a "hop" at one of the large
hotels.
The Moldavia is a typical P. & O. liner bound,
when we boarded her, for Australia, carrying the
mails, and with a full complement of passengers.
Among them were Captain Harlow, U. S. N., and
his wife ; the Aga Khan, distinguished head of the
Indian Mohammedan organization, who enraged
all Mussulman India by the sapient letter published
in the India Times the day we landed in Bombay ;
four members of the famous Leander Rowing
"Eight," several English officers, the members of
their families, and a swarm of young clerks going
out to colonial offices. We were assigned to the
85
IN PORTS AFAR
same table with four of these. They all partici-
pated in the deck sports, and won prizes either there
or at the promenade ball given the night before we
reached Aden. They were probably twenty-five
years old, and we watched their habits and became
happily acquainted with them. They began the
day with Scotch; they had a second round on deck
with other comrades in the steamer chairs about mid-
forenoon; they had Scotch at the table prepara-
tory to lunch, drank it instead of tea in the after-
noon, and at night drank either champagne or
port wine for dinner, and besides took a nightcap
of Scotch at the bar before retiring. They had
come all the way from London on the Moldavia,
and the bill of one of them at Aden, which we
saw presented, was between £11 and £12 sterling.
He told me confidentially that he "was not feeling
fit." Every one of them had been told that they
could not live in India or the Straits Settlements
without whisky, and that it was the sure preventive
of all fevers and contagious diseases. We felt like
telling them that they could not live and drink
whisky the way they were doing on the Moldavia.
The mortality among men of their class in India
and China needs no other explanation. Like many
86
ENGLAND ALL THE WAY
hotels, the P. & O. steamers can not be run profit-
ably without the "bar."
The mails were aboard early and the ship
steamed slowly along to keep the shore wash at a
minimum. We sat on the upper deck and over-
looked the sandy desolation. The railroad stations
break the monotony on the right bank, and immense
saltworks with great hills of salt, one looking as
large as the old Hoosier slide at Michigan city,
appear on the left. Huge sand-pumps for widen-
ing the canal, and ships many pass us Europe-
bound. A troop-ship, its decks crowded with men
in khaki, bands playing and flags flying, raised a
great cheer as our ship's orchestra played "Rule,
Britannia." The men of many diff*erent south con-
tinent colonies, the various occupations which they
followed, the hopes they cherished, the opinions
they uttered, and the eccentricities of nationality,
individuals, and changing panorama of view made
the conversation and debate of that first day on
the Moldavia^ while we passed through the canal,
broadening and informing in the extreme. Fellow
passengers in a ship soon become intimate. Meet-
ing hour after hour in a small space, walking to-
gether on deck, sitting at the same table, they pass
87
IN PORTS AFAR
first into acquaintance, and then freely communi-
cate their adventures and their purposes.
The canal itself always started an Englishman,
when talking with an American, on the respective
merits of the Panama and Suez Canals. "How,
in your opinion, w^ill it affect shipping.'"' we were
asked dozens of times ; and would we arbitrate the
coast-T^^se traffic tonnage exemptions.'^ and would
the Canadian railroads stand for it if we did not.?
were inten'osations almost as certain to follow. The
Australians were nowhere near so friendly and con-
senting to everything the Englishmen said as we
supposed they would be ; they had opinions of their
own, and took particular pains to inforai me that
the ships which Australia and New Zealand were
adding to the imperial navy were for home guard,
and not for cruising abroad. They seemed to re-
gard the cockney and the drinking-habits of the
young clerks much as did we.
By comparison with the Panama enterprise, the
Suez Canal is a small affair. The excavations we
passed through were all of soft materials and
desert sand, capable of being removed by pumping
or, at worst, by dredging, and when the French
opened it they had actually taken out seventy-two
88
ENGLAND ALL THE WAY
million cubic yards of material, and piled it along-
side the ditch. At Panama two hundred and twenty
millions of cubic yards of excavation have been
made, most of it, to loosen it, first blasted b}" dyna-
mite, then loaded on to cars and hauled for miles
either to the big dam or to distant dumps. The
big dam at Panama has no parallel at Suez, and
its terrific retaining walls to hold the waters of
the Chagres River staggered the French capitalists
and engineers. They turned it over to the Ameri-
cans with the Culebra cut practically untouched.
The late Colonel Gaillard, the engineer-commis-
sioner who had charge of it, reported that five and
one-half millions cubic yards had been removed
before he took charge at Culebra, and that
112,500,000 cubic yards have been removed there
alone since. Twenty-four millions cubic yards have
been added to the estimates by the board of inter-
national engineers by the oozing of the sides lat-
erally into the open cut at Culebra by reason of
the enormous pressure of the weight above. A mil-
lion cubic yards at Culebra means a solid block
of stone three hundred feet long and as wide and
as liigh. There were one hundred and eighteen such
blocks. On the Panama hither side the excavation
89
IN PORTS AFAR
began at Gold Hill, a point as high above the sea
level as the Washington Monument rises above the
Potomac, and on the other side it was only one hun-
dred feet lower. The total excavation made at
Panama would require a string of freight cars one
hundred thousand miles long to hold its mass —
long enough to reach four times round the earth.
The Panama Canal was given up by the French,
who began it, and is now completed; the English
bought them out at Suez. Some genius for finish-
ing things the mercurial Frenchman seems to lack,
but his initial impulse is manifest.
We proposed to our fellow travelers that by the
purchase of the canal zone, and because of our
treaty relations to the Republic of Panama, we
were in no such relations to the Panama enterprise
as the country was when the Hay-Pauncef ote treaty
was negotiated. The clause in that treaty was
copied verbatim from that guaranteeing the equal
rights of all nations at Suez, which is hourly evaded
by rebates to English shipping. No one seemed to
think that we should hesitate to arbitrate on that
account; even had we digged from New York to
San Francisco, we should have still been obligated
to give England the same rights to joint control
90
ENGLAND ALL THE WAY
that inhered in the original pact. The latter prop-
osition seems to have equal validity with the former.
The coast-wise traffic should pay the same freight
rates as the ocean-going tonnage, but that is in no
wise because of the treaty. Congress should notify
our English cousins that since we own the canal-
strip by purchase, we regard it as American terri-
tory and send the retort courteous which we heard
so often from Lord Salisbury concerning Vene-
zuela, "There is nothing to arbitrate." England,
Germany, and America ought to be hard and fast
allies for world-peace and for settled governments
in tropical countries, but this is not because of any
example England has set us. A little frankness and
a business-like an'angement of the tonnage rates
will settle the whole question satisfactorily, unless
Congi'ess "stands pat," in which case only the
Canadian railroads will have any cause for com-
plaint.
It grew warm rapidly after leaving Suez, where
we were detained for several hours on a sandbar,
which we struck through a slight deviation from
the harbor course. We needed all kinds of clothing
in the five days, the temperature ranging from the
shivering cold of the Mediterranean mid-winter to
91
IN PORTS AFAR
the penetrating sun of the tropics. It was a quick
transition from overcoats and woolens to summer-
wear. We stood khaki for two days, and then gave
ourselves up to the luxury of duck. Several mis-
sionaries seemed ready for the hot weather, but
looked cold and needing heavier clothing until the
Red Sea air warmed them up. They must have
suffered dreadfully in Northern India, if they were
bound thither.
The loyal English subscribed over £63 to pro-
vide prizes for deck sports and the fancy dress ball,
which are regular features of every out-going jour-
ney. Had it not been serious, it would have been
laughable to observe the way those having the rec-
reations in charge insisted on the Americans get-
ting full share in the events and prizes. The first
prize for the "most original costume improvised on
ship" was finally assigned, after many countings,
to Mrs. (Captain) Harlow, who at the last moment
draped herself in an American flag, provided by
the gallant captain of the Moldavia. She appeared
with a big burly rigged up as John Bull. Happily
the elect lady, who was also asked to present the
prizes, did her part in most demure and engaging
fashion, and insisted that a special prize should be
92
ENGLAND ALL THE WAY
given to the "second best," who had in such strange
fashion come into competition with the "blood
brotherhood" and "hands across the sea" necessi-
ties of the occasion, as judged by the captain. It
was the saving grace for the whole affair. The
captain showed the gallant Englishman he was by
singing, with a cornetist to fill in between the
stanzas, and repeating to a volleying encore, the
song, "Who carries the guns?" By the time he
had named England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales,
Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, the crowd
would have stood even for a sepoy.
We had cricket nets rigged up on the deck each
day to give those who wished to keep in practice
full opportunity ; the game seemed very tame to us,
and there is surely more excitement in one baseball
game that goes twelve innings than in all the
cricket played in England for a year. It was an
incitement to comment to witness the cricketers quit
when the afternoon bell for tea struck ; a game
that will allow tea to break in on it can never fully
satisfy the American crowd. Then there is not
sufficient nip and tuck in it ; games to enthrall a
crowd must run close enough to keep interest until
the last inning has ended ; that is the quality that,
93
IN PORTS AFAR
on analysis, seems to me most magnetizing to Amer-
icans in the National game ; one can keep interested
in a score that opens the last innings with one to
tie and two to win; given skill and headwork, they
may pull the victory out even at the last; but
cricket, while once in a year you might happen
upon a "hair-raising" finish, is more likely to keep
on like the brook, forever. A game that may be
played with white flannels, and leave them immacu-
late at the finish, will not satisfy democracy.
But, while the game does not suit me, the way the
English run the world does excite my admiration;
at Aden it dawned upon my dull, lethargic thinking
apparatus that Britain iniles the sea not by excess
of battleships, but by control of the coaling sta-
tions in all the East. At some point west of Alex-
andria and north of Malta you may coal ship under
particular national auspices, but on the North
African coast, within naval striking distance of
Port Said, you may do it only by permission of
His Britannic Majesty. You can sail or row, but
to proceed under steam is by England's nod.
There is nothing at Aden except a few ostrich
feather peddlers, the British garrison, and coal.
Kipling sang of Singapore:
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ENGLAND ALL THE WAY
"Hail, motlier! East and West must seek my aid
Ere the spent gear may dare the ports afar;
The second gateway of the wide world's trade
Is mine to loose or bar."
Since the American occupation of Manila that is not
quite so true of Singapore, but at Port Said, Suez,
Aden, Ceylon, Bombay, Calcutta, Rangoon, and,
for that matter, at Hong Kong and Shanghai, while
the commercial rivalry with Germany may proceed,
England speaks the last word of command. It is
this priceless control of the ways of trade and cam-
paign, these stations with coal and battleships, that
make all other naval powers second rate, no matter
how many ships of war may float the opposing flag.
That is why it is so difficult to candidly propose
that the Germans should have their way in Syria.
Beirut and Haifa w^ould at once become a threat
at the lines of communication. The United States
has far more potentiality by a series of supporting
naval bases than either Germany or France. We
divide control of the Atlantic with England. San
Francisco, Hawaii, Guam, and Luzon, w^ith the
coast harbors, except for Japan, give us practical
command of the North Pacific ; the French lost their
continuity of position in the Eastern world when
they quit Egypt.
95
IN PORTS AFAR
Had we sailed one week earlier or one week later,
we should have gone direct to Bombay without
change. As it was we bade good-bye to our Mol-
davia friends at Aden and boarded the Salsette
lying in the harbor with steam up waiting for us.
She is a fine six-thousand-ton ship, wearing a broom
forward and sporting a rooster at her peak. She
makes the alternating week connection for the
P. & O. at Aden for Bombay. She is trim as a
private yacht, can iTin like the his, and keep it up
for months ; her officers are gentlemen, the table-
service a continual besetment, and the nights we
spent upon her were a wonder to our uninformed
eyes. From her deck we first saw the Southern
Cross hang glorious in the evening sky ; we watched
the phosphorescence gleam along the ship's sides,
and the fl3^ing fish go skimming over the water ;
Indians, thin, barefooted, looking ill-nourished,
w^earing only shirts and trousers, Aryan-faced,
with deep-set eyes, stole cat-footed about the deck,
and such a five days for pleasure and wonder we
have never known. Of ships many that with stout
planks or steel compartments have kept out the sea
from us while we sailed, second only to the Siberia,
of the Pacific Mail, we reckon the Salsette. Though
96
ENGLAND ALL THE WAY
we were eight hours late out of Aden, we reached
Bombay on the hour and found that brave-hearted
missionary, W. E. Bancroft, superintendent of the
dialect work in Bombay and environs, founder of
the new trade school, preacher, scholar, and man of
affairs, at the dock with welcome to his home on
the Byculla Club road.
97
Chapter VI
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
WHEN one lands in India he must practically
elect the section over which he will travel
and what he will choose to see. More important
than his itinerary are the auspices under which he
does his sightseeing. He can stop at the hotels,
contrast them conversationally with those he has
frequented in Canada or Mexico, hear the opinions,
wise or otherwise, which any accomplished and ver-
satile globe trotter fresh from his morning's "nip"
at the bar can furnish about missions; buy some
trinkets on the hotel veranda and, with the guide
belonging to the same environment, drive in a car-
riage about the parks and gardens. That is the
plan of the majority of tourists who travel by the
P. & O. and North German Lloyd, and represents
the travel knowledge of the Cleveland passengers.
Of the Salsette tourists fully two-thirds went, on
landing at Bombay, to a hotel munificently adver-
tised, whose proprietor and house physician were in
98
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
court on having conspired to conceal four cases of
cholera, contrary to the laws made and provided;
and while we were yet in Bombay they were found
guilty and a fine of £200 was assessed against them.
It is all but certain that the tourists never heard
of it and will dispute the accuracy of this state-
ment, as one of our friends, whom we met eight
hundred miles inland, felt called upon to do. He
was squelched with a clipping from the daily pa-
pers. Then there is the plan of keeping aloof
from the hotels, living with the missionaries, going
about under their direction, advising with them
about objects of human interest, learning from
them the people who are worth seeing, hiring your
own conveyances, chaffering in the bazaars over
your small purchases, figuring out the time of your
own trains, and penetrating as much as you can
into the life of the gi'eat, jostling millions who, in-
scrutable, hopeless, and fascinating, go forward to
their judgment day and doubtless to ours. The
papers are full of advertisements and give complete
accounts of the debates in the House of Commons ;
but we bought them galore at four annas each
(over eight cents), trying to find out who consti-
tuted the new Cabinet who were to sit with Presi-
99
IN PORTS AFAR
dent Wilson and divide the executive responsibili-
ties of the new Administration, but save that Mr.
Bryan was Secretary of State, we sought and looked
in vain. In Palestine it is mountains, flowers, sky-
line, and the high thoughts which should come in
high places that attract, but India is of breathless
interest because of the customs, barbarities, caste,
religion, and economic conditions of the crowds
that swarm like rabbits in a warren. The hotel at-
mosphere is as remote from the real India as are
the antipodes. The great Cook may well be pat-
ronized by people who take their holiday by travel
instead of at a summer or winter resort, and who
are temperamentally fitted for it, and everywhere
railway and steamship tickets may well be pur-
chased of Cook. But men who wish to put them-
selves into the crucible of another civilization, that
a precipitate of charity, energy, and serv^ice may
result; who wish to enlarge themselves beyond the
native mold and environment in which they were
cast, will find the conduct of tourist agencies and
the sendees of hotel guides practically valueless.
India, of all countries, is the most difficult to
fathom; „„ , . ^ ^
"For east is east, and west is west.
And never the twain shall meet,"
100
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
has an underlying modicum of fact that makes the
hues the words of a seer, and not merely a quotable
sentiment. We had hotel experience at Ahmende-
bad, Jaipur, Agra, and Benares, and for the rest
dwelt among "mine own people."
There are many beaten paths about India ; there
is one taken alwaj^s by merchants and men in a
hun-y, through Jubbulpore, and by the mail route
between Bombay and Calcutta. We followed the
great circle, via Jaipur, Delhi, and all that revel
of names that we have heard at Methodist Con-
ferences from time inmiemorial, making a detour
from Allahabad south so as to attend the Central
Provinces Conference session at Jubbulpore, and
then back again for Benares and on to Calcutta,
from which, as a point of departure, we visited Dar-
jeeling for the view of the Himalayas. We had
five weeks for India. We had planned for less, and
only an important Government engagement kept
us from doubling the length of the visit. Only
those who have lived in India will know how short
those weeks were, and the heart-sorrow when, at
Calcutta, David Lee, a name imperishable in the
missionary annals of India, at once apostle and
prophet, saint and serv^ant, waved us aboard the
101
IN PORTS AFAR
Ellenga. It is the land of heroism; China, too, is
full of heroes, but the heroisms of China are part
of a swift, seething movement forward, with the
workers knowing that the day is breaking and that
deliverance is at hand. But in India the heroes
have part in a flux of tilings that go no whither,
and where events are not discernibly better. Even
the glacier movement in the Swiss mountains may
be discerned, and here and there on some great
peak the break and scar of some fissure indicates
that, however slowlj^, the glacier has already begun
to move down the valley toward the river and the
sea. There is no discernible fissure scar in India.
It must be better, but it is only as the eleventh cen-
tury was better than the tenth century in the medi-
aeval darkness, because it was a century farther on.
We can not name all the heroes we met, nor de-
lineate their heroisms. The categories of space
and time, not those of yearning and love, keep me
silent. Their faces and voices, their homes and
their high emprise rank them in abiding memory
on that battlefield of unselfish fame.
We have already named Mr. Bancroft. He ac-
companied us on the excursion to the caves of
Elephanta, where we learned the indescribable in-
102
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
decency of Hindoo temples and worship at first
hand; showed us the Bombay market at sunrise,
followed with me a Parsee procession to the
"Towers of Silence," arranged a brief visit to Wil-
son College, and to the industrial school he has
established for the maintenance of his high-caste
converts; five services we attended together on the
Sunday spent in his diocese. He acted as my in-
terpreter at the Gujarat sei'vice, found one of his
native helpers to do likewise for the Mahratti, and
on his porch we baptized three young men, whose
story reads like a chapter out of some book of mar-
tyrs. The man would be unique in any Conference.
He believes that native persistence in the Christian
life requires an utter break with heathenism and
the support of the converts on a new economic basis.
He has capitalized out of his small salary an indus-
trial school, for all practical plans a factory, for
making mission furniture. Ten men, friends of
missions, or at least friends of opportunity, ought
to give him $100 each, so that he could purchase
a gas engine, saws, planer, sticker, and help to
perfect a little plant that would give employment
to fifty men in the interim of losing their old
livelihood and readjusting themselves to Christian
103
IN PORTS AFAR
fellowship. When that is done, a steel trunk ad-
dition, then a printery, and other industries, of
the highest educational value, and self-supporting
from the very beginning, will follow.
Miss Abbott is the first of the great sisterhood,
called the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society,
we met in India, but inseparably associated with
her are Mrs. F. M. Wilson, Miss Lawson, Miss
Poole, and Mrs. Alma Hearne Holland, the gifts
of Iowa Wesleyan College to the mission enter-
prises of the Church. Miss Abbott had shown our
daughter, now a missionary's wife, through some
zenanas a year prior to our visit. She repeated
the courtesy to Mrs. Schell, who compressed the
observations of the India tour into the terse truism
that "heathenism, however named, is one vast or-
ganized crime against womanhood and childhood."
It has been our privilege to attend the national
gathering of the P. E. O. held in our own college
chapel, and lead a pilgrimage to the very rooms
where it was initiated; seven hundred queenly
women, teachers, editors, soloists, home-makers,
business-trained, heart-trained, handsomely gowned,
made up the audience. We have known the East-
em Star in communities where that order repre-
104
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
sented the best and bravest women are, and attempt
for the age that is to be; our daughters have
brought into our home knowledge of what the
Greek sororities cherish as ideals, and their attempts
to approximate it in heart and home; and without
wish to disparage or minify any of these or other
sisterhoods, in our judgment the women of the
Woman's Foreign Missionary Society take the
palm. They have gone out from homes of the
tenderest and most devoted culture, college-trained,
and with a devotion and sympathy that only women
could show have set themselves at the task of re-
generating the women of all lands and obtaining
for their despised sisters of Oriental countries the
commonest protection and decency afforded for
women in America ; following the example of Mary
of Bethany, who broke the alabaster box of oint-
ment very precious at the feet of Christ, they have
brought the skill of Western surgery, the teaching
faculty of Occidental countries, and the deep spir-
itual insight of their consuming devotion, and with
every charm and all the winsomeness of engaging
womanhood have put these talents at the serv^ice of
their poor, sinned-against and sinning sisters of
India.
105
IN IH)UTS AFAR
All our mission pr()j)irties in Bonibav aro hur-
(icMU'd with debt. 'I'hcre would be no profit in lo-
('atin<j^ the responsibility if it were possible so to do.
The wish to get into dialect work, the dependence
which missionary committees at liome must place
on the estimates for old and new work, made often
by inexperienced men, and the changing personnel
of the men on the committees to whom the budgets
arc referred in New York, have brought about in
Bombay, as elsewhere, an acute situation. Face to
face with the terrible heathenism of that city our
inunediate appro})riations are exhausted in paying
interest and reducing the indebtedness. The prop-
erties the Church occupies are well chosen and ad-
mirably adapted to their purpose, but interest on
the debts has accumulated to the point that makes
ownership at Bombay —
"Between ttie palm and the sea,
Where the world-end steamers wait," —
In our judgment a question of name, and not of
fact. Three-fourths of all tourists begin their trip
across India at Bombay, and a large part of the
criticism of our missionary' enterprises must grow-
out of a situation that confronts them there, for
106
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
wliich no one on the field is responsible and inherited
from good knights whose swords are already rust.
There is no fair appropriation for native workers
on any district in India, and the actual work of
the district superintendents is at such long range
to secure funds to pay the native helpers, without
whom no permjanent progress is possible.
The Woman's Foreign Missionary' Society has
an unexampled opportunity to open a college for
women in Bombay. Good administration requires
that the Parent Board confine itself to work
already undertaken, but this new college would
serve the hundreds of Parsee young women, and
seems like the beckoning hand of Providence. The
women only can do it ; it is to them the invitation
calls. Given housing and equipment, like Mr.
Bancroft's industrial school, it would be more than
self-supporting from the very first, would render
imperial service to all India, be a permanent con-
tribution to the good of the municipality, and mak-
ing as it should the impression produced by a visit
to the Isabella Thobuni College at Lucknow, or
to Miss Lawson's school at Cawnpore, would radi-
cally change the earliest thought tourists get of
missionary work in India.
107
IN PORTS AFAR
From Bombay to Baroda is a short night's ride.
That is the sphere of influence assigned to Dr.
Linzell, whose good work on the missionary com-
mittee in the last General Conference will long
abide. The theological school, the Nicholson Me-
morial, the schools and hospital of the Woman's
Foreign Misisonary Society, are located in the can-
tonment, the mile square, where the English camp
is quartered. Through an interpreter we spoke to
the theologues. The attendance is less than at
Bareilly. One could not fail to grow thoughtful
in these training schools where the future ministry
of India is now on the potter's wheel. The courses
are simple, and yet produce prodigious enlarge-
ment to the minds of the young men and their
wives; for all, as now occurs to me, were married.
They are making the men who shall make India.
We found ourselves wishing that a few simple
courses in chemistry, physics, and biology might
be arranged. Christianity all over the East means
the English language. Western science, and the
practice of equality. Baroda and Bareilly mean
to India what Roberts College has meant to the
Balkan States, and are precursors of the same in-
fluence which the Anglo-Chinese schools at Penang
108
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
and Singapore are to-day exercising on the Repub-
lic of China.
We saw the Gaekwar's palace, with the solid gold
cannon at its entrance, the tomb in the streets,
which to move would raise a rebellion, scared the
monkeys in the gardens, greeted the missionaries
in Dr. LinzelFs home, visited the hospital, and saw
the Gaekwar riding ^vith an escort. He is the most
progressive of all the native princes, and the only
one that is an actual ruler with administrative
influence and competency. The single proof of his
efficiency, needed to satisfy the Western world, is
that many of his subjects go to the English can-
tonment and are permitted to marry there under
circumstances that would prohibit the union in the
Gaekwar's territory. The Baroda mission is a fine
example of the influence missionaries exert in for-
eign lands upon those who occupy the "seats of the
mighty." The Gaekwar, though officially follow-
ing the Hindoo cult, has the Woman's Foreign Mis-
sionary physician for the women of his family, and
applied to Dr. Linzell for a list of specifications in
attainment and rank required of those who shall
be permitted to follow the office of "religious
teacher." The mendicant "fakirs" have aroused
109
IN PORTS AFAR
his princely wrath, and seem to him evidently to
require some better economic basis than preying
upon the superstitious natures of his people, if they
are to continue in their calling.
We missed the trade school at Nardiad, an illus-
tration and forerunner of a hundred like it yet to
be established. It is a type of the best avenue of
missionary propaganda, except school and hospital,
yet followed. Ahmendebad is architecturally al-
most as interesting as wider-famed Delhi and Agra.
Jaipur is sui generis. Maharajah is the title of
its nominal ruler. He is one of the potentates w^io
survive in name, but have no vital place in the con-
duct of affairs. There is a difference in the titles
of rajah, maharajah, begum, nawab, gaekwar,
king, emperor, and Lord This and Lord That, but
to delimit exactly the frontier of their original and
imported meanings, except at Baroda, is a work
of supererogation. The Gaekwar rules in Baroda,
except in the cantonment ; everywhere else the Eng-
lish resident is the government de facto. So much
for the Maharajah of Jaipur, who has two palaces
within the walls of the city and a third at Amber.
Admission to the palaces can be obtained only by
a permit issued by Colonel Bailey, the resident. He
110
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
has made a requirement that tourists shall apply
for admission after they reach Jaipur, a rule
founded on courtesy and good form. The day is
really necessary to make arrangements for their
reception at the city palace and provide elephants
to transport the party to Amber, a distance of five
miles beyond the walls, and its approach not per-
missible save by bullock cart or elephant. A party
of eight English gentlemen and their wives had to
stay for the second day, but my card and a brief
explanation to the colonel's aide of my Government
errand to the Philippines brought us, in addition to
a personal interview with the resident, the coveted
cards. We had a pleasant sojourn in the palace,
to which public admission is given in the city
proper, saw the tigers in the cages which adjoin
the business section, and heard them roar, which
a tip to the attendant will occasion; did all kinds
of shopping, and have regretted ever since that we
did not buy more of the gewgaws for sale there
rather than less. To tliis was added the ride to
Amber, where we wandered from room to room, no-
ticing the gorgeous fittings with which the ancient
kingly state was set about, and the pains taken by
baths, gardens, jewels, and finery to reconcile the
111
IN PORTS AFAR
queen favorite to her loneliness and solitude. The
lofty elevation, naturally impregnable, on which
the palace is built, the wildness approximating
jungle on the very edge of which the palace stands,
and where tigers still nightly issue forth, if the
word of the guides may be believed, and the en-
forced labor and skill necessary to build such a
structure makes a forcible introduction to the Shah
Jehan period of Indian civilization and govern-
ment.
Delhi, now the official residence of the viceroy,
except during the heated term, when the capital is
at Simla, would need a volume to describe. Frank
M. Wilson, superintendent of the Delhi District,
one of the great missionaries of modern times, met
us at the depot. On his advice we discarded, as a
means of conveyance, camels which we had ridden
to the pyramids, the donkeys which had conveyed
us about Jerusalem, and the elephant for the ride
to Amber, and embarked upon a Fierce-Arrow; we
were whisked about the fort walls, tombs, and pal-
aces, finishing our outward-bound ride at the Kutab
Minar, and returning by the old observatory,
speaking to this generation the scientific attain-
ments of the Mohammedan invaders. We saw
112
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
where stood the peacock throne, read the tablets at
the gate which commemorates the valor of those
who perished to breach it in the wild days of the
mutiny, were shown the window from which the
bomb attempting the life of the Viceroy was thrown,
rode to the site of the Durbar, which celebrated
the accession of George V, and to other memorials
of valor and honor which the city contains.
The Methodist work in Delhi is limited to the
native dialect ; the Baptists have a strong following
and an English congregation. The commission
appointed to report the condition of the India Sun-
day schools to the International Convention at
Zurich were in Delhi the Sunday we spent there,
and after preaching through Brother Wilson as an
interpreter, we were privileged to attend the long
interview he gave a member of the commission on
the "mass" movement in his district, and heard the
sermon in the Baptist church in the quiet of the
evening hour.
But the real India is not to be found in Bombay,
Delhi, Lucknow, or Calcutta, nor in anything they
offer by way of sight or suggestion. There are
six hundred and ninety-five thousand villages, av-
eraging approximately five hundred people each,
8 113
IN PORTS AFAR
that make up the real India. They are isolated,
practically impenetrable, except where the govern-
ment has built roads, and dak bungalows, essentially
represent the villages of Palestine at the time of
Christ, and remain the oldest illustration of what
the world was at the dawnings of civilization.
Century after century the dead level of their hun-
ger, swinishness, bestiality, and caste has continued.
You see occasional villages from the car windows,
and to one of them at least every traveler who would
wish to say that he has seen India must go. The
Wilsons planned our excursion for us. They took
their serv^ants, dishes, bedding — ours also (for
every traveler in India carries, as in Christ's day
in Palestine, his bed) — and food; loaded us into a
train, which pulled out of Delhi parallel to the
great road over which Alexander and his invading
phalanx marched three hundred years before the
Cross was set up. We alighted at an unpronounce-
able station, spelled Behadighar, where tongas
were in readiness to carry us three and one-half
miles down a macadam road built by the govern-
ment to a dak bungalow, erected also by the Eng-
lish to accommodate the army officers and the
health and civil service employees, whose duties may
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
call them to the district. Without these roads and
bungalows any supervision of the villages would
be impossible. It is scant enough with them, and
yet is the beginning of law and authority. The
bungalows are divided into kitchen, sitting and
sleeping rooms which are fitted up with cots, and
a charge of sixteen cents per person is made, but
they are free to missionaries if not occupied at their
coming.
Then for another four miles we rode on an ekka,
and then off the main road for three-fourths of a
mile to the village of Tikri, where for two years
a company of faithful souls of the "sweeper caste,"
knowing the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Command-
ments, and the Twenty-third Psalm, had yearned,
hoped, and waited for baptism. They came run-
ning together at our approach. Brother Wilson
preached, exhorted, interrogated; Mrs. Wilson
sang, talked to the women, taught the children the
Commandments, and examined the necks and
breasts of the poor, wild things for charms against
evil spirits w^hich they are prone to cling to, and a
few demurred at surrendering. We have in our
keepsakes several of these poverty-stricken memen-
tos of that day. Then Brother Wilson went into
115
IN PORTS AFAR
every little mud hovel they call a house, to be cer-
tain that no shrines were still kept ; and then a
long interview was held with the chaudrais (the
slight semblance of governing that the mahullah,
or ward, affords) concerning a big shrine standing
nearby in the street. Certain high-caste men cer-
tified that it belonged to the whole village and could
not be torn down. Meanwhile the day waned, and
then, after more preaching and prayers, and re-
newed questioning as to the spiritual meaning of
baptism, by families they knelt down and received
the ordinances. The chaudrais cut off every chutia,
the long lock which several of the men had retained
as the lingering heathenish practice; the men
seemed to me to knit into courage and capacity by
the rite; the women trembled at our hands. Once,
after a great ingathering, we baptized sixty-four
on a single Sabbath morning ; at Tikri seventy-two
witnessed in the Spirit we trust by water. Some few
were Chemars, a caste slightly higher than the
sweepers, and probably another fifty were in the
fields, and yet lament their enforced absence on
that memorable day. A throng of high-caste men
stood about wondering, doubtless, what the strange
occasion foreshadowed to those baptized, to the
116
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
village, and to themselves and their ancient privi-
leges— nothing, probably, they decided, as pride
and privilege are everywhere dull to the portents
of coming change. A collection followed — some
poor, shriveled, brass coins; some eggs, a diminu-
tive chicken, about the size of a good, plump quail ;
in total perhaps two rupees. Then, as night drew on
apace, a crowd of children and youth accompanied
us to the high road, bade us good-bye, and our last
memorv is of their sweet salaams and the chorus of
the hymns which followed us down the pike like the
voice of waters, and which rise now in our souls
when an organ swells and a choir sings. The chil-
dren looked out of their eyes as though the}^ were
from the Mt. Pleasant schools and homes. It was
pitch-dark and pouring rain before we reached the
bungalow, and on account of rain we could not go
the next day to two other villages. The Viceroy of
India, Lord Hardinge, whom we saw alight from
his official train on our return to Delhi, on his first
public appearance after the dreadful attempt upon
his life, and the sepoys, who in feathers and regi-
mental panoply guarded his progress, looked com-
monplace by comparison with the eager faces of the
Tikri children and youth.
117
IN PORTS AFAR
Bishop Warne, equal of any man since apostolic
times in labors and consecration, whose guests we
were at Lucknow, told me in the gathering twilight,
seated in his own home, of going to a like village;
they yearned for baptism ; five villagers had pre-
viously, because of baptism, been denied water from
the public well and had died of thirst. The bishop
and district superintendent canvassed the situation
and decided that it was better for the villagers not
to baptize them. The decision caused great sorrow
and disappointment. Then, with tears running
down his face, the bishop told me how eight of them
followed him dowm the road twelve miles, waiting
while he slept, and appeared at early morning at
the depot as he was leaving the district, and again
asked him that he would seal their faith and com-
mission them even for death by baptism. What
would you do? There are ten thousand on the
Delhi District alone waiting now these two years.
The fact of baptism works like iron in their blood,
and they deem it consent to their equality with the
strange sahibs who come from beyond the wall at
the end of the world. It helps them in industry,
gives them hope, and is like some great charter,
some declaration of independence to the individuals,
118
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— I
the caste, and the village. The missionary commit-
tee ought to add ten thousand dollars each to the
appropriations of the North and Northwest India
Conferences this year, and thus call upon the
Church to meet this wild surge toward Christianity.
119
Chapter VII
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— II
fTlHE fort on the banks of the Jumna, with the
-■■ marble mosque and the Taj Mahal, took us to
Agra. Morning, noon, and at sunset we viewed
the shapely, graceful structure of the Taj Mahal,
approached by curving roads, of delicate beauty,
mirrored in the limpid lake constructed to reflect it,
and inferior, in the opinion of impartial judges,
only to the Parthenon. The guide-books will tell
you all about it, and inform you of the wonderful
lamp with which Lord Curzon, the titled husband
of an American woman, enriched the interior dig-
nity. The final imprisomnent of Shah Jehan by
his son excites us to Latin, ^'Sic gloria transitJ'*
We took a guide at the Cawnpore depot, which we
reached at an early hour, for a drive to Wheeler's
Intrenchment, the Massacre Ghat, and the Memo-
rial Well. This latter is worth any discomfort of
travel by sea or land to look upon; not for the
heavenly-carved angel, nor for the sublime scroll
120
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— II
bearing the words, "These are thej who came out
of great tribulation," nor the surrounding park,
all the gift of Victoria Regina, but for that mo-
ment at the entrance. We rode up and climbed
out of the carriage to be saluted at the moment
by an English soldier, plume in his cap, red coat,
and white gloves. The guide says, sotto voce^ "Na-
tive guides are not permitted to enter the gardens,"
and directed us to the Memorial. Again the soldier
saluted, and resumed his guard. That is the superb
punishment good old England has visited upon the
native peoples of India for now fifty-seven years,
and is likely to continue for a century longer. It is
a continual reproach for their broken faith. They
promised safe conduct for six hundred and fifty-
three women and children from the intrenchment to
Allahabad. With the indescribable deviltry and
treachery of heathenism, they escorted them to the
ghat at the bank of the river, where they were to
embark, and after some were aboard, shot them all
down. Only one escaped. For this act of treach-
ery against women and children, exclusion from the
gardens and the memorial have been enforced upon
the Indians ever since the mutiny. Once an order
in council permitted the North India Conference,
121
IN PORTS AFAR
many members of which are natives, to visit the
memorial in a body, and around that white marble-
rimmed sepulcher they knelt, while one of the mem-
bers, who as a boy had seen the terrible slaughter,
led in prayer. We asked the native guide for the
Methodist mission, and were told that it was five
miles away. With the engagements ahead we had
not time for such a drive, but we were then only
a few short blocks from Miss Lawson's school, the
object of our quest. Had we known the wise ways
of the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, or
been in the company of an English guide, we
should not have missed it. One of the sisterhood
had just died of smallpox, and sympathy required
the call. Miss Lawson, second of all that wonder-
ful organization, went to India to begin women's
work for women ; what Jane Addams is to Chicago,
Anna Lawson is to Cawnpore. The hundred things
we saw that we did not plan to see, do not make
up for this which for months we had planned, and
through reliance on a native guide missed. Happy
the school that takes its name from so radiant a
personality, and woe to us so steeped in denomina-
tional colloquialisms as to lose sight of the one by
practice of the other.
122
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— II
There are two occasions of a journey to Luck-
now ; one is the bishop, who took us to his home,
opened for hours God's way with him in that far
land, and speeded us on our way with rejoicing.
The other is B. T. Badley, secretary of the Ep-
worth League for India, bom and reared adjacent
to his present residence, inheriting a name honored
in mission annals, educated in America, with the
English pride of race and achievement, and incar-
nating in himself the youth of the world he repre-
sents. The bishop and the secretary took us to
Reid Christian College and showed us over the
residency, scene of the greatest heroism the great
annals of great England show. In boyhood we
had read the authoritative book on the mutinv, and
the secretary's library yielded the precious volume.
Like a new tale of old adventure the story came
back : the land denuded of Englishmen ; the changes
in provincial administration, especially in Oudh;
the conspiracy of degenerate princes ; the misplaced
faith of the English officers in the sepoys, taken
unawares at church ; the unfathomable hatred of
the ]Mussulmen ; the march of the regiments in full
uniform toward Cawnpore under that burning sky ;
the wild trumpetings of the elephants ; the disorder
US
,K
IN PORTS AFAR
they caused in the artillery ; the escape from the
flank movement; the hurried retreat; the energy
and efficiency with which almost in a day Lawrence
transformed that big front dooryard into an im-
pregnable fortress ; the lone three thousand sur-
rounded there by fifty thousand sepoys with Eng-
lish rifles, having been taught their use by English
drill sergeants, and another hundred thousand sym-
pathetic natives armed with hate and the spur of
plunder to feed, spy for, and encourage them, — all
these and fifty other details crowded down the cor-
ridors of memory.
And now, in company with the bishop and the
secretary, we visited the actual scene; saw for our-
selves where the sandbags were piled, the artillery
stationed, where the assaults were made ; went into
the old church from which finally retreat was made,
and down into tlie cellars where the women and
children were huddled, swarmed upon by flies,
dying of typhoid; and where Jenny, the Scotch
maid, cried out, "Oh! dinna ye hear the slogan
far awa'?" Then, after two hours, we went to
the cemetery, where since King George's coronation
they put flowers every day on the tomb of Law-
rence, and read on the simple slab:
124
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— II
"Here lies
Henry Lawrence,
Who tried to do his duty.
May God have mercy on his soul !"
In Westminster Abbey, along with England's
great sons, by reason of birth or favoritism, many
mediocrities have obtained sepulture, but in the
"acre" of the residency only heroes sleep. Every
name is immortal, and it is no wonder that from
many lands they bring back for burial with com-
rades those who kept the banner of England float-
ing there. Those hours were sacramental, and long
into the night, when bishop and secretary were
asleep, we read the book, rejoiced that such as
thev were at the helm in that dark land, and felt
the glor}' in our souls that of that noble three thou-
sand, nine hundred and ninet3'-two came through.
It helps to "Assert eternal Providence, and justify
the ways of God with men."
The Isabella Thoburn College for women and
the Lucknow College for men illustrate the final
reliance that Christianity must put upon the slow
processes of education and the enlargement of mind
and spirit. Two of Bishop Robinson's daughters
125
r\
IN PORTS AFAR
have large responsibilities at Thoburn College, and
that institution is worth a chapter in the expanding
roll of faith begun in the Epistle to the Hebrews.
After breakfast with the women we spoke in chapel
on the superiority of Christianity to Mohammed-
anism, with a dozen young women of Islamic birth
listening attentively. Most of them have already
discarded the veil, and study, dine, and recite with
the regular classes. Like the leaping fires from the
scaur of Lemnos to the watching roof in Ithaca
to indicate that Troy had fallen, those two schools
in Lucknow flash the story of coming dawn on the
Hindoo hills.
From Lucknow, through Allahabad, junction of
the Jumna and Ganges, with time only for a brief
survey of that important center, we rushed for
Jubbulpore, so as to attend the Conference of the
Central Provinces, in session there under the presi-
dency of Bishop John W. Robinson. It had for
us all the strange attraction of my first Conference,
when Bishop Harris presided, Dr. Fowler spoke for
missions, and preached in the opera house on Sun-
day afternoon; when Hartzell, of the Freedmen's
Aid; William Taylor, Bishop of Africa to be, and
McCabe, of the Church Extension Society, stirred
126
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— II
my slow pulses by their eloquence and fervor. At
Jubbulpore five graduates of Iowa Wesleyan are
at work. The Abbotts, husband and wife ; Brother
Hermann, treasurer of the mission and head of the
theological school ; Mrs. Holland, Miss Poole, all
cherish the blessed alma mater; and, gathered at
one table, we sang the songs, gave the cheers, and
once the bishop, who is from Iowa, joined us in
the "yell." We lectured, preached the Conference
sermon, led the devotions, spoke to the theological
students, and had the honor (for so it is counted)
of going to the barracks and addressing the sol-
diers quartered there. We were guests at Mrs.
Heame's "Yellow House," where all the Conference
breakfasted, lunched, and dined together; called
at the home of the Abbotts and Hermanns, and at
Miss Poole's invitation rode in a bullock cart to
the Madan Mahal, some three miles from the Yel-
low House. We started at 7.15 o'clock in the fore-
noon, and reached the Woman's Foreign Mission-
ary Societ}'^ school in time for breakfast at 12.30
P. M. Time, five hours ; distance, six miles. But
the rate was less than might be calculated, as the
last half mile was covered on foot, and Mrs. Schell
and Miss Poole spoke to a Brahmin vowed to silence,
127
\
IN PORTS AFAR
who displayed himself in a red gown, and thus
errors of speculation are imported into the mathe-
matics of the journey. The invitation, the genial
company, and the wide view were probably in-
separable from the means of conveyance. But,
then, it is good to learn how the tide of life plodded
forward in "our grandfathers' days." Wherever
the graduates of a college gather and speak lov-
ingly of its Faculty, its history and hope, there is
the college. So Iowa Wesleyan belongs to India.
It recruits the membership of many Conferences
at home, and at the same time gives two strong
men and six remarkable women to the India for-
eign field. Sons and daughters such as they for-
ever praise her in the gates, and more than justify
every dollar given to the equipment and endowment
of the institution.
The "mail" on all the India railroads is a fast
train, making almost double the speed of the "ex-
press" and carrying only first and second class
passengers. Baggage on the Indian railways must
be checked at the depots from which the tickets
are purchased. It happened that at Bombay, hav-
ing bought our ticket from one station, and finding
it more convenient to leave from another, the bag-
128
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— II
gageman would not check our tininks, and so
trunks, bedding-roll, handbags, and suit-cases were
taken into the compartments all over India.
Steamer trunks such as ours were all shoved under
the seat, upon which you make up your bed for the
night's ride. We had a compartment to ourselves
on the "mail" from Jubbulpore to ^loghal Serai,
the main line station for Benares. We were early
at the bathing ghats. It was a feast day, which
brought out an unusual crowd, and various person-
ages estimated that two hundred and fifty thousand
people bathed in the Ganges that morning. Some
of the most dreadfully indecent temples in India
are adjacent to the Ganges at Benares, and on that
moraing they were crowded. A heap of bodies
to be burned later that morning recall Edwin Ar-
nold's lines:
"For all the tears of all the eyes
Have room in Gunga's bed,
And all the sorrow is gone to-morrow,
When the white flames have fed:"
the thousands wading into the water, scooping it
in their hands and swallowing the filthy stuff ; other
thousands polishing their brass water-jars, mean-
while occasional carcasses of dead animals, festering
9 129
IN PORTS AFAR
and bloated, drifting down the river, and the hun-
dreds of boats, with upper decks for sightseers,
made such a scene as is not obtainable anywhere
else on the planet, and which few would care to see
again. The Monkey Temple is as despicable,
filthy, and vile as the Kalighat at Calcutta, though
both white and black goats are offered at Benares.
It was after such a day as this that Bishop ]\Ic-
Dowell is reported to have said to Mrs. McDowell,
president of the Woman's Foreign Missionary So-
ciety: "After this we shall never have another
happy day." The indecencies of the temples, the
open loathesomeness of heathenism, and the igno-
rance, superstition, and fanaticism of the surging
throngs gave me a depression from which it took
me weeks to recover. Benares ought to be labeled
like the gates of Dante's "Inferno,"
"All hope abandon, ye, who enter here."
After the tour of Benares, the human body we saw
drifting with the tide in the river at Calcutta,
shoved off from some burning ghat in the absence
of the mourners, so as to save the fuel for its in-
cineration, was rather less shocking.
The "mail" whisked us from Benares to Calcutta
130
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— II
in fifteen hours. A high-caste Hindoo shared the
compartment with us for some hours. He had
been educated at Cambridge, spoke excellent Eng-
lish, and was as much interested in America as we
were in India. We discoursed together about Be-
nares, and he expressed great interest in the at-
tempts of the Brahm-Somaj to refonn Hfndooism.
As in our conversation we tended toward mutual
frankness we put to him the statement of the
hadji that Western science had put the war ma-
terials into the hands of the Christian powers. Evi-
dently he had often discussed the proposition be-
fore, for he quietly replied that it was "not the mili-
tary power of the Occident that was to be feared,
but the efficiency of the Western s^^llogism." The
Hindoo is addicted to what he labels "absolute
thought," and bases his syllogism on some affirma-
tion having general acceptance, or on some specu-
lation credited to a "deity" or "divinity." The
Occidentalist long examines his basic statement by
observation before he risks an induction from it.
This is what the Hindoo meant by his phrase, the
"efficiency of syllogism." This habit of mind is
the only corrective for superstition abroad or at
home, and our faith, whether hay, w^ood, stubble,
131
IN PORTS AFAR
or gold, is tried as by its fire, and the days shall
declare of what sort it is. If universal experience
could be accumulated and tabulated, it would settle
the matter; but we lack the proper powers to so
accumulate and tabulate. So long as Dalton, be-
cause he is color-blind, declares there are only two
primary colors in the spectiTim, all he is able to
see, and Sir William Herschel says there are three,
because he can see them, third parties interrogate
our powers of observation. At any rate it is cer-
tain we exercise these powers, if we possess them,
under limitations that make them practically value-
less, and we must remain hesitant about the basis
of our syllogism, which it most concerns us to know.
But it is not quite so serious as it appears, for it
is heart, and not thought, that furnishes the dy-
namics of life.
It seemed like the coming of some longed-for
Sabbath to a weary laborer to reach the Lee Me-
morial Home, Wellington Square, Calcutta ; great
it was to meet David Lee, beloved in the gospel !
to sit at their board, kneel with them in their
family devotions, and ride about with them, to find
the spot of the Black Hole tragedy, and in their
company to see the Heber ^lemorial, the frown-
132
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— II
ing fortifications, the botanical gardens, with its
rare orchids and famous banyan tree, and watch
the gyrations of the diiim major in the Black
Watch regiment band, as they gave concerts in the
esplanade. One boy was left to them, a bab}^ in
his mother's arms at the time of the Darjeeling dis-
aster, which in an hour left the Lees desolate and
enriched that heathen city with the Lee Memorial
Home. Another son has since come to heal their
loneliness. On our part we renewed a fellowship
exceedingly precious, which time can not sunder.
We pressed northward so as to spend the Sab-
bath in Darjeeling. In the manse of the Union
Church, Rev. Joseph Culshaw, editor of the Ijidiu
Witness, greeted us, took us to the government
house, introduced us to the civil dignitaries already
arriving to spend the hot months in that famous
mountain resort, pointed out the path of that cloud-
burst that carried the Lee family away, and in the
school with ]\Iiss Knowles and in the church on
Sunday we felt that kindling of faith and friend-
ship, and found the sure medicant far the souls
of those who have looked over the wall into per-
dition and staggered back on heaven's side. All
mountain heights are difficult of ascent, but once
133
IN PORTS AFAR
ascended, unless storms intervene, the sight is glo-
rious. At Darjeeling we looked up to the roof of
the world. For two hundred and fifty miles the
massive Himalayas unrolled their splendors before
our mortal eyes, flashing back with their white
bosoms the glory of the Eternal. The yawning
abysses beneath filled with clouds seemed to roll
and swell like some vast sea, and the pure, impec-
cable, snowy vastness of Kinchin junga was de-
clarative of holiness and God. Up on a windswept
height we plucked a prayer which some poor soul,
feeling after God, had tied to a tree, and, folding
it with some flowers from Gethsemane, we shall keep
it as a mute witness that once we brought the prayer
of a sorrowing heart to Him who sorrowed there.
The Darjeeling tea plantations, clustering and
clinging on every square foot of cultivable soil, pro-
duce the rarest tea of the world's great farm, and
add the charm of green things growing. Grown in
that lofty altitude, the tea, perhaps like character,
ripened close to the sky, adds a nameless flavor not
duplicated by that grown on lower ground.
Back in Calcutta, we preached for Mr. Wark in
the First Church, one of the first five or six leading
Churches of the connection. That Kansan is every
134
THE GREAT CIRCLE OF INDIA— II
inch a man, and fewer men with larger life experi-
ence is the lesson of his quick adjustment to that
international parish. INIiss Maxey is the elect lady
who directs the affairs of the Deaconess Home.
It was so good to find that little island of hope
and calm in "the City of the Dreadful Night."
We went on a night expedition with Miss Reeve, of
the Lee Home, to a crowded section, where, with a
stereopticon, to a court full of eager-faced natives
she told the story of the Pilgrim's Progress.
Three things clamor to get said before we con-
clude this chapter. They have long been discussed
in the private debating society of my judgment,
and therefore we do not need to discuss them here,
but simply enumerate them.
First, the Missionary Society should in some way
organize the special gifts department and send for-
ward the appeals from the New York office, and
not burden the district superintendents of India
with the support as well as the selection and admin-
istration of the native workers. The plan of the
Woman's Foreign Missionary Society works ad-
mirably. This is no stricture upon missions like
that of David Lee, now, as always, on the William
Taylor plan of self-support.
135
IN PORTS AFAR
Second, some better plan of selecting mission-
aries and of eliminating inefficient men from the
field must be devised. Only two men we met in
our work abroad would not have our welcome were
we, as once, the head of a district ; but when the
two approximate two-fifths of the recruits to the
force of the field in a single year, they mark an
administrative failure.
And third, one or two of the missionary bishops
for India ought to be commissioned by some quasi
authority for properly financing the India situa-
tion. The North and Northwest India Conferences
require an annual increase of $10,000 for the next
five years. The debts of the Bombay properties,
as well as those elsewhere, must be paid; that in-
dustrial school of Mr. Bancroft enlarged for thou-
sands instead of fifties. Following the Thobum
custom, which has become practically a precedent,
one or two of those bishops should face the financial
stone wall in America, not India. It is to be a long
campaign, and like all kings going to war, we must
count the cost and finance the campaign, not by
three-per-cent cuts on the whole field, but by some
animating consecration that will increase the sup-
port of the gospel extension in the Indo-peninsula.
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Chapter VIII
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/CALCUTTA, like New Orleans, is both sea-
^^ port and river-port. The sailings are early
in the day, so that the ship may reach the mouth
of the Hughli, full of shifting bars and dangerous
currents, before dark. We looked our last on the
Eden Gardens, Fort William, the Hastings Bridge,
and the Engineering College, and had final view
of the botanical gardens founded in 1786. Ac-
cording to Sir Joseph Hooker, they have contrib-
uted more useful and ornamental tropical plants
to public and private gardens than any other es-
tablishment before or since. The "tea" industry
of Northern India had its origin in the brain of
one of its curators. There was more for India in
his thought than in those "sublime instincts of an
ancient people" about which congressmen talk so
glibly. The first problem of life is food ; therefore
the bread question presses. Correlated to it in
137
IN PORTS AFAR
India, as elsewhere, is the labor question. The
labor markets of the world are closed to them be-
cause of their ancestral precedence code. You can
not raise food enough to feed India with a crooked
stick, nor harvest it with a reaping-hook, nor can
you give a man work who will only work with men
of a certain caste. It is good to think of the full
dinner-pail that "tea" has brought to many men
who even yet never have any food left after a meal.
The Ellenga, of the British India Line, on which
we sailed, is one of a large fleet of antiquated ships,
making up in number what they lack in quality.
Kipling long ago labeled the line as "The Mutton
Mail," because it carries sheep and coiTespondence
to Rangoon. Sure enough the sheep were "shooed"
aboard in droves, and the odor stayed with us to
Singapore. There were fully two hundred black
goats, to be sacrificed to Kali, who dearly loves
"black sheep." The British India is the most pros-
perous shipping corporation in the East. The
ships are operated for profit, not for comfort.
Like the ice-plant in our town, the corporation
needs healthy competition. But if you are bound
for Rangoon and the Shwe Dagon, pay up and
haggle not.
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The Hughli pilot leads a hard life, is full of
strange stories, and he of the Ellenga knew all
about Mark Twain, once pilot on the Mississippi.
The pilot's pay is on a par with that of a country
school teacher in Iowa, and he gets it for sending
along a two-thousand-ton ship down the worst river
in the world, with five or six hundred people aboard,
at eight miles an hour, and then killing time in the
estuary on a malodorous tug until he finds another
ship in need of a pilot up-stream. The query rises,
Could Clemens have become Mark Twain if bom
on the banks of the Huglili.^
We left the pilot at Sandheads, and all India
dropped out of sight. India and the story of how
it was won is the romance of the English Govern-
ment, and the tragedy of how nearly it was lost in
the Mutiny blanches the lips of brave men yet. Its
thousand years of religious feud between Moham-
medan and Hindoo, the venomous jungle of its race-
hatreds and fierce ancestral distinctions make its
retention a daily conquest. There is the Sphinx
of Egypt looming vast and placid above the Nile
desert, and the IMuscovy monster crushing with one
paw the Finns and leering at Constantinople; but
India is the Sphinx of the Plain. Yearly the work
139
IN PORTS AFAR
of pushing, wheedling, and browbeating its natives
into good Hving goes forward:
"The cry of hosts ye humor,
Ah! slowly toward the light; —
Why brought ye us from bondage,
Our loved Egyptian night?"
In "Take up the White Man's Burden," Kiphng
has caught the tidal mood of colonizing mankind
now swelling in the tropics. There is much mawkish
sentiment in London and Washington, but none of
it discoverable in those viceroys, governors, com-
missioners, residents, colonels, captains, and sub-
alterns on duty in India; nor do they worry the
London offices with long disquisitions on the riotous,
degenerate, murderous life to which they are slowly
putting an end. The}'^ concern themselves little
with contemporary opinion, and leave their final
appeal by deeds to posterity. The "big brass gen-
erals" and the quiet, inglorious strong men, whom
Kipling so nobly celebrates, are at their posts, as
of old, tirelessly watching. The Mutiny put them
"on guard" every hour. They are doing the eter-
nal thing in a more or less eternal way, quite in
contrast with our program in Mexico, where the
best we can say to Americans is, "Pack up your
140
HALF WAY
railroads, factories, coffee, sugar, and rubber plan-
tations and come home." That seems like doing
the contemporar}' thing in a contemporary way.
It is idealism flying in panic and cringing ob-
sequiously to Terror. And we are also supposed
to be talking about coming home from the Phil-
ippines ; the men who went to India may be trusted
to stay there.
Somewhere out in the crushed-sapphire colored
water on the second day, between chota-hazra and
"breakfast" we crossed the ninety-second parallel,
thus completing in terms of longitude half way
round from the Iowa farms to the college once more.
Half way in miles was beyond Singapore, see-saw-
ing, as we did, up to Hong Kong, down to Manila,
and back again. Thus we came upon the threshold
of the Farthest East.
The Ellenga reached Rangoon Monday morn-
ing of Passion Week. There was a "bar" to cross,
for which the precise time of tide had to be com-
puted and a new pilot taken on. We raced by the
rice-ships and sampans of all stjdes and ages, and
inferior only in smells to those of Canton. The
Rangoon, one of the mouths of the Irawaddy, is
a low-banked, muddy, unimpressive stream, and the
141
IN PORTS AFAR
trip up the Ocalawaha, in Florida, exceeds in di-
version anything to be obtained by riding up or
down the Irawaddy. The British India ships lie
in port until Thursday, so there is ample time to
go by rail to the capital,
"On the road to Mandelay,
Where the flying fishes play.
And the sun comes up like thunder.
Outer China 'crost the hay,"
and come down by the river boat. Disappointment
increases as to the square of the number of the
tourists who take the trip.
We set out under the direction of C. W. Sever-
ance to take a census of the Buddhas in Rangoon.
The first temple yielded 168, and with cheerful
confidence in our ability to reach one thousand, we
next tackled the Shwe Dagon, upheaving itself in
the sun, girt with a scaffolding of bamboo poles,
so that the Burmese may acquire merit by regilding
its wonderful dome, neither Moslem nor Hindoo
in type. When our total in that temple had reached
1,500, with many nooks and chapels still to be
enumerated, we quit. We rely for success upon
patience and persistence, but for once they failed
us. Including those awaiting purchase in the
142
HALF WAY
art stores, we should estim'ate that at least four
thousand images of Buddha are to be found in
Rangoon. We have "flag day" and "carnation
day," and the English have "primrose day," but
"Buddha day" is all the year round in Bumiah.
The new railroad carries an increasing number of
tourists up "the river of the lost footsteps," but
the swarms it brings down to the temple of the
great god of Idleness there on the hill, surrounded
by the English cantonment, constitutes a "yellow
peril." The "land-grabbing" English are over
lords to gods many, but none are more unique and
more economically paralyzing than the god with
his fifteen hundred Buddhas of the Shwe Dagon.
That high place, winking its interrogation to the
eastern sun, is the best explanation of why the
English came and will likely stay.
We attended the Passion Week ser\dces, spent
delightful mornings in the gardens, shops, and tem-
ples ; visited the school, the Baptist Publishing
House, and were vaccinated afresh in the municipal
clinic. We went to Aloon and saw the huge ele-
phants haul the great teak logs from the river's
edge, where they had been rafted at high tide, and
watched them "salaam" for us at the pick of the
143
IN PORTS AFAR
Mahout ; the color, the women unveiled, the markets,
the jail, the "Reclining Buddha," equal in impres-
siveness to the one at Kamakura, are sights worth
a year of languid Southern Europe. But most of
all the Severance house, in Lancaster Road; the
school of the sisterhood, next to it; the Buddhist
mendicants, as they make their rounds begging for
rice; the bread-fruit hanging on the trees, brings
staccato to my thoughts if it is repressed in ex-
pression. The Germans train all the young men
for the army; in Burmah all the young men are
educated for the priesthood. Plague and cholera
persist the year round, and not merely the igno-
rance, but the indifference of the comfortable folks
at home to all that distant day's work, impresses
me with its injustice and stupidity. For example,
the General Conference has authorized Foreign mis-
sionaries. Home missionaries, Epworth League mis-
sionaries, self-supporting missionaries, and Wom-
an's Foreign missionaries. Let us hope that the de-
voted household in Lancaster Road and the women
adjacent, with all similar mission compounds,
hemmed in by plague, cholera, smallpox of the
black, deadly type, needing the united sympathy
and increased support of the Church at home, can
14^
HALF WAY
count on a refusal of the General Conference to a
further division of responsibility in missionary ad-
ministration.
Women with "bound feet" watched our landing
from the lighter at Penang on Easter morning. It
is the island of Paul and Virginia. Hundreds of
'rikisha men stood ready to whisk us away to
church or to the falls and temples five miles away.
We went to the FitzGerald Memorial Church;
roomy interior, handsome exterior; convenient to
the Anglo-Chinese school, and reached by roads
running on the Parabola. The Easter sermon there
was like having again the holy sacrament from the
hands of that great bishop of the ecclesia. After
lunch at the Anglo-Chinese school, Dr. Pykett, one
of the surpassing Englishmen, who has thrown
himself ^^dth such energy and success into our work
in the Straits Settlements, drove us to Cornelia
FitzGerald's grave. She sleeps in a spot surrounded
by such wild beauty as no other country could
show, and contiguous to the spacious gardens. On
Easter Day in such environment — who that has the
Easter hope could repress the upspringing foun-
tains of thanksgiving.^ St. Paul said, "The time
of my departure is at hand," meaning either the
10 145
IN PORTS AFAR
launching or the sailing of the Immortal Personal-
ity. Whichever meaning may be imported into the
phrase, the FitzGeralds were ready for decessus.
"Our people die well." Let us more frequently
make protest against the an'ogance of science,
which, as dogmatic as mediaeval theology, has re-
vived the tenet of the Sadducees, "Who say there is
no resurrection." In recent years science has
properly asserted its theories against dogmatic
theology, but there has been over-assertion as well.
The public now find that they have only exchanged
one priesthood for another, and we are now asked
to confirm that nothing which can not be weighed
and measured shall be allowed to possess validity.
Sir Oliver Lodge has just differentiated the soul
from its material embodiment as "the constant and
identical personality running through one's expe-
riences," and ranging from the discussion of its
existence here to its continuity hereafter, and to
the question of its immortality. Quietly, moder-
ately, and firmly he has made his profession of
faith in the persistence of personality beyond
bodily death, of which and the broad truths of re-
ligion he has been convinced by strict evidence.
Doubtless his conclusions will be challenged, but
146
The Buki Pai.m.
HALF WAY
none will deny the force of liis protests against the
negations of science — pure dogmatism, though
couched in the negative — or the vahdity of his ap-
peal to the primal instincts and intimations of men
in all ages and all lands.
We took the tram the next day to an ancient
"temple." We follo^red for miles along the road,
fringed with native houses and shadowed by ever-
lasting cocoanut palms. The heat was heavy with
the reek of vegetation and the smell of earth after
heavy rains. Birds whistled, thunders muttered in
the hills, and the breath came heavy and vaporous,
like that in a Turkish bath. It was like the land
of the "lotus eaters."
"And in the afternoon they came unto a land
In which it seemed always afternoon."
We climbed the long hill, fed the sacred fish, noted
the guardian Gorgons, and penetrated to the re-
cesses of the main pagoda. We saw a priest who
conforais to the "Face" which Kipling describes;
"the chin, jowl, lips, and neck were modeled faith-
fully on the lines of the Roman empresses — the
lolloping, walloping women that Swinburne sings
about, and that we sometimes see pictures of.
147
IN PORTS AFAR
Above this gross perfection of form came the Mon-
goloid nose, narrow forehead, and flaring pigs'-
eyes." His prototype was in Jerusalem on the day
of the ciTicifixion, and he is a fit keeper "for a
wilderness of clay dolls or a menagerie of jointed
tigers."
Singapore is Penang over again, and besides
has many things to delight the eye. Its hostelries
are famous, as such world-end locations are certain
to become. But for us the Book Store and the
Anglo-Chinese school are worth all the time and
study a globe-trotter can give to them. Oldham
Hall, named for the Rupert of the Missionary Sec-
retariat, showed us the one challenge to democracy
with its correlate equality which we found an}'^-
where in the missionary world. They provide a
first and second-class "mess" for the boys who re-
side there. It is made necessary by the crowds that
threaten utterly to swamp our present inadequate
facilities. There are 1,400 boys and men, segre-
gated— esteeming Cliristianity to be the English
language, physics, chemistry, biology, that is,
Western science and democracy. Roberts College
is the guarantor of Balkan freedom; those Anglo-
Chinese schools of Penang and Singapore are the
148
HALF WAY
pledge and prophecy of a Chinese RepubHc. Six
days we roamed about the quaint city, visited, as
ever3'where, the American Consulate, talked poli-
tics, and found in that gateway of the world men
of consequence, who sit in social, financial, and gov-
ernmental high places, talking with approval and
intelligence of teacliing, medical, and industrial
missions. Had England given one-tenth the help
to China that she has given to India, she would
at this hour be the mistress of all lands and im-
pregnable in the affections of a race yet to domi-
nate the Orient.
The Nile, a large intermediate ship of the Pen-
insular & Oriental Line, deeply loaded and well
appointed, eighth of our circumnavigating fleet,
bore us to Hong Kong. The Sunday on board
was as quiet and orderly as any ever kept in a
New England village. One man, the commander,
reverent, thoughtful, so impressed the passengers
that those who might otherwise have been tempted
to thoughtlessness and irreverence deported them-
selves like they would on a holy day at home. The
"ser\dce" read by the commander lasted just twenty
minutes. The hymns, in which every one joined;
the prayers, and the Scriptures, all regularly ap-
149
IN PORTS AFAR
pointed for the day, were helpful, and the collec-
tion for the Seaman's Orphanage was generous
indeed. The English ships do the Sunday service
quite to our satisfaction.
The Nile steamed into Hong Kong through a
multiplicity of islets and deeply indented shores,
sometimes running down to the sea in little sandy
coves, and at other times falling sheer in a cliff
hanging above sea-wom caves, where the boom of
the surf could be heard. The harbor is a world
in itself; big liners at anchor, battleships, lines of
junks, wallowing coal hulks, and thousands of sam-
pans between miles of docks. We saw with rap-
turous eyes a gunboat and a transport flying the
American flag, and had our sympathy excited by
a Cliinese river steamer that had been looted by
pirates and was flying a fl^g of distress. The
"Peak," reached by an inclined tram, hangs
frowningly above, dotted with green, and there is
notliing so easily accessible in this wide world that
is so wild and wonderful as the outlook from its
top with its fifty miles of sky, and the fortress
with its twelve-inch guns — and, they say, without
men to fight them. But that is probably some
English civilian trembling. Hong Kong is a
150
HALF WAY
starting-point for Macao and Canton, and in all it
detained us a week. Macao makes one think of
Hell's Half Acre up in Yellowstone Park, save that
the seething caldron is made up of gamblers and
prostitutes. The ninety miles to Canton is one
continual overhauling and passing of screw steam-
ers, pig boats, junks, and ducking sampans. Lit-
erally hundreds of houseboats, many of them
sculled by women, with babies lashed to their backs,
crowded about our steamer to take off some pas-
senger or some package of freight. The mere
mob, fighting for their places about the ship, was
terrifying. But the city itself, through which
tourists are borne in sedan-chairs by streets so nar-
row that one can often touch both sides, is in-
describable. The waves of yellow faces; the tier
on tier of signs, red, yellow, black, and white; the
pigs squealing as they were slaughtered ; the brazen
dragons, the stench, the feathered jewelry shops,
and the inlaid workers, baffled description. Only
once, and that on Chicago Day, in 1893, at the
World's Fair, were we caught in such a crowd.
The Temple of the Five Hundred Genii, where
some Jesuit fathers and Marco Polo appear in the
gallery; the ancestral temple, the water clock, the
151
IN PORTS AFAR
potter's field, where the executions take place; the
Prison of Horrors, where in a Chinese Eden musee
men are hacked, sliced, fried, and grilled; the city
walls, w^here on the grass-grown top you may see
rusty English guns spiked and abandoned; the
myriads of dead in the cemetery, and a five-story
pagoda are all in the itinerary, which goes on hour
after hour until you are tired and disgusted, and
remember the lines of the old Watts hymn,
"Wallow until your lives be through;
Satan's god children takes your due."
There is one thing to be thankful for, and that
is that there are neither dogs nor horses to be seen.
Well it is for Psi, the Scotch collie which lives at
our house, and for the handsome roadster that our
district superintendent drives, that both were bred
in Iowa. Dore ought to have seen Canton before
he illustrated the "Inferno."
The Presbyterian mission at Shek-Lung is a little
paradise on the edge of Canton ; all the missions are
oases in that desert of life. Yet any Chinese mis-
sion makes one think of a small rowboat out on the
Atlantic within hailing distance of the Titanic five
minutes after she went down. At Hong Kong we
152
HALF WAY
consorted with the Germans. We lodged at the
Berhn Foundlings' Home, Lutheran, whose habit-
ants persist in the simple homely virtues wliich so
commend their doctrines and their nationality. It
was so restful after being carried in chairs, hurried
along in 'rikishas, and chasing about in trams, to
sit at the table after dinner and listen while the
pastor read the evening lesson, and then with hymn
and prayer to "Put out each feverish light" of
those garish days.
The Zafiro, a trim little two-thousand-ton ship,
with no more roll nor toss than a North River
ferry boat, carried us safely to Manila. We passed
Corregidor just at dawn and had a wide, long look
at the bay, which already bulks so large in Ameri-
can history, while the east was empurpling with
the new day. Our daughter and other friends met
us at the pier with only such welcome as they can
give. Little could any of us have dreamed when
we first heard the news of Dewey's exploit that in
less than fifteen years we should be greeting each
other in sight of Cavite and admiring together
the com growing in the field of insurrecto Agui-
naldo.
153
Chapter IX
THE GREAT AMERICAN ADVENTURE
rriHE bombardment of Alexandria by the Eng-
-*" lish, the taking over of Tunis by the French,
the present German emperor's activity in acquiring
African territory, the annexation of Tripoli by
Italy, and the American purchase and occupation
of the Philippines belong to the catalogue of re-
cent events involving the colonizing nations, all
located in the temperate zone, in the government
of tropical countries. The colonial activity of
England and France antedates by a century these
present-day enterprises, but with the English oc-
cupation of Egypt the modem movement in colo-
nization, essentially scientific in method and eco-
nomic in purpose, begins.
We have already alluded to the fact that Glad-
stone had his hand forced in the Egyptian matter.
In a similar way the nation forced McKinley's
hand and thrust this insular administration upon
him. It is easy to prophesy after an event, and
154
THE GREAT AMERICAN ADVENTURE
grow wise about what should have been done.
"Dewey should have sailed away 1" But no one
thought of that, or would have consented to it
on May 2, 1898. "McKinley should not have paid
$20,000,000 for them, according to the Treaty of
Paris !" But it was McKinley, not our interlocu-
tor, whom the people had elected to approve the
negotiations. "Treat them as we did Cuba !" "Get
a guarantee of their independence from the Great
Powers;" "Give them to Japan," and so on, in-
cluding every plan except the one we are now
actually following. McKinley, like Gladstone, rec-
ognized the National impulse. He understood the
Nation,
"whose dull voice is thunder
And was the key beneath its finger pressed."
Other Presidents have felt this imperative of public
opinion. "The soul is where it acts," says Lotze;
and Thomas Jefferson, contrary to all his own po-
litical maxims, annexing Louisiana, was the soul
of a larger country than any of which the beard-
less colonels and young sages who w^on the Revo-
lution ever dreamed. Grover Cleveland lacked
imagination and missed his way when he hauled
down the flag in Hawaii. The instinct of the
155
IN PORTS AFAR
people judged it better than Mr. Cleveland, with
all his sterling integrity.
The Panama Canal zone is another case in point.
President Roosevelt understood the Nation, and
the Nation felt in him a response to its own com-
manding purpose. The Hindoo syllogism is aca-
demic: that of Occidental life is efficient. Some
American Hindoos do not seem to know that Mr.
Roosevelt would have been anathema in the public
mind had he not gone forward: that the claims of
Colombia for reimbursem'ent have less validity than
those of Queen Liliuokalani, for she wrote "Aloha
Oe," and that the Nation of America aided and ap-
proved the purchase of the canal strip, and will
praise the ex-President for it "world without end."
The cuckoo is an anomaly in the bird-world. By
some strange instinct it foregoes the labor of other
birds in nesting and feeding, lays its eggs in alien
nests, and entrusts the hatcliing of the foundling
eggs and the rearing of the young to the owners
of the nests it has taken. No one has come for-
ward to explain how such an instinct is developed,
nor do we know why other birds nest the eggs, and
welcome and feed the intruders. Now, are we
prepared to say that England, France, Germany,
156
THE GREAT AMERICAN ADVENTURE
Italy, and the United States are cuckoos? and that
Algiers, Egypt, China, India, and the Pliilipplnes
are alien nests, which these nations have appro-
priated?
The program of the Philippine commissioners
is anything but cuckoo-like. They began by clean-
ing up the Islands. Like the Panama Canal strip,
the Islands had to be disinfected, vaccinated, and
rendered immune against cholera and bubonic
plague. Herein the United States has attempted
more, and improved upon all that England or
France has done. In 1902 there were 4!,662 cases
of cholera in ^lanila alone, with 3,560 deaths. The
provinces had that same year 120,996 cases ; 77,972
deaths resulting therefrom. In 1911 Manila had
one case of cholera, with death resulting, and 226
cases in the provinces, with 182 deaths. The
cuckoo, if it is a cuckoo, brings some strange se-
curity to the Philippine Islands' nest. Bubonic
plague plays a continuous performance in all the
great cities of the Orient. Human nature being
as it is, and with such neighbors, Manila can not
hope to entirely escape, but the quarantine, health
inspection, and rigid sanitary regulations are so
efficient that only sporadic cases of the plague now
157
IN PORTS AFAR
«
occur. Hong Kong furnishes more plague in a
month than Manila in a year.
The economic development of the Islands is
greatly dependent upon the increase of caribou
and the introduction of cattle and animal labor.
The rinderpest is as desolating to cattle as cholera
and plague to the natives, and the fight the Gov-
ernment makes against rinderpest is second only
to that which it makes to save human life. It is
common to meet some captain or lieutenant with
a detail of constabulary coming or going to a
rinderpest-mi^ci^di district, where, by the latest
and most approved veterinary treatment, they save
a few animals, isolate the scourge, and at times al-
together stamp it out.
Since 1907 the railroad mileage has increased
from 122 to 455. The civilizing force of a rail-
road is less appreciated, perhaps, in the United
States than almost anywhere else. Our struggle
for the control of passenger rates and freight tar-
iffs, and against railroad, legislative, and judicial
influence has obscured the dependence which eco-
nomic and social progress must place on transpor-
tation. One dollar spent on a railroad is worth a
hundred invested in army equipment, and the 333
158
THE GREAT AMERICAN ADVENTURE
additional miles oi railway are worth a hundred
thousand rifles and millions spent on military oper-
ations. Then add the public buildings, artesian
wells, irrigation projects, and macadam roads that
to the amount of 8,533,214 pesos have been built
out of the public revenues last year; then figure
as much spent for the same pui'pose the year be-
fore, and estimate that as much will be so expended
the coming year, and the next; add the increased
production of sugar, rice, hemp, and tobacco ; the
introduction of corn-growing, the diversifying of
the crops, scientific coinage, a just levy of taxes
and their honest expenditure, and a dozen other
specifications which help toward economic inde-
pendence, before you cry "Cuckoo."
The educational program is unique in that it
purposes to reform the archaic and almost barbaric
amusements of the whole people. Loungers about
the railway depots caiTy game cocks under their
arms, which suggest cock-fighting as the national
game of the Tagalogs. Baseball has taken its
place, and everybody, from the governor-general
do^vn, except a few nonconforming clergymen,
play ball. They encourage labor and thrift by
trade schools run as commercial shops; they have
159
IN PORTS AFAR
opened up all the known vocational opportunities
to the new generation. They have searched out
native materials and made them available for indus-
trial use, so that bamboo, Buri palm, Nipa and
Abaca or Manila hemp are many times more com-
mercially important than before the public schools
taught their manufacturing possibilities. The
Coast Guard service provides a great nautical
school, and the constabulary gives opportunity for
a military education, which opens rapid preferment
to those who are diligent and efficient. In a word,
the Philippine schools provide a gainful occupation
and an English education to every boy, and nurse's
training, basketry, hat-making, cloth- weaving, do-
mestic science, designing, and embroidery for every
girl.
The youth of the Government and the ardor ol
the American occupation is sure to impress the
visitor. The vice-governor-general, also secretary
of education, the director of education, his first and
second assistants, are all men from the universities
of the Central West, young, exhuberantly hopeful,
with faces full of energy and free from cynicism.
It is men of their type who maintain civil order,
control the diseases of the climate, and attempt
160
THE GREAT AMERICAN ADVENTURE
"by slow prudence to make mild
A rugged people, and through soft degrees
Subdue them to the useful and the good,"
and in the sixteen years since the Battle of jManila
Bay have put the Islanders far on their way to
self-respect, self-support, and self-control.
It should not appeal to the public to say that all
this is done without expense to the American tax-
payer, but such is the case. Except for the regi-
ments that are quartered in the Philippines, and
the warships on station or in dry dock there, no
expense attaches to the occupation. The Govern-
ment might better quarter its troops at the Manila
Camp McKinley, or at the Baguio Camp John
Hay, than at many of the 152 army posts where it
now scatters them. The same is true of the navy.
Without expense to ourselves, by special tariffs,
we have aided the Islanders, but except for the
initial cost and the expense of suppressing the
Aguinaldo insurrection, of actual outlay nothing.
It is a reproach to the American Churches that
great schools like the Anglo-Chinese school at
Penang and the one of similar name at Singapore
should be compelled to support themselves; so it
seems to dampen enthusiasm to learn that in all
11 161
IN PORTS AFAR
this the American taxpayer has no part. But the
American Nation has furnished pohtical and social
stabihty and a group of men with great adminis-
trative capacity, who have fertiHzed by their pa-
tience, accuracy, and enthusiasm thousands of
Tagalogs, who in the passing of the years will keep
up to the standards of capacity and integrity they
have set.
The upper-class Tagalog, usually, or often at
least, a mestizo, does not understand the American.
He has been reared in a practice of goverament
where the official classes exploit the rank and file.
Since Legazpi occupied Manila, in 1571, the repre-
sentatives of the old Spanish families have grown
rich in office. That is what office means to them —
a chance to enrich themselves at public expense.
It Is in the blood, and has been as long as they have
been developing their facial angle. Aguinaldo fail-
ing in insurrection, grew rich in land and pesos
by the failure. No one reproaches him for it ; it
was expected; anything else would have been in-
comprehensible. That members of the Pliilippine
commission should govern without graft and treat
public office as a public trust excites their infidelity.
Nor can they explain why a great, wise, and be-
16^
THE GREAT AMERICAN ADVENTURE
neficent Government does not punish their frequent
lapses from loyalty ; they think it some weakness
in the goyemment. Our long forbearance wliile
they steal rifles, shoot down soldiers, and run
amuck under their law of "jura mentado," they
count inability on our part to make reprisals.
They misunderstand the reasons for granting a
Philippine Assembly even now, and they misunder-
stood the long sufferance of the American Congress
and the American people, while peonage and slav-
ery went on for lack of penal clauses giving
validity to the Fourteenth Amendment to the Con-
stitution. They tliink that American citizens be-
lieve that their honor would suffer if penal clauses
were enacted for punisliing such criminals. The
new Administration deserves credit for the prompt-
ness with which the Assembly enacted the new laws
upon the arrival of the new governor-general. But
the simple-hearted Igorrote and Ifagao seem to
appreciate our sincerity, and perhaps just as the
birds whose nests are stolen tolerate the cuckoo-
eggs, so in some blind way these dependent heathen
better estimate our motives than the caciques of
mixed blood, and the hereditary disposition to
graft and official exploitation.
163
IN PORTS AFAR
There are now three distinct forces in the Phil-
ippines making for civihzation ; first is the Govern-
ment, which is doing the work of the teaching mis-
sionary, the medical missionary, with the powers
of the policeman added. Second or third, for the
order is not determinative, should be mentioned the
Catholic archbishop. Dr. Harty, formerly of St.
Louis. Six or eight American priests followed
him to the field. The archbishop looks like the
typical American with Irish forbears; face and
bearing mark him as well fitted to be the religious
leader of 7,000,000 Filipinos, nominally Christian,
at least. In his person and character he has done
much to recover influence and sympathy for the
Roman Church. Granted that he is of the Farley-
Falconio group of churchmen, is surrounded by
Spanish clerics, who utter the most absurd opinions
and prefer ungrantable requests in the name of a
papal delegate, he yet seems the diplomatic equal
of Archbishop Ireland, and on the spiritual level
of the present Pope Pius X. The Protestant mis-
sionaries in the Islands are, to compare them to
army chaplains, few in number, much ordered about
by colonels and generals, and yet by virtue of
character and conduct of great consequence to
164
THE GREAT AMERICAN ADVENTURE
armies and nations. The Government's part is to
educate and maintain health and order. The
archbishop's part is to conform the Roman CathoHc
Church to the fact of a modern American Govern-
ment, and with the help of American priests reform
the native priesthood from the mcdiseval Spanish
to the English-Irish-American standard. The
Protestant part is to set a standard of temperance,
purity, Sabbath-observance; to build donnitories
for men and women in connection with all the nor-
mal and provincial high schools, and thus exemplify
the decent, self-respecting life which is the one
basis for American citizenship. They may as they
will serv^e as chaplains extraordinary to anny, navy,
civil service employees, and historic Church, warn-
ing, encouraging, and bringing to the broad glare
of publicity lapses from the integrity and broad-
mindedness which America expects of all its indi-
viduals and institutions, besides uttering that evan-
gelistic message which men of good will have
sounded from the beginning.
Congress can confer anarchy ; independence is
beyond its power at the present writing. By some
premature action, just as the establishing of the
Philippine Assembly with its present powers w^as
165
IN PORTS AFAR
premature, Congress may aid to establish two self-
styled "republics," one terrorized by the ]\Ioros and
Visayans, the other certif3^ing to the exploitation
of diverse peoples to the number of 8,000,000 by
a few hundred Tagalogs, to whom, because they
understand either English or Spanish, the Govern-
ment perforce must be committed. "One free
people can not govern another," said James An-
thon}^ Froude ; but that is not saying that they
may not co-operate with each other, that they may
not federate their forces for protection, for mutual
advantage, and for consein-ation and economy of
resources. The United States are free and self-
governing, if they are not independent.
Independence is a state of civilization to be ac-
quired and realized, not conf eiTed ; in the language
of events, if not in formal words, democracy has
enumerated the conditions on wliich modern inde-
pendencies may occur ; they are : self-support, after
some simple, hard-working, self-sacrificing stand-
ard which we are all quick to recognize ; self-con-
trol, so that the verdict of a majority serves as a
warrant for orderly procedure and a waraing
against revolution; self-respect, so that sensitive-
ness does not too much depreciate resourcefulness
166
THE GREAT AMERICAN ADVENTURE
in the presence of difficulties, and weaken the cour-
age with which we meet them; intelKgence and a
deepening consciousnes of what good and evil, duty
and pleasure are. No sentimental associations can
waive any one of these terms, nor can self-interest
bribe our partiality to set them aside. Because
we have a July 4, 1776, is not per se proof that
the Philippine Islanders are ready for self-govern-
ment. When a large body of middle and lower
class citizens, increasing in number and influence
with each passing year, knowing what it means,
yearn for independence; when another large body
of Filipinos year after year put on record and
reiterate their consuming desire to be received into
the American Union as a Territorv, we shall have
evidences that mav make action advisable. Until
that time the words defining our National policy
may remain in abeyance.
167
Chapter X
EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
''TT ITCHENER'S SCHOOL" is one of the
-■• ^ flaslilight phrases to the credit of KipHng.
It illustrates his incisive way of getting at the
heart of things, and his picturesque power of pre-
senting contemporaneous events with artistic effect
and in decisive fashion. The dedication of Gordon
College at Khartoum gave him opportunity to com-
press into a few lines the duty of colonizing peo-
ples, and his use of the incident has not only im-
bedded the fact of the college into the history of
our own times, but also indicated education as the
sure process from brute force to spintual enlarge-
ment. The best traditions of the race relate to the
insti-uction of the young, and the nations that put
greatest capital into teaching live best and longest.
Kitchener's School celebrates the English race as
the great "teacliing nation," and their genius in
this particular is eccentric to the verge of madness.
168
EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
"Knowing that ye are forfeit by battle, and have no
right to live,
He begs for money to bring j'oii learning — and all the
English give.
It is their treasure — it is their pleasure — thus are their
hearts inclined;
For Allah created the English mad — the maddest of all
mankind!
"They do not consider the Meaning of Things; they con-
sult not creed nor clan.
Behold, they clap the slave on the back, and, behold,
he ariseth a man!
They terribly carpet the earth with dead, and before
their cannon cool,
They walk unarmed by twos and threes to call the living
to school."
But the school, according to the poem, is an ex-
planation of the men. Tliis Mohammedan school-
master, who had sei-^^ed with the Bengal Infantry
at Suakim, the supposed author of the poem, gropes
to the social meaning of the school and the attitude
of the school teacher. It is the English who
"Have set a guard on the granaries, securing the weak
from the strong,
And said, 'Go, work the water-wheels that were abolished
so long.' "
We know the function of the school: first, to
select and train leaders ; and second, to raise the
169
IN PORTS AFAR
mass of the people to the plane of intelligent par-
ticipation in all essential social activities. But
more than this education modifies a nation in an
entirely original and pecular way. The problem
of Danvin is, "How does environment affect men?"
but education conforms environment to ideas and
ideals that in result preserve and perpetuate the
men who have modified their suiToundings. We all
recollect Darwin's statement about the influence of
cats on the growth of clover in their neighborhood ;
have read the effect of the European rabbits in
New Zealand, and have discussed pro and con the
English sparrow, as to whether he benefits by eating
canker worms more than he damages by driving
away native birds. So the importation of a virile
race of men to Egypt, to India, or the Philippines,
men used to plethora of bread, and knowing how
to raise it, brings about a rearrangement of social
relations. These men act as a fennent, exemplify
new standards, Initiate new methods, set new pre-
cedents, and fertilize by their vigor and efficiency
the agriculture, trade, and industry of the new
land.
Kitchener, with his orders to punish the mur-
derers of General Gordon, parallels Admiral Dewey
170
EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
with his instiTictions "to find and destroy the Span-
ish fleet." There are many ready to sneer at Eng-
land as bent on merely extending trade, and who
denounce the Soudan expedition as jingoism.
Kipling is nothing, say some, but a "jingo" and
a sort of unofficial member of Parliament represent-
ing "imperialism" as liis constituency. England
probably deseryes criticism, but it should be for not
doing in Armenia what she did in the Soudan.
It is easy to cry "imperialism," as if that settled
anything. Its social yalue or political force is
about equal to the Oriental method of replying to
whateyer difficult question is proposed by the un-
impeachable truism, "Allah is great." Not to fall
back on the gods when a proximate principle can
be found is one of the superiorities of Christianity
to pagan faiths. It is proof of an efficient as dis-
tinguished from an inefficient intellect, and is guar-
antee that England will continue to goyern
"Those new-caught sullen peoples.
Half devil and half child,"
over whom she has gradually assumed control. A
certain amount of self-assertion is indispensable to
national as well as indiyidual existence, and any-
171
IN PORTS AFAR
thing that will rouse the sleeping nerve-centers of
national self-respect, such as the occupation of
Algiers by the French or the conquest of Tripoli
by the Italians, is well worth while. It is none the
less good work if trade is increased by it. Law and
order, increased tillage of land, and better ideas of
equity and justice have likewise resulted. Kitch-
ener's School is notice that civilization sends out to
the world that independent nations must educate
their children.
America interfered in Cuba vnth something
like Christian motives, and the occupation of the
Philippines was a reluctant second move, made nec-
essary by the first step. The nation would not be
content to administer the Islands with any other
intent than to benefit the Islanders. Wages have
doubled since the American occupation, and only
the fact that they are an American dependency pro-
tects them now. Left to themselves, the Philippines
would be overwhelmed by the migrating Chinese
just as the Straits Settlements, Java, and Indo-
China have been overwhelmed. The Japanese by
trade discriminations or otherwise would certainly
add them to the Mikado's realms, even if by any
stretch of the imagination they could be thought
172
EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
able to protect themselves against the Chinese.
Democrac}^ has seemed to fail in Latin America,
either from political tradition inherited from Spain,
or from lack of universal education. The Fili-
pinos have the same political training as Latin
America ; if by education he can become possessed
of the self-governing capacity hitherto shown only
by the wliite race, the altruism of America will be
demonstrated be3^ond question.
One does not need to go to the Philippines to
learn the relationship of education to industry,
and the recent tremendous expansion of industrial
training. But an ordinar}^ traveler could not spend
a month in the islands without feeling that they
have there an able group of young and enthusias-
tic teachers who have mapped out a unique edu-
cational program and are carrying it forward by
methods of instruction, entertainingly original and
free from all suspicion of educational tradition.
The program of Dr. Kerschensteiner, of Munich,
whose objective is a pupil in training to take his
place as a useful citizen in the largest capacity,
finds its counterpart in the educational system of
the Philippines.
We should expect to find graded school, high
17B
IN PORTS AFAR
school, normal and trade school. In the trade
schools we should expect carpentry, cabinet-mak-
ing, basketry, straw-braiding, and hat-making,
sandal and slipper manufacture, weaving, em-
broidery, and domestic science. But to search out
the native materials available for industrial use, to
establish new industries, to multiply tenfold the
productive power of human labor, in tea, rice and
sugar plantations, to reform the amusements of a
whole people, to make trade and agricultural
schools financially self-supporting, and to direct
young men to every vocational path, from marine
officer to supreme court judge, and meanwhile to
keep zest in the practice of striving toward an
educational end, is to justify the word of an Amer-
ican scholar to Ex-President Taft, that our Govern-
ment was "doing the most interesting and most
promising piece of original work in education now
in progress anywhere in the w^orld." It might be
added that all this has been accomplished at one-
tenth the cost for similar work per capita in
America.
One scarce knows where to begin in an exposition
of the unique aim and quality of American educa-
tion in the islands. Let us have the first paragraph
174
EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
on com. Corn is king in the United States, and
will be in the Philippines. Once in Germany we
attended a fair, or perhaps we would better call it
a social function, held for the popularizing of
corn-food products. In a way, agricultural educa-
tion in the Philippines has had as one of its direct
aims the growing of corn. Out there a young and
aggressive group of teachers from the American
corn-belt has presei^'ed the memory of the tasseled
brigade of the royal corn, and set the islanders into
an acute palpitation to raise the best field of corn.
A kodak picture recently produced in the Christian
Advocate showed the famous Aguinaldo, leader of
the insurrection and, next to Rizal, hero of the
Tagalogs, standing with the first assistant director
of education in a prize acre of corn planted and
cultivated by Aguinaldo, Jr. One needs to go to
the Philippines to understand what that picture
means : a rich man's son actually at manual labor ;
a Filipino, not loving labor, winning a prize
thereby ; and thus exciting the emulation of a mil-
lion like labor-unloving Filipinos, who could be
taught in no other way that work is honorable and
indolence one of the seven deadly sins. All the
diplomacies of modern courts, cabinets, and cabals
175
IN PORTS AFAR
do not equal the subtle -finesse in putting the Fili-
pino boj to work. It is Tom Sawyer up to date,
not with whitewash and binish, and fence to be cov-
ered, but his American counterpart under the blaz-
ing tropic glare, with plow and hoe, and corn to
be grown. They have the young women in the
com business, too. They hold multiplied com
demonstrations, where the young w^omen, students
of the domestic science departments of the pro-
vincial schools, under the direction of domestic
science teachers, prepare and serv^e dishes of corn-
foods to vast crowds that hour after hour surround
the booths. Would all Mount Pleasant go to a
mango fair? They would if they had but once
tasted a ripe, juicy, delicious mango. Would all
Dumequete go to a corn-product festival .^^ Six
thousand of them did. There were six different
dishes of corn prepared and sold, and probably
four thousand ate of one or more of these prepared
dishes. What a sideshow the corn-germinating box
was, and how the thousands looked at the selected
seed-ears ! American plows and corn-shellers and
cornmills were all on exhibition, and a swarm of
boys, some of them dressed as fat, husky clowns,
176
EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
wore placards, "I eat corn ;" others, dressed as lean
clowns, wore other placards, "I eat rice," while
all took part in the band that furnished music and
amusement for the crowd. Rice is the Oriental
food; unnumbered millions rejoice and feast when
it is plenty, and mourn and starve when it is scarce.
But corn and corn, pone, and com cakes, like science
and the English language, and the Christian faith,
belong to Occidental civilization. It is suggestive
of fat swine, thick beefsteaks, butter and cheese,
and the introduction of com to the Philippine
Islands is naturalization, revolution, and revelation.
The same subtlety is marked in the athletics in-
troduced and fostered by the bureau of education.
The problem of abolisliing the American saloon,
so that it will stay abolished, is to find something
better and substitute it for the saloon. So these
Tagalogs have amusements practiced for three
hundred years in the islands, and by their forbears,
both Spanish and Malay, for century on century
before Philip II i-uled. The two most typical were
cock and bull fighting. It is needless to expatiate
upon the utter cruelty of both, nor mention the gam-
bling and general lawlessness consequent upon them.
12 177
IN PORTS AFAR
Now comes the former secretary of education, one-
time major in the Spanish- American War, member
of Congress, Federal judge in the islands, member
of the Philippine Commission before he was forty
years old. He nominates for director of education
and first and second assistant directors of education
three big, young Americans, fresh from big, whole-
some, American universities. The problem up to
this quartet is how to abolish cock and bull fights.
In fifteen seconds they all leap to the same induc-
tion, "Let us introduce baseball." Forthwith it
is done. The vacant lots are occupied, attendance
at the chicken and bull fights falls off; the sport-
ing goods firms are requisitioned from America;
sweaters and "letters" appear on runners, hurdlers,
and players ; the physical directors of the Young
Men's Christian Association are drafted as coaches ;
every teacher of the male persuasion gets into the
game. Ever^'body played ball, or coached or
rooted at the games. The clergy were not immune,
and, barring the nonconforaiist missionaries, all
the clergy in the islands could probably be con-
victed of playing baseball on Sunday. Basket ball,
volley ball, relay ball, and track athletics followed
178
EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
in the procession until a nation of gamblers and
cock-fighters forgot the stupid and cruel sports of
even ten years ago and have become naturahzed
Americans at least in their devotion to the Amer-
ican game. The}^ inin like the wind, leap like light-
ning, and can peg a ball as far as their American
compatriots, on the average nine inches higher in
stature. In Tok3'o we saw the all-Filipino team
play Meiji, the imperial university nine; and to
behold eight thousand Japanese rooting, waving
pennants, and chaffing the umpire made us think
that Luzon, Japan, and the L'nited States had long
since fonned the triple baseball alliance. The
Oh'mpic games for Eastern Asia, where Filipino,
Jap, and Chinese competed, the crowds that at-
tended and the new standards of manhood that in
those games had rapid growth speak volumes for
the educational experiment which has succeeded be-
yond all expectation in the Pliilippines.
The nautical school, tea cultivation, the making
of Bally-wag hats, the adoption of the Rigadone,
the stately old dance of the Filipinos, the way a
clump of abaca plants have been taught to disap-
pear and presto to reappear as a car-load of ropes,
179
IN PORTS AFAR
hats, slippers, baskets and cloth, and the ingenuity
developed in the use of the buri palm, would each
make paragraphs as adventurous and fascinating
as any tale Jack London ever wrote of these South-
ern seas.
180
Chapter XI
CONTENT AND PER CONTRA
f I ^HE content of American education in the Phil-
-*■ ippines is not quite so eas}^ to delimit as its
extent, 3'et it offers several specifications generally
applicable.
Under the Spanish rule only a very few, the
children of the great families and those in training
for the priesthood, were educated; and even these,
judged by the present-day American standards,
scarcely deserve the term. It can not be claimed
that the Jesuit colleges fostered a genuine desire for
learning. Their students seldom pursued learning
for its own sake, but rather to qualify for govern-
ment service or the clerical profession. The old
education for the ruling classes consisted for the
most part of theology and literature through the
medium of the Spanish language, with a smatter-
ing of law, art, and music added. The educational
value of the mediaeval pliilosophy and theology
181
IN rORTS AFAR
commonly in vogue is open to question. The Latin
taught was that of the Church "fathers," and the
horizon was hmited to the ecclesiastical propa-
ganda. The young men thus trained could not
know the tremendous economic waste involved in
the fact that almost one-fourth the property in
Spain was in the possession of the Church ; that in
the year 1550, twenty-one years before Legazpi
founded Manila, there w^ere in Spain 58 arch-
bishops, 684 bishops, 11,400 monasteries, 312,000
secular priests, 400,000 ecclesiastics, and nuns in
like proportion. They held enormous amounts of
property, and even the primate of the Spanish
Church advised Philip II to found no more monas-
teries. The graduates of the Jesuit colleges never
learned the consequences of clerical idleness, the ex-
ploitation of labor, which of necessity follows the
withdrawal of such a large proportion of the wealth
from taxation, and remained in ignorance of the
economic conditions of the Filipino people, know-
ing neither the history of the mother country, nor
the processes of the government under which they
lived.
There is another objection to the purely literary
training which any language furnishes, namely,
182
CONTENT AND PER CONTRA
the Inaccuracy into which hterature often falls.
For example, take Macaulay and his judgment
against Frederick the Great in the matter of Se-
lesia. The Heritage-Brotherhood made between
Joachim II, Marquis of Brandenburg, and Fred-
erick II, Duke of Liegnltz (Erbverbrilderung),
was a very common form of pact among German
princes well disposed toward each other. The right
of each to dispose of their lands in any manner
of way had been saved entirely by each and care-
fully acknowledged. The privilege had been con-
firmed again and again. Emperor Ferdinand de-
terailned to prohibit it, and the Duke of Liegnltz,
under the stress of kingly pressure, was compelled
to submit, but went so far as to append a codicil
to his will, saying that he considered the Heritage-
Brotherhood as valid and binding upon him and
his duchy, though It had been ovei^ruled by the
vassals of Bohemia. The king and emperor at-
tempted in like manner to coerce the Brandenburg-
ers into suiTender of their deed, but Joachim II
and all of his successors steadily refused to give up
that bit of Avritten parcliment. When the agree-
ment became actionable, on the accession of Fred-
erick the Great, all of these conclusive proofs were
183
IN PORTS AFAR
easily available, and the English world should have
understood it and sympathized accordingly. Now,
Lord Macaulay was eloquent and literary, and much
in vogue. He was not scientific, nor accurate, and
has succeeded in prejudicing thousands of people
who should have been well affected toward the great
Gemian king, but for his inaccurate statement of
the merits of the case. In the same way thousands
of fair-minded English people are still filled with
indignation when they read of the atrocious acts
of Clive and Hastings, as related by Macaulay, re-
counted as occurring in the conquest of India. No
suspicion reaches their minds of the truth that these
horrors never occurred, and yet they continue to
furnish an unfailing source of invective and ob-
loquy. His brilliant essays based upon Mill's in-
accurate history, and Burke's speeches, drama
rather than fact, are utterly unreliable. Men of
his own generation investigated the original sources,
and eye-witnesses disproved and discredited every-
thing but the imaginative work of Macaulay.
Both are illustrations of the astounding inaccura-
cies into which men of merely literary training may
fall. The results of present-day magazines and
editorial writing, saturated as they are with poli-
184
CONTENT AND PER CONTRA
tics, and by inference teaching that governments
are usually offensive and miserably unwise, are mis-
chievous in the extreme. The newspapers continue
to fill the Filipino discussions with invectives, and
the "politicos" who are ambitious for place, w^ealth,
and pow^er, with their imitative faculty, assume
that for the United States to delay granting inde-
pendence for a generation is proof positive that
the President and Congress constitute a tyranny
similar to that of George III, Lord North, and his
Parliament. To quote Sir John Strachey, on a
similar issue, "this sort of education is dangerous
fare for Asiatic brains." Already the daily papers
are reporting that if independence is delayed a
revolutionary outbreak is to be expected. Respect
for authority is always hampered by the speeches
and writings of foolish and selfish political agi-
tators. The strict and sober tests of truth, which
modern science and economics alone can supply,
have heretofore been utterly wanting in the educa-
tion of the Filipinos. This corrective is the fore-
most discernible content of American education in
the islands. It is scientific and economic, and the
situation in the islands echoes what Sir Henry
Maine once said of the English education in India :
185
IN PORTS AFAR
"The native literature is supremely and deliberately
careless of all precision in magnitude, number, and
time. ... It stands in need beyond everything
of stricter criteria of truth. It requires a treatment
to harden and brace it, and scientific teaching is
exactly the tonic its infirmities call for."
The American education in the Philippines is
admirable likewise in the emphasis it puts upon
manual labor. Huxley has a dictum that the dif-
ference between the apes in England and the apes
in Africa is that the former have a thumb oppos-
able to four fingers. The hand that is thus formed,
the bodily variations unif oraily associated, the sense
of touch and balance that have developed with it,
make it one of the dependent variables that becomes
a factor in the differential that marks the human.
The hand is the one tool that man did not make
for himself, and its willing use is sure guide-post
to civilization. As a rule all tropical peoples dis-
like physical exertion. Just as in America thou-
sands prefer clerical work, or some indoor employ-
ment, so the Filipinos want occupations that will
allow them to wear clean duck clothing and work
with gloves on their hands. That is the limit of
respectable toil. An expert in agriculture must be
186
CONTENT AND PER CONTRA
willing, in case of necessity, to work with his hands ;
a good engineer must be master of mechanical arts
and ready to use his hands. Often this is prohib-
itive to the natives, who have been trained by the
example of the Spaniards and Mestizos to rely on
literary culture and to regard manual labor as de-
meaning. Handwork by the leaders is paramount
to the industrial development planned by the civic
leaders. It will take regiments of engineers, agri-
culturists, skilled mechanics, and draughtsmen to
reform the economic conditions of the islands.
Their efficiencj^ must be based upon scientific knowl-
edge, technical training, and manual skill. The
young women show a noticeable backwardness to
take the domestic science courses, and the young
men a reluctance to train for engineers and similar
occupations. Young men in the United States,
for the most part, are practical and eager to get on.
Temperamentally they are unfitted for the slow,
plodding ways and years that are essential to mak-
ing genuine scholars; they take the short cut to
success by tools and mechanisms. The educational
problem at home is to make them see that a mere
handling of tools can not make the mechanical en-
gineer who conceives great manufacturing enter-
187
IN PORTS AFAR
prises, stupendous public works, and carries them
forward to completion. He needs to look for the
mentality and sentiment with which to equip his
imagination and enlarge the horizon of his concep-
tions. But in the Philippines the problem is to get
a whole generation to learn that breadth of percep-
tion and the higher viewpoint is dependent for final
efficiency on practical adaptation : on ability to illus-
trate the control of materials by the use of tools
as books. It is part ignorance, but also part in-
dolence. The Philippine education proceeds on the
assumption that product of the brain multiplied
by the hand, not the square of the brain or the
hand, approximates the liighest human capacity.
This underlies the whole educational system. Pri-
mary, grade, and liigh school instiniction are
planned to undermine the prejudice against work
and to excite all to prepare for some gainful occu-
pation by the rewards of labor and the avenues to
leadership which the system affords to those with
manual training.
The moral content is not so certainly praise-
worthy. There is no use in discussing whether the
government could do otherwise than hold itself
rigidly aloof from all concern with religious edu-
188
CONTENT AND PER CONTRA
cation; but it is not too much to say that the
educational advances have been on the intellectual
rather than on the moral side. The Filipino past
has not been favorable to the cultivation of civic
or ecclesiastic virtue, and we can not but feel that
it would have been politically wise to show interest
and S3"mpathy with the habits of thought and cus-
toms that are inseparably associated with the Puri-
tan forbears.
The American occupation has not taken the
American Sabbath to the Philippines. That tall,
white angel, the Holy Day of Protestantism, has
been overwhelmed by the continental holiday of
France, Italy, and Spain. Education, daily pa-
pers, athletics, amusements, roadways, and means
of conveyance have all been made to conform to
American ideas. Even the beautiful, stately
"rigadone," the pure, popular, and approvable
dance of the Philippines, is going into desuetude,
displaced by the waltz, two-step, and turkey trot.
But civil government officials, army officers, Amer-
ican tourists, and the Protestant Episcopal clergy
have conformed to usage, not helped to transform,
according to ideal, and a nation without the Sab-
bath is forthcoming.
189
IN PORTS AFAR
The reasons are not far to seek. The Sabbath
with the Roman church has been a day of worsliip
in its few early hours, and a holiday for the late
forenoon, afternoon, and evening. By reason of
the climate, the Catholic church services are held
as early as 5 and 6 o'clock. In the Jesuit Church
in Manila a later service is held, but among the
native populations all over the islands the religious
services are ended by 8 o'clock in the forenoon.
That is before the average American has break-
fasted and read his morning paper. In the army
at times the pressure of events makes anything but
a holiday impossible. Usually there is no chaplain,
and where there is an English service, unless some
major or colonel sets a rigid example and himself
attends it, the meeting goes by default so far as
the rank and file are concerned. The heads of the
insular government, from Ex-President Taft down,
have not been given to Sabbath keeping in the evan-
gelical sense, and the Bureau of education, to con-
trovert the cock-fighting habits of the people, have
been encouraging baseball, volley ball, and basket
ball games on Sunday afternoon. The gi^eat Manila
Eight-Day Carnival starts in on Saturday, so as to
run over two Sundays. Under the circumstances,
190
CONTENT AND PER CONTRA
perhaps, we ought to be satisfied that baseball
games are usually scheduled for Sunday afternoon.
Major-General Bell forbade the regimental teams
from playing polo on Sunday, and the Greek audi-
torium, which he caused to be built at Camp John
Hay, gives opportunity for great religious gather-
ings while the capital is at Baguio.
The English in Egypt, Straits Settlements, In-
dia, and China do better than the Americans are
doing in the Philippines. If they do not trans-
form, at least they do not conform. The English
red-coats, semper uhique, line up for service at
the establishment, or at the nonconformist Church
of liis selection, every Sunday morning. Usually
there is a volunteer service at the barracks in the
evening. One of the pleasures of an American on
a circumnavigating tour is to be invited by some
major or captain to speak to the men perhaps as
late as 9 o'clock in the evening. There you may
hear four or five hundred men sing the great hymns
of the Church, and they always listen attentively.
On all the English boats the captain reads the serv-
ice Sunday morning, and after repeated hearings
we confess to liking it, and thinking it exceedingly
fit and appropriate.
191
IN PORTS AFAR
We are launched on such an adventure in the
Phihppincs as our fathers could not have foreseen.
In all details, save in this of the Sabbath, the ex-
periment has been conducted with such dignity and
capacity as to render it unique in colonizing an-
nals. We would that it might have this added
grace. To keep one day for meditation, prayer,
and the assembling of ourselves together has seemed
important to Christianity from its very beginning.
There is something in the formality, as England
has learned. The Filipino peoples are Christian,
and at present they are American. We owe it to
our Pacific neighbors, the Chinese and Japanese,
and to our wards for the time being, the Filipinos,
to conform officially to Protestant type and set
them an example of Sabbath observance. Let the
Sabbath peace and quiet perv^ade the islands "like
the sweet presence of a good diffused, making the
world fairer, life nobler, and the people themselves
more reverent and more righteous."
192
Chapter XII
THE FOURTEENTH AMEND:\IENT IN
THE PHILIPPINES
WHEN Dean C. Worcester, Secretary of the
Interior for the Phihppine Commission,
pubHshed his report on "Slavery and Peonage,"
he issued an indictment against the Phihppine As-
sembly, showed the utter unreliability of Senor
Manuel Quezon, the Territorial representative in
Congress, and assured his own dismissal from pub-
lic service in the islands. The Filipino leaders have
long been accustomed to speak of the "unpopu-
larity" of the Secretary of the Interior, and yet to
him the country is indebted for a clear, straight-
forward statement of a situation and knowledge of
acts against which the Philippine Commission long
since decreed penalties. His "unpopularity" will
be fully appreciated when it is kno\\Ti that Senor
Quezon has loudly and recklessly raised the claim
13 193
IN PORTS AFAR
that there was no such thing as slavery in the
provinces, as follows :
"As a Filipino familiar with the facts in the case,
I do not hesitate to qualify the letter of Secretary
Worcester as being at once false and slanderous.
It is false, because there does not exist slavery in
the Philippines, or at least in that part of the coun-
try subject to the authority of the Pliilippine As-
sembly. It is slanderous because it presents the
Philippine Assembly by innuendo, if not openly,
as a body which countenances slavery.
"Since there is not, and there never was, slavery
in the territory inhabited by the Christian Fili-
pinos, which is the part of the Islands subject to
the legislative control of the Assembly, this House
has refused to concur in the anti-slavery bill passed
by the Philippine Commission."
Palawan is one of the provinces "subject to the
authority of the Philippine Assembly." It is pos-
sible that Senor Quezon is so ignorant of conditions
there as to be unaware of the indisputable fact that
the Moros of that province held slaves until com-
pelled to give them up by a provincial government
carried on under the administrative control of an
American Secretary of the Interior, but if so, he
194
THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT
has no rightful claim to be a "Filipino familiar
with the facts."
Isabela is a province "subject to the authority
of the Philippine Assembly." It differs from Pala-
wan in that the large majority of its inhabitants
are Christian Filipinos, and in the further fact that
it is organized under the Provincial Goverament
Act, and is therefore not in any way subject to the
control of the Secretary of the Interior.
Slavery has been common in this province from
the beginning of historic times, and it is common
there to-day. Its occurrence is admitted, and the
conditions under which it prevails are described in a
report by a fellow countryman of Senor Quezon,
Senor Francisco Dishoso, who was governor of the
province when he made it on September 9, 1903.
The history of this interesting and important
document is briefly as follows: On April 28, 1903,
the senior inspector of constabulary in Isabela
wired the first district chief of constabulary, Ma-
nila, that :
"In this province it is a common practice to
own slaves. These are bought by proprietaries
(property owners. — D. C. W.) from Igorrotes and
Calingas who steal same in distant places from
195
IN PORTS AFAR
other tribes. Young boys and girls are bought at
about 100 pesos, men 30 years old and old women
cheaper. When bought, are generally christened
and put to work on ranch or in house, and I think
generally well treated. In this town a number sold
within last few months, and as reported to me.
Governor has bought tlii'ee. Shall I investigate
further.'^ Instructions desired.
"(Signed) Sorenson."
The further explanation of the Secretary of
the Interior being "unpopular" may be found in
the recommendation he made at the end of the fiscal
year, June 30, 1912, as follows:
"That for the adequate protection of the non-
Christian tribes a final and earnest effort be made
to secure the concurrence of the Philippine Assem-
bly in the passage for the territory under the juris-
diction of the Philippine Legislature of an Act
identical with, or similar to, Act No. 2071, entitled,
'An Act prohibiting slavery, involuntary servitude,
peonage, and the sale or purchase of human be-
ings in the Mountain Province and the Provinces
of Nueva Viscaya and Agusan, and providing pun-
ishment therefor, and that in the event of failure,
the attention of Congress be called to this impor-
tant matter to the end that it may pass adequate
196
THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT
legislation if it deems such a course in the public
interest."
The bill was tabled by the Assembly on Janu-
ary 8, 1913, and Secretary Worcester made his
appeal to the Congress at Washington. The new
governor-general in his first speech on arrival at
Manila promised that the Filipinos were at once
to be given a majority of the members of the In-
sular Commission, and reports of the appointment
of a new committee to "investigate" were again
made. Meanwhile Congressional attention had been
fixed upon this enormity, and the decisions of the
Filipino courts were read by American lawyers.
The decision in the Tomas Cabanag case is as
follows :
"The Congress of the United States has declared
that human slavery shall not exist in these Islands,
and while no law, so far as I can discover, has yet
been passed either defining slavery in these Islands
or affixing a punishment for those who engage in
these inhuman practices as dealers, buyers, sellers,
or derivers, the facts established in this case show
conclusively that the child Jimaya was by the de-
fendant forcibly and by fraud, deceit, and threats,
unlawfully deprived of her liberty, and that his
object and purpose was an unlawful and illegal
197
IN rORTS AFAR
one, to wit, the sale of the child for money -into
human slavery. This constitutes the crime of
illegal detention defined and penalized by article
481 of the Penal Code, and tliis court finds the de-
fendant guilty as charged in the information."
On appeal from the judgment of the court of
first instance by the defendant, although it was
conclusively shown that the child Jimaya had
been forcibly taken from the possession of her
gi'andmother Oltagon, who was exercising lawful
and proper guardianship of the child, and that
the child was sold to a certain Mareano Lopez, yet
the appellate court held that the acts complained
of did not constitute a crime and could not be prose-
cuted witliin the realm of criminal law without an
act of Legislature. The language of the court is
herewith appended :
"To sum up this case, there is no proof of slavery
or even of involuntary ser\dtude, inasmuch as it
has not been clearly shown that the child has been
disposed of against the will of her grandmother
or has been taken altogether out of her control.
If the facts in this respect be interpreted other-
wise, there is no lam applicable here, either of the
United States or of the Archipelago, punishing
slavery as a crime. The child was not physically
198
THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT
confined or restrained so as to sustain a conviction
for illegal detention, nor are the acts of the accused
brought within any of the provisions of the law for
the punishment of offenses against minors; conse-
quently the conviction in this case must be reversed,
in accordance with the recommendation of the at-
torney-general, with costs de oflciOf and the pris-
oner is acquitted."
This decision allowed native judges in courts of
the first instance all the latitude they required in
order to conform to the wishes of the cacique.
Then the great religious weeklies of the country
began to speak; an article in the Christian Ad-
vocate bearing upon the subject was sent direct to
the President, and forthwith, to the great credit
of the new Administration, the penal clauses were
enacted by the Philippine Assembly. It was not
self-government, rather it was government from
Washington ; but it was a moral issue, upon which
no one, much less the President, would hesitate for
one moment. Perhaps the new governor-general,
crediting as he does his appointment to Senor
Quezon, could not do less than dismiss a man who
would unhesitatingly blurt out the truth, even in
the face of the Territorial representative, who be-
199
IN PORTS AFAR
longs to the dominant party, and who is eager to
be tlie head of the new RepubHc, in his opinion
about to be estabhshed. That men of his class and
character will control in any government estab-
lished, is the tremendou-s and unassailable argument
for maintaining the status quo.
The existence of slavery and peonage for several
centuries in the Islands is the greatest single prob-
lem confronting the Government in its attempt to
build up in the Islands a respectable and respon-
sible electorate through whom responsible govern-
ment may be established. The situation grows out
of the ancient regime. Then the king, don, baron,
cacique, or boss had the right to any and all kinds
of service from his retainers. They tilled his fields,
ran his errands, and submitted to his caprices in
every particular. The degeneracy of this titular
lord, and the deterioration of whole peoples thereby
resulting, is too well known to the sociologists to
need statement. This feudal lord persisted in the
Philippines until the American occupation, has per-
sisted since that time until now, without the con-
sent or knowledge of the American people, and,
unless the electorate are intelligent and persistent
in their watch of Filipino events, is likely long to
200
THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT
continue. Even with all the restraints of law a
weak and degraded people, not knowing their
rights, and powerless to enforce them against the
customs and precedents of hundreds of years, would
long remain enslaved in fact, if free in name.
The multiplicity of cases requires an explana-
tion. They are about as follows : A man in petty
financial straits would borrow ten or fifteen pesos,
giving as securit}^ for the repayment of the money
his boy, more frequentl}^ his girl, age from twelve
to sixteen years. The pawn changed residence and
worked for the lender until the debt was paid. As
is often the case in America, the debt increased
rather than diminished. Perhaps the girl or girls
disappeared. It happened that way often. That
ended the obligation, and the debt was canceled.
Or suppose it was a boy, and he ran away.
Trumped-up charges of theft, larceny, or assault
were filed against him, and over to Bilibid, the
State's prison, he went, unless he was willing to
return to work. There were a discreditable number
of Filipino judges of the first instance who were
ready to oblige a cacique in such a simple matter.
The length to which these cases go is maddening.
There is one where the poor Filipino was protected
201
IN PORTS AFAR
by the laws passed by the Philippine Commission
for the non-Christian provinces. To evade this
protection the poor fellow was baptized ; the can-
didate was willing to receive baptism in the hope
that it would better his condition, and the owner
an'anged it on the supposition that the lack of
law for the Christian provinces would hold after
the slave was baptized. And it did avail until the
appellate court ruled that the mere act of baptizing
a provincial heathen did not cost him the protection
of the law for the non-Christian provinces.
The refusal of the Filipino Assembly four times
to pass these bills is a sure index of the actual state
of affairs. It is easy, therefore, to understand
the solicitude with which men conversant with Fili-
pino affairs view the granting of a majority in
the Philippine Commission to the natives. The
present Legislature consists of two Houses, an As-
sembly of eighty-four Filipino members, represent-
ing thirty-four provinces, and the Philippine Com-
mission, an appointive body of nine members. Five
of these latter have hitherto been Americans, all of
whom, except the governor-general, have held ad-
ministrative portfolios. The two Houses have equal
power; either may initiate a bill, but affirmative
202
THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT
action is required by both in order to pass a bill.
It is evident that before so vital a change was
made there should have been a careful studv of
the bills passed by the Assembl}', and refused pas-
sage by the Commission, and likewise the bills
passed by the Commission and refused passage by
the Assembly. The one passed by the Commission
and four times refused passage by the Assembly
concerning peonage and slavery has already been
referred to. There are others emanating from the
Assembly and refused passage by the Commission
because they were dangerous, some even imperiling
the stability and effectiveness of the Government.
Then the original Act of Congress retained for
the Commission exclusive authoritv over the non-
Christian tribes, who had been the greatest sufferers
by peonage and slavery. It was unquestionably
the purpose of the Congress to keep the control of
these more than a million unoffending, backward
people in the hands of those who could be relied
upon neither to exploit them nor to delay their
progress to civilized equality.
Heretofore it has been the policy to give these
wild tribesmen and the poor Filipinos who make
up the bulk of the population all possible aid in
203
IN PORTS AFAR
securing homesteads and in the purchase of the
small tracts with which they wTre satisfied. The
policy of the Government has been to help all to
become landholders. But the rich ilhistrados, or
landholders, do not want this to occur. They pre-
fer that these people should remain tenants on their
large holdings, practically in a state of peonage.
They have heretofore sought to mislead the people
as to their rights, and have opposed them when they
souffht free homesteads. One of the first removals
ordered by the new governor-general was that of
Captain Sleeper, who had greatly interested him-
self in instructing the poor and ignorant as to their
rights, and assisting them to maintain those rights.
By so doing the captain had made himself ex-
tremely unpopular with the rich landholders, and
his successor, a Filipino, will find it exceedingly
hard to stand up against the pressure brought by
these men. The Friar lands, which have been fre-
quently mentioned in America, are under the con-
trol of this same bureau, and, as in th^ case of the
public lands, w^ealthy Filipinos wi'ongfully claim
these lands and have repeatedly tried to prevent
poor people from purchasing holdings therein,
thus keeping them tenants on their own estates.
204
THE FOURTEENTH A.AIENDAIENT
These lands are plainly the best in the Islands.
The Filipino appointed to this great office says he
knows nothing about it, and every true friend of
democracy must view with the gi'avest concern the
placing of such a trust in the hands of a man
avowedly ignorant of his duties. The office to
which he has been appointed is the single barrier
between a rich and autocratic land-holding class
and millions of weak, poor, and ignorant Filipinos,
whose efforts to improve their condition have been
long viewed with disgust. Irreparable damage is
sure to be inflicted upon the work of this bureau.
The removals were strictly political, and on the
authority of Dr. D. C. Worcester (we quote from
him as reported in the Manila Cable News) : "I was
informed that the governor-general had cabled
Washington for advice as to how far he could go
with removals without violating the letter of the
Philippine service act. While en route to the
Islands he gave out an interview in which he stated
in effect that for years he had seen Democrats
badly treated as such, and took sardonic pleasure
in now being able to accord similar treatment to
the Republicans." Nothing seems to be wanting
to justify the mot passed around to the effect that
205
IN PORTS AFAR
"the day Tammany Hall lost control in New York
City it acquired control in Manila." Hitherto the
Philippine service has been remarkably free from
such spoilsmen ; nobody has stopped to inquire
what were the politics of any governor-general or
other official. Two of the governor-generals were
Democrats, and the head of the bureau of education
upon the arrival of the present governor-general
was a Democrat. It is only proper that the gov-
ernor-general should have men in the highest admin-
istrative offices in full sympathy with his political
views, but the removal of expert bureau chiefs,
who are occupied with the efficient and economic
performance of the work of the Government, will
result in quick disaster.
With the reductions of salaries affecting Ameri-
cans, and the refusal to allow leave of absence,
customary so as to allow the return of the em-
ployees to America, we have little to say. The
bureau of printing will illustrate the method of
displacing men by salary reduction. This bureau
had always been a matter of pride to the insular
government. The director had from the outset used
it as an opportunity for training the Filipinos,
making it a great industrial school, and fitting
206
THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT
many young men for remunerative employment.
Ninety-five per cent of those emplo^'ed were Fili-
pinos. With the arrival of the new governor-
general inimors of sweeping reductions in salary
became cuiTent, and some Americans entitled to
promotion became alaiTned, and after consulting
the director sent a telegram to the President, pro-
testing against such reduction, and without consult-
ing the director sent another telegram to the presi-
dent of the Assembl3^ For this the director was
summarily removed. Nor can this be credited, as
some try to assume, to the influence of the Roman
Catholic Church. Father Algue, the famous di-
rector of the Island weather bureau, appeared
before the Upper Assembly and in an address
The statement in the last sentence on page
207 is in error. At this date there are fifteen
American Veterinarians on dutv in the Islands.
207
IN PORTS AFAR
"the day Tammany Hall lost control In New York
City it acquired control in Manila." Hitherto the
Philij)pine service has been remarkably free from
such spoilsmen ; nobody has stopped to inquire
what were the politics of any governor-general or
other official. Two of the governor-generals were
Democrats, and the head of the bureau of education
upon the amval of the present governor-general
was a Democrat. It is only proper that the gov-
ernor-general should have men in the highest admin-
istrative offices in full sympathy with his political
views, but the removal of expert bureau chiefs,
who are occupied with the efficient and economic
performance of the work of the Government, will
result in Quick disaster.
THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT
many 3'oung men for remunerative employment.
Ninety-five per cent of those employed were Fili-
pinos. With the an'ival of the new governor-
general rumors of sweeping reductions in salary
became cuiTent, and some Americans entitled to
promotion became alarmed, and after consulting
the director sent a telegram to the President, pro-
testing against such reduction, and without consult-
ing the director sent another telegram to the presi-
dent of the Assembly. For this the director was
summarily removed. Nor can this be credited, as
some try to assume, to the influence of the Roman
Catholic Church. Father Algue, the famous di-
rector of the Island weather bureau, appeared
before the Upper Assembly and in an address
characterized by dignity and force showed how
destinictive of efficiency and unfortunate in its ef-
fects would be the adoption of the Assembly's pro-
posals for sweeping salary reductions to the expert
Americans employed by the Insular Government.
Economy is always in order, but irresponsible
slashing can continue only with serious danger.
The last three American veterinarians have just
left the Islands, and the fight against rinderpest
is wholly in native control.
207
IN PORTS AFAll
The recent Filiplnization of the Manila streets
is illustrative of the seething disorder in the leaders
of the people. On a certain day at the meeting
of the municipal board, Sr. Arellano introduced
tJie following interesting and unique communica-
tion to his fellow members:
"I have the honor to submit to your considera-
tion, in interpretation of the vehement desires of
the Filipino people, in order to do honor to its
illustrious men as an example to present and future
generations, the changes of the names of the fol-
lowing streets;"
and following with the change of the names oi
eleven streets. The name given to one was that of
a Filipino priest. Padre Burgos, who, in company
with two others, was garroted by the Spaniards
in 1872 ; another name assigned was that of Andres
Bonifacio, the founder of the Ratipunan Society,
while a third was that of General Luna, a leading
figure after Aguinaldo in the insuiTection, which
cost so many American lives. The confusion oc-
casioned by such lightning changes in a city like
Manila may well be understood. It is indicative of
the ferment going on in the minds of a mestizo
people, not needing more government by the men
208
THE FOURTEENTH AMENDMENT
who have exploited them, but by those who will not
be a party to their exploitation. It is
"The cry of those ye humor,
How slowly toward the light."
It matters little who is the governor-general, but
every time an earnest American is displaced, un-
less there is a competent Filipino to take his place,
whether the displacement comes through direct re-
moval or by the reduction of his salary beyond the
living rate, is aiding to rivet again those fetters
of prejudice and ignorance upon which serfdom
is based, and is serring to undo the work which
America has undertaken in the Islands. Our
American experience in what we are wont to call
"reconstiniction" should advise us that the men who
enforce the law need to be looked to as well as
the law itself. The Assembly has accomplished
a late but gi'eat justice b}^ its penal clauses making
effective the Fourteenth Amendment. As Bishop
Oldham has said, "Cust ombre is the most power-
ful and dominating word in the uneducated Fili-
pino's vocabulary." The same is true of the Jefe
and Ilustrado. They rely upon it to continue in-
justice. Now to persuade these latter that such
14 209
IN PORTS AFAR
practices arc inhuman, and to abandon them, not
because they are brutally forbidden by law, but
because they freely elect to do them no longer;
and to persuade the former that they act un-
worthily when they consent to serve as peons and
slaves, and that intelligence, self-support, and
self-control are the sure steps to independence, is
the romantic objective toward which the American
occupation should strive. Until this appreciation
of personal rights and interests is largely shared
by all the people, and until the dangers inhering
in further exploitation of the people is fully real-
ized by the wealthier classes, the presence of more,
not less, American teachers, bureau officials, clergy-
men, and technical experts is needed in the Islands.
210
Chapter XIII
FUNERAL, FEAST, AND FUNCTION
T I iHE seven hundred thousand IgoiTotes, If ugaos,
•*• and related tribes in the Mountain Province
of Luzon have made great progress since the Amer-
ican occupation. War, pestilence, and famine —
the three checks on growth of population — have
been brought under practical control by the Amer-
icans. These mountain natives are fitted for indus-
trial control and agricultural occupations, and are
the principal laborers for railroad construction.
They are unique in their wearing apparel, funerals,
and feasts. The G-string is simplicity of dress re-
duced to a minimum, and but for the wild barbari-
ties of feasts and funerals, might pass for economy
and frugality on the part of these simple-hearted
folk unskillful with needle and loom.
Of course w^e attended the Annual Canyao —
Igorrote for feast — given by the Country Club at
Baguio, where four tribes vied in their dances;
where rice and fish were served by kettles-full to
211
IN PORTS AFAR
the natives, and salad and sandwiches to the army
officers, educators, and civilians. They call that
a canyao, adopting the native word; but after
all it is an American social function, and not even
a parody upon the genuine native feast.
The Teachers^ Assembly Herald on the day of
our arrival in Baguio recounted that the funeral
of a distinguished Igorrote would soon occur, as
his body had already been smoked for twenty-six
days. He was a man of years and property. At
least two of his grandsons are attending school in
the United States. The body, which was to be in-
terred, had on decease been elevated to a sitting
position on a rude frame, some six feet high, and
a slow fire to the degree of a smudge kept under-
neath for almost four weeks. The body was dried,
smoked, and shriveled, and ghastly and giTiesome it
awaited rude interment. Meanwhile the mourners
ate the swine, goats, and dogs of the estate. Those
who know what a funeral in Massachusetts or
Pennsylvania was two hundred and fifty years ago,
will speak with hesitation in calling it a barbarity
in the mountain provinces of Luzon. Our own
gi'eat-grandsires were those sepultured.
Perhaps eight hours elapsed between the funeral
212
FUNERAL, FEAST, AND FUNCTION
and the feast, and no doubt that a majority of
those who feasted at the canyao had mourned at the
funeral. ^Meanwhile our party — the second assist-
ant of the bureau of education, who had assigned
himself as guide and interpreter; a major in the
constabulary, the professor of History" in Columbia
University, and his wife, with others — had visited
a locally celebrated missionar}^ school whose indus-
trial work was on display and for sale at the Teach-
ers' Conference camp. After fifteen kilometers of
horseback riding we came, as the sun was rapidly
sinking beyond the mountain to the ocean, to a
tent pitched about 300 ^^ards from the highway,
about which an aggregation of swine, dogs, goats,
and mourners from the funeral were gathered. We
were offered hospitality in the form of rice-brewed
beer, and the bureau of education representative
lifted the flap of the tent and pulled out two men
who were still in a stupor of inebriety following
the funeral. The}' began to beat a tom-tom, mean-
while keeping step to their own time moving in
a circle. Then a woman with a baby whose feet
were fastened in a belt at her waist, joined the
movement. The canyao, it seems, was in celebra-
tion of the baby having recovered from a sickness.
213
IN PORTS AFAR
Then others joined until perhaps eight or ten par-
ticipated in the dance. The din was increased by
other tom-toms, shouts, and the crooning of songs.
Then, as the revelry "waxed toward" a wassail, a
sort of pulque was passed about, and the Americans
contributed a peso each, approximately, for the
festivities. There was perfect propriety in this,
as the foreigners had come upon their own invi-
tation. Then rose the squealing of a lean, razor-
backed pig, which was half driven, half dragged
by ropes fastened to the legs, ears, and snout into
the charmed circle. Shoats of that height in Iowa
would weigh 350 pounds. This of the mountain
province could run like a thoroughbred, and
scarcely weighed 120 pounds. The porker was
tripped and securely pegged down on its right side.
Then the master of ceremonies appeared with a
bolo, a hammer, and a long, wire spike. With the
bolo he dexterously cut two sides of a small square
in the skin over the heart, and then flayed it, half
ripping, half cutting it from the flesh beneath.
Then he drove the spike through this flayed space
into the heart of the pig, which continued to squeal
even after the spike had reached its vitals. The
flap of the skin was then deftly folded over tiie
214
A Manila Sunset.
FUNERAL, FEAST, AND FUNCTION
wound after the spike was withdrawn, so that the
cadaver might retain all the blood. The goat was
to come next, and the dog, the chosen morsel, last.
We did not care to see a like operation upon the
dog ; a poor cur, suggestive of fleas, sorrel in color,
and mangy; and left while the goat was being
brought forward. We rode our ponies home in
the gathering darkness, debating among ourselves
the question of independence for such a primitive
population. Either the Tagalogs would exploit
them, sell many of them into slavery, or more likely
those lithe and athletic tribesmen from the north
and the Moros from the south would utterly over-
whelm the Tagalogs, sacking Manila and making
wassail along the Pasig, as Alaric the Goth and
Attila the Hun reveled in the palaces of Aven-
tinus.
It is with some trepidation that we nominate the
great international outpouring of men and women
of all nationalities and conditions on the day of
prayer for China as a "function." It was a
strange prayer-meeting, and we doubt if in all the
circle of the sun elsewhere as large, animated, and
cosmopolitan an assembly waited upon the Deity in
prayer and felicitation over the new Republic. The
215
IN PORTS AFAR
news by the Associated Press despatches preferring
the request of the Chinese cabinet for the prayers
of all Christians in the Ancient Empire for the suc-
cess and perpetuity of the new order occasioned
great interest. Bishop William Perry Eveland,
sho^Wng the true elements of leadership, at once
called upon Governor-General Forbes and Major-
General Bell of the army, pointing out the oppor-
tunit}" for a great civic-religious gathering in the
Greek Auditorium, Camp John Hay. Major-
General Bell, who is diplomatist, publicist, and mili-
tary genius combined, at once took the burden of
arrangements, sent for the Chinese Consul-General,
forwarded personal invitations by orderlies to the
department heads, instructed Chaplain Smith from
Corregidor to be present, ordered out the regi-
mental bands, invited Bishop William Perry Eve-
land to preside, Governor-General Forbes to in-
troduce him, and with military directness assigned
Dr. Geo. William Wright and this writer for "re-
marks," not forgetting a friendly nod to the Chi-
nese, who were servants about the camp to the num-
ber of sixty, to whom he assigned seats on the plat-
form.
The Sabbath afternoon dawned in beautiful
216
FUNERAL, FEAST, AND FUNCTION
Baguio splendor. The seats were crowded ; the
colonels and majors were out in full force —
"Great is vermilion splashed with gold."
Eighty Igorrote girls from Mrs. Kelly's School
grouped themselves on the outer rim of seats, and
civilians by the hundred filled the vacant spaces,
standing to hear the Scriptures, prayers, and ad-
dresses. The spirit of the occasion left nothing to
be desired. One found himself wishing that some
clergymen who dawdle and drone through an un-
limitable list of services, notices, and preliminary
"remarks" could serv^e as chaplain in one of the
Island regiments long enough to leam the value of
precision, penetration, and terminal facilities.
General Bell himself was drafted by Bishop Eve-
land for the concluding word, alluding to Bret
Harte's personal explanation that he wrote the
poem
"For waj'S that are dark and for tricks that are vain
The heathen Chinee is peculiar,"
without any thought that it really represented the
Chinese, and voiced his often expressed regret at
the inapplicable though friendly lines.
217
IN PORTS AFAR
Dr. Wright spoke on the unifying and clarifying
energy of prayer, and concluded his deeply spir-
itual address with the lines of Tennyson:
"For thus the whole round world is every way
Bound by gold chains about the feet of God."
There are two great events happening within the
lifetime of the new generation which have served
to cement the friendship of China and the United
States. The first was the appointment of Anson
Burlingame as minister to China in 1861, and
the treaty which he afterwards negotiated with the
United States as plenipotentiary of China. By
this treaty China first claimed the right and as-
sumed the responsibility of a nation according to
the standards of international law.
The other event was the maintenance inviolate of
Chinese ten^itory following the Boxer uprising,
largely due to the diplomatic representations of
Secretary of State John Hay and the return to
the impoverished Chinese treasury of the balance of
the Chinese indemnity not used in liquidating hona
fide American claims for damages arising out of
the insun^ection. This exhibition of honor and
good faith served to give wide publicity to the
218
FUNERAL, FEAST, AND FUNCTION
rapacity of other nations, and deepened the respect
and esteem in which the United States was held by
the Chinese Government. Then, coincident vdth.
increasing intercommunication, the growth of the
press, the spread of the Enghsh language, and the
rising tide of democracy came the proclamation
of the Chinese Republic and the appeal for the
prayers of its own Christian citizens. Whatever
the motive, w^hether diplomatic or religious, in-
spiring the request, it must take final rank as of
great moment. Men are bound in friendship to
those for whom they pray, and rally to the support
of those in whose interest they besiege the throne
of grace.
"Yes, pray for Him tliou lovest, if uncounted wealth were
thine:
The treasures of the mighty deep, the riches of the
mine;
Thou couldst not to a faithful friend a dearer gift impart
Than the earnest consecration of a deeply prayerful
heart."
It was altogether appropriate that such an ap-
peal should be made to the loyalty of large num-
bers of its citizens who by the profession of Chris-
tianity had conformed to Western language, law,
and religion, and by their very habit of life were
SI 9
IN PORTS AFAR
pledging themselves to the practice of equality.
But quite as basic was the appeal that Christianity
makes to the strongest races — to the men who have
force and courage in their blood. A weak race de-
bases Christianity, and can not stand up under its
hard duties. But because the Chinese are a sturdy
race they must have a strong faith. They are a
hardy stock, greatly differing from the Oriental
populations west and south of China, or from the
Malays in Japan and the Philippines. The same
open door that let the nations into China let them
out, and they have gone everywhere on earth.
The Chinese live under the equator like a Malay,
and bear snowstorm and zero weather like a Ca-
nadian or a Cossack. Only America can save the
Philippines from him. He already monopolizes the
business of the Islands. The quality of his man-
hood and the fiber of his character may be sug-
gested by an allusion to his history. Of the na-
tions that filled great place in the ancient world,
but two remain. The Hebrew, oldest branch of
the Semitic stock, still preserves his name and mem-
ory, though land and temple were torn from him
in 70 A. D. But China is the same old China of
five millienniums. He occupies in our day the same
2W
FUNERAL, FEAST, AND FUNCTION
soil where for one hundred and sixty generations
the Chinese have lived and died. From this soil
great migrations poured out, led by men like
Tamerlane and Ghengis Khan. The fate of every
other nation has not passed upon China, and now
this "graybeard" has not only adopted Western
civilization, with its steam engines, electric lights,
and wireless telegraphy, but has cut off its queues,
abolished the Manchu monarchy, and adopted a
republic.
Intellectually the Chinese are as striking as they
are physically and historically commanding. His
syllogism is efficient, and he submits its fundamen-
tal to scientific verification. He comes slowly to
Ills conclusions, but once reached, they are the same
to which any logician would come, given the same
premises. The mariner's compass, gunpowder, and
the art of printing are ancient with him. Real
world-progress is impossible without every nation's
participation. Christianity can not be safe In Asia
or in the world with such a mass unleavened as that
warren of unnumbered millions, seething like a cal-
dron, effervescing like fermenting yeast, and run-
ning over on the edges like a huge pan of dough.
It is a modern wonder of the world, irresistibly
221
IN PORTS AFAR
novel, that China, the ancient of days, has come
to the penitent form and asked for "prayers."
Now, while he is in the enthusiasm and faith of
his modern youth, yet tender to impressions, and
plastic to a master's hand, our Island Americans,
his nearest neighbors, whose methods and ideals he
strives to attain with imitative exactness, met and
spoke hopefully of his new government, and flung
out the banner of his new republic. The solemn
hush of prayer, the moving panorama of soldiers
and civilians, the beat of bands, and the deep notes
of thousands of human voices, with the Mongolian
faces that filled the platform of the Greek Theater
at Baguio, will long remain to those who saw it,
one of the most magnetic visions that set the soul
into a subtle yearning for America, for China, and
for the Kingdom of God.
222
Chapter XIV
THE MODERN ANTONY
QHAKESPEARE saw in :\Iark Antony the
^^ Roman Empire coiTupted by the sensual,
enervating, and luxurious East. Insidious as the
rust which gnaws through the steel keel of a war-
ship, as corrosive as the saline particles which make
a desert, as the ants which eat out the heart of a
library, the great virtues of Antony — work, cour-
age, faith, and honor — were eaten out by sensu-
ality and the indolence, gluttony, and drunkenness
that are so often in fact associated with it. Cleo-
patra, the woman, makes his life the quintessence of
tragedy. The "Vampire," by Kipling, has a touch
of hysteria, which saves women from taking it too
much to heart ; "Becky Sharp," by Thackeray, is
a great achievement in satire; but the recital of
Cleopatra's influence over Antony, as though
Shakespeare had a sense of personal pain, and as
though Cleopatra were the woman of the sonnets,
makes it the bitterest thing ever written by man
223
IN PORTS AFAR
against woman. All recrimination between the
sexes must be one-sided, and yet that does not break
the murderous force of this arraignment. You can
not study Antony too often; his is a poison-story
like "Macbeth." Lust infected the veins of the
princely Antony, and he became bloated and gan-
grened; like Hamlet, he resolves and re-resolves,
and, like Samson, is doomed to betrayal and self-
destruction.
Cleopatra in the drama represents the Orient,
and in modern life specifies the cities and colonies
where, without the restraints of home, publicity, and
religion, men meet the assaults upon their purity,
thrust upon each in turn from the beginning of
time. In Shakespeare's play, as in the actual
chronicle, there is luxury and an oozing plethora
of food, drink, and equipage; the banquets would
bankrupt a province. In modern fact the for-
eigners, who, like Grill in the bower of Acrasia
^'Serves his brutish ways," are comparatively rich,
while the woman is poor. In everytliing else the
parallel is perfect. Antony throwing away his
empire at the command of a Circe, is a present-day
tragedy and, like the Book of Proverbs, will bear
study by men of affairs, statesmen, and educators.
224
THE MODERN ANTONY
The tragedy is still on the boards in Algiers,
Egypt, India, the jNIalay Peninsula, Java, and the
Philippines. Perhaps it would be better to say that
it always goes on where superior races touch the
near primitive. Only in German}'', England, and
the United States is the traffic in girls put under
the ban of law.
Whatever low wages may have to do ^Wth vice
in America, the dreadful poverty of the heathen
world makes the strange woman, if less attractive,
less abhorrent. Here women are thrown to the
young whelps who have inherited money from lions
or have grabbed it in the wdld forays of commerce
and the stock exchange. There, like cats lean and
hungry, they hunt men.
The attempt of the ancient Hebrews to keep
their blood clean and unmixed is well known.
Again and again Israel was warned not to miarry
with the people of the lands they were to conquer,
but to utterly drive out the inhabitants. As they
were not to maiTy wdth them, they were not to
eat with them. They were trying to keep the
strain of blood from Abraham clear for the jNIes-
siah, is the one explanation given, but in fact it
is the earliest recorded protest against that ferine
15 225
IN PORTS AFAR
passion which is evidenced by the Eurasian in India,
by the Mestizo of China and the PhiHppines, and
the Mulatto of our own country. It makes civiliza-
tion blush for its latent savagery. The caste-
system in India, though now largely industrial,
must have b^en influenced largely in its early de-
velopment by these same conditions and by the con-
sequent deterioration of its progeny. The preser-
vation of the Jewish stock as a present racial entity
is rooted in the commandments of the old law, dis-
obeyed by individuals, but in the main observed to
the perpetuation of long family lines and enduring
national life. The ancient royal families, like the
modern aristocracies, were slow to learn the validity
and obligation of the seventh commandment.
The Dutch, among modern colonizers, have been
the worst offenders in the way of lust, though the
French and Spanish have little in their record that
does not need to be excused. Even the English
seem to condone it in the Army officers, and the
great trading corporations recommend a "contract
girl" to their civilian employees in the Orient, on
the supposition that it conduces to a longer term
of service. Church and school have likewise suf-
fered, and Christianity now would be really, not
226
THE MODERN ANTONY
nominally, triumphant in all the East but for tliis
bestial fever. There is less to choose between the
illicit and the marriage "contract" than is com-
monly supposed. On its face the latter seems every
way better, but the quarrels, separations, abandon-
ments, and general scandal which the marriage of
the American and the native, even in the Philip-
pines, occasions leaves much to be desired. The
practice of buying a new girl every year is quite
common among both the English and the French,
and one American in Hong Kong said he bought
a new one every year, so that he would become at-
tached to none, and that he liberally supported
his children, paying fifty cents gold per week to
the mother of each for the support of the child.
By comparison the Americans have done exceed-
ingly well. The great percentage of our men prove
by their bearing and habit of life the honor and
self-control that are the patents of democracy and
the proofs of independence. The American army
officers, in spite of occasional lapses, honor their
country. Fromi the highest rank to the newest en-
listed man no one has "pull" enough to flaunt de-
cency in the face, and hope to maintain his rank
and standing. Court-martial is certain if moral
227
IN PORTS AFAR
delinquencies come to public knowledge. Resig-
nation from the sendee or prompt defense and full
exoneration or immediate dismissal are the order
of the day. The American teachers are alike credit-
able. Some under forms of marriage and some
doubtless in illicit ways as well, are a reproach to
the mothers who bore them and the homeland. But
the Bureau of education is as jealous for the Amer-
ican good name as is the army, and on looking
over a list of promotions in the bureau, made by
the late Frank R. Wliite, director of education,
no teacher was included who had married a Filipino
woman or with whose good name the tongue of
scandal had been properly busy. It may have
seemed a hardship in some cases, but such a handi-
cap ought to be borne by any man contracting
such a union, formed almost certainly without
knowledge on the part of the woman of her aban-
donment or divorce at the termination of her hus-
band's term of Philippine service. One American
thus married and divorced was at Baguio, where
the Teachers' Assembly is held. He is protected
by the civil service laws, but hi& resignation, though
not foraially requested, would find immediate ac-
ceptance. The same circumspect life is common
228
THE MODERN ANTONY
among the subordinates of the PhlHppIne Commis-
sion, and it is without doubt the cleanest, most de-
cent body of men engaged in the foreign service of
any nationahty.
The Spanish, French, and Itahan decadence is
too well known to need statement or comment. De-
generacy is never a pleasing theme, though Jack
London made the decline and fall of a dog the
subject of a very attractive book; but that was a
reversion to type or, as Darwin would call it, "The
Sur^^ival of the Fittest." But degeneracy has no
outcome, and is therefore avoided. The late Lord
Salisbury called Spain a "decadent nation," and
the way the noble Dons made faces and shrilled
their denials showed that the shot had gone home.
The physical rottenness of the Spanish nobility,
and the excesses of the dons, padres, and caciques
in the Philippines have practically made large seg-
ments of the Island peoples a mestizo breed. Li
"The Call of the Wild" we have the story of a
dog stolen by ]Manuel, the man of all work about
the house, who had played the races and lost, sold
to a dog buyer. He is throttled by a saloon bum,
beaten by an express messenger, and finally reaches
a place in an Alaskan mail team. There he fights,
r^ «^* t/
IN PORTS AFAR
steals, adjusts himself to untoward conditions, and
ultimately comes to headship in a pack of wolves,
and the Newfoundland strength and shepherd cun-
ning he had from) his forbears come to be infiltrated
into a snarling, yelping pack under the Arctic
circle, who thus become the fittest to survive. But
the dog who thus goes to his own would be slan-
dered by any comparison with those who walk on
two legs among the poverty-stricken women of
alien peoples and, because they are tall and of a
goodly countenance, speak one of the European
languages, and are thus associated with the pure
and austere morals of the Christians, have oppor-
tunity to iTiin them by scores. Gibbon a,nd London
are gentlemen by comparison. Madam de Stael
must have known this type of brute when she re-
marked, "The more I know of men, the better I
think of dogs."
Apparently there is no public opinion in the East.
It can readily be understood why the missionaries
by their very calling would be estopped from
openly challenging the insidious vices of their fel-
low foreigners. These offending officers and civil-
ians are often the one link binding them to home,
and hospitalities, fellowships, and coralmon interests,
230
THE MODERN ANTONY
as well as evangelizing duty, seem to require that
they shall not constitute themselves public chal-
lengers and monitors of their countrymen. So it
comes about that the English and French have been
illicit in India, China, and Japan for one hundred
and fifty years, and honored at home. Financial
misconduct, though occumng on the other side of
the world, is fro\Mied upon and is a sure bar to
social happiness in either London or Paris. The
Newcomes suggest the aversion and ostracism
which doubtful monetary conduct entails. Now, if
public opinion could be induced to visit like punish-
ment upon moral obliquity, it would at once lose
much of its present shamelessness and decrease
quantitatively both as fact and example. Press
associations, news cables, steamship lines, and the
critics which the Germans in China and the Ameri-
cans in the Philippines naturally become, make pub-
licity easier and infinitely more effective. No laws
yet devised are so repressive as the certainty of
publicity, and a public opinion that wdll reprobate
as vulgar and criminal the seduction and betrayal
of foreign women, whether illicit or under forms
of contract marriage, would instantly reduce it to
a minimum.
231
IN PORTS AFAR
The Philippine Assembly, after four times re-
fusing, has just penalized the barter and sale of
slaves and the practice of peonage. The Mann act
ought to be extended to the Islands. It took
the report of the Secretary of Interior for the Phil-
ippine Island Commission to rouse Amienca to its
importance, and though the secretary was dis-
missed and a new Congressional committee ap-
pointed to investigate, and the Filipinos given a
majority on the commission, the penal clauses were
enacted. It is fortunate that President Wilson,
to whom the country looks for moral leadership,
whether by concession or by private order, secured
this penalizing advance. Happily the American
people are not compelled to add to the fight against
the saloon and political INIormonism a new crusade
against slavery in the Philippines.
But the men charged with executive responsi-
bility in any foreign country will need courage
and constancy. This is quite as true in the Phil-
ippines. If American teachers, civilians, army and
navy officers can not altogether be disrated for
flagrant vice, at least it should be emphatically
known that promotion ceases in cases of separation
from or abandonment of Filipino wives. More-
232
THE MODERN ANTONY
over, offenses by either officers or clergy, Instead of
being merely whispered about, should be brought
to the attention of governmental or ecclesiastical
superiors. That will prove that the underlying
purpose is decency, and not scandal, and further
responsibility would be located. It Tvill also con-
strain offenders to deport themselves more repu-
tably or be brought up with a sharp turn, either
b}^ authority or by public opinion. Democracy
creates new wants, calls for better homes, demands
schools, and excites its individuals to revolt against
filth, squalor, ignorance, and stirs discontent in
body, mind, and spirit until they are elevated and
disenthralled. Executives more frequently than
statutes fail to give the public protection. The
study of laws, the declaration of their sphere, and
the proclamation of their influence rest upon ad-
ministrators, whether in Church or State. To
them, men cognizant of m^oral turpitude should
make their definite complaint.
We are particularly jealous for the Philippines,
where the United States, confessedly a Protes-
tant power of the first magnitude, is in the crucible
of a great experiment. The Anglo-Saxon and his
language is again associated in the mind of Oriental
233
IN PORTS AFAR
peoples with science and democracy. The Ameri-
can is subject to no reHgious superstitions, supple
to no aristocracy, nor will he suffer exploitation by
any special interest. His conduct can give the
single and sufficient answer to all Mohammedanism
and paganism, namely: that he touched the East,
and was not contaminated by it. The moral turpi-
tude of the Philippine Assembly will sooner or later
dawn upon the Amierican people, and then statutes
as broad as the Mann act will be established in the
interest of labor and morality.
Perhaps it is only subjective optimism that helps
us to rise from a perusal of Antony and Cleopatra,
or from a dissertation on the modern Antony, feel-
ing that the world is growing better. It would
be impertinent to argue moral progress from ma-
terial changes and betterments. Some things give
us pause ; for example, we shall all agree that
Antony is high-souled by comparison with the
modern "cadet." Tales that come to us with almost
certain proof from the days of American slavery
equal any dereliction reported of the most debased
of our countrymen abroad.
We are none too hopeful about courses of in-
struction in sex hygiene. The intellectual side is
234
THE MODERN ANTONY
presented cloarl}-, definltel}^, and with sufficient de-
tail, but the ethical elements are vague and lack
courage. The main effect is information, and not
virtue. Knowledge is not moral power. It must
be expected, as never before, that the home will
teach children eugenics without concentrating at-
tention upon sex details. The new education, which
must begin in the home, must be morally earnest
and "train the children's character ; teach them that
purity is noble and possible; that vice is vile, and
carries with it punishment ; that marriage is in-
violable, and that the family is sacred." It must
be continued in the denominational colleges, and it
should become the objective of many prayer-meet-
ings among boys and young men now carried on
by the Young Men's Christian Association. Med-
ical men who sound the warnings of disease are to
be encouraged. They answer with increasing acu-
men the horrid sneer of Mephistopheles, that "man
used his reason to become more bestial than the
beast." Segregation for venereal diseases, as for
smallpox and tuberculosis, is to be justified and
anticipated with the progress of civilization.
235
Chapter XV
AMERICA AND JAPAN
TT^IFFERENT explanations are made for the
-*"^ sudden change of American pubHc opinion
toward Japan. No one questions the fact. Cali-
fornia gets credit for raising the issue, and every
"leading writer" has his own theory for the veer-
ing of public sentiment, that a few short years ago
was so appreciative and laudatory. The gallant
fight of little Japan against Russia carried Ameri-
can sympathy with it ; the precision, skill, and suc-
cess of the little brown men received unstinted ad-
miration, and the self-restraint and good judgment
shown in the conclusion of the Portsmouth treaty
helped to confirm the world's high estimate that
they were men of peace driven to war, and that
they were as skillful in council as they were valiant
in arms. To assume that race-prejudice has occa-
sioned the change or to charge it to the wish of
California to have servility and inferiority in its
immigrants, can not be seriously urged ; yet no
236
AMERICA AND JAPAN
less a publicist than one of the editors of the
Outlook credits it to race-prejudice and says:
"The Japanese have never been servile; that is
the secret of the dislike for them felt by Western
peoples, accustomed to treat the Oriental as if he
were outside the protection of law."
The insignificant number of Japanese settled in
California, actually decreased within the last two
3^ears, shows tliat no racial issue of importance
really exists. "Baron Chinda's Menace at Wash-
ington," "Tok3^o Jingoes," "Irresponsible Japa-
nese War-Talk," also come in for enumeration.
From a recent weekly we quote a rather able and
illuminating paragraph :
"The situation is rendered more serious by the
impossibility of expecting Japan to accept any
scheme of compromise to save 'face' as she did in
the case of the San Francisco school question. The
Tokyo foreign office has never been forgiven by
the public for accepting this humiliation; and it
is strongly felt now that all such deference to race-
prejudice never permanently adjusts the difficulty,
but only puts off the evil day. Japan has now
reached a position in the family of nations where
she feels she must take a firm stand for equal treat-
237
IN PORTS AFAR
ment or be relegated again to the position of a
second-class power."
This is entirely wide of the mark, for one Ameri-
can at least, and we suspect it is for most Ameri-
cans. Let mie testify to the reasons that caused
my own change of front. We were just leaving
India when we heard of the decision of the Japa-
nese Appellate Court releasing 99 of the 105 Ko-
rean Christians convicted for the attempted assassi-
nation of the Governor-General of Korea. Be-
ginning with that announcement, we frequently
heard the Associated Press reprobated, and the
veiled reference to the unreliability of that great
news agency w^as illustrated by the denials oft re-
peated that "there was no torture" of prisoners.
We thought it only the jealousy of rivals. Then
we learned that there had been no attempt to
assassinate the official in question, and that it was
a "frame-up" to give some slight justification for
the faithlessness the Japanese foreign office had
shown in its promise to maintain Korean independ-
ence. In Manila, before the California Legislature
really showed any inclination to settle out of hand
a question 98 per cent national, we were told again
and again that the Japanese were cruel, that they
^38
AMERICA AND JAPAN
had veneered over their innate habit of overriding:
the rights of the weak and the lowly, that they
were truly Malay, and that proof of their national
honor would need to wait on refusing to torture
prisoners to secure a confession, and afterwards
convicting suspects on testimony so obtained, and
that the Japanese judiciary were plainly under the
domination of the Tokyo Government. This was
unsettling, to say the least. Then in Japan we saw
cartoons appearing in the Japanese papers against
Christianity and America, heard the open statement
that "the only way to make the Japanese tell the
truth is to torture them," and four weeks in the
company of men who had sat at the trial of the poor
Koreans in whose good faith no less than eight dif-
ferent denominations put implicit trust, completed
my own change of attitude. Either my impression-
ableness to public opinion or these facts about the
Japanese themselves, have compelled me to feel that
there is a world-wide repudiation of the Japanese
State's claim to civilized social equality based upon
the barbaric and mediaeval practices of torture and
of a judiciary subsei*vient to political influence.
Now, equality mtay relate to many different
things; just as there is a flesh man, a muscle man,
239
IN PORTS AFAR
a skeleton man, a venous man, a nerve man, and
so on for twenty-six different specifications,
equality may be of the material, may relate to
capacity for self-government or to social accept-
ance. The first, the question of economic equality,
is really no question at all, and what is worth the
while is for the political economist, who may won-
der at the tremendous taxes that the Japanese en-
dure. The second is continually asserted to be true
of several South American countries by the coun-
tries themselves, in the public eye at the present
time, notably Mexico. As to the latter, any woman
can tell us that the only way to get social recog-
nition is to behave 3^ourself, keep your house spick
and span, and besides do something that is worth
while for the world or for the social set to which
you belong. But as to tliis last and perhaps the
most debated "equality," be it remembered that
there is a national "four hundred" and likewise
an international Mrs. Grundy. Now, it would
seem that Uncle Sam introduced the new social
aspirant, and saw that several of his good friends
at the club "left cards." But Mrs. Grundy has
quietly told it about that the Jap aforesaid is a
"bounder," that his manners are execrable, that
240
AMERICA AND JAPAN
he tortures prisoners and does not pay his gam-
bling debts, and that, while he may call at the
office, the invitations to the soiree are limited in
number, and that the Jap is a Malay anyway.
Moreover, some friend should tell him that he
makes the impression of a before-the-war overseer,
who spent his time trying to break into the social
round carried on up at the big plantation house.
We are told again and again that he is sensitive.
Goodness knows he needs to be. It is probably too
early in the history of diplomacy to expect am-
bassadors to tell the plain, unvarnished truth;
rather the formula is that of Immanuel Kant, who
delimited the prevaricatory frontier by saying that,
while he was detemiined never to falsify, he was de-
termined not to tell uncalled-for truths. But the
Tokyo Government may abate its talk about
"honor" and may expect suspicion of its declared
intentions while the treachery of the Korean an-
nexation is so widely known by men living. They
clearly meditate the annexation of a portion of
Manchuria on the same terms. Let it be granted
that Korea is better off under Japanese rule. That
is not the issue. The question before the meeting is
Japanese honor; Japan promised Russia, her ar-
1^ 24.1
IN PORTS AFAR
mies being in the field, and the United States, who
has done so much to secure the new nation welcome
at its world council board, to "respect the integrity
of Korea." She did not ; therefore, as a plain
American, my attitude is changed. Baron Chinda,
Japanese Ambassador at Washington, called at the
Department of State and told Secretary Bryan that
a certain Baron Yun (one of the Koreans who had
not been released with the ninety-nine convicted
of attempting to assassinate the Governor-General
of Korea) was not in prison, but was out on bail.
Secretary Bryan believed it; a missionary of the
Church South is reported to have spent a week's
salary cabling Washington, "The Japanese am-
bassador is mistaken." Now, what is a self-respect-
ing Secretary of State to do.'^ Baron Chinda grad-
uated at De Pauw University, and undoubtedly re-
ported what the Japanese foreign office advised him
to announce. The Governor-General of Korea told
a comtmittee of missionaries "that the torture of
prisoners is against the law, and there has been
no torture." They believed him, doubted their
own brethren, the evidence of their own senses, and
eyed askance the plucky Southerner who precipi-
tated the w^orld knowledge of the enormity by
242
AMERICA AND JAPAN
hiring a lawyer to defend his members and prove
the governor-general "mistaken." ^ly theory is
that Japan has been arraigned before the tribunal
of public opinion, and just as sundry nations have
been visiting displeasure upon the Russian grand
dukes because of their infamous treatment of the
Jews, so Japan is under sentence to wait at the
lodge door until some word is returned before it
is raised to the sublime degree or takes any new
solemn affirmation at the altar of mystery.
But let us get to the trial. The whole East fol-
lowed it with absorbing interest. From Calcutta
to Manila, with shore leave at Rangoon, Penang,
Singapore, Hong Kong, and from Manila to Yoko-
hama, off again at Hong Kong and Shanghai, we
read carefully, inquired intelligently, and became
breathlessly interested in the fate of the other six.
It was cruel bej^ond expression for the poor Korean
Christians, but unfortunate to the point of tragedy
for the reversal of opinion toward Japan by the
civilized world. Incidentally the Associated Press
suffered immensely in public confidence; the par-
ticular representative of the Press was "decorated"
by the Mikado, and that of itself suggests that the
new Island empire has gone to school to Machia-
243
IN PORTS Al AR
vclli ; one wonders what it was that caused the New
York Herald to withdraw its accusation against the
Associated Press — pressure or threat to discontinue
the news service, probably, though tliat would
hardly seem sufficient for a change of front by
the great organ of James Gordon Bennett. The
judge who presided at the trial was plainly taking
orders from Tok^^o. The judge was in a way sub-
ordinate, and the Associated Press representative
was dismissed.
The Koreans are devotedl}^ patriotic. The Ko-
rean court was divided ; several factions trying to
gain and keep the favor of the prince, born to
rule without inheriting the capacity to carry his
country through troublous times. Japan's cam-
paign against Russia was carried on with Korea as
a base, but under pledge to the United States to
respect the independence, renewed later to both
the United States and Russia. Then came the an-
nexation, with nation-wide discontent, and pre-
cisely the conditions for exciting insurrection and
assassination. Then the Marquis of Ito was assas-
sinated in Manchuria by a Korean. The Japanese,
knowing that their own treachery was an incite-
ment to insurgency, jumped to the conclusion that
244
AMERICA AND JAPAN
some one was conspiring against the Governor-
General of Korea. Their fears and conscience were
the basis of their suspicion, and the poHce got busy
to locate the criminals. They arrested 125 Chris-
tians, probably because they attended regular
prayer-meetings, which the Japanese in their po-
litical trespass could not understand.
A police inspector, Kinutomo by name, with an
Intei*preter and a clerk to record their confessions,
took these 125 in hand, strung themi up by their
thumbs, burned the soles of their feet, seared them
with red-hot irons, placed them in half standing
and half sitting positions, and in seventy-two dif-
ferent, horrible, savage, and brutal ways, for
twenty, thirty, or forty days, as was necessary, tor-
tured them until they cried out anything they were
told to say. Dozens of them were sent to the
hospitals to be treated for their wounds ; two died ;
and the stories having been secured, they were sent
before the prosecuting attorney to repeat the story.
There they disowned their confessions, saying that
they were secured under torture, and forthwith were
sent back to the police inspector, who applied the
same tortures and told them frankly that if they
came back again, and remained recalcitrant, he
245
IN PORTS AFAR
would kill them. One Christian, of such high de-
gree that they did not dare to apply physical tor-
ture, was compelled to listen for thirty days to the
dreadful procedure until he came to believe that,
with such a heavy hand upon his less financially
and socially important brethren, he would bet-
ter keep still than to continue the terror by telling
the facts. Imagine yourself shut up with Kinu-
tomo, his clerk Interpreter, and the instruments of
torture at hand. You state that you never par-
ticipated in an attempt upon the life of the gov-
ernor-general, that you never heard any of your
brethren propose it, nor was it discussed at any of
the prayer-meetings or business meetings of the
Church you attended. Then this inquisitor gives
you his full program; on the fortieth day you are
still alive, and you say to him, "Hitherto I have
told you the truth, but hereafter I shall answer
as you wdsh." He asks you who was at a certain
meeting ; you tell him who were there. Then, with
a tweak of his deadly iron or rope or fire, he says,
"Such a man" (naming him) "was there .^" and you
say, "Yes." "How many revolvers did they dis-
tribute.?" You say, "Two hundred." "No ; that is
too many." Then you change the answer to five.
246
AMERICA AND JAPAN
"That is too few." "Well, then, twenty-seven."
"Very good." And so through the details of a
"frame-up" involving men, place, and events as
remote from fact as could be the participation of
readers of this chapter. It continues for one hun-
dred and twenty daj^s. After hearing the details
from men who heard the recital in court, their own
faces wet with tears as they told it, and my own
heart burning with mob violence meanwhile, you
may understand that in my thought Kinutomo and
Torquemada are in the same class.
In the court of first instance these confessions
were assumed to be true, and even in the appellate
judicature the court refused to call the doctors and
nurses who had attended the sufferers to testify to
their wounds and agon}', while the chief of police,
sword in hand, stood glowering and glaring at the
prisoners, trying to keep back the flood of testi-
mony against the police enormities that would out.
It is useless to fill up pages with details or argue
that such things could remain unknown, and that
the judge and the Associated Press representative
did not know. The record would have been dis-
graceful in the tenth century of the Christian era.
It is a shame for the civilized world;
247
IN PORTS AFAR
"For mankind is one in spirit and an impulse bears
along
Round the earth's electric circle the swift blush of right
and wrong."
It is idle to talk about Japan being sensitive, and
to mention her "honor," and to assume that CaH-
foniia raised the issue. The two questions are:
What ought to be done to make sure that it will
never occur again? and. What shall be done to
secure the release of the poor six, w^ho are without
friends, protection, or liberty, and caught in the
sinuosities of the Oriental mind, which insists that
something must be done and some one found guilty
in order to "save face?" It is the case of a Japa-
nese Dreyfus, only in far-aw^y Korea there are
six of them given over to a Devil's Island, and
with no Colonel Picquart, Zola, or Maitre Labori
to agitate until justice be done them. The Japa-
nese plainly meditate more serious reprisals against
the United States than any educated American is
willing at this stage of public opinion to credit.
No one six months ago would have credited Huerta
with a disposition to challenge American public
opinion, and yet he has done it. Autocrats and
dictators are slow to learn, and no lesson has yet
248
AMERICA AND JAPAN
been given to the Japanese official classes. They
need American sympathy and straight- forward
speech on the part of their American friends. In-
stead of American papers of large influence saying
that there has been no torture of Korean Christians,
only a little "third-degree" police practice, and
that the approval by the supreme court of the guilt
of the six finally settles the matter, there should
be the unequivocal demand for a rehearing.
People who ought to know told us at Tokyo that
torture is practiced regularly in Japan. Let some
one tell these little chaps that they have a long
way to equality yet. They will need to make such
reparation as is in their power ; first, try and punish
Kinutomo for the murder of two of his country-
men, and second, give more than their mere word
that they will not repeat the same treachery toward
China.
And so we went to Japan, rode about Nagasaki,
admired the inland sea, landed at Kobe for a five-
days' trip to Kyoto, Miyanoshita, Kamakura, where
the great god Buddha sits and equably "hears the
seas and centuries murmur in his ears," and Tokyo ;
we saw the azalea dance, rode in jinrikishas often,
admired the thrift and beauty of the farms, and
249
IN PORTS AFAR
saw regiments miarching in and out before the im-
perial palace. Our "boy" told us in rather good
English that Japan would land five hundred thou-
sand men in California if we did not give them
"their rights." We saw the tombs of the forty-
seven Ronins, visited the palaces and temples of
the Shoguns, and chaffered over dress goods, Dam-
ascene work, and spent an afternoon watching
the All-Filipino baseball team play the University
of Japan team, Meiji. They are Malay, not Mon-
gol; they are an island empire and, like England,
contiguous to a great continent, over which they
will undoubtedly exercise the greatest influence;
just now they are talking about equality, while the
official classes oppress the poor and lay grievous
burdens upon their backs. It is a system of ex-
ploitation such as is common in other parts of the
world, and while it is Oriental, it is not democratic,
and the day hastens when some Secretary of State
and some great body of missionaries will need to
speak the plain truth about this boy of civilization
who has been given a rifle and automobile by his
folks, and who is now the terror of the neighbor-
hood.
One word of commendation for the plucky mis-
250
AMERICA AND JAPAN
sionary of the Methodist Church South, who could
not be silenced nor terrorized. His name is Cook.
Across the barriers of States and sections let him
have greeting. There goes a man! And this
brings me to the word of Robert Louis Stevenson
which we have been yearning to say: "The gods
have forgiveness for all sins, but heaven itself can
not save a man who will not fight."
251
Chapter XVI
TRANS-PACIFIC
T EAVING Manila by the Pacific Mail is an
•^-^ event equal to a college Commencement or the
coming of the circus to town. The bands play,
the flags float, and there is something festive in the
air. It consumed all Saturday afternoon, when we
were supposed to embark, and until Sunday noon.
Vice-Governor-General Gilbert drove us down in
an auto. He was invited to stay during the Wilson
administration, but elected othenvise. With po-
litical experience as Congressman and judge; gen-
ial, substantial, and diplomatic; knowing every
detail of the governing process and every intricacy
of the native mind, — he would have been invaluable
to the new administration. Mr. Tener, of the
Young Men's Christian Association, also w^aved us
off. John R. Mott picked a thoroughbred when
he "rounded him* up" at the State College at Ames.
Our new^ friends festooned the cabin with flowers
and supplied us with books and magazines, not to
^52
TRANS-PACIFIC
mention a formidable-looking Igorrote spear and
a fierce bolo. The great ship swung round, and
the band played "Home, Sweet Home." Just when
we were off we did not care to know, and for hours
we sat on deck watching Cavite, Corregidor, and
waving at the camp and the bay, happy to be go-
ing, yet yearning to stay. The land seems a part
of the United States, and having been there, Ma-
nila does not seem so far away. It grows corn like
Iowa, has big lumber camps like Michigan and
Washington, raises sugar like Louisiana. Besides^
there we have "dominion over palm and pine."
It was in 1571, when the brilliant star of Spain
was fast hastening to its setting, and w^hen the
dominion of the sea was passing to Britain because
of her insular position, instead of to the Dutch,
who might well have hoped to possess it, that
Legazpi sailed up this self-same bay and founded
Manila. It was a significant date in Spanish his-
tory. The position is strategic, the climate is
tempered by proximity to the ocean, the mountain
provinces, easily accessible, afford relief during the
heated term ; the soil has a fertility unrivaled, and,
surrounded by forests, where grow the solidest and
finest woods, Luzon and its city might expect to
253
IN PORTS AFAR
dominate the coasts of Asia as England the conti-
nent to which it is contiguous. For a few months
during the Seven Years' War, Manila was in the
hands of the English, but Lord Bute, not knowing
its value, scarce its location, and trying to appease
the war furies that had been dancing their mad
revel, gave it back to Spain. It suffered the slow-
decay of all the Spanish provinces, and diseased,
possessed, deluded, without initiative to achieve its
sanitary and economic well-being, and without wish
or energy to renounce Spain and become independ-
ent, it was a pawn well advanced on the political
chess-board, and sure to fall into the hands of the
first piece with leisure and disposition to take it.
Whether it is to be rehabilitated and reconsti-
tuted, Manila made into the chief city in all the
Orient, second perhaps only to Singapore, or
whether it is to be allowed to relapse into Central
American disorder, dirt, and poverty, be further
exploited by its own leaders, and follow the revo-
lutionary history of its kindred provinces, is for
the United States to determine. The development
of the Islands is so important, as a political and
commercial opportunity it may determine the poli-
cies to be pursued in half a dozen other coun-
254
TRANS-PACIFIC
tries, and has proceeded up to this time without
poHtical entanglements and on a non-partisan basis,
so that even those who helped the new adminis-
tration into power can not but regret that the first
appointments by the new Governor-General seem
purely political, and that the first announced policy
appears to be a concession to party malcontents,
who first of all are determined to serve themselves.
Those who opposed the Nicaragua treaty because
it w^ould retain the present goverament in power
in that Central American State ^vill favor the
abandonment of the Philippines. To others tliat
treaty seems to express the comity and fraternal
relations which ought to obtain among all the West-
ern Continent republics, and they would regard the
withdrawal from the Islands as hesitating to pro-
ceed with a plain moral duty laid upon the United
States by the Providence of events. Every Ameri-
can and European visitor we met seemed to main-
tain the latter attitude. Bishop Brent aligned
himself with this group when he said that the
effort of America should be "not to rid herself of
a difficulty, but to rise to an opportunity and
to render a service."
How perilous it is to give the natives control
255
IN PORTS AFAR
of tlic Philippine Commission, is easily understood.
American control becomes at once no longer a mat-
ter of decision in Manila, but the result of legis-
lative or executive order in Washington. This of
itself can not be regarded lightly, but it is of small
weight compared to the responsibility involved in
giving a large increase of power to the "politicos"
who already dominate. The vast majority of the
Islanders can not read or write, and have no part
in the government by voting. A limited group,
rich, trained under the Spanish regime, aristo-
cratic, and temperamentally hostile to democracy,
now control the government. They are in no sense
representative people. With great force Bishop
Oldham called the attention of the Lake Mohonk
Conference to the tribal ideas which still exist, and
the submission of the common people to the tribal
leader. This has been degraded by a transfer from
the tribal leader, the cacique, to the ilustrado, the
big landowner. The President's new appointees
belong to the ilustrado class. Jaime C. de
Veyra, one of the new commissioners, is a large
land holder, and his election to the Assembly
was largely by his dependents. Judge Mapa,
who has been on the superior court bench, is an-
256
TRANS-PACIFIC
other ilustrado. Giving such men larger power
and reducing the representation of Americans
trained to consult and submit to the popular will,
is not an extension of democracy. To entrust men
of such temper and training \vith the enforcement
of laws against peonage and slavery, when they
have been practically accustomed to peonage, and
to plan an educational policy that shall make the
natives self-reliant, self-respecting, and econom-
ically independent, or as Secretary of the Interior
to administer such laws, is like committing the con-
trol of the currency to the bankers, the tariff
schedules to the manufacturers, and apportioning
poHce control to the leaders of the underworld.
The official reply of the Philippine Assembly to
the address of the new governor-general expresses
the arrogance of a group of men absorbing to
themselves and for themselves emoluments, places,
and privileges reserved by democracy for the com-
mon good.
The Pacific Mail furnishes a trans-Pacific sailing
superior in every way. Only at Hong Kong,
where they have fallen in with a time-honored cus-
tom of allowing passengers to make their own trans-
fer, were we inclined to criticise. Were it a trans-
17 257
IN PORTS AFAR
fcr from one steamship to another, it would be
altogether different. We came from Manila to
Hong Kong on the Climu, of the Pacific Mail,
and there trans-shipped to the Siberia, of the Pa-
cific Mail, and though the tenders of the Pacific
Mail were making transfers from one steamship
to the other, and though we were in the harbor
only three hours, the trans-Pacific passengers were
all compelled to use Cook's boat or to call a sampan
to make the transfer. Such pettiness is unworthy
of a great corporation ; but that is very little to
reproach the management with. We found our-
selves wishing that the Chinese gambling game
called fan-tan, that was carried on incessantly,
could be prohibited. The American officers say
that they could not ship a Chinese crew if it were
forbidden to gamble. And it is apparent that so
long as Americans by the hundreds risk their money
on the game it would take an act of Congress to
end it. The Siberia poked her nose about the bar
of the Yangste in a dense fog for twenty hours,
trying to get her bearings, but we had time at
Shanghai to visit our publishing house, chat with
Dr. Gamewell, and call at the Young Men's Chris-
tian Association. The international work of the
258
TRANS-PACIFIC
Young Men's Christian Association, with such con-
spicuous Associations as are to be found in all the
large cities of the Orient, with equipment and
methods that remind the young men continually of
their life at home, is, next to medical work, the
notable success of modern missions. John R. Mott,
who is the promoter extraordinary, was offered the
post of minister to China by the new administra-
tion, but out of loyalty to his work, to the hun-
dreds of young men he has induced to enter the
service, and the great business men he has interested
in its financial conduct, was compelled to decline.
He is Secretar}'^ of State, general manager, bishop
de facto, and vicar of such a Christian work as at
present is directed by no other man in Protestant
Christianity.
Because the Siberia is of American registry, and
therefore American soil, we happened upon one
of the most interesting incidents of the circum-
navigation trip. While we stood on the docks at
Yokohama waiting for a lighter to transfer us to
the ship we were accosted by one of the young
Chinese students sent from China to the Imperial
University at Tokyo. His family, it seems, are
Cantonese, and his brother, some years his senior,
^59
IN PORTS AFAR
is a resident of California, and had been back to
Canton for a visit. The brothers had not met for
twelve years. He was returning to America on
the Siberia^ to which, as it is de jure United States
territory, the Chinese student was refused admis-
sion. By reason of a case of suspected smallpox
on the Siberia, and the Japanese quarantine regu-
lations, the brother of American citizenship on
board was shipbound and could not land. The
Tokyo student had been actually mlaltreated by
the Swedish quartermaster and some Japanese
coolies because of his persistent attempts to get to
the Siberia. When the lighter docked we gave the
Chinese student our traveling bags, and on ap-
proaching the boats he was warned back by the
same burly Swede, saying, "Chinks not allowed."
I waved my hand and roared back, "He is my boy ;
let him on." There is an appalling influence pos-
sessed by any American with even a slightly de-
veloped "habit of command," and the coolies stood
back while he boarded. We steamed down the har-
bor, and as we approached the Siberia a long
dialogue ensued — in Japanese, though we perfectly
understood its import. At the ship's side we were
again challenged, but we elbowed the "boy" ahead,
260
TRANS-PACIFIC
and once more, at the head of the ship's ladder, the
quartermaster informed us that "Chinks are pro-
hibited." The sanne assertiveness, however, carried
us by him, and the ship's surgeon, another Cer-
berus, who was equally definite, but more compre-
hending, allowed him to pass. He stayed all day
with his brother and gave us "the blessing of my
ancestors for twenty generations" at parting. But
the real joy of the incident is still to be related.
Several days out from Yokohama a Chinese banker
bound for Wall Street on a financial errand, for
capitalizing a Chinese railroad concession, came and
sat down by my steamer chair. He told me how
the Chinese "boys" on board had informed him of
the volunteer service to one of his countrymen, and
thanked us for it. He was widely experienced as
a traveler, spoke perfect English, and we talked
for an hour or nuore on matters American, Chinese,
and personal. As he rose to leave he said in effect :
"I am too old to change my religion; I shall die
in the faith of my ancestors, but the thing that
has made China a republic and will make the
Chinese Republic Christian, is the way some of you
Americans practice equality."
Though the Pacific is such a broad expanse of
261
IN PORTS AFAR
water, the track of vessels is much frequented, and
several times we dropped deck golf or shuffle board
to watch the passing of some craft Westward ho!
Bird Island was in view for several hours, looming
at first like some lone obelisk in the waste of waters,
then rising grim and tide-beaten as some Monte
Christo or St. Helena. There were returning mis-
sionaries by the dozen on board, and the heart-
to-heart talks we had with them, the detailed ac-
counts of particular missions, specific information
of the Chinese Revolution, accounts of the Korean
tortures, the Japanese-California controversy, and
expectations of speedy return to mission fields after
leave of absence, made the journey short and in-
forming. The Sabbatlis were observed by preach-
ing services, and Decoration Day was celebrated
by an address attended by most of the passengers.
The halt at Honolulu gave ample time for calls at
the museum, the university, the aquarium, a drive
to the mountains, and a dip in the ocean surf. On
the second morning we made a round of the
churches and had a glimpse of the dethroned queen
riding in an old State carriage. Surely the last
of the Kamehamehas ought long to be remem-
bered, if for nothing else than the composition of
^62
TRANS-PACIFIC
Aloha Oe. We secured a copy of it at the book-
store. The ship's orchestra played it often, and it
^vas always vociferously applauded. The parting
from Honolulu, like the sailing from Manila, is
almost a civic function. One would think all the
town was there. Bishops, consuls, and colonels
jostled each other in cheerful good-fellowship.
The band played for an hour preceding the depart-
ure "The Star-Spangled Banner," "Aloha Oe,"
and "Home, Sweet Home;" the pelting of friends
on the dock with wreaths of flowers thrown from
the ship, and the smiling of friends through tears
who were long to be separated, makes an inde-
scribable scene. The shadow of it was all forgot-
ten, when some one at our elbow said, "That is
where we got our good cigars."
We had been at home ever since leaving Manila,
and the run to San Francisco scarcely gave us more
than time to pack up our belongings, exchange
cards with friends, and tip the "boys." Out of
Honolulu, the trade winds at first roughened the
sea, so that great green waves beat upon the bows
and showered the upper deck, making the prome-
nade exciting; but two days carried us into blue
water, and the engineer had to slow down the
263
IN PORTS AFAR
powerful turbines so as not to reach San Francisco
on Sunday. Bright and early on Monday morn-
ing we passed tlirough the Golden Gate, were
quickly passed at quarantine, and, catching the
exact moment of flood and ebb in the tide, were
at the pier.
"Serene, indifferent to fate,
Thou sittest at the Western gate;
Thou seest the white seas fold their tents,
O warder of two continents!
Thou drawest all things, small and great.
To thee beside the Western gate."
Thus wrote Bret Harte of San Francisco. It has
rivals now, and Seattle, with an air of decency,
respect for law, and without the Chinese quarter
which is absolutely disgraceful, will divide the
future greatness of the Pacific Coast, if it does not
come to supremacy. Then began our almost in-
terminable passing of the customs. We had "cer-
tificates of origin," but our baggage was scattered
all over the space assigned to the "S"-section of
the inspection floor, and we escaped just in time
to greet the bishop and a group of preachers at
the Book Concern Building. With them was
Arthur H. Briggs, once member of the California
264
TRANS-PACIFIC
Conference; he and Mrs. Briggs carried us off to
the Palace Hotel, where they were stopping, having
motored up from San Jose, and the afternoon was
filled with lunch and dinner and festive hours.
Then the Western Pacific, last of the trans-conti-
nental routes to be opened, and the only one we
had not traveled, bore us down Feather River
Canon, past Salt Lake, through the Royal Gorge,
and home.
^^5
RARE BOOK
COLLECTION
THE LIBRARY OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF
NORTH CAROLINA
AT
CHAPEL HILL
Travel
G440
.S27
| __label__neg | 0 | inportsafar00sche | OL6569099M | OL7609317W | 290 | 1,914 |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **浅谈高中语文教学中“培优转差”问题**
**■周震**
**从事语文教学工作已20多年，由于教学工作抓得扎扎实实，每学期都圆满地完成了教学任务，尤其是在“培优转差"方面做了一些尝试。现把本人在这方面的做法作一简要回顾、总结，以飨读者。**
**一、培优方面**
**每个班级的学生中都有优中差三个层次。对于学优生，人们往往存在着一个认识误区，总觉得他们基础好、悟性高、学习能力强，认为好学生不是老师教出来的，不需要老师怎么问事。我认为学优生固然有这些优点，老师教起来也省心省力，但如果老师能再施以一定的辅助，他们会提高得更快，更利于他们的成长进步。对他们不仅不能“大撒把”，而且还要认认真真地做好培优工作。为此，我做了如下工作：**
**1.综合各方面因素，确定学优生对象**
**什么是学优生，我的看法是要根据各方面的因素综合考量，具备以下条件，一是有较扎实的语文功底，二是有学语文的浓厚兴趣，三是有一定的课外阅读量，四是上课比较投入且配合老师，五是语文考试成绩能多次进入前列。这样的学生才能算得上是语文学习的优秀生，而不能依据某一、两次考试成绩来确定。**
**2.因材施教，为每个学优生制定适宜的目标**
**同是学优生，他们之间的差距还是很大的，如有的擅长表达，文章写得好；有的重视基础，功底较扎实；有的爱好阅读，理解能力强等等。对此，我们不能笼而统之，泛泛地制定一个目标。要做耐心细致的工作，为每人制定一个切实可行的细化目标，扬长补短，整体提高。**
**3.以优促优，给学优生提供更为广阔的施展才能的空间**
**学优生之间也可互帮互助，取长补短，互相促进，共同提高。开展“结对子"活动，两个优势互补的学优生结成学习伙伴，能收到1加1大于2的效果。此外，还为他们提供更为广阔的空间，让其施展才能，创设一种良好的学语文的氛围。比如有的同学爱朗诵，我就让他组织朗诵会，由他作指导；爱文学的举行班级文学讲座；还有的为同学介绍解题技巧……学优生在种种活动中找到了感觉，增强了自信心，不断寻找新的突破点，把自己提升到一个新高度，也带动了全班学生对语文的学习兴趣。**
**二、转差方面**
**学差生是班级中一个不可忽视的群体。忽视了差生的教育，就不是一个成功的教育工作者。不会做差生转化的老师，也不是一个合格的老师。如何转化差生，我的做法是：**
**1.查明原因，细分类别**
**导致学差的原因各种各样，据此可把学差生分为如下几类：**
**(1)基础不牢型。这部分学生大多来自农村。他们的小学、初中都是在乡镇学校上的，由于农村学校重理不重文，造成农村学生语文、英语这些语言学科较差。不少学生不会拼音，写字不规范，讲不好普通话，阅读量小，不会表达。**
**(2)自我满足型。这样的学生，认为自己将来不从事专业的语文工作，所学的语文知识只要能满足日常生活工作就行，学多了也没用，反而浪费时间，平时不用学，考前突击一下，及格就行。**
**(3)不紧不慢型。还有的学生认为学语文是慢功夫，慢功夫就要慢慢来，又不能一口吃个胖子，急啥，慢慢学着呗。**
**(4)望而生畏型。这类学生可能是自认为智力平平，或是缺乏学语文的环境，总对学语文抱有畏难情绪，感到自己不是学语文的料，花了那么多功夫，成绩还是提不上去，久而久之就丧失了信心。**
**(5)不感兴趣型。这类学生各科学习都差，无学习自标，对学习语文更是毫无兴趣。常常缺席、迟到，上课睡觉，看闲杂书，玩手机，听 MP3 等等。对学习元全是自暴自弃，放任自流的状态。**
**2.采取措施，辩证施治**
**世上没有包治各种疾病的药，也没有解决所有问题的锦囊妙计。转化差生，同样不能一刀切，必须辩证施治，一把钥匙开一把锁。**
**(1)引导学生正确认识自我。让学困生对照上述五种类型对号入座，看看自己属于哪一类。找准类型，方能找出原因，有利于采取针对性措施。当然，对第五种类型的学生要掌握好分寸，避免伤署其自尊心，要灵活变通。**
**(2)端正学习态度，培养良好习惯。告诉他们，学好语文并不像他们想象得那么难。只要坚持学习，假以时日，就一定可以把语文学好。要有正确的学习态度，要有不畏困难的精神，注重积累。养成学语文的好习惯，这样你们的语文水平就可以进入一个新境界，达到一个新高度。**
**(3)分层次要求，每人有不同的目标。对每个类型的人，一定要区别对待，要求要体现出层次性。第一种要求打基础。第二、三种增压力，加任务，提难度。第四种要求由易入难，循序渐进。第五种则要求他们遵守课堂纪律，上课注意听讲，适度完成作业，慢慢产生学习兴趣。学差生每人制定切合自己的学习目标，不攀比他人，适合自己就好。**
**(4)实行个别辅导，建立激励机制。对学差生，尽管制定了目标，但也不能撒手不管，还必须监督，检查目标的达成情况，甚至还需要经常进行一对一辅导，对他们在学习中遇到的困难及时解决。同时对学习有进步、成绩有提高的学生予以鼓励和奖励，也让他们有参与活动、展现自我的机会。**
**(作者单位：安徽蒙城一中) \[资编 木子}** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **遗产税慈善公益捐赠扣除的意蕴**
**张永忠**
**(江苏大学财经学院，江苏镇江 212013)**
**摘 要：要发现捐赠的人性之美，不能让传统的经济学分析蒙住了眼睛。依靠自己的天赋和努力，通过正当的途径和手段成为巨富的人，是整个社会的精英，更是巨富中的精英，是精英巨富。所有精英巨富都必然是热心的社会捐赠者中的巨鳄，这是由其高尚的财富观所决定的。遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除，是极大尊重精英巨富，使其尽情行善的制度，是向去世精英巨富的崇高敬礼，理解这一制度对社会的和谐具有重要的意义。**
**关键词：遗产税；慈善公益捐赠税前扣除；精英巨富；财富观**
**中图分类号：F810.42 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1004-5465(2013)02-007-06**
**The Implication on Charitable Public Welfare Donation Deduction of Estate Tax**
**_ZHANG Yong -zhong_**
**(School of Finance and Economics，Jiangsu University，Zhenjiang号212013，China)**
**Abstract：To discover the beauty of human nature in the donation， we can not let the traditional econom-ics analysis covered our eyes. Who rely on their own talent and hard work， through the ways and means of justification to become the richest man， are the whole social elite， but the wealthy elite， and the elite rich. And all elite rich must be the croc in enthusiastic social donors， which is decided by their noble view. The estate tax’s charitable public welfare donation deduction is a great respect for elite rich， make it to their heart’s content system， which is the lofty salute for the elite rich died， understand this system has an important significance on social harmony.**
**Key words：estate tax；pre -tax deduction of charitable public welfare donations；elite rich； wealth view**
**从古老的遗产税开始，慈善公益捐赠的税前扣除制度就已存在了，但一直被太多的人理解成了逼人慈善和专供避税的制度，以至于善良之心常常受到伤害，而仇富心理更加强烈。这一问题主要存在于个人所得税、企业所得税和遗产税中。由于当代的遗产只对巨富征收而最为突显，为此，有必要对当代遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除深入研究，体悟其制度的真实意蕴。**
一、经济学个人捐赠理论的缺陷
**捐赠行为明显与经济人假设相悖，因而人们为什么会捐赠，尤其是富人为什么会捐赠，便成为普遍的疑问。对这一问题，传统经济学理论的回答是，人们期望从自己的捐赠行为中获得回报。这种回报可以是直接的，例如，捐款兴建一个剧院，自己可以欣赏到更多更好的节目；这种回报也**
**，收稿日期：2013-02-25**
**基金项目：本文系国家社科基金项目“社会公平视角下的我国遗产税制度设计研究"(11BJ133)的阶段性成果。**
**作者简介：张永忠(1968一)，男，甘肃甘谷人，教授、硕导，研究方向：税收、税法理论。**
**可以是间接的，例如，富人捐款用于济贫等社会事业，可以防止社会上某些极端情况的出现，有利于维持现有的社会秩序，从而也有利于维护自己的利益。因此，捐赠并不是无私的，而是出于捐赠者的利己动机。1**
**这样的解释显然苍白无力。经济学上的回报是指以最小的经济代价，获取最大的经济收益，是合算的。如果由众多的普通人每人捐数额不大的款项兴建一个剧院，每个人便都可以欣赏到更侈更好的节目，这样的捐赠经济代价很小，经济收益很大，是合算的，人们确实能期望从中获得回报，这种行为确实符合传统的经济人假设，但是，这样的捐赠实际是一种交易，而不是真正的捐赠；如果这个剧院由一个富人捐款兴建，尽管他可以因此欣赏到更多更好的节目，但他明显不能期望从中获得回报，因为这样的行为经济代价太大，经济收益太小，太不合算，要欣赏到更多更好的节目，他完全可以出很少的钱，去其他剧院，买票获得，这才符合传统的经济人假设。至于富人为维护自己的利益而捐款济贫，则更不符合传统经济人假设。一是通过济贫而可能得到的“防止社会上某些极端情况的出现”，“维持现有的社会秩序”，是一种公共产品，作为自利的经济人，每个富人都会选择让别人去济贫，自己则免费搭车，反正捐款是自愿的，不是强制的；二是在“穷人贫困正是富人致富的原因”“无商不奸”、、“为富不仁”等观念盛行的社会，富人的捐款济贫被认为是赎罪，穷人仇富的心理及其行为被正当化，其结果只能导致更多极端情况的出现，危害现有的社会秩序，难以得到“维护自己的利益”的回报。**
**这种利己主义理论更难以解释这样一些捐赠现象：当别的国家发生自然灾害时，人们也会为异国他乡的灾民捐赠，这种情况很难说是为了维护捐赠者自身的利益；环境保护主义者为了保护某种自己一辈子都不会见到的濒危物种而进行捐赠，也不大可能出于利己的目的；金钱至上的美国人何以最热衷于捐赠；锱铢必求的亿万富翁何以裸捐；死后将其遗产捐赠社会而不是留给子孙的那些人是如何自利的；等等。**
**与此相关的是，经济学对家庭财富代际转移动机的分析，也是很成问题的。比如，在家庭财富代际转移动机的分析中，老年保障假说认为，当资产积累的其它方式受到限制时，个人将依赖其子**
**女的代际转移来提供养老保障；父母投资回报假说认为，在家庭内部存在一个隐形的资本借贷市场，父母在该市场上通过贷款或投资和赠与等方式来对子女进行代际转移，这种代际转移的主要方式是对子女进行人力资本投资(投资于子女的教育与健康等)，而子女通过对父母提供老年时的经济支持来隐形偿还父母的贷款或投资；交换动机的假说认为，家庭中成年子女往往会替父母支付各种家庭之外提供的服务，父母对子女的代际转移可以看成是父母对子女这种支付服务的一种隐形报酬。这些分析不能说没有道理，但都将父母的慈爱和子女的孝爱描绘成了赤裸裸的金钱关系，冷冰冰的，没有人情味，令人难以接受。**
**当然，经济学家也试图将捐赠解释成一种利他主义行为，但其理论要不是复杂难懂，不能令人信服，便就是不像经济学，比利已主义捐赠理论更令人不满意。**
**上述缺陷的存在，是因为不论是一般的个人社会捐赠，还是家庭财富的代际转移，都不是交易，更不是市场交易，不适合经济学分析。以自利的经济人为假设前提，无法展现人性的光辉，因为，货币这种分析工具的方便性使得金钱在无形中被视为财富的全部，还因为试图对人的一切行为只做出经济学意义上的解释，难免顾此失彼，更因为有意无意地将注意力集中在了财富的分配而不是财富的创造上，容易把社会财富看成是一块边界既定的大饼，因此你多咬一口，我只能少吃一口，你富是我穷的根源，其结果是，经济学不仅无助于人们高尚财富观的形成，反而能助推“有钱能使鬼推磨”、“金钱是人生惟一的价值追求”、“无商不奸”、“为富不仁”“穷人贫困正是富人致富的原因”等观念的盛行，促使人们将心思用在分配财富的争斗、对抗和仇恨中，而不是创造财富的合作、互助和互爱中，而这与经济学的精神背道而驰。在这样的氛围中，杀富济贫、劫富济贫很容易大行其道，而捐赠的高尚反而难以让人理解，捐赠行为则会被认为是伪善或者是赎罪。因此，要发现捐赠的人性之美，不能让传统的经济学分析蒙住了眼睛。**
**二、精英巨富的财富观**
**本文要揭示的是巨富捐赠的人性之美。毫无疑问，依靠自己的天赋和努力，通过正当的途径和手段成为巨富的人，是整个社会的精英，更是巨富**
**中的精英，是精英巨富。而所有精英巨富都必然是热心的社会捐赠者中的巨鳄，这是由其高尚的财富观所决定的。**
**精英巨富常常出身贫困，一开始必须为生存而努力，他们这时的财富观可能与一般人并没有区别，只把财富看成是赖以活命的物质或者就是金钱。但这些人毕竟具有特别的天赋，具有常人难有的勤奋，而艰难的拼搏和困苦的磨炼又使他们具有了坚忍不拔的意志和出类拔萃的才干。他们胸怀大志，绝不会满足于做一名首席办事员、领班，或总经理等，无论担任这样的职务可以给他们带来多么优厚的报酬。他们会对自己说：“我的位置在最高处”，他们要做梦寐以求的王者；“他们勇往直前，很快就成了自己老板的合伙人，先独当一面，再成为公司的脊梁，最后自己成了大老板；他们个个都知道如何对待比自己更聪明的人，很快就能网罗一批又一批各种各样的杰出才俊，使他们身心愉悦地各显其能；他们人人机智敏捷，总能扑捉到稍纵即逝的各种商机，占有全社会最为紧俏宝贵的各种资源；他们不仅能认识到“资本、工人和雇主就像三条腿的凳子一样，缺一不可”，5\]而且更理解底层员工的苦难，能善待他们，与其分享公司的发展成果，使其以公司为荣，为公司奉献；他们不仅能在实践中不断革新思想，革新理论，革新机制，而且常常还是了不起的发明家；他们具有超强的说服水平，能使竞争对手心安情愿地向其完全妥协；他们具有卓越的沟通才能，能使经、政、军、学，国内国外方方面面都乐意为其“修路架桥”。总之，这些人才智超群，八面玲珑，能白手起家，不断从辉煌走向更辉煌，从中得到极大的满足和快乐，同时迅速积累起惊人的物质财富。**
**更重要的是，在努力奋斗的一路上，他们越来越深刻的认识到，最重要的财富并不是金钱或物质，而是勤奋诚信的品质，是坚忍不拔的意志，是出类拔萃的才干，是胸怀大志，勇往直前，是非凡的组织能力，是机敏的商机意识，是善待员工的英明睿智，是杰出的创新才能，是超强的说服水平，是卓越的沟通才能。一句话，他们认识到最重要的财富就是人的组织能力、管理能力与创新能力，即企业家才能。他们的财富观得到了不断升华，他们成为最有成就、值得全社会珍视和尊敬的企业家。安德鲁·卡内基、比尔·盖茨、李嘉诚和邵**
**逸夫就是他们的杰出代表。**
**然而，这些精英巨富的伟大远不止于此，不断升华的财富观使他们不仅成为最有成就的企业家，而且还成为伟大的慈善家。正如安德鲁·卡内基所言：“财富的积累可以给我们带来满足感，但是并不能最大程度地体现人的价值”15在积累了巨额财富以后，精英巨富很快认识到有比积累巨额财富更有意义的事，那就是将自己积累的巨额财富用在最能发挥作用的地方，而这需要有比最有成就的企业家更卓越的智慧，这既能最大程度地体现他们的价值，又更艰难、更富挑战性。**
**他们的行为似乎很难让人理解：他们拥有亿万财产，却是生活俭朴、避免铺张浪费的模范；他们至爱子女，却会将几乎全部的财产捐献给社会。他们之所以拥有亿万财产，却是生活俭朴、避免铺张浪费的模范，是因为节俭是他们从贫困时期就已形成的习惯，更成为一辈子的美德；是因为他们认识到“有没有节俭的习惯是文明人区别于原始人的最重要的特征”，“节俭基本上是所有人类进步的基础。如果没有节俭，我们就没有铁路，没有运河，没有船舶，没有电报，没有教堂，没有大学，没有中学，没有报纸，没有任何了不起和价值高昂的建筑和生活设施”，“节俭是我们首要的责任”；“是因为奢侈挥霍并不是他们奋力拼搏所追求的目标，他们有的是实力、自信和魅力，根本没必要以奢侈挥霍来标榜或炫耀。但是他们决不吝啬，更不是守财奴，他们会冒着大雨去捡掉在地上的1美元，也会非常感激地给帮他捡起这1美元的服务生100美元酬谢；在自己和家人生活俭朴的同时，又会不断地将巨额的资金捐助给他人，他们决不是金钱的奴隶。**
**他们之所以至爱子女，却会将几乎全部的财产捐献给社会，是因为即便将几乎全部的财产捐献给社会，他们的子女也不至于为衣食而忧；是因为“生活的经历和冷静的观察使我们认识到，通常来说，孩子们不靠自己的努力，就从父母那里继承到一笔巨额财富，这对他们其实是一种负担，而且对他们的日后成才不是一件好事”；是因为他们认识到，“富有的父母们必须认真对待的，是规矩而非期望。看一看巨额遗赠对接收者经常产生的恶果，明智之人需要郑重地申明：‘我要留给后代的是良好的家庭传统，而不是巨额的遗产””4\]。他们会不遗余力、不惜财力地培养子女创造**
**财富和善做公益的能力，使其成为对社会有用的人，这样他们就能把至爱而不是祸害留给子女。这才是大爱，更是真爱。**
**他们之所以至爱子女，却会将几乎全部的财产捐献给社会，是因为巨富的财富，再没有比用于慈善更能发挥作用；巨富的人生，再没有比能既成为杰出的企业家又能成为伟大的慈善家更有智慧，更有意义，更有价值。“钢铁大王”、伟大的慈善家安德鲁·卡内基的感人事迹就很能说明这一问题。**
**安德鲁·卡内基在他的钢铁事业如日中天的时候，认识到他的捐献任务更艰巨、更漫长、更有意义，便毅然退出商界，专门从事慈善公益事业。为答谢与他一起为钢铁事业“战斗”过的工人，他将第一笔捐助款400万美元用来救济发生意外事故的工人；为了让工人能够充分利用好空闲时间，他再捐出100万美元，用于维持工人图书馆和礼堂的开销；为了向与他年轻时一样买不起书读的人开启知识的大门，他在纽约市捐建了68座图书馆分馆，在布努克林捐建了20多座图书馆；为了回报为他不断创造过巨额财富的地方，他在匹兹堡的捐赠达到2400 万美元，主要用于建造图书馆、博物馆、美术馆、几所技术学校及一所女子中学；为了支持与科学、文学、艺术有关的调查发现和考察研究，他捐献1000万美元用于创建华盛顿卡内基基金会；为了奖励英雄，赡养英雄的家属，他捐赠500万美元建立了英雄基金会，后来又将其扩展到丹佛姆林，以及法国、德国、比利时、意大利、挪威、瑞土、瑞典和丹麦；为了帮助大学教授安度晚年，他捐出1500万美元用来建立大学教授的养老基金；为了帮助美国总统或作家安度晚年，他捐资设立了“总统退休基金”和“作家基金”，他还向11个国家提供了“卡内基名人基金”；为了资助贫困学生，他拿出1000万美元建立了卡内基苏格兰大学信托基金；为了能让公众自由欣赏皮坦克利夫峡谷的壮丽景观，他花4.5万英镑从私人手中购买了它的产权；为了鼓励人们为世界和平做出贡献，他捐资1000万美元设立“卡内基国际和平财团”；为了不因年老体弱而影响他们夫妇的慈善事业，他拿出了仅余的1亿5千万美元设立了“卡内基公司”，让公司人员代理他们的捐献工作。直至今天，卡内基的各种基金会虽历时百年，仍在造福人世。**
**卡内基的善行并不是个案，事实上，精英巨富们都在努力做着这样的事，在今天，比尔·盖茨、李嘉诚、邵逸夫的慈善故事同样广为人所传诵。比尔·盖茨把自己580亿美元的财产全数捐给其名下慈善基金——比尔及梅琳达盖茨基金会，一分一毫也不留给自己子女。同时，他本人早早地退出商界，全身心地投人到慈善事业中；据统计，到2008年，李嘉诚累计捐款已超过了100亿港元；据统计，到2007年，邵逸夫共向内地捐赠了34亿港元，兴建了5000多个教育和医疗项目。7.**
**卡内基们的捐赠所展现的正是人性之美。例如，捐巨款答谢工人，是因为卡内基深知“我之所以有现在的成就是与工人的辛苦劳作分不开的”，是知福惜福，饮水思源；捐建一座又一座的图书馆，是因为卡内基有过幼年时代受惠于安德森上校的图书馆的时光，他最清楚图书馆的价值，他要把知识的阳光给更多买不起书的人，以此表达对上校的无限感激之情；向匹兹堡捐建那么多的文教设施，是因为卡内基无法忘记该地在其巨额财富的积累中做出的巨大贡献，是知恩图报；创设英雄基金，是因为卡内基从小就崇拜英雄，常被英雄的事迹所触动，一定要为英雄做点什么；花巨资购买皮坦克利夫峡谷供人自由欣赏，是因为卡内基从小就有不能踏入这一“天堂”的遗憾，他要让所有的人都不再有这种遗憾；对丹佛姆林捐助特多，是因为那是卡内基的故乡，爱故乡，为故乡做贡献，是每个人自然而然的情感……。爱子女，爱员工，爱故乡，爱祖国，崇拜英雄，尊重知识，受人杯水之恩就以涌泉相报，把自己享受过的快乐让更多的人享受，不让别人再有自己有过的遗憾......原来人性如此美好，原来每个人都有非常多、非常美好的心愿，这些愿望都是想着让他人更幸福；有钱真好，可以将这些美好愿望一一实现。精英巨富就是因为能够并愿意凭借其巨额的财富，运用其杰出的才智，得以实现自己这些美好的愿望，因而远比一般人，更比其他巨富愉悦、幸福。**
**毫无疑问，捐赠具有方向性\[81，即对被捐赠的对象和项目都具有选择性。为什么对这些人捐赠而不是对那些人捐赠，因为这些人是他的故人，对故人捐赠的愉悦感、幸福感最大；为什么对这一项目捐赠而不是对那些项目捐赠，因为这一项目对他而言具有特殊意义，也最有价值。意向性会**
**使所有的捐赠都留下捐赠者的印记和影子，使捐赠者最愉悦、最幸福，但这绝无碍于捐赠者的伟大。精英巨富的捐赠一般会沿着这样的路线不断前进：从对人到对项目，从一般项目到专门项目，从对公司所在地到故乡，从故乡到外乡，从对国内到国外。在这样从愉悦到更愉悦，从幸福到更幸福的前进过程中，精英巨富的心理也会发生不断地变化：开始可能只是感恩回报，只是我愿意做点什么，之后是我应该做点什么，再之后是我能为社会做许多事，再之后是社会需要我做许多事，再之后即是我能为社会做更多的事。这样，随着自我觉醒程度的递增，捐赠行为日益成为精英巨富的一种由内而外的自觉行为，融入其血液，成为其生命中最重要的部分，勃发出无限的生机，不断展现人性的美好，最大程度地实现人生价值。**
**三、向去世精英巨富的敬礼**
**巨富的捐赠就是，巨额的财富，由最有能耐的人，用到了最能拨挥作用的地方，这是何等的美事，更何况这巨额的财富，是由这个最有能耐的人艰苦拼搏而创造和积累的。这样的人值得人人敬仰，这样的行为值得制度褒扬。这样的人就是精英巨富，这样的行为就是巨富的慈善公益捐赠，这种制度的一个重要方面，就是个人所得税和遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除。这里我们要讨论的主要是遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除。**
**卡耐基有一句名言：“在巨富中死去是一种耻辱”。能在有生之年看到继承人得心应手地不断推进自己的事业，能在有生之年将自己巨额财富用于捐赠，使其发挥最大的作用，那是最让人欣慰的事。那种认为奔赴黄泉时也能把财富带走的人，他肯定不会把财富留下来。这类人无法获得众人的敬仰与感激，自然也无法世世代代为人颂扬。41人生不仅短促，人生也常常无奈，不少人常常生前一直忙着积聚财富，还没来得及利用这些财富，便与世长辞了，如果这些人做出了捐赠财产于慈善公益的安排，或者他的子孙决定捐赠其遗产用于慈善公益，依然是很高尚的行为，同样值得尊敬和褒扬。这正是遗产税慈善公益捐赠扣除的基本意蕴。**
**与所得税的相关制度相同，遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除是对精英巨富的极大尊敬。遗产税制度规定，巨富捐赠给慈善公益事业的遗产，可在应税遗产中扣除。这意味着，巨富向慈善公益捐赠**
**的每100元遗产中，大约有50元是国家减免的遗产税额。巨富真正向慈善公益付出1元，国家就会默默地同样付出1元，为巨富成就2元的功德和美名。而且一些项目还可以要求国家财政资金配套，这更是巨富功德和美名的放大器。更重要的是，捐赠的方式，可以是成立巨富自己的私人基金，由巨富自己设置运行机制和物色管理人员，从事巨富自己选择的慈善公益项目。这更是对精英巨富事业(慈善公益)的极力支持，是对精英巨富选择(慈善公益项目)的极大尊重，是对精英巨富才智(对基金运作机制的安排和管理人员的物色)的极度信任。在这一机制下，精英巨富能获得充分的自由，可以尽情行善，可以充分发挥自己的聪明才智，使巨额财富发挥最大的作用。像卡内基那样偏爱图书馆的捐赠自然是很高尚的，像邵逸夫那样钟情教育的捐赠无疑是很伟大的，像艾柯卡那样专注于糖尿病研治的捐赠同样是非常了不起的———都是极大的善行，只是每个精英巨富都有自己心目中的至善，让每个精英巨富都为自己心目中的至善而尽力，那就是在成就全社会的至善。捐款给故乡是光荣的，捐款给母校是令人赞美的，捐款给所有让其刻骨铭心或内心恻隐的地方同样是值得敬佩的——都是人性之美，每个精英巨富的人性之美需要以各自独特的方式展现出来，让每个精英巨富都以自己的方式展现人性之美，那样的社会是最美丽的。直接向受惠者捐赠是雪中送碳，通过中介组织捐赠是集结军团作战，建立自己的基金会捐赠则是使其善行成为不朽的事业—-—美好的社会总是既能赞赏精英巨富的急公好义，也会仰慕精英巨富的非凡智慧，比如，人们非常佩服卡内基天才般地创造出了永葆活力的基金机制，充分利用了自己的威望和号召力，把灿若星汉的社会贤士才俊都吸引、招揽和动员到了自己的基金会中来，使他的各种基金会历时百年仍然生机勃勃，当人们知道目前卡内基国际和平基金会正在为中美的相处之道找“活路”91而努力时，肯定会相信，作为慈善家的卡内基比作为“钢铁大王”的卡内基更伟大、更有才气，卡内基的慈善事业不朽，卡内基本人得到了永生。慈善公益捐赠于精英巨富能最大程度地实现人生价值，慈善公益捐赠于社会能填补市场和政府同时失灵的场域，人的杰出才智和巨额财富的真正价值与意义也只有在慈善公益捐赠中能一览**
**无遗地表露出来。**
**正是因为遗产税慈善公益捐赠扣除这样一种装置，使精英巨富能调动更多的财富，能最愉悦、最幸福地从事他所钟爱的慈善公益事业，使其在世界上留下非常美好的印记，产生永久的积极影响，使其生受崇敬，死备哀荣，所以，遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除，是向去世精英巨富崇高的敬礼。**
**遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除，是向去世精英巨富崇高的敬礼。只有真正体悟了这一制度意蕴，才能充分认识到，遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除并不是“逼人慈善”的制度。慈善是美好的人性，慈善捐赠则直接决定于人的财富观，而人性和财富观都是既不可消灭，也无法逼出来的，逼人慈善只能收获反感和欺骗，但是制度可以引导人性和人的财富观，使其美好的一面得以充分展现。遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除，就是这样的制度：极力支持精英巨富的慈善事业，极度相信精英巨富的智慧，极大尊重精英巨富的选择，使其能够充分发挥自己的聪明才智，尽情行善，即充分尊重精英巨富，使其美好的人性和高尚的财富观得以充分展现。**
**遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除，是向去世精英巨富崇高的敬礼。只有真正体悟了这一制度意蕴，才能充分认识到，遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除并不是专供避税的制度。遗产税一般都实行超额累进税率，利用慈善公益捐赠税前扣除这一制度，确实可能使适用税率档次下降，使其减少的应纳税额大于慈善公益捐赠额，由此获得避税利益。但是不能因此认为这一扣除制度就是专供避税的。C一是这一制度的根本目标是对精英巨富的极大的尊敬，即便一些巨富以此避税，也只是为其利用，并不是专供其避税的制度，更不是“富豪们的另一场盛宴”，I1D!更何况真正的精英巨富决不会以此避税。因此，应义无反顾地坚持这一制度，决不能因噎废食，让精英巨富的慈善心受到伤害；二是避税的问题，可以通过严密这一扣税制度的办**
**法来解决，比如，规定当慈善公益捐赠扣除额小于因捐赠而少纳的税额时，按高一档税率计征，便既可以防止避税，又可以证明巨富捐赠的高尚，不致伤害慈善的心。**
**四、结语**
**只有发现人性的捐赠之美，理解精英巨富高尚的财富观，才能体悟遗产税慈善公益捐赠扣除制度的真实意蕴：充分尊重精英巨富，使其尽情行善；遗产税的慈善公益捐赠扣除是向去世精英巨富的崇高敬礼，而不是“逼人慈善”，更不是“专供避税”或“富豪们的另一场盛宴”。理解这一制度，有利于保护善良之心，消减仇富心理，促进社会和谐。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\]曹洪彬.我国捐赠的公共经济学分析\[D\].厦门：厦门大学，2006.**
**\[2\]丁士军.关于家庭财代富际转移动机的几种假说\[J\].江汉论坛，1999，(5).**
**\[3\]储小平.财富观的变革与财富的创造\[】\].汕头大学学报(人文科学版)，2000，(4).**
**\[4\](美)安德鲁·卡内基.财富的福音\[M\].北京：中国言实出版社，2005.5，179~183，198-199，200.**
**\[5\](美)安德鲁·卡内基.卡内基自传\[M\].长春：吉林出版集团有限责任公司，2012. 143，158.**
**\[6\]李嘉诚捐款超过100亿\[J\].环球人物，2008，(24)**
**\[7\]邵逸夫再捐资2亿助内地教育21年系计捐逾34亿\[EC/OL\].中国新闻网(http：//www. chinanews. com/ga/gaynd/news/2007/01-24/860275.shtml).**
**\[8\]胡石清，乌家培.从利他性到社会理性\[J\].财经问题研究，2009，(6).**
**\[9\]中美该为相处之道找“活路”\[N\].环球时报，2012-12-24(7).**
**\[10\]齐林.捐赠资产——富豪们的另一场盛宴\[J\]、中国新时代，2012，(11).**
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zh | N/A | N/A | 特色产业集聚是促进欠发达地区经济发展的新选择
孙 慧
(新疆大学经济与管理学院，新疆 乌鲁木齐 830046)
摘要： 产业集聚是经济发展过程中所表现出的 种空间集聚和地方专业化的集聚经济现象。本文在分析产业集聚与区域经济发展关系的基础上，通过特色产业集聚对区域经济发展影响的集聚效应分析，提出特色产业集聚是提升区域经济发展的新选择。
关键词：：特色产业：产业集聚；区域经济
中图分类号：：F127 文献标识码：A
文章编号：1007-7685(2007)06创新版-0048-03
全球经济竞争的发展客观要求我们必须遵循新形势、新要求和新变化，适应全球经济一体化发展和国际经济结构加速重组的趋势，尽快进行区域产业组织的创新，形成独具特色的产业体系。同时，由于我国经济区域发展不平衡的梯度性，，通过产业集聚的形式，提高区域经济发展水平和区域竞争能力，将成为欠发达地区促进经济发展的一个重要途径。
一、产业集聚与区域经济发展的关系
1.产业集聚研究的主要理论与观点。杜能的区位理论，提出了有关集聚的观点。马歇尔的地方外部性理论认为，专业化分工、共享劳动力市场和技术外溢等跟地方、距离有关的外部性因素促进了产业区(地方集聚)的发展。(3)韦伯的集聚理论。韦伯概括了集聚的不同类型，，提出集聚经济的思想，并总结了集聚的四个要素：技术设备的发展促进生产过程的专业化；劳动力高度分工要求形成灵活的劳动力组织：批量购买与销售降低了生产成本；共享基础设施.降低了一般性开支。(4)佩鲁的增长极理论在空间上的运用。主要论述增长极(代表集聚)的影响和非增长极(集聚)是如何形成的。(5) 苏联
有关地域生产综合体的理论与实践。地域生产综合体应该是集聚，认为这种集聚是在政府的计划下形成的。(6)新产业区理论。它沿袭了马歇尔的传统，结合了现代生产方式的转变(从福特制到弹性专精)，注重社会环境、技术与知识的影响。(7)波特钻石模型的理论。波特从竞争优势理论角度认为企业集聚是提高产业竞争力的重要因素.他还认为国家的竞争优势来源于优势产业，而优势产业的竞争优势来源于产业集聚。产业集聚是现代经济构成的重要单元，有影响的产业集聚是区域经济增长和社会发展的战略要点，往往代表着区域的核心竞争力。(8)克鲁格曼的中心与外围模型。克鲁格曼利用 stigerz 的垄断竞争模型，借助自己在国际贸易研究(新贸易理论仑)的经验，，建立了一个两个地区的集聚模型.并进行了系列的研究，从此引发了现在声势浩大的地理经济学派。
2.区域经济发展的主要理论与观点。以经济学家胡佛、诺斯和哈里·W·理查德逊为代表的主流观点认为，区域经济学的研究对象是人类经济活动的地理分布和空间组织，强调地理分布、经济空间秩序或地域组织规律。区域产业结构和
注：本文系2006年度新疆维吾尔自治区高校科研计划重点项目
(NO. XJEDU2006I033))的阶段性成果。
收稿日期：2007-03-08
作者简介：：孙
慧(1963-)，，女，江苏泗阳人，新疆大学经济与管理学院副教授。研究方向：区域经济学。
区域空间结构是区域经济学研究的重要内容。区域空间结构的研究始于上个世纪三四十年代，在五十年代后得到长足发展，形成了一种实用而流行的区域研究理论。区域经济学的主要理论观点有：
(1)增长极理论。增长极理论最早由法国经济学家佩鲁于二十世纪五十年代提出。增长极理论源于对区域发展非均衡规律的观察。在高度工业化的背景下，受劳动地域分工规律的影响，各地区筛选并培育出具有优势的基础性主导产业，参与市场竞争，由于产业效益的差异，各产业部门的增长速度不一致，增长的势力往往集中在主导产业和创新企业上。空间分布的不均衡性表现为主导产业和创新企业首先在某些城市和地区集聚并优先得到发展，形成增长极，然后向外围扩散，带动区域经济的发展。增长极是指具有优势区位和推动型产业的地理空间，往往是作为经济地域核心的城市。配鲁认为增长极是具有推动作用的关键产业。增长极对所在区域具有极化效应和扩散效应两种作用机理。极化效应是指由于增长极内部的主导产业和创新企业的发展，对周边地区产生了强大的吸引力，是增长极与周边地区形成经济差异，促使和诱发周边地区的资源要素向增长极移动，产生规模效应，使增长极经济实力迅速增加和人口规模迅速扩大。扩散效应是指各资源要素和经济活动主体由增长极向外围地区扩散并由此带动周边地区经济发展的过程。
(2)点轴理论。二十世纪七十年代沃尔.松世特提出了生产轴理论，其主要内容是：随着连接中心地的重要交通干线形成新的优势区位，对产业和劳动力产生新的吸引力，从而形成了有利的投资环境，使产业和人口向交通线集聚并产生新的居民点，使该地区出现工业化和城镇化的趋势。这种对区域开发具有促进作用的交通运输通道被称为“生产轴”。波兰的萨伦巴和马利士把增长极理论和生产轴理论结合起来，并吸收中心地理等理论的合理成分，提出了一种新的理论——点轴理论。
(3)核心——边缘理论。二十世纪中叶美国区域经济学家弗里德曼在对委内瑞拉区域发展演变特征研究的过程中发现并提出了核心——边缘
理论，认为区域都可以分为核心区(也称结节区)和边缘区。核心区是社会经济活动的集聚区域，受其影响的区域围绕它分布，因为社会不发达，被称为边缘区，包括过渡区域和资源前沿区域。核心区域与边缘区之间存在着一种密切的社会经济联系，共同组成空间系统。一方面，核心区从边缘区吸收生产要素产生大量的创新，另一方面，这些创新又源源不断地从核心区向外扩散，引导边缘区的经济结构发展变化，区域经济增长同时促进整个区域经济空间结构的发展变化。
(4)梯度推移理论。梯度推移理论是从弗农的生命周期理论发展而来的，认为处于不同生命发展阶段的产品具有不同的空间布局规律，产生了区域经济技术水平的空间差异，形成了区域经济技术梯度。梯度的存在导致了产业、创新技术等从高梯度地区逐步向低梯度地区转移。主要内容是：区域经济技术的梯度是客观存在的，区域经济发展中的创新活动大多源于高梯度地区，并随时间推移，产品所处生命周期阶段不同，创新技术、产业、产品按顺序从高梯度地区向低梯度地区转移，梯度推移的空间依托是区域的多层次城镇体系，在不同梯度的城市间推移，各区域所处的梯度是相对的和发展变化的。
3.产业集聚与区域经济发展的关系。区域经济学研究的重点是经济空间结构的发展变化及其相互联系。产业集聚作为区域经济学中区位理论研究的一个重要分支，研究的重点是主导产业的空间集聚和地方专业化的现象对区域经济发展的影响。二者都涉及到空间的集聚优势以及所带来的规模效应，都涉及到集聚优势由优势区域向欠优势区域的扩散效应。但前者更侧重经济的空结构角度来研究区域经济的发展与区域经济的增长问题。后者更侧重于主导产品的地理区位的集中并获得集聚优势和集聚效应、如规模经济效应、范围经济效应、外部的经济性，知识创新与技术创新的经济效应，以及由专业化分工带来的比较优势与竞争优势。
二、特色产业集聚是促进欠发达地区经济发展的新选择
1.产业集聚对区域经济发展的影响。根据
杜能的区位理论、马歇尔的地方外部性理论、韦伯的集聚理论、佩鲁的增长极理论、苏联有关地域生产综合体的理论与实践、新产业区理论、波特钻石模型的理论、克鲁格曼的中心与外围模型，产业集聚对区域经济的影响主要有以下几个方面：产业集聚可以增加集聚区域的竞争优势，提高集聚区域的经济增长速度；产业集聚可以加速集聚区域知识流动、技术转移和创新的发生；产业集聚可以推动集聚区域工业化发展：产业集聚可以推进集聚区域城市化进程。
2.特色产业集聚对区域经济发展的意义。对于一个经济区域来说，主导产业往往是区域经济中具有特色和优势的产业。这种具有区域特色和优势的产业往往在发展过程中，依据市场竞争法则，逐渐形成了特色优势产业的空间相对集中，从而获得了集聚优势和集聚效应。具有特色和优势的地方主导产业相对的地理集中，产生集聚优势，促进区域经济竞争优势的形成。同时，具有优势的主导产业的地理集中导致了专业化分工，并产生了集聚效应。同时具有特色和优势的地方主导产业相对的地理集中，还产生了外部性经济。外部经济包括外部规模经济和外部范围经济。外部规模经济是指同行业的产业利用地理上的接近，通过规模经济使生产成本降至最低。外部范围经济是指随着产业集聚区内的企业数量增多，生产范围的扩大，产业间的联系日益增强，促进了专业性附属企业的形成和技术外溢，从而实现整个产业的整体成本不断下降，市场占有率不断提高，表现出规模报酬的递增。这种具有区域特色和优势的产业往往来源于本地区的资源禀赋特性、本地区的劳动力的素质及其创造性、外来资金和技术的投入等。如珠江三角洲有明显的外来资金和技术的投入产生的嵌入式(外生型)的强烈的先发优势，长江三角洲有突出的本地区劳动力素质和创造性产生的植根性(内生型)可持续发展的后发优势，西部地区有鲜明的本地区的资源禀赋特性产生的缓发优势。欠发达地区在没有资金技术吸引力优势的情况下，在没有高的劳动力素质条件下，必须利用本地区具有特色和
优势资源的开发涞换取资金和技术，提高劳动力素质和创造性，带动区域经济发展，缩小区域发展差距，获得区域经济发展的独特竞争优势。
三、欠发达地区促进特色产业集聚政策选择
第一，选择区域内具有优势的特色产业，创造特色产业集聚的环境条件。区域内的具有优势的特色产业，可以是资源型的，如本地区得天独厚的资源优势产业；可以是注入型的，如通过外来资金、技术、人才、经验的注入等获得的比较优势的产业；可以是植根型的，如由于历史文化传统形成的追求创新产业：也可能是混合型的。区域经济发展的关键是选择好区域内具有优势的特色产业，创造特色产业集聚的环境条件，促进特色产业集聚的发生，获得产业集聚的效应，提升区域经济发展的竞争优势。
第二，营造特色产业集聚形成的软环境。根据区域特点，积极出台相关有利于区域特色产业集聚发展的产业政策，降低进入门槛，提供发展的支持，促进特色产业集聚的形成。特别是在劳动力流动方面、吸引外部资金方面、降低贸易成本方面、税收优惠等方面，建立并完善相关政策，促进外部经济和规模经济的集聚效应发生。
第三，建设特色产业集聚形成的硬环境。大力发展公共设施，如公路、铁路、交通等公共交通基础设施；积极发展教育科研事业，如各类高等教育机构和研究机构，提供各类教育、研发的支持力量；建设信息平台，加强信息交流，促进技术外溢和知识流动的集聚创新效应的发生。
参考文献：
\[1\]\[美\]迈克尔·波特著.竞争论\[M\]. 北京：中信出版社，2003.
\[2\]王缉慈.创新的空间，企业集群与区域发展\[M\].北京：北京大学出版社，2001.
\[3\]朱英明.产业集聚论\[M\].北京：经济科学出版社，2003，
\[4\]国务院发展研究中心课题组产业集聚及其对经济发展的意义\[J\].经济学动态，2003，(8).
\[5\]吴友德，潘玉君等.区域经济学导论\[M\].北京：日中国社会科学出版社，2004.
(责任编辑：：一志国) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **提升化学分析检验质量控制工作的措施**
**崔涛(太钢疾病预防控制中心，山西太原030003)**
摘要：化学分析检验的工作是为了能够针对化学组成和物质中的含量等因素进行分析和检验。文章通过化学分析来研究检验产品质量管理和控制的工作和实践中存在的问题。化学分析检验质量控制结果对后期研究具有重要意义。文章对化学分析检测质量控制的工作及存在的问题进行了分析，着重对改善化学分析和检测质量控制的工作措施方法进行了论述。
关键词：化学分析检验；质量控制；措施
中图分类号：O652 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1008-4800(2021)30-0155-02
DOI：10.19900/j.cnki.ISSN1008-4800.2021.30.076
Measures to Improve the Quality Control Work of Chemical Analysis and Inspection
CUI Tao (TISCO Center for Disease Control and Prevention， Taiyuan 030003，China)
Abstract： The chemical analysis test is designed to analyze and test factors such as chemical composition， content and substances. This paper studies the problems in product quality managerent and practice， and the quality control results are of great significance for later research.this paper analyzes the work and existing problems of the chemical analysis and testing quality control， and improves the chemical analysis and testing quality control.
Keywords： chemical analysis and inspection， quality control； measures
1.1研究背景
当下对化学分析检验质量控制工作的要求不断提高，为了更好地满足市场的需求，提高对化学成分和含量分析的准确性，相关研究人员必须要积极寻找相应的措施来提升化学分析检验质量控制的准确性，推动该行业的发展。
1.2化学分析检验质量控制概述
化学分析检验是在精密设备和先进的科学技术的基础上，对物质进行化学物质和含量的定量和定性分析，从而获得检验信息。化学分析检验质量控制是一项系统性工作，对检验的全过程进行质量控制，确保检验结果。化学分析检验质量控制分为检验前、检验过程中和检验后的质量控制。检验前的质量控制是对相应设备和检验方法进行质量控制，确保化检验实验能够顺利开展。检验前对检验方法的分析也是十分重要的，能够让检验更加具有科学性和合理性，确保检验结果的准确.检验过程中的质量控制是整个检验工作的核心，要对采样、制作样本、样品化验和化验结果的分析进行质量控制。要严格控制实验过程中的条件，保证单一变量原则，可以适当地改变其条件，如压力、氧气的含量等。在实验中要改变压力和氧气的含量，要进行测试选择适合实际情况的压力和含氧量，因为压力和氧气的含量直接决定燃料的燃烧效率。对水要严格控制，要采用蒸馏水，在实验过程中要经常换水，也要根据实际情况对水的温度、缓冲液等进行改变。要对检验实验中每一环节和环境进行严格的质量控制，保证检验过程的质量和准确性。检验实验结束后也要进行化学分析检验质量控制。在检验实验结束后，需要控制检验样品和检验分析结果，确保检验样品的安全；控制检验分析结果，确保检验分析结果的准确性，利用科学、合理的方法对检验结果进行分析，得出正确的检验分析结论。
1.3化学分析检验质量控制的重要性
化学分析检验获取检验信息，需要进行定量和定性分析。
对化学分析检验质量控制能够确保化学分析检验的准确性，让化学分析检验实验达到理想的效果。通过对化学分析检验的质量控制能够保证数据收集的准确性，能够提高检验的质量，最大限度地降低在检验过程中出现的错误，从而使检验工作更加科学、合理。化学分析检验质量控制工作不仅能够提升化学分析检验的工作质量，还可以推动化学分析检验行业的发展，促进科学技术的发展。因此，化学分析检验质量控制工作对于化学分析检验是至关重要的。
**2化学分析检验质量控制存在的问题**
2.1化学分析检验质量控制工作的现状
现如今，化学分析检验已经开始使用质量控制措施，对采样、制作样本、进行化验和对化验结果的分析和比较等检验环节进行质量控制。例如：采样控制要符合国际标准进行合理的采样，运用布点原则和机械化进行采样，对布点的数量和深度进行严格控制。运用机械设备进行采样，在采样时，进行严格的质量控制，保证采样的准确。制作样本是将采样的样本在实验室中进行制作，要通过对制作样本中水分的提取和制作过程的严格控制来保证制作样品的质量，要确保制作样本不能损坏、污染并达到国家标准。样品化验和化验结果的对比是整个检验质量控制的体现，具有重要意义公。化学分析检验质量控制对检验前、中、后进行管理，能够有效的保证检验质量。
2.2化学分析检验质量控制工作存在的问题
**2.2.1相关的研究人员缺乏对质量控制的重视，对质量控制的力度不够**
化学分析检验质量控制比较复杂，许多研究人员为了提高研究的速度，忽略了检验质量控制，从而不能保证化学分析检验的实验结果。对于检验质量控制只是停留着理论层面，并没有努力去实践，而且对于分析检验方法存在的问题，相应的研究人员并没有积极解决，导致化学分析检验质量控制存在着
基础性的问题。化学分析检验质量控制人员可能不具备专业能力，导致存在着一些质量控制问题。而且一些研究人员没有缺乏自主性和积极性，对于化学分析检验质量控制的力度不够，不能有效地发挥化学分析检验质量控制的作用。
**2.2.2化学分析检验质量控制体系中缺乏相应的安全监督和管理体系**
一些监管体系存在着无人管理的现象，导致在实际的检验质量控制时，并不能有效地保证化学分析检验的质量。对于化学分析检验质量控制体系，一些研究单位没有完整的组织结构，存在着体系不完整的现象，导致在化学分析检验质量控制中出现一些漏洞，影响着化学分析检验的准确性。一些研究单位受传统管理和控制模式的制约，导致化学分析检验质量控制的方法不合理、不科学，不能有效地解决和控制出现的问题，导致化学分析检验质量控制不能很好地发挥作用。
**2.2.3化学分析检验质量控制工作协调机制不完善**
化学分析检验质量控制工作协调机制不完善，导致化学分析检验准确性低。在化学分析检验质量控制工作中，相关人员不与研究人员及时沟通，使检验的质量和效率下降。化学分析检验质量控制工作协调机制不完善，相应人员不及时沟通，无法发现检验过程存在的问题，也无法控制检验结果，导致化学分析检验质量控制无法发挥最大作用。化学分析检验质量控制工作协调机制不完善，使质量控制措施不能及时对检验时存在的问题进行改正，影响到应用效果。
**3提升化学分析检验质量控制工作的措施**
_3.1_ 19完善化学分析检验质量控制体系
在化学分析检验质量控制过程中，要运用科学、合理的手段来完善检验质量控制体系，采用计算机和互联网等先进的技术来规范检验质量控制体系。完善质量管理和控制的相关内容，要对化学分析检验的全过程进行管理和控制。例如：对于检验的采样来说，现在仍然以人工采样为主，采样时可能出现重复、采样位置不准确等现象，受人为因素的干扰具有不代表性，应该通过计算机计算出合理的采样地方，用大小相同的机械来采样，进行质量控制，防止出现子样量不同等影响采样系统的偏差。也要遵循相关的规定，对分析检验的采样过程进行质量管理。要规范检验质量控制的管理制度。要建立检验质量控制的体系，制定相应的目标，建立相应的问责制度。对各个环节进行监督，完善问责制度。
**3.2树立正确的化学分析检验质量控制意识**
进行分项质量管理与控制。在进行化学分析检验质量控制，应该十分重视检验质量控制，要积极地落实质量控制体系，让这一体系更好地改善和提升化学分析检验的质量。也要对化学分析检验进行分项质量控制，从每一个环节的分项质量控制到整个工程的分项质量控制必须层层落实，做到量化、细化。也要进行质量控制预控措施，提高质量控制的预控能力，让化学分析检验质量控制能够预防在化学分析检验的错误，保证检验的准确性。要根据成本选择合适的技术人员，保证化学分析检验质量控制能够有效地实施，要对研究人员相应的管理，也要对研究人员进行现场的培训，面对其技术的更新，相关人员
缺少对质量控制的了解，对加强相关人员的培训，展开针对性的培训，提高他们的质量控制技术能力。建立各个环节数据库，定期对各个环节进行抽查，根据数据进行相关的改进。要建立相应的考核制度和问查制度，对相关人员进行技术和理论的考核，规范其技术；要对相关人员进行调查，了解在检验质量控制出现的问题。要对现场研究的全过程进行监督，要充分利用监督体系来监督相关人员的研究前的准备工作，也要监督研究后的分析工作和评判工作。在质量控制时，要采用不定时的质量检测手段和对相关人员进行不定时的监督，防止一些错误步骤，提高化学分析检验质量控制的意识，保证化学分析检验的质量也要加大对化学分析检验质量控制的投入，要采用新型设备来提高质量控制的能力，从而保证化学分析检验的质量。
3.3进行大数据信息监控和科技投入
对检验质量的控制应该依靠先进的技术和大数据时代的智能化，对检验质量的控制进行一系列的技术革命，体现出控制的智能性和程序性。运用先进的设备进行化学分析检验质量的检测，智能化、流程化、自动化，提高检验质量的准确性和可靠性。对整个过程采用先进的设备进行检测，减少其误差，提高准确度。运用红外线技术对检验进行二十四小时管理，采用大数据进行计算和绘制图像，模拟检验质量的控制实验，找到实验中的不足和解决方案。用新型的设备改变实验，采用新型设备进行差法、控法的制图，更好地反映实际情况，用更精密的设备增加实验的准确度；用精密设备构建化学分析检验的波动图，分析波动图，有利于对化学分析检验更好地进行质量控制。要打破传统的化学分析检验质量控制模式，探索新型的化学分析检验质量控制模式，让化学分析检验质量控制更加智能化，更加准确。
3.4利用化学分析检验质量控制完善检验流程
运用化学分析检验质量控制找到检验环节存在的问题，运用先进的科学技术来完善化学分析检验流程。例如：在制样时，根据质量控制来采取少量多样的原则，将样品少量且均匀的分给许多制样装置进行检测；适当地减少样品的质量，有利于测量的准确性；在制样过程中，制样的速度要快，防止在制样过程中水分的蒸发；要对制样进行严格质量控制，保证制样不被污染，提高检验的准确性。
**4结语**
综上所述，化学分析检验质量控制对于化学分析检验至关重要。因此，要提升质量控制的措施，打破传统质量控制模式，让质量控制发挥出最大的作用。
**参考文献：**
\[1\]王燕.化学分析检验工作的质量控制\[\].价值工程，2019，38(33)：71-72.
\[2\]葛俊森，孙林林，李鑫.化学分析检验工作的质量控制\[J\].石化技术，2019，26(03)：308-309.
\[3\]马宁.提升化学分析检验质量控制工作的措施\[J\].化工设计通讯，2019，45(01)：136.
作者简介：崔涛(1968-)，男，汉族，山西太原人，本科，工程师，研究方向：化学分析、现代检测。 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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Drawer No Inventory No. jCZV7
•NOT ip BE REMOVED FROM LIBRARY O" /t ^
WITHOUT PROPER AUTHORITY." '
PROPEtTY Of HfiARST CORP«
LOST CHORDS.
Lost
Chords
Some Emotions
without Morals
Arthur Rickett
London : A. D. Innes & Co.
Bedford Street, 1895.
•..• .■•..•.•,•..•.•:
^0 ntP jfat^er.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Harmonies in Yellow—
Miss Maud's Three Notes II
A Yellow Creeper I7
Golden Syrup 24
A Bass Fugue 27
Pose Fancies 34
Fantasie —
Cinquante Ans Apres . . . . . '45
A Christmas Mixture 5^
The New Cinderella 62
How to be a Dramatic Critic 68
The Game of Interviewing 75
Through the (Political) Looking-Glass ... 82
Airs—
The Modern Young Man to his Love • • • 93
Seasonable Thoughts 95
Locksley Hall (during Spring Cleaning) ... 97
Pillow Philosophy 99
To Pickwick 102
The Poets at School 104
Reflections of a Poetaster 110
Some of the following sketches are now appear-
ing for the first time ; many, however, have
already appeared in The Granta, The Globe,
The Cambridge Review, Lika Joko, and a
school magaziiie. My thanks are due to the
present Editors of The Granta, Editors of The
Cambridge Review, Mr. R. C, Lehmann, the
Editor of The Globe, Mr, Harry Furniss, and
the Editors of The Cinque Port, for their
courtesy in permitting me to reprint the same.
ARTHUR RICKETT.
loo, Lancaster Gate, London, W.
HARMONIES IN YELLOW.
MISS MAUD'S THREE NOTES.
(Dedicated to the Author of "Keynotes,"
'' Discords.")
The First Note.
IT was a fat book with green covers.
" Huxley's Outlines of Physiology," shouted
Maud, joyously. " Hurrah ! "
She had been washing the family linen in a
back room, and the sight of this romantic work
affected her wonderfully.
" Happy at last," gurgled Maud again, push-
ing some straggling brown hairs off her marbly
brow.
The blue veins in the white neck swelled out
distinctly, like broad beans.
She rocked her slight, girlish figure to and fro,
and hugged the book to her palpitating breast.
12 LOST CHORDS.
" I think Mister Halfred 'as lost a green book,
if you please, Miss Maud." It was the butler.
Butlers always speak like that.
" Man," hissed Maud, with all the scorn of
eighteen summers, " shall I be deprived of
reading a book that my brother is familiar
with ? Never ! " The roses came and went
in her cheeks.
She kicked a slipper off her pretty foot, and it
hit the butler on the head.
" Your slipper, I believe, Miss ! " said the
servant, imperturbably, handing it back.
" I spurn that toy of convention," shrieked
Maud. Then she put on a pair of Wellingtons,
and strode out into the back garden.
The Second Note.
Greedily she drank in the sweet, warm air of
June.
The bees were humming ; the sun setting ;
the wind-distended garments of a neighbour
flapped over the wall.
The perfume of honeysuckle came borne on
the breeze, together with that of refuse from a
dust-heap.
MISS MAUD'S THREE NOTES. 13
Maud stood on the lawn lecturing an old
tabby on the largeness of her family. " You
should read Malthus, Pussy," she whispered.
The cat viewed her with soft, brown, blinking
eyes ; then peered anxiously forward.
" Puss," said Maud, with nervous energy,
"what are you thinking of?" Pussy pounced
at a small bird.
" O — o — h ! " murmured Maud. She was
bitterly disappointed, but was too proud to
show it ; she had imagined that some vague
feline ideal . . . But it hadn't. The cat was but
an unimaginative creature with gross appetites.
Maud scooped up the damp earth with her
slender fingers. " I do want to shock some-
body " (with a petulant drawl), " and it's so
hard nowadays."
The sound of a voice came borne on the west
wind.
Surely it was the bestial, monotonous, and
rattling sound of a man snoring, or a pig
grunting.
The Third Note.
The old gardener was sleeping in the cucum-
ber frame.
14 LOST CHORDS.
Maud had a wonderful eye for detail, and the
picture was impressed upon her mind.
A red, swollen, pimply face, with violet eye-
lids. A short, broad, vermilion nose. Thick
crimson lips tinged with blue. The beard was
stubby and unkempt, and the blotchy patches
of green skin shone through the coarse grey
hair. The grubby collar and worn brown shirt
were stained with tobacco juice. A tin bottle
lay by his side.
" What a brute man looks asleep," commented
Maud, and threw a flower-pot at him. It fell
considerably wide of the mark, but it aroused
the sleeping monster, who opened his eyes and
used bad words.
" Is that always what you men say when you
are vexed .? " and the girl's white nostrils dilated
with scorn.
" Noa, noa," growled the gardener, in a raspy
dialect. " I swears when I likes a thing just
the same as I swears when I don't likes a
thing."
" I feel," said Maud, " I don't know— I can't
express — I hate men ; I loathe men. I don't
know why, but I do. They are so brutal, have
such thick lips and bleary eyes. . . . Are so
MISS MAUD'S THREE NOTES. 15
sensual, boorish, cruel ... so everything, in
fact " — with fierce energy — " whilst women are
so delicate, wonderful, emotional, .^olian Harpist
. . . and all that," with vague enthusiasm.
" Where do you live, O swinish man ? " said the
sensitive, nerve-racked girl, clasping and un-
clasping her long, slender fingers.
" Middlesex," between bluish - grey - brown
clouds of smoke.
" Sex ! " screamed Maud (she had got her cue).
" Sex ! Ah, that word ! What is it, I should
like to know ? Where is it } "
" Where isn't it ? " grunted the brute.
These discussions with his young mistress
were the usual thing each afternoon.
" Sex is a mystery," said Maud.
" Shouldn't have thought it to have heard you
talk," snarled the brute. " But you'll excuse
me, miss — I'm a respectable married man with
nine children, and I don't feel it decent to be
a-talkin' with a chit like you about these 'ere
things."
" An advanced girl of eighteen ... a chit —
you, you " she almost choked with passion.
" Why it's in the air, it's "
"There's a strong smell o' drains in the
i6 LOST CHORDS.
air," said the brute, "and I advise you to run
How still she was ; the violence of her passion
had convulsed her, leaving her pale and breath-
less. "Shall I kill him?" She clenched her
fists, till the blood spurted from the palms.
" No," in a low, awful voice, " I will do worse.
I will write a book for a series " — and she was
another woman who did.
II.
A YELLOW CREEPER.
S^ (Dedicated to the Author of "The Great GocJ.
4 Pan, and the Inmost Light.")
THE Doctor poured a green fluid into a.
phial containing red fluid: then he poured,
very carefully, something black into the mixture,
and held up, as the result of the foregoing pro-
cess, a clear, limpid, crystal-like fluid.
" How do you manage that ? " said the friend..
" I don't quite know," replied the Doctor;,
thoughtfully. "You see, I proceed by an in-
tuitive process, shutting my eyes and taking
the first bottle that comes. Great experiments
defy the arbitrary rules of scientific formulae.
You, my friend, shall share this great discovery
with me."
2 »r
i8 LOST CHORDS.
" Shall I ? " said the friend, without enthu-
siasm. He was only an ordinary man, and
connected discoveries with Government duty.
" Certainly," asserted the Doctor. " Here,
smell this mixture ; it has an exquisite
aroma."
" Hum — well — rather peculiar, isn't it ? " said
the friend, sniffing doubtfully at the crystal
fluid. " Rather reminds me of the decayed
remains of Hawthorne and Edgar Allen Poe.
" Bah ! " snapped the Doctor, " I ought to
have remembered that the nostril of the un-
imaginative man is lacking in delicate appre-
ciation."
" I always had an unreasonable dislike of
anything mouldering," sighed the ordinary
friend, *' but I may improve in course of
time."
The Doctor put down the phial and took up
a glass rod. " You'll excuse my putting out the
light."
" Where was Moses " commenced the
ordinary friend to cheer himself up, but a
scowl from the other quenched him.
A faint phosphorescent gleam came from the
crystal fluid.
A YELLOW CREEPER. 19
" You doubtless know," observed the scientist,
with gusto, " that the chemical constituent
R2OT3 reacts on its agent P4IFF5LE5 so as
to re-combine and deposit a neutral acid-
alkaline "
" Excuse me," said the ordinary friend,
modestly, "but I only took a Poll degree,"
" Dear me, how unfortunate ! " deprecated the
Doctor ; " the Natural Science Tripos made me
the man I am. The practical papers aroused in
me a passion for experiment which will make
me a nuisance to every one for the rest of my
life. However, I will omit the scientific ex-
planation. Watch me. I take this glass in
my right hand and the globules in my
left "
The mind of the ordinary friend began to
wander. His memory reverted to childhood's
days, and to the annual conjurer at Christmas
parties. Then he fell into a troubled sleep,
with his head resting on a large bottle of
ammonia.
" Wake up ! " cried the Doctor, " you will miss
the experiment."
" Oh, why did I take lork and pobster? — I mean
pork and lobster," gasped the friend, awaking
20 LOST CHORDS.
with a start ; " I will be a porktotaler after
this."
"It is not matter that is affecting you, but
spirit," commenced the Doctor. The friend
looked indignant, but the other went on.
"What I mean is, you are approaching the
gurgling mysteries, the ghastly, unspeakable,
shuddering mysteries, that dwell in cheap
books. Man alive ! However can you pass
Smith's bookstall without shrinking appalled
in large-nosed, white-eared, terror from the
hideosities that abound there? How can you
do it?"
"Answers to be received by the first post
on Monday, written on a postcard," murmured
the very ordinary friend. His mind was
wandering.
The Doctor gave him up, and returning
to his phial, dropped a small quantity of the
fluid on a young bluebottle lost in medita-
tion on a plate. For one moment the blue-
bottle paused stupefied ; then it lubricated
its legs together with violence, gave a fearful
buzz of despair, and turned into an old blow-
fly. Only for a second. It rapidly became a
red-bottle (" Best Scotch "), then an alligator.
A YELLOW CREEPER. 21
a scarecrow, a Beardsley poster, and finally
dissolved into nothing. All this was viewed
by the light of a lucifer.
" This is the dreadful secret of personality,"
remarked the Doctor. " Thus does the spirit
triumph over matter, and disregarding the
petty limitations of sense Blast ! . . . ! ! ! "
— for the lucifer had burnt down to his fingers.
The ordinary friend got off a 'bus ten years
later, and nearly knocked down a man who was
getting in.
" You, Jim ! How changed you are ! "
" Aye," said Jim, with a haggard look (he
always said " aye " when he felt unwell. It was
more impressive than "yes"). Then seizing
the other by the arm, he conveyed him into
a " Bodega," feverishly drank off some raw
spirit, and muttered, " Excuse my incoherence
— married life failure — collect curios — ^just
purchased collection of flies — amongst them
bluebottle."
" It's portrait — it's portrait," said the ordinary
friend, excitedly.
" Here," said Jim, producing a carte de visite.
" It has come between me and my wife. Yester-
22 LOST CHORDS.
day I saw an alligator in the drawing-roomr
Last night my wife saw a bottle of Scotch
whiskey in my study."
" This is indeed a blue story," said the
ordinary friend, " but I know that bluebottle^
it comes from the Doctor's laboratory. Kill
it, Jim— kill it ! "
" I am an anti-vivisectionist," exclaimed Jim^
and rushed out, leaving the ordinary friend to
pay for the drinks. '
I, Doctor Bunkum, have been asked to re-
count what I saw. My knowledge of the
English language is but slight, owing to the
excessive attention given in early manhood to
the classical subjects in the Little-Go. But
I will do my best. When I was called in, the
temperature of the room was 212° Fahr., and a
green twilight suffused everything. I am a
stolid man, but my pulse beat 599 to the
minute ; yet I retained my self-control.
The thing was buzzing fiercely after a dissi-
pated course of fly-papers. I felt its pulse, and
gave it a bottle of influenza mixture. It rapidly
grew worse ; it resembled a saneless, painless^
brainless lump of blue jelly. Neither male nor
A YELLOW CREEPER. 23
female, animal, vegetable or mineral. Then it
began to dissolve. I have been at the Dissolu-
tion of Parliament, but never have I ! ! yet
words fail ! ! I crept under a copy of the Wesf-
minster Gazette^ and waited for the finale. No,
excuse me, I did not wait, I hurried but, wrote
down my impressions for the Public,* and then
made my will. When these pages are being
read, I shall probably be either dead or living ! I
III.
GOLDEN SYRUP,
(Dedicated to the Authoress of '' Theodora.")
• • • • •
THE next day Garbage rose at 2 p.m.
" There is no doubt about it," said he, as
he allowed his ivory fingers to twine themselves
amongst his brilliantined locks ; " the fragment
is a most effective and affected form of com-
position ; and when one wishes to out-Ouida
Ouida, and out-Egerton Egerton, then ..."
A few minutes afterwards he was admiring
the sensuous curve of the sardines on his break-
fast-plate. The thick, silky oil caressed them
with a thousand oleaginous embraces ; and this
filled him with a mad, delicious, ethereal plea-
sure. Some men would have been stirred in
their coarse animal appetites. Not so Garbage ;
GOLDEN SYRUP. 25
he regarded sardines from a spiritual standpoint.
And yet he was no ascetic, no dyspeptic. He
could rejoice in the fierce, biting vinegar and
the wildly stinging pepper as well as in the
clinging oil. Yet was he a marvel of self-
restraint ; and his friends wondered greatly when
they saw him lazily dividing the silver-grey fish,
and languidly removing the backbone to a side
of the plate.
" Hello ! " said Newdle, who looked upon
Garbage with a veneration which was as need-
less as it was idiotic. " Breakfast at this
hour > "
A queer, thin, constrained, unmeaning smile
flickered over the mouth of Garbage. All sorts
of smart things occurred to him. . . . Alas !
when the mind has almost freed itself from the
shackles of sense, and enveloped itself in non-
sense, then are we reminded, as he was, as we
all are, or were, or will be. . . . Garbage sneezed.
At this sign of weakness, Newdle sprang to
his feet.
" Garbage, you have been thinking of /ler.
You . . . you li^e her ! Tell me candidly, frankly
— never mind the Philistine — what do you think
of her ? "
26 LOST CHORDS.
Garbage convulsively pressed his finger to his
upper lip, possibly to avoid another sneeze, then
he replied —
" Think ? Surely, Newdle, you have found
out by now that thought is alien to my nature^
and nature alien to my thought. I subject my
soul to a keen, analytical, subjective, introspec-
tive probing. But if you follow me closely, you
will know what transcends even thought . . .
provided you keep a dictionary by you."
" A fishy story ? " queried Newdle, looking at
the sardines.
Garbage cracked a boiled egg with fine scorn.
" It is impossible to shock a novel-reader now-
adays. You must either tell a story in dialect
or — indecently. Only Scotchmen can afford to
write cleanly ..."
At this moment the window blew open, and
directly Garbage felt the fresh air he fainted.
"Before he could recover a host of critics
rushed into the room, armed with pens of the
finest tempered steel.
Mr. H y Q r designed the tombstone.
IV.
A BASS FUGUE {MAESTROSO,
LARGHISSIMO).
(Dedicated to H. B. M— r— t W— n.)
HE stood on the doorstep with one foot
poised on the scraper. A variety of sen«
sations emotionalised him and made him feel he
would not have been as he was if he could have
been as he might have been. Some men, after a
good dinner such as he had enjoyed, might have
sat on the doorstep ; not so Cyril. Like others
of his family, he had, if not an iron will, at
least, a wooden head. And yet as he gnawed
his toothpick and stared at the knocker, queer
thoughts caused his nose to tremble and his
ears to waver rhythmically. He tried to forget
what had happened: he tried to imagine himself
28 LOST CHORDS.
in his easy-chair, in bed, on the Alps, at the
North Pole, in the Planet Mars, anywhere but
on the steps of his own house, 13, Gromser
Gardens, S.W. It was a failure. In shutting
his eyes he only managed to knock off his hat.
So by the chaste beams of a street lamp he
gazed idly into the faces of the passing atoms
of humanity. Beneath him lay the ground,
overhead was the sky, omnibuses rattled by on
wheels, a cat burst into song, and a snail with a
past moved uneasily on the doorpost. Yes, the
conclusion was forced upon him that the great
world was rolling round as usual. And yet,
within him — a human man, a biped with two
legs — lay a mighty change ; beside which the
small change in his trouser pocket was as
nothing. His mind (unlike his Suede gloves)
was soiled with the memory of a reminiscence.
For, was not his wife learning cooking ? had she
not insisted, with the fanatical fury of an amateur,
upon cooking all the meals ? " It will save a
cook, dear, and be so much cheaper, and you
will fancy things cooked by your little wifey,
won't you ? " " Yes," had been his reply — a reply
spoken in the indolent ease of ignorance. Ah !
that fatal asse'nt ; it had been the beginning of
A BASS FUGUE. 29
the commencement, the incipiency of all. He
had wildly promised, reckless of life, health, and
happiness, to save up his appetite during the
day, until he could repast off the wife-cooked
viands in the evening.
The first day he had kept his promise.
Throughout the long hours of the night he had
bitterly repented his fidelity. If the path of
virtue and truthfulness were strewn with raw
meat and leaden pastry, welcome then the path
of deceit, unfaithfulness, and gastronomic peace.
On this the second day, allured by the smell
outside Gatti's of steaming dainties, he had
yielded to his natural inclination for a well-
cooked dinner, and . . .
So he chewed the toothpick gloomily, whilst
the Roederer and coffee flowed merrily through
his veins.
But it could not last. He gave a postman's
knock, and almost broke the bell ; then his head
fell and his eyes were downcast as he heard a
light step the other side. The door opened ; he
was vaguely aware of the servant's presence.
" Mistress in ? " he muttered, with a brusque
and elaborate indifference.
" Yes, sir."
30 LOST CHORDS.
Even the servant's voice was altered. Could
she read his secret ? Ah, there had been onions
with the steak. He brushed past her, and put
down his hat on the hall table.
" Your name, sir ! "
" My name ! " What ! was he so altered as
that ? He buried his face in his hands. Was it
that this new life of deceit and shame had
branded him with an alien expression? Too
terrible ! He raised his head, looked at the
servant steadily with an effort, and opened his
mouth to speak ; then his jaw fell, and he re-
mained silent. It was a new servant.
"When did you come.?" said the man.
" What concern is that of yours," said the
girl, with hauteur and a rising colour. "Your
name ? "
"Insolence! " he muttered. " I am your master,
girl ! "
" Git out, or state yer business. Else I go for
master. Imperence ! "
She tried to turn up her nose, but nature had
given it such a celestial penchant^ that the feat
was impossible. A door opened and there was
the rustle of a woman's dress. Cyril rushed
forward.
A BASS FUGUE. 31
" Winny, what does this mean ? Do you
hear ? . . . Let me ..." He stopped. A dull,
sickening horror seized him. His burning eyes
scanned the carpet, the walls, the floor, and the
ceiling. The horror became a ghastly reality.
The toothpick fell from his mouth. He had got
into the wrong house. Then he rushed madly
away, tripped over a fat, asthmatic pug dog, and
caused it to be laid up for weeks on a bed of
suffering. On and down the steps he sped, the
ribald laughter from the servant girl and the
opprobrious remarks from the mistress following
him, and surging in his singing ears.
" This is not a Truth story," he shrieked, " it
is a serious, dramatic piece of imaginative work ;
no more anti-climaxes. Ten to one on a good
old ' curtain.' "
With these words he sped up the steps of
No. 13, a glazed, jaundiced, desperate look in
his eyes, like poached eggs at bay.
When in the hall he blew his nose. It was a
trumpet-call of challenge to the fates that pre-
side over short stories. A woman, dressed in a
soft, clinging, summer-saleish something, glided
into the hall.
Hers was no mere ephemeral and common
32 LOST CHORDS.
beauty. Her face was of a rich and bewitching"
neutral tint, and her complexion suggested culi-
nary analogies with half-baked pastry. There
was a bold, arched, imperative significance about
her Roman nose ; and the seductive curves of
the glinting spectacles were indescribable.
Now for it. Grinding his teeth together and
dashing his hat into a coal-scuttle, he hissed
out, with brutal frankness :
"Winny, I will not deceive you. I have
dined ! "
There was a dreadful silence, broken only by
the sound of the piano-organ playing " She only
answered * Ting-a-ling-a-ling,' " and a passing
street arab yelling the music-hall ditty, " That's
what I call plucky." Otherwise all was stilL
Then the woman spoke.
" Well, I'm glad of it, Cyril, for the pipes have
gone wrong to-day, so I didn't use the kitchen
fire, and I had to get my food out, so I hoped
you would do so. But," with a gentle nasal
emphasis that added a piquancy to an otherwise
monotonous voice, " / had a glass of milk with
mine."
Cyril leant against the umbrella-stand, and the
poached eggs looked more desperate than ever.
A BASS FUGUE. 35
" Is that all ? " he murmured, in a broken
voice. " Am I to understand you refuse to faint,
or at least to open your arms, to stagger with a
white, ghastly face, and with lines pitiably drawn
round your mouth, or to call out ' Cyril ' with
heart-choking sobs. . . . Oh Winny, I did not
expect this of you ! This second anti-climax
has ruined my life ! "
As he spoke, a large, thoughtful-looking smut
trembled in the air ; and gradually settled down
upon his nose.
V.
POSE FANCIES.
(Dedicated to R. Le G — 11 — e, author of " Prose
Fancies.")
Spring.
I.
SPRING, with that amiable kiiack she has
of pleasing me, has leapt from the bosom
of Mother Nature, and is smiling upon us.
See ! She approaches the young wife, and into
her ear breathes a suggestion or two. At the
sound a soft, rapt look comes into the eager
eyes, and the word " cleaning " floats upon the
agitated air. The bedrooms will soon be
spangled with innumerable antimacassars, and
the brooding beetle will turn a sabler hue at the
thought that his doom is nigh. Let us away
34
POSE FANCIES. 35
into the garden, my friend, to seek the vernal
beauties of thy small back yard ! Turn thy
•gaze, clouded with the dust of beaten carpets,
on to the sluglings that are galloping around
in the dewy freshness of youth, and with the
mystery of a painless joy writ on their fair
young faces. Their quaint naivete recalls the
fabled, flying-horse Pegasus, or at least would
do so, did they but fly and were they larger in
•size and faster in speed. Mark the caressing
tenderness of the elder slug, the clinging coy-
ness (such as thy white-eyed love was wont to
•greet thee with) of her embrace, and the grey
glory of her delicate moulding.
To my way of thinking there is a strange loss
of charm when a slug becomes a silkworm, but
in the fleeting hours of slughood she attracts
my wayward fancy more than any other bird
(excuse, kind reader, the slight inaccuracy, but
the word insect is less euphonious). Oh, my
friend, crush that dull, prosaic spirit of thine ;
quell that cynical and worldly contempt ! and
reverently remove the boots from thy head when
the slug. Nature's crawling child, passes upon her
pilgrimage.
Why do we not indulge in such delicious
36 LOST CHORDS.
caprices of locomotion ? Why brood we not in
dusky meditation on the green and cool-veined
cabbage ? Is it not because we are for ever bent
on doing something, because we so foolishly
fret ourselves with the eternal monotony of
mental activity ? Is it not because we are too
gross and awkward to rest on the leaf of the
cabbage with any degree of comfort ?
But — revenons a nos limaces !
See, the sluglings are retiring to roost ! We
must not awake them.
Dry thine eyes, my friend.
Having thus wasted our time so far, let us
pass on.
II.
Down in the depths of the old armchair there
is an absence of spring, a harshness, that pains-
the sensitive nerves. Yet, shortly, some up-
holstering angel will arrive; spring will return
once more; the shrunken leather will become
smooth and plump, and we shall experience a
sense of comfort to which we have long been
strangers.
Behold (what were we talking about ? Ah, of
course, spring) — behold that ancient cabbage —
POSE FANCIES. 37
a study in green and gold ; of what is it dream-
ing? Perchance of the lettuce days of youth,
perchance not. In the dark, dank hours of the
night I have often wondered and thought, and
thought and wondered why a grey-eyed girl
asked me, " If a herring and a half cost three-
pence, how much — many " But I have
forgotten it.
III.
Who threw that rotten apple at me? You
say it was that red-nosed town urchin. Fie on
thee, child of the city ! Yet why fie ? Does it
not arise from the exuberance of a young child
rejoicing in the poetry of rural life ? Does not
his sweet young cockney accent attract, Orpheus-
like, the animal creation ? And yet, methinks,
Orpheus had no catapault.
IV.
The spring onion has a wonderful way of
bringing tears to the eyes. I have seen hard-
nosed burly men chewing it with brimful orbits.
A spring-gun has a similar effect on the emo-
tions, as I well remember when in the days of
38 LOST CHORDS.
long ago that denizen of the woods mistook my
nether limbs for a cat.
Apropos of cats, what an expressive thing is
sympathy ! Observe, for instance, how, at elec-
tion times, like sleep in Coleridge's golden lines,
it is
" Beloved from poll to poll."
Surely it is not given to every man to dis-
course so daintily on spring.
On Books and Anything Else that I can
THINK OF.
The ineffable poetry of existence is being
destroyed by the cheap edition. Most mortals
nowadays (with the happy exception of myself)
are the victims of common sense.
Common sense is the patchouli of life : it
destroys the aromatic fragrance of romance.
Alas ! that Boccaccio now is but a synonym for
"Booksellers' Row."
Surely there is a fragile beauty about a dainty
volume of verse : its form is so slender, its
circulation so small. Is it possible to define
beauty ? The sage says, " No." Therefore let
us attempt it.
POSE FANCIES. 39
Beauty is the jam upon the bread of life.
Life is the jam upon the bread of beauty.
Jam is the beauty upon the life of bread.
Which way will you have it ? The epigram
IS equally profound each way. Happy is the
man who has a quiver full of patent reversible
aphorisms !
What a glorious death it would be to die of a
surfeit of books ! — a far nobler ideal than that
of the Persian poet Lhywis Carolwan, who
warbled for
" Buns and buns and buns."
Books — those nebulous neighings of neurotic
ninnies, those yellow rhodomontades full of
sound and fury signifying revolutions, those
mellifluous rose-bubbles sung in the Lane of
Bodley and echoed by the murmuring Logs of
Rolen.
There is beauty in the extracts of all essences,
did we but look for it. There is Beauty in the
Bellow of the Blast, as my favourite Japanese
poetess, Katisha, has often observed.
Even Religion is beautiful — but I have given
that a pretty booklet to itself
40 LOST CHORDS.
A book should be pleasing to the eye and
satisfying to the ear. Give us a dainty cover
and a cool, creamy margin ; but the print — oh,
the pity o't ! — it looks so straight, so formal, so
black. Why have any print ? Why anything
to sully the pure, undulating depths of uncut
edges ? Let us, like Nature, be careless of the
type. Thrice happy day when, in opening some
dainty dream of binding, the eye shall fall
lovingly on the beauty of blank pages.
On Myself.
Some brother poet has remarked that " we rise
on stepping-stones ... to higher things." The
middle portion of this observation I have omitted
owing to its irrelevance.
Irrelevance is, none the less, a charming thing,
for on these few graceful irrelevancies — the
stepping-stones of Spring and Books — have I
risen to higher things in the shape of myself.
But having attained to that egotistic peak in
Darien, there is no reason why I should be
silent, and rather would I leave to others " the
wild surmise."
May I confess to a weakness ? Let me
POSE FANCIES. 41
whisper it gently for fear the soft, long-eared
•quadruped should murmur it in his love trills to
the albine, slim-necked bird — not echo of classic
fame, but rather anser. My heart is bound in
limited edition cords to the maiden Levia.
True, I have flirted occasionally with Nobilia,
but indeed it was but a passing amour com-
mitted in the hot haste of youth and purple
cloth. And it has always been my aim to bear
in mind the advice of the Latin poet Nemo,
which I have freely translated thus : —
" Be trivial, Poet : let who will be serious
Pen dainty motsj be neat and never long,
Thus making problems wherewith sages weary us
A sweet meat song ! "
FANTASIE.
CINQUANTE ANS APRkS.
(Dedicated to the shade of Alexandre Dumas^
author of " Trois Mousquetaires." " Vin'gt Ans
Aprbs," &c.)
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCING THE HERO.
THE town of Abbeville was in a state of
intense political excitement.
Uproarious were the party cries.
Along the high-road galloped a young man^
mounted on a noble steed. This young man
wore a sage-green cloak — the colour being sug-
gestive in more ways than one. It was green —
that denoted his youth ; it was sage — that
denoted his wisdom. Yes ; though but nineteen,
he possessed the sagacity of a man three times
45
4(5 LOST CHORDS.
his age, and he had an intuitive knowledge of
human affairs which would have put mighty
Richelieu in the background. Yet, alas ! he
lacked one thing, for which even genius will not
compensate.
That thing was money. Gaston Merivale de
Paraphine was a poor man.
He cogitated on his hard lot as he rode along,
and gave a deep sigh, which encouraged a lame
man to importune him for alms.
" Au jDiad/e/" cried the well-bred and idio-
matic youth.
Two men whom he met laughed as they
passed him. The bare idea that he had,
perhaps, a smut on his nose incensed our hero
beyond measure. With an ominous contraction
of his finely-cut lips, he circled the glistening
steel, and the next moment one man rolled a
headless corpse on the ground ; then, with his
left hand, he dealt the comrade a reeling blow
which killed him instantaneously.
The young man smiled scornfully; he was
naturally kind-hearted, but the proud blood of
the Paraphines flowed in his veins. He dug
the spurs into his steed and was soon lost to
sight.
CINQUANTE ANS APR^S. 47
The Commissaire of the Police had watched
the scene from his bedroom window. He was
narrow-minded, and could not understand the
exuberant spirits of youth ; and whilst you,
reader, no doubt sympathise with the bold spirit
of our hero, the cold-blooded Commissaire was
preparing a warrant.
CHAPTER n.
CONTAINING ANOTHER ADVENTURE OF THE
HERO.
The inn at Perigord, known as "Le Cochon
et le Sifflet," was renowned for its good fare.
Travellers rarely passed it by.
At sunset, on a certain day subsequent to the
events recounted in the previous chapter, a horse-
man came galloping up, dismounted, and, after
brief directions about his steed, entered the inn.
The host advanced for orders.
" I wish for a dinner, and that right sharply,"
said the stranger, with that delicate courtesy
which is inbred in some natures.
" Yes, monsieur."
" Wine good ? "
48 LOST CHORDS.
** The best in France, monsieur."
The youth (who is our hero, as the reader
may have surmised from the refinement of his
speech) glanced round him distrustfully.
" Has a stranger in a large, sky-blue hat been
here ? " he murmured, in hoarse tones.
" Oh no, monsieur."
" Good. Bring up two dozen of your choicest
Bordeaux, and, stop ! — a fat capon."
The host bowed profoundly and departed.
The evening crept on, and Gaston, with the
healthy flush of youth on his cheeks, was just
completing his fifteenth bottle. Suddenly a
sound of horse's hoofs was heard, and a
tall, powerfully-built man entered, wearing an
enormous, sky-blue, felt hat, which, being de-
cidedly too large for him, concealed the upper
part of his face. Gaston leapt to his feet, a
fierce wave of passion traversing the classic
serenity of his aristocratic countenance. " Vil-
lain ! " he cried. " Draw instantly, or,
morbleu I you are a dead man."
A scornful light burnt in one of the stranger's
eyes, his hat being pulled down over the other.
" Host," said he, in deep, rich tones, " we
depute you to be seconds, doctor, and witness."
CINQUANTE ANS APRIES. 49^
The host evinced great distress, and, catching
his feet at the same instant against some empty-
bottles, he fell down with a resounding smack
and evinced even more distress. The sound of
clashing steel was heard for a few minutes ;
then suddenly, Gaston transfixed the blue hat
of his opponent.
Both stepped back in utter astonishment.
" Parbleu ! The friend of my childhood,""
ejaculated the youth, " Vicomte Bombominet."
" Gaston ! The only son of my dearest friend,""
murmured the other, in tones husky with emo-
tion.
" But where did you get that hat ? " said our
hero, with sudden suspicion.
" I will tell you. It formerly belonged to
my neighbour. On meeting him one day I
asked him whether he was in the * blues.' He
answered not a word. I resented the insult
and challenged him. He took no heed. En-
raged beyond measure I slew him, and wear his
hat as a trophy."
" My noble friend ! " said the youth, with
fervour. " Twas the Due de Popocatapetl, the
enemy of our house and kindred, who is stone
deaf."
4
50 LOST CHORDS.
The friends embraced affectionately ; even
the innkeeper found difficulty in preserving an
impassive countenance.
" Some wine," demanded Bombominet, " and
let it be the best you have ! "
" What was the mystery of my father's life,
and how was he indebted to you ? " inquired
Gaston, when the wine appeared.
Bombominet first drank off three bottles in
succession, then cleared his throat, and said,
■*' It is a long story, but one that you should hear.
Your father from an early age evinced a tender-
hearted disposition, allied with sound business
instinct. When but a child, a pedlar came one
day to the house with wares ; your father im-
mediately brought down his dinner ('twas a
chaud-froid de mouton)^ and gave it to the poor
man ; then, while the latter was thanking him,
he secretly purloined two of the best pocket-
knives from the pedlar's goods. It was not
surprising, therefore, that at the age of sixteen
he fell in love with a charming actress of thirty-
two, who had amassed a considerable fortune.
On both sides the parents were obdurate. He
resolved to carry her off. One evening he re-
ceived a note intimating that his great uncle
CINQUANTE ANS APR:fcS. 51
had expired, and had left his fortune to him.
He immediately resolved to comply with his
parents' wishes, and to marry as they desired.
He was hastening to tell them so when an aged
man accosted him. * Be not rash,' he said,
■* letters may lie ; but not so the third cousin
of your grandmother's youngest nephew, who
bids you ' "
A snore interrupted Bombominet ; he looked
for his companion, but beheld him not ; he
looked under the table ; there lay Gaston in
profound slumber, embracing an empty bottle.
A weird smile illumined the stranger's coun-
tenance ; he softly withdrew, after finishing what
was left of the wine.
CHAPTER HI.
NEMESIS.
Our hero awoke the next morning with a
racking headache, to find himself recumbent
on the floor, and affectionately embracing a
bottle. He smiled feebly : " Bombominet —
early walk — s'pose," he murmured, as he brushed
a wandering beetle off his face.
"Well," he thought, as he sat down on the
52 LOST CHORDS.
nearest chair, " I wonder how the charming-
L^onie is this morning, likewise the adorable
Th^r^se and the saucy Filette." He opened
his pocket-book, and drew forth three billets
doux which he lovingly regarded ; " and these,"^
he thought, " are from Madame Le Boeuf, my
butcher's wife, Prefet Justin's mother-in-law,.
Madame Vinegre, and the last from my ex-
cellent bootmaker's aunt, a sweet woman
though somewhat advanced in years." These
ruminations were suddenly disturbed by mine
host with a bill.
" One hundred and twenty-five francs ! " mut-
tered the young man, as he nervously felt in his
pockets, but only brought to light his pocket-
book, a sombre-looking handkerchief, twenty
large brass buttons, and a purse containing a
few sous.
A thought struck him. "Bring my horse
round ! " he said ; and he secretly filled the
purse with buttons.
He dropped the purse with a princely air into-
the innkeeper's hands, as he mounted his horse
and rode off.
" One of the old nobility," muttered the man,
his eyes glistening with greedy satisfaction.
CINQUANTE ANS APRILS. 53
"A thieving adventurer ! " he exclaimed, when
he noted the contents.
At this moment the Commissaire of the Police
and some followers appeared.
"Quick! you will catch him — he is on the
high-road to Marseilles," howled the enraged
host, anticipating their inquiries.
" Onward ! " called the Commissaire to his
men.
Meanwhile our hero, who had almost for-
gotten the recent incident, was riding leisurely,
when, on looking back, he noticed horseman
rapidly advancing.
They were covering him on every side, leaving
no room for escape ; so murmuring, " A Para-
phine never runs away," he checked his steed
and awaited them with drawn sword.
" Consider yourself under arrest," said the
Commissaire as he came up, with as much stern-
ness as was possible, considering he was out of
breath.
" Parbleu ! and why ? "
The Commissaire motioned to a dark, silent
figure beside him. " Will you explain ? " he
said.
" Young man," began the stranger, with a
54 LOST CHORDS.
gloomy smile, " I represent the reading public
so allow me to inform you that you are no
longer popular."
Gaston grew pale with horror.
" The modern reader," continued the stranger,
"cares not to have his imagination harassed
with impossible escapades and incredible feats.
His soul revolts from the monotonous success
of a dissipated hero. His common sense will
not perplex itself with the triumph of vice
through one hundred and ninety-nine pages, and
virtue's victory on the two hundredth."
" No ! the modern hero must be something
more than a braggart rou^. To be acceptable
to the reading public he must now pass through
at least six phases of religious belief"
" Alas 1 I never passed through one," mur-
mured Gaston.
" He must expound social theories," resumed
the other, "the more heterodox the better.
He must quote from Henry George, and should
be well up in the various doctrines of Lassalle
and Karl Marx.
"Dialectics, moreover, are preferable to duels ;
and the villain need not be a duke, but should
be. an Evangelical Dissenter, in order that he
CINQUANTE ANS APR^S. 5S
may have long arguments with the hero when
in his agnostic phase.
" The conversations need not show profound
thought, but must be smart and plausible "
" Stop ! " cried Gaston, " I can bear no more ;
am I no longer liked and admired ? "
" No, you are out of date completely," said
the stranger, with cruel distinctness.
Gaston Merivale de Paraphine fell from his
horse and expired without a groan.
A CHRISTMAS MIXTURE.
(One teaspoonful taken twice a day after meals will
ensure a sound and refreshing sleep.)
THE annual dinner of the " Royal Society
of Pot-Boilers " was drawing to a conclu-
sion. All the best anecdotes had been told.
The speeches were over, in which everybody
had proposed everybody else's health, and
eternal friendships had been sworn between men
not generally on speaking terms. Perhaps the
Max Sutaine and '5 1 port had something to do
with this. Then some one proposed story-
telling, and the idea caught on.
A comic journalist who had had a compli-
mentary ticket, suggested telling the truth for a
change, but this witticism was received coldly,
^nd he retired abashed behind his filberts.
The Chairman called on the Realistic writer
56
A CHRISTMAS MIXTURE. 57
to start. The Realist was in fine form, being
unusually dyspeptic.
" Christmas Eve was close and humid. Out-
side, a thick, sulphurous, fog wrapt everything in
its foul embrace. Inside, the gas-vitiated atmo-
sphere reduced Silas Moody to a state of inertia
and violent headache.
" He was sitting in a springless armchair,
cogitating over the past. A cricket hopped
.gloomily towards the fireless grate. ' Poor
insect,' hissed Silas, with bitter scorn, 'wouldst
live in a world like this? Nay, foolish one,
5eek Nirvana, since there is no sentimental
Dickens now to accord thee undue importance '
— and he crushed it with his foot.
" The discordant sound of cracked church
bells broke on the suffering air. Silas looked
'OUt of his garret window, and through a gap in
the fog saw a dust-cart passing. ' Such is life,'
said he, fixing his eyes on the cobwebs in the
corner of the room. ' Little more than a mound
•of refuse. In it, a few lucky wights find jewels,
more find bits of glass ; most find only ashes
and filth — and what thinks she who lives with
me}'
" Here the leg of the chair came off, and he
S8 LOST CHORDS.
continued his soliloquy on the floor. ' The
world is a sewer ' "
"Time, time," interposed the Chairman,
hastily. " Would Mr. Buttercups now oblige ? ""
Mr. Buttercups not only would but did. He
was a regular contributor to the " Family Slops ""
and the " Infant's Drivel."
" ' Yes/ repeated Silas, * the world is as sure '
(an inarticulate protest from the Realist) * to
prove a mine of blessing, a fountain of joy, a
land of plenty, an ocean of bliss, as ' "
"'As the twentieth volume of the "Family
Slops," ' said his unmarried sister, who entered
at that moment, and brought down some of the
plaster from the ceiling with her ponderous
tread. Silas smiled joyfully. ' Sweet little Sis,'
he said, ' it shall cheer me with its radiance,'
and putting it into the grate he applied a
match.
"* Listen, Silly,' said little Sis, 'listen to
the message of the bells.' And she opened
the window letting in (' the fog,' snarled the
Realist under his breath) 'the joyful sound,'
which seemed to speak of the delights of a
didactic sister, who would read to him in silvern
tones some of Longfellow's worst poems when
A CHRISTMAS MIXTURE. 59
he was lying on a bed of pain, bringing back a
flood of recollections "
A loud snore from the Chairman interrupted
the eloquence of the Domestic writer. Then
the Chairman suddenly awoke. " Shaving-
water," he murmured — "I mean, Mr. Cupid
kindly take up the bottle — that is to say — the
thread of the story."
The Sentimental writer began in dulcet
tones —
" In short, the bells reminded him that 'twas,
indeed, Merry Yule Tide, and Silas, or, as his
comrades jestingly dubbed him, Adonais, ran
his slender fingers through his curly hair, pas-
sionately kissed a coloured miniature, and gazed
dreamily at Gentle Luna, whose refulgent beams
cast a subdued light on his classic profile — a
profile which a cloistered monk "
At this point Mr. Cupid stopped for breath,
and Mr. Curdler took advantage of the fact to
continue with the story.
" Even such a monk as he, whose dusky
portrait glaring at him through the gloom,
might have envied. Suddenly the sister
shrieked, ' Hist, brother ! has not the clock
struck twenty-nine } Something is wrong.*
6o LOST CHORDS.
Subsequent events justified her words. The
floor gave a mighty crack, and she disappeared
from view. The fire burnt blue. Silas felt his
hair rising ; he rose also. There was a clanking
of chains, and a phosphorescent gleam, which
played over the cupboard where the cheese was
kept. * Silas,' said a weird and sinister-looking
being, ' cease to think of her you love — I, a
ghost, love her, and mean to keep her for myself
Nay, think not to flee, two escaped maniacs are
in the drawing-room, another rival is outside
the door with a revolver, and a couple of blood-
thirsty uncles are coming down the chimney
armed with bowie-knives.'"
"Thank you," said the Chairman, politely,
** but some of us have some way to walk before
we reach home to-night. Now, Mr. Morbid, just
a little from you." The psychologico-physio-
logico-pathological writer went on —
" ' Pish,' said Silas, to the phantom, * what are
you but a diseased condition of the sensory
nerve ganglia reacting on the visual organs, and
giving rise to distinct subjective sensations ?
But you will find it all in any elementary phy-
siology.' Then he put on his hat, went out, and
picked a person's pocket. A few minutes later
A CHRISTMAS MIXTURE. 6i
he was explaining with compassionate indul-
gence to a policeman that he was but an auto-
maton— the victim of hereditary impulse.
" * My great-grandfather,' he observed, ' had a
violent temper, which has reappeared in me ! *
Here he knocked the policeman down, stamped
on him, and quietly resumed his way.
" * No,' said Neuronica to him, an hour later,
* you are a poor creature, and I do not love you ;
but I cannot help it, being a consistent deter-
minist. Yet I admit you are an interesting
study, so I will marry you.'
" ' Be it so,' replied Silas. * After all, what is
love ? Analyse it — consider it from the sick-
liest standpoint, and it is but the glorifica-
tion '"
" Please don't encroach on the lady novelist's
domain," put in the Chairman, firmly. "And
now, gentlemen, perhaps we had better stop."
Then he gazed sternly at the comic journalist
who had taken advantage of the story to finish
up the rest of the port.
THE NEW CINDERELLA.
An Up-to-date Fairy Tale.
CINDERELLA sat disconsolately by her
boudoir fire. She was very unhappy, and
felt a great desire to sob. But she sternly re-
pressed this feeling, conscious that tear-stained
cheeks were unbecoming, and mindful of the
fact that a violent expression of emotion in
private was so much wasteful expenditure of
nervous force. True, her external surroundings
suggested every possible comfort and luxury.
She had an indulgent father, who made her a
handsome allowance, and slept resignedly during
her mandoline performances, and a self-sacrific-
ing mother, who ruined her nerves chaperoning
her girls during the London season. But affec-
tionate parents are a drug in the market, and
62
THE NEW CINDERELLA. 63
Cinderella felt that mere affection and indul-
gence from parents grows painfully monotonous
after a time. She yearned for something more ;
her mind was in a ferment of unrest and dis-
satisfaction, for had she not just thrown aside
her latest craze, and there was nothing to take
its place? Bitterly she mused over past and
defunct fads, as she sipped her morning
chocolate (an institution she had borrowed
from an old French novel), and since there was
still half an hour before her mandoline master
came, she had ample time for indulging in the
luxury of grief
How well she remembered ('twas one long
year since), when on returning from a Parisian
finishing school she had taken up private thea-
tricals, with such enthusiasm as a "finished"
young lady deemed it decorous to show. She
had commenced, of course, with easy parts, such
as Juliet and Lady Macbeth ; and after studying
■simple rdles like these, she had aspired to
" higher things," which meant in her case subtle
and complicated psychological studies, provided
by some friend suffering from Ibsomania. Her
absurdly conventional parents protested against
this transition from the "legitimate" to the
64 LOST CHORDS.
illegitimate drama, and the poor girl had to-
relinquish second-rate psychology for skirt-
dancing.
Soon, however, this craze expired, and another
reigned in its stead. She went in for philan-
thropic dabbling ; recited unsuitable poems at
East End teas ; talked about " elevating the
masses " (as if she had been a kind of steam
crane) ; took umbrage because she fancied Mr.
Du Maurier caricatured her, and gave up
Punch and Philanthropy in disgust.
And then the futility and barrenness of
her existence appealed to her. She read in
one of the monthlies an article on Pessimism^
which enabled her to talk authoritatively about
the utter worthlessness of life. She poured out
her soul nightly in a strictly private and con-
fidential diary, expressed her sentiments in
violet ink, and complained that she was con-
scious of a baulked personality.
After a time this grew monotonous, and now
for the first time she envied her elder sisters,,
who had only experienced one craze apiece, but
had stuck to it Better be Secretary to the
Emancipated Women's Social and Political
Reformation League, like Priscilla, or write
THE NEW CINDERELLA. 65
turgid prose full of asterisks and hysterics, like
Isabel, than be absolutely crazeless !
" Anything I can do for you in the way of
crazes ? " said a voice.
Cinderella looked up, and saw her fairy god-
mother standing beside her, though she had
substituted for the conventional cone hat the
latest fashion in bonnets, and carried a parasol
for a wand, since even a fairy should not be
behind the times.
" La vie est vaine," sighed Cinderella.
"You've got it badly, I am afraid," said the
fairy, reflectively ; " but I know what you want :
you wish to rise above the petty trammels of
sex ; to have scope for developing your individu-
ality ; to escape from the paralysing monotony
of home-life : here is the grand secret — you
must write a novel ! "
" I never could," began Cinderella.
" I never said you could" interposed the other,
sharply ; " I said you imist. If only people who
could write novels did so, what do you think
would become of the circulating libraries ? "
Cinderella felt unable to cope with this poser.
" Well," she said, " I can try. Father has one or
two translations of German Rationalistic The-
5
66 LOST CHORDS.
ology. If I read those, I suppose I shall be
qualified ? "
" Certainly not," replied the fairy, contemp-
tuously. "The popularity of the theological
novel is on the wane. Mudie's patrons are
growing tired of weak-kneed clergymen and
agnostic moral giants. They have been fed so
long on religious doubts that they want a
change of mental diet, for they have positively
no room for one doubt more. No, the youthful
hero who once spoke so touchingly about pretty
religious myths, and who quoted Strauss, Baur
and Renan in tete-d-tete with his fiande must
now garnish his small talk with extracts from
Griesinger, Ribot, and Maudsley."
The fairy tapped Cinderella's writing-table
with her parasol, and a small parcel of books lay
on the table. " Here are * Diseases of the
Brain,' by Forbes Winslow, Quain's ' Medical
Dictionary,' and a treastise on ' Heredity.'
With these your literary outfit is complete.
Imbue your mind with every grade of mental
pathology, and the product will be a sickly
exotic of first-class morbidness. Appear to
sneer at all your characters — which may not be
so difficult as you imagine. Style is immaterial,
THE NEW CINDERELLA. 67
provided it glitters with inversions of the com-
monplace — called by some, epigrams. And
now, my dear, good-bye."
" Stop a minute," said Cinderella ; " I have
some verses which nearly every editor and
publisher has refused. Can I make no use
of them ? "
" Oh yes," said the fairy, drily, " there is always
a last resource for rejected poets." She waved
her parasol, and in a twinkling fifty large-paper
copies, duly signed and numbered, appeared
instead of the soiled MSS.
Cinderella almost clapped her hands. Luckily,
she recalled herself in time, before committing
such a barbarity. " Now I shall become talked
about and paragraphed, and even my depres-
sions will be a pleasure when I can confide them
to interviewers."
" Yes, you will be quite the rage for a time."
" And become quite famous, shall I not } "
"Well, that's another story," said the fairy,
with a smile. " But I must say good-bye, since
other Cinderellas await me."
''HOW TO BE A DRAMATIC CRITICr
An Imaginary Scene.
I WAS borne along, with the crowd of eager
young journalists, \ to the New Dramatic
Institute, which had been recently opened.
Large posters outside the building advertised
a series of short lectures for 3 p.m., on " How
to be a Dramatic Critic " ; but, owing to the
number of men bent on the same errand as
myself, I was able to make my way but
slowly.
We passed by numerous lecture-rooms, in
one of which a gentleman, whose name was
either Jones, Brown, or Robinson, was holding
forth on the " Inferiority of Religion to the
Drama as a moral educator for the people " ;,
68
•*HOW TO BE A DRAMATIC CRITIC' 69
whilst on the doors of another room I noticed
a placard stating that a university professor was
lecturing on the " Advantages of a Classical
Education for writing opera-bouffe and bur-
lesques."
A programme was thrust into my hands as I
pressed into the lecture-hall, and on glancing at
it I found that two well-known critics were
going to expound their views on the subject of
dramatic criticism, and that various minor lights
would also speak on the subject.
The first was already about to speak as a
representative of the Impressionist School.
He told us that we were at all costs to be
artistic ; that violent abuse was a sign of
bourgeoisie^ of an uncultured mind. The busi-
ness of the critic, he said, was to enjoy as much
as was possible ; when he could not enjoy, let
him delicately insinuate that he was bored,
[metaphorically], shrug his shoulders, and pass
on to a more agreeable topic. Let him taste
the various dramatic dishes, and report to the
public how they affected his palate.
This lecturer concluded his remarks by chalk-
ing up on a blackboard a specimen of " Im-
pressionistic " criticism, hypothetically assuming
70 LOST CHORDS.
that Mr. Irving had produced a play of Shak-
speare's.
" What was it like .? How did it affect me }
Well, let me think. I have a pleasant re-
membrance of green, swaying boughs and
charming rural scenery, grimly frowning battle-
ments and the hoarse cries of a rude soldiery.
The most delightful harmony of colours in
Act 3 proved most grateful to the eyes, and I
could almost have imagined that I was in some
sequestered glade in the South of England, had
I not been forcibly reminded that I was in the
Strand, by the extreme narrowness of my stall.
(Mr. Irving, by the by, ought really to give us
more commodious stalls — say like those at the
Empire.)
" I confess frankly that I did not enjoy Act 4.
Yes, I know the acting was fine, but one of
the peasants had a spot on his nose, which
appeared to increase in size each time he said,
' A right good welcome, my liege ' ; this was
irritating.
"A great deal of admiration has been ex-
pended on the magnificent interior in Act i.
It may be bad taste, but I positively disliked
it. It reminded me of an old painting which
"HOW TO BE A DRAMATIC CRITIC." yi
used to hang up in my grandmother's drawing-
room, just over the corner in which I (often,
alas !) stood for punishment. And the acting.
That on the whole was supremely satisfying.
Miss Terry, with her sweet, kittenish movements
and picturesque draperies, was a treat to watch
and listen to. As for Mr. Irving, there is
always a soupqon of diablerie about anything he
undertakes. Can I describe my feelings when
he first came on ? As a certain character in
one of Moliere's masterpieces says, * C'est
impossible ! ' I have seen Mr. A. throw more
tragic intensity into the part ; I have seen
Monsieur B. display greater emotional power,
and Signor C. portray finer intellectual subtlety.
But Mr. Irving played it as only Mr. Irving
can, &c., &c."
The Impressionist advocate now gave place
to a representative of the Analytical and
Hypercritical School.
I was unable to catch all his earlier remarks,
but from what I did hear he appeared to be
deploring the fact that there was no modern
English play worthy of serious criticism, and
he warned would-be critics that they must
look abroad — say to Scandinavia — did they
73 LOST CHORDS.
wish to find any drama worthy of the critic's
art.
As for style, he recommended a confident
and dogmatic tone, free from flippancy, and
chary in praise.
He concluded, like the previous lecturer, with
a sample on the blackboard, which he assured
us would, with very few alterations and addi-
tions, do for any Shakspearean revival at the
" Lyceum."
" I commend Mr. Irving for choosing this
play by the Elizabethan dramatist, because,
although one of the worst acting plays con-
ceivable, it is, nevertheless, a fine piece of
literature. I quite admit that Shakspeare was
much, if not altogether, indebted to a German
romance current about 1560, for the story of
the play, nevertheless . . . (here supply various
historical details interspersed with learned re-
marks about the ' quarto ' and ' folio') ... I regret
that I must dissent from my friend Mr. X., and,
in fact, from all other critics, as to the value of
Mr. Irving's interpretation of the principal rS/e.
" To have succeeded, he ought, I take it, to
strike at first a subdued note, then rise to Act 4
in a gradual crescendo of passion. The famous
'< HOW TO BE A DRAMATIC CRITIC." n
soliloquy (or soliloquies, as the case may be),
should be delivered free from rant, yet with
strong emotional force, flavoured with a sugges-
tion of intellectual reserve.
" His acting at the beginning of the Act
should be in the spirit of genuine melodrama ;
in the middle, that of pure comedy ; at the end,
emphatically that of pure and simple tragedy.
But Mr. Irving does not realise this conception
at all, &c."
This gentleman was followed by various
others, each advocating different principles and
formulating diverse rules.
The advocate of ordinary descriptive journa-
lese advised us to give as much attention to
the audience as to the piece ; to note the
various celebrities present, and watch when they
laughed and applauded. As for the acting, it
was always safe to say that " Miss Terry was
the personification of womanly grace," that Mr.
A. acted in his " usual vigorous style," and that
Miss B. " won golden opinions."
There was something at once familiar and
strange about these remarks and samples. As
I wended my way out of the Institute, I
racked my brain to discover where and when I
74 LOST CHORDS.
had seen or heard something very like this, and
whilst I cogitated —
I awoke, and behold, it was a dream !
THE GAME OF INTERVIEWING,
(With rules and full directions.)
THIS amusing and instructive game may-
be learned in a very short time, and
will prove a diverting pastime in long winter
evenings.
Only two people are required — the interviewer
and the interviewee : of these the former is the
more important. Any child may learn this
game, provided his father can fight : for un-
limited cheek and a fertile imagination are the
only requisites. The latter especially will be
found useful, should the notes of the interview
get lost before publication. There are two
things to be kept in view when playing this
game: (i) Always question the interviewee on
matters with which he is not conversant ; (2)
76 LOST CHORDS.
Never neglect the conversational machine (given
gratis), which will expand the most barren
interview into one, two, or three columns, as
required.
Appended are various examples : —
I.— The Literary Interview.
(A chat with Mr. Blank, the celebrated Novelist
and Poet.)
Directly I entered the portal of Gimcrack
Villa I felt that there was a distinct literary air
about the place — a kind of cultured draughti-
ness as it were.
I awaited the arrival of Mr. B. in the charm-
ing little drawing-room. By the fire sat a
favourite cat with a Sterne-like smile upon its
countenance, and there was a parrot by the
window which, by his observations, I con-
jectured to be a student of Fielding.
"You look harassed, Mr. B.," I remarked,
after we had cordially shaken hands. "You
are suffering from mental strain, consequent
" No," he said, with a deprecating smile.
THE GAME OF INTERVIEWING. n
"True, my work is arduous, but — well — the —
fact is my daughter is learning cookery ; we
had experiments for lunch to-day."
I nodded feelingly, and was seized with sym-
pathetic dyspepsia.
After a moment's painful silence I inquired,.
" Now as to your last novel, concerning which
so many eulogistic reviews "
" I never read reviews of my own books," he
interposed, quickly, adding sotto voce^ " I get
other people to read them to me. True," he
continued, slowly closing one eye (a peculiar
habit of his, and particularly characteristic of
talented men), " I hear casually that I am com-
pared to Scott, Dickens, Thackeray, Balzac^
Hugo, Pope, and, of course," with a gentle
smile, " I have been hailed as another Tennyson,.
a new Browning. I do not think much of these
terms. I cannot tell you," he added, earnestly,
" how pained I am when I hear friends say that
I remind them of Shakspeare or Goethe."
I admitted that it must be very painful.
" Be original, is my motto," said Mr. B., with
enthusiasm, knocking down a cheap vase and
kicking the cat accidentally. " Educate the
public taste with your literary wares and you
78 LOST CHORDS.
will provide food for them that will be fit for
" Cat's-meat," interjected the parrot, inappro-
priately, with an eye fixed on pussy's tail.
Mr. B. laughed, though not heartily. Fearing
he was growing tired, I changed the subject.
" Is it true you dislike gooseberry jam ?"
" Absolutely false," repudiated the litterateur,
with vehemence, " please contradict it. Now
had the rumour been about raspberry jam I
would have admitted the truth " he hesi-
tated.
" Powders when a boy ? " said I.
He nodded.
The ornamental clock on the mantlepiece,
the hands of which pointed to one o'clock, here
struck seventeen, so I concluded it was time for
me to depart. And, as Artemus Ward would
say, " I wented." (If you desire to use the
serious stop, and not the comic, in the conver-
sational machine, you can conclude : " And thus
mentally braced up by my chat with this in-
vigorating thinker I departed, and leaving the
cosy room, the home of the Muses, plunged
into the atmosphere of the London streets.")
the game of interviewing. 79
2.— The Paradoxical Interview.
j(N.B. — This variation is very rare and extremely
trying. It must be used with caution.)
" May I have a few minutes with you, Mr.
Glitter ? "
Mr. Glitter was emerging from a confec-
tioner's, and he flicked the crumbs off his mouth
with an old-fashioned grace.
" A bun," he remarked, opening a cigarette-
•case inlaid with rubies, and producing a cigarette
veritably gold-tipped. " A bun is the uneatable
designed "
" Please tell me about yourself," I asked,
humbly (hoping to lead him away from the
epigrams so familiar to the public).
" Myself," said the great man, dreamily
watching the blue smoke curling from the
•cigarette. '' I should talk on, on, for ever.
This personality " (with an artistic flourish
towards himself) "is an inexhaustible topic of
converse ; a theme rich in suggestiveness ; a
spring of undying originality — but, shall I waste
it?"
I clutched my umbrella timidly.
" You, you — a journalist ? " He regarded me
8o LOST CHORDS.
with bitter scorn. Then shortly and distinctly, " I
loathe journalists and wasps, dramatic critics and
black beetles — in fact, everything but myself."
I opened my umbrella for protection, but he
became abstracted, so I closed it again.
" The public admire you," I said, almost in
a whisper, fearing another outbreak.
" The toad likes the sun," said Mr. G. " Does
it follow that the sun likes the toad ? If the
toad likes the warmth of the sun, is it not
natural } "
He threw the end of his cigarette away and
resumed — (here I felt so unwell in my mental
efforts to elucidate his meaning that I became
oblivious to what followed).
A slight turn of the conversational machine
will make the interview up to the requisite
column.
3. — The Theatrical Interview (Female).
(N.B. — If the interviewee is ugly, refer to her as
interesting ; if plain, speak of her as charming
and attractive ; if pretty — consult the dictionary
for adjectives.)
" Tea ? " said Miss Frolic, with a charming
smile.
THE GAME OF INTERVIEWING. 8i
" Thank you — one lump, please — thanks, very
much."
" And do you like the stage, do you "
" Oh, please not so quick." She threw back
her head with a dainty movement. " Of course
one likes to feel one has magnetised one's
audience; one" (Miss Frolic modestly avoided
the obstructive ego) " likes to feel the audience
are, so to speak, in one's power ; yes, I sup-
pose my song ' Oops-a-diddle, dum-do ' is a
success."
" Overwhelming," was my enthusiastic reply,
" Not that I only care for the stage," she put
in, with pretty eagerness. " No, I am training
pet snails to turn somersaults. Then I dote on
books "
" Ah," I said, interested, " please tell me your
opinion on the disadvantages of a complex
civilisation ! "
But we will stop our samples here, since
enough have been given to show the fascinating
character of this ingenious game.
THROUGH THE {POLITICAL) LOOK-
ING-GLASS, AND WHAT ALICE
SAW THERE.
A Retrospective Fragment.
DRAMATIS PERSONS,
White King . . Lord Rosebery,
White Queen . . Sir William Harcourt.
A White Pawn . . Mr. Campbell Bannerman
Tweedledum) „. ,^ ,. , ^
TweedledeeJ • • Rival Candidates.
" np^HEY don't keep this house so tidy as
A the other," Alice thought to herself, as
she noticed several members with their hats
over their eyes, and their legs sprawling all
about the place.
Here something began squeaking on the
front fender, and made Alice turn her head in
time to see a White Pawn replying to some
THROUGH THE LOOKING-GLASS. 83
questions that had been put to him. Alice
watched curiously to see what would happen
next.
" It is the voice of my child ! " the White
Queen cried out, as she rushed into the lobby.
A bell rang somewhere, and after the tumult
had subsided Alice noticed that the White
King, who had just hurried up from Durdans,
was knocked over.
" My precious Bannerman ! my expert Secre-
tary ! " cried the White Queen, wringing her
hands.
The King was sulky. He had been hurt —
not to say surprised — by the fall, and felt
entitled to be a little annoyed. He murmured
a few lines from Longfellow's poem on " Resig-
nation " to himself.
When the Queen had recovered herself a
little she called out to the White King, " Mind
public opinion ! "
" What public opinion ? " said the King, look-
ing anxiously toward Epsom, as if he thought
that was the most likely place to find it.
" Look out for the General Election," panted
the Queen ; " mind the Unionists do not get
84 LOST CHORDS.
They then consulted together in frightened
whispers.
" The horror of this crisis," remarked the
King, " I shall never forget ! "
" You will, though," the Queen said, " if you
happen to get into power again."
Alice looked on with interest as the King
took out a note-book and began writing. A
sudden thought struck her, and she took hold
of the end of the pencil and began writing for
him.
The poor King looked puzzled and unhappy^
and at last he panted out, " I can't manage this
pencil a bit ; it writes all manner of things I
don't intend."
" What manner of things ? " said the Queen,
looking over the book (in which Alice had put
" Sir Visto won the last Derby, Sir Veto will
lose the next one "). " I hope that's not a
memorandum of your feelings."
There was a book lying near by, and while
she sat watching the White King Alice turned
over the leaves to find some part that she could
read, " for it's all in some strange language I
don't know," she said to herself Then a bright
thought struck her. "Why, it's a canvassing
THROUGH THE LOOKING-GLASS. 85
book ! " she exclaimed ; " and here are some
verses called * The Jabberrotter, a warning to
the borough voter at Election time.' "
This is what she read —
'* 'Twas Julig, and the canvas droves
Did gas and quibble in the street ;
All heckly were the borough coves,
The candidates discreet.
* Beware the Jabberrot, my son !
The words of rant, the phrases catch !
Beware the pot-house bribe, and shun
The vagrant voter snatch ! '
And as in muddled thought he stood,
The Jabberrot of canvas fame.
Came purely for the voters' good,
And piffled when he came !
' It is not true. What, vote for you !
Who wants to see your party back ? '
The voter said ; the monster fled
And tried another tack.
* And hast thou snubbed the Jabberrot ?
Crow not so fast, my simple boy !
See others come ! a few, a lot !
And smile with fearful joy.'
'Twas Julig, and the canvas droves
Did gas and quibble in the street ;
All whimsy were the borough coves,
The candidates discreet."
86 LOST CHORDS.
" It seems very exciting," said Alice, when
she had finished it, " but it is rather hard to
understand ! However, there's a contest some-
where about something — that's clear, at any rate."
Suddenly Alice became aware of two huge
posters, one underneath the other. One was
marked " Vote for Tweedledum, and free tea
and treacle all the year round." The other was
marked, *' Vote for Tweedledee, and twopenny
twists of tobacco every other Thursday."
" They both seem very generous," said Alice ;
" I'll just go and see what they are like."
They were standing on opposite sides of the
road, shaking their fists at one another.
" If you think we're not friendly you're mis-
taken," said Tweedledum. " Our animosity is
purely political, quibbler ! "
" Word Juggler ! " responded the other,
warmly. " You're quite right — apart from an
inherent political dishonesty and intellectual
meanness, I've the greatest respect for you."
(Then both together.) " We're going to pur-
sue this contest without any personalities what-
ever. The personal element (contrary to all
THROUGH THE LOOKING-GLASS. 87
Other similar contests) will be quite elimi-
nated."
Here they both shook hands watchfully, and
without enthusiasm.
" I don't know what you're thinking about,"
said Tweedledum, "but I'm in favour of it,
decidedly."
" So am I," said Tweedledee, " so don't let
that prevent you from voting for me."
" I haven't got a vote," remarked Alice.
" More she has," said Dum and Dee, gazing
blankly at each other. " Then why are you
taking up our valuable time ? Do you suppose
any human being without a vote can interest a
candidate ? "
" Don't irritate her," whispered Dee, " she
may have a vote some day." (Then aloud)
" Let me repeat you a poem."
" Is it political ? " asked Alice, doubtfully.
" Well — yes — in a sort of way," said Dee,
with a smile. "But if you want to ask any
question, hand it up to the chairman, and
it shall be answered in due course after the
resolution in favour of my candidature has been
carried."
" It's poor stuff," remarked Dum, with a
88 LOST CHORDS.
superior smile, " but you'd better listen to it ; it
will show to what depths of doggerel and abysses
of inanity political verse can descend."
Tweedledee murmured something about the
law of libel, and then consulted the " Corrupt
Practices Act " to see whether he might pull
the other's nose. Obtaining no information on
this point, he pulled it metaphorically, and
commenced —
*' The Premier and Radical
Were standing side by side.
* We two,' remarked the Radical,
* Can never be allied.'
And this was odd, because, you know,
They subsequently tried.
The Chancellor and Socialist
Were walking close at hand ;
The Fabian's Clarion voice denounced
The rich man holding land.
* If this were only nationalised,'
He said, * it would be grand.'
* If Hardie (Keir) and Fabians
* Ruled England for a year,
* Do you suppose,' the Fabian said,
* Utopia would be here ?,'
* I doubt it,' said the Chancellor
And taxed the bitter beer.
THROUGH THE LOOKING-GLASS. 89
* The time has come,' the Premier said,
' To talk about arrears,
Of Local Veto, Church in Wales,
('Twill calm each section's fears),
And why Macgregor went away,
And whether Lords are peers ? '
* But wait a bit,' the Irish cried,
* You're really rather cool,
Pray what about your promises
Relating to Home Rule ?'
* No hurry,' said the Radical,
' I'm not a perfect fool.'
* To smash the Lords,' the Premier said,
' Is what we chiefly need ;
Home Rule and Disestablishment j
Are very good indeed.
Now, if you're clever, Irish, dear,
You'll understand my lead.'
* I fear we don't,' the Irish cried.
Turning a little blue ;
* After our Gladstone, it is sad
To put our trust in you.'
* I've knighted Irving,' said the peer ;
* What more could Premier do ? '
* It seems a shame,' the Premier said,
' To write me down a stick,
After my foreign policy,
Which is the Hatfield trick.'
The Radical said nothing but
* The programme's spread too thick.'
90 LOST CHORDS.
* Electors,' cried the Premier,
* You see the work we've done ;
Now put us into power again ! '
But answer came there none —
And this was scarcely odd, because
The other side had won." *
' Most of the above verses appeared in the G/ode for
May 25, 1895.
AIRS.
THE MODERN YOUNG MAN TO HIS
LOVE.
(Marlowe up to date.)
COME live with me and be my love,
And we will all the pleasures prove
That club and latchkey will provide,
Since such delight a modern bride.
Should I deny thee any boon,
Solicit then Sir Francis Jeune :
And if domestic duty palls,
O drown dull care in music-halls.
A risky novel shalt thou write.
Conventionality indict
With sentiments exceeding bold,
Where men are dross and women gold.
93
94 LOST CHORDS.
I grieve to ask thee, dearest Nan,
To wed " that odious creature — man "
Nor would I press the slavish ring.
But *tis, I think, the usual thing.
Still, after all I've said to-day,
I cannot ask thee to obey :
So if these pleasures may thee move.
Then live with me and be my love !
SEASONABLE THOUGHTS.
(Written During the hot May Term of 1893.)
(With Apologies to the shade of R. B.)
OTO be in Cambridge,
Now that April's there !
And whoever wakes in Cambridge,
Wakens in a sultry glare,
Which makes one sigh for the primitive leaf ;
Then, the flower-tout fills the lodger with grief,
For " any old bags, sir ? " 's a bore you'll allow
In Cambridge now.
And after April when May follows.
And the Tripos man in the thick tome wallows
Mark how the crafty coach will spread his snare
To catch some desperate youth, once a gay rover,
95
96 LOST CHORDS.
Who dreams of lists, his name, alas ! not there,
Then that fool Jones bawls all his songs twice
over,
As if the tune he never could quite capture,
With his too careless rapture.
Yet, though Exams now darken many lives,
All will be gay when the " May week " arrives,.
When pretty girls assert their pristine power,
Much nicer than this tedious lecture hour.
LOCKS LEY HALL,
(During Spring Cleaning.)
SISTERS, leave me here a little, till the
cleaning out is done ;
Leave me at my club, O mother, leave your
noise-distracted son.
In the Spring domestic earthquakes banish
every thought of rest ;
In the Spring the busy housewife makes herself
a daily pest.
In the Spring the annual cleaning — cleaning ?
Ah, well, there's the rub —
In the Spring the young man's fancy quickly
turns to thoughts of club.
Many a morning waked I early with the burly
workman's tread,
While I watched a scraggy hatstand looming
darkly near my bed.
7 97
98 LOST CHORDS.
Many an evening was I greeted by the sic kly
smell of paint,
Found my father fuming frantic, and my sisters-
feeling faint.
O my mother's vernal madness! O my bed-
room, mine no more !
O the dusty, dusty box-room ! Better sleep
upon the floor.
And I doubt that through the chaos any tid y
purpose runs,
And the mother's heart is hardened to the pro-
test of her sons.
Not in vain the lights of clubland. Forward,,
clubward let me range.
Let a hansom spin me thither, whilst I count
my silver change.
PILLOW PHILOSOPHY.
(" While the busy part of mankind are fast hud-
dling on their clothes, are already up and about
their occupation, content to have swallowed their
sleep by wholesale, we choose to linger abed and
digest our dreams . . . why should we get up ? "
— Essays of Elia.)
OWISE Charles Lamb, philosopher pro-
found !
To your immortal fame this will redound,
Who never on the tardy riser frowned
Like other great Pots !
When the dull morning creeps in chill and gray^
Unwelcome promise of a dismal day.
Then bed becomes a blessing, as you say.
Unlike sedate Watts.
Odi profanuni — proverb-quoting herd,
Who prate about the (foolish) early bird ;
99
IPO LOST CHORDS.
Has it ne'er to these moralists occurred,
The worm we ought to notice ?
Contrariwise (as said great Tweedledee),
From its snug earthy bed, you will agree.
That it should rise, as late as late can be,
A fact we ought to vote is.
Rise with the lark ? why thus neglect my ease ?
For fifty larks, I do not choose to freeze,
Larks keep no prosy lectures — wherefore, please,
Should I so court chills ?
Cease, maiden, thy tattooing on my door !
Let me digest my dreams, I ask no more.
Thus I — with just a soupqon of a snore
Would lie. The thought thrills.
"Twixt sleep and waking, happy drowsy state,
When fortune smiles, who frowned so much of
late.
When bills get paid, and duns no longer wait.
My deeds ensuring blessing.
When plots for novels surge about the brain,
Twould make my fortune did they but remain,
Alas ! they vanish, I confess with pain
Without enduring dressing.
PILLOW PHILOSOPHY. loi
How cold the air! I'll snug beneath the
clothes,
Not in the least that I desire to doze,
But it would be — if from this couch I rose —
A much repented leap !
Now, as for work to-day, I have a plan
Carefully schemed. First rise, well, if I can !
(A pause ^ taken up by yawns!)
(True ! Sancho Panza, " Blessed is — the — man
That first invented Sleep.")
TO PICKWICK,
(A Dyspeptic Lament.)
OH, really, Mr. Pickwick, you've a wonder-
ful digestion !
That you e'er have dyspeptic pangs I seriously
question,
Not to mention Wardle's dinners take the
famous shooting lunch.
When you drank so very freely of delicious cold
milk punch ;
How could you sleep it off so well ! Pray make
a slight suggestion }
Oh, Reverend Stiggins of the Ebenezer Chapel,
come.
Confide what secret virtue lies in hot, pine-
apple rum }
I find it very bilious, you drink from morn till
night.
TO PICKWICK. 103
And barring one slight episode — appear to be
all right,
Such drinking with long living should strike
good abstainers dumb.
Then Smangles drinking deeply of cheap sherry
in the morning,
And that convivial " Swarry " kept up till the
day was dawning,
Old Weller's great capacity for (scarce diluted)
brandy,
And even Mrs. Bardell with a bottle nice and
handy ;
Yet no one seems a whit the worse, or needs a
doctor's warning.
I have no wish to criticise you in a vein
satirical,
To comment on your ethics I have not thus
become lyrical,
But the absolute impunity with which you
gorge and guzzle,
I will confess, has always been to me a serious
puzzle ;
In short, each individual is a gastronomic
miracle.
THE POETS AT SCHOOL.
(Suggested by Mr. Barry Pain's " Poets at Tea.")
Swinburne, who liked " tuck " :—
O Caramel, clinging and cloying,
0 Peppermint, subtle and strong,
Can I, fitting language employing,
Sufficiently sound thee in song ?
1 love the crisp crunch and the crumble
Of Toffee, burned, burnished and brown ;
And for the fierce joy of the Jumble,
I trudge down each day to the town.
Calverley, who found smoking didn't agree
with him : —
You ask me why I shun the pipe,
And scorn the fragrant cigarette ?
'Tis not because of age unripe
As yet.
104
THE POETS AT SCHOOL. 105
You scorn my callow youth and say
Smoke was not meant for one so green.
Please understand I am to-day
Fourteen !
I could a tale unfold, 'tis true,
Though it is scarcely worth my while ;
And I feel very sure that you
Would smile.
Since then my love for weed has waned
(In crises hair turns white, 'tis said ;
I only know that mine remained
Quite red).
I care not for scholastic laws,
Await not the parental grant ;
I do not smoke (alack !) because
I can't.
Longfellow, who was fond of story-
books : —
Tell me oft in weekly numbers.
Life is but a Haggard dream,
Where the interest never slumbers,
And the white man reigns supreme.
io6 LOST CHORDS.
Life is grand beyond that portal
Where the crafty villain roams ;
That detectives are but mortal
Was not meant for Sherlock Holmes.
Lives of pirate kings remind us
Honesty's a dreadful bore ;
Therefore let the future find us
Revelling in seas of gore.
Of the hero's latest caper,
And the lovely heroine's fate,
I must — until next week's paper —
Learn to keep serene and wait.
Browning, who was fond of elliptical anec-
dotes : —
Days ago — I think some ten 'tis — Eh ! what,
think it's longer :
Scusatemi — Das ist unrecht — phew, that " pre-
paration " !
Well, verb sap sat: In the future make the
trousers stronger
{Thanks — des bonbons — confettura — now for the
narration) : —
THE POETS AT SCHOOL. 107
Theory : solving Euclid Riders ;
Practice : drawing wasps and spiders
(Bob, I think, was feeding silkworms),
Ancient Whackem comes up gently,
I — on drawing fixed intently —
Looked up ; saw him — cane descends —
squirms ! ! !
And then . . . you know . . . pish ! Howl ?
Why should I ?
Well — Adieu — Buon giorjio — Good-bye !
Keats, who received a hamper, celebrates the
event in a sonnet : —
The hamper's gone, and all its sweets are gone.
Sweet apples, jam, and toothsome gingerbread ;
Soft jennetings — so plentiful this morn
To nourish boyish frames have quickly sped.
Jack's pearly teeth caressed my dark rich cake
— With plump, embedded currants— made at
home.
Then drank my ginger-beer of best home make,
A bubbling font of aromatic foam.
Now all have vanished at approach of eve.
And the tired palate sated craves for rest ;
lo8 LOST CHORDS.
Nor for another hamper shall I grieve,
While friends and foes assist with so much zest.
Let slumbrous-lidded sleep descend once more,
And curtain off my comrade's tiresome snore.
Hood, who was a Cricket enthusiast : —
Good Mr. Scorer, tell me pray,
The reason for my luck,
I'm sure 'tis very foul to-day.
That I have made a " duck."
The boy whose bowling made me quail.
He did a wicket deed ;
Since he deprived me of the bail
Of which I stood in need.
For " driving " I'd a subtle plan.
But walking came too soon ;
I never was a ladies' man,
And yet they say I " spoon."
One run I got, and that a bye ;
I felt extremely sold ;
While never very brave, yet I
Soon — much too soon — get bowled.
THE POETS AT SCHOOL. 109
Though otherwise intensely frank,
My bowling's underhand ;
As Captain I should be a crank,
Though as a " boss " I'm grand.
Although of poor athletic fame,
Yet cricket gives me fun ;
For, oh ! it is a splendid game
On which to vilely pun !
REFLECTIONS OF A POETASTER,
(After Calverley.)
SOME love to tune the poet's golden lyre>
To gaily warble or to sadly chant ;
And I to shine as melodist aspire,
But can't.
'Tis often said that inspiration comes
When it is least expected — at chance times ;
I sit for hours gnawing at my thumbs,
For Rhymes.
O for a ready Muse ! a facile pen !
Will thought and metre wed? I fear they
won't.
Some eyes in a " fine phrenzy " roll ; but then^
Mine don't
REFLECTIONS OF A POETASTER. iif
I wrote — that is, the lamp of verse I lit,
Called the book " Gleanings " ; bade the scoffer
laugh ;
The scoffer did and rudely spoke of it
As chaff.
I penned my preface to the " cultured " mind.
Said I eschewed " mere fame " ('twas scarcely
true) ;
Alas ! my " gentle readers " — though refined —
Were few.
No " long-felt want " my poems could supply.
Though type and binding both were of the best,.
It never sold. Yet it was published " By
Request."
'Twas by request of fairest Amabel,
She thought the poems " sweet," their meaning-
" deep " ;
Was it their depth when over them she fell
Asleep ?
The surest way to glory, you'll allow,
Is to create a cult, to found a " school,"
They'll call me genius then who deem me now
A fool.
112 LOST CHORDS.
Till then I cherish up this thought sublime,
Though not much comfort — yet it is a crumb ;
With the stage villain I predict, " A time
Will come ! "
UNWIN BROTHERS, THE GRESHAM PRESS, CHILWORTH AND LONDON.
NOVELS PUB-
LISHED BY
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& COMPANY
BEDFORD ST.
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iii
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vii
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viii
f^
>^
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zh | N/A | N/A | 学习十七大精神开创我省党史工作新局面
本刊评论员
胡锦涛总书记的报告总结了过去五年我国各项事业所取得的新成就，指出了改革开放所取得一切成绩和进步的根本原因，提出了实现全面建设小康社会奋斗目标的新要求。学习贯彻十七大精神，必须坚持理论联系实际。全省各级党组织要坚持以十七大精神指导实践、推动工作，着眼提升实力、增强活力、打造竞争力，加快建设沿海经济社会发展强省。这是我们学习的目的，也是衡量学习成效的重要标准。
要紧紧围绕实现又好又快发展在全省广泛开展解放思想大讨论，肯定成绩，总结经验，正视差距，反省不足。要充分运用解放思想这一法宝，着力解决制约河北发展的突出问题，真正把解放思想的成效体现到健全社会主义市场经济体制上，体现到提高对外开放整体水平上，体现到完善区域发展战略上，体现到增强全省上下的沿海意识上，体现到推进民营经济的更大发展上，体现到解决发展中的人才制约问题上。要不断提高创新能力，以开拓进取的精神推动各项事业发展。
进一步加强和改进党的建设，以改革创新精神全面推进党的建设新的伟大工程。以党的执政能力建设和先进性建设为主线，着力加强领导班子和基层党的建设，努力提高各级党组织的创造力、凝聚力和战斗力。
深入学习贯彻十七大精神，我们要进一步提高对党史工作重要性的认识。十七大报告提出了全面建设小康社会奋斗目标的新要求，这些要求涉及经济、政治、文化、社会建设等各个方面。服务党的中心工作，就要求我们围绕这些内容加深、拓宽党史研究的渠道，提供有质量的研究成果。因此，新时期党史工作的任务不是减轻了而是更加繁重了，进一步加强党史工作就具有更加重要的意义。
深入学习贯彻十七大精神，有助于我们进一步解放思想、实事求是，开创党史工作新局面。十七大报告指出，在新的发展阶段继续全面建设小康社会，发展中国特色社会主义，必须坚持邓小平理论和"三个代表"重要思想，深入贯彻落实科学发展观。这也是我们开展社会主义时期党史工作所必须遵循的一项基本原则。党史工作要全面落实科学发展观，就要求我们不断解放思想、实事求是，努力创新党史研究工作和宣传教育工作。
十七大的召开在党的历史上具有里程碑式的重要意义，学习贯彻党的十七大精神是党史部门的重要政治任务，是党史工作者的重要责任。十七大精神对进一步做好党史工作，不仅具有重要指导意义，而且提出了更高要求。我省党史工作者要结合党史工作实际，进一步深入学习贯彻十七大精神，特别是要深化对中国特色社会主义理论的研究和探索，进一步提升党史工作水平，为我们党团纪带领全国各族人民坚定不移地走中国特色社会主义道路，提供历史借鉴。
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zh | N/A | N/A | 主题出版如何服务于思想政治工作
隅 人
内容摘要：本文从思想政治工作与出版的历史关联、主题出版服务思想政治工作的新任务、密切配合思想政治工作新形态展开论述，指出做好思想政治工作，是主题出版义不容辞的责任和使命，思想政治工作更是要借助主题出版这一具体路径和渠道，实现自己的目标和目的。
**关键词：主题出版；思想政治工作；历史关联；新任务；新形态**
DOI： 10.3969/j.issn.2095-0330.2022.05.001
主题出版与思想政治工作密不可分。做好思想政治工作，是主题出版义不容辞的责任和使命；思想政治工作更是要借助主题出版这一具体路径和渠道，实现自己的目标和目的。
**一、思想政治工作与出版的历史关联**
一是应运而生、长期运用。革命队伍中重要的工作方式方法，除了深入调查研究、掌握一手资料，民主集中制、集思广益、充分调动所有人的积极性之外，就是大量深入、细致、周密的思想政治工作。出版服务于思想政治工作，从建党初期的译介马克思、恩格斯、列宁、斯大林著作，到传播共产主义思想的方方面面，无时不有、无处不在。译著如《共产党宣言》《资本论》，期刊如《新青年》《湘江评论》等，它们承担的任务就是把先进理论通俗化、中国化、普及化，用思想政治说辞打动人心、深入民心，
“唤起工农千百万，同心干”。在革命战争年代，我们译介了《联共(布)党史简明教程》，普及共产主义思想，而影响最大的是通俗读物《大众哲学》，成为做思想政治工作的首选教科书。毛主席的《论持久战》等系列论著，则是以理论的高度、实践的深度，判断的精准贴切、语言的通俗明白，成为人民群众解决思想认识问题、形成统一看法的强大思想武器。在社会主义建设时期，除了“文革”十年特殊时期之外，人们的思想认识空前活跃，建设社会主义事业的情绪空前高涨，步调一致，团结一心，这与出版物在思想政治工作中发挥的巨大作用着实分不开。改革开放时期更是如此，如， “实践是检验真理的唯一标准”的大讨论，对统一认识、凝聚共识，出版物的作用非同一般。事实上，作为精神武器，在思想政治工作第一线，出版物从来没有迟到过、缺席过。当然由于路线方针错误、思想政治工作方向偏离形成的灾难，出版这一块的教
训也是十分深刻的。
二是传统传承、历久弥新。新时期尤其是新时代以来，党中央高度重视、切实推进思想政治工作，采取一系列重大举措，让思想政治工作通过主题出版充分发挥统一思想、凝聚人心、鼓舞斗志、团结奋进的重要作用。党和政府充分利用通俗理论读物的推广和普及，做深、做细、做实、做透思想政治工作，形成了广泛影响，取得了良好效果，促进思想政治工作更上层楼。比如“读本”系列、 “面对面”系列、 “问答”系列，发行量都在百万量级乃至千万量级。中宣部先后组织了十几批次“优秀通俗理论读物推荐”活动，解答人民群众日常关心的问题，受到普遍欢迎。建党百年之际， “党史教育活动”中四本书的推荐，把思想政治教育推向高潮。通俗理论读物成为做好思想政治工作的有力帮手，再次展现了出版工作的巨大效用。
三是目标同向、目的一致。主题出版与思想政治工作不仅目标相同，而且目的完全一致。出版的目的在于阅读。扎实推动全民阅读，是做精、做细、做久、做好思想政治工作的重要抓手。阅读的经常化、持续化、深入化，阅读品种的遴选、推荐、解读、引领，对思想政治工作做实、做牢起到很大效用。主题出版服务思想政治工作，很大程度取决于整个社会阅读的状况——阅读的质量、阅读的氛围、阅读的程度。埋头读书是社会稳定的标志，书香氛围是社会变革的基础，学而致用是社会进步的阶梯。无论思想启发，无论理想树立，无论正气涵养，无论信念牢固，阅读永远发挥强大功能和作用。总书记强调，希望全社会都参与到阅读中来，形成爱读书、读好书、善读书的浓厚氛围。而作为精神家园的园丁、人类灵魂工程师的出版工作者，责任重如泰山。
四是方式不同、殊途同归。主题出版是做给
人看，思想政治工作是感化人心。主题出版与思想政治工作方式方法上有不同，但方针原则相同：坚持和加强党的全面领导，牢牢掌握工作的领导权和主动权；坚持以人民为中心，践行党的群众路线，强信心、聚民心、暖人心、筑同心；坚持服务党和国家工作大局，巩固状大奋进新时代的主流思想舆论，为党和国家中心工作提供强有力的政治和思想保障；弘扬社会主义核心价值观，发展社会主义先进文化、浸润红色革命文化、传承优秀传统文化；坚持守正创新，自觉承担“举旗帜、聚民心、育新人、兴文化、展形象的职责使命”，始终保持工作活力。方式方法不同：思想政治工作直接成为治党治国的重要方式，而主题出版要通过思想政治教育工作过程才能发挥作用；思想政治工作是通过大量思想交锋、讨论谈心解决思想问题，达到认识一致，主题出版则是以成熟的理念和经验，通过培训、阅读、交流，影响人们的思想，认识真理和道理；思想政治工作可以是交互式的，可以现场互动，主题出版则有些被动，是单向度的阅读服务，不可能主动施加影响。正因为这些相同和不同，主题出版与思想政治工作才形影不离、密不可分。
**二、主题出版服务思想政治工作的新任务**
一是增进“四个认同”。主题出版对习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想，对党的创新理论的广泛宣传、普及教育、深入人心，目的在于通过增进广大人民群众的政治认同、思想认同、理论认同、情感认同，推进整个社会的长足发展。主题出版的着力点要放在教育的几大方面：建设社会主义强国的中国梦教育；爱国主义、集体主义、社会主义教育；社会主义核心价值观教育；党史、新中国史、改革开放史、社会主义发展史教育；法治教育；形势政策教育；增强
忧患意识，防范化解重大风险教育；等等。成系列地推出系统、完善的精品读物，形成主题出版的强大阵容和阅读方队，为思想政治工作提供取之不尽的精神源泉、源源不断的接续动力。
二是瞄准““四解”目标。主题出版服务思想政治工作，要特别注意配合思政工作的方式方法，通过精湛的选题内容、精准的路径渠道、精当的传播方式、精美的包装设计，真正达到让人们“思想上解惑，精神上解忧，文化上解渴，，心理上解压”。主题出版一定要谙熟思想政治工作内在规律，掌握思想政治工作对象各异的特点，区分时间节点、分寸火候、地域差异、风俗习惯，注重分类施策，注重不同行业、不同人群的不同需求。用分众化、差异化、个性化方式，服务好企业、乡村、社区、部队、学校、机关等不同方面，通过网络出版、书报刊出版、多媒体出版、数字出版、移动出版的不同形式服务受众。在有效传播过程中，达到思想政治工作的目的。主题出版一定要明晓思想政治工作直抵人心的特点， “随风潜入夜，润物细无声”。内容方面，以情动人，以美育人，以优胜人，以文化人。同时，以表面上平朴质朴、水波不兴，搅动人们心潮涌动、激情澎湃；以温馨且持之以恒的精神抚慰，调动和激励人们向善向好向上的正向追求。主题出版一定要配合思想政治工作久久为功的长期建设，用耐心、用韧性、用毅力培根聚魂、益智养德。“合抱之木，生于毫末；九层之台，起于累土；千里之行，始于足下。”持续恒久的文化建设，不可能一蹴而就。由量变到质变，循序渐进，才会逐步带来全社会的整体进步——时风刚健、时代巨变、时尚出新。
三是做好“五个宣传”。促进新时代思想政治工作守正创新，主题出版重点要做好“主题宣传、形势宣传、政策宣传、成就宣传、典型宣传”。我们的主题出版历来注重“高大上”“精
美优”的成果宣传，各种方式全武当，各类机器全开动，各种渠道全灌满，拥有丰富的实践经验和路数；注重“新奇特”“靓专全”典型宣传，抓时间节点，出榜样示范，开成功案例，且卓有成效，扩大了影响力、感召力、公信力。这些都需要继续弘扬和拓展。应当特别提醒的是，主题出版还要注重扩大类比、对比宣传的力度，弥补缺乏反面教材、反面教员的疏漏。尤其是要强化对优劣临界点方面的把握，让受众明白，什么是进一步海阔天空，什么是退一步万丈深渊，善于把处于边缘地带的迷茫者引领出来。涉及负面和反面的内容和素材，常常被认为是污染、抹黑，必须远离和回避，看不到处理得当肥料可以养花的效用，这种极端化、简单化的认识，给思想政治工作的提质增效带来不少麻烦。其实，主题出版很重要的任务，就是要通过大量深刻、复杂的现实，通过正反两个方面的教育，唤醒民众，唤醒正义，唤醒良知，帮助人们认识社会发展变化中的复杂性、各种矛盾较量斗争的尖锐性、清醒应对风险危机的紧迫性。人们的接受心理是，一方面， “好”的东西吃多了，会消化不良，甚至厌食；另一方面，味的正面鼓舞，会一叶障目，令人产生错觉，感到普天下都是莺歌燕舞，掉以轻心。看不到社会发展的阻力、挫折，会让人误判形势和趋势；；缺乏对必须正视的阴暗面的了解，会让人忘乎所以，造成免疫力、观察力、应对能力低下。总书记曾经在不同场合讲过，要重视反面教材、反面教员的作用，知己知彼，才能百战不殆。
**三、密切配合思想政治工作新形态**
主题出版本身的实现需要在形式上更为丰富
和多样、渠道上更加广泛和流畅、传播模式上更注重创新和仓造。主题出版要适应思想政治工作形态变化的新情况，解决形式单一、渠道狭窄等问题，弥补传播方式明显不足的缺陷，利用媒介融合发展的机遇更好地发挥作用。
一是必须重视网络空间。网络空间已经成为人们生产生活的新空间，那就应当成为我们党做好思想政治工作、凝聚时代共识的新阵地。互联网是意识形态交锋的最前沿，是社会舆论的放大器，是思想政治工作的新平台。主题出版能否在网络战役中主动出击、提供弹药、克敌制胜，是直接关乎思想政治工作阵地坚守和丧失的关键。总书记讲过，过不了互联网这一关，就过不了长期执政这一关。总书记要求我们，整体推进网络内容建设、网络信息安全、网络空间治理。主题出版必须伺机而动，全方位满足“正能量是总要求，管得住是硬道理，用得好是真本事”。
二是在媒体融合方面焕发青春活力。全媒体不断发展，致使舆论生态、媒体格局、传播方式发生深刻变化，主题出版服务思想政治工作，同样面临全媒体时代的挑战。必须在各类媒体融为一体、合而为一的全媒体传播格局中，杀出一条生路来，使主题出版承载更强大的传播力、引导力、影响力和公信力，全时空、全方位、全过程深度推进思想政治工作，形成网上网下同心圆，使全体人民在理想信念、价值理念、這德观念上紧紧团结在一起，让“正能量更强劲，主旋律更高昂”。
三是融合理念要拎清。总书记再三强调，传统媒体和新生媒体不是取代关系，而是迭代关系；不是谁主谁次，而是此长彼长；不是谁强谁弱，而是优势互补。融合不是简单嫁接，而是要尽快从相加阶段迈入相融阶段，从‘“你是你，我
是我”变成“你中有我，我中有你”，进而变成“你就是我，我就是你”。要坚持主题出版与新媒体形式一体化发展方向，实现各种媒介资源、生产要素在主题出版旗帜下的有效整合，实现主题出版内容与技术应用、平台终端、网络时空共融共通，把思想政治工作做入云端；坚持移动优先策略，让主题出版借助移动传播，牢牢占据思想政治工作舆论引导、思想引领、文化传承、服务人民的制高点和领先位；探索将人工智能在主题出版策划、生产、分发、接收、反馈之中的充分运用，全面提高思想政治工作的效能和水准。
四是推进数字化、数据库的应用。将主题出版承载的思想政治教育内容，集中、集约、集合在数据库里，力求体系完整、归纳精准、检索快捷，方便使用者系统进入、系统掌握、系统使用。相关内容的转换应当在数字化伊始，就十分关注内容概要、重点标识、数据元的拟定和提取，让索引、目次、结构一览无余，一目了然。同时，对不同内容完成分层化、分类化、分别加工，以适合不同需求。
五是精准投放，防止泛化、滥化。思想政治教育内容涵盖很广，但并不是产品越多越好，关键在于出精品，出上乘服务，出入耳入脑的产品。获取的便捷也不是漫无边界、随处可取、信手拈来。过度便捷、得来全不费功夫，反倒有可能让人不够珍视珍惜，甚至随意丢弃，浪费了资源、时间和精力。
网络以从未有过的方式改变了社会交往和舆论生态，改变了新时代思想政治工作的环境，主题出版必须紧紧跟上，顺势而行，在这种改变中及时找到切入点，继而做大做强。
(作者系国家新闻出版署审读员) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges
author: Albert Harkness
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w • .^'
LATIN GEAMMAR
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.
ALBEET HAEKNESS, Ph.D.,
PROFESSOR IN BROWN UNITEBSITT,
▲UTHOB 0» ' ' * * J «• • J »,•»•«
"AN XKTBODITCTOBT LATIN BOOK,'' « A LATIN BBADBB,"'"! HlfeT 5b1&K BO^k/ ^TC:
REVISED EDITION.
NEW TOEK:
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
90, 02 & U GRAKD STREET.
LONDON: 16 LITTLE BKITAIN.
1869.
THENEWYORK^
PUBLIC LIBRARY
\- ASTOR,LtNOX AND
TILDEN FOUNDATIONS
1901
Ektbbsd, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, hj
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,
In tlie Clerk*s Office of the District Conrt of the United States for the Southern
District of New York.
PKEF AGE.
The work now offered to the public had its origin in a desire
lo promote the cause of Classical study. It has long been the
opinion of the author, in common with numerous classical teachers,
that the subject of Latin Grammar, often regarded as dry and dif-
ficult, may be presented to the learner in a form at once simple,
attractive, and philosophical. It is the aim of this manual' to aid
the instructor in the attainment of this most desirable end.
That the present is a favorable time for the production of a
Latin Grammar scarcely admits of a doubt Never before were
there such facilities for the work. The last quarter of a century
has formed an epoch in the study of language and in the methods
of instruction. During this period some of the most gifted minds
of Germany have been gathering the choicest treasures in the field
of philology, while others have been equally successful in devising
improved methods of instruction. In our own country too, the
more enterprising teachers have caught the spirit of improvement,
and are calling loudly for a better method than has hitherto pre-
vailed in classical study.
The present work has been prepared in view of these facts.
To explain, its general plan, the author begs leave to specify the
following points.
1. This volume is designed to present a systematic arrangement
of the great facts and laws of the Latin language ; to exhibit not
only grammatical forms and constructions, but also those ntal
principles which underlie, control, and explain them.
2. Designed at once as a text-book for the class-room, and a
book of reference in study, it aims to introduce the beginner easi-
ly and pleasantly to the first principles of the language, and yet to
make adequate provision for the wants of the more advanced
student. Accordingly it presents in large type a general survey
of the whole subject in a brief and concise statement of facts and
IV PBEFACE.
laws, while parallel with this, in smaller type, it furnishes a fuller
discussion of irregulai'ities and exceptions for later study and for
reference.
3. By brevity and conciseness in the choice of phraseology and
compactness in the arrangement of forms and topics, the author
has endeavored to compress within the limits of a convenient
manual an amount of carefully selected grammatical facts, which
would otherwise fill a much larger volume.
4. He has, moreover, endeavored to present the whole subject
in the light of modern scholarship. Without encumbering his
pages with any unnecessary discussions, he has aimed to enrich
them with the practical results of the recent labors in the field of
philology.
6. In the regular paradigms, both of declension and of coiyuga-
tion, the stems and endmgs have been distinguished by a difference
of type, thus keeping constantly before the pupil the significance of
the two essential elements which enter into the composition of
inflected forms.
6. Syntax has received in every part special attention. An at-
tempt has been made to exhibit, as clearly as possible, that beauti-
ful system of laws which the genius of the language— that highest
of all grammatical authority — ^has created for itself. The leading
principles of construction have been put in the form of definite
rules, and illustrated by carefully selected examples. To secure
convenience of reference and to give completeness and vividness
to the general outline, these rules, after being separately discussed,
are presented in a body at the close of the Syntax.
7. The subdivisions in each discussion are developed, as far as
practicable, from the leading idea which underlies the whole sub-
ject. Thus in the treatment of cases, moods, and tenses, varions
nsee, comparatively distinct in themselves, are found to centre
around some leading idea or thought, thus imparting to the sub-
ject both unity and simplicity.
8. Topics which require extended illustration are first present-
ed in their completeness in general outline, before the separate
points are discussed in detail. Thus a single page often foreshad-
ows all the leading features of an extended discussion, imparting a
con^pleteness and vividness to the impression of the learner, im-
possible under any other treatment
9. Special care has been taken to explain and illustrate with
FBEFACE. V
the reqtdsite fulness all difficult and intricate subjects. The Sub-
junctive Mood — that severest trial of the teacher^s patience— has
been presented, it is hoped, in a form at once simple and compre-
hensive. The different nses have not only been carefully classified,
but also distinguished by characteristic and appropriate terms,
convenient for the class-room.
For the benefit of those who prefer to begin with a more ele-
mentary manual in the study of Latin, it is in contemplation to
publish a smaller Grammar on precisely the same plan as the pres-
ent work, and with the same mode of treatment. This will be
especially adapted to the wants of those who do not contemplate
a collegiate course of study.
A Latin Reader, prepared with special reference to this work
and intended as a companion to it, will be published at an early day.
In conclusion the author cheerfully acknowledges his indebted-
ness to other scholars, who have labored in the same field. The
classification of verbs is founded in part on that of Grotefend and
KrUger, a mode of treatment generally adopted in the recent Ger-
man works on the subject, and well exhibited by Allen in his
Analysis of Latin Yerbs.
Li Prosody much aid has been derived from the excellent
works of Ramsay and Habenicht.
On the general subjects of Etymology and Syntax, his indebted-
ness is less direct, though' perhaps no less real. His views of phi-
lology have been formed in a great measure under the moulding
influence of the great German masters; and perhaps few Latin
Grammars of any repute have appeared within the last half cen-
tury, either in this country, England, or Germany, from which he
has not received valuable suggestions. In the actual work of
preparation, however, he has carried out his own plan, and pre-
sented his own modes of treatment, but he has aimed to avoid all
nntried novelties and to admit only that which is sustained by the
highest authority, and confirmed by the actual experience of the
class-room.
The author is happy to express his grateful acknowledgments
to the numerous Instructors who have favored him with valuable
suggestions ; especially to his esteemed friend and colleague. Pro-
fessor J. L. Lincoln, of this University.
Providbnob, B. I., May 10th, 18W.
PREFACE
TO THE REVISED EDITION.
The present edition is the result of a thorough and
complete revision. The author has subjected every part
of the work to a careful examination ; he has availed
himself of the suggestions of the most eminent classical
instructors, and, finally, as the surest of all tests, he has
used the work in connection with all the principal Latin
authors usually read in school and college. The mate-
rials thus collected have been incorporated in this edition
without either changing the plan or increasing the size
of the work. By a studied attention to clearness and
brevity, space has been secured for many valuable refine-
ments of the language.
In this new form the work is now committed to clas-
sical teachers in the hope that in their hands it may pro-
mote the cause of classical education in our land.
Brown University, Septemherj 1867.
OON"TENTS.
PART FIRST
OBTHOGBAFHT.
Pa«e.
Alphabet, 1
Sounds of Letters, 2
I. English Method of Pronunciation, 2
n. Continental Method, 6
SyUables, 6
Quantity, 1
Accentuation, 7
PART SECOND.
ET7UOLOOT.
CHAPTER I.
NOUNS.
Gender, 8
Person and Number, 9
Cases, 10
Declensions, 10
First Declension, 11
Greek Nouns, 12
Gender, 12
Second Declension, 12
Greek Nouns, 14
Gender, . 16
Third Declension, 16
Class L— With Nominative Ending, 16
Class II. — ^Without Nominative Ending, . . . .17
Formation of Cases, . . 20
Greek Peculiarities, 29
Gender, 80
Fourth Declension, • ... 84
Gender, 85
Fifth Declension, 86
Gender, 36
Comparative View of Declensions, 87
General Table of Gender, 89
Declension of Compound Nouns, 89
VUl CONTENTS.
Page.
Irregular Nouns, . . 40
I. IndeclinaLle, 40
n. Defective, 41
ni. Heteroclites, 42
IV. Heterogeneous, 43
CHAPTER II.
ADJECTIYES.
First and Second Declensions, . .44
Third Declension, . . . . . . . . . 47
Formation of Cases, .... ... 49
Irregular Adjectives, ......... 50
Comparison, 61
L Terminational Comparison, . . . . . . 51
Irregular, , . 51
Defective, . . ... ... ..... 62
IL Adverbial Comparison, 53
Numerals, . . . 54
L Numeral Adjectives, . . ... . . .54
H. Nufneral Adverbs, 58
CHAPTER III.
PEONOUNS.
Personal Pronouns, 69
Possessive, . 60'
Demonstrative, 60
Relative, . 62
•Interrogative, ..... . 63
Indefinite, . 63
CHAPTER lY.
VERBS.
•Voices, Moods, . .65
Tenses, . *. . . . . . . ..." 66
Numbers, Persons, 67
Conjugation, . — . 67
Paradigms of Verbs, . 68
Sjmopsis, of Conjugation, 88
Deponent Verbs, . . , 91
, Periphrastic Conjugation, , 94
Contractions and Peculiarities of Conjugation, . . . .95
Formationof the Parts of Verbs, . . . ... . 96
Table of Verbal Inflections, .98
.Comparative View of Conjugations, . . . . >. • ' . 102
't'ormation.of Principal Parts, * -% . . . . . 104
. I. Regular Formations, , . . .104
Euphonic Changes, " . .105
n. Irregular Formations, . . . . . . 106
""•^ncipal Parts in Compounds, . " . . . • . . .109
CONTENTS. ix
Pagei.
Classification of Verbs, Hq
First Conjugation, * . ' . 110
Second Conjugation, 212
Third Conjugation, ' . ' . 115
Fourth Conjugation, 125
Irregular Verbs, * * is'r
Defective " ' * 134
Impersonal " '.*,'. 186
CHAPTER V.
PABTIOLES.
^^^^'•^j! 137
Prepositions, 139
Conjunctions, 139
Inteijections, * . ' . . 141
CHAPTER VI.
FORMATION OF WOBDS.
Derivation of Words, 141
Derivative Nouns, . . . .*.*.'.* 141
Derivative Ac^jectives, * . . 145
Derivative Verbs, ' . * . 147
Derivative Adverbs, . . I49
Composition of Words, 150
Compound Kouns, . , . ..'.*..* 152
Compound Adjectives, . . ..... 152
Compound Verbs, I53
Compound Adverbs, .153
PART THIRD.
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER I
„ , SYNTAX OF BENTEN0E8.
Section.
I. Oassification of Sentences, 164
II. Simple Sentences, . . , . . . * , . * , 155
ni. Complex Sentences, . . . * . .*.-..* 168
JV. Compound Sentences, ' . 169
CHAPTER II.
SYNTAX OF NOTJNS.
I. Agreement of Nouns, .160
Predicate Nouns, ....***' 160
Appositives, '.*.'.' 161
11. Nommative, 152
X CONTENTS,
Section. Page;
III. Vocative, 163
IV. Accusative, 163
I. Direct Object, 164
Two Accusatives, 165
n. Subject of Infinitive, 167
III. Agreement of Accusative, . .... . . 167
IV. Accusative in an Adverbial sense, . . . . 168
With or without Prepositions, 168
Accusative of Time and Space, . . . . ,..168
Accusative of Limit, 1.68
Accusative of Specification, 169
V. Accusative in Exclamations, 169
V. Dative, 170
I. Dative with Verbs— Indirect Object, . . . . "no^
Dative of Advantage, 171/
Dative with Compounds, ' .1.7^
Dative of Possessor, 173
Dativc'of Agent, '173
Etiiical Dative, 1^^
Two Datives, Ilk
n. Dative with Adjectives, l^
m. Dative with Nouns and Adverbs, . . . . . 176
VI. Genitive, 175
I. Genitive with Nouns, 177
n. Genitive with Adjectives, is6
m. Genitive with Verbs, .182
Predicate Genitive, 1^2
Genitive of Place, 18i^
Genitive in Special Constructions, . . . . 183
Genitive and Accusative, \186
rV. Genitive with Adverbs, . . . . . .187
VIL Ablative, 187
L Ablative of Cause, Manner, Means, .... 188
Ablative of Price, .190
Ablative with Comparatives, 190
Ablative of DiflTerence, 19J
Ablative in Special Constructions, .... 192
n. Ablative of Place, 193
Ablative of Source and Separation, . . .196
m. Ablative of Time, 196
rV. Ablative of Characteristic, 197
V. Ablative of Specification, 198
VI. Ablative Absolute, 198
VII. Ablative with Prepositions, 19^
VIII. Cases with Prepositions, 199
CHAPTER m.
SYNTAX OF ADJEOTIYES.
Agreement of Adjectives, 201
Useof Acyectives, 202
Comparison, 203
CHAPTER IV.
SYNTAX OF PBONOUirS.
Page.
Agreement of Pronouns, . 204
Personal and Possessive Pronouns^ 206
Reflexive Use, 206
Demonstrative Pronouns, ... ... 208
Relative Pronouns, 209
Interrogative Pronouns, *. .210
Indefinite Pronouns, 211
CHAPTER V.
SYNTAX OF YEEBS.
Section.
I. Agreement of Verbs, 212
H. Use of Voices, 214
in. Tenses of the Indicative, 215
IV. Use of the Indicative, . . . . . . . 219
V. Tenses of the Subjunctive, 219
Sequence of Tenses, 220
VL Use of the Subjunctive, 223
I. Potential Subjunctive, 223
n. Subjunctive of Desire, 225
ni. Subjunctive of Purpose or Result, .... 226
IV. Subjunctive of Condition, 232
V. Subjunctive of Concession, 236
VI. Subjunctive of Cause and Time, . . . .238
Vn. Subjunctive in Indirect Questions, . . 242
VIII. Subjunctive by Attraction, 244
IX. Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, .... 245
Moods and Tenses in the Oratio Obliqua, . . 246
Pronouns, Adverbs, etc., in Oratio Oblique . 248
vn. Imperative, 248
I. Tenses of the Imperative, ...'.. 248
n. Use of the Imperative, 249
Vin. Infinitive, 260
I. Tenses of the Infinitive, 261
II. Subject of the Infinitive, ....*. 262
ni. Predicate after the Infinitive, 263
IV. Construction of the Infinitive, 264
IX. Subject and Object Clauses, 268
X. Gerund, 262
Gerundive, . 263
XI. Supine, 266
Xn. Participles, . v . 267
CHAPTER VI.
SYNTAX OF PABTIOLES.
Adverbs, 270
Prepontions, 271
Conjunctions, 271
Interjections, 274
XU CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII.
Paga
Bules of Syntax, 274
CHAPTER VIII.
ABBAKGEMBNT OF W0BD8 AKD GLAUSES.
Beciion.
I. Arrangement of Words, 281
U. Arrangement of Clauses^ 285
PART FOURTH.
PBOSOD7.
CHAPTER I.
QUANTITY.
L General Rules of Quantity, 287
n. Special Rules of Quantity, 289
I. Quantity of Final Syllables, 289
n. Quantity in Increments, 292
HI. Quantity of Derivative Endings, 295
IV. Quantity of Stem Syllables, " 297
CHAPTER II.
* VEBSIFIOATION.
I. General View of the Subject, 300
I. Metrical Feet, 300
n. Verses, 802
HI. Figures of Prosody, 304
H. Varieties of Verse, .• 306
L Dactylic Verse, 305
n. Anapaestic Verse, 308
m. Trochaic Verse, 308
IV. Iambic Verse, 309
V. Ionic Verse, 312
VL Choriambic Verse, . 312
Vn. Lc^aeodic Verse, 813
Vin. Miscellaneous Verses, 315
IIL Versification of Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Juvenal, . . 315
APPENDIX.
Figures of Speech, 820
Latin Authors, 322
Roman Calendar, 323
Roman Money, Weights, and Measures, 326
Abbreviations, "... 327
Index of Verbs, 328
Index of Subjects, 836
LATIN GRAMMAR.
1. Latik Geammab treats of the principles of the
Latin language. It comprises four parts :
I. Obthographt, which treats of the letters and sounds
of the language.
n. Etymology, which treats of the classification, inflec-
' tion, and derivation of words.
III. Syntax, which treats of the construction of sen-
tences.
rV. PnosoDY, which treats of quantity and versification.
PART FIRST.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
ALPHABET.
2. The Latin alphabet is the same as the English with
the omission of to.
1. U supplies the place of w.
2. iT is only a breathing, and not strictly entitled to the rank of a
letter.
8. / and v did not originally belong to the Latin : their places were
supplied respectively by « and w, which were used both as vowels and as
consonants.
4. K is seldom used, and y and z occur only in words of Greek
origin.
3. Classes of Letters. — ^Letters are divided into two
classes :
1
)6 SOUNDS OF LETTERS.
L VcweU^ a, e, i, o, u, y.
n. C<m8<ynantB:
1. Liquids, * 1, m, n, r.
2. Spirants, h, s.
8. Mutes: 1) Labials, P» b, f; v.
2)PaUtals, c,g,k,q,j.
8)Linguals, . .. . . , t, d.
4. Double Consonants, • • . . x, z.
4. CombinatioiiB of Letters.— We notice here,
1. i>ipA/Aon^«^-combinations of two vowels in one syllable. The
most common are— <ie, oe^ au,
2. Double Consonants — x = csor gs; z := ds or ts.
8. Chy phy th are best treated, not as combinations of letters, but only
as aspirated forms of c, ;>, and <, as A is only a breathing.
SOUNDS OF LETTERS.
5. Scholars in different countries generkfly pronounce'
Latin substantially as they do their own languages. In
this country, however, two distinct systems are recogniz-
ed, generally known as the English and the Continental
Method.^ For the convenience of the instructor, we add
a brief outline of each.
L English Method.
1. Sounds of Vowels.
6. Vowels generally have their long or short English
sounds. .But
1. These sounds in Latin, as in English, are somewhat modified by the
consonants which accompany them.
2. JB, Jinalf or followed b^ another consonant, greatly obscures the
Towel sound. Before r thus situated, e, t , and v are scarcely distinguish-
able from each other, as in the Englisn MT.fiTyfWy while a and o are pro-
nounced as in foTyfoTy but between gu and rt^ a approaches the sound of
o : quarf-^uSf as in quarter.
8. JDrtfoUotsing qttOy gives to a something of the sound of o : qucuF-
rupes^za in quadruped.
7' liOng So^nd, — ^Yowels have their long English sounds
1 strictly speaking, there Is no Continental MeU^p^ as eyery tuition on the conti«
nent of Europe has its own method^
ENGLISH METHOD. 3
; as in /ate, e in mete^ i iapine, o in note, u in tttbe^ y in
type — ^in the following situations :
1. In final syllables ending in a vowel : * ae^ si^ ser'-vi^
ser'-vOy eor^-nuj mi'-sy.
2. In all syllables, before a vowel or diphthong : de'-m^
de-o'^rum^ de'-dOy dire'-i^ nV^hirlum.*
3. In penultimate ' and unaccented syllables, not final,
before a single consonant or a mute with lor r: pa'-teTj
pa'-treSy A'-tJioSy O'^hrysy do4o'-Ti8. But
1) A unaccented has the sound of a final in America: men'-ea,
2) A after qu. See 6. 2.
8) / (also v) unaccented^ not final, generally has the short sound of
€ ; nohUia (nob -e-lis). Amicus (Am'-e-cus). But in the first syllable of a
word it has — (1) before an accented vowel or diphthong, its long sound,
di'-e-btis ; and (2) before a single consonant or a mute with / or r, some-
times the long sound, i^'-n^-ui ; and sometimes the short sound, philos-
ophus (phe-los'-o-phus).
4^ /and u.m special combinations. See 9. 2 and 4.
6) Before hi, gX U, — UhaA the short sound before hi ; and the other
vowels before ^2 and //: JPuh-lic'-o-la^ Aff-la'-<hphon, Af-las,
6) In compounds^ when the first part is entire and ends in a consonant,
any vowel before such consonant has generally the ^iort sound : a in ab'-es^
e in red'ity i in tV-i^, o in oh'-ity prod'-esL But those final syllables which,
as exceptions, have the long sound before a consonant (8. 1), retain that
sound in compounds: post'-quam, hos'-ce,
8. Short Sound. — ^Vowels have the short English sound
— a as in faty e in met^ i in pin^ o in not^ u in *t/J, y in
myth — ^Ln the following situations :
1. In final syllables ending in a consonant : a* -maty «'-
mety rex'4ty soly con'-mly Te'-thya; except postyesjlndly and
OS final in plural cases : reSy di-eSy hoSy a'-gros.
2. In all syllables before a5, or any two consonants ex-
cept a mute with ^ or r (7, 3) : rex'-ity heV4umy rex^'-runty
helrloWum.
3. In all accented syllables before one or more codso-
nants, except the penultimate: dom'-^^uBypaif-^-hiia. But
1) A, e, or 0, before a single consonant (or a mute with I or r) fol-
1 Some give to < in both syllables of tibl and aiH the short soond.
3 In these roles no account is taken of h^ as that is only a breathing: hence the first
i In nihihim is treated as a vowel before another vowel ; for the same reason, eft, pA,
and th are treated as single mutes ; thus tft in Ath4>B and Otlurys,
3 P«nultimate, the lost sylUble bat one.
4 ENGLISH METHOD.
lowed by e, i, or y, before another vowel, has the long sound : a'-ci-es^
a'-cri-ay me'-reo, do'-ce-o,
2) U, in anj syllable not final, before a single consonant or a mute with
I or r, except hi (7. 6), has the long sound : Pu-m-cuSy 8a4u'-brirtas,
8) Compounds. See 1, 6).
2. Sounds of Diphthongs,
9. Ae and oe are pronounced like e :
1) long: Cae'-sar (Ce'-sar), Oe'-ta (E'-ta).
2) short: Daed'-drlus (Ded'-a-lus), Oed'-lpus
Auy as in author : au^-rum,
Ea^ . . . neuter: neu*4er,
1. M and oi are seldom diphthongs, but when so used they are pro-
nounced as in height, com : hd^ proin. See Synaeresis, 669. II.
2. / between an accented a, «, o, or y and another vowel has the sound
of y consonant in yes : Acha'ia (A-ka'-ya), Fon^'iw (Pom-pe'-yus), Latoia
(La-to'-ya), Harpyia (Har-py'-ya). These combmations of t with the follow-
ing vowd are sometimes called semi-consonant diphthongs.
3. Z7?, as a diphthong with tlie long sound of i, occurs in cm^ huiy hitic.
4. Uy with the sound of tf, sometimes unites with the following vowel
or diphthong : — (1) after q ; qui (kwi), quOy qWy quae .•—(2) generally after
g ; lingua (lin'-gwa), lin'-guiSy lin'-guae: — (8) sometimes after s; sua'-deo
(swa'-deoX ^^e combinations of u are analogous to those of i mentioned
above under 2.
3. Sou7ids of Consonants,
10. The consonants are pronounced in general as in
English, but a few directions may aid the learner.
11. C, 0, 8, T, and X are generally pronounced with
their ordinary English sounds. Thus,
1. (7 and g are sof^ (like s and j) before Cyi^yyOe and oe^ and
hard in other situations : ce'-do (sedo), ci'-viSy Cy'-ruSy cae'-dOy
cod -nay a'-ge (a-je), a'-gi; ca'-do (ka'-do), co'-gOy cum, Ga'-des,
But
I hard like k ; cfiorus (ko'-rus), Chios (Ki'os). But see 13. 2.
1) CAisl
2) G\k9&
2. iS'generallj has its regular English sound, as in son, thus:
Ba'-ceTy Bo'-roTy si'-dus. But
1) 8 fincdy afiier <?, oe, aUy 5, m, n, r, is pronounced like z : speSypraeSy
lauSy urhSy hi'-emSy monSy pars.
2) In a few words s has the sound of z, because so pronounced in Eng-
lish wordsffderived from them : Ccie'-sary Caesar ; cat*'-«a, cause ; mt*'-«a,
muse ; mt'-«cr, miser ; phys'-irCUSy physic, etc.
3. T has its regular English sound, as in time : ti-mor, to-tvs,
4. Xhas generally its regular English sound like ifcs; rex'-i
(rek'-si), ux'-or (nk'-sor). But
CONnNENUlL METHOP. 5
1) At the beginning of a word it has the sound of z : Xan'-thus (Zan«
thus).
2^ Between eoru and an accented Yowel, it has the sound of ^z; ex-*
i'-lis (egzi'lis, as in exile) ; ux-o'-ri-^ts (ugzo're-us, as in uxorious).
12. C, Sy T, and Z — ^Aspirated. — ^Before i preceded by
an accented syllable and followed by a vowel, c, «, t^ and
X are aspirated — c, 5, and t taking the sound of «A, x that
of ksh: 8o'-cirUS (so'-she-us), Al'-airum (Al'she-um), ar'-ti'
um (ar'she-um) ; anx'-i-us (ank'-she-us). C has ?dso the
sound of sh before eu and yo preceded by an accented syl-
lable : cordyl-ce-ua (cardu'-she-us), Sic'-y-on (Sish'-e-on). But
1. Sj immediately preceded by an accented vowel and followed by %
with another vowel, has the sound of zh : Moe'-mra (Me'-zhe-a). But some
proper nouns retain the sound of sh : A-tira (A'-she^i), Lys-irOi^ 8o'-si-ay
2. T loses the aspirate — (1) aHer «, ty or z ; Oi'-ti-a, Af-ti-tUy mix'*
H-o .•—(2) in old infinitives in ier ; flee'4irer .'--{8) generally in proper
names m liion (tyon) : Ph^is'4i-<m^ Am^Mc'-ty-cn.
13. Silent Con8onaxit& — ^An initial consonant, with or
without the aspirate A, is sometimes silent : Thus »
1. C before n ; Cne'^ua (Ne'-us).
2. C/i or ph before a mute: Chtho'-ni-a (Thonia), Phthi'-a (Thia).
8. GoTm before n : gna'-rus ; Mne'-mon,
4. P before sott: Psy'-clie^ PtoV-e-mae'-ue.
6. r before m: Tmo*4u8.
n. Continental Method.
1. Sounds of Vowels.
14. Each vowel has in the main one uniform sound/
but the length or duration of the sound depends upon the
quantity of the vowel. See 20.
The vowel sounds are as follows :
a like a in father: e. g. a^-ra.
e
a
made:
ple'-bea.
i
6
me:
i'-n.
o
6
no:
o'-ro.
u
6
do:
u'-num.
y
e
me:
Ny'-sa.
1 These sounds sometimes undergo slight modifications In uniting with the yarions
sonsonants.
6 SYLLABLES.
2. Sounds of Diphthongs.
15. Ac and oe like a in made, e. g. 06^408^ coe'-lum.
au " on " out, " avl^rum^
3. Sounds of Consonants.
16. The pronunciation of the consonants is similar to
that of the English method, but it varies somewhat in dif-
ferent countries.
SYLLABLES.
17. In the pronunciation of Latin, every word has as
many syllables as it has vowels and diphthongs ; thus the
Latin words, more^ vice^ acute^ Bndpersuade are pronounced,
not as the same words are in English, but with their vowel
sounds all heard in separate syllables ; thus, mo'-re^ vi'^ce^
ar€u'4e^ per-sua'-de.
18. Simple words are divided mto syllables as follows :
1. After a vowel (or diphthong), with the Long Sound {1% consonantg
must be joined to the following vowel : jMi'-^«r, pa'-tres^ a-ffro'^rumy sa-cro'-
nmty au-di'-vi,
2. After a vowel with the Bhort Sound (8),
1) A single or double consonant is Joined to such vowel, except after t
unaccented: gen'-e-H, rex'-i^ dom'-i-nus,
2) 2\oo consonants are separated : heV-lwrn, men'-sa, pat'^-bus. But
X following a consonant must be joined to the preceding syllable : Xerx'-
€8 J anx'-i-us,
8) Of three or more consonants^ the last, or, if a mute with / or r, the
last two must be joined to the following vowel : emp'-tus^ tem'-ptum^ clans'-
tra^ trans'-tra,
10. Compounds are divided into syllables,
1. Generally like simple words : ed-o-mo (e, domo), an-tef'-e-ro (ante,
fero), he-nev'-o-lens (bene, volens), mag-nan' 4-mus (magnus, animus).
2. But if the first part is entire and ends in a consonant, the compound
is resolved into its component parts : ah'-es^ ah-i'-re,
1 In other combinationfl, the two vowels are generally pronounced separately, but
ei and eu occur as diphthongs with nearly the same sound as in Tgngiuh,
AOCENTirATION. 7
QUANTITY.
20. Syllables are in quantity or length either long,
short, or common.*
21. Long. — ^A syllable is long in quantity,'
1. If it contains a diphthong : haec.
2. If its vowel is foUoweJ by j^ a, «, or any two conso-
nants, except a mute with ^ or r : rex^ mons.
22. Short. — ^A syllable is short, if its vowel is followed
by another vowel or a diphthong: di'-es^ vi'-ae^ ni'-hil.^
23. Common. — ^A syllable is common, if its vowel, natu-
rally short, is followed by a mute with ^ or r : a'-gri.
24. The signs ',*',* denote respectively that the syllables orer
which they are placed are long, short, of common: ft-^d-runt.
ACCENTUATION.
I. Primaet Accent.
25. Monosyllables are treated as accented syllables:
tnonSy no8.
26. Other words are accented as follows:*
1. Words of two syllables — ^always on the first : men^-scc
2. Words of more than two st/Uables— on the permit * if
that is long in quantity, otherwise on the antepenult:^ ho*
no'-risj con'-su-lis. But
1) GenUives in i for ii and voeaiivea in i for ie retain the accent of the
full form : Wrgd-m for in-ge'-ni-i ; Mer-cki-ri for Mer-cu'-ri-e.
2^ PenuU» eammon in quantity take the accent when used as long.
8) (7om^M>un<2i are accented like simple words ; but
(a) j[%e enelUic8^ que^ ve, ne^ appended to words accented on the ante,
penidt, throw back their accent upon the last syllable of that word: ?wm''
i-ne'-quey horn! -i-nes' -que,
(b) Faeio compounded with other words than prepositions, retains its
own accent : cal-e-fa'^cU.
1 Common, i. e. sometimes long and sometimes short For rules of quantity see
Prosody. Two or three leading fiicts are here given for the convenience of the
learner.
> No account Isiaken of the breathing h (2. 2).
* In the subsequent pages the pupil will be expected to accent words in pronun-
ciation according to these rules. The quantity of the penult in words of more than
two syllables will therefore be marked (unless determined by 21 and 22X to enable
him to ascertain the place of the accent
4 Penult, last syUable but one; antepenult, the hut but twa
8 ETYMOXiOGT. j
n. Secondabt Accents.
27. A Becond accent is placed on the second or third syllable before j
the primary accent,— on the second, if that is the first syllable of the word,
or is long in quantity, otherwise on the third : mon-Vre'-ruiU; mon'-Ure^a''
mitt; inrSiau'-r€H)e'-runi.
28. In the same way, a third accent is placed on the second or third
syllable before the second accent : Aon'-o-n/'-i-ceTi-^'-rt-mw.
PART SECOND.
ET YM OLO a Y.
'B9. Etymology treats of the classification, inflection,
and derivation of words.
50. The Parts of Speech are — NbunSy Adjectives^ Pro-
nounsy Verbs^ Adverbs^ PrepositionSj ConjunctionSy and
Interjections.
OHAPTEE I.
HOUHS.
51. A Noun or Substantive is a name, as of a person,
place, or thing : Cicero^ Cicero ; Boma^ Rome ; puer^ boy ;
domusy house.
1. A Proper Konn is a proper name, as of a person or place : Cic^Oy
Udma,
2. A Ckmunon Honn is a name common to* all the members of a dass
of objects: vtV, a man ; ^us, horse. Common nouns include
1) Collective i^(mn«— designating a collection of objects: popiduSy
people; exereltitSy army.
2) Abstract iVowwa— designating properties or qualities: virtus, vir-
tue ; justititty justice.
8) Material N(yuns — designating materials as such: aururrty gold;
lignum^ wood ; Uqua^ water.
32. Nouns have Gender^ Number^ Person^ and Case. '
GENDER.
33. There are three genders — Masculine^ Feminine^
and Neuter*
34. In some nouns, gender is determined by significa-
tion ; in others, by endings.
GENDEB. 9
85. Genebal Rules for Gendeb.
L Masculinbs.
1. Names of Males: Cicero/ vir^ man ; rexy king.
2. Names of HiverSj Winds^ and Months: EMmiSy
Rhine ; IfottcSy south wind ; ApriUs^ April.
II. Feminines.
1. Names of Females: muHer^ woman ; Uaena^ lioness.
2. Names of Countries^ Towns^ Islands^ and Trees:
Aegyptusy Egypt ; Eoma, Rome ; J)eloSf Delos ; pirusy
pear tree.
m. Neuters.
1. Indeclinable Nouns: faSy right; nihily nothing.
2. Words and Clauses used as indeclinable nonns : triste
valcy a sad &rewell ; difficile est amicitiam manerey it is
difficult for friendship to continue.*
36. Eemares ok Gender.
1. Ezceptianfl. — ^The ending^ ' of nouns sometimes give them a gender
at variance with these roles. Thus,
1) The names of nYej»^Albula^ Allia^ Lsthe^ Styx^ and sometimes
others, are feminine by ending.
2) Some names of countries^ totmSy islands^ trees, and animals take
the gender of their endings. See 47. 1.
2. Masculine or Feminine. — ^A few personal appellatives applicable to
both sexes and a few names of animals are sometimes masculine and some^
times feminine^ but when used without distinct reference to sex they are
generally masculine : clvis, citizen (man or woman) ; cdmex, companion ;
hos, ox, cow.
3. Mobile ITonns have different forms for different genders : filius,
flia, son, daughter ; rgjr, reglna, king, queen ; leo, leaena, lion, lioness.
4. Epicene Nonns have but one gender, but are used for both sexes.
They apply only to the inferior animals, and usually take the gender of
their endings: anser, goose (male or female), masculine; aquikt, eagle,
feminine.
PERSON AND NUMBER.
87. The Latin, like the Enfglish, has three persons and
two numbers. The first person denotes the speaker; the
second, the person spoken to ; the third, the person spoken
o£ The singular number denotes one, the plural more
than one.
^ Here vale and the clause amicitiam mofUre are both used as neuter nonns.
' Gender as determined by the endings of nouns will be noticed in connection
with the several declensions.
1*
10 CASES. — ^DECLENSIONS.
OASES.
38. The Latin has six cases:
Names. English Eqaivalentfli
Nominative, Nominative.
Genitive, Possessive, or Objective with of.
Dative, Objective with to or /or.
Accusative, Objective.
Vocative, Nominative Independent.
Ablative, Objective with from^ bt/^ iuj with.
1. Oblique GaM(b— In distinction from the Nominadve and Yocatiye
(casus recti, right cases), the other cases are called oblique (casus obliqui).
2. Gaae-Endingi.— In form the seyeral cases are in general distinguish-
ed from each other by certain terminations called cau^ndings: Nom.
meruaf Gen. meneae, &o,
8. Ca«eB Alike. — But certain cases are not distmguished in form. Thus,
1) The Ifominativej Accusative^ and Vocative in neutere are alike, and
in the plural end in a.
2) The Mminative and VoeaHve are alike in afl pore Latin nouns, ex-
cept those in ue of the second declension (45).
3) The Daiive and Ablative Plural are alike.
DECLENSIONS.
39. The formation of the several cases is called Declen-
sion.
40. Five Declensions. — ^In Latin there are five declen-
sions, distingaished from each other by the following
Genitive Endings*
Dec. L Dec II. Dec. III. Dec IV. Dec V.
ae, i, is, iis, ei.*
41. Stem and Endings. — ^In any noun, of whatever de-
clension,
1. The stem may be found by dropping the ending of
the genitive singular.
2. The several cases may be formed by adding to this
stem the case-endings.
» See 119. 1.
FmST DBCLESBION,
11
FIRST DECLENSION.
42. Nouns of the first declension end in
S and §f— -feminine ; Ss and e8| — masculine.
But pure Latin nouns end only in a, and are declined as
foUows :
SINGULAR.
Example. Meaning.
N^am, mens&9 a table^
Gen, mensae, of a table^ ae
Dot, mensae, to, for a table, ae
Ace. mensHjii, a table, ' Sm
Vac. meDS&9 table, ^
Abl, mensa, foiih, from, by a table, fi
Case-Endings.
JVoTW. mensae,
Oen, mensarikm.
Dot, meiiflls.
Ace, mens&s,
Voc, mensae,
Abl, mensIS}
tMea, ae
of tables, Uriim
to, for tables, Is
tables, Sa
tables, ae
with, from, by tables. Is.
1. Casft-EndiiigB.— -From an inspection of this example, it will
be seen that the several cases are distinguished from each other
by their case-endings.
2. Examples for Practice. — ^With these endings decline :
Alay wing; aqua, water; causa^ cause; fortuna, fortune;
porta, gate ; victoria, victory.
8. Irregular Case-Endings. — ^Tbe foUowmg occur :
1) As for ae in the Gen. offamilia, in composition with paier, mdter,
JlliuSf Sind JUia: paterfamilias, father of a family.
2) Al for the genitive ending ae, in the poets : auld'l for aulae, of a hall.
3) Um for drum in the Gen. Plur. : Dardanidum for Dardaniddrum, of
the descendants of Dardanus.
4) Abus for is in the Dat. and Abl. Plur., especially in dea, goddess,
and fiHa, daughter, to distinguish them from the same cases of deus, god,
KadfiHus, son.
4. Article.— The Latin has no article. A Latin noun may
therefore, according to^ the connection in which it is used, he
translated either without any article, with a or an, or with the :
e6rdna, crown, a crown, the crown.
12
SECOND DECLENSION.
43. Gbeek Kouns. — ^Nouns of this declension in e, as,
and es are of Greek origin, and are declined as follows :
Epit6me, epitome. Aeneas, Aeneas. Pyrites, pyrites.
N, £pitdm«
(?. epitomes
D. epit5mae
A. epitomCn
V. epitdml^
A. epitdmC
i\r. gpitdmae
O. epitomarttm
D, epit5inl»
A, epitdmAji
V, epitdmae
A, epitdmls.
BIN6ULAB.
Aeneaji
Aeneae
Aeneae
Aeneftm, ;
Aenea
Aene&.
PLUBAL.
pyrites
pyritoe
pyiitae
pyrltl^n
pyritCy &
pyrite, a
pyrltao
pyritarttm
pyritis
pyritas
pyritae
pyntls.
1. Ezamplet Ibr Practice. — Aloe^ aloe; horcas^ north wind; com-
etes^ comet
2. FaradigmB.— Observe 1) That in the Plur. and in the Dat. Sing.,
Greek nonns are declined like merua, and 2) That in the Gen. Sing., only
those in e depart from the regular ending oe.
8. Many Greek nouns assume the Latin ending a, and are declined like
mensa. Many in e have also a form in a ; epWkne, ejntdma, epitome.
44. Gendeb in Fiest Declension.
Feminine endings : a, e.
Masculine endings : as, es.
Exceptions. — Maaeuline — (1) a few in a by Mgnification : poSta, poet ;
4igricdl€^ husbandman. See 85. 1.^2) Hadria^ Adriatic sea ; sometimea
ddma^ deer, and taljpa^ mole.
SECOND DECLENSION.
45. Nouns of the second declension end in
Sr, ir, tts, os, — masculine; ilm, oiii — neuter.
But pure Latin nouns end only in er, er, t^, um, and are
declined as follows :
SECOND DSCLBNSIOK.
13
Servus, slave, Puer, boy. Ager, field. Templum, temple.
SINGULAR.
i\r. servtts
puSr
aggr
templttm
G. servl
puSrl
figrl
tempi!
D. serv«
pugrO
agrO
temple
A. seryttm
pugrttnt
agrttm
templttm
V. 8erv«
puer
aggr
templttm
A. serv©
pu6rO
agr©
FLURAL.
templO
^. seiTl
puSrl
ggrt
templft
G, serydrttm
pugr5rttm
agrOrttm
templOrOm
i>. servis
puSrls
agils
tempUs
^. servOs
puSrds
agrOs
templft
r. servl
pugri
agri
templft
wl. scrvIs*
pugrls*
agrls.
tempUs.
1. Case-Endings. — ^From
an inspection of the paradigms it will
be Boen that they are declined with the following
Case-Endings.
1. (13,
2. gr.
SINGULAR.
8. Cm.
JV. iSs
.^^ 1
fim
G, I
I
I
D, 6
A. iim
fim
Qm
F. g
1
fim
A,
PLURAL,
JV. I
I
&
(?. driim
drfim
Orfim
i>. 18
Is
IS
^. dfl
ds
ft
r. I
1
ft
XIS.
b.
Is. ^
2. Examples for Fraetlce.^Like SEBYUS : annt«, year; dominus^
master. — ^like pukb: ghier^ son-in-law; sSker^ father-in-law.— Like
AOEB : fiiber^ artisan ; magister, master. — ^Like templtim : Mhimj
war ; regnvm^ kingdom. ^
3. Paradigms. — Observe
1) That puer differs in declension from tervus only in dropping the
1 The endings for the Nom. and Yoc Sing, are wanting in noons in er\ thiw
piur is the stem without any case-ending; the ftUf form would ^puir&t.
14 GBEEK NOUNS.
endings tu and e in the Nom. and Voc ; Nom. puer forpuihruBy Yoc. puer
for puifre.
2) That Offer differs from puer only in dropping e before r.^
3) That templum, as a neuter noun, has the Nom., Accus., and Voa
alike, ending in the plural in a. See 88. 8.
4. Ager and Puer. — ^Most nonns in er are declined like ager^
but the following in er and ir are declined like jn^r.
1) Nouns in ir : rtr, viri, man.
2) Compounds in/«r and ger : armiffer, armigM^ armor-bearer ; tig-
v^fer^ 9igtdfirij standard-bearer.
8) Adulter, adulterer ; Liber, BaeehuB ; presbyter, eider.
Celtaber, CdHberian;^ hheii, children ; adcer^ faiher-in4aw.
g6ner, sorUnrUm ; MulcH^er, Vulcan ; ' vesper, evenifig.
Iber, Spaniard.^
6. IrregQlar Caoe-Endingi. — The following occur i
1) I for ii bj contraction, in the Gen. Sing, without change of accent:
ingh'ni for inge'nO, of talent.
2) I for ie, common in proper names in mm, without change of accent :
Herc&'ri for Mercu'rie, Mercury. Also in fUi for JUie, son ; gem for genie,
guardian spirit.
8) Ub for in the Yoc., the regular form in deus, god, but rare in other
words.
4) Um for drum, common in a few words denoting money, weight, and
measure : talenium for talentOrum, of talents ; also in a few other words :
deum for dOrum; Ubirum for W>er6ntm; Argivum for jLrgivdrum,
6. Bena. — ^This has, Voc. Sing., deus; Nom. Plur., dei^ dii, di;
Gen., deorum^ deum; Dat. and Abl., deia, diis^ dia; otherwise
regular.
46. Gbekk Nouns.
l^ouns of this declension in OS and on are of Greek
origin.
1. Nouns in (M are generally declined like those in tM, except in the ac-
cusatiye aiagular, where they hare on: JDUds, DeH, Deld, Deliin, etc., island
Delos.
2. Nouns in on are declined like templum, with on for um in the nom-
inatiye, accusatiye, and vocatiye.
8. Most Greek nouns generally assume in prose the Latin forms in v$
and um, but sometimes, especially in poetry, they retain in one or more
cases the peculiar endings of the Greek. Thus,
> In pner, e belongs to the stem, and is accordingly retained in all the cases; bat
in ager it is inserted in the Nom. and Yoc Sing., as the pore stem <tgr wonld be dlf-
ficolt to pronounce.
s Celtlber and Iber have e lan{f in the Gen., and Molciber sometimes drops e*
THIBD DECLENSION. 15
1) OtnUwe Singvlar, ^(rarelja): AndrdgeS from Andr((geS8.
2) Accusative '* o or on : Atho, Athon '* Athos.
8) Nominative FtunU, oe : c&ndpbdroe ** c&neph((HS8.
4) Genitive ** 5n(om): btlcdikCn " btlcdllcdn.
5) Greek nouns in ettfl admit certain forms of the third declension : C^
pheus; G., OrpheSe; D., Orphei; A,, Orphed; V., Orpheu.'-BifUMe has
Voc I\intk&, taidpelague, Tlur. pelade,
47. Gender in Second Declension.
Masculine endings : er, ir, uSy 08.
Xeuter endings : umj on.
I. Feminine by Exception.
1. Nbune feminine by rigniJieaUon : Aeffyptus, Egypt; CorintkuSf
Corinth. See 86. 2, but observe that
Many names of eovmtries^ towns, islands, and trees follow the gender of their
endiDgs.--<l) CouKTBiBs: Bospdrus, Isthmus, PoiUtM^ maaeoline by ending; those
In um and plnrals in a, neater by ending.— <2) Towns : Oan^pus and pluals in i,
maacoline; tho3o In um and plurals in a, neater.^8) ISLAiroe: thoee in um and
plnrato in a, nenter.— <4) Tsm : oUasUr and pinaster, mascnline. Some names of
%hrabs and plants are feminine, like those of trees, while others take the gender of
V:eir endings.
2. OQi/er Femimne exeqfiMM KtQ
1) Most names of gems and ships : amethystus, sappUrus,
2) AUms, belly; earb&sus, sail ; c6lus, distaff; himus, ground ; vannus, siere.
8) Many Greek feminines, as (1) nouns in ddus, metros, thongus : perid-
duty period; dMm^kros, diameter; diphthongus, diphthong; (2) abyssus,
abyss; atihnuSf atom; dialectoe, dialect.
n. Neuter bt Exception.
PdSffuSy sea ; virus, poison ; tndffUB (rarely masc), common people.
THIRD DECLENSION.
48. Nonns of the third declension end in
a,e,l,o,y,o,l,n,r,s,t,r.
L Masculine Endings:
o, or, OS, er, es increasing in the genitive.
n. Feminine Endings:
as, is, ys, X, es not increasing in the genitive, s preceded by
a consonant.
m. Neuter Endings :
a, e, i, y, c, 1, n, t, ar, ur, us.
40. Nouns of this declension may be divided into two
L iNouns which have a case-ending in the nominative
singular. These all end in e, «, or a:.
16
THIBD DECLENSION. — CL4SS I.
n. Noons which have no case-enduig in the nominative
singular.
in class 11. the Norn. Sing, is either the same as the stem, or is formed
from it bj dropping or changing one or more letters of the stem : conmd^
Gen. consulis ; stem, cannUy a consul ; leo, leOnis, stem, leon (Nom. drops
n), Hon ; ecarmen^ carminis, stem, eamiin (Noul changes in to en), song.
50. Class I. — ^Wrra Nominativb Ending.
L Nouns in eB, is, s impureySJid z: — loith stem tin-
changed in nominative.
Nubes,/.
Avis,/.
Urbs,/.
Rex, m.
doucL
bird.
citi/.
SINGULAR.
king.
JV. nab«B
2tX8
nrbs
rex*
G. nubXs
ayis
urbXs
regis
J), nubl
avi
urbl
regl
A. nub^m
aY«m
urb^m
reg^m
r. nubCs
avis
urbs
rex
A, nub«
aT«'
urb«
PLUBAL.
reg«
iVT. nub«s
av«s
urb«s
regCs
G. nubittm
avittm
urbittna
regttm
D. nubiBta
avXbtts
nrblbtts
regXbtts
A. nub««
av«»
urb^s
reg^s
V. nub«»
aY^«
urb^s
reg«s
A, nubXbtts*
avib^is.
urbXbtts.
regXbtts*
n. Nouns in es, is, fl
1 impure^ and at i-^with stem chang-
ed in nominative.
Miles, m.
'Lapis, m.
Ars,/.
Judex, m.and/
soldier.
stone.
art.
SINGULAR.
judge.
J^. mugs
utprs
ars
jQdex'
G. militls
laprdXs
arti[s
judicXs
JD. militf
lapidl
arti
judicl
A, milit^m
laprd«m
art«m
judic^m
V. mUg*
lapis
ars
judex
A. milTt^
lapid«
art«
PLURAL.
judic*
N. milit«»
lapM«s
art«s
jud!c«s
G. militttm
lapidttm
artiLttm
judfcttm
^ X in rex = 09-^ belonging to the stem, and • being the nom. ending ; bot in
Judex, z = 08—0 belonging to the stem, and « being the nom. ending,
s Impure, I e., preceded by a ooneonant. * Sometimes avi.
11
judicXbiks
judicCs
judic^s
judici1»ils«
in. Nouns in as, OS, US, and e : — those in as, os, and
ua with stem changed^ those in e with stem unchanged.
Civitas,/, Nepos, m. Virtus,/. Mare, n.
state. grandson. virtice. sea.
C
T1A8S n.
D. TniUtiCbitui
lapidXBiks
artiCb&i
A. milites
lapides
art««
V. milit©»
lapides
art«s
A. militi1»i&s.
Iapidi1»il9«
artl1»i&s.
SINGITLAB.
iv. civitas
n^pos
virtus
mSr^
G. ciyitatl«
nepdtis
virtdtXs
rnni^ft
D, civitati
nepOtl
virtQtl
marl
A. civitat^m
nepOt^ui
Tirtut^m
mar^
V. civftaa
nep6»
Yirtus
mard
A, civitat*
nepot^
virtut*
PLURAL.
marl "
iv: civitat^s
nepotCs
idrtutCs
marift
(?. ciyitatttm '
ncpotttm
TirtQtikm
marittm
J), civitatibtts
nepotlbtts
virtutitbtts
marlbtts
A. civitat^s
nepdt^s
idrtQtes
marift
V. ciyitat«s
iiep;)t««
virtQt^s
mari&
A. civitatlb^is.
nepotlbtts.
Yirtutitbtts.
marlbils*
51. Class II. — ^Without Nominativb Ending.
I. Nouns in 1 and r : — with stem unchanged in nomi-
native.
Sol, m.
Consul, m.
Passer, m.
Vultur, m.
sun.
consul.
sparrow,
SINGULAR.
vulture.
N. 851
cons&l
passer
vuMr
G. s6lis
consulis
passSrls
vultQrls
D. soli
consiill
passgri
vultiirl
A. 6dl«m
(^siU^m
pass^r^ui
Tultiir^m
F. sol
consul
paasgr
Tultiir
A. sold
consiill
passer*
PLURAL.
vultar*
N, 80l«S
constil^s
pass^r^s
vultarCs
G.
consQlttm
pass^rliiii
vulturjiiii
J), sollbte
consulibils
passerXbiis
Tulturibiis
1 Sometimes cUfUaHUm,
s Sometimes mare In poetrj.
18
THIBD DECLENSION.
A, 8dle«
consults
pa8s^r«s
viiltur€»
F. 8dlM
consiiles
pass^r^s
vulturC*
A, mWhiSLm.
consulXbilH.
passeilbitui.
TUltUllbttS.
11. Nouns
in o and r
: — with stem changed in nom
tive.
Leo, 7n.
Virgo,/.
Pater, m.
Pastor, m.
lion.
maiden.
father.
SINGULAR.
shepherd.
N. leo
Tirgo
pat«r
paster
G. \ebjxim
TirgiiiX«
p&trl9
pastOiXs
JD, leonl
rirginl
patrl
pastdrl
A. leon^m
Tirgin^ni
patr«m
pastdr^m
r. leo
Virgo
patSr
pastdr
A. ledn*
virgin^
patr«
PLURAL.
pastor^.
J\r. leon^s
virginCs
patr^s
pastOrCs
(?. leonttm
yirginttm
patrttnt
pastorOm
i>. leonXBi&s
virginibiis
patilbiis
pastoriCbtts
-4. leonCs
virginCs
patrCs
pastor^s
V. Ie6n«s
TirginCs
patr^s
pastores
^. leonXB^Ui*
Tirginibtts.
patrlbtts.
pastorXbtts.
m. Nouns in en, us,
and ut : — with stem changec
nominative.
Carmen, n.
Opus, n.
Corpus, n.
Caput, n.
song.
work.
hody.
SINGULAR.
head.
N. carmgn
dpds
corpGs
cSput
G, carminis
op^rls
corporltii
capitis
D, carmini
op^rl
corporl
capitl
A. carman
opfia
corpQa
cap&t
F. carmSn
opus
corpQs
cap&t
A. canning
opgr«
corpSr*
PLURAL.
♦capita
N, carmiii&
opgr&
corporft
cap!t&
G, carmmttm
op^rttnt
corpdrOm
capitam
D, carminXblfcs
operiCbtts
corporXbtLs
capiaCbtts
A, carminft
op€r&
corpSrft
capit&
F. carniiii&
opSr&
corp6r&
capita
A, carminlbiis
• opeilbiis.
corporXbitui.
capitlbiUi.
CASE-ENDINGS. 19
52. Casd-Endings.— From an inspeotion of the paradigms,
it will be seen,
1. That the nouns belonging to Glass n. differ from those of
Class 1. only in taking no case-ending in the nominative and voca-
tive singular.
2. That all nouns of both classes are declined with the following
Cas^-Midings.
8IK0ULAR.
Masc. and Fern.
Kenter.
Kom. 8><e8,is)-
«
5 •
Qm. fa
fa
Dot, i
1
Ace. gmprn)*
like nom.
Voc. like nom.
il tc
AhL d, i
FLURAL.
«,i
Masc and Fern.
Neater.
Nom, 68
«,ia
Gen, iim, iiim
iim, iiim
Dot. Ibils
ibus
Aee. 6s
fi,ia
Voc. 68
a,ia
Ahi: ibus.
ibus.
53. DeolensioiL^ — To apply these endings in declension, we
must know, besides the nominative singular,
1. The Gender^ as that shows which set of endings must be
used.
2. ITie Genitive Singular (or some oblique case), as that con-
tains the stem (41) to which these endings must be added.
54. Examples pob Fbacticx:
Class L
Rapes, Gen, rupis, f. roek^ hospes, Gen, hospitis, m. guest,
vestis, Testis, f. garment; cuspis, cuspidlB, f. spear,
trabs, trSbis, f. beam; mons, mentis, m. mountain,
lex, l6gis, f. law; Spex, apicis, m. tummit.
libertas, libert&tis, f. liberty ; sSlus, salatis, f. safeti^,
sedile, sedllis, n. seat ;
1 In noons in (= cs or gs), 8 Is the case-ending, and the c or (7 belongs to th6
stenL
s The dash here implies that the case-ending is sometimes wanting, as in aU nouns
of Class IL
s The enclosed endings are less common than the others.
* For Irregularities see Formation of Cases (55-98) and Irregular Nouns.
20 THIED DECLENSION.
Clasa n.
Exsul, Gen, exsulisi, m. and/. exHe ; d51or, Gen, dolOris, m. jpam.
actio, actionis, f. action/ imftgo, ima^niB,f. image,
anser, ansSris, m. goose ; fr&ter, fratris, m. brother,
nomen, nonilnis, n. name; tempus, temporiS) n. time,
FORMATION OF CASES.
Nominative Singular.
65. The nominative singular may generally be formed
from any oblique case in one of two ways :
I. By changing the ending of the given case to the
nominative ending
s (es, is) in masculines and feminines ; ein neuters :
Ace. urbemy Nom. urbs; dvem, avis ; nubem, nubes. So
Gen. maris (neut.), Nom. m^re.
n. By dropping the ending of the given case: Gen.
consiUiSy Norn, consvi; passeriSy passer; pastoris^ pastor.
1, The Fibst Method applies in general to mute items.
2. The Second Method applies to most liquid stems,
8. Euphonic Changes:
1) T, d, and r before s are dropped; o and g before s unite with it
and form z; i is sometimes changed to e: Gen. dvitotisy N. eivltas (for
HvXtatSf t dropped) ; G. milUiSy N. mUes {militSj t dropped and i changed
to e) ; G. rSgiSy N. rex (regs).
2) 27ie endinas on ana In of masc. and fern, stems are generally
changed to o : G. leonis^ N. leo (for leon) ; G. virginiSy N. virgo (for virgin).
But in neuters \n is changed to en : G. carmXnis^ carmen (for earmin).
8) The endings er and or of neut. stems are generally changed to lU :
G. opMSy N. 6jms (for oper) : G. eorpdriSf N. corpus (for corpor).
4) Other changes sometimes occur.
Genitive Singular.
I. GBNSBAIi BULES.
56. Class I. forms the genitive singular by changing the
nominative ending into is : m4rey mdrisy sea ; urbsy nrbisy
city ; nubesy nubis, cloud ; hostiSy hostiSy enemy ; arx (arcs),
arciSy citadel ; rex (regs), regiSy king.
1. Glass I. includes, it will be remembered, nouns in e, « (with a few
exceptions), and x,
2. The Nominative Ending in this class is
1) e in nouns in e : mare.
2) s in nouns in g ; but if e or t precedes, it may be cs or is ; thus it
is « in urbSy es in nvhes, and is in hostis.
FOBMATION OF THB GSNrnVE. 21
8) • in nouns in x: as the double consonant x =s esor gs, the e or ^
belongs to the stem and the « is the ending.
Accordingly the genitlTe changes the endings e, «, es, and is into m, as
above.
8. Ibreovlabities and EzcsFTtONS. — See spedal rules, 68-83.
57. Class II. forms the genitive by adding is to the
nominative : «o^, solis, sun ; career^ carceris^ prison ; pastor^
pastoris, shepherd ; lieriy lieniSy spleen.
1. Class n. includes all nouns of this declension not embraced under
ClassL
2. Changes and Isregulabities. — See special rules.
n. SPECIAL BULBS.
I. Words ending In a Vowel.
Genitive Formation — Various.
A.
58. Nouns in a form the genitive in Stis; poema^
poemdtiSj poem. These are of Greek origin.
X.
50. Nouns in e form the genitive in Is ; mdre^ mdris^
sea.
L
60. Nouns in i form the genitive in is, or are indeclin-
able : sindpi, sindpis^ mustard.
Exceptions. — The compounds of mSH form it in Xtis : oxymSH, oxy-
metUis^ oxymel.
O.
61. Nouns in o form the genitive in dnis : feo, leoniSy
lion ; actiOy actionis^ action.
Exceptions. — The following form it in
1. Snis: — most national names, Mae&loy MaceddniSy Ifacedonian.
2. Inls: — Apollo; homoy man; nemoj nobody; furfto, whirlwind ; and
nouns in do and go: grando, grandlnis^ hail; virgo,
virginiSy maiden; except — harpSgo^ 6nis; %o, 6nis;
praedoy onis, also comedo^ cudo^ mango^ sp&doj unSdOj udo,
3. nis : — edro, camisj flesh.
4. enis: — -4mo, -4nieni*, river Anio ; Nerio, Nerienis.
6. us : — ^few Greek feminines : Dido, JDidus.
T.
62. Nouns in y form the genitive in yis (yos, ys),or
22 THIBD DBCUENSION.
are indeclinable: misy^ mispis (misyos, misys) copperaa
These are of Greek origin.
n. Words ending in Mates or Liquids : C, 1, lii r, t.
Genitive adds is.
o.
63. There are two nonns in c : dfee, ateciSj pickle ; laCf
lactiSf milk.
64. Nonns in 1 form the genitive by adding is : sol,
sdlis, sun.
1. 2\do add lis i^eljfellUf gall ; mel, mellu^ honey.
2. NouM in SI lengthen a in the Gen. ; arCimalj animSliSf animal ;
except ao/, salt, and masculine proper names : ManniM, Mannibdlis.
K.
65. Nouns in n form the genitive by adding is, but
those in 8n form it in Inis : pcieariypaednis, paean ; flumerij
fluminiSy stream.
1. 77u few nouns in en (e long), mostly Greek, add is : lUn^ liinisy
spleen.
2. JV^ouns tn aa, on, in, 3rn are Greek, and sometimes hare os for is
in the Gen. : Pdn, Pdnos for Panis, god Pan. — Some in on have ont« or
oniis : aedon^ aeddnis, nightingale ; XenSphon^ Xen6phonti9,
B.
66. Nouns in r form the genitive by adding is : career^
carceris, prison; JtUguTyfulguris, lightning.
1. J^ouna in ^ generally lengthen a in the Gen. : ealcdr, ealedris,
spur ; but a few retam the short voweL — Fear, com, has f arris ; hSpar^
liver, hep&tis.
2. Borne nouns in ear drop e in the genitiye :
1) Those m ter: pdter^ pairis, father; except l&ter^ latlfria^ tile, and
Greek nouns : erateTf eratSriSy bowL
2) Imber a^d names of months in ber : tmi«r, tm6m, shower ; Sep^
timber, Septemhris,
8. Iter, way, has itinSHs; Jupiter ^ JUvis,
4. Nouns in or have generally ozis : pastor ^ pastOris, shepherd ; but
a few retain the short vowel. Cor^ heart, has cordis.
6. Four in ur have bris : Hbur, ivory ; f^mur, thigh ; ^'&wr, liver ;
rtbMTy strength; but /cmwr has also/emlnw, aLdjeeur,jecinSris,jeein^Sy
and jocinMs,
FOBMATION OF THS GBNinYE. 23
T.
67. Nouns in t fonn the genitive in itis : cdpiU^ capi-
tis, head. Caput and its compounds are the only nouns in t.
HL Words ending in S preceded by a Vowel or Diph-
thong.
Genitive Formation — Yarious.
AS.
68. Nouns in as form the genitive in fltis: aetaSj
<ietdtiSy age ; civitaSy civitatis, state.
EzcxFTiONB. — ^The following form it in
1. &ti8 : — Hfuu^ an&tU^ duck, and neater Greek nouns.
2. &di8 i—vas^ vHdiSy surety ; AreaSf Arcadian, and fern. Greek nouns ;'
lampas^ lampSdiSj torch.
8. Sxis: — nuUf m&riSj a male.
4. asis : — vas, vOns^ yessel.
6. assis : — at, asns, an as (a coin).
6. antis .'—only masc Greek nouns ; ad&mas^ arUis, adamant.
ES.
69. Nouns in §8 (e long) form the genitive in is:
fames, famiSy hunger ; niibes, nubis, cloud.
Exceptions. — ^The following form it in
1. edls : — (1) Sdis : hires, heredUy heir; mereeSy reward. — (2) ^fdia :
pesy p^U, foot. — (8) aedia: jwom, praeduy surety.
2. eria : — (1) Mm : 0^re«, Cerhis, — (2) aetls : om, cktm, copper.
8. etis: — (1) etlfl: quieSy rest, with compounds, inquUs, reguies,
and a few Greek words: tehes, <dpe«.— (2) ^tla: abies, fir
tree; ariesy ram; parieSy wall.
4. essis : — beSy bessiSy two thirds.
6. i : — ^a few Greek proper names : Xerxes, i,
70. Nouns in £s (e short) form the genitive in Itis :
miks, militis, soldier.
EzciFTiOHS.— The following form it in
1. ^tla : — interpreSy interpreter ; s^geSy crop ; %w, covering.
2. Xdls :-—ob8eSy hostage ; praeses, premdent.
IS.
71. Nouns in is form the genitive in is: avis, avis,
bird; cdnis, canis, dog.
> Greek nouns sometimefl have ados for ddis.
24 THIBD DECLENSION.
Exceptions. — ^The following form it in
1. Ml i^-cinis^ ein&ris^ ashes ; cueUmUy cucumber ; pulviSf dust ;
v6mis, ploughshare.
2. Sdifl: — e&pis, cup; caatis, helmet; ctMpu, spear; lUpis^ stone;
promulsis, antepast, and a few Greek ^ words : as tyrannU^
idit, tyranny. Sometunes i6m and tigria,
8. inii i^-pollUy flour ; MtnguU^ blood.
4. Iris i—fflis, gliriSy dormouse.
5. issis : — tSmiSj aemisais, half an as.
6. Xtis:— ^w, strife; Dm, Quirts, SamnU.
08.
73. Nouns in 08 fonn the genitive in dxls : JloSyJloriSy
flower ; mosy moris^ custom.
Exceptions. — ^The following form it in
1. 5tis : — coSf cdtiSy whetotone ; daa, dowry ; nifpoSy grandson ; saeer-
do8, priest ; and a few Greek words : rhinoceros, the rhi-
noceros.
2. odis : — eustoSy eustddis, guardian.
8. Sis :— few masc. Greek nouns : Mros, hero ; Minos, J^ros,
4. 6ris : — arbos for arbor, tree.
5. OBsis : — OS, ossis, bone {os, mouth, regular : Cris).
6. 5vis i^bos, bikfis, ox.
US.
73. Nouns in us form the genitive in Sris or Sris :
IdtuSy lateriSy side ; corpus^ corporis, body.
1. Genitive in ^ris< — ^Acus, foedus, ftinus, gSnus, gl6mus, Utus, mu-
nus, dlus, 5nus, 5pus, pondus, rQdus, sc^lus, eSdus, ulcus, veUus, Y&ius,
Tiscus, Tulnus.
2. Genitive in 6ris. — Corpus, d^cus, dedScus, facinus, ftnus, frigus,
ISpus, litus, ngmus, pectus, pScus, p^nus, pignus, stercus, tempus, tergus.
Exceptions. — ^The following form it in
1. nris: — (1) uris: cms, leg; jus, right; jus, soup; mus, mouse;
pus, pus; rus, country; ius (thus), incense ; ieUus, earth.
— (2) uris: IXffus, IdgUris, Llgurian.
2. uUa i—juvenhis, youth; siilus, safety; senectus, old age; servXtua,
servftude ; virtus, virtue.
8. udis: — (1) udis: tncus, anvil; p&lus, marsh; subscus, dovetail. —
(2) udis : pecus, pecudis, a head of cattle.— (8) audzs :
fraus, fraudis, fraud; laus, praise.
1 Greek nouns sometimes have idos or even ios for idis; JSalamis has Salamimis;
BimoiSy SimoenUs.
FORMATION OP THE GKNITIVB. * 25
4. xaa : — grus^ gruis^ crane ; «ws, swine.
6. nntis : — ^a few Greek names of places : Trapezus^ units.
6. Sdia : — Greek compounds in pus : trXptis, tripddis^ tripod.
*J. eOB: — Greek nouns in etis, when of this declension: TTieseus^
Tlieseos.
YS.
Y4. Nouns in ys form the genitive in yis, yos, y s :
OthrySy Othrifos.
These are of Greek origin ; a few of them have ydis : thlamys^ chla-
mydis^ cloak.
IV. Words ending in S preceded by a Consonant,
Genitive m is or tis.
BS, MS, PS.
75. Nfouns in bs, ma^ and ps form the genitive by
changing 8 into is : urbSy urbiSy city ; hiemSy hiemiSy win-
ter ; dapSy ddpisy food.
Exceptions. — The following form it in
1. ipis : — nouns in eeps from capio : prineeps^ princXpis, prince. Also
adeps^ fat ; forcepsy forceps.
2. "fipis : — aueepSy aucupisy fowler.
8. yphii '.—grypsy gryphisy griffin,
LS, NS, ES.
76. Nouns in Is, ns, and rs form the genitive by
changing s into tis : pulsy pultisy broth ; menSy mentiSy
mind ; arsy artiSy art.
Exceptions. — ^The following form it in
dis: — fronsy frondisy leaf; glanSy acorn; juglanSy walnut
V. Words ending in X — Genitive in dLs or gis.
AZ.
77. Nouns in ax form the genitive in flcis : paXy pdciSy
peace.
Exceptions. — The following form it in
1. ^cis :—faXj fUciSy torch ; and a few Greek nouns.
2. actis : — ^few Greek names of men : Asty&ncut,
EX.
78. Nouns in ez form the genitive in fois : jud&ty
judiciSy judge.
2
26 THIRD DECLENSION.
EzCEFTioiiS. — ^The following form it in
1. edfl: — (1) ecis: alex^ pickle; venex, wether. — (2) ^ds: nex^
marder ; fenUex^ mower. — (3) aeds : faex^faeeiSy lees.
2. ei^ : — (I) egis : lex, law ; rea;, king, and their compounds.— (2)
^gifl : grexy flock ; «i^l2e:r, water-iniqiector.
8. ectiliB \~-9upeUeXy tupeUecfUiSy ftunitore.
4. i^ : — r^mex, remXgis^ rower.
5. is :— «^!h«je, «^!hu, old man.
IZ.
70. Nouns in iz form the genitive in ids : radix, ro*
dlcis^ root.
ExCEFTiOHS. — ^The following form it in
1. ioUl :—appendiXy appendix ; eUlix, cap ; fornix^ arch ; pix, pitch ;
sdlixj willow, and a few others.
2. i^: — ttrixy screech owl; and a few Gallic names: Dtannorix^
Orgetdrix,
3. Mb : — nixy nXvUy snow.
ox.
80. Noons in oz are : v(xe, vocis, voice ; nooc, noctis,
night.
There are also a few national names which form the genitive in bcis
or 6gi8 : CappUdoXy Cappaddcis; AllohroXy AUobrdgis,
UX.
81. Nonns in HZ form the genitive in ttcis: dux^ducis,
leader.
Exceptions. — ^The following form it in
1. qcIb:— (1) uoIb: luxy lUeiSy light; JPollux,'-(2) andfl: fatix
(de£), faueiBy throat
2. ngia : — (1) ugifl : fruxy frUgUy fruit. — (2) iigiB : conjuxy eonjUgiSy
spouse.
TX.
82. Nonns in yz are from the Greek, and form the
genitive variously : Urpx, M^cts, Eryx ; bombyXy bombpciSj
silkworm ; Stjfx, Sfpffis^ Styx ; coccyx^ coccygia, cuckoo ;
dnyXy Qnpchis, ^Sy^r
X PRECEDED BY A CONSONANT,
38. Noifns in aj: preceded by a ponspnaixt pb^ge :g: intp
qHm : arxj arcia, citadel.
FOBMATIOK OF CASBS. 27
Exceptions.— A few Greek nouns form it in gis : pMlanx^phcdangit^
phalanx.
Dative Singular. •
84. Ending : — ^i : urhs^ urbly city. But
The old dative in e also occurs : aere, for aeti.
Accusative Singular.
85. Ending : — ^like Nom., £m, im.
L Ending : — ^Uke nom. in neuters : m&rej mare^ sea.
II. Ending: — Sm, in most masculines and feminines: urhs^ uMm,
m. Ending : — ^Xm, in the following :
1. In names of rivers and places in is not increasing in the genitive :
m^ris, Tlb^nm; Hisp&lis, BispcUim,
2. In amusHsy rule ; buris^ plough-tail ; ravisy hoarseness ; sltis,
thirst ; tussis, cough ; m, force.
8, Generally in : fehrts^ pelvis, p^ppi»t restiSy seeurisy turris ; some-
times in: clavisy messiSy ndviSypars, •
4. In Greek nouns in isy G. is, and in many in is, G. Xdos or idis,
though the latter have also the regular idem : poSsis, poisim ; Agis (Agi-
dis), Agim or Agidem, For Greek nouns see also 98.
Vocative Singular.
86. Ending : — ^like nominative ; rex^ rex. But
Some Greek nouns drop s : PallaSy PdUa ; OrpheuSy Orpheu, See 94.
Ablative Singular.
87. Ending :— S, i.
L Ending :— ^, in most nouns ; urlnSyUrbey city.
n. Ending : — I, in the following classes of words :
1. In neuters in e, al, and ar : sedlUy sedlliy seat ; vectigaly vectig&liy
tax ; cdUary calcdriy spur. But
The following have e : — (1) Names of towns in e ; Praene8te,—^2)
Nouns in al and ar with a short in Gen. : so/, sldey salt ; nectar, nectdre,
nectar. — (3) Far, farre, com.— (4) Generally retey net, and in poetry some-
times m&re,
2. In adjectives in er and is used substantively : September y Beptem-
hrly September ; * familiaris, familiarly friend. But
Adjectives used as proper names, Bndjuv^niSy youth, have e; Juvend-
iiSy Juvenode, Juvenal.
> NameB of months are a^jectlTes ns«d sabstantively, with mensis, month, under-
stood.
28 THIRD DECLEMBION.
8. In ntmm in is with im in the aocusatiye (85) : TlHerU^ IWrim,
Tlbifri; «T/m, ntim, nti.
JSL Endimo :—^ or I ; in nonns with em or im in the Ace. : turris,
turrem or turrim^ iurre op turri. But
1. Rettis, Ace. reritm, rarely em, has rette; while ndvU, natfem, rarely
im, has generally navi.
2. Greek nouns in t», G. IdiSj generally have e, even though the Ace.
may have im : Pfim, Ace Partm or Parldem, AbL Poaride.
8. i8bm« o<A«r noufu occasionally fonn the AbL in t. — (1) several in
w: amnt«, anguit, dw», 6i/m, ««», c/omm, eollis, ignis^ orbis, postis,
ratitj unguis, and a few others. — (2) some names of towns, to denote the
place m which! Carthagini, at Carthage; Tiburi^ at Tibur.— (3) imber^
rus, sors, supellex^ vesper, and a few others.
Jfbmznativej Accusativey and Vocative Plural.
88. Endino :~#8, S, iS.
L Emdino :— Ai in masculines and feminines : urbs, urbe»»
II. Endino : — ^ 1^ in neuters :
1. a in most neuters : earmen, camiina.
2. ia in neuters which itdmit i in the ablative (87. 11.): m&re, maria.
III. Rabe Endings are
1. 77ie ancient endingsSiM and Is in the Ace Plur, of masculines
and feminines with ium in the Gen. : civets, civis, for cives,
2. ITie Greek endings— 4n^ as, is^e. See 95 and 98.
3. Vis, force, has Plur. : vires, virium, virXbiis, vires, vires, vtr^us.
Genitive Plural.
89. Ending: — ^um, ium.
I. Ending : — ^nm in most nouns : leo, le6nHm.
n. Ending : — ^iam in the following classes of words :
1. In neuters with ia in the plural, i. e., those in e, al, and ar (al and
or with a in Gen.) ; mSre, maria, marium ; animal, animalia, anitnaliutn^
2. In most nouns of more than one syllable In ns and rs : ' dienSy
clientium, client ; eohors, cohortium, cohort.
3. In many nouns not increasing in the genitive :
1) Most nouns in es and ia not increasing : ' nubes, nubium ; Uvis,
avium.
2) CHro, flesh ; imber, storm ; Hnter, boat ; uter, leathern sack ; ven-
ter, belly ; and generally Insuber, Insubrian.
1 Some of these often have wn in poetry and sometimes even in prose, as pdrena,
parent, generaHy has.
3 But cAnla, Javdnis, atnies, ^^Etes, liave urn; ftpis, mensis, aedea, volaeri8» vm or
ium ; compes, ium.
GBESK PECUUABinES. 20
4. In. monosyllables in b and z preceded by a eoMonatU ^ and in a few
in 8 and z preceded by a vowel : ' urbe, urHum, city ; arx, aremm, citadel ;
nox, noctium, night.
6. In many nouns in as and is (Flur. dies and lies). Thus
1) In names of nations : Arplncts, Arpinatium ; Samnis, Samnitium,
2) In Optim&tes and Penates^ and occasionally in other nouns in ols :
civitaSy civitatumj sometimes civitatium,
ni. Bare Endings. — Boa has houm : a few Greek words (especially
titles of books) on : Metamorphoses^ Metamorpkoseon,
lY. Wanting. — ^The Gen. Plur. is often wanting in monosyllables.
Dative and Ablative Plural.
90. Ending : — ^Ibiis : urhs^ urbibus.
Rare Endings are :
1. is or Ibua — ^in neuters in a: poema\D, and A., poemHtiSy or poe-
mcUibtts, poem.
2. ubu8 — ^in bos, hubits (rare bobus for bov1hus\ ox ; sus^ subus for
su^buSy swine.
5. si, sin — ^in Greek words. See 9Y.
GREEK PECULIARITIES.
91. Most Greek nouns of the third declension are entirely regular,
but a few retain certain peculiarities of the Greek, and some are entirely
indeclinable.
Gh'eek Genitive Singular,
92. ENDiNb: — sometimes os or i (rare) for is: Daphms^ Daphtiidos
for Baphnidis ; Xerxes^ Xerxi for Xerxis.
1. Ending: — os. (1) Many nouns in as and is hare ados and idos
for adis and idis : PaJlas, Pall&dos, — (2) Those in ys may have yos or ys:
TethySy Tethyos.-^Z) Those in eus have eosi Orpheus^ Orpheos.-^^) Pan
has Panos,
2. Ending : — ^L Proper names in e«, Gen. m, sometimes have i for
is : AchiUeSy Aehilli,
8. Ending: — us. Greek feminines in o, echo^ Dido, Sappho, have
regularly ns in the Gen. and the Greek ending o in the other cases, rarely
the Latin oni, 6nem, one ; Dido, Didtcs, Dido.
Greek Accusative Singular,
93. Ending : — often a : sometimes Im, in ; sometimes en for em :
Pericles, Periclea ; poesis, poesim, or poesin, poem ; Xerxes, Xerxen,
1. The Ending a is used — (1) by prose writers in proper names and
in aer and aether,^2) by the poets both in proper and in common nouns.
1 Except (ops) dpis and the Greek nouns, ffryjps, VytM, sphynm,
« Namely, /awe, glis, lis, mas, nix, nooo, os (ossisX ^ generally yVati* and
mus.
30 THIBD DECLENSION.
2. The Enoimo im or in is used in Greek nouns in t«, Gen. is, and
sometimes in a few in t«, Gen. Idis : poSsU, poinm^ poesin; FSru (Pari-
dls), Par'idemy Pcarim^ JParin,
8. Ths Endinq en is often used in proper names in e«, Gen. ts, and
sometimes in a few in es, Gen. Stis: Aeschlnet, AeschXmn; Th&les^ Iha-
Ittem or HuUen,
4. The Ending ym or yn. — Greek nouns in ya hare ym or yni
Othryty Othrym or Othryn.
Greek Vocative Singular.
94. Ending sometimes drops b : Orpheus, Orpheu, See 86.
1. 8 is dropped,— {I) regularly in nouns in etu and ys, together with
proper names m <u, Gen. atUia: JPersetu, Perseu; Cdtys, Coty; Atlas,
Atla, — (2) generally in nouns in is and sometimes in proper nouns in es :
Dapknis, Daphni; Soerdtes, Socrdtis, or Soer&te,
2. Proper names in es shorten the ending to ^5, when s is retained :
Socr&tes, Soer&tis.
Greek Nominative and Vocative Plural
95. Ending :— fiomctimcs Si for Ss, especially in poetry : AreUd^
for ArcSdes,
1. The Ending e is used in a few neuters in os : mi^os, mele, song ;
these neuters are used only in the ^om. and Ace. Tempe, the yale Tempe,
is plural.
2. The Ending is for es occurs in a few names of cities : Sardis for
Sardes,
Greek Genitive Plural.
96. Ending : — on : only in a few words, almost exclusively titles of
books : Metamorphoses (title of a poem), Metamorphoseon,
Greek Dative and Ablative Plural
97. Ending :— d, before vowels sin, poetic : TroUdes, Troasin.
Greek Accusative Plural.
98: Ending:— as: MaeedSnes, MaeedSnas,
1. The Ending e is used in a few neuters in os: m^os, mele; Tempe,
See 96. 1. . . . « ,. ^
2. The Ending is occurs in a few names of cities: Sardts for
8ardes,
GEin)ER IN THIRD DECLENSION.
99. The Gender of nouns of this declension, when not
determined by the general rules (35), may be ascertained
from their endings, as follows : '
1 See also 48.
GENBEB. 31
L Masculine Endings.
O^ or, OS, er, es increasing in the. genitive.
o.
100. Nouns in o are masculine : aermo^ discourse.
Exceptions. — Feminine, viz. :
1. Nouns in o, Gen. XnU (i. e., most nouns in do and go, 61. 2), except
cardo, ordo, turbo, masc., cupido and margo, masa or fern.
2. C&ro, flesh, and the Greek Argo, echo, an echo.
8. Abstract and collective nouns in to : ratio, reason ; eondo, an as-
sembly ; except numeral nouns in to, which (except unio)
are masc. ; ternio, quatemio,
OB.
101. Nouns in or are masculine : dolor^ pain.
Exceptions.
1. Feminine: — arbor, tree.
2. Neuter: — ddor, spelt; aequor, sea; eor, heart; marmor, marble.
OS.
" 102. Nouns in OS are masculine: mos^ custom.
Exceptions.
1. Feminine : — arboe, tree ; coa^ whetstone ; do9, dowry ; eoe, dawn.
2. Neuter : — os, mouth ; 08, bone ; and a few Greek words ; chaos^
'^pos, Sthoe, m^los.
EB.
103. Nouns in er are masculine: agger^ mound.
Exceptions.
1. Feminine : — linter, boat (sometimes masc).
2. Neuter:-^!) cadaver, corpse; tier, way; tuber, tumor; €tber,
udder; ver, spring; verber, scourge, — (2) botanical names
in er, Gen. 5ris: deer, maple tree ; papaver, poppy ; piper,
pepper.
BS INCEEASINa IN GENITIVE.
104. Nouns in es increasing in the genitive are mas-
culine : peSf gemtiye pedis, foot.
Exceptions.
1. Feminine: — compes, fetter; merces, reward; merges, sheaf; quies,
rest (with its compounds) ; s^ges, crop ; tSjges, mat ; some-
times also ales, bird, and qttadrupes, quadruped.
2. Neuter : — aes, copper.
32 TIUSD DECLENSION.
IL FsMiNiME Endings.
as, is, ys, Z, es not increasing in genitive^ s preceded by
a consonant,
AS.
105. Noons in as arc feminine : aetaSy age.
Exceptions.
1. Masculine : — as, an as (a coin), vaSy surety, and Greek nouns in as^
G. antiSy as adatnas, adamant
2. NeiUer i-^^aSy Tcssel, and Greek nouns in aa^ G. &tiSy as eryupHan,.
IS-
106. Noons in is are feminine : ndvie^ ship.
Exceptions. — Masculine :
1. Nouns in alia, oIIIb, ois, mis, nis, gids, qnis: natalu, birthday;
eollis^ hill; fasciSy bundle; vOmiSy ploughshare; ignis^
fire; sanguis^ blood; torquis, collar. But a few with
these endings are occasionallj feminine : aqudliSy canalis^
e&niSy clUniSy amniSy cXnis^ finis, anguiSy torquis*
2. AxiSy axle ; fuatisy club ; pulviSy dust ;
bUriSy plough-tail ; gliSy dormouse ; scrobis (f.), ditch ;
eallis (f.), path ; * l&jnSy stone ; sentisy brier ;
cassiSyHei'y twerwts, month ; <tgrrw (f.), %er ;
cauliSy stem ; or&M, circle ; tcrrisy brand ;
eorbis (f.), basket; fosiiSy post; veetiSy lever.'
ensiSy sword ;
8. Compounds of as (a coin) : setniSy dccttssis. Also LucretdiSy mdnes
(pL).
TS.
107. Noxms in ys are feminine : cMdmf/s^ cloak.
Exceptions. — Masculine : — ^names of mountains, Othrys,
X.
108. Noons in x are feminine : paXy peace.
Exceptions. — Masculine :
1. Greek masculines : ^sSmor, raven ; ^Adrajp, cuirass.
2. Nouns in ez and nnz ; except the six feminines : faexy forfeXy leXy
nexy (prex)y supeUeXy and such as are fem. by agnification.
86. n.
1 The examples marked (f.) are sometimes fcmlnlDe. Corbts and Uffris are often
feminine.
s For noons in is maecaXine by signifleation, see 8& L
GENDEB. 33
8. Four in iz: ed/iar, cup; fornix^ arch; phoenix^ phoenix; varix
(f.)) swollen vein.
4. One in tOK : trOdux^ yine-layer.
5. Names of mountains in jtk^ and a few other words in y^
6. Sometimes : caJb^ heel ; eahy lime ; lynXy a lynx.
ES NOT INCBBASINa IN GENTnYE.
109. Nouns in es not increasing in genitive are femi«
nine : ntl^, cloud.
Exceptions.
1. Masculine : — acin&cea : sometimes pcUumbes and vepres.
2. Neuter : — a few rare Greek nouns : eaeoSthea, hippom&nes
S PBECEDED BY A CONSONANT.
110. Nouns in s preceded by a consonant are feminine :
urhs^ city.
. Exceptions. — Masculine :
1. DenSy tooth, fons^ fountun, mons, mountain, pons^ bridge ; gen-
erally adepSy fat, and rudenSy cable.
2. Some nouns in ii8, originally a^'ectives or participles with a masc.
noun understood,— (1) oriensy occidens (sol), east, west,— (2) can-
fluenSy tarrene (amnis), confluence, torrent,— (3) hXdenSy tt^idens
(raster), two-pronged hoe, trident, — (4) sextanSy quadrans (as),
parts of an as.
3. Ck&lyhsy steel, hydropSy dropsy, and a few Greek names of ani-
mals: ^popsy grypSy seps (f.).
4. Sometimes : forcepsy forceps ; serpenSy serpent ; stirpSy stock.
Animansy animal, originally participle, is masc, fem., or neuter.
III. Neuter Endings.
ai e, i, y, o, 1, n, t, ar, ur, us.
A, B, I, T, C, T, AR.
111. Nouns in a, e, 1, y, O, t, ar are neuter : pocmaj
poem; mare, sea; lac, milk; cdputy head.
L.
112. Nouns in 1 are neuter : cmmal^ animal.
Exceptions.— Jfa«ctt/tn<j;—wi%t/, mullet; eal (also neuter in singu-
lar), salt ; soly sun.
N.
113. Nouns in n are neuter : carmen, song.
2»
u
FOUBTH DECLENSION.
EXCXFTIONS.
1. Masculine: — peeten^ comb; reUy kidney; /wn, spleen; and Greek
masculines in aii| en, In, on : paeauj paean ; cdnon^ rule.
2. Feminine: — aedoUy nightingale; cUci/on (halcyon), kingfisher; ieon^
image ; Hndon, muslin.
1 14. Nouns in ur are neuter : fulgur, lightning.
Exceptions. — Maeeuline :^ur/ury bran ; turtur^ turtledoye ; wUur^
Tulture.
US.
115. Nouns in us are neuter : corpuSy body.
Exceptions.
1. Maeculine : — ISjms^ hare ; mue^ mouse ; Greek nouns in pus and
a few others : tripu8y tripod.
2. Feminine : — telliu^ earth ; fraWy fraud ; laus, praise ; and nouns
in us, Gen. utis or udifl: virtus^ yirtue ; pHltiSy marsh.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
116. Nouns of the fourth declension end in
us, — masculine; u, — neuter.
They are declined as follows :
Fructus,/rwj7. Cornu, horn.
SINGULAR.
iV. fructtt-S comft
G, fructus cornlls
D. fructul comfk
A, fnictikiii oomfk
V. fructtis comfk
A, fructfk comfk
PLURAL.
N. fructllLS comnft
Q, fructnikiii comaikiii
D. fructibtis cornXbtis
A, fructas comnft
F. fruct-Qsi comnft
A, fructl1»iis« cornX1»tis«
1. Case-Endings. — Nouns of this declension are declined with
the case-endings presented in the above table.
Case-Endings.
iis
a
us
OS
ui
a
um
u
us
a
Q
a
us
u^
uum
uum
ib&s (ubus)
ibQs (ubiis)
08
uS
us
u£
ibus (ubiis).
ibiis (ubiis).
GENDER* 35
2. Examples for Practice. — CantuSy song; eurruSy chariot; cur*
»uSj course ; versus, verse ; genu, knee.
3. Hodification of Third Dedexudon.— The fourth declension is but- a
modification of the third, produced by contraction : thus fructiu, in the un-
contracted form, was declined like grus, gruia^ of Decl. III. : N. fruetus, G.
fructuU = frudus; D. fructui^ A. fructuem = fructum, V. fructus; A.
frudfoe —fructu: Plur. 'S.fructuea ^fructua^ etc.
4. Irrcgnlar Cajse-Endings. — The following occur :
1) Ubus for ibUSy used regularly in the Dat and Abl. Plur. of
Aeua, needle ; arcus, bow ; artuSy joint ; lacu8y lake ; pariWf birth ; peeu,
cattle ; gtiercus, oak ; apeeuSf den ; tnbu8f tribe ; veru, spit : occasionally in a
few other words, VAportus^ sinus, and ton^rus.
2) TTiSf the uncontracted form for us, in the Gen. : fruetuis ioxfrudus,
8) U for w, in the Dat. by contraction : equUatu for tquUaJbm^ cavalry.
117. Second and Fourth Declensions. — Some nouns are
partly of this declension and partly of the second.
1. Domus, house, declined as foUows :
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
iV. domtis domus
G, dornOs, domi domuum, domdriim
. J), domui (domO) domibus
A. domiim domos, domus
V. domiis domQs
A. domo (domQ) domibus.
In this word there is generaUy a difference of meaning between the forms of
the second Decl. and those of the fourth ; thns, G. dcmtta^ of a house ; domi^ at home :
A. PI. domuSf houses ; domos, often, homeward ; to homes.
2. Certain names of trees in ««, as cupressuSy flcus, laurus, plnus.,
though generally of Decl. 11., sometimes take those cases of the fourth
which end in us and u : N. laurus, G. lawmts, D. laurOy A. laurum, Y,
lauruSy A. lauru, &c. So also edlus, distaff.
3. A few nouns, especially sendtus and tumtdtus^ though regularly pf
Decl. lY., sometimes take the genitive ending i of the second : senati^
iumtdtL
118. Gendee m FouBTH Declension.
Masculine ending: us.
Neuter ending : u-
EXCEPTIONS.
1. Feminine : — (1) Scus, needle ; cblus^ distaff; ddmus, house ; mUnuSy
band; poriicus, portico; trihusy tribe, — (2) idus^ ides;
Quinquatrusj feast of Minerva; generally penusy store,
when of this decl. ; rarely «pft?tw, den, — (3) a few nouns
36 FIFTH DEd^ENSION.
Fern, by ngnificatiou (86. II.) : nUrus^ daughter-in-law ;
flcua^ fig tree.*
2. NevUer i^-iSciu {sexm\ sex ; rarely, spieusy den.
KPTH DECLEKSION.
119. Noans of the fifth declension end in 68,— ;/mi-
ninCj and are declined as follows :
Dies, day. Bes, thing, Case-Endings.
SINGULAR.
N, dies r^s Ss
O, di« rl^I ei
D. din T&L ei
A, di^iuk r^m em
F. die» res es
ul. die re e
PLUKAL.
iVl dies res Ss
(?. dieiiint rer&in Srum
i>. dieb&s rel»iks ebu9
A. dies res cs
F. dies res es
A. diei»ii.s» rel»ii.s« ebus.
1. Case-Endings. — Nouns of this declension are declined with
the case-endings presented in the above table.
JFln ei l8 generally short wlien preceded by a consoDaBtf oiherwise long.
2. Examples for Practioe. — Acies^ battle array; effigies, effigy;
facies, face ; series^ series ; species^ form ; speSy hope.
8. Modification of TbixA Bedension.— The fifth declension, like tho
foarth, seems to be a modification of the third. It is produced by contractioD
(eea = 89 : tibtu = iibua), except in the genitive, where H comes from eis, by
dropping 8, and irum from &um, by inserting r.
4. Irregular Endings :— 9 or i for ei in the Glen, and Dai : aeie for aciH ;
pemieii for perniciH,
6. De&CtiTe.— Nouns of this declension, except die8 and res, want the
Gen., Dat., and AbL Pior., and many a<kait no plural whatever.
120. Gkndeb in Fifth Declension.
Nouns of the fifth declension are feminine.
Exceptions. — Maseuline : — dies, day, and meridies, midday, though
dies is sometimes feminine in the singular.
> Also Ftm. wben it meaofijig.
COMPABATIYE VIEW OF DECLENSIONS.
37
COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.
12L. Case-Endings of Latin nouns/
BINGULAB.
Decl.
Dec 11.
Dec. III.
Dec IV. iD. V.
Fern.
Masc.
Neut
M.&F.
Neat
Masc Neat
Fem-
iv. a
as —
'um
s(es,is)»-
-6 —
lis Q
es
G. ae
I
i
is
18
us OS
6i
i>. ae
o
6
i
i
ui a
6i
A, am
urn
iim
6m (im)
like nom.
um a
6m
r. a
g —
iim
like nom.
like nom.
us a
es
A. a
o
6
5(1)
6(i)
Q a
3
PLURAT..
JSr. ae
i
a
es
a(ia;
iim (lam)
us ua
es
G, arum
Oriim
oriim
iim (ium)
uiim uiim
eriim
i>. is
is
is
ibus
ibiis
ibiis (ubiifi) ibiis (iibiis)
ebiis
A, as
OS
a
es
a(ia)
a(ia)
us ua
es
F. ae
i
a
es
us ua
63
^. is.
is
IS.
ibiisir
ibiis.
Ibiis (iibiis) ibOs (iibiis).
ebiis.
122. By a close analysis it will be found,
1. That the five declensions are only five varieties of one gen-
eral system of declension.
2. That these varieties have been produced by the union of
different final letters in the various stems, with one general system
of endings.
1 23. According to this analysis,
1. The stems in the five declensions end in the following
letters ;
I. n. in. IV. V.
e.
a, o, consonant, u,
(rarely i).
2. The general case-endings are as follows : *
1 This table presents the endings of all noans in the Latin langaage, except a few
deriTcd from the Greek.
3 The dash denotes that the case-ending Is sometimes wanting : er and ir in DecL
XL, it will be remembered, are not case-endings, bat parts of the stem (45. 1).
3 The inclosed endings are less common than the others.
< In this table obserre,
1) That different endings characteristic of different genders may be found In one
and the same declension.
2) That a slight difference of declension is however ai^parent In the double forms
in {«, f ; l8^l\ Hm^ r&m; \bil8^ ^\ but that in each of these double forms, the first
eeems to haye been the original ending from which the second was derived.
88
COHPAIUXITB VIEW OF DSCLESB10S&,
Mams, and Fern.
^«irf.
N. 8 —
«,m-
0. &,i
fa,I
/). I
i
A, ^m, m
like nom.
r. like nom.
t( ti
^.6(1)
6(1)
PLURAL.
N, 68,1
a(ia)
0. unif r&m
iim, rum
i>. ibuS,i8
ib&s, IS
^. 68
like nom.
V, like nom.
i( (I
A. ibufl, is.
ibQs,is.
8. The maimer in which these endings unite with the different
stems so as to produce the five declensions may be seen in the
following
OOMPARATIYE YIEW OF DECLENSIONS.
I.
Mensa.
II.
Servo.
m.
Reg.
IV.
Fructn.
V.
Re.
SINGULAR.
j^ ( mensa-
^' ( menaft
aerv<ha
servtis
reg-8
.rex
fruetU-a
fruct&s
re-a
rts
^ j menaa-i
{ mensae
aervo-i
ser^
reg-ia
regis
fructu-ia
fnictos
r^ia)
r6i
jy ( menaa-i
( mensae
J ( menaa-m
' \ menaftm
aervo-i
servo
«er»o-m
serviim
reg-%
regi
reg-em,
reggm
fructu-%
fructui
fructu-{e)m
fructum
re-i
rei
re-{e)m
rem
TT j menaa-
* ( mens&
aewo-e
servS
reg-a
rex
fructu-a
fructus
re-a
res
A ( menaa-e
^' I mensft
servo
PL
reg-e
reg6
URAL.
frudu-e
fructQ
re-e
re
• ( mensae
aertfo-t
servl
reg-ta
reges
fructu-ea
fructus
re-ea
res
* ' mens3,rum
jy j menaa-ia
' ( menSis
servOriim
aervo-ia
servis
~reg-um
regiim
re^r-titw
regibSs
fructu-um
fructuum
fructu-ilma
fructibus
re-um
reriim
re-ibus
rebfis
^ ( menaa-ea
• (mensas
servos
reg-ea
reges
fructu-ea
fructOa
re-ea
res
y ( mena€hi
' ( mensae
A ( menaa-ia
'( mensls.
aervo-i
servl
aerwhia
servis.
reg-ea
reges
reg-ibua
regibiis.
re-ea
res
re-ibua
rebtis.
»Nou]
lA in iM of Dec
. II. have 6 Ie
isteadofA.
6ENDEB.
124. Gekeeal Table of Gekdeb.
I. Gender independent of ending.* Common to all
declensions.
Mascolino.
Names of Males, of
Rivers, Winds, and
Months.
Feminine.
Names of Females, of
Countries, Towns,
Islands, and Trees.
Neater.
Indeclinable Nouns,
and Words and
Clauses used as In-
declifvahle Nouns,
n. Gender determined by, Nominative Ending.'
Declension I.
Fendnine. I
a,e. I
Declension II.
I
Declension HI.
as, is, 3r8, z, OB not
incre<mng in the
genitive^ 8 preceded
by a consonant0
Declension IV.
Masculine.
as, es.
er, ir, ub, oa.
, or, 08, er, es in-
creasing in the geni-
tive.
Neater.
xaxt) on.
a, e, i, y, o, 1, n, t,
ar, ur, us.
UB.
I
III
Declension V.
68.
PEOLENSION OF COMPOUND AND IRREGULAR NOUNS.
COMPOUND NOUNS.
125. Compounds present in general no peculiarities of
declension. But
1. K two nominatives unite, they are both declined: respuhUca
= res puhlica, republic, the public thing; jusjurandum = jusju-
randum^ oath.
2. If a nominative unites with an oblique case, only the nom-
inative is declined : paterfamilias = pater familias (42. 3), or
pater /cmiliae, the father of a family.
1 For exceptions, see 80.
3 For exceptions, see under the seyenJ dedenaiona.
40
COMPOUND AND IRBEGULAB NOUNS.
126. Pabadigms.
N, respublica
O, rfiipublicae
2). r^ipublicae
A, rempubUc&n
V, respublica
A. republTca
juq*urand&m
jQiisjurand!
jurijurandd
ju^urandiim
jusjurandum
jurejurandO
pfiterfamiliSA
patrisfaznilias
painfamilias
patremfamilias
paterfamilias
patrSfamilias
J\r. respublicae
G, rerumpublicariim
J), rebuspublicis
A. respublicas
V, respablicae
A, rebuspublicla.
junyurand^
jurajurandS
jurajarand^
patresfamilias
patrumfamilias
patiibusfamilias
patresfamilias
patresfamilias
patribnflfamilias.
1. The parts which compose these and similar words are often and perhcpa
more correctly written separately : respublica ; paUrfamUioB or/amiliae.
2. The parts of respublica are res of the 5th Decl. Budpublica of the 1st.
8. The parts oijusjurandum aiejus of the 8d Decl. and Jurandum of the
2d. Ju^urandum wants the Gen., Dat, and AU. Plur.
4. The parts oi paterfamilias rxe pater of the 8d Decl. oxidifamilias (42.
8), the old Gen. of familia, of the 1st. Sometimes, though rarely, the Gkn
familidrum is used in the plural : patrerfamiUdrum ioTpatrea/amiliag,
IRREGULAR NOUNS.
127. Irregular nouns may be divided into four classes:
I. Indeclinable Nouns have but one form for all cases.
n. Defective Nouns want certain parts.
HE. Hktei^oclites {heterodita *) are partly of one de-
clension and partly of another.
IV. Hbtbeogkneous Nouns (fieterogenea^) are partly
of one gender and partly of another.
L Indeclinable Nouns.
128. The Latin has but few indeclinable nouns.
1. The principal examples are :
1) Fas, right; n^flw, wrong; instar, equalify; mdwe, morning; nihH
nothing ; pondo, pound ; s^cttSy sex.
2) The letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, alpha, beta, etc.
8) Foreign words: Jacob, lUeherri; though these are often declined:
» From cTcpos, another, and icAicris, inflection, I. «., of dlflferent declendona.
1 From cTfpos, a/no^r, and yAvf, gtmder, i. e., of dlflferent gsndera.
DEPECnVB NOUNS. 41
JaeClbuSf JaeSbi; lUeberrie, lUeberri. JSsus has Jesum in the accasaUre and
Jesu in the other cases.
2. Some indeclinable nouns are also defective i mdne wants the Qen. and
Dat. ; fas and nefaa, the Gen., Dat, and Abl.
II. Defkcitvb Nouns.
129. Nouns may be defective in Number^ in Case^ or
in both Number and Case,
I, Noun» defective in Number.
130. Flnral wanting. — ^Many nouns from the nature of their
signification want the plaral : Boma^ Borne ; justitia, justice ; at^
rum, gold.
1. The principal nouns of this class are :
1) Proper names (except those used only in the plural) : Cicero^ Blhna.
2) Abstract Nouns : fides, faith ; JustiHa, justice.
8) Names of materials : aurum, go\d;/errum, iron.
4) A few others : meridies, middaj ; specimen, example ; supellex, furni-
ture; ver, spring; tfespeni, evening, etc.
S. Fh>per names admit the plural to designate/omi^iM, dosses; names of mat<s
rials, to deeignate pUees of the material or articles made of it ; and abstract nouis,
to designate instcmees^ or Jd/nds^ of the quality; Sdpidnes, the Sclpios ; aerd, vessels
of copper; a/oarUias^ instances of avarice ; odia^ hatreds.
In the poets, thep^r. of a1t>8tractB occurs in the sense of the sing.
131. Singpilar wanting. — ^Many nouns want the singular.
1. The most important of these are :
1) Certain personal appellatives applicable to classes: majGres, fore*
fathers ; postSri^ descendants ; gemini^ twins ; lihSri, children^ etc.
2) Many names of cities : Athenae, Athens ; Thebae, Thebes ; Delphi,
Delphi ; Arffi, Argos, though the Sing. Arffos occurs in Norn, and Ace.
8) Many names of festivals : Bacchanalia, Olympia, Saiumalia.
4) Many names not included in these classes. Such are :
.^rmo, arms; di/oitiae^ riches; eaeseqidae, ftmeral rites; eoB/weiae^ spoils; Idus,
Ides; 4/ndutiae, truce; insidiae, ambuscade; manes, shades of the dead; mlnae^
threats; moenia, walla; munia, duties; nuptiae, nuptials; reliquiae, remains.
2. An individual member of a dass designated by these plurals may be denoted
by unuts eoo with the plaral : wius eoo Kbiris, one of the children, or a child.
& The plural in names of cities may have reference to the several parts of the
city, especially as ancient cities were often made up of separate villages. So in the
names of festivals, the plural may refer to the various games and exercises which to-
gether constituted the festival.
132. Plnral with Change of Meaning.— Some nouns have
one signification in the singular and another m the plural : Thus
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Aedes, temple ; aedes, (1) temples, (2) a TumseA
Aqua, water ; aquae, (1) tocders, (2) mineral sprinffs.
1 Aedes and some other words in •this list, it will be observed, have in the plural
two significations, one corresponding to that of the singular, an^ the other diatinot
from it.
42 DJfiFJflCTlVE NOUNS.
Auxiliam, help ; auxilia, auxUtariet.
Bonum, a aood thing ^ blessing ; bona, riches, goods.
Career, prtson, homer ; caroeres, barriers of a race-course,
Gastrum, castle, hut ; castra, camp,
Comitium, name of a part of the comitia, the assembly held in the comi-
Soman forum ; tium,
CQ^iA, plenty, /orce; » coplae, (!) stores, (2) troops.
Facultas, ability ; facultates, wealth, means,.
Finis, end ; fines; borders, territory,
'Fortau&, fortune ; fortunae^ possessions, wealth.
Gratia, gratitude, favor ; sratiae, thanks.
Hortus, garden ; horti, (1 ) gardens, (2) pleasure grounds,
Impedimentum, hindrance; impedimenta, (1) hindrances, (2) bag-
gage.
liittSra, letter of alphabet ; litterae, (1) Idteirs ofcHphabei, (2) epis-
tle, writing, letters, literature.
Ludas, play, sport ; ludi, (1) plays, (2) public spectacle.
Mos, custom : mores, manners, character,
Natalis (dies), birth-day ; natales, pedigree, parentage.
Opera, workf service ; operae, workmen.
Pars, part: partes, (1) parts, (2) a party.
Bostrum, oeakof ship ; rostra, \i)beaks, (2) the rostra or tri-
bune in Jiome (adorned with
beaks).
8al, salt ; sales, witty sayings.
II. Nouns defective in Case,
133. Some noons are defective in case. Thus
1. Some want the nominative^ dative^ and vocative singular : (Ops),
5pis, kelp; (vix or vicis), vicis, change.
2. Some want the nominative and vocative singular: (Daps), dSpis,
food; (ditioX diti5nis, sway; (frux), frQgis, fruit; (intemecio), inteme-
donis, destruction; (pollis), pollinis, /owr.
8. Some want tiie genitive^ dative^ and ablative plural: thus most
nouns of the fifth declension. See 119. 5.
So also many neuters : /or, fd, mely pus^ n«, tus ; especially Greek
neuters in <m, which want tiiese cases in the smgular also : ^oos, milos.
4. Some want the genitive plural : thus many nouns otherwise entire,
especially monosyllables: nex, pax, pix; cor^ cos^ ros; scd, sol, lux.
III. Nouns defective in Number and Case.
134. Some nonns want one entire nmnber and certain cases
of the other: fors, chance, has only fors and forte; lues^ pesti-
lence, has lues.^ luem, lite. Many verbal nouns in u have only the
ablative singular : jussu^ by order ; manddtu, by command ; rogd-
tu, by request.
in. Hbteeoclites. — ^Two Classes.
I. Heteroclites with one form in the nominative sin-
gular.
n. Heteroclites with different forms in the nominative
singular.
EDBTESOCLrrBS. 43
Class First.
135. Of Dkolknsions n. and lY. are a few nouns in us.
See 117.
136. Of Declensions II. and III. are
1. Jug^rum, an acre ; regularly of the second Decl., except in the
Gen. Plur., whidi is jugSrum, according to the third. Other forms of the
third are rare.
2. Vas, a vessel ; of the third Decl. in the Sing,, and of the second in
the Plur. : «a«, vOsia; plural, vOsa, vasOrum.
3. Plural names of festivals in alia : Bacchanalia^ Saturnalia ; which
are regularly of the third DecL, but sometimes form the Gen. Plur. in
orum of the second. AncHe^ a shield, and a few other words also occur.
137. Of Declensions HI. and V. are
1. Requies^ rest; which is regularly of the third DecL, but also takes
the forms reqmem and requie of the fifth.
2. F&me8, hunger ; regularly of the third Decl., except in the ablative,
famS^ of the fifth (not/am^, of the third).
Class Second.^
138. FoBMS IN ia and ies.— Mietny words of foar syllables
have one form in ia of DecL I., and one tn ies of Decl. V. : harbor
ria^ harharies, barbarism; duritia^ durities^ hardness; luxuria^
luxuries^ luxury ; materia^ materies^ material ; moUitia^ mollities,
softness.
1 39. FoBSfs IN US AND mn. — ^Many nouns derived from verbs
have one form in us of Decl. IV., and one in um of Decl. II. :
eondtus, eondtum, an attempt ; eventus^ eventum, event ; praetextus^
praetextumy pretext.
140. Many other Examples might be added. Many words which
have but one approved form in prose, admit another in poetry : juvenltui
Satis), youth; poetic, juv^nto (ae): senectus (iSiiis), old age; poetic, senecla
ae) : paupertas (atis), poverty ; poedc, pauperies (fii).
rV. Hetebogeineofs Nouks. — ^Two Classes.
1. With one form in the nominative singular.
U: With different forms in the nominative singular.
Class Mrst.
141. Masculinb and Nettteb. — Some masculines take in the
plural an additional form of the neuter gender :
c/(>c2M, a jest ; plur., Joci and Joca.
IdcuSy place ; ** lociy topics, passages in books, places ; loca, places.
stbliuSj hissing ; ** sibili ; poetia, «t6i/a.
142. Feminine and Neuteb. — Some feminines take in the
plural an additional form of the neater gender :
1 Bomotlmcs called Bedundant nQutie^ or alnrndaniia.
44 ADJEOTIYBS.
Carbdsus, linen ; plural, earbaai and carhcisa^ bsuIb, &c.
margarlta, pearl ; " margaritae and margaHta^ drum,
ostrea, oyster ; " astreae and ostrea^ orum.
143. Neutee and MABOULraB oe Feminine.— Some neuters
take in the plural a different gender ; thus
1. Some neiUers become mastmline in the plural :
Coelum, heaven ; plural, coelL
2. Some neuters generaUy become masculine in the plural, but some-
times remain neuter :
Frenum, bridle ; plur., freni, sometimes frena.
rostrum^ rake; " rastri, " rostra,
8. Some neuters become feminine in the plural :
Epulvm^ pubUc feast ; plur., epiUae, meal, banquet*
Class Second,
144. FoBMS IN 08 AND uih.— Some nouns of the second
declension have one form in w mascnline and one in um neater :
clipetLSj cUpeum^ shield ; commentarius, commentaHumj comment-
ary ; cuUtus, cuUtunij cubit ; jugulus^ jugtblum^ throat.
145. Hbtebooeneous Heteboolites. — Some heteroclites are
also heterogeneous : condtus (us)^ condtum (i), effort ; menda (ae),
mendum (i), fault.
CHAPTEE II.
ADJECTIVES.
146. The adjective is that part of speech which is used
to qualify nouns : bonua^ good ; magnua^ great.
The form of the adjective in Latin depends in part upon the gender
of the noun which it qualifies ; bonus puer^ a good boy ; bona puellaj a
good girl ; bonum tectum, a good house. Thus bont^ is the form of the
adjective when used with masculine nouns, bona with feminine, and bonum
with neuter.
147. Some adjectives are partly of the first declen-
sion and partly of the second, while all the rest are entirely
of the third declension.
I. riKST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.
148. Adjectives of this class have in the nominative
singular the endings:
FIBST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS.
46
MafiCLfDecIL
Fem., Dec L
Nout, Doc IL
US'-
a,
uni.
iTiey are declined
as follows :
B6nus, good.
SINGITLAR.
Ma9C
Fem.
Ifeui.
Ncm,
bdn^LS
h6xA
bdnttm
Gen.
bonl
bonae
bonl
Dot.
boii4»
bonae
bon4»
Ace.
bonttm
bon&m
bonttm
Voe.
boii«
bon&
bonttm
Abl.
boii4»
bona
PLURAL.
bon4»
JVbm.
bonl
bonae
bontt
Gen.
bonOrttm
bonftrtkni
bonOrifcm
Dot,
bonis
bonis
bonis
Ace,
bon6s
bonfts
bon&
Voe.
bonl
bonae
bon&
Abl.
bonis
bonis
Liber, free.
SINGULAR.
bonis*
Matte.
Fern,
mut.
Norn.
lib^r
libgr&
nbgHim
Gen.
libgri
Ub^rae
Ub6rl
Dot.
Ubgr4»
libgrae
UbSr4»
Ace.
libSrttm
libgr&m
Ub^rttm
Voe.
lib^p
libera
Uberttm
AU.
Ubgr4»
PLURAL.
Ubgr4»
Norn.
Uberl
Ubgrae
IMrtt
Gen.
UberOrttjn
liberarttm
liberorttjni
Dot.
UbSrls
lib^rls
libgils
Ace.
Ub^rOs
UbSr&s
libera
Voe.
Ubgrl
libdrae
libera
Ahl.
Uberls
liberls
libdrls.
1 The daeh indlcatea t])at the ending is sometimes wanting. See 4& 1.
46 ADJECnVXS.
Aeger, aick.
8IN0ULAB.
Ncm,
aeg«r
aegrft
a^rttia'
Gen,
aegil
aegme
aegrl
Dot.
aegrlft
aegrae
aegrft
Ace,
afigrOm
aegr&nt
aegrttm
Voc,
aeger
•figr*
aegrifcm
AU.
a^lft
aegrft
PLU&iX.
aegr«;
Ifom.
aegri
aegrae
aegrft
Gen.
aegrOrttm
aegrftrttm
aegrOrttm
Dot.
aegrl»
aegils
aegria
Aee,
aegrOs
aegrfts
aegrJi
Voe.
aegrl
aegme
a^Ji
Ahl,
aegrl»
aegil»
aegrlB.
1. Bonus is declined in the Mase. like urvus of BecL n. (45), in the
Fern, like mensa of DecL I. (42), and in the Neut. like templum of DecL IL
(45).
2. Liber differs in declension from lonue only in dropping ne and e in
the Norn, and Yoc. (45. 8, 1). Aeger differs from liber only in dropping e
before r (45. 8, 2).
8. Most adjectiyes in er are declined like aeger^ bnt the following in er
and «r are declined like Itber :
1) Asper, rough; l&oer, torn; miser, wretched; prosper, prosperous;
^n^y tender; bat asper sometimes drops the e, and dexter, right, sometimes
retains it : dexter, dextera or dextra,
2) Satur, sated ; satur, satura, saturum,
3) Compounds in fer and ger : morti/er, deadly; aliger, winged.
149. Xrregnlarities. — ^These nine adjectives have in the
singular £us in the genitive and i in the dative :
Alius, another; nulhiSj no one; solus, alone; totuSy whole;
ullus, any ; iinus, one ; alter, -Ura, -terum, the other ; uter, -trck,
-trum, which (of two) ; neuter, -tra, -trum, neither.
1. The fiegular Forms occasionally occur in some of these adjectives :
aliae, nuUi, for alius, nulllus.; altero, aUerae, for alterL
2. I in ius in poetry is sometimes short; generally so in aUerius.
8. Alius has aUud for alium in the neuter, and shortens the genitire
aliitis into aliits,
4. Like vter are declined its compounds : vterque, uiervis, uterUbetj uten-
cun'que. In cUteriiter sometimes both parts are declined, as aUer^us utHtts /
and sometimes only the latter, as oUerutHus.
THIBD DSCLSNSION.
47
n. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DEOLEKSIOK
150. Adjectives of the third declension may be divided
into three classes :
I. Those which have in the nominative singular three
different forms — one for each gender.
n. Those which have two forms — ^the masculine and
feminine being the same.
m. Those which have but one form— the same for all
genders.
. 151. I. Adjectives of Thkeb Endings of this declen-
sion have in the nominative singular :
Hue. Fern. Nent
er, is, e.
They are declined as follows :
Acer, sharp. ^
SINGULAB.
M<uc
Fern.
Heui,
N, ac«r
ficris
&cr«
Q. acrlB
acris
acris
2>. acil
acrl
acrl
A. acr^m
acrdm
acr«
F. ac5r
acris
acr^
A, acrl .
acrl
PLURAT..
acrl;
N, acrM
acres
acri&
Q. acilttm
acilttm
acrittm
D. acilbtts
acribtts
acribtts
A, acres
acres
acri&
V, acres
acres
acil&
A, acifbtts
acri1»tts
acribtts.
1.. Like Acer are declined :
1) Aldcer, lively; campeater, level; eel^ber^ famous; eSleVy^ swift;
equester, equestrian ; palusteTy marshy ; pedester, pedestrian ; «fi/«r, putrid ;
saluber^ healthful ; auvesterj woody ; terreater, terrestrial ; volUcer, winged.
2) Adjectives in er designating the months : Odbber, hria?
2. The Masculine in is, like the Fern., also occurs : Bolubrta^ sUvestriSy
for sal&ber, Silvester.
I This retains e in declension : oeler, aUria^ oeUre ; and has vm in the Gen. Flor.
3 See also 87. 2.
48
ABJSCnVES.
8. These fonna in «r are analogous to those in er (whether nouns or
adjectiyes) of Bee. II. in dropping the ending in the Nom. and Yoc. Sing,
and in inserting e before r. Thus ager, originally agruSj drops tis, giving
agr^ and then inserts e to facilitate pronunciation, giving ager ; so accr^
originally acris, drops u and inserts e ; acr, cLcer,
152. n. Adjectives of Two Endings have in the
nominative singular :
llandF.
Neat.
1. ia
e, for positives.
2. ior (or)
ius (us), for comparatives.
They are
declined as follows:
Tristis, sad.
Tristior, more sad. *
SINGULAE.
M,andF.
Nera.
M.andF.
KevL
N. tristto
tristl
N. tristidr
tristiiis
G. trisats
tristis
(7. tristiortts
tristiOiYs
2>. tristl
tristl
2>. tristiOrl
A. trist^m
trist«
A, tristi5r«m
tristius
V. tristis
trist«
F. tristiSr
tristi^s
A, tristl
tristl;
A. tristior^^ (I)
PLURAL.
tri8ti5r«(I)$
iV. tristCs
tristitt
N, tristi6r«s
tristiorii
G. trlstiikm
tristtikm
G, tristidrttm
tristiorOm
i>. tristlbtts
tristibtts
Z>. tristiOribtIs
tristioribiis
A, tristis
tristift
A, tristioHSs
tristiorft
r. trist«s
tristttt
V, tristiorCs
ti-istiora
A. tristibiis
tristibtls.
A. tristioribtts
tristiorI1>ils.
153. III. Adjectives of One Ending. — ^AU other ad-
jectives have but one form in the nominative singular for
all genders. They generally end in « or a;, sometimes in I
or r, and are declined in the main like nouns of the same
endings. The following are examples :
Felix, happy. Prudens, prudent.
SINGULAR.
3f. and F.
Neat.
M.andF.
Neut.
N,
felix
f;elix
N.
prudens
prudens
G.
felicXs
felicis
G,
prudentXs
pnidentis
D,
felicl
felicl
D.
prudenti
prudenti
> OomparatiTO. For the declension of PIiab^ ■«• 165. 1.
THIRD DECLENSION.
49
A* felic^m
feUx
^. prudenl^m
prudens
r. feiix '
frKx
V. pnidens
prudens
A. fellce, or 1
felled, orl ;
A. pnidente, or I
PLURAL.
pradente, or I;
N. felic«s
feiia&
JV. prudent«B
prudentl&
Q. felicittm
felicittm
Q, prudentiikni
prudeDtiikni
/>. feticibtts
felicibttJi
i>. prudentlbOji
prudentibfts
A, fellcCs
fellcl&
A, prudent^s
prudenti&
V. fettc«s
felici&
r. prudentes
prudenti&
^. felicilriis
feUcibils.
A. prudcDtlbttJi
prudentibtts*
FORMATION OF OASES OF ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD
DECLENSION.
154. Adjectives of the third declension form their cases
in general like nouns of the same endings, but present the
following peculiarities :
I. Genitive Singyla/r,
155. This presents a few irregularities, but in general fhe same as
in nouns (58-88). Thus
1. The following in ^n form the genitive not in the regular Itls, but in
1) Stifl : — h^bes^ indigos, praepee, tSres.
2) IdJs:— (2^«««, 7«M«.
2. The following in es form it in
1) ddis :— eompounds of je>««, foot, as, atlpes^ btpeSy Mpet,
2) dzls : — pUbeB, impubei (sometimes u).
3) etis : — inquies, locuplea,
3. Adjectives in oeps form it in
1^ oipis, if compounded of capio : princeps, prituHpis,
2) oipitiB, if componnded of c&pnt : aneeps^ ancipms.
4. Four in or form it in Mm : — mlSmor, immSmor^ bieorpor^ triccrpor.
6. Other examples.— (1) Compos and impos form it in d^is.— (2) Com-
pounds in cors from cor have cordis-: concors, dUcors. — (3) Caelebs has
caellbis ^dia, dltis; intereus^ irUerciUis ; praecox, praecdcis; vettts^ vetSrU,
n. Ablative Singular,
156. I. Ending :--$ or I, in comparatives and adjectives of one
ending: ^m^^^orri; auddeS or eU
n. '* I, in other adjectives: acH, tristi.
1. Comparatives generally have e^ and acQectives of one ending, generally
i; bat participles in ana and ens have only e, except when used ady'ectively.
3
60 ISBBGUULB ABJECnVKS.
2. The Abladre in • in many adjectiyes of one ending cannot be yen*
fied from ancient authors. — ^The ablative in i is in general preferable.
8. Some have only e in general use. — (1) JPawper, paup^e^ poor ;
pabet, pubire, mature ; — (2) those in eg, 6. itis or idiB*. dies, dsses^ dlves^
totpet, tupenUs i-^^) cadeba, compos, impos, prineeps.
4. The Ablative in e sometimes occurs in poetry in positives of more
than one ending : cognomine for eoffnomlnlf like named.
nL Naminativej Accusative and Vocative Plural of
Neuters.
157. L Ending :—Vi in positires : aeriH, trisUH,
II. ** & in comparatives : trtsHorH.
1. V&us, old, has veCtrd ; eomplQres, several, has eompluriH or com-
plUrd.
2. The neuter plural is wanting in most adjectives of one ending, ex*
cept those in as, ns, rs, ox, tx, ox, and numerals inplez.
IV. Genitive Plural.
158. L Ending : inm in positives : acrium, tristkun,
IL ^^ ilin in comparatives : tristiSrum,
1. Some acyectires want the genitive pluraL
2. PlUres, more, and eomplures, several, have inm.
8. The following have lun:
1) Adjectives of one ending with only e in the ablative singular (166.
8): pauper, pauptrum.
2) Those with the genitive in ^zia, 6zi8, iixlB : v^tus, veCirum, old ;
niemor, memSrum, mindful ; eXcur, dcurum, tame.
8^ Those in oeps : ancepa, ancXpitum, doubtfuL
4^ Those compounded with substantives which have um : inope (ops;
opum), iniipum, helpless.
IRREGULAE ADJECTIVES.
159. Irregular adjectives may be
L IndedinaMo : fmgi, frugal, good ; nSguam, worthless ; mtZfe,
thousand.
II. Defective: (cetSrus) cetera, cetgrum, the other, the rest; (sons)
sontis, guilty.
in. Heteroclites. — Many adjectives have two distinct forms, one in us,
a, um, of the first and second declensions, and one in is and e of the third :
hil&rus and kUdris, joyful ; exanXmus and exanXnUs, lifeless.
1. The Latin has but few indeclinable adjectives, except numerals (175).
2. Some adjectives want
1) The nominative singular masculine: (cetfiras) ceth^, eeierum, the
other; (IndXcer) ludiera, huUentm, sportive.
2) One or more cases in full : (semlnex) seminecis, half dead, defective
in the nominative ; «Xfl^et, hopeless, only used in the nominative ; exlex, law-
COMPABISOK OF ADJEdlYSS. 61
less, onlj in nominatiye and aoensatiye ; pertuw, through the night, only in
nominatiye and ablative^
8) The neuter gender or genitiye plural. See 157. 2 and 158. 1.
4) The singular : pauci, ae, a, few ; plerique, the most ; the latter wants
also the genitiye plural, supplied hjplurimi. The singular of pl^rique
occurs, but is rery rare. In good prose €xieru8 wants the singular ; and irir
/eru8, superut^ taidposterus are used in the singular only in particular expres-
sions : mare infhntm, the lower sea, i. e., south of Italy ; mare superum, the
upper sea, i. e., north of Italy, the Adriatic ; pottirue in expressions of time :
diempoderumf the following day ; nocte pastera, on the following ni|^t.
8. In most heteroclites only one form is in common use in classic prose ;
in a few, as in the examples under 159. III., both forms are approved.
COMPARISON OF ADJEOTIYES.
160. Adjectives have three forms to denote different
degrees of quality. They are usually called the Positive,
the Comparative, and the Superlative degree : altica, cUtior,
aUissHmuSy high, higher, highest.
ComporatiTes and Buperlatives are sometimes best rendered into Eng-
lish by too and very^ instead of more and most: doetu», learned ; doctior^
more learned, or too learned ; dotaiasimuSf most learned, or rery learned.
161. The Latin, like the English, has two modes of
comparison :
I. TerminationaZ Comparisonr-^hj endings.
IL Adverbial Comparison — ^by adverbs.
I. TkBMINATIONAIi CoMPABISON.
162. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding to
the stem of the positive the endings:
ComparatiTe. Baperlative.
M F. N, M. F, N,
idr, idr, ius. issXmus, issXm^ Isslmiim.
Examples.
Altus, altior, altissimus : high^ higJier^ highest,
levis, levior, levissimus : lighi^ lighter^ lightest.
Irregular Terminational Comparison.
163. Irregular Superlatives. — ^Many adjectives with
regular comparatives have irregular superlatives. Thus
62 IBBEGULAB OOXPASISON.
1. Adjectives in er add ilsras to the positive : doer^
acriory acerrimuSy sharp.
VUtu has wterrimta; matHrus, both matttrrimtu and maiuristtimu ;
dexter, dextimm. •
2. Six in Qifl add linras to the stem:
FactUs, diffldlis; easy, difficult.
smnis, difwinilw ; like, uniike.
gracilis, humilis; etender, low;
thns : faeUie, faeUior, faeUHmm, ImbeeiUu has imbeeiUimue, but imbecU'
lus is regular.
3. Four in TUB have two irregular superlatives:
ExtSnis, exterior, ' extrfimus and extitmus, auttoard,
infSrus, inferior, infimiis and Imns, lower.
superua, superior, snpremus and summus, upper.
pofitSrus, posterior, postrSmus and post&mus, next.
1 64. Compounds in diens, ficns, and volns are compared with the
endings entior and entisfimuB, as if from forms in ens :
Haledlcus, maledioentior, maledicentissimus, slanderous.
munificus, munificentior, munificentissimus, liberal.
benevdlua, beneyolentior, benevolentisaimus, benevolent.
1. Sgihius and providm (needjr and prudent), form the comparatiye and
saperlatiye from igent Bndprovidens : hence egeriUor, egentissimiUf etc
2. Mwifieissimus occurs as the superlative of mirificus^ wonderful.
8. Many adjectives in dicu8 and Jtcus want the comparative and superla-
tive.
* 165. Special IrregnlaritiM of GompaxiaoiL
Bdnus, melior, optlmus, ^oodL
m^us, pSjor, pessimus, bad.
magnus, mfljor, maxlbaus, greai.
parvus, minor, minimus, small.
multus, plus, pluiimus, much.
1. Hue is neuter, and has in the singular only N. and A. pluSy and O.
plUrii. In the plural it has N. andA» plUrea (m. and £), plUra (n.), Q. plw
riuniy D. and A.plurfbus. ^ w
2. Divetffr^gi, niquam :
Dives, \ ^J*>or, divitisslmus, ) ^^
irivco, i^iHiop^ ditisBimus, f"-*^
frtlgi, '^frugalior, frugalisslmus, frugal.
nGquam, nequior, nequissimus, worthless.
Defective Terminational Comparison.
166. Positive Wanting:
Citerior, citimus, nearer.
deterior, deterrimus, worse,
interior, intiimus, inner.
ocior, ocise^us, swifter.
prior, primus, former.
propior, proximus, nearer.
ultfif-* *, ultimus, farther?
1 These adjectives art formed from dtra, <?a, intra, Greek cokvs, prae or pro,
prope^ ultra.
DiyersTis, diverfflssimiis, different.
falsus, falsiflsimus, fcUse.
inclytus, inclTtiafflmus, renovmed.
ADYXKBIAL COMPABISON. 53
167. Cknnparative Wanting.— The comparative is wanting
1. In a few participles used adjectiyely: meiHtus^ tneriHs^ffmua, de-
serving.
2. In these adjectives:
nSvQS, novisE&nus, new,
sXoer, saoerrimus, sacred.
vStus, veterrimus, old.
1 68. Superlative Wanting^— The superlative is wanUng
1. In most verbals in His and bOis : docility docUior^ docile ; opta*
6tf u, optdbUioTy desirable. But of these
Some are compared in full: amabUiSf /adliSf fertUiSf moHUs, nobUis,
utUi6y etc.
2. In many adjectives in alia and His : eapitalis, capitaliorj capital ;
dvlliSy eivilior, civil.
8. Three adjectives supply the superlative thus :
Adolescens, adolescentior, mmlmus nfltu,' young.
juv^nis, junior, minimus n&tu, young.
sgnex, senior, maximus natu,^ old.
4. A few other adjectives want the superlative: agrestis, alUcer^
caecMj diutumuSy infinltus^ longinquus^ opimus, proellvis, propinquuSj
salutaris, suplnus^ surdua^ t^res^ vulgaris.
169. Both Comparative and Superlative Wanting.— Many adjectives
have no terminational comparison :
1. Many from the nature of their signification, admittin/5 no comnarison j
especially such as denote material^ possession^ or the relations of place and
Ume: aureus^ golden; adamantinvSt adamantine; palemuSy paternal; Bo-
tndnuSf Roman; hestemuSf of yesterday; aestivus, of summer; hibemus, of
winter.
2. Many others. — Thus
1) Those in its preceded hy a vowel, except those in quus: tdoneus, suit-
able ; noxius, hurtful. But a few in uus have the superlative : assiduus,
serenuus. Other exceptions occur, especially in the poets : pius, piissimus;
egregiuSj egregiistXmus. *• • . . ,.
2) Many derivatives and comT^onJas, «lpecially (1) derivatives in ahs,
ilisy Uusy icus, itmsy drus: mortdo^y^Ts)^ mortal ; (2) compounds of verbs
or of nouns: particeps (capio), sharing; magMnmus (animus), magpani-
3) Also albus, almusy caditcus, /erus, fesM^gndrus, Uusus, mvrus, fwuii-
Ins, ndvus, nefastus, rudis, etc.
A'
n. — Adveebial Compari§on.
170. Adjectives which want the terminational comparison,
form the comparative and superlative, when their signification re-
quires it, by prefixing the^k'erbs TndgiSj more, and maxiriM^ most,
to the positive :
^ Smallest or youngest in age ; greatest or eldest in oge. NaPu is sometimes
omitted.
54
KUMEBALS.
Ardnnfl, mSgis ardnos, mazlme arduas, arduous.
1. Other adTerbt are sometimes used with the positiTe to denote differ-
ent degrees of the quality: admddum, tfiUds, oppido, veiy; itnprimie, aq^-
prime, in the highest degree; mtniM, less; nUnimUf least: aolde tnoffnay
reiy great. JR»- and prae in composition with adjectives haye the force of
very ; perdifieUU, yery difficult ; praecldrue, Yery illustrious.
2. Strengthening Particles are sometimes used.— (1) With the compar-
atiye: etiam, eyen, muUo, longe, much, far: etiam diUgtntior^ even more
diligent; muUo dUigentior, much more diligent— ^2) With the superlatiyc:
fmUtOy longe, much, by far; quam, as possible: mvUo or longe diligentisn-
mue, by far the most diligent; guam dUigentieeiiMte, as diligent as possible.
NUMERALS.
171. Namerala comprise numeral adjectives and nu-
meral adverbs.
L NuMEBAii Adjectivis.
172. Numeral adjectives comprise three principal
1. Gabdinal Numbebs : unus^ one ; duo^ two.
2. Ordinal Ntjhbebs : primus^ first ; secundusj second.
3. DiSTBiBUTrvES : singulij one by one; biniy two by
two, two each, two apiece.
1 73. To these maj be added
1. MuLTiPLXCATiyES. — Thcse are adjectives in j)lex, G. pticis, denoting
80 many fold : simplex, angle ; duplex, double ; triplex, tliree-fold.
2. PBOPOBTioNAL8.*-The8e are declined like bdnus, and denote so
many times as great : duplus, twice as great ; tripltu, three times as greak
174. Table of Numeral Adjectives.
Cabdinaub.
1. Qnus, una, unnm,
2. duo, duae, duo,
3. tres, tria,
4. quattuor,
5. quinque,
6. sex,
7. septem,
8. octo,
9. n5vem,
10. decern,
11. undSeim,
OannrAU.
DlSTBIBui't V Js8.
primu8,'/rrf,
Bingiili, one by one.
8ecundus,*wcon<?,
tertius, third.
bini, itoo hy two.
temi (trini).
quartus, fourth.
quatemi.
quintus,)^A,
quini.
sextus.
86ni.
sept^tmus.
septeni.
octaTus,
bctoni.
nonus,
nov6ni.
decimus,
denl
undecimus,
undgni.
1 Prior la used in speaking of two, and aUer Is often used for secundue.
KUMEBALS.
55
GAKDINAlft.
12. duod^cim,
18. tredgcim or decern
et tres,
14. quattuordgcim,
15. quindgcim,
16. sedgcim or sexdg-
cim/
11. septendgcim,'
18. duodeviginti,*
19. undeviginti,'
20. viginti,
g, (vigintiQnus,
•(unuset viginti,*
go (viginti duo,
(duo et viginti,
30. triginta,
40. quadraginta,
50. quinquaginta,
60. sexaginta,
70. septuaginta,
80. octoginta,
90. nonaginta,
100. centum,
.^^ (centum Qnus,
'1 centum et unus,*
200. ducenti, ae, a,
800. trecenti, -
400. quadringenti,
500. quingenti,
600. sexcenti,
700. septingenti,
800. octingenti,
900. nongenti,
1,000. mille,
2,000. duomillia,*
OBDmALS.
duodecimus,
tertius decuuus,*
quartus declmus,
quintus decimus,
sextus decimus,
Septimus decimus,
undevicesimus,'
vice^mus,'
vicesimus pnmus,
anus et vicefiffmus,*
vicesimus secundus,
alter et vicesimus,
tricerftaius,*
quadragesimus,
quinquageslmus,
sexagesimus,
septuage^[mus,
octoge^[mus,
nonagesimus,
centesimtis,
centesimus primus,
centeaimus et primus
ducentesimus,
trecentesimus,
quadringentesimus,
quingentesimus,
sexeenteefmus,
septingentesimus,
octingentesimus,
nongentesimus,
millesimus,
bis millesimus,
DiBTBIBITTITEB.
duodeni.
temi deni.
quatemi dSni.
quini deni.
sen! deni.
septeni deni.
duodeviceni.
undeviceni.
viceni.
viceni singuli.
singiili et viceni.
viceni bini.
bini et viceni.
triceni.
quadrageniv'
quinquagem.
sexageni.
septuageni.
octogeni.
nonageni.
centeni.
centeni singiili.
centeni et singuli.
duceni.
trecent
quadringenu
quingeni.
sexoeni.
septingenl.
octingenL
nongenL
sing&la millia.
bina millia.
1 Somotimes with the parts separated: dwam et sex; decern et eeptem.
« Literally two from twenty, one from twenty, by subtraction ; but these numbers
may be expressed by addition: decern et octo; decern et novem; so 28, 29; 88, 89,
etc, either by subtraction from triginta^ etc, or by addition to viginti ; d/uodetri-
ginta or octo et 'viginti.
s If the tens precede the units, et is omitted, otherwise it is generally used. So
in English cardinals, twenty^one, one and twenty.
^ In compounding numbers above 100, units generally follow tens, tens hundreds,
etc, as in English; but the connective et is either omitted, or used only between the
two highest denominations: miUe centum viginti or mtUe et centum viginti^ 1,120.
• Sometimes Una miUia or bis miUe,
* Sometimes de(Am%t8 precedes with or without et : dedimue et tertitut or dedlmua
tertius.
^ Sometimes expressed by addition, like the corresponding cardinals; oddvus de»
dimus and nonus decimus.
8 Sometimes written with ^: vigeslmzts; triffeeHmtis.
56
DECLENSION OF NUMERALS.
CABKNAI&
10,000. decern millia,
100,000. centum millia,
1,000,000. decies ccntena mil-
OSDIHAIA
decies millesiinuay
ceDties milleaimus,
decies centies mille-
simus,
DBTBXB U Ti V flb
dSnamillia.
centena millia.
dedes centenamillia.
1. OrdinaU vrith Parf, part, expressed or understood, may be used to
express fractions : tertia parSy a third part, a third ; quarta parSy a fourth ;
duak tertiaey two thirds.
2. XHtiribitHves are used
1) To show the number of objects taken at a thne, often best rendered
by adding to the cardinal each or apiece ; temos denarios aceepSrunt, they
received each three denarii, or three i^iece. Hence
2) To express Multijdicatwni decies eentina mUlia^ ten times a
hundred thousand, a million.
3) Instead of CardiruUs, with nomis plural in form, but sragiilar in
sense : luna eastroy two camps. Here for Hnguli and temi, €mi and trlni
are used: unae litieraey one letter; irinae litHraey three letters.
4) Sometimes in reference to otjecta q)oken of in pairs : hint scyphiy
a pair of goblets ; and in the poets with the force of cardinals : blnu hasti-
Hay two spears.
8. Poets use numeral adverbs (181) Tery freely in comrponnding niHn>
bers : 6m ««e, for duodScim ; bi» wptemy for quattuordScim.
4. Sexcenti and miUe are sometimes i^ed indefinitely for any large
number, as cne ihotisand is in English.
DECLENSION OF NUMERAL ADJECTIVESw
175. On the dedensioQ of cardinals observe
1. That the anits, unu»y duOy and tre^ are declined.
2. That the other umtS) all the tens, and centum are indedinable.
3. That the hundreds are declined.
4. That mille is sometimes declined.
176. The first three cardinals are declined as follows :
1. Unns, one.
Singular.
P/«ra?.
JV. uniis,
G. unlus,
J), uni,
A, unum,
r. un«.
flnii, Qntim,
uniils, imiQs,
uni, uni,
unSm, uniim,
una. uniim.
flni, tlnae, tin^
undrOm, unarum, unoriim,
unTfl, unls, unis,
A. unO,
unfii, uno ;
unis, unis, unis.
2.
Duo, tv^o.
3. Tres, three.
JV. du5,
G. duoriim,
duae, duo,
duarhm, duoriim,*
tres, f». and/. tritt, «.
trium, triiim.
> Literallj ten times a hundred thousand; the table might be carried np to any^
rfesired number by using the proper numeral adverb with c&iUina miUia : centies
eemiena tniUia^ 10,000,000; sometimes in suefa eembtnations centina miffia is undexy
stood and only the adverb is expressed, and sometimes centum miUia Is used.
a J}udrum and duArum are sometimea shortened to duunk.
NTTUEBAX, 6TUB0LS.
67
trifbiie,
tribfis,
tres,
tria,
tribiis,
trtbiis.
D. duObiis, duftbiifl, dadbiis,
A. duds, duo, diias, du5,
A. duobus, duabus, duobtis.
1. The plural of units in the sense of alone may be used with any noun :
«m Ubiiy the Ubii alone; but in the strict numeral sense ofonet it is used
only with such nouns as, though plural in form, are singular in sense : una
castrOy one camp ; unae lUterae. one letter.
2. Like duo is declined atnho, both.
8. JivUi, many, axidplurimi, very many, are indefinite numerals, and
as such generally want the sing. But in the poets the sing, occurs in the
sense oimany a: muUa hostia, many a Tictim.
177. "HjmdredBydttcentiy trecenti, etc., are declined like the
plural oilonus: dueenti^ ae, a.
178. Mille is nsed both as an adjective and as a snbstantive.
As an a^ective it is indeclinable ; as a substantive it is used in the
singular only in the nominative and accusative, but in the plural
it is declined like the plural of m&re (50) : millia, millium, mil'
Itbus.
With the substantive JI/KUe, the name of the objects enumerated is gen-
erally in the genitive : miUe haminum, a thousand men (of men) ; but it is
in the same case Us mtlle, if a declined numeral interrenes: tria millia
irecenH milUeSf three thousand .three himdred soldiers.
179. Ordinals are declined like honus and distributives like
the plural of dontu^ but the latter often have um for arum in the
genitive; Unum for linorum.
• 180. Numeral Symbols,
ASABIO.
ROMAir.
ABABIO.
ROXAX.
ARABIC.
BOXAX.
1.
L
16.
XVI.
101.
CL
2.
XL
17.
XVIL
200.
CO.
3.
IIL
18.
xvin.
800.
CCC.
4.
IV.
19.
XIX.
400.
CCCC.
5.
V.
20.
XX.
600.
10, or D.
6.
VI.
2L
XXL
600.
DC.
1.
vn.
22.
xxn.
700.
DCC.
8.
vm.
30.
XXX.
800.
DCCO.
9.
IX.
40;
XL.
900.
DCCCC.
10.
X.
60.
L.
1,000.
CIO, or M.
11.
XL
60.
LX.
2,000.
CIOCIO, <yr MM.
12.
XIL
70.
LXX.
10,000.
CCIOO.
13.
XIII.
80.
LXXX.
100,000.
CCCIOOO.
14.
XIV.
90.
xc.
1,000,000.
CCCCIOOOO.
16.
XV.
100.
0.
il Symbols
are combi
nations of:
I=1;V = 6;X
= 10; L
= 50;
= 100 ; 10
orD = C
00; CIO or
M = 1,000.*
> Thousands are sometimes denoted by a line oyer the symbol : II = 2,000 ; Y
B 6,000.
8*
68
NUMERAL SYMBOLS.
2. In the Combinatiaii of tlieie qrmboli, except 10, observe
1) That the repetition of a symbol doubles the value : II = 2 ; XX ==
20 ; CO = 200.
2) That any symbol standing before one of greater value, subtracts its
own value, but that after one of greater value, it adds its own value : Y =
6; IV = 4(6-1); VI =6 (6 + 1).
8. In the CombinBtioii of JD observe
1) That each (inverted C) after 10 increases the value ten-fold : ID
= 600 ; 100 = 600 x 10 = 6,000 ; 1000 = 6,000 x 10 = 60,000.
2) That these numbers are doubled by placing G the same number of
times before I as stands after it : 10 = 600 ; CIO = 600 x 2 = 1,000 ;
100 = 6,000; CCIOO = 6,000x2 = 10,000.
8) That smaller symbols standing after these add their value : 10 =
600; IOC = 600; lOCO = 700.
n. Numeral Adverbs.
4. qu^ter
6. quinquies
6. sexies
7. septies
8. octies
9. novles
10. dScies
11. undecies
12. duodecies
jg (terdecies
• 1 tredecies
J - j quaterdecies
*|quattuordecies
^g ( quinquiesdecies
'(quindecies
( sexiesdecies
181. To numerals belong also numeral adverbs. For con-
renience of reference we add the following table :
1. sSmel, once
2. bis, imce
3. ter, three times jg i
'(sedecies
17. septiesdecies
jg (duodevicies
'(octiesdecies
jg (undevicies
'(noviesdecies
20. vicies
21. s^mel et vicies
22. bis et vicies
30. tricies
40. quadragies
60. quinquagies
60. sexagies
70. septuagies
1. In Compounds of units and tens, the unit with et generally pre-
cedes, as in the table : bis et vicies ; the tens however with or without et
sometimes precede : vicies et bis or vicies biSy but not bis vicies.
2. Another Class of numeral adverbs in urn or o is formed from the
ordinals : prlmumy pHmOy for the first time, in the first place ; tertium,
tertioy for the third lame.
80. octogies
90. nonagies
100. centies
101. centies semel
200, ducenties
800. trecenties
400. quadringenties
600. quingenties
600. sexcenties
700. septingenties
800f octingenties
900. noningenties *
1,000. millies
2,000. bis millies
10,000. decies millies
100,000. centies millies
1,000,000. millies millies.
1 Also written nonffMiiss.
* MiUies Is often used Indefinitely like the English a thousand times.
PBONOUN& 59
CHAPTER III.
PEOHOUHS.
182. The Pronoun is that part of speech which prop-
erly supplies the place of nouns: tgoy I; ta^ thou.
183. Pronouns are divided into six classes:
1. Personal Pronouns: ^t/, thou.
2. Possessive Pronouns : mews, my.
3. Demonstrative Pronouns : Ate, this.
4. Relative Pronouns : qui^ who.
5. Interrogative Pronouns :. quis^ who ?
6. Indefinite Pronouns : allquis^ some one.
I. Pebsonax. Pronouns.
184. Personal Pronouns, so called because they desig-
nate the person of the noun which they represent, are ego^
I; iu^ thou; sui (Nom. not used), of himself, herself, itself.
They are declined as follows :
SINGULAR.
N, gg5
tu
Q, mel
tui
sni
D. rath!
tib!
sibl
A. me
to
se
F.
tu
A, me;
te;
PLURAL.
sS;
N, nOs
vOs
^ nostriim
^- nostrP
vestrtim )
vestrP \
sul
i>. nobis
vObIs
stb!
A, nOs
vOs
83
F.
vos
A, nobis.
vObls.
se.
1. Substantive Pronouu. — ^Personal pronouns are idso called Siihaiantive
pronouns, because thej are always used as substantives.
2. Beflezive "PraRmm.—Suiy from its reflexive signification, of himself ^
etc., is often called the Reflexive pi^onoun.
> On the use of these two forms see 446L 8.
60
PBONOUKS.
8. Empliatie Formi in nui occur, except in tbe Gen. Plnr. : tgdmeC, I
myself; mihknd, timet, etc. But tbe Nom. iu hu iOU and itainut, for tft-
met. •
4. Badnplieated Fonni :— «iai» ^ fnim9, for se, te, me.
5. Andant and Bare Tonni:— mw for mei; tit for tui; mi and md for
mibi ; meh€, med, and nupte for me: ted for te.
6. Ciim, when used with the cAktUvt of these pronouns, is appended W
them: nOcumf ticum.
n. PossEssiYX Pbonoitk^s.
185. From Personal pronouns are formed the Possess
ivea :
mens, my, noster, ot^r,
tuns, rAy, yonr, vester, youvy
suns, A}«, Aer, t7^, saos, ^Aeir.
They are declined as adjectives of the first and second
declensions: meics^ meoj meum; noster, nostra^ nostrum;
bnt meus has in the Tocatiye singular masculine generally
miy sometimes mens.
1. En^atie Tonni, in pte and mtt occur, especiallj in the Abl. Sing. -.
tuaptey suamet,
2. The Patriak. nastra$y of our countnjr, and tedraSf of your country, are
also possessives. They have the genitire in dtis, and are declined as adjec-
tives of Ded. III., but are little used.
8. CojuM and Ciuaa. — Oujtts (a, um, whose?) and the patrial evjas (atis,
of what country?) also belong to possessives, though, not like other possess-
ivesy formed firom personal pronouns, but from the interrogative guts, cvjus*
See 188.
in. Demonstrative Pbonouks.
186. Demonstrative Pronouns, so called becanse they
specify the objects to which they refer, are
Hie, iUCy iste^ ipscy is^ idem.
They are declined as follows :
Hie, this.
SINGULAB.
PLUBAL.
M,
F.
N.
M,
F.
JT.
K. Mc
haec
hfic
hi
hae
haec
G. hnjtis
hiytls
higtis
hOrttm
hartim
hOriim
D. huio
huio
hnic
his
his
his
A, hunc
hanc
h^c
hOs
has
haec
V.
.
A. hoc .
hue
hoc:
his
his
his.
PEONOUNS.
nis,
^ or that.
•
SINGULAR
PLURAI..
M.
F,
iv:
M,
F,
N.
N. \m
iM
iUM
illi
illae
ills
G. iUiiis
ilims
illiiis
illOriiin
illariim
illOriiiii
D. ill!
illi
iUi
illTs
mis
illlB
A. illtim
illam
illM
illOs
illas
iUa .
F.
A. iUo
iUa
iUO;
illls
illls
illTft.
61
Ist^, that.
Ist^, that^ is declined like ilU. It usually refers to objects
which are present to the person addressed, and sometimes ex-
presses contempt.
IpsS, 9elfy Tie.
SINGULAR
PLURAL.
M.
F,
N.
M,
F
-y.
K. ips8
G. ipsitis
D. ipsi
A. ipsiim
ipsa
ipsitis
ipsi
ipsam
ipstim
ipsitis
ipsi
ipstim
ipsi
ipsOriim
ipsIs
ipsOs
ipsae
ipsartim
ipsis
ipsas
ipsH
ipsOrtim
ipsis
ipsa
A. ipso
ipsa
ipso;
ipsis
ipsis
ipsis.
SINGULAR
Is,M
that.
PLURAL.
J/.
F,
N,
M,
F
JV.
N. is
G. ejtis
D. el
A. etim
F
A. e5
e^
ejiis
el
eam
!d
ejtis
el
id
il
eOrtim
iis (els)
e5s
eae
eartim
iis (eis)
eas
e^
eOriim
iis (eis)
e^
ea
eO;
iis (eis)
iis (eis)
us (els).
Idem, tJie same.
Idem, compounded of is and demy is declined like is, but short-
ens isdem to Idem and iddem to idem, and changes m to n before the
ending dem; thus:
SINGULAR
PLURAL.
M.
F
-y.
M,
F
iv:
N.
idSm
eadSm
Idgm
iidSm
eaedgm
eadSm
G.
ejusdSm
ejusdSm
ejusd^m
eOrund^m earund^m eOrund^m
D.
eldSm
eid^m
eid^m
iisd^m
iisd^m
iisdfem »
A.
V.
A.
eundSm
eand&m
idSm
eOsdSm
easd^m
e^d^m
eOd^m
ead^m
eOdSm ;
iisd^m
iisd^m
iisdSm.*
1 Sometimes eisdem In all genders. lidem and iisdem are in poetry dissyllables,
and are sometimes written idem and isdem. .
62
PBONOUNS.
1. Emphatic Fornui in ee occur in the neveral cases of hie and sometimes
in other demonstratives : hiccey haecce, hocce (also hice, haeoe or haeCy etc.),
hvjuscey hoscCf hisce; harumce, harunce {m changed to »), hdrunc (e di^pped).
Before the interrogative ney ee becomes ci : hiccine, hosclne.
2. niio and istic or isthic for ille and iste occur. They are declined
alike, and are used only in certain cases. Thus
Sing., Nam, illlc, illaec, illGc or illQc,
Ace, illunc, illanc, illOc,
AbL illOc, iliac, ill9c;
Plur. illaec, generally Neut.y sometimes Fern,
8. Ancient and Baia Forms :
1) Of Ills and iste : Uliy illaey iUi, Gen. for illius ; istiy istae, idi for
istius ; iUae and istaey Dat. Fern, for illi and isti ; also forms from oUua for
ille : olliy ollay olloe, etc.
2) Of Ipsb, compounded of is axidpse (is-pse =r ipse) ; the uncontracted
forms: Ace. eumpssy eampsSf Abl. eopse, eapse/ with re: re eapse, rea^s for
re ipsa, in reality ; also ipsuSy a, Km, etc.. for ipse, a, um.
8^ Of Is : eiiy «w, m, Dat. for ei ; iibus {imis), edbttSy iibus (tbus) for iis.
4) Stncopatbd forms, compounded of eeoe or eiiy lo, see, and some cases
of demonstratives, especially the Ace. of ille and is; eccum for ecce eum;
eceam for ecce earn ; eccos for ecce eos ; eccillum, ecce ilium, eccUlamf ecce
illam ; eUumy en ilium ; ellamy en illam.
4. BemonatratiTe Adjectivei: tdlisy e, such; tanttu, a, um, so great; tdty
so many ; tatuSy a, um, so great. Tot is indeclinable ; the rest regular.
For talis, the Gen. of a demonstrative with modi (Gen. of modvSy meas-
ure, kind) is often us^d : kvjiismddi, ejusmMiy of this kind, such; iUiusmMiy
iatiusmMiy of that kind, such.
rV. Relativb Pbonouns.
187. Tte Relative qui^ who, so called because it relates
to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood, called
its antecedent, is declined as follows :
SINGDLAK.
M.
F.
N.
K
qui
quae
qu6d
a.
cujus
cujiis
cigtis
D.
cul
cui
cuf
A,
V.
A.
qn&m
quam
qu6d
quo
qua
quO;
qui
quoriim
qulbiis
qu5s
F
quae
quariim
quibtis
quas
N,
quae
quOrtim
qulbiis
quae
quibtis qulbiis qulbiis.
1. Ancient and Bare FormB : quojus and quoi for cujus and cul ; qui
for quo, qua, quo ; quis ((]^ueis) for qulbus.
2. Cum, wnen used with the ahtaUve of the relative, is generally append-
ed to it : quibuscum,
8. CnjiiB, a, um, whosey as a possessive formed from the genitive eujvSy
sometimes occurs,
4. Qoiennque and Qnisqois, whoevery are called from their sifnification
general relatives. Quicunque (quicum^ue) is declined like qm, Quisquis is
rare except in the forms : guisquiSy qutdquid (quicquid), qitoquo ; but an old
genitive cuicui for cujuscmus occurs.
5. Oomponnds mBiiAywi,—Qmcunque and similar compounds are some-
times resolved and their parts separated by one or more words : qua re can-
que.
PBONOUNS. . 63
6. Titer and ntereui^ii0, which and whichever, also occur with the force
of relatives.
7. BelatLTe AdyeetLves : qtidliSt e, such as ; quarUtis, a, um, so great ;
gfMty as many as; quotus, a, urn, of which number ; and the double and com-
pound forms: qucUieqtidliey qualiscunque ; quanttiequantus, quaniuscunque ;
quotquotf quot^nqtce ; quotuscunque.
■ Qtiotquot is indeclinable ; in the other double forms both parts are de-
clined ; in the forms in cunque, of course only the first part is declined.
For Qudlis tbe genitive of the relative with mMi is often used : evjus-
mddi (sometimes cmmddi), cuj'uscemMiy of what kind, such as ; cujusctinque-
madi, cuicuimodi (for cujvsct^usmddi, 4), of whatever kind.
V. Inierrogative Pronouns.
1 88. Interrogative Pronouns are used in asking ques-
tions. The most important are
Quia and qui with their compounds.
Quis (who, which, what?) is generally used substan-
tively, and is declined as follows :
M,
F.
N.
M,
R
N,
N. quts
G. cujtis
D. cui
A. quSm
V.
A, qu5
quae
cujtis
CUT
qufim
quid
cujtis
cut
quid
qui
quortim
quibtis
quOs
quae
quartim
quibtis
quas
quae
quOrtim
quibtis
quae
qua
quo;
quibtis
quibtis
quibtis.
Qui (which, what ?) is generally used adjectively, and is
declined like the relative qui.
1. Qnis and Quern sometimes occur as feminine forms.
2. Qui as an ablative with an adverbial force in the sense of howf
sometimes occurs. The other ancient forms are the same as in the relative,
187. 1.
8. Compoimdfl of qma and qui are declined like the simple pronouns :
qutenaniy qvmamy ecquiSy etc. But ecquis has sometimes ecqua for ecqttae.
4. InterrogatLve AdjectiYeB : (1) Qualiey e, what ? quantusy a, um, how
great ? qu^y how many ? qvHuSy a, um, of what number ? iUer, utra, utrum,
which (of two) ? See 149. (2) The Possessive interrogative, cujiMy a, um,
whose? and the Patrial eujasy Stis, of what country ?
Gujus is defective and little used. It has the Nom. and Ace. Sing., and
in the feminine also the Abl. Sing, and the Nom. and Accus. Plur.
VI. Indefinitb Pronouns.
189. Indefinite Pronouns do not refer to any definite
persons or things. The most important are
Quis and qui with their compounds.
64 PRONOUNS.
100. QuiSy any one, and qui, any one, any, are the same in
form and declension as the interrogatlves quia and qui.
1. Qnis and Qui are generally used after H, nisi, ne, and num; si qais,
si qui. But they also occur without such accompaniment
2. Qua for Quae.— After si, nisi, ne, and num, the Fern. Sing, and Neut.
Plur. have quae or qua : si quae, si qua.
191. From quia and qui are formed
I. The Indefinites :
altqnis, allqna, allquid or aliqnod, some, some one,
qnispiam, quaepiam, qnidpiam ^ or quodpiam, some, some one.
quidam, quaedam, quiddam or qnoddam, certain, certain one,
qnisqnam, quaequam qnidqnam,^ any one.
n. The General Ind^nites :
quisqne, quaeque, quidque' <?r quodque, every, every one.
qnivis, quaevis, quidvis <?rqnodvis, any one you please.
quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet <?r quodlibet, any one you please.
1. Declension. — It may be remarked
1) That these compounds are generally declined like the simple quis and
qui, but have in the Neut. Sing, both quoa and quid, the former used adjec
lively, the latter substantively.
2) That aliquis has dliqua instead of aliquae in the Fern. Sing, and Neutr
Plur. Aliqui for aliquis occurs.
3) That qiddam generally changes mion before d : quendam for quern-
dam.
4J That guisquameeneraXlj wants the Fem. and the Plur.
5) That Unus prefixed to quisque does not aflfect its declension : unus'
quisque, unaquaegue, etc.
2. Other TndeflnlteB are : alius, alter, uter, cUteHUer, neuter, ullus, nul-
lus, nemo.
8. Other General Indefinites may be formed from uter: vterque, both,
each ; utervis, uterlibet, either you please.
4. Indefinite Pronominal AdjectlYes : qualislibet, qualein)et, of any sort ;
aUquantus, a, urn, of some size ; aliquot (indeclinable)^ several.
For qualislibet the Gen. of an indefinite pronoun with mMi may be used :
eujusdanMdi, of some kind.
CHAPTEE IV.
VEEBS.
192. Verbs in Latin, as in English, express existence,
condition, or action : es% he is ; dormitj he is sleeping ;
legity he reads.
1 Bometimes wriften respectively, qttippiam and quieqiMtn.
' Sometimes written quicque.
YXBBS. 65
103. Verbs comprise two principal classes :
I. TRANsmvB Vbbbs, — ^which admit a direct object of
their action : servum verberatj he beats the slaye.
n. iNTRANSinyB YsBBS, — ^which do not admit such an
object : puer currity the boy runs.
194. Verbs have Yoice^ Mood^ Tenscj Number^ and
JPerson.
I. Voices.
195. There are two Voices :
I. The AcnvB Voice, — ^which represents the subject as
acting or existing : pater JUium ama% the father loves his
son ; eaty he is.
n. The Passive Voice, — ^which represents the subject
as acted upon by some other person or thing : JUius a poire
amdtur^ the son is loved by his &ther.
1. PaniTe Wanting. — ^Xntranatiye Verbs generally haye only the
active Toice, but are sometimes used impersonally in the passive. See
801. 8.
2. Aetive Wanting. — ^Deponent Verbs * are Passive in form, but not
in sense : IdguoTj to speak. But see 221.
n. Moods.
196. Moods are either Definite or Indefinite :
I. The Befinite or Finite Hoods make up the Finite
Verb ; they are :
1. The Indicativb Mood, — ^which either asserts some-
thing as a fact or inquires after the &ct : legit^ he is read-
ing ; kgitney is he reading ?
2. The SuBJUNcnvB Mood, — which expresses not an
actual fact, but a possibUity or conceptioriy often rendered
by may, can, etc. : legate he may read, let him read.
3. The Imperative Mood, — ^which expresses a commant^
or an entreaty : Uge^ read thou.
n. The Indefinite Hoods express the meaning of the
verb in the form of nouns or adjectives ; they are :
1 So called flrom depono^ to lay aside, as they dispense, in general, with the aetlTe
form and tlie passive meaning.
66 YXBBS.
1. The I nfjlnitive , — ^which, like the English Infinitive,
gives the simple meaning of the verb without any necessa-
ry reference to person or number : Ugere^ to read.
2. The Gebitnd, — ^which give&the meaning of the verb
in the form of a verbal noon of the second declension, used
only in the genitive^ dative^ accusative^ and ablative singu-
lar. It corresponds to the English participial noun in ing :
amandiy of loving ; amandi causa^ for the sake of loving.
3. The Supine, — ^which gives the meaning of the verb
in the form of a verbal noun of the fourth declension, used
only in the accitsative SiXid ablative singular: amdtum^ to
love, for loving ; amdtu^ to be loved, in loving.
4. The Participle, — ^which, like the English participle,
gives the meanmg of the verb in the form of an adjective.
A Latin verb may have four participles : two in the Active, the Pres-
ent and Future — amansy loving ; amaiUrus, about to love ; — and two in
the Passive, the Perfect and i^tvire—amatus, loved; aman(2i<4, deserving
to be loved.
in. Tenses.
197. There are six tenses :
I. Three Tenses foe Incomplete Action :
1. Present : amOy I love.
2. Imperfect : amiAam^ I was loving.
3. Future : amdbo^ I shall love.
n. Thbeb Tenses fob Completed Action:
1. Perfect : amdviy I have loved, I loved.
2. Pluperfect : amaveram^ I h|id loved.
3. Future Perfect : amavero, I shall have loved.
198, Rkmaeks ok Tenses.
1. Present PerfiBCt and Historical Perfect— The Latin Perfect some-
times corresponds to our Perfect with have {have loved), and is called the
Present Perfect or Perfect Definite ; and sometunea to our Imperfect or
Past {loved)^ and is called the Historical Perfect or Perfect Indefinite.
2. Principal and Historical. — ^Tenses are also distinguished as
1) Principal : — ^Present, Present Perfect, Future, and Future Perfect
2) Historical : — Imperfect, Historical Perfect, and Pluperfect
67
8. Tensei Wanting.— -The Subjunctiye wants the Future and Future
Perfect ; the Imperative has only the Present and Future ; the Infinitive,
osdj the Present, Perfect, and Future.
rV* NUMBEES.
199. There are two numbers: Singulae and Plubal.'
V. Peesons.
200. There are three persons: Fiest, Second, and
Thied.*
CONJUGATION.
201. Regular verbs are inflected, or conjugated, in
four different ways, and are accordingly divided into Four
Conjugations, distinguished from each other by the
INHNrnVE ENDINGS.
CopJ. L CJoi^. IL Co^J. IIL ConJ. IV.
are, 5re, Sre, ire.
202. Principal Parts, — ^Four forms of the verb, — the
Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative,
and Supine, — are called from their importance the Princi-
pal Parts of the verb.
203. Entire Conjugation. — In any regular verb
1. The Peesent Stem' may be found by dropping the
infinitive ending: amare; stem, am.
2. The Pbincipal Paets may be formed from this stem
by means of proper endings.
3. The Entieb Conjugation of the verb through all
its parts may be readily formed from these Principal
Parts by means of proper endings.*
^ As In Nouns. See 87.
> For fuller treatment of stems, see 241. 242.
* In the Paradigms of regular verbs, the endings, both those which distinguish
the Principal Parts and those which distinguish the forms derived from those parts,
are separately indicated, and should be carefully noticed.
68
VERBS.
804. Sum, lam.
Sum is used as an auxiliary ia the passive voice of regular
verbs. Accordingly its conjugatiou, though quite irregular, must
be given at the outset.
PEINCIPAL PAETS.
PreB. InH Perl Ind. Supine.
esse, ful, •
Indicative Mood.
Fbesent Tense.
Jam,
Pres. Ind.
sum,
singular.
PLURAL.
sum,
lam,
s&miis,
we are.
&,
thou art,^
est&,
you are.
est,
he is;
sunt,
they are.
Imperfect.
I was.
gr^,
I was,
grflm&s,
we were.
eras,
thou toaaty
eratia,
you were.
erfit,
he was ;
erant,
they were.
Future.
I shall or will be.
gr6,
I shall he,
grimus,
eris,
thou wilt be,
eritito,
you will be.
erit;
hewUlbe;
erunt,
they wiU be.
Perfect.
I have been, toas.
fui,
I have been.
fuimus,
we have been.
fuisa,
tJiou hast been.
fuistfa,
you have been.
fuit,
he has been;
fuerunt, )
fu5r«, ]
they have been.
Pluperfect.
/ had been.
fagram,
I had been.
fuSramtis,
we had been.
fugras,
thou hadst been,
fuSratiR,
you had been.
fu6rat,
he had been ;
fuSrant,
they had been.
Future Perfect.
I shall or will have beer
i.
fugr5,
I shall have been
S
fugnmfis,
fugris,
thou wilt have been.
fugriiis,
you will have been.
fugrit,
he toill have been
/
fu6rint,
they wUl have been.
1 Or you are ; thou is confined mostly to solemn discourse ; in ordinaiy English,
vou are is used both in the singular and in the plural.
69
sun,
SlB,
sit
fuSrim,
fu^ns,
fu^ritt,
fuiss^m,
faisses,
fuiss^t,
BINGtLAB.
I may he^
thou mayst be,
lie may he ;
Subjunctive.
Present.
I may or can be.
simus,
sitis,
sint.
PLURAL.
toe may be,
you may be,
they may be.
Imperfect.
I might, could, would, or should 6e.
I might be, essemOs, we might be,
thou mightst be, eaa^iSs, you might be,
he might be ; easent, they miglU be.
Perfect.
I may or can have been.
I may have been,
thou mayst have been,
he may have been ;
fuSrunus, we may have been,
fuSritiB, you may have been,
fu^rint, they may have been.
PlupIerfect.
I might, could, would, or should have been.
I might have been,
thou mightBt have been,
he might have been;
fuiflsemtis, we might have been,
fuissetis, you might have been.
fuiasent, they might have been.
Imperative.
I estS, be ye,
estot^, ye shall be.,
Pres. ^8, be thou,
FuT. est^, thou shalt be,^
est^, he shall be^;
Infinitive.
Pres. ess^, to be,
Perf. fuifls^, to have been,
FuT. futQrQs' ess^, to be about to
be.
1. Kare Forms are: fih-^, fSrSs, prU, flrent, and f&rS, for essem,
esseSy esset, essent, andfutQrus esse. See 297. III. 2.
2. Antiquated Forms are: sUhn, siSs, sU^, stent, for sim, sis, sit, sitit ;
also fuSm, fims, fuM, fuant, for the same.
1 The Fat may also be rendered like the Pres. or with let: bethoufMhimbe.
• FiOarus 18 declined like bonus, 8o in the InflnitiYe: futHrus, a, urn esse.
simt^, they shall be.
Participle.
FuT. filtQruB,' about to be.
70
FIRST CONJUGATION.
Pres. IncL
FIRST CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE.
S05. Amo, I love.
PEINCIPAL PARTS.
PreB. Inf. Perf. Ind. Sopine.
am^d, amavi, amSttlm.
Indicative Mood.
£mftS9
£mM,
Present Tense.
/ /ove, am lovingy do love,
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
//ove, ( ^ftntils, toe love^
thou lovestj Smfttls, you love^
he loves ; Smant,
Imperfect.
/ loved, VH18 lovifig, did love.
they love.
SmftbUjii,
fimftbfts,
fimftb&ty
fimftMt,
ibnav^rfts.
/ UHU loving J
thou vHut loviny,
he toaa loving;
Smft1»ilJatt.s, toe were loving^
lUnftbant,
you were loving^
they were loving.
Future.
/ shaU or will love.
I shall love,
thou wilt love,
he will love ;
£mftMtIs,
Smftbnitt,
Perfect.
/ loved, have loved.
we shall love,
you will love,
they wUl love.
I have loved,
thou hast loved,
he has loved;
I had loved,
thou hadsi loved,
he had loved;
imMinkikMf we have loved,
SmftvisllSy you have loved,
Sm&y^niiity €r^, they have loved-
Pluperfect.
/ had loved.
&mav^ra.mii w, we had loved,
fimAv^rfttis, you had loved,
&Dfiy^i*aiit, they had loved.
Future perfect.
I shall or will have loved.
I shall have loved,
thou wilt have loved,
he will have loved;
SmftT^rtmiUi, we shall ha»e loved,
fim&Y^ritf S9 you will have loved,
Smav^rint, they will have loved.
£m«S9
ACUVE
VOICE.
SUBJUNCTIVB.
Present.
/ may or can love.
SINGULAB.
PLURIL.
I may love^
Smemiis,
we may love^
thou mayst IcvCj
Ametfs,
you may /ow,
he may hve ;
fiment.
they may love.
n
Imperfect.
/ might, could, would, or should love.
I might love,
thou mightst love,
he might love ;
fimftr^Smiis, vje might love,
jlm&retls, you might love,
fimftreitty they might love.
Pertect.
/ may or can ftave loved.
flmfiy^rXniy I may have loved^
Smav^rts, thou mayst have loved,
SmSiY^trSt^ he may have loved;
Smfly^rtmiis, toe may have loved,
Smfly^rf tlSy you may have loved,
SmSLY^rixLt^ they may have loved.
Pluperfect.
/ might, could, would, qt should have loved.
^[inftyiss^m, I might have loved,
Smfiviss^Sy thou mightst have
loved,
SmAviss^t, he might have loved;
have
SjDSiyiMa9imikm9 we might
loved,
SmB.Ylm»iiti.m9you might have loved,
amSiYlM»en.t9they might have loved.
Imperative.
Fres. dm a, love thou ;
Fut. Smfttdy thou shall love,
Smfttfty h^ shall love ;
Infinitive.
Pres. ^ftr^, to love.
Perf. SmilTiss^, to have loved.
Fur. Smfltnriks * ess^, to
about to love.
GEEUiyD.
Smandl, of loving,
toa.itd$9 for loving,
ftoiandiiinLy loving,
Smandlly by loving.
be
SmAt^9 love ye.
£mftt5t^, ye shall love,
Smajitdy they shall love.
Paeticiple.
Pres. Smans,' loving.
Oen.
Dat,
Aec,
Abl.
Fut.
Ace.
Abl.
&Mt1l]rflL0,' about to love.
Supine.
to love,
to love, be loved*
1 Dodino like pruaens, 153.
3 Deeline Uke bonve, 143.
72
FIBST COKJUGATEOK.
FIRST CONJUGATION,
PASSIVE VOICE.
206. Amor, I am loved.
PBINCIPAI. PARTS.
Ptm* Ind. Pre& Int Perf lod.
dmfir, amaziy amattts stim.
Indicative Mood.
SnVOITLAB.
Imdr
Amftrls, or rd
fimftbftr
flmftbftris, or r^
Present Txnsk.
/am loved.
IlfPElUrECT.
/ tocM /oved
PLUBAL.
2mftBt^kr
j?TniimIwT
ihnllbftiiiliil
fimft1>aiitttr.
XmAbdr
toAl»^i4s, or r^
SmAMtta-i
flmflttts ^9
flmfltttfl est;
FUTURK.
/ shall or i0t// be loved,
Smft1»ii]itttr«
PEBrSCT.
/ have been or was loved,
Smfitl estis
fim&tl sunt.
Pluperfect.
/ had been loved.
Sm&tl Gratis
Future Perfect.
/ shall or tot// have been loved'.
Am&t«LS «rls IdnfitI iritis
Itrnfittts «rlt ; ^&tl «nuit.
» jPV«i, >\»<«ti, etc, are sometimes twed tor sttm^ m, etc., thus, anuUus /^i for
amdtus swn. Bo fuiram, J^Oras^ etc., tor ^Yim^ *«m, etc. ; also /«*•<>, fuiris^ etc
tor rfro, A^t, etc '
PASSIVE VOICE.
78
SINGULAR.
^[m^rls, or r^
b U B J U N C T I V E .
Pbesent.
/ may OP can he loved.
PLUBAL.
SmentiiiT*
Imperfect.
/ miglUf eovldy woidd, or slvovld he loved.
fimftr^r
ILmftrCrls, or r^
Smatiis aim i
&natiks sis
Smatiis sit;
£mar£iiiiir
Smftr^mXnI
Smftrentiir.
Perfect.
/ may have heen loved.
£mfitl slmtts
jtm&tl sltis
SmSil slnt.
Pluperfect.
/ 7«t^7t^, couldy would, or should have heen loved.
Sm&tiis essoin * amati ess^mtti^
^Im&tiis essCs Sm^tl essCtIs
&aatiis css^t ; SmSXl essent.
Imperative.
Fres. SmSLv^9 he thou loved;
Fut. ^atdr, thou shalt he loved,
SmSktHv^ he shall he loved;
Infinitive.
Fres. ^mftrl, to he loved.
Febf. iimatils ess^^ to have heen
loved.
FuT. ^matiUn Irl, to he about to
be loved.
j^ftm¥«l» he ye loved.
Itmantdr, they shall he loved.
Participle.
Perf. Smatiis, having been loved.
FuT. Smandits, to be loved.
* I^uirim,/u^ri8^ etc., are sometimes used for Hm, eis^ etc. So also/«i««wi,
fuissea^ etc., for eaaemy esses, etc. ; nxely/uisse for esse,
4
14
SECOND CONtVOATION.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE.
207. Moneo, I advise.
PEINCIPAL PARl'S.
Pres.Ind. Free. In£ Pert Ind. Sapineu
m6nedy m6ndr8, m6nui| mdnltiim.
Indicative Mood.
Pbesent Tense.
I advise.
SINGUUIS.
PLURAT..
m5ne6
mon^^miis
zndn^s
m5n^tlfii
m5n£t ;
m5neiit«
Imperfect.
/ toas advising.
indn«1»&m
mon^bftmiis
in5n«1»as
monCbfttis
mdn«b&t ;
mon^bant*
Future.
/ shall OP will advise.
in5n«1»d
mon^bXmiis
m5n«1»Is
m6ii«M«(fii
mdn«Mt;
monCbnnt.
Perfect.
/ advised or Aave advUed.
m5nul
m5nuX]i&iis
mSnuistl
monuistis
monuXt ;
monu^rant, or 4sr6
Pluperfect.
/ had advised.
m5na£r&m
monu^rftmiLs
monu^ras
monu^ratils
in6nu£rlit ;
monu^rant*
Future Perfect.
/ shall or in// Aaw advised.
mSiiu^rd I mSnu^riiiftttfli
in6nu£rts I mSnu^pttls
monu^rXt ; I mdnu^rliit.
ACTIVE VOICE.
i
1
Subjunctive,
Present.
BINGULAS.
m5ne&iii
mSneftt ;
/ may op
can advise,
PLURAL.
m6neBiMMkikM
mdneatls
mdneant*
Imperfect.
/ miglU,
monCr^m
m6ner^»
m6ner^t $
eotdd, toou
f(;?, or should advise,
m^nCrent*
Perfect.
/ may have advised,
monu£rtiiifl.s
in5nu£rttls
mdnu^rlnt*
Pluperfect.
I might, could, would,
m5nui«s^]ii
mdnuiss^s
or «/t02</(i have advised,
mSnuissent*
Imperative.
Pres. monS, advise
thou; 1 m5net^9 advise ye.
FuT. mon^t^9 thou shall advise,
m5n«t«M, ye 8/<a// ad
»6
Pres.
Perf.
Fut.
J7a^.
^cc.
xn&VLet^^ he shall advise ;
Infinitive.
monCrd, to advise.
monuiss^, to have advised.
moDttarii£» ess^, to be
about to advise.
Gerund.
manendi, of advising,
mdnenddy for advising,
mSnendtbiiiy advising,
mdnendd, by advising.
mdnentdy they shall advise.
Participle.
Pres. m5neii8, advising.
FuT. monitllLr jis^ about to advise.
Supine.
Ace, m^nitiiiii, to advise,
Abl. monittk, to advise, be advised.
76
Sl^O^D CONJUGATION.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
PASSIVE VOICE.
208. Moneor, I am advised.
PBINCrPAL PARTS.
P/es. Ind. Proa. Inf. Peif. Ind.
monedri mdngri, monitus siim.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
/ am advised.
SINGULAR.
monedr
mon^^ris, or r^
mon4&tiir ;
mSn^barXs, or r^
mdn4&1»atiir ;
PLURAL.
monCiiiXnl
monentitr*
Imperpec^.
I was advised.
mon^^bantiir.
m5ii4&1»dr
mdn^b^rXs, or r^
mon^bitiir ;
Future.
/ shall or will be advised.
mdn^bXmJir
Perfect.
/ have been or was advised.
monitiis ^s
mSnitiis est;
monitl sitmiis
moDitl estis
monitl sunt*
Pluperfect.
/ had been advised.
xnonittks ^rftnt' monitl ^rftmfl.s
monitiis ^rSL» monitl Gratis
monitils ^rat; monitl ^rant*
Future Perfect.
/ shall or will have been advised.
monitiis tSrd *
monitiks ^rXs
monittks ^rit;
momtl ^rlmits
monitl iritis
monitl ^runt*
» See 206, foot notea.
PASSIVE VOICE.
77
Subjunctive.
Present.
/ may or can he advised.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
mSnelir
mdneftris, or r^
moneatiir ;
moneftmiir
mdneamXiiI
moneantiir*
Imperfect.
/ mighty could^ tooiddy or shaidd be cuioiaed.
mon^r4&rXs, or r^
mon4&retiir ;
monCrentikir*
Perfect.
/ may have been advised.
monitiis slm ^ m5nitl slmiks
mSnitiis sis m5nitl sills
m5nitiis sit$ mSnitl slnt*
Pluperfect.
/ miffhty cotddy vrndd, or alundd have been advised.
monitiis ess^m'
mdnitiis ess^^
momttt.s ess^t J
monitl ess€iiiiLs
mSnitl ess^lls
m5nitl esseiit*
Imperative.
Pres. monCr^y be thou advised; | mon^mXiiI, be ye advised.
Fut. mon^tdr, tho^i s/ialt be ad-
visedj
moD^tdr, he shall be ad-
vised;
Infinitive.
Pres. monCrl, to be advised^
PsRF. mdnitiis ess^^ to have been
advisedy
Fut. m5mtil]ii Irl, to be about
to be advised.
monentdr, they shall be advised
Participle.
Perf. m5nitiiS9 advised,
Fut. monendiLs, to be advised.
1 See 206, foot notes.
18
THIBD CONJUGATIOX.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE.
209. Rego, I rule.
PRINCIPAL PABTS.
Prea. Ind.
Pre8.Int Perl Ind. Supine.
regd,
regSrS, rexi
[| rectum.
Indicative M
OOD.
Present Tense.
/ rule.
BUIOULAR
PLURAL.
rggd
rt^gboBkika
r6gi»
rggWis
rggit;
rggniit*
Imperfect.
/ was ruling.
n^g«1>&m
rgg«1>ftniiis
rgg«1»as
rgg«1»atXs
rgg«1>&t$
rggSbant.
Future.
/ shall or mil rule
rggftm
r^g^miis
rggCs
r^gStls
rgg^t;
Perfect.
rCgent^
/ ruled or have ruled.
rexl
reidmiis
rexlstl
rexistils
rexit;
rexSnutty or ^r^*
Pluperfect.
Ihadruled,
rex^r&m
rex^ramiis
rex^ra*
rex^ratls
rex«r&t ;
rex^rant.
Future Perfect.
/ shall or will have ruled.
rex^rd
rex^rinftiis
rex^rts
rex^rltls
rex^rlt ;
rex^rint.
AcnvB
VOICE. *l
Subjunctive.
Prksknt.
/ may or can rule.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
r^g&m
r6gft»
rggftt;
r^gamiis
r€gatX«
regant.
Imperpkct.
/ miglU^ cotUdy vmUd, or should ride.
rSg^r^m
rgg^pCs
r«g«p«t;
rgg«r«til8
rgg^rent.
Perfect.
/ matf have ruled.
rex^rim
rex^rimiis
rex^rts
rex^rttls
rex^ilt ;
rex^rlnt.
Pluperfect.
/ mighty eould^ tww/rf, op should have ruled.
rexiss^m
rextss^^miis
rexis0«8
rextss^tis
rexims^t;
rexissent.
Impbbativb,
Pbes.
r«g«, ru/^/Aot*; | rggit«, ru/^ye.
FUT.
rggXt4^, ^Aoti «A«/^ rwfe, rggiMM, ye shall rule,
T^git69 he shall rule ; r^guntd, they shall rule.
Infinitive. Pabticiple.
Prks.
FERr.
rSg^rd, to ru/e.
rexlss^, to have ruled.
Pres. rggcm», rtt/%.
FUT.
rectOiiis ess^, to be about
to rule.
FuT. rectttrtts, aftowf to rwZe.
Gebund. Supine.
Gen.
Dot.
Ace.
Ahl.
rggendl, of ruling,
r^gendd, /or rtt/iw^r,
rggendttm, ruling,
r^gendd, by ruling.
-4<?<?. reclttm, tor«fe,
Ahl. • recta, to ru/e, be ruled.
19
80
THIBD CONJUGATIOX.
THIRD OOKJUGATION.
PASSIVE VOICE.
210. Regor, I am ruled.
PBINCIPAL PABTS.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Int Perfl Ind.
regSr, regi, rectiis siim.
Indicative Mood
Pkksent Tense.
/ am ruled.
SINGULAR.
regdr
r^g^rXs, or r^
regC'b&r
r^gCbftris, or rfi
r^gd>&tikr ;
Impebfeot.
/ UHM nded.
PLURAL,
r^giminl
r^guntiir*
rgg4&1»aiiiilr
rgg€l>ftin¥iil
rgg£1>ajil;&r.
r^glir
rSgCrls, <yr r*
rSgCtiir ;
rectiis sikm'
rectiis £s
rectiis est;
rectiis ^r&m
rectiis ^rfts
rectiis ^r&t;
Future.
/ shall or will he ruled,
rgg^miiir
r^g^^mXnl
rggentiir*
Perfect.
/ have been or was ruled.
recti siimiis
recti estis
recti sunt.
Pluperfect.
/ had been ruled,
recti ^rftmiis
recti Gratis
recti ^rant.
Future Perfect.
/ shall or will have been ruled.
rectiis ^rd *
rectiis ^rls
rectiis £rlt ;
recti ^rlmiis
recti iritis
recti ^rimt.
1 See 206, foot notes.
PA6SIVIB VOICE.
81
r^gantikr*
Subjunctive.
Preseiit.
/ may or can be ruled,
8INGULAB. PLURAL.
rgg&T r^gftmibr
r^gftris, or r^
Imperfect.
/. mighty eoidd, icauldy or should he ruled.
rdg^r^r I rSg^rCiiiiir
r^g^rCrls, or r^ I rSg^r^minl
r^^r^tiir ; I r^g^rentiir.
Perfect.
/ may have been ruled,
rectus slm^ recti slmiis
rectiis sis recti sitis
rectiis sit ; recti slnt.
Plup|rpect.
/ migfUf coiddj loouldj or should have been ruled.
rectiis essoin*
recttt.s ess«s
rectus ess^t ;
recti essCmtts '
recti e»»etls
recti essent*
Impebativb.
Pres. rSg^r^, be thou ruled; \ r^glmlnly be ye ruled,
Fut. r^gXtdr, thou shall be ruled, I
rggXtdr, lie shall be ruled; \ r^gnntJ^r, (hey shall be ruled.
Infinitive.
Pres. r^gl* to be ruled
Perf. recttt.s ess^j to have been
ruled,
Fut. rectttm Irl, to be about to
be ruled.
Pabticiple.
Perf. rectus, ruled,
Fut. rSgendtts, to be ruled.
1 Bee 20e, foot notes.
82
FOUBTH CJONJUGAHON.
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
ACTIVE VOICE.
211. Audio, I hear.
PEmCIPAL FABTS.
Prei. IndL Fres. InC
Per£ Ind. Bnplneu
audiS, audirS, audlvf, , auditiim.
Indicativb Mood.
Present Tense.
/ hear.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
audid
audlmtts
audls
audltis
audit;
audliuit.
Imperfect.
/ toa< hearing.
audl«1>&m
audiebftmiiei
audl^bas
audl4&1»&tlfii
audieb&t;
audiebaiit.
Future.
/ ahall OTwill hear.
audi&m
audi^mtts
audi«s
audi«tis
audi^t ;
audlent.
Perfect.
/ heard or have heard.
audivl
audivlmiks
audivistl
audlvistto
audlTlt ;
audlyCmnt, or 4&r^«
Pluperfect.
I had heard.
andlY^r&m
audlT^ramtts
andlT^rfts
audlv^ratfs
audiyerlit ;
audiv^rant.
Future Perfect.
/ shall or vfill have heard.
audir^rd
audiv^riiiftifLS
audiv^rts
audlv^rftls
audiT«rIt ;
audiv^rlnt*
ACIiyZi TOICE.
SUBJUNGTIVB,
SINGULAR.
/ may or can hear.
PLURiL.
audlitjUL
audlftt ;
audUtantts
audifttto
audiont.
Imperfect.
/ mighty eouldy tew
aadlr^in
audlr^^s
audlr^t ;
M^ or shotdd hear.
audlrCiiiiks
audlr«tl»
audlrent.
Perfect.
aAiT^rim
audiY^rls
audiv^rft ;
/ may have heard,
audir^riiiftiks
audiT^rttXs
audlT^rlnt.
Pluperfect.
/ mighty coiddy tootUd, or should Iiave heard.
audlviss^iii I audlyissdaiis
audivifiis^s I audlvissd^s
au(&vlss^t; I audivissent,
Impebative.
Pbes. audi, hear thou ;
Fur. audita, thou shall hear,
audlt4^, he shall hear ;
Infinitive.
Pbes. audli*^, to hear.
Perf. au^yiss^9 to have heard.
FuT. auditlliiis ess^, to he
about to hear.
Geeund.
Gen, audlendl, of hearing.
Dot. .audleiid[$9 for hearing.
Aec. audlendttin, hearing.
Ahl. audie]id$9 by hearing.
audita* hear ye.
audlt5t^9 ye shall hear^
audiiint4^9 they shall hear.
Pabticiple.
Pres. audiens, hearing.
FuT. auditfkrftSy a6ot^ to hear.
Supine.
Aec. aucUtttm, to hear.
Ahl. audltfty to hear, be heard.
84
FOUBTH CONJUQAHOX
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
PASSIVE VOICE.
212. Audior, lam heard
Fres. Ind.
PBmCIPAL PABTS.
Fre&InU
Ferf. lod.
audidr, audiri, audittis silm.
Indicative Mood.
Pbeseitt Tense.
/ am heard.
SINGULAR.
plural.
audidr
audimtir
audlrXs, or r^
audlmlnl
audltiir ;
Imperfect.
#
/ toas heard.
audi^b&r
audiCbamtir
audiebarlsy or r^
audl^&b&mXiiI
aucli«1»atiir ;
audiCbanttir.
Future.
/ shall or toill be heard.
audl&r
audi^mtir
audl4&rls, or r^
audiCiiiXiiI
audi4&tiir ;
audi^^nttir.
Perfect.
/ have been heard.
audittis 9ttm '
audltl stimtis
audlttts ^»
auditi cstis
auditiis est ;
audltl sunt.
Pluperfect.
/ had been heard.
audittts «rftm '
auditi ^ramtis'
audittts ^i-as
auditi Gratis
audittis £r&t ;
audltl ^raAt.
Future Perfect.
/ shall or will have been heard.
audittis «r6 '
audltl «r¥miis
audittis ^rls
audltl «i^tis
audittis «rXt ;
audltl ^ruut*
»S«e 206,1
foot notes.
fassiyjb: voice.
Subjunctive.
Present.
/ may or can be heard,
SINGULAR.
audi&r
audiarls, or r^
audiatiir ;
Imperfect.
85
PLURAL.
audlftmikr
aadiftmXnl
aadlantiir*
/ mighty coMy wouldy or should be heard.
audlr^p
audlr©rf», or r*
audlretiir ;
audlrCmiir
andlr^mlnl
aadlrentttr*
Perfect.
/ may have been heard,
auditits slm^ auctiti slmiis
auditiks sis auditi sitis
audittks sit ; audltl slnt*
Pluperfect.
/ mighty eouldy toouldy or should have been heard,
auditiks ess^m ^ I auditl ess^miis
auditiks ess^s audltl essCtils
auditiks ess^t ; I audltl essent.
Impebativb.
Pres. audlr«, be thou heard; \ audlmiml, be ye heard.
FuT. midTt6r9thoushaltbeheardy I
SLudlt6r9 he shall be heard; \ audiuntftr, they shall be heard.
Infinitive.
Pres. audlrl, to be heard,
Perf. auditiks ess^, to have been
heard.
FuT. auditikm Irl, to be about
to be heard.
Pabticiple.
Perf. auditiks, heard.
FuT. audiendiks, to be heard.
^ See 206> foot notes.
86 YBBBS IN 10.
VERBS IK 10 OF THE THmD CONJUGATION.
213. Verbs in to are generally of the fourth conjaga-
tioD, and even the few which are of the third are inflected
with the endings of the fourth whereyer those endings
have two successive vowels, as follows :
ACTIVE VOICE.
214. Capio, I take.
PRINCIPAL PAET8.
Prea. Ind. Pret. Inf. Ferf. Ind. Bnpine.
capi8, c&pere, cepi, captilm.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense,
singulab. plural.
d(pi5, cSpHs, cSptt ; | cSpimtis, cSpItfe, cSpiunt
Imperfect.
cSpieb&n, 'iebas, -iebSt ; | cSpiebamus, -igb&tis, -iebant.
Future.
cSpi&my -ies, -iSt ; | dtpiemus, 4etis, -lent.
Perfect.
cepi, -isti, -tt ; | oepimiiB, -istts, -Srunt, gt SrS.
Pluperfect.
cepSriUn, -^rfis, -^r&t ; | cepdrftmtis, -grftUs, -^rant.
Future Perfect.
eepgr^, -Srfa, -5rit; | cepSrimiis, -Sntas, -Srint.
Subjunctive.
Present.
dtpiSm, -ULs, -lit ; | c^pifimOs, -i&tKlB, -iant.
Imperfect.
cSpSrSm, -^res, grSt; | citpjgremiifl, -^rStis, -^rent
Perfect.
cepSrim, -^ns, -€rit ; | cepSrimus, -«riti(fl, -Srint
Pluperfect.
cepissSm, -isaes, -issSt ; | cepissemiis, -iasetis, -issent.
YBBBS m 10.
SI
Impbbative.
8IN0ULAB.
Pbis. cSpd;
FuT. c2pit6,
cfipitS; .
Infinitive,
Pbes. cSp^rS.
Pert. cSpissd.
Fur. captQriis ess^.
Gbbund.
Gen. cSpiendi.
Dot. cSpiendl(.
Ace* cSpiendiim.
Abl, cSpiendft.
. PLUBAL.
cSpitS.
cSpit6t$,
cSplunt^.
Pabticiplb.
Pbes. cSpiens.
FuT. captQriis.
Supine.
Aee. captiim.
Abl. captCL
PASSIVE VOICE.
215. Capior, I am taken,
PBINCIPAL PABTS.
Pres. Ind. Pre& Int Perf. Ind.
c&pidr, capl, captCis stim.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
SINOULAB. PLUBAL.
cSpidr, cSp^rls, cSpitilr ; | cSptmiir, c^plmlni, cSpiuntiir.
Impebfect.
cSpiebSr, -ieb&nis, -iebatur ; | cSpieb&m&r, -ieb&mini, -iebantiir.
FUTUBE.
dCpl&r, -ienis, -iet&r ; | cSpi6mur, -iSmln!, -ientur.
Pebfect.
captiis sihn, ^s, est ; | capti s&mus, estifs, sunt
Plupebfect.
captiis SrSm, Srfis, grSt ; | capt: ^rflmiis, Srfttits, grant
FUTUBE PeBPECT.
capt&s SrS, Siis, Srit ; | capti SiMfifl^ gritib, dnmt
88
VERBS IN lO.
SINGULAR.
capiSr, -iaris, -iatur ;
SUBJUNCTIVB.
Pbxsent.
PLURAL.
I cSpiamur, -iamlDl, -ianttir.
Imperfect.
dlpSrcr, -erCris, -^rCtiir ; | cSpSremur, -Srgmmi, -grentur.
Perfect.
captus sim, sis, sit ; | capti simus, sltis, sint.
• Pluperfect.
captas cssSm, esses, essgt ; | capti easgmus, essetis, essent.
•
Imperative.
Pres. cap^rg; | c3pimini.
FuT. cSpitSr, I
• cSpitSr; I cSpiuntor.
Infinitive. Participle.
Pres. cSpi.«
Perf. captiis essg.
FuT. capttim iri.
Perf. captiis.
Fdt. cSpiendfis.
SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION.
216. FIRST CONJUGATION.
I. ACTIVE VOICE.
1. PiMNciPAL Parts.
amo, amare, amavl, amatum.
2. Moods and Tenses.*
INDIOATIVB.
Pres, Smo
Imp, £mab£m
Fut, «mab6
Perf, ftmavl
Plup, ftmavgram
F, P. amavgrS
GeniTu
ftmargm
ftmaverim
fimavissgm
f, Smandi, d5, e
IMPKB.
Sma
SmatS
to. Supi
AmarS
fimatQriis essS
Smayissd
««, fimatum, u.
PABTICIPLl.
Smans.
^maturiis.
> These tables, it will be observed, are so arranged as to exhibit not onlj the
synopsis of each mood through the dlflferent tenses, as, iKDia amo, wmaham^ etc, but
also the synopsis of each tenBe through the different moods, as, Pbbs. amo, <zm«m,
anyj,^ etc The pupil should make himself so familiar with the verbs, as they occur
in his reading lessons, as to be able to give the synopsis of any mood through all the
tenses, or of any tense through all the moods.
SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION,
n. PASSIVE VOICE.
1. Principal Pabts.
amdr, amari, ^matus s&m.
2. Moods and Tenses.
89
INDIOATIVC
Pre8. ibnoT
Imp, &iiabar
Fut. |[m&bor
Perf, SmdtiiB stim
Plup, ^DmatOs €rSm
F. P. Smatiis «r6
BlTBJXTKCnYX.
IMPKB.
Smgr
2mAr€
Smator
SmAri
Smfttiimiri
Smfltiis esaS
217. SECOND CONJUGATION.
i. active voice.
1. Principal Paris.
mdiie5, m5n€re, mdnui, mdnitum.
2. Moods and Tenses.
Pres, mSneii
moneSm
m5n6
rnonei^
monens.
Imp, monebSm
moner^m
Fut, in5iieb&
mSnetS
mSnituriis essd
monitOrOs.
Perf, mSnuI
monugrfm
mdnuifisfi
Plup. monu^rSm
F. P, mSnugrS
mdnuissSm
Gerundy mdnendl, d$, etc. Supine, mdnitum, Q.
n. PASSIVE VOICE.
1. Principal Parts.
mdneor, mdneri, mdnitus sum.
2. Moods and Tenses.
Pres, m5ne5r
Imp, mdnSMr
Fut. mSneWr
Perf. mdnitus sQm
Plup. monitiisdrto
F. P. mdnitiis drd
mSneSr
mdnSrdr
monit&fl atm
momtilscssem
mdnerfi
mSnetor
mdneri
mdnitum in
mdnitOs ess5
mdnendua
mdnitiis.
90
6TKOFSI8 OF CONJUGATION.
218. THIRD CONJUGATION.
L ACTIVE VOICE.
1. Peincipai. Pabts.
regS, regSre, rexi, rectum.
2. Moods and Tenses.
SUBJUBOnVl^
IMPKB.
omvniYS.
Pres. rfgi
i^gSm
rfigfi
ifigei«
Imp, r^gebSm
r^g^rgm
ffka. i^gftm
r«git6
TectQru8e8G&
Perf. rexi
rex^iim
lexissft
Plup, rex^rSm
F. P. rexgrft
lexiss&n
Gerund, regendi, do, etc. Supine, rectiim, 0.
n. PASSIVE VOICK
1. Principal Pabts.
r6g6r, r6gi, rectus sum.
2. Moods and Tenses.
PABXXCIPUL
rectoriis.
Pres. rSgSr
rgg«p
i^get«
rfgi
Imp, rggebSr
r«g€r«r
Pha. r«gfip
i«git6r
rectum iri
rSgendiia
Per/, rectOsfliim
rect&s^[m
rectus essS
rectus.
Plup, rectus erSm
F. P. rectus grft
rectus ess^m
219. VERBS IN 10 OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
i. active voice.
1. Peincipal Pabts.
c&piS, capere, cepi, captum.
2. Moods and Tenses.
Preh, cSpi5 iApiSm cSp$ cSpSrd
Imp, cdpiebSm cSpSr^m
i<W. cdpUm d(pit6 captOrtis essfi
Perf, c6pi cep5rfm cSpissfi
P/uo. cSpSrSm cepissdm
F, P. cep5r5
Oerund, cSpiendi, d5, etc. Supine, captum, fx.
cSpiens.
cSptQrus.
SYNOPSIS OP CONJUGATION.
91
IL PASSIVE VOICE.
1. Pkincipal Pabts.
c&pior, cap], captus sum.
2. Moods and Tenses.
INDICAnTB. BUBJFNOTTVX. TICPKB. IMFIKITIVK. FABTZCXPUL
Prea. cSpior
Imp, cSpiebSr
Fut. cSpi^r
Per/, captus stim
Pltip. captus tJr&n
F. P, captus 6r6
dlpiitr
ciq)tus Sim
captus essoin
c2pitdr
cSpi
capt&m iri
captus essd
cSpiendus.
captiis.
220. FOURTH CONJUGATION.
i. active voice.
1. Pmncipal Pabts.
audi5, audire, audivi, audltum.
2. Moods and Tenses.
Pres, audi6
Imp, audieb^
Fut. audiidn
Per/, audivi
Plup. audivSrSm
F. P. audivgrd
audi^m
audir&n
auctivSiim
audlYiflsdm
audi
audita
audird
anditOrils essfi
au<iUyis86
audiens.
auditOruB.
Gerund^ audiendl, d5, etc. Supine^ audit&m, tt.
n. PASSIVE VOICE.
1. Principal Pabts.
aiididr, audiri, auditus sum.
2. Moods and Tenses.
Pres, audiSr
Imp, audigbSr
Fut, audi^r
Per/. auditOs siim
Plup. auditus €r&m
F. P. auditds «r6
audiSr
audirgr
audltOfl e£ai
aadltiis ess&n
audlrd
audltdr
audin
auditiimiri
auditus easft
andiendiiS.
atfditus.
DEPONENT VERBS.
221. Deponent Verbs have in general the forms of the
Passive Voice with, the signification of the Active. But
92
DEPONENT YSBBS.
1. They have also in the Active, the future infinitive, the participles,
gerund, and supine.
2. The Future passive participle generally has the passive significa-
tion ; sometimes also the perfect passive ; hortandus, to be exhorted ; ex-
pertiUy tried.
8. The Future Infinitive of the Passive form is rare, as the Active
form is generally used.
SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION.
FIRST CONJUGATION.
222. B.oTtor, I exhort.
I. Peinctpal Paets. ,
hortdr, hortaii, hortatus sum.
II. Moods and Tenses.
INDICATIYZ.
Prc«. hortor*
Imp. hortab&r
Fut, hortabor
Per/. hortatOs sum
Plup, hortatus ^r^
K P. hortatus gr8
BUBJITNCnyB.
horter
hortar^r
hortatus sun
hortatCisess^m
IMPXS.
hortard
hortat5r
hortan
hortatOrus essS
hortatiis ess2
PABTXGIFLB.
hortans.
j hortatOrus.
(hortandiis.
hortat&s.
Gerund, hortandl, d5, etc. Supine, hortatilm, G.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
223. Vereor, I fear.
I. Peincipal Parts.
vere6r, vereri, verltus sum.
n. Moods and Tenses.
Pres. vereor
Imp, vgrebfir
vSrefir
vgrergr
vfirerS
vfirgri
vSrens.
Fut. vgrgbor
v6rSt8r
vfiritarfis ess5
(vSrituriia.
(vfirendiis.
vSritiis.
Per/, vgrTtfis sQm
Plup,Y^ritt^&TSm
KP.ymtuaM
v^ritiis Sim
vfiritus essSm
vfiritiis esse
Gerund, vgrendi, dIJ. Supine, vgritum, ft.
» The tenses are Inflected regularly through the persons and numbers ; hortdr^
hortoHa^ hortdt&r^ TbortdmUr, Tiortdanlnl, hortantUr,
AU the forms in this synopsis have the active meaning, I eoehort, I toaa exhort"
ing^ etc., except the Pari, in due, which has the passive force, aJxna to he eodhoried^
to l>6 eoDhorted, From its passive force this Part cannot be used in intransitive Dep.
verbsi except in an impersonal sense. See 801, 2 and B,
SYNOPSIS OF CONJUGATION.
93
THIRD CONJUGATION.
224. Sequor, I foUow.
I. Pbincipal Pabts.
sequor, sequi, secdtus sum.
n. Moods and Tenses.
INDICATIVE. BVBJUNOTITX. IXPSS. WTIMITiyE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres,
Imp.
Fui,
Perf.
Plup.
P.P.
s^quergr
s^cQtus film
secQtus eas^m
fi&quilor
s&qui
figcQturiis cssg
sScutiis essd
sequor
sSqugb^
s^qu^r
s^cGtiis sum
secQtus gr^lm
secutus gr6
6^erun(;?,.s§queiidi, d5, etc. Supimy sSeatum, u.
225. Patior, / suffer.
I. Peincipal Pabts.
patidr, patl, passus sum.
n. Moods and Tenses.
sSquens.
fs^Qtdrus.
sSquendua
sdcQtus.
Pres,
Imp.
Put.
Per/.
Plup.
P.P.
potior
pSti^r
sum passus sim
passes ^rSm passus ess^m
passus €r6
Qerund, pStiendl, do, etc. Supine, passum, u.
pStSrg
pStitor
p2ti
passurus ess5
passus essfi
p^tiens.
(passurus.
pStiendiis.
passus.
blandidr,
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
226. Blandidr, I flatter.
L Principal Parts.
blandiri, blanditus sum.
II. Moods and Tenses.
Pres.
blandior
blandiSr
blandirfi
blandiri -
blandiens.
Imp.
blandiebSr
blandirer
Put.
blandULr
blandi-
blandituriis cs-
blandituriis
tor
e&
blandiendiis
Perf.
blanditus
sum
blanditus sun
blanditus essS
blanditus.
Plup.
blanditus
€rSm
blanditus es-
B^m
P.p.
blanditus
«r6
Gerund,
blandiendi, d5,
etc. Suj
oine, blanditiim,
Q.
94
PKBIPUBASTIC CONJUGATION.
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
227. The Latin has also two Periphrastic conjugations,
formed respectively from the two regular future participles
combined with the various tenses of the auxiliary 8um.
228. The First or Active Periphrastic conjugation,
compounded of the Future Active participle and «/m, ex-
presses an intended or future action or state: amaturua sum^
I am about to love ; moniturus sum, I am about to advise»
229. The Second or Passive Periphrastic conjugation,
compounded of the Future Passive participle and suntj ex-
presses necessity or duty : amandus sum, I must be loved.
L AcmvE Periphrastig Conjugation.
230. Amatarus sum, I am about to love.
Fres.
Imp,
Fut,
Perf,
Flup.
INDIOATITI.
SmatQriis siim '
Sm&tQnis ^ro
ftmattirfls fui
&matur^ fuSrSm
SUBJUNCTITI.
Itmaturiis sun
SmatOrCis essSm
&natQr&fl fuSrim
&ii(lturi^ fuissfim
IHFIHITIYI.
Smaturiis essd.
I^mfituriis fuis&i.
Fut, Ferf, amaturiis fu6r8*
II. Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.
231. Amandus sum, I must be loved^
Fres, Smandiis stim Smandiis ^mi Smandus essS.
Imp, Smandiis Srftm ^nandiis essdm
Fut, Smandus gro
Ferf. ^mandtiB fui SmandQs fuSiun ^[mandus fuissS.
Flup. Smandtis fufirfim toandiis fuissSm
Fut, Ferf. fimandfis fu6p5
232. The Periphrastic Conjugation, in the widest sense of the term,
includes all forms compounded of participles with sum : amana est^ he is
loving; amat virus eat, he is about to love; amatvs esty he has been loved;
amandus est, he is to be lovedj or must be loved. But as the Pres. Part,
with sum is equivalent to the Pres. Ind. {ainans est = amat), and is ac-
cordingly seldom used, and as the Perf. Part, with sum is, in the strictest
sense, an integral part of the regular conjugation, the term Feriphrastie is
generally limited to the two conjugations above given.
233. The First Periphrastic conjugation may be formed from either
transitive or intransitive verbs; the Second from transitive verbs only,
except in an impersonal sense. See 801. 2.
1 The i>erlphrastic forms are inflected regularly through the persoDS and num-
bcni: amatHrua stim, m, eat. The Fut. Perf. Is exceedingly ive.
> Or, I deserve (ought) to he loved^
PECULIABITIES IN CONJUGATION. 95
CONTRACTIONS AND PECULIARrTlES IN CONJUGATION,
234. Perfects in Svi, evi, ivl, and the tenses derived
from them, sometimes drop v and suffer contraction before
8 and f . Thus
A4 and a-e become a : amavuti (amaisti), amasti ; amav^ram (amae-
ram), amdram ; amavisse (amaisse), amasie,
E-i and e-e become S : nSvi (to spin), nevisti (neisti), nesti ; nevSrunt^
(neerunt), nerurU,
I-i becomes i: aitdivisti (audiisti), avdisti; audivUsem (audlissem),
audissem.
1. Perfects in ivi sometimes drop v in any of their forms, but generally
without contraction, except before 8 : audlvi, audii, audiit, audieram ; audi-
visH, audiisU or audisti,
2. Perfects in dvi, — The perfect of noscOt to know, and mdveOf to more,
sometimes drops v and suffers contraction before r and 8 : novisti, nosH,
8. Perfects in si and xi sometimes drop i9, i88y or sis: scripsisU, scripsti;
dixisse, dixe ; acoessistiSf accesUs.
235. Er^ for emnt, as the ending of the third Pers. PI. of the
Perf. Ind. Act., is conmion in the historians.
The form in ere does not drop v. In poetry emnt occurs.
236. Re for zifl in the ending of the second Pers. of the Pass, is
rare in the Pres. Indie.
237. Die, duo, &c, and far, for dlce^ duee, JTice^ and f^re, are the
Imperatives of dicOy ducOjfacio, and/ero, to say, lead, make, and bear.
1. Dice, dace, asid/ace occur in poetry.
2. Compounds follow the simple verbs, except those of faeio which
change a into i: con/ice,
238. Uxidus and tindi for endiis and endi occur as the endings of
the Fnt. Pass. Part, and of the Gerund of Conj. lU. and IV. : dicundus
from dlcoy to say; potiundits, from pdtior^ to obtain.
239. Ancient and Rare Fobhs. — ^Various other forms, belonging
in the main to the earlier Latin, occur in the poets, even of the classical
period, and occasionally also in prose, to impart to the style an air of an-
tiquity or solemnity. Thus forms in
1. ibam for i^m, in the Imp. Ind. of Conj. FV. : sctbam for sci^m. See
Imp. of eOf to go, 295.
2. ibo, ibor, for iam, iar, in the Fut. of Conj. IV. : servtbo for serviam ;
opperibor for opperiar. See Fut. of eo, 295.
8. im for am or c«t, in the Pres. Subj. : edim^ edis, etc., for edam, as, etc. ;
duim (from duo, for do), for dem.—ln sim, veUm, noUm, maUm (204 and 293),
im is the common ending.
96
YEBBS.
4. astOf es80, and to, in the Fut. Perf., and oMftm, essim, and nm, in the
Perf. Subj. of Conj. I. IL IIL : faxo (facso) for federo {from f ado) ; faxim for
fecerim ; ausim, for arisna sim (for atuih^m, from attdeo). Rare examples
are: levasso for levatero; prohibesso for prohibvero; eapso for eepero; axo
for ^cro / j'm««? for Jusaero / ocOaii for ocdderit ; taxis for tetigerU.
5. ^ and mim> for ^r, the former in both numbers, the latter in the sin-
gular of the Fut. Imp. Pass, and Dep. : arbitral, arbUramino for arhitrdior ;
utufUo for utuntor.
6. ier for i in the Pres. Pass. Infin. : amarier for amdri; viderier for
widiri.
FORMATION OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OF THE VERB.
240. Principal Parts. — ^From an inspection of the
paradigms, it will be seen, that the Principal Parts are
formed in the four conjugations with the following end-
ings:'
I. 0,
atum.
[eo
In a few verbs:
, ere, evi,
In most verbs ;
, ere, ui,
etum.
Ktam.
.0,
In consonant^ms :
fere, si,
In vowel stems :
fere, i.
turn,
turn.
IV. io,
ire, ivi.
Examples.
Itum.
L
Amo,
amare, amavi.
am&tum, io love.
n.
1. Dcleo,
2. Moneo,
delere, delgvi,
monere, monui.
deletum, to destroy,
monltmn, to advise.
[H.
[V.
1. Carpo,
' 2. Acuo,
Audio,
carp€re, carpsi,
acufire, acui,
audire, audivi.
carptum, to pluck,
acutum, to sharpen.
auditum, to hear.
241. Entiee Conjugation. — ^Again, from an inspec-
tion of the paradigms, it will be seen, that all the forms of
any regular verb, through aU the moods and tenses of
both voices, arrange themselves in three distinct groups or
systems of forms:
> The forms in hd and ittun of Conj. II. do not occur in the paradigms given
above, but belong to the regular forms of those coiijagations. For a iiiller statement
of the formation of the Principal Paris with Bcceptions^ see 24G-26(X
FORMATION OF PASfFS. ©7
I. The Pbesent System, with the Present Infinitive
as its basis, comprises
1. The Present^ Imperfect^ and Future Indicative — Active and
Passive.
2. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive — ^Active and Passive.
3. The Imperative — ^Active and Passive.
.4. The Present Infinitive — ^Active and Passive.
5. The Present Active and Future Pamve Participle,
6. The Gerund.
These parts are all formed from the Fteaent Stem^
found in the Present Infinitive of the several conjugations,
by dropping the endings — dre^ ere^ ^re, ire of the Active,
or — ariy eri^ % ir^, of the Passive : amdre^ present stem,
am; fnonere, mon; regh'e^ bbg; audvrey aud.
n. The Peepeot System, with the Perfect Indicative
Active as its basis, comprises in the Active voice
. 1. The Perfect^ Pluperfect^ and Future Perfect Indicative.
2. The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive.
8. The Perfect Infinitive.
These parts are all formed from the Perfect Stem^ found
in the Perfect Indicative Active by dropping i; amdvij
perfect stem amay ; monuiy monu.
m. The SupmB System, with the Supine as its basis,
comprises
1. The Supines in urn and t/, the former of which with %ri
forms the Future Infinitive Passive.
2. The Future Active and Perfect Passive Participles, the
former of which with esse forms the Future Active Infinitive, and
the latter of which with the proper parts of the auxiliary sum
forms in the Passive those tenses which in the Active belong to
the Perfect System.
These parts are all formed from the Supine Stem, found
in the Supine by dropping tim: amdtum, supine stem,
AMAT ; monittcm^ monit.
242. Vebb Stem. — ^The true basis of all verbal inflec-
tions is the Verb Stem; but this is generally identical
with the Present Stem. Accordingly in nearly all verbs
the Present Stem is also the Verb Stem. Thus am, the
Present Stem of amo, is also its Verb Stem.
1. In a few verbs the Present Stem has assumed one or more letters
DOt found in the Verb Stem. Thus in fundo, vineo, the Verb Stems are
fud, viOf but the Present Stems Krefund, vinOy strengthened by assuming n.
2. We add the following table of verbal inflections.
5
98
YKRBS.
TABLE OF
PRESENT SYSTEM.
active voice.
Indicative Mood.
Pbesist.
to
-8
-fia.
-At;
•taoXts,
.&t&,
-ant
mdn
-e8,
-68,
-6t;
•6lllti8,
-efis.
-ent.
r«g
-«
-&,
-it;
-XmQs,
^^
-unt.
a^
-i^
-is,
-Xt;
-iOs,
-lunk.
Imperfect.
&n
-&bSm,
-ftbfifl.
-abSt;
-abfimilis.
-fibfitis,
-fibant.
mdn
•Sb&m,
-ebfis.
-ebat;
-eb&mfis.
-SbfttTA,
-^bant.
^
^b&n,
-ebfis.
-6bSt;
-6b&m^
-ebatis.
•6bant.
ftud
•ifibSm,
-iebils.
-i6b&t;
-idbfimtis.
-iebfttis,
-i6bant
FUTUBS.
&n
-&b»,
-ftbKfl,
-fibtt;
-Abimtts,
-fibititS,
-abunt.
mdn
-€b5,
-ebfe,
-6bit;
-6bimQs,
-6bitis,
-ebunt.
rSg
-to,
-68,
M;
-emtis.
^t&.
-ent.
aud
-iam,
-168.
-lAt;
-iemOs,
-ie<&.
-lent.
Subjunctive.
Present.
•
Jbn
^m,
-€8,
■«t;
-6mti8,
-613(8.
-eni
mdn
-eto,
-efis.
-eat;
-eamiis.
■eaias,
-eant.
T^g
-to,
-as,
-at;
•fimtis.
-atis.
-ant
aud
-ito.
-ifis,
-iat;
-iilmQs,
-iatis.
-iant
Imperfect.
Sm
-ftrSm,
-fires,
-arfit;
-&r6m«8.
-aretis,
-arent.
moil
-6rto,
-eres.
-6r«t;
-eremiis.
-6r6tis,
-erent
i^
-*r6m,
-«pes,
-^rdt;
-gremtis.
-gretis.
. -^rent
aud
-iito,
-irss,
-ir6t;
-irSmiSs,
-iretils.
-Ifent
Impbeativb.
Future.
SING.
PLUR.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Sm
-6,
-at«;
.at8.
-at8;
-atotg.
-ant5.
iTfij^n
-6t8;
-6t^,
-6t6;
-6t6t«, .
-ent5.
aud
-ltd;
-Its;
-It»,
-itU;
-it6t6,
-it5te,
-unt6.
-inntS.
Fees. Infinitive.
Participle,
Gerund.
to
-ftrfi;
-ans;
•andL
mdn
-5r«;
-ens;
-endL
aud
-6r6;
-Ir6;
•ens;
-lens;
-endL
-iendL
Yerbs in to of Conj. m« have certf^n endings of Coiy. IV. See 213.
99
VERBAL INFLECTIONS.
PRESENT SYSTEM.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mood.
Present.
am ^r,
mdn -edr,
aud 'i6i,
•Aris <yr Arg,
-6ri8 or 6r6,
-^ri8 or 5r6,
-iris or irg,
|II.M
-amml,
-€mmi,
-^niiii,
-imini,
-antar.
rentilr.
-untiir.
-iuntfir.
am -abSr,
mdn -eb&r,
r6g -ebar,
aud -iebar,
-&bai& or flbftrS,
-ebaris or ebard,
-ebaris or ebftr«,
-iebftiis or iebArd,
-abat&r; -abamiir,
-ebatur; -dbamfir,
-ebatGr; -Cbamftr,
-iebatiir; -iebamiir,
Future.
-ab&mtni,
-ebamini,
-ebamrni,
.iebamini,
-abantiir.
-fibant&r.
-fibantiir.
-iebant&n
am -ab5r,
m6n -ebdr,
aud -iar,
-ftb^rifl or ab^rS,
-eb^ris or ebSrS,
■firis or erg,
-ieiis or ierg,
-abitiir; 4lbimiir,
-ebitor; -ebimilr,
-etur ; -?.mftr,
-ietfir ; -iemfir,
-ablminl,
-ebhnini,
-fimini,
-iemini,
-abunti&r.
-fibunti&r.
-ent&r.
-ientftr.
Subjunctive.
am -^r,
m5n -ear,
aud -la^,
-erifl or era,
-eftrisor eb^,
-aife or ara,
-ifiiiis or ifira,
-fittir; -fimfip,
-eatiir ; -eamftr,
-atiir; -ftmiir,
-iat&r; -lamiir,
iMFEBrSGT.
-SmSni,
-eaminl,
4UnXnI,
-lamiEo,
-ent&r.
-eantiir.
-antilr.
-iantiir.
Sm -arSr,
toon -€r6r,
tSg .«r6r,
aud -irfir,
-arerifl or arfirS,
-€r6ri8 or erfirS,
-grgrfe or 6r6rg,
-ireris or irerS,
-aretiir; -aremi&r,
-eretttr; -erSmiir,
-aretfir; -aremtir,
-Iretiir; -Irfimfir,
-arGmlni,
-«rtmiDl,
-artmlnl,
-irtmini,
-arenttir.
-Srentiir.
-arentftr.
-irentfir.
IlCPSBATIVE.
Present.
Future.
SING.
PLUR.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
am -flrS,
m6n -€r6,
rfig ^r6,
aud -Ii«,
-amini;
-enutnl ;
-iminl;
.TminT ;
-fttSr, -atSr;
.€t5r, -€t5r;
-itSp, -It5r ;
-It5r, -It5r;
-ant5r.
-entdr.
-untar.
-iuntar.
Pres. Infinitive.
Fur.
Paeticiple.
am -flrl;
mon -€ri ;
aud -lA ;
-andiis.
-endi&s.
-endtifl.
•iendfia
240702
100 TBEB8.
TABLE OF
PERFECT SYSTEM,
ACTIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mood.
mdnu
rex
audiv
Sm&y
m5nu
rex
audiv
mdnu
rex
audlY
&m&y
mdnu
rex
audiv
SmftT
mdnu
rex
audlv
Sznftv
mdnu
rex
audiv
Pkbtxct.
^ -isO, -It; -!miis, -istiiB, -€runt,-€re.
Pluperfect.
•SriUn,' •Srfis, -^rftt; -^rimfis, -^riltiis, -^rant
FUTUBE PSBTECT.
•^rS, -dxls, -Srit; -^ridniis, -iritis, -^rint
Subjunctive.
PSBFECT.
-grim, -gxls, -^tit; -€r!mi!iSy -iritis, -Srint
Plufebfect.
-issSm, -issSs, -issSt; -iflsGmfiB, -isseUs, -iasent
Infinitite Perfect.
Supine System.
Infinitite Put. Part. Put. Supine.
Smflt
^^ -flrtiaesse. -tXriifl. -iim, -fl.
audit
YBBBS.
101
VERBAL INFLECTIONS.
SUPINE SYSTEM-
PASSIVE VOICE.
Indicative Mood.
fimfit -flsi
monit -tis
rect 'ts
audit -US
jbnftt -us
mdnlt -tis
rect -fts
audit -ua
2m&t -fis
moDit -us
rect -iis
aucbt -tifl
ftmat -As
mdnit -iHs
rect -us
audit -tis
Sm&t -iis
mdnit -tis
rect -Gs
audit -Qs
SmSA -tis
mdnit -iis
rect -iis
audit -tis
PSBnCT.
sum, &, est; stimOs, estjls, sunt.
PLUPEBrSCT.
£rSm, Srfis, SrSt; Sr&m&s, Srfttas, £rant.
FuTURi Pkbiect.
gris, grit; SritrnQs, Sntis, Snint.
Subjunctive.
Perfect.
«r6,
^,
CStlS,
sint.
sit; dmus,
Pluferfect.
essgm, esses, essSt; essGmi^ essGtis, esseni
Infinxtiyb Perfect.
Infinitive Put.
-Bun iiL
Smftt
mdnit
rect
audit
Part. Perf.
-Ss.
I In the plural, -tM becomes -i: -i e^tmtie^ etc.
102
compabjltive view of conjugations.
COMPAEATIVE VIEW OF THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
243. The Four Conjugations, it will be seen from this table,
differ from each other onlj in the formation of the Principal Part%
and in the endings of the Present System,
244. Bat bj a dose analysis it will be found
1. That even these differences in a great measure disappear,
and that the four conjugations become onlj yarieties of one gen-
eral system of conjugation.
2. That these yarieties haye been produced bj the union of
different final letters in the yarious stems with one general system
of endings.
245. According to this analysis
1. The stems in the four conjugations end in the following
letters:
L II. IIL IV.
a, e, consonant or u,^ i.
2. The general endings are
1) For Principal Parts :
o, 6re, si (i), vi, tum.
2) For Other Pan'ts:^^!!^ endings giyen above for the third
conjugation, but in the Future, ho and hor are regular endings as
well as am and or, and in the Infinitiye Passive, M as well as «.
8. The maimer in which these endings unite with the differ-
ent stems may be seen in the following
COMPARATITE VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS.
PRINCIPAL PABTS.
T ( Ama-o
^ "lAmo,*
yy ( Mone-0
"• ^Moneo,
in.
■■{^
'•O
Rego,
^^* I Audio,
€ma-ihre
amfire,
mone-ifre
monfire,
reg-ihre
reggre,
. audi-ifre
au<£re,
ama-v%
amAvi,
imone'vi
mofi'vi
monui,
reg-ai
rexi,
audi-vi
audiYi,
atMt-ttan
am&tum.
mone-tum*
tnoti'tum
monitom. *
reg-tum
rectum.
audi-tum
aucUtum.
> Barely o.
• By eontractioii : ama-o = amo.
• like dOeo, delete, delivi, delihtm. See 24a IL
• For dianges see 247. 1.
COMPARAXIVX VIBW OF CONJUGATIONS.
103
PRESENT SYSTEM.— ulctfiw Vaiee.^
Indicative.
PSKSXNT.
L
IL
IIL
IV.
- 5 ama-o
{ amo
mon«-o
reg-o
audi-o
moneo
rego
audio
„ \ama-u
mone-U
mones
reg-U
«Jgia
audi-U
audis
*' "jamat
mon«-i<
regM
audi-U
monet
regit
audit
' \ am&mua
mone-Xmus
reg-'UMu
audi'Xmus
monemus
reglmua
audimua
^ ' amfttifl
mone-'Uia
regAtu
audi'itU
monetis
re^da
auditis
^ ( amcHtnt
"*• 1 amant.
r«^un<
audi-MU
monent
regunt
audiuut
Impesfect.
monebam. reggbam.
audi'HHm
amftbam*
audiebam.
Future.
am<i-€6o
mone^bo reg^m.
audi-am
amftbo.
monebo. r^gam.
Subjunctive.
PHESEliT.
%iidiftTy»,
ama'am
moneam. regam.
audi-am
amem.'
audiam.
Impebfect.
<tnui-ifrem
mone-l^em reg-9rem
'audi-^em
a.TT^ft^^filT^
audirem.
Imperative.
PfiESEliT.
^- i ama
mone-e
reg-e
audi-e
mone
rege
audi
' I amftte.
m(me-^e
regr-Wc
audi-tte
monSte.
regite.
au(tite.
^ The Passive has the same changes as the Active : ama-or = amor; ama-iria
: amaa<a ; mone-iris = monerU ; audiSris = awHrie^ etc.
' A changed to «, so throughout ; ama-«8 = ames, eta
104
COMPASATETB VIEW OF CONJUGATIONS.
Fdturi.
o c j OIlM-ttO
***• {am&to
moneto
reg-ito
regito
audito
« a j ama-lto
mofU'tto
mondto
reg-\to
regito
andi-Xto
audito
monetOte
regAtoU
regitote
audi'Udte
auditote
Q p j anuMtnto
monento.
reg-utUo
regunto.
audi-unto
audionto.
Infinitive.
Present.
ama^re
amftre.
moDfire.
reg-irt
audi-£r€
aadire.
Pbesbkt Paeticiple
•
amans.
monena
reg-eru
1 audirens
\ audieoa
Gesund.
amandi.
mofu-endi
monendl.
regetuU
regendL
audi-endi
FORMATION OF PRINCIPAL PARTS.
246. The general rule for obtaining these forms has
already^ been given (240), but as they are the basis of all
verbal inflections, a fuller treatment of the subject is desir-
able. We notice
I. Begidar Formations.
II. Irregular Formations.
L Regulae Foemahons.
247. The Principal Parts of verbs in the four conjuga-
tions are formed with the following endings : ^
I.
n.-
HI.
IV.
o, are,
avii
atum.
1. In a few verba :
60, 6re,
6vi,
Stum.
2. In most verba :
eo, 6re,
Hi,
Itum.
1. In eanaanant aUma .
0, Sre,
Bi,
tum.
2. Intowdatema:
0, 6re,
i,
turn.
io, ire,
ivi,
itum.
1 For examples, see 210.
FOBMATION OF PBtNCIPAL PARTS. 105
1. The Endings ui and Uum are onlj shortened forms of Hi and Uum :
thus the full forms in moneo woold be, monivi, tnonUwn ; bj dropping «^ we
have monvi, monium ; bnt to facilitate pronunciation, the consonant v after
n is changed intp its corresponding Towel a; monui {for monvi), and the
two successive consonants in montwn are separated bj a short •/ monUum
(for mofUum),
2. Analysis of Endings.— If we analyze the endings of the Perfect, we
shall find that the final t is the ending of the first person, the preceding v the
tense-sign of the Perfect, and the preceding Towel the characteristic of the
conjugation. In the ending m, < is the tense-sign, while in the ending t the
tense-sign is wanting.
8. The SupiNB Ending is properly turn (245. 2), as the preceding rowel^
d, i, and i, are the characteristics of tiie conjugation, and I in Conj. III. is the
connectiDg rowel. Practically, however, it is more conyenient and simple to
treat these vowels as a part of the endings.
Euphonic Changes in the Begvlar Formation.
248. Before si and turn in the Principal Parts of the
Third Conjugationy certain euphonic changes take place.
L Before si of the Pebfect.
1. A k-sonnd (e, g, ^) or h ' generally ' mutes with the « and forma
«: • dUcOy duxi (ducai); rtyo^ rexi (regsi); edgtto^ coxi (coqusi); ir&ho^
traxi (trahsi).
2. A tHfOniid (dy t) is generally dropped: * elattdo, dauH (claudsi);
mitto, mlsi (mittsi).
3. B is changed ix>p: acnbo^ scripti (scribsi).
4. M is sometimes assimilated and sometimes strengthened with p :
primo, presai (premsi) ; sitmOy sumpsi (sumsi).
5. R is sometimes assunilated: g&ro, gessi (gersi).
n. Befoee turn of the Supine.
1. A k-soimd (<;, ^, ^) or h* becomes e: r^goy rectum (regtum);
cliquoy eoctum (coqutum) ; trdho, iraetum (trahtum).
2. B becomes p, as in the perfect : acflboy teriptum (scribtum).
8. M is strengthened with p : * «i2mo, mmptvm (somtum).
4. N is often dropped : vineOy victum (vinctum). See 242. 263. 2.
5. R sometimes becomes 8 1 glfro^ gestum (gertmn).
1 Sometimes also ^ or « : eouUnffuOt eowMmei; «ivo, Diaei,
« But Ifl sometimes dropped : mergo^ merH (for fnergsi^ merxi) : parco, parsi.
* FluOy fiwtiy and tltruo^ etnwi^ form their perfects in (ei as if from a stem in a
k-sound,
4 Sometimes assimilated : eedOt eesH (cedsi).
* Sometimes also gu or vi extiinguoy eoBsHnchim ; vi^o^ vtctum. Bat if is often
changed into its corresponding vowel t»: «otoo, eolutum (solvtomX
* But droppediin rumpo^ rupt/um (rumptum).
6*
106 FOBMATION OF PBmCIPAL PABTS.
n. Ibbbgulajb Fobmations.
I. Present Indicative.
249. A few verbs of the Third Conjugation form the
Present Indicative in lo, ior, like verbs of the Fourth Con-
jugation. These are
1. The following with their compounds :
CSpiOf to take; eUpio, to desire; fdcio, to make; fUdiOy to dig;
/tigioj to flee ; j^Oy to throw ; pdrio, to bear ; * quHUiOf to shake ; r&pioy
to seize ; «dpto, to be wise.
2. The compounds of the obsolete l&cioy to entice, and tpScio, to look ;
allicioy elicioy iliiciOy pellicio, etc. ; aapicio, eonspicioy etc
8. The Deponent Verbs : gr&dioTy to go ; mdrioTj to die ; patiory to
suffer.
II. Present Infinitive.
250. Doy ddre^ to give, is irregular in having are, in-
stead of are.
Ill Perfect Indicative Active.
251. The Perfect presents three distinct Irregularities.
252. First Irregularity. — Formation after the Analogy
of other conjugations. — ^A few verbs in each conjugation
form the Perfect according to the analogi/ of one or more
of the other conjugations :
S8no, sonare, sonui (2d), to sound.
Augeo, augere, auxi (augsi^ 3d), to increase,
P6to, petfire, p^tivi (4th), to seeJc.
Vincio, vincire, vinxi (vincsi^ 8d), to hind.
1. EzpLAKATioN.— S^ra^, it wiU be observed, though a yerb of the first
conjugation, forms its perfect in t^ after the analogy of the second ; aug€Oy
of the second, forms its perfect in «» (xi = gsi) after the analogy of the third ;
pUo, of the third, follows the analogy of the fourth, and vindoy of the fourth,
the analogy of the third. Strictly speaking, such verbs are partly of one
conjugation and partly of another, but they are generally classed with the
conjugation to which the infinitive belongs. -
2. In the First Conjugation, a few verbs « follow the analogy of the
Second : dbmOy dormrey domui, to tame.
8. In the Second, a few ^ follow the analogy of the Thibd : augeOy augire,
auxi {atigsi), to increase.
> Compounds are of the fourth conjugation.
a For llata, see under Classification of Verbs, 261, sqq.
IBBEGULAB FOBMAXIONS. 107
4. In the Thisd, a few follow the analogy of the Fibst, Second, or Foubth :
it€mo, itertiere, str&vi (1), to strew ; ft>imo,fremire,fremui (2), to rage ; pHo,
peiir€fpeiM (4), to seek.
5. In the Fousth, a few follow the analogy of the Sbcond or Third :
dperiOf opeHre, qperui (2), to open ; vineio, vindre, vinxi (8), to bind.
253. Second Ijctegulaxitj.—Seefnrvawel lengthened.— A
few verbs in each conjugation form the Perfect in i, but
lengthen the stem-vowel :
Jtivo, jiivare, jGvi, to assist.
Video, vldgre, ^di, to see.
Edo, ^Sre, edi, to eat.
VSnio, venire, veni, to come.
1. VowBL Ghangbd. — ^The stem-Yowels & and (in compounds) • often
become i : fadOypd, to make ; ^do, efid, to effect
2. Jf OB iV Dboppbd. — The Present Stem in a few of these rerbs is
strengthened by the insertion of if or N, which disappears in the Perfect :
rumpoy r&pi (rumpi), to break ; vineo, vici (yinci), to conquer. See 242. 1.
264. Third Irregularity. — Reduplication. — ^A few verbs
of the First, Second, and Third conjugations form the Per-
fect in i, but reduplicate the stem :
Do, d&re, dSdi, to give.
Mordeo, mordere, m6mordi, to lite.
Ourro, ctirrfire, ciiourri, to run.
1. The Bbduplicatiok consists of the initial consonant (or consonants)
of the stem with the following rowel, or with «,— generally with the follow-
ing Towel, if that rowel is *, i, o, or w, otherwise with «; see examples above.
2. VowBL Changbd.— The stem-rowel is often changed : eado, oecidi (for
eecadi), to fall
' 8. il^DROPPBD. — i\ris sometimes dropped, because it does not belong
to the Verb Stem, but has been inserted in the Present : tundo, tutMi,
to beat.
4. Rbduplication with Sp on St.— In rerbs beginning with tp or st,
the reduplication retains both consonants, but the stem drops the 8 : apondeo,
Bpdpondi (for tpoepondi), to promise ; tto, etiU (for desti), to stand.
5. In Compounds the reduplication is generally dropped, but it is retain-
ed in the compounds of do, to gire ; stOf to stand ; disco, to learn ; posoo, to
demand ; and sometimes in the compounds of curro, to run ; re-apondeo, re-
apondi (redup. dropped), to answer; circum-^o,cireum-^Cedi (redup. retain-
ed) ; eireum-8to, eireum-tt^, to encircle. The compounds of do which are
of the third conjugation change e of the reduplication into i: ad-do, ad-
dm (for ad^dSdi), to add.
IV. Supine.
255. The Supine presents two principal Irregularities.
256. First Irregularity. — Formation after the Analo-
gy of other conjugations. — ^A few verbs in each conjugation
108 FORMATION OF PBINCIPAL PABXS.
form the Sapine according to the analogy of one or niore
of the other conjagations : »
S5no, Bonare, Bonni, Bonltnm (2d), to wund.^
Augeo, aag^re^ ans, aactnm (8d), to increase.
P6to, pet^re, petlvi, petitmn (4th), to seek. ^
Vincio, vincire, vinzi, yinctimi (3d), to hind.
!• In the Van CoNJUGAnoH, a few yerbs i follow the analogy of the
SnoND or Thdu) : dJhno, domdre, domui, domitum (2d), to tame ; Ma>, aeoarty
teeui (2d), tectum (Sd), to cnt
2. In the Skoond, a few follow the analogy of the Thud : augeo, auglre,
uuxi, auetum, to increase.
8. In the Thibd, a few follow the analogy of the Ssooino or Foubth :
/rimo, frenAre, fremm, fremXtum (2d), to rage ; dojno, cupere, cupivi, cupi-
turn (4th), to desire.
4. In the Fousth, a few follow the analogy of the Thibd : tienio, venire,
fOni, vetUum, to come.
267. Second Irregularity. — JEndingSum. — Some verbs
of the Second conjugation, many in the Third, and a very
few in the Fourth form the Supine in sum :
H^eo, manure, manfli, mansum, to remain.
Claado, claudSre, dausi, clansmn, to close.
Sentio, sentire, sensi, sensum, to perceive.
1. Euphonic Changes are the same in supines in gum as in perfects in ei
(248. 1.) : elaudo, clauei, datuum (248. 1. 2) ; mergo, mersi, mereum (248. 1.
1), to merge; fleeto, /«» (for fle^, for JUetei, 248. L 1 and 2), Jlexum (for
JUc9um, for ftectewm, 248. 1. 1 and 2), to turn.
2. In the Foubth Conjugation, only raucio, to be hoarse, and eenOo, to
perceiTe, with its compounds, haye turn.
258. The several modes above described for the forma-
tion of the Perfect and Supine may be presented for con-
venience of reference in the following table :
FORMATION OF THE PERFECT AND SUPINE.
L Perfect.
1. BBGULAS PBEFBCT.
Oo^J. I. [ ConJ.IL I ConJ.ni. I Coi^. IV.
2. IBBEGXJLAB PERFECT.
Mrst Irregularity/.
analogy of I analogy of I analogy of I analogy of
Conj. n. I Conj. HI. | Conj. I., U. or IV. | Coiy. H. or HI.
> For lists, see under CkieeiJioaUon cf Verbe^ 261, sqq.
PEEFECr AND SUPINB.
109
Ck>i4. L
Stem-Towel
lengthened.
reduplication. |
atuDL
analogy of
CJonj. n. or III.
Second Irregvlarity,
Coi^. IL CoDJ. IIL
stem-vowel stem-Yowel
lengthened. lengthened (and
often changed).
Third Irregvlarity.
reduplication. | reduplication.
IL Supine.
ooaj. it.
stem-vowel
lengthened.
1. EEGULAB SXTPINB.
tmn.
Stoinu
2. IBREGULAS SUPINE.
Mrst Irregularity*
analogy of
Conj. m.
analogy of
Conj. n. <yr IV.
Itum.
analogy of
Conj. in.
Second Irregularity.
sum. I
PRINCIPAL PARTS IN COMPOUND VERBS.
259. L Compound verbs generally form their principal
parts like simple verbs :
Moneo, monSre, monui, monXtum, to advise,
Ad-moneo, admonSre, admonui, admonltum, to admonish,
260. n. But compounds of verbs with dissyllabic su-
pines generally change the stem-vowel in forming the prin-
cipal parts : •
1. WTien the Present of the compound has 1 for e of
the simple verb :
1) The Perfect and Supine generally resume the e :
R€go, regSre, rexi, rectum, to rule,
Di-ngo, dirig^re, direxi, directum, to direct,
2) But sometimes only the Supine resumes the e :
T^neo, ^ tenere, tenui, tentum, to hold.
De-tineo, detinere, detinui, detentum, to detain,
2. When the Present of the compound has i for a of
the simple verb :
1) The Perfect generally resumes the vowel of the
simple perfect and the supine takes e, sometimes as
G&pio, cap^re, o6pi, captum, to take,
Ac-cTpio, acdpdre, accepi, acceptum, to accept.
110
CLASSIFICATION OF TBBBS.
2) Bat sometimes the Perfect retains 1 and the Supine
takes e:
RSpio, rapdre, rapui, nptum, to teUe,
Di-ripio, dirip^re, diiipui, direptum, to tear {uunder.
For ReduplieaUon in eompouficby see 254. 5 ; other peculiarities of
oompounds will be noticed under the separate conjugations.
OLASSIFIOATION OF VERBS
According to the Perfect-J^ormcUion.^
FIRST CONJUGATION.
Class I. Regulab Fob&latiok.
261. Principal Parts in : o, fire, Svi, atum. «
These endings belong to most verbs of this co^jagation : the
following are examples :
Amo,
ftmftre,
am&vi,
am&tum,
to love.
CQro,
curftre,
cur&yii
curfttum,
to care for.
D6no,
donAre,
donftvi,
donfttum,
to bestow.
Hftbito,
habitftre,
habit&vi,
habit&tum,
to dwell.
Hdnoro,
honor&re,
honor&Ti»
honorfttum,
to honor.
Llbgro,
liberare.
libertlTi,
liber&tum,
to free.
NOmino,
nomin&re,
nominftvi,
nomin&tum,
to name.
Pugno,
pugnare,
pugnftvi,
pugn&tum,
tofight.
Spero,
sperftre,
sperftYi,
sperfttum.
to hope,
toe<M,
V6co,
vocftre,
vocftvi,
vocfttum,
Class 11. Irregulae Formation.' — Three Irregtdarities.
262. First Irregiilarity.— ^Pej/ec^ (and generally Su-
pine) after t?ie Analogy of the Second Conjugation.
Principal Parts in : o, are, iii, itum i^eneroMy),
Crepo, crepftre, crepui, crepitum, to creak,
IncrSpOt dre^ id {dv€)^ Utrn^ {(Sbtum) ; dUeripo^ dre, ui {dvi) ,
Ciibo, cubfire, cubui, cubitum, to recline,*
D5mo, dom&re, domui, domttum, to tame,
En^co, enec&re, enScui, enectum, to kUL*
■ ■^
> The Ferfect-Formation la selected as the apedal basis of this dassiflcatloii, be-
oanse ihe irregalarities of the ot^er principal parts are less important and can he
readily associated with this formation.
s The lists contain all tho simple verbs which belong to this class and snch com-
pounds as deviate in any important particular from their simple verbs.
* Compounds which insert m, as aeeumbo^ etc, are of Conj. IIL See 276. II. 1.
* The simple nioo is regolar, and even in the compound the forms in de» and
dtum occur.
FISST CONJUGATIOX. Ill
Frico, fricire, fticui, ) «^ tor^.
Hico, micftre, micui, — ^ to glitter,
JHmlcOt drCf dvi (ui), dtum; emlco^ are, wi, &tum,
PKco, pUc^. jPft jP|^., UfoUL
Du/pHieo^ mitUiplHeOt r«p2ico, and iUppHco are regular : dre^ dvi^ dtum.
Seco, secftre, secoif sectum, fo cu^.
Participle, Meaiiinta.
Sono, Bon&re, aenui, fiDnitum, to sound.
Participle, tonatarus. Moat oompoimds want Sop. Jtet&no has Peril reM-
Tono, tOD&re, tonui, (tonltum), to thunder.
VSto, vetare, vetui, vetitum, to forbid,
1. Pdto^ are, d€i, dtum^ to drink, haa alsoi^Mtim in tho supine.
2. The Passiye Partidplea eoand^iM and Jwdtue (comio, to dine, and JUro^ ta
Bwear) are active in signification, hctving dined^eto. Pdtue^ from pd/o, is also some-
time active.
263. Second Irregiilarity. — Perfect lengthens Stem-
Vowel.
Principal Parts in : o, Sre, i, turn.
Jiivo, juYftre, jQid, jatum, to assist.
Ftaticlplo juvatiiniSj but in compounds jut&rus is also used. .
i lautum,
LSvo, lavftre, Uvi, ^ lotum, tofoasK
( lav&tuin,
In poetry this is sometimes of CoiJ. III. : 2(lvo, lavire^ Idvl, etc.
264. Third Irreg^nlarity. — Perfect Reduplicated.
Principal Parts in : O, are, i, turn.
Do, dSre, dgdi, d&tum, to give.
Sto, stftre, st^ti, stfttum, to stand.
1. In do the characleristto is short by exception : ddbarn^ ddbo, ddrem, etc
Four compounds of do, ciromndo^ pessumdo^ satisdo and venwndo^ are ooi^ngated
like the simple verb ; the rest are dissyllabic and of the third ConJ. (280).
2. Compounds of sto are conjugated like the simple verb, if the first part is a
dissyllable, otherwise they take sffUi for st&i : adato, adtAd/re^ adeffUi, adstdPum.
JHsto wants Pert and Sup.
265. Deponent Vbebs.
In this conjugation deponent verbs are entirely regular.
Thus,
Conor, 'conari, confttus sum, . to endeavor.
Hortor, hortftri, hortfttus sum, to exhort.
Hiror, mirftri, miratus sum, to admire.
112
CLASSIFICATION OF TEBBS.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
Class I. Rbgulab Fobmation.
266. Principal Parts in :
I. eo, fire, evi, etum-*
n. eo, 6re, ui, itnin.
ILL eo, ere, ui, turn or sum.
L eo, drei fvl, 5tiim.
These endings belong to the following verbs :
Compleo, compare, complgTi, completum, to JUL
So other eompoiuids ctpUo; as empUo^ impUo,
D^leo, detere, del^vi, detetum, to destroy.
Fleo, fldre, fldvi, fl^tum, to weep,
Neo, nere, nevi, ndtum, to spin,
1 AhSUo^ aboUre, aboUH, altdUum^ to destroy, Is compoimded of ah and aleo
(not used). The other compoande of oUo generally endTlii eaco, and are of the third
coDjagation. See dbdUseo, 27(1 XL 1.
2. VUOf viire, vUtum^ to weave, bend. Is rare, except in the parttciple tielm.
n. eO| dre, ni, itum.
These endmgs belong to most verbs of this coi^jugation. The
following are examples :
CSreo, carfire, canii, caritum, tohemthovi.
Debeo, debere, debui, debitum, to owe,
HSbeo, habere, habui, habitum, to have,
Mdneo, moufire, monui, monitum, to advise,
N6ceo, nocere, nocui, nocitum, to hurt,
Pftreo, pargre, parui, paritum, to obey,
PlSceo, placere, placui, placJtum to phase,
Tficeo, tacgre, tacui, taciturn, tobe silent,
m. eo, Sre, ui, turn or sum.
These endings, slightly irregular in the Supine, belong to the
following verbs :
Censeo, censfire, censui, oensum, to think,
Perf Part, esnsua and 6enattu,^P6reenseo wants Sop. ; rseenseo has receth'
sum and reeenSitiim,
Ddceo^ docere, docui, doctum,
Misoeo, miscfire, miscui, 5 mjst™,
' ( mixtum,
Tgneo, tenfire, tenui, tentum, to hold,
J>etlneOf ire, ui, detetUtim; so obPlneo and retineo; other compounds seldom
haye Sap.
Torreo, torrgre, tomii, tostum, to roast,
» We class &vi and Uum, though belonging to but few verbs, with the regular
formations, because they are the ftiU and original forms from which the more common
ui and Itom are derived. See 847.1.
to teach,
to mix.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
113
267. SupiNS WANTiNG.-^Many yerbn, regular In the Perfect, want
the Supine: the following are the most important:
Aceo, to be aour, Mideo, to he wet.
Caileo, to be akiUed, NIteo, to shine.
Candeo, to shine, Oleb, to emell.
Egeo, to want. Palleo, to be pole.
Emineo, to etand forth. P&teo, to be open.
Fl5reo, to bloom. Blgeo, to be stiff.
Frondeo, to bear leaves, Buoeo, to be red.
Horreo, to shudder. Slieo, to be silent,
L&teo, to be hid. Sorbeo, to swallow.
Sordeo, to be sordid.
Splendeo, to shine.
StAdeo, to study.
St&peOy to be amazed
TImeo, to fear.
Torpeo, to be torpid.
T&meo, to swell.
Vfeeo, to flourish.
Ylreo, to oe green.
268. Perfect and Supine Wantino. — Some verbs, derived most-
ly from adjectives, want both Perfect and Supine : the following are the
most important :
Albeoy to be white.
Aveo, to covet,
CalveOy to be bald.
CSneOy to be gray.
FlSveo, to be yeUow.
Toeieo, to be f^id.
HfibeOy to be blunt.
Hllmeo, to be moist.
Immlheo, to threaten.
LudteOt to suck.
JAveo, to be livid.
Maereo, to be sad.
PoUeo, to be powerful.
BenldeOf to shine.
Scftteo, to gush forth.
Squfieo, to be fiUhy.
Yegeo, to be lively.
Class II. Iekbgulab Foemation. — Three IrregularUies.
269. Krrt Irregiilarity. — Perfect in A (rarely i) after
the Analogy of the Third Conjugation :
Principal Parts in : eo, 5re, si (i), torn or sum.
Algeo,
Ardeo,
Augeo,
Gonniveo,
Ferveo,
Frigeo,
Fulgeo,
algCre,
ardere,
augere,
oonnlvCre.
ferverc,
frigSre,
fuIgSre,
alsi,
arsi,
auxi (ffH%
C connivi,
' connixi,
fervi,
( ferbui,
frixi (rare),
fulsi, '
arsum,
auctum.
Poetic y^^o, fulgirt^ etc
Haereo,
Indulgeo,
Jiibeo,
Langueo,
liqueo,
LGoeo,
LQgeo,
M&neo,
Hulceo,
haerSre,
indulgere,
jubfire,
languere,
liquere,
lucere,
lugCre,
manfire,
mulcere,
Compounds have mvAsum or mutdtwrn.
Mulgeo, mulgere, mulsi,
Prandeo, prandere, prandi.
haesi,
Indulsi,
jussi,
hmgui,
liqui (licui),
luxi,
lu^,
fnansi,
mulsi.
haesmn,
indultum,
jussum,
mansum,
mulsum,
mulsum,
pransum,
to he cold,
to hum.
to increase.
to wink at.
to boil.
to be cold,
to shine.
to stick,
to indulge,
to order,
to be languid,
to he liquid,
to shine,
to mourn,
to remain,
to caress.
to milk,
to dine.
Participle, pransuSf in an active sense, having dined*
114
CLASSIFICATION OF TSKBS.
Bideo, lidere, lisi, risom, to laugh,
Strideo, stridere, stridi, to creak,
SuAdeo, Buadere, softo, soasom, to advise,
Tergeo, tei^g^re, tersi, tersom, to wipe, ,
T0rffo,otCaD^ IIL, alM occiin: tergo, ire^ si, mm.
Torqueo, torqnere, tonri, tortum, to twist,
Turgeo. turgfire, tursi (rare\ to swell.
Ui^eo(uigueo)urgere, urai^ to press,
1. Oieo, eitre^ €€viy tUumy to arouse, has a kindred form, do^ dre^ <^i,
cUunif from which it seems to have obtained its perfect. In compounds the
forms of the fourth Conj. prevail, especially in the sense of to call, eall/orCA,
2. For aphonic Changes before si in the Perfect see 248. L
270. Second Irregularity.— Per/«c« lengthens Seem-
Vowel.
Principal Parts in : eo, dre, i, turn (sum).
cftYi, cactxtum, to beware.
filTi, fautum, to favor.
f&yi, fbtum, to cherish,
mOvi, motum, to move.
pftvi, — to fear,
sedi, sessum, to sit.
So oireumsMeo and superaideo. Other opmponnds thus: ostMeOf era, aseidi,
asaeasum; bat dissHdeOfpraetHdeo^ and retHdeo want Sapine.
Video, yIdSre, Tidi, Tisum, to see.
Vdveo, vovfire, v6vi, votum, to vow.
Civeo,
cavdre,
Faveo,
favfire,
Fdreo,
foYfire,
Mdveo,
movdre,
Pftyeo,
pavfire,
SMeo,
sedere,
271, Third JiregulBxitj.— Perfect jReduplicated.
Principal Parts in ;
eO| dre, i, suxl
Mordeo, mordere,
Pendeo, pendere,
Spondee, spondere,
Tondeo, tondere,
m5mordi, morsum,
pfipendi, pensum,
spdpondi, sponsum,
tdtondi, tonsum,
to bite,
to hang,
to promise,
to shear.
For reduplirxaion in compounds^ see 264. 6.
272.
Deponent Verbs.
1. Begular.
LJceor, lio6ri,
Mfireor, merfiri,
PoUiceor, poUiceri,
Tueor, tueri,
Vfireor, verfiri,
licitus sum,
mentus sum,
pollicitus sum,
tuitus sum,
veritus sum,
2. Irregular.
to bid.
to deserve,
to promise,
to protect,
to fear.
Fateor, fateri,
Medeor, medfiri,
fassus sum.
to confess,^
to cure.
> CoDflteor, Cri, confesstu; so profiteer
8BC0ND CONJUGATION.
116
HMreor,
Beor,
Audeo,
Gaudeo,
S51eo,
reri,
ImiseriLtua sum,
misertus sum,
ifttussum.
to pity,
totMnk.
3. Semi-D^mient — ^Deponent in the Perfect.
aadere,
gaudfire,
ausus sum,
gaTlsus sum,
Bolitus sum,
to dare,
tor^oice,
to be accustomed.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
Class I. Regular Foraiation in the Perfect.
( I-
(io), 6re,
si, turn.
273.
Principal Parts in : ^ IL
o, 6re,
i, turn.
(m.
o, ere,
siori, sum.
L o (io),
«re,
siy turn.
These are the regnlar endmgs in
verhs whose stems end in a
consonant; the following
are exampL
Bs:*
Carpo,
carpgre,
carpsi.
carptmn,
to pluck.
Cingo,
cinggre,
cmxi (^«i),
compsi.
cinctimi,
to gird.
COmo,
. comgre.
comptum,
to adorn.
Demo,
demftre,
dempsi,
demptum.
to take away.
Dico,
dicgre,
dixi,
dictmn,
to sag.
Daco,
duo&re,
duxi,
ductum,
to lead.
Rngo,
fingftre,
finxi,
fictum,
to feign.
G6ro,
gessi.
gestum,
NQbo,
nuMre,
nups^
nuptum.
to tnarrg.
Pingo,
pinggre.
pinxi, ^
pictum.
to paint,
to (ning out.
Promo,
promgre,
prompai.
promptmn,
Scalpo,
reggre,
rexi.
rectum,
to rule.
scalpgre.
Bcalpd,
soalptum,
to engrave,
to take.
SQmo,
Bumgre,
sumps!,
sumptum,
Trfho,
trahgre.
traxi,
tractum,
, to draw.
Uro,
Qrgre,
ussi.
ustum,
to bum.
V6ho,
yehgre,
vexi,
Tectum,
Vivo,
viygre,
Tixi,
Tictum,
to live.
1. Change ofStem^ Vowel in Compovnde; see 260.
Carpo: de-cerpo, decerpgre, decerpsi, decerptum, to pluck off.
Hego : di-r!go, diriggre, direzi, directum (260. 1.), to direct.
Here decerpo, t&ongD it baa not the same stem-vowel as the simple carpo,
forms. its principal parts precisely like the simple verb; bat diri^o changes
the stem-vowel m forming those parts, having i in the Pres. and e m the Perf.
and Sup.
2. Compounds of Obsolete Simple Verbs present the same vowel changes:
Zacio (obs.) : al-llcio, allicgre, allezi, allectum (260. II.), to allure.
So illicio, pellicio. For eliciOf see 276. II.
Speeio (obs.) : a-splcio, aspicgre, aspexi, aspectum, to look at.
^ For SupTtoiUo Changes, see 248.
116
CLASSIFICATION OF YEBBS.
IL o^ Sre, i, turn
These are the regular endings of verbs whose stems end in u ;
the following are examples :
Acuo, ScaSre, acui, acQtum,
Aiguo, aiguSie, argui^. aigQtum,
Ooarguo and redargue want the Sapine.
Imbuo, imbuSre, imbui, imbQtum,
Minuo, minuftre, minui, minatum,
Buo, ruSre, mi, rutum,
Part rvUtfrMt.— Cbrrtfo and irrvo want Sap.
St&tuo, BtatoSre, stStuI, statQtum,
Compounds change a into <: eoiuMua,
Tribuo, tribnSre, tribui, tribatnm, to impart.
to tharpen,
to convict.
to imbue,
to diminish,
tofaU.
toplaoe.
I, Perfect ori.— -The following in uo form the Perf. in «t.
Cdquo, ooquSre, coxi, ooctmn, to cook,
Exstinguo, ezstioguiSre, ezstinzS, ezstinctom, to eztitiguish.
So other oomponnds oiBtinffuo (me): diOinffUOt etc
Fluo, fluSre, fluxi, fluxmn,
Stnio, strufire, Btnud, stnictum,
2. Like verbs in uo are the following:
Ico, loSre, Ici, ictam,
Solvo, Boly^re, solvi, solQtiun,^
Volvo, TolvSre, rolvi, yolntum^'
m. o^ Sre, si or iy ram.'
These endings, slightly irregular in the Supine, belong to the
following verbs :
Accendo, accendSre, accendi, aocensum,
So othor compounds of eofufo (ohsolete) : incendo, suocendo,
Cedo, cedSre, cessi, oessum,
Claude, claudSre, dausi, dausuiu,
Comi>oands have u for au : eoneUidOj exolUdo,
CQdo, cudfire, cQdi, cQsom,
Defendo, defendSre, defend!, defensum,
So other componnds of fendo (obsolete) : ojffhidOf etc
Divido, dividfire, divisi, divisum,
Evado, evadgre, evasi, evasum.
So other compounds otDodo, 275.
rigo, figure, fixi, fixum,
Findo, finddre, f idi (find!), fissum,
Flecto, flect^re, flexi, flexum.
to flow,
to build.
to strike,
to loose,
toroU,
to kindle.
to yield,
to close.
toforae,
to defend.
to divide,
to evade.
to fasten,
to part,
to bend
^ Fls here changed to its corresponding rowel u : volUtum for voht^m,
> For euphonic changes hefore ram, see 257. 1.
THIBD COHJTTGATION.
Ill
fliuram,
ffr^gum,
fressum,
laesnm,
ItLBmn,
mansurn,
merBum,
missum,
nexum,
j pasBum,
( pansum,
pexum,
( pinsitum,
i piBtmn,
( pinsum,
plexum,
plamnim,
80 applaudo; other oomponnds haye ototaw: eaoplddOt etc
PrShendo, prehend^re, prehendi, prehensum,
Often written, prwdo^ prendiret eta
PrSmo, premSre, press!,
Qu^tio, quatdre, . quaasi,
CompoondB haTe eu for qua : cano&UOt etc
rftsi,
rOfli,
Bcandl,
: a$oendo, dete&ndo.
scidi,
sparsi,
Fiuo,.
fluftre,
flilTl,
Frendo,
frendSre,
Laedo,
laedSre,
laesi,
Compoonds have i for as
: iOfda^eUi.
LQdo,
Mando,
Mergo,
Mitto,
ludSre,
mandSre,
mergSre,
mitt^re,
iQsi,
mandi,
mersi,
misi,
Necto,
nectfire,
nexi,
nexui/
Pando,
pandfire,
pandi,
Pecto,
pectSrc,
pexi,
Pinflo (piao),
pinsftre,
(piiud,,
prnsui,
Plecto,
Plaudo,
plect^re,
pland^re,
pUua,
iojhw.
iofffuuh,
to hurt.
to play,
to chew,
to dip,
to send,
to bifuL
to open,
to comb,
to pound,
to plait,
to applaud.
to grasp.
pressum f 248. 1. 4), to press,
quassum (248. 1. 2), to shake.
rasum,
rOsum,
scansum,
to shave,
tognavf,
to climb.
Bciflsum,
sparsum,
Rftdo, radSre,
BOdo, rodSre,
Scando, scand^re,
CompoTindB have « for a :
Scindo, BcindSre,
Spargo, spargfire,
Compounds generally hare « for a : aspergo, respergo,
Tergo, tergSre, tersi, tersum,
Also tergeo^ tergire (Conj. IL); oomponnds take thle form.
TrQdo, trudSre, trOsi,
Velio, vellSre, velli (vulsi),
Componnds in good use generally hare velli.
Verro, verr6re, yerri, versum,
Verto, rertSre, rerti, yersum,
Compounds of de^ prae^ re, are generally deponent in the Pres^ Impeff., and
ViflO, vififire, Tla, TiSum, to visit.
trQsum,
Yiilsum,
to rend,
to scatter,
toteipeoff,
to thrust,
to pluck.
to brush,
to turn.
1 Compounds take this form in the Perfect
118 CLASSIFIGAIIOK OF YEBBS.
274. SupiHi WAimKO.— The foIlowiDg verbs, regular in the Perfect,
want the Supine :
Ango, £re, anxi, to strongU. Ningo, £re, ninxi, to mow.
Annuo, 6re, i, « to assent. Nuo, obs. ; see annuo.
BootheroompoiindBofntio,bata5fttM^ Pluo, dre, i or vi, to rain.
has Part abnwUUrus. Psallo, £re, i, to play on a stringed
B«tuo, «re, i, to heat. „ instrument.
Bibo, «re, i, to drink, Sido, fire, 1, to sit d^nm.
Congruo, gre, i, to agree. perf and Snp. generally supplied from
Ingruo, 6re, 1, to assatl. sideo ; hence sSdi, eessum. So In com-
Lambo, ere, i, to Itek. pound*
Luo, 5re, i, to vfosh. o* -^ x •
Partluitfinia. Compounda^Wi«^fl*. Stndo, «re, i, to creak,
luo, ete. have Sup. latum. Also strideo, ire (Conj. IL).
MStuo, «re, i, to fear. Stemuo, Sre, i, to sneeze.
275. Perfect asd Supine Waiitino.— Some verbs want both Per-
feet and Supine.
1. The foUowmg :
Oango, to dang. but distinguo^ ^re, tempsi^ coniemptum.
Claudo, to be lame. dtstinxi^distinctum; YSido^ to go. Seeeva-
Glisco, to grow. so exstinguo. do, 273. HI.
ffisco, to gape. Teamo, to despise ; hut Yergo^ to itidine.
Stmguo, to quench; contemno^ «r«, eon-
2. Many Inceptives. See 281. n. 1.
Class H Iebegulab Fobmation.— ^Ar^e Irreffutarities.^
276. Vintlireguhaity.—Perf^^
other Conjugations. ^^ ^
I. Perfect in Svi, as in Conjugation L
Invgt^rasco, inveterascSre, inveterfivi, inveteratmn, to grow dd.
l^' ^^^l^' ^^^ P«st^i to feed.
Stemo, stemgre, strfivi, rtratun^ tostrZ
Vetgrasco, veterascfire, veterftvi, !^ t^Zold.
IL Perfect in evl, ui, as in Conjugation IL
1. The following:
AWflesco, abolescgre, abolevi, aboKtum, to disappear.
So inSUaao; but adSUsco has Supine advttum; eaoSlesco, eteomum; obsS-
UseOf obeoUtum,
Accumbo, accumbSre, accfibui, accubitum, to recline.
So other compounds of owmbo, cubo. See oubo, 263.
> For convenience of reference a Getieral List of aU verbs involving irregularities
win be found on page 828.
THIRD COKJUGATIOK.
119
j alitum,
( altum,
tonawrish.
AlOf 21dre, alni,
Cello, obsolete. See excello below,
Gemo, cem&e crfivi, crCtum,
Colo, colore, colui, cidtiim,
Compesoo, compeBC^re, compescni,
OonsiUo, consulgre, consulm, consultum,
Gresco, crescere, crgvi, cretum,
Inerueo and eueereseo want Bnpine.
Cumbo/or cubo, in ecmpounda : ue accumbo.
Depeo, depegre. depBui, j ^^^
Elido, elicSre, eliciii, elicitum,
Other oompoundft of Ideio^ thus : aWido^ ire^ aUeaoi^ aOectum,
Excello, excellgre, excellui (rare), to excel.
Other compomidB of cello want Per£ and Sam except pereeUo^ percdlire, per*
e&li, perculeum, •
frem^re, fremui, fremitum, to rage.
furore, furui, to rage.
gemui, gemitum, to groan,
g^nui (/. g^no% genitum, to beget*
to decide,
to cultivate,
to restrain,
to consult,
to grow.
to knead,
to elicit.
Fr^mo,
Fiiro,
G&no,
Gigno,
Lado, obsolete,
lino^
Mdto,
M51o,
Kecto,
OocQlo,
Olesco, obsolete.
Plnso,
Pono,
Qniesoo,
BSplo,
gignfire,
See elido,
lindre,
metSre,
molfire,
nectSre,
occulSre,
See abdlesco.
plnsSre,
ponSre,
quiescdre,
rapdre,
ICvi, llvi,
messiii,
molm,
( nexui,
( nexi,
occului,
j pinsui,
( pinsi,
posui,
quievi,
rapni,
litum,
messmn,
molitum,
nexmn,
occultum,
( pindttum,
•Jpistum,
(piDSum,
podtum,
quietum,
raptum,
to smear,
to reap,
to grind.
to bind,
to hide.
to crush,
to place,
to rest,
to snatch.
to connect,
to sow.
Compounds thns: eorr'lpiOt eorripire, corripai^ correptum,
SSro, ser^re, semi, sertum,
Sdro, sergre, sevi, sStum,
Ooxnponnds fhna: consiro, ire, eonsMt contMwm.
Spemo, epemSre, spreyi, sprttmn, to spurn.
Sterto, stertSre, stertui, — to snore.
8trSpo, strep^re, strepui, Bbrepitaniftomakeanoise.
Suesco, saoaofire, Bueyi, soetum, to become accustomed.
Texo, texfire^ texui, textum, to weave.
Trfimo, tremSre, tremui, — — ^ to tremble.
Vdmo, YomSre, Yomui, vomitmn, to vomit.
2. Many Inoeptiyes in esco form the Perfect in ui from their
prunitiTes. See 281. L 2.
120
CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.
III. Perfect in Ivi, cw in Conji^ation IV.
1. The following:
arceseAtnin,
ArcesBO, aroeflsfire, arcesaiy], arceffiatmn, to call far,
Cipesso, capessSre, capessSvi, capesfiitum, to lay held of,
Ciipio, cupfire, cupivi, cupXtum, to desire,
facessgre, | ^^^^ fiicesfitum,
incessftre, IncesifiYior-ceasi, — ^
laceasfire, laoes^yi, laces^tum,
linfire, Ut! or Igyi, Utum,
petdre, petiyi, pefitum,
quaertre, quaesiTi, quaeidtum,
Compoondfl thus: acqiOro^ ire^ oequiHvit aeguUUwm,
R&do, rud6re, rudivi, ruttitum,
Sfipio, 8ap6re, aaplvi, sapui,
Componnds have i for a, as reApio, Detlipio wants Peril and Snp.
^o, sinere, sivi, dtom,
Tfiro, terftre, trivi, tritum,
Fftoeaso,
Incesso,
Lftcesso,
lino,
P6to,
Quaero,
to make,
to attack,
to provoke,
to smear,
to ask,
to seek.
to bray,
to taste.
to permit,
tomb.
2. A few Inchoatives in isco form the Perfect in Ivi from their
primitives. See 281. I. 2.
27/ . Pebfkct in QtL — N'osco and its compounds form the perfect
in Cvi after the analogy of avi, Svi^ and Ivi:
Nosco, noscdre, nOvi, nOtum, to know.
Bo ignosco.—Agvu>9oo and cognosco have Uum in Sup., agnUum; dignosco
and iwtemosoo want Bapine.
278. VowiL Conjugation. — Nbseo^ verbs in mo, and regular verbe
of the first, second, and fourth conjugations form a complete vwoel-conju-
gationy whose Perfects and Supines in the full form are entirely analogous,
as follows :
ao,
avi.
atum;
amo (ao).
amfivi,
eo,
evi;
6tum;
deleo.
delcvi.
deletum.
io.
ivi.
itum;
' audio,
audivi,
auditum.
00,
ovi,
Otum;
nosco (noo).
novi.
nOtum.
uo,
u(v)i.
Qtum;
acuo,
acu(v)i,
acQtum.
279. Second Irregularity.— Per/'ec^ kngthens Stem-
Vowel. See 253. 1 and 2.
Ago, SgSre, Sgi, actum, to drive.
So droumdgo. and perdgo ; eatdgo wants Peril and Sap. Other oompoonds
change a into < in the Pres. : ablgo^ ire^ abigi^ abac^um; bat eoigo becomes cdgo,
ire, coigi, eoactwn^ and di^g0y cUgo, ire, digi^ withoat Sap. FrodJigo wants Sap,
and omM^o, Pell and Bap.
CSpio, capSre, cSpi, captum, to take.
So awteiOdplo ; other compoonds thas : accHpto, ire, ciecipi, aoeeptum.
THIED CONJUGATION, 121
Edo, ^dSre, e<U, eeam, to eat,
£mo, SmSre, fimi, emptum, to 6vy.
So coimo; other compoandB thus: adlsM^, ir^ adimi^ adsmpium,
FScio, facSre, f^i, factum, to make.
Passive irregular : Jto^JiSH, /actus turn. See 294
So sati^aciQ and compoandB of faeio with verba, but compoands with prepo-
riUons thoa : eonjieio^ eonfioSre^ eonfid^ eanfsc^m^ with regular Pass, conjleim'^
eonfid^ eon/eatus «ttfik— Compoands otfaoio with noans and adiectlvea aie of Conj.
I. : Hgnifioo^ dr^ dvi, dtwm^
Ffidio, fodSre, f<5di, fossum, to dig.
Frango, frangdre, fr^^ fractom, to break.
Compounds thus : wnfringa^ ire^ confr^i^ cof^aetum.
Fugio^ fugSre, filgi, fug!tam, tofiee.
Fando, fundfire, fudi, fusum, to pour.
JSdo, jac^re, jfici, jactum, to throw.
Superiado hMBJactum or Jectum in Sap. ; other compounds thus : alffido^ ^o,
ab^idt aibjedum.
L^go, legSrc, legi, lectom, to read.
So compoands, except (1) ctMgo, ire, eoUigi, ooUedum ; so detlgo^ ^^«i eeHi'
^o,— (2) diRffOt ire^ dUexi^ dUedwn; so intelRffo^ negVigo.
Linquo, UnquSre, liqui, to leave.
Compounds with Bup. : relMnquo^ ire, reUqui^ reUetwn,
Rumpo,
nimpSre,
ropi,
mptum,
to burst.
ScSbo,
scabSre,
scabi,
to scratch.
Vinco,
vlncfire,
vici,
victum,
'to conquer.
280. Third Irregularity. — Perfect Reduplicated, See
254. 1-5.
Abdo, abdSre, abdidi, abditum, to hide.
So all compounds of do, except those of CooJ. I. (264) : addo^ condo, erido^
dido, ido, indo, dbdo, perdo, prCdo^ reddo, trddo, vendo; but dbs-oondo generall/
drops reduplication: libs-condl,
C£do, cadfire, cScidi, cfisom, to fall,
Inddo, ire^ inddi, inodsum; so ocddo and rsdido; other compounds want
supine.
Caedo, caedSre^ c&cidi, caesom, to cui.
Compoands thus: eonddo, ire, conddi, condsvm,
CSnOy canSre, cScini, cantum, to sing.
Oondno, ire^ eondnui, ; so oodno and praedno; other compoands
want Perl and Sup.
Credo, credere, credidi, creditum/ to believe.
* Explained as compound of do ; see abdo.
6
122
CLASSmCATIOK OF TESBS.
falsum,
pactum,
ipanctum,
pactum.
Cairo, currSre, cficurri, cuisum, to run,
JBaeeurro and pnuaiu/rro generally retain the rednplication, eooe&eurri^ praee^
ewrri; other compoonda general!/ drop it
Disco, discSre, didid,
Do, Conj, L See abdo.
FaUo, faUSre, iSfelli,
S^eOOt ire, r^elii^ without Snplne.
Pango, panggre, p6pigi,
Pango, panggre, | P^?*'
QmpinffOj Sre^ compigi^ eompadum; so alao impingo,
"P&rt ; repangOf Vert and Sup.
Parco, parcfire, pftrperci (para), parsum,
Oompareo, ire^ comparH, eomparsum^ also with 6 for a:
Impareo and reparco want Peril and Sap.
P&rio, par&re, pSp^ri, partum.
Participle i^aritunw; compounds are of Coi\). lY.
Pello, pellfire, pSpuli, pulsum,'
Pendo, pend^re, p^pendi, pensum,'
Posco, poscfire, p6posci, *
Pungo, pung^re, pupQgi, punctum,
Compounds thus : compungo^ ire^ compurucif comptrndv/m,
Sisto, sist^re, stiti, BtStum,
SUio seems to haye been derived from sto^ and forms the Perf. and Sup. after
that analogy. —Compounds thus: coneUto, Sre, consCiHt eonatUum; but drcumtMii
also occurs. '
Tango, tang^re, tStigi, tactum,
Compounds thus : aMingo^ ire^ attlgi, attactum.
Tendo, tendSre, tStendi, j J^'
Compounds drop reduplication and prefer Sup., tentwm^ but detendo and ostef^
do haye teneum ; and eatendo^ proiendo and reiendo have both forms.
( t^tuU (obs. },
( sustiili,
AUoUo and eoetoUo want Porf. and Sup.
Tundo, tundSre, tutudi, | S^^'
Compounds drop reduplication and generally take tOsum in Sup.
Vendo, vendfire, vendidi, venditum,* to sdL
to learn,
to deceive,
to bargain,
to fix in,
Depango wants
to spare.
; compercOf ire^ etc.
to bring forth,
to drive,
to weigh,
to demand
to priek.
to place.
ToUo,
tollSre,
sublatum.
' to touch.
to stretch.
to raise.
to beat.
1 Compounds drop rednplication, 254^ 6,
s Compounds retain reduplication, 254 &
* ^Izplained as compound of do ; see dbdo.
THIRD CONJUGATIOK.
123
281. Incjupiivjcs.
Inceptives end in acOy and denote the beginning of an
action. When formed from verbs, they are called Verbal
Inceptives^ and when formed from nomis or adjectives, 2>e-
nominative Inceptives,
I Verbal Inceptives.
1. Most verbal inceptives want the Supine, but take the Perfect
of their primitives.
The following are examples :
Acesco
Aresco
G&lesco
FlOresco
MSdesco
TSpesco
Ylresco
tives :
Abdlesco
Ck>&leaco
Gonctipisco
Cony&Iesoo
Ezardesco
Iny^UrasGO
Obdormiaco
Rdvlvisco
Scisco,
(aceo\
\caUo),
IfiHrto),
(madeo).
(tepeo).
(vweo).
acescSre, acui,
areac^re, arui,
calescSre, calai,
florescftre, florui,
madescdre, madai,
tepescdre, tftpui,
Tireacfire, virai,
to heeoTM tour,
to become dt^.
to become warm,
to begin to bloom,
to bedom>e moist,
to become warm,
to become green.
The following take the Perfect and Supine of their primi-
idbf oleo\ £re,
con, alo), • fire,
eon, eupio), ftre,
con, valeo)f hre,
exj ardeo), fire,
inveth^),^ fire,
pb, dormio), fire,
re, vivo), fire,
[scio), fire.
ftbolfiTi,
coftlui,
concupivi,
conTUui,
exarsi,
inveterSvi,
obdormlvi,
revixi,
scKi,
abolltum,!
coalltiim,
concupltum,
convalitoxn,
exarsum,
inveterStam,
obdonnltum,
reyictum,
Bcltum,
to disappear,
toeooMsce.
to desire,
to grow strong,
to burn,
to grow old.
to/all asleep,
to revive,
to enact.
8. The following are Inceptives only in form :
Crcsco,
F&tisco,
Glisco,
Nosco,
Pasco,
Quiesco,
Suesco,
crescfire,
fatiscfire,
gliscfire,
noscfire,
pascfire,
quiescfirc,
suescfire, >
crfiyi,
nSvi,
p5vi,
quifiyi,
sufiyi,
crfitum.
pastom,
quifitum,
Bufitum,
to grow.
to gape,
to swell.
to know.
to feed.
tooe quiet.
to be accustomed.
II. Denominative Inceptives.
1. Most denominative inceptives want both Perfect and Su-
pine. Thus
to grow sick,
to grow rich.
Aegresco (aeger),
Ditesco (dives),
Dulcesco {dulcis), , ,.
Grandesco (granais), to grow large, Pufirasco {puer),
Gr&vesco {gravis), to grow heavy, Pinguesco {pin
Jiiyfinesco, {juvhU8),tobecom4ayouih.
. . MItesco {mUis\ " to grow mud,
to become sweet, Hollesco {mollis), to grow soj"
to become a boy.
I, to grow fat.
2. The following have the Perfect in ui:
GrGbresco
Daresco
(crdfer),
{durue),
fire,
fire,
crfibrui,
danii.
to become frequent,
to become hard.
1 Soindlesco; but addlesco has Sap. aduUum; eableseo, eoooUtum; obsdlesoo,
dbeolUwn,
124
CLASSIFICATION OF YBSBS.
ETioesco
InnSteaoo
Macresoo
Mitareaoo
Nigresco
ObmOtesco
Obsardesco
RecrQdeaoo
YUesco
in, notut),
macer),
matunu),
niger),
ob, nv&tui),
ob, 9urdus\
re, crOdus),
ftre,
6 re,
6re,
6re,
fivSani,
innOtui,
macrui,
nigral,
obmatui,
obsordui,
recrQdai,
tovanith,
to become hnofifn.
to beeome lean.
to ripen-.
to become black. *
to grow dumb.
to become deaf .
to bleed afrdih.
to become worthless.
282. Djeponent Yebbs.
Amplector, i, amplexus sum,
Bo eompleetor, eircumpleetor,
Apiflcor, i, aptns smn,
Adlpisoor, ^ adeptus sum, so indipiseor.
Comminiscor, i, commentus sum,
SemyUsoor wants Pei£
ExpergiBoor,
Ffttiscor,
i,
experrectos sum,
D^fUUcor, i, d^f^M
Fruop, frui,
Tutt/iruUarus.
Fungor, i,
( fructufl sum,
( fhiitus sum,
functus sum,
gressussum,
Gr&^or, i.
Compounds thus: aggridior, i, aggressus wm.
Irascor, i, *
Labor, i, lapsus sum,
Liquor, i, ^
Loquor, i, locutus sum,
Hiniscor, obsolete ; see commmiscor.
Mdrior, i (in, rar€\ mortuus sum.
Part morUHrus,
to embrace,
to obtain.
to devise.
to awaJce.
to gape.
to enjoy.
to perform,
to wcilc.
to be angry.
tofaU.
to melt,
to speak.
to die.
Nancisoor, i,
Nascor, i.
Fart nascUHrus,
nactus (nanctus) sum,
n&tus sum.
Nitor,
Obllviscop,
P&ciscor,
Patior,
I Disus sum,
I nixus sum,
' oblitus sum,
pactus sum,
passus sum,
Ferp&ior, t, perpessus sum.
Plector, not used as Dep. ; see amplector.
Pr6f Jciscor, i, profectus sum,
Qugror, i, questus sum,
R^miniscor, i,
Ringer, i,
Sgquor, i, secQtus sum,
to obtain,
to be bom.
to strive.
^o forget,
to bargain
to suffer.
to set out.
to complain,
to rememher.
to growl,
to follow.
FOUBTH CONJUGATION.
125
Tuor, antiquated form for tueoTy 212. 1.
Ulcificor, i, ultus sum, to avenge,
Utor, i, Qsus sum, to use,
Vertor ; see devertor, pracvertor, reyertor, 273. ffl.
Vescor, i, to eat.
Rdo,
Semi-Deponent,
fidgre, fSsus sum.
to trust.
The following are
exATTiples :
Audio,
audire,
audivi,
audltum.
Condio,
oondire.
condiiri,
conctitum,
Finio,
finire.
finivi.
Lenio,
lenire.
lenivi.
lenitum,
Munio,
munire,
munivi,
muultum.
POnio,
punire,
punivi,
puultum,
Scio,
s<^,
s<avi.
B(^tum,
SgpgHo,
86pdire,
sepe&vi.
sepultum,*
Sitio,
sitire.
sitSvi,
Vfigio,
vagire,
vagivi,
FOUBTH CCQS^JUGATION.
Class I. Regulab Foemation.
283. Principal Partd in : io, ire, ivi, itiim.
ti^hear,
to season,
to finish,
to aUeviate.
to fortify,
to puntsh,
to Know,
to bury,
to thirst,
to cry,
1. JPierfect in '^for Ivi. — Fis often dropped in the ending of the Perfect;
audii for audivi. See 234. 1.
2. Berfeet and Supine Wantinff. — ^Desideratiyes (332. III.)) except esMo,
ire, — , Uum; nuptiirto, tre, ivi, and paHiimo, ir>, im, want both Ferf. ana
Sup. Also a few others :
Balbfltk), to staffuner. Gannio, to barh. Singnltio, to sob.
Gaecfltio, to be blind, Ineptio, to tr\fie. S5perbio, to be proud,
FSrio, to strike. SSgio, tobevdse. Tussio, to cough,
F6r5cio, to be fierce.
Class IL Ibbegulab Foemation. — Two Irregularities.
284. First Irregularity. — Perfect after the Analogy of
the Second and Third Conjugations,
L Perfect in tii, as in Conjugation II.
Principal Parts in : io, ire, ui, turn.
Amicio, Smicire, (amicui *), amictum, to clothe,
Apgrio, fip^iire, aperui, apertum, to open.*
Op^rio, operire, operui, opertum, to cover.*
SSlio, salire, salui (ii), (saltum), to leap.
Compounds thus : deiiUo^ ire, ui (ii\ {desvUum).
^ Snplne Irregular. « Probably not in actual uae. « From pdrio of ConJ. IIL
126
CLASSIFICATION OP TEEBS.
IL Perfect in si (i), as in Conjugation IIL
Piincipal Parts in : iOj bre, si (i), tiun (stun).
Comp^iio, compeiire, comp^ii, oompertum, to leam,^
Farcio, forclre, farsi, {f^^ toUuff,
Coxnpoimds fbiu: confercio, Ire, eor^^ursi^ eonfertum.
Fnlcio,
Haurio,
Baucio,
R^p^rio,
Sancio,
Sarcio,
Sentio,
Sepio,
Vincio,
285.
VbioeL
V«nio,
MCire,
haurire,
raucire,
reperire,
sancire,
sarcire,
eentire,
sepire,
vincire,
fulsi,
hausi, .
rausi,
repSri,
sanxi.
fultum, to prop,
haustum,hausiim, to draw.
sensi,
sepsi,
vinxi,
rausnm,
repertum,
(santiitum,
sanctum,
sartum,
Bensum,'
eeptum,
Yinctum,
tobehoarga
to find.^
to raiify.
to patch,
to feel,
to /tedge in.
to bind.
Second Irregularity.— Per/6c« lengthens Stem-
venire,
v6ni,
veninm,
to cotne.
So compounds : advenio, cowoenio^ detenio, inveniOt obveniOf pervenio^ 6ta
286. Deponent Veebs.
1. JSegular.
Blandior,
Iri,
blandltufi sum,
to flatter,
to bestow.
Largior,
iri,
largitus sum,
Mentior,
iri,
mentltus sum,
to lie.
M6lior,
Iri,
molltus sum.
to strive.
Partior,
Iri,
partitus sum,
to divide.
Jmpertior, Iri, impertUue sum ; so diepertior.
Potior,
iri.
potitus sum,*
to obtain.
Sortior,
iri.
sortitus sum,
2. Irregular.
to draw lot»^
Assentior,
iri.
assensus sum,*
to assent.
ExpSrior,
H
expertus sum,*
to try.
Metior,
Iri,
mensus sum.
to measure.
OppSrior,
Iri,
( oppertus sum,'
( opperitu» sum,
to await.
Ordior,
iri,
orsus sum.
to begin.
Orior,
iri,
ortus sum.
to rise.
Part or\mru8.'
-Pres. Ind. of Conj. IIL, oriHe, oritur.
Imp. SubJ., orlrer or
orirer.—So compounds, but adorior follows Conj. IV.
1 From pdrio of Coi^. III.
s Comp. assentio'h&a a deponent form, assentior. See 28<K. 3.
« In the Pres. Ind. and Imp. Subj., forms of Conj. IIL occur.
* Compounded of ad and sentio. See eenUOy 284. II.
« Compounded of «a» and pario ; oh and pario. See comperi^, 2$i. IL
IBBEGULAB YEBBS. 127
IRREGULAB YERBS. ~
287. A few verbs which have unusual personal endings,
are called by way of preeminence Irregular or Anomalma
Verbs. They are
Sumy edoy fero^ voloy fio^ eo, gwo^
and their compounds.
288. Sum, I am.
The conjugation of wim has been already given (204.) ; its
numerous compounds — abmm^ adsum^ desum^ fraemm^ etc.— ex-
cept ^OMum wA^omm^ are coiyugated in the same way.
289. Possum, I am able.
possum, possS, p5tuL
Indicative.
Pbesent.
possum, p5t&9, potest; poss&miis, pStestis, pofisunt
Impebfsct.
pdt^rftm, -firSs, -^r&; pdtgrftmds, -^rfttiis, -«nmt.
Future.
p6t&6, -^ris, -di^t; p5tgtimQs, -^rltlCB, -Srunt
Pebfect.
p5tui, -isti, -!t; p5tulmus, -istXs, -erunt or Si^
Pluperfect.
pdtoSr&n, -5r9s, -£r&t; pdto&r&miis, -^rfttZs, 4rant.
Future Perfect.
pdtuer5, -^rls, -drit; pStuSnmfis, -iritis, -Srint
Subjunctive.
Present.
poa^, possis, possit; posslmiis, pos^tls, possint
Imperfect.
possum, posses, possSt; possemfis, possetiis, possent.
Perfect.
p6tugrim, -eifs, -Siit; pdtuSrimds, -^rltiys, -^11111;.
> Mwm and jgrawwrn^ like po88tm% haye Pros. Participles, absens and prae««n&
128
IBBEGULAB y£BB&
Plupebfsct.
pdtui8s6m, -i^938^ -iasSt; pStuiasemua^ -issetis^ -isBeni.
Impebative. — Wanting.
Infinitive. Participle.
P&ss. potens (cu an adjeeiive}.
Fres.
Pwir.
posa^.
potuiasd.
1. CoMPoemox.— PoMum te eompoonded cfpdiis, able, sad «uo», to be. The
yorts are sometlnies separated, and the& pattt is IndediBable : pdtU sum, p6ti9
2. lEBXovuuuTxn.— In j>M0ttm obserye
1> That p0tis drops is and that < flaail of the stem is asslxnilated before a: poa-
Mumtorpotmtm.
2) That / of the simple is dropped after t : potui for poifui.
8) That the Infln. po9ie and Babj. possem are shortened f6no8 for potease and
poUasem.
& Old Ain) Bass Fosmb^ Bee aCML 1 and 8.
290. Prd^tfTAy I profit, is compounded of prOy for, and sum^ to
be. It inserts d when the ample verb begins with e; prosumy
prodesy prodeaty etc. Otherwise it is co^jogated like sum.
291. Edoyleat
This verb is sometimes regnlar, and sometimes takes forma like
those of 9um which begin in es. Thus :
£d6, MSrg, e£, esum.
Indicative. — Present.
{d5, ^dis^ £dit; £(£mus, gditis^
ea^ est; estis,
Subjunctive. — Imperfect.
^d^m, MSrSs^ Mgr«t; «d«r6mu8> ^eretls^
essSt; esBemiis,
Jm PTC'RA'IM V to-
^dont.
Sd^rent.
eggent.
Pbes.
FUT.
• ddg;
' 68;
edit6;
■ estS;
«ditg.
estS. '
dditot^,
estotS,
Infinitive. — Present.
^duit^.
1. PAssiTB FoBMS.—^^^ for id\Mi,r (Indie. Pros.) and eaa&Hr for MirSMbr
(Sabj. Imp.) also occur.
2. FoBHS IN IK for am occur in P^cs. SubJ. : #c2i^ idia^ idU, etc., for Jkldm^
idda, iddt, etc.
8. Compounds are conjugated like the simple yerb^ bat cwnidQ haa in Sup^
eonUwan, or com^iwn.
IBBBGULAS YEBBS. 129
292. Fero, I hear.
ACTIVE VOICE.
F«r8, ferrg, tfili, latiim.
Indicative.
SINt^ULAS. PLURAL,
Pres. £^r6, fere, fert; ftrfmfis, fertia,* fSrunt.
Imp. fSrebJim ; f%rebftmiis.
Fur. fSrSm ; fgrfimOs.
Pkrp. tail ; taiimtifl.
Plup. t&l§ri(m ; tiUgr&miis.
FuT. Perf. tmgrd; tOlgrimus.
Subjunctive.
Pres. fSridn ; f^rftmus.
Imp. ferrSm ; ferrgmiis."
Perf. tiilSrim ; tQlgrimus.
Plup. tOliasSm ; tulissemfis.
Impebative.
Pres. ftr;« fertfi.
FuT. fert6, ferWtS
fert^ ; feruntd. •
Infinitive, Participle.
Pres. ferrg.' Pres. fSrens.
Perf. t&liBsS.
FuT. UtQrusesse. Fut. IfttOrOs.
Gerund. Supine.
Oen, fSrendi.
Dot, fSrendd.
Aee, fgrendihn. Ace, l&tiim.
AU. fgrend$. AU. IfttQ.
PASSIVE VOICE.
fSr5r, ferri, latus sum.
Indicative.
Pres. f^r5r, ferns, ferttir;* fSiimiir, fSrimlnl, f%runtfir.*
Imp. fSrebftr ; fSreb&miir.
Fut. fgrftp; f^rfimur.
Perf. Ifttiis siim ; IfttI sumfis.
Plup. Iftt&s grSm ; Iftti firSmiis.
Fut. Perf. lattls dr6 ; Ifta gnmOs.
* Ftn for firU ; fert totfir^ ; ferfU torffrlffis {i dropped).
' JFerremy etc for firirim^ etc ; ferri torfSrSrS (« dropped).
« rir toT/grS; ferto^/erti^/ermi for fSrU8,/SrUi,fSrUoti(i dropped).
* Ferris for fSrirU ; fertdo' tor^rWir,
6*
130
IBBEGULAB YEBBS.
SUBJUKCTIVB.
Pbxs.
Imp.
Pkrt.
Plup.
Pris.
Put.
ferrtr;
lftt&8 B&n ;
ftrfimijr.
ferremtir.*
Ifttl Amus,
lAtiessemOa
Impebatiye.
fertdr,*
fert6r;«
Infinitive.
Prks.
Pert.
Put.
ferri.»
Ifitiux
l&t&miri.
f^runtSr.
Pabticiple.
Perf. l&tfis.
FuT. fSrendOs.
1. iBBXOirLAxinB.— ^ifTO, It vUl be aeeOf has two principal iiregnLuities :
1) It forms its Perf and Bap. ttUi (rarely tel/&lC) and IcUum from obsolete stems.
8) It drops the connecting vowel e or < in certain forms of the Pre& Indie, and
Infln., the Imperil SnbJ. and the Impent It doubles r in the Prcs. Infln. Pass.
2l GoMFomrDS of /^ro are coi\]agated like the simple verb, bat in a fow of them
the preposition snlTers a eaphonio change :
ab-
aafSro,
anferre,
abst&Ii,
ablStmn.
ad'
aflSro,
affcrre,
attAli,
allStnm.
con^
coniSro,
conferre,
contull.
collatam.
dit-
diirSro,
dilferre.
distmi.
dllfitam.
eoa-
elKro,
efferre,
eztiUi,
elatom.
in-
iniSro,
inferre,
intfili.
mstom.
ch'
olKSrOp
offerre,
obtiUi,
oblStom.
aub-
snlfSro,
solTerre,
snstUi,
snblatam.
Siut&U and tubUUtun ore not nsed in the sense otat^ro, to bear, bat thej sap-
ply the Pert and Bap. of toUo^ to raise. 8ee 280.
293. Volo, I am
Malo, I prefer.
m^.— Nolo, J am unwiUing. —
v6l8,
n6l6
mal5,
vellfi,
noUS,
mallft^
Indicative.
v61uL
noluL
mftlul.
Present.
* va«.
nOl5,
m&l5,
mn
non vis,
non vult ;
ndliimus,
non vultlis,
nolunt.
mavis,
m&vult;
mftl&miiS|
mftvultis,
mftlunt.
•Ferr'
?r, etc., toT/Sririr^ etc ; /err
irtoT/grmr.
ffory?rJ(Conj.IIL)L
itoTfgfiri.
IBBEGULAB YEBBS.
131
iMPSSnCT.
vdleb^, bAs, etc. |
nolebtfm, bU, etc. |
FUTITRl.
m&lebSm, bas, etc. ,
»
ToUnu 1
PEBnCT.
mfllj^m,
f
▼aui. 1
noluL 1
Pluperfect.
mfiluL
vSlnSrSm. |
nOluSrfim. |
Future Perfect.
mfiluSr^^m.
Tola^rS. 1
s
nOlugr5. 1
UBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
malugr^.
•
Y&Hs
v6Kt
yglimtis
vfelitia
T^lint
nOlim
nOliS
nOlit
nOtimOs
nolitis
Imperfect.
mfllls
mfllit
mfillmila
mfllltiis
m&lint.
vellum *
yeUes
yeUgt
yellSmijs
veUetfe
veUent.
* noU«m
noUes
nolldt
nollemiis
noUetita
nollent.
Perfect.
Tnall^m
fnalles
maU«t
malldmtis
malletiys
mallent
y51ufii!m. |
n5lu8nm. |
maludnm.
T51ui88«m. 1
I
n5luifls^m. |
MPBBATJVE.
Present. .
maluiflsdm.
1
n6li, nOlitS. 1
FOTURl.
nOlItS, nOlitStg;
n6lit6, nolunt^.
1 F«Z2e9» and Telle are STnoopated forms for veUram^ velire; e is dropped and r
assimilated ; v«2^em, velrern^ v«Usm; veUre, velre, veUs, So nottem and no^, for
nolirem and iMMr« ; fTioJtffn and n^clue^ for mo^Mi and maUre,
132 IBBBGXTLAB YESBS.
I
NFINITIVB.
Prxskkt.
Tens.
1
noU«.
Perfect.
1
iralT^
TSluiflBi.
1
P
ndluifis^.
ABTICIPI*E.
1
inaluiss&
ySlens.
1
nSlena
1
1 GouFOflRioor.— J^dfo is eomponnded (tf ne or tion and vdio; mSlo^ of mdgU
2L Babi FoaiA-Kl) Of t5lo: voU^ wHis, for imlt, tmAi«; «U, «tt2M«, for «i
«it, H tultU; Hn'' for t7i«M.~(2) Of nolo: nevia^ fuvuU {netcU)^ nweUe, for non
cia, «ai» vuUf no^— (8) Of xiLLo: mav^Ua, maifHimf maveiUm, in mcUQ, maUm^
maUem,
294. Ro, Z become.
FI$, figii, factus sum.
Indicative.
HN6ULAB. PLURAL.
Pres.
Imp.
FUT.
Perf.
Plup.
FuT. Perf.
fi8, fis, fit;
fieUml
fiSm;
factiia siim ;
factiisgr£m;
factiia Srd ;
fimiis, fitis, f iunt
fiebamfis.
fiemtis.
facti sfimiis.
fact! grftrnfis.
facti inmtis.
Subjunctive
.
Pres.
Imp.
Perf.
Plup.
fWm;
figrgm;
factitosSm;
facttis ess^m ;
fiamiis.
fi^remiis.
facti ^mtis.
facti essemiis.
Impebative
.
Pres.
fi;
fitg.
Infinitive.
Pabticiplb.
Pres.
Perf.
Put.
f J5ri.
factds essg.
facttimlrL
Perf. factfis.
FuT. fSciendus.
1. iBBiGTrLABXTT.— .7^ fs 011I7 sllghtly irregular, as will be seen from the para-
digm.
2. Mbavikq.^Mo means (1) to become^ (2) to "bt made, appoinfsd. In the
second sense it is nsed as the passive of /ado. See 279.
8. CoMPoinnis of Jlo are coi^agated like the simple verb, but oonJUy d^/U, and
in/U are defectiTe. See 297. IIL 2.
ISBEGUIiAB . YXBBS*
133
295. Eo, I go.
Ed, irg, iTi,
Indicative.
itfim.
8INGULAB.
plvral.
Pbes.
Imp.
Fur.
Perf.
Plup.
Fur. Perf.
e5,iS,it;
iTi;
ivgrSm;
iv6r6;
tnOSj Itis, eunt.
Ib&mus.
ibimtis.
ivimfis.
Ivgramiis.
Subjunctive.
Pres.
Imp.
Perf.
Plup.
eSm;
irgm;
ivgrim;
Ivissgin;
efimfta.
iremus.
Ivgrimus.
lyissemiis.
Impebative.
Pres.
FUT.
it6;
its.
itOtS
euntd. •
Infinitive.
Pabticiple.
Pres.
Perf.
FUT.
ir5.
ivissd.
itQrfis essS.
Pres. iens. G^en. euntiis.
Fur. itOrflfl.
Gerund.
Supine.
Oen,
Lot,
Ace.
Abl.
eundi.
eund5.
eund&m.
eundd.
-4cc. itilm.
^W. itQ.
1. iBBKOTTLABims.— ^ Ifl ft Torb of the fonrth coi^ngation, bat it forms the
Bap. with a short Towel (^Uum) and Is Irregalar in several parts of the present systeov
It admits contraction according to S84 : isUa for Miti^ etc
2. PASsm X jtFmi T ivjB .— ^Q as an intransltlTe verb wants the Passive, except
when ased Impersonally In the third singolar Uur^ i^OiuTt etc. (801. 8), bat IH, the
Pass. Infin., occars as an aaxlllary in the Fat Infin. Pass, of the regalar ooxOaga-
tlons: cmUUumirif etc.
& CoMPOuinw of 40 are generally oox^ngated like eo, bat shorten M into H.—
Vhuo {venwn eo) has sometimes vwUS)am for venXbam, Isiaaj compounds want
the sapine, and a few admit in the Fat a rare form in earn, <m, %&.
Transitive componnds have also the Passive: adeo^ to approach, adtor^ adlHit
alitor, etc
Ambio is regalar, like aucUOt thoagh ambUbam for ambWxim oocmfl.
184 IBREGULAB YEBBS.
296. Queo, I can aUe. Nequeo, I am unable.
Queo, qulre^ qulvi, quUvm^ and Ntqtieo^ nequlre^ nequhn {ii\ nequX-
trnn^ are coigugated like eo, but they wont the Imperatiye and Gerund, and
are rare, except in the Present tense.'
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
297, Defective Verbs want certain parts: we specify
the following.'
L Pebsbnt System Wanting.
Coepi, I fyave begun, Memini, I remember. Odi, T hate.
Indicativk.
PiBT. ooepL
Plup. ooep^rSm.
FuT. FuiF. coep6r5.
mSminL
m^mindrSuL
mSmin^rd.
Subjunctive.
Pebt.
Plup.
coepSrim.
coei»Bs6m.
mSmlnSiim.
m^minissfim.
odi.
6d^r£m.
Odgrd.
odSiim.
Odiflsem.
Impeeativb.
S. rn^ment^.
P. m^entdte.
Pebf.
FUT.
Perf.
FUT.
eoepissS.
coeptQriis esa&.
Infinitive.
memloifise.
Paeticiplb.
coeptiis.
coeptOriiflb
ddisse.
dsQr&sessg.
Osas.'
dsurfis.
1. Passiys FoBiL—Wlth paadye infinitiyes ooepi generally takes tbe passiye
form : coeptus 8wn\ irarn^ etc. The Part eoepUu is passive in sense.
2. Pbesent in Sbksil— Jfemln< and &di are present in sense ; hence in the
PlnperU and Fnt Perl they have the sense of the Imperil and Fnt— Jl^o«i, I know,
Pert of noseOf to learn, and coMuMt I am wont, Peif. of cotuueeeOf to accnstom
one^s sell^ are also present in sense.
* A passiye form, quUnr, neguUuTt etc., sometimes occurs before a Pass. Infln.
s Many, which want the Perf. or Sup. or both, hare been mentioned under the
Classification of Verbs.
> Oau€ is actlye In sense, haUnfft but is rare except in compounds : eudrntt,
perdw.
DBFECnVB YEBJB8,
135
n. Paets of Each System WANiiNa.
1. Aio, I say J say yes}
Indio. Pre*, aio, i&,* ait; ftiunt
Imp, fiieblCm, -ebas, -ebfit; -€bamii8, -€bftUs, -ebant.'
SuBj. Prc«. fiUls, &i£t; fiioDt.
Impeb. Pre*, ai (rare).
Fast. Pre*, ftiens {a» adJecHve),
2. Inquam, J say,
Indic. Pre«. inqu^, inquis, inquit; inquSmus, inquitifs, inquiunt.
Imp, inquiebfitj* — —
Mit. inquies, inquifit; — — «-
Perf. inquisti, inqidtt ;
Impeb. Frea, inque. MU. inquit^.*
3. Fari, to speak*
Indic. Prea. filtur ; — —
Fut: filbor, filbitur;
Peff. fetfissfim, es, est;
Flup. fSXuB erSm,^ erfts, - er&t ;
SuBJ. Per/, filtfissim, sis, eit;
Plup. &tua essSm, esses, ess^ ;
Impeb. Prea, fM.
Infin. Prea, ftrL
Part. Prea, (fans) fantis, P«/. fetiis, i?W. fandus.
Gebund, Gen, and Abl, fandi, d6. Supine, Abl, flLtO.
m. Impebativbs aot) Isolated Foems.
1. Impbratiyes.— SvS, avete; avSt6; Inf. avfire, hail,
salvS, salvgt^, salvet^ ; "* salvgre, hail.
cgd5, cettS, tell me, give me.
figft,® Sgitfi, come.
begone.
fktl sumiis, estiB, sunt.
filti erftmus, eratis, ^rant.
i^tl esmiis, sltis, aint.
£ltl essemils, essgtis, essent.
1 In this verb a and i do not form a diphthong; before a vowel the i has the'
sonnd oty: a^yo^ af-ia. See 9. %
3 The interrogative form dene is often shortened to ain\
* Albam^ aXbaa^ etc., oconr in comedj.
^ Also written i/nguVbat,
* A few forms of the SnbJ. are sometimes given, but they are not found in the
classics.
* FctH is nsed chiefly in poetry. Componnds have some forms not found in the
rimple; thus: ajjpBbvwwr^ affixm^M^ ajgWbo/r^ effiaMria, SubJ. Imp.^^er also occurs
in compounds.
T The Fut aaMMa is also used for the Imperat
Age is also used in the sense of the PlunO.
186
IHPJEBSONAL VERBS.
2. Isolated FoRHt).
' Iiroio. Fres, FiU»
conf It^
dfiflt, deflont, deflet,
infit, influnt,
Bub. Imp. flWm, fiSrCa, i5r6l;, —
I»D. Prw. dvat Pabt. dvans,
Imd. Prw. quaesli, quaesfimas,*
Sub. Fres, Imp.
conmt, oonfidret,
demt,
Intxn.
conf iSii, to &e dofie,
def idri, to be %oafUing^
to begin,
forent. Inf. for6.*
he rejoices.
I pray.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
298. Impersonal Verbs never admit a personal subject.
They correspond to the English Impersonal with it: licety
it is lawful, oportetj it behooves.' They are conjugated
like other verbs, but are used only in the third person sin-
gular of the Indicative and Subjunctive and in the Present
and Perfect Infinitive.
299. Strictly Impersonal are only
it becomes,*
it plecLses,*
IV*. j^^eBt,*^-*"-
Poenit&t, poenituit, it causes re-
gret; poemtetme, I repent,
Taedfit, it wearies; pertaedgt, per-
taesiunest
DficSt, d&ciiTt,
^^^^ 1 libitum est,
LiquSt, Kcuit, it is evident*
Misdrgt, mia^ritiim est, it excites pity ;
me misSret, Ipity^
Oportgt, oportuit, it behooves,
1. Pabttozplxb are generally wanting, bnt a few ooenr, fhongh with a some-
what modified sense: (1) from lxbet: IXbenSt willing; (2) from liost: HiceM^ free ;
VidMSy allowed; (8) from posNim : pomlAmA, penitent; poenUendiis, to be re-
pented of; (4) from pmzT : pi&dens, modest ; pMendikSj shamefkil.
2. OxBTmiNS are generally wanting, but occor in rare instances ; poenUendam,
pUdendd.
300. Generally Impersonal are several verbs which de-
signate the changes of weather, or the operations of nature :
FulmMt, it lightens, Pli:d[t (P. pluit), it rains,
Grandinfit, it hails. ROrilt, dew falls,
LSpidfit, it rains stones. TdnSt (tSnuit), it thunders.
LQcescit, it grows light, VespSrascit, evening approaches.
Ningit (ninxit), it snows.
^ Forem v essem : fore = ftitamm esse. See 204 1.
» Old forms for quaere and fputerimtte.
*The real subject is generally an inflnitlTe or clause, sometimes a neater
pronoun: hoo^fiiri oportet, that this should be done is necessary.
« These four occur in the third person plural, but without a personal tnlifeck
Bo the Comp. dedicet. So also som^ of the others in rare Instances.
mPESSONAL YEBBS.
13»
801.
Thus
Many other verbs
are often used impersonall
JLllUO
1. The following :
Accidit,
it happens.
Fit,
it happens.
Appftret,
it appears.
Interest,
Attanet,
it concerns.
Jiivat,
it delights.
CondQcit,
it is useful.
Pfitet,
it is plain.
Constat,
it is evident.
Pertinet,
it pertains.
Contingit,
it happens.
Placet,
it pleases.
Convgnit,
it is fitting,
it delights.
Praestat,
it is better.
Delectat,
Praet^rit (me).
it escapes (me).
Displicet,
it displeases.
Rcfert,
it concerns.
Ddlet,
it gneves.
Restat,
it remains.
Evgnit,
it happens.
Siibit,
it occurs.
Exp^dit,
it is expedient.
Bufficit,
it suffices.
FaUit>,
Fflgit[(°^^
i)y it escapes (me).
Bupgrest,
Vacat,
it remains,
there is leisure.
2. The Second Periphrastio Coi^ngation (283) is often used
impersonally. The participle is then neuter :
Hihi scribendum est, / must terite ; tibi scribendttm est, you must
write; ill! scribendum est, he must write.
8. Verbs which are intransitiye in the active, i. e., do not
govern the accusative, can only be used impersonally in the pas-
sive, and many others may be so used. The participle is tiien
neuter :
Mihi cre^tur, it is credited tome. Jam believed; tibi creditur, you are
believed; illi creditur, he is believed; certfttur, it is contended; curritur,
there is running j people run ; pugn&tur, it is fought, they, fW, etc., f^ht ;
Bcribltur, it is written; veifltur, they come, we come^ etc ; vivitur, we, you,
they live.
CHAPTEE V.
PABTICLES.
802. The Latin has four parts of speech sometimes
called Particles: the Adverb^ the Preposition, the Con-
junction^ and the Interjection.
ADYERBa
303. The Adverb is the part of speech which is used
to qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs: celeriter
currere, to run swiftly ; tarn celer, so swift ; tarn celeriter^
so swiftly.
138 ADYSBBS.
804. Adverbs ma^ be divided, according to their Ag"
nification, into four prmcipal classes :
I. Advebbs op Place.
Hic, here; hQc, hither; hinc, hence,
illlc, there; illQc, thither; illinc, thence,
istic, there; istOc, thither; istinc, thence.
iibi, where f qud, tohitherf und6, whence i
n. Adveebs op Time.
H6di6, to^y, nondum, not yet, saep^, o/3:e9k
Ibi, then, nunc, funr. eSm^, once,
jam, notff. nunquam, nev^. turn, then,
jamdiQ, long Hnee, Olim, formerly, unquam, ever.
m. Adverbs of Maniosb, Meaxs, Degbee.
Adeo, so, paenS, almost. ^c, so.
aliter, otherwise, pftlam, openly, iit, as.
ita, «o. prorsua, wholly, yaldS, mttcA.
mi^ifl, more. i5te, rightly. vix, scarcely.
IV. Advebbs op Gatjse, Inpeeence.
Car, why? eo, for this reason.
quart, wherefore. ideo, o« <Am account,
quamobrem, wherefore. idcirco, therefore,
quapropter, wherefore. proptdreft, therefore,
305. CoMPABisoN. — ^Most Adverbs are derived from
adjectives, and are dependent upon them for their compari-
son. The comparative is the neuter singular of the adjec-
tive, and the superlative changes the ending us of the ad-
jective into e :
altus, altior, aUissImus, lofty.
alte, altius, altis^ime, loftily.
prQdens, prudentior, prudentis^mus, prudent,
prQdenter, prudentius, prudentissiine, prudently,
1. Maqis akd Maximb.— When the adjectiTe is compared with magis
and maxmiet the adverb is compared in the same way :
egregins, m&gis egregius, maxYme egregius, excellent.
egregie, m&gis egregie, maxime egregie, excellently.
2. Ibbegvlab Govparison.— When the adjectiye is irregular, the adverb
has the same irregularity :
bdnus, melior, optXmus, good,
bdne, ^ melius, optlme, weU,
male, * pejus, pesdtoie, badly,
8. Defectivb Compaeison.— When the adjective is defectiye, the adrerb
is generally defective :
COMPASISON OF ADVERBS. 139
— deterior, . deterrlmus, fporte,
deterius, deterrlme, worse,
ndvus, noTisdmuSy fuw,
nSve, ; novisslme, newly.
4. GoxpAiLED.— A few not deriyed from adjectives are compared :
ditl, dintios, dintiaslme, for along time,
saepdy taepius, saepissime, often.
8&tis, satius, eufficiently,
ntkper, nuperrfme, reeewtly,
5. Not Compabed.— Host adyerba not derired from adjectiyes, ^ also
those from adjectiyes incapable of comparison (169), are not compared : Mc,
bere ; nunCf now ; vulgar&er, commonly.
6. SupBBLATiyBS DT OB um are used in a few adyerbs : prkno,jnimum,
poUsainvum.
PREPOSITIONS.
308. The Preposition is the part of speech which shows
the relations of objects to each other : in Italia essCy to be
in Italy; ante me^ before me.
For list of prepositions, see 438-486.
307. Inskpaxabli Pbxpositionb.— wdfn6t\ amb^ around, about; dis,
diy asunder ; r«, red^ back ; m, aside, apart ; ne and w, not, are called in-
separable prepositions, because they are used only in composition.
OONJUNOTIONS.
808. Conjunctions are mere connectives : pater isrJUiuSj
the father and son ; pater axjt Jiliits^ the father or son,
300. Conjunctions are divided, according to their use,
into two classes :
I. CooRDEBTATB CONJUNCTIONS, — ^which couuect similar
constructions : labor voluptasq'ue^ labor and pleasure ; Car-
thaginem cepit ao diruitj he took and destroyed Carthage.
n. SuBOKDiNATB CoNJUNcmoNS, — ^which conuect subor-
dinate with principal constructions: haec dum coUigunt^
effugity while they collect these things, he escapes.
L COOBDINATB CONJUNCTIONS.
810. Coordinate Conjunctions comprise five subdivi-
sions :
1. CoPULATTVB CoNJUNcnoNS, denoting imion :
Et, qu$, atqu6, ftc, and, Etiam, qu5qug, also. NdquS, nSc, atid not,
N6qu8 — ^noquS, nSc — ^n6o, n6qu6 — nSc, neither — nor.
140 CONJUNCTIONS.
2. DisjUNCirvE CoNjuNcnoNS, denotbg separation:
Aut, v6l, v«, flvfi (seu), or. Attt— aut, v51 — ^vel, either — or. Sive— .
tiiv6, either— or,
3. ADYXBSATiyE CoNJUNcnoNs, denoting opposition :
S6dj atttem, ydmm, TCro, hut. At, but^ en the eontrcary, Atqid, but
rather, Cetdrum, but etill. T&nen, yet.
4. Ilulttyb CoNjuNcnoNB, denoting inference :
Ergo, ]^tiir,mde,promde^rt&que,A«n^tA«r«/We. See also 687, IV. 2.
5. Causal CoNJUNcnoNS, denoting cause :
Nam, namque, finim, etdnim, for.
JL SUBOBDINATB CONJUNCTIONS.
311. Subordinate Conjonctions comprise eight sobdi-
visions :
1. Temporal CoNJUNcnoNS, denotbg time :
Qoando, quum, when. Ut, tibi, a«, when. Qwam prlmmn, nt piimnm,
iibi prlmum, simiU, d^mulac, ^(miilatque, as 9o<m as. Dum, donee, quoad,
quamdiu, while, until, as long as. Antdquam, priusquam, before, PosteS-
quam, after.
2. Compabahye Conjunchons, denoting comparison :
Ut, iiti, dctit, cSciitI, as, so as. YSl&t, just as. Praeut, profit, oe-
c&rding as, in comparison with. Quam, as. Tanqiuim, quSai, iit ^ Ac eS,
ydl&t Si, as if
3. CoNDmoNAL CoNjuNcnoNS, denoting condition :
Si, if Si nOn, ni^, nl, if not. Sin, but if & quidem, if indeed,
Si m6d5, dum, mdd6, dammdd5, if only.
4. CoNCEssiTE Conjunctions, denoting concession :
Quamquam, licet, quum, although. Etsi, tSmetsI, etiam^ even if..
Quamvis, quantmuTis, quantumllbet, hotoever mueli, although. Ut, grant
that. Ne, grant that not.
5. Final Conjunctions, denoting purpose or end :
Ut, uti, that, in order that. NS, nevS (neu), that not. Qu5, that.
Qu5minii8, that not.
6. CoNSECUTivB Conjunctions, denoting consequence
or result :
Ut, so that. Ut non, quin, so that not.
7. Causal Conjunctions, denoting cause :
INTEEJBCTIONS. 141
Qui&, qttod, because, Qaum, Hnee, Qtt5mam, quando, quanddqni-
4lem, £Sqiiidein, Hnee indeed,
8. Xnteeeogativb Conjunctions, denoting inquiry :
N5, nonii$, niim, utmm, an, iohether. An ndn, necne, or not.
INTERJEOTIONS.
812. Interjections are certain particles used as expres-
sions of feeling or as mere marks of address. They may
express
1. Astonishment : d, Aem, eAem, hui^ aha, &tcU^ papae, voA, Sn^ eccS,
2. Joy : to, Aa, he^ eu, htoe,
8. Sorrow: vae, heiy heu, Skett, ohS, ah, au, prd or proh,
4. Disgust : aM^ phul, Up&g^,
6. Calling : heue^ o, eAo, ehodum,
6. Praise : etigSy ejH^ hejd.
CHAPTER VI.
FOBMATIOH OF WOBDS.
313. WoEDS may be formed in two ways :
L By Debtvation; i. e., by the addition of certain end-
ings to the stems of other words: amor, love, from amo^ to
love.
n. By Composition ; i. e., by the union of two or more
words or their stems : henevolem^ well- wishing, from hene^
well, and volens^ wishing.
1. SiMPLK and Compound.— Words formed bj composition are called
Compounds ; those not thus formed are called Simple Words,
2. PEiKiTme and Dbbivatiyb.— Simple words formed bj derivation are
called Deriva^kes ; those not thus formed are called PrimUioes.
DERIVATION OF WORDS.
NOUNS.
314. Nouns are derived from other Nouns^ from Ad-
jectivea^ and from Verbs,
▼irga,
branch.
oppidum.
town.
flOB,
fiovaer.
pars,
part.
Tniipiiff
present.
142 DSBIYATION OF NOUNS.
L Nouns from Nouns.
315. DiMiNUTiYBS generally end in
iQaSy iila, iiliim, ciSiiii, cula, cillmn.
hort-Mus, a small garden^ from hortns, garden,
Tirg-iiU, a stnall branchy if -
oppid-Qlum, a small town, *'
floa-cOlua, a small Jlower, "
part-i-ciUa, a small part, "
munus^iUuiD, a small present^ *'
1. Ulofli iila, iUiim are generally added to the stems of noons of Dec.
L and II., and to some of Dec. IIL
2. OIhb, ttla, 51iim are used for iUtts, ula, vZum, when a vowel pre-
cedes : JUidlus, little sod, from JiUus ; JUidla, little daughter, &om JUia ; alri-
dlum, small hall, from atrium,
8. Z2UIIB, ella, eQum | Ulna, iUa, mam, are sometimes used, es-
peclallj with primitires of Dec. I. and II., whose stems end in 1, n, or r;
bnt el and il in thesA endings generally displace the last syllable of the stem :
ocellus, small eye, from oeulus ; /abeUa, short fiible, from/ab&la.; baciUwn,
small staff, from baculum.
4. OqIdb, cxila, oiiliim are used with primitives of Dec. lY. and Y.,
and with some of Dec III. These are appended
1) To the IfominaUve:flos,flos-eQlus; muUer, wulUrcMa; munus, munus-
e&lum,
2) To the Stem with a connecting yowel i, sometimes e : pons (bridge), pont-U
eiUus; parSj partie&la ; mtlpea (ttix\ vtUpec&la,
8) To the Stem of nonns in o (G. oniB, inis), with stem-yowel changed to u:
homo (man), homun-c&lue ; tdrgo (maiden), foirgunciila. like nonns in o,a few
other words form diminntives in wndUiu^ unc&la : avtts (uncle), avundUus ; domua
(honse), domunc&la.
5. Uleiis and cio are rare: equuleus, a small horse, from equus;
homuncio, a small man, from homo.
316. Pateontmics, or names of descent, generally
end in
ides, Ides, iSdes, Mbb^ masculine,
XS) eis, ias, as, feminine.
Tantal-ides, son of Tantalus ; TantSl-is, daughter of Tantalus,
Thes-ides, son of TheBeus ; Thes-6is, daughter of Theseus,
Laert-iiLdes, son of Laertes ; Laert-ias, daughter of Laertes.
Thesti-Sdes, son of Thestius ; Thesti-as, daughter of Thestius.
1. Ides (I) and ia are the common endings.
2. Ides (I) and eis are used especially with primitiyes in eus,
8.-I&des, Sdes, and ias, as, are used principally with primitives in
itte, and in those in as and es of Dec^ I. — AenHas has Aeneades, masc. and
AeraiSf fern.
DERIVATION OP NOUNS.
143
4. lue and 5ne are rare feminine endings : yeptitn-ine, daughter of
Neptnne ; Acrisi-^hie, daughter of Acrisius.
317. Designations op Place are often formed with
the endings
axium, etanii He.
colmnb-arium, a dovecot^ from columba.
querc-etimi, a forest of oakSf " quercus.
ov-ile, a sheepfoldy ** ovis.
1. Azimn designates the place where anything is kept, a receptacle :
aerdrium, treasuiy, from aes,
2. Btam, used with names of trees and plants, designates the place
where thej flourish : oUvitumf an olive grove, from diva,
8. He, used with names of animals, designates their stall or fold : bovUe,
stall for cattle, from bos,
318. Deeivatives are also formed with several other
endings, especially with
azinB, io, ium, itiom, tiu (itus), Stos.
from statua.
" ludus.
" sacerdos.
" servus.
" vir.
" consul.
1. Aziiu and io generallj designate one's occnpation.
2. Inm and itium denote office, condition, or collection : servUium,
servitude, sometimes a collection of servants.
8. Tub and ItuB designate some characteristic or condition : virtus,
manliness, virtue, from vir; JuventuSf youth, from Juvl^nis,
4. Atas denotes rank, office, collection : consuldttu, consulship, from
consul; sendtw, senate, collection of old men, from seneac
5. Patsial or Gektxlk Nouns.— See 826. 8.
n. Nouns feom Adjechves.
319. From Adjectives are formed various Abstract
Nbuna with the endings
ia, Itla, Itas, itudo, imffnia.
dlligent-ia, diligence^ from diligens.
amic-itia, friendship^ ^^ amicus.
bon-Ttas, goodness^ " bonus,
sol-itudo, solitude^ " solus,
acr-imonia, sharpness^ " acer.
1. Itas, tas, dtas. — Itas sometimes drops ii libertas, liberty, from
liber ; etas is used with primitives in ivs : pietas, piety, from pivs. Sometimes
Btatu-arius,
lud-io,
sacerdot-ium,
serv-itium,
a statuary^
a player,
priesthood,
servitude.
vir-tus,
virtue.
oonsul-atus,
consulship,
144 DEBITAnON OF HOUN&
Um stem of th« •4iMtiTe is sligfatl j chtnged : /oeOif, ySMuiitac. faculty; digir
cUitf d^ficuUat, difficult j ; pottns, poie$i4U, power ; Jkonsttittj honetias, honestj.
2. Itodo and Itai.— A few adjecti^ea fonn abatracta with both these
endiogt : Jirmut, Jirmitag, firmUtUio, firmness. Polysyllabic adjectiyes in
Uta generally change iu9 into iUdo : 9ollicUu8, toUiciiiido, solicitade.
8. Xmonia is rare : Ihrsimonia, parsimony, from parens, changes e
into 4.
in. Nouns from Ybsbs.
1. From the Present Stem.
820. From the Present stem are formed Verbal Nouns
with varioift endings, especially with
or I iumi 111011) msntmUi 1>iSliiinj cfiltmii Ixnuii) cmin| tmnia
am-or, love^ from amo.
tim-or, /ear, " timeo.
gaud-ium, joy^ " gaudeo.
cert-ft-men, contest^ " certo.
om-a-mentom, omamenty ** omo.
Too-a-bfilum, appellation^ " voce,
yeh-i-cfilum, vehicle^ " veho.
fl-a-brum, blasij " flo.
simul-A-crum, imagey '* simiUo.
ar-a-trum, plough, ** aro.
1. Or designates the action or state denoted by the verb.
2. Imn has nearly the same force, but sometimes designates the HUng
done : aed\fici/um, edifice, from aed{f%eo.
8. Men and mentum generally designate the means of an action, or
itsinTolantary suf^eet : fiumen, a stream, something which flows, from^vo /
agmen, an army in motion, from ago.
These endings are generally preceded by a connecting vowel : orfi'O'mentum,
ornament; vest-i-mentwnf clothing. Sometimes the stem itself is shortened or
changed: fivigmenttMiytnigmenty from frango; momentitm, moving force, ttom
moveo.
4. BiUnm, ciUiim, brum, omm, tram designate the instrument or
the place of the action : vehictUwn, vehicle, instrument of the action, from
veho ; stab&lum, stall, place of the action, from sto.
These endings generally take a connecting vowel. Sometimes the stem itself Is
changed: sepulcrunty sepulchre, from eepeUo.
5. Ulum, iila. — Ulwn for c^lum occurs after e and gi vinc-utum^ a
bond, from vindo ; cing^um, girdle, from cingo. Via also occurs : regiUa,
rule, from rego.
6. Ub, a, o sometimes designate the agent of the action : eoguus, cook,
ftom eoquo ; seriba, writer, from scribo ; erro, wanderer, from erro.
7. Bla, ido, Igo and a few other endings also occur : guer^, com-
plaint, from gueror ; eupiddf desire, from cupio ; origo, origin, from orior.
DSBIYATION OF NOUNS. 145
2.
From the Supine Stem,
321. From the
with the endings
Supine stem are formed Verbal Nouns
or,
io, U8, ura.
amat-or,
audit-or,
monit-io,
audit-io,
audit-us,
pict-Qra,
lover^ from amo.
hearery ** audio.
adming^ ** moneo.
hearing^ *• audio.
hearing^ " audio.
singing^ " cano.
painting, " pingo/
1. Or denotes the dgerU or doer. When t precedes, corresponding fem-
inine nouns are generally formed by changing tor into trix : victor, vietrix,
2. lo, us, and ura form abstract nouns, and denote the a(^ itselfl
ADJECTIVES.
322. Derivative adjectives are formed from Nouns^
A.djective8^ Yerbs^ and Adverbs.
1. Adjecttvbs fhoh Nouns.
1. From Common Nouns.
323. Fulness. — ^Adjectives denoting fulness^ abun-
dancCy supply ^ generally end in
5BT18, lentos, atus, Itos, iitcuk
anim-osus, fvll of courage, from animus,
op-u-lentus, opulent, ' " opes,
al-atus, winged, '* aia.
turr-itus, turreted, " turns.
com-Qtus, horned, ** oomu.
1. UoBUB is used for dstts in adjectives from nouns of Dec. IV. and in
some others : fruetudtue, fruitful.
2. Iientcui takes a connecting vowel, generallj u, sometimes o : op-u-
lentus, vin'0-Uatu8»
8. BstnB and ustos also occur, but generally with a change in the
stem : modeskts, modest, from modus ; Justus, just, from^tM.
324. Material. — Adjectives designating the material
of which anything is made generally end in
etu, intiB, nu8, neiu; rarely aoeiui, and ioius.
aur-eus, golden, from aurum.
cedr-inus, cedar, " cedrus.
popul-nu8, of poplar, " poptilus.
popul-neus, of poplar, ** popiilus, i
1
140
DEEIYATION OP ADJBCtlVIS.
later-icius,
of brick.
from
papyrus,
later.
325. Chasacteristic. — ^Adj ectives signifying belonging
to^ derived from^ generally end in
ioof, His, moa, iu; alia, annB,. axis, Szios,
ciy-Icua,
ciT-Uis,
equ-inus,
reg-ius,
mori^Uia,
urb-ftDua,
aalut-ftrifi,
auxili-Arius,
for-ensia,
from
civis.
civis.
equus.
rex.
mors.
urbs.
aalus.
auxilium.
forum.
relating to a citizen,
relating to a citizen,
of, pertaining to a horse,
royal,
mortal,
of, pertaining to a city,
salutary,
auxiliary,
forensic,
1. "noiia ia sometimes added to the Nom. : rue, rut-tiem, rustic.
2. Bxnna, eater, ItXnuui and a few other endings also occur : pater,
patemua, paternal ; campus, eampester, level ; mare, marUimus, maritime.
2. From Proper Nouns. •
326. Adjectives from proper noans generally end in
anus, lanna, Inna; iScua, Xona, iua, enaia, ienaiaj aa, aeua, ena.
SuU-finuB, ofSylla, from Sulla.
Rom-anuS) Jkoman, " Roma.
Ciceron-ifinus, Ciceronian, " Cic6ro.
Lat-inus, Latin, ^^ Latium.
Corinth -iiLcus, Corinthian, ^^ Corinthus.
Corinth-iuB, Corinthian, " Corinthus.
Britann-icus, British, " Britannus.
Cann-ensis, of Cannae, " Cannae.
Athen-iensis, Athenian, ** AthSnae.
Fiden-as, of Fidenae, " Fidenae.
Smym-aeus, Smymean, ** Smyrna.
Pythagor-eus, Pythagorean, " Pythag6ra8.
1. lanua is the ending generally used in derivatives from Mimes of Bur-
sons ; but &nus, inus, ius, and the Oreek endings lits and icus also occur.
2. Bnaia and canua {dmu) in derivatives from names of countries sig-
nify merely being in the cowntry, in distinction from belonging to it: thus
exercUus Mspaniensis is an army sUMoned in Spain, but exercitus Bispameus
is a Spanish army,
8. Patriala.— Many of these adjectives from names of places are also
used substantively as Batridl or Gentile Nouns to designate the citizens of
the place : Corinthii, the Corinthians ; Athemenses, the Athenians.
n. Adjectives prom Adjbcitves.
327. Diminutives from other adjectives generally end
like diminutive nouns (315) in
DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 147
ittiis, dla, ^nm, oilliis, oiila, cilliun.
long-iUus. a, um, rather long^ from longus.
pauper-culus, a, um, rather poor, " pauper.
1. 01u8, elliui, and illus also occur as in nouns.
2. OilluB is sometimes added to comparatives : durius-cUluSf somewhat
hard, from durius,
ni. Adjectives fbom Veebs,
328. Verbal adjectives generally end in
InmdiiB, oandaB; IdtiB, Qis, UObls, ax.
mir-ft-bundu8, toonderinff, from miror.
ver-e-cundus, diffident, " vereor.
cal-idus, warm^ " caleo.
pav-idus, fearful, " paveo.
doc-His, docHe, " doceo.
am-a-bHis, worthy of love, '* amo.
pugn-ax, pugnadotu, " pugno.
aud-ax, daring, ** audeo.
1. BunduB and ctrnduB have nearlj the force of the present participle ;
but hundva is somewhat more expressive than the Part. : laetabundus, re-
joicing greatlj ; and eundue generally denotes some characteristic rather than
a single act or feeling : vereeundus, diffident.
These endings take a connecting voweL See examples.
2. Xdus retains the simple meaning of the verb.
3. ZUb and Utlis denote capability, generallj in a passive sense : am<h
tiHs, capable or worthy of being loved ; sometimes in an active sense : terri-
bUis, terrible, capable of producing terror.
These endings are generally added to the Present Stem {bills with a connecting
vowel), but sometimes to the Snpine Stem: /kwibUis, flexible.
4. Az denotes inclination, generally a faulty one : loquax, loquacious.
5. Uus, iiliu, loinB, and IVUB also occur: — (1) uua in the sense of
idue : vacuus, vacant. — (2) ulus in the sense of ax : ereduhis, credulous.— (S)
ictus and ivus (added to Sup. Stem) in the sense of the Perf. Part : fictidus,
feigned, from.;^o {fictum)', eapi^vus, captive, from capio (eaptum),
IV. Adjecttvbs fboh Adveebs and Peepositions.
329. A few adjectives are fonned from adverbs and
prepositions :
hodiemus, of this day, from hodie.
contrarius, contrary, " contra.
VERBS.
330. Derivative Verbs are fonned from Nbims^ Adjec-
tives^ and Verbs.
148
DSBIYATION OP VERBS.
I. VXBBS FBOM NOUKS JLSD AbjECTTTES.
331. Verbs formed from nouns and adjectives end in
ConJ. L Co^J. IL Conj. IV.
o, eo, io.
Conjugation I. — ^Transitive.
anno,
cQro,
nomino,
caeco,
UbSro,
to ann, from
to cure, "
io name, **
to make blind, "
to liberate, "
Conjugation IL — ^Intransitive.
arma.
cura.
nomen.
caecus.
Uber.
fl6reo,
iQceo,
albeo,
flaveo,
to bloom, from
to shine, "
to be white, "
to be yellow, *^
flos.
lux.
albus.
flavus.
Conjugation IV. — Generally Transitive.
finio, tofinUh, from
vestio, to clothe, "
moUio, to soften^ "
saeyio (tn/raiw.), to rage, "
finis,
vestis.
mollis,
saevus.
1. Asoo and esoo occur in Inceptives. See 332. II.
2. Depoii0nt.~Derivative8, like other verbs, maj of oourse be depo-
nent : dominor, to domineer, from domXnue,
IL Veebs from Veebs.
332. Verbs derived from other verbs are — Frequenta-
tives^ Inceptives^ DesiderativeSy and Diminutives.
I. Fsequentahves denote repeated or corUinued action.
They are of the first conjugation and are formed
1. From Supines in atum by changing atoxn into Ito:
clam-Tto,
voHto,
to exclaim,
toflit.
from
clamo,
volo.
clamfttum.
volfitum.
2. From other Supines by changing nm into o, some-
times fto :
to assist cfi^
to have often,
to read often.
from
adjiivo,
habeo.
adjatum.
habitum.
lectum.
a^jflt-o,
habit-o,
lect-ito,
1) Ito is sometimes added to the Present Stem of verbs of Conj. III. •
ago, agito ; guaero, guaerUo,
2) BsBO and isao form derivatives which are generally classed with
DEEIVATION OF VKBBS. 149
fregumtaUves, though they are intenHv in force, denoting tamsat rather
than repeated action, and are of Conj. III. : faeh.facesio, to do earnestly ; »»-
eipiOy incipisso, to begin eagerly. The regular frequentatiTes sometimes have
the same force : rt^, ragoio, to seize eagerly.
IL Incbptitbs, or Inchoatives, denote the beginning
of the action. They are of the third conjugation, and end in
8800, 680O, wOOb
gSl-asco, to begin to freeze^ from g^lo, fire,
riib-esco, togrowrea^ ** riibeo, ^ 6re.
trftm-isco, to begin to tremble^ " trgmo, * €re.
obdorm-isco, to fail aaleep^ " obdormio, ire.
1. Abco is used in inceptives from yerbs of Conj. I., and in a few from
nouns and adjectiTes : puer, pueraaco, to become a boy.
2. Esco is by far the most common ending, and is used in inceptives
from verbs of Conj. IL, and in many from nouns and adjectives : dUrus, dOr
rescOt to grow hard.
ni. DEsmsBATTVES denoto a desire to perform the ac-
tion. They are of the fourth conjugation and are formed
from the Supine by changing um into iixio :
es-tuio, to deHre to eaty from £do, Sfium.
empt-iirio, to desire to buy^ ** £mo, emptum.
rV. Diminutives denote a feeble action. They are of
the first conjugation and are formed from the Present by
changing the ending into illo :
cant-illo, to nng feebly, from canto,
conscnb-illo, totcnmle, " conscribo.
ADVERBS.
333. Adverbs are formed from NounSy Adjectives,
Participles, Pronouns, and Prepositions.
I. Adverbs feom Nouns.
334. Adverbs are formed from nouns
1. By simply taking a case-ending, especially that of
the ablative :
temple, tempdrif in time ; fortej by chance ; Juref with right, rightly.
2. By taking special endings :
1) atim, tim, denoting uannea: grex,gregdtim,hj herds j fur, furtim,
by stealth.
150 DEBIYATION OF ADYSBBS.
2) itaf denoting origin, bourgb : coelum^eoelUus, from heayen ; fundut^
fundUutf from the foundation.
n. Advebbs from Abjecixvss and Pabticiples.
335. Adverbs from adjectives and participles generally
end in
e, er, iter.
doduit doeUf learnedly ; liber, Ubire, freely ; eUffans, deganUr, elegantly;
pHidetUf pruderUer, prudently; ceUr, eeleriter, quickly.
1. B is aflded to the stems of most adjectives and participles of Dec. I.
and II. See examples.
2. Er and iter are added to the stems of adjectives of Dec. III.— er
to stems in tUf iter to other stems. — Er and iter also occur in adverbs from
adjectives and participles of Dec. I. and II.
8. Atim, im, and itni also occur in adverbs from primitives of Dec.
I. and II. : tingUlif Hnguldiim, one by one ; passuSf passim, everywhere ; di-
vlntUf divifiiUuSy divinely.
4. Othbb FoBiis.~Certain forms of adjectives sometimes become ad-
verbs :
1) Neuters in e, iixn« rarely a: fidOe^ easily; multum, mvlta, much.
2) Ablatives in a, o« is: deoara, on the right; consutto^ designedly; pauds,
briefly, In few words.
8) AccosativeB in am. : bi/ariam^ in two parts; tmUH/ariam^ in many parts or
places {paHemt understood).
5. Numeral Advbbbs.— See 181.
HL Adveebs feom Peonouns.
336. Various adverbs are formed from Pronouns : thus
from hicy iHe, and iste are formed
hic, here; httc, hither; hinc, hence.
illic, there; illuc, thither; illinc, thence,
istic, there; istQc, thither; istinc, thence,
IV. Adveebs feom Peepositions.
337. A few adverbs are formed from Prepositions, or
are at least related to them :
intraf intrOf within ; uUra^ uUro, beyond j in, intus, witbin ; euh, subtus,
beneath.
COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
338. The elements of a compound may unite in three
distinct ways :
COMPOSITION OF WORDS. 151
I. The two elements unite without change of form : ^
decem-viriy the decemvirs, ten men; CLb-eOy to go away;
ante-pmoy to place before.
n. One element, generally the first, is put in an oblique
case, generalljr the genitive, dependent upon the other:
legislators legislator, from lex^ legis^ and lator,
in. The stem of the first element unites with the second
element, either with or without a connecting vowel — gen-
erally i, sometimes e or u: bell-i-gero, to wage war, from
heUum and gero^ with connecting vowel; magn'ammua^
magnanimous, from magrms and animus^ without connect-
ing vowel.
1. Prepositions in Ck)]f position admit the following euphonic changes,
A, ab, abB :— a before m and v ; abs before c, p, t; ab before the
vowels and the other consonants: a-mitto; dbs-eondo; ab-eoy ab-Jicio. Bat
abs before^ drops &: ae-porto for dbe-porto, Ab becomes au in au-fsro and
au-fugio.
Ad,— unchanged before vowels and before b^ d^ h^J, m, and v; d gen-
erally assimilated before the other consonants, but changed to c before q and
dropped before gn and often before ee, ep, and et ; ad-^o, ad-dOf ad-jungo; af"
ferOf al'ligo; ac-quiro, a-gnoeco (ad and gnosco), a-scendo.
Ante,— unchanged, except in aniMpo and anH-sto,
Circnm, — ^unchanged, except in eireu-eo.
Com for wm,— <1) unchanged before b,mtp: eom-bU>o, com-mUto,—
(2) m generally dropped before vowels, h, and gn : co-eOf co-haereo, co-gnoeeo,
— (3) m assimilated before l,nfr: eol-ligo, cor-rumpo, — (4) m changed to n
before the other consonants : con-fero, con-giro,
E, ex: — ex before vowels and before c, h,Pf g, e, t, and with assimila-
tion before/; e generally before the other consonants and sometimes before
p and 8 : ex-eo^ ex-pdno, ef-fero ; e-duco, e-ligo, e-pdto, e-eeendo. S after ex is
often dropped : exepecto or expeeto,
lOf — ^n assimilated before l^ m, r, changed to m before bfp; dropped before
gn; in other situations unchanged: H-Utdo, im^miUo; im-buOy iwrpono ;
i-gno8Co ; in-eo, in-dUco.
Inter,— unchanged, except in intel-ligo.
Ob)— b assimilated before <j, f,g, p; in other situations generally un-
changed : oe-currOf of-fieio, og-ghro, op-pdno ; ch^ichy ob-eto. But b is drop-
ped in o-mUtOy and an old form obe occurs in a few words : obe-oleaco, os-tendo
for obs-tendo (b dropped).
Per^— unchanged, except in pel-lido, pel-lUceo, zxid. pe-jero.
Post,— unchanged, except in po-moerium and po-merididnue,
> Except of course cnphonic changes.
152 COMPOSITION OF WORDS.
PlO^-«nnetiiiies/^fvtf before a voirel : prod^.prod^.
8aV-b aasimilaled before e,/, 9, p, generallj before m and r ; dnpped
before ap ; in other sitaatioiis nochanged ; 9ue-atmio, w-tpicio for *ub-«pieio;
tulheo, sub-d^co. An old form $ub$ shortened to 9us occurs in a few words :
*us-eipio, tus-pendo.
•ftaiw^rops i before s, and often iw before d, J, n : tran^-eo, trans-
fero; tran-nUo (or trana^io ; tra-do for trana-da ; tra-jido for trans^fieio;
trorno for tran»-no»
2. Insspasablb PurosmoiiB (307) also admit tuphonic ^nget :
Amlii, amb v—amb before Towds ; aivM» am, or a» before consonants :
amb-igo; aniA-dena, amrpkta, an-guiro,
Dif, di :— ito before c^p, q, t, $ before a vowel, and, with assimilation,
before /; di in most other situations ; dia-curro, dia-p6no, dif-fiuo ; di^uco^
di-mdveo. But dir occurs in dtr-^mo and dir-ibeo {dia and habeo), and both
dia and di occur befere/ : du-jungo, di^ttdSeo,
Re, red :— r«i before vowels, before A, and in red-do ;ram other Mtuar
tions: rad-eOf red-^o, rad-hSbao; ra^ikde, ra-veU&,
COMPOUND NOUNS.
339, In compound nouns the first part is generally a
noun, but sometimes an adjective, adverb, or preposition •
the second part is a verb or noun : '
from ars and fado.
" caper and comu.
'* aequus and nox.
" Be and homo.
" pro and nomen.
1. GENirmi iM" CoKPOONDS.— In componnds of two nouns, or of a noun
and an adjectire, the first part is often a genitive: ^^Zo^r, legislator;
furia-eonauUiUf lawyer.
2. Compounds in feic, cen, and c51a are among the most important
compounds of nouns and verbs ; fax from f&cio ; can from eano ; cola from
aolo ; ari-i-fax, artist ; tvh-i-eanf trumpeter ; agr^i-cSkty husbandman.
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
340. In compound adjectives the first part is generally
a noun, adjective, or preposition, and the second a noun,
adjective, or verb :
let-I-fer, death-bearingr, from letum and fSr©.
magn-animuflj moffnanimoua, '^ magnus and animua^
per-fficnis^ very eaa^^ ^* per and fadlia*
art-!4ex.
artiat.
capr-T-comus,
capTtecTfty
e^in&Xy
Be^no,
nobody^
pro-n6men,
pronoun^
COMPOSITION OF WOBDS. 163
COMPOUND VERBS.
341. In compound verbs the first part is a noon, adjec-
tive, verb, adverb, or preposition, and the second is a verb:
aed-i-fico,
to build,
from
aedes and fario.
ampW-fico,
to enlarge^
14
amplus and facio.
pat-g-fficio,
to opetij
it
>ateo and facio.
bene-fScio,
to benefit.
u
>ene and facio.
ab-eo, •
to go away,
it
ab and eo.
1. Two Verbs. — ^When the first part is a verb, the second is always
facio as above; pat-e-facio* *
2. NoDN or AnjBCTrvB and Vbbb. — ^When the first part is a noun or ad-
jective, the second part is generally, but not always, Judo or ago. These
verbs then become/£co and igo of Conj. I. : a^d^/ho, Sre, to bnild ; nav-igo,
Sre, to sail, from navie and ago,
8. Vowel Ghangbs.— Yerfoa compounded with prepositions often under-
go certain yowel*changes.
1) -4 short and e generally become i: habeo, ad-hibeo/ tmeo, con-4ineo.
But a sometimes becomes eoru: carpo, de-cerpo ; calco, con-culco,
2) Ae becomes I: eaedoy in-ddo,
8) Au generally becomes ooru: plaudo, ex^Ukh ; elaudo, in-^lUdo,
4. Changes in Pbbpositions.-— See 388. 1 and 2.
COMPOUND ADVERBS.
342. Compound Adverbs are variously formed, but
most of them may be divided into three classes :
1. Such as consist of an oblique case with its preposition : ad^mddum,
Tery, to the full measure ; ob-viam, in the way.
2. Such aa consist of a noun with its adjectlre : ho-die {hoc and die), to-
day, on this day ; qua^e, wherefore, by which thing.
8. Such as consist of two particles : ad-huc, hitherto ; inter-dum, some-
times ; in-siiper, moreover.
*?*
PART Tfflm
SYNTAX,
CHAPTER I.
STHTAX OF SEHTEHCES.
SECnON L
CLASaiFlCATlOS OF SKKTENCEB,
843. Syntax trdats of the constmction of sentences.
844. A sentence is thoaght expressed in language.
845. In their stbuctube, sentences are either Simple^
C(rmpUx^ or Compound:
L A SncFLB SENTBarcE expresses but a single thought :
Dens zmmdnm aediflcaTit, Ood made the world. CSc.
II. A Complex Sentence expresses two (or more)
thoughts so related that one is dependent upon the other :
DOnec Sris fi!lix, mnltos niimgrabiB Ibnicos; 8o Icng aa you are pros-
j)erouty you will number many friends. Ovid.
1. Claubbb.— In tUft example two simple Mnteneea, (1) **Tau wiU be proeper-
ouM^ and (2) **Tou will number many friended are so united that the flxst onljr
speeiAes tbe time of the second: Ton will numlber many friends (when fX so long
as you are prosperous. The parts thns united are caQed Clanses or Members.
9. Pbihoipal axp BuBOBDiirATS.— The part of the eomplex sentence which
makes eomplete sense of itself— muZ^ nvmer&yis omieos— is called the Principal
Clause f and the part which is dependent npon ii-^oneo eris felia>-^i& called the
Subordinate Clause,
m. A Compound Sentence expresses two or more in-
dependent thoughts :
Sol ruit et montes mnbrantur, 77ie sun descends and the mountains are
shaded, Vlrg.
846. In their use, sentences are either Declarative^ In-
terrogative^ Imperative^ or Mcdamatory.
I. A Declaeatfvib Sentence has the form of an asser-
tion :
Miltifidea accnsatus est, MUtiades was accused. Ncp.
CLASSIFICATION OP SKNTBNCES. 156
n. An Intkbbogativk Sentence has the form of a
question :
Quis non paupeitatem extlmescit, Who does not fear poverty i Gic
1. Intbrrogatiyb Words.— Interrogatiye sentences generally contain
some interrogative word— either an interrogative pronoun, adjective, orad-
yerby or one of the interrogative particles, ne^ nonne, num :
1) Questions with ne ask for information: SeribUne^ Is ho writing^ iVa Is
always thus .appended to some other word. Bat ne appended to the principal verb
often suggests the answer yes^ while appended to soy other word, it often suggests
the answer no. It is sometimes appended to utrum^ nvm, or an^ without affecting
their meaning, and sometimes inserted in the clause after lUruni :
ntmm tuceamne, an praedicem. Shall I be silent^ or shaU I speak t Ter.
2) Questions with norvne expect the answer yee : Nonne ecrlbii^ Is he not
writing? Non tot nonne indicates surprise that there should bejmy doubt on the
question : Non tt\dee^ Do yon really not see ?
8) Questions with num expect the answer no : Num tcribit^ Is ho writing?
4) Questions with an. See 2. 4) below.
5) The interrogative word is sometimes omitted, and sometimes numquid is
used for num^ and ec^'uid for ne or nonne : Ecquid vldee^ lio you not see?
2. DotTBLR QuBSTioKS. — Doublc or disjunctive questions offer a choice
or alternative, and generally take one of the following forms:
1) The first clause has utrwrn^ num^ or ne, and the second an :
Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est, Is that yourfauU or oun t Oic
2) The first clause omits the particle, and the second has an or ne :
Eldquar an sneam, ShaU I utter U, or keep silence f Yirg.
8) When the second' clause is negative, the particle generally unites with the
negative, giving annon or necne :
Bunt haec tua verba necne. Are these your words or not f Cic.
4) By the omission of the first clause, the second often stands alone with an, in
the sense of or.*
An hoc tlmCmus, Or do we/ear this t Liv.
5) Other forms are rare.
3. Answers. — ^In answers the verb or some emphatic word is usually
repeated, often vriiYi prorsus^ vera, and^the like; or if negative, with non:
Dixitne causam ? Dixit. I>id he state the cause? Restated U. Ci& Pos-
sumusne tuti esse? Non poss&rans. Can toe be sa/i f We cannot Gic.
1) Sometimes the simple particle is used ; aflOrmatively, sand, itiam, ita, tiro,
eerte, etc., negatively, non, minlme, etc.
Ycnitne? Non. ffas he comet No, Plant.
in. An Imperative Sentence has the form of a com-
maod, exhortation, or entreaty :
Justiftiam c51e, CtUHvate justice. Cic.
rv. An Exclamatory Sentence has the form of an
exclamation : ^
RSlIquit quos vires, What heroes he has left/ Oic
Exelamatory sentences are often eUiptieaL
156 SIMPLE SENTENCES.
SECTION n.
SIMPLE SXITTJBJSrCES.
Elements of Sentences.
347. The simple sentence in its most simple form con-
sists of two distinct parts, expressed or implied :
1. The Subject, or that of which it speaks.
2. The Pkedicate, or that which is said of the subject :
Cluilins mSrltar, Cluilitu die$. Lit,
Here CluiUua is the enljeci, and mor^twr t&e predicate.
348. The simple sentence in its most expanded fonn
consists only of these same parts with their various modi-
fiers :
In his castris CluiUus, Albanos rex^morttur ; CluilvtM^ (he Alban kinffy
dies in ihis camp. Liv.
Hero Cluilius, Albdnite rex, is the subject in its enlarged or modified form, and
in hie caetrie moritur is the predicate in its enlarged or modified form.
349. Peincipal and Suboedlnate. — The subject and
predicate, being essential to the structure of every sen-
tence, are called the Principal or Essential elements ; but
their modifiers, being subordinate to these, are called the
Subordinate elements.
350. Simple axb Complex. — ^The elements, whether
principal or subordinate, may be either simple or complex :
1. Simple^ when not modified by other words.
2. CornpleXj when thus modified.
Simple Subject.
35 li The subject of a sentence, expressed or implied,
must be a noun or some word or words used as a noun :
JRex decrfivit, 77ie king decreed. Nep. jE^ scrlbo, / write. CSc.
Vtdeo Idem y&let, 77ie tpord yideo has the same meaning. Quint.
Complex Subject.
352. The subject admits the following modifiers :
I. An Adjective :
Pdpiilus i?5m5«W (iscrSvit, The Roman people decreed. Cic.
n. A ISTouN either in apposition with the subject, in
the genitive, or in an oblique case with a preposition :
SIMPLE SENTENCES, 157
Cauilius rtz mSrttur, Cluilitu the king dies, Lir. Rex RUtUlGrum, the
king of the RutulL Liv. liber de offlem^ 'Hie book on duties. Cia
1. Modifiers of Kouns.— Aoy noun may be modified like the subject.
2. Appositiyb and its Subjsct.— The noun in apposition with another
is called an AppasiHue, and the other noun is (Called the Svl^ect of the
appositire.
8. Adtbsbs with Kouns. — Sometimes adverbs and adrerbial expres-
sions occur as modifiers of nouns :
Non ignSri stimus ante m&lSmm, We are not ignorant of past mi^or.
tunes. Virg, VictSria 5pud Cnldum, The victory at Cnidus. Nep.
Simple Pbebicatb.
358. The simple predicate mnst be either a verb or the
copula sum with a noun or adjective:
Milti&des est acctis&tus, Miliiades was accused. Nep. Tn es testis,
You are a vntness. Gic. FortfLna caeca est, Fortune is blind. Cic.
1. Like Sum seyeral other verbs sometimes unite with a noun or adjec-
tive to form the predicate. See S62. 2. A noun or adjective thus used is
called >a Predicate Noun or Predicate Adjective.
2. Sum with an Adverb sometimes forms the predicate :
Omnia recte sunt, All things are right. Cic.
Complex Pbedicate.
354. I. The Verb admits the following modifiers :
L Objectivb Modifiebs :
1. A Direct Otiject in the Accusative — that upon which
t.iC action is directly exerted :
Milti&des Athenas libera vit, MUtiades liberated Athens. Nep.
2. An Indirect Ol^ect in the Dative — ^that to or for
which something is or is done :
L&bori student, They devote themselves to labor. Caes.
3. Combined Oljecta consisting of two or more cases :
Me rdgftvit sententiam, He asked me my opinion. Cic. Pons tier hos-
abus dSdit, J%e bridge furnished a passage to the enemy. lav.
U. Advebbial Modifiers :
1. Adverbs:
Bella fellcUer gessit. He waged wars succcssftUly. Gic.
2. Adverbial Mj^essions—^oneiBtrng of oblique cases
of nouns, with or without prepositions :
158 COMPLEX SENTENCES.
In his eadria mSrttur, ffe dies (where ?) in ihia camp. Li v. VSre con-
Tta^re, TTieif assembled (when ?) in the spring, Lir.
355. n. The Predicate Noun is modified in the va-
rious ways specified for the subject (352).
356. in. The Pbedicate Adjective admits the fol-
lowing modifiers :
I. An Adverb :
Siitis humllis est, He is suffidenUy humble. Lir.
n. A Noun in an oblique case :
1. Genitive : Avidi laudis fuSrunt, Theif were desirous of praise, Cic
2. Dative : Omni aet&ti mors est communis, Death is common to tvery
age, Cic.
3. Ablative : Digni sunt amicltia, Tliey are worthy of friendship, Cic.
SECTION III.
COMPLEX SEITTEirOES.
357. A Complex sentence differs from a Simple one
only in taking a sentence or clause as one (or more) of its
elements :
I. A Sentence as an Element :
*^Clvis Romanus sum*' audiebfttur, *^ I am a Roman citizen^* was
heard. Cic. Allquis dicat mihi : " Nulla hSbes vltia ; *' Some one may say
to me, " Have you no faults f " Hor.
1. In the first example, an entire sentence — Civis Eomdnus sum^-Aa
used as the Std^ect of a new sentence ; and in the second example, the sen-
tence— iVu//a habes viUor—iA the Ol^ect of dicat,
2. Any sentence maj be thus quoted and introduced without change
•f form as an element in a new sentence.
11. A Clause as an Element :
Trftdltum est H5m6rum caecum fuisse, That Homer was blind has been
handed down by tradition. Cic. Quftlis sit &n!mus, Snimus nescit, The
soul knows not what the soul is. Cic.
1. In these examples the clauses used as elements have nndergone cer-
tain changes to adapt them to their subordinate rank. The clause HomSrum
caecum fuisse^ the subject of traditum est, if used as an independent sen-
tence, would be Homi^rus caecusfuU ; and the clause Qualis sit animuSf the
object of nescitf would be Qualis est animus. What is the soul ?
' 2. Forms of Subordinate Clauses.
1) Infinitivt) with Subject Accusatire :
l^/Smi^Sres dlcdre audiyi, I have heard that our ancestors said this. Cic.
2) ^ect Questions :
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 159
Quid dies fSrat, inoertnm oBt, What a day may britiff/oriA it uncertain. Cic
8) Belatire QJaases :
Sententla, quae tutisdma TidGbfitnr, The opinion tohich seemed the aafeet. Llr.
4) Clauses with Coojunctions :
Mos est nt dicat, It is his custom to speak. Cic. Friosquam meet, adatint, 7%ey
are present btfore it is liffht Cic.
358. Infinitive Clauses sometimes drop their subjects:
Dffi^ jacundum est, It is pleasant to be loved. Cic. Vivere est eOgl-
tare, To live is to think. Cic. See 645. 2.
359. Participles often supply the place of subordinate
clauses.
Pl&to sertbens mortuus est, Plato died while vjriting, or while he was
wrUing. Cic. See 676-678.
SECTION IV.
COMPOUND SEITTEJtrCES.
360. Compound sentences express two or more inde-
pendent thoughts, and are of five varieties :
I. Copulative Sentences — in which two or more
thoughts are presented in harmony with each other :
Sol rait et montes umbrantur, The tun descends ^nd the mountains are
shaded. Virg.
n. Disjunctive Sentences — ^in which a choice be-
tween two or more thoughts is offered :
Audendum est fiUquid aut omnia pfitienda sunt, SomeUiing must be
risked or all things must be endured. Liv.
•ni. Adveesative Sentences — in which the thoughts
are opposed to each other :
Gyges a nuUo vidsbtltur, ipse autem omnia yidebat, Gyges was seen by
no one, but he himself saw aU things. Cic.
IV. Illative Sentences — which contain an inference :
Nihil ISboras, Meo nihil babes ; T<m do nothing, therefore you have
nothing. Phaed.
V. Causal Sentences — which contain a cause or rea-
son:
DiffXctle est consilium, sum Snim solus ; Consultation is difficuU, for
Jam alone. Cic.
160 COMPOIIND SENTEKCES.
1 The CoKHiOTrras gcnenUj ued in tbeae •erenl chases of eomponndB aiw
tbe corresponding classes of coi^nnctions, 1. e^ eopidatitt, tU^functive, ttdvergaUvv,
iUaiivt^ and carnal ooi^nncUonai See 810. But the connecUye is often omitted.
2. DiB/VMCTTTB QunnoHs have special connectives. See 846. IL 2l
361, Compound sentences are generally abridged when
their members have parts in common. Such sentences
have compound elements :
1. Compound Subjects :
Abdrfelnes Troj&nlque d&cem OmlsSre, The Aborigines and the Tro-
jans htt tneir leader. lav.
The two maqbers here united are: Ahoriglnee dmeem amisirs and Tr<^dni
dueem amiaire; bnt as thoj have the same predicate, ducem atnieerA, that predi-
cate is expressed bnt once, and the two subjects are nnlted into the compound sub-
ject: Aborigflnee Dxff animus.
2. Compound Predicates :
ROm&ni p&rant consultantque, 7^ Romans prepare and consult. Liv.
3. Compound Modifiers :
Athenas Graeciamque llber&vit, He liberated Athens and Chreece. Nep.
CHAPTER II. -
SYNTAX OF Noirirs.
SECTION I.
AOBEEMSKT OF NOUITS.
BTTLE I~Predicate Nouns.
362. A Predicate Noun denoting the same person
or thing as its Subject agrees with it in case : *
Ego sum nuntiuB, lama messenger. liv. Senrius rex est dSdaratus,
JServitts was dedared king, Lir. Orestem se esse dixit^ Me said thai he
ioas Orestes. Gic See 853.
1. In Gendsb and Numbeb Agreement either may or may not
take place. But
1) If the Predicate Noun has different forms for different genders, it
must agree with its subject in gender :
Usuft mSglBter est, Eboperienoe is an instruetor. Clo. Histdria est mdgistra {not
maglster), History is an inatruetreaa. Cic
* For P»tjd. Noun denoting a different person or thing from Its subject, see 401.
Tor convenience of reference the RvZes tvill be presented In a body on page 874,
AGREEMENT OF NOUKS. 161
2. With Finite Verbs. — ^Predicate !N"ouns are most frequent
1) With Sum and a few intranaitive verbs .* %vddOy exsuto, appdreo,And
the like :
Ego sum nuntius, / am a messenger. JAy. Hdmo magnng cvus^rat, Be had
"bewmB (turned out) a great man. Gic. Ezstitit yindez Kbertfitis, Be became (stood
forGi) the definderqf liberty. Gic.
2) With Passive verbs of a^ovntmgf making^ naming, regarding^ es-
teeming , and the like :
Servios rex est declSriltus, Servius was declared king. Llv. Mundua civltas
czistimator, The world is regarded as a state. Cio.
(1) In the poets, Flredicate Noans are nscd with great freedom after verbs of a
great variety of significations. Thus with av^io = appellor : Bes audlstl, You have
been called king; L e., have beard yourself so called. Hor.
(2) For Predicate Accusative^ see 878w 1.
(8) The Dative of the object for which (890), pro with the AbL, and Idco or in
milm^ro with the Oen. are often kindred in force to Predicate Nouns: hosti^pro
hoste^ Idco hosiis, in wSm/iro hosttum^ for or as an enemy. See also Pred. Qen. 40L
8. With Ikfinitivbs, Pabticiplis, btc— Predicate Nouns are used not
only with finite verbs, but also with Infinitives and Participles, and some-
times without verb or participle :
Duclaratufl rex Numa, Numa having been declared king. IAy, Ctininlo coor
Bule, Caninius being consul. Gic. See 481, also Orestem under the rule.
1) For Predicate Nominative after «««, see 547.
2) For Infiidtlve or Clause as Predicate, see KI8, L ; 495, a
BTTLE H— Appoflitives.
363. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in case :
Ouiliua rex moriftui^ Chiilius th^ king dies. Liv. Urbes Oarthftgo
atque Niimantia, the cities Carthage and Nvmaniia. Gic. See 352. 2.
1. In Gender and Ktthbeb the appositiye conforms to the
same role as the predicate noun. See 362. 1.
2. The Subject of the appositive is often omitted :
Hostia hostem occIdSre v51ui, / (ego understood) an enemy vnshed to
slay an enemy, Liv.
8. FoBCB OP Appositivbs. — Appositives are generally kindred in force
to Relative clauses, but sometimes to Temporal clauses :
Clailins rex, OluUius (who was) the king. liv. Furins pner didlcit, Furius
learned^ when a bot/, or as a boy. Clo.
4. Pabtitivb ApposiTivB.--The parts are sometimes in apposition with
the whole ^
Duo reges, ille bollo, hie pace civitatem anxGmnt, Two kings advanced the
state^ the former by war^the latter by peace. Liv.
Conversely the whole may be in apposition with its parts.
5. Clauses. — A noun or pronoun may be in apposition with a clause,
or a clause in apposition with a noun or pronoun. See 4c45, 7 ; 553, II.
162 NOMINATIVB CASK.
SECTION II.
NOMINATIVE.
364. Cases. — ^Nouns have different forms or cases to
mark the various relations in which they are used. These
cases, in accordance with their general force, may be ar-
ranged and characterized as follows :
I. Nominative, Case of the Subject.
II. Vocative, Case of Address.
III. Accusative, Case of Direct Object.
IV. Dative, Case of Indirect Object.
V. Genitive, Case of Adjective Relations.
VI. Ablative, Case of Adverbial Relations.*
365. Kindred Gases. — ^The cases naturallj arrange themselves in
pairs : the Nominative and Vocative require no governing word ; the Ac-
cusative and Dative are the regular cases of the Object of an action ; the
Genitive has usually the force of an Adjective, and the Ablative that of an
Adverb.
366. Nominative. — ^The Nominative is either the Sub-
ject of a Sentence or in agreement with another Nomina-
tive. *
BTJLE m— Subject Nominative.
367. The Subject of a Finite Verb is put in the
Nominative : '
Servius regnavit, Servim reigned, Liv. P&^t portae. The gate^ are
open, Oic. Rex vicit, The king conquered, Liv.
1. The Subject is always a substantive, a pronoun, or some
word or clause used substantively :
Ego rGges ejeci, I have banished kings. Cic.
2. Subject Omitted. — ^The subject is generally omitted
1) When it is a Personal Pronoun, unless expressed for contrast or
emphasis, and when it can be readily supplied from the context :
Discipulos mdneOf nt st&dia fiment, / instruct pupils to lave their studies.
Quint
2) When it means men, people : Ferunt, They say.
8) When the verb is impersonal : Pluitf It rains.
3. Verb Omittkd. — The Verb is sometimes omitted, when it
can be readily supplied, especially est and sunt :
^ This arrangemGnt is adopted In the discussion of the cases, because. It is thought,
it will best present the force of the several cases and their relation to each other.
» For the Subject of the Infinitive, see 646. For the agreement of the verb with
^ts subject, see 460.
NOMINATIVE. VOCATIVE. l63
Ecce tuae littSrae, Lo your letter (comes). Cic. Tot sententiae, There
are (sunt) so many opinions. Ter. Consul prdfectus (est), The consul set
out. Liv.
1) Fdcio is often omitted In short sentences and clauses. Thus with nihU dUud
(amplius, minus, etc) quam, nihU praeterguam = merely, H nihU dUud,
flnem, etc. : Nihil aliud quam stetenmt, They merely stood (did nothing other than).
Li7. Also in hrief expressions of opinion : Kecte illo, He does rightly. Cic
368. Agreement. — ^A Nominative in agreement with
another nominative is either a Predicate Noun or an Ap-
positive. See 362 and 363.
For the Predicate Nominative after a verb with csse^ see 547.
SECTION III.
rOCATJVK
EXIIE IV.— Case of Address.
369. The Name of the person or thing addressed is
put in the Vocative :
Perge, Laeli, Proceed, Laelius. Cic. Quid est, CfitiUna, Why is it,
Catiline ? Cic. Tuum est, Servi, regnum. The kingdom is yours, Servius.
Liv. dii immortales, immortal gods. Cic.
1. With Interjections.— The vocative is used both with and without
interjections.
2. Nominative foe Vocative. — In poetry and sometimes in prose, the
nominative in apposition with the subject occurs where we should expect
the vocative :
Audi ta, pdpulns Albilnns, Hear ye, Alban people. Liv. Here popMus may
be treated as a Nom. in apposition with tu, though it may also be treated as an irreg-
ular Voa See 46. 5.8).
8. Vocative foe Nominative. — Conversely the vocative by attraction
sometimes occurs in poetry where we should expect the nominative :
Quibus, Hector, ab oris exepectflte vCnis, From what shores, Hector, do you
anxiously awaited come t Virg.
SECTION IV.
ACCUSATIVE.
370. The Accusative is used
I. As the Direct Object of an Action.
II. As the Subject of an Infinitive.
in. In Agreement with another Accusative.
IV. In an Adverbial Sense — with or without Prepositions.
V. In Exclamations — with or without Interjections. "
164 ACCUSATXYE OF BISECT OBJECT.
L Accusative as Direct Object.
BXJLS v.— Direct Object.
371. The Direct Object of an action is put in the
Accosative:
Deu8 mundum aedlflc&vit, Ood made the toorld, Cic. LibSra rem
publlcam, Free the repubUe. Cic Pdp^ Rdrnftni sSlutem defendite, I>e-
/end the eafetif of the Soman people, C5c
1. The DiBBOT Object may be
1) The Objeetj person or thmg, on which the action of the verb is di-
rectly exerted, as ecUutem above.
2) The Sffed of the action, i. e., the object produced by it, as mun-
dum above.
8) The Cognate Accusative, Many verbs, generally intransitive, some-
tiroes become so far transitive as to admit an accosative of cognate or
kindred meaning :
Earn 7liam vIvSre, to Uoe that life. Cic. Mlmm somniare somninm, to
dream a wonderful dream. Plant. Servltatem servire, to serve a servitude,
Ter.
(1) ThiB oecnBative is asnaUy qualified by an a^J^tWe as in the first two exam-
plea.
(2) Kenter Frononns and Adjectives often snpply the place of the Cognate ac-
cosative :
Eidem peocat, He makes the same mistakes. Cic. Hoc stilidet unom. He studies
this one thing (this one study). Hor. Id assentior, I make this assent. Cic Idem
gloriSrl, to make the same boast Cic.
(8) The object is often omitted when it Is a reflexive (184, 2) or can be easily
supplied : mdveo — mdveo me, I move (myself) ; veriit — vertlt se, be moves (him-
self).
(4) Some verbs are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive: attgeo,
d&rOj iwApio, ktxOf ruo^ suppidUo, turbo, etc
2. "With ob WrrHotrr otheb Casbs. — ^The direct object may
be nsed with all transitiye verbs, whether with or without other
cases. See 384. 410. 419.
3. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. — ^Many verbs transi-
tive in English are intransitive in Latin. See 385. Conversely
some verbs intransitive in English are transitive in Latin, or at
least are often so used, especially verbs denoting
1) Feeling or Mental State : despSrOj to despair of; ddleo^ to grieve for ;
gifmo, to sigh over ; horreOy to shudder at; l&crtmoy to weep over; moereo,
to mourn over ; mlror, to wonder at ; rtdeOy to laugh at ; sUio^ to thirst for,
etc.
H5nores desp6rat, Re despairs of honors. Cic. Haec gSmSbant, T^fy
were sighing over these things. Cic. DStrlmenta ridet, Be hmghs at losses. Hor.
2) Taste or Smell: d/io, s&pio^ and th«r compounds, both literally and
DIBECT OBJECT* TWO ACCUSATIVES. 165
Olet nnguenta, JBe mulU qfpwtfwnta. Ter. OrStio r^ddlet ftntlqaitStem,
TTu oration smacks of antiquity, Cic.
4. Compounds op Psbpositions. — ^We notice two classes :
1) Manj compounds become transltiTe bj the force of the prepositiona
with which the7 are compounded, espeeiallj compounds of circumf per, prae-
ter, trans f super, and subter :
Murmur conciSnem perrSsit^ A murmwr went through the assembly, Liv.
Bhenum transifirunt, They crossed (went across) the Rhine. Caes.
2) Many compounds, without becommg strictlj transitire, admit an
Accus. dependent upon the preposition :
Circumstant sdnStum, They stand around the senate. Cic
5. Clause as Object. — ^An Infinitive or a Clause may be used
as Direct Object:
ImpdrSre cfipiunt. They desire to rule. Just. Sentlmus c&lSre ignem,
We perceive that fire ie hot, Cic.
6. Passive Constbuotion. — ^When a verb takes the passive
construction
1) The direct object of the active becomes the subject of the passive, and
2) The subject of the active becomes the Ablative of Cause (414) or the
Ablative of Agent with a or db (414. 5).
ThfibSni Lj^sandrum occldfirunt, The Thebans slew Zysander, Passive :
Lj^sander ooclsus est a ThebXnis, Zysmder was slain by the Thebans, Nep.
7. AoodSATivE IN Special Instances. — ^Participles in dtts^ ver-
bal ac^ectives in bundu8^ and in Plautus a few verbal nouns, occur
with the accusative:
YitSbundns castra, avoiding the camp. Liv. Quid tibi banc cQrStio est
rem, Whai care have you of this t Plant.
372. Two Accusatives. — ^Two accusatives without any
connective, expressed or understood, may depend upon the
same verb. They may denote
1. The same person or thing.
2. Different persons or things.
Any number of accusatives connected by conjunetions, expreased or understood,
may of course depend upon the same verb.
BTJLE VL—Two Accusatives— Same Person.
373. Verbs of makq^g, oHOOsiNa, calling, eegaed-
iNG, SHOWING, and the like, admit two Accusatives of
the same person or thing :
HamilcSrem impSratorem fecerunt, They made HamUear commander,
Nep. Ancum r5gem pSpiilus creftvit, The people elected Ancus Icing,
liv. Summum consilimn appellftrunt Senatum, They called th^ir highest
emndl Senate. Cic. Se praestitit prOpngnatOrem libertatis, He showed
166 TWO ACCUSATIVKS.
himself the champion of liberty. Cic Flaccnm hSbuit oollSgam, JBe had
FUuau as colleague. Nep.
1. pRBDiCATi AccrsATirx. — One of the two acctuatiTes is the Direct Ob-
ject, and the other an essential part of the Predicate. The latter maj be
called a PtedicaU Accusative. See 862. 2. (2).
2. YiRBS WITH Pbkdicati Acccbatiys.— The rerbs which most freqaeot-
Iv admit a Direct Object with a Predicate AocosatiTe are rerbs of
1) Making, sUeUnff : fido, effldo, reddo,— ereo, elTgo, dedgno, dtelSro.
2) CaUinff, rsgarding : appello, ndmino, t5«xs dloo,— arbitror, esistimo, daco,
judico, bilMOi p&ta
8) Showing : piaesto, praebeo, ezhlbeo.
8. Adjsctiys as Prbdicati AocuaATiTX.— The Predicate Accusative maj
be either Substantive or Adjective :
Hdmlnes eaecos reddit iviritia, Avarice renders men ItUntL Cic
4. Passivi CoNSTRUcnoN.— In the Passive these verbs take two Nomina-
tives, a Suljset and Predicate^ corresponding to the two Accusatives of the
Active :
Bervios rex est dudSriStat, Servius was declared king, Liv. See 882. 2. 2.)
BULE vn.— Two AceosatiTei— Person and Thing.
374. Some verbs of asking, demanding, teachinq,
and CONCEALING, admit two Accusatives in the Active,
and one in the Passive :
Me sententiam r5gavit, He asked me my opinion, Cic. Ego senten-
tiam rdgfttufl sum, / toas asked my opifiion, Cic PhHosophia nos res om-
nes dScuit, Philosophy has taught us all things. Cic. Artes edoctus fug-
rat, He had been taught the arts. Liv. Non te cSUlvi sermdnem, I did not
conceal from you tlie conversation. Cic
1. PflBSON AND Thing. — One accusative generally designates
the person^ the other the thing : with the Passive the accusative
of the Person becomes the subject and the accusative of the thing
is retained : see examples.
2. Vebbb with two Aocusativks. — ^Those most frequently so
used are
1) Begularly: celo--d5ceo, edttceo, dedttoeo.
2) Sometimes : (5ro, exOro, r5go, interrbgo, percontor, flagito,
posco, rgposco.
8. Otheb Oonstbuctions also occur :
1) Cilo : Ablative with a preposition:
Me de hoc llbro cSlavit, He kept me ignorant of this book. Cia Passive : Accus.
of 17eater pronoan or Abl. with de : Hoc cSlori, to he kept ignorant of this. Ter.
CelSri de oonsllio, to be kept ignorant of the plan. Cic The Dative is rare: Id
Alclbi&di eSlSri non p5tnit, This could not he concealed from Alcibiades. Nep.
2) Verbs of Teaching : Ablative with or without a preposition :
De saa re me ddcet ; JTe informs me in regard to his case. do. B9cr2tem fidi-
bus dftcult, Se taught Socrates (with) tfie lyre. Cic.
TWO ACCUSATIVES. 167
S) Vjsrba of Asking, Demanding: Ablative with a preposition:
Hoc a me poscdre, to demand this from me. Cic. Te iisdem de rfibas interrj^
J €t8k you in regard to the same ihinga, Cic.
4) Fito, po9tUlo, and gtiaero take the Ablative of the person with a
preposition :
PScem a SOmSnis pdti$nmt, They aeked peace from the Bomane. Cae&
4. Infinitiye or Olauss as Accusative of thing .*
Te s&p&re ddcet, Sis teaches you to be wise. Cic.
5. A Nbijtkb Peonoun or Adjective as a second accusativt
occurs with many verbs which do not otherwise take two accusa^
lives:
Hoc te hortor, / exhort you to this, I give you this exhortation. Cic. £a
mdnemur, We are admonished of these things. Cic.
6. Compound Veebs. — ^A few compounds of transf eireum^ ad,
and in admit two accusatives, dependent the one upon the verb^
the other upon the preposition :
Ibfirum copias trajficit, Ee led his forces across the Mro. Liv.
In the PasBive, not only these, hat even other eonipoonds BometlmeB admit an
Accus. depending npon the preposition :
Praetervdhor ostia PantAgiae, / am carried by the mouth qf the Pantagia,
Virg.
7. PoETio AoousATivE. — ^Itt poctry, rarely in prose, verbs of
clothing, unclothing — induo, exuo, cingo, a^ngo, induco, etc. —
sometimes take in the Passive an accusative in imitation of the
Greek :
G&Ieam indultilr, He puis on his helmet. Yirg. Intttlle ferrum cio^tnr,
He girds on his useless sword. Yirg. Yir^nes longam indQtae vestem,
maidens attired in long robes. Liv.
n. Accusative as Subject op Inflnitive.
375. The Accusative is used as the Subject of an Infin-
itive ; see 545 :
FlittOnem f^runt in Itfiliam vCnisse, They say that Plato came into
Italy. Cic.
Platdnem is the snhject otvenisse.
in. ACCUSATIVB IN AGBEEBiENT WITH AN ACCUSATIVE.
376, The Accusative in agreement with another Accu-
sative is either a Predicate Noun or an Appositive :
Orestem se esse dixit, He said that he was Orestes. Cic Apud Her6-
d6tum, patrem historiae, in Herodotus, the father of history, Cic. See
862 and 863.
168 ADVBRBIAL ACCUSATIVE.
IV. ACCUSATIVB JN AN AdYEBBIAL SbNSE*
377. In an Adverbial sense the Accusative is used
either with or without Prepositions.
1. With Prepositions. See 433.
2. Without Prkpositions.— The Ad7erbial use of the Accusatiye without
Prepositions is presented in the following roles.
BULE Vm.— Accusative of Time and Space.
378. DuBATioN OP Time and Extent of Space are
expressed by the Accusative :
RSmiilus septem et triginta regnftvit aimos, Romulus reigned thirty-
geven years, Liy. Quinque millia pufisuum ambQl&re, to walk Jive miles.
Cio. pedes octtJginta distare, to be eighty feet distant, Caes. Nix quat-
tuor pedes alta, mow four feet deep, Liy. But
1. Duration of Time is sometimes expressed by the Ablative
or the Accusative with a Preposition :
1) By the Ablative: Pugn&tum est horis quinque, The battle toaa
five hours, Caes.
By the Accusative with Preposition : Per annos viginti certatum
est, ITie tear was waged for twenty years. Liy.
2. Distance is sometimes expressed by the Ablative:
Millibus passuum sex cqpsedit, He eneamj^ at the distance of six miles.
Caes. Sometimes with a preposition: Ab millibus passuum duobus, at the
distance of two miles, Caes.
BULE IX.— Accusative of Idmit
379. The Name of a Town used as the Limit of
motion is put in the Accusative :
Nuntius Romam rSdit, TTie messenger returns to Home. Liv. PUtto
TSrentum yCnit, Plato came to Tarentum, Cic. FQgit TarquMos, Se Jled
toTarquinii, Cic. But
1. The Accusative with Ad occurs :
1) In the sense of-^, toward^ in the direction of^ into the vicinity of:
Tres sunt viae ad Miititnam, There are three roads to MuUna, Cic Ad
Z&mam pervSnit, J3e cam^ to the vicinity of Zama, Sail.
2) In contrast with aorcib:
A DiSnio ad SInQpen,/n>m Dianvwrn to Sinope, Cio.
2. Urba or Opp^um with a Preposition:
Pervfinit in oppidom Cirtam, Se came into the town of Cilia, Sail.
8. Like ITames of Towns are used
ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE. 169
1) The AocusatiTcs dbmnin, dSmos, rus;
Sclpio ddmum idductus est, Scipio was conducted home, Cic. D5mos
abducti, Ud to their homes, Liv. Rus ev5l5re, to hasten into the country,
Cic.
2) Sometimes the Accusative of names of Islands and Peninsulas:
LStQna conftlgit Dslum, Latona fled to Delos, Cic. PervCnit Chers^oG-
sum, He went to the Chersonesus, Nep.
4. Names -of Other Places used as the limit of motion are geDerally in the
Accusative with a Preposition :
In Afiiam rddit, He returns into Asia. N«p.
Bat the preposition ia sometimes omitted before names of ooontries, and, in the
poets, before names of nations and even before common noons:
Aegyptom prdfigit, Be fled to Egypt, Cia ItJUiam vfinit, He earns to Italy.
Yirg. Iblmos Afros, We skaU go to the 4friea$is. yixg, L&vlnia vfinlt Dtdia, Me
earns to the Lavinian shores. Yirg.
5. A Poetic Dative for the accusative with or without a preposition
occurs :
It cliDior cogIo (for ad ooelnm\ The shout ascends to heaven, Yirg.
ETJLE X.— Accnsative of SpeoificatioiL
380. A Verb or Adjective may take an Accusative
to define its application :
G&plta velftmur, We have our heads veiled (are yeiled as to our heads).
Virg. Nube hiimeros Smictus, with his shoulders enveloped in a cloud,
Hor. Miles fractus membra ISbOre, the soldier with limbs shattered with
labor (broken as to his limbs). Hor. Aeneas os deo sbnUis, Aenea» like
a god in appearance. Virg.
1. In a strict sense, the Accusative of Specification generally specifies
the part to which the action or quality particularly belongs. In this sense,
it is mostly poetic, but occurs also in prose. See 429.
2. In a freer sense, this Accusative includes the adverbial use ot partem,
vicem, nihil, of id and genus in id tempdris, id aetdtis (at this time, age), id
genus, omne genus, quod genus (for ^jusgeneris^ etc.), etc ; also ofsecus, libra
and of many neuter pronouns and adjectives ; hoc, iUud, id, quid (454, 2),
mvUum, summmm, cStera, reliqua, etc. In this sense, it is common in prose.
Maxtmam partem lacte vivunt. They live mostly (as to the largest part)
upon milk. Caes. Nihil mCti sunt. They were not at all moved^ Liv. Ldcus
id tempdris Tacuus Srat, The place was at this time vacant, Cic. Allquid id
gSnus scrlbSre, to write something of this hind. Cic Quaerit, quid possint.
Hi inquires howpowerfvZ they are, Caes. Quid vSnis, Why do you oomef
V. AccusATivB IN Exclamations.
ETJLE XL— Accusative in Exclamations.
381. The Accusative either with or without an In-
terjection may be used in Exclamations :
170 - AOCirSATIVE. DATIVK.
Hen me mbSmmf Ah me unhappy f Cic. Me nusSrom, Me miterabUI*
Cic falliiAtffn Bpem^ deceptive Iiope I Cic. Me caecum, Mind that 1
am I Cic Pro deOmm fldem. In the name of tlie goda ! Cic. But
1. An A4)Mtlve or Oenitiye generally accompanies this aocnaatiye, as in the ex-
amples
S. 0, M«Uk keu are the Inteijeettons most freqaently used with the Accusative,
though others oecor.
8. Other Cases also oecor in exclamations :
1) The F<»oaK«e— when an address as well as an exclMoation is intended :
Pro sanete JQpIter, O holy JupUer. Cic. InlSIix Dido, Unhappy Dido. Yirg.
2) The iiTomifMiMoe— when the exclamation im>proaches the form of a statement:
^ En dextra, Lo the right hand (there is, or that is the right hand) I Ylrg. Eece
toae littArae, Lo ycur ieUer (comes) I Cic.
8) The IktiUe— to designate the person after hei, vae, and sometimes after eces,
Hei mihi. Woe to me. Ylig. Yae tibi. Woe to you. Ter. Ecoe tlbi, Lo to you
Uo here is to you = obeerre). CSc. En tibl, l^de J&r you (lo I do this for 70a). liv.
Bee 889. 8.
SECTION V.
DATirS^
382. The Dative is the Case of the Indirect Object,
and is used
I. With Verbs.
11. With Adjectives.
in. With their Derivatives — ^Adverbs and Substantives.
I. Dative with Vebbs.
383. Indibect Objectt. — ^A verb is often attended by
a noun designating the object indirectljr affected by the
action, that to or fob which something is or is done. A
noun thus used is called an Indirect Object.
BTJLE Xn— Dative with Verbs.
384. The Indirect Object is put in the Dative :
I. With IiTTBANsiTrrE and Passive Verbs :
Tempori cedit, He yields to the time, Oic Sibi tSmuSrant, l%ey had
feared for themselves. Goes. LfibOri st&dent, They devote themselves to
labor, Caes. .Mundus deo pfiret, The world obeys GodJ* Cic. CaesSri
•uppKcabo, / vnll supplicate Caesar,* Cic. Nobis vita dfita est, Life hat
> Milton, Par. Lost, iv. 78 '
9 Is subject to Ood.
9 Will make supplication to Caesar.
DATIVE WITH YEBBS. iVl
been granted to t^. Cic. NtimitOri deditur, He is delivered to Numitor.
Jay,
II. With Transitive Verbs, in connection with the Aoctjsa-
tive:
Pons iter hostibus d^dit, 27ie bridge gave a passage to the enemy, Liv.
L€ges clvitatibus suis scripserunt, Tliey prepared laxvsfw their states, Cic.
1. Double Constbuction.— A few verbs admit (1) the Dative of the per-
son and the Accusative of the thing, or (2) the Accusative of the person and
the Ablative of the thing : alieui rem ddndre, to present a thing to any one, or
aliquem re ddndrey to present any one with a thing. For the Dat. of the per-
son, the Dat. of a thing sometimes occurs, especially if it involves persons or
is in a measure personified :
MUrum urbi circumdSdit, Se eurroimded the eUy with a wall, Nep.
This doable eonstraction occurs chiefly with : aspergo, eircfumdo^ eireum/uti'
dOi donoj eoouOt impertio, indwt^ inspwrgo, interdUdo.
2, To and Fob are not always signs of the Dative : thus
1) To, denoting mere motion or direction, is generally expressed by the
Accusative with or without a preposition (379. and 879. 4) :
YSni ad urbem, / came to the city. Cic. Delum vGnlmus, We came to
Delos. Cic. But the Dative occurs in the poets : It clSmor coelo, The shout
goes to heaven, Virg.
* 2) Fob, in dtfence ofy in behalf o/^ is expressed by the Abl. with^o /
/or the sake of for the purpose of sometimes by the Accus. with in.
Fro patria mdri, to die for onis country, Hon DimlcSre pro libertSte,
tof^hJbfor liberty, Cic. S&tis in Hsum, enough for use, Liv.
8. Othbb English Equivalents. — Conversely the dative is often used
where the English either omits to or fob, or employs some other preposi-
tion. We proceed to specify the cases in which this difference of idiom
requires notice.
385. The Dative of Advantage and Disadvantage is
used with verbs signifying to benefit or injure^ please or
displease^ command or obey^ serve or resist; also, indtdge^
spare^ pardon, envy^ threaten^ be angry ^ believe^ persuade^
and the like :
Sibi pr5sunt, They benefit themselves, Cic. Noc6re altSri, to injure an-
other, Cic. Zenoni pl&cuit, It pleased Zeno. Cic. DispUcet Tullo, It dis-
pleases Tullus, Liv. Cupidit&tibus impSrare, to command desires, Cic.
Deo pargre, to obey God, Cic. R6gi servire, to serve the king. Cic. Hos-
tibus rSsistSre, to resist the enemy. Caes. Sibi indulgSre, to indulge one^s
self. Cic. Vitae parc6re, to spare l\fe. Nep. Mihi ignoscSre, to pardon
me, Cic* MMtans patriae, threatening his country, Liv. Irasci flmlcis,
to be angry mth friends, Cic. Mihi crede, Believe me, Cic. lis persuft-
dGi-e, to persuade them, Caes,
172 DATiVJ£ WITH YEBBS.
1. Othbb Cms.— Some rerbs of this class take the Accusative : deledo,
J&to, laedo, agendo, etc. ; /ido and confide generally the Ablative (419) :
Miriam jQvit, Jit hdped Marius, Nep.
S. SpwhAL TiBBS.~With a few verbs the force of the dative is found
only by attending to the strict meaning of the verb: nUbo, to marry, strictly
to veil one's self, as the bride for the bridegroom ; medear, to core, to adminis-
ter a remedy to ; $&tiff<icio, to satisfy, to do enough for, etc.
8. AccosAnvs or Dativb with a difference of signification : eaiOre ali-
quem, to ward off some one ; €&v9re aiXeuiy to care for some one ; eonsvUre
&liquem, to consult, etc.; &lieui, to consult for; tnettth-et tinare aliguem, to
fear, etc. ; &lieuif to fear for; proapUh^f prdsidire aUquidy to foresee; dlicui,
to provide for; UmpMre, mddirdri &liguid, to govern, direct; alicui, to re-
strain, put a check upon ; tempMre (sibi) ab alvquo, to abstain from.
A few verbs admit either the Ace. or Dat. without any special difference
of meaning: adidor, to flatter; c6mUar, to accompany, etc.
4. Dativi rendered Fbom, occurs with a few verbs of diferitiff, dissent-
infff repelling f taking away : difi%ro, discr&po, diato, dissentio, arceo, etc .
Differre cuivis, to differ from any one, Nep. Discr6pSre istis, to differ
from those, Hor. SIbi dissentire, to dissent from himself, Cic. See 412.
5. Dativi rendered With, occurs with miseeOj admiseeOy permiseeo, jun-
gOf certOf dicertOf htdOy aUerooTf and sometimes/soo (434. 2) :
SdverltStem miscere cSmltSti, to vmte severity with of ability, Liv.
Misceo and its compomids, as also Junctus and eot^unetus, also take the AbL
with or withoat owfR.
886. Dative with Compoimds.— The dative is used with
many verbs compounded with the prepositions :
ad, ante, con, in, inter,
ob^ post, prae, sub, super:
Adfium ftmlcis, I am present vfith my friends, Cic. Omnibus ante-
stare, to surpass all, Cic Terris cohaeret, II cleaves to the earth. Sen.
Ydluptftti inhaerSre, to be connected unth pleasure, Cic. Interfuit pugnae,
JSe participated in the battle, Nep. ConsUiis obstftro, to oppose plans.
Nep. Libert&tl dpes postferre, to sacrifice tcealth to liberty, Liv. F5pillo
praesunt. They nUe the people, Cic. SuccumbSre d51oribus, to yield to
sorrows, Cic. Siiperfoit patri. He survived his father. Liv.
1. Trahsitivx Verbs thus oompoimded admit both the Accusative and Dative :
Se opp6sait hostlbna, Be opposed himself to the enemy, Cic
2. Compounds op otiixb PKepositionb, especially ab, de, eas, pro., and circam,
sometimea admit the Dative ; while several of the compounds specified under the
rale admit the AbL: asaueeco, eonsueaco, insueaeo, etequiesob, e&peraideo (also with
Ace.), etc. •
Hoc CaesflH deftiit, ThisfaUed (was wanting to) Caesar, Gaes.
8. Motion ob Dibxotion.— Gomponnds expressing mere motion or direction
generally take the Aocosative or repeat the preposition :
DATIVE WITH VEKBS, 173
Adire ans, to approach Uu aUars: Cic. Atl coiuiUes 2dire, to go to the eon-
In some InstsnceB where no motion is expressed, several of these oomponnds
admit some other constmction for the Dative :
In oratore inest scientia, In tho orator U knowledge. Cia
387. The Dative of Possessor is used with the verb Sum :
Mihi est nfiverca, / have (there is to me) a titepmother, Virg. Fonti
nomen Argtbusa est, The fountain has (there is to the fountain) the name
Arethiisa. Cic. But
1. The Dattvx ot ths Naxx as well as of the possessor Is common In ezpres-
slons of naming : nomen eet^ nomen ddtur, etc :
Scipioni AlHcano cognomen fbit, Scipio had the surname AJHeanus, BalL
Here Africd/nOi instead of being \Sk apposition yd\h cognomen^ is put bj attraction in
apposition with Scipidnd.
2. The OENirrvn or ihx Nahx dependent npon nomen occurs :
Komen Mercurli est mihi, I have the name ^Mercury, Plant.
8. By a Gbeee Idiom, vUwm^ c&piens, or invitvs sometimes accompanies the
dative of possessor :
Qoibns bellum vdlentifbns £rat, Thep liked the toar (it was to them wishing).
Tac
388. Dative of Agent— The Dative of Agent is used
with the Participle in dies:
Sutun culque incommfidum fSrendum est, Every one has his own trouble
to bear^ or miiti bear his own trouble, Cic.
1. Datite with Compoukd Tknsbs. — The Dative of the Agent is some-
times used with the compound tenses of passive verbs :
Mihi consilium captum jam diu est, I have apian long since formed, Cic.
1) The Dative of Agent, with the Participle in due, as in the Periphrastic Con-
jugation, designates the person who has the work to do ; while with the Compound
Tenses of passive verbs, it designates the person who has the work already done. Bee
examples above.
2) Habxo with the Perfect Participle has the same force as xst msi with the
Perfect Participle (888, 1):
Bellum hibnit indlctnm, Bie had a war (ahready) declared. CIc;
8) The Ablative with a or ab occurs :
Est a v5bis consiUendnm, Measures must be taken by you, Cic.
2. The Real Agent with Passive verbs is denoted by the Ablative with
a orab. The Dative, though the regular construction with the Passive Peri-
phrastic conjugation, does not regard the person strictly as agent, but
rather as possessor or indirect object. Thus, 8uum euique inoommddum
est, means. Every one has his trouble {cuique Dative of Possessor), and
Suum cuique inconvmddum fir en&um est. Every one has his trouble to bear.
So too, Mihi consilium est, I have a plan ; Mihi consilium captum est, I have
a plan {already) formed.
3^. Dative with Simple Tekses. — The Dative is used with the tenses for
incomplete action, to designate the person who is at once Ageni and Indi-
red Objects the person bt whom and Foa (to) whom the action is performed :
174 TWO DATIVES.
Hdnesta bdais ylris quoenxntur, EonorabU things are toughi hy good mei^
L e., for themselves. Gic.
4. Datitb of Agent in Posts. — ^In the poets the Dative is often used
for the Ablative with a or od, to designate simplj the agent of the action :
Non intelllgor uUi, I am not understood by any one, Ovid.
889. Ethical DatiTe. — A Dative of the person to whom
the thought is of special interest is often introduced into
the Latin sentence when it cannot be imitated in English :
At (fJbi vSnit ad me, But lo^ he comes to me, Cic. Ad ilia mihi in-
tendat finlmum, Let him^ I pray^ direct his attention to those things, lAv,
Quid mihi Gelsus figit ? What is my Celsus doing f Hor. £at
1. The Ethical Dattvb is always a personal pronoun.
2. Ethical Dattvb with tolo and intbjubctions :
1) With VoLo: Qold vSbla vnltisf What do you wish^ intend, meant Liv.
AvarTtia qaid sibi vnlt, What does avarice mean, or what object can it havel Cic.
2) With iNTEBJZcnoNS : Aei, vae and some others: Hei mihi, ah me, Virg.
Vae tibi, Woe to you, Ter. See 881. 8. 3).
BULE Zm— Two Datives— To which and For wMcL
390. Two Datives — the object to which and the
OBJECT FOB WHICH— occur with a few verbs :
I. With iNTBANsmvE and Passive Verbs :
Halo est h5mimbu8 ftvftntia, Avarice is an evil to men (lit. is to men
for ah evil), Cic. Est mihi cQrae, It is a care to me, Cic DJimus ded^-
c5ri d5m2no fit, JTie house becomes a disgrace to its ovmer, Cic. Y^nit
Atticis auxilio, Be came to the assistance of the Athenians, Nep. Hoc illi
tiibu6bSltTir ign&viae, TTiis was imputed to him as cotoardice {for cowardice),
Cic. lis subsldio laissns est, He ^as sent to them as aid. Nep.
IL With Teansitive Verbs in connection with the Accusa-
tive :
Quinque cohortes castris prae^dio rSttquit, ffe left Jive cohorts for the
defence of the camp (lit. to the camp for a defence), Caes. Pgricles agros
suos dono rei pQbUcae d6dit, Pericles gave his lands to the republic as a
present (lit for a present). Just.
1. Verbs with Two Dattves are
1) Intransitives signifying to be, become^ go, and the like ; sum, fto, etc.
2) Transitives signifying to give, send, leave, impute, regard, choose, and
the like: do, d&no, dUeo, h&beo, mitto, rUinquo, tribuo, verto, etc. These
take in the Active two datives with an accusative, but in the Passive two
datives only, as the Accusative of the active becomes the subject of the pas*
sive. See 371. 6.
DATTVE Wrril ADJECnYES. 1*15
2. Ohx Datxyx Ohittxo.— One datiro is often omitted or its place supplied by
a Predicate Nonn :
Ea sunt fisui. These things are qf U86 (for nse). Caes. Ta llli piter es, Tou are
a father to him. Too.
8. With Audiens two Datives sometimes occnr, the Dat di4!to dependent npon
attdiene and a personal Dat dependent upon diettMiwiiene treated as a yerb of
obeying (885) :
TAcU»sama.ndi»natIamUetenitifftothev>ord,Iobep. Plant Ndbis dicto and-
lens est, ffe is obedient to us, Gic. Sometimes dicto SMdiens is used in the same
way: M2gistro dicto obediensi obedieni to his master. Plant
n. Dative with Adjectives.
BVLE XIV.— Dative.
391.- "With Adjectives the object to which the qual-
ity is directed is put in the Dative :
Patriae s51um omnibus canim est, The sail of their country is dear to
all. Cic. Id aptum est tempdri, JUis is adapted to the time, Gic. Omni
aetAti mors est commOnis, Death is common to every age. Cic. Ciinis ^m-
His lupo est, A dog is similar to a tool/. Cic. NfttOrae accommdd&tum,
adapted to nature* Cio. Graeciae QtHe, useful to Greece. Nep.
1. Adjectites with Datitx. — ^The most common are those signifying :
Agreeable^ easy^ friendly ^ likCy near, necessary ^ suitable^ fuJbject^ useful^
together with others of a similar or opposite meaning, and verbals in InliL
Bnch are : accomm5dStns, aeqnalis, AUonns, &mlcns and inlmlcns, aptns, cSms,
CScDis and diMcIlis, fidelis and infldelis, flnitibnns, gratns and ingrStna, idOnens, ja-
candus and injucnndns, mdlestas, ndcessSrins, nfitns and igndtna, nozins, par and
dlspar, pemicldsns, pr5pinqnas, proprins, sfilHtSris, dmilis and dissimllis, ylcinos, etc
2. Other Constructions sometimes occur where the learner would ex-
pect the DatiTC :
1) Accusative with a Pr^osUion : (1) in, erga, adv«niui with adjec-
tives fA^Mtjing friendlyy hostile, etc., and (2) ad, to denote the abject or end
for which, with adjectives signifying useful, suHabUf inclined, etc. :
PSrindulgens in patrem, t7ery kind to his father. Cic. Multas ad res
p^rQtUis, very useful for many things, Cic. . Ad cSmltStem prCclIvis, indinr
ed to c^dbiUty, Cic. PrSnus ad luctum, inclined to mourning, Cic
2) AccusaU/oe without a Preposition -with- prdpior, prox^us :
' PH^pior montem, nearer the mountain. SalL Prozlmus mi&re, nearest to
to the sea. Caes. See 488 and 487.
8) AblaUve with ov without a Preposition :
Alifinam a vita mea, foreign to my life, Ter. H5mlne ftlienisslmum,
most foreign to man. Cic. Ei cum Boscio commanis, common to hiih and
Boseius (with Roscius). Cic.
4) Genitive: (1) with proprius, commfbiUs, contr&rius ; (2) with sfmUif,
176 DATIVE WITH NOUNS AND ADVEBBS*
dufinMis, aaHmUia, eantiinUis, ptxr and diapar, especially to express likeness
in character ; (8) with ac^ectiTes nsed substantivelj^ sometimes even in the
saperlatire ; (4) sometimes with afinds, alienw, iuatatWy and a few others :
Pdpfili RSmSni est propria llbertas, Idbertyiseharaderisiic of the Boman
pecpU. Cic. Alezandri slmllis, Hke Alexander^ i. e., in character. Cic Bis-
par suiy unlile itself. Cic. Cnjus p&res, Hke whom. Cic. Amicisslmns hdm-
Innm, ths best friend of the men, i. e., the most frieadlj to them. Cic
9. Idem occurs with the Dative, especially in the poets :
Idem iScit occldenti, JHe doeethe tame a» till, or mm he who kills, Hor.
4. For the G^ENiriyx aud Datit£ with an adjective, see 399. 6.
IIL Dativh with Debit ative Nouns and Advebbs.
BXTLB XY.— Dative.
392. A few Derivative Nouns and Adverbs take
the Dative after the analogy of their primitives :
L Verbal Kouns.-— JustXfcia est obtonpSHltio ISglbus^ Justice is obe-
dience to laws. Cic Slu responsiov replying to himsdf. G^. Opulento
homXni servltus ddra est, Sermng a rich man (servitude to) is heard. Plant.
IL Adverbs. — Oongruenter natQrae vlvSre^ to Rve in accordance tsith
Hoittre. Cic. SIbi oonstanter dlcere^ to speak consktenU^ with Mrmelf. Qic
Froxime hostium castris, next to the can^ of the enemy. Caes.
1 Dativk wxvr Nonra— Noobs conitraed wfth the DativB are deriyed from
verba which govern the Dstive. With other nonns the Dative Is generally best ex>
f loined as dependent npon some verb, expressed or understood ;
TSgimenta gilels mllites filcSre jubet, ffe crdsrs the eeidiera to make coverings
for their helmets, Caes. Here poZeis is probably the indirect object ot/acSre an<I
not dependent upon tegimenta. In ceaspectam veaerat hostS>ns, He had eome in
sight (if ike enemy. Caes. Here hoefibus fs dependent not upon conspectum^ but
mpon venirat; the action, coming in sight, is conceived of as done to the enemy.
See 898w 5.
% Dativk with AnvsBBS.— a few adverbs not indaded in the above role occur
nith the Dative i huie Una — ufM cum ho&, with him.
SEOTIOIJr VI.
393.- The Genitive in its primary meaning denotes
source or cause, but in its general use, it corresponds to the
Enficlish possessive, or the objective with o/^ and expresses
various adjective relations.
1. But sometimes, especially when Objective (39(), II.), tbe GenitivB is
best rendered by to^ for, from, in, on account of, etc. :
BSn&f icii gratia, gratitude for a favor^ Cic. Laborum fiiga, escape
from labors,. Cic.
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. 177
894i The Genitive is used
I. With Nouns.
II. With Adjectives.
m. With Verbs.
IV. With Adverbs.
I. Genitive wftH Nouns.
BULE XVI— Genitive.
395. Any Noun, not an Appositive, quaKfying the
meaning of another noun, is put in the Genitive :
C&tonis Grationes, Colo's qtqXwm, Cic. Castra hostium, (he camp of
the enemy. Liv. Mors HfimHcfiriB, the death of Hamilcar, Liy. Deum •
m$tus, the fear of the gods, Liv. Vir consHii magni, a man of great pru-
dence. Gaes. See 363.
896. Varieties of Genitive with Vounflr-The principal
varieties of the Genitive are the following :
I. The Subjective Genttive designates the subject or
agent of the action, feeling, etc., including the author and
possessor:
Serpentis morsus, the bite of the serpent. Cic. P&vor Niimldftrum, the
fear offfie Nymidians. Liv. XSnophontis libri, the hooks ofXenophxm, Cic.
FOnum Nepttini, the tempHe of Neptune. Nep.
n. The Objective Genitive designates the olject tow-
ard which the action or feeling is directed :
Amor gloriae, the love of glory. Cic. HSmoria mSlGnim, the recoUee-
tion of sufferings. Cic. Deum metus, the fear of the gods. Liv.
III. The Paktittve Genitive designates the whole of
which 9, part is taken :
Quia vestrum, which of you ? Cic. Vltae pars, a part of life. Cic.
Omiiium sfipientissbnas, tlie vnsest of all men. Cic.
1. Nostrum and Vxsthum. — ^As partitive genitives, nostrum and ves-
trum are generally used instead of nosiri and vestri.
2. Use. — ^The Partitive Genitive is used
1) Wither*, nlmo, nihil ; nouns of quantity, number, weight, etc. :
mddius, ISjgio, tUlenium, and any nouns used partitively :
EquSrum pars, apart of tJie Tiorses. Liv. H&dimnum tritici, a Imshel of
wheat. Cic. PfictlDiao iSXenivim, a talent of money. Nep. Quorum Caius,
of whom Caiue. Cic.
2) With Numerals used Substantively :
178 GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.
QuOmm qnaiiuoTf /our of f€hom, Liy. S&pientam octSTns, the eighth
of the wise m&n. Hor.
(1) Bat the Genitiro slionld not be used when the two words refer to the same
namber of objects, even though qf be naed in English : TiTi qui (not gudrttm) d«o
s&persant, the living, qfiohom two wrvive, Cic
8^ With Plronomis and Adjectives used Bubstantively, especially (1)
with hicj ilUf guia^ j^t, a/fe»', Uter^meuier, etc. ; (2) with comparatiYes and
superlatives ; (8) with neuters : hoc, id^ iUud, quid; mtUium, plus, plurx-
mum, minus, mtnXmumf taniwny quantum, etc. ; (4) with omnee and cuncti,
rarely:
Qais Yestrum, which of you t Cic. Cons&lum alter, one of the consuls.
Liv. Prior hOrum, the former of these, Nep. GallSrum fortissimi, the
bravest of the Gauls. Caes. Id tempdris, that (of) time. Cic. Multam
dp6rae, m/uch (</) service. Cic Hdmlonm cuncti, aU of the men. Ovid.
But omnes and cuncti generally agree with their nouns : Omnes. bdmines,
dUmen. Cic.
Pronouns and Adjectives, except neaters, when used with the Fiu± Gen. take
the gender of the Gen. unless they agree directly with some other word; see ConeA-
turn alter above. «
4) With a few Adverbs used substantively; (1) with adverbs of Quan-
tity — abwide, affHtim, nXmis, parum, partim, quo^id, sdtis, etc. ; (2) with
adverbs of Place — hie, hue^ nusquam, iibi, etc. ; (3) with adverbs of
Extent, degree, etc. — eo, hue, quo ; (4) with superlatives :
ArmSrum affStim, abundance of arms. Liv. LOcis nimis, too much {of)
light. Oy\A. S&pientiaep&rum, ^Z«(0^)tri«^O77i. Sail. Partim cSpiSruiD,
a portion of the forces. Liv. Quoad ejus f&c6re pdtest, as far as (as much of
it as) Tie is able to do. Cic. Nusquam gentiuth, nowhere in the world. Cic.
Hue arrdgantiae, to this degree of insolence. Tac. Max!me omnium, most
of all. Cic.
3. Lud and l&conim occur as partitive genitives in expressions of
time :
IntSrea 16ci, in the mean time. Ter. Adhuc IScCrum, hitherto, Plaut.
4. For idff^us = ejus ffifnSris, s^cus, Itbra^ etc., see 380. 2.
5. For Predicate Genitive, see 401.
IV. The GENinvE of Characteeistic designates
character or quality^ including value^ price, size, weight,
age, etc.
Vir maximi conslflii, a man of very great prudence. Nep. Mitis ingS-
nii jiivenis, a youth of mild disposition. Liv. Vestis magni pretii, a gar-
ment of great value. Cic. Exsflium dScem annorum, an exile of ten years.
Nop. C5rona parvi pondSris, a crown of small weight. Liv. See 402, III. 1.
1. A noun designating character or quality may be either in the Gen.
or in the Abl. See 428.
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS. 179
1) But it mnst be accompanied by an adjective, numeral, or pronoun, unless it
be a componnd containing snch modifier; as hi^ufmddi = h^Jos modi : trldui^ from
tres dies ; Mdui^ from duo (bis) dies. With tridui and bidui, via or spfttiam is some-
times omitted: AbSrant bidni, l%eif toere two days'* Journey distant, Cic
V. The Genitivb of Specification has the general
force of an Appositive (363) :
Virtus coB&nentiaiey (he virtue ofself-«mtroL Cic. Verbum volupta-
tis, the word (of) pleasure, Cic. Oppldum AntiSchlae, the city of ArUioch.
Cic. Tellu3A\i36wMeyihelando/Au80tUa, Virg.
397. Peculiarities. — ^We notice the following :
1. The GovKEXiNa Woed is often omitted. Thus
AedeSy templum, discipiihtSj hSmo, jUv^niSj puer^ etc. ; caiisa^ grOiiay
and indeed any word when it can be readily supplied :
Ad J5vis {sc, aedem), near the temple ofJupUer, liv. Hannibal anno-
rum novem (sc. puer), Sarmibed a hoy nine years of age. Liv. Naves sui
commodi (causa) f<ScSrat, He had built vessels for his oion advantage, Caes.
Conferre Yitam Trebonii cum D51abellae (sc, vita), to compare the life of
Trehonius with that of Dolabella. Cic.
1) The governing word is generally omitted when it has been expressed before
another Gen. as in the last example ; and then the second Gen. is sometimes attracted
into the case of the governing word : Natura hdminis bulais (for heludrum naturae)
antecedit, TAe nature qfman surpasses (that of) the brutes, Cic
2) In many cases where wo supply son, dauifhter^ hu^and, wife, the ellipsis
is only apparent, the Gen. depending directly on the proper noun expressed :
Hasdrftbal Gisconis, Oisco's Hdsdrubal, or Bdsdrubal the son of Gisco. Liv.
Hectdris Andrdmache, Bedor'^s Andromache, or Andromache the wife qf Hector,
Virg.
2. Two Genitives ai'e sometiines used with the same noun —
generally one Subjective and one Objective :
Memmii 5dium p5tentiae, 3femmius'*s hatred of power. Sail.
8. Genitivb AND Possessive. — A Genitive sometimes accompa-
nies a Possessive, especially the Gen. of ipse^ solusj unus, omnia :
Tua ipslus &mlcltia, your oitm friendship, Cic. Meum sdllus peccfttum,
my fault alone, Cic. Nomen meum absentis, my name while absent, Cic.
Here ipslus agrees with tui (of you) involved in tuaf sollus and absentis, with
mei (of me) involved in meum.
398. other Constmcticiifl — for the Genitive occar.
1. Ablative of Characteristic. See 428.
2. An AnJECTiYE is sometimes used for the Genitive :
Bellica glCria = belli glCria, the glory of war, Cic. Conjux HectSrea
= conjux Hectflria, the wife of Sector, Vfrg..
180 GKNITIVE WITH KOUXS. WITH ADJECTIYES.
3. The P088ESSITK is regularly used for the Subjective Gen. of Per-
Eonal pronouns, rarely for the Objective :
Mea ddmosy nvy house. Cic. FSma tua, your fame. Cic.
4. Cass with Preposition.— A case with a preposition may be used for
the Gen. ; especially, 1) For the Objective OenUive^ the Accusative with
in, erga, adversot : — ^2) For the Fartitive Genitivey the Accusative with
inter, ante, fipod, or the Ablative with ex, de, in :
Odium in hdmlnnm g&nns, hatred of or towarde the race of men, Cic.
Erga vos ftmor, love towards you, Cic. Inter rdges dpfElentissinms^ the most
wealthy of (among) hings. Sen* Unns ex \^is, one of the heroes, Cic.
5. A Dative depending on the verb is sometimes used, instead of the
Genitive depending on a noun :
Urbi fnndSmenta j&c&re, to lay the foundations of (for) the city, Liv.
Caes&ri ad p^des proj!c6re, to cast at the feet of Caesar, i. e., before Caesar
at his feet. Caes. See 892. 1.
1) The two oonstractiona, the Gen. and the Case with Fsep^ase sometimes com-
biaed to the wasae sentence.
II. Genitive with Adjectives.
EXILE XVII-Genitive.
399. Many Adjectives take a Genitive to complete
their meaning :
Avidus bradis, desirous of praise. Cic. Otii ciipidas, desirous of lets-
ure, Liv. Amans sui virtus, virtue fond of itself, Cic. Efif iciens volup-
i&t\aj productive of pleasure. Cie. Gloriae mSmor, mindful of glory. Liv.
1. FoEOE OF THIS Geiiitive. — The genitive here retains its
usnal force — o/j in respect q/^— and may be used after adjective*
which admit this relation.
2. Adjectives with the Genitive. — ^The most common are
1) Verbals in az and participles in ans and ens nsed a^ectivelj:
Virtatum f^raXf productive ef virtues. Liv. T&naz pr5p3slti, tenacious
(steadfast) of purpose. Hot. Amans patriae, Umn^f (fond of) his country.
Qic. Fiigiens l&bCris, shunning labor, Caes.
2) Adjectives denoting desire, hnowledge, sMll, recollection^
participation^ mastery^ fulness^ and their contraries:
(1) Dbsirs, Aversion— «»i<fM«, dkpidus, studi&sus ; fastidiosus^ etc. ;
sometimes aem&lus and invidus, which also take the Dative :
ContentiUnis ctpidna, desirous of coTUerUion. Cic. Sipientiae stfidlosus,
studious of (student of) wisdom. Cic.
(2) Knowledge^ Skill, Recol).ection with their contraries — gndrus.
GENinVB WITH ADJECIXVES. 181
ign&rw, eonsuUut, eonscitiSf inecittSf neseitts, eertuSf incertut, sutpengus; prd-
vidusy pr&dena, imprHdens; perUtity imperUus, ritdit, tntuUut; mhnor, im-
memor, etc. :
Rei gnSruSy acqwUnted with the thing, Cic. PrQdens rei milXtSris, ahiU-
ed in mUUary science, Nep. Pdritus belli, skilled in war. Nep. Insufitas
l&bSris, itnaceustomed to labor, Gaes. GI5riae mimor, mindfvl of glory, Lir.
ImmhmoThibuhVlciifforgetf'ulofhindnen. Cic.
(3) Participation^ Fulkbss, Mastbrt, with their contraries — (xfmis, con-
sorSf exsorSf estperSy particeps ; planus f/ertilis, refertuSf igdntts, incps, vacuus;
pdtens, impdtens, compos, impos, etc. :
Afflnis culpae, sharing the fault. Cic. R&tiOnis partlceps, endowed with
(sharing) reason. Cic. R&tiQnis ezpers, destitute of reason, Cic Vita m&-
tus piftna, a life full of fear. Cic. Hei pdtens sum, / am master of myself,
LiT. Yirttktis composy capable oftirtue. Cic.
3. Other Adjectives also occar with the Genitiye.
1) A few of a signification kindred to the above :
M&nifestus rdrom c&piuniam, convicted of capital crimes. Sail. Noxius
conjQrStiQnis, guilty of conspiracy. Tac.
2) SimUis, assimUiSf consimUis, diesimUis / par and dispar, especially
to denote internal or essential likeness. See 391. 2. 4).
8) Sometimes ali9nus, comm&nief proprius, pubUcus, scLcer, vi(^us :
Alienus dignltStis, inconeistent with dignity. Cic. YXri proprius, char-
acterUtie of a man, Cic.
4) In the poets and late prose writers, especially Tacitus, a Genitive of
Cause occurs with a few adjectives, especially those denoting emotion or feel-
ing, and a Gen. having the force of— in, in respect of for, especially hnimi
and ingeniif with many adjectives :
Anxius pdtentiae, anxious for power, Tac. Lassus mllltiae, tired of mil-
itary service, Hor. See Gen. with Verbs, 409. 2 and 4. Aeger &nlmi, afflicted
in mind. Liv. Anxius &nlmi, anxums in mind. Sail. Integer aevi, whole
in respect of age, L e., in the bloom of youth. Virg.
4. Pabtititb Genitive with Adjectives. See 896. III. 8).
6. Otheb Oonstetjctions for the Genitive also occur :
1) Dattvb : M&nus siibltis &vldae, hands ready for sudden events. Tac.
Insudtus mOrinbus RQmSnis, unaccustomed to Boman manners. Liv. Fficln&-
ri mens conscia, a rtUnd conscious of crime. Cic.
2) Accusative with Preposition: Insufitns ad pugnam, unaccustomed
to battle. Liv. FertiQis ad omuitk, productive for aU things, Flin. Avidns in
n5vafl res, eager for new things. Liv.
8) Ablatfve with or without Preposition: Prfidens in jflre clvHi,
learned in cmZ law. Cic. Riidis in jftre civlli, uninstructed in civil law.
Cic. His de rebus conscius, au^r0^^A<»0^^in^«. Cic. V&cuus de dfifensS-
iih\ia, destitute of defenders. Cbcs. Curia \&imu3,free from cares. Cic. R*-
fertus bdnis, replete with blessings, Cic.
6. The Gbnitivb and Dative occur with the same a^ective :
Sibi coDScii culpae, conscious to themselves qf fault. Cic
182 GENITIVE WITU VERBS.
nL Gbnttivis with Verbs.
400. The Genitive with Verbs includes
I. Predicate Genitive.
II. Genitive of Place.
III. Genitive in Special Constructions.
L PrediccOe Genitive.
BULE XVIIL— Predioate Genitive.
401. A Predicate Noun denoting a diOFerent person
or thing from its Subject is put in the Genitive :
Omnia hoatiam ftnnt, AU ihings hdonged to the enemy, ^ Liv. SSnatus
Hannlbfilis drat, The eenate v>aa HanmbaTe, I e., in his interest. Liv. jQdl-
cis est T£rum edqui, To fcUow the truth U the dvJty of a judge? Cic Panri
prfitii est, It m of email vahte, Cic.
1. Pebdicatb GENinvB AHD Prkdicatb NoMiNATivB.— The Predicate Gen-
itive is distinguished from the Predicate Nominative and Accusative bj the
fact that it always designates a different person or thing from its subject,
while they always designate the same person or thing as their subjects. See
862.
2. PREniCATB GsKinTB Axo Pbbdicatb AnJBcnvB.— The genitive is
often nearly or quite equivalent to a predicate adjective (853. 1) : hihninit est
= h'Omdnum est, it is the mark of a man, is human ; stiM est = stuUum estj
it is foolish. The Gen. is the regular construction in adjectives of one end-
ing : sapienUs est (for sapiens est), it is the port of a wise man, is wise.
402. Varieties of Predicate Genitive. — ^The principal are,
I. Subjective or Possessive Genitive — ^generally best rendered by —
of property of cfufy, husinesSj marky characteristic of:
Haec hostium firant, These things toere of (belonged to) the enemy, Liv.
Est impftrfttOris sQp^r&re, A is the duly of a commander to conquer, Caes.
II. Partitive Genitive:
Fies nObUium fontium, You toiU become one of {he noitite founiains,
Hor.
ni. Genitive of Chabacteristio — including vaUue^ priee^ siee^ weighty
' etc. :
Summae fScult&tis est, Be is (a man) of the highest ability. Cic. OpSra
magni fuit, The assistance was of great value, Nep.
1. The Genitive of I¥tce or Value is generally an adjective belonging to
pritii understood ; but sometimes /)f^M ia expressed :
> Lit were oftKe enemy^ or were the enemy's,
* Lit M €f a judge.
GENinVB WITH Y£BBS. 183
Parvi prfitii est, It is of Utile value. Cic. See 396. IT.
2. IHce and Valiie with verbs of buying, telling, and the like, are ex-
ssed
1) Regularly bj the Ablative. See 416.
2) Sometimes bj the Genitive of adjectives, I ike the Pred. Gen. of price:
Vendo frOmentnm pltlris, IteU grain at a higher price, Cic.
But the Oen. Is thus used only in imdejlnite and general ezpressioos of prico
and valae. A definite price or valae regolarly requires the Ablative.
8) In familiar discourse sometimes by the genitives, a88i8,flocci, nihili,
pUi and a few others :
Non flocci penddre, not to care a ttraw (lock of wool) /or. Plant.
' 8. Bihii and Aequi, as Predicate Genitives, occur in such expressions as
aequi honi/acere and b$ni conMire, to take in good part.
403. Verbs with Predicate Genitive.— The Predicate
genitive occurs most frequently with sum and fdcio^ but
sometimes also with verbs o^ seeming and regarding:
Haec hostium Srant, TJieac things were the enemas. Liv. Oram Rd-
mftiiae ditiOnis f^cit, He brought the coast under (of) Roman rule, Liv.
1. Transitive Yerbs of this class admit in the active, an Accusative with
the Genitive, as in the second example.
2. With Verbs of Seeming and Begarding—YidiOtiT, h&beo, dtlco, pAto,
etc.— «SM may generally be supplied :
Hdminis vlddtur, It seems to he (esse) the mark of a m>an, Cic.
404. Other Constmotions for the Genitive also occur.
1. The Possessive is regularly used for the Pred. Gen. of personal pro-
nouns:
Est tuum (not tu%) vidSre, R is your duty to see, Cic.
2. The Genitive with Off\cium, MUnus, NSgOtium^ Proprium :
S^nAtus o£fIcium est, It is the duty of the senate, Cic. Fuit proprium
popiili, li teas charaeteristie of the people, Cic.
The Predicate Genitive could in most lostances bo explained by supplying some
such word, bat it seems to be more in accordance with the idiom of the Latin to re-
gard the genitive as complete in ItseUl
S. The AblaHve of Characteristic, See 428.
IT, Genitive of Place. See 421. II.
III. Genitive in facial Constructions.
405. The Genitive, either alone or with an Accusative,
is used in a few constructions which deserve separate men-
tion.
184 GKBrrmrB with tkrbs.
SULE XDL— Genitita witJi Certam YerioL
406. The Oenitive is used
L With Bdi&eor and wSaXxmooi
Xin^. Vii^g.
n. With xteoidor, m^mTiri, rtmYirincnr, and obUviscor:
HgmIiutpnet£ritfiroii^£&f«iii«iiid«ri(ft«/Nut Cic. ObUtos sum mci,
I have forgotten, mytdf, Ter. Fllgidoram rgcordari, to reeoOeti base deeds.
Cic RSmiiuMU YirtQUa, to remember vtrtue. Caes.
m. With refett and iot&eBl:
niOnun refeit, i2 eoncenu than, SalL Interest omnium, B is the in-
terest of aO. Gc
1. ExpLAWATiosr.— The Genitire maj be explained as dependent npon re
in r?fertf and npon re or eotiM to be supplied with interest. With the other
rerbs it accords with the Greek idiom, and with Terbs of remembering and
forgetting, it also conforms to the analogy of the Gen. with the adjectiyes
memor and immhnor (399. 2. 2) ).
2. Ck>K8TRUcnoN ACCORDnra to sensb.— The expression Vhtil nUki in
fnentem, It occurs to my mind, equivalent to rwntniscor, is sometimes con-
strued with the Gen. :
Tdnit mihi Pl&tSnis in mentem, The reoolUetion of Plato comes to my
mindf or I reeoUeet Plato. Cic. But the Nom. is also admissible : NouT^nit
in mentem pugna, Does not the battle come to mindf Liv.
407. Other Constrttctions with verbs of Jtemember-
ing and Forgetting also occur : •
1. The Accusative : M6mInSram Paulum, Irememibertd Bzulus. Cic
This is the regular eonstracUon for the thing (not perBon), with rieordor, and,
If it be a neater pronoun or adjcctire, also with other yerbs :
TrinmyhiMricoTdSiitiorecaU triumphs. Cic. £a Tcminiscere, i?«m€m&er {Ao««
thlnffa. Cic
2. The Ablative with De : RficordSre de cetSris, Pethinh yourself of the
others. Cic
This is the regular construction for the person with rieordor, and occurs also
with mimlni, though that verb takes the Ace of a contemporary.
408. The Construction with Befert and Inttrest is as
follows :
1. The Person or Thing interested is denoted
1) By the Genitive as under the rule.
GENITIVE WITH VERBS. 185
2) By the AhlaUte Feminine of the Ibssessive :
Me5 rufert, R concerns me. Ter. IntiSrest me9, It intareete me. de.
This posMSfiiTO regalarly takes the place of the Gen. of personal pronoans, and
may be explained as agreeing with re in r^ert^ and with re or catisa to be supplied
-with interest.
8) By the Dative, or AecusaHve with or wUfuntt Ad; bat rarely, and
chiefly with r^/ert, which moreover often omits the person :
Quid rSfert ylyentl, WTiat does it concern one living t Hor. Ad me rCfert, It
concerns me. Plant
2. The Subject of Importancb, or that which involvea the interest, is
expressed by an Infinitive or Clause, or by a Neuter Pronoun :
Interest omnimn recte fScdre, To do rigM is the interest qfaU. Cie. Vestrft hoe
interest, This interests you. Cic.
8. The Dbgbbb of Intkbxst Is expressed by an Adverb, by a Neuter
used adverbially, or by a Gen. of Value (402. 1 and 2) :
Vestra maxime interest, It espedaUy interests you. Cic. Quid nostra rSfert,
What does it concern us t Cic. Magni interest mea, Jt greatly interests me. Cic
4. The Object or End for which it is important is expressed by the Ac-
cusative with ad, rarely by the Dative :
Ad hSnOrem nostmm Interest, 11 is importantjbr our honor. Ci&
409. Genttivb with other Verbs. — Many other verbs
sometimes take the Genitive :
1. Some Verbs of JPienty and WafU, as hyeo, indigeo, like adjectives of
the same meaning (899. 2. 2) ) :
Virtus ezerdtStl5nis isdiget, Virtue requires exercise. CI& AuzSU Sg5re, to
nevoid. Caos.
2. Some Verbs oi Emotion or Feeling like adjectives (399. 8. 4) ) :
KjxlaA'^iidi»OyIamunoertaininmind. Cic Dlscriiclorinlmi,/ am ^rou&^ed
in mind. Plant
8. A few Verbs denoting Ma$tery or Barticipation like adjectives (899.
2. 2) ), p^ior, &dipiseor, regno :
Siciliae pdtltus est, He "became master ofSidly. Nop. Bfimm ideptus est, He
obtained the power. Tac Regnavit pdpiUdrum, ffe was king qf the people. Hor.
4. A Genitive of Separation or Cause occurs in the poets, with a few
verbs — abstineo, dicipio, disino, disisto ; miror :
AbsdnSre IrSmm, to dbskbin from anger. Hor. L&b9mm declpltnr, He is be-
guiled of his labors. Hor. D«dne qufirelarum, Cease from complaints. Hor. DS-
filstero pngnae, to desist from the batUe. Vhrg.
5. Soitdgo and Sdtdgito admit a genitive dependent upon sat (896. 4) ),
and verbs of Promising admit the Gen. damni in/ecU :
Rcmm satigSre, to be occupied with (have enough of) business. Ter.
6. Genitive of Gerunds and Gerundives. See 568 and 568. 5.
180 AOCUSATIYB AND GENITIVE.
BULE XX.— Aoeiutative and Genitiye.
410. A few traoBitlve verbs take both the Accusa-
tive of the Person and the Genitive of the Thing :
I. Verbs of Meminding^ Admonishing.
II. Verbs of Accusing^ Convicting^ Acquitting.
III. Miseret, Poenitet^ Pudet^ Taedet^ and JPiget.
L RxxiNDivo, nc. — ^Te ftmlcltiae comm&k^fidt, He reminds you of
friendihijx Gic HlUtesn^oessitAtis mdnet,£&f?0mu«ft <^«oMi«rsq^^
necemity, Ter.
n. Accusing, etc. — Yiros sc^lSris arguis, You aeeuae men of crime.
Cic. LgTitfttifl eum conTinc^re, to eormet him of levity, Gic. AbsolT^re
injQriae eum, to aequU him of injwtiee, CSc.
IIL MiSERET, PoKNiTET, ETC. — ^E6rum nos miisfiret, We piJty them (it
moTes oar pity of them). Gic. Gonsilii me poenitet, / repent of my pur-
pose. Gic Me stnltiftiae meae pilidet, lam ashamed of my foUy, Gic.
1. The Genitiye of Thing designates, with verbs of reminding, etc.,
that to which the attention is called ; with verbs of accusing^ etc, the
crime, chai^, and with m^s^rel^ poenHet, etc, the object which produces
the feeling. See examples.
2. Pabsite CoNSTBVcrioN. — ^The personal verbs included mider this
Rule retain the Genitive in the Passive:
AcctksStus est prOdltiSnis, J3e was accused of treason. Nep.
3. Verbs of Reminding, mdneOj admiineoy commdneo, commifnifSciOf
sometimes take, instead of the Genitive,
1) The Accusative of a neater pronoun or ac^ective, rarelj of a sub-
stantive, thus admitting two accusatives :
niud me admjtnes, Tou admonish me qfthat. Cic.
2) The Ablative with dSy maneo generally so :
De proelio vos admdnui, I have reminded you qfthe hattle. Gic.
4. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, sometimes take, instead of the
Genitive of the crime, etc.,
1) The Genitive with nOmine or crlmine :
NQmlne conjtLrStiSnis damnfiti sunt. They were condemned on the charge
of conspiracy. Cic.
2) The Accusative of a neuter pronoun or adjective, rarely :
Id me accQsas, Tou accuse me of that. Plaut
3) The Ablative alone or with a preposition, generally de :
De pgcQniis r6p6tundis damnStus est, He was convicted of extortion, Cic
fi. With Verbs of Condemning, the PunisTmient may be expressed
GENITIVE WITH YEBBS AND ADVERBS. 187
1) By the Genitive .•
Capitis condemnSre^ to candemn to death, Cic.
(1) Vdti damndrif to be condemned to folfiU a tow = to obtain a wish.
2) By the Accusative with a preposition^ generally ad :
Ad bestias condemnSre, to condemn to the wild heasU, Suet.
8) By the Ablative; and, in the poets, sometimes by the Dative:
C&plte damnSre, to condemn to death, Cic.
6. With MiSERET, PoENiTET, PuDET, Taedet, and PiGET, aD Infinitive
or Clause is sometimes used, rarely a neuter pronoun or nihU :
Me poenltet vixisse, Irepent having lived, Cic.
1) Like MUiret are sometimes used mUireecit, commUirescit^ mleiretur^ com •
nileiritur. Like Taedet are vLoed pertaedet^ pertaeeum eet
2) P&det sometimes takes the Gen. of the Person before whom one is ashamed :
Me tni pudet, lam ashamed in your presence. Ter. P&det hdminum, Itiea
shame in the eight (^ men, IAy,
8) Pertaeeue admits the Accnsative of the object: '
Pertaesus ignaTiam suam, diegtieted with hie ovon inaction. Suet
7. The AccusATivB and Genititb occur with other Verbs.— Thus
1) With some Verbs of Fbeeino with the accessory notion of acquittinq:
Eum culpae llbfirSre, to free himj'rom, blamCf i. e., to acquit him of
fault. Liv. Sopvrffo, didjpiOy and the like.
2) With a few Verbs of Filling, like adjectives and verbs of plenty
(899. 2. 2) and 409. 1), especially oofnpleo and impleo :
MultUadtnem rftUgiSnis implevit, Be inured (filled) ths multitude with
religion, Liv. See 419. 2.
8) With a few transitive verbs of Emotion or Feeling (409. 2), rarely :
Te angls &n!mi, Tou make yourself anxious in mind. Plant.
rV. Genitive with Adverbs.
411, The Genitive is used with a few Adverbs :
1. With Partitives, See 396. HI. 2.
2. With Fridie and Postridie, perhaps dependent upon die contained
in them, and with JErffo and T^nuSj originally nouns :
Pridie ejus diei, on the day before that day, Caes. Postrldie ejus diei,
on the day after that day, Caes. VirtQtis ergo, on account of virtue, Cic.
Lumborum tSnus, as far as the loins, Cic. For tenus with the Abl., see 434.
SECTION YII.
ABLATIVE.
412. The Ablative in its primary meaning is closely re-
lated to the Genitive ; but in its general use, it corresponds
to the English objective with— ^om, hy^ in^ with^ and ex-
presses various adverbial relations. It is accordingly used-
188 ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, MANNER, MEANS.
with Verbs and Adjectives, while the genitive, as the case of
adjective relations, is most common with Nouns. See 393.
413. The Ablative is used as
I, Ablative of Cause, Manner, Means — including
1. Ablative of Price.
2. Ablative after ComparatiTes.
8. Ablative of Difference.
4. Ablative in Special Constructions.
n. Ablative of Place.
m. Ablative of Time.
IV. Ablative of Characteristic.
V. Ablative of Specification.
VI. Ablative Absolute.
Vn. Ablative with Prepositions.
L Ablattvb of Caitse, Manner, Means.
STILE XZI-~Catise, Kanner, Means.
414. Cause, Maimer, and Means are denoted by the
Ablative :
ArstltiUtatelaudatur, -4nar<i«jwaMei6«<;at««o/«fe use/ulneas. Cic.
Gloria dtLdtur, He is led by glory, Cic. DuObus m5dis fit, It is done in two
ways, Cic. Sol omnia luce coUustrat, The tun illumines aU things vnth its
light, Cic. A^ger Srat vuluSiibus, Be was iU in consequence of his wounds,
Nep. Laetus sorte tua, pleased with your lot. Hor.
1. Application of Rule. — This ablative is of very frequent
occurrence, and is used both with verbs and adjectives.
2. The Ablativb op Cause designates that hy which, hy rea-
son of which, Iccause of which, in accordance with which anything
is or is done.
1) This includes such ablatives as meo Jiidicio, in accordance with my
opinion ; mea sententia^ Jussu, impulsu, mdnitu, etc. j also the AbL with
d&leo, gaudeo, gldrioTy l&hCrOy etc.
The AbL with qffloSo^ and with ««o hi the sense of depmd upon, abide hy, is
best exphihied as Means, Jffieio and the Abl. are together often equivalent to
another verb: Mn^e c^fldre = hdnorare, to honor; admlrdHone affldre = ad-
mirfirl, to admire.
2) With I^usive and Intra/nsiHve verbs, Cause is regularly expressed by
the Abl.y though a preposition with the Ace. or Abl. sometimes occurs :
Amicitia propter se exp&tltur, Friendship is sought for itself, Cic.
3) With Transitive verbs the Abl. without a Prep, is rare ; but causa^
gratia and ablatives in u of nouns used only in that case (134), juesUy r6gdtu,
manddtu, etc., are thus used ; sometimes also other words.
ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, MANNEB, MEANS. 18D
In other cases, Cause in the sense of— ^» aeeouni of, because off is gene-
rallj expressed — (1) bj a Preposition with its case : ob, propter^ de, eXt prae,
etc. ; or (2) bj a Perfect Participle with an Ablative :
In oppKdum propter tImOrem 8£se r6c!piunt, They betake themeelvee into
the city on account qf their fear, Caes. Begni ciipldltste inductus conjOrS-
tiSnem f^cit, Influenced by the desire of ruling ^ he formed a c^mspiracy. Caes.
Oupiditdie in the 2d example really expresses the eauee of the actipa fecity but
by the use otinductus^ it becomee the AbL of Cause with that participle.
8. Ablattvb op Manner.— This ablative is regularly accom-
panied by some modifier, or by the Prep, cum ; but a few ablatives,
dhiefly those signifying manner — more^ ordine, rdtione, etc.— oc-
cur without such accompaniment :
Vi summa, with the greatest violence, Nep. MSre PersBrum, in the man-
ner of the Persians. Nep. Cum dlentio andlre, to hear in silence, Liv.
Per with the Ace. sometimes denotes ifonn^ .* per vim, violently:
4. Ablative of Means. — This includes the Instrument and all
other Means employed. See also 434. 2 ; 414, 2, 1).
6. Ablative op Agent.— This designates the Person by whom
anything is done as a voluntary agent, and takes the Prep. A or Ab :
Occlsus est a ThebSnis» Be was slain by the Thebans, Nep.
1) The Abl. without a Prep, or the Accns. with per is sometimes used,
especially when the Person is regarded as the Means, rather than as the Agent,
Cornua N&mldis firmat, J3e strengthens the wings with I^umidians, Lir.
Per Fabrlciam, by means q^ {through the agency of) Fabricius, Cic.
2) Dative of Agent, See 888.
6. Pebsonifioation. — ^When anything is personified as agent,
tho ablative with A or Ab may be used as in the names of persons:
Yinci a rdluptSte, to be conquered by pleasure, Cic. A fortQna d&tam oc-
casiSDcm, an opportunity furnished by fortune. Nep.
7. Ablative of Aooompaniment. — This generally takes cum:
Wfiicxim'QsXhOyEeliDesvyithBalbus. Cic. But
In describing military moyements, the preposition is often omitted, especially
wbon the AbL i3 qnalifled by an acyectiyc :
Ingonti ezercita prdfectos est, Ee set out with a large army. Liy.
415. Kindred Uses of the Ablative. — Kindred to
the Ablative of Cause, etc., are
L The Ablative o£ Price — ^that by which the trade is
effected.
II. The Ablative with Comparatives — that by which the
comparison is effected.
ni. The Ablative of Difference— that by which one
object differs from another.
IV. The Ablative in Special Constructions.
190 ABLATITB OF PBIGE.
BVLE XXU— AUatiye of Priee.
416. Pbicb ifi generally denoted by the Ablative :
Yendldit anro patriam, Es mid kit country for gM. Yiig. Conduzit
mAgno ddmum. He hired a hmue at a high price. CSc. Multo sanguine
Poenis Tictdria stdtit, The vietorg cost the Carthaginians (stood to tlie
Caithagimans at) much blood, JAv, Qainquaginta tSlentIs aesttmari, to be
valued at Jtftg talenle. Nep. Vile eat Tiginti minis, It is chee^at twadg
Plant
1. Tb'. ABLATira or Pbicb is used
1) With rerbs of buying, selling, hiring, letting, «mo, vendo, eandHeo,
IdeOf tineo, etc.
2) With rerbs of costing, of being cheap or dear, sto, eonsto, Uceo, sum,
etc.
8) With rerbs of raining, aestimo, etc.
4) With adjectives of value, cdrtie, tUnalis, etc.
2. ExcHANGnro. — ^With verbs of exchanging— mfifo, commotio, etc. — ^the
thing received is generally treated as the price, as with verbs of selling :
l?WEs%\i%\\wsim^iS.Y\i, He exchanged tear for peace. SalL But sometimes
the thing given is treated as the price, as with rerbs of buying^ or is put in
the Abl. with cum : ExsUiom patria mUtiSvit, He exchanged counhrgfor exHe.
Curt
8. AnrBBBS of Pbicb are sometimes used : bhie hnire, to purchase well,
L e., at a low price ; care aestimdre, to ralue at a high price.
4. OENinrB or Pbicb. See 402. III.
KXJLE XZni.— Ablative with Comparatives.
417. ComparativoB without quam are followed by
the Ablative :
Nihil est &mftbilius rirtQte, Nothing is more lovdy than virtue. Cic.
Quid est mSlios bonitate, What is better than goodness f Gic.
1. CoMPAEATivEs WITH QuAM are followed by the Nomina-
tive, or by the case of the correspondiDg noun before them :
HIbemia minor quam Britannia existlmStur, Htbemia is considered smaU-
er than Britannia. Caes. Agris quam urbi terrlbQior, more terrible to the
country than to the city. Liv.
2. Ablative, when admissible. — The construction with quam.
is the full form for which the Ablative is an abbreviatioD. This
abbreviation is admissible only in place of quam with the Nomina-
tive or Accusative, but is not necessary even here except for qtiam
with a Relative :
ABLATIVE WITH COMFABATIVES. DIFFEBENCE. 191
Sdmus sQlem majSrem esse terrS, We know that the tun is larger than
the earth. Cic. Amicitia, qua nihil melius h&bdmus ; friendship, than which
toe have nothing better. Cic. See also examples under the Rule.
1) In the first example the Ahlative (terra) is admiMlble bat not necessary,
gvam terram might have been used; bnt in the second example the Abhitive igud)
is necessary, the conjunction guam would be inadmissible.
2) In the examples under the rule the ablatives virtUte and bonitdte are both
equivalent to qitam with the Nom. qtMm virtue and guam banitae, which might
Itave been used.
3) Instead of the AbL, a Preposition with its case, awte^ prae, praeter, or eupra is
sometimes used : Ante ilios imm&aloTrinore monstrous than (before) the others. Virg.
3. CoNSTBUCTiON WITH Plus, Minus, ETC.—PlttSy minuSy ampUtiSf or
longitcs, with or without qttamy is often introduced in expressions of num-
ber and quantity, without influence upon the construction ; sometimes
also mqfor, ndnor, etc. :
Tecum plus annum vizit, Be lived with you more than a year, Cic. Mi-
nus duo millia, less than two thousand. Liv.
So in expressions of age : nStns plus ti^nta annos, having been bom more Uutn
thirty years. The same meaning Is also expressed by— major triglnta annos natus,
major triginta annis, mi^or quam triginta annSrnm, or nu^or triglnta annomm.
4. Atque or Ac for Quam occurs chiefly in poetry and late prose :
Arctius atque hddfirS, more closely than vnth ivy. Hor.
5. Alius with tee Ablative sometimes occurs. It then inyolves a com-
parison, other than :
Quaerit &lia his, Be seeks other things than these. Plant.
6. Peculiabitixs. — Quam pro denotes disproportion, and many ablatives
—dplniCnef spe, aequo, JustOf sdltto, etc.— are often best rendered by clauses :
Minor caedes quam pro Victoria, less slaughter than was proportionate to
the victory. Liv. Serins spe T6nit, He came later than was hoped (than hope).
Liv. Plus aequo, m^e than is /air. Cic.
BXTLE XXIV.— Ablative of Difference.
418. The Measure of Ditfeeence is denoted by
the Ablative :
ITno die longiorem mensem fSciunt, They make the month one day
longer (longer by one day). Cic. Biduo me antgcessit, He preceded me by
two days. Cic. Sunt magnitadine paulo infra glgphantoB, Th^ are in size
a little bdow the eUpharU. Caes.
1. The Ablative is thus used with all words involving a comparison,
but adverbs often supply its place : Multum rdbustioTf mnch more robust.
2. The Ablative of Difference includes the Abl. of Distance (378. 2), and
the Abl. with anie, post, and abhiric in expressions of time (427).
102 ablahvb in spbciajl cx>kstbuctions.
BUIE XXy.—Ablatiye in Special Constrnctions.
410, The Ablative is used
L With utor, fruor, fimgory pGtior, vescor, and their com
pounds:
PlOrimiB rSbufl fruimur et Qtunur, We enjoy and use very many thirty
Cio. Magna est praeda pdtitus, Ee obtained great booty, Nep. Yescunur
bestus^ We Uoe upon animaU, Cic
IL With fido, coafido, nltor, and innltor:
Nemo p5test fortOnae stSbilitate conf Id^re, No one can trust (confide
in) the stability of fortune, Cic. SSlus veritate nititur, Safety reels upon
truth, Cic.
in. With Verbs and Adjectives of Plenty and Want :
Non £geo medlcina, I do not need a remedy, Cic. YSc&re ciilpa, to be
free from fault, Cic. Villa ^undat lacte, cflseo, melle ; The villa abounds
in tnilkf cheese, aiui honey. Cic. Urbs nuda praesidio, a city destitute of
defence, Cic. VirtQte praedltus, endowed with virtue. Cic.
rv. With digiras, indignus, oontentos, and fretns:
Digni sunt SmicIUa, They are worthy of friendship. Cic. K&tQra parvo
contenta, nature content with little. Cic. Fretus £bnlcis, relying upon his
friends. Jay.
V. With bpoM and ubum:
Auct5ntftte toa nobis opus est, We need (there is to us a need of) your
authority. Cic Usus est tua mihi dp^ra, I need your aid, Plaut
1. Explanation. — ^This Ablative may in most instances be readily ex-
plained as the Ablative of Cause or Means : thus Utor, I use, serve myself
by means of; fmor, I enjoy, delight myself with; vescor, I feed upoD,
feed myself with ; ftdo, confldo, I confide in, am confident because of, etc
2. Accusative and Ablative. — ]>ignor and transitive verbs of Plenty
and Want take the Accusative with the Ablative :
Me dignor h6n5re, / deem myself worthy of honor, Virg. Armis nftves
5ngrat, He loads the ships with arms. Sail. OciUis se pnvat. He derives
himsdfofUs eyes. Cic See 371. 2,
1) Transitive verbs of PUrUy and Want signify to fill, famish with, depriro oi;
ete.: officio^ cQan'iUo^ compleo^ impleo^ imbuo^ instruo, dniro, omo, etc— or&o,
pnvoy apdlio, etc XHf/nor In the best prose admits only the AbL
2) For the Aeeuaatime and Genitive with some of these verbs, see 4ia 7. S).
8. Dativk and Ablativb.— C>pi« eet and testis est admit the Dative of
the person with the Ablative of the thing. See examples.
ABLATIVE IN SPECIAL CONSTEFCTIONS. 193
1) The Ablative is sometimes a Perfect Participle, or, with qpua est^ a
Koun and Participle :
Consult© dpus est, There is need of deliberation. Sail Opus fait Hirtio con-
Tcnto, Tfiere woe need o/nieeting Ilirtius. Cic.
2) With opus est, rarely with usits est, the thing needed may be denoted—
(1) By the Nominative, rarely by the Genitive or Accusative :
I)ax nobis opus est, We need a leader^ or a leader is necessary (a necessity)
for us. Cic Temporis dpus est. There is need qftime. Liv. Opua est cibum, Tliere
is need of food. Plant *
(2) By an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Supine :
Opus est te v21cre. It is necessary that you bi well. Gia Opus est nt livem, Jt
is necessary for me to bathe (that I bathe). Plant. Dictu est dpus. It is necessary
to be told. Tor.
4. Othss Constructions also occur. Thus
1) Utor^ fruoTy fungor^ pdtior^ and tJMcor, originally transitive, are occasionally
so used in classic authors. Their participle in dus is passive in sense. Utor admits
two ablatives of the same person or thing:
Me utetur pStre, He willfnd (use) me a father. Ter.
2) Fido, eon/ldOf and innitor admit the Dative, rarely the Abl. with in.
Yirtuti conf iddre, to confide in virtue. Cic See 885. 1.
8) JHgnus and indignus admit the Gen., fritus the Dat, nltor and innitor the
Ace or AbL with Prep., and somo verbs of Want the Abl. with Prep.
Dignus s&lutis, worthy qf safety. Plant. £ei fretus, relying upon the t/iing.
Liv. Viicire Sb 6p5re, to be freedom work. Cacs.
4) Oeniitee.— For the geniU'oe with pdtior^ see 409. 8. For the genitive with
▼erbs and adjectives ot Plenty and Want, see 409. 1, 410. 7, and 899. 2. 2).
n. Ablative op Place,
420. This Ablative designates
L The PLACE IN WHICH anything is or is done :
II. The PLACE FEOM WHICH anything proceeds; — ^in-
cluding Source and Separation,
EXTLE XXVI.— Ablative of Place.
421. I. The PLACE in which and the place from
WHICH are generally denoted by the Ablative with a
Preposition. But
11. Names of Towns omit the Preposition, and in
the Singular of the First and Second declensions desig-
nate the place in which by the Genitive :
9
194 ABLATIVK OP PLACE.
I. Hannibal in Mlia fuit, Hanmbal was in Italy. Kep. In nostris
castris, in our camp. Caes. In Appia via, on the Appian way. Cic. Ab
urbe prof iciscitur, He departs from the city. Caes. Ex Africa, from Afri-
ca. Liv.
II. AthSnia fuit, He was at Athena. Cic. B^bylone mortnus est, He
died at Babylon. Cic. FQgit Corintho, Hejledfrom Corinth. Cic. Romae
fuit, He was at Rome. Cic.
422. Names of Places not Towns sometimes omit
the preposition :
1. The Ablative of place in which, sometimes omits the
preposition :
1) Generally the Ablatives — loco^ lods^ parte, partibtts, deoctra, laeva,
tinistrOf terra, mart, and other Ablatives when qualified hj tottie :
Allquid Idco p5n5re, to put anything in its place. Cic. Terra m&riqae,
on land and sea. Liv. Tota Graecia, in all Greece. Nep.
2) Sometimes other Ablatives, especially when qualified by adjectives :
Hoc libro, in this book. Cic.
In poetry the preposition is often omitted even when the ablative has no modifier:
^ Silvis agrisque, in thejbreata a>nd Jielde. Ov.
2. The Ablative of place feom which sometimes omits the
preposition, especially in poetry:
OadSre nubibus, to fall from the clouds, Virg. Labi Squo, to
fall from a horse. Hor.
423. Names op Towns differ in their construction
from other names of places,
I. Generally in simply omitting the preposition. But
n. In the Singular of the First and Second declensions
they designate the place in which by the Genitive. See
examples under the Rule.
1. Preposition Retained. — The preposition is sometimes retained,
especially for emphasis or contrast :
Ab Ardea RSmam v6n6runt, They came from Ardea to Borne. Liv. So
also when the vicinity rather than the town itself is meant : Discessit a Brun-
dXsio, He darted from Brundisium, i. e., from the port. Caes. Apud Man-
tinfiam^ near Mantinea. Cic. Ad Tr^biam, at or near the Trebia. Liv.
2. The Genitive, it must be observed, never denotes the place froic
WHICH.
The Genitive-Forms denoting the place in which^ are genitives only in form.
They probably belonged originally to a case called the Locative^ afterward blend*? ^
with the Ablative, except in the Sing, of Dec. I. and II., where it is united ytH" ^
Gen. Accordingly those genitives are in force old Ablatives. * of
3. Other Constructions for the Genitive also occur :
ABLATTYB OF PLACE, SOUBCE, 6EPASATIOK. 195
1) Ahlativ€ by Attraction :
In monte AlbSno LSvIniSque, on the Alban mount and at Zavinium, Lir.
2) Ablative without Attraction, generally with a preposition :
In ipsa Alexandria, in Alexandria iteelf. Cic. Longa Alba, at Alba
ZonffO. Virg.
This is the regalsr oonstmetion when the noan takes an a^ectire or adjective
prononn, but the Oen. d6mi (424. 2) admits Apoaeeeaive or dlUnue :
Ddmi suae, at hie home, Cio.
S) With an Appellatiye— 4fr6«, oppfdumr— the name of the town is in the
Gen. or AbL» but the appellatiye itself is in the Abl., generally with a Prep. :
In oppldo Antiochlae, in the city o/Antioch, Cic. In oppldo CItio, in
the town Oitium. Nep. Albae, in urbe opportQna, at Alba, a convenient city,
Cic.
424, Like Names of Towns are used
1. Many names of Islands :
Vixit Cjpri, ffe lived m CypruB, Kep. Delo prfiflciscltur, He proceeds
from Ddoe, Cic.
2. DSmiui, xus and the genitives hiimi, mHItiae and belli:
RQri i(ggre vitam, to mend We in the country, Liv. D6mi mllitiaeque,
at home and in thefidd, Cic. iJdmo prOftigit, Me fled from home, Cic.
8. The Genitive of other nonns also occurs :
1) By Attraction after names of towns :
RSmae Ntimldiaeque, at Boms and in Numidia, Sail.
2) Without Attraction in a few proper names and rarely also the geni-
tives ar^nae,fdci, terrae, vtcimae :
Ddmum Chersdndsi h&buit, Be had a house in the Chersoneeus, Nep.
Truncum rfiUquit trfinae, Be left the body in the tand, Yirg.
EITLE XXVn— Ablative of Source and Separation.
425. Source and Sepabation are denoted by the
Ablative, generally with a preposition :
Source. — Hoc audlvi de pSrente meo, / heard this from myfaiher,
Cic. Oriundi ab SSblnis, descended from the Sdbinea, Liv. Stfitua ex aere
facta, a statue made ofbronae, Cic. J5ye nfltus, eon of Jupiter. Cic.
Separation. — ^Caedem a vobis dgpello, Itoard off slaughter from you.
Cic. Hunc a tuis ftris arcfibis, You wiU keep this one from your altars.
Cic. ExpulsTis est patria, Be was banished from his country. Cic.
1. The Ablative of Souece designates that from which any-
'^ thing is derived, including parentage, material, etc.
'^'^ 2. The Ablative of Separation designates that from which
anything is separated, or of which it is deprived, and is used :
196 ABLATIVS OF SOUBCE, SEPABATION, TIME.
1) With IntraDsitiTe yerbs signifying, to abstain from, he d/istard fromy
etc.
2) In connection with the Accusative after transitive verbs signifying,
to lioldfrom, teparats fromy/ree/rofn, and the like : arceo, abstineo, dUerreo,
^ieiOy exdHidOy exsolvo, libero, peUo, prdhibeo, rhndveOf solve, etc :
8) A few verbs of separation admit the Dative: ali^no,/uror, etc. See
885.4.
8. Preposition Omitted. — ^This generally occurs
1) With Perfect Participles denoting parentage or btrth—genUtu, ndtw,
artits, etc. :
J3ve nStus, son of Jupiter. Cic.
2) With Verbs of Freeing, except Uilero, which is used both with and
without a preposition :
BomnowtWi, to he released from sleep. Cic. Butinthesenseof (K^t^in^
these verbs admit the genitive (410. 7) : AlXquem culpae llbSrSre, to free one
from hlame, i. e., acquit him. Liv.
8) With Jfdveo before the ablatives — Idco, shMu and trOyu :
Signum mdrSre 15c0y to move the standard from tJie place, Cic.
4) The preposition is sometimes omitted with other words, especially in
poetry.
III. Ablative op Time.
BTTLE XXVin.-Time.
426. The Time of an Action is denoted by the Ab-
lative :
Octogesimo anno est mortuus, He died in his eightieth year. Cic. VGre
conv6n6re, T?ietf assembled in the spring. Liv. Nfttftli die sue, on his Urth-
day. Nep. Hi&ue et aestate, in winter and summer. Cic.
1. Designations op Time. — Any word, so used as to involve the time of
an action or event, maybe put in the ablative: hellOt in the time of war;
pugna, in the time of battle ; lijidis, at the time of the games ; msmbria, in
memory, i. e., in the time of one's recollection.
2. The Ablative with In is used to denote
1) The circumstances of the time, rather than time itself:
In tSU tempore, UTuler such circumstances. Liv.
2) The time in or within which anything is done :
In di3bus prozlmis dScem, in the next ten days. Sail.
. (1) This is used especially after numeral adverbs and in designating the periods
of life : Ma in die, twice in the day; inpuirltia, in boyhood.
(2) In a kindred sense occur also the AbL with de and the Accus. with inter or
intra : De mddia nocte, in the middle of the nigJU. Caes. Inter annos quattuord^*-
cim, in (yf\ihm) fourteen years. Oaes.
(3) The Ablative with qr without in sometimes denotes the time within which
or after which: paucis Hiebifi, within (or after) a few days.
ABLATIVE OF TIME, CHABACTERISTIC. 197
427. Accusative or Ablative, — ^The time since an ac-
tion or event is denoted by Abhinc or Ante with the Ac-
cusative or Ablative, and the time between two events,
by Ante or Post with the Accusative or Ablative :
Abhinc annos trficeDtos fuit. He lived (was) three hundred years since. Cic.
Abhinc annis c^ndXixxoT^ four years »ince. Cic. HdmSrus annis miiltis fuit ante
RSmulum, Homer lived many years before Bomulus. Cic. Faucis ante diebus,
a few days before. Cic. Post dies paacos T6nit, He came after a few days, Li v.
1. Explanation. — (1) The Accusative with abhinc is explained as Dura>
tion of Time (378), with ante and post as dependent upon those prepositions.
(2) The Ablative. in both cases is explained as the Ablative of Difference (418).
With the AbL ante and post are used adverbially unlesa an Accns. is expressed
after them. Panels his (illis) diebus^ means in these (those) /eto days,
2. Numerals with Ante and Post.— These may be either cardinal or
ordinal. Thus : five years after = quinque annis post, or quinto anno post ;
or post quinque annos, or post quintum annum ; or with post between the
numeral and the noun, quinque post annis, etc.
3. QuAH WITH Antb and Post. — Quam may follow ante and post, may
be united with them, or may even be used for postquam :
Quartum post annum quam r6di£rat, four years after he had returned,
Nep. KOno anno postquam, nine years after, Nep. Sexto anno quam 5rat
expulsns, six years after he had been banished, Nep.
4. The Ablative of the Relative or Qunif may be used for postquam i
Quiitiiduo, quo occlsus est,/owr days after he was killed. Cic.
rV. Ablative op Characteristic.
EULE XXIX.— Gharaoteristic.
428. The Ablative with an adjective may be used
to characterize a person or thing :
Summa virtQte Sdolescens, a youth of the highest virtue, Caes. CStl-
llna ingSnio malo fuit, Catiline was a man of a bad spirit. Sail.
1. Ablative op Characteristic is used
1) With Substantives as in the first example.
2) In the Predicate with sum, and the other verbs which admit a Predi-
cate Genitive (403) as in the second example.
2. The Ablative with a Genitive instead of the ablative with an adjec-
tive is sometimes used :
Uri sunt specie tauri, The urus is of the appearance of a bull, Caes.
3. Genitive op Characteristic. — See 396. IV.
4. Genitive and Ablative Distinguished.— The Genitive generally ex-
presses permanent and essential qualities j the Ablative is not limited to any
particular kind of qualities.
198 ABLATIVB OF SPECIFICATION. AHLAHYE ABS0LT7TB.
V. Ablativs of SpEcnracATioir.
BULE XZX.— Specification.
429. The Ablative may be used with, a word to de-
fine its application :
Ag fti Tl fi u a nOmine, non p5testate fait rex, AgesHaus was king in namc^
not in power, Nep. Claudus altdro pdde, 2am« in one /oot Nep. MOribus
fllmiles, nmUar in character . Cic.
1. FoRCi OF Ablative.— This shows in what respect or particular any-
thing is true : thus, king (in what respect?) in name : similar (in what re-
spect ?) in character.
2. AccDBATiri OF Spbcification. See 880.
VI. Ablatiyb Absolute.
430. A noun and a participle, a noun and an adjective,
or two nouns may be grammatically independent of {ab-
solved from) the rest of the sentence, and yet may express
various adverbial modifications of the predicate. When
so used they are said to be in the case Absolute.
BULE ZXXI— Ablative Absolute.
431. The Ablative is used as the Case Absolute:
Servio regnante vigufirunt, Theg Jlourished in the reign of Senmu
(Seryius reigning). Cic. RSgibus exactis, consiiles creati sunt, After the
banishment of the kings, consuls were appointed, Liv. S€rgno coelo, when
the sky is dear. Sen. Caninio consiile, in the consulship of Caninius, Cic.
1. Use. — ^The Ablative Absolute is much more common than the Eng-
lish Nominative Absolute, and expresses a great variety of relations, — time,
cause, reason, means, coTuiiiion, concession, etc.
2. How Rendered. — ^This ablative is generally best rendered (1) by
a Clause with — when, wMU,foT, since, if, though, etc., (2) by a Naunmth
a Preposition, — in, during, after, by, from, trough, etc., or (3) by an Ac-
tive Participle with its Object :
Servio regnante, while Servitis reigned, or in the reign of Servius, Cic.
RellgiSne neglecta, because religion was neglected, Liv. Perdttis rebus omni-
bus, t&men, etc., Though all things are lost, stilly etc. Cic. EquItStu praemis-
so, subsgquGbStur, Having sent forward his cavalry, he followed, Caes.
8. A Connective sometimes accompanies the Ablative :
Nisi monitis castris, unless the camp should be fortified, Caes.
CASES WITH PBEPOSmOXS. - 199
4 An iKFLNiTiVK or Ci^iTBX may be in the AbL Absolate with a nenter parti-
dple or adjective:
Audlto Darlnm xnSyissc, pcrgit, Having heard that Dariua had wUhdrawn
(that Darins had, etc, having been heard), he advanced. Cart. Multi, incerto quid
Titarent, intSrlemnt, Many^ uncertain what they should a/fooid (what they, etc.,
being uncertain), perished. Liv.
S. A Pasticxpije or Adjectiyx may stand alone in the AbL Absolate :
Mnltam certuto, pervicit, He conquered after a hard struffgle (it having been
Dinch contested). Tac.
0. QvisQUS IN THS NoM iNATTVB may accompany the AbL Absolate :
Moltis slbi qnisqne pdtentlbos, while many sought^ each for himself. SalL
Vn. Ablative with Prepositions. See 432 and 434.
SECTION vra.
CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS.
BTJLE ZXXn.— Cases with Frepositioiis.
432. The Acensative and Ablative may be used
with Prepositions :
Ad Smicum scrips!, / have vrriiten to a friend. Cic. In cQriam, into
the senate house. Liv. In Itilia, in Italy. Nep. Pro castris, before the
camp.
433. The Accusative is used with
Ad, adversus (adversum), ante, Spud, circa, circum, circlter, cis, citra,
contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, penes, per, pone, post,
praeter, prQpe, propter, secundum, supra, trans, ultra, versus :
Ad nrbem, to the city, Cic. Adversus decs, toward the gods. Cic. Ante
Iflcem, before light. Cic. Apud concilium, in the presence of the council.
Cic. Circa fSrum, around the forum. Cic. Citra flamen, on this side of
the river. Cic. Contra nfitQram, contrary to nature. Cic. Intra mfiros,
wUMn the walls. Cic. Post castra, behind the camp. Caes. Secundum
nStQram, according to nature. Cic. Trans Alpes, across the Alps. Cic.
1. like Pr6pe^ the derivatives prdpior and proxlmus take the Accns. depend-
ent perhaps upon ad understood. Easadvereus (um) also occurs with the Accus. :
Prdpior montem, nearer to the mountain. Sail. Proxlmus mfire, nearest to
ths sea. Caes. See also 487, and for compounds, 8T1. 4. and 874. «.
2. Verms (um) and usque as adverbs often accompany prepositions, especially
ad and in: Ad Alpes versus, towards the Alps.
434. The Ablative is used with
A or ab (abs), absque, coram, cum, de,
e or ex, ptae, pro, sine, tfinus :
200 CASES WITH PBEPOSinONS.
Ab urbe, from the city, Caes. Coram conyentu, in the presence of thA
anembly. Nep. Qixm Kuiiochx}, with Antioehiu, Cic. D^f^vo^from the fo-
rum. Cic. Ex Asia, from Asia, Nep. Sine corde, without a heart. Cic.
1. Many verbs compouDded with ah, de, «b, or euperj admit tiie Ablative
dependent upon the preposition :
Abire mdgistrStn, to retire from office. Tac. Pugna excSdant, 7%ep retire
/torn the battle. Caes.
Bometimes the Prep, is repeated, or one of kindred meaning is used :
De vita dGc(^dSre, to depart from life. Cic Docedere ex Asia, to depart from
Asia. Cie.
2. The Ablative with or without J)e is sometimes used with I^cio, Ito,
or Sum, as follows :
Quid hoc hdmlne f&cias, What are you to do with ViU man t Cic Quid te (or
de te) f&tfirum est, What will become of you t Cic
The Dative occars in nearly the same sense :
Qnid hnie homlnl fj&cias, What are you to do with (or to) this man t Cic
8. A, aby aha, e, ex.-~A and e are used only before consonants, ah and ea either
before vowels or consonants. Abe is antiquated, except before te.
4. TIfntM follows its case :
Colio tdnns, up to the neck. Ov.
5. Cum with the Abl. of a Pers. Pronoun is appended to it : mScum, iScum, etc,
generally also with a relative : quocum, qulbuecum.
435. The Accusative or Ablative is wed with
In, sub, Bubter, eiiper:
In Asiam prSfilgit, HefUd into Asia. Cic Hannibal in ItSlia fuit, Ban'
nibal was in Italy. Nep. Sub montem, toward the m^mniain, Caes. Sub
monte, at the foot of the mountain. Liv. Subter tdgam, under the toga, Li v.
Subter testQdIne, under a tortoise or shed. Yirg. Siiper N&midiam, beyond
Numidia, Sail. Hac siiper re scribam, IwUl write on this svJ^ect. Cic.
1. In and Sub take the Accusative in answer to the question whither?
the Ablative in answer to wlieref In A^iam (whither?), into Asia; In It&lia
(where ?), in Italy.
2. Subter and Super generally take the Accusative, but siiper with the
force oi— concerning, of, on (of a subject of discourse), takes the Ablative ;
see examples.
436. Prepositions as Adverbs. — ^The prepositions were originally
adverbs, and many of them are sometimes so used in classical authors.
437. Adverbs as Prepositions. — Conversely several adverbs are
sometimes used as prepositions with an oblique case, though in most in-
stances a preposition could readily be supplied. Such are
1- "With Accusative : prdpius^ proxlme, prldie, poetrldie, usque, desHper :
PrSpius pSrlculum (ad), nearer to danger. Liv. Pridie Idus (ante), the day
before the Ides. Cic. Usque pSdes (ad), even to the/eet Curt.
2. With Ablative : pdlam, procuZ, Amul (poetic) :
T&lampbptlo, in the presence of the people. Liv. Pr5cul castris, a^ a c{i«fanctf
from the camp. Tac 8im\il'b.\6,tDith these. Hor.
8. With Accusative or Ablative : clam, insHper:
Clam patrem, withhut the father's knoxoledge. Plant Clam vdbis, wtthota your
knowledge. Caes.
CHAPTEE III.
SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.
EITLE XXXm-Agrecmcnt of Adjectives.
438. An Adjective agrees with its Noun in gender,
NTJMBEE, and CASE I
FortQna caeca est, Fortune is blind, Cic. Vfirae &micUiae, true friend-
ships, Cic. M&gister optimus, the best teacher. Cic.
1. This Rule includes Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles.
2. Attributive and Peedicatb Adjectives.— An adjective is called
attributive, unless it unites with the verb (generally sum), to form the
predicate; it is then called & predicate-adjective : as caeca est, above.
3. Agreement with Clause, etc.— An adjective may agree with any
word or words used substantively, as & pronoun, clause, infinitive, etc. :
Quis clSrior, Who is more illustrious f Cic. Certum est libfiros fimari,
It is certain that children are loved. Quint. See 35. III.
An adjective agreeing with a clause is sometimes plural, as in Greek.
4. Neuter with Masculine.— Sometimes the Predicate Adjective is
neuter, when the subject is Masc, or Fern. :
Mors est eztrSmum, Death is the last (thing). Cic.
5. Neuter with Genitive.— A neuter adjective with a genitive is often
used instead of an adjective with its noun :
Multum dpgrae (for muUa opera), much service (much of service). Cic.
Id tempSris, that time. Cic. VSna r€rum (for vdnae res), vain things. Hor.
6. Construction according to Sense.— Sometimes the adjective or par-
ticiple conforms to the real meaning of its noun, without regard to gram-
matical gender or number :
Pars certSre p3r3ti, a part (some), prepared to contend. Virg. Nobis
(for me, 446, 2), praesente, we (l) being present, Plaut. Demosthenes cum
ceteris Srant expulsi, Demosthenes with the others had been banished, Nep.
7. Agreement with Predicate Noun or Appo«htive. — See 462.
8. Agreement with one Noun por Another. — When a noun governs
another in the Genitive, an adjective belonging in sense to one of the two
nouns, sometimes agrees with the other :
Majora (for m^jdrum) !nUia rBrum, the beginnings of greater things,
Liv. Cursus justi (Justus) amnis, the regular course of the river, Liv.
9*
202 AGBEEHBKT OF ADJECnVES.
439. With two or mosb Kouiirs. — An adjective or
participle, belonging to two or more nouns, may agree
with them all conjointly, or may agree with one and be
understood with the others :
Castor et Pollnz rlsi snot, CaAor and FoUux wert seen, Cic. TSm§-
ritas ignQrStioque rltiQsa est, Bashnesi and ignorance are bad. Cic.
1. The Attributitb Adjxctivb generally agrees with the nearest noun :
Agri omnes et miria, all lands and seas, Cic.
2. DiFFSBBKT GBin>BB8. — When the nonns are of different genders,
thej may denote
1) Bersone: then the adjective or participle agreeing with them con-
Jointly is masculine : P&ter et mSter mortui sunt. Father and mother are
dead. Ter.
2) Bsnons and Things : then the adjective generally takes the gender
of the person : Rex rSgiique classis prdfecti sunt, The king and the royal
fleet set out. Liv.
8) Things : then the adjective is generally neuter : HdnSres, victoriae
fortulta sunt, Honors and victories are accidental (things). Cic.
8. Nbutbb with Masculinb OB Fbmikine. — With masculine or feminine
nouns denoting inanimate objects, the adjective is often neuter :
Libor et ddlor sunt f Inltlma, Labor and pain are hindred (things). Cic.
Nox atque praeda hostes rdmdrSta sunt, NigM and plunder detained the
enemy. Sail.
4. Two OB mobb Adjbctivbs. — Two or more adjectives in the singular
may belong to a plural noun :
Prima et vlcfislma 16gi9nes, the first and the twentieth legions. Tac.
So in proper names: Goaeus et Publius Sclpidnes, Cnaeus and Publitts Scipio.
Cic.
440. UsB OP Adjectives. — ^The Adjective in Latin
corresponds in its general use to the Adjective in English.
1. An acU^ctive may qoftlify the complex idea formed by a noun and an ac^ec-
tive : aes dliinum grande^ a great debt Here grands qualifies not aes alone, bat
aes alienum. In such cases no connectivo Is need between the adjectives.
But the Latin uses the coi^junction after multi even where the English omits
It: mxdtae et magnae tempestdteSy many great emergencies.
441. Adjectives are often used substantively.; docti,
the learned ; mtUti, many persons ; multa, many things.
1. In the Plural, Masculine Adjectives often designate persons, and
Neuter Adjectives things: fortes, the brave; diviteSf the rich; pauperes,
the poor ; multi, many : pauci, few ; omnes, all ; m^, my friends ; uiilia,
useful things; mea, nostra, my, our things; omnia, all things; haec, ilia,
these, those things..
2. In the Singular, Adjectives are occasionally used substantively,
especially in the Neuter with an abstract sense : doctus, a learned man ;
USE OF ADJECnTES. 203
virumf a true thing, the truth ; nihil HneSrif nothing of sincerity, nothing
sincere.
3. NouK Undibstood. — ^Manj adjectives become substantives, hy the
omission of their nouns : patria (terra), native country ; dextra (manus),
right hand ; /era (bestia), wild beast ; Mbema (castra), winter-quarters.
4. With Rbs.— Ac^ectives with ref are used with great freedom : res
adverme, adversity ; res seeufuUie, prosperity ; reeptibliea, republic.
5. From Pbopeb Names. — Adjectives from proper names are often
equivalent to the English objective with of: pugna M&r&thSnia, the battle
of Marathon ; BiZn&Eyh^si&f IHana of Uphestis / Herciiles X5ndphontius,
the KercuUs of Xenophon,
6. Designating a Part. — A few adjectives sometimes designate a par-
ticular part of an object : primus, tnediuSf vUitnus, extrimuSy postr%muSy intU
musy summuSy in/imuSy imuSy suprimus, rdiquuSy eeterOy etc. : prima noXy
the first part of the night ; summits monSy the highest part of the mountain.
In Livy and late writers, the neater of these ac^ectives with a genitive some-
times occurs :
Ad ultimam lndp!ae,/(>r ad ultlmam indpiam, to extreme destitution. Li v.
442. Equivalent to a Clause. — ^Adjectives, like
nouns in apposition, are sometimes equivalent to clauses :
N6mo saltat sobrius, Ho one dances when he is sober, or when sober. Cic.
Hortensium vivum &mSvi, / loved HortensiuSy while he was alive. Cic.
Homo nunquam sobrius, a man, who is never sober. Cic.
1. Prior, primuSy uUimus, postremus, are often best rendered by a rela-
tive clause :
Primus mOrem solvit, He was the first who broke the custom. Liv.
With the adverb pHmum^ the thought would be, he first broke the custom, and
then did something else.
443. Instead op Adveebs.— Adjectives are sometimes used
where our idiom employs adverbs :
SocrStes vdnSnum laetus hausit, Socrates cheerfully drank the poison.
Sen. SSnStus frequens convfinit, The senate assembled in great numbers.
Cic. Roscius 5rat RSmae frequens, Bosdus wasfrequenUy at Borne. Cic.
A^ectives thus used are: (1) Those expressive otjoy, knowledge, and their op-
posites: laetusy libens, intUus, tristis, salens, insciens, pridens, imprudens, eta
(2) JfuUus, solus, totus, anus; prior, primus, prdpior, proaAmus, etc. (3) In the
Poets several adjectives of time and place:
DomesticQS otior, lidle about home. Hot. VeapertTnns pcto tectum. At even-
ing seek your abode. Hor. See Examples above; also 835. 4
444. Comparison. — A comparison between two ob-
jects requires the comparative degree; 'between more
than two, the superlative :
Prior hSrum, the former of these (two). Nep. GallSrum fortisslmi, the
bravest of the Gauls. Caes.
204 ADJECTIVES. PRONOUNS.
>
1. With thb fobck or Too ob Ybrt. — The comparatiye sometimes has
the force of too, unutucUlyf tomewhat, and the superlative, the force of
tety : dociior, too learned, or somewhat learned ; doctitsimuSy very learned,
2. Com PA RATI VB aftbb Quah. — When an object is said to possess one
quality in a higher degree than another, both adjectives are put in the
comparative ; but when it is said to possess one quality rather than an-
other, both are in the positive, the former with moffia ovpoUus:
ClSrior quam grStior, more illustrious than pleasing, Liv. Disertus
migis quam s&piens, fluent rather than wise, Cic.
In the first case the positive is sometimes used In one or both members ; and in
the second cose mdgU Is sometimes omitted, and occasionally the adjective before
quam is in the comparative.
8. Stbengthbking Words. — Comparatives and Superlatives are often
stVengthened by a Prep, with its case, antey pr<Uy praeter, supra (417. 2. 3),
itnuSy anus omnium, alone, alone of all, far, by far ; Comparatives also by
etiamy even, still ; muUo, much, and Superlatives by longe, multo, by far,
much, ^tMim, guantus, as possible :
Multo maxima pars, by far the largest part Cic Res una omnium difrTcilllma,
a Viing by far the most difficult qf all. Cic Quam maximae copiae, forces as large
as possible. 8all. Quanta maxima vastitas, the greatest possible devastation, Uv.
4. Comparison in Advbrbs has the same force as in adjectives :
Quam saepissXme, as often as possible. Cic. Fortius quam ft^llcius, with
more bravery than success. Liv.
CHAPTEE IV.
STNTAX OF FBONOTJNS.
EXTLE XXXIV.— Agreement of Prononns.
445. A Pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gen-
DEK, NUMBER, and PERSON I
Animal quod sangulnem hSbet, an animal which has blood. Cic. Ego,
qui te confirmo, I who encourage you. Cic. Vis est in virtutlbus ; eaa ex-
clta, There is strength in virtues, arouse them. Cic
1. Application op Rule.— This rule applies to all Pronouns when
used as nouns. Pronouns used as adjectives conform to the rule for "adjec-
tives. See 438.
The Antecedent is the word or words ta which the pronoun riefers, and whose
place it supplies. Thus, in the examples under the rule, animal is the antecedent .
otquddy and virtutlbus the antecedent of eas.
AGREEMENT OF mONOUNS. 205
2. Agreement with Personal Pronoun. — When the antecedent is
a Demonstrative in agreement with a Personal pronoun, the relative agrees
with the latter :
Tu es is qui me omasti, Tou are the one who commended me. Cic.
3. With two Antecedents. — ^When a relative or other pronoun, re-
fers to two or more antecedents, it generally agrees with them conjointly,
but it sometimes agrees with the nearest :
Pueri mtUiercsque, qui, boys and toomen^ who, Caea. Peccatuni ac
culpa, quae, error andfatUty which, Cic.
1) With antecedents of different genders, the pronoan conforms In gender to the
nilc for adjectives (439. 2 and 8) ; hcnco puiri muliereaque qui, above.
2) With antecedents of different persons, the pronoun prefers the first person to
the second, and the second to the third, conforming to the rule for verbs. Sec 408. 1.
4. With Predicate Noun or Appositive. — ^A pronoun sometimes
agrees with a Predicate-Noun or an Appositive instead of the antecedent :
Animal quem (for quod) voc&mus h5mtncm, the animal which we call
man. Cic. Thdbae, quod {quae) c&put est, Thebes which is the capital.
Liv. Ea (id) Srat confessio, TTiat (i. e., the action refen-ed to) loas a con-
fetmion. Liv. Flumen Rhenus, qui, the river Hhine, which. Cues.
In the last example, qui agrees with the appositive Bhcnns ; in the other exam-
ples, the pronouns quem, quod^ and «a, are attracted to agree with their predicate
nonns komlnem, caput, and con/eseio.
6. Construction according to Sense. — Sometimes the pronoun is
construed according to the real meaning of the antecedent, without regard
to grammatical form ; and sometimes it refers to the class of objects to
which the antecedent belongs :
Equitatiis, qui vIdSrunt, the cavalry who saw. Cacs. Earum rerum
utrumque, each of these things, Cic. Democrttum omittftmus ; Spud istos ;
let us omit Democritus ; with such (i. e., as he). Cic.
/ 6. Antecedent Omitted. — The antecedent of the relative is often omit-
ted when it is indefinite, is the pronoun is^ or is implied in a possessive :
Sunt qui censeant. There are som^e who think. Cic. Terra reddit quod
accSpit, The earth returns what it has received. Cic. Yestra, qui cum in-
tegritSte vizistis, hoc interest, Tliis interests you who have lived with in-
tegt'ity. Cic. Here the antecedent is vos^ implied in vestra.
7. Clause as Antecedent. — ^When the antecedent is a sentence or
clause, the pronoun, unless attracted (445. 4), is in the Neuter Singular,
but the relative generally adds id as an appositive to such antecedent :
Nos, id quod debet, patria dSIectat, Our country ddights us, asii ought
(lit. that which it owes). Cic.
8. Relative Attracted. — The relative is sometimes attracted into the
case of the antecedent, and sometimes agrees with the antecedent repeated :
Jadice quo (for quem) nosti, the Judge whom you know. Hor. Dies in-
200 PEBSONAL AND POSSESSIYE PEONOUNS.
Stat, quo die, The day U at handj an which day, Caes. Ciimaey quam
urbem tdnfibant, Oumaef which city tJiey held, Liv.
9. Aktecedbnt Attbacted. — In Poetry, rarely in prose, the antecedent
18 Bometimes attracted into the case of the relative ; and sometimes incor-
porated in the relative clause in the same case as the relative :
Urbem quam st&tuo, vestra est, The city which I am building is yours,
Yirg. M&lSmm, quas &mor cQras h&bet, oblivisci (for maldrum eurdrum
guas), to/orget the wretched caree which love has, Hor.
I, Personal and Possessiye Pbonouns.
446. The Nominative of Personal Pronouns is used
only for emphasis or contrast :
Signlf IcSmus, quid sentiSmus, We sJioio what we think. Cic. Ego
rSges ej<&ci, vos tyrannos intrSdHcItis, Ihaoe banished tings, you introduce
tyraTds, Cic.
1. With qu\dem the prononn is usually expressed, and then the third person is
supplied by Aifl, i«, iUe^ which are then often redondant: tuquldem^ you indeed, {/Z«
quldem, he indeed. Quldem addj emphasis; iquldem = ego quidem.
2. The writer sometimes speaks of himself in the plural, using noa for eqo, nos-
ter for meue^ and the plurol verb for the sin^Iar.
a For Nostrum and Vestrum^ see 896. 1.
447. Possessive Pronouns, when not emphatic, are sel-
dom expressed, if they can be supplied from the context :
Minus ISva, Wash your hands. Cic. Mihi mea vita cSra est, My life is
dear to me. Plant.
For Possessive with Genitive in the sense of own, see S97. 8L
JReflexive use of Pronouns.
448. Sui and Suus have a reflexive sense (himself,
etc.) ; sometimes also the other Personal and Possessive
pronouns, together with Is, Hie, and Ipse :
Se dlllgit, Be loves himself. Cic. Sua vi mdvetur. He is moved by his
own power. Cic. Me conslHory I console myself . Cic. PersuSdent Tnlingis
fiti cum iis prdflciscantur, TTiey persuade the Tvlingi to depart with them.
Caes.
1. Inter noA, inter vos, inter ««, have a rpciprocal force, each other, one another,
together; but Instead of inter se, the noun may be repeated in nu oblique case :
Coll6quImur inter nos. We converse together. Cic. Amant inter se. They tons
one another. Cic. Hfimincs hOmlnibus Gtilcs sunt. Men are ua^ul to men^ t e., to
each other. Cic
BEt*LEXIYB USB OP PRONOUNS. 207
449. Sui and Sims generally refer to the Subject of
the clause in which they stand :
So cUHgit, Ee loves himself, Cic. Justltia propter sfise cClenda est,
JuOiee should be cultivated for its own sake. Cic. Anntilum suum dfedit,
Me gave his ring. Nep.
1. In SuBOEDiNATB CLAUSES expressing the sentiment of the principal
subject, Sui and Suus generally refer to that subject :
Sentit animus se vi sua mdveri, The mind perceives that it is moved bv
its ovm power, Cic. A me pfetivit ut sCcum essem, ffe asked {{rom)meto be
vfith him (that I would be). Cic. Pervestigat quid sui elves cCrftent, Be
tries to ascertain what his fellow citizens think, Cic.
1) As Sui and Suus thus refer to subjects, the demonstratires. Is, llle, etc.. gen-
erally refer either to other words, or to subjects, which do not admit sui and sum.
Demn agnoscis ex ejus dperibns, You recognize a god hy (from) his works. Cic.
Obllgat clvitatem nihil eos mutaturos, He binds the state not to change anything
(that they will). Just
2) In some subordinate clauses the writer may at pleasure use either the Re-
flexiTe or the Demonstrative, according as he wishes to present the thought as that
of the principal subject, or as his own. Thus In the last example under 448, cum lis
is the proper language for the writer without reference to the sentiment of the princ1>
pal subject; sicum, which would be equally proper, would present the thought as the
sentiment of that subject
8) Sometimes the Beflexivo occurs wher6 wo should expect the DemonstratiTe,
and the Demonstrative where we should expect the Eeflexive.
2. Suus = His own, etc.— Suus in the sense of his own, filing^ etc.,
may refer to subject or object :
Justltia suum culque tribuit, Justice gives to every m^n his due (his
own). Cic.
3. Construction according to Sense.— "When the subject of the verb is
not the real agent of the action, sui and suus refer to the latter :
A Cacs&re invltor sibi ut sim ISgStus, / am invited by Caesar (real
agent) to be his lieutenant, Cic.
4. Suus Substantively. — The Plural of Suus used substantively— ^m,
their friends, possessionSy etc. — is used with great freedom, often referring
to oblique cases :
Fuit hoc luctu5sum suis, This was afflicting to his friends. Cic. Here
suis refers to an oblique case in the preceding sentence.
5. Sui and Suus sometimes refer to an omitted subject :
DSforme est de se praedlcSre, To boast of onis self is disgusting. Cic.
6. Reflexives referring to different Subjects. — Sometimes a clause
has one reflexive referring to the principal subject, and another referring
to the subordinate subject :
Respondit nSmlnem sScum sine sua pernlcie contendisse. He relied
that no one had contended with him without (his) destruction. Caes.
Here se refers to the subject of respondit and sua to nimlnem, the subject of
the subordinate clause.
208 ^ PRONOUNS.
IL Dkmonstrativk Pronouns.
450. HiCy Iste^ Ilky are often called respectively de-
iDonstratives of the First, Second, and Third Persons, as
hie designates that which is near the speaker ; iste^ that
which is near the person addressed, and ille^ that which is
remote from both, and near only to some third person.
Custos hujus urbiSf the ffftardian of this city. Cic. Milta istam men-
tem, Change that purpose of yours, Cic. Si illos negllgis, if you disregard
those. Cic
1. Hic AND Illb in Contrasts. — Hie designates an object conceived
as near, and iUe as remote, whether in space or time :
Non antlquo illo mOre, sed hoc Bostro fuit Srudltus, He was educated^
not in that ancient^ hut in this our modern way. Cic.
2. Hic and Ills, former and latter.— In reference to two objects
previously mentioned, (1) Hic generally follows IUe and refers to the lat-
ter object, while IUe refers to the former ; but (2) Hic refers to the more
important object, and IUe to the less important :
Ignavia, ISbor: ilia, hic; Indolence^ labor: the former, the latter. Cels.
Pax, victoria : haec (pax) in tua, ilia in deorum pO testate est; Peace^ vic-
tory: the former is in your power ^ the latter in the power of the gods. Liv.
8. Hie and IUe are often used of what immediately follows in dis-
course, and Isle sometimes indicates contempt : haec verba^ these words,
i. e., the following words ; iste^ that man, such a one.
4. IUe is often used of what is well known, famous :
M€d6a ilia, that wdlrknown Medea. Cic
1) Hie with or without h&mOy \a sometimes equivalent to igo. Alone it is some-
times eqnivalent to meua or notter.
2) HiCy ille, and is arc sometimes redundant, especially with quldem * ScTpio
non mnltnm ille quidem dicebat^ Sdpio did not indeed say much. Cic. See 446. 1.
8) A Demonstrative or Belative is sometimes eqnivalent to a Oenitlve or a
Prep, with its case: hic ddlor =: ddlor hujas rei, grief on account of this; haec cura
= ciira dc hoc, care concerning this.
451. Is and Idem refer to preceding nouns, or are the
antecedents of relatives :
DiSnysius auftigit : is est in provincia, Dionysius has fted : he is in
Vie province. Cic Is qui sfitis hSbet, he who has enough, Cic. ESdem
audire malunt. They prefer to hear tlie same tilings. Liv.
1. Is is often omitted, especially before a relative or a genitive :
Flubat puter de f ilii morte, de patrls f ilius, The father wept over the death of
the 8071, Vte eon over (that) qf Vie father. Cic See also 445. 6.
2. 1% or Ipne with a Conjunction is often used for emphasis, like the Engiisb
and thai too, ami that indeed:
DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 209
XJnam rem explicabo eamqae mazlmam, One thing J will explain and that too
a most important one, Cic.
Id thus used often refers to a clause or to the general thonsrht, and et ipse is
often best rendered, too or also: Audire Crutippum, idque Athunis, to hear Craiip'
pus, and that too at Athene. Cic
3. Idem is sometimes best rendered, also^ yet :
Nihil utile, qnod non Idem hunestnm, NoUUng useful, which is not also honor-
able. Cic. Quum dicat— negat idem. Though he asserts— he yet denies (the same
denies). Cic.
4. Is— qui = he — ^who, such— as, such — that:
li siimus, qai esse dSbemus, We are such as we ougJU to he. Cic £a est gens
quae nesciat, Ttie race is such that it knoios not. Liv.
5. Idem— qui; idem — ac, atque^ quam, qudsi^ ui, cum with AW. = the same—
who, the same— as:
lidem mures, qui, The same manners which or as. Cic Est Idem ac Aiit, He
is the same as he was. Ter.
6. IsB^exive. See 448.
452. Ipse adds emphasis, generally rendered self:
Ipse Caesar, Caesar himself, Cic. Fac ut te ipsum custodias, See that
you g%iard yourself . Cic.
1. Ipse with Subject.— Tjdm belongs to the emphatic word, whether subject or
object, but with a preference for the subject :
Me ipse consOlor, / myse^ (not another) console myself. Cic
2. Ipse, Very.— J)>«e is often best rendered by very :
Ipse ille Gorgias, that very Gorgias. Cic
8. With Numerals Ipse has the force of— just so many, just. -
TifigHntAdlesip^just thirty days, Cic.
4. Ipse in the Genitive with possessives has the force otown, one^s own :
Nostra ipsorum ilmlcitia, Our own friendship. Cic See 897. 8.
5, Ipse B0exite^ sometimes supplies the place of an emphatic sui or suus:
Legates misit qui ipsi vltam pgt<!rent, He sent messengers to ask life for himr
Ulf. SaU.
in. Relative Pronouns.
453. The relative is often used where the English
idiom requires a demonstrative or personal pronoun ; some-
times even at the beginning of a sentence :
Res luquUur ipsa ; quae semper vftlet ; The fad itself speaks^ and this
(which) ever has weight, Cic. Qui proelium committunt, ITiey engage bat-
ih, Caes. Quae quum Ita sint, mice these things are so. Cic.
1. Rblatite with Demonstrative. — Relatives and Demonstratives are
often correlatives to each other : hie— qui, iste — qui, etc. These combina-
tions generally retain the ordinary force of the separate words, but see is
-^qui, idem — qui^ 451. 4 and 5.
1) Quictmque and Quisquis^ whoever, whatever, sometimes have the force of
&veri/ by the ellipsis of fieri p6test: qudcunque rdtiOne, in every way, i, a, in what-
ever way it is possible.
210 BELATITB AXD GTrSBROGATIirB PBOSTOUNS.
S. A DsMORSTKATiTv iDtj SQpplj the place of a Relative when other-
wise two relative clansea would be brought together :
Quae nee hib^remos nee hia tttiremur, WHek we should neUher hate
nor use, Cic.
1) A BelatiTe Claoae with U is often cqaiyalent to a sabstaatiTe: U gvl au-
divnt =s. aadiuires, hearert.
3. Two Bklatiyes sometimes occur in the same clause :
Artes quas qui t^neot, <irU, whoee poeseseors (which, who possess). Cic.
4. A Rblativk Clause is sometimes equivalent to /h> with the Abl. :
Quae tua pradentia est = qua es prQdentia = pro tua prQdentia = such
is f^ur prudence, or you are of such prudence^ or in aeeordanee with your
prudence, etc. : SpCro, quae tua prQdentia est, te vilere, / hope you are
well, such is your prudence (which is, etc.).
5. Rblativk with Adjbctive. — Adjectives belonging in sense to the
antecedent, sometimes stand in the relative clause in agreement with the
relative, especially comparatives, superlatives, and numerak :
YSsa, quae pulcherrlma vld^rat, the most beautiful vessels which he had
seen (vessels, which the most beautiful he had seen). Cic. De servis suis,
quem h&buit f Idelissimum, misit, Ee sent the mostfaithftd of the slaves which
he had, Nep.
<L Quod Expletive, or apparently so, often stands at the heginning of a sentence,
especially before ni, nisi, etsi, and sometimes before quia^ qu<hiinm^ Hilnam, etc
In translating it is sometimes omitted, and sometimes rendered by now, but, and :
Quod si cecidcrint, if or but if they should fall Cic
7. Qui dlcitur, qui vdcdtur, or the corresponding active quem dicunt, quem
rUcant, are often used in the sense of so called, the so called^ uhat they or you culk
etc:
Yestra qnae dicltar vTta, mors est, Your so called life (lit your, which is
called life) is death, Cic Lex ista quam vocas non est lex, That law as you call it,
is not a law. Cic
IV. iNTBRBOGAtlVB PrONOUNS.
454. The Interrogative quis^ is used substantively ;
qui^ adjectively :
Quis ggo sum. Who am If Cic. Quid fSciet^ Wliat will hedoi Cic.
Qui vir fuit, What kind of a man was he ? Cic.
1. Quis and Qul— Occasionally quis is nsed a^Jectively and qui substantively:
Qnis rex unqoam ftiit, What king was there ever t Cic Qui sis, considero.
Consider who you are, Cic
2. Quid, why, how is it that, etc, is often used adverbially (880. SX or stands
apparently unconnected, by the ellipsis ot propter or a verb : Quid inim, why then ?
what indeed {est or dlcawi) t Quid quod, what of the fact that ?
8. Two Iktbbbooativeb sometimes occur in the same clause :
Quis quem fraudayit, who defrauded, and whom did he defraud (lit. who de-
/Tauded whom)^ Cic.
4. ATTBAonoir.— The interrogative often agrees with the predicate noun • '
Quam (for quid) dicam v61uptatem vidctis, You see what 1 call pleasure. Cic i
PBONOITNS. 211
V. Indefinttb Peonottns.
455. Aliquis^ quis, qui^ and quisptam, are all indefi-
nite, sofne ojie, any one :
Est Sliquis, (here is some one. Lir. Dixit quis, some one scud, Cic. Si
qiiia rex, if any king, Cic Alia res quaepiam, any other thing, Cic.
1. ATlquis is less indeflnite than quis^ qui, and quiepiam,
2. Quis and qui are nsed chiefly after si, nUi, ne, and num, Quis is generally
nsed substantively and qui a4jectively. Aliquis after «i, etc, Is emphatic.
456. Quldam^ a certain one, is less indefinite than
aliquis :
Quidam rhetor antlquus, a certain ancient rJietoridan, Cic. Accurrit
quldam, A certain one runs up, Hor.
1. Quldam with an Adjective is sometimes nsed to qnaiuy or soften tho state-
ment:
Jostitia mlrlffca qnaedam yidctur, Jwiiee seems somewhat toonderfuL Cic.
2. Quldam with qtUisi and sometimes without it, has the force of a certain, a
kind of, as it were :
Qudsi alnmna qnaedam, a certain foster child as it were, Cia
457. Quisquam and ullus are used chiefly in negative
and conditional sentences, and in interrogative sentences
implying a negative :
Neque me quisquam agnOyit, Nor did any one recognize me, Cic. Si
quisquam, if any one. Cic. Num censes ullum ftnlmal esse, do you think
there is any animal? Cic
1. Ifhno is the negative ot quisquam, and like quisquam is generally nsed sub-
stantively, rarely adjectively :
Numlnem laesit, He harmed no one. Cic. Nemo pouta, no poet, Cic.
2. IfuUus Is the negative of uUus, and is generally used a4jectively, but it some-
times supplies the Gen. and Abl. of n^mo, which generally wants those coses :
Nullum Animal, no animal. Cic. Nulllus aures, the ears of no one. Cic
8. I^ullus for non,—NuUtts and nihil aro sometimes used for an emphatic non :
NuUus v(3nit, ITe did not come. Cic. Mortui null! sunt. The dead are not. Cic.
458. Qulvis^ QulMet, any one whatever, and Quisque^
every one, each one, are general indefinites (191) :
Quaellbet res, any thing, Cic. Tuorum quisque nScessflrioi-um, each
one of your friends, Cic
1. Quisque with Superlatives and Ordinals is generally best rendered by a 2^ or
by ever, always, with pr^m.us by very, possible :
Ep!c&r6osdocti8s!mns quisque oontemnit. All the most learned despise the Epi-
cureans, or the most learned ever despise, etc. Cic. Frimo quuquo die, the earliest
day possible, the very first. Cic
2. Ut Quisque— Ua with tho superhitive in both clauses Is often best rendered,
the more— the more :
Ut quisque sibi plurimum confldlt, ita mazlme ezcellit, The more one confides
in himself, the more he excels. Cic
212 PRONOUNS. VERBS.
459. Alius and Alter are often repeated : cUiics — dlius,
one — another ; alii — ctliiy some — others ; alter — alter^ the
one — the other ; alteri — alttri^ the one party — the other :
Alii glOriae scrviunt, filii pecuniae, Some are slaves to glory ^ others to
money. Cic. Alteri dimlcant, altcri tlment, One party contends^ the other
fears, Cic,
1. Aliw repeated In different cases often involves an ellf psis :
Alias ilia via civltiltem auxcriint, They advanced the state, one in one way,
another in another, Llv. 8o also with dlias or dllter : Aliter alii vTvunt, Some live
in one way, others in another. Cic.
2. After Alius, Aliter, and the like, atque, ae, and et often mean than :
Non Alius essem atque sum, Itoould not be other than I am. Cic
8. Alter means the one, the other (of two), the second ; Alius, another, oth^.
When alter— alter refers to objects preyiously mentioned, the first alter usuallj refers
to the latter object, bat may refer to cither :
Inlmicus, competitor, com alt&t>— cum altoro, an enemy, a rival, with the lai-
ter--^U}ith the former. Cic.
4. Uterque means hoth, each of two, and In the Flu. both, each oftwoparUes>.
CHAPTEE V.
STHTAZ OF 7EBBS.
SECTION I.
AGREEMENT OF VERBS.
BTJLE XXXV.— Verb with Subject
460. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in num-
ber and PERSON :
Deus mundum aedTflcavit, Ood made the world, Cic Ego regcs
ejeci, Tos tyrannos introdtlcUia, / have banished kings, you introduce ty-
rants. Cic.
1. Participles in Compound Tenses agree with the subject
according to 438. See also 301. 2 and 3 :
ThebSni accQsSti sunt. The Thehans were accused. Cic.
1) In the Inflnittye, the Participle in um sometimes occurs without any refercu^^
to the gender or number of the subject: | ^'
Diftldentia fiitumm quae imp£ravi8set,/rom doubt that those things which ^
had commanded would take place, SalL ^
\{
AGREEMENT OP VERBS. 213
2. Subject Omitted. See 367. 2.
1) An Indefinite SabjeQt is often denoted by the Second Fere. Sing., or by tlio
First or Third Flur. : dicas^ you (any one) may say ; dlclmu8, we (people) say ;
dicunt, they say.
3. Veeb Omitted.— See 367. 3.
461 . CoNSTBucnoN ACCORDING TO Sense. — Sometimes
the Predicate is construed according to the real meaning
of the subject without regard to grammatical gender or
number. Thus
1. With Collective Nouns, pars, muUUudo, and the like :
HultTtQdo &beunty T%« muHUude depart, Liv. Pan per agros dXlapsi,
apart (seme) dispersed through the fields. Liv.
1) Here multundo and pars^ thongh Sing, and Fern, in form, are Flur. and
Masc in sense. See also 488L 6.
2) Conversely the Imperative Singular may be used in addressing a multitude
individually: Adde dcfectionem Siciliae, Add (to this, soldiers,) the revolt of Sicily.
Uv.
S) Of two verbs with the same collective noun, the former is often Slng.^ and
the latter Plur, : J&ventus mit certantque, The youth rush forth and contend, Virg.
2. With miliay often masculine in sense :
Caesi sunt tria millia. Three thousand men were slain, Liv.
3. With Quisque, Uterque, Alius^Aliumy Alter^Alterum, and the like •
Uterque edQcunt, they each lead oiU. Caes. Alter altSrum vidimus,
We see each other, Cic.
4. With Singular Subjects accompanied by an Ablative with cum :
Dux cum princlp!bus c&piuntur, The leader mth his chiefs is taken.
Liv. See 438. 6.
5. With Bartim — Bntrtim in the sense oi pars—pars :
B5n5rum partim nScessSria, partim non -nScessSria sunt, Of good
things some are necessary, others are not necessary, Cic.
462. Agbesment with Appositivb or Predicate
Noun. — Sometimes the verb agrees, not with its subject,
but with an Appositive or Predicate Noun :
Volslnii, oppldum Tuscdrum, concrgmatum est, Volsiniiy a town of
the Ttiscans, was burned, Plin. Non omnia error stultltia est dTcenda, Not
every error should be called folly. Cic.
1. The Verb regrnlarly agrees with the appositive when thiit is vrbs, oppldum,
or clvitast in apposition with plural names of places, as in the first example.
1) The verb sometimes agrees with a noun in a subordinate clause after quam,
n'isi, etc. : Nihil illud nisi pax quaeslta est (not quaesltum\ Nothing but peace
teas sought. Cic
a. The verb agrees with the predicate noun, when that is nearer or more em
phatic than the subject, as in the second example.
214 AGBSEHENT OF TERBS.
463. Agreement with CoMPOUNb Subject. — ^With
two or more subjects the verb agrees —
I. With one subject and is understood with the others :
Aut mOrcs spect&ri aut fortQna solet, JEUher character or fortune is
wont to he regarded, Cic. Hdmenis fuit et H^ddus ante Romam condi-
taiD) Homer and Henod lived (were) before the founding of Jtome, Cic.
ir. With all the subjects coigointly, and is accordingly in the
Plural Number :
LentuluB, Sclpio pgrienint, Zeniuhu and Scipio perished. Cic Ego
ct Clofiro Y&lemus, Cicero and I are wdL Cic. Tu et Tullia valeUs, You
and TuUia are well. Cic.
1. Person.— With subjects differing in Person, the Terb takes the First
Person rather than the Second, and the Second rather than the Third, as in
the examples just given.
2. Participles.— See 439.
8. Two Subjects as a Unit. — Two singular subjects forming in sense a
unit or whole, admit a singular verb :
SinStus pdpiilusque intelllgit, The senate and people (i. e., the state as a
unit) understand. Cic Tempus nficessltasque postiilat, Time and necessity
(i. e., the crisis) demand, Cic
4. Subjects wrrn Aut or Nec— With singular subjects connected by
autf uel, neCy tuque or seu, the rerb generally agrees with the nearest sub-
ject, but with subjects differing in person, it is generally Plur. :
Aut Brtttus aut Cassius jftdlcSvit, Either Bnttus or Oassius judged. Cic.
Haec n^que &go n&que tu f^clmus, NeU1i>er you nor I have done these things.
Ter.
SECTION II.
USB OF VOICES.
464. In a transitive verb, the Active voice represents
the subject as acting upon some object, the Passive, as act-
ed upon by some other person or thing :
Deus mundum aedlf licftvit, God made the world. Cic. A Deo omnia
facta sunt, AU things were made by Ghd. Cic
465. Active and Passive Construction. — ^With trans-
itive verbs, a thought may at the pleasure of the writer be
expressed* either actively or passively. But
I. That which in the active construction would be the object must be
the subject in the passive ; and
II. That which in the active would be the subject must be put in the
ablative with a or aJ, for persons, without it for things: (371.6) :
VOICES. TENSES. 215
Deus omnia oonstltnit, God ordained all tMngt, or: A Deo omnia constl-
ttlta sunt, All things were ordained by God, Cic. Dei prQvIdentia mundum
adoilnistrat, The providence of God rules the world, or : Dei pr5vldeutia
munduA ad'jilDistrStur, The world is ruled by the providence of God, Cic.
1. The Passiyb Voicb is sometimes equivalent to the Act with a reflex-
iye pronoun, like the Greek Middle :
L&vantur in flam](nlbus, They bathe (wash themselves) in the rivers, Caes.
2. iNTRANSinyB Ybbbs (193) have regularly only the active voice, but
the/ are sometimes used impersonally in the passive :
Currltur ad praetOrium, They run to the praetoriuni (it is run to). Cic
S Dbponbiyt Ybsbs, though Passive in form, are in signification transi-
tive or intransitive :
lUud mIrSbar, I admired that, Cic. Ab urbe prSflcLsci, to set out from
the city, Caes.
4. Sbhi-Deponbmts (272. 8) have some of the Active forma and some of
the Passive, without change of meaning.
SECTioiT in.
TEN as a OF TEE INDICATIVE,
I. Pbesbnt Indicative.
466. The Present Indicative represents the action of
the verb as taking place at the present time :
Ego et Cicfiro y^emus, Cicero and I are well, Cic. Hoc te r5go, /
omJc you for this, Cic.
467. Hence the Present Tense is used,
I. Of actions and events which are actually taking place at
the present time, as in the above examples.
II. Of actions and events which, as belonging to all time, be-
long of course to the present, as general truths and etiatoms :
Nihil est amabUius virtQte, Noihing is more lovely than virtue, Cic.
Fortes fortuna adjiivat, Fortume helps the brave. Ter.
ni. Of past actions and events which the writer wishes, for
effect, to picture before the reader as present. The Present, when
so used, is called the Historical Present :
Jiigurtha vallo moenia circumdat, Jttgurtha surrounds the city toith a
rampart. Sail.
1. Historical Pbbsbnt. — The historical present may sometimes bo
best rendered by the English Imperfect, and sometimes by the English
Present, as that has a similar historical use.
216 TENSES OP THE INDICATIVE.
2. Present with Jamdiu, Jamdudum.— The Present is often used of a
present action which has been going on for some time, rendered havef espe-
cially after Jamdiu, Jamd&dum, etc.
Jamdiu ignSro quid &gas, / Jiave not known for a long time what you
are doing, Cic.
1) The Imperfect is used in the same way of a past action which had been
going on for some time. Thas in the example above, Jamdiu ignordbam, would
mean, 1 had not known for a long time,
2) The Present in the Infinitive and Participle is used in the same way of an
action which lias been or had been going on for some time.
8. Present applied to Authors.— The Present in Latin, as in English,
may be used of authors whose works are extant :
X6n3phon ficit Socr&tem dispiitantem, XenapJum represents Soeratee
discussing, Cic.
4. Present with Dum.— With dum^ in the sense of while, the Present
is generally used, even of past actions :
Dum ea p&rant, S&guntum oppugnSbStur, While they were (are) making
these preparations, Sagvntum was attacked, Liv.
5. Present for Future. — The Present is sometimes used of an action
really future, especially in conditions :
Si vinclmus, omnia tQta 5runt, If we conquer, all things will he safe. SalL
IL Imperfect Indicative.
468. The Imperfect Indicative represents the action as
taking place in past time :
Stfibant n5bnisstmi jiiySnes, There stood (were standing) most noble
youths, Li?. Colles oppldum cingSbant, Hills encompassed the town, Caes.
469. Hence the Imperfect is used especially
I. In lively description, whether of scenes or events :
Ante oppldum planlties pStSbat, Before the town extended a j^ain,
Caes. Fulgentes glidios videbant, TTiey saw (were seeing) the gleaming
sioords, Cic.
IL Of customary or repeated actions and events, often render-
ed by was wont, etc. :
PausSnias SpilUbatur more Porsarum, Pausanias was wont to banquet
in the Persian style, Nep.
1. Imperfect of Attempted Action. — The Imperfect is sometimes used
of an attempted or intended action :
SedSbant tiimultus, They attempted to qttell the seditions. Liv.
2. Imperfect in Letters. — See 472. 1.
FUTUEE AND PKBFECT. 217
in. FuTUEE Indicative.
470. The Future Indicative represents the action as
one which will take place in future time :
Scribam ad te, / wUl write to you, Cic. Nunquam aberrabimus, We
ihaJl never go astray. Cic.
1. Future with Impebatiyb Force.— In Latin as in English, the Future
Indicative sometimes has the force of an Imperative :
Cfirabis et scribes, You toill take care and write, Cic.
2. Latin Future for English Present.— Actions which really belong
to future time are almost invariablj expressed by the Future Tense, though
sometimes put in the present in English :
NStQram si s6qufimur, nunquam &berr5b!mus, If we follow nature^ we
tikaU never go astray. Cic.
8. Future Indicative with Melius.— With mUiue the Future Indicative
has often the force of the Subjunctive :
Melius p6rlblmus, We would j^erish rather, or it would he better for us to
perish. Liv.
IV. Perfect Ijn)icATrvE.
471. The Perfect Indicative has two distinct uses:
I. As the Present Perfect or Perfect Definite, it
represents the action as at present completed, and is ren-
dered by our Perfect with ?iave :
De gSngre belli dixi, I have spoken of the character of the war. Cic.
II. As the Historical Perfect or Perfect Indefi-
nite, it represents the action as a simple historical fact :
Miltiades est aocQs&tus, JHUiades was aceitsed. Nep.
1. Perfect of what has ceased to be.— The Perfect is sometimes used
where the emphasis rests particularly on the completion of the action, im-
. plying that what was true of the past, is not true of the present:
H&buit, non h&bet, Se had, but has not. Cic. Fuit Ilium, Ilium was.
Virg.
2. Perfect Indicatitb with Pabnb, Props.- The Perfect Indicative
with paene, prdpe, may often be rendered hy^migJUf would, or by the Plu-
perfect Indicative :
BrOtum non minus &mo, p'aene dixi, quam te, / love Brutus not less, I
might almost say, or Iliad alm^ost said, than I do you. Cic.
8. Perfect for English Present. — The Latin sometimes employs the
Perfect and Pluperfect where the English uses the Present and Imperfect,
especially in repeated actions, and in verbs which want the Present (297)»
10
218 PLUPKBFECr AND FITTUBK PERFECT,
Mftmlnit praetSr!t9nim,' He remember% the past, Cic. Quum ad yillam
YfiDi, hoc me dfilectat. When leome (have come) to a viUa, this jfUases me,
Cic. M6mln6ram Paulam, I remembered Ihuliie. Cic.
4. Pbbfkct with Postquam. — IbHquam, vt, ttt primumy etc.^ in the
sense of cm eoon as, are usually followed by the Perfect ; sometimes by the
Imperfect or Historical Present. But the Pluperfect is generally used of
repeated actions ; also after paetqvam when a long or definite interral
intervenes :
Postquam cScidit Ilium, t{fter (as soon as) Ilium fell. Yirg. Anno
tertio postquam prdfOgSrat, in the third year after he had fled, Kep.
1) As a Bore Exception the Imperfect and Pluperfect Babjnnctive occur after
poetquam (posteAqnam) : Posteiquam aediflcaaset classes, qfter he had Imilt fleets,
V. Plupebfect Indicative.
472, The Pluperfect Indicative represents the action
as completed at some definite past time :
COpias quas pro castris collocfivSrat, rgduxit, He led back the farces
which he had stationed before the camp, Caes.
1. Tenses. — In letters the writer often adapts the tense to the time of
the reader, using the Imperfect or Perfect for the Present^ and the Pluper-
fect for the Imperfect or Perfect :
Nihil h&bebam quod scrib^rem : ad tuas omnes ^pist61as rescripsdram,
/ have (had) nothing to write : I have already replied to aU your letters (I had
replied, i. e., before writing this). Cic.
1) The Perfect is Bometimes need of Future actions, as events which happen
e{fler the writing of the letter but h^ore the receipt of it will "b^ Future to the writer
but Pa«^ to the reader.
2. Pluperfect for English Imperfect. — See 471. 3.
8. Pluperfect to denote Bapiditt. — The Pluperfect sometimes denotes
rapidity or completeness af action :
Urbem luctu compleyfirant. They (had) filled the city wUh mourning.
Curt.
VL Futttee Perfect Indicative,
473. The Future Perfect Indicative represents the ac-
tion as one which will be completed at some future time :
Romam quum venSro, sciibam ad te, When I shall have reached Rome,
ItoiU write to you. Cic. Dum tu haec ISges, Sgo ilium fortasse convSnSro,
When you read this, I shall perhaps have already met him, Cic.
1. Future Perfect to denote Certainty. — ^The Future Perfect is some-
times used to denote the speedy or complete accomplishment of the wcwk :
Fgo monin oflTcinnn praestTt^ro, J will surely discharge my duty. Caes.
INDICATIVB AND SUBJUNCTIVE, 219
2. The FuTUBB Pbrvect poe English Pjussent or Futuiib is rare, but
occurs in conditional clauses :
Si interprfitari pdtuftro, his verbis utitur, ^/«i» (shall have been able
to) understand Mm, he uses these words, Cic.
SECTION IV.
USE OF TIIE INDICATIVE.
aUIE XXXVL— Indicative.
474. The Indicative is used in treating of facts:
Deus mundom aedlftcavit, Ood made the toorld. Cic. Nonne expul-
8U8 est patria, Was he not banished from his c<mntryf Cic. Hoc feci, dum
licuit, I did this as long as it toas permitted, Cic.
476. Special Uses. — ^The Indicative is sometimes used
where our idiom would suggest the Subjunctive :
1. The Indicative of the Periphrastic Conjugations is often so used in
the historical tenses, especially in conditional sentences (612. 2) :
Haec conditio nou acclpienda fuit, This condition should not have been
excepted, Cic.
2. The Historical Tenses of the Indicative, particularly the Pluperfect,
are sometimes used for ^Iffect, to represent as an actual fact something
which is shown by the context never to have become fully so :
VicftrSmus, nisi r6c6pisset AntOnium, We should have {lU. had) con^
quered, had he not received Antony, Cic. See 611. 2.
8. Pronouns and Rehxtive Adverbs, made general by being doubled or
by assuming the suffix cunque (187. 4), take the Indicative :
Quisquis est, is est s&piens, Whoever heiSfJteis vnse, Cic. Hoc ultl-
mum, utcunque inltum est, proeUum fuit. This, however it was commenced,
toas the last battle, Liv.
4. In Expressions of Duty, Necessity, Ability, and the like, the Latin
bflen uses the Indicative where the English does .not :
Tardius quam ddbufirat, more slowly than he should have done, Cic.
1) So also In sum with aequum^ par, justum, miHus^ vfllius, longwm, d4fflc\le,
find the like : Longnm est pers^qni QtiUtatea, It would be tedious (is a long tesk) io
enumerate the uses. Cic.
SECTION V.
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE,
476, Tense in tbe Subjunctive does not designate the
time of the action as definitely as in the Indicative, but it
marks with grei»t exactness its continuance or completion.
220 TENSES OF THE SUBJUKCl'lVK,
477. The Present and Imperfect express Incomplete
action:
Yileant elves, May the cUizeru he teeU. Cic. Utiiiiain vera invgnire
possem, that I were able to find the tnOh, Cic.
478. The Perfect and Pluperfect express Completed
action :
Oblitna es quid dixftrim, You have forgoOefn, what I said. Cic. Th6-
mistoclea, quum Graeciam liWrasset, expulsus est, Themietodes was ban-
iahed, though he had liberated Greece. Cic.
479. The Future Tenses are wanting in the Subjunctiye : the mood
itself— used only of that which is merely conceived and uncertain — is so
nearly related to the Future, that those tenses are seldom needed. Their
place is howeTcr supplied, when necessary, by the periphrastic forms in
rua (481. in. 1).
480. Sequence of Tenses.— The Subjunctive Tenses
in their use conform to the following
BITLE ZZXVn.— Sequence of Tenses.
Principal tenses depend upon Principal tenses : His-
torical upon Historical :
Nititur ut vincat, JSe ttrivea to conquer. Cic. Ngmo iSrit qui censeat,
There toiU be no one who will think. Cic. QuaesiSras nonne putftrem, Tou
had asked, whether I did not think. Cic.
481. Application of the Eule. — ^In accordance with this
rale,
I. The Subjunctive dependent upon a Principal t&uao—^esmt,
present perfect^ future, future perfect— la put,
1. In the Present for Incomplete Action :
Video quid Sgas, I see what you are doing.
Vidi quid agas, I have seen what you are d<mg.
Videbo quid agas, / shaR see what you do.
Vldgro quid agas, I shall have seen what you do,
2. In the Perfect for Completed Action :
Video quid 6g8ris, / see what you have done.
Vidi quid egeris, ^ have seen what you Jiave done.
VTdebo quid egeris, / shaU see what you have. done.
VidSro quid egeris, I shall have seen what you have done.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 221
II. The Subjunctive dependent upon a Historical tense — im-
2>erfecty historical perfect, pluperfect — ^is put,
1. In the Imperfect for Incomplete Action :
VidSbam quid 3g6res, I saw what you were domg,
Yidi quid ageres, I saw what you voere doing,
Videram quid ageres, / had seen what you were doing,
2. In the Pluperfect for Completed Action :
Videbam quid figisses, I saw what you had done,
; Vidi quid egisses, J saw what you had done,
y ideram quid egisses, / had seen what you had done.
III. The Periphrastic Forms in rus conform to the rule :
Video quid acturus sis, I see what you are going to do,
Videbam quid acturus esses, I saw what you were going to do,
1. Future Supplied. — The Future is supplied when necessary (479), (1)
by the Present » or Imperfect SubjunctiTe of the periphrastic forms in rus,
or (2) hyJlSUurum sii ut,^ with the regular Present, And futurum esset ut, with
the regular Imperfect The first method is confined to the Active, the sec-
ond occurs in both voices :
Incertum est quam longa vita fiittlra sit, It is uncertain how long life
wiU continue. Cic. Incertum 5rat quo misstlri classem fSrent, It was uncer-
tain whither they would send the fleet, Liv.
2. Future Perfect Supplied. — ^The Future Perfect is supplied, when
necessary, by fuH/Qram sU ut, with the Perfect, and futHrum esset ut, with
the Pluperfect. But this circumlocution is rarely necessary. In the Passive
it is sometimes abridged to fittHrus sim and fut/Wrus essem, with the Perfect
participle :
Non duMtp quin confecta jam res fUttLra sit, I do not doubt that the thing
wiU have been already accomplished. Cic.
IV. The HisTOEioAL Picesknt is treated sometimes as a Prin-
cipal tense, as it really is in Form, and sometimes as a Historical
tense, as it really is in Sense *
1. As Principal tense according to its Form :
Ubii orant, ut sibi parcat, The Ubii implore him to spare them. Caes.
2. As Historical tense according to its Sense :
Persuftdet Castico ut regnum occup£lret, He persuaded CaMicus to seize
the government, CaeS.
V. The Impeefeot Subjunotiye often refers to present time,
especially in conditional sentences (510. 1) ; accordingly, when
thus used, it is treated as a Principal tense :
> The Present, of course, after Principal tenses, and tho Imperfect after Histori-
cal tenses, according to 480.
3 FtOurum sit, etc., after Principal tenses, had/utllrum esset, eta, after Histori
cal tenses.
222 SEQT7ENCB OF TENSES.
USm5rftre possem quibus in 15cis hostes ftldSrit, Imighl (now) stale in
tohat ploioeB he routed the enemy, balL
VI. The Peesent and Futube luFmrnvES, Present and Future
Pabticiplbs, as also Gebttnos and Supines, share the tense of the verb
on which they depend, as they express only relatne time (640. 671) :
SpSro f5re ' ut contingatf I hope it toiU happen (I hope it will be that
it may happen). Gic. Kon spSraygrat fore ut ad se dSflcSrent, He had tiot
hoped that they vmUd revolt to him, Li v.
482. Pecuxiabittes in Seqitence. — ^The following
peculiarities in the sequence of tenses deserve notice :
1. Afteb Pkbfeot Tense. — The Latin Perfect is sometimes
treated as a Historical tense, even when rendered with 7i,a/oe^ and
thus admits the Imperfect or Pluperfect :
Qu5niain quae subsldia hSbSres expfisui,' nunc dicam, ^nee I have
ihoton what aide you have (or had), I wiU now speak, Gic.
2. Afteb Histobioal Tenses. — Conversely Historical tenses,
when followed by clauses denoting comequenee or retalt^ often con-
form to the law of sequence for Principal tenses, and thus admit
the Present or Perfect :
EpSmlnondas Hde sic Qsus est, ut possit judXeftri, Epandnondas used
such fiddity that it may be judged, Nep. Adeo excellSbat Aristldes ab-
stlnentia, ut Justus sit appellatus, Aristides so excelled in self-cordrol^ thai
he has been eaUed the Just, Nep.
This pecaliaiitf arises from the fiict that the HesitU of a past action may itself
be present and may thus be expressed by a Principal tense. When the result belongs
to the present time, the Present is used : pouitJUdicdri, m&j be Judged now; when
it is represented as at present completed, the Perfect is nsed : sii appelldtuSy has
been called L e. even to the present day ; bat when it is represented as sim||ka-
neoos with the action on which it depends, the Imperfect is nsed in accordftce
with the general rale of sequence (480).
8. In Indibbot Disooubse, Obatio Obliqua. — In indirect dis-
course (528. and 533. 1) dependent upon a Historical tense, the
narrator often uses the Principal tenses to give a lively effect to
his narrative ; occasionally also in direct discourse :
Exitus fuit orationis : NSque ullos vSc&re agros, qui d&ri possint ;
The close of the oration v>aSy that there were (are) not any lands unoccupied
which could (can) be given, Oaes.
> Here/dr« shares the tense otspero, and Is accordingly followed by the Present
conUnffat^hvit below it shares the tense of epirdvirat^ and is accordingly followed by
the Imperfect difloirent
* JSbep6suf^ though best rendered by oar Perf. Def. with have, is in the Latin
treated as the Historical Peit The thought is as follows: Since in the preceding
topics J set forth the aids which you had^ I will now speak, &c.
SECTION VL
USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE .
483. The Subjunctive represents the action of the verb,
not as an actual fact, but as something supposed or con-
ceived. It may denote that the action is conceived,
1. As Possible, PotentiaL
2. As Desirable.
3. As a Purpose or Result *
4. As a Condition.
6. As a Concession.
6. As a Cause or Reason.
7. As an Indirect Question.
8. As dependent VLjyon. another subordinate action : (1) By At-
traction after another Subjunctive, (2) In In^rect Discourse.
484. Varieties. — ^The Subjunctive in its various uses
may accordingly be characterized as follows :
I. The Potential Subjunctive.
n. The Subjunctive of Desire.
III. The Subjunctive of Purpose or Result
IV. The Subjunctive of Condition.
V. The Subjunctive of Concession.
VL The Subjunctive of Cause or Reason.
Vn. The Subjunctive in Indirect Questions.
Vin. The Subjunctive by Attraction.
IX. The Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse
L The Potential Subjuncttvb.
BTTLE XXZnn— Potential Subjunctive.
485. The Potential Subjunctive represents the ac-
tion not as real, but as possible :
Forsltan quaerfttis, Perhaps you may inquire. Cic Hoc D6mo dixg-
rit, No ovkjt ujotUd say this. Cic. Hoic cedamus, hujus condltionea audia-
mus, Shall we yield to him, shall toe listen to his terms f Cic. Quia
dubitet (= nemo diiWtat), Who would doubt, or who doubts (= no one
doubts) ? Cic. Quid fticSrcm, What was I to do, or what should I have
done? Virg.
486. Application op the Rule.— In the Potential
sense, the Subjunctive is used,
224 POTENTIAL SUBJUlfCTIVE.
I. In Declarative Sentences^ to express an affirmation davhtfully
or conditionally^ as in tbe first and second examples.
II. In Questions o/Appeal^^ to ask not what is, but what may
he or should he, generally implying a negative answer, as in the
last example under the rule.
III. In Subordinate Clauses^ whatever the connective, to rep-
resent the action as possible rather than real:
Quamquam i^pililis c&rcat sfenectus, thouah old age may be wUhotd its
feasts. Cic. Qudniam non possent, since they would not be able, Caes.
ubi res poscfiret, whenever the case might demand. Liv.
Here the Babjunctive after quamq-uam^ qudtUam^ and HM^ ie entirely indepen-
dent of those coojanctioiis. In this way many conjunctionB which do not require the
Bnbjunctive, admit that mood wheneyer the thought requires it.
1. UsB OF THB Potential Subjunctivi.— This Subjunctive, it will be
observed, has a wide application, and is used in almost all kinds of sen-
tences and clauses, whether declarative or interrogative, principal or sub-
ordinate, whether introduced by conjunctions or relatives.
2. How rendered. — The Potential Subjunctive is generally best rendered
by our Potential signs — ma^, can^ must, might, etc., or by shall or tvill.
3. Inclination. — The Subjunctive sometimes denotes inclination :
Ego censeam, /should think, ov Jam inclined to think, Liv.
4. Impebfect fob Pluperfect. — In the Potential sense, the Imperfect
is often used where we should expect the Pluperfect : d^oires, you would
have said ; crideres, putdres, you would have thought; vidires, cern^es, you
would have seen '.
Moesti, crideres victos, r&deunt in castra, Sadt vanquished you would
have thought them, they returned to the camp. Liv.
5. Subjunctive of Repeated Action. — Subordinate clauses in narration
sometimes take the Subjunctive to denote that the action is often or ind^
nUely repeated. Thus with ubi, whenever, gudties, as often as, guicunque,
whoever, ut guisgue, as each one, and the like :
Id f^tiSlis ubi dixisset, hastam mittebat. The fetial priest was wont to
hurl a spear whenever (L e., every time) h^ had said this, Liv.
6. Present and Perfect. — In the Potential Subjunctive the Perfect
often has nearly the same force as the Present :
Tu Pl&t5nem laudSvSris, Tou would praise Plato. Cic.
1) The Perfect with the for^e of the Present occurs also in some of the other
uses of the Subjunctive.
7. Conditional Sentences. — The Subjunctive in the conclusion of con-
ditional sentences is the Potential Subjunctive, but conditional sentences
will be best treated by themselves. See 502.
> These are also variously called Deliberative^ IhuhHng, or Rhetorical
Questions.
SUBJUI^C^'IVE. 225
n. The SuBJUNcnvB op Desibe. .
EXILE XXXIX.— Desire, CommancL
487. The Subjunctive of Desire represents the ac-
tion not as real, but as desired :
Y^eant elves, May the citkena be well. Cic. Amemua patriam, Let tu
love our country, Cic. BobSre QUre, Use your strength. Cic. Scribgre
ne pigrSre, Do not neglect to write, Cic.
488. Application of the Rule. — ^The Subjunctive of Desire
is used,
I. To express a wish, as in prayers, exhortations^ and entrea-
ties, as in the first and second examples.
n. To express a command mildly, as in admonitions, precepts,
and warnings, as in the third and fourth examples.
1. With Utinam. — The Subjunctive of Desire is often accompanied by
iUfnamf and sometimes^specially in the poets, by vtf siy osi:
Utinam conSta efif icdre possim, May I be able to accomplish my endeav-
ofs. Cic.
2. Force op Tenses. — The Present and Perfect imply tbat tbe wish may
be fulfilled ; the Imperfect and Pluperfect, that it cannot be fulfilled :
Sint beati, May they be happy. Cic. Ne transidris Ibfirum, Do not cross
the Ebro. Liv. Utinam possem, utinam pdtuissem, Would thca I were able,
would that I had been able, Cic. See also 486. 6. 1).
The Imperfect and Pluperfect may often be best rendered, should have been^
ought to have been :
Hoc dice ret, He should have said this, Cic. Mortem oppStilsses, Tou should
have met death. Cio.
3. Negative Ne.— With this Subjunctive the negative is ne, rarely non :
Ne audeant, Let them not dare. Cic. Non r^cedSmus, Let us not recede.
Cic.
4. In Asseverations. — The first person of the subjunctive is often found
in earnest or solemn affirmations or asseverations :
Mdriar, si piito, May I die, if I think, Cic. Ne sim salvus, si scrlbo,
May I not be safe, if I write. Cic.
So with Ha and sic : SoUIcItat, Ita vivam. As I live, it troubles me. Cic.
Here ita vivam means literally, may I so Hve, 1. e., may I live only in case this
istme.
6. In Relative Clauses. — The Subjunctive of desire is sometimes used
in relative clauses :
Quod faustum sit, r6gem crefite, Meet a Hng, and may it be an auspicious
event (may which be auspicious). Liv. SSnectus, ad quam iititnam pervSniS-
tis, old age, to which may you attain, Cic.
10*
226 suB JL ' jfcnvjE.
nL SUBJVXCTIYB OF PuBPOSS OB ReSUXT.
EULB ZL—Pupote or Besnlt
489. The Sabjanctiye of Purpose or Eesult is used,
I. With at, ne, quo, qala, qiiSinXniis s
PuRPOSB.— Enltltor at Tincat» Hk airivea that Ike may conquer. Cic.
PQnit ne peccfitar, Hepunukea that crime may not be eommiUed, Sen.
Rbsult. — Ita yixlt ut Athdnieiulbiis esset cSrissImus, Be bo lived that he
ttae very dear to the Atheniant, Nep.
IL With qui = at is, nt Sgo, to, etc :
Purpose. — ^Missi sunt, qui (ut ii) consuUirent ApolllDem, They were
tent to consult JpoUo (who should or that they should). Kep.
Rbsult. — Non is sum qui {td ego) his fitar, / am not such em one as to
vse these things, Cic.
1. Ut with the Sabjnnctlve sometimes forms with/dfcio, or dgo, rarely with ett^
a dreamlocntion for tho Indicative : /dcio ut dicam = dieo ; /dcio ut scribanh =
sorlbo: Invltas fucio nt recorder, lunxoiUingly recall, Cic.
Coiyunctions of Purpose or ResuU.
490. Ut and Nb. — Ut and ne are the regular cgnjnno-
tions in claases denoting Purpose or Result. Ut and ne
denote Purpose ; vt and ut non^ Result.
1. With connectlre ne becomes niee^ neu^ rarely nique. N€ve, nen, = aut ne or
et nt : Legem t&lit n^nis aocQsfirStnr nfiye mnltiLretur, Se proposed a lata that no
one should be accused or punished, Nep^
491. PuBE PtTBPOSB.-7-Ut and ne — thctt^ in order thaty
that not, in order that not, lest^ etc. — are used after verbs
of a great variety of significations to express simply the
Purpose of the action. A correlative — ^Oy idcirco^ etc.
— ^may or may not precede :
LSgum idcirco servi sUmus, ut UbSri esse possTmus, We are servants
of the law for this reason j that we may be free, Cic. See also the examples
under the Rule.
492. Mixed Purpose. — ^In their less obvious applica-
tions, ut and ne are used to denote a Purpose which par-
takes more or less of the character of a Direct Ol^ecty
sometimes of a Subject^ JPredicate or Appositive — ^Mixed
Purpose. Thus with verbs and expressions denoting
1. Effort. — striving for a purpose ; attaining a purpose :
nltor, contendo, stiideo, — cttro, id igo, dp^ram do, etc., fScio» efflfcio.
impetro, consfiquor, etc. :
PUEPOSB OB BBSULT. 227
Gontendit, ut vincat, Ht gtrives to conquer. Cic. COrSvi at bSne vlvd'
rem, I took care to lead a good life. Sen. Efi^cit ut imp^rStor mittSretur,
Ee caused a commander to be sent (attained his purpose). Nep. But see 495.
2. Exhortation, Impulse — urging one to effort :
admdneo, mdneo, hortor, — cQgo, impello, mdveo, — Qro, rdgo, — ^impfiro,
praecipio, etc. :
Te hortor ut ISgas, I exhort you to read, Cic. Mdvfimur ut bdni slmuS;
We are influenced to be good, Cic. Te rdgb ut eum j&yes, I ask you to aid
Mm, Cic. See also 551. II. 1 and 2 ; 558. YI.
8. Desibe and its Expression : hence dedmri, decree^ etc. :
opto. posttllo,— censeoy ddcemo, st&tuo, constltuo, etc. — ^rarelj vdlo,
nSlo, mSlo :
Opto ut id audiStis, Idetire (pray) that you may hear this, Cic. SdnS-
tus censaSraty iiti Aeduos defendSret, The senate had decreed that he should
defend the Aedui, Caes. See 651. II. and 558. II. and YI.
4. Fear, Danger :
m^tuo, tXmeOy vSreor, — ^pSiiciilum est, cOra est, etc. :
TImeo, ut sustlneas, I fear you will not endure them. Cic. Y$reor ne
l&bQrem augeam, I fear that I shall increase the labor. Cic.
1) By a Difference of Idiom ut mast here be rendered that noi^ and ne hj that
or lest. The Latin treats the clanse as a wish, a desired purpose.
2) After verbs of fearing ne nan is sometimes used for ut^ regularly so after
negative danses: Ydreor ne non poasit, I fear that he tciU not be able. Cia
8) After verbs of fearing, especially fiireory the inflnitivo is sometimes used :
Y&>eor laudSre, I fear (hesitate) to praise. Cic
493. Peculiabitiks. — Expressions of Purpose present
the foUoTving peculiarities :
1. Ut ne, rarely ut non, is sometimes used for ne :
Praedixit, ut ne legfitos dImittSrent, Be charged them not to (that they
should not) release the delegates, Nep. Ut plQra non dlcaip, not to say more,
i, e., that I may not. Cic.
2. Ut is sometimes omitted, especially with volo, nolo, mdlo,
fUeio, and verba of directing, urging, etc. j^e is often omitted
with edve :
Tu T^lim 8ts, / desire that you may be. Cic. Fac hftbeas, sm (make) thaJt
you have, Cic. SdnStus decrdvit, d&rent 5p6ram consiiles. The senate de-
creed that the consuls should see to it. Sail. See also 585. 1, 2).
8. Clauses with Ut and Ne may depend upon a noun or upon
a verb omitted :
Fecit pScem his conditionibus, ne qui aff IcSrentur exsllio. Be madepeace
on these termSy that none should be punished unth exUe. Nep. Ut Ita dicam,
so to speak (that t may speak thus). Cic. Tbis is often inserted in a sen-
tence, like the English so to speak.
228 SUBJUNCTIVE.
4. Nedum and Ne in the sense of much less, not to my, are used
with the Subjunctive :
Tix in tectis frlgus TltStor, nedum ia miri sit fScile, 7%e cold is avoided
with difficulty in our houses^ much lest is it easy {to avoid it) on the sea, Cic.
494. Pure Result. — Ft and ut non — so that, so that
not — are often nsed with the Subjunctive, to express simply
a Mesult or a Consequence :
Ita vixit ut AthSniensibus esset carissimus, He so lived thai he was
very dear to the Athenians, Nep. Ita laudo, ut non pertunescam, / so
praise as not to fear. CSc.
A coirelatlve— Wa In these examples— generally precedes : thus, Ita, sic, iam,
ddeo, tantdpfre,^tdlis, tantus, ^uemddi.
495. Mixed Result. — In their less obvious applica-
tions, ut and ut non are used with the Subjunctive to de-
note a BesvU which partakes of the character of a Direct
Object, Subject, Fredicate, or Appositive : Thus
1. Clauses as Object atsj> Eesult occur with/acto, efftcio, of
the action of irrational forces :
Sol efflcit ut omnia flSreant, The sun causes all things to bloom, i. e.,
produces that result. Cic. See 492. 1.
2. Clauses as Subject Am> Result occur with impersonal verbs
signifying it happens, remains, follows, is distant, etc. :
accldit, contingit, evSnit, fit, restat, — sSquItur, — &best, etc.
Fit ut quisque dfilectfitur, The result is (it hay^ens) that every one is
delighted, Cic. SSquXtur ut falsum sit, It follows that it is false, Cic.
1) The Subjunctive is sometimes, though rarely, used when the predi-
cate is a Noun or Adjective with the copula sum :
Mos est ut nSlint, It is their custom not to he willing (that they are un-
willing). Cic. ProxXmum est, ut ddceam. The next point is, that I show,
Cic. See 556. I. 1 and 2.
2) Subjunctive Clauses with vt, in the form of questions expressive of
surprise, sometimes stand alone, by the omission of some predicate, as cre-^
dendum est, vMsimile est, is it to be credited, is it probable ?
Tu ut unquam te corrTgas, that you sTiould ever reform t i. e., Is it to be
supposed that you will ever reform ? Cic.
8) See also 556 with its subdivisions.
8. Clauses as Appositivb and Result, or Predicate and
Result, occur with Demonstratives and a few Nouns :
H&bet hoc virtus ut delectet, Virtue has this advantage, that it ddighis,
Cic. Est hoc vXtium, ut invldia glOriae c6mes sit, There is thisfaidt, that
envy is t?ie companion of glory, Nep.
PURPOSE OB BESULT. 229
496. Peculiabities. — ^Expressions of Result present
the following peculiarities :
1. Ut is sometimes omitted, regularly so with oportet, generally
with dpus eat and neeesse est :
Te 6portet yirtas tr&hat, H is necessary that virtue should attract you,
Cic. Causam h&beat n^cesse est, It is necessary that it should have a cause,
Cic.
2. The Subjunctive occurs with Quam — ^with or without ut:
LlbSrSlius quam ut posset, too freely to he able (more freely than so as to
be able). Nep. ImpQnebat amplius quam ferre possent, He imposed more
than they were able to bear,
3. Tantum abest, — ^After tantum abest ut, denoting result, a
second ut of result sometimes occurs :
Phndsdphia, tantum &best, ut laud^tur ut Stiam vMpSretur, So far is it
from the truth (so much is wanting), that ^philosophy is praised that it is even
censv/red, Cic.
497. Quo. — Quo, by which^ thaty is sometimes used
for uty especially with comparatives :
MSdIco dSre quo sit stiidiGBior, to give to the physician, thai (by this
means) he may be more attentive. Cic.
For non quo of Cause, see 520. 3.
498. QuiN. — Quin (qui and ne), by which not, that
not, is often used to introduce a Purpose or Result after
negatives and interrogatives implying a negative. Thus
1. Quin is often used in the ordinary sense of ne and ut non :
BetlnGri non pdtdrant, quin tela conj!c3rent. They could not be re-
strained from hurling (that they might not) their weapons, Caes. Nihil est
tarn difficile quin {ut non) inyestigSri possit. Nothing is so d^fflcult that it
may not be investigated, Ter.
After rerbs of hindering^ opposing^ and the like, quin has the force of n«.
2. Quin is often used after Kemo, NuUu8, Nihil, Quisf
Adest nemo, quin yideat, There is no one present who does not see. Cic.
Quis est quin cemat, Who is there who does not perceive t Cic.
Is or id is sometimes expressed after quin :
Nihil est quin id intSreat, TTtere is nothing which does not perish. Cic.
3. Quin is often used^in the sense of that, but that, without
with a participial noun, especially after negative expressions, im-
plying doubt, uncertainty, omission, and the like :
Non est dfibium quin b^ndf Icium sit, There is no doubt that His a bene-
fit. Sen. Nullum intdrmlsi diem quin &liquid dlTQuif I aUowed no day to
280 SUBJUNCTIVE.
paUf mthout giving aomething. Gic. FScSre non possum qnin littSras mii-
tam, I cannot but und a letter, Cic.
1) Sttch ezprosBions are: non d&bito, non d&biam est— non mnltnm ^best, pan-
lum Abest, nihil dbest, quid abest?— non,Tix,aegre abetineo; mihi non tempdro;
non, nihil praetermitto— ficSre non possum, fieri non pdtest.
2) The Inflnitiye, for Quin with the Bubjnnctiye, occurs with verbs of doubting r
Quia dubitat piltgre Enropam, Who doubts that Europe U exposed t Curt
8) Non Quin of Cause. See 52a a
4) Xiuin is used in questions in the sense of why not t and with the Imperative
in the sense of toeU^ hut : Quin ilj^te, hut come. Ylig: It occasionally means nay,
tfoen, rather.
^499. QxroMiNirs. — Quomlnns (quo and minus), that
thus the iesSj thai noty is sometimes used for /z^aud tU non^
after verbs of hindering, opposing, and the like :
Non deterret sSpientem mors quOminus reipabllcae consulat, Deaih does
not deter a toiae man from deliberating for ike republic. Oic. Non rScusavit,
quombms poenam siiblret, Hie did not refuse to submit to punishment. Nep.
Per emn stgtit quomlnus dlmlcaretur, It was owing to him (stood through
him), that the engagement was not made. Caes.
1. Expressions of hindering^ etc., are: d^terreo, impedio, pr&hlbeo,— obsto,
obsisto, officiOf^rScuso, per me stat, etc
2. Verbs of hindering admit a variety of constructions : the Infinitive, the Sub-
junctive with «/; n«, quo^ quin, or quomlnus.
Relative of Purpose or Result.
500. A Relative Clause denoting a Purpose or a Re-
sult is equivalent to a clause with ut^ denoting purpose or
result, and takes the Subjunctive for the same reason. • The
relative is then equivalent to ut with a pronoun : qui = ut
^o, ut tUy ut iSy etc. :
PuRPOSB. — ^Missi sunt qui (ut ii) consiilSrent ApolKnem, Theg were sent
to cofisult Apollo (who should, or that they should), Nep. Missi sunt dSlecti
qui Thermdpylas occupftrent, Picked men were sent to take possession of
Thermopylae. Nep.
Result. — ^Non is sum qm{=td Hgo) his utar, lam not such a one as to
ttse these things. Cic. InnScentia est affectio talis Snimi, quae (= tU ea) n5-
ceat n6m!ni, Innocence is such a stale of mind as injures no one^ or as to in-
jure no one. Cic.
1. Belativb Pabticles. — ^The subjunctive is used in the same way in clauses
introduced by relative partidea ; HM, unde, etc :
D6mum iibi hftWtaret, I§git, Be selected a house that he might dwsU in it
(where he might dwell). Cic.
PURPOSE OB BESULT. . 231
2. PuxFoss AND Bbsvlt.— Belatiye Glauses denoting purpose are readily recog-
nized ; those denoting result are used, in their more obvious applications, after such
words as tcnn^ so ; tdlis, is^ ^fumnddi, such^ in the above examples ; but see also 501.
8. Ikdxoatits attxb Talis, xtc— In a relative clause after tdlia, is, etc^ the
Indicative is sometimes used to give prominence to the/ac< .*
Mihi causa t&Hs oblSta est, in qua 6r&tio deesse n€mini pdtest, 8ueh a eau8€ has
been offered me, (one) in tohieh no one eon/ail qf an oraUotk. Cic.
501. Relative clauses of Result, in their less obvious
applications, include,
I. Eelative clauses after Indefinite asd General antecedents.
Here tow, talis, or some such word, may often be supi)lied :
NuDC dicis illquid {ejutmMi, or tale) quod ad rem pertlneat, Nbto you
Hate eomething which belongs to the syhject (i. e., somethiDg of such a charac-
ter as to belong, etc.). Cic. Sunt qui ptitent, there are some who think, Cic.
Nemo est qui non ciipiat, there ia no one who does not desire, i. e., such as not
to desiite. Cic. *
1. In the same way quod, or a relative particle, Ubi, tmde, quo, eur, etc., with
the Sub^uncMoe, is used after est, there is reason, non eat, nihU est, there is no reasoD,
quid est, what reason is there ? non hdbeo, nihil hdbeo, I have no reason :
Est quod gaudeas. There is reason why you should rejoice, or so that you may.
Plant Non est quod credas, There is no, reason why you should heliece. Sen.
Nihil hibeo, quod inciiBem sSnectutem, / hate no reason why I should accuse old
age, Cic
2. Ikdicattvi ATTEa IiruKFnnTK Aitteoedbkt.— A Relative clause after an
indefinite antecedent also takes the Indicative, when the fiict itself is to be made
prominent :
Sunt qui non audent dio&re, Th^e are some who (actnaUy) do not dare to
speaJc, Cic. Multa sunt, quae did possunt. There are many things which may he
said, Cic So also clauses with Rel. particles. See 1 above.
In poetry and kite prose the Indicative often follows sunt qui :
Sunt quos Juvat, there are some whom it delights. Hor.
8. BssTBionvx Clauses with quod, as quod sciam, as &r as I know ; quod
mimlnirim, as Car as I remember, etc, take the subjunctive
n. Relative clauses after Untis, Solus, and the like, take the
subjonctive:
SSpicntia est Una, quae moestftiam pellat, Wisdom, is the only thing
which dispels sadness (such as to dispel). Cic. SSli centum drant qui creSri
possent, There were only one hundred who could be appointed (such that
they could be). Liv.
III. Relative clauses after Dignus, Indignus, Idoneus, and Ap-
tus take the subjunctive :
FSbiilae dignae sunt, quae Iggantur, The fabUa are worthy to be read
(that they should be read). Cic. Bafum Caesar IdQueum jadlcSv^rat quem
mittftret, Caesar had judged Bufus a suitable person to send (whom he might
send). Caes.
232 . SUBJUNCTIVB.
rV. Relative clauses after Comparatives with Quam take the
suhjunctive :
Damna majQra sunt quam quae ( = vtea) aestlmSri possint. The losses
are too great to he estimated (greater than bo that thej can be). Liv.
IV. Subjunctive of Condition.
502. Every conditional sentence consists of two dis-
tinct parts, expressed or understood, — ^the Condition and
the Conduaion:
Si nggem, mentiar, 1/ 1 should deny it, I should speak falsdy, Cic.
Here si Tiegem is the condition, and mentiar, the conclusion.
^BULE XLI.— Subjnnctiye of Conditicii.
503. The Subjunctive of Condition is used,
I. With dmn, mbdo, dummbdot
MSnent inggnia, modo perm^eat industria, Menial powers remain^ if
only industry remains. Cic. *
II. With ac si, ut si, quSsi, quam si, tanqualn, tanquam ai,
vMut, vMut si;
CrQdSlitatem, vdlut si adesset, horrebant, They shuddered at his cruelty^
as if he were present. Caes.
ni. Sometimes with si, nisi, ni, sin, qui = si is, si quis:
Dies def iciat, si vSlim niimgrare, The day would fail me, if I should
wish to recount. Cic. Improbe ftcSris, nisi monutJris, You would do wrong,
if you shoftdd not give warning. Cic Si vdluisset, dimicasset, If he had
wished, he would have fought. Nep.
1. Si Omitted. — ^Two clanses without any conjunction some-
times have the force of a conditional sentence ;
NSgat quia, nSgo, Does any one deny, I deny. Ter. R^ges me, nihil re-
spondeam, Should you ask me, IshoiUd make no reply. Cic. See also Imper*
ative, 535. 2.
2. Condition Supplied. — The condition may be supplied,
1). By Birticiplee : Non p5testis, y5IuptSte omnia dirifgentes {si dirtgi-
tis)f T^tXn&re virtatem, Tbu cannot retain your manhood, if you arrange aU
things with reference to pleasure. Cic.
2) By Oblique Cases: NCmo sine spe («&» spem hab^et) Be offerret ad
mortem, JVb one without a hope (if he had not a hope) would expose himself
to death. Cic.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 233
3. Ieont. — The condition is sometimes ironical, especially with nisi
verOf nisi forte with the Indicative, and with quasi, qtmsi v^ro with the
Present or Perfect Subjunctive :
Nisi forte insSnit, unless perhaps he {s insane, Cic. QuSsi vSro ngcesse
sit, as if indeed U were necessary. Caes.
4. Ita— :Si, vtc.—Ita—si, so— if, means only— 4ft Si quidem, if indeed,
sometimes has nearly the force of since.
5. Et ohittbd. — See 587. 1. 6.
504i Force of Tenses. — ^In conditional sentences the
Present and Perfect tenses represent the supposition as not
at all improbable, the Imperfect and Pluperfect represent
it as contrary to the fact. See examples above. See also
476 to 478.
1. Present poe Imperfect.— The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used
for the Imperfect, when a condition, in itself contrary to reality, is still con-
ceived of as possible :
Tu si hie sis, &l!ter sentias, J/ you tm*e the one (or, should be), you would
thin^ differently. Ter.
2. Imperfect for Pluperfect. — The Imperfect Subjunctive is some-
times used for the Pluperfect, with the nice distinction that it contemplates
the supposed action as going on, not as completed :
Num Opimium, si tum esses, t^mgrSrium civem putares ? Would you
think Opimius an audaciotts citizen, if you were Uving at that time (Pluperf.
would you have thought— if you had lived) ? Cic.
605. DuM, M^DO, DuMM^DO. — Dum, m5do, and dum-
m6do, in conditions, have the force of — if only ^ provided
that^ or with ne, if only not^ provided that not :
Dum res m&neant, verba fingant, Let them make words, if only the facts
remain. Cic. Mddo perm&neat industria, if only industry remains. Cic.
Dummddo.r^pellat pSrlciilum, provided he may avert danger, Cic. Mddo ne
laudSrent, if only they did not praise. Cic.
When not used in conditions, these conjanctious often admit the indicative :
Dnm leges vlgubant, whiU the laws were in/orce. Cic.
508. Ac SI, TJt SI, Quasi, etc. — ^Ac si, ut si, quam si,
qu^si, tanquam, tanquam si, vSlut, velut si, involve an
ellipsis of the real conclusion :
Mis&rior es, quam si 6ciilos non h&bdres, You are rj^e unhappy than
(esses, you would be) if you had not eyes, Cic. Crtldelitatem, vfilut si ades-
set, horrebant, They shuddered at his cruelty as (they would) if he were pres-
ent. Caes. Ut si in suam rem ^lidna convertant, as if they should appropri-
ate othtri possessions to their own use. Cic. Tanquam andiant, as if they
may hear. Sen.
Ceu and SioUti are sometimes used In the same way :
Ceu bella fSrent, as if there were wars. Virg. Siciitl audlrl possent, as if they
could he Mard, Sail.
234 8UBJUNCTIYE.
507. Si, Ntei, Ni, Snr, Qui.— The Latin distinguisbes
three distinct forms of the conditional sentence with «t;
filsiy nij sin :
L Indicative in both Clauses.
n. SabjuDCtive, Present or Perfect, in both Clanses.
HL Subjunctive, Imperfect or Pluperfect, in both
Clauses.
508. Pirrt Form. — Indicative in both Clauses. — ^This
form assumes the supposed case as real^ basing upon it
any statement which would be admissible, if it were a
known foct :
Si haec cIvItaB est, cIyis sum ^o, Ifffiia is a state^ lam a eUizen. Cic.
Si non fic^bat, non nScesse Srat, 1/ it toa» not lawful, it was not necessary.
Cic DulOrem si non potSro frangere, oocnltabo, If I shall not be able to
overcome sorrow, I wiU conceal U, .Cic. Pairi sunt f5ris arma, nisi est
constUum domi, Arms are of Utile value abroad, unless there is wisdom at
home. Cic.
1. Condition. — ^The condition is introduced, when affirmatiTe, hy si,
with or without other particles, as qutdem, mddo, etc., and when negative,
bj si non, nisi, ni. The time may be either present, past, or future. See
examples above.
2. Conclusion. — The conclusion maj take the form of a command :
Si peccSvi, ignosce, ^ I have erred, pardon me. Cic.
8. Si NON, Nisi.— ^i non and nisi are often used without anj percepti-
ble difference of meaning i but strictly si non introduces the negative con-
dition on which the conclusion depends, whUe nisi introduces a qwUifica-
Hon or an exeqaUon. Thus in the second example above the meaning is,
IfU was not lawful, it follows that it was not necessary, while in the fourth
the meaning is, Arms are of little value abroad, excqft when there is wisdom
at home.
609. Second Form. — Subjunctive Present or Perfect in
both Clauses. — ^This form assumes the condition 2i^ possible:
Haec si tecum patria 15qufttur, nonne impetr&re dSbeat, If your country
should speak thus jcith you, cuffht she not to obtain her request f Cic. Im-
probe feceris, nisi m5nuSris, You would do wrong, if you ^undd not give
warning. Cic. See also examples under the Rule, 503 ; also 486. 7.
When dependent upon a Historical tense, the Present and Perfect are
of course generally changed to the Imperfect and Pluperfect, by the law for
Sequence of tenses (480).
Mfituit ne, si Iret, retr&hSrfitur, Be feared lest if he should go, he fnight
be brought hack. Liv.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 236
610. Third Fonn. — Sul^unctive Imperfect or Pluper-
fect in both Clauses. — This form assumes the supposed case
as contrary to the reality^ and simply states what would
have been the result, if the condition had been fulfilled :
Sfipientia non expStSrStur, si nihil efftcSret, Wisdom tooitld not be
sougid (as it is), ifU accomplished noihinff. Cic. Si optima tSnSre posse-
mus, baud s&ne consUio eg6r6mus, Tjf we were able to secure tlie highest
goodj we slundd not indeed need counsel. Cic. Si yfiluisset, dimtcasset, Jf
he had wished, he would have fought. Kep. Nunquam fibisset, nisi stbi
viam munlvisset, He would never have gone, if he had not prepared for
himself a way. Cic. See also 486. *l,
1. Here the Imperfect relates to Present time, as in the first and second
examples : the liuperfeet to Past time, as in the third and fourth examples.
2. In the Periphrastic forms in rus and d/us and in expressions of Duty,
Necessity, and Ability, the Perfect and Imperfect Indicative sometimes occnr
in the conclusion.
Quid fiitarum fuit, si plebs ftgltSri coepta esset, What would have been
the result, if the plebeians had begun to be agitated f Liv. See also 512. 2.
1) When the context, IrrespectiTe of the condition, reqnires the Subjonctive,
the tense remains unchanged without reference to the tense of the principal verb :
Adeo est indpla ooactus ut, nisi timnlsset, Oalllam rSpdtit&ms fta^rit, He woe so
pressed by want that if he had not/eared^ he would have returned to Gaul. Liv.
Here ripHUurusfuirit is in the SubJ. not because It is in a conditional sentence,
but because it is the Subj. of Besult with tU; but it is in the Perfect, because, if it
were not dependent, the Perfect Indicatlnre would ha^e been used.
511. Mixed Foems. — The La^n sometimes unites a
condition belonging to one of the three regular forms with
a conclusion belonging to another, thus producing certain
Mixed Forms.
I. The Indicative sometimes occurs in the Condition with the
Subjunctive in the Conclusion, but here the Subjunctive is gener-
ally dependent not upon the condition, but upon the very nature
of the thought:
FSream, si pdtSmnt, Jfay I perish (subj. of desire, 487), if they shall
be able. Cic. Quid timeam, si beStus futarus sum, Why should I fear
(486. II.), if I am to be happy f Cic
n. The Subjunctive sometimes occurs in the Condition with
the Indicative in the Conclusion. Here the Indicative often gives
the effect of reaUty to the conclusion, even though in fact depend-
ent upon contingencies ; but see also 512 :
Dies d6f Iciet, si vSlim causam dCfendSre, The day would (will) fail
me, if I should wish to dtfend the cause. Cic. Vicfcramus nisi rScCpisset
Antonium, We had conquered, had he not received Antony. Cic.
236 SUBJUNCTIVE.
1. The Future IndicaUts is often thus oBed in consequence of its near relation-
ship in forco to the Subjonctiye, as whatever is Fature is more\Mr less contingent
Bee first example.
2. The nutorieal tenses^ especially the Flupet/ect^ are sometimes used, for effect,
to represent as an actual fact something which is shown by the context never to have
become fully so, as in the last example.
8. Ckinditional sentences made up partly of the second form (509) and portly of
the third are rare.
512. Subjunctive Ain>" Indicative. — The coinbinatioii
of the Subjunctive in the Condition with the Indicative in
the Conclusion is often only apparent. Thus
1. When the truth of the conclosion is not in reality a£fected by the
condition, as when n has the force of eoen, ify aUhcmgh :
Si hoc plSceat, tXmen ySlunt, Eoen if (although) this pleases them, they
ttUltoish, Cie.
2. When that which stands as the conclusion is such only in appear-
ance, the real conclusion being understood. This occurs
1) With the Indicative of Debeo, Possum, and the like :
Quem, si alia in te pi&tas esset, cdl&re debebas, Whom you ougMto'have
honored (and would have honored), if there were any filial ejection in you.
Cic. Ddleri ezercltus pdtuit, si persdcQti yictSres essent, The army might
have heen destroyed (and would have been), ^the victors had pursued. Liv.
2) With the Imperfect and Perfect Indicative of other verbs, especial-
ly if in a periphrastic conjugation or accompanied by Paene or PrQpe :
BSlictfiri agros grant, nisi littSras misisset, They were aboutto leave their
lands (and would have done to), had he not sent a letter. Cic. Pons Iter
paene hostlbus d&dit, ni tlnus vir fuisset. The bridge almost furnished apas-
sage to the enemy (and would have done so), had there not been one man. Liv.
613. Relative involving Coitoition. — ^The relative
takes the subjunctive when it is equivalent to si or dum
with the subjunctive :
Errat longe, qui crSdat, etc., He greatly errs who supposes^ etc., i. e.,
if or provided any one supposes, he greatly errs. Ter. Haec qui vldeat,
cOgatur, If any one shotUdsee these things, he would be compelled. Cic,
V. Subjunctive in Concessions.
514. A concessive clause is one which concedes or
admits something, generally introduced in English by
though or although :
Quamquam intelllgunt, though they understand. Cic.
CONCESSIONS. 237
BULE Zm.— Subjanctiye of Concession.
515. The Subjunctive of Concession is used,
I. With ncet, quamvifl, quantnmvis,— ut, ne, quum, although :
Licet irrldeat, plus tSmen rfitio vSlebit, Though he may deride, reckon
mU yet avail more, Cic. Ut desint Tires, tamen est laudanda voluntas,
Though the strength fails, still (he will should he approved, Ovid.
II. With qui = qunm (licet) is, qaum ^go, etc., though he:
Absolvite Yerrem, qui (quum is) se f^tefltur pScQnias cSpisse, Acquit
Verves, though he confesses (who may confess) that he has accepted money,
Cic.
m. Generally with etsi, t^^metsi, ^tiamsi:
Quod sentiunt, etsi optimum sit, t^en non audent dicere, They do
not dare to state what they think, even if (though) it be most excellent, Cic.
516. Concessive Clauses may be divided into- three
I. Concessive Clauses with quamquam in the best prose
generally take the Indicative :
Quamquam intelUgunt, t&men nunqnam dicunt, Thoughthey understand,
they neoer speak, Cic.
1. The Sv^un^iAoe may of course follow quamtquwrn^ whenever the thought
Itself; iirespective of the ooDcesBive character of the clausef requires that mood (485).
2. The Subjunctive, even in the best prose, B<)bietimeB occurs with quamquam
where we should expect the Indicative: Quamquam ne id quidem saspicl5nem h&bu-
drit, Though not eiten thai gave rise to any suspicion, Cic.
& In poetry and some of the later prose, the subjunctive with quamquam Is not
uncommon. In Tacitus it Is the prevailing construction.
4. Quamquam and etsi sometimes have the force of yet, hut yet, and yet :
Quamquam quid Idquor, And yet what do I eay t Cic
n. Concessive Clauses with Ucety quamvis^ qttantumvia^
— ut^ nCy quuniy although ; — qui = quum (or licet) is, egOj
tUy etc., take the Subjunctive :
Non tu possis, quantumvis excellas, You would not he able, however mnich
(although) you excel, Cic. Ne sit summum mUum ddlor, m&lum certe est,
Though pain may not he the greatest evil, it is certainly an evil. Cic. See 518.
I. Ut and Nb. — This concessive use of t^ and ne may readily be ex-
plained by supplying some verb like fac or sine : thus, ut d^nt vires (515.
I.) =/ac or sine ut disint vires, make or grant that strength fails. See 489.
The Concessive Particle is sometimes omitted :
Sed b&beat, t&men. But grant that it has it, yet, Cic.
Ut— SIC or ija., as— so, though— yet, does not require the subjunctive.
238 SUBJUNC?nVB.
2. QuAKTis AND QuAifTUHTia. — ^These are strictly adverbs, in the sense
of houfever much, bat thej generally give to the clause the force of a conce»-
sion. When used with their simple adverbial force to qualify adjectives,
they do not affect the mood of the clause : guamvis muUi, however many.
8. Mood with Quahvis. — In Cicero and the best prose, quamvia takea
the Subjunctive almost without exception, generally also in Livy and Nepos ;
but in the poets and later^rose writers it often admits the Indicative :
Erat dignltSte rfigia, quamvis cSrdbat nCmlne, ITe toot qf royal dignity,
though he was wUhout tlu name, Nep.
4. Relativb in Concessions. — The relative denoting concession is equiv-
alent to licet, or guum, in the sense of though, with a Demonstrative or Per-
sonal, pronoun, and takes the Subjunctive for the same reason : qui = licet
(quum) it, licet igo, tu, eto. See examples under the Rule, 615.
in. Concessive Clauses with the compounds of si : etsij
Uianm^ tdmetai in the use of Moods and Tenses conform
to the rule for conditional clauses with si :
Etsi nihil h&beat in se giSria, t&men virtatem sSquXtur, Though glory
may not possess anything in itself, yet U foUows virtue, Cic Etiamsi mors
oppdtenda esset, even \f death ought to he met, Cic.
VI. SuBjiTN^cnvB OF Causb akd Time.
BTTLE XUn.— Subjunctive of Cause.
517. The Subjunctive of Cause or Reason is used,
L With qunm (cum), since ; qui = quum is, etc. :
Quum vita mgtus plena sit, since life isfuU of fear. Cic Quae quum
Ita fflnt, perge, J^nce these things are so, proceed, Cic. vis ygntatis,
quae (quum ea) se defendat, the force of truth, since it defends itself, Cic
n. With quod, quia, qa&niam, quando, to introduce a reason on
another's authority : .
Socrates accQsatus est, quod corrumpSret jiiventQtem, Socrates was ac-
cusedy because (on the alleged ground that) he corrupted the youth. Quint
Causal Clauses with Q;aum, and Qui.
518. QiTUM. — Quum takes the Subjunctive when it de-
notes,
I. Cause or Concession:
Quum sint in nQbis r&tio, prtldentia, eince there is in us reason and pru^
dence, Cic. PhScion fuit pauper, quum divltisslmus esse, posset, Fhocion
was poor, though he might have been very rich, Nep.* See also 616.
• CAUSE A3n> TIME. 239
n. Time with the accessory notion of Cause or Con-
cession :
Quum dimlcSret, occXsns est, W^n he engaged hatHe, Tie wa» slain. Nep.
ZenSnem, quum Athfinis essem, audiebam frequenter, / often heard Zeno,
tehen I was <U Athens. Cic.
1. Quum in Naeration.— ^«m with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub-
junctive i8 very frequent in narration even in temporal clauses. See exam-
ples under II. above.
This use of Qwtm with the BabJancUve may in most Instances be readily ex-
plained by the fftct that it involves Ca/use as well as Time. Thus quitm dlmlcdret,
in the first example, not only states the time of the action— oocImm est^ bat also its
cause or occasion : the engagement was the occcuion of his death. So with quum
essem^ as presence in Athens was an indispensable condition of hearing Zeno. Bat in
tome instances the notion of Oanse or Concession is not at all apparent
2. Quum with Tempus, wrc—Quum with the Subjunctive is sometimes
used to characterize a period :
Id saeciilum quum plena Graecia poetSrum esset, that age when (such
that) Greece was full of poets. Cic. Erit tempus, quum desiddres, the time
will come, when you wiU desire. Cic. So without tempusy etc : Fuit quum
arbitrSrer, there was (a time) when /thought. Cic.
8. Quum with Indicative.— ^i«tM7» denoting time merely, with perhaps
a few exceptions in narration, takes the Indicative :
Quum quiescunt, prdbant. While they are quiet, they approve. Cic. P5-
ruit, quum necesse Srat, Ee obeyed when it was necessary, Cic.
519. Qui, Cause ob Reason. — A Relative clause de«
noting cause or reason, is equivalent to a Causal clause with
Quum, and takes the Subjunctive for the same reason:
forttuiflte Sd61escen9, qui {qimm 1u) tuae virtQtis H6menim praec&*
nem inven^ris, fortunate youth^ since you (lit. who) have obtained Homer
as the herald ofyofwr valor. Cic.
1. Equtvalekts. — ^In such clauses, qui is equivalent to quum ego, quum
tu, quum is, etc.
2. Indicatite.— When the statement is to be viewed as a fad rather than
as a reason, the Indicative is used :
H&beo sfinectati grStiam, quae mihi sermCnis SvIdltStem auzit, I cherish
gratitude to old age, which has increased my love of conversation, Cic.
3. Qui with Conjunctions. — ^When a conjunction accompanies the rela-
tive, the mood varies with the conjunction. Thus,
1) The Subjunctive is generally used with quum, quippe, vt, utpiite :
Quae quum Ita sint, sifice these things are so. Cic. Quippe qui blandlS-
tur, since heflaUers. Cic. Ut qui c515ni essent, since they were colonists. Cic.
Bat the Indicative is sometimes used to give prominence to the/ac^.
2) The Indicative is generally used with quia, qudniam :
Quae quia certa esse non possunt, since these things cannot he sure. Cic.
Qui qudniam intelllgi n5luit, since he did not wish to he understood. Cic.
240 SUBJUNCTIVE. •
CaiLaal Claitsea with Quod^ Quia^ Quoniam^ Quando,
520. Q^ody quiay quoniam^ and quando generally take,
1, The Indicative to assign a reason positively on one^s
own authority :
Quoniam supplic&tio decrSta est, tince a thanksgiving has been decreed,
Cic. Gaude quod spectant te, Bejoice that (because) t?iei/ behold ycu. Hor.
II. The SuBjuNcnvE to assign a reason douhtfuUyy or
on another^ 8 authority:
Aristides nonne expulsus est patria, quod Justus esset, Was not Aris-
tides banished because (on the aUeged ground that) he was justi Cic
1. Quod with Dico, vsc^IHco BXi6. p^uio b.t% often in the Subjonctiye
instead of the verb depending upon them :
Quod se bellum gestfiros dicfirent = quod bellum gestari essent, ut dic£-
bant, because they were about, as they said, to wage war. Caes.
2. Clauses with Quod Unconnected. See 554. IV.
8. NoN Quo, etc. — Nan quo, non quod, non qum^ rarelj non quia, also
quam quod, etc., are used with the Subjunctive to denote that something was
not the true reason :
Non quo h&berem quod scrlbSrem, not because (that) 7 had anything to
write, Cic. Non quod ddleant, not because they are gained, Cic. Quia nd-
qulvfirat quam quod ignSrSret, because he had been unable, rather than because
he did not know, Liy.
4. Potential Subjunctive. See 485 and 486.
BTTLE XLIV.— Time with Cause.
521. The Subjunctive of Time with the accessory
notion of Cause or Purpose is used,
I. With dum, doneo, quoad, until:
Exspectas dum dicat, Tou are waiting tiU he speaks^ i. e., that he may
speak. Cic. £a continebis quoad te yideam, Tou wiU keq> them till I tee
you. Cic.
II. With ant^uam, pxiusquam, before, before that:
AntSquam de re pQblica dicam, exponam consHium, IwiU set forth my
plan before I (can) speak of the republic, i. e., preparatory to speaidng
of the republic. Cic. Friusquam incipias, before you begin. SalL
1. Explanation. — ^Here the temporal clause inrolves purpose as well as
time .* dum dicat is nearly equivalent to ttt dicat, which is also often used
after exspecto. AntSqttam dicam is nearly equivalent to ut poetea
I will set forth my views, that I may afterwards speak of the republic
• CAUBB AND TIMB. 241
2. With othbti CoNJUNcnoM8.-~The SubjnnctiTe may of conrae be used
in any temporal clause, when the thought, irrespective of the temporal par-
ticle, requires that mood ; see 486. III.
Ubi res posc^ret, nohenever the case might require, Liv.
522. DuM, DoNEC, and Quoad take
I. The Indicative^ — (1) in the sense of while^ as long
{X8y and (2) in the sense of untile if the action is viewed as
an actitalfact:
Dum l6gea TigSbant, as long as the latcs were in fwoe, Cic Quoad
rSnuuti&tum est, utM it toas (actually) annmtnced, Nep.
IL The Sul^junctive, when the action is viewed not so
much as a fact as something desired or proposed:
DifiFSrant, dum defervescat Ira, Let them defer it, till their an^er eools^
i. e., that it may cooL Cic. See also examples under the rule.
1. DoNXC, IN Tacitus, geuerally takes the SnbjunctiTe :
Rhdnus senrat Ti^lentiam cursus, dQnec Oce&oo misceStur, The Mine
ffreserifestherapidityqf its current, till it mingles icith the oeean. Tac
2. Dome, in Litt, occurs with the SubjuoctiTe even in the sense of
tohiUf but with the accessory notion of cause:
Nihil tr6pld£bant dOnec poote &g£rentar, 2%ej/ did not/ear at dUwhils
(and because) they were driven on the bridge. Liv.
523« Antequam and Priusquam generally take,
I. The Indicative^ when they denote mere priority of
time:
Priusquam lucet, adsunt, They are present before it is Hght CSc. An-
tSquam in Sldliam ySni, before I came into Sicily, Gia
II. The Subjunctive, when they denote a dependence
of one event upon another. Thus,
1. In any Tense^ when the accessory notion of purpose or cause is in-
volved :
Priusquam inclpias, consuUo dpus est, Before you begin there is need 4^
deliberation, L e., as preparatory to your begfoning. Sail Tempestas mlnS-
tur, antSquam surgat, The tempest threatens, btfore it rises, L e., the threaten-
ing of the tempest naturally precedes its rising. Sen. «
2. In the Imperfect and IfupetfeOy as the regular construction innetr-
ration, because the one event is generally treated as the occasion or natu-
ral antecedent of the other. See also 471. 4.
AntSquam urbem cSpi&rent, before they took the city, Liv. Priusquam
de meo adventn audire pdtuissent, in M&c6ddniam perrexi, Btfore they were
able to hear ofm/y approach, I went into Macedonia, Cic.
8. Pfidie guam takes the same moods as Priusquam,
11
242 suBJUNcnvs.
1) IirvxoATiTV OK 8irB Jui i O T ivK .~WHh an^^^/uam and pritM^uam^ the Indica-
tiye and Sabjanctiye are sometimes used withoat any apparent difference of meaning,
bat the Babjanctive probably denotes a closer connection between the two events :
Ante de incommddis dXco, paaca dXcenda, Before I (actually) »p«ak of dUad--
vaniagei, a few thinge ehould he mentioned, Cic. Antdquam de re pablica dicam,
ezp^^nam consUlam, Before I speak qfike republic^ J will set forth my plan. Cic.
2) AxTm—quAM, F^us—^uam. — ^Tbe two parts of which antSqiuxm^ privsqtuim^
and postquam are compounded are often separated, so that ante^ prius, or post
stands in the principal clause and quam in the subordinate clause :
Pauds ante diebns, quam ByrficOsae cipdrentur, a fow days hefore Syracuse
wu taken, Llr. See TYnesis, 704. lY. 8.
VJI, SuBJUNCnVB IN iNDIEBCr QUESTIONS.
524. A clause which involves a question without di-^
rectly asking it, is called an indirect or dependent question.
BVLE XLV.— Indirect ttaestions.
525. The Subjunctive is used in Indirect Questions :
Quid dies fdrat incertum est^ What a day may bring forth is uncer-
tain. Cic. Quaeiitur, cur doctissTini homuies dissentiant, It is a qitestton,
why the most learned men disease. Cic. Qnaesi^rafi, nonne p&tarem, you
had asked whether I did not think, Cic. QuSlis sit gimnus, fimmus nescit,
The soul knows not what the sold is, Cic.
1. With Ikterrooattyes. — Indirect or Dependent questions, like those
not dependent, are introduced by interrogative words: guidf cur, nonne,
qttdlis, etc. ; rarely by si, sive, seu^ whether ; vt, how. See examples above.
2. Sdbstantitb Force.— Indirect questions are used substantively, and
generally, though not always, supply the place of subjects or objects of verbs.
But an Accusative, referring to the same person or thing as the subject of
the question, is sometimes inserted after the leading verb.
Ego ilium nescio qui fu&rit, Ida not know (him), who he was, Ter.
8. DiBicT AND Indirect.— An indirect question may be readily changed
to a direct or independent question.
Thos the direct question involved In the first example is : QtUd dies f^ret^
What will a day bring forth ? So In the second : Our doctisAmi AdtiAnes dissentu
wU, Wky do the most learned men disagree ?
4. SuBJUNcnvB OMiTTED.--After nescio quis, I know not who = quOdam,
some one ; nescio gtt&mddo, I know not how, etc., as also after mUrum quan-
tum, it is wonderful how much = wonderfully much, very much, there is an
elUpsis of the Subjunctive:
Nescio quid ftn|mus praeaSgit, The mind fon^des, I know not what (it
forebodes, /wa«wf^rMrf,understpod). Ter. Id mlrum quantum prSfuit TMs
r^^fiM, U is wonderful how nmh^ i. e., it wonderfuUy proated. Liv.
INDIBECT QUESTIONS. 243
6. Ikdirect QuEsnoNB Distinguishbd. — Indirect Questions most be care-
fully distinguished from certain similar forms. Thus,
1) From BelcUive Ctauseg. — Glauses introduced by Relative Pronouns or
Relative Adverbs always have an antecedent or correlative expressed or un-
derstood, and are never, as a whole, the subject or object of a verb, while
Indirect Questions are gaierally so used :
Dibam quod sentio (reL clause), I wiU tdl that which (id qaod) / thinl,
Cic. Dicam quid intellXgam (indirect qtiestion), I wiU tell whai I know,
Gic. QuaerSmus iibi m&15f Icium est, Let us seek there (Ibi) where the crime
is, Cic
In the first and third examples, quod sentio and 'Sbi—tst are not questions, bat
relative clauses ; id is nnderstood as the antecedent of quod^ and Vbi as the antece-
dent or correlative of ^i ; but In the second example, quid intelRgam is an indirect
qnestion and the object of dlcam : I will tsU (what?) what Iknow^ L e., will answer
that question.
2) From Direct Questions and Exclamations :
Quid &gendum est ? Nescio, Whai is to be done T I know not, Cic.
Ylde I quam conversa res est. See / how changed is the case* Cic.
6. lNDiCA.TrvB IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS. — The Indicative in Indirect Ques-
tions is sometimes used in the poets ; especially in Hautus and Terence :
Si mfimdrSre v61im, quam fldfili ilnlmo fui, possum, fflwish to mention
how much fidelity I showedf lam ahU, Ter.
7. Questions in the O&atio Obliqua. See 530. IL 2.
526. Single and Double Questions. — ^Indirect c[ues-
tions, like those which are direct (346. II.), xuay be either
single or double.
I. An Indirect Single Question is generally introduced by some inter-
rogative word — either a pronoun, adjective, or adverb, or one of the parti-
cles ne^ nonne^ num. Here num does not imply negation :
R5gltat qui vir esset (481. IV.), He asked who he was. Liv. EpSmlnon-
das quaeslvit, salvasne esset cllpeus, JSpaminondas inquired whether his
shield was safe. Cic. Dtiblto num debeam, / doubt whether I ought, Plin.
See also the examples under the Rule, 525.
n. An Indy^ct Double Question {whether — or) admits of two con-
structions :
1. It generally takes vtrum otne in the first member, and an in the
second :
Qaaerltur, virtus suamne propter dignltStem, an propter fructus ftUquos
exp^tfitur. It is asked whether virtue is soughJb for Us own worthy or for cer-
tain advantages, Cic.
2. But sometimes it omits the particle in the first'member, and takes
an or ne in the second. Other forms are rare :
Quaerltur, nStara an doctrlna possit effici virtus. It is asked whether vir-
tue can be secured by nature or by education, Cic. See also 346. 1. 1).
244 suBJUKcriVB.
1) In the leeoiidiiMiiibertiMaM, sometimes al»nof^ is ased in tlie sense of or «o<;
Sipientis befltos eff ieiat necne, qnaestio est, Whdhtr or not wisdom makes mm
^PPVt *• ^ fftiesMoii. Cle.
2) ^n. In the sense of tohethtr not^ Implying an afiSrmatire, is used after veita
and exproasions of doaht and uncertainty: diiMto an, neado an, hattd sdo an, I
doubt whether not, I know not whether not = I am inclined to think; dUbitim est
an, inesrium sst an, it Is uncertain whether not = it is probable:
D&bltoan Thrisj^b&lum primum omnium pdman, I dovbi whether Ishouldnot
place Thrasjfbuiusjtrst qfaU^ L e^ I am inclined to think I should. Kep.
S) Am sometimes has the force of aut, perhaps by the omission of ineertvm est^
as used aboTe :
BImdnldes an qnis UinS| Simonides or some other one, Qit,
VlLL SuBJUNCnVB BY AlTEACnON.
BXTLE ZLyi.-*AttractioiL
527. The Subjunctive by Attraction is often used
in clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive :
V^reor, ne, dum mXnugre ySlim Btborem, augeam, I fear I i/iaU in-
crease the labor^ while I wish to diminish iL Cic Tempus est hujusm<id],
ut, iibi quisque sit, ibi esse minime vSlit, The time is of such a character
that every one wishes to be least of all where he is. Cic Mos est, ut ^caft
sententiam, qui Tglit| The custom is that he who wishes es^esses his opin-
ion, Cic.
1. Appucation. — This rule is applicable to clauses introduced by con-
junctionSj adverbs, or relatives. Thus, in the examples, the clauses intro-
duced by dum, ubi, and qui, take the subjunctive, because they are dependent
upon clauses which have the subjunctive. ^
2. Indioattvb OB SuBJCNcnvs. — Such clauses generally take,
1) The Indicative, when ibey are in a meBsxae parenthetical or give spe-
cial prominence to the/a<^ stated :
Mnites misit, ut eos qui ftgirant pers^u&rentur, JSe sent soldiers to pur-
sue those who had fled, L e., the fugitives. Caes. Tanta vis prdbltStis est,
ut earn, vel in iis quos nunquam vidimus, diligSmus, Such is the force of in-
tegrity that we love it even in those whom we have never seen, Cic.
The Indicative with dum is very common, especially in the poets and historians:
FuSre qui, dum d&b!tat Scaevlnns, hortSreutur Pisonem, TTiere were those who
exhorted JPiso, while Scaevinus hesitated, Tac. See also 467. 4.
2) The Sttt(funcUve, when the clauses are essential to the general thought
of the sentence, as in the examples under the rule.
8. Aftbr Infinitive Clauses. — The principle just stated (2) applies
also to the use of Moods in clauses dependent upon the InfiuitiTe. This
ATTBACnONt INDIBSCT DISCOUBSB. 245
often explains the Sabjanctive in a condition belonging to an Infinitive,
especially with nan possum:
Nee b<$nlta8 esse pdtest, si non per se ezp^tiEtur, Nor can goodness exist
(= it is not possible that), ifU%sn(ft sought for Uself. Cic.
But clauses dependent upon the Infinitive are found most firequentlj
in the Oratio ObUqua and are accordingly provided for by 529.
IX. SuBjuNcnvB IN Indibect Discoubse, —
Oratio OUiqua.
528. When a writer or speaker expresses thoughts,
whether his own or those of another, in any other form than
in the original words of the author, he is said to use the
Indirect Discourse — OrcUio Obhqua:
PUtdnem fSrunt in Mliam vSnisse, They say that Plato eame into
Italy, Cic. Bespondeo te doldrem ferre moder&te, I reply that you bear
the <Metion with moderation, Cic. Utilem arbitror esse scientiam, I think
ihatlnowledge ii usefuL Cic.
1. DiRBCT Aim Indibbct.— In distinction fh>m the Indirect Discourse —
Oratio Obliqva, the original words of the author are said to be in the Direct
"DlacouTBie^Oratio JBeota, Thus in the first example, HaKhiem in Jtaliam
vdnisse is in the indirect discourse ; in the direct, i. e., in the original words
of those who made the statement, it would be : Plato in Italiam vinit,
2. Quotation. — ^Wofds quoted without change belong of course to the
Direct Discourse :
Rex "duumvlros" inquit *' secundum legem f&cio," The hing said, **I
appoint duumoirs according to law,** Liv.
BVLE XLVn.— Subjnnctiye in Indirect Disoourse.
529. The Subjunctive is generallj used in the In-
terrogative, Imperative, and Subordinate clauses of the
Oratio Obliqua :
Ad pofitiilftta CaesSris respondit, cur vSnIret (direct: cur vSnis ?), To
the demands of Caesar he replied^ why did he come, Caes. Scrlbit L&bieno
cum ISgiOne vSniat {direct i cum 18gi6ne v5ni), He writes to Labienus to
come (that he should come) loiih a legion, Caes. Hippias glOriatus est,
annulum quern hSbSret (direct : hftbeo) se sua mXnu conrBcisse, Hippias
boasted that he had made mtk his own hand the ring which he wore, Cia
NoTB. — ^For convenience of reference the following outline of the use
of Moods, Tenses, Pronouns, etc. in the Oratio Obllqua is here inserted.'
246 ORATIO OBLIQUA.
530. Moods in Principal Clauses. — ^The Principal
clauses of the Direct discourse, on becoming Indirect,
undergo the following clfanges of Mood :
I. When Declarative^ they take the Infinitive (551) :
DicCbat ftnlmos esse dlvlnos (direct : HnXmi sunt dWini\ He was wont
to say that souls wer* divine, Cic. PlStOnem TSrentum vgnisse reperio
(Flato Tareniam venit), I find thai Plato came to Tarentum. Cic. CSto
mlrari se (miror) &iSbat, Caio was wont to say that he toondered. Cic.
n. When Interrogative or Imperative^ they generally
take the Subjunctive according to Rule XLVIL
1. Ykrb Okittbd. — The yerb on which the Infinitiye depends is often
omitted, or only implied in some preceding yerb or expression ; especially
after the Sabjunctiye of Purpose :
Pythia praecSpit ut Milti&dem impSrStSrem samSrent j incepta pros-
p£ra fdttlra, Pythia commanded that they should take MiUiades as their com-
mander, (telling them) that their efforts would he successful, Nep.
2. Rhetorical Questions. — Questions which are such only in form,
requiring no answer, are generally construed, according to sense, in the
Infinitlye. They are sometimes called Rhetorical questions, as they are
often used for Rhetorical effect instead of assertions : thus numpossit, can
he ? for non pdtesty he can not ; quid sit turpius, what is more base ? for
nihil est turpius, nothing is more base.
Here belong many questions which in the direct form haye the yerb in
the first or third person :
Respondit num mSmdriam dfiponSre posse. Be replied, could he lay
aside the recollection. Caes. Here the direct question would be: Num
mgmdriam depSnSre possim ¥
8. I]iPBSA.TiyB Clauses with the iKFiNiTiyE. See 551. II. 1.
531. Moods in Subordinate Clauses. — ^The Subor-
dinate clauses of the Direct discourse, on becoming Indi-
rect, put their finite verbs in the Subjunctive :
Or&bant, ut stbi auxUium ferret quod prgmSrentur {direct : nobis
auxflium fer, quod prSmXmur), They prayed that he would bring them help^
because they were oppressed. Caes.
1. iNFiNiTiyE IN RELATiyB CLAUSES. — It must be remembered (453),
that Relatiye clauses, though subordinate in form, sometimes haye the force
of Principal clauses. When thus used in the Oratio Obllqua, they may be
construed with the Infinitiye :
Ad eum defertur, esse piyem R5mSnum qui quSrSretur : quern (= et
eum) asseryStum esse. It was reported to him thai there was a Soman citizen
who made a complaint, and tJuxt he had been placed under guard, Cic. So
also comparisons : Te 8usp!cor iisdem, quibus me ipsum, commdydri, IsfU-
pect tJiat you are moved by the sam^ things as lam, Cic.
MOODS AND TENSES. 247
2. Inpinitivb after certain Conjunctions. — The Infinitire occurs, es-
pecially in Livy and Tacitus, even in clauses after quiOf quum, quamquam,
and some other conjunctions : #
Dicit, se moenibus inclasos tSnSre eos ; quia per agros y&gSri, Ee 8ay$
that Tie keeps them shut up toUhin the walUy because (otherwise) they would
wander through the fields, Liy. See also 551. I. 5 and 6.
3. Indicative in Parenthetical Clauses. — Clauses may be introduced
parenthetically in the oratio obliqua without strictly forming a part of it,
and may accordingly take the Indicative :
R&ferunt silvam esse, quae appellStur B&cGnis, They report that there
is a forest which is called £acenis, Caes.
4. Indicative in Clauses not Parenthetical. — Sometimes clauses not
parenthetical take the Indicative to give prominence to the fact stated.
This occurs most frequently in Kelative clauses :
Certior factus est ex ea parte vici, quam Gallis concessSrat, omnes
discessisse, He was informed that all had withdrawn from that part of the
village which he had assigned to the Gauls, Caes.
532. Tenses. — Tenses in the Oratio Obliqna generally
conform to the ordinary rules for Infinitive and Subjunc-
tive Tenses (480, 640)/but the law of Sequence of Tenses
admits of certain qualifications :
1. The Present and Perfect may be used even after a Historical tense,
to impart a more lively effect to the narrative :
Caesar respondit, si obsldes sibi dentur, s6se pScem esse factarum, Cae-
sar replied^ that if hostages should be given him, he would makepeace, Caer.
2. In Conditional sentences of the third form (610),
1) The condition retains the Imperfect or Pluperfect without reference
to the tense of the Principal verb ;
2) The Conclusion changes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive
into the Periphrastic Infinitives in rus esse and rusfuisse :
Censes PompSium laetatQrum fuisse, si sciret. Do you think Brnipey
would have r^oiced, if he had known T Cic. CiSmitSbat, si ille &desset, ven-
tures esse, He cried out that they would come, if he were present, Caes.
But the Begalar Infinitive, instead of the perlphrastio forms, sometimes occurs
in this construction, especially In expressions of Duiyt etc. (475. 4).
3. Conditional Sentences of the second form (509), after Historical
tenses, sometimes retain in their con^tional clauses the Present or Peiv
feet and sometimes change it to the Imperfect or Pluperfect, according to
the Rule for Sequence of Tenses (480) :
Respondit, si expSriri vfilint, pSrStum esse. He replied, if they wished
to make the trial he was ready, Caes. LggStos mittit, si ita fecisset, amicl-
tiam fiituram. He sent messengers saying that, if he would do thus, there would
be friendship. Caes.
248 OBATIO OBLIQUA. IMPEBAnVK.
Hen mitfilli the Htotorical FKsent. Bee467.in.
4. The Fature Perfect in a Subordinate clause of the Direct discoorse
ia changed in the Indirect int« the Perfect Subjunctire after a Prmcipal
tenae, and into the Plaperfect BabjnnctiTe after a Historical tense :
Agont ut dlmlcent ; Ibi impl^riiim fSre, unde victSria fu6rit» They ar-
range that tkey ahaU fight; that ike eavereignty thaU he on the tide which
thaU win the tietory (whence the Tictorr may haye been). Liv. Apparebat
regnStftrom^ qui Tlcisset, It woe evident that he wovld be hi»g who should
eonquer, Liv.
533. Pronouns^ Adtbbbs, etc. — Pronoans and ad-
Tcrbs, as also the persons of the verbs, are often cbanged
in passing from the Direct discourse to the Indirect :
GlOriatus est ann&lum se sua mftnu conf^isse {direct: anniilum ego
mea mSnu conflici), He boasted that he had made the ring vnth his own
hand. CSc.
!• F^ooiins of first and second persons are often changed to the
third. Thns above l^o in the direct discoorse becomes «e^ and mea becomes
eua. In the same way hie and iste are often changed to ills.
8. Adverbs meaning here or now are often change to those meaning
there or then ; nunc to turn ; hie to UUc.
8. In the use of pronouns obserre
1) That references to the Spkakeb whose words are reported are made.
If of the Ist Pers. by ego^ meus, noster, etc., if of the 2d Pers. by tu, tvue,
etc., and if of the 8d Pers. by sui, suvs, ipse, etc., though sometimes by
hie, is, ille.
2) That refereiioes to the RiPOKns, or Antbor, are made by ego,
metis, etc.
8) That references to the Pbbsos AnnBESSEn by the reporter are made
by tu, tuus, etc
Ariovistus respondit nos esse Inlquos qui se interpellSremns (direct :
Tos estis Inlqui qui me, etc), Ariooistua repUed that we vtere unjvst who
interrupted him. Gaes.
Here nos refers to the Reporter^ Onesar, we Romans. Se refers to the Speaker,
ArioTlAtnA. In the aeoond example under S28» te refers to the Pereon Addressed.
SECTION YH.
IMP ERA Tl TS.
. I. Tensis OP THB Imperative.
534. The Imperative has but two Tenses :
L The Pbesent has only the Second person, and cor-
responds to the English Imperative :
Justttiam cole. Practise justice. Cic Perge, CXttUna, €h>, Catiline, CSc
impebahve. 249
n. The Future has the Second and Third persons, and
corresponds to the imperative use of the English Future
with maUy or to the Imperative Ut :
li oonsiUes appellantor, They shall he adled eonntU, or lei them be
catted eonstiU, CTic. Quod dixSro, fScitote, You ahaU do what I eay (shall
have said). Ter.
1. FuTURB FOB PRESBMT.—The Future Imperative is sometimes used
where we should expect the Present :
Qudniam supplIcStio decreta est, c^lebrBtQte illos dies, Since a thanht'
giving hoe been decreed, celebrate thoee days. Cic.
This is particalsrly common in certain verbs : thus edo has only the forms of
the Future in common ose.
2. Present for Fcturb.— The Imperative Present is often used in poetry,
and sometimes in prose, of an action which belongs entirely to the future :
• Ubi ftciem vld5ris, turn ordlnes disslpa, When you thall see the line of
battle, then ecaiter the ranks. Li v.
II. Use of the Imperative.
BTTLE XLVIII.— Imperative.
535. The Imperative is used in commands, exhor-
tations, and entreaties :
Justiftiam c51e, Pradke justice, Cic. Tu ne cede mAlis, Do not yidd
to misfortunes, Virg. Si quid in te peccftvi, ignosce, If I have sinned
against you, pardon m€» Cia
1. CiRCUMLoctmoire.— Instead of the simple Imperative, several circum-
locutions are common :
1) OOra uty/ae vt,fae, each with the Subjunctive :
GQra ut vSnias, See thai you come, Cic. See 489.
2) Fac ne, cave ne, cave, with the Subjunctive ;
CSve f Scias, Beware qf doing it, or see that you do not do it, Cic.
8) mii, ndlUe, with the Infinitive:
NOli ImltSri, do not imitate. Cic. See 638. 2.
2. iMPBRAnvB Clause fob CoifDinoif.— An Imperative clause may be
used instead of a Conditional clause :
LAcesse; jam vldfibis f&rentem, Provoke him (i. e., if you provoke him),
you will at once see him frantic, Cic.
8. IiiPBRAnvB SupPLiBO.—The place of the Imperative may be variously
supplied :
1) By the Subjunctive of Desire (487) :
Sint beSti, Let them be happy, Cic. Impii ne audeant, Let not the im'
pious dare, Cic.
11*
250 IMPEBATiyE. INFINITIVE.
2) By the Indicatiye Future :
Quod optimum ▼Idfibltur, ftcies, 7ou will do (for Imper. do) whai 8haU
Htmhett. Cic
536. The Imperative Present, like the English Impera-
tive, is used in commands, exhortations, and entreaties.
See examples mider the Rule.
537. The Imperative Future is used,
I. In commands involving future rather than present
action :
Rem pendltSte, You sJiaU carmder the mbjed, Cic. Gras p^tito ; d^i-
tur, Ask to-morrow ; it shall be granted, Plaut.
II. In laws, orders, precepts, etc. :
Cons&les nemini p&rento, The eonsub shall be svhjeet to no one, Cic.
S^us pdpuli suprema lex esto, The safety of the people shall be ^ supreme
law. Cic.
538. Imperative in PROHinrnoNS. — ^In prohibitions
or negative commands,
1. The negative ne^ rarely non, accompanies the Imper- .
ative, and if a connective is required, neve^ or neu^ is gen-
erally used, rarely n^qtte :
Tu ne cede m^is, Do not yield to misfortunes. Virg. Hominem mor-
tuum in urbe ne agpftlito, nfive arito, Tfum shall not bury or bum a dead
body in the city. Cic.
2. Instead of ne with the Present Imperative, the best
prose writers generally use noli and nolite with the Infini-
tive:
N5Ute putare {for ne pQt&te), do not (hinh (be unwilling to think). Cic.
SECTION VIII.
IKFINITIVK
539. The treatment of the Latin Infinitive embraces
lour topics :
I. The Tenses of the Infinitive.
n. The Subject of the Infinitive.
ni. The Predicate after the Infinitive.
IV. Tbe Construction of the Infinitive.
iNPiNinvB. 251
I. Tenses of the Infinitive.
540. The Infinitive has three tenses, Present, Perfect,
and Future, They express however not absolute, but rel-
ative time, denoting respectively Present, Past, or Future
time, relatively to the Principal verb.
1. Pegtliabities.— These tenses present the leading peculiarities specifled onder
these tenses in the Indicative. See. 467. 2.
541. The Pbesent Infinitive represents the action
as taking place at the time denoted by the principal verb :
Cupio me esse clementem, I desire to he mild. Cic. MSluit se dlligi
quam mfetui, He preferred to be loved rather than feared. Nep.
1. Keal Timk — Hence the real time denoted by the Present Infinitive is the
time of the verb on which it dei>ends.
2. Pbesknt fob Futube.— The Present is sometimes osed for the Fntnre and
sometimes has little or no reference to time :
Cras argentom ddre dixit, He eaid he would give the eUver to-morrow. Ter.
3. Pbesent with Dbbeo, Possum, etc— After the past tenses of d&>eo, dportet,
possumy and the like, the Present Infinitive is used where our idiom would lead us
to expect the Perfect ; sometimes also after mimlni, and the like :
DGbult oificiOsior esse, He ought to have been more attentive, Cic. Id pdtuit
fucurc, He might have done this. Cic.
542. The Peefect Infinitive represents the action as
completed at the time denoted by the principal verb :
Pl&t5nem fSrunt in ItSliam vfinisse, Th^ say that Plato came into Italy.
Cic. Conscins mihi 5ram, nihil a me commissum esse, I was conscious to
myself that no offence had been committed by me. Cic.
1. Real Time.— Hence the real time denoted by the Perfect Infinitive is that
of the Perfect tense, if dependent upon the Present, and that of the Pluperfect, if de-
pendent upon a Historical tense, as in the examples.
2. Peefect fob Present.— In the poets the Perfect Infinitive is sometimes used
for the Present, rai*ely in prose :
TStigisse timont poetam, Th&yfear to touch (to have touched) the poet. Hor.
8. Passiyb Infinitive.— The Passive Infinitive with esse sometimes denotes
the result of the action : viettis esse, to have been vanquished, and so, to be a van-
quished mao. Fuisae for esse emphasizes the completeness of the action : vietus
faisse^ to have been vanquished. See 675. 1.
643. The Futitkb Infinitive represents the action
as about to take place in time subsequent to that of the
principal verb :
Brfltum visum Iri a me piito, I think JSnitus will be seen by m^e. Cic.
Oraciilum dStum firat victrlces Athflnas f5re, An oracle had been given, that
Athens would be victorious. Cic.
Hence after a Principal tense the r6al time of the Future Infinitive is Future, but
after a Historical tense the real time can be determined only by the context.
252 INFENinvXL
644. Circumlocution for Future Inflnitivic — In-
stead of the regular Fature iDfinitive, the circumlocution
fuJtHLfwn esse ut, or fore uty with the Subjunctive, — ^Present
alter a Principal tense, and Imperfect after a Historical
tense, — is frequently used :
8p€ro f5re iit contingat id nSbis, / hope thu toiUfaU to our lot (I bope
it will come to pass that this may happen to ns). Cic. Nod spiri^virat Han-
nibal, fSre nt ad se d6f Ic&renty BauiniJbal kad %ot hoped that thepwovldrevoU
tohim. Ur. See55e. IL 1.
1. CnouxLOOunoir ksobbbabt.— ^^WSfmrn eats ut, oryHreiO, with the Sabjan»>
tlye, for the Fatan Inflnittye, Is eommoa Id th* FaBsIve, sad is morecrer aeceiaaiy
In both voiees In all verbs which want the Sopine and the Partleiple in riMt.
&. FoBX UT WRB Pkbvbct SvMUMCTiva.— Sonietlme8>9rtf nt with the Snbjane'
tive. Perfect or Plap«rfeet» is used with the force of a Fatarc Peifact ; and ia PaasiTe
and Deponent Terbs»/9r» with the Perfect Participle auij he used with the same
force:
Slee me sitis ideptnm I5re, I say thai IshaU have obtained eneuc^ Ga
& FvTvairii nnssa vt wrh B.imnnsartrB^'^FAtfirwm/Meae ut with the Sab-
jnnetiye may be used in the eondasion of a conditional sentence of the third form
when made dependent:
Nisi nantil essent allltl, exlsflmsbant ffitnram fhlsse, nt oppidam imittSretoiv
They thought that the town wnUd have been loet, if iidinge had net been brougkL
Caes. See 638.2,
n. Subject of IxFiKinyR.
BVLE XLIX.— Subject
545. The Subject of an Infinitive is put in the Alt?
cusative:
SentSmns eSISre ignem, We perceive thai fire ie hot, Cio. PlStunem
T&entmn TeniBse r^piiio, I find thai FUdo came to TarenJtmn, Gie.
1. HisTOBiOAL Ikfinitiyb.— In lirdj descriptioii the Infinitive is some*
times used for the Indicative Imperfect It is then called the Historical In-
finitive, and, like a finite verb, has its sabject in the Nominative:
Hostes gaesa oonjlcftre, The enemy hurled their JaveUne. Caes.
The Historical Infinitive may often be ezphiined bj supplying eoepit or coepe-
runt; but in most instances it is better to treat it simply as an idiom of the langaage.
2. Subject Omitted. — The Subject of an Infimtire may be omitted :
1) When it denotes the same person or thing as the subject of the prin-
cipal clause, or may be readily supplied from the context :
Magna nftgCtia vdlunt &g6re, Iheywieh to accomplish ffreai vndertaHnye,
Cio. PeocSre licet ndmini, /tie not lauful/or any one to tin, Oic
iNPunnvB. 263
2) .When it is indefinite or general :
Dnigi jtlcandam est, It iapleaatmt to he laeed. CSc.
3. Iotinitivb Omitted.— j&^ and fuisae are often omitted in the
compound forms of the Infinitive and with predicate adjectives, other in-
finitives leas frequently (551. 5) :
AndlFi sdlltam Fabricinm, / have heard that Fabriciue woe wmt, Cic;
Spdrflmos nobis prOf&taros, We hope to benefit you. Cic.
m. Predicate afteb iNrnnrmiR.
546. A Predicate "Norm or Adjective after an Infinitive
regalarly agre^^s with the Subject, expressed or understood
(362.3) :
Ego me Phldiam esse mallem, /tfAotf^ /ir^«r ^ ^ PAi(2«a«. Cic. TrSdl'
turn est, Hdmenim caecum faisse, It has been handed down by tradition-
that Homer woe blind, Cic. Jftgurtha omnibus cSrus esse {historiatl infini-
tive), Jugurtha was dear to all. Sail.
647. A Predicate Noun or Adjective, after an Infinitive
whose Subject is omitted, is often attracted into the Kom-
inative or Dative :
L It is attracted into the Nominative to agree with the Snb*
ject of the principal verb, when the latter is the same person of
thiDg as the omitted Subject :
Nolo esse laudator, lam unwilling to he an eulogist,' Cic. Befltus ease
iine virtQte nemo potest, No one can he happy without virtue. Cic
1. This occurs most frequently (1) after verbs of duty, ability, courage,
custom, desire, beginning, continuing, ending, and the like— debeo, posBum,
audeOy sOleo, cfipio, vdlo, mSlo, uQlo, inclpioy pergo, dSsIno, etc., and (2)
after Various Passive verbs of saying, thinting, finding, seeming, and the
like—dlcor, trIdor,f%ror — credor, ezistimor, pfitor— ripSrior— videor, etc.:
Quis scientior esse debuit, Who ought to have been more learned f Cic.
P&rens dici pdtest, Me can be called a parent. Cic. Stolcus esse vdluit, He
wished to be a Stoic. Cic. Deslnant esse timldi, Let them eease to be timid.
Cic. Inventor esse dicltur, He is said to be the inventor. Cic. Prfkdens
esse pfitfibStur, He was thought to be prudent. Cic.
2. Participles in the compound tenses of the Infinitive are also attracted :
PolUcItus esse dieitur, He is said to have promised. Cic.
n. The Predicate Nonn or Adjective is sometimes attracted in-
to the Dative to agree with a Dative in the principal clause, when
the latter denotes tibie same person or thing as the omitted Subject :
Patricio trfbQno plebis fidri non licSbat, R was not lawful for a patri^
eian to he made tribune of the people. Cic. Mihi negligent! esse non licuit,
H Wiu n^ permitted me to he negugent. Cic.
254 iNFiNmyE.
1. This Is rare, bat is the regular oonatraetlon after Hcet, and Bometimes oecurs
after nieeaas eti, when lued after Aoe^ and oocasionallj in other connections :
IlIU timldJs licet ease, ndbis nSoeaae est fortTbns viris esse. It U permitted them
to h6 timid, it is neeeaaaryjbr uatobe brow men. Liv. Bat,
2. Even with Licet the attraction does not always take place :
£i consulem fiSri licet, It ie lattful/br him to &s made conetU. Caes.
IV. Construction of the Infinitive.
548. The Infinitive, with or without a Subject, has in
general the construction of a Noun in the Nominative or
Accusative, and is used,
I. As a Nominative — Subject of a Verb.
II. As an Accusative — Object of a Verb.
ni. In Special Constructions.
I. Infinitive as Subject
54:9. The Infinitive, with or without a Subject, is often
used as a Nominative, and is thus made the Subject of a
sentence, according to Rule III. :
With Subject. — F&cinus est vinclrl civem BCmSnuni, That a Somau
citizen should he hound is a crime. Cic. Certain est liberos &mari, It ia cer-
tain that children are loved. Quint Legem brSvem esse 5portet, It is neces-
sary that a law he brief. Sen.
Without Subject.— Ars est diflficllis rem publicam r^g^re, To rule a
state is a difficult art. Cic. CSrum essejtlcundam est, It is pleasant to he held
dear. Cic. Haec scire jiivat, To know these things affords pleasure. Sen.
PeccSre licet nfimini, To sin is not lawful for any one. Cic.
1. IifPiNiTivK AS Subject.— When the subject is an Infinitire, the Predi-
cate is either (1) a Noun or Adjective with Bum^ or (2) an Impersonal verb
or a verb used Impersonally. See the examples above.
1) Tempus = tempestlvum is thus used with the Infinitive :
Tempas est dicdre, It ia time to apeak. Cic
2. Infinitive as Subject op an Infinitive. — The Infinitive may be the
subject of another Infinitive :
Intelligi nScesse est esse deos, H must he understood that tJtere are gods,
Cic. Esse deos is the subject of intelligi, and intelligi esse deos of necesse est.
8. Infinitive with Demonstrativb.— The Infinitive sometimes takes a
Demonstrative as an attributive in agreement with it :
Quibusdam hoc displicet phildsdphSri, This philosophizing (this to phi-
losophize) displeases some persons, Cic. YirSre ipsum turpe est nGbis, To
live ia itself ignoble for ua. Cic.
4-. Personal construction for Impersonal.— With Passive verbs, in-
stead of the Infinitive with a subject accusative, a Personal construction is
INFINITIVE. 265
common, by which the Subject Accusative becomes the Subject Nominatiye
of the leading verb :
Aristldes justisslmus fuisse trSdItur (for Aristldem Justisdmum fuisse
tradUur)^ Aristides is said to have been most just. Cic.
1) The Personal Construction isused, (1) regularly with «trf«?r, y«Jdor,
vUoTy and the Simple Tenses of many verbs of saying, thinking, and the
like — dlcor, trddoTy ferar, perhtbeoTy putor^ existimorf etc., also with coeptus
sum and desUus sum with a Passive Infinitive, and (2) sometimes with other
verbs oi saying ^ showing, per ceivingy finding, and the like.
SSlem e mundo toll^re vXdentur, They seem to remove the sun from the
world, Cic. PlStSnem audivisse dicitur, JSe is said to have heard Plato, Cic.
Dii beSti esse intelliguntur. The gods are tmderstood to be happy, Cic.
2) In successive clauses the Personal construction is often followed by
the Impersonal.
8) Vldeor with or without a Dative often means to fancy, think :
mihi videor or videor, I fancy ; ut vidSm/ur, as we fancy.
IZ Infinitive as Object.
650. The Infinitive, with or without a Subject, is often
used as an Accusative, and is thus made the object of a
verb, according to Rule V. :
Te dicunt esse sSpientem, They say thai you are loise, Cic. Haec
vltare ciipimus, We desire to avoid these tilings. Cic. MSnSre d6cr6vit.
He decided to remain. Nep.
651. Infinitive with Subject Accusative. — This is
used as object with a great variety of verbs. Thus,
I. With Verbs of Perceiving and Declaring, — Verba
Sentiendi et Declarandi,
II. With Verbs of Wishing and Desiring.
HI. With Verbs of Emotion and Feeling.
I. With Verbs op Perceiving and Declaring. — Sentlmus c£l€re
iguem, We perceive thai fire is hot. Cic. Mihi narravit te sollicitum esse,
He told me thai you were troubled. Cic. Scripserunt ThSmistoclem in Asiam
transisse, They vorote thai Themistoclea had ff one over to Asia, Nep.
1. Verba Sentiendi. — Verbs of Perceiving include those which involve
(1) the exercise of the senses : audio, video, sentio, etc., and (2) the exercise
of the mind : thinking, believing, knowing, cdgUo, piUo, existiTno, C7'ddo,
«p^o, — intelligo, scio, etc.
2. Verba Declarandi. — Verbs of Declaring are such as state or commu-
nicate facts or thoughts : dioo, narro, nurUio, ddceOf ostendo, prdmitto, etc.
3. Expressions with the Force op Verbs. — The Infinitive with a sub-
ject may be used with expressions equivalent to verbs of perceiving and de-
claridg. Thus :
256 mjfmrnvjfc
With /kMi >M; nport my%, UUU nm^ I am • wltncft = I testify; eomdhn
mfhi nms I $m eansdoiui, I luow:
Kttilam mlbi rtlitam Mse gritSam, ta «s testia, Tou af a wUneu (cao testify)
Aa# HO grai^ul return ha$ bten made to ntek Cie.
4.' pAKnciPM fOB IwfUii T i f E .— Vcrfag of Perceiring take tbe Aocosatire
with the Present Participle, when the object is to be represented as actaall j
seen, beard, etc., while engaged in a gi^en action :
CitOnem tUU in bibiidthfioa sMentem, / taw Oato ntUng in the lihrary.
Cic
5. Subjects Compabkd. — ^Wfaen two subjects with tbe same predicate
are compared by means of quanit idem — ^«, etc ; if tbe Accusative with tbe
Infinitiye is used in tbe first clause, tbe Accusative with its Infinitive omitted
may follow in the second :
PlitSnem fSrunt Idem eensisse, qnod Pjthilgdram, Theif say that Plato
held the eame opinion as I^fthagorae. Cic.
Q. Pbboicatbs Compabbd.— When two predicates with tbe same subject
are compared and the Infinitive with a Subject is used in tbe first clause, the
Infinitive with its subject omitted often follows in the second :
Kum piitStis, dixisse Ant5nium mInScius quam factdmm fuisse. Do you
think Antony epohe more threateningly than he tffould have acted t Cic.
Bat the second clause may take the subjunctive, with or without u^.'
Andeo dicfire ipsos pdtlas cultdres agrdrum f5re qaam ut e51i proMbeant, I dare
aay that they will tKemeeUee heoome ttUere of the JMde rather than prevent them
fromUingtaied.Uy.
n. With Vebbs of Wishiko and Desiring. — ^The Infinitive with
Sulject Accusative is also used with verbs of WitJiing and Deeiring:
Te tua fmi virtQte cQpimas, We denre ikai you ehiofM enjoy your vir'
he, Cic. Pontem j&bet rescindi, He orders the hridye to he broken down
(that tbe bridge should be broken down). Caes. Lex eum necari vdtuit,
The law forbade that he should be put to death. Liv.
1. Verbs of Wi8HiN0.<^The Infinitive is thus used not only with verbs
which directly express a wish, e&pio, vdlo, ndlo, tndlo, etc., but also with
many which invdlve a wish or command : p&tior, stno, to permit ; im^pero,
JUbeOf to command ; proh^lbeOf veto, to forbid. See also 558. II.
2. SuBJUNcnvB FOB IhifUi iTivB.— SevcTal verbs involving a wish or
command admit the Subjunctive :
l)Opto. See 4^ 8.
2) Yolo, mSlo, ndlo, ImpSro, and Jiibeo admit the Subjunctive, generally with
utorne:
Ydlo ut respondeas, I wMi you tcould reply, Cic. Malo to hostls mStnat, I
pr^er that the enemy ehould/^r you. Cic.
8) Oonddo^ permttto, rarely pdtior and Ono, admit the Subjunctive with ut :
ConcSdo at haeo apta sint, I admit that theee things are suitdble, Gle.
III. With Yebbs of Emotion or Feelino. — ^The Infinitive witiL Sub-
ject Accusative is also used with verbs of Emotion or Feeling: *
TSYINTTIVB. 267
Gandeo, te mihi safidSre, I rejoice thai you adviae tne, Clc. Ulrftmur,
te laet&ri. We wonder that you rejoice, Cic.
Tcrbs of emotion are gaudto^ ddleo^ mlror^ quiror^ and the like ; also aegre
firo^ grdvUer/SrOf eta
552. Infinitive without Subject Accusative.— This
is used as Object with many verbs:
YinoSre scis, Tou know how to eomgwr (jott know to conquer). Lir.
Grediili esse ooeperunt, They began to be ereauUnu^ Cic. Haec vitOre ci^-
pimus, We desire to avoid these things, Cic Sdlent odgitftre, They are
acctutomed to think, Cic. Ndmo mortenvefittg^re pdtest, JVo one is able to
escape death, Cic.
1. Verbs with thi iNroanrs. — The Infinitive may depend upon verbs
signifying to dare^ deHre, determine— begin, eontinuef end—know^ learn, neg-
lect— owe, promise, etc., also to he able, be accustomed, be wont, etc.
2. Ikfinitivb as a Second Object. — ^With a few verbs—rfdwo, ebgo, as-
suefacio, arguo, etc.— the Infinitive is used in connection with a direct object ;
see 874. 4:
Te sap&re ddcet, Se teaches you to be wise, Cic. KStiQnes p5r&re assue-
i^cit, Jle accustomed the nations to obey. Cic.
In the Passive these verbs of course retain the Infinitive:
Nam sam Oraece 16qal ddcendos, Must I be taught to epeak Oreek t Cic
8. Imfuqtivb after ADjECTrvE8.^B7 a oonstroction according to sense,
the Infinitive is used after adjectives in the sense of participles or verbs with
the Infinitive :
Est pirStus {vuU) audire, Ee is prepared to hear (is willing to hear). Cic.
Pdlldes cfiddre nescins (= nesciens), JRdides not knowing how to yield,
Hor. Avidi committ^re pngnam, eager to engage battle, Ovid.
This construction is rare in good prose, but common in poetry.
4. Infinitive with Prepositions. — ^The Infinitive regarded as a noun in
the accusative, sometimes depends upon a preposition :
Multum interest inter d&re et acclpdre, There is a great d^ertMC bOween
giving and receiving. Sen.
IIL Infinitive in Special Constructions.
663. The Infinitive, with or without a Subject, is gen-
erally used as the Subject or Object of a verb, but some-
times occurs in other relations, it is thus used,
I. As Predicate ;*see 362 :
Exitus fuit 5rStiQnis : sibi nuUam cum his ftmlcltiam, The close of his
oration was that he had no friendship with these, Caes. Viv&re est cSgltSre,
To live is to think, Ctc.
Here «l5i— dmicUiam Is used substantively, and is the Predicate Noroinatlve
%K^TfuU, according to Bole L C^ffUdre is in the same GonatraoUon after est.
268 DfPiNinvE.
n. As Appositive ; see 363 :
Oricfilom dilnm int victilces AtbCnas fSre, Tks erode ikat Athens
would be tictorwtu had been given. Cic. lUod sdleo mirSri dou me accipftre
toaB littftns, / am a ecu sto m td to wonder at this, that I do not receive your
ItUer. Cic.
L With Suimsct.— In this oonstracttoii tbe InfiniUTe takes a sabject accosatiye,
as io tbe ezami^eaL
2. ExPLAHATiOH.— In tbe examples, the cbuse ridrieee Aihenas f5re is in ap-
position with drdc&lunit and the cUuue non me acdipire tuas littiras, ia apposition
with iUud,
JUL In Exclamations ; see 381 :
Te sic veziSri, that you should be thus troubled/ Cic. Mfine incepto dfi-
niaihre Tictam, thai I vanquished should abandon my undertaking/ Yirg.
1. With Sitbjzct. — In this constraction the Infinitive takes a Subject, as in the
examples,
2. ExPLAHATiOK.— This use of the Infinitive conforms, it wUl be observed, to the
nse of Accusative and Nominative in exclamations (SSI, 881. 8). It may often be ex-
plained as an Accus. by supplying some verb, as d6leo^ etc, or as a Norn, by supplying
eridendum est or cridibUe e«/L Thus the first example becomes : / ffriece (ddlen)
t?uzt you, etc., and the second becomes : Is it to be supposed (crgdendum est) that 1
vanquished, etc
8. Impassioned Questions.— This construction Is most frequent in impassioned
questions, as in the second example.
IV. As Ablative Absolute. See 431. 4.
V. To express Purpose :
PScus egit altos vlsSre montes, Ee drove his herd to visit the lofty moun-
tains. Hor. Non pdpiilSre pfinStes Tenlmus, We have not come to lay waste
your7u>mes. Virg.
This constraction is confined to poetry.
VI. Poetic InGnitive for Gerund. See 663. 6.
SECTION IX.
SUBJECT AND OBJECT CLAUSES.
654. Subject and Object Clauses, in which, as we have
just seen (549 and 650), the Infinitive is so freely used,
assume four distinct forms :
I. Indirect 'Questions. — These represent the Subject
or Object as Interrogative in character :
Quaerltur, cur dissentiant, It is asked why they disagree, Cic. Quid
ftgendum sit, nescio, I do not know whai ought to be done, Cic. See 525.
SUBJECT AND OBJECT CLAUSES 259
II. Infinitive Clauses. — ^Thesa have simply the force
of Nouns, merely supplymg the place of the Nominative,
or the Accusative :
AntScellSre contlgit, It was his good fortune to excel (to excel happened).
Cic. Magna nSgotia vdluit &g6re, Ife wished to thieve greai undertakings,
Cic. See 549, 650.
HE. SuBJUNcnvB Clauses. — ^These clauses introduced
by ut^ w€, etc., are only occasionally used as subject or ob-
ject, and even then involve Purpose or Result :
Contlgit ut patriam vindicSret, It was his good fortune to save his coun-
try. Nep. Ydio ut mihi respondeas, I wish you would answer me, Cic. See
492, 495.
Here ut-^indlcdret is at once subject and result : it wa3 bis good fortune to saye
his country, or his good fortune was such that he sared bis country. In the second
ezamplo, ut—respondeas expresses not only the object desired, but also the purpose
of the desire.
IV. Clauses with Quod. — ^These again are only occa-
sionally used as subject or object, and even then either give
prominence to the fsLCt stated, or present it as*a Ground or
Reason :
BSnSf icium est quod n&cesse est mdri. It is a blessing that it is necessary
to die. Seh. Gaudeo quod te interpeliSvi, I rejoice that (because) / have in-
terrupted you. Cic. See 520.
Clauses with quod sometimes stand at the beginning of sentences to announce
the subject of remark :
Quod me Agamemn5nem aemfiluri pfitas, fallSris,^« to the fact that you think I
emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken. Nep.
I. FoEMS OP Subject Clauses.
555. Interrogative. — Subject clauses which are in-
terrogative in character, of course take the form of indirect
questions. See 525. 2 and 554. 1.
556. Not Interrogative. — Subject clauses which are
not interrogative, with some predicates take the form of
Infinitive clauses, or clauses with quod; while with other
predicates they take the form of Subjunctive clauses with
uty nCy etc. Thus,
I. With most impersonal verbs and with predicates consisting
of est with a Noun or Adjective, the Subject may be supplied (1)
by the Infinitive with or without a Subject Accusative, or, (2) if
260 SUBJBCr AKD OBJBCT CULUSES.
the &ct is to be made pronunent or adduced as a reason, b j a
daose with quod:
Me poeoltet vixiBse, / reffrd that I have lived, Cic. Qnod te ofiendi me
poeoltet, /regret that (or because) I have qf ended you, Cic
I. BtnuTAirmra PEBDHUm wim Bpb j u Hiwi v * .— Moe est, mdris est, eonnie-
tlldo est, oouotftadlnU est, /< <• a euetom^ ete^ admit the SobJniictiTe for the Infin-
iUve:
Moseftt hdminiim nt n(niiit^ RUa euel&m </ me» that ihsy are not foiUing.
Cic
8. ADjaomra PscDiOATn wrb Sub j uac i iva .— BgHquum est, proxTmam est,
extrfimam est— T£nim est, ydridmfle est, folsnm est— gloridsom est| mirom est, optil-
mmn est, etc^ admit the BabjanetiTe for the InllnitiTe :
BdUquum est vt eertfimas, U remaifis thai we contend, CiCL Ycmm est ni
bdnos dlligant, It i$ true that they love the good, Cia
II. With IropersoDal verbs signifying to happen — accKdit, con-
tingit, ev^nit, fit — ut^ ut runij with the Sabjanctive, is generally
used (495. 2):
Tbribybalo contitgit, nt pairiam TindlcSret, Jt woe the "good fortune qf
Thratybulua (happened to him) to deliver hie country, Nep.
1. Here beloQg aecSdit ut, eet ut^f&tirum eeee ut, at fire UL See 54^
3. Cbraset with quod also oeoor with verbs of happening.
ni. With Impersonal verbs signifying it follows, remains, is
distant, and the like, the Sabjanctive clause with ut is generally
used:
RSIinquItur, ut quieadbnus, It remains that we should sudmit- Cia
See 495. 2.
lY. Subjunctive clause standing 'alone. See 495. 2. 2).
n. FoEMS OP Object Clauses.
657. Intebbogattve.— Object clauses which are inter-
rogative in character, of course, take the form of indirect
questions. See 554. L
658. Not Intebbogattvb. — Object clauses which are
not interrogative in character, supplying the place of direct
objects after transitive verbs, (sometimes take the form of
Infinitive clauses, sometimes of Subjunctive clauses, and
sometimes of clauses with quod. Thus,
I. Verbs of deolabino take,
1. Regularly the Infinitive with Sublect Accusative. See
561. 1. "^
2. But the Subjunctive with ut or ne, when they involve a
tommand :
OBJECT CLAUSES. 261
D^lBbellae dixit, ut ad me scrlb^ret nt in It&liam Tdnlrem, En told DoUh
heUa to write to me to come into Italy. Cic. See 492. 2.
II. Verbs of detkemining, st^ttto, comtUuo^ dicemOy and the
like, take, *
1. Generally the Infinitive, when the subject is the same as
that of the principal verb, rarely the Subjunctive:
M&oere decrfivit, Be determined to remain. Nep. SULtafirunt, ut IlbertS-
tern defendirenty TUey determined to drfend liberty. Cia See 651. II.
2. The Subjunctive with ut or ne (expressed or understood),
when a new subject is introduced :
Constltairst, ut trlbftiins qu&rftrfitar, ffe had arranged that the tribune
should enter the complaint. Sail. S^nltus ddcrOrity d&rent dpdram consiiles,
The senate decreed that the consuls should attend to it. Sail. See 492. 8.
Stdtuo^ dieemo, ete., when they mean to thinks deem, suppose^ etc, become
verba senUendi (A51. L 1\ and of course take the Infinitive:
Laudem sfiplentiae st&tuo ease maximamy / deem it to be the highest praise <^
wisdom, Cic.
III. Verbs of STEivmG, ENDEAYOBiNa, take the Subjunctive
with ut or ne. See 492. 1. But c&ntendo, nltor, studeo, and tentOy
generally take the Infinitive when the subject is the same :
Ldcum oppugnSre contendit, Be proceeds to storm the city. Caes. Ten-
tfibo de hoc dicfire, IwiU attempt to speak of this. Quint. See 652.
IV. Verbs of oatising, making, AoooMPUflHiKG, take the Sub-
junctive with ut, ne, ut nan. See 492, 496,
1. Examples. — Ficio, effXcio, perflcio— idlpiscor, impetro — assfiquor,
consfiquofy and sometimes fSro, are examples of verbs of this class.
2. Facio and Emcio.-^F&cio in the sense of assume^ suppose, takes the
Infinitive ; efido in the sense of prove, show, either the Infinitiye or the Sub-
junctive with ut, etc. :
Fac ftolmos non rtoi&nfire post mortem. Assume that souls do not survive
^/ter death. Cic. Yult eff Ic&re animos esse mortSles, Be wishes to show that
souls are mortal. Cic.
V. Verbs of emotion or peeung, whether of Joy or sorrow,
take,
1. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative, to express the Ob-
ject in view of which the feeling is exercised. See 661. III.
2. Glauses with quod, to make more prominent the Beason for
the feeling :
Gaudeo quod te interpellSvi, I rejoice that (or because) Ihaive interrupt-
ed you. Cic. D6i6bam quod s6cium 5mls6ram, I was grieving because J had
lost a companion. Cic. See 520. 1.
For Ykbbs of Dxsduho, see 66L XL 2.
YL Verbs of ashkg, dsmahding, adyibing, waxning, qom-
2C2 OBJECT CLAUSES. GEBUNDS.
UAVDTSQj and the like, take the Sabjunctive, generally with ut
or ne:
Oro ut hdmlnes mlsSros conserves, I implore that you would preserve the
wihappy men, Cic. Postulant ut signum detur. They demand that the eig-
nal be given, LiF. See 492. 2.
1. EzAMPLCS.— Verbs of this class are nnmerons— the following are examples :
6ro, rftjro, pfito, prdcor, obsdcro— fiugltOf postulo, praecipio— hortor, moneo, euadeo,
persu&cleo— impello, Indto, m&veo, commdveo.
8. UssD AS YsBBA Dbolarandi.— ^ome of these verbs in particular significa*
tions become verba deeldrandi (5M. 8), and accordingly take the Infinitive with
Subject Accusative: thus m&neOt in the sense of remind and pereuddeo in the sense
of convince.
8. iMninnvs.— Even In their ordinary significations some of these verbs, espe-
cially hortor^ mdneo^ and poetiUo, sometimes take the Infinitive with or without a
Subject Aconsative :
PostJUat se absolvi, Ee demands that he should he acquitted. Ci& See 551.
II. 1 and 8.
The Infinitive is mnch more common in poetry than in prose.
SECTION X.
OSSUITD.
559. The Gerund is a verb in force, but a noun in form
and inflection. As a verb it governs oblique cases and"
takes adverbial modifiers, as a noun it is itself governed.
560. The Gerund has four cases : Genitive, Dative, Ac-
cusative, and Ablative, governed like nouns in the same sit-
uation :
BeSte Vivendi ciipIdXtSte incensi stimus, We are animated with the desire
of living happUy. Cic. Charta infitilis scribendo, jwpcr ««/K /or writing.
Plin. Ad ftgendum nStus, horn for action, Cic. In igendo, in acting. Cic.
1. AcccsATivB.— The Accusative of the Gerund is used only after Prepo-
sitions.
2, Gerund and Infinitive. — ^The gerund and the infinitive are kindred
forms, expressing the meaning of the verb in the form of a noun (196. II.).
They are also complements of each other, the one supplying the parts which
are wanting in the other. Thus the infinitive supplies the nominative and
the accusative after verbs (548) ; the gerund supplies the genitive, dative,
and ablative, and the accusative after prepositions.
561. Gerunds with Direct Objects are regularly used
only in the Genitive and in the Ablative without a prepo-
sition :
Jus vScandi sfinStum, the right of summoning the senate. Li v. Injdrias
ffirendo laudem mSrCbfiris, You toill merit praise by hearing wrongs. Cic
GSBUNDS AND GEBUKDIVES. 263
562. Gerundive. — ^The place of the Gerund with a Di-
rect Object is supplied by putting that object in the case
of the Gerund and changing the latter into the participle in
-dus in agreement with it. The participle is then called a
Gerundive :
Inlta sunt consllia urbis dfilendae = urbem delendi, Plam have been
formed for destroying tJie cUy (of the city to be destroyed). Cic. Numa b&-
cerdStlbas creandis ftnlmum adjdcit, Numa gave his attention to the appoint-
ment of priests. Liv.
1. Explanation. — ^With the Gerund, the first example would be : Inita
sunt consilia urbem dUendiy in which dHendi is goremed by consUia, and
iirbem by dUendi. In changing this to the Gerundive construction,
1) Vrbem, the object, is changed into urbis, the case of the gerund, and is
governed by consUia,
2) DUendif the gerund, is changed into dilendaSf the gerundive, in agree-
ment with urbis,
2. Geeundivb.— For the sake of brevity, the term Gerundive is used not
only to designate the Birtidple, but also the Construction as a whole, includ-
ing both the participle and the noun with which it agrees. '
« 8. UsB OF Gerundive. — The Gerundive may be used for the Gerund
with a Direct Object, and is almost invariably so used when the Gerund
would be in the Dative or would depend upon a preposition. But see 563. 2.
Bat in a few instances the Gernnd with a Direct Object occurs in the Dative or
dependent upon a preposition. Bee 561 1 ; 565. 2 ; and 566. 2.
4. Gerundives op utor, fruor, etc.— In general only the gerundives
of transitive verbs are used with their nouns as equivalents for Gerunds
with Direct Objects ; but the gerundives of iUor, fruor, fungor, pdtior, and
vescor, originally transitive verbs, admit this construction :
Ad manus fungendum,/(£>r discharging the duty. Cic. Spes pdtiundO-
rum castrOrum, the hope of getting possession of the camp. Caes.
5. Passive Sense.— In a few instances, the Gernnd has in appearance a
passive sense :
N6que h&bent prop^iam perclpiendi n5tam, JVbr have they any proper
marh of distinction, i, e., to distinguish them. Cic.
I. Genitive op Gerunds and Gerundives.
663. The Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is used
with nouns and adjectives :
Gerund. — ^Ars vIvendi, the art of living. Cic. StiidiQsus 6rat audiendi,
Ee was desirous of hearing. Nep. Jus v6candi s6n5tum, the right of swrn*
moning the senate. Liv. Ctipldus te audiendi, desirous of hearing you. Cic.
Gerundive.— Libido ejus videndi, the desire of seeing him. Cic. Pl&tOnis
BitL^^tmB Midiend^fmt, Me wasfond of hearing liato, Cic.
264 GSBUHDS AJn> GSRUNBIVBB.
1. ThegenitiTeofifaeGeniiidorGcniiidiTeoeeiiniiiostfreqiieDUy —
1) With an, inyf"*'^, eonsadtfldo,— cAplcDtaa, KbidOy stftdiimiy oonsnianiy
Tdluotas, gpet,— pdtestas, licnlUa^ difflciiltafl, oociaio, tempoSy-^nus, m5-
das, rilio,— «aiis% gritia» etc
2) With adjectires denotiDg dttirt^ hMnoledge, dnU, reeoUeetion^ and
their oppotittt: irldos, cApIdus, 8tJkdiS8ii»— cooscins, gnlros, ignSras— p6rl-
tuB, impftrttos, insufitna, etc
2. GiBUXD PRarBSSKD. — ^A gerund with a neuter pronoun or adjective as
object should not be changed to the participial construction, because the lat-
ter could not distinguish the gender:
Artem TAra ac ftlaa d^Odlcandi, tki wrt of dAdingvuihmg tme things
fromiUfaJLH, Cic
S. Obsuhd witb Chonnys.— The Gerund in the Genitive sometimes as-
sumes so oompletel J the force of a noun as to govern the Genitive instead of
the Accusative:
Bejieiendi jfldlcum pdtestas, ike fower ofehdUenging (of) the judges.
Cic
Here rejMendi may be governed by poteeUu, and may itself by its sabstanUve
fbroe govern ^tkflcvfn, the challenging of the Jndgee, eto. Bnt these and similar forms
In <H are sometimes ezpUdned not as Oernnds bat as Gerundives, like Gerundives
with mHj noetri^ etc. See 4 below.
• 4. Participial Gonstsvction wrra mki, kostri, btc.— With the Geni-
tive of personal pronouns— iiMt, nodriy tut, veetri, eup—ihe participle ends in
di without reference to Number or Gender :
C9pia plflcandi tui (<2f a woman), an opportunity of lyfpeaeing you, Ov.
Sui conservandi causa^/or the purpose of preserving themselves, Cic Veatri
adbortandi causa, /<?r the purpose of exhorting you. Liv.
This apparent irregularity may be acooanted for by the flict that these genitives^
thoDgh used is Personal Pronouns, are all strictly in form in the neater singalar of
the Possessives meum, tmm^ swum, etc., hence the participle in di agrees with them
perfectly.
5. PuBPOSi. — ^The Genitive of the Gerund or Gerundive is sometimes
used to express Purpose or Tendency:
Haec trSdendae Hannlb&li victSriae sunt, These things are for the purpose
of giving victory to Banndbal. Liv. LSges pellendi clSros viros, laws for
driving away illustrious men. Tac. Prdf iciscitur cognoscendae antlquItStiSi
Be sets otttfor the purpose of studying antiquity. Tac
This genitive Is sometimes best explained as Predicate Genitive (401), as in the
first example ; sometimes as dependent apon a noun, as pellendi dependent upon leges
in the second example ; and sometimes Aimply as a Genitive of Cause (S93, 400. 4), as
in the third example; thoagh in such cases, especially in the second and third, causa
may be supplied.
6. TirpiNiTivB POR Gerund. — The Infinitive for the Genitive of the
Gerund or Gerundive is often used in the poets with nouns and adjectives,
sometimes even in prose :
Ciipldo Stjrgios innare Iftcus, the desire to sail upon the Stygian lakes,
Virg. Avidus committ^re pugnam, eager to engage battle, Ovid.
GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES, 265
II. Dative of Gerunds and Gerundives.
564. The Dative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used
with a few verbs and adjectives which regularly govern the
Dative :
Gerund. — Qaum solvendo non essent, Since they were not able to pay.
Cic. Aqua atllis est blbendor, Water is useful for drinking. Plin.
Gebundiye. — Ldcum oppfdo condendo cSp^runt, Tliey selected a place
for founding a city. Liv. Tempdra dSmStendia fructlbus accommddSta,
seasons suitable for gathering fruits. Cic
1. Geeuih). — The Datire of the Gerund is rare and confined mostly to
late writers ; with an object it is almost without example.
2. Gerundiyb of Purpose. — In "Lvfjy Tacitus, and late writers, the Da-
tire of the Gerundive often denotes purpose :
Firmandae T&Ietildlui in CampSniam concessit, Se withdrew into Cam-
pania to confirm his health. Tac,
8. Gerundive with Official Names. — The Dative of the Gerundive also
stands after certain official names, as dSbemmri^ triummri, oomitia :
D&cemviros ISglbus scribendis creSvimus, We have appointed a oommii'
tee of ten to prepare laws, Liv. But the Dative la perhaps best explained
as dependent upon the verb.
III. Accusative of Gerunds and Gerundives.
665. The Accusative of the Gerund or Gerundive is
used after a few prepositions :
Gerund. — ^Ad discendum prOpensi siimus, We are inclined to learn (to
learning). Cic, Inter ladendum, in or during play. Quint.
GzRumiiYE,— Ad cdlendoa&groSf for cultivating the fields. Cic. Ante
condendam urbem, before the founding of the city. Liv.
1. Prepositions. — The Accusative of the gerund or gerundive is used
most frequently after ad ; sometimes after inter and ob ; very rarely after
ante, circa, and in.
2. With Object. — The accusative of a gerund with a direct object
sometimes occurs, but is rare :
Ad plScandum deos pertinet, It tends to appease the gods. Cic.
3. Purpose. — Wiihrerbs of giving, perrmttingj leaving, taking, etc., the
purpose of the action is sometimes denoted by the Gerund with ad, or by
the Gerundive in agreement with a noun :
Ad Imitandum mihi prop5situm exemplar illud, That model has been sef
before me for imitation. Cic. Attribuit It^liam vastandani (for ad vastan-
dum) Catilinae, He assigned Italy to Catiline to ravage (to be ravaged). Cic.
12
266 BUPINE.
IV. Ablativb op Gkbunds OB Gerundives.
566. The Ablative of the Gerund or Gerundive is used,
L As Ablative of Means or Instrument:
Gkrukd. — Mens discendo Ultur, The mind is nourished hy learning. Cic
S&lQtem hdmlnlbiis dando, hy giving safety to men, Cic.
Gbrunditb. — Lfigendis QrStSrIbas, by reading the orators. Cic.
IL With Prepositions :
Gerund. — Virtfltes cernuntur in Agendo, Virtties are seen in action. Cic
Deterrfire a scrlbendo, to deter from writing. Cic.
Gerunoiye. — BrQtua in libSranda patria est interfectus, Brutus was slain
in liberating his country. Cic.
1. PRBPOStnoNS. — The ablative of the gerand or gemndive is nsed most
frequently after in ; sometimes after a (ab), de, ex (e) ; very rarely after
cum and pro.
2. With Object. — ^After prepositions, the ablative of the gerund with a
direct object is exceedingly rare :
In tribuendo suum culque, in giving every one his 'own. Cic.
8. Without a Preposition, theliblative of the gerund or gerundive de-
notes in a few instances some other relation than that of means, as time^
separation, etc. :
Inclpiendo rdfagi, I drew hack in the tery beginning. Cic.
SECTION XL
supmK
667. The Supine, like the Gerund, is a verb in force,
but a noun in form and inflection. As a verb it governs
oblique cases, as a noun it is itself governed.
668. The Supine has but two cases : the Accusative in
um and the Ablative in u.
BTTLE L— Supine in TTm.
569. The Supine in um is nsed after verbs of mo-
tion to express purpose :
lyegati v6n6runt res rgpStltum, Deputies came to demand restOuHon.
Liv. A.d CaesSrem congratiU&tum convenSrunt, Tlhey came to Caesar to
congratulate him. Oaes.
1. The Supine In um occurs in a few Instwces after verbs which do not directly
eicpresfl xnQ^ion ;
PARTICIPLES. 267
Filiam Agrippae naptnm dSdit, He gave hit da/ugMer in marHage to Agrip-
pa. Snet.
2. The Supine in um with the verb eo is equivalent to the forms of the first Per-
iphrastic Goi^ugatioTt, and may often be rendered literally :
B6nos omnes perditum ennt, They are going to destroy all the good. Ball.
But in subordinate clauses the Supine in um with the verb eo is often used for
the simple verb :
IJltum Ire, (= ulcisci) injurias festinat, ffe hastens to avenge the injuries. SalL
8. The Supine in um with Iri^ the infinitive passive of eo, forms, it will be re*
membercd (241. IIL 1), the Future Passive Infinitive:
Brutum visum iri a me puto, I think Brutus will he seen l>y me. Clc
4. The Supine in um as an expression of purpose is not veiy common, its place
is often supplied even after verbs of motion by other constructions :
1) By ut or qui with the Sul^v/nciive. See 489.
2) By Gerunds or Gerundives. See 568. 5; 564. 2; 565. 8.
8) By PaHiciples. See 678. V.
670. The Supine in u is generally used as an Ablative
of Specification (429) :
Quid est tam jQcundum auditu, Wliai is so agreeable to hear (in hear-
iDg) ? Cic. Dift'Icile dictu est, It is difficult id tell, Gic.
1. The Supine in u is used chiefly with— jucundns, optimus— facilis, proclivis,
difTicilis— incredibilis, mCmdriiblUs— hOnestus, turpis, las, nefas— dlgnus, indlgnus—
dpus est
2. The Supine in u is very rare, and does not occur with an object. The only
examples in common use are : auditu^ cognUu^ dictu^ andfactu.
8. As the Supine in u is little used, its place is supplied by other constructions :
1) By ad with the Gerund: Verba ad aadiendum jucunda, words agreeable to
hear. Cic
2) By the Infinitive : Piicile est vineere, It is easy to conquer. Cic.
8) By a Finite Mood with an adverb: Non facile dgudicatur amor Actus, iVe-
iended love is not easy to detect (is not easily detected). Cic.
SECTION XII.
PAJiTICIPLES.
I. Tenses op Participles.
671. Participles, like Infinitives, express only relative
time, and represent the action as Present, Past, or Future,
relatively to the principal verb.
PECULiABniES.— Tenses in Participles present the leading peculiarities specified
under the corresponding tenses in the Indicative. See 467. 2.
572. Present Participle. — The present participle rep-
resents the action as taking place at the time denoted by
the principal verb :
Ociilua se non yidens alia cernit, The ei/e, though it docs 7iot see itself (not
268 U8E OF PABTICIPLES.
seetng itoclf ), ducenu other things. €ic. Piito scrtbens mortuus est, FUUo
died while vmting, Cic.
573. Future Participle. — ^The fature active parti-
ciple represents the action as about to take place, in time
subsequent to that of the principal verb :
SSpiens bdna semper pl&cItQra laudat. The wise man praises blessings
which will always please (being about to please). Sen.
But the Future Passive generally loses in a great de-
gree its force as a tense, and is often best rendered by a
verbal noun. See 562 and 580.
674. Perfect Participle. — ^The perfect participle rep-
resents the action as completed at the time of the principal
verb.
Uva mStflrSta dulcescit. The grape^ when it has ripened (having ripen-
ed)y becomes sweet, Cic.
1. The Perfect Fftrtidple, both in Deponent and in Fassiye verbs, is sometimes
nsed of present time, and sometimes in Fsssive verbs it loses in a great degree its
force as a tense, and is best rendered by a verbal noun. Bee 580.
2. For the Participle with hdbeo, see 888w 1. 2).
IL Use op Participles.
575. Participles are verbs in force, but Adjectives in
form and inflection. As verbs they govern oblique cases,
as adjectives they agree with nouns :
Animus se non vXdens &lia cernit, The mind, though it does not see itself ,
discerns other things, Cic.
1. Participles in the Present or Perfect, rarely in the Future, may be used as
a4i ectives or nouns : scripta ^pistdla, a written letter ; mortui^ the dead. Participles
with the force of adjectives maybe used as predicate adjectives with sum: occ&pdti
irant^ they were occupied; as a verb, had been occupied.
. 576, Participles are used to abridge or shorten dis-
course by supplying the place of finite' verbs with relatives
or conjunctions. They are used with much greater free-
dom in Latin than in English.
577. Participle fob Relative Clause. — ^In abridged
sentences, the Participle often supplies the place of a Rela-
tive Clause :
USE OF PAETICIPLES. , 269
Omnes &liiid figentes, &Iiud simiilantes imprdbi sunt, All voho do one
thing and pretend another are dishonest, Cic.
578. For other Subordinate Clauses. — ^The Parti-
ciple often supplies the place of a subordinate clause with
a conjunction. It may express,
L Time :
PlSto sciibens mortuus est, Plato died while tvriting. Cic. Itari in
proelium cfinunt, The^ sing when about to go irUo battle, Tac.
n. Cause, Manner, Means :
Sol driens diem conf Icit, The sun ly its rising causes the day, Cic.
Mllltes rSnuntiant, se perfldiam vSritosYfivertisse, The soldiers report that-
they returned because they feared perfidy (having feared). Caes.
nX Condition:
MendSci hdmini ne verum quidem dicenti cred5re non sdlfimus, We are
not wont to believe a liar, even if he speaks the truth. Cic. Bgluctante nStara,
irrXtus l&bor est, If nature opposes^ effort is vain. Sen.
rV. Concession:
Scripta tua jam diu exspectans, non andeo t&men flSgitSre, Thotigh I
have been long expecting your work, yet I do not dare to ask for it, Cic.
Y. Purpose:
Perseus rgdiit, belli cSsum tentSturas, Perseus returned to try (about
to try) the fortune of war, Liv. Attribuit nos trucldandos C&thSgo, He as-
signed us to Cethegvs to slaughter, Cic.
579. Participle for Principal Clause. — ^The Parti-
ciple sometimes supplies the ^lace of a principal or coor-
dinate clause, and may accordingly be best rendered by a
finite verb with and or but:
Classem devictam cGpit, He conquered and took the fleet (took the fleet
conquered). Nep. Re consentientes ydcSb^lis diff grfibant, They agreed in
facff but differed in words. Cic.
680. Participle for Verbal Noun. — ^The Passive
Participle is often used in Latin where the English idiom
requires a participial noun, or a verbal noun with of:
In amicis Cllgendis, in selecting friends. Cic. H3m6rus fuit ante RO-
mam condltam, Homer lived (was) before the founding of Home (before Rome
founded). Cic.
581. Participle with Negativk. — ^The Participle
270 PABTICLES.
with a negative, as nariy nihilj is often best rendered by
a participial noun and the preposition without :
IQs^mm est, nihil prSf Icientem angi, R is nd to be troubled wUhout
accompliahing anffthing. Cic. Kon er^bescens, without UwUng. Cic.
CHAPTEE VI.
SYNTAX OF PABTICLES.
BTJLE LL— Use of Adverbs.
582. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other
ADVEBBS :
S&pientes fgUdter vivunt, The wise Uve happily. Cic. Facile doctis-
sXmufl, unqiieUionably the moat learned, Cic Haud filter, not otherwise,
Virg.
583. Adverbs are sometimes used with nouns :
1. When the noans are used with the force of adjectives or participles :
MInlme largltor dux, a leader by no means Uberal. Liv. Pdpulas late
rex, a people of extensive sway (ruliug extensively). Virg.
2. When in sense a participle or verb may be supplied :
Minus, plane vir, Marius, truly a man. Cic. Omnes circa pdpiili, all
ike surrounding peoples, Liv. See also 853. 2.
584. The Common Negative Particles are : now, ne,
haud.
1. JSTon Is the usual negative, ne is used In prohibitions, -wisheB and purposes
(489), and Tuzud^ In haud seio an and with adjectives and adverbs ; haud mlrdMle,
not wonderful ; haud mter, not otherwise. M for ne Is rare. Ne nan after fMe is
often best rendei-ed «»Ae<A<jr.
2. In nan m6do nan and in non solum nan, the second nan is generally omitted
before ««(?,' or verum, followed by ne—quldem or maa (rarely itiam\ when the verb
of the second clause belongs also to the first :
Asscntatio non m6do iinlco, sed ne libero quidem digna est Flaiiery is not
only not worthy ofa/Hend, but not even of a free man. Cic.
8. Minue often has nearly the force of mm^ si minus = si non. 8ln dlUer has
nearly the same force as si minus.
PAETICLES. 271
685. Two Negatives are generally equivalent to an
affirmative, as in English :
Nihil non arr^Jget, Let Mm claim everything, Hor. NSque hoc Zeno
non Tidet, If&r did Zeno overlook this, Gic.
1. J^on before a general negatiye giyes it the force of an indefinite afQrmatiye,
bnt after such negatiye the force of a general afflrmatiyc :
'SonnemOj same one ; nowiihiif something ; noiinunquam, eometimes.
N6mo non, every one ; nihil non, every thing; nonquam non, always.
2. After a general negatiye, ne — quldem giyes emphasis to the negation, and
fiique — fUque^ neve — neve, and the like, repeat the negation distribntiyely :
Non praotSreundnm est ne id qnldem, We must not pass by even this. Glo. NSmo
nnqoam ndque poeta ndque drutor fhit, 2^0 one was ever either a poet or orator. Gic.
8. Sic and Ua mean so, thus. Ita has also a limiting sense in so far which does
not belong to sic, as in Ua^-si (508. 4). Adeo, to such a degree or result ; tarn, ta^
tdpire, so much, tarn used mostly before a^ecjtiyes and adyerbs, and tantdpire before
verba.
586. For the use of Prepositions, see 432 to 437.
587. Coordinate Conjunctions unite similar construc-
tions (309). They comprise five classes :
I. Copulative Conjunctions denote union :
Castor et Pollux, Castor and Ibllux. Gic. S^nStus pdp&lusqne, theser^
ate and people. Gic. Nee 6rat diff IcUe, Mr was it difficult. Liv.
1. List. See 810. 1.
2. DiFFKBENOS IK FoBOE.— ^ slmply connects; que implies a more intimate
relationship ; atque generally giyes prominence to what follows, especially at the be-
ginning of a sentence ; ac, abbreyiated fron^ atque, has generally the force of et.
mque and nee haye the force of ei non. Et and Uiam sometimes mean even.
Atque and ao generally mean as, than after adjectiyes and adyerbs of likeness
and nnlikeness; simllls, dissimllis, similiter, par, piiriter, aeqae, Alias, filter, secus:
aeque ae, equally as; dUter atque, otherwise than. See also 451. 5.
a QuB, AO, ATQUB.— ^U6 is an enclitic, i. e., is always appended to some other
word. Ao in the best proso is nsed only before consonants; atque, either before
vowels or consonants.
4. Etiam, QtroQTTB, ADBO, and the like, are sometimes associated with et, atque,
ac, and que, and sometimes eyen snpply their place. Qudque follows the word which
it connects: is qudque, he also. Utiam, also, further, eyen, is more comprehensiye
than qu6que and often adds a new circumstance.
6. GoBBXLATiyES.— Sometimes two copulatlyes are used: ct (que)— et (que),
tum— tnm, quum— tum, both — and ; but quuin~^tum ^yes prominence to the second
word or clause ; non solum (non m5do, or non tantum)— sed dtiam (yCrum dtlam),
not only— but also; neque (nee)— n^que (nec),neither—^ior ; ndque (nee)— et (que),
not^—bui (and) ; et— nSque (nee), (both)— and not.
6. Omitted.- Between two words connected copulatlyely tho conjunction is
generally expressed, though sometimes omitted, especially between the names of two
collei^es. Between seyeral words it is in the best prose generally repeated or
272 PABnCLESw
•mf Ucd altofetbet; tJboagli qu4 nwy be vaed with the last eren when the c(»^B]ieCi<m
U gmitted between the others : pax et tranquUlUas et concordia, or pax, tranquil-
ruasy eoneordiOy orpam, tranguiUUatt, eomeordidque.
£t is often omitted between conditional elaiuea, exoepi before nan.
II. Disjunctive Conjunctions denote separation :
Ant Tcstra ant sua culpa, either your faulty or his oum, Idv. DuSbns
trlboBTe bOris, in two or three hours. Cic
L List. Bee 810. 2.
2. AuT, TXL, rx.^Avt denotes a strooger antithesis fban vely and mnst be nsed
If tbo one supposition exclndes the other; aut wrum aut/alsum, either true or &lse.
Vel implies a difference in the expression rather than in the thing xt is generally cor-
icctive and is oOen foUowed hjpdiius. itiam or dicam : laud&tur vel Hiam dmdtw
be is praised, or even (rsther) loved. It sometimes means even and sometlxnes/or
example. Vilut often means/or example, Vt for vel is appended as an enclitics
In negative clanaes atU and ve often eontinne the negation : nanh&nor aut vir-
tust neither (not) honor nor yirtne.
8. Sim (•<—««) does not imply sny real difference or opposition; it often con-
nects different names of the same objea: Palku sive Minerva, FSaUaa or Minerya
(another name of the same goddess).
IIL Adversative Conjunctions denote opposition or
contrast :
Ciipio me esse cl6mentam, sed me inert! ae candemno, I toish to be mild,
hut J condemn myself for inaction, Cic.
1. List. Bee 810. 8.
2. DiFFEBZNCE IN FoBCS.— /Sk0<2 and verum, mark a direct opposition; autem
and viro only a transition ; at emphasizes the opposition; atqui <^ten intrednces an
objection; eitirum, bat stfll, as to the rest; tdmen^ yet
8. GoMPOiTKDS OF rkVKS are : attdmen, eedtdmen^ veruntdmen, but yet
4. AxrrKM and vmto follow the words which they connect : hie autem, hie vera,
but this one. They are often omitted, espedally before non. They are admissible
with qui only when it is/ollowed by its antecedent
IV. Illative Conjunctions denote inference :
In umbra Igltirr pngnSblmns, We shall therefore fight in the shade. Cic.
1. List. See 810. 4.
2. Othbb "WoBDa.— Certain other words, sometimes classed with adverbs and
sometimes with conjanctions, are also illatives: eo, ideo, idclrco, proptSrea, quam-
obrem, quipropter, quiire, quodrca.
8. IGTTITB. — This generally follows the word which It connects : hie IgUur^ this
one therefore. After a digression IgMur^ eed^ sed tdmen, verum^ verum idmen^ etc.,
are often nsed to resnme an interrupted thought or construction. They may often be
rendered / say : Sed si quis ; if any one, I say.
V. Causal Conjunctions denote cause :
Difficne est consilium: sum 6nim sSlus, Gounselis difficulty fov 1 am
atone, Cic. EtSnim jus ftmant, For they love the right, Cic.
1. List. See8ia&
PARTICLES. 2V3
2. Etbniu and Namqitb denote a closer connection than inim and nam.
8. £nim follows its word.
588. Subordioate Conjunctions connect subordinate
with principal constructions (309. II.). They comprise
eight classes.
I. Temporal Conjunctions denote time :
Paruit quum ngcesse &rat, Be obeyed when U was necessary. Cic. Dam
ogo in Sicilia sum, while lam in Sicily, Cic. See also 311. 1 ; 521-523.
I. DuM added to a negative means yei; nondum^ not yet ; vixdum^ scarcely yet.
II. Comparative Conjunctions denote comparison :
Ut optasti, ita est, It is as you desired. Cic. Ydlut si ftdesset, as ij he
toere present. Caes. See also 311. 2; 503,506.
1. CoBBKLATivBS are often used: Tarn — qnam, a«, *o— cw, as much as; tam—
qnam quod maxime, as much as possible; non minus— qoam, not less than; non
magis— qnam, not more than.
Tamr-quam and ut—Ua with a superlative are sometimes best rendered by the
with the comparative : ut mao^me — Ita maxlme^ihe more — ^the more.
IIL Conditional Conjunctions denote condition :
Si peccSvi, ignosce, j[fl have erred, pardon me. Cic. Nisi est con-
cOium domi, unless there is wisdom at home. Cic. See also 811. 8 ; 503. 507.
1. Nisi, if not, in negative sentences often means except, luid nisi quod, except
that, may be used even in affirmative sentences. 23lsl may mean than. Nihil dliud
nisi = nothing ftirther (more, except) ; nihil dUud quam = nothing else (other
than).
IV. Concessive Conjunctions denote concession :
Quamquam intelllgunt, though they understand. Cic. Etsi nihil hibeat,
although he has nothing. Cic. See also 311. 4; 515. 516.
Y. Final Conjunctions denote purpose :
Esse «portet, ut vivas, It is necessary to eat, thai you may live. Cic.
See also 311. 5; 489-499.
VI. Consecutive Conjunctions denote consequence or
result :
Atticus Ita vixit, ut Athfiniensibus esset cSrissimus, Attieus so lived
that he was very dear to the Athenians. Nep. See also 311. 6 ; 489-499.
Vn. Causal Conjunctions denote cause :
Quae quum Ita sint. Since these things are so. Cic. See also 811. 7 ;
517. 518.
Vin. Interrogative Conjunctions or Particles denote
inquiry or question :
Quaesigras, nonne piitSrem, You had asled whether I did not \
Cic. See also 811. 8 j 846. II., 625. 626.
274 INTEBJECnOKS. BIJLES.
rV. iNTEEJECnONS.
580. Interjections are sometimes used entirely alone,
as eheu^ alas ! and sometimes with certain cases of nouns.
See 381 and 381. 3.
500. Various parts of speech, and even oaths and im-
precations, sometimes have the force of interjections. Thus :
Pax {peace\ he still ! misfiram, mIsgrSbne, «arf, lamentable / 5ro, pray I
ftge, &glte, comty well! meherciiles, hy HereiUee! per deum fidem, in the
name of the godt ! sOdes = si audes {/or andies), if you will hear/
CHAPTEE VII.
BULES OF STHTAX.
501. For convenience of reference, the principal Sules
of Syntax are here introduced in a body. The enclosed
numerals refer to the various articles in the work where the
several topics are more fully discussed.
HOUHS.
Agreement.
I. A Predicate Nohn" denoting the same person or
thing as its Subject, agrees with it in case (362) :
Ego sum nimtius, lama messenger, Liv.
n. An ApposmvE agrees with its Subject in case (363) :
Gluilius rex moritur, CluUius the king dies, Liv.
Nominative.
in. The Subject of a Fmite. verb is put in the Nomina-
tive (367) :
Servius regnavlt, Servius reigned. Liv.
Vocative.
IV. The Name of the person or thing addressed is put
in the Vocative (369) :
Peiige, Laeli, Proceed, ZaeHtte. Cic.
EULES OF SYNTAX. 275
ACJCUSATIVB.
V. The DiEEcnc Object of an action is put in the Accu-
sative (371) :
Deus mundum aedif ic&vit, God made the world. Cic.
VI. Verbs of makikg, choosing, calling, begabding,
SHOWING, and the like, admit two Accusatives of the same
person or thing (373) :
HamilcSrem^'impdr&turem f^cerunt. They made Edmilcar commander,
Nep.
VII. Some verbs of asking, demanding, teaching, and
CONCEALING, admit two Accusatives in the Active, and one
in the Passive (374) :
Me sententiam rogftvit, He asked m£ my opinion. Cic.
VIII. Duration of Time and Extent op Space are
expressed by the Accusative (378) :
Septem et triginta regnftvit annos, He reigned thirty-seven years, Liv.
Quinque milUa passuum ambul&re, to walk five miles, Cic.
IX. The Name of a Town used as the Limit of motion
is put in the Accusative (379) :
Nuntius Romam r^dit, The messenger returns to Home. Liv.
X. A Verb or Adjective may take an Adverbial Accu-
sative to define its application (380) :
capita velamur, We have our heads veiled. Virg. Nube htimSroB
&nictus, with his shoulders enveloped in a cloud. Hor.
XI. The Accusative, either with or without an Interjec-
tion, may be used in Exclamations (381): .
Ecu me mis^rum, Ah me unhappy I Cic.
Dattvb.
Xn. The Indibect Object is put in the Dative (384) :
Tempori cSdit, He yidds to the time. Cic.
Dative of Advantage and Disadvantage (385).
Dative with Oomponnds (886).
Dative of Possessor (387).
Dative of Apparent Agent (888).
Ethical Dative (889).
276 BULES OF -SYNTAX.
Xni. Two Datives — ^the object to which and the ob-
ject FOR WHICH — occur with a few verbs (390) :
MSlo est h&nmibiis Svaritia, Avarice is (for) <m evil to men, Cic.
XrV. With Adjectives the object to which the quality
is directed is put in the Dative (391) :
Omnibus carum est, It is dear to all, Cic
XV. A few Derivative Nouns and Adverbs take the
Dative after the analogy of their primitives (392) :
Obtemp^ratio legibus, obedience to the laws, Cic Oongruenter nlltu-
rae, agreeably to nature, Cic
Genitive.
XVL Any noun, not an Appositive, gnalifying the
meaning of another noun, is put in the Genitive (395):
C^tonis oratiOnes, CaUPs orations, Cic
XVII. Many Adjectives take a Genitive to complete
their meaning (399) :
Avidus laudis, desirtms of praise, Cic
XVni. A Predicate Noun denoting a different person
or thing from its Subject, is put in the Genitive (401) :
Omnist hostium €rant, AU things belonged to (were of ) ^ enemy „ Lir.
XIX. The Genitive is used (406),
I. With mls^reor and misSroaco :
Mis^rgre llibdrnm, pUy the labors, Virg.
U. With r^cordor, mSmlni, reminiBCor, and obliviscor:
M^minit praetSritorum, He rem£mber8 the past, Cic
III. WithrefiBort and interest:
Interest omnium, It is the interest of aU, do,
XX. A few verbs take the Accusative of the Person
and the Genitive of the Thing (410) :
I. Verbs of Meminding^ Admonishing :
Te Smicitiae commonSfScit, He rermnds you of friendship, Cic
II. Verbs of Accusing^ Convicting^ Acquitting :
Viros scfilSris arguis, Tou accuse men of crime, Cic
m. Miseret^ JPoenitet, Pudet^ Taedet^ and Piget :
EOmm nos misfiret, WepUy them, Cic
EXILES OP SYNTAX. 277
For the Genitive of Place^ see Rule XXVI.
Ablativb.
XXI. Cause, Manner, and Means are denoted by the
Ablative (414) :
Utflitate laudatur, It is praised because of its usefulness, Cic.
XXn. Price is generally denoted by the Ablative
(416):
Vendidit auro patriam, He sold his country for gold, Virg.
XXin. Comparatives without quam are followed by
the Ablative (417):
Nihil est amabilius virtute, Nothing is more lovely than virtue, Cic.
XXIV. The Measure of DrPFERENCE is denoted by
the Ablative (418):
XJno die longior, longer by one day, Cic.
XXV. The Ablative is used (419),
I. With utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their com-
pounds :
PlQrimis rebus fruimur, We enjoy very many things, Cic.
II. With f ido, conf ido, nitor, innitor :
Saius vSritate nititur, Safety rests upon truth. Cic.
III. With Verbs and Adjectives of Plenty and Want :
Non 6geo mSdlcina, Ido not need a remedy. Cic.
lY. With dignus, indignus, contentua, and fretus :
Digni sunt Smicitia, They are worthy of friendship. Cic.
y. With bpus and usiis:
Auctoritate tua nobis opus est, We need your authority, Cic.
XXVI. I. The PLACE IN WHICH and the place from
WHICH are generally denoted by the Ablative with a Prepo-
sition. But
II. Names op Towns drop the Preposition, and in the
Singular of the First and Second declensions designate the
PLACE IN WHICH by the Genitive (421) :
In Italia fuit, He was in Italy. Nep. Ex Africa, from Africa. Liv.
Athenis fuit, He was at Athens, Cic. Bomae fuit, He was at Borne, Cic.
XXVn. Source and Separation are denoted by the
Ablative, generally with a preposition (426) :
278 > BULES OF SYNTAX.
Orinndi ab B&bbiifl, descended from the SaMnes. Liv. Caedem a vdbis
- depello, I ward off slaughier from you, Cic.
XXVm. The Time of an Action is denoted by the Ab-
lative (426) :
Octdgeslmo anno est mortuns, He died in his eighUeth year. Cic.
XXIX. The Ablative with an adiective may be used
to characterize a person or thing (428) :
Summa virtate fidolescens, a youth of the highest virtue, Caes.
XXX. The Ablative may be used with a word to de-
fine its application (429) :
Ndmine, non potestate fuifc rex, He was king in name^ not in power.
Nep.
XXXL The Ablative is used as the Case Absolute
(431):
Servio regnanto, in the reign of Servius (Servius reigning). Cic
Cases with Peepositions.
XXXn. The Accusative and Ablative may be used
with Prepositions (432) :
Ad fimicuiD, to a friend. Cic. In ItSlia, in Italy. Nep.
ADJECTIVES.
XXXin. An Adjective agrees with its Noun in gent-
dee, NUMBEB, and CASE (438) :
Fortana caeca est, Fortune is blind. Cic.
PBOHOUKS.
XXXIV. A Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in
GENDEE, NUMBEE, and PEESON (446) :
Ammal, quod eanguinem habet, an animal which has blood. Cic.
VEBBS.
Agseement.
XXXV. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in num-
beb and peeson (460) :
Ego J-Sges ejeci, I have banished kings. Cic
eules op syntax. 279
Indicative Mood.
XXXVI. The Indicative is used in treating of facts
(474):
Deus mundum aedificavit, God made the world, Cic.
Subjunctive Tens£s.
XXXVII. Principal tenses depend upon Principal
tenses: Historical, upon Historical (480):
Nititur ut yincat, He strives to conquer, Cic. QuaesiSras nonne pi^t^-
rem, You had asked whether I did not think, Cic.
Subjunctive Mood.
XXXV ill. The Potential Subjunctive represents the
action not as real, but sls possible (485) :
Forsitan quaeratis, perhaps you may itiquire. Cic.
XXXIX. The Subjunctive op Desikb represents the
action not as real, but as desired (487) :
VSleant elves, May the citizens be well. Cic.
XL. The Subjunctive of Pubposb or Result is used
(489),
I. With ut, ne, quo, quin, quon^us :
Enitatur ut vincat. He strives that he may conquer, Cic.
n. With qui = ut is, ut Sgo, tu, etc. :
Missi sunt, qui (ut ii) consuldrent ApoUinem, They were sent to consult
Apollo, Nep.
XLL The Subjuncttve op CoNDmoN is used (603),
I. With dum, mSdo, damiuSdo;
Modo permaneat industria, if only industry remains, Cic.
n. With ac 81, ut si, quasi, quam si, tanquam, tanquam si,
v^lut, v^ut si: *
V61ut si adesset, as if he were present Caes.
ni. Sometunes with si, nisi, ni, sin, qui = si is, si quis :
Si yglim niimSrare, iflshouid vnsh to recount, Cic.
XLn. The Subjunctive op Concession is used (515),
I. With IXoet, quamvis, quantumvis, ut, ne, quum, although:
Hcet inldeat, though he may deride, Cic.
280 BTTUGS OF STETTAX.
n. With qui = qnnm (licet) is, qanm ^o, etc, though he :
AbfioMte Verrem, qui (qvum it) fiite&tur, Aeqmt Verres^ Ihough he
eonfeua, Cic.
m. Generally with etsi, tj^mntri, Stiamsi:
Etfli optimum sit, even (/'(though) ii be most exedleni. Cic.
XLm. The SuBjuNcmvB op Cause or Reasost is used
(517),
I. With qmim (cum), sinoe ; qtd = qmim is, etc.
Quom Titft mfttus plena sit, einee life iefuU of fear, Cic
II. With quod, qnia, quboiaiii, quando, to introduce a reason on
another^s authority :
Quod corrump^ret juTcntatem, heeaxue (on the ground that) he corrupt-
ed the yotUh. Quint
XLIV. The SuBJUNcmvB op Time with the accessory
notion of Cause or Purpose is used (521),
I. With dam, doneo, quoad, until:
Exspectas, dum dicat, You are waiting tiU he epeaks^ i. e., that he may
speak. Cic.
II. With ant^nam, pxiosqnam, before »
AntSquam de re publica dicam, before /(can) speak of the republic, Cic.
XLV. The Subjunctive is used in Indieect Questions
(525) :
Quid dies fSrat, incertum est, What a day may bring forth is uncer-
tain, Cic.
XL VI. The Subjunctive by Attraction is often used in
clauses dependent upon the Subjunctive (527) :
V^reor, ne, dum minuSre vftlim ISbdrem, augeam, I fear I shaU in-
crease the labor, while I wish to diminish it. Cic.
XLVII. The Subjunctive is generally used in the Inter-
rogative, Imperative, and Subordinate clauses of the Oratio
Obliqua (529) :
Respondit, cur vSniret, Hie replied^ why did he come. Caes. Scribit
LSbieno ySniat, Ee writes to Labienus to come, Caes.
Imfebattve.
XL V ill. The Imperative is used in commands, exhor-
tations, and entreaties (535) :
Just^tiam cole, Practise justice, Cic.
KULES OP SYISTTAX. 281
iNFINrnVE.
XLIX. The Subject of an Infinitive is put in the Ac-
cusative (645):
Sentimus calSre ignem, We perceive that fire is hM, Cic.
Pabhoiples, Geeixnds, and Supines.
Participles are construed as adjectives (575), Gerunds
and Supines as nouns (559, 567). But
L. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion to
express pubpose (569) :
Vengnint res rSp^titum, They came to demand reslUution, Liv.
PAETICLES.
LI. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, ^nd other ad-
verbs (582) :
Sdpientes Ifeliciter Tivunt, The wise live happily, Cic.
1. For Prepositions, see Rule XXXII.
2. Conjunctions are mere connectives. See 687 and 588.
3. Interjections are expressions of emotion or mere marks of address.
See 58^
CHAPTEE VIII.
ABBANOEMENT OF WOBDS AND CLAUSES.
SECTION I.
ABBANGEMENT OF WOBDS.
592. The Latin admits of great variety in the arrange-
ment of the different parjs of the sentence, thus affording
peculiar facilities both for securing proper emphasis and for
imparting to its periods that harmonious flow which charac-
terizes the Latin classics. But with all this freedom and
variety, there are certain general laws of arrangement which
it will be useful to notice.
282 ABBAl^^GEMUNT OF WOBDS.
I. General Rules.
593. The Subject followed by its modifiers occapies
the first plac^ in the sentence, and the Predicate preceded
by its modifiers the last place :
Sol drieDS diem conf Icit, The sun rising mokes the day. Cic. Animas
aeger semper errat, A diseased mind alioays errs, Cic. Miiti&des Athenas
llbdrSvit, MiUiades liberated Athens. Nep.
504. Emphasis and euphony often affeict the arrange-
ment of words :
I. Bbginxing. — ^Any word, except the subject, may be
made emphatic by being placed at the beginning of the
sentence :
SHent leges inter arma, Laws are silent in war. Cic. ITumUdri R3mus
dddltur, Jiemus is delivered to Numitor. Liv. Igni &ger vastabStar, The
field was ravaged with fire. Sail.
II. End. — Any word, except the predicate, may be ren-
dered emphatic by being placed at the end of the sentence :
N5bis Don s&tisfScit ipse D^mosthh^^ Even Demosthenes does not satiny
us. Cic. ConsiilStum p^tivit nimquam. He never sought the consulship. Cic
Ezsistit quaedam quaestio svhdifficUiSf There arises a question somewhat dif-
ficult, Cic.
m. Separation. — ^Two words naturally connected, as
a noun and its adjective, or a noun and its genitive, are
sometimes made emphatic by separation :
Ohjurgdtiones nonnmiquam incidunt necessdriaSy Sometimes necessary r>
proofs occur. Cic. Justltiae fungatur offlciis, Let him discharge the duties
of justice. Cic
595. Contrasted Groups. — When two groups of words
are contrasted, the order of the first is often reversed in the
second :
Fr&gUe corpus ftnlmus sempltemns m^Jvet, The imperishable soul moves
t7ie perishable body, Cic.
596. Kindred Words. — ^Different forms of the same
word, or different words of the same derivation, are gener-
ally placed near each other :
Ad sSnem s^nex de sSnectQte scrips!, I, an old man, wrote to an old man
on the subject of old age, Cic. Inter se &Iiis &lii prSsant, They mutually bene-
fit each other, Cic.
ABRANGEME^T OP WORDS. 283
597. Words with a common Relation. — ^A word
which has a common relation to two other words connected
by conjunctions, is placed,
I. Generally before or after both :
PScis et artes et glQria, both the arts and the glory of peace, Lir. Belli
pScisque artes, the arte of war and of peace, Lir.
A Genitive or Acyective following two nouns may qualify both, but it more fre-
quently qnalifiea only the latter :
Haec percunctatio ac dcnnntiatio belli, this inquiry and this declaration of
war, Llv.
IL Sometimes directly after the first before the con-
junction :
H^nQris certamen et glSriae, a struggle for honor and glory, Cic. Agri
omnes et milria, all lands and seas. Cic.
n. Special Rules.
598. Modifiers op Nouns. — ^The modifiers of a noun
generally follow it. They may be either adjectives or
nouns :
V6^TS{\isB.om^ii\\sdi^(st^Y\iy The Eoman people decreed. Cic. Herddotus,
pSter histdriae, Herodotus, the foAher of history, Cic. Liber de offlciis, the
hooh on duties, Cic.
1. Noun. — A noun as modifier of another noun is generally an appositive,
a genitive, or a case with a preposition, as in the examples.
2. With Emphasis.— Modifiers when emphatic are placed before their
nouns :
Tuscus &ger RSmSno adj&cet, Th4 Tuscan territory borders on the Boman,
Lir. C^dnitf SrStiQnes, Cato^s orations, Cic.
8. Adjectitb Ain> Genitive. — ^When a noun is modified both by an ad-
jective and by a genitive, the usual order is, adjective— genitive — noun :
Magna civium pGntlria, a great scarcity of citizens, Cic.
599. Modifiers op Adjectives. — ^The modifiers of the
adjective generally precede it, but, if not adverbs, they may
follow it :
P&cHe doctissImuSy unquestionably the most learned, Cic. Omni aetati
commAnis, common to every age, Cic. Avidus laudis, desirous of praise. Cic.
600. Modifiers op Verbs. — ^The modifiers of the verb
generally precede it :
Gloria virttltem sSquitur, Glory follows tnrtue, Cic. Mundus deo pSret,
The world is subject to God, Cic. VehSmenter dixit, Ee spohe ijehemently.
Cic. QU^r'm diXcituT, JTe is led by glory, Cic.
284 AERANGEMENT OP WORDS.
1. After thb Verb. — ^When the verb is placed for the sake of emphasis
at the bcgiDning of the seDteDce, the modifiers, of course, follow. See first
example under 594. 1.
2. IImphasis. — ^An emphatic modifier may of course stand at the begin-
ning or at the end of the sentence (594) :
FScilllme cognoscuntur addlescentes, Most easily are the young men rec-
ognized. Cio.
3. Two OR MORE Modifiers. — Of two or more modifiers belonging to the
same verb, that which in thought is most intimately connected with the verb
stands next to it, while the others are arranged as emphasis and euphony
may require :
Rex Sc^this bellum intiilit, The hing waged war against the Scythians.
Kep. Mors propter br&yltStem Titae nunquam longe &best, Death is never
far distant, in eonseqtience of the shortness of life, Cic.
601. Modifiers op Adverbs. — ^The modifiers of the
adverb generally precede it, but a Dative often follows it :
Valde vehfimenter dixit, He spoJce very vehemently, Cic. Gongruenter
nStarae vlrit. He lives agreeably to nature, Cic
602. Special Words. — Some words have a favorite
place in the sentence, which they seldom leave. Thus,
I. The Demonstrative generally precedes its noun :
Custos hujus urbis, the guardian of this city, Cic.
1. Ille in the sense of well-known (450. 5) generally follows its noun, if not ac-
companied by an adjective :
Medea ilia, that weU-knoton Medea, Cic.
2. Quisque, the indefinite pronoun, follows some other word:
Jostitla saom caique trlbuit. Justice gives to every man his due (his own). Cia
II. Prepositions generally stand directly before their cases, but t^nus
and versus follow their cases:,
In Asiam prSfUgit, He fled into Asia, Cic. Collo tSnus, up to the neck, Ov.
1. After a Pbonottn.— The preposition frequently follows the relatlre, some-
times other pronouns, and sometimes even nouns, especially in poetry :
Res qua de agitur, the subject of which we are treating, Cic. Ituliam contra,
over against Italy. Virg.
2. Cum Appended.— See 184. 6 and 187. 2.
8. Intebvening Woeds.— Genitives, adverbs, and a few other words sometimes
stand between the preposition and its case. In adjurations per is usually separated
from its case by the Ace. of the object abjured, or by some other word; and some-
times the verb oro is omitted :
Post Alexandri magni mortem, f(fter the death of Aleooander the Great Cic.
Ad b5ne vivendum,/<?r living well Cia Per te deos oro, I pray you in the name
of the gods. Ter. Per ego vos deos = per deos ego vos oro {pro understood). /
pray you in the name qfthe gods. Curt
III. Conjunctions and Relatives^ when they introduce clauses, generally
AEEANGEMENT OP WORDS AND CLAUSES. 285
stand at the beginnmg of such clauses ; but auiem, ^nim^ quidem, quoque^
vSrOj and generally tgitur, follow some other word :
Si peccSvi, ignosce, If I have erred, pardon me, Cic. li qui siipfiriCres
sunt, tTioee who are superior, Cic. Ipse autem omnia Tidebat, But Tie hitn-
self saw all things, Cic.
1. Emphatic "Wokbs and Relatives often precede the conjanction.
Id lit audivit, as he heard this, Nep. Quae quum ita sint, since these tilings
are so. Cic.
2. Kb— QuiDEM takes the emphatic word or words between the two parts:
Ne In oppidis quidcm, not even in the towns. Cic.
a Quldem often ioWows pronouns, superlatives^ and ordinals:
Ex me qxddem nihil aadiet, He wiU hear nothing from me. Cic.
4. Qu>e^ i7«,n«, introducing a clause or phrase, are generally appended to the first
word, but If that word is a monosyllabic preposition, they are often appended to the
next word : ad plebemve, for adve, etc., or to the people ; in/droqus = inque/dro,
and in the forum. Apud quosque, and before whom, occurs for euphony.
rV. NoHy when it qualifies some single word, stands directly before
that word*, but when it is particularly emphatic, or qualifies the entire
clause, it generally stands at the beginnmg of the clause :
Hac villa c&rSre non possunt, Th^ are not able to do without this villa.
Cic. Kon fuit Jupiter mdtuendus, Jupiter was not to le feared, Cic.
V. Inquaniy sometimes Aio, introducing a quotation, follows one or
more of the words quoted. The subject, if expressed, generally follows
its verb :
Nihil, inquit Brtltus, quod dicam, loathing which I shall state, said
Brutus, Cic.
VI. The Vocative rarely stands at the beginning of a sentence. It
usually follows an emphatic word :
Perge, Laeli, Proceed, Laelius, Cic.
SECTION II.
ABBANQEMENT OF CLAUSES.
I. In Complex Sentences.
603. Subject or Predicate. — ^A clause used as the
subject of a complex sentence (357) generally stands at
the beginning of the sentence, and a clause used as the
predicate at the end :
Quid dies fSrat incertum est, What a day may bring forth is uncertain,
Cic. ExUus fuit 5rSti5nis : slbi nuUam cum his &mlcitiam esse, TJie close
of the oraUon was, that he had no friendship with these m>en. Cacs. •
1. This arrangement Is the same as that of the simple sentence. See 698.
2. Emphasis and euphony often have the same effect upon the arrangement of
clauses as of words. See 594.
280 ABBANGEMENT OF CLAUSES.
604. SuBOBDixATE ELEMENTS. — Clauses used as the
subordinate elements of complex sentences, admit three
different arrangements :
L They are generally inserted within the principal
clause, like the subordinate elements of a simple sentence :
Hostes, iibi primnm nostros ^qultes conspexemnt, cSlSrIter nostros
perturbSTfirunt, The enem^y as soon as they saw our cavalryy quickly put our
men to route. Caes. Sententia, quae tatissima yidebStur, Ticit, The opinion
which seemed the safest prevailed, Liy.
n. They are often placed before the principal clause :
Qnum quiescnnt, prdbant, While they are quiet, they approve. Cic. QaS-
tis flit &Dlmus, Snlmns neacit. The soul knows not what the soul is. Cic. Si
baec ciTltas est, clTis sum ego, Jfthis is a state lama citizen. Cic.
This arrangement 1b especially common when the subordinate clause either re-
fers back to the preceding sentence, or is preparatory to the thought of the principal
clause. Hence temporal^ conditional^ and concessive clauses often precede the prin-
cipal clause. Hence also, in sentences composed of correlatiye clauses with is^qui^
tdlis—qudlis^ tantus — quanttis, tum—quum^ ita — uty etc., the relative member, L e.,
the clause with qui, qualis^ quantuSy qmm^ u% etc., generally precedes.
in. They sometimes follow the principal clause :
Enititur ut vincat, He strives thai he may conquer. Cic. Sol eflficit ut
OHmia fldreaat, The sun causes all things to bloom. Cic
This arrangement Is common when the subordinate clause is either intimately
connected in thought with the following sentence or is explanatory of the principal
clause. Hence clauses of Purpose and Result generally follow the principal clause,
as in the examples. See also examples under articles 489-199.
605. Latin Pebiod. — ^A complex sentence in which
the sabordinate clause is inserted within the principal clause,
as under I., is called a Period in the strict sense of the word.
In a freer sense the same term is also applied to any
sentence in which the clauses are so arranged as not to
make complete sense before the end of the sentence. In
this sense the examples under II. are periods.
II. In Compound Sentences.
606. Clauses connected by coordinate conjunctions
(587) generally follow each other in the natural order of
the thought, as in English :
Sol ruit et montes umbrantur. The sun descends and the mountains are
sTiaded. Virg. Gyg«es a nuUo vldfibStur, ipse auteni omnia vidSbat, Gygea
was seen hy no one, hut lie himself saw all things. Cic.
PART FOURTH.
PROSODY.
607. Prosody treats of Quantity and Versification,
CHAPTEE I.
QVAirrrrT.
608. The time occupied in pronouncing a syllable in
poetry is called its quantity. Syllables are accordingly
characterized as long^ shorty or common^
609. The quantity of syllables is determined by poetic
usage. But this usage conforms in many cases to general
laws, while in other cases it seems somewhat arbitrary.
1. Syllables whose quantity conforms to known rules are said to be long
or short by ruU,
2. Syllables whose quantity does not conform to known rules are said to
be long or short by authority.
8. The rules for quantity are either generalt i. e., applicable to most syl-
lables, or gpecicU, i. e., applicable to particular syllables.
SEOTIOIT I.
GENERAL RULES OF QUANTITY.
610. EuLE I. — ^Diphthongs and Contracted syllables
are long :
Haec, coena, aura ; alius for filiius, c6go for co%o, occido for occae-
do, nil/ornihil.
1. Ih-as in composition is usually short before a vowel : prdl^acutus,
prasustus,
2. 27a, UBf iiif no, and uu, are not strictly diphthongs, and accordingly
do not come under this rule.
1 Sometimes long and sometimes short
288 BULBS OF qpAwmrr,
611. Rule II. — ^A vowel is long by position before
J J a?, 2, or any two consonants : *
Mi^or, rexi, gjiza, mfinsa, scrvus.
1. But one of the consonants at least must belong to the same word as
the vowel : ab rupe^ per saxa,
1) A final Towd ia not usually afiected by consonants at the beginning of
the following word, except before 8c, tp, sq, and st, where a short Towel is
rare.
2) J7and Umvai never be treated as consonants under this rule^^ except
in rare instances where « is so used bj Sjnaeresis. See 669. II.
2. Before a mute followed by Z or iZ, a vowel naturally short becomes
common : duplex^ Sgri, p&ireg,
1) In Greek words a vowel is also common before a mute with Mot y:
Ticmessa, cpcnus,
2) A mute at the end of the first part of a compound before a liquid at
*the beginning of the second part makes the preceding vowel long by posi-
tion: db-rumpo, Cb-rdgo,
8) A vowel naturally long, of course, remains long before a Mute and
Liquid : deer, dcria,
3. Compounds of jugum retain the short vowel before j : b]jugus,
qiiadr^jitgvM.
612. EtJLE UL — A vowel before another vowel, or
a diphthong, is shobt bt posmoN :
Pius, piae, docSo, trdho.
No account is taken of the breathing h; bence a in traho is treated as a vowel
before another vowcL
Exceptions. — ^The following are long before a vowel :
1. A, — (1) in the genitive ending di of Dec. I. : auldiy — (2) in proper
names in dius: Cdius (Cajus),— -(3) before ia, w, w, tw, in the verb aio,
2. B,— (1) in the ending H of Dec. V. when preceded by a vowel : diH;
and sometimes in /idei, rei, spei, — (2) in proper names in eius: Pom-
pHuSf—{Z) in ^heu.
3. 1,^(1) in the verb /to, when not followed by er : /iam,/tibamf but
fieri,— (2) in the genitive aUtu. In other genitives i in ius is common in
poetry, though long in prose, but the i in alterttie is short,— (3) in diue, a,
um, for dtvuSf a, um, — (4) sometimes in Diana,
4. O, — is common in She.
' Strictly speaking, the syllable, and not the vowel, is lengthened, but the language
of convenience refers the quantity of the syllable to the voweL
» Qti, flTtt, and w, when t» has the sound of to, are treated as single consonants.
BITLE3 OP QUANTITY. 289
5. In Greek worda Towels are often long before a vowel, because long In
the original : der, Aendas, ^risSis, Meneldua, TrOes.
This often occurs in proper names in— ^, ia, iua, luSf don^ Ion, diSy dis, diita:
Mgdea, Alexandria, Funuus, Darius, Oifon.
SECTION II.
SPECIAL BVLES OF QUANTITY.
I. Quantity op Final Syllables.
L Monosyllables.
613. EuLE IV. — ^Monosyllables are long :
&, da, te, sS, de, 81, qui, do, pr5, tO, dos, pes, slis, bOs, sGs, pAr, sdl
Exceptions.— The following are short :
1. Enclitics : qttBf «!, n^, ce^ te,p8l^f pti,
2. Monosyllables in b, d, I, t : ab, ad,/el, mel, at, U ; except saX^ adl,
8. An, biSf ciSf edr, &, /ac, /er, in, is, n^, da (ossis), per, Ur, qua (plur.
indef.), quU^ vir; probably also vas (v&dis), and sometimes h$e and h^ as
Nom. or Ace. forms.
IZ Polysyllables.
1. FINAL VOWELS.
614. EuLE V. — In words of more than one syllable,
the endings a, e, and y are short ; i and u, long ; o,
common :
Via, m^ria, mare, mfty; mSri, audi, fructu, comQ; ftm8, serm8.
615. A final is short: mensdy templd^ bond.
ExcBPTioNS. — A final is long,
1. In the Ablative : mensdy h&ndf ilia,
2. In the Vocative of Greek nouns in as (rarely «) : Aen^, Build.
3. In Verbs and Indeclinable words : dmd-y eUrd ; circd, Juxtd, anted,
frustrd. Except Ud, quid, ejd, and piUd used adverbially.
616. ES Jlnal is short : serve^ urbe^ rege.
Exceptions. — E final is long,
1. In Dec. I. and V. : epUona, rd, dii. Hence in the compounds— ^a(^,
pridiS, postridiSy qudrl.
2. In Greek plurals of Dec. III. : Tempi, nieli.
13
290 BULES OF QUANTITY.
8. In the SiDg. Imperative Act. of Codj. II. : mon^, dode. But e is some-
times short in catk
4. InfiritfenTay ola, and in Adverbs from adjectives of Dec. II. : dod^
recti. Except bieru^ male, infem^, interne, superne.
617. T[ final \a short: misp^ molpy cotXj,
Exceptions.— Contracted endings are, of course, long : misQ = m%».
618. I^naZislong: serm^ honl^ audi.
Ex.CKPTiova,—Ifinal is,
1. Common in mihi, tifn, sibz, i^, itbi. But
Observe compounds Ibidem^ Iblque, Hblque, iiMnam, iiJAvla^ Hilfcunqu&t nScA'
2. Sboet,— (1) in nisi^ quad, cui (when a dissyllable),— (2) in the Greek
ending si of Dat. and Abl. Plur. : Troad,—{Z) in the Dat. and Voc. Smg.,
which end short in the Greek : Alexl, PSrIdX. •
Vtl follows the rule, but not the compounds, iliAnafn^ HHque, eUciUL
619. U final is long : fruct% comity dictu.
Exceptions.— /;t^i^ for in, and t^nu for non,
620. O final is common : dmo^ sermSy virgo.
Exceptions. — Ofinalia,
1. Long, — (1) in Datives and Ablatives : servo, Hid, ^t*5,— (2) in Greek
words, when it represents a long Greek vowel : ichd, Argd, — (3) in Adverbs :
fdUd, muUd, ergd, quandd, omnlnd; except those mentioned under 2 below-
2. Short in dud, egd, octd, and the adverbs cko, illtcd, imm^ mMd, and
its compounds, dummddd, qudmddd, etc.
2. FINAL SYLLABLES IN MUTES OB LIQUIDS, —
C, D, L, M, N, E, T.
621. Rule. VI. — In words of more than one syl-
lable,
Final syllables in c are long ;
Final syllables in d, 1, m, n, r, t^ are short :
alee, illoc ; illiid, consul, &mgm, carman, &ai6r, cSptit
ExcBPTioNs.— The following occur,
1. Ddneo and liSn.
2. MJinal with the preceding vowel is generally elided before a Towd.
See 669. 1.
EULES OP QUANTITY. 291
8. In Greek words, — (1) en is long ; often also an, in, on, yn : HynOfiy
Anchlsinf Titan, Del/phln, Adaedn, Phore§n,—{2) er is long in air, aethtr,
craUr, and a fevr other words with loog ending in the original.
4. This rule does not, of course, apply to syllables long by previous
rules.
3. FINAIi SYLLABLES IN S.
622. EuLE Vn. — In words of more than one syl-
lable, the endings as, eS| and os are long; is, us, ys,
short:
Sm&s, mensas, mones, nubes, hos, servos ; Svis, urbis, b6nils, serviis,
cbUmys.
623. As final is long : Aeneas, bonds, iUds,
Exceptions. — As final is short,
1. In anas and in a few Greek nouns in ^ : Areas, lamj^at.
2. In Greek Accusatives of Dec. III. : Arcadas, keroas*
624. Es final is long : nubes, mones.
ExcEpnONS. — Us final is short,
1. In Nominatives Singular of Dec. III., which increase short In the
Gen.: miles (Xtis), obses {Mia), iwterpres (6tis). Except abi6s, dri^, pariis,
Ceris, and compounds of p^; as bipls, trip^, etc.
2. Inpmes and the compounds of ^ / as odes, pities,
5. In Greek words, — (1) in the plural of those which increase in the Gen. :
Arcades, Troddes, — (2) in a few neuters in es : Hippihienes,--{Z) in a few
Vocatives singular : 2>e7»os^^»€*.
625. Oa final is long : ciistos, vlros.
Exceptions. — Os final is short,
1. In compos, impos, exds,
2. In Greek words with the ending short ia the Greek : De^, melds,
626. Is final is short : avis, cdnis.
Exceptions. — Is final is long,
1. In Plural Cases : menm, servis, vi^bU.
Henco^H«, grcUls, ingrdtis.
2. In Nominatives of Dec. III., increasing long in the Gen. : Quiris (Itis),
Saldmis (inis).
3. In the Sing. Pres. Indie. Act. of Conj. IV. : audis,
MdMs, qulpls, Utervls follow the quantity otvls.
4. In the Sing. Pres. Subjunct. Act. : possis, veUs, ndlis, mdlis,
5. Sometimes in the Sing, of the Fut Perf. and of the Perf. Subj. : amo-
verts, ddcuerts.
292 BULES OF QUANTITY.
627. JJb final is short : aervus^ bonus.
ExCKPTiONS. — Us final is long,
1. In Nominatives of Dec. ILL increasing long in the Gen. : virtm (fltis),
Ull€u (Oris).
Bat pAl4k8 (u sbort) oocars in Horace. Ars P. 65.
2. In Dec. lY ., in the Gen. Sing., and in the Nom. Ace. and Yoc. Plur. :
frudiia,
8. In Greek words ending long in ths original : BntntkuSf Sajfphiis, tripus.
But we have OedipiU and polypCs,
628. Yb final \b short: chldmps^ ckel^a.
EzcBpnozTS.— Contracted endings are of coarse long: Erynnys for JEt^fn-
nyes.
n. Quantity in Inceements.
629. A word* is said to increase in declension, when it
has in any case more syllables than in the nominative singu-
lar, and to have as many increments of declension as it has
additional syllables: sennOy sermonis^ sermonibies,
SermdniSy baviog one syllable more than Mrmo^ has one incrementj while «er-
«Rd7il&iM has two increments.
630. A verb is said to i7icrease in conjugation, when it
has in any part more syllables than in the second person
singular of the present indicative active, and to have as
many increments of conjugation as it has additional sylla-
bles: dmdsy dmdtiSy dmdbdtis.
Amdtis has one increment, dmabcUis twa
631. If there is but one increment, it is uniformly the
penult, if there are more than one, they are the penult with
the requisite number of syllables before it. The increment
nearest the beginning of the word is called the first incre-
ment, and those following this are called successively the
secondy thirds ^n^ fourth increments. Thus
• 1 ^ -
In 8er-mon-%-btt8f the first increment is mony the second »; and in man-
19 8
^-e-ra-mu8y the first is u^ the second e, the third ra,
I, Increments of Declension.
632. EuLE VIII. — In the Increments of Declen-
sion, a and o are long ; e, i, u, and y, short :
aetas, aetatis, aetatibus; serme, sermOnis; puer, puSri, pu^rorum;
BULKS OP QUANTITT. 293
fulgur, fulgiiris; chUUnys, chlamydis; b5nus, bon&rum, bononim; ille,
ill&rum, illorom ; miser, misSri ; supplex, supplicis ; s^tur, eaturl
Vowels long or abort by position are of coarse excepted.
633. A in the increments of declension is long : paXy
pdcis ; bormSy bondrum; duo, duabm.
Exceptions. — A is short in the first increipeDt,
1. Of masculines in al and ar : Minntbal, HanntbalU; Caesar, Caesarit,
Except Car and Mir.
2. Of nouns in g preceded b/ a consonant : daps, dapia ; Arabs, Arabia.
8. Of Greek nouns in a and ^: poUma, pdimaUs ; I^dlas, Balladis,
4. Of the following : — (1) baccar, hSpar, Jitbar, lar, nectar, par and its
compounds,— (2) anas, mas, vas (v&dis), — (8) sal, fax, and a few rare Greek
words in ax,
634. O in the increments of declension is long : honoVy
honoris/ bonusy bonorum/ duo^ duobus,
ExcBpnoNS. — is short in the first increment, '
1. Of Neuters: aeqttor, aequdris; iempus, tempdris. Except os (Oris),
odor (adSris), and compavatives.
2. Of words in 8 preceded by a consonant ; tnops, inSpis, Except Cy^
clops and hydrops,
3. Of arbor, bos, Vlpus, — compos, impos, mhnor, imnihnor, — AUSbrox,
Cappddox, praecox,
4. OfmostPatrials: Madsdo, Ifaceddnis.
6. Of many Greek nouns, — (1) those in or: rhUor, Elector, — (2) many
in o and on increasing short in Greek : (Odon, aedonds, — (3) in Greek com-
pounds in puB ■ triptis (ddis), Oedipus,
635. E in the increments of declension is short : ptter^
pueri; liber, Hberi.
Exceptions. — ^^is long in the first increment,
1. Of Decl. v., except in the forma /idH, rei, and spH; as diH, diSrum,
diibtis, r&ms.
2. Of nouns in en, mostly Greek: lihi, li^is; Slrln, Sirinis, So Anio,
Aniinis,
8. Of Celtiber, Iber, ver, — Tares, l$cuples, merces, quies, inquies, rhquies,
plebs, — lex, rex, dlee, cUex, vertex,
4. Of a few Greek words in es and er, except air and aether; as lobes,
UbHis; crater, cratiris. '
636. I in the increments of declension is short : mlleSy
militis^ mllitibus; ancepSy ancipitis.
Exceptions. — /is long in the first increment,
1. Of most words in ix: radix, radicis; fUix,felieis.
But short in : appendix, cdlias, CiUK,fiUx, fomioo, nix, pix, sdlix, strix, oM a
fow others, chiefly proper names.
294 BULBS OF QUANTITY.
2. Of dia, glis. Us, vit, QuMs, Samnis,
8. Of delphin and a few rare Greek words.
4. For quantity of the ending iua, see 612. 8.
637. XT in the increments of declension is short : duacj
duels ; arcuSy arcubu^ ; adtuVy saturi.
Exceptions. — 27" is long in the first increment,
1. Of nouns in UB with the genitive in nzis, ntiB, ndU : JWyj&ris/ solus,
salutis / palwy paludis. Except inUrcw, Ltgus, jpectis,
2. 0f /wr,/rwx, luXy pltiSy Ibllux.
638. Y in the increments of declension is short : chid-
mySy chlampdis*
ExcBPnoMS. — This increment occurs onlj in Greek words, and is long in
those in yn, §ms, and in a few others.
IZ Increments of Conjugation.
639. EuLE IX. — ^In the Increments of Conjugation
(630)^ a, e, and o are long ; i and u short :
2m&musy am&muSy am&tOte^ rgglmiiSy siimufl.
1. In tMertaiDiiig the Inerements of the Irregnlar yerbs, fSrp^ fSto^ and their
compoonda, the foil form of the second persoBf/irfa, «o2m, etc., muBt he used. Thus
iOifiribam and vdlibam^ the Increments are re and U,
2. In ascertaining the inorementaef reduplicated forms (254), the reduplication
Is not counted. Thus did^mnis has but one increment dL
640. A in the increments of conjugation is long:
dmdre.
ExcEpnoNS.— ^ is short in the first increment of do ; da/rs, ddbam, eir^
eumdabam,
641. E in the inerements of conjugation is long: mdU
nere.
ExcBpTTONS.— JTis short before r,
1. In the tenses in ram, xim, ro: amaviram, aimmkrin^ amasAro; rea>
eraiyrssKrik
2. In first increment of the Present and Imperfect of ConJ. III. : t^ghre,
regeriSy regeremy regerer,
3. In the Fut. ending b^iis, b^e : amdberiSy or -gre, mdnibens.
4. Rarely in the Perf. ending erunt : steterunt for steHrunt, See 235,
also Systole^ 669. IV.
642. O in the increments of conjugation is long with-
out exception : mdnetotey r^gitote.
BULES OP QUAimTY. 295
643. I in the increments of conjugation is short : regl'
tiSy reximus.
Exceptions. — lia long, except before a vowel,
1. In the first increment of Conj. IV., except imus of the Perfl : audire,
audlvif audUum; sentio^ serUwiuSy sensimus (perf.).
2. In Con/ III. in the first increment of perfects and supines in Ivl and
itnm (276. III.) and of the parts derived from them (except wnus of Perf. :
trivimus) : dtpwi, cupiverat, cupUus ; pHiviy petUus; capessivi, capessUHrus.
GamstM from gattdeo follows the same analogy.
3. In the endings imus and Itis of Pres. Subj. : eimus, sUis; velimus,
velUis (2B9,Z).
4. In ndUU, nolUo, nolUdU, and in the different persons of ibam, ibo,
from eo (295).
6. Sometimes in the endings rimus and ritis of the Fut. Perf. and Perf.
Subj. : amdvenrmtSf amdvh^Uia.
QAA, U in the increments of conjugation is short : volvr
mus.
Exceptions.— ^ is long in the Supine and the parts formed from it:
voliUum, voliUuruSy amaturus.
HE. QuANTiTT OF Deeivativb Endings.
645. KuLE X. — The following derivative endings
have the penult long :
I. abrom, aorum, atrum :
flabrum, simulacrum, &ratrum.
II. edo, Ido, ^o } ago, Igo, ugo:
dulcedo, cupido, solitadp ; vorago, origo, aerQgo.
ni. Sis, eis, ois, otis, ine, 5ne — in patronymics :
Ptolgmais, Chryseis, MinOis, IcSrietis, Ngrine, Acrisioiie.
Except Ddndis, Fhocdis, ThebdM, Neriis.
IV. ela, ile; alia, §118, ulia:
querela, ovile ; mortalis, f idslis, ciirulis. .
V. anus, eniis, onus, unus ; ana, ena, ona, una:
urbanus, ggenus, patronus, tribQnus ; membrana, hSbSna, anndna, la-
cuna.
Except gaJbdmu,
VI. axis, Srus ; 5rus, Ssns ; avus, Ivus :
salutaris, ^vftrus ; chorus, lUmudsiis ; octaTus, aestivus.
296 BTTLES OF QUANTITY.
Vn. Stns, Xtns, utns | atim, itiin, utiin ; etum, eta :
Slatus, turritus, cornutus; singiilatim, viritim, tribatim; quercStum,
mdneta.
Except (1) dnhilitu8,/ortuTiu8, gratultua, MRius^ hospliua^ servUtis, apirUug,
(2) affdtiniy stdtim^voidi adverbs in Utis^ as dlmnUus; and (8) participles proyidedfor
b7 639.
Vlll. eni, Ini, 5iii, — in distrihtUivea :
septeni, qulniy octSni.
646. EuLE XI. — The following derivative endings
have the penult short :
I. Sdes, iSdes, XdeSj — in patronymics :
AenS&des, LaertiSdes, Tant^des.
Except (1) those in Idea from nonns in €u» and m; as, P^ricZe^* (Pelens), ITeo-
didee (Neocles), and (2) AmphidrdldeHi AmpcUdeefMl^ldeStCordnideSt Lycurgides,
n. i&cuB, ioiu,idi2B:
Coriuthi&cus, modicus, ciipidus.
Except dmlcu8f arUleWt aprlouSt msndlouSt postlctu, pUdieiis.
ni. SltiB, &la, Slum; illiui, -Sla, -alum; oulnsi oilla, caluin,--«n
dimintUives :
filiolua, filiSla, atriSlmn; hortQlus, virgula, oppidiilum; flosculus,
particula, mOnusculom.
rV. Stas, itas, — in rumns ; iter, itus, — in adverbs :
pigtas, Veritas; fortiter, divinitus..
V. atilis, His, bOis, — in verhah ; imiSj — in adjectives denoting ma-
terial or time :
yersatnis, docilis, amabilis ; SdSinantiniis, cedrinus, crastinus, diOtuius.
Except mdtiUlnus, rSpenMmta, vesperVbms.
1. His in adjectives from nouns usually has the penult long : ctvUiSf hos-
tUiSf puerUiSy vvrUis,
2. InuB denoting characteristic (325) usually has the penult long : eoni-
nvSy equlnus, marinus,
647. EuLE XII. — The following derivative endings
have the antepenult long :
I. aceusy ucens, aneus, arius, axiunij orios :
ros&ceus, pannQceus, siibitaneus, cibarius, columb&rium, censOrius.
n. abilis, atiOis, aticiu :
ftmabflis, versatflis, fiquaticua.
BT7LES OF QUANTITY. 291
m. Sginta, Igintl, enlmaBf—in numerala:
nOnfigiuta, Tiginti, centesiiniis.
648. EuLE Xin. — ^The following derivative endings
have the antepenult short :
I. IbOifl, Xtado, dlentna, iUentoB.
credibilis, sOlitQdo, vindlentus, dpulentus.
n. iixio, — in desideraiivea :
es&rio, empturio, parturio.
rV. Quantity or Stem Syllables.
Z In Primitives.
649. The quantity of stem-syllables in primitive words,
when not determined by the General Rules (Sec. I.), is in
most cases- best referred to authority. Thus,
In mSter, cfido, scrlbo, d($no, tltor, the first syllable is long hy autJiorityt
while in p&ter, tdgo, m!co, s5no, titer, it is short hy authority,
650. EuLE XIV. — ^The quantity of stem-syllables
remains unchanged in inflection :
In DECLENSION, — fivls, ^Yem ; nGbes, nQbium.
In COMPARISON, — ^ISvis, ISvior, ISvissunus.
In CONJUGATION, — moneo, monebam, monuL
1. Position may however affect the quantity: agety dgri (611, 612);
po88umy pHv/i ; solvo^ a6UUv/m; volvOf vdlHtum,
Hero d becomes <S before ffr. The o in possum, soho, and voho, long only by
position, becomes short before a single consonant.
2. Oigno gives g^tii, gmUumy and p(>nOy jfdsui, pdsUum,
8. See also 651, 652.
651. Dissyllahic Perfects and Supines have the first syl-*
lable long, unless short by position :
jiivo, juvi, jQtum ; f5veo, fbvi, fotum.
1. These Perfects and Supines, if formed from Presents with the first
syllable short, are exceptions to 650.
2. Seven Perfects have the ^rst syllable short ;
bXbi, dSdiy fldi^ scXdi, stgti, tUti^ tuli,
13*
298 BULKS OF QUAlffTITY.
8. Ten Snpineft have the first syllable short :
eXlum^ datum, Wwm, lUum, guWan, rcUumy Hitumy siOtsm^ ^iJtaniy Oa-
turn}
652. In trisyllabic Reduplicated Perfects the first two
syllables are short :
cSdo, cScidi; c^o, cScIni; disco, didici.
1. Caado has dcldi in distincdoii from cididi from eAd<K
2. The second syllAble may be made long \)j position : eAcurri, mdmordK
II. In Derivatives.
653. EuLE XV. — ^Derivatives retain the quantity
of their primitives :
b6nus, b5nitas; timeo, tijnor; Snimus^ ilnimostis; ciris, <5Ticiis; cura,
cQro.
1. Frequentative^ in Ito^ have f short : dam'U<K See 832, L
2. In a few Derivatives the short vowel of the primitive is lengthened:
bdmo.
hOmSDuSy
rfigo,
rex, regis, regiaa.
)&teo>
mtema.
s&cus.
secius.
1*20,
macer^
I6x, legis.
sfedeo.
sedes, sediilus.
mScfiro,
s6ro,
semen,
m&veo,
mObnis,
susplcor.
susplcio,
teg61a.
pers&ia,
persQna,
tSgo,
. In a few
Deriyatives the long vowel of the primitive is shortened
Seer,
fcerbus^
nirtmn.
nfita,
dico.
dicax,
5di,
5dium,
dacoy
fido, -
dux, ddnis,
fides.
f^^;
sdpor,
vadum^
Ittceoy
Iftcema,
v5x, vocis,
vdco.
mCleSy
m^estus,.
This change of (quantity in some instances Is the result of contmctioD: mlMibUi^^
md!ibiliay ml^bUiat and in others it serres to distlngaish words of the same orthogra-
phy : as the verbs ISgia^ Ugea^ riffU, rSffM, eidea^ from the nouns Ugis^ Uqm^ regUy
rigesy eidea^ or the verbs dOcie^ dUeea^ fldes^ from the nouns d'&cie, dUceSyfldes^
III. In Compounds.
654. EuLE XVI. — Compounds generally retain the
quantity of their elements :
ant&-fSro, dS-fero, dS-duco, in-aequalis, pro-dQco.
1. The change of a vowel or diphthong does not affect the quantity:
de-Iigo (%a), oc-c!do {cado}, oc-cido (caedo).
1 From eistOy but etdtum from sto.
BX7LE3 OF QUANTITY. 299
2. Insepabable Fbepositions. — ^DI, 8e, and ▼§ are long, r^ short :
ne sometimes long and sometimes short :
didacoy s6dnco, Ydcors, rSdHco, nedum, nfifas :
1) JH is short in dUfimo, (JPltertus.
2) Ife is long in nichtm^ nimo^ niquam, niqu&quamt niquidquam, niqi^Uia,
and nive. In other words it is short.
8) Be is sometimes lengthened in a few words : r&flgio^ rSllquiae^ rUpirUi ripA'
lit, rkiUU, etc.
3. Change of Quantity. — ^In a few words the quantity of the second
element is changed. Thus
Lico gives -dtcus ; jUkro, -jhro; notus^ -nUus; nubOt nviba: m&ld>dlcas,
de-j6ro, cog-nltus, pro-nuba.
4. Pro.— Pro is short in the following words :
Piikellay proeulf prdfdnuSf prd/dri, prd/ecto, prd/estuSf prd/iciseor, prd-
fUeorf prdfugiOf projugusy prdfunduSt prdnl^poSf prdneptis, prdterouSy and
most Greek words, as prdplittaj generally in prS/undOf propdgo, prSpino,
rarely in pr3c&ro, prSpello.
5. Stem. — ^When the first element is the stem of a word (338. III.), it
is often followed by a short connecting vowel :
c&l-6-f &cio, l&b-6f%cio, bell-I-gfiro, aed-I-f ico, art-i-fex, ampl-l-fico, Wc-
u-ples.
Before /dc£o in a few compounds 6 is sometimes lengthened : Tiqu^dciOf pdtJfy'd'
do, putrfydcio, Upffacio, The first e in tMiVlcet is long.
6. I LONG.^/ is long, — (1) in the first part of compounds of dies : mM-
dies, pridie, postrldie, qudtldie, triduum, and (2) in the contratted forms,
bigaet trigae, quadrigae^ Uicei, scUicetf iibicen for tibiicen.
Bat i is short in Mdmim and qudtridiiurru
7. LONG. — is long in contrd-, intrd-, retrd-, and qutandd- in compost-
tion ; as : contrOveraiaf irUrOdHco, retrih)erto, quandOquey but quandSquidem.
8. Special Words,— Mdie, quasij and siquidem have the first syllable
short.
CHAPTER II.
TEESIFICATIOV.
SECTION L
GENERAL VIEW OF THE SUBJECT
655. Latin Versification is based npon Quantity and
Accent. Syllables are combined into certain metrical groups
called Feet, and feet, singly or in psdrs, are combined into
Verses.
L Metrical Feet.
656. Feet are eitber simple or compound,
yenience of reference we add the following list :
For con-
L Simple Feet.
Dissyllabic Feet.
Spondee,^
two long syllahlesy
Leges.
Trochee,*'
a long and a shorty - w
LCgls.
Iambus,
a short and a long, *^ -
Pirfins.
Pyrrhic,
ttoo short, w V
TmsYLLABio Feet.
F&tdr.
Dactyl,
a long and two short, — w w
carmlnJ.
Anapaest,
two short and a long, w w -
bdnltSs.
Tribrach,
three shoH, ^ ^ ^
ddmlnns.
MolossQS,
three long,
UbertSs.
Amphibrach,
a short, a long, an<fa sliort, ^ - ^
ilmlciis.
Amphimacer,*
a long, a short, and a long, - w -
mllltes.
Bacchlus,
a short and two long, ^
ddlSres.
Antibacchlas,
two long and a short, v
pSstorls.
ZL Compound Feet.
These are only compounds of the dissyllabic feet, and
all have four syllables.
* Sometimes called Ohoreer
' Also called Crelio.
HETBICAIi FEET.
301
Dispondetty double spondee,
Ditrochee, double trochee,
Diiambus, double iambus,
Proceleusmatic, double pyrrhic.
Greater Ionic, spondee andpyrrhic,
pyrrhie and spondee,
trochee {choToo); and iambus,— w w -
iamhus and trochee, w w
iambus and spondee.
Second Epitrite, troche and spondee,
Third Epitrite, spondee and iamhus.
Fourth Epitrite, spondee and trochee.
First Paeon, trochee and pyrrhie.
Second Paeon, iambus and pyrrhie.
Third Paeon, pyrrhie and trochee.
Fourth Paeon, pyrrhie and iambus.
: Ionic,
Ghoriambus,
Antispast,
First Epitrite,
w — w —
w w ^ ^
V — w w
praSceptQres.
civItStXs.
ftmoSnitSs.
m^mdrii.
sSntenHft.
&ddlesc6ns.
imp&ti6ns.
vSrectindiis.
^mSverant.
cQndltQres.
adctorltSs.
5mSm6nt&.
hlstdrlH.
&mSbms.
puftrilXs.
c61SrItas.
1. GoMUON Feet. — The feet of most frequent occurrence in the best Latin
poets are,
1) The Dactyl and Spondee, used in the Heroic Hexameter.
2) Less frequent the Iambus, Trochee, Tribrach, Anapaest, and CJiori-
anibus.
2. Groups. — A Dipody is a group of two feet ; a Tripody, of three ; a
Tetrapody, of four, etc. A Triemimeris is a group of three half feet, i. e., a
foot and a half; Penthemimeris, of two and a half; ITepJUheminieris, of three
and a half, etc.
657. Metrical Equivalents. — ^A long syllable may
often be resolved into two short ones, as equivalent to it in
quantity, or two short ones may be contracted into a long
one. The forms thus produced are metrical equivalents
of the original forms. Thus,
The Dactyl becomes a Spondee by contracting the two short syllables into one
long syllable ; the Spondee becomes a Dactyl by resolving the second syllqiblo, or an
Anapaest by resolving the first. Accordingly the Dactyl, the Spondee, and the Ana-
paest are metrical equivalents. In like manner the Iambus, the Trochee, and the
Tribrach are metrical equivalents.
658. Metrical Substitutes. — ^In certain kinds of verse,
feet are sometimes substituted for those which are not their
metrical equivalents. Thus,
The Spondee Is often substituted for the Iambus or the Trochee, though not
equivalent to either. See 679, .682.
659. Ictus or Rhythmic Accent. — As in the pronun-
ciation of a word one or more syllables receive a special
stress of voice called accent, so in the pronunciation of a
metrical foot one or more syllables receive a special stress
of voice called Rhythmic Accent or Ictus.
302 FEET. YESSES.
1. SiHPLB Fbbt.— Feet consisting of both long and short syllables have
the ictus uniformlj on the long syllables, unless used for other feet. Thus,
The Dactyl and the Trochee have the Ictiu on the first syllable ; the Anapaest
and the lamboB on the last
2. Equitalbmts A2n> ScBsnTUTES.— These take the ictus of the feet for
which they are used. Thus,
The Spondee, when used for the Dactyl, takes the ictus of the Dactyl, i. e., on
the first syllable; bat when used for the Anapaest, it takes the ictus of the Anapaest,
i. e., on the last syllable.
1) Feet consisting entirely of long or entirely of short syllables are generally
equivalents or snbstltates, and are accented accordingly.
2) When two short syllables of an equivalent take the place of an accented long
syllable of the original foot, the ictus rests chiefly on the first of these two. Thus the
Dactyl used for the Anapaest takes the ictus on the first short syllable.
8. Compound Feet.— These take the ictus of the feet of which they are
composed. Thus,
The €%oriaml>tia (trochee and iambus) takes the ictus of the trochee on the first
syllable and that of the iambus on the last
But Ionic feet are generally read with the ictus on the first long syllable.
660. Arsis and Thesis. — ^The accented part of each
foot is called the Arsis {raising) ; and the unaccented part,
Thesis {lowering),
II. Veeses.
661. A verse is a line of poetry, and is either simple or
compound.
I. A Simple verse has one characteristic or fundamental
foot, which determines the ictus for the whole verse. Thus,
Every Dactylic Verse has the ictus on the first syllable, because the Dac-
tyl, its characteristic foot, has it on that syllable.
II. A Compound verse has a characteristic foot for each
member. See 692.
662. Caesueal Pause. — ^Most verses are divided into
two nearly equal parts by a pause or rest called the caesu-
ra * or caesural pause. See 673, 674.
663. Metrical Names of Verses. — ^The metrical
name of a verse designates,
I. The Characteristic foot. Thus,
^ Caesura (from oaedOj to cut) means a cutting; it cuts or divides the yerse into
narts.
KAMES OF TEBSES. 303
Dactylic, Trochaic, and Iambic verses hare respectively the Dactyl, the
Trochee, and the Iambus as the characteristic foot. ■
n. The Number of Feet or Measures.* Thus,
1. Dactylic Hexameter is Dactylic verse of six measures.
2. A verse consisting of one measure is Monometer ; of two, Dimder;
of three, Trimder ; of four, Teiramder / oi ^ve, Pentameter ; of siXy Mexam-
eter.
ni. The Completeness or Incompleteness of the meas-
ures. Thus,
1. A verse is termed AeataUctiCf when its last measure is complete ;
CatcUectic, when it is incomplete.
1) A CataUcUc verse ia said to be eataUetio in tyUdbamj in disyUdbum^ or
in trieyUdbtuny according as the Incomplete foot has one, two, or three Byllable&
2) A Brachycatalectic verse wants the closing foot of the last Dipody.
8) An AcepJialous verse wants the first syllable of the first foot.
4) A Eyperoatalectic verse, also called Hypcrmeter^ has an excess of syllables
2. The ftill metrical name combines the three particulars enumerated
under I. II. and III., as Dactylic Eexameter Acaialedic, Dactylic Trimeter
Catalectic, etc.
1) But for the sake of brevity the term Acatalectic is often omitted when it can
be done without ambiguity.
2) Verses are sometimes known by names which merely designate the number
of feet or measures. Thus Hexameter (six measures) sometimes designates the DaC'
tylic Hexameter AcatalecUc, and Senarius (six feetX the Iambic Trim^Ur Acata>»
lectio.
664. SPEcnAL Names of Verses. — ^Many verses are
often designated by names derived from celebrated poets.
Thus,
Alcaic from Alcaens, ArchHochian from Archilochus, Saj>phic from
Sappho, GlyconiCy from Glycon, etc.
Verses sometimes receive a name from the kind of subjects to which they were
applied; as Heroic^ applied to heroic subjects ; Paroemiao, to proverbs, etc
665. Final Stixable. — ^The final syllable of a verse
may generally be either long or short.
666. Stanza. — ^A stanza is a combination of two or
more verses of different metres into one metrical whole.
See 699, VOO.
A stanza of two lines is called a Distich ; of three, a THstich ; of four, a
letrastich,
^ A measure is a single foot, except in Anapaestic, Trochaic, and Iambic verses,
where it is a Dipody or Pair of feet
304 METBB. FIGUBES OF PBOSODT.
667. Metre. — ^Metre signifies measurey and is used to
dcsignatby
1. A Foot or Dipody, as the measure, or metrical ele-
ment of a verse.
2. A Verse or Stanza, as the measure of a poem.
668. Scanning. — Scanning consists in separating a poem,
or verse, into the feet of which it is composed.
III. FiGUEKs OP Prosody.
669. The ancient poets sometimes allowed themselves,
in the use of letters and syllables, certain liberties generally
termed Figures of Prosody. These ai-e,
I. Synaloepha. — ^This is the elision of a final vowel or
diphthong, or of a final m with the preceding vowel, before
a word beginning with a vowel :
Monstr' horrend' inform* ingens, for Monstnim horrendum infonne
ingCDS. Virff,
1. No account is taken of h, as it is onlj a breathing (2. 2). Hence hor'
rendum is treated as a word beginning with a yowel.
2. Interjections, o, heuy ahfproh, etc., are not elided, but in other words
the elision generally takes place in the best poets.
8. Final e in the interrogative ne is sometimes elided before a consonant :
Pyrrhin* conndbia serras ? for Pyrrhlne connQbia servas ? Firg,
4. The elision of « occurs in the early poets :
Ex omnlbu' rebus, /or Ex omnibus rSbus. Zucr,
5. Synaloepha may occur at the end of a line when the next line be'
gins with a vowel. It is then called Synapheia,
n. Synaeresis. — This is the contraction of two sylla-
bles into one :
aurea, delude, d€1nceps, Hdem, iisdem.
1. Synaeresis is of frequent application. It may unite
1) TwoBuccessive vowels, as In the examples above.
2) A vowel and a diphthong: eaedem.
8) Two vowels separated by A, as only a breathing : prohXbeat, pronounced proi-
heat.
2. In the different parts o£dS8um^ee is generally pronounced as one syl-
lable : deesMfdmt, d^rai, d^rity etc. : so ei in the verb anUeo : anteire, antSi-
rem, aiiteis, arUeU.
8. / and u before vowels are sometimes used as consonants with the
sound of y and w : Thus, abiets and arieU, become (ibye& and ary^ : gen^
and fenw8« become ^g»«>» and «»t«>&.
FIGUEES OF PBOSODY. VAEIETIES OF VEESE. 305
ni. DiAEEBSis. — ^This is the resolution of one syllable
into two :
aurai/or aurae, OrphStis for Orpheus, soluendus, /or solvendus, silua
for ailva.
As a matter of fact the Latin poets seldom, if ever, actnallj divide any syllable
into two, and the examples generally explained by diaeresis are only ancient forma,
occasionally used by them for effect or convenience.
IV. 'Systole. — ^This is the shortening of a long syllable :
tulSnmt/or tulgrunt, st^tfirunt /or stfiterunt (286), vid6*n /or videsnc.
This is a rare poetical license, occurring most frequently in the final vowels and
diphthongs, which would otherwise be elided. See 669. 1. 2.
V. Diastole. — ^This is the lengthening of a short syl-
lable :
Priimides/or Priimldes.
1. This is a poetical license, need chiefly in proper pamesand in final syllables in
the arsis of the foot (660X In the latter case the syUable is said to be lengthened by
the idus.
SECTION n.
VARIETIES OF VERSE .
I. Dactylic Veese.
670. All Dactylic Verses are measured by single feet
(663. IL), and consist of Dactyls and their metrical equiv-
alents, Spondees. The ictus is on the first syllable of every
foot.
L Dactylic Hexameter.
671 . The Dactylic Hexameter consists of six feet. The
first four are either Dactyls or Spondees, the fifth a Dactyl,
and the sixth a Spondee (665).
The scale is,'
Qu5driip6- ] dSntS pii- 1 trem sdol- | ta qu&tit | QDgiil& | c3mpum. Virg,
Armi vi- 1 rUmqu^ c&- | nS Tr5- | j3e qui | primiis &b ] Oris. Virg.
Inf^Q- I dam rC- | gin& jii- 1 b6s rfenS- | vSrfe d5- 1 15rem. Virg.
Illia in- | t6r s6- | s6 mSg- | nS vi | brSchlft 1 tCllflnt. Virg,
1 In this scale the sign ' marks the ictue (659).
a The final i otilii is elided by Synaloepha (669).
306 DACTTYLIC KEXAMKTEB.
672. Vabieties. — ^The scale of dactylic hexameters ad-
mits sixteen varieties, produced by varying the relative
number and arrangement of dactyls and spondees.
1. Illustration. — Thus a verse may contain,
1) Five dactyls and one spondee, as in the first example above.
2) Four dactyls and two spondees. These again admit four different ar-
rangements.
8) Three dactyls and three spondees, as in the second and third examples
above. But these again admit six dififerent arrangements.
4) Two dactyls and four spondees. These admit four dififerent arrange-
ments.
5) One dactyl and five spondees, as in the fourth example.
2. Effect of Dactyls.— Dactyls produce a rapid movement and are
adapted to lively subjects. Spondees produce a slow movement and are
adapted to grave subjects. But generally the best efifect is produced in suc-
cessive lines by variety in the number and arrangement of dactyls and spon-
dees.
8. Spondaic LiNB.--The Hexameter sometimes takes a spondee in the
fifth place. It is then called Spondaic, and generally has a dactyl as its
fourth foot :
€5r& d5- 1 Hm sdb5- 1 les mSg- ] num Jdvis | lucre- 1 mentum. Vtr^,
673; Caesueal Pause. — ^The favorite caesural pause
of the Hexameter is after the arsisy or in the thesis^ of the
third foot :
Arms- 1 tl ten- | dtlnt; || It | clSmdr.et | Bgming | fSctS. Virg,
InfSa- 1 dam, r6- 1 ginft, ]] jii- 1 b5s r6n6- | v5r6 d6* \ iSrem. Virg.
In the first lino the caesnral pause, marked || , la after tmdunt, after the arsis of
the third foot; and in the second line after reglna, in the thesis (nd jH) of the third
foot
1. Barb Caesural Pause. — The caesural pause is sometimes in the
fourth foot, and then an additional pause is often introduced in the second
foot. Sometimes indeed this last becomes the principal pause :
Cr6dld6- I rim; || v6r | Illiid 6- | rSt, || v6r 1 mSgnfis &- | gSbat. Virg.
2. Bucolic Caesura.— A pause between the fourth and fiflh feet is gen-
erally called the bucolic caesura^ because often used in pastoral poetry :
IngSn- I tem coe- | 15 sdnX- 1 ttlm d6d!t ; || IndS sS- 1 cUtus. Virg.
8. Faulty Caesura. — A caesural pause at the end of the third foot is
regarded as a blemish in the verse :
PQlv6rti- I Ifintiis 6- | quis furit; || 5mn63 j SrmX rS- | qulrunt. Virg.
674. Caesura and Caesural Pause. — ^The ending of
a word within a foot always produces a caesura. A line
may therefore have several caesuras, but generally only-
one of these (sometimes two) is marked by thq caesural
pause :
DACTYMO VEESE. 307
Arm& vl- 1 rumque c4- 1 n5, li Tr5- 1 jaS qui | primtts Sb | 5ris. Virg,
1. Here there is a caesura in eveiy foot except the last, but only one
of these, that after cano^ has the caesural pause.
2. In determining which caesura is to be marked by the pause the reader
must be guided by the sense, introducing the pause where there is a pause
of sense, or where at least it will not interfere with the sense.
8. The caesura, with or without the pause, is an important feature in
every hexameter. A line without it is prosaic in the extreme :
B5mae | moSnlii | terriilt | Implgir | HSnnib&I | Srmis. Enn,
675. Last Word op the Hexameter. — ^The last word
of the Hexameter should be either a dissyllable or a trisyl-
lable. See examples above.
1. Two monosyllables are not particularly objectionable, and sometimes
even produce a happy effect :
Praeclpl- | tant cfl- \ rae, |1 tur- 1 bSt&qu8 | itln5r5 | mens est. Virg,
Est is indeed often used even when not preceded by another monosyllable.
2. A single monosyllable, except ist^ is not often used at the end of the
line, except for the purpose of emphasis or humor:
PSriiiii- 1 tknt mCn- 1 tes, || nas- 1 cetar | ridlcii- 1 las mus. Hot.
11. BactyUc Pentameter.
676. The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts
separated by the caesural panse. Each part consists of two
Dactyls and the arsis of a third. The Spondee may take
the place of the Dactyl in the first part, but not in the
second :
Admoni- | ta coe^ | pi || fortior | Sss^ tii- 1 0. Owd,
1. Pentameter. — ^The name Bmtameter is founded on the ancient divi-
sion of the line into five feet; the first and second being dactyls or spondees;
the third, a spondee ; the fourth and fifth, anapaests.
2. Elegiac Distich.— The Dactylic Pentameter is seldom, if ever, used,
except in the Elegiac Distich, which consists of the Hexameter followed by
the Pentameter :
SfimlsS- 1 pnltS vi- I rllm || car- | vis f gri- 1 flntiir S- | rStris
0ss&, rii- I In5- ] sas 1| Occnllt | herb& d5- | mas. Oo.
III. Other Dactylic Verses.
&T7. The other varieties of dactylic verse are less im-
portant, but the following deserve mention :
308 VATTUCj ANAPABSnC, ASTD TBOCHAIG TEBSES.
L Dactylic Tetrameter. — This consists of the last
four feet of the Hexameter:
Ibimus I Buci- 1 i, cumi- 1 tesque. JJor.
In eompooDd Tenes, as the Gremter Archllochiaii, the tetrameter in eompositioii
with other metres, has a dactyl in the fourth place. See €91. L
IL Dacttlic TRDiErER CATALEcmc. — This is the Lesser
Archilochian, and is identical with the second half of the
Dactylic Pentameter :
Arbdii- 1 bOsquS co- 1 mae. Sbr,
HL Dactylic Ddueter. — ^This is the Adonic, and con-
sists of a Dactyl and Spondee :
MOntaiB I- 1 milgu. Bar.
IL Anapaestic Veese.
678. Anapaestic verses consist of Anapaestic dipodies.
An Anapaestic dipody consists of two Anapaests, bat
admits Spondees or Dactyls as equivalents.
I. Anapaestic Dimeteb consists of two dipodies :
Y^nient • finnis || saecilia • serls.^ JSen,
This is sometimes catalectic (663. III. 1\ and has only a long syllable in place of
the hut foot It is then called Parosmias
n. Anapaestic Monometeb consists of one dipody :
DfitA res : pStriae. Attion,
1. In Anapaestic verse Dactyls are nscd sparingly, and are generally followed by
Spondees. Each dipody generally ends with a word.
2. The last syllable is not common, as in most kinds of verse (665), bat subject
to the ordinary rules of quantity.
8. Anapaestic verse does not occar in the best Latin Poets.
in. Trochaic Verse.
679. Trochaic verses consist of Trochaic dipodies.
A Trochaic dipody consists of two Trochees, or of a
Trochee and a Spondee ; but it admits the Tribrach as the
equivalent of the Trochee, and the Anapaest, of the Spon-
dee. The first foot has a heavier ictus than the second :
» In verses measnrcd by dipodies, i^dotted line is placed between the feet, a sin-
gle line between the dipodies, and a double line in the place of the caesural pause.
TROCHAIC VERSB.
309
www
Jl w
www
I. Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic.
680. This consists of four Trochaic Dipodies with the
last foot incomplete. The caesural pause is at the end of
the fourth foot, and the incomplete dipody admits no equiv-
alents :
Nall& I y5x hn- i mSD& ! cSnatSt |i Sbsqu&
Beptem I iittS-
ris,
Ter. Mau.
BM I yCcS- I les v6- i cSv!t || quSs m&- j gistrii | GraficI- j
1. In Proper I^ames, a dactyl may be Introdaced in any foot except the fonrth
and seyentb.
2. The Proeeletiamatio for the Spondee sometimes occars.
8. In Comedy the Spondee and its eqniralents occar in the odd feet, os well as
in the even, except in the last dipody.
4. The IVvchaio Tetrameter also occurs in the earlier poets in its complete
form, L e., with eight fall feet :
Ipsd : summXs | sSzIs • f Xzfis || fisp5- • ris S- | tXscS- • ratns. JTnn.
II. Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic.
681. This consists of two Trochaic Dipodies with the
last foot incomplete. In Horace it admits no equivalents
and has the following scale,
JL w : JL w I i. w : i
Aula I divi- 1 t6m m^- • net. Ear,
1. This is sometimes called lanibio Dimeter Aeephalovs^ i. e., an Iambic Dime-
ter with the first syllable wanting.
2. A Trochadc TVipody,— three Trochees— technically called a Troehaio Dime^
ter BrctchycataleotiOf or an IthyphalioWj occars in the Greater Archilochian. See
e91. L
8. For Sapphio Verse, see 691. IV.
4. For Pltalaeoiant see 691. V.
. rV. Iambic Veese.
682. Iambic verses consist of Iambic dipodies.
An Iambic dipody consists of two Iambi, or of a Spon-
dee and an Iambus; but it admits the Tribrach as the
equivalent of the Iambus, and sometimes the Dactyl or the
310
IAMBIC YEBSE.
Anapaest,* of the Spondee. The first foot has a heavier
ictus than the second.
In its full form it has the following scale :
www
^ V V
L Iambic Trimeter.
683. This verse, also called Senarvus^ consists of three
Iambic Dipodies.
I. The first dipody has the full form.
II. The second admits no Anapaest.
III. The third admits no Anapaest or Dactyl, and in its second
foot, no equivalent whatever.
IV. The Oaesural Pause is usually in the third foot, hut may
be in the fourth.
The scale is.
Qald Sb- ! s^rS- | tis || au- f rIbQs | fandis : prices? Eor,
Nfipttt- I niis SI- 1 15 || tun- \ dit hi- | bernus \ s&lo. Hor.
HSs In- : tdr gpii- | 133 || at j jiivat | pastSs j dres. Eor,
1. Proper Names. — In proper names an Anapaest is admissible in any
foot, except the last, but must be in a single word.
2. HoRACB.— In Horace the only feet freely admitted are the lambns and
the Spondee ; their equivalents, the Tribrach, the Dactyl and Anapaest, are
used very sparingly. The Tribrach never occurs in the fifth foot and only
once in the first The Anapaest occurs only twice in all.
8. Comedy. — ^In Comedy great liberty is taken, and the Spondee and its
equivalents are freely admitted in any foot except the last
4. Choliambus. — This is a variety of lamhio Trimeter with a Spondee in
the sixth foot and an Iambus in the fifth :
Misdr i C&tal- 1 15 de- j sInSs | InCp- | tire. Catul.
ChoUambu% means lame or limpin^f Icmkbus^ and is so called from its limping
movement It is sometimeB c^ed Scamon for the same reason, and sometimes Hip"
poruictdan, from Hipponax, its reputed inventor.
684. Iambic Trimeter Catalectic. — ^This is the lam-
bio Trimeter with the last foot incomplete. But in Horace
the only feet admissible besides the Iambus are the Tri-
IAMBIC VEESE.
311
brach in the second foot and the Spondee in the" first and
third:
VdcS- i ttis at- 1 qu6 nSn j v6c3- j tiis au- \ dit. Ifor.
IL Iambic Dimeter.
685. This verse consists of two Iambic Dipodies with
their usual equivalents. But in Horace the only feet ad-
missible besides the Iambus are the Trihrach in the second
place, the Spondee in the first and third, and the Dactyl in
the first : »
. M • W V w
Qufirtln- i tiir in 1 silvis ! fives. J3or.
ImbrSs i nivfis- 1 quS cSm- j pfirat. Bbr,
Ast Sgd i vlcis- 1 Sim ri- \ s^ro. ^or.
1. Iambio Dimeter Htpeemeteb occurs in Horace with the
foUowiDg scale :
Piier I quis Sx | aulS | cSpH- j lis. ITor.
This is sometimes called the Alcaic Enneasyllabic verse and forms the third line
in the Alcaic Stanza. See 700. 1.
2. Iahbio Diuetbq Catalectic does not occur in the pure Latin poets. '
Its scale is, ^
MSnu i piier 1 15quS- | ci. M, Arh,
8. Iambic Dimeter Acephalous. — This name is sometimes given to the
Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic (681), which is then treated as Iambic Dimeter
without the first syllable. Thus
Au- 1 1& di- 1 vltSm i m&net. Sor,
III. Iambic Tetrameter.
686. The Iambic Tetrameter is little used in Latin except in Come-
dy. It consists of four Iambic Dipodies with their usual eqiiivalents. The
caesura! pause is usually after the fourth foot :
Qu&ntum In- • tellgx- 1 1 modo • s^nls || sentSn- • iSSm \ de nup- •
tiifl. Ter.
312 IONIC AND CHOBIAMBIO VEBSES.
The lamhto Tetrameter CatcUecHc belongs mostly to comedy, bat occms also Is
Catullus:
QaOt cdm- • mddas ( rus at- • tuU ? |I qnot an- • tem &dd- | ml cu- • ras. Ten
V. Ionic Veesk.
687. The Ionic a Minore consists entirely of Lesser
Ionics. It may be either Tetrameter or Dimeter :
WW — — l.vwJl — |vwJL..|vwJl —
WW.I. — Iww — —
S!miil flDctSs i Tn)6rlnls | htimSrSs IS- 1 Tit In Undis. Ilbr.
Niqud s6gnl | p6d6 ylctus. Bor.
1. Horace has this metre only in one short ode (III. 12). In some edi-
tions this ode consists entirely of Tetrameters ; but in others it is arranged
in stanzas of three lines ; the first two, Tetrameters, and the third, a Dimeter.
2. In this verse the last syllable is not common, but subject to the ordi-
nary rules of quantity, as in the Anapaestic verse. See 678. 2.
8. The Ionic a Majore, Sotadian Vene, scarcely occurs in Latin, except
in Comedy. In its pure state it consists of three Greater Ionic feet and a
Spondee, but in Martial the third foot is a Ditrochee :
J.-ww|i.-ww|J.-w
H2Sa cam gSmX- 1 nS cGmp&dg | dedlcSt c&- 1 tSnSs. Mart,
VI. Choeiambic Veesk.
688. Choriambic verses begin with a Spondee followed
by one, two, or three Choriambi, and end with an lambus.
In Horace the Choriambic verse uniformly begins with the Spondee, bat insomo
of the other poets the Trochee, the Anapaest, or the Iambus occasionally takes the
place of the Spondee.
689. A Choriambic verse with one Choriambus is
called the Glyconic ; or, if catalectic, the Pherecratean ;
with two, the Asdepiadean ; with three, the Greater -4^-
depiad^an.
I. The Glyconic has the following scale :
i.-|i.wwi.|wi
DSnfic I grStiis irSm | tifbi. E(yr,
n. The Phkreceatean is catalectic, but otherwise iden-
tical with the Glyconic. Its scale is,
JL _ I J. w w JL I w
VIx dQ- 1 rfirfi cXrl- I nae. Hor,
GHOBIAMBIC V£BSE. 313
in. The AscLKPiADKAK has the following scale :
i.-|i.ww^l|i.ww±|wi
Maece- 1 nSs UUvJs || edit5 reg- 1 Ibus. Bar.
IV. The Geeateb AsclepiadEan has the following scale :
±-|^s.w±||J.ws.±||J.ws.J.|s.i
Sea plu- 1 res hlSmSs, i| seu tribiiit |1 Japit^r til- | timam. Bor.
This is sometimes called CTioriambic Pentameter and sometimes Choriamlic
Tetrameter,
EpicTioriamhic Verse.
690. When a verse begins with a Second Epitrite fol-
lowed by one or two Choriambi, and ends with a Bacchius,
it is called Epichoriambic. Of this there are two important
varieties :
I. The Sapphic Vebse. — ^This consists of a Second Epi-
trite, a Choriambus and a Bacchius :
Namqud me sil- 1 t5 || Itiptis In | S&bina. Ebr.
1. Bat the Sapphic verso may also be measured as a Trochaic Dipody
followed by aa Aristophanic verse, i. e., as composed of a Trochee, a Spon-
dee, a Dactyl, and two Trochees. See 691. IV.
2. The Caesaral Pause usually occurs after the fifth syllable, as in the
example, but sometimes after the sixth.
8. Catullus admits two Trochees in place of the Epitrite.
n. The Greater Sapphic Verse. — ^This differs from
the Sapphic proper only in introducing a second Choriam-
bus before the Bacchius :
Int5r aequS- 1 Ifis dquItSt, |l GSllIcA n6c | ItipStis. Eor.
This is sometimes improperly called Choriarribic Tetrameter.
Vn. LoGAOEDic Verse.
691. Logaoedic verses consist of Dactyls, or their
equivalents, followed by Trochees.
I. Greater Archilochian. — ^This consists of a Dactylic
Tetrameter (GTY. 1.) followed by a Trochaic Tripody. The
first three feet are either Dactyls or Spondees ; the fourth,
a Dactyl ; and the last three, Trochees :
14
314 LOGAOSDIC TEBSB.
i.ww|i.ww|i.ww|JLww||^w:2.w|i.w
YItaA I Bflmmi brt- 1 tIs Bp«m | nSs t&UU, || inchd- f 5r& | iSngam. Eor.
The caesnnl pause is between the two membeis.
n. Alcaic Vkbse. — ^This consists of two Dactyls fol-
lowed by two Trochees :
JLvw|i.ww|i.w:JLU
Porpiirft- 1 T&rl- 1 Qs cd- 1 iSre. Eor.
ni. Abistophanic Vkese. — This consists of a Dactyl
followed by two Trochees :
/ If • f ^
COr niqai | mill- j tiris. Ew.
This Terse is tsiIoiisIj named, ArUiophanio^ Choriambic DimeUty and Cho*
riambic IHrnOtr CatalecUo.
IV. Sapphic Vkese. — ^This prefixes to the Aristophanic
a 'Trochaic Dipody consisting of a Trochee and a Spondee
(690. L). The scale is,
- V ; i -
Nlmqu6 : me sll- 1 tS luptis | In S&- j bina. Eor.
Sapphic Terse may be classed at pleasTire either with the Zoffooedie Teises^ as
here, or with the Jl(pMu>rianibie Terses, as in article fi90. L
V. Phalabcian Vkese. — ^This consists of a Spondee, a
Dactyl, and three Trochees :
jL-|j.uw|i.w:i.w|i.U
NOn est I TlT^rfi, j| sed t&. I ler& | Tita. Mari.
This Terse is sometimes called, from the number of its syllables, EendeccuyOdbie,
of eleTen syllables. It does not oocnr in Horace. In GatnUos it sometimes has a
Trochee, or an lambns, in the first place.
VILL Miscellaneous Verses.
692. Gbeateb Alcaic Veesb. — This consists of an
lambie Penihemimeris and a pure Dactylic Dimeter^ i. e.,
an Iambic Dipody, a long syllable and two Dactyls :
700. 1.
Tides I iit SI- I tS II stet dItS I cSndldum
S($rSc- i te nee | jSm || sastlue- 1 Snt dniis. Eor.
1. The Caesural Pause is nsuallj between the two members.
2. In Horace the first foot is generally a Spondee.
8. This Terse forms the first and second lines of the Alcaic Stanza. See
MISCELLANEOUS YEBSES. 315
693. Dactylico-Iambic Veese. — ^This consists of a pure
Dactylio Penthemimeris (656. 2) and an Iambic Dimeter
(«85):
J. w
Jassiis &b- | Ir6 dd- 1 mam, || f Sr6- \ b&r in- | cdrtS j p£de. ffor.
1. This verse is sometimes called Eteffiariibus.
2. This verse and the following oompoands— the lambico-Dactylio and the Pri-
ap<ia»— have the peculiarity that the two members of each may be treated as sepa-
rate lines, as the last syllable of the first member is conmion, as at the end of a line.
694. Iambico-Dactylic Verse. — ^This consists of an
Iambic Dimeter and a Dactylic Penthemim^ris^ i. e., of the
same parts as the preceding, but in an inverted order :
NIvGs- 1 qaS de- 1 dacant ; J5v6m : || nQnc mSrS, | nanc sXlti- 1 ae. Sor,
1. This verse is sometimes called lambelegtts.
2. For the final syllable of the first member, see 693. 2.
695. Prtapetan Veese. — ^This consists of a Gluconic
and a, Pherecratean (689. L 11.) :
Jm> V \f •
— WW —
QuGrcus I 5rld& rQs- | ticfl || cQnfSr- 1 mfitS s^ctk- 1 ri. Caiul,
1. In this verse, as it appears in Catnllns, the Olyoonic and the Pherecratean
appear with snch variations as are allowed in that poet (688). Hence the Trochee
quere&8 for the Spondee, in the example.
2. For the final syllable of the first member, see 698. 2.
sEOTioiir ni.
TJTE YEB81FICATI0N OF VIBGIL^ HORACE, OVID, AND JUVENAL,
696. Virgil and Juvenal. — Virgil in his Eclogues,
Georgics,.and Aeneid, and Juvenal in his Satires use only
the Dactylic Hexameter. See 671.
697. Ovid. — Ovid uses the Hexameter in his Metamor-
phoses, but the Elegiac Distich in his Epistles and other
works. See CTG. 2.
698. Horace. — ^Horace uses the Hexameter in his Epis-
tles and Satires, but in his Lyrics, i. e., in his Odes and
Epodes, he uses a great variety of Metre.
310 MSTTBES OF HOSACE.
699. Ltbics op Hobacb. — Most of the Odes and
Epodes consist of Stanzas of two, three, or four verses ; but
a few of them consist entirely of a single kind of verse.
Lybic Metbes of Hobace.
700. For convenience of reference the following out-
line of the Lyric metres of Horace is here inserted.
A. Stanzas of Four Verses.
I. Alcaic Stanza. — ^First and second verses, Greater Alcaics
2) ; third, Iambic Dimeter Hypermeter (685. I) ; fourth, Al-
caic (691. II.).
4. JLww|±ww|i.w:i.w
In thirty-seven Odes : I. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 81, 34, 35, ^ ; IL 1, 3, 5,
7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20 ; III. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29 ; IV. 4^
9, 14, 15.
n. Sapphic aot) Adonic. — ^The first three verses, Sapphics
(691. IV.); the fourth, Adonic (677. III.).
4, J- w w j — —
In Twenty-six Odes: I. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 80, 32, 88; II. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
16 ; III. 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27 ; IV. 2, 6, 11, and Sec. Hymn.
in. AsoLEPiADflAN AND Gltoonio. — The first three verses,
Asclepiadeans (689. III.) ; the fourth, Glyconic (689. 1.).
1.) A
2. lJL-|i.wwi.|i.wvJ.|v-
4. i.-ji.w«JL|w-
In nine Odes: I. 6, 15, 24, 83; II. 12; III. 10, 16; IV. 5, 12.
IV. AsOLEPlADfiAN, PHERECBATfiAN, AND GlTOONIO. — ^The first
two verses, Asclepiadeans (689. III.); the third, Pherecratean
(689. II.) ; the fourth, Glyconic (689. 1.).
Mjl„|J.ww^|i.wwi.|vl
8. i.-|i.uvJL|w
In seven Odes : I. 5, 14, 21, 23; III. 7, 13 ; IV. 18.
MSTTRES OF HOBACE.
317
B. Stanzas of Three Verses.
V. loNio A MmoBK (687). — The first two verses, Tetrameters :
the third, Dimeter.
In Ode III. 12.
C. Stanzas of Two Verses.
YI. Iambio Tbimeteb and Iambio Dimeteb (683, 685).
1. w i. : w i.
— WW
w w —
w — I w —
W V w I »• —
w — .
w — . w
In the first ten Epodes.
yn. Glyoonio and Asot-epiadban (689. L, lU.).
1. ±-|i.vwi.|wi
2. See IV. 1.
In twelve Odes : I. 3, 13, 19, 86 ; III. 9, 16, 19, 24, 25, 28; IV. 1, 3.
Vin. Hexameteb and Daottlio Tetbameteb (671 ; 677. 1.).
_ JL w w I J^ w w I
WWl— WWlJaWW
w w I J. —
i. w
In two Odes : I. 7, 28, and Epode 12.
IX. Hexameteb and Daotyuo Tbimeteb Oatalectio (671 ;
677. n.).
1. See Vra. 1. ^
2. .iww|i.ww|l
In Ode IV. 7.
X. Hexameteb and Iambio Tbimeteb (671, 683).
See YIII. 1 and YI. 1.
In Epode 16.
XI. Hexameteb and Iambio Dimeteb (671, 685).
See YIII. 1 and YI. 2.
In Epodes 14 and 15.
318
METBES OF HORACE.
XII. Hexamxtib and Iambioo-Daotylio (6T1, 694).
1. See VIIL 1.
JLI w X
W «» II ^ W W I a^
2. i;
Id Epode 18.
XIII. Iambio Tbocetbb and Daotylioo-Iahbio (683, 693).
1. See VI. 1.
i. V w I i.
JLI w JL
Id Epode 11.
XIV. Tboohaio Dimeteb Oatalsotio and Iambio Tbimetsb
Cataleotio (681, 684).
1. i.w:i.w|-Lw:-
^wJ. I wi. Iw.
. www I - .
Id Ode IL 18.
XV. Gbeateb Abohilochian and Iambio Tbiheteb Cata-
leotio (691. 1. ; 684).
2. See XIV. 2.
In Ode I. 4.
XVL Abistophanio and Gbeateb SAPpmo (691. III. ; 690. II).
, 1. ± w w I ^ . : J. U
2. i.wi.-|-lww.!.|i.w«^|wJL-
In Ode I. 8.
D. Verses used Singly.
XVn. AsoLEPiADfiAN (689. m.).
i.-|i.wwi.|i.w
In three Odes : 1. 1 ; III. 80 ; IV. 8.
XVEH. Gbeateb Abolepiadean (689. IV.).
i.-.|JLwwi.|i.wwl|i.wwi.|w-
In three Odes: I. 11, 18 ; IV. 10.
XIX. Iambio Tbimbteb (683). See VI. 1.
In Epode 17.
MSTBES OF HORACE.
319
701. Index to the Lteic Metres op Horace.
The Roman numerals refer to articles in the preceding outline, 100.
BOOK I.
Odes. Metres.
1, XVIL
2, II.
3, VII.
4, XV.
5, IV.
6, m.
1, VIII.
8, XVI.
9, L
10, IL
11, XVIIL
12, II.
18, VII.
14, IV.
16, III.
16, I.
17, L
18, xviir.
19, VII.
20, IL
21, IV.
22, II.
23, IV.
24, ' III.
25, IL
26, L
27, I.
28, VIIL
29, L
80, IL
31, L
82, IL
83, IIL
84, L
36, L
86, VIL
37, L
38, IL
BOOK II.
I.
II.
L
Odes. Metres.
* n.
6 I.
6, IL
"?, I.
8, II.
9, 1.
10, n.
11, L
12, m.
13, I.
14, I.
15, I.
16, n.
17 I.
18, XIV.
19, L
20, I.
4,
6,
6.
7,
8,
9,
10,
11,
12,
13,
14,
16,
16,
IV,
18,
19,
20,
21,
22,
23,
24,
2S,
BOOK III.
L
L
I.
L
L
L
IV.
IL
VIL
IIL
IL
V.
IV.
IL
VIL
IIL
I.
IL
vn.
IL
L
IL
I.
VIL
VIL
Odes.
26, ,
27, .
28, .
29, ,
30, .
I,
2.
8,
4,
6,
6>
7,
8,
9,
10,
11,
12,
18,
14,
15,
Metres.
L
a
vn.
L
XVIL
vn.
n.
vn.
L
m.
IL
IX.
XVIL
L
xvm.
n.
m.
IV.
L
L
EPODES.
Epodes. Metres.
1, VL
2, VL
3, VL
4, VL
6, VL
6, VL
7, VI.
8, VL
9, VL
10, VL
11, xm.
12, vm.
13, XIL
14, XL
16, XL
16, X.
17, XIX.
SECULAB HYMN, IL
APPEIirDIX.
L FiGUEES OP Speech.
702. A Figure is a deviation from the ordinary /or;/?,
construction^ or signification of words.
Deyiations from the ordinarj forms are called Figures of Etymology ;
from the ordinary constructions, Figures of Syntax^ and from the ordinary
significations, Figures of Rhetoric.
703. The Figures of Etymology are the following : .
1. ApnAXBSSiB takes a letter or syllablq from the beginning of a word : ''st for eti,
2. Btkcops takes a letter or syllable from the middle of a word: v'irum. for
rlrdriMTS diat€ for diaoisae.
8. Apocops takes a letter or syllable from the end of a word : turC for tune.
4 Prostussis prefixes a letter or syllable to a word: tit&li tot W/L
6. Epxkthksis inserts a letter or syllable to a word: AleHmina tor Alcmetut,
antuum for dtttum,
0. FAaAooaa adds a letter or syllable to a word : dicier for did,
7. Mktathesis transposes letters or syllables: piatris tor priatis.
8. ANTrmssiB substitutes one letter for another : volnus for vtUmu^ oiU for »2^
See also Figures of Prosody, 6C0.
704. The Figures of Syntax are the following :
1. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words of a
sentence :
H&bltSbat ad Jd^is (ac. templum), Se dwelt near the temple of Jupiier.
Liy. Abiit, dvSsit {et\ He has gone, has escaped. Cic.
1. AsnmrrON is an ellipsis of a con)anctl(m. See 587. 1. 6 ; 587. IIL 4.
2. ZxuoiiA Is sn ellipsis which employs a single verb with two subjects or ob-
jects, though strictly applicable to only one:
Pucem an bellum gdrens, whether at peace (figens) or waging war. SalL
8. Aposxopestb, also called ReticenUa^ used for rhetorical effect, is an ellipsis
which leaves the sentence unfinished:
QuoB ego sed motos praestat compSn^re flnetus. Whom I hut it ie het"
ter to calm the troubled waves, Yirg.
4. Pbovsrbs are often elliptical
6. Ellipsis or Faoio, Dico, Obo. See 460. 8 ; 602, IL 8.
IL Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words :
Erant ItlnSraduo, quibus ItlnerDjus ezire possent, There were two ways
by which ways they might depaart. Caes. Eurusque Ndtusque ruunt, Both
Eurus and Notus rush forth, Virg.
1. PoLTBTNDBTON Is a pleonasm in the use of (Conjunctions, as In the last example.
2. Hbndiadts Is the use of two nouns with a conjunction, instead of a noun
with an adjective or genitlvo:
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 321
Annls \biaq\i\for vlris armfitis, vdth armed men, Tac.
8. Anaphora is the repetition of a word at the begioning of snccessivc clauses :
Me cuncta It&lia, me iiniversa civltas consiilem dccltlrfivit, Me all Italy^ me the
wJiole state declared consul. Cic
4. Epiphosa is the repetition of a word at the end of successiye clauses:
Laelius nayns Srat, doctns erat, Lotelius was diHoent^ was learned. Cic
5. Monosyllabic prepositions are often repeated before successiye noans, regu-
larly so with e^—et :
Et in bellicis et in clyilibus oinciis, hoik in milUary and in civil qfflces. Cic
Other prepositions are sometimes repeated.
6. A demonstratiye, pronoun or adyerb, id, hoc, illud, sic, Ita, is often used
somewhat redundantly to represent a subsequent clause. So also quid, in quid censes
with a clause:
Illud te oro ut dlligens sis, I ask you (that thing) to be (that you be) diligent. Cic
7. Pronouns redundant with quldejn. See 44d. 1.
8. Pleonasm often occurs with licet:
Ut liceat permittitur = licet, It is lawful (is permitted that it is, Ac). Cic
9. A word is often repeated for emphasis.
10. Circumlocutions with res, g^us, mMue, and rdtio are common.
m. Enallage is the substitution of one part of speech
for another, or of one grammatical form for another :
Pdpiilus I5te rex (for regnans), a people of extensive sway (ruling exten-
sively). Virg. Serus (sero) in coelum rSdeas, May you return late to heaven,
Hor. Vina c&dis {vinis cados) 6n6r3re, to fill the flasks wUh toine. Virg.
1. AntiuebIa is the use of one part of speech for another, as in the first two ex-
amples.
2. Htpallaoe is the use of one case for another, as in the last example.
8. STinsBiB is a construction according to sense, without regard to grammatical
forms. See 488. 6 and 461.
4. Anaooluthon is a want of harmony in the construction of the different parts
of a sentence :
Si, ut dicnnt, omnes Graios esse {Graii sunt), if, as they say, all are Greeks. Cic.
rV. Hypebbaton is a transposition of words or clauses :
Praeter anna nihil firat stiper (supererat), Nothing remained, except their
arms. Nep. Vilet atque Tlvit (vivit atque valet). He is alive and well. Ter.
1. Amastbophb is the transposition of words only, as in the first example.
• 2. Htstxron Pboteeon is a transposition of clauses, as in the second example.
8. Tmesis is the separation of a compound word. See 628. S2. 2).
705. Figures of Rhetoric, also called Tropes, comprise
several varieties. The following are the most important.
I. Metaphor. — This is an implied comparison, and as-
signs to one object the appropriate name, epithet or action
of another :
Rei ptlbllcae vulnns (for damnum), the wound of the fepubUc. Cic.
Naufr&gium fdrtanae, the wreck of fortune, Cic.
11. Metonymy is the use of one name for another
naturally suggested by it :
14*
322 APPBKDIX.
Aequo M arte (for prodio) pngnitom est, Tkegf<mgld »» on equal am-
t€ti. Ijr. Ffirit Yalclniu {i^nis), Tkejire raget, Yirg.
Bj tbift fiipire the caase is often imt for tbc effect and the effect for the caime;
the property for the poMcsaor, the place or age for the pe<^le, the sign for the thing
ilgnJiled, etc : Man lot beUum^ Vtdeanut for ignU^ Bacchut for vmtf m, nobUiUu
tot mOOlUSt Grateia tat Graed^ laurea/or victdria^ etc
HL Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or
of the whole for a part ; of the special for the general, or
of the general for the special :
In Testra tecta (vedrat d6mo») discsdite, DtpaH to your homes. Cic.
St&tio mile Ada c&rlnia {ndvvbue), a etation unnfefor skips. Yirg.
IV. Irony is the use of a word for its opposite :
L^gStos bdnus (for malus) imp^rStor Tester non admisit, Tour good
commander did not admit ike ambassadors. Lit.
1. Enim^ Hinim, scUleet, tMi^eet, nlmUwn^ credo, and the like, are often
IronicaL See OOflL 8L
V. Hypebbole is an exaggeration :
Yentis et ftdmlnis Scior Slis, swifter than the ufinds and the wings of the
lightning. Yirg.
VI. Litotes denies something instead of affirming the
opposite :
Non 5pus est = pemlciSsum est, It is not necessary. Cic.
n. Latin Authors.
708. The history of Roman literature embraces about
eight centuries, from 250 B. C. to 660 A. D., and has been
divided by Dr. Freund into three principal periods :
I. The Ante-Classical Pebiod.— From 250 to 81 B. 0. The
principal authors of this period are :
Ennius, Plautns, Terence, Lucretius.
II. The Classical Period.— This embraces the Golden and
the Silver age :
1 . The Oolden Age.— Yrom 81 B. C. to 14 A. D. The principal
authors are :
Cicero, Nepos, Horace, Tibullus,
Caesar, Livy, Ovid, Propertius.
Sallust, "Virgil, Catullus,
2. The Siher Age.— 'From 14 to 180 A. D. The principal
authors are :
LATIN AUTHOBS. SOMAN CALENDAbI 323
Phaedrus, The Plinies, Qulntilian, Fereiufl,
Velleius, Tacitus, Suetonius, Lucan,
Tlie Senecas, Curtius, Juyenal, Martial.
Hr. The Post-Classical Pebiod. — ^This embraces the Brazen
and the Iron Age :
1. The Brazen Age. — ^From 180 to 476 A.D. The principal
authors are :
Justin,
Victor,
Eutropiufl,
Macrobiua,
Lactantius,
Ausonius,
Claudian,
Terentian.
2. The Iron Age.— Yvom 476 to 550 A.D.
thors are :
The principal
au-
Boethius, Gasaiodorus, Justinian, Priscian.
ni. The Roman Calendae.
707. The Julian Calendar of the Romans is the basis
of our own, and is identical with it in the number of months
in the year and in the number of days in the months.
708. PECULiARmES. — ^The Roman calendar has the fol-
lowing peculiarities :
I. The days were not numbered from the beginning of the
month, as with us, ))nt from three different points in the month :
1. The Calends, the^r«^ of each month ;
2. The Nones, iliQ fifths — ^but the seventh in March, May, July,
and October ;
8. The Ides, the thirteenth^ — but the fifteenth in March, May,
July, and October.
n. From these three points the days were numbered, not for-
ward, but backward.
Hence after the Id^ of each month, the days were numbered from the
Calends of the following month.
ni. In numbering backward from each of these points, the
day before each was denoted by pHdie Cdlendas, Nonas, etc. ; the
second before each by die tertio (not sScundo ; third, not second)
ante Cdlendas, etc., the third, by die qua/rto, etc., and so on through
the month.
1. NuMXSJLU.— ThU peonlfAfity in the use of the nnmeralB, designating the
Mcond day before the Calends, ete^ as the third, and the third as the fourth, etc,
arises from the fitct that the Calends, etc., were themselves counted as the first
Thus pridis cmU CdUndas becomes the second before the Calends, dis tertio ante
Cdlendas, the third, etc.
2. Name of MoNTH.~In dates the name of the month Is added in the form of an
acUectiye in agreement with Cdlendas, Ifonas, etc., as, die quarto a/nte Nonas Jdn^
ftdrias, often shortened to, quarto ante Nonas Jan, or IV. ante Ndnas Jan, or with-
out ante, as, IK Mnas Jan,, the second of Jannary.
324
AFPBETDIX.
8. AsTE DiKM.— Instead of dU—arUSt anU diem is common, as, cmU diem
quartum Nonas Jan, for die quarto ante Nonas Jan,
4 Aa iKDaouH ABLE NouNB.— The expressions ante diem^Cal., eta, prldie
Cal^ ete., are often used as indeclinable nonns with a preposition, as, ex ante diem
V. Idue Oct^ from the 11th of Oct JJv. Ad pridie Nonas Maias, till the Cth of
May. Oio. '
70iB. Calendar foe the Tear.
Dajs of
March, May, Julj,
Jan. Aug.
April, Jane,
February.
the Uontb.
Oct
December.
Sept. Not.
CALE5DIS.*
Oauwdis.
Cat.kndis.
Calxndis.
VL Nonas.*
IV. Nonas.
IV. Nonas.
IV. Nonas.
V. **
III.
IIL
IIL
IV. "
Pridie Nonas.
Pridie Nonas.
Pridie Nonas.
IIL »•
NONIS.
NONIS.
NONIS.
Pridie Nonas.
VIIL Idas.
VIIL Idas.
VIIL Idas.
NONIB.
VIL
VIL
VIL
VIIL Idas.
VL
VL "
VL •*
VIL
V. "
v..
V. "
VL
IV.
IV. *♦
IV.
V. *
IIL "
IIL
IIL
IV.
Pridie Idas.
Pridie Idas.
Pridie Idas.
IIL •*
iDIBVSk
Idibus.
Idibus.
Pridie Idas.
XIX. Calend.a
XVIIL Calend.a
XVL Calend.a
Idibus.
XVIIL
XVIL
XV.
XVIL Calend.a
XVIL "
XVL "
XIV.
XVL
XVL
XV.
XIIL
XV. «
XV.
XIV.
XIL
XIV.
XIV.
XIIL •♦
XL
20
XIIL "
XIIL
XIL,,
X.
21
XIL
XIL
XL
IX
22
XL ♦»
XL
X.
VIIL
28
X.
X.
IX-
VU.
24
IX. ••
IX.
VIIL "
VL
25
VIIL "
VIIL
VIL
V.(VI.)« "
26
VIL
VIL
VL "
IV. (V.) "
IIL (IV.) «
Prid.Cal.(IILCaL)
(Prid. Cal)
27
VL «
VL "
V.
28
V.
V. "
IV. »'
29
IV.
IV.
IIL
80
IIL
IIL
Pridie Calend.
31
Pridie Calend.
Pridie Calend.
710. English and Latin Dates^— The table (709) wfll fur-
nish the learner with the English expression for any Latin date,
or the Latin expression for any English date ; but in translating
Latin, it may be convenient also to have the following rule :
I. If the day is numbered from the iN'ones or Ides, subtract
the number diminished by one from the number of the day on
which the Nones or Ides fall :
* To the Calends, Nones, etc., the name of the month mast of coarse be added.
Before Nonas, Idos, etc, ante is sometimea nsed and sometimes omitted (708. III. 2).
3 The Calends of the following month are of coarse meant, as the 16th of March
for instance is, XVIL Calendae AprUes,
' The endosed forms apply to leapryear.
ROMAN CALENDAR. MONET. 325
Vni. ante Idus Jan. = 13 — (8 — 1) = 13 — 7 = 6th of January.
n. If the day is numbered from the Calends of the following
month, subtract the number diminished by two from the number
of days in the current month :
XVm. ante Cal. Feb. = 31 — <18 — 2) = 31 — 16 = 15th of
January.
In Leap-year the 24th and 25th February are both called the sixth before the
Calends of March, VL CoU. Mart. The days before the 24th are numbered precisely
as if the month contained as usual only 28 days, but the days after the 25th are num«
bered regularly for a month of 29 days: F., /F., III. Cal. Mart.^ and pridie CaL
Mart.
711. Divisions of Day astd Night.— The Roman day, from
sun-rise to sun-set, and tiie night from sun-set to sun-rise, were
each divided at all seasons of the year into twelve hours.
L Night "Watohe8. — ^The night was also divided into four watches of three
Boman hours each.
2. Length op Bou ax Hotjk.— The hour, being uniformly ^ of the day or of the
night, of course varied in length, with the length of the day or night at different
seasons of the year.
lY. Roman Monet, Weights, and Measures.
712. Coins. — The principal Roman coins were the as,
of copper, the sestertius, qulndrius, denarius, of silver, and
the aureus, of gold. Their value in the classical period was
as follows :
As, 1 to 2 cents.
Sestertius, 4 "
Qulnarius, 8 "
DSnarius, . ' 16 "
Aureus = 26 dgnani, .... $4.00.
1. As— THE Unit op Monet. — The As was originally the unit of the
Boman currency, and contained a pound of copper, but it was diminished
from time to time in weight and value till at last it contained only Y24 of a
pound.
But whatever its weight, ,\ of the as Is always called an unda^ t\ a sextans, ^^
a quadrans, ^, a triens, tt a quincunx^ /j a semis, /^ a septtmaoy ^ a bes^ ^ a rfo-
drans, f § a dextans, \\ a dmnx.
2. Sestertius, Quinarius, and Denarius. — ^The sestertius contained ori-
ginally 2k asses, the qulndrius 5, and the dindritts 10 ; but as the as depre-
ciated in value, the number of asses in these coins was increased.
8. As— THE General Unit op Computation. — The as is also used as
the unit in other things as well as in money. Thus
1) In Weight.— ThQ as is then a pound, and the tmda an ounce.
2) In M6asure.^the as is then a foot or a jugdrum (718), and the imcia is ^^ of
a foot or of a jugerum.
326 APPENDIX.
8) In /ftl0r«il— The <u is then the unit of interest, which was one per eent a
month, L e^ twelve per year, the wida is ^ per month, L e^ 1 per year, and the
9imis is A ?«'• month, L e., 6 per year, etc.
i) In InherUance.—The {U is then the whole estate, and the wieia ^ of it:
hires 4BB aste^ heir of the whole estate ; hire* w dodranUy heir of ^,.
713. Computation op Money. — ^In all sams of money
the common unit of computation was the sestertius^ also
called nummus / but four special points deserve notice :
I. In all sums of money, the units, tens, and hundreds are de-
noted by sestertii with the proper cardinals :
Quinqae sestertii, 5 sesterces, ylginti sestertii, 20 seOerees, diicenti ses-
tertii, 200 sesterces,
n. One thousand sesterces are denoted by mille sestertii^ or
miUe sestertium,
in. In sums less than 1,000,000 sesterces, the thousands are
denoted either (1) by millia sestertium (gen. plur.), or (2) by ses-
tertia :
Duo millia sestertium, or duo sestertia, 2,000 sesterces; quinque millia
sestertium, or quinque sestertia, 5,000 sesterces
With sestertia the distributives were generally used, as, hma sestertia,
for dito sestertia,
rV. In sums containing one or more millions of sesterces, ses-
tertium with the value of 100,000 sesterces is used with the proper
numeral adverb, dScies, vicies, etc. Thus
D^cies sestertium, 1,000,000 (10 X 100,000) sesterces; Vicies sestertium,
2,000,000 (20 X 100,000) sesterces.
1. BMTBETnrM.— In the examples under IV., sestertium is treated and declined
as a neuter noun in the singular, though originaUy it was probably the genitive plur.
otsssterHus, and the full expression for 1,000,000 sesterces was I>Mes cenUna mUUa
sestertium. Centinii miUia was afterward generally omitted, and finaUy sester-
tium lost its force as a genitive plural, and became a neuter noun in the singular,
capable of declension
2. SusTiDBTnrM OmrrED.— Sometimes sestertium is omitted, leaving only the
numeral adverb : as, dSdes, 1,000,000 sesterces.
3. Sign H8.— The sign HS, is often used for sestertii^ and sometimes for sester-
tia^ or sestertium :
Decem H8 = 10 sesUrces (HS = sestertii). Dena H8 = 10,000 sesterces (HS
= sestertia). Decies HS = 1,000,000 sesterces (HS = sestertium).
714. Weight.— The basis of Roman weights is the Libra^
also called As or Pondo^ equal probably to about 111 ounces avoir-
dupois,
1. OimoKS.— The lAf>ra, like the as in money, is divided into 12 parts called by
the names given under 712. 1.
2. Fbactzonb of Odncbs.— Parts of ounces also have special names: J= semi-
uncia, \ = duella, \ ^ sldlicus, i = sextiila, \ = drachma, ^ = scrupiUum, -^ = ob-
51us.
WEIGHTS. MEASUEES. ABBEEVIATIONS.
327
715. Dby Mkastjbb.— The Mbdiua is the basis, equal to about
a peck.
1. SiXTAEius.— This is ^ of a modlas.
2. Parts of the Sjeztajuub.— TIimo have special names : i = bemlna, I = &ce-
tubulam, ^ = cy&thus.
716. Liquid Mjeasuee. — The AmpTiZra is the most conven-
ient unit of the Roman liquid measure, and contained a Roman
cubic foot, equivalent probably to about seven gallons, wine measure.
1. CiTLBUS.— Twenty amphdrae make one Culeus.
2. Pabtb of Akphoba.— These have special names : | = urna, ^ = eongios, ^V
= seztarios, ^ = hemlna, t^, = quartarios, ,fx = icStabiUam, ^h = cj&tlins.
717. Long Measuee. — ^The basis of this measure is the Ro-
man foot, equivalent to about 11.6 inches.
1. Combinations of Fssr.—Palmlpes = 1^ Boman feet ; ciibitus = 1} ; passns
= 6; st&diam = e25.
2. Pabts of Foot.— Palmns = J foot ; nncia = ^ ; digitus = ^.
718. Square Measuee. — The basis of this measure is the
Jug^rum, containing 28,800 Roman square feet, equivalent to about
six tenths of an acre.
The parts of the jtigirwn have the same name as those of the Aa: ancia=^,
sextans = A, etc See 712. 1.
V. Abbreviations.
719. Names.
A. = Aulus. L. = Lucius.
Ap. = Appius. M. = Marcus.
C. (G.) = Caius (Gaius). M\ = Mfinius.
Cn. (Gn.) = Cnaeus Mam. = Mamercus.
(Gnaeus). N. = NQmSriufl.
D. = DiEcimus. P. = Fublius.
Q. (Qu.) = Quintus.
S. (Sex,) = Sextus.
Ser. = Servius.
Sp. = Spurius.
T. = Titus.
Ti. (Tib.) = Tiberius.
720. Other Abbreviations.
A. D. = ante diem.
Aed. = aedllis.
A. IT, C. = anno urbis
conditae.
Gal. (Eal.) = CSlendae.
Cos. = consul.
Coss. = consiUes.
D. = divus. .
D. D. = done dSdit.
Des. = designatus.
D. M. = diis manibus.
D. S. = de sue.
D. S. P. P. = de sua
p^cQnia posuit.
Eq. Rom. = Eques Ro-
manus.
F. = f ilius.
F. 0. = f&cicndum cQ-
ravit.
Id. = Idas.
Imp. = impSrfttor.
Leg. = legatus.
Non. = Nonae.
0. M. = optimus max-
Imus.
P. C. = patres conscrip-
ti.
Pont. Max. = pontifex
ma^mus.
P. R. = popiilus Ro-
m&Dus.
Pr. = praetor.
Praef. = praefectus.
Proc. = proconsul.
Q. B. F. F. Q. S. =
quod bdnum, felix,
faustumque sit.
Quir. = Quirites.
Resp. = res publica.
S. = sfin&tus.
S. C. = s^natus con-
sultum.
S. D. P. = sSlQtem di-
cit plQnmam.
S. P. Q. R. = senatus
popi&usque Roma-
nus.
Tr. PI. = tribOnus plS-
bis.
INDEX OF VERBS.
721. Thia Index contains an alphabetical list, not only of all the
simple verbs in common use which involve any important irregularities,
but also of such compounds as seem to require special mention.
But in regard to compounds of prepositions, two important facts must
be borne in mind :
1. That the elements, — preposition and verb— often appear in the
compound in a changed form. See S38. 1 and 841. 3.
2. That the stem-vowel is often changed in the Perfect and Supine.
See 260.
Al-licio, gre, lexi, lectum, 249, 2YS.
IL 1.
Al-luo. See luo, 274.
Alo, erCf ^ui, ^itum, altum, 2*76. IL
Amb-igo. See ciffo^ 219,
Ambio, 295. 3.
Amicio, ire (ui), turn, 284.
Amo, parad.j 206.
Amplector, i, amplcxus sum, 282.
Ango, 6re, anxi, — , 274.
Annuo, fire, i, — , 274.
ApSge, def., 297.
Aperio, Ire, ui, turn, 284.
Apiscor, i, aptus sum, 282.
Ap-pSreo. Seejoareo, 266.
Ap-p6to. SeejD^to, 276. III.
Applico. SeejDftco, 262.
Ap-p5no. SeejDofio, 276.
Arcesso, 6re, ivi, itum, 276. m.
Ardeo, ere, arsi, arsum, 269.
Aresco, 6re, firui, — , 281.
Argue, ere, ui, utum, 273. 11.
Ar-ripio. See r&phy 276.
A-scendo. See scandoy 273. HI.
fcA-spergo. See spargo^ 273.
A-spicio, €re, spexi, spectum, 273.
As-sentior, in, densus sum, 286.
As-sideo. See B^deo^ 270.
At-texo. See teeo, 276.
At-tineo. See i&njeo, 266.
At-tingo. See tango^ 280.
At-tollo. See ioUo^ 280.
Audeo, ere, ausus sum, 272.
Audio, parad.y 211.
Au-fero. See/STro, 292.
Augeo, ere, auxi, auctum, 269.
Ave, def.^ 297.
Aveo, 6re, — , 268.
Abdo, fire, didi, ditum, 280.
Ab-igo. See ago, 279.
Ab-jicio. SecJ<2«o, 279.
Ab-luo. See luo, 274.
Ab-nuo. See annuOj 274.
Aboleo, ere, evi, itum, 266. 1.
Abolesco, ere, 6l6vi, olitum, 276. II.
Ab-ripio. See rupu>^ 276.
Abs-con-do. See abdo^ 280.
Ac-cendo, fire, i, censum, 273. IIL
Ac-cido. Sec cUdo^ 280.
Ac-cino. See cibw^ 280.
Ac-cipio. See cc?pio, 279.
Ac-cdlo. See cblo^ 276.
Ac-cumbo, fire, ciibui, cubitum, 276.
n.
Aceo, 6re, ui, — , 267.
Acesco, ere, 5cui, — , 281.
Ac-quiro. See quaero, 276. HI.
Acuo, fire, ui, utum, 273. II.
Ad-do. See abdo, 280.
Ad-imo. See «mo, 279.
Adipiscor, i, adeptus sum, 282.
Ad-61esco. See dbdleseo, 276. 11.
Ad-6rior. See drtor, 286.
Ad-spicio. See asplcioy 278. I. 2.
Ad-sto. See «to, 264.
Aegresco, fire, — , 281.
Af-fero. See/^ro, 292.
Age, def., 297.
Ag-noseo. See tioaeOj 277.
Ag-gredior. ^ee grddior, 282.
Ago, ere, 6gi, actum, 279.
Aio, def., 297.
Albeo, ere, — , 268.
Algeo, ere, alsi, — , 269.
INDEX OF YEBBS.
329
B.
BalbQtio, ire, — , 283.
Batuo, 6re, i, — , 274.
Bibo, gre, i, — j 274.
Blandior, iri, itus sum, 226.
Cado, ere, cScidi, casum, 280.
Caecutio, ire, — , 283.
Caedo, 6re, c5cidi, caesum, 280.
Calesco, 6re, e51ui, — , 281.
Calleo, «re, ui, — , 267.
Calveo, 6re, — , 268'.
Candeo, 6re, ui, — ^ 267.
Cfineo, ere, — , 268.
Cilno, §re, cficTni, cantum, 280.
Ciipesso, Sre, ivi, itum, 276. III.
Cdpio, Sre, cfipi, captum, 214, 279.
Carpo, 6re, si, turn, 273.
CSveo, ere, cavi, cautum, 270.
Cedo, 8re, cessi, cessum, 273. UI.
C6do, def,y 297.
Cello, O08. See exceUo^ 276. II.
Ceuseo, ere, ui, censum, 266. III.
Cemo, Sre, crfivi, cretum, 276. 11.
Cieo, Sre, civi, citum, 269. 1.
Cingo, 6re, cinxi, cinctum, 273.
Circum-sisto. See sisto, 280.
Clango, Sre, — , 276.
Claudo, gre, clausi, clausum, 273. III.
Claudo, ere {to be lame), — , 275.
Co-Slesco, ere, aiui, ftlitum, 281.
Co-arguo. See arffiM, 273.
Coeno, 262. 2.
Coepi, def., 297.
Cognosco. See fiosco, 277.
COgo, Sre, co6gi, coactum. See tf^o,
279.
Col-lido. See laedo, 273. III.
Col-ligo. See %o, 279.
Col-lQceo. See laceOj 269.
Colo, ere, ui, cultum, 276. 11.
Com-6do. See ^rfo, 291.
Comminiscor, i, commentus sum,
282.
Com-moveo. See mdveo, 270.
Como, ere, compsi, comptum, 273.
Com-parco (perco). Beeparco, 280.
Compfirio, ire, peri, pertum, 284.
Compesco, ere, pescui, — , 276. II.
Com-piugo. SeepanffOj 280.
Com-plector, i, plexus stmi, 282.
Com-pleo, ere, 6vi, etum, 266.
Com-primo. Seejtjr^wo, 273. HI.
Com-pungo, ere, punxi, punctum.
See pungo, 280.
Con-cido. See cSdo^ 280.
Con-cido. See caedo^ 280.
Con-cmo. See <?<5«o, 280.
Con-cludo. See daudo, 273. HI.
Con-cupisco, Sre, cQpivi, cupltum,
281.
Con-cutio. See miSHo, 273. IIL
Con-do. See abdo, 280.
Con-fercio. See/aroo, 284.
Con-ficio. See/c2«o, 279.
Confit, def., 297.
Con-fiteor. SeefSteor, 272.
Con-fringo. BeefranffOy 279.
Congruo, ere, i, — , 274.
Comiiveo, ere, nivi, nixi, — , 269.
Con-s6ro. See sgro, 276. II.
Con-sisto. See sisto, 280.
Con-spicio, Sre, spexi, spectum, 24\/.
Con-stituo. See stOtuo, 273. IL
Con-sto. See stOy 264.
Consulo, 6re, ui, turn, 276. II.
Con-temno. See temno, 276.
Con-texo. See texOj 276.
Con-tingo. See tariff o, 280.
Con-valesco, 8re, vfilui, valitum, 281.
Coquo, ere, coxi, coctum, 273. II.
Cor-ripio. See r&phy 276.
Cop-ruo. See n*o, 273.
Crebresco, fire, crebrui, — , 281.
Credo, 6re, credldi, creditum, 280.
Crepo, are, ui, itum, 262.
Cresco, ere, cr6vi, cretum, 276. IL
Cubo, are, ui, Itum, 262.
Cudo, ere, cQdi, cQsum, 273. HI.
Cumbo. See accumboy 276.
Cupio, 6re, ivi, itum, 249, 276.
Curro, ere, ciicurri, cursum, 280.
IX
Decerpo, ere, si, turn, 273. I. 1.
DScet, imper8.j 299.
De-do. See abdo, 280.
De-fendo, 6re, i, fensum, 273. III.
De-fetiscor. Seef&tiscor, 282.
Defit, de/., 297.
Dego, ere, degi. See Hffo^ 279.
Deleo, ere, evi, etum, 266.
330
INDEX OF YEBBS.
De-ligo. See l^, 279.
D6-mioo. See mleo, %62.
Demo, 6re, dempsi, demptum, 273.
De-pango. See ^11^,280.
De-primo. See />r^mo, 273. nL
Depso, £re, ui, itum, turn, 276. IL
De-8cendo. See 9cando, 273. IIL
De-sillo. See »dlio, 284.
De-sipio. See «4pu>, 276. IIL
De-tendo. See lendo, 280.
De-tmeo. See Uneo, 266.
D€-vertor. See verto, 273. m.
Dico, «re, dixi, dictum, 278, 237.
Dif-fero. See/2ro, 292.
Dig-nosco. See nxnco, 277.
Di-ligo. See Ugo, 279.
Dimico. See mlco, 262.
Di-rigo, 5re, rexi, rectum, 273. L 1.
Disco, €re, dldici, — , 280.
Dis-crSpo. See cripo, 262.
Dis-cumbo. See (ucumbo^ 276.
Dis-pertior. See^r^tor, 286.
Dis-pUceo. ^eepl&ceOy 266.
Dis-sideo. See BSdeo, 270.
Di-Btinguo. See stingiiOy 276.
Di-8to. See <to, 264.
Ditesco, 6re, — , 281.
Divido, 6re, visi, visum, 273. EL
Do, dare, d6di, datum, 264.
Doceo, ere, ui, tum, 266. IIL
Domo, ftre, ui, itum, 262.
DQco, gre, duxi, ctum, 273, 237.
Dulcesco, 5re, — , 281.
DQrcsco, 6re, dQrui, — ^ 281.
E.
Edo, €re, 6di, esmn, 279, 291.
E-do, 6re, fididi, editum, 280.
Egeo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Elicio, ere, ui, itum, 276. IL
E-ligo. See %o, 279.
Emico. See m\eo, 262.
Emineo, 6re, ui, — , 267.
Emo, ere, 6mi, emptum, 279.
EdSco, ftre, ui, tum, 262.
Eo, ire, ivi, itum, 295.
Esurio, Ire, — , Itum, 283.
E-vado, ere, vSsi, vSsum, 273, IIL
Evaaesco, Sre, evfinui, — ^,281.
Ex-ardesco, ere, arsi, arsum, 281.
Excello, ere, ui (rareX — ^ 276. II.
Ex-clQdo. See daudo^ 273. IIL
Ex-curro. See cunro, 280.
Ex-olesco. See ObiOegeo, 273. IL
Expedit, impen., 301.
Expergiscor, i, experrectussmn, 282.
Ex-pSrior, iri, pertus sum, 286.
Ex-pleo. See compieo^ 266.
Ex-plico. Seeptico, 262.
Ex-plOdo. SeejD^atMio, 273. m.
£x-stinguo, ere, stinxi, stinctum, 27S.
Ex-sto. See <to, 264.
Ex-tendo. See tewfo, 280.
Ex-tollo. See toOoy 280.
F.
Facesso, ere, Ivi, i, Itum, 276. IIL
Fficio, ere, f^i, factum, -249, 279,
237.
Fallo, ere, fefelli, falsum, 280.
Farcio, ire, farsi, fartum, farctmn,
284. IL
Fan, def,, 297.
Fateor, eri, fassus sum, 272.
Fatisco, ere, — , 281. 3.
Fatiscor, i, — , 282.
Fiveo, ere, fevi, fautum, 270.
Fendo, obs. See defendo, 273.
Ferio, ire, — , 283.
Fero, ferre, tiili, latum, 292.
Fer6cio, ire, — , 283.
Ferveo, 6re, fervi, ferbui, — , 269.
Itdo, ere, f isus sum, 282.
Rgo, ere, fixi, fixum, 273. IIL
Fmdo, ere, f idi, fissum, 273. m.
Flngo, ere, fiuxi, fictum, 273.
Ho, fieri, factus sum, 294.
Flaveo, ere, — , 268.
Flecto, ere, xi, xum, 273. IIL
Fleo, 6re, 6vi, etum, 266.
Floreo, 6re, ui, — , 267.
Fl6resco, ere, flOrui, — ,281.
Fluo, ere, fluxi, fluxum, 273. III.
Fodio, ere, fodi, fossum, 249, 279.
Foeteo, ere, — , 268.
F6rem, de/,, 297. IH. 2.
Foveo, ere, fovi, fotum, 270.
Frango, ere, fregi, fractum, 279.
Fremo, ere, ui, itum, 276. II.
Frendo, ere, — ^ fressum, frSsum,
273. m.
Fnco, are, ui, atum, tum, 262.
Fiigeo, ere, frixi (rare), — ,.269.
Frondeo, 6re, ui, — , 26X
INDEX OF TEBBS.
331
Fruor, i, fnictus, fruitus sum, 282.
Fugio, 6re, fugi, fu^tum, 249, 279.
Fulcio, ire, fulsi, fidtum, 284.
Fulgeo, Sre, fulsi, — , 269.
Fulminat, impers.^ 300.
Fiindo, 6re, Adi, ftisum, 279.
Fungor, i, functus sum, 282.
Furo, ere, ui, — , 276. H.
G.
Gamiio, ire, — , 283.
Gaudeo, 6re, gavisus sum, 272.
GSmo, dre, ui, itum, 276. II.
G6ro, 6re, gessi, gestum, 273.
Gigno, Sre, gfinui, gSnitum, 276. II.
Glisco, 6re, — , 276.
Gradior, i, gressus sum, 249, 282.
Grandesco, dre, — y 281.
Grandmat, impera,^ 800.
GrSvesco, 5re, — , 281.
Haereo, ere, haesi, haesum, 269.
Haurio, ire, hausi, haustum, haustu-
rus, hausurus, 284.
H6beo, 6re, — , 268.
Hisco, ^re, — , 276.
Horreo, fire, ui, — , 267.
Hortor, 222.
Humeo, ere, — , 268.
Ico, fire, ici, ictum, 273. II.
Illicio, fire, lexi, lectum, 249, 273.
I. 1.
n-lldo. See laedo, 273. III.
Imbuo, fire, ui, utum, 273. II.
Immmeo, ere, — , 268.
Im-parco. Seejoarco, 280.
Im-pertior. SeejoaWior, 286.
Im-pingo. Seejwin^o, 280.
In-cendo. See cuicmdo, 273.
Incesso, fire, ivi, i, — , 276. IIL
In-cido. See cado^ 280.
In-cido. See caedo, 280.
In-crfipo. See crepo^ 262.
In-cresco. See creaco^ 276. II.
In-cumbo. See accumboj 276.
In-ctitio. See fiiMOj 273. HI.
Ind-igeo, ere, ui, — , See iffeo, 267.
Ind-ipiscop. See HpiaeoTj 282.
In-do. See aftcfo, 280.
Indulge©, 6re, dulsi, dultum, 269.
Ineptio, ire, — , 283.
Infit, def., 297.
Ingruo, 6re, i, — , 274.
In-notesco, fire, nOtui, 281.
In-61esco. See dbdUsco, 276.
Inquam, def,, 297.
In-sideo. See «&feo, 270.
In-spicio, fire, spexi, spectum, 249.
In-8to. See «to, 264.
Intel-ligo. See Ugo, 279.
Intfirest, impers., 801.
Inter-nosco. See nosco, 277.
Invfitfirasco, fire, rftvi, rStum, 276.
Irascor, i, — , 282.
Ir-ruo. See ruo, 273.
JScio, fire, jfici, jactum, 249, 279.
Jubeo, fire, juasi, jussum, 269.
jQro, 262. 2.
Jiivfinesco, fire, — , 281.
JCivo, are, jOyi, jatum, 263.
L.
Labor, i, lapsus sum, 282.
LSoesso, fire, ivi, Itum, 276. III.
LScio, obs. See altlcio, 273. 1. 2.
Lacteo, ere, — , 268.
Laedo, fire, laesi, laesum, 273. III.
Lambo, fire, i, — , 274.
Langueo, ere, i, — , 269.
Lapidat, impers., 300.
Largior, iri, itus sum, 286.
Lfiteo, 6re, ui, — , 267.
Lavo, fire, Iftvi, lautum, lotum, lavft-
tum, 263.
Lfigo, fire, legi, lectum, 279.
Libet, impera., 299.
Liceor, Bri, itus sum, 272.
Licet, impera.j 299.
Lino, fire, livi, l6vi, Utum, 276. II.
Linquo, fire, liqui, — , 279.
Liqueo, 6re, liqui (licui), 269.
Liquet, impera,^ 299.
Liquor, i, — , 282.
832
INDEX OP VEEBS.
LlTCO, ere, — , 268.
Ldqaor, i, Idcatus sum, 282.
LQceo, fire, luxi, — , 269.
LQcescit, impers.^ 300.
LQdo, 6re, iQsi, iQsum, 273. III.
LOgeo, fire, luxi, — , 269.
Luo, dre, lui, — , 274.
M.
Macrcsco, 6rc, macrui, — , 281.
Mftdeo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Madcsco, 6re, mildui, — , 281.
Maereo, fire, — , 268.
Malo, malle, malui, — , 293.
Mando, dre, i, mansum, 273.JII.
Mineo, 6re, mansi, mansum, 269.
MfttQresco, 5re, matQrui, — , 281.
Mfideor, eri, — , 272.
M6mini, def., 297.
Mcntior, iri, Itus sum, 286.
M^reor, 6ri, itus sum, 272.
' Mergo, dre, mersi, mersum, 273. IIL
Metior, iri, mensus sum, 286.
M6to, 6re, messui, messum, 276. II.
MStuo, fire, ui, — , 274.
Mico, are, ui, — , 262.
Miniscor, oba. See commXniscor,
282.
Minuo, Sre, ui, Qtum, 273. II.
Misceo, 6re, miscui, mistum, mix-
tum, 266. III.
Misfireor, 6ri, itus or tus sum, 272.
Misgret, impers., 299.
Mitesco, Sre, — , 281.
Mitto, fire, misi, missum, 273. III.
Molior, iri, itus sum, 286.
MoUesco, 6re, — , 281.
Molo, 6re, ui, itum, 276. II.
M6neo, 6re, ui, itum, parcui., 207.
Mordeo, fire, momordi, morsum, 271.
Morior, 1 (Iri), mortuus sum, 249,
282.
Moveo, 6re, m5vi, motum, 270.
Mulceo, 6re, mulsi, mulsum, 269.
Mulgeo, ere, mulsi, mulsum, 269.
N.
Nauciscor, i, nactus sum, 282.
Nascor, i, natus sum, 282.
Necto, ere, nexi, nexui, nexum, 273.
m.
Neg-ligo," ere, lexi, lectum. See
%o, 279.
Neo, ere, n6vi, n6tum, 266.
Nfiqueo, ire, ivi, itum, 296.
Nigresco, 6re, nigrui, — ,281.
Ningo, 6re, ninxi, — , 274.
Niteo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Nitor, i, nisus, nixus sum, 282.
Nolo, nolle, nOlui, — , 293.
Nosco, 6re, novi, notum, 277.
Nubo, 6re, nupsi, nuptum, 273.
Nuo, obs. See annitOy 274.
Nuptiirio, ire, ivi, — , 283. 2.
0.
Ob-do. Seeabdo 280.
Ob-dormisco, 6re, dormivi, dormi-
tum, 281.
Obliviscor, i, oblitus sum, 282.
Ob-mutesco, 8re, mutui, — ^,281.
Ob-sideo. See s^ieoy 270.
Ob-s61eSco. See dbbUsco, 276.
Ob-sto. See «to, 264.
Ob-surdesco, Sre, surdui, — , 281.
Ob-tineo. See Uneo^ 266.
Oc-cido. See c&do, 280.
Oc-cido. See caedo^ 280.
Oc-cTno. See cUno, 280.
Oc-cipio. See c&pio^ 279.
Occtdcf, fire, ui, turn, 276. II.
Odi, def., 297.
Of-fendo. See defendo, 273. m.
Oleo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Olesco, obsolete. See Hbolesco, 276.
n.
Opfirio, ire, ui, turn, 284.
Oportet, imper8.j 299.
Op-p6rior, iri, pertus, peritus sum,
286.
Ordior, iri, orsus sum, 286.
Orior, iri, ortus sum, 286.
Os-tendo. See tendOy 280.
Ovat, def., 297.
P.
Paciscor, i, pactus sum, 282.
Palleo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Pando, Sre, i, pansum, passum, 273.
m.
Pango, fire, pSpigi, pactum, 280.
Pango, fire, panxi, pSgi, panctum,
pactum, 280.
INDEX OP VERBS.
333
I'arco, fire, pSperci (parsi), parsuin,
280.
PSrio, 6re, p5p6ri, partum, 249, 280.
Partior, iri, itus sum, 286.
Parturio, ire, Ivi, — , 283.. 2.
Pasco, Sre, pavi, pastum, 276.
Pateo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Patior, i, passus sum, 225, 249, 282.
PSveo, 6re, pavi, — , 270.
Pecto, 6re, xi, xum, 273. III.
Pel-lido, fire, lexi, lectum, 249, 273.
1.2.
Pello, 6re, pSpiili, pulsum, 280.
Pendeo, ere, pSpendi, pensum, 271.
Pendo, Sre, pependi, pensum, 280.
Per-cello. See excdlo, 276. 11.
Per-censeo. See censeo^ 266.
Per-do, 6re, didi, ditum. See ahdo^
280.
Pergo {for per-rfgo), Sre, per-rexi,
per-rectum. See rego, 273.
Per-petior. Seejo^ior, 282.
Per-8to. See «to, 264.
Per-tineo. See tSneOy 266.
Pessum-do. See rfo, 264.
P6to, 6re, ivi, itum, 276. III.
Piget, impers.^ 299.
' Piugo, 6re, pinxi, pictum, 273.
Pinguesco, fire, — , 281.
Pinso (piso), fire, i, ui, pinsitum, pis-
tum, pinsum, 273. III.
Plaudo, 6re, si, sum, 273. III.
Plecto, fire, xi, xum, 273. III.
Plector, not used as Dep, See am-
pUdor, 282.
Pleo, obsolete. See compUo, 266.
JPlico, are, avi, ui, atum, itum, 262.
Pluo, Sre, i or vi, — ^ 274.
Poenitet, impers,, 299.
Polleo, ere, — , 268.
Polliceor, eri, itus sum, 272.
POno, 5re, posui, positum, 276. 11.
Posco, fire, poposci, — , 280.
Pos-sideo. See s8deo, 270.
Possum, posse, potui, — , 289.
Potior, iri, itus sum, 286.
Poto, fire,, avi, atum, um, 262. 1, 2.
Prae-cino. See cdno, 280.
Prae-curro. See curro, 280.
Prae-sideo. See sedeo, 270.
Prae-sto. See sto, 264.
Prae-vertor. See vertOy 273. III.
Prandeo, ere, i, pransum, 269.
Frehendo, fire, i, hensum, 273. III.
PrSmo, Sre, pressi, pressum, 273.
III.
Prod-igo. See (iffo, 279.
Pro-do. See abdo, 280.
Prof iciscor, i, profectus sum, 282.
Pro-fiteor. ^eefateor, 272.
Promo, ere, prompsi, promptum,
273.
Pro-sum, prodesse, profui, — , 290.
Pro-tendo. See tendo, 280.
Psallo, fire, i, — , 274.
Pudet, impers., 299.
Pufirasco, 6re, — ,281.
Pungo, ere, pupugi, punctum, 280,
Quaero, 5re, quaesivi, quaesitum,
276. III.
Quaeso, def,, 297.
Qu^tio, £rc, quassi, quassum, 249,
273. m.
Queo, ire, ivi, itum, 296.
QuSror, i, questus sum, 282.
Quiesco, ere, quievi, quietum, 276.
n.
R.
Rado, «re, risi, rSsum, 273. III.
RSpio, fire, rSpui, raptum, 249, 276.
Raucio, Ire, rausi, rausum, 284.
Re-censeo. See censeo^ 266.
Re-brQdesco, fire, crudui, 281.
Rfid-arguo. See arffuo^ 273.
Red do. See abdo, 280.
R6-feUo. ^efaUo, 280.
Rfif^ro. SeefSro, 292.
Refert, impers., 301.
RSgo, fire, rexi, rectum, parad., 209,
273.
Rfi-linquo. See linquo, 279.
Rfiminiscor, i, — , 282.
Rgnideo, ere, — , 268.
Reor, reri, ratus sum, 272.
R5-pango. SeepanffOj 280.
Rfi-parco. See/>arco, 280.
Re-p6rio, ire, pfiri, pcrtum, 284.
Re-sideo. See sSdeo, 270.
R6-sipio. See s&pio, 276. III.
RS-sono. See sdno, 262.
Re-spergo. See spargo, 273. III.
RS-tendo. See tendo, 280.
334
INDEX OF TKBB8.
RMIneo. See thuo, 266.
R^-Tertor. See verto, 273. IIL
R^-TlTiMO, £re, vixi, Tictmn, 281.
Rideo, (re, lia, risum, 269.
Kigeo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Bingor, i, — , 282.
Kudo, £re, r58i, roemn, 273. in.
ROrat, impen.^ ZijO.
RQbeo, €re, ui, — ^ 267.
Rudo, «re, Ivi, ttum, 276. HI.
Rumpo, £re, rupi, niptam, 279.
Ruo, gre, mi, rutum, rattOnUy 273.
&
S4^o, Ire, — , 283.
SiUio, Ire, ui (ii), torn, 284.
Salve, <fc/., 297.
Sancio» Ire, sanxi, Bancitum, sanc-
tum, 284.
Sfipio, «re, Ivi, ui, — , 249, 276.
Sarcio, Ire, sarsi, sartum, 284.
S^t^o. See dffo, 279.
BcSbo, «re, scflbi, — , 279.
Scalpo, ^re, pal, ptum, 273.
Scando, 6re, di, sum, 273. m.
Scfiteo, ere, — , 268.
Sciudo, dre, Bcldi, scissum, 273. m.
Bcisco, fire, sCiYl, scltumj 281.
Seco, ftre, ui, tum, 262.
SMeo, ere, sedi, sessum, 270.
Se-llgo. See 2^0, 279.
Sentio, Ire, sensi, sensum, 284.
SgpSlio, Ire, Ivi, sepultum, 283.
Sepio, ire, psi, ptum, 284.
Sdquor, i, sScQtus sum, 224.
S«ro, «re, s6vi, situm, 276. II.
Sfiro, 5re, serui, sertum, 276, II.
Sido, 6re, i, — , 274.
Slleo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Singultio, ire, — , 288.
SIno, fire, sivi, sXtum, 276. m.
Sisto, ^re, Btiti, stittum, 280. •
Sitio, ire, iTi, — , 288.
S6Ieo, ere, solitus sum, 272.
Solvo, ere, solvi, sfilQtum, 273. II.
S6no, are, ui, itum, 262.
Sorbeo, 6re, ui, — , 267.
Sordeo, 6re, ui, — , 267.
Sortior, Iri, Itua sum, 286.
Bpargo, 6re, sparsi, sparsum, 273.
Spfcio, oU. See atpiao,
Spemo, ere, sprevi, spretum, 276l
Splendeo, ere, ui, — ^ 267.
Spondeo, ere, qiopondi, sponsum,
271.
Squaleo, ere, — , 268.
StStuo, ere, ui, atum, 273. H.
Stemo, ere, strftTi, stratum, 276.
Stemuo, ere, i, — ^ 274.
Sterto, epe, ui, — ^ 276. XL
Stinguo, ere, — , 276.
Sto, are, steti, Btatum, 264.
Str^po, ere, ui, itum, 276. IL
Strideo, 6re, stridi, — ^ 269.
Stride, ere, i, — , 274.
Stpuo, ere, stTuxi, structum, 273. IL
Stiideo, ere, ui, — ^ 267.
Stiipeo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Stiflideo, ere, si, sum, 269.
SuIhIo, ere, ^di, ditum, 280.
SQb-igo. See &go^ 279.
Sub-silio. See siiLio^ 284.
Suo-cedo. See cido^ 273.
SuoK^endo. See accendoy 273.
Suc-ceuseo. See cenaeo^ 266.
Suc-cido. See c&fo, 280.
Suc-cido. See eaedo^ 280.
Suc-cresco. See ereaco^ 276. XL
Suesco, ere, su6vi, suetum, 276. H.
Suf-fSro. Seefero, 292.
Suf-ficio. See/tfcM), 279.
Suf-iodio. Bee/bdio, 279.
Sug-gSro. See ffSro, 273.
Sum, esse, fui, — , 204.
Sumo, ere, psi, ptum, 273.
Superbio, ire, — , 283.
Sup-pono. SeepSTiOy 276.
Surgo {for sur-rigo), ere,'sur-rexi,
sur-rectum. See r^o, 273.
Taedet, impers., 299.
Tango, €re, tetigi, tactum, 280.
Temno, fire, — , 276.
Tendo, fire, tetendi, tentum, tensum,
280.
TSneo, 6re, ui, tum, 266. III.
Tfipesco, fire, tgpui, — , 281.
Tergeo, 6re, tersi, tersum, 269.
Tergo, ere, tersi, tersum, 273. HI.
Tero, fire, trivi, tritum, 276. III.
INDEX OF YEBBS.
335
Texo, 5re, ui, turn, 276. II.
Timeo, ere, ui, — , 267.
ToUo, ^re, sustuli, sublfttum, 280.
Tondeo, ere, tdtondi, tonsum, 271.
Tono, ftre, ui, itum, 262.
Torpeo,- ere, ui, — , 267.
Torqueo, 6re, torsi, tortum, 269.
Torreo, fire, torrji, tostum, 266. III.
Trado. See abdo, 280.
Trabo, ^re, traxi, tractum, 273.
Tr6mo, fire, ui, — , 276. IL
Tribuo, gre, ui, Gtum, 273. II.
TrQdo, Sre, trOsi, trOsum, 278. m.
Tueor, eri, tuitus sum, 272.
Tumeo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Tundo, ^re, tutiidi, tunsum, tOsum,
280.
Tuor, for tueor, 272.
Turgeo, ere, turai (rare), — , 269.
Tussio, ire, — , 283.
U.
TJlciscor, i, ultus sum, 282.
Urgeo, 6re, urai, — , 269.
IJro, ^re, ussi, ustum, 273.
Utor, i, Qsus Bum, 282.
V.
Vado, 6re, — , 276.
Vflgio, ire, ivi, — , 283.
Y^geo, ere, — , 268.
Veho, 6re, vexi, vectum, 273.
Velio, fire, velli (vulsi), vulsum, 278.
Vendo, gre, didi, ditum, 280.
V6n-eo. See co, 295.
Vfinio, ire, veni, ventum, 285.
Venum-do. See do, 264.
Vfireor, eri, veritus sum, 223, 272.
Verge, Sre, — y 276.
Verro, fire, verri, versum, 273. IIL
Verto, ere, ti, sum, 273. III.
Vertor. See deverior, 273. IIL
Vescor, i, — , 282.
Vespfirascit, impers., 300.
Vetfirasco, fire, rfiri, — , 276.
Vfito, fire, ui, itum, 262.
Video, ere, vidi, Tisum, 270.
Vieo, ere, — , etum, 266. 1. 2.
Vigeo, ere, ui, — , 267.
Vilesco, ere, vilui, — ^,281.
Vincio, ire, vinxi, vinctum, 284.
Vmeo, dre, vici, victum, 279.
Vireo, 6re, ui, — , 267.
Viresco, ere, Tirui, — ,281.
Viso, fire, i, um, 278. HI.
Vivo, fire, vixi, victum, 273.
Veio, velle, v61ui, — , 293.
Volvo, ere, volvi, volQtum, 273- IL
V6mo, ere, ui, itum, 276. II.
VdTeo, ere, vovi, v6tum, 270.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
NoTK— The numbers refer to articles, not to page& Oongtr, = eoDstraction, to.
= with, Jf. = and the followiog^, eompds. =. oompoimds, gen^ or genii. = genitive,
gend. = gender, aec or aeeus, = accosatire, oecc = accoaetiTee, oc^c = a^jectires.
preps. = prepositional etc.
It haa not been thought advisable to overload this index, with sach aeparato
words as may be readily referred to classe^ or to general rules, or eren with such ex-
ceptions as may be readily found under their respectire heads. Accordingly the na-
Dierous exceptions in Dec. IIL in the formation of the genitive and in gender, are not
InsertAd, as they may be best found under the respective endings, 52^115.
A SOUND of, 6 ff., U. Nouns in
^ a,— of 1st dec, 42; of Sd
dec, 48; genitive of, 58; gen-
der, 111 ; 'derivatives in a, 320,
6. ^, in nom., accus., voc. plur.,
88 ; in ace. sing., 93 ; changed in
eompds., 341, 3. A, quantity of,
— ^final, 616 ; in increments of
dec, 638 ; of conj., 640.
Aj aby abSj in eompds., 338, 1 ; in
eompds., w. dat., 386, 2. A, a5,
aba, w. abl., 434, of agent, 388, 1,
in personification, 414, 6.
Abbreriations, 719.
Abhine, 427.
Ablatire, formation of, — in 1st dec,
42, 3; in 3d dec, 87, 90, 97; in
4th dec, 116, 4 ; in adjs., 156.
Ablatire, syntax of, 412-437. Of
cause, manner, means, 414 ; agent,
accompaniment, 414, 5 and 7.
Of price, 416. W. comparatives.
417. Of differ., 418. In special
constrs., 419; 885, 5; 386, 2;
434, 2 ; 414, 2. Of place, 420 ft.
Of source, 426. Of time, 426. Of
charac, 428. Of specification, 429.
Abl. absol., 481 ; w. quiaquey 431, 6.
* W. preps., 482 fiF. Of gerunds,
eta., 666. Of supine, 670.
Absolute, ablative, 430 ff. ; infinitive
or clause, 431, 4.
Absque, w, abl., 434.
Abstineo, w. ace and abL, 426, 2 ;
w. gen., 409, 4.
Abstract nouns, 31 ; from adjs., 319 ;
from verbs, 321, 2.
Abunde, w. gen., 396, HI. 4).
-abas, for m, in Ist dec, 42, 3.
Ac, for quam, 417, 4. Ae «, w.
subj., 503, 506.
Acatalectic verse, 663, m. 1.
AceedU, constr., 556, IL 1.
Accentuation, 25 ff.
Accidity constr., 556, II.
Accingo, constr., 374, 7.
Accompaniment, abl. of, 414, 7.
Accomplishing, constr. of verbs of,
568, IV.
Accusative, formation of, — in 1st
dec, 42, 3; in 2d dec, 45; 46,
3; in 3d dec, 86, 88, 98; in ad-
jectives, 157.
Accusative, syntax of, 370-381. —
Direct object, 871 ff. ; cognate,
371, 1, 3); w. other cases, 371,
2 ; w. eompds., 371, 4; w. verbal
adjs. and nouns, 371, 7. Two
aces., 373 ff. ; other constrs. for,
374, 8 ; infin. or clause, 374, 4 ;
poetic ace, 374, 7. Subj. of infin.,
376. Agreement, 376. Adver-
bial ace, 377 ff. Ace of time
and space, 378. Of limit, 379,
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
337
poetic dat. for, 879, 6. Of speci-
ficiition, 380. In ezclam., 381.
W. preps., 432 ff. Of gerunds
and gerundiyes, 665. Of supine,
569.
Accusing and acquitting, constr. of
verbs of, 410.
Acephalous terse, 663, III.
-aceiis, adjs. in, 324. -
Active voice, 195. Act. and pass,
constr., 465.
Adj in compds., 338, 1 ; in compds.
w. two aces., 374, 6 ; w. dat, 386.
Ad, w. ace, 433.
-ades, in patronymics, 316 ; quanti-
ty, 646, 1.
Adhuc locorumj 896, 2, 4) (4).
AdipiacoTy w. gen., 409, 3.
Adjective, — Decl. of, 147 ff. Forma-
tion of cases, 164 ff., irreg., 159.
Comparison, 160 ff. Numerals,
172 ff. ; decL of, 176 ff. Deriva-
tion, 822 ff. Comp., 340. W.
dat., 391. W. gen. 396, III. 2:
899. W. abl., 414, 419. Agreed
ment, 438 ff. W. the force of
nouns, clauses, adverbs, 441 ff.
Use of comparison, 444.
AdmisceOy w. dat., 385, 5.
AdmdneOy constr., 410, 3.
Admonishing, constr. of verbs of,
410.
AdoleaeenSj compared, 168, 3.
Adonic verse, 677, III.
Adidor, w. ace. or dat., 385, 3.
Advantage, dat. of, 885.
Adverbial ace., 877.
Adverbs, — ^Numeral, 181. Classes
of, 304. Compar., 805. Deriva-
tion, 833 ff. Composition, 842.
For adjs., 852, 4. W. dat, 892.
W. gen., 896, III, 4). As preps.,
487. Use, 582 ; w. nouns, 688.
Negatives, non, ««, hand, 584, two
negatives, 685.
Adversative conjs., 310; 687, III.
Adversative sentence, 360.
Adversufj w. accus., 433.
Advising, constr. of verbs of, 658,
VI.
Ae^ sound of, 9, 16 ; changed to I,
341, 3.
Aedes, fflng. and plur., 182.
Ae^er, w. gen., 899, 3.
15
AemtUiiSj w. gen. or dat., 399, 2,
Aeneas, decl. of, 43.
Aequi bonifacerey 462, 3.
A'er, aether, ace. of, 93, 1, quantity
of, 621, 3.
-aeus, adjs. in, 826.
Affatim, w. gen., 896, III. 4).
Afficio, w. abl. 414, 1, 1).
Affinis, w. gen., 899, (3).
Age, expression of, 417, 3.
Agent, — ^Abl. of, w. a or ah, 388, 1 ;
Dat of, 388.
Agreement, — Of Pred. Noun, 362 ;
in gend. and numb., 862, 1. Of
Appositive, 363, in gend. and
numb., 368, 1. Of Adject, 438 ;
w. clause, 438, 3 ; constr. accord,
to sense, 438, 6 ; w. pred. noun or
appositive, 438, 7 ; w. two nouns,
439 ; 439, 2 ; w. part gen. 396,
2, 8). Of Pronouns, 446; w.
two antecedents, 446, 3 ; w. pred.
noun or appositive, 445, 4 ; constr.
accord, to sense, 445, 5 ; w. clause,
446, 7. Of Verb, 460 ; constr. ac-
cord, to sense, 461 ; agreement w.
Appos. or Pred. noun, 462; w.
comp. subject, 468.
-ai, for ae, 42, 3; quant of, 612, 1.
-al, gen. and abl. of nouns in, 64, 87,
89.
Alcaic verse, 664 ; 691, 11. ; greater,
692 ; stanza, 700, 1.
Aliemts, w. dat, 391, 1 ; w. abl.,
391, 2, 8) ; w. gen., 399, 3.
AliquarUus, aliquis, aliquot, 191 ;
use of aliquis, 455.
-alls, adjs. in, 326.
Alius,— "SiQQl. 149. Indef. 191, 2;
w. abL, 417, 6 ; w. aique, ac, or
et, 459, 2. Alius — alius, 459;
alius — alium, w. plur. verb, 461, 3.
Alphabet, 2 ff.
Alier,—J)ecl. 149. Indef, 191, 2 ;
altentter, 191, .2 ; al^ — alter,
459 ; alter. — alterum, w. plur. verb,
461, 3.
AUercor, w. dat, 885, 6.
Alvus, gender of, 47.
Ambi, amb., 838, 2.
Ambo, decl. of, 176, 2.
Amphora, 716.
Amplius without guam, 417, 3.
338
HVDEZ OF SUBJECTS.
An^ rnmon, 846, IL 2 ; 626, 2, 2).
AnacolathoD, 704, III. 4.
Anapaestic verse, 678.
Anaphora, 704, U. S.
Anastrophe, 704, IV. 1.
AninU^ constr., 399, 3. 4).
Anie, in compds., 838, 1 ; w. dat.,
886. ^fi/f, in expressions of time,
427 ; w. ace., 483.
Antecedent, use of term, 445, 1 ;
omitted, 445, 6 ; attracted, 445, 9.
Clause as antecedent, 446, 7.
AfUequam, w. indie, or sulj., 628.
Antimeria, 704, UL 1.
Antithesis, 708, 8.
•amii, acUs. in, 825 ff.
^fUEUM, w. gen., 899, 3.
Aphaeresis, 703, 1.
Apocope, 708, 8.
Aposiopesis, 704, 1. 3.
Appendix, 702-720.
AppoflitiTe, — ^Agreement of, 368 ; in
gend. and numb., 868, 1. Subject
omitted, 868, 2. Force of, 868, 8.
Aptut^ w. dat., 891, 1 ; cmtui guL w.
8ubi., 601, lU.
Apudy w. aocus., 433.
^ur, gen. and abl. of nouns in, 66,
87, 89.
ArceOf w. dat, 385, 4.
Arcbilochian verse, 664; 677, XL;
greater, 691, 1.
Arenaej gen. of place, 424, 3.
-axil, adjs. in, 825.
Aristophanic, 691, m.
-azinm, nouns in, 817.
-azius, nouns in, 818 ; adjs. in, 825.
Arrangement,— Of Words, 692-602,
— General rules, 593 ff. Effect of
emphasis and euphony, 694. Con-
trasted groups, 595. Kindred
words, 596. Words with common
relation, 697. Special rules, 598
ff. Modifiers of nouns, 698; of
a^s., 699; of verbs, 600; of
adverbs, 601; of special words,
— Demon. Prep. Conjunct Rel.
y&n, 602. Of Clauses, 608-606,
— Clause as Subj. or Pied., 603 ;
as Subord. element, 604 ; in Latin
Period, 605 ; in compd. sentence,
606.
•aa, nouns in, Ist dec, 43 ; 3d dec,
50 ; genit. of, 68 ; gend. of, 105.
-as, for ae in gen., 42, 3; in Gre^
ace plur., 98; in patronymics,
816; in adjs., 826; quantity of,
623.
Asclepiadean verse, 689, IH ; great-
er, IV.
-asco, inceptives in, 832, n.
Asking, constr. of verbs of, 374 ; 668,
VL
Asperffo, constr., 884, 1.
Aspirated letters, 4, 8.
-aaso, asaim, in fut. perf. and perf.
subj., 289, 4.
Asyndeton, 704, 1. 1.
-atim, adverbs in, 884, 2.
Atque^ for quam, 417, 4.
Attraction, of pronoun, 445, 4 ; of
antecedent, 445, 9 ; of pred. noun
or adj. after an infin., 647. Subj.
by attraction, 527.
Attributive adj., 488, 2.
-atus, nouns in, 818 ; adjs. in, 323.
Au, 9, 15 ; changed, 341, 3.
AudiOy w. Pred. Noun, 362, 2, (I).
Audiens, w. two datives, 890, 8.
Aureus^ the coin, 712.
Auiem, place of, 602, IIL
Authority, long or short by, 609, 2.
Authors, Latin, 706.
Avidus, w. gen., 399, 2; w. dat.,
899, 5 ; w. ace. and prep., 399, 6.
-az, genit. of nouns in, 77 ; verbals
in, 828 ; w. gen., 899, 2.
Arsis and thesis, 660.
As and its divisions,
712.
.dat.
B CHANGED to/), 248.
^ Being angry, verbs of, i
885..
Being distant, constr. of verbs of,
656, UI.
Believing, verbs of, w. dat, 386.
JSeUi, constr., 424, 2.
Bene, compared, 805, 2 ; w. verbs of
buying, 416, 3.
Benefiting, verbs of, w. dat, 886. •
Bibi, quantity of, 651, 2.
.bXlia, verbals in, 328.
SontUy ded., 148; oompar., 165;
boni eonsuiOy 402, 8.
jBo»^ gen. of, 72, 6 ; gen. plur., 89,
m.; dat, abl., 90, 2.
Brachycatalectic, 668, IIL
Brazen age, 706, UL
INDEX OF SUBJBCrrS.
339
-brum, nonns in, 320.
-bs, genit. of nouns in, 75.
Bucolic caesura, 678, 2.
'bulimiy nouns in, 320.
-bondiUy verbals in, 328.
C SOUND of, 11 if. Nouns in,
9 48; genit of, 63; gend., 111.
C, quantity of final syllables in, 621.
Caesura, caesura! pause, 662 ; in
bexam., 673 ff. ; in anapaestic
verse, 678; in trochaic, 680; in
iainbie, 683, IV. ; 686.
Calendar, Roman, 707.
Calends, 708, 1. 1.
Calling, verbs of, w, two aces., 373.
-oan.118, adjs. in, 326, 2.
Caput, genit of, 67; w. verba of
condemning, 410, 6.
CarbcuuSy gend. of, 47.
Cardinals, 172, 174 ; decl. of, 175 ff.
Cases, etymology of, — Endings of,
88, 2; in 1st dec., 42 ; in 2d dec,
45 ; in 3d dec, 52 ; in 4th dec,
116; in 5th dec, 119; compara-
tive view of, 121 ; general end-
ings, 123. Formation of, in 3d
dec, — ^nouL sing., 55 ; gen., 66 ff. ;
dat, 84 ; ace, 86 ; voc, 86 ; abL,
87 ; nom., ace, and voc plur., 88 ;
gen., 89 ; dat and abl, 90. Greek
cases, — gen. sing., 92; ace, 93;
voc, 94; nom. and voc plur.,
95 ; gen., 96 ; dat and abl., 97 ;
ace, 93. Cases of adjs. of 3d dec,
154-168.
Cases, syntax of, 364-435,— charac-
terized, 364 ; kindred, 365 ; nom.,
864 ff. ; voc, 869 ; accus., 370-
381 ; dat, 382-392 ; gen., 393-
411 ; abl, 412-431 ; w. preposi-
tions, 432-437.
Catalectic verse, 663, IIL 1.
Catuta, grcsHay 414, 2, 3).
Causal conjunctions, 310, 311 ; 587,
v.; 688, VIL
Causal sentences, 360.
Cause, abl of, 414.
Cause, Subj. of, 617-523,— Rule,
617, 621 ; w. guum^ 618 ; qui^
619 ; quody quia, qwmiamy quanr
dOj 520 ; dum, donee^ quoad, 622 ;
antequam, prhuquam, 523.
Cause, denoted by part., 578, II.
Causmg, constr. of verbs of, 668, IV.
Cave, w. subj. for imperat, 636, 1.
Caveo, constr., 386, 3.
-ce, appended, 186, 1.
Celo, constr., 374, 2 and 3.
-cen, compounds in, 339, 2.
-ceps, genit of nouns and adjs. in,
75, 1 ; 156, 3.
Certo, w. dat, 386, 6.
Cerhu, w. gen., 399, (2).
(7A,4, 3; sound of, 11, 1.
Characteristic, gen. of, 396, FV.;
abl. of, 428 ; gen. and abL distin-
guished, 428, 4.
Choliambus, 683, 4.
Choosing, verbs of, w. two aces., 373.
Choriambic verse, 689 £
Ginffo, constr. of, 374, 7.
-dOi derivatives in, 315, 5.
Circa, eirciter, w. ace, 433.
Cireum, in compds., 338, 1 ; compds.
w. ace, 371, 4 ; w. two aces., 374,
6. Circumdo,cireumfundo, constr^
884, 1. Circum, w. ace, 433.
CU, cUra, w. ace, 483.
Cileriar, compared, 166.
Cmtm, quantity of, 651, 3.
Clam^ w. aoc or abL,. 437, 3.
Clauses, as nouns, gender of, 35.
Prin. and sub. clauses, 345, 1 and
2. Clause as object, 371, 5; as
abL absoL, 431, 4; as antecedent,
445, 7. Indirect questions, clauses
w. infin., subj., and w. quod, com-
pared, 564. Arrangement of,
603 ff.
Codum, plur. eodi, 143, 1.
Cognate accus., 371, 1.
Coins, Roman, 712.
-cola, compounds in, 339, 2.
Collective nouns, 81.
Co/tM, gender of, 47.
Com, con for cum, in compds., 338,
1 ; w. dat, 886.
Combined objects, 854, 3.
Comiior, w. ace or dat, 385, 3.
Command, subj. of, 487 ff. Constr.
of verbs of, 385; 668, VL
Common nouns, 31 ; com. quantity,
23.
CommoneOf commonefaeio^ constr.,
410, 8.
CommuniSj constr., 891, 2, 4); 899,
340
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
ComrMOo^ constr. of, 416, 2.
Comparative conjs., 811 ; 588, IT.
ComparatiTe degree, 160; wanting,
167 ; formed by magis^ lYO. Com-
paratives w. gen^ 396, 2, 8) (2);
w. abl., 417; w. qwim^ 417, 1 ; w.
force of too, 444, 1 ; before and
after quam^ 444, 2 ; w. quam and
the Bubj., 501, IV.
Comparative view, — of decl., 121-
128; of conjugation, 243 ff.
Comparison, — of acys., 160; modes
of, 161; terminational, 162 ftl ;
irreg., 163 if.; defect, 166 ffi;
adverbial, 170. Use of, 444; in
adverbs, 444, 4.
CompleOf constr., 410, 7.
Complex sentences, 846, 867 ; abridg-
ed, 858 if. Comp. elements, 850;
subject, 852; predicate, 854.
Campoif genit. of, 155 ; w. gen. or
abL, 899,(3); 419, IH.
Composition of words, 818, 838 ff.
Compound nouns, — decl. of, 125 ff. ;
composition of, 389 ; comp. adjec-
tives, 840 ; verbs, 841 ; prin. parts
of, 259 ff.: comp. adverbs, 842.
Comp. sentences, 846, 860; al>ridg-
ed, 861. Comp. subject, predi-
cate, modifier,' 361, 1-8. Com-
pounds of preps, w. ace, 871, 4 ;
w. two aces.; 374, 6.
Computation of money, 713.
Con, see com.
Concealing, verbs of, w. two aces.,
874.
ConcedOj constr., 551, IT. 2.
Concession, subj. of, 514 ff. ; parti-
ciple, 578, IV.
Concessive conjunctions, 311; 588,
IV.
Condemning, constr. of verbs of,
410, 6.
Condition, — conjunctions of, 811,
688. Subj. of, 602; force of
tenses, 604 ; w. dum, modo, dum-
modo, 505 ; ac siyUt n, etc., 506 ;
«t, rUsij etc., 507 ff. ; si omitted,
608, 1; condition supplied, 508,
2 ; first form, 608 ; second, 609 ;
third, 610 ; mixed forms, 511, 612.
Condition in relative clauses, 518 ;
in oratio obliqua, 633, 2 and 8 ;
denoted by participle, 578, HI.
Conditional sentences, 502 ff.
Confldo, w. dat, 885, 1; w. abl.,
419.
Conjugation, 201 ff. ; of sum, 204.
First conj., 206 ff., 261 ff. ; sec-
ond, 207 ff., 266 ff. ; third, 209 ff.,
278 ff.; fourth, 211 ff., 283 ff.;
of verbs in to of the 3d conj., 213.
Periphrastic, 227 ff. Contractions
and peculiarities, 284 ff. Com-
parative view of conj., 243 ff. ; one
general system, 244. Vowel conj.,
278. Conj. of irreg. verbs,*287 ff ;
of defect., 297; of impersonal,
298 ff.
Conjunctions, 808; codrdinate, nse
of, 587 ; subordinate, use of, 588.
Place of, m sentence, 602, HI.
ComcmSy w. gen., 899, (2) ; w. abl.,
899, 5 ; w. gen. and dat., 899, 6.
Conscmi mihi sum, constr., 551, 3.
Consecutive conjunctions, 811, 588.
Consonants, 8, I.; doable, 4, 2;
sounds of, 10 ff., 16.
ConsorSy w. gen., 899, (3).
ConsUtuOy constr., 558, IL
CoruuetudOy consuetudims esty c<m-
Btr., 656, I. 1.
ContulOy constr., 885, 8.
ConsuUuBy w. gen., 399, (2).
CorUentuSy w. abL, 419, IV.
CofUingily constr., 556, II.
CofUrOy w. accus., 433.
Contracted syllables, quantity of, 610.
Contractions, in conj., 234 ff.
CorUrarittSy constr., 391, 2, 4).
Convicting, constr. of verbs of,
410.
Coordinate conjunctions, 809.
Copulative conjunctions, 810, 587.
Copul. sentences, 860.
Coram, w. abl., 434.
Countries, gender of names of, 35.
-crum, nouns in, 320.
Cuietiimodiy 187, 7.
Cujaa, 185, 3 ; 188, 4.
Cujusy 185, 3; 187, 3; 188, 4; cu-
jusiTiodiy cujuseemodiy cujuaeum-
quemodiy 187, 7-; cujuadummodiy
191, 4.
-culum, nouns in, 820.
-caluB, cola, onlam, nouns in, 315 ;
adjs. in, 327.
Cumy appended, 184, 6; 187, 2;
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
341
euniy eoMy in compds., 888, 1.
Oum^ w. abl, 434.
-cundus, verbals in, 828.
Cuncliy OmneSy w. gen., 396, HI. 2,
3)-
CujpiduSy w. gen., 899, 2.
CupienSy idiomatic use of dat., 887,
8.
CupiOy constr., 651, II. 1 and 2.
D DROPPED before », 66, 8;
9 quantity of final syllables in,
621.
Dactylic verse, 670 ff. Dactylioo-
iambic, 693.
DaTMLy gend. of, 44.
Dates, Lat. and Eng., 710.
Dative, formation of, — in 1st dec,
42, 8; in 3d dec, 84, 90, 97; in
4th dec, 116, 4 ; in 6th dec, 119,
4.
Dative, syntax of, 882-892,— with
verbs, 884 ff. Of advant. and dis-
advant., 885. W. compds., 886.
Of possessor, 887. Of agent, 388.
Ethical dat., 889. Two dat., 890.
W. adjs., 891. W. nouns and adv.,
892. Of gerunds, etc, 664. W.
verbs of Separ. 425, 2, 3).
Datuniy quantity of, 661, 8.
J)e, m compds. w. dat., 886, 2. De
w. abl., 434.
Decemoy constr., 668, II.
Decipioy w. gen., 409, 4 ; 410, 7.
Declarative sentence, 846.
Declaring, constr. of verbs of, 651.
Declension, 89 ; first, 42 ; second,
46; third, 48; fourth, 116; sec-
ond and fourth, 117; fifth, 119.
Comparative view of decl., 121;
one general system of decl., 122.
Decl. of compds., 126.
JMiy quantity of, 661, 2.
Bedoceoy constr., 874, 2 and 8.
Defective nouns, 119, 6 ; 129 ; def.
adjs., 169; def. comparison, 166;
def. verbs, 297.
Deliberative questions, w. the subj.,
486, II.
Demanding, constr. of verbs of, 874 ;
668, VI.
Demonstratives, 186 ; use of, 460.
Denarius y 712.
Deponent verbs, 221 ; 466, 2.
Derivation, 813; of nouns, 814 ff.;
of adjs., 3^2 ff. ; of verbs, 330 ff. ;
of adverbs, 883 ff.
Derivatives, quantity of, 663 ; quan-
tity of deriv. endings, 645 ff.
Desideratives, 832, III.
Besinoy w. gen., 400, 4.
Desire, subj. of, 487 ff. ; in assevera-
tions, 488, 4; in relat. clauses,
488, 6.
Desiring, constr. of verbs of, 661.
DeaistOy w. gen., 409, 4.
Desperoy w. ace, 371, 8.
DeterioTy compared, 166.
Deterreoy constr., 499, 1-2.
DettSy 46, 6.
Diaeresis, 669,, m.
Dianay quantity of, 612, 8.
Diastole, 669, IV.
Die for dicey 237.
.-dious, compds. in compared, 164.
Difference, abl of, 418.
Differing, dat. w. verbs of, 886, 4.
Diferoy w. dat., 886, 4.
DtgnoTy constr., 419, 2.
DignuSy constr., 419; digntiSy qui,
w. subj., 601, III.
Dimeter, 668, 2.
Diminutive, nouns, 316 ; dim. adjs.,
327 ; dim. verba, 382, IV.
Diphthongs, 4 ; sounds of, 9 ; quan-
tity of, 610.
Dipody, 666, 2.
Direct object, 864, 1 ; 371.
DiSy diy 838, 2.
Disadvantage, dat. of, 885.
Discrepoy w. dat, 886, 4.
Disjunctive conjs., 310; 687; sen-
tences, 860.
DispaVy constr., 891, 2, 4).
Displeasing, verbs of, w. dat., 885.
DisserUiOy w. dat, 886, 4.
DiasimiliSy constr., 391, 2, 4).
Dissyllabic perfects and supines,
quantity of, 661.
Distance, abl. of, 378, 2.
Distich, 666.
DistOy w. dat, 886, 4.
Distributives, 172; 174; decL of.
179.
Diiiy compared, 806, 4.
DiuSy quantity of, 612, 8.
Diver8U8y compared, 167.
Divesy compared, 166, 2.
842
INDBX OF suBjscrrs.
Doeeo, ooostr., 8^4, 2 and 8.
Doleo, w. aocufl., 371, 3 ; w. danse,
668, V. ; w. abl, 414, 2, 1).
jDomus^ decl of, ll?; gend^ 118;
constr., 879, 8 ; 424, 2.
Vonecy w. indie, or Bubj., 621 ff.
Dono^ constr., 884, 1.
Double constr. of a few reiba, 884, 1.
Double consonantB, 8.
Due for duce, 877.
i>u»i, dummodo, w. subj., 503 tt. ; w.
ind. or subj., 621 fL
i)MO, decl. of, 17a
E SOUND of, 6, 14. Nouns in
J e,— Ist dec, 43 ff. ; 8d dec.,
48, 60; genit of, 59; 89, 1; abL
of, 87, 1 ; gend., 111. i? in abl.,
87; in Greek ace. plnr., 98; for
ei in gen. and dat, 119, 4; JS in
adverbs, 336 ; changed to t, 841, 3.
By quantity of— in Hj 119, 1 ; final,
616 ; in increments of decL, 636;
of conjugation, 641.
£! or exy see ex,
Ecee with demonstratiTea, 186, 3 ; in
exclamations, 367, 8: 881, 8.
Ecmm, 188, 8. Eeqiiidy 846, II. 2.
Edoceo, constr., 374, 2 and 3.
Egenwy w. gen. or abL, 899, (3);
419, ni.
Egeoy constr., 409, 1.
Egoy decl. of, 184.
EheUy quantity of, 612, 2.
-fft, 9. E% quantity of, 612, 2.
-eis, in patronymics, 316.
-eius, quantity of, 612, 2.
EJnwnodij 186, 4.
-ela, nouns in, 820, 7.
Elegiac distich, 676, 2.
Elegiambus, 693, 1.
Elements of sentences, 847 ff.
Ellipsis, 704, of /acio, oro, 867, 3 ;
602,-11. 3.
-elliu, ella, ellnm, nouns m, 316 ;
adjs. in, 827.
-em, in accus., 86, 119.
Emotion, constr. of verbs of, 661 ;
568, V.
Emphasis and euphony in the ar-
rangement of words, 694.
°eii, nouns in, 61 ; en in Greek ace.,
93 ; with demonstratives, 186, 3 ;
in exclamations, 867, 3; 381, 3.
Enallage, 704, III.
Enclitics, accent of, 26, (a); quantity
of, 613, 1.
Endeavoring, constr. of verbs o(
658, III.
Endings, 41; in 1st dec, 42; in 2d
dec, 45, 1 ; in 8d dec, 52^ 2; in
4th dec, 116; in 5th dec, 119;
in the five decls., 121, 123; in
comparison, 162; in conjugation,
242.
English pronttDciation of Latin, 6 ff.
Emm, place of, 602, III.
-ensifl, adjs. in, 325 ff.
•entior, entiwimnw, in comparison,
164.
Envying, verbs of, w. dat, 386.
Eo, w. gen., 396, 2, 4).
Epenthesis, 703, 6.
Epicene nouns, 86.
Epichoriambic verse, 690.
Epiphora, 704, II. 4.
EpUome, decL of, 43.
EptUvm^ plur., epulae, 143.
-«r, gend. of nouns in, 47, 103. Adjs.
in, 161; comparison of, 163, 1.
Adverbs in, 836.
-ere, for erunt, 236.
Erffa, w. ace, 433.
Ergo, w. gen., 411.
-emiui, adjs. in, 825, 2.
-es, nouns in, 50, 119; genitive of^
69; gender of, 104, 109, 119. e«,
in nouL, aoc, and voe. plur., 88.
-68, final, sound of, 8, 1 ; quantity of,
624.
inceptives in,. 832, II.
euim, in fut., peif., and peril
subj., 239, 4. eM0, verbs in, 332.
.ester, adjs. m, 325, 2.
-estus, adjs. in, 823, 3.
Ethical dative, 389.
Etiamsi, eist^ w. subj., 615, 616,
III.
-etiun, nouns in, 817.
Etymology 29-342.
Euy sound of, 9.
Euphonic changes, 65, 3 ; before m,
ntm, turn, 248; 267, 1 ; in prepo-
sitions, 338, 1.
Euphony, see Emphasis,
-eoEj a(^s. in, 824, 326.
Evenity constr., 656, IL
-ez, genit. of nouns in, 78.
INDEX OF SUBJECIS.
343
Ex^ e, in compds. w. dat., 386, 2. Ex^
w. abl., 434.
Exchanging, constr. of verbs of, 416,
2.
Exclamatory sentences, 846, IV. ; ao-.
cus. in, 381 ; toc, nom., dat. in,
881, 8; infinitive in, 653, III.
Excro^ constr., 874, 2.
Expert^ exwrs, w. gen., 899, (3).
Extents^ compared, 163, 3.
Extra, w. ace, 433.
. Extremum est, constr., 666, 1. 2.
Exuoy constr., 874, 7 ; 884, 1.
FAO, for face, 287.
Eaeioy w. pred. gen., 403.
Fahum ett, constr., €66, 1. 2.
Faku9y compared, 167.
Eamesy thlfana, 187, 2.
EamiHa, genitive of, 42, 3.
Fearing, constr. of verbs of, 492, 4.
Feeling, constr. of verbs of, 661;
658, V.
Feet, metrical, 666 ft
Feminine, 33.
Fer, for fere, 287.
Fertilis, w. gen., abL, or ace., 899,
(2) and 6.
-fez, compds. in, 889, 2.
•ficas, adjs. in, compared, 164.
Fido, w. dat., 886; w. abl., 419.
Figures— of prosody, 669 ; of ety-
mology, 703; of syntax, 704; of
Rhetoric, 706.
Filling, constr. of verbs of, 410, 7.
Final conjs., 811; 688, V.
Final syllables, quantity of, 613 (F.;
final syllable of the verse, 666.
Finite, or definite moods, 196 ; finite
verb, 196.
JF%o, quantity of, 612, 8.
FU, constr., 666, U.
Flagito, w. two accs^ 874, 2; w.
subj., 668, VI.
Fod, gen. of place, 424, 8.
Following, constr. of verbs of, 656,
m.
Formation,— of cases, 65-98; of
parts of verbs, 240-260 ; of words,
813-342.
Fractions, 174, 1.
Freeing, constr. of verbs of, 410, 7.
Frenum, pL, freni^ frena, 143.
Frequentatives, 332.
Fretus, w. abL, 419, IV.
Frugi, in decL, 169 ; compared, 166.
Fruar, constr., 419.
Fungor, constr., 419.
Future, 197 ; 241, 1. ; in indie, 470;
w. force of imperat, 470, 1 ; for
Eng. pres , 470, 2 ; w. meiius, 470,
3. Wanting in subj., 479; how
supplied, 481, III. 1. In imperat,
634, 637 ; fut. for prea, and pres.
for fut., 634, 1 and 2. In infin.,
643 fif. ; circumlocution for, 544.
In part., 6^3.
Future Perfect, 197; 241, IL; in in-
die., 473 ; to denote certainty, 473,
1 ; for Eng. pres., 473, 2. Want-
ing in subj., 479; how supplied,
481, IIL 2.
Fuiurum esse, fuisse, fwe, w/, 644,
1-3.
Futurum sit «/, 481, IIL 1 and 2.
G SOUND of, 11 ff.; changed,
J 248.
GaudeOf constr., 871, 3 ; 661, m. ;
658, v.; 414,2.
Gemo, w. accus., 371, 3.
Gems, gender of names of, 47.
Gender, 83 ff.; in 1st dec, 44; in
2d dec, 47; in 8d dec, 99-115;
in 4th dec, 118 ; in 5th dec, 119 ;
general table of, 124.
Genitive, formation of,— endings,
40 ; in 1st dec, 42 ; as for ae^ um
for arum, 42, 3 ; in 2d dec, 45 ;
t for ti, um for orum, 46, 6 ; o or
on, 46, 8 ; in 3d dec, 56-83, 89,
96; in 4th dec, 116; uis for w,
116, 4; in 6th dec, 119; e or •
for ei, 119, 4. In adjectives, 155.
Genitive, syntax of, 893-411, — with
nouns, 895 ; varieties, 396 ; pecu-
liarities, 897; other constrs. for
gen., 898. W. adjs., 899. W. verbs,
401 ff. Pred. gen., 401 ff. ; other
constrs. for, 404. Of place, 404 ;
421, II. In special constra, 405
ff. Ace and gen., 410. W. ad-
verbs, 411. Gen. of gerunds and
gerundives, 563.
Chnitus, w. abl., 425, 8.
Gentile nouns, 826, 3.
Gerund, — ^Nature of, 569. Cases of,
660. Ger. and Infin., 660, 2. W.
344
INDEX OF BCBJECIS,
direct object, 561. Genx&dire,
662; of «tor, /mor, ctc^ 662, 4.
PftA sense of Ger., 562, 5. Gen-
itiTe of ger. and genincBTc, 563 ;
ger. when preferred, 663, 2 ; go-
mndiTe with mfi, nodri, etc, 563,
4 ; of purpose, 563, 5 ; infin. for
ger^ 563, 6. Dat. of, 564; of
purpose, with official names, 564,
2 and 3. Accua. of, 565 ; w. ob-
ject, 565, 2 ; of purpose, 665, 3.
AbL oi; 666.
Ghruman ai, 556, L 2.
Glyconic yerse, 664, 689.
Gnarut, w. gen., 399, (2).
Golden age, 706.
Greek nouns, — in 1st dec., 43 ; in 2d
dec, 46 ; in 3d dec, 91-98.
HA BREATHING, 2.
5 ffadria, gender of, 44.
Happening, constr. of Terbs of, 556,
Hand, nSy non^ 584.
Uendecasyllabic rcrse, 691, Y.
Hendiadys, 704, IL 2.
Hephthemimeris, 656, 2.
Heroic Terse, 664.
Ueteroclites, 135 ff.
Heterogeneous nouns, 141 ff.
Hexameter Terse, 668, 2. Dactylic,
671.
Hie, iste, tUe^ ded. of, 186; use of,
46a
Hie (ady.), w. gen., 3^6, UL 4).
Hipponactean, 683, 4.
Historical tenses, 198, 2; hist pres-
ent, 467, m. ; hist perfect, 471, IL
Hddie, quantity of, 664, 8.
Horace, Tcrsification of, 698 ff. Lyric
metres of, 700. Index, 701.
HorreOy w. occus., 371, 3.
Hue, w. gen., 396, HI. 4).
Hujutmodi, 186, 4.
Humus, gender of, 47; constr. of
humi, 424, 2.
Hypallage, 704, HI. 2.
Hyperbaton, 704, IV.
Hyperbole, 706, V.
Hypercatalectic verse, 663, IH.
Hypermeter, 663, IH.
Hypothetical sentences, see Conck^
Uonal ditto.
Hysteron protoron, 704, IV. 2.
I SUPPLIES the phuse of j, 2, S;
9 sound of, 6 ff. ; 14 It ; witib the
sound of y, 9 ; • for ts, t«, 45, 5.
Nouns in, 48; genit of, 60; gen-
der of; 111; i, final m dat, 84;
in abl, 87; for is, 92; for «i, 119,
4 ; in perfect, 247, 2. /, quanti-
ty of, — ^final, 618; in increments
of dec!., 636; of conjugation, 643.
-la, nouns in, 319 ; in nom., aoc, and
Toc. plur., 88.
4acaB, adjsL in, 326.
4adefl. in patronymics, 316.
lambel^us, 694, 1.
Iambic Terse, — Dipody, 682. Tri-
meter, 683; choliambus, 683, 4;
catalecCic, 684. Dimeter, 685;
hypermeter, 685, 1 ; catal^ctic,
685, 2 ; acephalous, 686^ 3. Te-
trameter, 686.
lambico-dactylic verse, 694.
-iamifly adjs. in, 826.
-las, in patronymics, 316.
hQmuii, for iebin, 239, 1.
-ibo, ibor, for torn, tar, 239, 2.
-ibos, in dat and abL plur., 90.
4cti]8, adjs. in, 324, 328.
Ictus, 659,
-iciiB, adjs. in, 826 ff
Uem, decl, 186; w. dat, 391, 8;
use of, 461. Idem — qui, oc or ot-
^tie, 461, 6.
Ides, of the calendar, 706, L 3.
-ides, in patronymics, 316.
-ido, nouns in, 320, 7.
Idoneu9 qui, w. subj., 601, IIL
-IdnflL Terbals hi, 328.
JoBgis, adjs. in, 326.
Jer, for i in mfin., 239, 6.
IgUur, place in . the clause, 60JJ,
m.
Jgnarus, w. gen., 899, (2).
-igo, nouns in, 820, 7.
-ile, nouns in^ 817.
-His, adjs. in, 326, 828 ; compared^
163, 2.
Illative conjs., 310; 687, IV.; sen-
tences, 360.
lOe, decl. of, 186 ; use of, 450.
mic for Vie, 186, 2.
EUusmodi, 186, 4.
-iUo, verbs in, 832, IV.
-iUus, ilia, ilium, in nouns, 316, 3 ;
in adjs., 327.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
345
-im, in ace, 85, 93 ; for am^ or em
in pres. subj., 239, 3.
Immemor, genit. of, 166,* 4; gen.
plur., 168, 3 ; w. gen., 399, 2.
-imoniai nouns in, 319.
Jmp&iio^ constr., 499, 1-2.
Imperative, 196. Tenses, 634. Use,
536 ff.; pres., 536; fut, 537; in
prohibitions, 538.
Imperative sentences, 346, HI.
Imperfect tense, 197 ; 241, 1. ; in in-
die, 468 ff. ; in lively description,
of customary or repeated action,
469 ; of attempted action, in let-
ters, 469, 1 and 2. In Subj., 477 ;
of present time, 481, V.; after
Perf. Def., 482; 1 ; for Pluperf.,
486, 4; in desires and wishes,
488, 2; in condition, 610; after
anie^uam and priusquam^ 523, 2.
ImpentiUj w. gen., 399, (2).
ImperOj constr., 561, II. 1 and 2.
Impersonal verbs, 298 ff. ; subjects
of, 666, 1.-III.
ImpertiOy <3onstr., 384, 1.
JmpleOy constr., 410, 7.
ImpoSy genit of, 155 ; w. gen., 399,
(3).
ImpotenSy w. gen., 899, (3).
Imprudens, w. gen., 399, (2).
-in, in Greek aces., 93.
In, in compds., 338, 1 ; w. two aces.,
»74, 6 ; w. dat., 886. /n, w. ace.
or abl., 436.
Inceptives, inchoatives, 332, II.
Incertus, w. gen., 399, (2).
Inclination, subj. of, 486, 3.
Indutus, compared, 167.
Increments, 629 ff. ; quantity of, 632
ff., 639 ft
Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 36 ;
examples, 128. IndecL adjs-, 169.
Indefinite moods, 196.
Indefinite pronouns, 189; use of,
456 ff.
Index of verbs, 721.
Indicative, 196 ; use of, 474 ff. ; spe-
cial uses, 476.
Jfidiffeo, constr., 409, 1.
Indiffnu8y w. abl., 419, IV. indiffnus
qui, w. subj., 601, III.
Indirect discourse, distinguished from
direct, 628. Subj. in, 529. Moods
in prin. clause, 630 ; in sub. clause,
16*
531. Tenses, 532 ; Pronouns, ad-
verbs, etc., 533.
Indirect object, 864, 2.Rule, 884 :
indirect w. direct, 384, II.
Indirect questions, 624 ff., — Subj. in,
1(26. Indie, in, 525, 6; in orat.
obliqua, 530, II. 2 ; sing, and dou-
ble, 526.
InducOy constr., 374, 7.
Indulging, verbs of, w. dat, 386.
Jnduo, constr., 374, 7 ; 384, 1.
jne, in patronymics, 316, 4.
Inferus, compared, 163, 3.
Infinitive, 196, II. Tenses of, 540
ff. Subject of, 546 ; of Hist, in-
fin., 546, 1. Predicate after, 546 ;
attracted, 647. Construction of,
548 ff. ; as Nom., 549 ; as Accus.,
560 ff. ; w. another ace, 552, 2 ;
in rdative clauses^ 531, 1 ; after
conjunctions, 631, 2; aft^r adjs.,
562, 3 ; after preps., 562, 4 ; in
special constrs., 563; as pred.,
563, I.; as appos., 563, II.; in
exclam., j563. III.; as abl. abs.,
653, IV.; of Purpose, 553, V.;
for Gerund, 563, VI.
Infra, w. ace, 433.
Ingenii, w. adjs., 899, 3.
Injuring, verbs of, w. dat., 386.
Inniior, constr., 419.
Inops, w. gen. or abl., 399, (3) ; 419.
Imcius, w. gen., 899, (2).
Inseparable preps., 307; 654, 2.
hiapergo, constr., 384, 1.
Instrument, abl. of, 414, 4.
Insuetus, w. gen., 399, (2); w. othei
constrs., 399, 6.
Integer, w. gen., 899, 8.
Inter, in compds., 388, 1 ; w. dat,
386. Inter, w. ace, 433.
Intercludo, constr., 384, 1.
Interest, w. gen., 406, III.
/n^mor,' compared, 166.
Interjections, 812; w. voe, 369, 1;
w. nom., ace, or dat, 381, 8 ; use
of, 589 ff.
Interrogative conjunctions, 311, 688.
Interrogative pronouns, 188 ; use of,
464.
Interrogative sentences, — ^Form, 346,
II. Interrog. words, 346, II. 1.
Double quest, 346, II. 2. Deliber
quest, 486, II. Answers, 346. 11.'
846
INDEX OF BUBJECIB.
8. Indirect quest, 526 ; w. iDdic.,
625, 6 ; sin^e and double, 626.
In indirect diflcoorse, 529 it ; riie-
torical ques., 580, 2.
InUrrogo, w. two aces., 8*74, 2 ; w.
ace. and abL, 874, ^-8.
IfUra^ w. accufl., 488.
IntnuuitiTe Terbs, 193 ; 871, 8 ; im-
personal pass., 465, 1.
•Inns, adjs. in, 824 ff.
Jnvidtut^ w. gen. or dat, 899, 2, 2).
InvituSy idiomatic use of dat, 887, 8.
-iO| Terbs of 8d conj. in, 218 IT. ;
nouns in, 818, 821.
Ionic verse, 687.
-ior, in comparatires, 162.
Ipse, decL of, 186; use of, 452.
IpmtSy for i/wp, 186, 8.
Iron age, 706.
Irony, 705, IV? in condition, 603, 8.
Irregular nouns, 127 ff. ; irreg. adjs.,
169 ; in*eg. comparison, 103 ff.
Irregular principal parts of verbs,
249-268 ; irreg. verbs, 287 ff.
Is, decl. of, 186; use of, 461 ; re-
flexive, 448. It — qui, 451, 4.
-is, in dat and abl of the Ist and 2d
decls., 42, 46 ; in genit. of Sd dec.,
62; in ace, dat, and abl. plur.,
88, in.; 90. Nouns in m, 60;
genitive of, 71 ; gender of, 106.
-is, in patronymics, 816 ; quantity of
M final, 626.
-isco, inceptives in, 832, 11.
Islands, gend. of names of, 86 ; con-
str. of names of, 424.
-isoimtui, in superlatives, 162.
-isso, verbs in, 832.
late, decl. of, 186 ; use of, 460.
Istic, Uthie, for Ute, 186, 2.
IsHusmodi, 186, 4.
-itas, nouns in, 819.
-iter, adverbs in, 835.
Ithyphalicus, 681, 2.
-itial, nouns in, 319.
•Itimmi, ac^s. in, 826, 2.
-itiom, nouns in, 818.
-ito, frequentatives in, 832.
-itudo, nouns in, 819.
Hum, quantity of, 661, 8.
-itus, mouns in, 318 ; adverbs in, 336,
3.
-ium, in genit plur., 89 ; nouns in,
818 ff. *- » ' »
-ins, a<y8. in, 826; quantity of, 612, a
-ivoB, adjs. in, 328, 6.
-iac, genitive of nouns in, 79.
J PLACE supplied by i, 2 ; len£^-
J ens preceding vowel, 611.
Jecur, genitive of, 66, 5.
JetuB, decl of, 128, 1, 8).
Joctu, ^\., joci, joca, 141.
Jubeo, constr., 661, IL 1 and 2.
Jugerum, decl. of, 136 ; use of, 718.
Jugvan^ quantity of compds. o^-611,
8.
Jungo, w. dat, 886, 6.
Jupiter, genitive of, 66, 8.
Jttsjurandum, decl. o^ 126.
Juvenal, versification of, 696.
Juvenalis, abl. of, 87, 2;
Juvenis, abl. of, 87, 2; compared,
168, 3.
Juvo, w. accus., 886, 1.
Juxta, w. accus., 433.
RARE, 2.
J Knowing, constr. of verbs of,
651, 1. 1.
K
L NOUN'S in, 48, 61; genit of,
y 64; gender, 112; quantity of
final syllables in, 621.
Labials, 8.
Lacrimo, w. accus., 871, 3.
Laedo, w. accus., 886, 1.
Lar, quantity of genit, 633, 4.
Imssus, w. gen., 399, 8.
Latin authors, 706.
Latin grammar, 1.
Latin period, 606.
-lentiui, adjs. in, 323.
Letters, classes of, 3 ; combinations
of, 4 ; sounds of, 6-16.
lAbero, w. abl. or gen., 426, 8.
LU}ra, 714.
Licet, w. subj., 616.
Linguals, liquids, 3.
Litotes, 705, VL
Litum, quantity of, 651, 8.
Logaoedic verse, 691.
Zongius, without guam, 417, 3.
-Is, genit of nouns in, 76.
*
M EUPHONIC changes of, 248,
J 338, 1 ; quantity of final syi-
lables m, 621 ; elided, 669, I.
INDSX OF SUBJECTS.
347
fina, dat and abL plur. of nouns in,
90, 1.
MagUy maxime^ in adverbial com-
parison, 170.
MagnuSy compared, 165.
MajoTy in expressions of age, 417,
8.
Making, verbs of, w. two aces., 878 ;
w. subj., 668, IV-
Maloy constr., 661, 11. 1 and 2.
Malu9i compared, 166.
ManifestuSyW, gen., 899, 3.
Manner, means, abl. of, 414 ; parti-
ciple for, 578, II.
Masculine, 83.
Material nouns, 81.
Me, for mihi, 184, 6.
Measure of difTerence, abL of, 418 ;
measure in prosody, 663, II. ; Ro-
man measure, 715 ff.
Med, mehe, for me, 184, 6.
>Medeor, w. dat, 386, 2.
MediuSy designating part, 441, 6.
Melius, w. indie, for subj., 476, 2-
4.
Melos, plur. of, 96, 1.
Meme, 184, 6.
Meminiy w. gen., 406, II. ; w. ace.,
407, 1.
Memoir, w. gen., 399, 2).
•men, mentum, nouns in, 320.
Mensa, decl. of, 42.
MepU, 184, 6.
-met, forms in, 184, 3 ; 186, 1.
Metaphor, 705, I.
Metathesis, 703, 7.
Metonymy, 705, II.
Metre, 667.
Metrical equivalents and substitutes,
667, 658.
-metroa, Greek nouns in, 47, 2.
Metuo, constr., 885, 3 ; 492, 4.
Meus, decl, 186.
Mi for miM, 184, 6.
Militia, constr., 424, 2.
MiUe, decl. and use of, 178.
Million, cardinal for, 174; symbol
for, 180.
Million sesterces, Latin for, 718, 4.
-mino, in imperatives, 239, 6.
Miiwr, minus, without quam, 417, 3.
Miror, w. accus., 371, 3 ; w. gen»,
409, 4.
Mirum est, constr. of, 666, 1. 2.
Mis for mei^ 184, 6.
Misceo, w. dat., or abl, 886, 6.
Misereor, miseresco, w. gen., 406.
Miseret, constr., 410. Miserescit,
miseretur, 410, 6.
Mobile nouns, 36.
Moderor, constr., 886, 8.
Modifier, 848 ff.
Modius, 716.
Mode, w. subj., 603, 606.
Moereo, w. accus., 371, 3.
Moneo, constr., 410, 3.
Money, Roman, 712 ff.
Monometer, 663, 2.
Monosyllables, quantity of, 613.
Months, Roman, 707; division of,
708 ; gender of names of, 35.
Moods, 196,— Indie, 474 ff. Subj.,
483-633. Imperat., 634 ff. In-
fin., 539-663. Gerund, 559 ff.
Supine, 667 ff. ParK, 671 ff.
Mos, moris est, constr., 656, I. 1.
-ms, gen. of nouns in, 76.
Multiplicatives, 173.
Multus, comparison of, 166.
Mutes, 3.
Muto, constr., 416, 2.
XT NOUNS in, 48 ; genit. of, 66 ;
-L^^ gend. of, 113; quantity of
final syllables in, 621.
Name, dat. of, 887, 1 ; gen. of, 387, 2.
Names of towns, constr., 423,
I/atus, w. abl, 425, 8.
iVe, num, nonne, interrog. particles,
811, 8; in single questions, 846,
II. 1 ; in double, 846, II. 2 ; in in-
direct questions, 626.
Ne, w. subj. of desire^ 488, 3.; of
purpose, 489 ff. ; of concession,
615.
Ne, non, hand, 684. Neve, 490, 1.
Necne, 346, II. 2, 3); 526, 2, 1).
Nedum, w. subj., 493, 4.
Negatives, 584; force of two nega-
tives, 586.
Nemo, indef., 191, 2 ; use of, 457, 1.
Nequam, indecl, 159; compared,
1:65, 2.
Ne—quidem, 685 ; 602, III. 2.
Nescio an, w. subj., 526, II. 2, 2).
Nescio quis, guomodo, etc., w. indie.
526, 4.
Nescius, w. gen., 399, (2).
848
INDEX OP SUBJECTS.
-nens, adjs. in, 324.
NeuJUsr^ decl. of, 149; indef., 191,
2.
Neuter adjectives, as adverbs, 335,
4; as cognate accus., 371, 1, 3)
(2) ; as a second accus., 374, 5 ;
w. partitive genit., 896, lU. 2, 3)
(3); as predicate, 438, 4.
Neuter nouns, nom., ace, and voc. of,
88, 3 ; neuter by signification, 35 ;
by ending, in 2d dec, 47; in 3d
dec. 111 ff- ; in 4th dec, 118.
m, w. Bubj., 503, 507 ff.
JWmw, w. gen., 396, UL 4).
JViai, w. subj., 603, 507 ff.
NUonr^ constr., 419.
Nolo, constr., 551, II. 1 and 2 ; «oK,
-i^o, in prohibitions, 535, 1, 3).
Nomen est, constr., 387, 1.
Nominative, formation of, in 8d dec,
55, 88, 95; neut. plur. in adjs.,
157.
Nominative, syntax of, 866 ff.; as
subject, 367 ; agreement of, 368 ;
for voc, 369, 2.
JVon, ne, hand, 584 ; place of fion,
602, IV., omitted, 584, 2.
N<yn, w. qvx>, quod^ quiriy quia, w.
subj., 620, 3.
Nones in the Roman month, 708, 1.
2.
Nonne, non = nonne, 346, II. 1.
No8, for ego, 446, 2.
Noster, for mens, 446, 2.
Nostras, 185, 2.
Nostri, nostrum, 396, 1 ; 446, 3.
Nouns, etymology of, — ^gender of, 33
ff. ; pers. and niimb., 37; cases,
38 ; declensions, 39-126 ; indecl.,
128; defect, 129; heterodites,
135 ff. ; heterogeneous, 141.
Nouns, syntax of, 362-437, — ^Agree-
ment, 362 ff. Nom., 364 ff. ;
Voc, 369; Accus., 370-381 ; Dat.,
382-392; Gen., 393-411; Abl.,
412-431 ; w. preps., 432-437.
Novus, compared, 167.
Nozius, w. gen., 399, 3.
-ns, gehit. of nouns in, 76,
Nubo, w. dat., 385, 2.
NiMus, decl. of, 149 ; indef, 191, 2 ;
use of, 457 ; for non, 467, 3,
Num, numquid, 346, II.- 1 and 2.
Number, 87 ; in verbs, 199.
Numerals, 171 ff.; adjs., 172 if.;
decl. of, 175 ft; symbols, 180;
adverbs, 181.
-nils, adjectives in, 324.
Nmquamy w. gen., 396, IIL 4).
SOUND of, 6 ff., 14 ; nouns in,
^ 48, 51 ; genit. of, 61 ; gend.,
100 ; derivatives in, 320, 6w
O, quantity of, — final, 620;, in in-
crements, 634, 642; in compds.,
664, 7.
Ob, in compds., 838, 1 ; in compds.
w. dat., 386. Oh, w. ace, 433.
Obediens, w. two datives, 390, 8.
Obeying, verbs of,' w. dat., 886.
Object, direct, , indh^ct, combined,
854 ; direct, 371 ; omit., 371, 1, (3);
clause as an object, 371,5; 567 ftl
See Subject and object xlauses.
Objective genitive, 396, IL
Oblique cases, 88 ; use of, 370-437.
Obliviseor, w. gen., 406, IL; other
constrs., 407.
Obsisto, obsto, constr., 499, 1-2.
Odor, compared, 166.
-odoB, Greek nouns in, 47, 2.
Oe, sound of, 9, 14,
(Mcio, constr., 499, 1-2. .
(The, quantity, 612, 4.
Oleo and redoleo, w. ace, 371, 3.
Ollus, for Ule, 186, 3.
•olus, ola, olum, in diminutives, —
in nouns, 316, 2 ; in adjs., 327.
Omnes, w. gen., 396, III. 2, 3).
-on, in Greek gen. plur., 96.
-one, in patronymics, 816.
Operam do, w. subj., 492, 1.
Optimum esi^, constr., 566, 1. 2.
Opus, constr., 419.
-or, gender of nouns in, 101 ; deri-
vation of, 820 ff.
Oratio obliqua, see Indirect cUsoourse,
Ordinal numbers, 172, 174 ; decl. of.,
179.
Oro, w. two aces., 374, 2 ; w. subj.
or infin., 658, VI. 3.
Orthography, 2-28.
Ortus, w. abl., 426, 8.
-OS, nouns in, 50; genit. of, 72;
gend., 102.
•«os, for is in the genitive, 92.-
-OS final, sound of, 8, 1 ; quantity,
625.
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
849
-08118, a4js. in, 328.
Ovid, versification of, 697.
•oz, genit. of nouns in, 80.
PALAM, w. abl., 437, 2.
Palatals, 3, n.
Pan, gen. and ace. of, 65, 2 ; 93, 1.
ParUhuSy voc. of, 46, 3, 6).
Far and dispar, constr., 891, 2, 4).
Paragoge, 708, 6.
Pardoning, verbs of, w. dat., 886.
Paroemiac verse, 664.
Pars, in fractions, 174, 1.
Particepsy genit. of, 155; w. gen.,
899, (3).
Participles, 196, II. 4. Tenses, rel-
ative time, 571. Agreement- and
use, 438 and 575 ff. For rel. clause,
677. For sub. clause, — time, cause,
manner,* means, condition, conces-
sion, purpose,. 678. For prin.
clause, 679. For verbal noun,
580. W. negative, 681.
Particles, etymology of, — ^Adverbs,
803 ff. ; preps., 806 ff. ; conjuncts.,
808 ff. ; interjects., 312.
Particles, syntax of, 582-690,— Ad-
verbs, 582 'ff.; preps., 686, 432-
437 ; conjuncts., 587 ff. ; inter-
jects., 589 ff.
Partim, w. gen., 396, HI. 4). Par-
tim—partim. for para^xzrSj 461,
6.
Partitive genitive, 396, IIL
Parts of speech, 80.
Parum, w. gen., 396, III. 4).
ParmtSy compared, 166.
Passive voice, 195 ; passive constr.,
871,6.
Paterfamilias^ decL of, 126.
Pflrftor, «onstr., 551, U. 1-2.
Patrials, 326, 8.
Patronymics, 316.
Pause, caesural, 662.
Peculiarities in conjug., 234 ff.
PelagtiSy plur. and gend. of, 46, 5 ;
47, II-
PeneSy w. accus., 438.
Pentameter, 668, 2.
Penthemimeris, 656, 2.
Penults, quantity of, 645 ff.
PeTy in compds., 888, 1; 871, 4;
per, w. ace, 483. Per me stat,
499, 1.
Perceiving, constr. of verbs Of, 551.
PercontoTy w. two aces., 374, 2.
Perfect system, 241.
Perfect and supine, formation of, 268.
Perfect, 197 ; 241 , 11. ; pres. and hist.,
or definite and inddf., 198; want-
ing, 268, 275, 281, 283.
Perfect, syntax of, — ^m indie, 471 ;
def. and indef., or pres. and hist.,
471; of what has ceased to be,
471, 1 ; w. paeney prcpe, 471, 2 ;
for Eng. pres., 471, 8. In subj.,
478 ; in sequence, 480 ; after hist,
tense, 482, 2 ; 633, 1 ; m desires
and wishes, 488, 2 ; in condition,
509 ; in orat. obi., 682 ff. ; in in-
fin., 642 ; for pres., 642, 2. In
part, 674 ; for verbal noun, 680.
Period, Latin, arrangement of, 606.
Periphrastic conjugation, 227 ff.
PeriiuSy w. gen., 899, (2).
PermisceOy w. dat., 885, 6.
PermittOy constr., 661, 11. 2.
Person, of nouns, 87 ; of vetbs, 200.
Personal pronouns, 184 ; use of, 446 ;
reflex, use of, 448.
Persuading, verbs of, w. dat, 885.
Pertaedety pertaesum est, 410, 6.
PetOy constr., 874, 8, 4).
PA, 4.
Phalaecian verse, 691, V.
Pherecratean verse, 689, II.
Pigety constr., 410.
Place, abl. or gen. of, 421 ff. ; loca'
tive, 423, 2.
Pleasing, verbs of, w. dat., 385.
Plenty, constr. of verbs and adjs. of,
419, m.
Plenusy w. gen. or abl, 899, (8);
419.
Pleonasm, 704, 11.
Pluperfect, 197; 241, H.— in indie,
472 ; in letters, 472, 1 ; for Eng.
imp., 472, 2. In subj., 478 ; se-
quence, 480 ; in desires and wishes,
488, 2; in condition, 510; after
antequam imd priusqttamy 523, 2;
in orat obi., 632 ; 533, 2-4.
Plural, 37 ; wanting, 130 ; with
change of meaning, 132.
PhiSy without qttamy 417, 3.
Poeniiety constr., 410.
Polysyndeton, 704, II. 1.
Pone, w. accus., 483.
350
nn>EX OF SUBJECTS.
Poaeo, w. two aces, or ace. and abl.,
874, 2; w. Bubj., 668, VI.
Position, long by, 611; short, 612.
Positive, 160; wanting, 166.
Possessivefl, 186 ; w. gen., 397, 8 ;
for gen., 398, 3 ; w. refert and irtr
terest, 408, 1, 2); use of, 447;
reflexive, 448.
Possessor, dat of, 887.
/W, sound of, 8, 1.
Posty in compds., 838, 1 ; in compds.
w. dat., 386. Pott^ in expressions
of time, 427 ; /»rf, w. ace., 438.
PofteruB^ compared, 163, 8.
Pottremui^ force of, 442.
PostridiCy w. gen., 411; w. accus.,
437, 1.
PoaHdo, constr., 874, 3. 4).
Poteruy w. gen., 899, (3).
Potential subjunctive, 486 ff. ; in
declar. sentences, 486, I. ; in de-
liberative questions, 486, II. ; in
sub. clauses, 486, lU. ; of repeat-
ed action, 486, 6.
Potior, w. gen., 409, 8 ; w. abl., 419 ;
419, 4.
Prae, in compds. w. dat, 386; jwaw,
w. abl., 434.
Praediius, w. abl., 419, 8.
Praeter, in compds., w. accus., 371,
4 ; praeter, w. accus., 438.
Predicate, 347; simple, 363; com-
plex, 364 ; compound, 861. Pred.
nouns, 366, 362. Pred. adjs., 366 ;
438, 2. Pred. gen., 401; varie-
ties of, 402; verbs with, 403;
other constrs. for, 404. Pred. abl.,
428, 1.
Prepositions, 306; insep., 807; in
compds., 838, 1. In expressions
of time and space, 378, 1 and 2.
W. names of places, 379, 1, 2 and
4. Pro with abl., 384, 2, 2).
Compds. w. dat, 886. A or ah
w. abl. of agent, 888, 1 ; 414, 6.
Case w. prep, for the dat, 391, 2 ;
for the gen., 398, 4 ; 899, 6 ; 407,
2 ; 410, 4. Cum w. abl. of ac-
companiment, 414, 7. Quampro,
417, 6. W. abl. of place, 421;
of source and separation, 426 ; of
time, 426. Preps, w. cases. Rule,
432, 434 ff. ; preps, as adverbs, 436.
Present, 197 ; 241, I.,— in indie.
466 ff. ; of general truths, customs,
hist, pres., 467. In gubj., 477.
In imperat, 636. In infin., 641.
Part, 672.
Present perfect, 471, L
Present system of forms, 241.
Priapeian verse, 696.
Price, gen. of, 396, IV. ; abl. of, 416.
PridU, w. gen., 411 ; w. ace., 437, 1.
Primitives and derivatives, 318.
Principal parts of verbs, 240, 246-
260. Prin. clauses, 846, 2; in
oratio obliqua, 630. Prin. ele-
ments, 849; tenses, 198, 2.
Prior, primus, 166 ; force of, 442, 1.
Priusquam, w. indie, or subj., 621,
623.
PrOy in compds. w. dat, 886» 2 ; pro^
w. abl. in defence of, 384, 2, 2) ;
pro, w. abl., 434.
Pro, quantity of, in compds., 664, 4.
Proeul, w. abl., 437, 2.
Prohiheo, constr., 499, 1 ; 661, II. 1.
Pronouns, 182 ff. ; pers., 184 ; pos-
ses., 186 ; demon., 186 ; relat,
187 ; interrog., 188 ; indef., 189.
Pronouns, syntax of, 446-469,—?
Agreement, 446. Pers. and Pos-
ses., 446 ff. Keflex, use of, 448 ff.
Demon., 460 ff. Rel., 453. In-
terrog., 464. Indef., 466.
PronunciatiGn of Latin, 6-28.
Prope, w. accus., 483.
Proper nouns, 81.
Propior, proximns, 166; w. accus.,
391, 2, 2); 433.
Propiua, w. accus., 437, 1.
Proprius, constr., 891, 2, 4); 399, 3.
Propter, w. accus., 438.
Prosody, 607-701,— Quantity, 608-
654. Versification, 665-701.
Prospido, constr., 886, 3.
Prosthesis, 708, 4.
ProtfideOf constr., 886, 8.
Providus, w. gen., 399, (2).
Proxime, w. accus., 487, 1.
Proximum est, constr., 666, I. 2.
Proximus, w. accus., 891, 2, 2) ; 483.
Prudens, w. gen., 399, (2) ; w. abl.,
399, 6.
-pa, genit. of nouns in, 76.
Pudet, constr., 410.
Punishment, w. verbs of oondemii-
ing, 410, 6.
INDEX OP SUBJECTS,
351
Purffo, constr., 410, 1.
Purpose, subjunctive of, 489 ff. ; w.
conjuncts., 490; pure purpose,
491; mixed, 492; peculiarities,
493; in rel. clauses, 600 fif. In-
fin. of purpose, 658, V. ; gerund,
563, 5; 664, 2; supine, 669; par-
ticiple, 6Y8, V.
Pyrites^ ded. of, 48.
QTJ, changed, 248. '
Quaero, constr., 874, 3, 4).
Qmlis^ qadUscunque^ qiudigqualiSy
187, 7; quaiia, interrog., 188, 4;
qualislibei, indef., 191, 4.
Quality, characteristic, genit. of, 396,
IV. ; abL of, 428.
Qitam, vr. comparatives, 417, 1 ; w.
superlatives, 170, 2. Qitam pro,
w. abl., 417, 6. Quam «/, w. subj.,
496, 2. Quam «', w. subj., 603,
506. Quam quod, w. subj., 620, 3.
Quamqikam^ w. indie, or subj., 616,
Quamvis, guaniumvis, w. subj., 615
ff.
QuandOy w. Indic. or subj., 620.
Quantity, 20 ff. ; signs of, 24. Gen-
eral rules for, 610 ff. Special,
613-664; final syllables, 613 ff. ;
increments, 629 ff. ; deriv. endings,
645 ff. ; stem syllables, 649 ff.
QuanttiSy gttantuaeunquey quarUus-
guardus, 187, 7 ; indefinite, 188, 4.
Quad, w. subj., 508, 606.
Qui, rel., interrog., indef., 187 ff. ;
for quo, qua, 187, 1; 188, 2. Use
of as rel., interrog., indef, 453 ff.
Qui, w. subj. of purpose or result,
489, 500 ff. Qui dicUur, voeatur,
453, 7. Quicunque, 187, 4.
Quia, w. indic. or subj., 620.
Quidam, indef, 191, 465.
Quidem, place in clause, 602, III.
QuUibet, 191 ; use of, 468.
Quin, w. subj., 489, 498.
Quinam, 188, 8.
Quinariu8, 712.
Quippe, w. relative, 619, 3.
Quis, interrog., 188 ; indef., 189 ff. ;
use of, 464 ff.
Quis, for quibus, 187, 1.
Quianam, 188, 8.
Quispiam, 191 ; use of, 466.
QuMquam, 191 ; use of, 457.
Quisque, 191 ; use of^ 468 ; w. plur.
verb, 461, 8.
Quisquis, 187, 4.
Quiium, quantity of, 651, 8.
Quivis, 191 ; use of, 458.
Quo, w. gen, 896, IIL 4) ; w. subj.
of purpose, 489, 497.
Quoad, w. gen., 396, III. 4); w. in-
indic. or subj., 621 ff.
Quod, expletive, 453, 6; w. subj.,
620 ; clause w. qtiod unconnected,
654, rV. ; yttorf restrictive, 501, 3.
Qucjtu, quoi, for eujus, cut, 187, 1.
Quomifvus, w. subj., 499.
Quoniam, w. indic. or subj., 520.
Quoque, place in the cUuse, 602, m.
Quot, quotcunque, quotquot, qmita,
qu<^u8cunque, 187, 7 ; 188, 4.
Quum, w. subj., 616, 617 fil ; w. in-
dic, 618, 8.
E DROPPED, 66, 8 ; changed,
) 248 ; nouns in, 48, 51 ; genit.
of, 66; gender, lOl, 103, 111,
114.
R, quantity of final syllables in, 621.
Eastrum, plur. rastri, rostra, 143.
Batum, quantity of, 651, 3.
Be, red, 338, 2.
-re, for m, 236.
Reason, subj. of, 617 ff. See Cause.
Becordor, w. gen., 406. II. ; w. accus.,
407, 1 ; w. abL with de, 407, 2.
Becuso, constr., 499, 1-2.
Reduplicated perfects, 264 ; quantity
of, 652.
Befert, constr., 406, HI. ; 408.
Beferius, w. gen. or abl., 899, (2) and
6.
Reflexive use of.pronouns, 448 ff.
Regarding, verbs of, w. two accus.,
373.
Begno, w. gen., 409, 8.
Relative, 187 ; as a(^\, 446, 8 ; use
of, 453.
Relative clause, w. potential subj.,
486, 1 ; w. subj. of desire, 488, 5 ;
of purpose, result, 500 ; of result
after indefinite or general antece-
dents, after unus, solus, dignus,
indignus, idoneus, aptits, and com-
par. w. quam, 501, I.-IV. ; w.
subj. of condition, 613 ; of conces-
352
IKDEX OF SUBJECrrS.
ekm, 616 ; of cftose, reason, 617,
619 ; w. infin., 631, 1.
Reliquum edy oonetr^ 666, L 2.
Rfmiiining, constr. of rerbs of^ 666,
m.
Remindmg, oonstr. of verbs o(^ 410.
Remimaeor^ w. gen., 406, II.
Repeated action, subj. of, 486, 6.
Jitpo$eo^ with two aces., 874, 2.
Resisting, verbs of, w. the dat, 885.
RapMica, decL of, 126.
Ratai ut, 496, 2.
Hesolt, subjunctiye of, 489 £; w.
conjnncts., 490 ff. ; of pore r^ult,
494; mixed, 496; peculiarities,
496. With relatives, 600. See
Rdatiue dau^e,
RdicenHa, 704, I. 3.
Rhetorical questions, 580, 2.
Rhythmic accent, 659.
Bideoy w. aoctts., 871, 8.
Rivers, gender of names of, 85.
Rogo^ w. two aces., 874, 2 ; w. subj.,
668, VL
-IB, genit of nouns in, 76.
Rudis, w. gen., 899, (2); w. abL,
899, 6.
Rules of Syntax, 591.
Ru9y constr., 879, 8 ; 424, 2.
RtUum^ quantity of, 651, 3.
S SOUND of, 11 ff. ; nouns in, 48
J ff. ; genit of, 68-76 ; gend., 110.
Sacer^ compared, 167 ; w. dat or
gen., 891 ; 899, 8, 8).
Sciepey compared, 306, 4.
Sapio, w. accus., 871, 8.
Sapphic verse, 664 ; 690, L ; 691,
IV. ; greater sapphic, 690, II.
ScUoffOj BotagitOy w. gen., 409, 5.
Satis, w. gen., 896, III. 4).
Saiisfacio, w. dat, 885, 2.
SaCum, quantity of, 651, 8.
Scanning, 668.
Scazon, 688, 4.
ScXdi, quantity of, 651, 2.
Secundum^ w. accus., 433.
Semi-deponents, 272, 8; 282; use
of, 465, 8.
Senexy compared, 168, 3.
Sentences, syntax of, 343-861 ; clas-
sification of, 846 ff. ; simple, 347
ff. ; complex, 857 ff. : compound,
860. See also Declarative, JS»-
damatoryy ImperaUve^ ItUerroff»
tive.
Separation, abL of, 425.
Sequence of tenses, 480 ff Rule,
480. Application, 481 ; after hist
pres., 481, IV. ; after imp. subj.,
481, v.; after infin. or part, 481,
YI. Exceptions, 482 ; after per£
def., 482, 1 ; hist tense, 482, 2 ; in
.orat obliqua, 482, 3.
Sequiiurj w. subj. or infin., 495, 2 ;
649, 1.
Serving, verbs of, w. dat, 885.
SenmSy decL of, 45.
Sese, 184, 4.
SetUrUuB^ gestertia, ustertium, 712 £
Showing, verbs of^ w. two aces., 373.
-■!, sin, in Greek datives, 90, 97.
Silver age, 706.
-mm, in perfect subj., 239, 4.
Simuis and its oompds., constr., 391,
2,4).
Simple, — sentence, 847 ff. ; elements,
350; subject, 351; predicate, 353;
words, 813, 1.
Simid, w. abL, 487, 2.
Siny w. subjunctive, 503, 507 ff.
Sine, w. abL, 434.
Singular, 37 ; wanting, 131.
Sino, constr., 551, II. 1.
SiHo, w. accus., 871, 3.
SUunt, quantity of, 651, 3.
-so, in fut perfect, 239, 4.
8oltiSy decL of, 149; solns qui^ w.
subj., 501, II.
Source, abL of, 426.
Space, abL of, 878.
Sparing, verbs of, w. dat, 385.
Specification, ace. of, 380 ; genit. of,
896, V. ; abL of, 429.
Spirants, 3.
Stanza, 666 ; stanzas of Horace, 699
ff.
SUUunij quantity of, 651, 3.
SUUuOf constr., 558, n.
Stem, 41 ; in the five decls., 123.
Stem-syllables, quantity in primitives,
649 ff. ; in derivats., 653 ; in
compds., 654.
SGeti, stiHy quantity of, 651, 2.
Striving, constr. of verbs of, 558, III.
Studiosue, w. gen., 899.
Sub, in compds., 838, 1 ; compds. w.
dat, 386. jSub w. ace. or abL, 436.
INDEX OP STTBJECTS,
853
Subject, — Simple subject, 851 ; com-
plex, 362 ; compound, 861. Subj.
nom., 367 ; omitted, 867, 2. Subj.
ace., 376, 6465 omitted, 646, 2.
Infin. as subj., 649. Clause as
subj., 656 ffi
Subject and object clauses, 654 ff.
Indirect questions, infin. clauses,
subjunctive clauses, and clauses
inth qtiod, - compared, 664. Sub-
ject clauses, 656 ff. ; interrog., 556 ;
not interrog., 556. Object clauses,
657 ff. ; interrog., 667 ; not inter-
rog., 658.
Subjective genitive, 896, 1.
Subjunctive, 196; syntax of, 488-
633,— Potential Subj., 486 ff. Subj.
of desire, 487 ff . Of purpose or
result, 489-601 ; w. coiyuncts.,489
ff. ; w. relatives, 500 ff. Of con-
dition, 602 ff. Of concession, 615
ff. Of cause and time, 517 ff. In
indirect questions, 524 ff. By at-
traction, 627. In indirect dis-
course — oratio obliqua, 528.
Subordinate,— clauses, 846, 2; in
oratio obliqua, 631. Sub. con-
juncts., 811, 688 ; elements, 349.
Substantives, see Nouns,
Svhter, in compds. w. ace, 871, 4.
Bubter^ w. ace. or abL, 436.
8ui, decL of, 184 ; use of, 448 ff.
Sumy w. dat, 387; w. pred. gen,,
403.
Super^ in compds. w. accus., 871, 4. ;
in compds. with dat., 386. Super^
w. ace. or abL, 436.
Superlative, 160 ; irreg., 163 ; want-
ing, 168 ff. ; formed by maximey
170 ; w. gen., 896, 2, 3) (2).
SuperuSy compared, 163, 3.
Supine, 196, II.; wanting, 267 ff.,
274, 281, 283. Use of, 667 ff.
Supine system, 241.
SupplicOy w. dat., 386, 2.
SuprOy w. accus., 433.
SuspensuSy w. gen., 399, (2).
Suusy decl of, 185 ; use of, 448 ff.
Syllables, 17 ff.
Synaeresis, 669, IT.
Synaloepha, Synapheia, 669, I. 5.
Synecdoche, 706, HI.
Synesis, 704, IH. 3.
Synopsis of conjugation, 216-226.
Syntax, 843-606, — of sentences,
843-361 ; of nouns, 362-437 ; of
adjectives, 438 - 444 ; of pronouns,
446-459 ; of verbs, 460-681 ; of
particles, 582-690. Rules of syn-
tax, 691. Arrangement of words
and clauses, 692-606.
Systole, 669, IV.
T SOUND of, 11 ff.; nouns in,
J 48 ; genit. of, 67 ; gender, 111.
r dropped, 66, 3; 248.
Ty quantity of final syllables in, 621
Taedety constr., 410.
Ta^w, 186, 4.
Talpay gender of, 44.
Tametsiy w. subj., 516 ; 616, HI.
Tanquamy tanquam «i, w. subj., 503 ;
506.
TanluSy 186, 4 : tantum ahesty 496, 3.
Teaching, verbs of, w. two aces.,
374.
Tcrf for fo, 184, 6.
TemperOy constr., 886, 3.
Templumy decL of, 45.
Temporal conjunctions, 311 ; 588, L
Tenses, 197 ; prin. and hist., 198 ;
wanting, 198, 8. Use of, in indie,
466 ff. ; in subj., 476 ff. ; sequence
of, 480 ff. ; in imperat., 534 ; m
infin., 640 ; in part, 671.
TenuSyYf, gen., 411 ; w. abL, 434;
after its case, 434, 2.
Terrciey genit of place, 424, 3.
Testis suroy constr., 561, 3.
TeUy 184, 4.
Tetrameter verse, 663, 2.
Tetrapody, 656, 2.
Tetrastich, 666.
Th,4.
Thesis, 660.
-thongOB, Greek nouns in, 47, 2.
Threatening, verbs of, w. dat, 385.
-tim, adverbs in, 834, 2.
Tune, accus. of, 878 ; abL of, 378,
2 ; 426 ; w. the prep, m, 426, 2 ;
w. dbhiruiy 427. Time denoted by
ace. or abL w. ante or past, 427 ;
by participle, 578, 1.
Tune, with cause or purpose, subj.
of, 521 ff.
7\meOy constr., 885, 8 ; 492, 4.
7\sy for tuiy 184, 5.
-to, for tor, m imperative, 239, 6.
354
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
149.
Towns, gender of names o£^ 86 ;
consir., — ^accufl., 379; with urhs
or oj^piittm, 879, 2 ; genit. or abL,
421, IL
Tran», in compds., 838, 1 ; in compds.
w. ace., 871, 4 ; w. two accs^ 874,
6. TranM^ w. ace, 438.
Tranaitive verbs, 193; 871, 3.
Trees, gender of names of, 85.
Trimeter, 663, 2.
Tripody, 666, 2.
Tristich, 666.
Trochuc Terse, 679 ff.
•troiiii nouns in, 320.
rtf,.decLof, 184.
Tuli, qoantity of, 651, 2.
•tns, noons in, 818.
Taus^ decL of; 185.
U SOUND of, 6 ff., 14 ; w. sound of
) «o, 9. Nouns in u, 116; gen-
der of, 118.
U, quantity of,— final, 619; in in-
crements, 63V, 644.
m, for «i in dat., 116, 4.
Ubi, w. genit., 396, 2, 4).
•nbiu, in dat. and abL, 90; 116, 4.
Ui, as diphthong, 9.
-uiB, for 1M, in genit., 116, 4.
-ula, nouns in, 320, 6.
•uleus, in derivatives, 816, 6.
UUus, decl. of, 149; indef., 191, 2;
use of, 457.
Ulterior^ tdHmu8y 166 ; force of,
442, 1.
UUra^ w. accus., 433.
-ulus, ula, ulum, in nouns, 316;
320, 5 ; in adjs., 827 ff.
-umi for arum, 42, 3 ; for orvm, 45,
6, 4) ; in gen. plur. of 3d dec., 89.
-tmduJi, unoi, for endtu, endi, 238.
Unu8y decl. of, 149, 176 ; unua qui,
w. subj., 601, II.
Umuqukque, 191, 1.
-iir, gend. of nouns in, 114.
-ura, nouns in, 321.
-urio, desideratives in, 332, m.
-us, for e in voc. sing., 46, 6 ; nouns
in, 50 ff., 116 ; genitive of, 73,
116; gender, 116, 118. Deriva-
tives in, 320, 6 ; 321 ; «», final,
quantity of, 627.
Uitque, w. accus., 437, 1.
'XakoBj adjs. in, 323.
Unu, constr., 419.
-at, nouns in, 61; genit of; 67;
gend.. 111.
Utj w. subj. of purpose or result,
489 ff. ; omitted, 493, 2 ; w. ^
619, 3.
m «, w. subj., 608, 606.
Ut quigque-^iia, 468, 2.
Uier,taerctmque,U9\ 187,6; 188,
4; 191,2.
Uierlibet, tOerque, tOervu, 191, 8.
Uierque, w. plur. verb, 461, 3.
Uiinam, w. subj. of deare, 488, 1.
Utor, eonstr., 419; 419, 4.
Utpike, w. qui, 619, 8.
Utrwn, 346, IL 2.
-vtas, adjs. in, 323.
•uofl, verbal a^js. in, 828, 5.
-mc, genitive of nouns in, 81.
V PLACE supplied by t», 2.
5 Vaeuu8, w. gen. or aW., 399,
(3) and 6.
Value, genit. of, 396, IV.
Varuws, sender of, 47.
Vdut, v£a m, w. subj., 603, 506.
Verbal inflections, table of, ^2.
Verbs, etymology of— Classes, voices,
moods, tenses, etc., 192-203.
Paradigms, 204-215. Synopsis,
216-226. Periphrastic conj., 227-
232. Contractions and peculiari-
ties, 284-239. Formation of parts,
240 ff. Table of inflections, 242.
Comparative view of conjs., 243 ff
Principal parts of verbs, 246-260.
Classification of verbs, 261-286.
Irreg. verbs, 287-296. Defect.,
297. Impers., 298-301. Deriv.,
830 ff. Compound, 841. Irreg-
ularities of special verbs, 721. See
also Transitive, Intrana,, Finite,
Deponent, Semi-depon,, Imperso-
nal, Frequent,, Jneept,, Desiderai.,
Diminutive,
Verbs, syntax of, 460, 681,— Agree-
ment, 460 ff. Omitted, 867, 3 ;
460, 8. Voices, 464 ff. Tenses
of Indie, 466 ff. Use of Indie,
474. Tenses of Subj., 476 ff. Use
of Subj., 483-533. Imperat., 634
ff. Infin., 639-553. Subject and
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
35$
object clauses, 664 if. Gerund,
559-666. Supine, b&l ff. Parti-
ciples, 571-681.
Verb-stem, 203, 242.
Vereor^ constr., 492, 4.
Verirnnile est^ verum est^ constr.,
666, I. 2.
Vero^ place in clause, 602, IIL
Verses, 661 ; names of, 663 ff.
Versification, 665, — ^i'eet, 666 ff.
Verses, 661 ff. Figures of proso-
dy, 669. Varieties of verse, 670 ff.
VersuSy w. accus., 438.
Vescor, constr., 419; 419, 4.
Vestraa, 186, 2.
Vestriy vestrum, 396, III. 1. ; 446, 8.
Veto, constr., 661, II. 1.
Vetus^ compared, 167.
Vidnus, w. dat. or gen., 391, 1;
899, 3.
F«>, decL of, 45, 4.
VirgU, versification of, 696.
Vocative, formation of, 86, 88; in
Greek nouns, 96; in adjs., 164,
167. Syntax of, 869.
Voices, 196. See also under Verha^
syntax of,
VolerUy idiomatic use of dat., S87, 3.
Fofo, constr., 651, II. 1.
-voltis, compds. in, compared, 164.
Vowels, 3, 1. ; sounds of, 6 ff., 14 ff ;
before r, 6, 2.
W PLACE supplied by «, 2.
J Want, constr. of verbs and
adjs. of, 419.
Warning, constr. of verbs of, 658,
VL
Weights, Roman, 714.
Winds, gender of names of, 36.
Wishing,- constr. of verbs of, 651.
Words, arrangement of, 692.
X SOUND of, 11 ff.; nouns in,
5 48, 50; genitive of, 77-83;
gender of, 108.
YONLY in Greek words, 2.
7 Nouns in, 48 ; genitive of, 62 ;
gender, 111.
F, quantity of, — ^final, 617; in in-
crements, 688.
-ys, genitive of nouns in, 74 ; gender
of, 107; quantity ofys final, 628.
•yiLf genitive of nouns in, 82.
y ONLY in Greek words, 2.
Zeugma, 704, L 2.
THE END.
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zh | N/A | N/A | 美国外语教师专业标准综述及其对我国的启示
**张治国毛立群**
**摘要：美国制订了外语教师的专业标准，并实施了多年。本文分析了美国外语教师专业标准的体系、内容和实施情况，最后，文章提出了几点启示：标准的重要性、系统性、实用性、、评价的科学性，以便为我国外语教师专业标准的制订和专业发展提供一些参考。**
**关键词：美国；外语教师专业标准；启示**
**作者简介：张治国/上海海事大学外国语学院副教授(上海201306)**
**毛立群/上海海事大学外国语学院教授(上海201306)**
**谈论美国外语教师的专业标准不能脱离美国整个教育改革的大环境，美国教师专业标准的制订是美国教育改革的一部分，而外语教师的专业标准也只是美国教师专业标准的一个学科分支。美国当代外语教改的行动主要体现在以下几件主要事情上：20世纪50年代，美国外语教育得到了美国联邦政府的关注，1958年的《国防教育法》将外语作为“新三艺”课程，突出外语在尖端人才培养中的作用：20世纪90年代美国外语教育进一步受到国家的重视，根据《2000目标：美国教育法》，1994年美国在原有五门核心课程的基础上将“外语”增加为全美基础教育的核心课程，以教育立法的形式确定了外语的核心学科地位；1999年，美国政府颁布了《21世纪外语学习标准》，这不仅进一步突出了外语教育的重要性，而且，切切实实地对外语教育的水平和质量进行了规范：2004年，美国主办了“全国语言大会”，此处的“语言”是指“外语”。大会明确提出，美国“要通过提高外语能力增进美国对世界文化的了解和尊重，改善美国在全球的领导地位”。次年，美国发布了《全国语言大会白皮书》。总之，美国对外语教育的日益重视，促使美国外语教师教育改革在专业发展和质量保障等方面呈现出系列化的新动向，其中外语教师专业标准的陆续出台就是外语教改的成果之一收据库**
**在美国， “外语”一词可以用 "foreign languages" 或 "world languages other than English"(英语之外的世界语言)来表达。山于美国是一个移民国家，国内使用的语言种类非常多，许多外语也是本国移民的母语或第一语言。因此，在美国人们把“外语”叫作“英语之外的世界语言”也是情理之中的事情。虽然英语是许多美国人的第一语言，但也是不少美国新移民的第二语言。因此，严格地说，美国的外语教学应该包括“英语之外的世界语言”的教学和“英语作为第二语言”的教学。此外，美国各州也为本州的外语教师制订了专业标准。为了更具有可比性和借鉴性，本文的美国外语教师专业标准是指美国全国性的“英语之外的世界语言”教师的专业标准。尽管美国外语教师的专业标准是针对美国K-12(即幼儿园至12年级)的外语教师而制订的，但它对我国整个外语界教师的专业发展和外语教师专业标准的制订都具有一定的参考价值和借鉴意义。**
**二、美国外语教师专业标准的体系**
**外语教师质量认证体系是美国教师教育质量认证系统的重要组成部分。当前美国的教师教育是通过职前、入职和职后三位一体的质量认证体系来进行的，这三个阶段的体系标准分别由美国三个著名的教师教育质量认证机构“全美教师教育认证委员会”(NCATE)、“州际新教师评价与**
**支持联合体(INTASC)和全美专业教学标准委员会”(NBPTS)制订。这些认证机构都设有各个学科的专业组织，负责其相应学科的标准开发和质量认证工作。外语教师的标准开发和质量认证，分别是由以上三个认证机构下设的外语教育专业组织开展实施。**
**教师专业发展是一个持续不断的过程，教师职业生涯从准备入行到光荣退休共经历三个大的发展阶段：教师的职前准备阶段、入职阶段和在职发展阶段。职前准备阶段是候选教师在高校的学习阶段，是职业生涯的初始阶段；入职阶段是教师逐步走向胜任的阶段；在职发展阶段是教师**
**的成熟和领导阶段。这三个阶段分别有相应的职前标准、入职标准和在职标准(见表1)用于检测教师的水平和资格。这三个标准贯穿着每一个外语教师的职业生涯。在这三个职业阶段中，在职阶段是最长的一个，所以，美国在职阶段的教师又分两个阶段：胜任阶段和领导阶段，每个阶段都有自己的标准(由于杰出教师阶段的外语教师专业标准尚在制订过程中，故本文没有论及其详情)。因此，严格地说，美国外语教师职业生涯可分三个阶段四个标准。可见，标准伴随着外语教师的一生，，教师可以依照标准进行终生学习，并以此促进自己的专业发展。**
**表1： 美国外语教师专业标准体系一览表**
| **标准阶段/基本情况** | **阶段属性** | **标准种类** | **机构成立时间** | **标准对象** | **标准制订时间** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **职前阶段** | **初始阶段** | **NCATE** | **1954年** | **候选教师** | **2002年** |
| **入职阶段** | **胜任阶段** | **INTASC** | **1987年** | **新进教师** | **2002年** |
| **在职阶段(1)** | **成熟阶段** | **NBPTS** | **1987年** | **优秀教师** | **2001年** |
| **在职阶段(2)** | **领导阶段** | **ABCTE** | **2001年** | **杰出教师** | **进行中** |
**(资料来源：NCATE、INTASC、NBPTS、ABCTE各自的门户网站)\[1JJ2J83J141**
**三、美国外语教师专业标准的内容**
**美国外语教师在各个职业发展阶段专业标准的内容都包括若千个一级内容(见表2)，每个一级内容之后又包含几个更具体、更详细的二级内容。5M6\]一般而言，外语教师应具备以下四类知识：学科内容知识(即所教语言、语言学、目标**
**语和母语的比较语言学等知识)、教学知识(即有关教材教法、教育学、课堂管理等知识)、学生知识(即学生的认知、身心发展以及学生的语言文化背景等知识)、技能发展知识(即有关有助于教导学生知识应用和发展的技能、教师的评价能力、反思能力和专业发展能力)。**
**表2：美国外语教师专业标准的内容比较表**
| **标准类型** | **NCATE** | **INTASC** | **NBPTS** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **一级内容** | **语言、语言学和比较；文** **化、文学和跨学科概念：语言习得理论和教学实践；标准与课程和教学的整合：对语有和文化的评价：专业化** **的实施。** | **学科内容知识；学生发展；学生的多样性；教学策略：学习环境；交流手段；教学计划；评价策略：反思性实践与专业发展；学习社区。** | **了解学生：公平对待；了解目标语言；了解目标文化；了解外语习得理论：提倡学生使用多种学习渠道：了解课程与教学；创造学习环境；开发教学资源；评价；反思专业成长；加强学校、家庭和社区之间的联系；专业发展社区；提倡外语教** **育。** |
| **标准数量** | **6条** | **10条** | **14条** |
**从表2可知，美国外语教师专业标准的内容随着教师职业生涯的发展而增加和变难。职前阶段候选教师的标准有6条，内容主要是学科内容知识、教学知识和部分技能发展知识。入职阶段新教师的标准有10条，内容除了学科内容知识和教学知识外，还增加了学生知识和技能发展知识。在职阶段(1)优秀教师的标准有14条，，内容除了上述四方面的知识外，它还强调教师课堂之外与其他人的合作、交流、研究和影响能力。**
**四、美国外语教师专业标准的实施**
**美国外语教师专业标准的实施不是通过一两个笔试就能完成的，而是需要经过笔试、面试、档案记录以及数次课堂观察等程序。更关键的是标准的实施是通过上述评价让教师了解自己教学的长处和不足，帮助教师制定有针对性的个人发展规划，促进教师提高专业素质和教学技能。这是一种形成性评价(formative assessment)， 而不是总结性评价(summertive assessment)的教师评价制度，评价的目的“在于帮助教师提高能力，而不在于证明什么”。现以NBPTS标准的实施为例简要说明美国外语教师专业标准的实施过程：NBPTS优秀教师认定的依据是“业绩为本”的评价(performanc-based assessment)体系，它强调教师从事教学所需要的知识、技能和专业判断能力。评估过程包括两个活动：一是建立档案袋(portfolio)，二是参与评价活动。两个活动共需要大约三年的时间。建立档案袋是校本的档案袋评价阶段，即学校或学区将教师每年的教学业绩进行记录，形成教师个人的教学档案，然后，由学校或学区教育主管机构通过对教学档案的查阅对教师进行评估。档案袋包括以下几项内容：规定时数的教学录像带、四至五个教师本位的活动和师生的互动；若干位学生的学习记录和作业资料、教师编制的教材和所做的教具：与学生家长、同事和社区合作的资料等。参与评价活动就是教学评价中心的实践性评价阶段。。一般每个学区都建立了一个教学评价中心。在完成了档案袋评价之后，教师可以进入教学评价中心的实践性评价阶段。该阶段的目的是验证档案袋材料的真实性，并起到补充作用。其检测一般是采取以教**
**学知识和学科内容知识为主的笔试和练习活动相结合的方法，最后，至少12位以上的评委根据教师专业标准以及教师的相关材料来打分。**
**五、美国外语教师专业标准对我国的启示**
**1、认识外语教师专业标准的必要性**
**高水平的教练不一定能训练出好运动员，但是低水平的教练是一定训练不出好运动员。同样，外语教师与学生外语水平的关系也是如此。外语教学既是科学也是艺术，外语教学成功与否，在很大程度上取决于外语教师素质的高低，没有高素质的外语教师队伍，所有的外语课程和外语教学改革都难以成功。因此，外语的教改首先必须从外语教师开始，外语教师的改革应该从外语教师专业标准的制订开始。**
**“标准”原本指“一个事先挂在游杆上引人注目的东西(如旗子)，用于表示集合点，特别是在战争中，作为一种象征。””\[2这意味着“标准”是一种模式，是一个样本。它是山权威部门根据习俗经大家一致同意而制定的，这是大家做出判断或决定的依据。现代“标准”是指“权威部门制定的规则，用于测量数量、重量、程度、价值或质量等。”\[13标准是一种“目标”(goal)，同时，又是测量通向目标进展的“测量仪”(measure)。114)因此，外语教师专业标准是外语教师通向专业化的“目标”和“测量仪”。**
**所谓教师专业化，就是指教师在经过若干年的专门训练后具有独立的专门知识和技能，从事的工作性质明显区别于其他行业。对培训项目的专业认证是所有的专业(如建筑、工程、医学和法律)树立名声之基础。认证可以保障进入这些领域的人必须接受过严格的培训——掌握大量的专业知识和进行职前训练。随着我国学生外语水平以及外语教师数量和专业素质的提高，外语教师的入行和在职标准也应该得到提高。为此，所有外语教师都应当具有自己的“执照”或“镜子”——有与自己工作阶段相对应的专业标准。不同职业生涯阶段的外语教师都需要经历相应标准的“测量”，以便促进教师的专业发展和终生学习。**
**外语教师专业化的重要组成部分是外语教师**
**的专业成长，没有外语教师的专业成长就难以保证外语教师职业的专业化。外语教师专业标准的出现就像是黑夜中的一盏“明灯”，沙漠中的一竿“旗帜”，使得外语教师在专业发展的路径中看到了“方向”和“目标”。外语教师专业标准可以刺激外语教师的专业成长和规范外语教师行业的专业化，最终可以提高外语教师的地位和促进外语教学水平的提高。**
**2、构建外语教师专业标准的系统性**
**外语教师需要专业标准，但仅仅一个标准是不够的，而应该建立一个由几个标准构成的标准体系，从而促进各个职业生涯阶段的外语教师进行专业发展。理壮有三：一是由于懒惰是一般人的本性，倘若外语教师的专业标准只有一个，这容易促使许多达标的外语教师一劳永逸，不思上进；二是由于人类的外语水平如逆水行舟，不进则退，各种外语水平的证书(包括标准的认定书)都是有“保质期”的；三是由于语言(特别是语言中的词汇)是不断变化发展的， 一个外语教师若不进行专业发展则难以与时俱进，难以成为一个合格的教师。**
**因此，外语教师必须不时地融入相关的专业学习社区中进行专业发展，外语教师在职业生涯中可以以标准为“目标”，以专业发展为“渠道”推动着自己的专业成长。**
**3、强调外语教师专业标准内容的实用性**
**外语教师的专业标准在内容上要追求实用性，至少要注重以下五个“强调”。**
**标准要强调外语教师的学习能力。在外语教师的职业生涯中，外语教师扮演着双重的角色——教育者和学习者，因此，外语教师的专业标准旨在促进外语教师在教学过程中不断提高自己的专业素养，促进专业发展。外语教师的专业发展不仅仅是利用假期听专家的一些讲座或学历的提高，更重要的是外语教师要长期地、积极地加入某些专业学习社区，进行多形式和多渠道的专业发展。**
**标准要强调外语教师的反思和研究能力。不善于反思和研究的教师不可能成为好的教师。外语教师要在反思中学习，在学习中反思；在实践中研究，在研究中实践。此处的研究是指教师结合自己的教学和课程而进行的行动研究，而不是**
**纯理论的、高难度的研究。**
**标准要强调外语教师对学生的评价能力。教师对学生的评价影响深远，评价能力是外语教师专业标准的重要组成部分。传统的教育评价将学生的学习作为唯一的评价对象，将考试分数作为唯一的评价标准，这种评价理念不利于培养合格健康的学生。外语教师应具备“发展性评价”(developmental appraisal)的能力。**
**标准要强调外语教师的陈述性知识(declarative knowledge)与程序性知识(procedural knowledge)。外语教师不但要成为语言专家，还要成为教育专家，外语教师专业标准不但要注重教师的语言文化和语言学等陈述性知识，还要注重教师的语言应用能力和语言教学能力。**
**标准要强调其内容的时效性。标准的制订不是一蹴而就的，美国学者Lockwood和Woodward16都指出，标准不是固定不变的， _而_ 是灵活动态的。标准内容的时代性和标准管理的动态性是标准充满活力的保证，例如，美国采用每五年修订一次标准的内容以便标准能适应社会发展的需要。**
**4、重视外语教师专业标准评价的科学性**
**权威机构对外语教师做出的专业化标准认证将会为这些教师的专业发展提供更广阔的天地，而且，对教师工作进行客观、公正的评价是教师继续努力的重要推动力。外语教师的达标过程就是接受专家的评价过程，也是外语教师进行专业发展的过程。外语教师的专业成长需要相应的教育评价制度，但教育评价制度不能凭主观随意判断，，也不能仅凭一、两节课的观察和一份试卷的成绩就做出对申请达标教师的评价。科学的评价体系是促进教师专业发展的重要保证。**
**对外语教师达标的评价体系首先应该做到刚柔并用。外语教师专业标准为教育评价提供了“参照物”，使得外语教师专业化标准的认定过程有“章”可依，有“法”可循。评价要依照标准，但又不拘泥于标准。其次，使用“发展性评价”乎段，这种以标准为本的评价不仅仅是对外语教师工作的鉴定，更重要的是让外语教师从评价反馈中获悉自己的不足，从而促进教师的专业发展和提高教学水平，以达到提高学生学习的目的。 (下转第58页中)**
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**\[5张治国.美国NCATE外语候选教师专业标准及其对我国的启示\[.基础教育外语教学研究，2010，{4).**
**{61张治国. 美国INTASC新外语教师专业标准研究及其对我国的启示币.基础教育外语教学研究，2011，(1).**
**\[71ACTFL..(2008).** **Program** **Standards** **for** **the** **Preparation of Forein Language Teachers\[Z}. www.actflorg.**
**\[8IINTASC. (2002)， Model Standards for Licensing** **Beginning Foreign Language Teachers： A Resource for State** **Dialogue\[Z}. Washington. DC： Council of Chief State School** **Officers.**
**\[9INBPTS.NBPTS World Languages Other than English**
**(上接第65页) The Examination of Elementary** **Teachers' Effectiveness on Using Ouestioning Strategies in** **their Ciassrooms.The InternationalJournal of Learning** **Volume 16. Number 6， 2009.** **\[2\] Koechlin， C. & Zwaan， S.(2006).0 Tasks： How to empower students to ask questions** **and care about answers. Markham， Onario， Canada： Pembroke** **Publishers.**
**现式学习而言，其受益学生群体更广泛，也更注重绝大多数学生的个体发展，因此，在当前环境下研究性学习是适合我国国情的一种学习方式。**
**参考文献：**
**予生把个人的能力在学习上发挥到极致，使尖子生迅速拔尖，并且最大程度地迎合成为科学家的需要。这种学习方式，如果仅仅对具体尖子生个体发展的纵向角度来看，是十分适合的，但不能用于广泛的学生群体，因为这种学习方式并不因材施教，对一般学生来说，往往造成拔苗助长的不良效果。值得思考的是，如果我们在基于研究性学习为基础的教学过程中，在一定的知识范围和程度上，加入适量的发现式学习模式，也许对于每个学生的进一步提高会有一定的帮助。我国经济发展水平相对落后，人口众多，各地区人口素质差距也十分巨大，要找出一条适合全中国学生的学习方式十分困难，研究性学习相对发**
**\[11乐健.** **“发现式学习”与“研究性学习”的差异比较\[丁.语文学刊，2007，(12).**
**\[2\]何晓玲.对研究性学习的思考\[J1.中国商界(上半月)，2010，(3).**
**\[3\]朱峰.布鲁纳“发现学习论”对我国教育改革的启示\[.重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)，2008(6).**
**「4\]陈红艳.如何在课堂教学中渗透研究性学习\[，人力资源管理，2010，(4).**
**Standards \[Z\].www.nbpts.org. 2008.**
**\[10\]Tileston， D. W. (2006). What every parent should** **know about school. standards and high stakes tests? \[M\].** **Thousand Oaks. Ca： Corwin Press， Inc. p. 99.**
**\[111 Jay， J. K. (2003). Ouality Teaching： Reflection as the** **Heart of PracticelM\]. Lanham， MD： The Scarecrow Press， Inc.** **p.99-100.**
**\[12/131114Ravitch， D. (1995). Nationat Standards in** **American Education： a Citizen's Guide\[M}. Washineton D.C.：The Brookings Institution. p. 7.**
**\[15\]Lockwood. A.T. (1998). Standards： from Policy to** **Practice\[MI. Thousand Oaks， Ca： Corwin Press， Inc. p. 39.**
**\[16\]Woodward， K. S.(1999). Alignment of National and** **State Standards： A Report by the GED Testing Service\[M.** **Washingtong. DC： American Council on Education. p. 8.**
**\[31 Hill， J. D. &Flynn， K.M. (2006).CClassroom** **Instruction thatWorksSwith English Language Learners.** **Alexandria. VA： Association for Supervision and Curriculum** **Development.Stronge. J. H.(2002). Oualities of Effective** **Teachers. Alexandria. VA： Association for Supervision and** **Curriculum Development.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **哲学视域下教育意义的探寻**
**都兴芳**
**摘 要：教育的社会、历史、文化等方面的特性决定了其自身的重要性，同时也促使人们将教育作为一个抽象事物进行深刻的分析和理解。在理解的过程中，人们首先去感知的就是教育的意义。教育的意义就是所谓“教育是什么"的问题。有关这个问题的答案，在日常生活中、在教育理论世界中均存在其相对合理的解释，如果人类可以揭示此问题的最合理解释，并合理利用其中特质，无疑对人类自身的发展乃至社会的前进都将起到重大作用。**
**关键词：教育意义；语言；工具；生活；事实**
**中图分类号： G40 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1671-6531 (2012) 12-0001-02**
**“寻找对象的意义是人类特有的认识现象，是人类成为主体的重要因素。"正是这种人们对某种事物或现象的不懈探索，才使人真正区别于其它生物，并保有自身独特的精神世界。教育，作为拥有古老历史，并且伴随每个人终生的话题，自古以来就是人类讨论的重点问题，随着人类思考水平和抽象能力的提升，渴望对教育进行了解的愿望也进一步加深，于是，人们开始尝试从本体论的角度思考教育自身的问题，即“什么是教育”。**
**“教育是培养人的活动，培养人是教育的最一般的和唯一、根本的特性，是教育产生、发展的根本动力和存在的根本价值。”教育伴随着人类社会的进步而发展，“什么是教育”这一问题也几乎与人类历史同龄，但是，至今我们仍然可以听到无休止地关于这一问题的争论，这说明，人类对“什么是教育”的探寻仍然没有停止。本文就试图继承这一问题，以哲学的视域，从日常语言世界和理论研究两个方面来探寻教育的意义。**
**要理解教育，要获得教育的真正意义，我们首先应该从教育所处的坏境开始。从日常生活来看，教育被论及的地点无非有三，即：1)人类口中；2)科学理论的研究中；3)教育实践中。所以说，教育的真正寓所就是人类的日常语言世界和科学理论世界。只有从这两个方面对教育的意义进行分析、解释，才会较全面地发现教育的意义。B**
**一、日常语宫世界中的教育**
**语言是人类所特有的，传达经验、表达思想的工具。通过语言的传承，人类开始了远古的教育，随着科技的发展，现代教育技术H臻完善，但是，无论技术的发展有多么猛烈，语言在教育中的重要地位依然是不可撼动的。在广阔的语言世界里，涉及到教育的因素不胜枚举。接下来，本文尝试从门语、词语等方面对教育的意义进行探寻。**
**(一)口语中的教育**
口语是语言中最易懂，同时也是最常接触到的表意方式，所以，我们从口语开始讨论其中教育的意义。
1.“教育”作为动词被使用。例如：父母对孩子进行教育。这里的教育，是一种区别于学校正规教育的教育活动，父母或者其他长辈、有理性的人，对尚未养成科学人生观或有不当表现的人进行指导、批评指正，目的是让被批评者能够向积极的方向进行转变。
2.经历使人受到“教育”。在中国，自古就有“读万卷书，行万里路”的说法，可见，教育的过程不仅仅可以通过书籍进行，经历和经
验同样可以使人顿悟道理、吸取教训。不仅如此，实际的经验较之书籍更能给人留下深刻的印象，可以起到更好的教育效果。
**3.受过“教育”的人。在这里，教育不再包含教育过程的意思，无论是学校教育，还是通过实践来进行的教育，一切都成为了过去时的意义。受过教育，代表着一个人接受过良好的知识培养和熏陶，是一个有文化、有素养的文明执。**
**4.事物的“教育”价值。在这里，教育的概念摆脱了单纯的过程或是知识的层面，上升到了对价值论的追求。世间万物，只要被人们发现、利用，就可以被人们发现其中蕴含的智慧和启示。也就是说，教育---词本身就包含其自身的价值论追求。**
**(二)词语中的教育**
**教育一词的英语为“Education"，从词源上讲，来源于拉丁语的“Eduiere”，有“引导、引出、抚育、自身生成”等意。德语中的“Eiziehung”有“引导、唤醒”的意味。通过对比不难发现，教育无论是在英语、德语，还是在拉丁语中的意思里，均包含唤醒之意，可以说，教育不是单纯的世代间的文化传递，教育更具有一种对人格心灵和灵魂的“唤醒”作用。教育的作用不单单是要传授生活技能、求生本领，更重要的是，通过教育使人理解生命的意义、掌握价值含义、唤醒白我效能。**
**在汉语中，表示教育的词语更是数不胜数，如：教授、教化、教训、教养、教令、教诲、教学、教导等。在这其中，以教化、教令为代表的一些词多出现于古代书籍中，现在虽已不常用，但仍然传达着教育的意味。总体说来，古代教育的意义主要是使人向善，以贤良之人为目标，动用说教、感化、启发等手段，对人实施教育。现代的教育就被赋予了更多的意义，在传授知识的基础上，培养儿童全面能力、促进身心协调发展等问题都成为了教育的重要内容。总体来讲，无论在中国还是外国、古代还是现代，教育时刻是人类传递积极思想、培育年轻后辈的重要手段。**
**二、科学理论世界中的教育**
如果我们对教育的理解仅仅停留在语言本身，那么，我们只会得到粗浅的结论，因为，教育在被人们口口相传的同时，普通的民众是不会针对教育进行本体论的思考的。所以，在探寻教育的意义的道路上，我们还是需要借助科学理论的手段来进行研究，以期达到更高的认识水平。
**对教育的理解中，以下几种观点是比较具有代表性并被多数人支持的：教育是使儿童社会化的过程；教育是劳动力再生产的手**
**都兴芳/吉林司法警官职业学院司法技术系主任，教授(吉林长春130062)。**
段；教育是意识形态再生产的工具。纵观这些观点，可以说，这些观点本身都是正确的，符合人类对教育的理解的，但是，这几种观点都只是从单一的侧面来描述教育的，它们都无法从宏观的、全面的角度对教育的意义进行阐述。所以，我们需要---种新的方法论，能够用超越的眼光去审视教育，寻找教育的本源。
**(一)教育作为工具**
把“教育"理解成为社会借此可以保存、延续、进步，个体借此得以获得某种索质而在未来过上“幸福”“完满”生活的工具间，这种工具主义的教育观最早出现在古希腊时期，柏拉图在其著作《理想国》中就曾提出教育为政治服务的思想。文艺复兴后，伴随着近代工业社会的发展，国家对人民的控制和主动作用日趋加强，具有国家主义色彩的工具主义教育观逐渐占据了主导地位。“这种工具性的教育注重发展外在价值，不把人作为主体来培养，而作为无主体性的螺丝钉。”
将教育看作工具，就作为工具的教育而言，自然包括两个互朴独立而又相互联系的部分，一是教育为之努力的目的，另一个就是教育自身。
1.教育起到什么作用。(根据周浩波所著《教育哲学》叶的观点，可以从以下三点来回答这个问题)
(1)诉诸信念，在对此问题的争论中，基本呈现以下三种观点：不需要问答；夸张的教育万能论；忽视教育的力量。无论哪种观点，都坚持教育的力量是不需要诉诸理性的观点。“这种态度往往会使人形成某种偏激的情绪，进面在教育研究与实践中引进某些不能加以分析的‘口号’又此，我们只能像分析哲学家'拒斥形面上学'那样，在哲学这个诉铭理性的王国中担斥信念’
(2)从现实的教育活动中考察教育实际所达到的效果。
(3)以“工具主义"逻辑规则为制约。即，教育的功能是根据工具主义的具体要求来改变的，因为教育本身就不是一个一成不变的实体，而是依据具体的教育日的而发生变化的。
2.教育怎样起作用。20世纪教育的发展呈现…大趋势，这就是“从教学到教育的不断变化过程”从夸美纽斯把“秩序"确立为“教学艺术的主导原则"后，教学过程的特征就是正规、有秩序，对教学程序做预先安排，从权威来源到学生的信息传递和有关对学习材料的逻辑安排。到20世纪，这种主客受动的教学过程观才向“教育过程观”转化，它强调课堂活跃、学生学习能动性和尽可能使学生得到充分的发展。!斗期的工具主义教育是通过压抑学生个性，强制向学生瀚输教学内容进行的，随着人类对教育认识的逐渐加深，工具性教育的实施过程也在发生变化。
**(二)教育作为生活**
1.工具上义理论的危机。
(1)教育日的的工具化。把教育理解成为工具，可以说是社会发展的必然要求，这也决定了教育要以不同的身份出现在历史上。在历史上，教育既作为阶级斗争的工具，又允当着经济发展的工具，无论身份足什么其宗旨只有一个，就是教人去追逐、适应整个外部世界，压抑个性，保持社会阶级的稳定。\[30
(2)教育过程的机械化。由于工其主义的教育总是带着强烈的目的性进行教学，要求以客体化和对象化的方法来研究人，从本质上米说，这就是在以对待“物”的方式来对待人，这切导致了教育在实施的过程中，成为了教育者有目的、有计划、有组织地对受教育者施加影响的过程。
2.杜威对教育的理解。杜威是20世纪世界最著名的教育家之一“教育即生活"作为杜威重要的教育心想的一部分，集中体现了教育与生活间的密切关系。
(1)人类生活需要教育。人类作为区别于普通动物的高级有在，不仅要延续生存，更要开创自己的生活。人类需要“习惯、制度、信仰、经验、工作、闲暇等”，基丁这些需要，人类社会同卜要求有完整的规范来保障这些欲求，一旦在社会中的规矩被破坏，带给人类的可能就是毁灭性的打击。所以，在生活中需要教育的存在，教育可以向年轻人直接传授经验，教会他们如何选择。可以说，教育被生活迫切地需要着。
(2)教育来源于现实生活。人类自身的生活要求教育的出现来维持生活的有序进行。所以，教育要以现实生活为基点，对年轻人进行教育。杜威通过对斯宾塞“教育即预备”理论的批判，阐述了白己对教育的认识。事实上，教育究竟是该为未来生活做准备，还是应该奠基于当下的生活，这是个非常难以回答的问题。教育既不可能完全脱离现实生活，也不可能仅仅表现为对现实生活的照搬。教育应该立足于当下生活，并合理的面向未来，为未来的准备是必须的，但却不是现在努力的动力。以1
3.教育价值的确立。教育价值是作为社会实践主体的人的需要与作为客体的教育现象的属性之间的…种特定的关系。12可以说，教育价值是教育与社会关系间的最真实体现。教育的意义不是生活的预备，而是儿童真实的生活过程。杜威坚持这样的观点，对工具性教育进行了批判。他认为，工具性教育把教育过程喬作一个技术过程，白说自话地为儿童设计了-个遥不可及的未来，这样做不符合人们在道德上的规范，同时，将儿童完全束缚在教室中也扼杀了个人的尊严和价值，弊大于利。真正的教育的价值应该是在自山、民主中来体现的，缺乏自由与民主就会处于一种“异化”状态，不能真正的成为“自己”!所以，教育要以自由、民主为最高的价值标准，将儿童从工具主义教条中解放出来，使人能够获得真正的人的尊严与价值。
**三、结束语**
以哲学为视域的方法在探讨事物本质时经常被运用，木文在试图讨论教育意义的情况下，以此作为视角进行了阐述，在讨论教育的意义的过程中，由于无法将研究者统一到一个视角下进行定义，才造成如今百家争鸣的景象。本文将教育定义于不同的语境，对教育的意义做出了自己的判断。近年来，随着人们对此问题的重视，专门对教育本质问题进行研究的元教育学，也作为一门独立学科出现，希望在不久的将来，研究者会得出系统的、准确的答案。
项目名称：吉林省教育厅十一五社科研究项目“高取高专院校 **毕业生健康就业心理研究”(编号：2008393)**
**参考文献：**
\[1\]\[3\]刘庆昌.教育的意义探寻\[.太原师范学院(社会科学版)， **2003，(2)：76，77**
\[2\]郝文武.教育哲学研究\[M\].北京：教育科学出版社，2009：170-171
\[4\]赵联.对教育意义的探寻\[江西教育研究，2006，(4)：10
**\[5\]\[6\]\[8\]周浩波.教育哲学\[M\]，北京：人民教育出版社，2007：15，35，43**
\[7\]\[9\]冯建军.工具性教育及其反思\[江苏高教，1999，(2)：67，68
**\[10\]龙伟.论工具主义教育与人的失落\[.理论界，2007，(6)：186**
\[11\]林德全.杜威“教育即生活”的内涵与教育“回归‘生活世界”之 **批判\[J\].河南教育学院学报(哲学社会科学版)，2006，(4)：94**
\[12\]王坤庆，教育哲学——种哲学价值论视角的研究\[M\]武汉：华 **中师范大学出版社，2006：147**
\[13\]石中英.教育哲学的责任与追求\[M\].安徽：安徽教育出版社， **2007：205**
**责任编辑：贺春健** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | _66_ 一带一路”倡议背景下中国非遗音乐文化对外传播研究
**柯晓东**
**(莆田学院音乐学院，福建莆田 351100)**
**\[摘 要\]“一带一路”倡议背景下推进中国非遗音乐文化对外传播，有利于传承发展中国非遗音乐文化、推动沿线国家和地区间的文化交流、实现沿线国家和地区间的民心相通，应坚持和弘扬非遗音乐文化的民族性、精选非遗音乐文化对外传播内容、拓展非遗音乐文化对外传播途径、构建非遗音乐文化对外交流机制，让海外受众“爱听爱看、产生共鸣”，在助力“一带一路”民心相通建设的同时提升我国非遗音乐文化的国际影响力。**
**\[关键词\]“一带一路”倡议；非遗音乐文化；对外传播**
**\[中图分类号\]G122 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1004-7077(2022)06-0118-08**
**习近平总书记于2013年提出共建“一带一路”的倡议，旨在高举和平发展的旗帜，积极推动国际区域间经济、政治、文化的全方位合作交流，是世界各国共享和平、共同发展的区域合作举措，得到沿线国家和地区的普遍认可与支持。 “国之交在于民相亲，民相亲在于心相通。”\[1J(P003)民心相通是“一带一路”沿线国家与地区深化政治互信、共谋发展大计的重要基础，音乐以其独特的魅力跨越语言和国界，无需特定翻译便可通达中国与“一带一路”沿线国家和地区人民的心灵深处，为民心相通提供不竭的精神动力和载体支持。\[2\](P40~45)非遗音乐文化作为中华优秀传统文化的重要组成部分，具有根源性、原创性、包容性和辐射性特点，是当代中国最深厚的文化软实力之一。 “一带一路”倡议的实施为我国非遗音乐文化的繁荣发展和对外传播提供了新的契机，但是要想将非遗音乐文化顺利传播到“一带一路”沿线国家和地区并非易事，需要积极发掘各种非遗音乐文化资源，不断创新非遗音乐文化对外传播理念，构建起既有中国特色又有国际气派的非遗音乐文化对外传播体系，让海外受众“爱听爱**
**看、产生共鸣”，在助力“一带一路”民心相通建设的同时提升我国非遗音乐文化的国际影响力。**
一、中国非遗音乐文化概况
**2003年10月17日，联合国教科文组织第32届大会通过《保护啡物质文化遗产公约》，主要目的在于更好地保护分散在世界各地的传统音乐、传统舞蹈、传统体育为代表的非物质文化遗产。随后，中国于2004年加入《保护非物质文化遗产公约》，并于2011年通过《中华人民共和国非物质文化遗产法》，自此我国非物质文化遗产保护工作走上依法保护的道路。传统音乐是中华民族在生产劳动和社会生活中创作并流传至今的宝贵财富，这些艺术创作源于人民群众对生活、劳动、习俗的感悟，是普通人民群众寄托思想情感的方式之一，饱含着深厚的中华优秀传统文化底蕴，是深藏在华夏子孙心灵深处的文化记忆。传统音乐是一种典型的非物质文化遗产。目前，我国新疆维吾尔木卡姆艺术、古琴艺术、昆曲、蒙古族长调民歌、蒙古族呼麦、南音、西安鼓乐、花儿、侗族大**
① \[收稿日期\]2022-08-26
**\[作者简介\]柯晓东(1983一)，男，福建莆田人，莆田学院音乐学院副教授，硕士，主要从事传统音乐教学研究。**
**歌被列入联合国人类非物质文化遗产代表作名录。截至2022年6月，我国已颁布五批国家级非物质文化遗产代表性项目名录，共计199个国家级音乐类非物质文化遗产项目(不含扩展项目)，具体见表1。这199个国家级音乐类非物质文化遗产项目是当前所能见到的、最具代**
**表性的非遗音乐文化，充分说明我国具有绚丽多姿、弥足珍贵的非遗音乐文化，也表明我国日益重视保护和传承非遗音乐文化，对坚定文化自信、促进文化传播、推动文明交流互鉴具有积极作用。**
**表1国家级音乐类非物质文化遗产代表性项目名录统计**
“一带一路”倡议背景下中国非遗音乐文化对外传播价值
(一)传承发展中国非遗音乐文化
**中华民族在五千年历史长河中创作了数量众多、情感丰富的传统音乐作品，从而形成了绚丽多姿、博大精深的非遗音乐文化。这些音乐作品源于人民群众对生活、劳动、习俗的感悟，凝结着博大精深的中华优秀传统文化。例如，古琴艺术(2008年)、侗族大歌(2009年)、西安鼓乐(2009年)、南音(2009年)、花儿(2009年)均入选世界非物质文化遗产名录，并且和中国朝鲜族农乐舞(2009年)、粤剧(2009年)、京剧(2010年)、中国皮影戏(2011年)等世界非物质文化遗产一样也蕴含着丰富的非遗音乐文化元素，成为全人类共同的文化财富。女“一带一路”倡议的实施为我国非遗音乐文化的对外传播提供了新的契机，越来越多的非遗音乐文化走出区域、走出国门。2018年，腾讯音乐联合央视综艺诗词音乐文化节目《《经典咏流传》，精心撷取20首经由诗经、唐诗、宋词等文学经典重新编唱的歌曲，集结了海峡两岸知名流行、民族、通俗音乐人的实力演绎，将和着琵琶、萧、编钟、古筝等中国传统民乐的文化瑰宝一路从日本播撒到哈萨克斯坦和巴拿马，充分展现出中华上下五千年的非遗音乐文化之美。3J(P45~49)在“一带一路”倡议观照下，非遗音乐文化对外传播活动必然会越来越多，从而大大扩充中国非遗音乐文化的受众群体，加大艺术市场对非遗音乐的需求。非遗音乐文化普及性的提高，反过来又会促使更多专家学者投入到非遗音乐文化推广、传承和创新的工作中来，不断赋予非遗音乐文化崭新的时代内涵、民族精神，从而使传统音乐得以焕发新的生机。例如，丝绸之路主题原创声乐套曲《大美丝路》专辑日前由上海音乐出版社、上海文艺音像电子出版社出版。专辑中的10首传承创新的新作品分别从陆上丝绸之路、海上丝绸之路、草原丝绸之路、西南丝绸之路等视角，展现中国与丝绸之路沿线国家和地区从古至今的经济文化交流。这是近年来我国音乐界首部全景式展现见“一带一路”人文交流的**
**音乐专辑，这是主创团队多年来在“一带一路’文化调研基础上创作的音乐作品。与此同时，在“一带一路”沿线国家和地区，我国非遗音乐文化对当地受众而言无疑是新鲜的音乐形态，将这些传统民族音乐传播到域外，不仅可以扩大传统民族音乐的发展空间，甚至有可能和域外非遗音乐文化进行融合而衍生成新的音乐形态并得以继存。**
**(二) _：_ 推动沿线国家和地区间的文化交流**
**美国著名政治学者萨缪尔·亨廷顿的勺《《文明的冲突》认为，“冷战之后，国际冲突主要表现为不同的文明之间的冲突”，这种文明之间的冲突持久且难以调和。\[4\](P45)习近平总书记强调“文明只有姹紫嫣红之别，绝无高低优劣之分”，不同的文明除了冲突之外，更应该坚持“交流互鉴、合作共赢”\[S(P4-6)文明因交流而多彩，文明因互鉴而丰富。自两千多年前汉武帝派张骞出使西域之日起， “古代丝绸之路”就不仅是连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的古代路上商业贸易路线，更是不同文明交流互鉴的桥梁。 “一带一路”倡议吸收借鉴“古代丝绸之路”沿线不同文明互学互鉴的历史经验，赋予其“共商共建共享”的时代内涵，从而使“一带一路”成为一条文明互鉴、交流共融之路。 《礼记·乐记》载 “乐者，音之所由生也，其本在人心之感于物也。”非遗音乐文化对外传播时不需要特定翻译便可以为受众展现不同国家和地区的传统文化、民族精神、风俗习惯，进而推动沿线不同非遗音乐文化之间的交流互动，最终实现不同文明之间的交流互鉴。纵观“一带一路”沿线国家和地区，均有着丰富多彩的非遗音乐文化。比如，越南的宫廷雅乐、乌兹别克斯坦共和国的沙士木卡姆、柬埔寨的长臂琴音乐、印度尼西亚的甘美兰、叙利亚的阿尔库杜-哈拉比亚等均入选联合国教科文组织非物质文化遗产名录。在好“一带一路”倡仪支持下，沿线不同类型非遗音乐文化的交流、沟通和融合必然会愈加密切。例如，深圳“一带一路”国际音乐季邀请到包括俄罗斯、波兰、土耳其、匈牙利、格鲁吉亚、斯洛文尼亚、印度尼西亚、、卡塔尔、越南、泰国等在内的超过20个沿线国家和地区的极具各自民族音乐特色的艺术团体积极参与**
**到相关演出及活动中，为现场观众演绎“一带一路”沿线国家和地区的音乐作品，确保“音乐季”的高水准与国际化程度。6频繁的非遗音乐文化交流，使中国传统民族音乐文化和沿线不同类型的传统民族音乐文化在交流、碰撞中互通互融，夯实共同开展“一带一路”建设的人文基础。例如，文化部重点资助大型民族音乐会《悠悠丝路情》(中国歌剧舞剧院)、大型环球情景音画《沙舞海歌丝路情》(中国歌剧舞剧院、中国东方演艺集团有限公司)、大型民族音乐会《彩虹之路》(中央民族乐团、甘肃省歌舞剧院)等“一带一路”相关主题的创作，这些传承创新的新作品有利于推动沿线国家和地区间的非遗文化交流。**
**(三)实现沿线国家和地区间的民心相通**
**马克思、恩格斯在王《神圣家族》中指出：“历史活动是群众的活动，随着历史活动的深入，必将是群众队伍的扩大。”7J(P99)这一论断充分肯定了人民群众在推动社会变革中的重要作用。共建“一带一路”这一伟大而复杂的跨文化工程，同样需要沿线国家和地区人民群众的积极参与。 “一带一路”倡议提出9年来，中国已与150个国家、32个国际组织签署了200 多份共建“一带一路”合作文件。 “一带一路”建设不是哪一个国家的事，而是沿线150个国家和地区人民共同的事业。离开沿线国家和地区人民的认可、支持，民心不通， “一带一路”建设就难以行稳致远。简而言之，民心相通是“一带一路”建设的社会根基和人文基础，是最基础、最坚实、最持久的互联互通，是关系到共建“一带一路”成功与否的关键。而民心隔阂是共建“一带一路”时面临的最大风险，这就要求我们必须在尊重文化差异的基础上，加强与沿线国家和地区人民的文化交往和社会交流，从而搭建起民心相通的桥梁和纽带，为共建“一带一路”提供坚实的民意基础和社会根基。 “丝绸之路学者”瓦莱丽·汉森指出，“古代丝绸之路能够对历史产生重大影响”，根源在于“在古代丝绸之路上穿行的各族人民”进行文化交流，从而将不同文化像其携带的 “异国香料种子一样沿途撒播”。\[8J(P93-97)音乐以其独特的艺术魅力跨越民族、文化、地域和历史的藩**
**篱，如同“异国香料种子”般播撒进沿线国家和地区人民的心灵深处，从而增进彼此间的文化认同和互信。非遗音乐文化作为中华优秀传统文化的代表符号之一，具有很强的艺术魅力和交流优势，借助对外传播可以消除沿线国家和地区人民的“民心隔阂”，使“一带一路”倡议得以深入人心。例如，以敦煌文化、共建“一带一路”为主题的音乐作品《敦煌飞天》，具有鲜明的时代感、浓郁的文化气息、丰富的艺术表现力，充满了浓郁的中国传统文化审美风格，弘扬了“和平合作、开放包容、互学互鉴、互利共赢”的丝路精神，帮助沿线国家和地区人民更好地认识和接受中国非遗音乐文化，进而夯实“一带一路”倡议的民意基础。我国非遗音乐文化都产生并流传于民间，具有鲜明的“根亲性”特点，深受广大人民群众的喜爱，并随着华侨华人的足迹扎根于“一带一路”沿线国家和地区。通过非遗音乐文化对外传播，可以维系海外游子与祖国和家乡的情感，从而助力“一带一路”民心相通。例如，在福建莆田地区代代传承的“莆仙十音八乐”，是妈祖文化的重要组成部分。历经千余年，已然成为海内外妈祖文化信众在交流活动中不可或缺的仪式。积极保护并推进传播此类非遗音乐文化，对于加强海峡两岸妈祖文化交流，促进两岸同根同源共仰的文化艺术融合发展，坚定民族文化自信，进而在促进海峡两岸早日实现祖国和平统一的伟大历程中展现更大作为。**
三、 “一带一路”倡议背景下中国非遗音乐文化对外传播策略
(一)坚持弘扬非遗音乐文化的民族性
**“文化是一个国家、一个民族的灵魂。'”9JP10)在五千多年文明发展中孕育的中华优秀传统文化已经成为中华民族的基因，深深植根于中国人的灵魂和血液之中，是中华民族得以始终屹立于世界民族之林的精神力量。习近平总书记在《坚定文化自信，建设社会主义文化强国》中强调 “文化自信，是更基础、更广泛、更深厚的自信，是更基本、更深沉、更持久的力量。”\[10(P1)中华优秀传统文化是当代中国人文化自信的力量源泉和坚实根基，在对外传**
**播时要始终坚定文化自信，在推动中华文明创造性转化、创新性发展中坚守中华优秀传统文化本源。非遗音乐文化具有浓郁的中华民族文化特色及艺术表征，在“一带一路”倡议下进行非遗音乐文化对外传播就要坚定文化自信，让中华优秀传统文化有效地走向沿线国家和地区，使其成为 “一带一路”民心相通的媒介。欧洲著名作曲家、钢琴家亚历山大·齐尔品在20世纪30年代便开始关注中国传统音乐，他强调“中国作曲家的作品越民族化则越具世界价值”，真正具有生命力的中国艺术音乐必须深深地植根于本土的文化。\[11\](P17-21A)因此，在带一路”倡议下进行非遗音乐文化对外传播就要坚定文化自信，坚持弘扬非遗音乐文化的民族性，在平等交流、相互借鉴的非遗音乐文化艺术交流活动中不断提升非遗音乐文化的影响力和感召力，更好地助力“一带一路”民心相通建设。比如，中共广西壮族自治区党委宣传部广西当代文学艺术创作工程三年规划(2022-2024年)首批扶持项目、广西艺术学院原创大型交响合唱音乐会《丝路远航》，由四个乐章14首歌曲组成，分为序《海上丝路》、第一乐章《启航新时代》、第二乐章《潮涌北部湾》、第三乐章《相挽十一国》、第四乐章 《共建新通道》和尾声《丝路远航》。序《海上丝路》 以混声合唱的形式拉开作品的大幕，让人回忆起古老而神奇的海上丝路。第一乐章《启航新时代》包含《启航·新时代》《复兴的海路》 《向往蔚蓝》3三首曲目，分别以男女声领唱、合唱以及混声合唱、男中音独唱的形式展现新时代“一带一路”的启航盛况。第二乐章《潮涌北部湾》向观众展现了“春风浩荡，春潮滚滚”的北部湾。第三乐章 《相挽十一国》充满了异域风情，东盟各国的特色乐器与交响乐队同台辉映，体现了“民族与东盟特色”相结合，给观众留下深刻的印象。第四乐章《共建新通道》唱出了壮乡儿女同心协力共建西部陆海新通道的决心和信念。尾声《丝路远航》动人的旋律、精巧的和声、激情的演唱，鼓舞着观众要牢记嘱托、勇担使命。这一传承创新的新作品深入挖掘广西和东南亚各民族音乐文化精髓，凸显“一带一路”倡议背景下中华文明与异域风情的**
**交流互鉴，从而获得了较好的文化对外传播效果。目前，在“一带一路”建设过程中，一批高品质的传统音乐作品得以创作并广泛传播，如民族歌剧《康定情歌》 (上海音乐学院)、《丝路追梦》(郝萌演唱、、《敦煌飞天》(薛雷演唱、 《一带一路》(乌兰娜演唱)等。这些传承创新的新作品对非遗音乐文化加以吸引、创新，从而使这些音乐作品更具传统美感和民族味道，在和沿线国家和地区不同类型音乐文化交流中各竟其芳、各放其彩。**
(二)精选非遗音乐文化对外传播内容
**“一带一路”倡议下推动非遗音乐文化对外传播，展示非遗音乐文化的独特魅力，是促进沿线国家和地区传统音乐文化交流互鉴的客观需求。随着沿线国家和地区普通民众接触非遗音乐文化的机会日益增多，对非遗音乐文化的感知日益加深，越来越多的人已经不再满足于对非遗音乐文化的浅层次认知，他们希望可以更加深入地认识和了解非遗音乐文化。但是，当前对外传播的非遗音乐文化产品仍然存在着“有数量缺质量、有高原缺 “高峰’”的的现象，不利于提高非遗音乐文化对外传播效果。\[12\](P144-147)因此， “一带一路”倡议下推进非遗音乐文化对外传播必须将内容建设放在首位，在坚持中国非遗音乐文化内涵和特点的基础上，吸收融合沿线国家和地区的非遗音乐文化元素，着力打造出更具时代感、民族感的优质精品工程，使对外传播内容契合沿线国家和地区人民的审美需求，才可以获得沿线国家和地区人民的认同和喜爱。**
**首先，精选非遗音乐文化对外传播内容。我国非遗音乐数量巨大，如果在对外传播时不加选择，不仅会耗时耗力，而且由于许多非遗音乐项目内容相似，很容易降低传播受众了解、欣赏和学习中国非遗音乐文化的兴趣。因此，我们应在熟知中国非遗音乐文化来龙去脉的基础上，立足沿线国家和地区民众的音乐审美需求，深入挖掘中国非遗音乐文化资源，选取那些兼具传统文化特色与现代审美理念的中国非遗音乐项目进行对外传播。例如，山歌类非遗音乐项目包括“木洞山歌” “西岭山歌' “崇明山歌' “九江山歌” “梅州客家山歌” “海门山**
歌”等。上述山歌类非遗音乐项目的介绍性文本内容具有很大的相似性，在对外传播时应精心选择最具代表性的非遗音乐项目进行译介，防止由于传播内容同质化而影响国外受众阅读或观赏的兴趣。
**其次，注重赋予非遗音乐文化时代价值。中国非遗音乐文化的传承体现了中华优秀传统文化的脉络。非遗音乐文化内涵并非是一成不变的，而是在发展演变中不断被赋予新的时代内涵。因此， “一带一路”倡议下广大文艺工作者必须深入挖掘非遗音乐文化内涵，并且加强理论研究和实践创新，从而创作出更多优秀的音乐作品，向丝路沿线国家和地区民众展现中国非遗音乐文化内涵和艺术魅力。比如，由著名音乐家谭盾创作的二胡协奏曲 《火祭》，这一传承创新的新作品将中国传统的祭祀音乐与宫廷音乐相结合，融入湘西傩戏元素，以音乐的形式表达对在王“抗疫”中牺牲的英雄的怀念。《火祭》中还有许多对中国美学和文化传统的挖掘传承。它以一个单音“Re”展开， “作为穿线，就像书法的一笔，引申出无限丰富的动机、和声复调与声音层次”。\[13(P16)这种在极简中衍生绚烂的构思，是中国的美学取向。另外，乐团被分别布置在二楼观众席和舞台上，前者站，后者坐，正像唐代乐伎中的立部与坐部。**
**最后，增加契合国际审美需求的音乐元素。开展非遗音乐文化对外传播时，要在坚持民族特质的基础上，吸收借鉴沿线国家和地区传统音乐文化元素，对中国非遗音乐文化进行现代艺术加工，创作出更多融通中外的音乐作品，更好地推进中国非遗音乐文化的对外传播。**
**(三)拓展非遗音乐文化对外传播途径**
**“一带一路”倡议背景下要推动非遗音乐文化对外传播行稳致远，就必须牢牢“把握国际传播领域移动化、社交化、可视化的趋势”，不断拓展非遗音乐文化对外传播途径\[14(P1-8)，向沿线国家和地区展现非遗音乐文化博大精深、绚烂多彩的艺术魅力，使沿线国家和地区的受众“听得懂、听得进、听得明白”，才可以不断提升非遗音乐文化对外传播效果。I15【(P113-114)**
首先，大力加强非遗音乐文化对外传播主体建设。政府、民间力量、个人都应成为非遗
**音乐文化对外传播的主体。政府部门应利用各种大型会议、峰会来传播中国非遗音乐文化，如2016中国杭州 G20 峰会“最忆是杭州”文艺演出，这次演出集合了《春江花月夜》《采茶舞曲》《高山流水》等优秀的传统音乐作品，从而扩大了中国非遗音乐文化的影响力。民间音乐社团、企业、音乐教育机构等民间力量在非遗音乐文化对外传播中扮演着重要角色，可以组织各种类型的非遗音乐文化艺术表演活动，促进中国非遗音乐文化对外传播。比如，俄罗斯华人艺术家协会主办“一带一路”友谊之夜国际音乐会暨第六届俄罗斯华人艺术家协会音乐美术展演，邀请了中国、俄罗斯、韩国、越南、罗马尼亚、蒙古国、哈萨克斯坦等“一带一路”沿线国家和地区的表演者共同参与，联袂奉献了一场别具特色的音乐盛宴。在自媒体时代，个人也可以成为中国非遗音乐文化对外传播的主体，借助 YouTube 等渠道实现跨境传播。比如，创下“YouTube 中文频道最多订阅量”吉尼斯世界纪录的李子柒，其短视频背景音乐多为洞箫、琵琶等中国传统乐器所奏曲目，为中国非遗音乐文化收获了大批异域他乡的热情拥歪。**
**其次，应努力借势新媒体，实现中国非遗音乐文化的活态传播。伴随着5G 和人工智能时代的到来，应积极发挥抖音、TikTok 和 YouTube等新媒体平台的技术优势，努力探索中国非遗音乐文化的“微”表达，构建全方位、多维度、宽领域的中国非遗音乐文化对外传播体系，提高中国非遗音乐文化对外传播的互动性、即时性和参与性。比如，2021年，一个中国小姑娘在世界各地街头弹奏古筝的视频在 TikTok 上刷屏了。画面中，她一身古风扮相，自信优雅地演奏古筝，吸引不少路人驻足欣赏。视频被分享到 TikTok 后， 被世界各地的网友争相转发，感慨中国民族音乐原来这么好听。**
**最后，依托对外传播效果分析开展个性化、差异化的推送。在中国非遗音乐文化对外传播的过程中，传播主体应依托大数据技术对国外传播受众数据进行统计分析，尝试根据用户的特征开展个性化、差异化的精准传播。同时，还可以将传播受众行为和兴趣反馈给相关专家学者，持续追踪调研非遗音乐文化对外传播，**
**在此基础上不断优化非遗音乐文化对外传播的内容与策略，不断提升非遗音乐文化对外传播效果。**
**(四)构建非遗音乐文化对外交流机制**
**“文明因多样而交流，因交流而互鉴，因互鉴而发展。”\[16\](P1-12)回顾历史，中华优秀传统文化通过“古代丝绸之路”和其他文化进行交流互鉴，进而使“古代丝绸之路”成为人类历史上文明交流、互鉴、共存的典范。当下，通过音乐文化交流，可以助力“民心互通”，为“一带一路”建设注入不竭动力。具体而言，可以采取以下措施来推进中国非遗音乐文化对外交流：**
**第一，加强非遗音乐文化学术交流。中国非遗音乐文化对外传播需要理论支撑，这就要求相关部门和文艺工作者要重视加强和沿线国家和地区开展非遗音乐文化交流，在学术交流中多层次、多角度地展现非遗音乐文化精髓。一方面，继续做好“请进来”，通过举办音乐学术研讨会等方式邀请沿线国家和地区的音乐工作者、专家学者来中国进行学术研讨、课题研究、课程观摩，在学术交流中增强文化互信。另一方面，继续坚持“走出去”，加强与沿线国家和地区汉学家、海外出版机构的合作，推动中国非遗音乐文化出版物的国际推广与传播，从而将中国非遗音乐文化作品宣传推介出去。例如，2021年11月15~17日，“一带一路”国际筝乐学术交流季论坛及研讨会在线上举办。来自中国音乐学院、中央音乐学院、上海音乐学院等音乐院校，中国艺术研究院、北京师范大学、天津茱莉亚学院等高校，人民音乐出版社、上海民族乐器一厂有限公司等单位，以及日本、韩国、越南、蒙古国、新加坡、加拿大、美国等国家和地区的演奏家、作曲家、音乐学家，共20余位音乐界专家参与了本场论坛。本次筝乐学术交流季以学术交流为宗旨，以学术研讨为内容，向世界展示中国筝乐理论研究的丰硕成果，展现中国筝乐文化的无穷魅力。**
**第二，开展非遗音乐文化交流演出活动。文化，因交流而精彩，因互鉴而丰富。相关部门、音乐高等院校、音乐协会可以积极举办或者参加“一带一路”非遗音乐文化交流会、展演、比赛，从而助力非遗音乐文化对外传播。比如，由澳门特别行政区政府教育暨青年局主办的2019“一带一路·乐韵传城”国际青年音乐节于7月17日在澳门拉开帷幕，邀请了来自“一带一路”沿线及周边国家和地区的音乐团体，分别献上故乡最具特色的民族音乐，传递友谊合作、文化共融、世界大同的精神。**
**第三，建立非遗音乐人才培养交流机制。随着“一带一路”非遗音乐文化对外传播交流的日益频繁，对非遗音乐人才的要求也越来越高。一方面，应着力创新传统音乐人才培养机制，培养更多民族音乐国际化表演人才，以助力非遗音乐文化对外传播。另一方面，应加强音乐人才国际共建培养，应积极和沿国家和地区高等院校合作，多方协作共同培养高素质音乐人才，使之成为非遗音乐文化交流活动的主体力量。比如，2021“一带一路”音乐教育联盟国际交流活动在中央音乐学院成功举办。此次研讨会就如何加强国际化音乐表演人才培养进行了深入探讨，分别介绍了本国民族音乐的国际化表演人才培养模式与实践推广的现状，分享了课程设置、学科建设、考核评定、能力培养等多方面的内容。**
**综上所述，我国音乐非物质遗产资源丰富，饱含着深厚的中华优秀传统文化底蕴，是当代中国最深厚的文化软实力之一，具有十分重要的对外传播价值。 “一带一路”倡议的实施，为我国非遗音乐文化对外传播提供了新平台与新机遇。我们在非遗音乐文化对外传播过程中应坚持和弘扬非遗音乐文化的民族性、精选非遗音乐文化对外传播内容、拓展非遗音乐文化对外传播途径、构建非遗音乐文化对外交流机制，在助力“一带一路”民心相通建设的同时提升我国非遗音乐文化的国际影响力。**
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**\[责任编辑：褚夫敏\]**
**Research on the External Communication of Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage of Music Culture under the Background of The Belt and Road Initiative**
**KE Xiaodong**
**(School of Music ， Putian University， Putian 351100， China)**
**Abstract： In the context of The Belt and Road Initiative ， promoting the external communication of Chinese intangible heritage of music culture is conducive to its inheritance and development and it ， additionally ， helps to promote cultural exchanges a-hong countries and regions along the line， and realize people-to-people communication among these countries and regions. We should strengthen the transmission of intangible heritage of music culture with national characteristics， select the content of the external communication for intangible heritage of music culture， expand the external communication channels for intangible heritage of music culture， and build an external communication mechanism for intangible heritage of music culture ， which al-low overseas audiences to " love to listen and resonate with the music"， therefore ， helping construct the communication chan-nels among peoples along The Belt and Road countries while enhancing the international influence of intangible heritage of mu-sic culture.**
**Key words： The Belt and Road Initiative；intangible heritage of music culture；external communication** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **2009研究生教育国际论坛(上海)在沪召开**
**2009年11月8~10日，由上海市研究生教育学会、学位与研究生教育杂志社与上海大学联合举办的“2009研究生教育国际论坛(上海)”在上海大学隆重召开。来自国内外70多家研究生教育机构、高等学校、科研院所的领导和代表140多人出席了会议。本次论坛主要围绕研究生教育质量保障与评估体系、学术规范与学风建设、全球化背景下研究生教育的国际合作与交流这三个中心议题，特邀教育部、国外相关组织机构和国内研究生培养单位的专家学者，从国家层面对为什么要进行评估、评估标准、评估主体、评估要素，如何从制度上进行学术规范、加强学风建设，如何切实做好研究生教育国际合作与交流工作等作主题报告，与会代表也针对这些问题进行了深入的交流与探讨。**
**上海市研究生教育学会理事长、上海大学常务副校长周哲玮致辞**
**上海市教委高教处处长、学位委员会办公室主任田蔚风致辞**
**上海市研究生教育学会秘书长、上海大学研究生部主任郭长刚主持会议**
**教育部高教评估中心副主任王战军作题为“中国研究生教育质量保障与评估”的主题报告**
**美国研究生院理事会学风建设部主任丹尼尔·戴克作题为The US Project for Scholarly Integrity： the Role of Strategio Leaders in Advancing An Insti-tutional Approach to Research Eth-ics and Scholarly Integrity"的主题报告**
**教育部学风建设委员会秘书长秦惠民作有关学风建设与学术诚信制度建设的主题报告**
**澳大利亚阿德莱德大学副校长**
**理查德·罗素作题为“University Leadership and Ethics"的主题报告**
**上海市研究生教育学会副理事长，上海大学副校长叶志明作关于研究生**
**教育质量与评估的大会交流报告**
**上海市研究生教育学会副理事长、华东师范大学副校长陈群，清华大学研究生院副院长高虹作关于全球化背景下研究生教育的国际合作的大会交流报告**
**南澳大学管理学院诚信与管理研究项目组召集人、前澳大利亚职业与应用伦理协会主席霍华德·哈里斯作题为“Developing and Assessing Personal Integrity in Post-graduate Research的主题报告**
**南昆士兰大学科研与研究生部主任.亚澳科研管理协会当选主席任轶作题为Institutional Approach to Scholarly Integrity： University Leadership in Ad-vancing Integrity"的主题报告**
**学位与研究生教育杂志社社长周文辉作会议总结** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **公司资本结构的证券设计理论综述**
母泽洪 周 剑
**内容提要：企业资本结构问题可以看作是最优金融合约设计和发行问题，在不完善的市场中，企业会设计并发行很不相同的证券，从而导致不同的企业资本结构。基于导致市场不完善的原因不同，关于这个主题的研究可以分为三条思路：一是存在证券交易成本条件下的证券设计；二是存在金融中介条件下的证券设计；三是存在信息成本条件下的证券设计。**
**关键词：资本结构 证券 设计**
**现代公司理论把企业看作是不同经济主体之间的一系列合约，特别是管理者与投资者之间的合约。不同主体间存在着利益冲突，债券和股票等合约的设计和发行都反映着处理这些利益冲突的最优化手段。而债券、股票等金融工具的不同组合正是企业的资本结构，因此，企业资本结构问题也可以看作是最优金融合约设计和发行问题。传统的金融理论认为拥有不同种类证券的重要好处之一是，可以让风险偏好不同的投资人承受他们理想中的风险程度。这就引发一个问题，即当风险分祖而不是控制权成为重要问题时，该如何设计证券。莫迪利安尼和米勒认为市场完善条件下资本结构是不相关的，这个结论意味着在该条件下，证券的形式是无关的。一旦引入不完善的市场，证券的设计对于均衡的实现就很关键了。**
**一、证券交易成本与证券设计**
**要建立一个风险分担条件下的最优公司资本结构理论，市场就必须是不完全的。市场不完全的一个可能原因是交易成本。Ailen &. Gale (1988，1991>、Bisin(1993)等人首先开创了这类模型。**
**Allen &. Gale (1988)设计了一个充分竞争的对称信息模型，该模型中不同的投资群体有不同的风险厌恶水平，并且存在证券的交易成本。分析显**
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**inspiration and resources"， Journal of Business Venturing22：566一591.**
**Veciana， Aponte &. Urbano(2005)， "University students' at-tjtude towards entrepreneurship： A two countries compari-son"， InternationalEntrepreneurship andManagement**
**示，要得到均衡解，必须对短期销售加以限制。因为一个企业如果要发行更多种类的证券，多发行证券的收益就必须补偿多发行证券的交易成本，这样，该企业就比一家类似的但发行证券较少的企业价值大。如果无成本的短期销售是可能的，就存在套利机会。在多证券企业中短期投资，在少证券企业中长期投资，就能够得到一个与交易成本差异相等的收益。因此，要达到均衡，必须限制短期销售。这个限制意味着不同投资者在边际上对证券的估价是不一样的，证券价格取决于最高的估价者。再考虑到其他因素，分析显示均衡是约束性有效的。而且，债券与股票并不是最优的。最优证券是一种极端状态，即企业将所有回报都置于一种或另一种证券之上。这使得投资者能够最有效地利用证券以构筑组合来稳定消费水平。**
**这一研究主题近年来得到进一步深化，Paolo Fulghieri &. Dmitry Lukin(2001)研究了不对称信息条件下企业为项目融资而发行证券的问题。在他们的模型中，企业实施一项需要固定数额投资的项目，该项目的价值依赖于企业质量，而企业质量是内部人的私人信息，企业可以选择发行对私人信息高度敏感的证券，也可以选择发行对私人信息不太敏感的证券。证券将销售给两类投资者：一是缺乏企业质量信息的外部投资者，二是可以获取企业质量**
**Journal 1：165一182.**
**(作者单位：中国人事科学研究院**
**北京师范大学经济与工商管理学院)**
**信息的投资者。第二类是“专业化投资者”，通过支付一定的成本，可以生产出关于企业质量的信息。做市商根据对企业证券的总需求来促成市场出清。从这个基础模型出发，他们发现，获取信息的成本越低，企业越愿意发行股票。当获取信息的成本过高时，企业会选择发行债券。将基础模型进一步扩展，他们发现当外部投资者能得到企业质量的信息时，均衡时信息不对称的程度是内生性的，并且依赖于所发行证券的信息敏感度。因此，与传统的融资次序理论得出的结论不同，对私人信息敏感度低的证券，比如债券，并不必然比信息敏感度高的证券优越。企业是否偏好股权融资更胜于债权融资取决于信息生产成本、信息生产技术的精密度以及信息不对称程度。**
**与企业相关的人员具有不同的企业信息，这一点对证券设计和发行具有重要含义。Chemmanur&. Liu(2011)建立了一个模型，把企业分成两个部分，内部人具有企业价值的私人信息，并处于一个机构投资者和散户并存的股票市场。企业政策变化提升了机构投资者的信息优势，优势提升最大的是关于股票分割的政策，其次是股权转让，再次是股票发行。在模型设定的环境下达到均衡时，企业重组增强了机构投资者的信息生产行为，并且具有最佳私人信息的内部人会选择实施股票分拆行为，具有次佳私人信息的人会选择股权转让，拥有更少合适信息的人则会寻求股票发行，而那些没有合适的私人信息的人则倾向于保持原有的企业资本结构。这项研究证明内部人的信息优势确实会影响企业证券设计的形式。**
**二、企业经营特征与证券设计**
**企业经营的特征包括管理特征、所在产业特征、所在的市场竞争特征、规模特征等等，这些特征无疑也会造成企业设计和发行证券的差异。Karl Schmedders(2001)分析了具有转移成本的不完全金融市场中，一个追求福利最大化的做市商如何引致内生性的资产创新。研究采用了两个步骤的证券创新模型，首先，建立了一个有三种证券且存在交易成本的两时期金融市场均衡模型：然后引入一个市场垄断者，该垄断者有技术引人一个新的股指或股票期权，并且有权利在期权交易时收取一定比例的转让费，做市商的目的是选择行权价和交易费以最大化公开交易的福利。在这个框架中，Karl Schmedders 分析了引人一个新期权的效应，利用计**
**算机模拟技术，检验了两个证券交易的动机，一是风险分担动机；二是风险变化时的再平衡动机。计算机模拟最令人吃惊的一个结果是，引人一个福利最大化的期权总是会导致原有证券价格下降。**
**企业的未来发展空间和不确定性也是企业融资时考虑的一个因素。 Nash， Netter & Poulsen(2003)关注的是企业的投资机会如何影响金融合约的设计。研究发现，对于高成长企业，在金融市场保持灵活性比降低融资成本更重要，他们认为，投资机会较多的企业由于未来经营不确定性高，不愿意放弃灵活性。通过对763项债券融资案例的实证分析，作者还研究了股权合约与债权合约的决定因素，结果表明，一旦高成长企业决定发行债券，它们很可能会设计条款以保护利息发放和发债的灵活性。限制性的付息条款很少在这些企业的金融合约中出现。**
**企业的技术特征及其他特性也可以在融资过程中显露出来。Douglas J. Cumming(2005)做了一项基于企业特征的资本结构实证研究，使用了3083家加拿大企业的数据，研究发现，普通股融资占36.33%，其次是债券，占14.99%，可转债占12.36%；多数企业使用股票或债券，较少用可转债或混合融资工具，但是高技术企业偏好可转让股权的融资工具。研究结果清楚显示，对金融工具的使用与企业经营性质和背景相关。Douglas J. Cumming 特别讨论了两个重要发现：一是没有发现任何一种证券模式是最优的，面此前有学者认为可转换证券比债券和普通股有优势。二是实证研究表明，企业的性质与企业选择的证券形式之间存在关联。**
**比较特别的一个研究视角是企业参与证券融资市场的动机。有些企业会在金融市场套利，而有些企业不会，为了研究套利活动是否是一项对企业价值增加有利的行为， Nelson， Moffitt &. Graves(2005)调查了美国企业使用金融衍生品的行为，他们分析了5700家美国企业的相关数据，主要发现了两个问题：第一，在所有样本企业中，从事过套利活动的占21.6%，这些企业主要是大企业，并且企业所在产业不同，所涉及到的衍生品也不一样；第二，在套利回报方面，主要从事货币衍生品活动的企业回报较高，而商品和利率衍生品的套利活动并没有给企业带来明显回报，对这个现象并没有明显地得到统计支持的解释。 Larry Fauver & Andy Naran-jo(2010)也关注金融衍生证券的使用是否会提升企业价值。他们收集了 1746家美国非金融企业从**
**1991到2000年之间的衍生品使用数据，还收集并设计了一些实证分析需要的企业融资和管理指标，比如代理成本、公司治理以及信息不对称变量等。研究发现代理成本较大和存在操纵问题的企业在托宾Q值与衍生品使用之间具有反向关系，这意味着在这些企业中，衍生品的使用降低了企业价值。**
**关于企业规模特征的影响， Huyghebaert &Hulle(2006)分析了95项首次公开上市案例，发现新企业和小企业倾向于发行普通股票融资，而已经建立的老企业倾向于发行次级证券进行融资，这些行为的差异与企业的经营性质并没有统计上的关联。研究还发现企业公开发行证券存在不同动机，对成本与收益的变动企业会有不一样的评价，这些因素也会对企业公开发行证券产生影响。**
**研究人员发现税收问题也是证券设计中的一个要素。 Lewis &. Verwijmeren(2011)研究了可转换证券的设计。他们分析了814家企业在2000年至2007年之间可转换证券的发行行为，研究发现，企业通过固定收益要求以减少公司收人税，从而降低再融资成本，并减少管理的自由裁量权成本。这个结果显示，企业在最可能获得额外税收收益的条件下，倾向于使用可转换债务融资，这种选择可以最大化股东价值。**
**另一个特殊问题是企业的收益操纵行为。Mi-glo(2010)认为企业面临双重道德风险，一方面在于产品的选择，另一方面在于收益操纵。由于企业运营者不能完全得到自身努力的成果，因此投资额低于社会最优水平，生产努力水平也低于社会效率要求的水平。当生产失败时，收益操纵给企业管理者应对低收益风险提供了机会，反过来，这也刺激企业增加投资和提升努力水平。所以，收益操纵在一定程度上是证券最优设计必须考虑的问题。**
**三、信息成本与证券设计**
**关于证券设计理论研究的第三个方向是直接以信息成本为基础，强调在证券设计过程中，信息不对称等因素导致的风险分担问题。 Bisin & Gottardi(1999)研究了在信息不对称的条件下，标准的、非排他性的金融产品市场中的竞争性均衡。在信息不对称的情况下，一个标准金融合约的收益依赖于交易市场的特征，因此，当同样一种金融合约被不同的交易者带入市场时，实际上已经变成另一种合约了。但是，如果交易者的特征只能被个人观察到，金融合约的差异将不会被市场识别，从而两种合约会在一**
**个市场中交易。他们认为，由于市场不完善，投资者持有单一证券的风险无法在市场上对冲掉，市场上必须有一类“组合证券”产品以达到市场出清。**
**信息不对称会引发一些特殊问题，Fulghieri&Lukin(2001)注意到了稀释成本。他们研究了一家企业在不对称信息市场中发行证券为某项目融资的问题。这个模型与其他人的研究有几个重要的不同：首先，企业不是把项目整体出售，而只是出售一部分，因此，就产生了稀释成本的问题，这意味着企业发行高信息敏感度证券或低信息敏感度证券的选择取决于一些严格的参数设置。Fulghieri &. Lukin(2001)的主要研究结论是，如果外部投资者可以产生关于企业质量的信息，则均衡状态的信息不对称程度是内生的，并且依赖于信息对证券的敏感度。因此，对私人信息敏感度低的证券，比如债券，并不总是胜过信息敏感度高的证券，如股票。与债券融资相比，企业是否更偏好股票融资，取决于信息生产的成本、信息生产技术的精细化程度以及信息不对称的程度。最优证券设计也取决于信息生产的技术及其成本。**
**Qiang Kang & Qiao Liu(2008)考虑了证券交易中的信息生产和管理者补偿问题，他们的模型把管理者激励与市场微观结构联系起来，验证股价信息化是否与业绩一回报具有相关性，模型设计了五种指标以表征股价的信息化程度，研究结果表明，股价的信息化有助于强化管理者的业绩一回报联系，这个结果意味着可以在更广泛的意义上考虑根据业绩对管理者进行激励。除了披露的程度问题，股价信息化也可以被解读为投资者对管理者的业绩一薪酬机制的意见通过交易行为融入到了股价变动中。尽管这项研究的结果与样本选择、模型参数及计量方法都有关系，但该研究的意义在于把证券价格包含的信息与管理者激励联系了起来。**
**资本市场的信息直接影响企业的证券发行行为，Romain Bouis(2009)研究了企业发行证券的短期时机利用行为。该研究使用了5639家美国企业从 1986 到2007年间的数据，分析结果显示，整体市场状况对纳斯达克的企业注册持久性有明显的影响，当股指水平较高、市场波动弱时，申请首次公开上市的企业更有可能在第二周就上市，当市场波动很强时，企业往往会撤回上市申请。市场不确定性导致的企业注册时间延长对企业来说是成本高昂的，并且向市场传递了一个负面信号，这个成本并没有得到有效降低是令人吃惊的。**
**许多文献研究管理者信息如何传播到资本市场，而 Jos van Bommel(2002)研究的是另一个信息传播方向，即金融市场向管理者的信息传播问题。论文建立了一个模型，该模型中，事前的证券低价发行引致了信息生产，而事后的发行利润是最佳投资水平的信息指引。这一市场反馈模型得出了四个重要观点：第一，对企业最初的竞争定价帮助管理者做出投资决策，市场价比预期价格高，管理者将增加投资，否则，会减少投资；第二，为了激励更好的事后反馈，事前发行证券时会故意定低价；第三，如果定价过低，将吸引过多的不具有信息价值的投资者进入，从而挤出部分具有信息价值的投资者，即使如此，低定价至少有助于发行成功；第四，如果信息成本比较高，则发行利润会减少，低定价的益处也将减少。**
**为了充分揭示和利用真实信息，证券设计有时候会利用一些特殊条款，比如企业的退出权。Bus-aba(2006)建立了一个模型分析证券发行时企业拥有退出权的影响。退出权利的存在影响了证券销售过程中企业的信息披露行为。这种退出权是对投资者的一个潜在威胁，使得企业可以用更少的折扣发行证券，模型还推导了两个新发现，第一，发现投资者出价之后可以退出的权利，使得企业在利用发行机制时就得到了额外的优势；第二，未来不确定的加大给投资者出价增加了压力。通过附加退出权利，企业在证券发行时机方面有了更大的选择余地。**
**随着各种金融工具的层出不穷，企业融资的手段日新月异，企业资本结构的复杂性不断增强，从证券设计的视角研究企业的资本结构还有很多工作要做，特别是由于数据的收集难度很大，在这一领域实证研究还相对较少。**
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**(作者单位：贵州财经学院**
**上海海洋大学经济管理学院)**
**(责任编辑：香伶)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 论空间权的基本内涵及我国《物权法》的立法选择泽
沈岐红
{福建师范大学法学院，福建福州350007)
\[摘要\]随着社会经济的发展和人类建筑技术的进步，土地日益成为稀缺资源，以立体的方式利用土地成为工业革命后世界各国土地利用的普遍趋势。随着生活中对空间开发和利用的渐趋频繁，在有些国家的法律中就出现了一些有关空间权的规范。空间权的客体是空间，它在一定的条件下可以单独存在。空间权包括空间所有权和空间利用权。空间利用权在性质上属于用益物权，但它并不是一种独立的用益物权。空间权的性质决定了我国空间立法的模式，2007年3月16号通过的《中华人民共和国物权法》中，仅用了一个条文进行规范。尽管我国《物权法》未明确提出“空间权”这一概念，并且对空间权也规定的较为简略，但是它确立了对空间的分层利用，承认了空间权的存在，开了中国空间立法的先河，具有十分重大的历史意义。
\[关键词\]空间权；空间；空间利用权；《物权法》
\[中图分类号\]D923.2 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1672-0598(2008)03-0101-06
土地在人们的观念上可以被区分为地下、地表和地中三个部分。在工业革命以前，人们对于土地的利用一般以水平利用为主。在工业革命以后，由于人类社会生产力的极大发展及人口的日益密集，使得土地资源的稀缺性越来越明显。土地资源的有限与人类建筑技术的进步，使人们对于土地的利用扩展到土地的地下和空中，开始了对土地的立体利用，比如现代城市中越来越多的地下商场、地铁、过街天桥等都是对土地地下及空中的利用。由于这种对土地利用的方式与传统对土地地表的利用不尽相同，地下及空中的这部分空间已不仅仅是地表的“附属”，而是有了相对独立的经济价值。随着人们对空间利用的日趋广泛以及学者研究的深人，空间作为权利的一种客体逐渐为一些国家的立法和判例所确认，空间权应运而生。
一、空间权的概念与构成体系
(一)空间权的概念
关于空间权的概念，学者们从不同的角度分别对其做出了阐释，归纳起来，大致有以下几种观点：
1.从空间权客体的角度来定义空间权。空间
权系指以土地地表之上的空中或地表之下的地中的一定范围为客体而成立的不动产权。这种观点从权利的客体的角度将空间权定义为对空中一定范围的权利及地中一定范围的权利。也有学者着重从空中权方面进行表述，认为空中权指将土地在一定高度予以水平性分割，规定其上下范围，而以该一定范围为客体所成立的不动产权。12：
2.从利用的角度来定义空间权。有的学者认为空间权是对地表的上面或下面横切区分空间水平断层的所有与利用的权利。在他们看来，对土地的利用调整的法律大致可以分为两类：一类是“土地法”，即调整对土地之地表上下垂直性所有与利用；另一类是“空间法”，即调整对地表的上面或下面横切区分空间水平断层的所有与利用。
3.从权利范围的角度来定义空间权。有的学者认为，空间权是“指在空中或地中横切一断层而享有的权利，亦或对土地地表上下一定范围内的空间的权利”41。也有学者认为空间权是指“土地地表之上的一定范围或之下的一定范围为客体而成立的一种不动产权利”5。这类学者虽然对空间
\*\[收稿日期\]2008-03-26
\[作者简介\]沈岐红(1983-)，男，河南固始人，福建师范大学法学院，研究生，主要研究方向：物权法。
权的概念的表述有所差别，但都是从空间的范围这一角度来定义空间权，强调空间的独立性。
以上三种定义均从不同的角度米定义空间权，都基本揭示了空间权的基本特征，表述虽千差万别，但并无实质不同。综合以上定义之所长，笔者认为空间权是“权利人对离开地表的空中或地表以下的地中横切断层所形成的一定范围所享有的权利”。
(二)空间权的构成体系
空间权的构成体系，是指空间权是由哪些权利构成。--般认为，空间权分为物权性空间权和债权性空间权。其中，物权性空间权又可分为空间所有权和空间利用权，债权性空间权可分为空问租赁权和空间借贷权。i6债权性空间权是由当事人通过订立合同同的方式来确立双方的权利义务，由于其受债权的保护方式的弊端之所限，于实践中所用较少，因此本文不作展开论述，下面着重介绍物质性空间权。
1.空间所有权
空间所有权是指所有人对离开地表的空中或地中横切一个断层的空问所享有的所有权，近代以来，传统的所有权绝对观念逐渐发生改变.十地所有权也受到“禁止权利滥用，无害通过”等原则的限制。这种限制，并不是剥夺土地所有人的所有权，而是为了保护公共利益的需要。除了这些限制，上地所有权人是自由的，其对土地之上的空中和土地之下的地中享有所有权。
我国《宪法》第10条规定“城市的土地属于国家所有。农村和城市郊区的土地，除由法律规定属于国家所有的以外，属于集体所有；宅基地和自留地、自留山，也属于集体所有”：同时，2007年3月16日通过的《物权法》第47条也规定“城市的七地，属于国家所有，法律规定属于国家所有的农村和城市郊区的土地，属于国家所有”可见，在我国，土地的所有权要么属于国家，要么属于集体。尽管我国立法未明确规定土地所有权的空间范围，但依据上文所分析，上地所有权人除其受到的限制以外，对土地所享有的所有权是完全的，及于土地之上的空中和土地之下的地中。所以，在我国，国有土地地表上下范围的空间应由国家所有，集体所有的土地地表上下范围空间应当归集体所有：
2.空间利用权
空间利用权是指权利人对离开地表的空中或地中横切一个断层的空间所享有的占有、使用、收益和-定范围内处分的权利。空间利用权按其权利主体的不同可分为土地所有权人的空间利用权和上地他物权人的空间利用权。在我国，由于土地归国家所有或集体所有，上地所有权的主体呈现出单..性，因此研究土地所有权人的空间利用权在实际上并无太大意义，相反的，在我国社会生活中出现最多的是上地他物权人的空间利用权。实践中，学者所称的“空间利用权”专指上地他物权人对一定范围内的空间所享有的权利，本文亦如此。
空间利用权依其权利类型的不同可分为空间地上权和空间役权。空间地上权是指以在他人土地的空中或地下有建筑物或其他工作物为目的而使用其空间的权利。【8空间地上权一经设立，权利人即可以有建筑物或其他工作物为目的而加以利用，实现其权利。空间役权是指以他人特定的空间供自己上地或空间便利之用的权利。在空间役权中，“供役地”为空间，“需役地”为空间或上地，这与传统物权法中的地役权稍有不同。在传统的地役权中，供役地和需役地都是上地。
二、空间权的客体及其内容
(一)空间权的客体
如前文所分析，空间权在性质上为用益物权，属于物权的一个下位的概念。在物权法律关系中，物是物权的客体。传统民法上的物指的是具有一定形体，占有一定空间，能为主体实际支配和利用的，具有一定经济价值的物质财富。离开地表的空中或地表以下的的地中横切断层所形成的一定范围内的空间，它可以被特定化，独立为权利主体所支配和利用，所以空间权的客体是空间。
将空间视为空间权的客体，是建立在对物作扩张性解释的基础上的。即将那些能够特定化，可以为主体所支配和利用的具有经济价值物质财富视为物权的客体，而空间权就是权利人对一定范围的空间的支配和利用。这个一定范围的空间应当如何界定?毫无疑问，它应该是独立于土地地表及其合理范围内的空间之外的空间。地表与其上下的空间在客观上是联系在一起的，土地的使用范围不应只包括地表，而且还应包括地表上下的合理范围内的空间。一般认为，这个“合理范围”应当依据土地的用途来确定。将土地用于种植、养殖等农用
的，土地使用权人所享有的空间范围应当包括地面之上所种植的植物生长及饲养的动物活动所需的一切必要的空间和地面之下植物根系生长、动物拱地打穴等所需的一切必要空间；将土地用于建筑物及搭建工作物的，土地使用权人享有的空间使用范围应当是法律允许的建筑物或工作物的高度和深度以及建筑工程所需的地下空间及建筑物采光透风等所需的必要空间。以上所分析的农地使用权及建设用地使用权所需的合理空间范围之外的空间范围就是作为空间权客体的空间。
(二)空间权的内容
根据前文对空间权的定义，空间权是一组权利的集合，它包括空间所有权和空间利用权。对空间权内容的研究就包括对空间所有权内容的探讨和对空间利用权内容的探讨。空间所有权因其主体的单一性在实践中对其内容进行探讨的意义不大，因此笔者着重探讨一下空间利用权的内容。基于空间利用权的用益物权性质，空间利用权的内容主要是对空间的占有、使用、收益和一定范围内的处分。具体而言，主要包括以下儿个方面的内容：
1.占有并使用一定范围的空间
空间利用权人可以按法律规定或按合同约定占有并使用一定范围的空间。空间利用权人所占有使用的空间必须是其所能独立支配的一定范围的空间。因为空间权的客体具有其本身的特殊性，它必须得经过法律认可的方式来使其特定化，否则权利人在行使权利的过程中容易对他人的空间权构成伤害。因此，空间利用权人应当按规定办理登记手续，领取空间使用权证书，对证书所记载的特定范围内的空间进行占有使用。
2.取得对空间的收益
空间利用权人享有按规定用途使用一定范围空间的同时，对在使用过程中所产生的收益享有权利，这种收益正是空间利用权广泛发展的应有之意。
3.一定范围内的权利处分权
空间利用权人可以依法对自己所有的权力进井行处分。空间利用权人可以将空间利用权转让给他人，也可以用其设定担保。在权利人对空间进行处分时，一定要进行登记，否则不产生效力。
4.基于空间利用权的物上请求权
空间利用权是一项独立的用益物权，因此权利
人亨有对抗土地所有权人及第三人的权利。在空间利用权人的权利的圆满状态受到妨害时，可依妨碍的形态的不同而行使基于空间利用权的物权请求权，有权排除切对其行使权利的不法妨害及其他方式的侵害，并对因此造成的损害享有赔偿请求权。
三、空间权的性质与空间立法
(一)空间权的性质
空间权是权利人对离开地表的空中或地表以下的地中横切断层所形成的一定范围所享有的权利，空间权附属于土地之上，其性质因土地权利主体的不同而应区别开来。依前文分析，空间权由空间所有权与空间利用权所构成。当空间权由土地所有者享有时，由于土地所有权的范围包括了对地下、地表和空中的所有权，而在我国土地归国家域集体所有，空间所有权并未独立于土地所有权之外，所以空间所有权被包含于土地所有权之中。当空间权为土地非所有人享有时，权利人对空间的权利就表现为对他人所有的地表之上空中或地表之下的地中横切断层所形成的一定范围空间的支配和利用，这就是空间利用权的情形。因此，在考察空间权的性质时，多在前述后一种情况下进行探讨。笔者认为，当空间权为土地非所有权人享有时，空间权的性质为用益物权。
用益物权是指对他人的物，在一定范围内加以使用、收益的定限物权，具有受限制性、独立性，其客体主要是不动产。结合空间权的定义，我们知道，空间权的客体可以特定，可以为权利人所占有、支配和利用，具有用意物权的全部特征。我国大部分学者都认同空间权是用益物权，但对于空间权是否为一项独立的用益物权，认识上存在较大争议。在学术界目前的讨论中，存在着“肯定说”和“否定说”两种见解。持“否定说”的学者以梁慧星及其所主持的物权法课题组为代表，他们认为，“空间权并不是物权法体系中一个新的物权种类，而是对在一定空间上所设定的各种物权的综合表述”【因此梁慧星教授在其《物权法草案建议稿》中根据空间利用目的的不同，将空间权分解为不同的权利类型加以规定。持“肯定说”的学者以王利明及其所主持的课题组为代表，他们认为，“由于空间利用权可以基于土地所有权人、使用权人的意志而在特殊情况下与土地所有权和使用权发生分离，且可以通过登记予以公示，因而空间利用权可以成为一
项独立的物权”112基于此种认识，王利明教授在其所主持的《物权法草案建议稿》中讲“空间利用权”单独列为一节，作为一项独立的用益物权加以规定。
笔者认为，空间权可以单独设立，但它并不是一项独立的用益物权，它是对一定空间上所设定的各种空间权利类型的抽象概括，与传统理论土地上所设立的各种权利并无本质的不同。笔者主张空间权可以单独设立，首先是因为空间权可以在没有其他定限物权存在的情况下单独设立，如土地所有权人可以单独将自己土地地表之下的地中转移给他人修建地下停车场；其次，空间权也可以在有定限物权存在的情况下设立，如建设用地使用权人可以将自己有使用权的土地地表之下定范围的空间转移给他人建地下商场。但是，空间权可以单独设立并不意味着空间权是一项独立权利类型。空间权是随着社会的发展和建筑技术的进步而从土地所有权之中分离出来的一种权利类型，空间权人在他人所有的土地上一定范围的空中或地下空间有建筑物或其他工作物为日的而行使占有、使用和收益等多项全能，这与传统物权意义上的地上权并无本质的不同。可见，空间权尽管可以单独设立，但在性质上并不是一项单独的用益物权，它只能附属于用益物权的其他类型。
(二)有关空间权的立法模式
随着人们对空间利用的日益频繁，有关空间权的立法也就变得日趋重要，有些国家的法律中已经出现了有关空间权的规范，归纳起来，当今世界主要存在着以下几种有关空间权的立法模式：
1.单独制定空间权法的立法模式
采用这一立法模式的代表国家是美国。美国是较早关注空间立法的国家，尽管美国由于其判例法传统而先以判例的形式来确立空间权制度，但由于其在不动产财产制度上继受了罗马法，坚持“所有土地的人，即所有空中地中”的法则，并依照该原则来推动空间的立法。美国关于空间权的第一部法律是1927年伊利诺伊州制定的《关于铁道上空空间让与租赁的法律》，此后，其他各州承认空间权的类似立法也陆续出台。20世纪70年代，美国各州倡议使用“空间法”这一名词来制定各自的空间权法律制度。1973年俄克拉何马州制定的《俄克拉何马州空间法》( Oklahoma Air space Act)
被认为是对以前关于空间权法律问题的判例与学说的基本总结，它开创了空间立法的单行法模式、
2.在民法典用益物权的相关章节中规定空间权的模式
采用这一立法例的有德国、瑞士、本、荷兰等大陆法系国家。在1896年的《德国民法典》中，空间权制度与地上权制度是合二为一的，并没有对普通地上权与空间地上权进行区分。为适应时代的发展，德国于1919年颁布了《地上权条例》，规定地上权是指以在他人土地表面、上空及地下拥有工作物为月的，而使用他人土地及空间的权利。德国当代民法中将空间权也称之为“次地上权”，意即以普通地上权为本权而再次设立的地上权。 “次地上权”的提出，为土地上下空间脱离地表而独立成为民法物权的客体提供了新的法律手段。3《瑞士民法典》中是将空间权当作地役权来处理，该法第675条规定“在他人工地的地面上下以挖掘、垒作或以其他方式长期与该土地连接的建筑物和其他设施，只要其役用以地役权在不动产登记簿上登记的，得有一特别所有人”。可见，《瑞士民法典》中第675 条实际上规定的就是空间权。《日本民法典》中原本并没有关于空间权的规定，但由于日本土地立体开发的迫切需要，日本于1966年对其民法典进行修改，在其中增加了有关空间权的规定，其内容为：“(一)地下或空间，因定上下范围及有工作物，可以以之作为地上权的标的。于此情形，为行使地上权，可以设定行为对土地的使用加以限制。(二)前款的地上权，即使在第三人有土地使用或收益情形时，在得到该权利这或者以该权利为标的的权利者全体承诺后，仍可予以设定。于此情形，有土地收益、使用权利者，不得妨碍前款地上权的行使。”由此可见，日本是将空间权界定为一种地上权，它是一种独立的权利。《荷兰民法典》中将空间权规定于地上权中，并未独立出来，《荷兰民法典》物权编第21条规定，“土地所有权人使用土地的权利及于地表以上和地表以下的空间”；“他人可以使用地表以上或者地表以下的空间，但以达到地表以上的必要高度或者地表以下的必要深度，以至不损害土地所有权人的利益为限”。
四、我国《物权法》与空间立法
(一)我国《物权法》所采用的立法例
2007年3月16日，《中华人民共和国物权法》
经历了八次审议之后在十届全国人大五次会议上以高票通过，在这部历经13年酝酿和广泛讨论的物权法中，既有对世界其他国家先进立法经验的借鉴，又体现出鲜明的本土特色，尤其在其用益物权部分，更以其创造性、系统性与开放性初步构建起了具有中国特色的用益物权体系。针对当今中国建筑技术的进步和社会经济的快速发展对空间利用的日益频繁，《物权法》在其第三编用益物权中建设用地使用权部分做出了回应，该法第136条规定“建设用地使用权可以在土地的地表、地上或者地下分别设立。新设立的建设用地使用权，不得损害已设立的用益物权”。该条虽然没有明确提出“空间权”这一概念，但是它以分层的方式来规定对土地的立体使用，实际上为将来的空间立法预留了位置。
按照笔者对空间权所下的定义，空间权是指权利人对离开地表的空中或地表以下的地中横切断层所形成的一定范围所享有的权利，其客体为“一定范围内的空间”，具有特定性与独立性。而物权法第136条所述的建设用地使用权可以在地表、地上或地下分别设立。笔者认为，建设用地在地表设立，这就是传统的地上权。地表之外的“地上”与“地下”，也即离开地表的“空中”与地表之下的“地中”，可以作为空间权的客体，在其之上成立空间权。
空间权的性质决定着空间立法的模式。空间权在性质上不是一项单独的用益物权，它存在于用益物权的不同类型之中，应当规定在用益物权的相关章节之中。就我国空间立法的制度设计而言，《物权法》所采用的空间立法的立法例仍为世界上空间立法采用的较为普遍的德国式的立法模式，将空间权规定于民法典用益物权的相关章节之中。在对其在用益物权中的位置的具体安排上，我国《物权法》显然舍弃了王利明教授所主张的单列一节的建议，将空间权纳人建设用地使用权之中，基本上继受了大陆法系国家的空间立法模式。
但是，《物权法》中这样规定，尽管为空间的分层利用指出了方向，但是规定的过于简略，操作性并不强。既然物权法承认对空间的立体利用，确认了空间权的存在，那么，笔者认为，为了适应现代社会提高土地利用率的时代要求，规范日益复杂的空间利用问题，我们应该将《物权法》第136条的规
定作为空间权立法的基本法，再以单行法的形式制定出一部体系规范科学、内容较为详尽的《空间法》，这样才能更好地规范对土地的立体利用，保护权利人的合法权益。
(二)我国《物权法》确定空间权的意义
2007年3月16日通过的《中华人民共和国物权法》在空间权立法方面尽管只有一个相关条文，规定的较为简略，仅起到了宣示权利与指明立法方向的作用，但是这一规定对中国的空间立法来说，仍具有十分重大的意义：
第一，《物权法》规定空间权，有利于对土地的合理开发和利用。随着我国社会经济的发展，在对有限的土地资源的开发利用上，有了法律的相关规定，就会减少不同的利益主体在行使权利的过程中出现的矛盾，从而达到合理开发和利用空间的目的。
第二，《物权法》规定空间权，有利于提高空间的利用效率。对空间的利用既包括对地上的“空中”的利用，又包括对“地下”的地中的利用。前者如高空架桥、空中走廊等，后者如地下商场、地下停车场等。我国《物权法》规定了对空间的立体应用，会起到鼓励和保护开发商开发空间资源，提高空间的利用效率，从而促进社会的发展。
第三，《物权法》规定空间权，有利于保护空间权人的权利。传统物权法重视对土地地上权人权益的保护，这样空间权人在行使权利受到地上权人的妨害时无从寻求救济。《物权法》规定了空间权之后，使对空间权人的权利保护有了法律上的依据。
第四，《物权法》规定空间权，有利于解决实践中空间权方面的纠纷。在空间权人利用空间的过程中，很容易与地上权人产生冲突。面对这类冲突，《物权法》提供了很好地解决途径，即按照“合法既得利益优先”的原则，“新设立的建设用地使用权，不得损害已设立的用益物权”，这样，此类由利用空间引发的纠纷就有了法律的规制。
第五，《物权法》规定空间权，有利于健全我国的物权制度。社会的发展造成土地资源的稀缺，使得空间权制度成为现代物权立法的重要内容。我国《物权法》中对空间的利用作出规定，顺应了二十一世纪物权立法的趋势，完善了我国的物权制度。
\[参考文献\]
\[1\]陈华彬.土地所有权理论发展之动向\[A1.梁慧星·民商法论丛\[C\].(第3卷)90.
\[2\]渡边卓美.空中权和开发权的移转\[N\].法律时报1996-64-3，转引自刘保玉.空间利用权的内涵界定及其在物权法上的规范模式选择\[J\].杭州师范学院学报(社会科学版)，2006，(3).
\[3\]筱冢昭次.空中权、地中权之法理\[J\].论争民法学(3)，成文堂，昭和46年出版，第174页.
\[4\]梁慧星，陈华彬.物权法(第二版)\[M\].法律出版社，2003.151.
\[5\]刘保玉.空间利用权的内涵界定及其在物权法上的规范模式选择\[J\].杭州师范学院学报(社会科学版)，2006，(3).
\[6\]梁慧星.中国物权法研究(上册)\[M\].法律出版社，
1998.349.
\[7\]温丰文.空间权之法理\[J\].法令月刊，1988，39(3).
\[81史尚宽.物权法论\[M\].中国政法大学出版社，2000.189.
\[9\]陈祥健.论空间权构成及其三个法律问题\[J\]、福建论坛(经济社会版)，2003，(1).
\[10\]梁慧星，陈华彬.物权法(第二版)\[M\].法律出版社，2003.260.
\[11\]梁慧星.中国物权法研究\[M\].法律出版社，1998.591.
\[12\]王利明.物权法论\[M\].中国政法大学出版社，1998.644.
\[13\]孙宪忠.德国当代物权法\[M1.法律出版社，1997.228.
{责任编辑：杨
睿)
The Connotation of Space Right -and the Legislation Choice of" Real Right Acts”
SHEN Qi-hong
(The Law School of Fujian Normal University， Fuzhou Fujian 350007)
Abstract： Along with the development of social economy and the progress of humanity building technique， the land becomes the scarce resources gradually. People using land by three - dimensional way becomes uni-versal tendency after Industrial Revolution. Gradually people develop and utilize the space frequently in life. Some countries legislate to set space right. The object of space right is space which may exist alone under cer-tain condition. The space right includes space property rights and space utilization rights. The space utilization rights belong to usufruct rights in the nature， but it is not an independent usufruet rights. The nature of space right has decided our country space legislation pattern， “ the People’s Republic of China Real Right Acts ”passed in March16， 2007 only used an article to regulate Although our country “Real Right Acts" has not pro-posed “the space right" this concept explicitly and also stipulates to the space right briefly， it has established to the space lamination utilization and has acknowledged the space right existence. This held the Chinese space legislation beginning of a matter and has an extremely historical significance. | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **借高考题谈解选择题七种策略**
**河北青龙职教中心(066500)王小华**
**迅速而准确地求解选择题是每个考生都渴望的事情，也是每个教师希望学生掌握的，下面就近几年来高考的选择题给出了常见的七种解题技巧，供参考.**
**一、直接法**
**直接法是指从题门的已知条件出发，进行演算推理，直接得出结论的方法.此法一般用于计算量不大或推理不太繁琐的题目，否则宜优先考虑其他方法.**
【例1】(全国(Ⅱ))设F为抛物线y2==4.c：的焦点， A、B、C为该抛物线上三点，若FA卜F+FC=0，则FA卜FBFC|等于( ).
解：焦点F(1，0)，设 A(xryi)，B(x，y2)，C(r；， ys)，则由FX+FB+FC=0得x-1+x2-1-23一1=0，即山一2=3.而FAIFB+|FC|可转化为A、B、C一点到准线的距离，即|FX|-：FB|+.FC|=x：+1+2+1+2+1=6.故选B.
**评析：本题考查抛物线及向量的基本知识，解题的**
2y-2；
**\*.所求圆的方程是：(x-1)+(y-1)=2或(x：+1)2+(y+1)2.2.**
**【例4】若函数 f(x)=k+21√z存在区间a，6\]，使f(x)在\[a，bl上值域是\[a，b\].求k的最大值.**
**解：显然函数f(z)在定义域内单调递增，**
**..由题意可得**
**图4**
故a、b是方程x=k+2+√r，即方程x+k+2=√x
**关键是将向量运算转化为坐标运算，再结合抛物线的性质将点到焦点的距离转化为点到准线的距离.**
**二、特殊值检测法**
**特殊值检测法是通过比较各选择支的差异，选取特殊数值代人题干验证，逐·排除干扰支的方法，此法简使易行，常用于选择支为数集的题日，**
**【例2】 (上海)若关于x的不等式(1十毫)z≤k十4的解集是M，则对任意实常数k，总有( ).**
**解：当2EM时，不等式可变换为：2+2k≤k叶4，即-2k+2≥0，(-1)+1≥0.当0EM时，双十423：0恒成泣，故选A.**
**三、数形结合法**
**对某些选择题，若能与函数图象或几何图形沟通，通过数中思形、以形助数，借助图形的直观性，能迅速作出判断，从而避免了繁琐的演算或推理.**
**的两个不等实数根**
**于是构造直线L：yx-k-2与抛物线E：y=x(x三0)有两个不同的交点.要求k的最大值，只需求符合条件的直线在y轴上截距的最小值.所以当直线L过点(0，0)时，kmux=-2.**
**解：设 A (sinz， cos.r)，B(0，2)，.TE(0，x)，，显然 _A_ 在单位圆x1y=1(x>0)的石半圆上运动，**
**将f(x)的值构造为直线 AB的斜率，因此当直线AB与OO右半圆相切时，f(.r)有最大值.**
**图5**
**以上列举了通过构造两点间距离、直线的斜率、圆、椭圆、双曲线、抛物线，利用解析几何中的公式、曲线的性质等解决问题，在此过程中大大简化了解题过程，取得了意想不到的解题效果.**
**(责任编辑** 金 **铃)**
**是二次函数，若f(g(x))的值域是L0，roo)，则g(z)的值域是( ).**
**C.0，十o)**
D.「1，十oo)
**解：画出f(x)的图象如图1，要使y=f(u)的值域为\[0，+)，则p可取(-o，-1JUL0，+o).又p=g(z)是二次函数，其图像是开口向上或向下的抛物线，故g(z)的值域不可能同时取(一o，-1\]和\[0，+o)，再结合各选项知只能选C.**
**图1**
**评析：本题考查复合函数的定义域、值域、图像和性质，对考生分析解决问题的能力要求较高.结合图形能迅速得解，注意淘汰掉(一o，...1\]是正确解答的突破口，**
**四、抽象函数具体化**
**抽象函数的性质常常隐而不露，解决起来对多数学生来说有相当的难度，但抽象函数是由一些常见的初等函数经抽象而得到，故对于选择题，可对照性质将其函数具体化.**
**【例4】 (山东)已知定义在R上的奇函数f(x)满足 f(x+2)=-f(x)，则 f(6)的值为( ).**
**五、整体代换法**
**整体代换法是指在解决某些问题时，把一些组合式子视作一个“整体”，直接代人另一个式子，从而避免局部运算的麻烦和困难.**
**【例5】 (安徽)若 sin20--，则V2cos(=-a)的值为( ).**
A.5 B. C. ± D.±一
**分析：已知与未知之间的联系不明显，故从所求入手，将/2cos(一一a)展开后，得 sina +cosa， 再将 sin2a= _4_ 24转化成 sina+cosa整体代换即可，而无需分别求出**
**sina 和 coso.**
**即α終边在第一、三象限，所以 sina+cos=±故选D.**
**六、一般命题特殊化法**
**利用“命题在一·般情况下为真，则在特殊情况下必真”这一原理，通过对复合条件的特殊情形的考察分析，往往可以发现共性，探求结果，此法是“小题小做”的重要策略**
【例6】 (天津)过▲ABC的重心G作一直线分别交AB、AC于D、E，若AD=rAB，AE=yAC，xy70，则1一十一一的值为( ).
**解：研究特殊情形，设 DE//BC，如 _A_**
**E**
**注：此题若直接求解，将比较繁难，显然是“小题大做”七、构造法**
**【例7】(湖北)如图3，点P在正 _方形ABCD 所在平面外，PDL面AC，_ _PD=AD，则 PA与BD 所成角的度数_ 为( ).**
**A， 30° B.60°**
C.90° D. 120°
**图3**
**解：根据题意可将原图补形成的止方体，在正方体中易求得 PA与BD 所成角为60.**
**如果对每一道选择题都能采用简捷的方法来解，利用最优化思想处理选择题，则可以节省很可观的时间用于后面解答题的求解.所以要对选择题的解法不断进行总结，努力掌握灵活多样的解法，这样才能在高考中取得好成绩.**
**(责任编辑** **金** **铃)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 阅。 18. agregation 在路易十五统治时期就已经建立，面 CAPES设立于1950年(替代了1941年设立的“初中教师资格考试”即 CAEC， Certificat d'Aptitude a I'Enseignement dans les Colleges)。 19.报考 CAPES 需要具有学士学位或同等学历，而报考 agregation 需要硕士学位或同等学历。 20.除了主要中学课程，agregation 还包括艺术类、体育类和技术类课程的考试。 21.参见附录表格1和2。 22.获得CAPES 的教师工作量为每周18小时，获得 agregation 的教师为每周15小时。
23.
数字来源：法国教育部和高教科研部，教学培训研究年度统计数字，巴黎，东部出版社，1996年一2007年。
勇开先河，承前启后一—首届全国中学法语教学研讨会在武汉召开
由全国基础外语教育研究培训中心、法国驻华大使馆文化科技合作处、外语教学与研究出版社主办，武汉大学外国语学院协办，武汉经济技术开发区第一中学承办的首届全国中学法语教学研讨会于2008年7月4日—6日在湖北省武汉市江汉大学图书馆学术报告厅举行。
参加本次研讨会的法语中学共有25所，学校领导和老师共38位，其中开设法语一外为主的学校有20所，开设法语选修课的学校5所。同时，参加研讨会的有关领导和嘉宾包括：全国基础外语教学研究培训中心理事长、北京外国语大学陈琳教授，教育部基教司教学处乔玉全处长，法国驻武汉总领事 Michel Freymuth(费勇)先生，外语教学与研究出版社党总支书记徐秀芝女士，全国基础外语教育研究培训中心副理事长、特级教师刘兆义先生，武汉市教育局田文江副局长，武汉经济技术开发区第一中学赵群山校长、周传垓副校长，北京外国语大学法语系柳利教授，上海外国语大学法语系党总支书记董伟琴女士，武汉大学外国语学院法语系副主任王静女士，上海外国语大学附中法语教研室主任高月清女士，上海法语培训中心(Alliance Francaise)副主任 Alain Hardy 先生。会议由外语教学与研究出版社综合语种分社法语工作室主任邹皛白女士主持。
本次会议力图对我国中学法语教学现状进行总结、对其规律进行研究、并进一步推动我国中学法语教学扩大规模、提高质量，为完善我国法语人才供给状况作出贡献，并在这一方面为我国的对外开放和社会经济文化的进步作好人才储备、提供智力支持。
欲知更多详细信息，敬请登录外研社网站 http：//www.fltrp.com或外研外语教学网http：//mlp. fltrp. com 查看会议资料或照片。
APPRENDRE LE FRANCAIS | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **【文学研究】**
《庄子》与浪漫型文学新论
**刘生良**
**(陕西师范大学文学院，陕西西安 710062)**
**摘 要：关于《庄子》的浪漫文学，前人多冠以“消极”二字，笔者摒弃“消极”，申论浪漫。《庄子》浪漫文学的精神实质，是超越现实，追求理想；在艺术上具有宏阔奇妙、超凡人化的艺术境界，虚幻荒诞、光怪陆离的文学形象，奇特大胆、精彩绝伦的夸张手法，笔端含情、深挚浓厚的抒情色彩等特征，因而成为我国浪漫文学名副其实的最早“范本”，并且成为我国浪漫文学的开源、奠基之作，是中国浪漫文学创作之祖。《庄子》在浪漫文学方面有如此高卓的成就和贡献，首先取决于作者的浪漫精神和超人的想象力、表现力；其次，又是特定的时代条件和社会现实促成的；再次，也得力他对神话传说的利用、改造和对神话思维的继承、运用。《庄子》作为中国浪漫文学创作之祖，不仅在创作宗旨、思维方式、表现手法、基本特征诸方面形成其独具特色的质的规定性，而且对后世浪漫文学的发展产生了巨大而深远的影响。**
**关键词：《庄子》；浪漫型文学；精神实质；艺术特征；创作之祖**
中图分类号：206.2 文献标识码：A
**“浪漫”，一个美妙迷人的词语，本是放任自由、无拘无束之意。《新唐书·元稿传》：“又浪漫于人间，得非骜乎?”苏轼诗《与孟震同游常州僧舍》：“年来转觉此生浮，又作三吴浪漫游。”其中的“浪漫”都是这个意思。而近世把它作为一种文学类型的名称，即浪漫型文学，是指与现实型文学相对应的侧重以超现实描写和抒情的方式表现主观理想的文学形态，又称理想型文学。其基本特征是表现性和虚幻性。所谓表现性，是指把内在主观世界的状况直接表达出来，而非客观再现；所谓虚幻性，就是所描写的内容、塑造的形象是现实中不一定存在的，不求真实可信。这就决定了浪漫型文学必然是充分运用夸张、变形、虚构等非现实描写的手法，且多以神话传说、历史故事、民间传奇等作为创作索材，创造出奇幻的事物和形象，以表现作者超越现实的主观理想。\](P161-162)《庄子》一书，说来真是奇妙，其主旨恰恰就是追求自由、超越的人生理想，其内容具有极强的表现性和虚幻性，既契合“浪漫”一卡的本义，更符合浪漫文学的概念和特点，因而成为我国浪漫文学名副其实的最早“范本”，并且成为我国浪漫文学**
**的开源、奠基之作，影响和滋溉了两千多年来的浪漫文苑。**
**关于《庄子》的浪漫文学，前人多冠以“消极”二字，本文摒弃“消极”，申论浪漫。**
**一、《庄子》浪漫文学的精神实质和艺术特征**
**《庄子》的浪漫特色，古今学者都颇有认识和评论。古人读庄论庄“每每奇之”，这所谓的“奇”，在很大程度上正是“浪漫”的同义语。今人更将“浪漫”作为庄书的首要特点，多有精妙之论。笔者下面的论述，难免拾人牙慧。不过以前学界多是以“浪漫主义”作为一种创作方法看待，以之涵盖了庄文的所有艺术特点，我这里是从文学类型的角度着眼，与之稍有区别。**
**(一)《庄子》浪漫文学的精神实质**
**《庄子》浪漫文学的精神实质，是超越现实，追求理想。作者有感于现实的苦难、人生的艰险和人性的异化，热切向往并积极追求无待逍遥、绝对自由的人格理想和“至德之世”、“建德之国”的社会理想，这是《庄子》一书的灵魂和旨归所在，也是其作**
**收稿日期：2010-01-18**
**基金项目：国家社会科学基金项目(08BZW026)**
**作者简介：刘生良(1957一)，男，陕西洛南人，陕西师范大学文学院教授，博士生导师，文学博士。**
**为浪漫文学的核心和关键所在。**
**注子的人格理想，主要表现在内篇首篇《逍遥游》中，并贯穿全书。《逍遥游》的主旨就是主张追求无所待而游于无穷的绝对自由—“逍遥游”，即超脱现实世界一切物类和人类皆“有所待”而不自由之困境，摆脱一切束缚，不要任何凭借，“乘天地之正，而御六气之辩，以游无穷”，达到“至人无已，神人无功，圣人无名”那样绝对自由的理想精神境界。而要达此境界，就要齐万物、泯是非(《齐物论》)，死生无变乎已(《德充符》《田子方》)，哀乐不人于心(《养生主》《大宗师》《田子方》)，“知其不可奈何而安之若命”《人间世》《德充符》)，甚至要“堕肢体，黜聪明，离形去知”(《大宗师》)，乘道浮游，“物物而不物于物”(《山木》)，与道合一，无为而无不为……这种无待、无累、无患的“逍遥”境界，即绝对自由的精神境界，就是庄子所孜孜追求的理想人格境界，也是他所建构的理想世界的第一境界。这一超现实的理想人格精神境界，虽有逃避现实、无所作为的消极性，但更有旨在实现个体超越、人格独立、精神自由的积极性。**
**庄子的社会理想，即所谓“至德之世”和“建德之国”，这在外、杂篇一些篇章中有比较完整的描述。如《马蹄》篇云：“夫至德之世，同与禽兽居，族与万物并，恶知乎君子小人哉!”《胠箧》篇云：“子独不知至德之世乎?昔者容成氏、大庭氏……..当是时也，民结绳面用之，甘其食，美其服，乐其俗，安其居，邻国相望，鸡狗之音相闻，民至老死而不相往来。”《山木》篇云：“南越有邑焉，名为建德之国。其民愚而朴，少私而寡欲；故作而不知藏，与而不求其报，不知义之所适，不知礼之所将；猖狂往行，乃蹈于大方；其生可乐，其死可葬。”类似的说法，还见之于《天地》《让王》《盗跖》诸篇。这一社会理想，乃庄子个体人格理想合乎逻辑的扩大，是其建构的理想世界的又一境界。这种自然主义的社会理想，诚如有的学者所说，既具有自由、平等、快乐的特点，又具有物质生活原始、精神状态蒙昧、所处时代古远或地域偏僻遥远等超现实和超人类的特点，\[3\](E250)因而难免有复古倒退、愚昧落后之嫌。但它却真切地表现了作者对恶浊的现实社会的极端厌弃，对远古时代人与人、人与自然纯朴关系的深情憧憬，对人性复归、个性解放、精神道德更高一层返朴归真的热切呼唤，对彻底变更整个社会、重建自由美好生活的强烈要求。正如郭沫若先生所说，这在当时还“不失为一个革命的见解”。\[4\](P87)**
**庄子的人格理想和社会理想，显然都是浪漫的幻想，甚至带有消极成分和反文明色彩，但是“他所表现出的一位古代哲人的巨大智慧和真诚，是不应该被轻视和被诋毁的”\[3H(P255)他总是幻想地认为只有这样才能向最美好、自由的人生接近，其良苦用心是不容否认和歪曲的。它在客观上也对人们追求独立人格和审美人生，开拓思维视野和思想境界，反抗黑暗统治，争取自由解放，起到了巨大的启迪和鼓舞作用。因此，这样的幻想在总体上不是消极的，而是积极的。《庄子》也决不是以前所说的“消极浪漫主义”文学，如今看来，理想型浪漫型文学本来就无所谓积极、消极之分。**
**(二)《庄子》浪漫文学的艺术特征**
**1.宏阔奇妙、超凡入化的艺术境界**
**与绝对自由、无限超迈的人生理想相一致，庄子为表现这一精神境界和理想追求而创造的一系列艺术境界，或宏伟壮阔，或神奇高妙，或超凡人化，也是极其浪漫的。《逍遥游》开篇那硕大无朋的大鹏背负青天，鼓翼南飞，“水击三千里，技扶摇而上九万里”的情景；《秋水》开篇那秋水时至，百川灌河，大河汹涌奔流，北海浩淼无垠的情景，是多么地宏伟壮阔，气势磅礴!《齐物论》中至人“乘云气，骑日月，面游乎四海之外”的幻景，庄子梦为蝴蝶、栩栩然物化”的梦境，《大宗师》中真人“登高不倮，人水不濡，入火不热”的境界，尤其是那“有情有信，无为无形”，“神鬼神帝，生天生地”的“道”的境界，是多么的神奇缥缈，玄秘莫测!庖丁解牛那“道进乎技”的境界(《养生主》)，狗偻承蝸那“犹掇之也”的境界，纪渚子所养斗鸡那“呆若木鸡”的境界，吕梁丈夫那“从水之道而不为私”的境界，梓庆削锻那巧夺天工、见者惊犹鬼神”的境界，工捶以手画圆而合规矩、“指与物化而不以心稽”“忘适之适”的境界(以上《达生》)，匠石“运斤成风，听而斫之，尽垩而鼻不伤”的境界(《徐无鬼》)，伯昏无人“登高山，履危石，临百仞之渊，背邊巡，足二分垂于外，揖御寇而进之”的境界(《田子方》)，众多高人“丧耦”、“心斋”“坐忘”的修养境界，庄周本人“曳尾涂中”“鼓盆而歌”“天地棺椁”的超旷境界，等等，又是多么的超凡脱俗，出神人化!所有这些，都给人以极浪漫的感受，留下极深刻的印象。**
**2.虚幻荒诞、光怪陆离的文学形象**
**庄子超现实的人生理想和艺术境界，是靠许许多多幻想虚构的文学形象及其荒诞离奇的行为方式**
**来体现的。《庄子》一书中的各类形象约300个，①大多数不是按现实生活本来面目塑造的现实形象，而是现实中并不存在的幻想虚构形象。尤其是其理想形象，除老聃、庄周等个别道家人物外，或者根据神话传说加工改造，或者凭空“捏造”，几乎都是幻想虚构的产物。在这些虚幻的形象中，有“肌肤若冰雪，绰约若处子”的藐姑射神人，“其心志，其容寂，其颗氛”的古之真人，以及所谓至人、圣人、德人、大人、天人、全人等，他们都是得道之神和庄子理想人格的形象载体；有“颐隐于脐，肩高于顶，会撮指天，五管在上，两为胁”的支离疏，以及受刑断足的兀者王骆、申徒嘉、叔山无趾，“恶骇天下”的哀骆它、支离无月辰(唇)、瓮盎大瘿等，他们都是形体残缺、外貌奇丑而精神饱满、才德过人的得道之人；有上文提到的庖丁、疴偻、吕梁丈夫、梓庆、工锤匠石、伯昏无人等身怀绝技、颇有道术的奇人；有子礼、子舆、子犁、子来和子桑户、孟子反、子琴张等以大道为宗师、游方之外”的怪人；还有许多拟人化的生物、非生物形象，如学鸠、斥妈、井蛙、海龟、大瓠、栎树、夔、虫玄、罔两、景(影)、云将(雾气)、鸿蒙(元气)、淳芒(云气)、苑风(东风)、知(智)、无为谓(无为之谓)、泰清、无穷、无足、知和等等。这些迷离恍惚的虚幻形象，其行为方式也是荒诞离奇的。如藐姑射神人，“不食五谷，吸风饮露，….….大浸稽天而不溺，大旱金石流土山焦而不热”，其尘垢秕糠，都能陶铸出尧舜来。子祀等四人“以无为首，以生为脊，以死为尻”，知死生存亡为一体，而成为莫逆之交，子桑户等三人更是“以生为附赘悬疣，以死为决疯溃痈”，“登天游雾，挠挑(宛转)无极(太虚)”。又如夔、虫玄蛇、风可以交谈，影子与影之影可以对话，甚至死人的觸髅也可与人晤言、梦谈，智、无为等抽象概念也幻化为人，互相辩论。真是光怪陆离，不可思议。有些虚构形象的名字，如支离疏、哀骆它、瓮盎大瘿、门无鬼、赤张满稽、天根、无名人、倏、忽、浑沌，听来都给人一种迷离惝恍、神奇怪诞之感。即使作为现实人物的黄帝、尧、舜、孔子等，其言行事迹往往也是作者凭空虚构的，因而其形象也颇为离奇古怪，荒诞不经。特别是孔子，在书中共出现19次，面貌不一，作者根据主观愿望和需要，将其随意变形、改塑、另造，使之能圆能扁，忽儒忽道，时正时反，成为与历史上孔子面目几乎全非的陌生人物。凡此种种，不一而足。究其实质，庄子在此不是从现实出发，而是从理想或幻想出发进行创作的，因而呈现给读者一个异彩缤纷、恢奇谲怪的形象画廊和浪漫世界，令人目不暇接，美不胜收。**
**3.奇特大胆、精彩绝伦的夸张手法**
**由于表现理想的需要，《庄子》和一切浪漫文学作品一样，必然较多地采用幻想、虚构、变形、夸张等艺术手法。这是庄文最主要也最鲜明的浪漫特色。因幻想、虚构、变形在上文已有论及，这里主要谈其夸张手法。**
**庄子的夸张奇特大胆，古今罕见。他动辄“三千里”“九万里”“五百岁为春”、“八千岁为秋”、“翼若垂天之云”、“游乎四海之外”“在太极之上而不为高，在六极之下而不为深，先天地而生而不为久，长于上古而不为老”，“天下莫大于秋豪之末，面太(泰)山为小；莫寿于殇子，而彭祖为夭”……所有这些，皆辞无端涯，语皆放诞，无所不用其极。就连后来最善夸张，以“三千尺”“三千丈”“四万八千岁”“难于上青天”“燕山雪花大如席”等巨大夸张著称于世的浪漫诗人李白，在庄子面前恐怕也难免小巫见大巫了。**
**为了进一步说明问题，这里再举二例：**
**任公子为大钩巨缁，五十辖以为饵，蹲乎会稽，投竿东海，旦旦而钓，期年不得鱼。已而大鱼食之，牵巨钩陷没而下，骛扬而奋鬢，白波若山，海水震荡，声件鬼神，惮赫千里。任公子得若鱼，离而腊之，自制河以东，苍梧以北，莫不厌若鱼者。(《外物》)**
**有国于蜗之左角者曰触氏，有国于蜗之右角者曰蛮氏，时相与争地而战，伏尸数万，逐北旬有五日而后反。(《则阳》)**
**前者写任公子钓鱼，以五十头键牛为鱼饵，则其钩之大、缁之巨、竿之长、时之久，无不骇人听闻，简直是天下绝无仅有的超级豪钓了。写大鱼吞钩的壮观，无异于印尼海啸，惊天动地，气势恢宏。写此鱼使从浙东到苍梧以北大半个中国的人得以饱餐，更令人瞠目结舌，惊怖其言，以为天方夜谭!后者以触蛮之战喻齐魏之争，作者以其天才的神思想象，将两个方圆数十万里的大国微缩为蜗牛的两个角，这两角之争，竟又“伏尸数万”，这该是怎样的大手笔啊!简直匪夷所思!王国维先生就非常欣赏庄子这种“言大则有若北冥之鱼，语小则有若蜗角之国，语久则大椿冥灵，语短则想蛄朝菌”的伟大想象和极化**
**①** **《庄子》中的各类形象，据尚永亮统计约273个，又据陆钦统计约360多个，分别见尚永亮《庄骚传播接受史综论》(文化艺术出版社2000年版)第51页和陆钦《庄子通义》(吉林人民出版社1994年版)第767页。这里取个近似的整数。**
**夸张。\[S\](P383)然而庄子这种言大则极言其大，语小则极言其小，小可以说得极大，大可以说得极小的“放大和缩小”，又各有深意，绝不仅仅是为了惊人视听：不“放大”不足以充分显示任氏求大道不期近功的伟大高卓和那些“饰小说以干县令”的“辁才讽说之徒”的卑微渺小，不“缩小”不足以极力表现对诸侯战争的不屑与蔑视。心“看似胡说乱说，骨里却尽有分数。”\[6}(P7)因此，这大胆奇特的夸张，又是最精妙、最深刻的。这样的夸张，前无古人，也从来无人及得。质言之，又当是庄子大宇宙的宏阔视野和举世无双的才气前无古人，从来无人及得。**
**4.笔端含情、深挚浓厚的抒情色彩**
**《庄子》是哲理的，也是抒情的。作者虽然主张无情，实则“道是无情却有情”，无论叙事、说理，还是虚构、夸张，都笔端饱含深情，字里行间洋溢着激情，具有深挚浓厚的抒情性。如他对宇宙本根、万物之原的“道”的描述，充满无限崇拜、热情礼赞之情；对理想人格和理想社会的描述，充满热切向往、深情憧憬之情；对理想人物和理想境界的描写，充满由衷赞赏、真诚景慕之情；对贪鄙之徒和奸诈小人的叙说，充满鄙夷、嘲讽和憎恶之情；对现实社会，表现出不满、厌弃之情；对功名富贵，表现出蔑视、淡泊之情；对劳动道艺，表现出欣羡、颂扬之情；对安命守道，表现出首肯、表彰之情；对他笔下所有人事物象的叙写，对各种道理的阐说，文笔或悠闲，或激扬，或平淡，或炽烈；或褒扬，或贬斥，无不流露出真情，既表达了思想，又抒发了感情。庄子的抒情又往往与幻想、虚构、夸张等手法相结合，因而形成了庄文奔腾的气势，增强了感人的魅力。就连作为学术评论的《天下》篇，其评述各家学派尤其是评述庄子学派的一段：“芒乎昧乎，变化无常，死与生与，天地并与，神明往与!…..”也都情不自禁，充满激情，具有浓厚的抒情色彩。如天风海雨，激得浪花无限。这不能不说是受庄书总体文风启发、熏染和影响所致，是《庄子》哲理和抒情相结合之浑圆机体的体现和证明。难怪闻一多先生称庄子是“抒情的天才”，盛赞其书是“绝妙的诗”。I7\](P286)关于《庄子》的抒情性、诗性特质，笔者已撰写专文详细讨论过。总之，从浪漫文学颇重抒情这一基本特点看，《庄子》也无愧于浪漫文学之称。**
**二、中国浪漫文学创作之祖**
**从以上四方面的特点看来，《庄子》确实可称为比较典型的浪漫文学。不仅如此，它还是我国最早的浪漫文学创作，为我国文学开辟了浪漫主义的新**
**天地，并取得了巨大的成就，显示了奇特的魅力，从各方面为浪漫文学创作奠定了坚实的基础，从而掀开了我国浪漫文学创作璀璨夺目的第一页。**
**远古神话是我国文学的一大源头，尤其是浪漫**
**文学的源头。它反映了远古人民对世界起源、自然现象和社会生活的原始理解，表达了人们征服自然、支配自然的愿望和理想。它以天真烂漫的幻想和大胆瑰奇的夸张，塑造了一系列自然神和英雄神的形象，鼓舞着人们的生活与斗争。神话的这些成就和特点，使之成为中国文学的武库和土壤，更成为滋养浪漫文学的不竭源泉，甚至可称为一种不可企及的范本，具有永久的魅力。但是，按照马克思的经典解释，神话是“在人民幻想中经过不自觉的艺术方式加工过的自然界和社会形态”，也就是说，它是初民社会意识形态的总和，主要还属于世界观和认识论范畴，即哲学范畴，还不是真正意义上的浪漫文学。这种不自觉的口头集体创作，更不是真正意义上的浪漫文学创作。进入文明社会后，某些自然力实际上被支配，更由于华夏民族的理性觉醒比较早，神话渐渐失去了赖以产生的社会条件，不仅很难再产生，而且开始大量消亡。特别在周代理性文化体系的统治下和儒家“不语怪力乱神"(《论语·述而》)的文化价值观念的影响下，神话受到无情压抑，散失殆尽，浪漫文学创作更无从谈起。在《庄子》以前的文献典籍和诸子著作中，只记有少数片断的历史人物传说(如尧、舜、禹的片断传说)，再就是某些虚构的史实细节(如梦境、隐秘等)和少量寓言故事(如《墨子》“染丝”《孟子》“报苗助长”等)，且都比较平实，缺乏浪漫色彩，真正称得上浪漫文学作品的仍然阙如。只有怪才庄子，为表现其玄虚深奥的哲理、离经叛道的思想和自由浪漫的理想，摆脱正统意识形态和思想观念的羁绊，对本地保留的殷商巫祝文化传统和当时趁天下大乱之机得以搜集流传的《山海经》《齐谐》等神话志怪之书情有独钟，从中汲取智慧和营养，直接继承神话的浪漫精神和艺术传统，自觉运用幻想、虚构、变形、夸张与抒情相结合的浪漫手法，创作了我国第一部真正意义上的浪漫文学作品《庄子》，树起了浪漫文学创作的第一面大旗。尽管《庄子》还不是纯文学作品，但它那自觉、独立的创作意识和高卓、巨大的创作成就，无疑在文学史上具有划时代的伟大意义。所以，《庄子》乃成为我国浪漫文学的开源、奠基之作，庄周乃是开辟我国浪漫文学创作领域的第一位大师，处在开山祖的位置上。**
**《庄子》的出现，为中国文学增添了浪漫文学的新品种，增加了理想主义的新内容，开拓了自由超凡**
**的新境界，引进了虚构、夸张等新方法，塑造了恢奇怪诞的新形象，形成了放旷飘逸的新风格，表达了奇异超迈的新思想，真是“极天之荒，穷人之伪，放肆迤演，如长江大河，滚滚灌注，泛滥于天下，又如万籁怒号，澎湃洇涌，声沉影灭，不可控传”。19\](P5)正像词史上的苏轼一样，文至庄周，倾荡磊落，豪放超旷，如诗如画，如醉如梦，如天地奇观，一洗凡尘污浊气息，摆脱政治伦理束缚，境界大开，别有天地，任天面动，轶尘绝迹，意气风发，出神人化，似非吃烟火食人语，指出向上一路，令天下耳目一新，使人登高望远，举首高歌，超然乎尘垢之外。**
**《庄子》之所以有如此高卓的成就和贡献，其原因是多方面的。**
**首先取决于作者的浪漫精神和超人的想象力、表现力。庄子的浪漫精神，是和其理想追求紧密联系在一起的。对此，《天下》篇有几句精彩的概述：“独与天地精神往来，而不敖倪于万物，不谴是非，以与世俗处。....上与造物者游，下与外死生无终始者为友。”这既是庄子梦寐以求的理想，也是其浪漫精神的集中体现。10\](P48-50)也就是说，庄子以“道”为宗师，希图通过齐万物、泯是非、外死生、无终始以达到无忧无虑、无拘无束、无往而不逍遥的境界，即与“道”合一的境界，从而实现个体人格的绝对自由和感性生命的无限超越，这一理想及其实践本身，就体现着一种浪漫精神。如前所说，庄子的浪漫，最主要最根本的是精神的自由、思想的浪漫，其他的一切都是与此相关、为之服务的。浪漫文学“用想象力构造境界”，“想象力愈丰富、愈奇诡，便愈见精采。”I1】庄子具有丰富、诡奇“河汉无极”的想象力，其想象中，“又有怪诞的、幽渺的、新奇的、称丽的各种方向，有所谓‘建设的想象'，有幻想”，L\](12)-288)因而能突破人神、生死、时空的界限，思接千载，视通万里，“极天之荒，穷人之伪”，创造出神奇莫测的境界和奇幻怪异的形象，以表现其哲思灼见。庄子又具有纵横捭阖、汪洋恣肆、见得方说到”(朱熹语)的表现力，能把想到的一切生动传神、惟妙惟肖、得心应手、淋漓尽致地表达出来，甚至超常发挥。“其理不竭，其来不蜕”，其才思文情，如万斛泉涌，滔滔泪泪；如江河直下，一泻千里；如海涛汹涌，不可控转，从而保证了思想内容的出色表达，并增强了文章的浪漫色彩和诗的情韵。可见天才的想象力和表现力，是庄子浪漫文学极其重要的生成条件。离开了它，其所谓浪漫也就难以成形，至少也难得如此精彩。**
**其次，庄子在浪漫文学方面的成就和贡献，又是**
**特定的时代条件和社会现实促成的。战国时代百家争鸣的繁盛局面，为浪漫文学的产生提供了良好机遇(据专家考证，《山海经》《穆天子传》等记载神话传说的书也大约是在战国中期集成出笼的)。面学术繁盛的背后，则是社会的极端黑暗，统治者“争地以战，杀人盈野；争城以战，杀人盈城”(《孟子·离娄上》)，以致“殊死者相枕也，桁杨者相推也，刑戮者相望也”(《在宥》)；像他这样的文人，也不过是“方今之世，仅免刑焉”(《人间世》)。同时儒家的仁义学说等往往被统治阶级盗窃利用，成为禁锢人们思想的精神枷锁。庄子对此极为不满和愤激，又鉴于“天下为沉浊，不可与庄语”(《天下》)，于是“以谬悠之说，荒唐之言，无端涯之辞，时恣纵而不傥”(同上)，从而促成他对浪漫文学的开创和建树。**
**再次，庄子浪漫文学的创作成就与贡献，也得力于他对神话传说的利用、改造和对神话思维的继承、运用。庄书中包含丰富的神话材料，如鲲鹏、浑沌、姑射神人、河伯、海若、西王母、夔、风(凤)、冥灵、大椿、大瓠、天根、豨韦、伏戏、黄帝、彭祖等形象及其故事，都来源于神话传说，庄子对此进行了不同程度的加工改造，使之哲理化、文学化、道家化，成为别有寄托的寓言，以表现其道家思想。庄书中还有许多“隐藏的神话”，“构成庄子思想体系的基本概念如‘道'、一’、气’、化’、游’等，均可在神话思维时代找到形而下的原型”。\[12\](P)更重要的，庄子哲理的表达，主要不是靠抽象的逻辑推理，而是靠叙述性的故事说理，喻示性的寓言寓理，以激发和启导读者的觉悟。这种特殊的表达策略，这种诗性智慧和诗性结构，这种用神话眼光探索世界奥秘的不合逻辑义自成逻辑的思维方式，正是对神话思维的继承和运用。因此著名学者叶舒宪在其《庄子的文化解析》一书中极力主张用神话眼光审视和解读《庄子》，并作了成功示范，创获颇多。关于庄子寓言与神话，笔者拟撰专文详加讨论。这里需要说明的是，庄子对神话材料和神话思维的创造性运用，对神话遗产的传承与弘扬，不仅增强了其书神奇瑰丽的浪漫色彩，在某种程度上，更是其浪漫精神和艺术手法的渊源所在，所以它是庄子浪漫文学获得巨大成功在文学渊源上的重要因素。**
**三、对后世浪漫文学之影响**
**《庄子》作为中国浪漫文学创作之祖，不仅在创作宗旨、思维方式、表现手法、基本特征诸方面形成其独具特色的质的规定性，而且对后世浪漫文学的发展产生了巨大而深远的影响。**
**据张松辉先生考察，稍后于《庄子》的另一浪漫巨著《楚辞》，就明确受到过《庄子》的影响。他认为，屈赋中有很多乘龙车神游的描写，这实际即庄子“乘云气，御飞龙，而游乎四海之外”的复述，“只不过充实了一些细节而已”；屈原的《天问》应该是仿《庄子·天运》开头一段而作，“只不过提出的问题更多一些而已”；《庄子·外物》写了一个白龟出使河伯的故事，屈原《河伯》就写河伯“乘白鼋兮逐文鱼”，“也明显露出《庄子》痕迹”，“不能视为一种巧合”；宋玉《对楚王问》中“下里巴人”、“阳春白雪”、“曲高和寡”一段名对，原本出自《庄子·天地》“大声不人于里耳，《折杨》《皇》，则嗑然而笑，是故高音不止于众人之心”，另一段描写凤凰、鲲鱼与斥鸡、鲵的差别，从语言到寓意都是取自《庄子·逍遥游》中有关大鹏与斥鸡的描写，“可以说，整个《对楚王问》是剪裁《庄子》拼缝而成”。13J(P248-249)我们读《楚辞》，也应该记得：屈原《哀劉》中“尧舜之抗行兮，瞭杳杳而溥天，众谗人之嫉妒兮，被以不慈伪名”四句，洪兴祖《补注》云：“《庄子》回：尧不慈，舜不孝。”向无异议。还有，《远游》一篇具有浓厚的道家思想，《渔父》一篇与《庄子·渔父》颇有相似之处。由此可见，屈原等楚辞作家读过《庄子》，张先生的考证是可以成立的。从建国后至80年代初的30多年间，我们以所谓“消极”“没落”为出，摒庄书于浪漫文学之外，①更不承认庄子的宗师地位，认为中国浪漫文学传统仅楚辞一源，硬将晚于庄子并受其影响的屈原推上第一把交椅，这无异于以父为祖，黜兄立弟，实在是不应该发生的错误和悲剧。**
**秦汉以降，每一时代各种形式的浪漫文学，无不受到或《庄》、或《骚》，或这两个“和而不同”互为补充的浪漫文学系统的共同滋溉。但相比之下，以庄子对浪漫文学的影响更为显著。且不说秦世杂赋“盖多杂诙谐，如庄子寓言者”，14\](PI83)及贾谊《鹏鸟赋》所受《庄子》的影响，最能代表汉赋特色和艺术成就的散体大赋，其铺张扬厉、夸夸其谈的浪漫作风，也主要来自《庄子》。汉代文坛巨匠司马迁，赞赏庄子“终身不仕，以快吾志”的高风亮节和“善属书离辞，指事类情”“洗洋自恣以适己”的浪漫文风，他那好奇、豪宕的浪漫性格，当与庄子的启导有关；他那以历史记事为主而又被誉为“无韵之《离骚》”的《史记》，其中灌注着的充沛诗情和浪漫神韵，既有“发愤抒情”的骚影，也有“洸洋自恣”的庄影。魏晋南北朝整个文明的中心是庄子，文人士大夫由建功立业走向饮酒放浪、挥鹿主谈玄、归隐田园、纵情山水甚至沉溺声色，由此产生的游仙诗、咏**
**怀诗、玄言诗、田园诗、山水诗、宫体诗等有浪漫色彩的作品，无论好坏优劣、经验教训，无不披拂着庄子的流风余影。在散文领域，名士嵇康那篇“志高而文伟"的浪漫散文《与山巨源绝交书》，从内容到形式皆祖式庄文，颇有其遗风。陶渊明的理想画图《桃花源记》，更是庄子“建德之国”的翻版和形象写照。唐代伟大的浪漫诗人李白，从精神气质、思想个性到创作风格，均深受南华老仙影响，其天马行空、壮浪纵恣的浪漫诗作自不必说，就是《大鹏赋》等辞赋、散文，也莫不追踪庄风，神似其文。自称“骚之苗裔”的诗鬼李贺，其实受《庄子》影响远远超过屈骚。其浪漫诗作意象的虚幻荒诞、章法的跳跃跌宕、结构的不拘常法、语言的奇巧奇峭，以至于追求奇峭虚幻而流于怪诞晦涩、描写鬼神流于歌颂神秘与死亡之缺点，皆酷肖庄子文风。“清诗健笔何足数，逍遥齐物追庄周”的北宋文豪苏轼，他那雄辩滔滔、气势纵横、挥洒自如、意态横生的浪漫文风，气象宏阔、意境超逸、自由奔放、极富理趣的浪漫诗风，别开生面、豪迈飘逸、清旷放达、潇洒健朗的浪漫词风，都与庄子的深刻影响密切相关。刘熙载《艺概·诗概》说：“诗以出于《骚》者为正，以出于《庄》者为变。少陵纯乎《骚》(愚按：其实杜公一生尤其是晚年也写过不少受《庄》影响的游仙诗，如《幽人》《留别公安太易沙门》等)，太白在《庄》、《骚》间，东坡则出于《庄》者十之八九。”苏氏自己也说：“吾昔有见，口未能言，今见是书，得吾心矣。”(《宋史·苏轼传》)可见坡仙心仪庄书，心领神会，受其影响极深。元代关汉卿、马致远的浪漫散曲，如《南吕一枝花·不伏老》、《双调夜行船·秋思》等，皆步武庄子；马氏的神仙道化剧，也烙印着庄子痕迹。著名的神魔小说《西游记》对孙悟空形象的塑造，特别是对他那“七十二般变化”“一个筋斗十万八千里”及其能大能小，小则绣花针、大则擎天柱的如意金箍捧的神奇描写，与庄子“极天之荒，穷人之伪”的想象夸张似有不解之缘。汤显祖《牡丹亭》中对主人公杜丽娘惊梦而死、死而复生的离奇构思，亦当原于庄子的启迪。近代文学的先驱龚自珍反抗现实，渴望变革，曾写诗自云：“名理孕异梦，秀句镌春心，庄骚两灵鬼，盘踞肝肠深”。(龚自珍《自春祖秋……》之三，见《定庵文集外编·古今体诗》)可见庄、骚乃其艺术**
**①** **据尚永亮统计，1949-1980年的《庄子》研究论文中，专论浪漫主义的只有一篇，其结论还是全盘否定性的。见尚著《庄骚传播接受史综论》，文化艺术出版社2000年版，第70页注①。**
**精神之魂，影响极深。“五四”时代高喊着“我是一条天狗”，向旧世界勇猛进击，热情呼唤“女神”再生、凤凰”更生的浪漫新诗人郭沫若，曾公开宣称：“我爱我国的庄子，因为我爱他的 pontneism (泛神论)。”15H(P7)他的《女神》正是以泛神论作为思想武器的。他推崇、歌颂叛逆的庄子，其浪漫精神、激情和艺术，亦深受庄子影响。由此可见，中国文学史上的浪漫作家和富有浪漫色彩的诗歌、散文、辞赋、小说、戏剧作品，都与庄子有着千丝万缕的联系，其衣被文人，亦非一代也。**
**当然，在庄子那里，争取自由、追求理想与放弃抗争、逃避现实又似乎是一对孪生姐妹，正如尚永亮先生所说，“庄子文学的浪漫精神由反抗现实、追求理想始，至要求回归、避世全生终，经历了一个由低到高又由高到低的抛物线全程，这不能不说是庄子的悲剧。”\[10\](P70注解①)庄子浪漫精神由高张到低迷，尤其是其悲剧归宿，决定了他在给历代浪漫文学作家作以甘美乳汁积极滋养的同时，也不能不留下某些悲剧性的消极影响之印痕。**
**\[参考文献\]**
\[1\] **童庆炳.文学理论教程\[M\].北京：高等教育出版社，1998.**
\[2\] **罗勉道.南华真经循本释题\[M\].道藏本庄子集成续**
**编：第1册\[M\].台北：艺文印书馆，19974.**
**崔大华.庄学研究\[M\].北京：人民出版社，1992.**
**郭沫若.庄子与鲁迅\[A\].郭沫若全集(文学编)：第19卷\[M\].北京：人民文学出版社，1992.**
**\[5\]** **王国维.屈子文学之精神\[A\].中国历代文论选：第四册\[C\].上海：上海古籍出版社，1980.**
**刘熙载.艺概\[M\].上海：上海古籍出版社，1978.** 16
**闻一多.庄子\[A\].闻一多全集：第2卷\[M\].北京：三联书店，1982.**
**刘生良.庄子——-绝妙的诗\[3\].中州学刊，1990(1)**
**高似孙.子略：卷2\[M\].上海：中华书局据学津讨原校刊本，1936.**
**\[10\]尚永亮.庄骚传播接受史综论\[M\].北京：文化艺术出版社，2000.**
**\[11\]梁启超.中国韵文里头所表现的情感\[A\].饮冰室合集：第4册\[M\].北京：中华书局，1989.**
**\[12\]叶舒宪.庄子的文化解析\[M\].武汉：湖北人民出版社，1997.**
**\[13\]张松辉.庄子考辨\[M\].长沙：岳麓书社，1997.**
**\[14\]顾实.汉书艺术志讲疏\[M\].上海：上海古籍出版社，1986.**
**15** \] **郭沫若.女神\[A\].郭沫若全集(文学编)：第1卷\[M\].北京：人民文学出版社，1982.**
**\[责任编辑** **赵喜桃\]**
**Discussion of Zhuang Zi and Romantic Literature LIU Sheng -liang**
**_(School of Literature， Shaanxi Normal University， Xi'an 710062， China)_**
**Abstract：With regard to Zhuang Zi， People of former times would， more often than not， like to consider it as“passive"romantic literature. This paper discards the idea of passivity and expounds its romancc. It is belicved that the spiritual essence of Zhuang Zi， this romance literature lies in its transcendence of reality and pursuit for ideals， that its artistic feature is gorgeous and picturesque， that its literary image is imaginary and grotesque， that its exag-geration is peculiar and marvelous， and that its lyrical color is tender and affectionate. As a matter of fact， it is true to its name that Zhuang Zi has become one of the earliest models in the Chinese romance literature. All these re-markable achievement and contribution come mainly from its writer’'s romantic spirit， unique imagination and ex-pressiveness， also from the given period of time and the social reality， and from the writer’s adaplation， recrea-tion， inheritance and application of legends and myths. As the founder of Chinese literature， Zhuang Zi not only has developed its own peculiar features in its writing objective， its thinking mode， technique of expression and basic characteristic， but also has imposed great and far -reaching effect on the development of future romance literature.**
**Key words：Zhuang Zi； romance literature； spiritual nature； artistic feature； founders of creation** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 以实验为载体，提高学生的科学素养
单明娟
(绍兴市长城中学浙江绍兴
312000
科学是一门以实验为基础的学科实验法是科学教学重要的思想方法和科学方法。改变知识本位、学科本位的观念实现从科学知识迈向科学素养(尤其是提高科学素养)的转变，既是课程改革的必然要求，也是科学课程的总目标。
亚里士多德说：“毫无疑问我们应该教给孩子们对他们确实有用的东西。”科学教学中这“确实有用”的东西就是“科学素养”。具有科学素养的人能够提出、发现和解答与日常生活有关的问题能够描述、解释和预言自然现象。
科学教学中如果能注重以实验为基础，充分利用实验教学资源精心组织实验教学，积极开展探究活动通过实验启发学生由“观”生“趣”、由“趣”生“疑”、由“疑”生“思”、由“思”得“知”这对于激发学生学习兴趣增强问题意识培养学生观察能力、动手能力、思维能力，优化思维品质具有举足轻重的作用。
一、实验在提高学生科学素养中的作用
(一)观察实验现象激发学习兴趣
教师针对不同的教学内容利用丰富生动有趣的实验现象可以有效激发学生学习科学的兴趣和探索科学奥秘的强烈求知欲。例如铁丝燃烧火星四射氧气使带火星的木条复燃；二氧化碳灭火用澄清的石灰水和碳酸钠溶液制取“牛奶”…….这些都会令学生兴奋激动再结合现象分析原因便可自主获得结论。
当然应当注意兴趣并非一产生就能持续稳定。这就需要教师不断用新奇的实验现象不断强化学生的学习兴趣从而使学生暂时的浅层兴趣逐渐转化为较深层的兴趣。那些把实验“停留”在黑板上、书本上，背实验现象、实验步骤、实验结论的做
(二)呈现实验过程优化思维品质
1.培养思维的深刻性
例如做“氢气还原氧化铜”的实验时，在笔者介绍实验的注意事项后，有学生提出“假如实验结束时没有继续通氢气到试管冷却为止会有什么现象呢?这时笔者不急于回答学生的问题而是引导学生进行两种不同的实验操作预见实验可能出现的不同现象。实验后根据不同现象(有没有产生红色的铜)组织学生讨论、分析，从而得出结论。由于强化了实验过程的呈现这一教学对培养学生思维的深刻性大有好处。事实上科学实验功能的体现不仅仅在于获得所谓的“正确”实验结果更重要的是使学生经历和体验获得实验结果的探索过程。不重视过程的实验等于把生动活泼的科学现象变成了静止的某个预期的“结论”引不起学生的积极思维。
2.培养思维的独创性
例如在“如何用实验方法区分食盐水和纯水”的教学中笔者让学生自己去发现问题、去设计实验。布置任务后给学生一段时间让他们先独立思考。学生设计出很多方案汇总起来竟然有27种之多。(1)尝(味道)(2)蒸发(有无盐粒)(3)洗伤口(疼痛感)(4)放鸡蛋(沉、浮)(5)导电(强、弱)；(6)泡泡菜(生、熟)(7)养鱼(死、活)(8)治鱼的霉斑(效果)(9)放菠萝(味道)(10)称质量(轻、重)；(11)放冰箱(结冰快慢)；(12)加盐(有无沉析)；(13)晒干(有无盐粒)(14)放铁钉(生锈快慢)；(15)放冰块(溶解快慢)(16)放木条(沉、浮)(17)退烧(效果)(18)放鸡血(是否凝结)(19)过滤(有无杂质)(20)加糖(溶解状况)(21)洗碗(清洁程
2009/4卜
度)：(22)滴油(扩散状况)：(23)洗茶垢(清洁程度)(24)漱口(治牙痛)(25)养海鱼(死、活)(26)养花(死、活)(27)用试纸(效果)。虽然不是每种方法都简单、可行、有效，有些还基本雷同，但每个人都有独立的见解、新颖的观点，这是很宝贵的。然后笔者组织学生一起分析、讨论、比较设计方案的可行性和优缺点等。最后选择优秀的设计方案由学生在课堂上演示，对比较好的方案给予表扬对较差的也要从其中找出某方面的优点给予肯定从而调动各层次学生的创造积极性发展思维的独创性。
(三)借助实验结果就事论理
学生应当具备学会透过现象找出事物本质特性和规律的本领。现象往往是表面的、零散的如何通过现象找出事物规律性的东西，是培养学生分析、概括、推理、判断等思维方法的重要过程。就“事”论“理”中的“事”就是实际存在的问题“理”是对实际问题作出必要的理论分析和说明。如在“大气压”教学中笔者设计了“喝饮料比赛”准备两只瓶子一只瓶口有塞子，一只没有。在有塞子的瓶子中放一个装有清洁饮用水的小瓶在没有塞子的瓶子中也放一个装有清洁饮用水的小瓶。请一位班里公认力气较大的男同学用吸管插入瓶塞吸水请一位班里公认力气较小的女同学用吸管吸另外一瓶水。在全班同学都认为男同学必胜的情况下结果却是女同学赢了。学生对实验结果的预测和实验结果根本不相吻合究竟是什么原因导致的呢通过实验学生明白了大气压的原理原来水不是吸出来的，而是压出来的。
二、以实验为载体提高学生科学素养的策略
(一)围绕实验主题提炼问题
围绕实验主题提炼问题可以增强学生的问题意识培养学生提出问题、分析问题、解决问题的能力。
一是提出系列性问题。例如在演示氢气还原氧化铜的实验中由于注意点较多笔者提出了以下问题，以指导学生观察实验：氧化铜在反应前后颜色有什么明显变化?试管口有什么变化?试管口为什么要向下倾斜?导管为什么要伸入试管底部?开始加热前为什么要先通一会儿氧气?实验结束后，为什么要先熄灭酒精灯再通一会儿氧气以上
问题的设置，使学生对本实验应掌握的内容一目了然。
二是提出对比性问题。例如围绕制取二氧化碳的实验内容，笔者提出了如下问题：不用稀盐酸而改用浓盐酸跟石灰石反应行不行为什么?例如围绕物质燃烧条件的实验内容笔者提出了如下问题：为什么用嘴对蜡烛迅速吹气火焰灭而对炉火迅速吹气却反而越吹越旺通过对比性问题的提炼有利于学生辨析概念掌握原理养成思考实验问题的习惯。
(二)利用实验手段开展探究活动
在课堂实验中尽量将验证性实验转化成探索性实验，将演示实验放手让学生去做(注意演示实验并不是指教师做的实验)，让学生主动参与、乐于探究可以提高学生的探究兴趣和探究能力，从而提高学生的科学素养。
培养学生的探究能力仅仅靠课堂是不够的我们必须拓展实验时空对实验进行改进、改组和改造充分利用实验这一科学学科特有的载体培养学生的实践操作能力使学生养成“瓶瓶罐罐做仪器、拼拼凑凑做实验”的良好动手习惯。
课外活动是课堂的延伸开展课外活动不仅拓宽了学生的知识面使学生掌握了研究问题的科学方法，同时也提高了学生的思维能力与实践能力。因此教师要根据教学、学生、校内外的实际情况开展各类课外活动将课堂教学与课外活动紧密结合起来，使科学教学更加完善。例如(1)用pH试纸测定家庭中的食盐水、肥皂水、茶水、食醋等物质的pH 测定土壤的pH(2)让学生回家指导家长合理施肥、浇花、移栽植物(3)除去热水瓶水垢冰箱除臭(4)熟悉家庭电路、换接保险丝、自制水果电池等。
此外还可以引导学生使用科学知识和科学方法处理生活、生产中与科学相关的问题。例如，通过阅读说明书和尝试性操作学习使用电器和仪器的能力利用科学知识并沿着正确的思维路线发现和排除自行车或家庭上下水系统故障的能力；等等。
(三)组织实验教学培养学生的能力
1.明确实验目的培养学生的观察能力
在实验教学中，往往会出现这样的问题：实验现象错综复杂学生情绪兴奋实验做完后学生只
科学教学中如何提高学生的实践能力
￥杨彩瑜
(诸暨草塔镇中学浙江诸暨 311812)
科学是一门同生产、生活实践联系十分紧密的学科在具体教学过程中必须依托生产、生活实践中与科学相关的感性知识和理性知识。学生在学习了有关知识后，可以应用它们去解决一些生产、生活中的实际问题，并进行简单的创新实践活动。
然而笔者在多年的教学实践活动中越来越感受到现在的中学生虽然生活在科技日益进步、信息日益丰富、社会日益繁荣的网络时代，但他们的实践能力却在逐年下降。
一、初中生实践能力下降的原因
(一)过分偏重科学文化知识的教学，忽视了学生的实践生活
学生对科学生活知识的获得，主要是在参与
记住他感兴趣的实验现象，而不明白这些现象说明了什么问题。因此在实验过程中培养学生的观察能力值得高度重视。为了更好地培养学生的观察力在进行实验时教师必须让学生知道观察什么怎样观察实验的初始状态如何结果如何。只有明确观察目的仔细观察不管实验现象如何都能抓住本质。
2.合理设计实验培养学生的动手能力
苏联教育学家苏霍姆林斯基说过：人的心灵深处总有一种把自己当做发现者、研究者、探索者的固有需要。”在实验教学中教师应让学生自己根据问题去设计实验做实验归纳实验现象，作出分析、判断。这不仅能启发学生积极思维而且可以培养学生的动手能力。例如教师可设计这样的问题：有两瓶失去标签的稀硫酸和稀盐酸溶液，如何鉴别教师可指导学生自己设计实验自己动手实验，观察并分析实验现象。学生通过实验就能发现：用
和社会实践过程中在与自然的直接接触过程中，通过观察、感知、体验和思考等途径完成的。而现在的学校、家庭由于受中考指挥棒和唯学历倾向的负面影响，相对偏重学生的科学文化知识的教学。学生在学校中大部分时间在教室内听课，参加户外活动的时间较少，走出校门进行社会实践的机会更少，即使有大部分也是流于形式。学生在家庭中，一方面仍有较重的学业负担，另一方面由于家长为了让学生考出高分，想方设法给学生加压，学生极少有投入到劳动和社会实践活动中去的机会。这样不仅使学生的见识大大减少而且使学生的观察能力、动手能力的发展也受到了较大的制约。
氢氧化钡溶液和可溶性的钡盐溶液进行区分现象明显，而用硝酸银溶液鉴别则两者都有白色沉淀生成。对于这些实验现象教师可与学生一起分析原因查溶解性表。学生可得出这样的结论：鉴别稀硫酸和稀盐酸溶液不能用硝酸银溶液。这样既培养了学生的实验技能、动手能力又使学生享受了实验过程的快乐。
实验对激发学习兴趣、优化思维品质、明晰科学道理均能起到积极而重要的作用通过实验这一有效载体积极开展探究活动，可以培养学生的观察能力、动手能力、思维能力以及提出问题、分析问题、解决问题的能力，学生的综合素质也可在实验中得到提高并最终内化成科学素养。教师只有充分认识到这一点并有意识地加以实践尝试，才能帮助学生实现从掌握科学知识为目标到提高科学素养为目标的转变。 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
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author: Forbes, James, 1749-1819
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LETTERS FROM FRANCE,
WRITTEN
IN THE YEARS 1803 & 1804.
../
/
i
LETTERS FROM FRANCE,
WKITTEN
IN THE YEARS 1803 & 1804.
INCLUDING
A PARTICULAR ACCOUNT OF VERDUN,
AND THE
SITUATION OF THE BRITISH CAPTIVES
IN THAT CITY.
By JAMES FORBES, F.KS. <Sc.
VOLUME L
LONDON:
1»RINTED FOR J.WHITE, FLEET STREET,
nr r. BENSLEr, eolt court.
1806.
DC
PREFACE.
The volumes which are now presented to
the pubhc attention, consist of Letters
written from France at a very interesting
period. The extraordinary, unexpected,
and unexampled resolution of Bonaparte,
then First Consul of France, to detain all
British subjects who had not left that coun-
try previous to the renewal of hostilities be-
tween the two nations, is as generally known
as it is universally lamented. I and my fa-
mily were among the number of those un-
fortunate captives; and though, by the kind
interposition of my friends, who will not al-
low me to express the gratitude which I
feel, my captivity was shortened, and I was
restored to my country, my residence at
Verdun was of sufficient duration to render
my account of the place, and the circum-
VI
starces connected with it, interesting to the
reader. Mine is an unvarnished narrative;
but it will, I doubt not, excite those emo-
tions which the love of justice, of liberty,
and of mankind, naturally inspire in culti-
vated minds. This act of the French go-
vernment, which consigned so many of our
unoffending countrymen, confiding in the
assurance of its ministers, to unmerited cap-
tivity, will be the subject of the historian,
and I shall leave him to remark upon an
event which I can only describe.
When it was first suggested to me to
publish an account of my residence at Ver-
dun, several of my friends expressed a wish
that I should give the whole of my tour,
and I have acted in obedience to them.
The following Letters therefore contain my
entire journey through Holland, Flanders,
and France, with all its vicissitudes of plea-
sure and of pain. A considerable portion
of its pages will, indeed, describe what has
already been the subject of frequent de-
vu
scrip tion; but they will, I believe, be found
to contain the last account of revolutionised
Holland; the changes in Paris will appear
to be of the latest date, and the provincial
transformations, as far as my experience
extended, have not made any progress since
I observed them. Thus, some portion of
novelty may be found to blend with the
local description, and new objects, or a new
application of them, may have excited some-
what of original observation. I should re-
joice also could I indulge the expectation
that this work may assist the British tra-
veller whenever peace shall re-open the
continent to his researches. And though
that event may not be the object of present
hope, the wish for its return must be con-
tinual, as it will be sincere, in every patriot
mind.
Such, however, as they are, I present
these volumes to the world. It was in-
tended lo have published them at the close
of last spring, but circumstances interposed
vm
which necessarily occasioned the delay: if,
however, they were worthy any portion of
favour then, they will not, I presume, have
already lost their claim, whatever it may
be. On that subject, I shall be silent, as it
becomes me. But this I shall say, that
they were written under the impressions of
humanity, and in the spirit of truth.
DECORATION.
The Frontispiece of each volume con-
sists of a view of Verdun, from drawings
made by myself.
J. F.
LETTER I.
TO THE REV. MR. L.
MY DEAR SIBj
Harwich, April 26, 1803.
Various are the motives to fo-
reign travel, but I shall not repeat them to
you. Those which impel me once more to
quit this happy country, are of the most
powerful nature : parental affection and pa-
rental duty.
My daughter, my only child, is now, as
you well know, arrived at that age when
education requires the last polish; and,
when accompanied by the never-ceasing
vigilance of parental care, can it be obtained
in any way so pleasing and effectual, as by
visiting those parts of Europe to which our
views are directed? Hence originates our
determination to attend her to the conti-
nent, with the design of passing twelve or
VOL. I. B
2
fifteen months in Switzerland and Italy, those
interesting scenes which, seven years ago, I
traversed with so much delight, and which
you will, I am sure, believe, I shall now re-
visit with a far superior interest. But as I
was prevented on my former tour from vi-
siting Holland, Flanders, and France, by
the w^ar which then desolated so large a part
of Europe, I shall avail myself of the pre-
sent period of general tranquillity to pass
through those countries; and we are thus
far on our way to Helvoet-slu} s.
It is our first object, therefore, to see
the principal towns of Holland, and from
thence shape our course through Flanders
to Paris: we propose, however, to make but
a short stay in that city; as it is my present
intention to reach, in the early part of sum-
mer, the sublime and beautiful reoions of
Switzerland, where nature clothes her al-
pine heiglits with such majestic grandeur,
and fills her romantic vales with all the
charms of secluded beauty. A love of
liberty, and a simplicity of manners, have
long been the distinguishing characteristic
of its inhabitants; and though the former
may have sutfered a lamentable depression
from the revolutionary daemon that seeks
to destroy it in every part of the world ; the
latter, I trust, is still to be found among
them.
Such is our plan for the approaching
summer; and when we have enjoyed the
vintage on the charming borders of the Lake
of Geneva, we propose to cross the Alps,
and enter Italy at the close of autumn. A
progress through Turin, Genoa, Florence,
and some of the northern cities, will con-
duct us to Rome, which we shall make our
winter residence, and avail ourselves of the
numerous advantages, which it so transcend-
ently affords. The vernal months that suc-
ceed, may be dedicated to the picturesque
and classic scenery of Tivoli, Frescati, and
Albano. I have also projected a journey
to Naples and a voyage to Sicily.
4
Such, my dear sir, are our delightful
anticipations, and may none of those un-
toward events, which so often cloud the
prospects of hfe, obscure or disappoint them.
Indeed, when I reflect on the near and dear
connexions I leave behind me, my heart is
not without its painful emotions: but the
parting pang is over; the sense of superior
duty consoles me, and to-morrow we em-
bark for Holland.
LETTER II.
TO MRS^D
Helvoetsluys, April 30, 1803.
Many thousand miles, my dear
sister, have we sailed together, and toge-
ther travelled, by various modes of con-
veyance, in three quarters of the globe.
Nor shall we now separate, for I shall still,
as it were, consider you as my companion,
while I regularly communicate an itinerary
of my tour to satisfy your sisterly affection,
and in the liope of amusing your enquiring
mind, while you rock the cradle of declin-
ing ao:e, and cheer the mild evening of our
venerable parent, by your tender and assi-
duous care, in the absence of your brothers :
the one exploring milder climes for the
health of a beloved wife; the other accom-
panying a fond mother, in the dading task
of completing the education of their only
child.
We left home, with the intention of
embarking immediately for Holland, but
the report of an approaching rupture with
France detained us three weeks. At length,
on the 25th instant, we set off for Har-
wich; and, after sleeping at Ingatestone,
we proceeded to Witham and Colchester,
passing through a fertile and pleasant part
of Essex. From Colchester to Manning-
tree, the country presented a soft, and
rural scene, enriched with villas, farms,
and gentlemen's seats: from Manningtree
to Harwich all was varied, beautiful, and
interesting. This stage of twelve miles ge-
nerally proceeds near a large creek, which
meets the Orwell and Stour rivers : it is en-
livened by vessels, and at high water forms
a noble estuary between the shores of Es-
sex and Suffolk. On leaving Manningtree
7
we passed through Mistlej, a pretty river-
port, where ships of burthen are built; and
near it is Mistley Hall, the seat of the late
Mr. Rigby, remarkable for its delightful si-
suation. Mistley chapel, erected by that
gentleman, with several other decorations
to form pleasing objects from the house,
attract the traveller's attention; while the
distant coast of Suffolk, the woody shores
of Essex, the town of Harwich, and the ves-
sels in its harbour, seen from successive emi-
nences, amused us until our arrival there.
Harwich is one of the most incommo-
dious and uninteresting towns I ever be-
held; so that we were glad to embark the
next day for Helvoetsluys, and about four
o'clock w^e weighed anchor; but the wind
veering to the east and blowing fresh, the
packet was obliged to return and anchor
near Land-guard Fort, where we remained
all night, tossing on a boisterous sea. At,
day-break on the twenty-eightli we made
another unsuccessful attemp t, and wcic agcii II
obliged to come to and anchor off Orford-
Ness, on the coast of Suffolk, not far from
the town and castle of Orford ; which, with
the church, light-houses, and vessels in the
road, present a pleasing picture.
\\ hen the tide served in the afternoon,
we once more set sail, and, with a favourable
breeze, lost sight of the English shore: the
next day at noon we saw the flat coast of
Holland, and sailed for many miles along
it: the sand banks, mirelieved by trees or
verdure, now and then presented an ham-
let, a church, or land-mark tower ; but no
other variety regaled our sight, until we
approached the broad expanse where the
river Maes disembogues itself into the sea:
we then saw Helvoetsluys at a few miles
distance, with its windmill, church, and nu-
merous vessels; nor did it disappoint us on
landing, after a passage of four and twenty
hours from the English coast.
We repaired to the British hotel, which
is a neat comfortable house, whose master.
9
mistress, and one of the female servants,
were natives of England. After a slight
refreshment we walked through the town,
which consists chiefly of one large street, or
rather row of whimsical houses, on each
side of the wet docks, which are of great
extent and strong masonry, capable of con-
taining the largest vessels : these, with the
adjacent storehouses and dock-yards, render
Helvoets a place of considerable import-
ance to the Batavian republic. The church
is a plain structure; some of the houses
are large and commodious, and, with much
peculiarity of constructioujliave all that cha-
racteristic neatness which is so conspicuous
in the buildings of every Dutch town: we
were also pleased with the varied dresses of
the women and children, the simplicity of
their manners, and the general cleanliness
and industry of the inhabitants, whose num-
ber does not exceed twelve hundred.
The public walks are shady and plea-
sant, and Ave found them enlivened by the
10
officers and soldiers quartered in the adja-
cent barracks: but I shall hope to satisfy
you with more particular and interesting
descriptions when we arrive successively at
those places which will justify my attempt
to particularize the circumstances attached
to them.
11
.a.i...i...n ' LETTER III.
Rotterdam, May. 1,, JS03.
Yesterday morning we joined a
party of gentlemen who came with us in
the packet, in a journey from Helvoet-
sluys to Rotterdam: the distance is seven
leagues, and our share of the expence for
two coaches, and a light waggon for the
accommodation of the servants and bag-
gage, did not exceed thirty shillings.
On leaving the sea coast, we had the sa-
tisfaction to find the country improve in
rural beauty : the industrious Hollanders are
constantly endeavouring to encroach upon
the sea, and every foot of land that is ob-
tained, is immediately cultivated and im-
proved. The fens are divided by narrow
channels, which serve as drains, into corn-
fields, meadows, and pastures, as are best
12
adapted to the nature of the soil. We
passed through two or three towns, several
villages, and by some opulent farms: the
most humble cottage possessed the appear-
ance of neatness, comfort, and cheerfulness :
every village and farm-house was surrounded
by gardens, and orchards, containing apple,
pear, and cherry-trees, now in full bloom.
The girls were tending the young lambs, or
playing with the kids and goats, of which
animals I saw more during one morning's
ride in the flats of Holland, than I ever be-
held on the mountains of Wales.
The farms abound with cattle, sheep, pigs,
and poultry. But we were more particularly
delighted at the novel spectacle of storks'
nests formed on the tops of chimnies, wind-
mills, and church-towers. These birds are
here domesticated, and appear to love the
society of man, whose regard they have
engaged, and whose protection they have
secured. They are considered with a de-
gree of regard amounting almost to ve-
13
neration, from the circumstance of their de-
stroying the rats, mice> and other vermin,
which are so dangerous to the maintenance
of those dykes, on which the very existence
of the Repubhc may be said to depend.
A stork is the armorial bearing of the Hague,
and the laws of Holland forbid, under the
severest penalties, the taking or damaging
the nests of these welcome visitors, whose
annual return from their migration is con-
sidered as a public good. Their finely con-
trasted colours, and graceful attitudes, espe-
cially Avhile on their circling flight, conti-
nually attracted our attention during the
progress of our journey.
The Dutch barns, like those in Ger-
many, are very large, and the dwelling of
the farmer and his animals is frequently
under the same roof. There are no high
trees in this part of Holland to break the
straight lines presented by the long ridges
of these buildings, nor to give a picturesque
appearance to the country. Indeed the
14
word pictiiresque, according to its general
acceptation, will, I believe, be of very little
use to me, for some time to come.
Amongst the appendages of these farms
may be enumerated the large flocks of tur-
kies and peafowls which every where grace
the yards; but I saw neither dove-cotes nor
bee-hives; indeed the industrious bee would
scarcely be able to exist in South Holland
from the want of meUifluous flowers and
plants. I have not yet seen a cowslip, prim-
rose, or violet; the dandelion and some
aquatic flowers, springing on the margin of
the water-courses, appeared to be the only
ornaments of the meadows.
The road, which was sufliiciently wide
to allow of two carriages passing each other,
generally conducted us along a dyke, or
mount of earth raised through the flats. It
was sometimes planted with elms or walnut-
trees, but more frequently with pollard wil-
lows, which abound on the banks of the
rivers and canals; and the white sails of the
15
vessels passing amongst, or gliding by them,
in various directions, produced a singular
and pleasing effect.
Here, that simple and beautiful picture
exhibited by Goldsmith in his " Traveller,''
was completely realised:
" To men of other minds my fancy flies,
Embosom'd in the deep where Holland lies :
Methinks her patient sons before me stand.
Where the broad ocean leans against the land j
And, sedulous to stop the coming tide.
Lift the tall rampire's artificial pride.
Onward, methinks, and diligently slow, ' '
The firm connected bulwark seems to growj ,^.^> ,
Spreads its long arms amidst the wat'ry roar.
Scoops out an empire, and usurps the shore; '
While the pent ocean, rising o'er the pile.
Sees an amphibious world beneath him smile;
The slow canal, the yellow-blossom'd vale,
The willow-tufted bank, the gliding sail.
The crowded mart, the cultivated plain;
A new creation rescued from his reign.
Thus while around the wave-subjected soil.
Impels the native to repeated toil.
Industrious habits in each bosom reign.
And industry begets a love of gain. ■ » "
We crossed several ferries, which are
well managed, and the boats possess every
possible convenience. Each of them was
l6
always large enough to contain our two
coaches, horses, baggage-waggon, and any
occasional passengers. So commodious are
these boats, that we generally drove into
and out of them, without the trouble of
alighting.
At four o'clock we reached the last ferry
on the banks of the Maes, or Meuse, oppo-
site to Rotterdam, which made a fine ap-
pearance at the distance of about half a
mile. The Boomb Quay, containing a long
row of its best houses, shaded by large trees,
interspersed with the masts and pendants of
ships, and surmounted by the tower of the
great church, and the spires of several others,
occupied the northern banks of the river, as
far as the eye could reach.
A ferry-boat soon conveyed us to the
city, where we were rowed along several ca-
nals which run through the principal streets;
and when no trees appeared, I was strongly
reminded of Venice. We landed near the
best hotel, which is called the Swine's-Hoof,
17
or Boards-Head. As this lovely month is
ushered in by those boisterous winds, and
cold rains, which so frequently protract the
winters of Holland, we have to enumerate
amongst the comforts of our hotel, an ex-
cellent peat fire. The peat is cut by Ger-
mans, who arrive regularly every summer
from Westphalia, solely for that purpose.
Probably this practice originates from a
similar cause to that which produces the
annual migration of Irish hay-makers into
England.
VOL. I.
18
LETTER IV.
Rotterdam, May 2, 1803.
This city, Avhich is the second
in Holland, is considered as possessing a
purer air than most other places in this
country. Such a fortunate circumstance is
occasioned chiefly by the expansive cur-
rents of the Maes, and the Rotter, a smaller
river, from whence the place takes its name,
which supply the canals, and contribute
to the beauty of the place, as well as the
health of its inhabitants.
Some of the streets are long, narrow,
and dark; but those which are watered by
the principal canals, are generall}^ of a con-
siderable breadth, with a row of houses on
each side, shaded by elm and horse-chesnut
trees, and a sufficient space for carriages,
and foot passengers. The canals, which are
19
filled with vessels of all descriptions, occupy
the center, and large ships unlade at the
merchants' doors. But the most agreeable
place of residence in Rotterdam, is the
Boomb Quay, already mentioned: the houses
are here of larger dimensions, and exhibit a
better style of architecture than is to be
found in the other streets; the trees which
overshadow the public walks, are of a more
luxuriant growth ; and the Maes, which
flows below the terrace, is enlivened by the
trading vessels of all nations.
Our hotel stands on one side of the great
market-place, which is the largest space of
terra-firma to be found in the city. We
landed on a market-day, and this square,
with the various avenues leading to it,
was filled with temporary booths, abound-
ing in all kinds of necessaries, and formed
into divisions according to their respec-
tive trades. It was extremely crowded,
and afforded us an opportunity of seeing a
great variety of the inhabitants, many of
20
whom were dressed in the height of the
Enghsh and French fashions; and, from
these, we beheld every intervening grada-
tion, down to the wearers of wooden shoes.
The most interesting object to be seen
from our window, is a bronze statue of
Erasmus, erected on the great bridge. Such
were the abihties of this man, that he would
have been esteemed an honour to any age
and any country. He was born here in
the year I467. I have paid him several
visits, and admire his expressive counte-
nance as he appears meditating on the
contents of a book which he holds in his
hand. He is habited in a doctor's robe,
and bears a great resemblance to our best
portraits and engravings of him. The pe-
destal contains appropriate inscriptions.
Opposite to us is the great church of
St. Lawrence, which towers nobly above the
intervening houses, though they are gene-
rally six or seven stories high, terminating
with the gable end to the street, and rising
21
pyramid ically to the roof, where they are
finished by some unmeaning and whimsical
ornament: the windows of these houses are
so large, that the fronts often contain a much
larger quantity of glass than of brickwork;
and, if the glare of light admitted by this
curious mode of building, was not softened
and shaded by the trees, the inconvenience,
I conceive, w^ould be as great within, as
the inimense window-frames, painted in the
most contrasted colours, are disgusting to
the beholders without: but the Dutch have
a proverb, " that paint costs nothing f and
in this moist climate, where the wood might
otherwise be liable to an early decay, this
proverbial saying may be generally founded
in truth.
On Sunday morning, instead of being
directed to the English Episcopal church,
for which we inquired, we were conducted
to the Scotch meeting-house, which is a
neat building, containing a good organ, and
wtiere the service was performed by a very
22
respectable minister. In the afternoon we
attended the Dutcli service in the great
church of St. LaAvrence, which was once
adorned with painting, sculpture, shrines,
and altars; but after the reformation it
sunk into a desolated state, and is now, not
only unadorned but altogether mean and
dirty. Even in that part of the sacred edi-
fice which is appropriated to public wor-
ship, the men wore their hats, and at no
great distance from it groupes of women
were engaged in familiar conversation. The
altar is separated from the nave by a brass
balustrade of heavy workmanship, and near
it are a few monuments; but I saw none
that were calculated to interest a foreigner.
The church of St. Lawrence is an an-
cient gothic structure, possessing a beautiful
tower, which once supported a lofty spire;
but it unfortunately fell doAvn, and has never
been replaced. From the battlements there
is an extensive prospect over South Holland,
including Amsterdam, Dort, Briel, Delft,
23
and the Hague: but the weather is at pre-
sent too tempestuous to allow of our en-
joying it.
Here are three other churches appro-
priated to Calvinistic worship, or the re-
formed Dutch church; together with cha-
pels for Lutherans and Roman Catholics,
as well as synagogues for the Jews. About
«ight thousand of the widely dispersed na-
tion of Israelites, are settled at Rotterdam,
the whole population of which amounts
^ to fifty-three thousand two hundred and
twelve souls.
The Exchange was erected in the year
1736, and is a quadrangular building of free-
stone, similar to that of London, but consi-
derably smaller and less ornamented. The
naval store-houses are equally capacious
and convenient; and the Weese, or Orphan-
House, is to be ranked amongst the most
useful and ornamental structures in this city :
it generally maintains five or six hundred
boys and girls, who receive an education
24
that is suited to their proposed situations in
life. Nor are there wanting many other
endowments to reheve the infirmities of
age, alleviate the maladies incident to the
human frame, and to promote the welfare
of the rising generation.
^'^THere is also a French and Dutch theatre;
butHbe latter is chiefly frequented by the
low«iT orders of the people. Theatrical
amusements, indeed, are not in such esteein
at^obarlls, concerts, and convivial meetings.
Whis last species of entertainment is natu-
rally produced by the excellent society to
be faund amongst the principal merchants,
of various countries, who are settled in this
commercial emporium.
25
LETTER V.
On board a Trekschuit, between
Rotterdam and Delft, May 2, 1803.
Trekschuits are public water-
carriages, which are passing continually on
the canals through the different parts of
Holland, and, like our stage-coaches, are
admirably contrived for the purpose of con-
veying passengers and goods, which, by
their means, are conveyed, at a small ex-
pence, throughout the United Provinces.
At present I chose to engage one of these
vessels for our sole conveyance to Delft and
the Hague; which is a distance of twelve
miles, or, according to the usual mode of
Dutch computation, a voyage of four hours.
The vessel in which I am now writing is a
very elegant and commodious barge, which
you may readily conceive when I tell you
that I not only write in it, but take my
26
sketches with as much ease, and as Httle
motion, as in a room on shore. The cen-
tral apartment contains ten sash-windows,
with benches and velvet cushions arranged
on each side of a table fifteen feet in length.
It is terminated by tw^o small rooms, one of
w^hich is appropriated to our servants and
baggage; while the other is fitted up with
closets for china, glasses, and other neces-
saries. This vessel, together with three
bargemen, and a horse to tow it, we hired
for twenty-five shillings.
In general, all kinds of navigable con-
veyance is attended with noise: but this is
not the case in a trekschuit, the horse
and his conductor pass quietly along their
allotted path, and the man at the helm is
never heard to exchange a single word with
his companion. Smoaking a pipe seems
alone to constitute their supreme delight;
and no opening prospect, no pleasant villa,
dissolves the charm of their habitual ta-
citurnity.
27
Rotterdam made a fine appearance as
we left it for Delft. The houses are mostly
con(Ci;aled in the trees, which appear in the
form of beautiful groves; over which the
gothic tower of St. Lawrence, an obelisk,
and a few modern buildings, rise Avith a
very pleasing effect.
The cut on which we are passing from
Rotterdam to the Hague, forms a part of
the grand junction canal that runs through-
out the provinces, and we find it enlivened
with vessels of various descriptions; while
its banks are embellished by the villas,
groves, and gardens, belonging to the wealthy
citizens, and yet more enriched by farms,
villages, and hamlets, with their industrious
inhabitants.
During ni}' leisure, and the easy mo-
tion of our trekschuit, I will endeavour to
give you a general idea of the extent, po-
pulation, agriculture, and commerce, of the
Batavian republic. For the principal part
of tlic following information, I must ac-
28
knowledge myself to be indebted to a sta-
tistical account, that has been published in
Paris, since Holland has received thet</ra-
ternal embrace, and been so unfortunately
allied to France. nr
This country, situated on the lowest part
of the habitable earth, in the latitude of
51° 20' and 53" 30' north, was called by Ju-
lius Caesar, Batavia; by Pliny, Bataviorum
Insula; and by Tacitus, Palustris humiMsque
Insula. In the year 1064 it received the
name of Holland; in 1579> that of the
United Provinces: and in 1796, the deno-
mination of the Batavian Republic. Its po-
pulation is estimated at one million, eight
hundred and eighty-one thousand, eight
hundred and eight-one souls, and occu-
pies a tract of land and water containing
seventeen hundred and twenty-eight square
leagues. It is divided by different canals
and rivers into twenty-four cantons, which
contain an hundred and twelve towns, and
about two thousand villages and hamlet§.
29
Many of the towns are fortified, and most of
them abound with store-houses, arsenals, gra-
naries, work-houses, and hospitals of every
description, proportioned to their wealth
and extent of population. They have also
universities, museums, and a variety of in-
stitutions for the encouragement of com-
merce, the improvement of navigation, and
the progress of the arts and sciences.
The revenues, without including those
appropriated to public works, such as the
preservation of dykes, high roads, sluices
canals, and mills, amounted, in the year
1801, to seventy-one millions, three hundred
and fifty-three thousand, three hundred and
nineteen florins. •
At the conclusion of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the army of the republic was esti-
mated at forty thousand cavalry and in-
fantry: and at the peace of 1802, four ships
of seventy gvms, nine of sixty, fifteen of
fifty, seven of forty, fifteen of thirty-six, and
nineteen smaller vessels, mounting altoge-
30
ther, two thousand live hundred guns, con-
stituted their entire navy; and the above
account comprizes the whole Dutch force
which escaped the destruclive power of
the British fleets during the very cala-
mitous war, occasioned by the revolution of
France.
The atmosphere of Holland is thick,
humid, and variable. The prevailing in-
fluence of the west and south-west winds is
perceived by the inclination of the trees to
the contrary points. The soil, in general,
and especially near the sea, is produced
by different sediments left by the waters,
which, in various strata, cover ancient fo-
rests, houses, causeways, and towers; and
there have been frequently discovered the
skeletons of whales, and other large fish;
together with anchors, wrecks of vessels,
and curious marine substances.
As Delille beautifully observes, " Ce sol
que la terre etonnee a vu sortir dts ondes," gain-
ed and preserved by tlie industry of its inha-
31
bitants, amply repays their toil and ex pence,
by the variety and excellence of its produc-
tions. No meadows and pastures are more
rich and fertile than those of Holland ; no
harvests more abundant, and no gardens
and orchards more grateful in such fruits
and vegetables as its northern climate can
produce. It possesses neither vineyards,
forests, quarries, nor mines, deserving the
name: nor does it afford half the quantity
of grain that is consumed by the inhabi-
tants; yet, such is the vigilance of govern-
ment, the encouragement of commerce and
industry, and such the earnest endeavours
to preserve the blessing of peace, that every
want is well supplied, and a ready and con-
stant market for every necessary, comfort,
and luxury, is found throughout the re-
public.
The wild animals of Holland are few:
boars, wolves, and foxes, are no longer to
be found. Deer, hares, and rabbits, are
still abundant in many parts of it. The do-
32
mestic cattle are, in general, large, healthy,
and prolific, particularly the cows and sheep :
it is not a very unfrequent occurrence for
the latter animal to have three, and some-
times four lambs at a birth. The horses
are strong and serviceable, and goats are
very numerous. The country is enlivened
by most of the birds which are common in
England, and there is an abundance of wild-
geese, swans, storks, curliews, cormorants,
and plover; with a great variety of aquatic
fowls, which we had not an opportunity of
enumerating. The different species of ex-
cellent fish caught on the Dutch coasts, and
the never-failing plenty of them, is among
the well known advantages of this country.
Notwithstanding the many endemial
disorders which occasioned Haller to call
Holland, " insaluhris et hrevis ctvi" it is not
a rare circumstance to find individuals ex-
isting in the different provinces, of eighty,
ninety, and even an hundred years of age.
The love of money and the love of hberly
33
^ft^ the ruling passions of the Hollanders,
and every thing here tends to their encou-
ragement. The men are sober, active, pe-
netrating, secret, laborious, aaid economi-
cal; patient in adversity, and courageous? in
danger. The women are modest, cleanly,
and industrious; careful of their husbands'
property, and aspiring to no higher distinc-
tion, than that of being good wives, and
good mothers. Children of bo'th sexes soon
become useful to their parents, who always
endeavour to educate them in a manner
suitable to their present condition and fu-
ture prospects.
From the great agricultural improve-
ments and the construction of so man}' thou-
sand mndmills as are employed in Holland,
a greater proportion of the male inhabitants
can be spared for the fisheries, on the Eng-
lish and Dutch coasts, which are calc^ulated
to supporttwenty thousand famihes. These,
' and the whale fisheries, arc esteemed the
• * p^M mines of Batavia.
VOL. I. D
34
The numerous windmills which are every
where presented to the eye of a traveller,
are employed in draining the lands, pre-
venting inundations, and supplying the ca-
nals: they are also used to grind corn, saw-
timber, rasp logwood and tobacco, make
snuflf, draw wire, beat plates of metal, and
for many other purposes by which manual
labour is so happily spared.
The fish that are caught on these coasts
not only supply the inhabitants with food,
but constitute an article of exportation, both
in a salted and fresh state; they also pro-
duce abundance of oil, and afford excellent
manure for the land. Thus, in a country
that possesses few, or, indeed, scarcely any
natural advantages, the rich inhabitants live
sumptuously, the middle classes plentifully^
and the poorest are seldom without the com-
forts, and never without the necessaries of
life. The police in this respect, as in al-
most every other, is under the best regula-
tions; for the wicked, the idle, and the dis-
35
orderly of both sexes, confined in the houses
of correction, are kept in constant employ-
ment, the men in rasping Brazil-wood for
the purposes of dying, and the women in
spinning: those who neglect to finish their
allotted tasks are severely punished; and, if
stripes fail to rouse them to exertion, they
are shut into a cellar, which, by slow de-
grees, is filled with water, and this situation
is so contrived, that the culprit can only
save himself from being drowned, by ap-
plying to the pump with every possible
exertion.
I shall just mention the following cus-
toms that are peculiar to the middle and
lower classes of the Dutch community.
When a married woman approaches the
important period of her accouchement, her
female relatives, and nearest neiglibours,
are invited; and these frequently remain
many days and nights in the house before
the birth of the infant; they are then en-
gaged to prepare the family feast, which is
36'
always given upon such an interesting oc-
casion. If a person who, unfortunately,
chances to be destitute of the necessary
comforts in a case of sickness, sends to the
neighbours, they immediately come with
every assistance in their power, and remain
in the house until the patient recovers or
death puts an end to their care. They are
also invited to all weddings and funerals,^
and these ceremonies are always concluded
by plentiful repasts.
Thus have I endeavoured to give you
a general outline of this country, which I
cannot conclude in a more satisfactory
manner than by quoting a passage of the
statistical work which I have already men-
tioned, as it contains so just and striking a
comparison between the ladies of Holland
and France.
" Ou donne universellement le titre de
bonnes menageres aux femmes de la Bata-
vie; elles le meritent: une femme riche en
France s'occupe rarement d'autre chose que
S7
de sa toilette, et de ses plaisirs: dans la Ba^
■tiivie c est precisement le contraire : plus il
y a de fortune dans une maison, plus on en
voit la maitresse sedentaire, vigilante, atten-
tive a ce que rien ne se deplace, se de-
truisse ou se perde. A Paris, une femine
du bon ton se croirait humiliee, si celui qui
lui prend la main pouvait s'appercevoir
qu'elle s'occupe de son menage, ou qu'elle
a touche autre chose que son chansonnier,
ses romans, ses habits du bal, sa musique,
ses bijoux, ses bonnets, ses dentellesy ou les
innombrables objects de sa toilette. A
Amsterdam, c'est encore Toppose: mieux
une femme est nee, mieux elle connait This-
toire et la geographic, mieux elle parle les
differents langues vivantes; mieux elle sait
coudre, tricoter, brader, marquer, faire de
la tapisserie; coudre, plier, arranger une
lessive; commander, conseiller une cuisi-
niere, soigner un fruitier, dinger une basse-
cour. Pour tout dire, enfin, veut on voir
un menage bien ordonne, bien proprc, et
38
souvent magnifique, des domestiqiies labo-
rieux et fideles; des commis assidus et dis-
crets; des enfans charmans, bien vetus, bien
Aleves; des epoux con tens de I'etre; une
femme vertueuse au milieu de tout-cela; il
faut venir a Amsterdam/'
Although it may not be very interest-
ing, yet by adding the following account,
I render my brief description of Holland
more complete. It is a statement of the
modern divisions of the Batavian republic,
which, by the constitution of the 18th of
October 1801, instead of the ci-devant seven
United Provinces, is separated into the fol-
lowing eight departments.
Groningen, containing 102 square leagues^Sc 93,000 inhabitants.
Friesland 151 96^846
Over Yssel 2/0 1 70,330
Guelderland 265 323,282
Utrecht 65 108,820
Holland 28f) 799,979
Brabant 228 207,708
Zeland 58 81,916
Extent of sq. leagues 1425 Population 1,881,881
39
In the different provinces there are up-
wards of three hundred square leagues of
ground under water, in the following pro-
portions.
In Beveland 8 square leagues.
Biesboch 12
Haarlem- Meer 15
Zuyder-Zee 268
Total 303
I shall now present you with a statement
of the internal wealth of the above depart-
ments.
The chief town of the department of
Groningen is called by the same name, and
its inhabitants are computed at 23,377 of
both sexes.
Number of Horses in this department 1 6,000
Horned cattle and goats 45^000
Sheep 60,000
Hogs 30,000
Geese, ducks^ poultry, and pigeons 135,000
It possesses many lakes and rivers, but
only one canal that is navigable, and which
is called the Canal of Gronins^en. Its com-
•o
40
mercial and agricultural concerns employ
fifty large vessels, and between fifteen and
sixteen hundred boats, of various dimensions.
The proportion of revenue paid by this
department to the Batavian republic is as
5 to 100.
The chief town of Friesland is Leu war-
den, and its population amounts to 15,525
of both sexes.
Number of Horses in this department. . 20,000
Horned cattle and goats . . . 50,000
Sheep 65,000
Hogs 35,000
Poultry of all kinds 150,000
Friesland employs in commerce and
agriculture about fifteen hundred boats, and
six hundred larger vessels. Its proportion
of general revenue, 3delded to the republic,
is as 1 1 to 100.
41
The chief town of the department of
Over-Yssel is Deventer, and contains 12,220
inhabitants.
Its number of Horses are 1 8,000
Horned cattle and goats . S 0^000
Sheep 90,000
Hogs 50,000
Poultry ] 90,000
Bee-hives 10,000
Upon its lakes and rivers are employed
five hundred boats, and forty-eight larger
vessels; and its contribution to the state
revenue is as 4 to 100.
The names of its lakes are, Blanke-
Meer, Eens-Meer, Gross-Meer, Gietersche-
Meer, and Leekter-Meer.
Its rivers are the Aa, Dinkel, Linde,
Regge, Swarte vrater, Schip-beck, Vecht,
and the Yssel.
Amheim, the chief town of Guelderland*
contains 10,080 inhabitants.
Numberof Horses in this department , 40,000
Horned cattle and goats. . , 1 12,000
Sheep 170,000
Hogs 80,000
Poultry of all kinds 480,000
42
For the various purposes of agriculture
and commerce, this department employs
sixty or seventy large vessels, and nearly a
thousand boats. Its contribution to the
general revenue is as 5 to 100.
Its rivers are the Aa, Berteel, GrifF,
Yssel, Leek, Linge, Rhine, Schip-beck,
Slink, Sec.
Utrecht, the capital of the department
of Utrechtj contains 32,294 inhabitants.
Number of Horses in this department. . ] 2,00O
Horned cattle and goats . . . 45,000
Sheep 60,000
Hogs 30,000
Poultry of all kinds 150,000
In the navigation of the rivers and ca-
nals of this department, six hundred boats,
and a few larger vessels are constantly em-
ployed.
The names of the rivers are the Eem,
Yssel, Leek, Krome Rhyn, Oude Rhyn,
and le Veclit.
43.
Its proportion of the public revenue is
as 5 to 100.
The principal towns of Holland are,
Anosterdam, containing .... 217,024 inhabitants
Rotterdam 53,212
Hague 38,433
Leyden 30,055
Haarlem 21,227
Delft 13,737
Helvoetsluys 1,208
Number of Horses in this department ] 00,000
Horned cattle 350,000
Sheep 450,000
Goats 10,000
Hogs 200,000
Poultry, of all descriptions, exceed 1,000,000
The harbours and roads for shipping
are Amsterdam, Briel, Dort, Enkwisen,
Goree, Helvoetsluys, Hoorn, Medenbhk,
Rotterdam, and Williamstadt.
The rivers of this department are the
Amstel, Donge, Gouwe, Yssel, Leek, Linge,
Macs, Merwe, Rhyne, Roewaert, Rotte,
Schic, Spul, Spaar, and Vecht.
44
Its proportion of contribution to the ge-
neral revenue is as l6 to 100.
Many of the lakes in this province, by
means of steam-engines, wind-mills, and
other useful structures, have been drained
and converted into meadows and corn-fields:
and their beds are now covered with flocks
and herds, or repaying the expensive in-
dustry of their owners, by yielding abundant
harvests. Twelve lakes yet remain in their
original state, though some of them are
gradually undergoing the same delightful
change, from comparative unprofitableness,
to fertility and richness. The canals are
numerous and extensive; and the number
of vessels belonging to the Province of Hol-
land amount to 1800 ships and trading ves-
sels, 2500 sloops, barges, and luggage-boats;
and about 8000 small boats, exclusive of
those pleasure-boats one of which is at-
tached to almost every villa that stands on
the banks of the canals or rivers.
45
The chief towns of Brabant are,
Bois-le-Duc, containing .... 12,627 inhabitants.
Breda 8,250
Bergem-op-Zoom 4,722
Tilburg 8,532
Number of Horses in this department. . 25,000
Horned cattle and goats. . . . 6o,00O
Sheep 80,000
Hogs 50,000
Pouhry 250,000
Bee-hives 20,000
Its rivers are L'Aa, Beek, Beerse, Diest,
Dinkel, Dommel, Donge, Escaut, Gender,
Hulver, Ley, Murk, Maes, Scheick, Weg-
reyse, and Zoom.
The proportion contributed to the ge-
neral revenue by this department is as 4 to
100.
Middleburg, the chief town of Zealand,
contains 17,687 inhabitants, and the
Number of Horses in this department is. 12,000
Horned cattle and goats 90,000
Sheep 20,000
Hogs 18,000
Poultry 120,000
46
Its rivers are the Escaut, east and west,
the Hond, and the Eendracts.
Its navigable canals are Goes, Middle-
burg, and Zierikz6e, and on which 1200
small boats are employed. The trade and
fisheries of this province maintain three
hundred ships, besides a considerable num-
ber of barges and large boats.
Its proportion of contribution to the ge-
neral revenue is as 9 to 100.
47
LETTER VI.
Delft, May 2, 1803.
Punctuality and method are
amongst the principal characteristics of a
Dutchman. It had been promised us that
we should arrive at Delft by a certain hour;
and we reached the destined place precisely
at the time specified. Tiie lofty towers of the
two churches, a few other buildings which
appeared above the trees, and an astonish-
ing number of windmills, were the princi-
pal features in our first view of Delft. It is
one of the fortified towns of Holland, pos-
sessing seven gates, and numerous towers:
yet, notwithstanding the town contains one
of the grand arsenals of the republic, the
works are suffered to fall into ruin. Im-
mediately without the walls several large
powder-magazines have been erected, which
are surrounded by water.
4S
The two principal streets which run parallel
with each other, are nearly a mile in length,
and are broad, airy, and pleasant; with a
canal in the center, and a row of trees on each
side, which overshadows the neat benches
and marble pavements before the houses;
where the inhabitants spend much of their
time, sometimes, indeed, in social converse,
but much more frequently in silent apathy.
Whether these indolent reveries of the
Dutch, or those mental absorptions so pe-
culiar to the Brahmins while sitting in
the sacred groves of Hindostan, are most
efficacious in their nature and tendency, I
shall not pretend to determine.
The canals of Delft are supplied by the
River Schie, which runs by the town. The
town-house is an ancient and handsome
structure. In the Prinsenhof, which was
formerly a convent of St. Agatha, William
the first Prince of Orano;e was assassinated
by Ghirard, a wretch employed for that pur-*
pose by Philip the Second of Spain.
49
" The two churches have been celebrated
by many travellers, for the number and
beauty of the monuments, erected in them
to the memory of the Princes of Orange,
and many other eminent personages. But
my expectations respecting them were not
gratified, and as an amateur,! -was greatly dis-
appointed: though I was however seriously
affected by those solemn, yet pleasing, emo-
tions, which steal upon the mind of a think-
ing being on approaching the remains of such
illustrious characters as are here interred.
The monument of William, the first
Prince of Orange, who was the successful
champion of liberty in the sixteenth cen-
tury, was erected at the expence of the
States-General of Holland, in the year 16O9.
It is a grand composition; but, surely, he
who could say with a certain French writer,
ihat " Les connoisseurs mettent cet ouvrage
au dessus de tout ce que I'ltalie a produit
d'excellerrt en ce genre," could never have
risited the classic marbles of that country,
VOL. I. E
50
or have beheld the sepulchres of Westmin-
ster Abbey.
Near the tombs of the royal House of
Orange repose the ashes of those celebrated
admirals Hein and Tromp, over whose sa-
cred dust appropriate monuments have been
erected. The statue of Tromp represents
him in a reclining attitude with his hand
on a cannon, and his body resting upon the
rudder of a ship: the battle in which hc^
lost his life is finely represented in basso-
relievo.
Leeuwenhoeck, the celebrated physician,
whose microscopic researches have been so
deservedly esteemed;. and Hugo Grotius, a
name dear to literature, are both buried
here. On the monument of the latter is a
concise and beautiful latin epitaph. Both
these great men were natives of Delft, as
were also Pontus Heuterus the historian,
Van Adrichem the Jewish antiquarian, the
pensionary Heinsius, Jean Steen, the Scar-
ron of Dutch painters, together with several
51
others who arrived at eminence in the va-
rious departments of art and science.
Delft has long been known for the ex-
cellence of its earthen, or porcelain manu-
facture, which has been generally known
by the name of Delft-ware. But since the
great importations from China, and the
beautiful productions of this kind manu-
factured at Dresden, Berlin, Seve, and
Vienna, as well as in several parts of Eng-
land, and some other countries, the trade
of Delft, in this commodity, is very much,
if not altogether, on the decline.
52
!w;ff
LETTER VII.
The Hague, May 3, 1803.
Our stay, as you will readily be-
lieve, was very short at Delft; and with far
superior expectation we proceeded to the
Hague, a course only of three miles, in which
the country still continued equally flat, bvit
was more abundant in foliage, than any
we had seen in Holland. The canal, which
is planted on each side with rows of elm-
trees; and the numerous villas and gardens,
belonging to the gentry at the Hague, who
appeared in their carriages on a road pa-
rallel with the canal, engaged our atten-
tion in a very pleasing manner. In this
little progress, we passed the village and
chateau of Ryswdck, a place famous in his-
tory for having been the spot on which a
treaty of peace w^as concluded, in the year
55
1697, between England, France, Spain, Ger-
many, and the United Provinces. It be-
longed at that time to the Princes of Orange,
but it has since been suffered to fall into
decay; and the gardens, which are repre-
sented to have been so beautiful and exten-
sive, are now destroyed.
The Hague is so encircled by trees, that
very little of the town, except the spires of
the churches, can be seen, at a very small
distance. At length, by following the course
of the canal, we entered one of the prin-
cipal streets; and, turning down a smaller
channel, we landed, about three o'clock
yesterday afternoon, at the door of one of
the principal hotels, called the Mareschal
de Turenne.
The Hague is generally esteemed one
of the prettiest places in Europe, though it
ranks not among its cities; for as it has no
walls, and does not send deputies to the
states, it can claim no higher title than that
of a village : it is nevertheless the seat of go-
54
ment, the residence of the foreign ambassa-
sadors, and the resort of strangers from all
countries. It is called in French la Hai/e,
the hedge; and in Dutch, Gravenhage, or
Earl's grove, from a wood in which the
Earls of Holland, in former ages, had a
country-house.
The part which is inhabited by the mer-
chants and tradesmen is like most of the
other Dutch towns, and consists of numer-^
ous streets of unequal breadth, and iU-
shaped houses, built parallel with the ca^
nals,on which vessels are seen to lade and un •
lade at the very doors. But that part which
is appropriated to the residence of foreigners
and the superior classes of the inhabitants,
is of a very different description. There
the streets, squares, and public places, con-
tain a number of magnificent houses and
palaces, shaded by trees which form broad
and noble avenues. These groves, border-
ing the canals, have a most delightful ap-
pearance; and the walks, composed of sand
,55
and sea- shells, hardened by the late rains,
eqpal those of the finest gravel, of which
^|j|^^"^ is none in this country: indeed, I be-
,Ueve, there is no stone of any kind that can
J[)e pronounced as indigenous to Holland.
^; J, As strangers, we behold these scenes
with additional delight, from their being
div^r^fied and enlivened by the varied man-
ners and customs of the inhabitants, who
>re of all descriptions, and we consider our-
selves very fortunate in seeing the Vyyer-
burg (a place so called from the Vyver,
which is a large piece of water near the pa-
lace) in a state of simplicity, which we
should not have done had we arrived a few
,days later, as the people are already busily
^employed in erecting booths, and other tem-
porary structures, along the walks, on ac-
.pount of the near approach of the annual
fair, which commences on the next Sunday,
and will continue until the Sunday fol-
lowing.
^ , . The §tadtholders palace, a lai'ge irre-
56
gular pile, is situated on one side of the
Vyver. The building of it began in the
year 1249j by William the second, who was
tlie eighteenth earl of Holland, and whose
predecessors had resided at Haarlem. It
was on this spot where the Stadtholder kept
hi& court with such sumptuous hospitality
tp foreign ambassadors and persons of dis-
tinction. The Hague was then considered
to be one of the most delightful places of
residence in Europe, as it was found to
blend, in the most agreeable manner, the
gaiety of Paris with the genuine simpli-
city of Holland. It has always been a re-
sort of the most elegant society, and, from
the foreign ministers and strangers being
drawn into a smaller circle than can be
done in a large metropolis, urbanity and
politeness were more generally introduced,
and cultivated, amongst the higher order of
inhabitants.
We visited the principal apartments in
the palace, and especially admked those
57
which were finished about six years ago, in
a good style of architecture, and faced with
free-stone; the rest of this heterogeneous
pile is entirely composed of brick. The
drawing-room is handsome, and the adjoin-
ing apartments of the princesses are ele-
gantly furnished with Gobelin tapestry, and
chairs and sofas of the same manufacture.
This is the onlv room that has not been de-
spoiled of its ornaments and furniture; for, in
general, the moveables of every description
were carried off as revolutionary spoil. The
inhabitants univei'sally regret, in an equal
degree with strangers, the loss of the prince's
cabinet, which contained a most valuable
collection of subjects in natural history,
and many other curiosities from various
parts of the globe. This museum was opened
once a week to the inspection of the public.
The library is still preserved, under certain
regulations, as national property. The new
ball-room is converted into an apartment
of state for the transaction of public busi-
;58
ness. The president's chair and semicircular
seats are well contrived. They are covered
with green cloth, embroidered with a repre-
;^^tation pf the arms of Holland.
i ..In, another state room, now called the
flfall of Confederation, from the circum-
stance of the late treaty between France
and Holland having been signed in it, is an
allegorical picture representing the union
pf the Gallic and Batavian republics. From
jthence we ranged through several other
apartments in different parts of the palace,
most of which formerly contained pictures
of great merit, especially the productions
of the Dutch and Flemish schools. Not
one of these now remains; while the un-
furnished and untenanted walls of so many
spacious chambers offer to a contemplative
mind a mortifying, and melancholy con-
trast to the showy parade and bustle of a
court.
I shall not enter upon a description of
the other public buildings. The churches^
J59
hospitals, schools, and charitable founda-
tidris of various kinds, have given the Hague
a high rank amongst the Dutch towns.
Yet I must not neglect to mention the great
pleasure I derived from a visit to the Fuench
church, of which the good, the amialite
Saurin, whose discourses have immortalised
his name, was the distinguished pastor. -^
' "In the evening I took a walk ta the
House in the Wood, which was a summer
palace belonging to the Princes of Orange,
and where the Stadtholder generally resided
several months in the year. It is situated at
the extremity of a wood, at the distance of
about half a league from the Hague, and
is preserved with great care. During the
exigencies of the country in the year 1576,
the States-General resolved upon the sale
of its limber for the public service; when
the magistrates of the Hague purchased
the trees, which then became the pro-
perty of the town. It was also spared
60
upon other occasions, ' ieveii" by the elp^ess
orders of Philip II. of Spain. "* * ^^
" ' Ottf morning visit to the palace had'rii^
tdfidency to enliven with any cheerful emo-
tions my evening excursion. My mind
was pensive, and my walk through the un-
freqiiented paths of the wood was melan-
choly and slow: the instability of sublunary
grieatness appeared as a vision before me:
a deserted palace, an exiled prince with
fc^is family, seeking protection in foreign
cotintries, and his faithful ministers, adhe-
rents, and domestics, wandering in a state
of poverty and emigration, form a com^
bination of distressing images sufficient to
fill every human breast with agonizing sen-
sations on the contemplating of it. The
villa was despoiled of its furniture and or-
naments during the revolution; and a part
of it is now let to an inn-keeper who is glad
to provide for the entertainment of visitors.
But some characteristic utility is still at-
61
tached to the building, and the best rooms
are appropriated to a national collection of
those pictures which have been preserved
frqtn the revolutionary wreck, and a small
addition has been since made to them at tJi,^
^^pence of the government.
The wood which occasions this ed^fip;^
to ti^ i denominated La Maison du Bois, or
the House in the Wood, would be esteemed
as beautiful in any other country; but, in
the open flats of Holland, superior cliarm^
are attached to it. It, however, does not
exceed a mile in length, nor is it more than
half that space in breadth, yet the bounda-
ries are so well concealed, and the rides
and walks so artfully conducted, that, a
stranger might imagine himself to be ram-
bling in a much greater extent of ground.
The principal trees are oak, beech, and elm.
I, measured some of the first of these species,
and found them twelve feet in circum-
ference; a few of the beeches were even of
a larger growth and very ornamental. The
62
underwood affords shelter to the nightingales,
cuckoos, and a variety of nature's choris-
ters, who would otherwise be at a loss for
verdant recesses in the season of incubation.
Deprived of the shade which this wood offers
to them, they would be in a great measure
c©mpelled to leave a country so divested of
their chief delight. The plants and flowei^
M0hich I observed as the most conspicuoub'
i#*hu^fee shades were the wood-sorrel, violet,
liJ^ df the vafley, pile wort, and anemone-
ni^jh^eroBa.
Xlf'-V {■;!-. ■
ti • ■ •
lot ?-.) r '^LETTER Vlli:
The Hague, May 5, 1803.
^,i^..^YESTERDAY moming we went in
an open carriage to the small fishing town
o^, Scheveling, about two miles from the
Hague. It was from this place, in the midst
of winter, during a stormy night, and in utki
open boat, that the Prince of Orange with
his family, assailed by the horrid dangers
of the late revolution, embarked for Eng-
land; and in this wretched and perilous
situation were they exposed for thirty-six
hours before they could reach the port of
Harwich.
Our present Valet de place accompanied
the Prince in that sad reverse of fortune,
and continued with him for some time in
England; he is therefore enabled to relate
a thousand interesting anecdotes respecting
64
his late unfortunate prince and maste^r; in
which the* principles of humanity and be-
nevolence always appeared to predominate.*
The road to Scheveling runs in a straight
line through an avenue of shorn trees, which-
is terminated by the church, and was crowded ■
by numbers of fish women, of a most sin-
gular appearance as to variety of dress and
figure; though in vociferation they by no'
means rivalled our ladies of Billingsgate.
Th^ were carrying large baskets that ap-
peared to be filled with cod, haddock, tur-
bot, plaice, and other fish, to the Hagtte,'
where this kind of provision is very cheap.
This necessary article of consumption is also
conveyed in carts drawn by two dogs, who
are not only strong enough to drag a heavy
load of fish, but very frequently the addi-
tional burden of the lazy drivei*. The dogs'
which are trained for this purpose often sell'
for ten guineas a couple. ♦ »t
Scheveling is the sea-port of the Hagoey
and one of the few places which afford any
65
any amusing objects within the airings of its
inhabitants. We found the beach covered
with fishing boats, just amyed, and sur-
rounded by the purchasers and vendei's of
the cargoes, who were busied in examining
lots of fish that had been previously disposed
in rows for their selection. We saw three
cod-fish, of unusually large dimensions, sold
for nine gilders, or fifteen shilhngs, and se-
venteen fine haddocks for twenty-pence, ftv
On our return from Scheveling westoppeti
at the villa which formerly belonged to the?
Greffier Fagel; and, when in his possessions^
Avas considered as one of the prettiest build-
ings of that kind in Holland. But it has
since been dismantled by revolutionary
frenzy, the gardens totally destroyed, and
the ground planted with potatoes. A rela-
tion of Mr. Fagel's now occupies the man-
sion, and, being desirous of seeing the re-
treat of such a man, we sent in a polite
message to that effect, but had the morti-
fication to be refused admittance. I should
VOL. I. r
06
not have mentioned this circumstance h^d
it not be^n the first instance of similar in-
liospitalily which I have experienced dur-
ing my travels for a .^pace of thirtj-fivi^
years in different p^rts of the globe. Thus
disappointed we proceeded to the House in
.the Wood hi order to t^ke an iqtqrior view
pf its apartments. It is also caljed Orange
Zaal, La Salle d'jOrqngc, and was built by
the Princess Amelia de Solmes, widow of
jFrederick Henry, Prince of Orange, f^r a
country residence. It is a comfortable ipo-
dern dwelling, without any claim to elegant
architecture. It consists chiefly of a suite
of rooms on eacli side of the great haJl for
the Prince and Princess, with other apart^
ments for the rest of the family. It has
J)een a favourite villa with all the Stadt;-
Jiolders; and, previous to the revolution, wa^
most splendidly furnished, particularly the
room called the Chinese bed-chamber, in
which every ornament and utensil exhibited
the finest specimens of art from Japan and
67
'China. But the best part of the building
is that which procured the whole a Dutch
%krrie, and has always 'attracted the atten-
tion of strangers; I mean the g-rahd salooii,
-or Orange Zdal, which still remains in an
lihmutilated state.
This very beautiful ro'omVaB *coiistrticted',
as the insci'iptioii found the frieze comme-
moi-dtes, by Amelia dfe Sblnles, ihe discon-
solate wido\V of Prince Frederick already
mentioned, as a monument of her sorrow;
and inviolable attachment to her illustrious
husband. The form of this iioble apart-
ment is a large octagon, having a lofty cu-
pola in the center. The walls are entirely
covered with historical and allegorical ])aint-
Ings, which record the principal events of
Fi"federick's life, from liis birth to his death.
They kre eiecuted by nine celebrated Diitcli
and Flfemish artists, from the schools of
Rubens and Vandyke. Many of the pic-
tures h'a^c great merrt, artd the whole room
6S
is interesting in its objects and ve^y striking
in its effect.
The principal apartments which hav^
been divested of their furniture are, as l
have before mentioned, converted into a
picture gallery under the direction of go-
vernment, and each person pays two shil-
lings on his admittance to a view of, it.
Our venerable Cicerone bore a considerable
resemblance to the good Lavater; his grey
locks were covered by a small black cap,
and his communications were delivered with
much gravity and respect in the French Ian*
guage. Though there are several good pic-
tures of the Italian, Dutch, and Flemish
schools, in this national collection, I have
not time to particularize them, neither shall
I comment on the portraits of the Stadt-
holders and patriots of Holland, which hang
in a separate chamber. One smalJ paint-
ing only, which is covered with a green cur-
tain, appeared to me so impressive, that
69
1 cannot pass it over in silence. It is the
representation of a night scene, near the
prison gate of the Hague, with the painter
in the foreground, who is seen to hold a
torcli for the purpose of throwing a strong
light upon the dead bodies of Cornelius
and John De Witt, those martyrs who fell
in the cause of liberty, and were inhumanly
murdered by an infuriate mob. Their
mangled forms are represented as hanging
up with their heads downwards, like car-
cases in the shambles; the entrails are taken
out, and the flesh cut open and scored.
This picture was much too well executed,
and my sensations on viewing it were those
of the utmost terror.
Another apartment is dedicated to the
reception of a museum, in which are a few
interesting subjects; particularly the Avooden
cup 6ut of which the protestants drank
when they took the patriotic oath to defend
their religion and their country in the six-
teenth century. Also a wooden ball, into
TO
"\yliich each of. th^.p^triots. drove a nailj as
a testimqny that they, s>yore allegiance ta,
William the first Prince of Orange. The,
swords o£ admirals, I)e Rujter. and Van,
Tromp are here preserve^^ with a curious
piece of cannon and spnie othef , military,
trophies. These are the only remains of a^.
much larger collection that Wcls despoiled
and plundered during th^ late revolution.
The gardens are in great disorder, bjut they-
do not appear to, haye. been at any time.,
remarkable for their beauty or inyiting tOj
the visitor.
After our excursion, w^e dinned with Mr.
Liston, the English minister here. At his .
house we met the Russian, Imperii:^), and •
Venetian envoys, and others of, the corps
diplomatique. In the evening we were .
ii]troduced to a numerous circle of both;,
sexes, who generally meet every Wednesday.
Amongst the latter company were the
French and Spanish ambassadors.. The ge-
npral topic of conversation was the question^
7V
of peace or* AV'ar, arid ' upon expressing our
individual apprehensions in case of war, '
Mdns.' S^monville, the French ambassador,
VeVy' politely proihisetl to grant us a pass-
pdi*t, which, in the eve'nt of hostilities, would
^*c*ure safetjr thi'oiigh the French republic.
He has all' the exterioV of a finished gentle- '
mai^, arid is generally understood to be a
gtea't favourite mth the First Consul. The
investigation of chai'acter'is not, as you well
kribwj among the objects of my conttnentar
progr^fes.'
This mot-ning we revisited th^ palace
alid' olheF public buildings, and terminated
obr'walk in the National Gardens, the mo-
d'erri appellaLtibri" of those formerly belong-
ing to the Hereditary PHnce of Orange, and
which are adjoining- his Ittte palace. Now,
ind'eed, ev^ry thing is riational: here ai'e not
only riatiorial gardens, but national pictures,
arid a Ti^tiori^Mibrary ; while many of the
modcri\ patriots of Holland, fearing to have'
their prin(^ipl(^s' mistaken, or unknown, have
72
bored their ekrs, and exhibit ear-tings in ,
token of their fraternization . ' h "
The gardens are extensit^e, and the walks
and plantations are laid out with some taste.
The shrubberies abound with nightingales,
which are almost incessantly singing, even
at noon-day; and they are so very tame,
that many of them warbled beside us on the
sprays, while others hopped before us round
the canal. Here these delightful birds are
never molested; and any infringement of
their choral rights is severely punished.
We again dined with Mr. Liston ; and
met a very agreeable party, whom we ac-
companied to the French comedy. The
theatre is small and shabby, and by no means
corresponds with the other places of fashion-
able amusement at the Hague.
Our English friends are extremely im-
portunate that we should make a longer
stay at this charming place; and nothing
can exceed the politeness and hospitality of
Mr. and Mrs. Liston. But I must dechne
73 ;
their vfriendly invitations, and pursue the
primary object of our journey, which is to
reach Switzerland without delay. We are,
in consequence, to receive our passports
from Mons. Semonville and Mr. Liston to-
morrow morning.
74"
EETfEtl liJi.
i J
Leyde?n> May 6, ad^Si'
Early this morning Mr. Listen
sent our English and French passports, when
we immediately hired the roof of a trek-
schuit to convey us toLeyden,the next place
of our destination. The distance is about
Bine miles, or, according to Dutch compu-
tation, a journey of three hours from the
Hague. The roof is the after-cabin of the
vessel, which, on an early application, may
be exclusively taken. This part of it is
capable of accommodating twelve persons,
with a table, cushions, and other conve-
niencies. The small sum of three shillings
and sixpence secured this apartment to our-
selves, and we saw nothing of the other pas-
sengers, though we were occasionally re-
galed with the flavour of their pipes, av liicli
75r
penetrated; tbrou^U the. openings of the
windows^
The morning w^s fii^e,. and we had a
very deUghtful passage toLeyden. Nothings
as. I have akeady observed, and may ob-
serve again, can e.vceed the punctuahty of
the Dutch; the trekschuit pro:ceeds at the
rate of thtee nules an hour, neither more
nor less: the clocks of. thfe Hague struck
nine as we departed, and those of Ley den
were striking, twelve as we landed.
Near the Hague we passed several villas
belonging to its inhabitants, and afterwards,;
many opulent farms and '■ villages. The
spires of Delft and the tower of St. Law^-
rence at Rotterdam, appeared as strik-
ing featnres in the horizon; while agricul-
tural, scenes, catjtle„ and storks, animated
the pearer • banks of the canal, which' were
frequently . shaded by avenues of ancient
elms; aijd. now, as an agreeable- variety,
we were for the first time assailed by, the'
m\isic of those X),utch nightingales deno-
76
liimafed frogs; which appeared to fci^'bf
an enormous growth, and were croaking
amongst the aquatic plants; but as the boat-
iiieri assured us that this music was always
prophetic of fine weather, we resolved to be
pleased with the concert.
The domes and towers of the churches',
and thie university of Leyden, rising above
the groves which surround them, have a
good effect in the landscape on approach-
ing the city; and the sides of the canal are
adorned with large trees, which overshadow
the villas, whose gardens are enriched with
fruit-trees in full blossom, and beds of tulips
and hyacinths on the very margin of the
water.
Leyden is one of the most celebrated
cities of Holland, and is situated near the
Rhine; that noble river, which, after flow-
ing through such an extensive and varied
part of Europe, from its source amongst
the Glaciers of Switzerland, at length loses
its Waters in the sands 'of Catwvk, at
-i
77
about the distance of a league fron[\ thi^,
plac^.
Leyden, which is a walled city, is sur-
rounded by a broad ditch, canals, and
shady walks. The best streets consist of a
canal, two side paths, and rows of trees b;^'^
fore the houses: Breestraat, the name of
the principal one, is supposed to be ^he
largest in Holland; but neither the tow^n-
hpuse, nor any of the other public |^V^j|47^
ings, demand particular observation. The
former was erected in the jea^ 15J^, ,Si^^
is[ ranked amongst the curiosities of the
place. It contains a painting of the la^^
judgment by Lucas of Leyden, whicli is
estimable only on account of its antiquity,
j^nd because the artist is said to have Ipeen
th^ first amongst the moderns who und;Qr-
stood the science of perspective: he (Ji^tJ
i^ the year 1533. Here, also, are preserved
the arms that were used by the inhabitants
in the famous siege of 1574, when they sut^j
mitted to such dreadful suiferings, and so
78
jiobl}' distinguislied themselves in the catise
of liberty.
The inhafekaiits of Ley den amoant to
thirty t/housand nine hundred and fifty^five^
They were formerly move numefrous; but
ihe decline of the woollen mannfacttires^
and some other causes, have produced a
decrease in its population, llic university,
which was once so celebrated, and of s\xch
universal resort, now maintains no mor^
than three hundred students, forty of whom
are; iEnghsh: they wear no particular dress,
bi3.t are runder excellent regulations. The
professors are generally esteemed for theil'
learning; but their renown has arisen from the
science of medicine. It has produced many
very eminent men, and among them the ce-
lebrated Boerhaave, whose monument in the
great church consists of a white marble urn,
and a medallion, placed on a black pedestal,
bearing this simple inscription: Salutifero
Boerhavii Genio sacrum — Nat. 16'88, Den.
1738. Near it is the urn and bust of Peter
^9
Ca^ipqr, A\^bo wasboin ip l.7M,^x^,^iedm
17^9. These, witb the itpmb ^of Meef man,
are the iiK^t s^triking monumeut^ ia this
chinrqh ; wl^Qh ihas tlie same shabby appear?
^i^qe as most <p;f the .religious edifices dn Hol-
land. The^e is ^Qme beavUiful ataioe^ glass
i^ tiie .wrndpiw-p,, dated 16^3. i*
Tihe libr^feTj of jtjtie univjersity is ridj in.
maauscripts, and well fttmisfted with foQ<i)lcs
i:^ all languages. The anatomical jnusemn
i& ^i?,iversally celebrated, and the room of
mongers contains some e?:traordinary pre^-
duc.tions: but I was much disappointed in
the Gaj3inets of natural history, and still
m.ore SsQ in the botanical departments, to
which my curiosity had been more particu*
larly directed- In former times the garden-
stoves of Leyden may have been filled with
rare subjects of admiration; but at present
they are not only very inferior to the royal
collections at Kqw, but to many that are to
be seen in private! gardens in England. The
8a
chief gardener boasted much of the rarity
and value of his plants, particularly a palm-
tree, that has been preserved since the time
that Holland was a part of the Spanish em-
pire. It must consequently be between two
and three hundred years old, and is the
finest specimen of its kind I have seen in
Europe: but in general the conservatories
appeared to be much neglected. The green-
house was graced with a few mutilated sta-
tues, and Grecian vases, which form the
cabinet of antiquities » But our disappoint-
ment was the more severely felt on viewing
the museum of natural history, as the su-
perintendent had promised us a superior
entertainment. You may imagine my asto-
nishment when I found, that, with the ex-
ception of a ^Qw beasts, and two or three of
the larger kinds of birds, my own cabinet
excelled it both as to the variety and rarity
of its specimens, particularly of shells, fos-
sils, and minerals. To see each depart-
si''
fee;'Wfti(5h'llM^hbt'Mer'alt^^i)bat ^
thbsfe '^^flb F^feWM^l'tr'^'i ''^"^ ^^^ ''-'^^ ''''^
ancient edifice,'^ suppbsed '%'4flaiiy'^^n<li**^
quarifes to hkve^b^'eh' b'MltfMb't^ tlib coiii^*'^
menc6ttient of the Ghristfen^raV' At'^^-^
sefit'it^flfei^ nd ivavlike appeai^anc^'id tfl^*^
passing 'Stranger; but, if he ta'k^^ tl^^f?6ti^^
ble of a" long winding walk "lip ^tll^^te^]^^*
as^^nr,'\lpon which it is sitti^'6^5\^'^^^vM^^^
presented with a very extensivC"pr6^J)lfeFo^F*
the city and adjacent country, i'l'ite^f^^eiJ"
by canals, and varied by churches, VfllS^^^'^
groves, and windmills. This elevation, 'WtiYiMi'
forms one of the public walks bf LeydSffJn^"
surrounded b/ a maze, similar to tH^'W^
Ilattipton-Court. -^'^ ^'^ ^ ^''^ ^ '-^^' ^^^
* 'Near Catwyk were* the 'ftitWains of ano-^-
thcr aircient structure, called Het Huys te
Brittch;^or tfee Briton'* Ch^fea#, which, it
is conjectured, was first erected on this spot
VOL I. G
m
by Caligula, in consequence of an imaginary
triumph over the ocean, for which there
is some authority in Suetonius. It was af-
terwards rebuilt by the Emperors Severus
and Antoninus : and many medals and other
Roman antiquities have been found about
it; but no vestige of the ancient castle is
now visible; its supposed site is covered by
the ocean, and the sands, moved by conflict-
ing tempests, have accumulated over it.
The environs of Leyden are very beau-
tiful, and the numerous villas, gardens,
and villages, render this part of Holland a
desirable residence. At Rhynsburg, which
is one of the most celebrated villages in the
history of Dutch topography, are the ruins
of an abbey founded by Petronella, the wi-
dow of le Due Florent le Gros, in the year
1133, on the site of an ancient castle said
to have been built by Drusus on the banks
of the Rhine.
83
LETTER X.
Haerlem, May 8, ]803.
Having gratified our curiosity at
Leyden, we embarked in the trekscliuit for
Ilaerlem, which is about four leagues dis-
tant, and we reached it precisely in four
hours. The scenery between these two
places resembles, nearly in every particular,
that which we had before seen on our for-
mer aquatic excursions; except having a
view of the village of Nordwike, once the
rival of Haerlem in her endeavours to cul-
tivate and exhibit the greatest number and
variety of Flora's beautiful favours: but the
tulips and hyacinths of Nordwike are now
no longer in possession of their original re-
putation for size and beauty.
The red cattle which grazed in the mea-
dows adjoining the canal, were generally
84<
covered with while cloths. This method is
practised in order to prevent them from
taking cold in the chilly nights of a Dutch
spring, to which they are very liable, parti-
cularly those that are with calf.
From the place where we landed we
walked to the Lion d'or, which is a comfort-
able hotel with Citable d'h6te^\h?ilh much fre^
quented by the field-officers of the regi^
merit now quartered here, and other repect*
able cotnpany; from thence we extended
our perambulation, by moonlight, through
the principal parts of the town, and found
much occasion to admire, as we have ad-
mired in so many other places, the general
cleanliness and simplicity of the inhabi-
tants. The large church, which is a noble
structure of gothic architecture, having a
lofty spire, threw its broad shadows across
the open square which surrounds it, and
produced a fine eftect. Several other pub-
lic buildings appeared to have noble as-
pects.
85
Early on the following morning, our
friend Tromp, who knew that we had been
attracted to Haerlem partly on account of
the great celebrity of its flowers, entered
with a very superb nosegay, which he had
just bought in the market for the small ex-
pence of one halfpenny, It contained about
sixty different kinds of hyacinths, tied up in
a conical form, and surmounted by a Crown
Imperial. I mention this circumstance,
though trivial in itself, merely as a confir-
mation of the report which has been circu-
lated respecting the abundance, beauty, and
variety of the Haerlem flowers, and the taste
of the gardeners who groupe them into such
elegant forms.
The beauty of Tromp's purchase in-
duced me to pay an early visit to the green-
market, which is kept in a broad street,
under two rows of shady elms; and as this
place is appropriated to the sale of flowers,
fruit, and vegetables, alone, it cannot fail to
afford a florist the most delightful regale,
86
The meat, and fish-markets, appeared
to be equally abundant and extremely neat.
I saw seven fine perch sold for eighteen-
pence, and at breakfast a large carp was
brought to us for a shilling. It was alive,
and eat bread from our hands. The Dutch
preserve these fish, for several years, by
suspending them with strings tied to
their fins, and feeding them regularly every
morning.
We found the meat and poultry very rea-
sonable, the bread excellent, and of the vege-
tables it is needless to say any thing, as they
have been generally esteemed amongst the
best in Europe. The rich pastures which
lie between Leyden and Haerlem,are grazed
by numerous herds of cattle, that produce -
butter of the most delicious quality.
The Dutch towns bear such a resem-
blance to each other, that a traveller some-
times feels himself dipleased by the mono-
tony. I think, however, that Haerlem is
the most pleasing of those which I have
87
yet seen in Holland, with the exception of
the fashionable parts of the Hague, and
the Bomb-Quay at Rotterdam. Many of
the wide streets are neatly paved and are
without canals; the houses are built in a
good style, and the shops appear to be well
furnished. In the other parts of the town,
canals are conducted, as usual between rows
of trees; and the principal street, through
which the grand canal passes, is spacious,
and full of vessels, presenting a very busy
and pleasing scene.
The population ofthis place once amounted
to forty-five thousand souls, but at this
time it is computed there are not half that
number of inhabitants, notwithstanding the
linen and woollen manufactories are still
considerable; and the fabric of velvets,
silks, damasks, and tapestry, employ a grea t
number of people: but Haerlem is famous
for its bleaching grounds; and linens of
all descriptions are sent thither, not only
from the adjacent towns, but very distant
88
parts of the republic, and even from fo-
reign countries. No other streams in Hoi-
land have been able to vie with those of
Haerlem in producing so pure a white:
this effect is attributed to their being filtered
through the sand-hills which characterize
the country between Lejden and Haerlem,
and though undeserving the name of hills,
considered in a general sense, they are here
of some consequence when compared with
the general surface of the country. The
bleacheries also give bread to a numerous
class of its inhabitants, and possess many
important privileges.
After breakfast we hired a carriasre for
the purpose of taking us to the most cele-
brated flower-gardens in the environs. From
them we proceeded to the elegant villa of
Mr. Hope, situated near Haerlem wood,
which is larger than that at the Hague, but
its rides and walks are not disposed in so
pleasing a manner. At the termination
of the principal avenue stands the man-
89
sion, which is a very elegant and distin-
guished edifice, and if the gardens were
larger, and more suitable to the building,
this place would indeed be a princely resi-
dence; but the grounds are very limited,
and, from some peculiar circumstances at-
tending their situation, they cannot be en-
larged. The wood forms the principal ob-
ject in the view from the front of the house,
but from the back part the towers and
spires of Haerlem rising over the surround-
ing groves are seen to produce a very pleas-
ing and even grand effect. We next visited
Hempsted Castle, and Hacrlem-meer, a lake
that extends from thence to Amsterdam,
being fourteen miles long, and nearly as
broad. The water is fresh, and abounds
with fish, particularly pike: eels have also
been taken there of a very extraordinary
size. Hempsted Castle is an ancient edifice,
which gives its name to the adjacent village.
It contains several comfortable apartments;
the gardens are pleasant; and from an arli-
90
ficial mount we enjoyed a fine view of the
lake, and the city of Amsterdam, though at
eighteen miles distance.
The roads are here very bad, being
mostly of deep and heavy sands, through
which it is not easy to proceed at a faster
rate than three miles in an hour: but the
delay is well repaid by the perfume of the
almost innumerable hyacinths, narcissuses,
and jonquils, in the surrounding gardens;
of which the whole country, as far as the
eye can reach, may, without exaggeration,
be said to consist. On every side the tra-
veller is presented with successive beds of
tulips, hyacinths, anemones, narcissuses, ra-
nunculas, jonquils, and auriculas: and, from
the very numerous exhibitions of this kind,
he is not surprised, that the florists of
Haerlem have been, and continue to be,
esteemed the first in Europe, and that they
annually supply other countries with their
floral produce. But the astonishing rage
for tulips which once prevailed is now past:
91
the enormous sum of five thousand florins
has been given for a single root ; at present,
however, the highest price for the best does
not exceed fifteen guineas. I have seen
tuHps in Haddock's ground near London,
for which he asked twice that sum.
The double tulips are here very large,
and their colours are yellow, orange, pink,
crimson, and variegated: the first of these
are very richly scented; and those which
are named the parrot-tulips, both as to size
and beauty, far exceed any that I have seen
in England : but the auriculas of our own
country are, in my opinion, very superior to
those of Holland, particularly the species
which are so beautifully variegated with
green, white, and purple. The hyacinths of
Haerlem, in colour, size, and form, stand un-
rivalled. Nor had I ever seen such beautiful
specimens of that flower. The species for
which the greatest price was asked, was white,
having a small stripe of rose colour on each
petal ; and this w^as valued at six hundred flo-
92
rins, or fifty pounds English money. The
gardeners here have a flower called L'Eclair
from the brilliancy of its flame colour, which
I preferred, though its price was only ten
shillings. Mr. Eldering, an eminent florist
who frequently dines at the table d'hote,
presented me with a basket containing se-
veral hundred hyacinths, of the most rare
and beautiful kinds now in season; yet he
regrets that we did not arrive a fortnight
sooner, as we should then have seen their
flowers in rnuch greater perfection. The
black hyacinths are the most rare ; but
though some of the darkest purple are dig-
nified by the title of Hegina Nigrorumy the
most intelligent of the florists assure me
that they have never seen any flowers of an
entire black: when those of the darkest
hues are falling off they sometimes a,ssume
that appearance; but if a meridian or very
bright sun should shine upon them, some
rich purple or cerulsean tints may be clearly
discerned.
93
In our evening walk through the wood
Kve found the air delightfully perfumed by
the flowers of the adjacent gardens. I had
left my companions in the enjoyment of
their delicious fragrance, and was taking a
sketch from a garden gate, when a Dutch
lady approached, and immediately ordered a
chair to be brought for my accommodation,
at the same time she accosted me in French,
and requested that when I had finished my
drawing,! would join a small tea-party which
had assembled in her summer-house. I
have great pleasure in mentioning this in-
stance of hospitality, as a contrast to the
uncivil treatment we had experienced at
Mr. FagelFs villa near the Hague. The de*
lightful environs of Haerlem engaged our
attention until a late hour. They have a
fine rural character, are not so much inter-
sected by canals as the country usually is,
and enriched by woods and groves less for-
mally laid out than those we had seen in
other parts of Holland.
94
This morning we attended the service!
which is performed in the great church
every Sunday, more for the purpose of hear-
ing its celebrated organ, than to worship in
a languaoje we did not understand : but we
were sorry to hear its fine music accom-
panied by a psalm-singing from a numerous
congregation, whose inharmonious sounds
but ill corresponded with the exquisite tones
it was capable of producing. We attended
the evening service also, in hopes of having
a more favourable opportunity ; and after
the first psalm, we were told that the sermon
would continue for two hours, but, that if
we would return at the end of that time, we
might then be favoured with a voluntary
display of the instrument: but though we
were punctual to the time appointed, we
found the good pastor still preaching to his
drowsy flock, and we were obliged to listen
to his monotonous discourse for another
half hour before it was concluded. The
or^^an still remained silent, and the ser-
95
mon was succeeded by the baptism of four
infants: after which the marriage cere-
mony of two young couple commenced,
and this appeared to be one of the most
formidable ordeals for female dehcacy
that I ever witnessed. In the chancel were
placed four chairs, and in the front stood
a bench with four cushions. These chaii^
were occupied by the two bridegrooms
and their brides, who were dressed in black
and kept their heads uncovered; nor were
the ladies allowed to wear even a veil to
conceal their virgin blushes from the gaze
of the surrounding crowd. In this situa-
tion, with downcast e3^es, and in profound
silence, they sat for half an hour, when
the minister began to perform the nup-
tial service with prayers and exhortations,
and the ceremony concluded by their tak-
ing hold of each other's right hand; in
which position they continued during the
benediction.
Tlie Dutch funeral service is described
96
in a few words. When a person of conse-
quence dies, a list of all his friends and ac-
quaintance is prepared, and given to seve-
ral men dressed in black, having white bands
and crape streamers depending from their
hats: these persons parade through the
streets and call at the door of the houses spe-
cified, in order to give information of the
death that has taken place. Very few people
are invited to the funeral ; and the body is
conveyed in a hearse to the church, where
it is interred, without a single prayer, or
any other ceremony. These interesting du-
ties of humanity have, however, led me
from my subject of the organ, which first
carried me into the great church of Haer-
lem ; and at length our high-wrought ex-
pectation of its powers were fully gratified.
It is indeed an instrument of surprising work-
manship, and is acknowledged to surpass
every thing of the kind in Europe. But as I
do not consider myself altogether compe-
tent to do it justice by my own description,
97
I shall adopt the following account of it,
from a modern traveller. " It was made
by Christopher Muller,. of Haerlem, and
erected in 3738. It consists of eight thou-
sand pipes, the largest thirty-eight feet long,
and sixteen inches in diameter; there are
sixty-eight stops, of which the most won-
derful is the vox humana, so exactly imita-
tive of the human voice, both in the bass,
tenor, and treble, that it was some time be-
fore I could persuade mys^ that I was not
imposed upon by real voices : there are other
pipes, which are equally wonderful in the
notes of different birds; and the effect of
the kettle-drum stop is not easily to be
conceived."
Near the west door of the church is
planted the tree of liberty, but of a very
different species, indeed, from that liberty
for which the inhabitants of Haerlem so
nobly contended two centuries ago! The
Gallic tree planted here, is now putting forth
vigorous shoots; but the spectators, as they
VOL. T. n
98
behold the slow progress of its vegetation^
exist under the dread that its planters will
again return, and declamations against the
horror of another war are heard from every
tongue which dares to avow the feelings of
the heart.
In the same square* and almost within
the shadow of this baneful and pestilential
tree, stands a far more pleasing object; it
is the statue of Lawrence Coster, the in-
ventor of the art of printing; an art which
could alone remove the massy fetters of
Vandalic or Gothic barbarism. It is of
white marble, of a size larger than life,
and appears in the dress of an alderman
of Hacrlem, his native place. On one
side of the pedestal he is represented in
basso-relievo, in the act of cutting letters on
the bark of a beech-tree in the adjoining
wood, which was the first circumstance that
gave him an idea of moveable types; and
on the opposite side he appears to be super-
intending his printing-press when brought
99
to the perfection he had anlicipated. On
the other faces of the pedestal are appro-
priate inscriptions.
Coster's statue was removed from the bo-
tanical garden,where it had been first erected
by the College of Physicians in the 3^ear
1722, to its present situation; and surely no
Baao, vvas ever more deserving of having such
an honour rendered to him by a grateful
country : for what are all the race of heroes,
" from Macedonia's madman to the Swede,"
when compared with this plain citizen of
Haerlem, who, by his invention, at once
exhibited the means of driving away those
dark and heavy clouds of ignorance and
superstition, which had so long obscured
the face of Europe; and may be said to
have laid the foundation of that amazing
structure of human learning and science,
}vhich has since enlightened and adorned the
world. Coster, in my opinion, ranks next
to him, of whatever name
100
" In old Phenicia, first for letters fam'd, ^
That paint the voice, and silent speak to sighf.
Of arts prime source, and guardian!"'
Thomson'.
Mentz and Strasburg dispute the ho-
nour of having produced the inventor of
this art with Ilaerlem; but, in the opinion of
those who are the best informed, and the
most capable of judging, these places are
obliged to yield the palm of victory to Haer-
lem. Though by no means executed in the
first style of engraving, I was glad to pro-
cure Coster's portrait from a bookseller, who
resides near the statue, and who shewed us
the three first specimens of his art.
This city has also given birth to several
eminent painters, particularly Berghem,
Wouvermans, Ostade, and lluysdael, all of
them very celebrated artisls. Hals also,
though he was born at Malines in Flanders,
having fixed his residence in this place, its
inhabitants are proud of owning him for a ci-
tizen: and ihe celebrity of this painter proved
101
the means of attracting Vandyke hither, on
his way to England, where he had been in-
vited by Charles the First. Wishing to be
unknown on his anival, Vandyke employed
a stratagem to seduce Hals from an alehouse,
where it was his custom to pass away much of
his time in low company, and spend all the
money his profession enabled him to realize.
A pressing invitation from a stranger of dis-
tinction, who wished to have his portrait
finished at one sitting, was accordingly sent
to him ; but it was with great difficulty that
he could be prevailed upon to quit his much
loved liquor and company. At length he
complied with the message, and was intro-
duced to Vandyke; who suffered no expres-
sion to escape him that might lead to a dis-
covery. Hals commenced his business, and
worked in his best manner: the stranger also
appeared lo be greatly delighted, and de-
clared how much he should like to possess a
talent wliich produced such beautiful eU'ecls,
Mud did Mol appear to him to be of very dif-
102
cult attainment: he then took the pencil, and
began to sketch a subject. His mode of pro-
ceeding soon made Hals entertain doubts as
to the quality of his guest, and he exhibited,
as he felt, the utmost astonishment, when he
beheld a most masterly sketch of himself,
finished by the hand of his distinguished
visitor: he suddenly exclaimed, " You are
Vandyke ! for no other man could have pro-
duced such a portrait!" As he pronounced
these words he threw himself on that great
painter*s neck, and remained for some time
absorbed in speechless wonder and delight.
103
LETTER XL
Amsterdam, May 9, 1603.
We left Haerlem at five o'clock
yesterday evening, for Amsterdam, and en-
joyed all the variety this flat country can
possess. We performed the journey of ten
miles in a light open carriage with ease, in
an hour and a half.
The spires of Amsterdam, the thousand
mills of Saardam, and the vessels of various
descriptions employed in navigating the
Zuyder Zee, Haerlem-meer, the river Y, and
the different canals, agreeably diversified
as well as enlivened the prospect. After
we had proceeded about five miles on our
way to this city, we saw the great sluices,
by the opening of which, on the approach
of an enemy, the inhabitants can inundate
all this part of Holland by the \\atcrs of
104
Haerlem-meer, and even of the ocean itself,
being admitted througli these enormous
flood-gates.
On entering this city we passed through
a number of narrow, though very populous
streets, until we arrived at our hotel, which is
centrically situated, and is esteemed to be
the best in Amsterdam.
My first object this morning was to de-
liver a few letters of recommendation which
I had brought with me. My earliest visit w as
to M. Blankenhagen, in the Heer-Graft,
which is the finest street in Amsterdam,
and, perhaps, in the world: the houses are
generally large, well built, and shaded by
trees planted in rows on the sides of the
canal, that is conducted through the center,
with a broad sj)ace on each side for car-
riages and foot-passengers. Not finding
Mr. Blankenhagen at home, I proceeded to
Mr. Sawyer's at Keyser's Graft; a street
which is the next in repute to the Heer-
Graft, and of a ver}^ similar appearance,
105
though on a smaller scale. From thence I
rambled for several miles through different
parts of the city, which I found much more
extensive than I imagined, and in every
part of which was presented a lively and a
pleasing picture of industry, commerce, and
population. The streets that are not inter-
sected by canals are generally narrow, and
crowded with pedestrians, who are very dis-
agreeably incommoded by numerous car-
riages which are driven with such a rapi-
dity, that I frequently found it a difficult
matter to avoid their enci;oachments on the
foot-way by taking refuge in the shops. The
houses in these streets are lofty and built in
the old Dutch fashion, with pyramidical
roofings.
I was much annoyed by the stench that
rises from the canals: it was frequently in-
supportable, and affected me with sickness.
I never before met with any watere which
exhaled so insuflbrable an effluvia; and yet
the inhabitants assure me that it was com-
106
paralively delicate to that whicli ihey were
compelled to endure in the months of July
and August. If this be true, the posses-
sions of all the richest inhabitants of Am-
sterdam, would not tempt me to be a con-
stant resident in it. Mr. Burke, in his ad-
mirable Treatise on the Sublime and Beau-
tiful, has a chapter, if my memory does not
fail mc, on the sublime of stinks; of which
there are the most intolerable examples in
this city.
Little of the history of Amsterdam is
known at an earlier period than the com-
mencement of the eleventh century: when,
in the year 10J9> some mention is made of
the Lords of Amstel; and in the beginning
of the twelfth century this was a lordship,
consisting of a chateau and a few fisher-
men's huts, situated on the banks of the
Amstel. Tliis small assemblage of human
habitations gradually increased and ex-
tended on each side of the river, till at lens^th
population and houses multiplied, and from
107
this humble origin arose th^ present magni-
ficent capital of the Batavian Republic.
The Drecht and Meyert are two rivulets
which meet near the village of Uithoarn,
two leagues south of Amsterdam, and, unit-
ing their streains, form the river Amstel,
which, taking a northern direction, dis-
charges itself into the Y, or Tai, an inlet or
gulf of the Zujdei-Zee. *
< The Zuyder-Zee itself is only an arm of
the German ocean that was formed by a
dreadful inundation in the thirteenth Cen-
tury, when the sea suddenly broke in upon
the land and made a lake of more than
thirty leagues in length, and of a very
considerable, though unequal, breadth, ex-*
tending from the eastern coast of Hol-
land to the western shores of Friesland
and Overyssel. At the entrance of this vast
inlet of salt water are several islands; the
most fertile and populous of them is the
Texjel, rendered famous by its excellent
breed of sheep, which not only produce
108
abundance of wool, but afford milk of so
rich and peculiar a nature, that the inha-
bitants prepare from it a green cheese which
is in great estimation among the Dutch epi-
cures. The Friesland cheese is also a fa-
vourite article for the table.
Amsterdam, in many respects, resembles
Venice; like her it appears to have emerged
from the sea, and, being built upon mil-
lions of piles, seems to defy any further en-
croachments of that mighty element: like
her, it is intersected by numerous canals
running through the principal streets, which
are united by bridges; and each city has
increased from a few fishermen's huts to
a magnificent capital: each has also been
indebted for its splendour to a love of
liberty, justice, industry, and economy,
vmited to an indefatigable pursuit of com-
merce. The decline of Venice, and its con-
sequent degradation in the political scale of
Europe, was produced by Vasco de Gaina's
intrepid discovery of a passage to India by
109
the Cape of Good Hope: an important event
which very materially influenced the com-
mercial nations of Europe ; and Venice was
among the first of those cities which suf-
fered from it. An extensive trade in almost
every quarter of the globe, and particularly
in the oriental climes, gradually became
transferred from the Venetians to the Hol-
landers, whose superior industry at length
enabled them to assume a prominent rank
amongst the maritime powers. A most hu-
miliating change has likewise been effected
in both these interesting, but unfortunate
cities, by the fatal progress of the French re-
volution. After having experienced the bles-
sings of liberty and independence for the
long period of fourteen hundred years, the
Venetians are now degraded from their high
estate, and subjected to a foreign power:
and of what species of IVeedom the Bata-
vian republic may now be said to be pos-
sessed, it would perhaps be diflicult to de-
termine, as the sacred name of liberty has
110
of late years been so profaned and de-
based, and all her glorious attributes*^
perverted and eclipsed, that the dispas-
sionate and philosophic mind may look
abroad in vain for the abode of independ-
ence and liberty; unless, indeed, wearied
with a contemplation of degraded nations, it
turns to Albion's highly favoured isle, where
liberty and that public happiness which is
so intimately connected with it, has hitherto
resisted, and will, I trust, for ever success-
fully resist, the most daring attempts of its
enemies. But on the commencement of this
work I determined to Avave all political dis-
cussions, and therefore I stay my pen on a
subject which is the exclusive boast of my
country.
From a plan of Amsterdam tliat was
made in the year 1500, and which is pre-
served in the treasury, it appeal's to have
been at that time a city of considerable im-
portance, containing many churches, con-
venls, bridges, towel's, and public edificeii.
Ill
Since the close of that centur}^ when the
Dutch threw off the Spanish joke, and be-
gan to enjoy the blessings of freedom, it
has been continually increasing in wealth,
extent, and population. Its circumference
is now eighteen thousand, seven hundred,
and ninety geometrical paces, and covers
more ground than the united cities of Rot-
terdam, Haerlem, Leyden, Delft, and Dor-
drecht, forming a crescent on the river Y,
or inlet of the Zuyder-Zee. It is fortified
towards the land by a wall and twcnty-sik
bastions, each of which is surmounted by a
windmill and surrounded by a fosse of con-
siderable breadth. Three of these mills
agitate the stagnant water of the canals,
and by that means alleviate, in some de-
gree, the very disagreeable eftects of their
fetid vapours. '
Amsterdapi has also eight gates, and a^
mnny- towers appropriated to various pur-
poses, and bearing different names. Some
of them have large, haud^^ome turrets, with
112
lofty belfries and public clocks, the whole
being adorned with columns and sculp-
ture. The most beautiful of these is the
western tower, which is three hundred feet
high, and contains a musical clock, together
with a large bell, that weighs fifteen thou-
sand pounds, and whose tolling announces
the opening and the shutting of the gates*
I shall mention another of these struc-
tures, from the interest which it excited by
its name and character. It is called La
Tour des Pleureurs, or, in Dutch, Schreyers-
hoekstoren. This tower of weepers stands
on the quay of the river Y, and marks
the spot where friends and lovers part,
and all the tenderest throbbings of the
heart must.be so often excited: it is the
place where relatives and companions take
leave of each other on embarking for dis-
tant countries. On one side of this inte-
resting edifice is a basso-relievo represent-
ing a ship getting under sail, while a fe-
male is represented as in the deepest dis-
113
tress at beholding its departure. On the
same side is inscribed, " Schrayers Houek,
1569,' being the year in which this memo-
rial was erected, in order to perpetuate the
grief of a young woman who lost her senses
on the departure of her husband, whom she
most tenderly loved.
According to the latest computation which
has been made, Amsterdam contains two
hundred and seventy-seven thousand, and
twenty-four inhabitants, eleven districts, fi^ e
circles, and four hundred and forty primary
assemblies. Amongst many other privi-
leges, every citizen is at liberty to worship
the Supreme Being according to the mode
he approves, provided he gives no offence
to decency or public order. The Jews who
are settled here amount to twenty-two thou-
sand: they are less restricted than in most
other countries, and have many synagogues.
On their expulsion from Spain and Por-
tugal, in the sixteenth century, these perse-
cuted people were received in Holland with
VOL. I.
114
liberality and kindness: since that period
they have greatly increased, and are now
considered an industrious, as they are be-
come a wealthy part of the community.
They are not however permitted to have
any civil appointment, nor to hold any of-
fice under government. This law, indeed,
generally extends to all dissenters from the
established church.
The Christians of Amsterdam are di-
vided into fifteen distinct sects or commu-
nions, and they have forty-nine places of
public worship: eleven of them are dedi-
cated to the service of the reformed Dutch
church, or Calvinism, which is the national
religion, and one third of the inhabitants
profess their belief in this creed. About
three thousand are of the French reformed
church: the English Presbyterians are about
tliree hundred, while those of the Episcopal
' church do not amount to more than thirty.
Lutherans, Anabaptists, Moravians, and
other sectaries, are numerous, and have their
115
respective meeting-houses: the Roman Ca-
tholics compute their numbers to be forty-
three thousand, and have sixteen chapels;
but the priests of this persuasion are not
allowed to make public processions, and
are also controuled by some other necessary
restrictions.
This religious toleration extends through-
out the whole Batavian republic; with the
exception of the Socinians, who arc no where
permitted to exercise their profession; and
all their books are prohibited, under the
severest penalties.
There are several monuments of eminent
persons in the principal church of this city;
and among the most remarkable of them is
that of admiral Ilecmskerk, who was one
of the greatest men of his time, and the
first who attempted to discover a passage
to India by the north sea; in which entcr-
prizc he encountered the greatest difficul-
ties: he was killed in an engagement before
Gibraltar in the year 1607; and a concise
116
Latin inscription upon this monument con-
tains his eulogy. The remains of Admiral
de Ruyter, who was no less celebrated in
the annals of Dutch history, repose in the
new church: this officer died in I676. Near
him are the tombs of Van Galen, another
admiral who bravely fell in the service of
his country in 1653, and of the famous Cap-
tain Isaac Zeveers, who died in 1673. Here
also is a monument erected to the memory
of Van Vondel, who was one of the few
poets which this country has produced.
The Dutch boast, but with what truth I
know not, that his tragedies rank with those
of Corneille and Racine. It is however an
extraordinary circumstance respecting this
candidate for Parnassian honours, that his
muse so far prolonged her favours, as to
enable him to translate, with reputation,
the Metamorphoses of Ovid, at the advanced
age of eighty-five, and that she continued
to assist his labours until he attained the rare
age of ninety-one: he died in the year I679,
117
five years after the death of our immortal
Milton.
In the year 1581 Amsterdam witnessed
the birth of Peter Cornelius Hooft, who was
esteemed the Tacitus of Holland: he died
at the Hague in 1647- This city has also
produced the historians Wagenar and Brandt,
the poets Brederode and Visser, Spiegel the
celebrated restorer of the Dutch language,
Koornhert the reformer, Episcopius the
theologian, and Spinosa the atheist.
But to change the scene a little, I shall
quit the ashes of the illustrious dead, to
contemplate the useful and superb edifices
of the living. The Stadthouse of Amster-
dam is considered as one of the noblest struc-
tures in Europe, no expencc having been
spared in order to render it, in every respect,
worthy of the city which it was intended to
adorn. Its erection was decreed in 1647,
and, in the beginning of the following year,
the first piles were driven for its founda-
tion: the old Stadthouse having been de-
118
stroyed by fire in 1652, occasioned this
building to be carried on with so much ra-
pidity, that, notwithstanding its magnitude
and extensive decorations, the magistrates
were enabled to officiate in their respective
chambers in the new edifice, wilhin the
short space of three years. To give a mi-
nute description of this superb building
would occupy more time and s|)ace than I
can conveniently bestow upon it; but I will
endeavour, nevertheless, to give you a ge-
neral idea of its architectural grandeur and
municipal application.
Like most of the buildings in Amster-
dam, the Stadthouse is erected upon strong
piles of timber, which are the only means
of giving solidity to a foundation in the
swamps of Holland. The number of these
piles that was requisite for the work in ques-
tion, amounted to thirteen thousand six hun-
clred and fifty-nine, and their cost was up-
wards of one hun(h'ed thousand ])ounds:
upon such a foundation was erected a build-
119
ing two hundred and eightj-two feet long,
bj two hundred and thirty-two broad, and
one hundred and sixteen feet high. It is
divided into three stories by as many ranges
of pillars and pilasters of the Ionic, Corin-
thian, and Composite orders. The exterior
of this magnificent structure is of while
stone, highly ornamented with statues, vases,
and other embellishments: while the interior
decorations of the apartments, which are
appropriated to the transaction of public
business, possess an high degree of charac-
teristic splendour. I shall not attempt a
description of the various chambers of this
superb edifice, but as it is common in Eng-
land to ridicule the taste of Dutchmen, I
shall endeavour to describe the hall of jus-
tice, which, as a seat of criminal judicature,
is a most beautiful example of characteristic
architecture and appropriate decoration.
Through a marble portal and double
doors of solid bronze, with an embossed re-
presentation of two swords crossed, and the
120
thunderbolt of Jupiter, we entered this mag-
nificent room, which is entirely composed
of white marble, enriched by allegorical
statues, basso-relievos, and lofty columns.
Amongst the sculptures is the judgment of
Solomon, the history of Zeleucus the legis-
lator of the Locrians, the head of Medusa
as represented on the shield of Minerva, and
the affecting scene of Junius Brutus con-
demning his sons to death.
" Rome's forum there, warm, popular, and loud.
In trembling wonder hush'd, when the great sire.
As he the private father nobly quell'd.
Stood up the public father of the state !"
Thomson.
Before the marble seat from whence sen-
tence is passed upon the criminals, is a sta-
tue of Silence, represented by a female figure
holding her finger upon her lips, with a
scull beside it. This is a most interesting
apartment, and as in Holland the ceremony
of trial and condemnation is conducted
with the most awful and impressive solem-
121
nity, very affecting and exemplary scenes
must occasionally be exhibited in it.
The grand hall which leads to the dif-
ferent chambers, is an hundred and twenty
feet long, and fifty-seven in breadth; the
whole is of white marble, with decora-
tions of the Corinthian order ; while each
door is surmounted with ornaments cha-
racteristic of the several courts to which
they belong. In the center of the marble
floor is a planisphere twenty feet in dia-
meter, which is much admired for the truth
and beauty of its representations. There
are also some good pictures in this room,
but a proper light is wanted to display them
to advantage.
The tribunals and different courts of
judicature are not the only purposes for
which the Stadthouse of Amsterdam is
so well adapted: in the upper apartments,
and subterraneous cells are contained the
treasury, bank, magazine of arms, prisons,
and several other public offices of various
122
denominations. Upon the roof are placed
eight large cisterns of water, from Avhich
pipes are directed to every room, in order
to prevent the fatal effects of future confla-
grations. The whole building is crowned
hy a central cupola, which is supported bj
eight columns of the Corinthian order: from
this eminence there is a commanding view
of the city and surrounding country.
The prisons which are situated in the
lower apartments deserve very particular
notice on account of their accommodation,
cleanliness, and security: from these me-
lancholy chambers it appears impossible to
escape; but during confinement the un-
happy situation of the prisoners is alleviated
by every proper and humane attention.
Humanity is indeed a striking characteristic
of the Dutch throughout the whole repub-
lic: nor shall I apologize for introducing
the opinion of the benevolent Howard, after
he had visited all the principal dungeons of
Europe.
12$
" The prisons in Holland are so retired
and appropriate that a visitor can hardly
believe himself to be in a prison: they are
always white-washed once, and sometimes
twice, a year. Each prison has its own
surgeon and physician; but the usual jail
distempers are very rare. In most of those
destined for criminals each prisoner has a
separate cell, wdth a bedstead, straw mat-
trass, and coverlid, from whence he is not
permitted to stir. Throughout Europe, Hol-
land is the country w here the fewest crimes
are committed, and where justice has seldom
occasion to exert her extremest rigour.'^
The patronage extended by the Dutch
to every useful and benevolent institution,
is an honour to the country. Hospitals
under the best regulations are here endowed,
for the reception and care of the poor, the
sick, the aged, the lunatic, the orphan, the
foundling, and every decriplion of tliose
who are involved in any of the sad calami-
ties which ^'flcsh is heir to!'
124
The education of youth, which is the
most essential duty in every state, is here a
most particular object of attention. At
Amsterdam there are public schools of every
denomination. The universities are placed
in the provincial towns; they formerly
amounted to five, and were situated at Ley-
den, Utrecht, Franeker, Groningen, and
Harderwick; but some of them, I believe,
were suppressed on account of the institu-
tion of the central schools. The policy of
the Dutch government naturally induces it
to pay the greatest attention to the interests
of commerce, being well aware that their
prosperity as a nation depends upon it: but *
the arts and sciences are by no means neg-
lected in this metropolis. One of the greatest
encouragements that are held out to men of
genius and learning, is the FelLv Meritis :
this excellent institution was founded in the
year 1777, by forty amateurs, under the
name of the Society of Merit', it is divided
into five departments: the first is commer-
125
cial, including navigation, agriculture, ma-
nufactures, and trade of every kind ; the
second embraces the science of physic in
its most extended sense; the third painting
and drawing; the fourth music; and the
fifth literature in all its various branches.
The number of members increased so ra-
pidly, that they were soon enabled to raise
a fund for its support, and to erect an ele-
gant and convenient edifice for their exhi*
bitions and assemblies. The entrance into
this building is by a Corinthian portico,
with the words Felix Mentis, inscribed in
<2:olden letters on the frize. This excellent
nursery of the arts meets with very great
patronage, and as it has commenced on a
similar plan with our national societies in
England, it may, in the progress of time,
diffuse the radiance of knowledge amongst
a people heretofore but little celebrated in
the annals of learning and science.
The dramatic representations of Holland
have never been held in much estimation.
12(5
The stagnant waters of their marshes, and
the foggy atmosphere which hangs over
them, have seldom been al^le to attract either
Thalia or Melpomene from the brink of the
Castahan spring. Vondel I have already
mentioned; but this country has not been
celebrated for having produced either fine
writers or good actors. Amsterdam con-
tains four licensed theatres, in which, ac-
cording to their names, plays are performed
in their respective languages. La Comedie
Hollandoise, La Comedie Francaisc, La Co-
medie Allemande, and La Comedie utile et
agreable: the last-mentioned theatre is li-
censed to particular persons to perform
whatever they please, so that they do not
violate the laws of j^ropriety and decorum.
The exchange, custom-house, India-
house, and other public buildings, will not
be rendered interesting b}^ any particular
description. The foundations of the old
exchange having given way, a new one,
upon an in]provcd plan, is now constructing
127
in its vicinity. After a cursory view of these
edifices, we walked to the quay near the
Zuyder-Zee, to enjoy the beauty of its ma-
ritime prospects, when we were suddenly
overtaken by such a heavy and threatening-
rain, that we were very glad to meet with
one of the Dutch sledge-coaches to convey
us to our hotel. These arc vehicles without
wheels, and are drawn on a sledge by single
horses ; while the driver walks beside the
carriage door to direct the tardy progress of
his clumsy machine.
128
LETTER XII.
Amsterdam, May 10, 1803.
After another perambulation
through this great city, we repaired to the
trekschuit, which takes passengers every
hour to Biiyk-sloot, from whence they pro-
ceed by land to Broek and Saardam. The
vessel departed as the clock struck eleven,
and in half an hour we landed at Biti/k-
sloot, in North Holland. After crossing the
river Y, we were tracked up a canal to the
inn door at that village, which, in the ap-
pearance of the houses and dress of the in-
habitants, forms a very singular contrast to
those of South Holland. Its people seem
almost to be a different race of human beings.
The female dress consists of a cap of gauze,
or very clear muslin, which, in front, is fitted
close to the head by tAvo broad clasps of
129
gold, but falls gracefully behind, in long
plaited folds: tliej expose but little hair
except two curious ringlets on the temples,
which artfully conduct the eye to a pair of
large gold earrings. Their dresses abound
in valuable chains, necklaces, and brace-
lets of gold or other precious materials: an
innkeeper told us that when his wife paid
her visits, the ornaments of her person ge-
nerally amounted to five or six hundred
crowns. On occasions of this kind, in
order to avoid attention, the ladies usually
cover their heads and shoulders with large
black hoods, making an appearance by
no means unlike the hooded snake of Hin-
dostan: these hoods are thrown off on en-
tering the house. The contrasted appear-
ance of the hood and jewels, with the short
swelling petticoats of the lower Dutch fe-
males, present a very different costume from
that of the demi-nud ladies of London and
Paris. Neatness and cleanliness are the
general characteristics of the Dutch, but in
VOL. I. K
130
North Holland these excellent qualities are
carried to such an height, that one might
eat from off the pavements of the streets.
This excessive cleanliness struck our notice
immediately upon our landing at Buyksloot,
but our admiration of it was much increased
at Broek, or Broeklands. This latter village
was indeed our principal attraction in North
Holland; and we accordingly hired a light
pleasure-waggon to take us thither in our
way to Saardam. The country consists en-
tirely of marshy plains, without trees or
hedges: but a firm, narrow road, somewhat
raised, soon brought us to Broek, which is
altogether the most singular and whimsical
place I ever beheld.
The houses, amounting to about three
hundred, are entirely isolated; nor are any
two of them alike. Each house generally
stands in the centre of a little garden, con-
taining parterres laid out in scrolls and
figures, bordered by box-shrubs, shells, co-
loured beads, and glass, which being inter-
131
mingled with verdant turf, produce a very
curious effect: some of these beds were va-
ried with the choicest flowers. The houses
are built of wood, and in the most gro-
tesque forms: they are painted with dif-
ferent colours, but the green seemed to pre-
dominate. The slates or tiles upon the
roofs are glazed, and, when the sun shines
they produce a dazzling, and very unplea-
sant effect. The church is situated in the
centre of the village, and is a neat structure,
with windows of painted glass representing
the cruelties that were perpetrated in this
place by the Spaniards. The narrow streets,
are all smoothly paved with bricks of a pale
colour that are kept as clean as the floor of
a drawing-room: no person is even per-
mitted to spit in the streets, and they are
not of a sufficient breadth to allow the pas-
sage of any carriage.
A little rivulet called de Havejirak,
passes through the village to the Vyver,
which is a lake surrounded by the best
houses, and whose banks partake of the
132
general local neatness. Delighted as we
were with this extraordinary place, we were
absolutely astonished at the universal si-
lence which every where prevailed; not the
smallest noise was to be heard, nor a human
form to be seen; and, though in broad day-
light, the stillness and solitude of night
reigned all around. We even entered the
gardens, gathered the flowers, and took up
the shells and beads, which composed their
variegated beds, without molestation.
The following quotation is from Lord
Bacon, and exactly describes the style and
arrangement of the Broekland gardens.
" The garden should be square, encom-
passed with a stately arched hedge; and
over eveiy arch a little turret, with a belly
enough to receive a cage of birds, and over
every space between the arches, some other
little figure, with broad plates of round co-
loured glass gilt, for the sun to play upon:
as for the making of knots of figures with
divers coloured earths, that they may lie
under the windows of the house on that side
133
which the garden stands, they be but toys;
you may see as good sights many times in
tarts/'
With such gardens a lover of nature is
disgusted, or at least soon satiated; and all
those of Broek are of this description: al-
most every tree is shorn, every hedge clipped,
and every flower contrasted.
We peeped through the shutters and half-
drawn curtains of the windows which were
next the gardens, but not a human being
was to be seen. This place in reality ap-
peared to us far more melancholy than did
the ideal city which is described in the Ara^
bian Nights Entertainment, in whose streets
all the inhabitants were turned into stone;
for in the fabulous city there were at least
the resemblances of men, but here we
saw nothing except neatness, that could for
a moment encourage the idea of its being
an inhabited place, and yet its population
is estimated at a thousand, men, women, and
children. At the close of our pcrambula-
134
tion we could with truth assert, that we had
seen but one old woman, two men, and
a boy.
At length, observing something like the
contents of a grocer's shop painted upon a
door, we resolved to attempt the purchase
of a little sugar-candy, and we luckily suc-
ceeded. Upon our knocking at the door a
middle-aged woman, nicely dressed in the
fashion of the place, appeared, and con-
ducted us to her shop in the back part of
the house, which was cleanliness itself, and
there Ave made our little purchase. She
permitted us, however, to enter it with our
shoes on, a privilege very seldom allowed;
for even her own son is obliged to put on
slippers whenever he returns home before
he is permitted to pass into the dwelling.
If any dirt or sand is observed to have been
left on the spot where a stranger has trod,
though it should be without the house, a
servant attends to wipe it away.
I have since been informed that the in-
135
habitants of Broek are united by some relir
gious and political opinions peculiar to them-
selves. Though they are members of the
established Dutch church, they profess a
devotion and retirement which they think
more conformable to primitive Christianity.
They carefully avoid becoming victims to, or
in anywise contaminated by the fascinating
pleasures of the world . They appear to blend
in one system the tenets of the Calvinists,
Moravians, and Quakers. Many of them
are wealthy, and all of them are charitable :
they intermarry in their own village, and
should a stranger engage the affections of a
Broekland girl, he can only obtain her for-
tune by consenting to settle in the place.
By these means most of the families are
united, and strangers in a great measure, if
not altogether, excluded.
Whenever the carriage of a stranger ap-
proaches the window-shutters are closed, and
the females retire to the back apartments:
they are extremely modest and diffident, and
136
as they never associate with foreigners or
strangers, they are very ignorant of those
manners and customs which differ from their
own: the men are said to be equally shy
and reserved ; but amongst their own family
circles both sexes are free, convivial, and
cheerful.
A gentleman addressed us as we were
stepping into our carriage in order to depart
for Saardam, and obligingly offered to shew
us the stables and coach-house belonging
to one of the most affluent families in the
village. The number of horses I do not re-
collect, but we saw eight summer and winter
carriages, a coach, an English phaeton, a
pleasure waggon, a curricle, and two smaller
chaises, together with some elegant traineaus,
or sledges, for excursions upon the ice in
winter: these traineaus are made in various
fanciful forms; sometimes they are shaped
and painted like a bird or beast, with its na-
tural colour; but the most elegant machine
of this kind that I observed here assumed
137
the figure of a rein-deer, fixed upon the
sledge in a manner not very unhke a child's
rocking-horse. Upon this figure a commo-
dious seat is contrived for the accommoda-
tion of a lady, who, being warmly wrapped
up in fur, can enjoy the conversation of a
gentleman who sits behind her on the sledge,
and sometimes drives the horses; which,
upon these occasions, are often magnifi-
cently caparisoned and adorned with a pro-
fusion of small silver bells.
In Holland and the northern parts of
Europe, when the ground is covered with
frozen snow, the gay and rich inhabi-
tants of those countries form nocturnal par-
ties in these traineaus, each being un-
der its respective banner, drawn by two
horses, and attended by several servants
with flambeaus. These curious excursions
constitute one of the principal amuse-
ments in the long winters of the northern
countries.
138
The habitation of the gentleman to whom
the carriages belonged, like every other
house in the village, had two doors; one
of them appears in the front, and is never
opened except at the wedding or the funeral
of its principal inhabitants ; the other forms
a small side entrance, which serves for every
common purpose: thus the garden walk at the
approach in front remains unimpressed, and
the whole of the house being fresh painted
every spring, it always has the appearance
of a new building.
In short, such is the singularity of Broek,
that we could scarcely fancy ourselves to be
in the same hemisphere with our fellow
mortals whom we had left behind: every
thing looked like fairy-land, or the sudden
eflfect of an enchanter's wand ; particularly,
as our transition from the noise and hurry
of a large commercial city, to the more
than cloistered silence of this extraordinary
village, was with so short an interval. A
139
French traveller of reputation gives the fol-
lowing very interesting description of it;
which I shall not weaken by my translation.
" Le joli village de Broek, est sans con-
tredit le plus considerable de tons les vil-
la gesde la nord Hollande. 11 semble que
ce lieu soit le temple de la proprete Hol-
landoise. Les maisons sont b^ties d*une
facon sino-uliere; et decorees en dehors de
peintures en mosaique. On croiroit qu'elles
sont toutes neuves, tant ceux de Broek ont
soin de les entrelenir. Le dedans repond
au dehors; tout y est de la plus grande sim-
plicite, mais en meme tems de la proprete
la plus recherchee. La moindre vase de
cuisine est tenu en aussi bon etat, qu'ailleurs
les meubles les plus somptueux. Tout y
respire un air de fraicheur, qui fait le plus
grand plaisir. Au reste ce n'est qu' avec
beaucoup de peine, qu'on se procure Tentree
de ces maisons: la vue d'un etranger efFa-
rouche les simples habitans de ce village
qui k son aspect font retirer leurs femmes
140
et leurs filles dans rappartement le plus re-
pule de la maison. Les Jardins sont ordi-
nairement devant la grande porte de la
maison; cette porte ne s'ouvre qu'a deux
occasions extraordinaires, au marriage et a
la mort des h6tes de la maison, une petite
porte sert a Tusage ordinaire. Au reste les
habitans de Broek sont ordinairement tr^s
riches, et un paisan sous son gros habit de
leure donne souvent une dot de plusieurs
tonnes d'or a sa fille.
Les rues se ressentent de la proprete ge-
nerale, et on a soin de les entretenir tou-
jours dans cet etat. On a fait ce conte.
Le Pasteur de Broek etant mort, sou suc-
cesseur fit longtemps les plus grands efforts
pour se concilier Testime et la confiance de
ses paroisieurs: mais en vain. Etonne d'avoir
tente inutilement toutes sortes de mojens,
il s'informa a un des anciens du village de
la cause de la proideur que les paisans lui
temoignoient. Apres avoir hesite quelque
tems cet homme lui repondit, Monsieur le
141
ministre, vous 6tes un homme savant, vous
paries' bien Grec et Latin, mais vous montes
ou chaire avec des souliers, et votre pred6-
cesseur se servoit de pantouffles destinees k
cet usage, et que vous trouver6s dans un
coin du consistoire.
Les habitans de Broek font leurs prin-
cipal commerce a Amsterdam, ou ils se
rendent ordinairement^ Theure de laBoui'se.
lis s'associent pour les grandes enterprises,
qu'ils font par cette raison plus surement
qu'un simple negociant.
Enfin ce village est une des plus grandes
singularites de toutes les Provinces Unies;
d'o\^ je ne sortis qu' avec les plus vifs, re-
grets. Un philosophe, un grand Seigneur
degout6 du monde, ne sauroit choisir un
plus agr^able retraite que ce village; mais^
il faudroit y apporter cette paix de Tame,
et ce contentement interieur, qui semblent
^tre le partage des habitans de cette deli'
cieuse contree."
The singularity of Broekland must apo-
142
logize for my having so long detained you
in its retired domain. We now proceeded
to Saardam, or Zaandam, a sea-port town
about six miles distant. It is situated upon
the top of a dyke, which is raised above the
surrounding morasses, and is now covered
with verdure, affording pasturage for nu-
merous herds of cattle. Amsterdam, with
the vessels navigating the Y, large ships sail-
ing on the Zuyder-Zee, Haerlem-Meer and
its surrounding groves in the distant land-
scape, together with Saardam and other
towns and villages in North Holland, vary-
ing in their appearance w^th every turn of
the dyke, formed an ever-changeful pros-
pect, until we reached Saardam.
This is a village of considerable extent,
and is famous for its ship-builders and wind-
mills. Vessels of all descriptions are built
in the dock-yards; and the number of mills
is said to exceed nine hundred and ninety,
though they do not quite amount to a thou-
sand. Whether this statement is correct or
143
not I cannot determine, but to the sight
they appear almost innumerable: they are
employed for the various purposes of mak-
ing paper, extracting oil, rasping log-wood,
cutting tobacco, sawing timber, grinding
corn, and many other useful operations. I
am not able to enter into the history of each
manufactory, or the particular object for
which these mills are constructed; but I will
just mention, that in one of them forty
planks of timber are sawed at once by forty
saws set in motion by one master wheel.
But neither the docks nor the windmills
were my principal attraction to Saardam;
for I could see them in other places: but
in no other spot could I have visited the
humble cottage in which Peter the Great
of Russia was contented to reside for two
years, whilst he worked as a common ship-
carpenter in the yards of Saardam. This
homely dwelling consists of two rooms on
the ground floor, one of which was occu-
pied by the great monarch: his bed place.
144
the three chairs and a table which he used,
still remain, but thej are no otherwise cu-
rious than as having once belonged to so
distinguished a character.
The inn-keeper at Saardam purchased
this litde tenement for sixty florins, at the
period when its destruction was decreed by
revolutionary frenzy. The consequence of
making this purchase has been, that in the
course of one summer since the peace he
has received upwards of a thousand florins
by shewing it to strangers, who are re-
quested to sign their names in a book which
is kept open upon the table : by its side lies
the life of Peter the Great, whose naval
character Voltaire thus delineates in his life
of Charles the Twelfth of Sweden.
" Pierre, qui vingt ans auparavant,
n'avait pas une barque dans la mer baltique,
se voyait alors maitre de cette mer, a la
tete d'une flotte de trente grands vaisseaux
de ligne. Un de ces vaisseaux avait 6te
construit de ces propres mains; il 6tait le
145
meilleur charpentier, le meilleur amiral, le
meilleur pilote du nord! II n'y avait point
de passage difficile qu*il n'eut sonde lui-
meme, depuis le fond du golfe de Bothnie
jusqu'a Tocean; aiant joint le travail d'un
matelot aux experiences d'un philosophe,
et aux desseins d'un empereur; et etant
devenu amiral par degres, et d force de
victoires, com me il avait voulu parvenir au
generalat sur terre!"
" Immortal Peter! first of kings and men.
His stubborn country tam'd, her rocks, her fens.
Her floods, her seas, her ill-submitting sonsj
And while the fierce barbarian he subdued,
To more exalted soul he rais'd the man.
Ye shades of ancient heroes ! ye who toil'd.
Through long successive ages, to build up
A labouring plan of state, behold at once
The wonder done! behold the matchless prince!
Who left his native throne, where reign'd, 'till then,
A mighty shadow of unreal power;
Who greatly spurn'd the slothful pomp of courts,
And roaming every land, in every port
His sceptre laid aside, with glorious hand
Unwearied plying the mechanic tool,
Galher'd the seeds of trade, of useful arts.
Of civil wisdom, and of martial skill.
Charg'd with the stores of Europe, home he goes :
Then cities rise amid th' illumin'd waste;
VOL. I. L
146
O'er joyless desarts smiles the rural reign j
Far distant flood to flood is social join'dj
The astonish'd Euxine hears the Baltic roar;
Proud navies ride on seas that never foam'd
With daring keel before ; and armies stretch
Each way their dazzling files, repressing here
The frantic Alexander of the north.
And awing there stern Othman's shrinking sons.
Sloth flies the land, and ignorance and vice.
Of old dishonour proud : it glows around.
Taught by the royal hand that rous'd the whole,
One scene of arts, of arms, of rising trade ;
For what his wisdom plann'd, and power enforc'd.
More potent still, his great example shew'd."
Thomson,
147
LETTER XIII.
Amsterc^m, May 11, 1803.
Mr. Blank ENHA GEN having in-
vited us to his country-house at Over-Nes,
nine miles from hence, we hired a hght open
carriage, and proceeded thither immediately
after breakfast this morning.
In our way we passed through the Httle
town of Wesep, which is called the key
to Amsterdam on this side, though it ap-
pears to be very slightly fortified. The
Dutch seem to depend more upon their
sluices than their fortifications, in case of
invasion, and on this account the situa-
tion of Wesep derives much consequence:
yet in a severe frost like that which occurred
when the French armies entered Holland,
even this last resource would prove of little
avail.
But Wesep renders a more essential ser-
148
vice to Amsterdam bj supplying its inha-
bitants with good water, which is daily sent
there in large boats, in general so deeply
laden as to allow the deck to be only two
or three inches above the surface of the
canal. These vessels are towed by horses,
and the water is sold in that city, which,
like too many of the Dutch towns, is des-
titute of this inestimable necessary of life;
the water in the canals being not only
brackish, but generally fetid, dirty, and
abounding with animalcules. In the city
of Amsterdam the canals become every day
more and more offensive.
The first part of our excursion to Over-
Nes was between rows of villas and gardens
belonging to the wealthy citizens: in many
we observed that the formalities of clipped
trees, strait walks, and reflecting platforms,
appeared to be giving Avay to winding paths,
irregular plantations, and artless clumps of
shrubs and flowers, in the tatse of England
and of nature.
149
A strait road and several canals, planted
as usual with rows of trees, and running
through verdant plains of pasture abound-
ing with cows and goats, succeeded these
villas until we arrived at Tie-Meer, a lake
of some extent: a branch of the Rhine
then presented itself in a bold navigable
stream, richly fringed with wood, particu-
larly near Over-Nes, where it flows imme-
diately in front of the house, and adds much
beauty to a spot on which the taste and
fortune of its owner have been emplqyed to
render it a very delightful residence. When
Mr. B. purchased Over-Nes he found it
formal and uninteresting, but he has en-
tirely changed its former appearance into
one of the most pleasing and beautiful spots
I have seen. The groves and shrubberies
were filled with nightingales, and in a re-
tired part of the wood, upon the decayed
trunk of a fine chesnut-tree, stood a stork's
nest, which for many years has been the
constant resort of a pair of those useful and
150
domestic birds. Seeing the hen upon her
nest we silently approached, but on entering
the little grove immediately surrounding it,
her mate, who had been watching at a dis-
tance, came flying downwards in circles,
and alighting upon the nest, gently ca-
ressed her with his bill, and then hovered
over us until we withdrew. The same faith-
ful pair regularly resort to this tree evfery
spring, and depart at the appointed season
to distant climes.
The Dutch gardeners excel in the forcing
of fruits and the cultivation of vegetables;
but I cannot give equal praise to the exotic
plants which are preserved in th'eir stoves
and green-houses. The orchards^ poultry-
yard, stables, coach-house, and offices of
every kind attached to Over-Nes, are on the
best plan, uniting every English convenience
with Dutch neatness. The unremitted at-
tentions of our hospitable host were calcu-
lated to induce a longer stay than we had
it in our power to make. Dr. James, an
151
English clergyman, with his wife and
daughter, are on a visit at Over-Nes. This
reverend gentleman officiates in the Epis-
copal church at Amsterdam, which is sub-
ject to the care and ordinance of the Bishop
of London.
After dinner we extended our walks into
the adjacent country, which is every where
rural and pleasant, enlivened by flocks and
herds, while several large vessels sailing on
the river varied the prospect. The summer-
house where we drank tea is only separated
from its banks by the public road; a situa-
tion peculiarly pleasing to the Dutch taste,
as the greatest delight of the Hollanders is
to sit still themselves, and to behold other
objects in motion.
It was eleven o'clock when we returned
to Amsterdam; nevertheless, at this late
hour, I was invited to an entertainment
in the city, of a very different nature from
the rural pleasures in which we had passed
such an agreeable day at Over-Nes. I am .
152
almost ashamed to mention this adventure,
but as the Countess d'Artois, the Princess
Lamballe, and many other distinguished
females had graced the scene, and as I
was told that few foreigners quitted Am-
sterdam without paying this assembly a
visit, I accepted the invitation. This enter-
tainment consists of public dances, not al-
together of a delicate nature : in short, there
are two licensed houses, where ladies of a
certain description, and from all parts of
Europe, assemble every Sunday, Monday,
and Wednesday nights, dressed in the cos-
tume of their respective countries, and exhi-
biting a singular variety of English, French,
Dutch, German, Russian, Friesland, and
North Holland females. These ladies dance
with the young men who constantly attend
upon such occasions. The dances are per-
fectly correct, and not a look or action that
can offend the most scrupulous delicacy is
permitted, but should any temporary attach-
ment take place between the parties, a
153
meeting is appointed at some other house,
and the forming such engagements is all
that is permitted in the public ball-room.
Having satisfied my curiosity at the first
of these assemblies, I repaired to the second
place of rendezvous, which I found to be by
no means so decent as the first, and the fe-
males were of a very inferior class. A small
sum of money is paid at the entrance of
the upper ball-room, and the company may
have ice, capillaire, or other refreshments,
at certain fixed prices: but in order to gain
admittance into the inferior assembly no
money is given at the door, as every gen-
tleman is expected to call for a bottle of
wine in the room, and after drinking one
glass himself, the waiter is employed to offer
the rest to any of the ladies, in the circle
before him, which please his taste. The
lady, to whom the wine has been offered,
must immediately rise and dance in the
fashion of her own country; but should it
be divided among several females, they
154
then join in a kind of general country
dance. In order to nmke the most of my
time, I desired my valet to get a bottle of
claret, which, according to my direction,
was presented to eight of these damsels,
who immediately began to exhibit their ta-
lents, and danced before me.
In the first of these licensed brothels the
company have the art to conceal any glar-
ing features of their debauchery, so that the
most virtuous female, unless previously in-
formed of its character, might readily sup-
pose herself to be in very proper society:
but in the second assembly neither deli-
cacy nor decorum are regarded; indeed,
so far are they from even assuming a
modesty which they do not possess, that
the dress, the manners, and the actions of
these women, were so very disgusting, that
I was very glad to take my leave after a
short visit. I do not understand the policy
of the magistrates of Amsterdam, where
such houses as these are actually sanctioned
155
by law; while at Delft, und several other
place», public women are frequently con-
fined to the spin-house, or house of correc-
tion, for five or ten years, according to the
number of their offences.
There are also in Amsterdam certain
places of legal prostitution, called Speel-
houses, where poor wretched females are
actually kept in a state of slavery, and sub-
ject to every insult and cruelty which their
owner and his visitors choose to commit:
nor have these truly unfortunate creatures
the power to liberate themselves from these
most detestable of all mansions, without
purchasing their freedom; and it is seldom,
indeed, that any of them are able to make
such a purchase, as the wages of their ini-
quity belong to their proprietor. In the
name of Christianity, by what laws, or on
what pretext, can such degrading, such
filthy, and such abominable practices be
audiorised by government! What a painful
contrast does there exist between these sinks
156
of iniquity, and those excellent institutions
and regulations which I had so much sa-
tisfaction in mentioning a few days ago!
On what principle, or by what sophistry,
can the same men profess to promote the
good, while they publicly sanction the vices
of their subjects !
157
LETTER XIV.
On board the Trekschuit, between Am-
sterdam and Utrecht, May 1 2, 1803.
As I had determined to leave Am-
sterdam for Utrecht in the course of the day,
I took an early walk in order to view several
places I had not yet seen; amongst these
was the rasp-house, which is said to be one
of the best regulated prisons in Europe,
and where the profligate and abandoned
are chained to blocks, and employed chiefly
in rasping Brazil-wood.
I had a ticket of admission, but it was
unfortunately one of the days when no
one is permitted to see it; I was therefore
obliged to content myself with admiring the
great extent, and solid architecture, of its ex-
ternal aspect, and with taking a hasty view
of the interior of the building, as I con-
1^3
versed with the keeper. It gave me great
pain to hear, even during this short conver-
sation, the piercing cries and groans of those
who were undergoing the punishment of
flagellation; and from the voices of the
wretched sufferers, who were crying aloud
for mercy, I judged the greater proportion
to be women and boys.
I returned to the hotel through that
quarter of the city which is appropriated to
the Jews, wJio, as I have already mentioned^
exceed twenty thousand. The generality
of Dutch towns are cleanly to an extreme ;
but nothing can be more offensive than the
filth of the Jewish part of Ajrasterdam : the
whole of it appeai-s to be covered with
rotten fish, decayed vegetables, and dis-
gusting objects of every description, whilst
the people who dwell there are dirty to
excess. Many of their houses are however
large, and the synagogues are structures of
considerable extent; particularly one of
them, which belongs to the Portuguese Jews,
159
who are esteemed the most wealthy and re-
spectable of the Israehtes in Amsterdam.
My perambulations being ended, and
having engaged the roof of a trekschuit for
my family and luggage, we departed for
Utrecht. This stage, or rather voyage, is a
distance of twenty-four miles, or an eight
hours journey, and the canal upon which
we are embarked, is esteemed the most
beautiful throughout the whole republic,
from the number of villas, gardens, faims,
and villages, that appear on its banks. For
some miles the passage is along the river
Amstel, which runs through a country rich
in rural beauty. Half way on our voy-
age we arrived at the great sluices which
separate the provinces of Holland and
Utrecht, and, with the adjacent fortifica-
tions, are thought to be of the utmost im-
portance for the security of Batavia. On
account of the circumstances which have
occurred within these few years past, I shall
be silent in regard to the political and mi-
1(50
litary departments, the public revenues, and
the French requisitions: these are very un-
pleasant subjects, and may be temporary,
when we consider how suddenly the face of
Europe has been changed by revolutions.
The silence, and easy motion of a trek-
schuit, allows the free use of the pen or the
pencil. Whilst gently gliding along the
canal I have been sitting upon the roof,
and enjoying the surrounding scenery, al-
though most of my present pleasures are
considerably alloyed by the rumour of an
approaching war. At all events, I shall not
have occasion to repent that I took my route
into France by the way of Holland, instead
of passing over from Dover to Calais.
Holland is said to have few attractions
for travellers, and to derive all the interest
which it possesses from its commerce alone:
but I think differently. To see a coun-
try, stolen as it were from the ocean,
Avhose waves we behold checked in their
progress by the arm of man, while the bil-
161
lows roll above his meadows, and waft the
richest produce of foreign chmes to these
nether- lands, apparently so little befriended
by nature; to see opulent cities, towns, and
villages, the abode of plenty, comfort, and
elegance; chearful farms and animated land-
scapes; all the offspring of liberty and in-
dustry; must kindle joy in every heart that
throbs for the welfare and dignity of human
nature. The citizen of the world finds
charms in every country; and in the just
balance of reason and philosophy he weighs
the solid advantages and blessings of such
a country as Batavia, against the more
famed delights of soft Ausonia: and few,
perhaps, have felt greater pleasure in wan-
dering amongst her classic scenes, than my-
self.
" Far shining upward to the Sabine hills.
To Anio's roar, and Tiber's olive shade.
To where Preneste lifts her airy brow.
Or downward spreading to the sunny shore.
Where Alba breathes the freshness of the main."
Thomson.
VOL. I. M
152
On entering the province of Utrecht
the country assumes a less monotonous ap-
pearance than that to which we have been
of late accustomed, and though it still conti-
nues its level character, the woods and groves,
with the numerous villages and country-
seats on each side of the canal, produce a
change of effect. Many of the latter pre-
sent extended elevations, and have ten or
twelve windows in their front, exclusive of
the offices.
Maarsen is a large pleasant village, and
the scenery about Breukelen is extremely
beautiful, as its groves and gardens entirely
skirt the canal; while the air is agreeably
perfumed by the abundance of lilacs, sy-
ringas, and other vernal shrubs, that are
interspersed amongst the weeping-willows
which overhang the waters, and adorn the
banks: swans are also to be enumerated
amongst the ornaments of this scenery; and
here also the plantations are enriched with
163
pines and fir-trees, which are not commonly
seen in other parts of Holland.
The hig:h tower or dome of Utrecht is
seen at a considerable distance, and by a
gradual approach the tops of other churches
and lofty buildings of the city, together
with the vessels at anchor, present them-
selves to the view, intermingled with the
surrounding wood.
164
LETTER XV.
Utrecht, May 13, 1803.
We landed yesterday evening at the
gates of Utrecht, and w ere obhged to walk
about a mile before we arrived at the hotel :
this circumstance, however, afforded us an
opportunity of seeing the principal streets,
and the costume and manners of the in-
habitants, employed in their different re-
creations.
Early this morning I visited some of
the most interesting objects in a city which
has been often mentioned in the history of
Europe, and is particularly known from the
treaty of 1579, which effected the union
of the provinces against Philip the Second
of Spain ; and equally so from the congress
held there in 1713, and which gave peace
to Europe.
165
I found the markets abundantly sup-
plied with meat, fish, and vegetables, at
very moderate rates, and exhibiting a great
variety of dress and manners amongst the
rustics from the adjacent country. But nei-
ther the Stadthouse, nor any of the other
public buildings, presented any thing worthy
of particular notice. I wandered, for a con-
siderable time, among the solitary cloisters
and gothic ruins near the cathedral, which
are the remains of a very magnificent struc-
ture. But as I could not then enter the part
which is appropriated for public service, I
shall only say that its exterior displays the
same striking neglect of the Dutch, in re-
spect to their places of worship, which I
observed throughout Holland. Although
no people have had more powerful motives
to throw off the papal yoke, yet having ef-
fected it, and introduced a more pure and
simple practice of religion in its stead, I
think that the beauty of lioliness should be
166
more respected than it generally is in this
country.
Our next visit was to Oost-hrook^ the
cou try seat of Mr. Sawyer, a banker of
Amsterdam. The distance was about a
league, and that gentleman was so obliging
as to accompany us in his carriage to the
Moravian seminary at Zeist.
Zeist is a village of considerable extent,
which is chiefly inhabited by Moravians,
who dwell in lofty houses, surrounding a large
square, in which, according to the rules of
the society, the sexes are separated from each
other, and the different orders have their
respective employments. The women dress
in the fashion of the country, plain and
neat; but here, as in all their other semi-
naries, their different states are known by
the ribbons worn in their caps: tiie mar-
ijed women are distinguished by those of a
pale blue colour, the unmarried by rose-
colour, and the widows by white; black is
167
never permitted, nor is any mourning made
for the dead : on the contrary, when any
one dies the apartment of the deceased is
strewed with flowers, and soft music an-
nounces the departure of an immortal spirit
to happier regions. The rules of this society
are well calculated to maintain good order
and piety; while industry, oeconomy, and
charity, pre-eminently abound.
We visited their public shops, which are
in rooms separated from the more private
apartments, and the price is affixed to each
article. Some of them contained gold and
silver plate, jewellery, watches, and trinkets;
others, utensils in copper, iron, brass, and tin,
sadlery, horse accoutrements, implements of
husbandry and gardening tools; wdiile several
are furnished with books and stationary, and
none of the necessaries of life are wanting.
They do not desire the company of
strangers, who can only sec them together
when the}" assemble in public worship, and
their religious ceremonies are very solemn
168
and devout: their mode of catechizing and
instructing the children offers an excellent
example to every community of Christians.
Zeist is one of the most considerable
Moravian seminaries in Europe, and I have
endeavoured to gain every information re-
specting this interesting sect. In Germany
they are called Hernhutters, and were first
established there in the fifteenth century, on
the borders of Silesia, nearLititz, which then
belonged to the king of Bohemia, who at
length became their patron; and as they
made numerous converts, both in that coun-
try and Moravia, they were styled Brethren
of Bohemia and Moravia. In England thy
are known only by the name of Moravians;
and amongst themselves by that of the
United Brethren.
In Piedmont and some other countries
they have suffered severe persecution. Lu-
ther at first countenanced, and afterwards
deserted them; but Calvin esteemed and
patronized them. After the reformation
16J
they were little heard of until the year 1722,
when Christian David, one of the society,
conducted the remnant of his church into
Upper Lusatia, and recommended it to the
protection of count Zinzendorrf, who granted
them a small territory near the village of Ber-
tholdsdorf, with permission to build a place
of worship. A little colony was soon esta-
blished on this spot, which took the name
of Hereiihout, or, the Guard of the Lord;
in less than twelve years, however, after
its establishment, it could not contain the
great number of converts who resorted thi-
ther, so that many of them emigrated to the
banks of the Rhine, and formed colonies
in the Electorate of Saxony, Silesia, Bran-
denburg, England, and even in America;
in most of which countries they have greatly
increased, and every where have been
esteemed for their exemplary conduct as
christians and subjects.
The religious tenets, and general eco-
nomy of the Moravian church, is much ad-
170
mired. They regard the holy scriptures as
the volume of divine inspiration; and, as
such, they believe all its contents literally,
without admitting any human comments or
interpretations. They look up with hum-
ble hope and joy to our blessed Saviour,
as to the lamb who was slain for our re-
demption, and who made by his sacrifice a
complete propitiation for the sins of fallen
man: they admit of justification only in
him, and allow of no other plea for salva-
tion than that of divine grace, through
faith in a crucified Redeemer. The style
of their hymns and other writings is ex-
tremely figurative: this circumstance, toge-
ther with a misinterpretation of their Agapae,
or love-feasts, has sometimes caused them
to be treated Avith undeserved contempt
and ridicule. Their love-feasts are nothing
more than slight repasts, taken by the head
of a family surrounded by his children, re-
lations, and domestics; and sometimes by
a larger association of the brethren and
in
sisters, who partake of a frugal meal, con-
verse on religious subjects, and at part-
ins* receive from each the embrace of
peace.
The rites and ceremonies of the Mora-
vians differ very little from those of the Pro-
testant churches. They hold genera land
provincial synods, the former only once in
three years, but the latter oftener; and they
have an advocate who is styled their defender
and protector; which is an honour that se-
veral princes have been proud of deserving:
two emperors, and two kings of Bohemia,
have not been ashamed to boast of this rank
in the society.
The Moravian bishops ordain the in-
ferior clergy, and give absolution: their
habit is plain and simple, and is distin-
guished by a cap of purple: at ordina-
tions they wear a long white robe, with
a red girdle. The ecclesiastical discipline
of this society is very strict; but its mem-
bers seldom commit crimes of sufficient
172
enormity to be cognizable by the magis-
trates : their own internal regulations for the
promotion of virtue, and suppression of
vice, are found to operate with great suc-
cess, as they are uniform, salutary, and im-
pressive. At the baptismal sacrament, ex-
clusive of the usual ceremony, the priest
pours water three times upon the infantas
breast; and the commemoration of the
Lord^s supper is always performed in the
evening: after consecration, a priest and
deacon distribute the bread to the brethren;
another priest, with a deaconess, gives it to
the sisters, and all the communicants put it
into their mouths at the same moment,
having their faces prostrated towards the
ground: the cup is tlien offered in succes-
sion; after which each brother gives, and
receives, the kiss of peace; and the sisters,
who are always in a separate part of the
church, do the same: the ceremony con-
cludes with a benediction. Washing the
feet of the disciples on Holy Thursday, is
173
also observed in some of the principal se-
minaries.
Marriages are formed by the choice of
the elders, though not, I believe, in that
compulsive manner which is generally as-
serted; but certainly with less fore-know-
ledge and attachment between the parties
concerned, than amongst other persuasions,
and yet it is said that unhappy marriages
seldom occur. The funerals are attended
by both sexes, and, as I have already ob-
served, none of the parties wear black, or
any other symbol of mourning ; on the con-
trary, the corpse is borne to the grave ac-
companied with the softest strains of music,
which are designed to inspire, or at least pro-
mote, the conviction, that they shall rise from
the tomb to everlasting felicity. On Easter-
day, at sunrise, they visit the tombs of their
departed ancestors and friends, particularly
of those who died in the preceding year;
when they silently meditate on the sweet
communion which they enjoyed togetiier on
174
earth, and pray for its renewal in heaven,
where it will last for ever. The cemeteries
are remarkably neat, and not unfrequently
planted with trees and flowers, like a beau-
tiful garden.
" Thrice welcome such a death!
That, after many a painful bleeding step.
Conducts us to our home, and lands us safe
On the long -wished for shore. Prodigious change!
Our bane turn'd to a blessing! Death disarm'd
Loses its fellness quite: all praise to Him
Who took the venom out ! Sure the last end
Of the good man is peace. How calm his exit!
Night dews fall not more gently to the ground.
Nor weary worn-out winds expire so soft !"
Blair,
On our return from Zeist we accompa-
nied Mr. Sawyer in a visit to his farm, con-
sisting of two hundred acres, which is let to
a man who resides upon the estate, with his
mother, a wife, and ten children, who are
all employed in its cultivation. AVe visited
this family, and found every part of the
house neat and comfortable, bright brass and
pewter utensils abounded in the kitchen,
and cheeses in every stage of their manu-
175
factory filled the dairy: upon a reading desk
near the fire I observed a large family bible,
which appeared to be often used : the black
bread was very sweet, and the butter deli-
cious; fresh meat they seldom taste; salt
fish, salt beef, boiled pease, and vegetables,
are the usual fare of the Dutch farmers,
except when they kill a pig, when they enjoy
a fresh meat regale. These animals are all
regularly washed once a week, and scrubbed
with soap and brushes, and their sties par-
take of the general cleanliness. Their bees
are occasionally shut up in the hives, and
shifted from place to place according to the
produce of nectareous sweets. We saw a
dozen of hives just prepared for transpor-
tation to the nursery gardens of Amster-
dam. I have been thus particular in the
description of this place, because it affords
a general specimen of the Dutch farms.
There is more wood, and less water, in
the whole department of Utrecht, and espe-
cially near Oost-brook, than wc have been
176
accustomed to see in Holland. Near the
house are some very ancient elms, nearly
coeval with the abbey they once shaded.
The kitchen gardens are extensive, and
have excellent forcing-houses : the gardener
shewed me a simple method of engrafting,
which seldom fails to insure a succession of
the best fruit. He takes up a sucker from
a wild cherry-tree in the woods, and plants
it near a favourite fruit-tree, either wall or
standard. When it has taken root, the top is
cut off; an incision is then made of about an
inch long in the stock, and a branch of the
neighbouring fruit-tree is gently led towards
it: the most promising shoot being then se-
lected, the bark is cut away on each side
so as to leave only a small channel for the
sap to pass along, and it is fitted into the
orifice, which is immediately covered over
with a compost of bees-wax and rosin, to
prevent the admission of air. In the space of
two jears this becomes a flourishing tree, and
is removed to its place of final destination.
177
LETTER XVI.
Utrecht, May 14, I8O3.
My morning walks in this city are
very unproductive of information. Utrecht
differs in some respects from other Dutch
towns in the construction of its canals,
which have double channels: the lower one
is deep and narrow for the reception of
water, while the other is filled with a range
of subterraneous mansions, placed on each
side, whose roofs are lower than the streets,
with Avhich they have communication by
stairs. These dwellings present a very sin-
gular appearance.
Some parts of the town are pleasant
and airy, planted with trees, and containing
many good houses. In the centre of the
great square, instead of the Tree of Liberty,
stands a colossal statue of the goddess her-
VOL. I. N
178
self, with her emblematical cap on the point
of a long spear; she rests upon a fluted
column that is placed on an high pedestal:
the figure is, I believe, of marble, but the
column and pedestal are merely of painted
w'ood.
The internal appearance of the great
church exactly conesponds with theexterior:
it was once a very magnificent structure^ but
the nave and all the western front is dila-
pidated, and the choir, which is still used
for public worship, is mean^ dirty, and neg-
lected. The woman who was employed ta
shew us the building, entertained us with
cthe legendary tales of St* Martin and the
beggai', and pointed out their statues and
portraits, which adorn the convocation
chamber; where there is also to be seen a
statue of the first bishop of Utrecht, who
founded this cathedral, a model of which
he holds in his hands.
. . Time and neglect have not proved the
only enemies to this fabric: revolutionary
179
phrenzy and lawless anarchy, have, within
these few years, contributed their exertions
towards its final demolition, and their un-
reflecting fury was particularly directed to
the destmction of the beautiful monument
which had been erected to the memory of
Amelia, Countess of Solmes, and the widow
of Frederic Henry, Prince of Orange, who
built the House in the Wood, as I have al-
ready mentioned . Her tomb was a large and
handsome composition, situated in a sepa-
rate chapel of the church, the floor of which
is now covered with fragments of its statues
and ornaments : the sarcophagus which con-
tained the body was broken open, the coflin
taken out, and the remains of the princess
are publicly exposed to every visitor.
On our return we observed a crowd that
had assembled round a scaffold erected be-
fore the Stadthouse, for the punishment of
two men accused of robbery and murder.
The judges were stationed at the windows,
a fire was kindled on the scaffold, a num-
180
bet of rods and cords were prepared, and
the inferior officers were waiting the arrival
of the prisoners, who at length appeared
upon the platform, and heard the particu-
lars of their crime and sentence publicly
tead. One of them, less guilty than the
other, received forty-five strokes with a rod,
and was condemned to ten years labour
in the workhouse: his comrade, whose ap-
pearance was indescribably savage, had
been convicted of the robbery, but escaped
death on account of the murder not hav-
ing been sufficiently proved, though little
doubt existed that he had killed his sister.
Enormous crimes appeared to be heredi-
tary in this man's family j for his father was
hanged for a similar offence, and his mo-
ther had been publicly flogged and burned
in the back: this latter punishment now
awaited the son, who, with a rope round
his neck, was led under the gallows, and
there tied up and scourged with great seve-
rity. The arms of Utrecht were then stamped
181
»pon his back with a hot iron, and he was
committed to hard labour for thirty years.
1 have nothing more to say of Utrecht,
nor, in this time of suspense and uncer-
tainty, must we think of visiting any other
parts of the Batavian repubhc, which is
soon seen and as easily remembered : its
monotony lessens the trouble of recollec-
tion. The most considerable towns are in
the province of Holland, in which we have
passed all the time our situation allows us.
I shall take my leave of this singular country
in the words of Sir William Temple, which
exhibit a brief but faithful picture of it.
< . *' Holland is a country where the earth
is better than the air, and profit more in
request than honour; where there is more
sense than wit, more good-nature than good-
humour, and more wealth than pleasure.
Where a man would choose rather to travel
than to live; will find more things to ob-
serve than admire; and more persons to
esteem than to love.''
182
LETTER XVII.
Antwerp, May l6, 1803.
Aft ER an early dinner we left Utrecht
for Antwerp, a distance of seventy-two miles,
by the route of Gorcum and Breda. Here
we parted with our faithful and humble
friend Tromp, who accompanied us from
the Hague. We found him a pleasant, in-
telligent companion, who made our con-
tracts for the trekschuits and carriages, and
protected us from every kind of imposi-
tion: he lived many years in the capacity
of valet de chambre to the Prince of Orange,
and attended him in his misfortunes to Eng-
land, where he remained several years.
Our own servant not speaking Dutch,
and travelling by water being now at an
end, to avoid trouble, I made an agreement
with the master of the hotel at Utrecht to
183
furnish us with a carriage and four horses
to Antwerp for a hundred florins, or about
nine pounds sterhng, including turnpikes
and ferries. Near Utrecht we passed seve-
ral villas, family seats, and a few woods,
which are objects of consideration in Hol-
land; and in about an hour arrived on the
banks of the Maes, from whence our steeds
trotted nimbly with the carriage into the
ferry boat. It contained also a waggon, a
gentleman's coach with its horses, and several
oxen. A fresh breeze carried us soon over;
when we entered a very level and fertile
country, abounding in corn and cattle,
with the usual accompaniments of villages,
farms, and hamlets. This scenery conti-
nued to Gorcum, a small clean town of a
very comfortable appearance, containing
six thousand inhabitants, four churches, and
the usual public buildings. Those parts of
the ramparts which were planted with trees,
formed very pleasant walks, and the Mer-
wede, a branch of the Macs, flowing in a
184
bro^ stream near the town, is an important
(rt)ject in the surrounding landscape. '
f [JO The next day we travelled twenty-four
miles, from Gorcum to Breda; but indifferent
roads and several successive ferries prevented
onr accomplishing this distance in less than
tMght hours. The first part was through a low
marshy country, covered with a strong grass,
sometimes intersected by open corn-fields,
and all the villages embosomed in blooming
orchards of apples, pears, and cherries. As we
approached Breda the landscape changed
from an entire flat to sand-hills covered with
fii-s, encircling plains of broom, and fern :
ihe- direction posts very properly marked
the distance on these heavy roads, not by
miles but hours; and we met but one car-
riage during the whole journey. The road
IS paved on approaching Breda, and in its
immediate vicinity the country is pleasant,
and fertile.
This ancient city, esteemed the capital
of Dutch Brabant, is strongly fortified, and
185
contains upwards of eight thousand inhabi-
tants, who seem equally divided in respect
to their religious opinions ; there being four
Roman Catholic, and as many Lutheran
and Calvinist churches. Breda is in all re-
spects superior to Gorcum : many of its
public buildings deserve attention, and the
palace of the Prince of Orange, now con-
verted into a French hospital, has been a
fine structure. Near the town is a convent
of Beguine nuns, and we visited another
small seminary of that society within the
walls: all the other religious houses have
been suppressed. The public gardens, con-
tiguous to the palace, are large and possess
somewhat of the agreeable irregularity of
English taste. Here we exchano;ed our
Dutch florins for French crowns, and early
this morning we departed for Antwerp, a
journey of about thirty miles. We had a
tolerable road during the first hour, and then
entered the heavy sands which we had been
prepared to expect.
186
?(» The country from Breda to Hoorstadtj
the first town in Flanders, and midway to
Antwerp, presented alternate changes of
cultivated farms and dreary heaths; but the
latter predominated, and the diverging
roads without direction posts occasion dif-
ficulty and delay, as we experienced from
the ignorance of our coachman, who had
not been at Antwerp for thirty years. The
heaths were generally skirted with groves of
fir, and now and then a tolerable oak. We
passed but few villages, but they were sur*
rounded with corn-fields in a very luxurious
state of cultivation, while the meadows were
covered with cattle; but whether amid
scenes of cultivation or barren heaths, the
road always lay through heavy sands, and
our progress proportionably tedious, nor
were we often cheered by the sight of an
human being.
At Hoorstadt our trunks and packages
were strictly examined, nor could any pe^
cuniary consideration prevent it; but the
187
French officers behaved with civihty, and
detained us no longer than their official in-
vestigation required. Here we left the de-
partment of Dutch Brabant, and with it
the last southern district belonging to the
Batavian republic. We now entered the
most northern territory of France, which
forms a distinguished part of its late im-
mense acquisitions ; and all these extensive
plains, called the Low Countries, Nether-
lands, or Dutch, Austrian, and Spanish
Flanders, have re-assumed the ancient name
of Belgium, which it possessed in the time
of Julius Caesar, the conqueror of Gaul, or
Gallia Transalpina, from its local situation
in respect to Italy. This territory Caesar
formed into three divisions; the inhabitants
of the northern districts from the Seine to
the Meuse, he called Belgae; those who in-
habited the country from thence to the Ga-
ronne were the Celtae; and the southern
provinces from the G aronne to the Pyrenees,
were peopled by the Aquitani; whose Ian-
guage indicated a common origin with tjie
Iberians or Celtiberians of Spain. >v Mo'rt»
ffi These provinces continued under the
Roman government from that period until
ihe beginning of the fifth century, when the
Ff-ancs, a warUke people of Germany, made
incursions into the northern provinces of
OauV conquered the Romans, estabhshed
themselves in their fortresses, and, about the
year 420, their great chieftain Pharamond
became the first king of France; a mo^
nar?chy, which under sixty-seven princes of
three different races, or families, continued
until the death of Louis the Sixteenth in
^-Hie Francs formed a tribe of those
people, who under the general name of
J'ranc, which signifies free, inhabited that
part of Germany situated between the Rhine
and the Weser, comprehending Franconia,
Thuringia, Friesland, and Westphalia. Like
our common ancestors the Saxons and other
German nations, they lived nearly in a sa-
189
vage i^tate, governed by the Druids, priefll?
astrologers, and judges. The Netherlands
and Picardy were their first conquests from
the Romans, which Clovis, the fifth kin^
of France, greatly extended, and at length*
under Charlemagne, the second king <bi
the second race, all France, Spain, Italy',^
and Germany, became subject to that re-
nowned prince, who in the year 800 was
crowned at Rome emperor of the westi
After his death these extensive dominions
were divided among his successors; Bur-
gundy and Lorraine were formed into sepa-
rate kingdoms ; and many other provinces
became petty sovereignties, with very little
dependence upon the kings of France:
these again, at different periods, were t"^
united to the French monarchy, and ai
length Belgium, and every part of ancient
France, with the other territories acquired
by treaty or conquest during the late revo-
lution, have been annexed to the Frencli re-
pubhc one and indivisible.
190
•'^ Les Pais-bas, or the Low Countries, after
throwing off their allegiance to the feeble
successors of Charlemagne, were ; formed
into seventeen distinct provinces, or petty
sovereignties, governed by dukes, counts,
and other leaders; most of which, by various
treaties and alliances, were at length united
under the duke of Burgundy, who dying
without male issue, his dominion passed in
1477 to the house of Austria, by the mar-
riage of Mary his only daughter, and sole
heiress, with the arch-duke Maximilian;
whose grandson, Charles the Fifth, emperor
of Germany, became sovereign of the whole
seventeen provinces. His successor, Philip
the Second of Spain, bigotted, superstitious,
and vexed with the little success he had
acquired in England, with a consort of a
similar disposition, resolved at length to
establish the inquisition in the Netherlands:
which, with the other oppressions of the
duke of Alva, caused a revolt in the northern
provinces; seven of which, uniting in the
191
common cause of religion and liberty, as-
sisted by England and France, threw off
the Spanish yoke; and under William Nas-
sau, prince of Orange, to whom they gave
the title of Stadtholder, became an independ-
ent state, by the title of the Seven United
Provinces, now the Batavian republic. > ,
The other ten provinces, called the Spa-
nish Netherlands, remained under the do-
minion of Spain until 1714, excepting a
part of Brabant, which had been taken by
the Dutch, and some districts in Flanders,
Hainault, and Cambray, conquered by the
French in the seventeenth century, and
called French Flanders. At that period
the Spanish provinces were ceded to the
emperor of Germany, and assumed the de-
nomination of the Austrian Netherlands, or
Flanders, the common appellation of the
whole country. The French in 1794 be-
came masters of the Austrian provinces,
which were formally ceded by the emperor
.L u
192
of Germany to the French repubhc by the
treaty of Campo Formio m 1797> and con-
firmed by that of Luneville in 1801.
Thus the French became masters of the
Austrian Netherlands, and all that part
called Dutch Flanders, excepting Brabant,
which was annexed as a new department
to the Batavian republic : to these were
added the bishopric of Liege, formerly a
part of Germany ceded to France by the
congress at Radstadt in 1798; and this ex-
tensive territory, under the ancient name of
Belgium, or La Belgique, now forms nine
departments in the French republic, whose
names and distinctions it is not necessary
for me to detail; as I am well aware a pro-
longed account must be dry and uninte-
resting to a distant reader, though extremely
necessary for the information of a traveller;
who, without such geographical and topo-
graphical knowledge, is often led into per-
})lexities from which those inhabitants are not,
i!^3
in geneml, qualified to extricate him, vfMi
whom it is his usual lot to communicate i«A
the progress of his journies. ''••»r*
On leaving Hoorstadt the country as-
sumed a more agreeable appearance j but'tJife
road continued to be very heavy: we tli»6fc«ir">
fore passed slowly through extensive woods
of fir, sometimes diversified with oaks and
beeches; the fields were generally enclosed
and planted with trees and hedge-rows; a
gentle swell now and then appeared, but I
must not even dignify their appearance with
the name of hills. Intervening heaths caused
the only variety, as we had now taken lea\'^
of canals, and sails gliding between tlie ovctp
shadowing willows. The country seemed
less populous than Holland, and the dress
of the peasants was similar to that in Utrecht
and Dutch Brabant.
The lofty spire of Antwerp cathedral
had been a welcome object for many n}iles,
and on leaving the last extensive heath, about
two leagues from that city, we ciUcrcd a
VOL. I. o
194
paved road, skirted with rows of lofty oaks
and beeches, which screened the woodlands
on either side. We passed but few towns or
villages, nor did any appearance of carriages
or passengers indicate our approach to this
great city, Avhere we arrived eleven hours
after leaving Breda, though it Avas a journey
of no more than thirty miles.
195
LETTER XVIII.
Antwerp, May 1 "J, \ 803.
We have since our arrival been
fuUj employed in visiting the most inviting
objects of this celebrated place, formerly
one of the largest and most populous cities
in the Netherlands, and now the capital of
a department in the French republic, which
contains three hundred and fifty-three thou-
sand inhabitants, sixty-two thousand of which
reside in Antwerp. It is seventy-eight leagues
from Paris, most advantageously situated on
the banks of the Escaut or Scheldt, a noble
river, twenty feet deep at low water, so that
the vessels anchor close to the quays; while
the basins or docks, which join the canals,
and comnumicate with the Scheldt, are large
enough to contain an hundred vessels. Tlie
city assumes the form of a crescent, is about
196
seven miles in circumference, and sur-
rounded by a wall and bastions.
Most of the inhabitants are Roman Ca-
tholics; the Protestants are chiefly mer-
chants from various parts of Europe; among
them are a few English families, but not
more than five or six Jews reside in this
city.
We first visited the church of St. James,
which has not been very much despoiled of
its pictures. We found it crowded with
worshippers, and the priests ofliciating at
the different altars, adorned with images,
flowers, and other decorations. But the
cathedral of Notre Dame presented a very
different appearance. It is one of the finest
gothic structures on the continent, with a
beautiful spire four hundred and seventy-
six feet high, of light, elegant, and enriched
architecture. All its marbles, paintings, and
statues, are either destroyed or removed;
and the disappointed traveller finds only
white-washed walls instead of the invalu-
197
able works of Reubens, Vandyke, and other
celebrated masters: amons; these was the
descent from the cross by Reubens, which
is universally allowed to be one of the finest
pictures in Europe : it is now in the Louvre
at Paris, Avhere we shall behold it with far
less interest than in tlie church for which
he had painted, and where he himself placed
this masterpiece of his superior genius.
The tomb of this great artist is in a small
chapel behind the high altar in St. James's
church, where a marble slab covers the re-
mains of himself and family, and a small
mural monument of black marble is in-
scribed to his memory: this chapel was for-
merly decorated wdtli one of his best pic-
tures, now at Paris.
We then repaired to the ci-devant church
of the Dominicans, which has indeed lost
its finest paintings, though it otherwise dis-
covers but small marks of sacrilegious pil-
lage: our principal visit, however, Avas to the
adjacent chapel of Calvary, which is one of
198
the most singular and curious places I have
ever seen. It consists of rock-work, in the
open air,curiouslj disposed in different arches
and compartments, surrounding a chapel of
similar materials, which contains a model of
the holy sepulchre at Jerusalem, made by
a monk who went thither for that purpose.
The body of our Saviour in marble reposes
in the tomb, and on the outside are repre-
sented the Roman soldiers employed to guard
it previous to the resurrection. Among the
rocks are groupes of figures, in their natural
proportions, of the prophets, apostles, and
martyrs; with some of the principal pas-
sages of the New Testament interspersed,
which more particularly relate to our Sa-
viour's miracles and crucifixion. Under a
tree in the adjoining garden is a represen-
tation of that interesting scene where Mary
kneels to her risen Redeemer, and exclaims
Rabboni! The sculpture in this strange re-
pository, cannot boast of any superior me-
rit: it seemed, on the contrary, to be a
199
composition resembling Coade's artificial
stone. Scenes in hell, purgatory, and pa-
radise, were also carved and painted on
wood, and I doubt not produce the in-
tended effect on ignorant and superstitious
minds. The Dominicans, with all the other
monkish orders, have been dispossessed of
their establishments, and compelled to seek
their fortunes in a world which they had once
renounced. A few nunneries are still per-
mitted; and we visited the society of Be-
guines, similar to the sisterhood at Breda.
They occupy an extensive range of buildings,
where each nun is allowed three rooms, a
small chapel, and a garden to herself. They
may pay and receive visits, go into the city,
and whenever they shall be so inclined, may
quit their order, and return to the concerns
and connexions of the world. Their office
is to attend and nurse the sick, which they
perform with unceasing care and kindness.
The Exchange next claimed our atten-
tion: it is constructed on a plan similar to that
200
of Amsterdam; and is now embellishing for
the reception of Bonaparte and Madame,
who are expected here in about a fortnight.
Magnificent preparations are making in
various parts of the city on this occasion;
but the Exchange is to be the principal
scene of festivity. The walls, within the
piazzas, are painted in fresco, to represent
views in Egypt, Switzerland, Italy, and other
countries which have been the scenes of
his exploits; and the perspective very suc-
cessfully executed. One part of this build-
ing is converted into a temporary theatre,
and another is transformed into a ball-
room. One entire side is occupied by the
dinner tables, and in the area is to be a grand
display of fire-works. The festival is to last
five days, and on each day a dinner is to be
served up of five hundred covers. This
magnificent entertainment is to be given at
the expence of the merchants, who, I should
imagine, are much less able to afford it at
present than in the reign of Charles the
201
Fifth, when its trade was so extensive and
its opulence so great, that John Daens, one
of its principal merchants, lent a million
of ducats to the emperor to carry on his
war in Hungary; and at a splendid ban-
quet which he gave to his sovereign in
this city, closed his sumptuous hospitality
by burning the imperial bond in a fire
made of cinnamon which had warmed the
room.
From the Exchange we proceeded to the
custom-house, and the quay where the ves-
sels unload on the banks of the Scheldt;
but we found no more than about a dozen
vessels of all descriptions, in a spot which
was formerly the great mart of the Nether-
lands, and the resort of the richest traders
in Europe. But Antwerp has lost its former
occupation, and silence reigns where the
bustle of commerce and the busy hum of
men once gave so mucli life and spirit to
this renowned emporium.
Mr. Valancey indulged us with a sight
202
of his pictures, which form a valuable col-
lection bj Reubens, Rembrandt, Vandyke,
Wouvermans, and other eminent Dutch
and Flemish artists. In a public exhibi-
tion of four hundred paintings from va-
rious schools, we saw a most exquisite Ma-
dona bj Carlo Dolce; it is all that paint-
ing can express of tenderness and beauty,
and displays one of the sweetest counte-
nances I ever saw by that fascinating mas-
ter: near it was a holy family by Cignani,
happily executed in the manner of Raphael,
and several valuable works by Ostade, De
Heem, Denner, Ruysdale, Neefs, and other
painters.
We are just returned from an evening
walk to the citadel, which is now gar-
risoned by two thousand French troops,
who permitted us to go where we pleased,
without the least interruption or enquiry,
ft suffered much in the late siege, and still
remains in a ruinous state: the ravaws of
war, and the wanton destruction of the
203
French soldiers, are too visible in most parts
of the town : rows of ancient trees are cut
down, a new church burned to the ground,
and others despoiled of all their exterior
beauty.
204
LETTER XIX.
Eruflells, May IQ, 1803.
Yesterday morning we left An-
twerp for Brussells, a distance of twenty-
four miles, which are equally divided by Ma-
lines, or Mechlin, its Flemish denomina-
tion. It is a large old town surrounded by
a wall and towers, in bad repair, but with-
out a garrison. The large tower of the ca-
thedral is a beautiful and very lofty structure;
and the dial of the clock, which is thirty-six
feet in diameter, is placed at such an height
as to lose all its appearance of extraordinary
dimensions. This church has been also de-
spoiled of its best pictures. Malines, in-
deed, affords but little to attract the notice
of the enquiring stranger but its delicate
lace, which in its fabrication employs a great
number of the female inhabitants.
205
The road from Antwerp to Malines is
paved, the country flat, but highly culti-
vated, and the corn very luxuriant, both in
extensive open fields, and small enclosures,
and variegated by vetches, potatoes, and
other useful vegetables: the whole country
indeed is so enriched with trees, that at a
distance, it wears the appearance of a thick
forest.
The next six miles from Malines brought
us to Vilvorde, a small uninteresting town,
where Ave made no stay, but proceeded
through a sweet rural plain towards Brus-
sells, increasing in beauty as we approached
the city. The road takes its course along
the side of the canal that communicates
with Antwerp, enlivened by boats, barges,
and swans. The meadows and corn fields
which wear a most luxuriant appearance,
are sprinkled with large trees, while several
villas adorned with woods enrich the ge-
neral prospect. And here, for the first time,
Avc beheld liills, or at least fme swelling up-
206
lands, particularly near Laeken, the villa
erected by the duke of Teschen, the hus-
band of the archduchess Maria Christina,
when they were governors of the Low
Countries. Tt is a princely mansion, en-
riched by woods and lawns, adorned with
various appropriate buildings, and laid out
according to the taste of English gardens,
and is superior to any thing we have yet
seen on the continent. This magnificent
edifice, and its beautiful domain, cost up-
wards of nine millions of livres tournois;
and is now on sale as national property.
It is situate at the distance of two miles
from Brussells, where we arrived about five
o'clock, at the Belle- Vue hotel, which forms
a part of a very fine square, adjoining the
park which contains the fine public walks
of this city.
Brussells, formerly the capital of the
Austrian Netherlands, is now the capital of
the department of the Dyle, so called from
one of its rivers; the whole of whose popu-
207
lation amounts to three hundred ninety-six
thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine
souls. Its other principal towns are Lou-
vain, Nivelles, and Tirlemont. Brussels is
situated on t]ie banks of the Senne, sixty-
nine leagues from Paris, and is divided into
the upper and lower towns, the latter of
which near the river, is the residence of the
merchants, shopkeepers, and inferior orders
of the community, and has little to distin-
guish it from other cities; but the former
part is one of the most beautiful places in
Europe, for its airy situation and elegant
buildings, both public and private; parti-
cularly those in the Place Royal, and the
houses surrounding the public gardens called
the park; a very large enclosed space,
formed into three grand avenues of shady
trees, adorned with busts, urns, and statues ;
and between them artless shrubbery walks,
leading to dells and woody glens, which
have an uncommon effect in a city garden :
in one of these recesses is a fountain, with
208
a latin inscription on its margin, recording
a visit from Peter the Great, in 1717. These
gardens are now in high beauty, and are
receiving many additional embellishments
for the reception of Bonaparte, in triumphal
arches, preparations for fire-Avorks,and other
decorations similar to those at x\ntwerp.
We passed some hours at the palace,
where the princes of the imperial family,
as governors of the Austrian Netherlands,
formerly resided with great magnificence,
and kept a splendid court : but the apart-
ments are now stripped of every moveable,
and a melancholy silence pervades its spa-
cious chambers. The tapestry, pictures,
and most valuable articles, were removed
to Vienna before the French beo^an their
pillage, as well as the fine pictures that
adorned some of the churches. The princi-
pal rooms are now converted into a national
library, and contain a large collection of
books; among them are some early speci-
mens of printing; Cicero's Ofl^ices, at Ve-
209
nice in 1470, Speculum Conscientiae, the
first book printed at Brussells, in 1476, and
Ovid's Metamorphoses in French, in 1480:
in the manuscript room we were shewn a
Virgil and Terence, of the ninth century'
on vellum, in fine preservation.
Another part of the palace is appro-
priated to the national collection of pic-
tures, which at present occupies five rooms,
and consists chiefly of large paintings from
the churches in different parts of Belgium;
several of these are by Reubens and other
Flemish masters ; but among them is a pro-
duction of Vandyke^s pencil, which, from
its great merit, I should have supposed
would have been transported to Paris: it
represents the Saviour as just nailed to the
cross, with several strong men endeavouring
to erect it, and consequently has afforded
great opportunity to display attitude and
expression: the contrast between the dy-
ing Saviour, and those ministers of cruelty,
is very striking; but the mingled sensations
VOL. I. p
210
of agony, sorrow, dignity, meekness, and
resignation, displayed in His countenance,
are beyond any thing I ever beheld or
could have conceived: nor did the most
pathetic preacher ever awaken such emo-
tions in my breast, as were produced by the
contemplation of this inimitable picture.
211
LETTER XX.
Mons, May 20, 1803.
We left Brussells this morning at
ten o'clock in an hired chariot for Paris, and
travelled on an excellent road, shaded by
lofty elms, with a pave in the centre, through
a country pleasingly diversified with hill
and dale, which gives the Flemish landscape
such a decided superiority over that of Hol-
land. This part of Flanders is finely wooded,
highly cultivated, and abounds with villages
and farms: it brought to my recollection
some part of Berkshire, and wanted the
Thames alone to give it a very strong re-
semblance to that charming county.
While the horses rested we took our cold
collation, and passed two hours in a small
town about half way between Brussells and
Mons, where we quitted the department of
212
the Dyle, and entered that of Genap,so named
from a town famous for the battle from which
the French date the first success of the re-
pubhcan arms: its population amounts to
four hundred and eight thousand six hun-
dred and sixtj-eight persons. Mons is the
capita], and its other principal towns are
Charleroy and Tournay on the Escaut. On
resuming our journey, the country exhi-
bited bold undulations of corn-fields and
meadows, bounded by woody hills, and in-
terspersed with comfortable villages.
Mons is only ten leagues from Brussells,
and we reached it long before sun-set, which
afforded us sufficient time to see the little
it contains. At a distance it possesses an
handsome appearance from the spires of
the church, and a few other public build-
ings; but on a nearer approach the travel-
ler finds it to be an old, dirty town: in-
deed with the language of Holland we have
lost its neat and cleanly character. At
Brussells the lower classes spoke the native
213
language of the country, while French was
that of the higher orders. At Mons the in-
habitants of every description use the latter,
and the general appearance of their houses,
furniture, and apparel, is mean and shabby :
the road leading to it was for some miles
infested by little dirty beggars, who at in-
tervals performed feats of tumbling, and,
in a clamorous manner, ran for miles toge-
ther by the side of the carriage to implore
our charity.
The approach to Mons is between two
lofty columns of hewn stone, and a shady
avenue leading to the principal gate, which
is now rebuilding. We have visited all the
principal parts of the town, but saw nothing
remarkable except the prospect from the
tower, which is situated on an eminence,
and from its platform we overlooked all
the other churches and every lofty building
around them.
The only carriage we passed in ibis
day's journey was the Paris diligence, which,
214
though not inconvenient, is one of the most
unsightly vehicles that can be imagined:
the body of the coach accommodates six
persons within; and the imperial on the
roof, which is without a lid, holds five or
six more, with a quantity of luggage: in
front is a covered seat with leather curtains,
called the cabriolet, which contains three
other passengers ; and behind is an immense
basket for packages : the body is not hung
from springs, but fastened to the carriage
by strong leather straps, strengthened by
chains and ropes for general security: this
unwieldy machine is drawn by six, eight,
or ten horses, according to the nature of
the road, all in rope harness, and generally
under the care of one postillion; while a
man seated on the imperial conducts the
whole arrangement of this stupendous ma-
chine !
215
LETTER XXL
Cambray, May 22, 1803.
We left Mons at an early hour
yesterday morning for Valenciennes, a
distance of seven leagues; and at about
two miles from Mons we came to Genap,
which, as I have already mentioned, gives
its name to the department, and is famous
for the desperate battle between the French
and the Austrians, which was fought on
the fifth of November 1792. The Aus-
trians posted themselves advantageously on
the heights of Genap, where they formed
strong redoubts, mounted with near an hun-
dred pieces of artillery. Dumouricr, who
commanded the French army, resolved to
storm these works; and a most dreadful
enirasement ensued: the Austrians behaved
with great bravery; but the French, after
216
suffering an immense carnage, at length, by
their superior numbers, obhged them to re-
tire; and Brussells soon after received the
conquerors.
We met with an intelUgent person, who
pointed out the respective positions of the
French and Austrians, shewed us the spot
where many thousand brave men were
buried, and gave us much local informa-
tion: it was a scene we could not be-
hold with indifference. Genap is a large
straggling village; and the country for se-
veral miles around is blackened by the
smoke of the engines at the coal-pits, with
Avhich it abounds: the roads, the trees, the
water, houses, and inhabitants, all partake
of this sable hue. Besides the numerous
waggons filled with coals, we met many
hundred females laden with large baskets,
full of this fuel, fastened on their backs by
a leather strap tied round the forehead;
and often saw carts of coals, drawn by six
dogs, containing at least half a chaldron:
1^17
they sell on the spot for about fourteen
florins a ton.
We refreshed the horses at a small place
called Cavelen, on the banks of the Renel,
a rivulet which, in this place, formerly di-
vided the French and Austrian Netherlands,
and on crossing the bridge we entered the
most northern part of French Flanders,
which now extends, indeed, to the borders
of Dutch Brabant, while the French in-
fluence predominates throughout the Bata-
vian republic.
An uninteresting open country, bare of
trees but fertile in com, brought us about
noon to Valenciennes, which is situated on
the Escaut, fifty leagues from Paris; the
fortifications of the town and citadel were
completed by Vauban. Louis the Four-
teenth took it from the Spaniards in 1 677?
and it was finally ceded to France by the
treaty of Nimuguen. This town, so often
the seat of war, is now recovering, by slow
degrees, from the siege it sustained by the
218
duke of York in 1793, when almost every
house sustained more or less damage, and
the whole town exhibited a sad scene of
demolition. It offers now but very little to
attract attention: the large square, and the
public buildings around it, present an hand-
some appearance, but the houses and streets
are, in general, of an uncomfortable as-
pect. The staple manufactories of lace,
woollen cloth, and linen of all descriptions,
are on the revival; but it will be long ere
Valenciennes recovers its former wealth and
splendour. Troissard the historian, and Wat-
teau the artist, were born in this city.
Here we left the department of Ge-
nap, and entered that of Du Nord, so
called from its forming the most northern
part of the French dominions during the
monarchy: it contains several very consi-
derable towns, and a population of eight
hundred and eight thousand one hundred
and forty-seven persons. Douay is consti-
tuted tlie capital of this department. Va-
219
lenciennes having amused us for a few hours,
a journey of seven leagues brought us to Cam-
bray: an open, swelling country charac-
terized the whole of it, fertile in corn, but
bare of trees : by the numerous spires in the
towns and villages I should have thought it
populous, but the very few peasants we saw
on the road and in the fields did not alto-
gether justify such an opinion.
We reached Cambray before sun-set, and
strolled till supper time through the principal
parts of the city, along the ramparts, and in
public promenade : a more melancholy scene
seldom occurs : large forsaken mansions, di-
lapidated churches, ruined convents, and
mouldering towers, present themselves in
every part of this once populous and opu-
lent city, which is situated on the Escaut,
forty-three leagues from Paris, and was taken
by Louis the Fourteenth in 1667- It was
formerly the capital of Cambresis, and
now forms one of the principal towns in the
department Du Nord. The fortifications
220
appear to have been strong, but are now in
a ruinous state, and the population is re-
duced to fifteen thousand souls; who are
chiefly employed in the manufacture of
cambric, which derives its name from this
place.
I was extremely desirous of visiting the
cathedral, to pay the tribute of silent respect
at the shrine of the admirable Fenelon, the
great and good archbishop of Cambray; the
author of Telemachus, and other valuable
works; a prelate, whose life and conversa-
tion would have done honour to the purest
ages of Christianity : but, when I enquired
for his tomb, I was informed that not only
his monument, but the very church which
contained it were destroyed, with not a
vestige remaining of this great man's se-
pulchre. More than twenty convents and
other religious edifices have shared the same
fate; nor does this desolated city now ofter
one object to interest a stranger, except the
paintings in chiaro oscuro in one of the
221
churches, which fortunately escaped the pil-
lage: a few pictures at the altars, from their
small degree of merit, have kept their places;
and from some other cause the eight paint-
ings in imitation of basso-relievo have also
escaped the hands of the destroyers. They
were executed by Geeraerts of Antwerp,
and represent the different passages of our
Saviour's life with so much skill, as, at the
proper distance, to be a complete decep-
tion. There is a painting of the same
kind, and by the same master, in the sa-
cristy, which possesses still greater excel-
lence.
222
LETTER XXII.
Pont St. Maxence^ May 23, 1 803.
Yesterday morning we left Cam-
braj, and resumed our journey to Paris,
through a fine open, undulating coun-
try, fertile in corn, but without trees ex-
cept in the immediate vicinity of the vil-
lages. About two leagues from Cam-
bray we left the department Du Nord,
and entered that of La Somme, part of
ancient Picardy, which takes its name
from its principal river. It contains four
hundred and sixty-six thousand nine hun-
dred and ninet3^-eight inhabitants: Amiens
is the capital, and Abbeville, Doulens, Mons,
Didier, and Peronne, are the most consi-
derable towns. A continuation of the same
landscape accompanied us to a small vil-
lage four leagues further, where it was ne-
223
cessary to refresh the horses: it rained hard,
so as to prevent any amusement without
doors, and there was but one small smoaky
room in the inn : the stable offering better
accommodation, I sat down and finished
some sketches, in company with four horses,
abundance of turkeys, geese, and fowls, and
a talkative young Frenchman, who enter-
tained me the whole time with Bonaparte's
intended invasion of England, should we
be rash enough to provoke his tremendous
hostilities.
We next proceeded four leagues further
to Peronne, an ancient fortified town in
Picardy, with extensive suburbs and out-
works, in a very ruinous and dilapidated
condition. The church appears to have been
very beautiful, from the columns and arches
which compose its remains.
Peronne is situated upon the river Somme,
and was formerly ranked among the princi-
pal fortresses in France: from being often
besieged, and never taken, it obtained the
224
name of la Pucelle. Charles the Simple was
confined here, and on his death, in 929j
was interred in the place of his confine-
ment: and in 1468, that extraordinary cha-
racter Louis the Eleventh was betrayed, and
detained here as a prisoner, by the duke of
Burgundy, until he was compelled to sign
the treaty of Peronne.
Our evening progress from thence to
Miancourt, a distance of four leagues, pre-
sented us with much rural beauty; the hills
were richly wooded, and the villages em-
bosomed in groves; the crops were luxu-
riant, the orchards blooming, and nature
wore the pleasing appearance of peace and
plenty: but the cottages, and their inhabit-
ants, did not excite a similar idea.
It continued to rain the whole day; and
at its close we were glad to alight at a rustic
inn in the village of Miancourt, Avhere we
were courteously received by its master,
whose silver locks, benign aspect, and
mourning dress, gave him a very venerable
225
appearance: with the assistance of a female
servant he soon provided us some pigeons
and asparagus, which, with brown bread, a
bottle of burgundy, and great attention, made
us the less regret the delicacies to which we
had been accustomed in the large hotels:
but I am sorry to say that the benignity and
gentleness pourtrayed in our host's counte-
nance and manner were an entire decep-
tion. For, trusting to first impressions, we
made no agreement for the entertainment
we were to receive, and, on his saluting us
this morning with smiles and kind enquiries
how we had slept, he presented us with a
bill, which far exceeded any we had paid
for luxuries in the inns which had received
us in the cities we had passed.
We left him after an early breakfast,
and proceeded through an open country to
Roye, an old fortified town, four leagues
from Miancourt: the markets are plentifully
supplied with every necessary of life, and
the ancient gothic church is filled with
VOL. I. Q
226
images and pictures, which were probably
considered as too insignificant for revolu-
tionary spoil.
We soon after entered the department
de rOise : it derives its name from that river,
which, after running from north to south
through its fertile lands, falls into the Seine
near Pontoise, in the adjoining department
of the Seine and the Oise. Beauvais is the
capital; and Clermont, Compeigne, and
Senlis, are its principal towns. The popu-
lation amounts to three hundred and fifty-
five thousand six hundred and fifty-four in-
habitants. From thence, for several leagues,
the road is planted on each side with large
apple and pear trees, now in full blossom,
and filled with nightingales, which, with
the fragrance of the hawthorn, regaled our
journey. We passed through some uninte-
resting towns and villages, and late in the
evening arrived at Pont St. Maxence, a small
town divided by the Oise, with an hand-
some bridge ornamented with four obelisks.
227
LETTER XXIII.
Paris, May 24, 1803.
Wretched accommodations, scanty
fare, and heavy impositions, with a wish to
reach Paris this evening, caused us to leave
Pont St. Maxence this morning at five
o'clock; and having, for the first time, a
steep hill to ascend immediately on leaving
the town, a most lovely morning tempted
me to proceed a few miles before the car-
riage: the rain had refreshed the country,
the trees were gay with vernal bloom, the
sun shone with splendour, and every thing
wore a cheerful aspect, to usher in our
last day's journey to the gay capital be-
fore us. From the summit of the hill I
enjoyed a sweet prospect of St. Max-
ence and all the adjacent country fertilized
by the meandering Oise. The extensive
228
vale was bounded by woody hills, in some
places broken by large free-stone quarries,
and forming altogether the most picturesque
scenery we had seen in the course of our
journey.
From thence we proceeded through
woodlands of oaks, beeches, and other fo-
rest trees, diversified by the weeping birch
in great abundance: but the country gra-
dually softened into cultivation as we ap-
proached Senlis, an ancient city, and still a
bishop's see. The spire of the cathedral is
said to be one of the loftiest in France, and
the whole town, both at a distance and on
a near approach, has a degree of neatness
and elegance superior to any we have yet
passed: the Nonette, a pretty river, washes
its walls; the surrounding forests are very
extensive^ and are supposed to have given
its ancient name of Silvanectum, as men-
tioned by Ptolemy and Pliny.
We were but a few miles from Chantilly,
once the magnificent seat of the Prince de
229
Conde, and perhaps the most dehghtful of
any country residence in France : few places
suffered more from the revolutionary van-
dals, and it is now a scene of solitary de-
solation: the stately stables still remain, and
a considerable detachment of the national
cavalry are stationed there; and the chateau
D'Enghein is converted into a barrack for
their use. It being ten leagues from Senlis
to Paris, our time did not permit us to visit
the ruins of this well-known and highly or-
namented spot, whose gardens and forests
were a former boast of France.
Nothing interesting occurred until, from
a hill about five leagues from Paris, we en-
joyed the first view of the towers of Notre
Dame, the dome of the Pantheon, and the
other lofty turrets, which rise above the sur-
rounding trees on the boulevards of the city.
We then entered a rich fertile plain, inter-
sected by broad roads through avenues of
lofty elms, diverging in every direction from
the metropolis. The towns, villages, and
230
chateaus increased as we approached it,
while carriages and foot-passengers of every
description animated the scene, which had
hitherto been very deficient in those objects,
as in the whole distance from Brussells to
Paris, we only passed three private car-
riages, which were drawn by post-horses.
We reached the barrier at five o'clock,
and without being asked for a passport, pro-
ceeded to the hotel de la Rochefoucault,
where we had been particularly recom-
mended from England. We entered the
court, and on alighting from the carriage
were received by Monsieur Gabe the
master of the mansion, with a very grave
countenance, and a less cordial welcome than
I had expected. He did not open his lips
until he had conducted us into the parlour,
and introduced us to an English gentleman,
who immediately unravelled the mysterious
appearance. He informed us that hostilities
had commenced between France and Eng-
land ; and that, without any previous informa-
231
tion, all the English gentlemen resident in
Paris had been on the preceding day made
prisoners of war: the gens d'armes had visited
most of them, while in bed, at a very early
hour, and conducted them to general Junot,
commandant of Paris; who had ordered most
of them to Fontainbleau and Valenciennes,
the two principal depots appointed for that
purpose: in addition to this unexpected
and cruel intelligence, I was told that I
must appear before the general on the fol-
lowing morning, and surrender myself to
his disposal.
We were for some time lost in amaze-
ment: at Brussells, from whence we could
have easily proceeded into Germany, we
were informed that all was peace; and the
Paris papers, which I read there, seemed to
lament the distrust of the English on quit-
ing Paris upon the rumour of a war, as if
the reign of terror was returned ; and fully
stating, that whatever might be the public
consequences of our ambassador leaving
232
Paris, they, as individuals, would be in per-
fect safety. Behold the difference! now
are all my schemes frustrated, and every
pleasing anticipation vanished in a moment!
At present I cannot say any thing more
on this mortifying subject, than that my
companions behaved like heroines ; their
resignation tended to compose my spirits,
and having intended every thing for the
best, I endeavour to submit, with all be-
coming cheerfulness, to this mortifying and
unexpected event,
233
LETTER XXIV.
Paris, May 26, 1 803.
Early yesterday morning I went
to the prefecture, with three different pass-
ports, from Lord Hawkesbury, Mr. Lyston
the English minister at the Hague, and Mon-
sieur Semonville the French ambassador to
the Batavian repubhc. When I had been
examined by the pohce officers, they in-
formed me that their power was suspended,
and that I must appear before general
Junot, who would settle my future destiny:
but before I could reach his office, he had
left it, and I was directed to repair thither
this morning at ten o'clock, and the visit
not being optional, I was punctual to the
time appointed. I found upwards of four
hundred of my ill-fated countrymen assem-
bled in the anti-chamber, waiting their turn
234
for admission into the generars presence;
and as the number on my ticket was two
hundred and eighteen, I was detained three
hours before I could be received. During
this painful period I saw many an unhappy
countryman return through the crowd after
having received an order to quit Paris, and
proceed to Fontainbleau within twenty-four
hours: a very few, indeed, were brightened
with smiles, on having obtained permission
to remain in the capital.
In my way to the general I had called
on my banker, Monsieur Perrigaux, a name
well known to the English at Paris; and
as he was now one of the principal sena-
tors, I begged he would give me a letter
of recommendation to general Junot, with
a request, that I might be permitted
to remain with my family at Paris. At
length my number was called, and I was
conducted to the general, who was presiding
at a board of green-cloth, surrounded by
his aids-du-camp and secretaries. I pre-
233
sen ted to him Monsieur Perrigaux' letter,
with Mr* Lyston's, and Mons. Semonville's
passport, reserving that of Lord Hawkes-
bury, for any further occasion. He read M.
Perrigaux' letter, and said he had received
many of a similar nature that morning, but
seemed rather surprised at M. Semonville's
passport, and asked me some questions upon
the subject. On observing that my age was
not inserted, he wished to know if I could
call myself sixty; I told him I could not.
You are approaching it, said he;- — most cer-
tainly, Sir, said I, and very rapidly. You can-
not remain in Paris unless you are registered
as under eighteen or above sixty years of
age. I replied, my principal object in com-
ing abroad was to complete the education of
an only child, and I requested to remain in
Paris for no other purpose but that of ob-
taining the best masters. The general smiled,
whispered something to a secretary, and said
that I must be called sixty in my passport
of safety, when I might remain in Paris
236
until any new decision of government should
take place respecting the British prisoners.
I was also informed that I might go where I
pleased in the capital and its environs, and
might spend the day at St. Germain or Ver-
sailles, provided I returned every night to
sleep in Paris. I most joyfully received this
information; and received an order to at-
tend the prefect, to have my person identi-
fied, and submit to the other precautionary
arrangements.
The unjust and extraordinary decree,
ordering all the English between the age of
eighteen and sixty to be constituted pri-
soners of war, was issued on the 2d of Prai-
rial, the 22d of May, an 11, on the pre-
tence of being detained to answer for the
citizens of the French republic, who were
taken in some of their vessels which were
captured by the English before the decla-
ration of war. No intelligent liberal French-
man endeavours to justify this act of the
First Consul; but, on the contrary, all who
237
have the courage to avow their sentiments,
consider our detention as one of the most
abominable violations of the law of nations
ever committed in a civilized country. They
ascribe this cruel breach of hospitality to
the hasty orders of capricious despotism,
issued in a moment of passion; but to us
the consequence of his capricious and irri-
table nature may be lasting and terrible.
238
LETTER XXV.
Paris, May 2§, 1803.
This morning I obtained my pass^
port at the prefecture to remain in Paris
until further orders ; and afterwards, for the
first time, repaired to the National Museum
of Arts and Sciences at the Louvre. This pa-
lace, now called Le Musee Central des Arts,
is converted into a grand museum. The
long gallery, antecedent to the revolution,
contained a very large and valuable collec-
tion of pictures; but it has since been greatly
increased, and is now the repository of the
best foreign paintings, formerly dispersed in
the royal palaces and chateaus of the nobi-
lity in France, and of all those obtained by
the late conquests in Italy, Flanders, and
different parts of Europe. Apartments are
also appropriated for original drawings and
239
sketches by the great masters; to statues
and antiques of various descriptions; to the
works of modern artists at the annual exhi-
bitions; and to various other purposes for
the encouragement and display of the arts.
I never experienced more mingled sen-
sations than on entering the gallery of an-
tiques : the Apollo, the Laocoon, and many
other master-pieces in sculpture which I had
so lately beheld on classic ground, excited
many painful ideas, especially when I re-
flected on their unjust and insulting removal
to Paris: at the same time I must confess
that the French have given them an honour-
able reception, and disposed of them in the
best manner in six adjoining apartments,
named after their most striking object. The
hall of the seasons derives its title from the
painting on the ceiling, by Romanelli. Here
the rural deities and similar statues are
placed. The hall of illustrious men is
adorned with Zeno, Demosthenes, Phocion,
and other Grecian and Roman worthies.
240
The hall of the Romans contains Marcus
Brutus, Junius Brutus, Scipio Africanus,
Cicero, many Roman priests and orators,
the Antinous from the villa Albani, and
other matchless productions. The hall of
the Laocoon exhibits, in my opinion, the
most interesting marble in the world. Few
amateurs have viewed the Apollo Belvidere,
or the Venus Medicean, with more enthu-
siasm than myself, but the agonizing groupe
of the Laocoon always reached my heart;
and I have passed many hours at the Va-
tican in astonishment at its wonderful exe-
cution. In this room are many other ad-
mirable sculptures. The Hall of the Bel-
videre Apollo is named from that unrivalled
statue, to which I devoted so much of my
attention while I was at Rome: and my ad-
miration of this sublime and matchless sculp-
ture seems to increase at Paris. Many
precious reliques also add to the acknow-
ledged splendour of diis apartment. Tlie
sixdi and last room already filled, is stylec the
241
Hall of the Muses, where the sacred Nine
are placed with a less interesting Apollo
than that of Belvidere, together with the
busts of Homer, Virgil, Euripides, and many
favourite bards and philosophers of Greece
and Rome.
Divesting myself of every prejudice,Imust
confess these rooms are constructed with grea t
taste and judgment; the marble walls, pil-
lars, and nitches, the inlaid floors, and other
embellishments, correspond with the inesti-
mable objects with which they may be said
to be peopled. But I have lost, in a great
measure, that delightful enthusiasm with
which I once viewed these precious relics;
and in Paris I shall never find it.
I experienced an equal regret on visit-
ing the picture gallery above, which must
now be considered as the most valuable
exhibition of the arts in the world. The
perspective at its entrance is very strik-
ing, as it presents a room thirteen hundred
feet long, in which are sus[)ended near a
VOL. I. a
242
thousand pictures of various dimensions,
by all the great masters in the Italian,
Flemish, Dutch, and French schools: they
are arranged as judiciously as possible, con-
sidering the disadvantage many of them in
such a large collection must experience from
improper light, and other circumstances.
Upper lights, instead of the side windows
fronting each other, would be an admirable
improvement. Many of the galleries in
Italy and Germany are more judiciously
constructed, particularly that at Dresden,
in which a double walk round a quadran-
gular court divides the schools, and produces
a superior effect to the amazing length and
crossing lights of the Louvre.
The introduction of so many chefs-
d'oeuvres from Italy, both in painting and
sculpture, has greatly improved the French
in chastity of design and correctness of
drawing. In this they are thought to sur-
pass the English; but by no means in
the colouring and force of their pictures;
243
here the most unprejudiced judges give us
a decided preference. With such works
before them as the St. Jerome of Domi-
nichino, the Transfiguration of RafFaelle,
and at least one capital picture of every
great master, the French artists must acquire
a better style and harmony of colouring;
which, united with simplicity and correct-
ness of design, will greatly advance the cha-
racter and reputation of the French school
of painting. In landscape their own Claude
stands unrivalled ; as does Vernet in his sea
views; and the Poussins, in their varied de-
partments, yield to few of the greatest mas-
ters. In sculpture also they must improve :
with such models before them, the frenchi-
fied air and frippery of drapery so conspi-
cuous in their statues, must yield to the clas-
sical elegance of the antique.
You are perhaps surprised at my placing
the Communion of St. Jerome before the
Transfiguration; but the former, I believe,
attracts the most admirers, and, in my opi-
nion, unites all tlie perfection of painting
244
In comparing the works of these great mas^
ters, both here and during my happier visits,
at Rome, how often do the remarks of Sir
Joshua Reynolds on the talents and genius
of RafFaelle occur to my memory, that " the
excellency of this extraordinary man lay in
the beauty and majesty of his characters,
the judicious contrivance of his composition,
his correctness of drawing, purity of taste,
powers of invention, and the skilful accom-
modation of other men's conceptions to his
own purposes: nobody excelled him in that
judgment, with which he united, to his own
observations on nature, the energy of Mi-
chael Angelo and the beauty and simplicity
of the antique/'
The latter I think must strike every mi-
nute observer of Raffaelle's style; and in the
Louvre, after dwelling on the paintings in
the upper gallery, I enjoy a double pleasure
in descending to the museum of statues, to
compare the works of this great master ^^ ith
the finest sculpture of the ancients.
245
LETTER XXVI.
Paris^ May 29, 1803.
As we had been informed that the
water works were this day to be exhibited
in the gardens at Versailles, we proceeded
thither after breakfast, to view that magni-
ficent palace. The distance is about twelve
English miles. In our way we passed seve-
ral villas formerly belonging to the royal
family and principal nobility, situated on
the finest spots between Paris and Versailles;
particularly a villa of the Prince de Conde,
now appropriated to the recreation of the
youth educated in the Prytanee at Paris,
w hither they repair on Sundays and national
festivals for country amusements.
To this succeeded Belle-vue, a palace
built by Madame de Pompadour, and after-
wards the residence of tlie Princesses Ade-
246
laide and Victoire, Mesdames of France,
dauditers of Lewis XV. This eminence
commands a grand view of Paris, and all
the surrounding scenery. Not far from
Belle-vue are the woody hills of St. Cloud,
with a palace, park, and gardens, the fa-
vourite retirement of the First Consul. From
thence we passed through the extensive vil-
lage of Seve, celebrated for its porcelaine
manufactory, which occupies a large build-
ing, and employs a considerable number of
workmen.
Villas, gardens, vineyards, and rural
scenes, amused us from thence to Versailles :
the most interesting of them was the sum-
mer palace of Madame Elizabeth, sister to
Louis XVI, one of the most amiable and
virtuous princesses that ever graced a court.
"Who could behold the spot without the
most painful sensations of regret at her cruel
and unmerited destiny !
The approach to Versailles has a decided
air of grandeur. The palace, the stables, and
247
all the adjacent buildings, produce a fine ef-
fect. On our arrival, however, we were in-
formed that the waters were not to perform
their parts until the 14th of July, This cir-
cumstance would have been a great disap«
pointment had we visited Versailles merely to
see its watery exhibition, but to us it was of
little comparative importance; for such a
scene of magnificence, expence, and extraor-
dinary efforts of art, can hardly be exceeded.
In situation and prospect Windsor has infi-
finitely the advantage of Versailles ; and to
many perhaps, its venerable towers andjegal
apartments, the work of alternate ages, and
the delight of so many British monarchs,may
afford far greater pleasure than this vast mo-
dern structure. It was built in the short
space of seven years; being commenced
by Louis XIV, in 1673, and completed in
1680. This monarch, who wished to over-
come every thing, selected an extensive
plain, whereon to elevate a palace which
should be the wonder of Europe : the sub-
248
structions are like a city, and over them is
raised an artificial hill, whose surface is on
a level with the surrounding eminences;
and this terrace commands a view of the
extensive gardens and every other prospect
that can be admitted. Here a palace was
erected worthy of the great monarch who
was to reside in it. The grand front extends
nearly two thousand feet, is three stories
high, and with its projecting and retreating
divisions is decorated with Grecian columns
and pilasters, and surmounted by balus-
trades, vases, and trophies ; but I must ac-
knowledge that the sensations produced by
its exterior appearance were far exceeded on
entering the spacious apartments. They are
now indeed despoiled of all their costly fur-
niture and symbols of royalty, and converted
to purposes very different from those in-
tended by the pride of the sovereign who
raised it.
The rooms below, to which the public,
on stated days, and strangers at all times,
249
are gratuitously admitted, are chiefly ap-
propriated to a museum of natural history;
consisting of a well assorted collection of
animals, birds, fishes, shells, corals, mine-
rals, and a \ ariety of curiosities from differ-
ent parts of the globe. The extent and
magnificence of the rooms above are not
easily described. Here the late king and
queen, the royal children, with their pre-
ceptors and attendants, the king's brothers,
sisters, and other relations, had respec-
tively their magnificent apartments en-
riched with the most costly and superb de-
corations; a few stools form the sole re-
mains of their ancient furniture: but the
walls are hung with pictures by French
artists, brought from every part of the re-
public. The collection is large, many pos-
sess considerable merit, and some are very
interestinp-. Amono; them is the celc^bratcd
portrait of the Duchess de la Vallicrc, as
a penitent Magdalen, after her career of
pleasure with a voluptuous monarch: her
250
beautiful countenance finely expresses the
contrition of her spirit, which laments but
does not despair. She may be said in this
portrait to personify penitence cheered by
the hope of mercy. This exquisite picture
is by Le Brun, and contains only a single
figure, without any associated allegory or
allusive circumstance.
A] though I shall not attempt a descrip-
tion of the king's apartments, nor the cor-
responding rooms on the opposite side be-
longing to the queen, with the painted ceil-
ings and other ornaments by Italian and
French artists, still uninjured, I must not so
slightly pass over the magnificent gallery
which connects them, and forms the central
projection of the palace. This noble room
is an hundred and seventy feet in length,
by thirty-two in breadth, and forty high: it
is illuminated by seventeen large arched
windows; and opposite to each window is
an- arcade of equal dimensions of plate
looking-glass> reflecting every object in the
251
gardens with softened beauty : between them
are marble pilasters with bases and capitals
of gilt bronze; in the arched ceiling, painted
by Le Brun, are nine large compartments
and eighteen smaller ones, representing the
principal events of the reign of Louis XIV :
most of them are allegorical, but suitable
inscriptions illustrate the subjects: the genii
of the arts and sciences are employed in
decorating this spot with the choicest at-
tributes; while groupes of children adorn
the trophies on the cornice with Avreaths
of flowers: the entrance, the termination,
and every ornament in this gallery, corre-
spond with its general magnificence. Through
this gallery the King accompanied the Queen
from her apartment to the chapel on Sun-
days, and the sacred festivals, attended
by the royal family. And here they were
met by the lords and ladies of the court,
the foreign ambassadors, and strangers who
had been introduced, forming one of the
most splendid assemblies in Europe, in one
252
of the most superb apartments in it. The
groves, gardens, and water- works without,
contrasted by the animated beauty and taste
within, and united with the courdy croud,
in all the splendour of dress and honour,
while the whole was reflected by the cor-
responding mirrors, must have afforded a
most magnificent spectacle. But all now
is silent, waste, and desolate ! the King, the
Queen, the amiable Elizabeth, and the far
greater part of the nobles, who composed
this grand assembly, have, without distinc-
tion of age or sex, been conducted to the
scaffold. History, in all her eventful pages,
does not recite a more extraordinary down-
fal of human grandeur.
The chapel, which forms part of the pa-
lace, was the last work of Mansard, who com-
pleted it in 1710, two years before his death;
and here the superb taste of Louis XIV is pe-
culiarly distinguished. The external deco-
rations of this stately structure consist of
vaulted arcades, ornamented with genii, and
253
divided by Corinthian pilasters, supporting
a balustrade, on which are the statues of the
apostles, evangelists, the ancient fathers, and
the theological virtues, each nine feet high.
The interior is of the utmost elegance : the
lofty roof is supported by sixteen Corinthian
columns finely proportioned; and between
them a balustrade of gilt bronze on a marble
basement : the ceiling was painted by three
celebrated French artists, and every orna-
ment has its peculiar beauty: the grand
altar is decorated with a glory, in bronze,
covered with burnished gold, surrounded by
adoring angels.
The courts, offices, stables, and every
necessary appendage correspond with the
palace; and, perhaps, the broad walks and
strait lines in the gardens may be more
appropriate to such an edifice, than the
waving varieties and artless shrubberies
of the English taste. The statues, vases,
fountains, and other embellishments, arc
very numerous, and on a irraiul scale: 1
254
shall venture to describe one of them. It is
situated in a shady retired part of the garden,
to which we were admitted by a private key :
it is a curious scene of artificial rocks, the
largest of the kind I ever saw, surrounded
by groves, on the margin of a pellucid lake.
This celebrated performance of Girardon is
called the Baths of Apollo, from the groupe
in the centre representing Louis the Four-
teenth, in the character of that deity, with
his favourite ladies, in the grotto of Thetis,
attended by her nymphs on alighting from
his car, with the horses drinking in the ad-
joining caverns. These are all of statuary
marble, well arranged in the lower cavities
of the rocks, near the basin, which receives
the cascades tumbling from different parts
of the artificial cliffs.
The orangerie, exclusively, contains a
very great number of the trees from which
it derives its name, of every size and quality :
they are at this season arranged round the
parterres, and form several most delightful
^55
walks, which perfume the air to a great dis-
tance. The winter repositories for these
orange trees, under the terrace or platform
of the palace, are of an immense size, and
the architecture much admired: they were
constructed by Le Maitre and Mansard.
The Great Trianon, which forms part of
the magnificence of Versailles, is a summer
palace built by Louis XIV, as a nursery for
his children ; but certainly the most superb
nursery ever constructed : a noble peristyle
of pure Grecian architecture, consisting of
twenty-two Tonic columns, each of one
single piece of marble, unites the two wings,
which are terminated by pavilions in a cor-
respondent style: the roof is flat, orna-
mented with vases and groupes of children :
it contains only one story, and extends six
hundred feet: the adjacent gardens are
formal, and the basins, fountains, and walks,
are enriched by statues and costly decora-
tions: a canal of great length, with its va-
rious barges and pleasure boats, and a vessel
256
of twenty-two guns completely rigged, ex-
tended from the Great Trianon to the grand
avenue at Versailles : when full of water it
must have produced a fine effect; but it is
now entirely dry.
I was, however, far more delighted with
Little Trianon, the favourite retreat of the
unfortunate Marie Antoinette. Here, retired
from the splendour and hurry of a court, she
passed her hours of recreation in the farms,
cottages, summer-houses, and temples, dis-
persed with artless simplicity amid its woods
and groves ; where through winding devious
paths you seem to be conducted by nature
herself to the varied scenery of this lovely
spot: rustic bridges, sometimes of rocky
arches, sometimes of roots, or rough trees,
like those in Switzerland, stretch over the
water which in meandering streams, or
spreading lakes, adorns the rural glades ; while
their banks exhibit the sloping lawn, the
woodland copse sheltering a little hamlet,
or bold projecting rocks, darkened by firs;
257
but this is not all. In one delightful spot,
almost encircled by a thick grove, is the
temple of Love, an elegant Grecian struc-
ture of white marble, once graced by a
fine statue of that dangerous deity, which
was removed on the Queen's downfall. In
another, the cypress, yew, and willow, be-
side the sepulchral urn, invite to solemn
musing; while the more airy parts are en-
livened by plantanes, lindens, and forest
trees, intermingled with lilacs, syringas, and
liburnums, and bordered by roses : flowering
exotics, and the humbler tribes of Flora,
adorn the summer palace and public pavi-
lions, once dedicated to mirth and festivity :
the adjoining groves then re-echoed with
invisible music, while the lakes and rivulets
were enlivened with little barges and plea-
sure boats, in which the queen and her se-
lect train were wont to enjoy their evening-
recreations.
It was near six o'clock before we finished
our walk, and we had just sat down to dinner
VOL. I. s
258
in a small room overlooking the gardens,
when there suddenly came on one of the
most tremendous thunder-storms I ever wit-
nessed ; the rain fell in torrents, and the very
large hail-stones did great damage to the
com and fruit for many miles around : thou-
sands of gay Parisians, in their best attire,
were exposed to all its rage in the un-
sheltered walks, and amused us from our
windows with a curious mixture of distress-
ing and ludicrous circumstances. It fortu-
nately cleared up before sun-set, and our
return to Paris was very delightful; but had
it continued with equal severity the whole
night, we must have encountered it, having
engaged my parole never to sleep out of
the city.
•■««.
259
LETTER XXVII.
Paris, May 30, ]803.
What a contrast has this morn-
ing's visit exhibited to the fairy scenes of
yesterday ! when, after my necessary ap-
pearance at the prefecture, I accompanied a
gentleman from thence to the Palais, and the
prison of the Conciergerie. The former con-
tains many of the courts of justice, and was
thronged with gentlemen of the long robe,
both scarlet and black, with their powdered
locks flowing carelessly over the shoulders, in
a manner far more becomins; than the wios of
our barristers. The courts were so crowded
by spectators, male and female, that I could
sec and hear but little. I was particularly
conducted to that in which the late Quecii
was tried and condemned; I saw the prison
where she was conrincd, and the dismal
26*0
stairs by which she ascended from its gloomy
abyss to appear before the horrid tribunal
which dismissed her to the scaffold. On
her trial, says a pathetic writer, she made
no defence, and called no witnesses; alledg-
ing that no positive fact had been produced
against her : she preserved an unifoim be-
haviour during the whole scene, and heard
her sentence with composure, which was
passed about four in the morning; but in
her way from the court to the dungeon her
firmness forsook her, and she burst into
tears; when, as if ashamed of her weakness,
she observed to her guards, that though she
wept at that moment, they should see her
go to the scaffold without shedding a tear.
In her way to the place of execution, where
she was taken a few hours after in a cart,
with her hands tied behind her, she paid
little attention to the ofhcialing priest, and
still less to the surroundino; multitude: her
eyes, though bent on vacancy, seemed to be-
tray some emotion that was labouring at her
261
heart: her cheeks were sometimes in a sin-
gular manner streaked with red, and some-
times overspread with a deadly paleness ;
but her general look was that of indignant
sorrow. She reached the place of execution
about noon, and when she turned her eyes
towards the gardens and palace, she became
visibly agitated, but it is generally believed
(and who would not wish to believe it) that
her senses had forsaken her before she
quitted the prison. She ascended the scaf-
fold with precipitation, and her head was
almost instantly held up to the people by
the bloody hand of the executioner.
Such is the brief account of this tragical
event by a female who was at that very time
in prison for no crime but that of being an
English woman: nor can I give you an idea
of my own sensations, when, in so short a
space after visiting her splendid apartments
at Versailles, and her sweet retreat at Tria-
non, I beheld the bar at which the unfortu-
nate Marie Antoinette was arraii^ncd, and
262
the dungeon from whence she was led to
execution.
But I am informed bj those whose ex-
perience and opportunities of observation
justify a rehance on their opinion, that Paris
is reverting very fast to its former state
under the monarchy; and, whatever may be
the ukimate form of government, the Pari-
sians will resume the character which they
possessed previous to the revolution. In
the different epochas of this dreadful event
a most extraordinary change took place ;
and this capital, w^hich had so long been
the seat of pleasure, and the delight of Eu-
rope, was deluged with the blood of her
best citizens, and reduced to worse than
Gothic barbarism, by its own Vandals, who,
under the sacred name of Liberty, reduced
it to an extreme of wretchedness, of which
so many horrid accounts have been given,
but of which none perhaps have reached
the exact truth. I shall however make no
apology for giving the following brief history
263
of it by a gentleman who was an eye-
witness of the whole, and who after some
years emigration returned to Paris.
** During my journey to the capital,"
says the writer, " I found the country sadly
depopulated; and in many places there re-
mained only old men, women, and children,
for all the purposes of agriculture. Most
of the young men had been killed in battle,
or were with the armies in foreign countries,
I frequently conversed with the peasants,
as I wished to know their sentiments, and
found them all tired of the revolution, and
longing for peace, order, leligion, laws that
were practicable, and men of probity at the
head of public affairs.
" Often, when I beheld an elegant villa,
an ancient chateau, a convent, or a manu-
factory, and asked the name of the proprie-
tor, it was sometimes a deputy, who had
seized the possessions of the widow and the
orphan; sometimes a commissary of the
army, who three years before had worn
264
wooden shoes; and who, after havhig abused
the confidence of government, by poisoning
the soldiers, and supplying the defenders of
their country with shoes of paper, and shirts
of sackcloth, were then enjoying the fruits
of their iniquity in tranquillity on their new
estates. Convents, manufactories, and simi-
lar structures, were converted into maga-
zines for the armies, and a Jewish rabbi of
Amsterdam had turned a church into a sy-
nagogue.
"On my ai'rival at Paris, my friends ac-
companied me to the principal places, and
explained those things which most excited
my astonishment. I had great need of their
assistance ; for Paris was no longer the same,
and it was with difficulty that I recollected
it: I should have been less a stranger at
Rome under the emperors, than in the city
Avhere I first drew my breath, and from
whence I had been only five years absent.
The names of the squares, streets, and
houses, were cl^anged, and the inhabitants
265
were equally metamorphosed: most of the
rich had become poor, but the generality
of the poor had not become rich ; for never
was misery more extreme, but it was a
crime in the eye of certain persons enriched
at the pubhc expence, to affirm that the
people of France were not happy.
" I met in every part of the city with the
most whimsical dresses, and with men and
women still more whimsical. Among the
legislators the Roman toga had superseded
the cap of liberty, but neither the Roman
toga, nor the bonnet-rouge, had matured
the contents of a Parisian's skull.
" The houses were as much altered as their
inhabitants; those belonging to the mer-
chants, restaurateurs, and shopkeepers, were
covered with patriotic emblems, ensigns of
Liberty, and medleys of the three national
colours. It appeared as if the people, fear-
ing to forget they were free, would never
be without external objects to recall it to
their remembrance. They had altars to
266
Liberty, statues of Liberty, places of Li-
berty. Liberty was written every where,
but no one could define the nature of French
Liberty! Had a stranger, ignorant of the
revolution, arrived in Paris, he would have
imagined that a fresh horde of Vandals had
conquered the city; for he would have per-
ceived throughout, the ruins of noble edi-
fices, Avhich had been destroyed from no
other cause than that they had been con-
structed under the former government ; and
on the greater part of those which remained
were written those fatal words, " Propriete
Nationale.
" I now visited the theatres, whose number
was greatly increased; but the representa-
tions generally tended to the detriment of
the arts, of manners, and of morals: no
longer did I behold those delightful scenes
which had rendered the French stage illus-
trious; no longer could 1 think with Cor-
neillc, weep with Racine, or laugh with
Moliere. Anna, Zaire, Athalie, le Tartufe,
267
le Misanthrope, were denounced royalists,
and banished from the French theatre.
Numa, Metellus, Scipio, and Fabius, were
equally strangers to the Parisians: instead
of these chefs-d'oeuvres, I saw only sombre
and tedious tragedies, or miserable patriotic
comedies, without nature, without interest,
without probability. The boxes were filled
with shameless women, infamous contrac-
tors, and commissaries, making an indecent
parade of their lewd acquisitions and cruel
spoils, and insulting the public misery by
their shameful and disgusting luxury. If,
by chance, you saw an honest man or a
virtuous woman amongst them, they seemed
ashamed to be found in such company.
The pit was crowded with people of every
description; most of them without know-
ledge, without education, without discern-
ment, applauding the vulgar flat jokes or
the gross obscenities which disfigured the
stage.
The late events had entirely changed
26S
the taste of the French ; they were no longer
the same people: seven years of a revolu-
tion, unparallelled in the history of the
world, had completely altered their incli-
nations and their character: those who were
formerly the chief votaries of pleasure were
no longer pleased; nothing but extraor-
dinary events would amuse them; accus-
tomed, during this period, to scenes of
blood, and to the speeches of furious ora-
tors, who shewed them happiness in per-
spective, and involved them in real misery,
a true and simple story could no longer de-
light them; and it became necessary to in-
troduce scenes of the most unnatural con-
trivance and extravagant fiction.
" The different institutions in Paris also
claimed my attention. Too many of them
still felt the baneful effects of Robespierre's
vandalism; but the new government were
then active in their re-establishment. The
arts were again encouraged, and a number
of public schools were opened for the study
269
of medicine, surgery, natural history, mine-
ralogy, and other useful arts and sciences:
these were put under the direction of able
professors, who had escaped the guillotine;
and opened a prospect of happiness, to
which we had too long been strangers: for
learning and science were nearly in as de-
plorable a state as the theatres; and litera-
ture was confined to a few political works,
or the uninteresting, fleeting pamphlets of
the day.
" The celebrated museum at the Louvre
contained a variety of the most precious
works of art, either brought from foreign
countries, from the royal collections, or the
cabinets of those unhappy persons whose
property had been confiscated during the
revolution: their number was continually
increasing, to form a collection of these in-
estimable tieasures; but the sight of them
excited in me the most painful sensations:
the lustre of the brightest gems Avas ob-
scured by reflecting on the manner in which
270
they had been obtained; the most beautiful
pictures lost their effect when I thought of
their late owners, unjustly condemned to
the scaffold, or leading a miserable life in
some foreign country; even the statues ap-
peared stained w^ith blood. Let us leave
this place, said I, to my friends, such ob-
jects have no charms for me, since they were
obtained by injustice, violence, and cruelty!
" In this time of general calamity almost
every body trafficked, jobbed, or swindled.
They traded in silk, cloth, shoes, wood, char-
coal, butter, and every other commodity:
rich and poor, young and old, women and
children, all trafficked ; it was as necessary
for the Parisians as the spectacle: honest
men, ruined by the revolution, traded like
the rest; it was the only means by which
they could exist : never was the circulation of
money, or rather that of the assignats which
represented it, more active. They bought,
they sold ; and bought again what they had
sold, to sell it again: this was called trad-
271
ing, but it was a dreadful trade, which en-
riched a few villains, and ruined thousands
of the better citizens. During this period
certain usurers lent money at an interest of
five and six per cent per month: the love
of gain had abased the heart, and dried up
the sources of humanity. But what most
afflicted me was to see irreligion, immo-
rality, and a defection of every virtuous
principle, pervade all ranks and degrees of
people. I found myself among a set of
atheists: the children, trained up in such
opinions, had no longer an}^ love or respect
for those parents who had inculcated no
sentiment either of religion or morality:
they lived like beasts, without a bridle to
curb their passions, without tliose consola-
tions which sweeten the bitterest cup of
humanity, and Avithout that pious resigna-
tion which enables us to support life's
severest trials!"
What Paris was before the revolution is
well known from the writings of several cu-
272
lightened travellers, what it was during that
sad period, the preceding pages will, I
think, give you as much knowledge as a
sympathizing mind can bear; and what it
is at present, as far as my abilities and ob-
servations extend, I will endeavour to trans-
mit, as opportunities present themselves dur-
ing our captivity.
27S
LETTER XXVIII.
Paris, June 6, 1803.
Your affectionate wishes, that,
notwithstanding we are so unjustly detained
prisoners of war, we may be permitted to
enjoy the comforts of hfe, are completely
realised. The Hotel de la Rochefoucault,
in which we reside, was a palace belonging
to the noble family whose title is so dis-
tinguished in the political and literary his-
tory of France; especially from the maxims
of Francis, Duke de la Rochefoucault, son
of the first duke; and who died here in
1680, at the age of 68. His posterity sup-
ported an high character, and lived in opu-
lence and splendour until revolutionary
phrenzy, indiscriminately, reduced titles,
wealth, and literary fame, to the connnou
level. It is remarkable that the la iter should
VOL. I. T
274
have been an objectof equal detestation with
the two former; but, during the terrific reign
of Robespierre, men of letters were the pe-
culiar victims of his personal hatred, which
is said to have been occasioned from his hav-
ing endeavoured, at a former period of his
life, to be thought a man of wit and elocu-
tion; and being disappointed in that ob-
ject, jealousy and envy seized on his ma-
lignant heart, and during his tyrannical usur-
pation he availed himself of the many op-
portunities which he possessed to let loose his
vengeance against men of genius and learn-
ing. Lavoisier, Florian, Bitaube, and many
others, suffered dreadful persecutions: Bar-
thelemi, the amiable author of Anarcharsis,
when old and infirm, could not escape his
rage, and the fate of Iloncher, who had
written a beautiful poem, called The Months,
excited a tear from every feeling heart.
Previous to his condemnation he passed the
languid hours of confinement in educating
his children, who were permitted to visit
275
him; but on receiving his act of accusation,
too well knowing that accusation and con-
viction were synonimous terms, before the
revolutionary tribunal, he gave his son a
portrait which had been painted during his
confinement by a fellow-prisoner, to deliver
to his mother, and beneath it wrote the fol-
lowing lines—
" Ne vous etonnez pas, objets charmsns et doux,
Si quelque air de tristesse obscuroit mon visage j
Lorsqu'un savant crayon dessinoit cet image,
On dressoit I'echafaud, et je pensois a vous!"
Lev d objects cease to wonder, when ye trace
The melancholy air that clouds my face:
Ah ! while the painter's skill this image drew.
They rear'd tlie scaffold, and I thought of you !
But to return to the Hotel de la Roche-
foucault. Though not the largest, it is one
of the pleasantest houses in Paris, containing
several magnificent apartments, once splen-
didly furnished, and adorned with pictures,
tapestry, and other superb embellishmcnls:
and where the Emperor of Germany, the
Kmg of Sweden, and many other royal i)cr-
276
sonages, have been sumptuously enter-
tained. The Avindows overlook a verdant
lawn, once decked with the gaudy par-
terres of flowers, cooled by refreshing foun-
tains, and surrounded by walks shaded by
ancient linden and chesnut trees. Here,
at the commencement of the revolution, the
Duke de la Rochefoucault resided with
his wife and mother: but, shocked at the
horrid scenes of the caoital, the ladies re-
tired into the country, and the Duke soon
followed them. Democratical fury, how-
ever, travelled with a swifter pace; for on
the carriage stopping at the portal of his
chateau, he was dragged out of it, and mas-
sacred in the presence of his wife and ve-
nerable parent!
We occupy the private apartments for-
merly belonging to the Duchess, once fur-
nished with taste and elegance: it con-
sists of a drawing-room, two bed-cham-
bers, servants' room, and closets, with a pri-
vate stair-case: some bas-reliefs over the
277
doors in the drawinor-room, containing:
groupes of playful cupids, in chiaro-obscuro,
are so finely executed, that we were several
days in the room before we discovered them
to be the work of the pencil instead of the
chissel.
We join the family at their social meals
below, where there is a dining-parlour and
drawing-room in common. We breakfast
at nine o'clock a I'Anglaise, and dine at five,
on two courses, with removes, and a des-
sert; and besides the usual wine at table,
we have Burgundy, Fronliniac, and Cham-
pagne, succeeded by coffee and liqueurs.
The table is again covered with a slight re-
past at nine for those who choose to par-
take of it; but the hospitality, kindness,
and amiable manners of the family with
Avhom we live, are far more estimable than
their good cheer: and here, without trou-
ble, or any other anxiety than that occa-
sioned by the gloom of the polilical ho-
rizon, we are settled at the expciice of nine
278
Louis a week, without any additional
charge; and surrounded by every thing
which can contribute to our comfort.
I can perhaps make the conclusion of
my letter rather more interesting than these
domestic details, by informing you that
yesterday, being the monthly review of the
troops by Bonaparte, we were procured an
excellent situation in the consular palace,
which overlooks the grand parade, and from
whence we had a full view of this extraor-
dinary person for several hours. We have
already had several opportunities of seeing
him with Madame Bonaparte and the la-
dies of her family; but no English are now
introduced at the consular court. We re-
paired to our station at ten, and the regi-
ments soon after began to assemble: six
thousand cavalry and infantry had taken
their respective stations before twelve o'clock ;
when, as the clock struck, the Chief Consul
appeared, and received petitions from the
citizens of Paris, previous to the commence-
279
ment of the review, but as it differed little
from other shews of the same kind, and my
knowledge. of tactics being very limited, I
shall be silent uponthesubject: norshall I at-
tempt to describe my feelings on beholding
the troops of an enemy, supposed to be on
the eve of embarking for the invasion of
my native country. I have no doubt of the
courao;e or conduct of British officers and
soldiers, but local circumstances and situa-
tions excite peculiar sensations; and having
experienced a severe campaign, and been
too long an eye-witness of cruelty, carnage,
and devastation, I can truly say, " Peace is
my dear delight \' and I beheld these troops
with far other emotions than 1 should see a
review in Hyde Park or the Thuilleries,
beneath her verdant olive.
I was, however, much pleased to have
so long and so near a view of the Chief
Consul ; who, being small of stature, ap-
pears to the greatest advantage on horse-
back. Though he is by no means hand-
280
some, and has a very sallow complexion,
his countenance has great expression, ac-
companied frequentl}^ with a peculiar stern-
ness about the brow. The profile medal-
lions and engravings bear a greater resem-
blance to him than those which exhibit a
full face. He was in plain regimentals, his
hat without lace or feathers, and decorated
only with a small national cockade; while
his generals, aids-du-camp, and other offi-
cers, were all in their full uniforms, richly
laced and embroidered, with their horses
splendidly caparisoned. The contrast ren-
dered the Consul the more conspicuous ; but
though unadorned himself, his white charger
shone with trappings of crimson and gold,
and seemed conscious of his pre-eminence
while parading through the ranks. This
stately animal was Bonaparte's favourite
steed during all his campaigns, and is said
to have formerly belonged to Louis the
Sixteenth.
In the review at the Thuilleries the troops
281
do not go through their usual evokitions,
which are performed in the Champ de
Mars, so celebrated during the revolu-
tion. It is a vast artificial plain, surrounded
by rising seats, or mounds of earth, and
rows of trees, extending from the military
school, near the invalid hospital, to the
banks of the Seine. In that school Bona-
parte finished his education; having been
removed from the royal military school at
Brienne, in Champagne, in 1789> in the
sixteenth year of his age. He will not have
completed his thirty-fourth until the fif-
teenth of August, on which day he was
born at Ajaccio, in Corsica, in the year
1769.
282
LETTER XXIX.
Paris, June 8, 1803.
I THIS morning visited the church
of St. Roch to see the sacrament of confir-
mation administered by the bishop of Or-
leans, to several hundred young persons of
both sexes : it was, in truth, a solemn and
affecting scene. The young ladies were
dressed in white, with long veils ; and dur-
ing the procession each of them bore in
her hand a lighted taper; they formed not
only an interesting, but an elegant spec-
tacle. On Sunday next, for the first time,
they are to receive the sacrament of the
Lord's supper; at which the bishop and
his attendant clergy will be present, with
sacred music and other solemnities.
This, I believe, is among the first renewals
of religious ceremonies in Paris since the
283
Concordat with the Pope for the re-esta-
bhshment of the Roman Cathohc rehaion
in France, which took place with great
pomp on Easter Monday in last year, at
the church of Notre Dame. The three
Consuls, and all the constituted authori-
ties, went in procession to see it, and the
ratification of the short-lived peace with
England, sanctified by the most solemn
and ostentatious rites of the Romish church.
These events were both celebrated on the
same day. The sermon was preached by
by Bois-gelin, cardinal archbishop of Tours;
and Madame Bonaparte, with the ladies
of the consular court, attended the cere-
mony.
Thus was religion re-established in France;
and, whatever may be the errors of the Ro-
mish church, it is highly gratifyuig to see
its revival in a nation where Christianity
had been publicly denounced, and atlicisni
proclaimed; where the churches were not
not only despoiled of every ornaiucnt, but
284
converted into warehouses and manufacto-
ries, and other purposes; where, we well
knew, 'the archbishop of Paris and his clergy
prostrated themselves at the bar of the Na-
tional Convention, abjured their former be-
lief, and made their new confession of faith;
in which they declared that there was no
other deity than Liberty, no other gospel
than the republican constitution, and no
other worship than equality. Many of the
bishops and priests, who were deputies in
the assembly, animated by the example of
the archbishop, immediately proceeded to
make their public recantation/ The an-
cient cathedral of Notre Dame, which had,
during so many centuries, been the metro-
politan seat of the christian religion, was
converted into the Temple of Reason; when
the commune, with a prostitute, who was
invested with the character of this new divi-
nity, and attended by a splendid train, ap-
peared to request that the convention would
sanctify the consecration with their pre-
285
sence. The goddess of Reason was a young
blooming opera-dancer, who acted her part
to the entire satisfaction of her votaries:
from her imperial throne, on which she was
borne by four porters, she descended on the
right hand of the president of the conven-
tion, and by a decree received the fraternal
kiss, as soon as the procureur had announced
her negative and positive character: that
she was not like the objects of the ancient
worship, a cold and inanimate image; and
that she was a master-piece of nature;
while her sacred form so far influenced
every heart, that only one universal cry
was heard, of " no more priests, and no
other gods." When the deputies arrived at
the temple, the goddess of Reason intro-
duced them to her sister goddess of Liberty,
who had left the mansion of philosophy to
receive their homage, and bestow her be-
nediction.
I shall enlarge no further on this scene
of folly and wickedness, than to observe,
286
that in the constant revolutionary changes of
this infatuated capital, it soon happened that
the new altars were deserted, and that the
divinity herself, with many of her priests and
worshippers, suffered death by the guillotine.
During the reign of liberty, reason, and
philosophy, the churches were stripped of
every ornament: the shrines, crosses, and
images of gold, silver, and bronze, were
sent to the mint; those of marble and stone
were mutilated and destroved; while the
sculptures in wood, with the vestments, re-
lics, and other religious furniture, which the
piety of ages had deemed sacred, were con-
demned to the flames. St. Denis also shared
the common fate with every other place
which religion had made sacred, and devo-
tion had enriched. It not only contained
the remains of the monarchs and heroes of
France, as the royal sepulchre of the king-
dom; but in the treasury were deposited
many curiosities valuable for their antiquity
and curious workmanship, in gold, silver,
287
and jewels; which, during revolving ages,
had been presented by the rich and great
at the shrine of the tutelary saint of France.
Amonor them were the crowns of Dagobert
and Clovis, the sceptre of Philip the Fair,
with the helmet and golden spurs of Charle-
magne. But as no vestige of royalty was
to remain in France, the Goths and Van-
dals of the day, with a barbarous sacrilege,
attacked the solemn repositories of the dead,
destroyed the monuments, cast the bodies
from their coffins, and melted the lead
which composed them into bullets for the
use of the army.
The present cardinal archbishop of
Paris, far unlike his predecessor the arch-
apostate to the goddess of Reason, is one
of the most amiable and respectable cha-
racters in Europe: this venerable prelate is
said to have entered his ninety-fifth year^
and his life seems to be preserved to heal
the breaches of religion, and by his liberaHty
of sentiment, and tolerating disposition, but
288
more by the example of his holy and virtu-
ous life, to raise the Gallic church to some
degree of her former splendour.
In my religious sentiments I trust that
charity is, as it ought to be, the predomi-
nant principle: for when I look back to
the innocent and peaceable Brahmins with
whom I so long resided, near their solemn
groves and consecrated lakes, unfrequented
by Europeans; when I recollect the urba-
nity of the Mahometans, and the sacred
fire, preserved for centuries, by the fol-
lowers of Zoroaster, I cannot but perceive
the full force of that divine and benevolent
assertion of the apostle, that God is no re-
specter of persons; but that in every na-
tion he that feareth him, and worketh righ-
teousness, is accepted of him. The glo-
rious light of revelation does not yet shine
in full brightness on their distant shores;
the day-spring from on high hath not
yet visited them ; and, therefore, to a
faithful and merciful Creator, the en-
289
lightened Christian must submit the des-
tiny of his heathen brethren: but for a na-
tion hke the French, to lose for so many
years every trace of rehgion, was an evil
fraught with incalculable mischief: to erect
the temples of Reason and Nature upon
the ruins of Christianity, whose demo-
lished altars were yet smoking with the
blood of her priests, was a deed befitting
only the frantic agency of men who had
assumed the character of demons. Most
sincerely did I hope that a more pure, libe-
ral, and appropriate system of Christianity,
than that which formerly prevailed, would
have succeeded, on the subversion of her
heathen deities : nevertheless, it affords no
small triumph to the pious spirit to see reli-
gion restored in any form of Christian wor-
ship. Thirty millions of people again fre-
quent the re-hallowed altars; the churches
are again filled with worslii})pers of e\xiy
rank and condition, and the violated sanc-
tuary is restored.
VOL. I. u
290
LETTER XXX.
Paris, June l6, 1803.
I WAS this luorning in company
Avith a lady who had formerly been a nun,
but was now under the necessity of wearing
the common dress, and conforming to ge-
neral manners and customs. She resides
with twelve of the sisterhood, who receive
a very small pension, but chiefly maintain
themselves by needle-work and similar em-
ployments. She produced, from her bosom,
an embossed crucifix, which opened by a
secret spring, and contained a smaller cross:
this she also opened, and shewed with en-
thusiastic delight a small piece of wood,
which she fondly believed to be a part of
the cross whereon our Saviour suffered: to
have preserved this precious relic amid all
the domiciliary visits of her persecutors,
291
appeared to be a miraculous interposition
in her favour; and the hope that she should
now preserve it during the remainder of her
pilgrimage, seemed to awaken in her mind
an inexpressible sense of joy and gratitude.
She told us many affecting stories of the
horrors Avhich took place in her convent
during the reign of terror: four of the nuns
were to have been gullotined on the day of
Robespierre's death; but the sudden down-
fall of that tyrant prevented the execution
of thousands already sentenced by his bloody
tribunals. Seventeen nuns of the same order
had, however, at the same moment, been led
forth to the sacrifice of the guillotine. These
devoted females displayed, on this honid
occasion, the resignation and courage of
martyrs. In their passage through the pub-
lic streets to the place of execution, they
chaunted the service appointed for the of-
fice of burial ; and as each of them was suc-
cessively selected like a lamb taken from
the fold to the slaughter-house, the rest sung
292
a requiem to her departing soul. At the
guillotine only one can suffer at a time; and
the lady abbess was destined to the sad pre-
eminence of living a few moments longer
than the last of her sisters.
Many thousand females suffered under
the guillotine, and it may be worthy of ob-
servation, that Madame de Barr6 is the only
one of her sex upon record who betrayed
any remarkable weakness at the dreadful
crisis.
When Madame Roland was condemned
to the guillotine she was accompanied by
one of the other sex, involved in the same
misfortune, but not armed with equal forti-
tude as herself. As a woman, she had been
allowed the sad precedency of being first ex-
ecuted; but when she observed the dismay
of her companion, she said to him, " Allez
le premier, que je vous epargne au moins
la douleur de voir couler mon sang.'' She
then turned to the executioner, and begged
that this indulgence might be granted to
293
her fellow-sufferer. The executioner told her
he had received orders that she should perish
first; " but you cannot, I am sure/' said she
with a smile, " refuse the request of a lady."
He then complied with her request. When
she mounted the scaffold, and was tied to
the fatal plank, she lifted up her eyes to the
statue of Liberty, near which the guillotine
was placed, and exclaimed, " Ah Liberty!
What a wretched sport has been made of
thee !" The next moment she perished.
The death of Madame Elizabeth was
also a scene of heroic virtue. All that was
known of this lovely, accomplished, and ad-
mirable Princess in prosperity, were her
superior virtues, her exemplary humanity,
her unbounded goodness. In adversity, she
was distinguished by her unshaken friend-
ship for her brother, and her pious resigna-
tion to the dispensations of heaven. She
had suffered not only the severe extremes
of calamity, but all those indignities, priva-
tions, and hardships, which could give a
294
keener edge to her misfortunes; for, during
the tyranny of Robespierre, the forms of
decency which had till then been observed,
were altogether disregarded. She, who had
been used to the long train of attendants of
the most splendid court of Europe, was
compelled to perform every menial office
for herself; to dress her scanty meal, and to
sweep the floor of her prison. In such cir-
cumstances, with no ray of hope to cheer
the gloomy towers w^here she was immured,
except that hope which was fixed on a better
state of existence, she probably looked upon
death as her sole and certain refuge, and
therefore met it with tranquillity and firm-
ness. She betrayed some small emotion at
the sight of the guillotine, but instantly reco-
vered herself, and waited calmly at the foot
of the scaffold until twenty-five persons who
perished with her, were put to death; her
former rank being still sufficiently remem-
bered to give her a title to pre-eminence in
bloody and fatal ceremonial.
295
I do not intend troubling you with the
dreadful and affrighting anecdotes we con-
tinually hear of the revolution: they would
harrow up your soul; and, notwithstanding
all you have heard and read of that blood-
stained period, would, from the refinement
of its cruelties, be with considerable hesita-
tion received into your belief.
When I wrote the preceding pages little
did I think that within two hours I should
see the guillotine perform its office: but as
I was crossing the Pont Neuf, I saw a crowd
moving hastily towards the Place de Grcve,
where I was informed two men were about
to die for the crime of murder. Although I
never was a voluntary spectator of any pu-
nishment, I confess when I recollected the
sufferers by this instrument during tlie ter-
rific system I had just been describing, I
felt a curiosity to be present; and mingling
with the crowd, I soon found myself williin
a few yards of the scaffold, and in a very
short time the first prisoner arrived in a
296
cart, preceded by the police officers in a
coach, and escorted by a party of horse-
guards. The unhappy wretch was upwards
of seventy years of age, and had been con-
demned for the murder of his wife. He
was of an emaciated appearance; and while
the priest supported him with one hand, in
the other he held a crucifix, to which he di-
rected the attention of the criminal. The
priest was dressed in black, and the pri-
soner had a short scarlet mantle thrown
over his shoulders. On alighting from the
cart they ascended the scaffold, and passed
some time in prayer; the red cloth being then
taken off, the prisoner was tied to the plank,
and his head having been fixed in the groove,
fell, in a few seconds, into a basket. It is
certainly a merciful mode of terminating
existence, though the physician, who first
proposed its employment, and from whom
it derives its name, has from that circum-
stance lost much of his practice at Paris.
But momentary and merciful as it was, I
297
sickened at the sight, and with difficulty
made my way through the crowd before
the other criminal arrived to present a repe-
tition of the affecting spectacle.
298
LETTER XXXI.
Paris, July I, 1803.
We frequently visit the Hospital
of Invalids, one of those magnificent works
which do honour to the memory of Louis
the Fourteenth; an institution similar to
Chelsea Hospital: and while its exterior
magnificence is one of the principal orna-
ments of the capital, the extensive apart-
ments, excellent provision, and well-regu-
lated economy of the whole, affords a happy
asylum for those brave veterans who have
exhausted their strength, and shed their
blood, in the service of their country.
This noble building occupies a large
space in the Fauxbourg St. Germain: it is
composed of several courts, surrounded by
arcades, which, while they increase its ge-
neral effect, afford shady walks for the in-
299
valids in hot or rainy weather. The apart-
ments occupy three stories; the bed-cham-
bers are above, and the dining-rooms,
kitchens, repositories for the hnen, and si-
milar offices, are under excellent regula-
tions; and whatever may be the general
characteristic of Paris, nothing can exceed
the propriety and cleanliness of every part
and department of this hospital.
The church is a magnificent structure;
its dimensions are large, of fine proportions,
and enriched with the most splendid deco-
rations. The dome rises in the centre of a
Grecian cross, which is distributed into six
beautiful chapels, and presents one of the
most delightful and highly finished exam-
ples of architectural scenery that has been
at any time produced. At the revolution
this superb sanctuary of the Christian reli-
gion was metamorphosed by an assumed
spirit of paganism into the temple of Mars.
The shrines, altars, and images of saints
were removed, and their places filled with
300
marble statues of the four quarters of the
globe, the virtues, and other allegorical
figures. The crowns, fleurs des lis, and other
emblems of royalty, which had been inlaid
in the marble floor, have been spared on
account of their beauty, as well as the dif-
ficulty and expence of replacing them ; but
the dilapidations and alterations here are
trifling when compared with almost every
other public edifice: for, amidst the dread-
ful and indiscriminate destruction of revo-
lutionary phrenzy, this magnificent edifice,
except in the furniture of the chapel, was
preserved inviolable; its funds were re-
spected, and some additional honours con-
ferred upon it; particularly that of removing
the body of Mareschal Turenne, and the
beautiful monument erected to his memory
at St. Denis, into the temple of Mars, which
was done by order of government, about
three years ago, with great pomp, and all
military honours. Near Turenne's monu-
ment, in an elevated part of the church,
301
are enrolled in letters of gold, on immense
marble tablets, the names of those soldiers
who have received national rewards for hav-
ing served their country; with a specifica-
tion of the battles in which they distin-
guished themselves. These pubUc testimo-
nials of individual valour, together with the
suspended banners, are thus exposed to
encourage the national enthusiasm and love
of glory. There are pictures also which
represent the French victories at different
periods, and the standards waving over
them from the ceiling and cornices are said
to exceed eighteen hundred, mostly taken
in the course of the last war. An English-
man, with no small degree of exultation,
discovers no more than two British flags,
and a tattered ship's ensign, which however
are placed in the most conspicuous situa-
tion: the latter hangs in folds over the
portal, and forms a drapery on one side of a
large allegorical picture, which represents
the French Republic, after encountering
302.
so many dreadful tempests, in the moment
of arriving safely into port, in a bark of
triumph, on the 18th of Brumaire, (the
ninth of November 1799)? the day on which
Bonaparte was declared first consul. It is
a picture of considerable merit, by Vallet,
a French artist.
I shall conclude with our visit to the
library, a large upper room, containing a
considerable collection of books, presented
by Bonaparte, whose portrait, by David,
is its principal ornament. This picture re-
presents him in his arduous ascent up Mont
St. Bernard, with his army, in the depth of
winter, previous to the battle of Marengo.
He is mounted on his favourite charger,
large as life, defying the frozen snows of
of that formidable barrier, whose tremendous
precipices are introduced in the distance,
with the labours of the soldiers in dragging
the heavy artillery up those almost perpen-
dicular paths, which travellers have always,
at that season, deemed a bold encounter
303
without any incumbrance. The whole is
in David's best style; the likeness of the
general, though flattering, strongly marks
his character; the attitude is fine, and the
horse is spirited. On the snowy fragments in
the foreground are inscribed the names of
Bonaparte, Hannibal, and Carolus Magnus.
I was very curious to see another pic-
ture by the same master, which, during the
more horrid period of the revolution, was
exhibited in an apartment of this building,
and the temporary object of an enthusiastic
admiration. But since the people of France
have returned to a state of civilization, both
in their civil and political conduct, this
execrable painting has been withheld from
public view, or, which is more probable,
is entirely destroyed. This you will believe
when I give you the following description. It
represented the colossal figureof a man quite
naked, trampling on kings, priests, crowns,
sceptres, crosses, and rosaries: in one hand
bearing a flamino: brand, in the other a
304
sabre. The goddess of Reason, clothed in
the garb of majesty, appears to sanctify the
scene; and various other characters com-
plete a groupe which an helhsh mind could
alone conceive, and impel the daring hand
to execute.
As an artist David is greatly to be ad-
mired; as a man, it is perhaps sufficient to
say, that he was the bosom friend of Robe-
spierre, a member of his bloody tribunals,
and is even believed to have attended at the
scaffold to sketch the agonizing features of
the victims executed by his order. What a
contrast between his goddess of Reason, with
her execrable satellites, and the lovely pic-
ture of Religion, with all her attendant vir-
tues, which Angelica painted for me in Italy.
There, instead of the horrid groupe of a
revolutionary painter, we behold the pure
and heavenly forms which her chaste but
glowing pencil conveyed from her amiable
and highly cultivated mind to the canvas:
there, to use the language in the sermon of
305
the departed friend, from whence I sug-
gested the subject of the picture. " Be-
hold a procession appear, led on by one in
whose air reigns native dignity, and in whose
countenance majesty and meekness sit en-
throned together: all the virtues unite their
various lustres in her crown, around which
spring the ever blooming flowers of para-
dise. We acknowledge at once the queen
of heaven, fair Religion, with her lovely
train : Faithy ever musing on the holy book ;
Hope, resting on her sure anchor, and bid-
ding defiance to the tempests of life; Cha-
rity, blessed with a numerous family around
her, thinking no ill of any one, and doing
good to every one; Kepentance, with gleams
of comfort brightening a face of sorrow, like
the sun shining through a watery cloud;
Devotion, with her eyes fixed on heaven;
Patience, smiling at affliction; Peace, car-
rying on a golden sceptre the dove and the
olive-branch; and Joy, with an anthem
book, singing an hallelujah! Listen to the
VOL. I. X
306
leader of this celestial band, and she will
tell you all you can desire to know. She
will carry you to the blissful bowers of
Eden; she will tell you how they were lost,
and how they are to be regained: she will
point out the world's Redeemer, exhibited
from the beginning in figure and prophecy,
AvhiJe the patriarchs saw his day at a dis-
tance, and the people of God were trained
by their schoolmaster the law, to the expec-
tation of him. She will shew you how all
events from the creation tended to this great
end; and how all the distinguished persons,
who have appeared upon the stage, performed
their part in the universal drama; the em-
pires of the world rising and falling in obe-
dience to the appointment of Providence,
for the execution of his counsels. At length,
in the fulness of time, she will make known
to you the appearance of the long- desired
Saviour; explaining the reasons of his hum-
ble birth, and holy life; of all he said, and
all he did; of his unspeakable sufferings,
307
his death and burial; his triumphant resur-
rection, and glorious ascension. She will
take jou within the veil, and give you a
sight of Jesus, for the suffering of death,
crowned with honour and immortality, and
receiving homage from the hosts of heaven,
and the spirits of just men made perfect.
She will pass over the duration of time and
the world, and place before your eyes the
throne of judgment, and the unalterable
sentence; the condemnation of the wicked,
and the glories of the righteous."
308
LETTER XXXV.
Paris, July 15, 1803.
Yesterday being the anniversary
of the demolition of the Bastile in 1789> and
one of the principal fetes of the republic,
the morning was ushered in by an heavy
discharge of cannon, which, from its long
continuance, must have awakened all the
sleepers in Paris to the celebration of a fes-
tival which several days before had been
publicly announced, with orders for having
the streets watered, and that no carriage
should appear during the illuminations, which
commenced at sun-set, and were generally
very beautiful, particularly at the palace
and gardens of the Thuilleries. Although I
saw no coloured lamps, nor any of the de-
vices and transparent paintings which adorn
the British metropolis on such occasions;
309
yet, each front of the palace being covered
with thousands of lamps, encircling the win-
dows, and covering the architrave, columns,
and other prominent parts of the architec-
ture, produced a grand and simple effect:
while the gardens, between the trees, round
the fountains, and on each side of the walks,
were filled with pyramids of lamps, which
threw a brilliant light over the astonishins;
crowd assembled in every part, but preserv-
ing an order and silence to which we are not
accustomed in England. The garden front
of the palace, seen through the illuminated
perspective of the principal walk at the
entrance from the Elysian fields, was sin-
gularly striking; and the evening being
quite serene, and the air perfumed by the
orange-trees, now in full bloom, the whole
resembled a scene in the Arabian Night's
Entertainment. The ex pence of these illu-
minations is very great: these were not
considered as very extraordinary; but the
fire-works and illuminations in tlie Thuille-
310
ries and Champs Elyse^s when Louis the
Sixteenth accepted the constitution, are said
to have cost fifty thousand pounds.
I have frequently visited the Bastile, or
rather the ruins of that celebrated fortress,
and the buildings erected for various pur-
poses from its dilapidations; for so complete
was the demolition of that ancient structure,
that hardly one stone remained upon ano-
ther: the very name of this prison spread
terror throughout the whole dominion of
France, and too many unhappy beings of
all descriptions have been plunged into its
dungeons on suspicion of crimes which they
never committed: but however crowded it
might have been under the dissolute period
when Madame de Pompadour ruled with
uncontrolled authority over Louis the Fif-
teenth, during the mild reign of his successor
the cells were rarely inhabited. One unfor-
tunate wretch, a victim to the former reign,
had been condemned to solitude and dark-
ness for five and thirty years, who indeed
311
too perfectly realized the pathetic picture
of Sterne's captive. On emerging from his
dreary cell, in a low and hollow voice he
intreated his deliverers to put him to death,
as the greatest favour they could confer.
The Bastile was so constructed, and ge-.
nerally so well guarded, as to be deemed
impregnable; and was assailed in vain by
Henry the Fourth and his veterans ; yet on
the fourteenth of July 1789> the citizens of
Paris, almost famished for want of bread,
and animated by the spirit of liberty, con-
quered and demolished it in a few hours.
The avarice of Launay, the governor, had
caused him to send false muster-rolls, and
the garrison then consisted of only half its
complement: before any succours could ar-
rive all was over, and Launay was the first
victim of popular fury. Although no part
of its walls, nor even of its subterraneous
apartments, are now visible, it is impossible
to walk over the spot where it once stood,
312
without a painful recollection of those tra-
gical scenes,
*' Where man, proud man,
Drest in a little brief authority,
Play'd such fantastic tricks before high heaven.
As make the angels weep"
On removing the ruins of the fortress
the superintendant of the workmen caused
eighty-three models to be formed fiom the
stones, which he presented to the eighty-
three departments of France, that the re-
membrance of the Bastile, and the restora-
tion of liberty, might never be effaced.
After our first visit to the Bastile, which
stood near the banks of the Seine, and where
are still some shady walks upon the out-
works near the water, we drove immediately
to the Temple, the modern Bastile, where
Louis and his unhappy family drank so
deeply of the bitter cup of misery, and
from whence, after a long continued scene
of contumely and insult, they were finally
313
conducted to the scaffold. This prison once
formed part of a building, with a church,
convent, and gardens, belonging to the
Knights Templars, or a similar order: but
the convent having been destroyed, four
lofty towers, connected by intervening cham-
bers, were preserved, and being surrounded
by high walls, were converted into a state
prison ; and is still appropriated to that pur-
pose, as some of our own countrymen have
lately experienced. On the confinement of
the royal family the walls were heightened,
the contiguous buildings removed , and strong
guards placed at every avenue to prevent
all communication : and here, after the mur-
der of her father and mother, and Madame
Elisabeth, and the untimely death of her
brother, the young Princess Royal passed a
season of dreadful anxiety, and dreary soli-
tude, w^ith a fortitude that beggars descrip-
tion, and, could it be described, would
scarcely be believed.
314
LETTER XXXIII.
Paris, July id, 1803,
" O THAT T had the wings of a
dove! for then would I flee away, and be
at rest; lo then would I get me away afar
oif," to some happier spot not subject to
capricious tyranny, despotic orders, and
domiciliary visits. I would go to that land
where liberty is something more than an
empty name; where her influence is felt,
though not emblazoned in golden characters
on every public edifice, nor the first word
in every arret to send a man to the various
Bastiles which, under other names, exist in
every part of modern France.
Although we have hitherto remained
unmolested in this capital, we have not
been without frequent alarms of severer re-
strictions, and closer confinement; and many
315
of ourcountr3^menliave been sent away to Va-
lenciennes and Fontainbleau on a very sud-
den notice. Our horizon has been for some
lime portentous, gloomy, and mysterious,
and it gradually darkened until the four-
teenth, when Lord Elgin, and several other
English gentlemen, were invited to attend
general Junot. There is a peculiar mean-
ing in such invitations ; and I am sometimes
favoured with them. " Le Giniral Dki-
sionnaire Junot, Commandant la Premiere Di-
vision militaire et la Ville de Paris, vous invite,
Monsieur, a passer chez lid, S^^e!' Unfortu-
nately for us poor captives, it is an invita-
tion we have not the option of declining.
Lord Elgin and his invited companions re-
ceived a peremptory order to leave Paris
immediately, and repair to the provincial
towns appointed for their exile. His Lord-
ship, as a great favour, is permitted to go
to Bareges on account of his health, but
the English, in general, have been sent,
with very few exceptions, to Fontainbleau.
316
Some of my Parisian friends exerted them-
selves to discover if my name was among
them, and not finding it, were anxious to
invent some expedient to prevent my re-
moval; and interested themselves with the
grand judge and other public officers. One
of them, knowing we were now liable to
domiciliary visits, the seizure of papers,
and other arbitrary acts, kindly offered to
secrete any of my writings or drawings which
I did not choose to fall into the hands of
the police officers, while the storm threat-
ened us.
Until this period I knew not of my con-
sequence in the literary world: but prepa-
ratory to our visit to general Andreossi,
Portalis, and the grand judge, a friend asked
me if I was acquainted with any of the
English literati, or with the members of the
Royal and Antiquarian Societies; and when
he was informed that I was not only intimate
with many gentlemen of that description,
but was myself a member of both those so- -
317
cieties, as well as of the Arcadian Society
at Rome, his countenance brightened, and,
in the memorial to the grand judge, those
particulars were enlarged upon, and my
works magnified : thus captivity, which cur-
tailed my liberty, enlarged my reputation.
Whether or not this sudden exaltation will
secure my continuance at Paris, I am yet
to learn; patience is an essential virtue in
France, especially in the routine of a public
office. The high-flown representation of
me, with an addition of seven years to my
age, is now before the higher powers; and
I anxiously wait the result : for when I con-
sider the situation of a wife and child vo-
luntarily involved in my fate, and that the
latter will be deprived, at this interesting
period, of five excellent masters, my place
of exile is not a matter of indifference; and
although we have not hitherto experienced
the reign of terror when victims were daily
carried off to trial, condemnation, and death;
yet, as France is now equally subject to ar-
318
bitrary and capricious mandates, we know
not where they may terminate. Of five
EngHsh gentlemen who dined with us three
days ago, four of them are sent to distant
departments, and the fifth hourly expects
his order of banishment; while our eager
eyes are always turned towards the door,
watching the countenance of the approach-
ing stranger, and dreading the sight of every
letter brought to the house. Two of these
gentlemen, who are from Oxford, have al-
w^ays travelled and lived together since they
have been on the continent, and requested
only the same place of exile; a boon which
was inhumanly refused them.
Do not therefore imagine that all goes
smoothly on in this gay metropolis; where,
if I am permitted to remain, as an English-
man I shall have my trials : my feelings are
daily roused by the advertisements, carica-
tures, and public criers in the streets, de-
claiming against old England. The French
do not excel in caricature, nor is a popular
319
pamphlet lately published, entitled, " The
Nation puffed up with Pride, small Beer,
and Tea, brought to the Bar of Reason," of
much importance; but the clergy are now
resuming their former influence in society,
and especially among the lower classes:
Religion is now the order of the day. I
will make no comments on the conduct of
our oppressor, whether favouring the sensual
tenets of the Koran in Egypt, or the sublime
truths of the gospel in France; where the
prelates of every description publish the
most flattering, and even blasphemous ad-
dresses, in favour of their new idol; who
receives them all as if he could believe that
he deserved the preposterous adulation.
I sometimes amuse myself by copying
extracts from the public papers ; and I
have preserved a few of them, merely as
whimsical specimens of rare and curious
flattery.
The archbishop of Rouen, last month,
thus addresses his clergy : " Demandons a
320
Dieu, demandons lui sur-tout, que rhomme
de sa droite/' cet homme qui, " sous sa di-
rection et par ses ordres, a tant fait pour la
retablissement de son culte, qui se propose
de faire encore davantage, continue d'etre
comme Cyrus, le Christ de la providence.
&c. Sec"
And thus says the bishop of Mayence:
" Read in the letter of our chief magistrate,
and be convinced of the sublime sentiments
which animate his great soul : like those he-
roes who by their piety have immortalized*
the French valour, he leaves his enemies to
pride themselves in the number of their
vessels, and the immensity of their trea-
sures: as to himself, he declares, that he
trusts only in the name of that God who
governs the universe; and to Him, and not
to the strength or courage of his armies, he
looks for success; to Him therefore he will
ascribe the glory."
The bishop of Orleans, quoting the
strong expressions of Ezekiel against Tyre,
321
thus applies the words of that prophet to
the island which dares to oppose the Power
of France : " Because thine heart is lifted
up, and thou hast said I am a god in
the midst of the seas; because by thy traf-
fick hast thou increased thy riches, and
thine heart is lifted up thereby; there-
fore thus saith the Lord God, Behold! I
will bring strangers upon thee, even the ter-
rible of the nations; and they shall bring
thee down to the pit, and thou shalt die the
death of them that are slain in the midst of
the seas. By the multitude of thy merchan-
dize they have filled the midst of thee with
violence; thou hast defiled thy sanctuaries
by the iniquity of thy traffick: therefore
will I bring thee to ashes upon the earth in
the sight of all them that behold thee!"
VOL. I.
322
LETTER XXXIV.
Paris, July Ip, 1803.
We yesterday made another un-
successful attempt to see the water-works
at Versailles : it had been announced in the
Paris papers that they were to let loose their
streams for the amusement of the public on
the first Sunday after the fourteenth of July,
the anniversary of the festival of the Revo-
lution; but, on our arrival, we found the pipes
were still out of order, and that not a single
fountain would be displayed. The heat was
excessive, we therefore preferred the shades
of St.Cloud to the glare of Versailles. The for-
mer place is about two leagues from Paris,
and is esteemed one of the most delightful
situations in this part of France. The town of
St. Cloud takes its name from a son of Clo-
domir, king of Orleans, in former ages, who
32S
at an early period of life retired from the
world, and founded a monastery on ibis
spot, which has ever since retained his name.
The town is built on the banks of the Seine,
over which a stone bridge leads to the Paris
road ; and on a contiguous eminence stands
the palace of St. Cloud, which commands a
view of the capital, and the river, mean-
dering through a wide expanse of hill and
dale, cultivated and enriched with towns,
villages, chateaus, and every embellishment
to be expected in the environs of a luxu-
rious metropolis; while the nearer hills,
rising on the banks of the Seine, display the
varied charms of Belle-vue, Meudon, and
other villas.
Such is the general prospect from St.
Cloud; but its local beauties, and the noble
apartments of the palace, with all their
splendid decorations, merit a more parti-
cular description. The seignory of St.
Cloud was in 1674 erected into a duchy and
peerage, in favour of Francois de Harlay,
324
archbishop of Paris, and devolved, with its
dignities, to the prelates his successors.
Monsieur, brother to Louis the Fourteenth,
built the chateau, under the inspection of
three celebrated architects; from him it de-
scended to the late Duke of Orleans, and
became a favourite residence of the late
queen, for whom it was purchased by
Louis the Sixteenth in 1785, and from that
time received many improvements: in ex-
change for the seignory, the king gave the
archbishop of Paris that of Bois le Vi-
comte, which was erected into a duchy and
peerage.
St. Cloud seems to have suffered less
from revolutionary fury than any of the
royal palaces; and,\if some outrages were
committed, the vestiges of them are no longer
visible. The principal entrance into the park
is to the left, immediately on crossing the
bridge, and is always open for the public :
it is much resorted to on Sundays and fes-
tivals, especially when the Parisians expect
325
that the water-works will be displayed. The
approach to the palace takes the ascent of
the hill by a broad road, from whence you
enter several large courts, surrounded by the
offices.
The First Consul having selected this
spot for his principal summer residence, it
has been completely repaired, and the gar-
dens improved, by additional decoration.
As carriages are not permitted to enter even
the outer court, we alighted at the gate,
and walked to the door of the palace, where
we were received by a servant in a rich
livery of green and gold, and conducted
up the marble staircase to the grand suite
of apartments, consisting principally of
the gallery, saloon, drawing-room, council-
chamber, chapel, and other state-rooms,
of which I shall not attempt to give a mi-
nute description. If St. Cloud cannot boast
of the extent, magnificence, and splendid
embellishments, of Versailles, it certainly
rivals it in elegance and comfort: the ceil-
326
ings are painted in various allegorical sub-
jects, and the rooms hung with tapestry, or
sattins embroidered with natural flowers, to
answer the furniture, which is new, and in
a ver}^ superb taste. The chandeliers are
magnificent, and three vases of the Seve
porcelaine, in the gallery, which are mo-
delled after the antique, are the largest and
most beautiful I have ever seen. Here are
also several good pictures, but the nar-
row space between the windows will not
admit of such as are of large dimensions.
This room communicates with the upper
gallery of the chapel, which is furnished
Avith new state chairs of crimson velvet
enrichments, and gold, for the consular fa-
milj' : the walls of the council-room are hung
Avith flowered sattins, the chairs round the
table are of the same materials, and the green
cloth which covers it is richl}' laced and
fringed Avith gold. Madame Bonaparte's
private apartments are not shewn; and as I
prefer rural scenery and fine prospects to
327
superb palaces and costJy furniture, we
sought the dehghts of the park and gar-
dens; particularly the upper terrace, which
commands a most extensive prospect of the
city of Paris, and all the variety just men-
tioned, seen above the lower hills, which
afford a rich foreground of woods, descend-
ing to the brink of the river, between the
bridges of Sevre and St. Cloud: but, unlike
the Thames, near its commercial metropolis,
the Seine is seldom enlivened even by the
sail of a vessel: at present, indeed, near the
Champ de Mars, and the Champs Elysees,
the banks of the Seine are covered with the
keels of flat-bottomed boats, destined for the
invasion of England. The slopes from this
lofty terrace, leading to the palace, afford
much beautiful and varied scenery, adapted
more for enjoyment than ostentation. Ex-
clusive of the situation, Le Notre did all
that the taste of his day would allow to give
beauty to St. Cloud; some of his formality
328
still remains in the gardens, but it is very
happily contrasted by spreading trees, in
their native form, and rural scenes, where
art is only the handmaid to nature : it seems
a happy medium between Versailles and
Petit Trianon, and was equally a favourite
of Marie Antoinette; who, in a retired part
of the woods, called la Felicite, erected a
small temple to that Divinity, on the site of
a pavilion to which the Duchess of Orleans
used to retire from " the pomp of cities and
the crowd of courts,'^ to enjoy the more
placid delights of retirement amid the war-
bling of nightingales and the murmur of cas-
cades, which then fell among the surround-
ing groves. What a contrast between this
charming spot and the dismal cells of the
Conciergerie ! How often, in traversing the
royal domains of France, and naturally re-
flecting on the downfal of the Bourbons,
and the elevation of the Corsican family,
have those feeling lines of our deceased
329
friend occurred to my memory, in which
she so pathetically describes the catastrophe
of the unfortunate queen !
" The dire events of our own time will shew, —
We need not mourn imaginar}' woe :
Torn from the pinnacle of regal state.
Come weep witli me sad Antoinetta's fate!
Once, like a splendid meteor, she appear'd.
By a light people gaz'd on, and rever'd:
But, O ! the sad reverse from pomp to pain,
The meteor vanish'd ne'er to shine again !
Hurl'd from a throne, to a dark dungeon led
Nauseous her food, the chilling straw her bed;
Her husband murder'd, and her infant son
Reft of the crown his ancestors had won :
Her virgin daughter, innocent and fair.
Entrusted to the lustful ruffian's care;
While the suspended axe of certain death
Is but protracted by a miscreant's breath :
Yet must the threat of death to her be vain.
The goal of quiet, from a world of pain
At length the fatal moment is decreed,
And Gallia's queen must ignominious bleed —
In a vile cart, with human blood besmear'd.
This offspring of Imperial race appear'd ;
While yelling demons in the form of men,
Demons sent forth from hell's remotest den.
With horrid shouts, and more than savage cries,
Mock'd the big drops that slream'd from her sad eyes :
Her hands behind her tied — no veil allow'd
To hide her woe from the insulting crowd ;
No pitying eye that dar'd to shed a tear.
330
No decent hand to lay her on the bier :
No requiem sung, to cheer the parting soul,
No funeral rites! — no bell was heard to toll,
Unhears'd, unshrouded, unentomb'd she lies!! !
La Felicite, so much admired by this
unfortunate queen, must have been a deh-
cious spot; but the formal gardens and ar-
tificial cascades at St. Cloud, designed by
Le Notre, seem more congenial to Parisian
taste. River gods, nymphs, and nereids,
conduct the waters from terrace to terrace
to the lower basins, where they rise in foun-
tains, playing on each other in every direc-
tion ; and here is the celebrated jet d'eau,
which rises to the height of ninety-seven
feet, to the great admiration of the French,
but surely with a different effect on those
who have beheld the stupendous cataracts
of nature in Switzerland and Italy.
On a lawn called the balustrade, from
its having been formerly faced with that or-
nament in the most elevated part of the
park, Bonaparte is now erecting a column,
to be surmounted by a large lantern, or
331
light-house, named the lantern of Demos-
thenes, from being formed after the model
of that at Athens. Every thing is supposed
to be acquiring a classical taste in France;
and no decoration or furniture is fashionable
unless it be Egyptian, Grecian, or Roman.
I have however been too lately in Italy to
be the dupe of French fashion.
In the evening the groves of St. Cloud,
the promenades in the Bois de Boulogne,
and all the little public gardens on our re-
turn to Paris, were enlivened by the festive
dance, in which all classes participate; and
in this respect the French still preserve the
character given them by Goldsmith —
" Gay sprightly land of mirth and social ease j
Pleas'd with thyself, whom all the world can please;
Alike all ages! dames of ancient days.
Have led their children through the mirthful maze ;
And the gay grand-sire, skill'd in gestic lore.
Has frisk'd beneath the burden of three-score."
332
LETTER XXXV.
Paris, July 20, 1803.
I SHALL mention but very few of
the public structures in this city; a recital
of the whole would be tedious and uninte-
resting, I believe, to us both. The cathedral
of Notre Dame is an ancient gothic struc-
ture, enriched with various ornaments, and
painted glass windows. It suffered greatly
during the revolution, but, in its most per-
fect state, must have been very inferior to
York Minster, Westminster Abbey, and
man}^ of our English cathedrals.
The modern church of St. Sulpice is a
noble edifice; the western front and towers
are very imposing ; but the whole is too con-
fined to be seen with all the advantage which
it deserves. The interior beauties exceed
those of its exterior character; and the light
333
on the sculpture in the inner chapel beyond
the high altar, has a very awful effect. The
Abbaye, one of the oldest temples in Palis,
although restored to public woi*ship, re-
mains in a very deplorable state, having
greatly suffered by revolutionary fury, and
its contiguity to the prison of the Ab-
baye, where such horrid cruelties were
committed.
The Hotel de ViUe, Garde Meuble,
Hotel des Monnoies, Palais de Justice, and
many other of the public buildings, attract
a stranger's attention, but would create little
interest in the detail. A few of the city
gates are in a beautiful style of architec-
ture, particularly that of St. Deni»; and
several of the barriers, or entrances into the
suburbs from the country, have a striking
effect, and were constructed from the ele-
gant designs of Le Doux. The bridges
over the Seine are, some of them, con-
structed with taste, but they sink into aljso-
334
lute insignificance when compared with
those of the Thames.
One of the finest buildings in Paris is
the Pantheon, formerly the church of the
Abbey of St. Genevieve: previous to the re-
volution the old church being in a ruinous
state, was taken down, and the present struc-
ture erected on a magnificent plan, but not
completed . On the suppression of the mo-
nastery government undertook its comple-
tion, and it would perhaps have been finished,
had not the foundation given way, and re-
quired an immediate, as well as well as ex-
pensive alteration in the interior, which, I
am sorry to add, has greatly diminished its
beauty. It stands on the highest ground in
Paris, and its light and elegant exterior is
universally admired: the proportions are
excellent; and from the gardens of the
Luxembourg, as well as on a nearer ap-
proach from its own area, it has a very ma-
jestic appearance, especially the portico,
335
which is copied from that of the Pantheon
at Rome, and is composed of twenty-two
Corinthian columns, fifty-four feet high: on
the frieze is tlie following inscription in
golden characters,
" Aux grands homines, la patrie reconnoissante."
From the gallery above the cupola, which
is an hundred and sixty feet from the ground,
we commanded a bird's-eye view of the
whole city of Paris, and the surrounding
country, through an atmosphere wonder-
fully clear, but on one of the hottest days I
ever experienced ; the ascent from the lower
gallery to the upper is very convenient, and
the old Cicerone was extremely attentive,
and replete with anecdote. After thus gra-
tifying our curiosity, we descended to the
subterraneous regions set apart for the sepul-
ture of the great men of the French republic,
where the dead as well as the living seem
to be equally subject to the fluctuations of
caprice. Hither the ashes of Vollaire and
336
Rousseau were removed from their former
repositories; but they have been placed
under monuments of no great taste or ex-
pence ; while the bodies of Marat and Mi-
rabeau, after having been decreed the ho-
nours of the Pantheon, and carried thither
with great funeral pomp, were removed by a
subsequent order, and, as we were told, bu-
ried in a neighbouring dunghill. Voltaire's
sarcophagus is ornamented with four in-
scriptions; I select one of them.
" Poete, historien, philosophe,
11 aggrandit I'esprit humain,
Et I'apprit, qu'il devoit etre libre."
On that of Rousseau is inscribed,
" Ici repose I'homme de la naturcj et de la verite"
Near the Pantheon is a valuable public
library, containing upwards of thirty thou-
sand volumes, which is under excellent re-
gulations.
The Pantheon appears to great advan-
tage from the principal avenue in the gar-
337
dens of the Luxembourg palace,which is now
called le Palais du Senat Consenative: it is
a very fine building, and formerly belonged
to the Duke of Orleans, but, in the revolu-
tionary changes, has been appropriated to the
residence and functions of the Conservative
Senate: the apartments, when finished, will
correspond in all respects with the elegant
exterior. It is entered from the street
through a spacious court; the other fronts
present themselves to a public garden, which,
although neither so extensive, nor so richly
adorned as the Thuilleries, is laid out in
spacious walks, with groves, fountains, sta-
tues, and enriched by a profusion of orange
trees: being situated in a distant part of
the city from the consular gardens, it af-
fords the inhabitants a similar recreation;
every thing of this kind having become na-
tional property.
The Palais Bourbon, formerly belonging
to the Prince de Condc, and now the hall
of tlie Corps Legislatif, is silualcd at the
VOL. I. z
338
termination of the bridge opposite the Place
de la Concorde; and the hall where the
Legislative Body assembles is one of the
most elegant rooms in Europe, well adapted
for the purpose, and embellished with marble
columns, whose capitals are of bronze. The
tribune, the benches, and president's chair,
are all arranged in a superior style; and six
niches contain the statues of Solon, Ly-
curgus, Demosthenes, Cicero, Cato, and
Brutus.
1 have examined the history of France
with some attention, and particularly that
part of it which comprehends the late revo-
lution; but though letters of gold may
boldly emblazon Liberty, Fraternity, and
Equality, on every public portal, such privi-
leges exist not in this republic: here is no
confidence between man and man ; venality
and corruption operate powerfully among
the great; envy and distrust pervade the
middle classes; and, although the poor may
be benefitted by the suppression of some
339
evils which they formerly suffered, the con-
scription is now become an alloy to every
enjoyment. The government, notAvithstand-
ing names and forms, is, in effect, a complete
system of military despotism: France con-
tains not those germs of virtue which, when
they spring forth, may nourish a republic :
the elements for such a system do not exist in
this servile nation. Frenchmen seldom speak
their sentiments ; but I have heard the mode-
rate and sensible feelingly observe, that when
Bonaparte was invested with the consulate
for life the death-blow was given to their
views of liberty. Such are the fruits of the
French revolution, whose great error was,
that it made no distinction in its objects,
but revolutionised every thing. Our revo-
lution was conducted upon other principles.
Its design was to restore and secure our sjo-
vernment, ecclesiastical and civil, on truo
foundations; and that design was fully ac-
complished, without the hazard of any
change in the constitution.
340
L'Eglise de Madeleine, near the Italian
Boulevard e, promised to be a beautiful
example of Grecian architecture; but the
revolution not only prevented its comple-
tion, but even its progress. Its cemetery,
however, is remarkable for having received
the remains of the king and queen, and
most of the unfortunate sufferers by the guil-
lotine, in the Place de la Concorde, in whose
vicinity it is. But royalty is not forgotten ;
for the portraits of Louis the Sixteenth and
his consort Marie Antoinette are exhibited
in the windows of the print-shops with those
of the three consuls.
The hospitals and other charitable en-
dowments in the capital and provincial
towns, I have reason to believe, are sup-
ported as well as the public and private
finances will admit; but the revolution cer-
tainly destroyed many excellent institutions,
without supplying a substitute; and dried
up many a source of humanity without of-
fering any other salutary spring.
341
By the papers, pamphlets, and adula-
tory addresses of the day, a stranger would
suppose that France enjoyed every public
and private blessing ; but, on a nearer scru-
tiny, he will find, under the stage effect, and
ostentatious glare, of which the French are
so fond, that much remains to be done for
the real comfort and happiness of the middle
and lower classes in this extensive republic.
As in England, though not with its magni-
ficent bounty, the door of charity is here
opened to every species of human misery.
The Hotel Dieu, under another name, is
still continued. UHospice de la Salpetriere,
erected by Louis the Thirteenth, is on a
noble foundation: its extended arms em-
brace the old and young, the poor and the
helpless, the maniac and the idiot. To
these may be added above sixteen hundred
girls, who are employed in spinning, knit-
ting, lace-making, and other manufactures.
The Asylum pour les Enfans trouves, or
Foundling Hospital, is conducted on a Im-
342
mane and liberal plan: in this place a thou-
sand orphans are tenderly nursed during the
helpless state of infancy, and afterwards
educated for some useful employment in the
state.
^Institution des travaux des Aveugles,
or the school for the blind, although not so
interesting to visitors as that of the deaf
and dumb, which I shall presently mention,
is equally dear to the friend of humanity;
and here a great number of both sexes,
who are deprived of one of the first of hu-
man blessings, are taught the means of gain-
ing an honest and useful livelihood by those
employments of which their condition is
capable.
But not only among the most noble and
most useful charities, but as one of the
highest gratifications which Paris affords to
alleviate our captivity, I rank the national
asylum for those who are born deaf and
dumb.
The Institution Nationale des Sourds ct
343
Muets de naissance; the national asylum
for those born deaf and dumb; was first in-
stituted by the Abbe Charles Michael de
I'Epee, a name dear to humanity, for his un-
remitted patience, and persevering zeal, in
behalf of an insulated race of beings, cut off
from m OS t of the sources of human happiness ;
and, by a new mode of education, he con-
trived to communicate to them a knowledge
of the arts and sciences with a faciUty and
quickness not easily conceived. About fifty
years ago this amiable man, at his own private
expence, undertook to meliorate the condi-
tion of these unhappy fellow mortals : he
spent his time in instructing, and his fortune
in clothino; and feedino; all who claimed his
fostering care: in 1756 he published his
mode of instruction, which he continued
with the greatest success, under gradual im-
provement, until 1789? when death deprived
the world of a philanthropist,who was not only
the admiration of France, but of all Europe.
When it pleased Heaven to remove him
344
from works to rewards, it did not leave his
flock without a pastor; the xibbe Sicard,
who had been his pupil in this glorious pur-
suit, with equal ability and enthusiasm sup-
plied his place ; and has ever since in this
capacity been the delight of the Parisians,
and the admiration of all stmngers of taste
and sensibility who frequent this gay ca-
pital. The Abbe's lectures are so attrac-
tive, and so much the resort of fashion, that a
very early attendance alone can procure a
seat; but the hours of waiting are amply
repaid by the sentiments produced in this
interesting exhibition.
Previous to 1791 this was a private insti-
tution, maintained by the annual subscrip-
tions and donations of individuals; but in that
year the National Assembly appropriated to
its objects the Celestin convent, and thus
founded an hospital for twenty-four chil-
dren, with a pension of three hundred francs
for each child, which was soon increased to
one hundred and twenty children, and five
345
hundred francs for the board and education
of each, during an allotted period. Every
possible attention is employed to instruct
them in reading, writing, drawing, and arith-
metic; and they are thus qualified to gain
a livelihood in various branches of ma-
nual employment established in this cha-
ritable endowment for the general benefit.
As the building is extensive, and the hu-
mane zeal of the Abbe unremitting, any
child whose friends can pay the annual sti-
pend, is admitted into this happy asylum,
which is opened once a fortnight for the
admission of the public, under commodious
regulations.
On these occasions, for the space of
three hours, we have the felicity of hear-
ing this good man expatiate on the mode
adopted to raise this unfortunate class of
being from brutes to men, to inculcate the
first dawn of science on their benighted
minds ; to give them a knowledge of na-
tural objects, and from thence to lead them,
346
through various gradations, to moral and
intellectual ideas, to the God of nature and
of grace, the author of their existence, the
redeemer of their souls, and the rewarder
of their virtues. Many parts of these lec-
tures are truly sublime, while all are interest-
ing and instructive. The enthusiasm of the
Abbe, the respectful silence and delighted
countenances of his enraptured audience,
with the affectionate gratitude of his pupils,
produce sensations which are not to be de-
scribed.
The latter go through their progressive
stages of acquiring knowledge from the
youngest scholar's earliest lesson with a key
on a lady's fan, to two of the seniors writ-
ing complete sentences on any subject given
in the silent language of their kind instruc-
tor, or indiscriminately chosen from any
book brought by a visitor, to evince that
they could have no previous knowledge of
the contents. When these advanced pupils
have performed their allotted task to general
347
satisfaction, in which they seldom fail, the
benevolent countenance of the Abbe is irra-
diated with the bright beams of internal
happiness and enthusiastic delight, nor are
those of his grateful scholars less inte-
resting. One day Massieu, the most en-
lightened of the Abbe's pupils, had copied
an account of a traveller descending a dan-
gerous pass in a mountain on foot, where it
was impossible for an horse to proceed on
account of the perpendicular precipices and
projecting rocks, and which seemed an insur-
mountable barrier even to a pedestrian : the
traveller, however, succeeded in the ha-
zardous enterprise, and was received by the
admiring spectators below with loud accla-
mations. To convince the audience that
the pupil understood all he had written,
he was desired to explain grammatically
the most difficult parts, and conjugate the
verbs, w^hich he did to admiration : but more
interesting still was his description in the
language of the school. In dumb shew he
348
described the height of the mountain, the
dreadful precipices, the traveller's danger,
and the acclamations of the spectators : the
Abbe was fearful he might find some diffi-
culty in expressing the latter; but his ani-
mated countenance, the clapping of his
hands, and joyful leaps, soon convinced us
to the contrary, and produced throughout
the whole assembly the most animated burst
of applause.
349
LETTER XXXVI.
Paris, July 21, 1803.
The friends of the Abbe Sicard
having formed the plan of a rural fete in
the forest of St. Germain, in honour of that
great philanthropist, we were invited to be
of the party : the subscription was no more
than twelve livres each, for which we were
provided with a carriage, a cold dejeune at
St. Germain, and a dinner in the forest.
Monsieur JaufFret, one of the public pro-
fessors at Paris, had undertaken to conduct
the whole of this interesting festival; and
we were so fortunate as to be invited to ac-
company him thither. We accordingly pro-
ceeded through the Champs Ely sees, and,
passing their grand barrier entered a popu-
lous country, enriched with a variety of cul-
350
tivation, and, about four miles from Paris,
crossed the Seine at Pont de Neuilly, a
bridge constructed thirty years ago, and
considered as a chef-d'ouvre-of architecture,
both as to hghtness and durabiUty. Its sur-
face of eight hundred feet in length is per-
fectly horizontal, and is formed on five equal
arches an hundred and thirty-two feet wide,
and thirty-two high. The prospects from
hence on each side of the river are varied
and pleasant: the most striking feature is
Mount Calvary, so called from a church
and convent which formerly stood there;
and v/as visited by strangers to view its se-
ries of pictures, of the death and passion
of Christ, which are said to have been de-
lineated with a most powerful impres-
sion: they were consequently the peculiar
object of revolutionary destruction, whose
infidel spirit was more particularly directed
against this religious edifice, as superstition
had induced its votaries to believe, that its
walls contained a fragment of the cross on
351
which the Saviour of the world performed
the sacrifice of our redemption.
From Mount Calvary the country
abounds with large villages, ch^teaus, and
villas, situated among com fields and vine-
yards. The hay harvest is over, and the
early corn carrying to the barns; all was
cheerful and animated; and as the houses
are built of stone, and generally in an hand-
some style of architecture, they would be
greatly heightened, as landscape objects,
by the accompaniments of wood in its va-
rious forms and characters. But we here
look in vain for the verdant meadows and
shady groves, the blooming hedges, and
stately oaks and elms, which adorn the rural
pictures of England, and when intermingled
and harmonized in the distant mass, pro-
duce a beauty all its own. Corn, wine, and
oil, the three scripture blessings, convey a
cheering sound ; but the formality of vinc-
clad-hills, olive-grounds of unvarying grey,
and open corn lands unadorned by trees
3j2
and unrelieved bj meadows, do not aiFord
that pleasing variety which distinguishes the
hills and valleys of our own country. The
French landscape is particularly deficient
in large trees, and the towns and villages
have a peculiar hardness, unfavourable to
rural beauty.
We saw nothing very interesting until
we reached the gates of Mal-Maison, the
favourite retreat of the Chief Consul, pur-
chased by his lady during his command in
Egypt. The name certainly does not indi-
cate a superior habitation; and although it
has lately received great additions both in
territory and architecture, it has by no means
the appearance of a palace, nor any thing
particularly attractive in its situation: but
here, to deceive the cares and anxieties which
at times must press with considerable weight
on his brow, though not yet encircled by a
diadem, Bonaparte occasionally retires to
pass a few days with less restraint than at St.
Cloud, and personally superintends the im-
S3S
provements which are now decorating this
favourite spot. He has lately added a large
extent of domain, and has also planted many
thousand trees to conceal the house from
the high road, which passes so near as to
lessen the retired character which its con-
sular inhabitant Avishes to attach to it.
We stopped to take a view of the water-
works at Marii, a village pleasantly situated
on the banks of the Seine. The royal villa,
which was once its principal boast, is now,
strange transformation! converted into a
cotton manufactory, and the beautiful, luxu-
rious pavilion of Madame du Barr6, which
was once the pride of the place, is hastening
to decay.
We were received with great politeness
by the director, and, after partaking of his
obliging hospitality, accompanied him to
the vast machine, which was the imme-
diate object of our curiosity. It is placed
in the bed of the Seine, and, by the force of
its mechanical powers, raises the water to
VOL. I. 2 ^
354
the summit of the high grounds adjoining:
from thence it is conducted at first by a
grand aqueduct, and afterwards by con-
cealed pipes to Versailles, where it not only
supplies the canals and fountains in the
gardens with their ornamental streams,
but also furnishes a gieat part of the town
with water for domestic comfort and con-
venience.
I am not sufficiently conversant in me-
chanics to enter into an intelligent detail of
its construction. The wheels are turned by a
branch of the Seine, and throw an immense
volume of water to the height of sixty fa-
thoms, when it is received by the aqueduct,
which is five hundred fathoms in length, and
reaches to the reservoir, from whence the
streams are conducted by pipes to their re-
spective destinations: twenty-five thousand
pounds are said to be annually expended
on the repairs of this machine.*
* It was constructed by a native of Liege, whose name
was Renkinj and though, from the improvements made in
355
We could not observe, but with an equal
degree of surprise and pleasure, the eager-
ness with which Massieu, the most cele-
brated pupil and greatest favourite of the
Abbe Sicard, entered into the system of the
machine at Marli. His tutor, in silent lan-
guage, communicated to him its general
structure and use; and by his dumb replies
the pupil convinced us how perfectly he
comprehended the complicated parts, to the
mutual delight of the master, the scholar,
and the beholders.
It is Massieu who is so pathetically men-
tioned in the heart-rending narrative of the
Abbe Sicard, which describes the dreadful
proceedings after the decree of the first of
September 1792, when upwards of sixty
priests were conducted in carriages into
the court of the Abbaye prison, and there
hydraulic engines since the period of its erection, similar
operations may be produced, on a much more simple principle,
and at a very diminished expence; its execution, nevertheless,
cannot fail to give a very strong impression of the grandeur
and magnificence which distinguished the undertakings of
Louis XIV.
3d6
consigned to sufferings and to death: won-
derfully, it may indeed almost be said mira-
culously, did Monsieur Sicard escape this
horrid butchery. Could these be men ? com-
pared with such horrors, what a merciful irti-
plement of death is the guillotine! Mas-
sieu, on hearing that his beloved master was
among the number of those devoted priests
availed himself of the education his be^
nevolence had afforded him, to write the
following pathetic letter to the President of
the National Assembly*
" MONSIEUR LE PRESIDENT,
On a enleve aux sourds et muels
leur instituteur, leur nourricier, et leur pere.
On Fa renferme dans une prison, comme s'il
^toit un voleur, un criminel. Cependant
il nd pas tue, il n^a pas vole; II n'est pas
mauvais cit03'en: toute sa vie se passe a
nous instruire, a nous faire aimer la vertu,
et la patrie. II est bon, juste et pur. Nous
vous demandons sa liberte. Rendez-le a
357
ses enfans, car nous sommes ses fils. II
nous aime comme s'il etoit notre p^re. C'est
lui qui nous a appris ce que nous savons;
sans lui nous serions comme des animaux
Depuis qu'on nous la 6t6, nous sommes
tristes et chagrin6s. Rendez nous-le, et
nous serons heureuxi
Massieu."
I cannot help transcribing a few pas-
sages from the Abbe's own account of his
dreadful sufferings.
Six carriages were filled with priests
who could not conscientiously take the oath
required by the new constitution: Sicard
was among them, and in the first carriage.
They had been promised their lives, and
were informed that they were only to be re-
moved from one prison to another, and were
then on their way to the Abbaye. Too soon
they found their sad mistake. " On donne,"
says Monsieur Sicard, " le signal du depart
en recommandant a tous les cochers d aller
358
tres lentement, sous peine d'etre massacres
sur leurs sieges; et, en nous addressant mille
injures, les soldats qui devoient nous ac-
compagner, nous annoncent que nous n'ar-
riverons pas jusqu'a TAbbaye; que le peuple
k qui ils vont nous livrer, se fera enfin jus-
tice de ses ennemis, et nous egorgera dans
la route. Ces mots terribles etaient accom-
pagnes de tous les accents de la rage, de
coups de sabres, et de piques. Les voi-
tures marchent; bientot le peuple se ras-
semble et nous suit en nous insultant. Nous
voulumes fermer les portieres de la voiture;
on nous for^ a de les laisser ouvertes pour
avoir le plaisir de nous outrager: un de mes
camarades re^ut un coup de sabre sur
Fepaule, un autre fut blesse k la joue, un
autre au dessous du nez. J'occupais une
des places dans le fond; mes compagnons
recevaient tous les coups qu'on dirigeait
contre moi. Qu'on se peigne, sil se pent,
la situation de mon ame, pendant ce pe-
nible voyage. Enfin, nous arrivons a FAb-
S59
baye; ies egorgeurs nous y attendaient.
C'etait par nous qu'ils avoient ordre de
commencer. La cour etoit pleine d'une
foule immense: on entoure nos voitures; un
de nos six camarades croit pouvoir echap-
per, il ouvre la portiere et s'elance au milieu
de la foule: il est aussitot ^gorg6. Un se-
cond fait le meme essai, il fend la presse,
et allait se sauver, mais Ies egorgeurs tom-
bent sur cette nouvelle victime, et le sang
coule encore; un troisieme n'est pas plus
epargne. La voiture avan^ait vers la salle
du comite; un quatrierae veut egalement
sortir; il revolt un coup de sabre qui ne
Tempeche pas de se retirer et de chercher
un asile dans le comite. Les egorgeurs ima-
ginent qu'il n'y a plus rien a faire dans celtc
premiere voiture: ils ont tue trois prison-
niers, ils ont blesse le quatrieme, ils nc
croient pas qu'il y en ait un de plus, et ils
se portent avec la meme rage a la seconde
voiture. Je saisis le moment, je m'elance
de la voiture, et je mc precipitc dans les
360
bras des membres du comite. "Ah! Mes-
sieurs, leur dis-je, sauvez iin malheureux !"
" Une femme m'avait vu entrer; elle court
me denoncer aux egorgeurs ; ceux-ci conti-
nuaient leurs massacres. Je me crus oublie
pendant quelques minutes ; mais voila qu'on
frappe rudement a la porte, et qu'on de-
mande les deux prisonniers. Aussitot Tun
prend mon camarade aux cheveux, et
Tautre enfonce a I'instant sa pique centre sa
poitrine, et le renverse mort k mes cotes;
son sang ruiselle dans la salle, le mien allait
couler; deja la pique etait levee, quand un
homme, dont le nom doit m'etre si ch^r,
averti par ses enfans qu'on massacrait a
TAbbaye, et qu'on parlait de FAbbe Si card,
accourt, fend la foule, et se precipitant entre
la pique etmoi,decouvre sa poitrine. "Voila,
dit-il au monstre qui m'alloit egorger, voila
la poitrine par ou il faut passer pour aller
a celle-la ! C'est TAbbe Sicard, un des
hommes les plus utiles 4 son pays, le p^re
des sourds et muets; il faut passer sur mon
361
corps pour aller jusqu'4 lui." " Ces mots,
prononc^s avec Taccent du courage et du
vrai patriotisme, firent tomber la pique des
mains du meurtrier/'
After many shocking details Monsieur
Sicard thus describes the dreadful night he
passed in the Abbaye.
" Quelle nuit que celle que je passai
dans cette prison! Les massacres se fai-
soient sous ma fen^tre. Le cris des vie-
times, les coups de sabre qu'on frappoit sur
ces tetes innocentes, les hu dements des
egorgeurs, les applaudissemens des temoins
de ces scenes d'horreurs, tout retentissait jus-
que dans mon coeur. Je dislinguais la voix
m^me de mes camarades. J entendais les
questions qu'on leur faissait, ct leurs re-
ponses. On leur demandoit s'ils avaient
fait le serment civique. Aucun ne I'avait
fait; tons pouvaient echapper 4 la mort par
un mensonge ; tons pr^fererent la mort. Tons
disaient en mourant" " Nous sommes sou-
mis d toutcs nos lois, nous mourons tons.
362
fiddles a voire constitution; nous n en ex-
ceptons que ce qui r^garde la religion, et
qui interesse notre conscience." " lis etaient
aussitot perces de mille coups, au milieu
das vocifer9,tions les plus horribles, les spec-
tateurs criaient en applaudissant, Vive la
nation ! et ces cannibales faisaient des danses
^bominables autour de chaque cadavre. Tout
ceci J€ I'ai vu de mes yeux, et je Tai entendu.
J^ai vu les dames du quartier de I'Abbaje
se rassembler autour du lit qu'on preparait
pour les victimes, y prendre place comme
, elles Tauraient fait a un spectacle."
What a scene, my amiable friend, is
here described ! what must my fair country-
women feel at such a picture ! I will spare
you a longer recital, and only add, that the
Abbe's enemies being resolved to execute
their vengeance on this great and innocent
man, obtained a fresh condemnation: his
doom was fixed, and a cart, with other dead
bodies, waited to take away his corpse. He
again escaped. I shall conclude this affect-
363
ing subject with the Abbe's brief account
of his first interview with his beloved Mas-
sieu after this succession of events, so fuU
of alarm and danger.
" C'est la que je repus la premiere yisite
de cet eleve precieux que j'avais nomm6
mon legataire, au moment oii, pr^s de r^ce-
voir le coup mortel, je r^mis pour lui ma
montre au commissaire. Qu'elle entrevue!
Massieu dans les bras de son p^re, de son
instituteur, de son ami. Cette ame brulante,
reunie a la mienne, nos deux coeurs battants
Tun centre I'autre! Ce malheureux jeune
homme avait passe sans nourriture et sans
sommeil tons les joui's des Temprisonnement
de son maitre. Un jour de plus et il mourait
de douleur et de faim. Quel moment que ce-
lui oil il me r^vit, apr^s avoir tant pleure sur
mon sort! Quels signes il me fit! Quel signe
pour ceux qui en furent temoins !"
We cannot boast of many enjoyments to
lighten our captivity : but the luxury of pas-
sing a day with such admirable persons,
364^
I shall ever recollect with peculiar pleasure:
I have procured a portrait of each of them.
One morning, when visiting the Abbe during
his private lessons in the schools, a French
gentleman and myself put a few questions
in writing to Massieu, which he answered
with wonderful facility and delight ; I shall
send you only a faw at present, and reserve
the rest with some other Parisian curiosities,
for a happy meeting.
D. Qu'est ce que TEternite ?
R. C'est le jour sans hier, ni demain.
D. Qu'est ce que Dieu ?
R. C'est le soleil de F^ternite.
D. Qu'est ce que la Reconnoissance?
R. C'est la memoire du coeur.
D. Qu'est ce qu^' une Revolution ?
R. C'est un arbre dont la racine est en
haut, et la tige en bas.
D. Qu'est ce que la Vertu?
R. . C'est la force morale.
D. Qu'est ce que la Raison ?
R. C'est la maturite de Tesprit.
365
Massieu is of infinite use to the Abbe in
instructing the younger scholars, who are
divided into different classes; and his sister,
born also deaf and dumb, is equally useful
in the female department. But I must now
quit my digression, interesting as I am sure
it will have been to you, and resume our
journey.
We proceeded from Marli to St. Ger-
mains, along the banks of the Seine, wind-
ing at the foot of the hills, which we
ascended on approaching the town. It is
situated on a lofty eminence, and, with its
palace, which, when seen at a great dis-
tance, presents a grand and striking object ;
but, on a nearer view, we found it a deso-
late and ruined pile. It once contained
numerous apartments superbly furnished
for the court of a voluptuous monarch, and
was assigned by Louis XIV. to James the
Second when he had abdicated the En dish
crown, and sought an asylum in a foreign
country. Here this infatuated prince main-
366
tained the shadowy appearance of royalty,
and after some fruitless attempts to recover
his lost empire, closed his lamentable life.
The palace stands on a noble terrace,
and its domain is connected with the ex-
tensive forest of St. Germain. The view
from hence is the boast of France, and ex-
tends over a tract of country far as the eye
can reach, finely varied, and watered by
the Seine in its circuitous course to Paris,
which crowns the whole. But I prefer the
woody hills and more confined views from
St. Cloud.
At an hotel near the palace we partook
of a cold dejeune; and then, entering the
forest, proceeded near two^ miles through
one of its boldest avenues to a ci-devant
convent, now appropriated to a more useful
college for the education of youth. Here
we alighted about one o'clock, and passed
the rest of the day with our interesting party.
While dinner was preparing the master at-
tended us through the different parts of the
367
college; the courts and gardens contribute
to the health and exercise of the youth, the
cloisters to their winter recreations, and the
halls make excellent school-rooms : the cells
of the monks are now neatly papered and
fitted up for the elder students; each of
whom has a separate dormitory; the younger
sleep in a large airy apartment with one of
the masters; and the whole appears to be
under a well regulated arrangement. We
found the boys disposed in due order in
the principal school, where two of the first
class delivered orations in favour of the
Abbe Sicard and his benevolent institution.
We dined in the old refectory, and our
subscription dinner produced plenty of good
cheer: no political toasts were given, but
at the conclusion of the dessert, one glass
having been filled to the health of the worthy
Abbe, and a second to the success of the
seminary, we took coffee, and attended
the ladies through the gardens to a shady
part of the forest, where our party joined
368
a company of near two hundred persons
from St Germains and other places, who
were invited to hear the Abbess lecture.
Here seats were prepared for us all, beneath
a clump of maples surrounding a small
mount, to which the Abb6 and his two elder
pupils were then conducted. From this
elevated spot, to the complete gratification
of the country strangers, as well as those,
who, like myself, had so often enjoyed the
same pleasure in Paris, he went through
the progressive stages of the instruction
given to the deaf and dumb. The dis-
course engaged our attention during three
hours, when the Abbe being nearly ex-
hausted by his enthusiastic ardour, the large
tablet on which Massieu wrote his senti-
ments, w as suddenly removed, and the spec-
tators were surprised with a bust of the
Abbe on a handsome pedestal, encircled
with wreaths of oak and garlands of flowers;
the Heliotrope, or sun-flower, having the
most conspicuous place over the forehead.
369
When the applause justly due to this
agreeable surprise subsided, and the Abbe
had expressed his grateful sensations, one
of the scholars presented him with a finished
drawing of the bust; and a young gentle-
man among the spectators arose and re-
cited a poetic eulogium on the Abbe and
his divine institution: the lines, which were
beautiful and impressive, were delivered
without affectation; which is seldom ob-
servable in French declamation. But I am
really at a loss for words to give you an ade-
quate idea of this singular spectacle : the
grove, the bust, the Abbe with his pupils,
the admiring spectators, the stillness of the
forest, from time to time, interrupted by na-
ture's choristers, and the spires of the con-
vent seen dimly through the trees, afibrded
me an intellectual feast, of which 1 shall
not cease to partake while I have the power
to remember it. We did not reach Paris
till a very late hour.
I must also mention an old forest oak,
VOL. I. 2 li
516
near the convent, which, on a late botanical
excursion of Mr. JaiifFret, engaged the at-
tention of the party, and occasioned the
following beautiful apostrophe. " Et toi,
patriarche auguste de cette foret! toi, dont
la fatale coignee a respecte les vieux ans,
Chene antique ! vois les amis de la nature
se ranger, se presser sous ton ombre hospi-
tali^re; ofFres leur une fraicheur digne en-
core de ton printems; vents, allez raffraichir
votre haleine dans ces immenses reservoirs
d'eau, suspendus sur nos tetes, et revenez
agiter les rameaux qui doivent couvrir notre
repas champ^tre; oiseaux, venez meler vos
chants a nos hymnes, a nos cantiques;
jeunes gens, apportez vos corbeilles, rem-
plissez-les de plantes et de fleurs; repandez-
les ^ pleines mains sur nos tables, et que
tout concourre a rendre cette f^te touchante,
digne des amis de la nature \"
Monsieur Jauffret intended we should
have enjoyed our rural repast under this um-
brageous canopy, if the weather had not
371
proved so sultry. This amiable man makes
frequent botanical excursions in the environs
of Paris, with the youth of both sexes, to
which we have received his kind and flat-
tering invitations.
5n
LETTER XXXVII.
Paris, July 29, 1803.
We have for some time past been
engaged by one of the principal Jews at
Paris to be present at the dedication of a
synagogue, which has been suffered to be
erected by the tolerating spirit of the French
government. Week after week the cere-
mony has been deferred from a delay in
the completion of its decorations; and as
often v> e have been disappointed. At length,
however, the long expected time arrived, and
this evening, about seven o'clock, we were
received into a place of worship, so rare
and extraordinary in this capital. Though
we did not expect to see a model of Solo-
mon's temple lined with cedar of Lebanon
and enriched with the gold of Ophir, yet
from all the circumstances attached to this
structure, and the opulence of many Is-
373
raelites who inhabit the city of Paris, I
had anticipated a very different spectacle.
The building consists of a large oblong
room with a flat ceiling, from which were
suspended by red cords several old glass
chandeliers, lighted with tallow candles:
at one end were two latticed galleries for
the women, and at the other, was an
altar or sanctum-sanctorum ; in which, be-
hind an embroidered curtain, were depo-
sited the sacred volumes of the old testa-
ment, the traditions of the elders, and the
expositions of the rabbins, in large rolls, en-
closed in separate embroidered bags. This
altar was painted to imitate marble, and on
each side of it was suspended, in a gilt
frame, a prayer to the Almighty, to bless
the Chief Consul and the French govern-
ment, and to prosper his arms against his
enemies. The one was written in Hebrew,
the other in French; and were the only or-
naments of the synagogue. The place was
crowded with worshippers, if they may
374
be allowed that title; for really, without
breach of charity, it is difficult to reconcile
the sudden, violent, and noisy bursts of
adoration, with the busy hum of conversa-
tion and laughter among the congregation,
and even of the officiating priests. In short,
the place appeared more like a commercial
exchange than a building sacred to public
worship.
The heat was extreme ; but we were for-
tunately placed in an elevated window, and
seeing a well-dressed French lady with a
child among the crowd of Jews in the centre
of the synagogue, I beckoned to her to
come to us, which she at last eftbcted, and
we endeavoured to make room for them:
but on a young gentleman who accompa-
nied her pressing also into the window seat,
we were under the necessity of telling her
we could not accommodate her friend; on
which she whispered, C'est une dame; and
indeed she proved to be the mother of the
child then with them.
375
I need not tell you that the love of no-
velty has ever been a predominant principle
of the French character; which, in this par-
ticular, has not suffered the least revolution.
A Jews' synagogue was therefore a subject
of uncommon curiosity, and, for some time,
formed a varying topic for the infidel and
the believer.
376
LETTER XXXVIII.
Paris, August 1, 1803.
Paris is called by the French la
Reine des cites; and, when comparing it
with London, T have frequently heard the
former called a city of houses without
streets, and the latter a city of streets with-
out houses: a fanciful description, whose
chief merit is the play upon words which
it contains. That the streets and squares of
London far surpass those of Paris cannot
be denied ; and that most of the churches,
and several of its public buildings, not only
rival, but excel those in Paris, must be
equally admitted; but certainly the num-
ber of h6tels and large dwelling-houses,
with their pleasant gardens, enclosed within
high walls in the narrow streets and dirty
lanes of Paris, exceed in number and beauty
377
those of a similar description in London;
and those in the Boulevards and contigu-
ous airy streets, surrounded by their own
courts, gardens, and groves, most assuredly
form very delightful residences: it must
also be acknowledged that the views near
the Louvre, notwithstanding the narrow
channel of the Seine, possess an air of gran-
deur which is not to be found in some of
the principal cities of Europe.
The Boulevards, which surround Paris,
may be divided into the north and south:
the former are the most fashionable, and
abound with a variety of amusements for
the loungers of both sexes, who constantly
patrole beneath the shady trees, which, in a
double row on each side, form three ave-
nues, two for pedestrians, and the centre
unpaved for carriages; the whole forming
a magnificent promenade. But Paris is
seen to the greatest advantage from Mont
Martre, and several other eminences: every
378
striking feature is there discerned, unincum-
bered with that mass of smoke which so
generally envelopes our metropolis.
I do not trouble you with particular de-
scriptions of the churches, palaces, and other
public buildings at Paris; it would swell a
letter to a volume, and after all you will
have a better idea of them from the nume-
rous engravings lately published. Those who
remember the Thuilleries before the revolu-
tion, will perceive a great improvement from
the removal of the small buildings in the
Place de Carousel, which opens a spacious
area in front of the palace, and by present-
ing the exterior of the Louvre gallery, with
which it is connected, presents altogether a
very extensive and magnificent pile. One of
the principal modern ornaments at the en-
trance of the consular palace is the beau-
tiful iron railing between the portals, guarded
by the cavalry, which is adorned with the
four Grecian horses in Corinthian brass.
379
brought from Venice, and as many golden
cocks, in the attitude of crowing, the em-
blems of modern Gallia.
The Seine, which flows beneath the
Louvre, is disfigured by the washerwomen's
sheds, where a number of these noisy dames
daily assemble, to cleanse the filthy linen of
the Parisians: these sheds are constructed
on boats and moveable platforms, for the
convenience of the rise and fall of the water
in wet and dry seasons. This summer the
river is lower than has been known for many
years, from an uncommon dearth of rain;
the heat also is excessive, and almost equals
the hottest season I ever knew in the torrid
zone; not that the thermometer rises quite so
high as I have there known it during the hot
winds, but the houses are differently con-
structed, and many conveniences adopted
to alleviate the heat in that climate: Reau-
mur's thermometer in the shade lias fre-
quently risen to 29J. The papers say, " tout
le monde se plaignoit; cependant on a
380
eprouve des chaleurs pareilles en 1753 et
1788; et en 1705 la chaleur fut si extraor-
dinaire, que le thermometre dont on se ser-
voit a Tobservatoire depuis 36 ans, cassa:
dans les parties nieridionales de la France,
les vignes furent bruits/' The heat in seve-
ral departments is now so great, that many
persons, without any previous illness, have
suffered instant death ; while the scarcity of
water is very distressing: a number of wells,
springs, and rivulets, are entirely dry; and
the peasants, who are obliged to go four
or five leagues for that useful article, often
sink under their burden from the intoler-
able heat.
At this season the stench of Paris is
abominable: however the rich may excel
other nations in luxury and prodigality, their
houses, in general, w^ant the decencies and
conveniences of the poorest cottage in Eng-
land; which not only occasions indelicacy,
filth, and fetid smells within, but subjects an
evening walk to unpleasant accidents. On
381
such topics I will not enlarge; to the Eng-
lish they are abominable, though considered
as trifles by other foreigners, who are all,
more or less, accustomed to them.
In Paris, and indeed throughout France,
you meet with very little of that mediocrity
of fortune, that middle walk of life, which is
so delightful in England; during the former
system every thing was in extremes, and
notwithstanding the confounding interval of
the revolution, to extremes every thing seems
to be reverting, although wealth and power
have fallen into very different hands. In the
public gardens you see a multitude of per-
sons, of both sexes, especially on Sundays
and festivals, arrayed in gay attire, and co-
vered w^ith finery, at the expence of a good
dinner and many domestic comforts, which
they willingly resign for the empty pleasure
of a promenade, or any public spectacle ; a
word which, in the French vocabulary, com-
prizes every description of amusement or
public exhibition from the opera to a puppet
582
shew. The pleasure of a walk, or the ex-
ercise which contributes so much to health,
is not the object of the French, who seldom
go out of the barriers for the enjoyment of
rural delights, or a purer air, both of which
are to be found at no great distance. They
have little taste for the repose or innocent
pleasures of a country life: to see, and be
seen, to be in a constant crowd and bustle,
constitutes their supreme satisfaction; and
to these unvarying scenes, returning with
every setting sun, all is sacrificed. I am
acquainted with a sensible artist, who,
for the advantage of light and air, dwells
immediately under the attic story, in a large
house in one of the public squares : twenty-
three other families inhabit the same man-
sion; on ascending the public staircase
I have frequent opportunities of seeing
the interior of the apartments, and their in-
habitants, particularly in the entre-sols, or
low-roofed rooms, between the regular floors.
Most of the front apartments are tenanted
383
by persons of some distinction; but the
back chambers, which are dark and dirty,
are inhabited by persons of a very different
description. In the morning, barely co-
vered by filthy rags, they are employed in
cooking their meagre soup over a few em-
bers, for themselves and children ; yet those
very people do I meet in the evening, in
the public gardens, dressed in the guise of
fashion, and assuming the airs of the first
ladies in Paris.
To please and to be pleased is the grand
characteristic of the French: it seems as if
care, ennui, and a thousand real or imagi-
nary ills Avhich oppress the English were all
sacrificed to gaiety. They are fond of effect
and shew, from the brilliant opera to the
humblest dancing garden; every entertain-
ment, public or private, displays taste and
elegance: give a French woman a few
flowers and boughs of trees, and she will
decorate her apartment for a festival, at a
trifling expence. Those who, like Madame
384
Hicamier, can add bronze statues, classical
vases, and all the Egyptian, Grecian, and
Roman embellishments, which now adorn
the fashionable mansions in this luxurious
city, seem to enjoy all that can be effected
by the votaries of pleasure in our hemi-
sphere. If fashion and folly are held by
many in England to be synonimous terms;
in France, where dissipation and frivolity
so generally predominate, such an opinion
may be fully justified.
Among the luxuries of Paris, I must not
omit the public baths, which are dispersed
throughout the city: they are, in general,
constructed with the greatest propriety and
delicacy, for the accommodation of both
sexes; who, for little more than a shilling,
may enjoy the delights of a hot or cold
bath, with attendants and necessaries. In
the gardens of the Hotel de la Rochefou-
cault we have this convenience at the dis-
tance of only a few yards from our own
apartment, which is a very great comfort in
385
the prevailing heat; but these baths are on
a small scale, compared with those on the
Seine, near the Thuilleries, which are con-
structed of wood, in one of the largest boats
in the world ; and, in the same manner as
the sheds just mentioned, rise and fall with
the river: there are several of these baths
on each side of the Pont Royal. The ma-
chine I now allude to contains an hundred
and forty baths, each in a separate cham-
ber, arranged in long galleries, and divided
equally for the accommodation of both
sexes. On descending a flight of steps from
the Louvre terrace, you reach the banks of
the river, which are here adorned with trees
and flowering shrubs, and perfumed by
orange, jessamine, and other odoriferous
plants, which border the walks: from thence
a Chinese bridge conducts 3'ou, a few yards
over the water, to the gallery leading to the
respective baths ; those appropriated to the
service of the gentlemen ranging on one side,
while those of the ladies are on the other: at
VOL. I. 2 c
S86
the portal each visiter receives a ticket,
marked with a number, which admits the
bearer to the bath that answers to it; but
such is the demand for this luxury at Paris,
that, even in these extensive ranges, patience
is sometimes exhausted: and at our hotel
the ladies sometimes walk for a considerable
time before it is their turn to be admitted.
I was in this part of my correspond-
ence going to compress all I had written of
the Palais Royal, Palais d'Egalite, or Pa-
lais de Tribunal: the two latter are the
names given to it since the revolution; but
it is best known by its ancient appellation
of the Palais Roj^al, and is, without excep-
tion, one of the most extraordinary places
in this extraordinary capital. I had occa-
sionally given you my sentiments of this
w^onderful sceneand its motley groupes; buti
shall suppress them all to insert, in this place,
a few extracts from certain modern writers.
The first describes it rather too favour-
ably; the second, on the contrary, deviates
387
too much into caricature; and, therefore,
as in most other cases, it will perhaps be
best to adopt the third, or middle path,
which indeed is most correspondent to my
own ideas on the subject: but you shall
have an abridged account from all of them,
which will at least afford you some variety
in their respective modes of description.
" The Palais Royal is one of the principal
curiosities of Paris, and exhibits scenes of
extravagance, dissipation, and debauchery,
under its piazzas, through every hour of the
day and the night. Milliners, jewellers,
clothiers, booksellers, clockmakers, print-
sellers, china shops, coffee-houses, bagnios,
money-changers, and gamesters, all unite, in
amicable rivalry, to ease the unwary idler
of his money. There is no want either na-
tural or artificial, no appetite of a gross
or more refined nature, no wish for the
cultivation of the mind, or decoration of
the body, no disposition of any kind, which
388
would not here find a perpetual variety of
gratification.
" The shape of the building is that of a
parallelogram, which encloses a large gar-
den, ornamented with fine orange-trees, and
gravel walks. At the end is a double piazza,
with two rows of shops, reaching from one
extremity to the other; and these prome-
nades are always crowded with ladies and
loungers of every description. It is impos-
sible not to be delighted with the peculiar
elegance with which the rival shopkeepers
light up their little cabinets of bijoutelie
and with the splendor produced by the ge-
neral illumination.
" The gaming tables, which are in the
upper apartments, are licensed by govern-
ment, on paying a considerable sum for their
privilege, and are under its immediate in-
spection: they are well regulated; ready
cash passes from the loser to the winner,
and differences appear to be decided by
389
appointed referees, who sit at the table,
invested with the insignia of office. In di-
vers subterraneous chambers are many
scenes of unsanctioned dissipation, where
the game of biUiards is dexterously plaj^ed,
and too well attended. The restaurateurs
are by far the most famous and most fre-
quented; they boast of a greater choice of
provisions, an higher degree of culinary
science and more elegant accommodations,
than in any other part of Paris. Their bills
of fare present more than an hundred dishes,
upwards of twenty sorts of dessert, as many
kinds of wine, and a still greater variety
of liqueurs. The coffee-houses of the Pa-
lais Royal are most lively and gay, in the
morning from nine to eleven, and in the
evening from eight till eleven: but the con-
course of people is never at an end ; and as
Paris is said to devour the marrow of France,
so the Palais Royal may, with equal pro-
priety, be said to devour the marrow of
Paris."
390
Another description of this singular spot
is as follows.
" In the piazzas are a multitude of shops,
coffee-houses, bagnios, gambling-houses,
money-changers, and stock-jobbers. While
the odour of exquisite ragouts ascends in
vapours from the air-holes, the side tables
are loaded with fruit, confectionary, and
pastry; and there you may dine at every
hour, as in the courts of German princes,
to the sound of musical instruments. Petty
gaming-houses support the shops of young
women who sell lavender-water, and other
trifling articles; by their side are booksel-
lers shops, where allurements are offered
to please the libertine, and to entrap the in-
nocence of youth. Pictures of curious se-
lection, licentious engravings, libidinous no-
vels, serve as signs to a crowd of prostitutes
who reside in the wooden shops. These
are the exhibitions of the galleries; above
are the gaming rooms, where all the pas-
sions and torments of hell are collected.
391
" As soon as the day closes the arcades
are suddenly illuminated, the shops become
resplendent, and the jewellers' show-boxes
throw a long, training lustre. The crowd now
becomes more numerous ; and this is the mo-
ment when the gaming-houses open, under
the sanction of government, and afford it a
productive revenue. Your steps under the
arcades are arrested by a smoke which sen-
si bly affects your legs, from the kitchens of the
restaurateurs; and close to them the balls
are beginning in the subterraneous grottoes;
across the air-holes you see circles of girls,
leaping, giggling, &c. In the auction rooms
the brokers, dealers, retailers, are all assem-
bled. Spies of the police prowl in every
coffee-house, but no one dares to talk po-
litics in them. At the restaurateurs above,
you enter vast saloons, the assiduous ren-
dezvous of every man fattened by rapine,
army contractors, agents, administrators of
tontines and lotteries, professors of noc-
turnal robberies, and stock-jobbers. There
392
you are served at a nod; the dish is put
upon the table the moment it is ordered :
private rooms offer you at the same time
every thing to satiate gluttony and sen-
suality: the numerous glasses which deco-
rate these temples of pleasure, multiply to
the eye the charms of a mistress. To conclude
the account, there is a private saloon, where
you drink the coolest liquors, and where
burnt-incense escapes from boxes in light
cloudy streams. There you dine a TOrientale,
and, on certain days, all the pomp and whim
of a pantomime singularise the repast. On
a signal given, the ceiling opens, and from
above descend cars drawn by doves, and
driven by Venuses; sometimes it is an Au-
rora, sometimes a Diana, who comes in
quest of her dear Endymion: all are clothed
like goddesses: the amateurs choose, and
the divinities, not of Olympus, but of the
ceiling, associate with mortals.
" Such is the infected lazar-house, placed
in the midst of this great city, which has
393
reduced the whole of society to a most de-
graded state of vice and corruption : &c.&c."
I might add a third just description from
an excellent work by Ilosn}^, entitled, Le
Peruvien 4 Paris, but I shall rather take it
from the rough sketch of modern Paris, by
Mr. Lemaitre.
" What an extraordinary place is the
Palais-Royal ! if a man be contented with
sensual pleasures there is not one which
he may not gratify within the Avails of this
building; restaurateurs, or taverns, where
dinners are served from ten sols to two louis
ahead; coffee-houses, where, for three pence,
the lounger may pass the whole of his day
in playing chess, talking politics, or reading
the papers. Gambling-houses, where the
man of pleasure, at the risk of all that is
dearest to him in life, purchases the anxious
feelings which fear and hope excite, and
where the chevalier d'industrie finds the dis-
graceful means of a dishonourable exist-
ence. Tailors, haberdashers, silversmiths,
394
and watchmakers, offer every variety of
clothing, of ornament, and of machinery:
booksellers' shops are seen in every corner
where the homme de lettres finds his fa-
vourite authors, the romantic young lady
her novels, and the politician his pamphlets.
Opticians, where the frequenter of spectacles
purchases his opera-glass, and the philoso-
pher his telescope. Crowds of unfortunate,
and sometimes lovely females, challenge,
with every variety of dress, the attention of
passengers, and, while they become a ready
prey to libertines and dotards, fill every re-
flecting mind with sorrow: &c/'
The restaurateurs in the Palais Royal
remind me of a book I lately purchased
there, entitled, " Almanac des Gourmands,
servant de guide dans les moyens de
faire excellente chere, par un vieil ama-
teur,'' from which I could make many cu-
rious extracts on the luxuries brought in
the different months to the metropolis; but
I will confine myself to the Strasbourg
395
goose, so celebrated among the modem
French epicures, from which you may form
some idea of a volume containing two hun-
dred and eighty pages on gormandizing.
" This goose has obtained a distinguished
rank amongst the winged tribe, and cer-
tainly deserves the grateful acknowledg-
ments of all true lovers of the table, for the
superior excellence of its liver, with which
at Strasbourg are manufactured those ad-
mirable p^tes that form the greatest luxury
of an entremet. To procure these livers
of a sufficient size the animal must for a
considerable time become a living sacrifice.
Crammed with food, deprived of all liquid,
and nailed by the feet to a board fixed im-
mediately before a large fire, it must be
allowed the poor goose does not lead a
very pleasant life. The punishment, in-
deed, would be intolerable, if the animal
was not cheered in its sufferings by the
consoling idea of its intended destiny; the
prospect of this enables its to brave with
396
fortitude the fiery trial; and when she con-
siders that her Uver, grown miich larger than
the rest of her body, larded with truffles,
and encrusted in a scientific paste, through
the medium of Mons. Corcellet, will spread
around the glory of her name, she calmly
submits to her fate, and sheds not a single
tear/'
397
LETTER XXXIX.
Paris, August 5, i 803.
A WALK through the garden of
our hotel leads to the convent des Petits
Angus tins, in the opposite street, where I
spend many a solitary hour in the gardens
and cloisters, which are now converted into
the Musee de Monumens Francais, one of
the most interesting exhibitions in this
capital.
During the revolutional phrenzy every
thing sacred was held in detestation, churches
were destroyed, altars thrown down, and
the repositories of the dead ransacked and
despoiled. The tombs of good and bad
men, of monarchs and subjects, the sculp-
ture of ages long past, and the choicest
specimens of modern art, were involved in
equal ruin; and the abbey of St. Denis, in
particular, which contained the sepulchres
398
of the French monarchs for fourteen hundred
years, as well as the rich treasures which
had for many revolving centuries accumu-
lated at the shrine of the tutelary saint of
France, was despoiled by the fury of a
frantic people.
The abbey church of St. Denis had been
the sepulchral chamber of the royal families
of France, in general, during the long period
just mentioned; including the three lines of
her kings from Pharamond, in the year 420,
with whom commenced the Merovingian
race, which ended with Childeric the third
in 750. To these succeeded the second
race, called the Carlo vingian, from the Em-
peror Charlemagne, son of Pepin le Bref,
the first of this family, and the first of the
French monarchs who was consecrated with
the holy oil at his inauguration, in the year
750 : dying in 768, he left the kingdom to
his eldest son Charlemagne, whose family
continued the Carlovingian line until the
death of Louis the Fifth, in 987- At that
399
period began the third, or Capetian race,
so called from Hugues Capet the successor
of Louis, which continued in that house
during the reigns of thirty-two successive
kings, until the death of Louis the Sixteenth
in 1793.
I have lately read an epitome of the
French history, published at the commence-
ment of the reign of that ill-fated monarch;
which, after enumerating the royal houses,
thus concludes, " La Capedenne a com-
mence en 987j et durera autant que le
monde, si les voeux des Francois sont ex-
auces." On this, and a thousand similar
occurrences, I make no comments. I cease
to be astonished at the undecided character
of the French, particularly in religion and
politics; in which they seem as variable as
the winds : strange, indeed, are the changes I
have observed in the same individual since
our short residence among them. But I
shall quit my digression, and return to the
monumental museum.
400
When reason resumed her throne, and
rehgion began once more to shed her benign
influence in France, the scattered rehcs of
these monuments were anxiously sought after;
and national veneration, taste, and justice,
endeavoured, as far as possible, to repair the
damages caused by the unhallowed hands
of violence and rapine : the Augustin con-
vent was the sanctuary selected for these
interesting relics. It is a spacious struc-
ture, and is divided into various apart-
ments, appropriated to their reception:
they are arranged in separate chambers,
prepared with all possible attention to the
style of the monuments which they con-
tain. The first of them is the saloon of
the thirteenth century, and they at pre-
sent finish with that of the seventeenth;
but those of a later date will be arranged
with equal attention. The cloisters and ad-
joining gardens are decorated with tombs,
vases, sarcophagi, statues, cinerary urns,
and other fragments, which produce a strik-
401
ing effect among the overshadowing yews,
cypresses, and weeping- willows. To add still
more to the solemnity of this curious repo-
sitory, the windows by which the sepulchral
chambers are illuminated, are of painted
glass, corresponding with the dates of the
sculpture: all is executed with taste and
judgment; though I have heard some able
critics point out defects and incoherencies
in the ornaments, in which I partly coin-
cided; but they are too trivial and unim-
portant to offer to a distant reader.
This interesting and invaluable repo-
sitory, which forms an historical and chro-
nological museum of French sculpture,
architecture, and, in some degree, of paint-
ing, from the reign of Clovis to the termi-
nation of the eighteenth century, is indebted
for all its attractions to Mons. Alexandre
Lenoir, who is deservedly styled Le Fon-
dateur et Administrateur du Musee, and,
under the sanction, as well as at the expence
of government, has devoted himself, some-
VOL. r. 2D
402
times at the risque of his hfe, to rescue
these precious remains from the hands of
their cruel despoilers, in various parts of
the repubhc. He is now completing a work,
of which three octavo volumes are already
published, entitled, " Description historique
et chronologique des statues en marbre et
en bronze, bas-reliefs et tombeaux des
hommes et des femmes c^lebres, pour servir
a I'histoire de France, et a celle de TArt;
ornee des gravures, et augmentee d'une dis-
sertation sur les costumes de chaque siecle."
As I have already told you, I pay fre-
quent visits to this interesting museum : I
have the great pleasure of enjoying a fami-
liar acquaintance with Mons. and Madame
Lenoir: he admits me at all times to his
private apartments in the convent, and in-
dulges me with the inspection of his port-
folio, which contains his original drawings
of the bodies of kings, queens, prelates, ge-
nerals, and other distinguished personages,
as they appeared when taken from their
403
silent repositories at St. Denis, and exposed
to public view. Surely never was there a
spectacle more humiliating or distressing to
the feeling mind: they were coloured from
those sad wrecks of nature in their shrouds
and grave-clothes, and the general appear-
ance of the corpse when the coffins were
first opened. The pretence for this horrible
sacrilege was to convert the lead of which
they were made into musquet-balls, for
the revolutionary army.
On opening the coffin of Henry the
Fourth, the body was so well preserved,
that the features, and even the character of
his countenance, were strongly marked, as
were those of MareschalTurenne; two names
dear to France, and respected by the popu-
lace, at the very moment when the demon
of destruction was pouring out the severest
phials of his wrath. The body of the latter,
together with the monument erected to his
memory at St. Denis, saved by INIons. Le-
noir, were placed for some time in his mu-
404
seum, but afterwards removed to the Temple
of Mars; and a sarcophagus in these gar-
dens is inscribed to that renowned soldier.
In another sequestered grove is the chapel
and tomb of Abelard and Heloise: the
latter, indeed, is not yet placed in the gothic
mausoleum built for it of some elegant ma-
terials Vvhichhad been saved from the wreck
of St. Denis. Mons. Lenoir has displayed
great taste in the construction of this little
edifice, designed to be ornamented with
painted glass, suited to the period in which
they lived ; but how much or how little of
the real tomb at the Paraclete will be found
in this sepulchral asylum, 1 cannot say.
Mons. Lenoir shewed us some bones of these
two unfortunate lovers, preserved from the
chapel where they were both interred. Abe-
lard died in 1142, at the priory of St. Marcel
de Chalons; and a few months afterwards
his remains were removed to the Paraclete,
where Heloise survived liim twenty-one
years, and expiring in 1163, was placed in
405
the same coffin witli her husband : the bodies
were afterwards separated, and two monu-
ments erected to their memory. Not many
years before the revolution another cenotaph
was dedicated to these celebrated lovers in
the chapel of the Trinity at the Paraclete,
with the following inscription by Mar-
montel.
Hie
sub eodem marmore jacent
hujus monasterii
conditor Petrus Abelardus
et Abbatissa prima Heloisa.
Olim studiis, ingenio, amore, infaustis nuptiis
et penitentia
rjuiic aeterna, quod speramus, felicitate
conjunct i
Petrus obiit XX prima aprilis, anno 1142,
Heloisa XXII mai 1163.
Curis Carolae de Roucy Paraclete abbatissa.
What epitaph will be hereafter placed
in Mons. Lenoir's chapel I know not; but
every thing that is elegant, affecting, and
appropriate, is to be expected from his su-
perior taste and judgment.
A few evenings ago, when the moon was
406
at the full, Mons. Lenoir invited us to meet
the members of the National Institute on
their first visit to the sepulchral chambers
bj torch-light, and view the sculptures with
the solemn eftect produced by such a cir-
cumstance. We joined the party about
ten o'clock, and were introduced to several
literary characters and their ladies. The
company assembled in the hall, formerly
the chapel of the convent, and now richly
adorned with the choicest monuments: the
effect was very striking. Mons. Lenoir and
his attendants held the flambeaus, and by
throwing the light on the principal objects,
pointed out their beauties to his admiring
friends. I had seen the Laocoon, the Apollo,
and all the principal statues in the Vatican,
in the same manner; but this was altoge-
ther a more curious visit; for on the com-
pany entering each chamber, musicians, pre-
pared for the occasion, performed a funeral
dirge; wiiich, with the surrounding monu-
ments, the numerous torches, and all the
407
decorations of these sacred repositories,
filled my mind with indescribable sensa-
tions. On entering the gardens the torches
were extinguished, the moon shed her softer
light on the tombs, statues, and urns, dis-
persed among the cypress groves; and all
were delighted with the novelty of a scene
which formed so striking a contrast to the
general character of the Parisian spectacles.
I had the pleasure on this occasion of
being introduced to Bernardin de St. Pierre,
the amiable author of the " Sketches of Na-
ture," the affecting tale of Paul and Vir-
ginia, and other well known works: he is
now seventy-four years of age, a man of
great simplicity in his manners and exterior
appearance, with his silver locks carelessly
flowing over a countenance beaming with
the most expressive benignity. Healthy,
cheerful, and serene, all he utters indicates
the philanthropist, whose humane senti-
ments had so often filled my eyes with tears,
and my heart with dchght. He is a mem-
408
ber of the Institute, but not a favourite with
the present government, and hves very re-
tired in our Fauxbourg. He is married to
a young wife, who was of the party, and
endeavours to educate his children in the
same simphcity as his Paul and Virginia,
by whose names, as I have been informed,
they are respectively distinguished.
409
LETTER XL.
Paris, August l6, 1803.
Yesterday was the feast of the
Assumption, the birth-day of Bonaparte:
it was also the anniversary of the fete on
which the Concordat was signed, and the
first magistrate of the repubUc declared first
consul for life. The ceremonies and rejoic-
ings far exceeded those of the 14th of July ;
and if we are to take the speech of the Pre-
sident of the Tribunat as the sense of the
French people, in his address to the Chief
Consul, they must be supremely happy on
the occasion. " Dans cc jour, qui nous
est cher a tant des titres; dans ce jour A
jamais consacre en France, par la triple
epoque qui s'y lie, do voire naissance, de
notre reconciliation avcc le ciel, et de la
proclamation du consulat a vie."
410
The morning was ushered in by the ring-
ing of bells and firing of cannon, the churches
were all opened, and the religious ceremo-
nies at Notre Dame, with the music com-
posed for the occasion, were uncommonly
splendid : the consular family heard mass in
the chapel at the Thuilleries; at noon the
constituted authorities, foreign ambassadors,
and general officers, attended the consular
levee, and Madame Bonaparte's drawing-
room, to congratulate them on this auspi-
cious anniversary, and on their return from
Belgium. In the evening the palace and
gardens of the Thuilleries, and the pub-
lic offices in the city, were finely illumi-
nated, particularly that of the grand judge,
which is said to have cost an immense sum.
The gardens of the Thuilleries were very
much crowded, but without the least noise ;
and the First Consul, who with his family
appeared for a short time in a balcony, was
welcomed with some acclamations. The
martial music, and several songs redounding
411
to his glory, and prophetic of the pro-
jected invasion of England, were highly ap-
plauded.
Among the occurrences of this auspi-
cious day, the papers pompously announce
the launch of the first flat-bottomed boat,
built from the voluntary contributions of the
good citizens of Paris for that invasion : this
Bateau-Plat was named La Parisienne, and
is boasted to be the precursor of thousands
which are now constructing for the same
purpose in every department of the French
repubhc.
Another novelty to please the Parisians
was the opening of Le Mus6e des Statues
at the Louvre, which has been shut up for
some time to undergo various improve-
ments; tlie scaffolding in front was removed,
and over the new portal was inscribed in
golden characters, Musce Napoleon. This
portal opens with a good effect on a noble
suite of saloons all filled wilh statues, and
forming a beautiful perspective, terminated
412
by the Laocoon. The museums of statues
and pictures are very much improved, and
have received considerable additions : the
most valuable is the acquisition of the
Venus di Medici, which has been lately
brought from Italy, and being now under
the same roof with the Apollo Belvidere,
they present the finest models of the human
form with which art has hitherto adorned
the world. The Venus is a present from
the Chief Consul to the Museum; and I
have been to visit her in her new situation.
Alas ! I cannot forget that I have seen these
wonders of art at Rome and Florence ! The
French catalogue informs us that the Apollo,
after its destination in the Vatican by Pope
Julius the Second, remained for three cen-
turies near the banks of the Tiber, when a
hero, conducted by victory, transported it
to the borders of the Seine, and fixed it
there for ever ! So much for the Apollo. The
following is a paragraph of a letter, dated
3 Tliermidor, (July 22) an. 11, from Consul
413
Cainbaceres to Citoyen Denon, written
after his late visit to the new apartments of les
Musee des Statues. " Le titre, Citoyen, qui
convient le mieux a cette precieuse collec-
tion, est le nom du h^ros a qui nous la de-
vons. Je crois done exprimer le voeu na-
tional, en vous autorissant a donner pour
inscription a la frise qui domine la porle
d'entree, ces mots. Mush Napoleon" Je
vous salue. Cambaceres.
The adulation which, during the whole
summer, has been poured into the consular
palace from the various parts of France,
and especially from the dignified clergy, by
no means conveys the sense of the nation;
but, worn out with revolutions, weighed
down by an immense expence of blood and
treasure, and sick at heart from scenes of
carnage and terror, which, in a greater or
lesser degree, afflicted almost every family,
the French in my opinion dread any further
change; and, with whatever sentiments they
may look back to the mild and generous
414
monarch whom their resistless fury brought
to the scaffold, they apf>ear to wait, in a
state of hopeless indifference, any future ag-
grandizement of the Corsican family. In
the mean time what contradictoiy opinions
and actions do we behold! what a nation
of theory, speculation, and flattery, is this !
They pervade every department, civil, reli-
gious, political, and physical; from the de-
dication to Denon's Egypt, down to that
strange book, entitled, " Esai sur la Mega-
lanthropogenesie, ou Tart de faire des enfans
d'esprit, qui deviennent de grands hommes;''
a work replete with strange theories and un-
intelligible dogmas. After introducing Phi-
lip, Alexander, and other great names down
to Berthier and Portalis, he thus concludes
his first chapter, " et surtout, cette famille
immortelle, que Rousseau semble avoir pre-
dite, lorsqu'il dit qu'une petite ile etonnera
un jour le monde, suffit pour montrer que
les vertus, les talens, Tesprit et le genie bril-
lent, frequemment, dans les individus d'une
415
in^me famille/' And in the last chapter,
" Crojez-vous que la nature, qui est un si
grand peintre, n'eut pas trac6 sur les de Vol-
taire et de Rousseau, au berceau, fronts
Tempreinte du plus grand g6nie? Et La-
vater aurait-il pu meconnaitre dans Na-
poleon, encore enfant, la physionomie d'un
h6ros ? O Megalanthropogeneise ! c'est peut-
etre par toi que Tunivers sera un jour police.
Non, tu n'est point une idee foUe, tes bien-
faits sont encore inconnus; mais la poste-
rity les recueillira; et il sera toujours vrai
de dire avec Horace :
Fortes creantur fortibus, et bonis
Est in juvencis, est in equis patrum
Virtus, nee imbellem feroces
Progenerant aquilae columbam. Lib. 4, Od. 4.
416
LETTER XLI.
Paris, August 20, 1803.
I AM at length flattered with the
hope of obtaining permission to visit my
captive brother and his family at Tours; if
so, I shall feel myself half-free when we
have quitted the hot and fetid metropolis,
and are breathing the pure air of the forest
of FontainebleaUjOr enjoying delicious pros-
pects on the banks of the Loire.
As I am not permitted to sleep out of
Paris, we generally pass our evening in some
of the public gardens, with which it abounds.
Les Champs Elysees and the gardens of the
Thuilleries and Luxembourg, I have fre-
quently mentioned; but there are many
others open every evening to the gay Pari-
sians, which belong to private persons, who
have embellished them at a great expence,
417
and furnish their company with music,
dancing, tea, coffee, ices, sherbet, and other
refreshments, at a moderate price. We have
visited most of them in their turn, but Ti-
voli is our chief attraction: these gardens
are much frequented, and afford the greatest
variety of amusements: they are of some
extent, the trees well grown, the walks
tastefully illuminated, and the whole fre-
quently enlivened with fire-works. But the
principal delight of the French is to suiTound
the platform constructed for the dancers,
who sometimes amount to eighty or an hun-
dred couples. Tivoli formerly belonged to
one of the noblesse, who suffered during
the revolution, and his beautiful gardens
became FroprietS Nationale. Frescali, at
present the resort of all the beauty and
fashion of Paris, was also the property of a
wealthy nobleman: thither we frequently
repair, as it is one of the most elegant places
of public amusement I ever saw, particu-
larly on festival nights; when the gardens
are illuminated by thousands of coloured
VOL. I. 2 E
418
lamps, beautifully arranged on each side of
the principal walk, and dispersed among
the caverns, grottos, and groves, in the more
retired parts. Here it is usual for the best
company in Paris to assemble after the opera
and other spectacles are finished. The gar-
dens are illuminated at ten o'clock, the con-
cert begins at eleven, and is succeeded by
a beautiful display of fire- works. On our last
visit they represented the enchanted palace
of Armida, at the termination of the great
avenue, with such exquisite brilliancy as
to eiface every ray from the lamps, and to-
tally to obscure the moon and stars in their
full brightness. On common nights you
pay nothing for entering Frescati; the pro-
prietors being satisfied with their profit on
the refreshments.
On conducting the ladies from Armida's
palace to the carriage I lost my watch; and,
for ray satisfaction, was assured that eighty-
four of my countrymen had already met
with the same misfortune : at the same time
I must own that the police here is well re-
419
gulated, and the access to the theatres, and
every pubUc place of amusement, is free
from noise, riot, and inconvenience; but it
is also true that at most of the spectacles,
and even at many of their church festivals,
the entrance is strongly guarded by sol-
diers; who perfectly understand the art of
managing a Paris mob, and controuling the
excesses of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
The Hameau Chantilly, formerly called
TElysee, which is entered from the Elysian
fields, is a rural garden, resorted to by the
middle and lower classes, with rooms for
accommodation in rainy weather: the ad-
mittance is only one franc; for which you
have a variety of amusements, in music,
dancing, fire-works, and illuminations; with
a ticket entitling the bearer to a glass of
some cooling beverage.
We sometimes vary the scene at the
gardens in the upper part of the Elysian
fields, called les Eolies Beaujon; which differ
from the Hameau Chantilly ,Tivoli, andFrcs^
cati: eachhave their pecuHar beauties, but,for
420
my own part, I give these the preference : the
walks are shady and artless, the decorations
and conveniencies varied and appropriate;
the illuminations abundant, and disposed
with taste. The last time we Avere there,
the fire-works, assisted by mechanism and
scenery, represented the departure of Mentor
and Telemachus from the island of Calypso ;
in which were introduced the rocky cliffs
overhanging the ocean, where the vessel
destined for their embarkation rode tri-
umphant: the goddess and her nymphs then
appeared with flaming torches; which, with
a strong light, introduced at the same mo-
ment, displayed, with good effect, the grottos
and gardens of Calypso, who with her at-
tendants rushed furiously to the beach, and
burned the vessel; Mentor and Telemachus
instantly precipitate themselves from the
summit of the rocks into the sea; and the
scene concludes with a succession of fiery de-
vices. During the representation, I perceived
a large luminous body, far above the other
lights, and very different in its appearance ;
421
but supposing it to be part of the entertain-
ment, I took no further notice of it: the next
morning, however, the Paris papers contained
the following paragraph: " Hier, sur les dix
heures ct demie du soir, au moment m^me
ou partoit le bouquet du feu d artifice des
FoUes Beaujon, un globe de feu, d'une lu-
mi^re, eclatante et aussi gros que le disque
du soleil, a paru dans les airs: sa marche
etoit des plus rapides; il sortoit de ce globe
des etincelles mul tipliees/' The crowd at
this spectacle was immense, and the profits
of these gardens, and many of the other
amusements this summer, are frequently
appropriated to the construction of flat-
bottomed boats for the invasion of Eng-
land.
I shall conclude this subject with our last
visit to La Bagatelle in theBois de Boulogne,
a short league from Paris, and the Ranelagh.
Of the latter I have but little to say; if it is
intended to imitate the English amusement
of that name, it is a very humble imitation
indeed: an oval building of slight materials,
422
and fitted up in a shabby manner, covers a
large space for the accommodation of the
dancers, who assemble here every Sunday
and Thursday evening : it is surrounded
by seats for the spectators, who are glad,
on all occasions, to leave their hot and dirty
apartments in the capital, and repair by thou-
sands to these, and similar places of recrea-
tion. Ranelagh is always crowded with a
great mixture of company, who seem equally
pleased, young and old, rich and poor, those
who dance, and those who look on. Among
both I have observed several ladies in men's
clothes, and some with boots and breeches,
who strut about with as little timidity as
any of the sex they imitate. The only plau-
sible reason I can find for this singular cus-
tom, is, that it enables two single ladies to
go to public places without a gentleman to
protect them; and if they should wish to
dance, and cannot engage a more interest-
ing partner, by making this previous ar-
rangement, they are certain of enjoying
their favourite amusement. The gardens of
423
this place are small and trifling, but it is
situated near a delightful walk in the Bois
de Boulogne, about a quarter of a mile in
length, on a short verdant turf, and embo-
somed in thickets, which have a fine foresty
appearance. There are but few trees of
any size among the underwood and new
plantations, which have been made to re-
place the ravages on the timber by revolu-
tionary barbarism, when so many of the
woods and forests were destroyed.
In another part of the Bois de Boulogne,
not far from the Seine, and within view of
the beautiful bridge of Nieully, stands la
Bagatelle; a place formed for delight: it
was once a villa of the Count d'Artois, bro-
ther to Louis the Sixteenth, who having
obtained a grant of several acres of the
Bois de Boulogne, converted it into one of
the most elegant retreats in the vicinity of
Paris. The pavilion, though not large, is in
a light style of architecture, and the circular
saloon is crowned by a handsome dome:
this saloon, and all the surrounding apart-
424
ments, are fitted up with great taste ; but,
though the furniture and valuable ornaments
have been removed, enough remains to mark
its former splendour: the stables and de-
tached offices are in a correspondent taste ;
and the English garden is disposed in walks
conducted through clumps of large trees and
varied shrubberies, among small hills and
their associate vallies: but too many objects
are crowded in such a small space; and
lakes, cascades, fountains, rocks, caverns,
statues, temples, and hermitages, appear at
every turn. We were informed that the whole
was completed in the space of six weeks, to
surprise the queen, and that it cost three
millions of livres. How far it was possible
to erect such a house with its numerous
offices, and form the gardens, with all
their expensive decorations, in so short a
time, 1 am not competent to decide; but I
can scarce be astonished, that some change
should take place in the political constitution
of a country, where either the monarch him-
self, or any individual of his family, could
425
command the means employed on this
occasion. To give the promised rapidity
to the progress of this building, workmen
were seized in every place, without any
respect to their immediate employers; hewn
stones, and timber prepared for other pur-
poses, were instantly transported hither;
carts, horses, and labourers of every de-
scription, were taken from the fields and
highways, and compelled to work at la Ba-
gatelle. But, " sic transit gloria mundif
the princely founder of this superb villa is
now an emigrant in a foreign country, and
la Bagatelle, in a state of dilapidation, is
let by government to a restaurateur, who,
for a few sous, admits all comers, and gains
a livelihood by supplying them with re-
freshments.
To amuse the people seems a leading
principle of the French government, under
every varying form: it has therefore per-
mitted the revival of Long Champ, in the
Bois de Boulogne, which is an ancient
f^te in the month of April, when the trees
TOL. I. 2 F
426
are arrayed in vernal beauty: this festival,
which was forbidden during the revolution,
recommenced two years ago with every
effect that luxury and fashion could produce,
by the appearance of all the fashionables of
Paris, in the most splendid equipages, or
mounted on their favourite chargers; while
thousands of pedestrians in their best attire
fill the walks of the Bois de Boulogne and
Elysian fields, and add their portion to the
general effect.
There are spectacles at Paris to suit every
taste, and every purse : in the best you meet
with nothing to offend; in some of the
others, where the audience expect an oc-
casional obscenity, they are not disap-
pointed. The French comedy is generally
supposed to excel ours; but never can I
admit the superiority of their tragedy, or
acknowledge their best tragic performers to
rival those of the British stage. The tearful
eye, and throbbing heait, will support the
superior excellence of the latter.
I shall not enter on a comparative re-
427
view of the British and French theatres.
It must, however, be confessed, that the
French opera, considered as a mere arrange-
ment of spectacle, is superior to any thing
of the kind in Europe.
We went there, a few evenings since, to
see Hecuba and the Ballet of Telemachus,
and the concluding scene of the former ex-
ceeded every thing that I could suppose the
stage was capable of producing in point of
theatric effect. When Priam has been slain
before the altar, and while Hecuba, in a state
of dumb despair at her accumulated woes,
sees her daughter carried off by the Greeks,
the noise of rapine and pillage begins to be
heard. The walls of the palace, already a
prey to the flames, begin to fall, and, through
their gaping breaches, are discovered the dire
calamities of Troy. Its temples destroyed,
its palaces on fire, its matrons and its vir-
gins the prey of the spoiler and the ra-
visher; Cassandra, with dishevelled hair,
wildly running through the streets; jEncas,
bearing on his back his aged parent, and
428
leading the young Ascanius by his hand,
with the ill-fated Trojans making their last
unavailing efforts against the victorious
Greeks, presented a picture of woe and de-
solation, which far surpassed all that my
imagination had suggested of scenic re-
presentation.
The last time we visited the Theatre
Francois, the play was the Iphigenie en
Aulide; and the characters were very well
supported, particularly the Achilles of Tal-
ma, the first tragedian in France, which
afforded a very fine example of tragic act-
ing. The best performers, however, of the
French stage, in tragedy, too generally over-
step the modesty of nature; but the public
is pleased, and that circumstance alone,
though proceeding from a false taste, will
prevent any reformation in this branch of
the French drama.
ENTt OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
T. Bensley, Printer, |f"4
K»U Court, Fleet itrcet. l^ "
University of California
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| __label__neg | 0 | lettersfromfranc01forbiala | OL7112873M | OL16329738W | 454 | 1,806 |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 论理论期刊在促进和谐社会建设中的舆论导向功能
熊远培，李 艺
**军事经济学院襄樊分院学报编辑部'湖北襄阳441118**
**摘 要 论述了理论期刊作为党的侯舌、传播人文科学精粹的载体、宣传主流文化的阵地、倡导社会和谐的舆论工具，直接而广泛地影响着人们的思想行为，影响着经济、政治、文化和社会建设的进展。为达此目的，理论期刊编辑工作者必须从树立和落实科学发展观、构建社会主义和谐社会的战略高度，不断提高理论期刊引导社会舆论的能力，充分发挥理论期刊舆论引导在宣传党的主张、弘扬社会正气、通达社会民意、疏导公众情绪、化解社会矛盾中的重要作用，为维护改革发展稳定大局、构建社会主义和谐社会提供强有力的舆论支持。**
**关键词 理论期刊；舆论导向；和谐社会**
**中图分类号 G210 文献标识码 _A_ 文章编号 1003-8078201103-0001-02**
**收稿日期 _2011-04-5_ doi 10.3969/j. issn. 1003 -8078.2011.03.01**
**作者简介 熊远培，男，湖北仙桃人，副编审，主要从事教学管理和编辑学研究。**
**胡锦涛同志在党的十七大报告中指出甘“当今时代文化越来越成为民族凝聚力和创造力的重要源泉、越来越成为综合国力竞争的重要因素'丰富精神文化生活越来越成为我国人民的热切愿望。要坚持社会主义先进文化前进方向'兴起社会主义文化建设新高潮·激发全民族文化创造活力'提高国家文化软实力'使人民基本文化权益得到更好保障·使社会文化生活更加丰富多彩·使人民精神风貌更加昂扬向上。”一个民族的复兴·必然伴随着文化的繁荣一个国家的强盛'定然离不开文化的支撑。胡锦涛同志的重要论述为我国文化建设指明了方向。理论期刊作为文化产品的重要组成部分"其在推动社会主义和谐社会建设中的作用越来越凸显·加强理论期刊在推动和谐社会建设中功能的研究具有十分重要的现实意义。**
**构建社会主义和谐社会'是我们党从中国特色社会主义事业总体布局和全面建设小康社会全局出发提出的重大战略任务。所谓和谐就是指'运动中的平衡'差异中的协调·纷繁中的有序·多样性中的统一。构建和谐社会'经济是基础、政治是保障、文化是灵魂。文化如水'滋润万物·悄然无声·在实现社会和谐中有着不可替代的重要作用。和谐是一种文化境界'没有共同的理想信念·没有良好的道德规范·社会和谐就无法实现。和谐舆论是促成共识、凝聚人心的“胶合剂”和谐舆论是推动改革、促进发展的“助推器”和谐舆论是消气释怨、维护稳定的“减压阀”。”只有造就深层次的文化和谐'才能构筑充满活力、安定有序的社会和谐。构建和谐社会必须加强舆论引导工作'必须充分发挥理论期刊在舆论引导方面的重要作用。因此'理论期刊编辑工作者必须从树立和落实科学发展观、构建社会主义和谐社会的战略高度·不断**
**提高理论期刊引导社会舆论的能力'充分发挥理论期刊舆论引导在宣传党的主张、弘扬社会正气、通达社会民意、疏导公众情绪、化解社会矛盾中的重要作用·为维护改革发展稳定大局、构建社会主义和谐社会提供强有力的舆论支持。**
**一、主流舆论引导非主流舆论的功能**
**所谓主流舆论'就是那些反映社会本质和时代前进方向、反映最广大人民群众根本利益的舆论。当前'全面建设小康社会'实现共同富裕·构建公平、民主、正义的社会主义和谐社会'是我们这个时代的主流舆论'是时代的主旋律。用这一主旋律的舆论引导非主流的舆论'是理论期刊的重要职责。我们理论期刊既要用独家的见解、独到的思考、独特的视角透视和解析社会'又要时刻关注国事民生'对那些关乎国家命运、社会发展、人民利益等方面的重大事件·保持敏锐的洞察力和深刻的剖析力'同时还要真切的关注社会变化'真实地反映社情民意。通过对党和政府方针、政策的权威解读'对热点、难点问题的深入分析'对各种社会现象的理性阐释·为受众提供有价值的参考信息。当然·这种舆论的表达不应是口号式'而应是事实的表达'不应是单一利益需求的表达'而应是兼顾不同利益的合理需求的表达不应是简单化的目标激励式表达'而应是建立在对形势、对问题和困难的分析和对实现目标所应付出努力的表达。因为'当前我们面临的矛盾、困难、利益冲突相当复杂长期积累的问题很难即刻解决'因此'这种表达要少一点抽象'多一点实例少一点空洞'多一点细节少一点遥远'多一点贴近'少一点故弄玄虚'多一点有血有肉·使主流舆论可信、可学。**
**二、正向舆论对负向舆论的化解和引导功能**
**正向舆论就是全面反映客观事物的真实情况'反映客观规律·维护绝大多数人利益的社会意见·按照公众事务的内在联系解释客观世界·体现出对客观事物内在本质的认识与追求'对正义、先进的事业和思想总是给予支持、歌颂、肯定和赞许。反之'则给予尖锐的批判、否定和谴责。而负向舆论则是以偏见为主'以歪曲客观事物的真相为基础·以实现自主欲望为目的的舆论形态。正向舆论能有效地抑制社会的不和谐因素'不断激发效能因素·使政治文明、物质文明、精神文明沿着科学发展的轨道持续、快速前进'而负向舆论往往会产生破坏安定团结、涣散意志、动摇民心、腐蚀群众的不良影响。**
**一定的社会环境和社会形态'需要一定的舆论环境和舆论形态相适应。因此·理论工作者要高扬正面、正向舆论'以实事求是的态度和政治眼光'明察情势'时刻注意监管和净化公众舆论场'对于负向舆论要用事实、用真相、用规律说话·让负向舆论失去滋生的土壤。做到领会上情与摸清下情相统一·寻求最佳结合点。**
**由于思考问题的广度、观察事物的角度、把握全局的高度等诸多方面的不同·在政策制定与具体实施中·上面和下面会经常产生一些认识、观念上的差异。作为理论期刊的舆论导向·需要通过深入的调查和分析·吃透上情即对方针政策透彻理解'全面把握摸清下情即如何贯彻'落到实处。寻求最佳结合点就是做好上下结合的文章取得正向舆论引导最佳的宣传效果。正向舆论对负向舆论最有效的化解与引导办法就是反映客观事物不能一叶障目·只见其表不见其里·只见其果不问其因·就是要坚持正面、正向舆论为主的方针不动摇。**
**三、建设性的舆论引导破坏性的舆论的功能**
**当前'我国社会正处于转型期·一方面·社会结构与社会流动呈现出新的特点和趋势'出现了许多新的社会阶层、社会组织和群体·这必然导致利益格局的调整。**
**社会阶层的多样化和利益诉求的多元化'将是一个长期的历史过程。由于各种利益矛盾和冲突的对撞社会舆论异常激烈和复杂'一些情绪化、对抗性、破坏性的舆论时有发生。应当说·在各种利益相互对撞与冲突当中社会上出现一些这样的舆论亦属正常·但如果这种舆论得不到及时正确的引导·就会对社会产生某种破坏力。最有效的引导方法就是理论期刊要用建设性的舆论来化解和引导破坏性的舆论。建设性的舆论既是对社会舆论**
**意见的回应与疏导'也是对如何解决社会舆论掩映的问题所提出的建设性意见。因此建设性的舆论是对社会舆论的整合'是对合理意见的吸纳与反映·对不合理意见的疏导与消解。建设性的舆论不应回避问题与矛盾·恰恰应在正视存在的矛盾和问题上·以理性、建设性的态度来分析产生矛盾和问题的原因·探讨解决问题的途径。只有这样才能更好地理顺社会情绪·化解矛盾。**
**四、辩证、客观的舆论引导片面、极端的舆论的功能**
**对客观世界的认识有辩证与极端、客观与主观、全面与片面之分。不同的认识'舆论的指向不同'结论和结果也不会一样。当前'我国社会正处在发展的黄金期与矛盾的突显期同时并存的特殊时期·不同利益群体对各自所处的社会地位、社会分配的认识与对整个社会发展总体状况和发展方向以及应追求的总体价值目标认识之间的差距·必然会产生这样和那样代表各自利益需求的舆论倾向'这样的舆论倾向往往都不会是辨证和客观的'结论必然带有片面性。**
**经验告诉我们'任何片面、极端的舆论对社会发展与进步·对矛盾与问题的解决都是有害的。理论期刊在舆论引导中·必须把握和谐社会的本质·在舆论引导中防止片面和极端·必须明确·和谐社会并不意味着能够完全消除社会矛盾和社会问题。要建设一种能够不断解决矛盾和化解冲突的、动态的、长效的机制'一种能在矛盾运动中仍能保持和谐和快速发展的机制。因此'理论期刊要在宣传科学理论、传播先进文化、塑造美好心灵、弘扬社会正气等方面·发挥着主渠道作用'防止片面性引导和由此引发的社会舆论的对抗。**
**参考文献：**
**中** **胡锦涛.高举中国特色社会主义伟大旗帜为夺取全面建设小康社会新胜利而奋斗G.在中国共产党第十七次全国代表大会上的报告2007-10-15.**
**刘伯贤.略论和谐舆论与和谐社会建设中.学术论坛'2007(1).**
**申** **张举玺.论和谐舆论环境对构建和谐社会的作用中.河南师范大学学报《哲学社会科学版，20103).**
**(李鑫)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | James Schoolcraft Sherman (late vice president of the United States) Memorial addresses delivered at a joint session of the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United States February 15, 1913 and an account of the funeral services in Utica, N.Y., November 2, 1912
author: United States. Congress (62nd, 3rd session : 1912-1913); United States. Congress. Memorial addresses
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924018793566
JAMES SCHOOLCRAFT SHERMAN
JAMES SCHOOLCRAFT
SHERMAN
( Late Vice President of the United States )
MEMORIAL ADDRESSES
DELIVERED AT A JOINT SESSION OF THE SENATE
AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
OF THE UNITED STATES
FEBRUARY 15, 1913
AND
AN ACCOUNT OF THE FUNERAL SERVICES
IN UTICA, N.Y., NOVEMBER 2, 1912
PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON PRINTING
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OITICE
1913
S. Con. Res. No. 41, 62d Congress.
[Passed Mar. 1 (calendar day. Mar. 2), 1913.]
Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring). That there
shall be printed and hound, under the direction of the Joint Committee on
Printing, fourteen thousand one hundred copies of the proceedings and the
eulogies delivered in Congress on James Schoolcraft Sherman, late Vice Presi-
dent of the United States, with illustration, of which four thousand copies shall
be for the use of the Senate, eight thousand copies for the use of the House
of Representatives, two thousand copies for the use of the Senators and Repre-
sentatives of the State of New York, and one hundred copies, bound in full
morocco, for the use of Mrs. James Schoolcraft Sherman: Provided, That there
shall be included in such publication the proclamation of the President and
the proceedings in the Supreme Court of the United States upon the death of
Vice President Sherman, and an accotmt of the funeral services at Utica,
New Yorli.
Attest: Chables G, Bennett,
Secretary of the Senate.
Attest:
South Tbimble,
Clerk of the House of Representatives.
[2]
CONTENTS
Page.
Biography _. 4
Proclamation by the President 5
Proceedings in the Senate 7
Prayer by Rev. Ulysses G. B. Pierce, D. D 7, 22
Memorial addresses by — ';-->"> r ^- " \
Senator Root, of New York 25
Senator Martin, of Virginia 30
Senator Gallinger, of New Hampshire 33
Senator Thornton, of Louisiana 35
Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts 38
Senator Kern, of Indiana 43
Senator La Follette, of Wisconsin 47
Senator Williams, of Mississippi ,49
Senator Curtis, of Kansas 54
Senator Cummins, of Iowa 58
Senator Oliver, of Pennsylvania 61
Senator O'Gorman, of New York 63
The Speaker of the House of Representatives,
Champ Clark 66
The President of the United States, William
Howard Taft 70
Proceedings in the House 77
Prayer by Rev. Henry N. Couden, D. D 80
Proceedings in the Supreme Court of the United States 83
Proclamation by the Governor of the State of New York 84
Proceedings of the Utica (N, Y.) Common Council 85
Proclamation by the Mayor of the City of Utica, N. Y 88
Proceedings of the Philippine government — 89
Funeral services in Utica, N. Y., November 2, 1912 91
Address by Dr. M. Woolsey Stryker, President of
Hamilton College 101
Memorial services in Berlin 105
Tributes - 106
Condolences from foreign Governments 117
[3]
BIOGRAPHY
[Revised from last biographical sketch approved by Mr. Shebman for inser-
tion In the April, 1912, edition of the Congressional Directory, second session of
the Sixty-second Congress.]
James Schoolcraft Sherman, of Utica, N. Y., Vice President
of the United States from March 4, 1909, to October 30, 1912, was
born in the city of Utica October 24, 1855; his father, Richard U.
Sherman, also born in Oneida County, N. Y., was by profession
an editor and also prominent in public life. The son was gradu-
ated from Hamilton College in 1878; was a lawyer by profession,
but retired from practice in 1906; was married in 1881 to Carrie
Babcock, at East Orange, N. J.; three sons — Sherrill, Richard U.,
and Thomas M. — are living and in business at Utica; was presi-
dent of the Utica Trust & Deposit Co., of Utica, N. Y., and an
officer and director of various local business enterprises; was an
attendant of the Dutch Reformed Church and chairman of its
board of trustees; a graduate of Hamilton College, which college,
as well as Wesleyan University and Pittsburgh University, con-
ferred upon him the degree of LL, D. He was a member of the
Royal Arcanum and the Order of Elks. He was also a member
of all the local clubs at Utica; of the Union League, Republican,
and Transportation Clubs, of New York City; of the Metropolitan,
University, Chevy Chase, and Columbia Clubs, of Washington.
He had been active in Republican politics since 1879; was a fre-
quent delegate to State conventions, and presided over the New
York State Republican conventions in 1895, 1900, and 1908; was
delegate to the Republican national convention of 1892; vice
chairman of the Republican national congressional committee for
many years prior to 1906, in which year he was chairman of the
committee. He appeared upon the platform in various States in
every campaign from 1892 down to the year of his death; was
mayor of Utica in 1884 and a Member of Congress continuously
from 1886 to 1908, with a two-year interim from 1890 to 1892.
While in Congress he served on the Committees on the Judiciary,
the Census, Industrial Arts and Expositions, Interstate and For-
eign Commerce, Rules, and Indian Affairs, of which latter com-
mittee he was chairman for 14 years; was elected Vice President
upon the ticket with President Taft in 1908 for the term which
ended March 4, 1913. Renominated for Vice President by the
Republican convention in 1912. His last pubhc speech (Senate
Doc. 943, 62d Cong.) was made in Utica, August 21, 1912, when
he again accepted a place on the Republican ticket with President
Taft. Died in Utica, N. Y., October 30, 1912, and was buried in
Forest Hill Cemetery, Utica, November 2, 1912.
[4]
[DEATH OP VICE PRESIDENT SHERMAN.]
aSfi tbc iMcBlOcnt Of tbe 'mn(te& States of Smctlca
a proclamation
To the People of the United States:
James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United States,
died at his home in Utica, N. Y., at 9:42 o'clock on the evening of
October 30th, 1912. In his death the Nation has lost one of its most
illustrious citizens and one of its most eflBcient and faithful servants.
Elected at an early age to the mayorship of his native city, the con-
tinued confidence of his community was shown by his election for
ten terms as a Representative in the National Congress. As a legis-
lator he at once took and retained high rank and displayed such
attributes of upright and wise statesmanship as to commend him
to the people of the United States for the second highest oflSce within
their gift. As presiding officer of the Senate he won the respect and
esteem of , all for his fairness and impartiality. His private life was
noble and good. His genial disposition and attractiveness of char-
acter endeared him to all whose privilege it was to know him. His
devotion to the best interests of his native land will endear his
memory to his fellow countrymen.
In respect to the memory, and the eminent and various services
of this high official and patriotic public servant, I direct that on the
day of the funeral the Executive Offices of the United States shall
be closed and all posts and stations of the Army and Navy shall
display the national flag at half-mast, and that the representatives
of the United States in foreign countries shall pay appropriate
tribute to the illustrious dead for a period of thirty days.
%'a ^itnBSB ^IrerKof I have hereunto set my hand and caused
the Seal of the United States to be affixed.
Done at the City of Washington this thirty-first
day of October in the year of our Lord one thou-
[sEAL.] sand nine hundred and twelve and of the Inde-
pendence of the United States the one hundred
and thirty-seventh.
WM H TAFT
By the President:
A1.VCY A. AsES
A cling Secretary of State.
[No. 1322.]
[5]
DEATH OF HON. JAMES SCHOOLCRAFT SHERMAN
PROCEEDINGS IN THE SENATE
Monday, December 2, 1912.
The first Monday in December being the day prescribed
by the Constitution of the United States for the annual
meeting of Congress, the third session of the Sixty-second
Congress commenced on this day.
The Senate assembled in its Chamber at the Capitol.
Augustus O. Bacon, a Senator from the State of Georgia,
took the chair as President pro tempore under the order
of the Senate of August 17, 1912.
The President pro tempore called the Senate to order
at 12 o'clock noon.
The Chaplain, Rev. Ulysses G. B. Pierce, D. D., offered
the following prayer :
Almighty God, our heavenly Father, in whose presence
we now stand, we are come together in Thy name and to
do Thy will. At the opening of this session of Congress
we invoke Thy blessing. Without Thee we can do noth-
ing. Until Thou dost bless us, our highest wisdom is but
folly and our utmost strength but utter weakness. Be-
stow upon us, therefore, we humbly pray Thee, wisdom
and strength from above, that so we may glorify Thee,
accomplishing that which Thou givest us to do.
We come before Thee, our Father, with a deepened
sense of our dependence upon Thee. Thou hast made us
to know how frail we are. Thou hast showed us that the
[7]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
way of man is not in himself alone, and that it is not in
us who walk to direct our steps. Thou hast called from
his earthly labors Thy servant, the Vice President of our
Nation. While we thought it was still day Thou didst
cause the sun of his life to go down, bringing the night,
when no man can work. We murmur not nor repine,
our Father, knowing that alike the day and the night are
Thine. Thou hast taken from our side fellow laborers
and companions, leaving in this Senate empty seats and
in our hearts loneliness and sorrow. We can not forget
them, our Father, though in the flesh we behold their faces
no more. Thou hast removed from his post of duty an
officer of this body and has made us to know that in the
midst of life we are in death. Comfort our hearts, we
beseech Thee, for all our sorrows, and keep us evermore
in Thy love; and though Thou feed us with the bread of
adversity and give us to drink of the water of affliction,
yet take not from us Thy holy spirit.
We pray Thee to bless the President of the United
States. Uphold him by Thy power, watch over him by
Thy providence, guide him by Thy wisdom, and strengthen
him with Thy heavenly grace. Bless him who shall pre-
side over this Senate, bestowing upon him all things as
shall seem good unto Thee. For all who are in authority
we pray that they may serve Thee with singleness of pur-
pose, for the good of this people and for Thy glory.
So, our Father, may this session of Congress, begun in
Thy name, be continued in Thy fear and ended in Thine
honor. Grant us so to labor that by our deliberations we
may hasten the time when Thy kingdom shall come and
Thy will shall be done on earth as it is in heaven.
In the name which is above every name, hear our
prayer. Amen.
[8]
Proceedings in the Senate
DEATH OF THE VICE PRESIDENT
Mr. Root. Mr. President, with a deep sense of public
loss and of personal bereavement I discharge the duty
of announcing to the Senate that on the 30th day of Octo-
ber last, at his home in the city of Utica, James School-
craft Sherman, the Vice President of the United States,
departed this life.
His serene and cheerful temperament, inspired by love
of country and of his kind, will no more diffuse through
this body a sense of reasonableness, of friendliness, and
of kindly consideration. His faculty of swift and just
decision which has promoted and cleared the path of
public business in the Senate for the three years which
are past will no longer aid us in our deliberations.
I have the honor to offer the resolutions which I now
send to the desk.
The resolutions (S. Res. 390) were read, considered by
unanimous consent, and unanimously agreed to, as
follows :
Resolved, That the Senate has heard with profound sorrow and
regret the announcement of the death of James Schoolcraft
Sherman, late Vice President of the United States.
Resolved, That the Secretary communicate these resolutions to
the House of Representatives and transmit a copy thereof to the
family of the deceased.
The President pro tempore. In connection with the
announcement just made the Chair now lays before the
Senate a cablegram received from the Brazilian Senate
and the reply thereto, in order that the same may now
be read and become a part of the Record, and to be on
a later day given such disposition as the Senate may
direct
[9]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
The matter entire is as follows:
Rio de Janeiro, via Dakar,
Noviembre 6, 1912.
Sr. Presidente Senado,
Senate, Washington.
Cumpro dever communicar V. ex. que Senado Brasil sentido
vivamente morte eminente Sr. James Sherman, Vice Presidente
dessa grande Republica, deliberou inserir acta sens trabalhos voto
profundo pezar por esse doloroso acontecimento, e transmittir
Senado Americano sinceras condoleancias, o que em seu nome
faco por intermedio V. ex. a quem apresento minhas attenciosas
saudacoes.
Ferreira Chaves,
1" Secretario do Senado.
[Translation of cablegram.]
Rio DE Janeiro, via Dakar,
November 6, 1912.
President of the Senate,
Washington:
I perform the duty of informing Your Excellency that the
Senate of Brazil, keenly aiDicted by the death of the eminent Mr.
James Sherman, Vice President of your great Republic, has voted
to enter upon its journal a resolution of profound sympathy
in that sorrowful event and to transmit to the American Senate
sincere condolence, which I do in its name through Your Ex-
cellency, to whom I present my respectful salutations.
Ferreira Chaves,
First Secretary of the Senate.
[Cablegram.]
Washington, November 7, 1912.
To the President of the Brazilian Senate:
I have received your very considerate and cordial message of
sympathy, addressed to the American Senate, on the occasion of
the death of the late Vice President James Sherman.
The Senate of the United States is not now in session. So soon
as it convenes in December I will have the honor to lay before
that body your highly esteemed message. I beg, in the meantime.
[10]
Proceedings in the Senate
to thank your honorable body for its kindly consideration and
sympathy.
Augustus O. Bacon,
President of the Senate pro tempore.
INoTE. — The foregoing reply to the cablegram of the Brazilian Senate was,
upon the request of Senator Bacon, cabled to the American ambassador at
Brazil by the Acting Secretary of State, with directions for immediate delivery.]
Mr. CuLLOM. Mr. President, I desire as a further mark
of respect to offer the following resolution, and I ask for
its present consideration.
The resolution (S. Res. 393) was read, considered by
unanimous consent, and unanimously agreed to, as
follows :
Resolved, That as a further mark of respect to the memory of
the late Vice President James Schoolcraft Sherman and the late
Senators Weldon Brinton Heyburn and Isidor Rayner, whose
deaths have just been announced, the Senate do now adjcrurn.
Thereupon the Senate (at 12 o'clock and 22 minutes
p. m.) adjourned until to-morrow, Tuesday, December 3,
1912, at 11 o'clock a. m.
Wednesday, December 4, i912.
Mr. Poindexter. Mr. President, I present a series of
resolutions adopted by the people of the city of Olympia,
State of Washington, in commemoration of the late Vice
President. I ask that the resolutions may lie on the table
and be printed in the Record.
By unanimous consent, the resolutions were ordered to
lie on the table and to be printed in the Record, as follows :
Whereas death has removed from his earthly labors the Hon.
James Schoolcraft Sherman, late Vice President of the United
States; and
Whereas we realize that he represented the highest type of
American manhood, and that by his unwavering devotion to duty
as he saw it he deserved well of his country and the world : Now
therefore be it
Resolved by the people of the city of Olympia, Wash., and
vicinity, assembled without regard to political afflliations or
[11]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
beliefs, That we deplore the untimely death of Hon. James
Schoolcraft Sherman and deeply feel the loss that our Nation
has sustained, and that we extend to his stricken family the
heartfelt sympathy of this community; be it further
Resolved, That the chairman of this meeting, over his signature,
transmit a copy of these resolutions to the widow of our lamented
Vice President, a copy to the President of the United States, and
a copy to the Senators from the State of Washington, to be pre-
sented to the Senate of the United States.
The foregoing resolution was unanimously passed at an assem-
blage of the citizens of Olympia, Wash., held in the Capital Park
on Saturday, November 2, 1912.
Chas. D. King, Chairman.
Friday, December 13, 1912.
Mr. Root submitted the following resolution (S. Res.
408), which was read, considered by unanimous consent,
and unanimously agreed to :
Resolved, That the Senate of the United States acknowledges
with grateful appreciation the sympathy of the Senate of Brazil
in the loss suffered by the American Government and people in
the lamented death of Vice President Sherman; and it begs the
Senate of Brazil to accept the assurance of its most respectful
consideration and friendship.
The Secretary is directed to transmit a copy of this resolution
to the first secretary of the Senate of Brazil.
Saturday, January 11, 1913.
Mr. Root submitted the following resolution (S. Res.
426), which was read, considered by unanimous consent,
and agreed to :
Resolved, That the Committee on Rules be, and it is, directed
to report to the Senate an order for suitable ceremonies in the
Senate in honor of the memory of the late Vice President of the
United States, James S. Sherman.
Saturday, January 18, 1913.
Mr. Cummins. From the Committee on Rules, to which
was referred Senate resolution 426, directing the Com-
mittee on Rules to report an order for ceremonies in
[12]
Proceedings in the Senate
honor of the memory of the late Vice President James S.
Sherman, I report a resolution which I ask to have read
and referred to the Committee to Audit and Control the
Contingent Expenses of the Senate.
The resolution (S. Res. 435) was read and referred to
the Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Ex-
penses of the Senate, as follows :
Resolved, That Saturday, the 15th day of February, be set
apart for appropriate exercises in commemoration of the life,
character, and public service of the late James S. Sherman, Vice
President of the United States and President of the Senate of
the United States.
That a committee of three Senators, composed of Elihu Root,
James O'Gorman, and Charles Curtis, is hereby appointed with
full power to make all arrangements and publish a suitable pro-
gram for the aforesaid meeting of the Senate and to issue the
invitations hereinafter mentioned.
That invitations shall be extended to the President of the
United States, the members of the Cabinet, the Chief Justice and
Justices of the Supreme Court, the Speaker arid Members of the
House of Representatives, the judges of the Commerce Court, the
judges of the Court of Customs Appeals, the judges of the courts
of the District of Columbia, the officers of the Army and Navy
stationed in Washington, the members of the Interstate Commerce
Commission, the members of the Civil Service Commission. That
such other invitations shall be issued as to the said committee
shall seem best.
All expenses incurred by the committee in the execution of
this order shall be paid from the contingent fund of the Senate.
Monday, January 27, 19i3.
Mr. Briggs, from the Committee to Audit and Control
the Contingent Expenses of the Senate, to which was
referred Senate resolution No. 435, setting apart a day for
appropriate exercises in commemoration of the life,
character, and public services of the late Vice President,
submitted by Mr. Cummins on the 18th instant, reported
it without amendment.
[13]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
Tuesday, January 28, 1913.
Mr. Cummins. I ask unanimous consent for the present
consideration of Senate resolution 435, a resolution sub-
mitted by me and reported yesterday from the Committee
to Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the
Senate by the Senator from New Jersey [Mr. Briggs] .
There being no objection, the resolution was considered
and agreed to, as follows :
Resolved, That Saturday, the 15th day of February, be set apart
for appropriate exercises in commemoration of the life, character,
and public service of the late James S. Sherman, Vice President of
the United States and President of the Senate of the United States.
That a committee of three Senators, composed of Elihu Root,
James A. O'Gorman, and Charles Curtis, is hereby appointed, with
full power to make all arrangements and publish a suitable pro-
gram for the aforesaid meeting of the Senate, and to issue the
invitations hereinafter mentioned.
That invitations shall be extended to the President of the United
States, the members of the Cabinet, the Chief Justice and Justices
of the Supreme Court, the Speaker and Members of the House of
Representatives, the judges of the Commerce Court, the judges of
the Court of Customs Appeals, the judges of the courts of the
District of Columbia, the oflBcers of the Army and Navy stationed
in Washington, the members of the Interstate Commerce Commis-
sion, and the members of the Civil Service Commission. That
such other invitations shall be issued as to the said committee
shall seem best.
All expenses incurred by the committee in the execution of this
order shall be paid from the contingent fund of the Senate.
Wednesday, February 5, 1913.
Mr. Root submitted the following resolution (S. Res.
451), which was read, considered by unanimous consent,
and agreed to:
Resolved, That the Senate extend to the Speaker and the Mem-
bers of the House of Representatives an invitation to attend the
exercises in commemoration of the life, character, and public
services of the late James S. Sherman, Vice President of the
[14]
Proceedings in the Senate
United States and President of the Senate, to be held in the Senate
Chamber on Saturday, the 15th day of February next at 12 o'clock
noon.
Friday, February 7, 1913.
A message from the House of Representatives, by J. C.
South, its Chief Clerk, announced that the House accepts
the invitation of the Senate extended to the Speaker and
Members of the House of Representatives to attend the
exercises in commemoration of the life, character, and
public services of the late James S. Sherman, Vice Presi-
dent of the United States and President of the Senate, to
be held in the Senate Chamber on Saturday, the 15th day
of February next, at 12 o'clock noon.
[15]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
[INVITATION]
<^Aet/ena^€/me (Im^^yia/le^
i^eeed^ ^^xt^ /me&ence at me
^er£m4)^m€A m Acmcm o/me 'mem/O^y^
€^ me (a^
%mi€^ t/€m<)W)<€m\j^
yicer:yi'eU(ie7iio/me llmleaC/tci^,
Id 6e nem in me C^enale ^AoMiee^,
on C/<itm'4;lcm, me ^^ 0/ ^emuar^, /^/<3?,
atlwei'm cwck nocn.
[16]
Proceedings in the Senate
[PROGRAM]
93436°— 13 2 [17]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
ORDER OF EXERCISES
PRESIDENT PRO TEMPORE CALLS THE SENATE TO ORDER AT
12 O'CLOCK NOON.
PRESIDENT DIRECTS THE SECRETARY TO READ, AND THE SECRE-
TARY READS, THE FOLLOWING RESOLUTION GOVERNING
THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE DAY:
"RESOLVED, THAT SATURDAY. THE I5TH DAY OF FEB-
RUARY, BE SET APART FOR APPROPRIATE EXERCISES IN
COMMEMORATION OF THE LIFE, CHARACTER, AND PUBLIC
SERVICE OF THE LATE JAMES S. SHERMAN, VICE PRESI-
DENT OF THE UNITED STATES AND PRESIDENT OF THE
SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES."
SERGEANT AT ARMS ANNOUNCES THE SPEAKER AND MEMBERS
OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.
SERGEANT AT ARMS ANNOUNCES THE CHIEF JUSTICE AND ASSO-
CIATE JUSTICES OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED
STATES.
SERGEANT AT ARMS ANNOUNCES THE AMBASSADORS AND MIN-
ISTERS PLENIPOTENTIARY TO THE UNITED STATES.
SERGEANT AT ARMS ANNOUNCES THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED
STATES AND MEMBERS OF HIS CABINET.
[18]
Proceedings in the Senate
ALL HAVING BEEN SEATED, THE CEREMONIES OF THIS OCCA-
SION WILL BE OPENED BY PRAYER BY THE CHAPLAIN OF
THE SENATE.
THE PRESIDENT OF THE SENATE RECOGNIZES THE SENATORS
WHO ARE TO SPEAK IN THE FOLLOWING ORDER:
Mr. ROOT
Mr. MARTIN
Mr. GALLINGER
Mr. THORNTON
Mr. LODGE
Mr. kern
Mr. la FOLLETTE
Mr. WILLIAMS
Mr. CURTIS
Mr. CUMMINS
MR. OLIVER
Mr. O'GORMAN
THE PRESIDENT OF THE SENATE RECOGNIZES THE SPEAKER OF
THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES.
THE PRESIDENT OF THE SENATE RECOGNIZES THE PRESIDENT
OF THE UNITED STATES.
THE PRESIDENT OF THE SENATE RECOGNIZES SENATOR ROOT,
WHO MOVES ADJOURNMENT.
[19]
MEMORIAL EXERCISES
Saturday, February 15, 1913.
{Legislative day of Tuesday, February 11, 1913.)
The Senate reassembled at 12 o'clock meridian, on the
expiration of the recess.
The President pro tempore (Augustus O. Bacon) called
the Senate to order and directed the Secretary to read the
resolution of the Senate adopted on the 28th of January
last.
The Secretary (Charles G. Bennett) read the resolution,
as follows :
Resolved, That Saturday, the 15th day of February, be set
apart for appropriate exercises in commemoration of the life,
character, and public service of the late James S. Sherman, Vice
President of the United States and President of the Senate of the
United States.
The President pro tempore. The Senate is now in ses-
sion for the purposes of this resolution.
At 12 o'clock and 3 minutes p. m. the Sergeant at Arms
(E. L. Cornelius) announced the Speaker and Members
of the House of Representatives of the United States.
The Speaker was escorted to a seat on the left of the
President pro tempore, and the Members of the House of
Representatives, the Clerk, Sergeant at Arms, and Chap-
lain of the House occupied the seats assigned them.
At 12 o'clock and 6 minutes p. m. the Sergeant at Arms
announced the Chief Justice of the United States and the
Associate Justices of the- Supreme Court of the United
[21]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
States, who were conducted to the seats provided for them
in the area in front of the Secretary's desk.
At 12 o'clock and 8 minutes p. m. the Sergeant at Arms
announced the ambassadors and ministers plenipoten-
tiary from foreign countries to the United States, and
they were conducted to the seats assigned them.
At 12 o'clock and 10 minutes p. m. the Sergeant at Arms
announced the President of the United States and the
members of his Cabinet, who were escorted to the seats
provided for them in the space in front of the Secretary's
desk.
The other invited guests, the judges of the Commerce
Court, the judges of the Court of Customs Appeals, the
judges of the courts of the District of Columbia, the offi-
cers of the Army and Navy stationed in Washington, the
members of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and
the members of the Civil Service Commission, occupied
seats on the floor of the Senate.
The President pro tempore. Prayer will now be offered
by the Chaplain of the Senate.
The Chaplain of the Senate, Rev. Ulysses G. B. Pierce,
D. D., offered the following prayer :
Almighty God, our heavenly Father, Thou hast been our
dwelling place in all generations. Before the mountains
were brought forth, or ever Thou hadst formed the earth
and the world, even from everlasting to everlasting. Thou
art God. We thank Thee, O Holy One, that in a world of
fleeting change and where naught abides we can take ref-
uge in Thee who inhabitest eternity. Because Thou art
so great, and for that Thy years have no end, therefore
canst Thou stoop even to us who seem but children of a
day. Bend over us now, we beseech Thee, and for our
weakness give Thou us of Thy strength, and in the dark-
ness of our sorrow bid the light of Thy Holy Spirit to
shine upon us.
[22]
Proceedings in the Senate
Thou knowest all, our Father, and because Thou know-
est Thou canst help. Thou knowest how weak and frail
we are. Therefore we look unto Thee, who art Lord alike
of life and of death. To Thine unfailing compassion we
turn, even to Thee, who dost note Thy children's pain and
sorrow. We bring to Thee our empty hearts, our loneli-
ness, our pain, and lay them at Thy feet. If we drop a
tear, it is not because we doubt Thee or because we mur-
mur at Thy will, but because of the great love we bear to
him whom Thou hast called from our visible presence
and whom we this day mourn. In Thy name we conse-
crate this day to him.
Thou hast taken from us, our Father, the Vice President
of this Nation and the President of this Senate. As we
record the greatness of our loss and faintly utter our trib-
utes of love and honor, aid Thou us. Touch Thou our
lips, we pray Thee, that the measure of our hearts' affec-
tion may find utterance this day. Inspire our minds, and
by Thy Holy Spirit quicken our remembrance, that the
life which Thou hast taken from us may live before us
as he lives before Thee.
O Thou who art the Giver of every good and perfect
gift, sincere and fervent thanks we render unto Thee for
the life, the character, and the public service of Thy serv-
ant, the Vice President of the United States. For the
fruitage of his labors, for the blessed and unfading mem-
ory of his life, for these, our Father, we thank Thee more
than our lips can say. And now, that Thou hast called
Thy servant to Thy nearer presence and to Thy higher
service, we yield him to Thy love and keeping. May his
soul rest in peace !
We commend to Thee, most merciful Father, the hearts
made desolate by this loss. Let the light of Thy counte-
nance dispel the grief and gloom of the home where Thy
servant was wont to dwell. Comfort, we pray Thee, the
[23]
Memorial Addbesses: Vice President Sherman
wife and family as we, alas, can not do. Touch their
hearts with Thy love and heal their wounds. Though
Thou leadest them through the valley of the shadow of
death, may they fear no evil. Let the rod of Thy faith-
fulness and the staff of Thy loving-kindness comfort them.
Give unto them beauty for ashes, the oil of joy for mourn-
ing, and the garment of praise for the spirit of heaviness.
Graciously grant that neither life with its burdens nor
death with its sorrows may be able to separate them from
the love of God which is in Christ Jesus our Lord.
And now may God our Father, who hast loved us with
an everlasting love and called us into His eternal kingdom
in Christ, comfort our hearts and stablish them in every
good word and in every good work. Unto Him be glory
and honor, dominion and power, now and forevermore.
Amen.
The President pro tempore. For the purposes of this
commemoration a certain order of exercises has been
adopted, in pursuance of which there will be addresses
made by Senators and some of the guests on this occasion.
The Chair now recognizes the senior Senator from New
York [Mr. Root].
[24]
MEMORIAL ADDRESSES
Address of Senator Root, of New York
Mr. President : Vice President Sherman was bom in the
city of Utica, on the banks of the Mohawk, on the 24th of
October, 1855. He came of English stock. His father,
Richard U. Sherman, was a native of the same county
and was one of its well-known and esteemed citizens.
His grandfather, Willett Sherman, was one of the early
settlers upon the lands relinquished by the Oneida
Indians toward the close of the eighteenth century, and he
was one of the first manufacturers of central New York.
The grandson was graduated from Hamilton College in
the class of 1878. He was admitted to the bar in 1880 and
became a successful lawyer. In 1884 he was made mayor
of his native city. In 1886 he was chosen by the people
of the great manufacturing region of the upper Mohawk
to represent them in the Fiftieth Congress, and for more
than 20 years he continued to represent them with but
one break in his continuous service through reelection to
the Fifty-first, Fifty-third, Fifty-fourth, Fifty-fifth, Fifty-
sixth, Fifty-seventh, Fifty-eighth, Fifty-ninth, and Sixtieth
Congresses. He became a potent factor in the House of
Representatives. He was an active member of the Com-
mittee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce; he was
chairman of the Committee on Indian Affairs; and he
was long a member of the Committee on Rules, one of
that little group of three constituting a majority of the
committee, who, under the former rules of the House,
guided the course of legislation and accomplished the
[25]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
nearest approach to responsible parliamentary govern-
ment which this country has ever seen. Through frequent
designation as Chairman to preside over the House sitting
in Committee of the Whole, where so great a part of the
business of the House is done, he gradually rose to general
recognition as a parliamentarian of the first order and a
presiding officer of the highest effectiveness. In his own
city, as the years passed, evidences accumulated of the
respect and confidence in which a community so rarely
errs while it renders unpremeditated judgment upon the
character of one known through the contact and observa-
tion of daily life. He was made treasurer of his church,
the Dutch Reformed Church, of Utica, and chairman of
its board of trustees. He was chosen to be president of
the Utica Trust & Deposit Co. He was made a trustee of
his alma mater and a member of the executive com-
mittee of its board of trustees. Children grew up about
him and the wife of his youth, in a home where virtue,
family affection, cheerfulness, honor, and obedience ruled.
It was one of those homes which, indefinitely multiplied
among a people, are the safe foundations of just and free
self-government, and sure guaranties of the future in a
republic. From near and far throughout that region the
unfortunate and struggling learned to come to him, their
Representative, and his kindness and ready sympathy
never failed them. No trouble of another was ever too
great or too small to command his attention. His patience
under such demands was never worn out. His willing-
ness to take trouble for others was never overtaxed. In
the feelings of his people grateful appreciation of the
poor and humble for his kindly service was mingled with
general pride in the honor of his representation and of
his citizenship.
The long and distinguished career as a Representative
in Congress was brought to a close by Mr. Sherman's elec-
[26]
Address of Senator Root, of New York
tion to the Vice Presidency in November, 1908. He was
renominated by his party for the same high office in 1912,
but a fatal malady already had been established, and
before the election, at his home in Utica, on the 30th of
October, 1912, his earthly course came to its end.
Senators know, but few outside of the Senate fully
appreciate, how great a service he rendered as presiding
oflBcer in this Chamber during the three and one-half
years which followed the inauguration of March, 1909.
Only experience can give a full understanding of the diffi-
culties of legislation, the obstacles to progress in legisla-
tive business presented by the persistent advocacy of a
multitude of varying opinions, and the impossibility of
wise and judicious consideration when feelings are exas-
perated and personal prejudices and antipathies are ex-
cited. Only through experience can one learn how much
the success of legislative consideration depends upon the
spirit which pervades the legislative chamber, and how
much depends upon the firm and intelligent application
of those rules of procedure which the experience of cen-
turies has shown to be necessary in the conduct of legis-
lation. During all the years in which Vice President
Sherman presided over the Senate we felt the calming
and steadying effect of a serene and potent presence in
the chair. The justice of his rulings was the product not
merely of intellectual integrity, but also of essential kind-
liness of feeling and consideration. Not only the rulings
were fair, but the man was fair. He was strong and self-
possessed and untroubled, with a gentle and delicate sense
of humor subdued to the proprieties of the place, with
swift certainty of conclusion, founded upon knowledge
and accurate thinking, carrying conviction and making
acquiescence natural. He expedited business by always
doing promptly the right thing without vacillation or de-
lay. In the rare instances when he found himself mis-
[27]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
taken, prompt acknowledgment and reparation were ac-
corded with such frank sincerity that the sufferer by the
mistake felt himself the gainer. He was positive without
dogmatism; certain without personal overconfidence. He
controlled procedure under the rules without making
them the instruments of irritation or oppression, and
without sacrificing the spirit to the letter. Senators of all
parties became his friends. All lamented his untimely
death, and all join here in doing honor to his memory.
All associated action among men exhibits an inevitable
conflict between the idea of combined efficiency and the
idea of individual freedom. Neither can prevail without
some sacrifice of the other. The difference is tempera-
mental, and the two types of character are hard to recon-
cile and are prone to misjudgment, each of the other.
Mr. Sherman was of the type which seeks efficiency by
the law of its nature. His instincts were for order, disci-
pline, intelligent direction, voluntary subordination to a
common purpose, definite conclusions, achievement. So
in politics, from first to last, he was always for party
organization and party responsibility. In the House he
was always for the most effective rules of procedure, and
as a parliamentary presiding officer he naturally made the
application of parliamentary rules a means of progress
rather than an obstacle. His character exhibited in high
degree the virtues of his type. He had the capacity for
sympathetic appreciation of the feelings and motives of
others which makes associated action easy. He had a
genius for friendship which conciliated affection and dis-
armed enmity. He thought much of the common cause
in which he was enlisted and little of his own advantage ;
much of general success and little of personal advance-
ment. He was modest and unassuming — ^never vaunted
himself or pressed himself forward. He never sought the
spotlight on the public stage. He was free from the ex-
[28]
Address of Senator Root, of New York
aggerated egoism which has wrecked so many fair causes.
He had the unselfishness and self-control to obey where
others rightly led, and he had the clearness of intelligence,
the force of personality, and the decision of character to
lead, so that others might follow. He was simple and
direct in thought and action. He was frank and truthful
and entirely free from that cowardice which breeds de-
ception. He had naturally an unconscious courage which
needed no screwing up to the sticking point. Among all
the multitude who have known him, in boyhood and in
manhood, in private and in public, not one can recall a
mean or ignoble or cruel or deceitful word or act on his
part. He was sincere in his beliefs, he was faithful to
his word, he was steadfast in his friendships, he was loyal
to every cause that he espoused. His life made men
happier; his example is making men better. His service
will endure in the fabric of our institutions.
In this Republic, unlike many nations which enjoy con-
stitutional government, we grant no titles of nobility and
no decorations for honor. As public servants complete
their work and pass from the stage of action the judg-
ment of their contemporaries finds no such definite means
of expression, and so we have come here to-day to render
in this ceremony the verdict of our generation upon the
private virtues and the public service of James School-
craft Sherman. The Senate and the House of Represent-
atives, the Chief Justice and the Associate Justices of the
Supreme Court, the ambassadors and ministers pf foreign
powers, the President and his Cabinet, the civil and mili-
tary and naval officers of the Nation, a multitude of
friends who knew him and of countrymen who knew him
not, join here to set in the archives of our Government a
record of honor which will remain so long as the Nation
he served so well endures.
[29]
Address of Senator Martin, of Virginia
Mr. President: To an orator or an essayist the aspira-
tions, achievements, and character of the late Vice Presi-
dent Sherman would furnish a theme big enough and
broad enough to invite and justify an effort of the most
philosophic and ambitious proportions. My time, oppor-
tunity, and humble abilities have not tempted me to
undertake to offer to the Senate to-day anything on that
plane. My only desire is very briefly and in plain and
simple words to pay some tribute to the memory of a per-
sonal friend, a patriotic citizen, and an able and upright
public officer.
I knew Vice President Sherman chiefly in his relations
to the Senate as its presiding officer and in his relations
with Senators in his daily contact and association with
them. He was elected Vice President of the United States
on the 3d day of November, 1908. He took the oath of
office and entered upon the discharge of his duties on
the 4th day of March, 1909. On that day he first presided
over the Senate. The last day on which he presided over
the Senate was the 12th day of June, 1912, at which time
a serious illness compelled him to discontinue his active
work and go to his home at Utica, N. Y., where on the
30th day of October, 1912, he departed this life.
Between the 4th day of March, 1909, and the 12th day
of June, 1912, a period of three years and more than three
months, he was rarely absent from his post of duty in the
Senate. During that period I can say with perfect safety
that no one heard from him, either from the chair as the
presiding officer of the Senate or in his association with
Senators, a harsh, unkind, unjust, or unpleasant word.
[30]
Address of Senator Martin, of "Virginia
The Senate during my 18 years of service in the body has
been fortunate in its presiding officers, but in no instance,
either of a Vice President or a President pro tempore, has
the body been honored with an abler, more courteous, or
more impartial presiding officer than Vice President
Sherman. He was as just and as fair to one side of the
Chamber as to the other. He was as courteous, consider-
ate, and as just to the Democrats as he was to the most con-
spicuous and able Republicans in the body. He was by
training and conviction a Republican in politics; he was
always loyal to his party. He was by nature a partisan.
I have no doubt I am as intense a partisan as he was, and
I trust I am as devoted to the Democratic Party as he was
to the Republican Party; but, Mr. President, in the Senate
there is much less of politics than is generally supposed
to exist.
In respect to questions essentially political in their
nature Senators divide on political lines, but questions of
that character constitute only a very small per cent of the
questions which come before the Senate; and in defining
questions essentially and properly political I would limit
them to questions in respect to which Senators form their
opinions in accordance vdth their convictions as to the
policies in their judgment most promotive of the public
welfare. In the Senate rarely, if ever, are questions
treated as political questions with a view to gaining
political advantages for the one party or the other. From
my experience and observation in the Senate I can say I
have found very little disposition on either side of the
Chamber to deal with public questions with a view to
party advantage rather than with a view to the public
welfare. From this broad and patriotic point of view the
late Vice President Sherman was a partisan in respect to
questions essentially and properly of a political nature.
So long as men adhere to this patriotic and honorable
line of division on political questions politics does not
[31]
MemoHial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
and can not interfere with cordial personal relations or
lead to unjust, unfair, or partial rulings from the chair.
A partisan only in this higher and nobler sense, and
actuated only by patriotic motives, it was inevitable that
the official rulings of Vice President Sherman from the
chair would always bear the impress of honest conviction
and intelligent consideration and command the respect of
Senators on both sides of the Chamber.
As his rulings were impartial as between the two politi-
cal parties in the Senate, so his personal friendships were
not confined to the members of either one of the political
parties. He was my personal friend. My associations
with him constitute one of the most pleasing features of
my public life. He enjoyed to the fullest extent the con-
fidence and esteem of the Democrats as well as of the
Republicans of the Senate, and with many of them he was
on terms of the closest friendship. Democrats consulted
and advised with him as freely as the Republicans did.
There was no sham or hypocrisy in his character. In his
personal association with Senators he was always frank,
cordial, and courteous. In the conduct of the business
of the Senate he was attentive, vigilant, just, and able.
He was a careful student of parliamentary law, and in
his rulings rarely, if ever, erred; but whether he erred or
not, there was never an occasion during his official life
in the Senate when any Senator questioned his fidelity of
purpose or his careful consideration of any question pre-
sented to him or his earnest desire to dispose of it cor-
rectly and justly.
His death brought the deepest sorrow to every Mem-
ber of this body. In the official business of the Senate he
has been missed more than words can reasonably express.
The country at large has lost one of its noblest citizens
and a public officer of the highest ideals, devoted to the
faithful discharge of every duty devolved upon him.
[32]
Address of Senator Gallinger, of New Hampshire
Mr. President: When on a certain occasion the late
Vice President called me to the desk, saying that he felt
ill, and asked me to take the chair for the remainder of
the day, he added, with pathos in his voice, " I am not at
all sure how long I shall be able to continue to preside
over the Senate." He then told me something of his fears,
and as he left the Chamber my heart sank, and what fol-
lowed a little later was not a matter of complete surprise
to me. As was his custom in emergencies, Mr. Sherman
made a brave fight against the disease that had fastened
itself upon him, and only surrendered when poor, weak
human nature succumbed to the inevitable.
James Schoolcraft Sherman was a strong type of the
best in our public life. He was an intelligent legislator,
an ideal presiding officer, a powerful debater, and an
orator of acknowledged ability. He was a good friend,
a charming companion, and a loving husband and father,
whose popularity was nation-wide. His death was a
shock not only to his countrymen, but beyond our borders
it was felt as a calamity. He died as serenely and bravely
as he lived.
Mr. President, the predominant note in Mr. Sherman's
life was geniality and good nature. From him radiated a
sweetness and tenderness that were contagious. No one
came in contact with him without feeling the influence of
a pure, generous, lovable soul. He was kind to animals,
fond of sports, and a lover of nature. In good literature
he found great pleasure, and in the study of economic
questions he took special delight.
93436°— 13 3 [33]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
In both Houses of Congress Mr. Sherman was univer-
sally liked, and in every relation of life he was honored
and respected. We sadly miss him from this Chamber,
where he was held in highest esteem by the entire mem-
bership. While a strong party man, he was free from
narrow partisanship. He was in the truest sense a pa-
triot, loving his country and its institutions, and devoted
to the happiness and welfare of all classes of its people.
He was broad-minded and large-hearted, incapable of a
meanness, and filled with sympathy and love for his fel-
lows. Such a life surely did not end when death came.
Rather let us believe that it was the beginning of a higher
and better existence, and that the earthly activities of our
friend were but the prelude to a life of greater beauty, of
grander aspirations, and of nobler achievements. In the
contemplation of the great mystery that surrounds death
and immortality, which no one, however wise, can fully
interpret, we may well exclaim :
Shall I say that what heaven gave
Earth has taken?
Or that sleepers in the grave
Reawaken?
One sole sentence can I know.
Can I say:
You, my comrade, had to go,
I to stay.
And so, Mr. President, to this brief and inadequate trib-
ute to a dear friend, whose memory will always be lov-
ingly treasured in my heart of hearts, I can but add the
simple word " adieu."
[34]
Address of Senator Thornton, of Louisiana
Mr. President: It is to me a source of mingled sorrow
and pleasure to have been asked to speak on this occasion.
Of sorrow, because it brings freshly to my mind the
thought of the loss of him whose memory we are as-
sembled to honor, and of pleasure because of the oppor-
tunity given me to add my short tribute of respect and
affection to the fuller tributes placed on the altar of his
memory this day.
It was not my good fortune to know him as long as did
others who have preceded or will follow me, but I shall
ever esteem it fortunate for me that I knew him at all.
My acquaintance with Mr. Sherman only dated from
my entrance into the Senate in 1910, yet in the time that
I knew him I learned to love him because of his sweet
spirit, his gracious demeanor, his kindly consideration,
coupled with the fine sense of humor that added to the
charm of his personality and made his companionship so
agreeable.
These were the traits of character that won my heart
soon after we met and held it to the end.
And it is not on the statesman, the Congressman, the
presiding officer of the Senate, or the Vice President of
the United States that my mind lovingly dwells, but on
the lovable man.
And I do not know how better to illustrate these win-
ning qualities I have mentioned and the recognition by
others of their exercise than by relating an incident in
which he and I were the actors and the comment of a
third party thereon.
[35]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
He was not presiding over the Senate on the morning I
was sworn in, and I did not meet him for four days there-
after. Then he came to my seat and, with that pleasant
smile we all so well remember, said : " Senator, I have
not had the opportunity of making your acquaintance, but
I wish now to introduce myself and so say that I welcome
you to the Senate and hope your stay with us will be
always agreeable and pleasant to you."
And after a moment of pleasant chat he left, taking a
part of my heart with him.
About a day after this little incident, one of my Demo-
cratic friends from the House of Representatives, who
had seen long service in that body with Mr. Sherman
and was on intimate personal terms with him, came over
to the Senate and sat down by me and said : " Have you
met my friend, Jim Sherman, yet?" Then I told him of
the incident of the previous day and of how much' I had
appreciated the gracious action, and his comment was:
" Now is not that exactly like Jim Sherman ! "
This was the beginning of my acquaintance with him,
this the first of the many acts of kindness shown me by
him during the two years that followed until death stayed
the hand always so ready to be uplifted for the help of
others.
And so it was that I learned to love him while he was
here, and so it is that I shall love his memory since he
has gone.
And I am sure that my experience with him is that of
all with whom he came in contact, for he was filled with
the spirit of kindness toward others, and many there are
besides myself who loved him living and mourn him
dead. And if the beautiful dream of the poet be true,
that on the roll of the book of gold hereafter the names
of those who loved their fellow men shall be first in-
scribed, then will his name be found high up on the list.
[36]
Address of Senator Thornton, of Louisiana
We will no more see the winning ^mile, no more feel
the cordial hand grasp, no more receive the acts of kindly
sympathy, but the memory of it all will remain with us
and make us feel thankful that we knew one whose im-
pulses through life prompted his conduct toward others to
the end that he might contribute to their happiness.
[37]
Address of Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts
Mr. President: The tie which binds those who have
been long together in the public service is apt to grow
very close as the years glide by. Mr. Sherman and I,, as
it chanced, began our congressional life at the same time,
in the Fiftieth Congress, 26 years ago. Except for two
years, when he was out of the House for one term, we
have been together ever since. He remained in the
House, was one of its most trusted leaders and most effi-
cient Members. During all those years I saw him con-
stantly, and it was with peculiar pleasure that, as the
president of the convention, I declared his nomination
as the Republican candidate for the Vice Presidency in
1908. His service here in the high office to which he was
chosen is so recent that it is as fresh in our minds as the
grief we have all felt for his untimely death. I say
" untimely," for he was still far from the chilling pre-
cincts of old age, and any death is premature which
strikes a man down when he is in the prime of his
abilities, when he is ripened by long training and wide
experience, and when his life is still valuable to his
country, still ample in promise for a yet larger service in
the future.
Of his long and successful career as a legislator I shall
not attempt to speak. Others who saw him at work year
after year in the House can alone do him sufficient justice
in this respect. But there is one phase of his public work
of which I wish to say a few words, because he there
attained to an excellence not often reached in what is
always an exacting and sometimes an ungrateful duty.
During his long service in the House he gradually came
[38]
Address of Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts
to be recognized as the best Chairman of the Committee
of the Whole whom that great body had known in many
years.
To preside not merely well but effectively in the House
Committee of the Whole is a severe test of a man's quali-
ties, both moral and mental. He must have strength of
character as well as ability, quickness in decision must go
hand in hand with knowledge, and firmness must always
be accompanied by good temper.
Many if not most persons seem to regard parliamentary
law as a collection of haphazard and arbitrary rules. No
view could be more erroneous. General parliamentary
law, like all other systems of law or jurisprudence, rests
upon certain underlying principles, and is designed to
carry out those principles and to effect particular pur-
poses for which the system exists. Parliamentary law
aims to insure the transaction of business by legislative
bodies, to eliminate disorder iand confusion from the
process, to make impossible the occurrence of situations
where there is no thoroughfare and no way out, and to
preserve the proper rights of minorities.
For the attainment of these objects, so essential to the
transaction of business in any legislative assembly or any
large body which debates and votes, parliamentary law
has been developed by practice and perfected by long ex-
perience. A presiding officer of high and marked ability
like Mr. Sherman must therefore possess a full knowledge
of the principles upon which parliamentary law is based
and also understand the philosophy of the system so that
he can apply it at will to any given question. Besides this
familiarity with general parliamentary law and in addi-
tion to a firm grasp of its principles, a presiding officer
must know thoroughly the rules of the particular body
which he serves. In the case of our House of Representa-
tives the rules are many and complicated and the litera-
[39]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
ture to which they have given rise in discussions, deci-
sions, and precedents is voluminous in the extreme. In
the Senate, on the other hand, the rules are simple and
their burden is light, but they are administered in con-
formity with habits and customs which have slowly grown
up during a century and which, for that very reason, can
be understood and appreciated only by the exercise of
patient and observant care. Mr. Sherman, as Chairman
of the Committee of the Whole in the House and as
President of the Senate, met the exacting and very diffi-
cult requirements of both positions with a success as com-
plete as it is rare. He was equally master of general par-
liamentary practice and its principles and of the various
systems peculiar to the two branches of Congress.
Always alert, prompt, and clear in decision, rapid in the
conduct of business, he was courtesy and kindness itself
to all the Members of the House and Senate. A strong
party man, of deep convictions as to political principles,
when in the chair he recognized no party divisions on the
floor. To him in that high and responsible place each
Member of this body was simply a Senator with rights and
obligations equal to those of every other Member of the
body. He understood thoroughly also that most essential
fact, that the first duty of a presiding officer is to preside,
and, when questions of order are raised, to decide. He
realized fully that it was far better to run the risk of an
occasional error, against which his knowledge and experi-
ence protected him, than, like Lord Eldon, to say con-
tinually " I doubt." He knew that the presiding officer
who hesitates is, if not always lost, quite sure to find con-
trol of the helm slipping from him, to see the public busi-
ness drift off on the baffling waves of debate, ground on
the shoals of delay, or sink, a helpless wreck, even when
in sight of land. Therefore he ruled, as he conducted the
general business, clearly and without doubt or hesitation.
[40]
Address of Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts
He exhibited also in a high degree, whenever occasion
demanded, the steady courage which is at all times so
important, but which is not always associated in the
minds of most people with the qualifications of a presid-
ing officer. Correct rulings may readily be as unpopular
as a righteous vote or an honest speech, and it is very easy
to create a doubt under cover of which the unpopular
ruling can be escaped. This Mr. Sherman never did. He
was as incapable of making a wrong ruling through fear
as he was of ruling wrongly to advance a personal or
party interest. I remember well one occasion when a
very popular and much-desired amendment was offered
to an appropriation bill where it was plainly out of order.
Under the Senate rules the Chair may submit a question
of order to the Senate. It was not necessary in this in-
stance that Mr. Sherman should rule wrongly; it was
only necessary to stand back and allow the Senate to set
the rule aside. Mr. Sherman was urged to submit the
question, of order to the Senate. He declined to do so.
He refused to evade his duty. The point of order was
made, and he sustained it. It was not popular to do this,
but it was right, and the act showed not only courage but
a high conception of public duty.
I have dwelt upon this single phase of Mr. Sherman's
public service, because time forbids that I should do more,
and because the high excellence which he achieved as a
presiding officer, both in the House and Senate, is in
itself at once an exhibition and a proof of his ability,
his intellectual keenness, and his force of character. But
I can not end these most inadequate words without
speaking of him for an instant as a friend and wholly
apart from his public service. He was one of the best
and most loyal friends. Indeed, his loyalty to a friend was
so strong that he more than once bore troubles not his
own and endured censure when he had no fault, rather
[41]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
than desert one to whom his friendship had been given.
He was one of the pleasantest and most agreeable of com-
panions, full of fun and humor, and with a sympathetic
interest which ranged over many subjects and touched
many men. By those who knew him well he is greatly
missed. Not a day goes by that I do not think of him
here and of our talks together, that I do not wish I could
hear once again that hearty laugh and cheery voice, that
I could see him as he was, now serious, now mirthful, but
always strong and kind and full of sympathy with those
for whom he cared. He died in the highest office but one
of the Republic. The office Avill be tilled, but the place
which he had made for himself in the affection of those
who knew him will remain vacant and unoccupied.
[42]
Address of Senator Kern, of Indiana
Mr. President: It was during the presidential campaign
of 1908, and in the city of Chicago, that I first met James S.
Sherman. We were opposing candidates for Vice Presi-
dent, and at that particular time and place the political
situation was the subject of well-nigh universal discus-
sion. Both of us were in the midst of the contest. I have
never forgotten the genial warmth of Mr. Sherman's
greeting, and the ease with which he captured my
friendship.
Before that meeting I had him in mind as a formi-
dable political adversary — a foeman worthy the steel of
any man, but none the less a foeman. After looking into
his genial face, which reflected that gentle spirit, and
hearing his words of kindly greeting which so clearly
proceeded from a heart full of affection for his fellow
men I was never able to regard him otherwise than as
my friend.
Some weeks later as the campaign proceeded I was
about to be introduced to a very large political assem-
blage in his home city of Utica, when a telegram was
handed me. It was from Mr. Sherman, who was in a
distant part of the country, bidding me welcome to his
city, expressing his hearty good will, and urging me to
call upon his family while in Utica.
A few days later, when the word came to me that a
member of my family had been suddenly stricken by
disease, I had scarcely turned my face toward home,
abandoning the campaign for a time, when from my
opponent, this great-hearted man, came a message full
[43]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
of sympathy, expressing in tenderest phrase his hopes
that my worst fears might not be realized.
Within a week of the election, when a foul libel assail-
ing my reputation had been published in a single eastern
newspaper, the first knowledge I had of the article came
from Mr. Sherman, deprecating the publication and re-
assuring me of his high personal regard.
When I came to the Senate two years ago he was so
anxious to show his good will and emphasize his personal
friendship that within five minutes after the oath had
been administered to me he invited me to take the gavel
and preside over the Senate. I protested that I was a
stranger, not only to this body but its procedure, but he
insisted, saying, " It will be only for a few minutes and it
is for my own pleasure and gratification that I ask you
to do me this personal favor."
And from that time on until the last he never lost an
opportunity to make me feel that however wide our politi-
cal differences — and they were irreconcilable — I had in
him a friend on whose fidelity I might always rely.
Such incidents may be tiresome, in so far as they refer
to my personal connection with them, but it seemed to me
that the recital of these bare facts would serve to illus-
trate the kindness of heart and nobility of spirit of this
man whose untimely death we mourn, with far greater
force than I could possibly portray them in any combina-
tion of words, however ingeniously arranged or elo-
quently expressed.
While the election of 1908 brought to me defeat, disas-
trous as such things are counted or measured amongst
men, the campaign brought to me in the nature of recom-
pense the friendship of this man, which during his life I
treasured as one of my dearest possessions, and now that
he has " gone forever and ever by," the memory of that
friendship will bless and inspire me to my latest day.
[44]
Address of Senator Kern, of Indiana
There are men here who knew him intimately through-
out his long and honorable public career, covering a pe-
riod of nearly a quarter of a century, and who, therefore,
must have loved him well, but I doubt if any of such men
had greater reason than I for yielding to him a full meas-
ure of affectionate regard or who felt a deeper sense of
personal loss when death took from me such a friend.
It is not my purpose to speak of this man's official life,
nor of the distinction gained by him during his years of
service as a Representative in Congress of a rich and
populous district, or those other years of service here as
the Vice President of the United States.
The people of the Utica district honored and trusted
him, and he was altogether faithful to their interests.
They loved him, and he gave them his personal affection
in return. He won their continued support by his fidelity
to duty, but he won their hearts by his unfailing kindness
and gentle bearing to everyone.
And so in this body. As a presiding officer he was able
and impartial, and because of the ability with which he
discharged the duties of his high office he was honored
by the Senators from every State. And yet when he died
and a deep sense of personal loss and bereavement op-
pressed us, it was not of his great ability as a presiding
officer, or the loss that the Nation had sustained in the
loss of its Vice President, that we thought first, but rather
of the great heart of the man, of his genial manners, his
gentle ways, and his never-failing love for his fellow man.
His public record is one of which his family and friends
may be justly proud. He will be doubtless remembered
as a commanding figure in the councils of the Nation in
that period during which he served the people. But be-
yond and above all this, the memories of his cheery smile,
his kindly deeds, his generous conduct toward political
friend and foe alike, which made men love him, will find
[45]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
their way into the history of the times in which he lived,
and in the homes of the people at least will add luster to
his name.
It is better that a man should have the personal affec-
tion of the hundreds who know him well and love him for
the sweetness of his life and character than that he should
have the applause of the millions because of great public
achievements, while hungering for the joys of personal
friendship of which he knows nothing.
The Divine Master when on earth, being called upon for
a solution of the problem as to what was necessary in the
conduct of man to insure the inheritance of eternal life,
declared that he who loved God and who also loved his
neighbor as himself should surely live, and in further ex-
emplification of the law of love which glorified the new
dispensation declared : "A new commandment I give unto
you, that ye love one another."
What a true disciple of this Christian doctrine, what a
consistent follower of these divine teachings, was the late
Vice President of the United States !
And if we may rely upon the teachings and promises
of the Man of Galilee, as with confidence we do, then is
the future of our friend assured, for he has come into that
inheritance of eternal life which has been promised to all
who, keeping God's commands, have loved their fellow
men.
[46]
Address of Senator La Follette, of Wisconsin
Mr. President : In the brief time assigned me I can offer
but the simplest tribute to a personal friend.
I first met the late Vice President 25 years ago, when
he became a Member of the Fiftieth Congress. I had en-
tered the House of Representatives two years before.
We were of the same age. We were both Republicans.
We became friends. We served together four years. We
were both retired from the public service on the 4th of
March, 1891. We did not meet again for 15 years.
In those intervening years he had been returned to the
House of Representatives, where he had risen to posi-
tion and to power. I had gone back to my State, to find
another call to service.
When we again met in this Chamber, a decade and a
half had wrought great changes in political parties and
in the country. We were both Republicans, but he was
of one school, I of another. He believed that the inter-
ests of business and the interests of the country were at
all times identical. I believed otherwise. But while we
disagreed on many if not most matters of legislation,
our friendly personal relations remained unbroken to
the end.
Looking back upon the years in which he laid the foun-
dations of his career, I can well understand its influence
upon his conception of the obligations of public service.
The strongest men are, in some degree at least, the prod-
uct of their environment. But whatever may have been
the influences directing the course of Mr. Sherman's
thinking, that course was a steadfast and consistent one
throughout his life. His convictions were strong and
[47]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
were strongly maintained. He never skulked or evaded,
but with resolution and courage fought out every issue
openly, to victory or to defeat.
From the House of Representatives he was chosen to
be Vice President of the United States. But in the hour
of his greatest triumph, when life and hope were strong-
est within, the hand of death was laid upon him. At the
very threshold of his new career the grim messenger met
him. From the first its shadow went with him in and
out of this Chamber, stood over him at his desk, fol-
lowed him down the corridors, pursued him to his home.
Month after month, waking or sleeping, in social cheer
or the still hours of the night, it was his constant com-
panion. Before all others he was the first to know what
threatened him. His ear first caught the mandate that
chills the heart and slows the pulse : " Be ye ready, the
summons cometh quickly."
He indulged in no delusions touching- the final issue.
His clear vision saw straight to the open tomb. To go
down in defeat and to rise again and fight on demands
courage of a high order. To face death when it breaks
life off in the middle and to make no sign is the supreme
test.
He understood. But he took care that those who were
nearest and dearest to him should not know. He bore
an outward geniality and spirit that dispelled fear from
all his friends, while caring for every detail, and making
the final preparation.
Mr. President, the longest span of life is but a day —
a day of sunshine and shadow between the impenetrable
darkness of two eternities. The mystery of our coming
and going we can not solve; but —
We believe that God is overhead; '
And as life is to the living,
So death is to the dead.
[48]
Address of Senator Williams, of Mississippi
Mr. President: Mr. James S. Sherman, Vice President
of the United States, was cut down in the high tide of
physical and mental virility and maturity.
Shakespeare pictures life as a one-act play with seven
scenes, and of the seventh he says :
Last scene of all.
That ends this strange eventful history.
Is second childishness and mere oblivion,
Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything.
The man whose personality we recall to-day least of
all men would have desired to live that long. Rather was
his temperament that of one who would heed the admo-
nition :
Gather ye rosebuds while ye may.
Old Time is still a-flying.
And this same flower that smiles to-day
To-morrow will be dying.
For that reason was he called " Sunny Jim." He was
sunny in appearance, in speech, in thought, in feeling.
But it was not the rippling sunniness of short, breaking
wavelets on the surface of a shallow brook; the stream
of his thought was deep and strong and steady.
I first met him in 1893, when both of us were Members
of the Fifty-third Congress. We were of totally opposite
schools of political thought, opposite heredities and en-
vironments, but we soon became warm personal friends
of that type who are said to be " hail fellows well met,"
extending one to the other every possible personal cour-
tesy, and in legislative work every possible favor consist-
ent with our respective partisan obligations. He was ex-
perienced, 1 not; and so it came to pass that he showed
93436°— 13 4 [49]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
me how to do things in a parliamentary way. In 20 years'
acquaintance I never saw a frown on his face, nor did I
ever see a shadow or a cloud. He must have had his
sorrows and troubles, as all of us have, but whatever they
were he never afflicted others with them. He shared his
enjoyments, not his worries, with his friends.
He had been when I first met him already a Member of
two Congresses — the Fiftieth and the Fifty-first — though
defeated for the Fifty-second. He was after the Fifty-
third a Member successively of seven more Congresses,
and then for nearly four years Vice President of the
United States. " He wore his honors meekly." Pride of
office was as alien to him as taking himself too seriously
in any other way would have been. Among his fellows he
did his work patiently, vigilantly, intelligently, genially,
and, above all, equably — never seeking the first place for
glory nor the last to shirk labor or responsibility, but
meeting with marked ability whatever fell to him as his
share in his country's or his party's tasks in that great
arena of struggling and often excited gladiators — the
House of Representatives. The favorite of three Speak-
ers — Reed, Henderson, and Cannon — all of whom, when
forced to leave the chair at critical moments demanding
a quick, decisive, self-possessed, and able parliamen-
tarian in their stead, delighted to call him to it, he yet
never held a committee assignment in the House higher
than that of Judiciary at one time and Interstate and
Foreign Commerce at another. For years he could have
had a place on Ways and Means or Appropriations — the
two leading committees there — for the asking. But there
were always friends who wanted preferment, and he
always subordinated himself to them, thereby making
the task of the Speaker, who was in those days always
the party leader, easier and the pathway of his friends
pleasanter.
[50]
Address of Senator Williams, of Mississippi
He proved himself easily equal, if not superior,
wherever he was placed. He fell below the demands of
no responsibility or task laid upon him. His action was
decisive; his speech facile, lucid, and terse, though unpre-
tentious. I used to think in the House that he was the
ablest and the readiest presiding officer we ever had after
Reed died, and that he handled bills of which he had
charge on the floor more rapidly, more easily, and with
clearer explanations to Members not on the committee
and seeking information than any other Member.
Above all, he did all with irresistible pleasantness of
demeanor and appealing modesty. When with a point of
order he took a Member off his feet and the floor, he did
it with a smile, which was itself an apology, as much as
to say, " I hate to trouble you, old fellow, but really the
business of the House must go on in an orderly and pre-
scribed way"; or, " I hate to disturb you of all men, but
this is my only way of meeting an exigency of party man-
agement." Of nearly all men I ever met, he knew best
that no man has a right to take himself or his share of
human work and human honors too seriously. Men are
too many, the earth is too small, and other planets and
solar systems are too numerous and large and earthly
life is too short for that.
Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud?
Like a fast-flitting meteor, a fast-flying cloud,
A flash of the lightning, a break of the wave,
He passes from life to his rest in the grave.
* * * * * • •
And the fever called living
Is conquered at last.
After his death his friends may say that he was—
A man that Fortune's bufl"ets and rewards
Has ta'en with equal thanks.
I am not an old man yet, as life is measured here in
Washington, and yet there are perhaps more of the men
[51]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
who were in public life when Mr. Sherman and I first
entered it who are now waiting to shake our hands on the
other shore than there are on this.
Friend after friend departs;
Who hath not lost a friend?
There is no union here of hearts
That finds not here an end.
* * * * * * ♦
Over the river they beckon to us —
Loved ones who've crossed to the farther shore.
Perhaps the best thing we can do here is to so deal with
men and women, too, that we shall be neither ashamed
nor afraid to meet them hereafter. This I believe this
man did. I have met him by the funeral bier; in the po-
litical struggle, where we crossed swords in earnest and
fateful conflict; around the banquet board. He was
always the same and always a gentleman, in manners,
speech, and conduct. He carried sunshine with him in
this life. Why can we not hope that he carries it with
him over there?
Of course none of us know with certainty what death is,
nor can we know except with the eye of faith. How can
we, when we do not even know what life is or whence
it is?
Life! I know not what thou art.
But know that thou and I must part;
And when or where or how we met,
I own to me's a secret yet.
Or, as another sweet singer expresses it :
Like to the grass that's newly sprung,
Or, like a tale that's new begun.
Or, like the bird that's here to-day.
Or, like the pearl'd dew of May,
Or, like an hour, or, like a span.
Or, like the singing of a swan —
E'en, such is man, who lives by breath;
Is here, now there — in life and death.
[52]
Address of Senator Williams, of Mississippi
But if, as I fervently believe, existence is one duration,
of which what we call life is one part on this side of the
dividing portal which we call death and of which what
we call eternity is the part on the other side — if, as Long-
fellow says:
There is no death! "What seems so is transition;
This life of mortal breath
Is but a suburb of the life elysian.
Whose portal we call Death.
Or if, as another sings —
The living are the only dead;
The dead live, never more to die —
then, why in sweet Heaven's name can we not go through
life as James S. Sherman did, with smiles upon our faces,
meeting our tasks earnestly and honestly, but cheerfully,
not sadly — doing our best and leaving the sad faults and
sins of us, like little children, to the pity of the All Father
whose mysteriously weak and strong and unfathomable
creatures we are?
The body of him has been laid away in " God's acre " —
I like that ancient Saxon phrase which calls the burial
ground God's acre; it is just — and though a Nation here,
through us, its representatives, is met with fit observance
to do him ceremonious honor — all deserved by faithful,
long, honest, intelligent public service, deserved by cour-
teous, kind-hearted human serviceableness and cleanness
in private life — I do not think he wants us to be sad or
to make others sad in his death, except in so far as we
can not help it because of the mutual missing of him.
It is for the living who have been left by the loving and
beloved dead and not for the dead themselves that we
are called to sorrow, because, as to him who has passed
the portal where this " mortal coil," the flesh, is " shuf-
fled off," a freer and a broader life, untrammeled by
flesh limitations and undeflected by flesh temptations,
begins.
The soul, immortal as its Sire,
Shall never die.
[53]
Address of Senator Curtis, of Kansas
Mr. President: No one outside his family circle felt
more than did I the death of James S. Sherman, the Vice
President of the United States. For years I was associated
with him in the House of Representatives, and early
learned not only to respect him but to love him. His
qualities not alone as a man, as a legislator, as a parlia-
mentarian, but as a friend, impressed themselves upon
me and quickly endeared him to me in many ways, and
that endearment deepened as time went by. Mr. Sher-
man was more than a friendly acquaintance to those with
whom he frequently came in contact. He was a fatherly
man. He was at once interested in the things in which
you were interested, and immediately took upon himself
the cloak of helper and adviser. He was thus particularly
useful and congenial to new Members, and commanded
for himself respect and support in everything he under-
took. In fact, I believe, and make bold at this time to
assert, that James S. Sherman enjoyed the real loving
friendship and affection of more men throughout the
country than any other one American living. He had
traveled extensively in the United States, and there was
scarcely a town in this broad Nation in which he might
appear, whether or not his coming had been heralded,
that some man would not step to his side, and, throwing
his arm about his neck, accost him in terms of pleasure
and of attachment.
Long and close association with Mr. Sherman in the
House gave me keen appreciation of his talents as a legis-
lator, while all of you here to-day are aware of his excep-
[54]
Address of Senator Curtis, of Kansas
tional abilities as a presiding officer and as an exponent
of parliamentary law. While seeking no recognition as
an orator, he was ready in debate, and, though kindly and
considerate to his opponents on the floor, drove home
arguments with such conciseness and good effect that
defeat in a contest on legislative matters rarely overtook
him. His readiness under all circumstances to gauge a
situation in its true light, his quickness to take advantage
of opportunities made him, to my mind, one of the most
successful and best Representatives, and he was valued
and complimented as such not only by the people of his
district but of the United States. His efforts were not
centralized or localized. As chairman of the Committee
on Indian Affairs and as a leading member of the great
Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce his field
of labor was broad and varied, and in nothing did he
shirk his responsibilities, but was constantly working for
the enactment of legislation of a character which would
inure to the benefit of the public and of those whose inter-
ests were at stake. A large number of the most important
statutes born in these committees bear witness to-day to
his ability and able judgment.
Mr. Sherman was a partisan, open and unequivocal.
He made plain his position on public policies and pub-
lic questions at every opportunity, and rather, I always
thought, enjoyed such declarations. There was never
any misunderstanding as to where he stood on any ques-
tion, and he would lose with grace, upholding his ideals,
rather than yield to those beneath whose veneering was
a desire to either please or advantage his opponent.
He disliked pretense and detested dishonesty. While
easy of approach and ready to listen to those who sought
him, he was quick to detect and resent imposition or in-
sincere motives. On such occasions his indignation would
[55]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
assert itself by vigorous expression and prompt refusal,
and the discovery would rarely be forgotten.
Some of Mr. Sherman's warmest friends were num-
bered among those who did not always agree with him
either in politics or in policy. He was democratic, un-
ostentatious, genial. His sympathy was deep and easily
stirred. He saw the right in all that he did, but, finding
himself mistaken in any situation or degree, his acknowl-
edgment of the fact was quick, earnest, and sincere.
In fact, in private and public life Mr. Sherman met, as
fully as it is possible to meet, every demand upon him
as a citizen, a neighbor, a friend, and a statesman.
In his family relations he was particularly blessed.
His enjoyment and contentment reached its height when
his family was gathered about him, and its members,
more than any others, will miss him as a devoted hus-
band, loving, gentle father, and jealous protector.
It is difficult, indeed, to realize that James S. Sherman
has gone never to return. Had he been spared there were
other heights which he might have reached, but after
traveling well the road of service to his people, his party,
and his Nation, he was stricken down in the prime of
life and left us lonely and sorrowful at his demise. We
miss his cordial greeting, his heartfelt hand grasp, his
tender solicitude. His memory vdll live always and we
are better for having known him. His career will ever
be a shining example before the youth of our country,
and the tributes paid him heretofore and to-day, though
they do not add to his worth or greatness, are confes-
sions of love, respect, and esteem on the part of those
who not only knew him but who enjoyed in his pres-
ence and at his side those delightful characteristics and
that personal charm which endeared him to young and
old and which remained with him to the end.
[56]
Address of Senator Curtis, of Kansas
He has gone. He has trod the path we shall tread when
the summons comes. Let us be as well prepared ifl all
things as was he, for the good he did lives after him.
Our struggle here may be longer, yet for whatever time
it be we will go on as " weary ships to their haven under
the hill."
But 1 for the touch of a vanish'd hand.
And the sound of a voice that is still 1
[57]
Address of Senator Cummins, of Iowa
Mr. President : It seems to be the way of this turbulent,
fighting world of ours that in life the people, and es-
pecially the public people, are chiefly concerned with
their never-ending disagreements; but in the presence of
death, with its majestic and solemn harmonies, we no
longer hear the noise of the conflict and we lay aside the
weapons of our warfare. We are conscious then, as at
no other time, of the immensity of that limitless region
in which the peace of common purpose always reigns.
In his lifetime there were some things upon which the
late Vice President and myself were not in accord, but
now that he has joined the immortals upon the other
shore my memory refuses to perform its accustomed office,
and just now I am wondering what these differences were.
In the stead of a recollection of controversy there comes
trooping into my mind the remembrance of his noble
manhood, his lofty character, his strong, keen intellect,
his unsurpassed candor, his perfect fairness, and his
tender heart. Into every political contest he carried not
only the flawless courage but the sensitive honor of the
knights in the olden time. He hit hard, but only when he
was face to face with his adversary. The body of his
enemy felt his blows; but the wounds he inflicted were
always found on the breast, never on the back. The
American people had a name for him, and they will
cherish it so long as humanity holds the affection which
lightens and sweetens mortal existence.
To be loved by close associates and immediate fol-
lowers is a joy that many men experience, but to be loved
by the whole number of one's acquaintance is a distinc-
[58]
Address of Senator Cummins, of Iowa
tion that but few men have attained, and our lamented
friend was one of these rare, choice spirits of the world.
For nearly four years James S. Sherman, as Vice Presi-
dent of the United States, was the presiding officer of the
Senate. Others have spoken, and spoken well, of his
service elsewhere. My purpose is to record my high ap-
preciation of his service here. The qualities which fit a
man to guide the deliberations of a body like ours, to ad-
minister the rules which govern it, and to render quick
justice to all its members, are rarely united in a single
man. High above every other quality is the power to be
fair and impartial. Most men, I think, want to be fair,
but there are only a few men who, in the moments of
stress and storm, have the capacity to be fair. Vice Presi-
dent Sherman had this quality in as high degree as any
man I ever knew. During all the time he directed our
deliberations he was eminently just. So successful was he
that throughout all the days of fierce debate, days in
which feeling ran strong, there never arose the least sus-
picion of his perfect impartiality.
He was a skilled parliamentarian. He was not only
master of the general subject, but, what is more wonder-
ful, he was master of the mysterious rules which we have
adopted for our own government. His decisions were
quickly made and were delivered with precision and
emphasis. The operations of his mind were not only
accurate, but they were lightninglike in their rapidity.
He was courteous, but his firmness was as striking as his
courtesy. Many illustrious men have occupied the chair
to which he so worthily succeeded, but I venture to say
that no one of them discharged its duties more faithfully
or more efficiently than did he.
All in all, I have never known a presiding officer who
combined all the qualities of mind and conscience de-
manded by such an office more completely than they were
[59]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
united in him; and when the Master called him he Jaid
down the authority of his commanding position among
us with the love, the respect, the confidence, and the ad-
miration not only of every Senator but of all his fellow
men.
With hearts full of sorrow we say of him the best that
can be said of any man — the world is better because he
lived in it.
[60]
Address of Senator Oliver, of Pennsylvania
Mr. President : Few men have lived and died who were
better loved than James Schoolcraft Sherman. I leave
it to those who knew him from his earlier years to tell
the story of his public life, and will content myself with
saying a very few words about Sherman the man — ^for it
was as man to man that we knew each other best. I never
met him until after he was Vice President and I was a
Senator, not quite four years ago; but we were thrown
into close companionship during the long extra session
of 1909, and from that association there grew a friendship
which, on my part, was at least as strong as I ever felt
for any man, and I believe that on his part it was just as
strong. No man could be with him long without becom-
ing his friend. His very presence compelled friendship.
The sunny smile which dominated his face, and about
which so much has been said and written, was not the
mere mask of the hail fellow well met, but the outward
manifestation of an inborn and ingrained kindly nature,
filled to the full with the joy of living and the delight of
mingling with his fellow men. What most endeared
him to men was his intense humanity. He was human all
through, and he loved human kind; and those of us who
were admitted to the inner cloisters of his intimacy feel
that in losing him we lost a part of our own selves, and
that life for us will never again be as complete a thing as
it was before he was taken away.
Hypocrisy was a thing abhorrent to him, and political
hypocrisy he could tolerate least of all. Not once but
often have I heard him in unsparing terms denounce men
in public life who, to please the passing whim of the
[61]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
people, advocated or supported measures or policies in
which he knew they did not believe.
He was first and last a partisan, and an intense one at
that; but his partisanship was in no way tainted with
bitterness of spirit. It arose from the very intensity of his
convictions. He believed from his heart that his country's
welfare depended on the continued supremacy of his
party, and he saw no path to progress but by way of its
success; and with zeal unflagging and spirit undaunted,
in and out of season he labored for that success. I know,
for he told me more than once, that with waning health
and growing years he longed to withdraw from the con-
flict, and spend the days that might remain to him in the
companionship of the wife and sons who were the objects
of his tenderest affection; but with his rare political in-
sight he well knew that last year's fight was to be a losing
one; and he would not — constituted as he was, he could
not — ^be recreant in its adversity to the party which had
honored him in the days of its triumphant prosperity.
So, like the true soldier that he was, he died with his face
to the foe, under the standard of thejparty he had served
so well, and in whose principles he so implicitly believed.
He was a man, take him for all in all.
We shall not look upon his like again.
[62]
Address of Senator O'Gorman, of New York
Mr. President: I join in the estimate of the late Vice
President, which has been so eloquently pronounced by
my distinguished colleague, and I share in the general
grief caused by the premature closing of a career which
only a few months since was rich in achievement and full
of promise for the future. It is no small achievement to
serve as a political leader in city, county, and State; to
represent an important constituency in the National
House of Representatives for 18 years, and at the end of
so long a period of exacting public service to be elevated
to within one step of the highest office within the gift of
a free people. In public life such was the record of
James Schoolcraft Sherman. Its mere recital is an elo-
quent eulogy on the character and attainments of the
citizen in whose memory we now pause to pay a last
tribute of affectionate respect. It is no mere ceremonial
that the Senate, over whose counsels he presided for four
years, should bestow that homage which friendship and
patriotisna ever offered to the true man, the faithful pub-
lic servant, the enlightened statesman. During his active
and useful career Mr. Sherman witnessed the mightiest
strides in material development the world has ever seen.
He saw the Republic grow from the chaos of Civil War
to its present commanding place among the nations of the
earth. He saw the Empire State, of which he was a native
son, leap forward with giant bounds, valiantly maintain-
ing her place at the head of the mighty procession of the
States of our majestic Union. His pride in the forward
strides of the State and Nation was justified, for in the
upbuilding of both he played the part of an active, ear-
nest, and public-spirited citizen.
[63]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
Neither a laggard nor a drone, for more than 25 years
he was in the thick of the conflict which accompanies and
stimulates progress. Throughout his life Mr. Sherman
was a popular type of the American optimist, and im-
parted confidence and enthusiasm to all within the influ-
ence of his delightful personality. Industrious and suc-
cessful in private enterprise, he was alert and influential
in public aff'airs, and ably contributed to that ceaseless
mental combat and attrition of thought whose constant
flashes light the guiding torch of civilization which illu-
mines the pathway of liberty and law. His impulses were
generous, his sympathies broad, his intellect keen. He
was a patriot. He loved his country and its institutions.
For many years, at great personal and domestic sacrifice,
he gave loyal, generous, and disinterested service to ad-
vance the public weal and uphold his country's honor.
He had unbounded faith in the Republic; he had un-
wavering confidence in his countrymen and in their at-
tachment to the principles of liberty and their capacity
to right wrongs and uproot evils. In their active, watch-
ful, and vigilant patriotism he saw the best security
against the evils that beset all Governments. His best
tribute was the repeated expression of confidence and
approbation that came to him from his fellow citizens in
central New York, who knew him so well and valued his
character and attainments so highly.
After years of industry and earnest effort in party
council and public arena the citizen whose deeds we now
commemorate was raised to the exalted station of Vice
President of the United States, from which he passed
with honor to the grave.
As President of the Senate he measured up to the best
traditions of that high office. No Member of this body
can forget the charm of his bearing or the ability, scru-
pulous impartiality, and fine courtesy with which he
[64]
Address of Senator O'Gorman, of New York
presided over the deliberations of this Chamber. The
promptness and fairness of his rulings were no small
contribution to the expedition of public business, and
the lucidity with which he revealed his exceptional knowl-
edge of parliamentary law was a constant source of pleas-
ure and gratification.
Laying no claim to the gifts of genius, he won a high
place in the Nation's councils by that persistency of effort
and strength of character which constitute the genius of
success. Above all, he was the true American and ideal
citizen in his domestic life, and by his devotion to home
and family commanded the deep respect of a moral and
chivalrous people. As a stream can rise no higher than
its source, so a Nation can be no better than its homes.
In the family circle are found those spiritual agencies
which save society from corrosion and decay. Unless a
nation grows morally as well as materially, spiritually
as well as intellectually, its future is dark and its days
are numbered. For Mr. Sherman's success in life we
commended him; for the enviable places that he won
among his fellow men we praised him; for the public
honors that he earned we admired him ; yet in this solemn
hour, sanctified by the liberated spirit of the comrade
whom we mourn, I would pay tribute to those traits of
character which made the loving husband, the devoted
father, the faithful friend, the good citizen. These were
the titles that he won; they were the flowers of love and
duty and friendship that blossomed along his pathway
through life. They constitute the fairest garland that
can be placed upon his tomb.
Mr. President, our departed friend gave his best to the
service of the people. Who can do more? The State of
New York has given many of her sons to the service of
the Nation, and high upon her roll of fame posterity will
inscribe the high character and unblemished record of
James Schoolcraft Sherman.
93436°— 13 5 [65]
Address of Speaker Clark, of the House of
Representatives
The President pro tempore. The Chair now recognizes
the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
Mr. President : Of all the wise and salutary things done
by the fathers of the Republic, one of the wisest and most
salutary was dividing Congress into two bodies.
There is a House habit and a Senate habit, differing
widely. This difference grows out of the difference in
numbers, the difference in average age, and the difference
in the length of tenure. Some Representatives never
learn the House habit; some Senators never learn the
Senate habit; a few observant men learn both habits.
That Mr. Vice President Sherman learned both habits
thoroughly and well is sufficiently attested by the fact
that he presided with eminent success over the large and
tumultuous assembly of the House of Representatives and
over the smaller and more sedate assembly of the Senate.
I hope that it will not be taken as an ungracious word
for me to suggest to Senators that James Schoolcraft
Sherman was a House product. We trained him; we
gave him his promotion; we sent him to the service of
the Nation in his capacity of Vice President.
There is no finer school under the sun than the House
of Representatives for mental pugilistics. Personally we
are courteous to each other, but there is no such thing as
House courtesy that influences the course of legislation.
It might be well to state for a moment how reputations
are made in the House. They are made in two ways —
one by a brilliant oratorical performance and the other
by assiduous industry in the committees and on the floor
of the House. I used to divide the membership with ref-
[66]
Address of Speaker Clark
erence to rising in the House into two classes — the quick
climbers and the steady climbers.
A few men make a national reputation in that House
by one great oration. I saw Lafe Pence, of Colorado, in
the Fifty-third Congress, make a national reputation the
second day after he was sworn in, and I saw Charles E.
Littlefield, of Maine, make a national reputation by one
great oration within about three months of the time when
he was sworn in; but these are exceptional cases. As a
rule, the men who achieve high position in the House do
so by slow and steady climbing. Vice President Sherman
went up and up in the House gradually until he got into
the front rank. One day, in a hot political debate there,
I dubbed the small coterie to which he belonged as the
" Big Five," a name which stuck.
There is much truth in Longfellow's lines :
The heights by great men reached and kept
Were not attained by sudden flight.
But they while their companions slept
Were toiling upward in the night.
That was the case with Mr. Sherman. He presided in
the House and also in the Senate with grace, firmness,
fairness, unfailing courtesy, rare good sense, and to the
entire satisfaction of Representatives and of Senators.
Though he was never elected Speaker, he was frequently
assigned by three Speakers to preside temporarily over
the House proper as well as over the Committee of the
Whole.
While not an orator, he was a strong debater and
illumined every subject which he discussed; because he
never spoke on any subject on which he was not well in-
formed — an example which all public speakers would do
excellently well to follow.
A fine stage presence, graceful gestures, most gracious
manners, a musical, well-modulated voice of good carry-
[67]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
ing power, exquisite taste in the selection and arrange-
ment of words, enabled him to please the House of Rep-
resentatives, the most critical and at the same time the
fairest and justest audience in the wide, wide world.
Though he killed the pet bills of many Members, he had
not an enemy in the membership of the House. He
seemed to have taken for the basis of his action the saying
of Thackeray that " the world is like a looking-glass.
Smile at it, and it smiles back; scowl at it, and it scowls
back; hit at it, and it hits back."
He was a most successful pilot of measures through the
House, the chief reason being that he moved on lines of
least resistance. Adhering to his opinions with tenacity,
fidelity, and courage, he antagonized no one unneces-
sarily. To use a common and expressive sentence, he
took things by the smooth handle, and thereby accom-
plished much.
Amiability was the chief characteristic of the man, and,
after all, Tennyson was right when he said :
Kind hearts are more than coronets,
And simple faith than Norman blood.
Whether in committee or on the floor or in the chair,
like charity, as described by St. Paul in his splendid
rhapsody in the thirteenth chapter of First Corinthians,
he suffered long and was kind; envied not; vaunted not
himself; was not puffed up; behaved himself not un-
seemly; was not easily provoked. In fact, he had himself
so well in hand that he could not be baited into an ex-
hibition of bad temper. He gave sharp blows, and re-
ceived them with perfect equanimity. In victory he was
not offensively jubilant; in defeat he was not utterly cast
down. He appeared equal to both extremes of fortune,
clearly realizing, with his optimistic philosophy, the as-
tounding swiftness with which political situations change
in this rapid age.
[68]
Address of Speaker Clark
In the House he was a prime favorite on both sides of
the big aisle, which constitutes the line of demarcation in
politics, but not in personal friendships or robust Ameri-
canism. When he was translated from that energetic and
boisterous body to the dignity and quietude of the Vice
Presidency his fellow members, while sincerely rejoicing
at his promotion, just as sincerely regretted his departure
from their midst.
The House most heartily joins the Senate and the
President of the United States in doing honor to this
typical American. His fitting epitaph would be :
Mens aequa in arduis.
[69]
Address of President Taft
The President pro tempore. As a fitting close to these
ceremonies, the Chair now recognizes the President of the
United States.
Mr. President: After the eloquent tributes that have
been paid to the memory of the late Vice President Sher-
man by his associates, who knew him well, it is not for
me to add anything new to that which has been said, and
well said.
Mr. Sherman was a man with whom no one could come
in contact without feeling better for the meeting and with
a more kindly disposition toward his fellow men and the
world at large.
Life, on the whole, is made up of a series of what ap-
pear to many to be insignificant incidents, and there are
those who in their own thoughts, in their own affairs,
and in what they regard as the large issues of society
recognize no necessity for attention to the daily en-
counters and the hourly exchanges of thought and of
treatment between individuals. To them life is ap-
parently a series of grand stage plays, which are to mark
the character of the players permanently, and that which
intervenes between these plays is of no importance. This
view is accentuated as men grow in self-absorption and
lose the sense of proportion with respect to their own im-
portance — a weakness to which most men in greater or
less degree are prone. A character that is the antithesis
of such tendencies makes for himself a place among all
with whom he has personal association that is durable
and fragrant. This was one of the lovable and most
marked traits of Mr. Sherman. Everyone, high or low,
[70]
Address of President Taft
intimate or distant, who met him, felt the influence of his
good will, of his earnest desire to accord to each one the
courtesy and recognition of his right as a member of
society to which he was entitled. Any painful feeling
that he had to cause by what duty required him to say
was as painful to him as it was to the person to whom he
felt called upon in this way to speak.
He never exaggerated his own importance. He depre-
cated the personal equation. He was always for helping
a cause or some other person, and he had truly that
charity and love of his fellow men which, as the poem
has it, is really the love of God, and made the name of
Abou Ben Adhem lead all the rest.
Educated at one of those truly American small colleges,
with high patriotic ideals, derived from the history of the
struggle for liberty regulated by law as embodied in our
Constitution, Mr. Sherman came to manhood to the study
and successful practice of law, but in a few years drifted,
as so many country lawyers do, into politics. He loved
politics; he correctly thought that he could be engaged
in nothing more useful to his country, and he became a
partisan on principle. As might be expected from one
of his generous self-deprecatory attitude of mind, he
minimized the personal and exalted his party cause. He
came to believe thoroughly and, in my judgment, rightly
that the only possible means of securing effective, perma-
nent, and just popular government, truly representative
of the people, is through parties, and therefore he was
willing to give up much of his personal judgment to
reconcile the views of himself and his associates upon a
few great principles.
His personal popularity carried him into the mayoralty
of the city of his birth, in which he lived his life long.
Then he came to Congress, and for 20 years he was a
Member, and a prominent member of the Republican
[71]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
Party, in the great popular House of Representatives.
There he exhibited great ability as a debater and legisla-
tor, which his fellows fully recognized. But in contempo-
rary history Mr. Sherman suffers in comparison with
others less deserving, because the work that he wrought,
the influence that he exerted, the progress and reforms
that he helped to bring about, were not recorded in the
headlines of newspapers, or, indeed, in the news columns
or editorials, for he was content to work quietly to achieve
an object, and made no conditions that should attach his
name to the success of the work in hand.
He was an influential and leading Member of that body
during the controversies that took place over the question
whether the House of Representatives should be per-
mitted to do business or should be at the mercy of the
minority, and he stood with one of the great Speakers of
that body for progress, and it was achieved.
He was at the head of the Indian Committee in the
House, and no problems in our Government are more
difficult than those within the jurisdiction of that com-
mittee. They involve the proper, businesslike considera-
tion and disposition of questions of the management of
trust property in which the discretion of the particular
official having control can be very little restricted by law.
Conditions in and near the Indian country are such that
neighboring public opinion can not be trusted to do jus-
tice to the Indians or to carry out the charitable purposes
of the Government. The situation is prolific of schemes
to defraud the wards of the Nation.
No one will know, except those most intimate with the
course of legislation and with the details of appropriation
bills, the work James S. Sherman and a few of his asso-
ciates did in the elimination of fraud and the maintenance
of the honor of the Nation in preserving to the Indians
what was theirs. And thus we may say truly that the
[72]
Address of President Taft
great work that the man whose early death we deplore
did for his fellow men was done as an adviser, as a quiet
but active worker in the shadow of some more conspicu-
ous person, all arising from the disinterested patriotism,
the high-minded party spirit, and the inherent modesty
of the man.
I need not recite to those who had so much better oppor-
tunity than I to observe it and feel it the clear and rapid
thought and the equally clear and rapid expression of
decision which in the administration of the parliamentary
law that Mr. Sherman displayed frequently as the presid-
ing officer of the House of Representatives and continu-
ously during his term as Vice President as President of
the Senate. He was a model presiding officer. Preserv-
ing his temper under all conditions, and some of them
most difficult, he ruled with firmness and with a courtesy
that disarmed the sometime heat of those whose views he
was overruling.
And now there is but one more word to speak, and that
one utters in the tenderest tone and makes most brief.
What might be expected from a man of his heart and his
constant appreciation of the feelings of others, from one
of nature's gentlemen, his domestic life, his love of wife
and children and fellow townsmen, made a circle so
sweet, a home so bright, a neighborhood so full of love for
him that even in the few hours that we were permitted to
spend in the city where he lived and died the overwhelm-
ing evidences of affection for him were most impressive
on every hand; and his great qualities were revealed in
a most remarkable tribute which his memory called out
from his beloved pastor, the president of Hamilton
College.
We have celebrated the memorial of a modest Ameri-
can, a distinguished patriot, an able statesman, a noble
man!
[73]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
Mr. Root. I now move that, after the guests of the Sen-
ate shall have retired, the Senate, as a further mark of
respect to the memory of the late Vice President, stand in
recess until 12 o'clock noon, on Monday, the 17th of
February.
The President pro tempore. Before submitting the mo-
tion, the Chair will give opportunity, as indicated by the
Senator from New York, for the guests of the Senate to
retire. The Sergeant at Arms will announce the order in
which they will retire, so that they may do so without
confusion.
The President of the United States and the members of
his Cabinet, the ambassadors and ministers plenipotenti-
ary to the United States, the Chief Justice and Associate
Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, the
Speaker and Members of the House of Representatives,
and the other guests of the Senate thereupon retired from
the Chamber.
The President pro tempore. The Senator from New
York [Mr. Root] moves that, as a further mark of respect,
the Senate now stand in recess until 12 o'clock on Monday.
The motion was unanimously agreed to; and (at 2
o'clock and 30 minutes p. m., Saturday, February 15) the
Senate took a recess until Monday, February 17, 1913, at
12 o'clock meridian.
Monday, February 17, 1913.
Mr. Smoot submitted the following concurrent resolu-
tion (S. Con. Res. 41), which was read, considered by
unanimous consent, and agreed to :
Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concur-
ring), That there shall be printed and bound, under the direction
of the Joint Committee on Printing, 14,100 copies of the proceed-
ings and the eulogies delivered in Congress on James Schoolcraft
Sherman, late Vice President of the United States, with illustra-
tion, of which 4,000 copies shall be for the use of the Senate,
[74]
Proceedings in the Senate
8,000 copies for the use of the House of Representatives, 2,000
copies for the use of the Senators and Representatives of the State
of New York, and 100 copies, bound in full morocco, for the use
of Mrs. James Schoolcraft Sherman: Provided, That there shall
be included in such publication the proclamation of the President
and the proceedings in the Supreme Court of the United States
upon the death of Vice President Sherman, and an account of the
funeral services at Utica, N. Y.
[75]
PROCEEDINGS IN THE HOUSE
The Speaker on October 31, 1912, appointed the fol-
lowing committee to represent the House at the funeral
of the late Vice President, the Hon. James Schoolcraft
Sherman :
Representatives Underwood, Alabama; Macon, Arkan-
sas; Needham, California; Taylor, Colorado; Hill, Con-
necticut; Heald, Delaware; Sparkman, Florida; Bartlett,
Georgia; French, Idaho; Cannon, Illinois; Crumpacker,
Indiana; Murdock, Kansas; James, Kentucky; Broussard,
Louisiana; Guernsey, Maine; Talbott, Maryland; McCall,
Massachusetts; Hamilton, Michigan; Stevens, Minnesota;
Candler, Mississippi; Bartholdt, Missouri; Pray, Montana;
Kinkaid, Nebraska; Roberts, Nevada; SuUoway, New
Hampshire; Gardner, New Jersey; Fergusson, New Mex-
ico; Kitchin, North Carolina; Hanna, North Dakota; Long-
worth, Ohio; McGuire, Oklahoma; Hawley, Oregon; Dal-
zell, Pennsylvania; O'Shaunessy, Rhode Island; Finley,
South Carolina; Burke, South Dakota; Moon, Tennessee;'
Henry, Texas; Howell, Utah; Plumley, Vermont; Jones,
Virginia; Humphrey, Washington; Hughes, West Vir-
ginia; Cooper, Wisconsin; Mondell, Wyoming; Haugen,
Iowa; Payne, New York; and Hay den, Arizona.
Monday, December 2, 1912.
A message from the Senate, by Mr. Crockett, one of its
clerks, announced that the Senate had agreed to the fol-
lowing resolutions :
Resolved, That the Senate has heard -with profound sorrow and
regret the announcement of the death of James Schoolcraft
Sherman, late Vice President of the United States.
[77]
Memorial Addbesses: Vice President Sherman
Resolved, That the Secretary communicate these resolutions to
the House of Representatives and transmit a copy thereof to the
family of the deceased.
Also:
Resolved, That as a further mark of respect to the memory of
the late Vice President James Schoolcraft Sherman and the late
Senators Weldon Brinton Heyburn and Isidor Rayner, whose
deaths have just been announced, the Senate do now adjourn.
* * * * * * *
Mr. Cannon. Mr. Speaker, I announce to the House that
James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United
States, departed this life at his home in Utica, N. Y., on
the 30th day of October, 1912.
The admirable administration of the high ofl&ce which
he held, the second in the gift of the Republic, his bril-
liant and useful career for so many years in the House of
Representatives, his sympathetic touch with every class,
the unsullied purity of his public and private life, had
so impressed the country that his death occasioned ex-
pression of deep-felt grief so universal as to manifest a
general and profound sense of national bereavement.
Congress will doubtless, by concurrent action of the
two Houses, at an early moment set apart a time for
proper expression touching the life, character, and serv-
ices of this eminent citizen.
I move you, sir, that out of regard for his memory and
the memory of the Members of this House and of the
Senate who have departed this life since the adjournment
of the last session of Congtess this House do now adjourn.
The motion was agreed to; and accordingly (at 1 o'clock
and 8 minutes p. m.) the House adjourned until to-
morrow, Tuesday, December 3, 1912, at 12 o'clock noon.
Thursday, February 6, 1913.
Mr. Fitzgerald. Mr. Speaker, I ask unanimous consent
that the Speaker lay before the House the invitation of
[78]
Proceedings in the House
the Senate to attend the memorial exercises of the late
Vice President.
The Speaker laid before the House the following resolu-
tion, which the Clerk read :
Senate resolution 451
Resolved, That the Senate extend to the Speaker and the Mem-
bers of the House of Representatives an invitation to attend the
exercises in commemoration of the life, character, and public
services of the late James S. Sherman, Vice President of the
United States and President of the Senate, to be held in the Senate
Chamber on Saturday, the 15th day of February next, at 12 o'clock
noon.
Mr. Fitzgerald. Mr. Speaker, I move that the invitation
be accepted, and that the Clerk be directed to notify the
Senate to that effect.
The Speaker. The gentleman from New York moves
that the invitation of the Senate be accepted, and that the
Clerk be directed to notify the Senate to that etfect.
The question was taken, and the motion was agreed to.
The following resolution, submitted by Mr. Fitzgerald,
was agreed to :
House resolution 817
Resolved, That the House accept the invitation of the Senate ex-
tended to the Speaker and Members of the House of Representa-
tives to attend the exercises in commemoration of the life, char-
acter, and public services of the late James S. Sherman, Vice
President of the United States and President of the Senate, to be
held in the Senate Chamber on Saturday, the 15th day of Feb-
ruary next, at 12 o'clock noon.
Mr. Fitzgerald. Mr. Speaker, I ask unanimous consent
that when the House adjourns on February 14, 1913, it
adjourn to meet at 11.30 a. m. on Saturday, February 15,
1913.
The Speaker. The gentleman from New York asks
unanimous consent that when the House adjourns on the
[79]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
14th of February, 1913, it adjourn to meet at 11.30 a. m.
on Saturday, February 15, 1913. Is there objection?
There was no objection.
Friday, February M, 1913.
Mr. Fitzgerald. Mr. Speaker, I ask unanimous consent
for the present consideration of the resolution which I
send to the Clerk's desk.
The Clerk read as follows :
House resolution 835
Resolved, That on Saturday, February 15, 1913, at 10 minutes
of 12 o'clock a. m., pursuant to the resolution heretofore adopted
accepting the invitation of the Senate to attend the memorial
services to commemorate the life and character and public
services of the Hon. James S. Sherman, late the "Vice President
of the United States, the House shall proceed, with the Speaker,
to the Senate Chamber, and at the conclusion of the services it
shall return to this Chamber.
The Speaker. Is there objection to the present con-
sideration of the resolution?
There was no objection.
The resolution was agreed to.
Saturday, February 15, 1913.
The House met at 11.30 a. m.
The Chaplain, Rev. Henry N. Couden, D. D., offered the
following prayer :
Our Father in heaven, we thank Thee that our Republic
is not ungrateful, but holds in sacred memory the men
who laid her foundations deep and strong and wide; the
brave men who have fought her battles, the statesmen
who have breathed their spirits into her sacred institu-
tions and kept them inviolate, as evinced by the special
order of the day in memory of a noble son, who proved
himself worthy of the confidence reposed in him by his
fellow countrymen. May his life be an incentive to faith-
ful service and nobility of soul to those who survive him.
[80]
Proceedings in the House
Be Thou solace to those who knew and loved him, and
let the everlasting arms be about the bereaved wife and
children, that they may look forward with confidence to
the unchanging love of a heavenly Father who doeth all
things well. Amen.
The Journal of the proceedings of yesterday was read
and approved.
The Speaker. The hour of 10 minutes of 12 having ar-
rived, the House will proceed to the Senate Chamber.
Thereupon the Members of the House, preceded by the
Sergeant at Arms and the Speaker, proceeded to the
Senate Chamber.
At 2 o'clock and 35 minutes p. m. the Members returned,
and the House was called to order by the Speaker.
Mr. Fitzgerald. Mr. Speaker, as a further mark of re-
spect to the memory of the late Vice President Sherman,
I move that the House do now adjourn.
The motion was agreed to; and accordingly (at 2 o'clock
and 36 m^inutes p. m.) the House adjourned until to-
morrow, Sunday, February 16, 1913, at 12 o'clock noon.
Sunday, March 2, 1913.
Mr. FiNLEY, Mr. Speaker, I move to take from the
Speaker's table Senate concurrent resolution 41, relative
to the eulogies on the late Vice President Sherman.
The Speaker. The Clerk will report the resolution.
The Clerk read as follows :
Senate concurrent resolution 41
Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concur-
ring), That there shall be printed and bound, under the direction
of the Joint Committee on Printing, 14,100 copies of the proceed-
ings and the eulogies delivered in Congress on James Schoolcraft
Sherman, late Vice President of the United States, with illustra-
tion, of which 4,000 copies shall be for the use of the Senate,
8,000 copies for the use of the House of Representatives, 2,000
93436"— 13 6 [81]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
copies for the use of the Senators and Representatives of the State
of New York, and 100 copies, bound in full morocco, for the use
of Mrs. James Schoolcraft Sherman: Provided, That there shall
be included in such publications the proclamation of the Presi-
dent and the proceedings in the Supreme Court of the United
States upon the death of Vice President Sherman, and an account
of the funeral services at Utica, N. Y.
The resolution was agreed to.
[82]
PROCEEDINGS IN
THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
Thursday, October 31, 1912.
Present: The Chief Justice, Mr. Justice McKenna, Mr.
Justice Holmes, Mr. Justice Day, Mr. Justice Lurton, Mr.
Justice Hughes, Mr. Justice Van Devanter, Mr. Justice
Lamar, and Mr. Justice Pitney.
Mr. Assistant to the Attorney General Fowler addressed
the court as follows:
"May it please the Honorable Court:
" I deeply regret the necessity of performing the sor-
rowful duty of announcing to this honorable court the
death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice Pres-
ident of the United States.
" Through many years of active and valuable public
service, Mr. Sherman had attained, independent of the
office which he occupied, an enviable position in the
hearts of his countrymen. Four years ago he was chosen
by the people of his country to the position which he held
at the time of his death.
" Out of respect deemed to be due so exalted a position
in a coordinate branch of the Government, and that this
honorable body may join with a bereaved Nation in ex-
pressing its sorrow at his untimely death, 1 move that this
court do now adjourn until after the funeral."
The Chief Justice responded:
" Mr. Attorney General :
" The court hears with sorrow the announcement which
you make of the death of the Vice President, and as a
token of our participation in the burden of loss which the
country has suffered, and out of sympathy with his coun-
trymen, the motion you present is granted, and the court
will stand adjourned until Monday next."
Adjourned until Monday next at 12 o'clock.
[83]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
proclamation
3Bb tbe ©overnor of tbc State ot "Mew Korft
State op New York,
Executive Chamber.
James Schoolcrapt Sheiuhan, Vice President of the United
States, and for twenty years a Member of the House of Representa-
tives from the State of New York, a patriot and statesman, beloved
by all who knew him, and honored and esteemed by the entire
citizenship of our country, is dead. The people of the State of
New York moimi the loss of one of her most illustrious sons. Thfe
qualities which won for James Schoolcraft Sherman a high place
among the Nation's statesmen and rulers endeared him to the
citizenship of his native State. His untimely demise causes great
sadness and deserves sorrowful and appropriate recognition.
Nam, tlTBtnef 0ir«, it iss terBbg Mvectei, That as a mark of regard
for the distinguished dead the flags upon the capitol and upon all
the public buildings of the State, including the armories and arsenals
of the National Guard, be displayed at half-mast until and including
the day of the funeral, and the citizens of the State for a like period
are requested to unite in appropriate tokens of respect.
Given under my hand and the privy seal of the
State at the capitol, in the city of Albany, this
[t. S.] first day of November, in the year of our Lord
one thousand nine hundred and twelve.
JOHN A. DIX.
By the Governor:
John A. Mason,
Secretary to the Governor.
[84]
PROCEEDINGS OF
THE COMMON COUNCIL OF THE CITY OF UTICA,N.Y.
In Common Council,
Thursday noon, October 31, 1912.
SPECIAL SESSION
Meeting called for the purpose of taking suitable action upon
the death of James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the
United States, which occurred at his home in this city at 9.42
p. m., Wednesday, October 30, 1912.
President Stetson presiding.
Present, all members.
In calling the meeting to order, President Stetson addressed the
council as follows:
" The occasion which calls us together at this noon hour is in-
deed a sad one. As you know. Vice President James S. Sherman
last evening departed this life.
" While the death of our distinguished citizen, who has so effi-
ciently served his city and the Nation, was not unexpected, yet
the news of his passing came as a shock to the community.
" Genuine grief will not pause at the threshold of his home, but
will spread itself throughout the entire land.
" Mr. Sherman was a genial gentleman, who had the faculty of
making fast friends of those with whom he came in contact.
That he had due regard for those things which are most ennobling
in life can be best attested by his achievements as a servant of
the people. He was a friend to his neighbors, thoughtful of
others, unselfish, and courageous.
"Here he was known and loved because he was known; and
here his considerate, helpful, and gracious presence will be sor-
rowfully missed.
" He strove for advancement and attained honorable position as
the reward of application. He had earned for himself national
distinction and held next to the highest office within the gift of
the people of the Nation. He was our shining light.
" While he was approaching life's period of whitened locks, he
had reached the summit of a remarkable career, in the zenith of
his fame, and in his departure we may find consolation in the
fact that he was loved and honored and will be mourned by all
who knew him and appreciated his worth.
[85]
Memorial Addresses; Vice President Sherman
" It is most fitting that tliis council, in belialf of tlie people of
tlie city, take appropriate action expressive of the sorrow which
his death occasions."
Alderman Dickinson addressed the council as follows:
" Mr. President and Gentlemen : This is an occasion when mere
words prove but feeble vehicles for the conveyance of the sad-
ness which burdens our hearts. We are mourners at the bier
of one we loved. Our admiration for the statesmanship of the
Vice President, who lies to-day clothed in the ineffable majesty
of death, is shared by 90,000,000 fellow people of the great
Republic of which he was an ornament, but our deep and abiding
love for our neighbor and friend is a tender and holy sentiment
which transcends mere admiration and can be shared only by
those nearer ones to whom he was " Jim " — Sunny Jim — personal
friend, genial companion, intimate associate.
" In history James Schoolcraft Sherman will be given an ele-
vated place as a constructive statesman, a bulwark of a great
political party, a tireless and consistent advocate of certain
national policies, and as the most gifted Presiding Officer who
ever graced the Senate Chamber.
" Here in Utica his memory will fill a more intimate, more per-
sonal chamber in our hearts — a chamber redolent with the
fragrance of the flowers of genial fellowship, helpful citizenship,
cordial intimacy, and wholesome, tender aflfection. The ruddy
countenance which bespoke the warm red blood pulsating
through his arteries, the genial smile which was but a radiation
from a generous and humanity-loving heart, the warm handclasp
which electrified with the knowledge that back of it was genuine
affection, the cheery word before which the pessimism took its
flight — these will be cherished in Utica so long as lives any of the
thousands who knew and loved Jim Sherman — the Jim Sherman
whose untimely death at the very height of his splendid career
has draped our public edifices in black and brought a sense of
personal bereavement to our hearts."
Alderman Miller presented the following and asked unanimous
consent for an immediate vote thereon, which was granted:
" The common council of the city of Utica assembles in special
session to-day to give testimony to its profound sorrow and the
sorrow of all our people at the death of James Schoolcraft
Sherman.
"As mayor of our city for 2 years, as our Representative in
Congress for 18 years, and as Vice President of the United States
for 4 years, he attained an eminence in public life never before
achieved by any other citizen of this community. The honor
and prominence vvhich he brought to his native city were sources
of pride to his neighbors and friends, no less than a marked
distinction to the community and a tribute to his own remark-
[86]
Proceedings of the Common Council of Utica, N. Y.
able personality and splendid attainments. In this city, which
saw the beginning of his illustrious career and was the field of
his earliest triumphs and whose interests he always held pecul-
iarly his own, his death is felt as a deep and lasting personal loss.
" That he achieved by his own ability and distinguished per-
sonality the second highest office in this great Nation, that he
was a statesman among statesmen whose honor and integrity
were above reproach, whose purposes were ever pure and lofty,
who impressed himself upon the history of his country — those
things and many more are known to all men.
" But to us, his neighbors and friends, there comes the vivid
memory of the genial disposition and beautiful traits of character
which endeared him to all; an appreciation of his deep convic-
tions and intensity of purpose in all that he undertook; a knowl-
edge of his utter disregard for caste and his ready recognition
of merit and ability, whether in friend or foe, in person of high
or low degree. He was a man of boundless energy, of loyal
devotion to the measures of public policy which he believed to
be for the best interests of the people, and of a beautiful courage,
which he displayed at all times, even in the face of the most
discouraging opposition.
" With no disposition to intrude upon the grief of his devoted
but afflicted family in this sad hour, we feel that as the official,
representatives of the city — the home which he loved so well and
to which he brought such merited distinction — we should tender
to them this expression of our heartfelt sympathy and the assur-
ance of our deep appreciation of his splendid public career and
his beautiful private life."
Yeas — Aldermen Dickinson, Galligan, Geiersbach, Goldbas, Hirt,
Hughes, Kaufer, Miller, Nicholson, Pellettieri, Pugh, Redmond,
Ryan, Simmonds, Weikert — 15.
Nays — None.
Adopted.
By Alderman Goldbas:
Resolved, That the City Hall be draped in mourning, the flags
on all public buildings lowered to half-mast for a period of 30
days, and that all public offices of the city be closed during the
hours of the funeral of Vice President Sherman, as an official
tribute of respect to his memory.
Yeas — ^Aldermen Dickinson, Galligan, Geiersbach, Goldbas, Hirt,
Hughes, Kaufer, Miller, Nicholson, Pellettieri, Pugh, Redmond,
Ryan, Simmonds, Weikert — 15.
Nays — None.
Adopted.
Adjourned.
J. P. Bannigan,
City Clerk.
[87]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
In Common Council,
Friday evening, November 1, 1912.
President Stetson presiding.
Present: All members, except Aldermen Miller, Pellettieri, and
Ryan.
By Alderman Hughes:
Resolved, That as a mark of respect to the memory of our
late esteemed fellow townsman, James Schoolcraft Sherman,
Vice President of the United States, the common council does
hereby request that all business of every kind and description in
this city cease during the hours of his funeral from 2 to 4 p. m.
to-morrow.
Adopted.
By Alderman Dickinson :
Resolved, That the common council of the city of Utica hereby
determines to attend in a body the funeral of our deceased
esteemed fellow citizen, James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice Presi-
dent of the United States, meeting for this purpose at Hotel Utica
at 1.30 p. m. to-morrow, and that out of respect to his revered
memory this council does now adjourn.
Adopted.
Adjourned.
J. P. Bannigan,
City Clerk.
PROCLAMATION BY THE MAYOR OF THE CITY OF UTICA, N. Y.
To the citizens of Utica:
As a final tribute to the memory of Utica's illustrious son, Hon.
James S. Sherman, Vice President of the United States, I would
respectfully urge that all business be suspended throughout the
city between the hours of 1 and 4 o'clock on Saturday.
The funeral services of the Vice President will be held at the
First Presbyterian Church at 2 o'clock. Many business houses
will close during the afternoon, while operations will be sus-
pended in many manufacturing establishments. I would respect-
fully request a complete cessation of business during the hours
of the funeral services.
Frank J. Baker, Mayor.
Utica, N. Y., November 1, 191Z.
[88]
PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT
[Governor General's proclamation.]
Executive Order 1
No. 76. I
The Government of the Philippine Islands,
Executive Bureau,
Manila, November 2, 1912.
The announcement of the death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft
Sherman, Vice President of the United States, has been received
■with sincere and general sorrow. Since the beginning of his
public career he has steadily grown in the estimation of the
American people, and his distinguished ability and service have
been universally recognized.
It is deemed fitting that the deep grief which fills all hearts
should find formal expression. Therefore, the President of the
United States has directed that the flags on all Government build-
ings be placed at half-staff from sunrise until sunset to-day, No-
vember second. It is further ordered that all public business in
the various offices of this Government be suspended so far as prac-
ticable during the same period.
Newton W. Gilbert,
Acting Governor General.
PHILIPPINE legislature EXPRESSES SORROW
On the day of Vice President Sherman's funeral, November 2,
1912, the third Philippine Legislature adopted the following reso-
lution and adjourned in respect to his memory:
" JOINT RESOLUTION Expressing the grief of both houses of the legislature on
account of the death of the Hon. James Schoolcbaft Sherman, Vice President
of the United States, and providing for the adjournment of both houses as a
token of sorrow.
"Resolved by the Philippine Commission and the Philippine
Assembly, That they express, as they hereby do express, the pro-
found sorrow with which they have received the announcement
of the death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice Presi-
dent of the United States;
"Resolved further, That the session of both houses be, and
hereby is, immediately adjourned in token of their sorrow for
this day;
[89]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
"And resolved further, That the secretary of the Philippine
Commission or the secretary of the Philippine Assembly shall
furnish a certified copy of this resolution to the President of the
United States, through the chief executive of the Philippines, and
to the family of the deceased."
NARVACAN COUNCIL MANIFESTS REGRET
The municipal council of Narvacan, Province of Ilocos Sur,
P. I., at the suggestion of the president, Mr. Pedro Viloria Banez,
and on motion of Mr. Poinciano Viloria, seconded by the vice
president, Mr. Aniceto Corrales, adopted the following resolution
on November 27, 1912:
"Resolved, To express, and it hereby does express, the fact that
it has received with profound regret the notice regarding the
death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President
of the United States.
"Resolved, further, That the municipal secretary be directed
to forward, through his excellency, the governor general of the
Philippine Islands, certified copies hereof, not only to His Excel-
lency, the President of the United States, but also to the family
of the deceased."
[90]
FUNERAL SERVICES
[From the UUca (N. Y.) Daily Press, Nov. 2, 1912.]
FRIENDS GET FINAL GLIMPSE THOUSANDS GAZE SORROWFULLY BODY
OF VICE PRESIDENT LIES AT THE COUNTY BUILDING, WHERE FOR
HOURS MEMBERS OF GRIEVED COMMUNITY PASS FOR LAST LOOK ON
HIS FACE IMPRESSIVE AND SOLEMN EXERCISES.
The body of Vice President Sherman was placed in state in the
courthouse in this city yesterday afternoon and remained on
view until well into the night, and during these hours was seen
by many thousands. There were no formal exercises, but the
proceedings were conducted in a quiet, dignified manner befit-
ting the solemnity of the occasion. About a thousand of Mr.
Sherman's neighbors and friends marched in the procession
which acted as escort. Chairman Thomas R. Proctor and mem-
bers of the reception committee were inside the house. The
veterans of the Grand Army of the Republic, led by Maj. James
Miller and E. G. Ferry, were ranged on both sides of the south
walk. It was about 2.30 p. m. when the hearse drew up at the
curb and the procession began forming. All heads were uncov-
ered as the body was brought to the door. The members of the
Boosters' committee were ranged each side of the hearse and
the members of the reception committee, headed by Rev. Louis
H. Holden, Ph. D., escorted the remains from the house to the
hearse. The procession started for the courthouse in the fol-
lovdng order:
Platoon of police headed by Ofiicer McGarthy, who was Mr.
Sherman's bodyguard in 1908.
Veterans of the Civil War led by Maj. James Miller and E. G.
Ferry, Capt. Frank S. Judson of the Cavalry troop acting as
marshal.
Utica Lodge Benevolent Protective Order of Elks, 300 men.
Hearse.
Business men's escort; William H. Roberts, F. X. Matt, Russell
Wheeler, William E. Richards, Hon. Henry Martin, Oscar S.
Foster, William E. Lewis, M. Jesse Brayton, Charles W. Wicks,
F. M. Kendrick, D. D. Smythe, A. H. Munson, Patrick J. McQuade,
E. J. Millspaugh, F. A. Bosworth, Lieut. W. G. Mayer, John L.
Maher, George B. Allen, B. Allen Whiffen, James H. Gilmore, John
A. Cantwell, Wilbur S. Clark, Charles Millar, Brian Clarke, Messrs.
Jefferson, Safford, DeLong, and others.
[91]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
Reception committee, Thomas R. Proctor, chairman; Robert
Fraser, George L. Bradford, W. S. Doolittle, Frederick T. Proctor,
Charles A. Miller, Charles B. Rogers, George E. Dunham, J. Fred
Maynard, William T. Baker, Hon. F. M. Calder, Hon. John D.
Kernan, Perle W. Harter, Edgar B. Odell, Otto A. Meyer, Hon. P. C.
J. DeAngelis, Hon. Charles S. Symonds.
Automobile containing Dr. Holden, Sherrill Babcock, and others.
City officials, bankers, and business men generally.
Prof. Emidio Spina and Vincenzo Marrone, of La Luce, in which
Mr. Sherman was a stockholder.
Utica Republican Club, over 100 members.
As the procession moved slowly down Genesee Street it was
viewed by thousands standing on the sidewalks. Nearly all the
dwellings and places of business displayed the Stars and Stripes
at half-mast and bound with crepe. While the procession was
en route, the city hall bell was tolled.
The courthouse was profusely draped in mourning. In the
center of the rotunda directly opposite the entrance on the main
floor a catafalque had been made of flags, and above this was a
canopy formed of large flags. At the right and left were screens
formed of palms. Near by on benches were large wreaths of
orchids, roses, carnations, and Easter lilies.
Gapt. Peter Arheilger had charge of the police outside, and at
the entrances and inside were about 50 members of the National
Guard, Companies A and B, in charge of Lieut. E. K. Miller and
Lieut. Chester W. Davis. Two soldiers stood at the head and two
at the foot, and they were frequently relieved.
The body was incased in a massive casket of mahogany
covered with black broadcloth and having massive bar extension
handles of antique silver. On the casket was a large cross of
white lilies fringed with maidenhair fern. Mr. Sherman's face
was placid and serene, and his position was natural. Those who
made up the escorting column were the first to look at the re-
mains. As the members of the Elks passed through each took
from his buttonhole an ivy leaf and placed it on the casket.
There was no music, no display, no speeches, but as a resident
and former mayor of Utica and as Vice President of the United
States, Mr. Sherman belonged to the people, and their desire to
see his face again before it should be lost to sight was natural and
sincere. To place the body in a public building in a place easy
of access, where people could see it conveniently, was a courtesy
on the part of his family which was highly appreciated. The
spectators entered by the front door, formed in two lines, and
with uncovered heads and measured tread they proceeded to the
bier, where they paused for an instant and took a last look and
a mental farewell of the sleeper, and then passed on and out of
the door just opposite. It was done quietly and reverently and
in less time than it takes to write it. It was silent, yet eloquent;
[92]
Funeral Services
a simple yet beautiful demonstration dictated by a feeling of
friendship for the dead and sympathy for his surviving relatives.
Never was there a better opportunity to study the composite
character of the population of Utica than by watching the crowd
which passed through the courthouse in viewing the remains of
Mr. Sherman. For the first hour or two women and school
children were in the majority. Among those in this period were
clergymen, school-teachers, lawyers, and doctors. After 5 o'clock
there were more men, and from 5.30 to 6.30 there were mostly
men. Then there was a falling off for about an hour, but shortly
after 7 o'clock the crowd began to increase, and soon there
was a jam outside the building, so that people were obliged to
stand in line for from 15 to 20 minutes until they could get
inside. Once inside they made speedy progress, for fhe soldiers
had things well systematized and kept the line moving. From 7
to 8 o'clock the crowd was large, and passed through at the rate
of 5,000 an hour. The spectators were not confined to Uticans,
but there were delegations from nearly every town in the county
and some from Herkimer County.
The evening crowd comprised mostly the men and women
who were at work during the day in all sorts of occupations.
And, though they were of all ages, colors, nationalities, and races,
all showed that they felt the presence of death and knew the kin-
ship of sorrow. A delegation of about 50 boys from St. Vincent
Industrial School viewed the remains about 5.30. They were
accompanied by Brother Director Gregory.
Just before the doors were closed the members of Utica Council,
Knights of Columbus, passed through in a body. They were led
by Knight McCreary and numbered about 200. The Sherman
Boosters came in just after 9 o'clock.
At about 9.30 the remains were carried out the Mary Street
entrance to the hearse. The members of Companies A and B
of the National Guard acted as escort, and formed on either side
of the hearse. The Elks, Boosters, and members of the Repub-
lican Club also joined the column and accompanied the remains
up Genesee Street back to the home of Mr. Sherman. When the
body was taken to and from the city hall all street cars en route
were stopped as a mark of respect to Mr. Sherman, who was an
officer in the company.
A large wreath presented by the Boosters rested at the side of
the casket and a magnificent wreath of orchids from former Con-
gressman Littauer was close by.
The Elks acted as escort, at the request of the family of Mr.
Sherman. Mr. Sherman had an Elks badge in the lapel of his
coat.
Rev. Louis H. Holden, Ph. D., read appropriate prayers at the
home of Mr. Sherman yesterday afternoon before the remains
were taken to the courthouse.
[93]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
[From the Utlca (N. Y.) Daily Press, Nov. 4, 1912.]
MR. SHERMAN AT REST FUNERAL NOTABLE FOR ITS PROPORTION AND
DISTINCTION A NATIONAL AND CIVIC EVENT DIGNITARIES OF
STATE, INCLUDING THE PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC, UNITE WITH
NEIGHBORS AND FRIENDS IN THE LAST TRIBUTE OF RESPECT.
The funeral of Hon. James S. Sherman, Vice President of the
United States and Utica's foremost citizen, was held from the
First Presbyterian Church of this city at 2 o'clock Saturday after-
noon. In size and proportion it was the largest ever held in this
city. Those who attended the services at the church, although
they filled the edifice, were but a fragment as compared with the
throng that filled the streets and which was none the less ardent
in its devotion to the eminent dead, or less willing to pay formal
tribute if given opportunity. It is estimated that there were
25,000 persons in the streets of Utica on this sorrowful day.
In distinction, likewise, no such funeral has ever before been
held in Utica. The President of the United States, in the person
of Mr. Taft, justices of the Supreme Court, United States Senators,
Representatives in Congress, and State dignitaries from all parts
of the country were in attendance. Men famed in various walks
of life, friends of the departed, were also present.
The people of Utica never paid a more universal and more
heartfelt tribute at the bier of any of its sons. The city paused
in its various activities to do honor to the man who had done so
much for it in life and brought it distinction even in death.
The rumble of traffic was hushed as the city-hall bell tolled the
approaching hour of the obsequies. Simultaneously flags were at
half-mast in every State in the Union and in all the possessions
of the Government, to the remotest and smallest island. Public
buildings were closed and from every warship a salute of 19
minute guns was fired, echoing around the world, while every
officer of the Array, Navy, and Marine Corps wore an emblem of
mourning.
No other Utican has ever received such a testimonial of honor
and respect. Nation and city united in the tribute. The grief of
the many mourners, friends, and kindred will be assuaged, in a
measure, by the thought that the character and position of the
departed were such as to command the praise and homage of a
whole people.
The services at the church were simple in form, yet solemn
and impressive. They partook somewhat of the quality of
majesty. No services conducted in such presence could fail to
give such an impression. There were seated many of the gov-
erning minds of a mighty nation as well as representatives of
the highest culture — chiefs of state, of business, and education.
President Stryker of Hamilton College delivered a touching and
feeling eulogy. It was the sincere tribute of a friend to a friend
who had gone hither. Without show or ostentation, he told of
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the excellent qualities of the departed and the blessings and cer-
tainty of immortality. President Taft looked directly at the
speaker throughout the discourse, and was evidently deeply
impressed. His attitude was typical of the attitude of all. The
speaker communicated his emotion to the assemblage, and there
were many tear-stained eyes.
Sympathy radiated to the gentle and broken widow, the
bereaved sons, and other kindred.
The perfume of the beautiful flowers, like incense, pervaded
the atmosphere of the auditorium. The black and purple of the
mourning emblems gave a somber touch and color wholly in
keeping with the sorrowful occasion. The music was attuned
with the universal feeling.
Outside was the crowd, not sharing in the inspiration of eulogy,
music, and incense, but none the less solemn and reverent.
The procession was formed and slowly wended its way
between two flies of bowed humanity to the cemetery, where the
final rites of the funeral were performed, the last adieu said
by the family, and the body of James Schoolcraft Sherman laid
at rest.
WITH THOSE who LOOKED ON ^VAST CROWDS THRONGED THE
STREETS PROCESSIONS TO AND FROM CHURCH.
Gray clouds racing low across cold windswept sky, a piercing
chill that cut to the marrow, and a few light flakes of snow drift-
ing downward — these formed a fit setting of dreariness and
sorrow to the final rites accorded to James Schoolcraft Sherman
Saturday afternoon, when Utica and the surrounding towns
poured thousands of spectators into the center of the city and
along the route of the funeral procession.
It had been announced in the papers that certain portions of
the First Presbyterian Church not occupied by those entitled to
reserved seats would be opened to the public, and long before
11 o'clock the crowds began to gather outside the building where
the public funeral services were to be held.
The distinguished visitors of national reputation headed the
procession which was formed in the Hotel Utica lobby and the
Italian room. Members of the Republican Club of the city, to-
gether with the executive officers of the city, followed next in
line. The clergy, the common council, and the members of the
consistory of Christ Church completed the procession to the
church which was formed at the hotel.
It was 2.20 o'clock when the tolling of the city hall bell an-
nounced that the funeral cortege had left the Sherman home, fol-
lowing the services there. The big bell tolled solemnly on with
momentary intervals until after the procession reached the
church.
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Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
When the body was placed in the hearse the carriages were
filled as follows:
1. Mrs. Sherman and Sherrill Sherman.
2. Mr. and Mrs. Richard U. Sherman) Mr. and Mrs. Thomas M.
Sherman.
3. Mrs. Sherrill Sherman, Mrs. L. B. Moore, Capt. Babcock,
Mr. Littauer.
4. Mrs. William B. Jackson, Mr. and Mrs. H. J. Cookinham,
Mrs. Rice.
5. Mr. and Mrs. Richard W. Sherman, Miss Bessie Sherman,
Mrs. Dick.
6. Mr. and Mrs. Sanford Sherman, Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Hatfield.
7. Mr. and Mrs. James De Long, the Misses De Long.
8. Mr. and Mrs. H. J. Cookinham, jr., Mr. and Mrs. Frederick
Cookinham.
9. Mr. and Mrs. Edward Cookinham, Mr. and Mrs. Henry H.
Cooper, jr.
10. Walter Cookinham, Robert Sherman, the Misses Rice.
11. Judge and Mrs. Alfred C. Coxe, Mr. and Mrs. Julius Doolittle.
12. Miss Isabel Doolittle, Mr. and Mrs. W. C. J. Doolittle.
13. Mr. and Mrs. Brian Clark, Mrs. Roberts.
14. Mr. and Mrs. Charles H. Childs, Miss Nellie Barber.
15. Thomas Baker, the Misses Baker, Miss Connelly.
16. Hon. and Mrs. George Fairchild, Hon. L. W. Emerson.
There were in all 42 carriages at the Sherman home, and the
greater share of the remainder were filled without regard to
special order. The procession then moved toward the church,
preceded by the honorary and active bearers.
At 2.34 the carriage containing Dr. Stryker, Dr. Holden, and
Dr. Brokaw arrived at the entrance of the church.
Then the bearers arrived, followed by the hearse. The heavy
casket, covered with flowers and containing the body of Utica's
distinguished son, was lifted reverently from the hearse and
carried up the steps of the church.
The arrival of Mrs. Sherman was the signal for a general silent
manifestation of sympathy. Everywhere hats were lifted and
quiet murmurs of sympathy came from the women. Mrs. Sher-
man was escorted to the church by her sons, Richard and
Sherrill.
When the distinguished visitors and those having cards of
admission were seated such of the public as could be seated in
the remaining space were admitted. While the service was in
progress the throng about the church and up Washington Street
could easily stand an estimate of 18,000. The crowd immediately
about the church extended over Columbia Street and down Wash-
ington Street to Lafayette.
After the services, the general public was admitted through
the chapel doors of the church to view the flowers and deco-
rations.
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Between the double line of Senators, Congressmen, and Justices
of the Supreme Court the casket was borne to the hearse and
the flowers placed upon it. The immediate family and Presi-
dent Taft and suite followed, and the procession took up the line
of march to the cemetery.
Up Washington Street to Genesee the 42 carriages moved in
slow time between thousands of spectators that lined both sides of
the route as far as Court Street. From there on the spectators
were on the west side of the street and four deep as far as South
Street. Every corner was crowded, and at Oneida Square
another crowd awaited the cortfege.
At 3.45 o'clock the body of the dead Vice President passed the
Sherman home for the last time. The house stood dark and
grim in the failing light of the afternoon as the master of the
house passed on forever. No crowd assembled there, but from
the windows of the near-by homes faces looked out to see the last
of their good friend and neighbor. The march continued past
the House of the Good Shepherd, where the waiting lines of
orphans bowed their heads in respect to the passing hearse.
Following out the suggestion made by Mayor Baker in his
proclamation Saturday morning, the business houses of the city
closed their doors from 2 o'clock until 4. The national colors,
tied with crepe or black and purple bunting, appeared all along
the line of march, and the business section of the city presented
a Sunday afternoon appearance.
In compliance with orders issued yesterday, all electric cars in
the city stopped at 2 o'clock and remained stationary for five
minutes. The business offices of the railway company were
closed all day. It was in these ways that the local electric
company expressed the sympathy due to a distinguished citizen
and a stockholder in the company.
SERVICES AT THE HOME ONLY RELATIVES AND A VERY FEW FRIENDS
GATHER THERE BEFORE THE PUBLIC CHURCH SERVICE.
Intimate, and because of that intimacy the more sorrowful, were
the services conducted Saturday afternoon at the home of Vice
President Sherman. There gathered the members of his family
and a few very close friends who were given this opportunity to
pay their tribute of honor and affection to the man they had
known and loved. It was for this reason that the services took
on an aspect essentially private, although President Taft was
present for part of the service.
The casket containing the body of Vice President Sherman
was placed in the parlor at the north side of the house. In that
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Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
room were seats for some of the family and the President's party,
while other seats were placed in the hall and the adjoining rooms.
The honorary bearers, who were Senator Elihu Root, Thomas R.
Proctor, Charles S. Symonds, William S. Doolittle, J. Francis Day,
George E. Dunham, Charles B. Rogers, William T. Baker, Henry
H. Cooper, and Dr. Fayette H. Peck, were seated in a room at the
rear of the hall until such time as they were called to perform the
duties of their sad office. Near them also were waiting the active
bearers from the Utica Trust & Deposit Co., of which Mr. Sher-
man was president: Graham Coventry, Charles J. Lamb, Grover
C. Clark, George W. Williams, Floyd E. Ecker, H. R. Huntington,
C. R. Hicks, H. P. Thomas, J. C. Cody, R. E. Roberts.
Everywhere were to be seen the beautiful flo'wers which had
been sent to express the sympathy of friends. The parlor was
banked on every side with these and in the other rooms, too, they
were found in profusion. From persons high and low throughout
the country these messengers came, bearing the sympathy of
friends who mourned together in the loss of their common friend.
The service had been announced for 1 o'clock, but it was
considerably after that before Rev. Louis H. Holden, Ph. D., pastor
of Christ Church, began the Scripture reading. This he did after
President Taft and his party arrived. They came about 1.40, the
President being met by Lieut. W. G. Mayer, Thomas R. Proctor,
W. S. Doolittle, and others. All stood while the President passed
into the parlor to take his place near the body of his dead asso-
ciate.
After the minister had repeated the Twenty-third Psalm all
present joined in reciting the Apostles' Creed. Then they were
seated while Dr. Holden read the Scriptures, his selections being
taken from I Corinthians xv and John xiv. He offered a brief
prayer, ending with the Lord's Prayer. Then followed the bene-
diction.
The singing, which was under the direction of Dr. F. P. Cavallo,
was beautiful and lent much to the dignity and impressiveness
of the occasion. The Schubert quartet, composed of Mrs. Hugh
T. Owen, soprano; Mrs. Lelia Ryan Schilz, contralto; Dr. Cavallo,
bass; and Elliott H. Stewart, tenor, sang " Paradise, Oh Paradise "
and " Rock of Ages." There was also a male quartet, composed
of Mr. Stewart, first tenor; Thomas E. Ryan, second tenor; A.
Spencer Hughes, first bass; and Dr. Cavallo, second bass. They
sang an arrangement of " Crossing the Bar."
While the singing was in progress the bearers had left the home
with their sad burden, and already the hearse was moving slowly
down Genesee Street at the head of a mournful procession. As
fast as the carriages were filled with the members of the family,
they joined the slow-moving line which passed between crowds
all the way to the church where the public service was held.
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INSIDE THE CHURCH PRESIDENT STRYKER OF HAMILTON COLLEGE
PAYS AFFECTING TRIBUTE TO MEMORY OF A DEAR FRIEND.
The church doors were not open till just before the hour of
the funeral, but the ushers were on hand as early as 1 o'clock.
They were : From the Conkling Unconditionals, Arthur J. Lowery,
chief; Spencer Kellogg, Frank B. Rathbun, Edward B. Ibbotson,
Charles DeAngelis, Russell Brennan, William A. Clark, Edward
K. Miller, Chester W. Davis, Bradford C. Divine, Frederick W.
Kincaid, A. C. Brinckerhoff, Fred B. Adams, Stewart Snyder,
M. Angelo Cooper, Rex Witherbee, George Ladue, Charles L.
Williams; from the First Presbyterian Church, Dr. F. H. Brewer,
Dr. E. D. Fuller, J. C. Hamilton.
The interior of the church was profusely draped with emblems
of mourning. The base was black and the overdrapings of
purple. The reredos was covered with black and purple and
at the sides were festoons of similar hues. The gallery front
was covered with black and overdrapings of purple, and festoons
of the same colors were under each windovir. The columns were
wound, and the frdBt pews, occupied by the President and by
Mrs. Sherman, were covered with black and a large flag.
The floral tributes were the most numerous and costly ever
seen at a funeral in this city. They filled the chancel and the
space in front. In the center was a large flag in flowers, the
gift of the Utica Republican Club. On one side of the pulpit
was a large cross from the Conkling Unconditionals and on the
other a large cross of white chrysanthemums trimmed with
orchids from the ofiicials at the city hall. Other pieces were
a wreath of orchids from the United States Senate, a wreath of
white roses from the House of Representatives, and beautiful
floral pieces from the Secretary of State and Mrs. Knox, the min-
ister of Salvador, the Dominican Republic, the Guatemalan min-
ister and Sefiora Dona Luz Mendez, the German ambassador and
Countess Bernstorff', the National Republican League, the Ameri-
can Protective Tariff" League, the Republican city and county
committee, Charles V. Schram, large cross with "Auld Lang Syne "
in flowers from the Hebrew people of Utica, a large wreath of
white flowers on palms by Harry Gerber and Samuel Stone. On
this was a card inscribed, " For He will give His angels charge
concerning thee, to guard thee in all thy ways." Large floral
piece from Herkimer County friends. Other floral pieces were
from Minard J. Fisher, Miss Florence Millar, and Charles Millar, a
blanket of chrysanthemums from the congregation of Christ
Church.
At 1.30 the doors to the galleries were opened and the galleries
were at once filled. Next the side aisles were opened and filled
almost as quickly. At 1.50 the congressional party entered, then
the Justices of the Supreme Court and the trustees of Hamilton
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Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
College. The Conkling Unconditionals were seated in the chancel.
When President Taft, former Vice President Fairbanks, and the
other officers entered, the audience rose and remained standing
until the President was seated.
The President occupied a seat in the center aisle of the church,
and with him sat Attorney General Wickersham, Secretary Nagel,
of the Department of Commerce and Labor; former Vice Presi-
dent Fairbanks, and Chairman Hilles, of the Republican national
committee.
Immediately back of them were seated Justices Hughes and
Pitney, of the United States Supreme Court; Senators Crane,
Curtis, Lippitt, Penrose, Oliver, Bacon, Works, and O'Gorman;
Secretary Bennett, of the Senate; and Representatives Dalzell,
Galder, Jones, Wright, Fairchild, Fitzgerald, Dwight, Knapp,
Cocks, and other Members of the National House of Representa-
tives. Senator Root was seated with the honorary pallbearers.
Others in the assemblage included former Govs. Frank S.
Black and Benjamin B. Odell, jr., and members of the New York
State Legislature. Gov. Dix was unable to be present, but sent
Lieut. Commander Eckford C. DeKay, ^is military secretai:y, as
his representative.
The casket, covered with violets and lilies of the valley, was
borne into the church at 2.30 o'clock, and following it came Mrs.
Sherman in heavy mourning, leaning on the arm of her son
Sherrill. She was accompanied by other members of the Sher-
man family. All were given seats in close proximity to the casket.
The Mendelssohn funeral march was played as the body was
carried in and deposited immediately in front of the altar.
The entire audience arose in silence as the bearers made their
way to the front. First came the honorary bearers and the active
bearers with the remains and then the members of the family and
relatives. The Republican Club occupied the chapel in rear of
the pulpit.
The music was in charge of Charles W. Mowry, organist and
choir master. While the pews were filling the organ played the
following selections: "Adagio and Andante"; C Minor Sonata,
Mendelssohn; Elegy, Halsey; Largo, Handel; Legend, Foulkes.
The choir was made up of the following: Sopranos, Miss
Carmelita Wilkes, Miss Florence Lumley, Mrs. Hugh T. Owen;
altos. Miss Calista Gardner, Miss Florence Debbold, Mrs. Leila
Ryan Schilz; tenors, Thomas G. Jones, Alfred Jay, and Elliott
H. Stewart; bassos, Herbert Jones, A. Spencer Hughes, Hugh T.
Owen.
The services opened with the choir singing " Lead, Kindly
Light." Rev. Louis H. Holden, Ph. D., read passages of Scripture
which declare the blessed assurance of eternal life.
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PRESIDENT STRYKER's ADDRESS
The address by President M. Woolsey Stryker, of Hamilton Col-
lege, was brief but full of feeling. Dr. Stryker never spoke more
deliberately, and when he came to say the words of farewell he
looked down from the pulpit on the form of Mr. Sherman below
and his voice choked with emotion. Many in the audience were
moved to tears. Dr. Stryker spoke as follows:
" In solemn and united mourning, but with tearful gratitude
and calm, reasonable hope, we are met in this house of faith to
remember him whose form is before us in all the mysterious
dignity and the eloquent silence of death. We represent, while
we deeply share, a general public sorrow. The high representa-
tives of State and Nation assemble with us, who are his neighbors,
in keen human sympathy, to make a common tribute of manly
regard and manly affection to an exalted dignitary of the land
and to an endeared companion. We lament the passing, not
first of the Vice President of the United States, but of James
Schoolcraft Sherman, the man. This community shares in these
acts of devotion, aware that there is gone their preeminent — ^long-
time such — preeminent fellow citizen, but also that one is gone
whose cordial courtesy and whose indomitable and impartial
kindliness made him the counselor and the helper of innumerable
men.
" In the name of you all, I assure this household of your
keen and profound heed for their distress, and in their names
I thank you for your presence and for that swift telepathy in
which you identify your grief with theirs. You put out to
them warm and firm hands and they take them gladly, and
unspeakably they thank you.
" I speak for that college circle which had delight and honor
in this elect and loyal comrade and for those, its trustees, whose
labors he zealously shared. And I speak — alas, that words are so
poor I — as an intimate and sorrowing friend, one of many, so
many who grieve that we shall here not see him any more. Not
even with the most urgent brevity may I at all recite his con-
sistent and influential career. No; nor his earthly honors. No;
nor his noble traits. All these are legible; written past recall.
Our hearts review them. Nor will we ever forget. Least of all
may I lead you, with steps however soft, into the sanctities of
that domestic love which are his endearing legacies. We inter-
meddle not with that joy.
" Good-by, good and faithful servant, great heart, gentle friend,
good-by. Here be it remembered that this man was one whose
patience and whose courage drank deep of' that spiritual rock.
Never was he ashamed of his hope in the Master of Life, whom
ever since long ago he quietly and steadfastly confessed before
men.
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Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
"Yes, farewell. Let the mortal put on immortality. We, the
pilgrims of the night who still dwell in tents, salute thee in thy
secure abode where all shadows are swallowed up of day.
Thanks be to God for every good fight fought through; for every
victory won through pain; for Him, the Captain of the Cross,
who leads steadily His own to where, beyond these voices, there
is peace."
At the conclusion of his address. Dr. Stryker proceeded at once
with his prayer, in which he said:
" Therefore, Almighty and Merciful God, we bow before Thee
and acknowledge Thy sovereign will in us. Come death, come
life, we lay in Thy hand the secure keeping the dear dust of
the dead. "We remember with joy and gratitude before Thee
all wherein Thy life touched theirs with beauty and with power.
We pray that we may so follow the good example of those who
sleep in Jesus Christ that, after this painful life is ended, we
may dwell with Thee in life everlasting. Thou Who didst with
Thine own lips say, ' I will not leave you orphans, I will care
for you with more than human love,' dost regard these friends of
ours in their sorrow. Let there be light in their dwellings. Let
the peace of God that passeth all understanding guard their
hearts and their thoughts in Christ. Make us all, O God, more
tender and more true by this day's experience. Let our vows be
registered with Thee while our hearts praise Thy name. Join
us with the blessed company of those everywhere who trust
and serve and bow and wait. And in Thy due time, through
Thy great mercy, through Jesus Christ, who won for all, receive
us into everlasting habitations. Thou who hast said, ' Because
I live, ye shall live also,' we do not ask that the way of life may be
made soft and easy to our feet, but we ask that it may be made
plain. Help us to bear the day's burden, to endure the trials of the
instant. We leave all things in Thy good hands and do commit
ourselves and all this presence to Thy faithful care, and, when
this is over, open to us Thy door that at last we may know Thee
whom we have so much forgotten, and know as we are known.
" Thou that takest away the sins of the world, have mercy
on us. Thou that takest away the sins of the world, grant us
Thy pe^ice. Amen."
Then, at the request of President Stryker, the audience rose
and joined the choir in singing with great earnestness the well-
known hymn, " Nearer, My God, to Thee." It was the first time
that those in the congregation had had an opportunity to give
expression to their feelings, and they sang the five verses of the
hymn with an earnestness seldom heard. President Taft sang
as fervently as any, as did President Stryker.
The benediction was announced by the pastor of the church.
Rev. Ralph W. Brokaw, D. D. The choir sang with fine expres-
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sion the well-known prayer hymn, "Abide with Me," after which
the remains were borne from the church, the funeral procession
being made up of the honorary bearers, clergy, the remains,
members of the family and mourners. President Taft, and the
other officials in their order. For a recessional the organ played
Mendelssohn's funeral march.
The official position of Mr. Taft, as President of the United
States, entitled him to ride ahead of the hearse, but he preferred
to be a mourner, and at his own request was given a place behind
Mr. Sherman's immediate family.
The floral tributes were so numerous that they could not all be
brought into the church, but all were taken to the cemetery.
Among them were wreaths and other designs from the follow-
ing: Mr. and Mrs. S. G. Neale, J. G; Small and wife. National
Republican League, Mr. and Mrs. Albert Hatfield, Mr. and Mrs. C.
H. Poole, employees of the Utica Trust & Deposit Co., Hon. and
Mrs. M. E. DriscoU, Beta Chapter of the Sigma Phi fraternity, Hon.
J. W. Weeks, Republican county and city committee, Mr. and Mrs.
O. H. Hammond, Mr. and Mrs. F. M. Peckham, Mr. and Mrs. D. H.
Hazard, Hon. Charles L. Knapp, Mr. and Mrs. George E. Dunham,
William H. Hawk and daughter, Mr. and Mrs. R. A. C. Smith, Mr.
and Mrs. J. C. Bishop, the Northern New York Trust Co., Hon.
L. N. Littauer, Judge W. B. Hooker and family, the Spanish
minister, the minister of Haiti, the Secretary of State and Mrs.
Knox, Hon. F. M. Davenport, the United States Senate, George W.
Hinman, Mr. and Mrs. Brian Clarke, and employees of the Utica
post office.
A magnificent wreath from President and Mrs. Taft did not
arrive till late, but Mrs. Sherman, accompanied by members of
her family, went to the cemetery and placed it in the mausoleum
yesterday morning.
AT THE CEMETERY HUNDREDS GATHER TO WATCH THE FINAL
SERVICES AS VICE PRESIDENT SHERMAN IS LAID TO REST.
The scene at the committal service in Forest Hill Cemetery was
one never to be forgotten. There were gathered as closely as
they could be grouped the high and low of the earth, for many
of the people who are generally described as just " plain folks "
were almost rubbing elbows with the President of the United
States. And all about them were the resting places of those who
are asleep in the last long rest which obliterates all distinctions
of place and power.
As sharp as were the contrasts in humanity gathered there, even
more sharp were the visible aspects of nature. Underfoot along
the edges of the drive rustled the dead leaves which had fallen
from the many trees. Stark and bare the limbs of the trees stood
in naked outline against the cold November sky. And yet, grouped
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Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
near the place where the last words of farewell were said in honor
of him who is gone, appeared every sort of tribute from the art
and skill of the florist. The most beautiful and fragrant forms in
which nature displays its floral riches were gathered there in a
profusion of color and design. Wonderful wreaths and designs,
huge bouquets of lilies, orchids, roses, and violets gave mute testi-
mony of the place in the hearts of his friends which Mr. Sherman
held. These were the tributes of friends who chose in this
beautiful manner to express their sympathy. And so these
flowers became the eloquent messengers of those whose hearts
were perhaps too full to say the things that the flowers meant.
In front of the Babcock-Moore mausoleum a tent had been
erected to shelter those who were to take part in the final service.
Against the ropes in front crowded hundreds of people, eager to
see and yet respectful and reverent, fully appreciating the sad-
ness of the occasion.
About 4 o'clock came a few carriages, bearing more of the
flowers which had been brought from the church. There fol-
lowed a few busy moments arranging these, and then fell the hush
of expectancy. Soon the Haydns, numbering about 60, arrived,
and they were groupied against the ropes at one side of the plot,
to take their share in the service. Then Dr. M. Woolsey Stryker,
Dr. Ralph W. Brokaw, and Dr. Louis H. Holden arrived. They
were followed by the honorary bearers, who were grouped about
the place prepared for the casket before it was finally laid to rest
in the crypt.
When the hearse stopped before the approach to the mausoleum,
the bearers stood near to receive their sad burden. Reverently
the crowd uncovered as the men moved slowly away, bearing
between them the heavy black symbol of grief. On top of the
casket lay two crosses, one of white lilies and the other of violets,
tributes of the family.
The casket was placed on the rests and there was a moment's
hush as President Taft, former Vice President Fairbanks, and
several others high in the Nation's councils, gathered there
for the last tribute of respect and aflfection. Meanwhile the
Haydns had been singing "Asleep in Jesus " on the tune " Rest,"
this being at the request of Mrs. Sherman. It was the same hymn
they had sung at the funeral of Mrs. Sherman's mother not long
before.
Dr. Stryker began the committal service, speaking in a low
tone, yet so distinctly that his words were heard by many in
the crowd. The reading occupied about three minutes and
then the Schubert quartet sang " Good Night." There followed
a moment's stir as President Taft and his party had to take leave.
They stepped slowly from the shelter of the tent, to make their
way toward the waiting automobiles. As they left, Richard U.
Sherman followed them, to climb into the President's car, shake
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his hand, and thank him, apparently, for his presence at the
funeral.
Reverently the honorary bearers and others who had been a
part of the gathering left the tent. There remained but the mem-
bers of the family, and none wished to intrude on the sacredness
of those last moments. To the relatives belonged the intimacy of
the final farewell and no person would have had it otherwise.
After the Haydns had sung " Nearer, My God, to Thee," and Dr.
Stryker had pronounced the benediction, the service was at an
end. Gently the casket was slid into the crypt prepared for it,
slowly the crowd turned away to pass quietly down the winding
paths.
Dusk was giving way to darkness before the last persons had
left. Lights flashing here and there in the valley below picked
out the busy places in the city's activity. From afar came a
steady impersonal hum as though of many voices talking — in
fact, it was the voice of the city. And there through the trees on
the hillside whispered the cold November wind. But it held no
terrors for him who was left there asleep — close to the city and
people he loved and served so well.
MEMORIAL SERVICES IN BERLIN
A memorial service in honor of the late Vice President James
Schoolcraft Sherman was held at the American church in Berlin
on the afternoon of November 2, 1912, at 2 o'clock, the same hour
as the funeral services in Utica. The Berlin services were at-
tended by the respective staffs of the American Embassy and the
consulate general, headed by the ambassador, the Hon. John G. A.
Leishman, at whose suggestion the memorial was held. The Ger-
man minister of foreign affairs sent Count Montgelas, of the for-
eign oflSce, to attend the services as his representative. Members
of the American colony in Berlin also attended.
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BY PRESIDENT TAFT.
[From the Washington (D. C.) Post.]
New York, October 30, 1912. — President Taft was informed of
the death of Vice President Sherman at 9.50 o'clock, as the Chief
Executive and his Secretary of the Navy were seated in the
Thirteenth Regiment Armory, Brooklyn, as guests of honor at a
dinner given to them by employees of the Brooklyn Navy Yard,
in celebration of the successful launching of the battleship New
York to-day.
The President had just iinished a plea for a greater Navy, and
Commander Greaves of the navy yard was speaking at the time
when the news of Mr. Sherman's death was broken to the
President.
Mr. Taft at first made no comment after hearing the news. He
remained seated, concealing emotions which he might have had,
until Commander Greaves and Congressman Calder had finished
their speeches. He then rose and said:
" My Friends : Three years ago you met on an occasion like
this to celebrate the launching of the Florida, and you were
honored by the presence of the Vice President of the United
States — ^Vice President Sherman. It is a very sad duty for me
to announce that word has just come that the Vice President is
dead.
" Those who knew him loved him. Those who knew the serv-
ices he rendered to his country respected him. I venture to ask
that this assemblage adjourn in honor of his memory and that
no further proceedings be taken."
A period of silence followed the President's unexpected words.
The band came to the relief of the situation by playing, "My
Country, 'Tis of Thee," and the naval ofiicers and men filed out
quickly. •
The President was escorted to his automobile. Tears came to
his eyes. He was lost sight of, however, as he stepped inside of
the car and was whisked across Brooklyn Bridge and to the
Pennsylvania Railroad Station in New York, where he was due
to take his train at 12.30 o'clock for Washington.
Immediately after arriving in New York President Taft dis-
patched the following telegram to Mrs. Sherman at Utica:
" Mrs. Taft and I extend to you our heartfelt sympathy in your
great sorrow. Our hearts go out to you in the loss of your noble
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and loving husband. Vice President Sherman had rendered dis-
tinguished service to his country, and his death, 10 years before
the time allotted by the Psalmist, is a great loss. As a Member of
Congress and a Vice President he endeared himself to all who
knew him. His memory is full of sweetness and light.
"William H. Taft."
Just before boarding his train for Washington President Taft
made the following statement:
" News of the death of Vice President James S. Sherman has
just reached me, and although it was not unexpected, it has filled
my heart with sadness. I feel a sense of personal bereavement
in the loss of a friend, who was a conscientious worker in the
many undertakings in which we were engaged.
" It is an easy matter to pay tribute to his worth. He was a
gentleman of splendid poise, of mental attainment, which were
balanced by so fine a sense of justice that all who knew him
respected him and admired him. The sobriquet which he has
properly earned, and which was a tribute to a disposition that
radiated sunshine and good will, readily explains the warm affec-
tion in which he was held by the many thousands who had come
into personal contact with him.
"As a legislator and expounder of parliamentary law and prac-
tice he had achieved a reputation of national proportions before
he was elevated to the high and dignified office of Vice President
of the United States. His services as Vice President will be fit-
tingly acknowledged by the United States Senate, over which he
presided with marked fairness. He was a Republican of sturdy
principles, and his counsel within the party, always eagerly
sought and highly regarded, will be sadly missed in the many
crises created by new problems arising and demanding wise con-
sideration and practical solution."
BY GOV. WILSON.
[From the Dtica (N. T.) Dally Press, Not.- 1, 1912.]
The family of Mr. Sherman yesterday received hundreds of
telegrams from all parts of the country expressing sympathy.
Among them was the following:
" In common with the whole country, Mrs. Wilson and I have
been deeply shocked by the death of Vice President Sherman,
and we wish to extend to you our heartfelt sympathy.
"WooDRow Wilson."
[From the Utica (N. Y.) Daily Press, Nov. 4, 1912.]
Rochester, November 2, 1912. — At the request of Gov. Wilson,
the Democratic parade announced for this afternoon in New
York City has been called off out of respect to the memory of
Vice President Sherman, whose funeral will take place to-day.
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Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
As soon as Gov. Woodrow Wilson arrived in Rochester late yes-
terday afternoon he telegraphed National Chairman W. F. Mc-
Combs to cancel the parade scheduled to be held in New York
to-day by the College Men's Wilson and Marshall Clubs. The
parade was to take place at the same hour that Vice President
Sherman's funeral is to be held.
The governor wired as follows:
" I hope that the arrangements for the parade ■will be canceled
as an evidence of our deep sympathy for the family and friends
of the late Vice President. I know this will be your feeling."
BY GOV. MARSHALL.
[From the Washington (D. C), Post, Nov. 1, 1912.]
Chicago, October 31, 1912. — Gov. Thomas R. Marshall, at the
end of his 7,000-mile speaking tour to the Pacific Coast States and
return, to-day canceled further campaign speeches because of the
death of Vice President Sherman. Gov. Marshall had been sched-
uled to make three speeches in Chicago and several in Indiana and
Ohio.
" In the presence of the dead," said Gov. Marshall, " every self-
respecting man stands silent.
" Mr. Sherman is not alone the dead of one of the contesting
political parties, but is the Nation's dead as well, and as such is
deserving of the honor and respect of every man who respects
the Nation."
Before departing from Chicago for Indianapolis this afternoon,
Gov. Marshall sent a telegram of sympathy to Mrs. Sherman.
BY COL. ROOSEVELT.
New York, October 30, 1912. — Just after he left the Madison
Square Garden meeting. Col. Roosevelt was informed of the death
of Vice President Sherman. The colonel immediately sent the
following telegram:
" Mrs. James S. Sherman, Utica, N. Y.:
" Mrs. Roosevelt and I are greatly shocked and concerned at
the sad news of your husband's death. We beg you to accept our
most sincere sympathy.
" Theodore Roosevelt."
New York, November 1, 1912. — The following telegram was sent
by Chairman Prendergast, of the Progressive mass meeting in
Madison Square Garden to-night, to Mrs. Sherman in response to
Col. Roosevelt's suggestion to the meeting:
" Mrs. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vtica, N. Y.:
" At the suggestion of Theodore Roosevelt and in the name of
15,000 citizens of this city gathered in mass meeting, I have the
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honor to extend to you their heartfelt sympathy in your great
sorrow.
" William A. Prendergast,
" Chairman."
OTHER EXPRESSIONS OF SYMPATHY.
[From the Utlca (N. Y.) Dally Press.]
The universal esteem in which Mr. Sherman was held is testi-
fied to in the following messages of respect and sympathy to Mrs.
Sherman.
The following was received from Hon. Augustus 0. Bacon,
President pro tempore of the United States Senate :
" Sherrill Sherman : As President pro tempore of the Senate I
have directed the Sergeant at Arms of the Senate to make all ar-
rangements and provide everything which may be desired by your
family in connection with the funeral of your honored father, the
late Vice President, all of which it is desired may be entirely at
the charge of the Senate. So soon as you inform me of the ar-
rangement and the dates fixed and desired by the family I will
cause the notices to be given to the Members of the Senate to se-
cure their personal attendance. I beg that you will give me here
this information so soon as it may be found convenient to do so.
Senator Bacon also telegraphed as follows:
" I beg to express my profound sympathy in this hour of your
unspeakable affliction in the death of your universally beloved
husband. By all the people of the United States his passing away
will be deplored as a great national loss, and by each Senator he
will be mourned as a personal friend."
" You have our heartfelt sympathy in your great sorrow. May
God bless you and yours.
" Champ Clark,
" Speaker of the House of Representatives."
"All the members of the court deeply sympathize with you in
your great sorrow, and personally in the loss of so faithful a pub-
lic servant.
" E. D. White,
" Chief Justice, United States Supreme Court."
" Mrs. Hughes and I extend to you our deepest sympathy in
your great sorrow.
" Charles E. Hughes."
" Mrs. Dix and I extend to you and your family our sympathy.
The State and the Nation have lost an honored and honorable
citizen.
" John A. Dix,
" Governor of New York,"
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Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
" I extend to you heart sympathy for the loss of your beloved
husband, who was also my cherished friend.
" Cardinal Gibbons."
" Mrs. Sulzer and myself are greatly shocked by the death of
your distinguished husband, and in the hour of your sad be-
reavement we send you our heartfelt sympathy.
"William Sulzer."
" Mrs. Straus and I deeply sympathize with you in your be-
reavement and grief. His cheerfulness and kindliness endeared
your husband to all who knew him.
" Oscar S. Straus."
" Please accept my sympathy in your bereavement, and rest as-
sured that your loss has brought sorrow to many. Your husband's
friends are your friends.
"Job E. Hedges."
" The University of Notre Dame, Ind., mourns and prays beside
you. May God comfort you and protect the Nation.
" President Cavanaugh."
"Washington, D. C.
" Mrs. Bryce and I and all the members of this embassy desire
to convey our deep and sincere condolence with you in your
great bereavement.
" British Ambassador."
"Washington, D. C.
"At the request of the Japanese minister for foreign affairs and
Viscountess Uchilda, I beg to convey to you expression of their
profound and sincerest condolence at the terrible bereavement of
yourself and your family.
"Viscount Chinda,
" Japanese Ambassador."
" Pleasanton, Gal.
" May my wife and I offer you sincere sympathy in your great
sorrow. Regret absence from the East will prevent my repre-
senting the Persian legation at the funeral.
" MizRA Ali Kuli Khan,
" Persian Chargi d' Affaires."
" On behalf of the Swiss Government and the Nation I have the
honor to express to you my profound sympathy,
" Henri Martin,
" Chargi d'Aff aires of Switzerland."
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Tributes
" Tokyo, Japan.
"My most sincere condolence and heartfelt sympathy.
" Prince Tokugawa."
"Mrs. Knox joins me in aifectionate sympathy in your great
bereavement.
"P. C. Knox."
" My heartfelt sympathy goes out to you in this hour of grief.
None will miss his kindly personality more than those who have
known him so intimately during years of service in the Senate
and House of Representatives.
" Joseph M. Dixon."
" I grieve over the loss of one of my oldest and most valued
friends. Mrs. Depew and I join in deepest and tenderest sympa-
thy for yourself and family.
" Ghauncey M. Depew."
" I mourn with you and your family on the death of your dis-
tinguished husband and my friend, the Vice President. The
Nation has lost an honest, wise, and courageous public servant,
and to many there will come a deep sense of personal loss. Please
accept the assurances of my sincere sympathy.
"J. G. Cannon."
Congressman William B. McKinley, of Illinois, who managed the
preconvention Taft-Sherman campaign, said: "A great man and
a good man has gone."
" Seattle, Wash.
" Our deepest sympathy in your great bereavement. The Nation
has sustained a great loss in Mr. Sherman's death.
"W. E. Humphrey."
" Shreveport, La.
" In the death of your distinguished husband the Nation has
lost one of its foremost citizens and faithful public servants. I
served years in the House with Mr. Sherman. He enjoyed the
esteem, confidence, and respect of his colleagues without regard
to party. Mrs. Pujo joins me in extending heartfelt sympathy.
"A. P. Pujo."
" Please accept my sympathy. The Nation and the State as
well as the family have suffered a great loss.
"Alton B. Parker."
" Mrs. Odell and I sympathize with you in your bereavement.
Many years of association with your husband gave me the right
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Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
to call him friend, and his death therefore comes home to me
with peculiar force. In his civic life he has ever been faithful;
in every other walk of life he has been equally true. This knowl-
edge should be of comfort to you in your hour of sorrow.
" B. B. Odell, Jr."
"Washington, D. C.
" Will you allow me to convey to you my personal sympathy
and the sympathy of the Daughters of the American Revolution in
the crushing sorrow which has come to you in the death of your
distinguished husband. The flag on our Memorial Continental
Hall floats at half-mast in token of our respect and honor for the
great man whose loss the Nation mourns.
" Mrs. Matthew T. Scott,
" President General, N. S. D. A. R."
" Lugano, Switzerland.
" We weep with you and yours.
" Louis LOMRARD AND FAMILY."
"New York City.
" Please accept the deepest sympathy of my wife and myself in
your great bereavement.
" John Philip Sousa."
" London.
" I have lost a friend. Deepest regret.
" Harry Lauder."
" South Harpswell, Me.
" Our deepest, sincerest, and lasting sympathy to you and yours
in your irreparable affliction. We shall always be proud that we
numbered in among his friends.
" Rear Admiral and Mrs. Peary."
" The Royal Arcanum of Illinois, in general meeting assembled
in Chicago, in common with our fellow cousins throughout the
United States, mourn the loss of our faithful brother, James S.
Sherman, and tenders to you and to his sons, our bereaved
brothers, our profound sympathy. He has served both his coun-
try and this order ably and nobly.
" George W. Manierre,
" Chairman.
"F. T. McFaden,
" Suprepie Regent.
" Graeme Smith,
" Grand Regent."
" My Dear Madam : The members of Utica Lodge of Elks sympa-
thize deeply with you in the loss of your husband. Mr. Sherman
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had been an Elk for over a score of years, a period in whiicli he
always showed an interest in our organization. We have lost an
honored brother and our sorrow is deep at this time. Every one
of the 700 Elks in Utica sends you heartfelt sympathy.
" Lawrence J. Zobel,
" Exalted Ruler."
" The members of Branch 51 of the Association of Letter Car-
riers of Fall River, Mass., extend to you their heartfelt sympathy
in your sad bereavement. In your husband's death the Nation
loses a faithful servant and the letter carriers a staunch friend.
"John H. Haythornthwaite,
" President."
" The Union League of Philadelphia sympathizes deeply with
you and your family in this, your great sorrow. The Vice Presi-
dent was well known and greatly beloved here.
"William T. Tilden,
" President of the Union League."
Mrs. Jennie T. Hobart, widow of former Vice President Hobart,
extended her sympathy as that of one " who can fully appreciate
your great bereavement."
Former Vice President and Mrs. Fairbanks wired : " We loved
him as a friend and loved him as an able and truthful public
servant."
There also were expressions of profound sympathy from all
the Cabinet ministers and from many American ministers to for-
eign countries as well as from foreign representatives in the
United States. Whitelaw Reid spoke of the Vice President's
death as " a great loss."
Messages of condolence were also received by Mrs. Sherman
from the following: Senators George T. Oliver, J. H. Gallinger,
Newell Sanders, A. O. Bacon, Luke Lea, Jeff Davis, C. A. Culber-
son, T. E. Burton, D. U. Fletcher, G. P. Wetmore, Isaac Stephen-
son, J. W. Bailey, C. W. Watson, Charles E. Townsend, W. E. Chil-
ton, John W. Kern, Charles Curtis, George 'Sutherland, W. A.
Richardson, G. M. Hitchcock, W. Murray Crane, Boies Penrose,
C. A. Swanson, Isidor Rayner, Thomas S. Martin, S. M. Cullom,
Henry F. Lippitt, George E. Chamberlain, Jonathan Bourne, jr.,
F. M. Simmons, Henry F. Ashurst, Albert B. Cummins, Robert J.
Gamble, and James A. O'Gorman.
Also from the following: Hon. Charles G. Bennett, Secretary of
the United States Senate; Hon. Frank S. Black, Attorney General
George W. Wickersham, Rev. and Mrs. U. G. B. Pierce, Norman J.
Gould, Hon. Dennis T. Flynn, Hon. Francis E. Hendricks, Hon.
93436°— 13 8 [113]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
Samuel McMillan, Hon. Eugene Hale, Hon. I. F. Fischer, Mr. and
Mrs. George Sicard, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, Brother
Gregory, Henry Casson, jr., Hon. Jacob Ruppert, jr., Hon. W. B.
McKinley, Walter C. Witherbee, Sefior Don Juan Riaiio, ambas-
sador of Spain, and Madame De Riano; George Therrill, Mr.
and Mrs. E. H. Wells, W. C. Hackett, Hon. James R. Garfield, Hon.
Frank H. Hiscock, Judge Irving G. Vann, Hon. George B. McClel-
lan, J. G. Schmidtlapp, J. D. Fuller, B. S. Rodey, Judge Warren B.
Hooker, Louis Fisher, Mr. and Mrs. Phillip Elting, Hon. Carmi
A. Thompson, secretary to the President; Samuel P. Calef, George
C. Priestley, P. B. Boden, Hon. Richard Bartholdt, Mrs. Ethel
McCarey Sanger, Hon. Charles L. Knapp, Mr. and Mrs. Pensel, Mr.
and Mrs. Louis J. Ehret, J. C. P. Kincaid, F. W. Buderus, Charles
A. Hawley, F. S. Hill, Mr. and Mrs. William Roach, John W. Van
Allen, Robert Gardiner McGregor, D. M. Johnson, J. Frank Aid-
rich, Hon. John T. Mott, John G. Moflitt, J. G. Eversman, A. V.
Conover, Garry B. Adams, H. M. Daugherty, H. W. Dearborn, Mr.
and Mrs. William Morris, Hon. John Dalzell, J. J. Gilbert, N. B.
Yates, John E. Dowd, Col. William M. Griffith, William R. P.
Bloyer, Martin J. Hutchins, R. A. C. Smith, M. D. Crowley, C. W.
Richardson, Ormsby McCammon, Hon. C. L. Bartlett, W. C. War-
ren, William Clift Foote, I. P. Brown, Charles E. Fitch, Victor
Rosewater, Wilfrid Hartley, Reuben R. Lyon, Hon. Charles R.
Skinner, M. W. Blumenburg, George W. Wanamaker, Hon. Charles
A. Towne, George C. Boldt, George X. McLenahan, Mr. and Mrs.
V. M. Wilson, jr., James Otis Woodward, J. G. Searne, H. H.
Knowles, F. B. Newell, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur W. Sewall, Mr. and
Mrs. Homer P. Snyder, Hon. Henry M. Goldfogle, Hon. D. F. La-
fean, Hon. J. Van Vechten Olcott, Mrs. Kate I. Nixon, S. G. Malby,
Gonsalo De Quesada, Hon. Charles H. Sherrill; Col. D. M. RansdeU,
Sergeant at Arms United States Senate; B. N. Martin, Marcus P.
Rice, William A. Logue, Mr. and Mrs. E. A. Brooks, the German
Ambassador and Countess Bernstorff, Hon. George W. Aldridge,
Hon. William Barnes, jr., Hon. George S. Klock, Miss May Irwin,
the French Ambassador and Mme. Jusserand, George Orvis, A. E.
Martin, Mr. and Mrs. William H. Watson, Fred A. Smith, Thomas E.
Oshen, Mr. and Mrs. John W. Vrooman, Henry M. Rose, C. B. Mc-
Cawley, Hon. George Puchta, Hon. and Mrs. Charles Dick, Mrs.
Elizabeth H. Hemphill, James K. Apgar, Bessie Edwards, Mr. and
Mrs. David M. Ranken, Hon. and Mrs. Richard Wayne Parker,
Mr. and Mrs. A. Seeley, Francis A. Willard, Howard B. French,
George E. Hopkins, J. E. MillhoUand, Mrs. A. S. Paddock, Hon.
W. B. Greene, Gen. W. W. Wotherspoon, Louis V. Davison, David
F. Wilder, Ralph A. Gamble, Justice of the Supreme Court Joseph
McKenna, Lloyd Paul Stryker, Hon. Nicholas Murray Butler, Hon.
Montague Lessler, Hon. C. H. Duell, A. B. Andrews, Dr. M. O. Terry,
S. C. Neale, Mr. and Mrs. Robert Burch, E. J. Welsh; Hon. L. P.
Fuhrmann, mayor of Buffalo; Mr. and Mrs. E. F. Murray, Mr. and
Mrs. William H. Hotchkiss, Mr. and Mrs. Charles B. Brooker, John
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C. Williams, Mr. and Mrs. Frederick H. Elliott, Frederick S.
Flower, the Danish minister, Mr. and Mrs. Charles Henry Butler,
Hon. "William Richardson, Charles F. Newsom, Mrs. George M.
Pullman, Mayor Scanlon, Lawrence, Mass.; Sterling J. Joiner,
Mrs. Mary Townsend, Hon. Horace White, C. L. Stone, J. Herbert
Ballantine, George H. Harris, Secretary of the Treasury Franklin
MacVeagh, the Japanese Ambassador Viscount Chinda, Mr. and Mrs.
P. W. Herrick, Mr. and Mrs. Carl Stone, H. B. Tompkins, Mr. and
Miss Hawk, Hon. Samuel Koenig, the Minister of Norway and Mme.
Bryn, Hon. and Mrs. Truman H. Newberry, Mrs. Caroline Caton
Williams and daughter, H. P. Bells, the senior class, Berkeley In-
stitute, Brooklyn, N. Y.; Hon. and Mrs. Timothy L. Woodruff, the
Haitian minister. United States Supreme Court Justice Mahlon
Pitney, Hon. and Mrs. James R. Mann, Mr. and Mrs. L. White
Busbey, Mr. and Mrs. William C. Denny, the governor of New
Hampshire, Robert P. Bass; Hon. L. B. Gleason, Mr. and Mrs. Ells-
worth Brown, Cortland S. Wheeler, Mr. and Mrs. L. A. Coolidge,
Mr. and Mrs. James M. E. O'Grady, Hon. and Mrs. Charles B. Law,
John L. E. Pell, Louis Waldauer, Hon. and Mrs. J. Charles Linth-
icum, Mr. George C. Van Tuyl, jr., Mr. George Hinman, Mr. Jules
Roth, Mr. Harry S. Jackson, Mr. and Mrs. Seth C. Adams, Mr. and
Mrs. F. W. Sessions, Thora Reynolds, Miss Mabel T. Boardman, Mr.
and Mrs. William C. Sylvester, Hon. John Barrett, Mr. and Mrs.
John Hays Hammond, Postmaster General Frank A. Hitchcock,
the Charge d' Affaires of the Republic of Panama and Mrs. Brin,
Epsilon Chapter of Sigma Phi, Ithaca, N. Y.; Hon. J. Hampton
Moore, The Ohio Society of the City of New York, Mr. and Mrs.
Frank S. Witherbee, Mr. and Mrs. Benjamin S. Minor, R. F. Brush,
J. F. McMurray, Mr. and Mrs. William Littauer, Irving W. Day,
John F. Fitzgerald, mayor of Boston; Hon. Newton W. Gilbert,
Martin J. Bowe, J. A. Flannigan, Hon. Joseph B. Foraker, Paul S.
Pearsall, Mrs. Charles J. Hughes, jr.. Miss Christine Hoar, Hon. and
Mrs. J. W. Fordney, Mrs. W. B. Newman, N. Main, Commander and
Viscountess Benoist d'Azy, United States Supreme Court Justice
and Mrs. Lurton, Leroy W. Baldwin, S. C. Neale, Maj. Richard
Sylvester, Senor Antonio Martin Rivero, Cuban minister; Mr. and
Mrs. Frederick C. Stevens, the Board of Bishops of the M. E.
Church of Toledo, Ohio, Evangeline Booth, John E. Frost, F. R.
Bane, George E. Vankennen, Francis E. Ames, Hon. Nicholas and
Alice Longworth, Hon. J. Sloat Fassett, Mr. and Mrs. W. R. Wilcox,
Royal Arcanum of the State of Ohio, H. D. Oliver, Gen. Oscar F.
Long, Rev. Father William H. Ketcham, Mr. and Mrs. Edson Brad-
ley, Isabella E. MullhoUand, G. Gunby Jordan, Philip A. Howard,
Florence M. Bennett, C. K. Corbin, Wilbur E. Van Auken, Curtice
Brothers, Hon. L. W, Emerson, Walter M. Ostrander, J. Shepard,
jr., Mr. and Mrs. George C. Wood, Raymond F. Rode, Mr. and Mrs.
F. H. Judd, Mr. and Mrs. Frederick Smith, Hon. T. Harvey Ferris,
Hon, James K. O'Connor, Hon. Charles D. Walcott, J, J. Guernsey,
Taft Business Men's League of St. Paul, Minn. ; Hon. and Mrs. W. A.
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Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
Massey, Mrs. William B. Heyburn, R. L. Kers, jr., W. R. Roach,
Miles P. Ondereaux, Hon. and Mrs. W. S. Cowbridge, the Minister
of The Netherlands and Mme. Loudon, Charles H. Wilson, Rev.
John Arthur, William R. P. Bloyer, Ellis A. Gimel, Hon. James K.
McGuire, Henry White Callahan, Cary F. Simmons, Mr. and Mrs.
William A. Shanklin, Hon. Herbert Parsons, Hon. George B. Cortel-
you, P. A. Franklin, Charles G. Wagner, Sophonisba P. Brecken-
ridge, Hon. and Mrs. Frederick M. Davenport, Fay T.Kent, Herbert
W. Clark, E. C. Converse, Commander Joseph W. Kay, Hon. G.
Fred Talbott, G. W. Graham, Mayor John J. Irving, Binghamton;
Mrs. Percy Morgan, Hon. John W. Weeks, Hon. William L. Ward,
Pittsburgh Association of Credit Men; Supreme Court Justice Wil-
lis Van Devanter, the Bolivian minister and family, George Alex-
ander, mayor of Los Angeles; George T. Stockham, Hon. James Mc-
Kinney, Hon. Daniel A. Driscoll, J. S. Runnells, Henry H. Bender,
Mathilda Gerry, Hon. Edward Bruce Moore, Mrs. George R. Malby,
A. Garrison McClintock, Hon. Charles W. Fairbanks, Royal Ar-
canum of Oregon, Judge Peter B. McLennan, Hon. J. M. Levy, Hon.
John Stewart, Hon. Nelson W. Aldrich, James M. Belden, Hon.
George von L. Meyer, Secretary of the Navy; Hon. Charles Burke,
Hon. E. F. Kinkead, F. H. Murphy, William B. Austin, for Hamil-
ton Club, Chicago; Andrew J. Lester, for Chicago Club; Mme.
Bakhm6teff , wif e of the ambassador of Russia; Miss Mary Schluter,
Miss Sally H. Culberson, S. V. Whelen, Chief Justice White, for
the justices of the United States Supreme Court; Chief Justice
and Mrs. Edward D. White, Hon. Charles F. Scott, Hon. William
Lorimer, the Chinese minister, Chang Yin Tang; Greek Charge
d'Affaires Caftanzoglu, Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Harty, Margaret M.
Rager, Frank E. Wilson, the Peruvian minister, F. A. Pezet; Mr.
and Mrs. Caldwell Sweet, William Busby, Carl Harrer, Hon. and
Mrs. Julius Kahn, Hon. and Mrs. S. W. McCall, Irving C. Casler,
M. J. Sherrill, Hon. Alton B. Parker, Hon. and Mrs. George S.
Legare, Ida H. Crany, Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Ramsey, for the stu-
dents and faculty of Fairmont Seminary, Washington, D. C; H. M.
Baker, for the Chevy Chase Seminary, Washington, D. C.; the
Turkish ambassador, Youssouf Zia Pacha; Mrs. William E. Curtis,
C. K. MacDougall, Stewart Lowery, Hon. I. W. Wood, Hon. and
Mrs. W. W. Cocks, Anna Ray Root, Edith Patten Corbin, Hon.
Thomas W. Bradley, and Arnold Shanklin, United States consul
general. City of Mexico.
[116]
CONDOLENCES FROM FOREIGN GOVERNMENTS
ARABIA
From Maj. H. F. Jacob, first assistant political resident of Aden,
Arabia, to the American consul at Aden, November 6, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of
the 2d November, 1912, and to convey to you the expression of
the political resident's deepest regret at the news of the sad death
of His Excellency James Schoolcraft Sherman, the Vice Presi-
dent of the United States."
ARGENTINA
From President Roque Saenz Pena, of Argentina, to President
Taft:
" Buenos Aires, October 31, 1912. — Pray accept. Excellency,
the expressions of my condolence for the regrettable death of the
eminent citizen Mr. James Sherman, Vice President of the Re-
public." — ( Cablegram, translation.)
From Mr. Manuel E. Malbran, charge d'affaires of the Argentine
Republic, Washington, to the Secretary of State, October 31,
1912:
"I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of this day's
communication by which the Secretary of State is pleased to an-
nounce the sad intelligence of the death of the Hon. James S.
Sherman, Vice President of the United States of America.
" In oflFering to the department, in the name of my Government
and in my own, the most heartfelt expressions of condolence on
the mourning which means so great a loss to the Nation, I make it
my duty to inform you that appropriate measures have been
taken at the legation to keep the Argentine flag at half-mast on
the building as long as the ofQcial mourning lasts."
Department of State, November 1, 1912, memorandum:
" The charge d'affaires of the Argentine Republic called to say
he had received a telegram from his Government directing him to
present the sincere condolences of Argentina on the death of the
Vice President. He will address a note to the department. Mr.
Adee told the charg6 d'affaires that a copy would be sent to Mrs.
Sherman."
From Mr. Manuel E. Malbran to the Secretary of State, Novem-
ber 1, 1912:
" In compliance with express instructions from my Govern-
ment, forwarded by cable to the legation, I have the honor to
[117]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
present to the Government of the United States the expressions
of the Argentine Government's condolence on the lamented death
of the Vice President of the Nation, the Hon. James S. Sherman.
" The high attainments and great moral gifts of the Hon. James
S. Sherman were well known and highly appreciated in the
Argentine Republic and my Government desires to express to
that of the United States the sincereness of the sentiments with
which it joins in the mourning of this Nation for the loss of one
of its most notable personalities.
" In begging the Secretary of State kindly to convey to the
Most Excellent the President of the United States the Argentine
Government's expressions of condolence, to which I join my own,
I have pleasure in renewing to the Secretary of State the assur-
ance of my highest and most distinguished consideration."
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
From Baron Erich Zwiedinek von Siidenhorst, charge d'affaires
of Austria-Hungary, Washington, to the Secretary of State, Novem-
ber 2, 1912:
" I have had the honor to receive your excellency's communica-
tion of October 31 last, relative to the death of Mr. James School-
craft Sherman, Vice President of the United States.
" I have received instructions from the Imperial and Royal
Government to express its genuine sympathy to the Government
of the United States on the occasion of this deplorable loss.
" Taking the liberty of having recourse to your excellency's
good offices in carrying out my instructions, I beg your excellency
also to accept the expression of my own sincere sympathy."
BELGIUM
Department of State, November 1, 1912, memorandum:
" The Belgian minister called upon Mr. Adee to-day to say he
had a telegram from his Government directing him to express
sincere condolence on the loss of the Vice President."
From Mr. E. Havenith, Belgian minister, Washington, to the
Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" With profound regret did I hear the sad intelligence of the
death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President
of the United States.
" I have the honor to beg you to accept my sincere condolence
on the occasion of the death of that statesman in whose death the
country suffered so trying a loss.
" I have been instructed by my Government to convey to the
Government of the United States the expression of its deep con-
dolence."
[118]
Condolences from Foreign Governments
BOLIVIA
From Sefior Don I. Calderon, Bolivian minister, Washington, to
the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" I have heard with true sorrow of the death of the Vice Presi-
dent of the United States, the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman,
which took place at Utica on October 30 last.
" I beg your excellency to accept my Government's and my
own heartfelt expression of sympathy in the loss of the dis-
tinguished citizen who so creditably discharged his high duties."
BRAZIL
From Mr. D. da Gama, Brazilian ambassador, Washington, to the
Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
"In the name of my President I have the honor to apply to
your excellency with a request that you be pleased to convey to
the President of the Republic the expression of sincere condo-
lence on the part of the Government and people of Brazil on the
national mourning brought upon the United States of America by
the lamented death of Vice President Sherman. To these ex-
pressions I beg leave to add my own personal regrets to your ex-
cellency, to whom I have the honor to renew the assurances of
my highest consideration.
From President Ramon Barros Luco of Chile to President
Taft:
" Santiago, November 2, 1912. — My Government and the Chilean
people profoundly deplore the bereavement which aiBicts the
great American Nation in the death of its illustrious Vice Presi-
dent Sherman." — (Cablegram, translation.)
Department of State, October 31, 1912, memorandum:
" The Chilean minister called to-day upon Mr. Adee to express
to him his sincere regret at the death of the Vice President; and
to express sorrow on behalf of the Chilean Government."
From Sefior Don Edo. Suarez Mejia, Chilean minister, Washing-
ton, D. C, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912 :
" I have the honor to receive your excellency's obliging note of
yesterday's date, intended to confirm to me the sorrowful news
of the death at Utica, at 9.42 p. m. last evening, of the most ex-
cellent Mr. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the
United States.
"In discharge of a painful duty, I offer to your excellency in
the name of the Government of Chile the expression of its deep
condolence on the taking off of the illustrious citizen who, by
popular verdict and with the respect of the whole country, held
the high office of Vice President of the Republic.
[119]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
" For my part I wish to confirm the sentiments I had the honor
personally to express to your excellency yesterday most sincerely
showing the sorrow which afflicts the Government and people of
the United States."
CHINA
From Mr. Chang Yin Tang, Chinese minister, Washington, to
the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note
of the 31st ultimo, announcing the death at Utica, N. Y., at 9.42
o'clock p. m., on Wednesday, October 30, 1912, of the Hon. James
Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United States.
" I have cabled to my Government this sad intelligence, and I
beg to offer to the Government and people of the United States
the heartfelt sympathy of the Government and people of China
in the loss of a great statesman whose nobility of character won
the love and respect of all."
From Mr. Chang Yin Tang to the Secretary of State, November
2,1912:
" I have the honor to inform you that I have just received a
cable message addressed to the President of the United States by
the President of the Republic of China, of which the following is
an English translation :
" ' Mr. President : I learn with inexpressible grief of the death
of the Vice President of the United States. The people of China
join with me in mourning for the distinguished statesman. I beg
to extend to you my personal sympathy and the sympathy of the
people of China.
" ' Yuan Shi-Kai,
" ' President of China.'
" I have the honor to request that you will be so kind as to con-
vey the above message to its high destination."
COLOMBIA
From Seiior Don Julio Betancourt, minister of Colombia, Wash-
ington, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" I have received the very obliging communication by which
you announced to me the lamented death of the Hon. James
Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United States.
" In the name of my Government and in my own I extend,
through you, to the Government and people of the United States
the expression of the most profound regret at the taking off of so
distinguished a citizen.
" As a sign of mourning for this national loss, the flag of Colom-
bia has been displayed at half-mast at the office of the legation."
[120-]
Condolences from Foreign Governments
From Senor Don Pedro M. Carreno, minister for foreign affairs
of Colombia, to the American charge d'affaires at Bogota, Novem-
ber 4, 1912:
" By your courteous note, F. O. No. 42, of yesterday's date, this
oflace has been informed to its sincere sorrow of the death of His
Excellency James Sherman, Vice President of the United States,
■which occurred on October 30 last. The national flag will there-
fore remain at half-mast until to-day."
COSTA RICA
Department of State, October 31, 1913, memorandum:
" The minister of Costa Rica called upon Mr. Adee to-day to ex-
press on behalf of his Government and of himself, personally,
sorrow for the death of Vice President Sherman. He will send
an informal note to the department to this effect."
From Seiior Don Joaquin Bernardo Calvo, minister of Costa
Rica, Washington, to the Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
" Referring to my visit of to-day, and interpreting the sentiments
of my Government, I have the honor to confirm my expressions
of deep sorrow for the lamentable death of the Hon. James S.
Sherman, Vice President of the United States, and, at the same
time, I beg leave to request of you very kindly to transmit to Mrs.
Sherman our heartfelt sentiments of condolence on her bereave-
ment."
From Seiior Don Joaquin Bernardo Calvo to the Secretary of
State, November 1, 1912:
" With profound sorrow I have been notified by your note of
yesterday that the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman died at
Utica, N. Y., and that the funeral will take place in that city
to-morrow at 2 p. m.
" On this sad occasion, I have received from my Government
instructions to express in its name to the Washington Govern-
ment the most sincere condolence on the lamented loss of a citi-
zen possessed of the high merits and conspicuous civic virtues by
which the prominent functionary the Hon. Mr. Sherman was dis-
tinguished when alive.
" In so carrying out the wishes of my Government, I beg your
leave, Mr. Secretary, to join to this manifestation of mourning
my own expression of like sentiments of sorrow."
CUBA
From Senor Lcdo. Antonio Martin-Rivero, Cuban minister,
Washington, D. C, to the Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
" In the name of the Government and people of Cuba, in my
own, and in that of all the members of the legation, I have the
honor to offer to you the assurances of my deep sympathy in the
[121]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
grief that is now weighing upon the American Nation by reason
of the death of the Hon. James S. Sherman, Vice President of the
United States."
Department of State, November 1, 1912, memorandum:
" The Cuban minister called to express deep sympathy on the
part of Cuba at the death of the Vice President. The minister
will address a note to the department to this effect."
From Sefior R. Gutierrez Alcaide, charge d'affaires of Cuba at'
Panama, to the American charge d'affaires, November 1, 1912:
" With deep sorrow I have just acquainted myself by reading
the cable messages published to-day in the newspapers of this
capital of the sudden death of the Hon. Mr. Sherman, Vice Presi-
dent of the United States of America, and in offering to you as
the worthy representative of the noble American Nation the ex-
pression of my most heartfelt sympathy for such unfortunate
news, I wish to assure you that I join heartily in the feeling of
sorrow which to-day afflicts the -American people and their
brothers of all America."
DENMARK
From Mr. C. Brun, Danish minister, Washington, to the Secre-
tary of State, October 31, 1912:
" In the name of my Government which I have the honor to
represent, and in my own, I beg to express to you, and through
you to the Government of the United States, my most sincere and
deep-felt sorrow and sympathy in the great loss which the Ameri-
can Nation has suffered by the death yesterday of the Vice Presi-
dent of the United States, James Schoolcraft Sherman."
DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
From Senor Dr. Don Francisco J. Peynado, Dominican minister,
Washington, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" With the most profound sorrow have I received the sad news
of the death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice
President of the United States, which occurred at Utica, N. Y.,
on Wednesday, the 30th of October, 1912, at 9.42 p. m.
" An illustrious citizen, eminent servant of his country, is thus
removed from the scene, and in the presence of the irreparable
loss, the Dominican people and Government join with the people
and Government of the United States in sharing with them the
fitting feelings of regret occasioned by his unlooked-for removal."
ECUADOR
From President Plaza, of Ecuador, to President Taft :
" Quito, Ecuador, November 5, 1912. — The Government and
people of Ecuador lament the regrettable death of His Excellency
[122]
Condolences from Foreign Governments
Vice President Sherman, and share the grief of Your Excellency
and of the American people. — (Cablegram, translation.)
From Senor Dr. Don S. S. Wither S., charge d'affaires of Ecua-
dor, \Vashington, to the Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
"With profound sorrow my Government has learned of the
death of the "Vice President of the United States, Mr. James S.
Sherman, and I have been specially directed by cable to present
to you, in behalf of the Government and people of Ecuador, the
heartiest manifestation of condolence for the irreparable loss
that the American Nation has suifered.
" In complying with the wishes of my Government, I have the
honor to avail myself of this opportunity to express to you the
sincere expression of my personal sympathy."
EGYPT
From Y. Wahba, ministry for foreign affairs, Cairo, to the
American consul general, November 3, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your telegram of
yesterday's date informing me of the death of Mr. J. S. Sherman,
Vice President of the United States.
" The Government of His Highness the Khedive, deeply feeling
as it does the mourning of the American Nation, charges me to
beg you to be toward the Government of the Republic the in-
terpreter of its most profound regret and sincere sympathy."
FRANCE
From Mr. J. J. Jusserand, French ambassador, Washington, to
the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" I have received the letter by which your excellency did me
the honor to impart to me the sad intelligence of the death of the
Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United
States.
" I am transmitting the information to my Government, which,
your excellency may be assured, will take a sincere part in the
mourning of the President of the United States and the American
Nation.
"I beg leave to extend to you, Mr. Secretary of State, the ex-
pression of my personal condolence on so sad an event. I know
it is for you the loss of a friend, and having had, for my part,
many occasions to appreciate his high gifts, I can not but fully
realize the sorrow you must undergo."
GERMANY
Department of State, November 1, 1912, memorandum:
" The Imperial German ambassador called to express the con-
dolence of his Government on the death of the Vice President, and
[123]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
his own personal sympathy at the loss of a warm friend. He will
write a note to the department."
From Count J. H. von BernstorfF, German ambassador, Washing-
ton, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your ex-
cellency's note of the 31st of October last by which you gave me
notice of the highly to be lamented death of the Vice President of
the United States. I beg leave to express to the Government of
the United States my most sincere sympathy in this severe and
distressing loss. I shall never forget the friendly relations that
I maintained with the deceased. I expect to have an opportunity
to-day to express orally to your excellency my most deeply felt
condolence."
GREAT BRITAIN
From the Right Hon. James Bryce, British ambassador, "Wash-
ington, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your note of
October 31 in which you convey to me the distressing news of
the death of the Vice President of the United States.
" I desire 'to convey to you an expression of the sincere regret
and sympathy of my Government, and also of my personal sor-
row, at the loss suffered by the people of the United States. I
have already personally conveyed my condolences to the Presi-
dent."
Department of State, November 4, 1912, memorandum:
" The British ambassador called upon the Acting Secretary of
State to-day to say that he was instructed to formally convey the
deep condolences of his Government upon the death of the Vice
President. The ambassador spoke feelingly of his personal regret
and sympathy. He had known Mr. Sherman well for many
years, and regarded him as one of the ablest heads the Senate
ever had. He said he had a keen appreciation of the loss the
entire country would sustain without Mr. Sherman's eminent
services and kindly counsels.
" Mr. Adee thanked the ambassador for his words, and spoke of
Mr. Sherman as having been especially a lover of peace and be-
loved of everyone."
GREECE
Department of State, November 4, 1912, memorandum:
" Mr. Caftanzoglu, the charg6 d'affaires of Greece, called to-day
upon the Acting Secretary of State, Mr. Adee, to say that he had
received a cable from his Government directing him to express
sincere condolence on the part of the Greek Government at the
death of the Vice President, and also to extend the personal
sympathy of- the minister for foreign affairs on the lamentable
death of this great public man."
[124]
Condolences from Foreign Governments
GUATEMALA
From President M. Estrada Cabrera, of Guatemala, to President
Taft:
" Guatemala, November 2, 1912. — In the name of the people
and Government of Guatemala I hasten to send to Your Excellency
and the Government over which you preside the most sincere ex-
pression of condolence on the death of the Vice President, Mr.
Sherman." — (Cablegram, translation.)
From Senior Luis Toledo Herrarte, minister for foreign affairs
of Guatemala, to the Secretary of State :
" Guatemala. — I beg your excellency to deign to convey to the
Government and people of the United States the expression of
heartfelt condolence of the Guatemalan people and Government
on the occasion of the lamented demise of the Hon. James S.
Sherman, Vice President of the United States." — (Cablegram,
translation.)
From Senor Luis Toledo Herrarte, minister of foreign aifairs
of Guatemala, to American charge d'affaires at Guatemala City,
November 2, 1912:
" By the esteemed note of your honor. No. 270, of even date,
I have heard with great sorrow of the death of the Hon. Vice
President Sherman, which took place on the 30th of last October.
" In the name of the Government of the Republic, I comply
with the duty of expressing to your honor the most heartfelt con-
dolence for the irreparable loss which the people and the Govern-
ment of the United States have suffered by his death."
From Senor Don Joaquin Mendez, Guatemalan minister, Wash-
ington, to the Acting Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge with the deepest sorrow
your esteemed note of this date informing me of the sorrowful
tidings of the death of the Hon. 'James Schoolcraft Sherman,
Vice President of the United States.
" I wish to express to your excellency in the name of the Gov-
ernment of Guatemala and the people of my country the deepest
sympathy on the occasion of the sad death of the honorable Vice
President of the United States.
" The death of the honorable Vice President of the United
States can not fail to bring sorrow into the hearts of all. But
the memory of his noble deeds and heroic sacrifices will survive.
" I beg you to accept, your excellency, my own deepest personal
sympathy for the lamentable bereavement of the honorable Vice
President."
From Senor Don Joaquin Mendez to the Secretary of State,
November 4, 1912:
" The profound sorrow and intense grief caused among the
members of the Government and the people of Guatemala by the
[125]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
most lamented intelligence of the death of the Hon. Vice President
Sherman have been reflected in two cablegrams that I have re-
ceived, one from President M. Estrado Cabrera, the other from Min-
ister Toledo Herrarte, both carrying the expression of the keen-
est sympathy and most sincere regret to the Government and
people of the United States of America and most particularly to
His Excellency the President of the United States and the most
excellent the Secretary of State. I therefore beg your excellency
to deign to accept these expressions as a fresh evidence of the
cordiality of our relations and of the community of interests
which Guatemala always desires to maintain with her elder sister,
the great American Republic. At the same time I shall thank your
excellency if you will please to consider this note a continuation
of that which I had the honor to address to you on October 31
last and accept the homage of my highest consideration and high
esteem."
HAITI
From Mr. Solon Menos, Haitian minister, Washington, to the
Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" In acknowledging the receipt of your letter announcing the
death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President
of the United States, I beg you to accept the sincere condolence
I have it at heart to extend to you in the name of my Government
and my own on the grievous loss your Government and country
have sustained in the death of the illustrious decedent."
HONDURAS
Department of State, October 31, 1912, memorandum:
" The minister of Honduras called upon Mr. Adee to-day to ex-
press the regret of his Government, and his personal regret, at
the loss of Vice President Sherman. He will also send an in-
formal note to the department to this effect."
From Dr. Albert Membreiio, minister of Honduras, Washington,
to the Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
" Deep was my sorrow on hearing of the death of the Hon.
James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the Republic.
The demise of that great statesman, whose life may be taken as a
model for its eminent virtues, is a loss to the American Nation
and to the Latin countries which the deceased loved so well. I
have apprized my Government of the sad event by cable; and
faithfully voicing the sentiments of the Honduran people and
yielding to my own, I heartily join in the sorrow that is now bow-
ing the American people on account of the death of one of their
most illustrious sons."
[126]
Condolences from Foreign Governments
From Dr. Albert Membreno to the Secretary of State, November
1, 1912:
" I have had the honor to receive your excellency's obliging
note of the 31st of October last by which you announce to me the
death, at Utica, N. Y., at 9.42 p. m., on Wednesday, October 30,
1912, of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President
of the United States, and that the funeral will take place in the
same city of Utica on Saturday, November 2, at 2 p. m.
" The President of Honduras, to whom I cabled that very sad
event, has just sent me a message directing me to express his
most sincere condolence to the Most Excellent the President."
ITALY
From Mr. Giuseppe Catalani, charg6 d'affaires, Italian Embassy,
Washington, to the Secretary of State, November 3, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of the note, dated
October 31 last, by which I am advised of the death of the Hon.
James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United States,
which took place at Utica, N. Y., at 9.42 p. m. Wednesday, October
30, 1912.
" In expressing to your excellency my keen sympathy in the un-
timely loss of that illustrious man, I have the honor to inform you
that I have not failed to cable the mournful intelligence to my
Government, which, I am sure, will share the sorrow and mourn-
ing of the President and this great Nation.
" I regret that my official duties prevented my attending, as I
most earnestly desired to do, the funeral which took place at
Utica on the 2d instant."
japan
From Viscount Sutemi Chinda, Japanese ambassador, Washing-
ton, to the Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your com-
munication informing me of the death of the Hon. James School-
craft Sherman, Vice President of the United States, and I beg to
tender you expression of my profound sympathy and condolence
at the painful loss befallen the Government and people of the
United States. I have duly conveyed to my Government the sad
intelligence communicated to me in your note under acknowledg-
ment.
From Viscount Sutemi Chinda to the Secretary of State, Novem-
ber 1, 1912:
" Under telegraphic instructions just received from his Im-
perial Majesty's Government, I have the honor to convey to you,
and through you to your Government, the assurance of the most
sincere sentiments of grief and sorrow with which my Govern-
[127]
Memorial, Addresses: Vice President Sherman
ment shares in the loss sustained by the American Government
and people through the deeply lamented death of the Hon. James
Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United States."
MEXICO
From President Francisco I. Madero, of Mexico, to President
Taft:
" Mexico City, Mexico, October 31, 1912. — ^Will Your Excellency
please accept the sincere condolence of the Mexican people and
Government, and my own, on the death of Vice President Sher-
man." — (Telegram, translation.)
From the Hon. Pedro Lascurain, minister for foreign affairs
of Mexico, to the Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
" Will your excellency be pleased to convey to your Govern-
ment the Mexican Government's heartfelt condolence on the death
of Vice President Sherman." — (Telegram, translation.)
Frota. Senor Don Arturo de la Cueva, the Mexican chargd
d'affaires, Washington, to the Secretary of State, October 31,
1912:
" I have had the honor to receive your note of to-day by which
your excellency informed me of the death of the Most Excellent
Mr. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United
States of America, at Utica, N. Y., on Wednesday, the 30th of
October.
" In expressing to your excellency the most sincere sentiments
of condolence of the embassy's staff on the distressing loss sus-
tained by the Government and people of the United States, I
renew to you the assurances of my highest and most distinguished
consideration."
NETHERLANDS
From Jonkheer J. Loudon, minister of The Netherlands, Wash-
ington, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" I have had the honor to receive your excellency's letter of
yesterday's date, by which you apprise me of the sorrowful loss
just sustained by the United States in the death of Mr. James S.
Sherman, Vice President of the Republic.
" Under the sad circumstances, I have the honor to have re-
course to your excellency's habitual kindness and to ask that
you may be pleased to acquaint the President of the United States
with the share I take in this national mourning, and I beg leave
also to offer to your excellency my most sincere condolences."
NICARAGUA
From President Diaz, of Nicaragua, to President Taft:
"Managua, November 2, 1912. — Nicaraguan Government and
people join in mourning of American Government and people
[128]
Condolences from Foreign Governments
for death Hon. Vice President Sherman." — (Telegram, trans-
lation.)
" Managua, November 3, 1912. — Deign to accept the condolence
of Nicaragua and my own sentiments of sympathy in the Ameri-
can national mourning for the grievous death of the Hon. Vice
President James Sherman." — (Telegram, translation.)
From Diego Manuel Chamorro, minister for foreign affairs of
Nicaragua, to the Secretary of State :
" Managua, Nicaragua, November 2, 1912. — Government deplores
death Hon. Vice President Sherman, and for this grievous national
loss offers its condolence to your excellency and your Govern-
ment."
From Mr. Salvador Castrillo, minister of Nicaragua, "Washing-
ton, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912 :
" I acknowledge the receipt of your excellency's obliging and
feeling note, dated yesterday, by which you deign to apprise me
of the death at Utica, N. Y., on Wednesday, the 30th of October,
at 9.42 p. m., of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice
President of the United States; and you add that the funeral will
take place at Utica, to-morrow, Saturday, November 2, at 2 p. m.
" I have reported to my Government the sad event which brings
mourning to the American Nation that loses in the Vice President
not only a very high functionary, who did it honor, but also one
of its most illustrious public men, in whom it can take pride.
" The Republic of Nicaragua and my Government join the
American people and Government in lamenting his removal and
take part in their mourning.
" I beg your excellency to deign to convey, when convenient, to
the Most Excellent the President the assurances of my Govern-
ment's intense sympathy and my own, which I venture also to
extend at this time of national grief."
Department of State, October 31, 1912, memorandum:
" The minister of Norway called to inform Mr. Adee of his
return to Washington and to express, on his own account and on
behalf of his Government, great regret at the death of the Vice
President."
From Mr. H. H. Bryn, minister of Norway, Washington, to the
Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
" I have the honor to express to the American Government my
deepest sympathy on the occasion of the premature death of the
Vice President of the United States, whose eminent qualities have
won for him the love of his people.
" I also venture to ask your excellency to be good enough to
convey to Mrs. Sherman my sincerest condolences."
93436°— 13 9 [129]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
From Mr. H. H. Bryri to the Secretary of State, November 1,
1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of the Hon. Alvey
A. Adee's note of the 31st ultimo announcing the death at Utica,
N. Y., at 9.42 o'clock p. m., on Wednesday, October 30, 1912, of the
Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United
States.
"According to instructions from my Government, I have the
honor to express, through your excellency, to the Government of
the United States the Norwegian Government's most sincere sym-
pathy on the painful loss which the country has suffered by the
deplorable decease of the Vice President."
PANAMA
From Belisario Porras, President of Panama, to President
Taft:
" Panama, November 1, 1912. — ^I send to Your Excellency and to
the people of the United States sincere regrets in view of the
death of the illustrious Mr. Sherman." — (Cablegram, translation.)
From Seiior Ernesto T. Lefevre, minister for foreign affairs of
Panama, to the Secretary of State:
" Panama, November 1, 1912. — In the name of the Government
and people of Panama I express to the American Government and
people profound sorrow over the death of Vice President
Sherman." — ( Cablegram. )
From Seiior E. T. Lefevre, minister for foreign affairs of Pan-
ama, to the American charge d'affaires at Panama, November 2,
1912:
" Through your kind communication No. 265, of yesterday, I
have been informed of the sad death of the honorable Vice Presi-
dent of the United States of North America, which occurred on
October 31 ultimo.
" In the name of my Government and through your worthy con-
duct I wish to express to that of the United States my deep sym-
pathy on this mournful incident.
"In view of this sad occurrence the proper authority has
ordered that on this date the national colors be hoisted to the
half-mast in all the public offices.
" Renewing to you the assurances of my high esteem and dis-
tinguished consideration, I subscribe myself your kind and
obedient servant."
Department of State, October 31, 1912, memorandum:
" The charge d'affaires of Panama called to-day upon Mr. Adee
to express his deep regret at the death of the Vice President."
[130]
Condolences from Foreign Governments
From Senor Don Juan Brin, charge d'affaires of Panama, Wash-
ington, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" With the deepest sorrow I have read the contents of your ex-
cellency's obliging note of yesterday, by which you announce the
much-lamented death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Shermak,
Vice President of the United States, which occurred at Utica,
N. Y., at 9.42 p. m. on Wednesday, the 30th of October last, and
whose funeral will take place in the same city on Saturday, the
2d instant, at 2 p. m.
" In view of the singular civic virtues and high personal gifts
characteristic of the departed statesman and eminent public man,
his death is a world-wide, irreparable loss, which all nations must
lament, and in the most fitting mourning that now overwhelms the
Government and people of this great country, may I be permitted
to extend to them, through your excellency's worthy medium, the
expressions of sincere sympathy of the Government and people of
my country, to which I join my own? "
From Senior Don Juan Brin to the Secretary of State, Novem-
ber 4, 1912:
" I have the honor to transcribe to your excellency the contents
of the following cablegram I have just received from my Govern-
ment, which reads literally as follows:
" ' Communicate Department of State the following resolution
passed this day by the Assembly:
" ' " The National Assembly of Panama, voicing the sentiments
of its constituents, sends to the Government and people of the
United States of North America the most sincere expression of
its condolence on the occasion of the premature death of Mr.
James S. Sherman, Vice President of that friendly Nation." ' "
PERU
From Mr. Federico Alfonso Pezet, minister of Peru, Washing-
ton, to the Secretary of State, November 12, 1912:
"I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note,
dated October 31, in which you announce the death, at Utica,
N. Y., on Wednesday, October 30, of the Hon. James Schoolcraft
Sherman, Vice President of the United States.
"In reply I have the honor to tender my most sincere con-
dolence on the occasion of a loss so great for the Government
and people of the United States."
PORTUGAL
From President Manoel D. Arriaga, of Portugal, to President
Taft:
" Lisbon, November 2, 1912. — Just now hearing the sad news of
the death of the Vice President of the United States of America,
[131]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
I present to Your Excellency and the friendly Nation the expres-
sion of my most sincere condolence." — (Cablegram, translation.)
From Viscount de Alte, minister of Portugal, Washington, to
the Secretary of State, October 31, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note of
this date announcing the death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft
Sherman, Vice President of the United States.
" Painfully impressed by this sad event, I beg that you -will,
with your usual courtesy, allow me to convey, through you, to
the President my heartfelt condolence.
" I also wish to express to you, sir, and to the whole American
Government my very great sorrow at the untimely death of
Mr. Sherman.
" I have been directed by the President and Government of Por-
tugal to express to President Taft and to the American Govern-
ment their deepest sympathy on the occasion of the great loss the
country has sustained through the death of Vice President
Sherman."
RUSSIA
Department of State, November 4, 1912, memorandum:
" The Russian ambassador called upon the Acting Secretary of
State to-day to say that he was instructed to formally convey the
condolences of the Imperial Government upon the lamented
death of the Vice President. The ambassador, Mr. Bakhmeteff,
said that Russia had followed Mr. Sherman's public career with
interest and admiration and realized the great loss of the Gov-
ernment of the United States in his death.
" Mr. Adee said that this country and the world at large would
mourn the loss of this man whose life had been a great example
of kindliness, good fellowship, and always on the side of peace."
SALVADOR
From President Manuel E. Araujo, of Salvador, to President
Taft:
" San Salvador, Salvador, October. 31, 1912. — My Government
joins with sympathy in the mourning of the American Govern-
ment for the death of Vice President Sherman." — (Cablegram,
translation.)
Department of State, October 31, 1912, memorandum:
" The minister of Salvador called upon Mr. Adee to-day to
express the regret of his Government and his personal sorrow at
the death of Vice President Sherman. He will also write an
informal note to the department to this effect."
From Senor Don Federico Mejia, minister of Salvador, Wash-
ington, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" With genuine grief I have read your excellency's valued com-
munication, by which you inform me of the death of the Hon.
[132]
Condolences from Foreign Governments
James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United States
of America, and that the funeral will take place in the city of
Utica, N. Y., to-morrow at 2 p. m.
" The Salvadorean people profoundly regret the sad event, and
I beg your excellency to deign to accept, in the name of my Gov-
ernment and in my own, our most sincere condolences."
From Senor Don Federico Mejia to the Secretary of State,
November 1, 1912:
" I am in receipt of special instructions from the Most Excellent
the President of Salvador, Dr. Manuel E. Araujo, directing me to
express to the Most Excellent Mr. President Taft, through the
most worthy medium of your excellency, his sentiments of regrets
and profound sorrow for the lamented death of the Hon. James
Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the Republic, which
has thrown the American people into mourning and deep con-
sternation."
SERVIA
From Nich. P. Pachitch, ministry of foreign affairs, political
section, to the American consul at Belgrade, October 27, 1912:
" I am in receipt of your letter informing me that Mr. Sherman,
the Vice President of the United States, died on October 31, n. s.
" I have the honor to beg you to kindly convey to the United
States Government the deepest condolence of the Royal Servian
Government."
From the minister for foreign affairs, Devawongse, to the
American charge d'affaires at Bangkok, November 3, 1912 :
" I have received with sincerest regret your letter of November
2 announcing the death of the Vice President of the United States
of America, Mr. James S. Sherman, which had taken place on 30th
of October last.
"I beg to ask that you will be so kind as to convey to the
President of the United States of America the deep sympathy of
the Siamese Government as well as that of my own."
Department of State, November 1, 1912, memorandum:
" Mr. Loftus, representing the Siamese minister, called to explain
that the minister was en route to Europe and would not be able
personally to write to the department to express condolence on
the death of the Vice President for several weeks. In the mean-
time, however, Mr. Loftus wished to unofficially transmit the deep
sympathy of the Siamese Government."
From Prince Traidos Prabandh, Siamese minister, Washington,
to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
"I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter
of the 31st instant, in which you announce the death, at Utica,
[133]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
N. Y., on Wednesday, October 30 last, of the Hon. James School-
CBAFT Sherman, Vice President of the United States.
" In reply, permit me to assure you that His Majesty's Govern-
ment will deeply regret to learn of the loss which has befallen
that of the United States in the passing of this great statesman,
and to offer, on their behalf as well as on my own part, an expres-
sion of sincere sympathy on this sad occasion."
SPAIN
From Sefior Don Juan Riafio y Gayangos, Spanish minister,
Washington, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your excellency's
note of yesterday by which you impart to me the sad intelligence
of the death at Utica, N. Y., of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sher-
man, Vice President of the United States, which occurred on the
30th instant at 9.42 p. m., and that the funeral service will be held
at Utica on Saturday, the 2d of November, at 2 p. m.
" In reply, I extend to your excellency my most heartfelt con-
dolence and beg leave to say that I propose to go to Utica to attend
the funeral."
SWEDEN
Department of State, October 31, 1912, memorandum :
" The minister of Sweden called to-day to express his deep
regret and that of his Government at the death of the Vice
President."
From Mr. W. A. F. Ekengren, minister of Sweden, Washington,
to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912 :
" I have had the honor to receive your letter of yesterday with
its sorrowful message of the death at Utica, N. Y., on Wednesday
last, of the Hon. James Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of
the United States, and I hasten herewith to repeat the assurance
of deep-felt sympathy, which I already have had the occasion to
personally express to you, Mr. Secretary, on account of the great
loss inflicted not only upon the family of the deceased Vice Presi-
dent but also upon the whole country by the demise of a man
so highly beloved as a husband, father, and friend, so highly
esteemed as a statesman and legislator.
" His memory shall live long amongst them who had the good
fortune of his personal acquaintance."
SWITZERLAND
From Mr. Henri Martin, charg6 d'affaires of Switzerland, Wash-
ington, to the Secretary of State, November 3, 1912:
" I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your depart-
ment's note of October 31 informing me of the death of the Hon.
[134]
Condolences from Foreign Governments
James Schoolcbaft Sherman, Vice President of the United
States.
" Deeply touched by the unexpected death of Mr. Sherman, I
beg you to accept, in behalf of the Swiss Federal Council, the
expression of my warm sympathy with the American Nation for
the loss of this distinguished statesman."
TURKEY
From Youssouf Zia Pacha, Turkish ambassador, Washington, to
the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
"I have heard with great regret, by your excellency's note
dated October 31 last, of the death of the Hon. James Schoolcraft
Sherman, Vice President of the United States of America.
" I beg your excellency kindly to accept the expression of my
keenest sympathy on this sorrowful occasion and to receive the
assurance of my very high consideration."
URUGUAY
From Dr. Carlos Maria de Pena, minister of Uruguay, Washing-
ton, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912 :
" With profound sorrow have I received your communication
announcing the death of the Vice President of the United States
and the holding of his obsequies at Utica, November 2, at 2 p. m.
"I beg your excellency to deign to accept and convey to the
President the expressions of condolence with which I take part
in the mourning of the Nation for the loss of the illustrious Vice
President of the United States of America, Mr. James School-
craft Sherman.
" In offering this deep sympathy I regret my inability to attend
the funeral ceremony."
VENEZUELA
From the ministry of foreign affairs of Venezuela to American
charge d'aflFaires at Caracas, November 7, 1912:
" With great grief this ofHce has learned, through your honor's
courteous note No. 90, of yesterday, that His Excellency Mr. James
Schoolcraft Sherman, Vice President of the United States of
America, died October 30 last.
" The Government of Venezuela sincerely sympathizes with the
friendly nation in its pain over so great a loss and entreats your
honor to convey to the Government you so worthily represent an
expression of such sympathy."
From Senor Don P. Ezequiel Rojas, minister of Venezuela,
Washington, to the Secretary of State, November 1, 1912:
" I have had the honor to receive your obliging letter of yester-
day announcing the much-lamented death of the Most Excellent
[135]
Memorial Addresses: Vice President Sherman
Mr. James Schoolcraft Sherman, worthy Vice President of the
United States, and informing me that the funeral service will be
held to-morrow in the city of Utica.
" I deeply deplore the sad event and in the name of my Govern-
ment tender to the Government of the United States of America,
through the Department of State, the most sincere and heartfelt
condolence."
WEST INDIES
From the American consul at Bridgetown, Barbados, "West
Indies, to the Secretary of State, November 4, 1912:
" On receipt of the telegram on Friday evening (announcing the
death of Vice President Sherman) I immediately called up the
acting governor of Barbados by telephone and the flags were at
half-mast on all Government buildings on Saturday, the day of
the funeral, as well as at the various foreign consulates, and the
acting governor, Maj. J. A. Burdon, called at the consulate to ex-
press his sympathy."
From Mr. Robert Johnstone, colonial secretary, Kingston, Ja-
maica, to the American vice consul at Kingston, November 2, 1912 :
" I am directed by the governor to acknowledge the receipt of
your letter of the 1st instant reporting the death of the Hon.
James S. Sherman, Vice President of the United States of Amer-
ica. I am to ask you to be so good as to convey to Mr. Bergholz an
expression of his excellency's regret on behalf of this Government
at the intelligence.
" The information as to the death of the Vice President has
been immediately communicated by telephone and letter to the
deputy assistant adjutant and quartermaster general, for the infor-
mation of the general oflBcer commanding, and the flags at King's
House and Headquarter House will be flown at half-mast to-day
as a mark of respect to the deceased."
From the governor of Martinique to the vice consul of the
United States at Fort de France, Martinique, November 1, 1912:
"Deeply grieved by the news of the death of Mr. Sherman,
Vice President of the Republic of the United States of America,
which you have just communicated to me, I wish to express the
large share which Martinique takes in the loss of the American
Nation and Government of the Republic of the United States.
" I beg you to be kind enough to transmit to the American
Nation and Government of the Republic the expression of the
sentiments of painful sympathy of the colony and of my sincere
condolences."
-9
[136]
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|
zh | N/A | N/A | **历史计量方法在西方大学史研究中的应用**
——基于《大学史》杂志的分析
**王 璞1，于书娟2.**
**(1.厦门大学教育研究院，福建厦门361005；**
**2.江南大学人文学院，江苏无锡214122)**
**摘 要：对《大学史》杂志1981-2005年间所刊论文的统计分析发现，历史计量方法在西方大学史研究中的应用比较普遍，主要涉及大学与社会流动、大学的经济和财政、大学与政治宗教势力、大学中知识和思想的发展等研究领域。历史计量方法的使用对大学史研究具有拓展、勘误等功能，使用中需格外注意历史计量方法的使用阈限。**
**关键词：历史计量方法；《大学史》；大学史研究**
**中图分类号：G649.29 文献标志码：A文章编号：1000-4203(2013)03-0087-07**
**The Application of Cliometrics Method in Research on the History of Universities**
**_—_ Based on the Analysis of History of Universities**
**WANG Pu， YU Shu-juan²**
**_(1. Institute of Education， Xiamen University， Xiamen 361005， China；2. School of Humanities， Jiangnan Universities， Wuzi 214122， China)_**
**Abstract： Through the statistical analysis of the articles published in History of Univer-sities from 1981 to 2005， the paper shows that the application of cliometrics method in the research on the history of western universities is very common； and the articles were mainly involved in such four fields as the university and the social mobility， the economy and finance of university， the university and the political and religious power， and the development of knowledge and ideas in university. The application of cliometrics method has the function to expand and revise the research on the history of western universities， but the threshold of the application must be concerned especially.**
**Key words： cliometrics method； History of Universities； research on the history of uni-versities**
**收稿日期：2013-01-16**
**基金项目：教育部人文社会科学研究青年项目(09YJC880062)；福建省社会科学规划青年项目(2011C039)；中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金资助项目(JUSRP21143)。**
**作者简介：王璞(1978一)，女，湖北武汉人，厦门大学教育研究院助理教授，教育学博士，从事高等教育历史与理论研究；**
**于书娟(1981一)，女，河南西平人，江南大学人文学院副教授，教育学博士，从事西方大学史、教育史学理论研究。**
**所谓大学史研究，就是对大学历史的研究，即对大学的发生、发展等历史进程所进行的研究。西方学术界从19世纪初便开始了对这一领域的持续关注，及至1981年，第一本专门的学术刊物——《大学史》History of Universities)杂志创刊，随即成为大学史研究的专门阵地，汇集了各国学者大学史的研究成果。1988年，该杂志开始与国际大学史委员会°合作，进一步提升了杂志的地位和水平，该杂志也成为最能代表大学史研究状况的杂志。**
**西方史学从20世纪开始也发生了很大的变化，这些变化是在思想观念、方法、资料等各个层面展开的，尤其是利用新的研究方法和手段，历史计量方法(Quantitative Method of History)就是其中比较重要的一种。它是指利用现代数学的有效手段，对历史资料进行定量分析，发掘、整理和表述历史现象与历史过程的方法。以历史计量方法的应用为主要特征形成了一个新的史学流派——计量史学。大学史作为历史学的分支，其研究也不可避免地受到这个新史学流派的影响，历史计量方法也开始在大学史研究中应用开来。**
**大量使用图表是历史计量方法的一个重要表征，因此，国外有学者通过统计分析图表来反映历史计量方法在历史研究中的应用情况，比较有代表性的有约翰·雷诺兹(John F. Reynolds)的研究，他**
**对1975-1995年间几种主要的美国史学杂志论文所使用的数理表格进行统计分析，然后根据表格的数量和水平高低来反映这一吋期计量史学的发展趋势.-1-我们在这里也借用雷诺兹的做法来研究《大学史》所刊论文中的图表，并以此来反映历史计量方法在大学史研究中的应用情况，并对这一方法的适用范围，所发挥的功能，以及存在的问题等加以探讨，以期为我国包括大学史在内的整个教育史研究在方法上提供一些借鉴和启示，同时也为我国高等教育学科的“基础建设”贡献一点力量。**
一、历史计量方法在大学史研究中的总体情况
**1981-2005年间，《大学史》杂志出版了24期，共刊发论文163篇，论文评论20篇，书评270篇。不计评论和书评，共有35篇论文出现了图表，不过并不是所有的图表都代表着运用了计量方法，有些图表只是介绍、说明性的，不涉及计量统计。因此，文中图表具有计量特征、运用了历史计量方法的大学史研究论文有24篇(详见表1)，占全部论文的14.7%。由此可见，在众多研究方法的使用中，历史计量方法的使用还是很普遍的。**
**表I 运用历史计量方法的大学史研究论文目录**
| **序号** | **作者** | **作者姓氏中文翻译** | **论文题目** | **卷数页码** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | **Claudia Kren** | **克伦** | **Astronomical Teaching at the Late Medieval Uni-versity of Vienna** | **1983，(3)：15一31** |
| **2** | **Paul Trio** | **特里奥** | **Financing of University Students in the MiddleAges：a New Orientation** | **1984，(4)：1.24** |
| **3** | **Paul Trio** | **特里奥** | **A Medieval Students Confraternity at Ypres： TheNotre Dame Confraternity of Paris Students** | **1985，(5)：15一53** |
| **4** | **Reuven Avi-Yonah** | **阿维一约纳** | **Career Trends of Parisian Masters of Theology，1200一1320** | **1986-1987，(6)：47一64** |
| **5** | **Christoph Meinel** | **迈内尔** | **Artibus Academicis Inserenda： Chemistry’s Placein Eighieenth and Early Nineteenth Century Uni-versities** | **1988，(7)：89-115** |
| **6** | **Derek Dow， MichaelMoss** | **道和莫斯** | **The Medical Curriculum at Glasgow in the EarlyNineteenth Century** | **1988，(7)：227-257** |
| **7** | **G.L'E.Turner** | **特纳** | **Experimental Science in Early Nineteenth-Centu-ry Oxlord** | **1989，(8)：117一135** |
| **8** | **Edward De Maess-chalck** | **梅斯乔克** | **The Relationship between the University and theCity of Louvain in the Fifteenth Century** | **1990，(9)：45--71** |
| **9** | **Benoit Pellistrandi** | **佩利斯特兰迪** | **The University of Alcala de Henares from 1568to 1618：Students and Graduates** | **1990，(9)：119一165** |
| **10** | **Antonio Garciay Garcia** | **加西亚** | **The Medieval Students of the University ofSalamanca** | **1991，(10)：93115** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **11** | **Jiri Pesek** | **佩谢克** | **The University of Prague， Czech Latin Schools，and Social Mobility 1570-1620** | **1991，(10)：117一136** |
| **12** | **R. D. Anderson** | **安德森** | **Universities and Elites in Modern Britain** | **1991，(10)：225一250** |
| **13** | **Harald Heppner** | **赫普纳** | **UniversityandMultinational Societyin theHabsburg Monarchy： Studenis fromSloveneCountries at the University of Graz，1884-1914** | **1992，(11)：165一176** |
| **14** | **Lucia Felici** | **费利西** | **The Erasmusstiftung and Europe： The Institu-tion，Organization，and Activity of the Foundationof Erasmus of Rotterdam from 1538 to 1600** | **1993，(12)：25一63** |
| **15** | **Ulrich JohannesSchneider** | **施耐德** | **The Teaching of Philosophy at German Universi-ties in the Nineteenth Ceritury** | **1993，(12)：197一338** |
| **16** | **Fernanda Perrone** | **佩龙** | **Women Academics in England，1870-1930** | **1993，(12)：339一367** |
| **17** | **Gudrun FiedlersKlaus ErichPoll-mann** | **菲德勒和波尔曼** | **Engineering Students at Brunswick lnstitute ofTechnology during the Period of Industrial Ex-pansion，1862-1914** | **1994，(13)：251—270** |
| **18** | **Gudrun Fiedler，Klaus ErichPoll-tarr** | **菲德勒和波尔曼** | **Irom extension centre to university： the develop-ment of Non-traditional education at auburn uni-versity in montgomery，1936-1967** | **1994.(13)：281299** |
| **19** | **George N. Vlahakis** | **弗拉哈基斯** | **The Introduction of Classical Physics in Greece：The Role of the I1alian Universities and Publica-tions** | **1995-1996，(13)：157一180** |
| **20** | **Yuval Dror** | **德罗尔** | **The Early Years of the Hebrew Technion in Hai-fa during the British Mandate(1924-1948)，andof the University of Haifa ( 1963-1981) in theState of lsrael： A Community Dilemmas Approachto Higher Education** | **1995一1996，(13)：265一292** |
| **21** | **Sarah Bendall** | **本多尔** | **Estate Management， Maps and Map-making inOxford and Cambridge 1580-1640** | **1997-1999，(14)：123一153** |
| **22** | **Stelanie Knoll** | **诺尔** | **Collective Identity： Early Modern Funeral Monu-ments for Academics in Northern Europe** | **2003，(18/1)：14一61** |
| **23** | **Shona Vanice** | **万斯** | **Poverty and the Pursuit of Learning： Poor Schol-ars in Seventeenth-Century Aberdeen** | **2003，(18/2)：90一146** |
| **24** | **Michael Sletcher** | **斯莱彻** | **Historians and Anachronisms： Samuel E. Mori-son and Seventeenth-Century Harvard Collegc** | **2004，(19/2)：188—220** |
**二、历史计量方法在大学史各个研究领域中的应用**
**由表1可见，这24篇论文大致分属四个不同的研究主题：**
**第一个主题是关于大学与社会流动、大学教育与职业发展等问题的研究。这个主题的论文数量最为集中，共有13篇。如佩谢克(1991)研究了 50年**
**间布拉格大学毕业生的职业机会与其社会地位提升之间的关系。佩利斯特兰迪(1990)研究了西班牙的埃纳雷斯堡大学(University offAlcala de Henares)50年间的在校学生和毕业生的职业取向和职业发展。**
**第二个主题是关于大学的经济和财政，大学教师和学生的经济状况，尤其是他们的经济负担、收人与支出、外界对他们的经济资助等方面的研究。涉及这个主题的论文基本采取了历史计量方法，共3篇，包括特里奥(1984)、本多尔(1997-1999)、万斯**
**第三个主题是关于大学与外部政治宗教势力之间关系的研究，涉及大学与城市、大学与国王国家、大学与教皇教会之间的关系。这个主题的论文仅有两篇，一篇是梅斯乔克(1990)对15世纪鲁汶大学与鲁汶城关系的研究，一篇是赫普纳(1992)通过对格拉茨大学中的斯洛文尼亚族学生的研究来探讨大学与多民族国家之间的关系。**
**第四个主题是关于大学中知识和思想的发展的研究。一般认为，知识和思想的发展是无法用历史计量方法来研究的，但实际上，在知识和思想的传递、传播过程中，存在着一些潜在的数量关系，仍然可以用历史计量方法来分析和研究。这一主题的论文有6篇，包括克伦(1983)、迈内尔(1988)、道和莫斯(1988)、特纳(1989)、施耐德(1993)和弗拉哈基斯(1995-1996)，仅次于论文最多的第一个主题。历史计量方法的应用主要是对大学的学科及其教学内容、某学科的讲座数量、学生人数等进行统计分析。**
**三、历史计量方法与大学史研究论文中的图表分析**
**据我们的统计，这24篇论文中，一共出现了151个图表，其中图形50幅，表格101个。**
**1.根据样式，50幅图形可分为三种**
**第一种是地理式图形，共16幅，主要用来表示地域分布、地理来源和流动、居住模式等。仔细观察还可以发现，地理式图形使用最多的地理单位是教区，可以看出教区和教会在西方社会和大学发展中的影响。第二种是直方图和饼图，共21幅。直方图和饼图具有多种用途，21幅图中只有1幅饼图是用来统计欧洲大学中葬礼纪念碑铭文使用的语言，其他都是直方图。绝大多数直方图用来表示课程与教学方面的情况，如学生所选课程的分布情况，某课程或讲座的参加人数，各种课程和讲座的比例等。第三种是线形图和散点图，共13幅。这13 幅图全部都是关于“大学与知识”方面的研究。相比前两种图形，线性图和散点图对数据的展示更加精细，但处理技术更加复杂，不仅要求大数据量，而且还涉及一定的方程计算。大学史研究学者克伦(1983)就坦言，他自己就是使用计算机来分析维也纳大学的讲座数据的，并绘制出相关的线性图形，这类图形比普通直方图更为精细有效，但要依据有限的小数据量进行分析统计，技术上存在挑战。\[4**
**由上可知，前两种图形只涉及简单的分类统计，但却占所有图形的七成以上。因此，我们可以认为，更加复杂高级的计量分析方法在大学史研究中的应用还有待发展。同时，我们在对三种图形的主题内容的统计中发现了一个有趣的事实，就是关于“大学与知识”的图形占了所有图形的近六成。传统观点所认为的不适合进行数量分析的“知识”方面的研究，却更多地用到了历史计量方法。**
**2.根据主题内容，101个表格涉及五类**
**第一类关于职业状况及其分类，共17个。这类表格通常出现在研究大学与社会流动关系的论文中，其中关于大学毕业生职业的表格有7个，关于学生父母，尤其是父亲职业的表格有5个。在研究中通常用父亲的职业来衡量学生的社会出身和社会阶层，通过将大学毕业生的职业与其父母的职业进行对比，来展示大学教育在代际社会阶层变化中所起的作用。第二类关于学生人数和比例的变化情况，共38个，包括学生人数的变化，学生在各个学院的分布情况，学生人数与整个社会人口的比例，以及某门课程的学生出席情况等。第三类关于师生的地理来源，共31个。例如，加西亚(1991)对中世纪萨拉曼卡大学(University of Salamanca)学生的研究，共有7个表，包含了不同时期学生的地理来源(按教区来划分)，以及各个学院的学者和学生的情况。第四类表格涉及经济资助问题，共5个。如万斯(2003)用3个表格对17世纪中叶苏格兰地区阿伯丁市的奖助学金情况进行了细致的统计。第五类是其他表格，有10个。其中，施耐德(1993)用7个表格米说明1810-1880年间19所德国大学中哲学讲座的情况。**
**从表格的情况看，人数比例、地理来源、经济资助等问题最容易进行量化研究，因此这类表格占了所有表格的七成以上。此外，大学与社会流动的关系问题也是人学史研究者持续关注的问题，这类问题的研究者大多以职业作为切入点。**
四、历史计量方法在大学史研究中的功能
**就这24篇论文研究的问题和得出的结论来看，大学史研究中运用计量方法能产生出更新颖、更深刻的历史成果。**
**1.拓展功能：历史计量方法拓展了大学史研究的问题和领域**
**这些问题和领域可以是以前没有关注到的新问题和新领域，也可以是以前研究不够深人的问题和领域。如特里奥(1984)对中世纪大学学生经济状况的研究，特别注意到一些团体和基金会对学生的资助，以及他(1985)对中世纪学生团体的研究。迈内尔(1988)对18世纪和19世纪早期化学在大学中的地位的研究，道和莫斯(1988)对19世纪早期格拉斯哥大学医学课程的研究，费利西(1993)对16世纪下半叶伊拉斯谟基金会的研究，佩龙(1993)则第一次关注到转型时期英国大学里的女性学者等，都属于过去没有研究过的新问题。**
**而有些研究课题，如大学里的奖助学金问题，对于有着悠久捐赠传统的欧美教育来说并不是新问题，相关的研究还很多，但应用历史计量方法之后，除了能得到更加准确具体的研究结果外，还为我们提供了很多过去被忽略的事实和新鲜的数理联系。比如上文提到的万斯(2003)关于17世纪中叶阿伯丁市的奖助学金的研究，他用表格呈现了资助人的姓名、出资时间、职业背景，资助方式(钱或者土地)，资助要求等，同时还给出了奖学金与当时的工资和物价的价值对比。从这些详细的统计数据资料中，我们发现苏格兰在17世纪中叶就已经有了令人惊奇的非常世俗化、民主化的教育捐赠行为，受资助的对象范围非常广泛，除了大学的学生和教师外，女性学生和教师得到了很大的关注。1另外，德罗尔(1998)针对以色列海法城的两所大学进行了研究，尝试将历史研究与高等教育理论相结合，探讨了大学发展中的两难困境。**
**2.勘误功能：历史计量方法能质疑并矫正大学史研究中的偏误**
**如已有的观点认为，大学中某一学科领域出现了杰出人物，就一定会带动该学科的教学和科研，但克伦(1983)却发现，中世纪晚期的维也纳大学出了三位杰出的天文学家，但这没能推动维也纳大学的天文学教学。这是因为教学决定权，也就是说教什么以及如何教的权利不在这些教授手中。再如，我们通常认为，奖学金是用来资助那些成绩优异但家境贫困的学生的，但凡事都有例外，万斯(2003)在研究了阿伯丁市受到资助的贫穷学生和学者后，发现能否得到资助还要看他们与资助人的关系、他们的先辈对该市的贡献，而不是绝对以贫穷程度为标准。塞缪尔·莫里森(Samuel E. Morisson)是研究哈佛校史的专家，他认为17世纪的哈佛大学秉持着清教信仰和传统，但这并不妨碍它具有自由和世俗的特性，而且美国现代大学的思想正是来源于此。**
**而斯莱彻(2004)则指出进步主义历史学家并不认可哈佛大学的清教传统，因此总要求哈佛改革，莫里森的观点正是其出于反改革主义者的立场对于改革主义者的回击。**
**最能突出历史计量方法这一功能的例证要数佩利斯特兰迪(1990)对1568-1618年埃纳雷斯堡大学的在校学生和毕业生的研究。在他之前已经有学者理查德·卡根(Richard. L. Kagan)做过相关的研究，卡根认为埃纳雷斯堡大学的学生人数首次超过3000名是在1560年，而佩利斯特兰迪则通过每五年一次的统计发现该大学的学生人数首次超过3000名应该是1568年。虽然两人得到的学生人数变化情况的基本趋势是一致的，但更加细致的计量显然得到了更加精准的结果。**
**3.深化功能：历史计量方法能证明和解释质性的大学史研究**
**如安德森(1991)对大学与现代英国精英之间关系的研究很好的体现了历史计量方法的这一功能。以往对英国大学的研究认为，19世纪60年代之后至二战爆发是英国大学发生重大变革的时期，在这一时期，英国高等教育完成了从精英到大众的转变，实现了近代化的过程。安德森通过计量分析对这些普遍认识进行了检验和优化，他用6个表格来说明，这一重大变革时期的时间划分可以更加细致，而且英国不同区域的大学变革进程各有特点，应该区分开来。比如无论是从人学人数、专业化程度，还是满足中产阶级需要来看，19世纪60年代之前的苏格兰的大学无疑是最为现代的。而如果从学生的家庭出身来看，苏格兰的大学中来自于旧的土地贵族阶层的学生比例在18世纪30年代的时候就已经只占7%，而一半以上的学生都来自于新兴的工商业阶层，这说明大学人学机会和民主化的扩展在此之前就已经很明显了。安德森通过统计分析得出1914年已经成为变革时期中的一个重要分期。同时，安德森考察了苏格兰、威尔士、英格兰不同区域的大学学生父母的职业，以及这些大学的毕业生的职业发现：苏格兰和威尔士的大学学生的社会来源比英格兰的大学学生的社会来源广泛的多；大学毕业生的职业非常广泛，从内阁大臣到到乡村教师，因此毕业生与社会精英阶层的范畴不是完全重合的；大学的重要性得到了精英阶层的认可，但大学在精英阶层形成中的作用有限。-10**
**另外，弗拉哈基斯(1995-1996)通过一个详细的表格对意大利科学家参考和涉及的经典物理学方面的古希腊出版物进行了统计\[113，证明和解释了科**
五、历史计量方法在大学史研究中的阈限
**通过上述分析我们可以看出，历史计量方法的应用极大地推动了大学史的研究，但不能夸大历史计量方法的作用，研究过程中要格外注意计量方法的适用范围以及可能存在的缺陷。**
**1.历史计量方法只能从数量关系上帮助揭示事物的性质，并不能代替全部的历史研究**
**如道和莫斯(1988)用计量方法对19世纪早期格拉斯哥大学的医学课程进行了研究。两位作者都是大学里的档案学家，他们最大限度地占有了各种数据资料，而月对史料的遴选和统计能力也很强。因此，他们用了7个表格给我们呈现了医学院的发展，用数据给我们描述了之前模糊的历史现象，但遗憾的是，他们没有揭示出这种发展背后的原因以及将带来什么结果。这实际上说明，解释隐藏在数据背后的历史，光靠历史计量方法是无法完成的。我们从大学史研究论文的考察中看到，大学史的很多学者在研究中都非常注意规避历史计量方法的缺陷，极力做到客观严谨。菲德勒和波尔曼(1994)在研究布伦瑞克理工学院工程专业的学生时，还在文章中单列一节来专门说明和解释方法问题，包括数据的来源和选择，使用何种计算机软件进行统计分析，以及哪些地方无法单纯使用定量研究，因此采用定量和定性相结合的方法等。12迈内尔(1988)就明确指出，计量方法有自己的局限性，因此，他在自己的研究中，只是用这种计量方法来表明当时的一般发展趋势和变化，“这并不意味着对这个过程的准确描述，或者是对更彻底的历史方法的分析的代替”13。**
**2.计量分析过程中研究者的主观性很难避免**
**历史计量方法跟以往的历史研究方法相比，最为强调的就是用数据说话，然而，客观数据在参与研究的过程中反而更难避免主观性，如数据的选择和取舍，还有对隐藏在数据背后的历史的解释和说明都很难做到客观有效。我们从《大学史》所刊论文可以看到，历史计量方法的应用已经从大学的财政史或者经济史、社会史拓展到了政治史、知识史的研究。因此，简单而直接的数据已经无法满足研究的需要，需要通过间接和潜在的数据来进行研究。而如何选择数据，选择哪种数据，数据过少难以达到统**
**计分析所需的量等的问题，都极易导致有失客观的结论和解释。**
**3.历史计量方法还存在大量尚未解决的技术问题，运用得当与否影响到最终的结论**
**随着计算机的发明和使用，历史计量方法也趋复杂，从一般的描述性统计过渡到相关分析、回归方程、趋势推论、意义度量、线型规划、动态数列、超儿何分布、投入产出分析、因子分析、马尔科夫链等数学模型、模糊数学，还有博弈论和对策论、曲线拓扑理论等。14-这些更为高级的计量分析方法在历史研究中的应用还有待发展和完善，而不当的使用会带来错误的结论。这里还是要提到佩利斯特兰迪(1990)对卡根的质疑，卡根对卡斯蒂利亚(Cas tile)的皇室每年所授予学位的数量的估计和埃纳雷斯堡大学所占的比例的假设，推算出了三个年份该大学授予的各种学位的数量，而佩利斯特兰迪根据卡根的假设，也推算出一个结果，二者之间存在着较大的出入。两位学者使用类似的推算方法，却得出了大为不同的结果，到底哪一个才是正确的呢?虽然佩利斯特兰迪还指出，仅1573年埃纳雷斯堡大学就授予了187个硕士的学位，这也与卡根关于卡斯蒂利亚的大学每年授予的这类学位不超过170个相矛盾。-15-看起来是佩里斯特兰迪的结论有理，但两人的统计结论无法得到验证。**
**注释：**
①D **《大学史》杂志于1981年在美国哲学家杏尔斯·B·斯密特(Charles B. Schmitt)(1933一1986)的发起下创小。斯密特由于对文艺复兴时期哲学的研究，从而对16、17世纪的科学史，以及大学课程发展史产生浓厚兴趣、因此，他创办《大学史》杂志来鼓励对大学各方面历史的研究。自创办以来，该杂志刊发了大量大学史研究方面的论文、书评和文献等，成为欧美大学史研究领域创办最早的一份权威杂志。**
**②** **国际大学史委员会是在二战后由历史学家组成的一个学术组织，求属丁国际历史学会：是大学史研究、特别是西方大学史研究方面最具权威性和专门性的国际性组织，该委员会成员通常由各个国家推举的代表构成，通常是一个国家有1名代表。委员会每年召开一次会议，成员之间平时也保持着密切的私人联系。**
**③** **我们的分析和统计只涉及《大学史》杂志中的论文类，其他栏目如研究注释、论文评论等栏目中的文章没有包含在内，这些栏日的文章也可能用到计量方法，如Jona** **than Davies， A‘Paper University’? The Studio Lue-chese， 1369-1487. History of Universities， 2000，(15)：261-310.**
**④** **埃纳雷斯堡大学，又名贡普鲁腾塞大学，是近代欧洲最**
**重要的文化学术中心之一，也是西班牙文化向世界传播的基地。古老的埃纳雷斯堡大学始建于1499年，16世纪时达到鼎盛，17世纪陷入危机，1836年迁至马德里。**
**西班牙历史上的一个工国，由西班牙西北部的老卡斯蒂利亚和中部的新卡斯蒂利亚组成，它逐渐和周边王国融合·形成了西班牙飞国。**
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**·高等教育学科博士学位论文提要·**
**“985工程”实施效率及影响因素研究**
**湖南大学博士生丁岚 导师 李海峥研究方向 应用经济学 答辩时间 2011年4月**
**本文对高等教育资源配置效率、高校生产效率以及“公派研究生项目”实施效率等问题进行实证分析，进而探寻影响“985工程”实施效率与绩效的关键因素。首先，本文清晰地界定高校资源配置效率及生产效率的基本内涵，并在此基础上介绍“985工程”建设的基本情况，特别是工程二期开始推行的科技创新平台与哲学社会科学创新基地建设，及“国家建设高水平大学公派研究生项目”开展的基本情况。其次，从经济学角度提出考察我国“985工程”资源配置效率的新思路，应用动态权重分析方法，分别将2001-2007年间“985”高校与非“985”高校的科研与教学生产效率增长分解为3个部分，即“高校内”、“协方差”及“高校间”部分。研究发现，“985”高校从规模到生产效率方面的各项指标普遍优**
**Johns Hopkins University Press，1974.**
**\[9\]\[15\]** **PELLISTRANDI B. The University of Alcala de** **Henares from 1568 to 1618： Students and Graduates** **J. History of Universities， 1990，(9)：122-123，142-143.**
**\[10\]** **ANDERSONAR D. Universities and Elites in Mod-ern Britain\[J\]. History of Universities， 1991，(10)：244，**
11\] **VLAHAKIS G N. The lntroduction of Classical** **Physics in Greece： The Role of the Italian Universities** **and Publications\[J\]. History of Universities， 1995-6，(13)：176-177.**
L12」 **FIEDLER G， POLLMANN K P. Engineering** **Students at Brunswick Institute of Technology during** **the Period of Industrial Expansion， 1862-1914\[J\].** **History of Universities， 1994，(13)：257.**
13 **MEINEL C. Artibus Academicis Inserenda：Chemis-try's Placc in Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centu-ry Universities J\]. History of Universitics， 1988，(7)：99，99-100.**
L14\_王晓华.近三十年中国大陆史学主潮研究\_D\].济 **南：山东大学，2007：46.**
**(本文责任编辑** **邓建生)**
**_六_**
**于非“985”高饺，尤其是获得了更多的教育事业经费和政府R&D拔款的支持。虽然高校自身生产力的增长是高等教育整体发展的主要源动力，但提高资源配置效率带来的整体效率提升也不能忽视。研究表明，我国高等教育的科研资源配置正在向合理方向转移，但仍未能通过合理配置资源实现科研生产效率的最大化。再次，在回顾高校生产效率研究的理论基础及其发展现状的基础上，推导出高等教育领域的科研与教学生产方程，并运用最小二乘回归及固定效应模型对生产方程的参数进行估算，凡分别对高饺科研与教学生产效率的增长要素进行系统的分析。研究表明，相对于其他教师来说，青年教师对高校科研生产效率的增长具有显著促进作用；“985”高校博士生对论文产出的贡献作用要显著高于非“985”高校的博士生。在研究生培养中，“985”高校更注重以科研为导向、以课程教学为辅助的培养机制。再其次，本文对“985工程”中重要的国际合作项日——“国家建设高水平大学公派研究生项目”的开展情况及实施效率问题进行较深人的实证分析。最后，从构建科学高效的管理体制、创新平台与基地建设、以及加强国际合作三个方面，提山提升“985工程”绩效的政策建议并总结全文。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 二战后对日索赔相关问题研究
王化凯
(襄樊学院，湖北襄樊441053)
摘 要：二战结束后，根据盟国达成的协议和有关国际法规定，各受害国家向日本展开了索取战争赔偿工作。在整个索赔过程中，由于各个国家之间的争执，更为主要的是美国从自己的全球利益需要出发，改变了其对日索赔问题的态度，致使索赔工作失败。对日索赔工作的失败原因是复杂的，但毋庸置疑，美国态度的改变是最根本的，最主要的。
关键词：对日索赔；美国；受害国
中图分类号：D815.9 文献标识码：A \*文章编号：1003-0964(2007)05-0036-04
第二次世界大战后，根据1907年的《海牙陆战法规和惯例公约》和1945年7月26日，中、美、英三国联合发表《波茨坦宣言》(Potsdam Declaration)，盟国确定了日本赔偿的基本原则：(1)盟国并不向日索取赔款，但令日本以工业设备及生产产品等实物充赔，以消除其战争潜在力；(2)盟国向日本索取赔偿设备与产品，同时顾及能使日本在战后维持一合理的平时经济生活水准。根据此原则，在美国的实际主导下，受害各国走上了对日索赔的艰难历程。
一、二战后对日索赔的机构设置及运行机制
对日索赔工作有三个方面的组织机构，即国际机构、各受害国政府和日本。在国际方面主要有远东委员会和驻日盟军总司令部，实际由美国主导。
盟国占领日本以后，在对日和约尚未签订以前，有关日本赔偿事宜的最高决策机构是远东委员会。该委员会是根据1945年12月在莫斯科举行的苏、美、英三国外相会议上协商并获得中国政府同意的基础上成立的。总部设在华盛顿。
驻日盟军总司令部是盟国驻日占领军的最高统帅，也是在日执行盟国有关对日政策的最高负责机构。远东委员会的一切决定，都必须通过美国政府颁发指令，由盟军总司令部来执行。因此，日本赔偿归还的决策机构是远东委员会，执行机构则是驻日盟军总司令部。盟军总司令部内部成立了相关部门来负责日本赔偿事务。1947年4月4日，根据美国政府颁布的先期拆迁令，在盟总内部成立了“赔偿技术顾问委员会”，由各国赔偿代表团首席代表组
成。该委员会在技术与行政方面协助盟总的赔偿拆迁工作，并解决各申请国间分配赔偿额方面的争执。
1946年秋，美国政府为了便于开展对日赔偿工作，建议各盟国设立一驻日五人代表团，负责办理赔偿归还事务。随后，远东委员会于1947年2月19日发表了 FEC -203 号文件，对五人代表团的组织、职权和办事程序做了明确规定3。1947年5月，各国先后派出代表团，盟总正式将此代表团定名为某国赔偿归还代表团。
1947年4月，日本赔偿先期拆迁计划公布，根据需要，当年6月，行政院赔偿委员会决定设立日本赔偿及归还物资接收委员会，在日办理拆迁工作。
日本作为战败国，有赔偿盟国战时损失及归还动物的义务，在赔偿及归还工作执行过程中，关于原则方案的确定，日本无发言权，但对于保管指定的用来赔偿的工业设备等工作负有执行的义务。另外，有关归还劫物、执行赔偿等工作任务繁杂，日本也必须组织专门机构来办理此赔偿与归还工作。
1946年，日本成立“赔偿部”。1948年2月，日本政府决定设立直属于内阁的“赔偿厅”，而对赔偿工厂的保管仍由政府相关的机关来负责办理。
二、索偿局势的演进
盟国在讨论日本赔偿问题时首先在对日本的海外资产处理上就陷于了争论之中。远东委员会成立伊始，就开始着重讨论这一问题。日本在海外的资产随着战争的结束都被盟国接收。这一部分资产是否应计人接收国应得之赔偿分配额内，在盟国内争
收稿日期：2007-06-28
作者简介：王化凯(1956-)，男，湖北宜城人，院党委副书记，研究员，主要从事法学、思想政治教育研究。
论多日，毫无结果，严重地影响了整个赔偿工作。美国代表为了打破这一僵局，提出了一个折中办法：与日本作战国家得保有所接收之日本国外资产；这些资产包括战利品，作为决定分配赔偿国内工业设备时予以考虑；报告所接收国外资产时，战利品不必分别评估\[1123。对此，苏联提出了自己的条件，与美国展开了争论，旷日持久，了无结果，致使赔偿会议无法举行，盟国间的赔偿协议不能达成。
美国政府为了确定日本应保留的工业水准，并以此为依据，确定其国内工业设备供赔偿的范围与数量，在1945年11月，派鲍莱(Edwin Pauley)作为赔偿专使赴日调查。鲍莱在日本历时一个多月的调查后，于同年12月7日发表了“临时报告”，对于日本赔偿提出了比较具体的意见。鲍莱的临时报告成了远东委员会制定临时赔偿方案的蓝本。1946年4月1日，鲍莱在进一步调查的基础上，提出了“最终报告”，指出：赔偿拆迁必须迅速执行；日本国外资产可留在原地，但必须并入赔偿物资内计算；以前使用某国原料的供赔工厂其机件即拆迁该国；赔偿拆迁之后的日本工业能力以适应国内需要为限；二十所财阀所有之钢铁厂应先行拆迁\[2\]25。最终报告交美国政府讨论时，其内部意见不一，若干人认为太苛刻，故未采取行动。1947年1月，美国政府又派斯揣克(Strike)往日本调查，斯氏发表的意见与鲍莱的报告大相径庭。自此，美国对于赔偿问题的态度日渐转变，对日本的宽纵、护也渐渐公开暴露。
由于盟国内部对于日本赔偿方案不能达成一致，美国政府便在鲍莱的临时报告的基础上于1946年3月向远东委员会建议制订一个临时方案，先行拆迁充赔，待最后赔偿方案决定后再进行结算。但远东委员会认为，本方案的执行仍须各盟国间分配率商定后才能执行。
为了进一步促进赔偿工作，远东委员会于1947年2月13日规定了“日本赔偿物资移交办法”，此办法规定：拆迁赔偿设备自拆卸包装时起，至运到海港或机场交于受赔偿国止，一切拆卸、包装、运输、装舱等费用均由日本政府担负，并按各受偿国取得赔偿品数量的比率，分摊记人各国赔偿帐内。但各受偿国并不因此等费用而减少其应得的赔偿数额。切赔偿设备均以机船舱面交货为原则，交货以后，运输回国事宜，由受偿国自理。
由于分配率迟迟不能达成一致，加之在一些重要问题上美苏之间矛盾加剧，导致临时赔偿方案无法执行。1946年12月，美政府决定采取单独行动，指令盟总执行先期拆迁，并建议远东委员会制订先
期拆迁计划，在先前公布的临时赔偿方案的范围内，先提30%作为直接受日本侵略的国家的赔偿物资。对此，苏联表示反对，英国则始终认为赔偿物资应包括日本的国外资产，各方争论不休，久拖无果。1947年4月2日，美政府发表声明，表示必须采取单独行动执行先期拆迁的理由和步骤，并建议制订“日本赔偿设备分配手续”。4月4日，美政府向盟总发出指令，命其立即执行先期拆迁计划，先期拆迁物资分配给中、菲、荷(代表荷属东印度)、英(代表马米亚、缅甸及其他远东殖民地)四国。中国应得15%，其他三国各得5%。
关于日本战后平时工业水准究竟应如何规定，盟国内意见不一，争论不休，直到1947年1月23日，远东委员会才做出决定，以日本1930-1934年的平均生活水平为日本今后工业生产的标准。中国国民政府对日本平时工业水准主张以1928-1930年为标准，但没有得到盟国的支持而放弃。1947年8月18日，远东委员会通过灭除日本工业战争潜力案，规定了日本保留的钢铁、轻金属、工具机制造、造船、人造石油等七种支持战争工业的生产能力。1948年3月，美国为扶持日本经济复兴，曾提出日本平时生产水准新案，将各保留种类与数额大为增加，因中国代表和菲律宾代表强烈反对面作罢。
关于各盟国间获得日本赔偿物资的分配比率问题，远东委员会在1947年5月8日根据“盟国战后对日基本政策”的规定，通过了一个原则性政策，认为：应根据广泛的政治立场，对于各盟国在日本准备与侵略时所受的生命财产损失以及在击败日本时所做的贡献，包括对日作战的时间与程度，均应予以适当的考虑。可是，各国代表团所提出的各国所希望的分配率，其总额竟达204.5%，不能达成协议。1947年11月6日，美国向远东委员会建议，请各会员国根据以往长时间内所交换的意见，公平决定分配率，并表示各国如能遵此建议执行，美国愿意自其本国应得的数额内提出重要部分以补其他国家之不足。此建议各盟国也未能一致接受。1949年5月初，美国政府分别通知远东委员会各成员国，说明其即将停止拆迁的意见。5月12日，发表正式声明：以往远东委员会通过种种有关赔偿之决策，其有效之执行应基于两项前提，即第一，一切赔偿拆迁应不得损及日本平时生活水准；第二，盟国间对于执行拆迁办法须获得一致协议。而各盟国间对于赔偿问题又始终不能得到完全协议。同时，美国认为：(1)日本经济上的亏损在短时间内无法弥补，为使收支得到平衡，必须利用现有之一切资源；(2)此刻如继续
拆迁赔偿，将不能达到稳定日本经济，使其趋向自给之目的；(3)盟国间关于分配率问题已无成立协议之望，而此项协议如缺将使远东委员会有关赔偿之一切决定无法执行；(4)日本以往业已以海外资产及一部分先期拆迁履行了其赔偿义务。美国根据此四项观点提出：(1)取消1947年4月4日临时指令，停止先期拆迁；(2)撤回其1947年11月6日有关分配率之建议；(3)美国将不再采取单独行动，自日本拆迁任何赔偿。此外，还郑重声明：(1)日本现有一切工业设备皆须保留，以恢复日本经济(甚至包括主要军需工业)；(2)此后美国将向远东委员会建议取消或修改关于赔偿及工业水准之一切现行决策，以与美国在占领时期内不再拆迁赔偿设备之旨相符\[2\]41。美国政府发表上述声明后，于1949年5月13日发出临时指令，命盟总取消先前颁发的先期拆迁指令，并立即执行，盟总据此于7月7日宣布先期拆迁计划停止执行，先期拆迁工作中途夭折。
不久，国际局势发生了重大变化，美苏对立愈演愈烈，随着中国等社会主义运动的胜利，美国逐渐改变了它的战略意图，拟以日本为反苏反共的基地，于是一切有利于日本实力提高之事，美国都竭力扶持，导致在日本赔偿问题上态度大变。
从以上可以看出，战后日本赔偿最终方案始终没能制定。临时赔偿方案也无法达成协议，未能全部实行。日本只是做了象征性的偿付，并最终逃脱了政府赔偿责任。
三、对日索赔失败的原因
战后各受害国尤其是受害最深的中国在索赔问题上最终失败，究其原因，主要有以下几个方面。
第一，二战后期盟国对日本的处理态度和《波茨坦公告》的原则规定为日本逃避赔偿责任埋下了伏笔，而苏联在中国东北的劫掠行为更成为索赔工作上的一大障碍
鉴于第一次世界大战后，由于苛刻的战争赔偿，使德国产生了强烈的复仇心理，进而刺激了第二次世界大战策源地的形成。盟国为了避免重蹈覆辙，决定不向日本等国索赔，只是强行实行“拆迁赔偿”，“主要目的在于摧毁战争潜力”。这一原则在《波茨坦公告》中被确定下来。而战后美国总统杜鲁门更是明确指出，应避免现金和产品赔偿，将军需工业现存过剩设备作为主要赔偿来源，赔偿总额不能超过支付国维持经济自立的程度。这些原则性规定及意见最终导致了日后在对日索赔工作中各方意见分歧。
另外，日本海外资产总值约为309亿美元，其中
在中国的资产约86.3亿美元\[3\]547。◇二战后期，苏军出兵中国东北后，就开始有选择地拆运工业设施。1945年11月，中国政府声明，凡东北境内一切敌产归中国所有。12月7日，苏联通知中国当局，所有东北的工业企业均为苏军的“战利品”，中国的声明“既无根据，且无效力”。美国政府主张，“中国东北工业的处置问题，事关曾担任击败日本主要任务的诸盟国的共同利益和厉害关系”，“要在各个请求赔偿的国家之间实行最后分配”。而苏联在1946年5月撤出时，作为战利品运走了东北的绝大部分工业设备，其中占东北电力设施的65%和钢铁工业设备的80%\[4\]135。苏军的这种行为导致了战后对日索赔工作的复杂化。
第二，美国在亚洲地区政策的转向是对日索赔工作失败的最根本原因
美国加人世界反法西斯战争行列后，很快在盟国中起主导作用。当时美国的主要利益在欧洲，所以它采取了“先欧后亚”的方针。而在远东地区主要是借助中国牵制日本，为此对国民政府从经济上、军事上给予支持。同时，美国还预测：在战争结束后，“日本在未来一个长时间内作为东方强国的地位将消失”，中国将会成为一个“强大而亲美”的国家以取代日本在远东发挥作用\[5\]35-37。美、苏两国将主宰战后世界，那么中国就是美苏之间极为敏感的重要因素，培植和扶持一个与美国有着共同政治目标的强大中国，可以阻止苏联共产主义的扩张。为此，美国确定了对中国的政策：一是为从事战争而进行合作；二是承认使中国成为一个大国，使之在战时和战后有资格与美、英、苏三个西方盟国平起平坐。基于上述考虑，美国从各方面大力扶持当时的中国政府。战后在对日索赔问题初期，美国的亚洲政策还是借助国民党政府的伙伴关系来使自己不再受日本的威胁并防止苏联势力的扩张。因此，在此时期的对日索赔及处置问题上，双方的政策具有一致性，因而，国民政府提出自己对日索赔方案和建议主张并进行组织准备，得到了美国的支持。然而，国际局势因美苏对立日趋严重，致使战后一切重大问题久拖不决。在远东方面，国民党政府在内战中节节失利，美国企图使国民党政府成为美苏对立的缓冲地带的希望变得越来越渺茫。通过分析远东地区的国际局势，“美国急盼建立一个反苏反共之基地，而盱衡大势，惟日本最合此一条件。且日本自美军进占以后，国内秩序安定，对美则极尽恭顺逢迎之能事，表面上又极力模仿民主，以取得美国欢心。美国朝野，尤其陆军部方面，均认为日本原有相当工业基
础，如能加以培植，使其成为美国卵翼下之力量，对于美国执行远东政策必有裨益…·因此，美国对日态度，由敌视处罚与防范渐变为护与扶植”1\]43。美国的这一态度，表现在赔偿问题上，一方面是盟总在执行先期拆迁计划时，抱敷衍之念，不肯认真从事；另一方面则派出多个代表团借对日经济调查之名，大幅度削减日本赔偿额度，来复兴日本经济，在远东遏制苏联。加之此时亚洲局势的急剧变化，国民党政权败局已定，美国政府开始考虑改变对日政策。“美国停止对日索赔，重建日本经济作为美国的‘远东工厂'的方针，显然同其亚洲政策重点的变化直接结合在一起”\[6\]98。
第三，中国内战及国民党政府自身的软弱
二战中，中国战区绵延最广，中国军民牺牲最多、损失惨重，是抗击日本侵略的主力和强国，在对日赔偿问题上，理应有一定的发言权，可以理直气壮地来维护国家的利益。但是，战争胜利后，国民党发动了内战。在内战的战场上也必须借助外力，寻求外援。在西方列强中，美国的政策完全符合国民党政权的需要，以美国为靠山，借助美国的援助来实现国内政治目的，便成了其对外政策的核心。因此，国民党政府各方面尽力与美国保持协调一致。在索赔问题上，1944年2月，蒋介石明确指出：“战后我国需要美援助之处甚多，是以我方将来对于赔偿问题所应提之主张，必须对于中国利益与国际舆论二者，与之兼顾。”{7\]223即使是美国的做法损害了中国权益，也不据理力争。二战后，中国的有关赔偿方面的原则和方法不是从中国受害的实际情况出发，而是根据美国颁布的《关于日本投降后美国对日本之一般初步政策》的有关精神来确定。在远东委员会讨论赔偿方式时，很多受害国都提出了日本应以货币赔偿并提出了具体的赔偿数字，而作为受害最深的中国始终遵循美国的意图，不提货币赔偿，更谈不上
具体的索赔数字。国民党政府的所作所为完全是基于国内战场的需要，指望美国能给予更多的援助，来扭转国内战场上的颓势。在此情况下，在索赔问题上，国民党政府除了唯美国马首是瞻膽已别无他途。
第四，各国为利所驱，长期争论不休，不能形成
统一意见，对日索赔没能尽早办理，错过了有利时机
盟国在战后确立的对日索赔的基本原则主要有两条：一是在消除其战争潜力的前提下，只令日本以工业设备和产品实物作为赔偿，而不向其索取战争赔款；二是必须让日本保留足够的生产能力，使其人民能在战后维持一合理的平时经济生活水平。这两条原则本身就是美、苏、英大国牺牲亚洲受害国家利益的产物。在此原则下讨论赔偿方案时，各盟国分歧很大，在日本海外资产处理问题上和在工业设备的分配率问题上陷于旷日持久的争论而无法达成协议，以至于错过了战后初期美国亚洲政策改变之前一段有限的大好时机。同时，各成员国的各抒己见，在给赔偿工作设置了障碍的同时，也给了美国自行其是的借口。
参考文献：
\[1\]
沈云龙.近代中国史料丛刊续编(71)\[G\].台北：文海出版社，1980.
\[2\]
沈云龙.在日办理赔偿归还工作综述\[M\].台北：文海出版社，1980.
\[3\]
日本大藏省财政史室.昭和财政史(第3卷)\[M\].东京：东洋经济新报社，1976.
4
江南.蒋经国传\[M\].北京：中国友谊出版社，1987.
5
\[美\]Tson. Tang： America’s Failure in China\[M\].1940-1950.
\[6
日本历史研究学会.日本历史讲座\[M\].东京：东京大学出版会，1984.
\[7\]
王世杰呈研究苏联对于德国及同伙赔偿条件之意见\[Z\].中国第二历史档案馆，全宗号761，卷号223.
Research on Claiming the War Damage to Japan after World War Two
WANG Hua-kai
(Xiangfan University， Xiangfan 441053，China)
Abstract： After World War II， according to the agreement between allies and the relevant provisions of international law， all the injured countries launched seeking war reparations to Japan. In this process， because of the dispute between those countries， and especially because of the fact that the United States changed its attitude towards the problem of claiming the war damage to Japan in view of its own global interests needs， the claim failed. The reasons which led to the failure of the claim are very complicate， but undoubtedly， the main and the most essential one is the change of the United States'attitude.
Key words： claim the war damage to Japan； the United States； the injured states (责任编辑：蔡宇宏) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **企业社会责任对中国企业债券评级有影响吗?**
——基于环境、治理、社会的角度
**■张仁一一徐炜 陈文婷**
摘要：近年来，债券市场债券违约频频出现，一些学者对债券评级的有效性提出质疑。根据以往债券评级的研究基础，结合学界和业界对ESG的关注程度，选取2010—2019年285家沪深A股上市公司的423个数据样本，研究 ESG和 ESG\* 对中国企业债券评级的影响。研究发现：ESG 对债券评级有正向影响， ESG\* 有负向影响；不同企业规模下，对单独 ESG或 ESG\*分析时发现，企业规模越大，单独 ESG 或 ESG\* 与债券评级的关系越显著。进一步研究表明，审计质量越高越能识别负面信息。
关键词：ESG；ESG\*；债券评级；企业规模；审计质量
DOI：10.16517/j.cnki.cn12-1034/f.2022.11.015
**一、引言**
根据《2019年债券市场统计分析报告》，截至2019年年末，债券市场托管量达87.38万亿元，同比增长14.29%；当年发行各类债券27.04万亿元，同比增长12.69%，可见债券市场持续稳定增长。虽然债券的发展得到了广泛的支持，但是债券违约仍然位居高位。2019年，新增债券违约规模达1216.99 亿元，新增违约企业56家，违约债券158只。作为发行债券的信息载体和等级信号，债券评级并不总能很好地对债券进行有效甄别，无法排除-些污染信息的干扰。因此，有必要基于现有的债券评级研究，并在一定企业规模背景下引入ESG和 ESG\*，通过审计质量探讨其影响机制。
**二、文献综述**
债券评级的指标研究，一直是国内外学术界的讨论话题。早期对指标的研究从企业的内部特征出发，主要有公司治理盈利能力旧等。随着债券违约背后的原因浮出水面，环境污染、高管违约及产品违规等关键词进入研究者的视线。Li 等(2020)提出，以往的研究忽略了可持续发展的重要性及部分非财务指标对债券评级的影响闻。摩根士丹利使用7项指标对企业的社会责任表现进行评估。其中，由于企业的环境活动对社会造成的损害是不可逆的，因此环境绩效应该是重点关注的指标可。企业环境绩效越差，企业的破产风险越大同。还有一些学者构建企业社会责任(CSR)指标，Lins 等(2019)基于利益相关者理论提出，CSR意识强的企业，能够提高与利
益相关者之间的信任度并降低业务风险，提高财务绩效门。同时，将 CSR纳入评级指标体系中能更好地反映出发债企业的社会责任，有利于发债时的合理评级阁。
**在 CSR 的基础上，学者们又提出ESG 的概念。它是英文 Environmental(环境)、Social(社会)、Governance (治理)的缩写，是一种更关注企业环境、社会及治理绩效的评价标准。ESG 除了整合 CSR 的大部分属性外，更聚焦道德、社会和环境方面所承担的责任。因此，将 ESG 引入债券评级体系中，回答了在更广泛的可持续性全面评估中，补充传统金融指标是否必要的问题问，且在考虑 ESG后，企业可以提高稳定性4，在外部冲击的影响下，ESG高的企业的抗风险能力更强11。**
引入 ESG之后，我国的债券评级依旧有一定的改善空间。原因是，我国 ESG 报告披露方面并没有硬性规定，不少违规企业有了可乘之机，“报喜不报忧”问题和消息选择性披露现象普遍存在，导致现有的 ESG并不能全面反映出发债企业的经营风险和社会责任。因此，尤其在我国，对企业社会责任缺失(CSI)行为的研究就显得格外重要。Walker 等(2012)指出，企业往往会通过 CSR行为来掩饰 CSI11，因为 CSR 报告更关注企业对社会负责的方面，而容易忽视对社会不负责的方面。徐莉萍等(2020)的研究表明，CSI与债券融资成本呈正相关关系，即CSI行为越多，债券融资成本越高113.并且 CSI行为发生时，该企业会受到惩罚，致使短期内企业形象受损，对财务造成负面影响114。
**除此之外，也不能忽视 CSR 和 CSI两种行为之间的**
**关系，他们不是完全独立的行为，而更像是一条线段的两端，是连续变化的I1。基于这一理论，Lin-Hi 等(2013)指出，线段的中间部分(既不是 CSR行为也不是 CSI行为)更偏向"Doing Good”(CSR 行为)，并称之为“Avoid Bad"(不做坏事)116。由于我国 ESG 报告并没有强制性披露要求，且企业存在的利已性动机，该部分在我国会更偏向 CSI 行为。因此，在 CSI的基础上，结合企业负面信息的披露情况和意愿，构建了 ESG\*。与 ESG表示为“做好事”类似，ESG\*表示为“不做好事”(Avoid Good)。**
在对 ESG 研究的基础上，企业规模被证明是一个重要背景因素I7.Jang 等(2020)发现，ESG绩效对于不同规模的企业有不同的影响1個。一般结论认为，规模越大，ESG绩效产生的影响就越大。
**综上所述，有学者在企业治理、付费模式等指标上研究 ESG 对债券评级的影响，也有学者对 ESG 和财务绩效、债券融资成本等方面影响进行探索，但对于 ESG和 ESG\*与债券评级关系的研究还不够广泛和深入。因此，本研究基于相关研究，探讨 ESG 及 ESC\*对债券评级的影响，并在不同企业规模基础上开展深入研究。同时，从审计质量的角度出发，探究 ESG 和 ESG\*对债券评级是否有其他的影响路径。研究的边际贡献在于，一是在 CSI 的基础上构建 ESG\*，探究 ESG\* 对债券评级的影响；二是突出了企业规模在 ESG 和 ESC\*对债券评级影响中的作用；三是以审计质量作为中介变量，从中介效应的角度完善 ESG 和 ESG\*对债券评级的影响机制。**
**三、理论分析和研究假设**
从利益相关者、信号传递、信息不对称等理论出发，提出 ESG 和 ESG\* 对债券评级影响的相关假设。
**(一)ESG 绩效与债券评级的相关关系**
**首先，ESG 对债券评级的影响来自企业绩效。着眼于利益相关者理论，企业的目标应该在于利益相关者整体利益最大化而不是单独企业利益最大化。因此，在日常决策及经营中考虑 ESG因素，可以提高企业稳定性和主体信用14，从而改善企业财务业绩，提升企业价值119。同时，此举能够正反馈给 ESG，进一步提升 ESG绩效，形成良性互动关系1201。企业通过改善自己的ESG绩效来满足利益相关者的期望，可以提高企业的竞争力和声誉211，降低违约风险。**
其次，ESG对评级的影响还来自与债券融资成本的关系，预期的风险溢价高低与债券评级关系显著。根据信息不对称理论，企业和投资者之间的信息不对称，可能导致更高的风险继而增加企业债券的风险溢价123。在这种情况下，企业就会选择自愿披露企业社会责任报告，并进行适当的印象管理来提高债券评级，降低资本成
本14。 Ghoul 等(2011)从利益相关者理论着手研究表明，通过改善和利益相关者的关系，确实可以降低股权成本必。
由此提出假设：
**H1：ESG绩效与债券评级呈正相关关系。**
**(二)ESC\*与债券评级的相关关系**
企业社会责任缺失(CSI)描述的是企业“做坏事”行为。CSI的存在会降低企业的财务绩效，减少企业价值和提高资本成本1。而 CSI存在的原因一般是企业为谋取自身利益影响了社会其他利益相关者的发展，从而对企业造成负面影响126\].从声誉理论和利益相关者理论来看， CSI会通过影响利益相关者的利益致使自己的声誉受损，从而对企业绩效造成负面影响!7。因此，在利益的驱动下，存在社会责任缺失和违规行为的企业，宁可不披露、不作为也不会主动披露企业社会责任的缺失，导致与投资人之间的信息不对称，影响资本成本和债券评级。
上述理论阐释了企业“做好事”与“做坏事”的动机和经济后果，但企业“不做好事”的后果和影响还有待进一步研究，以了解企业是出于利益动机或者是对“做坏事”的掩盖动机来保证企业的利益。
由此提出假设：
**H2：ESG\*与债券评级呈负相关关系。**
(三)企业规模与债券评级的相关性
**合理的企业规模是提高企业财务绩效的关键。具有较完善的企业治理结构，企业管理水平较高，更容易实现规模经济|28\]Aouadi等(2018)通过对全球4000多家企业进行分析发现，规模更大的企业拥有更好的ESG绩效和企业声誉1291Hernandez 等(2020)的研究也指出，企业规模在 CSR 对企业的经济绩效的影响方面存在调节作用，并且规模越大，CSR能够提高经济绩效的效果就越显著130。不仅如此，企业规模还能影响到环境信息披露，以总资产来衡量的企业规模对环境信息披露有正向影响!31。**
由此提出假设：
**H3：企业规模越大，ESG 与 ESC\*与债券评级的相关性越大。**
**四、样本选择和研究设计**
(一)数据来源
选取2010—2019年在沪、深交易所公开发行的企业债券(包括公司债券)为研究样本。对选取的样本进行如下筛选：剔除ST类上市公司；剔除金融类、保险类上市公司；对同一企业同一年度发行多支债券的情况进行随机删除，只保留一支债券；剔除所选变量存在无法补全缺失值的样本。最终得到了423支样本。
**财务数据来自国泰安数据库，对财务数据缺失的样本根据企业年报及国泰安公布的指标计算方式补全。债**
**券相关数据来自万德数据库，ESG数据来自和讯网。为缓解极端值带来的影响，对所有连续型变量进行上下1%缩尾处理。**
(二)变量定义
1.被解释变量
参考林晚发等(2020)的做法132，选择债券评级(Rat-ings)作为被解释变量，因为它能最直观反映债券违约风险高低。评级包括AA、AA+、AAA三个等级，并对应赋值为1、2、3。数值越大说明评级越高。
2.解释变量
**研究的主要解释变量是 ESG 和 ESG\*。**
对于 ESG变量，借鉴刘柏等(2018)的做法133，采用和讯网《上市公司责任报告》公布的得分。ESC\*作为衡量企业“不做好事”的指标，由企业违规操作及企业社会责任信息披露情况组合而成。受到路军(2015)34的启发，在制定企业违规操作的定量标准时，将其分成信息披露违规、经营违规和领导人违规3个层面，每个层面下根据国泰安企业违规数据库设置二级指标。记录二级指标违规次数，对每个层面加总后得到企业违规操作总分。如表1所示：
**表1 2010—2019企业违规操作定义**
| **违规类型** | **违规次类** | **是否违规** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **信息披露违规** | **虚列资产** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **信息披露违规** | **虚假记载(误导性陈述)** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **信息披露违规** | **推迟披露** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **信息披露违规** | **重大遗漏** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **信息披露违规** | **披露不实** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **信息披露违规** | **一般会计处理不当** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **经营违规** | **出资违规** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **经营违规** | **擅自改变资金用途** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **经营违规** | **占用企业资产** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **经营违规** | **违规担保** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **经营违规** | **其他** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **领导人违规** | **欺诈上市** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **领导人违规** | **内幕交易** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **领导人违规** | **违规买卖股票** | **是=1，否=0** |
| **领导人违规** | **操纵股价** | **是=1，否=0** |
3.审计质量
有关审计质量的替代变量，学术界提出审计费用、审计任期及可操控应计利润等，但尚未得到统一结论。研究借鉴赵艳秉等(2017)的结论I3，选取审计费用作为审计质量(Quality\_SJ)的替代变量。
4.控制变量
控制变量方面，参考陈益云等(2017)的变量设置。财务指标选择了利息保障倍数(Ebit)、资产负债率(Lev)、总资产报酬率(Rota)、营业收入增长率(Growth)及托宾Q值(TobinQ)；债券相关指标选择债券规模(Amount)和债券发
行期限(Age)，并对债券规模进行对数处理；哑变量方面选择是否是四大国际会计师事务所(Big4)。同时控制行业和年度的固定效应。此外，考虑到遗漏变量的存在，将机构投资者持股比例(CGBL)额外添加在控制变量中。具体控制变量定义，如表2所示：
表2控制变量定义
| **变量类型** | **变量名称** | **变量符号** | **变量描述** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **控制变量** | **利息保障倍数** | **Ebit** | **【净利润+所得税+财务费用)/财务费用** |
| **控制变量** | **资产负债率** | **Ley** | **负债/资产** |
| **控制变量** | **机构投资者持股比例** | **CGBL** | **机构持股/上市公司总股份** |
| **控制变量** | **营业收入增长率** | **Growth** | **(营收本年本期金额-营收上年同期金额)/营业** **收入上年同期金额** |
| **控制变量** | **托宾Q值** | **TobinQ** | **市值/资产** |
| **控制变量** | **债券规模** | **Amount** | **债券总发行额** |
| **控制变量** | **债券发行期限** | **Age** | **债券总发行年限** |
| **控制变量** | **四大国际会计师事务所** | **Big4** | **是“四大”则为1，否则为0** |
| **控制变量** | **总资产报酬率** | **Rota** | **息税前利润/资产** |
| **控制变量** | **年份** | **Year** | **年份哑变量** |
| **控制变量** | **行业** | **Industry** | **行业哑变量** |
(三)模型设计
模型(1)：
**Ratingsiy=Bo+BESG，+BEbit，-1+B3Levi；-1+B4Rotai，-1+BsGrowthiy-1+B.TobinQis-+B7Amounti-1+BsAgei-1+BBig4ig-1+ZYear+ZIndustryi+Eit**
模型(2)：
Ratingsi；=Bo+BESG\*，+B2Ebit；，-1+BLevi，-1+B4Rotai-1+BsGrowth；；-+B.TobinQi，-+BzAmount，-+BgAgei，-1+BBig4i-+ZYear，+ZIndustryi，+E，
为了检验审计质量的中介效应，根据因果逐步回归法，构建模型(3)：
**Quality\_SJ，=Bo+BESG；，+Controls+2Year；+ZIndus-tryi，+8i；**
**Ratingsi=Bo+BESG，+B2Quality\_SJ；+Controls+ZYeary+ZIndustryij+e，**
**同理可得，ESG\*的中介效应模型(4)：**
**ZYear+ZIndustryi+e**
**五、实证结果分析**
(一)描述性统计
变量的描述性统计，如表3所示。
表3 变量的描述性统计
| **变量名称** | **(1)** | **(2)** | **(3)** | **(4)** | **(5)** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **变量名称** | **观测值** | **均值** | **标准差** | **最小值** | **最大值** |
| **Age** | **423** | **4.875** | **1.824** | **1** | **10** |
| **Ratings** | **423** | **2.428** | **0.747** | **1** | **3** |
| **Big4** | **423** | **0.258** | **0.438** | **0** | **1** |
| **ESG** | **423** | **29.77** | **15.93** | **1.090** | **77.34** |
| **Ley** | **423** | **0.598** | **0.158** | **0.228** | **0.879** |
| **Growth** | **423** | **0.204** | **0.310** | **\-0.456** | **1.229** |
| **Rota** | **423** | **0.0530** | **0.0313** | **\-0.0218** | **0.175** |
| **TobinQ** | **423** | **1.373** | **0.674** | **0.803** | **5.156** |
| **ESG\*** | **423** | **7.014** | **3.986** | **2** | **15** |
| **Amount** | **423** | **3.034** | **1.311** | **0** | **4.407** |
描述性统计结果显示，Ratings 的平均值在2.428，表明423支债券的平均评级在AAH以上，符合我国债券评级偏高的特点。ESG 均值为 29.77，说明我国 ESG 整体履行情况并不理想；标准差为15.93，说明企业对ESG的重视程度差异较大。ESG\*最大值为15，最小值为2，均值为7.014，没有0值存在，即所选样本中的上市企业都存在ESC\*行为，是普遍现象。据此反映了从ESG 和 ESG\* 角度出发探究对债券评级影响的必要性。
**(二)基础回归结果**
**ESG 与 ESG\*的回归结果，如表4所示：**
**表4FESC 与 ESC\*的回归结果**
| **变量名** | **(1)** | |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **变量名** | **Ratings** | |
| **ESG** | **0.007\*\*** **(2.15)** | |
| **ESG\*** | | **\-0.025半中(-2.37)** |
| **Amount** | **0.027** **(0.96)** | **0.023** **(0.84)** |
| **Age** | **0.069\*\*出** **(2.91)** | **0.060\*\*\*** **(2.62)** |
| **Big4** | **0.335\*\*出** **(4.05)** | **0.287\*\*中** **(3.36)** |
| **Ebitt** | **0.003\*拌出** **(3.53)** | **0.003\*\*出** **(3.44)** |
| **Ley** | **0.004** **(0.01)** | **\-0.033** **(-0.10)** |
| **Growth** | **\-0.107(-0.83)** | **\-0.085** **(-0.66)** |
| **Rota** | **0.479(0.36)** | **0.867(0.66)** |
| **TobinQ** | **0.045** **(0.57)** | **0.051** **(0.64)** |
| **Constant** | **0.885** **(1.26)** | **1.385\*\*** **(2.20)** |
| **Year** | **YES** | **YES** |
| **Industry** | **YES** | **YES** |
| **N** | **423** | **423** |
| **R** | **0.284** | **0.288** |
注：括号内为值；\*\*\* 表示 p<0.01，\*\* 表示 p<0.05，\* 表示p<0.1。
**回归结果表明，ESG 和 ESG\*分别在5%的水平上显著，且ESG 对债券评级有正向影响，假设H1成立； ESC\*对债券评级有负面影响，假设H2 成立。基于回归结果可以发现，ESG 好的企业可以向外界传递良好信息，从而获得更高的债券评级；而企业的ESC\*越高，说明其“不做好事”的程度越大，会引起投资者的不信任和怀疑，从而导致相对较低的债券评级结果。**
**对于假设H3，借鉴 Oktafianti 等(2020)的方法131，以总资产来衡量企业规模，企业规模分组回归结果，如表5所示：**
表5企业规模分组回归结果
| **变量** | **规模大** | | **规模小** | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **变量** | **(1)** | **(2)** | **(3)** | **(4)** |
| **变量** | **Ratings** | | **Ratings** | |
| **ESG** | **0.007\*\*(2.25)** | | **0.001(0.12)** | |
| **ESG\*** | | **\-0.019\*(-1.84)** | | **0.007(0.47)** |
| **Amount** | **0.147\*电\*(3.85)** | **0.129\*\*\*(3.33)** | **0.146(1.65)** | **0.153\*(1.72)** |
| **Age** | **0.042\*\*(2.18)** | **0.034\*(1.89)** | **0.050(0.80)** | **0.054(0.86)** |
| **Big4** | **0.197\*先出(2.98)** | **0.168\*\*(2.48)** | **0.128(0.72)** | **0.129(0.72)** |
| **Ebitt** | **0.001(0.76)** | **0.001(0.83)** | **0.004\*出出(3.35)** | **0.004\*\*出(3.27)** |
| **Ley** | **\-0.690\*出(-2.00)** | **\-0.665\*\*(-2.02)** | **\-0.926\*(-1.85)** | **\-0.916\*(-1.81)** |
| **Rota** | **1.901(1.47)** | **2.692出\*(2.05)** | **0.034(0.19)** | **0.013(0.07)** |
| **Growth** | **\-0.345\*出(-2.14)** | **\-0.394\*\*(-2.47)** | **\-2.485(-1.36)** | **\-2.416(-1.34)** |
| **TobinQ** | **\-0.077(-0.54)** | **\-0.135(-0.98)** | **0.162\*(1.77)** | **0.162\*(1.76)** |
| **Constant** | **0.173(0.28)** | **0.931(1.51)** | **\-0.327(-0.24)** | **\-0.408(-0.31)** |
| **Year** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** |
| **Industry** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** |
| **N** | **212** | **212** | **211** | **211** |
| **R** | **0.457** | **0.450** | **0.310** | **0.311** |
注：括号内为L值；\*\*\* 表示 p<0.01，\*\*表示 p<0.05，\*表示p<0.1。
**回归结果显示，企业规模大小确实对 ESG 和 ESC\*与债券评级的相关关系有影响。“规模大”分组中，ESG在5%置信条件下显著，ESG\*在10%置信水平下显著；“规模小”分组中，ESG和 ESC\* 都不显著。假设H3 成立。究其原因，规模越大的企业更在乎声誉和社会影响力，对 ESG 和 ESG\*绩效的关注程度越高，从而改善与利益相关者的关系和自身财务绩效。因此，在债券评级时，规模越大的企业 ESG 和 ESG\*与评级相关性就越大。**
(三)稳健性检验
1.遗漏变量和内生性处理
**致估计有偏，引起结果的不稳健。所以，考虑可能的遗漏变量——机构投资者持股比例(CGBL)指标，原因是机构投资者会根据企业的财务绩效和 ESG绩效来完成投资计划，因此该指标也在一定程度上反映出一个企业ESG 和财务绩效的高低。**
为处理可能的内生性问题，还选择了工具变量，使用两阶段最小二乘法(2SLS)。考虑到债券评级和 ESG及ESC\*可能存在互为因果关系，故此处分别采取了 ESG和 ESC\*的滞后一期作为工具变量来缓解内生性。具体的遗漏变量和工具变量回归，如表6所示：
表6 遗漏变量及内生性处理
| **变量** | **(1)** | **(2)** | **(3)** | **(4)** | **(5)** | **(6)** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **变量** | **Ratings** | **Ratings** | **first** | **twO** | **first** | **twO** |
| **变量** | **Ratings** | **Ratings** | **ESG** | **Ratings** | **ESG\*** | **Ratings** |
| **ESG** | **0.007半\*(2.07)** | | | **0.021\*(1.90)** | | |
| **ESG(-1)** | | | **0.260\*\*\*(4.07)** | | | |
| **ESG\*** | | **\-0.021出\*(-2.18)** | | | | **\-0.031\*\*中(-2.71)** |
| **ESG\*(-1)** | | | | | **0.791\*电中(24.97)** | |
| **CGBL** | **0.004\*(1.95)** | **0.003(1.46)** | | | | |
| **Amount** | **0.032(1.16)** | **0.027** **(1.00)** | **\-0.379(-0.90)** | **0.034(1.28)** | **\-0.067(-0.78)** | **0.023(0.90)** |
| **Age** | **0.065\*电中(2.82)** | **0.058\*\*** **(2.57)** | **\-0.181** **(-0.44)** | **0.070\*\*\*(3.02)** | **\-0.117(-0.94)** | **0.058\*\*\*(2.64)** |
| **Big4** | **0.291出电中(4.16)** | **0.259\*电\*** **(3.67)** | **0.008** **(0.73)** | **0.003\*\*出** **(3.79)** | **0.035** **(0.13)** | **0.277\*电出(4.12)** |
| **Ebit** | **0.002半电出(3.33)** | **0.002出电出** **(3.21)** | **\-1.871** **(-1.61)** | **0.351\*\*出** **(5.17)** | **\-0.005** **(-1.58)** | **0.003\*\*出(3.55)** |
| **Ley** | **\-0.031** **(-0.11)** | **\-0.053** **(-0.19)** | **\-3.162** **(-0.66)** | **\-0.009** **(-0.03)** | **0.111** **(0.13)** | **\-0.043** **(-0.16)** |
| **Growth** | **\-0.094** **(-0.75)** | **\-0.080** **(-0.64)** | **\-4.972出电出** **(-2.65)** | **\-0.052** **(-0.39)** | **0.171** **(0.50)** | **\-0.072** **(-0.60)** |
| **Rota** | **0.325** **(0.27)** | **0.743** **(0.63)** | **42.146\*** **(1.83)** | **\-0.566** **(-0.40)** | **\-1.710** **(-0.37)** | **0.830** **(0.73)** |
| **TobinQ** | **0.059** **(0.82)** | **0.059** **(0.83)** | **\-1.974** **(-1.52)** | **0.078(1.03)** | **0.426\*** **(1.97)** | **0.056(0.83)** |
| **Constant** | **0.87** **(1.27)** | **1.333\*\*** **(2.15)** | **47.968\*\*\*** **(4.21)** | **0.169** **(0.19)** | **\-1.292** **(-0.52)** | **1.418\*\*(2.36)** |
| **Year** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** |
| **Industry** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** |
| **N** | **423** | **423** | **423** | **423** | **423** | **423** |
| **R** | **0.292** | **0.292** | **0.550** | **0.243** | **0.697** | **0.287** |
表6的(1)(2)列结果显示，加入遗漏变量后，主回归依然显著，且与理论假设一致；(3)(4)列和(5)(6)列结果显示，在控制内生性因素以后，工具变量法与原有的回归结果一致，说明研究假设是较为稳健的。
**2.变换计量方法**
除遗漏变量及内生性问题外，选择变换计量方法，使用固定效应模型对回归结果的稳健程度做进一步检验。变换计量方法之后，回归结果和系数符号和显著性
没有发生太大的变化，依然符合研究假设，说明结果是比较稳健的。
**六、进一步分析**
(一)审计质量的中介效应
根据金融中介理论，审计师可以通过其专业技能和信息优势，事前向投资者发送信号，以降低信息不对称。同时，审计师还具有信息认证功能，投资者能够通过高质量的审计结果识别出财务质量的好坏136。但是，我国的债券评级被指出甄别能力不强，不能排除一些污染信
息的干扰。 Livingston 等(2018)指出，我国债券评级普遍存在偏高且集中的问题137。基于上述问题，使用审计质
量作为中介变量，通过模型(3)和(4)来检验其中介作用。审计质量的中介效应结果，如表7所示。
**表7 审计质量的中介效应**
| **变量** | **(1)** | **(2)** | **(3)** | **(4)** | **(5)** | **(6)** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **变量** | **Ratings** | **Quality\_SJ** | **Ratings** | **Ratings** | **Quality\_SJ** | **Ratings** |
| **ESG** | **0.007\*\*(2.15)** | **0.003(0.84)** | **0.006\*** **(1.95)** | | | |
| **Quality\_SJ** | | | **0.250伴电出(5.12)** | | | **0.235\*\*出(4.52)** |
| **ESG\*** | | | | **\-0.025\*\*(-2.37)** | **\-0.050\*\*出(-5.26)** | **\-0.013** **(-1.23)** |
| **Amount** | **0.027(0.96)** | **\-0.027(-1.02)** | **0.034(1.23)** | **0.023** **(0.84)** | **\-0.029(-1.12)** | **0.030(1.09)** |
| **Age** | **0.069\*\*\*(2.91)** | **0.091\*\*出(2.84)** | **0.046\*\*(1.98)** | **0.060\*电出(2.62)** | **0.075\*\*(2.36)** | **0.043\*(1.84)** |
| **Ebit** | **0.335\*\*电(4.05)** | **0.002\*出(2.01)** | **0.002\*出出(3.28)** | **0.287\*电中(3.36)** | **0.001\*** **(1.78)** | **0.002\*\*出(3.24)** |
| **Ley** | **0.003\*\*出** **(3.53)** | **1.642\*电出** **(4.72)** | **\-0.406(-1.23)** | **0.003\*电出(3.44)** | **1.559\*\*\*(4.68)** | **\-0.399(-1.22)** |
| **Growth** | **0.004** **(0.01)** | **\-0.013** **(-0.10)** | **\-0.104** **(-0.79)** | **\-0.033** **(-0.10)** | **0.077** **(0.62)** | **\-0.103** **(-0.79)** |
| **Rota** | **\-0.107** **(-0.83)** | **0.090(0.07)** | **0.457** **(0.36)** | **\-0.085** **(-0.66)** | **\-0.013** **(-0.01)** | **0.870** **(0.69)** |
| **TobinQ** | **0.479** **(0.36)** | **\-0.161\*电中** **(-2.60)** | **0.086** **(1.07)** | **0.867** **(0.66)** | **\-0.123\*\*** **(-2.21)** | **0.080** **(1.00)** |
| **Big4** | **0.045** **(0.57)** | **1.031\*出出(9.13)** | **0.078** **(0.84)** | **0.051** **(0.64)** | **0.948\*\*出(8.66)** | **0.064** **(0.68)** |
| **Constant** | **0.885(1.26)** | **4.772\*电出(4.96)** | **\-0.306(-0.47)** | **1.385\*\*(2.20)** | **5.168\*电出(5.61)** | **0.170(0.28)** |
| **Year** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** |
| **Industry** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** | **YES** |
| **N** | **423** | **423** | **423** | **423** | **423** | **423** |
| **R** | **0.284** | **0.529** | **0.335** | **0.288** | **0.561** | **0.329** |
**注：括号内为值；\*\*\*表示p<0.01，\*\* 表示p<0.05，\*表示p<0.1。**
**根据因果回归逐步检验法，表7列(2)表明，审计质量与 ESG 没有显著的相关关系，审计质量在 ESG对债券评级的影响中并不存在中介作用。这从侧面反映了审计师在企业审计时出具的审计结果，在一定程度上忽视了企业 ESG 的履行情况。(4)~(6)列回归结果完全符合因果回归检验法中的完全中介效应，且通过了 Sobel 检验，说明审计质量在 ESG\* 对债券评级的影响中是完全中介效应。可见，审计师能够分辨企业的“不做好事”行为，通**
**过审计将 ESC\*行为的经济后果反映到债券评级上。**
综上所述，提高审计质量可以更有效识别 ESC\*行为，并在一定程度上缓解债券评级的虚高。
(二)中介效应检验
首先使用了逐步回归法及Sobel 法进行检验，但是近年来许多学者对这两种方法提出质疑，认为它们并非合理有效。因此，这里还采取 Bootstrap 方法应进行检验，如表8所示：
**表8ESC 和债券评级**
| **效应** | **Observed Coet.** | **Bootstrap Std. Err.** | | **P卜L** | **Normal-based \[95% Conf. Interval\]** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **bs\_1** | **0.001368** | **0.0009692** | **1.41** | **0.158** | **\-0.0005315 0.0032676** |
| **bs\_2** | **\-0.00055** | **0.0022515** | **\-0.24** | **0.807** | **\-0.0049633 0.0038626** |
**注：\_bs\_l为间接效应；bs\_2为直接效应。**
表8显示，无论是直接效应还是间接效应，在95%置信区间下都包含 O，ESG 与债券评级不存在中介效应。
**表9 ESC\*和债券评级**
| **效应** | **Observed Coet.** | **Bootstrap Std. Err.** | | **P>Z** | **Normal-based \[95% Conf. nterval\]** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **bs\_l** | **\-0.0293667** | **0.003995** | **\-7.35** | **0** | **\-0.0371967 -0.0215366** |
| **bs2** | **\-0.0156171** | **0.0100944** | **\-1.55** | **0.122** | **\-0.0354019 0.0041676** |
**注：\_bs\_l为间接效应；bs\_2为直接效应。**
**表9显示，在95%的置信区间下，间接效应不包括0，直接效应包括0，因此，ESC\* 和债券评级之间存在完全中介效应。这与逐步回归法和 Sobel 检验所得出的结论一致，再次证明 ESC\* 与债券评级之间确实存在中介效应。**
**七、结论和建议**
(一)结论
使用2010—2019年的数据作为样本，对ESG 和ESG\* 与债券评级的影响进行实证研究。研究发现，ESG对企业债券评级有明显的促进作用，ESG\*则会降低企业债券评级。高质量的审计能够很好地识别 ESC\* 行为，并能够在信用评级中有所体现，从而缓解债券评级的膨胀。同时发现，企业规模存在一定的调节作用，ESG或 ESG\* 对债券评级的影响嘟是基于一定的规模才产生的。
(二)建议
**1.企业应正确认识 ESG 和 ESC\***
**企业需要端正态度，对 ESG 和 ESC\*有正确平等的认识，不能因为 ESG 在企业评级时会带来正面影响而过分强调 ESG，从而忽略或掩盖“不做好事”的行为。积极主动地**
**公布企业的发展弊端或者不负责任的方面，也是企业主动承担责任的体现，有利于企业的长远发展和声誉提升。**
2.进一步促进 ESG\*信息监管发展
**尽管现在对于企业社会责任报告的公布规定得越来越详细，但是由于国内对于信息披露缺乏强制性要求，所以存在着“不披露”这样的缓冲空间。因此，要健全信息监管体制，加大对企业非自愿披露但所发行债券违约类似事件的处罚力度。**
3.进一步完善审计的监察机制
**无论审计质量的高低，ESG\* 行为都通过审计质量进一步传导到债券评级上。因此，可以通过识别低审计质量企业反向找出 ESC\*行为的企业，提高其发债时的限制，在源头上初步筛选优质债券，净化债券市场，从而在一定程度上缓解债券评级普遍虚高的问题。**
4.差异化对待不同规模的企业
**评级机构面对企业时，可以单独考虑ESG 和 ESG\*，更加聚焦传递某一方面的信息和影响。对于小企业，国家和地方政府可以通过一定的政策倾斜，帮助它们改善ESG 和 ESG\*，从而提高的债券评级，拓宽融资渠道。■**
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\[36\]魏明海，赖婧，张皓.隐性担保、金融中介治理与公司债券市场信息效率\[J\].南开管理评论，2017(1)：30-42.
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**基金项目：国家自然科学基金青年项目“面向高不平衡高维混合数据的企业财务危机动态预警研究”(71801113)；教育部青年项目“基于不确定性混频数据融合的中小企业财务危机预警研究”(18YTC630212)**
**作者简介：张仁一，江南大学商学院，硕士研究生，研究方向为信用评级；徐炜，江南大学商学院，副教授，硕士生导师，博士，研究方向为信用管理；陈文婷，江南大学商学院，教授，硕士生导师，博士，研究方向为金融工程与金融数学。**
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基于语义网的协同供应链知识表示研究
Research of Knowledge Representation in Supply Chain Collaboration Based on Semantic Web
十十十
胡岩洁，马国强，张成洪 (复旦大学，上海200433)
HU Yan-jie，MA Gou-qiang，ZHANG Cheng-hong
(Fudan University， Shanghai 200433， China)
HC3-0K2-0C3-0-C3-0-C3-0K3-0K2-0K2-0C2-0K2-0-K2-0-C2-0-C3-052-012-0C2-0≤2-0-K3-0-K2-0-K2-0-23-0C2-0C3-0K2-0-C2-0-C2-0-C2-0-K2-0C2-0区3X
摘商要：在协同供应链环境下，跨部门、跨企业的知识共享十分频繁，也更加复杂。文章首先对协同供应链中知识共享特征进行分析，提出基于语义网的知识表示机制，并结合实例介绍了供应链中三类知识——描述、规则、案例知识及其表示结构，提高知识共享的效率，实现协同供应链的聚合作用。
关键词：协同供应链；知识共享；知识表示；语义网；供应链管理
中图分类号： TP391 文献标识码：A
Abstract： With the environment of supply chain collaboration， knowledge sharing between different departments and compa nies happens more and more frequently and complicatedllyy. This paper analyzes the features of knowledge sharing in sup-ply chain collaborationandbrings a method of knowledge representation hased on semantic web. With several instances， it explains the representation of three main kinds of knowl-edge in supply chain.
Key words： supply chain collaboration： knowledge sharing； knowledge representation： semantic web； supply chain manage-
协同是供应链管理的核心内容，强调供应链上合作伙伴带着共同的商业目标进行协同工作，集成各合作伙伴的竞争优势，以快速反应多变的市场需求。运用信息技术，协同供应链中的成员将自身全部机构融入到协同供应链平台上去，实现彼此的全面合作。与供应链管理系统(SCM) 注重信息系统集成不同，协同平台运作的基础是互相了解，是相关知识的共享。只有通过有效的知识共享，实现供应链成员在业务知识层面的一致性，协同供应链才能迅速地产生有效的聚合作用。借助语义网技术，协同供应链平台可以在语义层面表达出多样的知识，使供应链成员信息系统之间的信息流转化为知识流。
1
语义网在协同供应链知识表示中的作用
知识表示是知识共享的关键环节，它直接关系到所共享知识的范围、知识共享系统的交互能力以及知识共享的方式。在供应链协同管理中，共享的知识涉及到供应链业务流程的各个领域，也涉及到各种类型的知识，而且作为一种跨组织的知识共享，协同供应链中的知识共享系统对知识表示机制的要求更高。由于供应链成员知识管理的水平不同，在每个企业内部可能都有一种特定的知识表示和存储机制，如果在协同供应链中仅仅把各种知识表示方法简单的组合在一起而没有适当融合或统一，必然会增加知识共享的难度。
语义网技术可以用于解决在跨组织的环境中协同伙伴由于语义不同而产生的理解歧义，提高跨组织知识共享的效率图。协同供应链环境下跨部门、跨企业的知识共享十分复杂，而基于语义网的知识表示机制能够有效解决以下问题：
(1)多样性：协同供应链活动涉及的内容广泛，从原材料采购、生产制造、物流分销到客户服务，在不同的领域拥有不同的知识。这些知识在各个企业内，以不同的形式存在、表示。语义网能够支持多样性知识的表示、存储、交流和增值。
(2)开放性：由于供应链中协作企业的不确定，协同供应链环境下的知识共享必须能够支持不同企业动态的加人与退出。语义网能够支持不同企业以统一的方式通过协同平台表示和获取知识。
(3)增值性：与单个组织内的知识交流相比，协同供应链环境下的知识共享体制最大的特点在于其增值性。基于语义网的知识表示方式能够支持知识在协同平台上的自动推理和整合，发掘出新的知识，达到深层次的协同，为整个供应链带来更大的利益。
收稿日期：2008-03-14
基金项目：国家自然科学基金资助项目(70471011)
作者简介：胡岩洁(1983-)，女，福建福州人，复旦大学管理学院信息管理与信息系统系硕士研究生，研究方向：知识管理、电子商务。
因此，把语义网及其相关技术应用于协同供应链环境下的知识表示，将能够板火地帮助协同供应链中各成员进行及时准确的沟通，促进协同供应链中的全面合作和创新，推进协回供应链的研究和应用。
2 协同供应链的知识分类
在协同供应链中，共享的知识涉及到供应商、研发中心、制造商、经销商和服务商等多个企业以及多个业务领域，每个企业知识管理的水平、知识的存储方式、存储媒介等都不尽相同。为了跨组织地共享知识，必须依据合适的标准对知识进行分类，以便采取一种统一知识表示和传输机制来表示和共享各种知识图。
知识库系统领域按照存储方式划分知识的方法对从知识表示和共享的角度划分知识有很好的借鉴意义。但是，其所涵盖知识的范围过于狭窄。随着人工智能技术和基于知识的系统的发展，特别是基于案例的推理系统(CBR)技术的发展，案例作为一种特殊类型的知识在表现形式和存储结构上与事实和规则不同的。本文借鉴人工智能和基于知识的系统研究领域的成果，按照知识的表现形式和存储结构的不同，把供应链中共享的知识分为描述性知识、规律性知识和案例性知识。
2.1 描述性知识
描述性知识是描述客观事物属性的知识，它通过刻画事物的属性或者描述事物与事物之间的关系来表示知识。最简单的形式是通过(事物，关系，事物)组的形式出现。
在供应链协同流程中有大量的信息流以描述性知识的形式进行交换，例如表示“钢材出库量为2300吨”就可以采用(钢材，出库量，2300吨)来描述，其中钢材是描述的对象，出库量表示属性，2300吨则是该属性的值。
2.2 规则性知识
规则性知识是描述事物之间逻辑关系的知识，这种关系最常用的是因果关系。在专家系统及其他的推理系统中，规则常常被表示为： IF P Then Q的形式。P是规则的前提，Q是规则的结论。P和Q是由陈述经过逻辑组合(包括与、或、非)构成的，陈述往往是事实性的知识。
例如规则“IF A 处库存量低F2000 THEN 重新安排生产计划”的前提和结论都是由单条陈述构成的。规则“IF x<y AND y<z THEN x<z”的前提就是出两条陈述术“x<y”和“y<z”经过 AND 组合构成的。
2.3 案例性知识
案例性知识是一种特殊的知识，它可以是一次阅历、，一条经验，也可以是一个故事或者过去的一个场景，它用特定的结构来表达特定的知识。，一个典型的案例通常需要包括如下·个部分： (1)问题描述 (Problem)：描述案例发生的客观世界状态，包括案例发生的原因、背景等信息； (2)解决方案 (Solution)：从该问题引出的解决方案； (3)效果评价 (Assessment)：解决方案的效果评价。除了以文字描述形式表示的案例，在事例的表示中也有图片，声音、影像等。
在供应链协同过程中，有大量案例性知识在供应链上下游进行传递，例如“消除供应商设计缺陷”、
、
“生产效率及质量改进”等方面的案例，这些案例帮助供应链成员了解业务中的最佳实践 (Best Practice)。
根据上述分类方法，可以将 SCOR模型所描述的供应链五个基本流程中需要共享和表示的知识进行划分：
表1 供应链工作流程中的知识分类
| 工作流程 | 描述性知识 | 规则性知识 | 案例性知识 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 计划(Plan) | 生产计划、库存计划、分 | 产品生命周期规则、供应 | ：生产过度期管理案例、产品衰退期管理案例等 |
| 计划(Plan) | 销计划等 | 链结构设计规则等 | ：生产过度期管理案例、产品衰退期管理案例等 |
| 采购 (Source) | 物料清单、供应商名单、 | 进货运费条件、供应商评 | 采购品质管理案例、原材料存货管理案例等 |
| 采购 (Source) | 采购合约等 | 进货运费条件、供应商评 | 采购品质管理案例、原材料存货管理案例等 |
| 采购 (Source) | 采购合约等 | 估规则、采购业务规则等 | 采购品质管理案例、原材料存货管理案例等 |
| 生产 (Make) | 生产订单、生产活动时间 | 现场生产进度制定规则、 | 产品质量改进案例、现场设备管理案例等 |
| 生产 (Make) | | 现场生产进度制定规则、 | 产品质量改进案例、现场设备管理案例等 |
| 生产 (Make) | | | 产品质量改进案例、现场设备管理案例等 |
| 生产 (Make) | 表、产品包装单等 | | 产品质量改进案例、现场设备管理案例等 |
| 生产 (Make) | 表、产品包装单等 | 工程变更规则等 | 产品质量改进案例、现场设备管理案例等 |
| 配送 (Deliver) | 客户资料、产品价格资料、报价单等 | 配送渠道制定规则、订单分配规则等 | 配送存货管理案例、产品库存管理案例等 |
| 退货 (Retumn) | 产品退回时间表、退货单等 | 接收检验退货规则等 | 供应商退货沟通案例等 |
3 基于OWI.标准的协同供应链知识表示
语义网的描述语言标准OWL是互联网中一种非常有效的数据和知识表示方式，能够很好地解决跨组织信息和知识交流中的语义差异和跨平台操作，满足协同供应链平台上知识表示的各种需求。OWL建立在RDF和 RDF Schema 的基础上，增加了更多的词汇，具有更强大的描述能力来描述事物之间的关系、等同关系、更丰富的属性类型和属性特征等等门、由此，知识在供应链协同网络中流动时，网络中各节点成员的信息系统能够自动识别内容属性，真正实现知识在语义层面
的传递。
基于规则知识和案例知识的特点，本文对 OWL. 描述语言作了一定的扩展，使之能够以相对统一的格式表示协同供应链中共享的各种知识。设置了 Rule、Case 等预设类，这些预设类在OWL标准的基础上对规则和案例的结构作了严格的限制，并对多元关系的描述作了适当的扩充，使协同供应链的知识表示具备描述多元关系、逻辑运算和规则的能力，为跨企业供应链管理系统自动实现知识推理和知识整合提供了可行性，从而加快供应链中的信息流动，提高协同工作的效率。
以下通过三个实例说明协同供应链中的知识表示方法：
3.1 供应链中描述性知识的表示
描述性知识通过陈述描述 (Statement) 来表示。 条陈述有三部分组成：主体部分、谓词部分及爷体部分。
描述性知识：：=={“<rdf：Description rdf：ahout=" <RDF 资源节点>>““>”
{<属性及属性值>}1-n
“<rdf：Description>””}11-n
实例-——钢材订单： “一宗钢材订单i‘CSGM001'， 其接货地点为宁波北仑港，卸货吨位为2MT”。
其描述主体就是订单“SGM001”，客体(属性值)就是“宁波北仑港”和“2MT吨位”，而“接货点”和“卸货吨位”就是联系主客体的谓词(属性)。采用 OWL表示就是：
<rdf：Description rdf：about="SGM001”>
<TargetHarbor rdf：reseurce="宁波北仑港”I>
<TonnagePort rdf：resource=“2MT 吨位”>
</rdl；Description>
3.2 供应链中规则性知识的表示
规则性知识分为两个部分：规则的前提部分和规则的结论部分。规则的前提和结论以陈述的形式存在，规则陈述的谓语部分都是规则的最主要部分，它决定了规则陈述的框架。
<规则型的知识>：；=“<BURI：Rule rdf：fD="<规则名称>““>”
“</BURT：Rule>”
为了表示规则的陈述以及陈述之间的逻辑运算，在OWL语言的基础上定义基本的规则类 Rule、运算符类： RuleOp-crator 类和命题类 RuleStatcment。其中命题类有可以分为原子命题 AtomStatement 和 ComplexStatement。一条规则就是一个 Rule 的实例，前提和结论中的陈述则是 RuleStatement 的实例。
实例——报价规则： “大宗购买客户购买原材料可以打9折”，(Cuslomer， product， 9 Percent)：- premium (Cus-tomer) & material (product)。
'，采用谓词逻辑表示方法，，可以表示为： discount
应用扩展的OWI.标准，该规则性知识的表示结构如图1。
3.3 供应链中案例性知识的表示
在供应链成员共亨管理案例时，传统表示方法很难支持大段文字、图片、音频等形式的内容的，即使支持，但是为了提高推理/查询的效率，往往会对这些内容作精简或结构化的抽取，会削弱案例的作用。OWL作为语义网的描述标准，
图 规则性知识表示结构的图形化
适合对网络上的所有资源进行精确的描述，本文通过定义案例类 Case 来解决传统案例表示方法无法处理图片、音频等数据的问题。
由于案例的结构与所属的供应链业务密切相关，不同工作流程的案例结构可能差异很大，在本文定义的案例知识表示方法中，不限制具体的案例属性，只把结构化后的案例属性分为一种类型，即案例问题描述相关属性一超类为HasProblcm、案例解决方案相关属性一超类为 HasSolution 和解决方案效果描述相关属性一超类为 HasResults。案例具体结构化时所抽取的属性必定是其中一类的子属性。
实例——某汽车制造商的“零部件需求激增对策”案例。案例简述如下：
案例背景和起因：某汽车制造商因为新生产线的投入，对某种激光焊板的使用量由3个升为7个，出库量增加倍，现有的库存面积可能无法满足业务的需求。
状况分析：出库量大增、现有的运输车辆、人员配置无法满足生产需求；零件数量增加，库存量随之上升，现有堆放面积趋于饱和，无法满足业务需求；供应商安全库存设施不变的前提下，零件需求的上升会使零件供应商非常被动。
解决措施： 与生产车间和物流部门确认年度零件使用量和预计日出库量；根据日出库量制定内部运输方案，配置新的运输车辆和驾驶员；与供应商确认需求量，提醒供应商制订新的供应方案。
效果验证：2006年上半年出库量2231吨，较2005年同比增长194%；零件的库存容量由原米的60个托盘增加为120个托盘：库存周转率有原来的·周便为1.5天；新生产线没有因为零件缺少而无法正常生产、完全满足生产部门的需求
案例总结：及时获取公司发布的生产计划相关信息，尽早预测到新生产线信息，从而及时地对业务状况进行调整。将掌握的信息及时提供给仓储客户和供应商，也能够使得仓储客户和供应商有所准备，在掌握主动权的同时也提高客户满意度。
在结构化时就可以把上述案例的背景起因和状况分析作为问题描述部分、通过抽取出库量变动、运输能力变动、存储面积变动、供应方案变动等属性对案例的问题描述部分进行表述。各种应对措施是案例的解决方案部分、抽取属性制定生产计划、制定运输方案、制定供应方案描述采取的措施。面最终的效果和对案例的总结则作为解决方案效果相关的属性。案例采用 OWL表示如下：
<Case rdf：ID=“激光板大幅增量对策”>
<StockChange rdfs：subPropertyOf=“llasProblem”>激光板的山库量增加一倍…·</StoekChange>
<SupplySolutionChange rdfs：subPropertyOf=“HasProblem”>供应商的安全库存没有变动新需求，--1新生产线开产，供应商将会十分的被动…·</SupplySolutionChange>
<TransportSolution rdfs：subPropertyOf=“HasSolution”>增加运输车辆，配置新的运输人员…</TransportSolution>
<SupplierSolution rdfs：suhPropertyOf=“1lusSolution”>将需求变动情况通知供应商，协调运输能力和库存需求…·</SupplierSolution>
<StockVelocity rdfs：subPropertyOf=“lasResults”>1.5</StockVelocity>
</Case>
对于具体的案例，属性还可以按照不同的纬度和粒度抽取，因而可能会有些抽取的属性还有子属性，如上例中运输方案部分就可以划分为车辆变动方案和人员配备方案两个子属性。在此不作具体说明。
1
结 论
本文研究了供应链协同中基于语义网的知识表示方法，通过对供应链知识共享特性的分析，提出了利用语义网技术描述和表示供应链多种知识的思路。基于知识的结构，把供应链中用于分享的知识分为描述、规则和案例厂种类型，基于对知识的分类和各类知识特点的研究，阐述了利用OWL标准对协同供应链知识表示的方法，OWL标准不仅能够表达协同供应链中的各种知识，而且具有良好的扩展性、跨平台性和语义性，为进一步实现协同平台上知识的自动推理、整合奠定了基础，从而加速协同供应链的知识共享。
在供应链协同过程中，应用语义网的技术和方法，使供应链中多样化的知识能够方便地表示，为进一步实现供应链信息系统中的知识推理、跨部门快速检索提供了可行性，从而提高了供应链信息流的运行效果。通过高效的知识共享，共同挖掘知识与价值，可以从整体上提升供应链的效率和效益，从而建立超越有形资产搏弈的供应链竞争优势。
参考文献：
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付蓬勃，吕永波，供应链协同管理模式下的信息共享机制研究J\].物流技术，2007，6(26)：88-90.
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zh | N/A | N/A | Mar， 2018学术期
Vo1.45 No.2
DOI：10.16366/j.cnki.1000-2359，2018.02.008
**66一带一路”倡议下 OFDI经济增长效应及差异性影响研究**
基于省级面板数据的门槛回归分析
史雪娜，王蒙蒙，熊晓轶
(河北金融学院国际教育学院，河北保定071051)
摘 要：随着“一带一路”倡议的全面推进，中国的对外直接投资已经进入发展高速期。本文利用2004-2016年30省的面板数据进行门槛回归分析。研究结果表明，对外直接投资与经济增长存在正向关系，但是受到 OFDI规模的限制，即 OFDI存在双门槛值。各地区由地域特点不同，OFDI 对经济增长效应存在差异性。具体而言，在一定规模之前对外直接投资量较少，不利于各地区经济增长，达到一定规模之后 OFDI 越多，经济增长越快。同时，各地区投资水平、劳动力、人力资本水平、研发投资、进出口贸易和政府支出也对经济增长存在不同的影响。
关键词：“一带一路”；对外直接投资；门槛回归；经济增长效应；差异性
作者简介：史雪娜(1976一)，女，河北金融学院国际教育学院副教授，主要从事国际金融相关研究。
基金项目：河北省社会科学基金项目(HB17YJ054)
中图分类号：F752.62 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1000-2359(2018)02-0051-06 收稿日期：2017-11-20
**一、问题的提出及文献综述**
目前，中国对外贸易战略已由吸引外资转变为吸引外资和对外投资并重阶段，特别是“一带一路”倡议实施后，对外投资规模不断增长。根据《中国对外直接投资统计公报》，2015年中国超过日本成为全球第二大对外投资国，标志着中国进人资本净输出阶段。特别是对“一带一路”相关国家投资快速增长，2015年中国对“一带一路”相关国家的投资占当年流量总额的13%，高达189.3亿美元，同比增长38.6%，是对全球投资增幅的2倍。国内外学者将母国经济增长与对外直接投资进行结合开展研究。在对外直接投资与经济增长之间相关性的研究文献中，可以分为两种情况。部分学者认为对外直接投资对经济增长具有作用，但具体表现不同\[1-3\]。另外一些学者认为 OFDI 促进了母国经济增长和本国产业升级，甚至在母国存在产能过剩时，通过转移国内产能可完善国内资源配置\[4-8\]。同时，对外直接投资与经济增长也与人力资本投资和政策制度休戚相关19-10\]。另一部分学者认为，并没有清晰的实证结果证明对外直接投资与经济增长之间具有相关性。对外直接投资不仅不能促进母国经济增长，反而会阻碍其发展，另外还由于替代效应减少本国投资机会\[1-15\]。因此，对外直接投资不能盲目地增加或减少，其对于经济的促进或阻碍作用也会有一定限制，但是现有文献中只是笼统地给出其相关性，并没有对具体门槛值进行研究17-191。虽然许多文献都对经济增长和OFDI 进行了相关研究，但是对二者非线性和门槛回归的研究较少，所以本文使用 TAR模型进行门槛回归国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库
**二、OFDI对经济增长率影响的模型设计**
既有研究结果表明，经济增长受许多因素的影响，包括自然资源、人力资本、政治体制和经济开放程度等，本文将使用2003-2016年面板数据，分析对外直接投资是否与省内经济增长有相关性。
首先，设计基本的面板回归模型：
其中，growtha表示省份i在t时的工业增加值；OFDI表示省份i在t时的对外投资规模；Matrix X 表示控制变量，包括劳动力投人、人力资本、开放程度、技术创新以及其他政府行为的代替变量； p表示特殊作用，并假设这些作用不随时间变化，例如地理位置等；表示观测误差。
显然，假如本文测算长期增长(growth)与 OFDI 的相关性，使用的测算方法如下所示：
首先，以 growth 表示短期增长，以8表示长期增长和短期增长的相关系数，那么将会存在如下相关性：growth.-growth-1=8(growth\*-growth-i) (3)
其中8(0，1)，可以将公式(3)变为：
将公式(4)代人公式(2)中，得到：
其中，系数8ao，8ai 表示短期内OFDI 对经济增长的影响，而01，02表示长期影响系数。变量 growth-1也对当期经济增长产生了渐增的影响力。
虽然简单的面板回归也能表示 OFDI 与经济增长的相关性，但是并不能从动态上体现 OFDI 增加对经济增长的性质。如果在检验过程中，至少存在一个门槛值，说明 OFDI 与经济增长之间是非线性的。根据Hansen(1999)和 Wang(2015)，非线性回归增长模型可以写为以下公式：
将公式(7)进行整理，可以得到：
其中，Yi，Ye是门槛值，并且通过门槛值可以将数据划分为三部分子数据；d(.)是指标函数，根据限制条件取值为0或者1；31，321，33表示不同数据中回归系数。
根据 Mengistus 和 Adams(2007)，由于固定效应模型可以有效解决横截面数据中的异方差和遗漏偏差，所以本文将使用固定效应的门槛回归模型。
为了确定门槛值，首先使用最小二乘法对相关变量进行回归。要获得最优门槛值，残差平方和需达到最小值，即y=arg min S (y) (9)
其中，y=((y，y)。由于冗余参数问题可能会造成“非标准”分布，所以需要确定y的置信区间，即对原假
s(Yo)一s(y)设：Y=y。进行检验。使用“似然比统计量”方法，即LR(Y)=(10)
Sp一然后进行显著性检验。因F=>0~S为“非标准分布”，所以 Hansen(1999)使用 bootstrap 方法来模拟分析。2
即在零假设下，如果F1分布在原假设下的p值小于临界值，就可以拒绝原假设，换句话说，当 bootstrap 方法下的p值小于0.01时，表示在1%的显著性水平下通过了显著性检验。
因此，要进行单一门槛值的显著性检验。如果接受原假设，表明 OFDI与经济增长之间是线性相关的。如果拒绝原假设，则表示 OFDI与经济增长之间是非线性关系。同时，为了确定门槛值数量，还需要进行多个门槛值检验。
**三、指标选取与数据说明**
**(一)指标选取**
中国对外直接投资从2003年逐渐步人正轨，而且相关数据也是在2003年开始进行统计并完善。本文指标的选取借鉴其他学者的研究方法，选取2004-2016年省级面板数据，以便分析 OFDI 与经济增长关系。各主要变量的说明见表1。
**(二)数据说明及分析**
根据数据的可得性，本文选取了 2004-2016年的中国30个省的数据作为研究对象。因为许多变量在统计年鉴中，只有名义量，所以进行数据选取时，均以2003年数据作为基期对相关变量进行平减，剔除价格因素。以上数据均来自《中国统计年鉴》(2004-2016年)《中国劳动统计年鉴》(2004-2016年)《中国对外直接投资统计公报》(2004-2016年)以及其他数据库等。各主要变量的统计性描述见表2。
**表1 变量设定及说明**
| 变量 | | 含义 | 数据来源 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 因变量 | 经济增长率(growth) | 各省、市、自治区的地区生产总值增长率 | 中国统计年鉴 |
| 自变量 | 对外直接投资(ofdi) | 年度 OFDI 流量，并对其取对数 | 中国对外直接投资统计公报 |
| 控制变量 | 投资水平(invest) | 各省、市、自治区的全社会固定资产投资额的对数 | 中国统计年鉴 |
| 控制变量 | 劳动力(labor) | 各省、市、自治区年末就业人员数 | 中国劳动统计年鉴 |
| 控制变量 | 人力资本(enr) | 将小学、初中、高中和大专及以上的受教育年限分别记为6年、9年、12年和16年，平均受教育年限=小学比重\*6+初中(中专)比重\*9+高中(职高)比重\*12+大专及以上学历比重\*16 | 中国劳动统计年鉴 |
| 控制变量 | 技术创新(innovation) | 各省、市、自治区工业企业R&D经费占其生产总值的比重 | 中国统计年鉴 |
| 控制变量 | 贸易开放程度(open) | 各省、市、自治区的进出口总额，并对其取对数 | 中国统计年鉴 |
| 控制变量 | 政府支出(gov) | 各省、市、自治区的财政支出占其生产总值的比重 | 中国统计年鉴 |
| 控制变量 | 上一期经济增长率(growtht-1) | 各省、市、自治区的地区生产总值上一期的增长率 | 中国统计年鉴 |
根据 stata 命令，显示本文所使用的数据是平衡面板数据。从表2中可以看出，各省、市、自治区生产总值的平均增长率为11.68%，增长率最低的省份是辽宁省(2015)，为3%；增长率最高的省份是内蒙古(2005)，为23.8%。对外直接投资占比平均为0.27%，而上海在2015年时达到了最高的 OFDI 占比，为5.75%。人力资本中平均受教育年限为9.21年，各省、市、自治区受教育年限从贵州省(2005)的6.46年到北京(2014)的13.39年。政府支出的平均占比为20.67%。
**表2 各变量的描述性统计分析**
| Variable | Obs | Mean | Std. Dev. | Min | Max |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| province | 20 | | | | |
| year | 30 | | | 2004 | 2015 |
| growth | 360 | 0.116841 | 0.026871 | 0.03 | 0.238 |
| growtht1 | 360 | 0.120007 | 0.024419 | 0.049 | 0.238 |
| ofdi | 360 | 0.002665 | 0.004837 | 0 | 0.057473 |
| invest | 360 | 7.443684 | 0.771804 | 5.571298 | 8.910898 |
| labor | 360 | 6.592064 | 0.824648 | 4.41118 | 8.628278 |
| | 360 | 9.210908 | 1.226045 | 6.4598 | 13.3891 |
| innoyation | 360 | 0.008113 | 0.004665 | 0.000433 | 0.021486 |
| oper | 360 | 0.334828 | 0.415913 | 0.036556 | 1.843159 |
| gOV | 360 | 0.206701 | 0.091323 | 0.07678 | 0.626863 |
为了避免伪回归的存在，有必要进行多重共线性和平稳性检验。首先，使用 VIF 进行多重共线性检验。表3表明 VIF 值都是小于10的，且最大的VIF 为 5.71，所以本文就不必担心多重共线性问题。其次，运用
IPS 对面板数据进行平稳性检验，发现 growth 在10%显著水平上拒绝原假设，growtht-1，labor，enr，，of-di，open 几个变量都1%显著性水平上拒绝面板单位根的原假设，而 innovation，gov，invest 这三个变量在10%的显著性水平上无法拒绝原假设，即存在面板单位根，但对其进行一阶差分之后为平稳变量，具体分析见表4。
**表3 方差膨胀因子(VIF)结果**
| Variable | VIF | 1/VIF |
| --- | --- | --- |
| invest | 5.71 | 0.175255 |
| labor | 4.81 | 0.207901 |
| innoyation | 2.36 | 0.423278 |
| gOV | 2.2 | 0.45499 |
| enr | 2.1 | 0.475431 |
| open | 1.78 | 0.562114 |
| ofdi | 1.37 | 0.728192 |
| growthtl | 1.33 | 0.75257 |
| Mean VIF | 2.71 | |
**表4 面板数据单位根检验**
| 变量 | | 原值 | 一阶差分 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| growth | | \-1.7304 | |
| growtht一1 | | \-1.7746\*\* | |
| inyest | | \-1.4947 | \-3.3857\* 品 |
| labor | | 一-6.4240\*\*\* | |
| innoyation | | 一1.3331 | \-3.3470 |
| gOV | | 一1.5036 | \-2.6882品品 |
| enr | | \-1.8897\*\*\* | |
| open | | \-3.9541\*\*\* | |
| ofdi | | \-2.5959\*%\* | |
注释：表中\*\*\*、\*\*和”分别表示在1%、5%和10%的显著性水平下显著。
**四、实证结果分析**
(一)对 OFDI 进行单门槛模型回归
进行回归之前，先确定其原假设和备择假设，原假设Ho：3=3(即不存在门槛效应)，备择假设 H1：3子B(即存在门槛值)。经过实证分析，得出单门槛回归结果为10.2468，并且门槛估计值在95%的置信区间为\[9.9847，10.3588\]。具体结果如表5所示。
**表5单门槛估计值(95%的置信区间)**
| Model | Threshold | LowerUpper |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Th一1 | 10.2468 | 9.984710.3588 |
同时，本文还是用了 300次的自助抽样法来检验是否存在单门槛效应。由检验结果可得到，其F-stat为 25.4203，大于1%显著性水平下的临界值(即15.1489)。并且自助抽样法也存在高度的显著性，因其P一value 为 0.0000。所以，在此基础上，本文可以拒绝原假设即 OFDI 与经济增长之间是非线性关系，存在显著的门槛效应。具体实证结果如表6所示。
**表6门槛效应结果(bootstrap=300)**
| Threshold | MRSS | F-stat | Prob | Crit 10Crit 5Crit 1 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| single | 0.0721 | 25.4203 | 0.0000 | 2.43493.85036.8408 |
(二)进行门槛数量检验。
对统计数据进行单门槛、双门槛和三门槛检验，使用同样数量的自助抽样法，最终实证结果如表7所示。从表7中结果可以看出，单门槛回归是在1%水平下显著的，而且F2-statistics 是对双门槛值的研究(即原假设 HO：单门槛模型；备择假设 H1：双门槛模型)，发现其P-value 为 0.0267，在5%水平下是显著的(即F-stat=3.5550>2.9907)；但是F-stat=3.5550<7.8721 表明是在1%水平下是不显著的。同时，三门槛值是不显著，所以通过以上分析，发现 OFDI 与经济增长之间存在双门槛现象。为了确定双门槛值，再次使用
·54·.National Social Sciences Database
双门槛回归模型，可以得到其中的双门槛值分别为6.8421和10.2840。学社会科学学术期刊数据库
**表7 不同门槛效应模型的门槛值**
**lotok**
| Threshold estimator (level 95%) | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| model | | threshold | | Lower Upper | |
| Th-1 | | 10.2465 | | 9.9847 10.3588 | |
| Th-21 | | 6.8421 | | 5.3083 12.7531 | |
| Th-22 | | 10.2840 | | 9.9847 10.3588 | |
| Th-31 | | 11.5559 | | 5.3083 12.7531 | |
| Th-32 | | 10.2091 | | 9.9847 10.3588 | |
| BHTh一33 | | 6.8421 | | 5.3083 12.7531 | |
| | | | | Threshold effect test {bootstrap=300 300 300} | |
| Threshold | MRSS | F-stat | Prob | | Crit 10 Crit 5 Crit 1 |
| Single | 0.0721 | 25.4203 | 0.0000 | | 2.3861 4.0996 7.0355 |
| Double | 0.7130 | 3.5550 | 0.0267 | | 1.6904 2.9907 7.8340 |
| Triple | 0.0778 | 2.4904 | 0.1600 | | 2.5486 4.2666 7.8721 |
**(三)回归结果分析**
通过固定效应回归分析，得到相应的回归结果，如表8所示。根据固定效应的统计检验，F-stat 值为56.31并且在1%水平上显著，同时自助抽样法的P值表明双门槛模型在5%水平上显著。
根据门槛自回归结果， OFDI 对经济增长率效应有三个方面。
(1)当 ln(OFDI)<6.8421时，系数为一0.0018，表明 OFDI 与经济增长之间存在负相关关系，即当对外直接投资增加1%，各省、市、自治区经济增长率减少约 0.0018%。从这里可以看出，前期对外直接投资量不多时，对各省经济作用不明显，甚至出现抑制经济增长现象。
(2)当6.8421≤ln(OFDI)<10.2840时，系数为0.0270，表明 OFDI 与经济增长之间存在正相关关系，即当对外直接投资增加1%，各省、市、自治区经济增长率增加约 0.0270%。也就是对外直接投资达到一定数量之后，能对各省份经济增长产生积极促进作用。
(3)当ln(OFDI)≥10.2840时，系数为0.0160，表明 OFDI 与经济增长之间有正向关系，即当对外直接投资增加1%，各省、市、自治区经济增长率增加约0.0160%。
根据以上分析，对外直接投资对经济增长率之间作用系数最小范围在第一区间，对各省、市、自治区来说，处于这一区间的对外直接投资是最不明智的选择，应该增加对外直接投资量。而对外直接投资作用最大的区间在\[6.8421，10.2840\]，在这一区间，OFDI 对省市自治区影响力度在0.027水平上，是各地区应该保持的区间，如果 OFDI 超过这一区间，正向作用又将下降。所以本文认为对外直接投资与地区经济增长的第一一门槛值效应最大，OFDI 超过第一门槛值将由阻碍作用变为促进作用，且在促进经济增长中，对外直接投资水平在6.8421~10.2840区间效应最大。通过以上实证检验，由第三部分提出的假设得到验证。
**表8 双门槛模型参数估计结果**
| 变量 | 系数 | 标准误差 | T值 | P值 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| growth(t-1) | 0.6720 | 0.0511 | 13.1636 | 0.0000 |
| invest | 一-0.0277 | 0.0315 | 一0.8793 | 0.3799 |
| enr | 一-0.0112 | 0.0022 | 一5.0057 | 0.0000 |
| open | 0.0265 | 0.0121 | 2.1897 | 0.0293 |
| innoyation | 0.0036 | 0.0055 | 0.6520 | 0.5148 |
| gOV | 一0.1174 | 0.0573 | \-2.0510 | 0.0411 |
| labor | 0.0031 | 0.0029 | 1.0882 | 0.2773 |
| ofdi(ofdi<6.8421) | \-0.0018 | 0.0005 | \-3.73 | 0.000 |
| ofdi(6.8421≤ofdi<10.2840) | 0.0270 | 0.0008 | 3.4741 | 0.0006 |
| ofdi(ofdi≥10.2840) | 0.0160 | 0.0006 | 2.6992 | 0.0073 |
**(四)各省、市、自治区 OFDI 与门槛值大小差异性分析**
本文将各省份ln(OFDI)分为三组：一组为ln(ofdi)<6.8421，二组是6.8421≤ofdi<10.2840，三组是高于10.2840。表9显示只有少数地区在某一年份对外直接投资水平低于第一门槛值，表明这些省份的对外直接投资对其地区生产总值的影响不明显，基本处于阻碍经济增长阶段。另外，全国大部分省份尤其是2006-2009期间的对外直接投资水平处于第一门槛值与第二门槛值之间，对其生产总值的作用最明显，同时在经济上表现也比较明显，这些年份我国经济各省份经济增长率都处于较高水平；2011年之后大部分省份
OFDI 水平高于第二门槛值，尤其是“一带一路”战略实施之后，对外直接投资增长的更为明显。胡刊数据库
**表9 门槛值及省份分布**
| 门槛值及区间 | 省、市、自治区 |
| --- | --- |
| ofdi<6.8421 | 安徽(2004)，甘肃(2004)，广西(2004、2005、2006)，贵州(200―2010)，海南(2004―2008)，河南(2004、2006)，湖北(2004-2008)，湖南(2004)，江西(2004-2006)，内蒙古(2004)，宁夏(2004、2005、2007、2008、2010)，青海(2004-2011)，山西(2004、2005)，陕西(2004、2005)，四川(2004)，新疆(2006)，云南(2004)，重庆(2005) |
| 6.8421<ofdi<10.2840 | 安徽(2005―2009)，北京(2004-2007)，福建(2004-2008)，甘肃(2005-1010、2014一2015)，广东(2004、2005)，广西(2007-2014)，贵州(2011-2015)，海南(2009、2010)，河北(2004-2009)，河南(2005-2011)，黑龙江(2004-2011)，湖北(2009-2010)，湖南(2005一2010)，吉林(2004-2011)，江苏(2004-2006)，江西(2007-2011)，辽宁(2004-2008)，内蒙古(2005-2011)，宁夏(2006、2009、2011、2012、2013)，青海(2012-2015)，山东(2004一2007)，山西(2006-2008、2010-2011、2015)，陕西(2007-2010)，上海(2004)，四川(2005一2009)，天津(2004-2009)，新疆(2004-2005、2008-2010)，云南(2005-2009，2011)，浙江(2004-2006)，重庆(2004、2006-2009) |
| ofdi之10.2840 | 安徽(2010-2016)，北京(2008-2016)，福建(2009-2016)，甘肃(2011-2016)，广东(2006-2016)，广西(2016)，海南(2011-2016)，河北(2010-2016)，河南(2012-2016)，黑龙江(2012-2016)，湖北(2011-2016)，湖南(2011-2015)，吉林(2012-2016)，江苏(2007一2016)，江西(2012-2016)，辽宁(2009-2016)，内蒙古(2012-2016)，宁夏(2014―2016)，山东(2008-2016)，山西(2009、2012-2016)，陕西(2011-2016)，上海(2005-2016)，四川(2010-2016)，天津(2010-2016)，新疆(2007、2011-2016)，云南(2010、2012―2016)，浙江(2007-2016)，重庆(2010-2016) |
五、结论
随着“一带一路”倡议的不断深人，国际资本的不断流人和流出已经是现今全球经济新常态。本文应用我国2004-2016年间的省级面板数据，测算了 OFDI 的门槛水平。结果表明，OFDI存在双门槛值效应，门槛值分别为6.8421 和10.2840。这些门槛值将所有数据分为三部分，产生三种不同影响力。(1)OFDI 小于第一门槛值，其对经济增长作用不明显，甚至存在负相关关系；(2)OFDI 大于第一门槛值时，其对经济增长有一定促进作用，并且在第一与第二门槛值之间促进作用更大；(3)OFDI 大于第二门槛值后其促进作用有所下降。此外，各地区投资水平、劳动力、研发投资、进出口贸易和政府支出也对经济增长存在不同的影响。
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\[18\]李杏，钟亮.对外直接投资的逆向技术溢出效应研究：基于中国行业异质性的门槛回归分析CJ\].山西财经大学学报，2016(11).\[19\]周乐意，殷群.OFDI对地区创新绩效的影响研究：基于江苏数据的实证分析\[J\].江苏社会科学，2016(4). | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **自觉服务党的中心任务全面提升公安院校教育内涵**
文/郝宏奎
举世瞩目的党的二十大胜利闭幕。习近平总书记在开幕会上代表党的十九届中央委员会作报告，并在参加广西代表团讨论时、在党的二十大闭幕会和新一届中央政治局常委见面会上先后发表了重要讲话。报告和讲话，高瞻远瞩、举旗定向，内涵深邃、博大精深，令人鼓舞、催人奋进，在新的历史起点上，明确提出“从现在起，中国共产党的中心任务就是团结带领全国各族人民全面建成社会主义现代化强国、实现第二个百年奋斗目标，以中国式现代化全面推进中华民族伟大复兴”的重大论断，是我们党团结带领全国各族人民夺取新时代中国特色社会主 _三_ 义新胜利的政治宣言和行动纲领，为党团结带领全国人民在新时代新征程上“自信自强、守正创新，蹲厉奋发、勇毅前行”提供了根本遵循、指明了前进方向、发出了出征动员。
公安院校应把学习宣传贯彻落实党的二十大精神作为当前和今后一个时期的首要政治任务，对标对表新时代新征程党的中心任务，精准靶向“实施科教兴国战略、强化现代化建设人才支撑”战略目标，不折不扣落实公安部党委(扩大)会议精神和“六个牢牢把握”决策部署，进一步掌握好、运用好习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想的世界观和方法论，以及党的二十大报告、习近平总书记重要讲话中蕴藏的道理学理哲理，深刻领悟党的二十大精神。党的二十大报告、习近平总书记重要讲话为“对党忠诚、服务人民、执法公正、纪律严明”这一建警治警总方略赋予了新的内涵、明确了新的任务、提出了新的要求。在新时代新征程这一新的历史方位上，公安院校必须适应新任务新要求，以新的认识新的高度更加忠实地践行“四句话十六字”
总要球，自觉服务党的中心任务，全面提升公安教育内涵，用为党育人、为国育才、育警铸剑的新成绩奋进新征程、建功新时代。
**一、更加牢固地笃定对党忠诚的信念**
党的二十大报告明确指出，新时代十年对党和人民事业具有重大现实意义和深远历史意义的三件大事：一是迎来中国共产党成立一百周年，二是中国特色社会主义进入新时代，三是完成脱贫攻坚、全面建成小康社会的历史任务，实现第一个百年奋斗目标。这些举世瞩目、彪炳中华民族光辉史册的历史性伟大成就的取得，最根本的原因是有以习近平同志为核心的党中央坚强领导，是有习近平总书记掌舵领航。公安机关是人民民主专政的重要工具，公安院校是公安机关的重要组成部分，肩负着维护国家政治安全、捍卫我们党长期执政地位的神圣使命。
公安院校贯彻落实党的二十大精神，必须更加深刻地领悟新时代新征程对党忠诚的特别重要性，：必须更加牢固地笃定对党忠诚的信念。
(一)公安院校做到对党忠诚，首先要坚定忠诚核心
在党的二十届一中全会上，习近平同志再次全票当选中央委员会总书记。这是全党意志、全党共识、人民期待的最直接体现，凝聚了全体代表和全体委员的最真实意愿。习近平总书记以马克思主义政治家、思想家、战略家的恢弘气魄、远见卓识、雄韬伟略，无可辩驳地证明了“两个确立”是历史的选择、时代的呼唤、人民的心声，是最重大的政治成果。面对风云变幻、跌宕丛生的百年未有之大变局，面对新时代新征程无比艰巨繁重的发展改革任务，我们能够拥有经过历史检验、实践考验、斗争历练的党的核心、人民领袖、军队统帅继续掌舵领航，是党之大幸、国之大幸、军队之大幸、人民之大幸。全面建设现代化强国的新征程前途光明，任务艰巨，必将面临前所未有、更加严峻、更为复杂的风险挑战。有习近平总书记继续掌舵领航，是我们战胜一切艰难险阻、应对一切不确定性、顺利实现中华民族伟大复兴宏伟目标的最大确定性、最大底气、最大保证。公安院校要教育引导师生深刻领悟“两个确立”的决定性意义，更加自觉地维护习近平同志党中央的核心、全党的核心地位，不断强化忠诚核心、拥护核心、跟随核心、捍卫核心的思想自觉、飞
政治自觉和行动自觉，自觉自愿、坚定不移、义无反顾地做捍卫党的核心的忠诚卫士。
(二)公安院校做到对党忠诚，关键要坚持思想引领
党的二十大通过的《中国共产党章程(修正案)》，将近年来党的重大理论创新、实践创新和制度创新成果写入党章，这是马克思主义中国化时代化的最新的、最鲜活的理论成果，是指引我们接续奋斗、行稳致远的总遵循、航向标。公安院校要切实发挥理论优势、人才优势，系统学习宣传党的二十大精神，深入研究阐释党的二十大精神，全面贯彻落实党的二十大精神，迅速推进党的二十大精神进教材、进课堂、进师生头脑，将党的二十大精神和习近平总书记重要讲话精神全面融入思想政治课程和各学科各专业课程思政工作，切实让广大师生在全面学习、系统学习、联动学习中领悟一脉相承、磅礴厚重的思想伟力，不断提高政治判断力、政治领悟力、政治执行力。
**(三)公安院校做到对党忠诚，重点要筑牢忠诚警魂**
习近平总书记在党的二十大报告中专门对青年工作作出重要部署，并寄语和要求广大青年“坚定不移听党话、跟党走”，充分体现了以习近平同志为核心的党中央对青年工作、青年群体的高度重视、殷切期望。公安院校的根本任务是立德树人，对党忠诚是成警成才最根本的“大德”，特别是在当前意识形态领域复杂严峻的斗争形势下，抓好学生思想政治工作、强
化学生对党忠诚意识，责任更加重大。要进一步强化阵地意识，始终坚持马克思主义、中国化时代化的马克思主义在意识形态领域的领导地位，让马克思主义在公安院校讲中国话、讲青年语，牢牢守住意识形态工作主动权、话语权。要进一步强化斗争意识，敢于亮剑、善于斗争，将旗帜鲜明讲政治贯穿到人才培养全方位全过程各环节，切实筑牢忠诚警魂，从源头上确保公安队伍绝对忠诚、绝对纯洁、绝对可靠，着力锻造“四个铁一般”的公安事业建设者和可靠接班人，发出公安院校学生“强国有我、请党放心”的青春最强音。
**二、更加优质地培育服务人民的本领**
党的二十大报告明确指出：“江山就是人民，人民就是江山。中国共产党领导人民打江山、守江山，守的是人民的心。”党的二十大报告在阐述如何不断谱写马克思主义中国化时代化新篇章时，明确提出“六个坚持”，阐明了中国化时代化的马克思主义、即习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想的世界观和方法论及其最基本的立场观点方法，“六个坚持”中排在首位的是“坚持人民至上”，进一步表明了党的理论就是造福人民的理论，再一次郑重宣示了我们党全心全意为人民服务的根本宗旨。在新一届中央政治局常委见面会上，习近平总书记再次强调，“我们要始终与人民风雨同舟、与人民心心相印，想人民之所想，行人民之所嘱，不断把人民对美好生
活的向往变为现实”。这些庄严承诺，再次昭示了我们党为中国人民谋幸福、为中华民族谋复兴的初心使命，也充分展现了习丁近平总书记作为人民领袖的情怀担当。迈向新时代新征程，公安院校必须学深悟透力行党的二十大精神，准确把握百年大党的初心宗旨，更加自觉地践行“以人民为中心”的发展思想，初心如磐，践行宗旨，服务人民，在学历教育和在职培训中，以更加卓越的人才培养质量，培育更加优质的服务人民本领。
(一)与时俱进刷新公安专业人才培养的质量水平
公安院校服务人民的最根本途径，就是落实好立德树人根本任务，培养德智体美劳全面发展的社会主义建设者和接班人。公安专业人才培养要自觉服务党的中心任务，深刻领悟党的二十大关于实现人民对美好生活向往的新要求，立足公安院校本职本位，落实育人主责主业，更新育人理念、优化育人机制、提高育人水平。要以大学生基本道德品格培养为基础，以忠诚教育和职业精神培养为核心，以“三全育人”德育工作机制为保障，着力打造道德品格培养体系；以科学人文艺术素养和健康身心培养为基础，以学习能力和创新能力培养为核心，以校风、教风、学风建设为保障，着力打造综合素质培养体系；以公安基本素养培养为基础，以专业素养和实践能力培养为核心，以教、学、练、战一体化的人才培养模式为保障，着力打造职业能力培养体系，多措并举全面提升公安
专门人才培养质量，以实际行动“办好人民满意的公安教育”。
公安实战是连接公安院校与人民需求的最直接纽带、最主要渠道，公安院校服务人民，重点要服务公安实战。必须坚持以“融入实战、服务实战、引领实战”发展理念为牵引，全面推进实战化办学，深入开展实战化教育教学改革。要坚持开展校局合作，建设校局互动全要素、多渠道平台机制，在人才培养、队伍建设、科研创新等领域开展全方位实战化合作。要建设一支高水平“双师型”教师队伍，通过实战锻炼、参与实战办案等形式，更新教师实战理念、提高教师实战能力，同时注重邀请公安实战专家进校园、进课堂，实现教学课堂与公安一线司频共振、相向而行。要不断优化学生实习实践机制，加强与公安实战部门对接联系，让学生在实习实践中学到真知识、掌握真本领、练就铁肩膀。
(二)凝心聚力提升保护人民共同富裕成果的能力
党的二十大报告在阐述党的中心任务时，明确提出要“以中国式现代化全面推进中华民族伟大复兴。”“全体人民共同富裕的现代化”是中匡式现代化五大特色之一。党的二十大报告强调“共同富裕是中国特色社会主义的本质要求”，也是现代化建设的出发点和落脚点。中国式现代化必须保证现代化的成果惠及全体人民。中国式现代化必然要求人民警察更加精心地保护全体人民共同富裕的收益，确保人民在现代化建设进程中
的合法收益不受不法侵害。进入21世纪以来，电信网络诈骗违法犯罪长期多发高发，群众损失居高不下，严重影响了人民群众的获得感、幸福感、安全感。以习近平同志为核心的党中央高度重视打击治理电信网络诈骗违法犯罪工作。2021年4月6日习近平总书记就打击治理电信网络诈骗犯罪工作作出重要指示后，在公安部的高度重视和部署推动下，各地各部门以前所未有的力度，狠抓打击治理各项工作，取得明显成效，实现前所未有的发案数持续性同比下降。2022年8月，公安部印发《公安部关于全面加强“四专两合力”建设深入推进打击治理电信网络诈骗违法犯罪工作的意见》，强调要大力加强专题研究、专门队伍、专案攻坚、专业技术建设，抓好内部合力、促成外部合力，明确将“四专两合力”确定为公安机关打击治理电信网络诈骗违法犯罪工作的总体思路。新时代新征程，为了更好地守护全体人民共同富裕的成果，公安院校必须坚持以习近平法治思想为根本指导，认真落实习近平总书记关于打击治理电信网络诈骗违法犯罪的重要指示精神，将“四专两合力”总体思路贯穿到专业教学和学术研究的各个环节。坚持问题导向，突出目标引领，努力培养适应打击治理电信网络诈骗违法犯罪需要的新型专业人才，不断提升其保护人民共同富裕成果的能力。同时，公安院校教师要坚持理论联系实际，深人实战一线，深化专题研究，为打击治理工作提供更多更有价值
的研究成果，校局协同，攻坚克难，努力巩固近期打击治理成效，有效遏制电信网络诈骗发案和群众损失上升的势头，尽快扭转电信网络诈骗违法犯罪高发多发的态势，守好人民的钱袋子，最大限度地避免人民群众发生因骗致贫的现象，使人民从共同富裕的现代化建设中的收益能够真正得到保护。
**(三)革故鼎新积极回应人民日益多元的安全需求**
服务人民必须与人民在新时代新征程上的新要求同步调共前进。人民的需要不仅是多元的，而且是动态发展、与时俱进的，服务人民的目标举措也应该是动态发展与时俱进的。公安院校在时刻关注、全面回应人民群众在人身安全、财产安全等传统安全方面的需要的同时，还要积极回应他们对信息安全、隐私安全、通信安全、互联网安全、物联网安全、金融安全、投资安全等方面安全的迫切需求。要在人民热切期盼、实战迫切需要的领域，进一步加强学科专业建设、课程教材、教师队伍、智库平台建设，用好用足公安院校人才集聚优势、理论创新优势，在相关领域违法犯罪的预防、打击、治理方面不断提高人才培养质效，提供理论指导支持，为公安机关相关工作的质量变革、效率变革、动力变革提供理论指导。
公安院校必须以革故鼎新的勇气，创新学科体系，优化专业布局，更新教学内容，改革教学手段，提高教师水平，积极回应新时代新征程新任务对公安专业人才培养的新需求。
**三、更加自觉地秉持执法公正的理念**
党的二十大报告首次单独把法治建设作为专章论述、专门部署，充分体现了以习近平同志为核心的党中央对全面依法治国的高度重视。法治既是现代化的题中应有之义，也是书写新征程恢宏史诗，实现中华民族伟大复兴历史任务的坚强有力保障，口中国式法治现代化是中国式现代化的重要组成部分。公安机关是国家重要的行政执法和刑事司法力量，担负着维护和促进社会公正的神圣职责。公安机关手中的执法权能不能公正行使，直接关系着社会公平正义能否全面实现，影响着在法治轨道上建设社会主义现代化国家的历史进程。公安院校作为法治公安建设和公安专门人才培养的重要阵地，在学习贯彻党的二十大精神的过程中，必须聚焦新时代新征程对执法公正的新要求，更加自觉地秉持执法公正的理念，更加注重执法公正理念的培育和养成。
(一)要全力以赴提高学生执法能力
具备过硬的执法能力和专业素质，是执法公正的基础和前提。对于公安院校而言，在人才培养工作中，需要同时关注现实适岗和未来发展两个维度，追求人才现实适岗与未来发展的有机统一，使培养出的人才既是现实可用之才，又是未来可塑之才。现实适岗维度要对人才培养目标中的“应用”价值取向特别关注、积极回应，重点满足毕业生从事专业工作“上手快”的人才规格需求，强化学生现实职业能力，
确保毕业生能够尽快适应并胜任第一任职岗位工作，实现学用快速对接。未来发展维度要对人才培养目标中的“创新”价值取向特别关注、积极回应，重点满足毕业生在整个职业发展生涯中“后劲足”的人才规格需求，强化学生学习能力和创新能力，确保毕业生能够与时俱进地可持续发展、可跨界发展、可提升发展。二者要有机结合、协同并进，确保公安院校毕业生符合“执法公正”对执法能力的基本需求。
(二)要全面深入提升学生法治素养
法治素养是执法公正的核心要求。法学教育是提升学生法治素养的重要渠道，公安院校在全面加强公安专业建设、培养学生公安专业能力的同时，要有意识地加强和改进法学教育，进一步提高学生的法学理论水平、法律知识素养、法治思维能力。要重点结合公安机关各类岗位的执法细则和公安机关人民警察执法资格等级考试核心要求，强化执法能力培养，并根据专业建设、人才培养和实战需求，着重从应用的角度加强证据学教学和研究。在此基础上，要大力开展新文科建设，推动法学学科和其他学科交叉融合发展。同时要将公安特色思想政治教育与法学教育有机融合，充分发挥培能铸魂作用，使执法公正理念真正融人公安院校学生的血脉灵魂。
**(三)要全面系统营造公正育人环境**
身教胜于言教，文化育人、环境育人，润物无声，效果良好。
公安院校在培养学生公正执法理念、知识、技能的同时，要全面系统地营造公正的育人环境，着力构建管常管长的制度体系，以尊崇制度、相信制度、执行制度的实际行动和良好习惯为学生提供现实版、全景式公正办理一切事务的良好示范。将公正性渗透于学生从招生人学到毕业入警的各环节全过程，体现在学生专业确定、学业考核、干部选聘、党员发展、奖惩评价、入警选岗的诸事项各方面。同时，将公正理念践行在学校建设改革发展、思想政治、党团建设、教育教学、科学研究、行政管理、后勤服务等各项工作之中。特别是师生关注度极高、公正性诉求极强的人员招聘、干部选任、任职考核、职称评审、评优评先、项目申报、成果评审、教学安排、招标采购、工程建设、财务管理等工作的开展和推进，更要坚持公平公正，公开透明，阳光运作。以制度化、机制性手段，使学生在校期间受到公正行为教育和公正文化涵养，从源头上打牢“执法公正”的思想根基。
**四、更加主动地养成纪律严明的作风**
习近平总书记在党的二十大报告中明确指出，“党的自我革命”是打破历史兴衰周期率的“第二个答案”。这是我们党实事求是、与时俱进理论品格的生动体现，更是我们党时刻保持解决大党独有难题的清醒和坚定。回顾波澜壮阔的百年党史，其本质就是一部敢于刀刃向内、敢于刮骨疗毒、敢于壮士断腕的自我革命史，就是一部不断通过自我
革命锻造练就“打铁必须自身硬”的真功夫，进而永葆党的生机活力的自我革命史。公安队伍是纪律部队，自我革命必须更加深入彻底，执行号令必须更加纪律严明。公安院校担负着培养锻造“四个铁一般”公安铁军的重要使命，也更应成为最讲党性、最讲忠诚、最守纪律的院校。踏上新征程，公安院校必须认真落实党的二十大对政法队伍纪律作风提出的新要求，结合信息化时代人民群众对人民警察纪律作风监督意识日益增强、纪律作风标准要求日益提升的现实情况，以更高的标准更严的规范更加主动地养成纪律严明的作风。
(一)始终坚持严的总基调
要全面贯彻党的二十大“以伟大自我革命引领伟大社会革命”的重要部署，认真落实公安部党委“着力推进公安队伍自我革命，永葆公安队伍生机活力”的工作要求，毫不动摇地坚持全面从严管党治警治校方针，将严的总基调贯穿学校办学治校、教育教学、管理服务全方位全过程。要坚决反对“四风”特别是形式主义、官僚主义，锲而不舍抓好中央八项规定及其实施细则、公安部党委“六项规定”精神落实，严守政治纪律和政治规矩，切实筑牢拒腐防变的思想防线和制度防线。要建立具有普遍特征和院校特点的廉政风险环节、风险岗位台账，认真督促各项监督和管理措施落到实处。要进一步完善公安院校纪检监察工作机制，科学定位、建强队伍、提高能力，更好地净化警营生态、校园生态。
(二)严格执行警务化管理
要严格落实公安院校警务化管理相关规定，加强纪律作风养成教育，维护规范严谨严格的学校秩序。要围绕青年特殊成长阶段的思想特征、心理特征、行为特征，优化教育模式、丰富管理手段，构建更加科学完善的警务化管理体系。要不断完善警务化管理执行、考核及结果运用机制，以制度化、规范化手段把警察职业精神渗透到学生学习、生活、训练的方方面面，使青年学生切实做到令行禁止、英勇顽强、团结协作、无私奉献。特别是，要严格落实师生共管机制，一体实行师生警务化管理措施，将警务化管理与公安院校队伍建设、作风建设紧密结合起来，不断提升人民警察教师“双重身份”意识。
(三)营造遵规守纪的校风
要充分发挥清朗校园风气的沁润作用，不断加强和巩固师德师风建设，持续有力开展校园“微腐败”问题预防和整治工作引导广大教职工以身作则，率先垂范，自觉做“纪律严明”的表率。要牢固树立“以学生为主体”“为学生服务”的工作导向，坚决克服官僚主义、脱离群众、高高在上的倾向，身体力行地为学生守纪意识、服务意识和奉献意识的形成提供示范，在源头上对特权思想、特权意识进行“过滤”“消杀”，确保学生走上工作岗位后能够严格自律，廉洁从警，茁壮成长，健康发展，奉
献有为，建功立业。G | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 论陪审制度的完善——以人民陪审员陪而不审为视角
林亮景
(广东省科技干部学院人文学院，广东珠海 519090)\*
摘 要：在立法的推动下，人民陪审员制度重新焕发活力，对维护司法公正、促进司法公开、推进司法民主的作用日益增强。但是，人民陪审员陪而不审并未根本解决，开庭审理前不准备、开庭审理中不发问、审后评议中不评议等现象仍然存在。应通过加大宣传力度、强化教育培训、完善管理制度等手段，完善我国陪审制度，让人民陪审员有机会陪审、有能力陪审，最后不得不审。
关键词：人民陪审员；陪而不审；完善
doi：10.3969/j.issn. 1000-5757.2009.04.043
中图分类号：D926 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1000-5757(2009)04-043-03
一、《决定》颁布施行后陪审制度的实践
2004年8月28日第十届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第十一次会议通过了《关于完善人民陪审员制度的决定》(以下简称《决定》)，《决定》自2005年5月1日起施行。三年来，全国共选任具有广泛代表性的人民陪审员55681 人。从2005年5月至2007年6月，人民陪审员参与审理案件644723件，人均审理案件13.82件，占普通程序案件总数的20.09%。截至2007年4月，广东省现有的1564名人民陪审员，近两年来共参与审判案件近十万件，其中刑事案件占一半以上。2在人民陪审员陪审的案件中，呈现“三多三少"特征：(1)案件类型上，刑事案件和民事案件多，行政案件少；(2)案件级别上，中级人民法院、基层人民法院管辖的案件多，高级人民法院、最高人民法院管辖的案件少；(3)启动陪审方式上，法院主动决定多、当事人主动申请少。
《决定》的颁布施行，让人民陪审员制度重新焕发活力。人民陪审员队伍迅速扩大，人民陪审员参审比率、参审案件数量大幅提高，人民陪审员制度对维护司法公正、促进司法公开、推进司法民主的作用正日益增强，有效地解决了《决定》实施前存在的人民陪审员职权不明、只拿荣誉不审案等问题，但是关系到陪审制度存废之争的关键问题仍未得到很好解决。这就是最高人民法院原院长肖扬大法官所说的，“目前我国人民陪审员制度存在的主要问题是人民陪审员陪而不审。”
二、人民陪审员陪而不审的内涵解读
人民陪伸员陪而不审，是指人民陪审员在参与案件审理过程中，未履行法律赋予合议庭组成人员审案时必须履行的程序上义务，或者虽履行了程序上义务但实质上却仅
起着陪衬作用、与人民陪审员制度设立的目的背道而驰的行为。根据陪而不审出现的阶段不同，可把人民陪审员陪而不审分为开庭准备前的陪而不审、开庭审理中的陪而不审和审后评议中的陪而不审。
(一)开庭审理前：人民陪审员不准备
根据《决定》第14条和有关规定，如《广东省人民陪审员管理实施细则》第49条、第50条，法院是按照“总体随机抽取，个案特别调度”原则抽取人民陪审员参审的。人民陪审员一旦被抽取与法官组成合议庭，从签收《合议庭组成人员通知书》起，该陪审员就是合议庭组成人员，就应履行审判人员职责。根据民事诉讼法等规定，在开庭审判前的准备阶段，审判人员应查阅案卷，需了解双方当事人争议的焦点和应当适用的有关法律以及专业知识，同时还应与法官共同拟定案件审判提纲。
司法实践中多数人民陪审员刚开始参审时，陪审积极性高，都能做好案件开庭前的准备工作，行使权利、履行义务。然而，随着陪审案件数量的增加、陪审频率的加大、对陪审制度作用的质疑以及陪审人员兼职属性等因素，人民陪审员开庭前准备工作的落实情况，并不乐观。有调查显示，多数人民陪审员在临近开庭时才被通知陪审，到了法庭，对陪审的案件一点不知情，每次开庭就跟走过场一样，自己完全成了摆设。这种没有开庭准备环节、一到法院就开庭的陪审实践，这种开庭审理前人民陪审员不作任何准备的情形，必然会导致人民陪审员陪而不审的后果。
(二)开庭审理中：人民陪审员不发问
人民陪审员参加合议庭审理案件，依法对事实认定、法律适用独立行使表决权。在开庭审理时，人民陪审员除不能担当审判长外，与审判员享有同等的权利。不过，人民陪
\*收稿日期：2008-11-10
作者简介：林亮景(1980一)，男，江西崇仁人，金湾区人民法院人民陪审员，研究方向：司法制度、经济法。
审员毕竟不是法律专业人士，不像法官那样具备较高的法律知识，审判视角、价值观、审案时关注的重点与法官均不太相同，因此要查明案件事实，仅有法官发问是不够的，人民陪审员必须发问。“人民陪审员不是法官的\*军师’，人民陪审员一词前有\*人民'两个字代表的是一般公众的声音，在法庭上‘说话'，是他们的权利。”.而且，开庭审理环节是人民陪审员抛头露面的最好时机，在庭审中发言提问，是最能体现人民陪审员有效行使法律赋予其权力的重要标志，也是实现司法公正的最佳表现形式。因此，与其说人民陪审员在庭审发问是权利，不如说是人民陪审员应尽的义务。
然而，由于开庭前未作准备或准备不充分，人民陪审员在庭审中不发言、不提问是常态，主动发问就少之又少。多数人民陪审员就像英美陪审团成员一样，只是静坐，始终一言不发，整个庭审活动完全由审判员一人主持进行，人民陪审员形同陪衬。人民陪审员听的多、问的少，只听审判长一人唱完整出戏。人民陪审员成了名副其实的“三陪”(陪听、陪看、陪坐)。可是有调查显示，人民陪审员审理案件的最大难点是“分析证据、认定事实”5，而解决此难点的最佳环节却在开庭审理环节，最有效的办法就是认真听审及有的放矢地发问。倘若人民陪审员在案件开庭时总是一言不发、一问不提、只听不问，在最能体现人民陪审员有效行使法律赋予权力的时刻保持沉默，或者不能围绕着案件事实及争议焦点发言提问，那么期待--个连事实都未查清的人民陪审员能很好地适用法律，似乎不太现实。这种人民陪审员开庭审理时不发问的陪而不审，将难以发挥我国人民陪审员制度促进司法公正的作用。人民陪审员制度将形同虚设，成为装潢司法门面的摆设。
(三)审后评议中：人民陪审员不评议
案件评议是案件审理的最重要环节之一。根据《广东省人民陪审员管理实施细则》第39条规定，参加案件评议，充分发表意见或保留意见，是人民陪审员的权利。此规定含有二层意思：一是人民陪审员参加案件评议是法定义务，必须履行；二是发表意见是人民陪审员的权利，行使与否，由人民陪审员说了算。
据调查显示，多数人民陪审员都有评议案件的经历，合议时人民陪审员发表意见较多，而且人民陪审员与法官发生分歧意见的比例并不低。可见，人民陪审员在中国司法领域中存在一定的话语权。但是，不容忽视的问题是，除少数刑事案件当场评议外，多数案件的评议安排在开庭审理之后，具体评议时间由审判长另行通知。通知的随时性与陪审员的兼职性会产生冲突，冲突的后果是人民陪审员不参加评议。法院只能另换人民陪审员或法宫，重新组建合议庭。人民陪审员中途退出，自然就丧失了其应有的作用，当然不排除法院在人民陪审员缺席的情况下进行判决，而后将案件结果告知人民陪审员，让人民陪审员在合议笔录上签字。事实上，即便人民陪审员来参加评议，由于案件评议距开庭审理间隔时间过长，加上开庭审理阶段的陪而不审，人民陪审员对案件的基本情况并不是特别清楚，其在评议中发挥的作用可想而知。人民陪审员审后不评议，以及
由此形成的陪面不审，将彻底摧毁人民陪审员制度有利于促进司法公正、维护社会正义的最后一道防线。
三、以解决陪而不审为切入点，完善我国人民陪审员制度
人民陪审员参审的案件，必须是适用普通程序审理的案件，人民陪审员不能参审适用简易程序审理的案件。适用普通程序，意味着必须采用合议制。法官合议制度在司法实践中存在的“拉郎配”、“形合实独”“合而不议"等疑症，自然就移植到出人民陪审员和法官组成的合议庭上。纵观案件审理的庭前准备、开庭审理、审后评议三个阶段，人民陪审员只要在某个阶段出现“三不”作为(不准备、不发问、不评议)，都将无法充分发挥人民陪审员制度对维护司法公正、促进司法公开、推进司法民主的作用。要从根本上解决人民陪审员陪而不审，应从以下方面完善人民陪审员制度：
(一)加大宣传力度，提高社会对陪审制度的认识，让人民陪审员有机会陪审
要解决人民陪审员陪而不审，首先得让人民陪审员有案可陪，有机会参市。如果人民陪审员只拿名誉，却没有机会参加到合议庭审理案件，这将是人民陪审员制度最大的失败。诚然《决定》的公布与施行，让人民陪审员制度焕发了前所未有的活力。人民陪审员参审的比率提高了，参审案件的数量增加了。这些进步，法院功不可没。遗憾的是，很少有当事人主动申请人民陪审员参审案件。这与当事人对陪审制度不了解有关。多数当事人不了解人民陪审员，不知道自己享有申请人民陪审员参加审理案件的权利，更不用说理解陪审制度的价值和作用。
因此，除了各级法院应继续主动在案件中适用陪审外，还需加大宣传力度，提高全社会对陪审制度的认识，鼓励当事人主动申请人民陪审员陪审案件。要通过宣传，增强人民群众对陪审制度和陪审员工作的了解和认知，使广大人民群众认识到陪审制度是一项重要的审判制度。建议法院尤其是中级人民法院和高级人民法院，在一些大案要案等典型案件中主动选择人民陪审员参与审理，通过公开审判、公开宣判、以及在新闻媒体宣传人民陪审员参审案件的效果等方式，多渠道、多途径宣传陪审制度，从而提高当事人主动申请人民陪审员参加案件审理的主动性，切实发挥人民陪审员的监督作用。
(二)强化教育培训，提高陪审员履行职责的能力，让人民陪审员有能力陪审
人民陪审员陪而不审的出现，与人民陪审员不知道如何审、不具备审判能力有关。虽然多数人民陪审员具有大专学历层次以上，但是具有法律专业背景的人民陪审员不多。即使是具有法律专业背景的人民陪审员，也未必就知道如何审案判案。毕竟审判工作是专业化程度非常高的工作。法官在认定事实、适应法律上都会遇到难题，更不用说人民陪审员了。因此，要解决人民陪审员陪而不审，有必要提高人民陪审员履行职责的能力，让他们有能力陪审。
要提高人民陪审员陪审能力，仅有人民陪审员岗前培训是远远不够的，还应加强教育培训力度。一方面，结合人
民陪审员的特点，有针对性地开展审判业务培训工作，通过专题讲授、观摩庭审、研讨和交流、订阅报刊杂志等方式，组织人民陪审员重点学习审判制度、审判纪律、职业操守、司法札仪等，通过学习，领会和掌握相关的法律理论和审判技能，提高其运用法律的思维方式分析案件的能力，增强人民陪审员依法履行职务的能力；另一方面，要增强人民陪审员高度的责任感和主人翁意识，激励其积极参与审判，监督司法公正。此外，有条件的高院可组建人民陪审员协会，让人民陪审员这些编外的法官们有个属于他们自己的组织，一方面使人民陪审员在身份上有归属感，有利于更好地参与审判活动；另一方面，人民陪审员协会在高院的指导下定期开展小范围的经验交流，通过交流，人民陪审员陪审能力得以提高，从而最大程度地减少因人民陪审员不知道审案、不会审案带来的陪而不审情况的发生。
(三)完善人民陪审员管理制度，弥补管理上漏洞，使人民陪审员不得不审
人民陪审员被随机抽取参加合议庭审理案件后，在审判各阶段均可能出现陪而不审。陪而不审的发生，除了归咎于人民陪审员自身外，与我国人民陪审员管理制度不完善有关。关于人民陪审员管理制度，除了有全国人大常委会颁布的《关于完善人民陪审员制度的决定》、最高人民法院与司法部联合制定的《最高人民法院、司法部关于人民陪审员选任、培训、考核工作的实施意见》以及最高人民法院颁布的《最高人民法院关于人民陪审员管理办法》(试行)外，各省高院分别都制定了实施细则，如广东省高院制定了《广东省人民陪审员管理实施细则》，许多基层法院也
分别制定了人民陪审员管理办法。浏览这些条文规定，可以几乎没有条文涉及到人民陪审员陪而不审，更没有硬性规定人民陪审员因陪而不审而需要承担什么样的法律责任厂。
因此，法院应完善人民陪审员管理制度，如应细化有关人民陪审员管理制度中的退出规定，硬性规定几次无正当理由拒不参审，法院则可提请人大常委会免除其人民陪审员职务或建议人民陪审员主动申请；如规定人民陪审员必须在开庭前阅卷，审后必须参加案件评议，如果庭前不准备、审后不合议，可给予人民陪审员黄牌警告，一年累计一定数量的黄牌，法院相应地给予一定的惩罚；又如应建立和完善与人民陪审员所在单位的沟通机制，及时将人民陪审员在法院的陪审情况书面通知陪审员所在单位等等。
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许跃芝.人民陪审员制度进入新的发展时期\[N\].经济日报，2007-10-7(12).
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广东省高级人民法院.广东省人民陪审员工作现状、存在的问题及深化改革的意见\[EB/OL\].(2000-05-28)\[2008-09-03\]. http：//www. gdcourts. gov.
cn/dyzd/deyj/t20040326
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3839.htm，
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朱稳贵.关于兰州市基层人民法院实施人民陪审员制度的调查报告\[D\].兰州：兰州大学，2005.
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文华.让陪审员“说”起来\[N\].华西都市报，2005-4-21(3).
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刘晴辉.对人民陪审制运行过程的考察\[J\].北大法律评论，2007，(8)：21.
On the Jury System Perfecting from the View of Presenting without Hearing
上N Liang-jing
(School of Humanities， Guangdong Institute of Science and Technology， Zhuhai Guangdong 519090， China)
Abstract：Under the promotion of legislation， peoples assessor system is fresh with vigour again， which play a more and more impor-tant role in defending judicial fairess， openness and democracy. However， the problems of peoples asessore pregenting without hearing etil! have nost been solved， and the phenomena such as not preparing in the front， not asking questiong in court， not discuesing after court still exist. The means such as strengthening propagating and traing should be adopted to perfect our countrya jury system to make the ases-sor serve on the jury.
Key words：peoples assessor； presenting without hearing； perfect
(责任编辑：姚
冰
责任校对：张
楠 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **导师制在本科临床病理专业人才培养中的探索和实践**
**陈丽红，张文敏，黄爱民**
**(福建医科大学基础医学院病理学系，福建福州350108)**
**摘要：阐述导师制在本科临床病理学专业人才培养中的意义、实施过程和成效。通过本科生导师制的培养模式，实施因材施教，帮助学生树立正确的人生观、价值观，培养具有创新能力的应用型病理学专业人才。**
**关键词：临床病理学；人才培养；导师制**
**中图分类号：R36-4 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1009-4784(2015)04-0040-04**
**病理学(Pathology)是一门重要的医学基础主干学科，是基础医学和临床医学之间的桥梁学科，病理诊断是临床诊断的“金标准”。由于病理学科与临床医学专业存在差异，临床医学专业的毕业生很难在短期内胜任病理科的日常工作，使得各级医院临床病理科专业人才严重短缺13J。因此，培养高素质临床病理专业人才十分必要。我校于2007年开始招收临床病理专业的本科生，成为全国为数不多的招收病理学专业学生的医学院校之一。为进一步加强本科教育和专业建设，促进学生个性发展和提高人才培养质量，结合本学科实际，病理学系于2010年4月起开始实施临床病理学专业本科生导师制，目前已完成3届临床病理专业学生的培养。现就导师制在本科临床病理专业人才培养中的探索与实践谈几点体会。**
**一、本科生导师制的建立和意义**
**导师制是一种在本科阶段运行的由专业教师对所分管的学生进行学习辅导、思想跟踪和就业指导的制度。导师制在教学方式上强调个别指导，在教学内容上强调德智并重，在学习环境上强调和谐、宽松和自由的氛围。高校长期以来实行研究生导师制，而本科生的管理多由辅导员负责，教师日常工作重点在于授课和科研工作。随着高校的不**
**断扩招，高等教育逐步由精英教育转向大众化教育，如何适应这一教育改革背景，培养高素质、具有创新能力人才是高校面临的问题和挑战，在此背景下许多高校推出了导师制.61。这一制度的实施有利于加强“教书”的针对性和“育人”的实效性\[4。本科生导师制的宗旨是帮助学生树立正确的世界观、人生观和价值观，督导学生学业，确保学生个性化发展。**
**二、导师制在本科临床病理专业人才培养中的实施过程**
**导师制实施细则是本科临床病理专业人才培养质量的保障，其主要包括导师的条件和职责，对学生的要求，指导关系的确认和解除程序，并制定各种阶段性考核表格(包括导师制活动记录表、导师与学生座谈记录表)，制定每一阶段的学习与综合素质发展计划，定期汇报导师制工作总结。本科导师制在临床病理专业学生中的实施分为两个阶段，第一阶段是理论课学习阶段，第二阶段是临床专业课实习阶段。**
**(一)理论课学习阶段导师制的具体实施**
**病理学系动员全系教师在2007—2009级临床病理专业学生中开展五年全程导师制管理。其中1~4年为理论课学习阶段，第5年为实习阶段。导**
**收稿日期：2015-08-07**
**作者简介：陈丽红(1974一)，女，副教授，医学博士。研究方向：肝移植与肝癌病理。**
**通讯作者：黄爱民**
**师分为学业导师组和专业导师组，学业导师组负责对临床病理专业学生第1~2年基础课学习阶段的指导，专业导师组负责对临床病理专业学生第3~5年专业课学习阶段的指导，每位导师以组为单位进行指导工作，其中每组10名学生，并根据不同年级的学生制定不同的指导计划。**
**1.早期接触专业，帮助规划和引导学生的专业发展前景。许多刚人学的学生对病理学专业知之甚少，针对这种情况，病理学系安排导师举办“临床病理专业相关问题答疑会”，对学生提出的问题进行详细解答；另外，病理学系还聘请系部的资深老教授举办了“教授助你成才”系列活动之“病理之路”专业发展前景讲座，聘请美国、香港、台湾等地的病理医生为已接触病理学专业的学生就今后的专业发展进行专题讲座，使其了解国内外病理医生的培训过程、日常工作以及各自的研究特色，通过以上形式的讲座提高同学对专业的认知，了解临床病理在当今医学中的地位和重要性。**
**2.早期接触临床，为学生组织各种病理培训及学习活动。为了学生更好地熟悉病理学专业的相关工作及知识，带领学生参观附属医院病理科，了解病理科的大体布局、丁作流程、不同人员的工作分工等相关情况，并特意组织各年级学生参加各种病理学习班，如淋巴瘤病理诊断新进展学习班、乳腺病理学习班、软组织病理学习班等等，让学生领略如陈国璋教授等国内外著名病理大家的风采，并深人学习相关的病理学知识。通过以上学习班和学习活动，让学生提早接触病理的专业诊断知识。**
**3.关注学生思想动态，及时进行专业辅导。为了了解学生的思想状况，导师组老师定期以座谈会的形式了解学生的学习和生活情况，部分小组学生定期以邮件形式向导师进行思想汇报，学业导师根据学生思想变化进行辅导；专业导师根据学生遇到的学科难点进行针对性辅导，详细了解学生的见习情况，对学生遇到的见习问题进行解答，并及时记录相关活动情况，及时反馈、梳理和解决学生的阶段性问题。**
**4.早期接触科研，培养学生创新意识和能力。高校具有较好的科研平台和众多的学术骨干。大部分导师组成员都有各自研究方向的科研课题，导师可以从中延伸出一个新的科研方向，结合学生实际，指导学生上网搜索和阅读相关科研资料，从中**
**学习如何撰写科研标书，引导临床病理专业学生申报大学生创新性课题。导师可依托病理学与病理生理学博硕士学位授权点以及财政部中央与地方共建高校优势特色实验室的平台，指导学生开展大学生创新性实验研究工作。在实验过程中让学生掌握一些常用的实验方法和实验数据分析统计方法，培养学生的科研态度、科研思路、科研能力及创新精神，激发学生的科研热情。我校2007—2009 级临床病理专业学生在导师的指导下合计申报大学生创新课题15项。**
**(二)专业实习阶段导师制的实施情况**
**临床病理专业实习阶段侧重于实践操作，该阶段导师负责制度有别于理论课学习阶段，采取一对一的导师负责制，从高年资医师中遴选导师进行带教。**
**1.病理诊断和病理技术带教。带教内容包括指导大体标本的描述、取材，指导学生阅片、图像集、书写病理报告，并由导师审阅批改学生的诊断报告，有针对性地发现和纠正学生的错误。组织切片、细胞涂片的制备、简单的特殊染色和免疫组织化学操作由技术组负责指导。通过带教使学生熟悉从标本接收、大体观察、取材、蜡块制作、切片、染色到切片观察、提出初步诊断的整个过程，培养学生标本检查与切片观察相结合，病理技术与临床诊断结合，将理论知识与病理实践中遇到的问题有机联系起来，为将来临床病理诊断工作打下坚实的基础。**
**2.定期开展病理读片会活动。每周由导师分系统挑选出具有代表性的典型教学切片，利用多头显微镜和显微数码互动系统进行带教，由学生首先进行切片的描述，然后表述诊断思路，做出初步诊断，最后由导师针对学生的问题凝练每个病例的诊断思路和诊断要点集中讲解。通过教师的指导答疑以及不断实践积累，提高学生理论水平和临床病理诊断的能力。**
**3.定期召开专题讲座和读书报告会。导师组成员每月按照系统分别进行专题讲座，如肝脏病理专题讲座主要讲述正常肝脏的解剖和组织学、肝脏常见的病理变化、不同原因肝炎的病变特点、慢性肝炎的分级和分期、原发性肝癌的大体和镜下特点、肝癌病理分期、肝癌的标准化报告模式等。通过全面系统且深人浅出的讲解，让学生系统地了解**
**肝病的病理诊断要点和肝病病理报告的规范化书写。为了加深学生对某些疾病发病机制、病理变化、治疗和转归的认识，导师通过指导学生查阅相关中英文文献、制作PPT、科内汇报锻炼学生主动学习的良好习惯，培养学生搜索、阅读文献的方法和技巧。**
**4.培养学生的临床科研意识。临床病理导师在培养学生做好病理基础性工作的同时应注重培养学生的科研意识。在临床带教过程中，导师不仅要引导学生关注病理诊断，还要追溯其发病的原因、机制、可能的治疗方案等，使其将所学的知识融会贯通。在日常的学习工作中，培养学生发现问题的能力，鼓励他们查阅文献资料、提出自己的想法，形成科研思路，做出可行的方案，在导师指导下开展相关研究。在病理诊断过程中，对一些特殊病例、少见病例，鼓励学生积极撰写个案报道，指导学生总结手头的病例资料撰写综述和科研文章。**
**三、导师制在本科临床病理专业人才培养中的成效**
**2007-2009级3届临床病理专业学生在全程本科生导师制的培养模式下，促进了“以教师为中心”向“以学生为中心”转变，增进了教师与学生的沟通与了解，促进了学生的学习积极性和科学性，在提高学生素质的同时也提高了教师的专业素养。**
**(一)思想方面**
**在本科生导师制下，通过导师对学生进行思想引导、生活指导、心理疏导和专业辅导，帮助大学本科生转变了思维方式，树立了正确的世界观、人生观和价值观，在大学期间把握好人生定位，并指导学生做好职业生涯规划，为顺利走上工作岗位或继续深造奠定坚实的基础。学生也积极要求上进，39人加人中国共产党，其中1人次获校“优秀共产党员”称号。**
**(二)学业方面**
**实施因材施教，帮助学生转变学习方式，增强了教师与学生之间的交流与沟通，营造了良好的学习风气，圆满完成大学学习任务；通过多层面引导学生的专业认知以及早期接触临床，增强了学生对病理学科专业特点的认知，确立了病理的专业思想，促进了学生实践能力、创新能力的培养，提高了学生的学习积极性和综合素质。在学习阶段学生**
**获得了多种嘉奖，其中1人次获国家奖学金、1人次获省级“优秀学生干部”称号。3届病理专业学生的毕业考试通过率为100%，学士学位授予率为98.3%。**
**(三)科研方面**
**2007-2009级3届临床病理专业学生有11项大学生创新性实验计划项目获得立项，其中国家级计划项目1项，省级项目5项，约有2/3学生参加大学生创新性实验计划项目，通过参加大学生创新性实验计划，使学生基本掌握了科研标书的撰写方法，了解一些常用的实验方法和实验数据分析统计方法，培养了学生的科研思维和科研热情。学生的创新性实验项目均顺利完成结题和验收工作，并通过分析、统计科研课题资料和分析总结临床病理资料共计发表文章10 余篇，其中SCI 源 1 篇，CSCD源期刊5篇。**
**(四)就业方面**
**2007-2009级3届共培养临床病理学专业本科生共计166人，他们较为全面地掌握了基础医学和临床医学的理论知识，掌握了常见病、多发病的临床诊断和治疗，具备了较强的临床及病理实践技能，就业率达到100%，其中保送和考取研究生31人，考取研究生以及在省级、市级医院病理科就业的毕业生达到75%。毕业生良好的职业素养、主动协作的工作精神、较强的临床思维能力和临床病理实践能力，得到用人单位高度好评，有效缓解了福建省病理学科专业人才短缺的现状，改善了病理学专业人才的学历结构，为我省病理学科的队伍建设和可持续发展提供了人才和智力支撑。**
**四、导师制在本科临床病理专业人才培养中的不足及改进措施**
**导师制在本科病理专业人才培养的实施过程也出现一些不足和问题亟待解决。一是导师的职责不明确。由于导师制在我国仍处于起步阶段，导师制的职责范围不具体和不明确，导师需要在学生的学业、思想动态甚至生活等方面进行指导，造成导师的工作任务、职责和目标与辅导员的职责存在交叉，导师难以把握指导尺度，无法给予学生更切实有效的指导。改进措施是需要制定周密和详尽的导师制实施细则，规定导师职责、培养计划、培养目标、考核办法和奖惩条例。二是导师和学生的考**
**核内容不完善。导师和学生的考核缺乏具体细化、量化的工作手册，无法根据每个时间节点及时和准确地记录，在具体实施过程中难以监督各个环节的完成情况，无法保证导师制切实落到实处。因此，应制定量化的导师工作手册和学生的学习手册，确定每个学期各个时间节点的工作实施情况和考核内容，如具体量化每学期举办或参加会议或讲座次数，导师和学生阶段性的面谈次数以及具体参与科研获活动的名称和开展的科研内容等。三是导师的指导工作缺乏奖惩措施。激励机制的缺乏使导师工作的积极性和责任感不强。因此，应在系部内部开展阶段性的导师制工作汇报体制和在学院开展年度导师工作考核评估，并将导师的年度考核评估的结果和教师的年度教学工作考核评优、职称晋升及聘任等挂钩。四是无法对学生反馈的问题作出及时回复和互动。目前的微信、飞信、QQ等通信手段能够不受时间和地点的限制进行互动沟通，可**
**以通过闲暇时间来提高指导效率，及时解决不同学生不同阶段面临的问题。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]陈** **莉，周家名，王桂兰，等.病理专业实用型人才培养的探索\[J\].中华医学教育探索杂志，2013(4)：398-400.**
**\[2\]孙丽梅，邱雪杉，王恩华，等.临床医学专业病理学方向人才培养模式的研究与实践\[J\].中华医学教育杂志，2013(4)：522-524.**
**\[3\]夏春燕.有关科学培养临床外科病理专业人才的几点设想\[J\].中国医学创新，2009(15)：139-140.**
**L4\]夏** **艳.高校导师制的运行和管理模式研究\[J\].教育与职业，2014(33)：170-172.**
**L5左** **军.木科生实行全员导师制的实施与成效\[J\].中国大学教育，2009(7)：65-66.**
**\[6\]吕秋丰，靳艳巧，林起浪.高校本科生实行导师制的探讨\[J\].教育探索，2010(1)：88-89.**
**中央党校周熙明教授来校作专题讲座并与教师代表座谈**
**11月9日，中共中央党校周熙明教授应邀在我校上街校区医大会堂作《核心价值观的培养与文化思维》专题报告。报告会由校党委副书记朱世泽主持。校领导张天明、陈元仲、朱世泽、吴小南、黄爱民及全校师生代表共600多人参加了报告会。**
**周教授以“核心价值观的培育与文化思维”为题，以“价值信仰问题是近代中国的头号问题”为切入点，特别强调在积极培育和践行社会主义核心价值观过程中要注意以下几个问题：一是找准核心价值观的性质定位和功能定位；二是深刻认识核心价值观与中国文化之间不可分离的血肉联系；三是深刻认识核心价值观与本民族历史传统不可分离的血肉联系；四是深刻认识核心价值观与百姓生活的血肉联系；五是深刻认识核心价值观与政策、制度之间的密切关系。周教授认为，我们应当进行一场特殊的文化启蒙，恢复社会的文化视野，培育一种有机的文化思维。周教授从文化思维的角度思考社会主义核心价值问题，针对当前践行社会主义核心价值观过程中大家普遍关心的重点、难点、热点问题作出了精辟的解答，让与会师生享受了一场精彩的文化盛宴。**
**在校期间，周教授还围绕“运用哲学和中国文化开展思想政治教育工作”这一话题与我校思想政治教师和辅导员代表进行座谈交流。周教授结合个人研究成果分享了运用哲学和中国文化开展医学生思想政治教育的理念、思路、抓手和方法，悉心解答了大家有关如何增强思想政治理论课“亲和力”、“吸引力”、“感染力”，处理教学过程中“生动”和“深刻”等具体问题和困惑，勉励大家要立足岗位，不断学习，注重研究，立志做医学生成长成才的引路人和知心人，努力成为医学生思想政治教育的行家里手。参会老师一致表示深受启发，受益匪浅，对延展工作视野，开阔工作思路，提升工作能力有很大帮助。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **个体化进程中的成年：当代青年对成年标志的选择及认知**
**◎王小璐**
**改革开放后出生的一批孩子已经成长为二三十岁的青年。这一代人被视为“只为自己着想”的“不愿长大的一代”，“成年”成为一个需要关注的问题。文章对南京城市在职青年的成年标志认同及认知进行了考察。研究发现，处于中国个体化进程中的当代中国青年对成年标志的总体认同度较高，具有多元化的成年标志认同。认同度最高的几项标志毫无例外均聚焦于个体自身，意味着个体意识正在崛起，同时其对个人独立的诉求与对家庭责任的意识紧密联系在一起。从认同的内在逻辑结构出发，成年标志可被区分为主观认知型与客观事实型。由于社会文化规范与个体生命历程的交互作用，主观成年认知与客观过渡事实之间的关系被弱化，以往生理、心理、社会合而为一的过渡模式不复存在，成年逐渐模糊成一个不易达致的目标，从而也延缓了其成年身份的获得。中国当代青年的成年之旅出现了多维度、多进程的复杂样态，折射出社会结构性因素对个体成年的规定和限制，也隐含着个体对相关社会规范和价值的认知及反馈。**
**摘自《广西民族大学学报》2014(6)：60-66**
**青年学学科建设的实践探索与思考**
**◎赵 文**
**青年学学科体系的构建应当围绕青年学元理论研究、青年学分支学科建设(青年学中层理论构建)和青年学的应用型研究三个层次展开。其中突破和建设的重点应为青年学中层理论的构建、青年学分支学科以及青年学学科群的建立。在青年学学科建设中，要大力推**
**动“青”字号科研工作的开展，始终将“青”字号科研工作作为科研工作的重点。在人才培养上，要注意把“青”字号科研、青年学学科项目建设与人才队伍建设有机结合起来。与此同时，要大力加强青年学学科基地和青少年智库的建设，并努力为青年学学科基地的建设营造浓郁的学术环境与氛围，以此形成推动青年学学科建设与发展的合力。**
**摘自《青年学报》2014(4)：66-68**
**世代政治学视角下国民党与台湾新世代互动模式变迁研究**
◎朱 峰 刘玉军 马立平
**世代政治理论认为，社会变迁所形成的“成长环境、社会经验、意识形态、生活价值、政策诉求”等世代差异对新时代的政治取向、政党认同和投票行为具有直接影响。而新世代是否愿意参与政治体制内的各种政治活动，其政治价值观、政治效能感、政治信任度如何对于政治系统的存续及发展都具有重要作用。20世纪70年代以来，作为台湾主要政党的中国国民党面对政治社会转型的时代潮流以及来自民进党选战的压力，不迷推动政党组织形态与运作机制革新，尝试转变其原有政治动员模式与社会联系方式，其与新世代互动的思维方式与行动逻辑亦发生了深刻变化。国民党与新世代互动模式的变革，在客观上对于革新党内的风气起到了一定的推动作用，但是在青年政治参与热情普遍不高的国际背景下，台湾新世代仍然存在政治冷漠问题，折射出台湾地区民主体制建设的任重道远。同时，国民党与台湾新世代互动模式变迁亦产生了一定的两岸关系效应。**
**摘自《青年探索》2014(6)：29-34** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **目睹这一辉煌瞬间的3000多名场区建设者，面对亲手建起的发射塔，回想一路走来的艰辛，这些面对死亡也不曾退缩半步的勇士们，热泪盈眶。他们有的含泪亲吻发射塔架，有的充满憧憬遥指星空，有的捧起一把泥土、郑重装进事先缝好的小布袋中…**
**西昌航天人的忠诚，最直接的体现就是对祖国航天事业的强烈使命感和责任感，并将之转化为对本职岗位的热爱和坚守。**
**林国建，地面站吊装指挥员，通过成百上千次的练习，练就了使用 13米航吊将一根筷子准确插入地面啤酒瓶口的绝活，吊装火箭、卫星十几年无差错。**
**二号发谢工位行走机构操作手谢喜辉，能够将97米高、4600吨的活动塔一次停放到位。**
**“金牌司机”李兵良能驾驶18米长、4.5米宽的特种车辆，准确无误一次性通过4.8米宽的桥梁涵洞。**
**加注岗位操作手陈复忠蒙住双眼，能在规定时间内准确开启100多个阀门。**
**如果没有对祖国和事业的忠诚，在王这样艰苦、闭塞的环境中，他们能专心练就这一手手绝活吗?**
**虽然每天他们双脚实实在在地踏在山沟的小路上，但他们的精神支点却与中国卫星运行轨道一样高在九天之上。中国的航天器打得有多高，西昌航天精神就有多高!**
**奉献西昌航天精神的“灵魂"**
**中心虽地处大山深处，工作生活条件十分艰苦，可它就是“人气旺”。许多人放弃繁华的都市生活自愿来到这里；有的因工作变动调到北京、上海等大都市，可若干年过去了仍怀念着这里的一草一木。**
**是什么力量让西昌航天人产生这样强大的凝聚力，几十年如一日扎根深山，矢志航天呢?中心孙保卫书记有一个凝练的概括：一颗颗不甘沉寂的心。**
**中心地面站副站长俞少行从事航天事业以来，给自己定下了“睡得比谁**
**都要晚、起得比谁都要早、做得比谁都要多”的奋斗目标，被年轻科技干部视为“偶像”。**
**某次任务发射前，加注软件突发故障，加注被迫中止。紧急关头，俞少行沉着冷静地指挥岗位人员将近400吨燃料安全输送至火箭贮箱，创造了自动改手动控制加注的航天奇迹，他更用行动证明了“为信念而苦，为追求而苦”是奉献的更高境界。**
**车著明是中心测控数据处理专家，由他主持研制的火箭飞行中各系统工作状态和环境参数的信息快速处理系统，结束了中心没有自己遥测数据事后处理系统的历史。很多公司和单位主动找上门来“挖”他，有的年薪开到了40万，有的以解决家属户口和工作为条件，但他始终不为所动。**
**他说：“每当卫星发射成功后，祖国人民从四面八方打来电话祝贺时，那一刻的成就感、自豪感是用金钱难以换算的。”是啊，只有经受过汗与泪的洗礼，才能感受一份属于中国航天人的骄傲与自豪。**
**1992年6月16日，某次发射任务在加注燃烧剂时设备出现故障，涡轮流量计一只叶片突然脱落，进入放空罐内。为排除隐患，发测站操作手18岁的王京辉、20岁陶勇春主动请缨下罐排障。由于罐内氮气浓度太高，两人先后窒息昏倒，因抢救无效，献出了年轻的生命。随后，下罐救人的谢兆胜也倒在罐内，昏迷七天七夜后被奇迹般地抢救过来。康复后，他又回到这个危险的岗位上一直干到今天。**
**当问起他为何愿意回到这块“危险之地”时，这位“活烈士”说：“再危险的岗位也得有人干啊。想想牺牲的战友，我做的这些又算得了什么呢?”**
**40年风雨航天路，西昌航天英模谱上留下了一个个闪光的名字：姜秋江、吴传竹、姬永成、毛万标、王泽民、李本琪、林国健……在这里，每个人都如同青山和流水一样朴实无华，不求名、不求利，只愿被称作“西昌航天人”。因为，这个名字在大家心中是一个英雄的群体，代表了一种弥足珍贵的精神!D**
**从1996年6月算起，赵合兴担任广元市利州区工农镇亮娅村党支部书记兼村主任已经15个年头了。**
**赵合兴在当村支书之前，在村外一家煤矿从事管理工作。“他是被200多户村民硬请回来的能人。”跟赵合兴搭档多年的村支委副书记张森林说。当时，赵合兴算是村里的富裕户，每个月有千多块钱的收入，而当上这个村官后，他的补贴只有区区的80元。“我就是这个村子的人，乡里乡亲的厚望，我不能辜负。”凭着朴实的想法，赵合兴干到了如今。**
**15年来，在冬日的寒风中、夏日的骄阳下，这位衣着朴素、背着黑色挎包的村支书，穿行在村组、农家之间，不管在山路上，还是农户家，只要碰到谁找他办事，便停下来马上办理，从不推托。由此他得到了一个称号——一4“挎包书记”。**
**小山村有大变化**
**赵合兴初当村主任时，亮埂村不仅电费贵，而且电压很低，功率稍微大点的用电设备几乎无法使用。“晚上开灯，眼前就像蒙着一层纱，人站在眼前也看不清。”1996年8月，赵合兴确定了新官施政的突破口——改电。**
**全村老少都想改，就是拿不出钱。集资缺口实在太大，赵合兴就取出了自家7000多元积蓄，让村民给自己打白条，然后把电线、电杆买回来，带着村民爬坡上坎，牵出了27公里输电线路。上任后的头一个春节前夕，全村人梦寐以求的高压电通了，小山村终于亮堂了。赵合兴由此赢得了全村人的信赖。“不过，赵书记垫付的钱到现在多半没有收回来。村民张桃荣说。**
**通过改电，赵合兴证明了自己，凝聚起了人心。小山村在他的带领下，慢慢地发生着变化。如今，村里家家都盖起了砖瓦楼房，6米宽的水泥路让出村不再困难，多年来的饮水灌水问题彻底解决，千亩良种核桃基地已经建成……**
**“日子是越过越好了哟!”村里年近七旬的老支书邵大奎感叹道。**
**“老百姓信任你，就要尽最大努力去做事情。”面对村里对他的各种赞誉，赵合兴对记者只是蹦出这么一句简单的应答。**
**心里装着群众，群众心里也有你**
**在亮娅村，236户人都记得住一个人的电**
**“山大无柴，沟深无水，地多无粮，石多无用，点煤油灯，吃臭塘水”是亮娅村过去的写照。15年来，村支书赵合兴每天挎着包穿行于乱石之间，在这片贫瘠的大地上书写出一段豪情壮志。**
**“挎包书记””的故事**
**口本刊记者陈庆**
**话，那就是赵合兴的手机号码。这个“办事热线”一打通，赵合兴就会背着黑色挎包，在最快的时间内赶到村民家里，现场处理。**
**不管是在田间地头，还是在农舍路边，赵合兴在哪里，哪里就围着一圈群众，生产经营、经济困难、邻里纠纷、夫妻吵架，大事小事都找他。面对找他的群众，赵合兴从没说过一个“不”字。他的挎包里总是带着笔、本子、公章、表册，不管是灾后恢复重建，还是经济社会发展，每天把需要给群众办的事记下来，办成一件划掉一件，每年一大本，整整15本。**
**其实，赵合兴家里也有本难念的经。**
**“前些年，他的父母、妻子都有病，两个娃娃也在读书，但是他的时间总是花在村民身上，自家的事都顾不上。”村民们说。2007年，赵合兴有点“撑不住了”，打了个辞职报告，准备到外地挣点钱。村民们极力挽留住这个心目中的好书记，并自发地帮助赵合兴处理家事。**
**“这些年，我家的田都是邻居们帮着在种，2008年地震以后，我的房子也是大家帮着盖好的。”赵合兴回忆起往事，感动得嘎咽落泪。他总是记着乡亲们的好，其实，乡亲们也无时无刻不在惦念着他的好啊。**
**“如果让我再选择，我还当村官!"**
**“挎包书记”赵合兴在村里永远都是那么受欢迎。无论他走到哪里，都是男的敬烟，女的倒茶，小孩围在身边叫个不停，倍受大家的尊敬和拥护。**
**“他善于学习，敢于创新，做事情不怕苦累，能够抢抓机遇聚合各方资源，而且带出了一个团结的、战斗力强的村“两委'班子。”这是工农镇党委书记李绍兵对赵合兴的评价。**
**赵合兴坦言，当这个村官虽然劳累辛苦，自己也没捞到啥好处，但是有幸福感。“当官留下清白，做事留下业绩。有乡亲们的肯定，我知足了。**
**如今，赵合兴引领亮娅村种植的1000多亩良种核桃即将产生效益，仅此一项，就将增加村民人均年收入3000元。**
**15年来，赵合兴把青春奉献给了亮娅村的发展，自己却由村子里的富裕户变成了中等户。“赵书记这么多年操心村里的事务，人衰老得更快，他的亲哥哥看起来都比他年轻四五岁。工农镇干部徐芳如是说。**
**然而，赵合兴对这15年的工作无怨无悔：“如果让我再选择，我还是当这个村官!**
**对亮娅村的发展和未来，赵合兴满怀信心，他用自创的一首诗作了形象的描绘：山上山下公路四通八达，沿河两岸楼房美丽如画；产业发展犹如芝麻开花，农家小院连遍光纤电话；清洁村庄蕴藏小康人家，乡风文明到处和谐融洽。D** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 新课程“决战课堂、聚焦教学”的新读本
——《语文课堂教学行为研究及案例》简介
当下的新课程进程中，日常的课堂已然面临着“真实重构”与“真正新建”的任务，在各种教学行为里注入新课堂的内涵——这是每一位教师专业成长面临着的挑战与机遇，谁能因应并付诸日常的实践，谁就站到了新教育的前列，从而在执行新课程的同时实现了教师自己职业角色的“华丽转身”。区培民的《语文课堂教学行为研究及案例》正是基于这一视点而作的新著。
该书作为教育部人文社会科学重点研究基地重大项目“基于课程标准的课堂教学行为研究”的成果，在作者多年的教师课堂教学行为研究的
学术积累基础上，论析了新课程实验以来其课堂“田野研究”的素材及部分结果，呈示了其在新课堂建设指导中的部分经验及工具，体现了“研究者一课堂一教师一情境一理论一行动”六要件在新课程中如何“在场且相遇”；该书以语文学科为例，是一本适用于在当前再度深入观察课堂、再行反审重构教学的教师自学用书和教师进修培训用书、师范教学用书，具有较强的跨学科普适性。
全书主要内容：教学语言和言语如何创设文化语境；讲解行为如何衍展与创生课程资源；演示行为如何重构与生成教学内容；提问行为如何优化学生学力品质；质疑式教学对话行为如何指导学生自主生成；讨论式教学对话行为如何构建新的课堂形态；合作学习如何以教学行为改变学习方式；新课堂教学设计行为的新质和要件等以上各部分内容均以理论节点阐释、实践问题观察、现时案例分析、行为策略呈现、观课评课用表提供的体例方式展开，可读性强，亦便于研修者、督导者操作
使用。
该书的重要看点举隅——从有效教学走向优质教学的观念、行为要件、评价操作系；新课程三维目标的行为化；新课堂教学的设计范式； “对话”作为新教学形态的分类察析；“质疑”教学的新论节点；区别于“教案”的“学案”设计，各类新课堂教学行为的观察和评价用表、各类改善和督导教师课堂行为的参考工具等。另外，钟启泉、夏志芳所作的“序”中提出的推进课堂教学行为研究与改进的三点建议，亦很具参读价值。
《语文课堂教学行为研究及案例》，区培民著，江西教育出版社，2009年5月第1版；32开本，定价36元。 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 微生物基因组 DNA 提取方法的比较与改进
刘晓侠'，林建平2，岑沛霖2
(1.嘉兴学院生物与化学工程学院，浙江嘉兴314001；2.浙江大学生物工程研究所，浙江杭州310027)
摘 要：高质量的微生物基因组DNA是基因工程的前提。目前国内外关于微生物基因组 DNA 提取的方法很多，根据研究对象和目的不同而方法各异。该文就现有方法中应用最为广泛的三种提取微生物基因组DNA 的方法进行了比较，并对它们进行一些改进，获得了针对不同细胞壁成分的微生物相应的简便、快速且高质量基因组DNA 提取方法，并对提取的 DNA 进行 PCR 特异性扩增检测，获得较清晰的谱带\[，为基因克隆表达研究奠定了基础。
关键词：微生物； DNA 提取； PCR 中图分类号：Q933
Comparison and Improvement of Extraction Methods for Genomic DNA
LIU Xiao - xia'， LIN Jian - ping’， CEN Pei-lin²
(1. School of Biology and Chemical Engineering， Jiaxing university， Jiaxing， Zhejiang 3140001；2. Institute of Bioengineering， Zhejiang University， Hangzhou， Zhejiang 310027}
Abstract： High quality genomic DNA from microorganism is the precondition of genetie manipulation. Now many methods for the extraction of genomic DNA are developed according to different research object and intention. Three kinds of methods widely applied are compared and reformed in isolation of genomic DNA from microorganism. And ef-fective methods for extracting high pure genomic DNA are established considering different cell wall components. Ge-nomic DNA gained by three different methods above is specifically amplified and clear band is observed by agarose gel electrophoresis， which is convenient to genetie manipulation later.
Key words： microorganism； DNA extraction； PCR {Polymerase Chain Reaction)
文献标识码：A. 文章编号：1008-6781(2007)03-0048-03
1 材料与方法
1.1 试验材料
黄色短杆菌 (Brevibacterium helvolum ATCC11822，G)从北京微生物所购买；放射形土壤杆菌(Agrobacterium radiobacter ACCC10056，G)从中国菌种保藏中心购买；金黄色葡萄球菌(G\*)，枯草芽孢杆菌(G\*)为本实验室保藏。
1.2 试剂及仪器121
主要试剂为 10mg/ml 溶菌酶， 20mg/ml 蛋白酶K， 2xCTAB (十六氨基三乙基溴化铵)。引物序列为：； ggaatteggatccatggacttegaggcattt ( BamHI， EcoRI)，3’
一1
ttaagcttcctcacgccaccgcacgcgc(HindIII)， 由上海博亚生物技术有限公司合成。
仪器有 Lengguang Tech. Spectrumlab54 型分光光度计， LITTLE GENIUS (Japan) 基因扩增仪。
1.3 聚合酶链式反应 (PCR)
PCR 扩增的反应体系为：反应总体积20pl，含10pmole 引物， 50ng 基因组 DNA， 2ul 10xPfuTaq
收稿日期：2006-09-04.
作者简介：刘晓侠(1978-
)，女，江苏丰县人，嘉兴学院生物与化学工程学院教师，博士，研究方向为基因工程、发酵工程。
DNA 聚合酶缓冲液， 0.5p.l (2.5 unit) PfuTaq DNA 聚合酶， 0.5pl 10 mmol/1 dNTP混合液， 其余为双蒸水。
PCR 扩增的条件：95℃预变性10min，95℃变性30s，58℃复性 30s， 72℃延伸2min， 循环扩增30次。
1.4 微生物基因组DNA提取方法
1.4.1 溶菌酶法3\] 收集对数生长期的菌液5ml， 置于10 000 rpm 离心5min；弃上清，用 500ul TE重悬于1.5ml离心管中，加 10pl 10mg/ml溶菌酶，37℃保温20min， 再加2.5ul 20mg/ml 蛋白酶K混匀，37℃保温lh；再加等体积的酚、氯仿、异戊醇(25：24：1)，置于10 000 rpm 离心5min；取上清液加2倍体积的无水乙醇和1/10体积的 NaAc (pH=4.6)，于-20℃下静置 10min 后于 12 000 rpm离心10min；所得的DNA 沉淀用70%的乙醇洗2次，自然风干后溶于 40ul的TE(含 20ug/ml RNase)， 55℃处理15min， 于-20℃保存备用。
1.4.2 改良的 CTAB\[4-5法 收集对数生长期的菌液5ml，置于 10000 rpm 离心 5min；弃上清，用500p.l TE 重悬于 1.5ml离心管中，加 100pl 10% SDS 溶液， 2.5p.l 20mg/ml 蛋白酶K，37℃保温1h，再加 75pl NaCl 和 75ul 2×CTAB 混匀，65℃保温30min， 再加等体积的酚、氯仿、异戊醇(25：24：1)， 置于10000rpm 离心5min；以下步骤同溶菌酶法。
1.4.3超声破碎提取法66.1收集对数生长期的菌液5ml，置于 10 000 rpm 离心5min；弃上清，用3ml裂解缓冲液(1.0mol/L NaCl， 50mmol/L EDTA， 50mmol/L Tris ·Cl)， 加 30pl 10mg/ml溶菌酶冰水浴30min 后超声处理，超声条件：250W每次工作5s，间隙5s，重复20次，再加等体积的酚、氯仿、异戊醇(25：24：1)， 置于 10 000 rpm 离心 5min；以下步骤同溶菌酶法。
2 实验结果
2.1
分光光度测定
将以上三种方法提取的 DNA， 通过紫外分光光度计测定它们在 260nm 处和280nm 的吸光值，并计算它们的比值和DNA 含量，结果见表1。
表1 三种微生物基因组提取方法的纯度和浓度比较
| 方法 | 菌种 | A260/ A280 | DNA 产率 (ng/mL) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 溶菌酶法 | 黄色短杆菌 | 1.68±0.05 | 27.54±1.05 |
| 溶菌酶法 | 放射形土壤杆菌 | 1.66±0.07 | 31.58±1.65 |
| 溶菌酶法 | 金黄色葡萄球菌 | 1.70±0.02 | 92.46±0.95 |
| 溶菌酶法 | 枯草芽孢杆菌 | 1.69±0.05 | 83.87±1.25 |
| CTAB 法 | 黄色短杆菌 | 1.72±0.03 | 61.23±1.45 |
| CTAB 法 | 放射形土壤杆菌 | 1.78±0.04 | 25.45±0.85 |
| CTAB 法 | 金黄色葡萄球菌 | 1.76±0.05 | 65.42±0.95 |
| CTAB 法 | 枯草芽孢杆菌 | 1.75±0.03 | 70.43±1.10 |
| 超声破碎法 | 黄色短杆菌 | 1.91±0.02 | 45.38±1.45 |
| 超声破碎法 | 放射形土壤杆菌 | 1.89±0.01 | 39.83±1.15 |
| 超声破碎法 | 金黄色葡萄球菌 | 1.90±0.02 | 35.65±0.75 |
| 超声破碎法 | 枯草芽孢杆菌 | 1、95±0.03 | 42.48±1.05 |
2.2 球琼脂糖凝胶电泳检测
将三种方法提取的放射形土壤杆菌基因组 DNA， 进行0.8%琼脂糖凝聚电泳，见图1。
2.3 PCR 特异性扩增的验证
将三种方法提取的放射形土壤杆菌基因组 DNA 为模板进行特异性扩增，见图2。
3 讨论
通过对多种微生物基因组的提取来看，溶菌酶法较适合革兰氏阳性菌，而不适合提取革兰阴性
溶菌酶法 CTAB法 超 声 破碎法 M -marker；1-溶菌酶法；2-CTAB 法；3-超声破碎法
图1 放射形土壤杆菌基因组 DNA 样品电泳图 图2 PCR扩增的结果
菌的基因组DNA， 原因可能与细胞壁的成分有关，溶菌酶作用于肽聚糖的N-乙酰胞壁酸的1位碳和N-乙酰葡萄胺的4位碳之间的β-1，4糖苷键，在革兰阳性菌中约含40-90%的肽聚糖，而革兰阴性菌只含10%的肽聚糖。所以它的应用受到一定的限制。
改良的CTAB法适合于大多数微生物基因组的提取，且提取的 DNA 较其他两种方法纯，但由于有些微生物的经 CTAB/NaCl 处理后，经高速离心很难吸出上清液，在这种情况下，需采用改进的超声破碎法。
超声破碎法由于具有强烈的机械作用、空化作用和乳化作用，对微生物细胞的细胞壁破碎较为完全，且经酚：氯仿：异戊醇提取，可以较为完全的将 DNA 和蛋白质及其他杂质分开，但由于作用条件剧烈，会造成DNA 部分降解，使 DNA 回收率降低。
参考文献：
\[1\] Liu X.X.， Lin J. P.， Qin G.. ， Cen P. L. Expression of a new hemA Gene from Agrobaclerium radiobacter in Encherichia coli for5 -aminolevulinate production \[J\]. Chinese J. Chem. Eng.， 2005， 13 (4)：522~528.
\[2\]J.萨姆布鲁克， D. W. 拉塞尔.分子克隆实验指南\[M\].北京：科学出版社，2002
\[3\]乔建军，杜连样.一种快速有效的枯草芽孢杆菌染色体的提取方法\[J\].生物技术，2001，11(2)：38~40
\[4\]李德葆，周雪平，许建平，何祖华.基因工程操作技术\[M\].上海：上海科学技术出版社，1996：1.
\[5\]F.奥斯伯， R.布特伦， R.F.金斯顿.精编分子生物学\[M\].北京：北京科学出版社，1998： 7.
\[6\]刘小勇，田素忠，秦国夫，沈瑞祥.提取植物和微生物 DNA 的 SDS-CTAB 改进法J\].北京林业大学学报，1997，19(3)：100~103.
\[7\]岑沛霖，蔡谨.工业微生物学\[M\].北京：化学工业出版社，2000：6~40.
\[8\]陈颖，刘根齐，李文彬，孙男如.二种小球藻DNA 提取方法的比较\[J\].植物生理学通讯：2001，37(3)：242-244.
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zh | N/A | N/A | **浅谈初中大班额环境下英语分层教学的应用**
**甘肃省陇南市武都区城关中学 李文萍**
**在新课程背景下开展大班额教学时，教学应研究学生差异，关注学生差异，让每个学生得到发展。经过探究、实践，笔者认为，分层教学的应用，是解决大班额课堂教学的矛盾的有效方法。**
**分层教学是一种面向全体，因材施教的教学模式，它强调了“教师的教要适应学生的学，要做到“因材施教，分层提高，让尖子冒出来，是多数迈大步，叫学困生不落伍，达到班级整体优化”。分层递进教学的核心是面向全体学生，正视学生的个体差异，使学生在自己原有基础上得到.发展，从而激发学生的学习兴趣，变“要我学”为“我要学。”**
**一、分层教学实施的指导思想**
**首先，分层次教学的指导思想是变传统的应试教育为素质教育，是成绩差异的分层，而不是人格的分层。学习成绩的差异是客观存在的，分层次教学的目的不是人为地制造等级，而是采用不同的方法帮助他们提高学习成绩，让不同成绩的学生最大限度地发挥他们的潜力，逐步缩小差距，达到班级整体优化。**
**二、分层次教学的组建与实施**
**(一)学生分层。在教学中，根据学生的学习基础、学习能力、学习态度、学习成绩的差异，按课程标准所要达到的基本目标、中层目标、发展目标这三个层次的教学要求，将学生分为三个层次：拔尖的优等生，即能掌握课本内容，独立完成习题，完成教师布置的复习参考题及补充题，可主动帮助和解答中等生的难点，与学困生结成学习伙伴；成绩中等的学生，即能掌握课本内容，独立完成练习，在教师的启发下完成习题，积极向忧等生请教：学习有困难的学生，即能在教师和优等生的帮助下掌握课本内容，完成练习及部分简单习题。**
**(二)教学过程分层。教学分层是课堂教学中最难操作的部分，也是教师最富创造性的部分。我们在课堂教学中应采用：低起点，缓坡度，多层次形象化的弹性教学。在教学中教师应将有难度的问题让优等生回答，简单的问题让学困生回答，适中的问题回答的机会让中等生回答，这样，每个层次的学生均等参与课堂活动，便于激活课堂。对中等生、学困生要深入了解他们存在的问题和困难，帮助**
**(上接第93页)**
**压的存在；(2)“马德堡半球"实验，让学生认识到大气压有多大；(3)“用针筒、弹簧测力计等测量大气压”实验，让学生分组实验，测量出大气压的数值；通过如此系列的实验，利于学生运用形象思维来理解抽象的内容。**
**四、善议**
**集思广益，互相启发，引发思维。讨论的议题是学生在学习过程中感到模糊、疑难的问题。如在预习“重力”节时，老师布置的题目：地球上如果没有重力会怎样?教师可以鼓励并放手让学生讨论，通过讨论，活跃了学生思维，也发展了学生智力。**
**五、争辩**
**教学中教师有意识的把易于混淆的问题抛出来，适时地组织课堂争论来引发学生思维。例如，在讲“运动和力”时，教师先列举一些事例，如桌子不推不动，已推动的桌子，一松手就停住了，树无风不摇，故意说：这些事实充分说明“力是产生运动的原因”，即"运动需要力来维持”。教**
**他们解答疑难问题，激发他们主动学习的精神，让他们始终保持强烈求知欲。对优等学以“放”为主，“放”中有扶。突出教师的导，贵在指导，贵在转化，妙在开窍。培养学生的独立思考和自学能力进而向创新精神和创造能力发展。**
**(三)课堂练习分层。分层练习是分层教学的核心环节，其意义在于强化各层学生的学习成果，及时反馈、矫正，检测学习目标的达成情况，把所理解的知识通过分层练习转化成技能，反馈教学信息，对各层学生进行补偿评价和发展训练，达到逐层落实目标的作用。因此教师要在备课时，针对学生实际和教材内容精心设计编排课堂练习，在选编三个不同层次的练习时，必须遵守基本要求一致，鼓励个体发展的原则。通俗点就是“下要保底，上不封顶”。在保证基本要求一致的前提下，习题综合与技巧分三个层次。**
**(四)作业分层。作业能及时反馈不同层次学生所掌握知识的情况，能反映一堂课的教学效果，又能达到初步巩固知识的目的。因此，作业应该多层次设计，针对不同层次的学生，设计不同题量、不同难度的作业，供不同层次学生选择，题型应由易到难成阶梯形。学困生做基础性作业：中等生以基础性为主，同时配有少量略有提高的题目：优等生做基础作业和有一定灵活性、综合性的题目。使得作业的量和难度使每个学生都能“跳一跳，摘到苹果”。从而调动各层次的学生的学习积极性。**
**(五)测试分层、测试是检验一个学生对知识的理解和掌握程度，我们不可能用同一把“尺”去量尽世界上的万物，同样我们也不能用同样的标准去衡量每一个学生。在试题编制中，我们依据教学目标，把测试题可以分基础题分层探究题。其中每份测试卷中基础题占120分，层次题各30分，对于分层测试中的优秀者予以奖励，形成良性循环机制。“海阔凭鱼跃，天高任鸟飞”，分开层次，承认差距，拓宽更广阔的发展空间，这是为了给广大学生提供更好的机遇，更多的机会，以求更好的发展。“分层递进教学”的实施，虽然教师的工作量成倍增加，但为每位学生都找到了合适的位置和前进的方向，找到了属于自己的“最近发展区”，从而能清楚的认清自我，并不断完善自我。**
**师问学生：“我的观点对吗?"开始，有的学生说对，有的说错，不同观点的学生争得面红耳赤，还各自列举事例(如小轿车在关闭发动机后还能前进：百米运动员在跑步时不能立即停下来等)以作佐证。辩论的结果是教师提出的观点被学生否定了。**
**六、独思**
**古人云：“一寂就凝思，思接千载：悄然动容，视通万里。”教学中，教师有针对性地提出问题让学生深思，就能够架起教与学之间的思维桥梁。例如，在讲压强时，举学生熟悉的例子：(1)家里切肉的时候，为什么要磨刀呢?(2)胖人和瘦人滑雪陷入雪中的情况有怎样?举出这样一些实例，让学生深思，可以沟通思路。**
**总之，上面介绍的6种引发学生思维的方法，需要物理教师在教学中，根据教学内容和学生实际灵活掌握，有机结合地运用，才能达到引发思维、培养能力的目的。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | National Social Sciences Database
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中国航天
拥有50年航天物资供应的基础和经验，以及成熟的物资供应管理平台，能确保航天物资计划、合同、验收以及出入库管理业务的高效运
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zh | N/A | N/A | **林业技术在林业可持续发展中的重要性**
张美慧
自十三五提出“绿水青山，就是金山银山”的口号后，国土绿化行动在各地广泛开展、深入推进。各地政府纷纷出台相关意见，辽宁省也开展了《辽宁省天然林保护条例》起草和《辽宁省天然林保护修复规划》编制等工作，确保全省6973万亩生态公益林和天然商品林有效管护和长期稳定。好的意见与规划离不开技术的支持，林业技术是改善生态环境的关键。本文主要阐述林业技术对林业可持续发展的重要作用。
**一、辽宁省林业发展情况**
**自2016年以来，辽宁省累计共完成造林1211 万亩，封山育林 870万亩，飞播造林4.5万亩，森林抚育444万亩，造林面积是沈阳市建成区的12倍左右，任务率完成达111.6%。开展以“小开荒”清退、超坡地还林、围栏封育等8项工程为重点的青山工程，累计完成治理面积706万亩。全省有14个市共计55个县(区)183个国有林场全部完成主体改革任务，走在全国前列。**
好生态是“植”出来的。随着人们环境保护意识的增强，辽宁省全民义务植树潮起云涌，全省共累计完成义务植树达3亿株。辽宁的绿色底色渐浓，而守护这份绿色离不开制度的保障，“十三五”以来，辽宁省全面强化天然林保护和生态公益林管理，出台了相关意见，继续禁止天然林商业采伐，对天然商品林和生态公益林起到了有效管护和长期稳定作用。
**二、林业技术在林业发展中的意义与重要性**
林业发展离不开技术的支持，先进的技术是林业可持续发展的重要支撑，不断提升与改进林业技术可以更好地推动林业快速度发展。
**1、林业技术发展的意义**
①林业技术是林业发展的重要保障，先进的林业技术不仅可以保障林业建设工作全面发展，还能提升经济效益，反之，落后与粗放的管理技术方式会严重制约林业产业健康与快速发展。随着信息化的发展与普及，给林业技术发展提供了一些机遇并得到一些改善，但对于促进我国林业整体发展作用并不明显，还有待提高。伴随着科技的进步，市场对林业产业新产品的需求日益增多，目前，还无法满足市场的需要。应逐渐提升林业创新技术，在满足市场需求的同时，还有利于经济效益的提升，同时还促进了生态平衡与可持续发展。
②林业技术动态性的发展能够使得我国传统林业经济建设更加富有生机与活力，并且可以有效促进林业科技发展与创新，同时给林业经济建设拓宽了发展思路，林业技术在发展与创新的过程中还加快了林业管理体制的完善，所以，林业技术对于我国林业经济发展起着重要的作用，不仅增加了经济收益还调整了林业资金结构。
③随着林业科技技术的不断发展，林木资源得到了合理的利用与开发，同时拓宽了林业产业链，也带动了其它行业经济效益增长，在育种与栽培方面也不断创新，大大提高了苗木成活率和缩短了林木的生长周期。
2、林业装备技术在林业发展中的重要作用
①在林业技术中，装备是必不可少的组成部分，它可以助推林业现代化建设速度，传统装备已无法满足当前林业发展需求，需要不断发展与创新，要想提升林业装备技术，就应做好现代化
**林业建设工作，因各地区地质、地貌各不相同，情况也比较复杂，需要引进各种高新技术装备完成林业建设工作，先进设备不仅可以有效提升产业生命力，还推动了整个林业市场稳定、健康发展。**
**②在林业现代化建设中创新技术是衡量林业发展的重要依据，现代化林业发展主要注重以人为本，这是和以往粗放型管理模式最大不同之处，现代化林业发展中借助装备的力量不仅提升了整体的生产力，还提升了林业面积，极大的满足了社会多元化的需求。**
3、林业技术可以提高苗木成活率
在林业发展建设中，苗木的质量高低与成活率直接关乎到林业建设工作的质量。以往林业培育中采用传统技术方式，使得苗木成活率较低，制约了林业发展速度。现如今，科技不断进步，林业技术也得到大幅度提升，苗木培育技术不断提高，省内各地区也在不断引进先进的林苗培育技术，有效地提升了苗木的生长速度与成活率，也缩短了树木的生长周期，林业建设速度也得到大幅度提升，使得我省森林覆盖面积不断扩大。
**4、林业技术可以优化生态环境**
自“十三五”以来，辽宁省林业系统深入学习贯彻习近平主席生态文明思想，积极践行新发展理念，利用先进的林业技术大力推进国土绿化、生态公益林管理和天然林保护等工作，最大限度地发挥了林业技术在改善生态环境建设中的作用，为辽宁省经济社会和谐发展筑牢绿色屏障。
**5、林业技术有助于产业结构调整**
**目前，辽宁省林业产业从整体发展来看，存在发展结构不合理问题，第一占比相对较大，第二、三产业占比相对较小，当中属第三产业起步较晚，其产值还不到三大总产业的10%，从业人数还不到三大产业总人数的10%。为了更好地适应市场的变化，林业产业结构必须做出调整。无论林业产业如何变化，都与林业技术密不可分，只有不断创新发展林业技术，将先进的林业技术应用到林业发展建设中，我国林业才能得到更好更快地发展。**
总而言之，林业技术可以让我们生存的环境得到极大改善，可以减少环境污染给我们带来的伤害，让天空变得更蓝，大地变得更绿。林业技术的不断创新与发展在极大程度上促进了林业建设，在林业可持续发展中起着不可忽视的作用。
**(作者单位：118200 辽宁省丹东市宽甸满族自治县林业发展服务中心)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **公共服务顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度关系实证研究**
**高庆1、2 博士生 陈小龙3(1、西南交通大学经济管理学院2、西库交通大学后勤集团 3、西南交通大学数学学院 成者610031)**
**基金项目：西南交通大学科技发展基金资助项目：“基于平衡计分卡的高校后勤绩效评估研究”(编号：2006A24)**
**◆ 中图分类号：F713 文献标识码：A**
**内容摘要：：顾客满意和顾客忠诚是企业提高经营绩效，扩大市场占有率的两个重要支撑点，关于它们之间关系的研究是当今顾客满意研究的热点问题。本文以大学学生食堂满意度和忠诚度的调查数据为基础，分析了人口统计变量对顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度的影响以及顾客满意度与顾客忠诚度二者之间的关系。研究表明，公共服务企业顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度之间的关系为正向线性关系以期对今后的研究有所助益，**
**关键词：顾客满意度 顾客忠诚度 正交多项式回归 公共服务**
**相关理论概述**
**顾客满意度与顾客忠诚度的关系研究是近年顾客满意研究的热点。关于顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度的关系，有很多学者提出的普遍观点是他们之间存在正向的关系，即顾客满意度高必然使得其顾客忠诚度高。**
**Howard & Sheth(1969)认为顾客满意是消费者行为研究的关键变量，顾客满意将会影响购买意愿与购买行为，包括了品牌忠诚度、正面口碑两方面。顾客满意度与顾客忠诚度之间存在着某种程度且显著的正向关系，且满意度为顾客忠诚度重要的决定因素之一，对产品或服务感到高度满意的顾客其品牌忠诚度高，而会有重复购买同一品牌的行为发生。**
Bitner( 1990) 表示顾客满意度是忠诚度的前因变项，且会成正向的地影响响忠忠广期
**诚度。Heskett et al.(1994)指出企业的获利能力和收益成长主要是来自顾客的忠诚度，而顾客的忠诚度则受到顾客满意度直接的影响，两者呈正向的关系。**
Yoon & Uysal (2005)的研究结果发现旅游满意度会正向且显著地影响目的地忠诚度。
同时，也有部分学者认为满意度和忠诚度具有非线性关系。如 Oliva， Oliver和 MacMillan { 1992)指出顾客满意度与顾客忠诚度间的关系是一种非线性的相关，当顾客满意度高于临界点时会使顾客再购买的意愿快速地增加。Bowen and Chen( 2001) 通过对宾馆服务业满意度和忠诚度的调查分析，得出顾客满意度与顾客忠诚度间的关系是一种非线性且不对称的关系。
**张新安、田澎(2007)认为顾客满意是顾客忠诚的必要条件而不是充分条件，随着满意程度的提高，顾客会更加趋于忠诚，但并非线性关系。**
邹德强、赵平(2007)等针对零售业的手机、台式电脑和笔记本电脑三类产品的调查数据进行了分析，他们认为满意度与忠诚度的关系满足三次多项式函数，且具有S函数形式。
**汪纯孝等(2003)通过对服务型企业的调查，得出了顾客满意能够直接影响顾客的认知忠诚和情感忠诚的结论，但顾客满意对意向忠诚和行为忠诚并没有直接影响，只能通过认知忠诚和情感忠诚间接地发挥作用。**
汤晓丹(2007)认为对生产性企业顾客忠诚研究得出的结论对服务性企业并不
完全适用，但是其对于服务性企业的顾客满意与顾客忠诚的关系到底呈什么函数未予研究。
**服务性企业和产品生产类企业有着较大的差异，以高校学生食堂为例，它具有以下特征：**
**展现在顾客面前的既有产品(饭菜】又有服务，产品质量和服务质量共同影响顾客的感知；服务人员与顾客直接接触，彼此之间的沟通、交流和默契，服务人员的状态、服务态度、熟练程度、文明用语等都会直接影响顾客的感知；由于饭菜的生产过程难以做到完全的标准化，加之顾客的口味和感受都因人而异，所以其产品质量和服务质量都存在一定的不确定性和不可控性。**
对产品类企业而言，顾客的感知主要来自于对产品质量的感受和售后服务的感知，由于大规模、自动化和机械化的生产，其产品质量基本稳定，顾客一般只与产品接触，通常不会直接接触企业服务人员，影响顾客感知的因素相对单纯，所以，产品类企业的人口统计变量与满意度和忠诚度的影响情况以及满意度和忠诚度关系并不一定适合于服务性企业。
本研究以高校学生食堂调查数据为依据，分析了人口统计变量对顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度的影响，并且通过实证研究分析了这类公共服务的顾客满意度与顾客忠诚度二者之间的关系，并得出了相关结论，
**研究设计和数据收集**
**顾客满意是顾客需要得到满足后的心理反应，是顾客对产品和服务的特征或产品和服务本身满足自己需要程度的一种判断 (Oliver， 1997 )。**
本研究采用问卷调查的方式搜集资料，在参考其它文献的基础上，用四个问项来了解学生对食堂满意度的评价，这四个问项是：
和本市其它高校食堂相比，我认为我校学生食堂办得不错，我对学校学生食堂服务质量满意；我对学校学生食堂饭菜质量满意；我对学校学生食堂经营管理总体满意。
**顾客忠诚度可以理解为对某产品或服务具有忠诚度之顾客，在未来的需求存在的条件下，是对此产品或服务有承诺的，如持续利用(即再次购买)或为其建立正面口碑宣传的支持倾向(即向他人推荐)，并**
| | **问项** | **2009年** | | | | **2010年** | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | **问项** | **得分** | **标准差** | **平均得分** | **信度α** | **得分** | **标准差** | **平均得分** | **信度α** |
| **满** **意度** | **和本市其他高校食堂比办得不错** | **3.2617** | **.9B402** | **3.257** **3.211** | **0.7B9** **0.670** | **3.1776** | **91180** | **3.1380** | **0.850** |
| **满** **意度** | **对食堂服务质量满意** | **3.2886** | **.96954** | **3.257** **3.211** | **0.7B9** **0.670** | **3.1694** | **.89672** | **3.1380** | **0.850** |
| **满** **意度** | **对食堂饭菜质量满意** | **3.0403** | **1.01424** | **3.257** **3.211** | **0.7B9** **0.670** | **3.0219** | **.63719** | **3.1380** | **0.850** |
| **满** **意度** | **对食堂经营管理总体满意** | **3.4362** | **84345** | **3.257** **3.211** | **0.7B9** **0.670** | **3.1831** | **.82218** | **3.1380** | **0.850** |
| **忠** **诚** **度** | **在学校不会选择学校附近的社会餐厅就餐** | **2.7114** | **.96606** | **3.257** **3.211** | **0.7B9** **0.670** | **2.9454** | **.99162** | **3.0601** | **0.746** |
| **忠** **诚** **度** | **今后会继续在食堂就餐** | **3.7081** | **.67070** | **3.257** **3.211** | **0.7B9** **0.670** | **3.1831** | **82551** | **3.0601** | **0.746** |
| **忠** **诚** **度** | **会向别人赞扬和推荐本校食堂** | **3.2148** | **97486** | **3.257** **3.211** | **0.7B9** **0.670** | **3.0519** | **.99038** | **3.0601** | **0.746** |
**表2 人口统计变量对顾客满意度的影响**
| **人口统计变量** | | **顾客满意度评价** | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **人口统计变量** | | **2009年调查数据** | | | | **2010年调查数据** | | | |
| **人口统计变量** | | **人数** | **满意度** | **标准差** | **T/ANOVA显著性p** | **人数** | **满意度** | **标准差** | **TFANOVA显著性p** |
| **性别** | **男** | **182** | **3.2077** | **.73262** | **0.284** | **263** | **3.1502** | **，7485B** | **0.605** |
| **性别** | **女** | **116** | **3.3466** | **67778** | **0.284** | **103** | **3.1068** | **.64607** | **0.605** |
| **城镇i农村** | **城镇** | **41** | **3.3042** | **.71962** | **0.777** | **4486** | **3.14313.1334** | **76448** **68085** | **0.898** |
| **城镇i农村** | **农村** | **45** | **3.2231** | **.70864** | **0.777** | **4486** | **3.14313.1334** | **76448** **68085** | **0.898** |
| **是否独** **生子女** | **独生子女** | **58** | **3.2677** | **76645** | **0.153** | **64** | **3.2260** | **75212** | **0.032\*\*** |
| **是否独** **生子女** | **非独生子女** | **108** | **3.2573** | **.67440** | **0.153** | **105** | **3.0641** | **.68625** | **0.032\*\*** |
| **年级** | **大** | **19** | **3.2709** | **.75642** | **0.122** | **26** | **3.1717** | **.73138** | **0.533** |
| **年级** | **大二** | **27** | **3.3268** | **.67278** | **0.122** | **41** | **3.0443** | **.68441** | **0.533** |
| **年级** | **大三** | **110** | **3.1574** | **，71191** | **0.122** | **217** | **3.1686** | **75735** | **0.533** |
| **年级** | **大四** | **123** | **2.6000** | **36515** | **0.122** | **96** | **3.1750** | **68769** | **0.533** |
| **籍贯** | **华北** | **61** | **3.1448** | **.76575** | **0.700** | **43** | **3.0820** | **.70578** | **0.531** **4** |
| **籍贯** | **华南** | **4** | **3.2133** | **71782** | **0.700** | **10** | **3.2500** | **.65530** | **0.531** **4** |
| **籍贯** | **西南** | **142** | **3.2963** | **67891** | **0.700** | **173** | **3.0690** | **74396** | **0.531** **4** |
| **籍贯** | **华东** | **156** | **3.2878** | **77852** | **0.700** | **193** | **3.1648** | **69872** | **0.531** **4** |
| **籍贯** | **东北** | **127** | **3.2947** | **.62670** | **0.700** | **199** | **3.0481** | **.93011** | **0.531** **4** |
| **籍贯** | **西北** | **171** | **3.3926** | **.70924** | **0.700** | **171** | **3.1951** | **69487** | **0.531** **4** |
| **年龄** | **19岁及以下** | **一一** | **一** | | | **108** | **3.1505** | **.69958** | **0.977** |
| **年龄** | **20岁** | | **心** | **一** | | **141** | **3.1507** | **.72941** | **0.977** |
| **年龄** | **21岁** | **一一** | **一** | | | **74** | **3.1047** | **.75626** | **0.977** |
| **年龄** | **22岁** | | | | | **36** | **3.1111** | **.74028** | **0.977** |
| **年龄** | **23岁** | **一一** | | **一** | | **5** | **3.3000** | **.57009** | **0.977** |
| **年龄** | **24及以上** | | **一** | **一** | | **2** | **2.8750** | **17678** | **0.977** |
**注：“\*\*”表示在P>11.05的置信概率下，存在显著差异**
**对竞争者的产品或服务具免疫力( Griffin，1995)。**
**本文用三个问项来反映学生对食堂的忠诚度，这三个问项是：**
**只要我在学校，我不会选择学校附近的社会餐厅就餐；我今后会继续在学生食堂就餐；我会向别人赞扬和推荐交大学生食堂，**
**被调查学生的人口统计变量有：性别、**
**籍贯、年级、来自城镇或农村、是否独生子女和年龄(2009年数据未调查年龄)问卷采用李克特五点评价尺度，并以5分制予以赋值：5表示非常同意，4表示同意，3表示不确定，2表示不同意，1表示很不同意。题项得分越高表示答卷者对题项表述赞同度越高。**
**本研究请大学生分别于2009年3月和2010年5月在西南交通大学的犀浦校**
NE区学生食堂门口、自习室、宿舍对本科大学生进行了随机问卷调查，两次分别发出调查表各400份，收回400份，由人工检查，将填写不完整、不正确的无效问卷予以剔除后得到有效问卷，其中2009年有效问卷298份，有效问卷占总发放问卷的74.5%；2010年有效问卷366份，有效问卷占总发放问卷的91.5%。问卷的回收率和有效率能够满足分析及研究的 _需要。_
**大学生人口统计变量对顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度的影响**
**Mittal and Kamakura( 2001)在其实证研究结果中指出，不同的消费者特征会有不同的再购意愿。在性别方面，在相同的满意度下，女性顾客要较男性顾客有更高的再购意愿；在教育程度方面，教育水平较高的顾客在相同的满意度下要较教育水平较低的顾客有更低的再购意愿，这是因为教育程度较高的顾客较有能力获取市场的相关信息，因此更容易转向其他服务提供商消费；而在年龄层方面，年龄较大的顾客要较年轻的顾客有更高的品牌忠诚度。**
**Li， Sun， andWilcox(2005) 的实证结果也指出，年龄较长的顾客较不易转换现行的服务提供商。由此可见，不同的人口统计变量可能会对满意度和忠诚度产生不同的影响。本研究将探讨大学生人口统计变量对顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度的影响的问题。**
**西南交通大学犀浦校区有学生食堂四个，可容纳24000学生，校内还有其它各类社会餐厅174家，因此，可以说其餐饮市场基本属于完全竞争开放的市场。两次学生问卷调查结果如表1所示，满意度和忠诚度数据的Canbach o 在0.670至0.850之间，说明调查数据具有相当的信度。**
**为此，本文分别取四个满意度问项和三个忠诚度问项的平均值来代表顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度。**
2009年食堂满意度得分3.257分，换算成百分制为65.1分；2010年食堂满意度得分3.138分，换算成百分数为62.8分，两年得分最低的都是“对食堂饭菜质量满意"(3.0403分和3.0219分)，说明在饭菜质量上提升的空间还很大，还要下大功夫。2009年食堂忠诚度得分3.211分，2010年食堂忠诚度得分3.06分，忠诚度和满意度
学术期刊数居库
| **人口统计变量** | | **顾客忠诚度评价** | | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | **2009年调查数据** | | | | **2010年调查数据** | | | |
| | | **人数** | **忠诚度** | **标谁差** | **TIANOVA显著性p** | **人数** | **忠诚度** | **标准差** | **TANOVA** **显著性p** |
| **性别** | **男** | **182** | **3.1905** | **.68060** | **0.114** | **263** | **3.0253** | **.78268** | **0.165** |
| **性别** | **女** | **116** | **3.2443** | **57375** | **0.114** | **103** | **3.1489** | **71359** | **0.165** |
| **城镇/农村** | **城镇** | **41** | **3.1268** | **.67807** | **0.126** | **44** | **3.0135** | **82073** | **0.270** |
| **城镇/农村** | **农村** | **45** | **3.2885** | **.59639** | **0.126** | **86** | **3.1019** | **71077** | **0.270** |
| **是否独生子女** | **独生子女** | **58** | **3.1995** | **69422** | **0.193** | **64** | **3.0938** | **，81722** | **0.441** |
| **是否独生子女** | **非独生子女** | **108** | **3.2203** | **59974** | **0.193** | **105** | **3.0318** | **.71898** | **0.441** |
| **年级** | **大一** | **19** | **3.2606** | **，63114** | **0.014★\*** | **26** | **3.0906** | **.74154** | **0.808** |
| **年级** | **大二** | **27** | **3.2629** | **.56981** | **0.014★\*** | **41** | **3.0243** | **.72426** | **0.808** |
| **年级** | **大三** | **110** | **3.0710** | **.75796** | **0.014★\*** | **217** | **2.9845** | **.92282** | **0.808** |
| **年级** | **大四** | **123** | **2.4167** | **16667** | **0.014★\*** | **96** | **3.0667** | **.97879** | **0.808** |
| **籍贯** | **华北** | **61** | **3.2471** | **.65653** | **0.485** | **43** | **3.0313** | **.75527** | **0.947** |
| **籍贯** | **华南** | **4** | **3.0667** | **68755** | **0.485** | **10** | **3.0465** | **.72880** | **0.947** |
| **籍贯** | **西南** | **142** | **3.1821** | **63210** | **0.485** | **173** | **3.0540** | **.77642** | **0.947** |
| **籍贯** | **华东** | **156** | **3.2846** | **.71710** | **0.485** | **193** | **3.0303** | **.76018** | **0.947** |
| **籍贯** | **东北** | **127** | **3.3509** | **.46446** | **0.485** | **199** | **3.2051** | **.80596** | **0.947** |
| **籍贯** | **西北** | **171** | **3.2840** | **.53672** | **0.485** | **171** | **3.0894** | **83674** | **0.947** |
| **年龄** | **19岁及以下** | | | **一** | | **108** | **3.0802** | **.76511** | **0.621** |
| **年龄** | **20岁** | | **一** | **一** | | **141** | **3.0567** | **71153** | **0.621** |
| **年龄** | **21岁** | | **一** | | | **74** | **3.0901** | **78085** | **0.621** |
| **年龄** | **22岁** | **一心** | **一** | | | **36** | **3.0370** | **92848** | **0.621** |
| **年龄** | **23岁** | | | | | **5** | **2.8000** | **.83666** | **0.621** |
| **年龄** | **24及以上** | **一一** | | **一** | | **2** | **2.1667** | **70711** | **0.621** |
**注：“\*\*”表示在P>01.05的置信概率下，存在显萧差异**
**表4 满意度与忠诚度关系多项式拟合结果**
| | | | **非标准化系数** | **标准误差** | **t** | **p** | **其他指标** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **三次多项式回归** | **截距** | **3.21131** | **0.03175** | **101.159** | **0.000\*\*** | **R2=0.276** **F=37.36** **P=0.00** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **三次多项式回归** | **满意** | **5.74125** | **0.54801** | **10.477** | **0.000\*\*** | **R2=0.276** **F=37.36** **P=0.00** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **三次多项式回归** | **满意2** | **0.25829** | **0.54801** | **Q，471** | **0.638** | **R2=0.276** **F=37.36** **P=0.00** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **三次多项式回归** | **满意’** | **\-0.79544** | **0.54801** | **\-1.452** | **0.148** | **R2=0.276** **F=37.36** **P=0.00** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **线性回归** | **截距** | **1.68910** | **0.14881** | **11.35** | **0.000\*\*** | **R2=0.270F=109.6** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **线性回归** | **满意** | **0.46668** | **0.04457** | **10.47** | **0.000\*★** | **R2=0.270F=109.6** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **三次多** **项式** **回归** | **截距** | **3.06033** | **0.03115** | **98.252** | **0.000\*\*** | **R2=0.398 P=0.00F：79.78** **P=0.00** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **三次多** **项式** **回归** | **满意** | **9.19102** | **0.59589** | **15.424** | **0.000\*\*** | **R2=0.398 P=0.00F：79.78** **P=0.00** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **三次多** **项式** **回归** | **满意2** | **0.31183** | **0.59589** | **0.523** | **Q.601** | **R2=0.398 P=0.00F：79.78** **P=0.00** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **三次多** **项式** **回归** | **满意** | **0.64398** | **Q.59589** | **1.081** | **0.281** | **R2=0.398 P=0.00F：79.78** **P=0.00** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **线性回归** | **截距** | **0.96538** | **0.13924** | **6.933** | **0.000\*\*** | **H2=0.396F=238.3P=0.00** |
| **2009年调查数据** **2010年调查** **数据** | **线性回归** | **满意** | **0.66761** | **Q.04325** | **15.436** | **0.000\*\*** | **H2=0.396F=238.3P=0.00** |
**注：“\*\*”表示在P>0.05的置信概率下，存在显著差异**
一样，均呈降低趋势，得分最低的是“在学校不会选择学校附近的社会餐厅就餐”问项，反映出学生对食堂的竞争对手的排斥性并不强。
**以上结果一方面说明了学校学生食堂工作应该亟待找出问题，对症下药，提高学生的满意度和忠诚度，另一方面也反映出了学生食堂在满足大学生多方位餐饮需求上仍然有较大的差距，且这些不足恰恰被校内社会餐饮弥补，所以提高学生对学生食堂的满意度和忠诚度是当前伙食工作的重点。**
家哲学社会科学学术期刊发革的酒忌
**本文用独立样本t检验来分析性别、来自城镇农村、是否为独生子女的不同对学生食堂的满意度和忠诚度是否有显著差异；用单因子方差分析(One-Way ANOVA)来分析年级、籍贯和年龄分别对于满意度和忠诚度是否有显著差异等几方面。**
**表2和表3分别给出了人口统计变量对顾客满意度和忠诚度影响的统计检验结果。由表2、表3可以看出，男女生、来自城镇农村、年龄和籍贯这四项人口统计变量的满意度和忠诚度检验结果都没**
**有显著的差异，2009年的调查数据年级对满意度没有显著的差异，但对忠诚度有显著的差异。**
进一步，本文采用了LSD方法(最小显著性差异法)进行检验发现，大一、大二、大三之间没有显著差异，而大四学生的忠诚度与大一、大二、大三学生都存在显著差异，大四学生的忠诚度远远低于其它年级的学生。
**分析其原因，一方面由于大四学生只有几个月就要毕业离开学校，其忠诚度不高可以理解；另一方面，2009年的数据，由于被调查的大四学生样本只有四个，样本过低存在可信度不高的问题。2010年的调查数据中，是否独生子女项在忠诚度方面没有显著的差异，而在满意度评价上存在显著差异，独生子女大学生的满意度远远高于非独生子女大学生。**
由于2009年对大四调查的学生只有四个，且2010年的调查数据中并没有反应出不同年级学生的忠诚度存在显著差异，所以可以认为2009年不同年级在忠诚度方面存在显著差异的结果不具有普遍意义。
**顾客满意度与顾客忠诚度关系的拟合**
**邹德强等(2007)对零售业的手机、台式电脑和笔记本电脑三类产品的调查数据进行分析，得出的结论是满意度与忠诚度的关系满足三次侈项式函数且具有S函数形式，他们研究的是生产型企业的满意度与忠诚度的关系，而汤晓丹(2007)认为对生产性企业顾客忠诚研究得出的结论对服务性企业并不完全适用。为此，本研究针对属于公共服务的大学学生食堂顾客满意度与和顾客忠诚度的关系进行实证研究。**
**根据微分学的知识，任一函数都可以分段用多项式来逼近，因此，顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度关系(线性或非线性)也可以用多项式来逼近。当采用三次多项式来拟合时，多项式中有三个自变量，也就是满意度及其平方项和三次方项，由于三个自变量之间的相关性非常高(达到0.94和0.9921**
**为了有效避免多重共线性的干扰，本研究按照卢静波等(2009)提供的方法，将简单多项式变换为正交多项式进行回归分析，可以有效避免多重共线性的问题，且原简单多项式的信息完全保留，本文用统**
**计软件R对2009年和2010年两次调查数据进行了三次多项式回归和线性回归，回归结果列于表4。**
**可以看出两年数据的拟合结果趋势基本一致，在三次多项式回归结果中，二次方项和三次方项均未通过回归系数显著性检验，而线性结果既通过了回归方程显著性检验又通过了回归系数显著性检验，且为正向线性关系。说明学生食堂这类公共服务的顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度的关系是正向线性关系，两年数据的拟合优度R2分别为0.27和0.396，基本满足拟合要求，线性回归方程对数据的代表程度基本达到要求，但样本数据聚集在回归线周围的密集程度较低。**
**结论**
**由以上对西南交通大学两年的调查数据分析结果，可以得出以下结论：除2010年调查结果是否独生子女项对顾客满意度存在显著差异外，不同的大学生人口统计变量对学生食堂服务顾客满意度与顾客忠诚度没有显著的影响；对于顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度的关系，研究表明学生食堂这类公共服务的顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度的关系并不满足三次多项式函数，而是呈现出正向的线性关系或显著的正相关关系。**
本研究结果与Bitner( 1990). Heskett et al. ( 1994)、 Yoon & Uysal (2005)等文献的结果一致，顾客满意度与忠诚度呈现正向的显著关系。同时也表明，对于顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度的关系，服务性企业与生产性企业所得出的结论不同，实证了汤晓丹(2007)关于生产性企业顾客忠诚研究得出的结论对服务性企业并不完全适用的论述。
**Reichheld and Sasser{1990)研究表示，企业只要成功地降低顾客变动率的5%即可提高25%到85%的利润，而当顾客感到满意的时候，可以因为顾客的免费推荐使企业建立起口碑，并会带来重复消费。 Plymire (1991) 研究也指出，不满意的顾客有91%不会再光顾，并且通常会向8到10人诉 他在该店感受的负面经验。可以认为，顾客忠诚对企业盈利产生正向影响，所以必须要以顾客满意来衡量服务工作的结果，进而培养更多的忠诚顾客，以达成利润提升和社会效益显著的目的。**
**民以食为天，大学生阶段正是其身体**
**生长发育的重要时刻，也是其吸取知识养分，练就过硬本领的重要阶段，高校后勤人必须以高度的责任感和使命感做好学校的后勤服务，科学管理、精心安排，为学生提供最好的学习生活环境，使学生在大学健康成长。**
**本文所研究的顾客满意度和顾客忠诚度呈现正向的线性关系的结论对于高校后勤进一步搞好学生食堂管理具有重要作用，我们要充分了解并掌握大学生的饮食消费行为，有针对性地使学校的伙食工作更贴近学生的需求，主动适应并正确引导学生养成健康饮食习惯，为学生提供满意的饮食服务，达到顾客满意。**
**高校伙食工作者要重点关注影响学生食堂服务满意度的四大因素：就餐环境、产品质量、服务质量和就餐条件，在这几个方面下功夫，切实提高大学生在学生食堂就餐的满意度，进而培养忠诚顾客，只有这样，才能完成高校后勤服务育人的神圣使命，使学生精力充沛、全身心地投入到学习中，同时也让远在他乡的家长放心；只有这样，才能提高学生食堂的就餐率，获得利润的增长，形成良性循环；特别在目前学校周边各种社会餐饮尚不规范、尚不令人放心的情况下，办好学校公益性的学生食堂，使之成为学生的饮食之家，为学生提供满意、卫生、可口、营养、价廉物美的饭菜，成为高校后勤人义不容辞的责任。商**
**参考文献：**
**1.Howard John A .& Sheth Jagdish N.** **The Theory of Buyer Behavior. New York** **Wiley. John Willey and Sons，1969**
**2\. Bitner， MaryJ.“Evaluating Service** **Encounters： The Effects of Physcial Sur-roundings and Employee Response"， Jour-nal of Marketing， Vol.54，1990**
**3\. Heskett， Janies L.， Thomas O. Jones，** **Gary W. Loveman， W Earl Jr Sasser and** **Leonard A. Schlesinger，** **“Putting The Ser-vice-Profit Chain To Word"Harvard Busi-ness Rcview， 72，2，1994**
**4\. Yoon， Y.， and Uysa l. M.，，“An** **examination of the effects of motivation and** **satisfaction on. destination loyalty： a struccural** **model"， Tourism Management 26，2005**
**5\. Oliva， T. A.， Oliver ，R.L.，&MacMillian， I.C.. A catastrophe model for** **developing service satisfaction strategies.Jour-nal of Marketing， 1992**
**6\. Bowen， J.T. and Chen， S.L.“The relationship between customer**
**loyalty and customer satisfaction，TT：n一ternational journal of Contemporary HospitaJity， 2001**
**7.张新安，田澎.顾客满意与顾客忠诚之间关系的实证研究1J1.管理科学学报，2007(4)**
**8.邹德强，赵平，李飞.顾客满意与忠诫的非线性关系研究：展望理论的解释\[\].北京工商大学学报(社会科学版)，2007**
**9.汪纯孝，韩晓芸，温碧燕.顾客满意感与顾客忠诚感关系的实证研究打.南开管理评论，2003(4)**
**10.汤晓丹.公用服务企业顾客满意与顾客忠诚关系研究\[J\].广东通信技术，2007(7)**
**11.Oliver，R.L.** **“Satisfaction： A Be-havioral Perspective on the Consumer，** **New York： Irwin/McGraw-Hill， 1997**
**12.Griffin， Jill.，“Customer Loyalty，”Simmon and Schuster Inc， 1995**
**13.Mittal， V. and W.A. Kamakura.** **Satisfaction， Repurchase Incent， and Repur-chase Behavior： lnvestigating the Moderat-ing Effect of Customer Characteristics. Jour~nal of Marketing Research， 2001**
**14.Li， S.， B. Sun， and R.T. Wilcox，** **Cross-selling Sequentially Ordered** **Products： An Application to Consumer** **Banking Services， Journal of Marketing** **R.esearch， 42，2005**
**15.卢静波，吴艺能.非线性回归模型的线性变换和正交多项式回归\[J\]，统计与决策，2009(23)**
**16.Reichheld， Frederick F. and W. Earl** **Sasser， Jr. Zero Defections ： Quality Comes** **to Services， Harvard Business Review， Vol.68 (September October)， 1990**
**17.Plymire， j."Complaints as** **Opportunities，”Iournal of Service** **Marketing， Vol.58，1991**
**18.高庆.公共服务满意度影响园素的统计分析\[J\].软科学，2009(2)**
**19.高庆，盛鹏，郭玲艳，大学生饮食消费行为分析.商场现代化，2011(2)**
**作者简介：**
**高庆(1959-)，男，汉族，四川雅安市人，西南交通大学后勤集团总经理；高级工程师，西南交通大学经济管理学院在职博士研究生，研究方向：企业战略管理。**
**陈小龙(1986-)，男，汉族，安徽阜阳人，西南交通大学数学学院硕士研究生，研究方向；统计学。**
家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | National Social vol.16 No.6s Database
文章编号：1671-9662(2007)06-0061-04
大型沉井施工应注意的问题
曹汉杰，王伟霞
(上海程建造价咨询有限公司，上海200126)
摘 要： 根据实例论述了沉井施工模板支设、钢筋的绑扎、沉井制作、沉井下沉的工艺过程，指出了大型沉井施工中应该注意的一些施工要点。
关键词： 沉井；刃脚；砖胎膜；施工缝；监测
中图分类号： TU753.64 文献标识码：A
沉井施工一般应用在土质情况较差，沉井坐落处地基承载能力不够的情况，如果采用常规做法，工程造价较高，边坡安全不能保证。
1 沉井施工工艺
根据地质勘察报告得知本沉井坐落的土质承载能力为75kN/m，低于沉井的容许承载能力 120kN/m²，因此在刃脚及底部框架梁下换填 700mm厚粗砂的办法提高地基承载力，仅在刃脚及底部框架梁下制作 3 000mm 宽 200mm 厚的 C10 素砼垫层。
本沉井高度大、重量大、刃脚踏面面积较小、地基强度较低，刃脚部位立模比较困难，为保证立模质量，采用砖模。砼垫层上刷隔离剂，然后在其上砌筑刃脚斜面下的砖胎膜支设井壁模板，浇筑混凝土。
1.1 模板支设
沉井井壁、框架、隔墙一般采用定型钢模板组装，不规则的地方、井壁采用木模板，考虑砼浇筑时对模板产生侧压力，采用钢管、对拉螺栓进行固定，螺栓纵向间距为 0.50m，横向间距为 0.75m，中部设止水片，与螺栓接触处满焊。
井内采用满堂脚手架对井壁内模板支撑加固，隔墙、框架、钢管剪刀撑相互联成整体，外模利用双排钢管脚手架。
1.2 钢筋的绑扎
钢筋搭接时，同一断面上钢筋搭接数量，受拉区不得超过钢筋总数的1/4，受压区不得超过钢筋总数的1/2，且搭接长度不小于35d。
每节井壁竖筋一次绑扎好，与上节井壁连接处预留插筋，同一截面接头不得超过 50%，井采用焊接连接方法，水平筋分段绑扎。
1.3 沉井制作分次
沉井制作一般按沉井高度进行分次浇筑，一次下沉。沉井分次浇筑时会产生水平方向的贯通性施工缝，为防止施工缝漏水，在分层界面中央一般设置宽 30cm、深10cm的凹槽，钢筋绑扎完毕、立模结束后清理接触面。第二次混凝土浇筑前先铺 100mm厚的同标号的去粗骨料砂浆作接缝处理。
脱模后在施工缝上下各 10cm范围内采用防水砂浆两道抹平，然后涂抹防水柏油。
1.4 混凝土浇筑
(1)浇筑时一般从短轴一端，对称均匀进行，混凝土浇筑时按45°斜角逐步推进，振捣到位，角部及钢筋密集混凝土和设置预埋件的地方采用小口径振捣棒振捣。
(2)混凝土采用分层斜面对称浇筑，层厚度不大于 50cm。合理安排浇捣流程，避免形成竖向冷接缝。
(3)混凝土振捣时振动孔间距不大于 300mm，振动棒持续时间控制在 20~30s，插点要均匀排列，按“并列式"的次序移动。底板和顶板面用平板振动器振平，平板振动器在每一位置应连续震捣25~40s，振动器成排依次振捣，排之间应搭接30~50mm。
(4)混凝土振捣后应及时养护，养护采用泡沫海绵覆盖，泡沫海绵应浸足水，并经常洒水。养护时间不应少于14d。
2
沉井下沉土层分析
收稿日期：2007-06-20
第一作者简介：曹汉杰(1971-)，男，河南襄县人，上海程建造价咨询有限公司工程师，主要从事工程结构施工的研究。
沉井下沉时一定要进行土层分析，主要是为保证沉井稳定下沉，以本工程为例：
当沉井下沉系数Kc >1.15时可稳定下沉 Kc=2G/f+R
止沉系数Kz<1时可稳定止沉。Kz=2c/Xf+Rz
式中G为沉井总重量；
之f一为井壁摩阻力(根据地质资料提供数据)；
Ri一为下沉时刃脚踏面阻力；
Rz一为终沉时的井壁、地梁踏面反力；
\>G一为沉井自重及施工荷载。
沉井制作混凝土总方量为3707.5m²，重8475.5t。施工荷载取自重的1%。即：习G取8560.225t。井壁、隔墙、地梁刃脚塌面总面积237m²，斜面投影总面积510m，外壁周长148.9m。
沉井下沉摩阻力计算
| 序号 | 土层 | 层底 | 土层 | 沉井在土层中 | 单位摩阻 | 层摩阻力 | 地基承载力 | 地基极限承载力 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 序号 | 代号 | 标高 | 厚度(m) | 高度(m) | (kPa) | (kN) | (kPa) | (kPa) |
| 1 | ①1 | 4.08 | | | | | | |
| 2 | ②1 | 2.48 | 1.60 | 0.02 | 15 | 0.3 | 115 | 230 |
| 3 | ②2 | 2.08 | 0.40 | 0.40 | 15 | 5.2 | 90 | 180 |
| 4 | ②3-1 | \-2.92 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 18 | 90 | 115 | 230 |
| 5 | ②3-2 | \-5.92 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 20 | 60 | 160 | 320 |
| 6 | ③1 | \-10.42 | 4.5 | 3.88 | 12 | 46.56 | 95 | 190 |
| 2 | | | 12.30 | | 202.06 | 123 | 237 | |
起沉标高：2.50m，沉井底标高：-9.80m。
沉井在②1土层中下沉系数：
\=1.748(可稳定下沉)
沉井在②2土层中下沉系数：
\=2.217(可稳定下沉)
沉井在②3-1土层中下沉系数：
沉井在②3-2土层中下沉系数：
\= (8560.255×10)/\[148.9×155.5/8.42×(8.42-2.5)+(237×320)\]=0.929(地下水位低于该层时沉井不下沉，须冲削刃脚下面土层)
沉井在③1土层中下沉系数：
\=(8 560.255×10)/\[148.9x202.06/12.3×(12.3-2.5)+(237×190)\]
\=1.24(可稳定下沉)
\=(8 560.255×10)/\[148.9×202.06/12.3×(12.3-2.5)+(237×237)\]
\=1.068(地下水位低于该层时沉并不下沉，须冲削刃脚下面土层)
当砖模全部拆除时支撑面反力与自重基本持平，沉井将开始下沉，刃脚支架、垫层全部拆除后，沉井下沉系数为1.748，沉井将稳定下沉。
三三一
下沉过程只需掏除刃脚斜面及地梁以下土体，刃脚切土下沉。当沉井位于②3-1、②3-2这两层土中时根据降水情况适当地分段、均匀、对称地冲削井壁、隔墙、框架梁下的刃脚踏面下土层，使沉井稳定下沉。当沉井位于③-1这层土中时根据降水情况适当地分段、均匀、对称地冲削隔墙、框架梁下的刃脚踏面下土层，使沉井稳定下
沉。
图1 沉井下沉系数与下沉深度的关系
根据计算，沉井止沉系数为0.922，沉井可安全止沉。
沉井下沉快要到位时挖土速度减缓，注意沉井的观测和纠偏，使得沉井垂直度、水平位移指标均小于允许偏差。停止下沉后立即在刃脚、地梁斜面下回填粗砂、浇水冲实。回填粗砂至高出刃脚、地梁斜面顶50cm，然后在井内灌满清水。
3 沉井下沉施工
3.1 高程控制
在沉井四周用红油漆标出控制高度，轴线位置，设置沉井中心控制点。将高程测引至沉并附近，并在沉井四周设置4个临时水准点，对沉并下沉的整个过程(刃脚砖胎支架拆除、垫层凿除、冲水下沉、止沉、封底)实施高程控制。
沉井偏斜度的控制采用铅直重锤及标刻钢板组成，在沉井壁四边中心点内侧各设置一对，共四对。
(1)在破碎砼垫层之前，对封底及底板接缝部位混凝土进行凿毛处理。
(2)将砼垫层底部的砂挖去，使垫层下空，利用空压泵汽锤或人工重镑榔头破碎，刃脚下随即用砂或砂砾回填夯实，在刃脚内外侧夯筑成小土堤，以承担部分井筒重量，接着破碎另一段，如此逐点进行，破除垫层时要下沉是否均匀，如发现倾斜，及时处理。
3.2 冲水取土施工
(1)大型沉井冲水取土应分区域进行开始。
(2)冲土先冲框架梁下刃脚斜面土层，再冲取中心土层。
(3)相临冲水取土高差最大不能超过 50cmm
(4)冲水取土保证冲取土层形成的“锅底"位于格仓中心。
(5)在冲取沉井壁的格仓时，从隔墙的两侧向相临的格仓推进，沉井短边上的沿隔墙两侧分头推进。每格仓内有2台设备同时作业，水枪在格仓内的布置，保证格仓内冲取土层形成的“锅底”形的沟槽位于格仓中心，以便沉井壁刃脚能顺利切土下沉。
3.3 冲水取土注意事项
(1)在沉井外壁制作下沉观测标尺，每侧两处，标尺应竖直、通视。
(2)沉井下沉过程中，当刃脚穿越土层时(尤其是下层土层承载力比上层土层低时)，应放慢冲土速度。
3.4 沉井下沉监测
沉井下沉前制定沉井下沉监测方案，设置固定和临时观测点，并事先计算各固定测点沉并位移、倾斜的观测数据换算公式。
(1)下沉过程中加强测量观测，在沉井外设置控制网，沉井顶部设十字控制线和基准点，在井内壁中心点划垂线，设置标板，吊垂球以控制平面和垂直度。每班观测不少于2次，当偏离≥50mm时应及时纠正。
(2)沉井下沉过程中需严密观测沉井情况，随时测定四周标高，确保均匀下沉。
(3)当刃脚距设计标高在+2.0m时，下沉速度逐渐改慢，水力机械冲土土层高差控制在 50cm 内，当沉井接近于刃脚标高时，应预先做好止沉措施，绝对禁止超冲土层和超沉。
沉井下沉过程中应注意沉井的偏斜和突沉，初沉阶段冲土速度不宜过快，锅底深度控制在50~100cm，每次观测间隔不超过 2h；观测数据显示沉井偏差超标(两端高差不大于 10cm)，立即调整冲土仓号和部位，但格仓土体高差不宜超过50cm，正常下沉阶段纠偏时格仓土体高差控制在100cm以内；下沉过程中加强对周边土体的观测和地下水位的监测，控制冲水挖土速率，避免突沉或基坑内涌土。
3.5 沉井位移控制及纠偏措施
由于土质较差且不均匀，在下沉时应注意不均匀下沉引起的倾斜。矩形沉井倾斜后纠偏较为困难，故水力机械冲水
一
挖土时应掌握四周顶上标高作好观测，发现情况及时纠偏，不准大面积冲水挖深。
(1)位移纠正方法一般是控制沉井不在向位移方向倾斜，同时有意识地使沉井向位移相反的方向倾斜，纠正倾斜后，使其伴随向位移相反的方向产生一定的位移纠正。
具体做法是：倾斜一边刃脚下不冲水取土或少冲水取土，相反的一边刃脚下加大冲水取土厚度或冲空刃脚下的土，使沉井倾斜，通过下沉过程中的倾斜量来纠正位移量。
(2)如位移较大，也可有意使沉井向偏位的一方倾斜，然后沿倾斜方向下沉，直到刃脚处中心线与设计中心线位置吻合或接近时，再纠正倾斜，位移相应得到纠正。
(3)扭位可按纠正位移的方法纠正，使倾斜方向对准沉井中心然后纠正倾斜，扭位随之得到纠正。也可先纠正一个方向的倾斜、位移，然后纠正另一个方向的倾斜、位移。
(4)在软土层中，应采取连续冲土，连续下沉。
(5)当沉井下沉至距设计标高1.5~2.0m的终沉阶段时，应加强沉井观测，待8h的累计下沉量不大于 10mm 时沉井下沉趋于稳定，方可进行封底。
3.6 沉井封底
(1)沉井下沉到设计标高，待8h内沉井自沉量累计不大于10mm时方可进行封底，封底时应清除积水及淤泥，按图纸要求留置进水孔，浇筑素砼垫层。
(2)素砼达到一定强度后绑扎底板钢筋，砼底板浇筑要求与沉井结构制作要求相同。
4
结束语
本例采用的施工工艺经过详细论证的实施，实践表明施工质量完全达到了相关技术标准的要求，其工法可供同类型施工进行参考应用。
参考文献
\[1\](GBJ202-2002).建筑地基基础工程施工验收规范\[S}.
\[2\](YB9258-97).建筑基坑工程技术规范\[S\].
On issues of large caisson construction
CAO Han-jie， WANG Wei-xia
(Henan No.5 Building and Installation Engineering Corporation， Pingdingshan， 467001， China)
Abstract： This paper discussed template- based caisson construction， the steel banding， caisson production， caisson sinking process， pointing out that some of the main points for the large caisson construction should be paied attention to.
Key words： caisson； foot blade； brick fetal membranes； construction joint monitoring
(上接第54页)
\[2\]顾培英，王德平，吕惠明，大直径灌注桩桩侧摩阻力试验研究\[J\]，公路交通科技，2004，21(1)：62-66.
\[3\]张
丹，施
斌，吴智深等.BOTDR分布式光纤传感器及其在结构健康监测中的应用\[J\]，土木工程学报，2003，36(11)：83-87.
\[4\]刘泉生，徐光苗，张志凌.光纤测量技术在岩土工程中的应用\[】\].岩土力学与工程学报，2004，23(2)：310-314.
Monitoring on axial strain of huge pile by BOTDR technology SONG Jian-xue，REN Hui-zhi，ZHAO Xu-yang
(Zhengzhou University， Zhengzhou， 450002 China)
Abstract：A on- site experiment is carried out on a case project. The axial strains in piles， which are more than 60 meters long， are monitored in the process of statistic loading with the distributing fiber BOTDR technology. The axial straing of pile are traced down during the process of static loading test， with nine steps of loading. After the axial strain is measured， the axial forces of pile are determined， and the lateral friction forces are also obtained. It reveals that the lateral friction in the deep part of pile is underdeveloped， so the gener-al way to determine the load bearing capacity of pile by deduct the part of friction force over the level of construction pit is unreasonable. Key words： soil and foundation engineering； distributed optical fiber； strains of piles； larger diameters and huge piles； poat- construction
mortar jetting | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 中国国家竞争力的动态跟踪分析：2015~2016田欣雨
摘要：文章基于“贸易-资本-货币”三维视角构建的国家竞争力评价模型，对2005~2016年间G20(二十国集团)成员国的国家竞争力进行测算，对此时间段内中国国家竞争力的变化趋势进行分析研究探寻中国在国家竞争力上的优势点和薄弱点，并提出适合中国国情能提升国家竞争力的策略，结果发现：中国国家竞争力在 2005~2016年间处于持续上升阶段，在二十国集团中的排名由11名跃居至第4名，其中，中国贸易竞争力和投资竞争力上升明显，已处于一个较高水平，但中国的货币竞争力一直处于较弱势地位，与发达国家相比有较大差距。针对中国国家竞争力的不足，文章提出几点改进策略：通过制度创新和政策调整吸引投资；增大金融市场体量和对外投资的质量：增强货币可流动性和可自由兑换的便利程度：加强设施建设：推动人民币国际化进程等。
关键词：国家竞争力；三维评价模型； G20国家：动态跟踪分析
一、引宫
随着经济全球化的逐渐深人，国家之间的经济合作日益密切，各种生产要素和资源在国际间的流动也越来越频繁，这有效地改善了世界经济资源的配置效率，大大提高了国家生产力，促进了世界经济持续稳定发展，但同时各国也越来越以主体身份加人到国际竞争中，并且通过各种手段和途径提升国家在世界经济舞台上的竞争力。
国家竞争力是一国通过发展其经济从而实现社会繁荣的能力，往往用来作为各国在国际竞争中的表现方式，并且随着迈克尔波特的《国家竞争优势》的发表而成为经济学界关注的热点，其中世界经济论坛(WEF)的《全球竞争力报告》和洛桑管理学院(IMD)的《世界竞争力年鉴》是两个相对权威的国家竞争力评价体系。中
国虽然在国家竞争力的研究时间上比欧美发达国家晚，但是随着中国加人世界贸易组织，国内的众多经济学者也开始深人研究国家竞争力。
G20的全称是“二十个最重要工业和新兴国家集团”，由"七国集团”(美、英、法、德、意、日、加)、金砖五国”(中国、印度、巴西、俄罗斯、南非)、七个重要经济体(澳大利亚、墨西哥、韩国、土耳其、印尼、沙特和阿根廷)以及欧盟组成。该集团的人口约占世界总人口的②/3，经济总量占全球经济总量的90%，土地面积占全球总量的60%，贸易总额占世界贸易总额的80%。 G20 集团参与国家数量大、覆盖面广、代表性强、影响力大。本文以 G20 作为研究对象，选择最适合的理论模型和评价指标体系，依据指标来源，收集2005~2016年的数据，通过计算得出 G20国的国家竞争力排名，并通过对比分析法，对中国国家竞争力的各个指标排名进行研究并与其它国家进行比较，探寻中国在国家竞争力上的优势点和薄弱点，提取二十国集团中其它国家值得借鉴的经验与方法，总结适合中国国家竞争力提升的策略，希望能为我国未来发展提供有益借鉴。
二、国家竞争力的“贸易-投资-货币”三维结构模型
本文在选择国家竞争力理论模型和评估体系依照以下原则：第一、理论模型能够
直观而具体的体现 G20国家的国家竞争力水平；第二、理论模型应涉及国家竞争力的主要方面，使得对比分析具有意义；第三、评估体系和指标要具有实用性；第四、评估体系要具备普适性和可操作性。
基于以上三个原则，本文参考侯经川和周露(2016)发表在《中国软科学》上的《基于"贸易-投资-货币”三维视角的国家竞争力测度与提升策略研究》中所构建的理论模型和指标体系，该模型将博弈论运用到国家竞争力的研究领域中，对国际经济竞争态势进行分析，模型中的指标数据可获得性强，且处理计算较为简便，对本文理论模型和指标的选择上具有参考价值。
侯经川关于国家竞争力构建的三维评价模型，如图1所示，最底层是贸易层，即国家之间经济往来最基础的层面，即商品之间的往来。中间层是投资层，是交换生产条件的平台，通过吸引外国投资促进国家的发展，或者对外投资获得投资回报。顶层是货币层，而国家之间货币兑换的比率不仅影响贸易和投资的交换价格，还决定了各个国家的财富值。
在侯经川的论文中，由"贸易-投资-货币”三个维度测度出来的三个竞争力分别是贸易竞争力、投资竞争力、货币竞争力，这三个竞争力分别根据其“合争”分争”理论衍生出来六个指标，即贸易条件指数、国际贸易占比，境外直接投资收益率、国际投
图1 国家竞争力基础理论模型
但是在这六大指标数据中，境外直接投资收益率的数据不可得且逻辑上存在不合理性。境外直接投资收益率的结果受到汇率等方面因素的影响，而某些国家因为自身汇率制度的问题，因而在理论上不能为对外投资定价。境外直接投资收益率指的是对外直接投资收益额与对外直接投资投资额的比值，本文的研究对象为G20国家，其中一些国家在2005~2016年的对外直接投资收益额数据不可得，因此本文选择数据可得且说服力更强的投资收益率作为指标数据。一国的投资收益率指的是对外投资收益额与对外投资额的比值，投资收益率这一指标的经济意义计算简单、明确、直观，在一定程度上反映了投资效应的优劣。且由境外直接投资收益率测算出来的国家竞争力排名中，日本在九国中仅排名第七名，不仅排名在中国之后，还不如经济体量较小的法国和意大利，着实让人吃惊，在WEF 和 IMD 发表的国家竞争力排名中可以看出，日本的国家竞争力排名在法意两国之前，本文选用的投资收益率这一指标更全面，通过后面的数据分析得出的结果也更加符合客观事实。
另外侯经川在选取国家的和地区的过程中国家和地区的数量不足，仅有九个样本，对于整体三维评价体系整体作用的发挥具有明显的制约，而且其中大部分是发达国家，因此对于身为发展中国家的中国在世界范围内的具体竞争力情况，尤其是在全球有影响力的发展中国家的国家竞争力的定位没有被涉及到，而采取 G20的数据则能完美弥补这方面的缺憾，使得分析更加的完善和科学。
在计量方法上，本文借鉴 IMD 发布的《世界竞争力年鉴》中等权重处理指标的方法，对所得的七国集团六大指标数据先进行无量纲化处理再分别对贸易、货币、投资竞争力下的两个二级指标进行等权重处理，最后将同一个维度下的两个二级指标相加得出相对应维度上的竞争力值，而最终的国家竞争力值也就是将这三个维度上所获得的竞争力值进行等权重相加。这也是国际上认可度较高的方法：对每一项同级别指标进行等权重处理，即逐层根据指标数量平均分配权重。具体指标，指标占比和数据来源如表1所示。
三、G20国家的国家竞争力评价
(一)二十国竞争力测算
我们将不同数据库得来的六组数据按照每一维度下两组数据等权重处理再
表1 国家竞争力测评的主要指标
| 一级指标 | 二级指标 | 指标占比 | | 指标算法 | 数据来源 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 贸易竞争力 | 国际贸易占比 | 1/6 | 出口价格与进口价格的比值 | | 世界银行 |
| 贸易竞争力 | 贸易条件指数 | 1/6 | 一国进出口贸易之和占世界贸易总额的比重 | | 国际清算银行 |
| 投资竞争力 | 国际投资占比 | 1/6 | 一国外商直接投资和对外直接投资之和占世界外商直接投资和对外直接投资之和的比重 | | 国际清算银行 |
| 投资竞争力 | 投资收益率 | 1/6 | 投资收益额与投资额的比值 | | 联合国贸易和发展 会议数据库 |
| 货币竞争力 | 外汇市场占比 | 1/6 | 一国货币在全球外汇市场的日均交易量占比 | | 联合国贸易和发展会议数据库 |
| 货币竞争力 | 实际有效汇率 | 1/6 | 一国货币的相对价格水平 | | 国际货币基金组织 |
相加的方法，最后得 5.00
贸易竞争力
到二十国集团在 4.50
2005~2016年三个维 4.00
度上的竞争力数值， 3.50
再将得到的三组竞 3.00
争力数值进行等权 2.50
重相加得到国家竞 3.00
争力值。 1.50
(二)竞争力分析
妈虑帮1.00
0.50
1.贸易竞争力分析
0.00
2055
20062007200820092010201120122013201420152015
0.57 0.60 0.65 0.680.680.72
0.35
0.710.71 0.72
075
欧盟作为贸易竞争力最高的地区，虽然有些波动，但是其贸易竞争力指数在2005~2016年间远远领先其它国家和地区，一直处于第一的地位。而作为世界上最发达的国家-美国，其贸易竞争力指数一直稳居世界第二位，虽说有些波动，尤其是在2008年之后其贸易竞争力指数降到了1.55，但是随着其国内经济的复苏，其贸易竞
0.56
送大利亚 0.7章 0.新0 0.8章 0.89 0.92 0.980.93 0.910.前7 0.83030
055 0.58 0.59 0.61 0.62 0.69 0.71 D.68 0.68 057 062
\-加拿大 O.客 0.35 0.84 0.79 0.82 0.800.790.81082 0.79
中国 9.581.02 1.05 1.051.151.1 1.26133141144 1.59151
欧洲我盟 439 4.35 4.41 4.34 4.34 4.10 4.01 3.87 3.93 3.97 3.95 4.07
法国 991 0.87 085 0.88 081 0780
.76
0770.
78 081 081
健国 1.75 1.23
1.24
1.21 1.2h 1.201.161.131.16118 1.201.13
一类西哥 2.710.7 0.700.680.640.67 0.680.570.680.57 0.69065
印度 0.550.540.540.530.640.650.620.630.630.65 0.720.76
印度尼西墅0.580.59 0.600.630.年0.660.670.660.电054 0.660.65
一章大科 0.84机8 0.820.77
0.80
0.750.700.680.70
0.72
0.750.75
一日本 0.93 0820780.830840.78
0.80
0.750.750.79
大韩氏国 0.571.540.520.490.520.520.510.510.510.510.549.56
\-懦罗斯联邦082491 0.951.100.800.92106111107103082076
法特网拉噌0.85092 0.9L 1.00 0.76 0.871.041.111.050.99068
一库非 0.580.600.61 C.600.660.680.680.670.65062 0670.63
土耳其 0.550152 0.53 0.51 0.54 0.50 0.48
0.49
0.5005 0.570.5
\-英国 LOD 0.95 0.89 0.90 0.86 0.82 D.81 0.84085
\-美国 1761.721.641.571.641.631551601601611.74174
图2G20 国 2005~2016年贸易竞争力
争力指数从2011年最低的1.55攀升到2016年的1.74。中国作为发展中国家，其贸易竞争力指数一直处于逐步上升的阶段，从2005年的0.98，位于 G20集团的第五名，上升至2016年的1.51，其指数仅次于欧盟和美国，位列第三名，并且根据趋势来判断，似乎中国的贸易竞争力指数并没有受到2008年金融危机的影响，，一直处于稳步提升的阶段，但是在2015年达到1.59的峰值后，降低至2016年的1.51，出现了下降的趋势。随后的是德国、英国、日本、法国和澳大利亚等西方其它的发达国家，虽然出现波动，但是一直呈
现出比较强有力的贸易竞争力。剩下的就是"金砖国家”和其它发展中国家，从数据中可以看出，虽然有些国家的贸易竞争力是一直在增长的，例如印度，但是大部分的贸易竞争力一直波动，没有很大的变化，这说明在贸易竞争力方面虽然出现了机制上的转变，但是从贸易竞争力角度看还没有正式的将传统的国际贸易力量形势正式打破，因此需要例如中国和印度等其它没有在传统贸易竞争力强国之中的新兴贸易竞争力强国来争取，从而能够使国际贸易竞争力机制符合大多数国家利益的形式上来。
图3G20国2005~2016年货币竞争力
图5 G20国2005~2016年国家竞争力
图4 G20国2005~2016年投资竞争力
2.货币竞争力分析
货币竞争力主要表现在其地区或者国家的货币是否坚挺。从所算出的货币竞争力指数来看，美国的货币竞争力虽然在2008年金融危机爆发时存在小幅度的下降，仍是G20 集团货币竞争力最高的国家，其主要归功于其强大的经济实力和经济危机后的经济的快速复苏。货币竞争力位列第二位的是欧元区国家，例如德国、法国、意大利等，其货币竞争力一直居于第二的位置，并且截止于2010年，其货币竞争力一直处于上升的趋势，但是由于之后爆发的欧
债危机，造成欧元的
迅速贬值，从而导致了其整体货币竞争力的下滑。位于第三、四位的是日本和英国，这两个国家的货币竞争力有明显的类似方面，其竞争力的上涨和下滑与美国的货币竞争力有着惊人的相似，唯一不同的是英国在2015年货币竞争力达到1.12之后，2016年下降到1.04，主要原因是由于其脱欧造成的不良影响。至于中国，则在2016年货币竞争力位列第5名(可以将欧元区列为欧洲联盟)，达到0.83，从2005年仅仅高于巴西到现在位列第五名，并且其货币竞争力趋势从2005~2015年也一直处于上升阶段，虽然在2008年金融危机爆发时，货币竞争力出现了小幅的下降，但是在随后的时间里，一直稳步上升，直到2015年，其主要得益于国内巨大的外汇储备，能够保持国内货币的稳定。至于其它国家，比如印度、俄罗斯、墨西哥、巴西和阿根廷等国家，其货币竞争力一直处于下降的态势，表明其货币的币值稳定和自身外汇储备具有很大的问题，而中国作为货币竞争力持续上升的国家，与这些国家相比较，自身货币竞争力的未来前景还是比较明显的，货币竞争力的持续提高对人民币国际化具有很大的帮助。
3.投资竞争力分析
从投资竞争力指标中，可以看出，欧
洲联盟自 2005~2016年在 G20集团中的投资竞争力都是最高值，尤其在2008年金融危机爆发的这一年，其投资竞争力达到了顶峰，为5.01，并且其波动幅度并不大，而且从趋势上看，除了欧债危机那几年出现了明显的下滑之外，一直处于比较稳定的趋势，尤其是在 2015~2016年，出现了增长的态势。美国则在投资竞争力上稳居第二位，其投资竞争力在2005~2016年的趋势是呈现出U 型结构，可以看出美国投资竞争力虽然受到2008年金融危机的影响，但是由于其强大的经济实力和金融危机爆发后的6700亿美元的刺激计划，给了投资者信心，使其投资竞争力出现了反弹。中国的投资竞争力在2016年达到1.26，从2005年的0.63排名第11名，跃居到第3名。并且其增长势头依旧明显。接下来就是传统发达国家，在传统发达国家中，除了日本外，其它传统发达国家的投资竞争力都出现下降趋势，从一定意义上表明，传统发达国家的投资竞争力出现了下滑，这也是传统投资模式出现裂痕的表现，从另一方面讲也是新的投资机制和投资模式形成的明显标志之一。金砖国家和 G20内部的其它发展中国家，其投资竞争力形式并不太好，不仅仅投资竞争力水平较低，而且其波动较大，不太稳定，容易造成投资者信心的缺失，需要新的投资竞争力崛起的国家的带领和引导，才能使得其投资竞争力出现平稳健康的发展，也有利于新的投资机制的建成。
4.国家竞争力分析
从数据上可以看出，国家竞争力最高的是欧盟，其竞争力从2005~2016年间都是处于第一的位置，虽然在此期间经历了金融危机和欧债危机的负面影响，但是对其总体竞争力并没有较大的影响，其竞争力水平一直保持较高水准。第二名为美国，2016年其竞争力达到2.99，并且其势头依旧有上升趋势，未来有可能取代欧洲联盟，成为 G20集团中最具有竞争力的国家。位列第三名的是德国，这个属于欧洲联盟的国家，由于其自身拥有强大的经济和科技实力，作为老牌资本主义国家，虽然呈现出经济发展疲软和国内难民问可题，但是依旧表现出强劲的国家竞争力实力水平，但是由于第三世界国家的突起，在国际话语权上的地位越来越重，也间接造成德国国家竞争力水平自2005年起至2016年逐步走低的态势。第四名是中国，2016年中国的国家竞争力指数达到1.20，从2005年在 G20 集团中并列第11位，一
跃成为第4名，充分表现出中国国家竞争力的快速发展，并且中国国家竞争力的发展趋势也是逐渐上升的，表明了作为重要新生的国际力量，中国在国际舞台上发挥的作用也将会越来越大。西方其它传统发达国家，由于其自身经济基础雄厚，科技水平较高，因此其竞争力虽说经历了金融危机的影响，但是总体上在 G20 集团话语权还是比较重的，但是其总体国家竞争力和德国一样，也是持续下降的。后面的就是金砖国家和其它发展中国家，虽然其国家竞争力出现了波动，但是总体趋势是上升的，比如韩国和巴西。
从总体上讲，中国在贸易竞争力、货币竞争力、投资竞争力和国家竞争力这四个方面在这十二年的时间里增长迅速，并且其发展趋势较为平稳，因此在国际社会中取得了更多的话语权，国际地位迅速提高，这对于改变国际关系格局，尤其是发展中国家与发达国家的经济格局具有重要的意义，在贸易角度制定符合双边利益的规则，金融角度促成国际货币的多样化对于应对未来可能出现的新危机具有很大的帮助，而且中国作为发展中国家参与新的国际贸易和金融机制改革上来，对于整体促使第三世界在国际社会话语权的提升具有很重要的作用。
四、中国与其他国家的国家竞争力对比分析
中国的国家竞争力在2005~2016年期间，国家竞争力指数已经从与俄罗斯并列第十名上升至第四名。中国的国家竞争力指数排名在 G20 集团中很靠前，因此要对中国在这个时间段内国家竞争力快速上升的经验进行分析。中国和一些老牌发达国家如美国和德国，仍然存在一些差距，另外，通过观察中国与日韩及金砖国家竞争力的消长态势，也可以对中国进行一个重新的定位，为接下来的发展提供新的思路。
(一)中国国家竞争力的优势面
2016年中国的投资竞争力、贸易竞争力、货币竞争力分别在二十国集团中排名第三、第三和第八，对于中国国家竞争力的贡献主要依赖投资竞争力和贸易竞争力。进一步对竞争力的二级指标进行分析，从表2、表3可以看出，中国的投资收益率虽然处于波动状态，但是总体来说处于一个较高水平，2016年中国的投资收益率已经超过日本(2.93%)达到3.07%，现在仅次于美国的3.39%，在二十国集团中排名第二。在2008年金融危机中，中国四
万亿的救市措施拉动了国内投资总量和贸易总量的提升，中国从2009年底开始增大对外投资的额度，三年间共增加了约7000亿美元，可见中国对贸易投资的重视程度。另外，2016年中方借助 G20 推动设立了贸易投资工作组，G20各个成员就落实土耳其安塔利亚峰会关于加强贸易投资合作和定期举办贸易部长会议取得重要共识，形成了新的机制。因为中国在贸易和投资上所做出的一些努力，使得中国在投资和贸易上也逐渐形成自己的优势。
(二)中国国家竞争力的劣势面
中国在货币这个维度上一直缺少竞争力，2016年中国的货币竞争力指数为0.83，仅排名第八，不仅被美国(2016年货币竞争力指数为3.93)远远甩在身后，而且还不及欧洲其它国家如德法意三国(2016年货币竞争力指数分别为1.71、1.72、1.71)货币竞争力指数的一半。进一步分析可以看出，2016年中国在实际有效汇率这一二级指标上在二十国集团中的排名为第二名，处于优势项，但是在外汇市场占比这一指标上远远不及欧美国家，2016年中国的外汇市场占比为1.99%，仅排名第十二名，和排名第一的美国(2016年外汇市场占比为43.80%)相差有近22倍，与欧盟、欧元区成员德法意、日本也有较大差距。中国的外汇市场以国内银行间的外汇交易为主要市场，其本身也就存在自我封闭的特性，因此也就造成了其竞争力较为低下的问题。另外，中国的国际投资占比也是一大劣势，2016年中国的国际投资占比仅为5.0%，虽然较2005年的1.41%有了较大提升，但是和欧洲联盟 37.6%、美国24.2%的国际投资占比相比还有很大的差距，也正是国际投资占比这一二级指标拉低了中国的投资竞争力。
(三)中国与欧美强国的差距所在
从上述国家竞争力评价结果来看，在二十国集团中排名靠前的除了欧盟、美国之外，第三至第七名分别是德国、中国、法国、日本和意大利，中国在二十国集团中排名第四，总体来看，欧美强国大多在第一、二梯队中，中国虽然挤入第二梯队，但是和欧盟、美国还是存在一定的差距，那么具体差距又在哪呢?
如上所述，中国国家竞争力的劣势主要表现在外汇市场占比和国际投资占比这两个方面，而这也正是和欧美国家拉开差距的地方。中国与欧美国家最大的差距在于“外汇市场占比”这一个指标上。美元在国际货币体系中一直处于强势地位，美
国的外汇市场占比在2005~2016年期间一直遥遥领先，是第二名欧盟的近三倍，是中国的四十多倍，而德国、法国、意大利之所以能在这一点上大幅胜出，就在于它们联合推出了欧元，成立了欧元区。法国、意大利的经济实力并不如中、日两国，但是因为同在欧元区里行使欧元，货币的国际地位不仅增加了欧元区国家金融中介之间的流通效率并使交易成本降低，还挤占了英镑、日元乃至美元等传统强势货币的市场份额。
随着中国对外贸易和对外投资需求增加，人民币国际化对于中国未来国家竞争力的提高和贸易多元化具有重要的意义，特别是"一带一路”沿线国家之间的贸易交流具有十分重要的作用。虽然中国的国际投资占比已从2005年的1.41%上升至2016年的 5.0%，但是和欧美国家的差距仍然较大，欧盟和美国的国际投资占比分别为37.6%和24.2%，中国作为发展中国家和世界上人口最多的国家，劳动作为密集型要素，而资本却是稀缺型要素，这就决定了中国对外投资的比重和绝对数要小于西方诸如美国和欧盟等发达国家和地区。
尽管中国和欧美强国有着一定的差距，但是作为快速增长的新兴经济体，彼此之间还有很多的合作空间，中国和欧盟要联合起来，借助"一带一路”战略加强经贸合作关系，优化投资结构，减少对技术贸易壁垒和投资规则的设置，实现出口产立品多样化。
(四)中国与日韩及金砖国家的竞争力消长态势
由于地缘关系和经济发展的诉求，中国、韩国和日本在竞争与合作上的研究日渐增多；另外作为形态差别不大的金砖国家之间的竞争合作关系的研究也是比较普遍。
1.中国与日韩的竞争力消长态势
日本曾为世界第二大经济体，现为世界第三大经济体，2016年其国家竞争力排名仅与意大利同为第六名。而邻国中国国家综合实力则开始快速增长，从上图可以看出，2005年中国的国家竞争力在日
韩和金砖国家中与俄罗斯共同排在第二位，与日本有较大差距，但在2013年就超过日本，一跃成为七国的领头羊，并且仍有较强的上升势头。
从G20国家竞争力排名上看，2005年中、日、韩三国的国家竞争力排名分别为第十、七、十三名，到了2016年中、日、韩三国的国家竞争力排名分别为第四、六、十三名，可见中国国家竞争力提升较为迅速，日本仅提升一位，韩国则仍为第十三名，在二十国集团中处于中等偏下水平。
从以上贸易、货币、投资三大竞争力六大指标的具体分析中可以看出，日本在货币上占有较大优势，中国在贸易和投资上得分更高，而韩国在这三国中实力最弱，作为曾经的亚洲四小龙之一，近些年经济增长较为缓慢，也急需在亚洲寻求合作伙伴寻找出路。
在实际中，中日韩贸易区的创立也是一直处在三国谈论的范围之内。2002年，三国首脑的会晤就首次提出创立中日韩自由贸易区的初步设想，并且在2012年11月20日这个时间点上，中日韩三国掌管经济和外贸的部长在柬埔寨首都金边举行会晤，最终敲定中日韩自贸区的建立开始进入谈判阶段。然而之后日本政府宣布加人奥巴马政府主导的 TPP谈判中，中日韩贸易区的谈判进入了停滞阶段。未来中日韩三国需要加快建设自由贸易区，共同致力于构建合理的贸易政策和法律法规。
2.中国与金砖国家的竞争力消长态势
“金砖国家”最早有四个国家，分别为中国、俄罗斯、印度和巴西。之后南非经济的发展和国际地位的提高，因此四国将南非引人到"金砖国家”，也就是现阶段所说的“金砖五国”无论从整体上还是各个国家层面上，金砖五国的世界影响力都在不断增强。虽然和发达国家相比，仍有很大的差距，但是均呈现良好的发展趋势。2016年金砖五国的国家竞争力排名依次是中国、俄罗斯、印度、巴西、南非。
五国的发展速度在2005~2016年间
存在较大差异，增长速度最快的是中国，2005年俄罗斯和中国的国家竞争力指数一样高，在二十国集团中的排名皆为第十名，自苏联解体之后，俄罗斯由于饱
图622005~2016 金砖五国国家竞争力
受国内资本的短缺，因此只能通过出口能源来进行外汇的获取，如果中国和俄罗斯进行长久的合作，对于俄罗斯摆脱能源价格不稳定带来的国内经济波动的风险是非常有必要的，而中国则能够利用到比较安全和稳定的能源供给，从而使双方都获得收益。
印度作为世界上人口第二大国，进入新世纪后，依托软件和制药等高新产业，使印度保持每年超过5%的增长速度。仔细观察印度经济的发展方式，印度的经济增长速度虽然较快，但是其总量并不高，而且其内部的产业结构也不太符合当前印度自身经济发展的情况，诸如印度国内工业比较落后，仅仅是依靠一些高新技术产业来促进经济的增长，但是这些部门吸收劳动力，尤其是一些低素质劳动力的能力比较差，因此也就造成了整个印度的产业结构和就业层次的两极分化，再加上印度自身的宗教问题严重.并且政府长期出现赤字，进一步加深印度未来发展所面对的困难。
巴西作为拉美地区最发达的国家，其作用和地位在拉美地区占据着举足轻重的地位，但是随着2008年金融危机的爆发，其国内通货膨胀和政府财政赤字都很严重，因此急需通过合作的方式解决自身所面临的问题。
五、中国的国家竞争力提升策略
中国在国家竞争力六大指标上有着自己弱势的地方。结合调研分析数据，针对中国国家竞争力的不足，提出如下建议。
(一)贸易
贸易在国民经济发展中的重要性显而易见。目前，在二十国集团贸易竞争力的排名中中国位居第三，这说明我国在贸易竞争力上占有一定的优势，我们应当继续保持这种优势，并利用这种优势去以点带面。
政府在已有的贸易优势地位基础上，应以建设"贸易大国”为目标。注重短期，兼顾长期，加强宏观经济政策协调，帮助国内中小企业走出国门，走向世界。
坚持"大众创业、万众创新”努力营造出创新的环境。首先要十分熟悉对外贸易国家的政策、法律法规和当地海关的贸易政策；积极鼓励对外贸易企业自主创新能力，保护企业的专利知识产权，坚决打击侵权行为；提高品牌、质量和服务等方面的新竞争优势。
多边贸易和投资进程。中国可以提议和推动 G20 建设一个全球能源合作伙伴关系，将全球能源市场的不稳定因素控制在一个安全的水平上，从而将全球能源市场的的价格控制在一个相对稳定的水平上。
(二)投资
企业的国际化进程中不管是对外投资还是出口，都有可能引起技术、管理等要素的外溢，政府通过常规的刺激政策，指导有一定联系的企业和部门进行海外投资，从而提高企业在国际上的竞争力。
首先要对金融行业进行改革，使其规范化。投资、贸易、金融是相互联系的，没有规范的金融体制就不会有资本的良性循环也不会有商贸的良性循环。国企规模大但效率不免就低了，民企创新的劲头足但有时缺乏力量，所以两者可以合力取长补短构建混合所有制的投资新方式，释放企业潜在的活力。
利用核心自由贸易区和“一带一路”编织对外直接投资网，而且编织的投资网里既要有合作又要有竞争。我国的开放已经达到了一个新的阶段，目前技术创新，产业合作以及对外投资正在逐步带动商品和服务贸易的快速发展，所以要以现有的海外投资规模为根基提升海外生产力。
加强基础设施建设，如建设全面的贸易和投资网络管理平台。国际贸易“单一窗口”系统和全面的国际投资体制需要能够承载大规模数据的电子交换和信息处理系统的构建。
(三)货币
一般来说，，一一个国家的经济实力应当和该国的货币流通性成正相关。在这种情况下要加快人民币国际化进程，我们必须推动完善金融市场，加快金融市场的自由化和市场化改革进程。中国需要通过制度创新和政策调整吸引更多的投资，这不仅需要持续增大其体量及对外投资的质量，而且还需要增强货币的可流动性和可自由兑换的便利程度。
激励国内民族金融部门能够走向世界，获取更多金融发展的经验，促成自身金融体系的完善。
加强与其它国家的货币商议，制定相关结算协定。当前全球经济增长存在很多不稳定因素，在当前国际货币重构过程中，我国政府可以顺势而为，通过与其它国家积极商议制定相关结算协定等进行政策扶持。提高人民币国际化以增强货币竞争力的过程不是一下子就能完成的，我国首先可以扩大其在亚洲地区
的经济影响力，尤其是东南亚地区，成为区域性货币，提高人民币成为储备货币、投资货币、计价货币的需求，然后以东南亚为基点再不断扩大影响范围，进一步发展成全球性货币。
(四)合作和运行机制
当今世界，在全球经济治理改革中起着显著作用的大多数是发达国家，对经济治理的话语权是 G20 国家中发达国家和发展中国家之间的一场博弈，这种话语权需要以自身的改变与行动去积极地争取。
对本国在 G20 中制定规则、设置议程、宣传和协调工作等方面的功能加强培训，从而提高自身能够应对全球出现危机的情况和治理危机的能力，使得新的经济体在全球新的经济制度中取得更大的利益，同时继续呼吁坚定自身的立场，坚决维护自身的利益。
推动 G20 国家之间的经济合作和商贸往来，构建区域经济治理体系，形成具有规模效应的区域经济。在与二十国集团加强贸易投资合作的过程中，我们可以继续增强经济增长的动力；同时继续在发展领域上加强合作，尤其注重在发达国家和发展中国家之间，共创一个包容、可持续的发展环境；继续支持多边贸易体制，共建开放包容型世界经济。
中国应积极融人到G20国家和地区关于全球新的制度建设上来，积极倡导和建立对全球经济共同发展的体制。大国在强化自身责任的同时，促进 G20 集团的制度规范化，积极促成良好有效的反应机制能够更好的预防和治理面对的危机和挑战，同时促进 G20 国家在此框架下与国际货币基金组织、世界银行等国际组织的协调关系，从而使全球治理机制更加完善。
六、总结
本文选取"贸易-投资-货币”三维模型，使用“国际贸易占比”“贸易条件指数”、“国际投资占比”、“投资收益率”“外汇市场占比”“实际有效汇率”作为二级评价指标，通过计算得出 G20国的国家竞争力排名，并且可以得出以下结论：在2005~2016年这十二年期间我国的国家竞争力呈现上升状态，其中在2007年国家竞争力提升尤其明显，2016年在二十国集团中已排至第四位，超过日本、法国、英国，并且与德国的差距越来越小，在东南亚国家和金砖五国中都占据明显优势，但与美国、欧盟相比
差得还比较远。其中，中国的贸易竞争力较强，在贸易上占据一定优势，国际贸易占比和贸易条件指数都增长较快，投资竞争力也处在较高水平，但是在二级指标中，国际投资占比、外汇市场占比与美国、欧洲、德国仍存在差距，货币竞争力在整体上表现出较大的缺陷，因此需要进一步加强。
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(作者单位：中共宁波市委党校) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **你的“现实”与我的“现实99**
一析网络语境中现实主义电视剧的多重面向
刘永昶
【摘要】近几年，现实主义题材的电视剧创作蔚为大观，但成功作品的不同之处往往要多于他们的共同之处，原因正在于当下电视剧传播的“网络”境遇， 一方面视频用户观剧行为的自主选择性大大增强，另一方面表现为观剧行为的双向互动；网络语境中现实主义电视剧的多重面向体现为史诗型叙事、实录型叙事、问题型叙事及反思性叙事；此外，论文指出，在网络语境中分众传播应该成为现实主义电视剧创作的路径思维。
【关键词】网络语境；现实主义电视剧；分众传播
**DOI：10.13994/j.cnki.stj.2021.03.004**
如果与文学创作相类比，电影大约类似于中短篇小说，通常需要精准的聚焦、凝练的叙事与华丽的形式；而电视剧则类似于长篇小说，其开阔的结构布局足够容纳丰富的人物体系与复杂的故事脉络。它们有着截然不同的时空叙事特质，电影更适于艺术化地表现生活，它的审美重心偏于创作者的内心；电视剧则更适于写实化地再现生活，它的审美重心在于世界的本真形态。因此，电视剧天然的是现实主义题材创作的视听艺术领地，我们的现实生活有多精彩，电视剧的镜头就有多广阔。
近几年，现实主义题材的电视剧创作蔚为大观，无论是《大江大河》的史诗气魄，还是《山海情》的动人情怀；无论是《在一起》的宏阔格局，还是《小舍得》的心酸家事；无论是《石头开花》的乡土风情，还是《装台》的都市万象；无论是《破冰行动》的热血豪情，还是《人民的名义》的正义凛然，都可以成为聚集人们目光的现象级作品。如此你方唱罢我登场的现实主义电视剧创作热潮， 一方面给影视人以信心，他们不必再为仙侠剧、年代剧、古装剧、偶像剧、抗日剧的套路重复而烦恼；但另一方面也会让影视人揪心：什么样的现实题材剧才可能成为现象剧?
因为显而易见，这些成功作品的不同之处甚至要多于它们的共同之处。但人们可以确定的是，和《新星》《渴望》《外来妹》这些前辈作品相比，当下的现实主义题材作品很少会出现全民追捧的“街谈巷议”现象，而更可能成为网络世界持续接力的热议话题。这其实也是所有电视剧生产与传播最有意味的当下境遇。
**一、对话现实：电视剧传播的“网络”境遇**
对于电视剧与网络剧的概念界分今天看起来已经变得颇为困难。大多数情况下，是否具有活泼灵动的网感，是在电视频道还是在视频网站上首播，都已经不是两者之间的必然区隔。或许，电视剧的外延已经扩展到不分传播平台属性的所有视听剧类型。由此带来的不争事实是，网民正在替代观众成为电视剧的主体受众。“截至2020年12月，我国网络视频(含短视频)用户规模达9.27亿，较2020年3月增长7633万，占网民整体的93.7%。”创当手机屏幕替代电视屏幕，这种电视剧的收看方式转变其实对应着受众主体意识的崛起。
这种革命性的变化首先表现为视频用户观剧行为的自主选择性大大增强。他们不再像前辈那样守在电
\[基金项目\]本文受江苏省社会科学基金项目“移动短视频生产的形态、审美及规制研究”(20XWB002)资助。
**\[作者简介\]刘永永：南京师范大学新闻与传播学院教授、博士生导师、广播电视系主任，南京影视家协会副主席**
视机前日复一日地守候传统电视机构的供给，也不必忍受或打发无聊的广告时间。在浩瀚迅疾的视频网站内容选择面前，遥控器的按键选择显得单薄而无力。从前是“有或没有”，现在则是“喜欢或不喜欢”，受众的自由裁量权变得无比强大。所以视频网站的擂台相对公平，粗糙的、低劣的电视剧产品在网络世界的命运至多是昙花一现后的沉沦。
其次表现为观剧行为的双向互动。“媒介受众，在今天不再只是文化内容的欣赏者与消费者，而是参与到生产实践的具体环节之中。”?只要用户愿意，他们就可以从单纯的受众变身为接受美学意义上的内容生产参与者。这使得原本电视剧内容的闭合空间豁然洞开，充满再创造与再传播的想象空间。
一是交互观剧，大部分视频网站都提供给用户灵活的弹幕参与方式——发表意见或是角色扮演。 _一个_ 简单的判定电视剧是否具有热度的方法就是看屏幕上的弹幕密集程度，弹幕稀少意味少人问津，弹幕纷纷则意味广受瞩目。前不久结束首轮播出的《觉醒年代》就非常典型，一边是电视剧中革命先辈在历史现场的慷慨陈词， _一_ 一边是当代青年以弹幕方式呈现的热烈回应，构成了让人感佩不已的跨越时空的青春对话。
二是倍速观剧，用户们可以打破电视剧创作者制定的时空叙事法则，大多数情况下以加速的方式跳跃前行。这种情形下用户的注意力往往聚焦在对于情节的迅速把握上，而演员的表演与细节的陈设则容易被忽略。这让有些电视剧“注水”般的冗长叙事变得毫无意义。关于倍速时段的视频网站后台数据分析，则可以清晰地告诉生产者其作品的有效时间与无效时间。
三是片段观剧，片花不再是电视剧生产者的专利，用户们可以随意裁剪他们所认为的精彩片段这些片段就从完整的剧情中脱域出来，成为独立传播的影像形式。一方面，这种传播如果出于商业的用途，有一定程度上的侵权嫌疑；但另一方面，这些相对独立的用户“片花”，事实上更能体现受众的喜好心理，反过来又成为助推电视剧本尊的传播—―很多用户正是被“片花”吸引，进而转场到对于全剧的追看。
四是转译观剧，这种方式是在片段观剧基础上的进一步延伸。用户对电视剧文本会进行“随心所欲”的二次创作，将视听素材重新拼接组合，以画外音、字幕、表情包等方式嵌人自己对于电视剧的思考。这时，电视剧的意义阐释权便为生产者与用户所共同享有，对于作品的理解，他们可以是心心相印，可以是
别开生面，当然也可以是大相径庭。
电视剧主客交融的网络境遇似乎正可以解释，为什么近年来现实主义题材作品会广受欢迎?今天，随着互联网技术的高速发展，网络空间不再仅仅是桌面互联网时代偏于信息检索与娱乐交互的虚拟空间，同时也是移动互联网时代连接大千世界与生活万象的实体空间—―突如其来的新冠疫情更揭示了网络空间实体化的诸多可能。换言之，网络空间实际上成为人们生活的第二现实，它不仅映射色彩斑斓的生活，更在时空控制的层面上成为生活本身。于是，现实主义题材电视剧所艺术再现的“现实”，与人们线上与线下浑然一体的“现实”，会自然而然地碰撞对话。当艺术创作的“你的现实”无限接近于“我的现实”时，便会一石激起千层浪，激荡起人们的广泛共鸣；而当“你的现实”与“我的现实”相去甚远或是南辕北辙时，这样的电视剧作品便会悄无声息，被淹没在网络视听产品的斑斓景观中。
**二、多重面向：现实主义电视剧的时空延展**
网络世界让“我的现实”凸显于众生世界，其越来越明显基于算法逻辑驱动的互联网离/合机制，又让不同的“我”因为共同的兴趣或是相似的境遇汇聚在不同的群体场域。因此，类似于20世纪90年代初电视剧《渴望》所引发的全民热议的文化现象，今天已很难出现。当下热播的现实主义电视剧在某种意义上更是基于不同场域不同人群的类型化创作。延展到不同时空的现实主义电视剧创作，正像一扇扇渐次打开的窗户，人们从每一个窗口都可以看到别致的风景。它们是多重面向的，但一定又是彼此关联的。
其一是史诗型叙事，这一类型的创作以《大江大河》《大江大河2》《山海情》等为代表。无论是《大江大河》所表现的改革开放中工业企业的乘风破浪，还是《山海情》所表现的“干沙滩”变成“金沙滩”的农村传奇，它们都偏重于展开宏阔的当代史叙述，将个人命运的变化与历史命运的变迁紧密地交织在一起。它们表现的不是严格时间意义上的当下，但却将当下的解释权交给历史，试图回答我们如何一路走来，为何这样走来，将来会走向哪里?恢复高考、联产承包、企业改革、对外开放、农民工进城、荒漠治理……这是改革开放以来的当代史大事记，但又是每一个时代亲历者的备忘录。往事并不如烟，它们关涉着每一个当代中国人的生存状态，也因此具有了澎湃
汹涌的现实主义感召力。
其二是实录型叙事，这一类型的创作以《在一起》《石头开花》等为代表。这两部剧都被冠以时代报告剧的称谓，且都采用了10个单元剧的连缀形式。让人耳目一新的电视剧形态，显然适应了网络用户被移动短视频影响并形塑的审美习惯；而在内容表现上，单元剧的集合正像文艺的轻骑兵，以迅捷有力的方式集结并展开生活的全景叙述。《在一起》所表现的生死场的紧张抢救、医护人员的千里驰援、防疫战线的精准搜索、社区工作者的热忱服务等，形成了众志成城的“在一起”叙事格局，“仿佛是十指连心的隐喻，张开手掌，每根手指都是一支射向无形敌人的利箭；攥紧拳头，那双巨手又会聚集起源源不断的在一起的伟力”图；《石头开花》则通过异地搬迁、破除迷信、“流量扶贫”、大学生村官等故事单元，从不同侧面生动活泼地表现脱贫攻坚伟大事业的艰辛与收获。兼具新闻性与文学性的时代报告剧既是对重大现实事件的关切，也是对人们需要对现实认知的回应。
其三是问题型叙事，这一类型的创作勇于直面现实中存在的种种问题，进而映射现代人的生存状态。因其切口往往小而深，问题型叙事往往蕴含了电视剧创作者对现实世界的深层思考，带有了文学意义上的批判现实主义色彩。比如《小欢喜》《小别离》《小舍得》系列三部曲聚焦千家万户都揪心的孩子教育问题，无论高考、出国留学还是小升初，话题的发酵不仅在剧内，更在感同身受的广大受众的日常生活中；比如《装台》《安家》等电视剧聚焦当代都市百姓酸甜苦辣的生活实景，两部剧的叙事视角都别出机杼，前者以装台人的视角看西安城戏里戏外的人生世态，后者以房产中介人的视角看被“买房”“卖房”困扰的家长里短，小人物的悲欢离合极易打动现实中背负重重生活压力的普通人；比如《人民的名义》《巡回检察组》《破冰行动》等电视居则聚焦近年来中央大力整治的反腐问题，反腐人员的勇气、智慧、奉献与牺牲，对手的贪婪、狡诈、阴险与顽抗，正邪较量的对抗情节让这类剧拥有步步惊心的戏剧张力，既让人们看到现实中让人触目惊心的阴暗角落，也让人们感受到中央治理腐败沉病下猛药的决心。
其四是反思型叙事，这一类型的创作通常以犯罪悬疑剧的样态出现，典型的作品如《隐秘的角落》《沉默的真相》《无证之罪》等。这些作品往往由网络小说改编而来——前述三部剧就分别改编自紫金陈的小
说《坏小孩》《长夜难明》《无证之罪》，它们拥有忠实的原著粉丝，不仅将小说扑朔迷离的情节进行了影像移植与改编，也将小说个人化的现实主义思考带人了电视剧作品中。几部剧都有一个共同的叙事策略，即将反面或中性主人公推人到犯罪的极端情境中，放大他们在现实中的沉沦与挣扎，也借此拷问他们复杂的人心和人性。这样的近乎残酷逼仄的拷问不仅让戏变得好看，也让屏幕前的人们反思自身的生存处境，反思人与人、人与世界之间的彼此关系。
**三、分众传播：现实主义电视剧生产的路径思维**
别林斯基论文学的现实主义曾说：“文学应该是社会生活的表现，应该是社会赋予它以生活，而不是它赋予社会以生活。”\[4考察现实主义电视剧的多重面向，我们可以发现，凡是成功的现象级作品，都真切地映射了当下世界的现象、事件或者问题，并无一例外地在网络世界引发热烈的回响。如前所述，这是“你的现实”与“我的现实”协奏的交响乐章。于是，对于电视剧创作者而言，其实只要全身心地潜人生活，在芸芸众生关切的现实话题中深人发掘，就一定能够提炼表现出动人的故事图景，也一定能够在网络世界的不同文化圈落中赢得受众的青睐与支持。有些时候，这一文化圈落的力量已经足以独自支撑现象级作品的诞生；有些时候，当电视剧的话题触碰更广阔的人群，它的反响就足以破圈而出，比如《觉醒年代》中先辈们激情燃烧的青春岁月与峥嵘往事，就让一百年之后的当下年轻人由衷地感动与向往——关于青春的叙事从来都是超越时空与文化阻隔的。
这里以军事题材电视剧为例说明，近年来这一类型的现实主义创作整体影响力显然不够。但事实上，军事影视作品呼应着广阔的军队建设现实，应该有着更充沛的开掘空间。“中国力量走出去”，与雇佣兵、恐怖分子的较量，的确有着步步惊心的矛盾冲突旋涡。但倘若摄影机的目光群集于此，也很可能会带来观众的审美疲劳。放眼四望，中国军队紧张而热烈的历史与现实情境处处溢动着影像故事的生机。高原雪山的巡防，辽远海疆的驻守，莽莽草原的驰骋，茂密森林的穿梭，军人的身影与广袤的国土交映生辉，这是地域情境的陌生化；高科技武器装备科研人员的日夜攻关，航天员的激烈竞逐与太空漫游，军事院校学
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精神，忍着头痛、呼吸困难等种种高原反应，坚持创作。
幸福蓝海克服困难制作脱贫剧标杆《石头开花》在拿到《怒放的山花》单元剧本的初稿后，制作团队克服疫情带来的影响，先后到安徽和贵州两地勘景。贵州省黔西南州安龙县坡老村是该单元故事的原型地，喀斯特地貌、山地成片，拍摄难度极大，大型车辆和发电车在狭窄的盘山路上行进，不能排除遇险可能。而安徽另外一处拍摄地，拍摄的便利性和安全性都更高，虽然能基本满足剧本需求，但写实性略逊于原型地。勘景小分队将两处情况比较汇报后，项目领导小组当机立断，要求制作团队克服一切困难，开赴贵州完成剧集拍摄，力争将《石头开花》做成一部可为标杆的脱贫攻坚剧。在这样的制作要求下，各单元都将剧作的“真实性”和“典型性”放在首位。
**四、发力新媒体市场**
为适应市场需求，提升项目孵化能力，幸福蓝海成立了类型化工作小组专攻网络影视剧，与腾讯、优酷、爱奇艺、今日头条等互联网平台密切接触，熟悉网络影视剧的题材方向、制作体量、传播营销、分账
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员的刻苦训练，有军人的地方，就有攻坚克难。这是题材情境的陌生化；与其他国家的联合军事演习，扬我国威的国际军事比武赛事，遍及世界各地的维和任务，救灾抢险的非战争军事行动。即便是和平时期，跃动的战斗身影也会时刻闪现。这是战斗情境的陌生化。以上任一陌生化情境的深挖创作，都有可能引发网络世界中大量军迷的追捧，更何况，其间燃烧的青
规则，快速培养团队的专业水平，打造具备互联网传播价值的作品。此外，幸福蓝海与互联网平台继续探讨新的台网播出模式，尝试定制模式，从源头共同策划。除了与腾讯、优酷、爱奇艺三大互联网平台保持密切合作，幸福蓝海还尝试与字节跳动、芒果 TV等平台全线合作，还与网络电影行业头部公司如新片场、淘梦、奇树有鱼、映美传媒等公司建立业务联系，寻求合作的机会。目前，幸福蓝海将网络剧和网络电影作为内容生产的重要方向，在内容生产中既把握好主基调，又满足互联网用户的需求。2020年，幸福蓝海出品的《冰糖炖雪梨》在优酷剧集热度榜连创第一。
幸福蓝海始终坚持在精品生产上有系统部署、有计划、有步骤，始终强调围绕重大节点、重大主题，提前谋划，及时推出有思想、有温度、有品质的作品，积极发出主流声音。未来，幸福蓝海将继续践行以人民为中心的创作导向，坚持为人民服务的创作宗旨，坚持描绘追求美好生活和弘扬家国情怀的创作方向，打造更多更好的现实主义电视剧精品力作。
**{责任编辑：单文婷)**
春光焰当然可能会集聚更多年轻人的目光。
无论如何，近年来的现实主义电视剧创作已经呈现出明显的基于网络路径的分众传播思维，这为中国电视剧产业指明了海阔天空的发展方向。“文章合为时而著，歌诗合为事而作”，之于广大的文艺工作者而言，现实主义表现的力量既来自无限丰富的外部世界，更来自被浪奔浪流的时代大潮激荡的个人内心。
**注释：**
\[1\]第47次《中国互联网络发展状况统计报告》(全文)\[R/OL\]. 中华人民共和国国家互联网信息办公室官网，\[2021-03-04\].http：//www.cac.gov.cn/2021-02/03/c\_1613923423079314.htm.
\[2\]梁爽，孙俊青.电视剧短视频化的观众体验转向与内容生产趋势研究\[T\].中国电视，2021(03)：72-76.
\[3\]刘永昶.为历史存证为时代立心――评时代报告剧《在一起》\[\].中国电视，2021(01)：23-26.
\[4\]\[俄\]别林斯基.别林斯基选集(第2卷)\[M\].上海：上海译文出版社，1979：421.
**{责任编辑：单文婷)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 和田地区中职学生思想道德教育研究
**海热提·衣明**
**(和田地区师范学校、和田地区中等职业学校交新疆和田 848000)**
**\[摘要\]思想道德教育是学校及社会十分关注的问题，中等职业教育作为教育的重要组成部分，越来越成为国家经济发展不可或缺的力量。但是，由于受到宗教传统教育的影响，社会上存在着对中职学生的严重偏见，认为中职生的素质差，很多人都戴上有色眼镜去看待中职学生，认为中职学校招生对象都是在他们看来的所谓的差生。在社会与家庭的双重压力下，职业学校在教育上和管理上就比较困难。因此，如何帮助和引导中职学生树立正确的成才观、人生观和价值观，以改进中等职业学校的思想道德素质、提高中职学生的整体素质，意义十分重大。**
**《中共中央国务院关于进一步加强和改进未成年人思想道德建设的若干意见》指出：加强和改进中职学生思想道德教育，提高中职学生思想道德素质，对于全面实施科教兴国战略和人才强国战略，提高劳动者素质，培养中国特色社会主义事业合格建设者和可靠接班人，具有重大而深远的战略意义。因此，作为教师的我们应该从学生实际出发，调查研究学生的具体情况，做到具体问题具体分析，逐步提高学生的思想道德素质。**
**和田地区中等职业学校是南疆片区一所普通的中等职业技术学校， 自2006年挂牌成立以来，主要招收对象为农村初中毕业生和具有同等学历的青少年，他们在短短的三年之后将直接跨进社会，步入职业生涯，学校的思想道德状况如何，直接关系到我区的社会稳定。因此为了更好地适应社会对现代人才技术的要求，在中等职业教育中加强对学生思想道德建设、更新中职学生的观念就显得尤其重要。**
**一、认真探究中职学生思想现状及原因**
**(一)思想现状**
**我校中职学生招收的主要对象是农村初中毕业生和具有同等学力的青少年，目前在校生有650 人， 平均年龄在十六七岁左右。通过调查发现，他们总体上的思想**
**状况是好的，他们积极向上，团结友爱，文明礼貌，但部分中职生日常行为习惯、心理素质、意志力较差，主要有以下几方面：**
**1.学习基础和学习能力差。由于我校目前的教育以双语授课为主，从招收的中职生来看，他们大部分在初中阶段没有打下或养成良好的学习基础和学习习惯，学习主动性、积极性差，不爱学习，不会学习。进入中职阶段后，文化基础课如基础汉语、汉语听说和口语等课程普遍较差，因此，这对他们将来的专业基础课和专业技能课来说，在理解和实践上造成了一定困难。**
**2.心理素质较差，意志力薄弱。由于他们大部分都是没有进入高中阶段的农村初中毕业生，年龄普遍较小，基本上都是在 15-19岁之间，年纪轻，阅历浅，分辨能力不强，遇到事情不知道该如何解决，不谋求解决，只是感觉比较迷茫，只是退缩或放弃。还有部分中职生认为只有升入普高，才是优秀生，进入中职，感觉很自卑，从而自暴自弃，意志消沉，情感冷淡，遇到挫折就更难承受了。**
**3.自控能力较差。有部分学生纪律观念淡薄，旷课、逃学、早恋、乱扔垃圾、打架斗殴、破坏公物、鄙视教师的现象发生，时常有违规行为，且屡教不改。**
**4.中职生年纪小，社会阅历少，个别学生对民族宗教政策了结不透，思想上认识不清，辨别是非、自觉抵御渗透的能力还比较低。具体表现为个别学生穿戴宗教色彩浓厚的服饰等。**
**(二)原因分析**
**1.社会因素。随着社会主义市场经济改革深入，些不健康甚至是有害的产品在市场上流行，中职生经常出入娱乐性网吧，沉溺于网络虚拟世界，沉溺于网上游戏、网上交友等活动，致使学生逃学、旷课现象经常发生。还有少数中职生同时受到浓厚的宗教氛围、三股势力、非法宗教活动的渗透影响，经常发生违纪违法行为。**
**2.家庭因素。就我校而言，很多学生都来自于贫困农牧民信教家庭，他们要么是因为家庭经济不能支持，要么是家庭宗教氛围浓厚，这使在学校所受的教育不能在家庭得到足够的支持而迷茫无助等。也有部分学生是由于家长对其溺爱、袒护或采取粗暴压制的教育方式，给学生提供了不良的榜样。**
**3.学校因素。学校的教育观念和教育方法不当也会使学生的思想道德出现以上状况。部分教师从思想上放松对学生学习和生活上的关心和关爱，只注重管理学生，忽视对学生的思想教育，没能将管理与教育有机结合起来。对宗教问题的严重后果认识不清或警惕性不高等，监管力度不够，使部分中职生产生消极情绪。**
**二、新形势下加强中职学校学生思想道德工作的对策和措施**
**(一)以先进文化为引领，进一步完善德育工作制度**
**1.淡化宗教氛围，确保学校大局稳定。要在和田地委行署的正确领导下，始终把民族宗教问题作为维护学校稳定的一项重要工作来抓，不断加强对民族宗教工作的领导，依法加强对宗教事务的管理，贯彻落实“学校师生一律不允许信教”的要求，做好师生思想工作。同时结合目前的工作实际和和田地区特殊的区情，大力宣讲党的各项惠民政策，增强反分裂斗争宣传教育的针对性、生动性和时效性，坚持学校和社会齐抓、教师和家长共管的原则，扎实抓好青少年学生群体的意识形态领域反分裂斗争的教育活动。对女性穿戴吉力巴甫服装、蒙面的现象和男生留大胡须的现象，要坚决予以禁止。**
**在学校，先进文化要通过师生的精神面貌以及整洁**
**的仪容仪表体现出来。我们维吾尔族的服饰是很漂亮的，穿得黑黑的，那不是维吾尔族的服饰。我们一定要通过校纪校规教育和管理好我们的师生。我们的师生可能存在这样那样的不适应，这是需要个过程，但是我们必须解决那些与大学精神、现代文化不相适应的实际问题，我们要从学校校园环境、从大学教师和大学生的身份、从现代先进文化的引领等角度来讲道理、做工作。**
**2.在机制上不断改进，形成高效的领导体制和工作机制。学校应从培养什么人、怎样培养人的战略高度出发，把青少年思想道德教育工作纳入学校总体发展总体规划，列入重要议事日程，统筹领导青少年思想道德教育工作。健全党委统一领导、党政群齐抓共管、有关部门各负其责、全校教职工参与的领导体制和工作机制，加大投入力度，健全政策保障，对学校青少年思想道德教育工作统一规划、组织协调、宏观指导和督促检查。**
**3.在理念上不断更新，逐步完善思想道德工作制度。确立“以人为本”的思想道德理念，尊重学生的生命价值，尊重学生的人格尊严，尊重学生的个性发展，面向全体学生，促进学生全面健康发展。在新的教育理念下，改革思想道德教育管理体制，建立健全思想道德管理制度，进一步规范学生思想道德行为，促进学生思想道德工作的开展。**
**(二)营造思想道德教育工作的良好环境**
**新疆地处祖国的边陲，经济社会发展比较缓慢，况且是少数民族聚居区，学校的思想政治工作显得尤为重要。既要自觉维护民族团结和祖国统一，牢固树立三个离不开的思想，还要进一步加强思想道德建设，培养学生形成良好的世界观、人生观和价值观。**
**1.大力改善办学条件。近年来，党委高度重视学校硬件建设，大力改善办学条件，取得了令人瞩目的成果。从2009年起投入2400 多万元扩建、改造了我校的办学条件，建造学生公寓楼、职教楼、综合教学楼、综合运动场等，建筑面积达两万平方米。全校三分之二的校园面貌得到极大的改善，有力地推进了教育资源的均衡分布。此外，我校还积极推进标准化学校建设，加大教育信息化建设投入，搭建教育资源共建共享平台。目前已建有信息中心，完善了“教育网络平台”建设，配备了多媒体课件开发系统、校长办公系统、财务软件等。**
**2.重视校园文化软建设。优秀的校园文化对学校和**
**谐的育人环境的形成起着决定性作用，对学生德智体美劳等综合素质的发展和创新能力的培养起着潜移默化的作用。所以，学校把校园文化建设与德育工作有机的结合起来，做了扎实的工作。**
**(1)以校训校风为载体，形成学校精神文化。多年来学校根据实际情况，提出了“自强不息、求实创新”的校训和“理解、践行”的校风，扎实开展校园文化、班级文化建设，努力培养学校人文精神。**
**(2)以制度建设为载体，形成学校制度文化。加强制度文化建设是为了保障学校教育的有章、有序和有效，其目的是先用制度来强化，而后用文化来内化。近年来，学校致力于各项规章制度的建立，完成了3编90多条5万字的《和田地区中等职业技术学校制度》汇编。制度体现了三个特点： “全”，涉及学校管理的各个方面； “细”，内容具体明确，操作性强； “亚”，纪律严明，赏罚分明。同时，为了便于教职工了解和掌握各项规章制度，学校将之装订成册，人手一份。平时加强学习，抓过程管理、抓内化自律。从而形成了自我激励、自我约束、自我管理的制度文化，有利于营造一种公正、公平感，有利于形成正义向上的校风。**
**(3)以各项活动为载体，丰富校园文化生活。根据我区的实际情况，根据学生年龄特征开展了一系列活动，在开展“热爱伟大祖国，建设美好家园”主题活动和“一反两讲三促进”活动，定期请专家到我校讲解法律知识的同时，通过军训、校运会来帮助学生掌握现代军事基本知识，培养学生艰苦奋斗、文明节约的良好习惯，利用节日、纪念日开展主题系列活动，对学生进行爱国主义和集体主义教育，弘扬了革命传统。**
**(三)不断加强教师队伍的思想道德建设**
**师德教育是搞好德育工作的前提和关键，因此搞好师资队伍建设便成为学校队伍建设的核心。没有一支作风优良、思想道德高尚的师资队伍，就不会有较高的教学科研水平，也不可能培养出高质量高素质的人才。**
**1.不断建立和完善制度，进一步探索加强教师思想道德建设的新思路。**
**(1)建立和完善激励机制。对教书育人成绩突出的教师予以表彰和奖励，并在教师年度考核、职务晋升等方面加以体现。**
**(2)建立和完善考核机制。把师德师风建设作为精神文明建设及教育教学工作考核的重要内容，落实到**
**师资管理的政策导向中。**
**(3)建立和完善监控机制，制定规范的教学管理制度，对违反师德师风的教师要进行必要的批评和相应的处罚，对情节严重并造成恶劣影响的要坚决实行“一票否决制”。**
**同时，学校还每周定期召开政治理论学习讨论会，探索研究提高思想道德教育的方法、方式和有效途径。**
**2.坚决抵御宗教对教育阵地的冲击和影响**
**在加强德育队伍的培训和学习和对年轻德育工作者的在岗指导和培训的同时，研究制定《关于防范宗教向校园渗透的意见》，使意见内容操作性更强、更加管用，明确学校师生必须严格遵守国家和自治区有关规定，不得信教、不得在校园内从事任何形式的宗教活动，有效防范宗教向校园渗透，坚决抵御宗教对教育阵地的冲击和影响；依据上级主管部门的相关规定，结合学校实际，制定实施学校师生着装规范和标准，对学校师生仪容仪表提出明确要求，体现现代文化对师生精神风貌的引领和要求。学校要下大力气，采取教育与管理想结合，以教育为主的方式，分层分级解决不符合教师职业、学生身份的着装问题。领导干部义不容辞要带头做到，同时，教育亲属、子女做示范，然后教育单位职工首先做到。对学生，首先做学生党员和学生干部的工作，起到示范作用，再做其他学生工作，一定要坚持用良好的师德学风引领学校育人环境，创建文明健康的育人阵地。**
**中职学校的思想道德教育是一个长期的、复杂的、曲折的过程。我们对学生不能够进行很好的教育，分裂势力就会抢夺走我们的学生。所以我们必须善于抓住中职生的特点，结合和田地区和学校特殊的实际，不断有针对性、时效性地加强组织领导，只要坚持以爱心、耐心和信心来教育广大学生，就一定能把中职学生的思想道德水平提高到一个崭新的高度。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]韩源，侯德芳.新世纪的高校思想政治教育\[M\].西南财经大学出版社，2002.**
**作者简介：海热提·衣明(1969-)，男，维吾尔族，和田地区师范学校、和田地区中等职业学校文科部政教教研组教师，研究方向：思想政治。**
**收稿日期：2012-05-13** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **关中一天水经济区物流体系建设的研究\***
吴姗娜
**(陕西工业职业技术学院，陕西咸阳712000)**
**摘 要：该文依据关中一天水经济区的定位和发展思路，阐述了物流建设的必要性和可行性；通过客观分析目前取得的一些成绩，指出了物流发展在思想观念、现有物流企业、电子信息化程度和物流人才等方面存在的问题。在实践调查的基础上，参阅大量物流相关方面的文献资料，具体结合理论与实际，进而提出构建物流体系建设的建议与对策。**
**关键词：关中一天水；物流；体系**
**中图分类号：F061.5 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1671-2404(2012)50-0077-05**
**物流业作为21世纪的“新兴产业”和“黄金产业”，对社会经济和企业经营的影响力越来越大，其发展水平已成为衡量一个国家、地区综合国力和现代化程度的重要标志。关中一天水经济区是中国西部地区经济基础好、自然条件优越、人文历史深厚、发展潜力比较大的地区，经济区地处亚欧大陆桥中心。因此，必须加快关中一天水经济区经济转型和结构升级，促进先进制造业与服务业融合联动发展，发挥关中一天水经济区作为中国承东启西，沟通南北的重要物流集散地和亚欧大陆桥最重要的物流枢纽中心的优势，推动物流产业高速发展，实施大物流，大交通战略，打造全球商贸物流中心和全国最大的国际型陆港经济区。**
**本文从关中一天水经济仅物流业发展现状入手，调查问卷法、专家访谈法找出关中一天水地区物流业发展中的薄弱环节，建立评价指标体系，结合SPSS 软件运用因子分析法，分析主要影响因子，最后给出具有针对性的政策建议。**
**关中一天水物流业发展现状**
**近几年，关中一天水经济区建设取得了重要进展。2010年，实现生产总值6831 亿元，完成城镇固定资产投资5590亿元，分别增长14.5%和**
**收稿日期：2012-03-31**
**作者简介：吴姗娜，经济学硕士，副教授，主要从事国际贸易与电子商务等方面的研究。F-mail：[email protected]**
**\*陕西省教育厅课题“陕西特色文化产品 B2C电了商务平台的开发”(课题编号：2010JK036)** 书 二 术期刊数据库
**28.7%，均高出全国平均水平4.2个百分点；城镇居民人均可支配收人和农民人均纯收入达到19 161元和4882 元，分别增长16.3%和21.2%，高于全国平均水平5和6.3个百分点。(如表1：2010年关中一天水经济区各市区 GDP 总量)**
**(1)完成了一系列具体规划。陕西省政府以规划为先导，结合应对国际金融危机和落实“十二五”发展目标，先后制定了关中城市群建设规划、关中高速公路网规划、陕西省渭河全线整治规划等专项规划，并与工业和信息化部联合编制了关中先进制造业基地发展规划，特别是颁布了西咸新区总体规划。**
**表1 2010年关中一天水经济区各市区 GDP 总量**
| **城市** | **经济总量** | **排名** | **城市** | **经济部量** | **排名** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **城市** | **(亿元)** | **排名** | **城市** | **增幅(%)** | **排名** |
| **西安** | **3241.49** | **第一** | **铜川** | **16.3** | **第一** |
| **咸阳** | **1098.7** | **第二** | **渭南** | **15.5** | **并列第二** |
| **宝鸡** | **976.09** | **第三** | **杨凌** | **15.5** | **并列第二** |
| **渭南** | **839** | **第四** | **西安** | **14.5** | **并列第四** |
| **天水** | **298** | **第五** | **咸阳** | **14.5** | **并列第四** |
| **铜川** | **180** | **第六** | **宝鸡** | **14.4** | **第六** |
| **杨凌** | **47.3** | **第七** | **天水** | **11.0** | **第七** |
**(2)产业结构进一步优化。航空航天、装备制造、旅游、现代农业等优势产业继续壮大，其中落户西安民用航天科技产业基地和航空产业基地的企业达698家，总产值比两年前增加了38%。高新技术、文化产业和现代服务业发展迅速，西安高新区科技创新竞争力居全国107个开发区第三位，西安成**
**为四家国家级软件产业和出口基地之一，依托西安国际港务区设立的综合保税区成为物流产业发展的重要基地。**
**(3)基础设施得到明显改善。关中地区的铁路、高速公路、市政路网和航空设施更加完善，开通了西安至郑州的高铁，西安地铁二号线正式运行，即将建成的西安咸阳国际机场新航站楼和第二条跑道，将使机场设计旅客吞吐量达到3100万人次，比原有能力和目前实际水平分别提高210%和72%，形成了以西安为中心的“2小时交通圈”和省内当日往返、周边中心城市当日到达的“一日交通圈”。**
**_2_ 陕西省各市区物流业发展的因子分析**
**影响物流业发展有很多因素，物流业几乎涵盖了第一、二、三产业的所有领域和部门，主要包括有**
**交通运输、仓储、邮电通信等行业。由于物流业复杂性和影响因素的多样性，对物流业的评价必须采用多指标的综合模型。本文参考国内外现行的主要物流综合评价模式，运用调查问卷和专家打分的方法，最终选取衡量物流业发展的九个统计指标，并进行因子分析，指标值根据陕西统计年鉴统计整理得出，见图1和表2。**
**图1 陕西省各市区物流业发展的统计指标体系**
**表2 陕西省各市区物流业发展现状评价指标**
| **市指标区** | **X1** | **X2** | **X3** | **X4** | **X5** | **X6** | **X7** | **X8** | **X9** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **市指标区** | **(亿元)** | **(亿元)** | **(万吨公里)** | **(万元)** | **(公里)** | **(万元)** | **(公里)** | **(人)** | **(辆)** |
| **西安** | **2724** | **2500** | **2111236** | **1091925** | **12378** | **2756480** | **9377** | **51844** | **106399** |
| **铜川** | **154** | **88** | **252828** | **61253** | **3427** | **109259** | **3243** | **3693** | **6190** |
| **宝鸡** | **807** | **639** | **594425** | **855351** | **14102** | **484470** | **10344** | **11351** | **13645** |
| **咸阳** | **873** | **802** | **1075866** | **357614** | **14976** | **569361** | **11635** | **14467** | **16030** |
| **渭南** | **637** | **509** | **2100164** | **267004** | **17388** | **572841** | **14923** | **13789** | **22432** |
| **汉中** | **416** | **238** | **420577** | **220380** | **14298** | **357907** | **11476** | **8600** | **9138** |
| **安康** | **275** | **273** | **205535** | **208815** | **19458** | **263899** | **14852** | **4589** | **4159** |
| **商洛** | **224** | **220** | **40882** | **364071** | **11759** | **179861** | **11469** | **4695** | **926** |
| **延安** | **728** | **557** | **441246** | **426797** | **14337** | **331208** | **11567** | **8263** | **7167** |
| **榆林** | **1302** | **850** | **3066570** | **1037651** | **21986** | **760191** | **24198** | **9002** | **27384** |
**由于表2中列出各项指标之间存在强相关性，相互之间干扰严重。本文运用因子分析法从具有共线性的多个指标中筛选出少数综合指标，使指标相互独立，各自反映企业经营活动的某一个方面，指标间不存在相互干扰，能更好地反映陕西省各市区物流业发展现状。**
**2.1 因子分析**
**利用 SPSS统计分析软件对表2中的数据进行运算，得到特征值与方差贡献表(略)，旋转前的因子载荷矩阵，及旋转后的因子载荷矩阵(a)如表3**
**所示。**
**表3 旋转后的因子载荷矩阵(a)**
| | | **成分** | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | | **1** | **2** | |
| | **X1** | **0.977** | **0.187** | |
| **X2** | | **0.988** | **0.083** | |
| **X3** | | **0.569** | **0.675** | |
| **X4** | | **0.739** | | |
| | **X5** | **\-0.013** | **0.937** | |
| | | **0.99I** | **0.032** | |
| | | **\-0.040** | **0.990** | |
| | **X8** | **0.979** | **\-0.080** | |
| **X9** | | **0.989** | **0.015** | |
**设两个公共因子分别为F1和F2，由旋转后的因子载荷矩阵(a)可以得出，F1在 X1、X2、X4、X6、X8 和X9上载荷值很高，即社会生产总值，全社会固定资产投资总额，交通运输、仓储和邮政业投资，邮电业务量，交通运输、仓储和邮政业从业人员人数，公路载货汽车拥有量上值较高，相关程度比较低，可命名为物流运作基础因子；F2 在X5和X7上载荷值比较高，即公路里程，农村投递线路总长度上值较高，可命名为物流运输空间条件因子。**
**基于陕西省各市区物流业公共因子的得分，以各公共因子的贡献率为权重，对两个因子进行加权求和，可得出陕西省各市区综合得分。**
**2.2 分析结果**
**表4 陕西省各市区因子得分及综合因子得分**
| **市区** | **F1** | **排名** | **F2** | **排名** | | **综合** **排序** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **西安** | **2.70892** | **1** | **\-0.51367** | **9** | **157.54** | **11** |
| **铜川** | **\-0.54478** | **8** | **\-1.75837** | **10** | **\-84.77** | **10** |
| **宝鸡** | **\-0.00363** | **3** | **\-0.10317** | **5** | **\-3.17** | **5** |
| **咸阳** | **\-0.01749** | **4** | **\-0.04654** | **4** | **\-2.44** | **4** |
| **渭南** | **\-0.15617** | **5** | **0.60175** | **2** | **7.23** | **3** |
| **汉中** | **\-0.49970** | **7** | **\-0.23321** | | **\-38.41** | **8** |
| **安康** | **\-0.75355** | **10** | **0.41383** | **3** | **\-36.10** | **7** |
| **商洛** | **\-0.63714** | **9** | **\-0.41446** | **8** | **\-52.32** | |
| **延安** | **\-0.28503** | **6** | **\-0.14840** | **6** | **\-22.35** | **6** |
| **榆林** | **0.18857** | **2** | **2.20225** | | **74.79** | **2** |
**通过对表4进行分析，可对陕西省物流业水平一般这一事实做出进一步解释：物流业整体发展水平不平衡，排名前三的是西安、榆林和渭南，最后三位是铜川、商洛和汉中。每个城市中F1和F2的指标发展也不均衡，例如西安市F1 指标值相对较高，但F2 值却不理想。根据表4指标中的数值，关中-天水物流业还存在很多急需解决的问题。虽然本文为了统计的方便，所选取的指标均为量化指标，但量变与质变之间相互影响，互相作用，因此可以从物流业的内外部环境上全面分析物流业所存在的问题，通过问题的解决，优化物流体系，获得更大的量变从而提高物流业的运作效率。**
**3 关中一天水物流业发展存在的问题**
**3.1 现代物流管理体制分散，缺乏整体规划**
**多年来，物流系统的管理权限被分为若干个部门，例如铁路直属铁道部、公路直属交通部、航空直属航空总局等管理，导致物流管理和资源过于分散化，物流企业运作效率低，物流的整体功能被大大削弱，阻碍了物流业的发展，难以形成社会性的物流配送体系。**
**3.2 信息化应用程度不高，物流业成本较高**
**物流作为新型产业，信息化起步比较晚，信息化的程度也偏低，很多物流企业都还处在手工操作，电话联系，人工装卸的低级阶段。许多现代技术，如EDI 的操作，条形码技术，全球卫星定位系统技术，射频技术等都还在学习和摸索的阶段。中国的人力资源成本相当于发达国家的五分之一，而生产成本中物流成本的含量却高于他们的三倍。在社会流通领域，美国物流成本占 GDP 的比重不到10%，而中国的比重快接近20%，这也比发达国家高出近一倍。**
**3.3 物流系统效率低下，技术装备水平不高**
**一是关于物流系统运行效率方面，主要反映在货物在途运输的时间、仓储时间、基础设施劳动生产率三方面。数据显示，关中一天水经济区区内，公路货车的运营速度普遍不足50公里，货运车辆的单车年工作量仅为3万吨公里，空驶率长期维持在50%左右，而在美国，一辆货车的工作总量相当于中国20辆车的工作量；另一方面，关中一天水经济区原材料、半成品及产成品的在库周转时间一般为3至6个月。二是关于物流基础设施方面，突出表现在设施不匹配，物流技术装备水平低。在仓储方面，70%的第三方物流企业主要以普通平房仓库为主，现代化立体自动化仓储设施配备率较低，具有冷藏、保鲜、空气调节功能的仓库则更少。在使用的搬运工具中，人工搬运车、手推叉车和普通起重设备占到70%以上，而可视屏叉车等现代化的搬运工具却较少采用。第三方物流企业的运输车辆配备中，70%为普通车辆，现代化的箱式货柜和集装箱拖头及特种运输车辆却很少。此外，标准化建设滞后也影响物流业的效率。物流行业是跨地区、跨行业的运作系统，标准化程度的不同不仅关乎到各种物流功能、要素之间的有效衔接和物流行业的协调发展，也在**
**很大程度上影响着物流系统的运作效率。**
**3.4 物流人才短缺，缺乏专业人才**
**关中一天水经济区物流人才短缺已经是一个不可回避的事实，高等院校开设物流专业本科及以上层次的教育规模较小，专职教育尤其贫乏。缺乏真正掌握现代物流知识，特别是全面的经济物流管理等知识的物流专业人才。由于总体物流从业人员素质偏低，大多数物流企业管理缺乏科学的运作手段和决策过程，导致物流企业内部管理混乱，从而造成物流企业运作成本过高。即使有高素质的人才，企业能否为这些人才提供良好的工作环境和相应的薪酬福利待遇留住人才也是一个问题。**
**_4_ 关中一天水物流业发展发展对策**
**4.1 制订现阶段物流业发展的总体规划**
**一个完善的社会化物流网络的建立和健康有序的物流市场环境的形成，离不开宏观的统筹和规划，也离不开适当的约束和制度，因此在坚持市场基础调解，促进企业自主运营的同时，要充分发挥政府宏观调控扶持，行业中介协调自律以及社会广泛参与监督的作用，为此为了更好的实施制定的总体规划，使有限的土地资源和优惠政策发挥最大效用。**
**4.2 建立适应现代化物流发展要求的物流管理体制，营造公平、有序的市场环境**
**国有交通运输企业为了充分发挥其在交通运输业的骨干作用，提高经济效益的规模，除了结构优化和较大范围的资产重组，形成若干个全国性、地区性的大公司，大集团之外，还要通过改组、联合、兼并、股份制、承包、租赁等多种形式，使众多国有小型交通运输企业找到适合自身发展的组织形式和管理模式。仓储业则要在现有仓库的改造基础上，通过仓储的社会化，产业化和标准化最终实现仓储业的现代化。**
**同时，政府应该鼓励其他所有制成分的物流企业的建立和发展，以打破过去那种独家经营或垄断经营的局面，促进统一开放、规范有序的物流市场环境的形成。另外，遵循 WTO 规则，建立符合国际规则的物流服务体系和企业运行机制，规范物流市场。充分发挥物流行业协会等中介组织的作用，加强行业自律。**
**_4.3_ 加强物流服务标准化建设**
**政府应指定技术标准管理机构针对物流基础设**
国家哲学社会
**施、装备制定基础性和通用性标准，如统一的计量标准、技术标准、数据传送标准等；对物流安全和环境制定强制性标准，其中包括推行洁净生产、洁净物流发展包括回收物流在内的循环经济引进资源和环境核算体制机制，以保证物流业的顺利进行和安全进行。同时，支持督促行业协会制定物流作业和服务的标准，统一物流用语以及物流从业人员的资格标准。物流行业通过物流作业规范、服务规范、绩效评价、费用核算等一系列标准的编制和实施，将优化物流运营管理，提高了物流服务质量，提升了现代物流的整体运作水平。标准为“帆”，更有力地推动了行业物流“扬帆前行”。建立完善的物流标准化平台。在物流基础设施、技术装备、信息化、企业管理等方面，尽快形成与国际接轨的现代物流软硬件标准体系。**
**_4.4_ 采取积极措施，推进物流信息化进程。**
**信息化是现代物流的生命线。加快、强化物流信息网络的建设，以物流信息化带动物流现代化。现代物流服务将更多地依靠现代物流技术与装备，发达国家的物流业已形成以系统技术为核心，以信息、运输、配送、装卸搬运、仓储、库存控制、包装等技术为支撑的现代物流装备技术格局。中国要在全球采购与供应链中扮演盟主角色，必须，集成现代物流技术与装备。加快建设公共物流信息平台，积极推进物流企业信息化建设。鼓励物流企业积极利用信息技术，实现企业经营网络化，**
**4.5 培育现代物流企业**
**对认定的连锁经营、物流配送、物流快件企业，其城区内配送车辆由市公安交通管理部门发放统一标识，在城区的行驶路线、停靠地点等实行绿色通道，给予市区通行权并减免道路养护费。积极利用国内外的资金、设备、技术和智力，学习借鉴国际现代物流企业先进的经营理念、管理经验和管理模式。鼓励支持跨国公司在我市设立分支机构。采取灵活措施引进国外著名的物流商参与物流园区、基地开发。**
**4.6 加强人才教育和培训**
**充分挖掘关中一天水经济区的人才优势，加快学历教育的发展。在80多所高校和100多个国家级和省级科研院所中培育高级物流人才。鼓励高等院校开展物流专业本科、硕士、博士等多层次的物流专业教育。加强从业人员的在职培训，鼓励通过不**
**同方式和渠道，培训市场急需的物流管理人才，开展物流职称考试评定工作。物流从业人员在职培训和职称考试培训由大连市物流协会统一组织和管理。**
**5 结论**
**关中一天水经济区发展现代物流业有着自身的突出优势，本文通过大量文献收集及问卷调查得出关中一天水经济区的发展现状，并构建了物流评价指标体系，运用 SPASS 中的因子分析法分析了各个指标的相关关系，找出主要的两个因子，并对关中-经济区的主要城市进行评价，发现问题给出对策，为关中-经济区的更好发展提供理论支持。**
**参考文献**
\[1\] **梁从友.关于物流业发展的思考T\].探索.2002(10)：23-25.**
12 **陕西统计局，2010年陕西省国民经济和社会发展统计公报\[R\].西安：陕西统计局出版社，2011：45-50.**
**王之泰.企业物流研究** \_ **JJ.商业时代.2009(2)：45-**
**李琰.承接东部产业转移进程中陕西物流能力分析\[J\].河北工业大学学报社科版，2012(7)：32-26.**
\[51 **Ming - Chun Zhou. Effects of power law logistic technolo** **gies on economic growth \[J\]. Nonlinear Analysis： Real World** **Applications， 2011(12)：682-694.**
\[6\] **Ye Li， Xiaodong Liu， Yan Chen. Selection of logistics** **center localion using Axiomatic Fuzzy Set and TOPSIS methodol-ngy in logisties management\[J\]. Expert Systems with Applica-tions， 2011(38)：7901-7908.**
**The Study on the Logistics System Building-up of the Guanzhong- Tianshui Economic Zone**
**Wu shanna**
**_(The College of Business Administration， Shanxi Industrial Vocationl College Xianyong Shanxi Propince712000， China)_**
**Abstract：The Guanzhong-Tianshui Economic Zone has ushered in a golden developmental opportunity. Ac-cording to its positioning and developmental planning， the author elucidates the necessity and feasibility of the logis-tics system building -up， analyzes the current accomplishments achieved， and points out the existing issues con-cerning the intrinsic perception， the status quo of the local logistics enterprises， the extent of electronic informatiza-lion， and the talented personnel. At last， the relevant suggestions and countermeasures are put forward by the au-thor，**
**Key words： Guanzhong - Tianshui Economic Zone； logisties； system** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 科学学术期Y叫2
CTTCE
**中外教育与大学管理研究**
**群体心理学视角下的“网红”现象分析**
_严 俊_ 李昊泽
\[摘 要\]\]景影响“网红”现象产生和发展的因素之一是群体心理。网络自由化的传播环境和参与群体的匿名性使得“网红”现象的群体心理机制比现实社会中的一般群体心理更加复杂化和多元化。结合传播学和社会心理学等相关理论，从群体心理学的视角对“网红”现象形成的群体心理因素进行深入分析后发现，媒介技术的发展只是导致“网红”现象中非理性传播行为的催化剂，核心的问题仍在于对网民群体心理规律的把握和网民主流文化价值观的塑造。面对“网红”现象存在的忧患，应培育符合社会主流价值观与消费主义合理融合的“网红”，充分掌握网民群体心理规律，向大众提供新的娱乐模式，加强对理性“个体人”受众的培养，重塑社会精英在受众群体中的领袖地位，以实现对“网红”文化的正向引导。
\[关键词\]网民；群体心理；“网红”；价值观
「收稿日期\]2018-10一30 \[文章编号\]1009-3311(2019)01-0129-08
\[作者简介\]严俊，吉林大学新闻与传播学院新闻系教授，博士生导师；李昊泽，吉林大学新闻与传播学院新闻与传播专业研究生。(长春 130012)
18世纪法国社会心理学家古斯塔夫·勒庞曾在他的著作《乌合之众：大众心理研究》中预言“我们将要进入的时代是一个群体的时代”①在勒庞笔下，群体是一群一直在无意识地漫游，会随时保持激情轻信于所有暗示，对理性的影响表现出无动于衷且潜在着巨大破坏力的生物。②尽管在这个网络技术发展迅速的时代不断有崭新的文化现象出现，但“网红”文化的热度近几年依旧不减。现如今提到“网红”，人们想到的已经不再是具体的某个人，而是一个群体和他们所引发的社会现象。从“网红”现象的产生背景、发展过程和价值追求来看，参与主体带有十分显著的群体特征。笔者在对相关文献进行学习和梳理时发现，网络文化研究近年来虽深受学者们的普遍关注，但绝大多数只是侧重于对网络文化的价值评判。目前，关于具体的“网红”现象研究比较零散，多为现象性地评述一些网络恶搞文化。如今“网红”现象的热度不断攀升，笔者认为这一方面得益于互联网这个具有交互性的传播媒介所具有的特性，另一方面就是网络群体聚集的群体心理因素。因此，深入分析“网红”现象的群体心理机制，从群体心理学的视角对网络传播行为进行正向引导，对于优化网络传播环境与构建和谐网络空间有着重要的理论价值和现实意义。本文在对“网红”现象相关研究
① \[法\]古斯塔夫·勒庞：《乌合之众：大众心理研究》，冯克利译，北京：中央编译出版社，2005年，第5页。
**②** \[法\]古斯塔夫·勒庞：《乌合之众：大众心理研究》，冯克利译，北京：中央编译出版社，2005年，第24页。 National Social Sciences lDatabase 129
文献进行梳理的基础上，总结“网红”群体的特点，并充分结合互联网的传播特质，从“网红”群体和受众群体两个方面总结“网红”现象的群体心理规律，以期更深入地认识“网红”现象中的狂欢行为。
、“网红”的概念、发展及特征
随着媒介技术的不断发展，“网红”一词近年来格外惹眼，成为了网络搜索率最高、传播速度最快的一个“热词”。。“网红”是网络塑造的明星，其方方面面都与互联网密不可分，掀起的网络文化浪潮也引起了社会大众及各界学者的广泛关注。
**(一)“网红”的概念**
目前，对于“网红”概念的定义，学者们一直莫衷一是，许多学者均给出从不同角度出发的定义。通过对前人研究的学习和对比，笔者认同吴明红学者的观点，她认为“网红”应该被界定为“通过有效利用网络的优势，在现实社会中不具有成名的各种必备条件，而在网络世界中表现杰出、成功地吸引了广大网民的眼球，引起网民关注，并且在网民中具有一定的影响力的个人”@笔者认为“网红”不应被定义为“特殊的个人”，虽然“网红”分为许多类型，也有各自不同的出现方式，②但“网红”们以互联网为共同传播媒介，以在网络上进行传播内容的编辑为共同活动，以满足个人在现实世界中无法得到满足的强烈表现欲望并获得一定的网络影响力或现实利益为共同目标。“网红”的这些共性符合群体特征。因此，笔者认为“网红”既可以是“个人”，也可以是一个“具有共性的群体”。本文将重点从群体的角度探讨“网红”现象中“网红”群体与受众群体的群体心理与行为。
**(二)“网红”的发展**
“网红”的发展离不开媒介技术的发展。回首互联网的发展历程，“网红”现象的发展脉络十分清晰。据相关研究显示，“网红”最早主要活跃在天涯、猫扑、新浪三个社交网站。③有名的网络推手陈墨将“网红”分为“文字、图片、宽屏”三代。④最早开始在网络论坛里挥洒激扬文字的网络写手痞子蔡和安妮宝贝就是通过文字形式安身立命成名的第一代“网红”中的代表；后来的芙蓉姐姐和罗玉凤凭借恶俗搞笑、奇葩言行夺得众人眼球，靠图片抢镜走红的第二代“网红”由此诞生；现如今依靠自身影响力在网络上掌控话语权的名人大Ⅴ和乘着网络新媒体的“小船”凭借短视频乘风破浪、短时间内就引来百万粉丝的 Papi 酱一族都是以自媒体抢夺众人眼球的第三代“网红”。从早期的文字博客到现在的视频播客，这显然不仅仅是简单的传播形式的更替，视频通俗易懂的表达方式打破了文字解码的局限性，直接的呈现形式也激发出了人们强烈的表现欲望，同时也增加了传播内容的娱乐化和夸张化。“网红”的发展史始终依托着媒介技术的发展，也同样是网络大众文化的发展史。
**(三)“网红”的特征**
“网红”作为网络世界里的明星群体，由于其使用的互联网所具有的特性，决定了其传播环境的自由性和多元性，因此要深入探究“网红”现象中的群体心理规律应充分结合“网红”群体的特征。
1.“草根”性。由于网络的“低门槛”和“易得性”“网红”在网络上走红之前都是没有知名度的普通受众，在网络平台成名后才开始具备或高或低的知名度和一定的传播效应，大部分还享受了随
① 吴明红：《论网络明星现象及成因》《北京邮电大学学报》(社会科学版)2006年第3期，第25一28页。
② 许程程：《传播心理学角视角下的“网络红人”现象研究》《科技传播》2015年第2期，第71页。
③ 曾耀农、徐脉沐：《网红现象及传播学解读》，《新闻窗》2017年第6期，第76一77页。
④ 陈墨：《闲谈网络红人(连载)》，http：//bbs. tianya. cn/post-free-682192-1.shtml。
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之而来的一些经济利益，传播内容主要迎合大众文化，粉丝群体也以普通受众为主。这些草根明星的出现反映出了普通受众心中小与真的一面，他们通过自己的方式向社会反映了普通大众不想被精英夺取一切话语权的心理。但同时草根大众作为个性内容的生产者和制作者，也使“网红”的传播内容偏向碎片化和娱乐化，使公众话语的价值与文化精神在某些情况下发生了一定程度的退步。
2.低龄化群体是主流。从“网红”的年龄层次上来看，80后、90后、00后的低龄群体占绝大部分。他们拥有膨胀的自我表现欲望和狂热的娱乐心理，这群低龄大军在网络匿名性的保护下使“网红”现象中的非理性狂欢成为可能。
3.与传统价值观相背离。“网红”都会多多少少地颠覆传统价值观，或者与传统习俗有不同程度的背离。赞同与不赞同的人会自动划分为两队，“网红”就在这两队人的争议中被推向巅峰。网络时代纷繁复杂的信息极大地分散了受众的注意力，而新奇独特的传播内容却能在泛滥的信息海洋中脱颖而出。例如，在2005年以前，上网还讲究匿名，也很少有人愿意把真实的照片发到网上，而芙蓉姐姐横空出世，拉开了草根文化自娱自乐的序幕，以不漂亮、自恋、玩真人秀等奇葩形象引起了无数网民的围观，这种类似的传播行为本质上就是为了迎合受众猎奇、刺激、娱乐等的看客心理，@以获得更多的关注。
4.关注度高，生命周期短。“网红”是在网络上依靠巨大的网络点击率而获得网络知名度的人，他们在网络上拥有非常高的关注度，同时也具有一定的社会影响力。但大部分“网红”都是普通人，因为互联网做了一次巨星梦，却还没来得及反应，梦就结束了。因为网络的门槛比较低，所以“网红”经常会以扮丑的方式哗众取宠，或以“出位”来博得众人的眼球而名噪一时，迎来许多的看客。然而，因为来自社会各界的争论声太大并很容易使人形成审丑疲劳，所以无法维持长久的高关注度。在日新月异的网络世界中，那些曾经被推到大众视线里的人常常很快就在新一波的浪潮中消失。
“网红”现象中的群体心理机制
在特定条件下，一些聚集成群的人会表现出某些新的特点，他们的感情和思想会全部转向同一方向，他们的个性消失了，形成了一种群体心理。②网络的交互性和匿名性等特质，使它作为传播媒介可以更深层地满足网民群体一些特定的心理需求。互联网营造的特殊传播环境对网民群体心理起到了不可忽视的影响，下面笔者将结合互联网的传播特质，从“网红”群体和受众群体两个方面，总结“网红”现象中的群体心理机制。
**(一)基于使用与满足理论下的“网红”群体心理解读**
“人们接触媒介是为了满足某种特定的需求，这类需求是特定社会和心理起源的反映，其来源指向的大众传播媒介或其他来源的不同媒体。进行接触或参加活动后，由接触造成需要的满足及其产生的其他后果，大多是无意获得的结果。”人们会根据自己的欲望需求选择传播媒介，在使用的过程中获得满足。“网红”群体都具有强烈的表现欲望和心理诉求，“网红”作为网络大舞台上的表演者在这场虚拟世界的狂欢中得到了不同程度和方面的满足。
1.自我表现心理。中国网民大部分是年轻人，他们比起传统的一代有很强烈的自我表现欲望。
**①** \[美\]哈里斯：《媒介心理学》，北京：中国轻工业出版社，2007年，第20页。
**②** \[法\]古斯塔夫·勒庞：《乌合之众：大众心理研究》，冯克利译，北京：中央编译出版社，2005年，第24页。
**\[以\]卡茨·布拉姆勒、格里维奇：《个人对大众传播的使用》，北京：中国人民大学出版社，2016年，第61页。** National Social Sciences lDatabase 131 **·**
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“网红”群体最显著的群体心理机制就是自我表现心理。网络上跨时空的互交使“网红”在编码的过程中掌握了更多的主动权，这使其可以向他人展现出现实中无法呈现的更加理想化的自己。根据美国社会学家戈夫曼提出的“前台”后台”理论，在显示器荧幕的后面，“网红”可以对自己的形象进行塑造与管理，向他人呈现自己所希望的样子，隐藏那些不希望向别人展示的部分，将一个理想化的自己通过网络媒介传播给广大网络受众。“网红”通过这种传播行为使自我表现的心理诉求在网络世界中获得满足。
2.情感释放心理。人类是具有社会性的情感动物，自身带有寻找记录生活的方法与释放情绪的心理诉求。从早期的日记到如今的微博、朋友圈等，个人情感的释放在社交媒介日益盛行的推动下被扩大。。“网红”就是突破现实社会的条件限制，通过网络平台公开自我情感并释放到最大化，从而推动传播主体的自我交流以及对于“网红”来说很重要的与受众的人际交流。“网红”这种“自曝式”的行为可以说更偏向于“本我”状态的个体在虚拟世界中寻求情感释放心理的满足。
3.利益追求心理。“网红”追求的利益包括精神利益和物质利益。“网红”追求的精神利益就是要在这种“人造自然环境”中得到身份的认可。在物质利益方面“网红”近年来在经济领域表现出的潜力不容小觑。。“网红”经济从狭义上理解就是“网红”向庞大的受众群体进行定向营销，将受众转化为购买力。除了2016年 Papi 酱获得1200万元融资外“网红”快速获取暴利的例子屡见不鲜。例如，静言股市在优酷频道单场直播收入88万元，某券商分析师直播20分钟，粉丝刷礼物20万元等。
**(二)基于狂欢理论视角下的受众群体心理解读**
狂欢理论最初由苏联著名思想家巴赫金提出，国内许多学者发现网络狂欢与狂欢理论具有紧密的关联，网络传播的自由性、交互性与虚拟性都与狂欢节的全民性、仪式性和平等性相契合。②有学者将“网络狂欢”界定为网络空间中出现的一股不分等级、全民参与、自由度高、快乐至上的狂欢化浪潮。③而庞大的受众群体就将这种狂欢精神演绎得淋漓尽致。
1.从众心理。“网红”现象中，受众群体的狂欢行为有很明显的从众痕迹。网络信息的泛滥带来了受众的意识迷失和不安，自身素质的限制和不甘落伍的心理使受众容易因为从众心理而选择相信他人的思想观点并迅速传播开来。产生从众心理的重要原因是认为他人的行为往往可以给自己提供需要的信息，而选择从众是因为相信他人的判断比自己更准确。在网络中持有相同观点的网民群体凝聚力很强，其中的一些意见领导者可以轻易地控制舆论的导向，再通过一系列的人际传播后获得更大的事态宣传效果，让更多的人加入到他们的队伍中。
2.情绪宣泄心理。现在的社会正处于一个转型的阶段，人们承受着来自就业、生活等多方面的压力，有着强烈的寻求情绪释放出口的欲望。网络技术的发展使人们的情绪得到了空前的释放，且情绪一旦在网络上找到合适的宣泄出口，就会迅速传染给其他受众。在“网红”现象中，受众可以在评论区肆意宣泄情绪，再经颇具共识的由头聚集成群体，扩大情绪宣泄的影响力。不管是批评，还是称赞，“网红”由这些评论搭成的阶梯走上人气高峰。
3.猎奇心理。受众对一些“网红”事件的热烈追捧其实是出于自身的心理诉求，主要原因是猎奇与窥私心理。人们在物质世界里得到的极大满足带来了精神世界的不满足，现代人对未知的东西都充满了极大的好奇。在好奇心的驱使下，人们便会对未知的他人生活产生一种好奇和窥私的
**①** \[美\]戈夫曼：《日常生活中的自我呈现》，北京：北京大学出版社，2016年，第34页。
② 叶虎：《巴赫金狂欢理论视域下的网络传播》《理论建设》2006年第5期，第66一68页。
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欲望。有些人甚至以八卦或窥视他人隐私的方式去缓解自身的压力。所谓有需求才会有市场，“网红”就是利用了受众这种好奇心理来制造热点话题，并乐于把他们相对夸张的一面展示出来，或是制造怪异的关注点来满足受众群体窥私和猎奇的欲望，来达到自己扩大宣传的目的。
4.草根文化情结。“网红”现象作为一种传播现象，它的发展与特定的文化环境有着紧密的联系。在提倡个性化的21世纪，草根文化有了逐渐成为大众热捧文化的趋势，这在传媒领域尤为明显，很多影视媒体都选择去迎合大众文化。“网红”就是普通受众选出的草根偶像，其之所以会涌上浪尖正是普通受众推浪的结果。这种主流文化与草根文化的冲突、主流文化与受众价值观的矛盾反而刺激出受众的诉求欲，渴望去表达“草根”身份的价值观念。
三、“网红”现象背后的忧患
在“网红”现象中，每个参与进来的网民都抛开了现实生活的一切，在虚拟的世界里尽情表达内心真实的喜怒哀乐，充斥着一种带有牺牲精神的“英雄主义”。其实只要网络社会存在，就会有高关注度的“网红”存在，这种存在既有其合理的成分，也有不合理之处。“网红”现象表现了大众的群体心理趋向、被影响的受众价值观和消费主义下的网络商业生产模式等，从“网红”现象中我们可以发现现代大众文化的重要线索。
**(一)泛娱乐下的传播内容同质化、低质化**
美国社会学家尼尔·波兹曼在《娱乐至死》中提到：“我们的政治、宗教、新闻、教育、体育和商业都心甘情愿地成为娱乐的附属，没有怨言，甚至于无声无息，结果就是我们成为了一个娱乐至死的种群。”①由此看来，随着网络的不断发展，我们也进入了一个“娱乐至死”的时代。正是大众的这种娱乐心理，导致“网红”文化趋于唯娱乐化。随着媒介技术的发展，每个人都拥有使用各种社交媒介进行自我表达的权利，但大部分人无法在进行互联网社交时获得高的关注度，也因此缺乏持续生产传播内容的动力。面对现代社会生活和工作的瓶颈，大部分网民选择在网络的虚拟世界里充当一个无所顾忌的“看客”，社交媒介便也因此成为大部分“看客”娱乐和情绪宣泄的平台。对于依靠互联网发展的“网红”来说，也是受众的点击率和关注度赋予了他们网络明星的光环，可以说关注度就是“网红”赖以生存的关键。但流量至上的发展模式导致了“网红”的传播内容同质化现象严重，且娱乐成分过多。许多“网红”发布的传播内容只是单纯地为了迎合受众群体的娱乐、猎奇和宣泄等心理，且大部分只是机械化地批量复制其他热点“网红”的传播内容。在这种泛娱乐化的“网红”生产模式下，人们渐渐开始拒绝严肃的精品创作，被过度娱乐、无营养、无内涵的内容淹没。
**(二)利益诉求下的消费主义元素偏多**
“网红”还有着明确的商业目的。弗雷德里克·杰姆逊在其著作《后现代主义与文化理论》中指出，“后现代文化已经从过去的那种特定的文化圈层中突破出来打破了艺术与生活的界限，不但彻底进入了人们的日常生活也成为了众多消费品的一类”②如今“网红”在互联网语境中拥有越来越大的话语权，他们背后的商业运作模式也日益突显出来，“网红”也逐渐异化为赚取利益的工具。据《2016年中国电子商务红人大数据报告》显示，2016年“网红”经济的产值达580亿元人民币。在这种消费主义盛行的网络大环境下，“网红”在某种程度上可以被称为“资本利益的孵化器”③培
① **\[美\]尼尔·波兹曼：《娱乐至死》，章艳译，桂林：广西师范大学出版社，2004年，第58页。**
**②** 「美\]弗雷德里克·杰姆逊：《后现代主义与文化理论》，西安：陕西师范大学出版社，1986年，第148页。
③ 敖鹏：《网红的缘起、发展逻辑及其隐忧》，《文艺理论与批评》2017年第1期，第135一143页。 National Social Sciences lDatabase
养和发现“网红”，进而吸引其他资本注入来获取更多利益，这又使得“网红”的热度再次升高。“网红”就这样与资本利益形成相辅相成的关系，利益的元素在无形之中渗入进“网红”的整个传播过程，从传播目的到传播方式，成为了“网红”走红的幕后推手。“网红”愈发偏向只根据市场需求将自己包装成符合受众心理的消费产品。“网红”的传播目的渐渐偏离了精神文化，变成了如何赢得更多粉丝，抓住他们的消费心理以实现线上推广。虽然如今各种类型的文字、面孔和声音在网络上快速地轮番交替，表面上看去“网红”现象是在演绎着多元文化，但其实大部分只是利益元素推动下的消费主义产品，真正具有文化价值意义的产品越来越少。
**(三)消解主流文化价值观，非理性行为带来社会隐患**
“网红”现象使得现实世界中的权利地位和传统媒体单向传播的主流文化价值观被彻底颠覆。正如勒庞所说，无论是人还是动物，只要一些生物聚集成群，本能都会使他们追随某位领导者，而这位领导者的意志就是在群体意见下获得一致的核心。@然而，“网红”文化以及不受控制的网民思想在某种程度上瓦解了这种核心的存在。“网红”偏向娱乐化的传播内容使受众更加容易对严肃枯燥且长时间被动接受的主流媒体产生逆反心理，在某种程度上消解着主流文化的影响力。过度娱乐化的传播内容和宣泄式的传播行为长时间在网络空间盛行后，必然会使受众文化价值观的取向受到影响，可能会严重打击甚至重构社会文化价值观。同时，偏离主流思想导致的非理性行为也给社会带了许多忧患。一些“网红”炫富、整容或不合理地公开隐私等行为，使受众在跟风的同时强化了对金钱的追求和外貌的注重，增加了社会浮躁的风气，甚至给不法分子以可乘之机，引发社会安全问题。
四、群体心理视域下的“网红”文化引导策略
低级恶俗、单一无聊的文化注定无法长久存在，“网红”现象最终还是需要走向理性。通过群体心理机制对“网红”现象进行深入分析后发现，互联网技术的发展只是导致网民群体非理性狂欢的催化剂，核心的问题仍在于对社会大众的心理引导和价值观塑造。
(一)掌握网民群体心理规律，向大众提供新的娱乐模式
当前“网红”现象呈现的泛娱乐化是社会大众群体心理在网络上的反映，网民群体的猎奇、宣泄等心理引导了“网红”大部分低级的娱乐内容在网络上的过度传播。因此，对于“网红”文化的正向引导应该建立在充分掌握网民群体心理对行为的支配和影响上。网民群体由于其特殊性，存在着较为明显的群体无意识状态，在一些条件下很容易被牵动出某种热情，快速聚集成群体。由于每个网民自身的文化背景、思想道德水平和价值观念的不同，使他们在“网红”现象中对一些问题的认识上表现出不同的价值取向以及利益诉求，使得“网红”现象中的群体心理更加复杂化和多元化。网民群体的高度群聚性使其群体心理规律主要表现为：自我表现心理、从众心理、宣泄心理、猎奇心理和追求利益心理等。同时，互联网的特性使得网民群体间具有较强的相互感染性、爆发性、非理性和夸张性，网民群体积极心理与消极心理并存，容易在相互感染下异化出过度娱乐行为。因此，只有挖掘“网红”现象背后的心理因素，掌握网民群体心理规律及社会问题，才能从根本上找到“网红”现象受泛娱乐影响的关键。
向社会大众提供新的娱乐模式是培养人们健康积极的心理，减轻“网红”现象泛娱乐化的有效
**①** \[法\]古斯塔夫·勒庞：《乌合之众：大众心理研究》，冯克利译，北京：中央编译出版社，2005年，第5页。
叶姝：《网络传播群体心理特点与引导研究》《科技传播》2018年第12期，第136一137页。
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手段之一。新的娱乐模式有助于分散受众对“网红”传播的一些无营养内容的注意力，缓解人们在现实生活中感到无聊或被压抑的情绪。政府相关部门可以利用网络的开放性，为受众建立情绪疏导渠道。“当个体的心理行为趋向与社会倡导的价值取向发生冲突甚至背道而驰时，就会形成一股强大的心理压力。它所导致的社会行为更多的基于压抑的情绪，往往产生负社会效益。”对于话语权的限制是使受众产生逆反心理的主要因素，只是简单粗暴地制止和干涉极易引起网民的反感情绪并且达不到管理的目的。根据《社会心理学》中的宣泄原理，适度宣泄某些有强烈反应的消极社会舆论，有助于调节社会矛盾，将消极转化为积极。②政府相关部门还可以通过这个渠道了解网民的态度、事态的发展，制定接下来的实际工作计划。
**(二)培育社会主流价值观与消费主义合理融合的“网红”**
符合社会主流价值观的“网红”能够正确引导受众群体的价值观，但培育并壮大符合社会主流价值观的“网红”，不一定要完全取代消费主义下的商业性质的“网红”“网红”日后的发展应该在这两个方面做到恰当地融合。在群体心理理论中，群体信念可以分为稳固的信念和短暂且容易发生变化的信念。稳固的信念具有较强的稳定性和较大的影响力，而与稳固信念背道而行的思想观念都注定是短暂且浮于表面的、无法长久保持的。③所以只有符合社会主流价值观的“网红”，才不会快速被网络市场淘汰，并成为网民学习效仿的榜样。合理利用“网红”的草根性和亲切感来传播社会主流价值观是正向引导“网红”文化行之有效的方法，有助于维护健康、良好的网络舆论环境。“网红”要想延长自己的生命周期，就要注意对传播内容的议程设置，脱离低俗和没有任何文化价值的消费宣传，避免让网络平台衍变成具有“眼球效应”④背后缺少判断力和道德的信息垃圾站，要创作和传播具有真正价值的文化产品。
然而，并不是符合社会主流价值观的“网红”就无法与资本利益和谐相处。正确处理“网红”与资本获利间的关系，积极发挥"正面草根偶像”引导的实效性是可以促进“网红”经济产值增长的。“网红”群体可以利用与各大媒体的良性互动，凭借庞大的粉丝群体向社会传递正能量，与网络媒体一起承担向社会大众宣传正确的价值观的责任，以正面积极的形象和价值观引导并吸引更多的粉丝，同时也可以达到自身商业宣传的目的。消费主义环境下的“网红”只有建立与社会主流价值观相符的形象才能在社会大众的面前长久立足。
**(三)培养理性“个体人”受众，重塑社会精英在受众群体中的领袖地位**
受众群体在“网红”市场中具有决定性的地位，受众的喜好决定了哪些“网红”成为市场中心。因此，在对“网红”文化的正向引导中，我们既要掌握网民的群体心理规律，深入解读网民群体行为，也要加强对理性“个体人”受众的培养。在一个群体中，“从众者”和“个体人”发挥着不同的角色作用。对于“网红”现象中的群体行为应该辩证处理“从众者”和“个体人”的关系，当群体行为属于理性或正面时，应尽量扩大宣传，使更多“个体人”从众；但当群体行为是非理性时，理性“个体人”受众应该充分发挥舆论引导作用，对一些具有不正确价值观的“网红”进行引导，减轻群体心理压力，避免非理性群体行为的发生。根据笔者的观察发现，网络上具有较强的文字水平和独到观点的“个体人”受众发布的信息内容更容易受到其他网民的热捧。要想培养出更多具有正确价值引导的理性“个体人”受众，就要充分发挥主流媒体和社会精英的引导作用，主流媒体应当学习并借鉴当今“网
① 林俊荣：《博客的社会安全阀功能探析》《中国青年研究》2007年第3期，第60一62页。
② 侯玉波：《社会心理学》(第四版)，北京：北京大学出版社，2018年，第93页。
廖茂吉：《群体心理效应与大学生网络政治参与优化》《思想理论教育》2015年第12期，第86一89页。
④ **《消防时代》编辑部：《“眼球效应”：被关注后的收获》，《中国西部科技》2005年第21期，第49页。**
红”符合规范的、吸引受众的手法，运用网言网语，赋予主流文化以积极的内涵与意义，使传播的内容更加“接地气”。同时，也要重塑社会精英在受众群体中的意见领袖地位，引导受众价值观回归主流，避免非理性行为给社会带来忧患。例如，一些领域的专家、学者或成功的企业家等社会精英应积极化解草根文化与主流文化之间的冲突，引导网络舆情与受众行为回归理性。各大网络媒体可以通过座谈会、交流讨论等互动模式邀请社会精英加入到网络活动中，在与网民的交流中引导网民回归主流文化。只有更多的受众树立正确且清晰的价值观，那些非理性的传播行为引来的才不会是围观而是斥责。与此同时也要做好相关传播平台的自律与他律，增强网络技术手段，过滤一些明显对社会或个人有害的低级信息，使平台得以净化。不给靠宣扬违背社会公德，违反法律、法规来吸引公众眼球的恶俗“网红”提供存在的空间和传播的平台，确保社会效益始终被放在第一位，以此减少“网红”现象给社会带来的负面影响。
五、结语
“网红”现象可以被看作社会群体在社会的转型发展期，价值观失调状态下的一种心理上的缓冲与尝试。6“4网红”现象虽然具有一定的大众精神，但是其对传统价值观形成了一定的冲击，我们不能让娱乐和宣泄掩盖社会责任，应当充分重视对现代网民群体的心理教育及调试，充分发挥舆论领袖对非理性行为的引导作用，让网民群体在自律和他律的双重效应下蜕变成长。社会责任不能被娱乐所掩盖从而变成一种放纵，社会需要多一点理智，少一些盲目与冲动。“网红”群体应该向现代人传播正确的价值观，成为社会公德和责任意识的积极传播者。只有在健康的舆论环境里，人们才能获得真正的心灵上的自由。
**\[责任编校：宋宁\]**
Abstract：International researchesonEnglish for SSpecific=Purposes (EPS) from1992 to 22016show features of involving different fields，perspectives， disciplines， theories and subjectivity.The research focuseshaveundergone ashift from ESP words，grammar，rhetorictoits genre and pragmatics. In recent years， ESP researches have been highlighting the areas of academicwrit- ing， corpus-based ESP， science-demand-based pedagogy， multilingualism， language policy and1insti-tutional language.Analysis of visualization in the research trend aimsatpromoting the teaching andsstudy of ESP so _8as_ to provide useful references for the training ofinternational profession-als.
**Key words： internationalresearchofESP； intellectual base； researchhighlight； research trend；CiteSpace**
**Research on the Development of Student-centeredMulti-learning Model**
Abstract：With the rapid development of information-based education in China， a student-cen-tered multi-learning mode hasbeen promoted accordingly.As traditional teaching mode isbeing changed by theories of multi-learning，。 the student-centered learning mode，which emphasizes both learners’ difference and diversity， willmeet their personalized needs.“Sharing” lays the founda-tion for the development of the mode，， while changing the present lleearning mode the fundamen-tal (namely to enhance student’s participation， to enrich students’ learning experience，to culti-vation students’ ability of self-learning)， focusing on learning processis the goal， and independ-entsselection the standard.AA：sfor the specific implementation of the mode，the exchangesand cooperation betweendomestic andtoreign universitiesmustbe strengthenedSO as tOprovide students with richresources，diverse personalizedlearning environment， andmore opportunities and rightsfor individual choice. NMoreover， student-centeredmulti-learning modewouldbe further advanced by adopting the evaluation of learning process， improving students’ competence of inde-pendent learning and cultivating their lifelong learning号awareness.
Key words：higher education； informationization；centeringonstudents；multi-learning mode
**Analysis of“Internet Celebrity" Phenomenonfrom the Perspective of Group Psy-chology**
**YAN _Jun， LI Hao-ze(129)_**
Abstract：Group psychology is one themain iinnftluential1factors of the formation anddevelop menttof“Internet celebrity". Free spreading environment on the Net and anonymous groupCO communicators have made the mechanism of“Internet celebrity” group psychology more complex and pluralistic than thatof the normalgroup.Basedontheoriesofmedia studiesS 8andsocial psychology， the analysis conductedfromthe perspective of group psychology showsthat media technology is just a catalytic agent leading to irrational spreading of “Internet celebrity”， whereas the core of the problem restsOonhow toImaster thee1law ofnetizens’' group psychology and shape their mainstream culturalvalues.\]t ofgreaatt1importance _1to cultivate“Internet celebrity_ with reasonableintegration1ofsocial mmaainstream1valuesandconsumptionism，tohavea good command of the above-mentionedlaw， to provideth mass withnew entertainment mode， _to_ enhance the cultivation of rational “individual”’audience and reshape the leadership of elitesd一iong the mass audiences.Only in this way， a positive guidingfor the“Internet celebrity” cul-ture would be realized at last.子子
Key words： netizen； group psychology； “Internet celebrity”；values | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 海洋管理中的海洋区域划分方案探讨
**付元宾，王伟伟，，张建民**
**(国家海洋环境监测中心国家海洋局海域管理技术重点实验室 大连 116023)**
**摘 要：“海洋”是地球上与“大陆”相对应的巨大水体及其底土，而“海”是大陆边缘区较浅的“洋”，也是沿海国家海洋权益保障和海洋资源开发的主要区域。由于海洋自然条件的差异性十分明显，因此海洋管理和海洋科学研究中，常以“近海”“近岸海域”“浅海海域”等概念表示特定的海洋区域，尤其是在海洋管理中，这些特定的海洋区域往往指向有针对性的管理政策和管理目标，如《全国海洋功能区划(2011-2020年)》的主要量化目标即是针对“近岸海域”。然而，在海洋管理中，目前尚没有公认的海洋的区域划分方案，这也对管理政策的制定和落实构成了阻碍。文章以海洋地理学和海洋地质学中的海洋区域划分方法为基础，结合国际海洋法规和国内海洋管理实践的研究，尝试提出一个兼顾自然科学和管理科学的海洋区域划分方案。**
**关 键 词：海洋区域划分；近岸海域；近海；海洋功能区划；海洋管理**
**海洋面积占到地球总面积的70%以上，分布十分广泛，自然条件的空间差异性也十分显著，因此，一般基于自然地理条件将海洋进行空间划分。比如，《联合国海洋法公约》就依据海洋的位置、地理条件、水深等将世界海洋划分为内水、领海、毗邻区、专属经济区、大陆架、公海，并赋予各沿海国家相应海域的主权、管辖权，以及内陆国出入海洋的权利等。**
**我国大陆的东部和南部面临渤海、黄海、东海和南海，属于太平洋的边缘海，台湾岛东部直接面临太平洋，整个海域的自然地理分布南北跨度约38个纬度，东西跨度约24个经度'。我国的内水、领海和管辖海域面积为300万km，针对不同的管辖海域范围，我国先后制定和出台了《中华人民共和国领海及毗连区法》《中华人民共和国专属经济区和大陆架法》《中华人民共和国海域使用管理法》《中华人民共和国海岛保护法》等法律法规，体现了法律适用性方面的海洋分区特征。**
**问题的提出**
**关于海域的横向分带，不同的领域和人员有着不同的理解和认识，因此给出的分带方案和分带名称也不尽一致。目前，常见的相关概**
**念有近海、远海、深海、浅海、近岸海域等。但是，首先这些概念的意义并不十分明确，如近岸海域一般指紧邻海岸的条带状海域，并没有确切的界线和范围；其次这些概念的内涵在不同的领域并不完全一致，比如，在海域管理实践中，“近海”的概念往往是指开发利用活动较为密集的近岸海域和浅海海域，而在渔业、国防等领域， “近海”则一般针对大陆架、大陆坡范围以内的海域。**
**近几年，国家海洋局发布的一些管理文件中，也经常出现“近岸海域”“近海”等名词概念，如《关于改进围填海造地工程平面设计的若干意见》提出要“加强围填海造地的管理，保护稀缺岸线和近岸海域资源”，与发展改革委员会联合下发的《关于加强围填海规划计划管理的通知》中提到“围填海规模增长过快，海岸和近岸海域资源利用粗放”； 《关于开展省级海洋功能区划修编工作的通知》明确此次区划修编的主要任务是“合理确定海洋发展定位和战略布局，科学划分海岸和近海基本功能区”《海域使用论证技术导则》中规定“项目用海属近岸海域海砂开采用海的，应将海岸侵蚀和地形地貌影响分析列为论证重点”。**
2012年3月，《全国海洋功能区划(2011一
**2020年)》(以下简称《区戈》)经国务院批准实施，其中共有17处提到“近岸海域”，如在海域管理与环境保护状况中提到“海岸和近岸海域开发密度高、强度大，，可供开发的海岸线和近岸海域后备资源不足”等，在海区主要功能中也多次提到各岸段近岸海域的功能定位和开发保护要求，最为核心的是，，《区划》明确提出了“近岸海域海洋保护区面积占到11%以上”和“近岸海域保留区面积比例不低于10%”的区划目标。**
**在学术研究层面，一个空间概念的表述方式和其内涵在不同领域和不同研究者之间存在差异亦属正常，然而，如果这些空间概念作为实施相应海域管理政策的客观对象，以一种类似术语的形式出现在相关管理文件中，那么其界线范围和内涵意义则都应该是明确的。特别是在《区划》中，这些区域概念与明确的量化管理目标直接对应，就更应该明确其范围，只有这样才能客观评价区划目标的落实情况。然而，关于上述几个海域范围的概念，在相关的各类典籍、规范、标准和管理文件中，目前尚没有准确定义。因此，本文将在综合分析相关学科领域海洋区域划分方法与国际国内海洋管理实践的基础上，尝试提出一个符合海洋地理学科理论和海域管理实际的海洋横向分带与命名方案。**
**2 “海”与“洋”的划分**
**一般来说，海洋是由“海”和“洋”组成，二者分别代表不同的空间地理范畴，有着各自的自然地理特征。 《海洋学综合术语》 (GB/T15918—2010)对于“洋”的定义为： “地球表面上相互连通的广阔咸水水体的主体部分，及其上部大气和覆盖的底土。一般远离大陆，深度一般大于2000m”，而对于“海”的定义为：“地球表面上相互连接、盐度为2以上的水体被陆地、岛礁、半岛包围或分割的边缘部分，及其上部大气和波及的底质”。可见， “海”特指海洋的大陆、岛陆等的边缘部分，也就是常说的“边缘海”。 “海”与“洋”最为本质的区别是基底地质构造， “海”的基底构造属于大陆壳，而“洋”的基底构造则属于洋壳，也就是**
说，海洋是由大陆边缘海和大洋盆地两部分构成2。因此，要划分“海”与“洋”，就必须界定何为大陆边缘。
**从海洋地质学和自然地理学的角度讲，大陆边缘是指大陆至洋底的过渡地带，也就是陆壳和洋绩的过渡地带，由陆向洋按照地貌特征分成3个部分，即大陆架、大陆坡和大陆隆(亦称“大陆基”或“大陆裾”)(图1)。大陆架是大陆向海延伸的浅海部分，又称陆棚，构造上属于陆壳性质，平均坡度只有0.1°左右，其范围由海岸线向外，至坡度明显增大的转折处为止，平均水深130m(一般以200m等深线作为大陆架的界线)，平均宽度只有70km31，但是在稳定的大陆边缘，大陆架宽度可达数百至数千千米以上，比如我国东海区域就属于稳定的大陆边缘，大陆架宽度最大可超过500 km，其外缘深度为130~150m。大陆坡是连接大陆架与大洋底的海底大斜坡，坡度较大陆架明显变大，平均坡度为4°17'，下界水深在2500m左右，大陆坡的平均宽度仅为20~40 km。大陆隆是位于大陆坡和洋底之间的一种大型扇形地(深海扇形地)堆积，水深在2000~5000m处，宽度约600~1000km。**
**图1 稳定性大陆边缘的组成**
**然而，国际和国内法规对于大陆架的界定，与传统的自然科学定义又有所区别。1958年国际海洋法会议通过的《大陆架公约》对大陆架定义为“邻接海岸但在领海范围以外深度达 200 m 或超过此限度而上覆水域的深度容许开采其自然资源的海底区域的海床和底土”，以及“临近岛屿与海岸的类似海底区域的海床和底土”。此定义更多的是从资源开发和管理角度出发，并未给出明确**
**的区域范围。而1982年通过的《联合国海洋法公约》(以下简称《公约》)对于大陆架则给出了非常明确的界定方法，其中规定：“沿海国的大陆架包括其领海以外依其陆地领土的全部自然延伸，扩展到大陆边外缘的海底区域的海床和底土，如果从测算领海宽度的基线量起到大陆边的外缘的距离不到200海里，则扩展到200海里的距离”。这一定义在《中华人民共和国专属经济区和大陆架法》里得到了完整的继承。此处，如果不考虑对于200 海里专属经济管辖权的说明，《公约》规定的大陆架是到大陆边的外缘，而大陆边“包括沿海国陆块没入水中的延伸部分，由陆架、陆坡和陆基的海床和底土构成，它不包括深海洋底及其洋脊，也不包括其底土”。可见，《公约》规定的大陆架实质上是包括了地理学和地质学意义上的大陆架、大陆坡和大陆基3个部分，而大陆架和大陆坡都具有明确的地貌标志，大陆基范围则不很明确，因此《公约》中的大陆架一般更明确的是指大陆架和大陆坡。需要特别指出的是，《公约》中对于划定大陆边缘的标志——大陆坡脚的定义为“大陆坡坡底坡度变动最大之点”，类似于地质学领域对于大陆架的“从低潮线起以极其平缓的坡度延伸到坡度突然变大的地方为止”的定义4，但是笔者认为，《公约》所指坡底坡度变动最大之处并非指由缓变陡，而是从大陆坡向平缓的洋底过渡的由陡变缓之处。《公约》中另有条款规定大陆架范围不应超过2500m等深线，这个深度也是大陆坡的下界水深3\]，这也从另一个方面说明了这一问题。**
**因此，笔者认为，从海洋综合管理和海洋权益保障的角度出发， “海”与“洋”的界线应该在大陆边缘附近，也就是大陆坡坡度明显变缓的大陆坡脚附近(《公约》规定的大陆架外边线可至大陆坡脚之外60 n mile处)。这样划分的原因有3个：：一是大陆坡坡脚处是陆壳向洋壳转变的起点\[31，以此来分界，符合海洋地理学和海洋地质学的自然规律和一般认识；二是地貌标志明显，便于界线的勘定和说明； _三_ 三是依此分界，“海”涵盖了《公约》确定的大陆架范围，便于海洋管理与国际国内法规的有效衔接。**
**3 “海”的划分**
**目前，关于海洋横向分带方面的唯一相关**
**的标准定义见于《海洋学术语海洋资源学》(GB/T 19834-2005)，其中定义近海渔业为“在专属经济区、大陆架以内海域从事的渔业生产活动”，定义远洋渔业为“在非本国管辖海域(外国专属经济区、大陆架或公海)从事的渔业生产活动，包括大洋渔业和跨洋渔业”。可见，此处的“近海”是指海岸线至大陆架边缘的海域空间，实际上对应的是《海洋学综合术语》中的“海” “近海”和“远洋”实质上指的是“海”和“洋”，这也与前文所述的“海”与“洋”的划分方案是一致的。**
**对于“海”的进一步划分，一般有两种方式：一种是按照横向的海区自然特征划分；另一种是按照垂直方向的水深特征划分。前者如前苏联学者A·B·根别利，按照海的形态和水文特征把海又分为边缘海、地中海(内陆海和陆间海)、岛间海和内海5\]，还有美国学者David A. Ross 则把大陆边缘海划分为沿岸区、大陆架、大陆坡、大陆隆，其中又把沿岸区进一步划分为海岸、海岸线、海滩、河口湾、潟湖、沼泽等2。后者如英国和美国的一些学者根据边缘海的深度又把边缘海分为沿岸海(或浅水海，深度500m以内)和开阔海(或深水海，深度500m以上)。而对于海岸带区域的进一步划分，则一般认为现代海岸带是海陆交互作用的地带，包括海岸、海滩和水下岸坡3个部分(图2)。海岸是高潮线以上狭窄的陆上地带，大部分时间裸露于海面之上，仅在特大高潮或暴风浪时才能淹没，又称潮上带。海滩是高低潮之间的地带，高潮时被水淹没，低潮时露出水面，又称潮间带。水下岸坡是低潮线以下直到波浪作用能到达的海底部分，又称潮下带，其下限相当于1/2波长的水深处，通常约10~20m4。但是，对于“海”的横向划分，目前尚没有公认的和标准的方案，尤其是针对海洋管理，更是缺少有针对性的界定方法。**
**在海洋管理实践中，由于海洋分区往往有针对性的管理政策和管理目标的指向，所以分带与分区需要准确的界定，而不应存在概念认知的不确定性，因此其界定的标志，如地理标志、水深条件、地理方位坐标等，应同时兼顾自然区域划分的合理性和与有关管理法规的衔**
**图2 海岸带及其组成部分**
**接性。结合目前的研究成果和海洋管理实践，可以提出3条较为明确的且具有实际管理意义的界线：一是海岸线，海岸线是海洋和陆地的分界线，也是海洋管理和土地管理的分界线，具有明确的法律地位，而且其勘定技术较为成熟；二是15m等深线， 15 m是沿海波基面的平均深度，是波浪可以作用的深度范围，因此一般将15m等深线作为海岸带向海方向的下限，再下则进入浅海区域，海岸带区域具有不同于陆域和一般海洋区域的特性，也是海域开发利用的最热点区域，具有明确的管理意义；三是领海外部界限，目前，我国已经正式公布东海和南海区域的领海基点，因此其领海基线和领海外部界限都是明确的，领海外部界限是领海与专属经济区和大陆架的分界线，国家对领海外部界限以内的海域享有完全主权，《全国海洋功能区划(2011-2020年)》中提到的近岸海域也是指领海外部界限以内的海域。**
**_4_ 十结论**
**综合以上海洋分区的分析结果，可以以海岸线、15m等深线、领海外部界限、大陆坡脚为界线将海洋横向划分为岸带海域(或滨海海域)、近岸海域、近海、远洋等几个部分，其具体划分与管理意义见图3。**
**图3 海洋管理中的海洋区域划分**
**(1)岸带海域(滨海海域)：海岸线至15m等深线范围内的海域，该区域是海陆相互作用的最典型区域，包括了海岸线和潮间带滩涂区域，是海洋开发利用活动最为集中的热点区域，是海洋经济发展的重要保障，尤其是针对海岸线和潮间带滩涂，亟须制定和实施有针对性的管理政策。**
**(2)近岸海域：：领海外部界限以内海域，是我国行使完全主权的海域，是真正意义上的“蓝色国土”，是落实《全国海洋功能区划(2011一2020年)》目标的具体海域。**
**(3)近海(大陆边缘)：大陆边缘以内的全部海域，是海洋地质学和自然地理学意义上的大陆边缘海(基底地质属于陆壳)，其外缘线就是《国际海洋法》公约规定的大陆架的外部界限。领海外部界限至大陆边缘，因与领海外部界限以内的近岸海域相对应，我们定义其为“远岸海域”。**
**(4)远洋羊(洋底)：大陆边缘以外的大洋，其基底地质属于洋壳，一般属于公海，因与大陆边缘以内的“近海”相对应，因此称之为“远洋”。“近海”和“远洋”合起来则是完全意义上的“海洋”。**
**参考文献**
\[17 **国家海洋局海洋发展战略研究所课题组.中国海洋发展报告(2011)\[M\].北京：海洋出版社，2011.**
「27 **ROSSD A. 普通海洋学\[M\].周俊谋，译.重庆：徐** 氏基金会出版，1976.
「37 **刘南威.自然地理学\[M\].北京：科学出版社，** 2000.
\[4\] **冯士馆，李凤岐.海洋科学导论\[M\].北京：高等教育出版社，1998.**
\[5\] **A·B·根别利\[苏\].普通海洋地理学\[M\].陈家振，译.开封：河南大学出版社，1988.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 浅谈如何提高艺术生高考政治复习效率
山东临沂市兰山高考补习学校东校区(276000)李云飞陆 静
当前，我国的艺术高考体制决定了高三艺术毕业班教学设置有别于普通班的模式。整个高三学年中，艺术班的教学重点往往是倾向于先专业后文化，学生首先把专业课放到首位，一口艺术专业高考结束，文化课便成了学生的突击课。在文化课中，文综的复习比较重要，因为它是短时间内比较容易提高的学科。以政治学科来说，艺术专业学生需在普通班三分之一的时间内复习完所有的内容。要在如此短的时间内提高学生的素质和成绩，就必须得提高复习的效率，那么如何提高复习效率呢?我认为应该从以下几个方面入手。
一是把握方向，总结规律，提高复习的效率
应认真研读教材、课程标准和近几年来的考试大纲，2009年文综试卷、新课改的形势，严格把控好复习考试的范围，注重研究试卷的特点及命题的发展方向，努力提高备考的质量。对于美术生来说，复习的时间尤为紧张，这就要求老师更要注意研究这些内容，找到其中一些规律性的东西，使学生不走弯路，提高效率。同时针对艺术生的特点，提出了既要完成一轮的复习任务，又要达到二轮的复习效果的教学目标。因此，我们采用了学案导学法。学案的编制本着既便于教师的教，又便于学生的学的原则编制。内容包括：高考考点，知识梳理，疑难解析，高考回放，与本节联系的社会热点，自我测评等，省去了学生翻阅大量资料的时间，从而提高复习效率。
二是了解学情，沟通思想，提高复习效率
进入复习阶段，老师都有自己的复习计划，学生也有自己的想法，并且十分渴望成功。因此，复习前师生之间不妨沟通一下思想，了解-下学生对复习是怎样想的，有什么好的建议。这样一方面可以充分调动学生的积极性，发挥其主体作用，另一方面也有利于老师根据实际调整复习计划，师生达成共识，以取得更好的复习效果。同时，在复习时，坚持使用学情反馈表，及时了解和掌握学生的知识易错易混点、疑惑点、认识的误区等，增强了课堂教学讲解和点拨的针对性和日的性，提高了课堂教学效率。学情反馈表还充分发挥了学科论坛的功能，成为师生之间和生生之间互动、交流、探讨的平台，促进了教学相长。
三是夯实基础，构建体系，提高复习效率
综观每年的高考试题，无论是材料新颖的选择题，还是关注现实生活的富有创意的主观题，稍加分析其答案绝大部分就在教材中，就在大家所学过的基础知识中。所以说主干知识的复习非常重要。而美术生相对来说基础比较薄弱，同时复习文化课的时间又相对普通班
期刊数据库
的学生来说比较少，基础知识的复习就显得尤为重要。在复习时，要紧扣基础知识，让学生领会到教材的基本观点、基本原理，对原理的理解要准确精练，使用政治术语要规范，这就要求老师要结合学生反映的问题进行讲解。同时要突出重点和主干，构建全面系统的知识结构体系，即要抓纲织网，扣考点，度目录，绘结构，抓主十。
四是精选习题，强化落实，提高解题能力
新高考模式下的文综高考试题，强调综合，以问题为中心，以现实或重大的社会问题为素材，重思维，重移。重综合运用能力的考查，这个能力是要靠练出来和悟出来的。在提高解题能力方面，首先，要精选习题，精选高考经典题，再辅之以一些优秀的习题。高考题所蕴含的信息量大，迷惑性强，但是又很规范和科学，做此类试题便于学生找到高考的感觉。其次，注重培养学生的审题能力和解题能力。要想在高考中节省时间提高效率，必须大力培养审题和解题能力。在练习的基础上，审题的方法一般为，一审设问的指向与要求，然后带着问题审材料提供的信息。审题要全面，不能断章取义；要准确，不能似是而非；要到位，不能浅尝辄止。再次，要培养学生良好的、严谨的学习习惯。艺术生在学习习惯方面存在着很多的缺陷，在复习中要加强这方面的培养。训练学生规范化答题，在作答、卷面、布局、层次术语表达等方面进行了细节性的规定，注意检查落实，引导学生向规范要分数。最后。引导学生做好练习和测试后的反思、补练和自我调节。学生的反思和自我感悟是促进提高的捷径。在如此短的时间内，我们不能靠题海战术来取得成绩，一定要做好反思和补练等工作。
五是把握重点，强化复习，理论联系实际
对于艺术生来说，不存在一轮和二轮复习之分。因此，在全面准确把握基础知识后，也要针对一些重点强化复习。比如，基本概念与基本原理就是高考政治全面复习的重点。因为这些知识是基础的基础，也是日常生活中经常用到而且反复强调的东西。当年国内外重大时政的热点与焦点问题是政治高考理论联系实际的重点。考生在全面复习过程中，必须关注一年来发生的重大时政，注重全面理解和掌握党确定的方针、政策和党的基本路线，并学会将当年的时政热点材料与教材中的相关理论挂钩，实行“对号入座”，既要抓住热点与知识点的显性联系，又要善丁发掘热点与知识点的隐性联系。抓住这些重点，针对各自的羽项加大复习的力度，通过强化复习和适度的练习，重点把握其内涵与要领以弥补不足，从而提高复的针对性和有效性。 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | Peaceless Adriatic;
author: Morello, Vincenzo, 1862-1933; Santamaria, Pietro, tr
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2011 with funding from
The Library of Congress
http://www.archive.org/details/peacelessadriatiOOmore
V. MORELLO
(Rastignac)
PEACELESS
J\> U JLV I 2TkA lO
Cnglist* version Uy
PIETRO S ANT AM ARIA
Jblishers ALFIER1 m JUACROIX - Milan
ROME (11) Via Zafi»rdeUi» 7
V. MORELLO
(Rastignac)
PEACELESS
ADRIATIC
EngiisK "Version
by
PIETRO SANTAMARIA
iblishers ALFIERI & LACROIX - Milan
ROME - Via Zanardelli 7
1 * <C\
jOiterary rifigts reserved 1920 6y Mlfieri § JZacroix - Lilian
9 *i HH
Letterpress by ALFIERI & LACROIX - Milan
/
//M
To ifje Skevoes of tfje Adriatic. <PV
The last year of the European war will be reg-
istered in History — when History is written
with the object of serving Truth, and Truth only,
ent it is written merely to pander to the
idiced cravings of our Allies — as the
4 ory of the Italian Navy. It can truly be
asseriea chat never before have the hearts and
the minds of our seamen, closely welded toge-
ther, constituted a more nobly-tempered weapon;
a weapon of more rapid and sure action; a very
weapon of precision intended to attain military
victories as well as moral victories; than during
the year which wafted on Illyrian winds, from
Durazzo to Buccari, the names of the heroes who,
in Trieste Harbour, in that of Pola (which was
several times violated), and at Premuda, struck
the finishing blow to the naval power of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire. Deeds of the greatest
daring were carried out in the deepest silence ; the
greatest results were obtained by means of the
most unforeseen combats. A handful of men, as
5 -
many as could be contained in an almost invisible
boat were enough to reduce destinies in subjection
to their power. On moonless nights these men,
led by an infallible eyesight, sustained by an in-
flexible will, becoming disembodied ghosts, mere
shadows, mere images, were able to pass through
mazes sown with mines, break through barriers
of steel and carry with them confusion and death
into the deep lairs where the monsters of the ene-
my fleet lay hidden; and one of their number,
Luigi Rizzo, the David of the Adriatic, at last,
on a May dawn, in the open sea under the won-
dering skies, and like a hero of the legends of old,
threw with his sling the deadly missiles and felled
the monsters which had incautiously emerged
from their dark lairs with the intent of blasting
out Italy's sea defences. For they were Boroevics
vanguards, the vanguards of the chief who was
at that moment preparing to fulminate Italy from
the uplands and on the Piave. Truly a marvel-
lous historical basis for the poetry of centuries to
come. At that moment, the cause of the Entente
seemed as good as lost. The English armies were
already with their back to their sea. Ludendorfs
guns were pointed on Paris, which, in apprehen-
sion of the imminent invasion, had already re-
moved her Penates to Avignon. The souls of the
people of England and France were cast down in
trepidation and anxiety, as had been those of the
Christians on the eve of the year One Thousand.
The Italian victory at Premuda at one stroke,
_- 6
cleared the horizon of the terror which darkened
it and completely changed the course of events.
The naval power of Austria-Hungary once over-
thrown, and Lissa avenged, Italy forthwith pro-
ceeded to beat down the Dual Empire's military
power also, on the Piave; thus reducing by one
half the strength of Germany; the half represented
by the forces of her faithful Ally: so thai the
Entente, after four years of a struggle which
seemed desperate, could finally overcome her
formidable foe as never before she could hope to
do, until Italy had overthrown Austria-Hungary
on land and sea.
Yet, Italy's victory was her crime.
That which was immediately acknowledged by
the Generals and the Statesmen of the Central
Empires : by Boroevic and Ludendorf, by Czer-
nin and Broc\dorfi-Rantzau, namely, that Italy s
victory had determined their defeat, neither Fran-
ce nor England by means of the preordinated
propaganda of their Governments, nor America
(indeed the Americans arrived here too late to
examine and judge affairs in a direct manner,
disinterestedly, with their minds clear of prejudice
and their soul clear of jealousies), neither France
nor England, I say, would ever admit or acknow-
ledge. They did their utmost, on the contrary, to
underrate our victories and to lessen the import-
ance which they bore on the results of the war.
The suppression or the mutilation of our War
Bulletins, including the historic one issued by Ge-
— 7 —
neral Diaz on the 21s*. of October 1918, clearly
show the tendency which was followed by the
Allies during the armistice and became further
accentuated at the Peace Congress.
How has it been possible that two great Powers,
which wish to be considered amongst the most
civilized and most liberal minded in the world,
have thought fit to pursue, immediately after Ger-
many's defeat, the same conduct towards Italy,
their Ally, as the small Balkan nations pursued,
towards one another, after Turkey's first defeat ?
The writings on the subject of our policy and
of the policy of the Allies, which I have collected
in this volume and which first came to light dur-
ing the war, and precisely from the day of the
fall of Mount Lowcen, will, I trust, illustrate
the reasons and the causes of the Allies' conduct
towards us; reasons and causes which I have
culled in the heat of the daily conflicts.
During the war, France and England remained
firm in their old traditional mentality, which was
made up of diffidence and hostility towards Italy;
and Italy remained firm in her old, traditional
prudery and pusillanimity in the face of the Allies,
as, in the past she had remained in the face of
her peace Allies; for, mental cowardice is the
predominant characteristic of Italian Statesmen.
Besides, the war was felt and considered, by
the Powers of the former Entente merely as an
isolated episode, at the termination of which each
of them would resume her old relations with
8 —
Austria, more or less defeated and reduced in
power, with Greece, with Serbia or with Yugo-
slavia in order to continue the raising of obstacles
against the expansion of Italy — Italy the intruder,
Italy the troublesome — in the eastern Mediter-
ranean, as well as to prevent her from penetrating
into the Balkan Peninsula and into Asia. And
Italy, on her side, did not possess the necessary
moral force to unhinge the mentality of those two
Powers; and, beyond the usual generalities, so
full of hypocrisy and so devoid of essence, about
the brotherhood of the peoples united for the
glory of Democracy, oblige them to consider the
war under the aspect of a real and true revolution
of minds and interests in international relations.
In any case, she did not find the elementary
audacity nor the elementary sagacity to prevent,
by means of special actions of warfare undertak-
en of her own accord, the by no means occult
designs of her Allies; and to act in a way as to
cause apprehension by those actions; or, at all
events, to place her Allies in the presence of ac-
complished facts on the day of reckoning. When-
ce it has happened that no sooner were arms laid
down than she found herself at the Paris Congress
with clean but empty hands, by the side of her
war Allies, which, the war once ended, have not
considered themselves any longer as Allies, and
have ta^en no further trouble to recognize or to
guarantee the Treaties concluded during the war.
Which one of the two, the representative of Great
Britain, or the representative of France has been
the most forgetful - let us call him so - at the Paris
Congress ? We will not waste time in seeding to
discover to whom the lead in the race belongs.
Both one and the other have acted in conformity
with their respective individual and national cha-
racter: Lloyd George has acted with the serene
nonchalance of the trader who, having already
done his stroke of business, endeavours to reap
all the profit for himself, and to leave to his part-
ner, if anything, the remembrance of the honour
reaped in the effort made in collaboration. Cle-
menceau has acted with frisky Gallic insolence
which, according to Macchiavelli, in days of good
fortune does not acknowledge the benefits recei-
ved and the help solicited in times of ill-fortune.
The less wise of the two, Clemenceau, with so
much French glory around him, was wrong in
attempting to humble the glory of Italy, which is,
like that of his own country, made up of tears
and of blood. He, having in his hands the future
of a country li\e France, which is exposed to all
perils, and in need of all possible help, ought not
to have alienated for ever the soul of the Italian
people, that soul which was entirely his!
In any case, both Lloyd George and Clemen-
ceau, with the object of diverting, for their own
particular ends, Mr. Wilsons sight from the rents
which they were tearing in his Fourteen Points,
gave him a free hand against innocent and ill-
defended Italy; so that, in company with the Yu-
— 10 —
goslavs and the American bankers who are sub-
sidizing Yugoslavia, he might amuse himself by
composing on Istria and Dalmatia his games of
puzzles which they had forbidden him to compose
on their own geographical maps; and that he
might likewise amuse himself by fishing out of
the Adriatic that famous principle of his of the
Freedom of the Sea which, even before the open-
ing of the Congress they had so blithely caused
him to lose at the bottom of both Oceans. Even
the most solemn mythologies are apt to end in the
« Bantering of the gods » .
What solution will be arrived at, to-morrow,
at the Paris Congress, on our questions, if it will
be arrived at, or if a solution is in any way pos-
sible ?
My firm belief is that the Paris Congress will
be unable to solve in a serious and lasting manner
either our own questions or the other European
questions which it is called upon to solve, on ac-
count of the moral, intellectual and political de-
rangement which permeates it; and, likewise, on
account of the equivocal ends it wishes to reach
through that derangement in contempt of the per-
manent and fundamental interest of the nations;
and furthermore, in order to attain the triumph
of momentary and particular interests appertain-
ing to more or less accredited financial groups;
or perhaps even for the sake of the experiments
on ideology which Mr. Wilson thinks himself
— 11 -
authorized in making on the scarred bodies of the
nations of Europe.
Democracies are founded upon the concept of
responsibility of individuals exercising power, and
these individuals can exercise this power only
in so far as their action is liable to be submitted
to judgement and approved and disapproved of,
or even annulled together with their function by
the prescribed judges, that is, by the so-called
representatives of the peoples' sovereignty.
Now, Mr. Wilson, in his function as President
of the United States is intangible : no control, or
only a useless control can be exercised over his
actions, as the judgement would not entail any
penalties; and he could never be sentenced to loss
of power on account of any error or injustice he
were to commit at the Paris Congress, because he
is inevitably destined to remain President of the
United States until the end of his term of office.
And if, to this condition of irresponsibility enjoy-
ed by him, we add the fact that as President of
the United States he is at liberty to employ the
immense financial, industrial and food resources
of his great country, and, by their means, to exer-
cise a pressure on the will of the representatives
of the European nations and especially of those
who are the least wealthy and, consequently, the
more easily influenced, it is easy to understand
what strange and hitherto unheard-of form of ty-
ranny he has come to exercise in Europe in the
name of the most liberal-minded people of the
- 12 -,
world. In exercising this tyranny he represents his
own personality and « a thought of his hrain » ,
hut he represents neitheir the spirit nor the inter-
ests of the American Nation. And, through no
fault of ours and through no desire on our part,
we find ourselves dragged into a conflict with the
people of America, whereas it is only Mr. Wil-
son who is in conflict with us and in conflict with
the history and the geography of our most an-
cient country, which he does not know, and which
he is neither in a position to \now, nor to under-
stand.
Yet, what is to he done? Unfortunately we
ard all moving in absurdity. And, from absurdity
only chaos can emerge, and not the state of order
and of peace which the world is anxiously await-
ing.
Therefore, we cannot, on our own account, con-
ceive any hopes in the Paris Congress. And we
must consider our former Allies as enemies.
I dedicate this book to our Heroes of the
Adriatic.
Let them \eep a vigilant guard over our rights
and our honour! Let them heep our enemies, and
especially our A Hies at a distance from both shores
of that sea! And, above all, let them be the win-
ners of the diplomatic battle which our political
men have been incapable of fighting, and which
they have so miserably compromised.
Italy, by now, has faith in nought else but their
valour, in which the loftiest wisdom resides.
V. MORELLO.
y
LA DAME AUX CAMELIAS.
We all remember the delightful scene between
Marguerite and Armand, which closes the first
act:
(( You are moved, Armand; your accent is sin-
cere; you are convinced of what you are saying...
Your emotion, your sincerity deserve a reward...
Take this flower ». (She gives him a camelia).
(( What am I to do with this flower ? »
(( You will return it to me » .
« When ? »
« When it is faded ».
« And how long will that take ? »
(( Oh, the length of time it takes a flower to
fade... The length of an evening or of a morn-
ing » .
(( Ah, Marguerite, how happy I am ! »
(( Well, tell me once more that you love me ».
« Yes, I love you ! »
« And now, go ».
((I go». (s'eloignant a reculons, say the stage
instructions).
And so, in the same manner as Armand, the
good Denys Cochin has left Greece, with a ca-
melia in his hand. But he has not had time to see
15
his flower fade. The wind, during the journey,
has blown the leaves away.
It is really pathetic to see what sweet sentiment-
ality prevails in the war diplomacy of our Allies.
The house is burning, treason is at our heels, the
submarines are in the /Egean. Yet our French
friends cannot find anything better wherewith to
extinguish the conflagration, to stifle the treason,
to destroy the submarines, than to send a lover
of Athens along the streets of that city to shout:
(( Zeto Greece ! » and to get maudlin over the cry
that re-echoes, of: « Zeto Gallia! » Oh, m amour!
We are at war, we are struggling in the fiercest
war that the history of mankind records ; yet that
lover loses thirty days in huzzas and salaams in
a country which has already all gone over, arms
and baggage, to the enemy: in a country which
not an hour ago, but for fully a year has been
bound to the enemy by a graceful pact — grace-
ful, was it not ? for it was made in defiance of
an old-standing treaty of fidelity with Servia —
and, instead of choosing and using weapons, be
they merely legal ones, to obtain a divorce, care
is taken to select the most pleasing expressions
to compose toasts with, and verses for future
Alexandrine anthologies 7 Courtesy prevented us,
some days ago, from commenting upon as they
deserved, the interviews granted by M. Denys
Cochin, all mingled with honey and ambrosia in
honour of Greece; but fearing, and not unjusti-
fiably, alas, by what has taken place up to now,
that the decisions which the French Government
will have to take together with the other Allies
in view of the new replies that King Constantine's
Government is sure to make, may bear the same
stamp as those romantic interviews, we are in
duty bound to make our protests in anticipation.
- 16 —
No, Gentlemen, war is not conduct eel that way;
the Mediterranean is not held thus: and all will
be lost. You must decide to issue from the pre-
judice in which you have wrapped yourselves up
since the beginning of the war, like the women
of the Middle Ages in the belt of chastity, whilst
their husbands overran the East: you must issue
forth from the prejudice that your marriage with
Greece is indissoluble. You must conceive your
future differently from what you had designed and
prearranged it to be before the German competitor
fell upon the coveted prey. Believe me, no new
song can be composed out of old sentiments, nor
new politics out of old ideas. Cut away you must,
and cut ruthlessly into the raw and living flesh.
If you do not make a clean cut of it, to-morrow
gangrene will set in. As an Italian writer, I do
not want gangrene to set in also in Italy. Let us
avoid infection.
I know not what the Government will do and
say on the subject of Greece: and I am not sup-
posed to know. But I have read that the French
Press, with some apprehension, has reproduced
the threat — made under the form of courteous
advice — by the officers of the Greek army to
those of the Entente, to fall back on Salonika
before the Austro-Germans descend from the Ser-
vian mountain passes. I have read that the English
Press, with no less anxiety, reproduces the other
threat, also under the form of courteous advice,
of taking away the Salonika railway and port
from the operations of the Allies. And lastly, I
have read that in the House of Commons, Lord
Robert Cecil replying to a question on the subject,
has been obliged to say that « he was sorry that
he could not give a reassuring answer and could
not state that an understanding had been arrived
17 —
at between th® Quadruple Alliance and the Greek
Government » .
When, then, will this understanding be arrived
at, if up to now it has not been ? And until when
will the Greek Government drag the Entente
along the ill-chosen road of its intentions ? At
every halting-place of the Austro -German-Bul-
garian army on its way towards the Greek
boundary line King Constantine's Government
becomes renitent or renegade. What are the
Powers of the Entente waiting for } That the last
link of the Balkan chain be welded on Greek ter-
ritory, and that thet Austro -Germano-Bulgarian
chain be rivetted on their ankles ? Evidently
declarations of a mellifluous character coming
from the Ministers of Gorgias will not be
wanting in these days. But declarations are
made up of words, and war does not brook
words. Signer Sonnino, in his speech of the day
before yesterday said with candid precision that
the Balkan peoples have allowed themselves to
be dominated and have determined their action
by their own particular appetites and resentments
rather than by the high ideal reasons of their
existence or by right. What shall be said of
Greece, then, which, to those two elements adds
another: fear, in a negative sense; and a fourth
in a positive sense : the promise made by Germa-
ny as reward for her line of conduct ? In the
conduct of Greece are in action two elements
more than are to be found in the conduct of the
other comrades of the Balkan Gain...
And are there people who believe that new
and old elements can be won over by a camelia ?
Oh, now more than ever is the time come to
call: Nanin, courez chercher le medecin!
— 18
ANTWERP MOUNT LOWCEN.
We have placed ourselves, as citizens, under
the strictest discipline, which imposes upon us
the most complete, the most absolute renunciation
of all personal ideas and of all personal senti-
ments for the cause of the fatherland. But, as
writers, we have not given up our mission as
observers and critics of all the actions and events
which, directly or indirectly, bear upon the po-
litics of the war. Discipline does not exclude
criticism ; on the contrary, criticism serves to
strengthen discipline and to render it more intel-
ligent and more scrupulous. We can abstain
from gathering news and from commenting on
facts which, at a given moment, might offer to
the enemy some useful elements of information
or of judgement. But we cannot refrain from
examining and discussing events which belong
to the domain of history: which are, rather, his-
tory itself. Discussion is always useful to clear
up and explain the motives of action and to avoid,
at all events, misunderstandings and errors in the
future.
Last November, Winston Churchill appeared
in the House of Commons to explain the reasons
— 19 —
of his resignation from the office of First Lord
of the Admiralty. Public opinion had charged
him with two grave responsibilities: that of the
fall of Antwerp and that of the Dardanelles Ex-
pedition. On the first charge he excused and de-
fended himself stating that having been informed
too late, he was barely in time to send to the
relief of Antwerp the Naval Reserves, which
were very poor in quality and very little trained.
On the second charge he said that having been
unable to obtain from the War Office the 40.000
men demanded by the Admiralty for a combined
action on land and sea on the Gallipoli Peninsula,
he was constrained to limit himself to a sea action
only. In consequence of that speech England was
at last informed that on two most serious issues
of the war she had been wanting in men for her
military operations. And, it may be said that
from that point the conscription propaganda gain-
ed its first victory.
With all due reserve, I believe that with regard
to the situation on the Adriatic the fall of Mount
Lowcen has the same importance that the fall
of Antwerp had in the situation of Northern Eu-
rope!. This opinion, to judge from Press comments,
is accepted by many writers on military matters
both in Italy and in the allied nations. It would
be interesting' to know, from the point of view of
the politics of the war, whether the Italian Govern-
ment be of the same opinion.
Winston Churchill, in the speech above refer-
red to, stated that on the first announcement of
the decision of the Belgian Government to eva-
cuate Antwerp and give up the defence of that
place he offered, in the Cabinet, to go in person
to Antwerp for the purpose of inducing the Bel-
gian Government to continue in the resistance.
20
He went, in fact, and suceeded in his intent. But,
owing to the scarcity of means he could not
equally succeed in bringing over the necessary
help. As to Mount Lowcen, I ask: Was there a
want of judgement or a lack of means on the part
of the Italian Government ? Did the Italian Go-
vernment believe that it was unnecessary or inop-
portune to assist Montenegro in holding the posi-
tions on Mount Lowcen, or were the Italian for-
ces insufficient for the undertaking ?
In the event of the second supposition being
true, we cannot express an opinion for want of
positive evidence. But if the first supposition were
true, namely, if it were a question of the policy
which underlay the direction of the war, I, for
my part, would feel that I was seriously failing in
my duty towards the public if I did not condemn
that policy.
The recollection of our war in Lybia is a recent
one.
At an early stage we could have struck down
Turkey by land and sea and have thus rapidly
decided the fortunes of the war. But we allowed
the Turkish Fleet, which we had at the mercy
of our guns, to escape whilst it was returning
home through the Dardanelles from the ports of
Asia Minor ; and we allowed ourselves to be per-
suaded to turn back from Prevesa, whilst the gun
fire of the Duke of the Abruzzi was commencing
to do « wonders)). We lost, in that manner, a
year and half of precious time and a milliard and
half of money in the sands in striving to build up
an edifice which is still wanting of foundations.
We had then to yield to the wishes of Germany
in respect of the Turkish Fleet, and to those of
Austria in respect of Prevesa. But now, if we
are not actually at war with Germany, we cer-
— 21 —
tainly are with Austria. And are we, with our
own hands, to bind ourselves in this war with the
same chains that Germany and Austria together
placed round us in the previous war ">
Even not wishing to extend our operations
beyond the limits rendered possible by our for-
ces in the East, we cannot consider any point on
the opposite shore of the Adriatic as being beyond
the pale of our war — which at the very least is
essentially an Adriatic war. To restrict our action
to the Alpine boundaries would be, not for the
European war alone but for our own war, the
grossest of errors.
The « Niggardly Company » cannot be the ideal
model of a nation. It was at most the model of
a bygone Italian Ministry which was neither fort-
unate nor long-lived.
In last evening's « Tribuna » it was said that
(( the territorial conquests of the enemy do not
constitute in themselves a decisive factor » — and
up to this point I may agree — but it was added :
(( It would certainly pay Austria very much better
not to occupy Mount Lowcen, and not to have her
currency depreciated by 4 1 per cent and her bonds
by 50 and 60 per cent » — and here I cannot
agree. If the commercial war were the equivalent
of the military war, evidently one of the two
would be unnecessary. Nor let it be said that one
could not exist without the other. The fact is,
that no military war has ever terminated in Stock
Exchange Reports. And if we calculate the fall
in the value of bonds as liabilities, we must also
calculate conquests as assets. Now, I do not be-
lieve it to be a sound war policy not to take mea-
sures to prevent everywhere and at all times the
conquests of the enemy: especially if these be
gained on our very threshold.
— 22 —
All ideas, all arguments and even all events
should be discussed publicly, so as to test, during
the discussion, their soundness and validity.
The Italian People has such sound nerves and
heart, is so firm and tenacious of purpose, so dar-
ing and resolute in action, that it can well listen
to our discussions — and, better still, become
their judge.
- 23
SOME TRUTHS.
We have an unbounded belief in the final vic-
tory of the Quadruple Alliance; but, notwith-
standing all that, we are not inclined to excuse
its deficiencies or justify its errors.
The deficiencies must be displayed in broad
daylight and must not be excused, that is, hushed
up ; and the errors must be discussed and must
not be justified, that is, attenuated. We are at
war: mental reservations and begging the ques-
tion are not admissible in war.
At every success of the Central Powers we hear,
with irritating monotony, this perpetual refrain:
— (( But the question will be settled at the end of
the war, after the victory of the Quadruple Allian-
ce » — or this other : — « But the question will
be decided on another field ». — Propositions,
these, which contain a large portion of truth, but
cannot contain the whole truth. Undoubtedly, all
the questions will be resolved at the end ; but we
must not allow the enemy to compromise them
all by his successes. Undoubtedly, the war will
be won more in the West than in the East. But
no harm would be done if it were won both in
the East and in the West, and wherever fighting
- 24 —
is going on. In any case, would it not be better
to make an effort to win all over ?
After the last Montenegrin comedy and the
consequent surprise of the public, the Press of the
Quadruple Alliance is now striving to demon-
strate that, since the beginning of the war the con-
duct of the Cettigne people was equivocal and
that it could not fail, in the end, to fall on the
side on which it was leaning. But is this a justifi-
cation ? Is it not rather an accusation against the
Quadruple Alliance } Given such people and such
suspicions, the Allies' diplomacy cannot put for-
ward any excuse for its failure, having had ample
time to take precautions. That was the time, of
all times, to do at Cettigne what had been done
at Salonika: to take possession of it, plant oursel-
ves there firmly, organize — whether the Pefero-
vichs liked it or not — the defences against the
invader, if not before at least immediately after
the defeat of the Servians, that is, when there
was no further doubt as to the nature of Austria's
designs. Instead of that, we have stood idle in
the most fatalistic manner, watching the supplies
furnished by Italy rot on the quays of St. John
of Medua, and awaiting the ripening of events
on Mount Lowcen. No: even if all were agreed
in upholding and demonstrating the contrary, I
should never desist from proclaiming that the
diplomacy of the Allies can put forward neither
excuses nor extenuating circumstances for the
failure in Montenegro. This diplomacy does not
possess, nor has it shown itself to possess, either
the mind or the means necessary to conceive and
put into execution a serious war programme, a
serious programme of power and command. The
diplomacy of the Allies does not possess the
revolutionary spirit which is absolutely essential
25
in the great crises of history : its soul is not eager
for renovations and upheavals; one would say,
rather, that it is afraid to see ideas and things
displaced from the point in which it found them
and where it was accustomed to admire them
until yesterday. It issues forth to meet the bar-
barous, troublous, turbulent action of Germany
with a minuet step and to the music of the oca-
rina. In her war of invasion Germany employs
all means, especially the factor Man: the Allies
ignore Man. Through man, by means of reason-
ing, persuasion, corruption, Germany endeavours
to conquer Governments and States before she
launches forth her armies. The Allies, the miserly
Allies, are afraid or hesitate to open their hearts
or their purses even to the Balkan peoples, whose
maxim : « The f riiend is valued for what he
gives and the enemy for what he takes away
from you », is well-known. In such a manner they
have allowed the people of Montenegro to slip
through their fingers ! And they have permitted
them to do, in an inverse sense with Mount Low-
cen, what they did in April 1913 with Scutari.
Do you remember the taking x>f Scutari, at that
time ? At first it seemed, after a long siege, a
glorious conquest ; and it turned out to be nothing
more than a stupid comedy instead ; precisely like
yesterday's surrender of Mount Lowcen.
After this last misadventure of Montenegro,
the Press of the Allies, finally apprehensive as
it seems, is crying out unanimously from London,
Paris and Rome : « Unity of consultation and of
decision is necessary)). This may be attained,
although after all that has takem place it appears
to me that it will come too late. But, rather than
unity of consultation, a transformation of mind and
conscience is indispensable, a transformation of
— 26 —
the soul from which counsel generally emanates.
The diplomacy of the Allies possesses a sluggish
soul: an animula, rather than a soul, vagula and
blandula; and it needs, instead, the formation of
a proud and unprejudiced soul: a revolutionary
soul in the truest and highest sense of the word;
a soul new and innovatory, for there is no greater
revolution than this European war, and it is im-
possible to govern this immense war by means
of the unaggressive and moderate ideas which
prevail in times of ordinary administration.
As to Italy, there is no one, I believe, in our
country who is not convinced of the necessity of
our war. The more Austria unfolds and carries
out her Balkan programme, the more this neces-
sity reveals itself in an evident and imposing man-
ner. Austria's descent on Servia, on Montene-
gro and on Albania could not have or have any
other final goal than the definite and complete
vassalage of Italy in the Adriatic.
But is Austria to be allowed to accomplish this
programme in its entirety and in all its details
during the war, even if it has to be overturned
afterwards, like so many other things, at the end
of the war ? Or, rather, would it not be better to
prevent her from carrying it out, now, day by
day, whilst the war is raging and we are all in-
volved in it ?
The problem seems to me to be of a certain
gravity.
Neither I, nor you, readers, have the power
to solve it.
But to propound it, it is to be hoped, yes.
— 27 —
UPPER AND LOWER ADRIATIC.
Was it well or ill to have failed to help Monte-
negro — whether she wished it or not — in the
defence against the Austrian advance ? Was there
the possibility of bringing an efficient help in any
case, at the proper time or at the last moment ?
Whose was the responsibility for the failure to
cooperate with Servia and Montenegro in good
time or at the last hour ? All these questions are
past by this time, and it would be useless and
dangerous to protract a discussion upon thern.
We are in time of war, and time cannot be wasted
in discussing the past. Every hour that is lost in
inquiries on an event that has already taken place,
is lost for the preparation of a new event : it is
lost, in fact, for action. Let us, then, pass on.
The defeat of Montenegro creates a new situa-
tion in the Lower Adriatic. Montenegro was the
natural barrier to the Austrian penetration in
Northern Albania. This barrier once fallen, Aus-
tria can more easily and surely make a descent -
in Albania, towards Durazzo and Elbassan, and
join the Bulgarian forces proceeding from Ma-
cedonia towards the Adriatic coast. What steps
are to be taken to meet this new situation ? And
— 28 —
should this situation be taken into consideration
and declared to be a cause of anxiety on our part
before it be on the part of the Allies ?
In his speech at Ancona, Signor Barzilai said
that in the scale of political values the positions
of the Lower Adriatic cannot have the same worth
to-day that they had during the thirty years of the
Triple Alliance, and that these positions are to
be defended to-day by means of the conquest of
the positions on the Upper Adriatic that garrison
them. But, in Signor Barzilai's words there is,
if I misake not, totum in fieri nihil in esse. For
we do not yet possess the positions on the Upper
Adriatic and Austria, who holds them, is on her
way to conquer those of the Lower Adriatic too.
Hence, with regard to us, the problem must be
put upon a different basis from that upon which
Signor Barzilai has placed it, namely: ((Is it in
the interests of Italy — who has not yet in her
power the positions of the Upper Adriatic — to
allow Austria to conquer those of the Lower
Adriatic also ? »
I may be mistaken, but to put the problem is
to solve it.
Ay, solve it, also for another reason which I
have stated in another article, in contradiction
to a statement of the Trihuna, namely that the
solution of all questions should not be postponed
until the end of the war, but that efforts should
also be made to solve some of them on the way.
The integral conception of the final victory should
not exclude efforts for partial successes.
Now, to conclude on this vital point, I do not
believe that it is sound war policy, whilst Tries-
te, Istria, Dalmatia and the islands are still under
the sway of Austria, to allow the shores of Mon-
tenegro a® well as those of Albania also to fall
— 29 -
under Austrian power. It is not sound war policy
to allow the aggrandizement and the enrichment
of the enemy, in the hope of taking everything
away from him all at once afterwards. The « poli-
cy of the artichoke)), in the Italian tradition,
means to strip the symbolical vegetable leaf by
leaf: not to increase its size and cover it with
new and fresher leaves whilst it is on the enemy's
table.
Should the principle of the depreciation of the
Lower Adriatic — combined with the second
principle of rendering the final accounts after the
victory of the Allied armies, and co-ordinated
with a third principle of the concentration of our
effort on the one point where we are called upon
to defend our frontier — prevail, one could arrive
even at the conclusion that the evacuation of
Valona is desirable; taking into consideration,
according to the statement made by Signer Bar-
zilai. that we have organized the Valona expedi-
tion for the purpose of assisting the Servians dur-
ins: their retreat; and this once accomplished:
(( Italy's conduct will be based on the conception
of a common struggle as far as that conception
can be usefully pursued and attained » . But will
it be possible to arrive as far as the evacuation
of Valona ? I trust that no one will dare place
himself, on the road of formal loeric, from deduct-
ion to deduction, on the declivity that leads to
such consequences. Italy, who is giving blood
and monev with a generosity and a calmness of
mind worthy of the hicrh sense of her historic res-
ponsibilities, would have no argument of satis-
faction from the abandonment of a position of
hers, held by her before entering the field.
I dare not push my indiscretion in the discus-
sion of war matters beyond the limit of my rea-
30
son able competence. But, without being a clever
mathematician, one can, in critical moments, try
to count on one's fingers to see whether two plus
two really make four, or not more and not less.
Now, I notice that Austria, after having seen that
she could not meet Italy on the side of the Alps,
has endeavoured and is endeavouring to meet her
on the side of the Adriatic — be it even the Lower
Adriatic. And noticing this, I cannot understand
why Italy, on her side, has not attempted to go
round the opposite way and seek Austria on that
road. Some days ago, I read an erudite article
in the Corner e della Sera written by a most learn-
ed writer who evidently is well versed in the
question and is familiar with the localities be-
longing to the sphere of offensive and defensive
operations in the territories that are now overrun
by Austria ; an article written to demonstrate the
terrible difficulties of the enterprise on the part
of Italy — and not, from what I can gather, on
the part of Austria. But all the arguments in
favour of a not doing » will not persuade me that,
at bottom, war is the art or science of a not do-
ing » . Especially as arguments in favour of « not
doing )) can be found and can always be found ;
although to my way of thinking, they should not
be sought for in war time.
In any case, if even in war time our cautions
bourgeois spirit does not allow the eulogy of the
cothurnus, I do not think useful and opportune
the glorification — and consequent substitution
of — the domestic slipper.
Now, if I mistake not, the policy of our war
in the Lower Adriatic is coddling itself in that
foot-wear more than is necessary.
And, out of doors one walks very uncomfort-
ably in slippers.
— 31 —
THE GERMANS AND THE ADRIATIC.
The article of the German Post which was
reprinted in its almost entirety by the Tribuna
last evening, deserves immediate and peremptory
refutation rather than comment. It is rooted in
falsehood ; and as a fit reply it is necessary to cut
it down at the roots.
(( What does Italy claim in the Adriatic ? She
cannot claim greater rights than are due to her in
proportion to her real power, which is not su-
perior to that of Austria or of Greece. — Her real
and proper field of action is not the Adriatic,
but the Mediterranean : her rivals are not Austria
and Greece, but France and England : it was a
mistake, for which she will suffer hereafter, to
have chosen Austria as her rival and enemy
rather than France and England. — Now that
Servia is defeated and Montenegro fallen, she
must be content to see Austria increase her pos-
sessions on the Adriatic to the same extent to
which she refused to allow Servia to increase
hers. Italy has started from a false premise. The
consequence could not be other than the victory
of Austria, who had started from a true premise » .
— Such is — in its essential points — the article
32
of the Post, which resumes the ideas and princi^
pies of the German political world. Its confutation
will not be difficult.
It is pleasant to observe and to note, in the
first place, the exquisitely delicate sense of legal
right which our ex-Allies show whenever they
discuss a question of Italian affairs or interests.
One would think they were so greatly imbued with
the supreme reasons of law as to pronounce sen-
tences (as you know, sententia is derived from
sentio) in Latin mood and with Latin conscience;
instead of judging (ordaliare, to judge — In Ger-
man urtheilen, if I remember right) in German
mood and with German conscience. But they
need not disturb themselves ! We know exactly
what value to put upon this delicate sense of le-
gality of theirs, in so far as it is applied to our
affairs. It is tantamount to the proverbial saying:
«Get out of there, I want to take your place)).
Germany has always preferred that Austria
should be on the Adriatic, and even Greece, so
long as Italy were not there; or, at most, that
she should be on the opposite shore. Her sense
of legality is well-known. So also is the goodness
of her heart.
A statement of fact which must not horrify the
defenders of the Realpoliti\ is that Germany has
never had the opportunity of doing a good turn
to any one; not even indirectly, not even in an
oblique manner. Russia, even though it was to
erect a rampart against Turkey and Austria, has
created ex nihilo, Bulgaria, and no one can deny
that in 1848 she fought whole-heartedly and gra-
tuitously in Hungary for Austria. France, after
the Revolution, has shed much blood in Europe,
for her military reputation and for her ideals.
Even England, at a certain period, gave away
— 33 —
some islands to Greece. But Germany, not even
by mistake, not even through absent-mindedness
has ever given a handful of beans to any one.
I do not say she was wrong: I simply state a fact.
It is perfectly true that from 1870 onwards, she
has always pointed out many roads to those who
were willing to follow them : roads which served
to rid her of importunate people. Thus, she point-
ed out the road to the East to Austria after Sa-
dowa ; she pointed out the road to Tunis to France
after Sedan, and when the hour had struck, she
pointed out the way of the Mediterranean to
Italy, instead of that of the Adriatic. So with
Greece; she pointed out the way of the Adriatic,
instead of that in which Greece would have met
Bulgaria and Turkey, So with Rumenia: instead
of the way to Transilvania she pointed out the
way where that country would have come face
to face with Russia. Ah, yes ; when the European
war broke out and Italy had declared her neutrali-
ty, Germany very politely came to see us to per-
suade us of the interest we had of turning west-
ward, of taking the places of France and England
in the Mediterranean, rather than of Austria in
the Adriatic. Only she quite forgot to elicit our
intentions on this interest of ours and to prepare
with us, in advance, the plan for carrying it out,
on the eve of the war, before her Fleet locked
itself up in Kiel; and reserved her intention of
displaying the new horizon to our eyes when she
imagined she could divide us internally by means
of a new improvised programme which would
supply new and improvised inspirations. Noit
only; but Germany never showed that she felt
this tender care on behalf of our Mediterranean
interests during our Lybian war, when she was
all ablaze against us, because we were disturbing
_ 34 —
Turkey's Mediterranean position; or when we
concluded the recurrent Mediterranean agreements
with France and Russia. As to Italy, Germany
was quite forgetful of the existence of the Medi-
terranean until Italy had shown that she was not
willing to sacrifice her rights on the Adriatic in
favour of Austria. And the thought never struck
her that the Adriatic is also a portion of the Me-
diterranean, and that a nation like Italy, being
essentially Mediterranean, needs be strong in the
Gulf of Venice; and that the stronger she is in
the Mediterranean, the stronger will her position
be in the Adriatic portion of that sea.
Let us therefore put all bad jokes aside, at
least in war time ! And if the German papers
have really a mind to have some fun, let them
amuse themselves in some other way. Our racket
is busy in other games.
But what we should never allow, even in joke,
in our colleagues beyond the Rhine, is to falsify
history on Austria's account, for the purpose of
feeding rancour and diffidence against Italy
among the dispersed Servians. If not respect to
historical truth — it is true that Treitschke, their
divine Master, says that historical truth is a stu-
pidity unworthy of a healthy, full-blooded and
martial race, and only fit for anaemic and contem-
plative ones — respect, at least, for misfortune
should restrain them from showing themselves
cruel with deceit and falsehood against the Ser-
vians, whom they now force to go wandering
around Europe. To say, to-day, to these home-
less fugitives, after having defeated them: « It
was Italy's wish and Italy's interest that defeat
should overtake you )) , is going far beyond the
limits of irony. It is to be hoped that they are
more considerate with their Belgian proteges.
— 35 —
The part assumed by Austria and Germany
between the first and the second Balkan war is
within the memory of even the most humble of
the Adriatic fishermen; when, defeated by the
Allies, Turkey's fate seemed to be settled for
ever in the Balkans for the Central Powers. Kider-
len's last interview on the Balkan question, on
the eve of his sudden, death, is well known:
(( Henceforth we must drag Bulgaria into our
game, and have care to create and encourage
interests that will bind her to us » . And Aus-
tria's action — after the capture of Scutari,
against Montenegro, and after the victories of the
first Balkan war against Servia to prevent the
latter from obtaining an opening on the sea under
threat of war — is also well known. To avoid
war, Italy — and that was her mistake, and not
the only one of that time, a mistake which not i
even the new condition in which the Lybian cam-
paign had left her is sufficient to excuse — was
constrained to follow Austria, who was claiming
compensations even for the expenses that she
said she had been obliged to sustain for her mo- j(
bilization during the Balkan war, and to assist |l
in the adjustment of the Lower Adriatic by means |£
of the aerial creation of the Kingdom of Albania,
which was destined to become, in Austria's inten-
tion, the excuse for the future rupture with the
Ally. All this is known. And all this being i
known, because it is but of yesterday, is it not I
supremely ridiculous to attempt to-day to lay |
Austria's action to Italy's charge and call Italy p
responsible for the situation created by Austria
in the Lower Adriatic in her blind hatred against
Servia ?
Italy, at that time, committed one fault: that
of not opposing herself to Austria's manoeuvres
36
and of showing herself in the view of the Balkan
peoples, on the same stage as Austria. But it is
useless to make retrospective criticisms now. At
present, it is only useful and necessary to place
the facts again in their true position, which the
German newspapers are trying to turn upside
down and misrepresent.
« Austria has won » , continues the Post, « and
Italy will be unable to boast of having obtained
by the war that which she was not willing to
obtain by peaceful agreement ».
A correction is necessary: Austria has van-
quished Montenegro after having vanquished Ser-
via in company with Germany and Bulgaria ; and
no one denies the glorious feat. But, well or ill-
inspired, Italy has not fought by the side of Mon-
tenegro and, on the other hand, has not counselled
Servia in her action. In any case, would Servia
have accepted Italy's advice } And, at any rate,
may not Servia 's distrust of Italy have been the
result of Austria's action in 1913 ? If an Austrian
victory must be vaunted, let the victory gained in
peace time, in 1913, be mentioned. Austria won,
then, truly,, against her enemy, Servia, and
against her own Ally, Italy, at the same time:
she won in time of peace and thanks to the Al-
liance. Now, things are quite changed.
But, if I err not, the war is still going on, and
has not come to an unexpected termination with
the compromise of the Monenegrin General Be-
ck, nor with that of his assistant, the Montenegrin
Major, Lovepar.
37 -
STILL TO SUBSTRACT:
TURKEY AND GREECE.
The Battle of Verdun continues to rage vio-
lently, after fifteen days of incessant fire, and it
is as yet impossible, therefore, to count the dead
and wounded that are lying on the field. Mean-
while, it will be well to speak of the victims,
ascertained beyond all doubt, that Germany has
made up to now around her. These victims are
not Belgium and Servia — Belgium and Servia
will rise again, and until they do, civilized Europe
will not be in peace — but Turkey and Greece.
Every day that passes, and every calculation that
can be made on the events of the day that has
flown, demonstrate how and in what measure the
great warlike Empire and the small Kingdom of
the Levant — arcades ambo — and rivals to
each other — have been brought low by Ger-
many's protection. The one under the heel of
Granduke Wladimir; the other under the arm
of General Sarrail. The only difference between
Turkey and Greece is this: that in the end Tur-
key, at least, will be able to say she has lost every-
thing save honour. Greece, instead, will have
to be content with a handful of beans which will
- 38 —
compensate her for the fleeting dream of By-
zantium.
It seems impossible to imagine — being the
case of an empire on the basis of harems — that
Turkey should have become Germany's Foolish
Virgin. Giving way to the fascination of an ad-
venturer like Enver Pacha — not a vulgar one
by any means, as many believe — after so many
years of sloth and fanaticsm, Turkey lived her
day of ambition and pride, and dreamed the most
inordinate dreams of glory and greatness that she
had ever dreamed from the Siege of Vienna to
this day. Germany, in accord with the adventurer,
had kept up these dreams and, worse still, had
infused through them in the Turkish soul a thirst
for conquest. Why, then, not re-capture all the
dominions of Mediterranean Africa } Why not
sweep away, not only from the Mediterranean
Africa, but also from all the inlets of the East,
the enemies and competitors of Germany ? And ,
encouraged and stimulated by heir Berlin protect-
ors, and dragged along and terrorized by her
autochthonous adventurer, she gave herself up
to the wildest incursions by land and sea, trustful
that in Germany's name she would have routed
the monsters and subdued the Christian dogs.
(It can hardly be doubted that the Turkish men-
tality is somewhat diffused among other peoples
of Europe). Truly, after a year and half of incur-
sions, the Army of the Prophet is nought but a
vain name, with a von der Goltz at its head, and
a Liman von Sanders at the tail. But the English,
who were to have been thrown out beyond the
Suez Canal and beyond the Persian Gulf, out of
Egypt and out of Mesopotamia, are still on the
Nile and at Kut-el-Amara. And the Russians,
who were to have been cut up on the Caucasus,
— 39 —
have reached beyond Erzerum and are returning
to the ancient delightful legends of Bitlis and
Trebizond. Asiatic Turkey is melting away under
the footsteps of the Cossacks of the Don. And of
all this great gesta Macometti per Germanos there
remains nothing, in Turkey's balance-sheet
save the transfer of territories to Bulgaria, to indu-
ce her to enter into war against Servia. More
gloriously and, let us say the truth, more stupidly,
than this, Turkey could not have ended. She came
into European history armed with the scimitar;
now she leaves it to the sound of a jeer. Really,
were it but for her disinterestedness, she deserved
a better fate !
Greece, however, was seized by means of a
different artifice: with her own artifice:
(50 lines censored).
It is clear that the defeat of the Entente in the
Balkan policy and the disappearance of the King-
dom of Servia is principally and specially due to
the conduct of Greece. Had not Bulgaria received
a perfect assurance directly from Greece, and
through Greece from Germany, that she could
act without fear of surprises, she would not have
moved so easily ; on the contrary, she would not
have moved at all against Servia. And as the
Balkan defeat has inflicted serious damage on the
Entente, it is natural that, sooner or later, Greece
will have to be called upon to pay them. But I
have not understood, nor can I succeed in under-
standing, the generosity of the Italian Govern-
ment towards Greece, after Servia's defeat which
has evidently exercised a not indifferent action
upon the affairs of our war, by means of the
greater pressure brought to bear by the Austrian
— 40 —
army on Montenegro and on the Southern Adria-
tic. In force of that millionth part of judgement
on the development of the war to which, as an
Italian, I have a right (will Signer Sonnino be
so courteous as to pay attention), I declare the
Italian Government culpable of not having turned
against Greece for the damages which have ac-
crued to us in consequence of the Servian defeat
and of the irruption of the Austrians towards
Albania. The Italian Government has wished to
act and has acted with too much delicacy towards
Greece, who has shown that she understands and
appreciates, in the way we all know, such deli-
cacy !
In any case, and apart from the digression
relating to Italy, it is by no means unprofitable
to take into consideration the victims which Ger-
many has made and the losses she has had to
sustain during the course of the war. Until yester-
day there were entered in the liabilities column
only her African and Asiatic colonies. But to-day
we must also add her colonies in Europe : Turkey
and Greece.
For the cash account only ; for nothing else.
41 —
THE JOURNEY TO PARIS.
Two days hence, Sign or Salandra and Baron
Sonnino will be starting for Paris to return the
French Government's visit. They will also be
the bearers of the greetings of the Italian people
to the heroic army which has been fighting its
great battle for four weeks; and, together with
those greetings, the wishes for a speedy victory.
This is not the time for festivity and gladness.
All national and international manifestations are
covered up with the violet cloth of Passion Week
ceremonies. Whilst Statesmen meet in council
or at dinner, the flames are rising high on the
horizon, and in that fire the sacrifice of two ge-
nerations is being consummated. « Ah, vous
voila bien place » said the King of France to
Marshal Tress an, on the day of the Battle of
Fontenoy. And the courtier replied : « Sire, I
am certain that to-day will be a feast-day for Your
Majesty's House and for the nation)). But those
were other times ; and other wars ! Which stand
to the present war as the musket stands to the
305 gun. A sea of mourning surrounds the ter-
ritory of European nations to-day, which grows
wider as the carnage spreads in the effort to reach
— 42 —
the haven of peace. None but necessary words
can be or should be spoken. The superfluous is
put off until the day following victory, which
everyone, by this time, after two fierce years of
scientific cruelties, wishes near. The chemical
laboratories of the German Universities must sure-
ly have exhausted all the experiments initiated
during their forty-five years of war preparations.
The journey of the Italian Ministers to Paris
coincides with the various Allied Congresses
which are to discuss all the questions concerning
the conduct of the war; such as the financial
question, that of munitions and of armaments,
which, it is to be hoped, will all be finally co-
ordinated and resolved. We shall never tire of
recommending the three important questions of
freights, exchange and coal, which represent the
nervous plexus so essential to our existence. We
have entered in the great war by the side of the
Allies, not under the pressure of a German threat
or offence, but of our own free election, to claim
from Austria those rights which are justly due
to us, and for the protection and the exaltation
of the rights of European civilization against the
ferocious aggression perpetrated by the two Cen-
tral Empires. And no one can deny or refuse to
acknowledge the moral value of our attitude and
the material weight of our action. Hence the duty
on the part of the Allies to respond to our gene-
rosity with equity and not to create in our econo-
mic existence conditions that may not be pro-
pitious to our resistance during the war. It is in
the interest of all that Italy should not issue
exhausted from the struggle in which she is en-
gaged, and in which her action is by no means
without profit for her Allies.
Time wears out not only ideas, but also and
- 43 -
perhaps in a greater measure, our sentiments;
and it is not to be wondered at that actions which
yesterday aroused enthusiasm should be looked
upon with mere indifference to-day. We, oursel-
ves, in our character of artists more than of politi-
cians — like Vico, for Machiavelli is but a vanity
of our name and of our culture — are apt, in the
variety and mutability of our impressions, to
under-estimate our work day by day arid not to
take into account yesterday's deed in to-morrow's
calculation. We are re-born every day, and pre-
sent ourselves naked at the font, asking inces-
santly for fresh water of new baptism. I trust that
the Italian Statesmen at the Paris Congresses will
be able to demonstrate the just value of all that
Italy has accomplished, from the declaration of
neutrality to the declaration of war, and will
know how to draw and get others to draw, the
necessary consequences for our future. Italy needs
to lay on the scale together with her weapons also
her spirit and her mind. For the spirit and the
mind which at the moment of supreme danger
affirmed the rights and the defence of European
civilization deserve some honour and some con-
sideration.
The Italian Statesmen will find, after two years
of war, a France different to that which the
enemy had believed to place under his heel after
the Caillaux case.
Never, perhaps, has France been so lofty and
so noble as she1 appears now in the sight of
nations ; not even during the storm of the Revolu-
tion, or during the glory of the Napoleonic era.
Sorrow has refined, if that were possible, all her
heroic qualities, and to the purification of the
heart it has added that of thought. A severe
Spartan wrinkle lines the shining forehead! of
— 44 —
Joan of Arc. And thus France fights, on land and
in the skies; and acquires fresh vigour from her
dead and fresh consciousness of life from the
enemy's strength. War, which, in 1870 had dis-
solved and disbanded her, has to-day regenerated
her, caused her to gather her strength anew and
bound her as in steel coat-of -mail ; and has given
her back the unity, the gravity and the austerity
which party politics had deprived her of, or had,
at least, weakened in her.
Italy, too, has strengthened and completed her
personality in the war; and together with inde-
pendence has regained the conscience she had
lost and the confidence in her genius and her
destiny which she had never troubled to> cultivate.
Jealous of each other no longer, to-day, but
mindful of their fate, the two Latin nations,
trustful, by now, of one another, will be able to
say to each other the essential words which will
most serve their interests for the present and for
the future.
There is no room for rhetoric when there are
armies in the field which are writing history with
their blood.
— 45 -
BEYOND DEMOCRACY.
On the basis of a book by M. Hermann Fer-
nau, Signer Labriola erects, in this morning's
(( Messaggero » , a small triumphal arch in honour
of French Democracy for the Verdun resistance,
and in honour of Democracy in general foir the
resistance shown throughout the European War.
Let us leave books alone: they contain so many
strange ideas and statements concerning the war
that not even Cardinal d'Este would have been
astonished any more at them ! But with all due
respect to those persons who uphold the method
of breaking through open doors, I do not believe
that History could easily pass under that trium-
phal arch without first having her feet or her
head cut off. Supposing we rid ourselves once
for all of old constructions and old nomencla-
tures ? And, in the face of this terrible phenomen-
on, unexpected and unforeseen by Democracy,
which is called the European War, supposing, I
say, we judged with our minds cleared of recol-
lections and of doctrinal and party prejudices ?
We should, without doubt, render truth a greater
service, and we should all gain greater credit
and greater confidence from the public which,
— 46 —
by this time knows and instinctively understands
what value to place on words and ideas which,
at last, it has had the opportunity of experiment-
ing and has found useless, or nearly so, for its
defence and protection.
Democracy can boast of numerous and great
merits in the history of modern civilization, but
it would be difficult to weave garlands round her
brow with the iron and the laurel of the war
which is to-day fought on all the baittlefieldls of
Europe. Till the eve of the war, she denied even
the hypothesis and the possibility of war; and
when the war broke out she found herself, and
caused the nations under her domain to find
themselves, unprepared in a moral and military
sense to meet the enemy's aggression. And if
to-day, after two years, those nations, that is,
France, England and Italy, commence at last to
organize their defences, this is not due to the
French Radical-Socialist Government, nor to the
English Radical Government, nor to the chaotic
parliamentary democracy of Italy, but to> the pri-
mitive instincts of self-preservation and of defence
which have risen up and have taken the reins
which guide the races of mankind, and have
hurled down all the particular principles of parties
and of classes. Democracy has accepted and has
fought the war for the simple reason that at the
moment when it broke out she found herself at
the head of affairs, and only she could1 assume
the responsibilities and the conduct of the strug-
gle. But like the queen bee which dissolves and
disappears on the very instant of fecundation,
so Democracy has dissolved and disappeared in
the very act of the war : she, that had been forced
to recognize the fact which she had ever excluded
from her foresight ; forced to accept the fact which
- 47 —
she had always denied in her doctrine; the fact
of the war. Think of it: the speeches delivered
by the English Radicals — commencing with
Lloyd George's — those English Radicals who
called for nothing less than the dismissal of old
Lord Roberts, for his propaganda in favour of
conscription, contain nought but a perpetual mea
culpa. Remember: between June and July 1914,
that is, on the eve of the war and after the French
general elections, the only Government which
could be set up in France was that of the Radi-
cal-Socialist Party which had fought against the
Three Years* Conscription Law; and M. Viviani
on two occasions had to prepare a formula which
should reconcile the pacifist aspiration of the
Radical-Socialist Party with the respect — - tem-
porary, at least — of the approved Law. What
is to be said of Italy ? It is useless to remind our-
selves of our own stupidity. « One cannot be a
prophet », that is the usual, much abused, excuse.
But then, no claim for glorification should be
put forward after having shown so little perspi-
cacity, foresight and preparation in the policy of
the State. The dominant Democracy of Western
Europe, entirely engrossed, and with the best
of intentions, in the cultivation of the little orchard
of her individualism, of her parliamentarism, of
her pacifism, has never found the time or the way
to be informed of what was seething in the mind
of the imperialism of the German peoples, nor of
what was being moulded in the Krupp and Skoda
workshops: worse still, all engrossed in reading
her books over and over again, and in perusing
her speeches a century old, she never found the
leisure to read and think over, and much less
take in real earnest, the books that were pub-
lished, and 'the speeches that were made in
- 48 -
Germany, in which the dream of Teutonic im-
perialism was so neatly delineated, so pompously
coloured, so prodly accoutred with everything;
oh, yes, everything but metaphors ! The Demo-
cracy of Western Europe did not believe in war,
did not think of war, laughed at everyone who,
from time to time, attempted to wrest her from
the Elysium of her phantasies, in order to push
her a little more closely against the thorns of
international reality. And now, in the end, she
would lay claim to the glory of the war ?
Now, I do not say that Democracy should pos-
sess the same ideals as those of the Empires of
the Hohenzollems and of the Hapsburgs. But I
do say that if the void which the war has effected
in her principles is now openly known, she must,
at the very least declare the imperfection and the
deficiency of her doctrine. After all, it should
serve to govern human society which lives in
alternation between peace and war; and, confes-
sing the deficiency, Democracy should endeavour
to cover it and complete it with a new order of
ideas which will assure the existence and the
defence of hur^an kind. Until this happens, let
us postpone the building of triumphal arches.
These appertain only to those who triumph over
themselves, before they triumph over their
enemies.
Democracy, as it was understood and practised
up to the eve of the war, has exhausted her fun-
ction in European civilization. She that, during
a century of splendid struggles had succeeded in
constructing the political basis of the new so-
ciety which was born out of the fire and the
blood of the French Revolution, no longer pos-
sesses the mind and the energy necessary to build
up the loom and the tower which serve to weave
- 49 —
and to defend the new existence of the peoples
who will emerge, mutilated or smoked out, from
the hell of this war.
Prepare then, oh, ye Apostles, oh, ye Practi-
tioners of lost ideas, to resign your soul and your
gospel into the hands of the new combatants.
Together with the geographical map of Europe
will be changed, after the war, also the chart of
the value of souls. And the new generations which
are in the field will themselves undertake the task
of tracing the lines of this chart.
It would be ridiculous to prophesy: but it is
not at all ridiculous to assert that it is not possible
that the world of to-morrow can be governed by
the same doctrines and by the same men who
were powerless to preserve it from the whirlwind
which is now overturning all things.
It is not possible that war, which consumes so
much human life, so much labour, so much social
wealth, should not also consume the words and
the ideas which lit the flame or which could not
prevent the lighting of it.
A great war — and no war has been greater
than this one — is a crisis: but it is likewise an
experience. Experience of individualism, party
government — that is, government by a few men
and by an only idea or by an only interest — we
know by this time what al] these things mean
and where they may lead to. Further, still further
must the ship go !
The war has been fought in spite of Demo-
cracy.
The new society, born of the war, will be
organized beyond Democracy.
Jupiter, doubt it not, has strong knees.
50 —
RESPECTABLE DIPLOMACY.
It has been announced on the one hand, and
has not been contradicted on the other, that Gree-
ce has annexed Epirus, and has also subdivided
it into departments, provinces, boroughs, coun-
ties, according to the nomenclature most accept-
able to the Powers of the Quadruple Alliance.
Were this fact true, I should be the first to pay
my best compliments to M. Skouludis' Govern-
ment. To lay hold of something is always the
best thing that can be done, especially in war
time; and it is not because ascetics make a prac-
tice of renunciation as a virtue, that we must bla-
me whosoever makes the most of time and space.
In his recent speech in the Chamber of Deputies,
Signor Sonnino said that Greece had given ample
assurances that her occupation of Epirus would
have been a temporary one. Precisely. Occupa-
tion, temporary. Admission of Deputies to the
Greek Chamber, temporary. Administrative di-
visions, temporary. Of a permanent character
I nothing is, or remains, save the Entente's cheer-
fulnas®.
No one can deny that Master Nicholas Ma-
chiavelli was, in his time, a most melancholy
person. The merry individuals who now shave
— 51 —
with Mr. Wilson's « Gillette » razor would,
doubtless, be horrified to stand close to him, if
they happened to meet him in Val di Pesa, in
the Via di Sant 'Andrea in Percussina. Poor
Master Nicholas ! Trodden on during life, and
more so after his death ! What sadness would
reign in his little heap of ashes, if these, with a
sudden start were to feel once more the thrill of
a political sensation! The barbarians most abo-
minably counterfeit his doctrine, of which they
do not succeed in under standing the sense; and
those who call themselves civilized show a pious
horror and terror of it. Who, in History, more
civilized than the diplomats of the Quadruple Al-
liance } They are truly the exponents of the loftiest
culture and of the prof oundest sentimentality of the
modern world. They represent the purest « prin- j
ciples )) , and are the defenders of the purest |
(( right » . So much do they represent and defend |
that they are even afraid to pronounce the con-
trary term in their speeches and in their Notes:
the term « force ». To listen to them, or otherwise !f
to learn their word, one experiences the suave
satisfaction of beholding a noble race of shep- jj
herds (of peoples, of course), aspiring to the |*
beatitude of Heaven, rather than to glory on \l
earth; and preoccupied that their names and t
those of their nations be written on the pages of f
the little book of religious instruction entitled ;
(( The Garden of the Soul » , rather than in the
pages of History. Do not newspapers do them-|
selves the honour of always placing the title off
a moral story, such as; for example, « The Ene-
my's Pride Humbled » , or : « The Philosophy of I
Barbarism Confuted », on the report of a speechf
delivered by Mr. Asquith or by Sir Edward
Grey ? And after Signer Sonnino's recent speech!
— 52 —
I in the Chamber of Deputies, did not the Tribuna
j entitle its article commenting upon it : « An Hon-
est Speech » ; and the Giornale d' Italia rising
j from the Word to the Man : « Vir Probus » ? —
I The moral question, politically speaking, domi-
j nates over everything and in every one. And the
j illustrious Western diplomats are happy to con-
found their personal qualities of private gentle-
|! men with those of public men : a confusion which
' Master Nicholas decidedly opposed in his « Di-
I s cor si », and Count Cavour, in his turn, declared
was a thing he would not do, lest ill should befall
his country. But so much time has passed, since
then ! And, besides, is it not of importance, to-
day, more than anything else, always to do the
opposite to what is done by the enemy }
The opposite, even to the extent of not using
the weapons that one has in one's hands.
It is true, for instance, that in 1863, three of
the Powers who are now fighting against Ger-
many, namely, France, Russia and England
created, as is written in Article 3 of the Charter,
the monarchical State of Greece, « under the
sovereignty of the Prince of Denmark and the
guarantee of the three Courts » . And it is also
true that, at this present moment, the sovereignty
of the Prince of Denmark is in a state — how
shall we put it ? — of disaccord with the three
protecting Powers, and in accord with the Power
which is enemy to them, namely, Germany. But
what matters it ? Laissez faire ! But not laissez
passer! Do not even let the Allied army pass (for
until the contrary is proved, the Servian army
is still allied to that of Greece). And so, laissez
faire the Government in Epirus, laissez faire the
! German submarine providers on the coasts and on
! the islands. What is needful is not to hold co-
— 53
lonies, but to save principles. And, as to princi-
ples, no one will deny that the future Professors
of International Law will collect enough in the
different countries to form encyclopedias with.
The various Offices of the Western States can
already inscribe on their budgets the funds for
the subscription to the work.
I dare no longer expound my views with regard
to Italy's policy in the Lower Adriatic and in the
/Egean. Once that I attempted to do so, the Cen-
sor, with his archangelic sword slashed the
thread of my discourse to pieces. And as, in time
of war, submission is not even a virtue, I, without
the usual « laudabi liter » , beg to avoid the repeti-
tion of the attempt. But from the dust of my hu-
miliation, let me be allowed at least to say that
Greece has acted most wisely in grabbing what
the others have not seized, and what they allow
her freely to grab.
When I think of the end of the war, I cannot
help thinking, at the same time of Michael An-
gelo's (( Last Judgement ». The human genera-
tions arise from the open tombs, to the sound
of the last trump... But surely you do not wish
me to give a description of the terrible painting
in the Sixtine Chapel. You remember it well.
There are depicted in it human hodies which have
not yet reconstituted their skeletons. Others that
are covered here and there with fragments of
flesh. Others that are completely covered with
flesh. Each of the resurgents brings with him what
he can lay hold of — as will be done by the
Powers of Europe one day at the supreme Mee-
ting, at the supreme Congress, with the various
pledges that they have succeded in seizing during
the war.
And, I ask, what will Italy bring?
54
A YEAR AFTER.
Austria did not make up hear mind to attack
us until a year had passed since our declaration
of war. Having remained on the defensive for
three hundred and sixty four days, she takes the
offensive on the eve of the commemoration of the
anniversary. We should be unjust if we did not
recognize in this delay a compliment paid to our
valour. The secular enemy, before entering the
field has been busy in burnishing his armour and
in sharpening his weapons well. He has prepared
himself, and has given us time to prepare also.
And, in order to give the struggle its true signi-
ficance, he has sent, at the head of the armies
the most inured to war that he possesses, the Heir
to the Imperial Crown, the successor in rank of
the Archduke who fell at Serajevo. From one
Archduke to the other ! Austria always places
her heirs, like signboards, on the boundaries of
her proudest ambitions: in the Balkans as on the
Alps. One signboard fell in the Balkans, amidst
the blood of a political murder. It is our wish
that the other may be driven back on the Alps,
in defeat.
— 55 —
Let them cross the Alps again,
And brothers again we'll be.
But they must go back !
It is commanded by our historic law, which is
also our moral law.
I know not, and I do not care to know — it is,
at best, a sectarian's curiosity — whether there
are still two different opinions in Italy concern-
ing our war, because I do not believe that the
opinion of individuals exercise any function in
the great crises of history, such as we are accus-
tomed to see them exercise during Cabinet crises ;
and I believe, rather, that the action of a nation
in the great crises of history is determined by
factors and motives absolutely superior and dif-
ferent to those which determine — nor let this
seem a paradox — the opinions of individuals.
On the whole, the difference between one class
of factors and motives and another is the same
that exists between genius and culture. The opin-
ions of individuals are the product of the special
environment of political schools and doctrines; of
class, caste or family interests, which represent
only the smallest part of truth and reality: the
changing and decrepit part of life. The collective
action of a nation is determined by a permanent
and unchangeable factor, which, in one word that
comprehends and expresses all, can be called
the genius of national history. There is the ge-
nius of species, in love; the genius of race, in the
forms of civilization ; the genius of national histo-
ry, in wars. What matters if individuals do not
succeed at first sight in discovering the reason of
a national war, on account of the effort which
their old mental habits have to undergo, and on
account of the displacement of their interests ?
— 56 —
Do we know why we love a beautiful woman or
a plain one ? Do we know what deep and occult
force urges us on, in love, across the perturba-
tion of all the senses and the exaltation of all our
aesthetic faculties } When the philosopher finally
tells us that it is the genius of the species which
acts for us for the preservation of our being, we
can even smile incredulously; but our smile and
our attitude will not alter the law of Nature. The
same obtains in the direction of national history.
The genius of history works by itself. Do you
seriously believe that the Italian People, in the
days of May, last year, was seated at the writing
desk calculating coldly, to decide upon and pro-
claim the war ? It followed the unconscious im-
pulse of its life, the genius of its history : instinct ;
instinct which, in the end, has self -defence as a
final purpose. This war, in fact, is nothing else
but a war of elementary self-defence. Had we
allowed — through negligence, or incapacity, or
cowardice — the increase of Austria's -power
behind our back and at our side, we would have
signed our own sentence of death — by suffoca-
tion. If Italy is to live, she cannot live unless she
wards off the threat of a greater Austria. Who
can seriously imagine an Italy free and sure of
herself with an Austria enlarged by Servian,
Montenegran and Albanian territory, and mis-
tress not only of the Upper but also of the Lower
Adriatic, and of the Balkans ? Put the question
herself Italy never could have done; and, in fact,
she never did. But, as Austria has put it herself,
and for Austria, Germany has put it by means of
the European war, Italy could not but accept
its discussion, with those means with which one
only discusses in war : with arms.
We could not, like Greece, and for a fleeting
- 57 -
week of quiet living, destroy the essential reasons
of our existence. And much less could we, by
Germany's side, play the part which Austria and
Turkey are playing in the European war.
The Italian people has, in centuries gone by,
suffered all the misfortunes of foreign domina-
tion; but nobody could ever think that finally her
definite mission could be that of the voluntary
nigger slave, after the proclamation of her unity
and independence in the civilized history of
European peoples. A nigger slave of Germany,
bent under the lash of Austria, for the aggran-
dizement of the glory and fortune of the two
mistresses, no, never! Therefore, there remained
but one way of salvation : war.
But, if the country was conscious of the sense
of historical reality in wanting the war, has the
Government the clear sense of its responsibilities
in conducting it ? And does it understand to the
fullest extent, its importance and meaning?
This war that we are fighting is the most se-
rious, and we can also say, the most revolution-
airy of the wars which at the present moment
the Powers of Europe are fighting: because it is
a war which aims at displacing the axis of life
of Central Europe and transferring to Italy the
dominion which the Austrian Empire has held
till yesterday in the Adriatic for its road to the
East. With and by means of this war, Italy
should strive to resume the ancient sceptre which
Venice once wielded from the Isonzo to the
/Egean Sea, and let fall from her hand after
1454, by her narrow and improvident policy;
a policy which allowed Mahomet II. and Turkey
to take her place on land and sea, after having
humbled her and destroyed her prestige from
her. Italy should... But, who knows what the
— 58 -
Government really thinks and wants } We are
standing before a mystery, in the icy zone of
silence.
But, now that the war has lit all her beacons
on our Alps, we are more than ever bound by
duty to loudly proclaim our right and to call for
the greatest audacity in the offensive and the
defensive.
It is useless to discuss to-day, after a year,
whether there were or there are still adversaries
of the war in the country. To-da3^, neither the
opinions of individuals nor the tendencies of part-
ies count, nor are of any consequence; because
it is not with these or those that the war is carried
out and history is written ; and if Cavour or Bis-
marck had listened to them, they would not have
organized the one, the Crimean Expedition, and
the other the war of '66. To-day it does not con-
cern us to know whether all brains are agreed,
but whether the Government's brain is sufficiently
strong to contain and understand the problem of
the war in all its extension, and to give to such
a problem — in a military sense against the
enemy, and in a diplomatic sense toward® the
Allies — the necessary solution which is indis-
pensable for the fortunes and the future of the
nation.
Meanwhile, let us send our greetings to our
heroic soldiers who, at least, know how to sacri-
fice for their country the sacred Springtime of their
lives.
59
SEEKING NEW FRONTIERS.
I had barely finished writing my article on
Austrian peace, a fortnight ago, when General
Gadorna's communique came to announce to Italy
the advance of the Hereditary Archduke in the
Tyrol. By instinct (what has remained to the
willing Italian writer, in the vacuum which the
Government creates around him, but instinct }),
I had felt from the distant vibrations of the Vien-
na and Budapesth Press, the storm that was gather-
ing in the air, and I immediately counselled : « Do
not fall into the net of peace discussions ! » The
two thousand guns unexpectedly roaring on the
peaks of the contested boundary have composed
the last bars of my article. Now, whilst the battle
continues to rage on our land, the German jour-
nalists continue to speak of peace, whilst the
Austro-Hungarian journalists, on their own ac-
count, continue to disclose the aim of the advance
in the Trentino, which is the search for a new
boundary line which will assure the Monarchy
against any possibility of Italian conquests for
ever. And we, what shall we reply ?
For the moment, let us put aside the German
pacifist literature. Only fools — and1 the Germans
— 60 —
must think that there aire still some left in the two
worlds — can, without laughing, listen to Herr
Harden talk of a referendum between the belli-
gerent nations on the basis of reason and not on
that of the sword's point, and on the dethronement
of Prussian militarism; that same Herr Harden
who, during the first months of the war would
not acknowledge that in the dictionary of politics
there could be found any other word but « for-
ce » . (( What are you jabbering of reason and
right for ! » he then wrote : « Is Germany strong 7
Yes ? That is enough. Are the grand principles,
so highly extolled, worth anything ? One principle
only is of any account : force. All the rest is illu-
sion and stupidity. Force: that is a word which
sounds high and clear. Force: a fist, that is; that
is everything ! » — Now the devil Harden turns
monk. And scatters his ejaculations in his prose.
But, after having made the customary exorcisms,
it will be much more useful and serious for us
to occupy ourselves more with the threats that
the Austro-Hungarian writers are hurling at us,
than with these ejaculations. After all, is there
so much disaccord in the different thought of the
partners of the two Empires }
Whilst the German writers are attempting to
hypnotize the spirit of Europe in general and that
of Italy in particular with the song of peace, the
German and Austro-Hungarian armies are rend-
ering their strokes doubly violent. The spirit of
France does not allow itself to be hypnotized,
but remains awake and on the alert under protect-
ive weapons. Will the Italian spirit let itself fall
into unconsciousness ? I hope not. Because a
moment of oblivion would mean ruin. It is neces-
sary, oh Italians of every class and of every legion,
that you dispense with sleep for some time, if
— 61 —
you do not want the enemy to kill the reason of
your existence for ever.
The Germans are in accord with the Austrians
in the programme against Italy; and the German
newspapers , even before the action of the Austro-
Hungarian armies have revealed the common
aim, namely: « to obtain to the South of the Alps
a boundary which will assure the Danubian Mo-
narchy from any eventual surprise in the future » .
Misunderstandings are no longer possible. And
neither, on our side, must illusions, weaknesses,
hesitations, errors be possible: errors which are,
for the greater part, the effect of uncertain con-
sciences and of tortuous volitions. At last, the
enemy is in front of us: he is there, present and
erect, not distant and wavering any more. Have
you now the cognizance and the experience of
him ? Well, now, it is not allowed to lie, not even
to one's self. The Past, with all its stupidity, is
abolished. Now, there is nothing but war. And
war be it !
Easy - going and merry people are always de-
testable; yielding and sweet -insipid people like-
wise : they are all the more' detestable in time
of war.
In time of war there is need for crude, and bitter
men, with intense heart and sound mind; men
who carry a sword in their brain as well as in
their fist; a sword that is resisting and thrusts
straight, that does not bend or twist at every
breath and at every shock; and which does not
rust in negligence or indifference.
The Italian People, for its part possesses a
mind and a heart which can cope with the war
that its sons are fighting on the field. But have
those that lead it the same mind and heart ?
One of the hidden reasons of the Austrian of-
— 62 —
fensive in the Trent ino — a moral, rather than
a military reason — was precisely this: to upset
the mind of the Italian People and to throw it
into panic. But the Italian People has shown
that it was hardly aware of that offensive. Al-
ways backward — this time by more than a
week — Austria has thought and perhaps still
thinks that the Italian People of to-day is the
same people of the Abyssinian War ; and in any
case, that the Italian parliamentary men are the
same as those of the Abyssinian War, who, on
reading bad news transmitted by the Stefani
Agency rubbed their hands in glee to spite Grispi.
But to-day the Italian People has renewed its
backbone. And, after all, does Austria really
think that she is forgotten by us, or that she is as
indifferent to us as was Abyssinia in her time ?
The Italian People is to-day standing erect at
its post. It is to-day and will be to-morrow the
greatest guarantee of the war. Let the generals
and the ministers of the Austrian Empire reflect
on it.
And, let them reflect also, once for all, that
our internal competitions, whatever they are or
may be, will never cause the Italian People to
swerve from the road which it has mapped out
and determined upon for itself. From that road
there is no turning back ! And if the armies of
the Archduke on starting had merely that political
aim in view, they may as well collect their artil-
lery and transport it else where.
But they have also a military purpose: that of
the conquest of new boundaries.
Well, on this point, it will be necessary that
they discuss a little with our young national army.
63
BEYOND THE NAMES OF MEN
AND THE VANITY OF PARTIES.
I do not understand the numerical calculations
and the metaphysical discussions that are being
agitated round the shadow of the Cabinet. If
arithmetic is not an opinion, there is no calcula-
tion in the world that will make a minority become
a majority. And if opinion is loyally declared,
there is no metaphysical discussion that can make
the believer appear an atheist or the observant
of religious practices appear a sceptic. Facts
must be accepted as they are; they should not
be deformed or transformed according to our
interest or our passion. Saturday's crisis was the
work of the interventionists, discontented and
apprehensive of the weak action of the Govern-
ment in the conduct of the war ; and it is not pos-
sible to throw discredit upon it, as the work of
the neutralists, or as a retaliation) for the May
days. One can be a friend of the Cabinet, but one
must be, above all, a friend of truth. And the
truth is that the vote against the Cabinet meant a
vote for a more vigorous war. The promoters of
the crisis may have been wrong or right in judg-
ing the policy of the Government: this is to be
_ 64 —
demonstrated. But there is no necessity to de-
monstrate that they intended and claimed to
assert the necessity of stronger sinews in the
conduct of the war. And, furthermore, one ren-
ders a very bad service to the country by making
the Allies and the enemies believe that the war
energy of Italy has fallen with Signer Salandra's
Cabinet. No. Let us proclaim it loudly and for-
cibly so that all may hear and understand: the
crisis has taken place because the war energy is
more ardent and powerful in the nation than in
Signor Salandra's Cabinet. This is the Message
which must be sent to comfort and exalt the
armies of the Isonzo and of the Trentino. This
is the Message that must cause the smile to die
in the heart and on the lips of our eternal detract-
ors of Vienna and Berlin.
To-day's misfortune cannot and must not cause
the high merits of Signor Salandra's Cabinet to
be forgotten. But if each day brings its own toil,
it also brings its "own responsibility; and yester-
day's actions and words cannot be judged by the
remembrance of the actions and words of to-day.
Time, like crowds, has no memory and it is well
that it has not; otherwise life would remain
crystallized in one instant and in one attitude.
Each of us, in his special circle, is but an instru-
ment of the thought and the action of the human
family of which we constitute a part : to-day use-
ful and glorious; to-morrow worn out and de-
pressed. Signor Salandra's Cabinet was a useful
instrument in the transitional period, between
peace and war, when it was a question of prepar-
ing and carrying the nation from one bank to the
other of its historical conscience. But the qualities
which had been of service at the first moment,
should not .and could not be of service at the
— 65 —
second moment. War is a great adventure, the
greatest adventure in a nation's life, and requires
unprejudiced temperaments to carry it through.
Signor Salandra's temperament has remained the |
ponderous one which has always been that of a
man of the Centre Party, whilst the genius of P
war resides entirely in extreme tension. In the I
Centre Party one can only be surrounded and f
stifled either by embraces or by intrigues.
To-day, it is useless to criticise this laborious j
political year. In the brief intervals of transition
between one Ministry and another, the passions
are so ablaze that no calm word can avail in
persuading the defeated of yesterday ; neither can
it satisfy to-morrow's aspirants* But if I were cal-
led upon to give advice based on yesterday's
experience to the aspirants of to-morrow, I would
say to them : a Whoever you are that are called
to succeed, be you new or old men, men of me-
dium or tall stature, strive with all your might to
create a Government based on a real majority
and not on a fictitious unanimity. The effort to
secure a fictitious unanimity was the cause of the
constitutional weakness of Signor Salandra's Go- f
vernment and of its action. » j'
For good or for ill, the parliamentary system
is founded upon the basis of majorities, not upon
una(nimjity ; on the basis of majorities which
presupposes the more restricted one of minorities ; ' j
and not the basis of unanimity which annuls or F;
excludes, or considers as factious that of mino- Jl
rities.
In the loftiest and most serious questions, it is H
a prejudice to pretend unanimity instead of a I'll
majority ; just as one would say : evening dress !|
for gala performances and dinner jacket for or- j]
dinary ones. I think that on every question, great ! j
66
or small, there is room for two opinions. The
suppression, by imposition on one side, or owing
to convenience by the other, of one of the two
opinions is productive of disorder, confusion and
falsehood. And, for a long time we have been
standing on falsehood.
In one of his speeches in the Chamber of De-
puties last December, Signor Coilajanni, with
respect to the harmony which was persistently
spoken of by his colleagues of all sides of the
House, said: « If we are in harmony, come and
see us in the corridors, where we are all like cats
and dogs. » Why, therefore oblige these cats and
dogs to coo in the Chamber like a nest of turtle-
doves ? And who can be deceived by these sud-
den changes of fleece and voice }
To return to a state of order, that is, to sincerity
— from which they have all emerged in the
Chamber — is the best service that can be rend-
ered to the nation, and the best homage that can
be rendered to the soldiers who are bleeding on
the battlefield, and who fight well and valorously
only because they light in their qualit}' of elemen-
tary mass : Italians for Italy, not political animals
for their party, their faction, their personal am-
bition of the present and what is worse, of the
future.
Let it be said: whoever, by reason of the war
should attempt to prepare an electoral future for
himself or for his adherents, is guilty of high
treason towards the army which is fighting for
the country ; and towards the nation which claims
to be defended herself, and not that the fortunes
of this or that ambition, of this or that party should
be defended instead.
To-day Italy must be loved and served for her
own sake: whoever does not feel in himself the
- 67 -
strength to do this, let him resign from governing
and busy himself in other ways ; or let him leave
the country.
To-day, Italy is an end in herself, and is no
longer a means of furthering the fortunes of po-
litical adventurers. And an end in itself must
also be the war, and not the means wherewith
to bring about the resurrection of the old Right
or of the old Left. The war, which engrosses all the
forces of the nation, cannot be conducted in view
of any design of internal or parliamentary policy.
The electoral body will see to these small mat-
ters; but the army has not and cannot have any-
thing in common with the electoral body. Let a
war Cabinet be formed, therefore, to obtain
victory, and let it go forward, like the knights of
the good old times, for the honour of our towers
and of our castles, of our mountains and our sea.
The strongest, the most pure, the noblest, to
work ! Those who will have been foremost in
defending the Marches shall be created Marquis.
And he who will have led the nation to victory
shall be Duke.
The Power in Italy to-day is to be acquired on
Victory " s shield .
- 68
THE CAPTAINS OF THE ANABASIS
AND THE MINISTERS OF THE ENTENTE.
After the death of Cyrus, then, the King of
the Persians sent an ambassador to the supreme
Commander of the Grecian armies to demand a
surrender of arms. Clearchus — such was the
name of the supreme Commander — called to-
gether a council of captains and placed them in
communication with the ambassador and with his
dilemma : Either arms or war. And, as the Greek
captains were all excellent spokesmen, they found
no great difficulty in confounding the ambassador
with their reasoning. — « Why does the King
ask us for our arms } But how can we fight for
him unarmed ? Perhaps that he may massacre us
better ? How can we lend ourselves to such a
game and deprive ourselves of the only means
we possess to repel an aggression ? In either case
we could not give up our arms, which are the
reason of our existence, whether we have to fight
with them for him or have to fight for ourselves » .
And the reasoning so confused the ambassador
of the Persians, that he asked for a delay in order
to report.
But, between those Greek captains and that
ambassador was not mooted at that time, the
_ 69 —
other case which is being mooted now, as it
appears, between King Constantine and his Sku-
ludis on one side and the ambassadors of the
Entente on the other. Either to fight with him or
to fight for us — they were two cases sufficiently
embarrassing for the not too open mind of the
Persian ambassador, whose brain was not accust-
omed to logic-fence. But to fight against him, for
others : here are two new cases, not at all embar-
rassing for the ambassadors of the Entente. King
Constantine and his Skuludis have not posed
them themselves; they have fixed their attention
on the two primitive cases of the captain© of the
Anabasis. But their conduct denouncels them.
They are an improvement on the narrative of
Xenophon. But the ambassadors of the Entente,
too, are an improvement on that of the King of
Persia ; and useless talk is of no avail in averting
a disarmament. This time, the Greeks, or Grae-
culi, whichever they may be, must deliver up
their arms; and with their arms their ensigns.
The whole of the conduct of Greece in the
Balkan conflict connected with the great Euro-
pean war is treason: first towards her Ally, Ser-
via; secondly towards it he protecting Powetrs,
which are also the guarantors of her existence.
Treason, not as a vain saying and not as a simple
rhetorical expression, but real and effective, ac-
cording to a well-determined and precise design,
and with a constant method of execution. The for-
mula of neutrality was nothing more than a for-
mula of deceit to lull to sleep the artless idealists
of France and England. And we know by what
we have seen how easily these last were disposed
to fall into catalepsy under Minerva's olive-tree
owing to a long-standing abuse of the narcotic
of Hellenism. Neutralism was the mask. Neutral-
70
ism — and King Constantine dismissed Venizelos
who upheld that Greece should be faithful to the
Treaty with Servia. Neutralism — and the Gu-
naris Cabinet, commanded by King Constantine 's
will which stood in lieu of a majority in the
Chamber, attributed to the Treaty with Servia the
interpretation most convenient to Austria and
Germany. Neutralism — and the Chamber created
by Venizelos was dissolved, in order to create by
means of corruption and violence another Cham-
ber, which should ratify the King's will, repre-
sented by the Skuludis Cabinet, and which should
annul even the remembrance of the bygone will
of the nation, represented by Venizelos. Neu-
tralism — and, silently, the Greek army evacuates
Kavalla and the Rupel fort, to make room for
the hereditary enemies, the Bulgarians, so that
they might, under more favour able condition,
fight against the armies of the Allies. If there be
no method in this treason disguised as neutralism ,
it cannot be said that the word « method » have
any meaning, not even in Germany or in German
dictionaries. The forbearance shown by France
and England towards this method of Greece, was
certainly one of the most characteristic pheno-
mena of that old-style doctrinairism and senti-
mentalism in vogue between 1830 and 1848,
which has now weakened the nerves and the
diplomacy of the Allies to such an extent as to
cause the duration of the war to be protracted
for some years. But recrimination is useless, now.
To-day, we must insist that, once on the right
path, the diplomacy of the Entente may remain
in it and go to the end without exposing itself,
for the third or fourth time, to become the laugh-
ing-stock of the professors of legerdemain of the
Piraeus. What is the Entente still waiting for?
— 71 -
Its proposals are circumvented, like that of par-
tial disarmament, which has given M. Skuludis
the opportunity of sending the old men to their
homes and calling up the young ones instead.
And its Ministers are insulted in their residences.
And the Admirals of its ships are compiles in
the open streets. And, what is still worse, Kaval-
la is surrendered to the Bulgarians in order that it
may serve as a naval base for the submarines
that Germany wishes to have near Salonica, so
as to isolate Sarrail's army on the eve of action,
and close it up and suffocate it between the
trenches and the sea. The time for speeches is
past. It is time to act seriously, and to decline all
discussions on arguments upon which King Con-
stantine's ingenuity and irony have been so gra-
cefully exercised.
And when I say the Entente, I mean Italy also.
Up to now, Italy has been absent during the ne-
gotiations with Greece, and this absence — let
the new Cabinet understand it well — disconcerts
and saddens the Italians much more, I venture to
say, than the Austrian offensive in the Trentino
has done. The Austrian offensive can be seen
and can be fought. But absence, like nothingness,
is outside the logic and the sentiment of the war.
An Italian policy of abstention in Greek affairs
could have been understood — for my part, I
have never undestood it, nor justified, nor ad-
mitted it — before the Entente's decision to pass
from the field of ideas to that of action. It was
perhaps necessary not to create embarrassments
at the back of Sarrail's army in preparation at
Salonica; and Italy's black demon might have
excited rather than pacified the Eumenides of
Epirus. But to-day that the Entente has resolved
to act, there can be no more consideration, nor
— 72 —
delicacy, nor apprehension to check Italy. To-
day, Italy must resume her place amongst the
Powers of the Entente, not only in the action
against Greece, but in all the Balkan policy, and
make up for lost time.
Time, only ?
- 73 _
THE MARCH TO VICTORY.
Up to yesterday, the Austrians were in the
habit of saying that the Italian soldiers know how
to die, but not how to win. From to-day, they
will learn that the Italian soldiers know how to
win too. They know how to win, because they
know how to die. Better still, because they know
how to suffer. General Nogi, the organizer of the
Japanese victories, said that the winning army
is that which knows how to suffer one quarter
of an hour longer than the enemy. Oh, as to suf-
fering, our soldiers have been suffering for a
whole year, nay, for fourteen months; calmly,
patiently, with their feet in mud and blood, with
their foreheads in the double storm of Alpine
ice and of the fire of the Skoda guns, amidst the
corpses of their comrades fallen in the trenches
or on the bristling contested rocks. And, here at
last, after so much suffering they issue happy and
smiling, new from the long night, like the light
on the first day of Creation. Let us greet them,
with high cries of love, as one greets the light at
day-break.
These soldiers are Italy.
They were not stimulated or aroused to action
on entering the field by the words with which
the Emperor of Germany usually stimulates or
— 74 —
exalts his recruits in the court of Potsdam. No
one has told them : « From this day onwards, you
are sacred because you carry the ensigns of your
Lord » .
In their simplicity, they would have laughed
at such a melodramatic investiture. But in the
hour of peril, the Great Mother knocked at the
doors: — « Up, boys, to the rescue!)) — And
the doors all opened; and from the dwellings,
from the schools, from the workshops — forgetful
of old dissensions and of recent rancour, as with
hearts touched by the sound of the first voice
heard in the cradle — the boys inssued forth with
radiant eyes, with palpitating souls, as in a sud-
den outburst of Spring — to go whither ? Oh,
no one need point out the way to them, or tell
them the enemy's name. By instinct they knew
the way, already traced by the legionaries of Ro-
me and afterwards strewn with the crosses of
their fathers' graves : the road of the glories and
the tortures of the new Italic race — the last,
that of Battisti — and on that known road they
started on their march with limbs sound and
stouter hearts ! This time, for life or death ! Start-
ing from Rome after so many centuries, the sol-
diers of Italy understood that the order could be
but one : to reach the goal and to force the enemy
to bow, at last, to the law of Rome. And march-
ing onwards they obey this order.
We follow them, step by step, like their very
shadow, along the bloodstained road: we see
them from afar, divide and reunite, bend and
be upright again, fall and rise; never faltering,
never stopping, never weary; and we count
them, or rather we endeavour to count them every
day as during a fever, the pulsations of the veins
or the heart-beats are counted ; and we call them
— 75 —
by name as in the storm the stars of Heaven are
called. Where are they ? Here they are, to-dlay
all on high in Trieste's sky. Ail ? Those who are
missing will form, in our memory the new con-
stellation of the great history of Italy.
This war which we provoked not, but accepted
just as Necessity imposed it upon us, has finally
revealed the Italians to their own selves and also
to friends and enemies. Withdrawn from the
asphyxiating atmosphere of the political marsh,
and transported to the pure one of the fight for
the Ideal, their soul has opened as a flower on the
thorn, all gentleness and valour, all virtue and
heroism. They are all great. The humble peas-
ant prepares our victory in the midst of the fire,
with the same hands and the same smile with
which he prepared yesterday in the earth the ferti-
lity of the harvests. The labourer defends with
his iron muscles the positions won from the enemy
with the same pride as he yesterday defended his
rights in his labour organizations. And the artisan,
bent night and day over all the works of the war,
models his death for the salvation of his father-
land as he modelled yesterday bent over his
bench, the work for the poor maintenance of his
family. When the oak has such sturdy roots and
souls so powerful in its roots, it can defy cent-
uries and storms. There, in the roots resides the
eternal force: it is the eternal substance of life.
We are but the fading lustre of the bark of the
tree, which the first sunshine or the first winds
will peel off. How, then, shall we honour these
marvellous factors of the fatherland's future great-
ness ? We can but bow before them and learn
from them the deep-seated virtues of the race,
the virtues which ennoble a nation and render it
worthy of history.
— 76 —
Does not all this army issue forth suddenly
armed from the deep-seated virtues of the race ?
It seemed born but of yesterday — in a coun-
try which has never made of war an industry for
herself or for others — and because it was born
yesterday, it was exposed to the enemy's com-
miseration and derision. But did the army of
Italy require to be trained in the barracks, and
to learn a theory in the books of the Herren Pro-
fessors, for the search of the national boundaries }
It was long since prepared in the sorrow and the
sadness of the fatherland, and only awaited the
opportunity to put itself in battle array. Its forma-
tion was organic, like the life itself of the nation :
not mechanical, as a doctrinaire and political arti-
fice. And organically it proceeds to-day and de-
velops itself in struggle and in victory.
Hearts and flags on high !
In Germany, during the Middle Ages, only the
Margraves, the guardians of the Marches, had
the capacity of becoming Emperors. But are not
all the soldiers of our army Margraves to-day ?
They who have no other duty and are proud of
nothing else save that of reconquering the front-
ier of Italy — and holding it — holding it as
long as the name of Italy lasts , and the Alps and
the sea, there, under the Quarnaro, last ? But
they do not aspire to-day — like their great Corsi-
can brother, who preceded them on the Isonzo,
to become Emperors.
These divine boys depose the eagles of their
youth, with all their heart's blood, and the hopes
of their lives at Italy's feet, at the feet of the old
and new Italy. And one thing only they desire :
that their sacrifice may be fruitful of glory in the
present and in the future.
May their will be accomplished !
— 77 —
THE DISTURBING BLUFF.
The victories of the Bismarckian era, and the
consequent establishment of the German Empire
had created1, in Europe, an artificial, abnormal
and incoherent state of things, bearing no rela-
tion to reality either politically or economically:
a state of things which the temporary conditions
of the various countries constrained them to ac-
cept or to submit to, but which the first shock
would inevitably disintegrate and destroy. One
only great country was there, armed and produc-
ing arms, against all the others unarmed or nearly
so, and worse still, incapable of arming by them-
selves. One only great country was there, the
wholesale and retail provider to friendly and
enemy markets, amongst all the others, sluggish
and each day more impotent in their inertia, and
contented with selling their souls to the devil in
order to purchase a little repose and a little
cowardice. One only great country was there, the
promoter of coalitions, groupings, diplomatic and
dynastic combinations, in its own exclusive in-
terest; amongst all the others around it, which
were obliged to limit or to co-ordinate their action
conformably with the German interest, predbmin-
_ 78 —
ant and preponderating. A typical example of
this effort which tended to limitation and co-or-
dination, is offered by England, which during the
past ten years sought for, studied and proposed
all the possible formulas of proportionality in
naval armaments, and for a reply was told that
the question of naval and terrestrial armaments
does not depend on the will of the men in power,
but on the dynamic force and on the plastic force
of nations. And these two forces of the German
people, imperfectly understood and imperfectly
estimated by the others, exercised their fancy in
all the fields of speculation, without showing or
allowing the absent-minded to catch a glimpse
of the ultimate aim of their tension. Could there
have existed a more artificial and more abnormal
combination than that of the Triple Alliance 7
Italy was constrained to accept it, and even hold
it in honour during the thirty long years of the
formation of her economic framework and of her
specific political conscience; without ceasing,
however, to discuss its incompatibility with her
essential interests ; in the same manner as Ger-
many and Austria, on their own account, never
ceased to labour in every direction for the aggrand-
izement of their own power, to the detriment
and in derision of their Ally. And, as it was with
Italy, were not the other combinations with Tur-
key and Greece artificial and abnormal also 7 The
war diverted every one from the tortuous paths
in which they had wandered, and replaced all
in the straight road. Great and small countries,
which up to the eve of the war had lived in the
illusion and the dream of having attained the
supreme state of welfare, took up once more the
hard' battle of life, as if they were destitute of all
and obliged to build up their homes and labour
79
for their children's existence. The unarmed armed
themselves. The peaceful and the pacifists became
warlike. The oblivious regained at one stroke the
memory of ancient virtues. The weak displayed
the will to recuperate their strength in order to
fight side by side with other combatants. All
those who possessed the capacities and Jthe power
of life, entered into the field to defend their liberty
and their future. In a period historically brief
Europe saw the States that were living under the
menace, regain the equilibrium of force to face
the State which during the forty years of silent
preparation had succeeded in breaking up that
equilibrium and in weighing down in her favour
under the weight of her sword the whole balance
of human happiness.
Yet, in the great upheaval, or rather in the
great revolution, one human agglomeration only
did not feel the pulsation of its heart and of its
brain accelerate; one thing only did not move
and never demonstrated the will to move: the
agglomerated individual and the thing that still
call themselves Greece.
Now, at last, after so much experience, our
illustrious French colleagues are asking themsel-
ves whether there exists a Greek people in Gree-
ce. We replied to this question a long time since.
We can, now, without undue pride, note that
amongst thinking people there is no further var-
iance or disagreement on the question.
One of the most serious causes of the disturb-
ance of the diplomacy of Europe since the out-
burst of the war has been, in fact, Greece, more
than Turkey itself : Greece, which, being nothing,
was to be all for her own and Germany's conve-
nience, and for the convenience of France and
England: Greece, this vain name without sub-
— 80 —
stance, to which each in turn strove to give some
contents which might serve in the game of their
own particular combinations and their own part-
icular retaliations. Who was the cause of the
contrasts between France and Italy during the
Lybian War and after, and during the Balkan
War ? Greece, and the ambiguity which she
representend — entirely for the benefit of Ger-
many. It is useless to-day to recall to mind the
polemics of the past, which are, in any case,
within everybody's memory.
The Powers of the Entente, and most of all
France, had arrayed themselves against Italy in
the /Egean, because they were convinced — and
Germany in the background kept such suspicions
alive — that Italy's attitude was to prepare in
the /Egean the way to the Mediterranean for
Germany. Hence the setting up of Greece as a
counter altar to Italy, which they regarded as the
authorized representative of the Central Powers
in the Mediterranean; those Empires which, at
one and the same time, supplied the Turkish
army with arms and officers to fight the Italian
army in Lybia, and furnished Greece with their
diplomacy in order to obtain Kavalla for her in
the Treaty of Bucharest. Italy, therefore, owing
to their duplicity and to this equivocal game, was
useful to Germany, who held her aloof from
France and England, and was useful to Greece
upon which, openly, and in spite of Germany's
Ally, they poured out their favours. And who
knows to what consequences such a game would
have driven us, if the war had not come to upset
the dice of the Priests in the Belle Helene, and to
cause the Iliad to end in comic opera.
But now that the operetta has ended, it is well
that, not for the sake of Italy and France only,
— 81 —
but for European life, for its honesty and serious-
ness, this wretched affair of Hellenism in the
Mediterranean should likewise come to an end
once and for all.
Hellenism does not answer any interest or any
necessity of European life. A fatuous creation of
political romanticism — literary, at first — the
romanticism of the exaltation of the weak and
the rehabilitation of the fallen ; then a diplomatic
creation of the European States in contention with
one another for Turkey's succession, it has finally
revealed itself, at the war's trial, in its true cha-
racter, and for what it cannot help being; a dis-
turbing bluff on the nations and on the actions
of States which are really worthy of existence,
because they are really creators of civilization and
factors of history.
Italy, too, before her reconstruction, was a
literary expression, rather than an actual power.
But after her reconstruction she felt the duty of
creating an autonomous life for herself and of
co-operating with all her might to the increase
and to the irradiation of civilization throughout
the modern world.
But what is, at present, the intellectual, po-
litical and moral contribution of Greece to the
modern world?
Even a small country can have her importance
in civilization, if science and the fine arts give
her faith and ennoble her: Belgium is an exam-
ple. But what does Greece represent to-day in
the fine arts and in science ? And, what, at least,
in the moral world ?
What she represents in the moral world, let
Streit and King Constantine tell to Servia, to
which they were bound by a pact of honour which
was not maintained ; and let them also tell France
_ 82 -
and England, to which they should have been
bound by gratitude, and which they repay, in>-
stead, with espionnage in favour of their enemy,
and with treason.
In the struggle of modern times, there is no
more room for literary memories: it its sufficient
if these remain sacred' in the venerable Books of
antiquity: there is room for manly energies, for
labour that produces wealth, for action that pro-
duces welfare, for intelligence which produces
light on the ways of humanity.
For the idle, the sweaters and1 the parasites,
the bunch of dried grapes.
83
FACTS NOTED.
The policy of the Entente in the various parts
of trie Balkans continues to yield its fruits of
((ashes and venom », with unchanging intensity,
which shows the unalterable intensity of its germ.
It certainly does not think of astonishing history,
as in Boccaccio's tale, the heart of the Lady Dia-
nora was astonished by an unexpected blooming
of Spring in a winter garden. It is faithful to its
rigid season and to its rigid chastity. It is always
the same. And does not change with the changing
of events. Cato, in the act of suicide, had the
same sincerity and coherence.
I have never believed, nor do I now believe,
that the best way to co-operate in an enterprise
is to acquiesce in the errors of its promoters. And
it is for this reason that, for a year past, day by
day, within the limits of my province, I have con-
tinued to note and to comment in the most expli-
cit form and in the clearest and most intelligible
manner the errors of the Allies in the Balkans:
errors of conception and execution — deriving
partly from an archaic tendency to accomodation
in absolute contrast with the war*s fundamental
law, which calls instead for an overturning of
— 84 —
ancient situations and of ancient positions — and
partly from the persistent incapacity to understand
the enemy's determination and strength and
to oppose to them an equal determination and an
equal strength in the struggle which is raging.
There is always in the sword of the Allies, as in
their mind, a prejudice or an idea which, in the
process of fusion, weakens the temper and ren-
ders it brittle and unresisting to shocks. It hap-
pened thus in the negotiations previous to the
Austro-Bulgaro-German expedition against Ser-
via; the same happened in the negotiations with
Greece; and, lastly, it is the same in the present
Roumanian campaign. In the most difficult mo-
ments, the sense of relation — apart from all
the rest — has been wanting in the Allies : that
special sense which serves to bring thought into
line with reality and to conciliate the particular
interest of one party with that of the others. In the
march across the Balkans, it is fatal that the Al-
lies should always bar their own roads and should
stop the clocks of all stations. Thus acting, they
lose the notion of time and space; and usually
lose a campaign also ; and, what is worse, together
with the campaign, a whole year of war. Which
is not the year of Fabius Maximus.
After the experience of the Servian defeat, the
Allies should have changed their system and
should, at any rate, have summed up the poli-
tical and military factors in the new Balkan strug-
gle with a greater circumspection. They have,
instead, pitifully wasted a whole year in negotiat-
ing with Greece, and have not began to show
themselves firm with King Gonstanitine's Govern-
ments until these had surrendered, one by one,
ail the boundary forts to Bulgaria, and with the
forts, the guns, the munitions, the supplies and
_ 85 -
even the pack-horses ! Arid they have not threat-
ened! to march against Bulgaria until she had
widened heir territory as fair as the fortified posi-
tions of Greece, and had organized an armoured
hinterland of defence between her camp and that
of General Sarrail. And in the meantime, whilst,
owing to unexpected difficulties, the Salonika
army remained more than ever barricaded in its
trenches, Roumania, which appeared to have se-
lected the most unfavourable conditions to effect
her entry, threw herself into the fray, not only
without the assistance of the Salonika army from
the South, and that of Broussiloff from the North,
but with the vague confidence — artfully kept
alive — that the Bulgarians would have surrend-
ered their arms to the Russians, who were not
present, and could not, in any case, have taken
delivery of them ; and with this vague confidence
(worse still if it twas a formal promise), she was
left to herself in Transylvania, and was followed,
as was natural, by the Builgaro-Turkish -German
army in the Dobrouja. The war bulletins tell us
the rest: the fall of Constanza yesterday, that of
Predeal to-day.
On the eve of the war against Servia, the al-
liance between Bulgaria and Turkey was not
believed in ; not even after the Treaty for the
transfer of the territory on the Enos line. And
Greece's treason was not believed in, even after
the cession of the forts and the surrender of the
regiments, on the eve of the new war. Which
of these was the grosser error, the first or the
second1 ? Or again, the mistake of having believed
in the Greek parliamentary revolution, or that of
having believed in a sentimental surrender of Bul-
garia to Russia? But, between one sett of errors
and the other, one thing is certain and unquestion-
- 86 -
able; the carelessness in estimating the moral
and1 material forces of the enemy. Yet, this time,
it was clear, it was evident and more than ever
to have been intuitively anticipated, that it was
here that the enemy would have gathered! all
his strength together to strike his great blow;
that there, at the meeting-place of his most faith-
ful Allies — the Hungarians on the one side
and) the Bulgarians on the other — which was
also the main point of the roads to the East and
the field on which future harvests were to be
gathered Germany would have engaged all the
honour of her Supreme Command and all the
fury of her arms. But the campaign appealed as
smooth as a Press one. And, whilst Maekemsen
and Falkenheyn aire to-day carrying on war in
the grand1 style, the Entente is listening to the
word of Venizelos announcing the suspension
of the ultimatum to Bulgaria ! It is sad. But it is so.
Who is responsible for all! this?
French and English writers are in the habit of
assigning the responsibility of the war education
of the Germans to Treitschke and von Bern-
hardi, and to the other historians and philo-
sophers of force, who effectively moulded a
generation fit for war. By analogy it should be
said that the responsibility of this uncertain po-
licy is to be found in the habit of the Entente's
mind,, which for so many long years has been
turned towards the chaste thoughts of peace.
However that may be, there is no doubt that,
with the exception of the armies in the field,
which are gloriously fighting, there has always
been, in the Entente's war policy something fan-
tastic and involved, which does not succeed in
assuming a definite and concrete form. Residues
of old! ideas that the tempest has not completely
87
dispersed are still roaming uncertain in the air.
Old doctrinaire conceptions which not even the
roar of the guns has succeeded in putting to silen-
ce or rendering impotent, dominate in the recol-
lections and the passions. Peace will be what it
will be. But the mind of the war must be equal
to the weapons with which the war is fought.
Otherwise, why use them ?
Still to-day, in the Entente, the arms are arms
of war; but the mind between war and peace.
(( And it is not yet black and the white fades » . —
or vice versa.
For us Italians the question of the conception
of the war of the Allies in the Balkans is not a
theoretical one; it is an essential question of the
first, of the most absolute importance. And we
are in duty bound to demand that the are of er-
rors be for ever closed.
88 ~
OLD WORDS AND OLD IDEAS.
The two speeches, that of von Bethmann-
Hollweg and of Asquith, demonstrate once more
that ideas, which in the abstract appear the
finest and safest for the governing of men, reveal
themselves, in the end, the most false and deceit-
ful when put to the test of action. Both the Chan-
cellor of the German Empire and the British
Premier, on the eve of the war, possessed their
own ideas, which were those of their party, of
their caste or of their class. But after two years
of struggle, there appears nothing of those ideas,
save some rare signs in their speeches, like the
rare sparks in the ashes after a fire. What has
become of the theories of the supremacy of force
over right, and of the divinity of war on earth
for the regeneration of mankind, which constitut-
ed the leit-motif of the doctrines of the State and
of the Empire in the grand orchestra of German
science? Von Bethmann-Hollweg is seeking all
kinds of cavilling to demonstrate that he has not
wished for war; whilst his Lord, who has been
proclaimed Lord of the War by the Super-Gen-
erals of the Grand Staff, now runs after the
Socialists of co-operative organizations to demon-
89
strate his passionate love for that very people
which he has sent to butchery in his own name.
— And what has become of the pacifism and the
humanitarianism of Asquith and of his followers,
floating supinely, like Delaroche's Martyr, with
a halo round the forehead', on the dark waves of
destiny ? During the ordeal, the terrible and
devilish dream of German supremacy must have
found out that it is not an easy matter to turn
Europe into a desert, as it its done in a series
of lectures and volumes on the privileged race
and on its right to dominate. And the other
dream — the pious metaphysical dream of Hu-
manity triumphant over nationalities ; of the
State unarmed, or armed only for parade —
must have also found out that the sun has pe-
netrated into the fog which had lulled it to sleep,
and has dispersed the mist-wreaths in the flaming
air. In any case, if not the Statesmen who are
officially engaged in politics, the public of all
the nations engaged1 in the war must have real-
ized by now the failure of the ideas which, from
one side and from the other, had assured1 it of hap-
piness for the present and for the future. All the
stupidities have by now been said; and all the
experiments made. At present there is nothing
left to do but to commence all over again, if
we seriously wish to give some small security to
European civilization, and to give to the various
national co-operative bodies living in European
civilization, a sound law, and not a changeable
one, according to changes in parties, in doctrines
or in interests. And we must return to reality,
above all to reality out of which we have all been
living for many years; until yesterday, until the
great war in which we are all entangled, came
to seize us by the forelock or by the feet to hurl
— 90 -
us into the fire to show us that even fire exists,
and that our own will, or our imbecility is not
sufficient to draw us away from the fire which
burns up equally its worshippers and its despisers.
I do not know, with regard to the responsi-
bilities of the war — which the Chancellor of the
Empire now wants to discharge upon some one
else's shoulders — I do not know whether the
blame is due to the strong and well-armed State
which wanted war, or to the weak ones which
had excluded war from their calculationis on
historical probabilities, and therefore rendered the
task of the aggressor easier, as the women of light
morals render easy the task of the professional
seducer. « Comme les nations liberates, ses voisines
ei amies, la France a vu combien Y accroissement
indefini des depenses milUaires rendait difficile
le noble ideal de civilization quelle poursuit » —
wrote in his Report on the War Budget that M.
Massiny who, as Minister of War in 1914, has
been able to see the error of his good intentions
with his own eyes. Now, who remembers the
Past?
There are, however, many traces of the Past in
the British Premier's speech, with many residues
of the old mentality of the Little Englander,
which, in these grave moments ought to be des-
troyed together with all the recollections of those
inert sentimentalisms which resolve and conclude
nothing, and leave everything and1 everybody
in statu quo ante, plus one tear and minus a
defence — such as the declarations in favour of
Armenians, of (the Yugo-Slavs, of Hellenism.
We must give Germany her dtue, and render
justice to her policy, or, rather, to her action in
the East before and during the war, against the
accusations and the complaints of her adversaries.
— 91 —
When Germany takes a country in hand, she does
her utmost to enhance her value and to give her
the heart, the mind and the arms which are es-
sential to her for the struggle of life. Germany
is a soul-inspiring power and a formidable di-
rectress of the little and the weak, which she
enrols in her ranks; she is a reviver of energies,
even if it be in her own interest — but who can
pretend that the Roi de Prusse should work for
the benefit of others? The other Powers, instead,
either disdain or fail to seek action, and believe
they have accomplished their interests by sending
around the Messages of their principles and the
sighs of their sentimentality. The French Revolu-
tion used to send around her Sansculottes.
Now, England, France and Italy which are
three noble States living, it may be said, in an
ultra-subtle and refined atmosphere of principles,
must acquire that sixth sense of political reality
which Germany has developed to such a high
degree, and which they, notwithstanding the
varied legends of their militarism, of their posi-
tivism and of their Machiavellianism, have not
attempted to acquire and to exercise, not even
after the teachings that the war has imparted to
them. One feels, one understands that in the
conception and in the action of these three il-
lustrious Powers there is something which disturbs
the precision of movements, which upsets the
process of direction, which interrupts the current
along the conducting wires. Are they old ideas,
not entirely discredited ? Old interests, not decid-
ed to change? Old plans, not yet decided to be
dissolved and to vanish ? I know not. But I should
like to know. Because I should not wish any
misunderstandings to exist between people who
are fighting together at the same hour, on the
— 92 —
same field. Certain it is (and it is necessary that
someone at least should tell what may be the
cause for apprehension in many), that, as Italy
has entirely emerged from the Triple Alliance,
it does not seem as if the Allies have, in their
turn emerged from their ancient combinations;
it seems, on the contrary, that they continue to
drag their old chains ri vetted to their ankles, thus
rendering their walk painful and their action
uncertain. And whilst Germany is lightening more
and more the load of her vessel, casting over-
board, during the voyage, many of her old ideas
and her old aims and errors, the Entente is car-
rying her ballast intact, and does not seem in-
clined to free herself either of an idea, or of an
aspiration, or of a recollection, or of a personage,
which may be undesirable. Yet the war should
have strengthened the muscles of the heart, and
have caused the blood in the brains to be more
active, so as to render the one more apt to sup-
port the weight of sentiments which form them-
selves on each flaming day; and the other more
rapid in transmitting the ideas which each day
are being renewed in the flames. Who can say
that the aims of the war are the same to-day as
they were at the beginning } And not for the Al-
lies only, but for the Central Empires, and above
all for Germany ? How many new aims have not
been added to those of the defence of small na-
tions on the part of the Allies, and to that of
Mittel-Europa on the part of Germany ! And
then, has not the war created the great, new fact,
between the States; the great economic fact,
unforeseen and not to be foreseen when, in Au-
gust 1914 the armies entered the field ? And what
changes might not this new economic fact bring
in international politics? What new orientation
— 93 —
in thought and custom } What new modes and
forms of wealth ? Will gold suffice as a measure
of wealth 7 Or will another element be necessary ?
I am not even an amateur in political economy
and in financial science: I am simply incompe-
tent : or rather, an innocent.
But my innocence causes me to feel that Sta-
tesmen should not speak any more, to-day, of the
war with the same words and with the same ideas
as in times gone by.
And, therefore, both the speeches, that of the
German Chancellor and that of the English Pre-
mier, appear to me out-of-date.
- 94
THE TRUTH, THE WHOLE TRUTH.
It is no longer the case — for me, to say the
truth, it has never been — to extenuate the actual
situation of the Entente, or to cover it with a
merciful veil. Even if newspapers were silent and
the bulletins lied, the facts would speak for
themselves with so forcible an eloquence, that it
would not be possible for the public to remain
deaf and indifferent to their voice. And the facts
tell us that the measure of error® is by now over
full. Can fortune ripen amongst error® ?
The English newspapers are beginning to show
themselves more than stern, aggressive, against
the Asquith Cabinet, and are calling for a greater
vigour and a greater energy in the conduct of the
war. The French papers, struggling between their
untiring phi Jo -Hellenism and' their deference to-
ward® Russia, are striving to pluck up courage
and to instil courage into others, by describing
the situation of Roumenia as « serious but not
desperate » ; and that of Greece as « improving » ,
at every act of resistance on the part of King
Constanitine's Government, and at every declara-
tion of war made to the enemy Powers by M.
Venizelos* Cabinet. Meanwhile Germany and
- 95 —
Austria are annexing Poland, are conquering Rou-
menia and are silently working on the Bagdad
Railway; and very likely that part of LadislavofF s
speech in the Sobranje, in which he announced a
forthcoming event which will fill the soul of the
Allies with joy — the Allies of Germany, of cour-
se — referred to the inauguration of some new
station on that line. And, at the same time, a
new and greater expedition in the grand style
on all the Italian battle front, from the Carso to
the Trentino, is announced on all sides. When 7
Under these conditions, silence regarding the
errors of friends and Allies would be more bla-
meworthy towards our country than silence re-
garding our own errors. This is not the time for
illusions or distractions. It is the time for action.
And, in time of action it is necessary that the
solidarity in a group of Allies should have, as
basis, the duty of responsibility for some, and the
right of vigilance for others. Has the Italian
Government ever exercised this vigilance or is
it exercising it now, with a full conscience and
with entire authority ? Or does it allow things to
take their chance and pass on, contenting itself
with making some acute remarks, or giving some
precise information in order not to wound the
susceptibility of the Allies 7
Let us say, clearly and loudly, so that everyone
may hear and take the necessary steps : on many
events, on many questions, on many problems
of the war, we in Italy have a different view
and a different political sense — and consequent-
ly we make a different estimate and give a dif-
ferent judgement — from those which the other
Allied nations have and give. Idem sentire de
republica was, with the Romans, a fundamental
rule of good citizenship. Idem sentire of the ques-
— 96 —
tions of the war should be the fundamental rule
of good alliance between the Allies. Now, dur-
ing these two years of collaboration we have not
succeeded in identifying our points of view with
those of our Allies on the questions regarding
the Balkan Peninsula and the East. And the
diversity of ideas and sentiments has resulted in
inactivities and incoherences which even in time
of peace would be considered damaging, and in
time of war are simply disastrous. Now, it is well
that those who compose the Governments of the
Entente should learn and understand this: that
in case of a defeat of the Entente in the Balkans,
Italy amongst all the other Allies would be the
most exposed to disillusionment (let us call it
so, for the moment), and therefore Italy should
have the greatest weight and the greatest authori-
ty in the councils on the Balkan policy. To dis-
regard this would mean to disregard the very
aims of our war.
During the laborious period of our neutrality,
when souls and minds were still uncertain of the
decisions to be taken, the writer of this article,
opposing all the arguments in favour of the so-
called democratic war and of the so-caleld demo-
cratic principles, sustained that the only and
unique motives of Italy's war were to be sought
for in her interests, which required that she
should have absolute security in the Adriatic,
and, therefore, that Austria should not be abso-
lutely preponderant in the Balkans.
But, alas, the conduct of the Balkan war has
always remained in the hands of the dreamers
of France, England and Russia alike. And the
results have been, and continue to be, those which
could and should have been expected, and which
we are constrained to record, and lament over,
day by day.
- 97 —
Not only, but in a war like this one, which
threatens to end in a peace which will act as a
balance, into the scales of which the Powers will
cast the weight of the pledges they have seized, the
idealists of the Entente have been afraid to secure
for themselves those pledges which, at the proper
moment, might serve to neutralize the value of
those secured by the enemy. After Servia's de-
feat, caused by Greece's treason, it was impera-
tive to secure — in homage to Dante's law of
counterpoise — pledges from the mouth of the
Otranto Channel to Cape Sunio and to all the
/Egean. But the chaste virginity of our friends
trembles and blushes at the thought of an unjust
marriage, and always runs after Venizelos to
get the wedding celebrated in a legal form. Ger-
many, therefore, has an easy game of it in
seconding and defending, before the Court of
the civilized world, the case of bigamy of her
brother-in-law King Constantine against the En-
tente, which is now wallowing in blood.
No, let us repeat it once more, with elements
like these one can write a pochade, not a tragedy.
Tragedy, that is, war, which, after all, is not
a common phenomenon in the life of nations,
demands a philosophy, a policy and means dif-
ferent to those which are adopted at election
meetings and in parliament houses. A war based
on principles is not less ridiculous and useless
than a war en dentelles. Principles are excellent
factors of internal policy for the claiming of rights
and positions between the social classes, living
between the wall and the moat. But beyond the
wall and the moat, when the reasons of right rely
totally and uniquely on the strength of arms and
munitions; and when the conquest of lands and
seas is the direct or indirect way to obtain the
— 98 —
triumph of one's cause, to obtain the victory of
the aims for which one is fighting and dying, the
conduct of the Allies is simply inconceivable.
In such cases one should declare one's own in-
competency for war, and turn to pacifism.
In the life and death struggle, to make war
without arms and without artillery, as in Roume-
nia ; to engage in diplomacy with a bandiage over
the eyes and a convulsion in the heart as in
Greece, is neither serious nor dignified. Especial-
ly when the enemy has a hard fist and a harder
heart, and is named Germany.
It would be more than ingenuousness to think
that the general public awaits our remarks to
form an exact idea of the situation. The alert
and ironical sense of the Italians, which is the
natural complement of the historical sense, de-
veloped through centuries of sad experience, im-
mediately sees and grasps the elements of reality
before even the mind of the writers or of politi-
cians — always embroiled or perverted by pre-
judice of doctrine or by party interests — can
decide to bring them and represent them in the
field of discussion. I will not repeat the defini-
tion which the Italian spirit of irony has, long
ago formulated on the Entente's diplomacy in
the Balkans, and which it now repeats with ever
increasing scientific conviction; but, as it would
be dangerous and ignominious for writers and
politicians to feign an image of reality different
to the actual one, and which the public is ac-
quainted with, I will proceed to speak of that
masterpiece of the Entente's diplomacy in the
Balkans: the Greece of Venizelos.
Who is responsible in a particular manner for
this masterpiece ? France or England ? Or, per-
haps also Russia, or all three together? If we
— 99 —
glance at the French and English newspapers,
illustrated, up to yesterday, with the portrait of
Venizelos, framed in garlands of oak and laurel ;
if we remember the polemics which our col-
leagues of the French Press have sustained
against us, and the declarations made by English
Ministers in reply to questions put by Members
of Parliament, there is no doubt whatever that
the Homer of this Iliad must be contested for
between the two shores of the English Channel.
If, also, some rhapsodies have been added to the
poem by Greek bankers, roaming between Pa-
ris and London, it will be the task of the German
philological science to make researches upon
them and to illustrate them in the future.
One of the characteristics of the Entente's di-
plomacy is the indifference it feels towards the
Present, and its apprehensions for the Past and
for the Future. For instance, if you ask M. Pasic
what he hopes for the future, he will reply: All
the Past, plus this and that thing. — If you ask
M. Berthelot if he believe that at the end of the
war some part of the East might appertain to
others, he will reply: In Asia Minor, there is
only room for France. — All, imagine and want
the Future with the unchanged and unchangeable
Past, naturally, augmented. Now, it is not dif-
ficult to understand that with such a great im-
mobility of Past and such infinity of Future, the
conscience and the notion of the Present is apt-
to gelt lost. Let also Venizelos be taken for Philip
of Macedon, who must conquer and hold the East
on behalf of this or that Power of the Entente.
But we Italians have some cause and some right
to declare and to denounce the want of serious-
ness of all these proceedings.
100
No: we cannot continue to assist at these pro-
ceedings with indifference.
We must not only have the certitude that the
old errors will not be renewed, but we must also
be assured that the dispositions of soul and mind
from which these errors were derived, will be
profoundly changed and uprooted.
- 101 -
DEDICATED TO COUNT LUTZOW.
Monsieur le Comte, I have read with much
pleasure your article on peace in the Neue Freie
Presse; I have read it with the same pleasure
with which, more than once, in this Rome which
you loved, or at least, loved to live in, it has
been my lot to listen to your witty conversation
on so many other subjects of art and politics.
But, if the voice of the living reaches the me-
lancholy shades in the world beyond, I do not
know whether your August Lord and Master,
recently carried off from the happiness of the
peoples of the Monarchy, will have been able
to read your article with a like pleasure. Do you
remember the scene enacted between Louis XVI.
and the Mayor of Paris on that famous 17th of
July, in which the descendant of the Capets was
dragged from Versailles to Paris by the boister-
ous populace ? Offering him the keys_of the City,
the Mayor said : « These are the same keys which
were presented to Henri IV. Thajt King had
conquered his people. To-day the people has
reconquered its King » . At which audacious
speech, Louis, turning to Prince de Beauvau who
was standing beside him, asked in an angry tone :
— 102 —
(( Must I continue to listen ? » And I do not believe
that the grand-nephew of Marie Antoinette would
formulate any other interrogation, were hei to
learn your theory of low and high and your con-
demmnation of the mediaeval conception of the
supremacy of Governments over peoples.
Ah, you are turning revolutionist, Monsieur
le Comte: revolutionist in theory and practice,
revolutionist in the means and the end: you, an
Austrian diplomat, a twig of Prince Metternich's
tree ! The matter is one to be denounced to the
King's Prosecutor — pardon, the Emperor's.
. Is it worth while being Councillor of the Aus-
trian Empire, of the only Christian Empire in
Europe ordained on the basis of Divine Right,
against which the scythe and the axe of the
Revolution was most directly busy, to end by
thinking like the very last of the Cordeliers }
When the Duke of Brunswick, in his quality
of chief of the Allied armies, launched his Mani-
festo which should have been the signal of the
intervention, or rather, of the war of the States
of Europe against the Revolution, the revolution-
ists of the Paris Clubs replied immediately by a
counter-Manifesto which was destined to incite
the Belgian, Dutch, German and Austrian pa-
triots to rouse their countries tp revolt against
their respective tyrants. — « The tyrants are
marching against us. We will rouse the peoples
to revolt against them ». — Old stories, as you
see, Monsieur le Comte, old style and old method
of struggle. And it is very strange that you and
your German friends should endeavour to set
them up again after having worked for a whole
century to discredit and annihilate them. Have
you, then, nothing more original to offer us ? Yet
you ought well to understand that we Latins, are
103
somewhat acquainted with and instructed on the
Revolution.
And also in German Pedagogy.
But, between the principles of the French Re-
volution and those of German Pedagogy, we
likewise know that there exists this not impercept-
ible difference : that the first were professed and
practised in good faith; whilst the others, instead,
are by their very authors and partisans propa-
gated in... will you kindly supply the equivalent
for bad1 faith ? The Paris Jacobins seriously be-
lieved they were rendering a service to humanity
by inciting the patriots of the Central States —
we should call them Empires, now — to revolt
against tyrants. But who, to-day, from the most
sorrowful dwellings to the most dangerous tren-
ches, would grant them the least credit for their
generous intentions ? Even the most ingenuous of
our neutralists, the most forgetful of our pacifists
knows and remembers the fierce doctrines, the
teachings which spring from the very bowels of
the history of the German and Austrian races.
« If every act of violence is an act of good war » ,
says one of the foremost Holy Fathers of the
German Science of War — old Clausewitz — a it
must be added that it is to be completed by an
act of cunning and hypocrisy. When the struggle
is engaged against a coalition, the means must
be found wherewith to divide our adversaries and
annihilate them separately and successively, para-
lysing some with fear, and striking down others
with force » . Ability and violence. Moral and
material means. Things, at bottom, not unkown
to all the rest of humanity and, consequently by
no means extraordinary and astonishing. Extra-
ordinary and astonishing is only this : that a man
of your experience, Count Liitzow, should believe
— 104 -
that they must produce a great effect on the mind
of the enemies, considering that you have the
ingenuousness to confess that it cannot be denied
that, this time, the peace proposals are: « a cle-
ver move on the part of the Central Empires, the
effects of which will be seen in the future ». Ah,
is it then a question of a clever move and nothing
more } Ex ore tuo, therefore, Germany's generosi-
ty, Austria's chivalry, Bulgaria's humanity and
Turkey's mercifulness are, taken all together,
nothing more than a clever move for the purpose
of disseminating the germs of discord and dis-
union, in the same manner as plague and cholera
germs are disseminated by means of sugar-plums
thrown down from aeroplanes. And was it be-
cause you have thought that we were not suffi-
ciently intelligent to understand all this, that you,
Count Liitzow, have hastened to give us its au-
thentic interpretation ?
It is an unskilful move, Monsieur le Comte,
and one which causes you to derail, and precipi-
tates you along the line, obstructing the way. If
you really desire to be useful to yourselves, you,
Central Empires, you must not deviate from your
own line; you must not even touch other peo-
ple's lines. Humanitarian principles, merciful and
pietist sentiments, generous and chivalrous actions
are dismal things that must be left to the fools
of the Entente. « The greatest honour for Ger-
mans » — says Harden — « is that of not belong-
ing to the crowd of peaceful and pacifist peoples ;
it is that of professing no other religion but the
religion of force... Germany is not fighting and
does not want to fight for the liberty of otheT
peoples. She is simply fighting for her own right,
that is, for her dominion over other peoples which
are inferior to her » . — Here is the real German
— 105 -
line; and real German language. And, I add
on my own account, also a straightforward lan-
guage; because it answers to the sentiment and
to the doctrine; and corresponds with the action
of the Government and of the people of the Em-
pire. But a language of peace, no: that one is
false or falsetto, and convinces and exalts no one.
Should the necesisty of evidence have ever been
felt, we should express our thanks to you, Mon-
sieur le Comte, for having supplied us gratuitous-
ly with your own precious evidence.
Precious, also, for another reason which refers
in a more direct manner to Austria, to the well-
beloved State which you once represented in our
country, and which you still serve.
But when and where did Austria ever make
use of free principles and institutions for other
aims than dark and oblique ones ? In her hands
diamonds turn to coal once more. She made use
of universal suffrage for the purpose of dividing
the social classes and creating, internally, several
foci of civil war, which should divert the va-
rious nationalities from their struggle against the
Empire. And, in the same manner, she would
now make use of peace for the purpose of creat-
ing in enemy countries other foci of civil war,
which should divert the peoples from their acti-
vity in their national wars. She exports to beyond
her own circle Taafe's old formula: ((In order
that Austria may be happy, it is necessary that
no one be satisfied ». But, to make Austria happy
is not Italy's task.
No civil war in Italy, then, for Austria's benefit.
If you have so solemnly put on the stage the
comedy of peace, in order to deceive the actors
and the spectators of the war in our countries,
the deceit can but fall back and will only fall
106
back upon your own mask. And if you have, by
means of a clever move or, better still, by means
of a clever feint, aimed at the head better to strike
the heart or the groin, let it not displease you to
learn that in the case of fencing, at least, the
Italian sword possesses still a school for parry
and thrust.
You, Monsieur le Comte, who, owing to your
long residence in Italy know as much about our
country as it is given to an Austrian possessing a
subtle mind to know, are well aware that here
in Italy no one loves war for war's sake ; that no
one makes or thinks of making of war a perma-
nent institution of national history; and that all
have accepted this war as a duty, the harshest
of duties which the salvation of the country has
imposed upon us — and that is exercised and
accomplished as a duty; nobly and worthily,
with the faith and hope that the fatherland may
emerge from sorrow and from bloodshed reno-
vated and secure in the future. But you, and the
others in Vienna must also learn that after so
many centuries of servitude, the Italians, in their
reconquered liberty and independence, will not
brook one thing; the interference — however
cloaked by cajolery or by threats — of strangers
in the delimination and the determination of their
political action. Is it understood ?
Vain and pitiful illusion is therefore that of the
Central Empires to believe that proposals of peace
thus thrown to the winds, can suffice to upset
the feeble brains and the timorous souls of the
Italians, and to divert them from their labour,
which is their duty. These feeble brains and these
timorous souls know by now what value to set
on the goodness and the generosity of strangers,
especially when they are enemies, and do not run
- 107 —
so eagerly after crumbs, like the pigeons in the
Piazza of St. Mark's in Venice, after the crumbs
that are thrown out to them by travellers at sunset.
As long as the Central Empires continue to
speak of peace with the intent to destroy the na-
tional war spirit at the frontiers, and to create the
spirit of civil war in the interior, they will obtain
one only resuslt: the opposite one, that is, the
strengthening of the warlike spirit both at the
frontiers and at home.
Because there is no country in the worlql, and
Italy least of all, that once the game of the enemy
is exposed will render herself a voluntary victim
of it, and will weaken her moral and military de-
fences, to run the risk of being stupidly surprised
and crushed, with a « thank you ! » on the lips
and a poppy-head between her fingers.
Many kind regards.
108 -
THINGS TRANSATLANTIC.
Evidently the President of the United States,
Mr. Wilson, must have thought that he was doing
a very serious thing in sending that Note to the
belligerent Powers of Europe. But, if it were not
difficult, once upon a time, to note, according to
the stern philosopher, that truth on one side of the
Pyrenees was mendacity on the other, much less
difficult is it now to note that a serious thing on
the other side of the Atlantic is not equally se-
rious on this. We, alas, (and it is we who are
wrong, we on this side, so much older and worn
out by the years), do not laugh, nor weep in the
same manner and for the same emotions and im-
pressions as those for which the Americans laugh
or weep. Of time we have not the same notion,
nor have we of business and politics the same
idea. How then could we have the same notion
and the same idea of seriousness and facetious-
ness?
Mr. Wilson, for instance, for two years and
half past has failed to observe that there is a war
going on in Europe, or that there is, in Europe,
a humanity composed of flesh not American. He
had to mind and to assure his election. And until
— 109 —
his election had obtained a merited success
(triumph would be a too classical word, and
would cause the people over there to laugh), the
European war did not attract his attention, oc-
cupied as his mind was in other matters, any-
more than a boxing match between a yellow man
and a nigger would have done. And if a German
submarine sank, during those two years and half
a Lusitania or so, full of women and children,
and, in any case, of unarmed and harmless trav-
ellers, he immediately fixed his pince-nez (oh,
sans rire) on his nose to see whether there was
a little American flesh in the wreck ; and if there
was — it did not matter whether in large or small
quantities — he immediately raised his respectful
protest towards, not against, Germany. And all
Europe was floating on the waves at every new
feat of the German submarines, to discover that
small amount of American flesh which should
serve to affect the electoral entrails of the Presi-
dent, and, having discovered it, to place it under
his eyes in the hope that, from time to time the
protest might assume a more serious and decisi-
ve form. But Mr. Wilson, who had the German-
Americans besides the American -Americans on
his electoral lists, always kept the literature of his
Notes at the level of the patriotism of these last
and of the nationalism of the first; and so pro-
ceeded to the poll. Now, the polling booth once
closed, he occupied his electoral leisure in examin-
ing the question of the European war for the
better future of humanity — European or Ame-
rican ?
Truly, it must be admitted at once, that, great
democrat and pacifist though he be, he never
succeeds in imagining humanity from the Euro-
pean point of view, a la Rousseau or a la Tolstoi ;
— 110 —
but always from the American and' exclusively
American point of view, as a well-organized busi-
ness Firm of American interests. In fact, so that
there should be no misunderstandings, he begins
by declaring that he speaks in his quality of « re-
presentative of a neutral nation whose interests
have been very seriously damaged by the war » .
— I told you (did I not }) that we, on this side,
have not the same idea and conception of gravity
and facetiousness, as the people on the other
side of the Atlantic, nor are our affections stirred
for the same reasons ! We, on this side, have
always believed, and continue to believe, that
our war has been, let us put it in vulgar parlance,
a lucky lottery ticket for American interests. And,
instead, here is Mr. Wilson who comes to tell us
that it has been a disaster; and in order to pre-
vent the spreading of this disaster he — having
first settled his election or, rather, his re-election
— applies to the belligerents to claim, once more,
an indemnity? We believed, we simple people,
that over there, on the other side of the Atlantic,
they were getting rich and were happy and con-
tented, whereas on this side we were shedding
blood, and dying and starving. But, on the con-
trary, it seems, according to Mr. Wilson, that
things are vastly different. How, then, to agree ?
We do not, see, with blue or brown eyes, the
same sight. We do not speak, with different
words the same language. We all, in Europe,
have our houses in flames, our families in tears,
and our business all upset. Yet this illustrious
gentleman comes along to tell us that, owing to
all these misfortunes of ours, he feels the « mani-
fest necessity of determining how best to protect
his interests, if the war is to continue ». He speaks
for himself, for neutrals, and for the lot of these
- Ill -
last, as if the belligerents were in duty bound to
give him an account, not of their bereavements
and their miseries, but of the greater profits that,
in consequence of these bereavements and mi-
series, he has been unable to realize. In truth, Mr.
Wilson is most original in coming to ask our
armies in the trenches for a New Year Present
also.
But, after all, we must not take all of Mr. Wil-
son's originalities literally.
This one, of the protection of the interests of
neutrals, visible in itself on both sides of the
Atlantic, is nothing more than a membership
card, or let us say, a share exhibited by Mr. Wil-
son in order to take part in the Meeting of Share-
holders of the War, like those which are shown
by solicitors representing this or that group of
shareholders, intervening to defend this or that
argument at the yearly Meeting of Shareholders
of industrial concerns or of banks.
He, in fact, takes care to forestall the not
difficult objections, and appears as if he were
apologizing for sending his Note around at this
particular moment, « because it is possible that
it may now appear that it has been hastened by
the recent overtures made by the Central Powers)).
— There is no necesity to employ, with the illus-
trious President of the United States, those 18th.
Century niceties of language which he despises
and takes no notice of. It is enough to acknow-
ledge the receipt of his unasked for excuses. And
to pass on.
Let us assert facts without circumlocutions or
foolish hypocrisy. Force only truly attracts and
excites adherence and sympathy. Since the be-
ginning of the war and since the fortune of war
of German armies has imposed itself, here and
112
there, more by meanns of destruction than by
actual conquest, all the Powers so-called moral
have approached Germany. Pity (they say) is a
beautiful human sentiment ; and justice also (they
proclaim), is a necessary and indispensable social
conception. But I have never found out that in
favour of pity and justice, men and States do
more than speak fine words and open subscrip-
tions and organize lotteries ; and I have always
noticed, instead, that only in favour of Force in
all its incarnations, they are able to accomplish
real and true actions which have essentially poli-
tical and definite significance and results. When
did the Papacy, Socialism, a democratic Republic
like the United States ever feel disposed to speak
high in favour of Belgium, for instance; as they
act, high and low, with regard to Germany ?
When they have been unable to do any thing
else, they have always endeavoured to avoid dis-
cussions on the causes of the war, so as not to
trace Germany's responsibilities. And I, who have
ever striven to eliminate from my modest prose
all the small sentiments of individual mind, in
order to exalt sentiments which are useful for the
production of Energy; I do not note this to
draw from it reasons of accusation against either
the Papacy, Socialism or the Republic of the
United States, but simply to confound the weak
men of our demoralized democracies, who have
believed and still believe that they can establish
their power and offer it as a basis of States, on
the soft devices of individual mind sentiments,
which, in moments of crisis are quite useless, or
serve, at most, to draw derision upon those who
hold them in honour.
Here comes now, in his turn, Mr. Wilson, Pro-
fessor Wilson, the purest and best accredited
— 113 —
representative of American Democracy, to per-
form in favour of Germany, or rather, in favour
of Germany's Force, an action which, during
these two and half years he has never performed
or thought iit expedient to perform in favour of
the victims of that Force, on land or sea, be they
innocent men or combatants. Andi he performs
this action whilst ingenuous individuals were
expecting at any moment a really serious Note
against Germany about the irritating submarine
war. They were expecting it, yes ! Because there
does not exist a more irreducible mentality than
that of democratic Europe, which believes arid
never doubts that politics is the art of favouring
the weak and uplifting the oppressed.
Good Mr. Wilson demonstrates, however, that
politics is the art of favouring the strong.
Is it therefore necessary, at present, to discuss
the contents of a Note which has none }
Whoever will take the trouble to read it, will
easily find out that this Note contains only vague
and uncertain phrases, which do not even succeed
in getting crystallized into formulas; and that it
tends, in the end, to place itself between the
(( yes » of the Central Empires and the « no »
of the Entente, in order to propose some tests,
so that notice may be taken of it : tests for the pre-
sent and for the future, in view of the building of
the new Palace at La Hague, which shall serve
to eliminate ((rival alliances » which, with their
want of equilibrium, render future wars possible.
AH things, you see, wanting in practical sense
and without ideal value. All things which are
always said without seriousness and without con-
fidence, to beguile the public, and not to express
a true and proper code of existence for human
society.
- 114 -
It would be difficult to find in diplomatic liter-
ature a document which is more inconsistent than
this one in its central part or which goes further
astray from history and from doctrine. It is per-
fectly true that its importance does not reside in
the words that compose it, but in the very fact
of its existence and in the action it performs or
would perform, side by side of von Bethmann-
Hollweg's proposals. All the rest is mere preach-
ing.
One final remark :
Like all the best democrats in power, Mr. Wil-
son has always shown himself inspired in his
action by motives of personal interest, or of party
interest, which is the same thing; and by the
special conditions of internal policy obtaining in
his country, made up of national financial ele-
ments, and international moral ones, not all of
which are clear to us, and many of which escape
from our cognizance and from our examination.
Now, I ask: What value can and will have in
European questions of peace and war, the inter-
vention of a man who possesses not the most
remote conception of European questions; and
projects into these, if anything, nought but the
shadow of his personal interest, or the interest
of his party or that of the internal policy of the
financial Republic under his care 7
I know not whether to pose the problem is to
solve it.
— 115
A REPLY TO LUTZOW.
The following article from the pen of Count
Liitzow has been published by the Neue Freie
Presse :
« The considerations and observations referring
to the steps ta\en in favour of Peace by the Cen-
tral Powers, which I published is the Neue Freie
Presse on the \6th. of last month, have attracted
in Italy more attention than I ever anticipated.
Not to speali of other newspapers, the Rome Tri-
buna has dedicated a leading article to them.
This gives food for thought, as naturally, this
attention cannot be attribued to my person. All
the observations, criticisms and objections that
I have here before me, have, as a starting-point
and as target the following words of my article :
(( Our initiative is addressed more to the peoples
than to the Governments, and in the Powers of
the Alliance, peace will be concluded from low
to high, rather than from high to low ». These I
words do not appear to have been far from the \
truth, otherwise in Rome they would not have f
had recourse to so much journalistic artillery to
demolish them.
— 116 —
(( In Rome, diplomats and journalists are in
much more active and continual intercourse with
each other than, for instance, with us. And,
amongst my critics, I find a writer of fame, who
signs his articles in the Tribuna with the pseud-
onym of « Rastignac », whom I have met number-
less times in Roman salons: he is truly a man
full of talent and wit. He reproaches me — in the
most urbane and courteous form, of course —
with having by the aforesaid remark, deviated
from the lines of the Austro-Hungarian diplo-
macy; and states that in Vienna, still to-day, as
in Metiernich's time, it is traditional to ignore po-
pular sentiments; and that, to Viennese minds,
my way of thinking is more that of a\ Jacobin
than of an ex-representative of the Ballplatz.
« In Rome, then, evidently predominates to-day
the same disastrous error which caused such a
great mischief : that of purposely ignoring all that
has ta\en place in the Monarchy during the last
fifty years. They live there almost automatically
of souvenirs of a long-past epoch; at the men-
tion of the word « Austrian, they think only of
Metternich and Haynau; their eyes are shut on
the changes that have been effected by the Aus-
tro-Hungarian Convention, by the adoption of
Universal Suffrage, by general conscription and
by various other institutions. And, if such is the
case with the elite of intellectuals, in what abyss
of ignorance must the popular classes still find
themselves ?
« The Tribuna, with a persistence which stri-
kes the eye, lays stress on a statement to the ef-
fect that the steps taken in favour of peace by
the Central Powers, will not succeed in deceiving
the timid and the pusillanimous in Italy and in
arousing them to civil war. Oh ? Does not a well-
- 117 -
known French proverb say: Qui s'excuse, s*ac-
cuse ! ?
« Likewise, no one who possesses an impartial
mind will read without bewilderment the follow-
ing lines by Rastignac, which invite me, and with
me all the others in Vienna, to understand that,
after so many centuries of servitude, the Italians,
in their reacquired liberty and independence, will
support anything rather than the interference
of foreigners in their political deliberations, how-
ever much this interference may be accompanied
by blandishments or by threats. (Ah! Rastignac,
/ am re-translating your Italian from the
German!).
a Hear! Hear! the reader will voluntarily ex-
claim. The Tribuna must possess a very failing
memory if it has already forgotten what a colos-
sal diplomatic apparatus had to be put in motion,
during the Spring of 1915, to induce Italy to de-
clare war. No means were left untried: threats
and promises alternating every day; and by what
arguments the street mob was mobilized to bring
a pressure to bear on the Government and on the
undecided, is a mystery to no one. I do not wish
to repeat here the harsh word expressed by a high
personage of the Entente, with reference to the
means that were employed to win Italy over to the
Allied group..., but let no one come forward to
speak of inaccessibility and prudery in connexion
with any kind of influence exercised by foreigners.
a Naturally, in Rastignac 's article the well-
known argument of German aspirations to world
dominion is not wanting. Germany is fighting for
what she considers her just right, that is, for do-
minion over other peoples inferior to her. This
quotation is said to have been drawn from one
of Maximilian Harden s writings. As an exponent
- 118 -
of German foreign policy, we only recognize the
Chancellor of the Empire, in whose extremely
moderate and conciliatory statements one can hear
an entirely different tone.
a Meanwhile, Wilson s Note, animated as it
is, by a spirit of true objectiveness and by a pure
love of humanity, must have cleared up matters
somewhat and have dissipated some illusions
even in Rome. Not even the most blind fanatic
can ever have suspected Wilson of being capable
of taking part in favour of he Powers of the Quad-
ruple Alliance; perhaps his simple though most
efficacious words may have succeeded in dispel-
ling certain illusions even in Rome, and — to
employ the expression of a neutral writer — to
show things in their proper light to « a people
which was drawn into error » .
I will reply to Count Lutzow in the essential
arguments.
To my remark (deduced, anyhow, from the
words of the Neue Freie Presse) that, effectively,
Austria with her « able move » of peace had no
other aim in view but that of arousing dissensions
and discord in Italy, Count Lutzow, deviating
somewhat from the argument, replies: that the
judgements passed on Austria in Italy are based
on the resentments of the past, and not on the
exact knowledge of the present ; which constitutes,
according to him, a « fatal error » between the
two countries. And, really fatal would the error
be, if it existed. But for the honour of our intel-
lectual seriousness, we must demonstrate that
it does not exist.
There are few in Italy, and they are by no
means to be found amongst those who influence
public opinion, who think and judge of Austria
— 1 19 ^ —
in the same way as the generations which were
born and grew up under Austrian domination.
In Italy, the historical sense is highly developed.
And we should think we were committing one of
the grossests political solecisms, if we were to
find ourselves judging a country, friend or enemy,
with the sentiments or the resentments of last
century, rather than with the ideas of the present
times. History is a complex vicissitude of always
new conflicts of interest, and it would be sense-
less to fix and crystallize the relation of two peo-
ples or two States in the permanent form of a re-
membrance or of a passion. We, only know the
Austria of the Triple Alliance, and that is enough
for us. Does not Count Liitzow, too, remember
the Austria of the Triple Alliance, always rest-
less and implacable against the Italian name,
both in her internal policy and her foreign one ?
And always ready to fight against the Italian
name with her own weapons, besides those of
Turks or Slavs ? And not in vain do I also say
her internal policy. Because notwithstanding that
constitutionalism, oh, so metaphorical! to which
Count Liitzow alludes, it was also during the
regime of the Triple Alliance that the Italians
of the unredeemed territories experienced none
but old reactionary and police systems, and could
never succeed in obtaining the recognition of their
rights, though these were guaranteed to them by
Paragraph 19 of the Constitution, either for the
autonomous government of the Trent ino, or for
the Italian schools in Dalmatia, or for the Trieste
University. As to all the other glories of modern
Austria, which Count Liitzow extols, glories
which would make of Austria a model State,
different to that of Metternich and Haynau, I, for
my part, would have nothing to say on the subject,
- 120 -
because Austria's internal constitution does not
come within the radius of my discussion on the
war. But, as Count Ltitzow speaks about them,
would it not be discourteous not to take up his
words ? Ay, the Convention with Austria-Hunga-
ry. — But this is an event of an economic nature
which affects Hungary only and not the other peo-
ples of the Empire. Universal Suffrage. — But this
is only an instrument in the hands of the Vienna
Government, to bring the various nationalisms
feared by Austria into conflict with the Socialist
elements which she has no reason to fear. And,
also, as regards Universal Suffrage, does not
Count Liitzow remember that there is always,
ready to cut its claws, the famous Paragraph 4,
which empowers the Government to pass laws
without the consent of Parliament, providing
that, after they have been already in execution,
the approval of Parliament be asked for }
But, I repeat, these are not things that concern
us, and concern the subjects of the Monarchy
only, amongst whom we Italians are not included.
What concerns us is, rather, Count LutzoT#' s
judgement on Italy and on the motives of Italy's
determination in the European war.
The idea of submission is so identified with the
idea of Italian policy, in the mind of our ex- Allies
of Vienna, that not even the fact of the war it-
self, the war that is being fought, can succeed
in uprooting it.
Already attempts have been made, from the
very first moment, to create a vile legend which
should serve to discredit and underrate the Italian
war, both morally and idealistically. And, I do
not know with what circumspection Count Liit-
zow now tries to take up and to delineate this
legend once more in order to demonstrate the per-
_ 121 -
petual influence of foreigners in Italian politics.
Now, at this moment, I do not wish to reawa-
ken all the passions which are connected with
the remembrances of the May days; and I must
not do so, especially as the unity which appeared
in danger of being broken, has been reconstituted
in the minds of the Italians; and especially as
those remembrances must be considered useless
by now, and even more useless the passions con-
nected with historic moments which are for ever
decided and past. But, apart from our internal
conflicts, which only we can appraise at their
exact importance and at their just value., I do
not think it is for political men and writers belong-
ing to the Central Empires, and particularly those
of Austria, to insist upon the diplomatic campaign
of the Spring of 1915, which was engaged for the
purpose of inducing Italy to enter into the struggle
or to keep her away from it. « Threats and pro-
mises » were made, undoubtedly; but Count
Liitzow knows by whom; and Count Tisza, too,
authentically commenting the diplomatic Books,
told without any possibility of misunderstandings
and of mental reservations, to what end they
were directed. But it is to Italy's honour that she
took her deliberations on her own account, not-
withstanding the threats and notwithstanding the
promises : it is to Italy's honour that she did not
put her past and her future up to auction, and
that she decided by herself, to make her own
history by the sweat of her brow and the blood
of her veins. Bismarck had already taught us what
value to set on Austria's promises, long before
Tisza had declared to us what results would have
accrued from them. « We, have allowed ourselves
to be ensnared by Austria » — wrote Bismarck
from St. Petersburg, after the battle of Magenta
- 122 ™
— (( we have allowed ourselves to be fooled by
the feigned Viennese artleissness. And all that
for nothing. Not even for the smallest mess of
pottage )). Austria, this time, promised the mess of
pottage to us; but with which hand, and with
what intention ? And it is strange that a man of
good taste, a diplomat of subtle intellect, like
Count Liitzow, should speak of it once more. No:
the Italian people was not a drawn into error »
in the May days ; it was, on the contrary, drawn
away from the error into which the promises,
and, after these had failed, the threats, attempted
to make it fall; never, rather, did it show itself
more illuminated, more conscious, more free and
more sure of itself in deciding its own destinies
than during the May days.
Besides, the conduct of the whole nation during
the war and the valour of the army in the field,
are there to belie all hostile legends, and to show,
in all its efficacy, the historic truth which revealed
itself unexpectedly, to us and to others during the
flaming Spring of 1915.
Now, it is war.
But the Central Powers wish — or would like
to wish — to dictate peace as victors.
I ask Count Liitzow : as victors also over Italy ?
And if, in regard to Italy, the Central Powers
cannot speak separately, as they can in regard to
the other Powers, what would their attempt at
peace be reduced to, if not to interrupt the march,
to weaken the effort and to annul the work that
Italy has up to now accomplished ?
(( Even the most blind fanatic cannot but be-
lieve Wilson's words » — says Count Liitzow.
And that may be so. But he adds : a And those
simple, though efficacious words may have suc-
ceeded in dispelling certain illusions even in Ro-
— 123 —
me ». And that is wrong. Will those words ever
succeed! in destroying the facts ?
And what man, what party, what social class,
in Italy, could lightly accede to the design of the
Central Powers, without annulling the facts, or
mutilating them, in favour of the vanquished?
Neither can the Italian war be arrested with
yesterday's conquests ; nor can peace be discussed
on the basis of those conquests. The mere attempt
at discussion would be, at this moment, according
to Talleyrand's famous formula : « une betise plus
qu'un crime)). The struggle, therefore, must be
continued until it has yielded all it can yield, for
the satisfaction of our interests, and for the se-
curity of our future.
As Count Liitzow can see, it is a question of
calculation, not one of rhetoric. And Italians have
sufficiently good heads to know how to make a
calculation in which the stakes axe their work of
yesterday, and their blood of to-day or to-morrow.
The question is not that of the hatred for the
Austria of Metternich or of Haynau : it is a ques-
tion of something better and more beautiful: the
love towards Italy, and the defence of Italy in
the life and death struggles which all the nations
of Europe are fighting.
Let Count Liitzow be persuaded; the Italians
in this defence will all of them do their duty to
the end, simply and calmly, as it is their ancient
habit to do.
And also unanimously.
~ 124
PEACE OR PREPAREDNESS ?
I should like the Italian public to be well in-
formed on many things and questions connected
with America, before estimating and judging
President Wilson's new and — why not } — most
noble sermon on European peace. Ignorance of
the intellectual and political factors which deter-
mine the actions and speech of the men of the
New World (a world really different from ours)
may be the source of grave errors and still graver
illusions, which it is well to avoid, especially
when, to avoid them, a minimum amount of ef-
fort is required in order to obtain information and
enlightenment.
In the first place, let us pose these two points
of fact : Firstly : that Americans have not and can-
not possibly have the same ideas or feelings in
regard to European affairs, nor the same interests
in them which we Europeans have. Secondly:
that when Americans busy themselves with Eu-
ropean affairs, they do so keeping their eyes fixed
on the Pacific Ocean, which for them is what the
Mediterranean basin is for us; and, therefore,
there is no possibility of meeting and of agreeing
between our points of view and theirs: because
- 125 —
if we say, for instance, Syria, the Straits, or Sa-
lonika, they say Mexico, California, Philippines;
and' an eventual meeting could only happen per-
chance in China, via Russia for us, and via Japan
for them. Now, on a background, on a horizon,
on a line of navigation so different, how can it
be possible to discuss, by means of the same
words and the same ideas? I absolutely deny
that the laws which determine the interests and
the policy of the Pacific Ocean can serve to settle
the interests and the policy of the Mediterranean
Sea.
So much so, that President Wilson's language,
addressed to the peoples of the Pacific Ocean and
bearing on the questions which concern them, is
entirely different from his language addressed to
the peoples of the Mediterranean Sea, and bear-
ing on the questions which concern those regions.
That President Wilson is, by scholastic tend-
ency and by sentiment, a pacifist, there is not
the slightest doubt. But that, notwithstanding his
ideal pacifism, he should be constrained, in the
practice of his government of the State (or, rather,
the States) under his care, to give the greatest
development to the War administration and to
the War Budget, is still less doubtful. Remember
his speech of June last, on the eve of the election
campaign, addressed to the Cadets of the West
Point Naval Academy, on the necessity of na-
tional defence and on the preparation of this de-
fence. Remember also — the deeds corresponding
to the words — the programme of national de-
fence which he has caused' Congress to accept
and to vote, that is the maximum programme
evolved up to now by the United States; for, on
account of the Navy, Mr. Under Secretary Da-
niel's Budget for '916 exceeds by 25 per cent that
126
of the British Admiralty. Remember, lastly, what
the journal of the Washington Navy League said
in commenting upon that programme and on ex-
plaining it. That journal said, without any reti-
cence, that (( even with all possible moral refine-
ments, a nation has the absolute right to live
her most complete intensity of life, to expand, to
found colonies and to become wealthier, by the
employment of every means, conquest by arms
not excepted ». And as an expression of principle,
it added also that « every expansion of that de-
scription (conquest by arms), is an unalienable
right; and, in the case of the United' States, a
special duty » . How far is all this from the theory
of the respect of small States and the abolition
of factories of war material and of shipbuilding
yards !
Put therefore this language — which, if it does
not emanate directly from the Government, is
certainly derived from Government actions, and
if it does not represent the President's doctrinaire
spirit, certainly represents jthe practical spirit of
the political world which revolves round the Pre-
sident — put this language, I say, together with
the figures of the Daniel Budget, with the West
Point speech and with the Notes on European
peace, and you will see for yourselves what in-
ferences to draw from it. One consequence, in the
meanwhile, seems to me of an unquestionable
logical efficiency: namely, that it would be the
greatest imaginable stupidity to delude ourselves
into supposing that in the other hemisphere, more
than in ours, moral ideas without arms, and evan-
gelical speeches without munition® can be of any
value in carrying out a peace policy, or a policy
of peace foT war, as might hastily be deduced
from Wilson's Message. For logic, indeed, is not
an opinion.
— 127 —
Let us reflect, in the mean time, that the Eu-
ropean war has created a state of affairs in the
Pacific which, in the end, might become uncom-
fortable, owing to the President's own pacifist
tendencies, and let us proceed further in our ar-
gument.
In consequence of the war, Japan, which has
become Russia's great workshop, has gathered a
wealth which she never possessed before, and
which she silently and secretely, as is her custom,
is employing in the construction of ships of war.
Owing to this new wealth, and to its application
to her military power, she is increasing her mort-
gages on the Chinese markets, in such a manner
as to exclude for the future any discussion upon
the question of the open door with the United
States; and, at the same time, she is widening
her protection of China in such a manner as to
exclude the intervention of any other Power,
either Eastern or Western, in the political con-
trol, and consequently in the commercial control
also, of China. Even before President Wilson,
in his Message to the Senate had announced the
extension of the Monroe Doctrine to the small
States of Europe implicated in the war, Japan
had already proclaimed the extension of the same
doctrine to Eastern Asia, and therefore also to
the Philippines, in order to assert her right of
control in China, and to keep the United States
away for ever from any interference in the af-
fairs of that country. It is useless, now, to plunge
into all the questions which make up the problem
of the future struggle between Japan and the
United States in China. It is sufficient to hint at
them to demonstrate what relation there may be
between the European waT of to-day and a pro-
bable war of to-morrow, and what conception or
- 128 —
what aim may be intended by a peace Message
which has one wing on the Pacific and the other
on the Mediterranean. To explain the enigma,
one should substitute the word « humanity » with
the word a Japan ». Besides, I always request my
readers to consider the questions of peace and
war from the point of view of interests which are
the body of politics, and not from the point of
view of humanitarian doctrine and of philosophy,
which are but the cloak and the mask of interests.
Ingenuousness is not and cannot be allowed in the
struggle of life.
Meminisse.
It is not the first time that a President of the
United States has entered the arena with the olive-
branch in his hand and placed himself between
two (to-dav thev are many) contending Powers.
In September 1905, Roosevelt also, who was a
votary of war, appeared arraved in a white stole
and with an olive twig in his hand, between Rus-
sia and Jaoan, to propitiate that peace of Ports-
mouth without indemnitv for the victor, Japan;
with the formula : « neither victor nor vanqui-
shed ». whirh Mr. Wilson brings to-dav once more
to the fore. But who can say whether Rooesevelt's
twig did not then serve to repress, in the interest
of the United States, the expansion and the great-
ness of her rival Japan, more than arrest, in the
name of humanity, the stream of blood that was
being shed in Russia and Japan ?
With all this, I do not mean to say that Pre-
sident Wilson is not in complete good faith when
he speaks of peace to Europe, or that he does not
believe that he is exercising an evangelical epi-
stolary mission by his action.
And neither do I intend to assert that he does
— 129 —
not feel the greatest desire for the welfare of suf-
fering humanity.
Only, is his desire greater than ours? And, if
it were so, why greater than ours ?
We all want peace.
130 -
J
ITALY AND THE ALLIES.
The last events which have happened can be
compared to a referendum on the basis of Uni-
versal Suffrage — the suffrage of the civilized
world — to judge Italy's intervention in the Eu-
ropean war and in the Italian war. And Wilson's
Message is the announcement of the referendum.
Now, all are pressing on the field which Italy had
chosen and marked out for the defence of right
and of human liberty from the first day of the
action of the Central Empires ; and all are bring-
ing on to that field their parable and their sword.
But, at that time, when the minds that were ga-
thered round were in suspense and in suspicion,
and it seemed as if to decide and to judge were
almost an unconscious audacity, Italy serenely
made up her mind and formulated her judge-
ment : « This is a crime » — she said ; and aban-
doned on the road the authors of it who had been
her Allies of the day before. Belgium had been
destroyed. France had been invaded. England did
not yet possess an army, and not even a con-
scription law wherewith to comoose it. From all
the outlets of the symbolical Black Forest, the
barbarian hordes were pouring forth in mad fury
- 131 —
on the civilization of Europe, like those of Attila
against Rome. But, as hordes pass, and Rome
remains (and even to-day, oh divine Lady of
Eternity, April decks itself in beauty to throw
its garlands at thy feet), it was in the name of
Rome, which in centuries of yore had sustained
the shock and the shame inflicted by them, that
Italy stood up to resist the new and still more
terrible barbarian exploits. What would have
happened to us had our mind been less vigilant
and our conscience less sound in resolve? We
should have disappeared from the history of ci-
vilization, and our name would have been ming-
led in one common shame, and in one common
humiliation, with those of Turks and Bulgarians.
In the struggle, which is whollv the strugo-le of
human civilization, between Force and Right,
Rome has always represented Right, and the
world only knows and recognizes her as the
champion of Rirfit. The last remnants of the Fo-
rum would have crumbled to dust if, in contra-
diction to her essence and her nature, Rome had
annulled her past and her future by mingling
amongst the barbarians who represent Force and
the religion of Force. And she was simplv equal
to herself when she said and did that which all
the civilized world is proud and exalted, to-day,
to say and to do. In 1859, M. Thiers was afraid
of Italy's resurrection, which he believed to be
detrimental to France. This has been, forsooth,
the effect of Italy's reappearance in the history
of Europe ! To re-affirm and Te-establish the equi-
librium of Right, which was denied and disturbed
by the German races; and to save, at the first
moment, France and the great ideas which she
represents, and to give her the means to prepare,
— 132 —
together with the oher Allied Powers, the defen-
ces and the victories to come.
But if Italy has nobly fulfilled her historic mis-
sion in this war; if she has placed, at an unex-
pected moment, all the weight of her existence
on the balance of European destiny; if she has
staked all her fortune and heT peace, and has
given and is giving the best blood of her sons
for the triumph of the common cause, it is the
duty, not only of our own political men, but of
all the Allies together to prepare for her such
conditions for her future adjustment and for the
future development of her moral and material
existence, as will assure her safety and her tran-
quillity for a long sequence of years.
I know not — and no one knows — what, up
to now, has been concerted and concluded in the
supreme assemblies of the Allies for the future
adjustment and the future conditions of Italy's
existence; but I know, and we all know that in
the peace negotiations, if there will be a country
which will be chosen as a target for the hatred
and consequently for the hostility of the enemies,
that country is Italy, the old Ally of Germany
and Austria: Italy, which by her detachment
from the Triple Alliance, upset and rendered im-
possible the immediate execution of the enemy's
war scheme, and therefore prevented the im-
mediate victory over France and England.
This special state of affairs must and cannot
but create an enormous responsibility to be as-
sumed by our Statesmen and by our Allies, to-
wards our war and towards the fortunes of our
country. The statements made by the Prime Mi-
nister of the Danubian Monarchy, bearing on the
latter *s irreconcilability with Italy, and on the
uncompromising struggle for Trent and Trieste
- 133 —
and I stria, are but of yesterday; but the threats
and the programme of eternal aversion from and
eternal hatred against Italy, drawn up by Germ-
any and Austria date from the earliest days of
the war. Now, if our soldiers, to whom are ef-
ficiently entrusted the honour and the glory of
our arms, are occupied in the action in the open
field, it is necessary that in the closed field of
diplomacy, those who are responsible should take
this special state of Italy's affairs into account,
and should take the proper measures, without
new mental reservations, ancient prejudices and
ancient preconceptions. All the questions regard-
ing our land and sea boundaries must be exhaust-
ively solved; all our just aspirations in the East
must be satisfied; all our spheres of influence
must be defined and respected. Prince von Bil-
low, during his interview with Bijorson on the
eve of his mission to Italy, said that Italy's for-
tunes were bound up with those of Germany;
and, if at all, Germany's fall would mean Italy's
fall too. Our Statesmen and our Allies must take
steps to sever the connexion of Billow's double
omen. Mors tua, but not Italy's.
Because, on the whole, if a new order of things
emerge, as it will inexorably emerge, from this
great war, and if, in reality, the triumph of liber-
ty and civilization arises out of so many sacrifices
that have been made, and so much blood that
has been shed, the symbol and the sign of the
new order of things and of the triumph must be
Italy.
The new Europe will not effectively and se-
curely exist, unless the new Italy finds herself in
a different situation and in different conditions
from those in which she found herself at the eve
of the war.
- 134 —
Only a strong and powerful Italy ; only an Italy
on the same level, in degree and in activity, with
France and England on the Continent and in all
the inlets of the Mediterranean, will be able to
displace the terms and values of European po-
litics. Should Italy, in consequence of her weak-
ness or the restriction of her action and move-
ments, be reduced to that policy of compromise
and expedients to which she was reduced in the
last thirty years, between insecure and distrustful
alliances on the one side, which held her in sub-
jection and in apprehension for her existence;
and persistent rivalries and jealousies, which ren-
dered her efforts at redemption useless, on the
other, no group of Powers will succeed in obtain-
ing stability and quietness. A poor and infirm
Italy would cause Austria and Germany to beco-
me stronger. Germany can only be weakened
and Austria rendered powerless by a strong and
powerful Italy. To haggle about the formation of
a greater Italy would be the same as to haggle
about the formation of a new Europe. It is well
that this evident truth be well fixed upon and
understood by European conscience.
I speak loud, so that all may hear me.
I know not whether in France and in England
the old ideas about Austria prevalent during the
Napoleonic era — the era of Napoleon III., of
course — are still alive or have been attenuated or
modified; and whether, even after Austria has
become Germany's humble servant, it may be
thought that she can be used as a lever against
Germany. I hope, for the sake of the honour of
our two Allies* s intelligence that it is not so;
although I am aware that it is more difficult to
eradicate an idea from that which for a literary
convenience we are accustomed to call the public
135
opinion of a nation, than to cancel a law from a
Code or a Treaty. In any case, until in the mind
of the Powers which constitute the nucleus of
European civilization, Austria has been replaced
by Italy on all the Adriatic shores ; and until the
name and the action of Italy have been perman-
ently linked with those of France and England
in the Eastern Mediterranean, the liberty and
civilization of Europe cannot be said to have solid
and secure bases.
All this struggle for the ideal, all this war for
the stability of the world's foundations, as Wil-
son has said, all this tragedy in which the choi-
cest flower of Europe's youth is disappearing
would have neither sense nor aim if, in the end,
the same organs, the same personalities, the same
geographical expressions were to be set up again,
which, up to yesterday represented the enemies
of all liberties, refractory to all progress, instru-
ments of every reaction, permanent association of
barbarism and tyranny against small and large
States within the scope of their influence, and
which, during the progress of the war were al-
ways fought as such.
In one of those sittings of the Reichstag, during
which German peace was announced amidst the
thunder and lightning of German military glory,
Herr von Bethmann-Hollweg presented his war
map, which was, as it were, the constitutional
chart of the new barbarian Europe. But to-day
it is necessary that the Powers of the Entente, in
unity with the Allies of all the Americas, should
present their own chart, which will be the geo-
graphical chart and the constitutional chart of
new civilized Europe, all in one. A chart which
will have its foundation upon this supreme law
of vital organisms, namely, that the organ should
136
serve and correspond with its function.. What
function of civilization or liberty can Austria ser-
ve ? alien and hostile as she is to all national and
human law ; she that acknowledges no other rea-
sons but her own: that is, the abstract and wily
reason of the State which she is ?
In the new chart of Europe, there will only
be room for such nations as have always wrought
and fought, and are still ready to work and to
fight for the world's lofty civilization and for its
infinite progress.
Let the civilized world, on this Birthday of Ro-
me, accept the wish and the law which emanate
from the tradition and the history of the Imperial
City of Right.
137 —
THE WAR OF THE ALPS.
This war does not admit of rhetoric. In all the
forms of its organization and its developement,
it is so severe and arduous an undertaking that
the speech which were to attempt to deck it with
the dried flowers of ancient poems and ancient
songs would act as ingenuously and as uselessly
as did the legendary child in wanting to hold
the sea in the hollow of his hand. This terrible
enterprise of science and will can have a litera-
ture worthy of it, only in the precise statement
of its actions. And the human values, by which
it is measured, are derived from the perfection of
moral effort corresponding to the physical and
intellectual effort necessary for the struggle.
Correspondents of foreign journals, and espe-
cially the British ones, who follow our operations
at the front, are sending to their papers news and
opinions on our army which, besides the admi-
ration for its courage, reveal a new valuation of
the Italian mind and character in the formidable
test of the war. And, a few days ago, on the eve
of our advance, the great poet of British Imperial-
ism, Rudyard Kipling, in his prose which is truly
warlike, revealed to his readers his wonder for
— 138 —
what he had seen, for the new world, the new
war, the new Italy he had discovered on the banks
of the Isonzo and on the rocks of the Trentino.
Here, then, is what is most important, namely,
that, at the test, Italy and the Italians are and
appear capable of dealing with the most difficult
situations ; that Italy and the Italians are and ap-
pear ripe for the greatest labours and enterprizes ;
that they have in themselves the potentiality and
the capability of reaching, on a par with other
nations, the highest degrees of the task which
Destiny has assigned to them. That an Italian,
individually, should have the courage to defy an
enemy even ten times better armed and trained
in arms than himself, is not to be wondered at,
nor can the fact excite any surprise; neither
should his self-immolation and his sacrifice for
an ideal cause excite any wonder or ^surprise : all
the history of Italy is a history of self-immolation
and of sacrifice. But the intensity of moral life,
which consists in preparing, in organizing, in
waiting without aprrehensions and without fears,
between fatigue and perils, in working confidently
one, two years in the shadow and in silence, in
the expectation of one day or of one hour of suc-
cess : this is important to note, this which appear-
ed impossible to all before the war, and which
to-day comes as a revelation. It used to be said,
at one time, that Italy was made, but that there
remained to form the Italians. And it was true.
But do you not think that at the test of this war
the Italians are beginning to be formed ? A little
patience, and we, too, at the proper moment,
will be able to ascend the Capitol to render our
thanks to the ancient Deities of Rome.
Destiny reserved the Alps to us for the great
test.
- 139 —
When the history of this war will have gone so
far back in remote centuries as to reach the at-
mosphere of a legend, these small, dark Italians,
climbing to-day, under the implacable fire of the
Austrian artillery the naked rocks of the mount-
ains in order to reach the summits and carry up
there the blood of their wounds and their guns,
will appear as the real masters, the real lords of
those Alps which no human or divine force could
ever succeed in vanquishing or subjugating. The
wonder of contemporary poets and journalists in
observing the cold courage, the tenacity, the ef-
fort, of these small, dark Italians climbing mount-
ains will become attenuated, perhaps, in the dist-
ant future, when there will only remain a recol-
lection and a fantastic outline of these men of
flesh and blood ; but through this recollection and
this fantastic outline Italy's right will reveal itself
more natural and more certain; and also more
elementary: because it will appear as the essen-
tial blending of the human type with his land.
And, under whatsoever incarnation, the German
shall never again prevail over the conquerors of
the Alps. He shall not prevail, and Europe will
be more sure of her civilization and of her history.
As in the case of England, we have seen the
first war-shell explode at our feet without pos-
sessing a real and proper artillery-park or an
army in a fit condition to fight. And, as in En-
gland's case, in consequence of this poverty of
ours, and of this want of military preparation we
have had to suffer the contempt of our Allies,
which reached to the pitch of unchaining such an
immense conflict of European races without even
consulting us or giving us warning. « What would
you do if an English army were to land in Bel-
gium ? » — somebody once asked Bismarck. —
— 140 —
(( I would send the police to arrest it », — replied
the great Lord of War, William II., who did not
even deign to put his police in motion to stop
that small army. And did he^or his Viennese Ally
concern themselves with the Italian army > Ac-
cording to Bismarck's expression, it was sufficient
for both that the Italian Bersagliere, wih his feath-
ers and his drum should be turned with his
face towards France than towards Austria. That
was the way of considering Italy's participation
in the Triple Alliance. But after two years, things
must have changed somewhat, if Austria has
stopped laughing, and smiles no more at the
thought of that Italian Bersagliere fit only for the
parade ground. In fact, from two years ago, this
military type, the representative of ancient wars,
has laid aside his flowing feathers, does not run
about uselessly and does not play his music to
make the Allied bears dance. The Italian Bersa-
gliere has turned miner, engineer, chemist, di-
plomat, thinker and governor — governor, espe-
cially of himself — he has become the true fight-
ing man of new Italy and fights to win. And no
one doubts of his victory.
The two nations which up to yesterday had
been considered as the least warlike and the least
prepared of all the others for war, by the unex-
pected weight of the sword which they have cast
into the balance are now turning the fortunes of
war in a different direction to that which had
been imagined by its votaries, and are also chang-
ing the destinies of Europe.
These are facts, which it is well to note to-day,
for to-morrow's guidance.
— 141 —
THE UNSQUAREABLE CIRCLE.
In his interview with the representatives of the
Russian Press, M. Tereschenko, new Minister for
Foreign Affairs, has mildly refuted:, and, of
course, by no means exhaustively (Russian men
of Government are obliged, in these moments to
employ a great mildness of language), the ques-
tion put forward by the democratic Committees
relative to the publication of Treaties concluded
between the old Regime and the Allied Powers.
This is a question which is connected with the old
principles of democratic doctrine; principles
which aim at universal suffrage applied to for-
eign politics and, therefore, at the immediate
publication of all acts and documents which are
connected with foreign politics (all of which
could be obtained with greater facility simply by
the transformation of State Chancelleries into
Circulating Libraries), with, of course, the inevit-
able referendum on them. « The immediate pu-
blication of Treaties », said the new Minister for
Foreign Affairs, a would be equivalent to a ru-
pture with the Allies, and would imply Russia's
isolation ». — It would be equivalent — he might
have said more aptly — to an act of treason : as
- 142 -
the disclosure and the revelation, to the enemy's
profit, of secrets which do not belong to Russia
only (even of the ancient regime), but to the
Powers which have concluded agreements and
treaties with Russia, would undoubtedly be. Un-
fortunately, the innocence of democratic doctrine
in questions of foreign politics is made up of si-
milar failings of memory.
This question of the publicity to be given to
foreign politics, put forward to-day on their own
account by the Russian Committees which have
so recently appeared before history's footlights,
and which suppose that Heaven knows what dia-
bolical secrets detrimental to the pacifist demo-
cracy of the Don are contained in diplomatic
Treaties, has already been posed, sometimes
even sarcastically, by the pacifist democracy of
the Seine, to the Governments of the Third Re-
public, the Ally of Russia. The Russian revolu-
tionists are to-day showing themselves apprehen-
sive and almost terror-struck by the snares against
their philosophy which are lying hidden in the
secrecy of Treaties. The French revolutionists,
on the contrary, amused themselves in days gone
by, in making fun of those Governments of the
Third Republic which were deceiving themselves
with the idea that they held the key to the CzaT*s
heart in their hands. « Can you picture to your-
self the Czar », wrote M. Sembat, « pouring forth
the fulness of his heart into the heart of Felix Fau-
re ? Can you imagine the Czar choosing our good
M. Fallieres as the confident of his thoughts ?
Six years after, he would have had the pleasant
surprise of finding his secret served up cold in a
fine volume entitled : « Memoirs of an Ex-Presi-
dent )), or (( History of Seven Years ». The news-
papers would have all published extracts from it.
143
But... you may be sure that in Berlin they would
not have to wait for the volume to appear to be-
informed of its contents in the most minute de-
tails ». On this score, then, the Russian revolu-
tionists can feel quite at ease, and need have no
apprehension whatever about the secrets of their
ancient diplomacy.
M. Sembat, an anti -militarist Socialist, amongst
the most eloquent and the most violent of his
Party, on the eve of the war — and consequently
of his appointment to the post of Minister of Na-
tional Defence — wrote a book, one of the boldest
and most spirited books of political literature
vritten during the last few years, which is like
an examination of conscience, and at the same
time a review of all the errors and contradictions
of democratic and Republican doctrines, entitled :
« Faites un Roi si non jaites la Paix » , with
Germany, of course. After an active propaganda
in newspapers, in Associations, at meetings, in
Parliament itself against militarism, that man of
talent, and we must also add, of conscientious-
ness, experienced a moment of doubt and sus-
picion : (( Supposing that with all these ideas and
all this propaganda I was contributing to lead
my country towards disaster ? » — and then he
stopped to think, and think again over his own
ideas and those of his Party: and then to for-
mulate the dilemma which is the title of his book :
a dilemma which means this : democratic doctrine
is not adapted to prepare a nation for war; and
if you think that waT is not a chimera, but an
hypothesis which might become a reality, then
you must found your State upon a different doc-
trine; because with this kind of Republic and
this kind of doctrine you are going straight on
your way towards defeat. — I do not propose to
— 1 44 —
discuss M. Sembat's fundamental thesis. But as
the book contains a chapter dedicated to foreign
politics and to the secrecy of Treaties not ad-
mitted by democratic doctrine, I treasure up the
contents of M. Sembat's pages before discussing
the question on my own account and applying
it to Italy.
M. Sembat founds his argument on the follow-
ing principle : « It is anti-Republican, or it is ri-
diculous in a Republican regime to enter into
Alliances of the essential clauses of which the
people are ignorant ». And this may be so. But
a question at once arises spontaneously: Be it
Republican or anti-Republican, is it or is it not
necessary for the purpose of foreign politics and
in the interest of the country and of the people
itself } This we do not learn. We only learn that
it is un-Republiean not to publish Treaties for
the people's behoof, and that is all. But M. Sem-
bat, who writes and speaks and is a Deputy in
a Republic, cannot help posing the question of
Alliances to himself and cannot help attempting
to solve it with the least possible damage to the
principles of Republican doctrine. He. therefore
asks himself : « How are principles to be saved
in the midst of the necessities of Reality } By
means of a Council of Ten ? Or a Committee of
Public Safety } Of an irresponsible President 7
Of a First Consul ? This is defying the impossi-
ble ». (I should think so !). And then he recounts
the attempt made by him, after the Agadir af-
fair, to create something which should savour
of Republicanism : une faihle ebauche d' organi-
sation republicaine, for foreign politics ; for in-
stance: a Council composed of all ex-Ministers
for Foreign Affairs, to which, in time, might be
added all the ex-Presidents of the Republic; a
145 —
10
Consultative Council, a Council, in brief, which
should have stood at the elbow of the Minister
for Foreign Affairs to keep him up to date in
the most particularly serious and difficult nego-
tiations. J'y voyais — M. Sembat candidly ad-
mits — une ebauche de tradition; — Tradition!
Here we are, then ! The detested tradition which
democratic doctrine would like to throw out of
the door, coming back, with colours flying,
through the window. And together with tradition,
there also come back, or rather, should come
back, Discreetness and Continuity. But M. Sem-
bat is not successful in his intent, and does not
succeed in creating the new organ of this Re-
publican Tradition. Therefore he must needs give
up his thirteenth labour. And what is still more
conclusive is that he frankly admits « the diffi-
culty of endowing our foreign politics with an
organ of continuity .» Continuity in the instability
of Universal Suffrage, perhaps ">
It is painful, but it is so: the undertaking can
never succeed, owing to that famous « contra-
diction which does not consent » , and to that
famous demonstration which cannot lead to a
settlement by any known road, neither by that
of quia, nor by that of propter quid. Foreign
policy and popular publicity are two expressions
which no strength of mind and will can suceed
in reconciling or making agree. There is no
middle course, therefore: one must either aban-
don popular publicity or abandon the ambition
of foreign policy. To attempt to introduce into
foreign policy the principle of popular publicity
is simply absurd. The fortunes of nations are not
directed by absurdity.
What, then, is to be done ?
I know not: the matter concerns democratic
— 146 —
doctrine. I merely say this, that, as a preliminary
to reaching a conclusion one should know whe-
ther it is more useful to a State, to a nation, to
proclaim and to maintain the democratic prin-
ciple of popular publicity, or whether it is more
useful to exercise foreign politics.
Of course this must be considered as an ab-
stract problem. Because, from an historical point
of view, where and when can the foreign policy
of a State ever be said to be exercised in con-
tradiction and in contempt of its sentiments and
interests }
On another occasion, and without plunging into
pragmatism, we may be able to discuss the pro-
blem in its reality in the light of Italian foreign
policy.
- 147 —
ALBANIA AND «L£ TEMPS*.
I propose to discuss the question of the Italian
Protectorate in Albania, on the lines of argument
traced out by the recent article of Le Temps,
which arrived yesterday. I have selected the lines
traced by Le Temps for two reasons: first, becau-
se we have to deal with an authoritative journal
published in France, an Allied nation; and the
remarks which I shall have the honour to submit
and to oppose to those of that journal can also
be adapted to those Italian democratic papers
which show themselves extremely sensitive to the
repercussion that our actions excite on public
opinion in France ; secondly because to follow
a given line of argument signifies confining one's
ideas within a strictly limited field. (Readers of
the Tribuna have been cognizant for a long time
of my opinions on the programme which the
Government ought to have followed in the Lower
Adriatic after the defeat and dispersion of Ser-
via; namely, the immediate occuption of Epirus
and of all the islands situated at the mouth of
the Otranto Channel, beginning, naturally, with
Corfu). And to-day it is important to limit myself.
148
The article of Le Temps, then, considers the
proclamation of Italy's protectorate over Albania
from the strictly Italian point of view and like-
wise from the wider Balkan and international
point of view.
From the Italian point of view, the highest
praise is meted out. « We render homage » , says
Le Temps, « to the perseverance and ability with
which Italian diplomacy knows how to take ad-
vantage, in the interest of the nation, of every
phase of the war. It is a lesson for those inge-
nuous speakers who consider the .diplomat's pro-
fession a superfluous one; and, by a strange con-
tradiction, have themselves the pretension of
being improvised diplomats ». But is this lesson
addressed to French orators only ? I have read a
statement in some Italian democratic journal to
the effect that the proclamation of the protector-
ate over Albania is an ill-advised and inoppor-
tune act, a rash deed, if not a surprise, on the
part of Italian diplomacy. Once again, what is
truth on this side of the Pyrenees is mendacity
on the other side. And what of the Alps 7 How,
then } An Italian democratic journal condemns
as ill-advised and inopportune an action which
is considered useful and wise and in conformity
with national interest by another democratic jour-
nal in France } How can the action be ill-advised
and inopportune if it increases Italy's prestige,
and if every Italian has welcomed it with appro-
priate satisfaction ? Democracy should have the
good grace not to put itself in disaccord with the
national interest.
I know full well and I do not attempt to dis-
guise the fact from myself that there is a ques-
tion of procedure underlying the unexpected po-
lemics which are crackling here and there — the
_ 149 -
rents of these are seen daily in the white spaces
censored in newspapers — concerning the ques-
tion of the Albanian protectorate. But, if in their
patriotic fervour, all Parties have laid down their
banners — and their preconceived ideas — on
the steps of the so-called Altar of national con-
cord, can it be possible — for the action of Italian
diplomacy is in consonance with national interest
and opinion — can it be possible, I say, that some
of these Parties can withdraw those banners
merely on a question of procedure ? Men of tried
faith, who were the promoters of national con-
cord, must sacrifice their doctrinaire ideas before
the accomplished fact, if only in order not to
underrate it in the face of the enemy and in the
face of the Allies. Does the event increase Italy's
prestige ? If it does, any discussion upon it, be
it ever so just and legitimate in the abstract, will
appear an idle one and will not have the force
to persuade and much less to stir the public. In
war time all questions which it is not absolutely
necessary to discuss appear idle ones.
Let us return to he Temps.
(( French public opinion » , states our authori-
tative contemporary, « does not experience, in the
face of this Italian action, any of those mean sen-
timents which the German Press attributes so
freely to the various Allied peoples in its vain
hope of fomenting discord amongst them ». And
I am glad — or rather, we are all glad — of this.
But, after having called the attention of Italian
democratic journals to the enemy's aims (if the
enemy is pleased with the discord amongst the
Allies, you can imagine how pleased he must
feel at the disagreement between Italians !), I
pose the question: Why on earth should our
French friends make a show of mean sentiments
150
towards us in this question of Albanian Protect-
orate ? France is to-day Italy's war Ally ; and it
would be an insult to and an offence against La-
tin probity to suppose that any member of the
French Press would be capable of reawakening,
now, the polemics which, at one time, were got
up along and around the Otranto Channel as a
reprisal against the Italy of the Triple Alliance.
The war and the new system of war alliances
must have deeply altered the spirit and the mind
of our French cousins on the problem of both
Lower and Upper Adriatic. Were it not so, of
what use would be the change of ideas about
« scraps of paper » ?
I now come briefly to the other point of view
on the Protectorate : the Balkan and international
one, according to Le Temps.
Says Le Temps, and I translate textually : « As
General Ferrer o is in command at Argirocastro,
a city in Northern Epirus, claimed as Greek by
the Greeks, it is evident at once that the Italian
initiative has been taken for the purpose of keep-
ing the ambitions of Hellenism in check, in the
event of Hellenism succeeding in reconstructing
its national unity at some future time » . (I should
really call it Imperial, not national unity).
Now, what has turned up once more ? Hellen-
ism ? Who ever thought of Hellenism any more,
after so much of Constantine and Venizelos, after
so much overturning and upsetting of alliances,
after so much disarming and — as some say —
so much treason ? Yet some one thinks and even
speaks of it, as a thing alive. « The life of the
dead in ourselves », says Ibsen in his « Ghosts »,
« is terrible ». In fact....
Le Temps is not only preoccupied by Hellen-
ism, but also by Serbianism and Bulgarism, and
_ 151 —
by the struggle that the Italian flag will have to
sustain in the Balkan melee : « a delicate task
which evidently the Italian army is thoroughly
decided to accomplish on its own account » , adds
he Temps; and, according to usage, la politique
suivra la marche des combattants ». Certainly.
But it is strange that in all these small adventures
Le Temps should not find out that Italy, the Ally
of France, is struggling more particularly, at the
present time, against Austria, Germany's Ally.
Hellenism, Serbianism, Bulgarisrn, ay, these are
all wretched things. What if we spoke of some-
thing more wretched for us : of Austria, for ins-
tance ?
And, at this point, I take the liberty of correct-
ing an historical error into which Le Temps has
fallen.
At the Berlin Congress, says Le Temps, had
Bismarck consented, the Italians might have
been allowed to occupy Albania, in the same
manner as the Austrians occupied Bosnia-Her-
zegovina. I beg to correct that statement. Bismarck
has many faults to account for before men and
gods, but of this fault before Italians he is not
guilty. At the Berlin Congress, Bismarck used all
his persuasion with the Italian representatives to
induce them to turn their prow towards Tunis or
towards Albania, seeing that it had been already
decided that Austria should take Bosnia-Herze-
govina under her care. And it was in consequen-
ce of the supine — how shall we express it ? —
unconsciousness of the Italian representatives at
the Berlin Congress that he let the thing drop and
suggested Tunis to France.
But all this represents the past.
Forty years later, in the furnace of the great
war, in which she has cast so much of the flower
- 752 -
of her race and of her wealth, for her own sake
and for the sake of European civilization, Italy
is showing that in the defence of her interests and
of her position in the Adriatic, she intends being
— how shall we say ? — less unconscious than
in 1878, and that the least she can ask her friends
to do is to rid her of that Hellenism of the Cori-
tza Republic. Is it too much to ask for ?
I am sure that, with its high political sense,
Le Temps is of the same opinion.
153
AUSTRIA IN GENEVA.
It is said that Austria is in Buda-Pesth, in Ber-
lin and also in Vienna. But now, more than
anywhere else she is in Geneva. I do not know
whether our Allies have yet found this out.
It is perhaps owing to its position in the centre
of Europe, ot probably owing to the habit brought
on by the necessity of keeping its gaze fixed on the
stormy horizon, that the Italian Observatory sees
things more clearly and more surely than others
do. It obtained a clearer and surer insight into
the Bulgarian question as well as into the Greek
one (to-day's epilogue is a proof of it), and also
of the Albanian question; and, if the alarm sign-
als were made in vain, it is sufficient for us,
as far as our responsibility is concerned, that
those signals should have been made long before
the others saw the danger. Unfortunately, be-
tween reality and the Allies* Observatories there
is a veil of illusions and prejudices which only
the enemies' successes — and the gods know
with what delay — succeed in tearing to pieces.
It was thus that, one by one, the various rounds
in the Balkan game were lost; and that the En-
tente's diplomacy issued forth from the ordeal
154
with but a little heap of ashes, the ashes of one
man: Venizelos; truly too little for fouT nations
lost and three Kings in exile.
I do not wish to be a prophet of evil, but I
really am afraid that bygone illusions and pre-
judices will once more serve to blindfold us in
the case of Austria-Hungary as they have in
other cases. On our side we are displaying in an
exuberant manner all the finest qualities imagin-
able: fierceness in patriotism, coolness in sacri-
fice, rapture in enthusiasm ; but, without offence
to any one, we are also displaying foolishness
in the sense of reality : whence the tendency of
considering as substantial all dreams and desires
even before they have begun to be incarnated in
the enemy's mind. A most dangerous failing this,
in war time, when the first elementary duty is
that of keeping one's self in constant contact with
reality, which is the enemy. To lose contact with
this reality can be as fatal as it was to Don
Quixote when he lost contact with the herds and
kept it up only with the heroes of chivalry ro-
mances.
Amongst the extracts of the foreign Press, I
read yesterday that the Observer has warned
its readers that they will do well to let themselves
be persuaded that there is a very real Austrian
question to be settled, and a very real Austria
to be overthrown for the sake of European peace.
This warning is extremely timely; but will it
produce any effect ?
On the waves of English and French public
opinion, Austria floats and survives merely by
virtue of two well-filled air bladders: one, on
the English side, the recollection of the common
struggle against Napoleon; the other, on the
French side, the aspiration towards a common
155
struggle against Germany. In a country of tena-
cious memory like England, it is difficult to dis-
sociate the name of Austria from that of Water-
loo; whilst in a country where facile illusions are
prevalent, as in France, it is still more difficult
not to imagine that at some future time Austria
will hanker to retaliate for the Sadowa defeat,
just as France has done for that of Sedan. Retro-
activity of the historic sense is not one of the
least frequent errors of our Allies. And Austria,
and, on her behalf, Germany, the realistic Power
par excellence, and especially clever at exploiting
the weaknesses of civilized minds, labours not
a little to exploit such an error.
It is well-known that for some time Austria —
and it were ridiculous to imagine that in this mat-
ter she is not in league with Germany — has
instituted in Geneva a Bureau of Propaganda in
favour of her own peace, for the purpose of
inveigling the French and the English. She has
sent one of her most able officials from Vienna,
who has always been in charge of the Imperial
Press Bureau of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
and has appointed him to a Consulship for the
occasion. She has placed at his elbow a real
member of the consular corps and has surrounded
him with a Jewish financier, a Catholic Prelate
and an international Socialist (in the end the
good Lord will recognize his own) for the work
of penetration, by every possible means, into the
minds of near and distant enemies; and, as the
Metternich tradition has never declined in Aus-
tria, and Metternich himself once taught the art
of employing the services of women in diplom-
acy, so Austria has authorized her official to enlist
all the available cocottes of a certain age who are
known to be more or less acquainted with ci-
156
devant Russian Grandukes, and to cause them
to manoeuvre round the more or less anarchical
ex-exiles of Holy Russia (the world, as you know,
rotates), and to gyrate round the more or less
accredited emissaries of the other Powers of Eu-
rope more or less directly aimed at. Thus Aus-
tria in Geneva performs her efficacious mission
with no less zeal than the Austria of the Carso
and of Galicia. If the Congress of Vienna of 1815
was surnamed the Congress of pots-de-vin, you
can imagine how much, after the experience of
a whole century, the tribe of international go-
betweens will have to do and to earn in view of
a future Congress, which will have to sustain on
its shoulders the weight of two new worlds !
Is it too much to ask that to-day out Allies*
opinion be fixed on these two truths for (which
the evidence is absolutely convincing, firstly that
Austria, in everything she does, has the same
stamp of features as Germany, whatever mask
she may assume, and secondly that it is impos-
sible to think of maintaining Austria in her poli-
tical and territorial efficiency without thinking of
doubling at the same time and in the same
measure Germany's political and territorial effi-
ciency also ? To imagine that Austria can be sev-
ered from Germany would be more than illusion,
it would be ingenuousness ; and the Entente does
not really want to slip into the one or fall into
the other. A Bulgaria, a Greece and a Russia
ought to be sufficient to make up the collection
of such illusions. Why add Austria to it?
The disappearance of Russia — let us call it
a temporary one, so as not to trouble the minds
of those who profess to be optimistic — from the
field of the waT has substantially altered all the
terms of the Eastern problem. Russia used to be
— 157 —
a barrier against the Central Empires. This bar-
rier once fallen, and until it is rebuilt once more,
the Central Empires and Turkey will have the
road clear to all their ambitions. Austria consti-
tutes the imperial bridge between Germany and
Turkey. And, if the Entente possessed a suf-
ficiently strong mental nerve to conceive and carry
through to its termination a political and military
plan in the grand style, without getting entangled
and losing itself in the snares of old illusions of
Parties and doctrines, it should, as a whole, act
as a battering-ram against Austria, and as a whole
should strike out with Italy, to destroy the Aus-
trian bridge. Will it ever decide to make this ef-
fort ? The unity of thought and action which,
since the first day of the war revealed itself as
formidable in Germany, is wanting in the En-
tente, which, all through, has evolved and is
evolving nothing better than a policy of inter-
national parliamentarism. And this should be
corrected.
The British and French Governments, in their
Messages addressed to the provisional Govern-
ment of Russia have reminded it, almost in the
same words, of its engagement to reconstitute
the whole of the disjecta Poland into a free and
independent State. But how is it possible to
achieve such a result without a true and effective
disruption of Austria's present organization ?
In the present war of nations, the reconstitution
of Poland is as necessary both from an ideal and
a material point of view, as the organization of
Austria is absurd from the same standpoint. And
should the new Russian democracy persist in its
renunciations and desist from the struggle which
the Czars had entered into in favour of the prin-
ciple of races and nationalities, so much more
— 158 —
imperative would the duty, and the interest of the
Entente be, to make of Poland that bulwark
against the Central Empires which Russia had
refused to be any longer. But Poland's colours
cannot be hoisted unless Austria's are struck
down at the same time ; and the plan of Poland's
unification and integration cannot be effected
without effecting that of Austria's disintegration.
The contradiction does not admit of giving cares-
ses to Austria and sugar-plums to Poland at the
same time.
Geneva is, at the present moment, a good mar-
ket for delicatessen. But one mustn't eat too many
of them.
159 —
THE PACT OF SILENCE.
It is by no means pleasant to enter into con-
troversy with writers of Allied nations. But it
would be still more unpleasant to allow their ar-
guments to pass without discussion, or their er-
rors without correction. An Alliance is truly a
labour, by what it seems. So, then, to work!
Le Correspondent, an old French Review dedi-
cated principally to foreign politics, in its issue
of June 10th., has published an article entitled:
(( The Italian Programme » which, for instance,
I cannot possibly feign not to have read, as I
really should like to do. In fact, rather than an
article, it may be said to be a Statement, or, to
use a more Gallic expression, a bureaucratic
Rapport, or Report, emanating from a public Of-
fice, from the Quai d'Orsay, or from some other
State Department specially charged with the mis-
sion of cultivating and maintaining discord and
misunderstanding with friendly peoples and Sta-
tes; in which article are gathered all the sedi-
ments of prejudices and rancours which, day by
day, Old Time has deposited in his unremovable
Archives; and, in which are none of those ideas
and sentiments which mature in the sunshine of
— 160 -
a free life. This Article or Report — call it what
you will — in what it states openly and in what
it hints, and in the spirit it reveals, is by no means
a gracious service rendered — I do not say to
Italy, as Italy has something more important to-
do at the present moment than to mind the un-
pleasant things which are said of her — but to
France herself and to the Entente which, at the
present time are more than ever in need of keep-
ing united and sound in all their elements, whilst
the secular arm of Russia is falling inertly at the
frontiers.
The writer of the article in question proposes
to combat as vain, dangerous and disturbing to
the Alliance, not only the aspirations of those
whom he calls the Italian imperialists — it is
superfluous to note that, according to him, any
Italian who should hint at a discussion on the
most insignificant Colonial problem, is an impe-
rialist — but even those of the most modest na-
tionalists, whom, according to the necessity of
his reasoning, he at times depicts as intervention-
ists, at others as neutralists and pro-German.
Italian aspirations } It was arranged — savs he
with the assurance of a man who has made his
nest in the deepest recesses of a diplomatic la-
boratory — that Italian aspirations should not be
spoken of until the end of the war. Afterwards,
according to merit (honour to merit !), the gate
of discussion would have been opened or closed.
A pact of silence — he goes on, very kindly, to
reveal to us — had been concluded between all
the men les plus devoues a VEntente (the names
of these illustrious conspirators, please !), for the
purpose of leaving all the most serious and most
compromising questions on one side, during the
progress of the war; and it is strange that the
161
Italians should break such a pact now, and that
they should speak of those most serious and com-
promising questions as if the silence agreed upon
yesterday were equivalent to and signified con-
sent. Now, then, says the author of this article
or Report, it is high time to speak clearly and to
make Italians understand that they must not con-
tinue to delude themselves with the hope of being
able to obtain more than what we believe is
rightly their due ; nor that they should pick quar-
rels with the Allies if they do not suceed one day
in obtaining what they imagine they can lay
claim to. The tone of self-sufficiency assumed by
the author of this not too -well inspired article,
in judging our questions, and the air of protection
which he makes a show of here and there in his
advice and his admonitions, excites a feeling, I
do not know whether of surprise or curiosity. But,
dear innocent Sir, are you speaking on your own
account, or on behalf of the French Government ?
The article or the Report, whatever it may be,
of Le Correspondant, examines the Italian aspi-
rations with great excitability. The writer divides
them into three groups: the African group; the
Asiatic group (Asia Minor) and the European
group. Of the European group, dealing with
Trent and Trieste, with Istria and Dalmatia, as
far as Cattaro and Ragusa, he says but a few and
not too forcible words, adding the advice to be
prudent in our future behaviour, in order to avoid
the dangers which mieht arise in the future in
consequence of too wide and not fully justified
annexations. Let us pass on ! It is useless to speak
of Yugoslavia at present. He does not mention
but simplv hints at her. It is enough to catch a
glimpse of the snail's little horn. Concerning the
Asiatic group, he makes no particular refutations,
— 162 —
perhaps because it would be inopportune to give
precise information on the Allies' arrangements;
but he makes many observations on questions of
principle, and speaks with ill-repressed irony
about the exaggeration of Italy's pretensions in
comparison to those of other nations. But where
calmness, gravity and irony are altogether shiver-
ed to atoms is on the discussion of the African
group. How can we speak of Kisimayo Harbour
to England } (The good Ally, as you see, is mind-
ful even of England, though not entrusted with
a power-of -attorney). How can we speak of
Djibuti to, France? Such demands would mean
a provocation in the full sense of the word, and
would be advanced on purpose to elicit a negative
reply; so that we could then say to the Italian
public : « Do you see ? The Allies do not want to
give you what is due to you ! » A nasty shot, then,
from the pro-Germans and neutralists ; from those
who did not want war, and who, now that war
is declared are striving to play the well-known
trick of the increase of price, which always suc-
ceeds. To arms ! — I reply : « Calm yourself ! »
Neutralism and pro-Germanism have nothing
whatever to do with the question of Kisimayo
and Djibuti ; and there is no need to call for the
intervention of the Italian Censor against news-
papers and reviews which have taken the name
of those places in vain. Those who have discus-
sed these subjects are not imperialists in good or
bad faith, who attempt either to obtain an ille-
gitimate conquest for Italy, or to excite unlawful
trouble amongst the Allies. They are, on the con-
trary, studious, peaceable and diligent men, be-
sides being faithful and true votaries of the Al-
liance, and, as men of study are even somewhat
simple-minded, and consequently apt to foster il-
- !63 -
luaions. In their diligence, they are looking with
their magnifying glasses all over the map, and
burrowing in the remembrance of the past to seek
for reasons and causes of probable future discord ;
and, in their ingenuousness they believe they can
speak to the Allies informally, en famille, as it
were, and propose in a simple manner the means
of averting and dissolving those reasons and
causes. There is nothing to fear, then, from their
prose. Nor is the Italian mind, which is made up
of good sense and stability, capable of becoming
excited or infatuated on every question in the
same manner, or apt to put them all on the same
level. It is quite useless, therefore, to awaken the
echoes of the Capitol of Kisimayo or of Dijbuti
for fear of a double scaling or descent on the part
of the Italians. There is too much apprehension
about Italian ambitions ! Be less apprehensive,
and you will be more even-minded.
For, after all, the great preoccupation demon-
strated by the author of the article, is only one,
namely that Italy should exaggerate the importan-
ce to France and the Entente of her intervention
in the war; and consequently should advance
exaggerated claims at the moment when peace
is being signed. Whence arises a constant and
not easily dissimulated tendency to diminish and
underrate the importance of our effort, and to
reduce and circumscribe the function of our war.
The Germans hate Italy, because they hold that
Italian neutrality had the effect of upsetting the
fortunes of the war; as otherwise our intervention
on their side in August 1914 would have facilita-
ted the annihilation of France and would have
assured a prompt victory to the Triple Alliance.
On this point, the writer of the article in Le Cor-
respondent rushes in, doubtful and argumenta-
— 164 -
tive: ((Yes... certainly... Italian neutrality has
been a fine thing: but... what of Belgium's hero-
ism ? And France's heroism ? » I bow before
these, and pass onwards. Because by means of
discussions like these, one could arrive directly
at the tittle-tattle of a Beauty Show. The same
can be said of Italy's specific contribution to the
war. (( Yes » and « But » are constantly recurring.
(( On, jusquici, up to now, Italy's sacrifices, or
more plainly (« sacrifices » is too tragic a figure
of speech for him) Italy's contribution to the com-
mon war has undoubtedly been considerable.
But, certainly, by no means as considerable as
that of France and England » . Therefore (this is
the conclusion) why claim so many compensa-
tions, not only in the Adriatic, but also in Africa
and in Asia Minor ?
We will not follow the author of the « Italian
Programme » in he Correspondant along that
road.
In the European war Italy has done that which
she should, politically and morally, have done
as a great modern Power, as heir to the law of
Rome, as creator of Mediterranean civilization.
In order to fulfil her task, she sought no inspiration
but her own, in the full liberty of her mind and
in the serene consciousness of her mission amidst
the old and new races of Europe. She did not
set a price on her neutrality with the Entente in
the first period, nor did she set a price on her
neutrality with her old Allies in the second pe-
riod. If the consequences of her neutrality and
of her intervention were such as to procure the
salvation of France and the possibility of develop-
ing the military preparation of England, the
thought never entered her mind of presenting her
bill to the friendly Powers which she had so as-
— 165 -
sisted. Having once entered the field, she is fight-
ing the fiercest of wars on her boundaries, alone
and without the possibility of help from any side.
Russia, which might have relieved her of the
weight of a great portion of the Austrian armies,
is now uselessly perorating on ideologies — her
own and others' — without even having her
weapons at hand. What more is required of us,
then ? And wherefore the strange attitude of a
certain section of the French Press towards Italy,
and the still stranger discussions which are being
carried on and are certainly not calculated to
give Italians the comforting persuasion of the
goodness of their Alliance ?
And here let me break off the period; which
my present bitterness might make too strong.
It suffices me to have informed our French
friends that, in Italy, those who are to understand
have already understood.
— 166 —
THE PREJUDICES ABOUT AUSTRIA.
One of the political animal* s greatest delusions
is that of thinking or imagining that the idea
(written with a capital I, or with a small i, ac-
cording to the various degrees of imbecility of the
person who so thinks) governs the world. The
truth, on the contrary, is this : that the idea, like
love, in order to become an active force must
first of all pass through all the stages of corrupt-
ion and putrefaction and become poisonous. The
eel, whilst it is alive, slips away from your hand;
but its serum, after its putrefaction, kills you, fixes
you in death, without leaving or showing any
trace of its work. If the idea is not past, if it does
not become a prejudice and act solely in the sub-
consciousness, it has no political or social value.
The above can be applied to Austria.
If ever there was a war in which the Idea (if
you wish to adorn it with the capital letter, do not
lose this opportunity), could and should beat San-
terre*s drums to drown Austria's voice on the
scaffold, it is this present war: the war of nations,
or rather, to speak more ideally or abstractly, the
war for the principle of nationality: the war of
democracies; the war of democratic principle
167
against militarism and authoritarism combined.
Yet, precisely in this war, and precisely in the
most democratic countries which are fiercely
fighting in it, Austria has found, up to recently,
at any rate, the most constant defence and has
excited the most persistent illusions, both deter-
mined by two prejudices, which are the poisons
of two ideas dead and buried in the last century :
an historical prejudice and a political one. « Fe-
lix Austria 1 » Once upon a time she wedded the
living. Now she snatches the ring from the fingers
of the dead.
The historical prejudice. Because Vienna once
held over the German races the place now oc-
cupied by Berlin; because the Hapsburgs once
wore the imperial crown now worn by the Hohen-
zollerns ; because Sadowa was the precursor of
Sedan; Germany's enemies now think, hope or
illude themselves — at least they did so until re-
cently — that Austria may issue forth from the
circle which encloses her; that she may resume
once more her position of rival and enemy of her
present Ally, and claim once more her ancient
supremacy ; and, from a « brilliant second » , be-
come once more the « first » , the proud « first »
of Olmiitz. It is, however, sufficient to consider
the hypothesis (I cannot find a more appropriate
word) even in the most superficial manner and
out of the circle of our desires or of our passions
to demonstrate its inconsistency and it fatuity.
In the first place, historical situations are not re-
newed at will, and empires are not created anew,
as a Milanese geologist used to create volcanoes
in his cauldron. To imagine, now, the possibility
of an Austria taking Germany's place, and as
she was before 1866, would be the same as to
imagine Germany cut up into seventy small States
— 168 —
as in the treaty of Westphalia; and, at the same
time, to picture oneself a German people disu-
nited, unprogressive, not welded together by
scientific labour and by military glory; but divid-
ed, ignorant, poor and deprived of the natio-
nal and imperial consciousness which it now
possesses, and capable of being easily govern-
ed by a new dynasty composed of madmen and
degenerates. If Austria has descended to an
inferior station it is not only because she was
defeated by Prussia at Sadowa, but because she
really is a State, or simply, a Government such
as Gortchakoff wished her to be: mentally infe-
rior, immeasurably inferior, to the State which
emerged from the victories of 1866 and 1870, and
from Bismarck's brain. To imagine an Austria
as she was in 1815; an Austria of the Holy Al-
liance, one should suppose the overturning of a
whole century of European history, as well as
the complete upsetting of the history of the pre-
sent war. What would have happened to Austria
if, after her first defeats in the Balkans, Germany
had not run to her rescue and had not planted
herself in the midst of her existence, and had not
given her her conscience, her science, her will and
the Generals of her Staff ? Without Germany,
Austria would have now been food for dogs, as
she would have been in 1848 but for Russia's
prompt aid. If rebellious against Germany, she
would have at once been reduced to reason, like
the slave under the slave-driver's lash. And then,
why should the new Sovereign undertake the
task of claiming what was lost in the past — he
who knew nothing of that past — just to please
Germany's enemies ?* Perhaps old Francis Joseph
might have felt — but did not feel — a thrill of
desire and yearning; he who had seen all the
- 169 -
ensign® of his ancient empire escape from his
hands, and wore the emblems of mourning for
them. But his nephew has had no other experience
than that of Germany's protection; knows of no
other helping hand than that of his great pro-
tector, the Kaiser: the Nephew was born to the
imperial purple under the star of the Hohen-
zollerns. He is Wilhelm II's ward rather than his
vassal, and his kingdom will remain under Germ-
any's care as long as Germany's force and autho-
rity endure. And it would be a most sad illusion
— let us hope that now, after the Versailles Con-
gress, it no longer exists — on the part of France,
or England or of Wilson that of making of Wil-
helm's ward or vassal a defender of the rights
of nations or of the ex-principles of 1789, at the
feet of Maria Theresa's statue at the gates of the
Vienna Museums. Imagination in history should
not be allowed to run unbridled.
The political prejudice; a prejudice of order in
the changeable, not to say revolutionary societies
of Europe's democratic Powers. A prejudice
which is widespread not only in neutral countries
or countries which are not in actual war against
Austria, but also in those which are in open and
declared conflict with her, amongst the classes
which, having nothing more to hope for in them-
selves and not wanting or not being able to create
for themselves another reason of existence, are
satisfied with placing their hopes, no one knows
why, on the Emperor of Austria.
If those so-called orderly classes were not, for
the most part composed of hypochondriacs, and,
therefore, of people incapable otf making the
slightest effort to think of, ,and to judge upon,
this world's most simple matters, it might be
expected that in the end they would arrive at the
- 170 -
jj persuasion that their hope of obtaining the seeu-
;, rity of quiet dreams or the appeasing of their
ii fears through Austria's Emperor was absolutely
misplaced. What influence do you suppose the
i Dual Monarchy can exercise on other States ?
First of all, on account of its very formation,
and1 owing to the various races it embraces, and
the various aspirations of these races, she is
constrained to pursue a special policy of her own,
which nations based upon unity of race and
progressing in unity of aspirations must, from the
very first, discard and could not possibly follow:
a peculiar policy, that is, which does not possess
the character and the elements which will cause
it to become a general policy. And then, when or
where did the reactionary policy of a State ever
have force of expansion in, or contagious in-
fluence on, other States ? Free principles which
act on public opinion may have an influence and
may determine movements and even crises
through contagion between one country and
another; but the reactionary policy of a State
based on authority can by no means exercise an
influence upon the conduct of other States which
live under a regime based upon public opinion.
To pine, therefore, for the love of Austria is the
same as to pine for a figure projected on the
screen of a cinematograph; that is to say, for a
figure which, though it moves, cannot be seized
in your embrace, and though it smiles, cannot
abandon itself in your arms; it is the same, in
short, as to lose time, the inclination and the
opportunity for doing something more useful and
more serious for oneself and others. Whilst you
are standing spell-bound in admiration in front
of the figure which is vainly moving on the screen,
the river of life rushes noisily past you, dragging
- 171 -
in its waves and winding in its whirlpools the
passions of men, and you remain on dry land
on the desert island. Your love for Austria has
served no other purpose than to make you lose
contact with reality, to isolate you in your own
country, to make you an exile in your own home,
to make 3/ou enemy of your being and of your own
life. Order for Austria, forsooth! In his first
reactionary zeal, Bismarck for a moment thought
of abjuring even that Germany which he carried
in his great brain, for the love of that order which
he believed Austria represented; and between
1 849 and 1 850 he implored the Prussian Chamber
not to accept the Imperial crown for the King of
Prussia, which the Frankfort Parliament had
offered him, and struggled for the subjection of
Prussia to Austria, in order to combat together
democracy which was arising th^sateningly. But
he soon undeceived himself and hastened to
inaugurate the policy of the « stroke to the heart »
of Austria ; the policy of « iron and fire » , so as
definitely to bring Austria under Prussia's subject-
ion. Why should not the orderly men of all
countries think of quietening their timorous
consciences in Bismarck's name andi in his ex-
ample 1
I trust that Messrs Orlando and Sonnino have
been doing good work in the Versailles Councils
by destroying these two prejudices which, up to
the eve of those meetings seemed to be erecting
barriers in the minds of the Allies, sufficiently
solid to prevent the formation of a clear and sure
conviction of Austria's chances and functions in
the present war.
There is no question of proclaiming or claiming
the wiping-out of Austria from the map of Eu-
rope as undoubtedly has been done in the edicts
— 172 —
of doctrinaire polemics during the last three
years; in war time, enemy countries must be
wiped out on the battle field before they can be
cancelled from the map. But it is a question of
creating a special state of mind, and of prepar-
ing such proper and opportune conditions and
weapons as are fit to fight the definite battle
against Austria; and not by Italy alone, but by
all the Allies, by means of a precise plan, by a
single and firm desire for victory, and what is
still better, by a single aim. Those two prejudi-
ces, and Austria's unimpeded manoeuvres tend-
ing, with Germany's approval, to give them
credit and life with the Governments and the
nations of the Entente, have greatly delayed the
work of creation and preparation. The Versailles
communique shows that the danger has been
averted at last; and that Austria is, for the Allies,
as she is for Italy, the common enemy.
No more time should be lost iin discussing, now.
Let us fight for victory.
173 ~
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY.
If I were an elector, and a candidate to Parlia-
ment came to solicit my vote, I should first of
all require him to undergo a summary examina-
tion on the history of the French Revolution, and
then I should exact from him the sworn promise
that he would never infringe the following Com-
mandment : « Thou shalt never again, in the
course of thy natural liifei, repeat the words and
the formulas which thou hast learnt in that
history.)). — I hasten to explain that I should do
this not as an act of disrespect towards the French
Revolution, but for the purpose of preventing the
abuse of the words and the formulas which, at
the time and in the surroundings in which they
blossomed forth, may have had their reason to
exist, but now no longer have it. And also in
order to procure a slight amount of variety, if
not originality, in our political literature which,
through constant repetition is exhausting and
humiliating itself and is becoming oppressive to
us. The political animal is, in itself, a mournful
animal; but fancy what a sad thing it would be
if it were to present itself in the form of a parrot ;
the most mournful animal in the whole zoological
— 174 —
emporium. Ninety -nine times out of a hundred,
the words that are said and the things that are
done in the supreme crises of European life are
still merely the echoes and the projections of the
deeds of the Great Revolution. There is no mid-
dle way: either humanity has no longer any
political imagination or it is not yet ripe for an-
other Great Revolution. From the States -General
to the Directoire, day by day, in the midst of fire
and blood, the French created and invented a
new political language, besides a new form of
thought and action, which still contribute in no
small measure to the political literature and to
the Parliamentary oratory of modern times. When
will a new Verb appear, which will announce the
incarnation of a different Deity } The verb of
1789 has already been conjugated too often.
Have you ever read the Memoir on the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, presented to the Jacobins Club
by Dumouriez, Field-Marshal of the 22nd. Divi-
sion } Did you ever peruse « U Opinion de Lobjoy,
Ancien Maire de Colligis, Depute de VAisne »
on the necessity of organizing the Department of
Foreign Affairs according to the spirit of the
Constitution : a Report printed by order of the
Assembly 7 Everything that is said or written to-
day on public diplomacy, on people's diplomacy
or, better still, on the necessity that diplomacy
be public and that it be conducted by the people,
is nothing more than a melancholy repetition of
what was said and written by the obscure Lobjoy
and by the more famous Dumouriez who, not-
withstanding the pure principles he professed on
the question of diplomacy, ended by betraying
his native country.
« There is no further need of diplomacy )),
wrote Dumouriez, sententiously ; « a great people,
- 175 -
a free and just people is the natural Ally of all
races, and should not contract special alliances
which may bind it to the fortunes, the interests
and the passions of this or that people » . — It
would be useless, therefore, to take the trouble
of organizing a Department of Forcing Affairs.
« This Department of Foreign Affairs must be
the most simple and least complicated of all
Departments, because of them all it requires the
least mystery. A Minister who should deceive a
foreign Court would deserve a punishment pro-
portionate to such a crime ». — Naturally, such
a Minister of Foreign Affairs cannot claim to
assume any responsibility. « He shall communi-
cate all important despatches to the Diplomatic
Committee (composed of members of the As-
sembly) which, in its turn, shall communicate
them to the Assembly ». « Thus », he concluded,
(( we shall become the arbiters and pacifiers of
that Europe, of which in the past (under the An- |
cien Regime), we were the agitators and the
scourge » .
What of Lobjoy's opinion 7 It is not dissimilar
to that of Dumouriez. Diplomatic secrecy ? We
must do away with this « mysterious dogma »
asserted by the Ministers of the Ancien Regime.
« The diplomatic Committee (composed of mem-
bers of the Assembly), must be the supervisor
of the Minister of Foreign Affairs. It must not
be a passive or speculative power, but an active
and practical one. It will spy upon les rouages et
le jeu de la machine. Besides, the Secret of State
will no longer exist. And our diplomacy will be
a sincere diplomacy par excellence and open to
all, friends and enemies)). (Happy man!).
Open, above everything to the friends on the
public street. Because, if it be true that the De-
- 176 —
partment of Foreign Affairs was rapidly organ-
ized on the basis of these principles, it is no less
true that its staff -roll was not at all simplified.
From forty-one clerks who were employed there
in 1789, the number was raised to, eighty-four in
1793. And you can imagine what good luck
befell all the friends of Dumouriez, who had been
appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs, and of
Lobjoy. The new staff was composed of ex-
Municipal employes, ex-port surveyors, ex-notar-
ies* clers, ex-theatrical agents and even some ex-
tailors were not wanting — all good patriots and
upright citizens. But it is useless to insist upon
this anecdotal part of history which has no im-
portance in the present discussion.
It is not, therefore, a new miracle this of public
diplomacy, of people's diplomacy, of diplomacy
bereft of diplomatic secrecy, of diplomacy with-
out treaties, or with open ones, which comes to
us from Russia, and which is welcomed even
here with so much joy. It is, on the contrary,
the old miracle of the Old Fairy, to whom minds
with some critical sense should forbear to hold
the train any longer.
Napoleon's Law of January 27th. 1809, con-
cerning the Archives of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, which had been re-integrated and restor-
ed to their ancient honour, is preceded by a Re-
port by M. d'Hauterive, in which, amongst other
things, is stated: — ((The documents which are
placed under the protection of this Law, contain
the traditions, the will, the aspirations of our
country. Are we to offer, gratuitously, to our
enemies the secret of our aspirations ; are we to
reveal the way by which we are striving to make
our aspirations a reality 7 »
The whole question lies here.
177 —
12
Either the idea, the fact itself of the struggle
for life in general, and for political life in parti-
cular must be suppressed, or, in the face of
individuals, in the face of parties, of the nation,
an adversary, an enemy, or at least a competitor
must always be assumed to exist. Is it indispen-
sable to offer to the adversary, to the enemy, to
the competitor the plans of our action ; to disclose
the ends which we are endeavouring to reach by
our action ?
And, after all, what is the meaning of diplom-
atic secrecy in modern political life ? Does it
perhaps mean the same thing that was once
meant by the formula of : « King's Secret », which
has, by now, become so melodramatic?
It is to be hoped that no one should desire or
pretend that both things are one and the same.
But, apart from the manner and the form in
which it was effected, if the instinct of rebellion
on the part of the men of the French Revolution
against the King's secret was just and justified :
a rebellion, that is, against a foreign policy con-
ducted exclusively by the King and by men in
his confidence, drawn from his Court and not
from Parliament, that is to say, from the repre-
sentatives of the nation; who can say that the
distrust and the criticism of diplomatic secrecy
are justified ? For the diplomatic secret is now
nothing but the secret of the conditions contained
in a treaty, the secret of articles of an agreement
which, in its spirit and in its aims, is not and
cannot be made public, because it is made by
a Government which is the emanation of the
representative body of the nation, and is ratified
by the Chamber which, by the votes of the
majority or unanimously affirms its confidence in
the Government.
- 178 -
Bismarck, in 1850, wrote: « No one can ima-
gine what stupidity and emptiness compose the
diplomacy of my country » . The diplomacy of
others, of course. For his own, when he was en-
abled to evolve it, was certainly of another sort ;
no longer stupid and empty like that which he
had denounced and despised.
In the modern world, therefore, the question of
diplomacy must be transferred from the field of
principles to that of efficiency. And, as it is by
now a function of the State and not, as formerly,
a privilege of the Chief of the State, it must be
discussed only on the aims for which it is striv-
ing and on the capacity and dignity of the men
who exercise and direct it.
There is no public diplomacy or secret diplom-
acy; a Government diplomacy and a people's
diplomacy — and in what measure and of what
class should the people be in it } — but a State
diplomacy which is — and cannot help being —
public in its aims, and is, and cannot help being,
secret in its means, in respect of enemies and
competitors.
The example of the Russian maximalists can
offer no valid argument for any doctrine or party.
The publication of treaties which they did not
sign, does not mark the beginning of a novus ordo
in diplomacy, but the end of the Russian State
and the simultaneous abolition of the army and
the diplomacy which were the defence and the
guide of that State.
From their point of view the maximalists are
logical. Having dismissed the army, jhey could
not do otherwise than dismiss their diplomacy.
Having decided to discontinue the war, they had
nothing more to do with treaties in which the
terms of the war were determined and fixed, and
— 179 -
they could well cast them to the four winds as
useless and embarrassing scraps of paper. But I
ask : Would they have so acted, had they decided,
instead, to continue the war and to attain the
purpose for which those treaties had been con-
cluded ?
No one can reply in the affirmative without
qualifying the maximalists as fools; a qualifica-
tion which, in truth, they do not deserve.
Then, with what political acumen, with what
philosophic spirit, with what logical sense do
those persons who do not pursue the same imme-
diate ends as the maximalists, support their me-
thods and their means ?
The French Revolution, which tended to create
ministerial responsibility on the ruins of the
King's ancient absolutism, could speak at that
time, and Russian maxim alism which tends to
destroy all the forms of State organization, can
speak now, of a public diplomacy, that is, of a
public negotiation of general affairs, because both
the first at an early stage, and the second at the
present moment, have suppressed the struggle,
that is, war, from their programme. But the same
cannot be said by those who admit that there are
foreign enemies to be fought, and that against
these there is war; that is, the struggle for life
or death.
It seems to me, too, that logic should not be
a mere opinion.
180 —
WANTED: A LITTLE DISTRUST.
Distrust, I hasten to add, of ourselves more
than of others : distrust of our ideas, of our sen-
timents, of our fancies, of our prodigalities. From
the attentive perusal of the controversy between
Sonninians and Anti-Sonninians (which it has
been agreed to call the controversy par excellence)
on the subject of Yugoslavia, on the Pact of Ro-
me, on the Pact of London and on arguments
more or less kindred to these, I have arrived at
the conclusion that we are too sure and too con-
fident of ourselves, and that we are sadly in
want of some of that salt which is necessary to
the daily bread of golitics, and which imparts
to it a certain flavour and certain nutritive quali-
ties beneficial to the mind. Naturally we are
plentifully supplied with many other kinds of
drugs, for which, it is generally agreed, the world
envies us.
It is strange how, in our beautiful land, some
questions are repeatedly coming to the fore, from
one month of August to the other, with constant
monotony, and without allowing the benefit of
summer holidays even to their most innocent
reasonings. This is really the Bel Paese, the
181
beatiful land of eternal intellectual immobility —
or perhaps of eternal intellectual youth ? This
time two years ago, we were gathered here to
discuss, as we are discussing now, Austria's
dismemberment, which has not yet taken place;
and three years ago we were discussing, precisely
as we are doing to-day, the cession on our part
of Dalmatia, which we do not yet possess, to
Yugoslavia which, on its part, is still non-exist-
ent. After having read to-day's newspapers, turn
over, for curiosity, the newspaper files of the
months of August and September 1914, 1915 and
1916, and you will receive the impression that
Joshua has succeeded in stopping the sun of the
dog-days, at any rate. I could easily furnish you
with the proofs of my assertion by quoting
extracts from my own articles of those months
and years, in which I wrote about the principle
of nationality as affecting the relations between
Italy and Yugoslavia, about giving the Dalmatian
Islands to the Yugo-Slavs and the /Egean Islands
to Greece, and on Italy's supposed absolute and
inevitable necessity of constantly offering to give
away what she has and what she does not pos-
sess, for her greater glory and for her greater sov-
ereignty.
From those days to this, has a step been taken,
or has any progress been made on the question
or questions at issue } And are we not yet labour-
ing, with our present discussions, to create against
Italy those currents of ideas and interests which
two years ago were already noticeable as being
stirred up and agitated }
I am well aware that between then and now
a new event has happened: the Pact of Rome,
which concludes an understanding between Italy
— shall we say the present great Power that is
182
Italy ? — and Yugoslavia that is to be : the Pact
of Rome, which we all welcomed with sincere
enthusiasm, notwithstanding the recollection of
not long-past publications, illustrated with maps
upon which the blots or the cross-lines of certain
ethnical rights were spread even beyond the sea
of Trieste and the walls of Udine; and we all
felt happy to watch the disappearance of the
distance between those who fight (we Italians) and
those who yearn (the Yugo -Slavs) for a common
aim : the overthrow of Austria ; between represen-
tatives of races which, in any case, although parati
ad helium one against the other until yesterday
by Austria, felt the necessity of shaking hands
and of sincerely declaring that they wished to
proceed on the same road independently of Aus-
tria, during and after the great world war.
I now pose the question : Has this new event
been created for the purpose of solving all the
questions of our war; or a single question only
— the smallest, I should hope - — that of our rela-
tions with Yugo-Slav agitators ? Can this new
event, which has arisen through the good offices
of those agitators* Anglo-French friends, and
through the good will and the action of many
Italian idealists ; and also with the posthumous
or anticipated approval of our Government; can
it, I ask, influence, attenuate or lessen or destroy
the Pact of London, which is the Charter of the
Entente and of our war } Poor Italian diplomacy,
poor Italian democracy, poor Italy altogether, if
it were so ! But I have no need to wish that, from
Sonnino to Bissolati, the spider of national in-
genuity will not labour to weave the web of such
a tendency. The mere wish would be an offence.
The mistake of all these contrasts which, let
us hope, may be more verbal and oratorical than
— 183 —
effective and substantial is, to my mind, a psycho-
logical one; an error arising out of what French
psychology calls the illusion of the deja vu. We
submit ourselves in an excessive degree to the
fascination of this illusion and find ourselves
thoughtlessly led to consider as true and real what
is merely an apparition on the stage of our inner
world; and to remember as already seen that
which has yet to happen. We, in fact, argue as
if the war were already over; as if Austria were
already vanquished and dismembered, as if the
green baize were already laid out on the table
where the peace treaty is to be signed, and the
assignation to this or that Power of Austria's
fragments were already decided upon. And we
do not see that Austria is in Friuli, and has no
less than seventy-two divisions in arms against
us; we do not perceive that war is being fought
on all fronts and that it iis impossible to foresee
its end; and lastly, we take no notice of this terri-
ble anachronism in our mind: that the war is
alive and active and that it is multiplying the
loaves and fishes of the miracle of peace. Is it
so very difficult to awaken distrust even of this
miracle }
I am aware that many of our French and
English friends would be willing for the sake
of Yugoslavia, and, naturally, for the good of
Italy also, to counsel the renunciation of the Pact
of London in favour of the Pact of Rome. But, as
Pascal says, I believe in witnesses who will
rather die than forswear their evidence. And,
on the contrary, I cannot perceive that these good
French and English friends of ours are in any
way disposed to sacrifice anything for the triumph
of their argument. Prodigality jat other people's
expense is certainly a virtue; but I think it is a
— 184 —
virtue of the person who bears the expense, not
of him who advises and regulates it.
Furthermore, on the faith of these good friends
of ours, friends likewise of Yugoslavia, we are
apt to lull ourselves excessively in the dream,
the illusion or the programme of Austria's dis-
memberment. But the problem of Austria's dis-
memberment is one of recent formation in the
public opinion of Allied nations, and I greatly
doubt that it is a ripe fruit of their political con-
science, when I see, for instance, that in France,
the Socialists with M. Sembat at their head, and
the traditionalists behind the Socialists are re-
lentless towards M. Clemeiaceau for his fierce
debate with Czernin, and blame him for having
broken off with Sixtus' Brother-in-law. On the
other hand, it is no mystery that in England
traditions are as difficult to eradicate as belief
itself is, and the tradition of Austria's friendship
is far deeper and more rooted in the English mind
than even the idea of the League of Nations. Does
it seem wise and opportune to base our diplomatic
action upon a conjecture or upon a desired event
which has not happened (even though we are
endeavouring to bring it about by force of arms
and not by words) such as is the dismemberment
of Austria ? And does it seem wise and opportu-
ne to base our action upon an opinion about
which we are not sure whether it will endure or
not when put to the test, as is the opinion of many
of our French and English friends on Austria's
dismemberment. What, then, remains of the
recent discussions, if we withdraw from them the
foundation of that conjecture and opinion upon
which they were based }
I shoul like to remind writers and political men
of my country that we are engaged in the great-
185
est conflict that the history of humanity has ever
recorded; a struggle of interests which, notwith-
standing that inspired words are attempting to
surround it with lofty and noble idealism, has
engrained in it the double aim of political and
commercial dominion. Is it perhaps unlikely that,
suddenly, from amidst the rose bushes and the
laurel groves which hide its lair, the primitive
wild beast may not spring forth to tear with his
sharp fangs the veil of our nuptial amours with
the stars, and drive those fangs straight into our
living flesh } Beware ! Some reserve of distrust
may, at least, serve to avoid sudden disillusion-
ments, and to prevent the weakening of ultimate
defences.
There will be ample time, later on, to read
« The Little Flowers » of St. Francis of Assisi.
186 —
VON BULOW'S AND RIZOV'S BULGARIA.
Here, within the walls of Rome, we have wit-
nessed the birth of the tragedy which, after so
much bloodshed and so much ferocity, has found
to-day its fatal epilogue in the Salonika armistice
and the consequent disarmament of Bulgaria.
Von Billow was Consul at that time; and Ger-
many, victorious on both frdnts, was offering
kingdoms and doctrines to those who were will-
ing to join her and aid her to conquer, with all
possible speed, the markets of the world. To
Italy she offered Malta, Tripoli, Djibuti, Nice
and Savoy; to Turkey, Egypt, rebellious Arabia
and all the lost Empire of Mediterranean Africa ;
to Greece, the Lower Adriatic and Albania on
the one hand, and the /Egean Sea and Asia Mi-
nor on the other; to Bulgaria, Macedonia, the
Dobrudja and the Black Sea. They had only to
order and they would be served ! Rizov, the Mace-
donian, the good Rizov, in whose Tartarean eye
and on whose lip still hovered the inexhaustible
rancour of 1913, opened his hands and gave rein
to his hopes at von Billow's offers, and was duly
served ! Poor Rizov ! He died a few months ago
in the Berlin Mecca, leaving to the world the
— 187 ~-
forty coloured maps of his Album of Greater
Bulgaria, with a preface in twelve languages, but
not the accomplishment of Bulgaria's destiny nor
the rectification of her boundaries. Worse still,
he left Bulgaria divided for ever from Germany,
and Germany herself incapable of turning back
and restoring the lost alliances of times gone by !
The bright, flowery dream of the Villa of the
Roses had lasted at most the length of a morn-
ing. And, what is worse, it was dispelled by the
people who had created it, cultivated it and armed
it with thorns.
In Rome and, later on, in Berlin, the good
Rizov was the representative of that political
mania for annexation and supremacy which dur-
ing recent years had so invaded the souls and
the minds of political men in Sofia as to induce
them to consider the other Balkan nations, Servia
and Roumania as tributaries destined to co-ope-
rate with their spoils to the formation of a Grea-
ter Bulgaria. Germany blew into that individual
and collective mania to inflate it as far as the
extreme consequences, and exploit it for her own
ends, just as usurers and demi-mondaines blow
on the first restless passions of minors until they
have sucked the last drop of blood and the last
sesterces of their patrimony. It was thus that
Bulgaria, a rebel by now against the Great Moth-
er, the Old Russia of the Slav races, thrust her-
self in the great circle of the imperial war to aid
Austria in driving away Servia from her nest;
and to assist Germany in driving away Roumania
from her nest too, so as to allow her protectress
to reach, undisturbed, the desired goal, Constan-
tinople. But when, the brigand-like enterprise
once enacted, came the hour of reckoning, and
of the division and the assignation of the spoil,
188
and she, — the ambitious Prussia of the Balkans,
as in the happy days she was nicknamed —
demanded the portion she had bargained for,
she was fated to discover, to her cost, of what
stuff the other Prussia, the real one, the Prussia
of incendiaries and devourers, was made of. And,
from that time, she silently besran to prepare, in
her mind, the plans of eventual escapes and
eventual armistices.
The Italian public, occupied with other and
more important business of its own, was unable
to follow, from a close point of vantage, the
internal transformation of Bulgaria, both as a
nation and as a government, which took place
during the year of « German peaces » — the
peaces with the Soviet of Brest Litovsk, with
Ukraine and with Roumania. Had it possessed
the means and the leisure to follow that transfor-
mation, it would not have felt any surprise or
wonder at these seemingly startling renunciations
in favour of the Entente, which are nothing but
slow and measured conclusions arrived at in
consequence of a long series of miseries and
disillusionments. King Ferdinand's illnesses, his
disappearances from Sofia, and the rumours of
his insanity; RadoslavofFs fall and Malinoff's
succession were not then nor do they appear
now, as signs and symptoms of internal crises,
or crises of Court and Cabinet. But the supreme
crisis, the crisis of the alliance with the Central
Empires was already taking place. Bulgaria had
not attained the aims for which she had entered
the war. And the King and the Cabinet who had
led her into the struggle were travelling about
erratically, going around from their places of
abode, like madmen, or considered as such, after
having ruined the people which had1 entrusted
— 189 -<-
its fate into their hands. The armistice is the
consecration of that state of affairs.
But what were the war .aims of Greater Bul-
garia }
They were: Annexation of Macedonia on one
side and of the Dobrudja on the other; annexa-
tion of the Morawa region in the centre, with
Nisch, Vrania Pirat and Liskovet, and therefore
the direct line of Mittel Europa, as well as the
Timok basin, with Negotin and Jatchar; and on
the part of her Moslem Ally; the Maritza region
and the dominion of the Dedeagatch Railway.
A very Empire to be cut out of the live flesh of
Servia, of Roumania and of Turkey. But, at the
moment of cutting, Germany, the colossal butch- ■
er, appeared on the scene with sharpened knife,
to secure for herself the part nearest the bone. —
(( Greater Bulgaria ? ^ Very good. But what of
Greater Germany ? » .
(( As to Macedonia, well, let it be so; there is
nothing to gain from it; only worries and co-
mitadji. But — says Germany — as to the Do-
brudja, let us distinguish ,, The Dobrudja of 1913
shall be restored without discussion. As to the
other, the Dobrudja of 1878, that is another matt-
er; because, notwithstanding the national Con-
gress of Babadagh, and Rizov's maps, Bulgaria
cannot claim any political or ethnographical right
over it. Some other concessions can be made, to
show an excessive generosity on my part, but
Constanza and the Mouths of the Danube must
remain in my absolute dominion » . — Whenever
Germany stumbles on a sea, she says : « This is
mine ! » She has thus stumbled on the Black Sea,
on her way, and 'ware who touches it ! The Black
Sea, however, threatens to swallow her alliances
one by one; after the Bulgarian the Turkish.
— 190 —
Defeated in Syria and Palestine, Turkey hoped,
and is still hoping to retrieve hex losses at least
in the North, in the hinterland between the
Caspian and the Black Seas, but even in those
regions Germany will suffer no competitor on the
two shores: a prohibition which will result in
Turkey's detachment from her also; for the
Maritza region and the Dedeagatch Railway will
not be considered as sufficient compensation to
Turkey for her loss of Palestine and other Holy
Places. Meanwhile, to return to Bulgaria, Ger-
many's presence at Constanza and at the Mouths
of the Danube means the complete downfall of
Bulgaria's dream and programme of supremacy
in the Balkans. This dream, or programme was
based upon, or rather had its cradle, on the
Black Sea and the neighbourhood of small, not
great Powers on its shores. a The equilibrium of
the Black Sea » — wrote one of the theorists of
Greater Bulgaria after the Peace of Brest Litovsk
and Ukraine — « so long wished for, is beginning
to become an historic reality with the advent of
the Ukraine Republic. It is our interest that there
be the greatest possible number of small Powers
on the shores of the Black Sea » . But the shadow
of mighty Germany arose and took the place of
the other shadow — a protective one that ! — of
whilom mighty Russia, now disappeared below
the horizon. After the crime, complicity was to
be shattered.
Before leaving Rome, the good Rizov came to
see me. He was sad and joyful at the same time.
Sad to leave the beautiful land where an enjoy-
able residence and ancient sympathies for Bulgaria
had made him feel at home; joyful at the idea
of soon attaining, arm-in-arm with von Billow,
the ideal of Greater Bulgaria, and at the same
— 19! -
time vengeance against the supporters of the
Treaty of Bucharest. « What a pity », he said on
bidding me farewell, « that Italy has not entrusted
herself into von Billow's hands ! » — These words
come back to my mind to-day, after the proof of
how Germany has treated her Allies, Bulgaria
and Turkey, in the division of the booty.
And I also think of the danger run by Italy on
the threshold of the Villa of the Roses.
— 192 —
KANT'S HOUR
AND THE ALLIES' HOUR.
The history of the two Empires is falling head-
long to its end. In the last days of September, in
his well-known letter against those who wanted
peace at any cost, Hindenburg urged upon the
German people to be unyielding. In the early days
of October, in his Message addressed to the Ger-
man Fatherland Party, the Kaiser incited his peo-
ple, in these extremely serious times, to gather
resolutely round him and fight to the last breath,
to the last drop of blood for the defence of Ger-
many. — When the Bulgarian armistice was an-
nounced, the German newspapers became violent
and threatened that choice troops would be sent to
oblige Bulgaria to rejoin the ranks of Mittel Euro-
pa. What more } At the last meeting of the
Christian Workmen's Syndicates, Herr Sterger-
wald, the General Secretary, resuming Hinden-
burg's Note and the Kaiser's Message, exhorted
and implored his associates to be firm and « to
give the army time to perfect its system of de-
fence, to multiply number of tan\s and to trans-
form the country, during the corning winter, into
an impregnable fortress ». But, a few days after
193 —
n
these manifestations and forty-eight hours after
the publication of the Kaiser's Message, Herr
Herding, the Bavarian Chancellor, he who had
shamelessly exalted the Peace of Brest Litovsk
and that of Bucharest, and who, executing the
orders of the Grand General Headquarters, had
sacrificed Kuelmann to the intolerance of the Jun-
kers, is obliged to resign and to give up his post
to Maximilian of Baden who, as his first official
act applies to Wilson to grant an armistice to
Germany, precisely as Malinoff had done for
Bulgaria. A flash of lightning is less sudden than
this catastrophe. What, then, had happened in
the stormy atmosphere ?
Something had happened which can occur at a
height of one metre and ninety centimetres, be-
tween the ground and the branch of a tree, when
hemp has become rope and the rope has wound
itself in a slip-knot round the neck of a man who
is hanging from that branch. After four years,
the Entente's hemp has become the rope Tound
the neck of Germany and Austria. During the
past fortnight, all Hindenbufg's Lines have been
demolished and passed; aM the phantasms of
Wagner's Tetralogy, Wotan, Alberich, Siegfried,
and the incestuous Brunnhilde are either fugitives
or prisoners; the King of Belgium, the symbol of
abjured and oppressed Right, re-entering the
scene victoriously in the region between Dix-
muyde and the Lys ; the Italians, victorious on
the Chemin des Dames — that Chemin des Da-
mes which like Caporetto reminds one of the ill-
omened period of German propaganda, founded
on corruption and treason, both in France and in
Italy; in the East, the rapid and simultaneous
march of General Esperey towards Sofia and of
General Allenby on Damascus; the disarmament
194
of the Bulgarian army and the detachment of
Bulgaria from the Central Empires; the disarma-
ment of three Turkish armies, and the fall of
Enver Pacha and his confederates; and the mi-
litary and political surrender, preceded by the
moral surrender of Turkey to the Entente. Mean-
while, in the interior of Austria, the latent crisis
of nationalities reaching its acme, to the point
of loosening the Parties from their very last Par-
liamentary compromise and leaving the Empire
without a Government and at the discretion of
its subjects ; and in the interior of Germany, the
struggle of States in the Confederation reaching
the point of insurrection against Prussia and the
Kaiser, both equally dethroned before the whole
civilized world by a Prince of Baden, become
that of the Court Party, as a friend of Mr. Gerard,
Chancellor by will of the Reichstag and not by
the former United States Ambassador in Berlin
and not as a friend of Wilhelm II. or of his son.
And yet more ! — all the old mad theories, the
old, aberrant theories destined to sharpen the
brutish instinct of the race in war by the exalta-
tion and the legitimation of the action of force
over the idea of right, falling at one stroke, as
by enchantment in the defeat; and, on all these
horrors, reappearing as in the transformation
scene of a ballet, and re -evoked in the new Chan-
cellor's speech, who ? the old philosopher of
Konigsberg, Emmanuel Kant, with his Pure
Reason and his theory of human freedom. Do
you remember } The citizens of Konigsberg used
to set their watches by the time of Kant's daily
walk. When Kant issued from his house it was
mid-day. To-day Kant emerging from his house
marks the hour to the Germans. The hour of
defeat.
- 195 -
Nevertheless, so serious and so terrible has the
experience of German bad faith been that, not-
withstanding the first request for an armistice,
notwithstanding the name of Kant, under whose
aegis that request was presented, notwithstanding
even to-day's reply to Wilson, an official reply,
which declares that Germany does not wish to
discuss but accepts the fourteen points of Wilson's
speech, the Press of the Allied Nations, which
reflects all shades of public opinion and the ideas
of all Parliamentary Parties, shows itself neither
at ease nor assured concerning the conduct of the
new German Government: it suspects a supreme
political and military snare in this sudden change
of form ; too sudden to enable it to give credit to
a substantial revulsion of ideas; and finds in the
unexpected surrender rather a reason of distrust
and fear than one of confidence and hope. Cer-
tainly, the suggestion of the appointment of a
mixed Commission for the purpose of negotiating
the conditions of evacuation during the armistice
is not a suggestion made by people who are will-
ing to declare themselves beaten; and, on the
contrary, may reveal a tendency to frustrate the
plans and slacken the* tension of the armies of
the nations of the Entente. In any case, Germany
would indeed be too ingenuous if she were to
suppose herself still capable of deceiving anybody
by her masks and her disguises. And no less in-
genuous would Austria be.
Ever since the beginning of this war, and all
through good and bad fortune, we have upheld the
following argument, which was also an act of
faith: It is not possible that three Powers, which
disavow all the rights acquired by peoples during
their long struggles for the vindication of their
claims, and which are intent on annulling all the
- 196 -
conquests of liberty and civilization, can triumph
over the three other Powers, France, England and
Italy which, together, represent the glories of
those conquests ; it is not possible that history can
retrace its steps and that the Middle Ages, over-
turning the stars, can suceed *o the Revolution. —
And now that the war is nearly over, and that
the quantity of blood which has been shed and
the many sacrifices which have been made give
the Allies the right to dispose of the enemy's fate
and to impose their will upon him besides the
weight of their sword, we are to-day even more
convinced of the justice of our argument ; we are
firm and assured in our faith. Therefore, with all
the force of our soul we uphold that perilous com-
promises are neither possible nor tolerable, whilst
the soldiers of civilization are on their road to
victory. It is necessary that peace should bear
the signs of this victory and that the conditions
of peace, in all their character and all their exten-
sion should mean the absolute and uncontested
triumph of civilization over barbarism.
On one condition only can this be attained:
that no truce be given to the enemy; that the
means and the time be not allowed him to recu-
perate his strength, and, as Stergerwald said, to
reconstruct his fortress of defence.
Does the enemy sue for peace ? Let it be given
to him; but at once, whilst he is down. Not to-
morrow, when he might arise again.
- 197 —
THE ORDER OF THE DAY STATES...
If the Emperor — oh, lost title without a bearer !
— of the Dual Monarchy had had yet a little more
patience, he would have spared himself the last
humiliation of that Proclamation of his, addressed
to his faithful but rebellious subjects, which will
be handed down by history as a Proclamation of
unavailing cowardice. What an exhibition of po-
litical degradation ! Thus miserably ends the Aus-
tria of the Hapsburgs : not in the midst of the
bloodshed in which it was born, as Giosue Car-
ducci did heir the honour to predict, but in the
grime of an old-clothes shop, where she stores
her gallows and her rope. Tout passe, tout casse,
tout lasse: even the hangman's rope. Oh, ye old
and new martyrs of Italy, Scenzi, Oberdan, Bat-
tisti, Sauro, may your spirits be at last appeased !
It is the weight of your bodies, hanging for a
century, for thirty years, for two years, that has
snapped the rope. And you did not die in vain
if your death has dragged Austria into the grave
too.
Who can deny that Austria is dead ? Dead,
not gloriously on the battlefield, as a hero dies,
enshrouded in her flag — be it even the black and
- 198 -
yellow flag of all the funerals she has imposed
upon the Italian race — but dead, clothed in other
peoples* rags, like a beggar in the streets. And,
falling, she is even incapable of minding the
decency of her attitude, of covering her head with
the toga, Roman-like. Her existence was too base
to allow her to try to imitate Rome's gesture.
By this time, we are too accustomed to speak
of Germany's iniquities in this waT, and are apt
to forget Austria's ; thus rendering an unexpected
service to the Vienna Ministers who, through our
own fault, hide themselves behind the worse fame
of those of Berlin, and continue^ unseen and unac-
cused, in their secular work of oppression and
suppression against those subjects of His Imperial
Majesty who do not show their willingness to bow
their necks under the yoke and to forget the sa-
crifice of their brethren. Yet the disclosures made
by the Deputies Stribrny and Ravnihar on the
Slav and Italian concentration Camps — when
there were still some Italians left — and on the
Slavs in the. Austrian Army, converted into a
very hell for them are but of 3'esterday. « Families
spread all over the country and dispersed » —
said Ravnihar — « children separated from their
mothers; women scattered in exile; thousands
and thousands of persons condemned without
knowing why, to hunger, misery and the most
horrible ruin... ». And, whilst all this was taking
place, the Emperor was mumbling prayers and
lies at the Pope's feet, in God's name ! But God
did not believe him.
And how could one believe him ?
Ichthyologists have calculated that several thou-
sand years are required to convert fresh water fish
into salt water ones, and vice-versa. But that the
soul of an individual or of an institution can be
— 199 —
changed in a single day, no one will admit or
think possible. Marie Antoinette's hair turned
white in a single hour. But has any one ever
noticed that, from that hour, the pigment of the
immovable family of the Queen who died on the
scaffold, was also beginning to change? What
they were at the commencement of their history, *
such the Hapsburgs have always remained in
governing the many races which had the misfor-
tune of being subjected to them : covetous, ungra-
teful, brutal, cruel; incapable of limiting or trans-
forming or adapting themselves to the laws of
human nature, and to the laws of social life. And
who can seriously believe that the most inept of
them all, Charles the Last, could limit or trans-
form himself; he, who through no fault of his
own was in vital and moral essence the poorest
of a race which was in course of advanced dege-
neration ?
Austria sued Wilson for peace on the basis of
the fourteen points of the historic Message. Before
Wilson could reply, the Emperor, with the evi-
dent aim of biassing the invoked decision, granted
the Constitution of self-governments, calmly, in-
nocently, as a boarder of a Young Ladies' Semi-
nary might go to her first Communion. Was this
serious, was this dignified on the part of those
same individuals who, a few months before had
forbidden the free publication of Wilson's Mes-
sage, and had permitted it at last, expurgated of
the passages referring to Austria and to her sub-
jection to Prussia? Was it serious and dignified
on the part of the same individuals who had cen-
sored Wilson ?
Constitution of autonomies ! Oh, caper flowers,
budding unexpectedly, rootless and out of the
soil ; in the crevices of a wall, shaken and totter-
200
ing through fear and terror ! But in Austrian earth
are roots of real flowers of eloquence, those of
the Ministers of the Empire. The Clam-Martiniz
flower : « My programme is Austria ; and my
system is that of dualism with Hungary ». — The
Seidler flower : t< The supposition formulated in
the question put by Herr Desinski, according to
which the Imperial and Royal Government would
recognize the right of peoples to dispose of them-
selves in the peace negotiation, is simply an
error». — The Burian flower: ((Austria's future
lies in the fullest alliance with Germany)). This
is a flower grown in the humus of the formula
of the Austrian Germans : « Austria must be gov-
erned by Germans or she will cease to exist ». —
And with these flowers on her hat, Austria ap-
proached Wilson smilingly, to dance the Tyro-
lienne of her autonomies under the tree of her
gallows, engarlanded with smiles and violets, and
disguised for the occasion with flags and Chinese
lanterns, as the Tree of Liberty. The least Wil-
son could do was what he did by his Reply: to
proceed with the Order of the Day.
With this war, we are supposed to enter into
the sphere of Great Democracy; and the puny
artifices and intrigues and the little and great
falsehoods of State and Government organizations
of Old Europe should by now have become
valueless and have no reason of being. To-day
the brutish militarisms of the German race are
falling. To-morrow the Parliamentary ambiguities
of the Latin race should fall too.
Also in Italy }
Readers of the Tribuna are aware that for a
long time I have considered Italian Parliamentary
life as a thing lifeless and unreal).
- 20! —
IN THE FURROW OF VICTORY.
Victory does not elate or exalt us. Having en-
tered the war, Italy was fated either to win or
disappear. To disappear under the heels of the
Turks, the Bulgarians and the Bosnian® who had
invaded her ? That was impossible ; therefore she
could do nothing else hut win. To win not with-
standing all, notwithstanding the internal plague
of her parties invoking defeat; notwithstanding
the external ferocity of her enemies in the field;
to win by force of the ideals she represents, by
the nobility of the destiny which moulded her an-
cient history and will mould her new one ; by the
inward virtue of her race, which no barbarian
ignominy was ever able to corrupt or underrate;
to win, in short, by reason of all the laws of ci-
vilization which govern her being and which
possess the same simplicity and the same divinity
as Nature's indestructible laws. She won. What
wonder ? All of us who exerted our power of per-
suasion in favour of the war, and, despising the
insults and the offences of the weak-minded and
the feeble-hearted ; of the more or less deplumed
musketeers of the two Empires still living amongst
us and through the fierce Odyssey of three years
of despair rather than of hope, calmly and tena-
ciously insisted upon our first idea; all of us who
saw with sorrow but without flinching the waver-
ing of souls in Parliament long before the banners
- 202 -
wavered at Gaporetto; we were all sure of victory,
more or less hard to attain, more or less bloody,
more or less distant; but fated to come, like the
alternation of the seasons ; normal, like the rythm
of the blood in a sound human heart.
Nothing to wonder at, therefore. After the
Battle of the Piave, I saw our Supreme Com-
mander, General Diaz, here in Rome, in the in-
timacy of his home, as calm and unconcerned as
if he had just descended from his horse after a
morning Tide outside the Gates of Rome. —
<( When will the offensive take place, General? »
— I asked — « At the proper moment » , — he
replied. — « To return on the Isonzo, or to pro-
ceed further ? » — And he, speaking in measured
tone, said : « Territory is the second part of my
programme. The first is the destruction of the
enemy's army. When we have destroyed the
enemy's army, there will be no more limits to
territorial conquest » . The battle which has just
been fought is the execution of that programme.
The Supreme Commander held the victory in his
closed fist already, as he held his army in his
heart when he enunciated his programme and
was not doubtful of its success at the opportune
moment. Austria was then binding herself in the
most secure bonds of alliance or of vassailage
with Germany, which defeat was to snap asunder
so miserably and so prematurely.
Behold, then: Italy has fulfilled the whole of
her duty before herself and before history; and
has accomplished all her task before her Allies
and before humanity. Those who had hoped to
see Italy issue from this war still humiliated, as
in 1866, with the alms of some province ceded
to her in a roundabout way, can put on mourning,
or entrust their sorrow to a pastille of corrosive
203
sublimate. Italy emerges victoriously from this
war by virtue of her arms; mistress of herself in
her own home by the heroism of her trusty sons ;
resplendent with all the lights of ideal which
shone on the daybreak of her Revival, and shine
to-day by reason of her war, illuminating the
horizon of all the races living up to yesterday —
as she herself had lived1 in the past — in the dark
shadow of the House of Hapsburg. By reason
of her war. It is well to state this and to remind
every one of it, especially to-day, when Memory
must be the not vain and useless star which shall
guide the Wise Men on the roads of the future.
The war unchained by the Central Empires
would have ended in twenty -eight days, as had
been foreseen in the plans of the Berlin General
Staff, if Italy had possessed a conception of the
rights of nations different from that which her
civilization based, as it was, on law, had
moulded for her in centuries bygone ; or had had
an historic sentitiveness less irritable than that
which her political conscience could allow her to
have. Italy's separation from the Central Empires
was, morally, the true and great condemnation
of their war before the civilized world; and, from
a military point of view was the first real and
great check for their armies, after which they
became not so sure of victory as in their calcula-
tions of the 4th. of August ; and much less in those
of the future. All became unstable, all was uncert-
ain and problematic in a war which had seemed
to be so accurately studied, so terribly organized
to give the greatest possible results in its sudden
spring and in the least possible time — all, owing
to the unexpected unknown quantity, the sudden
x which was seen rising on the firing-line : Italy.
That unknown quantity, that x, had in itself all
204
the ideal of the Allies* war, all the secret of their
victories. What would have been the lot of the
nations of Austria, which are now proclaiming
their independence and their liberty, had Italy
refrained from entering into the war and had she
not — with her sacrifices and her noblest blood
— macerated Austria during two long years on
the double chain of mountains flanking the Ison-
zo, and prevented the fusion of the German and
Austro-Hungarian armies into a single army ; had
she not given England time to create her army
and her arms, and France the time to renew her
forces and to train that sturdy group of Generals,
which was, at last, to break and to strike down
Prussian Militarism ?
Now, after her victory, which integrates and
completes that of the Allies, Italy, looking back-
ward on the perilous sea whence she issued, can,
with just reason, be proud of her action ; tranquil
in her conscience for the part she has played in
this great war of civilization, sure of the advan-
tages that peace will bring her, in the peace she
has worthily gained together with the Powers
which have strenuously fought and struggled;
high in the estimation of the peoples who have so
nobly suffered and whose cause she espoused
spontaneously in the hour of the greatest danger.
Who remembers Austria any more? She is,
by now, nought but a a nameless shame)). And
who now thinks of Germany's dreams of supre-
macy } Mittel Europa is nothing more than a « sad
story )). Even the symbol of the mailed fist has
become an implement fit to be hung up in the
museums of ancient political rhetoric.
In the future, an honest and loyal hand will
suffice to lead this free Europe of ours on the open
roads of wisdom and health.
- 205 —
SIGNIFER, STATUE SIGNUM.
Battisti, Gberdan, Sauro. Last evening, whilst
the throng was passing, acclaiming and singing,
I saw, in the silence of my mind, and outside and
above the vain noise, those three magnanimous
shadows advancing through the air ait last grown
still and bringing with them, to be enfolded in
Rome's embrace, the symbolical forms of the
three cities, Trent o, Trieste and Pol a, for which
their lives were spent and for which they met a
martyr's death. What sadness it was to think that
among the crowd, and acclaiming and vocifera-
ting more loudly than their neighbours, some of
those impious and worthless individuals might
have been found who, up to yesterday did noth-
ing but corrupt, corrode and disunite and destroy
the national union in the war; those individuals
who up to yesterday did nothing but laugh at,
deride, defame and threaten those who thought
and struggled and suffered and died for the crea-
tion of a Greater Italy! No: the shadows, the
shadows only, must hover round us to-day ! The
shadows: only they have the right to embody
themselves in human form, and live again their
second life in the triumph of their ideal. You,
- 206 -
Oberdan, Battisti, Sauro; you, precursors of the
great deed ! And you all, soldiers of Italy, who
have died on the bloody Calvary of the Carso,
on the slopes of Oslavia or of the Sette Comuni ;
on the peaks of the Kuk or of the Pasubio ; on the
Mouths of the Timavo, or on the banks of the
Piave ! And you too, who, wounded and mutilat-
ed during three years of battling : sacred remnants
of beauteous Youth, living trophies of the great-
est honour of our history and of orur race ! You,
you only are worthy to celebrate, under Rome's
skies, the solemn rites of the ancient Fatherland,
now reconstituted according to the law and the
terms that Rome has marked out for her.
For, whet has taken place yesterday is not only
— think of it ! — a great political and military
event of the European war, but is the greatest
event that has been accomplished in European
history for two thousand years; and it has been
accomplished by the effort and the enterprise of
those same Italic races which the barbarian in-
vasions, breaking through the) boundary esta-
blished by Julius Caesar on the Alps bearing his
great name, seemed as if they would submerge
and destroy; but which to-day, instead, have risen
again in defence of themselves and of all hu-
manity.
The history of Rome, interrupted for two thou-
sand years, resumes to-dav its grand regal course,
after having subdued and dispersed the descen-
dants of the barbarians who in this war made the
last attempt to overthrow the ensigns of Rome
in European civilization and plant on the ruins
the ensigns of Arminius; of that Arminius of
whom the Kaiser believed and declared he was
the latest incarnation sent upon earth for the
definitive glory and rule of the German races.
— 207 _
Europe lost her stable equilibrium when Italy
lost her Roman boundaries. But she has found
to-dav, and will recover to-morrow, this stable
equilibrium solely because Italy has, at last, at-
tained and conquered her Roman boundaries, and
will retain them in the future.
Only the brutish minds of mean political hucks-
ters were incapable, in this country, of listening
to or understanding the great significance that the
Italian war had in the European war, and could
therefore brand and discredit as rhetorical echoes
of the 1848 period, the agitations for the redemp-
tion of Trent o and Trieste; and. worse still,
brand as treasonable the rupture of the Alliance
with the Central Empires, the nations which,
like the first Huns descended on the plains to
devastate the fields and the rights of their foes,
to gather booty and to destroy everything that is
sacred or useful to civilized communities :, all of
which is there to demostrate that, among that
political class of individuals, the historic sense
was not more highly developed than the moral
sense. Yet, all the Italian tradition, all the Italian
history, all the tragedy of the Italian soul during
long centuries was gravitating towards this war,
which only those who had estranged themselves
from, or had become refractory to the national
tradition could strive to avert or deviate. Was it
not an Italian of the true Italic race, a warrior and
a political genius of the Caesarian stamp who
said that the Julian Alps were more necessary to
Italy's defence than Lombardy itself ? And were
not all the political leaders and all the Captains
of our Risorgimento, of our national Revival,
unanimous in proclaiming this supreme necessity
and in bequeathing to the future generations the
task to be accomplished ? And what was that
— 208 —
ceaseless thirst, that fever, that ardour of the cities
subjected to foreign yoke, and which although
under no apprehension for material existence
which was easy and secure, were constantly
writhing under the pain of being separated from
the Mother Country, but the physical torment of
the vital organs of a great organism disposed in
the function of defence by the very reason of their
original constitution and diverted from this fun-
ction by violence ?
The unification of Italy once set going, it was
sooner or later destined either to be definitely ac-
complished in all its parts or definitely to break
up into fragments once more. During periods of
transition, whilst all the nations of Europe were
displaced from their bases, diverted from their
aims and consequently disconcerted in their ac-
tion, Italy, maimed and imperfect, may have
resisted, by leaning on enemies who themselves
needed time to arm and prepare for their war —
indeed, they were preparing and arming them-
selves even against her — ; but this period of
transition over, nothing remained to her but to
take up her position and follow her road: the
road which was to lead her to the form and set-
tlement which Rome had given her. In the Con-
stitution of Augustus, Italy was divided into
twelve Regions, of which Venetia with Trieste
and Istria constituted the Tenth; whilst Rome
herself was the Twelfth. Yesterday, after a long
and heavy storm, and by virtue of the new fight-
ing armies of the Third Italy, the Constitution of
Augustus was finally re-integrated. We have noth-
ing further to do but to ascend the Capitol and
render thanks to Rome's most ancient Deities.
On the eve of the declaration of war, I had the
honour to pen the following words :
— 209 —
(( Before the Government speaks, before the
Army acts, we, free writers, who express the soul
of our race in our words, and with our word dis-
appear without even the glory that belongs to the
soldier who is the first to set his foot on the con-
tested territory, we wish to proclaim, in the face
of the world that our war is a just and holy one.
Just and holy: this is the proclamation that must
call together all the sons of Italy for the achieve-
ment of the great enterprise... ».
Such as the proclamation was, so will the
judgement of history be: a judgement which will
exalt the glory of the accomplished enterprise.
— j\ ■• —
FOR ITALY, AFTER THE VICTORY.
The story, then, is this: At the most critical
moment of the European war, when, thanks to
their exuberant military strength, there were nine-
ty chances to a hundred' that the Central Empires
would crush the Powers of the Entente, Italy,
following the law of her civilization, which does
not admit of criminal treaties, separated herself
from the Central Empires to which she had been
bound by a treaty which had lasted for thirty
years; she proclaimed her neutrality; she armed
herself rapidly, as best she could, and then enter-
ed the war. She remained in the field for three
years, fighting the fiercest of battles — battles
against armed mountains — sacrificing in them
the choicest flower of her race; spending — a
thing which seems inevitable in war — from sixty
to seventy thousand millions, out of the eighty
thousand at which her wealth — or her poverty —
has been calculated. After various vicissitudes,
some sorrowful, others joyful, by the genius of
her military leaders and the valour of her soldiers,
she obtained, at last, one of the greatest victories
which history records, totally destroying the
enemy's army. Having brought the war to lan
- 211 —
end with such a victory, it would seem (would it
not 7) that she should be entitled to gather the
fruits accruing frorn it, as generally happens
whenever one Power overthrows another in war;
and that all, friends or indifferent spectators,
should have been glad to Tecogmize this right of
hers, which, after all, is a primitive, elementary
right, undisputed and indisputable at all times
and in every latitude. But, behold ! The Austrian
army once beaten and Austria herself broken up,
Italy sees arising before her some old banners,
some old instruments of old Austria which are
claiming neither more nor less than to divide with
her the fruits of the victory which they, themsel-
ves, up to the day before had disputed with her.
Undoubtedly, all this is strange and ridiculous, as
strange and ridiculous as it would be if, for ins-
tance, the German Austrians were to claim from
France a portion of Alsace-Lorraine in exchange
for the service which they rendered her, by fight-
ing with cannon and machine guns by the side
of the German army, as the well-known telegram
from ex -Charles I. to ex-Wilhelm II, said. It is
thus that, on the epic poem of the last few days,
is engrafted a comedy or a farce. But, what of to-
morrow ?
I know: there is Yugoslavia to be thought of;
there is revolution in Austria, and the dislocation
of the various races which were once united under
the crown of the Hapsburgs; and there are also
Wilson's principles and his Notes. Let us leave
Yugoslavia and the Austrian revolution to their
future destiny, but are those who speak so loudly
about Wilson's principles and about his Notes
quite sure of having read them and of remember-
ing them now ?
Let us read again some of these Notes.
__ 212 -
Those who have an interest in embroiling Wil-
son's cards to the prejudice of Italy, are making
a great confusion between the juridico-political
standing of the Yugo-Slavs and that of the Czecho-
slovaks during the war and in the revolution, or
worse, are identifying them. But such a confusion
is not permissible and identification is absolutely
out of the question after merely reading Wilson's
Reply to Austria, dated the 19th. of October, in
which the difference of position between the Yugo-
Slavs and Czecho-Slovaks is so clearly and pre-
cisely laid down as to render any misrepresenta-
tion or falsification absolutely impossible. A dif-
ference, this, not uselessly or vainly stated, if it
be true that every word and every idea of the
President have a significance and an influence
which no one will dare to divert from the straight
path of justice and honesty.
In that Reply, then, is said:
« Since the sentence was written and uttered
to the Congress of the United States, the Govern-
ment of the United States has recognized that a
state of belligerency exists between the Czecho-
slovaks and the German- Austro-Hungarian Em-
pires and that the Czecho-Slovak National Council
is a de jacto belligerent Government clothed with
proper authority to direct the military and poli-
tical affairs of the Czecho-Slovaks. It has also
recognized in the fullest manner the justice of
the nationalistic aspirations of the Yugo-Slavs
for freedom ».
Thus, the Czecho-Slovaks who, during the war,
and in Austria's very bosom have created an
army, a policy, a Government in opposition to
Austria and to Germany, are recognized as bel-
ligerents. On the other hand, a simple recogni-
tion of the justice of the national aspirations of the
— 213 -
YugoSlavs who, during the war, or better still,
up to the end of the war have done nothing more
than issue programmes and deliver speeches on
Yugoslavia, and only a few of them have done
that, whereas the rest continued fighting faith-
fully and fiercely by Austria's side, and more
especially against Italy.
Now, it would be quite natural that, owing to
their different position, the Czech o-Slovaks
should be considered by the Powers of the En-
tente, as they effectively are, as Allies, because
their standing is that of belligerents; whilst the
Yugo-Slavs should be considered as aspirants,
and nothing more than aspirants to the protection
of the Powers of the Entente, until such time as
they have constituted their State and given it the
direction which the Czecho -Slovaks have already
given to theirs. But what is happening instead?
That, whilst the Yugo-Slavs are aspiring to the
Entente's protection, they are enjoying, on the
contrary, the protection of Austria herself, and
by the expiring Austria are considered as the
heirs to her flag, to her fleet and to her position
on the Adriatic ; they, who have never been, nor
are now capable of becoming a maritime nation
— strange prodigy of a people which is God's
elect and the Devil's at one and the same time;
equally dear to the Liberals of the Entente and
to the Reactionaries of Austria, one cannot under-
stand why; or, rather one can understand only
too well, unless Italians, during the war, together
with the blood of their sons have also lost the
brains of their fathers.
Meanwhile, these Croatians, in the name of
Austria, are to prevent that like Trieste and Pola,
Fiurne should be re-united to her Motherland,
Italy, and with Fiume, Zara and all the remainder
- 214 -
which is Italian and lives and will ever live as
Italian on the opposite shore of the Adriatic. But
Wilson's Law speaks plainly.
In Wilson's Law there is a Commandment
which says:
« The Nations must freely dispose of their fate,
according to the principle of nationality » . — On
the basis of this principle, who can say that Fiu-
me and Zara are not Italian cities ? And who will
prevent that, being Italian cities, they, according
to their expressed will shall be re-united to Italy ?
If one can discuss upon and doubt of the will of
any people, one cannot discuss or cast the least
doubt upon the will of the citizens of Fiume and
Zara; so fully and so religiously expressed (their
open plebiscite has assumed the form of a real
national consecration) on the appearance of the
Italian flag and Italian troops. It is not a question
of mysteries, hypotheses or presumption now;
any one who wishes, can see for himself. And I
should like to address a special request to Mr.
Nelson Page, the illustrious Ambassador of the
United States in Rome, to go personally and
collect evidence, and more than evidence, the
plebiscites of those Italian cities, and afterwards
truly and faithfully report to President Wilson.
The ignoble Croatian agitation would thus be
judged and definitely condemned at the same
time.
And here, for the present, I stop.
No one can doubt the sincerity of Italy's equi-
table intentions in regard to peace. No one can,
without obvious bad faith, attribute to her any
iniquitous intention of being overbearing towards
others, as this is contrary to the spirit and the
tendencies of her policy. And therefore no one
should, now, attempt to create ambiguities which
- 215 -
may one day become the cause of trouble to Italy.
President Wilson's pronouncement demands that
no new elements of discord and antagonism,
which may be capable of disturbing the peace in
the future be created between nations. It is im-
perative scrupulously to comply with that lofty
pronouncement, which was. the ensign of victory,
if the Peace Congress is to be approached with
hands and souls purged of iniquity. Italy will
certainly comply with it to the letter. Let others,
great or small, comply with it likewise, and also
with minds relieved of old and new ideas of more
or less disguised European imperialism.
To continue the game of mean pre-war politics
which consisted of making small and weak States
the instruments of great and strong ones, against
near or distant neighbours, would be worse than
an error: it would be a vulgarity unworthy of
history.
- 216
THE END OF A TABOO.
No one, either in Germany, in Austria or in
Hungary wishes to assume, now, the slightest
responsibility for the lost war. The new men
whom defeat has carried to the government of
those countries are cursing the old ones who are
foundering together with the ambitions of the
dethroned monarchs. The Press, which encour-
aged the folly of the dethroned monarchs and of
their Ministers, is now groaning and humbly im-
ploring alms of bread and dishonour from the
enemy which, in the hour of invasion, it pitilessly
insulted. The last of the Hapsburgs, descending
from his throne, is reminding those who were not
his subjects, or the subjects of his ancestors, that
he is not to blame for the war, which he found
amongst the appendages of his succession. Max
of Baden is announcing to the world that Ger-
many emerges from the war, victorious at least
over herself; for she has learnt, at last, that the
principles which guided her moral and political
existence during the forty years of the Hohen-
zollerns' rule, are false; and that force cannot
subjugate right, but right can subjugate force.
Also: Erzberger and Schiedmann, the two offi-
- 217 —
ciants, one donning a black tie, the other a red
one, are standing at the Emperor's side; in the
name of Catholicism and in the name of Social-
ism, and are bowing their head's over the error
of the war which they encouraged for four
long years with their speeches and with their
propaganda, at home and abroad. What more?
The author of « Solitary Souls »., Gerard Haupt-
mann, and other writers and literary men, in a
melancholy Manifesto are finally apprizing the
German people that « with a clear and terrible
logic, God's designs have triumphed over the
designs of man », and are inciting the Germans
towards the love and no more towards the hatred
of human kind; thus annulling, simultaneously,
the work of the Kaiser's Alter Gott and that of
the literary men who wrote on the war and so
gaily exerted themselves to encourage the des-
truction of men and women and even of stones in
conquered regions. When, then, will the mea
culpa towards Italy and the Italians be uttered ?
For the whole of the political and literary acti-
vity of the Germans during the war has been,
with equal intensity and in equal measure directed
against England and against Italy. Against En-
gland, which was pointed out and indicted as the
instigator of the war; against Italy which by
means of the most iniquitous falsifications of the
Treaty of Alliance was reviled and slandered as
the traitress par excellence, as sold for a price
(the price can be seen, now, that attempts are
being made to deprive her even of the fruits of
victory !) to the Powers of the Entente. And yet,
all that is now being said and written in the
countries which up to yesterday constituted the
Central Empires against the war and against the
men who willed1 it, completely demolishes the
218
accusation® against Italy. If the war was a crime ;
if it was the adventure of a group of nefarious
individuals bereft of mind and conscience; if it
was the work of Statesmen who betrayed their
mission and the interests of their peoples, should
not Italy, which refused to associate herself to the
crime and was, for that refusal, accused of trea-
son by those who wanted her to be their accom-
plice; should not Italy, I say, by means of public
manifestations and public thanks be declared to
have well merited of humanity, in those very
countries and by those very peoples which are
now accusing their ex-Emperors and their ex-
Statemen as common criminals?
Italy is awaiting this public apology if it be
true that the German soul is changed and that
defeat has rendered Germans reasonable and ca-
pable of distinguishing truth from falsehood,
reality from fantasy, justice from iniquity and,
like Ibsen's characters on the verge of despair,
capable of making a public confession and expia-
tion of their sins.
Such confession and expiation should serve to
quieten the agitated souls of those who at home,
here, were opposed to the Italian war for the
same reasons, or rather, owing to the same accu-
sations advanced by the German propaganda,
that is, of Italy's treachery towards Germany and
Austria and of the price of the treason agreed
upon with the Entente.
We made war whilst in full internal discord,
by reason, precisely of those accusations which
Germany was disseminating and which her faith-
ful adherents were picking up, sad and grieved,
or pretending to be, for the Fatherland's dishon-
our, for her faithlessness to her treaties, and
her disloyalty to loyal Allies. It can be truly said
219
that never was a war more laboriously carried on
and more laboriously opposed in the interior than
ours, which, considered by some as iniquitous
and immoral, was destined in the end by contrast
and by the defeated enemy's own qualification,
to appear as the noblest and purest war recorded
by the history of man. According to those who,
during the German victories were not ashamed
of calling themselves pro-German in hatred of
their other countrymen who had wanted the rup-
ture of the Alliance and then the war, this war
of ours was a folly, a folly which reached the
most extreme and unavowable consequences. The
writer of these lines, on listening to and noting
all the movements and the accents of Italian civil
discord, pervaded by the German propaganda,
was often fain to watch on the faces of many
Italians, especially after Caporetto, the folly which
Dante saw on the face of Sapia of Siena, in the
Second Circle of Purgatory:
That thou mayst own I now deceive thee not,
Hear, if my folly were not as I speaj^ it.
When now my years sloped waning down the
arch,
It so bechanced, my fellow-citizens
Near Colle met their enemies in the field;
And I prayed to God to grant what He had willed
There were they vanquished, and betook them-
selves
Unto the bitter passages of flight,
I marked the hunt; and waxing out of bonds
In gladness, lifted up my shameless brow... (1)
(I) E Perche tu non credi ch'io t'ingaani
Odi 8e fui, com'io ti dico, folle,
Gia discendendo i'arco dei miei anni.
Eran li cittadini miei presso a Colle
In campo giunti coi loro avversari,
- 220 —
Now, it is said, we are all brothers again (a
state of affairs which for me has no great impor-
tance as I have arranged to be relieved of a
funeral procession at my death), and we are all
convinced of not being sons of an adulterous
Mother. Now that even the enemy has proclaimed
to the world that the war he waged was an error
of his mind, an aberration of his conscience and
a crime in his history, it is to be hoped that
these truths, upon which we have vainly striven
to collect the unanimous consent of public opi-
nion, be no longer arguments for discussion; so
useless would it be to leave the corpse of war
controversies without a burial. Now that, finally
a taboo has been cast into the abyss, what is
wanting to the inextinguishable superstition of a
sceptical people like us } Are we, perchance, to
create another: after the German taboo, the
Yugoslavian taboo ?
It would be the very last humiliation.
Ed io pregava Dio di quel ch'ei voile.
Rotti fur quivi, e volti negli amari
Passi di fuga, e veggendo la caccia
Letizia presi a tutte altre dispari...
DANTE. Purgatorio, Canto XIII.
English version by Henry Francis Cary.
_ 221 —
ON THE ROAD TO VERSAILLES.
The Meeting of Ministers in London is now
over, and the official Communique has announced
to the three nations of the Entente the agreement
arrived at between their respective representatives
on the questions which have been discussed by
them. Which questions? We are totally ignorant
of the Order of the Day. What agreement has
been arrived at, and according to which standards,
or principles, or compromises ? We are still in the
dark, and the doors of the room which had the
honour to entertain History for forty-eight hours
are as discreet as the lips of the Ministers them-
selves. Complete silence, therefore. Diplomacy
abhors newspaper reports; and for this reason,
perhaps, it precipitates itself from time to time
into the tragedy of War.
In the mean time, we will continue to discuss
on our own account and in the dust which we
poor mortals are made of, the Italian questions
which victory ought to have solved, but which,
it is stated, victory has more than ever compli-
cated. Was it really a victory, ours, which ended
with the destruction of the Austrian army and
with General Diaz's Bulletin which the Munici-
— 222 —
pality of Rome has hastened to engrave on mar-
ble and consecrate in the annals of the Capitol ?
I am beginning to doubt it. Oh, Italians have
certainly found out, since the Battle of Vittorio
Veneto, that they are encumbered with seven or
eight hundred thousand more prisoners, between
Hungarians and Croatians, who have to be fed
— a misfortune which sometimes happens in the
exercise of human compassion — but they have
not yet found out that the ships belonging to the
enemy's Fleet have been transferred from Pola
to Venice, as always happens to a nation after
victory, and as happened to our Allies who saw
the ships of the German Fleet — much more
numerous than the Austrian one — being trans-
ferred from Kiel to Rosyth Bay. Evidently for
Italy, and according to some inscrutable Book of
Destiny, the effects of victory must be different
to those which fall to the lot of other nations,
friends or Allies, scattered all over this revolving
Globe. Anyhow, the fact is this : the Italian Vic-
tory was not born free, and not even independent ;
in short, she was not born with wings on, as the
fancy of man has ever created her and ornamented
her with. She was born mutilated and with a rope
round her ankles; with a tutor and a pedagogue
at her elbow. She does not, and cannot move a
step, by what it seems, without the permission
and the advice of her venerable keepers ; she
cannot even hold out her arms which, in the very
midst of war, some of her Italians to whom con-
siderate foreigners had lent the opportune weap-
ons, have lopped off. And thus, with the rope
round her ankles and her pedagogue at her side,
she sets out on her journey towards the supreme
Councils of Versailles.
(( With what sentiments are you going to Ver-
- 223 -
sailles } » asked the speaker of the Socialist Party
to Signor Orlando, during the last two ill-starred
sittings of the Italian Parliament. And Signor Or-
lando, amidst the applause of the Assembly,
replied : « With perfectly Italian sentiments » . —
Perfectly Italian? Ah, had the Premier said:
« With the same sentiments as the English and
the French »_, we might have been, and might
have declared ourselves satisfied and re-assured.
But that (( Italian sentiment » , said so crudely and
simply, falls upon you like a chill from Siberia.
Because, you see, that Italian sentiment is, alas,
the sentiment of this or that passer-by; and it
may happen that to-day, for instance, it is the
sentiment of a democrat, to-morrow that of a
humanitarian, that of a Yugo-Slav or of a Thessa-
lonian, or, why not ? even that of a Mormon. We
have never discovered that there exists an Italian
sentiment, or that it has shown itself during the
war, as a sentiment with precise characteristics of
its own, differentiating it from others, as coal
and diamond have their own characteristics which
distinguish them from other minerals, whether in
the bowels of the earth or in the open sunshine,
and are convertible into ashes or into jewels ; no,
we have never discovered it, except amongst our
little soldiers, in the midst of the blood-stained
rocks of the Carso and of the Grappa; on the
banks of the Isonzo and of the Piave, and in the
ships on the still bitter Adriatic. Politically, Ita-
lian sentiment, notwithstanding Signor Orlando's
eloquence, is yet « a butterfly which has failed
to take on its perfect form » ; something poor and
changeable, a thing which is vagula and blandula,
which friends and enemies play with, alternately,
as the cat does with a mouse, finally snapping
it up suddenly by the tail and swallowing it. Do
— 224 —
you not see ? It does not even put out its claws
after victory, and seems so happy and contented
to remain what it is !
At one time, German propaganda, with the
intent to discredit the Italian war in the Old and
New Hemispheres propagated, by means of all
its organs, this remarkable story: « The Italian
war is an imperialistic war » . And owing to the
easy success which propaganda always obtains
when directed against Italians and Italian affairs,
the remarkable story actually reached the mark
to which it was directed, and from neutral count-
ries it passed to Allied ones ,and from these to
Italy, where, as a matter of course, it found open
arms to receive it, not only amongst opponents
of the war, but, worse still, at the proper moment,
amongst the war's most inflamed advocates and
supporters. For, not only amongst friendly stran-
gers, but also amongst our own compatriots, the
most common and practical way to show and
express love for Italy is precisely that of placing
one's self with one's sentiments, on the side of
Italy's enemies. The reasons, the aspirations, the
interests, even the most equivocal and knavish,
of Italy's enemies are always justified, defended
and protected by our friends, our Allies, and by
many of our own countrymen — for the love of
Italy ! Like those lovers who, in their fits of
jealousy, kill their sweethearts, so these indivi-
duals or aggregates of individuals cannot show
their affection towards Italy otherwise than with
a weapon pointed at her breast. I have not yet
found a friend of Italy, or an Italian who loves his
own country, with the whim, the fancy, the ori-
ginality of considering as damaging to Italy any
action committed or any event adopted or ac-
complished by our enemies or our rivals. When
- 225 -
it is a question of Italy, all become — those who
love her, of course — puritans, bashful, mysti-
cal; and make use of the jeweller's balance to
weigh their pure principles, and1 of the flaming
sword of the law to cut the knot of the most
simple questions. Oh, it really cannot be said that
Italy is corrupted by the love of her adorers and
of her sons. And I do not despair of seeing, on
some future day, emerging from the State Ar-
chives of Old Austria, some document or other
which will demonstrate howl Conrad and his
Archduke plotted their* aggression at the time
of the Calabrian earthquake, during the Alliance,
merely to please Italy. Love's manifestations are
indeed varied and surprising !
What is, at bottom, the reason why some En-
glishmen and Frenchmen, and also several Ita-
lians have espoused — as it is called — the cause
of Yugoslavia, if not that- of Italy's tranquillity ?
And what is the reason why they wish that Italy
should, at the very least, share with Yugoslavia,
in pectoris rather than in fieri, the fruits of her
victory, if not that of ensuring her real security
in the future ? Offering one's keys to burglars is
certainly a splendid way of insuring one's house
against theft ! And placing one's family in con-
tact with madmen, is also a fine method of assur-
ing its tranquillity !
It is therefore to be hoped that the Ministers
of the Entente Powers who have met in London,
have adopted, in the discussion of Italian quest-
ions, different ideas from those which have been
and still are adopted in Press controversies by
Italy's friends. It is to be hoped that Italy's rights
have been considered and respected not as those
of a Power which is prepared to accept a peace
of compromise or of bargaining; but as those of
- 226 -
a Power which has conquered peace by means
of victory, and which will never, in any case and
under any condition or form, consent that situat-
ions similar to those which have brought on the
war shall ever be again created.
Italy has made her war for the Adriatic; and
victory cannot but secure her the absolute and
complete dominion of that sea. Whoever shall
attempt, for any reason whatsoever, to lessen or
curtail this dominion, is Italy's enemy. Nor let
it be said that the Pact of London is sufficient to
safeguard Italy's interests in the Adriatic: it
would be making an erroneous statement, and,
more than erroneous, it would be a factious one:
firstly, because the Pact of London pre-supposes
the defeat of Austria-Hungary, but not her dis-
memberment and dissolution; and, secondly, be-
cause at the time when the Pact of London was
drawn up, Yugoslavia was non-existent in the
negotiations between the Powers of the Entente.
That Pact, therefore, cannot constitute a barrier
and an obstacle to the complete claims of Italy's
rights, which have been consecrated by her vic-
tory ; it merely represents the minimum of Italy's
claims in the conclusion of the conditions of war !
The victory has in itself created a new situation
which it would be iniquitous in others not to
recognize, and foolish on our part not to make
the most of, in all its extension and all its law-
fulness.
Is it not enough to have lost the debtor in the
war > Should we also abandon into other peoples'
hands the inheritance which is waiting to be ta-
ken up, and which, after all, is also our very
own?
In order to effect a similar ignominy, it would
be necessary to create a new Code of International
Law to the sole detriment of Italy.
— 227 -
ITALY AND HER ALLIES.
Up to a certain point — and only up to a cert-
ain point — our Allies are not in the wrong in
treating us as they are doing, after victory. Si-
gnor Martini, with a final phrase which summed
up the whole situation, once determined the fall
of a Cabinet — the Rudini-Nieotera Cabinet —
which, after having resigned and having vainly
sought to replace a Finance Minister in order to
effect its own recomposition, presented itself
before Parliament to ask for a Vote of confidence.
Signor Martini said: « I cannot give a Vote of
confidence to a Cabinet which, by resigning, has
shown that it has no confidence in itself ». This
is what our Allies, smiling in diverse ways, tell
us; or, what is worse, look as if they would like
to tell us, every time the so-called Adriatic quest-
ion comes up for discussion. — a But we cannot
be more Adriatic than you are ! » — And they
remind us then, of all the toasts, the dinners, the
treaties and the embraces — Oh, Folleville ! —
of the Italian emissaries of the Yugoslav propa-
ganda with the Yugoslav emissaries throughout
the whole wide world. Who has ever heard of
these emissaries 1 Only now we are learning a
— 228 —
few of their illustrious names. Who had ever
imagined, or could ever imagine that the Italian
Army List contained in its pages the name of
that General who has been giving kingdoms
away so freely on the banks of the Thames } And
who knows how many there are of his stamp,
of whose deeds and words in our ignorance, we
know nothing. It would therefore be expedient
that, at some future day, some one should enlight-
en us, and should speak to us of these, our real
heroes and exhibit in public the passports which
have facilitated their journey beyond foreign
Custom-houses and towards immortality.
Undoubtedly, some serious events must have
taken place during a certain period of time —
the period immediately following Caporetto —
serious events which we are unable to discover
without the aid, perhaps, of the foreigners who
witnessed them and assisted at them. Certainly,
during that period, there happened a striking
exodus of Italians who, despairing of saving Italy
on the Piave, rushed in a furious hurry to save
her in Paris and London, accompanied, of course,
by Austria's best and most faithful servants. If
they had not all become Balillas (1) to hurl the
stone which was not always handy, Italy's sons
had all become so many Macchiavellis. They
were all going about undertaking legations and
embassies; and they were all carrying with them
some little thing under their arm: this one, a
Curzolar Island; another, a piece of the Dalma-
tian Coast; a third, a portion of the Istrian Coast,
and so on, to offer to friends and enemies in
order to propitiate some mercy in favour of the
(1) Giovan Battista Perasso, afterwards surnamed Balilla, a street-boy
of Genoa who, in 1746, by throwing a stone gave the first signal of the
insurrection which ended with the expulsion of the Austrians from that city.
— 229 —
poor broen-down Country, which would never rise
again. And the Allies, who do not always un-
derstand our language, showed that they greatly
relished the Yugoslav tongue spoken by our
extraordinary legates and ambassadors of peace
and anarchy. And even now, after so much
victory, they still feign to ignore Greater Italy
and1 the Government which represents her, and
appear as if they were always negotiating with
those wandering ambassadors. But the misunder-
standing is not without danger, for everyone.
Certainly, our Allies show a very superficial
proof of their philosophy if they think to see
aright, far and near, by gazing on the world with
eyes accustomed to look upon joyful events only.
And they also show a still more superficial proof
of their psychological experience if they think
that they know Italy, or have gained a knowledge
of her through that hundred or so of known or
obscure commercial travellers of universal demo-
cracy who, late and hurriedly, in disagreement
with or despite the wish of the Minister of Fo-
reign Affairs — himself guilty of not wanting to
unbend before the exigencies of every-day reality
— the various Bureaus of Propaganda have sent
round Europe ; with what success and what results
everyone now learns and understands. But Italy,
it is well to state at once, Italy is another matter.
Italy is a country of forty millions of inhabitants
which neither that hundred or so of commercial
travellers of universal democracy, nor the five
hundred deputies of national democracy have the
capacity of understanding and representing. Tho-
se forty millions of inhabitants constitute a nation
exercising a much more severe discipline and
possesisng a much more tenacious and profound1
virtue than the thoughtlessness and the fatuity
— 230 —
of her Statesmen may cause to suspect : discipline
and virtue of which, after so many centuries of
expectation, our brethren of Trent and Trieste
and of all the shores on the opposite side of the
Adriatic, proud and staunch in their Italianhood,
now, as they were in the times of Venice and
Rome, are giving an admirable example: the
golden material of our history upon which our
race has impressed its divine and indelible mark
to differentiate it from all the surrounding Bar-
barians. And do our Allies of yesterday — and
we should also like to add of to-morrow — think
that they can so lightly jest with this nation of
forty millions of ancient Latin souls and minds;
and now that danger is over, pretend they can
put her on one side and sacrifice her rights and
hopes to the fancies of their pleasant ideologists
as well as to the interests of our roughest and
most dishonest enemies ? Let the French Govern-
ment, of its own accord, if the Italian Govern-
ment in its pastoral sentimentality has not thought
fit to do so, inform itself why certain French tor-
pedo-boats go from Corfu to Spalato and Zara
on purpose to hob-nob with the Croatians; and
then let it judge for itself whether it was truly
for this, that from « Quarto's fatal Rock » Italy's
war was proclaimed, by France's side, when
France had been attacked and invaded ! In truth,
more than offended, we are astonished and per-
turbed by this sudden darkening of our Allies'
mind, which we believed to be illuminated by so
vivid a light of gentleness and love after such a
terrible misfortune ! But, for all that, our soul is
still sufficiently strong to bear the weight of these
and other leaves which we expect to see falling
plentifully from the tree of our illusions.
— 231 -
Certainly, the behaviour of the French Navy
on the Adriatic has astounded all who thought
they had the right to believe in France's changed
sentiments towards Italy, after the common war,
Perhaps they did not believe in an ultra-placid
change, but they never thought of a storm ! And
a real storm is that which the French sailors and
their superior and inferior officers are exciting
in the minds of our Dalmatian brethren, with
wordb and actions which uphold and spur on all
the crimes of Yugoslav scoundrelism. But we
should like to prevent our Allies from committing
another mistake: that of alienating from them-
selves, without glory, the minds of forty millions
of Italians. All they can see, at the present mo-
ment of triumph, are three shattered Empires
and, worse, three immense catastrophes of peo-
ples without a State. But Anarchy is never, at all
times, and in all countries, more than a passing
phenomenon. Human life tends to unity. And,
sooner or later, all this dust of nations, which is
spread between the Ural Mountains and the
Rhine and the Danube will resume form and
figure once more and will also resume its inter-
rupted journey along the path of history. Minds
are now fleeter than years. And germs which,
in other periods of human civilization, required
a whole century, now require at most a decade
to mature and fructify. If our Allies were to look
into the future with piercing eyes, they would
see that Italy, from the Brenner Pass to the last
Dalmatian shore constitutes not only for herself,
but for the whole of civilized Europe, a rampart
which will repel the impetus of still inevitable
irruptions.
But what is the use of making conjectures,
now ? Now there is singing and drinking in Vic-
232
tory's honour. And it is quite natural, after the
long silence and the long agony of the trenches.
But it would be well, in the midst of joy fulness,
to avoid stepping on the edge of the Past.
233 —
OUR PRINCIPLES AND THE AIMS
OF OTHERS.
After three years and half of war, after the
shedding of so much blood, and1 the expenditure
of so many thousand millions, and after the at-
tainment of such a victory, we, good Italians are,
morally, at the same point where we were before
these serious and terrible things happened; and
still the substance of our soul continues to move
and dissolve itself in the vessel of our humanity
every time it is shaken by a strange hand. Ah,
our right ? Oh, we must first hear what the bro-
ker of such and such a friendly nation thinks of
it. It would seem, on the contrary, as if he had
some good reasons to show that we are in the
wrong. What of our boundary } Oh, we must not
overlook the observations which the merchant of
such another friendly country has to submit to
our consideration, in order to save us from present
worries and future dangers. — Thus the segments
of our backbone, not properly bound in their
ligaments, are dancing a furious St. Vitus* dance
between the occiput and the coccyx at every bow
that they deem it their duty to make each time a
stranger passes by and has a fancy to offer an
- 234 —
advice or a warning, or to dictate a law or a
programme for our history and our victory. Oh,
yes, we are verily made up of a substance that
is specially a graziosa e benigna » , gracious and
benign.
I frankly declare that I prefer the knotty and
stubborn substance of which others are made.
Victory has come to the three Allies at the
same time. The French, in their enthusiasm, have
immediately embraced her and have loosened
her sandals in order to prevent her from flying
away to other skies and other shores. The En-
glish have at once bound her to the prows of their
vessels, that the whole world may see her in the
infinite extension of the seas. We, who are more
cunning, have pulled out her eyes and stripped
off her feathers, because it beseems not an au-
thentic democratic people to substitute eagles for
the geese of the Capitol. Which of us would dare
to admonish an Englishman with reference to the
German Colonies ? Or a Frenchman with regard
to the Rhine or the Palatinate ? Both the English-
man and the Frenchman would laugh in the face
of any one who attempted such a doltish interfe-
rence. But we, on the contrary, gravely discuss
our questions of the Adriatic Sea or of the Bren-
ner line with any instigator who comes in our
way; and we exalt this discussion as a glory of
our democratic spirit. I have never yet learnt,
in studying History, that democratic spirit is the
equivalent of political and moral poverty.
Yesterday I was reading the Proclamation
which the Commissioner of the French Republic,
M. Mirman, has addressed to the Germans who
have remained in Lorraine ; a Proclamation which
contains periods like these : — « I am persuaded
that you will love France as soon as you become
— 235 —
capable of knowing her and worthy of under-
standing her, after a long and salutary exercise
of freedom... If you succeed in discerning, now,
the moral aberration into which you have fallen,
through the fault of the directors of your conscien-
ces, France will mercifully leave you to your
remorse; otherwise she will disdainfully abandon
you to your abjection ». « In any case » — M,
Mirman ends by saying ■ — « whoever dare to of-
fend France's name shall be punished in an
exemplary manner » .
Just think. What would have happened if an
Italian Commissioner had addressed a similar
Proclamation to the Croatians who, in their hatred
of Italy have, up to yesterday, insulted, wounded,
killed our fellow-countrymen of Zara, Sebenico,
Spalato and Fiume ? And how many meetings of
wise heads would not have been called for, in
every part of Europe, to draw up a bill of in-
dictment ?
The fact is that, in consequence of the anguish
and the horrors of the German war, France has
at last acquired that profound sense of reality
and necessity which the vague ideologies of the
past had caused her to lose, and which made
her also run the risk of being for ever ruined.
And, now, she believes she cannot better avoid
future wars than by securing for herself an iron-
girt boundary line — it matters little whether it
has been welded on the anvil of pure principles
or not — and by attending to her internal recon-
struction by means of a severe discipline of laws
which will not admit, any more, of those peaceful
enemy invasions of the last forty years, and
which, on the eve of the war and whilst the con-
flict lasted, caused her to discover that her sub-
soil had been mined by treason and corruption.
— 236 —
Who can blame lacerated France, if after victory
she strives to create for herself new moral and
material conditions of security which will prevent
future disasters, near or remote, to her territory
and to her generation ?
But I see, alas, with terror, that those vague
ideologies which, during the past forty years had
deprived France of her defences, of all her defen-
ces, have migrated to Italy, where they are at-
tempting new experiments and fresh woes.
I see everyone in Italy, preoccupied with their
own selves; I see them all intent in cutting out
of Victory's robe a cockade for their vanity or a
banner for their elections : I see them all running
after butterflies, to show their well-shaped idle
hands to the young English and American ladies
sitting pensively under the Arch of Titus; but I
see no one occupying himself about Italy, as she
is, in the powerful construction of her mountains
and plains, in the stirring agitation of her rivers
and seas. Those who make a show of occupying
themselves about her, do so merely as an expres-
sion of their thought, an irradiation of the prin-
ciples of their doctrines, which certainly count
for a great deal, but are not exactly that same
thing, that humble thing, which is Italy. Now,
it is a question of securing during peace and for
the longest possible time, Italy as a territory,
Italy as a nation. And, in order to do this, there
are not two methods to follow : there is only one,
that which is now employed! by victorious Fran-
ce. With our discussions, we are forty years
behind the times.
There are many fajtaiJisms in (physical and
moral life; but I do not know of a more stupid
and blind fatalism than that which I should call
the fatalism of principles.
237
In Italy, we have many good souls who trem-
ble at the idea of seeing a hundred thousand
Germans included in our confines on the Bren-
ner line, because such an inclusion would mean
an infringement of the principle of nationality.
But, would it not be more correct and humane
to tremble, instead, at the thought of an invasion
which, by an open door, or by one that is easily
forced open, might imperil the labours and the
peace of forty millions of Italians ? A certain
proportion between different evils should always
be made and a definite standard should be adopt-
ed in choosing between any two of them. Now,
I pose the question: Which is the worse evil, an
invasion and a war, or a slight violation of the
principle of nationality ? A violation which can
never be of such a nature to rouse any of those
future irredentisms which are spoken of with so
much fear; either because the civilized status of
our country does not admit of any kind of op-
pression or of ill-treatment, or because of the
small number of Germans who would be includ-
ed in our boundary ; or even because of the non-
importance to Germany's prosperity and defence
which the strip of territory occupied by the Ger-
mans on the Brenner line would ever represent.
What then ? The apprehensions of ideologists
for this, which cannot even be called a problem,
arise solely from a mental defect : the defect of
considering principles as being isolated in va-
cuum; which principles, on the contrary, cannot
reveal all their efficacy except in the complexity
and the conflict of all the elements of existence.
As for the Adriatic, the absurd, on that quest-
ion, reaches its most grotesque manifestations
and its most melodramatic catastrophes.
— 238 —
What reason can induce us or oblige us to give
away a portion — and not a small one, either —
of the Adriatic; say Dalmatia, for instance, to
the Croatians and to those disguised as such ?
Simply this: that such a portion was, up to
yesterday, in the possession of Austria, of whom
the Croatians were the staunchest supporters,
and of whom they are to-day her most legitimate
representatives. It is not a question, here, of
Wilson any more (it is not only the Lord's name
that is often taken in vain), or of any of his
fourteen points : common sense and international
legal sense are completely turned upside down,
You emerge from the open field of all the prin-
ciples and enter the closed field of insanity and
criminality. Not for a single hour have the Croa-
tians been Allies of ours in our war, so that it
might be said that for or from that hour of com-
mon danger should issue the metaphorical eter-
nity of gratitude which should justify the most
generous forms, if not of joint-ownership, at least
of tenure, be it even that of trampling on our soil;
but they have been, instead, our enemies until
Austria breathed her last breath; and, after Aus-
tria's death, her heirs, by virtue of a Will which
can be called the true type of Pulcinella s Will (1).
And we should sacrifice to them not only the
principle of nationality (this time we are going
to be chauvinists), but with that principle, the
faith and the blood of so many Italians on the
opposite shore, together with the fruits of our
victory, for which our best men have fought and
(1) Pulcinella, the popular Neapolitan Masque. It is said of him that
the made a will in which he bequeathed, to a fabulous amount, property
which did not belong to him. Hence « Testamento di Pulcinella », or « Pul-
cinella's Will » is a by-word, in Italy, to signify a Will which is null
and void.
- 239
have covered themselves with glory on the
Adriatic !
And all this, why?
To please xMr. Steed, and the Editor of the
Times.
Pshaw ! Italy is worth something more than
an article in the Times.
- 240
THE HOUR OF CRISIS.
It seems to me that too big words are being
spoken with reference to Signor Bissolati's re-
signation and with reference to the Cabinet crisis ;
big words which, in the end, will have no other
effect than that of distorting from their true sense
and meaning the intentions and the aims of the
men implicated in the discussion. I believe that
a little more modesty of expression would do
no harm to the seriousness of individual ideas
or, in general, to the nation's political good-
sense.
In Italy, it is difficult to discuss the acts of the
men who are at the head of affairs and their
respective responsibilities with a sure knowledge,
because it is difficult to discover the truth across
the thick veil of ambiguity which, like a Homeric
cloud, enshrouds the persons of Ministers. In
all civilized countries, the men who hold the
Government are almost always exposed to the
test of public opinion, either through their public
speeches or the statements made by them to the
Press; unless, as it more often happens, their
function as journalists and political writers does
not act, in consequence of an uninterrupted and
241
public manifestation of ideas, as an anticipated
guarantee of their actions. But in Italy, where
Ministers are generally drawn from the various
professional classes, in which it cannot be said
that political culture is always the foundation of
the science of statesmanship, mystery is the
natural atmosphere of the Government. Who
has ever found out, up to yesterday, that the dis-
agreement within the Cabinet on the most serious
problem of the war, which is, at the same time,
the most serious problem of peace, was so pro-
found ? Some invisible signs of distention were
indeed suspected and were vaguely roaming in
the air, through some ill-repressed newspaper
controversies, through certain ill -concealed for-
eign propaganda and through some ill-connected
coalitions in the Cabinet itself; but that the
discord was of such a nature as to render life
in common incompatible and collaboration im-
possible to the Members of the Cabinet in the
decisive hour of realization, I believe the public
has never, for a moment, imagined. How has it
been possible properly to cultivate the same field
together, or to cultivate a tree together in that
same field if, at the last moment, the fruit that
is hanging from the branches at the season of
gathering, cannot be distinguished or will not
be recognized } And by what grafting has the
national tree been contaminated if, in the end,
the cultivators themselves feel that their minds
are further away from each other than they are
from the minds of those in the neighbouring
fields? Italy, of all the Entente Powers, is the
only country of Europe where victory has brought
on a Cabinet crisis ; the only country where vic-
tory has been hailed by signs of political rather
than Parliamentary discord; the only country
— 242 —
where victory does not pacify souls and minds;
where it does not satisfy desires and ideals. Why
and wherefore } Some reason must exist ; and it
must be sought for and brought to light. I fear
that the reason lies at the roots — too uncovered,
on the bare ground — of our war.
When England and France, attacked by Ger-
many, pronounced the anathema against Prus-
sian militarism, all the democrats who, up to
then, had professed unlimited pacifism, hurried
to join the colours, and justified their conversion
by the new designation which had been given to
the war: that of democratic war. War as war,
no ! but democratic war, yes : it was another mat-
ter ! Perhaps England and France were not in
the wrong, on their partt when to the war of the
Central Empires they opposed the war of two
democratic and constitutional nations, based on
Law and governed by responsible men. The
wrong was on the side of the old democratic and
pacifist Parties of Italy, for instance, when they
considered the democratic war not as connected
with the struggle of two democracies against the
Central Empires, but, in the abstract, as the
means to attain the old ideals of pacifism and
to reach the sphere of the Kingdom of Utopia.
When it became expedient to discuss the neces-
sity of our war, we at once gave warning of the
danger: the danger of reducing a national war
to a war of Parties; the danger of reducing a
war which had for* its essential and unalterable
aims the boundaries of Italy, to a war of prin-
ciples; the danger, in fine, of applying an ideo-
logical and therefore by its own nature, an in-
coercible and unreliable purpose to a war na-
turally possessing a concrete and tangible object
which alone would, and could, suffice to obtain
- 243 -
unanimity of consent and sacrifice. The announ-
cement alone, of the democratic war was suffi-
cient to create difficulties and encourage the re-
luctance of the most torpid and stubborn elements
in the country. And war was fought for the most
part and in every sense, in the midst of national
discord ; a discord which the political motives of
the so-called democratic interventionism were
bound on their part to foment, because over and
above the patriotic and military ardour of its sup-
porters, these motives represented a permanent
contrast to the historical realities of war in ge-
neral and of the Italian war in particular. And
Reality is a terrible executioner, even of the
noblest ideas and of the most generous illusions ;
and, sometimes, she lets us find at the bottom* of
her basket, cut off with our hands rather than
with hers, our own heads which had conceived
those ideas and illusions beyond the pale of good
or evil. The symbol of Salome dancing round the
severed lead of Jokahan is not without significan-
ce. It is a little of what is happening to Signor
Bissolati at the present moment.
In any case, the country ought to have been
spared the present crisis.
It creates, in the face of foreigners, the most
unthought-of difficulties to the solution of the
territorial problem of the Italian peace ; and may
create the most tortuous and dangerous agitations
at home, by carrying back and deviating the pur-
poses of the national war into the groove of the
purposes of the democratic war, which existed
only in the programme of one political Party and
not in that of the whole nation.
What then, is happening in Italy at this mo-
ment ? Are the supporters of the democratic war
detaching themselves from the Cabinet only, or
- 244 -
also, and in a greater measure, from the Enten-
te ? Are they making the Entente suspicious of
the democratic Parties of the Allied nations them-
selves ? And even- of Wilson, at the very moment
in which, at the Court of England, he is exalting
the union of mind and ideal of the Anglo-Saxon
race ?
I do not think that impatience should be shown
in replying reassuringly to the above questions.
245
AFTER SIGNOR BISSOLATI'S INTERVIEW.
It would be giving offence to Signor Bissolati
to allow his interview on his resignation from the
Cabinet to pass without discussion. That (the
report of the interview should have come back
to us from England, is not to be wondered at. It
is true that England is the classic land of consti-
tutionalism; a country, that is, which would
hardly understand why a Minister should state to
the foreign Press the reasons of his resignation
without having previously stated them to Par-
liament or to his constituents by some means or
in some form, and still less would approve of
his doing so. But, besides being the classic land
of constitutionalism, England is also one of the
two great Powers of the Entente (Italy, of course,
does not count), and Signor Bissolati had already
declared, in Paris, during one of the past sea-
sons of the Alliance, that he was, Ido not exactly
remember whether a soldier or a Minister of the
Entente. It is useless, therefore, to raise the
previous question of Parliamentary form. Let us
pass, without further delay, to the subject-matter
of the interview.
Ever since he began to occupy himself with
Italy's foreign policy, Signor Bissolati has infused
into it the same ideas of party strife which un-
- 246 -
derlie his Socialistic doctrine and mentality. He
has always considered Italy as being a great
exploiting capitalist, and the other countries as
being innumerable members of a proletariat which
is being « sweated » by the ancient heir of Im-
perial Rome. Whence it is that he has always
called upon Italy to give back, give back, give
back — pro bono pacts, and in order to avoid
possible reverses and eventually, possible irre-
dentisms — all the lands which in his mind's
fancy he believes Italy to be unlawfully retaining.
During the period of neutrality, when he main-
tained that Italy should place herself at the
head of the Balkan League — the League which
would have been like a league of cats, for you
well know how the Balkan States have agreed
amongst themselves and1 what deference they
have at all times shown to us — he proposed that
Italy should defray all the costs of that enter prize,
which no one wanted or desired to undertake;
and that she should generously make a donation
of the /Egean Islands to Greece, from whom
Italy had not wrested them; and of Dalmatia
(which was then in the hands of Austria) to
Servia, who had never expressed the desire to
annex it. Sign or Bissolati is, assuredly, the purest
of ideologists (Napoleon would certainly have
never entrusted him with any kind of responsi-
bility in State affairs), and is, more attached to
his ideologies than to his native country or to
himself. Thus, what he did not succeed in ob-
taining in the name of the Balkan League, he
is now striving to obtain in the name of the Lea-
gue or Society of Nations; and, whether Balkan
League or League or Society of Nations, his prin-
cipal object is always one and the same: that
of depriving Italy of the /Egean Islands and of
— 247 -
Dalmatia, with the addition this time, of the
defensive line of the Brenner, which has been
pronounced by our own generals to be indis-
pensable to our defence. Evidently the /Egean
Islands and Dalmatia must be a dreadful night-
mare in Sign or Bissolati *s mind, if at all times
and on every occasion he is restlessly striving to
rid himself of them; and, putting himself in
Italy's place, to rid Italy of them too. But, al-
though Italians, not excluding those in Dalmatia
would be most happy to see Signor Bissolati
regain his peace of mind, I am afraid they would
not be equally satisfied to see the Government
of their country alienate or barter, without ade-
quate compensations, the Islands of the /Egean
which represent the pledge of the conditions
which Turkey has never kept and the indemni-
ties which she has never paid after the Lybian
war ; they would certainly not be equally satisfied
to see the Italian Government entrust to the ten-
der mercies of Croatian xudgels the flesh and
blood of the Dalmatian people which, after all,
is the flesh and blood of Venice and Rome. Si-
gnor Bissolati proposes to barter the /Egean
Islands for the mines of Heraclaea. But Signor Tit-
toni, in his most wise and masterly speech in the
Senate spoke of those mines solely as a compen-
sation due to Italy, on a line with the other Pow-
ers, for the sacrifices she has made for all and
with all the Allies in the European war. But, as
a matter of fact, do any rights accrue to Italy in
the East by reason of the European war ? To the
other Powers of the Entente, yes, certainly. But
to Italy, no ! for no reason whatever. It should
be sufficient to Italy to have had the honour of
fighting to make France greater, England more
powerful and Yugoslavia more audacious. Ay,
248
let us inf orm our dead of this ; they who are pre-
maturely sleeping their eternal sleep underground
are probably unaware that it was for all these
fine things, which were hidden from them to
their last day, that they are now asleep for ever.
Poor, poor dead of Italy !
But, nevertheless, the living are not less to be
pitied than the dead.
Whilst, abroad, the end of the war marks the
end of Statesmen's errors, as well as the concord
of public opinion and sentiment on peace pro-
blems , for the sole aim of making the most of the
sacrifices that have been undergone, and of
creating the best possible conditions for the se-
curity of our future existence, we, on the con-
trary, just as if the blood spilt up to yesterday
were nothing but water, and the wealth thrown
into the consuming fire were nought but the pro-
ceeds of a robbery, are more disunited than be-
fore; we continue to fight amongst ourselves in
the Cabinet, in the Press, and to-morrow perhaps
we shall fight even in the streets, always to the
detriment of the interests of Italy; always in the
name and on behalf of her enemies whom in our
minds we figure and represent as the latest pat-
tern of ideal nations. Up to the eve of the war
we were pro-French or pro-German; now that
Germany has been defeated, we have finally
become even pro-Yugoslav; and, in order better
to justify this new mania of ours, not only do we
disown our ancient national rights, not only in
opposition to the pride and the faith of our
heroes do we exalt the military prowess of the
Croatians, which Signor Bissolati with terror re-
minds Italians that they have witnessed during the
war, but, with our actions and our speeches we
lend asistance to our enemies, who are not a
- 249 —
few within and without the Entente's lines, in
opposing our aspirations and' annulling or under-
rating the aims of our war at the Peace Congress.
Thus: with our pro-Yugoslavism, made up of
panic and the fear of God, we are coming face
to face with the pro-Yugoslavism of our Allies,
which is made up, in complete disregard of Italy,
of calculation and of maritime and commercial
interests. Who cannot see the plan and the pur-
port of French pro-Yugoslavism which, with the
help of Greece, tends to no other object than
that of gaining the supremacy over our Lower
Adriatic and, across the Balkans, the supremacy
over the Balkan highways to the East, in substi-
tution of Austria which we helped to eliminate >
Sic vos non vobis : our eternal fate ! And in order
to attain this fate we have not only fought a great
national and European war, but we are prepar-
ing to face a civil war in our midst. Because, in
fine, all the efforts of those who for one reason
or another are endeavouring to disperse the aims
and the results of victory and to prepare for Italy
new conditions of territorial, political and com-
mercial inferiority in the face of our Allies, and
new conditions of weakness in the face of our
enemies with the disillusionments which they
sow, with the rancours which they arouse and
the humiliations which they permit are directed to
no other purpose than that of preparing the state
of mind and the atmosphere of the most calami-
tous of civil wars. Was it worth while waving
so many flags and causing so much Italian sor-
row, to arrive at such an abyss }
I deeply regret having to write these things
a propos of Sign or Bissolati who, during the war,
has been an example of national discipline. I
should have preferred to write them a propos of
— 250 —
others who have manifested the same ideas with-
out having the same reasons to consideration
which he has the right to inspire. But, alas, we
have, now, no time to lose in minuet bows. We
are hotly pursued by the sword of our enemies
and by the asinine kicks of those upon whom we
have conferred so many benefits. We must ra-
pidly see to our offensive and to our defences.
It is useless to illude ourselves or to illude
others. We are now passing the gravest moment
of our history ; a moment which should have been
one of settlement and is, instead, one of danger
and may result in one of definite disorder. As it
was at one time with Germany and Austria, we
are now, after this great war, regarded unfavour-
ably and derided by England and France.
Through our own fault ? Through the fault of
others ? Certainly, there are, in England, vast
centres of agitation against our aspirations which
no one thinks of quelling and which are fomented
by our Adriatic enemies and are not suppressed
by our friends beyond the Channel. And France,
as we all well know, is all one centre of agita-
tion to our detriment. In the interior, do you not
see? The old factious spirit is pervading even
the Cabinet, which is in a perpetual crisis and
in its innermost working is more troubled and
upset than appears on the surface; and thus
troubled and upset it is preparing to discuss the
most serious problems of the future with asso-
ciates who are sure of themselves, but diffident
and heedless of us. I ask again: who is to blame
for this unbearable situation ? If our own men
are to blame, they must be changed without any
regard, pitilessly, whatever their past merits may
be. And if the blame is to be ascribed to our
associates, we must unite, re-compose ourselves,
— 251 —
make a compact mass of all the nation and op-
pose it to the ill-will or the selfishness of others,
and not allow any decision or solution to be ar-
rived at which may be prejudicial or compromi-
sing to our interests. In any case, something
must be done. To remain in a state of discord
or inertia is not possible. To continue useless
discussions of ideals amongst ourselves, to con-
tinue the childish controversies on our intellect-
ual fatuities, is contemptible and iniquitous;
when we have round us, amidst such a pitiful
devastation, half a million of men killed and one
million of wounded, and all the secular patrimony
of the nation on the ground. Therefore ? Let the
Government first of all do its duty; that is to
say, let it measure its own capabilities and its
strength, and if it finds them up to the mark for
the task assigned to them and if it receives the
consent of the nation, let it trace out its line of
conduct, and impose it upon the Paris Congress.
Otherwise let it retire and leave to other stronger
men, whoever they may be and whichever side
they may come from, the care of our interests
and of our future. On her part let the nation, in
the forms which it will not be difficult to find
and which may be spontaneous and efficient,
proclaim loudly and clearly her irreducible and
unsuppressible will to issue victorious and not
defeated from the war, and not to allow those
who are near or afar, friends or enemies, to de-
viate from or betray her wishes, her aims and
her interests, present and future.
To sleep is no longer permissible. We must
act and act at once. And act solely on Italy's
behalf; not on behalf of your miserable passions
or your miserable political and party ambitions.
And have, sometimes, pity for this humble
Italy, too.
- 252 -
THE PACT OF ROME
AND THE POLA SWINDLE.
A popular morning paper raised an outcry
yesterday against the Yugoslav propaganda which
is being widely spread abroad and is becoming
more perfidious and more audacious, during this
first period of the Paris Congress to the detriment
of Italy and of her aspirations; and it called for
(( first aid » in the f otiti of counter propaganda
on the part of the Government and the national
Press, Oh, the national Press ! Oh, the chaste
national conscience ! Whilst the Croatians are
amusing themselves at our expense abroad, we
are tearing one another to pieces at home for the
sake of their handsome faces, and in the name of
Fiume and the name of Spalato, which should
be names of national concord, we are making a
show of the most senseless erudition in newspa-
pers and of still more senseless violence at public
meetings, to demonstrate to the world that we
want, undoubtedly, the League of Nations, but
not before having provoked and succeeded in
obtaining the dissolution and the destruction of
the Italian nation. It is evidently a question of a
new and more horrid form of madness which is
manifesting itself amongst mental diseases of our
race in the after war period.
— 253 —
From what poisonous exhalation has this new
form of madness, which assumes the specific ap-
pellation of pro-Yugoslavisrn, been created?
Madness it undoubtedly is, judging by the ways
in which it becomes manifest, by the agitations
and the perturbations which it provokes all round,
by the catastrophes which will inevitably follow
in its wake, by the direct and irreducible contra-
diction to the vital law of preservation — pre-
servation of individual and collective personality,
of State, country and nation — and by the rest-
less craving for dissolution which stirs it, besides
the incapacity of understanding the evil it works,
and of realizing the damage it does, both far
and near.
If I am not mistaken, the poison which pro-
duced it was the defeat of Caporetto.
Our Allies, too, underwent days equally sad
if not sadder than ours of October 1917: the
French on the Chernin des Dames, and the
English on the Somme. But they did not raise
the hubbub round their disaster that we did, nor
did they bury under it all the heroic effort which
their armies had accomplished during the long
and toilsome travail of the war : they closed
ranks, they ascertained and punished the persons
who were responsible, they reformed the com-
mands and continued the war-effort, both behind
the lines and on the battlefield, without attaching
to the reverse they had suffered any more im-
portance than to an episode to be marked with
the nigro lapillo, the black pebble of unlucky
days, and from which to draw more useful
teachings for the future. We, on the contrary,
lost our confidence, and what was worse, con-
fidence was lost by the politicians and writers
who, being most in view during the struggle,
254
felt with greater keeness the biting criticisms of
their adversaries, who now that the expected
hopes of victory had not been realized, did not
hesitate to hurl back at them the insults and ac-
cusations launched against them at the beginning
of the war. What was to be done } Whilst furna-
ces were seething in order to prepare new artil-
lery and General Diaz was training new men
for the counter-attack on the Piave and the final
glory of Vittorio Veneto, they became diplomats,
with the intent of beating Austria at least in a
closed field if the armies should not succeed in
beating her in the open one. (In order to combat
the errors of adversaries, it is not necessary to
misrepresent the motives of their actions). But,
whilst they were engaged in their diplomacy,
they happened to meet M. Trumbic in the
streets of London and Paris, just as our soldiers,
whilst fighting, were meeting his brethren in the
service of Austria. And M. Trumbic allowed
himself the luxury of playing, for once, the part
of Metternich with the tardy grand-children of
Nicolo Maechiavelli, and to « take them in » as
at one time his ancestors would have taken them
into prison or hanged1 them on the gibbet.
Certainly, if by negotiating the Pact of Rome
without the cognizance of the constituted autho-
rities, our candid parliamentary men and publicists
intended foiling or checkmating the old State
diplomacy and giving a decisive example of the
new popular diplomacy, without secrets, without
protocols and without ambassadors, it is my
belief that for the triumph of their principles and
their methods they will have to try agrain. They
showed themselves at least wanting in the first
and most essential element of any negotiation :
the psychological element, which implies a
— 255 -
knowledge of the contracting party, whether
friend or enemy, and an understanding of his
aims and of his means of carrying on a struggle.
They who, from an historical point of view, if
from no other, should have known what a Croat
is, negotiated with M. Trumbic as they would
have negotiated in Parliament with one of their
own countrymen belonging to one of the various
Parties there, for the formation of a colourless
Cabinet. M. Trumbic, instead, had his colour: a
colour which does not fade, his cudgel which
does not bend, and, in his waistcoat pocket, all the
hatred of his race against the Italians, which is
not spent in vain nor spent in every market. Here
in Rome, in London and in Paris, he saw a group
of individuals upset by disaster, distrustful of the
future, prepared to do anything and everything
in order to save their war in some way or another.
And, in the guise of a protector he concluded the
Pact of Rome with them, in the name of the most
sacred principles of 1789, of course. Of what is
his own or of what belonged to the Croatian race
he staked nothing in the game, not a drop of
blood, not a drop of tallow, nor even an ounce
of good will: he staked simply nothing. He was
and remained a Croat and an Austrian. And,
after the decisive day of Vittorio Veneto, when
the Italian army had destroyed both the Austrian
army and the empire of the Hapsburgs, there
was M. Trumbic at his post — (when I say M.
Trumbic, I mean either himself or any other
representative of the Croats) — there was M.
Trumbic, on the side of beaten Austria, organiz-
ing the swindle of the Pol a Fleet to the detriment
of Italy, the victor ! Behold the Croat ; always
the same, always the sworn enemy of Italy and
the Italians ! He had previously been led up the
- 256 -
steps of the Capitol and solemnly feasted there !
And the geese of the Capitol had been silent:
they, which in the fibres of their throats must
still feel the thrill of the screech they emitted at
the assault of the Gauls !
The Pola swindle ought to have caused even
the blindest and those who had fostered the
greatest illusions to open their eyes. It was not
only the proof or the revelation of the unchan-
geable mind of the Croats, but what is worse, it
was both the revelation and the overwhelming
proof of the duplicity which had surrounded and
infused the whole of the famous Pact of Rome,
and which tended — for the audacity of the
Croats in crime has no limits — to destroy and
annul the Pact of London. What was, in fact,
the Pact of Rome if not a lever wherewith to
unhinge the Pact of London ? And when one
thinks of the accomplices which the Pola swindle
has immediately found on all sides, and of the
snares to which even after our victory the Pact
of London is exposed, one can well ask the pro-
Yugoslavs whether they have ever realized or
had any conception of the danger to which they
have exposed their country, first by their diplo-
macy and afterwards by their efforts to discredit
and cause the fall of the Minister of Foreign Af-
fairs who did not want to open his hands to al-
low the Pact of London to fall into the Croatian
trap. For, in the same way as with the Pola
Fleet, so would our rights, already recognized by
the Pact of London, have been contested later
on; and we would have presented ourselves at
the Peace Congress with all the scath and the
scorn of our tragic imbecility. We would have
had in exchange, it is true, M. Trumbic's gra-
cious friendship, in the same manner as we have
- 257
17
been the recipients of M. Pasic*s gratitude after
we had twice denied Austria our assistance for
the destruction of Servia, and after having saved
and led safely to our shores the remnants of the
Servian army, ragged and disbanded by defeat,
along the rear ways of Macedonia.
Yet, in the interior of the country the contro-
versy on Yugoslavia is still raging, and there are
people who are tiring out their brains in newspa-
pers and their vocal chords in theatres and in
the streets (I cannot understand why the Socialists
who have always kept aloof from these contro-
versies, should now take part in them with the
rest), to uphold and defend, in the name of
Heaven knows what degenerated liberty and hu-
manity, the crimes of the Pola swindlers against
the clear and evident rights of the Italians of
Fiume, Zara, Sebenico and Spalato, and against
the rights of the whole of Italy and of the Italian
victory. Graecia capta, conquered and held in
bondage her proud conqueror, in her turn. So
Austria after her defeat now vanquishes and
holds Italy. But Greece held Rome in bondage
by the Fine Arts: Austria, instead, holds Italy
— - pardon, oh, goddess Rome! — with her
Croats. It is her posthumous revenge. Besides,
each employs the arts which he possesses. Aus-
tria's Fine Arts are the Croats.
It will, therefore, be not inopportune that,
whilst the Croatian propaganda is pursuing its
turbid and defamatory work against Italy abroad,
we should exercise our patience in collecting
and studying all the texts of the pro-Yugoslav
propaganda at home, to show to the public and
possibly to its authors, all its political iniquity
and all its intellectual monstrosity.
258 -
SOME QUOTATIONS FROM CAVOUR.
It is needless to pay any attention to what the
Agram newspapers say concerning the Italian-
hood of Dalmatia, nor to excite oneself about
their boasts of the deeds accomplished by the
Croats on the Isonzo and on the Piave, in the
service of Austria and against Italy. Boasting is
superfluous. The Croats have done their duty in
the service of Austria on the Isonzo and on the
Piave recently, as they served her during last
century at Brescia and Milan. And their historical
science unfolded for the purpose of convincing
their Italian and foreign associates of their rights
over our peoples are equally superfluous. The
only thing that, perhaps, is not superfluous is
this: to state that once, after 1860, some Croa-
tian generals were roughly handled in London
and threatened to be thrown into the Thames by
the exasperated mob at the recollection of their
cruelties and their iniquities committed on their
victims in Brescia and Milan. Now, instead, the
Croatian propagandists against Italy have esta-
blished their general headquarters in the offices
of the principal London and Paris newpapers. It
is true that they have also established these head-
— 259 -
quarters in the minds and the hearts of many
gracious Italians.
Let us not, therefore, follow the, let us say,
literature of the Croatian Press and of that other
which is its accomplice in the other countries
of Europe. Let us occupy ourselves, simply, with
the Press of our own country.
I have here, before me, the files of many in-
terventionist newspapers and the volumes of
many interventionist writers published during the
period of Italian neutrality. It is painful to ac-
knowledge the fact but, in order to arouse the
public spirit and give it the right direction to-
wards the war, these newspapers and writers had
no other thought in mind but to demonstrate
that it was Italy's absolute, unrestricted neces-
sity to reconquer the whole, complete inheritance
of the Most Serene Republic of Venice, com-
mencing from Dalmatia and Istria as far as Trie-
ste and Trento: a demonstration which must
have been extraordinarily efficacious if, notwith-
standing the reluctance of the parliamentary
bourgeoisie in power, which was proceeding in
a different direction, it succeeded, in the end, in
convincing and in dragging the country into the
war. But, now that war is at an end, behold those
same newspapers and writers disavow the pro-
gramme which had served to induce the nation
to enter the war and uphold another, revised and
corrected, or rather, mutilated; another program-
me in which the inheritance of Venice appears
diminished and contested; and a portion of it,
Dalmatia, considered as res furtiva and declined
with a gesture of supreme disdain, and thrown,
to the dogs. « Dalmatia ? » — they ask the gods
and the Croats — « what is Dalmatia ? Who has
ever heard of Dalmatia as Italian ? There must
260
evidently be a misunderstanding. Neither Dante
nor Cavour, either in Italic speech or in Frank-
ish idiom have ever pronounced or written so
strange a word. Dalmatia ? Why, this strange
word is not even found in Tommaseo's Dictiona-
ry » . What then 7
Then, one of two things: either the public was
drawn into eTror before the war, or it is being
drawn into error now. Either the public was
drawn into error when, in order to arouse it in
favour of the war it was made to believe that
Dalmatia was absolutely necessary and indispen-
sable for the integrity of the fatherland and for
the security of the Adriatic; or it is being drawn
into error now, that it is informed not only that
Dalmatia is no longer necessary for the security
of the Adriatic, but that it cannot be considered
as an integral portion of the fatherland, as it is
not, nor ever was, Italian. The dilemma has
horns which it is impossible to hide under the red
ribbon of any international haberdashery.
The serious part of the controversy on Dalma-
tia is, unfortunately, this: that the old upholders
of the integral national claims, in changing their
programme and in throwing Dalmatia to the dogs
do not confine themselves to the employment of
political arguments (that is, to arguments which
are opportunistic and transitory in their own es-
sence), but also attempt to use historical, statisti-
cal and ethnographical ones; that is to say, fun-
damental and substantial arguments which are
by their own nature permanent and unchangea-
ble; the same arguments, in fact, which the
Croats — that is to say, the enemies — are in
the habit of employing, with evident offence to
science as well as to the moral and legal sense
of all cultured and civilized people, for the pur-
261
pose of disputing the pure character of our na-
tional struggle and therefore of denying to Ita-
lians the right of aspiring to Dalmatia; and to
the Dalmatians the right of aspiring to Italy: a
surprising and truly unexpected phenomenon this,
of moral transubstantiation between the Italian
flour and the Croatian bran, which will hardly
find any Apostles at the Supper to celebrate its
marvels.
Even Cavour has been quoted in support of the
arguments employed by the Croats, Such a name
ought to have been spared from being used for
such an argument and such a people.
To quote Cavour for the purpose of attenuating
or disputing the Italianhood of Dalmatia is a
useless profanation, which can lead! to no practi-
cal result ; because it is sufficient to turn the page
of a certain book in order to restore to its proper
position the name of the great realizer of the na-
tional idea and to reconsecrate his word.
It is untrue that Cavour did not — as it is at-
tempted to intimate — recognize that Dalmatia
formed part of the programme of Italian unity.
In the same manner as the interventionist news-
papers and writers of 1914 and 1915, Cavour, in
his famous letter of December 18th. 1860, ad-
dressed to Valerio, showed that he was perfectly
cognizant of Dalmatia and regarded it in the
same light as I stria, Trieste and Trento; only he,
who was discussing the question at a time when
Rome and Venice did not yet form part of
united Italy, was in duty bound not to compro-
mise or allow to be compromised by inconside-
rate actions or propositions the immediate or mo-
re remote aims of reality. Rome and Venice were
yet to be attained; and he, a cautions and' pro-
vident realizer, contented himself with the mo-
— 262 -
dest defence of Ancona. (( I must likewise request
you», he therefore wrote to Valerio, who was
then Royal Commissioner of the Marches, « to
avoid any expression from which it might be
inferred that the New Kingdom of Italy is aspir-
ing to the conquest not only of Venetia, but also
of Trieste, together with Istria and Dalmatian.
(Note well the expression, which constitutes the
whole programme: Trieste together with Istria
and Dalmatia).
And after having made a summary mention of
the complexity of the Adriatic problem, he con-
cluded : « Every inconsiderate phrase which may
be uttered in this sense constitutes a terrible
weapon in the hand of our enemies, who will
take advantage of it in order to attempt to render
even England hostile to us, as she would look
unfavourably on the Adriatic becoming what it
was during the time of the Venetian Republic,
namely, an Italian lake. These few hints will
suffice, I trust, to render you circumspect in this
matter. For the present it is necessary to confine
your efforts to well defending Ancona: this will
become the ladder for a splendid progress in a
future which our grandchildren will not find too
remote » .
(Note the means and the end : Trieste together
with Istria and Dalmatia were not to constitute a
weapon in the hands of our enemies to serve
against the immediate problem of the liberation
of Venetia).
This happened in 1860, previous to the libera-
tion of Venetia and Rome. And, on the basis of
such a letter must one conclude that Cavour had
from that moment renounced all claims to Trento
and Trieste, besides Istria and Dalmatia }
The great Italians of the Risorgimento were not
->- 263 —
the puny Italians of to-day and ideas and argu-
ments irrelevant to the national essence were
excluded from their lofty historical and political
conception of Italian unity. Prudence and, at the
same time, the condition of Italy, which was then
weak, in the process of revival, and unarmed in
the midst of strong and well-armed States, com-
pelled them to pose and to solve questions one
at a time. But postponing questions did not si-
gnify relinquishing or disowning them. Thus,
even in the fiercest moment of irredentist agita-
tions, Francesco Crispi who, by reason of his offi-
ce had been constrained to effect a repression of
them, from his seat on the Government bench
proclaimed as haughtily as ever Italy's right to
her full territorial reintegration. In fact, in 1889,
replying to the interpellation addressed to the
Government by Signori Cavallotti and Imbriani,
he ended a speech, which was not, or was not
intended to be favourable to the agitations of the
agitations of the moment, with the following
words :
(( The illustrious Marco Minghetti, whilst in of-
fice and during a debate into which he had been
drawn and during which he replied with that
shining eloquence and clearness of thought which
were habitual to him, said that with regard to the
question of nationality, it was necessary to choose
the opportune time and even the opportune mo-
ment; but that if ever such a question were to
arise, and that wars were to bring about a modi-
fication of the geographical map of Europe, Italy
would have nothing to fear, for she had nothing
to give, but a great deal to recover. But, if there
are any principles which should animate all pa-
triots, whether they be seated on those benches
(pointing to the Deputies* benches), or on these
— 264 -
(pointing to the Government benches), the prin-
cipal virtue of States and of political men is
prudence » .
Prudence: a word in Cavour's doctrine of
realization.
But I pose the question : Can there be more op-
portune times and moments than these, following
the war and victory, to recover, after so much
prudence and so much expectation, all which
has been taken from us in centuries gone by }
Prudence and expectation even after war and
victory ?
The programme of the war was the integral
programme for the attainment of our national
claims. It was for that programme that Italy
fought and won.
To support a different programme is to com-
mit a crime against public faith.
265 -
ITALY AND THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS.
It cannot be a mystery to those whose thoughts
are fixed on realitxy, that no country in Europe is
more naturally disposed to support Wilson's
projects than Italy is ; because no country in Eu-
rope is more intolerant than Italy of any doctrine
or action which may lead towards war nor more
inclined by tendency and taste towards the gentle
arts and the gentle customs of peace. But, unhap-
pily, our internal Party controversies, not always
starting from the humble and chaste observation
of reality, but always inspired either by the Idea
— which is the moral fermentation of passion
and emits manifestations at once tragic and ridi-
culous — or, what is worse, by interest, which
is the immoral fermentation of all the errors and
all the stupidities of those, great and small, who
are for the moment in authority — our internal
Party controversies, I say, concurrently with those
of our most insolent and most petulant enemies,
have succeeded, abroad, in representing Italy as
the militarist and imperialistic nation par excel-
lence : the nation which is the most agitated by
a perpetual war fever, and the most distorted and
distracted of all by the mania and the fury of
— 266 —
conquest. And whilst debating and negotiating
in the midst of a Europe which, from the great-
est to the smallest Powers, is, under more or less
well -hidden forms, pervaded by the lust of ag-
grandizement ; those persons amongst us who dis-
sent from the integral national programme, and
those who, abroad, show themselves to be the
most stubborn opposers of our every right and our
every just claim and do not hesitate in changing
even the name of things and the contents of de-
finitions, have alternately given the names of
militarism and of imperialism to every rectifica-
tion of boundary which we have suggested and
claimed for the defence of our borders, and to
every effort made by us to group around the
ancient paternal stock all the peoples of the Adria-
tic which are Italian by blood, mind, conscience
and will. So much have they said and done, espe-
cially in recent times, that they have suceeded in
giving the fable the consistency of truth. Where-
fore Italy is still to-day condemned to the double
labour of struggling against and destroying not
only the snares and the hostility — hidden or vi-
sible — of the many enemies who surround her
even more closely than her own mountains and
seas, but also of dispersing and dispelling the
whims of her own citizens. It is true, however,
that she is by no means unaccustomed to this
double labour, which constitutes the pathos of
her sorrowful history through centuries gone by.
The action accomplished by Signor Orlando
with his speech on the League of Nation is not,
therefore, an act of formal homage to the Presi-
dent of the United States, but is the authentic
expression of the Italian spirit which moves in
law and through law strives to attain the equili-
brium of human and social forces. In the same
267
manner as, four years ago, in consequence of
Germany's declaration of war against France, the
Italian spirit, which felt the offence which had
been perpetrated against law, drew back and de-
tached itself from the old alliance, so now that
war is at an end, the Italian spirit, in order to
prevent new and no less serious offences against
law in the present and in the future, resolutely
takes up its stand, and not as a vain parade, on
Wilson's side.
But will the League of Nations prove a success ?
This is a problem which does not depend on
the will of men, and especially does not depend
on the will of its author and of his collaborators ;
but depends, above all, on the political and ter-
ritorial settlement which the Congress will have
given to the various European nations indepen-
dently of the ideal picture which the League of
Nations may have supplied.
For my part, I do not believe, for instance,
that the division of half Europe and, let us say,
of Mittel Europa as it had been conceived by the
Germans, into so many small States, on the basis
of more or less easily recognizable or generally
accepted nationalities can, in course of time, lead
to a sure and definite system of universal peace.
Nationalities are from their very nature excitable,
and in the varied daily struggle are more apt to
become still more irritated than to neutralize
themselves and cool down. There is no treaty that
will have the effect of modifying or attenuating
natural differences, just as there is no marriage
contract which has the effect of eliminating the
incompatibility of character between husband
and wife. And, in order to keep so many scat-
tered peoples in check, what new principle will
possess the energy and the capability of replacing
— 268 -
the authority and the imperial bond of the three
great States defeated in war? The admonition
addressed by Wilson and by the Delegates of the
other great Powers of the Congress to the small
Powers in course of formation, which are showing
so much eagerness and so great a hurry to employ
violence instead of reason in the initial questions
of meum and tuum, is the first indication of the
contrasts between the ideal authority of the Exe-
cutive Council of the League of Nations and the
behaviour of its future members. Will this admo-
nition suffice, to cool the appetites and to cut the
nails growing with so much audacity from very
infancy }
Again: will the Powers victorious over Ger-
many be themselves satisfied with conditions of
peace representing the expression of strict law,
- of pure law, whilst Germany still possesses, fal-
len but not shattered, a hardy and tenacious peo-
ple which, by reason of its strength and its auda-
city, is well capable of a prompt rehabilitation
and of a new struggle ?
For, the difference between the two defeats,
that of Austria and that of Germany is this : that
the one, by destroving the State has also destroy-
ed the bond which held together those peoples
which now tend to a different constitution and or-
ganization of their own, in accordance with the
different impulse of the race; whilst the other,
though destroying the State, has left not only the
unity of the people intact, but its very efficiency
also: unity and efficiency which are anything
but decadent, but quite the contrary, if we are
to judge by the effort accomplished before and
during the course of the war; of a people, in
fact, possessing the full vigour of all its faculties
and qualities, a people which the errors of its
- 269 -
old leaders may have thrown into ruin but which,
from the depths of its ruin will undoubtedly re-
vive by reason of its own impetus, better taught
by bitter experience and re-moulded by misfor-
tune. Is it possible that France and England do
not understand this, and that they do not attempt
to prepare stronger defences for themselves than
in the past ? The opposition which France is al-
ready raising against the union of Austrian Ger-
mans with those of Germany proper, opposition
which is in conflict with the principle of the self-
decision of peoples, which, in its turn, it is endea-
voured to overthrow at the, outset in virtue of the
other principle, that of the incapacity of vanquish-
ed peoples to annex others — (really, this prin-
ciple may be sound for territories, not for men of
the same race and of the same will) — show that
the needs of the great victorious Powers are al-
ready loudly clashing with the bases upon which
Wilson's Ideal City, the safe refuge of the League
of Nations, should be erected.
On the road bordered by these hedges, only
Italy can proceed firmly and without swerving
towards the Ideal City. Her conflicts with the
Croats are not of such a nature as to make her
apprehensive for the future. Besides, the Croats
will also have to settle matters with the Magyars
at their back, who are a strong and war-like peo-
ple with whom Italy has no reason to be eternally
in emnity, and with whom she has no reason for
not resuming the old relations which, at the time
of the common struggle against Austria, resulted
in so amicable an accord of arms and ideas. Al-
so, given her situation in Europe and her position
of equilibrium between the various nations com-
peting and struggling against each other, peace
and the constitution of peace are essential condi-
- 270 -
tfons for Italy's material as well as for her poli-
tical and moral development. In the constitution
of peace she is safe from friends and from ene-
mies. But would she be under a different consti-
tution 7 She knows from long experience that if
she has to be on her guard against enemies at
fixed dates, she has to be on her guard against
friends at all hours and on every occasion. Be-
cause our friends are always so made that they
never believe they show sympathy on our behalf
except by defendig and assximing as their own the
ideas and the interests of our enemies. And it
is useless to go any further in search of evidence
and proofs.
For all which reasons, both of the present and
the future, it is expedient that Italy, apart from
friends and enemies, should constitute for her-
self a state of right — even though represented
in that which is now called the League of Nations
— which should secure for her, morally and ma-
terially, the conditions of development to which
she is entitled after the war she has fought and
won.
And our Delegates at the Peace Conference
will serve their country so much the better if they
will strive their utmost to create and co-operate
in creating a European and world condition in
which the good will of our friends and the ill
will of our enemies will never have the opportu-
nity to meet and unite to our wrong and our de-
triment.
271 -
THE ATTITUDES.
Without being unduly pessimistic (sometimes
it is sufficient to be merely logical in order to
draw conclusions from premises), it can be fore-
seen or concluded, even from this moment, that
the Paris Congress will hardly arrive at a defi-
nite and permanent solution of the questions
which are successively coming up for discussion.
There is such a difference in minds and, worse,
such a diversity of conception and judgement on
the nature and the importance of political factors
and of material interests in competition, that no
effort of science or will can succeed, it seems to
me, in discovering formulas and in excogitating
measures which will have other characteristics
than those of haste and temporariness. The
world, in fine, is not to be reformed or transfor-
med! by means of a constitutional or diplomatic
Charter resulting from a discussion between ju-
rists and Statesmen of different ideas and of dif-
ferent countries, constrained to submit to a law
dictated by one of their number, and to which
they would willingly show themselves contrary
and rebellious, if they could but act freely or
could declare themselves and decide spontaneous-
*- 272 —
ly. Intuitively one perceives an atmospheric pres-
sure and' compression in the Paris Conference
which the mercury in the veins of human baro-
meters vainly try to avoid measuring, and which
the Press communiques vainly endeavour to avoid
revealing. Uneasiness is prevalent in minds and
purposes. A perfect agreement will not be arrived
at, therefore, in the forthcoming decisions.
No one will deny that the conflicts are nu-
merous.
There is a conflict between Wilson's ideologies
and the various historical and political realities
of the Powers of Europe.
There is a conflict between the aims of the
war totally attained by England, and the aims of
the war incompletely, attained by other coun-
tries allied to England.
There is a conflict between the rights of the
victors and the pretensions advanced by those
who have intruded themselves amongst the vic-
tors, and are suported here and there, according
to cases and interests, by this or that Allied Go-
vernment.
There is a conflict between the method of inter-
preting the principles of nationality, and the me-
thod of grouping the scattered fragments of Aus-
tria and of Mittel Europa in general, with respect
to the safety and the territorial and commercial
defence of the Western Powers.
There is a conflict between the international
programme of one or more of the victorious Po-
wers and Wilson's American programme.
Lastly, there is the conflict, or more properly
speaking the aversion, or still more precisely,
the hatred between the small nationalities which
have issued from the ancient Empire of the Haps-
burgs, and the struggle of the ambitions, the
— 273 -
vanities and the cravings of these nationalities
amongst themselves or in respect of other nation-
alities, neighbouring or distant or greater : ambi-
tions, vanities and cravings which all together
should contribute, with racial and historical ha-
treds and aversions, to create that harmony, that
concord, that blending of minds and hearts ne-
cessary for the constitution and the government
of the League of Nations, promoted and willed
by the President of the United States, who is but
a passing President — and in eighteen months'
time may have as a successor an opponent of his
ideas and an enemy of his League.
Meanwhile, the varying conditions and the
varying interests of the States represented can be
seen by the conduct of the most authoritative men
of the Congress.
President Wilson, who has no enemies on his
flank like France and Italy, and has only the
Ideal City of his mind to build, is wandering to !
and fro, like Orpheus with his lyre, from Asia-
tic to African shores, building walls to contain i
the aspirations of nations or dykes to dam them, \
and temples upon the sole altar of which the re- i1
ligions of the future and the reasons of the finan- j1
ces of the United States may find a welcome. He I'
is in a hurry, and it does not matter if the walls J
are not sufficiently solid, the dykes are not of
sufficient strength and the temples are not suffi-
ciently crowded by the faithful. Provided the City
be erected and the bank secure in the pomerium !
Lloyd George appears as if he were unconcern-
ed in and indifferent to the discussions of the
Congress. As a matter of fact, why should he
excite himself ? England had but one aim in the
war: to strike down Germany's naval power ^
which was threatening her on all sides and which,
- 274 —
with a little more patience, might have succeeded
in prostrating her. Germany's naval power has
been overthrown. The enemy's great fleet is all
in her ports. The seas and the sub-seas are clear-
ed of vessels and the horizon free from the Ger-
man flag. England fears no one any more. She
is, by now, mistress of herself and of her destiny.
Why and wherefore should her Ministers tire
themselves out in discussing at the Congress } For
a piece of German Colony more or less; a man-
date more or less in her spacious domains; for
the glory of her old Colonial Empire ? She can
even afford to free herself from European quest-
ions, in which she only became involved, for the
attainment of her sole aim, the overthrow of Ger-
many. As to recovering the costs of war, she will
see to that, presently, in the wide world.
Clemenceau, on the contrary, is champing the
bit. At the present moment, he finds himself be-
tween Wilson — to whose aid and to whose ar-
mies France owes a great part of the recovery
after defeat and the final victory over Ludendorf 's
armies — and Germany, which is undauntedly
raising her head from Weimar and is speaking
through Erbert, as yesterday she was speaking
through the Kaiser. He cannot oppose Wilson;
he must not not suffer Germany's challenge. His
racial instinct would prompt him to fix a French
stamp on Victory; but diplomatic propriety
obliges him, instead, not to forget Wilson's ut-
terances and actions, which were gratefully ac-
cepted at the time of the greatest danger. A
taciturn man up to yesterday, he has spoken at
last, in support of Foch's military argument, and
in opposition to Wilson's civil proposition. Both
tlie one and the other (or the others) — Wilson,
Clemenceau and Foch — are right, from their
275
particular points of view. If the League of Nations
is to serve for the peace and the pacification of
the European peoples, how can Germany, which
constitutes the greatest nucleus of these peoples,
be excluded; and, on the other hand, how can
she be included, enslaved and in fetters } But, on
the contrary, how is it possible to leave a nation
which has been vanquished but is neither broken
up nor in dissolution, alone in the midst of other
nations which are disarming?
In the midst of so many conflicting interests
and opinions, Sign or Orlando by his judicial at-
titude enables Italy to play the part of peace-
maker. But we should like others to recollect that
a sound and sure peace will not be attained in
Europe until Italv has been rendered completely
secure and well defended in respect of her ter-
ritory and her peoples ; we should like to remind
those who know and to inform those who do not
know, that European peace has been shattered
during centuries and centuries, ever since the
time when, through our broken boundaries the
Italian lands were invaded and the Italian peoples
oppressed by barbarians of every caste and of
every degree of bestiality; we should like, finally,
those who possess sense, science and conscious-
ness of nationality to be on our side to affirm and
defend the Italian nationality of the lands situated
on the Adriatic and along the whole of the Dal-
matian coast, from Trieste to Fiume, Zara, Se-
benico, Spalato, Trau and Ragusa; and that they
would set on our Victory the same value which
we have set upon theirs, namely, the value of a
noble, pure and lasting triumph of Latin civili-
zation over barbarian bestiality.
If not, what would be the use of a vain effort 'f
for peace ?
_ 276 ---
THE KAISER'S SUCCESSORS.
No one who has followed attentively the trend
of the internal movements in Germany during
these last four years of war, can be astonished at
the rise to power in the new German State of the
so-called ((Kaiser's Socialists)). David, President
of the Constituent Assembly; Erbert, President
of the Empire; Scheidemann, Minister of Foreign
Affairs, these are the names of three men who
signify and represent not a breaking up, but the
continuation of the Imperial policy which they
have accepted and supported during the war, and
of which they now assume the charge, if not the
responsibility, after the defeat. « Le Roi est mort;
Vive le Roi! » is the formula of hereditary mo-
narchies. (( With or without the Emperor ; Long
live the Empire ! » is the new formula of German
imperialism. In fact, according to the Weimar
Constituent Assembly, there is not, in Germany,
a Republic and a President of the Republic, but
an Empire and a President of the Empire. After
the disappearance of the Hohenzollerns, the struct-
ure of the State remains the same as Bismarck's
powerful hand had forged and welded it in the
furnace of the wars of 1866 and of 1870.
— 277 —
At all events, these Socialists who are now at
the helm of the German Empire are by no means
the improvised knights of a political adventure.
Men of industrious mind and of experience, train-
ed in the struggle for the political and social re-
vendications of the great labouring class, they are
ripe for all the responsibilities of government and
of State; and in their office and functions, and in
a greater measure than their predecessors, who, in
the end, were the representatives of nothing but
a feudal caste historically fallen, they bring with
them that authority, or rather that legitimacy
which derives from the inexhaustible sources of
popular conscience and will. Erbert's speech at
the opening of the Constituent Assembly is the
speech of a Statesman — (we shall see, later on,
if acts will correspond to words) — the speech
not of an individual only, but of an entire people
which, whatever its faults, its aberrations and
its errors may have been in the past, declares its
firm purpose to live; and, in affirming this will,
shows likewise that it takes into account the new
difficulties which surround its existence and the
unsuppressible exigencies of that sad reality: de-
feat. Hence the announcement which has been
made of the future programme, in the shape of
a concise formula: Order and Labour, which is
a formula of reality and also a formula of parsi-
mony and intimacy: the usual formula of all
wealthy families fallen into ill-fortune, of all com-
mercial Companies hurled into the abyss of in-
solvency. We are now a long way off from dreams
and follies. Far away from Bethmann-Hollweg's
brutal language and from the Kaiser's mystical
rhetoric. We are floating along the sluggish cur-
rents of modest humanity.
The German maximalist Socialists themsel-
— 278 -
ves did not pass from dreamland to reality after
the defeat, but during the course of the war it-
self, when they demanded not only internal State
reforms, but also the reform of their own Party,
in order to enable them to attain, well prepared
and well accoutred, to the Government of the
country.
Scheidemann's speech at the Wurtzburg Con-
gress, at the end of 1917 can be said to have been
the humus from which Erbert's speech at the
Weimar Constituent Assembly sprang and blos-
somed.
There were sentences in that speech which it
is not superfluous to remember to-day, after the
assumption by Socialism of the Government of
the State.
— (( Without showing ourselves optimistic, we
can foresee that at the next elections we shall
obtain such an important influence as will allow
us to assume all the responsibilities ourselves
and not to entrust them to others... »
— « But we must show prudence in making
promises, and not give the people to understand
that we are preparing for it a paradise on earth...))
— (( We must not, everlastingly, play the part
of theoricians and agitators as in the past; but
we must evolve a positive and practical policy...))
— (( Socialism is nought in itself : we cannot
examine each measure to know whether it is a
Socialist measure or not; we must find out whe-
ther it leads to a practical issue. . . »
— (( On every occasion we are being taunted,
as if it were an insult, with being Government
Socialists. Well, we must feel honoured by these
taunts. We have gone beyond the time of mere
criticism. We cannot continue to pass our lives
in breaking windows. Let us abandon our ancient
— 279 —
dogmatism, and let us enter into the realm of
reality... »
Sense of reality is sense of Government; and
when the German Socialist Party uttered the
above sentences through the medium of the pre-
sent Minister of Foreign Affairs, it showed itself
ripe for governing. If they do not lose this sense
of reality on the road, the Kaiser's successors in
office will be able to ensure to the Empire a safer
future than the Kaiser himself has done.
Should the Allies be glad at this speedy re-
construction of the German State ?
If the Allies, at an early stage, thought that
Germany, owing to her defeat, would have been
incapable of finding in herself the necessary ener-
gies for a prompt or a tardy resurrection, they
cannot, certainly, be glad of the results of the
Weimar Constituent Assembly.
That they had so thought, and had mentally
eliminated Germany from their immediate cal-
culations and from their remote anticipations is
shown by their strange conduct immediately fol-
lowing the conditions agreed upon for the armi-
stice.
As long as Germany was in arms and repre-
sented an implacable menace, the Allies remained
united. But no sooner did the menace seem to
have been dispelled and Germany appear to be
overthrown and incapable of arising, the Allies
became disunited: each of them stood aside, as
if victory had not been the result of a common
and combined effort ; each showed itself indif-
ferent to the fate of the others; each wended its
own solitary way, in which it almost hoped it
would not meet its neighbour of the previous day
face to face; each selected its own friends, heed-
less whether they were friends or enemies of its
- 280 —
former brother-in-arms. And, amongst them all,
Italy was and still is not a little surprised; Italy
who, in her infinite good -faith was compelled to
learn as new some old political and moral truths
which it is now useless to discuss and to illustrate.
But the Germans who, feudalists or Socialists,
militarists or pacifists though they be, are always
men of keen discernment, were not slow to find
out the withdrawal — let us so name it — of the
Allies from their primitive point of concentration,
which was the German name; and when they
had fully seen and felt that their old enemies were
beginning to become indifferent to each other,
they commenced to dare and to threaten on their
own account. Erbert, as well as David and Schie-
demann had always maintained Germany's right
over Alsace-Lorraine, and the legitimacy of the
annexation of those provinces after the war of
1870. Erbert, as well as David and Schiedemann
had always defended the policy of the Kaiser
and of the Imperial Chancellery in the question
of the absolute integrity of the Empire within all
its boundaries. To re-affirm this right and to pro-
claim this integrity was only therefore, to be con-
sistent. Naturally, this demonstration of consi-
stency would have been postponed to more fitting
times had not German audacity thought to find
resistance weaker and solidarity looser. The Ger-
man sword showed its point through the inter-
stices.
In any way, I do not consider it an evil if the
danger appears tangibly from time to time, and
shows itself visibly now and then. It may thus
serve to prevent the heedless from falling into
new errors, and the foolish from agitating them-
selves in new follies.
Though it may be an easy art of pride to des-
281
pise the good that has been received, it is not
useful political art to despise the recollection of
the evil that has been suffered. Germany is the
remembrance of that evil. Let it serve, at least,
to recall every one together at the point of depart-
ure, and at the concentration point of the war.
The speedy reconstitution of the German State
under the government of the Imperial Socialists
must be considered from a twofold point of view ;
that of Germany's internal policy, and that of the
mutual policy of the Powers which were at one
time allied against Germany.
If these Powers continue to slacken the bonds
of their Alliance they may be sure that, some fine
day, sooner than they believe or imagine, Ger-
many will be once more in their midst, stronger
than before, more corrosive than before, more
domineering and more revengeful.
And this time, it would be for ever.
282 —
A LESSER AND WORSE AUSTRIA.
Under a Yugoslave cloak, the Croats have
drawn up, and sooner or later will end by reading
and commenting before the Paris Congress, the
Memorial of their pretensions, or, if the definition
is more suited to their audacity, the Manifesto
of their Imperialism. Was it not they who venti-
lated even the idea of proclaiming Emperor the
successor of the Obrenovic ?
There is no limit to the Croats' aspirations.
Do you remember the scene, in Manzoni's The
Betrothed, of the Innominate' s return to his castle
after his conversion ? The proud lord assembled
all his bravoes in the great hall and, with extended
arm, in the midst of a deep silence announced in
a loud voice : « I release each one of you from
the heinous orders which you have received from
me». The bravoes, at that announcement re-
mained thunder-struck; uncertain of one another,
and each one uncertain of himself; some were
chafing, some were making projects as to where
to go to find an asylum and an employment ; some
— says the author also — were making an exa-
mination of their conscience to see whether it
might be possible to turn honest men.
283
Amongst the bravoes in the service of Austria,
you may rest assured, it was certainly not the
Croats who considered the possibility of turning
honest men. On the day following her defeat they
still persisted in wearing the curl of hair on their
forehead as they had always worn it (1).
The domestics who stand for hours in the court-
yards of the wealthy, end by learning many more
things and knowing many more people than those
who remain in the private apartments. They watch
visitors and clients ascending and descending the
staircase, and gather from the expresison of their
countenance, all their thoughts and sentiments,
and even their obscure and subdued words : they
thus succeed in knowing precisely who are the
friends or the enemies of their masters, and what
are the springs which move their friendship or
their enmity; and in the event of their master's
ruin they are in a position immediately to decide
upon the line of conduct which is convenient to
them, and how to make use of acquaintances ma-
de by them during their experience in time of
service. After the downfall of Austria, the Croats,
who had duly learnt who were the friends of Aus-
tria and who were the enemies of Italy, did not
have much trouble in tracing back the familiar
faces they had seen at the foot of their former
Lord's stairs.
Owing to historical necessity, the Allies at war
against the Central Empires, had not all to face
the same direct enemy. Italy had to face Austria;
England and France had to face Germany which,
(1) The curl of hair (in Italian: ciuffo), on the forehead was a peculiar
sign by which the bravoes, or hired assassins of the 16 th. and 17 th.
centuries were known. The curl was, properly speaking, a long and
thick tuft of hair which, during an attack or a fight was pulled over the
eyes to hide the features of the assailant.
284
moreover, absorbed within herself Austria, Tur-
key and Bulgaria ; and for various reasons of equi-
librium, our direct enemy was not definitely eli-
minated from the chessboard of negotiations by
those narrow-minded Parties in France and En-
gland which reckoned on all the elements of pro-
bability in order to succeed in weakening Ger-
many.
The Austrian question always remained, at bot-
tom, the tragic knot of the war and if Clemen -
ceau's gesture — the gesture of a polemist — bare-
ly succeeded in cutting it materially, it did not
succeed in untying it, morally, in the disconcerted
minds of those Parties which, after Austria had
been defeated and beaten by our armies, did not
give up the illusion or the hope of repairing her
under the guise of Yugoslavia, and thus erecting
that famous Eastern barrier against Germany
which, during the war, they had never succeeded
in erecting; without reflecting that, this time, they
would end by erecting it exclusively against Italy.
As a matter of course, the Croats immediately
followed the road traced out by those dismal nar-
row-minded Parties in order to co-operate in the
plan, and became their instruments: one could
more appropriately say their hired assassins, as
befits the tradition of their trade.
There is, in France and in England, a com-
plete stock of old literature on the function of
Austria and on the necessity of securing the per-
formance of this function on behalf of European
equilibrium ; a literature which had its greatest
development during the period of formation of the
doctrine of pan-Germanism, the movement which
more particularly aimed at the overthrow of the
political and commercial influence of England and
France in Europe and in all the other parts of the
- 285 -
globe. If you open one of the books which form
part of that literature, you will immediately
discern, on reading the first pages, nay, the very
first lines of the Preface, the nature of the senti-
ments which inspire the fearful authors of those
books, and the political aims to which they are
directed. Read for instance the last of these books
published by Mr. Steed. He attempts to demon-
strate not only the essential unity of the territories
of the Hapsburgs, but also that all the internal
crises of the Danubian Monarchy are crises of
growth, not of decadence; whence the necessity
of co-operating with the House of Hapsburg in
order to find and to effect the remedies which will
best suit the prosperity of the Dynasty and of the
Monarchy. — Read, likewise M. Weil's book.
The whole Preface to the work, written by M.
Leroy-Beaulieu, one of the most authoritative na-
mes of the present French school, is one cry of
alarm, a If ever Austria were to disappear from
the map of Europe, the end of our old historic
Europe would come » . Austria must be taken as
she is : a she is the wor\ of Nature, besides being
that of politics ». And not without reason, there-
fore, he concludes with these words, which I
should wish to bring to the recollection of many
politicians and writers in France and in England :
« Anything which may be put into the place of
this ethnographical Babel will always be a more
artificial construction than the existing one, wi-
thout being more propitious to the liberty of peo-
ples)).
Now, this old literature is yet operating to Italy's
detriment by means of its most poisonous and
most dangerous venom. Because all those persons
who, in good or bad faith cannot picture to them-
selves a Europe bereft of Austria, believe that, let
_ 286 —
this State once disappear, they can be themselves
reassured and secure the tranquillity of their de-
scendants by the creation of another Austria,
formed on a Croatian basis, more unreal and
worse than the former one; and they thus show-
how difficult to the human mind it is to conceive
things and situations different from those which
through unvarying custom it has been agreed to
consider as necessary and permanent. How is it
possible, for instance, to convince the writer or
writers of the newspapers of the Northcliffe Trust,
from the Times to the Daily Mail, that he is, or
they are, not ten or twenty years behind the times,
with their propaganda, but a whole century ; and
that he, or they, are discussing, in Paris, in the
year 1919, with the same mind and with the same
fears with which their ancestors discussed in Vien-
na in 1815 ? They perpetually see the shadow of
Germany hovering round them, as their ancest-
ors were continually haunted in like manner by
the shadow of the great Napoleon; and with the
exception of the few inevitable changes that have
to be made, they think and act now precisely as
those ancestors thought and acted in 1815. How
miserably poor the human mind is, especially
when it has the pretention of making the world
anew ! The world, instead, remakes itself on its
own account, slowly, deeply, internally, without
the aid of the more or less pretentious pedagogues
who, from time to time, seat themselves round a
table, to reconstruct it at their will and pleasure
— on paper. To attempt to rebuild a new Austria
with the worst elements of the old one, under the
cloak of Wilson's principles, is a vain and ridi-
culous enterprize, which may even succeed to-
day, when all hypocrisies, more or lesse veiled and
masked appear to be successful, but which will
287
not and cannot succeed to-morrow when, freed
from temporary forms and disguises, life will re-
sume its normal rythm, and reality will impose
itself upon mankind and make itself felt by
means of its organic and natural forces. Do you
really think that this is the first time that Kings
and kingdoms which had no right to exist, have
been defended and have have had men to defend
them before a Congress ? At the Congress of
Vienna, the pretenders actually paid the men
who defended them. To-day it is possible that the
defenders pay the pretenders. Idealism is so ca-
pricious ! You remember where Giosue Carducci,
in his moments of spleen, wished he could drown
Idealism !
It is therefore needless seriously to discuss the
Croats* Memorial.
Why disturb the tragic silence of history and
ethnography, and the less tragic ones of statistics
and geography merely to establish and to know
what is and where is Italy and where is Croatia ?
Let us leave these illustrious academic exercises
to the sportsmen of the new European idealism.
The Croats, on their part, are quite right in inten-
sifying their action and pursuing their trade vi-
gorously in the hurly-burly of this idealism. They
would be wrong if they were not audacious, now
that audacity is the indisputable sign of the vile-
ness of the race.
They have found in the European Press many
honest Jagoes who have placed them on a par
with Italians, who discuss their desiderata on the
same plane as Italy's desiderata; who treat them
as combatants and victors in the war against Aus-
tria and Germany on the same line of fire as
Italy, and who invoke — oh, gracious bounty ! —
Wilson's blessings upon their heads and upon
- 288 -
the heads of the Italians at the same time. They
who, up to yesterday, were nought but the exe-
cutioners of a sanguinary regime, see themselves,
all of a sudden, robed in the toga and considered
as judges in the same tribunals where the creators
and the propagators of the world's Law are sit-
ting. Why should they not aspire to an Empire ?
Ay, they are perfectly right in aspiring to an Em-
pire, and thus showing a supreme contempt of
human kind and civilization, when they see that,
after so many crimes committed on behalf of
Austria, their old mistress, and after so much vio-
lence against all laws divine and human, they,
without a vigil of expiation, without even a bapt-
ism of purification, can be considered as an in-
tegral part of this humanity and of this civiliza-
tion. Oh, I should like to see the Paris Congress,
after the reading of the Yugoslave Memorial and
on the uniform plea of the Daly Maily assign to
the Croats, forthwith, the half of Dalmatia, the
half of Istria, the half of Trieste, the half of Go-
rizia, the half of Udine — and, likevise, the half
of the corpses of our dead, buried or unburied on
all the sides of the Carso, and on the banks of the
Isonzo and of the Piave.
In the name of civilization and humanity, then,
up, up, and be doing !
- 289 -
THE SAME OLD STORY.
A war, a revolution, a reaction: a short period
of truce; then, again a war, a revolution ,a react-
ion: another short period of truce; and then the
same thing over again. Frequently the three events
take place contemporaneously, on the same plan
and on the same level, in the various countries
of Europe: thus it happened at the time of the
French Revolution; thus it happened at the time
of the civil-religious wars, which were interwoven
with the wars of conquest and of supremacy be-
tween France, Spain and the German States : thus
it happens now, during the sweet hours through
which we are passing. And, in the midst of alii
these storms, even Wilson's mission and Wilson-
ism are by no means new or original. At the end
of every war and every revolution, some indivi-
dbals of good-faith and goodwill have always
turned up to affirm, to predict and to propose so
to arrange the world's affairs, that the war and
the revolution just finished should be the very
last. The whole political literature of all times is
full of Wilsonism. Afterwards, things went on
worse than before. Humanity possesses an inher-
ent faculty which renders it always new to itself,
— 290 —
whilst keeping it always equal to itself: the fa-
culty of oblivion. From one generation to the
other, it forgets the ideas it has thought out, the
words it has uttered, the actions it has accomplish-
ed, and recommences, all over again, to think out
the same ideas, repeat the same words and mimic
the same actions; spurred on, as it were, by the
inexhaustible energy of an hereditary law which,
by means of various forms and figures, ever main-
tains intact an equal physical and moral persona-
lity which, from father to son, recommences al-
ways the same existence under the illusion that
an ever different life has been recommenced.
What is to be done } Escape from this galley we
cannot, and to back-water is inopportune whilst
the boat's crew are exerting every nerve in the
hope of gaining the illusive mirage of the harbour,
But, meanwhile, how monotonous life is !
One day, a King of France decided upon rid-
ding himself of one of his Ministers, the Marechal
d'Ancre. The courtiers presented to his Majesty
the Sieur Nicolas de THospital, Marquis de Vitry.
— « And, Sire, were he to defend himself, what
should I do ? — The King, who was the taciturn
Louis XIII., remained silent. But one of the court-
iers spoke in his stead. — « His Majesty intends
that he be killed ». — And so it was done. —
Another time, another King of France, Henri III.,
wished to get rid of another Minister, the Duke
de Guise. Monsieur de Monfery was the executor
of his Sovereign's command. — Once again, the
same thing happened, in the case of Coligny. Why
wonder, then, if the Wittelsbach have found
Count Arco Walley, an ex-Captain of the Guards,
to kill Kurt Eisner, the President of the Bavarian
Diet ? In the vicissitudes of history, this is merely
an episode of ordinary administration. Besides,
291
political crime is not a prerogative or an inven-
tion of revolutionary Parties; it is also a means
adopted by reactionary Parties for the purpose
of revenging themselves for the power they have
lost, or to strengthen a power which is tottering.
Neither is it only revolutionary ideas which act
— as Lenin's and Trotzky's act now — beyond
territorial boundaries, amongst analogous Parties
in other nations. Religious or, humanitarian ideas
always act above and outside, and very often
against, the conscience and the interests of na-
tions. During the wars of religion, the French
Catholics fought against the Protestant Govern-
ments of France side by side with the Spanish
Catholic armies ; just as the French protestants, in
their turn, fought the Catholic Governments by
the side of the Genevese armies. And were not
Protestants surnamed « Huguenots » , from eid-
genossen, that is, confederates, — of the Berne
and Freiburg Cantons — as Socialists are to-day
called genossen by their Nationalist adversaries,
in order to confound them with their German
comrades from whom they derive their doctrine
and their means of action and organization ? As
you see, not even the coining of words, through-
out the course of centuries, bears the stamp of an
excessive originality.
To-day — and this, at least, might appear to
be an originality — there happens in Germany,
the contrary of what happened in France during
last century. In the last century, the French Re-
volution came to an end with the Empire ; to-day,
the German Empire ends with a revolution. But
these are merely formal syntheses and antitheses.
The following might seem more substantial ar-
guments, namely, that in order to change the
feudal regime into a liberal regime, and to destroy
— 292 -
the royal power in order to create ministerial pow-
er in France, a revolution was sufficient; whilst
in order to obtain the same results in Germany,
a European or rather a world war has been found
necessary. For, after all, what is the true and pro-
per historical result of the European war, if not
that of the internal transformation, the transform-
ation of the regime of the German Empire ? I am
well aware that together with the Hohenzollern
Dynasty, the dynasties of the Hapsburgs and of
the Romanoff have fallen too; and with them the
political structure of three Empires; but the dy-
namic importance which the internal transform-
ation of the German regime can exercise in Europe
cannot be compared with that of the liquidation
of the Austrian Empire and with that of the dis-
integration of the Empire of Russia. When the
tumultuous Bolshevic tyranny has exhausted , all
its resources, and a new unitary or federal State
has been formed by the peoples of Great and
Little Russia on the ruins of Lenin's and Trotzky's
dual Czarism, it can, from now, be predicted that
this State will not exercise any decisive influence
upon European civilization, as no decisive in-
fluence will be exercised by the other States deriv-
ing from the old structure of the Austrian Empire,
unless they succeed in organizing themselves and
in entering in the ways of peaceful relations be-
tween themselves. But the same cannot be said
of Germany, whatever may be her future adjust-
ment and her future structure. Under the form
of a Republic or of an Empire, the German nation
will always remain one of the strongest and most
resisting of European nations: a nation which
defeat can, for a moment, overturn and prostrate,
but of which it will never succeed in changing the
nature, which is essentially active and efficient
293
and will ever find in science and in labour the
methods and the means of renewing and re-as-
serting itself. It is in this sense that I say that the
political transformation of the German regime is
the real and true result of the war; and that it
may become as important, if not more important,
to European civilization, politically and socially,
as was the political transformation of the French
regime in the Great Revolution. Because, after all,
the Great Revolution, by destroying feudalism,
acted socially as well as politically on European
life, and created the possibility of a new endow-
ment in favour of the middle classes which, up to
that time, had been destitute of landed property
as well as of social power. At present , other so-
cial classes are alternately appearing before the
ancient footlights of history, and endeavouring to
don the helmet and the sword which, at one time
and even now, they have been holding for the
behoof of personages standing in the first row and
belonging to the first category of the social scale.
These reactionary movements in Germany, be
they monarfTiical or Spartachian against the new
Government may, therefore, succeed in perturb-
ing the Chronicle of events, if this modest servant
of history is a victim to neurasthenia, but will not
succeed in offending or discrediting the disorder
of things, which will always remain the same,
throughout all forms of wars and revolutions,
which are the political forms of the life and
vitality of the human substance. Who can say
what will be the function of the German nation
in a regime of liberty ? Who can say what new
labours of salvation or of death it will prepare for
an unsuspecting world ? This will be the surprise
reserved to future generations ; to whom I , on my
account, bequeath the legacy of this interrogation,
— 294 —
in the hope that some newly-born reader with eyes
still damp with dew, will send me a reply when
his eyes will be wet with tears as those of his
parents or relations are now, to the world beyond,
to the asphodel meadow where I shall wander, a
restless shadow, longing for news of future wars.
For, if the Kingdom of the Lord was not re-
established on earth by Jesus Christ, two thousand
years ago, it will not, by any means be re-esta-
blished within six months or a year from now,
by the Council of Ten at the Paris Congress.
And new wars will happen again to-morrow,
as they happened yesterday and the day before
yesterday, instigated as of yore by the High Lord
of War who, if he is not, personally the Kaiser
any more, will again be collectively, as he was
since remotest times : the People of Germany.
— 295
THE NEGLECTED FACTOR
OF THE PARIS CONGRESS.
History, or legend, has taught us that Plato,
before passing from active life to a contemplative
one, gave a banquet to which he invited his
friends. The handsomest courtesans and the most
dissolute Athenians were his guests at the glo-
rious feast, which was intended to represent the
last temptation of worldly pleasures to the great
pupil of Socrates, who was on the point of loosen-
ing the hydroplane of his genius from Pleasure's
shores to proceed on the journey towards the sea
and sky of the Ideal. The experiment was succes-
ful. Plato, penetrated on open wings in the in-
visible atmosphere of his Republic, where he still
abides, in serene beatitude. Following his traces,
many other pure minds, in the course of D3'gone
centuries have unsuccessfully attempted Plato's
pleasing adventure. With the aid of the most
fantastic motors of modern aviation, our illustri-
ous diplomats at the Congress of Paris are cer-
tain, or pretend to be certain, of finally discover-
ing the particular star in which Plato has planted
the ensigns of his Republic, and of hanging on
the rays of that luminous halo the augural wreath
of the nations of this very old Europe, of whose
296
destiny they have assumed the care. It is not
without emotion, therefore, that we read the glad
tidings which the greatest Plato of the United
States has brought to his countrymen on setting
foot on the soil of his Republic; namely, that
(( European peoples feel, by now, lightened of
the great burden of distrust, and feel moreover,
that they are on the eve of the day in which the
nations will understand each other and will asso-
ciate to obtain the prevalence of Right ». In fact,
as aviators tell us, whilst flying one feels the sen-
sation of this moral and physical « lightness » .
Plato started from life and from the banquet
which was to leave him a vague recollection of
life, on his journey in search of the ideal Repu-
blic. Contrariwise, the Delegates at the Congress
of Paris have started from the Ideal Republic to
descend to this lowly world and regulate the af-
fairs of its existence. They, in fact, independently
of any earthly care, independently of any paltry
contingent consideration, as philosophers say, and
of any still more paltry estimate of near and tan-
gible elements of reality, have created, of their
own accord, the Society of Nations, in the ab-
stract, just as they have imagined that it ought
to be and to work; they have duly supplied it
with an outfit of laws and regulations; they have
even inaugurated it — still empty, of course —
with appropriate speeches; and* their task ac-
complished, they are now making a tour in search
of the dispersed nations which are to inhabit it,
as at one time emigration agents used to send
their emissaries on tour in the countries of Eu-
rope to enrol labourers desirous of leaving their
firesides and of abandoning their native soil to
emigrate to far-off America, to till the ground
and construct railways. A rather perilous enrol-
- 297 —
ment, I should think, with the present cravings
and the relative conditions of the human market,
judging by the pretensions which the various com-
petitors are advancing against one another: the
King of the Hedjaz and Venizelos ; Venizelos and
Turkan Pacha — Turkan Pacha and Trumbic and
Korosec; without taking into account the other
rivals who remain m the shadow, or on one side,
or behind, awaiting the opportune moment to
issue forth into the daylight to demand their com-
pensation or to dictate their conditions. An extre-
mely difficult problem, this, of emigration from
the real world to the world of ideal; which, wi-
thout doubt, will eventually give the Delegates at |
the Paris Congress more serious trouble than the
priests and the poets, the undesirables of the
Ideal Republic, ever gave to Plato. And I do not
think that the admonitions and the « solemn
warnings » imparted, from the very first meetings,
to the lesser nations will have any resolutive effi-
ciency. Besides, are differences of quality and
quantity conceivable only in the category of the
Ideal? It would be the same as authorizing dis-
cussion in the sphere of divinity, that is to say
the sphere of the absolute.
The illustrious Academicians at the Congress
of Paris have forgotten, in the vestibules of the
great Salle de I'Horologe, a little thing which
might perhaps have had some importance in their
negotiations and their discussions : a little thing,
a small trifle which may even excite derision at
the recollection of it : the War.
They have arrived in Paris placidly, serenely,
candidly; as if each had started from his village,
from his home full of rosy-cheeked and prat-
tling children; from his School-house full of
abaci, maps and geographical globes; from his
- 298 —
library full of books and catalogues — and not
from the blood-stained fields, and not from the
destroyed cities, not from the countries convulsed
by death and terrorized by the fury of the strug-
gle which has been fought on land, on sea and
in the air by the noblest and most fiery genera-
tions of the nations of Europe. And they have
seated themselves round a table to discuss, with-
out delay, the ideas, great or little of their minds,
the conceptions, great or little of their schools,
the systems, great or little of their philosophies;
but, of the sacrifices undergone by the peoples
which they have the honour to represent, of the
blood spilt by the nations which they are in duty
bound to defend and to protect — blood and
sacrifices which are, and must remain, the sacred
sources of Right after the war — not a word !
And it is this silence on the event, this indiffer-
ence towards the concrete and positive fact of
the war, that have rendered possible these ridi-
culous and repugnant disputes on merely verbal
points, in the name of this or that principle, en-
gaged in between all the intriguers, all the agi-
tators, all the jobbers of all the backslums of
Europe, and tending to establish the reign of their
ignominies and of their nationalities on the blood
and on the sacrifices of others.
It is impossible to read the list of the dead,
wounded and missing during our war, published
yesterday by the Ministry of Marine, and at the
same time read the report of the logomachies of
the Paris Congress without itching to slap the
face — oh, jokingly, to be sure ! — of Humanity,
for the forgetfulness which, from one day to
another, it shows of its fiercest tragedies and of
the sense of responsibility which these tragedies
ought to create and nourish for the behoof of
- 299 -
morality in public and private life — if it be true
that the problem of morality in public and1 pri-
vate life is to be, in the future as well as in the
present, a problem of responsibility.
What ? Italy has lost (and what I say about
Italy must be applied to France and to Belgium,
the nations which have suffered the most from
the war), Italy has lost some three millions of
men, between killed, wounded, sick and missing,
and together with these men she has lost so im-
mense a portion of her labour accumulated in
wealth; and the discussion of her questions is
to take place on the same plan as that of the
poltroons and scoundrels who have waited until
the storm was over to expose to the sun of ideals
their bellies filled, up to yesterday, with the leav-
ings of the kitchens of the House of Austria ; and
the resolution of those questions are to depend
upon their good pleasure, and be subject to agree-
ment between themselves ?
This political and moral iniquity is only pos-
sible because the Academicians of the Paris Con-
gress have mentally suppressed the war from
their negotiations and discussions, and have based
the foundations of that, which they illude them-
selves will be the future peace of the world, upon
an ideal Charta, and not upon the reasons of the
war which has been fought, and on the sacrifices
which the nations that have taken part have con-
tributed to it. Following the old lines of contro-
versy against Germany, they have continued in
the Salle de VHorologe, in firing their verbal ar-
tillery against militarism and Prussianism, which
were the targets of that controversy, without con-
sidering that over and above apparent causes, a
war has always a raison d'etre of its own in the
condition, requiring mutation, of the nations
— 300 -
which, more or less willingly, are obliged to un-
chain it or to accept it. Italy's raison d'etre for
the war resided in Austria's overwhelming pres-
sure at her shoulders on the Alps, and at her left
side on the Adriatic which rendered her material
development and her political and moral indepen-
dence in Europe impossible — so that the result
of the victorious war and the destruction of Aus-
tria could not be any other than the creation of
a new condition and a new order of things which
should prevent the formation of a new Austria,
capable of producing and apt to produce the same
constraint and the same dangers which victory
has succeeded in eliminating.
But properly to understand this and, conse-
quently, to create this new condition of things,
it is necessary to remain standing in the field of
historical reality and discuss of peace keeping
one's foot firmly planted on the ground-work of
the war, and with one's mind always turned
towards the reasons for which Italy has entered
the war and lost, in the struggle, three millions
of men and three fourths of her wealth.
If, for Italy, the Treaty of Peace is not of such
a nature as will put an end to, and satisfy these
reasons, it is a morbid illusion to think that peace
will be obtained for the ancient land of Europe.
A peace of ideas is a peace without a past or a
future. Ideas have always served to divide men,
not to unite them — or to unite them, if at all,
in Parties and factions.
And nations are not artificial and transient crea-
tions, as factions and Parties are.
— 301
A LITTLE MORE DISCRETION, PLEASE!
Prince Alexander of Serbia does not possess
the virtue of silence. Whilst on his travels, he
speaks too much and, what is worse, does not
reflect before speaking. Apparently, he is a man
to whom conquest is easy : he pricks pins on the
map and in the holes left by the points he places
the pillars of his throne. The ancient barbarians,
instead, used to mark the boundaries of their con-
quests with their sword. Do you remember the
bold warrior who said : a The kingdom of the
Goths will extend to this point » and planted his
sword in the sea, off Reggio ? The sea which, in
those parts is rather capricious, amused itself by
swallowing his sword and the remainder of his
armour.
Prince Alexander of Serbia, then, before return-
ing to his Balkan konak deigned to state to the
Marseilles correspondent of Le Matin, that he has
an urgent needof Zara, Spalato and Antivari,
in order to create a State, all in one piece and,
naturally, all of one faith and one tongue; and
assured the aforesaid correspondent that the bu-
siness would be greatly to the advantage of the
Congress and, as a matter of course, to humanity;
— 302 —
"because, as you are aware, in these times, Hu-
manity is printed in big type on all the posters of
the war and of peace, as at one time were the
popular dramas Charles the Sapper and Dora,
or the Spies. Now it cannot be denied that Zara,
Spalato and Antivari are fine seaside cities, and
as such are likely to excite the most immoderate
desires of an ambitious conqueror. But that they
should be pre-destined to serve as troughs for
those illustrious animals which abound in Ser-
bia, and which it is agreed not to call by their
proper name, although under all kinds of deno-
minations they serve to the botulism of mankind,
I really do not believe; and, at least, as far as
Zara and Spalato are concerned, which, of the
three, are dearest to the hearts of Italians, I hope
not. Could not, therefore, Prince Alexander find
other outlets from which to forward his herds ?
At one time, Salonika seemed a godsend. Why,
therefore, attempt to make the water of the Adria-
tic muddy 1
I have not the slightests desire to write disagree-
able things against the Prince of Serbia, or against
Serbia, which was so sorely tried by the war;
although as an Italian I would have every reason
to do so. Every reason: for it rarely happens to
meet with, in history, a greater, how shall I say ?
indifference or nonchalance, on the part of one
country towards another country which has been
its benefactor. It is well-known that Italy twice
refused to follow Austria in her designs of aggres-
sion against Serbia; it is likewise notorious that,
after the dispersion of Serbia, Italy hastened to
her aid, and by the effort and the valour of her
Navy, the King, the army and the Government
of Serbia were safely rescued; and this notwith-
standing the fact that, after Italy's entry into the
303
war Serbia had done her utmost to render Italy's
situation in the face of Austria most difficult, and
had refused, under futile pretexts, to attack Aus-
tria on her side in order to relieve the task of the
Italian Army on its side. But this is ancient his-
tory; and we are now thinking of the history of
to-morrow. This does not signify, however, that
between ancient history and that of the future
there should not be found sufficient links to justify
and render possible, discussions and negotiations
appertaining to the actual fleeting moment, which,
by the way, is not a pleasant one.
Now, in this fleeting moment, and with regard
to Serbia, the following fact must be noted: a
fact which does not redound to the honour of
the Paris Congress and of its Academicians who
have allowed it, and continue to allow it, namely,
that Serbia has extended her domain of her own
accord, arbitrarily and surreptitiously, by the an-
nexation, effected before the adjudgment to her
had been pronounced, of two nations belonging
to the defeated Austrian Empire; two nations
which were most fiercely hostile to Italy, one of
the Allied Powers, and which had been fighting
against her up to the very hour of the Battle of
Vittorio Veneto. And whilst Belgium, which, for
her Spartan -like sacrifice to honour deserves every
regard and assurance for the future, is denied the
slightest increase of territory, Serbia is allowed
to effect the greatest possible aggrandizement, ac-
complished not with the forms of the Society of
Nations, but with those peculiar to that other So-
ciety which, in criminal life and to signify the
greatest insult to honour, is called the Onorata
Spcieta, or « Honoured Society » : — the Camor-
ra. How and wherefore, and by means of what
iniquitous complicity has such a phenomenon
— 304 —
been possible and, worse still, been accepted ?
How and wherefore in consequence of this phe-
nomenon which is entirely new in the annals of
diplomacy, can the representatives of Belgium,
France, England and America be gathered to-day
in the same hall, together with the representatives
of Slavonia and Croatia, one of whom had even
been a Minister in the last Royal and Imperial
Cabinet of Vienna, the Seidler Ministry } In any
case, and whatever the complicity may have
been, the chief responsibility rests with Serbia
which, by disguising Slovenes and Croats as
Serbs — whilst they, by what it seems are not
anxious to have anything in common with her,
and are showing a preference for a federal Re-
public of their own, instead of wishing to subject
themselves to the rule of Prince Alexander —
not only has purloined from Italy a not indifferent
portion of what Italy justly claimed in the war
but has also given a juridical personality or legal
standing as Allies to those who were Italy's most
ferocious enemies during the war. How can our
Delegates at the Congress have accepted, on
their part, this situation of affairs; and why, not-
withstanding the too ingenous and too hasty
acquiescence on the part of the other Delegates,
they should not have contested the credentials —
evidently false and inadmissible — of the Slovene
and Croatian Delegates, blended with those of
the Servian Delegates, is not easy to understand;
and, in any case, if any error was committed, it
was not a justifiable one. Neither from a diplo-
matic nor from a moral point of view is the pre-
sence of Slovenes and Croats at the Conference
tolerable. Not from a diplomatic point of view,
because they are enemies of the Entente; not
from a moral point of view, because they are
— 305 —
20
inferior to the other Powers in the scale of civi-
lization, and, consequently, incapable of exercising
any rights. In one of the Articles of the League
of Nations, a precise distinction is made, in the
question of mandates, between nations capable
and incapable of free choice ; and this distinction
is specially applied to the peoples of the Ottoman
Empire.
Now, is not the different treatment used towards
the Slovenes and Croats of the Austrian Empire
a glaring injustice and a still more glaring cruelty
towards those peoples ?
It is, therefore, natural that those who have so
successfully plotted this deceit to Italy's detriment
should believe they can still dare all things and
advance unlimited pretensions, in the hope that
their audacity may find, in some dead angle of
European interests, and in some unexplored region
of American finance, a suitable ground to culti-
vate. But when audacity reaches the point of dig-
ging its claws into the pure Italian flesh of Zara
and Spalato, it stops being an attempt against
International Law and against property, and as-
sumes the form of a criminal assault.
And, in that case, nothing remains but to apply
the branding-iron.
— 306 —
AN EXPONENT.
M. Trumbic's Memorandum cannot be thrust
back to the small gaol whence it issued, without
some kind of verification and some consequent
observation.
These, I hasten to declare, not in reference to
M. Trurnbic's action.
Owing to an instinctive repugnance towards
anything that is false or vulgar, we have always
refused to occupy ourselves with this noxious in-
dividual, even when he was being led through
the streets of Rome as a living miracle — the
miracle of Croatian devotion towards Italy —
and we shall not occupy ourselves with him to-
day, when the Memorandum unveils and reveals
to the most blind, of eyesight and of mind, what
big pearl was hidden in the Yugoslavian rosy
shell. But the phenomenon cannot be denied. And
we will discuss the phenomenon, and not the in-
dividual, who is and must be kept at a distance,
absolutely, from any discussion of a political or
moral order.
All the minor Powers, or the newly formed
Powers, such as Bohemia, Poland and Greece,
which possess a particular raison d'etre' of their
— 307 —
own, and a special right of their own to attain
the highest grade in autonomous life in European
civilization, have, at the Paris Congress, repre-
sentatives of their function and their mission;
men of enlightened mind and conscience, who
may not perhaps succeed in being convincing
in all their arguments, but who cannot fail in
inspiring the profoundest respect and the deepest
sympathy for the labours they are engaged in,
which is, after all, the continuation of their long
apostolate and the expression of the ideals or of
the dreams of their nations during centuries
gone by.
But Yugoslavia is represented by a man who,
owing to his mind, his character and the work
he is engaged in doing, cannot be included
amongst or confused with the representatives of
the other small States which are aspiring to pea-
ce: a man who is neither a politician, nor a wri-
ter, nor a jurist, nor a diplomat as Benes, Zarnor-
ski and Venizelos are — and who is not even a
refugee, a martyr, a rebel, a soldier, a propagan-
dist of any species or weight, who has in him, in
his soul, in his conscience or ori his body the signs
of the heroism of the sacrifices and of the suffering
of the nation in whose name he speaks and acts ;
but who is simply a cheat, a swindler, who was
yesterday in the service of Austria, and who is
to-day serving interests of a more unavowable
nature than those he served in Austria's behalf;
a low-born swindler, a mixture of Cagliostro and
Scapin, without intelligence, without eloquence,
without literary knowledge; furnished only with
the puny art of mendacity, the puny industry of
braggadocio, the puny resources of sleight-of-
hand; a swindler, in fine, whom you would not
care to receive in your house — (and Signor Son-
— 308 —
nino was truly well -inspired in not wanting to meet
him, either at the Foreign Office or elsewhere) —
and in whose company one could not be seen in
public without feeling humiliated. And it was
only in a turbid and tumultuous period of war,
such as we have just passed, during which, un-
fortunately, one has been obliged to use any kind
of wood to make fire with, that he has been able
to thrust himself forward as the counsellor and
leader of a people ; and of such a people ! The
representative is worthy of the nation he repre-
sents. The exponent is worthy of his employer.
Talis Trumbic, talis Croatia. One and other are
outside the pale of law and civilization.
It wanted a swindler of his stamp, unscrupu-
lous, indiscreet, bereft of discernment, unaccust-
omed to public business and without any idea of
civilized life, to create a Memorandum like the
one he has created, or to divulge it as he has
done, in the hope that it might, perhaps, be ac-
cepted or, at least taken into consideration, I do
not say by the Powers, but by the persons who
are most obstinately hostile to the Italian cause.
That Memorandum is not only the sign and the
proof of its author's inferiority, but is also the
sign and the proof of the inferiority of the Balkan
race which goes under the name of Croatian and
Slovene; and of its utter incapacity to rise to a
higher grade of political probity. To imagine that
a handful of mere incoherent monsense can take
the place of incontrovertible facts unfolded in the
open sunlight, on the field of battle and on the
sea; to imagine that a statement, a denunciation,
an anonymous letter (and what other value can
be set by the Entente Powers on that Memoran-
dum if not the value of those contemptible means
used by police confidants to initiate or legitimize
an action against persons against whom they have
a grudge ?), can destroy a pact, a treaty, an Al-
liance, welded in blood and for the sake of his-
tory ; to imagine that a suggestion and the advice
offered by the first comer, the promises and of-
fers made on paper by an irresponsible person,
the conjectures and hypotheses put forward by
an incompetent man possessing neither function
nor authority, can avail to lead others into tempt-
ation or into error; to imagine all these things
together means declaring one's own qualities.
And, as a matter of fact, the author of the Me-
morandum qualifies himself for what he really
is : a tool of the Austrian police ; of that Austrian
police which, as at one time it hatched up reports
and built up prosecutions against Italian citizens,
so now it hatches up reports and builds up pro-
secutions against the Italian State and against the
Italian Army and Navy in the lump. Whether a
servant of Austria or not, the, Croat is ever the
same.
But, can it be said that, notwithstanding the
meanness and the vulgarity of his action, M.
Trumbic has not done us any harm }
He certainly has done us a great and a most
serious harm.
In the first place, by deceiving Italian writers
and political men who were more easily influen-
ced by insinuations and illusions than by analysis
of men and ideas, he has created a real and ef-
fective secession in the field of public opinion
which, although of limited proportions, has ne-
vertheless seemed of sufficient importance abroad
owing to the names of the individuals and to
their participation in the national war policy.
Availing himself of this secession and with the j
complicity of our open and masked enemies, he '
— 310 —
has been able to create the legend of our impe-
rialism and obtain credence for it, abroad; and
by means of this legend he succeeded in under-
rating the importance of our national aspirations,
the legitimacy of our conquests and the results of
our victory. By instilling a prejudice into the
minds of the Delegates of the Entente at the Con-
ference with the legend of our imperialism, and
with that of the discord prevailing in Italy on the
initial problem of boundaries and claims, he has
rendered the work of our own Delegates more
laborious and more painful, diverting it into a
controversy which was purposely designed to
cause time to be lost as in reality it suceeded in
doing, during the Delegates' work of persuasion
and refutation ; thus obstructing its speedy action
and its still speedier execution. During this con-
flict he has finally rendered possible the orienta-
tion and the polarization of purposes and errors,
of interests or even suspicions hostile to Italy and
the Italians.
Unfortunately, Trumbic won his first battle in
Italy, not abroad. And the point of departure of
his success abroad was not his propaganda, but
the discord he left behind him in Italy, and the
skilful utilization of this discord, the evident
marks of which can clearly be seen in the Me-
morandum.
The importance of this Memorandum can be
attributed more to the coincidence which it re-
veals between the political reasoning of its author
and the initial arguments of controversy of the
Italian supporters of the Pact of Rome, than to
the nonsense about the Italian Army and Navy
which it contains.
Trumbic *s Memorandum is in perfect unison
with the campaign of his supporters in Italy in
- 311 -
the questions of the struggle against Sonnino, the
struggle against the Pact of London and the strug-
gle against Italian imperialism (alas !) ; it is in
unison with that campaign in the minor details:
in the ethnical, political and geographical consi-
derations put forward; in basing the political ar-
gument on Slav democracy as against the small
groups of the Italian bourgeoisie which aspire to
imperialism. And, what is worse, it is in unison
with it in the effect to obtain from Wilson (who
is not bound by the Pact of London), the reco-
gnition of the ideals of Slav democracy, in oppo-
sition to the small groups of the Italian bourgeoi-
sie. The following sentence in Trumbic's Memo-
randum ought to send a cold shiver down the
backs of Trumbic's Italian friends : « Public opi-
nion in Italy is prepared to accept the decision of
America on the Yugoslav conflict)). And this
explains the reason why the proposal in favour
of Wilson's arbitration was made to the Congress.
Italian public opinion prepared — over and abo-
ve the decimation with which Italy is threatened
— to accept an arbitration ? It is an offence and
a lie. Because Italian public opinion is prepared
for something quite different. But I should not
like, oh, pro- Yugoslavs of Italy, I should not like,
in the presence of the shadows of our dead, to
have on my conscience the attempt to prepare
it to such and end.
I believe that, after reading the Memorandum,
many of Trumbic's old supporters must feel the
necessity of making an act of profound contrition.
But that is their own affair.
Meanwhile, let the Italian Delegation do its
duty.
Signor Orlando! On resuming your journey to
312
Paris remember that you will return to Italy, on
this, or it is safer to stay away.
On this; namely, on the shield which bears
the revendications of Italian right intact, and the
satisfaction — all the satisfactions / — of the
Italian blood shed during the War.
A happy return I
- 313 —
ON THE EVE OF DECISIONS.
We will discuss the « great principles » and
the (( great universal constructions » after the Con-
gress has given its decision on the questions refer-
ring to the insignificant realities of our war, and
to the negligible constructions of our land and
sea borders, for which so much sorrow has been I
expended and so much blood spilt. If the « great j
principles » and the « great constructions » enter j
within the boundaries of our realities, we should j
have no reason to advance any protest against j
them, nor to exercise our irony upon them; if, |
on the contrary, they are of such a nature as to I
offend those realities, or show themselves unable ;
to recognize or to understand them, we shall then i
advise our Delegates to do without them ; I mean !
to say / shall, for the infinitesimal part which
appertains to me. As to other people, they can, I
of course, if they wish, amply take advantage of i
the liberty of being, or seeming to be, idiots, and !
of allowing the young squadrons of humanity !
which will cross the earthly or celestial spaces in j
motor cars and aereoplanes in the after war pe- j
riod, to laugh at them behind their backs or over
their heads.
3,4-
All the arguments explaining our demands have
been, by now, fully stated and illustrated. A long
war of three and half years* duration has not
been sufficient; and a longer history of three
thousand years and more — (how many yeaTS
have gone by in vain, since the day, in which
the She-Wolf first offered her milk for the nutri-
tion of the human beast, in order to render it
fit for civilization !) — are not sufcient, it seems,
to convince the Judges of Peace of our rights and
of the rights belonging to the Italian peoples scat-
tered along the ultimate shores of European bar-
barism : even if a Memorial has been found neces-
sary; a Memorial of the same type of that (oh,
shame !) presented by the quondam servants of
Austria; a kind of conclusive plea, in fact, like
those addressed to the Court in cases of litigation
over a right of thoroughfare or over a trespass.
And, oh, supreme sorrow, this conclusive plea
has had to be presented, besides having been
drawn up by the citizen of Trieste who for thirty
years has represented Rome in the Italian Par-
liament. Rome, which acted, through him, as the
representative of all the unredeemed cities ; as if
his name were not sufficiently eloquent to signify
the aims and the ideals of our war ! But it is to be
hoped that, after so many words, facts will be
initiated; and that these facts will correspond to
rights : true rightsv, authentic rights, historical
rights — reconsecrated by sacrifices and illumi-
nated by the light of all ideals. Because, believe
me, all the rest is nothing but bestiality.
M. Pasic, who gathers in his flowing beard all
the errors and all the faults of his enemies and
ours; enemies of yesterday and of to-morrow,
has had the not-too bright idea of allowing some
of those faults and errors to fall out of his beard,
315
whilst combing it in the offices of the Paris Jour-
nal, thinking, perhaps, to bury under such a plenti-
ful fall, all the arguments and all the methodical
reasoning of the Italian Memorial. « The Pact of
London », he said, passing his hand like a comb
through his beard, which is anything but Cato-
nian: «« but we are not acquainted with it; and
we do not recognize it, because we were not pre-
sent when it was signed, and, besides, Wilson's
docrine is opposed to secret treaties ». Holy
chastity of Balkania ! But, in whose name and of
what does M. Pasic speak ? In the name of Yu-
goslavia } It is quite evident that Yugoslavia
could not be present when the Pact of Lon-
don was signed, for the very simple reason
that the two so-called nationalities which, together
with Serbia, would now like to form her, were,
at that time, on the other side; on the enemy's
side, and were fighting against Italy and against
the Entente; and were, moreover, receiving their
pay and their orders from Vienna, and not from
London. Or, does he speak in the name of Serbia
only ? But the Pact of London was precisely the
pact concluded by the great Powers in the great
war, to save, amongst other things, Serbia her-
self, which had been devastated and destroyed
by the soldiers of the Central Empires amongst
whom the most ruthless and the most ferocious
were precisely the Croats and the Slovenes. To
protest against the Pact of London, not to recogn-
ize the Pact of London because it does not bear
the signature of the ex-Minister of the Seidler
Cabinet who, together with Trumbic, is now
buzzing round the Paris Congress as a represent-
ative of Yugoslavia, is an act of insolence towards
the Powers of the Entente, which may put for-
ward ignorance as an excuse if, as a thousand
316
signs indicate, it were not aggravated by bad-
faith, and, without offence to anyone, especially
Balkan bad-faith. We would therefore advise M.
Pasic to let the Pact of London alone, which is
something which does not concern him and can-
not concern him, neither as the representative of
Serbia, nor, much less, as a representative of Yu-
goslavia, the soulless tricorpor in this war. Let
him also leave Wilson alone. There are no theo-
ries, as there are no laws, which can be applied
retroactively, except in the case of criminal com-
pacts which have no place in any Code of Law,
national or international. The Pact of London
merely contains conditions subscribed to by Pow-
ers allied for the war, in view of an enemy to
overthrow; and this enemy once fallen, to deprive
him of all that he has acquired by force and has
kept by force during long centuries. The posthum-
ous opposition to secret treaties has nothing what-
ever to do with the Pact of London; because it
principally refers to treaties concluded between
States in time of peace without the knowledge
and the consent of peoples and of their respective
political representatives; and, in reality, it is extra-
neous to the Pact of London, considering that the
knowledge and the consent of the allied peoples
are implied by the very act of war. Were the
revendications contained in the Pact of London
and for which it fought, unknown, perhaps, to
the Italian people } Some renunciation, determin-
ed by special conditions and oppositions on the
part of one of the Powers may not have been
known ; but that renunciation has been withdrawn
and healed to-day by the unanimous will of the
nation which, with one voice, demands that Fiu-
me be included amongst her revendications; and
even before it had been withdrawn and healed
— 317 —
by the will of the nation, it had1 become null and
void in consequence of Russia's withdrawal from
the Alliance; it having been Russia who had
demanded it. Finally, neither did Wilson, on
entering the circle of war, ask for the abolition or
the annulment of old treaties concluded by other
countries ; a thing he could not do — and, if any-
thing, he himself would have proposed, or the
Powers of which he became the last Associate
would have proposed, new ones — because
whether new or old, whether public or secret,
treaties are necessary to give assurance to the
peoples that are fighting, and to serve as guides
for the sacrifices which have to be undergone and
the aims that have to be attained. Peoples which
fight inconsiderately, adventurously, without pre-
cisely knowing why, are outside the pale of
history. It is only in the Woods that killing is
done for the sake of killing, or to snatch away
the piece or raw meat from the mouth of a feroci-
ous rival.
Therefore, let these Balkanians, who, it may
be said, are not yet born to existence within the
Law refrain from exercising their minds in juridi-
cal previous questions, of the kind which M. Pa-
sic is hawking around from Corfu to London, and
from London to Paris, as if they were stupendous
problems before which the sun ought to stop
rotating, and the wind to stop blowing. These are
nugae, as our forefathers called them in Latin —
silly things, as we would say — which should
not even obtain the honour of discussion amongst
persons of juridical common sense ; if, unhappily,
this juridical common sense had not all fallen,
together with the blood of combatants, in the
pits of the war; and there had not remained at
the surface but the vanity of some old idea or of
318
some old saying which feeds upon corpses in
order to revive the colour of its old feathers a
little, and make them appear as new. It behoves
Italians — who should, at least, do penance for
the too many errors they have committed to their
own detriment in this war — to array themselves
in such feathers no more, but to abandon tran-
sient patterns and go back to the cloth of the great
Italian tailors. I would suggest to our publicists
and political men a course of Guicciardini.
Meanwhile, let our Delegates in Paris follow
Guicciardini *s dictates. Let them not lose them-
selves in running after the flies and drones of
other peoples' ideals. For Italians there can be
only one ideal, now: that of obtaining that Italy
may issue from the war unified and without any
break of continuity.
Unified and fortified.
Because Force is a personage who has not vet
spoken her last word in the history of mankind.
And it would be ridiculous for Italians to think
that she is dead and buried together with the for-
tunes of the Hohenzollerns and of the Hapsburgs.
But I have not yet lost all hope in the elasticity
of the valves of the old Italian political heart.
— 319
GERMANS AND YUGOSLAVS.
During the last few days, the French Press has j
resolutely taken up its stand by the side of the I
Italian reasons and we cannot help being glad i
that the brotherhood in arms which yesterday j
allowed us to beat the enemy on the field of battle '
should be perpetuated in a brotherhood of ideas !
and purposes, which will to-morrow render it '
possible for the two nations to draw from their
victory the greatest possible benefits, which should j
be finally summed up in mutual security and in j
the security^ of European civilization of which
they are the most trusty exponents and the most [
faithful guarantors.
A struggle between France and Italy on the
ground of diplomatic conflicts would have been
a very moral and political monstrosity of discord,
and even worse, after the common war; that is,
after the noble and strenous effort accomplished
by the two nations with the object of returning
to the point wheje Bismarck had divided them
and had kept them disunited for thirty years; a
monstrosity aggravated by the fact that the Bis-
marck of the new separation would not have been
a great victorious diplomat, but a mere Trumbic,
issuing forth from the tortuous back-alleys of Aus-
tro-German corruption ; a mere tool of Balkan bad-
faith, operating amidst the free peoples of Europe
in the name of principles which he and his peers
have always disowned and fought against, at so
— 320 —
much per day, in the service of the Ministers and
of the Archdukes of the Vienna of old times.
France and Italy could not repeat their former
error, in such vastly different conditions, without
dishonouring themselves and making known even
to the barbarians of all species and of all hordes
that the « gentle Latin blood » is incapable, even
in war, of holding in a bond of unity the peoples
which boast of having their veins full of it. Fran-
ce and Italy could not re-open the old book of
mutual distrust, of mutual suspicions, and of by-
gone conflicts which resulted in their common
damage and favoured their common enemies and
aggressors. To make an experiment of brother-
hood during peace: here is a new and original
problem which should excite the intellectual cu-
riosity and the aesthetic virtuosity of the two
countries on both sides of the Alps. But can such
an experiment be possible ?
In Europe are by now clear and evident —
even, it is to be hoped, to the most monomania-
cal levellers of ethnography — only two ferment-
ations resulting from the war: the German fer-
mentation and the Yugoslavian fermentation; the
Rhenish fermentation and the Balkan one. In
whatever way you wished to reform the geogra-
phical map ; on whichever idea and principle you
wished to reconstruct the States, you will infal-
libly find at the bottom of the European vessel
those two fermentations ever ready to act by their
own natural impulse, and ever ready to befoul
the waters and to corrupt the atmosphere, and to
leave neither rest nor peace to the peoples which
are so fortunate as to live within their radius of
infection. Which is Serbia's greatest vanity ?
That of giving herself the airs of a Balkan Prus-
sia. Prussia: so as to subdue, to absorb, to annul
— 321 —
the neighbouring peoples, and leave no rest to
the more distant ones. With the excuse — also a
Prussian one — that she is suffocating within the
circle of her native forests and mountains, and
that she is in need of somebody else's sea, in
order to enable her to evolve and progress. So-
meone else's sea — the infinite.
If the Editor of the Times, who appears to have
the ambition of cutting out for himself in Yugo-
slavia the Empire which an ex-Lebaudy (the bro-
ther of le Petit Sucrier) once intended to cut out
for himself in the Sahara, were to turn his me-
mory a little more on the causes and origins of
the European war, he would probably see that
by his oblique and iniquitous campaign against
Italy he is only encouraging precisely the same
controversy and the same struggle which Germany
once sustained against England. What was the
argument which Germany used against England 7
It was the following: ((Empire, for England, re-
presents the past: for Germany, the future. Why
should Germany trouble herself for England's
reasons ? Owing to robbery or cunning, England
is in possession of a fifth of the habitable globe ;
she must yield up to the labours of a younger
Germany that which she possesses owing to rob-
bery or craftiness. It is in vain that England pro-
tests that she has no aggressive designs against
Germany. The mere existence of the British Em-
pire is, in itself, a continual aggression against
Germany's own existence. Whilst the robber
State lives and prospers on the life of others, Ger-
many claims the right of laying snares for it to
fall in, and of arming herself in order to overthrow
it. And wh«y does Germany claim such a right ?
Because, enclosed as she is, between the North
Sea and the Danube, between the Rhine and the
— 322 —
plains of Poland, she will suffocate if she does
not expand ; and her expansion can have no other
limits but those of the British Empire. If Napo-
leon did not succeed in ridding the earth of that,
which Heine calls the most obtuse, the most vul-
gar, the most bourgeois and the most unbearable
of all the Empires, will Germany, by means of
her thought, her labour, her weapons and her
kultur, succeed in ridding the world of it ? » —
And it cannot be said that, impelled to the exe-
cution of the great enterprize, Germany, with all
her enormous preparation, was not within an ace
of felling the colossus which Napoleon had barely
succeeded in scratching. But the danger once over,
there are some Englishmen of the Steed type (I
do not venture to generalize as far as the point
of offending the susceptibilities of the numerous
supporters we have and wish to keep in the no-
ble nation of our ancient friendship), a type, in
fact, made up more of presumptious German in-
tolerance than of fine British structure, who are
endeavouring to renew on behalf of Yugoslavia
and against Italy the controversies which Germany
sustained against England. « Why should Yugo-
slavia trouble herself about Italy's rights (national
rights, let it be noted, not imperial ones) ? Those
rights represent the past. And Yugoslavia repre-
sents the future. Why should Yugoslavia trouble
herself about Italian civilization in the Adriatic 7
That civilization signifies Rome and Venice —
that is, two Empires which have no longer any
reason to exist — whilst Yugoslavia signifies the
youth, sturdy though barbarous, of a people which
will have to make its own way on the sea even
if it has never shown any seaman-like tendencies
(Germany, before aspiring to substitute herself for
the British sea force and power had, at least,
- 323 -
constituted a great sea force of her own!), and
does not even know how to handle the rudder of
a small fishing boat. Lastly, can Yugoslavia re-
main stifled between the Balkan mountain gorges
and the affluents and confluents of the Danube ? » .
— And to think that she has remained so well,
there, for so many centuries !
But the truth is only one, and it is the following :
— Both Germany and Yugoslavia possess a sub-
stratum of barbarism which can only rise to the
surface by means of explosions of war, and which
can be compared to water which boils in a pot and
causes the pot lid to fly into the air. The German
lid, which all the sciences and all the arts have
contributed in forming, is of a greater weight, but
it is not sufficiently resisting, however, to with-
stand the pressure of boiling Nature. The Yugo-
slav lid hardly exists, as no science or art has yet
succeeded in modelling or ornamenting it. Each
of them represent a permanent danger to France
and to Italy, unless the Paris Congress succeeds in ,
erecting strong dykes to contain both one and the |
other in the future, near or remote. How is it pos- j
sible to imagine that Germans will give up the j
idea of making war, when they have lived upon |
nothing else but this idea during centuries and I
centuries; and when, with this idea they have j
crossed their own history and other peoples* ? I
And how is it possible to imagine that the Yugo- '
slavs will depose their war weapons when, in the
service of the House of Austria, they have known
nothing else but those weapons in the countries
of the old Empire ? Of these soldiers of fortune
they would now make a free people, a civilized
people, a people, forsooth, which may even dis-
pute the rights of the Italian nation in European
civilization ! But, although we have no reason
- 324 -
whatever not to promote the improvement of ra-
ces — there are, in fact, so many Societies for the
improvement of the canine and equine races —
we have no reason whatever to lower our own race
to the level of that of the Yugoslavs which, besid-
es, still remains to be formed. We have only one
task to perform, a task which yesterday was
Rome's and Venice's, namely, to sweep clean
all the Islands of the Adriatic, all the lairs and all
the centres on the Adriatic shores, of the barbar-
ous and factious elements which might disturb
our peace and the peace of Europe by their dis-
orderly violence and their traditional raids. It is
the same task which France has to perform on
the banks of the Rhine.
All the rest is, truly, nothing but bad literature
and worse philosophy.
- 325 -
BUSINESS IS BUSINESS.
It is generally admitted that the Year of Grace
during which the Congress of Paris is sitting and
is attending to the felicity of human kind is 1919,
and not 1815. It is likewise generally admitted
that the Congress of Paris of 1919 is all vibrating,
like a sounding-board, with the pure principles
which are most calculated to ensure human kind
from war, pestilence and famine and from other
similar calamities ; unlike the Congress of Vienna
of 1815, which possessed neither human bowels
nor ideal guitars with which to serenade the moon,
but which busied itself solely with the ambitions
of shifty tyrants. Finally, it is generally admitted
that all those persons who are attending to the
felicity of human kind round the table of the Con-
gress of Paris, would rather have their feet cut off
than to set them down in the field of interests,
removing them slightly from the field of princi-
ples, and, it is superfluous to add, from that of
Wilson's Fourteen Points. The Bourbon of Na-
ples, the King of Saxony and other Monarchs
whose thrones were tottering ominously are not
there to open their purses as in 1815, to author-
ized diplomats so that these might zealously de-
326
fend their hopes and their crowns at the Con-
gress. Who. would dare to do likewise, now,
with such a penury of Kings and crowns ? To-
day, it is known, secret diplomacy is scarcely a
faint recollection, and everything is done in the
light of day and in that of electric lamps. Even
business. Read the leading articles in newspapers
published in the great capital cities.
Have you ever doubted that there could be any-
thing else, in the English market, but a stroke
of business behind the Press campaign in favour
of Yugoslavia? I hope not. When we expressed
our doubts, the idealists belonging to the beatiful
Italic kingdom (Italy, as you know, is an inex-
haustible mine of imbecility), always replied,
whilst they patted us on the shoulder in sign of
compassion : — « Certainly not ; you are not
acquainted with the mechanism of the English
soul: it is an entirely Garibaldian mechanism (in
fact where did Garibaldi receive a more hearty
welcome than in England?), a mechanism which
moves in Law, emits Justice and is irradiated by
the Ideal. The eagerness to protect and support
small nations is inborn in the English soul. And
our dear Steeds possess a mechanism of their
own, which is their soul, but which is English,
every bit of it ». — And it is well. But as I am a
total abstainer and a vegetarian, and detest roast
beef and red wine which idealists are so fond of ;
fonder perhaps than they are of Croats and Yu-
goslavs, I have never entertained any doubts on
the political and moral motives of the Press cam-
paign promoted by diminutive Talleyrands (oh,
very diminutive, and particularly lacking in the
grace and the spirit of playing the simpleton pos-
sessed by the Duke of Dino) against Italy and in
favour of Yugoslavia. « Excavate in Rome and
— 327 —
you will find bones of Christians » — said the Ca-
tholic orator. « Excavate deeper » , replied the
humanist writer, « and you will find the bones of
Pagans ». Whilst excavating, we have found, at
last, hidden behind the rights of the Yugoslavs
over Fiume and the Adriatic, the interests of the
shareholders of the Cunard Company.
Previous to the publication of the news by the
newspapers, we had received some warnings ori
the subject from friends in London. One of the
letters said, amongst other things : — « It appears
that behind the pro-Yugoslav campaign are the
interests of a great English Navigation Company,
If this be true, our cause is as good as lost; as
when interest is concerned, the English ne demor-
dent pas, they do not loosen their hold'; and the
British Government does not think it has suf-
ficient liberty of action to be able to oppose the
interests of British Shipping and the Press which
supports and represents it » . We handed the let-
ter to those who might find some use for it; and,
owing to that cool sense of responsibility which,
in the case of total abstainers and vegetarians is
often sounder than in the case of those whose
blood is too heated by red wine and red meat, we
refrained from speaking of the subject in public,
so as not to kindle unpleasant controversies with
the Press of a nation with which we wish to re-
main, and must wish to remain friends. But now
that the information is widely diffused and from
Paris it has been published in all the Italian
newspapers without being contradicted or cor-
rected; now we cannot help saying that no worst
act of brigandage was ever attempted against a
friendly nation than this, which a certain English
Press and a certain ring of English capitalists are
attempting, to the detriment of Italy; that no
328
knavish trick was ever so iniquitous and so de-
testable as this, which, under the excuse of prin~*
ciples of race, if not of nationality; under the
excuse of the protection of small nations and small
States, these individuals are attempting to com-
mit against a nation which is just issuing, covered
with blood, from a fierce war of three years' du-
ration. Ah, the handsome knight -errants roving
about, for the love of their Ladies and for the
glory of the great Lord of Heaven ! Ah, the hand-
some Crusaders, undertaking expeditions for the
liberation of the holy sepulchres of oppressed
peoples ! Let us be candid : the Germans, at least,
were more sincere; or rather, and without com-
parison, they were truly sincere. They had their
philosophy, their politics, their diplomacy, which
they proclaimed, asserted and imposed upon
others, without any disguise, without any hypo-
crisy, without any mental restrictions ; crudely,
cruelly even, but also fairly and uprightly. They
openly said, from the tribune of the Press, from
their Professors* chairs, from the Throne, that
they wanted to conquer the markets of the world
for their own glory and their own salvation; not
for the glory of God and the salvation of man-
kind ; they said that they wanted to suppress
small and great States, friendly kingdoms and
hostile Empires, in order to plant on their ruins
their greater power and their still greater Kultur.
They were playing an open game. But someone
is cheating here, Gentlemen ! In the name of prin-
ciples, Italian cities are being staked to-day on
the gaming table of diplomacy, by means of cards
which are not precisely those which Wilson has
brought with him from the White House. Here
punting is effected on the « auto-decision of peo-
ples » and one wins, instead, « Cunard Company's
- 329 -
Shares » . Ah, pardon me ! Police intervention is
absolutely necessary here !
I trust the English Government will look well
into the game of a certain Press and of certain
Companies in the City. A Government based upon
public opinion must search for the sources of
that opinion and must learn from what subter-
ranean currents such sources spring and resound
gurglingly on the foot-path. We are well aware
that in Parliamentary systems, Ministers are cons-
trained to follow the foot-path and the various
classes which encumber it. But there is, and
there must be, a limit; the limit represented by
the rights and the interests of other countries,
especially if they are friendly and Allied coun-
tries, and above all, Allies of war. In no country
is it permissible — and much less in a country
which wishes to be considered as the leader and
standard-bearer of all the liberties — to engraft
the interests of this or of that private Company
on the tree of the great international questions,
in order to deform them or suffocate them. And
the Congress of Paris, which aims at the consti-
tution of the Company of Nations, cannot be
reduced to the proportions of a Stock Exchange
wherein take place speculations on shares of other
Companies which are taken care of by the Com-
mercial Code of Laws, and which are not pre-
cisely the Nations of the world.
If possible, an eye should be kept on the foot-
path, or on the pier!
330
TO ACT BY EXPERIENCE.
Although discussion is useless whilst the Jury
are considering their verdict, let us go on discuss-
ing, or better, let us continue to philosophize, so
as not to lose the habit, on the uselessness of good
and evil; that is to say, on the vanity of human
affairs.
Wilson, then, has recovered his wonted health,
and is about to busy himself with Italian affairs,
We have also learnt, from newspaper rumours,
that before solving the question posed by Iapan
on the equality of coloured races he intends plac-
ing the Ocean between his person and the Salle
de VHorologe, but not before having decided on
the fate of Fiume. It is to be hoped that, with
regard to Fiume, he will find1 in himself a good
inspiration for a just decision.
In himself — for one must never be diffident
of the good inspirations of honest and upright
persons; and Wilson's friends say that he is a
model of uprightness and honesty.
Does the error into which he has fallen in res-
pect of Italian affairs arise more from other peo-
ple's action than from his own will > You will
Temember that, in one of his speeches which he
_ 331 —
delivered here, in Rome, he stated with much
ingenousness, and with no less sincerity, that he
regretted not having known our country before,
and not having done enough for it, during the
war. Our friends are always requiring to discover
us twice, before they are able to appreciate us.
The worst is, that they always discover us too
late, and when they can do nothing more than
express their sorrow for having \nown us too
late: just as it happens in a famous melodrama.
Thus we who, unlike our French and English
Allies, did not receive the aid of the armies and
of the Navy of the United States, have now only
the pleasure of enjoying the graces of the Presi-
dent's idealism. Men and arms, none; but many
ideas. And to think that with ideas, in so many
centuries during which the Italian brain has
thought for itself and for others, we are so richly
endowed ! But it is our fate to revel in super-
fluities.
To tell the truth, it is not all other men's seed
that which now fructifies to our detriment in
Wilson's mind. When the President was in Ame-
rica, it was the task of the Allies, directly, or
indirectly by means of their Yugoslavian bravoes ,
to promote a propaganda campaign against Italy.
But when he had set his foot on Italian soil, it
became the task of Italians themselves to com-
plete the propaganda of the Allies arid of their
l>ravoes. Here, amongst us, he found everything
that was necessary definitely to fix his ideas and
his conceptions. Here, in our midst, he found
civil war on the question of the Adriatic; here,
in our midst, he found the orators and the theo-
rists of our wrong rather than of our right. What
could the good judge do, if not add the evidence
gathered on the spot to that with which our ene-
— 332 —
mies (or, if you prefer, our Allies) had supplied
him , on the other side of the Ocean > It is true
that, according to the Military Penal Code (we
are in a regime of war) the evidence given by the
parents and relatives of the accused is of no value
and is not admitted. But in politics every-thing
is of some use; even parricide; for everything
becomes public opinion. And in democracies, as
you know, public opinion is the foundation of
all power and the basis of every bestiality. Oh,
for Lycurgus' knife ! Perhaps you have forgotten
why and wherefore Guicciardini used to call for
the knife of Lycurgus in Italian life. And it is
useless that I should remind you of it. In the mean
time, I invite you to read Whitney Warren's ar-
ticle in he Temps. Many Italians ought to feel
ashamed on reading that article, which is so rich
in historical and political truths, so vibrating with
justice and humanity, and which they never
would have dared to write, nor to think.
Let us pass on.
Let us speak of English friendship.
We were scarcely born to life, when our fath-
ers used to whisper into our ears the words of the
Grand Old Man against the Bourbons : « Nega-
tion of God ». And we, who had not known the
Bourbons, but only the fear of God, grew up in
admiration of England for the love of Gladstone,
even after we had commenced reading history
by ourselves and learning, for instance, that
Queen Victoria had been one of the bitterest op-
ponents of Italian unity and that in 1 860 and 1 866
the supporters of Austria in the English Parlia-
ment were not less industrious and efficacious
than the present supporters of Yugoslavia; with
this attenuating circumstance in their favour,
which cannot be advanced by the Steeds and
333
Northcliffes, that in I860 and 1866 England was
not a war Ally of ours, as she has been up to
yesterday and still is now — not without some
profit in the moment of extreme peril, to herself
more than to us. In any case, I repeat, the recol-
lection of Gladstone's phrase (for we live more
on memories than on anything else), was the
kernel of the tradition of our friendship with
England; a kernel which grew and developed
to the point of effecting the overturn of our policy
of thirty years' duration when our ex- Allies of
the Triple Alliance pointed their guns against the
British Empire. But it is not worth while reviving
the beard of the war with a dye of youth.
It may perhaps be more useful to remember,
now that a summary of events can be drawn up,
that notwithstanding tradition, brotherhood of
ideas, common principles of freedom and other
like matters, our dissention with England has al-
ways been unsurmountable whenever it was the
case of definite action and definite resolution in
which our direct or indirect advantage was im-
plied.
There was a moment in which the problem of
our front imposed itself upon the Allies, not
unaccompanied by danger signals — a problem
which, had it been solved according to the ideas
of our General Staff, would have resulted in the
breaking up of Austria two years before the Bat-
tle of Vittorio Veneto, and, consequently, accord-
ing to deductions arrived at by Ludendorf and
by Boroevic, the breaking up of Germany would
have taken place two years sooner. But the po-
licy of England, which did not want to point her-
guns against Austria, opposed the project of our
General Staff; and our front was abandoned to
our own defences, which although it represented
- 334 -
an heroic effort, was at that time insufficient to
beat and destroy the strong and experienced army
of the Hapsburgs. Thus hundreds of thousands
of dead continued to make of the Carso our Cal-
vary and the bulwark of the Entente.
Again : during the period of secret negotiations
between Austria and the Entente, who can say
that English policy did not strive its utmost to
induce us to renounce or to tear up the Pact of
London ?
Lastly: during the war, and more especially
after victory, did not London become the centre
of agitations against Italian aspirations and was
•not the most influential English journalism the
inspirer and the protector of those agitations } And
did not the ^English Delegates at the Conference
raise, from time to time, the various proposals
of Messieurs Trumbic, Pasic and Vesnic, which
had been formulated by the last named person-
ages and agreed upon in accordance with the
writers and inspirers of the most influential Press
of England? Frankly, a closer coherence than
this, between the supporters of the English policy
detrimental to Italy, and its executors cannot be
found.
Nor do I render these facts and actions of our
Allies evident for the purpose of diverting the
Italian mind from war Alliances; I bring them to
view simply to fortify that mind and to accustom
it to consider both Alliances and Allies in the
light of reality, and not in that of memories and
of fancy. International life is an e very-day expe-
rience; and if it be a grave error (an error, the
consequences of which we can now estimate) to
act in that experience with the ideas and the pas-
sions of previous days, it is a no less grave error
to alter our course or change our direction every
— 335 —
time a wrong is inflicted upon us, or at every
delusion which we come across on our way. We
are, and must remain England's friends, and
friends of our Allies because, during the war, we
have woven a web of interests which can and
must be extended in the future ; and it would be
mere folly to widen its meshes instead of tighten-
ing and unifying them. But this does not mean
that we should give up discussing openly, freely
and thoroughly the terms of our friendship and
refrain from summing up the acts of our solida-
rity. A great people proves its efficiency by the
elimination of its superfluous or aberrant factors
and by its system of making use of its own factors
which are necessary to its action. Up to now, we
have not succeeded in doing the first of these two
things, and we have shown our incapacity in or-
ganizing the second. We have thus obtained the
minimum of results with the maximum of effort,
whilst for instance, our competitors in the Adria-
tic question have succeeded in obtaining without
any effort, the greatest result, which, if nought
else, would be this : to checkmate our very vict-
ory, which was the Entente's decisive victory.
At all events, it is sufficient for the present to
confirm that for some reason or another, we find,
arrayed against our most simple and elementary
reasons and against our most logical and natural
aspirations, the idealism of some, the egotism
of others and. the materialism of yet others; and
we find, moreover, questions which for their very
essence should be undiscussible or, better, inad-
missible, elevated to the dignity of discussion.
There must be a reason why everybody should
find the way to act against us, whilst we show
no other tendency but that of wishing to agree
with all; there must be a reason which at present
- 336 —
escapes our perception, but which to-morrow will
appear plain and evident to our less remote de-
scendants. Nevertheless, this reason must be
found ; for we must needs understand and, having
understood, act, with sure experience.
To understand, especially, whether the damage
exists in our machinery or in the machinery of
others.
— 337 —
22
AND IF NOT, NO !
The Congress of Paris is every day falling
deeper into incoherence and futility, It was to have
given back to the world peace and security for
centuries and the centuries of centuries to come,
and has not succeeded in finding an agreement
even for a transient truce. It was to have applied
the most pure principles of justice and humanity,
and no sooner has it succeeded in enunciating
one of these principles than it feels the imme-
diate necessity of destroying it by means of an-
other contradictory principle, or of eliminating
it by means of a previous question. It was to have
created the constitutional Charter of the political
and "moral unity of the peoples of the Universe,
and has not succeeded in drawing up and for-
mulating even the most simple agreements re-
quired for the relations of good neighbourhood,
which, up to yesterday, mere custom was suffi-
cient to define and regulate. It was to have pro-
claimed the absolute dominion of ideas in inter-
national life, and has only succeded in the end,
when it has succeeded, in sanctioning the most
subtle compromises between the strong to the
detriment of the weak and between people of the
338
same race to the detriment of those of a different
one. It was to have inaugurated new methods of
negotiation and discussion, and has ended, by a
process of elimination, in becoming a narrow
Sanhedrim of four priests, in perpetual fear of
one of their number who wishes to assume the
character of Moses, and who has not yet found
the rod wherewith to divide the waters of the
Red Sea and lead the peoples which are not his,
to the opposite shore. What more ? It was to have
rendered impossible the intrigue, the corruption,
the bribery, the jobbery and the obscure dealings
of all kinds which engraft or superpose themsel-
ves on the great interests of Nations and States;
and has, instead, rendered possible iall these
ignoble and criminal aids to diplomacy to an ex-
tent they never reached in the past ; whence may
be seen, for^ instance, in the Adriatic questions,
groups of English agents, journalists and inter-
mediaries successfully operating to keep in check
the rights of a great victorious Power like Italy,
and creating new situations in the Entente, which
were unsuspected and unsuspectable at the mo-
ment of the Alliance and of the war. Metternich
and Bismarck^ from the halls of their Valhalla
must indeed smile at all these glories of the new
democratic diplomacy.
But will this diplomacy finally succeed1 in con-
cluding a Treaty ?
Certainly, from the very beginning, it has
shown itself capable of doing anything — com-
posing a book of verses or verselets, creating a
Bible, a liturgical chant, a heroic poem, a pasto-
ral symphony — but a Treaty, that is to say, an
agreement, a public act which will determine con-
ditions, define obligations, formulate pacts and
laws, not in the infinite and for eternity, but in
339
restricted limits of time and space, with the in-
tent of solving precise questions, for known per-
sons (persons juridical and persons dramatical);
a contract which is not Rousseau's, and which
will not aim at establishing a theory about man-
kind that a subsequent theory will cover with
ridicule or hurl into nothingness; a contract, in
short, such as private citizens and constituted
authorities have always stipulated in order to
conclude a transaction or conclude a war : no, by
no means ! To demonstrate this it would be suf-
ficient to mention the fact that the illustrious Con-
suls of the Two Hemispheres have started by
discussing a question which could, and should,
have been the last: the question of the League
of Nations (they knew not which, and how many
of these Nations would be dignae intrari), thus
consuming in one day all the fuel of the discus-
sion, which they will now have to rekindle in or-
der to include the amendments on the Monroe I
Doctrine, or to exclude the proposals of the Ja-
panese Delegation on the equality of races —
whilst, after five months, the essential questions,
the territorial questions are still standing on the
threshold awaiting to be introduced and to be
solved : the questions for which the Congress wae
called together, the very questions of the war for
which the armies have fought and the contending j
Nations have impoverished themselves and have j
been thrown into mourning and into the gloom j
of death. These things unfortunately, are taking
place in the Congress: philosophy is stifling his- i
tory; phantasy is stifling reality and rhetoric is |
stifling the science of government. And the des-
tinies of Nations are depending not from their
rights and from the sacrifices they have undergone j
to assert them and render them triumphant; but |
- 340 —
from the consent, the condescension or the diges-
tion of this or that of the four members of the
Congress, who may be more or less well disposed
or badly informed. Given this situation, the hy-
pothesis may be put forward that our reasons will
be crushed down and our aspirations will be
ignored. And in such hypothesis what is to be
done ?
We have not waited until this hour to give a
reply: we replied ever since the danger became
apparent; ever since we discovered that error
and ill-will had taken possession of the minds
and the souls of our Allies. There are not two
replies, as there are not two solutions of the ques-
tions; there is only one. We have not attended
at the Congress of Paris to hear our Allies tell us
where Italy begins and where she ends, or to per-
mit her ancient structure and her supreme defen-
ces to be modified. Italy is what she is, what Na-
ture, History, wars and sufferings, during centu-
ries have made her. We do not present ourselves
before the Congress to have her formation cor-
rected, but simply to call attention to the fact that
after four years of war we have reintegrated her
in all her parts and freed her from every conta-
mination and every oppression of the enemy. And
the Congress, cannot, in decency, do other than
take note of this state of fact. To discuss the Ita-
lianhood of the Italian territories of the Adriatic ;
to discuss the adjudgment of these territories after
their manifestation, which corresponds to their
essence, towards Italy, would be the same as to
annul the labour of the war and to annul the rea-
sons of the war as well as those of Nature. By
so doing, the Congress would take the place of
Austria, would continue the personality of Aus-
tria and the work of denationalization vainly at-
341
tempted by her at the acme of her struggle and
of her oppression. That Wilson should aspire to
become the Metternich of this Congress, and
Lloyd George its Tisza, we cannot believe. But
if it were so, we ought to prevent, for the sake
of their reputation, and the reputation of the coun-
tries they represent, that they should carry their
aberration too far. Can it be that they want to
put themselves in Austria's place, become the
lords and masters of the Adriatic, and1 internatio-
nalize that sea >
No treaty of peace can obtain Italy's consent,
or can be signed by the Italian Delegates, if it
contains a renunciation of Italian lands and peo-
ples; or if it contains an abdication of the abso-
lute and legitimate influence of Italy over her sea,
that sea which has been too long contested and
wronged.
It is no longer the style of political literature of
our times, but Mr. Wilson can read the following
words in Mazzini's works, with which Genoa
the Proud has presented him as a gift of welcome ;
words which, in the biblical style of the great
Prophet of nationalities reveal the whole religion
of Italian aspirations : « The curse of Cain awaits
whoever shall forget that, whilst one only of his
brethren is moaning in the abjection of servitude,
and cannot repose calmly and lovingly under the
shadow of the three coloured flag ; he cannot own
a fatherland nor is he worthy of possessing it ».
And Mazzini does not speak of possible snares
by other Adriatic peoples, of which Cavour
speaks. Can it be that Italy should leave a single
Italian to the mercy of the Croats } And all her
sea to the mercy of foreign Navigation Com-
panies ?
Conclusion :
- 342
A Treaty of peace in Europe is not possible
without the adherence of Italian civilization.
And the Italian Delegates cannot sign a Treaty
of peace which may be in contrast with the aims
and the interests of Italian civilization.
And it is well that this should be known.
343
OLD STUFF.
Men who are truly free-minded, men whose
intellect is truly unprejudiced, whose soul is truly
anxious cannot but feel humiliated and mortified
at the exhibition of the pedagogical and scholastic
destitution which is offered by the Paris Congress
in the midst of the ruins of such a war, and of
the suspension of so much of the world's life.
Whatever may be the forthcoming resolutions,
whatever majr be the paragraphs of the piece of
paper which will issue from those resolutions, we
all feel that the creative genius is wanting; the
original and spontaneous genius which can pe-
netrate and understand all the convulsed elements
and all the energies dispersed in the horror of the
present chaos; and which has the capacity and
the might to endow this hoary humanity with a
new adjustment, a new form, a new breath or a
new ensign. We all feel that, after the hundred
years which have gone by since the French Re-
volution, the same reasoning and scribbling de-
mocratic fanaticism which stirred the childish
brain of the Incorruptible Robespierre is now
shaking the brain of the Congress and will lead
it, in the end, to produce the usual, self -same
- 344 —
abortion which bookish ideas have always pro-
duced, and will ever produce, in the social sphere.
Humanity was born from two beings of different
sex, bound together by a serpent; from two sen-
tences and from two theorems bound together
by the more or less factious dialectics of a Reli-
gious Science Professor. And now, besides hav-
ing the Professor, we have also the experts at
our elbow !
Who invented the theory of the right of peo-
ples to dispose of themselves }
Who invented the formula of the League of
Nations }
In five months* time, the Congress has done
nothing but writhe uncomfortably between the
theory and the formula without having found a
fierce and mighty giant,, a Danton without eye-
glasses and without a flower in his button-hole to
teach it that the policy of the Nations is not creat-
ed by means of statistics and of compasses. It is
simply absurd that the Congress of 1919 should
be remasticating the pastilles of 1870, and fancy
they are the products of the chemistry of modern
thought.
The right of peoples. Do you remember the
Address sent by Bohemia to vanquished France
in 1 870 } « The German Nation has the indispu-
table right to repel by the force of arms the at-
tacks against her States and1 her liberty ; but were
she to premeditate the imposition of a certain
form of Government on the French Nation, or to
wrest from her a portion of her territory the po-
pulations of which have the sentiment of being
French, she would violate, in respect to these
populations, their right of freely disposing of
their own selves, and would thus subordinate
right to force ». — Was there any necessity, the-
— 345 —
refore, for President Wilson to leave the White
House and to come to teach us this old phrase
which, here in Europe, is wearing a somewhat
long beard, considering that it had grown, since
1870, on the chin of the peoples subjected to the
House of Hapsburg? But neither was there any
necessity to assert this old phrase in theory, and
disavow it in practice in respect of Italy which is
proclaiming it for Fiume; and in respect of Fiu- |
me which is proclaiming it for its annexation to
Italy; because as to denying and disavowing it,
more logically in practice, besides denying and
disavowing it in principle, Austria had seen to it
long before. And, verily, to cross so much Ocean
in order to come and tell us what Austria has
told us for such a number of years, is an act of
courtesy for which we are, and our descendants
can be grateful to the illustrious President, but
from performing which we would have willingly
dispensed him; as we have dispensed him from
supplying us with men and arms wherewith to
fight Austria, whilst we have used all our efforts,
as best we could, to procure victory by ourselves
without anybody's assistance or anybody's per-
mission. It is certainly very gracious on Mr. Wil-
son's part to show such a preference for Italy for
his interesting ideal experiments in anima vili.
But there surely must be a great deal of unculti-
vated land in America, whereon to make his
experiments !
The League of Nations.
In its issue of September 10th. -25th., 1915, the
Paix par le Droit, formulated its minimum pro-
gramme and called upon the Peace Society, from
that time, to defend before the competent authori-
ties, at the termination of hostilities, the two fol-
lowing principles: the recognition and the ap-
346
plication of the principle of nationality; and the
constitution of a free Society of the Nations which
were determined to submit all their questions,
without any exception, to arbitration, and to place
their combined forces at the service of general
peace.
There is nothing new under the sun.
The programme of those dreamy idlers of the
Paix par le Droit, became, after some years, the
programme of Mr. Wilson, and the Paris Con-
gress sees itself obliged to become, in its turn,
the organ of that programme, to which Mr. Wil-
son appears to want to hold on, as firmly as a
statue to its pedestal; whilst the questions of
the sorrowing nations of Europe have been releg-
ated to the second or third row, and are put to
an ornamental use, under the form of festoons,
Cupids and bas-reliefs, for the decoration of the
pedestal of the President's statue — with how
much dignity and utility for the sorrowing nations
of Europe there is no need to belong to posterity
(as late as possible !) to ascertain and to judge.
Now, it is useless to form any illusions : nothing
durable, nothing true or just, can emerge from a
Congress which is dominated and directed by the
thought and the will of a single individual: of a
man, too, who, by habit of mind and soul, abides
in the field of abstractions and of the most senile
abstractions which, in times gone by, have worn
out the printing machines of politics ; such as that
of the liberty and the equality of men excepting,
of course, men of colour, who disturb America's
policy in the Pacific; of a man of indisputable
good- will, but too simple, and too off-handed for
a world as complicated as the Old World; of a
man, in short, who possesses such an incomplete
notion of European affairs as to be obliged to
— 347 -
obtain cognizance of them, one after another, by
means of inquiries and1 experts, as, for instance
(laugh not, oh ye Seas of Italy, with your eternal
Aeschylean laughter !) for the Adriatic question
which directly concerns us ; a man who is but a
transient authority, and who is already past, in
fact, whilst he has been disposing of the destinies
of Europe, and who has not, in himself, the vir-
tual power which will ensure to- morrow, the de-
fence of his ideas and of his acts of to-day, not
only in the State, but in his own Party also. And
I am horrified in thinking that the history of my
country is likely to be diverted from its lofty ways ;
that the blood of so much fervid Italian youth
will have been spilt in vain — owing to the false
information possessed by Mr. Wilson on Italian
affairs, or owing to the errors which Mr. Wilson's
experts insert in their tardy Reports, or even owing
to the interests of the American finance which
has its starting point in Mr. Wilson's idealism. In
the course of human events, this is the first time
that supreme political and territorial questions,
which concern the life of historic peoples, and
which spring from the dim, mysterious depths of
so remote an existence, are expected to be solved
by the expert opinion of four Professors, and of
as many — if not more — American bankers.
And this, unfortunately, is happening to us,
through the mental error of a man, who, notwith-
standing, declares himself a friend of truth, if
not a friend of ours !
Evidently, we are not more fortunate in our
friendships than we are in our Alliances.
- 348
AT THE LAST MOMENT.
After four months of vague nonsensical twaddle
about the freedom of men on earth, and of well-
meditated and bargained-for silence as to the
freedom of Great Britain on the seas, Mr. Wilson
has finally descended to discuss the Italian ques-
tions, and has discovered the existence of a Pact
of London for Dalmatia, a Pact which he has not
signed, and which he does not feel in duty bound
to recognize. At the same time, the signatories of
the Pact of London have suddenly become aware,
in their turn, that there are certain principles
enunciated by Mr. Wilson, which they have not
asserted and which they do not feel in duty bound
to apply to the city of Fiume ; nor have they the
intention of so doing. When the Czar Alexan-
der I. and Napoleon met at Tilsitt, they threw
themselves in each other's arms and: — - « Sire, »
said the Russian, « I hate the English as much as
you do ». — (( If that is so, » replied the Corsican,
(( we will not have much to discuss between us,
and peace is made ». — In the same manner, now,
Wilson, Lloyd George and Clemenceau are threat-
ening to build their peace on the body of the Ita-
lians. But, for all that, we are not going to lose
_ 349 -
our heads and our souls, which are by now tried
and put to a severe test since no inconsiderable
time by the graces of our Allies. Nor shall we
stake our future, in a moment of sadness and des-
pair, on their marked cards. In this supreme crisis
of the war and of the Alliance, we will show
ourselves calm and strong; and, above all, united.
For, to-day as it was yesterday, the union of all
Italians is, alone, the most strenuous and the
most sure defence of Italy. The only availing res-
istance against the concourse of aggressions is
that of a compact mass. To disband, or to divide
into fragments would be the same as to lose
ourselves, and lose, at the same time the reasons
of war and of peace.
In so frightful a turmoil of deceit and delusion,
one force only must support our resistance; it is
the force which we derive from the consciousness
of our right, and, what is consoling, from the sin-
cerity and the nobility of our action during the
dangers run by those who were not yet our Allies
when we resolved to enter the field to avert from
them their first defeat, that is, their extreme ruin.
The knee of Germany was pressing on their
breast and would have caused them to lose their
breath for ever, when we appeared on the horizon
of their misfortune. And at our appearance they
held out their arms, and, in their commotion they
wept with all the tears of which their eyes were
capable, in the presence of our banners, the co-
lours of which they now hardly recognize; and
they promised. and swore by their dead, which
were falling, by the thousand under the strokes
of the fierce invader, that they would never forget
the service rendered by Italy to civilization —
their civilization — the civilization which they
are now bartering on the market of that Yugo-
350
slavia which they are striving to create for their
bankers and their jobbers to the detriment of the
Italian races. But what matters it ? We then did
what we thought it was our duty to do, and we
shall not repent having done it. But, at the mo-
ment when we see that the representatives of En-
gland and France at the Congress of Paris, now
so serene and so forgetful, cannot find, in them-
selves, in their remembrances and in the sorrow
of their war anything to oppose to Mr. Wilson's
cold, doctrinaire sport against Italy; that they can
find none of those feelings of revulsion which all
Italy found to oppose to that other sport — so
differently ferocious and sanguinary — of the
Kaiser and of his armies at Charleroi and on the
shores of the North Sea, we claim, at least, the
right of remembering all these things for them
and for the glory of their dead. Oh, certainly,
they are perfectly right in being grateful to Mr.
Wilson for the assistance he has lent them to ac-
complish their last achievements against Ger-
many. But, for the sake of chronology, it would
be expedient that they should not forget that
they would not have had the pleasure of expres-
sing their gratitude to Mr. Wilson to-day, had
Italy not run, at the outset, to place herself at their
torn sides. And Mr. Wilson, too, by this time,
instead of trying conclusions with us, would have
had to try conclusions with the victorious Ger-
mans who, from Mexico to far Japan, would have
prepared for him a specimen of the Caudine
Forks, immensely more imposing than the trium-
phal Arches which the ingenuousness of the La-
tin races has erected in his honour and for the
purpose of allowing the flag of humanitarian
idealism — covering the merchandise of Ameri-
can jobbery (for a long time eager to conquer the
- 351 -
markets of the Old World) — to pass under them.
But who remembers last year's fire ?
At the last moment Mr. Wilson — evidently
following the latest advice of the Yugoslav pre-
ceptor who is completing the family's education
during the visit to Paris — has declared that he
does not acknowledge the Pact of London because
it does not bear his signature; the Pact which
contains the Italian revendications over Dalmatia.
Not recognize the Pact of London now, after two
years of epistolary literature between the White
House and the various Foregn Offices of Eu-
rope, in which literature no mention has ever
been made of any refusal to acknowledge that
Pact ? After four months that the Congress is in
full sway, and during which his Fourteen Points
have been considered doubtfully, even by him-
self and by his adepts whilst no doubt whatsoever
has been cast on the Allies* Treaties } Not re-
cognize the Pact of London at the point where it
is a question of Italian revendications; and not
recognize the rights of Fiume at the point where
these rights meet with one of the Points of his
Gospel, of that Gospel which, owing to the va-
riations it has to undergo day by day, seems li-
kely to end by being set aside amongst the apo-
cryphal ones ? There is positively no political
sense, nor a sense of justice and equity in the
manner of proceeding and of negotiating of this
strange simulacrum of a peaceful transatlantic
Robespierre looming ominously over European
peace. Neither is there any sense of juridical mo-
deration and of commercial probity. Whatever
may be the principles that it is intended to adopt
to regulate the world's affairs, the Old or the
New World, it is impossible not to take into ac-
count a fundamental Law which constitutes a
352
previous question not only in business transactions
but also in trie application of principles : the law
of do ut des. Now, we should never lose sight of
the fact that Mr. Wilson has not given anything
to us Italians ; he has given nothing of that which
he has given to the other Allies and which can
determine an obligation on our part towards him.
To the other Allies he has given two million and
half of men for their war against Germany; and
by reason of these two million and half of men,
besides all the rest which he has given them, he
can feel justified in demanding the equivalent,
be it in markets, influence, principles or ideas.
What has he given to us ? To us, over and above
the loans, which are business transactions and the
Red Cross aid which can eventually be gaid for,
he has not given any forces wherewith to win the
war : forces, that is to say, real and proper elem-
ents of obligation for peace. And, contrariwise,
— these things would seem absurd and incon-
ceivable, were they not happening under our very
eyes — and, contrariwise, he comes forward to
claim from us the settlement of the bill of his
principles represented by the sacrifice of our ter-
ritorial revendications ! He does not claim from
England the settlement of the bill for the freedom
of the seas; he does not claim from France the
settlement of the bill for Alsace-Lorraine or for
the Rhine, or for the armies which he has supplied
and the weapons he has given them : no, he has
recourse to us, he wants everything from us and
claims everything from us, for his Yugoslavs who,
up to the last day of the war were the supporters
of Austria, their sovereign lady. And we are also
to be placed under suspicion, before the sorrowing
populations of Europe, of delaying, of opposing,
of hindering the conclusion of peace (Wilson's
— 353
23
peace), because we persist in not placing our
shores and our peoples of DaLmatia at the feet of
these former servants of Austria. Pshaw! Italy
has undergone many invasions; she has suffered
many wrongs and lived under many yokes in the
course of centuries, ever since the power of Rome
was overthrown. But that she should now, after
her victory, be submitted to the supreme wrong
and to the supreme yoke inflicted upon her by
half-a-dozen Yugoslav marauders abetted by a
larger number of English, French and American
jobbers, under the shadow of Mr. Wilson's star-
spangled banner, no ! this is not compatible with
right and morality, and much less can it constitute
a subject for discussion and negotiation with the
Allies. Undoubtedly the German Delegates on
the way from Weimar to Versailles will laugh
gleefully — for once — at the thought of these
rough days which the Italian Delegates are passing
in Paris; and, raising the blinds of their railway
carriage windows, they will probably cast a scru-
tinizing glance afar, to see whether there appears
a trembling streak of blue in the dim distance of
their horizon. But the gods wisely reserve the con-
solation of hope to mortals, even in the depths of
an abyss.
For our part, our state of mind will undergo no
change during these adversities, which are to be
registered amongst the most severe which have
resulted from our tragic Alliances.
They are painful experiences, which a great
people has to undergo in order to acquire a full
independence of spirit, a complete consciousness
of its being — and also a complete consciousness
of its life in relation with the world.
Italy was not born yesterday, nor will she end
to-morrow, in the midst of the intrigues of the
354
Paris Congress. The historic sense of her perpe-
tuity must come to her aid in these days , and must
help her to surmount, wisely and calmly, the dan-
gers which press upon her on all sides and which
might otherwise cause her to fall, humiliated and
disorganised, into the void of a fruitless victory.
The gravity of danger must clear up , not darken
the conception of our responsibility, and must
also string even more tightly the bow of our will.
A moment of weakness and of surrender would
annul our victory and leave us irreparably defeated
in the war.
355 -
THEIR PROFITS AT OUR EXPENSE.
There is no longer need1 to discuss the formal
portion of Mr. Wilson's Proclamation to the Ital-
ians when Signor Orlando's counter-Proclamation
and the unanimous comments of the Press have
exhaustively demonstrated its diplomatic impro-
priety and its political and moral iniquity. By the
contorsions of its sophistries and of its errors of
Law and fact; by the incoherences between its
premises and its deductions, by all the falsehood
of its intonation, that Proclamation at last reveals
the cloven hoof of the Devil who had come in our
midst enveloped in the diaphanous azure light of
a celestial Messenger. Imprudence and haste have
lost him. His abuse of the old edict — the edict
addressed to peoples — which, at the outset, had
accredited him to public opinion, has exposed
the game hidden behind the title of the Ideal.
Italy has at last understood the game.
At the point which matters have reached, hy-
pocrisy would be a useless crime. It is imperative
therefore to speak loudly and clearly to our friends
of yesterday and, let us hope, of to-morrow, and
tell them the reasons of our distrust and of our
grievances. Our common Alliance may emerge
- 356 —
better strengthened in dignity and honesty from
the demonstration of truth.
All the labour of the Congress of Paris has been,
for the most part, directed to this end, namely:
that of removing, holding at a distance, of elimi-
nating Italy from the concert of the war Allies;
that of placing the Italian questions and interests
not on the same plane as that of the others, but
on a different and inferior plane ; that of consider-
ing, in fact, and keeping Italy in appearance
amongst the great Powers, because, owing to the
existing Treaties, it could not be otherwise, but
really and effectively, amongst the minor Powers ;
if not on a par with Serbia, and with Montenegro,
then something between Japan, not acceptable
to Wilson and the Hedjaz, somewhat acceptable
to England : in a situation, in fine, of which there
was no reason to be proud and in which Mr.
Lloyd George and M. Clemenceau might now
and then make a show of protecting us against
Wilson, and Mr. Wilson might now and then
appear to be benevolent to us against the pride of
Messrs. Lloyd George and Clemenceau. Truly,
a most touching situation !
What have been the consequences of this si-
tuation ? Mr. Wilson having effected his entrance
in the Conference in the character of High Priest,
of dispenser of favours, mandates and blessings,
our two Allies of the previous day who, undoubt-
edly, had serious and difficult tasks to undertake
in the interest of their respective countries, con-
centrated all their efforts upon their own quest-
ions, which they had placed in the fore -front, but
indifferently left ours a long way behind, with
the intent (every one adapts his means to his
ends) of making up again with the bread belong-
ing to us, the board laid out for the High Priest,
357
from which they had, bit by bit, abstracted the
(( Freedom of the Seas » , the « Sarre Basin » and
the (( Left Bank of the Rhine » ; and had done so,
being well aware that there were many hungry
mouths eagerly awaiting to bite our loaf; and
knowing also that the High Priest would have
been only too glad to see that loaf intact within
view and under his hand.
Thus, after having solved the questions ap-
pertaining to England and France, with our loyal
co-operation and our full and cordial assent, they
passed on to us. But how laborious was that pas-
sage ! And with how many stoppages, from one
half day to another ! And after how many secret
meetings and plottings, now between two, now
between three, during the short crossing ! The
discussion of the Italian questions seemed to be
a bitter pill to swallow for ail; and every one
would have willingly done away with it, by hand-
ing it over — one never knows — to the forthcom-
ing League of Nations. The League of Nations!
What an appropriate Court, wherein to bring up
Italy and the Italian aspirations for trial ! Italy,
under the indictment of Imperialism; the Italian
aspirations as the proofs of the crime. In any
case, in order to reach the goal, no means has
been neglected, no expedient has been left un-
tried, no moral coercion has been spared, from
the date of the German Delegates* arrival at Ver-
seilles, to the date of the arrival of the Washing-
ton, which was to take back the indignant Achil-
les to the White House. Oh, the Washington!
We have seen it appear and disappear on the
horizon of the Conference, like the black-sailed
Phantom Ship, in the distant seas of humanity.
But afterwards we have learnt that the famous
vessel turned back, without Caesar, but with bare-
358
ly a cargo of tardy American troops. And instead
of leaving, after he had found out that the
Italian Delegates insisted upon having their quest-
ions solved before the arrival of the German
Delegates at Versailles; and the charm and the
delays, once dispelled, and the negotiations bro-
ken off; Mr. Wilson sent forth his Proclamation,
as the head of a Syndicate sends out false news
with the intention of causing the shares of a com-
mercial enterprize to fall in the Stock Exchange,
with a view of obtaining possession of the con-
cern and holding it in his power. The coup was
made.
That the glory of his Fourteen Points and with
it the fortunes of the States to be resuscitated from
the ashes of the Austro-Hungarian Empire were
the precise aim of Mr. Wilson's coup, no one
in Italy is, by this time, inclined to believe any
longer, and no one in Europe can any longer af-
firm and maintain. And that it is only for the
sake of the Croats* fair faces that Wilson, Lloyd
George and Clemenceau are denying to Fiume
the right of re-uniting herself to Italy in virtue of
the principle of auto-decision; and denying to
Italy the duty of accepting the plebiscite of that
city, none of the five hundred thousand Italian
dead who are lying buried from the Piave to the
Isonzo; and none of the four hundred thousand
cripples and mutilated men who are wandering
over the land of Italy will ever be led to believe or
to understand. Were it a question between our
dead and wounded in the war and the Croats,
there is no doubt that it would have been already
solved in favour of the first named without even
the shadow of a discussion or a dispute. But, un-
fortunately, it is a question wherein something
quite different is at stake.
359
And it is this: that the bankers, the sharehold-
ers of the great Navigation Companies, and the
business men of our three great Allied Powers
want the dominion of the Adriatic for themselves,
for the Eastern traffic ; they want Fiume for them-
selves, as a mid-way port between Dantzig and
Constantinople, to complete the line of maritime
and commercial power over which, ever since the
eve of the war and during the course of the war,
an outcry has been raised because it was thought
that the capitalists, the bankers and the business
men of Germany and Austria-Hungary wanted
to obtain it for their own exclusive profit ; they
want to substitute themselves, as a real and proper
State, a State of a novel species and of new for-
mation, in the place of States which have their
historical and political basis in their natural si-
tuation itself. The Yugoslavs are merely the men
of straw ; and Yugoslavia is nought but the politi-
cal disguise of this immense maritime and indus-
trial concern which those people are desirous of
erecting on the ruins of two Empires, and for the
promotion of which, after all, the noblest and
the fairest youth of Italy has shed its blood during
four years of war ! But all the Italians are now
asserting that the Adriatic will dry up before this
enterprize obtains the success which its promo-
ters and supporters hoped for it. The Americans
and the English shall not transact their business
over the skin of the Italians.
In order to understand the opposition which is
being made to prevent Fiume from becoming Ita-
lian, it is necessary to consider, at the same time
Wilson's proposal to confer Dantzig upon Poland;
and to think also of the Constantinople mandate
which Wilson is aspiring to obtain for America.
We have no objections to raise against the attri-
360
bution of Dantzig to Poland; on the contrary,
we are very glad' of it; we only wisK to remark
that American capital cannot possibly be exclud-
ed from an outlet on the sea which Wilson has
offered to Poland. And we should only be too
glad if American or other capital would expend
all its power upon Dantzig and upon Constanti-
nople and would not wrong Fiume and Italy. We
do not ask to be protected. We only ask not to
be wronged and suppressed.
We have entered the war for a two-fold reason :
a reason of a general and ideal order; for the
rights and the liberty of peoples, against Germa-
ny, which had attacked these rights and this li-
berty ; and likewise a proper and particular reason
of our own : the security of our land and sea boun-
dary, and the liberation of the Adriatic and of
the oppressed Italian peoples on the Dalmatian
shore. Our intervention brought with it all the
benefits it was intended to bring to the ideal part ;
that is to say, it brought about the overthrow of
Germany's power; of that Germany — let it be
well remembered by our English and French
friends — against which we had no special reason
for rancour or dispute; and the Allies derived
from the overthrow of Germany all the benefits,
all the legitimate advantages which we have nev-
er, for a single moment, thought of lessening or
frustrating; and which during the discussions of
the Congress we have, instead, done our utmost
to propitiate and to favour.
But, what of our own particular part ?
Is our intervention, in so far as it concerns our
own particular part, to be rendered useless ? And
are the effects of our intervention, of our war, of
our victory to be rendered null and void in respect
to our ends, which consist of the liberation of our
- 361 —
Adriatic brethren and the liberation of the Adria-
tic itself ? And are we to have fought such a
tremendous war to allow its fruits to be enjoyed
by American and English capitalists ?
This is the problem.
Because, when all is told, the possession of
Trieste is useless without Fiume. By leaving Fiu-
me to others we would have fought such a tre-
mendous war to lose both Fiume and Trieste,
and to cause Trieste to perish and to allow our
enemies and their new masters to live and thrive
upon Fiume.
Is all this possible ?
We ought to emerge from this war with all our
aims attained.
After all the sacrifices we have undergone, we
ought to obtain all the advantages of victory.
We ought not to have sacrificed our former
alliances, and our people, and our hard-earned
savings of two generations, merely to prepare a
banquet for English and American capitalists.
— 362
THE SPIRIT AND THE LETTER
OF THE TREATY OF LONDON,
Italy has delivered her solemn verdict upon the
conflict which has arisen at the Paris Congress on
the question of the Adriatic. We would lessen
the importance of the plebiscite voted by the peo-
ple on both shores of that sea and the correspond-
ing Vote of the Italian Parliament, were we to
add any words to the sovereign expressions of the
national will. If these expressions constitute the
Law — unless (everything is possible) the Paris
Congress and Mr. Wilson deny, in Italy's case,
even the most elementary principles which con-
stitute the juridical and political basis of modern
democracies — no one can question or set at
nought our Law. But is it permissible to eliminate
surprises from the calculation of our probabil-
ities ?
Meanwhile, it is opportune to elucidate all the
points of the conflict and to leave none of them
in the shadow, or in partial shadow, in order to
demonstrate to the world, even before demons-
trating it to our Allies and to the Associate, the
absolute justice of our thesis, so that no doubt
of any kind be raised about the absolute honesty
of our intentions. I mean « honesty » in a political
— 363 -
sense ; that is in the sense of consistency between
our ideal premises of the war and our territorial
demands after victory; which are not demands
of an imperialistic nature, though Mr. Wilson has
audaciously thought fit to denounce them as such,
but of a strictly and sincerely national character,
as all those persons who are judging in good-faith
are in duty bound to admit.
The culminating point of the conflict is the
Pact of London and the exclusion of Fiume from
that Pact.
Up to the eve of the rupture, Mr. Wilson as-
sumed he could not recognize the Pact of London
because — oh, the stab in the back ! — it was a
secret treaty, and because the first of his Four-
teen Points excluded secret international agree-
ments from the diplomacy of the future. An inad-
missible and above all, a specious argument this,
and for many reasons : firstly, because theoretic-
ally, when one speaks of the illegitimacy of secret
international agreements, one wishes to signify
agreements concluded without the approval of
the peoples and of their Parliamentary represen-
tative bodies; secondly, because the conditions
agreed to for the participation of one or more
peoples in a war cannot be classified amongst the
occult and insidious international agreements
which tend to produce war, because they are
themselves a produce of the war ; thirdly, because
the new causes owing to which a new Power
enters into a war do not destroy the primary
causes nor the agreements entered into by the
other Powers, which are closely bound to the
primary causes; fourthly, because without a for-
mal intimation, the agreements entered into be-
tween Allies cannot be considered as null and
void in consequence of the intervention of the
364
latest arrival, nor can the former agreements be
considered void of force because other more re-
cent agreements in addition have supervened. But
all these are arguments on questions of mere
form, or arguments of mere historical or, better,
pre-historical value now that Mr. Wilson no lon-
ger makes of the recognition of the Pact of Lon-
don a question of theory but, as is written in his
Memorandum, a question of opinion — of his
personal opinion on the adjustment of our Eastern
frontier. « Personally » he says, in fact, in his Me-
morandum, (( I am entirely disposed to admit that
Italy should obtain, all along the extension of her
Northern frontiers and wherever she comes into
contact with Austrian territory, all that has been
granted to her by the so-called Pact of London,
but I have a clear opinion that the Pact of London
can no longer be applied for the adjustment of her
Eastern frontiers. . . » And here follow all the well-
known reasonings concerning the disappearance
of Austria and the formation of new States, and
the necessity of endowing these new States with
a sea outlet at Fiume; reasonings which, by now,
need no longer be contested, as none of them
has ever proved to be capable of resisting the
most elementary historical and political criticism,
and which it would useless, therefore, to examine
and to consider.
The only argument left, then, is this one: In
the Pact of London, Fiume is not attributed to
Italy, but to Croatia.
But — and here really arises the question
which the Paris Congress did not see, or did not
want to see and examine — to Croatia in what
capacity ? As part of Serbia, or, even, of Yugo-
slavia, or as part of Austria-Hungary }
At the Paris Congress they have argued round
365
the question but they have never penetrated into
the heart of it. And it is most strange that men
in authority, who are, at the same time, polit-
icians and jurists and possess, or ought to possess,
a special tecnique of their own for the interpre-
tation of treaties, should have halted, as if they
had turned to stone, before the Medusa head of
Croatia, and should not have felt the courage or
the inclination to scrutinize it closely. Yet, the
meaning of the attribution, made in 1915, of Fiu-
me to Croatia is so clear and limpid, so simple
and open, that it is sufficient to state it, to destroy
all the sophistications and all the falsifications
for which, up to now, the letter of the Treaty has
given opportunity.
When that Treaty was signed, in 1915, not
only was there no intention, and still less was
there any proposal on the part of the Allies to
destroy Austria _or to make her disappear from
the map (on the contrary, in the minds of the
English and the French there was a design and
an aim to detaching Austria from Germany during
the war and of holding Austria as a good card
in the game of the Entente against Germany, to
be played in the event of victory), but neither
was there the most remote suspicion of the advent
of Yugoslavia, nor of any part to be given to
Yugoslavia in the future adjustment of Europe.
Therefore the Allies on formulating the condi-
tions of victory, and in assigning to Italy the
boundaries and the lands bestowed upon her by
her national rights, also took the life of Austria
under their care and, as Trieste, which was con-
sidered as the principal lung of her commercial
respiration, had been assigned to Italy, the Al-
lies left Fiume to Austria, as that city of the Dual
Monarchy had been Hungary's lung of commer-
— 366 —
cial respiration. Naturally no mention could be
made in a Treaty made by the Entente of the
future of Austria or the future of Hungary, but,
considering that the Entente had taken in hand
the conditions of existence of Austria-Hungary,
Croatia was selected on Russia's suggestion and
for the motives which determined Russia to make
that suggestion, as representing Hungary, of
which country she formed a part; she was se-
lected, in short, as representing the State to
which, more than to any other country, she was
and appeared to be bound for life and for death.
Mr. Wilson, by means of a fantastic deduction
which is surprising not only on account of its
arbitrary indifference to any logical pre-supposi-
tion and to any historical and political precedent,
but also on account of its more than arbitrary —
its outright iniquitous — contempt of the intent-
ions of the contracting parties in a Pact, which
is nothing else but an Agreement, Mr. Wilson,
I say, starting from the destruction and the disap-
pearance of the power of Austria-Hungary, ar-
rives at conclusions and donations which con-
siderably outrun the functions and the powers
with which he is invested in the Conference ; and
of which it is strange that he should not feel and
understand the juridical and moral as well as the
political limitation.
((Austria has disappeared)), says Mr. Wilson,
(( therefore I can re-arrange the geographical map
of the Balkans according to my conception and
my powerw. — Oh, no! You cannot do that,
Mr. Wilson. You can suppress any of your
Fourteen Points or add one or more points to
them, but you cannot suppress any of the four
Cardinal Points nor add a point to them. Neither
367
can you transform Nature. Nor can you trans-
form the spirit of a Pact or of an Agreement.
Austria once fallen, the sole consequence which,
politically and juridically, Fiume can derive from
Austria's fall is this, and only this : that the cause
for which the contracting parties of the Pact of
London had thought it expedient to assign Fiu-
me to Croatia having disappeared, Fiume should
follow the fate marked out by her national right
and by her sovereign will. But to assign Fiume
to Croatia, never! To assign Fiume to Croatia
after Austria's fall, in virtue of the Pact of Lon-
don, would be committing a true and gross fraud,
to which it is not possible that the representatives
of civilized Governments would lend themselves.
Fiume had been assigned to Croatia as forming
part of Austria-Hungary, not of Serbia or of Yu-
goslavia. And it is not possible that, the terms
and the factors being changed, and the perso-
nality being altered, the conditions of the Pact
should remain intact.
In a moment of absent-mindedness (let us
hope), Messrs. Lloyd George and Clemenceau
thought fit to interpret the Pact of London in the
Croatian sense. But on being recalled to reality
they cannot do otherwise than interpret it, in good
sense and' good-faith according to the spirit with
which it was framed. Any decision contrary to
that spirit would be a wrong inflicted not only
on the rights of Fiume and on Italy, but also on
the juridical civilization of their countries.
We are waiting. Sure of our Right in peace,
as we were faithful to our pacts in the war.
368
((NOBLESSE OBLIGE))
A year had scarcely gone by since Italy had
renewed a thirty years* Treaty with Germany
when, in 1914, this last mentioned Nation decided
to assail France .The object of the aggression had
been stated and illustrated by General von Bern-
hardi in 1912, two years before, in his book on
the forthcoming war : « In one way or another,
we must settle our accounts with France in order
to have our hands free for our Weltpoliti\. The
first indispensable condition of a sound German
policy is the overthrow of France. And this time
we must strike hard and in such a manner as to
prevent our enemy from rising once more and
crossing our path ». And, in fact, everything had
been scientifically prepared for the execution of
this design; the weapons and the minds— and,
above all, the opponent's moral and political dis-
integration. In twenty day's time, in forty, if cal-
culations were correct, the Emperor, mounted on
Attila's horse, would have made his entry into
Paris. (The commemorative medals of the great
event had already been struck). In the calcula-
tions was also the presence of the Italian drum-
mer, with his face turned towards the Maritime
Alps. But the Italian drummer did not appear on
the scene. And Attila did not pass.
Italy had been united to Germany for thirty
— 369
24
years and she had likewise been divided from
France for thirty years. What mattered it ? At the
decisive moment, notwithstanding the recent
controversies on the question of the S.S. Manouba
and on the question of the Otranto Channel; not-
withstanding the Marseilles demonstrations in fa-
vour of the Turks, and the demonstrations in
Tunis against the Italians, Italy, no sooner had
the aggression been perpetrated, did what she
was in duty bound to do. She detached herself
from Germany. And placed herself on the side
of France. Had she done otherwise, she would
have dishonoured her name, in her juridical tra-
dition and in her political history. And she held
fast to the honour of her history and of her tra-
dition.
Immediately after the declaration of Italian
neutrality, messengers from Berlin came running
down in all haste. « What do you require ? » said
they, « Gold ? Incense ? Myrrh ? » Everything they
threw down at our feet, to prevent us from pas-
sing from neutrality to war ; everything, especially
the spoils of France in the Mediterranean. And,
finally, von Biilow came, bringing with him all
the ideas which von Bernhardi had upheld in
his book, for the purpose of keeping Italy bound
to Germany in case of war. « We must think of
strengthening, in every possible manner, the po-
litical power of our Allies. We have strengthened
Austria in the Balkans, we must now strengthen
Italy in the Mediterranean, especially in the case
of a war with France ». And von Biilow arrived
in Rome with this resolute programme. The first
portion of his mission was precisely devoted to
persuade Italy, by means of a Press propaganda
and of negotiations with the Cabinet, not to think
of the Adriatic but to think, instead, of the Me-
- 370 -
diterranean, and to join Germany in fighting the
maritime and Colonial power of France in the
Mediterranean. As a prize, we would obtain Nice,
with Savoy, Corsica and Tunis. Had not von
Bernhardi sustained that it was worth Germany's
while even jto make war to conquer Tunis on
Italy's behaff }
But Italy, once more, during the second period,
declined the German Wise Men's gold, their in-
cense and their myrrh. And she entered the war
by the side of France. She did, that is to say,
once more, what she was in duty bound to do.
And she would have dishonoured herself had she
done otherwise.
But would not France dishonour herself even
more, perhaps, now; and would she not cancel
her name from the list of the civilized Powers
of Europe if, for the sake of the Yugoslavs and
for the sake of Wilson she were to detach herself
from Italy, and were to proceed to Versailles
without her } She certainly would dishonour her-
self — and she would' not even be mindful of her
future. And, in a single hour, besides victory
itself, she would lose the reasons of victory and
the reasons of her life.
We abandoned the Germans for the sake of
France. France can well abandon the Yugoslavs
— as no one knows who and what they are —
for the sake of Italy and of the Italians of all the
shores.
We staked the whole of our future in the game
against Germany — which, at that time was the
stronger of the two, and, in consequence of the
victories she had gained appeared to be invinci-
ble — and against the Emperor of Germany who
was and had been our friend and the friend of
our Sovereigns for thirty years. France can well
371
put a little good-will into the game which is being
played between Italy and Wilson; especially as
all the cause of freedom, all the cause of demo-
cracy in the old countries of Europe are at stake.
Can such a thing happen as France going to
Versailles without Italy, to discuss the terms of
peace with those very Germans from whom Italy
detached herself in order to place herself at her
side in the war ? Is such a thing possible ? Very
likely. But the day in which France were to find
herself at Versailles on the side of the Nortchliffe-
Steed gang and on the side of the Yugoslavs —
whose powers, the Germans, and with reason,
do not intend recognizing — and not on Italy's
side, would be a day of deep mourning for the
civilization of Europe. The men of Old France
would refuse so to act, and would' exclaim : « No-
blesse oblige! ». Will Mr. Clemenceau yield,
instead ? He would be rendering a bad service to
his country.
I am well aware that some time ago, to an Ita-
lian Member of Parliament who called his atten-
tion to the fact that the consequences of a dis-
sention between France and Italy might be disa-
strous to France, in ten years' time, M. Clemen-
ceau replied : a In ten years* time, I will be no
more ». But M. Clemenceau who possesses more
esprit than Louis XV. , and has also a greater
sense of responsibility should understand that
flashes of wit must not be carried to extreme con-
sequences — neither should the heresy of such
premises.
The representatives of the Allied Governments
are men of powerful temperament, and therefore
they are less apt to dissociate their personal sym-
pathies or antipathies from the real and proper
interests of the countries they represent. Who can
~ 372 -
say that M. Clemenceau, in the conception and
the animus which determine his judgments, does
not insert a little too much of the personality of
one who, for thirty years fought against Italy and
the Triple Alliance; and cannot conceive, now,
an Italy different from that against, which he
fought } And who can say that Lloyd George,
even after his attacks against the Times and the
Northcliffe-Steed gang, is not the same man who
studied and schemed, in the past, in the com-
pany of that gang the erection of the Yugoslav
counter-altar to oppose to Italy's aspirations in the
Adriatic ? Cavour was more mistrustful of Eng-
land in the Adriatic than in the Mediterranean.
And the distrust of our great Statesman is stri-
kingly proved at the present moment. But Lloyd
George does not reflect that England has the need
of more numerous friends now, after the war, than
she had need of before; and is probably illuding
himself excessively that the disappearance of the
maritime power of Germany, signifies the absolute
security of England on the seas and throughout
the ages to come. But Germany, before she disap-
peared as a naval power, gaye a practical demon-
stration of the value of a weapon which represents
the depreciation of all Fleets : the submarine. And
Wilson, by himself, means more, against the
British Empire than even the maritime power of
Germany, and even more than the submarine.
Let Mr. Lloyd George strut round Mr. Wilson as
long as he pleases. But the theory of mandates,
which Wilson has not invented and has barely
had the merit of putting into practice for the li-
quidation of the German colonial Empire, can
also be applied for the liquidation of the British
Empire. We will speak of it when thistles are in
bloom.
— 373 -
In any case, and whatever may happen, the
resolutions which are to be taken in these days
are resolutions which will determine the fate of
the European Powers.
Will peace be concluded, if it be concluded at
all, without Italy 7 Well, Italy will recover her
freedom for the future, and will find, outside the
circle of the Powers with which she has been al-
lied in the war, new roads to follow. A great
country of forty millions of inhabitants, in the
midst of a worn-out and defeated Europe can well
be useful to friends and dangerous to enemies or
to indifferent parties, with her work, her intelli-
gence and her moral and physical vigour. We
have lived amidst storms. And amidst storms we
will continue to live and to teach to others the
science of life.
Peace will not be concluded 7 Well, it is not
Italy's fault, but the fault of those who by means
of their artificial structures, by means of their
cosmopolitan banking and industrial Companies,
have endeavoured to substitute their artificial
structures to the natural structures of States, and
to crush down or eliminate the natural elements
of the life of the nations.
But can you imagine a Treaty of Peace without
Italy, without the victorious nation ?
Can you picture to yourselves a Mr. Wilson,
flanked by Lloyd George and Clemenceau, of-
ficiating on the altar of the League of Nations,
without Italy which to-day more than ever re-
presents in her soul and in her loftiest forms the
sovereign principle of nationalities ?
Yes?
But then, what a burst of laughter would re-
sound throughout the two Hemispheres !
— 374
THE DEMOCRATIC WAR !
During the period of Italian neutrality, seven
months previous to our entry into the war, whilst
opposing the foolish and, — by what appears now
clear — the ruinous ideologies, so detrimental to
us, of the promoters and stage-managers of the
((democratic war », I wrote (it is useless to renew
the usual protest on the odiousness of the letter
(( I » , considering that it is impossible to burden
Mr. Lloyd George or M. Clemenceau with the
responsibility of my ideas), I then wrote in the
columns of this same newspaper the following
words : — « Before placing ourselves at their head,
why should we strive to obtain an understanding
between the two Powers which claim to possess
in themselves the strength to accomplish two
great historical missions; that is, Serbia which
is aiming at the re-constitution of Greater Serbia
with the southern Slavs; and Greece which, in
her turn, is tending towards the re-constitution,
by land and sea, of the anciant Byzantine Em-
pire: the two Powers, in short, which have always
arrayed themselves against Italy, rather than in
her defence; the first, Serbia, with the Croats*
propaganda in the Adriatic; the second, Greece,
375
with her disturbing action in all the questions
arising between the Otranto Channel and the
/Egean Sea?
And I concluded thus :
(( I am unable to understand this tendency (a
moral and idealistic tendency) and am unable to
understand its golden language. I cannot under-
stand the disinterestedness of my country dis-
played for the profit of the interests of other peo-
ple. I do not understand the principle of nationality
in the abstract or as sole agent of the life of peo-
ples in history. / only understand the principles,
the ideas and the actions which, at a given histo-
rical moment, are useful to my country. Besides
there are no principles which have or can have
an absolute value or are capable of an absolute
application. The men of real efficiency in politi-
cal life are the realists, not the dreamers... And
I hasten to express my ardent wish that some
strong realist may shape himself and may build
up a doctrine for us which will be more useful
and more conducive to the health of our country » .
It is superfluous to say that Italy has not yet found
this realist.
The war, which is a fierce and terrible struggle
of interests, which is the supreme tragic expres-
sion of the peoples* struggle for life, was con-
ducted and managed by the Italian politicians as
a pure Crusade in favour of democratic ideas the
triumph of which at the points of the bayonets
of the victorious armies had been promised by the
leader of the English Radicals, Lloyd George, and
by various leaders of the Radical Governments,
of France, Viviani, Briand, Ribot and Clemen-
ceau. During the course of the war, no question
was ever raised, — seriously and with positive
ideas and intentions — of what practical results
376
Italy would expect to realize in the event of an
Italian victory. The neutrality was not negotiated,
nor were the war and peace negotiated. Every-
thing was deferred to the loyalty and the generosity
of the Allies, who were naturally prompted and
inspired by the purest sentiments of Europeanism
and of interplanetary humanitarianism. Yet, dur-
ing the course of the war, there were not want-
ing some premonitory signs of the loyalty and
generosity of the Allies in the humble but still
not negligible questions of material existence ; for
instance, in the questions of coal, grain, freights,
and, lastly, also in the distribution of the war
means, of arms and men. But who had the time,
then, to think of such small matters ? They stinted
us in everything : from bread to fuel and to barbed-
wire; they sent us, when they did send after
unheard-of difficulties and humiliations, the leav-
ings of the grand banquet, for which they made
us pay at the double rate of gold and blood ; and
from these premises there was nobody to draw
the probable inferences for the future ! Nobody
who, from the annoyances to which we were put
and the difficulties which were placed in our way
at the most critical moments of the war, did not
foresee the annoyances to which we would be
put, and the difficulties which would be placed
in our way in the glad or sorrowful moments of
peace. The rigidity, the aridity, the immobility
of the Italian political brain, in comparison with
the agility, the fertility and the ability of the brain
of the Allies in the exploitation of situations, will
appear phenomenal to the historians of the future,
especially when it is contrasted with the heart
and soul of the country, so rich and fertile in
resource, so fierce and powerful in all their react-
ions, so vigilant and ready in all their manifesta-
— 377 —
tions ! The ancient Greeks represented Victory
without wings. We, instead, possess a Victory
without a head. And all the glory rests with the
great and noble heart of this eternal people of
Italy, which is not an « indolent giant », oh, Poet !
and neither it is old, of, so abandoned by its lead-
ers, it has been able to find for itself a sure lead
in the just and straight road of its action.
During our war, our political men did nothing
else but mount guard at the sepulchre of the de-
mocratic Ideal, an occupation to which the Allies
had destined them, whilst they themselves were
settling amongst themselves and on their own ac-
count the division of the spoils of Christ. What
an honour such a mission was ! And this honour
grew immeasurably when the Associate, from
across the Ocean came to join the Allies. To be
European democrats was already something; but
to be world democrats, what joy! The French
Revolution, the Marseillaise, Lafayette, Wilson;
what music ! And what a melodrama ! The Italian
democrat lost touch with the earth and flew
through the translucent blue of the star-spangled
banner. But artless man that he was, he did not
see what was hidden in the folds of the star-span-
gled banner! If the radicalism of Lloyd George
and of Clemenceau barely covered the old impe-
rialism of Europe, Wilson's humanitarianism
covered the world-imperialism of American ca-
pital which from its industrial phase was aspiring
to the commercial phase of dominion. And he, the
artless man, began to strut round Wilson and to
fan with his peacock tail all unfolded, the Ideal
which he thought was shining, like Moses* light,
on his forehead, and which was, instead, the other
light (not to be despised either, nor incompatible
with civilization) of American gold, which our
- 378 —
Statesmen were wrong in not knowing how to
introduce (as it was their duty to have done) and
to make flow into our national policy.
For I do not say that political men, whether
friendly or not — Lloyd George, Clemenceau or
Wilson — were wrong in looking after the in-
terests of their countries, by means of their ideas;
I simply say that the Italian political men were
wrong in the concrete case, not to have known
how to negotiate, in a financial sense, with En-
glish business men and with American or French
bankers the solution of our Adriatic problem, as
the Yugoslavs have more ably and more wisely
been able to do. It is the mentality, the faith and
the good-faith in pure principles and in pure
ideals of Italian political men which frighten and
terrify me ; because they show me that with those
principles and ideals, and owing to them my
country is becoming unarmed and deprived of the
possibility of offence or defence in the great
struggle of modern life — which is now, more
than ever, the struggle for wealth. Wilson is the
chief exponent of this struggles because he
represents the richest country on earth. And his
authority is not derived from ideas, but from the
reserves of metallic currency which are at the
back of his ideas and in their paper circulation
endow them with an absolute value and, in any
case, with a value greatly superior to that which
the pages of Plato or of Mazzini ever possessed.
The fundamental error of Italian policy in the
war and in peace has been not to have wanted or
known how to search for, and to find, the inter-
ests struggling under the architrave of ideas ; worse
still, not to have put into evidence, not to have
proclaimed and defended our own particular in-
terests, coherent and connected with our territo-
379
rial aspirations; not to have gathered together
and co-ordinated round our special interests the
interests of the stronger; not to have given, in
fine, a unique, certain and realistic character to
our war, and apart from the ideological character
which it assumed and which was continually va-
cillating and fluttering between the vanities of
individuals and the fatuous hopes of factions.
Thus have our political leaders closed the war
in open discord, and have given the two Hemi-
spheres an insane exhibition of struggle and di-
vision, on the very eve of the Congress, on the,
alas ! democratic problem of the Italian territorial
boundary in relation to Wilson's American prin-
ciples; making the world believe in a division
of the country, which has never existed ; and ac-
crediting a legend of the imperialism of our na-
tional policy, which was fated to facilitate all the
coalitions of interests and tendencies against our
victory and our future !
Thus ended the « democratic war » — wasting
and dissipating in all its efforts the true, the great,
the glorious war fought by our people, not for
the triumph of this or that variable idea, of this
or that changeable Party, but for the triumph of
its spirit, which is of divine essence and is eternal,
and for the triumph of the laws of its existence
and its civilization which are worth something
more than the fortune of the electors at political
meetings or of the elected in Parliament.
Five hundred thousand killed and as many
mutilated and wounded, are too many, in truth,
for the glory of the vague ideas of our democrats
and for the by no means vague interests of our
Allies of France and England.
380 —
AS IN THE CASE OF GERMANY.
That which many of us had foreseen has taken
place. Immediately after the war, the Allies have
revealed themselves what they were and always
will be: enemies. All the stage effects of « Latin
Brotherhood » and of « Liberal and Democratic
Brootherhood », have fallen at one stroke no
sooner had the Germans retreated from the fields
of Northern France and from the threatened lit-
torals facing England. Those stage effects served
only whilst on the theatre of the war there still
remained, as a grisly phantom, the fear of Luden-
dorFs armies. The fear once dispelled, Italy's
services could be dispensed with. And Lloyd
George and Clemenceau pretended not to recogni-
ze her, and were astonished, rather, to see her
by their side at the Congress of Paris.
Italy, in fact, when she did not appear as an
intruder, was considered as being brought up for
trial, at the Paris Congress. And her trial is not
yet over. As swallows returning from the South
sharpen their eyes to discover on the horizon the
colour of their nests, so the correspondents of
Italian newspapers, sharpen their eyes on the
horizon of the Conference to discover whether
381
Fiume and Dalmatia are still in existence ; whilst
our most important newpapers print as titles and
in big type the small news of Le Matin or of Le
Temps or even of U Homme Libre, announcing
that perhaps to-morrow or next day will happen
the pleasant surprise, the delivery of the sentence
of acquittal or of conviction in the case against
Italy. And to think that those who are now acting
as Judges have been on the point of being drag-
ged along to the Kaiser's feet with the rope round
their necks! And that we inserted our hand be-
tween the rope and their necks in order to prevent
the noose from giving the last pull and then letting
them fall, throttled, into extreme slavery ! But, let
us forget these miseries ; and let us only think of
the future.
At the Congress, then, the Allies have placed
Italy in a position of indictment. There has not
been a single question referring to Italy which
has been discussed by a criterion, I do not say
of justice or equity, but even of honesty; of that
elementary honesty which consists, for instance,
in not stealing the cigarette-case or the pocket-
book from the travelling companion who offers
you a cigarette or shows you his passport. There
has not been a single question of difficulties or
conflict between her and her rivals, which has
been considered, I do not say with sympathy, or
in a friendly manner, but even with that common
sentiment of reserve and decency which prompts
persons even of elementary manners not to treat
in the same way the unfortunate of the pavement
and the lady who is in mourning for her sons
killed in war. On the contrary, all the questions
which were vexatious and offensive to us and
damaging to our interests and to our security, have
been reared, cultivated, pruned and grafted on
382
to theiTS in order to yield1 a greater result to our
detriment in the present and in the future. Think
of the twice-repeated trick — fortunately avoided
the second time in consequence of Sonnino's sharp
refusal — of proposing to submit the question of
Fiume and Dalmatia to Wilson as sole arbitrator :
the just Wilson whom we know not only as our
enemy and the protector of our enemies, but li-
kewise as the enemy of the Pact of London.
Think: after six months had elapsed since our
victory was attained, they were not even disposed
to guarantee the Pact of London, that is, our War
Pact, with the excuse that Wilson — who entered
into the war two years later — was not disposed
to recognize it. Think, finally, of the concomitant
missions of M. Allize on behalf of France and of
General Smuts, on behalf of England, to Vienna
with the object of creating situations and arousing
agitations on our borders which would directly
tend to depreciate and to annul our victory and
to raise new threats and new wrongs against our
territorial security and against our economic and
commercial life. And then draw your own con-
clusions with reference to the new diplomacy
inaugurated by the illustrious representatives of
the Democracy of France, England and the Unit-
ed States at the Paris Congress — in comparison
of the old diplomacy of the Central Empires at
the Congress of Brest -Litowsky. Is there any dif-
ference between the two? Certainly; but all in
favour of the Central Empires which declared their
intention of imposing^ their conditions upon a
vanquished country, by right of force, and making
the scale turn with the weight of Htndenburg's
sword and not by means of the gold bags of inter-
national banks. I cannot say whether to-morrow
the world will declare its satisfaction for having
— 383 —
caused the fall of two Empires and having instead
placed three round its neck: the three empires of
finance; no longer those of Arms and Kultur.
Ah, it was not for this ! It was not for this, indeed,
that so many tears have been shed, and so much
blood has been spilt in the profound abyss of the
war!
The Allies do not treat Italy as an enemy in a
rhetorical sense; but in a real sense; effectively
and with premeditation.
In fact, they have adopted for Italy the same
threat they have adopted for Germany : starvation.
What do they say to Germany } « If you do not
sign the Treaty, we will not send you any food ».
And what are they saying, or causing their
authorized organs to say to Italy } « If you do not
bow to our will, we will not send you any more
grain, nor coal ». The are even saying something
worse than to Germany : because if they threaten
Germany to deprive her of food, they threaten to
deprive us of both food and coal.
Behold Italy, therefore, victorious Italy at the
Paris Conference, reduced to the same conditions
as defeated Germany at Versailles: reduced to
submit to imposition on the part of her former
War Allies; that is, on the part of those whom
she saved from dire ruin; reduced to submit to
the same imposition which offends Germany:
either the Treaty as we have made it, or starva-
tion. I do not know whether Messrs. Lloyd Geor-
ge and Clemenceau have formed a precise idea
of the situation they are creating for Italy, and
whether they intend making history by means of
these tragic jests. We are very sorry for them
and for their countries, besides being sorry for
ourselves and for our country. And without prob-
ing any further, we restrict ourselves to denounc-
- 384 -
ing, to that part of the civilized world which they
have not yet succeeded in reducing to slavery,
the barbarous threat which they have dared to
make against Italy after war and victory.
Do they delude themselves with the idea that
Italy is all contained in Signor Orlando's suavity ?
Or that they can trifle, now, with that suavity as
Bismarck in 1870 trifled with Thiers* tears which
were, after all, the tears of defeat ?
They would fall into the same error as Germany
on the eve of the war ; and would show how little
they know of the Italy of the Piave and of Vit-
torio Veneto.
No ! Orlando's suavity does not correspond to
the sentiment of Italy.
To-day, in the depth of her heart, Italy has the
bitterness of her Farinata — and of her Crispis.
385 —
THE GERMAN THEORY
AND THE ANGLO-FRENCH ONE.
In the year 1915 Italy, together with France
and England, had signed a Treaty — the Treaty
of London — in which were contained the condi-
tions of peace after the war.
In the year 1917 Italy, together with the same
Powers, France and England, had also signed
another Treaty, after the Meeting of Saint-jean
de Maurienne, in which Treaty were contained
other conditions, concerning the eastern part of
the Mediterranean, to be put into execution after
victory.
Now, what has happened ?
At the Paris Congress, during a long period of
five months' duration, France and England re-
fused to guarantee to Italy the execution of the
Treaty of London — this refusal being made in
the name of the American Associate, who had
signified his intention not to bind himself to terms
not signed by him — and it was only after the
secession and the departure of the Italian Dele-
gates that they declared their decision to meet
their engagements. And, as to the Treaty of Saint-
Jean de Maurienne, they thought fit to ignore it
altogether — in the name of Kerensky who, hav-
— 386 —
ing fallen from power, had been unable to adhere
to it. So that, once in Wilson's name and another
time in the name of Kerensky, our Allies strove
to escape — which, in part they actually succeed-
ed in doing — from the Treaties signed in their
own names in time of war, and which had been
concluded for the explicit aims of the war and
were to represent, after victory, the aims of peace
itself.
Well, in the face of this manner in which the
Powers of the Entente interpret and execute
Treaties which they have signed, I do not think
it excessive on my part to state that the Germans,
since the month of August 1914 and up to the
present moment, have been most foully slandered
for their theory on « Scraps of Paper » .
The theory of the Germans was, at bottom, a
theory of strategic opportunity, and refejrred,
besides, to a Treaty of neutrality, dated 1839,
which the Kingdom of Prussia, and not the Em-
pire of Germany had originally signed. — « Be-
lieve me » , said the Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, von Jagow, to the Belgian Minister, <( be-
lieve me, it is with death in her soul that Ger-
many has resolved upon violating the neutrality
of your country; and I, personally, feel an im-
mense sorrow f or_ it. But what is to be done ? It
is a question of life and death for the Empire. If
the German armies are not to be placed between
the anvil and the hammer, they must strike a
violent blow on the French side, in order to en-
able them, if need be, to turn against Russia ».
And in the Reichstag, von Bethmann-Hollweg
declared in the same sense, and although he con-
fessed that the was placing himself in contradict-
ion with the rules of the Law of Nations, that:
(( Necessity \new no law » .
387
But what necessity could our English and
French Allies have pleaded yesterday, or can
they plead to-day, for having refused once to
guarantee the Treaty of London, and for having
thrown the Treaty of Saint-Jean de Maurienne
into the waste-paper basket without even looking
if it were a scrap of paper or a piece of bandage
torn from a wound? What necessity can theyo
plead which compels them to violate the rules of
the Law of Nations, as the fear of Russia compel-
led Germany > Were, perhaps, the armies of
Venizelos threatening the frontiers of Syria, or
Mesopotamia or of Egypt, so that France and
England were justified — in order to save their
colonial Empires — in tearing up the treaty con-
cluded with Italy at Saint- Jean de Maurienne,
and in giving the city of Smyrna (which they had
agreed to give to Italy) to Venizelos instead, so
as to induce him to remove his annies from the
aforesaid frontiers ? And all this whilst Greece
was hob-nobbing with the German Emperor, and
Italy was casting her blood and her fortunes into
the furnace of the war ?
They have been slandered, the Germans !
(( We were compelled » , said von Bethmann-
Hollweg on August 5th. 1914, in his speech to
the Reichstag, « we were compelled to override
the just protest of the Luxemburg and Belgian
Governments. The wrong — I speak openly —
the wrong that we are committing we will en-
deavour to make good as soon as our military
goal has been reached. Anybody who is threaten-
ed as we are threatened, and is fighting for his
highest possessions, can only have one thought
— how he is to hack his way through... »
Von Bethmann -Hollweg, therefore, loudly
proclaimed the wrong he was operating against
Belgium.
— 388 —
Could Mr. Lloyd George and M. Clemenceau
repeat to-day, with words coming equally straight
from the heart what was said by von Bethmann-
Hollweg; now that they are tearing away the
Treaty of Saint-Jean de Maurienne from the
hands of Signor Sonnino and Signor Orlando,
and giving it to M. Venizelos ?
Macchiavelli said — (let not the Italian Dele-
gates fear that I am awakening the great thought-
ful Shadow for the purpose of placing them in
an awkward position) — « that although fraud
is, by nature, always detestable, yet to employ
it may sometimes be necessary and even pro-
ductive of glory: as, for instance, in war » (and
this can be applied to von Bethmann-Hollweg's
justification). «But)), he goes on to say, « I do
not mean that fraud is productive of glory when
it impels you to break your given word and the
pacts you have concluded, because although it
may happen that the State or the Kingdom might
benefit by it, it will never gain any glory by
using it » . (Let the Allies see whether these words
can be applied to their actions). And, lastly, here
is the rule, a political rule par excellence : « I
mean the fraud which is employed against an
enemy who has no confidence in himself: the
fraud which is essential to the conduct of the
war ». On the strength of which argument, I ask :
In the opinion of Messrs. Lloyd George and Cle-
menceau, is Italy to be considered as an enemy ?
Or was the Treaty of Saint-Jean de Maurienne
concluded against enemies ? And if it was con-
cluded between friends, and was essential to the
conduct of the war, and not made against the
signatories of the Treaty, why should the « given
word and the pacts which have been concluded »
be now broken ?
389
From one moment to another, between one
shooting-trip and another, Smyrna disappears
from the Italo-French-English Treaty at the Pa-
ris Congress, as a roe disappears in a trap. Who
will ever see it again ? Who will ever pay any
more attention to it ? Who will ever again speak
of it, or discuss it? Yet, if you utter the words:
a Scrap of Paper!)), everybody will reply:
(( Germany ! » , and everyone will unanimously
pour imprecations upon the bad-faith of von
Bethmann-Hollweg and von Jagow.
They have been slandered, the Germans, most
foully slandered 1
A propos of the Paris Congress, when one is
discussing treaties and stipulations, it means that
political matters are being discussed, not doct-
rinaire or sentimental matters. It is !the/refore
useless to introduce amongst treaties and stipula-
tions the sentiments of those English and French
private citizens who are taking their afternoon
nap, or playing at lawn -tennis and at bridge
whilst the Delegates of their respective countries
are building up the stronghold of future European
discord. Ill -posed questions and ill-defined res-
ponsibilities are fated to generate, together with
the greatest misunderstandings, the most grie-
vous errors and the most heinous crimes in the
future. Let us therefore put on one side the ideas
and sentiments of private citizens of France, En-
gland and even of America, and, instead let us
consider the action of responsible persons only.
How is this action evolved ? To what end does
it aim ? To whose benefit or detriment is it being
carried out and developed } Up to now — and
apart from the attitudes and the efficiency of our
Delegates, which will be judged at the proper
time — no one can assert that this action has
— 390 —
ever been evolved and carried out in favour of
Italy. The peoples of France, England and Ame-
rica can become the victims of their own Delega-
tes, and declare themselves as such, to-morrow;
as we ourselves are, and assert from this very
moment that we are ; but without supinely ming-
ling and confounding names and responsibilities,
the real fact is this: — that the political lines
traced out and followed by the Delegates of the
Allied Powers have never had the time nor the
opportunity to meet with the Italian lines. And
what is worse, that at the very point where they
had' previously been marked and agreed upon,
they parted company, they separated unexpect-
edly and knew and recognized each other no
more: as for instance, in the matter of treaties.
Therefore, how can Italian public opinion have
confidence and faith in the friendly spirit of the
Allies in the solution of questions which form the
subject of discussion at the Congress, or are
brought to the discussion of the Congress as new
and not previously considered, whilst the existen-
ce and the reasons of those questions which have
already been solved and donned by existing
Treaties are doubted; and whilst their execution
has been submitted to conditions and wills and
interests absolutely extraneous and irrelevant to
the original pacts and to the very aims for which
these pacts were established during the war?
I pose the problem. To which, perhaps, it is
no longer worth while to seek a reply.
391
THE DIARY OF THE ADRIATIC.
During the past fortnight, the Adriatic question
seemed to have been caught in the net of the so-
called Tardieu compromise. We now learn, in-
stead, that it is on the point of emerging from
the meshes of that compromise only to be caught
in the meshes of another compromise, which the
President of the United States is elaborating. All
these nets which the illustrious debaters of the
Paris Congress are weaving laboriously with the
intent of catching therein our rights and our fu-
ture, will pjqbably have no better luck than
those which would attempt to catch within their
meshes the vibration of a human brain, or the
respiration of a human heart. The vital functions
are not matters for compromises or adjustments.
One must have the necessary courage, if possible,
to kill the enemy, or if it is more profitable, to
kill the friend, by striking him in the chest or in
the back. Tying him to a corpse is merely a
torture which seemed to be reserved to the
gruesome phantasy of those whom the glorious
descendants of 1 789 are in the habit of calling by
the infamous names of tyrants or of petty tyrants,
according to the greater or lesser extension of the
State while it is under their dominion.
— 392 -
One question which I have always posed to
myself is the following, which I have now the
honour of submitting to the consideration of polit-
ical writers and of the Delagates at the Paris
Congress, if my article happens to have the for-
tune of falling within their range of vision : — By
means of what instantaneous or premeditated in-
spiration have Italy's Allies and the Associate
found themselves unanimous, at the termination
of the war, in placing themselves in conflict with
the Italians of both shores of the Adriatic, and
on the side of the Croats, in defence of the not
yet recognized Yugoslavia ? — For, the action of
the Allies against us was instantaneous and has
been continuous and uninterrupted, as will be
demonstrated by the following Diary which I have
had the patience to compile on the basis of cor-
respondence which I received during these ex-
ceedingly long seven months from our colleagues
on the opposite shore. Can it be possible that the
news contained in that correspondence was un-
known to the Government ? And, if known, what
impression did it produce on its lofty mind ? And
in the event of its having produced an impression
of some kind, what action has the Government
taken in order to avert the resulting perils and
damage ? These are interrogations which will all
have to be replied to at some future time. Mean-
while, after having read the Diary we shall be
able to draw from them the most sure and the
most irrefutable inferences. Here is the Diary:
9th November 1918. — French warships arrive
at Spalato and furnish a pretext for Yugoslav de-
monstrations. Those who have taken part in these
demonstrations tear down the Italian flags, under
the eyes of the Allies, who look on impassively.
— 393 —
November, 1918. — Notwithstanding the con-
trary advice of the Italian Naval Authorities, the
French Admiral entrusts the maintenance of pub-
lic order in Cattaro to the Servian troops.
November, 1918. — American officers on board
motor boats encourage, by their conduct, the
hostility of the Yugoslavs against the Italians. An
American midshipman passing in front of Spa-
lato in a motor boat waves a flag with the Yugo-
slav colours, in sign of salute.
November, 1918. — The Italian Commander
of the S.S. Magyaroszag, the Commander of the
M.A.S. 109, and the Captain of the S.S. Doltin,
having to lie alongside the Spalato quay, the
first in order to land some soldiers and sailors
of the ex- Austrian army and navy, receive an
intimation from the Harbour Master, Stipanovich,
to lower the Italian flag^and to hoist a white flag
at the poop and either the French of Yugoslav
flag on the foremast, such being the orders of the
Corfu Government.
December, 1918. — The French warship Al-
tair arrives at Zara to inquire into the demon-
strations on the arrival of the Japanese destroyers.
The French officers land and hold secret confa-
bulations with the Yugoslavs : thdy also take
charge of the latters* letters of protest against the
Italians.
November, 1918. — On Nov. 30th., on the oc-
casion of a vibrating manifestation of Italianhood,
serious conflicts take place between our compa-
triots and a group of Croatian roughs. On the
following Wednesday, the French cruiser Courbet
presents itself before Zara casting anchor in front
— 394 —
of the Yugoslav Casino. The Commander of the
cruiser requests the Italian representative to sup-
ply him with information regarding the aforesaid
incidents, thus assuming the function of an of-
ficial inquirer. He leaves nothing undone to show
the Yugoslav population the legitimacy of his
presence and the efficiency of the military strength
under his command.
January, 1919. — At Spalato, the Servian and
French Headquarters, endeavour in every pos-
sible manner to hinder the communications be-
tween the Italians residing in the city and those
on board the guard ships. The search -light on
board the French guard-ship is continually turn-
ed during the night on the stretch of water be-
tween the quay and the Italian vessel.
February, 1919. — A French major from Spa-
lato presents himself at Pygomet and states that
he has been sent by the Commander-in-chief of
the French troops in the Seast, to verify if we have
gone beyond the armistice line.
February, 1919. — Officers and men of the
British warship Veronica land at Lissa, where
they take part in a ball at the Croatian Club.
They are heard to shout : « Long live Yugosla-
via ! » , and also : « In a few days you will obtain
your freedom ! » They promise to return to Lissa.
Spalato, 9th. March, 1919. — Some agitators
compel the crew of a sailing ship to lower the
Italian flag, and persecute the Italian residents
and Delegates. The Allied Delegates having
equivocated as to whether an intervention of des-
troyers was necesary to quell the disorder, ar-
rangements are made with the American Dele-
— 395 -
gate who thought he might induce the Delegates
to act in unison; but no steps are taken by the
American.
March, 1919. — The ex-Austrian S.S. Godello,
requisitioned by the French authorities, starts a
passenger and goods service, with evident da-
mage to our interests and our prestige. The steam -
eT ought to have been de-requisitioned by the
French. A steamer belonging to the Spalato-
Fiume Line is running under the auspices of the
French Navy for the purpose of winning the
Croats* favour.
March, 1919. — Branches of the MusSe du Com-
merce et de V Industrie, the chief Office of which
is situated in Paris, 20, Quai de la Megisserie,
have been opened in A gram and Belgrade. Other
Agencies will be opened in Spalato, Scadro and
Serajevo.
Spalato. — At Spalato, a Croatian instigator
spits upon an Italian officer, He is arrested and
brought up for trial on an American warship.
The Croat is sentenced to one day's imprison-
ment and a fine of 10 Kroners, that is, 4 Italian
Lire, amidst general laughter!
March, 1919. — The proposal of the Italian
Admiral to occupy Spalato with international
forces in view of a revolutionary movement is
rejected by the Delegates, who declare their enti-
re confidence in the Servian troops and consider
thefm sufficient, together with detachments of
international troops to maintain order.
Spalato, March, 1919. — The French Delegate
makes an application for a regular requisition of
396
steamers at Scutari and Skedra, which have al-
ready been requisitioned by us.
The American and English Delegates in the
name of their Governments express an opinion
contrary to that of our Government, and assert
the right of the Committee to decide upon and
to sanction all requisitions effected after Decem-
ber 21st.
March. — The French Delegate in the name
of his Government makes an inquiry on the state
of the warships which were being built in the
various ship-building yards on the ex-Austrian
coast occupied by us.
March, 1919. — Extracts from an inquiry made
by an Italian Admiral, and his impressions on the
political and military situation at Spalato, and
on the conditions of the armistice: « M. Kestli
« declares that he is Governor of the whole of
(( Dalmatia by order of the Belgrade Government.
(( The other Members are considered as mere
(( employes.
(( The Provisional Government instituted ac-
(( cording to Article 6 of the conditions of Armi-
(( stice is considered as non-existing. The Servian
(( Government has literally taken possession of
(( the place, and its action has been sanctioned
« by the Americans and the French. The Ser-
« vian Government considers the territory which
<( has been entrusted to the Americans by the Al-
« lies, as if it were definitely annexed to Serbia.
« General Vasich has been appointed military
(( Delegate for Serbia to the local Government.
« The action taken by the Superior Naval
(( Command of the United States up to the end
« of February can be resumed as follows :
397
a) No control whatever over the Provisional
Government, nor over the Press. A tacit tolera-
tion of the most vulgar insults inflicted upon one
of the Allies : Italy.
b) No measures taken against the insults to
the Italian flag.
c) Proposals for the removal of Italian war-
ships.
d) No notice taken of the nationalities of the
fallen Austro-Hungarian Empire.
e) No decisions taken nor any energy shown
on several occasions when the prestige of the
Italian flag and the good name of the Italians
and of the Allies themselves have been seriously
damaged.
Admiral Niblach, the Delegate of the Adriatic
Interallied Commission, since the month of Fe-
bruary and immediately after his arrival at Spa-
lato, has taken up the Superior Naval Command
also. He does not consider himself as the man-
datory of the Allied Powers for the application
of the conditions of the Armistice, because, in
his opinion, these conditions have nothing to do
with this zone; as the zone is contested; and, be-
sides, he has openly declared that this part of
Dalmatia has been recognized as belonging to
Serbia.
March, 1919. — The Italian Delegate ascertains
that the terms of the Armistice are not being
complied with. His views are not upheld by the
other Delegates. He presents a Minute noting
the non-compliance. The other Delegates do not
accept a proposal, advanced hy him, of an in-
terallied occupation to prevent possible riots.
398
March, 1919. — An inquiry is made with re-
ference to the incidents which took place on
March 9th., between Italian sailors and an insti-
gator, by a Commission composed of the Com-
manders of the Allied warships. A Minute of
the inquiry is drawn up, but it is not accepted by
the Italian Delegate, the conclusions being un-
favourable to the Italians.
April, 1919. — The French Delegate issues a
Communique stating that his Government has
ordered that the ex- Austro -Hungarian steamer
Godollo, which had been requisitioned by the
French Government, should be assigned to mi-
litary traffic, and also to the transportation of
goods and passengers. This measure practically
tends to the re-establishment of the Hungaro-
Croatian Setamship Company, under the protec-
tion of the French flag.
March, 1919. — The S.S. Lusley, which is
under requisition by the British Government,
surreptitiously attempts to land correspondence
and newspapers, which, however, are seized.
April, 1919. — The American authorities at
Spalato make a census of the Italian population.
They consider as Italian only those persons born
in the kingdom of Italy, and take no notice of
those born in Dalmatia and of those who, from
choice, are Italian. The result of the census will
not represent the real situation.
May, 1919. — A naphta-vessel having on board
a French naval commander and crew hoists the
French flag only, whereas by a decision of the
Committee of Admirals it has been established
399
that that vessel also should hoist the interallied
flag, together with the French flag.
May, 1919. — The arrival of the Servian Band
at Spalato affords the opportunity for demon-
strations of a serious nature against Italy, accom-
panied by insults against Italian officers and non-
commissioned officers who are passing in the
streets. « Long live Wilson ! » and « Down with
Italy ! » was shouted. From the balcony of the
Municipal Palace, Servian and Allied officers
look on at these manifestations. The American
Commander offers apologies, and promises to
ask for the recall of the French Commander.
May, 1919. — The officers of the British war-
ship Ceres are continually present at meetings
held in the Yugoslav Club at Zara, although the
presence of the vessel is not justified. The Yu-
goslavs had been previously informed of the
forthcoming arrival of the vessel.
I have suppressed from this Diary many odious
episodes of a personal character, and have only
left those of a political nature, in order not to go
beyond the line which I have traced for my de-
monstration, and within which I intend rigidly to
contain my discussion.
It is clear by the afore mentioned facts, that
there is a method in all the action of our Allies ;
a method corresponding to a well determined
aim, to a well-arranged and harmonized pro-
gramme. There are no doubts, no uncertainties,
no misunderstandings and, much less, dissen-
sions between our Allies of France and England
and the Associate, Wilson, on the Adriatic pro-
blem : there is something more than concordance
- 400 —
between them; there is uniformity of views, unity
of assertion and unity in the means and the end ;
which is to prevent Italy from becoming mistress
of the Adriatic; and to impede her from finding,
by herself and by the expansive force of her
liberty and her trade, the way to come into
agreement with the Balkan peoples commencing
from her closest neighbours, the Yugoslavs.
Whence the design of creating at her side the
perpetual anxiety and preoccupation about Yugo-
slavia, which is rendered still more acute, still
more poisonous, still more engrossing and resist-
ing owing to the Allies* political strength and
financial power. But who can seriously imagine
that at the very hour in which they are cutting
up in quarters the fat ox of Asia and of Africa
to prepare them for their Homeric banquet ; and
that, whilst in the ports, on the rivers and on the
mountains of continents they are gaily strutting
it as conquerors, three great Powers like France,
England and the United States by means of its
President, are likewise sitting for months and
months with their heads bent over the microscope
endeavouring^ to discern the Croatian bacilli in
the blood of Istria and Dalmatia; if, under this
toilsome work there were not hidden an idea and
an interest far superior to the reasons of life of
those bacilli ?
The unpardonable fault of the Italian Govern-
ment was that of not having seen or even looked-
for for what was in the soul and in the mind of
the Allies during four years of daily contact and
daily transactions with them; of not having felt
or understood from the many signs which blurred
the atmosphere the scarcely concealed drama of
the Alliance ; and of having appeared at the Con-
ference with its soul in a state of candour and
— 401 —
with a flower in its button -hole, without even
suspecting the storm which was brewing and
which would' soon upset that candour and brush
away that flower.
The Italian Government remained for seven
months seated at the green table without under-
standing anything of the game which was being
played, or of the style of the players. And per-
haps even now it is illuding itself that its part-
ners are showing it their cards. But those cards
are merely the geographical maps drawn by
Mr. Wilson's experts.
To-day, after seven months, there emerge, one
following the other, none but compromises which
only serve to tangle the threads of the question
and to mingle them in a way which will render
the finding of the knot impossible. And you will
see in the end — if there will be an end — that
no solution can be acceptable because no com-
promise can ever be possible in regard to the
absolute. And the right of Fiume of deciding
of her own fate is the absolute — against which
the formal logic and the formal diplomacy of the
Allies will inevitably break their horns.
Furthermore, as it is happening in our quest-
ion, so will it happen in all the other questions
which are lying waiting to be solved before the
Congress of Paris, which, as one can plainly see,
is not arriving and cannot arrive at any decisive
result, because it is acting and enacting outside
the pale of the laws of history and the teachings
of reality.
402
CONTENTS
Pag.
To the Heroes of the Adriatic . . 5
La dame aux camelias
15
Antwerp mount Lowcen
19
Some truths ....
24
Upper and lower Adriatic .
28
The Germans and the Adriatic .
32
Still to substract : Turkey and Greece
38
The journey to Paris .
42
Beyond democracy
46
Respectable diplomacy
.
51
A year after
55
Seeking new frontiers .
m
60
Beyond the names of men and the vanity of parties 64
The captains of anabasis and the ministers of the entente 69
The march to victory ....... 74
The disturbing bluff .
78
Facts noted .
84
Old words and old ideas
89
The truth, the whole truth
95
Dedicated to count Liitzow
102
Things transatlantic
109
A reply to Liitzow
t ,
116
Peace or preparedness?
. 125
Italy ad the Allies
131
The war of the alps .
,
138
The unsquareable circle
142
Albania and « Le Temps »
. 148
Austria in Geneva
154
The pact of silence
.
160
-403
The prejudices about Austria
Public diplomacy .
Wanted: a little distrust
Von Biilow's and Rizov's Bulgaria
Kant's hour and the Allies' hour
The order of the day states...
In the furrow of victory
Signifer, statue signum
For Italy, after the victory .
The end of a taboo ....
On the road to Versailles .
Italy and her Allies ....
Our principles and the aims of others
The hour of crisis
After signor Bissolati's interview
The Pact of Rome and the Pola swindle
Some quotations from Cavour
Italy and the League of Nations
The attitudes .....
The Kaiser's successors
A lesser and worse Austria
The same old story ....
The neglected factor of the Paris Congress
A little more discretion, please!
An exponent
On the eve of decisions
Germans and Yugoslavs
Business is business
To act by experience
And if not, no! .
Old stuff .
At the last moment
Their profits at our expense
The spirts and the letter of the Treaty of London
« Noblesse oblige »
The democratic war! .
As in the case of Germany
The german theory and the anglo-french one
The diary of the Adriatic ....
\ V
\ 1
404
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zh | N/A | N/A | **信息披露中的应用**
**■何 华(广东培正学院广东广州510830)**
**摘要：可扩展商业报告语言(XBRL)是一种通过对信息的标准化实现信息实时沟通的计算机语言。当前我国企业社会责任信息披露的热情日益提高，若应用XBRL 来实现企业社会责任信息披露，必然会满足不同信息使用者的多样化信息需求，同时还能达到社会责任信息的规范化效果。本文在分析企业社会责任信息的不同需要和 XBRL 系统的组成之后，论述 XBRL 应用于企业社会责任信息披露的实现模式。**
**关键词：XBRL社会责任信息 披露 应用**
**一、XBRL的发展现状和意义**
**可扩展商业报告语言(简称XBRL)是一种计算机语言，用于网络环境下商业和财务数据的定义和交换，是目前财务信息处理和交流方面的最新技术。从财务信息披露的角度来看，它可以根据信息需求的不同，将财务报告内容分解成不同的数据元，然后根据信息技术规则赋予数据元一个唯一的计算机数据标识，以形成的数据标准化规范为前提来进行财务数据报告的方法。自1998年产生以来，XBRL迅速在世界上的众多国家得到认可和推广。在此过程中， XBRL 国际组织成立，并制定和发布了 XBRL 技术规范、规范指南和 XBRL 财务报告分类标准等系列标准，指导和推动 XBRL 项目在全球的应用。近年来我国 XBRL的进程日益加快，与国际化接轨趋势明显。2010年5月，由财政部等部委组建的 XBRL 中国地区组织正式成为 XBRL 国际组织的地区成员。同年10月，国家标准化管理委员会发布了XBRL技术规范标准，财政部发布了基于会计准则的 XBRL通用分类标准，并于2011年启动实施。2012年年初，财政部又推出了石油和天然气行业扩展分类标准。这一系列的事实表明，我国对 XBRL 的应用正在政府的积极工作下如火如荼的展开。**
**21 世纪以来，互联网的普及改变了人们的沟通方式和效率。在商业活动中，人们不仅需要通过网络快速获得信息，而且更期待个性化信息的提供。因此，XBRL的兴起和广泛应用，将对财务报告的提供者和使用者(尤其是后者)带来商业沟通上的历史性革命。在现有传统的通用财务报告模式下，信息使用者需要的信息和企业提供的信息之间**
**存在着巨大的缝隙。向不同的使用者披露相同的信息在实际使用中存在一定的矛盾，这是因为不同的使用者出于不同目的而具有多样化需求，这些相同的信息对有些使用者而言信息量处于超载状态，但对其他使用者来说又有可能面临不足的状态。而应用 XBRL 正是这个矛盾的解决之法。对于企业这类信息提供者而言，XBRL 可以更为全面地采集其业务数据，并实现与内部管理系统的数据交换，从而能够及时、有效地分析判断企业的运营状况及存在的问题、风险，继而不断加以改进、解决，最终促进管理者管理效能的提高。另一方面，对于投资者等信息使用者来说，XBRL 能够大幅度降低获取信息的时间和成本，同时还能在庞大的数据库中取得个体真正需要的个性化信息内容，从而帮助其做出更加合理的各类决策，逐步提升信息使用者的决策分析能力。此外，XBRL的应用将给社会中介机构、政府监管部门及计算机软件开发商工作的开展带来极大的便利和机遇。**
**二、XBRL下企业社会责任信息披露模式构想**
**(一)社会责任信息的多样化需求**
**近年来，随着我国经济的高速发展，企业在创造巨大经济财富的同时引发的社会问题(如产品安全、环境污染、员工权益、社会公益等)不断增多，引起社会各界对企业社会责任的高度关注，企业披露其社会责任履行状况的社会责任报告日益流行。对于企业社会责任信息应该披露的内容，尽管各国学者、有关组织的观点和要求不尽相同，但由于社会责任理论主要是基于利益相关者理论发展而来，所以人们对企业社会责任信息的披露要求都与利益相关者权益的**
**内容有关。如 Gray 等(1995)认为企业社会责任信息披露的内容应包括环境、消费者、能源、社区、慈善和捐赠等方面；葛家澍、林志军(2001)认为企业社会责任信息应涉及环境保护、就业、员工培训、反种族歧视、与社区关系及对社区贡献方面；李正(2006)指出社会责任信息应包含环境、员工、一般社会问题、消费者和其他5大类、17个具体项目；全球报告倡议组织(GRI)提出在可持续发展报告(社会责任报告模式之一)中应披露公司的三方面内容：公司战略及概况、管理方针和绩效指标；深圳证券交易所出台的《上市公司社会责任指引》中鼓励公司披露的社会责任信息应反映公司对股东、债权人、职工、供应商、客户、消费者权益及环境和社会公益的保护；中国社科院企业社会责任研究中心认为公司披露的社会责任信息应涵盖报告前言、责任管理、市场绩效、社会绩效、环境绩效和报告后记6个方面。从以上研究成果和社会实践来看，企业不同利益主体有各自的社会责任信息需求。而从当前企业发布的社会责任报告的形式和内容来看，不仅具有传统财务报告的不足，而且形式各异、内容缺少规范，不能满足各种信息使用者的特定所需。因此，若将 XBRL 应用于企业社会责任信息披露，那么及时、规范、个性化的社会责任信息将会极大提升使用者的决策质量。**
**在现实中，全球报告倡议组织已经要求在可持续发展报告中采用 XBRL，并提出将此类数据整合到企业内部控制的平衡计分卡中以利于企业经营管理的报告模式。而在我国，XBRL对企业和学术界来说仍然是新事物，正处于初步认识和接纳阶段。将 XBRL 应用于社会责任信息披露则是商业信息更为细化，更高层次的应用表现，目前这方面的研究较少涉及。**
**(二)XBRL的组成及运用**
**XBRL由三个部分组成：第一部分是基础架构层的技术规范(XBRL Specification)，由 XBRL 国际组织制定；第二部分是应用架构层的分类标准(XBRL Taxonomy)，由各国或监管部门依据 XBRL技术规范，对财务报告中的组成元素及其关系进行标识；第三部分是实例应用层的实例文档(XBRL Instance Document)， 它是企业根据 XBRL分类标准生成的电子文档，即电子财务报告。若将 XBRL 看作一种可以表达的语言的话，XBRL的技术规范相当于语言的最基本单位，而分类标准则是语言的字典，实例文档就是遣词造句了。在三个组成部分中，第二部分最为重要，这些信息元素是组成电子文档的数据元，它的合理性和适用性决定了将来生成的电子文档的质量。**
**由于 XBRL 技术规范需具有全球通用性的特质，目前由 XBRL 国际组织制定和发布，已得到世界各国的广泛采用，我国也已采用该标准作为 XBRL实施的技术规范。在此基础上，制定和发布了基于我国企业会计准则的XBRL 通用分类标准。一些企业、软件公司根据国家发布的XBRL分**
**类标准积极开发 XBRL 报告软件或在现有 ERP软件中添加 XBRL 报告功能模块，来实现 XBRL 财务报告实例文档的报送。在我国 XBRL应用的进程中，财政部于2010年确立的 XBRL 通用分类标准具有里程碑式意义，它标志着适应于我国国情和现实需要的XBRL 数据“字典”编撰完成，此后企业使用该语言就有了依据和标准。**
**(三)应用 XBRL的企业社会责任信息披露模式**
**要实现企业社会责任信息披露的 XBRL 报告模式，笔者认为关键工作包括两个方面：一是在我国已制定的XBRL 通用分类标准基础上扩展制定关于社会责任信息的分类标准；二是开发适用于社会责任信息披露的报告软件。**
**因 XBRL社会责任信息分类标准必须具有权威性和可执行性，所以该工作需要由政府有关部门来完成才能予以保证。我国现有的 XBRL 通用分类标准是基于企业会计准则制定的，而在目前实施的企业会计准则中，强制要求披露的社会责任信息集中在污染控制、环境恢复、失业员工安置、员工的部分福利以及产品质量提高等五个项目，而多数社会责任信息则属于企业自愿披露的范围。由于强制性社会责任信息披露的涵盖面较小，据此可推断，我国当前的XBRL 通用分类标准中涉及的企业社会责任信息的数据元必然较匮乏，由此生成的 XBRL 报告必然不能满足不同信息使用者的需要。所以，政府有关部门应广泛收集社会各界对社会责任信息需求的意见，并结合我国社会责任活动的实际状况及未来发展趋势，制定适用的社会责任信息XBRL 分类标准。同时，此标准也要给企业留有一定的余地和空间，以便于企业进行内部管理。**
**由于目前 XBRL 财务报告的应用仍处在初级发展阶段，使用者较少，所以用于 XBRL财务报告的专门软件不多，在这些软件中能够实现社会责任信息披露的自然就更少。实际上，XBRL 的应用过程涉及各个环节，都需要软件来完成。软件开发商需要认识到XBRL 这种计算机语言将要形成的未来巨大市场，善于抓住 XBRL 应用带来的发展机遇，积极自行或联合研发符合国家 XBRL 通用分类标准和社会责任信息分类标准要求的 XBRL软件，同时面临对XBRL 用户进行相关应用培训的工作。**
**简单而言，整个应用 XBRL 的企业社会责任信息披露过程可以用下页图1来反映各部分之间的相互关系。**
**三、应用 XBRL 存在的主要限制因素**
**当前，在我国全面推广和应用 XBRL企业社会责任报告模式客观上还存在着--些限制因素，主要包括：**
**(一)XBRL分类标准的合理性**
**最初 XBRL 的产生就是为了解决会计信息的标准化问题及信息的深度分析和利用问题，这一概念在提出后逐步发展为全球网络环境下商业信息(主要是财务信息)实时获取的动态系统。这一系统要求必须存在一套普遍接受的信**
**图1 XBRL下企业社会责任信息的披露**
**息标准体系。但各国经济文化、会计准则等方面的差异使得XBRL 标准的制定仍然处在不断的调整变化当中，即使是西方发达国家对 XBRL标准的研究也只有十余年的历史，标准适用性还有待实践检验。虽然我国全面接受了 XBRL技术标准，但在此基础上制定的 XBRL 分类标准是否能适合我国企业的实际需要，也要通过实际效果的反馈进行评价，这些经验需要历经一段时间内的积累。XBRL 应用于财务报告的标准尚且有不少不明朗的地方，那么在内容、形式上还有不少争论的社会责任信息的标准制定就显得疑问更多了。将 XBRL 应用于企业社会责任信息披露的关键影响因素，就是如何建立 XBRL 系统中适用于具体国家或者组织的第二层次的分类标准。**
**(二)XBRL组织与协调的复杂性**
**虽然 XBRL 技术产生于会计领域，但其迅速扩展到其他领域并得到广泛的应用，影响到经济社会中的多个方面。因此，XBRL 系统是涉及到社会多部门、多领域的共同工作。首先，XBRL相关标准的制定需要政府权威部门或机构负责；其次，XBRL 的实际应用需要政府、企业单位、会计中介机构、软件开发商、投资者等信息使用者共同努力完成。在应用过程中产生问题和矛盾时，各类主体应构筑协调机制、组建技术服务平台来予以解决，避免互相推诿、指责，发挥 XBRL 这个信息共享新技术的优势。但现实中，由于组织和协调工作的开展牵连众多机构和群体，这必然是一项极为复杂、困难的工作。而 XBRL 社会责任信息披露工作牵扯的主体更为广泛，涉及的信息需要和利益诉求更加多样化，因此，在应用 XBRL 过程中涉及的组织和协调要求自然更高。**
**(三)企业对应用 XBRL 的接受程度**
**现实中，XBRL的应用主要是官方机构在积极推动。而从企业层面来看，众多的企业还不知 XBRL 为何物，根本不会使用这项新技术。对一些了解 XBRL 或对 XBRL有一定认知的企业而言，是否应用 XBRL 还不确定，主要问题有企业不认可 XBRL 技术标准、认为应用 XBRL会增加信息成**
归刊数据库
**本和操作难度及没有必要等方面。所以，并非所有的企业都对 XBRL持积极的接受态度。在当前阶段，我国企业社会责任信息的披露主要还属于自愿性披露，且披露的企业数量占企业总体的比例较低。若应用 XBRL，实质上将变成强制的性质，可能会引起不少企业的反对和抵触。此外，现有企业披露的社会责任信息往往具有“自我促销”的倾向性，在应用 XBRL 后，原来不愿、不会披露的信息内容也要因信息使用者的需要而呈报。所以，一些企业在主观上对应用XBRL的接受程度要打折扣。**
**(四)XBRL人才因素**
**缺少 XBRL 人才也是 XBRL 应用过程中的又一大瓶颈。我国的学术界对 XBRL 尚且不够熟悉，实务界精通XBRL技术的人才则更加缺乏。XBRL人才应该是具备会计专业知识和计算机知识的复合型人才，我国现有培养的复合型会计电算化人才从知识掌握程度来看还不能达到XBRL 人才的素质要求，因为他们缺少在 XBRL 专项技术方面的培养。从XBRL的推广应用需要来看，主要涉及两类XBRL人才的需求：一类是XBRL软件系统的应用人才，另一类是 XBRL 软件的开发人才。这些人才都需要经过一定的学历教育或职业教育来获取相关技能，而实际上，我国现有的大学和职业培训学校里，社会责任会计课程不是会计专业主干课，地位不高；而 XBRL类课程则更是很少开设，多数教师也不具备 XBRL 知识，这一状况造成我国在XBRL人才培养方面极度薄弱。**
**四、结语**
**尽管 XBRL 在企业社会责任信息披露的应用面临着诸多限制，但我们必须清醒地认识到，社会责任信息是企业未来财务报告披露内容的大势所趋，同时应用XBRL 是企业未来财务报告披露技术的必然发展。因此，应用 XBRL完成企业社会责任信息披露自然是未来报告的众望所归。企业未来财务报告的蓝图已经成形，期待着人们用集体的智慧和努力来实现。X**
**参考文献：**
**1.李桂荣，刘建娜.新会计准则对企业社会责任信息披露的改进研究\[J\].中国商界，2010，(01).**
**2.刘玉廷.推广应用 XBRL 推进会计信息化建设\[\].会计研究，2010，(11).**
**3.赵现明.XBRL技术下的企业财务报告 \[J\].经济与管理研究，2012，(02).**
**4.杨海燕.公司社会责任信息披露研究\[M\].长春：吉林大学出版社，2012.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | “改革开放以来教育管理发展的回顾与展望国际学术研讨会”综述
**杨秀平，王 磊，胡中锋**
**(华南师范大学公共管理学院，广东广州510006)**
**中图分类号：C40-058 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1000-5455(2010)02-0055-04**
**“改革开放以来教育管理发展的回顾与展望国际学术研讨会”于2010年1月13-15日在广州华南师范大学举行，来自中国内地、美国、泰国、香港等地的专家学者和教育管理一线的工作者就教育管理理论、研究和实践等方面的重大问题进行了交流与探讨，取得了丰硕的成果。**
**一、教育管理的学科定位问题**
**改革开放以来，随着与国际接轨的进程不断加快，“教育管理”逐渐成为一门独立的学科，这一过程凝结了几代教育管理学者的心血，从最开始推介、借鉴前苏联和西方的教育管理理论和方法，到形成中国本土的教育管理学理论，教育管理学的学科体系已经建立起来。沈阳师范大学孙绵涛例举了一些中国学者著述的教育管理学著作，说明中国特色的教育管理学已蔚然成林，并引起了国外同行的注泪。不但如此，中国本土的教育管理学还从最开始的通过总结实践经验而形成观点和理论的做法发展到建立独特的理论话语体系，并对实践产生变革性影响。孙绵涛进一步提出教育管理学的研究对正在制定的中长期教育改革与发展规划纲要以及高考制度改革等方面的作用，说明了教育管理学在教育中的地位。北京师范大学高洪源也谈到，改革开放30年来，我国教育事业取得巨大发展，其中教育管理发挥了关**
**键作用，其自身也在不断的争议和调整中逐渐走向完善。表现在教育管理价值向完整型渐进转变，教育行政管理体制的运作机制日益公平合理，教育发展规划日益全面和平衡等。**
**教育管理学已发展如斯，成果斐然，然而，对教育管理学科该如何定位仍然莫衷一是，这势必影响该学科的进一步发展，因此有必要作出探讨。目前，在我国的学科体系中，教育管理被归属到管理学一级学科之中，然而，有些学者更倾向于强调教育管理与教育学科之间的关系。因此，厘清教育管理与教育学的关系以及教育管理与管理学的关系成为当务之急。许多教育管理学者常不自觉地把自己归于教育学科领域，这有其历史根源，也有一定的现实基础。**
**然而，对教育管理相关问题的探讨也离不开对“管理”的思考。沈阳师范大学孙绵涛提出教育管理的问题同样也有别于一般的教育问题，他指出，从内容和体系上来看，现阶段的“教育管理史”的文献写作与“教育史”的区别并不大，这应该引起重视。华南师范大学王建军对此表示赞同，并提出一种思路，即以管理的视角来统领，对教育理论与实践的历史进行梳理。王建军梳理了中国教育管理史的研究，认为20多年来，中国教育管理史的研究虽然取得了不少成果，但多停留于历史事实的陈述，缺乏管理理论的深度，应该更多借助现代管理的理论，关注**
**收稿日期：2010-02-11**
**作者简介：杨秀平(1985一)，女，江西兴国人，华南师范大学公共管理学院硕士研究生；王磊(1972一)，男，湖南长沙人，心理学博士，华南师范大学公共管理学院副教授；胡中锋(1964一)，男，湖北松滋人，心理学博士，华南师范大学公共管理学院教授、博士生导师。**
**“问题”的研究，从而构建起研究的理论框架，唯此，中国教育管理史的研究才能够真正取得突破。**
**或许，相关的争论还会继续，但从本次研讨会的发言来看，人们对于教育管理的学科定位已渐渐清晰起来，假以时日，对这一问题必将会有更深人的认识。事实上，对教育管理学科定位的模糊性是该学科发展过程中的正常现象。首先，教育管理学本身就具有跨学科的性质，对教育和管理这两个领域都有涉及，因此，所探讨的管理问题溯本求源离不开对教育的理解和参详，同时，对教育的问题进行探讨时，其视野必然集中在计划、监控、组织、领导等管理学内容之上；其次，教育管理学因其成学科时日尚短，本身仍存在许多不成熟之处，在一些有关学科体系的重大问题上没有最终形成定论，这些重大问题也是本次研讨会的重要议题，需要人们逐步集思广益、统一认识。**
**二、教育管理理论研究与实践研究的关系**
**理论研究与实践研究的关系是本次研讨会讨论的热点问题。不少代表都认为教育管理的研究应该更多地深入实践，摆脱纯理论的思辨行为，但也有代表坚持理论思辨研究的重要性。《中小学管理》主编沙培宁从媒体人的角度对此进行了分析，她以自身20多年媒体人的经历，谈到对当今教育管理研究的两点主要感想：1.两种人才稀缺，一是对实践能够产生实质性影响的人很少，二是专家型的校长很少；2.实践转向越来越成为一种趋势。沙培宁指出，实践是最复杂、最充满个性、最有意思的，对实践进行深入研究是最有价值的，而当今教育管理的研究对实践还不够重视，学界自说自话现象非常普遍，因此她呼吁教育管理研究要防止自我中心、防止主体迷失、防止学霸，研究者们应跳出过去那种抽象、简化的研究模式和一味理论思辨的“玩概念”，转而到学校中找寻有针对性的实际问题，并在复杂的实践情境中解决具体问题。华南师范大学王磊也指出，教育管理具有天生的实践性，且这种实践性包括静态的实践性内容和动态的实践性过程两个层面，因此，教育管理专业的教学和培训应以实践性作为出发点和归宿。**
**然而，也有人认为，实践转向的提法不应是“唯经验论”的一个变种，实践的提法并不是截然排斥理论，两者经常是互相联系的，只有在理论思辨的指**
**引下，面向实践的研究才能摆脱随意性和片面性。对此，孙绵涛作了精要的概括，他指出，研究是关注理论思辨还是关注具体问题，其实源于两个不同的传统，即理性主义和经验主义，前者提倡客观适应主观，后者强调主观适应客观，均能有所成就，两者不能相互苛求，而应互相包容。事实上，在研究中两者也确实是相互包含的，无论对哪门学科来讲，我们都不应该把理论研究与实践研究当作两种对立的研究方式，理论与实践相结合才是最好的。**
**或许，在教育管理研究中，研究取向并非关键，重要的是研究者的实践意识，正如浙江师范大学杨天平所指出的，教育管理的研究者应认清自己的使命而有所担当，明白自己应如何、能如何、不如何。另一个重要的问题是研究成果如何转化为实践行动，对此，广东省教育厅基础教育处黄向群认为，好的理论观点不应只是专家享有，应在比较大的范围来宣传，需要一线工作者一起参与和落实。此外，针对教育实践问题，通过实践研究针对性地提出解决办法，这样的研究成果更有直接的指导作用。**
**三、教育管理研究的价值取向与使命**
**关于教育管理研究中的价值取向问题引起了广大与会者的兴趣，相关的论题主要体现在对教育政策研究的讨论中。例如，北京师范大学的高洪源回顾了教育管理政策中的取向从工具价值向社会价值、民本价值转变的过程，指出现有的教育管理政策对民需民困的关注仍然不够，教育管理要回归教育本位，必须加强教育管理与政策的价值管理，对价值进行选择和宣传，从而确立根本的核心价值，以解决政策和管理中的价值冲突；沈阳师范大学祁型雨认为在教育政策的研究中，价值和利益分析是必需的。促进教育政策的民主化和科学化是当今的重要课题之一，是政府发展教育的理念层面、物质层面和制度层面的结合体。从教育实践中可知，教育政策是发展教育的主导性因素，每次教育政策的调整就意味着重大的教育改革，而教育政策研究中的价值问题无疑具有强烈的指向作用，在教育政策所波及的教育方方面面均有重要影响，不可等闲视之。**
**与教育管理研究价值取向和使命问题相关的代表发言还有很多，例如，华南师范大学胡中锋认为，教育管理应关注人的问题，特别是弱势群体中人的问题；浙江师范大学杨天平对当代中国教育管理学**
**人的使命和责任进行了更详细的分析，形象地指出，教育管理学人不能一味“抬轿子”“吹喇叭”，对那些头脑发热的政策和提法要批判性地思考应如何、能如何以及不如何的问题；西北师范大学金东海认为，对教育行政管理相关内容的思考应以服务为核心价值观，强调地方教育行政部门服务职能的发挥。以上发言反映出教育管理的研究者们逐渐认识到教育管理的研究问题已经不单纯是逻辑实证或语义分析的问题，而首先是价值的问题，是批判性研究所依据的理想和信念问题，也体现了教育管理研究者的价值观逐渐由民生价值向更深层的民主价值转化的一种趋势。**
**四、教育管理研究的范式**
**与教育管理价值取向一脉相承的是关于研究范式的讨论。华南师范大学王建军对中国教育管理史研究的现状进行了分析，认为历史视角、管理视角、本土视角是中国教育管理史研究的主要范式，特色不明显是研究的一大缺陷，同时历史研究和国际比较研究的薄弱、贫乏，使得教育管理学的发展失去了支撑和后劲，针对研究的不足，他认为其突破口选择是价值伦理与史的整合；沈阳师范大学祁型雨提出，教育政策研究应从结构功能主义范式向批判探索范式转化，与杨天平的观点相似，他指出，目前，我国教育政策研究范式带有浓厚的结构功能主义特征，其研究旨趣往往是为既定的教育政策作解释、宣传，这是应该改变的。祁型雨在说明相关问题的时候，进一步引用西方学者的话着力对管理研究中的实证方法进行了批评，他指出，管理研究中的实证主义科学方法迷惑我们，使我们只能看到那些并不存在或者无关紧要的现象，并对此深信不疑，它使我们像科学家一样固守在钟形坛里，而对身边正在发生的重大事件视而不见。教育管理学与其说是一门具有实证性、数量化、客观性和普适性的“科学”，不如说是一门具有道德关怀、价值取向、反唯规则的“人文科学”或“道德科学”来得更恰当、更鲜明些。**
**对以上一些观点并不是没有争议，例如，高洪源指出，对现有一些研究，要解决的主要问题不是对科学规范强调过多的问题，而是不够规范的问题；华南师范大学王建平也指出，在目前对实证科学方法的掌握和应用还不完善的情况下，应慎重对待有关实证方法的评价。事实上，采用人文方法进行研究应**
**得到足够重视，特别是其中有关的价值、道德等应然性问题，但实证方法或关注“是什么和怎么做”等问题的研究也不能忽视，对于在批判探索范式中实证研究的地位和作用值得进一步讨论，但是，价值关注和批判探索等观点的提出，反映了教育管理研究走向深化的趋势。**
**事实上，教育管理现象的复杂性、不确定性与情境性，决定了任何一种研究范式都不能穷尽它的丰富性，不同研究范式的并存与互补才是其出路，我们应根据不同的教育管理问题来采取相应的研究范式。**
**五、教育管理中的校长领导研究**
**随着校长负责制在我国中小学的推行，对校长领导的研究在我国教育管理研究中占有越来越重要的地位，本次研讨会安排的两场主题发言中，发言者Philip Hallinger 和褚宏启不约而同地选取了这一主题来发言正体现了此点。**
**来自香港教育学院的 Philip Hallinger 作了题为“21世纪学校领导：从教学领导到学习领导”的主题发言。 Philip Hallinger 回顾了学校领导效能的研究历史，从过去很长一段时间人们简单移植其他管理领域的概念和做法，到教育管理领域所独有的“教学领导”概念的出现，再到如今教育管理研究对学生学习的进一步关注。他提出当今校长的工作涉及众多方面，作为普通人的校长已经无法一人承担那么多的领导职责，因此他从领导力与学习的相互效果模式引出了分布式领导的概念和理论，强调了一线教学人员参与领导的重要性。北京师范大学褚宏启题为“校长教学领导力的提升”的发言则以教学领导为核心，从“为什么、是什么、怎么办”三大方面对校长教学领导力的提升进行了层层递进的阐述，围绕着校长在教学方面应直接教学讲课还是听课评课的问题进行了分析。从提升校长教学领导力的必要性与紧迫性到如何提升校长的教学领导力，褚教授紧密结合实践问题，提出了自己独到的见解和解决问题的有力措施，为当前校长教学领导力的研究和实践指明了方向。归根结底，两位发言者直指一个核心的问题：“领导力如何在学生学习和发展中作贡献?”，这一脉络从侧面反映出教育管理正逐渐脱离其他领域管理问题的窠白，而体现出具有“教育”属性的独特研究视角和内容，也指出了教育管理今后的研究方向。**
**在我国，与校长领导密切相关的一项制度是校长负责制。江西师范大学万文涛用博弈论对当今中小学校长负责制的弊端进行了反思，提出了对校长负责制进行重构的几点建议：建立有中国特色的中小学学校理事会；对校外参与者予以经济补偿；扩大中小学的办学自主权。这些建议对校长负责制的效果和校长领导力的提升具有重要启示。**
**六、教育管理行政人员管理理念的转变**
**教育管理行政人员既包括政府部门中主管教育的工作者，也包括学校内部的行政工作人员。随着我国教育外部环境的极大改善，长期为教育贫困所掩盖的各种深层次的问题逐渐暴露，转变传统的教育管理理念已成为教育管理行政人员的当务之急。**
**西北师范大学金东海提出，构建地方服务型教育行政已是大势所趋，而服务型教育行政的实现有赖于管理理念的转变，具体包括：从无限职能观到有限职能观、从教育统治走向教育治理、从管制中心走向服务中心、从垄断性服务到竞争性服务。广东省教育厅基础教育处黄向群对金教授的观点表示赞同，并强烈呼吁教育管理行政人员要具有服务意识，提高工作效率。暨南大学袁祖望也指出，当今大学的行政化、宫本位、功利化愈演愈烈，学术机构官僚化，政府直接干预大学的运行过程，不该管的硬要管，而该问责的又不问责，因此必须诊正政府主管部门的这种失位、错位、越位现象，建立高校领导问责制，以加强教育管理行政人员的权责对等理念。南开大学吴艳茹则认为，“有组织而无人”是当前大学教师职业生涯管理的基本问题，为了有效开展大学教师的职业生涯管理，教育管理行政人员必须转变管理理念，摆脱狭隘的组织决定论，承认并充分考虑大学教师的自主性及职业生涯发展中的决策者地位。**
**从以上各位代表的观点可以看出，教育管理行政人员急需转变以往的官本位、官僚化、功利思想，加强自身的服务意识和以人为本理念，这样才能体现教育管理关注人和民主的价值取向，保证教育管理工作的效率和效益。**
**七、构筑教育管理学的未来**
**从本次会议上，我们可以发现教育管理学今后发展的方向渐趋明朗。首先，表现在教育管理理论的产生方式日趋多元化以及研究团队合作的必要性。在一门学科内部，研究者们在许多问题上着眼不同的内容和侧面、采用不同的范式和方法、建基于不同的理论和价值，甚至得出不同的研究结论，这都是正常的，因为研究者们在知识背景、分析视角、逻辑论证、表达方式上存在着不同。张新平、陈学军等将其概括为不同的理论生成方式，即存在着多种理论构建的途径。他们将理论的生成方式按照三个维度来进行分类，其一是从上看对从下看，即从理论或管理层出发还是从实践或被管理层出发来思考和研究；其二是向外看对向内看，即理论源于其他学科或其他国家还是立足于本学科或本土情境；其三是往回看对往前看，即探讨怎么来的问题还是探讨向何处去的问题。这一发言较为全面地概括了教育管理研究的各种类型，对于我们理解学术界以及本次研讨会中所表现出来的争论和多元化趋势是有价值的，同时，对于倡导研究的团队合作和兼容并包也提供了依据，具有一定的启示性。**
**其次，“教育”重新在教育管理学中占据重要位置。这不是原先那种将教育管理与教育混为一谈的混沌状态，而是为教育管理的研究确立了明确的、独有的教育问题。本次研讨会安排的两场主题发言对于我们认识教育管理中的教育元素有很强的启发性。，从一个侧面反映了当前教育管理的研究和实践对教育教学成份的日益关注，加深了我们对教育在教育管理中本质地位的认识。**
**通过各项发言和讨论，教育管理学界的各位同仁回顾过去、展望未来，深化了对教育管理学科本质的认识，进一步明确了教育管理研究中的价值取向和今后的研究内容与方向。在研讨会举行期间，大家不但在会上热情参与、畅所欲言，在会余也积极交流、广泛探讨，用心构筑教育管理学的美好未来。**
**【责任编辑：王建平】** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **如何搞好乡镇农机管理**
**邱克孝**
**(贵州省贵定县盘江农业服务中心，贵州贵定 551300}**
**\[摘 \]随着我国农业的不断发展，国家相关部门对于农业基础设施建设的投资力度也越来越大，加之越来越多的惠农政策的出台，乡镇农机补贴补贴程度逐渐提高。但我们应该看到，乡镇农机管理水平已经不能与当前农业的整体发展形势相适应，因此必须要加强农机管理工作，不断提升农机管理水平，才能够确保我国农业的健康发展。本文通过对当前乡镇农机管理的现状分析，结合笔者实际工作经验，就如何搞好农机管理工作提出了几点建议。**
**\[关键词\] 乡镇农机管理 现状 对策**
**\[中图分类号\]S23 \[文献标识码\] A \[文章编号1 1003-1650 (2013)09-0159-01**
**一、乡镇农机管理现状分析**
**1.管理人员素质偏低**
**现阶段，很多乡镇农机管理工作人员的文化素质和专业技术能力都比较低，农机管理人员的年龄结构不平衡，年龄偏高。还有一些是转岗从事农机管理服务的人员，这些工作人员缺乏经验，不能熟练开展业务，加之他们在正式上岗之前并没有经过系统的培训，因此无法适应新时期乡镇农机管理工作热需求。**
**2.宣传教育工作不到位**
**很多乡镇政府以及农业部门对于农业机械的安全生产问题不够重视，并没有将其纳为农机发展战略，在实际的管理过程中不能贯彻落实安全为主、综合治理的方针。同时农机更新报废制度中还存在有待完善之处，很多农业机械已经超出了安全服役期限却迟迟不能更换，加之相关的管理人员和操纵人员并不具备专业程度较高的业务技能素质，容易引起不安全事故的发生。**
**3.管理服务范围较窄**
**乡镇农机管理人员还普遍存在管理理念不深入，服务范围不够广的问题，很多乡镇农业服务中心在国家和有关部门的资助之下已经逐渐成为了影响力和规模较大的农业服务企业，而一些尚未获得资助的农业服务中心却依旧在原地踏步，从而导致农机管理服务业务单一，涵盖范围较窄。**
**4.乡镇管理网络不全面**
**乡镇农机管理网络不健全，没有配备必要的监理人员，这是阻碍乡镇农机管理工作有效开展的重要因素之一。尤其是很多乡镇农机管理人员的流动性较大，工作不固定，这就给农业安全生产带来了极大的影响；另外，乡镇农机管理和监督网络不全面，对农户的农业机械不能进行及时有效的管理和服务，为农业安全生产带来了一定的隐患叫。**
**二、加强乡镇农机管理的对策**
**1.提高管理人员素质**
**增强乡镇农机管理工作者的综合素质和业务能力是做好乡镇农机管理工作的基本前提，也是促进农业现代化发展的重要途径。我们可以通过以下几点措施来加强农机管理人员的综合素质。首先是加强农机管理人员的专业学习和业务学习，逐渐提升其工作水平；其次是必须要做好相关管理人员的培训工作，乡镇上级农业部门应该定期组织一些培训活动，让农机管理人员的思想素质、理论水平以及专业能力都得到切实的提升；最后是要激发农机管理人员的工作热情，树立优质服务的理念，帮助他们养成良好的职业道德。**
**2.加强宣传教育培训**
**惟有正确的使用农业机械，才能够确保其功能得到百分之百的发挥，才能够最大限度的避免因为人为操作事物而导致的不安全事故发生。我们可以通过对农民进行宣传教育或者技术培训的方式来提高他们运用农业机械的能力；还可以抽取一部分农机管理人员去帮助农户购置自已所需求的农业机械，并且与购买者进行交流和指导，让农业机械能够及时的投入到农业生产过程；当农忙季节来临之后，乡镇农机站可以选派几名优秀的农机工作人员到田间进行手把手的指导，帮助农民处理现实中的实际问题。**
**3.搞好跨区域农机服务**
**一是乡镇农业服务中心必须要结合本地区的实际发展状况，利用各种渠道进行筹资，创办一些服务性质的班组，为当地农户提供服务；二是可以把当地农机大户拥有的资源进行优化整合，从而达到优势互补的目的，避免重复投资现象的出现；；三是要结合乡镇的耕地面积情况以及农机拥有情况成立相应的农机服务工作组织，更好的为本地区农户服务；四是要积极与临近农业服务中心进行工作上的交流和沟通，尝试跨区域合作，不断增强农机利用率。**
**4.科学制定发展规划**
**乡镇农机管理工作虽然已经取得了不小的成绩，但是其中还是存在很多的不足，还有很长的路要走。作为新农村建设中的重要内容，乡镇农机化发展和新农村贫设工作必须要更好的融合起来，按照地区耕地的实际情况和分布情况，科学的制定农机发展规划。另外还要指导农民群众选择适合自己的农机器具，对于本区域的农机管理状况和可以开发的空间有准确的把握，最大限度的减少农户盲目购置的现象，避免造成资源浪费。**
**三、结语**
**乡镇农业机械的管理服务工作是农业社会化服务系统中的关键组成部分，也是促进农业现代化发展的重要条件，是农村经济发展的关键支撑。作为农业服务中心农机管理人员，必须要认识到农机管理工作的重要性，做好农机管理，充分发挥出农业机械在农业生产中的作用，从而让现代化的农业生产工具取代过去那些传统落后的农业工具，不断提高劳动生产率，确保农业健康发展，推动新农村建设的步伐。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\]高祥森.张德春.乡镇农机管理服务存在的问题及对策\[\].云南农业，2011，(09)：45.**
**\[2\]朱荣信，赵沛锋.加强乡镇农机安全管理之我见\[\].农民致富之友，2013，(08)：33.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 论成人合作学习的实施策略
○刘超
\[摘要\] 成人合作学习可以激发成人学生主动参与和探究的热情，已经被越来越多的成人学生接受和采用。成人合作学习在实施过程中，不同于全日制学生的合作学习，它有其自身的特点和规律，如合作学习的分组、合作学习活动的过程监控、合作学习的评价机制等。有效地实施成人合作学习策略，是确保成人教育教学成功的关键途径之一。
\[关键词\]成人学生；合作学习；实施策略
成人合作学习不同于全日制学生的合作学习，它有其自身的特点和规律。成人合作学习活动的展开主要在课外，成人学生在共同的学习日标驱动下，在良好的人际关系氛围里，尊重个人看法及他人意见，过程与结果并重，在合作学习的过程中互相切磋，主动探究，共同提高。
一、成人合作学习的分组技巧
合作学习是指学生在小组或团队中为了完成共同的目标与任务，有明确责任分工的互助性学习。它的基本做法是：依其任务类型或学生学业水平、能力倾向、个性特征、性别等方面的差异将学生组成学习小组，创设一种只有小组成员合作才能达到个人目标的情境，即小组成员不仅要努力争取个人目标的实现，更要帮助小组同伴实现目标。美国明尼苏达大学合作学习中心约翰逊提出的五因素理论认为“小组合作学习”的关键因素有五个：积极的相互依赖、促进性的相互作用、个人的责任感、社交技能或合作技巧、小组学习过程。
合作学习是否有效，合理的分组非常重要。分组首先要从了解成人学生开始。可以通过与成人学生的个别访谈、调查问卷、水平测试等了解他们的学习动机、学习风格、认知水平和学习策略使用情况。成人学生一般都有一定的社会经历、学习经验和交际能力，所以，分组时可不完全采取和全日制学生组间同质、组内异质的分组办法。而是考虑组建三种类型的合作学习小组，即面对面展开学习的小组、基于网络的学习小组、临时组建的学习小组，确保合作学习有序、有效。
面对面展开学习的小组，一般以四、五人为宜。人数太多不利于交流和个人才能的充分展示，也不利于人员的聚集。这样的小组，可依照学生的工作时间、工作性质以及自己的意愿组建小组。开始时允许小组成员之间有一段磨合期，待成员间能愉快地合作并完成各项任务时，就可以把小组固定下来，因为小组间较稳定的关系有利于合作学习的效果。
网上学习小组，一般以九，十人为宜。人数太少讨论不够热烈。可按照学生的知识基础、学习能力、性格特点、学习动机的差异进行分组，让不同特质、不同层次的学员进行优化组合，使每个小组都有高、中、低三个层次的学员，有利于学员间的优势互补，相互促进。
临时组建的小组，可在面授时或在网上进行活动。一般以三、四人为宜，可以是组间成员的互换或流动，也可以按活动主题的需要让学员自由组合。这不仅使学员可以和小组以外的学员合作完成学习任务，提高合作学习的兴趣，而
且还可以改变学员在小组中长期形成的地位，即有的学生始终处于控制地位，有的学生始终处于从属地位，打破这种局面，让每个学生都有发展的机会。
二、成人合作学习的过程监控
在合作学习的过程中，教师要从成人学生的实际出发，设置目标、合理分组、策划活动、选择任务、恰当点评。要让学生带着问题去搜集资料，思考答案，形成自己的见解，在小组中陈述和讨论。教师必须给予及时、适度的组织和调控，以保证“小组合作学习”的顺利进行。
教师必须对成人学生合作学习的全过程负责，并进行指导，要为合作学习创设民主、和谐、宽松、白由的学习氛围。采用多种形式鼓励学员积极地参与活动。选择有一定难度的、具有思考价值的问题让学员在小组内讨论，合作后得出答案。教师应监控学生的组内活动，调控组与组间的活动，调节可能出现的问题，并及时引导和帮助。对于合作有障碍的小组，教师可参与其中，成为小组中的一员，分担一定的角色，发表自己的意见，在共同完成学习任务的过程中，提高小组活动的质量。小组交流时，教师不仅要对小组的学习结果进行点评和总结，也要评价成人学生在合作学习过程中的合作态度、合作方法和参与程度。
教师要引导和培养小组成员的团队意识和合作技能，因为这是成人小组合作学习活动顺利开展的保证。合作学习不是一种个人的学习行为，而是一种集体行为，为了达到共同的学习目标，需要每个成员具有足够的团队意识和合作技能。即：小组成员之间必须相互了解、彼此信任，经常进行有效地沟通；成员们不仅要对自己的学习负责，而且要为所在小组中其他同学的学习负责，要互相帮助和支持，形成强烈的集体责任感，并妥善解决可能出现的各种矛盾，建设起一种融洽、友爱的亲密伙伴关系。培养小组成员的团队意识和合作技能主要包括：互相信任、团结互助的意识和技能；主动表达自己见解的意识和技能；学会小组讨论的意识和技能；尊重别人发言的意识和技能；以友好方式对待争议的意识和技能。
成人学生在组内应明确分丁协作，各自完成材料的搜集、信息的筛选、整理思考、形成发言提纲，再在小组中围绕主题，畅所欲言，发表各自的看法，陈述各自的观点，在交流与争执中达成小组内部的一致意见，随后组与组之间进行交流，本组成员可以补充或纠正，组际之间可以提问。例如，笔者在教授2007级成人《国际商务》课程第二章国际商务的运营环境时，供合作学习小组讨论的思考题为“美国次贷危机引发的世界金融危机，对国际商务有什么影响?”学生
通过上网查资料，各自准备发言提纲，在组内纷纷谈了自己已对该问题的看法，进而组与组之间进行交流，学员再结合教教师所做的评价和总结，进行讨论，弥补各自的不足，从而加深了对“美国次贷危机”的认识，同时增进了对国际商务运营环境的了解。
教师还可组织组与组之间就某个问题进行辩论。因为辩论是一种富于挑战而又趣味盎然的活动。学生通过自己准备辩词、小组模拟辩论、大组举行辩论比赛，可以巩固所学知识，开阔眼界。例如，笔者在教授07级成人《国际商务》课程第四章国际商务的策略分析时组织学生就“国际物流的运营成本对商品价格的影响是大还是小?”进行辩论，取得了很好的效果。为了获得辩论的胜利，小组成员在准备的过程中，分工明确，互相协作，在组内进行讨论和演习时，力求观点鲜明、逻辑性强、有说服力。在组与组的辩论赛上，高潮迭起，学生在思辨中学会了思考，在倾听别人的想法时，开阔了眼界，学到了知识。
成人合作学习的活动过程不能流于形式，内容要有新意，难度适中，讨论题要让学生感兴趣。每次活动要有责任人，负责安排任务，监督进程。其他成员应有具体的责任分工，明白各自应该承担的角色，掌握各自所分配的任务，使合作学习有序、有效地进行。当然，每次合作时的角色可以轮换，而非固定不变，学生在不同的角色扮演中提高能力。
三、成人合作学习的评价机制
制定合适的成人合作学习评价机制，是确保合作学习有效的关键所在。合作学习的精髓是通过学生互动求得小组成员的共同进步。在合作学习过程中，小组成员不仅要努力达到个人目标，而且要帮助同伴实现目标，通过相互协作，完成共同的学习任务。所以，采用小组合作学习模式，必须以合作小组为单位制定学习日标，只有小组成员都完成了自身的学习任务，小组学习目标才算最终达成。也要重视过程评价，建立激励性评价机制，培养成人学生的合作精神。研究结果表明，激励性评价机制的建立是培养学生的合作精神，提高学生学业成绩，培养学生三维目标的重要因素之一。在对合作学习的过程进行评价时，“小组合作表现”是评价的主要指标。它包括：小组成员的差异性、小组成员分工的合理性、小组成员的合作方式、小组成员的参与度、合作活动的形式、个人对集体学习的贡献等。必须把激励性评价指标告诉学员，并定期对合作学习的情况进行评价。
评价时要处理好小组内部学生的差异问题。小组合作学习的目的是要让人人参与学习过程，人人尝试成功的喜悦，但对于学习暂时有困难的学生，要注意保护他们的学习积极性，鼓励他们积极参与，大胆发言，勇于说出自己的见解。可以在组内安排他们优先发言，让他们体验成功的快乐。其次，评价和奖赏不应过多地放在小组整体上，也应关注个人的成绩和进步，重视个体的发展。应充分发挥学生的主观能动性，使他们不断体验成功的喜悦，正确认识自己的优势和不足，树立信心，从而有效地控制自己的学习过程促进自主学习。合作学习中，师生之间，生生之间都是互相信任的朋友关系。教师既是导师，指导学生进行有效的合作，激发学生潜在的学习激情与学习兴趣，提高学生分析问题与解决问题的能力。同时教师也是听众，不厌其烦地倾听
学生所碰到的各类学习上的困难，学习方法上的困惑，学习进程上的矛盾等等，适时进行帮助。学生则以小组合作的形式在共同的目标和一定的激励机制下，为获得个人和小组的学习成果进行合作互助的学习活动。在合作小组中，成员个人学习的成功是以他人成功为基础的，学习者之间的关系是融洽的，相互合作的。
合理的评价机制是提高小组合作学习效果的重要途径。在成人合作学习过程中，要发挥每个成人学生的学习潜力，实现共同目标和个人日标的辩证统一。合理的评价机制能够将学习过程评价与学习结果评价相结合，对小组集体评价与对小组成员个人的评价相结合、从而使学生认识到合作学习的价值和意义，并更加关注合作学习的过程。评价机制主要包括：第一，定期评价小组共同学习的情况，检查小织功能发挥的程度，以便学生了解自己小组的学习成果，认识合作学习的方式。第二，以学生的自主学习、参与程度、团结合作、完成任务、学习效果等指标进行评价各组学习行为和效果，让学生认识到小组合作成员是一个学习的共同体，只有每个成员的共同参与才是合作学习所要实现的月标。第二，教师反思自己的引导、调控和组织能力，不断调整教学内容和教学策略，以保证在教学质量稳步提高的同时，使学生在小组合作学习的过程中学会团队合作，提高学生自我表现的自信心，培养学生的自尊心以及一定的社交能力，真正发挥"小组合作学习”这种教学组织形式的优势和价值。
成人合作学习已经被越来越多的成人学生接受和采用。这一基于自主学习和网络学习环境下的“生生交互活动”，可以激发成人学生主动参与和探究的热情。通过合作学习，成人学生在与同伴的切磋中看到与别入的差距，从而激励白己更加努力地去学；在准备发言时学会思考，提高分析和解决问题的能力；在小组内部以及小组间的辩论中锻炼逻辑思维能力；在案例分析时，提高理论联系实际的能力。而且，学生与学生之间的互动，满足了学生的归属感和影响力，他们对学习感到有意义，愿意去学。教师与学生之间的互动，使教师可以充分了解学生的需求和不足，在教学中对症下药，更好地传授知识，达到事半功倍的效果。
参考文献：
\[1\]方芳，李功网.合作学习对学习效果、小组凝聚力的影响\[\]现代远距离教育，2005，(2).
\[2\]黄远振.论合作学习的定位、实施与意义：基础教育外语教学研究，2004，(1)
\[3\]季黄风.浅谈开放教育学员学习过程的质量管理\[J\].现代远距离教育，2005，(2).
\[4\]李秋梅，陶风祥.开放教育与基于网络的协作学习模式\[J\].现代远距离教育，2005，(1)
5\]李社教.成人学习特征与成人高等教育专业教学改革浅论打成人教育，2006，(5).
「6\]肖俊洪.网络学习环境下师生交互活动研究\[J\].中国远程教育，2006，(3).
本文系苏州市职业大学2009年科研课题：“基于网络的成人学习行为偏差纠正策略研究”阶段性成果，项目编号：SZD09W08。
(作者单位：苏州市职业大学，江苏苏州
215104\] | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 我国民族心理学研究的困境及出路
植凤英1.2，张进辅
(1.贵州师范大学教育科学学院，贵阳 550001；2.西南大学心理学院，重庆400715)
摘 要：文章对我国民族心理学研究面临的困境进行了阐述，指出要成功走出目前的困境，在今后的研究中应融合多元方法，加强民族心理学研究中质与量的整合；加强民族心理学的理论建设；促进相邻学科的对话与合作，注重对综合性民族心理研究人才的培养；同时还要立足于我国民族的实际情况，加强对现实问题的研究，增强民族心理学研究的价值。
关键词：民族心理学研究；困境；出路
中图分类号：B8409 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1003-5184(2008)01-0007-05
引言
民族心理学作为心理学的一个分支首先在德国兴起。科学心理学的奠基人冯特在其心理学研究的最后二十年，写就了十卷本巨著《民族心理学》，该书的出版问世，使民族心理学逐渐被人们接受和受到重视，民族心理学的研究也在世界范围内迅速展开。我国的民族心理学研究起步于20世纪初，改革开放以后，民族心理的研究才有了真正的发展。现在，中国民族心理的研究对象已扩大到国内56个民族，研究的课题也相当广泛，主要有：各民族儿童认知发展的比较研究、各民族的个性比较研究、各民族儿童及青少年品德形成的比较研究、民族社会心理的比较研究、民族心理卫生和精神病研究、民族心理的基本理论研究、民族心理与西部大开发关系、民族心理与社会稳定和社会和谐关系的研究等等。总的看来，我国民族心理学研究取得的成就是有目共睹的，但这并不是说我国在民族心理学研究方面无懈可击。实际上，随着民族心理学的不断发展，其研究的局限性也愈益凸显，以至于陷人一定困境。
2
我国民族心理学研究的困境
2.1 方法论上存在有不能忽视的缺陷
一门真正的科学和一个富有成效的研究都有其科学的方法论基础。所谓方法论“指的是关于研究过程的哲学，其中包括作为研究的基本原理的理论假设和价值观，还包括研究者用来解释资料、引出结
论的标准或准则”\[3\]。作为一门交叉学科，民族心理学始终无法逃避的矛盾是究竟采用什么样的研究方法才能更好地对民族心理进行研究，而一些民族心理的研究受到人们的质疑也多是由于其所采用的方法问题。概括而言，我国民族心理研究存在如下的·方法论缺陷。
2.1.1对质的研究的忽视
质的研究是指以研究者本人作为研究工具，在自然情境下采用多种资料收集方法对社会现象进行整体性探究，使用归纳法分析资料和形成理论，通过与研究对象互动对其行为和意义建构获得理解的一种活动。质的研究与人们通常所说的定性研究有一定的区别。国内的定性研究大都没有原始资料作为基础，主要采用的是一种形而上的思辨方式。它更多的是一种研究者个人观点和感受的阐发，通常结合社会当下的时弊和需要对有关问题进行论说或提供建议。而质的研究却十分强调研究者在自然情境中与被研究者互动，在原始资料的基础上建构研究的结果和理论，其探究方式不包括纯粹的哲学思辨、个人见解和逻辑推理，也不包括一般意义上的工作经验总结4。民族心理学，从其诞生之日便具有质的研究传统。心理学的鼻祖冯特(W.Wundt)早在1862年就认为心理学应是两个基本领域即生理心理学和民族心理学，他认为民族心理学的较为合适的研究领域涉及到“由共同的人类生活所创造的那
\*基金项目：教育部人文社会科学重点研究基地重大项目(05JJD880067)。
通讯作者：张进辅， E-mail： zhangjf@ swi. edu.cn。据库
些精神产品，因此，仅凭个体意识是无法对它加以说明的\*i5}、在冯特看来，人的高级心理过程不可避免地同语言，神话和风俗习惯等历史文化产品联系在一起，因此，可以通过对这些历史文化产品的分析，推演出高级心理过程的基本规律。冯特的历史文化产品分析实际就是一种质的研究方法，是档案文献法、语言分析法、口语记录法以及民族志法的综合。之后，随着主流心理学对“心理学科学化”的追求，质的研究方法在心理学界渐受冷落，受西方民族心理研究范式的影响，国内心理学界也较少采纳质的研究范式。目前，国内民族心理研究主要有两条主线：-条是心理学界的研究，一条是民族学界的研究。在心理学方面，侧重于微观探讨，方法论上注重实证性的量化研究；在民族学方面，主要侧重的是思辨性的定性研究，这种研究方法的资料来源于已有的文字资料，多数并未深人实际的研究现场。就目前的情况来看，质的研究在我国民族学界和心理学界都未受到真正的重视。
2.1.2定量研究的操作化缺陷
定量研究是我国民族心理学，尤其是个体民族心理研究的主导研究范式。由于定量研究本身所固有的缺陷，加上民族心理学研究特点及研究对象的特殊性，因此，在实际的操作过程中，存在有许多的操作化缺陷。主要表现有：1)采用未经过实地考察编制出的或直接采用国外编制的心理测验和量表来进行民族心理的研究，未考虑到文化的特殊性，导致研究结果不可避免地出现文化方面的偏差甚至偏见i6!。2)定量研究提倡客位研究，强调研究者与被研究者之问是一种主客关系，研究者完全可以作为一个局外人，远离被研究者，同被研究者保持距离，以避免主观价值的涉人，把研究对象作为客体进行价值中立的说明和控制。因此，定量研究常会导致文化的中心主义，单调呆板、以偏概全等缺陷”。3)研究的取样问题。如何选择合适的研究对象在民族心理研究中是一个值得商榷的问题。由于少数民族普遍存在的语言、文化理解及研究地域的限制等问题，使得民族心理研究的取样比较困难，很多研究者在选取研究对象时常常采取的是方便取样，这样选取的样本很难具有代表性，故也难以得出具有普遍意义的研究结论。研究取样的困难还导致我国民族心理研究对象的不平衡，多数研究以较易取样的大
学生为研究对象，对一般少数民族公众的研究极为匮缺，无形中缩小了民族心理学的研究范围，所得研究结论常常具有一定的片面性。
2.2
民族心理学的学科定位模糊不清
关于民族心理学属于什么，其研究对象是什么，应该研究什么内容?有关这个问题的讨论一直是民族心理研究者颇为关注的问题。在国内较早的民族心理学著作中，民族心理学被认为是建立在普通心理学与社会心理学理论基础上的心理学科。它既要以心理学的理论为指导，又要以心理学的某些方法为研究手段，还要以社会学、人类学、民族学的材料为参照(。这种观点强调民族心理学是属于心理学科范畴。之后，随着越来越多的民族学者开始涉足民族心理的研究，并认为民族心理学虽然偏重心理学研究内容，但其研究对象又是以民族为基础，因此民族心理学应该属于民族学研究范畴。目前，这种学科之争开始趋向缓和，现在一个更常见的提法是：民族心理学应该是一门集民族学和心理学为一身的综合性、交叉性的学科。但对学科的性质问题，至今未有定论。
对民族心理学的研究对象，学者们基本已达成一致，即认为民族心理学的研究对象是民族的心理现象及其活动规律。但关于具体的研究内容，学者们有不同的观点。有的认为民族心理应该包括民族认知、民族意识、民族情感、民族意志，民族性格、民族品德、民族气质等，这些是民族心理研究的基本内容，并认为对这些内容进行研究仍不足以说明对民族心理能有较为全面而深入的和本质的了解。因而，对民族内部的群体心理和个体心理也应进行研究。有的提出，民族心理学是普通心理学的一个分支，是研究民族心理现象的科学，它也包括民族心理过程和民族个性心理特征两个互相联系的方面。民族心理就是特定民族认识、情感、意志等心理过程和能力、气质、性格等个性心理特征的结合体。民族共同心理素质则是民族心理产生发展的生理基础。还有研究者提出族群社会心理是民族心理学的研究对象，认为只有将民族心理学的研究对象界定在社会心理层面，才能使研究者真正考虑某一族群的个体或群体的历史、文化及其现实生活条件下的心理
总的来说，民族心理学研究在不断地走向深人，
但其学科定位并不明确，民族心理学的学科性质、民族心理学的研究内容等都未有一个明确的界定，这些都直接影响了人们对民族心理研究的理解和民族心理学的深人发展。另外，对于民族心理学似乎还有一个问题需要澄清，那就是“民族心理学”是否等同于“少数民族心理学”?“民族”的含义很广，在冯特的《民族心理学》著作中，“民族”被解释为种族共同体，如阿拉伯民族、日耳曼民族，更有广泛的“民族”含义是指政治独立体即民族国家或国民国家，如中华民族等。因此，如果从广泛的民族含义而言，民族心理学研究的范畴似乎还应包括中华民族人格、中华民族价值观等的研究而不仅是少数民族的民族心理。
2.3 综合性研究人才极度匮缺
综合性研究人才的匮缺是制约民族心理学发展的瓶颈。作为一门交叉学科，民族心理学的研究需要研究者兼具有民族学、心理学、社会学、人类学等多学科的广博知识，一些心理学者由于研究思路的限制，加上缺乏广博的民族文化知识常常很难在民族心理学的研究中做到游刃有余，而一些民族学者由于缺乏深厚的心理学基础理论和方法指导，又很难做出高水平的民族心理研究，这从我国目前民族心理学的研究现状便可见一斑。据万明钢等对2000~2005年发表在国内期刊关于民族心理的182篇研究论文进行的文献计量分析显示，这六年中，少数民族心理研究论文总体数量较少，且研究主题非常分散，作者也分散，具有创新性的研究较少，对理论问题关注不足，我国少数民族心理研究还没有形成稳定的研究群体和稳定的研究领域，学术积累也远远不够型。
我国综合性民族心理研究人才匮缺的原因是多方面的。高校学科课程设置过于专业化，缺乏民族文化课程的开设，从而导致研究者知识结构单一是综合性民族心理研究人才匮缺的客观原因。综合性民族心理研究人才康缺的主观因索很多，影响也更大。首先，少数民族心理的研究是民族心理的重要研究内容，由于缺乏对少数民族及少数民族文化的足够了解，许多学生或研究者对少数民族存在有“刻板印象”，在他们眼里，少数民族的代名词就是“贫穷和落后”，缺乏对“民族心理”的深人了解和科学认识，因而对民族心理学的研究缺乏兴趣。其次，民族心理学的研究是一项投人大、要求高、难度高的工
作，这让不少研究者望而却步。另外，民族心理学的研究耗时多，研究成果出来比较慢也是影响人们从事民族心理研究的重要原因。受“研究功利化”思想的影响，一些学者更乐于做一些方便、快捷、出成果快的研究。另外，现在研究生的学习常常与“找一个好工作”相联系，而民族心理方向的学生在就业上似乎不占上风。总之，诸多原因使得民族心理的研究队伍一直是势单力薄，尤其在整个心理学研究队伍中，常常处于一种被冷落的边缘状态。与热门的心理学考研、考博大军相比，民族心理方向的招生是门庭稀落，这对民族心理学的进一步发展无疑是一种隐患。
2.4
研究与现实生活相脱离
由于在研究方法论上存在着诸多缺陷，导致我国民族心理学的研究与现实生活有一定程度的脱节。表现在：思辨性的研究多，深人民族地区的实地研究较少；存在有直接采纳西方民族心理学的研究范式，未能考虑我国各民族的实际情况或把普通心理学的原理与方法直接套用于我国民族心理学研究的倾向；对我国各民族存在的现实问题关注不够，一些研究存在有“为了研究而研究”的学术倾向，难以对解决我国当前存在的现实问题提出可行性的建议；研究对象、研究范围比较狭窄，一些典型性的社会心理问题(如社会变迁中少数民族的心理适应、社会态度及其行为改变、民族语言文化心理等)还未能引起学者们的足够关注，已有研究对说明和解决民族发展中出现的现实问题仍有一段距离。
3 民族心理学研究困境的出路
要成功地走出民族心理学研究的困境，亟需做好以下几方面的工作。
3.1 融合多元方法，加强质与量的整合
作为一门社会科学，民族心理学的研究不可能只使用一种研究方法。民族心理学的研究应立足于研究课题的性质和研究实际，采用多方法多特质的研究手段。
在研究范式上，应重视质的研究在民族心理学研究中的应用，加强质与量的有效整合。具体而言，要做好以下几方面的工作：研究设计上的整合，指研究者在同一个研究项目中要善于混合使用两种不同的方法，在不同层面对同一研究问题进行探讨；研究立场上的整合，指研究者在研究过程中，应不时反省
自己的研究角色，调整好对研究对象的态度与立场。在质的研究阶段，研究者应持主位研究立场，深入对象的文化生活空间，站在研究对象的立场上来研究、分析民族或民族心理。在量的研究阶段，则应注意与研究对象保持一定的距离，站在中立的、客观的研究者的立场上研究、分析其民族心理。当然，把主位研究与客位研究有机结合起来并非易事，因此研究者持主位研究立场，还是持客位研究立场、主位-客位综合方式，主要取决于研究者的研究取向和研究课题的性质要求7；研究资料分析上的整合。
一
项民族心理研究中同时存在有质的研究与量的研究时，可以同时收集到不同类型的原始资料，在分析资料时要注意使用不同的方法对有关结果进行分析。
在研究具体方法上，可灵活采用历史文献研究、蹲点实地考察、典型个案分析、较大规模问卷调查、实验、实物分析等方法，对民族心理的多种组成因素进行深入研究。其中特别注重深人民族地区进行实地调查，运用参与观察和深度访谈，以得出最直观真实的资料。在研究过程中，要始终遵循定性和定量相结合、思辨和实证相结合、历史与现实相结合、群体与个案相结合、横断与纵向结合、宏观与微观相结合的原则。
3.2 加强我国民族心理学的理论建设
在任何学科的发展中，理论都起着十分重要的作用：1)发挥组织与联系功能。当某·学科发展到一定程度，研究结果或材料大量堆积时，就需要用理论对之加以整合、组织。2)发挥预见功能。理论是预见科学知识增长、事物发展和进一步研究及川能研究结果的基础，可以说，科学的进步就是不断的理论预见或假设和对顶见或假设的不断验证来实现的。3)理论研究与具体问题的研究是密切联系、相互促进的。一方面理论研究需要具体问题的研究成果作为材料或索材，另·方面具体研究的成果又需要理论研究去整合。
目前，我国民族心理学的理论建设还相当薄弱，对我国民族心理学的学科性质、研究对象、研究内容、现实中存在的民族心理现象等都未能做出较完满的理论解释，实证研究也多以国外的民族心理学理论为基础。但因为我国是·个多元一体的多民族国家，我国民族的实情与国外不同，因此，我国各民族心理的形成与发展规律与西方国家也存在有差
异，可以借鉴但不能照搬。要科学回答我国民族心理学研究中存在的现实问题，提高民族心理学的水平和质量，必须立足于我国民族的实际，注重对我国民族心理学研究的理论探讨，加强我国民族心理学理论的本土化建设。
3.3 促进相邻学科的对话与合作，加强综合性民族心理研究人才的培养
促进相邻学科的对话与合作，相互借鉴，达成各学科在研究理论、研究方法、研究思路等多方面的优势互补，是提高我国民族心理学研究质量的重要路径。同时，要加强综合性民族心理研究人才的培养。在心理学的民族心理研究阵营，可增设有关民族学、人类学、社会学等相关理论及研究方法的课程，深化心理学研究者对民族文化知识的了解，激发研究者对民族心理研究的兴趣，使之掌握一些民族学的研究方法并能有效地与心理学的研究方法相结合，从而可以游刃有余地从事民族心理的研究。反之，出身于民族学的民族心理学研究者也应加强心理学的基本理论及研究方法的学习，提高其民族心理研究的深度和可靠度，尽可能减少由于研究者出身背景的不同而产生的研究偏差。
3.4 立足于我国民族的实际情况，加强对现实问题的研究
民族心理学研究的生命力在于它对民族发展和社会进步的价值。当前，我国正处在急剧的社会变迁之中，经济和社会结构在不断发生变化，各民族、各种文化和意识形态在不断接触、互相影响，由此也产生了许多与民族发展相关的现实问题。如果民族心理学的研究不能有助于解决这些实际的问题，它就会丧失其存在的价值，就更谈不上发展。因此，民族心理学的研究应立足于我国民族的实际，在充分了解各民族历史演变、经济生活现状、文化背景以及宗教信仰、民族习惯等的基础上进行深入的理论与实践相结合的研究113.。特别注意从民族发展的实际需要，去研究民族的深层、隐性问题，注重挖掘民族文化对民族心理的深层、内在影响。
参考文献
1L
张世富.民族心理学的研究内容、任务及方法.安阳师范学院学报，2005，(1)：57-61.
2
张进辅.关于西南民族心理研究的构想.西南师范大学学
报(人文社会科学版)，2006，32(3)：74-78.
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\[美\]贝利.现代社会研究方法.许真译.上海：上海人民出版社，1996.45.
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陈向明.质的研究方法与社会科学研究.北京：教育科学出版社，2006.12.
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Wundt W. Elements of folk psychology. New York； Macmoillan，1916.3.
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孙东方，常永才.民族心理研究中文化偏差的克服：向文化人类学借鉴.内蒙古民族大学学报(社会科学版)，2005，31(2)：8-12.
7
韩忠太.论心理人类学研究中的主位方式与客位方式.云南社会科学，2006，(3)：83-87.
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孙玉兰，徐玉良.民族心理学.北京：知识出版社，1990.2.
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徐黎丽，关于民族心理学研究的几个问题.民族研究，2002，(6)：95-103.
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尹可丽.族群社会心理：民族心理学的研究对象.贵州民族研究，2006，26(4)：85-89.
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万明钢，赵国军，杨俊龙.我国少数民族心理研究的文献计量分析2000-2005.心理科学进展，2007，15(10)：185-191.
12
李炳全.科学主义心理学的困境与出路.南京师范大学学报(社会科学版)，2002，(3)：93-99.
13
李静.民族心理学研究教程.北京：民族出版社，2006.9.
On the Dilemma and Way out of Ethnic Psychological Research
Zhi Fengying，Zhang Jinfu
(1. School of Education and Science， Guizhou Normal University， Guiyang 550001；2. School of Psychology， Southwest University， Chongqing 400715)
Abstract： The article sets forth the messes faced by ethnic psychological research . The article also points that in order to get out of messes，di-verse methods should be used in research， and the intergration of qualitative and quantitative research should he strengthened， and the commun-ion and the cooperation of interrelated subjects should be promoted， and the training of comprehensive researchers should be recognized， and at same time ， on base of the reality of our nations ，the research of realistic problems should be strengthened to increase the value of ethnic psy-chological research.
Key words：ethnic psychological research； dilemma； way out | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 浅析如何完善交通事业单位预算管理方式
蔡林花
(苍南县道路运输管理局，浙江苍南325800)
\[摘 要\]目前我国交通事业单位预算管理工作存在各种各样的问题，严重影响了预算执行，导致预算工作无法全面、真实地反映交通事业单位的资金使用情况，弱化了预算管理的作用。在这种情况下，必须采取行之有效的办法，尽快完善交通事业单位预算管理方式，促进我国交通事业单位的发展。
\[关键词\]交通事业单位；预算管理；问题；建议
doi： 10.3969/j. issn. 1673-0194.2020.13.008
\[中图分类号\]F810.6 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1673-0194(2020)13-0019-02
背景介绍
预算管理一直是各行各业管理工作的重要组成部分，我国社会主义市场经济体制不断建立健全，政府机构改革不断深人发展，进一步推动了财务会计制度的修订与更新，给预算管理工作提出了新的要求。交通事业单位作为我国的支柱型公共基础设施事业，为国民经济的稳健发展做出极大贡献。我国经济发展进人新常态后，交通运输事业既面临新的发展机遇、也面临新的风险与挑战、如何在现代市场经济环境下提升交通事业单位的竞争力，以获得长远可持续发展成为交通事业单位高度重视的问题之一。结合市场环境不难发现，通过完善预算管理方式，能提高交通事业单位财务管理能力和预算资金使用效益，实现交通事业单位健康持续发展，
2
交通事业单位预算管理存在的主要问题
2.1 交通事业单位预算管理体制不完善
通过近年来预算管理在各行各业中的迅速开展、不难看出其有效地推动了我国财务制度的改革与完善。但在交通事业单位预算管理工作的进行中也会出现许多障碍，导致预算工作无法切合实际的开展。其中最严重是，一些交通事业单位缺乏相对健全完善的预算管理体制，导致交通事业单位预算管理目标的设定偏离实际，加之任务分配的不合理，难以调动交通事业单位各部门的密切配合，一旦出现问题，就会出现互相推诿的情况，浪费大量的时间、人力和物力，使得预算管理的执行效率偏低。同时由于缺乏动态的监督管理体系，预算管理工作中的消极怠工、贪污等问题也会随之出现严重影响预算资金的使用效率，无法最大程度发挥预算管理的作用。
2.2交通事业单位预算管理方式有待优化
不少交通事业单位面对不断发展变化的新形势，仍然采用原有的预算管理方式开展相应工作，难以满足新的预算管理要求和目标，与我国宏观经济环境变化不相符。这样不仅会影响交通事业单位预算编制的规范，还可能出现相关定额标准不合理，设置不够细化，缺乏高效的预算绩效评价机制等问题，都会不同
\[收稿日期\]2020-03-11
程度地影响交通事业单位预算管理工作的健康顺利开展，
2.3交通事业单位预算管理人员专业性不足
预算管理中所涉及的系列工作，都离不开专业工作人员的参与，工作人员的专业性对预算管理工作的效率与质量影响巨大。但从交通事业单位目前情况来看，预算管理人员面对新形势下预算管理工作的风险与挑战，显得有点手足无措。其一，因为交通事业单位的人事管理制度存在漏洞，缺乏专业的预算管理人才胜任岗位职能。其二，交通事业单位对于预算管理人才的后续再教育与培训工作重视不足，导致预算管理人才的理论知识与专业技能难以及时更新，无法结合相关政策及时调整预算管理工作，导致预算编制与本单位的实际业务相脱节，制约预算管理工作质量的提升，严重弱化了预算管理在交通事业单位的重要性，
3 完善交通事业单位预算管理的建议
3.1 加快交通事业单位预算管理体制的建立健全
交通事业单位出现预算管理体制不健全的问题，多与其自身对预算管理认识不到位密切相关。为了有效结合实际情况，加快交通事业单位预算管理体制的完善，，首先需要明确预算管理主要是通过对交通事业单位实际情况的科学合理分析，从而制定准确清晰的发展规划，是确保交通事业单位各项工作顺利开展的基础与指导方针。其次在建立健全预算管理体制的过程中，不能完全脱离已有相关体制，必须以其为基础进行改革和完善。其中最重要的是要高效利用大数据信息技术，加强对预算管理信息与数据的全面收集、整理、分析与统计管理，最大化保证信息数据的真实有效，从而对资源进行合理分配，
而在整个预算管理工作中，有效执行是不可或缺的核心环节，能在预算资金使用过程中进行严格的审查，以确保所有的财务活动与资金都在预算管理范畴之内，及时发现预算工作中出现的问题并加以纠正，从而减少交通事业单位的经济损失。与此同时，预算管理执行力还包括强有力的监督，这需要交通事业单位建立相应的监督机制，实时、动态地对预算工作的开展状况进行有效监督，保证所收集数据信息的真实性，减少交通事业单位
贪污腐败现象的发生概率，保证整个交通事业单位预算管理工作的公开化、透明化，实现预算管理目标。
要想提高交通事业单位预算执行力，就必须成立专门的预算管理委员会，强化对预算工作的干预。当然，交通事业单位的预算工作不能单单依靠财务部门来开展，也需要其他部门的共同参与，实现各部门相互协作，数据信息共享，从而掌控财务资金的去向，让数据真正发挥其效用。要根据不同部门的属性与工作任务，进行预算管理工作的有效分配与安排，将具体的预算管理工作落实到相关责任人，这样能有效提高预算管理工作的执行力，为交通事业单位预算管理目标的实现保驾护航。
3.22创新交通事业单位预算管理方式
事业单位预算管理方式的创新涉及范围较广，包括预算编制模式、预算控制模式、预算控制程序、预算编制方法等。在预算管理模式创新中，最重要的就是转变传统的预算模式，采用先进的零基预算编制法。这需要学习借鉴西方国家的先进预算工作经验，并结合我国经济实际状况，制定出更加科学更加行之有效的预算编制方式。在采用零基预算编制法时，需要提前明确交通事业单位年度总体目标，并将工作任务进行合理有效分配。按照轻重缓急的不同、准确计算出不同任务的成本以及其产生的效益，从而确定工作开展中所需要的资金，这样才能充分发挥资金使用效益最大化的功效。同时，还要强化预算编制与计算机网络技术的高效结合，这样更能提高交通事业单位预算的准确性、效率性。
通过对现代预算控制系统的全面深人认识、明确知晓它不仅仅具有控制职能，还有计划、激励和业绩评价等职能，属于为一种全新的预算管理模式，有效加强了对预算的事前、事中和事后管理。其中最重要的在于业绩评价和激励，可以通过绩效预算与零基预算的结合来具体化公用费用、人头经费等，让交通事业单位的具体支出更加全面准确。。与此同时，也要从评价客体、评价指标、评价方式、激励机制等方面创新预算控制评价系统评价。具体而言，可以从以下几方面着手进行：
第一，需要明白预算控制系统评价客体，不必与交通事业单位组织结构完全一致，而是需要按照预算管理责任、权利的不同，具体落实到责任部门与责任人身上，赋予他们相应的权利与责任，让他们成为整个预算控制系统中不可或缺的评价客体。
第二，交通事业单位评价指标，除了原有的财务指标外，还应包括更多的非财务指标。整体来说，凡是能够反映交通事业单位目标的指标，都可以作为新的评价指标。当然评价指标不是一成不变的，也要根据管理层次、工作性质、承担任务等的差异而有所变化，这样才能确保交通事业单位预算评价的准确性。
第三，常用的评价方式为定量、综合评价。但在新的预算管理评价系统中，不应使用单一的评价方式，而应该采用定量与定性评价相结合、动态评价的方式，加强对水平、结构、比率、指标等的全面分析，这样使得整个预算管理评价更加灵活，能满足评价对象不同，评价方式不同的需求，更具针对性。
第四、激励机制的创新必须与预算评价结果相适应，以便结合交通事业单位长期业绩以及不同员工所创造的价值进行有效的激励，激发交通事业单位员工的工作创造性与主动性。当然在激励机制中约束是极其重要的，不仅要激发员工的积极性，还要对没有完成预算目标的部门和个人进行一定的惩罚，这样才能真正发挥激励机制的作用。
3.3打造专业的交通事业单位预算工作人员队伍
随着 2015年《中华人民共和国预算法》的颁布，对于交通事业单位的预算管理工作、从预算的编制到考核反馈等环节都有了新要求，进一步增加了预算管理的难度。为了保障交通事业单位预算管理工作的健康有序开展，预算管理人员必须与时俱进，提高自身专业水平，推动交通事业单位预算工作效率与质量的双提升。
而在培养专业预算管理人才方面，需要交通事业单位领导，从思想到行动上予以高度重视，营造良好的预算管理氛围，确保专业预算管理人才培养工作的顺利开展。而预算管理人才培养必须从理念、理论知识、专业技能业务素养等方面着手，通过专业知识教育培训、举办讲座、“走出去”等方式提高预算管理人员对国家财经政策以及宏观经济环境的了解与掌握的程度、再结合本单位的实际情况，明确预算管理工作开展的方向，实现预算管理人员专业知识与专业技能的提高。
在交通事业单位预算管理人才培养过程中，“引进来”也是一个非常重要的方式。这需要改革创新交通事业单位人事管理制度，引进更多具有丰富理论知识和专业技能的复合型预算管理人才，以大量的预算管理人才储备来提高预算管理内在动力。当前交通事业单位正在开展预算管理信息化建设，预算管理人才还需要具有扎实的网络信息技能，以便更好地通过预算网络平台加强与各部门之间的数据信息沟通与交流，实现对预算工作进度的实时管控、及时发现并分析反馈预算管理中存在的问题，让交通事业单位预算管理工作的效率最大化。
结 语
预算管理作为交通事业单位财务管理的重要内容之一，必须引起高度重视。通过对预算管理方式的完善，来提高预算编制水平与执行效率，完善预算的绩效评价工作，这样才能进一步保证交通事业单位预算管理的规范性、合法性、科学性，达到新形势下交通事业单位预算管理工作的要求。
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\[1\]黄利云.浅议公路管理事业单位预算内部控制优化\[J\].今日财富，2018(18).
\[2\]江田云.试析新形势下如何加强交通事业单位预算管理\[J\].中国乡镇
企业会计，2018(4).
\[3\]乔军.新形势下加强交通事业单位预算管理探讨\[J\].财会学习，2016(3). | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 《穿越时空》(Against the Day)是托马
斯·品钦(Thomas Pynchon)所创作的第六部小说(2006年，企鹅出版社)，也是其中最有趣的一部。但它是否最易理解，读者对此莫衷一是。在他四十多年的作品中，常常叠映着令人眼花缭乱、颇为费解的场面。但是这次除继承一贯的手法外，借助行云流水般的文笔，把荒诞想象、神秘离奇的情节和密码般的猜测，由一条清晰的线索串起来，使读
托马斯·品钦
者不必绞尽脑汁便可以大致读懂。整个故事的内涵在品钦式的一大堆看似杂乱堆砌、荒诞不经的表象中逐渐显露出来，犹如卧虎藏龙的灵光乍现。
这本小说长达1085页， 其背景设立在“无限离奇的世界”里。在形形色色的众多角色中，有遭受厄运的弗朗兹·斐迪南德大公，有不安分的奇瑟古尔·基德的后代，一个穿越时空的双性数学家，一只还会读亨利·詹姆斯小说的狗，还有善于挖洞的巨型食肉沙虱。它们从沙丘里钻出来，试图袭击过往的沙漠潜艇，骚扰沙下护航舰上的乘员。通过这些人物与人化的动物，我们看到品钦对时间存在的基本漠视。他认为“尽管时间是自然现象，但太荒谬而不值得考虑”。他还声称，自从第一次世界大战以来，文明便已死亡，“一战后的历史属于地狱的历史”。同时，他也反对空间的固定概念。对他来说，人生不过是“像梦一样开始，穿越有限的生命，再回到梦想”。
让我们体会一下书中品钦式的荒诞情节：在第一次世界大战爆发期前夕，科罗拉多无政府主义者、爆炸专家奇瑟古尔•基德的儿子，数学天才基特·特拉弗斯在去哥廷根的研究生院时，发现自己居然身处比利时，被凶残的资本巨头斯加德·威布雇佣的
杀手所追踪。基特从险恶的法兰德斯蛋黄酱工厂逃出，被迫穿过“一个弧形、巨大、令人作呕”的引酱槽窗口，最后落到了一条运河里，碰巧他的意大利朋友洛克和皮诺驾驶鱼雷艇经过此地，把他救起。
心有余悸的基特继续他的旅行。1908年6月30日他来到了西伯利亚，目睹了神秘、恐怖的灾难—-通古斯大事件。就像这本书中提到的其他许多历史和数学现象一样，通古斯事件确有其事：一次巨大的爆炸摧毀了八百多平方英里的森林。有人认为这是由于地球上空几英里的小行星爆炸引起的；也有人认为是物理学家尼克拉·泰斯拉为了让极地探险家罗伯特·皮尔瑞刮目相看，通过他的无线接收台上的传动装置引发开来的。在此事之后，基特开始质疑这次不可思议的旅程的目的。“也许再也没有‘任务’了，”他的一个同伴告诉他，“对于我们现在的目的-——没有人能告诉我们做什么。”
在《穿越时空》中，品钦讲述故事的语气显得有些急迫。他不时地终止故事叙述来发表议论。从这些内容中，我们可以体会品钦的全部哲学思想。小说的意旨之一，是神秘使者试图以骇人的方式向个人乃至人类传递信息：如通过炮弹和路边炸弹爆炸的血腥事件(这很容易让人联想起“嘀嘀”作响的莫尔斯密码被接收时引发的爆炸)；或通过一个学生企图用电报与索弗尔德飓风交流；或通过连绵不绝、振聋发聩的球形闪电；或者是通过煤气(人们戴着特殊的接收器来解密浓烟中的信息，或者把其倒挂，从火炉中吸进信息)；或通过通古斯大事件或广岛的大爆炸(品钦认为这是天使留下的脚印)这样大规模的屠杀来传递信息。在作者令人惊愕的奇异幻想中，他似乎要人联想到纳粹大屠杀的毒气室。
尽管如此，品钦的这部小说还是比以往的任何一部作品都更为欢快明朗。他似乎是在戏弄他笔下的角色，一次次让他的人物进
入各种神秘的娱乐场所：1893年芝加哥世界展览会(弗朗斯·菲迪南德在那里出现，要把芝加哥的牲畜饲养场变成他私人的狩猎场)；受尽鸦片毒害、建在倒塌的摩天轮旁边的进行飞车走壁表演的密苏里州一个社区；再
：一
《穿越时空》封面
到一所为研究时间穿梭理论家所开设的超
现实大学，堪德布洛大学，一群被称为“偶遇伙伴”的快乐年轻飞行员，乘坐他们的“不便号”氢气飞艇，降落在这个大学校园里)；还有维也纳的福克斯一普拉特，那里的两个角色，一个面色苍白的间谍，也是个鸡奸者，和一个能穿墙而过的双性恋数学家，乘坐着威尼斯的小船游览整个威尼斯风光。后来(不管“后来”在品钦作品中的含义如何)，基特·特拉弗斯再次登场，与一名叫兰佐的意大利飞行员驾车兜风。后者酷爱将他的“三叉戟”呼啸俯冲，在快要接触地面的一刹那拉起飞机机头，似乎在玩老鹰俯冲的游戏。基特说，这种刺激“是同死神玩的另一种狂欢的方式”。。一些旅行者的终极目的是最为迷人的仙境：被称为“香巴拉”的乌托邦式乐园(人们可能会联想到《V》中的维苏)，事实上却并不存在。
引用叶芝的话说，读者首先对品钦小说感兴趣是因为“对神秘事物的着迷”。《V》于1963年出版，当时品钦二十六岁。小说讲述了一次受到神话中的女人诱惑而进行的旅行。旅行从东海岸起，经过非洲，至马耳他以及更为遥远的地方。1966年出版的《第49批拍卖品的叫卖》，是一部以加利福尼亚为背景的幻想寓言，故事平铺直叙地讲述了一段心酸之旅。于1973年出版并获得了国家
图书奖的《万有引力之虹》(Graity's Rain-
bow)被公认为品钦的巅峰之作。这部荒诞离奇的小说，其大部分故事画面出现在遭受“闪电空袭”后的伦敦。主人公泰伦斯罗·斯洛普是个美国人，也是一个纵情声色的反英雄。他把阴茎作为探寻德国导弹的探测棒。他的性欲被一种叫做“艾米普罗克斯”的物质引发。而另外一个离奇物变成了一件性感内衣，被当作紧身内衣裤穿在一个德国恋童癖的身上。在书的最后，这个恋童癖被裹在导弹头内，变成了一个具备大规模致命威胁的人造阴茎。
品钦对现实并非视而不见，他独特的风格、精心设计的背景、大胆的置疑、深刻的谴责等都跃然纸上，犹如狂欢节上的飞刀手一般，不管究竟有没有击中目标，只管自顾自地投向靶心。同库尔特·冯尼古特以及约瑟夫·海勒一样，品钦也十分关注由二十世纪战争所带来的人性泯灭。然而不同的是，他的作品展现了令人吃惊的非道德性——毫无怜悯、悲伤之情，只是无限的困惑与混乱。他的早期作品之风格，与其他美国作家更是迥然不同，反倒是接近于以流浪汉、匪徒等事迹为题材的悲观主义的欧洲寓言家们。阅读《V》和《万有引力的虹》的经历，犹如魔鬼附体或者是收到来自另外一个星球的消息一样让人恐怖，每一页都有可能引起怪诞和恐惧的联想：如一个穿着猪皮外套被残忍阉割的肥胖士兵；穿插着青春期少女和女色情虐待狂的关于乱伦和恋物癖的性暴力片段；一个堕落的、令人毛骨悚然的老牧师之死，原来居然是一位有着机器人特征的性感女郎。品钦那跳动的脉搏和受伤的心灵本身，带给读者的就是一个个“毁灭之梦”。
在发表《万有引力之虹》之后，品钦沉寂了十多年。也许是遭到非议的缘故，品钦从文坛上消失了。在此期间，除了偶尔发表几篇散文和书评外，他几乎再没有什么作品问世。直到1990年，品钦才发表了另一本小
说《葡萄园》(Vineland)。小说描述了 1984年的加利福尼亚。一个曾经的嬉皮士在得知政府要取消他的精神残疾补偿金时十分生气，让自己十儿岁的女儿为他过去讨个公道，这次徒劳无功的历程，促成了读者对流行文化的回顾。1996年，品钦又一部杰作《曼森和迪肯森》(Mason & Dixon)问世，他以此献给妻子和儿子。这本书的背景是十八世纪，这是“进步方阵之疑”(Doubt’s ad-vancing Phalanx) 还未削弱公众对文明进步信心的时代，是变革与探索的时代。作品的语调伤感，情节复杂，主题奇妙，融合了深刻的心理剖析。故事最精彩之处在于宇航员查尔斯·曼森和勘探员杰瑞敏尔·狄克森的不凡经历。品钦让他们一起到南非去记录金星的运动轨迹，之后又到美洲划下曼森一狄克森线。在他们完成此项任务之后，品钦写道：“这个新世界被外界看作为一个神奇、充满梦幻的地方，是一个神秘的知识体系，需要像学习希伯来的卡巴拉文化那样钻研。无论是地表构造还是各种水域，以及我们所称之为奇迹的种种现象，都是圣文，要被关注，被利用，被解读，并要把他们牢记在心。”
在《穿越时空》中，品钦把视角聚集在上空，似乎是为了获得更好的俯视角度：现实如一座巨大的车站，有无数通向四面八方的路口，通向变迁的历史。面对资本主义的不公和一触即发的第一次世界大战，品钦从现实中逃避出来，把自己埋在流行的逃避文学中，借此掩盖了十九世纪血腥的劳动争端及二十世纪毁灭性的灾难。在品钦含沙射影的创作手法中，有一种手法出人意料。品钦采用了典型传统儿童小说的创作手法，不仅用了各种道具和橱窗展演(如J.K.罗琳的隐身斗篷和斜角巷；菲利浦·浦曼所用的齐柏林飞艇、动物勇士；弗兰克·鲍姆的精灵和会说话的玫瑰花等)，还加上了完整的系列少年作品的思想，如汤姆·斯威夫特描写“偶遇伙伴”的冒险科幻作品。这些“伙伴”就像澳
洲长生不老的土著居民一样永生，他们驾着高科技的氢气飞船遨游云海，执行神秘的任务。品钦偶尔戏谑地提到了这些“伙伴们”的经历：“喀拉喀托火山探险”、“大战黄牙怪”、“墨西哥城惊魂”等等。这些“冒险家”在天空中飞行，他们根本看不到人世间的各种痛苦。但是品钦也赋予了作品双重现实的意义：一战的浩劫以及“少年英雄自由自在的生活”。
小说一开篇，品钦描述斯威夫特飞船上的“伙伴”们乘坐着飞船缓缓升空，前往1893年在芝加哥举办的世界商品博览会。“好极了!太棒了!他们欢呼道‘现在准备解缆!'”他们的飞船是以氢气为动力，而真正的动力却来自于“伙伴”的盲目乐观，认为一切都会平安无事(其实不然)。然而，品钦运用的各种创作手段丝毫没有掩盖他的真正意图。“不便号”飞船上那幽默诙谐的厨师麦尔斯·布鲁代尔由于没有意识到形势的严峻，总是到处传播愉快的心情，这点恰恰暗示作者的意图。
品钦将“伙伴”置于现实的考验中，而最终他们却面临惨败。在小说中，这些船员被安排在沙下从事危险而愚蠢的差事；品钦让他们乘坐着破烂不堪、摇摆不定、隆隆作响的时间机器，这让他们恐慌不安；然后还把他们扔到堪德布洛大学去参加一种时光之旅疗伤会。在那里，“伙伴”们与一群名叫“入侵者”的人发生了激烈的争吵。这些入侵者来自未来世界，目的是破坏和毁灭。这些伙伴们收到了神秘信息而退缩了，他们准备对地狱做出妥协，只要能回到无忧无虑的过去，重获逝去的单纯，他们愿意放弃任何东西，出卖任何人。
幸运的是，“伙伴”们只是经历了短暂的困惑，又开始了新的任务。他们有着神奇的意志和坚强的自我更新能力。按命令，他们就像人世间的男男女女一样，也在寻找神话中乌托邦式的理想社会——-香巴拉，但是
他们最终的目的是回归他们乘着飞船的天空之旅。在四处漂泊之后，奥博伦•哈夫考特最终放弃了自己的探求。他解释说：“对我来说，香巴拉不是终点，而它是根本不存在的。我们不是去找寻一个地方，而是要从无法预知未来的地方逃离。”品钦所说的“无法预知未来的地方”，就是指现在。
现代科幻小说之父 H.G. 威尔斯于1895年出版他的第一部小说《时间机器》(The Time Machine)时，他把他小说中的时光旅行者置于公元802701年，那是人类遭受毁灭之后的时代。当穿越时光旅行者来到现代社会，体验到了同样的沮丧时，他又回到自己封闭的时空中，最终永远消失了。而那些留下来的人和威尔斯一样，对未来充满了乐观向上的态度：“我们仍将继续生存下去，就当什么都没有发生过。”而品钦并不赞同，他借助小说中的一个人物说：“这样假装继续过日子并没有意义。”对于他而言，就要书写一个并非自相矛盾的世界。品钦为拯救世界开的唯一的药方是：抛弃现实，“让一切都过去吧”。
(作者单位：大连海事大学外国语学院上海交通大学外国语学院
大连外国语学院)
(责任编辑：杜新华) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | An Illustrated Treatise on the Art of Shooting, with Extracts from the Best Authorities ...
author: Charles Lancaster
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TfwNewVDrfc
Public Ubiary
THE SM "yORK
tUBLlC IIBBAT.Y
ISTOR, lENOX, AUD
Sn FOIiKDATlO^S
E ^
J
SIXTH AND POPULAR EDITION.
AN
ILLUSTRATED TREATISE
ON
THE ART OF SHOOTING,
WITH EXTRACTS FROM THE
BEST AUTHORITIES.
(78 ILLUSTRATIONa).
BY
CHARLES LANCASTER,
GUN, RIFLE AND PISTOL MANUFACTURER,
151, NEW BOND STREET, LONDON W.
Price, 2s. 6d.
1898.
Ektbbed at Stationebs' Hall.] [All BiOHTg Reserved.
, T!i: n:;.v vo-iK
3390i9«
Ta^DEN :«' ;■.;:> AT.. ::s
R 1946 L
$onbon:
FEINTED BT M^CORQCODALE AND CO. LIMITKD^
**TU£ AUMOUKYy" 60UTUWARK, S.B.
PEEFACE TO FIEST EDITION.
At the special request of many geutlemen who have
placed themselves in my hands for instruction in the Art of
Shooting, I have written this treatise. I have endeavoured
to meet the special requirements of those who are anxious
to become proficient in the art, and who have hitherto
been unable to obtain, in a precise form, the information
necessary for studying the first principles of shooting at
moving objects.
I have had the honour of coaching many gentlemen,
and have carefully studied the points especially requiring
attention that have cropped up from time to time while
giving instruction. I hope that those who favor me by
studying this treatise may quickly gain the knowledge so
essential for the making of an average if not brilliant shot
I have pm-posely refrained from touching on the several
merits of any class of gun — ^being a gun-maker myself;
and, indeed, so many good works on the subject have
been written, that it is really unnecessary,
1 trust that authors from whose writings I have made
extracts will pardon me when they recollect that I have at
heart one object, viz., the advancement of a manly sport
which gives pleasure, health and occupation to many, and
to the patronage of whose followers I am indebted for
many pleasant days.
C. L.
151, New Bond Street,
London, W^
1889.
4
FREHOH EDITION, 1898,
L'ART DE LA CHASSE
ET
i>Tj rriR.
Traduit par
A. MOURAUX et E. ANDRE.
Paris:
SOCIETfe D'EDITIONS SCIENTIFIQUES.
PLACE DE L'^COLE DE MEDICINE.
4, RUE ANTOINE— DUBOIS 4,
Prix, 7 fir. 50.
SWEDISH EDITION.
KONSTEN ATT SKJUTA.
Efter originalits Tridje Upplaga
AF
E. saK.
Stocklioliii :
FR. SKOGLUNDS FORLAG.
PrlSy 3 Kronor.
« OPINIONS OF THE PRESS *»
OH TBM
FIRST EDITION.
The book we have now before ob, ftlthovgh the work of * gnnmaker, Is oy no meaiu n
creatiBe on the construction of the weapons which it is his hnsmess to manufacture, but Is
a manual of instructions relating to the effectiTe handling of shot guns after they have be«»
made. The author, oyer and beyond his ordinary business standing, enjoys the reputation
if being an excellent ^* ooaoh,** whose endeavour It is, not only " to teach the young idea how
to shoot," but likewise to lead men no longer young to abandon old ideas that have proved
nncondncive to success, and replace them by other methods more likely to attain the desired
and. .And one purpose of this work Is that it may serve as a text.book to pupils, enabling
them at their leisure to go again over the ^onnd trodden during the process of personal
teaching, and flx in their minds the principles that are sought to be inculcated. But the
utility of (he book is by no means restricted to those who have the advantange of personal
tuition, for many who are self-taught— except in so far as they are observers of men and
manners, and imitators of what they conceive to be the best practice— may yet find ample
food for reflection bi the hints and suggestiohs that are laid before them.
The book consists of two parts, the drst of which may be said to constitute the mainstay
of the work ; and in this part will be found, almost exclusively, the numerous illustrations
which form its most striking feature. Instead of long verbal descriptions telling the reader
what to do, or what not to do— how to carry his gun, say, for use, for eomfort, or for safety—
a picture is placed before his eyes, showing in action what 4s Inculcated— the grasp of the
hand, the posture of the body, and the direction of the barrel ; the figures not being left to the
mere imagmation of the Artist, bat the author's Ideas being converted Into realities by photo-
graphic representatioad of men In the very act of doing what Is directed, which photographs
have been trausferred for printing purposes by the skilful pencil of Mr. J. Temple. There are
about dfty of these page-size Illustrations, which dhow how the gun should be carried easlty
under the arm for a long tramp, or on the iihoulder in readiness for immediate use, how to
hold it v/ben loading, ivhere the barrel should or should not be directed when walking in line,
and what dhoto ought to be avoided as tending to danger; how to hit birds that are crossing
to right or to left, that Are approaching the gun or going straight away, that are skimming
low or flying high over the shooter's head, or that have passed beyond him and are going
away, with the variations that are required for different angles, as well as for ascending or
descending shots, and hints as to when to shoot over birds and when under. The author has
preferred to let the illustrations tell their own tale for the most part; and the defect, if it be
one, lies on the side of extreme brevity ; for the pictures in the first portion of the book are so
numerous, in compariHon with the quantity of text, that the printer has occasionally found
himself in straits when endeavouring to place the descriptive matter in front of the corre
sponding engraving, and consequently, from a typographical point of view, the appearance is
not so shapely as it might have been had there been more text to fill out some of the pages.
The second part of the book— which consists partly of original matter and partly of
quotations from our own and other pages— touches on subjects less directly connected with
the manipulation of the gun in the deld. These bring up the volume to about 160 pages of
text, exclusive of the illustrations. They include notes on costume, instructions on gun
cleaning, measuring for a gun, hammer or hammerless guns, steel and Damascus barrels,
chokes and cylinders, times and velocities, sizes of shot, weight of powder charges, and other
matters too numerous to particularise. Many of these articles the reader may find more or
less interesting, according as bis inclination does or does not tend to the study of the
theoretical side of shooting questions. But, as we intimated before, the true backbone of the
book lies in its first section, which supplies what has long beoi a desideratum; for, although
various authors have briefly touched on the subject, we know of none that will c<»ipare
with this work for the completeness of its instructive Olustrations on the art of handling
the gun. — The Field.
Our literature possesses no similar work which gives to the embryo shooter or sportsman
— and under some circumstances even to those sportsmen who have already handled a gun
for some time— such excellent direction how to shoot with sure results for this or that
method, or in this or that direction, ground or flying game. Just as instructive as the short
and concisely-worded text are the numerous illustrations, which represent and at the same
time cause one to understand every possible, imaginable method of the opportunity of shoot-
ing, it may be winged or ground game, showing where the sportsman would have to aim in
order to make sure of a successful shot in this or that case Anyone who
interests himself in shooting should not fail to procure the above-mentioned work
He will, after careful perusal, flnd it highly instructive and much to be recommended.—
FiMiMa Sport Zeitung.
•* The Art of Sbootfng;** by Mr. Ohftrles Lanoastar, of Kew Bond Street it. ju might Iw
mferred (coming from the pen of »d •oknowledged en)ert),a work which wiD supply pleasure
and profit eren to the most skilfn] gunner; but tc the tyro It will be found to be invaluable.
. . . Instantaneous photography has lent Its marveUoos aid to the illustrations with
wliidl the book is abundantly supplied.— /'orf't Sporting Notes and Sketches,
... A well got up volume, written by a practical man in a very practical manner, and
Iraaly Illnstrated. — Ths Ironmonger.
. It is likely to prove of practical atrvloe to those who are learning to shoot. . . .
His book has many lUnstrations, which serve well to elucidate the rules which he lays down.
7!he book is well illustrated, and hi^y instmctiTe, and as there are so many
#fao take an interest in shooting, it ean hardly tail to command the favour It deserves.—
. . . The handsomely illustrated volume now before vs is exceedingly tasteful in get-
■p. . . . The drawings are exceedingly instructiva . . . 7!here is much that the most
•xperienoed shots in England may read with advantage. ... It will be a useful book to
those who wish to take to shooting. . . . The work under notice deals ably with the snb-
leet of carrying one^s gun, . . . The sportsman must carry it ready to kill everything
bat himself or his neighbour or neighbour*s dog, and the drawings in the volume before us
would be valuable alone, even if unaccompanied by letter-press.— 29^4 CowUy GtenUenum.
• • . Mr. Charles Lancaster has written an admirable treatise on the "Art of Shooting.*
• . . The book is handsomely got up, contains a mass of varied and wdl-digested infor-
mation on the subject, and its value is further enhanced by a large number of finely-executed
Illustrations. . . . Sportsmen . • . cannot do better than read, learn, and inwardly
digest Mr. Lancaster's excellent work. Even experts can get many valuable hints from this
book.— ^<u<em Courier.
The author modestly refrains from praising or making any allusion to his own weapons.
• • . The book is well turned out and printed in exoellent type.— Western Morning Neus,
. . . This book . . . gives in a number of tersely but capitally drawn illustrations
aU the hints which experience can suggest. . . . We have the most unmitigated praise to
give to the author and to the artist for the manner in whioh they have brought out this work.
The book should be read by every man who shoots ... it is brimful of practical hints. —
2A« Shooting Times.
. . Mr. Lancaster has, with proper taste, refrained from touching on the merits of
any particular class of gxm,—Ndrfi>lk DaUy Standard*
. . . We hail ^th pleasure Mr. Lancaster's book, which is a sort of manual for
»» teaching the young idea how to shoot,'' and at the same time showing older hands the
necessity of abandoning erroneous notions, and studying the first principles of shooting at
moving objects. — Nonoieh Argus.
. . . Altogether the book is well yrritten, and will prove of most valuable assistance to
all aspiring sportsmen, and, in fact, will be found of more than ordinary usefulness to those
who are already proficient- JS'tmgMoit Mail.
• . Mr. Lancaster^ whose name is well known in connection with shooting, has issued
a short treatise on this branch of sport which is likely to prove acceptable to many. . • .
Mr. Lancaster's book is a useful compendium of knowledge for the beginner, from which
even the practised sportsman may gather some invaluable hints.— Ifomtn^ Post.
... A remarkably useful book for all wishing to learn how to use a gun properly.
. . . After a careful read through the book, I must say that, although noth&g of a
sportsman myself, I reaUy believe that, following the advice given, and with a littie practice,
I oould soon become a very fair shot The whole matter is dealt with most thoroughly.—
(Monies and India.
• • . A useful work to all those who wish to shoot well and in sportsmanlike fashion
9 • • The writer has spared no pains in dealing with his subject-iTome and C\>;onia; ifai/.
. • . Mueh time and vexation may be saved by careful attention to the advice of a
Indieloas coach. Mr. Lancaster goes patiently over the minutest points. . . Hence tha
veatise will be found instructive and useful.— 2)a</y Okronide.
... In his exoellentiv written and fully illustrated page* Mr. Lancaster deals scienti-
fleally and practically with the whole question of guns and shooting, quoting fiom his wide
expenenoe, and also maldng extracts from other authoritative writers on the subject The
result is a work which might well become a recognised text-book on the art of shooting.
. • . The book is full 0/ technical hints, and its numerous illustrations are an admirable
aid to a complete apprehension of the text — Court Journal.
. . . Mr. Oharles Lancaster, the well-known gunmaker, has prepared a very useful
littie treatise on shooting, admirably adapted not only for those who are commencing to
handle a gun, but also those who have failed, for want of proper instructions, to advance
beyond a condition of mediocrity. The remarks are well explained by effective engravings.—
Wlnsm*s Uwtted Service Magazine
Since "The Deaishot" was written many years ago, we hare had no work on th«
G radical useof thofuwling-piece until the present treatise of Mr. Chas. Lancaster. . .
Lr. Lancaster is evidently a clever and ardent sportsman; he has bad to learn, has learnt,
and now teaches well, and the lessons givea mnst be of immense value to the ordiuary a«
well as to the iuexperienced sportsman. We have no hesitation in saying that the Author's
Instructions on the art of shooting are the most valuable that have ever heen placed before
the public, and the illustrations which accompany them are pre-eminently illastratire of th«
text, which is saying a great deal. Author and artist have worked together to produce an
excellent and valuable result. . . . Altogether, " The Art of Shooting** is a valuable and
pleasant addition to the sporting library. It is a book every sportsman has been in want of,
and which every sportsman ought to possess.— Sr/ie Bazaar, Exd*ange and Mart.
There is a great deal of practical information in the illustrated treatise written and
published by Mr. Charles Lancaster upon '' The Art of Shooting,'* and the lucid and com-
prehensive text is itupplemented by a number of clever sketches, reproduced from instantaneous
photographs. . . . llie book is a well written and reliable haudy guide, and is wurth/
of careful study.— lia</y Telegraph.
The art of shooting, or rather that part of it which is ooncemed with moving objects, is
dealt with fairly exhaustively in Mr. Lanoaster*8 book. . . . The illustrations, too, are
particularly good. . . . Some very useful practical information on guns and other
shooting gear is given. . . . The book ought to be read by every sportsman, f^om the
merest tyro to the veteran " shot** The one will gain much instruction, and the other not a
little amusement and ediflcation. — The BritWi Trade JoumaL
. . . Mr. Lancaster, who Is reputed a good *' eoach** at shooting, as well as a maker of
first-class guns, has acceded to a frequent request that he should write a book on shooting.
The result is admirable. No one can help being favourably impressed, to begin with, by the
design of the work. . . . He is always entertaining as well as instructive. His book is
singularly agreeable.— Aod and Oun.
Mr. Charles Lancaster is well known as an accomplished " coach*' for men who wish to
acquire the art of shooting game, and he is, moreover, a practical gun-maker; he therefore
may claim to write as an expert. . . . The illustrations, admirably drawn by Mr. J. Temple,
from instantaneous photographs, are very good indeed. — Manchester Ouardian.
. . . Mr. Lancaster here supplies us with a detideratum which, as we have said, will be
welcomed by all who desire to become proflcient in the art of handling the gxm.—Loveestoft
Standard.
• . . The fifty illustrations by Mr. James Temple . . . show how the gun should b«
held when m and out of use. These pictures are a considerable help to students puzzling
their brain over lengthy descriptions of what to do and what not to do.- Norfolk Wetklt
Standard.
. . . We say, read what Mr. Charles Lancaster has to tellin respect to the study and
practice of his lifetime. . . . We have frequently heard the complaint of a dearth in
artistic records of the manner in which shooting is carried on at the present time. This
want Mr. Lancaster supplies, with no niggard hand ; and we peruse his chapters and gaze
fondly at his sketches with long and lingering eye, wishing, like Oliver Twist, for more. The
author, like a good " coach,** commences ab initio, and, after a few apposite and general
remarks, gives us, in good plain English, a number of sound hints and maxims as to the
science he himself has mastered. . . . We should be manifestly ungrateful to the artist,
Mr. Temple, were we not to acknowledge how loyally he has illustrated the meaning and
the text of the author in the various sketches he has given. To say they are true to nature is
to speak of these little pictures as works of art worthy of Leech, Irving, Tenniel or "Sir
Edwin ; *' and it is no fiattery to give them this rank.— 7*/i« Broad A^r.w.
"The Art of Shooting *' is a useful and well illustrated little tTeAUao.—Torkshbre Poit.
. . . The book is full of original and collected matter, and the reader will pick up
many hints as to the shooting of birds on the wing, and of hares and rabbits. ... A
generally useful book. —T/te Army and Naoy Gazette,
The** Art of Shooting'* should be perused by all sportsmen desirous to become good
BhaU.—TAe CHtie,
There is a great deal of good advice in Mr. 0. Lancaster's treatise. . . . With a
delicacy rare in such books, he abstains from recommending any particular kind of gun.—
The Oraphie.
Mr. C. Lancaster's treatise on **The Art of Shooting,*' has been published for the
fetfceflt of his pupils, and may possibly be useful to them as notes of his lectures.— rA« World.
... * This is a good book for beginners, no doubt, and iL certainly well and profusely
Illustrated.— fA^t Weekly Bulletin.
. • i This is a practical manual by an expert in the art which it is intended to teach.
The instructions are conveyed in a brief and pithy form. . . . The best authorities are
cited by Mr. Lancaster in support of his views, and indeed he speaks himself from an
exceptionally varied experience, not only as a sportsman, but as a teacher in the use of
firearms — Home Newt.
8
•' • . They (ezperts) would be the flnt, therefore, to praise Mr. Luicaiter for the pfthia
he has taken to explain simple principles and to iUnstrate details. ... Mr. Lancaster
does valoable senrice in devoting so much attention to them. ... A careful study (rf
Mr. Lancaster's book, and the aid of many illustrations very skilfully drawn by Mr. James
Temple, will give even proficient sportsmen a clearer insight into theoretical principles than
eould be gained by any ordinary means. . . . The author's success as a practical gon-
maker in overcoming difficulties of this kind entitles him to speak with authority, and It must
be said that he is not chary in giving the fruits of his wide experience to those who care to
cull valuable hints from the treatise written and published by him. . . . Words of
warning are given to sportsmen whose carelessness in carrying dangerous weapons and
recklessness in shooting without regard for others deserve even severer censure than Mr.
Lancaster administers.— y//fM<ra<edZondo» ilTiMM.
. . . It is a nicely got-up and well-printed book) . . it is, therefore, with pleasure
that we welcome the words of wisdom and advice from such a practical man, keen sportsman,
and tutor of many good shots, as Mr. Lancaster. . . . Li conclusion, we can only uige
those of our readers who are and are not, and those who would be sportsmen, to obtain a copy
of this valuable work.— &t/e and Exchange.
To many sportsmen the idea of learning to shoot from a book may seem analogous to
acquiring the noble art of self-defence by sparring at one's reflection in a mirror ; but it must
be conceded that Mr. Oharles Lancaster's Book of Instructions affords many useful hintSf
not only to the novice, but to older hands. . . . Mr. Lancaster's directions have the merit,
at any rate, of simplicity; and instead of elaborate and complicated diagrams, be gives us
full-page illustrations of the sportsman firing at feather and fur in almost every possible
flignt and run. ... A very interesting chapter is devoted to ** times and velocities." A-nd
the author shows how the question of 'allowance" is effected by the difference of nervous
organ iitatiou in sportsmen.— 7'Ae Leedt Mercury.
. . . The name of Charles Lancaster is familiar to moat shooting men, and a work on
snooting written by one of the leading West £nd gunmak erg— himself a capital stiot— does not
need much praise to recommend it. . . . Tbe clear way in which the author directs his
pupil how, when, and where to shoot at birds flying at all kinds of angles, cannot fail to
assist him gTeAtiy.—Teignmouth Pott.
lir. liaucaster's book is practical. It is exactly what it professes to be— a book for those
who wish to learn to shoot, and who have not the time necessary for going througn a long
course of education in the flelds and woods. Even to such as have, however, it will be found
extremely useful ; for it is not true of shooting that practice makes perfect, and many a man
may go on shooting every day of bis life and never shoot well to tbe end of it for the want of
some judicious instruction from a maste** of tbe craft Mr. Lancaster passes in review every
kind of shot that can pretfcnt itself . . and gives appropriate rules for each, vvhich are
tuither impressed on us by means of ver^ useful illustrations.— /St. Jamet't GautU.
. . . Written by such an authority, tbis book cannot fail to be of value. , . . To the
large majority, however, the hints given will prove most useful. . . . Kvery Kind of shot
Ib described. . . . There is much in it that is practicat— .itfrnirotf^ and Horse Ouards'
Oatette.
. . . Contains a mass of information about tne use of the gun, and is copiously
illustrated. . . . I'he work may be safely recommended to all and sundry anxious to
become ''cracks," for the manner of paragraphing special bits of advice is admirable, and
enables anybody to see at a glance what is meant. A word must be said for the printing of
tnlM useful volume, which is really most excellent. — T/te Sportsman.
. . . One purpose of this work is that it may serve as a text-book. . . . Supplies
wbat has long been a desideratum. . . . We know of none that will compare with this
work for the cuuipleteness of its illustrations on the art of handling the gun. —Brighton Gazette,
. . . This work will be found an invaluable aid to proficiency in the art of shootinir*
Tne author is not only a practical gunmaker . . . but is also a thoroughly practical
sportsman, so that nis qualifications for a work of this description leave nothing to be desired^
. . . Indeed, it should be found on the bookshelf of all who ''handle " a gun.— A/n^rtcas
tti-aveller.
. . . This book is capitally got up, copiously illustrated, and is a compendium of
information on the subject on which it treats.— Ca/c«^/a Asian.
Cliarles Lancaster, one of the first authorities on guns, has just written an admirable
V«oauiM which cannot fall to be of value . . . the bints given vrill prove most useful
. . . the book is sure to command, as it deserves a wide circulation. — Irish Times.
. . . There is no one living wno can so well impart Information on the art of wbi%
shooting as Mr. Lancaster ... as this volume is nut written to puff the Lancaster ^un,
it is sure to be well received in America. ... I most cheerfully recommend this volume
... no intelligent Sportsman will regret the time or money it has cost him.—
*' GAUOHO. '*— American Breeder and Sportsman.
... A very useful book . . . which will be serviceable to many besides the mere
tyra . . . Mr. Lancaster's diagrams show us our theory in practice, and nelp to fix in the
memory maxims whlcb are apt to escape ub at the critical moment when conveyed only in
YfOidu.—Blaatffood's Magatine.
N
gonfenfs.
PART I.
PAGE
General Information
11
Sight and its peculiarities
16
Carrying and Loading a Gun
21
Handling and Position
... 29
Elementary Practice
37
Inanimate Moving Objects ...
42
Birds on the Wing
45
Shooting Winged Game
50
The Perpendicular Shot
62
The Approaching Shot
... 68
The Approached and Passed Shot .
76
The Crossing Shot
83
The Quarteiing Shot
88
The Straightforward Shot ...
90
The Ascending Shot
95
The Descending Shot
... 99
The Snap Shot
. 103
Shooting Hares
104
Shooting Rabbits
108
The " Pot" or Sitting Shot ...
112
Missing...
116
A Word of Advice for all
120
PART II.
Clothes
124
Gun Cleaning
131
Measuring a Gun
134
Cast-off
... 137
10
Contents — contin ued.
FAOE.
Cost of Manufacture ... ... ... ... .. 141
Four-Barrelled Guns ... ... ... 142
Hammer or Hammerless Guns ... ... ... 143
Cartridge Ejecting GuQs ... .., ... ... 145
A Modern Gun ... ... ... 146
Steel or Damascus Barrels ... ... ... ... 150
Single Trigger Guns ... ... ... ... ... 152
"Chokes," "Cylinders/' or "Noa-Chokes " ... 153
Cartridges ... ... ... ... ... ... 155
Condensed Powders and Short Cartridges ... ... 156
Times and Velocities ... ... ... ... ... 157
Velocity of the Flight of Birds 186
Penetration of Shot at " Tall '' Pheasants 196
Effect of Changing Powders ... ... ... 198
Variations in Pattern of Guns ... ... ... 205
Spread of Shot from Guns of Different Gauge .., 206
The Lancaster Game Scorer ... ... 210
Shot — Sizes and Numbar of Pellets per oz. ... 2 12
Shot —Pellets in a Charge ... 213
Weights of Powder Charges... ... 213
Legal Seasons for Killing Game, &c. ... ... 214
Gun Licences ... ... 215
Weights of Game Birds 215
List of Books on Shooting, etc., etc. ... ... 216
Defective Shooting, etc. (Correspondence)... ... 217
gITusfrations.
The Illustrations are drawn by Jas. & Geo. Temple,
from instantaneous and other Photographs taken at
Charles Lancaster's Private Shooting Grounds, by Messrs.
H. & R. Stiles, of High Street, Kensington, and others.
THE ART OF SHOOTING.
PART I.
GENERAL INFORMATION.
^O^MONG the requisites for successful shooting
is, first of all, judgment of pace — or, in other
words, the rate at which the object to be shot is
travelling ; then getting the proper allowance, so as
to ensure the charge of shot from the gun being put
exactly where this moving object is likely to be on
impact — ^in the same way as a school-boy learns
instinctively by practice, when playing such a game
as rounders, where to throw the ball so as to hit or
*' scorch " the individual running.
Secondly, angles have to be considered; and I
have in the accompanying sketches endeavoured to
put them in as simple a form as possible, so that those
mshing to see them clearly may do so. These angles
12
have been worked at and proved correct after much
study and hard work, and will, I hope, save the
novice much trouble : they may never have had
a thought bestowed on them before, and yet they
are most essential for the purpose of becoming a
good shot.
Thirdly, the sense of touch plays a most important
part in shooting. In the use of a gun, the instant
the sight and aim have done their work, the finger
must pull the trigger to discharge the gun ; if too
hard in the puU-ofi^, time is lost and the judgment
beaten ; if too light, the gun may be discharged too
soon, and possibly not " within a mile " of the place
where the sight and aim had intended it should be
placed at the impact of the charge of shot on the
object to be struck.
Lastly, a good fit in a gun is as necessary for a
successful shot as a weU-fitting shoe is for a pedes-
trian. Some men are smaller than others, and a man
must have his gun to fit him the same as his clothes ;
consequently the gun that fits one may not fit
another. Men's likes and dislikes, too, are as
different as their faces, and what suits one will not suit
another. To test if a gun is really a fit, pin a piece of
white paper on a wall or a tree, then put the gun
1 1
up at it quickly, with both eyes open, and after several
such trials one can tell how the gun suits If it
mounts too high, the stock is too straight {see III.
No. 1, page 13) — if low, the stock is too bent; if
to the left, stock should be cast-off to the right —
if to the right, it should be cast-on to the left ; if the
stock catches in bringing it up to the object, it
is too long and wants shortening (see 111. No. 1,
page 13). To ascertain the latter, by leaning for-
ward from the hips a gun that is too long can be
mounted to its proper place, and by gradually return-
ing to the upright position, until the gun catches,
the excess of length may be demonstrated. A tall
man will require more bend and length than a
shorter one; and a stout man will require more
cast-off than a thin one. In selecting a gun the
buyer must at all times bear in mind that there is a
handicap in weight and bore of guns, as in all sports
where fatigue and accuracy come in ; therefore one
man can use a gun at 7 or 7^ lbs., whereas another
can only carry say 6 lbs. But a 12-bore gun of
6 lbs., or under, must, as a scientific necessity, recoil
and jump more than the heavier ones; it is better
therefore to use a smaller load, or a gun of smaller
bore, than to shoot with a gun that is very likely to
15
tell its tale against you in excessive recoil, because
no one can shoot even moderately well if he is getting
punished.
Some of the matters here briefly touched upon, wiU
be dealt with morfe fully in subsequent pages.
' CHARLES LANCAtTClA ADJUSTABLE TRY CUN
* rK>R aNOOTINC AT eiTMCA PNOSORTAMICW -^a
NoTB. — The author has invented an adjustable try-gun (patent), which is
constructed with the stock perfectly rigid in the hand, being made to moye
in right lines (and not bodily, by the means of a knuckle-joint in the hand of
stock, which necessarily describes the section of a circle), therefore the
author's does not give an excess of bend or cast-off, yet it can be adjusted for
cast-off, bend, and length, also for set of toe or heel of stock, so as to be
correctly adjusted to what is required for any individual sportsman, to enable
him to make accurate practice when firing at either targets or game ; or
the author's original adjustable gun (with specially constructed fittings) can
be handled to demonstrate that the measurements taken by him are correct
as to bend, length, and cast-off, thereby showing that the gun to be supplied
will be suited to the purchaser.
16
SIGHT AND ITS PECULIARITIES.
To make an average shot, it. is first absolutely
necessary to be in a condition to see clearly any object
•up to, say, 50 yards.
Those who cannot see to shoot without spectacles,
fihould use those having the glasses or pebbles made
•circular, with a diameter of not less than 1^ inches,
and well set out from the face at the lower part, so
that when the head is in the correct position, with
the gun at the shoulder, the surfaces of the glasses
are at right angles to the barrels. Then it must be
ascertained which eye is the master, or, in other
words, whether it is the right or left eye that finds
the object most quickly.
17
To ascertain this, take an ordinary finger ring, and
hold it out at some distance from the face, so that a
small object (see 111 No. 2, page 18) can be seen
through it about five or six yards distant, keeping
both eyes open. Keep the hand and ring perfectly
steady, then close the left eye, and if the right eye
sees the object as exactly central through the ring,
that is the master eye (see fig. 1). Then open the
left eye and close the right ; the line of sight through
the ring, as shown in the red line (fig. 1), will incline
to the right towards A, that was seen to be central
when using the right eye with the left closed (see III
No. 2, fig. 1).
Then reverse the operation (fig. 2), but after
focussing the object (see fig. 2) through the ring
keeping the hand and ring perfectly steady, close
the right eye, and if the left eye sees the object
as exactly central through the ring, then the left is
the master eye (see fig. 2). Then open the right eye,
and close the left; this should cause the line of sight
through the ring, as shown in the red line (fig. 2), to
be carried some distance to the left hand (to letter A,
fig. 2), that was seen to be centrally aligned when
using the left eye with the right closed {see III. No. 2,
fig. 2).
A
A
\
/
\ ^
? f
^ A
'^
\
^ /
\
/
\
/
\
/
\
/
\
/
\
\
/
/
/
/
1
\
t
\
1
\
1
\
1
piNCc
\
c
/
iSrino
\
/
\
/
\
\
/
/
\
/
\ 1 /
\ /
yQS^ ^Jjjj^
3& w^
LEFT
RIGHT
MASTER EYE
MASTER EYE
FIG 2.
FIG I.
No. 2]
[18
EfTaot of "Aiming" with. both eyes open, the left being
the Matter eye.
No. 3] [19
20
No man with a more powerful left eye than the
right can be expected to take a perfect alignment with
the riglit eye, or to shoot with a gun, unless the centre
of the rib of the barrels comes absolutely opposite to
it * If he has a right-eyed gun, the left being the
master eye, it would cause him to shoot from 1 to
12 feet to the left of the object, according to the
distance he gets away {see red line, III No. 3, page 19).
To correct this error, he must close the left eye,
causing the gun to be brought from point back to
cover properly the bird, so that in shooting at an object
crossing from R to L he would be ahead of it, and
with a better chance of hitting it, but if crossing
from L to R he would be a great deal behind it, and
consequently miss it. This may be owing to too
little cast-off even to a right-eyed man.t The subject
of cast-off, however, can hardly be treated of fully
at this point, and will be referred to again hereafter.
* I find, since the publication of the First and Second Editions, that this
question has sorely puzzled many sportsmen, therefore I give the following
suggestions, hoping that they may assist those having a more powerful
left eye : 1st. Close the left eye before the gun is put to the shoulder, so as
to allow of the right eye ** fixing" or thoroughly observing the object.
2nd. Use a gun with suj98icient cast-off for the left eye to align from the
right shoulder. 3rd. Have spectacles made so as to increase the power of the
right eye, so that it may equal or be better than the left. (N.B. — This
should not be attempted without consulting an Oculist). 4:th. Shoot from
the left shoulder and left eye, the gun being specially adjusted for this
purpose.
t In some instances it has been found advantageous to cast-off a gun
sufficiently so as to be correctly aligned for both eyes, and which is called
a " central vision " gun. But this can only be properly adjusted by the
actual test of aiming and shooting at a target with both eyes open (not
taking a snap shot) to ascertain if the shot strikes the object in view.
2J
CARRYING AND LOADING A GUN.
I consider it half the battle, where a gun has to be
carried all day, over good or bad ground, to under-
stand the easiest method of doing so without undue
fatigue, and therefore I submit the illustrations
(Nos. 4 and 5) as being likely to convey the idea
without a long wordy description ; but I prefer the
manner so well shown in illustration (No. 5, page 23)
— where the gun is being carried on the right
shoulder and hand — because it admits of the gim
being brought to cover an object immediately without
changing the hold or grasp of the stock.
But please note that often barrels are dented and
damaged when two sportsmen are side by side (see IIL
No. 5a, page 24) ; then it is better to let the gun rest
on the arm, either with or without the gun being
open, the latter a safe and convenient way.
Carrying for a Long Tramp.
No. 4]
[22
Carrying, yet Ready.
No. 5]
T2S
Often Barrels are dented and damaged when two Sportsmen are side by
side; then It Is better to let the Gun rest on the arm, either with or without
the Gun being open, the latter a safe and convenient way.
No. 5a]
[24
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Convenient Holding for Loading.
No. 6]
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Fred. Connell,
A YOUNG BEGINNER.
(Aged 4^, 1894.)
Photo.
28
The position for loading a gun, or placing it to
hftlf-cock or " safe," should be carefully studied — ^not
only with a view to ease in loading, but more
especially that, when in the act of opening the gun
to reload {see III No. 6, page 25 ) after having only
fired one barrel, or in closing the gun when reloaded,
the barrels may never by the slightest chance be
allowed to cover or point near dog or man. This I
wish especially to impress upon everyone's mind,
whether beginner or not, because I have noticed it
frequently occur. Should the gun go off by acci-
dent, when the gun is pointed in a clear direction,
no harm can be done ; whereas, if carelessly pointed,
a sad loss of limb or life may take place.
♦ Sec III. No. 6a, Page 2Q,
29
HANDLING AND POSITION.
At all times it is best, and most essential, to get a
firm hold of the gun with both hands; but care must
be taken to notice that, as the left hand has to come
over to the right side for a correct alignment, you
should not hold the barrels too forward, or the left
hand will not come over, and will tend to check the
gun from taking a true and square shot. At all times
be careful that you have both feet well placed, the left
foot slightly in advance of the right, but in an easy
position ; the body bending forward so that the chin
plumbs the left foot — the knees never bent (see Ills,
Nos. 7, 8 and 9).
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Faced to the Right.
No. 8]
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32
Should, by any chance, a bird go to right or
left, be careful to make a complete change of front,
i.^., either to left or right half-turn ; and always be
careful to use the right foot as the pivot, moving only
the left from the ground — turning on the right by
moving the body to the direction of the flight of the
bird (see III. No. 8, page 31). This allows the body
to be square to it, and pievents an unpleasant recoil
on the arm, or perhaps a kick on the face, which may
be felt the next few shots and cause the shooter to
flinch.
33
Never draw back the right foot : because by doing
so the tendency is to draw the gun down too low,
thereby causing the shot to go under or behind.
In taking up a position at the covert side always
find a firm footing — ^for choice, the left foot should
be lower than the nght, as it will naturally tend to
throw the body forward. The body being forward
{see III. No. 9, page 34) gives greater resistance for
the recoil of the first barrel, and allows the gun to
mount cleaner without fear of catching, and the body
will then be in the upright position for the second .
but if the first barrel is fired with the body erect,
the recoil will tend to place the body out of balance,
and this takes time to correct. The loss of a second
means that the bird may have travelled 15 or 20
yards, thereby preventing the chance of a second
shot at a reasonable distance.
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No. 10]
[35
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ELEMENTARY PRACTICE.
" Practice makes perfect," is a true and old adage ; and
in shooting, as in all other sports where ease of movement
combined with well-hardened sinews and muscles are re-
quisite, those who practice most will become proficient first.
I advise the handling of a gun once or twice a week all the
year round, if even for only ten minutes at a time ; but
oftener than this is necessary for a beginner.
When you have a gun, don't forget it, but keep it in
some handy, get-at-able place. Many who really feel
inclined to practice, often do not do so, because " it's too
much bother to get it from the gun-case," etc., etc. —
whereas, if it is always kept within reach, there is no excuse
to be made, and the work is done (see III. No. 10, on
page 35), and inside cover.
With a view of assisting the beginner (and others) to
overcome the flurry when game rises, and the consequent
careless bringing of the gun to the shoulder, whereby the
degree of exactness with which it should be done is spoilt,
I insert illustrations (No. 10a), arranged numerically, in
which these position-exercises should be made, and so
admit of a good view to be taken of the object to be shot ;
and hope they will be as useful in assisting my readers to
overcome the faults mentioned as they have been to those
of my patrons whom T have personally instructed at my
private shooting grounds, so much so, that whereas
previously birds had been missed with both barrels,
subsequently a right and left had been easily taken with
the coolness exhibited by a first-class shot.
38
To the beginner, 1 say, be most careful how you
commence, so ns not to get into a bad position
(see III No. 11, page 39), because that makes the
work much more difficult, and very tiring. Take
the gun in both hands, the right well held round the
hand of the stock, and the left well forward — just to
the tip of the fore-end if possible — so that, when the
gun is mounted to the shoulder, the left arm is Avell
stretched out {see III. No. 9, page 34). Be careful
to stand well on the feet. Stand in the first position
^ — that is, with the heels touching, and the toes
about 6-10 inches apart; then move the left foot
half a step forward, and bend the body forward from
the hipS; so that the chin will plumb the left toe.
This will allow the body to be at a convenient angle
for the gun to be brought quickly to the shoulder
[see HI No. 9, page 34), at the same time giving
resistance for the recoil of the gun, allowing the
balance to be kept, and enabling a second barrel to
be fired quickly and conveniently when shooting.
Then handle and mount the gun to the shoulder,
keeping both eyes open and facing some object in
the room (such as a picture nail) — do this quickly
some few times, taking care to have the finger on
the right-hand trigger, ready to pull as soon as the
gun is at the shoulder (see III No. 8, page 31).
Bad Positions— to be avoided.
No. Ill
[39
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To get a fair pull of the trigger, the iinger should
1)0 bent, >vith the first joint resting lightly on the
trigger, so as to prevent a snatch pull; and see that
the other part of the finger is not touching the stock,
or it will cause the pull to be too heavy, and draw
the gun out of alignment.
Press the gun to the shoulder with considerable
force as it is mounted ; this should be done in one
movement. After working this covering of the object,
swing the gun to another selected mark at about
12 to 15 feet to the left of the first ; continue to do
this, — reversing the movement left to right. Repeat
this mode of practice on and off for some days, and
then you will be in a position to fire a few shots at a
mark in the open, either on a wall or shot-proof
screen made for the purpose {$ee III No. 12, page 40).
In shooting at such a mark, walk three or four
«teps towards it before firing; and never fire if you
feel 3^ou are not covering the object you deare to
hit This will enable you to observe what you
are doing each time, and allow of corrections
feeing made.
When the fixed mark can be hit pretty frequently,
the beginner can proceed to practicing at moving
objects.
42
INANIMATE MOVING OBJECTS.
There are many excellent Traps on the Market at
the present time, also the celebrated and improved
Ligowsky Traps and Clay Pigeons, which afford the
best means of getting practice shooting at inanimate
moving objects (see III. No. 13, page 43).
The beginner can place the trap so that the Clay
Pigeons will be thrown forward, to the right or left,
high or low, or can have the trap worked by an
attendant from behind a wall or shot-proof fence —
somewhat after the flight of driven birds, or even for
high in-coming shots.
Pitch composition balls, as used' by *' Buffalo
Bill " at the American Exhibition — with an attendant
standing ready to throw them from the side of the
beginner in different directions — also afford good
practice; moreover these balls cannot leave any
objectionable pieces, likely to damage the feet of
cattle, dogs, etc., as is the case with glass balls. The
Author supplies special gun-metal moulds for casting
these balls, so that a gentleman having a mould can
make the balls at home, thereby saving loss by
breakage whilst in transit — which is always a difficult
question to contend with.
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BIRDS ON THE WING.
After the beginner finds that he can break Clay
Pigeons, Pitch Balls, or other inanimate objects, he
may proceed to obtain further practice by shooting at
small birds, such as starlings, larks, sparrows, etc.,
either released from a ti-ap or thrown up by an
attendant {see 111 No. 14, page 46).
One need not become what is generally known as a
" trap-shot " from this method .; but by knowing from
where a bird will be sprung, a beginner is enabled to
become cool and collected, and to take time to see the
flying bird well on the mng before he need shoot —
especially if he will walk six to ten paces before
having the bird released, watch its flight until it has
got a fair distance, and then shoot. Then, when a fair
score can be made, two birds may be released from
separate traps, one just before the other, so as to
enable the beginner to get a right and left, and to
keep the firing of the second barrel within a fair
time of the first. Afterwards both birds m^y be
released at the same time.
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Many persons fail in shooting from inability to
judge distance. I therefore recommend that, before
two birds are released, a good-sized bunch of news-
paper should be left on the ground at 40 yards from
where the shooter is standing. With practice thi&
will teach what law a bird should have ; and when
not to shoot, owing to the bird having flown out of
range.
Do not take the gun down from the shoulder
between the two shots {see III No. 15, page 48),
because it loses much time, and the bird may hare
flown out of range ; or, in driving, a second shot
may be lost
50
SHOOTING WINGED GAME.
A great difficulty here presents itself to the Author,
because this Treatise is not written with a view of
telling the sportsman how shootings should be
managed, game reared and found, or ground worked
to obtain the best results. Many good works have
been written on these subjects, and I refer my
readers to the works enumerated on page 216. I
will, however, just mention a few of the most im-
portant facts to be remembered.
Be careful to carry your gun in such a way that it
never covers your left-hand ''gun" (see 7/&. Nos. 16
and 16a), because it is not pleasant to find the line
being broken in walking, owing to the left " guns "
Walking In Line to a " Point " (Position I.)
Gun well forward — correctly, and safe to others.
No. 16]
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harging back to escape looking down the muzzles
of your barrels. In covert, just as much care should
be taken, as the careless handling of a gun by one
may spoil the enjoyment of a whole party. Etiquette
of the field often prevents a word of caution being
given to a careless man, although a retiring or
shrinking away from the line of his gun may have the
desired effect {see Ills. Nos. 17 & 17b, pages 53 and
54, and No. 6a, page 26).
56
I once was covert-shooting when many (dangerous
" guns" were present, some not allowing pheasants to
rise — thereby shooting dangerously low. One of the
party, when shouted at by the head keeper and
beaters, actually made the following remark : " What
nonsense to say that bird was too low ! why, it was
at least eight feet from the ground " {see 111. No. 18,
page 57).
Be careful never to shoot across your next gun
nor take his bird {see 111 No. 18a, page 58).
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No. 19]
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Before the day was out one of the party managed
to give me a good *' dusting," under the follomng
circumstances: — A rabbit was seen in the covert
we were facing, when suddenly it bolted out into the
ride and came towards me in a direct line. I saw
the next '* gun " about to shoot. I shouted, " Don't
shoot ! *' but too late ; he had fired ; the shot glanced
from the stony ride and " dusted " me all down one
side {see III No. 20, page 60).
These shots were made by men who should have
known better ; and they so impressed themselves on
my mind that I cannot help mentioning them here,
as a caution to others who might be tempted to
shoot in such dangerous fashion. Many persons,
however, may probably have had just as unpleasant
an experience.
62
THE PERl^ENDICULAR SHOT.
To shoot birds well overhead, or perfectly per-
pendicular, is one of the most telling and prettiest
shots to be made {see III No. 21, page 63), but one
requiring great coolness and a certain amount of
practi'ie. When learnt, however, such a shot is not
difficult, as by waiting it gives plenty of time to get
ready — the bird having been seen, at some distance
away, as it approaches.
When shot in this way the birds are more often
well killed, as they present the most vulnerable
parts to the shooter. If birds are flying at a great
pace, and high, a good allowance in front must be
made, or the bird will be missed. See Chapter on
Flight of Birds, page 186.
Note.— See pages 196 & 197, for Article from The Field, on
** Penetration of Shot and ' Tall ' Pheasants."
Shooting well back overhead.
No. 21]
[63
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Watching them coming high.
No. 22]
[64
How to get them well overhead.
Ko. 23]
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Watching them coming high.
No. 22]
[61
How to get them well overhead.
No. 23]
[65
67
Standing perfectly steady {see III. No. 22), and
watching the bird approach until it is nearly overhead,
the body must then be thrown back so that the
whole of its weight is on the right leg, the left toes
just touching the ground, so as to steady the shooter
{see IR No. 23, page 65). For this shot, the left
hand should be brought down the barrel nearer to
the right, so as to allow of the gun being pushed
well in line of the right shoulder and nght eye ; or
else the gun will be drawn to the left, and so lie
out of proper alignment, consequently causing the
shot to go all to the left.
Very few sportsmen are seen to do this class of
shooting really well. Many fail because they do not
practice the movement sufficiently before they go out,
and consequently do not get far enough back — being
too stiff; also, because they do not get far enough
ahead of the bird at the instant of pulling, but check
the gun perceptibly.
Excellent practice may be had by placing a
Ligowsky trap {see III 23a, page 66), on a hay-rick
or out-building about 20 to 50 feet high, and then
sending the clay pigeons well over the shooter's
head, the shooter facing the trap.
68
THE APPROACHING SHOT.
This is really not a difficult shot to learn, and may
be divided into three kinds — ^the approaching high
shot, i.e.y above the level of the sportsman's head,
the approaching low shot, i.e.. below the level of
his head, and the direct, i.e.^ straight on.
The high shot must be made by shooting well in
front of the bird s head, if fairly close ; but if further
away — ^say 35 to 40 yards — -less allowance must be
given, because the flight of the charge of shot is
more streaming and parallel than if directly over-
head and closer. Many miss these shots by shooting
too much at the bird, and not swinging the gun
ahead at the moment of pulling {see III No. 24,
page 69).
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The approaching low shot in partridge driving,
where the hedge behind which the shooter is
standing is lower than his shoulders, is really diffi-
cult, because the bird is often fired at when too far
from the gun, or sometimes when much too near.
In shooting at an approaching low-flying bird,
the shooter must get his gun well down and under
the bird, or he will miss it by firing over — ^really
behind it. Many birds are missed in this way owing
to the fact that the gun is not brought enough up
to the shoulder {see III No. 25, page 71).
73
To kill well that which is flying directly at the
shooter's head, the bird should be covered by drawing
a bead on it {see 111 No. 26, page 74), and pulling
at once, so as not to let the bird get too close.
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THE APPROACHED AND PASSED SHOT.
This kind of shooting often presents itself to the
sportsman, especially in partridge driving, when the
beaters are getting well up to the guns, so as to
prevent the birds being shot at as they approach,
lest a beater should be peppered.
If a bird flying high has to be shot after it has
passed well overhead, the shooter must be careful to
get well under the bird, or ahead of it, so as to pre-
vent shooting behind. This is an easy shot and
where one can look well over the gun, as long as the
muzzle is thrown well under the bird, because the
bird is never lost to view {see III No. 27, page 75).
See page 42, also IlL No. 24a, page 70.
77
If a passed bird is flying low between the guns, the
shooter must get well over or ahead of it. This is
more difiicult than the higher shot, as the bird is
practically hidden by the gun, or, in other words,
is flying under the line of sight {see Ills. Nos. 28
and 29).
In turning to shoot at a bird after it has passed,
be careful never to allow the gun to cover your
neighbour, but take the gun down from the shoulder
until after you have faced completely round, and
then re-mount it {see III, No. 24a, page 70).
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THE CROSSING SHOT.
These are generally easy shots ; but the beginner
must be careful to shoot only at his own birds, ie.,
those that really rise to him, and never shoot a bird
that has crossed to the next gun — whether to the
right or left — unless he is an outside gun, when he
can shoot well round (see Ilk. Nos. 30 and 30a).
In driving, crossing shots become more difficult,
especially at driven grouse when flying low (see III.
No. 30b), as the tendency is to shoot very much
over as well as behind — therefore bear in mind to
get forward and well down to your bird, because of
the trajectory of the shot, and also the fact that one
is apt to give excessive elevation by keeping the eye
too much above the breech of the gun.
84
To kill a bird cleanly and well if crossing to the
right — ^generally the more difficult side — ^get well
round, and, if necessary, move the left foot so as to
bring the body far enough round, making the right
foot the pivot. This will enable the balance of the
body to be kept, and admit of the gun being swung
ahes'.d again for a second barrel, should the bird be
missed with the first (see 111. No. 31, page 85).
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It is not always necessary to move the feet to turn
to the left, as it is much easier to swing further and
faster to the left than to the right {see III No. 32,
page 86).
The velocity or flight of a bird must be quickly
judged — more in crossing shots than in any other ;
and an allowance of from three to even ten feet or
more must be made, according to the pace of the
bird and the distance it is away from the gun. At
the longer distances the aim must also be a little
over the bird, so as to allow it to be hit, as shot
travels on a curve. More elevation is required when
shooting up wind, than if shooting down wind.
Longer shots may be made at crossing than at
straight-away birds ; because shot strikes with greater
force at a crossing object than at one which is flying
in the same direction as the shot.
88
THE QUARTERING SHOT.
A quartering shot, as distinct from actual cross-
ing shots, is very difficult; because, when a bird
gets up, it may, more often than not, be flying
at an oblique or obtuse angle. With these very
great practice is required to make a certain kill;
because, besides the velocity of the flight of the bird,
an allowance has also to be made on the lineal direc-
tion of the flying bird.
Care must be taken, with shots of this class, to
hold the gun less in front than in actual crossing
shots.
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90
THE STRATGHTFOliWARD SHOT.
This class of shot may be considered under three
headings — straight-away, high straight-away, and
low straight-away shots.
As a rule, the sportsman has time to look well at
his bird before putting the gun to his shoulder —
especially in the early part of the season, when the
covert is good and the birds lie Avell.
For the straight-away shot, where the bird flies in
a bee-line, the gun should be put to the shoulder so
as to be about in a line with the top of the back
of the bird, if at a distance of 25 yards {see III No. 33,
page 89) ; but if at a greater distance, rather more
above.
91
If a bird should fly straight, but having risen
higher than the shooter, the gun should be mounted
so as to be slightly under the bird (see III No. 34,
page 92).
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If a bird on rising flies very low — just skimming
away — then the gun should be mounted so as to be
well over or in advance of the bird {see III. No. 35,
page 93) ; because in this class of shot the tendency
is to wait too long before pulling the trigger, and
then the bird is missed — owing to the shot striking
where it was, rather than where the shooter intended
it to be, according to his aim.
95
THE ASCENDING SHOT.
This is a difficult shot, because the general tend-
ency is to shoot too much point-blank at the bird ;
whereas, when a bird ascends, it does so at a great
pace, and the gun must therefore be mounted
quickly, and be well over the bird to be struck {see
Til No. 36, page 96).
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Only Tailed.
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A pheasant found amongst roots or in a hedge-
row is almost invariably missed, because its flight
is so difl^erent from that of other game — the bird
often being shot in the tail feathers instead of in the
body {see Hi No. 37, page 97). Bear in mind, there-
fore, to shoot well over an ascending bird, and pull
directly the gun is at the shoulder. A moment^s
delay is sure to cause a miss, to the chagrin of the
shooter, who perhaps sees his bird going off with a
leg down — if even that; more likely with only a
few feathers gently settling to the ground.
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99
THE DESCENDING SHOT.
More care is really required in making a clean
kill at a descending bird than perhaps at any other ;
because, as a rule, these shots have to be made on the
side of a mountain or hill, where the shooter has only
space behind the bird — nothing, in fact, to assist him
either in judging distance or pace. And it requires
good judgment to determine at a moment that the
gun must be so brought to the shoulder as to be
slightly under the bird, if going straight away
down hill (see TIL No. 38, page 100) ; or, if to the right
or left, slightly in advance — which tends to make the
shot more difficult. At the same time, if good cleari
kills are obtained, nothing looks prettier, or estab-
lishes the reputation of the shooter as being a really
first-class shot.
There are times when grouse in crossing a valley
fly as shewn in (///. No. 38a), they then present a
somewhat similar shot to that of the low or straight-
away one (see III. No. 35) ; but as there is nothing to
assist the shooter to judge distance they are more
difficult, and unless great quickness is shewn the
bird is soon out of shot.
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104
SHOOTING HARES.
Hares are gradually becoming extinct ; and in the
face of the possibility of offending some of my
readers, I must frankly say that I think hares should
never be shot at in some districts, but should be left
for those who prefer the sport of hunting and
coursing. However, no doubt some of my readers
would like to know what to do, in the event of their
wishing to shoot them.
Hares travel at a great pace, and, although a large
mark, they are very often missed — or rather wounded
— and get away to die in a ditch or covert
To kill a hare clean and well, if running away, the
gun should be held well over it (see HI. No. 40,
page 105). so as to prevent hitting it in the hind
quarters only.
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107
If coming towards the " gun " the aim should be
well in front {see 111. No. 41, page 106), and if running
across to left or right, the aim or gun must be taken
well in advance — ^sometimes as much as 6 ft. —
especially if it has a clear run up a drain or furrow.
A hare should never be shot at at a greater distance
than 35 to 40 yards, especially if going straight away.
Hares lie out in wheat, stubbles, fallows, clover
and grass lands; and if you find them in their form,
give them time to get a fair distance before firing, as
you are more likely to kill, and less likely to damage,
than by shooting at such close quarters.
Where hares are likely to be found, the shooter
should be very quiet ; because they are very shy,
and often steal off and away at the sound of the voice
or the closing of a gate.
108
SHOOTING RABBITS.
This is always good fun, and splendid practice for
the beginner, because it teaches him to keep a good
look-out, and handle or mount a gun quickly.
Rabbits, as a rule, only give time for a short sight
of them. When bolting across a ride, always bear in
mind to shoot where they are running to, and not
where they are when you first see them {see III.
No. 42, page 109).
Rabbit shooting in rough grass land, or in fern or
furze, is capital sport, if with the assistance of beaters,
A perfect line with the guns should be kept, so as to
allow of the shooting to be made either forward, or
at one that may break back and get through the line.
A good hedgerow will sometimes hold a great
number of rabbits ; and a spaniel or terrier working
them, with a gun on either side of the hedge, is good
sport at certain seasons — Decemoer and January for
choice. Great care must be exercised in this sport, so
as to avoid shooting or wounding the dogs, or perhaps
your friend. Remember, as a golden rule, never to
shoot at a rabbit on the top of a hedge bank, and on no
Not where he is, but where he is bolting to.
No. 42] [109
Ml
account be led into shooting into or through a hedge,
'but let the rabbit be clear and going forward, or back
^long the outer edge of the ditch, well out in the field.
Keep whistling to the "gun " with you, so that you
may be opposite each other; and never shoot at a
pheasant or any other bird that may be put up, if it is
crossing to your Mend's side of the hedge, but let hira
-shoot when the object has got over and clear ; simply
-call to him that something is crossing to his side, so
that he may be ready for it.
Rabbits are generally found lying out in tufts of
grass in fine weather, and, when started, are certain
to make for the hedge or covert {see III No, 43,
page ilO). To m^ke sure of killing them, get well
.ahead, and shoot at the first chance, because a
second is seldom given.
Rabbits are sometimes killed with small bore rifles,
built for the purpose ; but, although this may be
^ood amusement, it is not nearly such profitable
practice for the beginner as shooting them with a gun.
^ Note. — Charles Lancaster supplies a Switchback Rabbit (travelling
about 18 yards) which is excellent practice for ground game shooting, and
.affords a certain amount of amusement on an ^< off" day.
12
THE " POT " OR SITTING SHOT.
How annoying it is to shoot at an object, such as
a crouching wounded bird or a sitting rabbit, that will
not move — thus necessitating a "pot*' shot — and
to find that, even after a considerable amount of
preparation, the object fired at has not been touched
at all, perhaps even after a second barrel has been
discharged.
I have frequently heard the remark, " Oh ! you
shoot it. So-and-so; I can't hit anything sitting.
Make it run or move, and Tin your man." Why is
this? Surely it cannot be difficult to shoot at an
object perfectly still.
I think the reason is this: Very few sportsmen
have so studied the question as to know that all shot
travels curvilin early. Thej^ are ignorant of the exact
point-blank range of their gun ; and they are not
aware that with large shot, such as No. 5, the
trajectory curve is flatter than with smaller shot,
such as No. 7, and that, consequently, if they kill with
one aim, with shot of one size, a different aim must
be taken for the other. Yet these are facts, not
surmises, and have been proved by actual experiment.
*,
•^^•»i''C2:v"
Preparing for a '• Pot ' Shot.
:No. 44]
[113
1
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1
115
Therefore, at or inside the point-blank range of the
gun. and with one known load, by shooting just at
the angle formed at the point when the sportsman can
see the ground and the object on it (see III No. 45,
page 114), a kill is a certainty ; whereas at a longer
distance the gun must be held above the point of the
first aim — sometimes quite over the object to be
struck — the shape of the ground being noticed, as to
whether the shooting is on the level, or up or down
hill.
It is useful to make this experiment on a road or
path where the shot-marks are clearly visible, by
shooting at a turnip, root, or even old tennis ball.
We can thus understand why, with modern
Express Rifles, with flat trajectory, more kills are
scored than with the old-fashioned ones, where the
trajectory, or curve, was very great — thereby causing
the bullet to go over or under, according to the
point-blank range and the error in sighting or
judging of distance by the shooter.
J 16
MISSING
A chief cause of missing birds on the wing is the
fault of shooting below the object aimed at —
the gun not being kept up enough. You must
aim above straightforward shots (unless a gun is very
straight or too long in the stock), and well ahead or
in advance of crossing ones {see 111 No. 30, page 80).
There is little fear of shooting too high, or too far in
front, if the gun is well brought up to the shoulder ;
the aim is always too low and too point-blank at
first. A sportsman frequently kills much better
with his second barrel than with his first, because
he instinctively swings his gun further ahead,, or
raises it over the object to be shot ; and also because
the hand or trigger-finger obeys the eye quicker^
without that perceptible pause which is so fatal to
all good shooting. In drawing or pulling the trigger,
care should be taken to do it entirely with the finger,
and not with any motion of the hand; or the
tendency will be to pull off^, in some cases to the
right, but often to the left, owing to the gun being
pulled across by the extra leverage of the left arm
and hand.
1.17
When you miss, try and think why you miss; and
if you steadfastly keep both eyes open, it will assist
you in finding out the cause. If you cannot ascertain
the reason, owing to the flinching or closing of the
eyes from the noise the report of the gun gives, put
an exploded cartridge into the gun, cover the next
bird carefully, then swing the gun and pull the trigger
instantaneously. This will enable you to see
whether the fault was owing to the gun not being
exactly where you wished it at the moment of pulling
the trigger. Try this several times in the field, and
it will help you considerably. If shooting in
company, walk or stand close to one of the party,
and make the experiment.
This test may be made quietly and by oneself at
larks, blackbirds, and even sparrows, without much
trouble or fear of disturbing game, as plenty of these
birds may be found ; but be careful not to mount
the gun at them too soon. Be deliberate, and wait
until they have reached a fair range; this will greatly
assist in lessening that flush or snap shooting which is
so difficult for young sportsmen to overcome. I mean
that uncomfortable surprised feeling which puts one
off^ when partridges rise with a whirr, but which never
118
troubles or interferes with a good steady old sports-
man, who gives his game plenty of grace, at the
same time is pretty certain of getting a right-and-
left out of most rises.
Never fire at a bird too near ; because, if a kill is
made, the game is so dreadfully mangled as not to be
worth picking up. And never shoot at too long a
range, as the tendency is to wound ; and a bird so
struck is seldom recovered, but gets away to die a
lingering death. Such shooting is most unsportsman-
like and cruel.
120
A WORD OF ADVICE FOR ALL.
Always look upon a gun as a death-dealing weapon.
Therefore, at all times be careful in which direction
it is pointed, so as to avoid any possibility of its being
in line or " laid on " to anybody or any animal whose
life you would not like to take {see Ills. Nos. 17,
17b and 18 ; pages 53, 54 and 57.).
Accidents easily happen ; therefore, whether loaded
or unloaded, always exercise the greatest amount of
caution in the handling of gun, rifle, pistol or revolver.
If the above simple words are remembered, there
can be no excuse whatever in the mere saying " I
was not aware it was loaded," after mischief has been
done.
1 once read the last words of a suicide, in which
he stated he hoped the jury would not return a
verdict of " accidental death " or " death by misadven-
ture,'* because he thoroughly understood what he was
doing at the time he shot himself, and did not "svish
it handed down to posterity that he belonged to the
class of idiots who inadvertently handle a weapon
at a risk to themselves or others.
121
Shooting ♦h'Regulations.
1. Any shooter convicted of letting off his gun acci-
dentally to be fined 10s., and to incur the same
penalty if the said offence be committed by his
loader.
2. The owner of any gun found loaded during lunch,
or at any other time, out of his own hands, or his
loader^s, to be fined 5s.
3. Any shooter convicted of pointing his gun, loaded,
or unloaded, at any person whatever, to be fined
28.. 6d., and to incur the same penalty if the said
offence be committed by his loader.
4. Any shooter convicted of getting over any fence,
gate or ditch, without extracting cartridges, or
handing his gun at half-cock, or bolted, to a by-
stander, to be fined 2s. 6d., and to incur the same
penalty if the said offence be committed by his
loader.
5. Any shooter convicted of plastering a pheasant
going a more sporting shot to another gun, to be
fined Is.
6. Any shooter convicted of wilfully shooting another
man's bird, to be fined Is.
7. Guns with the beaters are requested not to fire at
birds going straight forward.
8. Guns are reminded that it is seldom safe to fire at a
bird in covert unless the sky can be seen behind it.
9. Any gun bagging a woodcock to receive 2s. 6d. from
each other gun.
N.B.— FINES WILL GO TO THE KEEPERS.
(By kind permission of Edward L. Tomlin, Esq., Angley Park, Cranbrook, Kent.)
T ^
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No. 4^1 A J
Extracting CaPtridges before getting over- a fenca,
M.B.— This should always be done.
Alfred Ellis, Photographer,
"AN AMAZON."
Miss Lily Hanbury.
Upper Baker Street.
[123^
124
PART U.
The previous pages of this work treat of the
practical part of the Art of Shooting, so far as
regards the means which the sportsman should adopt,
under the varying conditions of the bird's flight, to
use his gun with effect. Now it is proposed to
devote some further space to remarks on the gun and
its accessories, and matters of a more or less theo-
retical character; and one of the first among the
subjects to be taken into consideration will be that of
CLOTHES.
In looking round at those about to join in a day s
shooting, it does not take long for the practised eye
to detect which are the sportsmen and which are the
tailor's models. It is simply astonishing at times to
imagine where 8om« of the materials, with their
rainbow colours and mixtures, are designed and
made.
125
Clothing should be so chosen as to resemble, as
much as possible, in tone and colour, the suiTound-
ings where the shooting or sport is to be had.
Clothes should be cut so as to fit well, but at the
same time permit of the sportsman being able to
handle his gun freely in almost any position, and
not to impede his movements. Badly-cut clothes,
too tight across the back or in the sleeves, often
prevent a man shooting well.
The softer the material the better ; and a well-cut
Norfolk jacket, and loosely-cut breeches or knicker-
bockers, with warm underclothing* are the best for
sport generally. Good boots, in which the feet are
perfectly comfortable, are most essential ; as I defy
any man to shoot well or enjoy his day, if his feet
are galled or blistered. Never start a walk on the
hills or fields in new boots — it has been done very
often, but usually with most saddening results.
A warm light cape or cloak is a very useful
adjunct to the sportsman's outfit {see Ills, Nos. 46
and 47) One that is easily roiled up and carried
in a sling at the back, or by an attendant, forms a
comfortable wrap in bad weather, or a seat, or
cushion to kneel on in the event of a rest being
required ; and is as much protection as an extra coat
in a long drive home.
♦ I specially advise the use of Dr. Jaeger*s Pure Wool Clothing.
[Sec footnote, page 130.]
^-vV>
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';^> V V-wv..y
No. 47 a]
In Covert— "The Lancaster Smock.'
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No, 47ijJ
In the Butt- -The Lancaster Smock.
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130
A close-fitting cap should be worn, with peaks at
the back and front to protect the eyes and throw off
the wet. Care should be taken in selecting the
colour, as the covering of the head is seen first by
birds in driving; and, if too conspicuous, it will turn
them from vou.
Note. — Since the publication of the previous editions, the matter of
protection from rough weather has secured my further attention with great
success, as will be seen from the following letter which appeared in the
«« Field" of the 2Bth November, 1891, and (Ills. 47a & 47b):—
** I Imve now a garment which will keep oat the heaviest of rains, even if driven by a
gale; and at the same time I am able to get a * right and left ' either from a *butt,* ftdd
of roots, or covert side without let or hindrance. I feel sure that many will welcome this
useful addition to their sporting kit, as 1 consider it just as useful to a yachtsman or an
angler 6s to a * gunner.* The material is perfectly waterproof, yet not in the least aii^
proof, as you can both breathe and smolce through it; and the Smock does not canst
perspiration, as, being cot * full,* plenty of room is given for ventilation.
'* OHABLES LANOASTEB,
• 151, New Bond Street, W.*'
131
GUN CLEANING.
I always make a point of seeing after the cleaning
of my own guns when away shooting, and I find the
following the best plan : —
Never attempt to clean your gun over-night, if
the time is too short to do it properly, because often
one is tempted to leave it after giving it only a
temporary clean; whereas, if left till the next
morning, it receives thorough attention.
I find the best way to remove all leading, fouling,
and general dirt after a day's shooting is the following:
Screw the jag on to the cleaning rod, and then wrap
just as much dry tow or clean rag on it as will ent-er
the barrel fairly tight. Do riot put any oil at all
this time, as the absence of oil enables the dry
tow or rag to grip the dirt well, and removes it very
quickly if the rod is passed from breech to muzzle
briskly a few times. After doing this, look through
the barrel to see if clean; if not, continue the
operation a little longer, and if necessary increase
the amount of tow or rag to make it fit the barrel
tighter ; then take some clean tow or rag, and apply
a mixture of vaseline and sperm oil — or either alone
132
will do — and again pass the rod up and down
the barrel quickly once or twice ; then, for the last
time, put a little more oil on the rag, and pass it
through to the muzzle, and back, slowly, so as to
deposit as much of the oil as will remain. The gun
should always be looked at two or three days after
it has been shot with, to see that no dirt has been
left.
In wiping out the barrels, the muzzles should
never be placed on a stone or concrete floor, but on
a soft piece of wood.
On no account use a wire brush for the barrels, as
such brushes do more harm than good.
If the gun has been out in the wet or snow, it
should be well wiped over with a soft rag the same
evening, and not be allowed to remain till the
morning.
It is best to send the gun to its maker, or to some
practical maker, at the end of each season, certainly
before the next commences, to see if all is in order.
If this were done more frequently, much incon-
venience and annoyance would be saved to the
shooter.
The strikers should frequently be taken out, wiped
clean and dry, a little vaseline applied, and then re-
133
placed; a dirty clogged-up striker often retards
the ignition of the charge, and sometimes causes a
miss-fire, or, which is much more serious, an accidental
discharge when in the act of closing the gun.
The great fault is the putting of too much oil on
a gun, so that it often gets gummy, or clogs the
working of a gun, more especially "hammerless"
and ''ejectors." Vaseline, well worked on and into a
soft piece of rag or an old pocket-handkerchief, is the
best thing for cleaning all the outside parts of a gun.
such as outsides of barrels (after the insides have
been carefully wiped out), lock-plates, breech-action,
triggers and guard, and other parts of metal that are
exposed. Never allow oil to be applied by a feather,
or any brush that is likely to do so too liberally.
Should the locks or any other of the interior
working parts become dry, the smallest quantity
possible of watchmakers' or any other highly-refined
oil may be applied with a needle dipped in it — care
being taken to wipe oflf any that appears superfluous ;
this will prevent the parts so treated from becoming
sticky or clogged.
134
MEASURING A GUN.
This method has been used by many authors,
but the best and simplest description I have seen
CI is that in "The Dead Shot,"
so I copy the wording: — "Take
a shoulder gun as near your fit
as you can, and fasten tightly with
/ twine a perfectly straight spline of
wood, edgewise, along the groove
of the rib which divides the barrels,
leaving the breech end of the
spline projecting over, and just
beyond the heel of the gun-stock,
as shown in the illustration ; then
lay the gun upon a table and
measure with careful precision to
the 16th of an inch as follows : —
For the bend of stock — from
G to H, and from E to F.
For the length of stock — ^from
A to B, A to C, A to D.
The three latter measurements being
taken from the fore-trigger to the
edge of the heel of the gun-stock."
135
The amount of "ciust-ofF" — ie.^ the set of the stock
towards the shoulder, so as to get the perfect align-
ment along the rib of the barrels required
by each individual, whether using the
right or left eye — is very essential. Much
correspondence has taken place in the Field^
etc., on this subject; but I consider the
best method, and one I have carried out
for some years, is so clearly put by that
well-known Sportsman " One who has Fired
some 20,000 Trial Shots at Marks," in his
letter which appeared in the Field of Jan.
5th, 1889, that I reproduce the same : —
Sir, — A great deal has lately appeared in your
columns on this subject, and doubtless where
the sportsman is not sufficiently up, practically,
in the gun to determine this for himself, it is
about the most difficult point the gun-maker has
to deal with. I may here mention a plan which,
under certain conditions, never fails, and was
that by which I determined the amoimt of crook
I required when I had to use cross-eyed guns,
when my right eye first failed me. The
conditions are where a man shuts one eye and squintfl
down the barrel, or where he has but one eye and
the other is so weak that one does all the work in
shooting. Shut a piece of thin writing paper into the
breecJi of a gun so as to stand up about half-an-inch, then
136
proceed to cut an extremely narrow \J just over the
exact centre of the break-ojQF. If, on throwing the gun up,
the shooter finds this narrow V occupied by the sight on
the muzzle, all is right ; if not, by carefully raising the
head without laterally shifting its position, it will easily
be seen on which side of the V the sight comes ; then cut
away the paper on that side until the sight just shows
itself on pitching the gun to the shoulder. This distance
being added to or deducted from the cast-ofi' already in
the gunstock, the exact cast-ojQF required will be found.
I have not the smallest doubt that if many men who are
in the habit of missing systematically would try this
experiment^ the reason of their doing so would become
apparent.
One who has Fired some 20,000 Trial Shots
AT Marks.
Brighton, Jan. 3.
The Author has a measuring gun specially de-
signed, so as to get, in a moment, the exact amount
of cast-off required by any sportsman.*
At the same time it may be advisable to state, in
addition, the height of the shooter; and if he
possesses any peculiarities of figure — as short neck
or long neck, slender figure or very stout — they
should be mentioned.
The length of barrels required should also be
indicated, and if the boring is to be Cylinder or
** Non-Choke " for both, or Modified or FuU Choke.
[* See footnote, page 15.]
137
CAST-OFF.
During a long correspondence on this subject, I
published the following letter in the Field of the
17th November, 1888 : —
Sir, — ^In reply to your correspondent "Amateur,"
cast-oflF should be given to aU guns intended to be used
from the right shoulder ; cast-on for all guns to be used
from the left shoulder A gun-maker must make a study
of this important feature in gun-making, or he can never
make a perfect "fitter " I maintain that imless a gun, to
V)e used from right shoulder and right eye, is cast-oflf
according to the figure of the gentleman one is building for
(it may be only one-eighth of an inch, or it may be as
much or more than five-eighths), and unless this cast-oflF is
given, the gun will lie across the body — i.e., point to
the left and shoot to the left. So will it shoot to the left
if the stock is so long that the gun moimts on the arm
instead of the pectoral muscle. This may be corrected
sometimes by laying the head over to the right , but that
is a move aftei the gun has been put to the shoulder, and
is fatal to good shooting.
To prove that my statements are correct, I ask you to
come to my private shooting groimds and witness the
shooting of guns with more or less cast-oflF at a target.
Only last week a gentleman brought me a gun, by
another maker, with a cast-oflF of IJ inches (supposed to
be enough for a left-eyed gun, whereas it would have
required a cast-oflF between 3 inches and 4 inches). This
138
gentleman was really left-eyed, but, as he always closeu
that eye, he was in fact, right-eyed when putting a gun to
his shoulder; aud, to demonstrate how perfectly wrong
his gun was stocked, by shooting quickly at a plate, he
found he could not hit it at all, although it was 6 ft. by 4 ft.,
the centre of the pattern made by the gim being found
about 5 ft. to the right of the point he was lookiug at with
his right eye, and expecting to cover and hit. I changed
his gun to one with a cast-off of ^^-inch, and he covered
the point he shot at every time.
Now, I ask, what chance had he of hitting anything at
all in a day's shooting, except, perhaps, by " shooting at
the cock and killing the crow ? " Yet this gun was made
for him by a maker who had taken a lot of pains to
measure his customer for it. Is it to be wondered at that
your correspondents wiite that " gun-makei-s do not know
as much as they claim to ? "
If any gentlemen wish to test the accuracy of my
statements, if they will pay me a visit I wiU let them
handle my specially designed gun for measuring, and will
show them in a few minutes the effect of " cast-off " and
" cast-on " in alignment.
Charles Lancaster.
151, New Bond Street, W.
i have seen this in many cases, and those to whom
I have explained it have seen it very clearly, and, at
my special suggestion, have either shot with the left
eye closed, before putting the eun to the shoulder, or
else have allowed me to make them a cross-eyed gun —
in other words, a gun built to fit the right shoulder.
139
but cast off sufficiently to allow the rib of the
barrels to come opposite to the left eye for the align
ment ; and I am pleased to say that, after a little
trouble and practice, they have found their shooting
vastly improved, much to the astonishment of their
friends and themselves.
1 am convinced in my own mind, from the most
careful noting of this fact during my experience of
coaching and fitting, that, from the peculiarity of
vision indicated, a man may unconsciously be most
dangerous at the covert side, because he often "shoots
at the cock and kills the crow." Where covert is
thick, with trees having smooth bark, such as beech,
birch, (fee, he may, as he thinks, be shooting between
two trees, whereas his faulty sight causes him really
to point the gun more to the left-hand one, whereby
the shot is liable to ricochet from it to his next hand
*'gun,*' who may unfortunately receive some of the
glancing pellets in his face, or perhaps lose an eye.
The offender will all the while protest that such a
result is impossible, because he shot at an object a
good deal to the right of the tree, or vice versa, should
he be a left-handed shot ; but it is nevertheless a fact.
If any one doubts the truth of this assertion, let him
cover up or shut the right eye, keep the head fiiirly
140
erect, and take a snap shot at a mark on a white-
washed wall, and see where the shot will go ; or let
him make the experiment when standing in front of
a looking-glass, and he will find the muzzles of the
barrels pointing all away to the left. In other words,
he will find the left eye, and the bead on the barrels,
aligned a long way to the left side of his face, as
reflected accurately by the glass {see III No. 3).*
[* See footnotes, page 20.]
141
COST OF MANUFACTURE.
As no doubt many who read these pages are
unaware what a really fine gun costs the London
gun-maker to produce, the following extract from
*' Shooting," Badminton Library, may prove inter-
esting : —
Price of barrels (rough)
Hammerless action, with locks, safeties, etc.
Rough wood for stock
Stocking and screwing
Fore part, fastener, oval screws and small work
Set of furniture and heel-plate
Fine boring, shooting and regulating gun
cartridges, etc
Stripping
Smoothing barrels
Browning barrels, poHshing and hardening, etc.
Engraving fsay)
Rent, gas, &c., expenses to replace damaged work
The whole of Chapter V. in the same book, on
prices of guns, is interesting, and demonstrates to the
general reader that it is not a fact that the maker of
really first-class guns is the "robber" some designate
him, and that generally his profits are less than those
made by the seller of cheap guns.
£ s.
cL
5 7
6
14
1 12
6
3 7
6
16
17
6
2 2
1 15
7
6
1 2
6
2 10
k 2 2
£36
142
FOUR^BARRliLLED GUNS.
The only one at present known is that manufac-
tured by Charles Lancaster, 151, New Bond Street,
The earlier models were objected to owing to
the " pull off" being dependent on a drawing or long
pull of the trigger. In the later model the pulls are
similar to those of an ordinary gun, consequently
removing the cause for objection. Sir flalph Payne
Gallwey, Bart., having used one, grouse driving,
writes as follows: —
"I used the four-barrelled gun the other day grouse
driving, 1 consider it admirable both in theory and
practice, and most usefol as a third gun for packs coming
over, as by its means four birds can then be shot with-
out taking the gun from the shoulder. It can also, in
such cases, be fired much faster than can two double
barrels, however quickly the latter may be changed and
loaded. As a second gun on moors, where only two guns
are required, it would be especially convenient. I do not
see why it should be thought any more unsportsmanlike to
use a gun with four barrels for game, such as driven grouse
flying past in hundreds, than to use a pair of guns with two
barrels each. I was pleased to find the new gun similar
to an ordinary one as to weight, handling, puU of triggers
etc., and that it is, besides, so easy of manipulation.''
N.B. — Rifles are made on the same model.
143
HAMMER OR HAMMERLESS GUNS.
Hammcrless guns have come into favour with
the generality of sportsmen, but a purchaser should
insist upon having the blocking or intercepting
safety bolts in his gun, as well as the usual lock-
ing safety bolt for the triggers. The " automatic "
trigger safety bolt should be selected rather than
the independent one, especially where two or more
guns may be used, — the services of a loader being
necessary. The automatic bolt eflFectually locks the
triggers, and thereby prevents the accidental dis-
charge of the gun from the loader carelessly touching
or pulling the trigger when handling or unloading
the gun. Those who have witnessed a heavy day's
driving or covert shooting, where two or more guns
are used, can well testify to the absolute necessity
of this.
M/
P
V ^
Mf
u
1 p«
ff
to
W
ff
f
f
1 ■**
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^A^''
f «
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145
CARTRIDGE EJECTING GUNS,
WHICH EJECT ONLY THE FIRED CARTRIDGE.
{See Ilk. Nos. 48 and 49).
These guns have now superseded all others,
just as the magazine rifle has taken the place of
the single loading rifle.
The cartridges covered partly or wholly with
brass are better adapted for these guns — because in
wet or damp weather they are less liable to be
affected, consequently they give the ejectors less
work to do than if the ordinary paper cartridges
are used.
M N.B.^Chablvs Lawci8teb*8 latest Ejector Guns are made with two
parts only, viz. , the ejecting hammer and the mainspring both in the fore-end.
146
A MODERN GUN.
I
The following letter appeared in the Fields and still
expresses my opinion : —
Sir, — Your correspondent X, in your issue of the Ist
inst, asks for some ideas respecting a really serviceable
game gun, as it might assist him and others to arrive at a
conclusion, and thereby get what they want. I therefore
h^g to give him mine, and hope they will be of some
flervice.
I say, first, that a sportsman should put himself into the
hands of a thoroughly practical man, and find out what
weight and bore of gun would be best suited to his
special requirements; then be properly measured, so as
to ensure the gun fitting him, as so much depends thereon.
I agree with him, that a pattern of, say, for the first
barrel 140 to 150, and for the other 150 to 160— not a
bunching pattern, but one that is fairly and evenly dis-
tributed over the usual 30 in. circle or more — ^would be
best, if of 12-bore. A pattern that only covers about 20 in.
very closely, and then leaves the remainder very patchy
and irregular, is bad ; as to shoot well with a gun that
shows a close centre, a man must be a better performer
than the average shot
Cartridges should be loaded with the best materials, and
I consider it a decided advantage always to use one
imiform load, so that one's judgment is not liable to be
handicapped owing to being upset by an unknown quantity
ia the shooting of irregularly performing cartridges.
I
■ :^
148
If a pair of guns are required, and likely to be used very,
much together, then I say let all four barrels be bored to
give the same pattern and penetration, and, what is of con-
siderable importance, let all four triggers have the same
pull-off, and I find 4 to 5 lbs. the best for all kinds of
shooting (of course, many can, and do, have lighter pulls ;
but I am speaking of shooting with a pair of guns). If
choke-bores are required, then have an extra pair of
barrels fitted for the purpose, although much long-distance
shooting may be made with the patterns I have named —
I do not mean outrageous distances, but sporting distances.
A gun to give a pattern of 140 need not be " choke "
bored, but, as your correspondent " Purple Heather " styles
it, a "non-choke."
I say by all means have your gun hammerless, but,
before deciding, have the lockwork thoroughly explained
to you, and see it worked (with a model, if possible) so as
to be certain you are getting one in which an accidental
discharge is absolutely impossible, t.e., a gun that has
proper blocking or intercepting bolts — a point on which
the late Mr. Walsh had but one opinion. I have recom-
mended many of my " pupils " to have hammerless guns,
and, I believe, with every satisfaction to themselves.
The trigger safety may be automatic or independent —
if for a pair of guns, where a loader's services are required,
by all means automatic. For one gim only, automatic is
to be preferred, although many have the independent
action.
Certainly choose a gun that has few parts, and see that
those parts are strong and simple, so that any skilled
mechanic might replace one, should it become damaged
in a foreign country.
149
Haye the gun with the top lever and snap action, but
see that the lever is well underset to save its damaging
the thumb if hj any chance it should be touching in taking
a snap shot, or else the thumbnail may be hurt
A g^un that is cocked by the fall of the barrels is easier
to manipulate than one that cocks with the movement of
either top, side, or under lever. Always have the best
barrels, whether of steel or Damascus. I have shot a great
deal this season with ejectors, and, providing they are
arranged so as to be on the fore-end, and independent of
the lockwork, I see no reason why they should not be used.
No doubt there are ejectors and ejectors, same as there
were and are hammerless and hammerless guns; but
because one fails, or requires re-regulating after a week or
two's hard shooting in bad weather, it is no reason why
they should not come into general use before many seasons
are over, as, no doubt, they will be improved, when
necessary, as time goes on.
Should an ejector be decided upon , the purchaser ought
to satisfy himself that, if he should wish it to be removed,
it can easily be done, and the gun then work the extraction
of the cartridges in the usual manner. This should entail
little or no expense afterwards.
The lighter the gun the more it will recoil, and, in some
instances, "jump " unpleasantly, unless used with reduced
loads. A well-balanced gun can always be handled with
pleasure and quickness.
Charles Lanoastkr.
151, New Bond Street, W.
[See page 152.]
[* See footnote, page 146.]
150
STEEL OR DAMASCUS BARRELS.
I have read with much interest the many discus-
sions that have taken place in the various sporting
papers on this subject. I have written generally in
favour of the best English Damascus barrels, which
have been so long used, and have won the confidence
of sportsmen, rather than advocated the use of
"steel," its more modern rival.
Whitworth's Fluid Compressed Steel tubes are
the best of all steel barrels ; but I extract from the
Field of the 20th October, 1888, the following
opinion of Lord Walsingham, who has perhaps had
a better opportunity than any living sportsman to
thoroughly test the relative merits of both materials.
It will prove of interest to many : —
LORD WALSINGUAM'S BAG OP GROUSE.
Many of our readers having manifested some curioBity
to know the guns and charges used by Lord Walsingham
on August 30th last, when, as subsequently recorded in our
columns, he killed 1070 driven grouse to liis own gun ; his
lordship, in reply to our inquiry, has been good enough to
supply the following information :
**0n August 30th, when I killed 1070 grouse to my own
gun, in the day, I shot with four breechloaders. No. 1, a
151
gun made in 1866 by Purdey, subsequently converted from
pin-foe to central principle, to which new barrels were
made last year. Nos. 2 and 3, a pair of central-fire breech-
loaders, made also by Purdey, about 1870, for which I have
likewise had new barrels. No. 4, a new gun made by
Piu"dey this year, to match the two mentioned above, but
with Whitworth steel instead of Damascus barrels. The
guns are all 12-bore, with cylinder 30in. barrels, not choked.
My cartridges were loaded by Johnson, of SwaflEham ; those
used in the down-wind drives containing S^drs. Hall's
Field B. powder to l|^oz. No. 5 Derby shot ; those used in
the up-wind drives (where the birds of course came slower)
had 3drs. only of the same powder, with the same shot ;
not hardened shot in either case.
" I find I never go out shooting without learning some-
thing. If I had the day again, I should cut off the extra
eighth of an ounce of shot ; not on account of recoil or
discomfort of any kind — ^from which I never suffer, although
always using black powder — ^but because I failed to get as
much penetration at long distances as I do with an ounce
only. I distinctly remember fibring three barrels at one
bird, striking well in the body every time, but killing dead
only with the last shot ; the powder seemed to bum too
slow.
" Another thing I learnt was that Whitworth steel barrels
are not desirable for a heavy day's shooting. The explosion
in them makes quite a different sound from that given off
by Damascus barrels ; there is more ring about it, and I
can imagine that this might prove a serious annoyance
to anyone who minds the noise of shooting. I have no
recollection myself of ever having had a headache from
gun-firing. Moreover, the Whitworth barrels become hot
much more rapidly than the Damascus; and this is a serious
152
drawback, especially to a man who shoots without gloves.
I can well imagine that they last much longer, and are in
many ways suited for ordinary light work ; but I am now
replacing them with Damascus, as in all my other guns."
"SINGLE TRIGGER DOUBLE BARREL
GUNS."
Since the above letter was written, the Author has
given special attention to the production of Double
Barrel Hammerless Guns having but one trigger for
either barrel ; and in the Field^ June 1st, 1895, and
again March 21st, 1896, full details were published
respecting his patent Single Trigger Guns, and many
of his Customers who have used them have also
testified as to their general efficiency and convenience.
153
"CHOKES," '^CYLINDERS," OR
••NON-CHOKES."
I just touch on this subject, not with the view of
advocating the one or the other, but to show the
difference between them. There is no doubt what-
ever that any gun-maker who may be consulted will
be able not only to give the relative merits of each,
but also to advise which is the more likely to suit
the requirements of the shooter,
A ''cylinder" barrel is a straight tube, of nearly
the same diameter throughout, from end to end, but
often relieved at muzzle and breech. The " choke "
barrel is a tube, the front part of which is narrower
or contracted at about half an inch from the muzzle.
A mathematically true cylinder has hardly ever been
sold. The *' recess choke" is another form — the
barrel being bored like a cylinder, and then a recess
of from 2 to 4 inches is cut or spooned out from
the forward portion of the barrel by the aid of a
specially constructed boring tool. I have known
some of my patrons who could not get on nearly so
154
well with a ** choke " as they did with a " cylinder ;'■
and having had the choke bored out, their shooting
was improved.
The penetration of both the systems, as tested at
the Pettit pads — a number (AO) of sheets of stout
brown paper fastened together — ^is neariy equal at all
reasonable sporting distances. In the Field gun trial
of 1878, when six cylinders and six choke bores were
tried, 150 rounds were fired from each of the guns.
The choke bores averaged a penetration of 25 sheets
as against 23 sheets for cylinders. In each instance
the sheets had to be penetrated by three pellets.
This subject has been so often discussed, and trials
made to settle the point, that it is needless to go
further into it here ; but the above fact is generally
admitted to be correct.
155
CARTRIDGES.
The best cartridges should always be used, i.e. , those
which contain the best powders and wadding, and
which are carefully and accurately loaded. Accord-
ing to the quality of them so will be the results. By
good cartridges a clean kill is obtained, and con-
sequently more game is gathered ; therefore it is a
poor policy to buy cheaply and poorly loaded
cartridges, to save perhaps a few shillings in the
season, when by so doing the average kills are
reduced, and the loss on the game is considerably
greater.
The shooter who only fires a few shots a day
should bear this well in mind, because he has often
a long tramp between his shots, and can ill afford to
find, after all his labour, that his gup is performing
unevenly owing to the quality of his cartridges — or
rather of their contents.
It is always an advantage to use the load recom-
mended for the gun by its maker, and always to
employ the same powder — because by the use of the
same one's time is about equal, or, in other words,
the velocity of the charge is not altered; con-
sequently the judgment arrived at in aiming ahead
of a bird is never beaten, and one's shooting is more
regular.
156
CONDENSED POWDERS
AND CHARLES LANCASTER'S ^'PYGMIES."
Since the earlier editions of the "Art of Shooting"
were published, Powder manufacturers have
turned their attention to the introduction of con-
densed smokeless Powders to supersede the older
'* balked up" ones, and consequently there has
bsen in each succeeding year a very keen
competition among them, and these Powders,
where from 26 to 33 grains are the equivalent to
40 to 43 grains of their older patterns, have more
than held their own.
These condensed Powders naturally take up
less room, so that they admit of the introduction
of shorter Cartridges, the advantage of which
must be apparent to all.
The Author has had very great success with
his "PYGMIES," viz., a T Cartridge for 12
bore Guns with any length of Chamber, loaded
with suitable charges of a -condensed smokeless and
reliable Powder, and with average charges of shot,
giving high velocity, good patterns and penetra-
tion, and he has hundreds of testimonials as to
their " efficiency " at all sorts of game.
See *' The Field,'' May 7th, 1898.
157
TIMES AND VELOCITIES.
The influence of time, in relation to accuracy of
shooting at objects in motion, is deserving of greater
attention than it ordinarily receives from sportsmen.
Many among them seem to assume, if anjrthing is
said on the subject, that they are expected to cram
their heads with a mass of figures, and make a
mathematical calculation while birds are flying in
front of them. They might, as well assume that you
cannot utilize "Bradshaw," to find the times of
trains, unless you learn the tables by heart. Of
course, it is possible both to travel and to shoot
without paying any regard to time ; but those who
do so may not improbably incur indirectly much
more trouble than they need have taken directly
to attain the same end. The traveller may have
missed many a train, and the shooter have missed
many a bird, before fully learning the lesson that
Experieniia docet
The tables which appear in the following pages
are intended to illustrate general principles rather
158
than to furnish direct information respecting guns
of any particular dimensions, or the charges to be
used therein. It is for the reader to apply fhe
general principles to his own particular case; for
no number of velocity tables, and no amount of
verbal explanation, will serve as a substitute for
personal judgment, or give anyone an idea of the
pace of birds which are flying before him. In such
matters, knowledge must necessarily be based upon
practice, which alone can enable a man to apply
general principles to the best advantage; and he
who is a clever shot must make effective application
of such principles, even though he may do so
unknowingly, and as the result of continued
observation, and repeated application of the means
to the end.
The first table here given contains some chrono-
graph records of velocities obtained with different
charges of powder and shot — the powder increasing
by half-drachms, and the shot by eighths of an
ounce: and each record represents the average of
several rounds. Two kinds of black powder (both
No. 4 grain) were used, viz., Curtis & Harvey's, and
Pigou & Wilks's, and one nitro-corapound, vias.,
159
Schultze powder. The records of C. & H. and
Schultze are taken from the results of experiments
made by Mr. R. W. S. Griffith, and published in
the Field of July 26, 1879; and those with P. & W.
powder are taken from a paper read by Mr. J. Rigby,
before the Royal Dublin Society, and published in
the Society's Transactions for 1883. Where a blank
occurs in either of the columns of the following
table, it indicates that the charge in question was
not used in that set of experiments. In those carried
out by Mr. Griffith, the same gun (a 12-bore) was
used for both C. & H. and Schultze powder ; in Mr.
Rigby 's experiments, a 12-bore and a 20-bore were
used, and where the record quoted was made by the
20-bore an asterisk (*) is appended. In one instance
two numbers are bracketed together, the same charge
having been used in both bores, and the asterisk will
serve to distinguish the one from the other.
Velocities of Shot, taken bt CmioNOGRAPH.
C.&H.
No. 4.
Schultze.
P.&W.
No. 4.
2 J drg. Poinier.
Ft. -sec.
Ft. -sec.
Ft. -sec.
With i OZ. No. 6 shot .,
....816 ...
813 ...
828*
,.• 1 oz. M ?,
759 ...
781 ...
( 812
•• \ 768*
„ li oz. „ „
— ...
— ...,
750
160
C. AH. Schultoe. P. AW
No. 4. — No. 4.
8 dn. Powder. Ft. -tec. Ft -sec Ft -sec.
Withjoz. NaGahot 883 877 —
„ 1 oz. „ „ 860 858 —
„ l^oz. „ „ 827 848 834
Si drs. Powder
With i OZ. No. 6 shot 880 913 —
„ 1 oz. ,. „ 900 905 850
„ l|oz. „ „ 909 915 861
„ l^oz. „ „ 852 863 —
Considering that these records represent trials
made with diflferent powders, the results come very
close together, as a rule, when equal charges were
used, although not all fired from one gun, nor tried
under exactly the same conditions. It will be ob-
served, however, that the powder which gives the
highest results with one charge, does not necessarily
retain its advantage when the charge is altered ; for
it not unfrequently happens, when different powders
are tried in the same gun, that uniformity of effect
does not follow an equal increase or decrease in the
charge, either of powder or shot ; and in like manner,
the same cartridges will not shoot equally well in
different guns. Generally speaking, however, it may
be expected that an addition to the powder will
increase the velocity of the shot : and, conversely,
161
with equal charges of powder, that an increase in
the weight of shot will have the eflfect of reducing
its speed. Nevertheless, this will not hold good in
till cases, for the powder may be in excess of what
will produce the best results, as will be seen by
reference to the above table. On looking at the
first two divisions (2^ drs. and 3 drs.), it will be
observed that each increase in the shot charge was
attended by a reduction in velocity, in accordance
with the general principle mentioned above; but
that in the third division, where the powder charge
was raised to 3^ drs., a different effect was produced;
for the highest velocity was not obtained until the
weight of shot was increased to 1^ oz. ; and beyond
^hat point the general principle again came into
operation. The fact appears to be that, when the
powder charge is inordinately large, the superfluous
energy is expended in scattering the shot, instead of
driving it steadily forward ; and the scattered pelleta
thereupon encounter greater resistance from the
atmosphere, and accordingly lose more speed than
they otherwise would do; whereas an addition to-
the weight of the shot produces a steadying effect,
and, by keeping the charge together, tends to main-
tain a higher average velocity. That an excess of
162
powder does produce a scattering of the charge is
frequently demonstrated by the smaller number of
pellets placed upon the target when the charge of
shot remains the same but the powder is increased.
In the above-mentioned experiments, when 1 oz. of
shot was fired with 2^ drs. of C. & H. powder, the
pattern in a 30-inch circle was 160; on increasing
the powder to 3 drs., the pattern was reduced to 147;
and when the charge was raised to 3| drs., the
pattern fell to 123. And the loss of velocity has
been demonstrated in other ways, besides the chro-
nograph ; for records on the force-gauge have been
less with 3|^ drs. than with 3 drs., and there has
likewise been a similar falling off in penetration with
guns tried at brown paper pads. Effects of the same
kind have also been produced when extra strong
caps have been used instead of those of ordinary
strength ; but the effect is not the same on all kinds
of powder.
The chronograph records given above represent
not the velocity of the shot at its exit from the
muzzle, nor that with which the pellets strike the
target, but the mean velocity, or average speed for
the entire distance of 40 yards ; and, consequently,
these velocities can be easily reconverted into times
163
by the simple process of dividing the length of range
(120 feet) by the velocity in feet per second.
It would hardly be desirable, however, to adopt
that course herewith the figures given in the foregoing
table, as the variation in the charges would compli-
cate the matter unnecessarily ; and the general prin-
ciple will be better demonstrated by having recourse
to a single charge only, and showing how the times
vary at different distances, and with shot of various
sizes. The times here given are results obtained by
Mr. Griffith, in experiments with Schultze powder,
the charge being 42 grs. (equivalent to 3 drs. of
black powderj, with 1^ oz. of shot. Four sizes of
«hot are here given, at ranges extending from 20
yards to 60 yards, and the variations of time were as
follows :-^
Chronograph T^mes of Shot of different sizes.
No. 2 shot. No. 4 shot. Na 6 shot. Na 8 shot
Range. Sec Sec. Sec. Sec.
20 yards -0569 -0584 -0596 -0624
30 „ -0913 -0949 -0975 -1028
40 „ -1304 -1377 -1429 4528
50 „ -1755 -1882 -1979 -2179
60 „ -2300 -2548 -2779 -3220
It will be observed that (the charge of powder
"^being the same throughout) the time increases as the
1
164
shot lessens in size; and that the differences are
much more marked in long ranges than in short
ones. For example, in the 20 yards range, the time
with No. 8 shot exceeds that of No. 2 by about 8
per cent. ; but foi; double that distance, or 60 yards,
the No. 8 pellets take 40 per cent, longer time in
traversing the range than do those of No. 2 size.
Consequently, in firing long shots, not only are large
pellets more likely to kill the birds they hit, owing
to their greater momentum, but less allowance is
required to be made in shooting at the birds, because
of the difference in the time. What distance would
be traversed by a bird flying at the rate of 40 miles
an hour, in the interval during which pellets are
passing from the gun to the bird, will be seen by
reference to the following table, which states the
measurements near enough to mark the gradations
of change, without resorting to minute fractions :
Flight op Bird (at 40 Miles per Hour) durino
Passage of Shot.
Tards from
Gun to Bird.
Sizes of Shot, and Distances flown by Bird.
No. 2. No. 4. No. 6. No. 8.
20.
30.
40.
50.
60.
3i feet.
H „ .
10 „ .,
13i „ ..
3^ feet...
*^2 55 •••
O ,9 , , ,
ii 9, ...
ID t* ...
3J feet,
51 „
Hi «
16 .,
3| feet
6 n
9 „
18 „
19 „
165
Among the points to be noticed here is the fact
that, up to 30 yards, there is practically little
difference between the various sizes of shot : for a
few inches more or less are not of much importance
with a charge of shot that has a spread of several
feet. When, however, distances beyond 30 yards
are traversed, the falling off in speed of the smaller
pellets becomes considerable, and the farther they
go the more they suffer ; so that, at 60 yards, there
are nearlv as many feet of difference between the
sizes of shot as there were inches of variation at half
that range. Another thing is, that in firing at two
birds, one twice as far off as the other, it does not
suffice to make double the allowance ; for, while the
bird maintains its speed, the shot does not do so^
and, except with the large sizes, it takes about three
times as long for the pellets to go 60 yards, as it
does to go half that distance. A corresponding
increase of allowance should accordingly be made
when firing at a bird that is far away.
Another consequence of difference of time is, that,
under the influence of the force of gravity, the drop
of shot, during its passage through the air, is much
greater with small pellets than with large ones.
This is not directly due to the difference of size or
166
weight, but to the loss of velocity, aud to the
consequently longer time taken in passing from the
gun to the object fired at. And in this case the rate
of increase differs from what was shown in the last
table ; for there the distance flown by the bird was
in direct proportion to the increase of time taken by
the shot ; but the increase of drop is in proportion
to the square of the time — so that, where the time is
doubled, the drop is four times as great, and so on,
as will be remarked on comparing the next table
with the times stated in the last table but one. The
measurements of drop are here stated to tenths of an
inch, in order to avoid the apparent irregularity
which would result from giving inches only.
Drop of Shot with Pellets op Different Sizes.
Range. No. 2. No. 4. No. 6. No. 8.
20 yards 0-6 in 0*7 in 0*7 in 0-8 in.
30 „ 1-6 in 1-7 iD 1-8 in 2-0 in.
40 „ 3-3 in 3-6 in 3*9 in 4-5 in.
50 ,, 5-9 in 6-8 in 7-8 in 9-2 in.
60 „ 10-2 in 12-5 in 15-0 in 20-0 in.
It will be seen that the drop with No. 8 shot, in
60 yards, is ten times as great as what it is in half
that distance ; and that, although there is little
difference between No. 2 and No. 8 at 30 yards, the
former has only about half the drop of the small
167
pellets at 60 yards. To counteract the drop of the
shot, a certain amount of elevation is given to the
barrels in the process of manufacture — the amount
varying with the charge for which the gun is made,
and the distance for which it is likely to be chiefly
used. Occasionally one hears a man say that his
gun shoots so hard that it is not necessary to raise
it any more for 70 or 80 yards than it is for 40
yards. This is simply " bosh ; " for if the shooter
does not raise the gun himself, elevation must have
been given to it by the gunmaker. It will be
observed, on reference to the table, that the amount
of drop is about doubled with every additional 10
yards (varying a little more or less according to the
size of shot), and the amount of elevation that would
suffice for a long range, would be excessive for a
short one. Consequently, when a man kills at long
and short ranges with the same elevation, there
must be a certain amount of ''fluking," arising
from the topmost pellets hitting at the long range,
and the lowest pellets at the short distance.
Hitherto, all the examples that have here been
given of the effect of time on the relative positions
of shot and bird, have been aft'ected by the variations
in velocity of the pellets. But, besides these variable
168
times, there are two others that may be termed
" constants," — one personal and dependent upon the
shooter; the other mechanical, and dependent on the
ignition of the powder, and the passage of the shot
from breech to muzzle of the gun. In one sense,
these '^constants" are not constant; because one
man may be longer than another in pulling the
trigger, and one charge of shot may occupy more
time than another in quitting the gun, owing to
difference of powder, length of barrel, and so on.
But, where the man, the gun, and the charge are the
same, it may be assumed that the man will constantly
take the same time to pull the trigger, and the shot
will constantly take the same time to reach the
muzzle, whether the bird is 20 yards off, or three
times that distance.
These two *' constants" have to be added to the
figures previously given (page 163), showing the
times of shot for various distances ; and, as the flight
of the bird is going on during the pulling of the
trigger and the movement of the shot up the barrel,
as well as during its passage from the gun to the
game, it follows that these " constants *' should not
be overlooked in the allowance to be made when
shooting at moving objects. But they do not affect
169
the drop of the shot, because gravity does not come
into operation until after the shot has left the barrel.
It will doubtless be thought, by many persons, that
these times are so trifling that they may be entirely
left out of consideration ; but, so far as the personal
element is concerned, it is much more important
than is generally supposed. If one man's nerve-
system differs from another's, so that it takes a longer
time for the sensation of sight to pass from the eye
to the brain, and for the "order to puJl" to be
conveyed from the brain to the finger, those two men
do not shoot on equal terms ; and no alteration in
build of gun, or the charge used therein, will enable
the man of slower nerve-power to do what the other
is able to effect. The slower man cannot get on his
birds so promptly as his quick friend, and he must
do his best to compensate for the lost time by greater
allowance in advance of his birds. That this state-
ment is not imaginary will be seen on reading an
article by Dr. Fleming, hereafter given, on "The
Physiology of Shooting," in which it is shown that
some persons are six times as long as others in
performing the same action.
Contrary to the other time illustrations that have
been given, these ''constants" have a comparatively
170
greater eflfect on the shooting at short ranges, because
the addition to be made for 20 yards, where the
velocity is high and the time short, is just as great
as for 60 yards, where the velocity is much reduced
and the time long. And the higher the speed of the
bird, the more it tells against the slow man ; and
consequently it would be more difficult for such a
person to make a good score with driven grouse,
coming down wind with a strong breeze. Dr. Fleming
shows that a man with quick nerve-action will pull
the trigger in y^q of a second, whereas another will
take i%jf of a second to do so ; and it has been
shown, as the result of Mr. Griffith's experiments,
that, from the pull to the trigger to the exit of the
shot from the barrel, there is a period of about y^^
of a second, varying more or less with the nature of
the powder and the charge used. On adding these
items to the times previously given for 1^ oz. of
No. 6 shot, propelled by 3 drs. of powder, we may
ascertain what would be the respective distances
flown by birds during the intervals occupied by the
shot in coming up from the gun of the quick-nerved
man, as compared with him of slow nerves. Some
persons say that birds, when flying down wind, will
travel at the rate of 100 miles an hour. Without
171
however, going to such extremes as that, let us assume
velocities from 40 to 60 miles an hour, and distances
from 20 to 40 yards, and see how far it would be
requisite for two men, so differently endowed with
quickness of nerve-power, to shoot in advance of
birds in order to countervail their rate of progress.
The words "Quick "and "Slow," in the following
table, will indicate the two men, and the measure-
ments under those words will show how far the
birds would fly in the intervals between the instant
when the respective men resolved to fire, and that
at which the shot would reach the bird.
Miles 20 yards. 30 yards. 40 yards,
per hour. Quick. Slow. Quick. Slow. Quick. Slow.
40 4ift... 7ift. 7 ft. ..10 ft. 9ift....l2ift
50 5| „... 9i „ 8i „...12i „ 12 „...15J„
60 7 „...lli„ 10i„...14J, 14i ,...18f „
Here it is shown that the slow-nerved man would
have to allow a yard more than the quick one, when
shooting at a bird flying at the rate of 40 miles an
hour, no matter whether the bird be near or far off;
and for every additional 10 miles of speed, about
1 foot more of allowance would be requisite. Be it
observed, however, that these differences only apply
to the extiemes — ^the man who is quickest and the
one who is slowest ; but between these two, whose
172
''personal errors" are respectively indicated by too
*iid ToTT- there are many others who would require an
intermediate classification. These personal variations
may account for many differences of result obtained
by people who think they are exactly carrying out
the instructions given them by their mentors ; for it
is to little purpose telling a man that, under certain
circumstances, he should fire a yard in front of the
bird, if the state of his nervous organisation is such
that he ought to make double that allowance.
In concluding these observations, the remark may
be repeated that they are only intended to set forth
general principles, the application of which must
depend upon the shooter himself. He will see that
there is a great deal of difference between the time
of different sizes of shot in long ranges, and that
allowance must be made for such differences, if he
would obtain the best results in all cases. He will
see, too, that different persons vary as much as the
shot, and such variations affect the shooting at all
distances, long or short. But, unless a man gets his
personal error found for him by an expert, he is not
very likely to know its exact amount, and he can
only try the results of experience by increasing his
allowance in shooting before crossing birds. It not
173
unfrequently happens that men who shoot at the
first bird of a covey, contrive to bring down the
last. If feats of this kind recur with the same
individual, it is probable that he is one whose " per-
sonal error" renders it desirable to make a more
liberal allowance in front of his birds than he is in
the habit of giving ; and he may go on increasing
such allowance until he makes up for the lost time.
He is not very likely to proceed to the other extreme,
and bring down the first bird in a covey when he
fires at the last.
With reference to the annexed diagrams (Nos. 1
and 2) it may be observed that —
In diagram No. 1, the distances from the gun, and the
distances travelled by the bird, are shown to the same scale.
In diagram No. 2, a considerably larger scale has been
adopted for the distances travelled by the bird than the
scale for distances from the gun, in order to give space for
the introduction of figures.
In diagrams Nos. 1 and 2, the distances have been taken
from table on page 164
The distances brought into calculation in the table on
the same leaf as diagram No. 1 have been computed from
the Chronograph Times on page 163. For "personal
error " the mean of 2 feet has been adopted, which is
very near the mean between O'Ol and 0*06 seconds, as per
page 172.
The diagrams and table have been carried out for
No. 6 shot, which is the size most generally in use.
The results obtained in the two ways as above are, for
all practical purposes, the same.
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Distance flown by bird i€^'^(pie^)
DROP
SHOT^IS INCHES
DROP /.8 INCHES
DROP 3.9 INCHES
OIACRAM' N? a.
/drop 1.8 INCHES
ROP 0.7 INCHES
W G SHOT
SPEED OF BIRD 40 MILES PER HOUR
=*58.6 FEET PER SECOND
0.03 S ECD? MEAN PERSONAL ERROR
1.758 FEET SAY 2 FEET {f>^'^^
04STANCE FROM GUN — U = 10 YARDS
DISTANCE FLOWN BY BIRD — y = I FOOT
176
The following is Dr. Fleming's article pre\dously
alluded to. It is quoted from the Field of Feb. 19
1887.
THE PHYSIOLOGY OP SHOOTING.
BY WM. JAS. FLEMING, M.D.
It is universally admitted that good shooting depends
less upon the gim than upon the man behind it The gun
and all connected with it have received, and stiU receive,
most minute and careful study, but Uttle attention has
been devoted to the human element in marksmanship. In
so far as shooting goes, the man is as purely a machine as
the gun, but a much more complicated and less under-
stood piece of mechanism, and, to make the problem worse,
an individual mechanism — ^no two quite alike. There are,
however, some principles and arrangements common to
w^
177
every human shooting machine which can be formulated,
and in this paper I will try to place them as clearly as
possible before my readers. For this purpose it will only
be necessary to consider the problems connected with
shooting at moving objects, as this embraces all the
questions arising out of target practice
To begin with, let us try to analyse the processes which
result in a bird coming down a few yards from where it
rose near a good shot. First, he sees the bird — that is to
say, the image of the bird is sharply focussed on his retina
by the proper adjustment of the internal mechanism of
the eye. In this retina the picture thrown upon it sets up
nervous changes, which are conveyed to some part of the
brain, and there produce what we call vision — in reality,
a change in some part of the nervous tissue of the brain,
At the same time he judges the distance of the bird and
the direction and rate of its flight by a complicated pro-
cess, of which more hereafter. The information thus
gained is transformed at first by an effort of will, but, after
sufficient practice, automatically, mto orders affecting
nearly all the muscles of the body He plants his feet
firmly and raises his gun (for simplicity sake here we will
suppose he is a shot who takes aim — a question afterwards
to be discussed). Having raised the gun, he looks along
it, and, I believe, by a coDtinual alteration of the focus of
his eye, sees both the sight and the bird at one time, and
waits till they are in one line. Again this state of affairs
is commimicated to the brain by the eye, and an order
sent to the finger to pull the trigger ; then the mechanism
is all gun. It is all done in the fraction of a second, but
it must all be done, and really much more.
I must now endeavour to explain the above somewhat
more fully, but will take it for granted that the reader
178
knows enough of ordinary optics to require no more de-
tailed explanation of how the bird is seen, only remarking
that it is by no means an instantaneous process.
Seeing the bird, how does he judge its distance from
him ? By the summation of the various adjustments his eyes
require to make to see clearly, compared with previous experi-
ence. The principal of these adjustments are the amount
of convergence of the two eyes required to bring their
optical axes to a point at the bird, and the amount of
accommodation necessary to bring the image of the bird
to a sharp focus on the retina. These adjustments are
made by muscles both without and Avithin the eye, and we
are informed of their amount by the muscular sense. This
muscular sense is really the keynote of the whole question,
and therefore requires some further explanation.
It is not generally known that we possess a distinct
power of appreciating the amount of muscular force re-
quired to perform an action, quite separate from our sense
of touch. Perhaps the best way to understand this is to
consider the different effects of, say, a pound weight laid
upon our palm with the back of the hand resting upon the
table, and the same weight lifted freely up and down, as
we instinctively do in estimating weight. In the first
case we feel the pressure of a cold, hard body, but, if not
aided by sight, have a very faint idea of its weight ; in-
deed, we can scarcely tell the difference between one and
two pounds if the surfaces touching the palm are of nearly
the same area, and if the objects are gently deposited, the
eyes being shut, and the hand motionless and supported.
If, however, the weights are lifted by the arm, we at once
appreciate the difference. This muscular sense plays a
veiy important part in our lives, and is peculiarly capable
of training. A good example of this is the power acquired
179
by letter-sorters in the post office to detect by the hand
alone the slightest over- weight, a practised hand rarely
erring. It is by this muscular sense, telling us how much
we have required to use the muscles both within and with-
out the eye, that we estimate distance.
To return to the bird, we have seen that a series ol
complicated processes are necessary merely to see it and
judge approximately its distance; but, aided by experience,
we learn by means of the same mechanism, and practically
simultaneously, a great deal more about it — the angle in
relation to our position at which it is flying, an idea of the
pace it is going, &c. Having unconsciously, or at least
apparently so, got all this information, which, of course, is
largely due to practice, the brain condition thus set up in-
duces (in what physiologists call an automatic manner) a
large nimiber of muscular actions — ^planting the feet,
raising the gun, and in the case of the man who aims,
-which we are now considering, closing one eye and
bringing the other to a place in relation to the gun suitable
for aligning the barrel with the bird ; then information is
carried to the brain that the gun is " on," and an order
sent to the finger to pull the trigger. In the case of the
man who shoots with both eyes open and the head erect —
nvho, in fact does not look along the gun at all — we have
a somewhat different order of proceeding. He estimates
in the same way the distance, direction, and rapidity of
flight ; but having done this, trusts entirely to his muscular
sense to hold the gun straight and to tell him when it is
straight. To succeed in this can only be the result of
practice ; but we must remember that the muscular sense
varies enormously in accuracy and rapidity of expression
in different men, and even in the same man at different
times and under different conditions. Some men hear, see,
180
taste, smell better than others; why should we wonder
that they differ in this sense also, or that one individual
requires more training or practice than another to achieve
the same accuracy ?
This difference between individuals is not confined tc
their muscular sense, but exists in an even more marked
way in the amount of time required by each to go through
ihe compUcated nervous and muscular actions which I
have described. Attention was first drawn to this by the
astronomers, who found that it is necessary to allow for
what is called "personal error," in the observations of
different individuals. For instance, suppose it is required
to observe the exact moment at which a star touches a
hair stretched across the field of a stationary telescope, and
that by a suitable arrangement two observers are enabled
to watch through the telescope at the same time — ^it will be
found that an appreciable difference exists in the record of
each. What is more, this difference will be practically
constant for the same individual, constituting his " personal
equation," which has to be allowed for in subsequent cal-
culations. By modifications of this idea, physiologists have
succeeded in measuring, not only the time taken by the
whole process, but the time occupied by each of its com-
ponent parts.
To go into the details of these experiments is needless
here, but, in order to give a general idea of the methods
employed, it may be well to describe one or two of them.
Let us take first the one which has been perhaps best
worked out — the determination of the rapidity with which
an impulse travels along a nerve. If we arrange a stimulus —
most conveniently an electric shock — so that when applied,
let us suppose over a nerve in the forearm, it causes a con-
traction of the muscles of a finger, and consequently a
181
movement of the finger, and if we measure the exact
time which elapses between the electric shock and the
movement of the finger, first when the stimulus is apphed,
say, nine inches from the finger, and again three inches
from the finger, the difference will give us the time taken
for transmission through the six inches, and therefore the
rate.
Some of the readers of this article may be interested
in the apparatus employed in making these delicate
measurements, so I will briefly describe the essential
features. We require a surface moving rapidly and
regularly, upon which a faint motion can easily make a
mark. This is generally obtained by a large cylinder
rotated by clockwork, and covered with smoked paper.
Upon this are inscribed, by light contact, motions, how-
ever sUght, communicated to levers. For the experiment
just mentioned, to determine the rapidity of transmission
of nervous impulses, three of these levers would be
required — one attached to the finger to be moved, one
actuated by the same electric cuiTent which gives the
shock, and one connected with a chronograph or instru-
ment for marking time. This is generally a tuning fork,
the number of whose vibrations is known, and of course
constant. If, then, with the three levers adjusted to write
exactly perpendicular to each other, the cylinder is
rotated, we shall have three straight Knes drawn. If,
now, the tuning fork is made to vibrate, the lever attached
to it wiU mark curves, and if, now, the electric shock
is sent into the nerve, the lever connected with it will
move and mark the exact moment of stimulation. As
soon as the muscles of the finger begin to resp ">nd to the
stimulus, the lever attached to the finger will i lark, and
the difference between the two, read by the vibrations of
182
the tuning fork, which have been going on all the time,
gives the time of transmission. Our tracing then will be
something like this, and the distance between the lines a
and a, read on the tuning fork the actual time of nervous
Stimulus Y L
finder
Tuning Fork .j\j\jy^\j\j\f\f\J^^r>j\r>J\J\f^^
transmission, less the latent period of the muscle, which we
need not consider in this case. By this experiment, more
or less modified, it has been calculated that the rate of
transmission of motor stimuli in man is only 120 feet per
second. Your readers will remember that shot at 40
yards travels at the rate of about 600 feet per second.
To estimate the time taken by the whole process, for the
conversion of a visual image into a volimtary muscular
action — which is exactly what takes place between seeing
a bird and pulling the trigger — a slightly different
arrangement is required. The person to be experimented
upon is seated with his finger on an electrical key, so
arranged that the moment it is depressed, a mark is
recorded upon the revolving cyhnder. A blue and red
light are fixed so that either can be shown at the option of
the experimenter. The subject of the experiment is
directed only to depress the key when one of those lights
is shown, and the instant at which this light is exposed is
also recorded upon the cylinder. A chronograph is used
as before. By this means we are able to estimate the
whole time taken by both the nervous transmission and
L
183
tho mental judgment of which of the two lights was
shown. The result of a number of experiments on these
lines give for different individuals from y^ of a second to
Y^ of a second. Now, if we consider that this corresponds
to the interval between the gunner seeing the bird and
pulKng the trigger, we can easily calculate that if the bird
is crossing at the rate of 50 feet per second — ^practically
thirty- four miles an houi- — in the case of a man with ^7^0
of a second personal error, it will only have flown 6
inches, whereas, in the case of the man with -5^ it will
have flown 3 feet. This seems largely to explain why men
differ so much in the amount they borrow. The lesson is
that each individual must find out the proper " borrow '*
for himself, as another person, with probably quite a
different personal error, cannot guide him.
A great deal has been written lately in your columns on
the two methods of borrowing, which I may summarise as
" swing " and " carry forward." Upon this also the above
considerations may throw some hght. By "swing" I
understand keeping the gun moving with the object for a
short time before firing. Your correspondents are not at
one about this, it appears to me, because they do not con-
sider what is taking place during the time between the
determination to pull and the explosion of the powder.
If during this interval the swiag is arrested (as I fancy it
often is), then the gun must be poiated considerably in
front of the object ; but if it is kept up, that is to say, if
the gun is kept pointed at the object until the shot has
left the barrel, a very small allowance is necessary —
merely the time taken by the shot to reach the object.
Indeed, the swing of the gun must to some extent do
away even with this, in the same way that a heavy object
thrown from a rapidly moving train does not fly at a right
184
angle to the train, but has the train's forward motion com-
municated to it as well as the motion of throwing, and
therefore assumes the direction of the resultant of these
two forces — outwards and forwards.
In what I have described as the carry-forward method
of borrowing (which I conceive is less often actually
employed than is supposed), the idea is to fire into the air
where the bird will be when the shot reaches that place.
Now, this may do for the man of very slight personal
error, but for the man of great personal error seems to me
impracticable, from the immense distance it would entail
firing in front. A good many who think they practise
this method probably swing the gun into a position in
front of the object, stop the swing, and fire. By this it is
obvious that they only need to allow for the time between
deciding to fire and the shot reaching the place ; but a
man who fires where the bird will be without any swing,
must allow for all the time of deciding how far forward
to shoot, raising his gun to that, and then the time of
firing and travel of shot.
I am sorry I cannot suggest any simple means by which
sportsmen could ascertain the amount of their personal
error, as the apparatus I have described is not easily
attainable; but perhaps some of our enterprising gun-
makers might find it pay them to have such an apparatus
for the benefit of their customers. I shall be glad to
advise as to such an installation. I have long been of
opinion that very good shots are generally men with small
personal error, and such an arrangement would enable the
truth of this idea to be investigated.
Another important point in connection with this matter
is the influence, noticed by all observers, which food,
stimulants, and sedative, have in altering the figures for
From "The FIELD," July gth, i8g8.
By Special Permission.
THE NATUEALIST.
AVERY INTERESTING EXAMPLE of the rate of flight in birds has
recently occurred. The performance is an exceptional one, and is the best
that has taken place in this country. Mr. Clutterbuck, of Stanmore, a very
enthusiastic homing pigeon flier, who has spared neither expense nor trouble in
obtaining and training the best birds, on Monday, June 27th, won the race from
the Shetland Islands. The distance flown was 691J miles, and was accomplished
eight minutes under sixteen hours. The birds were liberated at Lerwick, Shetland
Islands, at 3.30 a.m., the wind and weather being favourable. The rate may be
taken at thirty-seven miles per hour. Had not the birds been liberated at such an
early hour in the morning, they could not have reached home that day, inasmuch
as they rarely, if ever, fly after 8 p.m. In estimating the speed of this flight of
homing pigeons it must be taken into consideration that the wind was favourable
during the whole course. It will be seen by the copy of the weather chart of the
Meteorological Office for the day, that after leaving the Shetland Islands, where
the wind was north-west, in the rest of the course the wind was due north, and
this continued the whole day, the chart being made up for 6 p.m., favouring in
Ohabt showing Direction of Wind, June 27.
every mile of the journey the flight of the birds, and the breezes were during the
whole day strong to fresh ; so that no conditions could possibly have been more
advantageous to the rapid flight from north to south
As I do not know of any long-distance flight in which the conditions as regards
time and the direction and force of the wind have been so accurately not^, I
regard this performance as one that should be permanently recorded as important
to ornithologists.
It is satisfactory to me to note that the utilisation of homing pigeons for
marine and other Government services, which I advocated in the Times more than
a quarter of a century since, has at last come to pass, and in a recent issue of that
journal I find that the Odessa correspondent writes as follows : —
The new Russian pigeon club, which is under Government superintendence, and whose
members are mostly officers, is giving many prizes this summer for pigeon-flying between Odessa
and Ck>n8tantinople, Odessa and Sulina, Odessa and Varna, and Sevastopol and Constantinople.
The pastime is intended to be of practical value whenever use may be found by the Government
for its services.
The utilisation of pigeons for military service has long been followed on the
Continent. W B. Tegetmeier.
185
each individual The effecta vary in different persons, and
this goes far to account for some men shooting better
before, others after, lunch, for some men being unable to
shoot if they smoke, others unable to shoot if they do not
I have tried to show that each must be a law to himself,
and therefore, I trust, helped some men who have failed to
get good results by following the rules of their mentora
186
VELOCITY OF THE FLIGHT OF BIRDS.
Very diflferent opinions are often expressed as to
the speed of game birds when in full flight ; and no
doubt much of the diff^erence of opinion is due to the
variations that arise from the amount of assistance
derived from the wind. Some persons think that
pigeons are faster than the generality of game birds,
and others the reverse. There is much more in-
formation available with respect to pigeons than with
regard to game birds, owing to the number of races
which continually occur with homing pigeons ; and
the following letter from Mr. Tegetmeier, which
appeared in the Field of ^January 22, 1887, gives
some detailed information on the subject. It will
be seen that in some of the races the speed of the
birds was more than double what it was in others ;
but it must be remembered that pigeons make their
way homewards, whether the winds be favourable or
adverse ; and consequently, in some of these instances
the birds were greatly assisted by the wind, while in
others they were retarded.
The question as to the rate at which birds fly is one
which has recently attracted considerable attention, and
very erroneous guesses have been hazarded.. There is only
one bird of which we have any authentic and reliable
record of its rate of flight, namely, the homing pigeon.
In the races which take place in this country and on the
Continent, the exact time at which the birds are Kberated
187
ifl recorded, and the moment they reach their homes the
number (previously unknown to the owner), which has been
stamped on the flight feathers, is telegraphed by him to the
secretary of the race, hence the returns are most reliable.
The velocities attained in the different races vary very
greatly with the state of the weather, for, as the birds fly
by sight, they are much hindered by mist or a dull atmo-
sphere, and they are also greatly affected by the force and
direction of the wiad. The only fair mode of proceeding,
therefore, is to take the average of a number of races,
which would necessarily include those flown under divers
conditions as to atmospheric influences.
The following table gives the result of the races flown
by the United Counties Flying Club in the year 1883 ; the
velocity in yards per minute of the fastest bird in each race
is given, and in the following column the number of miles
flown, and also the points of departure and arrival :
Velocity in Yards
No. per minute. Miles Flown.
1 1240 136— Swindon to Lowton.
2 963 195— Salisbury to Barrowford.
3 1620 208— Yentnor to Manchester.
4 992 270— Cherbourg to Manchester.
5 443 121 — ^Ventnor to Worcester.
6 732 201— Cherbourg to East Langton.
7 935 269 - Granville to Lullmgton.
8 1145 309 — Rennes to Church Langton
9 898 144— CI lerhourg to Cardiff.
10 990 175— Granville to Devizes.
11 1271 224— Rennes to Devizes.
12 804 129— Cherbourg to Reading.
13 916 168— Granville to Bexhill.
14 1406 232— Renrics to Stinningdale.
15 1293 87 — Worcester to Audenshaw.
16 1366 104— Winchester to Langdon.
17 891 77— Cherbourg to Ryde.
18 1162 140— Cherbourg to Norwood.
188
By adding the velocities in these races together, and
then dividing by the number of races (18), we obtain an
average velocity of 1059 yards per minute, which, omitting
fractions, is equivalent to 36 miles an hour.
The fastest race chronicled in the above table is No. 3,,
from Ventnor to Manchester, in which a velocity of about
fifty-five miles an hour was maintained for four hours in
succession; but then the weather was clear, and wind
favourable, being south-wesi.
The slowest race in the list was No. 5, in which the
winning bird only accomplished 443 yards per minute;
but this was so exceptionally slow a flight, that there must
have been a disturbing cause, as many of the best birds in
the kingdom competed : and from Granville (No. 7), three
weeks after, the same birds more than doubled the rate of
travelling, and a fortnight later some of them came from
Rennes (No. 8) with nearly treble the speed of the race
from Ventnor, although the distance was two and a half
times greater.
When it is thus demonstrated that the average rate of
speed of the fastest trained pigeons, la crime de la crSme —
the picked birds of thousands— is under forty miles an
hour, and that even with a favourable wind it does not
reach sixty, the crudity of the opinions often hazarded aa
to the rate of flight of game birds becomes evident.
It is much easier to gain a correct idea of the compara-
tive speed of other birds with that of pigeons than to
arrive at an independent conclusion from seeing them fly.
When a partridge is in the air we cannot accurately gauge
his rate of flight ; but knowing that the average rate of
flight of a pigeon is imder forty miles an hour, we can
make an approximation as to the speed of other birds.
W, B. Tegetmeier.
189
With game birds few experiments have been made ;
but the following article, from the Field of Feb. 19,
1887, gives particulars of some chronographic expe-
riments carried out with partridges and pheasants
as well as pigeons. In these instances the birds
were neither aided nor retarded by the wind, as the
day was perfectly calm. The difference between the
best pigeons in these experiments, and the average
of the races given above, was not very great ; and
the pheasants were a trifle faster than the pigeons,
especially in the open, while the partridges were not
quite so fast.
EXPERIMENTS TO ASCERTAIN THE VELOCITY OF FLIGHT
OF BIRDS.
The rate of speed attained by birds that are commonly
shot by sportsmen has been the subject of a good deal of
discussion in the Fields and very conflicting opinions have
been expressed with respect to their powers of flight. In
order, if possible, to obtain data of a more rehable
character than many vague surmises which have been
indiilged in, we requested the assistance of Mr. Griffith,
who has from time to time furnished our readers with so
much valuable information relative to the velocities of
€hot and the explosive force of grunpowders ; and he not
only very kindly complied with our request, but has im-
proved upon the method we suggested for carrying out
the experiments.
The series of trials was commenced with pigeons, which
it wa* thought might probably be more amenable than
wild game to the conditions connected with their flight,
190
and so, in the event of there being any hitch in the
arrangements, there wonld be a better chance for the
apparatus to be got into thorough working order before
attempting experiments with partridges or pheasants.
In order to secure a good standard of comparison, Mr.
Hammond, the well-known purveyor of pigeons for the
Hurlingham Club, was asked to select some of his very
best " blue rocks " to pass through the ordeal. The
experiments with these birds were carried out about two
months ago, on a fine clear day in the middle of December,
when there was no wind whatever to enhance or diminish
the natural speed of the birds.
The pigeons commenced their flight at one end of the
covered range, or experimental shooting gallery, of the
Schultze Gunpowder Company, in the New Forest, and the
birds thus had the opportunity of getting well on the
wing before they reached the other extremity, where was
placed the apparatus employed to record their rate of
speed after they had flown 40 yards. Two " screens," oi
arrangements of fine threads, were here put into connec-
tion with the electric apparatus, and through these threads
the birds must necessarily dash in their flight, in order to
make their exit from the range. The so-called " screens "
were composed of the finest invisible-grey cotton, so
easily broken as not to check the flight of the birds in the
slightest degree, and the successive breakages were instan-
taneously recorded by the electrical apparatus. Between
the two screens there was an intervening space of 6ft. 9in.
(a distance which was adopted from its being convenient
for regulating the chronograph), and, the apparatus having
recorded the time taken by the bird in traversing this
2| yards interval, the velocity was then readily convertible
into yards per second or miles per hour.
191
In order that the birds might fly directly towards these
Bcreens, all apertures in the building were darkened except
the open end of the range ; and, as the birds, on being
liberated, would naturally fly towards the broad dayhght,
and be likely to gain full confidence as they approached
the place of exit, it was hoped that each of them might
be led to do its best by the time it reached the point
where the record of speed was to be made. The results,
on the whole, were very satisfactory. Now and then a
bird would not fly straight, or would check its flight before
dashing through the screens ; but, whenever such was the
case, the record was rejected as defective, and accordingly
does not flgure in the list which is given below. The
nimiber of good flights, however, was sufficient to. enable
Mr. Griffith to make twelve fair records of speed, the
particulars of which are as follows :
FlOEONS IN
TlMB.
Sec
. -157
Bate ov
Speed.
THB 40 YaBDS
Range.
1st
"Yards
per Second.
14-3
Mil^
per Hour.
.... 29-3
2nd
. -156
. -168
14-4
.... 29-5
3rd
13-4
.... 27-4
4th ,
. -150
. -163
15-0
.... 30-7
5th
13-8
,.... 28-2
6th'. ,
. -139
. -169
. -153
. -168
. -176
. -157
16-2
.... 33-1
7th
13-3
.... 27-2
8th
14-7
.... 30-1
9th
13-4
.... 27-4
10th
12-8
.... 261
nth
14-3
.... 29-3
12th ,
. -136
, 16-6
.... 35-8
Having obtained the above chronographio results in the
covered range, Mr. Griffith was not content to let matters
192
end there, and he therefore determined to place these
velocities in comparison with records of flight in the open.
For this purpose he adopted a method very similar to that
which has since been suggested by "Vivarii Gustos"
(Field, Jan. 15) as a means of ascertaining the flight of
driven partridges. Mr. Griffith placed men in ambush at
various measured distances, with instructions to signal as
loon as a bird arrived opposite either of the stations.
When the bird had flown 25 yards from the starting point
in the open, the time was taken by means of a stop watch,
and the record was completed as soon as the signal was
given of the bird having accomplished either of the
measured distances. In four instances the birds went
straight away, and the records were as under :
Ratb of Speed.
Flight of Pigeons
IN the ofen.
240 yards 19
265 „
300 „
132 „
With reference to these results Mr. Griffith says: "1
expected the free long flight would beat the chronograph
velocities at 40 yards, but the reverse is the case. I
imagine the reason is, that when started from a Irap or
basket, as these were, the birds fly in alarm at first, but
when away in the open they do not keep up their full
pace." In neither case, however, did these " blue rocks"
come up to the average speed of the trained "homing
birds " of which Mr. Tegetmeier gave particulars in the
Field of the 22nd ult. There the average speed of the
winning birds in eighteen pigeon races amounted to 36
miles an hour — ^the highest velocity, with a favourable
Time.
Seconds.
Yards
per Second.
Miles
per Hour.
19
.... 12-6 ....
.. 25-8
20
.... 13-2 ....
.. 27-0
22
.... 13-6 ....
.. 27-9
10
.... 13-2 ....
.. 27-0
193
wind, being at the rate of 55 miles an hour. In Mr. Griffitli's
experiments the highest velocity was nearly 34 miles an
hour, without any wind whatever.
Mr. Griffith's next task was to try similar experiments
with partridges and pheasants, and for that purpose it was
desirable to obtain a supply of good wild birds, as those
kept in confinement could not be taken as fail* repreaenta^
tives of the power of flight of birds which had always
been at liberty. . The difficulty, however, for many weeks,
was to get such specimens as were wanted, the snow upon
the ground and other circumstances being imfavourable
to their capture. At length, however, some birds were
obtained, all very wild and active, and last week Mr.
Griffith proceeded with his experiments.
The conditions as to screens, &c., were as previously
stated. Some of the pheasants were inveterate rutmers
and would not rise to the screens at all ; others rose fairly,
but they did not all of them exhibit an equal degree of
earnestness, and the best six records obtained were as
follows, the first being that of a splendid bird, who went
through the screens in fine style. The respective times
and velocities are as follows :
Bats oj ^Spk eu.
"Yards ^""^"Mnea^*"
per Second. per Honr.
16-5 33-8
Pheasants in thb
40 Yxv>» Ranob.
TiMB
Sec.
Ist
.. -136
2nd
.. -156
3rd
.. -186
4th
.. -189
5th
.. -225
6th
.. -139
14-4 29-5
12-1 24-7
11-9 M'4
10-0 20-5
16-2 S3'l
Some of the birds were also timed in the open, and, as oa
the day of the previous experiments, there was no wind
whatever. Two of the pheasants went away straight st
194
fine speed ; a third doubled back, and is therefore omitted
from the record ; and the fourth went straight away, but
with much less velocity than the first two. From the
following records it will be seen that, contrary to the
experience with the blue rocks, the pheasants attained
their highest speed in the open :
Flight of
Pheasants in
THE Open.
265 yards.
220 „ .
140 „ .
Time
Seconds,
15-0 .,
11-8 .,
10-6 .
Miles
per Hour.
36-1
38-1
27-0
The concluding experiment was with the partridges,
which went fairly well at the screens, though they did not
seem to exei*t themselves very much; and the following
were the records obtained :
Rite ov Speed.
"fards
per Second.
17-7
^18-6
13-2
Fabtbidges
Time
Seconds,
•172
Rate
OF Speed.
Of THE 40 Yards
Ranoe.
let
tixda
per Second.
13-1 ....
Mil^
per Hour.
26-8
2nd
•188
•194
12-0 ....
24-5
3rd
11-6 ....
23-7
4th
•162
13-9 ....
28-4
Here, in the range, the partridges did not fly so fast as
the blue rocks ; but they did better in the open, so far
as the records go. Only two of them, however, flew far
enough to have their time recorded. The rest dropped to
the ground before they got to the men who were stationed
to signal their arrival The speed of these two were as
follows :
Rate of Speed.
Flight of
Fartbidoes in
the Open.
Time.
Seconds.
Yards
per Second.
170 yards... 12-6 13-5 ..
220 14-0 15-7 .
Miles
per Hour.
27-6
321
19e5
Mr. Griffith sajB, in conclusion : " I think the velocities
may be fairly taken as the speed of birds rising to the gun,
and also of driven game when not aided by any wind."
Of course, when driven birds are going down wind with
all the advantage of a strong breeze, the velocity of the
wind has to be added to the natural speed of the bird.
In order to afiFord an idea of the amount of assistance
that would be rendered to birds flying down wind, a short
table of velocities may be given. A wind moving at the
rate of thi*ee or four miles an hour is scarcely perceptible ;
and other gi*adations in miles per horn-, and feet per
fiecoud, are as follows :
Miles
per hour.
Feet Miles
per second. per hour.
Feet
per second.
Geiitle air 7 .
.. 10-25
Gale 40..
.... 58-68
Light breeze ...14 .
.. 20-50
Heavy storm. 60..
.... 88-
Steady breeze... 21 .
.. 30-75
Hun-icane ... 80..
....117-36
It will be seen that a mile per hour is just about
■equivalent to li feet per seconi
196
PENETRATION OF SHOT AND "TALL"
PHEASANTS.
{lam indebted to Mr. W. W. Watts and the Proprietors of "The Field "
for permission to publish the following , extracted from "The Field,"
December 18M, 1897.]
SiE, — As many experienced shots are under the impression that
pheasants 40 yards high are out of the killing range of ordinary sporting
guns, I have carried out the experiment as detailed below, with a view to
ascertaining whether any difference in penetration of shot fired vertically,
as against the same fired horizontally, does exist
I had some difficulty in finding a suitable elevation, but Mr. Alfred
Kichards came to my rescue, and, through his neighbour, Mr. Ne^ive,
obtained for me access to one of the highest windmills in Norfolk. I have
also to thank Mr. Moore, who, in the interest of sport, stopped his mill for
nearly a whole day.
The box hanging from the top of the poles lashed to the uppermost sail
was exactly 120 ft. from the ground — the measure being taken with a
plumb line suspended Irom it, which also guided my aim. The said box
had an apertun- at its bottom end of 8 in. by 3 in., which was filled by a
strawboard, and succeeding ones continued every ^ in. up to twenty-four.
Five shots were fired and the result noted, and then the box was lowered
and placed 40 measured yards distant to receive five horizontal shots. The
results were as follows :
Vertical Test.
Pellets through Id strawboarcls . .
,, » 17
,, 13
M 12
t» >» •*■*• >>
Average penetration, 14*31.
Horizontal Test.
1 Pellets through 22 strawboards . . . . 1
2 „ „ 18 „ .. .. 1
10 ,. „ 17 „ .. .. 3
5 „ „ 16 'd
5 „ „ 15 „ .. .. 5
2 „ „ 14 ., .. .. b
1 „ „ 13 ; 4
„ 12 2
„ 11 „ .... 5
„ 10 „ . .. 1
I Average penetration, 14*46.
The right barrel of a good 1 2-bore was used, which makes a pattern of about
140, and the load was 42grs. Schultze and Ij^oz. No. 6 Walker's hard shot.
The shooting was very even, the five shots of each series producing nearly
an equal number of hits (viz. , 2G pellets in the vertical rounds, and 26 in
the horizontal;. On referring to the figures it will be seen that the bulk
of the pellets stopped after penetrating 13, 14, and 15 cards, and the
average result is practically the same in each case.
A very aged and noted wildfowler of the Broads witnessed the trial, and
he was confident the vertical penetration would be weak, from the
observations he had made in large numbers of practical experiments on
fowl with his long single muzzle-loader by Egg.
This experience points to the fact that birds overhead appear nearer
than they really are ; or. if this is not so, the difficulties of judging where
and how to fire in front are intensified at this angle.
W. W. Watts.
[Mr. Watt's experiments, as described above, appear to us to thoroughly
confirm the theoretical conclusions on this subject — viz., that there would
be no practical difference in the penetration of the shot at the height of
40 yards, from that given at the same distance when fired horizontally.
Theoretically there would be a slight amount of difference, owing to the
*' gravity pull ; " but tlu» time of the shot in traversing 40 yards is only
about one-seventh of a second, and in that interval of time the influence
of gravity would lessen the height • f the shot by the 49th part of 16 feet
— i.e., about four inches ; so that firing vertically at a target placetl at the
height of 40 yards would be equivalent to firing horizontally at one place-d
•At a distance of 40 yards 4 inches. — Ed.]
197
The sketch herewith will illustrate how the trial was conducted :
Penetration^ Caiid Kalk attached to Sail of Windmill.
198
EFFECT OF CHANGING POWDERS.
The following letters, which appeared in the Fields
will no doubt be interesting, showing how one's
shooting may be interfered with owing to the chang-
ing from one powder to another, when there is a
difference in velocity, thereby upsetting one's calcu-
lation as to '• time" — that is, in other words, as to the
amount of allowance in getting the shot to the object
to be struck — from the fact of one being slower
than the other. This is not altogether dependent on
gunpowders, because sometimes the construction of
the lock may cause a longer interval from the pull
of the trigger to the ignition of the charge. Such
a source of error was made very apparent to me
once when carrying out some trials with a flint-lock
gun ; one had to give a greater allowance, owing to
the slow ignition. In the same way a hang-fire will
also interfere with the shooter's calculations. A very
difficult question has thus arisen for the inventors of
new powders, etc., the faults of which have been
very apparent when tested as to velocity with the
chronograph.
199
CJOMPARATIVB TRIALS OF POWDERS.
Sm, — From time to time you have kindly published
records of trials I have carried out, and I therefore have
the pleasure of giving you full details of one carried out
on the 22nd and 23rd inst. with black, Schultze, E.G., and
the new J.B. powders, which I hope will prove of interest
to your readers.
The powders were shot in the turn as numbered, the
barrel wiped out after each kind; the force-gauge
accurately tested with 8oz. between each powder; all
charges weighed, both shot and powders.
12-bore B.L. trial gun,' by Charles Lancaster; weight,
61b. 2oz. ; barrels, 31in., choke ; distance, 40 yards ; Field
force-gauge ; size of shot. No. 6 (270 to ounce) ; Eley's
best cases used throughout; all shot from the same
barrel. Fractions in averages not taken.
Trial No. 1. — 42grs. J.B. ; card, felt, cloth, l^oz. shot,
cloth ; powder well pressed down • case well rounded
over.
Pattern.
212
246
184
231
222
198
219 ,
208
215 ••• ... Average ..• 2*07
(Figure of merit, 422.)
[Since the publication of the previous Editions, "J.B." powder has
been practically withdrawn, but the "E.G." Powder Company have
issued a new powder, viz., " E.C., No. 2," and which I consider to be
one of the best hulk powders I have ever shot with, either at the target,
or game.] — ^Ed
[** E.G., No. 2," has been superseded by " E.G., No. 3."].
Force
oz. on
gauge.
36 -
PeUeta
on lOin
pUte.
=- 19
.
Force
per
pellet.
18-9
113 -
i- 62
=
218
27 -
- 15
=
1-80
110 -
- 60
=
2-20
104 -^
- 47
=
2-21
60 H
- 29
=
2-07
89 -^
- 42
=
2-12
80 H
- 38
=
211
200
Trial No. 2. — 42grs. E.G.; card, felt, cloth, l^oz. shot,
doth ; powder well pressed down ; case well rounded
over.
Pattern.
Force
oz. on
gauge.
PeUets
on lOin.
plate.
Force
pellet
221
• ••
•••
87 H
- 40 ^
217
230
• «•
•••
96 -.
- 45 —
213
237
...
•••
121 H
- 68 =
2-08
224
• ••
.••
94 -i
- 42 =
2-24
233
• ••
...
111 -
- 61 =
2-18
218
• ••
•••
80 -:
- 36 =
2-29
228
• ••
..•
10* -f- 48 -=
2-27
220
...
...
84 -
- 38 =~
2-21
926
...
.. •
ATeK4
^e ...
2- 19
(Figure of merit
445.)
IVial No. 3.— 42grs
Schnltze ; card, felt, cloth, 1 Joz. shot,
oloth; powder
wad
just press
ed home ;
case ordinary
rounding
over.
Fkttern.
Force
oz. on
gauge.
Pellets
on lOin.
plate.
Force
per
pellet.
216
•••
•••
75 -
H 37 =
203
219
«••
•••
86 -
=- 42 =
205
181
•••
■••
28 -
j- 15 =
1-87
206
.••
...
75 -
j- 37 =
2-03
198
•••
...
49 -
=- 25 =
1-96
210
.»•
...
67 -
r- 33 «=
203
188
•••
.*•
31 -
•- 17 =
1-82
227
...
...
101 -
1- 47 =
215
205
•••
...
Averaj
je ...
1-99
(Figure of merit,
404.)
201
'Irial No. 4. — Sdrs. C. & H. No. 6 ; card, felt, card, 1 j^oz
shot, cloth ; not pressed ; ordinary rounding over.
attern.
221
Force
oz. on
gauge.
7Z -
Pellets
on lOia
plate.
r 35 =
Force
per
pellet
209
232
•
110 -
- 50 =
2-20
219
84 -
■- 41 ==
2-05
229
105 -
- 48 —
219
209
62 -
- 30 -=
2-07
220
81 -
- 38 =
213
226
89 -
- 43 =
207
231
101 -
- 46 =
2-19
223
Ayera(
je
2-12
(Pi{
jure
of merit,
435.)
The above figures need no comment from me, except
perhaps the very regular shooting in trials Nos. 2 and 4.
The next trials were of a more practical test as to the
relative merits of the powders from a sportsman's point of
view, viz., at moving objects, such as clay pigeons and
very best blue rock pigeons.
With E.G., Schultze, and black, I found Little or no
difference, standing 30 yards from the clay pigeon trap. I
made a good score, and good breaks; but when I used
J.B. there seemed a falling off in the velocity, so that at
first all my shooting was " too late," — which term, I think,
will be well understood by those who have attempted
clay pigeon shooting at a long rise. I then altered my
time allowance, and broke them as well as with the other
powdei-s.
The next trial was at the very best blue rock pigeons I
could obtain, thrown up by an attendant standing 35
yards to the windward side, and allowing them to cross
202
me at right angles, so as to give fast crossing shots, thereby
testing the allowance to be made. Here, again, I found
ray judgment correct with E.G., Schultze, and black, but
on using the J.B. I found I was tailing my birds, although
not really clean missing one. I then extended my amount
of allowance ahead, and found I killed my birds well.
Most of my shots were at from 30 to 50 yards from the
gun ; and, as there was a stiff N.E. wind, they crossed me
at a great pace.
I fancy that many when first using J.B. will be very
liable to wound game unless they get more ahead than
they have been accustomed to allow. This I fancy is due
to its slower combustion, which we have all been led to
beheve means loss of time, which you have so clearly
pointed out in your issue of the 5th inst,, p. 633.
Charles Lancaster.
151, New Bond Street, W.
2nd June, 1888.
J. B. powder. — ^Mr. Charles Lancaster's trials are worthy
of the sportsman's consideration.
It seems to be generally accepted that the combustion
with the above powder is slower than with the others, and,
as Mr. C. Lancaster points out, this means a falling off in
velocity — so much so that the shooting becomes "toolate'^
and " tailing " birds the order of the day. We certainly do
not want a powder by the use of which we shall be liable
to wound birds, neither do we want our " time " spoilt. I
have made some few experiments with the J.B. powder,
and I cannot say that at present I find it equals either E.C.
or Schultze in force, although the recoil, on account of the
slower combustion, may be somewhat less.
203
Lord de Grey, I believe, shoots with No. 2 diamond
grained black, and his lordship's "time" is excellent.
Where would he be if he used " J.B. ?" I do not object to
quick combustion in a powder, in fact I rather prefer it^
but then I use guns of suflficient weight to stand it, and I
am frequently asked how it is they kill so well, and where
I get my cartridges, &c.
Purple Heather.
Sir, — All gunners must have been much interested in the
trials of J.B., E.G., Schultze, and C. & H. No. 6, by Mr.
Charles Lancaster, as recorded in the Field of May 26, and
must also be very grateful to him for such useful information^
especially as regards the shooting at moving objects. I
fancy it must be apparent to all that J.B. is the least suited
of the four powders for ordinary sporting guns. The
object of the shooter is to get his shot on to the bird a&
quickly as possible; therefore any extra time allowance
must be a disadvantage to him. A clean kill, is of course,
the desideratum. For heavy shoulder guns, however, and
for punt guns, I should fancy that J.B. would be just the
thing, as its slow combustion would lessen the recoil, and
this is a great matter with heavy charges. Moreover, these
guns are generally fired at birds at rest; and if on the wing,
time allowance would be of less consequence in firing at a
flock than in shooting at a single bird. It appears to me
that J.B. would be admirably adapted for rifles, as the slow
combustion, and consequently more gradual force imparted
to the bullet, would prevent any tendency of it to strip or
pass out of the barrel without taking the grooving. It also
seems to me that J.B. might be used with great advantage
for artillery.
204
I know very little about the manufactnre of nitro-
oompounds, but I should imagine that the grain would have
to be made larger for punt guns and oannon, as is the case
with black powder. I'. S. H.
Lymington, May 28.
9th June, 1888.
Sm, — ^I enclose herewith results of trials as to velocities,
which may interest you. I think they bear out my tests
at moving objects, published in your issue of May 26.
ChariJes Lancaster.
151, New Bond Street, W., June 2.
Trials at Hounslow Mills, May 29, 1888, of Cartridges for
Mr. C. Lancaster, all at 120 ft from Muzzle,
Velocities.
Pressures.
Powder
Obserred
Velocitiea.
MeanO.V.
Ist Crusher.
(1 inch.)
2nd Crusher.
(2i inch.)
C. AH. No. 6...
>> >j •••
j.b! .'......!!
Ft sec
840
•
840
850
•
850
820
850
•
•
770
•
810
•
790
800
867
853
840
880
Ft. sec
- 842
i- 790
J
^ 84^6
Per sq. in.
44001b.
41501b.
36001b.
39501b.
53751b.
54001b.
Per sq. in.
44001b.
41001b.
41501b.
"
"
45001b.
E.C
55251b.
60101b.
»
All cartridges loaded as per trial published in Field, May 26, 1888.
* The asterisks signify that charges were fired, but no records made, the
wire of "^ chronograph screen not being struck by a pellet.
205
VARIATIONS IN PATTERN OF GUNS.
From the FiMy November 17tli, 1894.
Sir, — ^I should be much obliged if you or some of your
readers would kindly give me their opinion as to whether the
following is a good performance for pattern for a 12-bore
modified choke gun, averaging about 170 pellets in a 30in.
circle on a target at 40 yards, when charged with 42grs. of
Schultze powder, and l^oz. of No. 6 shot (270 to ounce).
The pellets are as a rule, spread sufficiently closely and evenly
throughout the 30in. circle (with the exception of two or
three gaps, which seem always to occur) to prevent a partridge
escaping through it; but every now and then (perhaps once
in ten or twelve shots) the circle contains only about 80 or 100
pellets so irregularly spread that a bird could escape almost
anywhere in it.
Now I am inclined to think that in the very best guns,
whether chokes or cylinders, such a bad and erratic pattern
as I have just described will occasionally occur, and cannot be
accounted for. Moreover, I should sa}^ that no 12-bore gun,
loaded with the above charge, can be counted upon, as a
general rule, to spread its pellets so closely and evenly as to
avoid leaving any gaps which would let a partridge through
in the so-called kilHng circle. But I should very much like
to hear the experience of others on the above points.
Whimbrel.
[If our correspondent will refer to the records we have
recently published, he will see that, in half a dozen successive
rounds, one or more instances frequently occur in which the
pattern is considerably below the average, although the
cartridges for these experiments are loaded with an ex-
ceptional amount of care. There are also wide variations in
velocity, recoil and strain in the barrel. Whether the
differences result from variations in the strength of the caps,
we cannot say with certainty, but we think it very probable.
Generally speaking, the black powders are less susceptible to
such differences thap are the nitro powders, as will be seen by
referring to an article on "Standard Records with the 12-bore,"
in the Field of Sept. 29th lasl ^With No. 2 black powder the
patterns varied from 160 to 180, the average being 174 ; of six
rounds with No. 4 black, the lowest pattern was 120 and the
highest 187 — the average being 164; and with some of the
uitro powders the differences were still greater. — Ed.]
206
SPREAD OF SHOT FROM GUNS OF
DIFFERENT GAUGE.
Many are, no doubt, under the impression that
16, 20, and 2 8-bore guns will shoot their respective
^jharges closer than the usual 12, and that they are
harder shooting guns under those circumstances. I
have never found this the case ; and, in support of
my opinion, insert the following letter, with edito-
rial remarks, from the Field o{ the 22nd December,
1888, which fully endorse it : —
Sm, — I observe that your able correspondent " Purple
Heather," in the Field of the 15th inst, distinctly asserts
that with 1 oz. of No. 6 shot a 20 or a 16-bore will not shoot
closer than a 12. It would be interesting to know whether
this is an absolutely reliable and thoroughly ascertained
fact ; for it is entirely contrary to the general opinion on
the subject.
It constantly happens that a man, finding his shooting
unsatisfactory with a 16-bore, and believing himself not to
be a sufficiently good shot to use such a close-shooting
gun, straightway discards the IG-bore. and provides him-
self with a 12, in the hope that his shooting may thereby
improve. Whether his hopes are generally or ever
realised may be quite another matter. Perhaps I may be
allowed to relate my own experience on this point. It
will be found in one respect to support the assertion of
■a Purple Heather."
207
I am what may be called an indiflfereut shot — ^that is to
say, though I manage to bag a good deal of game in a
day's shooting, still I very often miss astonishingly easy
shots. I have always been in the habit of shooting with
a 16-bore, made by a first-class London gun-maker. How-
ever, last season some of my relations and friends strongly
advised me to try a 12-bore — ^my gun-maker also gave me
the same advice — all holding the opinion that only a very
good shot should use a 16-bore, as it carried so close as
greatly to increase the chance of missing the object aimed
at. I allowed myself to be persuaded by such apparently
cogent reasoning, and have shot with a 12-bore all through
this season. The result has been most disappointing. I
have not shot nearly so well as I did with the 16, and have
had the trouble of carrying a heavier weapon (6| lb.).
I am sorry I changed, but, before discarding my 12 and
resuming my 16-bore, I intend to persevere a little longer,
and load with only 1 oz. of shot instead of 1 J oz., which, up
to the present time, I have been using. I may add that both
my guns are by the same maker, and fit me most
accurately, the right barrel in each gun being non-choke,
and the left modified choke.
So far, therefore, I am inclined to agree with " Pm-plo
Heather," and beheve that an average shot is likely to
fihoot every bit as well with a 16-bore as with a 12.
TiREUR.
pt appears to us that the spread of the pellets depends
not so much upon the size of the bore as on the nature of
the boring. Whatever may have been the case in the pre-
chokebore period, the results of experiments with choked
barrels go to show that, with equal charges of shot, the
patterns of the small-bores are not closer than those of
208
guns of larger gauge. In the Field Gun Trial of 1879,
there were twenty-three guns loaded with equal charges
of shot (1 oz.), eleven of these guns being 20-bores, eleven
16-bores, and one 12-bore, The patterns of the 20-bores
averaged 147, those of the 16-bores averaged 162, and
that of the 12-bore was 183. Again, in our issue of
April 14 last, particulars were published of the trial of a
24-bore gun and a light 12-bore, with equal charges of
powder anH shot ; the 24-bore gave 154 pattern, and the
12-bore 200. And a few weeks ago another trial took
place {Fields Nov. 10), in which the charges were not
equal, but of the quantities that were used the 28-bore
put 68 per cent, in the 30-in. circle, the 24-bore put in
69 per cent., and the 12-bore 71 per cent. But these were
choke-bores. With the average 12-bore cylinder gun,
the portion of the charge put in the target at 40 yards is
only 40 per cent., the remaining 60 per cent, being outside
the 30-in. circle; and it seems probable, from what he
states, that such a gun would suit " Tireur " better than a
choke-bore. — Ed.]
The " art of fitting " a shooter requires the gun
to be adapted in all its parts to the physique of the
person to be fitted. The mere fact of shortening a
stock to any length may still fail to bring the other
parts of the gun within comfortable ease of handling
to a short puny man ; and the same will be the case
if you shorten the barrels and leave the stock too
long and awkward
Scoring a Right and Left with Lancaster Game Scorer.
No 50] [209
p
210
THE LANCASTER GAME SCORER.
(From the Press).
A very simple, yet ingenious, game marker has just been
introduced into the sporting world by Mr. Charles
Lancaster, of 151, New Bond Street, W., and there can be
no doubt whatever but that it will speedily become very
popular. Many markers have been invented from time to
time, with more or less success, but this new one (see III, No.
50, page 201») is calculated to outrival, all its predecessors,
rPUS«
tSH\7&
and become recognised as the marker par excellence. The
first illustration we give is the exact size of the scorer, and
from it anyone can readily see the working of it. ^e also
give a second illustration, showing the scorer as attached to
the gun stock. Very Uttle wood indeed has to be removed
from the stock in order to fix the marker, so that those
sportsmen who have guns with the stock after the pattern
of Turner's Featherweight, &c., can easily have it fixed to
their guns ; and another item to which special attention has
been given in designing it, is to construct it in such a
manner that it may go on the side instead of being let in
211
the top of the stock. As the working parts are made of
brass, there is no reason to fear they will be aflFected by
Tusi ; and, again, the whole thing is so light that the
balance of the gun is in no way interfered with.
The manipulation of the marker is exceedingly simple
{see III.) The slide is pushed forward by the thumb, and this
movement does not require the hand to support the stock
in the act of pressing, so as to insure the full movement of
the thumb-piece. When the slide is pushed forward, the
numbered wheel with the units turns round one number
(giving a click in doing so), and when it has moved from
to 9 the second wheel, with the tens, is brought into
contact, and caused by the same push to rotate one figm-e at
the same time as the unit wheel brings the into view. The
«ame process of nine registrations has then again to be
gone through, before the decimal wheel is again brought
into contact, and in this manner 109 may be registered
before it is necessary to commence over again.
212
MEMORANDA.
SHOT — SIZES AND NUMBER OF PELLETS PER OZ. AVDP,
KaWOABTLB
Walkebs, Pabees & Co., Limited,
LONDOS
Patb
KI.
Habd
AAA .
.. 40
AAA ...
... 36
AAA .
.. 36
AA .
.. 48
AA ...
... 41
AA
.. 41
A
.. 56
A ...
... 44
A
.. 44
BBBB .
.. 56
BBB .
.. 64
BBB ...
... 51
BBB .
.. 51
BB .
.. 76
BB ...
... 55
BB
.. 57
B .
.. 88
B ...
... 64
B
.. 66
1
.. 104
1
... 79
1
.. 80
2
.. 122
2
... 96
2
.. 98
3 .
.. 140
3
... 119
3
.. 120
4
.. 172
4
... 173
4
.. 180
5 .
.. 218
5
... 220
5
.. 220
6 .
.. 270
4C
G
... 268
6
.. 270
7 .
.. 340
7
... 345
7
.. 345
8
.. 450
8
... 450
8
.. 450
9
.. 580
na
aJleriizunot
by count
10 .
.. 850
Charles Lanoastek's special size of shot, "Medium
Game " 240 to oz., is the best for all Shootings.
213
SHOT — NUMBER OP PELLETS IN A CHARGE.
(op NEWCASTLE MANUFACTURE).
No».
faz.
ioz.
lOZ.
lioz.
lioz.
BeUtiTe
Number of
PeUets.
Belatiye
Weight
(= Striking
Force) of
the PeUett.
3
105
122
140
157
175
1-000
1-000
4
129
150
172
193
215
1-229
0-814
6
163
191
218
245
272
1-555
0-642
6
202
236
270
304
338
1-929
0-519
7
255
297
340
382
425
2-429
0-412
8
334
394
450
506
562
3-214
0-311
WEIGHTS OF POWDER CHARGES
IN DRACHMS, GRAINS AND GRAMMES.
1 Drachm
= 27-34 Grains
= 1-772 Gi
-ammea
2
54-6
3-54
9>
H »•
58-1
3-76
»9
n »
61-5
3-98
1«
H „
64-9
4-20
»»
2i „
68-3
4-42
»
H »
71-8
4-64
»
2f ,,
75-2
4-87
»
n „
78-6
5-09
t)
3
82-0
532
»l
H »
85-4
5-54
»»
H »
88-9
5-76
»
214
LEGAL SEASONS for KILLING GAHE, &c.
evoulmd and
Wales.
Kinds of Game.
Grouse or Moor Fowl
Blackgameor Heath Fowl
Ptarmigan
Partridge
Pheasant
Quail .
Landrail
Bustard
Hare .
Male Fallow Deer
Other Male Deer
Wildfowl and other
birds not gamef
Begins. Ends.
Scotland.
Begins. Ends.
Aug 12 Dec. lo;
Aug.20*|Dec. 10
No close season
Sept. 1 |Feb. 1
Oc*. 1 IFeb. 1
As WildBinis
ditto I ditto
Sept. 1 March 1
No closcseaaon
ditto ditto
ditto ditto
Aug. 1
March I
Aug. 12
Aug. 20
Aug. 12
Sept. 1
Oct. I
As Wild
ditto
ditto
No close
ditto
ditto
Aug. 1
Dec. 10
Dec. 10
Dec. 10
Feb. 1
Feb. 1
Biids
ditto
ditto
season
ditto
ditto
March 1
Ireland.
Begins. ! Ends.
Aug.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Aug.
June
June
12,Dec. 10
20Dec. 10
20lJan.
IFeb.
2u Jan.
20;Jan.
liJan.
12|April 20
lOSept. 29
lO'Dec. 31
10
1
10
10
10
Aug. 1 March 1
* Except in Somerset, Devon, and the New Forest, where
the commencement of black game shooting is deferred until
September 1st.
t On the apphcation of the local authorities, the Secretary of
State in England and Wales, the Secretary for Scotland in
Scotland, or the Lord Lieutenant in Ireland, has power to vary
or abolish the close time for any bird or birds in any county by
order to be published in the Gazette. These various powers have
been exercised in many cases.
Quail, landrail, woodcock, and snipe, cannot legally be shot
without a game licence.
It is unlawful to kill pheasants, partridges, grouse, moor-game,
or hares, on a Sunday or Christmas Day.
The close time for hares in Ireland ranges from March 1st in co.
liimerick, and April 1st, in the majority of cases, to August 12th
all over Ireland. The close season is fixed by the Lord Lieutenant
on the application of the Grand Juries in the various counties.
Although ther^ is no close time for hares in England during
which they may not be killed, except on Sundays and Christmas
Day, it is illegal to sell or expose for sale any hare during the
months of March, April, May, June and July, under the Hares
Preservation Act of 1892 (55 & 56 Vict. c. 8), unless they are
"foreign hares" imported into Great Britain (sec. 3).
(From " The Field bports Protection and Encouragement Association.")
215
GUN LICENCES.
£ 8. d.
Licence (Annual) to Use or Carry a Gun: —
To expire 31st July ., 10
Licence to Shoot Game : —
K taken out after Slst July, and before
Ist November, to expire 31st July
following 8
After 3l8t July, to expire Slst October
following 2
After 3l8t October, to expire 31st July
following 2
For a continuous period of Fourteen
days 10
Gamekeepers (Great Britain) : —
To expire 31st July 2
A Licence to kill Game covers a Gun Licence,
WEIGHTS OF SOME GAME BIRDS, Etc.
For purposes of reference it is useful to have a table of
the weights of the more common game birds and animals
that are shot. With that object in view I have inserted
the following : —
Capercailie 11 lbs. to 13 lbs.
European woodcock 12 ozs. to 14 ozs
Black game 3^ „ 3A „
Great, or full snipe 7 „ 9 „
Red grouse (Scotch) 1^ „ l| „
Common „ 4 „ 5 ,,
Pheasmnt (cock) ... 2l „ 3j „
Jack „ 2 „ 2i „
(hen) ... i?i „ 8 „
Hare 71bfl. to 9 lbs.
Grey or « English "
Rabbit 2^ „ U „
Wood pigeon ... ij „ ij .,
partridge 10 ozs. to 14 ozs.
French partridge... 15 „ l^lbs.
The above weights are those usually attained to by
ordinary well-grown specimens, but it must not be forgotten
that occasionally exceptional weights are recorded, much
exceeding those given.
216
BOOKS ON SHOOTING.
Charles Lancaster begs to draw the attention of
his patrons to the following works, copies of which every
sportsman should have in his library : —
" The Dead Shot, or Sportsman's Complete Guide." By
" Marksman."
" Shooting." The Badminton Library. 2 vols. By Lord
Walsingham and Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey, Bart.
" Letters to Young Shooters." By Sir Ralph Payne-
Gallwey, Bart.
" Fur and Feather Series." Edited by Alfred E. T.
Watson.
Published by Longmans, Green & Co., London.
'' Practical hints on Shooting." By " 20-Bore."
Published by Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., London.
" Something about Guns & Shooting." By '* Purple
Heather."
Published by Alexander & Shepheard, London.
" Practical Wildfowling." By Hy. Sharp.
Published by L. Upcott Gill, London.
And as the best, fairest, and most exhaustive work on
Guns, Rifles, Ammunition, &c.,
" The Modern Sportsman's Gun and Rifle." 2 vols. Bj the
late J. H. Walsh ("Stonehenge"), Editor of the Field.
Pubhshed by Horace Cox, London.
And lastly,
'' Notes on Shooting," with instructions concerning the
use of Black Gunpowder. By an Old Manufacturer.
Published by Curtis's & Harvey, London, and distributed
gratis to their Patrons.
217
CORRESPONDENCE ON DEFECTIVE
SHOOTING.
The following Letters have appeared in the Field: —
ith January, 1887.
LESSONS FOR BAD SHOTS.
Sm, — ^I have read with much interest the correspondence
about shooting that has appeared in your columns during
the last fortnight. Valuable, doubtless, as much of thf
advice given may be, it, however, leaves the reader some-
what puzzled, as the various testimony given is slightly
conflicting. Everyone must admit that an " ounce of prac-
tice is worth a ton of theory," and it is doubtless far easier
for a beginner to become a good shot by practical demon-
stration than by addUng his brains' over the vaiious abstruse
calculations that have recently appeared. I would offer a
suggestion which, should it be carried out, many yoimg
men would doubtless avail themselves of. Personally, 1
am an execrable shot ; why, I do not know. I have a good
eye, play well at biUiards, and am quite up to the average
at a stationary object with a rifle; in fact, instead of
improving as a game shot, I am retrograding. Sir, imagin-
ing that there must be others in the same plight, would
it not answer the purpose of some sporting gentleman
{himself a first-rate shot), desii-ous of increasing his income,
to start a shooting ground somewhere in the suburbs of
London, and advertise in your columns that he was pre-
pared to give lessons in shooting? The ground might
ill so be used by Rportsmen to test new guns, and by this
218
means one could be sure of one's gun fitting one properly.
With details I need not trouble you, but clay pigeons and
other mechanical contrivances would, of course, be found
there. Should the initiation of this idea be also a fisher--
man, he might find many pupils who would be glad to-
have a few practical hints from a past master in the art,
such as throAving from the reel, casting, &c., as these
matters do not come by intuition.
In conclusion, I can only say that I should hail with
pleasm-e the knowledge of where I could be put up to
such wrinkles as would make me a decent shot, and should
be quite Avdlhng to give a fair quid pro quo for this instruc-
tion.
Bad Shot.
3rd December^ 1887.
LESSONS IN SHOOTING.
Some time ago there was a con-espondence in your
columns respecting "Lessons in Shooting," and I noticed
that tliere were letters from some saying that they had
shooting grounds, and that they gave lessons to thos&
wishing for themi I should like to hear if any of your
readei'S availed themselves of the tuition offered; if so,.
Avith what results. I mean whether any of them really
benciited by them, both as to the fit of a gun, and also the
art of handling it with effect. As I am rather a duffer, 1
should feel much obliged if these gentlemen would answer
my inquiiies in detail, and recommend me to the best man
as a good professor.
H. H.N,
219
10/A December, 1887.
riiR, — -I notice a letter in the Field of last Saturday,
signed H. H. N., asking if any of your correspondents can
recommend. a "good professor" toteachtheart of a/joo+ipg
&c, I strongly advise H. H. N. to pay a visit to Mr.
Charles Lancaster, of 151, New Bond Street. I myself have
leamt many valuable hints from him, ajid I have taken
several friends of mine (who were, I may say, real "duflPers"}
to him, and they have all blessed me and their "professor,"
inasmuch as they can now make very respectable bags.
The fa(;t is, that Mr. C. Lancaster is not only an excellent
and painstaking " coach," but he understands better than
any gun-maker I have come across how to fit a man properly
with a guru I notice H. H. N. asks particularly about fit.
Of com'se, the sportsman himself must state weight of gun
ho can conveniently wield during a long day's tramp.
This is a very important question, as I have lately discovered.
I may mention one fact, which will, I think, show that
Mr. Lancaster can assist in the art of shooting. I met Miss
Annie Oakley the first day she shot at his private grounds,
and I was also present when she first came to our club
ground (the Gun Club). At this period Miss Oakley could
kill about one blue rock out of five. After Mr. Lancaster
had finished his course of instniction she killed forty-one
rocks out of fifty, and for this performance she selected her
Lancaster 20-bores — a pair of beautiful guns built for
exhibition shooting — ^in preference to her Lancaster 12's.
Miss A, Oakley had previously told me that "her ambition
was to kill thirty-five blue rocks out of fiity before she
left England,"
Purple Heather.
220
Sir, — 1 have great pleasure in being able to put H. H. N.
on the right road to getting some lessons in shooting.
Mr. C. Lancaster, gim-maker, New Bond Street, has a capital
practice ground about one mile and a quarter from
Willesden Junction (on the London and North Western),
where he is always ready to give his advice and
attendance.
If H. H. N. is really " rather a duflFer," but still ready
and willing to leam, I feel sure that Mr. Lancaster will be
able to teach him, as he not only supplies everything in
the way of pigeons and glass balls, &c., but he
has also the happy knack of being able to " spot " exactly
what are the faults of his pupil, why he misses, ajid to
get him to correct them. Personally, I am certain
that my shooting is infinitely better since I shot on hia
groimds.
Black and Red.
Sir, — I should advise H. H. N. to take lessons in shooting
from Mr. Charles Lancaster, of 151, New Bond Street
Mr. Lancaster gave me some lessons, at his private groimds,
and I was greatly benefited. Should H. H. N.'s gims not
fit him, I am sure Mr. Lancaster would make the necessary
alterations.
M.
Sir, — In reply to your coiTespondent H. H, N., I have
the pleasure of recommending Mr. Charles Lancaster, of
151, New Bond Street, as being well able to give lessons
in shooting. 1 consulted him some time ago as to the
reason of my missing rocketting pheasants, when I was
able to shoot with good results at other game, but could
not manage to shoot well in covert. He very kindly waited
upon me for a whole day, watching my shooting carefully
221
and after each beat suggested certain points for me to
watcL This I did, and 1 am glad to say with satisf actoi-y
results, so much so, that at the two last stands my average
of kills was so much increased over what it had been
previously, that lookers-on could hardly believe that I was
the one shooting. From Mr. Lancaster's conversation,
1 gathered that he had a very gi-eat knowledge of the art
of shooting ; and I am sure that if H. H. N. will pay him
a visit, he ^vill learn more in half-an-hom' than he could by
himself in a whole season.
O. R. 13.
Gloucester, Dec. 7.
Sir, — In answer to your conespondent H. II. N.'s query
re " Lessons in Shooting," I recommend him to apply to
Mr. C. Lancaster, New Bond Street, who will soon teach
him all that can be taught in the art of shooting
Being myself an elderly party, scarcely ever having
handled a gun, I went to him last winter and took several
" lessons " at his shooting groimd.
At first I could not *' hit a haystack " but after a little
practice, and with a gun which Mr. Lancaster had " sided "
for me considerably (which, being rather round and broad
chested, I require), I could kill easily thirty-six out of
forty-eight pigeons, if not more, and was thus initiated
into handling a gun.
To become a good shot requires years of practice;
coolness is the chief requisite — ^beginners, like myself,
young or old, are always too quick; however, I may add
that I took a small " shoot " this season, for the first time
in my life, and have had very good fun, and fairly good
spori.
A Lover of Country Lifbs.
222
Sib, — In reply to the enquiry of H. H. N. regarding
lessons in shooting, I can, from personal experience, strongly
recommend Mr. Charles Lancaster, of Bond Street, and
can also testify to the excellent arrangements at his shoot-
ground near Willesden Junction.
I may add that 1 am, like H. H. N., a bad shot, and
require a gun of peculiar shape. Mr. Lancaster recently
built one for me, and I cannot speak too highly of the
trouble that gentleman took to fit me, and of his invariable
courtesy and attention.
L. W.
Sm, — ^Having been for years much the same sort of shot
as H. H. N. describes himseli, I am glad to give him my
experience. I could shoot rabbits a Uttle, but nothing else.
After getting my gun altered to fit me, I took three lessons
from Mr. Charles Lancaster, and he taught me to shoot
birds. I have not had a day's covert shooting since being
coached, but have had two or three small days after
partridges, with the result of killing a brace clean where
formerly I would have only " knocked dc wn " one bird.
I have reason to think the improvement in the case of
pheasants would have been still more marked, especially
as a long shot requires so much more skill than a close
one. .
I can confidently recommend your correspondent to
try Jlr. Lancaster. I art) sure he could not have a better
-coach.
J. Straker.
Temple, Dec. 7.
223
Sir, — ThiB season Mr. Charles Lancaster built me a gun,
«nd gave me some instruction. I am exceedingly pleased
with the result, having derived great benefit both from the
fit of the gun and the tuition. If H. H. N. requires further
information I shall be happy to give it him if he will
oommunicate with me.
Charles It. Wilson.
Junior Constitutional Club,
Regent-street, S.W., Dec. 8.
6th January^ 1889.
Sir,— Tour correspondent ** Duffer," vn his letter in your
issue of the 8th December, headed " Improvement of
Defective Shooting," asked how I proceeded in order to
improve my shooting. I could not reply to that question
tn few words, as it took me a long time to work out the
-answer to the riddle ; but, speaking generally, I may say
that the causes which give rise to bad shooting cover an
extremely wide ground. They are certainly not to be
<5ompressed within the limits of a single letter; and
without a previous knowledge of the individual and hig
fiurroundings, I should as little think of ventming to
^ccoimt (even were I a professed teacher in the art of
-shooting, which, be it distinctly imderatood, I am not) for
defects of workmanship in a particular case, as I should
attempt to give a rational answer to the inquiry, which
from time to time appears in papers devoted to the interests
of ladies, ** Why do my servants he in bed so late of a
morning ? "
I have, however, been asked a direct question, viz.,
^* What gun-maker has successfully fitted me ? " That I
-can answer. It was Mr. Charles Lancaster, of 151, New
2^44
Bond Street, W. I one day saw a letter in the Fieldj
stating that Mr. C. liancaster was an adept at fitting a
customer with a gun. 1 forget who Avrote it, but after my
sorry experiences you may readily beheve that 1 perused
it with avidity. I had no previous personal knowledge of
Mr. 0. Lancaster, but I forthwith determined to make his
acquaintance. Now, I am not such a fool as to say that
Mr. Charles Lancaster is the only gun-maker in the world
who can properly fit a man with a gun. 1 will simply tell
some of yoiu* inquiring correspondents what he did for
me.
I had been using a gun with which 1 could shoot, if I do
not say really well, at all events with the greatest
"confidence" and comfort. I have an. abhorrence of
talking about "how many head I killed in how many-
shots," and I am not keen on purchasing a " Gallwey Game
Marker," or a " Lancast er Game Scorer," as I rarely count
the pheasants, rabbits, hares, &c., that I bag, strange
though it may seem to admit such an error; still, I may
say that with my old favourite gun I do remember that I
have frequently in covert shooting killed twenty-five head
out of twenty-eight shots ; at times I have bagged five-
and-forty head in fifty shots. These instances are, of
course, rare. I was never one of your "never miss
gentlemen." My motto is " shoot Uberally and don't pick
your shots." I merely mention the above facts in order to
show that I had some reason for alarm when, with my new
guns I found myself bagging five, ten, or fifteen head out
of forty or fifty shots. I knew and felt I ought to do
better. Many and many a time I have been told that a
" good workman does not complain of his tools." Still, I
went on in my own way, and at last got hold of a gun that
did suit me.
225
After trying choke-bores, cylinders, heavy guns, light
guns, short stocks, long stocks, 30in. barrels, 28in. barrels,
guns heavy forward, then the reverse, I called one day
upon Mr. C. Lancaster, and overwhelmed him with facts
of what I could do, and could not do (I admit it was
principally of what I could not do) ; at all events I was
"exuberant with my own verbosity," and eventually I
wound up almost breathless with the words, " Do you
think you can fit me with a gun ?** — " I have no pattern
for you " — " I have lost my favourite gun.*' Mr. Lancaster
is not a man of many words. He did not say, " Oh, yes ;
I can fit you splendidly ;" he said " I should prefer first to
make you a plain gun, which you can try, and then we
can alter it if necessary; you can then decide whether
you prefer to keep it or have a best quality gun." I saw.
however, by his quiet businesslike manner that he knew
what he was about. I told Mr. Lancaster that 1 had been
accustomed to a stock of evidently somewhat unusual and
old-fashioned shape, and when I threw a trial gun or two
up to the shoulder, while he was standing at my side, I did
my level best to put them up as I would when in the field
(though this is difficult to do), and he made his notes. In
due time I received the new gun, and I can honestly say
a complete metamorphosis took place in my shooting. Li
my first trial trip (I happened to get an invitation to stay
with a friend who had a little piece of shooting; he said,
" Bring your gun, as you may get a shot at a pheasant;"
and so I took it) I had thirteen shots. I did take notice
of what I killed the first few times I went out with my
new weapon, for obvious reasons, and 1 bagged in a couple
of hours eight pheasants, two hares, and two rabbits — a
nice pretty little mixed bag for about a couple of himdred
acres of shooting, late in the year.
226
1 will not weary your readers with my successive ex-
ploits ; but I got on so well that I have had four ^^ms of
Mr. Lancaster since my first trial one, and I really do noD
think that I can speak too highly of what Mr. Lancaster has
done for me. In my own individual case I consider that
he has been extraordinarily successful He has " picked
up " my shooting — well, what shall I say — 50, or even 75,
per ceat. ? And he had nothing to guide him. I think it
speaks volumes for his aptitude for fitting customers witli
" a proper stock," as your con'espondent wrote, and to
him, though I forget his name, I owe a deep debt of
gratitude for having put me on the right track.
Now, everyone " sticks " up for his own gun-maker, and,
as I have been asked the question " Who improved my
shooting ? " I have much pleasure in paying a just tribute
to my kind and painstaking gun-maker. Mr. Lancaster
^ves lessons in shooting. I have not myself had any
from him, though I have learnt many valuable hints when
trying guns at his excellent private shooting grounds ; and,
as I may be somewhat prejudiced in his favour, I would
recommend your correspondents to get what I have said
about his "fitting powers" "coaching abiUty," &c.,
verified by some of his pupils. I am sure he would send
testimonials written by them to those of your subscribers
who wished to see them.
Mr. C. Lancaster is now building me a new hammerless
gun. I was once having a very prolonged conversation
with my dear old friend " 20,000 Shots " on the subject of
hammerless guns. You must know. Sir, that he and I have
a battle-royal when we get together about " chokes and
cylinders;" but he is such an accomplished Sportsman,
and such a fascinating man to talk to in so many ways,
and so full of anecdote, that it is with the greatest
227
difficulty that 1 can tear myself away from his company
when we meet Well, with reference to hammerless guns,
** 20,000 Shots " said, " I prefer hammer guns ; l^ut 1 sup-
pose you must go with the time, and such being the case,
you are yafe in trying Mr. C. Lancaster's action." " 20,000
Shots " will, 1 daresay, remember the occasion to which I
refer, when we ke])t his excellent wife waiting two hours
for lunch I But, Sir, you know what it is when Sportsmen
or enthusiasts get together I Some people have whispered
"lunatics!"
Purple Heather.
TEACHING SHOOTING.
(FfcW, Nov. 23rd, 1889.)
Sib, — I have noticed several letters in your columns on this question,
«nd, having experienced considerable benefit from Mr. C. Lancaster's
teaching, I should like to add my testimony to that of others as to his
ability in this direction. 1 went to him a thorough ** duffer," never sure of
bringing anything down, and, pouring out my woes at full length, confessed
that I never expected to shoot even decently. " Well," said Mr. Lancaster,
*" I can't make you shoot, but I can alter your style and show you where
jou are wrong, and if you don't improve it will be your own fault. " This
was not very encouraging ; and, aft^r some instruction as to position, I began
by shooting at a target some thirty yards off. This, I thought, would be
•child's play, but was astonished to find, especially on walking towards the
target, stopping, and at once bringing the gun to the shoulder, how often I
failed to get the bullseye in the centre of £he pattern. After some practice
Jit ihis, I made considerable improvement, and then commenced to shoot at
starlings, first from a trap, and then thrown up behind an iron butt. Of the
first dozen birds I failed to kill any, and only hit one or two very slightly ;
but between the shots Mr. Lancaster coached me, and I slowly began to do
better. On my next visit to the grounds I did not shoot so well as I expected,
although I stiU improved, and began to see my birds better and to feel why
I missed ; but on my last visit I cleanly klUed four or five birds out of the
.dozen, besides wounding as many more — in fact, seldom failing to take those
that were not too difficult. I have no doubt, with practice, that I should
find a marked improvement on this, which was a far better result thun I
■anticipated.
Briefiy, I may say that I consider Mr. Lancaster's success in teaching
is due to — First, fit of the gun ; secondly, bringing the gun properly to the
-shoulder ; thirdly, the swing of the gun from right to left, and vice versa ;
fourthly, experience in detecting when and where his pupil is at fault.
Some of Mr. Lancaster's critics have expressed doubts as to his being
able to give them difficult shooting ; and I confess, had I not seen it, I should
not have believed that the starling would give so much sport. Thrown up
from behind the butt, the birds got up from either side, fiying high or low,
sometimes turning in the air in different directions, and occasionally coming
back over one's head. They certainly afforded excellent practice, and many
of the birds I saw would have taxed the skill of a first-rate shot.
Northamptonshire, Nov. 18th. Vebitas.
228
^ LAND AND WATER" and "SHOOTING."
15th September^ 1888.
FAILURE IN SHOOTING.
Sm, — I have noticed with great pleasure that yoiir
columns are open at all times to the letters of those who
are anxious to expose either their efficiency or failm'e in
matters appertaining to sport in all its branches. I there-
fore have a certain satisfaction in writing this letter, when
I know that it mil be duly published and not consigned to
the waste-paper basket. I am obhged to confess that I am
a complete failure as a shot — not as a marksman with a
rifle, but as a decent shot with a gun at game on the wing
and at ground game. I therefore write to you in the hope
that some of your many readers may be able to render me
some assistance in imparting that knowledge so essential
to teach one not only how it is done, but how it is done
with the gi-eatest amount of success.
E. F. A. Y.
Sir, — I see that your correspondent, " E. F. A. Y,'' in
your issue of the 15th inst., addresses you on the above
subject. I shall be pleased to place my services at his
disposal if he will favom* me with an appointment, because
I make a special feature in giving lessons at my private
shooting-groimds in the "art of shooting," and, I am
pleased to say, with a considerable amount of success,
which no doubt many of your readers will be able to
testify, as 1 have had the honour of coaching so many
gentlemen for some time past.
229
I find that in many cases the sight is at fault, in others
the fit of the gun, and very often the left eve is doinff that
work which the right shotdd, consequently such a sight
causes the shooter to shoot very wide of the object he is
desirous of hitting.
Oharles Lancaster.
151, New Bond Street, W.
Sir, — ^Noticing a letter from ** E. F. A. Y." in your issue
of the 19th inst, it has occurred to me that my experience
may be of some use to your correspondent. Until the last
foi-tnight I must confess to have been quite as complete a
failure as a shot as " E. F. A. Y." but, with a great desire
to become a fair shot (if possible), I pocketed my pride, and
placed myself in the hands of Mr. Charles Lancsister, of
151^ New Bond Street, who, in a few lessons at his grounds
at Willesden, greatly improved my shooting. The last
time I was there I managed to kill with several right and
left shots ; and, with luck, before the end of the season I
hope to be able to describe myself as
An Average Shot.
September 22.
Sir, — "E. F. A. Y." asks how he can become a good
sporting shot. Let me recommend him to write to
Mr. Lancaster, the well-known gun-maker, 151, New Bond
Street, and make an appointment with him at his private
shooting gi'ouuds near Willesden. Mr. Lancaster will give
him every possible advice, being a first-class shot himself^
and will supply him with clay or live pigeons for practice.
With regard to myself, I can only say that my shooting
improved wonderfully after a few lessons at his grounds.
September 22. A. P.
230
Sir, — I have read the letter from your correspondent,
** E. F. A. Y.," in your issue of the 15th inst., and I would
recommend him to place himself in the hands of Charles
Lancaster, of New Bond Street (the celebrated gun-maker),
who gives lessons in shooting at his own groimds, and who
pays special attention to the fitting of his customers with
a gun, and knows how "it is done" in the field, and can
impart the necessary knowledge to enable one to become
a decent shot. He has coached me recently, and also shot
with me in the field, so as to impart the etiquette of
shooting, which is so difficult to pick up from one's friends,
as it is not everyone who cares to acknowledge their
ignorance, nor to trouble them to teach when intent in the
pursuit of game.
1 am sure " E. F. A. Y." would soon learn what he desires,
as Mr. Lancaster tells me he has coached many gentlemen
\vith a great deal of success.
C. H. £.
Huntingdon, September 20.
Sir,— Since you published the letter from " E. F. A. Y."
I have scanned your columns with even additional interest,
hoping that some expert in the use of the shot-gun would
imitate, in regard to that weapon, the kindness recently
exhibited in your valuable paper by that master of the
rifle. Sir Henry Halford. Probably no one of your readers
needing such instruction, given the time and opportunity,
would hesitate to place himself under the able tuition of
Mr. Charles Lancaster ; but to a number of people of very
moderate means, and living in the Midland Coimties, the
advice, however excellent, is impracticable. I do not think,
231
Mr. Editor, you will be so hard upon people of modest
means as to say, if they cannot afiFord the means of proper
mstruction, they should turn their attention to some other
mode of recreation. We cannot help. Sir, being attracted
more to one pastime than another, and this particular one
certainly has the merit of being an incentive to outdoor
exercise to people whose occupation necessarily entails
very close confinement. I hope still that some one of your
sporting readers will vouchsafe a hint or two to their less
favoured brethren.
Another Failure.
Sir, — I have to thank those gentlemen who have so
fcdndly written to you in reply to " E. F. A. Y.'s " enquiries
respecting my giving lessons in shooting, but I see your
correspondent, "Another Failure,** writes hoping that some
expert in the use of the shot-gun would give practical
hints on the art of shooting with a gun in a similar way as
Sir Henry Halford had on the subject of rifle shooting,
because he (and no doubt many others) could not avail
themselves of my tuition, partly on account of expense,
but really because of living at some distance from London.
I have, therefore, much pleasure in informing " Another
Failure," through your columns, that as so many gentlemen
have asked me to write a work, I have determined to com-
pile a small " Treatise on the Art of Shooting," iu'which I
shall do my best to produce an unpretentious httle work,
but, at the same time, collect the opinions of the highest
authorities on the subject, together with hints, which I
hope may be useful to many. The chief novelty wijl con-
sist in a number of carefully executed diagrams, illustrating
232
the best method of carrying out certain shots, whereby the
novice may learn " angles," which are so essential for the
making of an average, if not first-class shot.
Charles Lancaster.
151, New Bondnstreet, W.
P.S. — I shall be glad to receive suggestions from any of
your readers who fancy they can, by doing so, improve
the usefulness of the little work in question.
SiH, — I want to give an idea to our friend who wishes to
improve, and it is one which does not seem to occur to hinn.
Let him go out shooting quite alone, and if he finds an
improvement he may have great hopes for himself. Many
a man is made terribly nervous by shooting in a crowd, and
being walked too fast. One dog alone to hunt up the birds,
as a spaniel or terrier, which needs no control, is best. No
one to mock the misses, not even a boy with him ; let him
carry his own game, probably very httle, and eat only what
he bags. He will soon become a steady shot, I fancy, unless
the sight is defective. K the above prescription is fairly
tried, please to inform.
Red Setter.
Sir, — As your correspondent, " E. F. A. Y." has not as
yet had many answers concerning "Failure in Shooting,"
possibly I may be able to help him a little by giving
what I consider to be the chief cause of bad shooting,
arranged numerically according to their relative frequency
of occurrence. I hope others of your readers will also give
their opinions of the cause of misses which they have
observed.
233
I should commence with the most common cause : —
1. Flurry at seeing and hearing game rise ; this leads to
hurry, and
2. Carelessness in aiming, the aim not being sufficiently
exact.
3. Some defect in the sight, such as the left eye being
the more powerful, etc.
4. Misfit of gun.
5. Nervousness, occasioning flinching and depression of
muzzle at moment of firing.
Of course it is impossible to say which of these faults
apply to " E. F. A. Y./' but if he can decide for himself
and infonn you, Mr. Editor, or youi' correspondeuts, I
think he would be more likely to get the information and
remedy he requires. At the same time he should remember
that " Rome was not built in a day,** nor was the art of
shooting acquired in a like period of time, and that faults
once learnt are very difficult to unlearn.
Midlands.
Sm, — T beg to give a few suggestions to anyone who is
a failure in shooting. Let the person who wishes to become
a fair shot get a suitable gun, go out as .often as he can,
bring up his gun quickly and firmly to shoulder to every
living and moving object he may come across, taking aim,
cover, and following the object, but not firing. He should
go on that way for ten minutes or so, and fire an odd shot
when he has the object well covered, but keep the gun
going along with the mark when pulling. Tricky practice
that way for a week or so will ensure his becoming a shot
very soon. It is not by throwing up the gun and blazing
at everything that one becomes a shot. The shooter must
234
keep cool and have confidence, and keep his eye open an(J
see where his shot strikes, and there is no fear of anyone
not becoming a shot. He must be sure he can kill with the-
first barrel before using the second.
Keeper.
HINTS' ON GUNS AND GUN-MAKERS.
By E. p. G.
A good gun adds very much to the pleasm'e of shooting, —
one that will kill everythmg at a reasonable distance, and
at the same time will kill anything the shots strike at 90 or
100 yards, — such a gun will be found in 12-bore cylinders,
loaded with Si to 4 drms. of black powder, 1^ shot, and
its weight should not be less than 7^ lbs., and its length of
barrel 32 inches. I have come to this conclusion after 30
years' experience, having used all sorts of guns, by all sorta
of makers, and at all sorts of game.
Avoid cheap guns, as they all have their peculiarities,
which have to be discovered by the shooter after spoiling
his sport for one or two seasons.
Avoid ready-made or second-hand guns, for they may
not fit you.
Avoid choke-bores. This very crude idea was, I suppose,,
taken from the nozzle of a fire engine, but it should he
remembered that the gun shoots shot and not a colimin
of water ; the choking gives greater resistance to the air
passing through the nozzle, and hence greater compression
to the air in the barrel, and therefore more resistance to the
explosive force of the powder.
Avoid light 12-bores, because they cannot at present
be loaded properly with black powder without unpleasant
235
recoil, ue., kicking. A 20-bore, loaded with 2| drms. imd
§ oz., is a splendid light weapon, and, in my opinion, is very
superior to any light 12-bore.
It has been found that 30 inches is the best length of
banel for a 7 lb. gun, using 3 drms. of black and 1^ shot,
taking pattern, penetration and handiness into considera-
tion ; shorter barrels would answer better for small charges,
but then a smaller bore than 12 would be preferable.
Balance, finish, engraving, etc., are matters for an
unknown, and many gun-makers can turn out a gun perfect
in these joints.
The fit of a gun is of the utmost importance, and to
ensure this, get an artist in gun-making to measure you ; it
18 impossible to give any niles as to length of stock, bend
and cast-off. I don't know whether I am right in calling
the angle between the line of the stock and the axis of
the barrel " cast-ofiF," but I am perfectly sure that these
are important points in the building of a gun, and where a
gun-maker, who has studied the question of sight, can show
to the gi-eatest advantage. I have travelled all over
El : gland, having been engaged in engineering, and have
always gravitated to the gun-maker's shop for a talk, and
can safely say I have only seen one man who has the
slightest knowledge of the subject, and I am sure it will
repay any true lover of a gun to make a special visit, as I
have done on two occasions, to 151, New Bond Street,
London ; he will there hear, see, and have explained to him
some most interesting and peculiar facts with reference to
gun-making, and will regi'et that he did not sooner make
the acquaintance of Mr. C. Lancaster.
Hundreds of Testimonials received subsequently.
236
The following is a sample of the many letters
received by the Author from his pupils : —
''November, 1888.
" Sir, — ^I write, as I said I would, to tell you I have
decidedly benefited in my shooting by the coaching I
received from you last fepring. I am shooting much
steadier, and kill cleaner; in fact, shooting much better
all round. I am shooting here with a gentleman with
whom I also shot last season, and he, himself a very good
shot, told me I shot a great deal better this year than last,
without my asking him if he noticed any improvement in
my shooting. My gun fits me all right now, as is testified
by my kilh'ng much better, and missing far fewer easy
shots. I am sorry to say I sometimes still commit the old
fault of taking the gun from my shoulder between right
and left barrels. In the case of pheasants coming over my
head I don't think I do it at all, and not so much in the
case of hard shots, when it seems probable I will require
the left barrel ; but where I do it is when I get an easy
shot with the right barrel, then I unconsciously take down
the gun without waiting to see the eflfect of my first shot,
and should I have missed I require to put up the gun again
for a second shot. Of course I still miss some shots by
shooting behind, but far less than last year. I hope I will
soon get out of the habit of putting down the gun between
shots. I suppose there is no way of stopping it but prac-
tice and trying to remember. I write this letter that you
may know the result of your coaching, which I thought
would interest you.
" Tom'S faithfully,
''Mr. Chas. Lancaster,
" New Bond Street, London."
237
Miss Annie Oakley (Little Sure Shot), the cele-
brated American Lady Shot, who visited England in
1887 with Buffalo BilFs Wild West Show, writes :—
" New York, 8th Bee, 1888.
" Dear Sir, — The fotir breech-loading hammerless guns
you built for me are, in my opinion, as near perfection as
it is possible to get them. The pan- of 20-bores (weight
5 lbs. 2 ozs.), I have been using now nearly two years.
I find tliem just as tight and soimd as when new ; I have
never had any repairs except having the locks cleaned.
Tlie pair of 12-bores (6 lbs.) are as good as the 20*8.
Since using your guns, and receiving a few lessons from
you at yom* splendid private shooting gi'ounds, my shooting
in the field has so much improved that now I always
make a good score, even at fast and difficult birds. With
many thanks for the pains you have taken in making me
such perfect fitting and fine shooting guns.
" I am, gi-atefully yom-s,
'^ (Signed) Annie Oaklet,
" (Little Sm-e Shot)."
Miss Annie Oakley again visited London with
Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show in 1892.
CHARLES LANCASTER'S
GUN MANUFACTORY,
CARTRIDGE-LOADING. & STORE ROOMS.
GO
a
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I
CO
OQ
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1-
co
1 S 1 ,
Situated at
At the back of and communicating witii
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00
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240
CHARLES LANCASTER
Begs most respectfully to draw the attention of his patrons that his
Cash Terms are strictly for Cash, on or before delivery, or
15 per cent, extra for Credit is charged.
Deposit Accounts opened.
Accounts rendered Monthly at Cash Terms, if desired.
A limit of 12 Months only given for Credit Prices. Extension
of Credit, solely on the condition that Interest at the rate of 5 per
cent, per Annum will be paid.
London references to Tradesmen or payment required on all
Orders from Gentlemen unknown to the Firm.
Estimates and Price Lists on application.
Please state exact requirements.
NOTICE.
CHARLES LANCASTER
respectfully intimates that on and after this date
LIST CREDIT PRICES
will be 15 % above those for CASH,
CASH PRICES REMAINING AS BEFORE.
ALL PREVIOUS LIST PRICES FOR CREDIT ARE
HEREBY CANCELLED.
Zlst March, 1891,
151, New Bond Street, W.,
London.
241
LESSODSrS
IN THF
ART OF SHOOTING.
CHARLES LANCASTER
Has the honour to inform gentlemen that he gives Lessons in Shooting
at his Private Shooting; Grounds, by Appointment, on Monday,
Wedne8<Tay, and Friday mornings.
Terms: Single Lesson, 1 Guinea; Three Lessons, 2^ Guineas.
C- L- grives instruction In Field or Covert.
Terms by Arrangement.
Best Blue Rocks, for Matches, per doz £1
Ordinary Pigeons from 12/- to 15/-
Cartridges, Glass Balls, Clay Pigeons, &c., at usual advertised prices. All
Shooting requisites provided, and a Running Rabbit has recently been
added. Estimates free.
Gun Metal Moulds for Casting Pitch Balls, as supplied to " Buffalo Bill's "
Wild West Show, £2 each.
CHABLES LAI9GASTEB alters auns by any Maker, should
they require it, to fit perfectly.
C. L.'b Original Adjustable Gun (with specially constructed fittings) can
he handled in the shop to demonstrate that the measurements taken by hitu
are correct as to bend, length, and cast-off, thereby showing that the Gun
to be supplied will be suited to the purchaser.
Use of Try Gun at Private Grounds, 10/6 ; Cartridges, &c., extra.
Attendance in Shop, refit of Gun, 6/-.
No charge for use of these to Customers ordering new Guns.
CHARLES LANCASTER'S PRIVATE SHOOTING GROUNDS
Are situated at Six Miles from the Marble Arch, on the main road to
Harrow, passing Kensal Green, Harlesden, leaving Willesden on the left,
and Stonebridge Park en route.
Frequent Trains from all parts to Willesden Junction Station (L. & N. W.
Railway) — 1} miles from Ground — where cabs may be obtained. Omnibuses
leave Charing Cross at fixed times for Stonebridge Park — ten minutes' walk
from Ground. Neasden Station, Metropolitan Railway, about 2^ miles
from Ground.
< /round may he engnged for Private Matches, Revolver or Rijie Practice, Sfc.
SEE TESTIMONIALS^
242
CHARLES LANCASTER'S
HAMMEELESS GUN
Highly Praised for its Perfect ^Automatic or
Independent Trigger Safeties and
AUTOMATIC BLOCKING SAFETIES,
Strength and Simplicity, ease of Manipulation,
and Stripping for Gleaning,
By the Editors of "The Field," "Land and Water," "County
Gentleman," "Shooting Times," "The Sporting and Dramatic News,"
and by " One who has fired some 20,000 trial shots at marks," &c., &o.
" Shooting," Badminton Library. " The admirably devised blocking
«afety arrangement is also a very valuable feature in this Gun."
CASH PRICES, £27, £40, & £50.
Case and Fittings extra, according to quality.
Illustrated Price List of above on application.
Whitwortli Steel Barrels to any quality of Gun, £3 extra.
GUNS SPECIALLY BUILT FOR THE RIGHT SHOULDER
AND LEFT EYE, £3 EXTRA.
THELflPSTEI|6ll|nE!iC0liail!S.6iI.eaGl|.
Fixing same to Gun Stock 5s. extra.
FOR DESCRIPTION see page 210,
243
CHARLES LANCASTER'S
EJECTOR GUNS,
IN COMBINATION WITH HIS CELEBRATED
TOP-LEVER HAMMERLESS ACTION,
Are the most simple, safest, strongest and best.
(N.B.— Ejector is on fore-end, perfectly Independent of the lock-work.)
Side Look Ghixi Cash ^660.
Body Aotion Ghu (0 Gtrade) ,, ^616.
''Colonial Quality "—BammerlessEjeotors „ J636.
Either with Whitworth Steel Barrels, £3 extra.
Prices for Hammer Ejector Guns on Application.
THE FITTINGOF GUNS.
CHARLES LANCASTER maintains his unrivalled success as
a " coach " and " fitter *' of Guns to the special individual
requirements of his patrons.
Centlenien In doubt as to the flt of their Guns are invited to use
Charles Lancaster's
ASmSTAlLl TIT g^
(For description see " Field," 4th July, 18J)1),
which can be fired at C.L.'s special Moving Targets, and is
constructed with the stock perfectly rigid in the hand, there-
fore does not give an excess of bend, yet it can be adjusted Tor
cast-off bend, and length ; also for set of toe or heel of stock,
so as to be correctly adjusted to what Is required for any
individual sportsman to enable him to make accurate practice
when firing at either targets or game ; or his original Adjustable
Gun (with specially constructed fittings) can be handled in
the shop to demonstrate that the measurements taken by
him are correct as to bend, length, and cast off, thereby
showing that the gun to be supplied will be suited to the
purchaser.
CUHS BY OTHEH MAKERS flItTERED.
Use of Try Gun at Private Grounds, 10/6.
CAKTRIDGES, Etc., EXTRA.
ATTENDANCE IN SHOP, REFIT OF GUN, 5-.
So charge (or nse of these to CDStomers orderiDg New Gnns.
244
CHARLES LANCASTER'S
SPECIAL aXJNS,
FOB HOME OB INDIAN & COLONIAL SFOBT.
HIGHEST AWARD—
Adelaide Jubilee Exhibition of 1887.
> The First Order of Merit for Exhibit of COLONIAL SFOBTING GUNS.'
HammivU Uun —
COLONIAL QUALITY."
(lit: piste red Tru de Mj irh :,
Cash Price de20.
Top-lever, snap-action, breech-loading gun ; London make and finish ;
Damascus barrels; bored either ** Cylinder," ** Modified Choke," or ** Choke."
Rebounding back-action locks, hammers below the line of sight. Fitted
with self-adjusting snap, fore-end.
Coloured Illustration sent on application.
H.4MS1BRf.t]?4fl fiTN
'' COLONIAL QUALITY."
Cash Price £27.
If fitted with Ejectors, £35,
All Hammerless Guns are made with automatic trigger safeties, and
automatic blocking safeties, making them the safest Guns to use.
Solid Leather Case without fittings, nett £3
Best Mail Canvas Case, without fittings, nett 1 15
Complete set ''Colonial Quality" fittings, nett ... 15
Latest pattern B.L. central-fire Game Guns, top or side levers, with
hammers below the line of sight, at Cash, £27, £36, and £50.
245
Extract from ** The Daily Telegraph,"* 7th January, 18»9.
" THE BATTLE BEFORE SUAKIN," 20th DECEMBEll, 1888.
{From our Special Coiresjwndent.)
" . . . . This snapping of swords made the men lose all confidence. The
Sergeant-Major of our troop sheathed his sahre and took to his revolver,
but this speedily became ologged and missed fire, as did many of the revolvers
used by the men, although they were only lately served out "
" It is complained also of the men's revolvers that they clogged, and the
officers wonder, with one exception, why their revolvers did not clog. Aa
far as general reputation goes they are wretched shooting irons. "
IJVrHJVTOE AMD PAT EJ^ TEE OF THE
FOUR-BARREL
B.L. HAMMERLESS GUN,
(Weight 7 1b. 4o2.), and
(Weight lOlbs.)
ALSO
FOUR-BARREL B.L.
HAMMERLESS PISTOLS,
WITH ONE STfllKlilR <>^l.\\
Specially adapted for the Gavet'tiyneiU Cnrfridffe^»
•455, and -450 Bore C.F., weight 2 lb. 6 oz.
•360 and -380 C.F., weight 1 lb. 8 oz. and 1 lb. 14 oz.
GASH PRICE £8.
UNDER AND OYER DOUBLE-BARREL
B.L. HAMMERLES'S PISTOLS.
•360 and -380, -476, and -455 Bones, weight 1 lb. 6 oz.
CASH JB7 108.
•577 Bore, weight 2 lb. 8 oz.
GASH £S.
Either fitted with Cocking Trigger, lOs. extra.
SETS OF HOLSTER, POUCH, AHD BELT FOR EITHER OF THE ABOVE, 168. NETT.
Shot Cartridges can be fired from all these Pistols, thereby making them
specially suitable for hunting or campaigning expeditions. Have been
extensively used in the Soudan, Burmah, and on many expeditions to all
parts of the world.
SPECIAL DIPLOMA OF HONOUR MILITARY EXHIBITION. 1890.
246
GHflRliES LAHGASTER,
INVENTOR OF
CO
CO
Ps3
•po
f« ;2
Section of barrel rifled on the non-fouling smooth oval-bore system ; the
dotted lines show the original cylindrical bore (or minor axis) enlarged to an
OTal (or major axis), thereby making a perfect ellipse.
NON-FOULING SMOOTH OVAL-BORE
-DtOi .£^ C3r -]N TJ TkOi
AND
EXPRESS DOUBLE-BARREL B.L. RIFLES,
(•256, -303, -360, -400, -450, 500, and -577).
Cash Prices - - - £36, £46, and £60.
DOUBLE-BARREL B.L. HAMMERLESS RIFLES
Cash £60 and £60.
If fitted wi th Ejectors, £67 IDs , and £70.
SINGLE-BARREL EXPRESS RIFLES,
Cash £16, £18, and £22 IDs.
Hammerless, £26 and £36.
GOVERNMENT (LEE-SPEED)
NEW MAGAZINE RIFLE,
•303 Sporting Pattern, from £7 17s. ed. to £12.
Government Pattern, £7 17s. ed.
Sporting Pattern Martinis, &c., always in Stock,
New Sporting Telescopic Sights for all kinds of Rifles, £Q Qs, Testinumialt
and Price Lists Free
■ 247
CHARLES LANCASTER'S
Cash, £30 and £46.
These Gnus are specially built for Pigeon Shooting, with Top
!Lever Snap Action, with Extension Rib, extra strong rebounding
Back-action Locks (which do not weaken the action like Ghins
-with Bar Locks). Hammers below the line of sight.
Cash, £40 and £60.
Cash, £60 and £60.
With Automatic or Independent Trigger Safeties and Automatic
Blocking Safeties.
These Guns are made with the best English laminated steel
barrels, 30 in., bored right "modified choke," left "full choke,"
chambered for 2|-in. cases. Shooting guaranteed with 3j drs.,
1 J oz. Weight ab.iut 7 lbs. 6 ozs- Well finished, with engraving.
Listructions for self-measurement sent. Patronized by the
Hurlingham and Netting Hill Gun Clubs, &c. If with
Whitworth Steel Barrels £3 extra.
Detailed Price List of Gases for aheve Guns, also Price of
Cartridges, ^c, Sec, free on application,
GAMEKEEPERS' REGISTER. — Gentlemen WANTING
competent MEN should send requirements. A charge of one
guinea to gentlemen when suited. Keepers' entry forms (including
one which must be filled up by last employer) sent on receipt of fee,
2s. 6d. This includes all charges. — ^Chables Lancaster, Gun-
maker, 161, New Bond Street, W.
248
A new departure—*' PYCMIES,"
CHARLES LANCASTER
BEGS most respectfully to draw your attention to his new departure in
12 Bore Cartiidgres* being a Cartridge of a greatly reduced
length, yet containing equivalents of the usual loads of powder
and shot, whereby most excellent results as to pattern and penetration are
obtained ; also, what is of great value, an average high velocity of 1139 FS,
in guns with the ordinary length of chamber.
The advantages of a shorter yet efficient cartridge must be apparent
to all sportsmen, and, to enable this speciality in cartridges to be
remembered, he has designated them ^< PYGMIES."
Gash Price: ■S^^^^i^^ ^^^ Price:
Paper Gases, M^^S^J ^S^g ^m^Uk^m' Brass Covered Caaee
8/-per 100. ^HP||Hi9/Sper 100.
FOR ANY LENGTH OF CHAMBERING.
Stottt Cases for Rail— 6d. first 200, adding 2d. eacli additional 100.
:^:
1,000 "PYGMIES" Delivered Carriage Paid
ON OASH ORDERS ONLY,
To any Station in Great Britain, by Goods Train, and for less
Quantities at low rates.
The powder used is now well known in the sporting world, is of the
condensed class, and many sportsmen in all parts of Great Britain, during
the past two seasons, have given high testimonials as to its Absence of
Smoke, excellent Killing Qualities, Freedom from Dust being blown into
the eyes, good Keeping Qualities, and many first-class prizes have been won
with it.
See ** The Field," May 7th, 1898.
-:*:-
CHARLES LANCASTER,
151,NEW BOND STREET, W.
Note. — See page 262.
249
CARTRIDGES
loaded with 0. K's special Sice of Shot, "MEDIUM GAME," giying greater penetration
than 6, and doeer pattern than 5, are the best for Grouse, Partridge, Pheasant and all
other shooting.
Best English Gases, loaded with Curtis and Harvey's Best Powder, Four Best Wads and
hard shot, thin packing cases included. No Cheap Wads or Foreign Cases used.
PRICES FOR CASH WITH ORDER :—
12-Bore C.F., 3drs., IJoz., at Os. 6d. per 100.
16- „ O.F., 2f „ loz., „ 98. Od. „ 100.
20- „ O.F., 2^,, foz., „ 8s. 6d. ., 100.
Schultze, *«E,C.", ** S.S.", Amberite or Walsrode Powder,
Is. per 100 extra.
Eley's and Joyce's "Ejector" or Kynoch's «* Grouse" Cases,
Is. per 100 extra.
stout Gases for rail, 6d. flrst 200, adding 2d. each additional 100.
All the above prices are strictly for Cash, or 15 per cent, extra
for Credit Is charged.
Deposit accounts have been opened by many of my Customers,' from which they draw
their supply of ammunition, thereby saying the inconvenience of making small remittances
And at the same time securing the full benefits of Cash Prices.
London r^erencet or payment rehired on all orders from gentlemen unknown to the firm,
CARRIAGE OF CARTRIDGES.
G. L. has made special arrangements so as to deliver
ON CASH ORDERS ONLY,
To any Station in Great Britain by GOODS Train ;
AND FOB LESS QUANTITIES,
At the following low rates (to obtain the low rates please order in time to insure
punctual delivery), vi2. :
Cash. Credit.
To Stations in SCOTLAfID - - - 4/- 4/7
„ „ GREAT BRITAIN- - 2/6 2/11
N.B.— Carriage of Cartridges by Passenger Train can be paid by
C. L. to order, bnt at the usual Parcel Bates.
C. L. begs to inform Sportsmen that his special Siae of Shot, " MEDIUM GAME,"
having met with such universal approval, and the superior quality of all the materials
used, the excellence and regularity of the loading, that his output of Cartridges has
greatly increased each year.
CAUTION.
The Public are cautioned against Inferior Imitations of my
" Medium Game " Sliot.
CARTRIDGE BAGS in Mail Canvas and Leather in aU sizes.
„ MAGAZINES,,
250
CHARLES LANCASTER
Begs most respectfully to draw the attention of Sportsmen to his
IC^XiXa .^SJ'X> SSCOO? O-XTXO'
"THE COLINDIAN."
(TEADB MARK BEOIST&BED).
A non-foullng smooth oval-bore Rifled Oun. shooting: elonpited oonloal-shapedlBallets aoonrately
from 20 to 100 yards, and shot of all sizes, as well as a Oan, and which has neither grooved rifling nor
choke boring to otter resistance to shot or ball, and consequently prevents leading, fooling, and undue
recolL
Theie guns are accurately sighted at 60 and 100 yards. Loads— Sdrs. of powder and " Express"'
bullet 765 grs. (12oe.), 4 drs. of powder and ''Express ' bullet with steel plug. The Guns have been
largely used with most satisfactory results both at big game and feather, in Europe, Asla^ Africa and
America.
As supplied to H.I.M.'s Government of India and many well-known Sportsmen in all
parts of the world.
PRICES-
Top Lever Snap- Action Double-Banel B.L. Hammer Gun, with Bebounding Locks^
Hammers below the line of sight.
£27, £36, and £46.
Top Lever Snap-Action Double-barrel B.L. Hammerless Gun, with Automatic Trigger
Safety and Blocking Safeties, easily taken to pieces for cleaning. High^ incised for ita
strength and simple action by the Editor of " The Field," &&, &c
£36, £46, and £50.
These Guns are 12, 16 and 20 bore, and chambered for Eley's ordinary central-fire Gases,
and are about 7^ lbs. weight.
Hammerless Ejector, £44y £55| ai^d £63,
These Ouns may be tested at C.L.'s Privoite Range b^ore pwchase.
A sportsman having one of the above Guns, and a " Double-barrel Express Bifle," is fully
equipped for Sport in any part of the World.
PRICES FOR CASES, IMPLEMENTS, &c., &c.
CASH.
Solid Leather Oases . . .. £8
Mail Canvas Case, best quality Spring Lock 1 15
*' Colonial Quality " Set of Implements complete 150
Best Quality Solid Leather Pigeon Bat Gun Case, with Patent Lever Lock,
and fitted for Cleaning Bod and Tumscrew 2 15
Second Quality ditto 2 2
Mail Canvas ditto 2
Ditto, Phiin Lock ditto 15
Mail Canvas Waterproof Gun Cover 18 6
with Sling 110
Twilled Waterproof Gun Cover, Lined D 15
Check „ „ 7 6
*Mould and Core Pegs ^ .. 150
'Compressor for fixing Bullets in Cartridge Cases 076
'Combination Brass Powder and Shot Measure 046
Cleaning Bod with apparatus from 10 6
6 6
,. .. 5
♦Wooden Rammer ► .. 10
Turnscrews .. .. each 2 6
Loaded Cartridges, Solid or "Express "Bullets per 100 17
Loaded with Shot {See Cartridge LUt).
Bullets, Solid or "Express" per 100 12 6
Steel Plugs for " Express " Bullets from per doz. 2
Eley's Cartridge Cases, 12-bore, green per 100 4
Felt Wads per lb. 8
Card , per 1,000 6
TIN-LINED PACKING CASES EXTRA.
» These Implements should be ordered with " The CoUndian."
252
THE "LANCASTER" SMOCK,
MADE IN
Burberry's Celebrated Gabardine Combinations.
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Extract from " Field" o/ Nov. 28th, 1891, p. 808.
" I have now a garment which will keep out the heaviest of rains, even if driven hj
a gale ; and at the same time I am able to get a ' right and left ' either from a ' butt,
field of roots, or covert side, withciat let or hindrance. I feel sure that many will
welcome this useful addition to their sporting kit, as I consider it just as useful to a
yachtsman or an angler as to a ' gunner.' The material is perfectly waterproof, yet not
in the least air-proof, as you can both breathe and smoke through it ; and the Smock
does not cause perspiration, as, being cut ' full,' pbnty of room is given for ventilation.
*' CHARLES LANCASTER,
" 151, New Bond Street, W."
PRICE FROM 42/- TO 63/- NETT.
Measurements required— Height ; Size round chest over ordinary shooting coat ;
Length from collar of coat to just below the knee.
Orders to CHARLES LANCASTER. 151, f/ew Bond St., W.
253
CHARLES LANCASTER'S
CELEBRATED NON-FOULING
SMOOTH OVAL-BORE
ROOK m RABBIT RIFLES.
All Rifles are made of the following Bores, viz. :
260, 296, 320, 360 and 380.
All these Rifles are made with the Non-Fouling Smooth
Oval-Bore Rifling, which gives great velocity and flat
trajectory, and is the only kind of Rifling that does not foul
and that can be cleaned as easily as a Gun Barrel. Shot
Cartridges can be used from these Rifles, thereby making them
specially suited for Collectors.
No. 1 — Under lever snap-action, rebounding lock, B.L. Rook Rifle,
straight stock, plain finish. Cash, £5. If with pistol hand
stock extra, lOs. nett.
No. 2 — Martini-action, B.L. Rook Rifle, with safety. Cash, £8.
No. 2a-If with plain straight stock. Cash, £5.
No. 3 — Under lever snap action, B.L. Rook Riflo; better quality and
higher finish, with pistol hand stock. Cash, £8.
No. 4 — Best quality and finish, highly engraved, top lever snap-action B.L.
Rook Rifle, with rebounding lock and cartridge ejector. Cash, £10.
No. 5 — C. L.'s New Hammerless Rook Rifle, side lock. Cash, £10 & £12.
Double Barrel Rook and Rabbit Rifles from £18 to £46.
Hammerless do., £40 to £60.
Orthoptic (or peep) sights fitted to order.
ELEVS OENTRAL-FIRE CARTRIDGES ARE USED,
WHICH OAX BB OBTAINBD ANYWHERE.
from nett £ s. d.
Brown or Black Canvas Casee, with divisions for Cartridges .. . . ,, 1 10
Brown or Black Canvas Cases, for Martini-action Rifles , 1 15 9
Solid Leather Cases „ 2 12
Solid Leather Cases, for Martini-action Blfles „ 300
Plain Deal Packing Cases for Rifle only „ 2 6
Recapping Tools, &c., per set ,, 18
Brass Cleaning Rods , 4 6
Steel do. do. in three pieces „ 7 6
Iron Cleaning Rod , 3
Tumscrew ,, 2
Nickel Plated Sight Protector 3
Waterproof Covers, to take Rifle f uU length 5s. to 13 6
Conical Bullet Mould (to cast solid or shell) 15 G
Spherical BuUet Mould , 5
Strong Iron Target, 15 by 14 in., with ringing BuU's-eye, 2 in , 2 2
Card Targets, 9^ in. square, with H in. Bull's-eye per doz. „ 10
The perfect shooting of these Rifles is guaranteed ; if not approved of may be exchanged.
They can be tested, before purchase, at my Private Shooting Grounds near Willesden
Junction, L. & N. W. Railway.
254
CAUTIONJ-CLAY PICEOMS.
IT having come to my knowledge that certain
firms were applying the description of " Clay "
to Pigeons or inanimate targets manufactured
or sold by them (which were not made of Clay,
but of a composition), I caused proceedings to
be instituted against one of the said firms, *'The
Herculite and Electrical Manufacturing Company,
Limited," under the Merchandise Marks Act, 1887.
The case was heard by Mr. Newton, at the Marl-
borough Street Police Court, and the Magistrate
delivered Judgment therein in my favour on the
19 th day of April, 1894, finding, inter alia —
"It is agreed and it appears from the evidence
that the Complainant, Charles Lancaster, has the sole
monopoly of the article which originally received the
name of ' Clay ' Pigeons. . . . And I also find
as a fact from the evidence of . . . (certain of
the Company's witnesses, naming them) that for years
Lancaster's Clay Pigeons were the only ones in the
market. . . . I find as a fact there is a certain
element of fraud in the Defendant Company applying
the description 'Clay' to goods which are not of that
material."
The defendant Company were fined.
NOTICE.
• Clay Pigeons can only be obtained from Charles
Lancaster, of 151, New Bond Street, London. These
are alone suitable for the celebrated Ligowsky Traps.
ClubSj Shippers, Gunmakers, Dealers, dc, supplied.
255
|I0 COUNTRY IfOUSE OH MILITAHY ST/^TIOfl COMPLETE
Without this popular Out-door Sport.
Seadj for the liealtliy Entertainment of Ghiests at a moment's notice-
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No. 6.
PRACTICE YOUR SHOOTING,
IS AND OUT OP SEASON, AT THE
LIGOWSKY Traps and Clay Pigeons.
"THE ECLIPSE,"
From 32/6
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No. 9.
The "Eclipse "Trap, No. 9, as above „....-.-..- ^ -.---- -
Ditto ditto No. 10, double rise ^ „.«...-«.-«. — -
Best Iron Traps, No. 6, Improved ... ....«....«--.-.-«• — — •«
Ditto Gunrmetal Arm, No-. 6, ditto ... ... ... ... ~. -. ~- ~' — "• — — •"
^^*^^^fenSS?JL^.'2^nrB^'^k'4^?^rkp.] ^ - - -
SolldTongueCnayPigeons.pe^r^^^^^^^^„^.^^^...g^^^^^
:Book of Bulesandjcoring^^reeby^pcj^^^
Composition Pigeons for all other Traps at usual prices-
N.B.— Compo. Pigeons should not be used from Ligowsky Traps.
NOW SOLE EUROPEAN AGENT-
11 i
4 4
8 6
8
256
CHARLES LANCASTER'S
^. db 3VC.
PARCELS POST
Folding Gases fof Game.
Tliese are packed and stored Flat, and ~so occupy little space.
Great economy of room in storing.
To hold I Brace of Partridges, 3| x 3f x
2
3
1
2
3
tf
ft
7i X 3| X
8X4
Pheasants, 8x4
8X4
X 4
m
10
10
14
8
14
15
Calico.
Per Gross.
38/-
48/.
68 6
45/6
68/6
66/-
Brown
Paper.
Per Gross.
.. 23/-
.. 29/-
.. 336
.. 27/-
.. 33/6
.. 46/-
II
II
II * II II
II * II II
Sample for J Brace sent post free to any part of the United
Kingdom on receipt of Postal Order for 6d. Paper Covered, 9d,
Calico Covered.
QUOTATIONS FOB WOODEN BOXES ON AFFLICATION.
Also DOD-collapsible Game Boxes for 1, 2, 3, and 4 Brace.
PRICES ON APPLICATION.
P.0.0. PAYABLE AT NEW BOND STREET.
151, NEW BOND STREET,
XiOsa'z>osj', 'yjsT:
Registered Telegraphic Address —
*'OVAL BORE, LONDON."
Telephone No.—
3691 GERARD.
257
''LWCBSTEB lilinip nr
An Enamelled Tipped Sheath Foresight.
From ** The Field," 18th March, 1893.
There are times when shooting with a Sporting Rifle takes
place under difficulties, and amongst others v/hich must be
contended with may be ranked
A FAIIiiNG LIGHT RHD A GItRHlHG LIGHT.
In either of these cases
THE OKDiHfiHV HIFLE SIGHT IS OF HO ASSISTANCE ;
So with the object of rendering- some aid to the shooter Mr.
Charles Lancaster, of 151, New Bond Street, has designed this
sheath sight, which, as the accompanying illustration shows i
O O O o
is of tubular form, with a white enamel circular face at one
extremity.
The sight has a spring clip, which enables anyone to slide it
on to the ordinary front sight.
THE SHOOTER HAS THEN A WHITE ENAMEL GUIDE for his AIM
WHICH WILL HELP HIM WHEN LIGHT IS VANISHING,
OR WHEN THE SUN SHINES WITH EXCESSIVE BRILLIANCY.
On reference to the engraving it will be seen thab the circles
of the " Gloaming '* sights are ot various diameters, so that indi-
vidual tastes and differiDg circumstances can be provided for.
rrice—
Set of four, in case ...
. 14s
Single Sight
3s,
6d. each.
CHARLES LANCASTER,
GUN AND RIFLE MANUFACTURER,
151, NEW BOND STREET, LONDON, W.
N.B.-THE TRADE SUPPLIED.
258
Size of Work, 27! x 19J inches.
Reproduced in the following states^
• Peace." U^th August).
Artist Proofs (limited to 200 Impressions)
India Prints
Painted by Douglas Adams.
dSS 3 ^ (All Sold).
"War." (i2//t August).
Size of Work, 27! x 19} inches. |
Reproduced in the following Tfrrfr n ~i
Artist ProofiS (limited to 200 Impressions) .,
India Prints
Painted by Douglas Adams
dSS 3 ^ i^ii Sold).
259
** Partridge Driving."
Size of Work, 30J x 16J inches. | Painted by Archibald Stuart-Wortley
Reproduced in the following states ____^^^^^^g^.
Artist Proofs ^4 4 o
India Prints dS^ 2 o
Prints igi I o
" Pheasant Shooting."
Size of Work, 25 x 15I inches. |
Reproduced in the following statis^.^^m^^^^^.
Artist Proofis
India Prints
Painted by Douglas Adams,
i63 3 O (All Sold).
iSl X o
260
"Rabbit Shooting."
Size of Work, 25 x 15} inches. |
Reproduced in the following states ^ '
Artist Proofs
India Prints
Painted by Douglas Adams.
i&3 3 O (All Sold).
CHARLES LANCASTER
^vill be pleased to forward either of the fore-
going five illustrations on receipt of order
witYi Cheque, or send list and quotations for
any others in connection with Sport generally.
151, IsTElV^ BOIsTX) STI2.EET, "W".^
LONDON.
261
From "THE. FIELD," May jth, 1898.
LANCASTER'S " PYGMIES.
\
O
a
.a
o
■c
a
•
to
00
i
>
Mr. Charles Lan^jaster, of 151, New Bond Street, London,
W., has sent a sample of his " Pygmies " for us to test and report
upon. These cartridges are loaded with 28-grs. of Walsrode
powder and 1-oz. of No. 6 shot. They were tried in a 12-bore
gun with ordinary length of chamber. The velocity given is
quite up to our standaid of 1160 ft. per sec. ; the patterns are
good and regular, without the slightest sign of balling, and the
pressures are perfectly safe ones.
(Barometer, 29-26-in. ; Thermometer— wet bulb, 60^ ; dry, 63").
12-bore Gun; weight 7-lb. ; barrels, 30 in. Powder, 28-gr8. of
Walsrode; shot, 1-oz. No. 6. (270 pellets). Wadding: thin card,
|-in. felt, grey cloth, thin card over shot. Gas pressure — average
2-93 tons per sq. in.; highest round, 3*14; lowest, 2-79 tons.
Joyce's cases, 2^-in, in length ; cartridges, IJ-in. in length.
(KioHT Barrel.-
-Forty Yards Pattern.
Round
1st
ring
2nd
ring
3rd
ring
4th
ring
5th
ring
6th
ring
Inside
30.inch
Circle
Outside
30
inches
Velocity
10-yards
Ft. sec.
Recoil
Ft. lb.
1
37
24
22
20
18
16
103
167
1186
22-6
2
30
30
30
21
16
16
111
159
1154
22-1
3
41
28
25
26
14
17
120
150
1128
21-3
4
33
30
28
25
20
12
116
154
1149
20-3
5
36
26
20
16
17
15
93
172
1181
22-4
6
39
31
28
24
20
16
122
148
1158
21-5
7
35
27
24
23
16
13
109
161
1167
21-0
8
42
29
26
22
19
18
119
151
1172
22-0
9
30
24
16
26
22
15
96
174
1141
20-5
10
38
26
25
21
17
14
110
160
1176
22-3
Aver'ge
36
28
24
22
18
15
110
160
1161
21-6
Left Bareel.— Forty Yards Pattern.
1
44
55
40
25
12
17
164
106
2
59
48
37
30
20
15
174
96
3
68
57
33
24
18
13
182
88
4
56
50
34
27
15
11
167
103
5
64
49
36
22
17
13
171
99
Velocity and
6
45
42
30
26
10
21
143
127
Kecoil
7
68
46
30
33
16
12
177
93
8
49
36
24
?1
16
20
130
140
as above.
9
51
44
38
29
15
20
162
108
10
62
57
35
27
19
14
181
89
Aver'ge
57
48
34
26
16
16
165
105
TheD
iamet
erofi
he Ist ring is 15 inches ; area 225 circular inches.
2nd „ 21i „ \
3rd „ 26 „ The area of each belt, between
"
„
4th » ^H) u. \ . . two rings. . is the same as
5th „ 33, „ stated aboTe.
>r
6th „ 36} „ )
I
QQ
o
o
u
d>
a
-•
SO
• •
tn
0\
%
o
>■
a.
Note. — See page 248.
262
SPIERS & SON'S
NTIN
b
b
ISTEI
SIXTEENTH EDITION.
PUBLISHED AND SOLD BY
CHARLES LANCASTER, 151, NEW BOND ST., W.
Field Office i BrearrCs Buildings, Chancery Lane^ London ^ E,C.
Wholesale; Simpkin^ Marshall^ Hamilton^ Kent 8f Co.^ Limited^
4, Stationers' Hall Court ^ London; Charles Lancaster, 151, New
Bond Street, London^ W.
WHERE ALSO MAY BE HAD
SPIEBS & SON'S
GAME REGISTER,
Giving an account of each liead of Game killed, and how
disposed of; containing also divisions for registering
sporting engagements, general observations, &c.
SPIERS & SON'S
SHOOTING REGISTER,
For keeping an account of Game shot, spaces for
memoranda, ftc, but without the divisions of
Game disposed of.
28. 6d. each, postage 2d. EACH EXTRA.
26i
Q
CHARLES LANCASTER
50
FIRST-CLASS PRIZES, MEDALS,
AND DIPLOMAS.
THE
FOUNDED 1886.
RULES AND LIST OF HONORARY
HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF PORTLAND.
^ammttttt.
The EARL PERCY \ rpnisiees
The EARL OF KINTORE j ^^^^^^•
The EARL OF DUDLEY.
The LORD WESTBURY.
The LORD BALYAIRD.
The LORD LOVAT.
R. J. LLOYD PRICE, Esq. (of Rhiwlas).
Mr. IRVINE.
(Head Keeper to Lord KinnouU. Dupplin Castle, Perth, N.B.)
Mr. WOODBRIDGB.
(Head Keeper to Sir J. Kelk, Bart. , Tedworth, Marlborough, Wilts.)
Mr. HAWKINS
(Head K^^eper to James Klasoo, Esq., Eynsham Hall, Witney, Oxon )
Uaitk^rs^
Messrs. COX & CO., Charing Cross, London.
GEORGE ARTHUR BATTCOCK, Esq.
4, CARLTON STREET, REGENT STREET, LONDON.
-Hie rui.es. *<-
1. — ^The object of this Society is to provide for the widows or
families of Keepers who lose their lives by violence in the protection
of game, deer, or fish; also to provide with a yearly income those
Keepers who can produce a certificate from their present or late
Master, covmtersigned by a Justice of the Peace and a duly qualified
Medical Practitioner, that they are tc^tally and permanently incapaci-
tated from contributing in any way to theii* own maintenance on
account of old age or accident. Such certificates must be renewed
every six months. The word " Keeper " shall mean any person who
is wholly employed in the protection of game, deer, or fish for
sporting purposes. No Keeper can be admitted to the benefits of
the Society unless he has been two years in his present or three
years in his last situation.
2. — Widows or families who come under the description given in
Rule 1 will be entitled to receive £75 in a lump sum. After pro-
viding for these widows and families, and also for working expenses,
the income of the Society shall be divided annually in equal sums,
not exceeding £25, among those Benefit Members who ai*e totally
and pei-manently incapacitated from contributing in any way to
their own maintenance on account of old age or accident. No
Benefit Member under 60 shall be considered to be incapacitated on
account of old age.
3.— Honorary Members shall pay a minimum Yearly Sub-
scription of 2 Guineas (due 1st January), or a Life Subscription
of 25 Ouineas. Donations of smaller sums will be received.
N.B.— CHARLES LANCASTER is a Life Member.
4. — No Keeper over the age of 50 shall be allowed to join the
Society. All Subscriptions of Benefit Membei-s shall be paid for the
whole of life, whether the Member be in receipt of annuity or not.
5. — A. Committee for the year, to include at least two Benefit
Members, shall be appointed at the Annual General Meeting.
6. — The Committee shall have it in their power to expel any
Benefit Member from the Society who has been proved to their satis-
faction to have been guilty of any gross misconduct ; such Member
to forfeit any money that he has paid, and to have no further claim
on the Society.
7. — Any Benefit Member who is One year in arrear of his Sub-
scription shall, at the discretion of the Committee, forfeit any money
that he has paid, and shall cease to be a Member of the Society. He
may, however, at the discretion of the Committee, be re-admitted
within five years on payment of ari'ears. No Benefit Member who
has ceased to be a Keeper, and who has adopted some other occupa-
tion, shall continue to belong to the Society, unless he shall have
been a Member for ten years. This rule is not intended to apply to
Benefit Members who may be out of a Keeper's place for any period
not exceeding two years.
8. — The Secretary of the Society shall pay the allowances to the
Benefit Members, and receive all Subscriptions.
9. — All disputes and questions whatsoever, and particularly
-questions as to persons who may be provided for under 'Rule 1, and
questions as to what portion of the annual receipts of the Society
shall be considered as income, and what portion shall be accumu-
lated or othei-wise dealt with, shall be decided by the Committee in
their absolute discretion, and their decision shall be final.
10. — The Committee shall have power to add to their number, and
to alter any existing Rule, and also to make any additional Rules
that they may think requisite.-
11. — ^There shall be a General Meeting of the Society held every
year, in London on the Friday before Ascot.
12. — A list of Benefit Members requiring situations to be kept at
the Office of the Society.
13. — An Actuarial Examination of the affairs of the Society shall
be made every five years.
14. — The annual Subscriptions of Benefit Members are due
Ist July. Those joining between January 1st and June 30bh shall
not pay another premium uutil July 1st in the year following.
The following: is the Scale of
Annual
Subscriptions
for Benefit Members:—
Annual
Annual
Age.
Subscriptions.
Age.
Subscriptions.
Under 30 ...
£0 12
Under 41 ...
£1 7
„ 31 ...
14
, 42 ...
19
, 32 ...
16
, 43 ...
1 11
, 33 ...
17
, 44 ...
1 13,
, 34 ...
18
, 45 ...
1 15
, 35 ...
10
, 46 ...
1 18
, 86 ...
110
, 47 ...
2 10
, 37 ...
12
, 48 ...
? 6
, 38 ...
13
, 49 ...
2 9
, 39 ...
14
, 50 ...
2 14
, 40 ...
16
THE EAEL OP LONSDALE,
M P H
THE LORD LOVAT.
T. B. MILi.EB, Esq, M.P.H.
LEOPOLD DE ROTHSCHILD, Esq.
CAPTAIN SHELLEY.
SIR HUMPHREY DE TRAFFOBD,
Bart.
THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON.
THE LORD WESTBDRY.
PERCIVAL H. WORMALD, Esq.
266
The Field Sports Protection and
Encouragement Association.
President.
THE DUKE OP LEEDS.
Vice-President.
THE DUKE OP ABEROURN, K.Q.
Executive Councii.
THE LORD BALVAIRD.
HAMAK BASS, Esq. M.P.
ALFRED BRISCO, Esq.
SIR P. ASTLEY CORBETT, Bart.
HARDING. COX, Esq.
THE EARL OP PEVERSHAM.
SIR RICHARD GRAHAM, Bart.
O. E. (IREEN, Esq.
WILLIAM HENRY GRENPELL,
Esq.
SIR RALPH PAYNE GALLWEY,
BarI.
Hon. Standing Counsei.
SIB B. WEBSTER, Q.C., M.P.
Soilcitor.
JAMES POWELL, Esq., 34, Essex Street, Strand, W.O.
Hon. Secretary.
GEORGE ARTHUR BATTCOCK, Esq.
Banl<ers.
LONDON AND WESTMINSTER BANK, ST. JAMES'S SQUARE,
BRANCH, S.W.
Ofnces.
4, CARLTON STREET, WATERLOO PLACE, LONDON, S.W.
THIS Association was formed in 1884 as The National Sports
Protection and Defence Association, and it was foimd at the first
Annual General Meeting, held in 1885, that its orgaoisation (a work of
considerable labour) was good; it was considered that it might still serve
the true interests of Sports and Sportsmen, and the public bad liberally
responded. It was then decided to change its title to The Pibld Sports
Protection and 1«;ncouraoement Association, which, as its name
denotes, is intended to protect and encourage the Sports of Hunting,
Racing, Shooting, Pishing, and Coursing; to render assistance in opposing
attacks on such Sports, to watch all legislative and other proposals likely to
affect them adversely, and to raise funds necessary fur such purposes.
There not being any combination of the various Sporting interests in
exisfeuce previous to the formation of this Society to take the initiative on
occasions arising, and as the encouragement of Pield Sports is of import-
ance to the public, the Executive Council trust the Association will meet
with the support of the public who, in subscribing, have the guarantee of a
most responsible body of leading Sportsmen, that the funds will be
distributed in a manner worthy of their confidence.
Annual Subscription, £l ; a Donation of £5 and upwards constitutes
liife Membership.
THORN, Norwich.
(NO LOyOON HOUSE OF BUSINESS.)
NUMEROUS PRIZE MEDALS FOR LIGHT CARRIAGES.
Patentee of the Self-Adjusting Shaft, and of the Automaton
Seat and Step, and Self-Acting Landau Heads, Stc.
THORN'S CELEBRATED SPORTING CHAR-A-BANC.
THORN'S CELEBRATED ♦ WHEEL SHOOTING CART.
DRAWINGS. PH OTOS. AND PRICES ON APPLICATION.
NORFOLK 0ARRIA6E WORKS, NORWICH.
fiURBERRYS' GABARDINE
COMBINES Patent
Outside— Gabardine) ^^/^j^^.
Inside— Wool - ■) proof.
Provide the SPORTSMAN with the most
Healthful, Protective, and Weatherproof
Kit, uniting Rainproofness with Natural
Ventilation. Practically Indestructible,
Impenetrable to Thorns, Scrub, or Cold
Winds, this combine maintains the
normal temperature of the body under the
most varied conditions.
COOL IN SUMMER!
WARM IN WINTER!
PROOF
n T^e Heaviest Bains and
^ Mists.
The Stoutest Thorn or
Fishhook.
03
The neutral shades of GABARDINE
render the Sportsman invisible to the
quarry. The new Gamefeather, Lovat,
and Heather-mixed Colourings, in which
all the Textures are now supplied, equal
in appearance the best Scotch Tweeds.
They are pronounced ** perfect " by those
who have tested them.
The FIELD says: "These suits beat any
thing of the kind that has ever been made."
^^AIRYLIGHT" GABARDINE
W^ Has now Strength and Thorn Resist^
iL^^ ance almost up to Summer Gabardine
i ^ Standard without added weight.
THE "BURBERRY" SUIT is built entirely on anatomical prin-
ciples. Every part Is the outcome of years of careful study.
Gives absolute freedom of movement In every position.
30,
BU-RBE-R-RgS,
AND BASINGSTOKE.
44
SLIP-ON" CAPE.
* * Protects the wearer from
neck to kneCvS.** —
''Field."
* ' A satisfactory and health-
ful form of waterproof." —
' ' British Medical
Journal. "^
** Those who study health
and comfort should tr>' these
healthful garments, in which
all weathers are equalised^
the body never overheated,
and chills and their consequent
discomforts avoided." —
*' Fishing Gazette.' *^
"LANCASTER" Smock.
i have now a garment which will
keep out the heaviest of rains, even if
driven by a gale, and at the same time
am able to get a "right and left" either
from a " butt, " field of roots, or covert
side, without let or hindrance.
i feel sure that many will welcome
this useful addition to their sporting
kit, as I consider it just as useful to a
yachtsman or an angler as to a " gunner."
The material is perfectly waterproof,
yet not in the least air-proof, as you
can both breathe and smoke through
it; and the smock does not cause per-
spiration, as being cut "full,' plenty of
room is given for ventilation.
CHAS. LANCASTER,
Letter to the
'Field:'
30,
Ba-RBE-R-Rgs,
AND BASINGSTOKE.
" EQUE-PEDE,"
A Perfect Rldfng Coat,
When arranged fpr walking dots
not difPep from & Covert Coat, The i;
side^ are provided wfth fasteners ■
undo these the work of a rnoment .
allows the Coat to Bpread, to cover
the saddle and the Hders legs. IT fS
BY FAR THE BEST RIDING COAT
WE HAVE SEEN,-f/?f Fifiif.
SLIP-ON-COAT.
WMI withstand a day's dowrtpouf
l>a excessively Mght, B-nd wMI take up
very small space to be carried —
The tristt Fiefd
For a man who has to be constantly
In the saddle they are perfetit. —
The FiMid.
JJ!'^ f. =\"
/^
Made from "GABARDINE" in Combination or fine Covert
Coatings. Perfectly Porous and Healthful in all Weatliers.
Vet tliey will turn heavy continuous rains, Iceeping the
Wearer dry under the most adverse conditions.
BURBERRYS.
and BASINGSTOKE.
COLONIAL OUTFITS.
Great Strength with varying textures renders *' GABARDINE'*
indispensable to the Traveller and Colonial.
Mr. A. P.. Harper, B.A., in * Pioneer Work in the Alps of New Zealand,' says :
* * I have seen it thick enough (the bush) to walk and crawl on the top of, and in
nearly every locality a 500-ft. ascent is a good day's work. Sometimes it is literally
too tangled to force a way through without a bill-hook to clear the track ; and any
attempt would leave very few garments on the back of a man who tried. The only
stuff I know of which is impervious to the stiff pointed ends of the stunted vegetation
is ** Gabardine,*' made by Burberrvs, Basingstoke, England."
Writing from Pietermaritzburgh, Mr. R. Holmes says : "I am very pleased with
the suit (Gabardine). It has withstood the thorns splendidly, and also the heavy
thunderstorms out here, when others wearing mackintoshes have been soaked through.
It has outlasted three other suits I brought out and still looks fairly presentable."
BURBERRYS.
30, I3:.a.y:m:-a.i^icet, l^OM'DON',
and BASINGSTOKE.
CALLA6HAN & Co.,
BY SPECIAL APPOINTMENT TO
H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES.
DEER-STALKING TELESCOPES of every size,
KEEPERS' TELESCOPES, and
BINOCULAR CLASSES.
KIBSSES
in every size
and variety of
mounting.
Prices, £2 10s. to £20.
Agents for VOIQTLANDER, and ZEISS
BINOCULARS.
23a, new bond street,
LONDON, W.
CURTIS'S & HARVEY,
Sole Manufacturers of the World- Renowned
DIAfflOMDOflRAIN
jLisriD
M
AMBKRITK.
»
(Patent Smokeless Otinpowder).
COJVTAIJ^S J\rO J^ITBO-GLYCERIJ^E.
PIGEON SHOOTING.
Intemational Weeks. Gun Club and Hnrlingham Frizes, &c.,
WON with
II
AMBERITE.
99
Gun Club International Cup (£200)
Hurlingham Cup (£100)
Paris Cup (£50)
Handicap Cup, Huriingham (£50)
Gun and Case, 30 yards (£65) ...
Cup, 30 yards (£«5)
Cups, 31 yards (£25)
Cups, 32 yards (£25)
The value in Stakes and Prizes WON with "AMBERITE,"
1897, £1,314; 1898, £1,301.
LARGER SUMS EACH YEAR than that WON with any other Explosive.
... 1897
1897-1898'
... 1898
... 1898
... 1897
... 1898
1897-1898
1897-1898
Notes on Shooting, &c., free on application to—
74, LOMBARD STREET, E.G.
SPKELESS<8> SPOBTimi
POWDER.
The Original Hardened Nitro-Po^vder.
TRADE -*Q^it X rj>W^^ MARK
^^\^ POWDER has been only twice exhibited, but on both
V5;>> occasions It obtained THE HIGHEST AWARD FOR GUNPOWDER.
ALSO
E.G. No. S.'^^MPROVEDJ^^'E.G. No. 3.
The latest development in Sporting Powders.
NO SMOKE^NO BLOW-BACK.
Quick Ignition. Reduced Heating and Recoil. No Special Gases required.
^^N^ CONTAINS NO NITRO-OLYCBRINB, DOBS NOT INJURB OUS-
^^0^^^ BARRBLS, AND DOBS NOT DBTBRIORATB BY KBBPINQ.
No. 3. "^^ No. 3.
Reduced GHARGE by weight, but SAME BY MEASURE AS ORDINARY " L€."
GRAND PRIX D'OSTENDE.
July 1898. 112 Competitors.
The most valuable Prize ever offered for Pigeon Shooting.
GOLD MEDAL and 31,000 FRANCS.
Won with<cgpSS^^ES!Efc5^ Powder.
Manufactured and Sold (Wholesale only) by
THE "E.C," POWDER COHPASY, LIMITED,
40, NEW BBOAB STREET, LONSOK, E.C.
SPORTING
^^ftTRIDGt"&
BLACK, SCHULTZE, E.G., AMBERITE, S.S.,
WALSRODE, CANNONITE, BALLISTITE,
AND OTHER POWDERS.
TARGET.
To be had from all Gun makers and Dealers In A m muni f ton.
NOTE.— Sportsmen should ask for "ELEVS" and
see that the name Is on the Tube or Base.
mmm^
£/.. ^&.
THE LEADING FlNAjlGIAL JOURjlAIi
Published every Saturday, Price 6d.
FINANCE deals with Government and Municipal
Loans, Railways, 5hippmg-, Banks, Public Companies,
and all Financial Matters.
FINANCE circulates In ^s^ry part of the United
Kingdom,
FINANCE is absolutely the best and most remunera-
tive medium for Company Prospectuses and all
Financial Advertisements.
Yearly Subscriptions to all Parts of tlie World, 26/-
Applications for Advertisement Space to be made to
the Manager at the Head Office :
AMBERLEY HOUSE, NORFOLK STREET,
QILBERTSON & PAGE'S
'HERTFORD WILD OUCK MEAL"
20/- per Cwt.,
A Complete A Perfect Food.
QILBERTSON
^nd PAGE'S
For Price List of Foods and
— Special Meals, and for Pamphlets
on the Bearing of PHEASANTS
PARTRIDGES and WILD
DUCK,
write to : —
CILBERTSON A PACE, Ltd.^
HERTFORD, HERTS.
GAME FOODS.
QILBERTSON A PAGE'S
<' SPECIAL PARTRIDGE MEAL,"
22/- per Cwt.,
Imitated, but not equalled.
SPORTSMEN
purchasing new Guns can dispose of their old ones at very good prices hy
advertising them for sale in the columns of '* THE BAZAAR,
EXCHANGE AND MART " Newspaper, which is the only paper used
by gentlemen for the disposal of private property of every description
for which they have no further use.
In addition to the special facilities that ** THE BAZAAR, EX-
CHANGE AND MART " Newspaper offers for the purchase or disposal
of Private Property, the journal contains practical illustrated articles
on Fishing, Gardening, Cycling, The Keeping of Farm Stock, Dogs,
Poultry and Pigeons, &c., &c.
It also gives every Second Monday in the Month an ILLUSTRATED
SPORTSMAN'S SUPPLEMENT, which is devoted to articles by
well-known writers on Shooting, Fishing, Yachting, &c., &c.
Get a copy and see for yourself. The Paper, which is well worth
careful perusal, is to be obtained at all Newsagents and Railway
Bookstalls, or direct from the Office,
170, STRAND, LONDON, W.C.
BOOKS FOR SPORTSMEN.
Practical Wildfowling.— A Book on Wildfowl and Wildfowl Shooting.
By Hy. Sharp, The result of 25 years' experience Wildfowl Shooting
under all potts of conditions of locality as well as circumstances.
Profusely Illustrated. Demy %vo, cloth gilt^ price 12.s. 6g?. nett, hy
po8tl2s. lOd.
Practical Game Preserving. — Containing the fullest Directions for
Rearing and Preserving both Winged and Ground Game, and
Destroying Vermin ; with other Information of Value to the Game
Preserver By W. Carnegie. Illustrated. In cloth gilt, demy Svo,
price 2]«., by post 21s. bd.
Wild Sports in Ireland. — Being Picturesque and Entertaining
Descriptions of several visits paid to Ireland, with Practical Hints
likely to be of service to the Angler, Wildfowler, and Yachtsman.
By John' Bickerdyke, Author of **The Book of the AU-Round
Angler,'- vSc. Beautifully Illustrated from Photographs taken by
the Author In iloth gilt, price 6«., by post Qs. id.
Breaking and Training Dogs.— Being Concise Directions for the
proper education of Dogs, both for the Field and for Companions.
Second Edition. By ** Pathfinder." With Chapters by Hugh
Dalziel. Illustrated. In cloth gilt, price 6«. 6c?. , by post Gs. lOd.
Practical Trapping. — Being some Papers on Traps and Trapping for
Vermin, with a Chapter on General Bird Trapping and Snaring.
By W. Carnegie. In papery price Is., by post Is. 2d.
Ferrets and Ferretiiig. — Containing Instructions for the Breeding,
Management, and Working of Ferrets. Second Edition, Re-written and
greatly Enlarged. Illustrated. In paper , price 6d., by post 7 d.
LONDON : L. UPCOTT GILL, 170, STRAND, W.C.
For all Game Shooting,.
USE ONLY
eARTRIDGES.
The Oldest House in the Trade.
Percussion Caps, Gun Wadding and
General Ammunition of all kinds.
F. JOYCE ^ CO., LTD.,
7, SUFFOLK LANE,
UPPER THAMES STREET, E.C.
THE "CONWAY" COAT.
Originally designed for
mountaineering, but,
nnade in the various
Jaeger pure wool Sport-
ing Cloths, the best
all round garment for
a Sportsman, under
any conditions, In any
climate.
**EESISTTTS"
for a wet day.
For deacription o/
" RBSISTUS "
see below.
SPECIAL SPORTING CLOTHS,
u RE8I8TU8 " f I^i'^P^'^^of, yet porous. The toughest cloth ever made
\ from a wooUen yam. Will stand rooks, thorns, and
mra Wet Day, y fish-hooks. In two weights and four colours.
See the " CONWAY'' Coat above.
(An elastic worsted Sporting Cloth. Perfect freedom
" ELA8TU8 " ) between the shoulders for Shooting, Golfing, &c. No
lor a Fine Day, ] pleats required. Smart, and yet as comfortable &s a
f Jersey. Six Colours.
See the '' P,H." Shooting Jacket on opposite page.
5end foi^ lUastfated Spotting Catalogae.
m. JAEGER'S Cot., Ltd.
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42, Conduit Street,
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The Championship at Spa 1896
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The Championship of America 1897
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GRAND PRIX DU CASINO,
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AND OTHER PRIZES.
Total
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Out of a possible £3,660, leaving only £1,881
to all others. Nine Sportsmen only shooting
«' WALSRODE," against 260 others.
I.
V,
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SEP? mz
| __label__neg | 0 | anillustratedtr01lancgoog | OL23525875M | OL15266532W | 309 | 1,898 |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **股指期货风险量化分析**
\-基于 VaR -APARCH 模型
**林海伦，余志鸿**
**(福州大学 经济与管理学院，福建 福州 350000)**
**\[摘 要\]本文引入VaR-APARCH模型，对中国股指期货日数据进行实证分析，发现其可以很好地反映期指中的风险，为我国股指期货风险度量和分析提供了一定的启发意义。**
**1 VaR分析方法和 APARCH模型**
**1.1 VaR 介绍**
**VaR 是近年来度量金融市场风险的主要计量工具，即在正常的波动水平下，投资组合在未来特定时间内的最大可能损失。传统的 VaR计算方法有三种，在实际操作中以方差一协方差法为主。**
**方差一协方差法需要注意两个方面：一是描述金融时间序列的尖峰厚尾、波动集聚的特性；二是寻找序列的分布密度函数。期货收益率序列一般具有强烈的 ARCH效应，即“肥尾”特性，如果用标准正态作为金融序列的分布函数，容易造成VaR 的低估。笔者利用 GARCH 族模型来度量收益率系列 VaR， 并对实证结果进行了比较。**
**_1.2_ APARCH 模型介绍**
**在金融计量中， GARCH 模型可以分析序列的厚尾特征，但无法对市场的杠杆效应做出良好解释。针对这一问题， Ding、Grander 和 Engle 在 1993 年提出了 APARCH，即非对称的 CARCH模型，弥补了原先模型在金融时间序列的杠杆效应反应上的不足。其方差表达式一般为：**
**APARCH 模型在一般 GARCH 模型的基础上增加了两个参数，其中y被用来解释市场中杠杆效应。我们可以利用 APARCH模型计算出标准差叮，代人VaR计算公式，得到对应：时刻V值，计算式： VaR=-p(e恤-1)。**
**其中p为上一日的收盘价，α，是对数收益率的条件标准差，q.是在给定置信度1-a下对应的左侧或右侧的分位数。**
**1.3 模型有效性检验**
**在正文的实证研究中，笔者将使用 Kupiec 检验方法，我们假定 VaR 在时间分布上拥有独立性，出现损失大于VaR 的可能即为-系列独立的贝努里试验，则在T次试验中失败N次的概率为：p(1-p)-，为此，我们引人了零假设的似然比率检验： LR=21n\[(1-N/T)-(N/**
国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库
**\[中图分类号\]F830 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1005-6432 (2014)31-0107-02**
**T)\]-21n\[(1-p")吖(p’)"\]**
**如果零假设是成立的，则统计量从服从(1)，其95%置信区间下的临界值就是3.84， 此时如果 LR 的值超过3.84，我们拒绝此模型；99%置信区间的临界值是6.63，则，如果 LR 的值超过 6.63，我们拒绝此模型。**
**_2_ 股指期货风险度量实证分析**
**2.1 数据选取**
**实证分析所需数据来自同花顺 Ifind 金融数据端，笔者选择了沪深300股指期货当月连续主力合约日数据作为本文的实证对象，这是因为，每一个期货合约都有其生命周期，而主力合约在持仓量和交易量两个主要指标上和其他合约相比均占优势，满足分析的要求。时间序列上，笔者选取了2011年4月1日至2014年3月29日的收盘价数据，共756个样本。当月连续主力合约的收益率序列，研究中可以采用收益率公式计算而来。本人从中选择了对数 _收益率法， r=ln (p)_ \-ln(p-)，其中p，为对应第：日当月连续合约的收盘价。本文数据处理采用 Eviews7.0软件。**
**2.2 统计盘分析**
**股指期货收益率序列描述性统计结果见下图：**
**收益率序列r的直方图和统计量**
**从上图中我们可以看山，收益率r是非对称的，而且存在“左尾”较长现象。同时，收益率r的偏度S=-**
**0.0056<0， 也表明r序列是左偏分布。**
**2.3 模型建立和参数估计**
**根据描述性统计量的分析结果，同时根据以前文献对金融数据收益率序列的研究成果，我们将：分布引入对收益率序列实证研究中。通过对残差序列进行 ARCH-LM**
三
**分析， Obs \* R - squared=16. 6438，其p值非常小，因此我们拒绝“残差不存在 ARCH 效应”假设，表明 ARCH检验显著。**
**建立 APARCHt模型来分析序列r的波动，利用Eviews 计算 APARCH的参数估计，如下：**
**表1**
| | | | | | **8** | **自由度** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **APARCH-t** | **2.46E-07** | **0.025889** | **0.033532** | **0.937898** | **2.752138** | **5.179445** |
**笔者利用得出的标准差o计算得到756个样本期内的VaR 值， 具体的 VaR 计算结果见表2和表3。**
**表2 股指期货 VaR 值(置信度95%}**
| **模型** | **M** | **最大值** | **最小值** | **平均值** | **标准差** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **APARCH** | **756** | **215.2330** | **43.23785** | **71.66816** | **23.24939** |
**表3股指期货 VaR 值(置信度99%)**
| **模型** | **A** | **最大值** | **最小值** | **平均值** | **标准差** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **APARCH** | **756** | **309.7937** | **61.6923** | **102.4164** | **33.46657** |
**以上数据表明，若采用的模型可靠，在95%的置信度下，股指期货的平均损失不超过 71.66816，最大损失不超过215.2330；在99%的置信度下，股指期货的平均损失不超过 102.4164，最大损失不超过 309.7937。**
**_2.4_ 模型检验**
**在本文的研究中，我们采用失败频率检验法，如下：**
| **模型** | **覺信度(95%)** | | | **置信度(99%)** | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **模型** | **期望** | **实际** | **LP统计量** | **期望** | **实际** | **LP统计量** |
| **APARCH-t** | **37.8** | **29** | **0.247972** | **7.56** | **5** | **0.326539** |
**根据似然比率检验标准，我们对上表进行分析，从而得到如下结论： APARCH -t模型能较好地通过检验，在95%的置信度下，模型得出的度量结果更好。**
**3 结论**
**笔者通过构建股指期货价格连续序列，从序列对数收益率的波动及分布出发，建立了VaR-APARCH模型，从而成功度量了股指期货面临的市场风险。通过实证研究，我们得到如下结论：①我国股指期货主力合约收益率序列存在 ARCH 效应和尖峰厚尾特性；②对于 APARCH-t 模型下的股指期货 VaR， 采用 Kupiec 检验方法，结果表明：APARCH-L模型得到的度量结果能顺利通过 LR检验；③通过对不同置信水平下 VaR 的研究，结果显示在95%的置信度水平下，度量结果最优。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]苏中一.股指期货操作实务和技巧\[M\].北京：经济科学出版社，2008(8).**
**\[2.蔡向辉.股指期货的市场稳定作用及其现实意义\[J\].金融发展研究，2009(10).**
**\[作者简介\]林海伦(1989一)，男，浙江温州人，福州大学金融硕士研究生。研究方向：公司并购；余志鸿(1989一)，男，福建漳州人，福州大学金融硕十研究生。研究方向：国际金融。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **医院绩效分配与核算方法**
**苏国延 黎秀芳**
**PERFORMANCE ALLOCATION AND CALCULATION METHODS OF HOSPITALS _SU Guoyan， LI Xiufang_**
**【摘 要： 根据卫生部《关于城镇医药卫生体制改革的指导意见》提出医院绩效分配的方法，按照劳务分配的总原则，把医院的分配制度和激励机制结合起来，实现分配激励的最佳效应。**
**【关键词】 医院 绩效 核算 分配**
**医院绩效分配是医院管理中的重要内容之一1!，为了深化医院的管理和分配制度，更好地贯彻执行卫生部行业纪律的规定，按照劳务分配的总原则，以绩效为杠杆，充分地调动职工的主观能动性和工作积极性，更好地为患者提供优质服务，促进医院的医疗工作向优质、高效、低耗的方向发展，根据卫生部《关于城镇医药卫生体制改革的指导意见》提出医院绩效分配的方法，供大家探讨。**
**绩效分配的原则21**
**①劳务费分配是劳动性的一种奖励形式，该奖励以劳动绩效为分配依据。②绩效分配遵循按岗位技术含量、风险程度、服务质量、工作业绩和多劳多得的取酬分配原则。③严格实行医院成本核算制度，堵塞漏洞，以降低医疗服务成本和材料消耗、合理用药。④严禁把医疗服务项目的收人以单项提成的方式直接与个人的劳务收人挂钩，以医疗质量控制为主要分配依据。⑤劳务费根据月度部门的绩效发放。⑥年度发放属劳务费范畴的总金额，不得违反财政法律法规所规定的结余分配原则或按上级文件所规定的额度执行。**
**_2_ 绩效核算的范围及内容纠**
**①机关各部室及后勤部门，根据职能权责和完成任务的程度，以保证医疗业务的正常运行进行考核。②严格执行医疗药品结构比例规定。药品收人仅作为质控指标，收支均不计作部门成本核算。核算部门完成及协作完成的项目工作量以及成本费用均纳人绩效核算。③承担社会公共职能人员的劳务费额度由医院确定；新开展的临床部门在扶持期内(可自定期限)人员月度劳务费的分配，按医院核算部门相应月份的月人均值计算，由医院承担发放。④工作人员增减、物品领用等费用支出全额计人成本。⑤工作质量考核，由相关部室制定出考核标准，每月会同考核小组成员对相关部门作出考评，并评出考评分，最高分值不超过100分。**
**苏国延** **黎秀芳：广州市妇女儿童医疗中心广东广州** **510623**
**3 业务量核算的反映**
**门诊各部门以工作量和核算项目的医疗收人作参考为归集单位，按100%计算；住院部各部门以患者出院人次和结算后的医疗收入作参考为归集单位，按100%计算；医技部门以工作量和门诊各部门核算项目的医疗收入作参考及住院患者出院结算后相应的执行项目收入作参考为归集单位，按100%计算；与外单位(或院区间)的合作项目的医疗收人作参考按本院区所得100%归入执行部门核算；病人所次交的费用作参考按医院相关规定处理。**
**_4_ 成本支出核算要求【61**
**4.1 工资**
**编内及编外人员月工资全额计人核算成本；计时工工资、护工工资及单独使用的外单位服务公司人员工资按医院实际支付金额计人部门成本。其中：①出国、国内进修，因职称晋升而下乡，此期间人员的工资不计人部门成本；②非全脱产就读人员的工资计入部门成本；③连续病假超过半年的工资不计人部门成本；④产休假人员的假期超过15天的，工资不计人部门成本；⑤因不胜任本职工作而被退回中心人事部门另行安排工作的，工资不计人原部门成本；⑥上级单位工作需要临时抽调的人员的时间超出连续15天以上者，工资不计人部门成本；⑦没有工作经历人员和临时合同制专业技术人员培训上岗后头三个月工资由医院承担，第四个月起工资计人部门成本。⑧新毕业上岗后的轮科住院医生在轮科的三年期间的工资由医院承担，上岗后第四个月起工资计入部门成本。**
**_4.2_ 医院管理费**
**医院管理费按各科室部门人头分摊或按工作量一定的比例分摊。**
**_4.3_ 器械折旧**
**当年购置设备由翌年1月1日起计算折旧费，折旧费按《财务制度》规定的折旧年限计提。每月由相关部门把折旧**
**费计人各相应部门成本。个别部门因客观原因无法按规定年限收回设备成本的(指个别承担社会公共职能的部门)，可提出书面申请，经医院同意后，可适当延长折旧年限。属课题经费支出或非自筹资金购置的设备折旧费，按设备购置价格的50%计算。**
**_4.4_ 其他费用计算**
**①部门领用的卫生材料、试剂、低值易耗品、维修费等支出。②部门领用的消毒用品及领用的棉签、敷料等卫生加工材料。③部门领用的办公及日用、印刷、五金、家具等用品。④部门领用的被服支出。⑤部门在洗衣房的洗涤支出。⑥部门的水、电、气及通讯费用。⑦若部门一次性领用的消耗材料是为今后数月时间使用的，仓库须把该部门的耗材费用平摊成月均数逐月报出。**
**以上成本项目由相关部门按时提供。属于医院基础设施改造的、或对学科作重点扶持的费用，由相关部门提出经医院研究批准后可暂缓计入部门成本。**
**核算部门劳务费的构成**
**月劳务费总额原则上不能超过上级规定的要求分配。医院按绩效考核各部门的工作状况，综合平衡医院总体的概况，最后计算出各部门一级的劳务费总额。**
**月劳务费=\[(工作总量-总量支出)\*系数+岗位倾斜额\]\*综合质控管理系数**
**岗位倾斜额=工作量\*岗位倾斜系数**
**6 非核算各级别岗位月劳务费分配系数**
**月人均劳务费=月劳务费总和/总人数；月人均劳务费医院核心小组可根据当月的绩效情况作出上下不超过10%的幅度调整；非核算部门人员及管理人员分配系数：①各级管理人员职务系数每级级差不宜超出0.20；②系数标准以人事组织权责岗位设定；③系数标准不以职称高低为评定依据。**
**7 其他相关分配要求**
**①职能部门须根据本部门人员的工作效率、质量和岗位及岗位工作年限等情况合理公平地做好劳务费二次分配工作。②临床、医技部门须根据本部门人员的工作效率、工作数量与质量及技术含量与风险和岗位及岗位工作年限等情况合理公平地做好二次分配工作；部门的二次分配运作经本部门职工讨论通过形成方案经部室主任审批后，在期限要求内送管理部门备案。③分配到各部门工作的普通工人的工资、人头成本及劳务费用由用人部门承担。④ICU 及急诊科，医院根据其工作性质的特殊性给予特殊补贴66.⑤临床手术项目给予一定的劳务费倾斜政策。⑥特诊室医师工作量报酬按每就诊人数计算、医疗收入纳人医院总体绩效核算。⑦需要关注的门诊医师工作量计算的问题：门诊专科人员劳务费计算方法；节假日及夜诊医师加班劳务费计算方法；上述医师仅计算工作量，所发生的医疗收人纳人所在部门绩效。⑧医院按照上级单位规定的医疗药品结构按科别**
**结构比例为基础，考核范围为正负五个百分点，高于考核范围时，按绩效扣减当月份劳务费。⑨国内进修、因职称晋升而下乡人员在进修或下乡期间的劳务费，由医院适当计发；出国或赴港、澳培训(进修)人员劳务费停发。①在职全脱产就读的人员在学期间、临时合同制人员(含专业技术人员)试用期内均不享受劳务费分配。①新到职人员劳务费的发放办法：完成医院岗前培训正式上岗后才享受劳务费分配；没有工作经历人员和临时合同制专业技术人员；有工作经历的中、初级职称级人员；有相应工作经历的博士、硕士研究生或高级职称人员；上岗后头三个月劳务费由医院按相应定额分别承担，第四个月起参加所在部门的分配；新毕业的轮科医生上岗后在三年轮科期间内的劳务费，由医院按年递次承担。②因不胜任本职工作而被退回医院人事部门另行安排工作的职工，在等候安排新岗位分配期间不享受劳务费分配。**
**8 质控考核拟定**
**临床工作质量检查由医院内的医务和护理部门分别组织考核评分；行政管理部门的检查由医院办公室、人事部门、后勤管理部门和临床相关科室负责考核评分，考核标准由医院办公室统一拟定，考核与劳务费挂钩，作为一种质控管理。**
**9 结束语I8\]**
**总之，深化医院的管理和分配制度，虽然激励机制可有效激励职工的学习、工作热情和工作积极性。但是，在职工心目中，薪酬决不仅仅是一定数目的金钱，它还代表了身份、地位以及在医院中的业绩，甚至个人的能力、品行、道德、发展情景等。因此，把医院的分配制度和激励机制有机结合起来，使医院的分配体系弹跳起来无疑是推动医院发展的极大动力，才能从真正意义上实现分配激励的最佳效应。**
**参考文献**
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\[6\] **谢** **钢，王** **辉，林琦远.成本核算与绩效评价相结合的医院奖金分配模式探讨\[J\].现代医院管理，2009(1)：10-13.**
\[7\] **杨** **菊，蒋丽琴，宋建国，等.绩效考核在转型期医院管理中的实践与思考\[\]\].中国医疗前沿，2012(10)：91-93.**
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**\[9\]** **袁建平.医院成本核算的目的与意义「J\].现代医院，2006(11)：110-111.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **黄海龙**
**(北京邮电大学经济管理学院，北京京100876)**
**摘要：互联网金融是互联网和金融相结合的新型金融模式，电商金融对经济和金融的影响力是目前所有互联网金融模式中最大的。本文研究了电商金融的形成背景，分析参与电商金融的四个要素；从电商平台联结不同对象的角度，将电商金融分为消费者信贷和中小微企业贷款，并对电商金融模式进行细化总结，探讨了电商金融的乘数效应和对金融脱媒的影响；最后对互联网金融的风险和监管进行了分析。**
**关键词：电商金融；互联网金融；金融脱媒；小微贷款；乘数效应**
**JFL 分类号：033；G00 中图分类号：F830 文献标识码：AA文章编号：1006-1428(2013)08-0018-06**
**一、引言**
**对于互联网金融，至今国内外学者都还没有一致的认识或界定。根据学者谢平的观点，以互联网为代表的现代信息科技，特别是移动支付、云计算、社交网络和搜索引擎等，将对人类金融模式产生根本影响；20年后，可能形成一个既不同于商业银行间接融资、也不同于资本市场直接融资的第三种金融运行机制，可称之为“互联网直接融资市场”或“互联网金融模武”。而近年来，随着互联网产业的快速发展，互联网对金融行业开始逐步渗透，涌现出众多的互联网金融方式，如以阿里贷款为代表的电商金融，Lending Club为代表的 P2P人人贷，Kickstarter 为代表的众筹模式， Bitcoin 为代表的虚拟货币等。其中尤以电商为核心的互联网金融模式异军突起，其参与的广度、深度以及对社会经济的影响是所有互联网金融模式中最大的，引起了全社会和整个金融行业的高度关注。**
**本文研究以诸如阿里巴巴、京东、亚马逊、eBay 等电商平台为核心的互联网金融模式，为了叙述方便，下文用“电商金融”指代以电商平台为核心的互联网金融。**
**二、电商金融的发展背景及要素分析**
**商业活动的本质是商品流、物流、资金流、信息流**
**收稿日期：2013-05-25**
**四流合一的循环活动。电子商务依托以互联网产业为基础的快速信息流，加快了物流、商品流、资金流的流动速度。在传统电子商务活动中，资金流仅是依托于电子商务平台的单向流动，例如对于 B2B 电商，资金从一家供应商，经过电商平台，流向另一家供应商；对下 B2C 和 C2C，资金从消费者，经过电商平台，流向卖家。而电商金融，彻底改变了以往电子商务活动中资金单向运行的方式，让资金流在电商生态圈内形成闭环，实现了资金流的循环和加速周转。**
**电商金融，是电子商务和金融相结合的产物。电商金融凭借电子商务的历史交易信息和其他外部数据，形成大数据，并且利用云计算等先进技术，在风险可控的条件下，当消费者、供应商资金不足且有融资需求时，由电商平台提供担保，将资金提供给需求方。电商金融以信用为前提，以法律为保障，以资金需求方继续使用电商平台类服务和法律为执行基础；若资金需求方不能按时还款，其在电商平台上的活动将会受限制，例如第三方卖家会面临店铺被关闭的风险。**
**(一)电商金融的形成背景**
**电子商务成交量巨大：根据中国电子商务研究巾心发布的《2012年度中国电子商务市场数据监测报告》，中国 B2B电子商务交易额达6.25万亿元，占2012**
**年 GDP 总量的12.03%；网络零售市场交易规模达13205亿元，占2012年社会消费品零售总额的6.37%。巨大的电子商务成交量，蕴含着广阔的电商金融前景。**
**小微企业融资困难：小微企业一般很难通过股权市场获得直接融资，也很难依靠银行等金融机构间接获得融资，民间借贷成了小微企业的无奈选择；这主要是受国家扶持政策不到位，商业银行的信贷政策约束，民间融资比例高、风险大、融资成本居高不下等因素的制约，相关数据显示，中国目前有4200万家中小企业，其中有超过 3800万家企业需要贷款，这中间，又有69.73%的企业因为不能提供抵押物而没有机会获贷。根据阿里巴巴集团提供的数据显示，日前入驻天猫的卖家超过6万，淘宝卖家超过700万， 阿里巴巴B2B平台的中国企业商铺达800万。在进行电子商务交易的企业中，大部分是中小微企业，依靠电商金融解决中小微企业的融资难问题，是非常有开创性和实效性的。**
**电商金融交易成本低：电商金融不具有实体网点，能大量降低交易成本，同时互联网能利用大数据，边际成本很低。INTERNETBANK 统计显示，网络银行与其他形式的金融机构相比较，在降低交易成本上具有明显优势，比如，单笔金融交易成本在传统柜台网点、电话银行、ATM 机和网络银行服务成本分别为：1.07，0.54、0.27、0.01美元。阿里金融的数据显示，阿里小贷目前单笔信贷的成本平均为2.3元，而传统银行单笔信贷的经营成本在2000元左右。除了降低资金成本，电商金融能节约大量的时间成本，提高效率：一般线下贷款，从审批到放款要几个工作日甚至更多；而对于线上的电商金融，从申请到获批，不受工作日等时间限制，最快只要几分钟。**
**图\]各个渠道金融机构交易成本**
**信息共享，降低风险：以互联网为代表的信息技术，大幅降低了信息不对称性，使得风险可控性增强。在一些互联网平台的交易体系设计中(如eBay 和淘宝等)，不仅可以很容易地获得交易双方的各类信息，而且还能将众多交易主题的资金流置于其监控之下，与传统金融模式相比，这极大地降低了风险控制成本。同时，利**
**用先进的互联网技术，能将电商平台外的数据加以筛选标准化，利用外部数据进行补充及交叉验证，降低风险。**
**(二)电商金融的参与要素**
**电商金融需要四个要素综合参与，缺一不可：大数据、电商平台、资金提供方、资金需求方。在四个要素中，电商平台可以成为资金提供方，但不能成为资金需求方。**
**大数据：大数据是整个电商金融运行的基础。大数据的来源主要有以下三种途径：(1)依托电商平台白身的巨大客户数据优势，电商平台将自身网络内每一次电子商务活动中的数据，诸如上下游交易、客户数据、物流数据、口碑评价、认证信息、近期交易动态、实时运营状况、平台工具使用状况等进行汇集处理，形成最主要的数据。(2)此外，在资金需求方提交贷款申请时，需要完善资金需求方各类数据，提交包括公司信息以及家庭、配偶、学历、住房等信息。(3)为了数据的进一步完善，增强数据的维度，提高风险控制水平，需要引入外部数据，例如海关、税务、电力、水力、电信、中央银行征信系统等数据，也需要对电商平台外部的互联网信息进行采集整合，比如该公司在社交平台的客户互动数据、搜索引擎数据等。**
**电商平台：电商平台是维持整个电商金融运行的核心节点，一方面电商平台要利用大数据对资金需求方进行担保，另一方面电商平台也要监督各项资金流的运转状况，确保整个电商金融的正常安全运行。**
**资金需求方：参与到整个电商金融活动中的消费者、第三方网店、产品供应商等，都可以成为资金需求方。由于电子商务只是整个商业产业链条中的特定环节，链条上及链条外的生产、加工等类别的中小微企业客户，是电商金融很难覆盖的部分，这些环节中的资金需求方很难被电商金融涵盖。**
**资金提供方：电商金融中资金提供方的来源可以多样化，主要有四种方式：(1)电商平台自身提供资金：电商平台成立小额贷款公司或者专门的财务部门提供资金；(2)电商平台利用大数据为银行等金融机构做担保，由银行等提供资金，走金融服务模式；(3)电商平台拥有银行牌照，具有吸收资金功能，用融得资金提供贷款；(4)电商平台作为信贷平台市场，为平台上各类用户的贷款提供信用评级或标价，包括担保，让各类投资者在此信贷平台市场上进行投资交易，直接连接投资者和资金需求方。事实上，对丁来源于银行等金融机构和个人的外部资金，电商平台为其提供担保；对来源于电商平台的白主资金或是依靠获得牌照融得的资金，从某种角度，相当于电商平台为**
**其做了内部担保。在下文讨论中，为了行文简洁，资金提供方在本文中将作为一-个独立部分出现，不严格区分电商平台自身资金和外部资金。对于资金来源提供方式的选择，则从电商平台自身运营的目标考虑。**
**三、电商金融模式分析**
**电商平台联结了下游的消费者和上游的中小微企业，针对不同对象，电商金融可分为消费者信贷和中小微企业信贷。中小微企业贷款根据信贷类型的不同，可以分为信用贷款和应收账款融资，针对不同类型的电商平台，对信贷类型可以进一步细化。**
**(一)消费者信贷**
**消费者信贷，是指电商平台通过对消费者的日常消费的数据分析，给予消费者信用支付额度，消费者在该电商平台上购买商品时可使用信用支付额度购物，由资金提供方进行资金垫付，消费者在规定还款期限还款，如图2所示。电商平台将向签约支持消费者信用支付的商户收取服务费。电商平台这种模式类似于另类信用卡，适合在电商平台所形成的生态闭环内使用，比如 eBay 旗下 PayPal 的 Bill me later。**
**图2消费者信用支付流程**
**(二)中小微企业贷款**
**1、信用贷款。**
**信用贷款：当资金需求方需要贷款时，只需凭借在电商平台上积累的交易信用，无需提供任何抵押，向资金方进行申请，并由电商平台提供担保，即可获取贷款，根据信用贷款参与对象的不同，将信用贷款分为如下三种：**
**(1)自主 B2C 平台——供应商信用贷款。**
**自主 B2C 平台(如京东商城)从供应商处进货，再依托电子商务网站直接销售产品。供应商在为自主B2C 供货的过程中，积累了丰富的交易信息，可以凭借交易信用去申请贷款(如图3)。**
**图3 自主 B2C的供应商信用贷款流程**
**(2)销售平台式电商——第三方网店信用贷款。**
**销售平台式电商(如淘宝)并不直接销售产品，而是为商家提供 B2C、C2C 的平台服务。第三方网店在销售过程中，在电商平台上积累了丰富的交易信息，可以凭借信用去申请贷款(如图4)。**
**图4销售平台式电商的第三方网店信用贷款流程(3)B2B 平台——企业信用贷款。**
**B2B 电商平台(如阿里巴巴)上的企业，在购买产品、出售产品的过程中，积累了丰富的交易信息，可以凭借信用去申请贷款(如图5)。**
**图5 B2B平台会员企业信用贷款流程**
**2、应收账款融资。**
**应收账款融资，是需要提供抵押的信贷：当资金需求方需要贷款时，需凭借抵押和电商平台上积累的交易信用，向资金方进行申请并由电商平台提供担保，才能获取贷款。**
**(1)自主 B2C 平台——供应链贷款。**
**供应商向自主B2C 电商平台供货，在商品入库后，可以向资金提供方申请贷款，同时电商平台提供信用担保，并用入库商品作为质押，资金提供方批准后给予贷款。当电商平台与供应商约定的结算账期到期后，电商平台把结算给供应商的货款以偿还贷款的方式还给资金方；或由电商平台先把结算货款直接给予供应商，再中供应商给资金方偿还给贷款。相比而言，前一种贷款偿还方式风险更小(如图6)。**
**图6 自主 B2C平台供应链金融流程**
**自主 B2C 平台的应收账款融资，实质上是为供应商企业提供的供应链贷款。依据商业规律，由于自主**
**B2C平台的实力大于供应商时，议价能力强，自主B2C平台给供应商的账期会延长，导致供应商的资金被账期占用，造成供应商的资金压力。所以，白主 B2C平台的供应链金融是对供应商被账期占压货款的优化。**
**(2)第三方网店——订单贷款。**
**在电商交易中，当消费者购买第三方卖家商品付款时，为了保障消费者权益，货款一般不会直接进入第三方卖家账户，而是先到电商平台或第三方支付平台(例如在淘宝上购买就是直接到达旗下的支付宝账户)，当消费者确认收货后，再由电商平台将货款打给第三方卖家。从消费者付款到第三方卖家实际收款这过程中，一般会有若于天时间，造成了对第三方卖家资金的占用。**
**图7第三方网店订单贷款流程**
**而订单贷款，就是在电商平台上，当第三方卖家有符合条件的“卖家已发货”的订单，就凭借订单向资金提供方申请贷款，电商平台为资金方提供信用担保，并用已发货订单作为质押，资金方给卖家提供订单贷款，直接打人卖家在电商平台的资金账号中。当消费者确认收货后，由电商平台偿还贷款(如图7)。订单贷款的实质是第三方卖家把之后收到的钱进行提前支取，加速资金周转。**
**四、电商金融的乘数效应-—以第三方网店贷款为例**
**当电商平台上的第三方网店获取贷款后，其中一部分资金会用于进货、扩大产品规模，而另一部分资金会以贷款利息和购买电商平台的增值服务(如广告、店铺装修、店铺数据分析工具等)的形式，重新进人电商系统，最终又以电商贷款形式为第三方卖家提供贷款，形成循环。本文引入乘数效应，对电商金融中资金的循环进行建模讨论。**
**假设第二方商家从电商平台获得的贷款利率为r，购买电商平台增值服务的资金占贷款金额的比例为s，且购买增值服务的资金也进人电商金融系统；若于0时刻第三方商家在电商平台中借贷资金，那么下一时刻该部分资金仍然在系统中流动的量为yr=yo\*(r+s)，第n 期内该部分资金仍然在系统中流动的量为y，=yo\*(r+s) n，那么n期时间电商金融信贷的乘数定义式为：**
**当n→o，电商金融的信贷资金乘数为**
**1-(r+s)**
**投人到电商金融的资金，通过循环，给整个电商金融的影响是原先金额的K=-、倍。1-(r从电商金融的乘数效应，可以分析得到其对电商平台的意义在于，电商平台不仅能获得贷款利息，还能刺激第三方商家对各类增值服务的使用，使资金在电商平台系统内循环，产生乘数效应，获得更大收益。同时，电商平台能从金融垂直方向打通电商产业链，为商家提供更全面的服务，将增强卖家对电商平台的粘性，提高电商平台在行业中的竞争力。对第三方卖家等各类中小企业的意义在于，电商金融能提高各类中小微企业的资金周转率和产品销量，深人解决一部分中小微企业融资难问题，推动中小企业发展及就业情况的改善，促进国民经济发展。**
**五、电商金融对金融脱媒的影响**
**电商金融等互联网金融模式的蓬勃发展，对金融脱媒的影响也越来越大。金融脱媒可以发生在两个方向，从资金盈余方角度而言，资金绕开低收益的金融中介向高收益方向运行；从资金需求方角度，绕开高成本的金融中介向低成本融资渠道方向运行。传统金融中介理论认为，金融中介可以利用规模经济和范围经济降低交易成本。现代金融中介理论则利用信息经济学和交易成本经济学的研究成果，认为金融中介存在的意义在于：(1)金融中介可以降低借贷活动中由不对称信息产生的交易成本，分别为贷款前选择项目、贷款后监督项目和项目完成收回贷款三个阶段的交易成本；(2)金融中介由于自身的专业优势，可以减少学习有效利用复杂多样的金融工具并且参与到市场中的成本，代理投资者进行交易，有效节约参与成本；(3)金融中介作为“流动性蓄水池”，降低交易双方的流动性风险。**
**互联网让信息不断透明化，降低金融中介依靠信息不对称所掌握的信息优势，下文通过分析互联网金融信息生产的一般函数，米研究互联网金融对金融脱媒程度的影响。**
**互联网金融信息Ⅰ的生产与其它产品的生产一样，需要有要素投人进行生产，投人的要素包括：原始信息i、生产技术T、劳动力L和资本K，这四项要素中起决定作用的是i和T，后两项(易除技术因素一般**
**意义上的劳动和资本)贡献度较小，所以在函数中忽略。因此，互联网金融信息生产一般函数为：**
**其中->0，-一->>00，，即即该该函数在变量i，T取值范围内单调递增。**
**原始信息i主要来自于互联网，互联网上所有的信息可分为两类：第一类是参与者在付出数量不等的查阅成本，通过搜索引擎或查阅相应网站得到的公共信息，由于互联网上的公共信息质量良莠不齐，这类信息噪音较大，需要进行去噪才能得到较为真实的信息；第二类是私密信息，如用户详细注册信息，用户网站行为数据，电子商务网站非公开的后台交易数据等等，这些信息具有高度私密性，只能被相应的互联网公司掌握，相对公共信息，此类信息噪音较小。对于信息生产技术T，互联网数据在大数据范畴下，具有 4V特征：数据量人(Volume)、数据种类多(Variety)、数据价值密度低(Value)，数据快速化(Velocity)。处理这些数据，需要先进的大规模并行处理数据库、分布式文件系统、云计算、商业智能、数据安全、数据预测等技术。在这些方面，大型互联网公司技术已经有深人研究及应用。山此，本文认为，大型互联网公司拥有远超出个人及金融机构能拥有的互联网原始信息，同时掌握了先进的信息生产技术，其会比个人、金融机构在生产互联网金融类信息产品方面具有不可超越的优势，成为互联网金融所必须的信息提供商。更确切地说，传统金融中介所掌握的金融信息基本都是二维的，而互联网金融信息可以达到三维。并且，掌握互联网原始信息越多、信息生产技术实力越强的互联网公可，能生产出更优质的互联网金融信息I。**
**相对传统金融机构，互联网让金融活动的各类参与主体更加扁平化，从地理位置覆盖和被金融机构忽视的低净值客户覆盖两个角度扩展了互联网金融的交易范围，形成范围经济，这是互联网金融的先天优势。互联网金融由于具有资金需求方在互联网上的丰富信息，在贷款前选择项目阶段能非常明显的降低信息不对称程度，获得较低的成本；但对贷款后监督项目和项目完成收回贷款阶段，只有这两个阶段能被互联网监控，信息不对称程度降低的才会明显，成本因此也会低，否则互联网金融公司还得采用高成本的传统线下监督贷款项目和线下追回不良贷款的形式：如淘宝提供的卖家订单贷款，这两个阶段都在淘宝网的监督下，但对于 P2P贷款，贷款后监督项目和项目完成后回收贷款，都不能被互联网有效监控，需要去线下监督。针对在降低用户参与成**
**本和作为“流动性蓄水池”方面的作用，由于这两个方面都需要专业的金融技术，本文认为和传统金融中介相比，互联网金融公司并无明显优势。**
**互联网金融公司，在降低信息不对称程度和降低金融交易成本的某些阶段，具有特别显著的优势，为金融脱媒提供了可能；金融脱媒程度的高低，取决于其运作模式。如果互联网金融公司获得了商业银行牌照，能够吸收存款并放款，在此种意义上，就不存在金融脱媒，只是多了一种金融服务渠道；如果其没有商业银行牌照，但成立了诸如保险、基金、信托等金融机构，开展互联网金融业务，则会导致银行层面出现金融脱媒，金融部门层面不出现金融脱媒；如果其白身不参与金融交易，仅作为信用评级机构和交易平台，对不同类型的贷款业务评级，撮合资金供求双方的交易，就会导致整个金融部门层面的金融脱媒。**
**山丁电商金融在借贷的三个阶段，贷款前选择项月、贷款后监督项目和项目完成收回贷款阶段，在某种程度上都能有效被纳人互联网监控，且电商金融所具有的互联网原始信息是最丰富的，所以相比其他互联网金融模式，电商金融在降低信息不对称程度上有更大优势。如果开展电商金融的互联网金融公司只作为撮合个人资金盈余方和资金需求方交易的平台，就能形成最深层次的金融脱媒。**
**六、电商金融的风险与监管**
**电商金融等互联网金融产品是创新型的金融产品，面临各种各样的风险，如何有效地分析和控制这些风险是互联网金融能否成功的关键因素。电商金融的风险具有传统金融机构具有的流动性风险、利率汇率风险、市场风险，还存在技术、业务、法律等方面的特定风险，下文主要分析电商金融的特定风险以及可能的监管方式。**
**技术风险：(1)量化放贷风险，电商金融依据大数据建立自动化量化贷款发放模型，显著提高放贷效率，降低放贷成本，取得任何传统金融机构都不能达到的人均放贷数量，如阿里巴巴利用400人的团队，在2013年第一季度完成了110万笔贷款，人均发放贷款2750笔；相比之下，以小额贷款著称的包商银行，依靠2000多人的小贷团队，同期完成放贷数目5.7万笔，人均发放贷款仅为28.5笔。标准化的量化放贷模型依赖于大量的参数设置，由计算机网络控制，当用户进行贷款申请时，自动对用户进行筛选、计算放款额度并发放贷款，用数据计算代替人工审核。量化放贷的风险大小与经济形势高度相关，在依据良好的经济发展条件下设置的量化放贷模型参数，当面**
**临经济衰退时，很多设置的参数都失去了意义，如果电商金融不能适时应对经济风险而继续大规模的量化放贷，很可能在短时间就出现大面积坏账。所以电商金融需要建立起很好地应对经济形势的风险机制。(2)技术安全风险。互联网金融建立在开放的计算机网络基础上，金融交易中的业务和风控大量依赖计算机系统及网络完成，一旦计算机系统宕机、存储设备被破坏或遭遇黑客攻击，将对互联网金融造成巨大影响，极其容易造成交易主体的权益损失，严重时会导致整个网络的瘫痪。根据赛门铁克2012年发布的《揭露金融木马的世界》白皮书显示，2012年全球范围有600多家金融机构遭受过网银木马的攻击，范围横跨亚洲、欧洲和北美洲，截至2012年10月，约16.5万台电脑被网络银行木马感染。**
**业务风险：(1)操作风险。操作风险是指由于不完善或有问题的内部操作过程、人员、系统或外部事件而导致的直接或间接损失的风险。由于互联网金融是创新型产品，操作风险可能来自客户对这一事物不熟悉造成的疏忽大意，也可能来自互联网金融安全系统及其产品的设计缺陷，或是内部工作人员的操作失误。同时，快速发展的计算机网络技术也会导致互联网金融系统技术过时，系统升级时可能造成故障，跨平台(互联网和移动互联网)、跨系统(Windows、IOS、Android 等)的系统适配也有可能导致操作风险。(2)声誉风险，由于互联网金融的虚拟性，交易双方不需要见面，但交易平台往往由非金融公司控制，游离于监管之外，对交易者身份和交易信息验证的难度大，同时中国的社会信用体系不完善，往往会造成逆向选择和道德风险，从而可能发生资金安全性问题。 _一日_ 互联网金融发生安全问题，对用户造成巨额损失并在社会上造成严重的不良影响，就形成了声誉风险，影响公众对互联网金融的信心。**
**法律风险：一方面，由于互联网金融在中国乃至世界都刚刚兴起，并且我国的金融立法都是基于传统金融活动制定，这些法律法规暂不适应电商金融等互联网金融产品的发展，而且在互联网金融市场准人、交易主体身份认证、电子合同的有效性确认等方面尚无明确而完备的法律规范，容易造成交易主体之间的权利与义务不明确。同时，互联网金融还涉及到消费者权益保护法、隐私保护法等法律，对消费者的保护还处在缺位状态，当交易双方发生经济纠纷时，由于法官或仲裁必须依据现有的法律法规来进行判断，可能引起有争议的判决，造成当事人的权益不能得到有效保护，从而增加交易成本，不利于互联网金融的进一步发展。**
**监管方式：对于互联网金融及电商金融的监管方式，本文认为，应该采用积极审慎的监管原则，进行金融功能性监管，同时加强对金融消费者的保护，提高对五联网金融公司信息披露的要求。(1)从金融发展而言，互联网金融的发展是国内外金融行业发展的热点和趋势，能解决一部分中小企业融资难问题。同时，我国金融体系中存在的诸多问题，从根本上来看都需要运用金融创新的手段加以解决，金融创新是一个长期的连续过程。互联网金融是金融创新型产品，能够有效提高金融对经济的促进作用，推进金融改革，所以监管部门如果采用积极审慎的监管原则，对于推动互联网金融产品创新和金融市场活跃，具有非常强的正面意义。(2)无论对于传统型，还是创新型金融产品，其所实现的金融功能都具有较强的稳定性，因此，依据金融功能设计的监管规则更具连续性和一致性，能够更好地适应金融业在今后发展中可能遇到的各种新情况。对于互联网金融这类创新型产品，采用功能性监管方式，可以有效地解决监管真空或多重监管的难题。(3)金融产品和服务在很大程度上可以理解为一种信息产品，信息在金融领域体现和发挥着重要的作用，对金融消费者信息权的保障为金融领域消费者权益保护的核心。对于互联网金融这类创新型产品，对信息披露往往不够重视，导致这类产品的信息不对称程度要比传统金融更为突出，所以，对金融消费者权益的保护，要加强对互联网金融公司信息披露的要求。并且，对互联网金融领域金融消费者权益被侵犯的案例，相关监管机构需要进行及时查处，减少金融消费者的经济损失。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]谢平，邹传伟.互联网金融模式研究J\].金融研究.2012，(12)：15-26.**
**\[2\]王兴娟.小微企业融资背景、困境及对策四.学术交流，2012，(07)：120-123.**
**\[3\]史芳丽，吴士敏.金融信息化与网络金融相关性研究\[\].中国管理信息化，2005，(12)：54-56.**
**\[4\]曾刚.积极关注互联网金融的特点及发展一基于货币金融理论视角.银行家.2012，(11)：11-13.**
**\[5\]翁舟杰，靳伟.信息时代金融中介的命运——金融中介理论的不同视角\[J\].特区经济.2004，(11)：213.**
**\[6\]宋旺，钟正生.理解金融脱媒：基于金融中介理论的诠释\[\].上海金融，2010，(06)：14~19.**
**\[11\]王雄飞.欧盟金融消费者保护的立法及启示\[\].上海金融.2009，(11)：62-65.**
**(责任编辑：姜天鹰)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **牛布鲁氏菌病的防控情况调查**
_梭_ 四 杨清梅
布病作为一种常见的传染性疾病，疾病的频发在损害养殖户身体健康和养殖效益的同时，对区域经济的进步发展也造成了卜分不利的影响、为此本文主要通过剖析牛布鲁氏菌病的流行特点、床症状和诊断方式，对疾病防控和治疗的有效措施展开了系统化探究.
·流行病学
布鲁氏菌病的致病菌足布鲁氏杆菌，这种病原休主要寄生丁病畜的生殖器官、内脏和血液中.因此从方面米讲传染源就是病牛，传播途径主要是消化道、呼吸道和生殖系统，即忠病牛可通过飞沫、呼气将病毒传播给健康牛，且作为一一种人畜共漶病.在与病牛接触的同时.养殖户也极易患病，后期消毒和杀菌工作的不及时极易造成人传牛问题的发生.从某方面来讲，布鲁氏菌具有极强的环境抗性，当感染动物生殖器官排出的病原体污染饲料及水源后，正常牛群在摄取过程中会将病菌通过消化道汲取到体内，并在动物组织中存活多年，严重打乱了社会经济的良性发展。
临床症状
布鲁氏菌病的潜伏期相对较长，在发病前期患病牛并无明显特征，但后期在发病过程中，相比公牛，母牛尤其是娠期母牛的临床表现更为明显。通常来讲，当虹娠期母牛忠病后，最明显的临床表现就是流产，上流产可发生在各个阶段，此外患病妊娠母牛早产和死胎的概率也极高。除此之外据调壳公牛患布鲁氏闲病的临床表现主要是睾丸炎、睾丸上缩、繁殖能力下降、急性病例睾丸肿胀疼痛以及呼吸急促、关节炎、角膜炎等，此同时发病后的一个月翠丸和附睾触亡坚硬；对」患病母牛，妊娠期除了流产、早产等症状外，还有乳房炎、阴唇部位帅胀、阴道中有灰白色或灰色黏液流出、流产后部分母牛胎衣无法百行脱离以及阴道也浓烈的腥臭味，十虹娠期母牛，忠病后的临床表现主要是食欲减退、乳房炎、支气管炎、I渴和阴道流山黄色黏液等。
二、病学诊断
出布鲁氏菌导致的布鲁氏菌病是一种常见传染性疾病，在进行医学诊断时，常用的诊断方式有三种，分别是临床症状(生殖系统)病理变化(进行解剖)和实验室检测(将羊血进行平板凝集试验和试管凝集试验)一名相比，实验室诊断在诊断精准度方面具有显茗优势，只体来看诊断作业流程是“采集妊娠母牛分泌物一制成涂片一进行柯氏染色一置于火焰上方一加0.5%的沙黄液一布气泡后停止一清洗一加人0.5%的孔雀绿液一复染一清洗一镜检。
四，防治措施
1、健全完善的生物安全防控体系
在当前牛群规模化养殖过程中，为改善疾病的防控工作现状，降低疾病的发生率，建立健全完善的生物安全防控体系现已迫在眉噠。在进行体系构建过程中养殖人员不仅需要从根本上提高对养殖场场址选择的重视度，还要结合实际情况进行科学化饲养管理，通过保障各类消毒和防疫工作全面落实的同时.降低疾病的发生率，在进行养殖过程中，为从根本上确保社会经济的良性发展，养殖场需建立完善的养殖规章制度，对进出养销场的人员亦或是物流进行严格控制；对丁圈舍的相关用具进行定期消毒，以防细菌的滋生从而引发各类疾病影响动物健康生长；对于外引物种而言，养殖场工作人员还要做好检疫工作，并根据实际情况对其进行隔离观察，确保无异常状况后将其进行合群养殖。
2、加大对养殖场的管理力度
在规模化养殖过程中，养殖管理工作的规范性、科学性与否对丁养殖工作质量和效率面言具有重要影响，换言之确保各项养殖管理工作的有效落实，是现阶段提高养殖业经济效益的重要渠道。就日前米看相对于以往的故户养殖，规模化养殖对于养殖技术，养殖场环境还是口常管理工作有着较高要求，为切实达到预期的养殖门标，养殖场在进行管理过程中必须严格秉承着“加强管理、防重J治”的原则，此外为显著地提高免疫效果，在进行养殖时管理人员还要对养殖者进行定期的饲养管理和疾病预防技术讲座，通过对讲解布鲁氏菌病的危害性以及防治必要性，在不断提高防治人员职业素养的基础上确保他们能形成较为完善的白我防护意识，山此来改善当前的养殖现状。
3、确定科学合理的免疫程序
就II前来看在进行规模化养殖过程中，免疫程序的科学合理化制定在定程度上不仅能为免疫工作的开展提供科学化指导，此外在降低布鲁氏菌病的发病率以及推动区域经济可持续发展中发挥了无可替代的作用。在进行免疫程序制定过程中，养殖场不仅需考虑疾病的复杂性、常在性，还要结合饲养品种、本地疾病流行情况等因素，由此在确保免疫效果的基础上提高养殖业的经济效益。除此之外从根本上有效融合免疫和检疫相关内容，也是现阶段养殖场在进行养销过程中降低布鲁氏菌病发病率的重要丁段，具体而言在防治工作开展过程中，由于布鲁氏蘭病的疫苗种类较为丰富(包括制毒活菌苗、灭活疫苗以及新型疫苗等多种类型)，在进行疫苗选择过程中，养殖广需根据布鲁氏闲的临床病症米进行合理化选择，并针对性的结合各个区城的流行情况制定出相对应的免疫检疫规划和具体措施，由此确保防治工作的科学件和有效件：
概而言之，在牛养殖中，布鲁氏闲病的高发病率，严重阻碍了区域经济的进一步发展，为切实维护养殖户的生命安全，推动区域经济的可持续发展，加强对疾病的有效防控现已迫在启睫，尤其在现阶段规模化和集约化养殖过程中，其它疾病相比，疾病分布范围广，传染性强以及死广率高是此类疾病的显著特征，为维护礼会的稳定性发展，对布鲁氏菌病展开系统化研究，是当前基层防摔机构的重要工作内容，
**(作者单位：666200云南省西双版纳勐海县商牧兽医工作站)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | Lettering
author: Thomas Wood Stevens
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LETTERING
LETTERING
THOMAS WOOD STEVENS
CARNEGIE INSTITUTF ™ TFCHNOT.OGY, PITTSBURGH
• • * •
SECOND EDITION
THE PRANG COMPANY
NEW YORK • CHICAGO • BOSTON • ATLANTA • DALLAS • TORONTO
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COPYRIGHT. 1916
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BY THOMAS WOOD STEVENS
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•
FJMJVG LETTB7UNG PENS
Spoonbill Pshs
Specially • mited for modern, round, rapid lettering-.
In three tiaeei No. 2. No. I and No. f .
Per dosen. No. 2. No. I or No. S In box S 1.20
Per dosen, anorted in box 1.20
Old Ingush T im Psns
Ideal for Black Letter and Old BaftUh Text Writing-.
Three tixeti No. 1. No. 2 and No. 1.
Per One-^narter croft in box 50c
PRANG WATERPROOF INDIA INK
A mooch Sowing-, dull. Jet black ink. Oriei without a flow,
and give* a rich, rehrety, black surface.
Price of one-ounce Pen Holder Bottle 30c
THE PRANG CO. NEW YORK CHICAGO
.
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FOREWORD
THIS book is designed to serve artists, craftsmen and students
who have lettering to make. It presents no "system of sign-
writing/ 9 and brings forward no mechanical method. Its
intention is to present good standards in styles applicable to
many fields of work, together with brief instructions regard-
ing the drawing of letters.
The text matter is written primarily for the student; the experienced
craftsman will not read it. He is only concerned with the examples
presented. So we may set down the most elementary matters, explaining
the uses of tools and materials, and giving an account of those historical
conditions of work which have marked our alphabets. Our objedt, in
short, is to develop the idea of lettering in relation to the element of design,
the decorative element, which it contains, and to the historical phases
which have made it what it is. Beyond this, we shall try to point out the
best manner of executing and using the plainer forms.
Many of the drawings and certain parts of the text appeared in a pre-
vious work, now long out of print. The author is still grateful to the artists
who contributed them, and newly grateful to those who have added fresh
work to the present issue.
A special acknowledgment should be made to Mr. Harry Lawrence
Gage, head of the Department of Printing, Carnegie Institute of Tech-
nology. Mr. Gage has applied himself to the making of many new draw-
ings, diagrams and alphabets; has contributed many vital ideas to text
and arrangement, and has brought to the work patience, learning and high
craftsmanship.
T. w. s.
426664
CONTENTS
Foreword
• • • * • •
5
CHAPTER
I. Tools and Materials •""•""•""• 13
II. The Drawing of Letters # T\ "' . 19
III. Roman Capitals 27
IV. Roman Small Letters 55
V. Italics 81
VI. The Gothic Forms 97
VII. The Practical Problem Ill
VIII. Phases of Letter Design ••••117
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIGURE FACE
i. Roman Capitals with a strong classical feeling. By Theodore Brown Hap good 12
2. Roman Capitals from Renaissance sources. By Harry Lawrence- Gage 15
3. Head-piece. By Charles H. Barnard 16
4. Proportions of margins and plan of ruling for book-opening and single sheet 17
5. Modern Roman Capitals. By Charles H. Barnard 18
6. Title page showing a written letter in relation to pen drawing. By Walter Crane 20
7~i i« Diagram showing progressive *teps in drawing and ink ng » 22
12. Diagram for opening 23
13. Roman capitals written with a wide pen. By Harry Lawrence Gage 24
14. Italic "swash" letters founded on sixteenth century Italian work 25
15. Roman Capitals adapted from coins and medals. By T. W.S 26
16. The formation of the serif by right and left chisel cuts in an incised Roman . . 28
17. Diagram showing structural differences between letters of similar shape 29
18. Modern Roman Capitals. By Harry E, Towns end 31
19. Modern Roman Capitals. By William A, Dwiggins 33
20. Modern Roman Capitals. By F. G. Cooper 35
21. Modern Outline Roman Capitals. By Guido Rosa 36
22. Heavy square-serif Roman Capitals. By Harry Lawrence Gage . . % , * .37
23. Capitals after Charles Robinson . 38
24. Capitals and Numerals adapted from modern German sources. By Ned Hadley 39
25. Modern Capitals and Numerals from French sources. By Ned Hadley 40
26. Modern German Capitals. By Helen E. Hartford 41
27. Variations of the modern German. By Helen E. Hartford 42
28. Accented modern German Capitals. By Helen E. Hartford 43
29. Outline Capitals in relation to architectural rendering. By Rudolph von Larish 44
3a Heavy modern Roman Capitals. By Norman P. Hall 45
31. Capitals derived from small letter forms. By T. W.S. .... . 46
32. Capitals and small letters influenced by the Japanese. By Harry Lawrence Gage 47
33. Roman Capitals and small letters written with a wide pen. By George W. Koch 48
"■ 34. Modern Capitals, small letters, and numerals designed for use in cut stencils. By Forrest C. Crooks. 49
35. Roman Capitals and small letters. By William A. Dwiggins 50
36. Modern Roman Capitals and small letters. 2?y Oswald Cooper 51
37. Small book pages, showing freely written capitals. By William A. Dwiggins ♦ 52
38. Modern Capitals, small letters, and italics^ By Egbert G. Jacobson 53
39. Roman small letters and numerals. By T. W.S. 54
40. Pen-drawn imitation of classic manuscript showing Uncial characteristics 55
41. Modern small letters. By Charles H. Barnard 57
42. Diagram showing the ruling of guide lines for the construction of small letters 58
43. Diagram showing construction of part-round small letters 58
44. Diagram showing methods of varying the small letters 59
45. Diagram showing the direction of strokes in writing smali letters 6b
46. Small letters written with a wide pen. - By Harry Lawrence .Gag* 61
r
47* Announcement in Roman small letters, showing close spacing between lines. By Charles H.
Barnard 63
48. Announcement in heavy Roman small letters. By Oswald Cooper 64
49. Heavy Capital*, small letters, and numerals, adapted to wood block and linoleum cutting. By
Harry Lawrence Gage 65
50. Modern Roman small letters. By F. G. Cooper 66
51. Modern small letters. By Harry E. Towns end 67
52. Cover design on rough paper. By Will Ransom 68
53. Heavy modern small letters. By Norman P. Hall 69
54. Small letters after Charles Robinson 70
55. Modern German written linked small letters 71
56. Unaccented and accented alphabets and numerals, designed for rapid use. By Harry Lawrence
Gage 7*
57. Modern Capitals and small letters influenced by Venetian type designs 73
58. Capitals and small letters for informal inscriptions. By James Hall 74
59. Free small letters after the modern German. By Helen E. Hartford 75
6a Modern German linked small letters 76
61. Incised English script. By Frank Chouteau Brown 78
fe. Italic Capitals. By T. W. S. 79
63. Italic small letters. ByT.W.S. 80
64. Italic-script Capitals and small letters. By Lawrence Rosa 81
65. Italic Capitals, extreme slant. By T. W. S. 82
66. Italic Capitals and small letters. By M. Elizabeth Colwell 83
67. Italics with- flourished Capitals. By Harry Lawrence Gage 84
68. Modern German script-italics 85
69. Italic Capitals, small letters, and numerals. By Norman P. Hall 86
70. Modern German Italic Capitals, small letters, and numerals 87
71. Caslon Oldstyle Italic Type, No. 471 88
* 72. Cloister Italic Type 89
73. Pabst Italic Type 90
74. Black-letter Capitals and small letters. By Albert Durer, 1500 92
75. Black letter written with a wide pen. By Harry Lawrence Gage 93
76. Modern German Round Gothic capitals, small letters and numerals 94
77. Cloister Black Type 95
78. Uncial Capitals with narrow Gothic small letters From a 14th Century Ms 96
79. Uncial {Lombardic) Gothic Capitals. By Fred Stearns 97
80. Italian -Gothic Capitals. By Harry Lawrence Gage 98
81. Original variations on a Gothic Alphabet. By Charles H. Barnard . . , 99
82. English Gothic Capitals and small letters. By Frank Chouteau Brown 100
83. Gothic Capitals and small letters. By Harry Lawrence Gage 101
84. Design in Gothics. By M. Elizabeth Colwell 102
85. Cover design showing an interesting use of italics. By Will Bradley 103
86-92. Rough notes for a ride page. By f. W.S. 106-106
93. Monograms. By E. A. Turbayne m
94. An example of combined letters and monograms in a ride 113
95. Cover design in the Georgian style. By Will Bradley 114
96. Lettering with border. By Frederick W. Goudy 115
97. Humanistic Type. By William Dana Orcutt 116
98. Caslon Otdstyle Roman Type, No. 471 117
99. Forum Type. By Frederick W.Goudy 118
100. Kennerley Oldstyle Type. By Frederick W. Goudy 119
101. Pabst Oldstyle Type 120
102. Cloister Oldstyle Type , 121
Zio2
LETTERING
FIGURE 1
ABCDE
FGHI.JK
LMNOP
QRSTU
WXYZ &
Roman Capitals ty T R.Hapqood
THEODORE BROWN HAPGW
Roman Capitals with a strong classical feeling
LETTERING
CHAPTER I
Tools and Materials
IN LETTERING, as in any other task requiring skill, the abstract
matters of style and principle are difficult to remember unless
they are immediately put in practice. Good tools with which
to work, and respedt for them, must be assumed at the outset.
The necessary implements for good lettering include only a pencil,
ruler, pen and ink. But as the accuracy of the work depends on accurate
guide lines, a drawing board, T-square and triangle should also be included
in the equipment ; they save time, and give to the student a desirable sense
of security. A water-color brush and some moist white are useful for
correcting; and orange-vermilion water color for rubrication. One
should see to it that the drawing table is firm, and so placed that the
paper is well lighted; this is important, since the drawing of letters
requires an exacting use of the eye sight, and should be undertaken
only under good lighting conditions. Ruling pens, dividers, and other
draftsman's instruments are sometimes convenient, but seldom necessary.
The kind of pen best suited to the student's personal use can only
be determined by experiment. It must be fine enough to make letters
of the size desired, but not fine enough to cut into the paper, and not too
stiff. Annealing in the flame of a match or a gas jet will usually
make a stiff pen flexible enough. Wide pointed pens are frequently
useful for large letters and diredlly written forms. The question is
one for trial rather than prescription; some artists succeed in making
beautiful letters with a broken tooth-pick.
A water-color brush that comes to a fine point when dampened is
good for inking large letters, but requires much practice for small
work; it may be used with advantage on heavy-faced letters more
than an inch high. The edge of a brush stroke is smoother than a pen
line, so that brush letters, when much reduced by engraving, are likely
C-
to show a mechanical character. Where the work is large and heavy,
however, the brush covers the ground much faster than the pen.
Any paper with surface hard enough to take ink without blotting
may be used. The rougher the paper, the rougher the line; also, as
a rule, the stronger in character. For accurate, formal lettering, and
for practice work, where close study of the drawing is desirable, hard-
surfaced bristol board is best. The heavy, sized hand-made papers, such
as Whatman, serve many purposes. The paper should take pencilling
well, stand many erasures, and carry ink without spreading.
Drawing pencils should be free from grit, and the degree of hard-
ness should be adapted in measure to the size of the work in handy
hard pencils being used for small forms, and softer ones for large.
Very soft pencils tend to produce quick effects, but inaccurate draw-
ing; too hard leads give a thin and stringy appearance that sometimes
persists, in the shape of angular and unsympathetic edges, after the
inking is done.
Any of the carbon drawing inks, or hand-ground India ink, will
serve. The fluid must stay black on the thinnest line, and must flow
with freedom. Where work must be lingered over, and may suffer
from moist hands, water-proof India ink has obvious advantages.
Orange-vermilion water color may be substituted for ink where
letters in red are needed. It may be applied with a brush, or used
as ink, the pen being filled from the brush as it becomes dry. Red
characters made in this way have a good body of opaque color, and
serve as well as black for engraving.
Good hand-drawn letters may be put to a great variety of uses.
The most common of these as well as one of the most exacting, is
drawing for reproduction by the ordinary zinc process. If a student
learns to execute a good piece of work for this purpose, he will prob-
ably have mastered all the practical difficulties. Hence, in the following
pages, attention will be given to methods adapted to ultimate use on
the printing press, in the belief that other necessary points will be covered
in this way. If you know a given letter thoroughly, and can draw
it acceptably a half-inch high, you need only a little practice to put
it on a sign or a black-board with equal facility.
In using the tools named for the purposes suggested, it is well
that the student understand one faCt: all lettering may be divided,
according to the method of its making, into two classes — built-up
iHl
FIGURI
KLMN
OPQJIS
TUVUW
®XYZ®
HARRY LAWRENCE GA
toman Capitals from Renaissance sources. Small letters to correspond are sho
in Figure 39.
lettering and written lettering. Most of the work which finds its way to
the printed page is of the built-up variety. This means that the individual
forms have been drawn with the pencil, and then carefully filled in with
ink. The written variety is that done either directly with the ink, or
carried out in single strokes over pencil indications; it is obviously the more
rapid, informal and difficult sort. The written style comes down to us
from the calligrapher; the built-up from the engraver. For purposes of
study it is obviously best to begin with the built-up letter, since in this the
attention is concentrated on patient drawing, learning the precise form,
rather than upon freedom of stroke and energy of style.
TBc PRMRIE PRESS
cmxnVE PRINTING
DECORATIONS
& HAND LETTERING
FIGURE 3
CHARLES H. BARNARD
[*«]
FIGUR
CHANCED!
UPONTHE PRETTIEST.
ODDESTFANTASTICM- _
1 THlJJGOFA.DREAIvL_
S the od\er night, that qou.
If j \k shall hcarof.l had been,
trading tfaf Loves of the.
Angds,& went tobeduiuh.
mi| head fulLof spccul*.
tlons suggested!^ thar.
c xtBior dBnarn legend Jt .
fad given birth to Innu*.
meia&Le conjcccurer.arhd.
XkrSOMfK
cowjtiaxcuiff a boon in capitals anrcrny
ina (d Ar uriflutf Iin£S .The lines mn^
he indented undiastxjlus orwlaL,
TOETRYmaif appropriatsiij beaim
slgjhdif wider margins than, poser
TIN E writlng,the lines of
which are usi
spaad,<icn^
thanrnasscdTuntting;
uihidiishcayij&has
thclinc5 cbsety pack&
KectoMfft
2*
2*
PERCY J. SM
Proportions of margins ami plan of ruling for book-opening and single sheet.
FIGURE 5
ABCDE
FGHJKI
LMNOP
TU
&JQKZ
CHARLES H. B<
Modern Roman Capitals. For small letters see Figure 41
CHAPTER II
The Drawing of Letters
HE beginner should bear in mind that he is not called upon to
design letters. That part of it is done — has been done for
centuries.
The alphabet is a series of shapes which have meaning and
use because we all recognize them. Meaning and use are
taken away when these shapes are changed and tortured out of Our imme-
diate recognition. . While it may of course be possible to improve these
forms the student does well to consider how many great designers have
accepted them as they are. But to use letters they must be drawn,
and to do this their forms must first be learned. Thus the problem is
simplified. You have only to learn them and draw them.
It is an excellent practice to draw the letters in the formations of words,
rather than as alphabets. The simplest task of all, then, is to draw one
word.' We will assume for the sake of illustration that the word is
" POEMS " ; that it is to fit into a title page, and that it may be, in the
drawing, about an inch high. Further we will assume that it is to be done
in capitals of Renaissance Roman style.
We have here the copy, or letters to be executed ; the size, and the style
of letter. Turning to Figure 2, we find an alphabet from which, for the
present, we may be content to accept the letter forms, limiting ourselves
to the questions of drawing, spacing and inking.
With the T-square, pencil accurate horizontal guide lines one inch
apart and at least five inches long. Into this space the work is to be fitted.
Now draw a few verticals, free-hand, between the guides. If these
are not accurate, when tested by the triangle, it means that some practice
of this sort will be necessary. Meanwhile, draw at random a few true
verticals with the triangle, and referring to Figure 2 for the forms, sketch
in the letters of the word.
The mechanical verticals will be of no assistance in spacing, but they
will afford, at intervals, a convenient guide, and will prevent the sketched
letters from acquiring a slant in either direction. Draw very loosely at
D
FIGURE 6
•THEFIRSTBOOK
OF-THE FAERIE-
QUEENE- f f f
CO^fovYNINOTHELECEHD
•OF THE KNIGHTOFTHE RED-
CROSS.; OROFHOLINE55E*
JBY- EDMUND -.SPEMSER*
•EDITEDBYTHOMAS-J-W1SE*
•JOTD-PORTKAYED-IM-A-SERIES
• OFDESJOTOBir- WaiTEROUVHE
ip
*
•LONDON: OEOROE- ALLEN-
• RUSKIN- HOUSE" 156CHAR."
•lNOCRQ&£>ROAD-lB94r- *
WALTl
Title page showing a written letter in relation to pen drawing
first, and feel for the position of the letters, rather than for their precise
form. This having been done carefully, the work will resemble Figure 7.
Examine the word at this stage for possible errors in drawing. See that
you have allowed each letter a proper width, according to the alphabet
chosen — not each letter the same width. See that the heavy strokes
are all of the same thickness, the light strokes similarly uniform. Examine
the word as a whole, but remember that the drawing must be done one
letter at a time.
Clear away the superfluous lines, draw out the curves and serifs (the
serifs are the little cross lines that define the ends of the strokes) with care,
and you have something like Figure 8. This pencilling should at first
be done with great care. Upon it will depend the accuracy of the final
work, and any errors will only be increased in the inking.
Assuming that you have drawn the letters carefully, and spaced them
reasonably, the word is ready to be inked. Here you must pause and con-
sider carefully: have you drawn the letters so that the inside of the en-
closed space represents the form, or the outside ? Test one of your letters
by carefully blackening it over with the pencil ; it is very likely to appear
too heavy. This gives one a clue to the reason for not inking the outlines
first and filling in the spaces afterward. The fa& is that the eye can with
difficulty make an accurate judgment while it must add together the width
of the outlines and the white space enclosed, and compare the sum with
the sum in the next letter.
In inking built-up letters, begin with a full rough stroke between the
outlines; this, since it does not reach the bounds on either side, cannot be
far wrong. From this stroke, work out to one of the edges, drawing the
loose ends of your lines inside, and working the wet ink against the one
edg£ you are striving to corredt. When you have reached this edge, you
should have it fairly true, since all the work of filling the black space has
been in the direction of correcting the first rough line. Now work toward
the other edge, correcting in the same way, and being vigilant lest the
Stroke as a whole become too wide. (See Figure 9.)
If you have difficulty in drawing the right hand edges true, and are
working on a small board, turn the board around. Bear in mind all the
time that you are drawing to fill and correct the first stroke, and that you
have the pencil line for a guide the while. The only error you can logi-
cally make, barring accidents, is to get the stroke too wide, and against
this you are doubly warned.
C
1
HEM
^
FIGURE 7
u
G
A
FIGURE 8
POE
FIGURE 9
POEMS
FIGURE 10
POEMS
FIGURE 11
Diagram showing progressive steps in drawing and inking. Lettering should be ii
by masses and edges — not by outlines. Lower tine shows the effeft of letterini
rough paper
When the stroke is done, go on to the next, finishing up each letter as
you go. After much practice you may find it more rapid to leave all the
serifs to be finished at once, with the board in a convenient position.
When beginning, with only one word to do, finish as you go, but refer con-
tinually to the first letter, making no stroke thicker than the vertical ele-
ments in that.
When the ink is dry, and the pencil lines cleared away, you have some-
thing resembling Figure 10. The same pencilling, inked loosely on rough
paper, will give something like Figure n.
Thus far we have considered only the problem of drawing the letters,
and have said nothing about their principles and characteristics. The
drawing should be, for the present, only a method of study, the matter of
which begins with the next chapter.
SPACING
FIGURE 12
FIGURE 13
ABCDE
FGHIJK
LMNOP
QRRSTJ
TUVWQ
XYTZ^
HARRY LAWRENCE GAGS
Roman Capitals written with a wide pen. For small letters see Figure 46
FIGURB
MCfD&GHT)
K LM SOPORS
TCIVWXYZ6
Alttmotivtrornu
EXAMPLES OF DECORATIVE \WUT1NG.
ttnaiw&aescavAinq strokes, me letters snouldL be
Italic "swash" letters founded on sixteenth century Italian work
FIGURE IS
M
PQRS
TVW
Raman Capitals adapted from coins and medals
CHAPTER III
Roman Capitals
MOST modem work in lettering requires the use of Roman
capitals, and since all the other forms the student is called
upon to draw are descended from these capitals, the study of
letter forms should begin with them. A few faCts about the
history of the Roman letter should be understood, since
these faCts bear direCtly on the drawing of the letters, and explain some
characteristics that might otherwise seem arbitrary or puzzling.
The Roman capital form was taken over, with some radical changes,
from the Greek, and was used by the Latin scribes in copying great libraries
during and after the Augustan age. It varied, under this use, as widely
as hand-writing varies in any period ; but it served for the ready production
of clear copy in the ancient manner, without punctuation or separation of
words.
The scribes wrote with soft reeds, dipped in ink and held vertically.
The reed was sharpened to a flat or chisel point. This determined the
direction of the heavy strokes in each letter, making the first (upward)
stroke of the A light, the second (downward) heavy, the cross-bar (hori-
zontal) light, and so on through the alphabet. This distribution of heavy
and light strokes, of which we shall have occasion to speak further, was
finally determined by the practice of the reed, and the student has only
to learn it, since he cannot abrogate it.
As written with the reed, the style of the letters varied widely. But
when the Roman builders, with their strong sense of the monumental and
significant, took the letter and spread it in stately inscriptions on trium-
phal arches, it took a character from the stone, crystallizing into a marble
perfection. And because you cannot draw a V-shaped incision in stone
to a square end that will define itself by its shadow, as a monument letter
must da, the classic craftsman added the serif. This was at first a simple
chisel cut across, following the scratched guide-lines, and defining the end
of the stroke. But the serif soon came to be made of two minor incisions
C
FIGURE 16.
Tbe formation of the serif by right and left chisel cuts
in an incised Roman
(see Figure 16) and to have a certain proportion to the letter itself.
Thus another lasting characteristic was added to the Roman form.
To make their letters carry by shadows, the Roman stonecutters some-
times cut their outlines very wide. The craftsmen of the Renaissance,
using the letter more intimately, in metal and on works of smaller scale,
remedied this. So the record runs: the Roman letter was evolved from
the Greek; the Roman scribes gave it its typical design, and settled the
direction of its accents; the Roman builders gave it its serifs, and a more
severe architectural form ; the Renaissance craftsmen gave it delicacy of
drawing and freedom of application ; and from them it came into the craft
of printing, almost as soon as the new craft had birth.
By making a few letters with a broad stub pen, one can easily trace
the effect of the flat-pointed reed on the direction of the accented strokes.
It is clear that the reed made rules for the writer; when the letter took
its place in inscriptions, no alteration from these rules was possible. The
accent had become part of the style.
The principles of accent are these:
All horizontal strokes are light.
All strokes sloping upward from left to right are light, except the middle
stroke of the letter Z. (In this case the reed had to be turned, and the
stroke was really made downward from right to left.)
All strokes drawn downward with the reed are heavy. These include
all strokes which slope downward from left to right, and all vertical strokes
except the verticals of the N and the first vertical of the M (which were
originally drawn upward).
[rf]
The swell or accent on a curved stroke follows the general principle,
the 0, for example, being heavy on the sides and light across the top and
bottom.
The old alphabets contain no special form for the J and U. In supply-
ing them we follow the principle, making the first stroke of the U'down-
ward (heavy) and the second upward (light).
Thus the ancient manner of drawing them gives us an exact principle
for accenting the letters. Similarly, if one bears in mind the origin of the
serif, one is likely to draw it with some grace, giving it the sharp distinction
of the chiselled cut, and founding it into the Vertical without awkward
angles of undue mass.
s
pi *|
i—S i
- sn.^
=*<
HI
A
«£.
L/ J
if
L^
FIGURE 17. Diagram showing struclural differences between letters
of similar shape
The serif gives to the letters in each line a common base — insisting
upon the uniformity of the foundation. The fad: that each letter has at
least one heavy stroke, and that these strokes are placed in a definite and
recurring relation to the light strokes, tends to give a formal harmony to
the inscription as a whole. Beyond this, the width of each letter is deter-
mined by its shape — by considerations of design. Certain mechanical
contrivances, the typewriter, for example, may require that each letter
approach as nearly as possible to the same width ; the result is always to
the disadvantage of the style.
If we cease to look at the letters as symbols, but as twenty-six repeating
elements in a curious band of design, we see at once that each should be
given space according to its degree of complication, the interest of its
shape, and its value as a rhythmic part of the whole.
There is no criterion above the practice of the great designers to deter-
mine the space due to each shape, so that each letter shall have a reasonable
width for its characteristic form. For the Roman letter, Durer, Delia
Robbia, Serlio, and a thousand nameless craftsmen of the past five cen-
turies, have worked out and judged the proper proportion.
From the best work we note a general classification of letter widths.
Thus letters which divide horizontally the space they occupy, enclosing
or partially enclosing areas about half their height, are narrow; this
includes B, £, F, K, P, R, and S. Looking at them as design elements,
this is easily explained, since these small enclosed areas should obviously
not be allowed to take shapes at variance with the general shape of the
band. The lobes of the B, if the letter were drawn wide, would cease to
bear any harmonious relation to the similar but larger shape of the D.
The K and R, by the extension of the swash tails, may be made to fill a
wide space where needed, however. The I, L, and J are also classed as
narrow, though the I and J always require, in use, a little extra white
space at each side.
W and M are extra wide. All others are of full width, though not
mechanically equal. The round letters, C, D, G, O and Q, should always
be given full width to avoid cramping their generous curves ; the varia-
tions of the others from the O are indicated in Figure 17. Each develops,
in the best lettering, its own curve, adapted to its own shape but con-
sonant with the other curves in the alphabet. These round letters have
the advantage of spacing closely, to make up in part for the ample width
they require within themselves.
CjO
FIGURE
AN
ALPHABET
38 $> 88
ABCDE/FGH
IJ<3£JKJLM
NOPCXE^Q
RJTUW
XWXYZ
@ <® «
P>OMANl/iSOVB
HARRY E. TOWNS
Modern Roman Capitals. For small Utters see Figure 56.
m*
In height also a slight variation is necessary. A sharp point, such as
the base of the V, will not seem to reach the base line unless it is actually
drawn slightly beyond it. On account of this appearance — a mere
optical illusion — the A (except where a serif is provided at the top),
M, N, V and W all cross the guide lines at their points. The same is true
in a less degree of the round letters. But the effedt must be executed with
care ; only a slight extension is required to corrcdt the appearance when the
guide lines are erased.
Good Roman lettering has a strong sense of stability ; this is sometimes
subtly increased by certain details in the drawing, such as rounding the
horizontal into the vertical at the base of the D, and leaving the upper
junction square inside; a similar step being taken with the E, L, and B.
An examination of any of the formal alphabets will show that the dis-
tribution of heavy and light strokes provided for by tradition will never
allow two heavy strokes to be joined without the intervention of a light
one (as in the K, where the swash tail takes off from the light upward
stroke, not from the vertical). This effectively prevents any spot of black
being heavier than the downward stroke, and maintains an even "color"
throughout an inscription.
For the exalt proportions and forms of the letters, one must study,
drawing and re-drawing, the best models. In these it may be noted that
the width of the heavy stroke is about one-tenth the height of the letter,
the light element being two-fifths to one-half as wide as the heavy one.
Mechanical measurements arc of little value. The student should be
able to judge for himself the best proportions, and should practice until
this judgment comes easily to him*
The correct spacing of formal Roman capitals requires the utmost care,
since here again there is no mechanical method. The space between the
letters of a word should be judged by the area of white, not by the distance
along the guide lines. This area varies in shape, and the eye takes account
of the irregular intervals by averaging them roughly. Imagine the
letters raised and a viscous fluid poured between them; the shapes it
might cover, never running into the corners nor invading far the narrow
openings, would be the effective areas of white. Figure 12 illustrates the
point. The single stroke letters, I and J, require extra space; the round
ones can be closely fitted ; the normal space falling where two vertical-
sided letters come together.
The space between words should be about the width of the narrow
C**3
FIGURE
vw>
WILLIAM A. DWIG<
Modern Roman Capitals — a very personal alphabet
letters ; but if the letters within the words are loosely spaced, this must
be considerably increased. The wider the spacing, both of letters and
words, the more white must be left between lines. If the spacing is close,
one may bring the lines as close together as one-fifth their height.
The conditions of the problem usually determine the length of the
line; the number of words in each line is determined by the copy, or word-
ing to be lettered. It remains for the designer to determine the size, or
height, of the letter to be used. In Roman capitals, the height may be
roughly estimated by dividing the length by the number of letters — that
is, allowing a square for each letter and space. This does not work out
cxa&ly, however. If not many narrow letters occur in the copy, it may
prove necessary to reduce the height of the line. In fa&, the student
should bear in mind that the height of the line determines the practica-
bility of any given arrangement, and that it is better to change it at once
than to spend hours in a vain effort to make thirty letters go where there
is room for only twenty.
In drawing a long inscription, you have of course the advantage of a
naturally flexible medium; each individual character may be impercep-
tibly narrowed or widened, and its form may, within certain limits, be
changed to fit the space. In an informal inscription it is quite permissible,
for instance, to save space where an A follows an L, by taking up the foot
of the A and moving it bodily to the left until the raised foot overlaps the
base of the L. Other combinations arc shown in Figure 101.
In taking liberties with the forms of the letters, for the sake of a more
com pad: spacing, one is only following the tradition of the Roman, and
nothing new is likely to result. One of the charms of old lettering is its
freedom. Many of the results of this spontaneous craftsmanship are no
longer useful, since the eye of the reader has become so accustomed to the
regularity of type that the freer and more unusual forms are no longer
legible.
When formal Roman capitals are called for, the inscription is usually
important enough to make necessary a high standard of execution. Hence
practice work in solid capitals has a special value. The form of the letters,
making a rectangular shape of each word, shows that no looseness of
arrangement will be appropriate. The difficulty of rendering the letters
free-hand should always be frankly met ; and in practice it is best to work
out a specific inscription, to fit a particular space, and to attack it as though
for a dual use.
wd
Z34l
FIGURE
AFOOT AND
UGHPHEAKTED I
TMETOTrEOPEN
RDAD/1EA13WIREE
1HE-WDR1D BEFORE
A£,TffiIONCBRoWN
PATH BEFORE MEo
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I CHOOSE. HENCE'
FORTH IASKN6TCW
TOKIUNE-IAMGGDD
roinuNE-KNoyciH
I WHIMPER N<>MORE
rOSTPONENOMORE
NEEDNOTHINGW
STRONG ANDCON'
TEOTITR/&/ELTHE
OPENP^DAD
THE9FPSALM
REPRINTED FROM
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VERSION fli»
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5ETHAT
JDWEL'
|l£IHIN
i THESE'
JCRET
place of the most High shall
abide under me shadow of the
Almighty-
HJHWiUsayoftheLORD
(fttftess: m Goo: in him will 1
trust.
lUrely he shall defoer
_ lehetffomAtsnareoftlit
KNur, llw lOOTI flKflOftOMf
pcstilencr-
wtliiam'a: dwigg:
Small book pages, showing freely written capitals
FIGURE 21 ...
ABC 0:3
FGHIK
LMNOP
QR8TU
WX
YZ
V
Modern Outline Roman Capitals
FIGURE 22
ABACD
EFGHIJ
KLMN
OPQR
SJRTU
VWXYZ
HARRY XAWREltCE GAGI
Heavy square-serif Roman Capitals
FIGURE 23
A5CD0r
GH IJ Kb
MNORQ
R3TUVH
WXYZ&
'Ihe Deign o^
KING COLT?
Capitals after Charles Robinson. For small letters see Figure $9
FIGURI
■»)
aBCPeF
GHUKL
DOPQft
SCOPW
OXYZ6
15432789
NED HA
Capitals and Numerals adapted from modern sources
FIGURE 2S
ABCD
EGG HI
JKJLM
NOPQ,
RSTUV
WXYZ
» 12386754 *
NED HAT
Modern Capitate ond Numerals from French sources
FIGURE
CAPITAL- LETTER?
ARCHITECTURAL
ARCPEFQHIJKI^OW
PQORD5TWW?CVZI
C^PIGftL L6UU6R5
/^CD6FQ10UKlOn
OPPNSUUVGJXYZ
1234567695321
HELEN E. HART!
Modern Capitals written with the Spoonbill Pen
if
FIGURE 27
tfMB«NHUIiMiiMMifcM*MII
71BK&EF5HUKLMN
VPVK5TWXWyZ
flB^&tPSHIJKlMN
9PQP5TUVXW/VZ
flBC&EPGHIJKimri
OPQR5TIA/XVA/VZ
OPQBSTUVXWVZ
fMSCDEFGHJJ KinOrt
OPQR5T1A/XWVZ
HELEN E.
Variations of modern alphabets written with the Spoonbill Pen
FIGURE
MODERN -
H^fND ' LETTER
gerwin ■ ma
DETCHW1NO
irsTRODucirso
VflREiy-flND
I N - CAMMIS
HELEN E. HARTF
Accented modern Capitals written with the Spoonbill Pen
FIGURE 29
EIH DUCHTBOB Wf MSB
H SiLLB&EHl Hum
SSIfifl I MUR 'SUS8S
ziirasR saocm mr snos
acHSBurauHK-Bainrtti:
SVMSH KOGgOTUM Wfi3
rassnEML ms SRora
©BISEE <§I&iS§EB3 »IK
If NACH MEREM BESC
JUIL 11M11 ¥§E ALUM
0fi«iKl I1I1HKI H8B2BNfl
-XUDOtPH-YGN IAJ
Outline Capitals in relation to architetlural rendering
FIGURE
ABCDE
FGHIJ
KLMN
OPQR
STUV
WXYZ
NORMAN P. :
Heavy modern Roman Capitals. For small letters see Figure 58
FIGURE 31
ABCDCP
QhUKLO
MDPQRS
TUVWQf
ALphaBer
fORBRUSh p&n
OR QUILL
Capitals derived from small letter forms
FIGURE
mm
BET
EMU
RPX
J nx$
HARRY LAWRENCE GA<
Capitals and small litters influenced by the Japanese
FIGURE 33
ABCDEFGH
IJKLMNOP
QTISTUVW
* XYZ& *
atcdef gcrhi j
klmnopcjrstu
+ vwxyz *
GEORGE W. K(
Roman Capitals and small letters written with a wide pen
FIGURE
ABCD6F
GHWKLM
no.p-Qf\s
ruvwxvz
abcdefg'h
gkimnopq
rstuvwxyz
123456789
FORREST C. CROC
Modern Capitals, small Utters and numerals designed for use in cut stencils
FIGURE 35
A B C D
HI T K L MN
O P Q R.S TU
V WX Y Z
(ol&ill f( T}&iggins draws ? letters for w
7jtle~pages, ^Bdokrcdvers \ etc: 3ece&
(-Box Eleven , C^^^J^ngham^Mass.
abcdefg'hijklm
n o pq rstuvwxyz
WILLIAM A. DWIGGR
* ■ ■
Reman Capitals and smalt letters. A personal variation on Georgian models
m
I
FIGURE
ABCDEFQHI
JKLMKfOPQ
RSTUVWX
YZgfMKRT
c TOabcdefcjhij
klmnopqrstirOv
\^/ ^\J^ 1/ IJ L y^ote, the long ascenders of the
^/ ^"1 / loflDer case letters. CThe$) give
I *_X <)ide white spaces between the
.-^ J, J lines, permittina an occasional lonq
Ma f descender. o
.-, , ,.*«■,... „ !; .-- > w„. .OSWALD coop:
Modern Roman Capitals and small letters. A fine example of the tendency totoart
.the written style
FIGURE 37
ABCDEFG
H IJ KLMN
OPQRSTU
VWXYZ&
TfTHAT each letter
▼Y realjy is, regardless
oi now anybody has
interpreted it— that's
the idea!
Modern Roman Capitals
FIGURE
abcdefghijk,
lmnop Q^stu
vwxy
123436789O
•THEN interpret it
1 as your own c^o
Handlettering. should
be as individual as
handwritin
F. G. coop:
Modern Roman smalt letters
i
FIGURE 39
i
nkl
I
efgh
mnop
qrstuvw
xyz-
234567
890
T. W
Roman small letters and numerals. For capitals see Figure 2
CHAPTER IV
Roman Small Letters
AN inscription in Roman capitals has a dignified, monumental
effedt. It belongs with stately architecture. Its style has the
quality of carving in stone, rather than of the reed-writing
which had originally influenced it. When the inscription is
extended to a full page, it becomes difficult to read, as well as
'difficult to execute. The letters must always be "built-up;" they cannot
be written. So for work-a-day purposes the small letter, or minuscule,
was evolved."
The classic Roman, written in a round and loose form, became the
Uncial. Drifting still further from the architectural style, the " Rustic "
appears as a manuscript letter in the fifth century; and along with this
came an informal combination of Uncials, with certain strokes carried
QVO«S(JVe-T3Wb^D
JA5UTeReCKCJ0lN
XBCbefGfollfDNO
pqRSTqxy^-Bre
FIGURE 40. Pen-drawn imitation of classic manuscript showing
Uncial characteristics
Zssl
well above the line as "ascenders/ 9 to which the term Half Uncial is
applied. All these variants resulted from the effort to make legible
Roman letters that could be produced rapidly — in short, to arrive at a
running hand. By the eighth century the capitals were recognized as
such, and used, in many manuscripts, only as headings and initials, while
the body of the work was done in minuscule — small letters.
The variants through these formative centuries are most interesting,
and many of them, especially those of the Uncial order, are in high favor,
as examples, among present-day designers.
Toward the final form of the Roman small letters many countries
contributed. The Northern variants are often black and spiky, and from
them we get our Gothic and black-letter forms; the beautiful lettering
of the Irish manuscripts comes of a fine and original treatment of the
Half Uncial motive. On the Continent the Emperor Charlemagne took a
hand in the matter, officially prescribing the use of the " Caroline " letter.
The invention of printing found a fairly established usage among the
calligraphers, distinguishing between capitals of the old form and small
letters. Until they were cast in type, however, the small letters had never
found a positive or definitive form. The models of the early typefounders,
who were merely trying to reproduce, in a new and less expensive process,
the work of the calligraphers, were naturally obtained from the best pen-
men of the day. Within thirty years from the time the first book issued
from the press, there were types in both Roman and black-letter, which,
in proportion and design, have never been surpassed.
By their history we see that the small letters, or "lower case," as the
printers named them, are the newer and commoner form. They still
have about them the feeling of the pen and the graver, not that of the
chisel. Their broken and irregular word-shape, the wide variation in de-
sign from letter to letter, and the inevitable accent of the capitals with
which they must always be used, all mark out the field of their usefulness
as the common reading medium.
From the nature of their work it appears that the minuscules do not
usually require the exactness of execution, either in form or spacing, of the
capitals. The individual letters may differ considerably from the typical
form, and, so long as they do not fall out of harmony, the result will gain
in richness by their variety.
Most students find it possible, with a moderate amount of pra&ice,
to draw lower case letters easily enough. The chief difficulty is not in the
L561
FIGURE
aabbcccdd
ee figg hiK
jj kk 11 mm
nn oo p qq
rr sss tt uvu
ww xx zyy
CHARLES H. BAR2M
Modern small tetters. For capitals see Figure J
FIGURE 42.
Diagram showing the riding of guide lines for the
construction of small letters
individual character, but in holding a block of words to an even "color*
or general tone, without irregular "rivers" of white creeping down th<
page, and without unsightly variations in the sizes of the letters themselves
In drawing, begin by carefully building up an exercise in letters abou
a half inch high, with capitals about one inch. Use Figure 39 as a guide
with capitals from Figure 2. The written forms are best undertakei
after a careful study of the drawing of the individual characters. The usi
of vertical guide lines is not likely to be so necessary as when beginning
with the capitals, but the horizontal rulings are even more important.
Each line of small letters must be built on at least three guide lines
the base line, on which the body letters rest; the waist line (about hal
the height of the capitals), marking the tops of the low letters; the capita
line, giving the height of the capitals and ascenders. See Figure 42
The drop line, indicating the reach of the descenders, g, p, q, and y, an<
FIGURE 43. Diagram showing construction of part-round small letters.
The curves would, if continued, pass the vertical strokes
Lssi
Bright Ply
Brigk Ply z
Bright Ply
Bnght pi y ;
Bright Ply
Bright Ply
Bright Ply
Bright Ply
Diagram showing methods of varying the small letters
FIGURE
Normal weight
Normal ascenders
Normal serifs
High ascenders.
Normal weight
and serifs
Low ascenders
Normal weight
and serifs
Light weight
Normal ascenders
and serifs
Heavy weight
Normal ascenders
and serifs
Long serifs
Normal height
and weight
Heavy round
serifs. Normal
height and weigl
Square serifs and
nearly equal
strokes. Normc
heights
« f
I.
FIGURE 45. Diagram showing the direction of strokes in
writing small letters
, u. as
the T line, giving the height of the t, are frequently omitted in practice,
the designer simply estimating the distances.
The simplest method of ruling is that by which the page is lined in
equidistant horizontals) the first serves as a capital line, the second as a
waist, the third as a "base, and the fourth as the ensuing capital line.
The rule for the direction of accented strokes is the same for the lower
case as for the capitals. Vertical strokes, and strokes downward from
left to right, are heavy; horizontals, and slopes upward from left to right,
(excepting the middle line of the z,) are light.
While the small letters show clearly enough their descent from written
.and engraved metal models, they have constantly to be used with capitals,
which developed as stone-carved forms. A test of any piece of lower case
work is found in its harmony with the capitals employed. The lower case
letters which follow the capital shape the closest (c, o, s, v, w, x, and z)
differ chiefly inpropdrtion : the angles are somewhat wider, in order that
the \yfrite contents may be more readily distinguishable, and the strokes
are thicker. The small letters are about half the height of the capitals,
yet they must stand-in the same line, and be read with equal facility.
If the strokes were equal in weight to corresponding elements of the capi-
tals/ the, lower case line would blacken, and the capitals, with their wide
•white enclosures, would lose force; if the widths of stroke were reduced
equally with the height, all relation would be lost. Hence the small
letter is drawn lighter than the capitals, but not enough lighter to make
perceptible any difference of tone.
In spacing small Tetters, one should bear in mind that the eye takes in
common words by their shapes, their silhouettes, as it were, rather than
by examining the individual letters which compose them. Hence it is
desirable to pack the letters fairly close together. Theoretically, type
[>]
FIGURE
WIDE- PEN LETTERS
gj'OR work to be
quickly drawn.;
less formal than
the Roman, but quite
legible and distinctive.
atcdeigki
jklmnopqr
stuvwxyze<
HARRY LAWRENCE G/
Small Utters written with a wide fen. For capitals see Figure 12
^ m . t-
mtm
designers hold that the space between the verticals of the lower case m
is the unit of space between adjoining letters. But the single stroke letters
(i, j, and 1) always require more space at each side, and the round letters
require less. Where a round or half-round letter stands next to a vertical,
a compromise is necessary. The unit only comes into play, literally,
when two full letters with vertical sides fall next to each other. A glance
&t a line of print will show how infrequently this happens. Still the unit
may be useful to the letterer in that it provides a guide to reasonable and
readable standards of spacing.
Under certain conditions, where it is desirable to produce as large a
letter as possible to carry the copy in a given space, it will be found expe-
dient to reduce the space between lines. This may be done, as in Figure
47, even to the point where the ascenders of one line pass the descenders
of the line above. In such a case it is necessary now and then to decrease
the height of an ascender, or to shift the spacing of a line, in order to avoid
confli&s.
In laying out practice exercises it is advisable to undertake panels or
pages, of a definite measure, to be filled by certain copy, rather than verses,
or similar copy in which it is only necessary to keep the left edge straight.
The problem of adjusting the copy to the panel, choosing the right height
of letter for the work, is part of the task of spacing, and practice in prompt
estimating of sizes, and in shifting letters and words, or even whole lines,
without undue loss of time and effort, is of great value to the beginner.
Different styles of lower case letters are obtained by varying the
relative height and depth of the ascenders and descenders, the height of
the letter body, the shape and weight of the serifs, the relative weight of
the heavy and light strokes, the width of the letter body, the general weight
of color, the shapes of the prevailing curves, and by certain minor effe&s
in setting or constant spacing. A number of such variations are shown in
Figure 44.
In all these directions numerous experiments have been made, so that
it is readily possible to find any given idea of style repeated in many com-
binations, from the sanest to the most extreme.
A wide departure from the typical form in any one direction will usually
produce an immediate sense of the uncommon. It may be a departure in
a reasonable direction, as, for instance, the frequently "discovered"
idea of very high ascenders and short descenders, which is based on the
observation that we read type chiefly by the upper half of the body.
E*D
| OUare invited
ho visit VTrie
0arvie Shop
son the ErstDays
of its residence inThe
Fine Arte Building
Room. Six Hundred
Thirty* eight, Friday
and Saturday the nine-
teenth and twentieth
of May. The Jarvie
Candlesticks and other
Craft Work will be
shown;
FIGURE 47. Announcement in Roman
small letters, showing close spacing
between lines
CHARLES H. BARNARD
Here a difficulty develops with the capitals. When the idea is carriei
to the extreme, these become so high as to overpower the small letter
following.
Similarly a change of style by changing the proportions of the thicl
and thin strokes has its limitation. When the weights become too neari;
equal, the color of the low letters becomes too heavy, and the design wffcr
RedS-Bertsch
"OswaldCooper
Harrison $889
FIGURE 48. Announcement in heavy Roman small letters
OSWALD COOPER
an immediate loss of elegance; when the light strokes became too thin, tli
page wearies the eyes. In all the other vital characteristics the same nee
of holding to the golden mean will be found to prevail.
In spite of these conditions, the lower case is a rich field for individu;
and original effort. A designer of strong personality seldom uses one sty]
for any considerable length of time without developing in it a new set (
minor variations, making the letter at last as personal as his own ham
writing — which, indeed, it is. This is the condition under which tr
most interesting styles are produced, — the unconscious influence of
personal taste on a reasonable form.
Z64l
FIGURE
ABCDCF
GHIJKM
LMNOPO
RSTUW
abcd&efgki
jklmynopq
rsiuvwxz
123456789
HARRY LAWRENCE GA
Heavy capitals, small Utters, and numerals, adapted to block cutting
FIGURE 50
ABGDEFG
IJKLMN
OPQRSTU
VWXYZ
J'BCVETQTIIJ
KLLM K O V Q K,S~
TV VWXYZ
a bcdefgh ijklmnop a
rszu vwxyz
f ghij kl
aDcaeignijKim
nopqrstuvwxyz
EGBERT G. JACO
Modern Capitals, small letters, and italics
FIGUR
abcdefgh
ijklmnop
qrstuvw:
■• AYZ& ••
dbcdefghljk
imnopqrstuv
wxyz-etc.£f
Freehand Lettering with the Spoonbill Pen charles farlei
FIGURE 52
ABCDEFGHIJ
KL-MMOPQRS
TOWWZSrZ
A MODERN ALPHABET FDR
ONE STROKE LEWERiHCi WITH
THE PRAHG-SFOOHBIIL FB1"
O-D-D'D-D-D-D-QO-0
Doofioooonoooono
ggSillggsgllsgg
00 00
Freehand Lettering with the Spoonbill Pen CHARLES FARLEY
FJGURJE
GHUKLtt
TUVWKYZ
Modfrn>Brafsii Lttteanf bernardo sar
FIGURE 54
#^*-«»»»i
Modern Paster Alphabet
LAURENCES
FIGUI
aabcde
fgghijkl
mnopqr
stuvwx
yyz-123
456789
Modem foster Alphabet LAURENCE SCI
FIGURE 56
Lower C a se.
& & ®
\
a a btcod dee*
ff gghh i j jj
kl
mmnn o
PP
r s f ft t xi vw
.V<«
xyy z oe^tu
<& <$ #
Par different these
from every former
scene ; the cooling'
brook , the gr e e n ,
HARRY E. TOWN
Modern small Utters. For capitals see Figure 18
FIGURE
Brothers of tkBook
MISCELLANEA
The Links of Ancient Rome
By Payson Sibley Wild
and Bert Leston Taylor
Privately printed for the Brothers
oftheBook-TimArts BuilAing~ClMca<p
1912
WILL KAl
Cover design on rough paper
FIGURE 58
abcdefg
hijklmn
opqrstu
vwxyz
123.456
7890
NORMAN P.
Heavy modern small letters. For capitals see Figure 30
FIGURI
abcdeffg
bijklmi)o
pqrsttuv
wxy^yW
fie called
for bb Fid-
cilery iii.
Small letters after Charles Robinson. For capitals see Figure 23
FIGURE 60
jum.Sdiraben,kiinfa
irilch/erSchriid bertuM
?rickcDn.Tuied<mcflKgfei
SmbtDUtineleichr: aus
dem^Schr^u.otoeug
->c
jBellenbe^PiUKgk&^ier
von,der bekarattenJinn
GONTbeR, OlAgNGP
nannover urib UJienJie
gefeU£iuir5* » » ■ ■■■> i
abcdftefehijkljnjKTpqT
Modern German written linked small letters-
FIGURE
ABCDE.FGHIJK.L
MNOPQRSTUV
WXYZ
aDcaeTgnijKimn
opqrstuvwxyz
234567890
ABCDEFGHIJICL
MNOPORSTUV
WXYZ
aDcaeTgniiklmn
opqrstuvwx y z
1234567890
HARRY LAWRENCE a
Unaccented and accented alphabets and numerals, designed for rapid use
I^^Squod adliuc cniatu-
meffis' venic ? Ecxr dico v>
biV: LevaK oculos\eftr>£
ervidcteregiones^quia at
b^funtjamadmeircm^
ETqui merit,mercedem_;
ABCDEFGHIKLMNOP
QRSTUVWXYZJ&^.
abcdefghiklmnopqrfetT:
Modern Capitals and small Utters influenced fty Venetian type designs. May- I
written with the wide pen
FIGURE
SINGLE-STROKE* CAPITALS
ABCDEFGHI
JKLMNOP
RSTUVWXY. .
Tne 5malL letters snouia Le paclfexL
closely together in rorminQ' words
^kxlefehnklmnop<^5tLLv wxyz,
SHADED * CAPS.
ABCDEFGHIJ KLMNOP
QRSTUVWX YZ 12343 6789
1 ne^e letters ^coyine- &
ckamcter from tne nature. £3£^
or trie tjool used ~& steel 0Q
pea dr medium. Size Tf
FREE - PEN - ALPHABETS
BASEDOW CLASSIOICRMS
JAMES H
Capitals and small letters for informal inscriptions
FIGURE 6+
Siebitte
wieriQuettftift/a
AfiochtuocLobne
Modern German linked small letters
CHAPTER V
Italics
THE italic form came of the need for a rapid, cursive letter —
the need which produced all the various families of small
letters. While the calligrapher dealt in chronicles and Books
of Hours, a slow and patiently-made letter served. But the
literary men of the Renaissance burned with a desire for expres-
sion, and made for themselves a style of writing that could be used before
the inspiration cooled. The patrons were also to be considered : a poem
gained much from being clearly and gracefully written out. The times
required that the work of scholars be done in a beautiful manner. The
printers, when they came upon the scene, followed the fashion, and certain
Aid in e books, printed wholly in Italic (a style traditionally founded on
the hand-writing of Petrarch, but engraved for type by Francesco of
Bologna), attained and still hold a very high reputation.
The Spanish writing books of the sixteenth century furnish many beau-
tiful italic forms, some of them verging upon linked script, and provide
explicit directions for the writing of the letters stroke by stroke.
To the student who wishes to attain skill in dirccft writing, rather than
in the more laborious and exacft method of building up letters, a careful
study of the italic is to be specially recommended. The forms, being
immediately derived from written work, and never deeply influenced by
any carved style, adapt themselves readily to the pen ; and a mastery of
them is excellent preparation for the more difficult Roman forms. The
student should prepare himself, however, in both fields, by carefully build-
ing up a few exercises, on a scale larger than is possible to single-stroke
writing, in order that he may investigate the acftual drawing of the letters
before attempting to write them dire&ly.
In ruling for italics, one should draw a series of slant lines over the
page, to avoid variations in the angie. These lines should be perfectly
parallel, but may be at any interval. The most convenient method is to
I
FIGURE 6.5
5^feRa&et
Mmnoparf
&UPWXUX
FRANK CHOUTEAU £
fruited English script, from " Letters and Lettering'* ■
c4BCDEFG
mjKLMN
OPQRSTU
VWXYZ&
FIGURE 66. Italic Capitals. For small letters see Figure 6?
T. W. S.
set the paper obliquely on the drawing board, so that the T-square will
fit the angle; when the slant lines have been ruled, the paper is reset in a
vertical position.
There is no exact or authoritative angle of slope. In extreme styles the
angle becomes as great as twenty-five or even thirty degrees from the verti-
cal. From twelve to twenty degrees may be considered the normal range.
In estimating the space required by a given copy, it is safe to assume
that the italic will take less than the Roman. In character it is affected
by all the means employed to vary the Roman, and in addition to these,
by a number of hand-writing features,. turned-up serifs and the like. In
its most formal style it is simply the Roman letter slanted. Where indi-
viduality is desired it leans toward script.
I
. L . ..
Italic is usually well suited to work which suggests a casual or spon-
taneous motive. While not so legible at long range as Roman, it has an
effelt of emphasis combined with elegance not easily obtained in any
other way. In the form of a nearly vertical script-italic, drawn up in
panels, a quaint dignity appears in it. A greater slant and some judicious
flourishing of the capitals gives one a rather elaborate medium which was
beautifully used by the Louis XV engravers. It may also be eflfe&ively
used in connexion with Roman, following the Georgian or Colonial fashion;
in this the italic is somewhat flourished, and is reserved for connectives
and unimportant words, the Roman capitals serving for emphasis. Where
used with many italics, the Roman should be varied somewhat — the
round letters being accented in the direction of the italic slant.
The invention of the typewriter has, to a large extent, done away with
the practice of beautiful court hands and engrossing scripts. While
penmanship is doubtless more rich in individual character than ever,
beauty has passed from its fashion. The student will find more suggestive
material, of assistance in developing fine script letters, and thence italics,
in old and official chirpgraphy.
klmnopqvrst
uvwwxyyzg
FIGURE 67. Italic small letters. For capitals see Figure 66
T. W. S.
[84]
FIGURE
nopcf
rs tuviuxy z.
LAWRENCE RC
\Hc-script Capitals and small letters. A line variant of the French engraver's man
FIGURE 69
FGHIJK
IMVOP
T. 1
Italic Capitals, extreme slant
FIG1
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ABCB
6FGfiI
JKLTO
nopa
tUXTE
Adapted Raman Alphabet laurenci
FIGURE 71
ccbcde-
f mil op
qastJTi
Adapted Raman Alphabet Laurence s
FIGURE 72
nr.».-,-.. - —.-;-- _-- - -•
ABCD€E
penujK
Lflinop
f
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Ansuiers
abcdefbhyklmno
pqrst UVUXXIJ3 .
M.ELIZABETH
COLWPLL
An Individual Roman Alphabet M. Elizabeth colweli.
FIGURE 73
saline
z i/ears at tne sp
aolovmnas at seven;
daw-pearled;
vm&on me wina;
me snails on me morn:
cfods in his heaven
Jills riant with me wocldl
abcdefyfiijQmnopqrstuv
HARRY LAWRENCE C
Italics with flourished Capitals, written with a wide pen
FIGURE
abcdefg&klmztopr
'BC<DS<FGWM
33eacBt>enSiebi8ein.
meu2einza>eiiei2~~. s
SdBaufet28er / di&/lusi
Modern German script-italics, written with a wide pen
FIGURE 7S
ABCDEFG
HIJKMN
aba
lmnopqrtuT
NORMAN P. I
Italic Capitals, small letters, and numerals
.••••*
FIGURE
abai^^mnopqf^/tttvxDx
10345 c yz,
ABCDETGHIKLMNOP
efcrnJenhfenJabren Jieho-
heKunSt
j
//*
rem vouen jxfchegkgnnien iftr.
Modern German Italic Capitals y small letter s> and numerals
FIGURE 77
Culon Oldttyle Italic No. 471
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VfFXrZ&MCE
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FIGURE
Cloister Italic
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FIGURE 79
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CHAPTER VI
The Gothic Forms
IN the course of its decline the classic Roman letter went through many
changes, taking on characteristic styles in many lands. Some of
these were of great beauty and interest, but so far from the letters
with which we are familiar as to be virtually illegible to us. One,
however, attained a fairly definite form, and was used with consid-
erable regularity for centuries ; this was the Uncial, which was also known
as the Lombardic letter.
As this style spread northward it came to be written in a more con-
densed form, very heavy, with spiky terminals ; — the usual result in vari-
ations of a Germanic origin. This variant called Black-letter was strong
and rich, but not legible except to the experienced eye. In using it for
missals and Books of Hours it became convenient, because the contents
of a page could not be taken in at a glance, to mark the initials strongly;
also the letters beginning the separate verses. Thus the capitals became
extremely heavy and complicated in design.
At the time of the invention of printing, Black-letter and the more open
variants were in common use. Many of the earlier types were founded on
these letters. Caxton took six different fonts of them to England. Jenson
gave up the use of his beautiful Roman letter for them, because they saved
space. In Germany they survive in common use, scarcely altered from
the types cut by Peter Schocffer of Mainz, except in some loss of virility.
In the nomenclature used by printers and type-founders these letters
are called Old English, or Text. Historically they are called Gothics.
As the historical name relates the style corredtly to the use of the word
Gothic in the arts, it will be used here, since we are considering letters and
not types. (In printing, a square sanserif Roman, with strokes of equal
weight, is, called Gothic.) To distinguish further, the heavy forms of
letters ii*_%hich the black stroke overpowers the enclosed white, will be
referred to as Black-letter; the more open forms as Round Gothic.
The Uncial letter, shifting through the Half Uncial, bridged a gap
between the classic Roman capitals and the small letter. This Uncial,
t
••V--.- . • ■ • :. . '••rr
FIGURE 80
tor
19
ALBERT DURER, I
Black-letter Capitals and small letters
while essentially a capital, has no small letter of its own, since the Gothic
small letter is a later development. But the Uncial as the ancestor of the
Gothic or Text capital, may properly be used with Gothic small letters.
Sfatdt
mwAm
Iffif
FIGURE 8 1. Black letter written with a wide pen
HARRY LAWRENCE GAGE
The Gothic capital in fad, grew out of this association of Uncials with
Black-letter; its chief object was to mark a place, to emphasize a begin-
ning. It grew heavy and complicated, isolating itself from the general
tone of the page. Its history and design alike forbid that it be used alone.
it
w
aMWMa ^^ uk
a6fdrffl()ififmii(i!ijqrferiit)tttnj
?iFfD£f6fTifitfnnr
FIGURE 82. Modern Round Gothic capitals, small Utters and numerals
To state the matter again. Uncials (Lombard Gothic Capitals)
may be used solid, without small letters. Uncials may be used as capi-
tals with Round Gothic or Black-letter small letters. Round Gothic
and Black-letter capitals (Old English) must be used with small letters,
never as solid capitals. To the last statement an experienced designer
may find an occasional exception. It does not apply to the simpler forms,
in which the Roman influence is strongly felt, such as the Troy and Chaucer
types of William Morris.
Gothic letters afford a greater variety than other styles, chiefly be-
cause they were never fully developed. The plainer forms of Round
Gothic and Black-letter may be executed easily — written, in fa<ft — with
a wide stub or quill pen. This accomplishment requires some practice,
however, and careful ruling-up, both with horizontal and vertical guides.
See Figure 89. Tj
Black-letter is an open field for the letterer because it is not practicable
to produce its best effeds with type. At its height it is a rich, virile style,
bound closely together, letter to letter, and legible only to the accustomed
eye. Hence one should be careful to employ it only in brief inscriptions,
or in combinations easily recognized by the average reader.
It is not necessary to cumber the memory with the intricate drawing of
the Text capitals. The Uncial form, on the other hand, is easily drawn and
can be frequently used, as can also the plainer styles, of Round -Gothic
and Black-letter. The drawing of these should be thoroughly mastered
and practiced by the student of lettering.
• [100]
• *
► * « »
FIGURE 83
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FIGURE 84
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F torn * 141b CaUur)
Uncial Capitals with narrow Gothic small letters
FIGURE!
•he: BfactefetterJ
„Jafthouqh^fet
t^tx of fljc^rffurtti;
feleg?foiroataij& aa-
mite of more" freetom
intrefctmeiitftiatjthe!
Rowan. «3fa*IMte
waliaw^SnglanS*;
<tfX.Y
Original Variations on a Gothic Alphabet
CHARLES H. BARNAF
FIGURE 86
HBO0€f
KKfllRO
PCtRSm
UVWW:
HARRY LAWRENCE GAC
Italian Gothic Capitals. Adapted from an inscription in silver repousse
KIGUR
aese03mcoa-SQK/ceiUEfi<
PQE8.(Di
SI
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© l+2+3*MI +0+Z+H+0 I
// Gothic alphabet based on a fifteenth century mammript lal'RLNCE SCH/
FIGURE 92
An Illustrated Monthly Mtgnme of
FINE & APPLIED ART Eiiul
If CUADJ.BS Houu TMisbei if
Johh Liun The Bodlejr Had it
up FifihVhe New York Aw 35 catf
Yearly Subscription $3.50 pott grid
Cover design showing an interesting use of Italics \
WILL BKAOl
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9
8
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LAURENCE SCH/
better, but to the modern eye they remain somewhat difficult. For ref-
erence, let the note be inked in, roughly, as in Figure 93.
Leaving the more formal manner for a moment, we may attempt a
simple arrangement using a free Roman capital form derived from the
lower-case, Figure 94. This presents the title in a simple, unassuming
fashion, and leaves abundant space for decoration of almost any sort.
But we cannot fail to see that this is too casual. The right thing is not
to be done so easily. However beautifully we may decorate the page, the
inscription itself, the central motive, will lack the dignity that is its prime
reason for being.
Laying aside, for the present at least, the possibilities of the solid
block of capitals, an experiment with a modern form may be made, using
the ribbon inscription which is so popular with some English publishers.
By this means we succeed in calling proper attention to the words " Andrea
del Sarto" and "Robert Browning," setting the subsidiary words back
against the field. In this line of work it will usually be found necessary
to add something in the nature of floral or conventional pattern, in order
to hold the ribbons together; or this end may be accomplished in a still
simpler fashion by ruling of an architectural character. Some attraction
could easily be added in a little clever handling of the ribbons, giving them
an effedt of relief; but this, being factitious and apart from any real accom-
plishment with the inscription, would only carry us still further from our
obje<5t, which is to arrive by continued experiment at a just and work-
manlike solution of the problem.
Looking back at the complete copy, we can scarcely fail to see in the
phrase " Called the Faultless Painter," a suggestion leading to the Georgian
or Colonial style. A few minutes' work in this direction will produce a
sketch similar to Figure 96, possessing a slight resemblance to old work
and having about it a quaint sense of variety. While we feel sure this
might be improved considerably in detail, it serves to show that the manner
and matter do not suit one another, even if we apply no other test than an
elementary historical one.
When we experiment with this title in Black-letter, we shall find it
profitable to divest the copy of all superficial matter. The average reader
has no such aversion to Black-letter as is usually credited to him, but he
demands it in small doses, that he may feel its rich, decorative effect
without encountering difficulty in reading. Using the copy in its shortest
form, and selecting an old English Gothic (following the excellent ren-
[112]
FIGURE 93
FIGURE 94
^
R0B6RK
ATH>R£&DeL
SAKtoapoera
B7-ROBeRT
BRownme
Andrea M ANDR,EA
del Sarto |j) <? g / SARJTO
raultleis Painter
[J ] Browning j jj
FIGURE 95
PO EM
^Robert
Browning
FIGURE 96
Rough notes for a title page
T. w. s.
dering by Mr. Frank Chouteau Brown, Figure 88), we obtain a page similar
to that suggested by Figure 97. This is more promising, and a little
experimenting in shifting the relative positions of the title words might
reveal something still more pleasing.
But there still remains the opportunity to use, in perfe& harmony
with the text, the Renaissance Roman letter. It will bring up some special
i
□
i
W^Bwwhji
t
i
FIGURE 97
FIGURE 98
difficulties, among them a demand for more careful execution than all the
others. It will be plain and not far removed in character from the capitals
of some of our best types; in faft the chief advantage over type in the page
we propose will be the superiority of free spacing and an absolute choice
of proportions.
Beginning with a mere suggestion of the spaces filled by the words
we arrive at a note like that shown in Figure 98- This is, of course, one
of a large number of possibilities in arrangement, as the optional copy
leaves us a wide latitude in that direction. Following this sketch, how-
ever, one obtains a page like Figure 99.
The foregoing se&ion, which may seem very elementary to the expe-
rienced reader, does not present the only way of arriving at the given con-
I"*]
FIGURE
ANDREA
A POEM
ROBERT
BROWNING
T. W.
I
elusion, nor is any single step mentioned either necessary or inevitable.
But for the craftsman whose work in this field is beginning, some special-
ized, concrete exemplification of principles must be made.
From this we may deduce a more general expression. In any piece of
lettering the obje<5t to be achieved is the presentation of a given inscrip-
tion in the most suitable and beautiful manner. That the inscription
may be suitable and beautiful, we should first determine its relative impor-
tance. If it be the vital part of the design in which it stands, everything
else should be subordinated to it. If it be merely explanatory, nothing
can excuse the arrogance which permits the lettering to draw attention
from the main issue. When the value of the inscription is determined, its
placement must be effected in exadt accord with this, regardless of the
temptation to "give the lettering a show."
For beauty, harmony between the lettering and ornament is of course
essential. But since each problem presents this question anew, the general
principles could scarcely be presented except in connection with a study
of ornament. The discerning student will of course recognize that a deci-
sion on the basis of historical association cannot fail to be helpful; he
will also see that the Romans represent the plain form, that Gothics
bring into the inscription a sense of elaboration, and Italics a feeling of
script-like informality.
[116]
CHAPTER VIII
Phases of Letter Design
• - • •
TTUST as the forms of letters are strongly influenced by the manner of
I their making — building-up or writing — so their values as orha-
I ment have been similarly affe&ed. The styles which attained
I their height in carved stone, as the classic Roman, carry with them
J the mark of the architect, and incidentally are still preserved in
their purity by architects.
The carved letter, when rendered on paper, naturally becomes a built-
up letter. It suggests dignity and permanence. The Italic forms, more
swiftly written, suggest grace and informality. One has only to use the
different forms as head lines for a body of small letters, in order to see
how strongly each manifests its character. With the Roman capitals, the
whole inscription takes on an air of sober regularity, as of Roman building;
with the Gothic, a richer and more decorative look, suited, by long typo-
graphical association, to churchly uses; and with the Italic, the whole
inscription becomes more casual, perhaps even, if the Italic be flourished,
fantastic and gallant.
These characteristics of the various letters should of course be used to
the advantage of the work to be designed. But the letters themselves
may offer decorative possibilities beyond those of mere association.
In type, each letter has its own field, and its own work to do. Begin
drawing it, and you find that it may also fit itself into a piece of ornament.
Carry this a little further, and you begin making ornamental designs,
usually monograms and ciphers, out of the letter forms themselves.
In designing pages one often needs a decorative spot to occupy a cer-
tain space or "field." One may draw a conventionalized flower form or
a bit of abstract ornament, taking care that it harmonize in tone and
measure with the letters. Or one may take a certain combination of
letters themselves, and weave them into a monogram, equally decorative,
U
FIGURE 100
HM
VV OOA
sec?
HA
E8D
6B
GF
NNJ
FFO
Monograms from "Monograms and Ciphers"
and at the same time significant m connexion with the rest of the design.
In doing this the chief consideration is of course that an interesting spot,
a pleasant and effective shape, shall result. But if it is also necessary
that the meaning of the constituent letters shall be dear, then their order
and legibility have also to be considered.
Facility in arranging monograms and. ciphers is so valuable to the
craftsman that some time may well be devoted to such practice. Some
combinations of letters give happy results with little study; others prove
difficult and intractable. For trade purposes, the metal-chaser's method
of interlacing flourished Italics is perhaps the easiest and surest, but this
arrives at a conventional result, lacking in interest and variety. A
legitimate monogram of Roman letters is one in which some stroke of
each letter serves also as a stroke in one of the others; and the whole is
excellent as it possesses a characteristic shape and a piquant or ingenious
division of spaces. In ciphers the idea of interest as ornament is carried
still further, legibility without the key to the design being abandoned.
In pradical work, one should begin by setting down the letters of the
problem in capitals, in small letters, and perhaps in Uncials. Thus all
the shapes with which one may play are evident. Take the capitals and
try them superimposed, feeling for strokes which may be common to two
of the letters; then try them partially superimposed, in a triangle. Some
of the most successful monograms are built at the top of a long vertical
stem, and are apparently almost symmetrical. If an interesting result
does not appear among the capitals, try the small letters ; then the Uncials.
The monogram should not, as a rule, mix the forms, though occasional
fortunate combinations of capitals and small letters, harmonized in a
measure by giving the whole an informal treatment, may be found. One
should examine the proble/n to find out how many of the letters involved
are symmetrical, or readily reversible. The result, barring the accident
of the very easy combinations, will serve as a test of the student's inven-
tion, power of design, and knowledge of the letter forms. 1
Exercises of this sort, which tend to develop in the student a feeling for
beauty and design in lettering, are to be highly recommended. In fa<fl,
a quickened and critical alertness in regard to all the uses of letters should
be cultivated. Fine letter forms are occasionally to be discovered upon
1 Note. The subjedt of monograms is well illustrated in Turbayne's " Monograms
and Ciphers" (Published by The Prang Company), and in French & Meiklejohn's "The
Essentials of Lettering. 9 '
TEI5I#\DIN
FIGURE 101. An example of combined letters and monograms in a Htte
sign boards and tombstones, and dull and commonplace ones upon pre-
tentious buildings. The most fertile field of observation, especially in
recent years, is that of typography. Some of the most skillful living
craftsmen adorn with letters the advertising pages of the magazines,
and even, in some cases, the advertising cards in the street cars.
Many modern types are of great interest to the lctterer. Some of these
are not readily obtainable for study, being held as the private property
of great presses or of the designers themselves. In this class one might
mention the two designs made by William Morris for the Kelmscott
Tress; the beautiful Doves Press type of Emery Walker; the free and
unusual "Humanistic" fount designed by Mr. William Dana Orcutt;
Mr. Bruce Rogers' grave and dignified "Montaigne," cut for the River-
side Press; Mr. Ralph Fletcher Seymour's personal type; and a number
of the faces designed by Mr. Frederick W. Goudy. Mr. Goudy has gone
further, however, and has worked out many faces, all strongly impressed
with his personality and craftsmanship, for the regular channels of the
trade. These types, and the lifelong experience of authentic artists in
the designing of letters which lies behind them, have exercised a deep
influence upon current typography. The student will find much to
admire in the common work of the day, as well as in the writing of classic
and Renaissance masters.
It is, in fad:, the strength of present work that requires of the student
resourcefulness and a high standard of execution. To be slipshod is out
of the question ; to be merely corre<5t and impersonal is likewise to fall
short. The craftsman who would succeed must contribute achievements
at once learned and individual.
[:*o]
FIGURE
W£> INTERNATIONAL!
STVDIQ
An Illustrated Monthly Maga-
zine of FINE SBu APPLIED
ART 'Edited In? Gharjles
Holme Tubtimedtoloim
LANBTheBodlev-Head at
i4*o FifthoAve NewYorks
7*riceJ)f?c&oX& «*Yfear|ySub-
5cription /i *0.3'fr post paid-"
Cover design in the Georgian style
PIGURE 103
we
iave entered your nil h
on our list for a subscrr
r
ption to
The Ladies' Home Journal
for the coming year, Yve hope
that the copies we shall have tne
pleasure or mailing may prove to
be twelve pleasant reminders or
the friend who sends this token.
"The Curtis 'Publishing
Comfiany, Philadelphia
FREDERICK W. GOOD
Littering with border
FIGURE.!
Caslon Oldstyle Roman No. 47 1
( From the original matrices)
1 .•
v.
A R C D E FG H
IJKLMNOPO
R STU V W X Y
ZiEGE
abcdefghijklmn
opqrstuvwxyzd
^ffiffflffiffloe
$1234 56 7 8oo£
mrtesy of the American Type Founders Company
FIGURE 105
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE UN-
EQUAL SPACING OF CAPITALS
OF IRREGULAR SHAPE IS OFT-
EN UNDERRATED * FAULT IS
SOMETIMES FOUND WITH CAP-
ITALS AS AWKWARDLY FITTED
WHEN THE COMPOSITOR IS AT
FAULT'HEDOES NOT SEE THAT
IT IS HIS DUTY TO RECTIFY BY
SPACING THE GAPS PRODUCED
BY COMBINATIONS OF TYPES
OF IRREGULAR SHAPE *
THE EXPERT TYPE FOUNDER
DOES ALL HE CAN IN THE DE-
SIGN AND FITTING OF THE
FACE ON ITS PROPER BODY TO
PREVENT NEEDLESS GAPS' BUT
HE CANNOT MATERIALLY AL-
TER THE SHAPE OF AN IR-
REGULAR CHARACTER'
FREDERICK W. GO
Forum Type
FIGURE
KENNERLEY OLD STYLE
Mr. Bernard Newdigate writing on
"British Types for Printing Books"
in The Art of the Book, has to say of
Mr.Goudy and the Kennerley type:
Intelligent study of Italian models
also gives us the Kennerley type de-
signed by the American,Mr.Goudy.
This type is not in any sense a copy
of early letter, it is original. Besides
being beautiful in detail his type is
beautiftil in the mass; and the letters
when set into words seem to lock in-
to one another with a closeness com-
mon in the letter of early printers,
but rare in modern type. Since the
first Caslon began casting type about
the year 1723, no such excellent let-
ter has been put within reach of
English printers. (This is 24 pt. size.
FREDERICK W. GO
Kennerley Old Style Type
FIGURE 107
Pabat OU#tyl<
ABCDEFGHI
JKLMNOPQ
RSTUVWXY
.ZJECE &£•■:
abcaergnijklmnop
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$1234567890
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Courtesy of the American Type Founders Company
| __label__neg | 0 | lettering00stevgoog | OL6591121M | OL565275W | 130 | 1,916 |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **国际积极心理学领域的知识图谱研究**
——基于 Web of ScienceTM数据库的 citespace 分析
_姜_ 月，彭 贤
**(兰州大学高等教育研究所，甘肃兰州730000)**
**摘 要：将 Web of ScienceTM核心合集作为数据来源，应用可视化分析工具 CiteSpaceⅢ，绘制2006-2015年十年间国际积极心理学研究的知识图谱，挖掘出积极心理学领域的高影响力期刊和作者，描绘积极心理学研究在不同时期的热点问题。结果显示：近十年来，积极心理学将理论研究和实证干预研究互为补充，涉及了人力资源开发与管理、教育教学、创伤治疗、团体辅导等多领域，涵盖了主观幸福感、身心健康、心理韧性、生命意义、乐观等多视角。**
**关键词：积极心理学；知识图谱；信息可视化；CiteSpace Ⅲl**
**中图分类号：B849 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1671-2129(2017)02-0095-06**
**积极心理学是世纪之交时在以美国为首的西方国家兴起的一种心理学思潮，是一门“致力于研究人的发展潜力与美德等积极品质的科学”山。自积极心理学诞生以来，心理学界对于积极心理学的研究便如雨后春笋般的增长。积极心理学的迅速发展不仅得益于其对传统心理学在人类积极品质研究上补充的理论意义，更得益于其研究成果对促进个体心理健康发展的现实意义。目前积极心理学的重要研究成果主要集中在国外，国内有关积极心理学的研究基本停留在对积极心理学相关理论的介绍和评价阶段2，也少有一些研究做出将积极心理学的相关理论与实践进行结合的尝试。但总体而言研究成果相比于传统心理学的研究仍较少，而对于国外积极心理学研究现状的研究，更加少之又少。因此，在此对国际积极心理学的发展态势、研究现状以及前沿趋势进行探索，有利于为国内积极心理学研究提供客观有效的决策依据和数据支持。**
**在国际知识计量界中，CiteSpace 知识图谱分析是公认的最可视化分析技术之一：3，它将统计科学、信息科学以及科学计量等学科的理论与方法综合利用，使得知识框架、结构、互动与交叉等知识内部联系得以以图形的形式呈现出来。41知识图谱近年来在国内心理学研究中得到了一定的应用，其应用效**
**果在心理测量、军事心理学、心理学领域疲劳研究、认知心理学、教育心理学等多个研究方向都得到验证，确保了该研究工具在心理学领域的适用性。**
**一、研究方法**
**1.数据来源**
**本文的数据来源是由美国 Thamson Scientific公司基于 Web 开发出来的 Web of Science(WOS)中的 Web of ScienceM核心合集。其囊括了自然科学、社会科学、生物医学、艺术与人文等多领域中的具有高质量的学术信息，其平台上所有数据库的学术信息都经采编部精心挑选，只收录对研究者具有价值的学术信息，因此其收录文献更加全面而精确，具有学科代表性。L5J**
**在具体操作上，进入 Web of Science 的界面后，选取 Web of ScienceM核心合集，选择检索主题=“positive psychology"(在搜索时加上引号可使检索内容更加精确)，检索年份为2006-2015年，共检索出文献1645篇。为了使数据更具有针对性和精确性，在 Web of ScienceTM中进行二次精确检索，在文献类型上选择ARTICLE(期刊论文)、PROCEED-INGS PAPER(会议论文)和 REVIEW (综述文**
**基金项目：中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金(16LZUJBWYJ010)。**
**收稿日期：2016-09-08**
**作者简介：姜月，女，硕士研究生，主要研究方向为大学生心理健康教育与咨询研究。**
**章)，在研究方向上选择 PSYCHOLOGY(心理学)，最终得出950条有效检索记录。检索结果以 Cite SpaceⅢ所要求的记录内容选择“作者、标题、来源出版物、摘要”，文件格式选择“纯文本”进行保存，数据下载日期为2016年4月8日。**
**2.研究工具**
**本文采用美国费城德雷塞尔大学陈超美博士开发的信息可视化应用软件 CiteSpace 对数据进行分析处理。本文所使用该软件版本为CiteSpace3.9.R8。 CiteSpaceⅢ用节点和年轮环的方式来表示分析对象在不同时间段内的出现或被引频次。分析对象用节点进行表示，节点的大小意味着分析对象出现频次的高低；被引频次以年轮环的形式呈现，年轮环的颜色与被引用的时间段颜色相对应。节点与节点之间可能会出现共被引的关系，此时便由节点与节点之间的连线呈现，线条的颜色表示两者第一次共被引的时间。若节点最外圈颜色越深，则意味着该节点与其他领域的节点存在广泛联系，年轮环越厚，表示该节点在所研究领域越具有革新性的影响，该类节点往往是所研究学科或知识领域的枢纽，承担着知识流动的“桥梁”作用，因此，对此类节点往往需要进行重点的关注和分析。6\]334值得注意的是，中心性也是反映节点重要程度的指标之一，中心度越高则表示该关键词与其他关键词形成了紧密的共现网络。笔者根据分析内容的不同，选择了相应的网络节点，依次得到积极心理学关键词共现图谱、被引期刊图谱以及被引作者图谱。**
**二、数据分析**
**1.积极心理学的引用期刊分析**
**一般而言，在学科发展中，期刊被引用率的分析较之于期刊载文量的分析更有价值，被引用率越高的期刊越能代表该学科发展的核心动态，其亦是该学科的主要研究阵地。期刊被引分析的价值在于其可对期刊进行较为科学的定位与分类，从而探析出期刊在学科中的地位并对其进行学术评价。在具体操作上，网络节点选择 Cited journal，其他设置同上。运行 CiteSpaceⅢ软件后，得到积极心理学引用期刊图谱(见图1)。此外，CiteSpaceⅢ在导出图谱的同时，还在后台记录保存了与图谱一一对应的相应数据，以供研究者查阅使用。因此，笔者结合积极心理学引用期刊图谱，制作了期刊共被引频次**
**和中心度较高的数据指标表，详见表1。**
**图1 积极心理学的引用期刊图谱**
**表1 期刊共被引用**
| **序号** | **被引期刊** | **频次** | **中心性** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **1** | **American Psychologist** | **740** | **0.16** |
| **2** | **Journal of Personality &. Social** **Psychology** | **654** | **0.29** |
| **3** | **Psychological Bulletin** | **452** | **0.2** |
| **4** | **Journal of Positive Psychology** | **314** | **0.02** |
| **5** | **Review of General Psychology** | **297** | **0.12** |
| **6** | **Journal of Happiness Studies** | **297** | **0.21** |
| **7** | **Personality and Individual Differ-** **ences** | **291** | **0.46** |
| **8** | **Journal of Personality Assessment** | **255** | **0.18** |
| **9** | **Journal of Clinical Psychology** | **245** | **0.12** |
| **10** | **Psychological Inquiry** | **237** | **0.22** |
**由图1可知，节点最大的期刊为《美国心理学家》(American Psychologist)，结合表1可知，2006-2015年十年间，其被引频次高达740次。《美国心理学家》不仅是美国心理学领域的核心期刊，其在世界心理学领域也占有重要的地位。该期刊创办于1946年，是美国心理学协会用于官方同行评审的学术性期刊，它会发表一些最近引发研究者兴趣的高质量论文，其包括了实验报告和以科学、实践、教育和政策为核心的学术评论，文章风格严谨又通俗易懂。2000年1月，该期刊为积极心理学开辟了专辑，共刊载了包括开启积极心理学运动先河的《积极心理学导论》等16篇文章，其他15篇分别对积极心理学三大研究支柱进行了阐述。随后一年，又开设了一个积极心理学研究的专栏。可以说，在积极心理学诞生之初，如若没有诸如《美国心理学家》这种高影响力的核心期刊支持，积极心理学不会那么快的被学术界以及大众所熟知，在全球的影响力也不会如此之高。但尽管《美国心理学家》被引次数最高，但是其中心性却只有0.16，说明该期刊与其他**
**期刊形成的共被引关系网并不紧密。**
**图中年轮环中，颜色最深的是的是《人格与个体差异》(Personality and Individual Differences)，结合表1可知，在过去十年间，该期刊共被引291次，其中心性最高，为0.49，说明与其他期刊形成了紧密的共被引网络。该期刊同样是美国心理学核心期刊，近五年的影响因子为2.378，其旨在尽可能的从实验、生理、动物、临床、教育等实证研究中整合出影响人格的主要因素。因此，不管是传统的病理心理学、犯罪心理学乃至工业心理学还是近年来受到重视的积极心理学，都尝试从中寻求到造成个体差异的最大决定因素的合理解释。积极的人格特质研究为积极心理学三大研究支柱之一，积极心理学家们致力于探索影响积极个性形成的生理因素和环境影响因素，并试图解决积极人格的发展和培养问题。19J因此，该期刊近十年来中心度最高，与其他研究积极心理学的期刊联系紧密。**
**其他突出的节点中，《人格和社会心理学杂志》(Journal of Personality &. Social Psychology)被引也较高，中心性达到0.29，不仅如此，其与《美国心理学家》人格与个体差异》连线均最粗，说明其与上述两个期刊都存在着较强的共被引关系。该期刊研究领域主要为态度与社会认知、人际关系与群体过程、人格过程与个体差异。以上这三个节点在积极心理学的知识转化和焦点转移中均起着桥梁性作用。**
**不难发现，积极心理学涉及领域众多，包括人力资源开发与管理、教育教学、心理咨询与治疗、人格与社会心理学等等。此外，积极心理学还有自己的专属期刊，《积极心理学杂志》(The Journal of Posi-tive Psychology)由泰勒和弗兰西斯所创，该期刊的宗旨是将不同领域内(如：临床发展、健康组织、人类学、家庭研究等)积极心理学的原创性研究成果汇集起来，以便运用于积极心理学的基础理论研究和实践性的操作。但因其影响因子(1.911)不是太高，故其被引频次(314)虽较高，但其中心性(0.02)较低，因此并未在众多节点中脱颖而出。**
**2.积极心理学的知识源泉性作者分析**
**论文发表的数量通常被作为衡量其学术能力的主要评价指标，但相比于数量而言，发文质量更能较好的反映作者的学术影响力。在知识图谱中，可结合被引频次和中心性两个指标对积极心理学领域中知识源泉性作者进行分析，节点较大的作者或是研究团队往往是该领域的领军性人物，他们的研究方法和研究结论对该领域后续的研究可能产生革命性**
**由图2可知，节点最大的作者是 Martin E P Seligman，他被誉为积极心理学之父，主要从事习得性无助、抑郁、乐观主义等方面的研究。。二战以来，由于客观现实的需要，心理学大都集中在如何对心理问题进行诊断和疗愈的研究上，虽然对积极心理品质研究有所涉及，但数量上远远低于前者。而近年来，随着科技的发展和社会的进步，二战后的创伤已逐渐远离人们的视线，普通公众更需要了解如何在现有资源下生活的更加幸福；此外，即便是现有研究对心理疾病的治疗已取得了不俗的成绩，然而现代人的心理疾病患病率却并没有因此减少。10\]针对此种现象，Seligman 指出心理学的目的并不仅仅在于除去人的心理或行为上的问题，而是要帮助人们形成良好的心理品质和行为模式。1998年 Selig man 任选为美国心理学会主席后在APA年度大会上明确提出把建立积极心理学作为自己任职APA主席的一大任务时，积极心理学的运动才开始大张旗鼓的兴起。以 Seligman 为首的积极心理学运动先驱在一开始就对积极心理学的研究目标和内容进行了清晰的界定，包括积极情感体验研究、积极人格特质的研究以及积极的组织系统研究。此后，积极心理学的理论和实证性研究大都围绕着这三个部分展开。 Seligman 对积极心理学的贡献还表现在其努力建构一种实证研究方法(如实验法、调查法等)的同时也不排斥非证实性研究方法(如推理演义等)，使积极心理学在诞生之初并没有受到传统心理学研究者的排斥而得以蓬勃发展，从而使得积极心理学的研究成果具有一定的科学性和普适性。从某种意义上来说，如果没有 Seligman 对积极心理学的极度推崇，也就没有积极心理学发展的今天。**
**文献共被引次数排名第二的作者是伊利诺州立大学心理学教授 Edward Diener，他是积极心理学**
**图2 积极心理学的知识源泉性作者图谱**
**三大研究内容之一“积极情感体验”总负责人。Die-ner 教授是 SWB(主观幸福感)研究上的奠基性人物，他通过文献梳理和大量的调查研究，认为影响潜在的个体 SWB 的因素有三个：对生活环境的适应、目标的灵活性以及气质(遗传因素)。同时，Diener教授还对不同国家和文化背景下 SWB 的模式差异进行研究，认为影响个体 SWB 的社会变量包括三个：社会整体收人水平、文化因素(包括个人主义文化和集体主义文化的差异)和政治动荡。此外，Die-ner 教授还提出国家SWB指数，并指出国家政策对国民 SWB的影响以及国民 SWB对国家经济发展、科技创新、社会稳定等方面的反作用力，提出国家在颁布和执行政策之前，应将国民 SWB 作为其重要的衡量指标之一。11**
**值得注意的是，美国加州大学心理学家 Sonja Lyubomirsky 在图2中节点虽不是太大，但其节点年轮颜色较深，表明该作者与其他作者联系较为紧密。Sonja Lyubomirsky 对积极心理学进展起到奠基性作用的研究有二：一是提出“不是成功带来了快乐，而是快乐造就了成功”这一概念模型，并通过大量的实证性研究对其进行论证；12二是结合实证性积极干预策略研究，提出切实可行的保持长久快乐的认知理念，包括心存感激、时时行善、品尝乐趣、感戴良师、学习宽恕、爱师爱友、照顾身体、逆境自持等。**
**其他较为突出的节点上，Barbara Fredrickson是北卡罗来纳州最杰出的教授和积极情绪研究者，因其在积极心理学研究中的杰出贡献，2000年美国心理学会授予其坦普尔顿奖。Fredrickson 教授提出积极情绪的“扩展和建构”理论，强调了积极情绪在进化等方面的作用。该理论是积极心理学理论进展研究中的重要基石之一， Fredrickson 教授依托“扩展和建构”理论整合了积极情绪的十种表现形式，包括：喜悦、宁静、感激、兴趣、希望、自豪、逗趣、激励、敬佩和爱。13l Snyder C R 为积极心理学领域的开创者之一，其生前为美国堪萨斯大学临床心理学杰出教授，他与Lopez SJ一起在2002年编著《积极心理学手册》(Handbook of positive psychology)一书的出版正式宣告了积极心理学的形成。Snyder CR教授在希望和宽恕领域的研究最为著名，此外还建立了解释人们应对个人挫折、独特性的人类需求以及宽恕的相关理论。Christopher Peterson 系美国密歇根大学心理学教授，临床心理学委员会前主席，作为积极心理学创始人之一的他主要从事乐观、健康、幸福等领域的研究。Carol Ryff 是美国麦迪逊大学衰老研究所的副主任和心理学教授，她的**
**主要研究工作是围绕心理幸福感的意义与测量，以及心理幸福感在整个成年人生活中的变化和稳定性。**
**3.积极心理学的研究热点分析**
**一篇文献的研究主题、研究方法等集中体现在关键词上，因此对一学科研究热点的探析可通过统计关键词的词频共现的方法来进行研究。出现频率较高的关键词往往代表着该研究领域内在某段时期的研究热点、创新研究方法或者亟需解决的问题等。对积极心理学进行关键词词频统计可对该领域进行更加深人的主题分析，从而更加直观和全面的把握积极心理学的发展动态。将从 Web of Science 数据库中检索到的数据导人 Citespace软件中，网络节点选择 Keyword，其他设置不变，得到图3所示的国内外近十年积极心理学领域关键词分布图，排名前10位关键词及其频次和中心性详见表2。这些关键词共同构成了积极心理学近十年研究热点的知识图谱。**
**图3 积极心理学的词频共现知识图谱**
**表2 积极心理学关键词的频次和中心性排名**
| **序号** | **按频次排序** | | **按中心性排序** | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **序号** | **关键词** | **频次** | **关键词** | **中心性** |
| **1** | **positive psychology** | **660** | **happiness** | **0.44** |
| **2** | **happiness** | **186** | **positive psychology 0.34** | |
| **3** | **validation** | **146** | **satisfaction** | **0.33** |
| **4** | **well-being** | **125** | **health** | **0.25** |
| **5** | **health** | **112** | **life** | **0.23** |
| **6** | **life** | **108** | **personality** | **0.21** |
| **7** | **personality** | **95** | **depression** | **0.19** |
| **8** | **satisfaction** | **93** | **stress** | **0.15** |
| **9** | **depression** | **87** | **life satisfaction** | **0.14** |
| **10** | **model** | **78** | **intervention** | **0.14** |
**注：从关键词词频和中心度看“positive psychol-ogy"对应的数值分别为660次和0.34，但由于本研究的研究主题为“positive psychology”，即默认所有文献均属积极心理学范畴之下，故将关键词“positive psy-chology”在此处舍弃。**
**结合图3和表2可知，除却“positive psychol-ogy”外，被引频次和中心度最高的均为“happiness"(幸福)其同义词包括“well-being”，这两个词都能表达幸福之意，在使用上后者多与 subjective 在一起使用，来表达主观幸福感(SWB)的含义。说明近十年来，积极心理学的研究最主要围绕着幸福这个问题展开研究。积极心理学诞生伊始，就致力于“如何使普通人生活的更加幸福”\[H\]的研究。幸福是一种主观上的体验，因此积极心理学中关于幸福的研究大都是相关研究而较难对其进行因果性研究。在研究方法上，多采用调查法以及定量的元分析方法等。在研究内容上，近十年来积极心理学关于幸福的研究包括主要包括以下4个方面：①影响幸福的社会性条件：包括社会指标(财富、自由、平等、安全、体质质量、城市化和全球化等)、组织条件(护理机构、修道院、工作学习场所的自治问题等)和社会地位与关系(社会等级、社会参与、亲密关系等)5；②影响幸福的人格和个性特质；③幸福的测量和评估；④对幸福进行干预的实证性研究。**
**在积极心理学的发展进程中，“health”(健康)也是出现频率很高的关键词，积极心理学不仅关注个体的心理健康问题，还探索宽恕、感恩、希望、乐观等积极品质对身体健康的贡献，并对其进行很多在医疗和康复工作中的实证性的干预研究。但值得一提的是，在一项针对创伤后成长的定性研究综述中发现，在57篇文献中仅有17篇将积极干预作为控制性变量进行研究，其他文献所涉及到积极品质在创伤后成长中的作用只是无心插柳的结果。\[161此外，尽管积极品质对健康的影响研究已经被证明了效果上的可行性，Lisa G Aspinwall 等人指出，积极的心理干预可在一定程度上促进患者神经网络系统的改善，从而促进疗愈的进程，但目前而言只能作为传统手段的补充性药方，而不可过度迷信积极信念的治疗力量，避免“暴政乐观主义”的出现。17**
**由图3可知，在研究方法上，出现频率和中心度高的关键词有“validation”(验证)、“intervention”(干预)、scale”(测量)、“metaanalysis"(元分析)等热点词汇，这意味着实验法、测验法、量化分析等是研究积极心理学的主流方法，对推动积极心理学的学科发展起到奠基性的作用，这也与心理学学科研究方法的发展一脉相承。**
**此外，“personality"(个性或人格)、“satisfac-tion”(满意度)、“depression”(抑郁)、“life"(生命)、“stress"(压力)等也是近十年来积极心理学研究的热点，这些热点也正是积极心理学诞生之初想要研**
家哲学社会科学学不明十药牌库
**究的问题。积极心理学发展了十几年，从默默无闻到声势浩大，不仅因为其符合科学研究的基本方法，最关键的是积极心理学所关注和解决的是现实生活中对人类发展产生诸多困扰的问题。**
**对国际积极心理学研究的高影响力期刊、知识源泉性作者、热点领域等进行分析，对我国积极心理学研究具有重要的借鉴意义。通过2006-2015年Web of Science核心合集所刊载积极心理学研究论文的知识图谱分析，发现近十年来，积极心理学的高影响力期刊中，属于积极心理学自己的期刊仅有《积极心理学杂志》一本，且其影响因子和中心度均不太高，其余的文献都散见在诸如《美国心理学家》《心理学公报》等在心理学界产生高影响力的期刊中。这一方面表明积极心理学得到了学术界的认可，另一方面也显示积极心理学在形成具有自身研究特色的体系上并不够成熟。在十几年的发展中，积极心理学的知识源泉性作者仍以 Seligman、Die-ncr、Fredrickson、Snyder C R 等积极心理学元老级人物居上，未来的积极心理学发展需要鼓励更多的年轻学者投入其中，或吸引更多的学者跨领域的对积极心理学进行相关研究，丰富和扩展积极心理学的研究内容和方法。近十年来，国际积极心理学研究的热点主题有主观幸福感、健康、生活满意度、心理韧性、积极情绪、积极人格、积极社会制度等，关于天才的研究却并不突出。积极心理学主流研究方法包括实验法、测量法、量化分析等，同时，一些积极心理学研究者逐渐将认知心理学的研究技术和方法引人积极心理学的研究中，使得积极心理学的研究成果更加科学化。但总体而言，积极心理学偏向于横向研究，而纵向研究不足；研究对象多为成人，对儿童的研究不足，这在一定程度上受到一些质疑。\[18\]未来的积极心理学研究在关注如何使普通人生活的更好的同时，应加强如何培养天才儿童的研究；同时将纵向研究的方法引入积极心理学的研究中，这将对积极心理学的发展和壮大起到不可估量的作用。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\] SHELDON M， KING L. Why positive psychology is** **necessary\[J\]. American Psychologist， 2001，56(3)：216一217.**
**21** **陈幼堂.积极心理学刍议\[D\].武汉：武汉大学，2012：17一32，**
**\[3\]C CHEN，F IBEKWE SANJUAN，I HOU. The struc-ture and dynamics of cocitation clusters： A multiple一perspective cocitation analysis \[J\]. Journal of the A** **merican Society for Information Science & Technolo-**
**gy，2010，61(7)：1386一1409.**
\[4\] **韩国元，李铎.基于科学知识图谱的深海技术发展可视化分析\[J\].中国管理科学，2015(S1)：848-852.**
\[57 **阮伟娟. ISI Web of Science 数据库检索系统浅析\[J\]现代情报，2006，26(12)：127一128.**
**\[6** **辛伟，雷二庆，常晓，宋芸芸，苗丹民.知识图谱在军事心理学研究中的应用一·** **基于 ISI Web of Science 数据库的 Citespace 分析\[J\].心理科学进展，2014，22(2).**
\[7\] **王玮，宋秀芳，陈晶.中美精神病学2009-2013年SCI/SSCI 论文的 CiteSpace分析\[J\].中国心理卫生杂志，2016(2)：121一126.**
L8」 **杨海燕.我国高等教育研究的热点领域及前沿一一基于 CSSCI 数据库2004-2014年收录文献关键词共现的计量和可视化分析\[J\].复旦教育论坛，2015(4)：46一56.**
**\[9\]** **罗艳红，蔡太生，张斌.积极人格的研究进展\[J\].医学与哲学(A)，2011，32(1)：39一40.**
**\[10\]塞利格曼.真实的幸福\[M\].辽宁：万卷出版公司，2010：5一8.**
**\[11\] E DIENER. Subjective Well - Being The Science of** **Happiness and a Proposal for a National Index\[J\].A-merican Psychologist， 2000， 55(1)：34-43.**
**\[12\] S LYUBOMIRSKY，L KING，E DIENER. The bene-**
**fits of frequent positive affect： Does happiness lead to** **suecess? \[J\]. Psychological Bulletin， 2013，131(6)：803一1055.**
**「13\] BL FREDRICKSON. The role of positive emotions in** **positive psychology - The broaden-and-build theo** **ry of positive emotions \[J\]. American Psychologist，2001，56(3)：218-226.**
**「147 MEP SELIGMAN， M CSIKSZENTMIHALYI. Posi** **tive Psychology An Introduction\[J\]. American Psy** **chologist， 2000，55(1)：5** 14.
**「15\] R VEENHOVEN. Social conditions for human happi-ness： A review of research\[J\]. International Journal of** **Psychology， 2015，50(5)：379一391.**
**\[16\] K HEFFERON，M GREALY，N MUTRIE. Post二traumatic growth and life threatening physical illness；** **A systematic review of the qualitative J\]. British Jour-nal of HealthPsychology， 2009，14(2)：343-378.**
**\[17\] LG ASPINWALL，RG TEDESCHI. The value of pos-itive psychology for health psychology： progress and** **pitfalls in examining the relation of positive phenomena** **to health\[J\]. Annals of Behavioral Medicine， 2010， 39(1)：4一15.**
**\[18** \_ **任俊，叶浩生.当代积极心理学运动存在的几个问题\[J\].心理科学进展，2006，14(5)：787-794.**
**Study of Knowledge Mapping in International Positive Psychology-Based on Citespace Analysis from Web of Science Database**
**JIANG Yue， PENG Xian**
**_(Institute of Higher Education， Lanzhou University， Lanzhou， Gansu 730000， China)_**
**Abstract：Based on the original data from Web of Science Mdatabase， we describe the knowledge mapping of international positive psychology by using a knowledge mapping analyzing tool CitespaceIIl， and dig out the high-impact journals， authors and hot issues in different periods in positive psychology areas.The scientific knowledge mapping shows that the positive psychology highlights the roles of theorctical research and empirical intervention study. Furthermore， it is also involved in many other ficlds， such as the human resources development and management， education and teaching，trauma therapy， group counseling， which are related to subjective happiness， physical and mental health， psychological toughness， meaning of life， optimism and other perspectives.**
**Key words： positive psychology； knowledge mapping； information visualization； CiteSpaceIII** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | —一、郑州参与西部大开发面临的机遇
从我国改革开放的成功实践看，东南沿海的率先发展，在促进自身经济迅速崛起的同时，也带动了全国经济的高速增长，从而确保了我国第二步发展战略目标的实现。由此可以看出，边疆开发是大国在现代化过程中面临的共同问题，在由传统农业经济向现代化工业经济转变的过程中，往往伴随着一个由沿海到内地的发展过程。而无论沿海的发展还是边疆的开发，也必将带来一次大的发展。我国目前西部的大开发，也必将带来一次大的发展。这种风起公涌的大潮，必将给郑州带来良好的发展机遇。
1、国家实施西部大开发战略为郑州市“东引西进”战略的实施提供了机
遇：
郑州作为我国中部的省会城市，本身就在西部开发之列。西部开发，从地理位置上说，集中在西部地区，包括中部。作为中部地区省会的郑州，勿庸置疑，已被包括在西部大开发的战略之中：西部大开发的发展机遇，本身也是郑州发展的良机，国家对西部推出的一些优惠政策也大都包括中部地区，如在外商投资和税收方面，有关部门明确规定；西部开发将加大力度鼓励外商向中西部地区投资；从2000年1月1日起，国家税务总局对设在中西部地区的国家鼓励类外商投资企业。在现行税收优惠政策执行期满后的3年内，减按15%的税率征收企业所得税。这些优惠政策的共享和西部大开
发战略的全面实施，给郑州市实施省委、省政府提出的“东引西进”战略带来了前所未有的发展机遇。
2、为郑州利用西部资源，发挥加工业优势和产品优势、进行劳务输出提供了机遇。
西部大开发，重点是基础设施，大规模的基础设施建设，必将形成对机械、建材等产品和工程建设单位的强劲需求。郑州工业门类齐全，特别是工程机械、水工机械、纺织、煤矿机械、建材、磨料磨具、电线电缆、电子仪器、仪表等方面有明显优势。随着西部生态环境建设，退耕还林(还草)成为西部大开发的紧迫任务，必将形成对农副产品新的需求，这对解决我市主要农副产品卖难问题提供了契机。
大规模的机场、铁路、公路建设，势必在西部形成对劳动力需求的热潮。我市可以实行有组织、有计划的劳务输出，缓解郑州城乡劳动力过剩造成的就业压力。
3、有利于推进郑州市产业结构调整和优化升级，提高郑州市企业的竞争力、
郑州市的优势企业集团、高科技企业可以到西部去，利用融资、控股、联合并购等形式，实现低成本扩张。在开发西部市场的同时促进郑州产业结构优化、升级，提高企业的竞争力，提高产品的市场占有率，为实现产业转移创造条件。
4、有利于扩大对外开放，发挥郑州市在欧亚大陆桥的中心城市作用，开发中亚、东亚和欧洲市场。
5、西部大开发为郑州市形成人流、物流、资金流、信息流等生产要索市场提供了机遇。
西部大开发，东中西部的积极参与必然带来和形成生产要素的大规模流动。给郑州形成商贸、信息、产品加工中心、仓储中心等提供了前所未有的机遇。
二、郑州市在中西部地区城市中的优势分析
改革开放二十多年来，郑州市发生了举世瞩目的变化。1992年国务院批准郑州为内陆开放城市，跨人全国城市经济综合实力50强，1993年又进人投资硬环境40优先进行列，1997年在全国200多个大中城市综合实力排序中，居第21位。1999年被评为中国首批优秀旅游城市。
(一)区位居中、交通便捷的优势
郑州地处我国区域经济的中部，“中”、“通”区位优势得天独厚，非其他城市可比。地理位置上的居中，因此能够承东启西联接南北，东西部之间的人流、物流、商流、技术流以及相当多的信息流都要经过中部，“西电东输”、“南水北调"、“西气东输"等均要经过郑州，郑州已成为欧亚大陆桥上的重要枢纽，必将成为国家级区域中心城市，是东西部经济互动最为理想的桥梁和纽带，是承东启西、连贯南北的陆路战略大支点，可以左右逢源，担负东西向转移生产要素的承接地。特别是郑州较好的市场发育度，至东西部两个市场运距最近等因素，使得投资环境具有比西部更强的竞争力。郑州这种“支点”的地位与作用，
为吸引东部产业、产品品牌、生产线、技术、管理、资金提供了广阔的市场空间.同时也为郑州适应西部市场需求，扩大优势产品规模，通过联合、兼并、参股、借壳上市等多种形式实现高效益和低成本扩张，与西部优势互补，达到双赢提供了先机。
交通便捷的优势是郑州在全国区域中心城市中最人的比较优势之·以铁路港、公路港、航空港为龙头，以京广、陇海铁路和京珠、连霍高速公路，107，310国道为骨架，四周辐射.立体综合的交通网络体系，确立了郑州在我国陆路“交通枢纽”的地位.郑州有业洲最大的铁路货物编织站、货运量全国第一，客运量第二、郑州是欧亚大陆桥上的当关枢纽、桥头堡，香港是亚洲乃至世界的大部市之一，国际会议的川心，从欧洲经欧亚大陆桥全香港比其他路径，至少节约--半的费用 为开拓中亚、东亚和欧洲小场，发展边贸和转口贸易，促进和提高付外开放水平，奠定了坚实的基础：
(二)经济实力领先
改革开放以来，郑州国民经济持续快速发展，综合实力不断增强，1999年国内生产总值641亿元，提前11年完成翻两番的目标，“八五”期间年均递增14.9%，高于全国、全省发展速度，全市全部工业增加值 276亿元，全社会固定资产投资238.2亿元.全年社会消费品零售额311.9亿元，全年财政收人66亿元，城市居民人均可支配收入6148元，农民人均纯收人2683 元，经济实力领先西部大多数省会城市.
1999年和1991年相比，郑州国内生产总值呈高速增长，每年平均增长20.9%，同期总人口的年均递增1.39%，在12个省会城市中均排第四位。同期城镇居民人均可支配收人和农民人均纯收人，年均递增分别为19.1%和17.5%，分别排在第五位和第二位。增速优于西部绝大多数省会城市.经济发展势头良好。
从经济总量指标和经济发展速度两个方面综合分析，可以得出这样一个结论：郑州同西部12个省会城市柏比：经济总量居前，商品交易活跃，经济发展速度较快.是经济实力领先的城市之一
(二)产业结构及支柱产业优势
1999年郑州市国内生产总值640.8亿元，其中：第一产业39.0亿元，占6.09%，其数量和构成大小，均位于西部12个省会城市第九名：第二产业322.6亿元占50.34%分别位于第二、第二名：第三产业279.3亿元，F 43.57%，分别位于第四、第八名，二产业优势较明显
郑州市优势产业具体情况分析如下：
郑州的铝加工、耐火材料中的大企业是西进中的主要力量、参与西部地区市场的竞争具有明显的优势、因为这些企业已摆脱就地取材、粗加工的生产阶段，积聚了相当的物质基础.正向规模化、系列化、精深化方向发展、依靠科技进步，开发适合西部市场需求的产品，用新型特色优势产品和技术开拓市场.我们要利用企业的资金、技术、产品、管理和人才优势，用于向西部进行战略投资，重点通过品牌、技术、管理、无形资产等形式，向西部扩张.扩人企业规模，抢先占领西部的大市场，变开发为创业，在开发中实现企业自身的结构调整和技术产品的升级换挡，实现低成本扩张.
机械工业是我市的传统支杜产业，以汽车、磨料磨具、电线电缆、电工电器、煤矿机械、工程机械为主，企业众多、门类齐全.基础设施建设是西部大开发的重点、对我市上述产业的发展提供了战略性机遇、
食品制造及烟草加工业 随着西部大开发.西部的退耕还林(还草)及人民生活水平的逐步提高，对农副产品的需求将大大增加、这对我市食品、烟草行业中的大企业来讲是个难得发展机遇 在西进中大有作为、这是我们最大的优势之…..食品、烟草加工业应以现有骨干企业为基础，以名牌产品为龙头，通过资本扩张、技术转让或人股等形式向西部发展，这些企业在原材料、资源、加工技术和营销于段、营销网络等方面具有一定的优势。如郑荣集团、河南正龙食品公司、郑州烟厂、新郑烟厂等都有相对明显的品牌优势，发挥品牌优势和资源优势先人为主：扩大速冻食品、方便食品的系列化、规模化生产，大力发展新的儿童食
品、风味旅游食品：增加加工深度.提高附加值.强化市场营销.注重品牌形象.扩人西部市场占有率
(四)劳力和智力资源的优势
郑州目前拥有高等学校23所，在校学生7万多人，科技成果转化率，产品科技含量、市场竞争力，虽滞后于尔部水平、但优于西部平均水平.有些还领先全国，如生物基因工程、程控交换机、计算机软件、室外彩色大屏幕显示技术等，1999年术，郑州市科技进步在经济增长中的贡献份额达到42%
智力资源优势：科学技术和人才已成为一个国家和地区综合国力和市力强弱的决定因素，智力资源主要是科技教育水平、人口质量和人才数量 从全民文化程度看，郑州每万人中大学文化程度有61人高于全国55人的水平.根据抽样调查，1999年郑州市劳动力义化程度构成：每万人中.文作半文育530人、小学文化程度1750人，初中文化程度4260人、高中(中专)文化开度2450人、人专以上文化程度1010人高于西部大多数省会城市水平、
郑州是全国第·人口大省的省会，劳动力资源丰富.国家实施西部大开发对交通、电力、电信.水利等方面高密度大规模的投资，势必在西部形成劳动力需求热潮，我们可以通过有计划有组织地开展劳务输出，缓解第动力过剩带来的就业压力、西部退讲述林还草.为郑州农村劳动力转移提供了机二.我们可以鼓励农村剩余劳动力，利川多科形式参与西部地区农业生产、生态环境建设，在增加农民收入的同时，实现农村劳动力的啊利转移.
(五)有经济总量居前.个国第·-人口人省作后盾的优势
河南是我国第··人门的大省，改革开放二十多年.全省经济实力大增，经济总量在全国的位次由1978年的第九位，上升到t998年的第五位，并连续二年保持在这个水平 1999年仅次于广东、江苏、山东、浙江，超过了沿海的老工业基地辽宁和上海，大有后来者居上之势 为了参与西部大开发.抓住发展机遇、省委省政府提出了实施“车引西进“发展战略，所谓"东引“就是吸小东部的名优产业及资金.技术.管理人小等，加快河南传统产业的技术收造和心
业升级，“西进”就是加强和西部的经济合作，H拓西部市场。
三、参与西部大开发的对策和建议
(一)政府搭台、企业唱戏，敢为天下先，以积极的姿态参与西部大开发
经济上的差距、首先反映在观念卜 东部人观念更新，思想更解放。而我们中西部人观念相对保守，小富即安，收革意识、开放意识、市场意识、竞争意识、风险意识比较淡薄：经济落后其实并不可怕，最可怕的是观念落后.郑州企业要敢为天下先，参与西部大开发必须联系本市、本企业实际情况，解放思想、转变观念，树立创新意识，克服等，靠、要的思想、积极主动地做好各项准备工作、理清思路，摸清情况.清好家底、有的放矢，为参与西部大开发打下坚实的基础、据对采掘业、制造业、电力煤气的生产和供应业、建筑业、交通运输、仓储邮电通讯业、批发零售餐饮、房地产业等七大行业·不同经济类型的32家企业调查.结果显示：我市有87.5%的企业对西部开发未来的前景看好，对参与西部开发充满信心：有46.9%的企业已经与西部地区建立了业务关系，但仍有 53.1%的企业还没有具体参与规划：在行业优势上，有75%的企业认为我市批发零售餐饮业、交通运输、邮电通讯业、社会服务业在全国有较大的影响，自身有较先进的生产技术和丰富的管理经验，若与西部的资源优势结合，将产生显著的经济效益和社会效益 在产品优势上，有75%的企业认为我市农业生产资料、食品、烟草、纺织、服装、机械、电子等产品，具有较明显的竞争优势，可优先向西部拓展.实现规模扩张 在投资方式上.有84.4%的企业选抒直接投资，有53%的企业选择参股经营，有34.4%的企业选择兼并租赁 出此看出郑州东引西进的氛周已
经基本形成
我们认为郑州企业在参与西部大开发时、应注意中西部思想观念上的差别.要在国家法律和政策允许范围内积极参与.稳妥推进，在分析长短、论证利弊基础上确定参与的步骤与形具体为：建筑企业要发挥先人为主的优势，打出品牌、树立形象.尽快占
据西部市场；商贸企业要发挥渠道顺畅优势，开拓西部消费与资源两个市场；工业企业要充分利用西部资源与劳动力优势，适度投资，实施适度的低成本扩张，建立自己的上游产品生产基地，同时，寻求技术合作；旅游企业要利用自身优势，充分开发西部地区丰富的旅游资源，把西部旅游市场做大做活
为做好东引西进这篇大文章，把西部大开发工作落到实处，建议市委、市政府成立“参与西部大开发领导小组”.会同计委、经委、商贸委、外贸局、开发区作好郑州参与西部大开发中近期规划，落实参与西部大开发的具体事宜，建立商贸洽谈会筹划库，中西部合作项目资源库、东引项甘资源库政府搭台、企业唱戏。为我市企业参与西部大开发创造有利条件、为企业保驾护航..
(二)诚招天下英才，建立健全人才竞争奖励机制，为参与西部大开发提供精英队伍。
对知识人才的尊重，首先要树立以人为本的观念，要为人尽其才，提供各种保护性措施，制定鼓励创新创业人才政策，帮助其早日脱颖而出，成大才，成大气，在郑州经济建设中建功立业.实现自我人生价值。建议建立教育科技及其主管单位领导任期目标管理责任制，把考核政绩和落实人才收策挂起钩来，在领导任期内，把引智、引资，推进科技进步，提高科研整体水半，科研成果转化率等工作实绩列人考核内容，落到实处、
1、加大科技和教育投人，培养高素质人才，经济的竞争就是人才的竞争，参与西部人开发关键在于发挥和依靠人民群众的积极性和创造性，大力开发人力资源和人才资源、不断提高人的素质：美国的四部开发即是例证。我们参与西部大开发，加快自身经济的发展，必须坚持"公平、平等、竞争、择优”的原则，大胆引进并启用具有组织领导能力、丰富的市场经济知识和必要的科技知识，善经营、会管理、廉洁公正、富有创新和开拓进取精神的优秀复合型人才；培养和造就企业家阶层、依靠企业家队伍这个独立群体的敏锐洞察力、丰富经验和高效的管理才能，发展新的生产力，推动经济的发
展。同时不断加快知识更新步浅，加强对人才的培养和使用，提升和激活人力资源存量，培养一批高素质的科技和管理人才。
2、抓紧组织实施人才工程。首先，引进人才——一个人带动一个学科，救活--个企业，形成一种产业的事例，在高校、科研单位、企业界屡见不鲜，无数事实证明人才具有不可替代性。我们应根据市政府参与西部大开发部署，组织有关专家、学者.认真分析我市人才队伍状况，围绕参与西部大开发，急缺什么专业人才、缺量有多大，并以市政府名义出台引进人才的具体优惠政策，逐步实施.重点引进.其次.留住人才：引进人才的同时还要重视现有人才的使用，切忌重蹈“外来的和尚好念经”和“迎来女婿气走儿”的覆辙，再次.人尽其才.要为人才成长和发挥作用制定和实施行之有效的强有力的人才政策.为人尽其才创造良好的工作，生活环境，并采取必要的措施，把人才政策落到实处，
(三)突出优势行业和特色产品，迅速抢占西部市场，扩人产品市场份额：
西部大开发是全国性的大战略，各地企业都会闻风而动，向西部进军、川拓西部市场：郑州市的企业在参与西部大开发的过程中，要避免重蹈恶性竞争的误区，就要突出自己的特色、了解西部市场需要什么，我们有什么优势行业和特色产品，如何参与开发，这是我们必须研究和解决的问题.这里我们从最终需要人手，运用投人产出数学模型，以西北五省为对象来进行分析
最终需求可分为一大块：投资、消费、和出口(净调出)、随着西部大开发战略的实施，西部的市场必将随之扩大这里选择居民消费和投资需求两大部分来分析，先从消费入手、运用趋势外推预测、西北五省城镇居民每人每年生活费支出增加330元，农村居民生活费支出增加130元，(根据1994年一1999年资料预测)由此推算出西北五省居民消费每年增加约150亿元。
再从投资需求分析，根据国家对西北五省投资计划额，加之银行配套和社会筹集，10年将有1万亿元投资需求，每年平均按 1000亿元来计算，出口需求因数量较少而不做分析。
需求的变化必然影响生产的变化，
根据西北五省居民消费、投资需求的预测，代人投入产出模型
AX=(1-A)-AY来计算，其中：
\]一单位矩阵
A一直接消耗系数矩阵
▲X为总产出年增量期望值
▲y 为最终需求(使用)年增量
(1-A)为莱昂惕夫逆矩阵
投入产出模型测算结果分析得出，西北五省投资和消费拉动增量年期望值在200亿元以上的有18个行业部门。这些部门中，郑州有优势能够参与竞争并有望发展的部门主要有：
(1)非金属矿物制品业；(2)金属冶炼及压延业；(3)金属制品业；(4)机械工业；(5)化学工业；(6)电子及通讯设备制造业；(7)仪器仪表及文化办公用品机械制造业；(8)煤炭采选业；(9)农业：(10)建筑业；(11)商业等，
(四)以两个开发区为依托，大力发展高新技术产业，抢占西部大开发的制高点-
我们应重点扶持国家郑州高新技术开发区和国家郑州经济技术开发区.实践早以证明，建立高科技工业园区能有效促进产、学、研相结合，中西部地区农业原材料工业和机械工业比重人，需要科技工业园区开发出高新技术进行改造。可运用现代生物技术和基因工程，发展高效、优质、高产、节水农业、实现农业现代化；启用传感技术、计算机技术、通信技术、大规模集成电路等加强对机械、电了、汽车、石油化丁等传统工业改造，使其形成支柱型产业，应用软件技术、新能源、新材料技术、信息网络技术等高新技术，发展高科技产业，形成有郑州特色的高新技术产业体系，抢占西部大开发的制高点：
知识经济是开放型全球化的经济，位于中部地区的郑州只有眼观六路、耳听八方，融人全国和世界发展的大潮，经济才能持续飞跃、为此必须加大与全国和其他地区的交流与合作，使郑州经济取长补短，加速经济的发展。郑州位于陇兰经济带的中心城市，欧亚大路桥的桥头堡，中原城市群的核心城市，要发挥郑州的优势，必须全方位开放、在国内东引西进，借东部资
金、技术、人才、经营管理经验和商品名牌，嫁接企业，发展白己；同时也可联合西部，走出去办特色企业；可以开展劳务输出，促进劳动力和人才流动；搞跨地区的企业兼并联合。此外利用人世，扩大开放度，善于利用好国际资源、国际市场，突出发展自己的特色经济，东引西进中开展同海内外联合。我们要充分利用西部大开发和我国进人WTO这个千载难逢的机遇，迅速扩大我市的城市规模，使郑州尽快的达到国家区域中心城市规模，目前应以发挥郑州为核心，洛阳、新乡、焦作、开封、许昌等19个大中小城市组成的城市群的作用，使郑州迅速形成我国中西部地区的商贸中心、仓储中心、科技、人才交流中心、信息中心，为参与西部大开发奠定扎实的基础.
(五)把握市场机制，在参与西部大开发中推动郑州经济的发展，从而实现郑州跨世纪发展战略。
把握市场机制就是重视经济效益，以经济利益吸引各种资源的流向，坚持比较效益的原则：坚持比较效益的原则，就是每个市场主体都发挥白已的比较优势，即自己最擅长干什么，然后彼此之疯进行交易。这不仅能增加自己的利益，也能增大整个社会的利益.要突出自己的地方特色。
参与西部大开发的切人点应首先放在西部中心城市，然后是大城市.再次是一般城市和县城。因为城市是经济发展与社会发展之间诸多矛盾的最佳结合点。西部的农村多数由于自然条件|分恶劣.一般的投资很难奏效，故我们不作为重点，
参与的对象应大中小企业并举，以大企业带动中小企业发展：积极鼓励我市有优势的大企业参与西部大开发，同时带动相关联的一批中小企业的发展。同时应积极支持中小企业参与西部开发，达为中小企业可以提供大量的商品和劳务，创造大量的就业机会。
作好开拓两部市场的工作，推动我市经济的快速发展，积极鼓励我市企业适应西部市场的需要，开发适合地必特色的新产品，扩大优势产品的生产能力，并通过联合、兼并、租赁、参股、借壳上市等多种形式实现低成本扩张。鼓励我市企业积极参与西部地
区工业结构调整，努力实现和西部企业优势百补，扩大我市优势产品市场：适应国家基础、原材料工业向西部倾斜，加大西部优势资源的开发力度的新形势，大力发展石油化工和精细化工，抓住西部基础设施和生态建设的机遇，积极开发新型工程机械、矿山机械、污水处理设备及高压输变电设备等大型成套设备，输油管道和碟阀，不失时机地振兴我市的装备工业：充分利用我市已有的农业机械、化肥的生产能力，使我市成为支持西部农业开发的农机和农业生产资料基地。发挥我市农副产品的加工优势、经济发展辐射西部省、区的农业产业化经营，扩人农副产品精深加\[规模，进步扩大产业优势和市场口有率，发挥河南粮食生产大省和运距相对较近的优势、大力开拓西部粮食巾场、积极为西部地区退耕还林(还草)提供粮食和农副产品供应；积极推进与西部省区的区域旅游合作，共同推出 ·批以黄河文化为主线，知名度高的旅游热线旅游业由于郑州得天独厚的区位和交通便利的优势，西部大开发将会有更多的国内外人流汇聚郑州，因此需要建设、维护好旅游的软硬件环境，需要旅游品牌的大手笔策划、人造声势，如随着嵩山申报联合国“世界自然和文化遗产“的成功，策划満山品牌，建立嵩山界自然博物馆，开发黄河、少林寺等文化、历史资源，联合开发旅游业资源，建立大嵩山旅游格局，大黄河旅游圈.形成我市独特的旅游风景线，
国家实施西部大开发战略.需要几卜年的艰难历程，郑州又处在承东启西的重要位置，这一独特的地理位置和国家经济发展格局中应当承担的作用，也决定了郑州城市规模必须是特大城市，从郑州市“十五”城市规划看到.到2010年郑州市将由省会城市向跨区域性国家重点城市迈进.成为全国第九个重要城市，届时市中心人门将达到300万以上，城市化水平达到45%左右，到下个世纪中叶即2050年，全市的城市人口将在1500万左右，市中心人门将达到500万，城市化水平达到60%围绕着国家西部大开发战略，郑州市的吸引力、辐射力和承载力将空前提高，城市地位愈显重要，
(郑州市统计局课题组/执笔：叶耀方) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **文章编号：1009-315X(2015)02-0183-05**
**从甲午战争得到的启迪**
**_关_ 捷，蔡明德**
**(大连民族学院，辽宁大连116605)**
**摘 要：在纪念甲午战争120周年之际，总结中国在战争中失败的经验教训，不仅能够激发国人捍卫国家安全、促进改革开放的坚强意志和信心，还对振奋民族精神，实现伟大复兴具有重要的现实意义。**
**关键词：甲午战争；启迪；强国强军；综合国力；民族团结；中华复兴**
**中图分类号：K256. 3 文献标志码：A**
**Enlightenments from the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 -1895GUAN Jie， CAI Ming-de**
**(Dalian Nationalities University， Dalian Liaoning 116605， China)**
**Abstract： At the 120 anniversary of the Sino - Japanese War of 1894-1895， this paper summa-rizes the experience and lessons China should learn from the defeat， aiming to encourage the Chinese people to fortify their strong will and great confidence in defending the security of our country， promoting the reform and opening - up， invigorating national spirit and fulfilling the dream of great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.**
**Key words：Sino -Japanese War of 1894-1895； enlightenment； to build a strong country and military force； comprehensive national strength； national unity； rejuvenation of the Chinese na-tion**
**甲午战争120年来，国人曾一再谈及甲午启迪，以警示人们，但面对日趋恶化的中日关系的现实，甲午战争给人们的历史警示和告诫会更加深刻。**
**中日两国都没有忘记那场改变中国和日本历史进程的战争。日本并未从中汲取教训，痛定思痛，反而有些人称那场战争是“非计划，非预谋的突发事件”，认为日本进行的是一场合理的战争。一些极端分子还纷纷进入靖国神社参拜，包括甲午战争时践踏中国国土、蹂躏中国人民的“皇军”之鬼魂。**
**只有富国强军，反对一切形式的侵略战争，才能不再吞噬任何人强给中国的苦果。**
**甲午战争前，中国号称拥有百万大军，尤其清政府的军事变革，建立了号称“亚洲第一”的北洋水师和具有一定规模的近代军事工业，其陆军也逐步走向近代化。然而，如此众多且貌似强大的军队，却在甲午海战和陆战中一败涂地。今天，追忆这场浸透着中华民族耻辱和悲愤的战争，遥祭为国捐躯的中华英烈们，反对把侵略战争再强加在崛起的中国身上，对振奋民族精神，实现伟大复兴梦，既有历史意义，又有现实意义。**
**近代战争是国家的综合国力的较量。甲午战争前，中国和日本两国的经济、科学技术、军事国**
**收稿日期：2014-10-27；最后修回日期：2014-11-20**
**作者简介：关捷(1936-)，男，锡伯族，辽宁沈阳人，教授，主要从事中日关系、东北少数民族历史与文化研究。**
**防等存在相当大的差距。日本明治维新后，强化“殖产兴业”。1890 年底，日本的农业、矿业、工业、运输业等公司的资本从1341万日元剧增为18935 万日元，增加了13倍。中国创办的近代工业主要是棉织、面业、火柴、豆饼制造以及制茶、制糖等轻工业。中国投人核心工业和国防的总量亦不如日本。如1894年中国铁路不足400公里，日本有929公里；棉纺织业，中国有纱锭13万多枚，日本有47.5万多枚；轮船航运业，中国有轮船26艘、总吨位22900吨，日本有商轮680艘、总吨位110 205吨；中国军费开支约银5 000万两，平均每个士兵约50两，日本军费为3450万日元，平均每个七兵合银109.5两。可见，中国在经济对比上差很多。**
**日本推行“富国强兵”，加强陆海军、学西方军事管理、频繁军演，提高了实战能力。1886年发布海军公债令，开始实施第1、2期计8年造舰计划；1893年5月建立海军军令部，并公布战时大本营条例；参谋本部次长川上操六亲自到中国搜集各地兵力、训练、装备及地形等情报，部署间谍网；为了到中国作战，日本绘制了大量军用地图。欧洲人波纳尔在看到日本绘制的一份地图后说道：“这份地图本身就是日本久已蓄意侵略中国的证据，它驳斥了日本当时是被迫作战的说法。相反地，那是一次有意图的、精心策划的侵略行动。”11887年，日本参谋本部提出《征讨清国策》；1887至1888年间，日本海军军官写出六份总体内容是以攻击渤海湾，并进攻北京为中心的侵华“方案”2\]。其海军目的是夺得制海权，而陆军则由渤海湾前进，在直隶平原寻求与清军主力进行决战，进而攻占北京。清军的管理、实力、训练均存在许多问题。陆军杂乱，有八旗(包括禁旗、畿辅旗兵、驻防八旗)、绿营、湘军、淮军及练勇等。战前禁旗有125 900人，直隶和各省要地驻防八旗兵达100824人，各省驻防绿营兵有424276 人，各省驻防乡勇达323000人。全国总兵力为974000人(另说1 001 989人)。但缺乏有效的统师机构，加上新募士兵训练无素，纪律较差。山西来的大同兵，官兵多有“烟癖”，甚至有的在“军装之外，腰间斜插烟枪一支。”4)再加上武器廠劣，后勤保障落后，编制不足，“各统将多系提镇，名位将s，不**
**相上下”5\]，在战斗的关键时刻不能协调行动，致使战场上互不统辖，自行其事。**
**综合国力不单是军事的博弈。清朝统治集团落后、腐败、分裂、不振，集中反映在朝廷内部和地方官吏派系林立。以慈禧太后为首的清皇室穷奢极侈，地方官为名利升迁而勾心斗角，各据一方，甚至不服从朝廷谕旨，战时只顾自保，互不配合。**
**落后、腐败、分裂和不振的清朝统治集团及其军队与全面效仿西方，改政体、强军备的日本较量，岂有不败之理。**
**21世纪回顾甲午之战，可以以多种方法、形式、视角吸取教训，总结启示：从政治、经济、军事、文化思想方面总结；或从主观、客观角度考察；或从物质、精神方面加以总结；或从远因、近因进行分析；或从中日双方对比探索。都能捋出多项经验教训和启示来。但无论如何都要实事求是地进行总结，既应从当时历史实际出发，又不能忽视今天的现状，找出有价值的启示。**
**第一，国家独立自主，是国富兵强的保证。甲午战争时，中国半封建半殖民地社会，列强强占中国大片领土，攫得大量权益，开辟了近30个“国中之国”的租界，做为进一步侵略的据点，清政府毫无独立自主可言。加上清政府成为“洋人的朝廷”，不惜背叛民族利益，成为外国侵略者的帮凶。早在19世纪60年代，清总理衙门，竟迎合列强的“合作政策”。提出“办理外国之事，非恐决裂，即涉迁就，势本难以两全。两害相形，则取其轻，实未敢因避迁就之讥，致蹈决裂之害”\[方针。顺从列强的要求和仰赖洋人鼻息，怎能实现国富兵强。梁启超看出一个国家如果没有“尚武精神”、以强大的武力作后盾，挨打、失败、亡国是必然的道理7。当今中国独立自主了，既有坚强的中国共产党的领导，又有维护主权的意志，自强不息，这是国富兵强的保证。**
**第二，坚持改革，不断学习先进事物，是国富兵强的途径。晚清社会有学习西方，变法改革、救亡图存都是“以中国之伦常名教为原本，辅以诸国富强之术”的封建君主专制制度为国本，谁若反对便是“以夷变夏”。《公车上书》中提出“变法成天**
**下之治”的口号，使“中学为体、西学为用”的理论黯然失色。《马关条约》批准之后，清廷感到实在是上愧祖宗，下谦国人，呼吁“嗣后我君臣上下惟期坚苦一心，痛除积弊。于练兵筹饷两大端，实力研求，亟筹兴革。毋萌懈志，毋鹜虚名，毋忽远图，毋沿积习，务宜事事核实，力戒具文，以收自强之效，”\[8\]然而事后却毫无“亟筹兴革”奋力自强的作为。历史警示我们兴国之道，在于革故鼎新。中国共产党诞生前涌现出了向西方寻找真理的一派人物，现代以来又造就了一代矢志革新的志士和献身革命的先驱。中华人民共和国成立后，特别是党的十一届三中全会以后，吹响改革开放的号角，迈开了改革的步伐。为了中华民族的复兴，伴随经济的发展，大力加强军事建设，并不断进行以强军兴军为目标的国防和军事改革创新，全军树立起进取意识、机遇意识、责任意识，自觉地把个人理想抱负融人强军梦，强化使命担当，激发奋斗精神，是国富兵强的途径。**
**第三，抓住历史机遇，增强综合国力，是国富兵强的关键。历史机遇是历史上意外的、偶遇之有利于社会发展、科学发现的良机。甲午战争前，在向西方学习，把握近代化机遇上，中日两国存在明显的差距。这是决定甲午战争胜败的远因。18世纪末叶，中日两国同为东方国家，均受到世界范围内的先进文明影响，几乎是在相同的时空中，接受西方近代文明的挑战。19世纪60年代，洋务运动和明治维新分别为两国学习西方的契机，可结果有本质的差别。日本学到了家，在政治、经济、文化等方面全面改革；中国也学些改革，却是一些皮毛，未触动封建政治体制。日本抓住历史机遇，综合国力增强了；中国未能及时把握历史机遇，综合国力未进则退。甲午战争对于中国来说，意味着新的历史机遇丧失的惩罚；而对于日本来说，甲午战争不惟是“天佑”，还标志着新的历史机遇的开始。甲午战争中国之败，启示我们，战前丧失历史机遇的沉痛教训。党的十一届三中全会后，邓小平抓住历史机遇，在坚持把经济搞上去的同时，还特别关注国防与军队的建设。1975年初，邓小平提出“军队要整顿”\[10\]1，之后在中共中央军委扩大会议上严肃指出：军队存在肿、散、骄、奢、情现象10115。要求军队要把教育训练提高到家兰字性云字寸不期刊车**
**战略地位-10.59。党的十八大以来，中国又处于重要战略机遇期。习近平主席着眼实现中华民族伟大复兴中国梦，对加强国防和军队建设作出一系列重要论述。重要论述涵盖军队建设各领域各方面：关于国家安全面临的新形势新挑战、关于国防和军队建设重要地位和作用、关于实现党在新形势下的强军目标、关于从思想上政治上建设和掌握部队、关于按照打仗标准搞建设抓准备、关于把作风建设作为基础性长期性工作抓紧抓实、关于建设高素质干部队伍、关于按照全面进步的要求抓基层打基础、关于深化国防和军队改革和关于全面加强军队党的建设等十方面的重要论述。当前，鉴于战略机遇期的内涵和条件均发生了新的变化，“国际形势和我国安全环境更趋复杂，维护国家安全和发展利益任务艰巨繁重，迫切要求国防和军队建设有一个大的发展。”11\]习主席关于国防和军队建设重要论述，准确把握世界大势和时代发展脉搏，科学阐明了为什么要强军、强军日标是什么、怎样走中国特色强军之路等重大问题，赋予党的军事指导理论新的时代内涵。**
**回顾甲午战争时，中国陆海军失败的教训和当今解决军队的增强复兴意识、海洋意识、忧患意识、危机意识、战备意识、责任意识等现实问题，“学习好、贯彻好习主席重要论述，才能拎起军队建设的总纲，牢牢把握听党指挥这个强军之魂，能打仗、打胜仗这个强军之要，依法治军、从严治军这个强军之基，推动实现强军目标不断取得实质性进展。”\[1这样的军队，才能召之即来、来之能战、战之必胜。因此抓住历史机遇，增强综合国力，是国富兵强的关键。**
**第四，中华一体，奋发图强，是国富兵强的根本。中国是多民族国家，中华民族多元一体格局，独具特色。甲午战争时中国有四亿多人口，中国却被旧本打败，其原因之一是当时朝廷与地方、军队与人民未形成合力，朝诞内派系争夺权力、封疆大吏各自为政，陆海军缺少配合、许多民众不了解战争，当然谈不到“天下兴亡，匹夫有责”；有令不行比较普遍，就连李鸿章也多次违背帝命而被拔花翎，遞黄马褂，难怪北洋舰队打仗，其他舰队以多种理由坐视不顾。表明清王朝这架机器正处于运转失灵的状态。日本则相反，除筹集足以打赢**
**一场速战的战争军力之外，舆论深入穷乡僻壤。不仅明治天皇从宫廷费中抽出30万元，文武百官从薪俸中抽出十分之一补充造船费121，即便贫困民众也从口中省出钱捐献给前线的士兵，战场上每取得胜利民众便狂热欢呼，伤病士兵回乡会被指责为不该问来的胆小鬼131。。日本动员全国之力进行对华战争，是日本取胜的根本原因。**
**当今，世界仍不安宁，东亚风浪起伏，中国虽然坚持和平发展道路，不走“国强必霸”之路，却不能不防热衷侵略的战争狂人。习主席在柏林发表重要演讲强调中国坚定不移走和平发展道路，“在事关中国主权和领土完整的重大原则问题上，中国不惹事，但也不怕事，将坚决捍卫中国的正当合法权益。”i4!这是中国的有理有利有节的原则。**
**中华民族已立于世界民族之林，将对世界和平作出贡献。英国著名历史学家阿诺德·约瑟夫·汤因比(Arnold Joseph Toynbee，1889-1975年)在1972年与池田大作在《展望二十一世纪-汤因比与池田大作对话录》中说：“中华民族的活力、勤奋、勇气、聪明，比世界上任何民族都毫无逊色。......并且就中国人来说，几千年来，比世界上任何民族都成功地把儿亿民众从政治文化上才结起来。他们显示出这种政治文化上统一的本质，具有无与伦比的成功经验。”**
**任何妄图以各种形式孤立中国、欺负中国、打败中国，让中国人民再吞下损害国家主权和尊严苦果的狂人都是枉费心机的，一定落得个身败名裂。全国各族人民团结携手，奋发图强，是国富兵强的根本。**
**_一_**
**甲午惨败的深刻历史教训，警示国人；要爱国、要警惕、要建设。**
**从甲午谈到爱国，首先要走近甲午和甲午后日本侵略中国的历史，认知国耻，知耻面后勇。我们要让全国人民，尤其是那些从一出生就在现代环境中成长的青少年知道，自己的祖国历经甲午战争与其后的日俄战争、九一八”事变、七七”事变，蒙受巨大的民族灾难的中国是如何艰难地走到了今天。在我们生活的很多城市和乡村，在连接城乡的大道上，曾经无数次地踏上日本侵略**
**者的铁蹄，碾过他们的战车和坦克，他们的机枪、刺刀和大炮曾经杀害了无数中国同胞。**
**爱国主义是中国穿越时代的主流价值观，更是中国特色社会主义核心价值观的核心，它的寄托和绽放方式总是与时俱进的。**
**当今的爱国主义内容应该是确保国家安全、社会安定困结、人民安居乐业。因此，就必须义无反顾地、坚定不移地反对民族分裂主义、恐怖主义和宗教极端主义，使这三种主义像过街老鼠一样，人人喊打，没有藏身之处。从而保证国家完整和统一，社会和谐团结，人民生活幸福安康。**
**要爱国，还要有忧患意识和高度警惕性，要居安思危。当今世界并不安宁，国际关系纷纭复杂，特别是中日关系日趋恶化。我们希望世界和平，希望中日世代友好，但现实却不以我们的意志为转移。因此，我们在汲取甲午教训的基础上，时刻准备应对来自任何方面、尤其是来自海洋方面的挑战。历史和现实都证明，没有海洋方面的强势，就没有海洋安全，也没有国家安全。**
**要爱国，尤为重要的是建设。建设中国特色社会主义的小康社会是中国人民共同奋斗的目标，实现这个日标，不仅要稳中求快地进行经济建设，还要加强军事建设，尤其是人的建设。**
**尽管我们不希望战争，因为战争带给我们的国家和人民巨大的灾难。但我们不能不防备有人挑起战争，因此我们要加强军事建设。因为甲午战争教训告诫我们：必须坚持富国与强军的统一。国家不富裕，陆防、海防、空防不强，大国同样可以被小国打败，因此，富国强军是硬道理；政治决定军事，政略决定战略。必须确立积极防御战略思想，深化军事斗争准备，抢占现代战争的制高点，以积极防御的战略指导科学运用军事力量；必须坚定捍卫国家主权、安全和发展的决心和意志，关键时刻敢于亮剑；必须树立正确的海洋观，海洋关系国家民族的生存与发展，荣辱和兴衰，要牢记自鸦片战争至甲午战争的“向海则兴，弃海则衰”的历史教训，中华民族坚定不移、勇往直前走向海洋才会有更光明的前景；必须创新军事理论和战术战法，研究现代战争，掌握制胜机理，把握制胜先机；必须始终坚持党对军队的绝对领导，依法治军，从严治军，始终坚持以改革创新精神加强军队**
**党的建设，不断提高军队建设的科学化水平；必须牢固树立进取意识、机遇意识、责任意识，统一指挥，实战训练，正风正气。**
**一国的综合国力强盛，决定于经济、政治、军事、文化的先进和强化的程度，但人的因素起决定性的作用。要建设，首要的是人的素质建设，培育当代革命军人核心价值观，深化光荣传统教育，大力发展先进军事文化，即我们常说的精神文明建设。素质建设的最重要方面则是人品，郎德行的建设。做到有令则行，集中全力，就可以打败一切来犯之敌。**
**中国特色社会主义核心价值观的提出，其目的就在于给人们的修身提供了准绳，用于提高人的素质和品位，尤其是道德素养以规范人们的道德行为。核心价值观的思想基础是中华民族优良传统文化核心内容的“仁义”“诚信”和“合和”，中国有一句古话，叫作“仁义大于天，诚信大于命”“和为贵”。可见“仁义”“诚信”“合和”对于人品建设的社会建设与发展的重要性该有多大!**
**社会主义核心价值观的核心是爱国，然后遍及其他。现在要求人们要做到“热爱祖国、孝敬父母、关爱他人”就在于首先树立核心价值观，同时付诸实践。如果有了核心价值观，人人讲爱国，人人讲仁义，人人讲诚信，人人讲合和，而且身体力行，那么，中国的一切事业更会突飞猛进，国家定会迅速富强昌盛，中国的社会定会更加安定团结，我们的生活定会更加幸福美满。**
**参考文献：**
**L1\]TYLER DENNETT. Roosevelt and Russo-Japanese War\[M\]. Doubleday Page & Company ，1925：148.**
**\[2\]以史为鉴，开创未来——1997年中日关系史大连学术研讨会论文集\[G\]/日清战争前的日本对清战争准备及日本征清六个方案.大连：大连出版社，2000：376-416.**
**\[3\]孙克复，关捷.甲午中日陆战史\[M\].哈尔滨：黑龙江人民出版社，1984：41-46.**
**\[4\]孙克复，关捷.甲午中日陆战史\[M\].哈尔滨：黑龙江人民出版社，1984：41-46.**
**\[5\]石秀峰，王郁云.盖平县志·兵事志：第14卷\[M\].铅印本.盖平：1930：32.**
**\[6\]故宫博物院.清光绪朝中日交涉史料：第36卷\[M\]1..北京：故宫博物院，1932：8.**
**\[7\]宝鉴.筹办夷务始末(同治朝)：卷5\[M\].北京：故宫博物院影印，1930：55.**
**\[8\]梁启超.饮冰室合集专集之四\[M\].北京：中华书局，1936：108.**
**\[9\]朱寿朋.光绪朝东华录：第4册\[M}.北京：中华书局，1958：62.**
**\[10\]孙克复，焦润明.甲午战争启示录\[M\].沈阳：辽宁人民出版社，1995：9.**
**\[11\]邓小平.邓小平文选：第二卷\[M\].北京：人民出版社，1983.**
**\[12\]中国人民解放军总政治部.切实掌握新形势下强军兴军的强大思想武器——深入学习贯彻习主席关于国防和军队建设重要论述\[N\].解放军报：2014-01-15.**
**\[13\]袁周.甲午战争前日本的战略预置和作战准备\[J\]祖国文摘，2014(21)：4.**
**\[14\]宗泽亚.清日战争\[M\].北京：世界图书出版公司，2012：279.**
**\[15\]习近平.我们不惹事，但也不怕事\[EB/OL\].\[2014-03-30|.http：//news. cntv. cn.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **基于四阶段 DEA 的农村金融效率评价**
**——来自中国县域数据的实证分析**
**温红梅 姚凤阁2 常 晶2**
**(1.哈尔滨工程大学经济管理学院，黑龙江哈尔滨150001；2.哈尔滨商业大学金融学院，黑龙江哈尔滨150028)**
**摘 要：随着我国农业现代化进程的快速推进，农业经济发展对农村金融的高效运行提出新的要求。本文以2010年全国2001个县级数据为基础，运用四阶段DEA方法，对县级市及县城的投入产出指标及外部环境因素共计30015个数据进行实证分析，研究发现我国农村金融效率整体水平处于较低状态，农村金融存在大量的投入冗余，同时农村金融效率受到外部环境的显著性影响。本文全面深入地探讨了现阶段农村金融效率及其影响因素，为改善外部环境，提高农村金融效率，促进农村经济发展提供理论与实证依据。**
**关键词：农村金融效率；四阶段DEA； SBM模型**
**作者简介：温红梅(1970一)，女，山东平度人，哈尔滨工程大学经济管理学院博士后，主要从事风险管理研究；姚凤阁(1971一)，男，哈尔滨人，哈尔滨商业大学金融学院教授、博士生导师，主要从事农村金融研究；常晶(1988一)，女，哈尔滨人，哈尔滨商业大学金融学院研究生。**
**基金项目：国家哲学社会科学基金“基于金融效率视角的我国农村新型金融组织发展研究”(项目编号：11BJY080)、国家自然科学基金“农村金融信息化区域的图划分方法研究”(项目编号：71340022)、国家教育部人文社科青年项目“普惠金融视角下的我国农村金融体系构建与完善对策研究”(项目编号：10YJC790338)和2009年黑龙江省博士后基金“黑龙江省金融企业技术创新风险管理对策研究”的阶段性成果。**
**中图分类号：F832.35； F224 文献标识码：A文章编号：1001-4403(2014)01-0107-06收稿日期：2013--11-10**
**一、引高**
**近几年，我国政府加快农村经济发展步伐。农村经济发展的核心在于资金支持及农村金融的深化发展，农村金融对农村资源配置和资金约束起到重要的推动作用。我国农村金融组织体系虽然不断改革和重构，新型农村金融组织也有较快发展，但依然没有实际解决农村金融供给不足的问题。农村金融效率是衡量农村金融体系运行状况和农村资源配置的重要指标，以此判断农村金融发挥效用的状况，检验农村金融对现代化大农**
**业发展的影响程度具有很强的指导性。**
**国内外学者对农村金融效率问题的研究角度有所不同。西方学者较关注发展中国家农村金融市场及制度。美国学者 MacKinnon 和 Shaw 指出在发展中国家存在“金融抑制”现象，经济与金融的发展处于相互制约的恶性循环中1)54-69.\[2\]13-77。 Hoff 和 Stiglitz 认为，农村金融体系改革的重要目标是解决农村融资难的问题，而农村融资难主要是农户与农村金融机构之间信息不对称，从而导致逆向选择和道德风险。3Besley认为，只有在配置有效前提下，资金才能分配置具有最佳投资机会**
**的农户或农村企业手里，才能促进生产和投资。「4\] Lensink 认为，在农村设立的金融机构虽然吸收了农村储蓄，但并没提供相应的金融机会，金融机构的大量设立对提高农村金融效率没有明显效果。15JRoger Thomas Moyes指出，在中亚的农村，存在无效率的金融供给，应该在加强金融技术援助方面多做努力。16J44-123Mckinnon， Rajanand， Zingales 等指出，在发展中国家，存在政府腐败、反复财政救助、法律不完善及信息不透明等诸多问题影响农村金融发展。\[7\]22-85我国也有较多学者对农村金融效率展开多角度研究。祝晓平运用浙江省绍兴市六家农村信用联社的数据进行实证分析，发现农村金融机构要有适度规模，才能提高农村资金运用的效率，保证金融机构可持续发展。\[8\]谷慎运用1988-2002年中国农村金融数据对资源配置效率进行实证分析，认为农村金融制度的有效供给不足是农村金融资源配置效率低下的重要原因，提高配置效率的关键在于农村金融制度的创新。\[9J中国人民银行上饶市中心支行课题组以上饶相关县农村企业和农户为样本进行实证分析，认为农村融资需求旺盛，有效供给不足，制度重构是实现农村金融高效率均衡的根本途径。\[10\]熊德平、余新平、熊皛白基于农村金融效率视角，对我国农村金融效率与农产品对外贸易的相互影响进行实证分析，认为信贷效率与农产品出口呈互为因果的长期正向关系。111\]**
**Fried等提出的四阶段DEA方法是一种能够更好评估决策单元效率的方法。112J该方法与传统的 DEA方法相比能够同时调整外部环境与随机误差等因素对效率计算的影响，能够有效剔除各种环境变量对效率的影响，从而提升了分析结果的可比性。本文借鉴Fried提出的四阶段DEA方法的思想，结合SBM模型和Tobit 回归，客观评估中国农村金融的效率，为提升我国农村金融机构整体发展水平提供借鉴。**
**二、模型原理及构建**
**(一)SBM模型构建**
**本文基于SBM模型对农村金融效率进行一阶段效率评价。Tone 131提出了基于松弛变量的Slacks-Based Measure(简称SBM)模型。此前研究效率使用最多的是数据包络分析方法(DEA)中的 CCR 和BCC模型， CCR和BCC模型是基于Farrell的效率测度思想且同属于径向和线性分段**
**形式的测度理论，这种测度思想主要是它的强可处置性，确保了效率边界或者无差异曲线的凸性，但却造成了投人要素的拥挤或者松弛。SBM模型对解决这一问题提出了新构想。**
**在SBM模型中，为了测量单元的效率值，引·人以下几个值1，S，s，模型如下：**
**其中p就是要求的效率评价值，m是投入的要素种类，s为产出种类，a是列向量，(xo，yo)分别是待评估的决策单元的投人与产出向量，xin 和少o分别是向量xo和yo的元素，S，是松弛变量S的元素，S；是松弛变量S\*的元素。**
**引入一个变量t，将(1)式转换为线性规划问题：**
**_下面令S-=tS，S\*=ts\*，ω=t，则SBM模型_ 进一步化简成含有t、S\*、S\*+、ω的线性规划：**
**这样就得到了相应的效率值。在SBM中处于效率前沿的单元效率值为1，同时也是没有投入冗余和产出不足。**
**(二)Tobit模型构建**
**根据Fried对四阶段DEA的研究，需要根据决策单元所处环境的差异对松弛量进行调整，考虑到一阶段的低效率值可能受到农村金融外部环境(以下简称外部环境)的影响，本文利用Tobit模型对外部环境变量与一阶段松弛变量进行回归，分析外部环境变量对效率的影响。**
**三、实证分析**
**(一)指标的选取**
**运用DEA模型对我国农村金融效率进行评价时，首先要确定农村金融的投入产出指标。农村金融效率衡量的关键是在一定的投入规模下实现农村金融资源配置的最佳效果。**
**(1)决策单元。鉴于县级数据比省级数据更能直接表现我国农村金融效率，本文收集了2010年我国2082个县域农村金融指标数据，经过后期整理选取2001个县域数据作为决策单元。**
**(2)投人指标。农村金融投人一般包括人、财、物三个方面，分别选取各县及县级市的金融机构网点数、金融机构农业贷款余额、城镇固定资产投资额作为投人指标。**
**(3)产出指标。农村金融发展的最终作用是推动经济发展和提高人民生活水平，所以选取各地区第一产业增加值、第二产业增加值、家庭消费支出作为金融效率产出指标。各地区第一产业增加值能反映当地农村经济发展状况，同时，现阶段农村存在大量的当地产业支持者参与农村经济发展，所以本文也选取第二产业增加值作为产出指标。考虑到产业增加值并不能直接反映当地农民的生活水平，可支配的消费支出体现了农民实际生活的改善，也在一定程度上反映农民的收入水平，选取消费支出是较为合理的指标。**
**(4)外部环境指标。农村金融效率受到外部环境的诸多影响，在分析农村金融效率时，必须在一定的农村金融外部环境下进行研究。本文选取农村土地面积、农业机械总动力、粮食产量、在校学生人数、乡村从业人数、地方政府财政收人预算、乡村户数、规模以上工业企业个数、规模以上工业产值等9个外部环境指标。**
**表1 县域金融效率评价的投入产出指标**
| **指标** | **名称** |
| --- | --- |
| **投人指标** | **金融机构网点数** |
| **投人指标** | **金融机构农业贷款余额** |
| **投人指标** | **城镇固定资产投资额** |
| **产出指标** | **第一产业增加值** |
| **产出指标** | **第二产业增加值** |
| **产出指标** | **家庭消费支出** |
**(二)数据来源及处理**
**本文数据来源于2011年《中国县(市)社会经济统计年鉴》和《中国区域经济统计年鉴》。由于本文存在大量指标数据，年鉴中存在某个单元的某个指标无记录的情况，为了保证分析的准确性将缺漏数据删除，最终取2010年全国2001个县域的15个指标的有效数据，共计30015个。**
**(三)DEA分析过程及结果**
**(1)第一阶段：一阶段DEA的分析结果。基于SBM模型，利用DEA-SOLVER 5.0对投入产出数据进行一阶段效率分析。对分析结果进行统计，能够看出我国各县级统计的农村金融效率的平均值是0.197 1，可知我国的农村金融效率整体水平较低，全国各县处于效率前沿的县市特别少，只有个别省份的县城综合效率值是1，处于效率前沿面的只有48个县市，占全部样本的2.39%。说明我国每100个县城及县级市中，有98个存在不同程度的改进空间。同时我国农村金融存在大量的投入冗余，对于我国的农村经济发展而言，这些投人并没有提高金融效率，反而形成资源的浪费。根据规模报酬递减规律可知，当投人量超过某阈值时，投入不但不会拉动效率提高，反而阻碍了效率值的进一步提升。从数据分析结果看，规模报酬递增、不变、递减的县市个数分别为131、78、1792，可见大多数是规模报酬递减的。从投入的冗余来看，我国农村金融纯技术效率和规模效率处于劣势，营业网点投入过多但效率不高，说明我国农村金融效率低下的主要原因是技术层面的低下，目前我国只关注了农村金融机构数量的发展，而忽视了农村金融机构的内部管理和技术进步。这说明我国农村金融整体发展需要同时注重数量和质量，注重县城农村金融机构的内部治理结构的建设。**
**按照国家统计局划分的中部、东部、西部省份进行统计，发现我国东部、中部、西部的农村金融效率值分别是0.20、0.18、0.21，比较来看，东中西部农村金融效率差距并不是很大，中部的农村金融效率低于全国整体水平。**
**(2)第二阶段： Tobit模型参数估计。一阶段的低效率值可能受到外部环境的影响，利用Tobit模型对外部环境变量与一阶段松弛变量进行回归，估计外部环境变量对效率的影响。以投入冗余为因变量，外部环境变量为自变量，进行回归分析，结果如下：**
**表2 _2_ 外部环境对金融机构网点数冗余的影响**
| | **系数** | **标准误差** | **P值** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **农村土地面积** | **0.000 331** | **0.000 594** | **0.0000** |
| **在校学生人数** | **\-0.000120** | **0.004 375** | **0.0062** |
| **乡村从业人数** | **\-5.72E-05** | **0.000 134** | **0.0000** |
| **地方财政收人预算** | **9.17E-05** | **0.000 875** | **0.0000** |
| **乡村户数** | **0.000 380** | **0.000 274** | **0.0000** |
| **规模以上企业个数** | **0.023 381** | **0.003 839** | **0.0000** |
**从表2可以看出，农村土地面积、地方财政收人预算、乡村户数、规模以上企业个数对农村金融机构的松弛变量有正向影响，说明单纯增加以上的投入变量，农村金融机构网点数的过度增加会增加农村金融机构冗余，从而降低农村金融效率。而学生在校人数和乡村从业人数的增加对金融机构数的松弛变量是负向影响，说明乡村从业人员的增加和学生在校人数增加对于农村金融效率有一定正面影响，能间接地提高农村金融效率。**
**表3外部环境对农业贷款冗余的影响**
| | **系数** | **标准误差** | **P值** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **粮食产量** | **\-0.226312** | **0.080 357** | **0.0049** |
| **地方财政收人预算** | **3.505 580** | **0.311 903** | **0.0000** |
| **乡村户数** | **0.952 048** | **0.477 749** | **0.0463** |
| **规模以上企业个数** | **2 232.137** | **137.8112** | **0.0000** |
**从表3可以看出，粮食产量对农业贷款具有负向影响，说明增加粮食产量有利于减少对农业贷款投人冗余，进而提高农村金融效率。农村粮食产量增加，农户会有更多的收人，就不必过多依赖农业贷款，同时也能及时偿还贷款，有利于减少贷款浪费，提高农村金融效率，这与实际情况是相符的。而地方财政收人预算、乡村户数、规模以上工业企业个数对农业贷款的冗余是正向影响。说明这些指标的增加会造成过多不必要的贷款投入，影响农村金融效率。**
**表4外部环境对固定资产投资冗余影响**
| | **系数** | **标准误差** | **P值** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **农村土地面积** | **3.878 578** | **0.940 562** | **0.0000** |
| **农业机械总动力** | **1643.267** | **214.399 8** | **0.0000** |
| **乡村从业人数** | **\-0.485 913** | **0.199 674** | **0.0150** |
| **地方财政收入预算** | **1.871 985** | **0.162 929** | **0.0000** |
| **乡村户数** | **2.695 161** | **0.423 673** | **0.0000** |
| **规模以上企业产值** | **0.009 155** | **0.004 835** | **0.0583** |
**从表4可以看出，农村土地面积、农业机械总动力、地方财政收人预算、乡村户数、规模以上企业产值对固定资产投资冗余影响是正向的。农业机械总动力的增加会大大增加农村固定资产投资冗余，说明过多的农业机械总动力无助于农村金融效率提高，这可能由于大量的农村机械没有得到充分合理的应用。乡村从业人员数对于固定资产投资产生负向影响，即乡村从业人员数量的增加有利于减少对固定资产的过度投资，从而提高农村金融效率。**
**综上可见，外部环境部分指标对我国农村金融效率影响明显，有必要调节投入变量，排除由于经营环境、地理位置等因素对我国农村金融效率的影响。**
**(3)第三阶段：对初始投入变量调整。根据上述Tobit模型对投人松弛变量的拟合值，应用最大拟合值进行调整。原因在于最大拟合值代表了决策单元的该项投人在此时期处于最差外部条件之下。以最差条件为基准，经过上述的调整过程，能够削弱那些较高效率来自于更优外部环境的决策单元，将那些来自于更优外部环境的决策单元因其优势而获得的效率水平剔除，从而将所有决策单元向下拉平到同一环境平台之上。调整形式如下：**
**其中Sn是参数估计后的新的投人冗余值，xin为初始投入量，e；是上述的9个外部环境变量，B是 Tobit模型中得出的参数估计值，x是调整后的投人量。**
**(4)第四阶段：四阶段DEA分析结果。由第三阶段调整各投人变量的值，代替原始投入数据，再次运用第一阶段的SBM模型计算出新的效率值。剔除了环境因素和随机误差因素的影响，第四阶段效率值更能准确地反映各决策单元的实际效率水平。分析结果如下：**
**表5全国各省份效率平均值**
| | **调整前** | **调整后** | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | **个体效率均值** | **个体效率均值** | **大于均值个数比例(%)** |
| **北京** | **0.3** | **0.401** | **20** |
| **天津** | **0.1** | **0.371** | **66** |
| **河北** | **0.145** | **0.389** | **19.7** |
| **辽宁** | **0.172** | **0.366** | **7.14** |
**续表**
| | **调整前** | **调整后** | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | **个体效率均值** | **个体效率均值** | **大于均值个数比例(%)** |
| **上海** | **0.174** | **0.653** | **33.3** |
| **江苏** | **0.174** | **0.531** | **32.7** |
| **浙江** | **0.120** | **0.552** | **42.6** |
| **山东** | **0.191** | **0.411** | **19.8** |
| **广东** | **0.240** | **0.446** | **28.2** |
| **海南** | **0.342** | **0.618** | **56.2** |
| **山西** | **0.101** | **0.420** | **21.5** |
| **吉林** | **0.144** | **0.390** | **14.2** |
| **安徽** | **0.154** | **0.409** | **24.3** |
| **江西** | **0.114** | **0.423** | **15.1** |
| **黑龙江** | **0.171** | **0.426** | **14.0** |
| **河南** | **0.282** | **0.440** | **14.2** |
| **湖北** | **0.375** | **0.532** | **29.0** |
| **湖南** | **0.183** | **0.375** | **14.7** |
| **四川** | **0.265** | **0.519** | **32.4** |
| **贵州** | **0.199** | **0.446** | **32.4** |
| **云南** | **0.159** | **0.493** | **35.7** |
| **西藏** | **0.230** | **0.707** | **15.3** |
| **甘肃** | **0.119** | **0.504** | **44** |
| **青海** | **0.323** | **0.619** | **59.5** |
| **宁夏** | **0.219** | **0.477** | **28.5** |
| **广西** | **0.152** | **0.408** | **20.9** |
| **新疆** | **0.253** | **0.585** | **54.7** |
| **陕西** | **0.187** | **0.509** | **40.2** |
| **内蒙古** | **0.211** | **0.405** | **18.9** |
| **重庆** | **0.127** | **0.371** | **23.0** |
| **总体平均值** | **0.1971** | **0.4548** | |
**对前后两次的农村金融效率进行分析，调整前后2001个县级及县级市的农村金融效率平均值分别是0.1971和0.4548。从两个结果来看，我国农村金融效率整体较低，在排除一部分能够影响我国农村金融效率的因素之后，效率值也不到0.5，这与目前实际情况基本吻合。但剔除外部环境因素影响后效率平均值明显提升，并且提升的幅度较大，说明我国的农村金融效率受到了外部环境的显著性影响。调整后的农业贷款冗余和固定资产投资冗余大幅度减少。**
**把四阶段分析出的县级效率值以省为单位进行平均，整理结果见表6。**
**表6效率值分布**
| **效率值分布** | **省份统计** |
| --- | --- |
| **<0.4** | **天津、河北、辽宁、吉林、湖南、重庆** |
| **0.4-0.5** | **山西、内蒙古、黑龙江、安徽、江西、山东、河南、广东、广西、贵州、云南、宁夏** |
| **0.5-0.6** | **上海、江苏、浙江、湖北、四川、陕西、甘肃、新疆** |
| **\>0.6** | **海南、青海和西藏** |
**由表6可以看出，农村金融效率的均值比较高的地区集中于经济总量大的地区(上海、江苏、浙江、海南)和经济总量小的地区(青海、西藏、新疆、甘肃、四川)。上海、江苏、浙江和海南的农村金融效率比较高，这与当地的经济发展，有利的地理位置有直接关系。而效率值较高的西藏、青海、四川、新疆、甘肃和陕西等省份都是属于我国的西部开发重点省份，所以它们处在高效率值的位置。这些省份多为农业大省，都是少数民族集中聚集地，并且所处的位置是地大物博，人口稀少，经济发展相对缓慢，但是国家对于其农业政策是最优越的，并且贯彻实施较好。**
**表7东中西部效率值对比**
| | | **调整前均值** | **调整后均值** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **东部** | **北京、天津、河北、辽宁、上海、江苏、山东、广东、海南** | **0.20** | **0.46** |
| **中部** | **山西、吉林、安徽、江西、黑龙江、河南、湖北、湖南** | **0.18** | **0.43** |
| **西部** | **四川、贵州、云南、西藏、甘肃、青海、宁夏、广西、新疆、陕西、内蒙古、重庆** | **0.21** | **0.51** |
**从表7可以看出，在剔除环境影响后，东部、中部、西部的效率平均值分别是0.46、0.42、0.51。与第一阶段效率值比较，三个部分的效率都有显著提高，可见我国的农村金融效率受到农村金融环境的显著影响。**
**经进一步统计发现，浙江、上海、江苏、海南、贵州、云南、陕西、青海、新疆这9个省份都有30%的县域(县级市)农村金融效率大于本省平均水平，也就是说，在每100个县城中就有30个是处于当地金融效率值前沿的，在一定程度上引领着当地的农村金融发展，从分析结果中可找到这些县城，如果要进行农村金融改革，可以将这些县城作为实验基地。**
**(四)实证分析结论**
**通过实证分析得出以下结论：**
**(1)农村金融与农村经济处于相对协调发展状态。从全国2001个县级市及县城来看，农村金融效率主要集中于经济总量大(江浙地带)和经济总量小(西藏、新疆)以及国家政策特别支持的地方(大西部地区)说明经济最发达的地方和经济最落后的地方，农村金融效率基本实现了内外均衡。**
**(2)我国农村金融效率整体仍属于较低水平。县级统计的农村金融效率平均值为0.197 1，农村金融存在大量的投入冗余，在排除一部分能够影响我国农村金融效率的因素之后，效率值也不到0.5，说明我国农村金融效率整体低下，同时受到了外部环境的显著影响。**
**(3)农村金融环境对农村金融效率有着较大影响。我国东、中、西部农村金融效率差距并不是特别大，但是与西部和东部比较，中部农村金融效率是最低的。在剔除环境影响后与第一-阶段效率值比较，三个部分的效率都有显著提高。**
**四、结语**
**本文基于四阶段DEA模型对我国2001个县(县级市)的农村金融效率进行评价，引人能充分显示农村金融业发展的投入产出指标进行研究，结果表明，我国农村金融效率水平整体较低，并且受到了明显的外部影响。在外部环境方面，要深化制度改革，转变经济结构，改善经营环境，通过拓展农村资金的运用渠道，减少投入冗余，优化资源配置，提高农村金融的资金配置与运行效率。同时，农村金融生态环境的相关要素始终对农村金融效率施加不同程度的影响，所以要进一步加强农村金融生态环境的系统分析，结合各地农村经济发展特点，采取切实措施，加快农村金融生态环境的建设。在农村金融机构发展方面，应该合理充分利用农业贷款，适当逐级下放贷款审批权限，避免投人冗余或不足；合理适度设置农村金融机构，大力发展适合于现代农村经济发展的多类型农村金融组织。**
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**\[责任编辑：秋** **语\]** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 上市公司信息披露违规的类型及主要特点
吴国萍
·(东北师范大学商学院，长春130117)
\[摘 要\]上市公司信息披露违规行为的频频发生，严重影响了证券市场秩序，损害了投资者的利益。延迟披露和重大遗漏是上市公司信息披露违规的主要形式，信息披露不及时和不全面是上市公司信息披露违规行为中存在的主要问题。上市公司信息披露违规行为普遍存在于各个行业，发生信息披露违规行为比例最高的是上市后的4~9年。证券部门应该加强对处于这个时间段内的上市公司的监管，加大违规处罚的力度，增加上市公司的信息披露违规成本，防止信息披露违规行为的泛滥。
\[关键词\]上市公司；信息披露违规；监管
\[中图分类号\] F276.6 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1005-2674(2009)07-0068-04
按照信息不对称理论，当交易双方所掌握的信息不对称时，会产生逆向选择和道德风险问题。逆向选择引发的“劣币驱逐良币"效应，使资金流向低质量的公司，投资者逐渐失去信心，优化资源配置的功能逐渐削弱；道德风险引发的代理问题将增加投资人的监督和激励成本。要认真研究上市公司信息披露违规的主要类型和特征，完善相应的制度，规范公司的发展。
一、信息披露违规的主要类型
上市公司信息披露违规行为，是指上市公司在信息披露过程中违反相关的法律、法规，编制和对外提供虚假信息，隐瞒或推迟披露重要事实的信息披露行为。这种行为从根本上影响证券市场的正常运行、社会资源的有效配置以及投资者的合法权益。笔者根据深圳国泰君安公司的 CSMAR 违规处理研究数据库提供的数据，分析1996~2005年我国上市公司信息披露的违规情况。
信息披露违规按表现形式可分为虚假陈述和延迟披露两种类型。虚假陈述是指信息披露义务人违反证券法湃规定，在证券发行或者交易过程中，对重大事件做出违背事实真相的虚假记载、误导性陈述，或者在披露信息时发生重大遗漏、不正当披露信息的行为。延迟披露是指上市公司的信息披露没有按照规定的时间而推迟披露的行为。虚假陈述又可以进一步分为虚假记载、误导性陈述和重大遗漏三种类型。虚假记载，是指在信息披露的文件上做出与事实真相不符的记载，即客观上没有发生的事项被信息披露文件加以杜撰或未予剔除。虚假记载的方式很多，尤在财务报表中经常出现。对虚假记载如果进一步细分，又可以分为虚构利润、虚列资产和虚假叙述。虚构利润是指通过会计舞弊的手段虚增企业税后利润的行为，通常会计舞弊行为的目的往往就是增加企业净利润，从而虚增公司的经营业绩；虚列资产是通过会计舞弊的手段虚增或者虚减企业资产的行为，虚列资产的违规方式通常也会同时带来虚增利润，因此二者是可以同时发生的；而虚假叙述是指除了利润和资产的其他虚假信息披露。误导性陈述，是指信息披露文件中的某事项的记载虽为真实，但由于表示存在缺陷而易被误解，致使投资者无法获得清晰、正确的认识。重大遗漏，是指信息披露文件未记载依法应当记载的事项。误导性陈述可以看作为虚假记载行为的特例，因此信息披露违规主要包括虚构利润、虚列资产、虚假叙述、延迟披露和重大遗漏五种违规类型。1996~2005年各种类型信息披露违规的主要类型及其发生数量如表1所示。
\[收稿日期\]2009-03-19
\[基金项目\]吉林省社会科学基金重点资助项目(2009AW01)
\[作者简介\]吴国萍(1962-)，女，吉林长春人。东北师范大学商学院教授，管理学博士，主要从事经济管理研究。
表1 信息披露违规类型及其发生数量
| 类 年 | 型 | 虚构利润 | 虚列资产 | 虚假叙述 | 延迟披露 | 重大遗漏 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 份 | | | | | | |
| 1996 | | 0 | 0 | 1 | Q | 1 |
| 1997 | | 0 | 0 | Q | 1 | 1 |
| 1998 | | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| 1999 | | 0 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 0 |
| 2000 | | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 4 |
| 2001 | | 8 | 1 | 15 | 31 | 26 |
| 2002 | | 4 | 0 | 7 | 36 | 8 |
| 2003 | | 3 | 1 | 6 | 30 | 11 |
| 2004 | | 3 | 0 | 6 | 34 | 8 |
| 2005 | | 23 | 7 | 31 | 60 | 30 |
| 合计 | | 41 | 11 | 72 | 199 | 89 |
由表1的数据可以看出，从信息披露的违规类型上看，违规处理的主要类型是推迟披露；其次是重大遗漏、虚假叙述和虚构利润。延迟披露和重大遗漏是上市公司违规披露行为的主要形式，信息披露不及时和不全面是当前上市公司信息披露行为存在的主要问题。财务信息披露的违规行为如虚构利润、虚列资产、虚假叙述三种类型虽然比重相对不高，但是其影响力更大，并且数量在2005年有迅速上升的趋势。从监管部门处罚的类型上看，形式化的违规行为比重偏高(推迟披露的比例为48.3%)，这也体现了监管机构对上市公司信息披露的查处大部分还处于表面阶段，缺乏更深人的实质性的审查。
二、信息披露违规的基本特征
笔者以2001年至2005年的资料为依据，从信息披露违规的行业特征、处罚类型、上市时间分布、违规行为的并发性及报告类型五个方面描述其特征，以发现信息披露违规行为的规律性。
(一)信息披露违规的行业特征
根据证监会在2001年发布的《上市公司行业分类指引》中的行业划分方法，信息披露违规公司的行业分布状况如表2所示。
表2 信息披露违规的行业特征
| G2 代码 | 行业名称 | 数量 | 比例(%) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| | 农林牧渔 | 149 | 5.11 |
| | 采掘业 | 149 | 2.19 |
| | 制造业 | 149 | 54.38 |
| | 电力、煤气及水的生产和供应业 | 149 | 2.19 |
| | 建筑业 | 149 | 2.55 |
| | 交通运输、仓储业 | | 2.19 |
| | 信息技术业 | | 6.20 |
| | 批发及零售贸易 | | 5.11 |
| | 金融、保险业 | | 0.36 |
| | 房地产业 | | 5.47 |
| | 社会服务业 | | 3.28 |
| | 传播及文化产业 | | 1.82 |
| | 综合类 | 25 | 9.12 |
从表2可以看出，上市公司的信息披露违规行为普遍存在于各个行业之中。其中制造业的比重最高，达到54.38%；其次是综合类和信息技术类，这可能与这两个行业掩盖信息的方式相对比较容易有关。违规比例最低的是金融、保险业，这一方面与其上市公司数量较少有关；另一方面，上市的金融类企业往往比较规范，同时也受到银监局的外部监督，信息披露的规范性相对也比较好一些。
(二)信息披露违规的处罚类型
我国上市公司的信息披露违规行为的处罚主体包括证监会和沪深两个证券交易所。证监会对违规处罚分为三种类型：公开批评、警告、罚款。通常警告与罚款是同时使用的。证券交易所的处罚类型主要包括：公开谴责和内部通报批评。其中内部通报批评由于并不需要对外公布，因此本文的信息披露违规行为
并不包括内部通报批评的违规行为。截至2005年底，由证监会和证券交易所作出的信息披露违规处罚的类型数量分布情况如表3所示。
表3 信息披露违规处罚类型数量分布
| 项目 | 公开谴贡 | 公开批评 | 警告 | 罚款 | 警告并罚款欧 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 次数 | 190 | 11 | 6 | 8 | 59 |
| 比例(%) | 69.34 | 4.01 | 2.19 | 2.92 | 21.53 |
从表3可以看出，公开谴责是证券交易所的主要处罚方式，占总数的69.34%；而证监会的主要方式为警告并罚款，大约占21.53%，其他处罚方式则相对较少。可见，对信息披露违规的处罚方式相对是比较轻的，以公开谴责或批评的方式为主，共计占到约73.35%，其中公开谴责处罚措施并没有明显的威慑效果；较低的处罚力度为公司信息披露违规提供了制度上的诱因。
(三)信息披露违规行为与上市时间
随着公司上市年度的增长，公司对信息披露违规行为的态度和操纵能力可能也会随之变化。上市公司信息披露违规与上市年度的庆系如表4所示。
表4 信息披露违规行为与上市年度
| 项目 | | 1~3年 | 4~6年 | 7~9年 | 9年以上 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 深市 | 家数 | 21 | 61 | 60 | 16 |
| 深市 | 比例(%) | 13.29 | 38.61 | 37.97 | 10.13 |
| 沪市 | 家数 | 17 | 36 | 40 | 23 |
| 沪市 | 比例(%) | 14.66 | 31.03 | 34.48 | 19.83 |
| 合计 | 家数 | 38 | 97 | 100 | 39 |
| 合计 | 比例(%) | 13.87 | 35.40 | 36.50 | 14.23 |
通过表4可以发现，发生信息披露违规行为比例最高的是上市后4~9年，共占违规总数的71.90%；而上市后的3年内和9年以上发生的信息披露违规的比例则相对较低，共占总数的28.10%。可见，刚刚上市的公司以及上市年度较长的公司信息披露违规的可能性相对较低，而上市后信息披露违规的危险期大致为上市后的4~9年的时间段内，对这段期间的公司证券监管部门也应该加强监管力度，以力图防患于未然。
(四)信息披露违规行为的并发性
上市公司信息披露违规事件往往并不是独立发生的，而是一系列信息披露违规行为共同作用的结果，这种情况可以称为信息披露违规的并发性，即多种违规行为同时发生。分析这种并发性分布情况可以使我们进一步了解公司违规披露行为的发生规律。信息披露违规公司的并发情况如表5所示。
表5信息披露违规行为的并发性
| 违规类型 | 1种 | 2种 | 3种 | 4种 | 5种 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 虚增利润 | 3 | 10 | 11 | 8 | 2 |
| 虚列资产 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 |
| 推迟披露 | 77 | 51 | 30 | 12 | 2 |
| 虚假叙述 | 9 | 22 | 28 | 12 | 0 |
| 重大遗漏 | 25 | 27 | 22 | 10 | 1 |
| 发生次数 | 115 | 98 | 42 | 14 | 3 |
| 比例(%) | 42.28 | 36.03 | 15.44 | 5.15 | 1.10 |
表5各行代表相应的信息披露违规类型，各列代表该信息披露违规类型单独或与其他违规行为共同发生的次数，分别为1~5种。如第一行代表虚增利润的违规行为，单独发生的次数为3次(1种)，与另一种类型并发的次数为10次(2种)，与另二种类型并发的次数为11次(3种)，以此类推。最后的发生次数和比例代表信息披露违规并发次数的总发生数和所占总发生数的比例，由于各种类型可以重复发生，因此并不是上面各行数字之和。从表中可以看出，约42%的违规披露是单方式发生的，而剩余的58%都是多种形式并发的。这说明大部分的公司信息披露违规行为具有并发性。其中虚增利润和虚列资产的违规方式绝大部分为并发方式，这是因为财务信息舞弊通常会“牵一发而动全身”。从并发种类数来看，其中2
种和3种违规行为的数量相对较高，大约占51.47%；超过4种以上的违规则相对较少，仅占6.25%。这表明大部分的并发违规行为往往是2-3种违规形式组合发生的。
(五)违规信息披露的报告类型
从上市公司信息披露的主要形式上看，通常包括年度报告、中期报告、季度报告、重大事件的临时公告和其他报告。其中年度报告包含的信息量最为全面和权威。中期报告和季度报告通常信息量较少，并且通常未经审计，权威性不足。临时公告往往数量较多，信息量较大，因此往往更容易违规披露。信息披露违规活动中所涉及的报告类型如表6所示。
表6 违规信息披露的报告类型
| 年度 | 年度报告 | 中期报告 | 季报 | 临时公告 | 其他 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 2001 | 16 | 5 | 3 | 51 | 0 |
| 2002 | 9 | 10 | 8 | 28 | 1 |
| 2003 | 16 | 3 | 7 | 26 | 1 |
| 2004 | 11 | 4 | 4 | 33 | 1 |
| 2005 | 52 | 19 | 10 | 60 | |
从表6中可以看出，信息披露违规的主要报告类型是临时公告，临时公告的数量多，并且并不需要进行审计，因此给了企业更大的操纵空间进行违规披露；其次是年度报告，年度报告中涉及的信息量大，最受投资者的关注，因此也成为上市公司进行虚假披露的重要媒介。中期报告和季度报告违规披露相对较少，这可能是因为其包含的信息量较少，并且由于权威性不足，利用其进行虚假信息披露的收益并不高。
三、结论与建议
1.我国上市公司1999~2005年信息披露违规行为呈一定的右斜N型变化趋势。2001年前违规处罚数量较少，2001年处罚次数突然上升，显示证券监管力度的增强；从违规类型上看，延迟披露和重大遗漏是上市公司信息披露违规的主要形式，尤其是延期披露，其数量大约占违规披露行为的48%左右。信息披露不及时和不全面是上市公司信息披露违规行为中存在的主要问题，值得关注。
2.上市公司信息披露违规行为普遍存在于各个行业，其中制造业比重最高，达54.38%；最低的是金融保险业，表明银监局外部监管作用明显；发生信息披露违规行为比例最高的是上市后的4~9年，占违规总数的71.90%，证券部门应该加强对处于这个时间段内的上市公司的监管力度，以防患于未然。
3.公开谴责是上市公司信息披露违规的主要处罚类型，占处罚总数的69.34%，警告、罚款等其他处罚方式相对较少，处罚力度较小；且信息披露违规行为存在并发性，约58%的上市公司信息披露违规是多种形式并发的，说明监管存在形式化问题。证监会和证券交易所应展开更深人的实质性审查，加大违规处罚的力度，增加上市公司的信息披露违规成本，防止信息披露违规行为的泛滥。
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责任编辑：郭殿生 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **习近平反腐倡廉建设思想探究**
刘嘉心(广西大学政治学院，广西南宁530004)
摘 要：反腐倡廉建设工作是中国共产党长期以来一直重视的政治任务，关系到国家的前途命运及改革事业成败。新形势下，习近平分析了反腐倡廉建设的重要性，认为反腐倡廉建设须多管齐下，应加强思想道德建设、改进工作作风、完善民主制度：十八大以来，反腐倡廉建设走权力结构转型道路，提升法治反腐力度，深入推遊廉政文化建设。这是习近平反腐倡廉建设思想的重要特色。
**关键词：习近平；反腐侣廉；建设**
**中图分类号：A81 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-8254(2016)06-0037-05**
**收稿日期：2016-07-23**
作者简介：刘嘉心(1991一)，女，广西大学政治学院2014级硕士研究生，从事党史党建研究。
腐败是一种社会现象，不同的历史阶段、不同的社会、不同的国家、不同的发展时期都存在着，有权力的地方就有腐败滋生的上壤。在十八屈中央纪律检查委员会第三次全体会议上，习近平指出：“坚决反对腐败，防止党在长期执政条件下腐化变质，是我们必须抓好的重大政治任务。”日前，我国正处在改革川放攻坚期、经济社会转型期，反腐败斗子面临着严峻的态势，腐败窝案、中案频发，“一把于”腐败多发，家族式腐败高发，腐败集团化易发；腐败形式呈多样化，于段极其隐蔽，涉案金额巨大。因此，认真研究习近平反腐倡廉建设思想，对丁深入推进反腐侣廉建设工作，提高党的领导水平和执政能力，提升反腐倡廉实效，实现下部清正、政府清廉、政治清明的日标，具有重要的现实意义。
**一、新形势下加强反腐倡廉建设的必要性**
当前，中国共产党面临着“四人考验”和“四大危险”，如何经受住考验，安全化解危险，解决H益严峻的腐败问题，事关党的前途命运，关系到党的先进性和纯洁性建设，关系到人民群众的切身利益。因此，习近平认为，在新形势下加强反腐侣廉建设是刻不容缓的重大政治任务。
**(一)反腐倡廉事关党和国家的生死存亡**
1.廉政建设是共产党人的历史使命
在担任宁德市地委书记时，习近平就曾强调，中国共产党的性质及根本宗旨，决定着党和国家任何H刻都反对腐败，坚决同损害人民群众利益的腐败现象做斗争，不能容忍腐败危害。党政机关在工作时是否保持廉洁高效的工作方式，反映了党的执政能力建设是否有所提升，对此，2004年7月9日，习近平在省百机关效能建设会议上指出：“各级机关的工作如何，直接关系到党的执政地位的巩固，关系到党和政府的形象……机关是不是负责任的、高效廉洁的机关，直接关系到党在群众川的威信以及党的执政意图的实现程度。”进人新世纪，世情国情党情时刻变化着，-一些党员干部会因利益关系不但不从严要求自己，反而漠视纪律法规，迷失在腐败的泥潭中，因此，2006年2月20口，一近半在浙江H报“之江新语”专栏发表了“激浊扬清正宁当头”的短论，他希望党员下部要有律己之心，不随波逐流腐化堕落。
2.反腐侣廉建设必须常抓不懈
党的十八人以来，习近平多次强调反腐倡廉的重要性，既指出日前反腐败斗争面临的严峻形势，又坚持以零容忍态度惩治腐败。2013年1月22日，习近平在十八届中央纪律检查委贝会第二次讲话中指出：“我们党把党风廉政建设和反腐败斗争提到关系党和国家生死存亡的高
度来认识，足深刻总结了古今中外的历史教训的。”\[(5)国共产党山成立开始就非常重视反腐败问题，多次开展反腐侣廉运动。1933年下半年开始，中国共产党在中央苏区内掀起了反贪污、反浪费、反官僚主义的惩腐肃贪运动，并加强法律法规的制度建设，开展舆论监督，积极发动人民群众与贪污腐败行为做斗争，以维护巩固红色革命政权。抗战时期，中国共产党以陕甘宁边区政府为抗H革命根据地的总后方，对各根据地进行廉政建设，制定颁布一系列的廉政法律法规条文，不断加强党员下部的思想政治教育，提高党员干部的宗旨服务意识，并以身作则养成艰苦朴素的作风，使中国共产党始终保持着政治活力，从而成为抗战胜利的中流砥材。新中国成立后，为保持新生政权的纯洁性，中国共产党继续推进反腐败斗子，开展了“二反”“五反”运动，从而加强了下部队伍建设，积极清除贪污腐败分了，巩固了新生的人民政权。无数的历史经验告诉我们，党风廉政建设和反腐败斗争是党始终要抓好的重大政治任务，要深刻认识到反腐败斗争的长期性、复杂性和艰巨性，要有强烈的危机意识，充分了解腐败后果的危害性、严重性和破坏性。
**(二)反腐倡廉是不断保持党的先进性和纯洁性的需要**
1.党要坚决清除腐败的恶劣行径
只有不断保持党的先进性，才能增强党的领导水半和执政水平，巩固其执政基础；才能改善党的形象，提升党的威信，赢得人民群众的信任和依赖。习近平在担任中共浙江省委书记期问，认为保持中国共产党的先进性就要走在前处；中国共产党员要保持先进性，就必须坚定理想、强化责任、实现价值，须务求实效、群众满意、走在前列。党的十八人后，针对如何保持党的先进性和纯洁性的问题，全党深入开展以为民务实清廉为主要内容的群众路线教育实践活动，坚决纠正形式主义、官僚主义、享乐主义和奢靡之风，不断改进工作作风，解决人民群众反映强烈的腐败现象，以维扩密切党群、下群关系。在庆祝中华人民共和国成立65周年招待会讲话中，习近平强调，腐败是影响党的创造力、凝聚力和战斗力的毒瘤，会损害到党的先进性和纯洁性建设。
2.反腐廉建设为保持党自身先进性和纯洁性做出突出贡献
2013年1月22日，在第十八届中央纪律检查委员会第二次全体会议上，习近平指出：“改革开放30多年来…·党中央始终把党风廉政建设和反腐败斗争作为重要任务来抓，旗帜是鲜明的，措施是有力的，成效是明显的，为保持和发展党的先进性和纯洁性发挥了重大作用。”国改革开放以来，党中央继续推进反腐倡廉建设，在保持党自身先进性和纯洁性方面做出了重要成绩。邓小半提出在整个改革开放过程中，都要反对腐败、反对下部特权，狠抓不正之风，加强法制建设，依靠健全和完善制度建设来保证党风纯正，推进廉洁政治。根据党的卜二大精神，1983年党中央开展了以反腐败为中心内容的整党活动，促使党风得到根本好转，廉政建设进入一个新阶段。为了增强广大领导干部的拒腐防变能力，在县级以上各级领导班子和领导下部中，开展了·系列的以“讲学习、讲政治、讲证气”为主要内容的党性党风教育培训。而党的卜五大提出了“反腐倡廉要坚持标本兼治，教育是基础，法制是保证，监督是关键。通过深化改革，不断铲除腐败现象滋生蔓延的土壤”的策略方针。党的十六大强调把反腐败出小各项重要政策措施之中，从源头上预防和解决腐败问题。这就把反腐侣廉建设推进到个新的高度，反腐战略山被动防御转向主动进收。保持党的先进性和纯洁性是时代的要求，是经受住各种考验、化解和战胜各种危险的重要法宝，推进反腐倡廉，要加强党的自身建设，营造下部清正、政府清廉、政治清明的良好氛围。
**(三)反腐倡廉是维护人民群众利益的必然要求**
中国共产党的宗旨是全心全意为人民服务，以实现人民群众的根本利益为日标。近平认为，维护人民样众的利益，应努力办实事，密切党群、干群关系，反对各种腐败行为。1988年9月，刊近平刚到宁德地区任职时，谈到如何发展贫困地区的经济时，他说，一是要依靠党的领导；二是依赖人民群众的力量。同时也强调，党员下部要发扬党的优良作风，尽力做到“廉不言贫，勤不道苦”踏踏实实为人民群众办实事。领导干部是人民的公仆，应履行服务群众的职责，然而有些党员下部却淡化责任，反而摇身变成为样众的主人，坐足官架了，运用于中权力谋取私利。为此，习近平在“之江新语”专栏上发表了《主仆关系不容颠倒》的文章，他强调：“各级
领导下部要一切从人民群众的利益出发，站在人民群众的立场上立身、处世、从政，真正做到权为瓜所用、情为民所系、利为民所课。”始终维护并实现最广大人民群众的根本利益是中国共产党全部工作的出发点和身宿点，党在任何H候都要把群众利益放在首要位置。
党的十八大以来，为了解决人民群众痛恨的腐败现象，中国共产党深入推进党风廉政建设和反腐败斗争。习近平认为，当前的腐败现象让人民群众十分不满意，所以，党要坚持有腐必反、有贪必肃，不断消除腐败带来的危害，维护人民群众最现实、最关心、最直接的利益问题，坚决同损害群众利益的腐败行为做斗争，不断改进自身存在的作风问题，时刻保持着密切联系群众的理念，巩固党的群众基础和执政地位。
**二、反腐倡廉建设要多管齐下**
思想道德和党性修养的堕落以及作风不正是诱发党员十部腐败的主观因素，又因党内民主发展水半的局限性，致使我党的反腐倡廉建设面临着巨大挑战。对此，习近平认为，反腐侣廉建设，要把思想建设放在首位，改进党的作风，加强党内民主制度。
**(一)抓好领导干部的思想道德建设**
党员十部是中国共产党建设中国特色社会主义事业的中坚力量，是贯彻执行国家战略方针政策的核心人员，其拒腐能力的强弱，影响着执政水平，影响着改革事业的成败。习近斗在《摆脱贫困》一文中指出：“十部素质低，思想意识不好，不但是产生腐败现象的重要原因之一，也是惩治腐败的障碍之”因此，领导干部要提高自身的思想道德素质，树立正确的世界观、人生观、价值观，在充满各种利益诱惑的环境中，保持正确的权力观，构建起牢固的思想道德防线。为了让领导十部养成一种不能腐、不敢腐、不想腐的思想观念，习近平提出，党员干部须加强学习《党内监督条例》和《党纪处分条例》，强化廉洁意识。世界格局多元化、经济全球化、社会改革转型妙等复杂多变的环境形势，使·些党员下部的思想发生重人变化，理想信仰产生动摇，形成一种行为短期化、思考现实化的模式。对此，习近平在党的群众路线教育实践活
动总结大会上指出：“对党员、干部来说，思想上
**的滑坡是最严重的病变、总开关'没拧紧，不能**
正确处理公私关系，缺乏正确的是非观、义利观、权力观、事业观，各种出轨越界、跑冒滴漏就在所难免了”固。实践证明，·些领导、十部的思想出现这样那样的问题，主要是迷失信仰和精神，易在为官之路上偏离轨道。另外，习近平还提出，领导十部要增强党性教育及党性修养，严格用党章、用共产党员标准要求自己，坚定理想信念，矢志不渝地为中国特色社会主义事业面奋斗。
**(二)改进干部的工作作风**
作风建设是反腐倡廉建设的重要方面之一，改进作风建设，有利于保持党的纯洁性，有利丁密切与人民群众的关系。习近斗认为，领导上门走访，可以改进工作作风，克服官僚主义问题。他说：“我们领导干部来自人民，为了人民，在信访中倾听人民的呼声，了解人民的愿望，汲取改进工作和作风的营养。”5(60)领导下部只有深人基层了解样众，才会知道群众需要解决哪些问题，明白样众的需求，着力为群众办实事。针对一些领导下部为了政绩而不从实际出发的问题，2003年1月30口，在四明山革命老区调研时，刊近平明确强调，领导干部应树立正确的政绩观，人兴求真务实之风，脚踏实地办实事，反对急功近利的做法，反对实用主义态度，反对奢侈之风，反对只顾局部利益而牺牲全局利益观点，因为这严重损害到人民群众的利益，也浪费人量的公共资源。此外，习近平在主政浙江时期，还开展“群众呼声是作风建设的第·信号”“领导干部是作风建设的立体”等作风建设年活动，强化了领导下部的公仆意识，积极主动为人民样众服务。十八人以来，党中央狼抓作风建设，努力解决人民群众反映强烈的“四风”问题，习近平也强调：要“牢记两个务必，坚定不移转变作风，坚定不移反对腐败，切实做到踏实留印、抓铁有痕，不断以反腐侣廉的新进展、新成效取信丁民，确保党和国家兴旺发达、长治久安"N(71-72)同时，他掌握了解党的作风建设规律，指明作风问题具有顽固性和反复性，要·时之问克服不良作风是不可能的，所以，解决作风问题最主要是常抓不懈，并坚持“老虎”苍蝇”起打，以零容忍态度惩治腐败，实现作风建设的制度化和法治化。
**(三)健全和完善党内民主制度**
在推进社会主义民主的制度化、规范化、程序化，发展觉内民主过程中，刈近平在2004年
省委党建工作专题座谈会上提出：“一是要健全和完善党代表大会制度， _一_ 二是健全和完善集体领导制度，三是建立健全党内监督制度，儿是要维护和发挥党员在党内民主的主体地位和作用，五是要继续探索以票决为主的表决制度。2370同时，他还强调在选拔任用干部工作中应坚持民主集中制原则，遵照制度选人原则，不能以个人权威的喜好来遴选。十八大以来，习近平分析了党内权力配置失衡的现象，严肃批评一些“一把手”的独裁主义，不按民主的程序行事。党内权力配置失衡，致使党内的“一把于"”权力过大，容易独断专行，增強了“一把于”权力滥用的机会，造成党员的民主权利逐渐被弱化、虚化，党员的民主权利也未得到充分保障。另外，习近平还强调，要用好巡视这把反腐“利剑”，增强党内监督的成效。
**三、反腐倡廉建设要有新路子**
日前，我国的反腐败斗争形势依然丨分严峻，为了深入推动反腐倡廉建设工作顺利开展，让反腐倡廉建设取得更大成效，就需不断创新反腐败斗争的策略方法。习近平根据现今党风廉政建设和反腐败斗争存在的不足，提出了推进反腐倡廉建设的新路径。
**(一)走上权力结构转型的新路子**
多年来，党和政府一直侧重于权力监督这边，而权力制约方面表现力欠缺，·二权力主体不受制约，就不可避免地出现权力失范行为，进而产生权力腐败。典型的例子就如周水康案件，他的腐败涉及到国Ⅰ、石油、公安、政法等多个领域和部门。如何探寻权力结构转型，是党和政府亟需研究实践的重大工作之一。为此，习近平在第十八届中央纪律检查委员会第二次全体会议上提出：“要强化制约，合理分解权力，科学配置权力，不同性质的权力山不同部门、单位、个人行使，形成科学：的权力结构和运行机制。”口权力制约的对象必定是以 _一_ 种权力去约束另-种权力，以达到权力制衡的状态，保障权力正常运行。近年来，党政“一把手”腐败成为了高发期，原因是“把手”凸据着大量公共资源的分配决策权，但制约监督往往跟不上步伐，造成的后果是腐败裂变式扩散，吏治腐败严重。对此，习近平强调，要加强制度建设，把权力关进制度的笼了甲，健全和完善反腐败休系。所以，权力的配
置要向着科学化、瓜主化、法治化方向发展，形成决策科学、执行高效、监督有力的权力结构。“权力结构调整的日的是建立起符合市场经济社会发展规律，结构更科学、约更严密、关系更协调、运行更有效的权力结构，为社会发展创造更好的环境，为社会生活提供更好的公共服务，为社会公平建立更好的制度保障，防止公共权力的滥用和腐败现象的蔓延。”走上权力结构转型的新路了， ·是权力的制约与监督协调发展；二是内部监督和外部监督共同发展；二是民主法治与制约监督协同发展。
**(二)提升法治反腐的力度**
一个执政党的法治水平，反映出一个执政党的执政能力，因此，要加强党的法治治理能力，依靠法治打击各种腐败现象，提高党的依法执政能力。当前，我国的经济快速发展，与之相对应的市场经济秩序却没有成熟起来，造成各种礼会矛盾与各种利益冲突不断，增加了官员权力寻租的机会，进而出现各种权力失范的现象。为此，习近平在十八届四川全会第二次全体会议中指明：“克服公器私用、以权谋私、贪赃枉法等现象，克服形式主义、官僚主义、享乐主义和奢靡之风，反对特权现象、惩治消极腐败现象等，都需要密织法律之网、强化法治之力。可\[11\]但是，有些官员为了扩人利益财富，却不严格遵守在法律所规定的权限范|内活动。从某种程度上说，公职人员既是法治反腐的执行者，也是法治反腐的阻碍者和破坏者，因为既得利益的驱使，可以将权力转化为利益资源，实现利益再次增长，所以，公务人员不愿权力受到法律的约束。为此，一近平特别强调，执法人员要克服在执法工作中的利益驱动，坚决严格执法，惩治腐败现象。同时，他也强调，要重视反腐败的国家立法建设，提高反腐败法律制度执行力，用法律权威反对任何形式的个人和组织以言代法、以权代法或是权大丁法、法上有权。“只有确保政党执政权力在法定界限之内行使，使政党权力运作的整个过程由法律所规定，由法律所规范，山法律所评判，才能使依法治国中的法，具有真实的价值和之上的意义。”图此外，习近平还提出，用法治思维和法治方式，积极构建职能科学、权责法定、执法严明、公开公正、廉洁高效、守法诚信的法治政府。
**(三)大力推动廉政文化建设**
当前，腐败的蔓延扩散，破坏了中国共产党
的执政形象，破坏了党和政府的公信力和威信力，破坏了与人民群众的血肉联系。因此，习近半特别重视廉政文化建设对预防惩治腐败的作用，他在十八届中央纪委二次全会中明确强调：“要加强反腐侣廉教育和廉政文化建设，督促领导干部坚定理想信念，保持共产党人的高尚品格和廉洁操守，提高拒腐防变能力，在全社会培育清正廉洁的价值理念，使清正风气得到弘 _扬。3\[10所以，党和政府要深入推动廉政文化建_ 设工作，提高反腐倡廉教育能力，不断增强党风廉政意识的渗透力和影响力，强化公职人员自觉遵守党政纪律及法律法规的意识，夯实党员卜部廉清从政的思想道德基础，建立起卜部清iF、政府清廉、政治清明的廉洁环境，消除“在中国共产党内，高度集中的领导方式的长期运用，在党内经验化、习惯化甚至风俗化，形成了难以改变的传统，与传统的家长制的政治文化交互.作用，积累成党内家长制、官僚主义特权思想等不良政党文化的痼疾。”此外，一近平还特别强调，深入推进党风廉政建设和反腐败斗争，需要深入研究我国的反腐侣廉历史，借鉴和吸收我国优秀的传统廉政文化。中国廉政文化具有深厚的历史底蕴和丰富的思想内涵，是儿千年来政治家为政之道的理念精华，对现今我们党员干部廉洁从政、推进廉政文化建设仍有重要的意义，因而习近半多次在重要讲话中使用古典名句。对丁当前的廉政文化建设，我们应坚持
取其精华、齐其糟粥，占为今用、推陈出新的原则，使优秀的传统廉政文化为当前反腐侣廉建设助力。
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]习近平关于党风廉政建设和反腐败斗争论述摘编\[M\].北京：中国方正出版社，2015：7.**
\[2\]习近平.干在实处走在前列——推进浙江新发展 **的思考与实践 \[M\].北京：中共中央党校出版社，2006：444-445**
**\[3\]习近平谈治国理政\[M\].北京：外文出版社，2014：385.**
**\[4\]之江新语\[M\].杭州：浙江人民出版社，2007：257.**
\[5\]习近平.摆脱贫困\[M\].福州：福建人民出版社， **1992：28.**
\[6\]习近平：在党的群众路线教育实践活动总结大会 **上的讲话\[DB/OL\].(2014-10-08)\[2015-11-10\].http：//news.** **xinhuanet.com/politics/2014-10/08/c** \_ **1112740663-2.htm.**
**\[7\]习近平关于全面依法治国论述摘编\[M\].北京：中夹文献出版社，2015：59.**
**\[8\]陈国权，等.权力制约监督论\[M\].杭州：浙江大学出版社，2013：292.**
**\[9\]王韶兴.政党政治论\[M\].济南：山东人民出版社，2011：282.**
**\[10\]十八大以来重要文献远编：上\[M\].北京：中央文献出版社，2014：135.**
**\[11\]赵理富.政党的魂灵：中国共产党政党文化研究\[M\].武汉：武汉大学出版社，2008：78.**
**(责任编辑** **郑艳凤)**
An Exploration of Chinese President XI Jin-ping's Thoughts on Anti-corruption and Clean Government
**LIU Jia-xin**
**_(College of Politics， University of Guangxi， Nanning 530004， China)_**
**Abstract： As a key task in China's construction， the task of combating corruption and building a clean government has been attached great attention by CPC， which concerns the national destiny and the success of the current reform. By analyzing the importance of the task in the new background of the national situation， President Xi considers that it is a necessity to combat corruption while building a clean government， and that we should enhance the building of ideology and morality， improve our work style and perfect the democratic system. Since the 18th CPC National Congress， President Xi has formed his unique thoughts on anti-corruption and clean government.**
**Key words： XI Jin-ping； to combat corruption and build a clean government； construction** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | Proverbs, chiefly taken from the Adagia of Erasmus, with explanations; and further illustrated by corresponding examples from the Spanish, Italian, French & English languages
author: Bland, R. (Robert), 1730-1816; Erasmus, Desiderius, d. 1536
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PROVERBS,
CHIEFLY TAKEN FROM THE
. > .
ADAGIA OF ERASMUS,
WITH EXPLANATIONS;
.AX I) rURTIIEK ILLUSTRATED BY CORRESPONDING
EXAMPLES FROM THE
SPANISH, ITALIAN, FRENCH & ENGLISH
LANGUAGES.
i
BY ROBERT BLAND, M.D. F.S.A.
VOL. I.
LONDON :
PRINTED FOR T. EGERTON, MILITARY LIBRARY,
WHITEHALL.
1814.
London: Printed by C. RowortU,
Bell-yaru, Temple-bar^
Stack
TO
^ofo^ 3|
JAMES BINDLEY, ESQ. F. s. A.
COMMISSIONER OF STAMPS.
AS this Work is indebted to your revisal for
much of its correctness, permit me to present
to you, in its amended form, what you have
so indulgently supported when its imperfec-
tions were more numerous. Whether I con-
sider you as a friend, whom I most esteem,
or as a scholar best acquainted with this my
favourite subject, I feel equally happy in an
opportunity of thus publicly subscribing
myself
Your obliged
and obedient Servant,
ROBERT BLAND.
Leicester Square, London,
January 1st, 1814.
2028670 ,
PREFACE.
THE greater part of the Proverbs contained
in these volumes, are taken from the edition
of the Adaffia, published by Henry Stevens in
the year 1550, in folio; but in the explication
of them, it was found to be not unfrequently
expedient, to deviate from the plan followed,
and from the explanations given in that cele-
brated publication. The reason for this will
best appear, by giving a short history of that
work, and by relating some peculiarities in
the life of the author.
Erasmus, who contributed largely to the
restoration of letters in Europe, bestowed no
small portion of labour in collecting together,
and explaining the proverbs which he found
scattered in the early Greek and Roman
writers. The first edition of his collection
A 3 was
VI „ PREFACE.
was published at Paris, in the year 1500,
Erasmus being then thirty-three years of age.
As the work was received with avidity, it M'as
frequently reprinted in the life time of the
author, and each time with additions, until
the number of the proverbs exceeded four
thousand.
The credit the work then obtained, has
never been diminished ; it still stands unri-
valled, and has been the medium through
which the greater part of the adages have
been introduced into almost every country in
Europe. But though they have by this means
been introduced into this, and other countries,
and many of them so incorporated, as to be
in as frequent use, as those that arfe natives,
yet they are no where, as far as I know, ac-
companied with commentaries, or explanations,
similar to those given by Erasmus, although
such explanations seem necessary to make
them generally understood.
The brevity and conciseness of proverbs,
in which their excellence in a great measure
consists, renders them often obscure, and of
difficult comprehension, " Siquidem/' Eras-
mus
PREFACE. V
mus says, " Aclagia, ceu gemmul«, quod mi-
nuta sint, fallunt nonnunquam venantis ocu-
los, ni acrius intendas," the latent sense of
them, like small sparks of diamonds, not un-
frequently escaping the sight, if not diligently
sought for, and even when found, he goes on
to say, they are of themselves of little beauty,
or lustre, deriving the principal part of their
value from the manner of setting or using
them.
The method that seems to have been fol-
lowed by Erasmus, in making this collection,
was to note every adage he met with in the
course of his studies, and as the same sentence
occurred in different authors, to observe the
sense in which it was used by each of them.
He was hence enabled to enrich his work with
quotations from many of the earliest Greek
and Roman writers, and if not to refer each
of the adages to its original author, at the
least to name the earliest book in which it
occurred. Of these quotations, though many
of them are of exquisite beauty, and curiosity,
but a sparing use has been made in the present
collection, the places of them being more
A 4 usually
Vlll PREFACE.
usually supplied by passages from later writers.
Similar proverbs are also here frequently given
in the Spanish, Italian, French, and English
languages.
It has been before observed, that Erasmus
contributed largely to the revival of letters,
O «/ *
but- he was no less assisting in promoting the
reformation in religion, \vhich began in his
time. The influence the clergy had obtained
over the minds of the laity, had made them
rich and powerful, which producing their
usual effects, idleness and voluptuousness,
a very large portion of them had become
openly dissolute and profligate. Against these
vices, Erasmus was perpetually declaiming,
not sparing the higher orders in the church,
who were, perhaps, the first in vice, as in
dignity. In his humorous and satvrical de-
35 «. ~
clamation, Glorias Encomium, or the Praise
of Folly ; in his dialogues, and letters, and in
his prefaces to his editions of the Works of
the Fathers, he lets no opportunity pass, of
exposing and censuring the debaucheries and
crimes of the monks and the clergy. In the
work, the subject of the present dissertation,
wherever
PREFACE. IX
wherever the sense of the adage would bear it,
similar strictures are abundantly scattered.
By these censures so frequently passed on
the conduct of the clergy, the minds of the
people were prepared to receive the more
serious and heavy charges, preferred against
them by Luther, of having corrupted and
perverted the Scriptures. Hence it was cur-
rently said, " that Erasmus laid the egg, con-
taining the germ of the Reformation, and
Luther hatched it." This gave great offence,
and may be reckoned among the reasons why
though his works were universally read and
admired, and procured him the patronage of
persons of the highest rank, who were lavish
in their professions of friendship, and fre-
quently sent him presents, as testimonies of
their attachment, yet he could never obtain
from them such preferment, as would make
him independent. It must be confessed, as
he intimates in one of his letters to his friend
Barbirius, that he was of too open a dispo-
sition, and apt to give offence by speaking
too freely. " Et ut ingenue, quod verum est
tfitear," he says, "sum natura propensior ad
jocos,
X PREFACE.
jocos, quam fortasse deceat, et linguae libe-
rioris, quam nonnunquam expediat."
The enmity these strictures had excited,
remained long after his death, " and the di-
vines had influence enough with Pope Paul the
fourth," Jortin tells us, " to have the Book of
Adages condemned. But the Fathers of the
Council of Trent, taking into consideration
the usefulness of the work, ordered Paul us
Manutius to revise it, and strike out every
thing that was offensive." This garbled edi-
tion was printed at Florence, in 1575, without
the name of the author.* Fortunately, the
original work had been too often printed, and
was too generally disseminated to be by this
means suppressed.
With the censures, however, on the monks
and clergy, and with various other strictures,
alluding to circumstances which have long
ceased to exist, we have no concern. The
places of them are here supplied by reflections
and observations of a more general nature,
and better adapted to the present times.
* A copy of this edition was sold in the sale of the late
Duke of Roxborough's library, in May 1S12, lor .£1 -18-0.
Having
PREFACE. XI
Having given this account of the sources
whence the adages here treated are taken, it
may not be thought improper to add some
general observations on the nature of prover-
bial sentences. A proverb may be defined, a
short figurative expression or sentence, cur-
rently used, commending or reproving the
person or thing to which it is applied, and
often containing some moral precept, or rule,
for our conduct in life. Loose as this defini-
tion may appear to be, it is not sufficiently so
to embrace every form of speech that has been
admitted by Erasmus, and our countryman
Ray, as proverbs. A few examples may make
this more intelligible. A proverb frequently
consists with them in a simple comparison.
Of this kind are, '• As tall as the monument,"
"As swift as Achilles," "As crafty as Ulysses,"
" As cunning as a fox." All that is required in
forming this species of adage is, that the per-
son or thing used as a comparison be generally
known, or reputed ^to possess the property
attributed to it. Of another kind, as proceed-
ing from observations on the diversities in
the dispositions and tempers of men, are
" Quot
Xll PREFACE.
" Quot homines tot sentential," many men,
many minds. " Parva leves capiunt animos,"
" Light minds are pleased with trifles," and
" Suus cuique mos est." Each man has his
peculiarities or manners, by which, in fact,
they are not less distinguished from others,
than by their faces and figures. Of a higher
kind are those containing some moral precept,
or rule, for our conduct in life, as, "Feras non
culpes quod vitari non potest," what can't be
cured must be endured." " Homini ne fidas,
nisi cum quo modium salis absumpseris," trust
no man until you have eaten a peck of salt
with him ; that is, until you have known him
so long, that you might have eaten a peck of
salt with him. " Mus non fidit uni antro,''
the mouse does not trust to a single passage
by which it may escape, if attacked. No
man should engage all his property, or so
much as might materially injure him, if it
should be lost in one vessel, or on a single
project; "he should take care to have two
strings to his bow." These specimens may be
sufficient to shew the nature of proverbial
phrases, and in some degree, the kind of elu-
cidation here attempted.
As
PREFACE, Xllt
As the source whence the adages are taken
is shewn to be ample, it may be thought that
a much larger collection might have been
given than is here produced ; " At boni vena-
tons est plures feras capere, non omnes," a
good sportsman is not expected to take alt the
game he may start. It might not have been
difficult, perhaps, had that been thought ex-
pedient, to have considerably increased the
number ; but short as this collection may ap-
pear, there will be found in it, under various
heads, observations applying to all the ordi-
nary occurrences and situations in life; which
will be the more readily listened to, it may be
expected, as they contain the sentiments
transmitted clown to us from the earliest ages
of the most celebrated sages and philosophers.
Should it be urged, that many of the observa-
tions are such as would occur to every well
educated and sensible man, let those to whom
they are superfluous pass them over, they
were not written for them ; " those who are
well need not a physician, but those who are
sick :" yet even to them it may not be a matter
of total indifference to learn that so many of
the
XIV PREFACE.
the adages and forms of speech in daily use
among us are derived from the Grecians, and
that the origin of them may be traced back
CJ v
for two thousand and more years. But should
they reject them altogether, the work may
still have its utility : the young and inexpe-
rienced may find in it that information, which
those more advanced in life cannot, or ought
not, to want; it may lead them to consult the
books from which the quotations are taken,
many of them not commonly put into their
hands, and to pay more attention than is
usually done to the languages of modern
Europe, which will be equally pleasant and
bene6cial ; and from the present posture of
affairs, it may be expected that the countries
where they are spoken will be soon opened to
us : and though the mass of the people in
one of those countries have shewn themselves,
in the course of the dreadful revolution that
has taken place there, to be so frivolous, in-
significant, and mischievous as to promise
little advantage from mixing too intimately
with them, yet there are not wanting a suffi-
cient number of intelligent persons among
them
PREFACE. XV
them to make a communication with them
desirable. It may be hoped also that the
misery they have for so many years suffered,
may have the effect of producing an alteration
in their character. No symptom however of
such a change, it should be observed, has yet
appeared, notwithstanding the losses their
country has sustained and the degradation of
their ruler: a circumstance which should be
well noted here, and prove a caution to our
people from flocking over to that country,
should the door be again, for a short time,
opened, as they did on a former occasion, to
their own destruction and to the disgrace of
our national character. It should also, and
will, it may be expected, lead our people of
all ranks to have so much respect for them-
selves and regard for the honour of their
country, as to shew no slavish servility to.
their envoys and ambassadors, that we may
not again be insulted with the humiliating
spectacle of British subjects harnessed to the
chariot of aliens, and I doubt, I must say, of
enemies to the country. Had such a scene
been acted at Greece or Rome, the parties
would
PREFACE.
would never again have been acknowledged
as citizens ; they would have been banished,
perhaps sold as slaves, or even forfeited their
lives.
Thus far I have endeavoured to shew the
reader what he is to expect in these volumes;
it may not be so easy, perhaps, satisfactorily
to explain, why I have undertaken what seems
so alien to my profession ;
" Tantumne ab re tua est otii tibi,
Aliena ut cures, ea quae nihil ad te attinent ?;>
Have I so much leisure, it may be asked,
from my own employment, that I should en-
gage in a business which might so much more
properly be handled by those whose peculiar
duty it is to give lessons in morality ? and yet
this may not, on consideration, be deemed
totally averse to the business of the physi-
cian ; for as many diseases, almost all of the
chronic kind, are brought on and perpetuated
by irregularity of living and over indulgence
of our passions, should any persons on read-
ing what is here said on those subjects, con-
taining the opinions of the earliest and best
writers, be led to correct their vicious habits,
one
PREFACE. XVI
one source of those maladies would be cut off,
and they would become both less frequent
and less fatal.
It may not be improper, before concluding
this address, to apprise the reader, that a de-
sign of this kind was once in the contemplation
of Dr. Johnson, as appears by the list of works
he had proposed undertaking, given by Mr.
Boswell at the end of his life. In what man-
ner it would have been executed by him can-
not be conjectured, doubtless in a way supe-
rior to that in which it is treated here; and had
it been accomplished, it would have superseded
the present attempt : that a writer of his emi-
nence had even entertained the idea of
such a work, must be thought to give an ad-
ditional degree of credit to the design itself.
No attempt has been made, it will be ob-
served, to arrange the proverbs in classes, or
even to place them alphabetically. Their
number was found to be too inconsiderable
for classification ; and as an Index is given,
the reader will be enabled to find what he
looks for as readily as if they had been placed
in alphabetical order.
b
PROVERBS,
8$c. $c. #c.
Amicorum communia omnia.
AMONG friends all things should be in com-
mon. Erasmus thought he could not begin
his Collection better than with this apo-
thegm, which is of great antiquity, and much
celebrated, and for the same reason it is here
placed first. Nothing is so frequent in our
mouths, nor is any thing less common than
such a conjunction of minds as deserves the
name of Friendship. " When a friend asks,
there is no to-morrow," for he is another self.
" Ne ay major espejo, que el amigo viejo."
Like a glass he will discover to you your own
defects ; and " mas vale buen amigo, que
pariente primo," a good friend is better than
a near relation. A man, the Italians say,
without friends is like a body without a soul.
*/
" Chi si trova senz' amici, e come un corpo
senz' anima." The French, by a very delicate
B phrase, >
( 2 )
phrase, denominate friendship love that is
without wings, " L'amitie" est 1'amour sans
ailes," meaning that it should be a permanent
affection, and not easily to be obliterated.
" Ova d'un ora, pane d'un di, vino d'un
anno, amico di trenta," that is, eggs of an
hour, bread of a day, wine of a year, but a
friend of thirty years is best; and " Azeyte,
y vino, y amigo antiguo," oil, wine, and
friends improve by age. Friendship, Mon-
taigne says, " unlike to love, which is
weakened by fruition, grows up, thrives, and
increases by enjoyment; and being of itself
spiritual, the soul is reformed by the practice
of it." And according to Sallust, " Idem
velle et nolle, ea demum firma amicitia est,"
to have the same desires and dislikes, to love
or hate the same persons, is the surest test of
friendship. But instances of such exalted
friendship, if they do exist, are very rare.
" Tantum ego fucorum, tantum perfidiae in
hominum arnicitiis reperio, non in his modo
vulgaribus, verurn his quoque quas Pyladeas
vocant, ut mihi jam non libeat novarum peri-
culum facere" — I find so much dissembling,
says
( 3 )
says the good Erasmus, so much perfidy
among friends, not only those between whom
there subsists only a slight intimacy, but those
connected, as it would seem, by the strongest
ties of affection, that I have altogether given
up the search after such a phenomenon. The
same writer, at a more advanced stage of his
life, and as the result of long experience, says,
" Quin in totum, e6 degenerarunt hominum,
mores, ut hodie, cygnus niger, aut corvus al-
bus, minus rarus sit avis, quam fidelisamicus."
In short, men are become so degenerate, (a
complaint that has been made in every age,)
that a black swan, or a white crow, are not so
rarely to be met with as a faithful friend.
And another writer says, " We talk of friend-
ship as of a thing that is known, and as we
talk of ghosts — but who has seen either the one
or the other !" " Friendship," Lord Verulam
says, " easeth the heart and cleareth the un-
derstanding, making clear day in both; partly
by giving the purest counsel, apart from our
interest and prepossessions, and partly by al-
lowing opportunity to discourse; and by that
discourse to clear the mind, to recollect the
B 2 thoughts,
( 4 )
thoughts, to see how they look in words;
whereby men attain that highest wisdom,
which Dionysius, the Areopagite, saith ' is the
daughter of reflection.'" Spenser gives a beau-
tiful description of three kinds of affection, to
women, to our offspring, and to our friend,
and gives the preference to the latter.
' For natural affection soon doth cess.
And quenched is with Cupid's greater flame ;
But faithful friendship doth them both suppress,
And them with mastering discipline doth tame,
Through thoughts aspiring to eternal fame.
For as the soul doth rule the earthly mass,
And all the service of the body frame,
So love of soul doth love of body pass,
No less than purest gold surmounts the meanest brass."
Ne gustdris quibus nigra est Cauda.
It is not known who was the Author of
this enigmatical sentence, prohibiting to eat
what has a black tail ; that which is sweet to
the taste, but leaves a sense of bitterness when
swallowed. The interpretation seems to be,
hold no intimate connection with persons of
bad fame, nor do any thing of which you
may repent on reflection.
Ne
Ne cumis Dextram injeceris.
Offer not your hand to any one with whom
you may casually associate. This is in fact
only an extension of the sense of the first
apothegm, by which we were admonished
not lightly, or unadvisedly, to admit any one
to an intimacy, " for with your hand you
should give your heart." " Deligas enim
tantum quern diligas," you should chuse as
friends only such persons as are worthy of
your love, and when you have found such, as
Polonius advises his son Laertes,
" Grapple them to thy soul with hooks of steel,"
for " amicus est magis necessarius quam ignis
et aqua," a friend is more necessary to us than
fire and water, without which, we know, we
cannot even exist. From a want of making
O
this selection, and of being well acquainted
with the characters of the persons whom we
admit to this intimacy, arises the frequent
complaint of the perfidy of friends. " Qui
sibi amicus est, scito hunc amicum omnibus
esse," he who is a friend to himself is a friend
B 3 to
( 6 )
to every one to whom he professes to be so.
If tli is apothegm of Seneca should not be
admitted to its full extent, it will at the least
be allowed, that he who is not a friend to him-
self, should not be expected to be a friend to
any one besides. For how should a man be
a friend to strangers, who neglects what is
necessary for the comfortable subsistence of
himself and family ? In short, to be a friend
it is necessary that a man should shew him-
self to be a reasonable and a good moral man,
fulfilling his duty to God, to his country, and
to himself. Such a man, to adopt the lan-
guage of Montaigne, " is truly of the cabinet
council of the Muses, and has attajned to the
height of human wisdom." If these rules in
the choice of our friends be followed, few per-
sons will have reason to complain of their
faithlessness. If it should be said that such
characters are rare, it then follows, that there
are but few persons with whom we should
enter into that close intimacy which is desig-
nated by the term friendship.
Cor
( 7 )
Cor ne edito.
Let not care corrode and gnaw your heart,
lest you should fall into a state of despon-
dency, and to avenge some disappointment or
trouble, throw away all the blessings you en-
joy, and with them your life. To this pur-
port the Psalmist, " Fret not thyself, lest thou
be moved to do evil." " Por mucho madru-
gar, no aman6ce mas aina." The Spaniards
say, early rising makes it not day the sooner,
or too much anxiety and care will not enable
you the sooner to obtain your point; and the
Italians, " cento carre di pensieri, non paga-
ranno un' oncia di debito," an hundred cart-
loads of care will not pay an ounce of debt.
" Cura facit canos," care brings gray hairs,
and " care," we say, " killed the cat." But
who is without care, or can escape its fangs !
" Man that is born of a woman is of short con-
tinuance, and full of trouble; all his days are
sorrow, and his travels grief, his heart also
taketh not rest in the night." And " you
may as soon," Burton says, " separate weight
from lead, heat from fire, moistness from wa-
B 4 ter,
( 8 )
ter, and brightness from the sun, as misery,
discontent, care, calamity, and danger from
man." Such being the state of man, and as
we are assured, " that it is as natural for him
to suffer, as for sparks to fly upwards," we
should bear our afflictions with patience, by
which alone the heaviest of them will be in
some degree softened, and appeased. " Si
gravis brevis, si longus levis." If the pain be
very severe, it cannot last ; if it be moderate
and of longer duration, it may be borne.
" Nullum est malum majus, quam non posse
ferre malum,'' no greater misfortune can
happen to us, than not to be able to bear
misfortune.
Ignem ne Gladio fodito.
Do not stir the fire with a sword, do not
irritate an angry person; rather endeavour to
sooth and appease him, and take some more
convenient opportunity for reproof. When
no longer under the influence of passion, he
may hear and be benefited by your remon-
Strances.
A Fabis
( 9 )
A Fabis abstineto.
Abstain from beans, was an admonition of
Pythagoras to his followers; meaning by that
to exhort them not to interfere in the election
of magistrates, in which, it should seem, there
was the same heat and contention, the same
violence and confusion as too often occur
among us, when persons are elected to places
of honour, or profit. The electors among the
Athenians were used to poll, or give their
suffrages, by putting beans, instead of white
or black stones as on other occasions, into a
vase placed for the purpose. Pythagoras also
admonishes, " when the wind rises, to worship
the echo," that is in times of tumult and dis-
sension, to retire into the country, the seat of
the echo.
Arctum Aniilum ne gestato.
Do not wear a ring, or a shoe, we say, that
is too tight, which may impede you in walk-
ing, or in any other actions. Metaphorically,
do not by imprudence waste your property,
and
and contract debts, which will lead to the loss
of your liberty; neither pay so much defe-
rence to the opinions of others, as to embrace
them implicitly, without first submitting them
to a careful examination. Persons who are
so tractable are said " to be led by the nose,"
and of such, artful men do not fail to take
advantage. Also, be not ready to bind your-
selves by vows, or oaths, to do, or to refrain
from any act If the thing be proper in it-
self, you will have sufficient incentive to do
it, without laying such obligations or restric-
tions upon yourself; the necessity for which
can only arise from imbecility, or inconstancy
of mind, which you should rather endeavour
to cure than to indulge.
Tollenti Onus auxiliare, de.ponenti mquaquam.
Assist those who are willing to receive in-
struction, and aid those who endeavour, but
have not strength, to bear the load that is im-
posed on them. First put thy shoulder to the
wheel, and should thy utmost exertions prove
inef-
( 11 )
ineffectual, then call upon the Gods, and they
will help thee.
" But they 're not wishings, or base womanish prayers
Can draw their aid, but vigilance, counsel, action,
Which they will be ashamed to forsake.
Tis sloth they hate, and cowardice."
" A quien madruga, Dios le ayoucla," the
Spaniards say, God assists those who rise early
in the morning, that is, those who are indus-
trious ; and the French to the same purport,
" Aide toi et Dieu t'aidera," help yourself and
God will help you. " Industry," we say, " is
Fortune's right hand, and frugality her left."
Qua uncis sunt un^uibus ne nutrias.
Q
Do not feed, or take under your roof ani-
mals of ferocious and savage dispositions, that
have sharp and crooked claws. Do not che-
rish a snake in your hosom, or enter into
friendship with crafty and deceitful persons.
" Otez un vilain du gibet, il vou's y mettra,"
save a thief from the gallows, and he will cut
your throat. " Cria el cuervo, y sacarte ha
Jos ojos," breed up a crow and he will tear out
your
your eyes. Ingratitude and the unyielding
bent of nature were typified by the Greeks
under the elegant representation of a goat
giving suck to the whelp of a wolf, with a
subscription, which has been thus rendered.
" A wolf reluctant with my milk I feed,
Obedient to a cruel master's will;
By him I nourish'd, soon condemned to bleed,
For stubborn nature will be nature still."
We may add two familiar lines to these,
" The hedge-sparrow fed the cuckoo so long,
That she had her head bit off by her young."
Cibum in Matellam ne immittas.
*
" Cast not the children's provision to the
dogs." Talk not on moral or religious sub-
jects before persons of loose manners, who
are disposed to ridicule every thing that is
grave and serious; neither enter into araru-
, ' , . °.
ments with persons who are obstinate, or ig-
norant; who are either incapable of under-
standing, or predetermined not to adopt what
you advise.
Ad
( 13 )
Ad Finem ubi perveneris, ne veils reverti.
When you have nearly completed any bu-
siness in which you are engaged, do not
through weariness, or inconstancy, leave it
unfinished, but persist to the end ; else all the
time, labour, and expense that have been be-
stowed upon the work, will be lost, and you
will lose your character likewise ; or when
you perceive yourself about to die, with pa-
tience and courage submit to your fate, and
do not weakly and foolishly wish for an ex-
tension of your life, in the vain hope that you
should live more rationally. " Hell," we say,
" is full of good meanings and wishes."
" O mihi praeteritos referat, si Jupiter annos !"
You knew that the term of your life was un-
certain, and should long since have entered
on the course you now propose to beg-in, but
which, if the opportunity were given, you
would probably neglect as heretofore.
Adversus
Adversus solem ne loquitor.
Arguing against what is clear and self-evi-
dent, is the same as denying that the sun
shines at mid-clay.
Hirundinem sub eodem tecto ne habeas.
Take not a swallow under your roof, he
only pays his visit in the spring, but when
winter, the time of difficulty and hardships,
approaches, he is gone. Entertain no one as
a friend who seeks only his own advantage by
the intimacy he solicits. The proverb is also
supposed to intimate that we should not ad-
mit chatterers to a familiarity with us, who
will be sure to divulge whatsoever they may see
or hear in our houses. " Percontatorem fugito,
nam garrulus idem est." The swallow only
comes, it is said, for his own purpose, and
having produced and brought up its young,
leaves us, without making any beneficial re-
turn for the entertainment it has received.
Though it is probable that by devouring my-
riads of insects, which would have destroyed
our
( 15 )
our fruit, they pay us abundantly for the sub-
sistence afforded them.
In Anulo Deifguram nc gestato.
Do not wear the figure or image of the
Deity in a ring: that is, do not introduce the
name of the Deity in your frivolous and idle
conversation, or call upon him to attest the
truth of any assertions, except such as are of
a grave and serious nature; still less make it
the subject of your senseless and impertinent
oaths.
Non bene imperat, nisi qui paruerit imperio.
Men are rarely fit to command, who have
not been accustomed to obey. Children
brought up too indulgently neither become
agreeable companions, nor good masters. Ac-
customed to find every one bending to their
humours, and to have all their wishes grati-
fied, they are ill qualified to mix with the
world, and to encounter the thousand cross
acci-
accidents, which every one, whatever may be
their rank, will be sure to meet with. Every
opposition to their will irritates, and every
accident appals them. One of the strongest
arguments in favour of our public schools is,
that boys must there obey, before they are
allowed to command. The proverb also in-
timates, that no one is fit to govern others,
who has not obtained a command over his
own passions and affections.
Inter Malleum et Incudem.
I am between the hammer and .the anvil,
I am so surrounded with evils, that I see no
way of escaping, may be said by any one who
has so involved and entangled himself in a
business, that he must be a loser, whether he
goes on or retreats.
Res in Car dine est.
The business is on the hinge : it is in that
state that it must now, one way or the other,
be
( 17 )
be soon terminated, alluding to a door, which,
hanging on its hinges, may be shut or opened
by a very slight impulse. We also say the
business hinges (turns) on such a circum-
stance ; if that be made out, it will end suc-
cessfully, if not it will fail.
Res indicabit.
It will be shewn by the event: we shall
thence learn whether what has been stated be
the real truth.
Novacula in Cot em.
" He has met with his match ;" the person
he attacked has proved too strong for him,
and " he is come off second best," as the
razor, instead of injuring the stone, was itself
destroyed.
" et fragili quaerens illidere dentem,
Offendet solido."
Or as the viper, who, attempting to gnaw a
file which he had found, wounded his own
mouth, but left the file unhurt.
c Sero
( is ;
Sero sapiunt Phryges.
The Trojans became wise too late ; they
only came to their senses, when their city was
on the eve of being taken. Exhausted by a
war of ten years, they then began to consult
about restoring Helen, on whose account the
contest had been undertaken. The adage is
applied to persons, who do not see the advan-
tage of any measure or precaution until it is
too late to adopt it, and is similar to, " when
the steed is stolen, we shut the stable door,"
and to the following of the Italians, and the
French, " Serrar la stalla quando s' ban per-
duti i buovi." "II est terns de fermer 1'^table
quand les chevaux en sont alleV'
Malo accepto stultus sapit.
" Experience is the mistress of fools," and
"the burnt child," M'e say, "dreads the fire."
Some men are only to be made cautious by
their own experience, they must suffer before
they will be wary.
- Piscator
( 19 )
Piscator ictus sapiet.
A fisherman, putting his hand hastily into
his net, M'as wounded by the thorns on the
backs of some of the fish; being thus caught,
he said, I shall now become wiser : which is
said to have given rise to the adage. "Bought
wit," we say, "is best;" it will certainly be more
likely to be remembered, than that which is
obtained without suffering some kind of loss
or inconvenience. Hence also we say, " wit
once bought, is worth twice taught." "El
hombre mancebo, perdiendo gana seso," by
losses and disappointment young men acquire
knowledge.
Manus manumfricat.
" Una mano lava la otra." " One good
turn deserves another." But this phrase is
more commonly applied where two persons
bespatter each other with fulsome and un-
deserved compliments. " Scratch my breech,
and I will claw your elbow."
Ne sus Minervam.
Persons pretending to instruct those who
are qualified to be their masters, or to inform
c 2 others
( 20 )
others in matters of which they are themselves
ignorant, fall under the censure of this adage;
their conduct being as ridiculous as would be
that of a sow who should presume to attempt
to teach wisdom. Our clowns, not very de-
licately, tell you, " not to teach your gran-
dames to suck eggs," for, " a bove majori
discit arare minor," the young ox learns to
plow from the elder, not the elder from the
young, and "El Diablo saba mucho," the
Spaniards say, "porque es viejo," the devil
knows a great deal, for he is old.
Irwitd Minervd-
Cutting against the grain. When any one
attempts what he is totally unqualified for, he
may be said to be labouring without the
assistance of Minerva, the reputed goddess
of wisdom, " natura repugnante, " against
nature. " Quam quisque ndrit artem, in hac
se exerceat," let every one confine himself to
the art in which he has been instructed, or
which he has particularly studied. "In
casa del Moro no babies Algaravia." Do not
speak
( 21 )
speak Arabic in the house of a Moor, lest,
instead of gaining credit, you only expose
your ignorance.
Ne Sutor ultra crepidam.
"The shoemaker should not go beyond his
last." Men should not attempt what they
are neither by education nor genius qualified
to perform, nor discourse on matters they do
not understand; they will be listened to with
no more attention than would be given to a
blind man discoursing on colours. " Cada
qual liable* en lo que sabe," let every one
talk of what he understands. A shoemaker
having suggested to Apelles an error in the
form of a shoe he had painted, the artist,
readily taking the hint, altered the picture in
that part. But when the same shoemaker was
proceeding to recommend alterations in the
form and disposition of the limbs of the figure,
he received the rebuke, \vhich thence be-
came proverbial, "The shoemaker should not
meddle beyond his last. " " Defienda me
Dios de my." God defend me from myself,
c 3 the
( 22 )
the Spaniards say, make me to know what is
my proper state and condition.
Par Pari referre.
"Tal por tal," like for like, or "One
good turn deserves another." If this has
in all ages been esteemed a duty, in our
commerce with persons who are indifferent
to us, we are in a particular manner called
upon to observe it, in our conduct to our
parents, and to make the best return in
our power, for their care in nourishing and
supporting us in our infancy ; for imbuing
our minds with good principles; for cultivat-
ing and improving our understandings, and
thereby enabling us to support ourselves in a
mature age, and to fill with credit that rank,
or situation in life, in which we .may happen
to be placed. The vine dresser, whom King
Henry the Fourth of France is said to have
met with in his rambles, seems to have un-
derstood and practised this duty, in a me-
ritorious manner. " Having said, lie earned
forty sous a day, the king demanded in what
manner he disposed of the money. He
divided
( 23 )
divided his earnings, he told the monarch,
into four parts. With the first he nourished
himself; with the second he paid his debts;
the third he laid out at interest, and the
fourth he threw away. This not being in-
telligible, the king desired an explanation.
You observe, Sir, says the man, that I begin
with applying the first part to my own main-
tenance, with the second I support my parents
who nourished me, when I was incapable of
supporting myself, and so pay my debt of
gratitude; with the third I maintain my
children, who may at some future time be
called upon to return the like service to me ;
this part therefore is laid out at interest ;
the fourth is paid in taxes, which, though
intended for the service of the king, is prin-
cipally swallowed up by the collectors, and
therefore may be said to be thrown away."
Something similar to the reasoning of this
good man, is contained in the following enig-
matical epitaph, which was inscribed on the
tombstone of Robert of Doncaster.
" What I gave, that I have ;
What I spent, that I had ;
What I left, that I lost."
c 4 By
( 24 )
By prudence in the distribution of his
benevolence, by giving only to good and
deserving persons, he procured to himself
friends, on whose advice and assistance he
might depend, whenever occasion should re-
quire it ; and by expending only what he
could conveniently spare, and laying it out
on such things as administered to his comfort,
he enjoyed, and therefore had what he ex-
pended; but what he left, not being enjoyed
by himself, nor going, perhaps, to persons of
his choice, or being used in the manner he
would have preferred, that portion might be
truly said to be lost.
In Vado esse. In Portu navigare.
The ship has escaped the threatened danger
and is arrived safely in port. The adage is
applied to any one who has overcome some
difficulty, with which he had been oppressed,
and from which there seemed little chance of
his being able to escape.
\
Toto
( 25 )
Toto Ccelo errare.
" To shoot beyond the mark," to be entirely
out in our conjecture, or opinion, on any
business; to mistake the meaning of any
passage in a work, or of what had been said,
were typified by the ancients, by this and
similar phrases, meaning, You are as far from
the right, as the east is from the west.
Turdus ipse sibi malum cacat.
" The Thrush when he defiles the bough,
Sows for himself the seeds of woe."
Men of over communicative dispositions,
who divulge what may by their adversaries
be turned to their disadvantage, may be com-
pared to the thrush, who is said to sow, with
his excrements, the seeds of the misletoe on
which it feeds. From the bark of the misletoe
bird-lime is made, with which the thrush, as
well as other birds, are not unfrequently taken.
The eagle that had been shot, was doubly dis-
tressed on discerning that the arrow which
inflicted the wound, was winged with a feather
of his own.
( 26 )
Suojumento malum accersere.
He hath brought this mischief upon himself.
"He hath pulled an old house about his ears."
Why would he interfere in a business in which
he had no concern ? He should have remem-
bered that, " He that meddleth with strife
that doth not belong to him, is like one that
taketh a mad dog by the ear."
Comix Scorpium rapuit.
The crow seizing on a scorpion, and think-
ing he had got a delicate morsel, was stung to
death. The adage is applicable to persons,
who, meditating mischief to others, find the
evil recoil upon themselves with redoubled
force.
Irritare Crabones.
" You have brought a nest of hornets about
your ears," may be applied to persons who
have engaged in dispute with men of greater
rank or power than themselves ; or who have
undertaken any business beyond their ability
to execute, and from which they cannot ex-
tricate
( 27 )
tricate themselves without loss. To the same
purport is
Leonem stimulas.
Why awake the lion who may tear you in
pieces ? and the following
Malum bene conditum ne moveris.
When you have escaped an injury, or when
any dispute or contest in which you were en-
gaged is compromised, and settled, do nothing
that may revive it, you may not come off a
second time so well. " Non destare il can
che dorme," the Italians say, do not wake a
sleeping dog. And the French,
" N'as tu pas tort, de reveiller le chat qui
dort?" were you not wrong to wake the cat
that was sleeping? or, " Quando la mala ven-
tura se duerme, nadie la despierte," when
sorrow is asleep, do not wake it."
Bonis, vel mails Avibus.
With good or evil omens. You began the
business under favourable, or unfavourable
auspices, or under a fortunate or unfortunate
star. The Greeks and Romans frequently
formed
( 28 )
formed their opinion of the success of any
enterprize in which they were about to engage,
from the flight, or from the chattering, or
singing of birds. The Augur, whose office it
was to expound to the people the meaning of
the omens, is supposed to have derived the
name, or title of the office, from avis gar-
ritus, the chattering of birds. Our country-
man, Churchill, has ridiculed this superstition
with much humour.
" Among the Romans not a bird,
Without a prophecy was heajrd ;
Fortunes of empires ofitimes hung
On the magician magpye's tongue,
And every crow was to the state,
A sure interpreter of fate.
Prophets embodied in a college,
(Time out of mind your seats of knowledge,)
Infallible accounts would keep,
When it was best to watch or sleep,
To eat, or drink, to go, or stay,
And when to fight, or run away,
When matters were for action ripe,
By l&oking at a double tripe;
When emperors would live or die,
They in an asses skull could spy;
When generals would their stations keep,
Orturn their backs in hearts of sheep." — THEGHOST.
Some
( 29 ;
Some vestiges of this superstition are still
to be found in this country, and many of our
fanners' wives would be disconcerted at hear-
ing the croaking of a raven, at the moment
they were setting out on a journey, whether
of business, or of pleasure. The following
lines from Walker's Epictetus are introduced,
to shew that though the vulgar, in the early
ages, might believe in these fooleries, yet there
were not wanting then, as well as now, persons
who were able to ridicule and despise them.
*' The direful raven's, or the night owl's voice,
Frightens the neighbourhood with boding noise -r
While each believes the knowing bird portends
Sure death, or to himself, or friends ;
Though all that the nocturnal prophet knows,
Is want of food, which he by whooting shews."
Epictetus is supposed to have lived in the
time of the Emperor Nero, more than 1700
years ago.
Noctua volavit.
An owl flew by us, it is a fortunate omen,
our project will succeed, or we shall hear
good news from our friends. The raven, on
the
( 30 )
the contrary, was considered as a bird of ill
omen, and its appearance was supposed to
predict evil.
" That raven on yon left hand oak,
Curse on his ill foreboding croak,
Bodes me no good."
The owl was in a particular manner reve-
renced by the Athenians, as it was the favoured
bird of Minerva, their patroness. When Pe-
ricles was haranguing his men on board one
of his vessels, who had mutinied, an owl, flying
by on the right hand, is said to have settled
on the mast of the ship, .and the men observ-
ing the omen were immediately pacified, and
came into his opinion.
The phrase, noctua volavit, was also some-
times used to intimate that any advantage
obtained was procured by bribery, by giving
money on which the figure of an owl was
impressed, such coin being common among
the Athenians.
Quartd Luna nati.
Born in the fourth moon. Persons who
were peculiarly unfortunate, scarcely any
thing
( 31 )
thing succeeding to their minds, were said to
be born in the fourth moon, that being the
month in which Hercules was born, whose
labours, though beneficial to the world, were
productive of little advantage to himself.
The Spaniards say, " En hora mala nace,
quien mala fama cobra," he was born under
an unlucky planet, or in an evil hour, who
gets an ill name. The contrary to this, but
equally the child of superstition, is
Alba GalllncE Films.
" Hijo de la Gallina blanca."
Born of a white hen. This was said of
persons who were extremely fortunate; who
were successful in whatever they undertook;
" who were born," as we say, " with a silver
spoon in their mouth." The following is
related by Suetonius, as giving origin to this
adage. When Livia, the wife of Augustus
Cssar, was at one of her country seats, an
eagle flying over the place, dropped a white
hen, holding a sprig of laurel in its beak, into
her lap. The empress was so pleased with the
adventure, that she ordered the hen to be
taken care of, and the laurel to be set in the
garden-
( 32 )
garden. The hen, we are told, proved un-
usually prolific, and the laurel was equally
thrifty ; and as there was thought to be some-
thing supernatural in its preservation, branches
from it continued long to be used by succeed-
ing emperors, in their triumphs. " En hora
buena nace, quien buena fama cobra." He
that gets a good name, was born under a
fortunate planet, or in a lucky hour.
Laureum baculum gesto.
I am always armed with a sprig of laurel,
was said by persons who had unexpectedly
escaped from any threatened danger. The
laurel was thought by the ancients to be an
antidote against poison, and to afford security
against lightning. On account of these sup-
posed properties, Tiberius Ceesar is said to
have constantly worn a branch of laurel
around his head. Laurel water was prescribed
by the ancient physicians, in the cure of those
fits to which children are subjected. It was,
therefore, until within a very few years, always
found in the shops of the apothecaries. Later
experience
< 33 )
experience has shewn, that the distilled water
of the laurel leaf, when strongly impregnated,
is a powerful and deadly poison. It was with
this preparation that Captain Donellan killed
Sir Theodosius Baughton. The opinion of
the power of the laurel in preserving against
lightning, rests on no better foundation than
that of its efficacy in preventing the effects of
poison, or in curing epilepsy.
A horse-shoe nailed on the threshold of the
door, was supposed by the common people in
this country, to preserve the house from the
effects of witchcraft, and it is still in repute
among our sailors, who nail a horse-shoe to
the mast, with a view of preserving the vessel
from such evil influence.
Fcsnum habet in Cornu, longefuge.
Fly from that man, he has hay on his horns.
This is said of persons of morose, quarrelsome,
and malevolent dispositions, with whom it is
dangerous to associate; alluding to the custom
of fixing whisps of hay to the horns of vicious
oxen. " Hie est niger, hunc tu, Romane, ca-
D veto.'"
( 34 )
veto." This is a dangerous fellow, beware of
him.
Polypi mentem obtine.
Imitate the polypus. Change your plan
of living according to circumstances, accom-
modate yourself to the dispositions of the
persons with whom you are to live, or to form
any intimate connection. " Become all things
to all men." Brutus, that he might escape the
malignancy of Tarquin, who had destroyed his
father, and his brother, assumed the character
of idiotcy, whence he obtained his name. His
stratagem succeeded, no mischief being to be
apprehended, as Tarquin supposed, from so
degraded a being. He was therefore suffered
to live, and in time became principally instru-
mental in freeing his country from the tyranny
of the Tarquins, and in laying the foundation
of a popular form of government, which con-
tinued upwards of 700 years. The proverb
took its rise from a supposed power of the
polypus of assuming the colour of any sub-
stance to which it adheres. When pursued
it
( 35 )
it clings to the rocks, and taking the same
colour, often escapes unnoticed.
Multaz Regum Aures atque. Oculi.
"An nescis longas Regibus esse Manus ?"
" Kings," we say, " have long arms," they
have also many eyes and ears, that is, they use
the ministry of their many servants and de-
pendents, hoth to discover what is done that
may be prejudicial to their interest, and to
punish the delinquents, whose crimes may hy
these means have been detected, though seated
at the extremities of their dominions. Hence
we say, by way of caution, to persons speak-
ing too freely, on subjects that may give
offence, do you not know that " Les murs ont
des oreilles?" "Walls have ears." This senti-
ment is beautifully expressed in the Eccle-
siastes — " Curse not the king, no not in thy
thought, and curse not the rich, in thy bed-
chamber, for a bird of the air shall carry thy
voice, and that which hath wings, shall tell
the matter."
The number of spies and emissaries em-
ployed by Midas, king of Phrygia, who was a
D 2 cruel
( 36 )
cruel tyrant, gave occasion to the fable of
that prince's having asses ears. Antoninus
Caracalla, a monster in wickedness, and
therefore full of suspicion, not only was
frequent in his application to augurs, and
soothsayers, in the hope that by their means
he might discover whether any designs were
hatching against his life, but he made it a
serious complaint against Providence, that he
was not endowed with the faculty of hearing
with his own ears, whatever was said of him :
so impotent is the influence of wealth or
£minence, in imparting happiness to the pos-
sessor, unless, like Titus, he employs them in
cliff using blessings among the people. " Paredes
tienen oyclos," et "Tras pared, ni tras seto no
digas tu secreto." — Walls haVe ears, and behind
a wall or a hedge do not tell a secret.
Malo N~odo mains qu&re.ndus Cuneus.
A tough and harsh knot, is not to be at-
tempted to be cut by a fine tool ; it can only
be overcome by the application of a strong
wedge. Great difficulties or diseases are not
ordinarily subdued, but by powerful remedies,
which
( 37 )
which may not be applied, perhaps, without
some degree of clanger. The adage also in-
timates, that in repelling injuries, we may use
weapons, or means, similar to those with which
we have been attacked. Craft and cunning
may therefore be properly had recourse to, in
opposing the machinations of the malevolent,
and unjust. A horse perceiving that a lion
was endeavouring by pretending to be skilful
in medicine to entice him into his power, in
order to destroy him, asked him to look at a
swelling which he affected to have in his foot,
and the lion preparing to examine the part,
the horse gave him so violent a stroke with
his heels, as laid him sprawling on the ground-
The adage also means, that a lesser evil is
sometimes obliterated by a greater, and one
passion or affection of the rnind by another.
" Even as one heat another heat expels,
Or as one nail by strength drives out another,
So the remembrance of my former love,
Is by another object quite forgotten."
Oleum Camino addere.
" Jetter de 1'huile sur le feu," to add fuel
to the fire; irritating instead of appeasing the
D 3 enraged
( 38 )
enraged passions. Giving wine to young
persons, whose blood is ordinarily too hot, is
"adding fuel to the fire."
Ululas Athenas portas.
The owl was a favoured bird among the
Athenians, and so abounded, that sending
owls to Athens, was like " carrying water to
the sea," or, "coals to Newcastle." It was,
according to the Spanish phrase, " Vender
miel al Colmenaro," offering honey to one
who had bee-hives ; " Croesi pecuniar ter
unciam addere," or adding a farthing to the
wealth of Croesus, esteemed in his time, the
richest monarch in the world. The adage is
also applicable to persons telling as news what
is generally known, or offering to instruct
any one in arts, with which he is well ac-
quainted. Making presents to the rich, and
'neglecting friends or relations, to whom such
assistance might be beneficial, are acts falling
also under the censure of this proverb.
Suum cuique pulchrum.
M*e each of us think, that whatever we
possess,
( 39 )
possess, whether children, horses, dogs, houses,
or any other things, are better than those of
our neighbours, " all our geese are swans."
Or, as a common adage has it, " Every crow
thinks her own bird fair." This disposition,
when not carried to excess, is rather to be
encouraged than reproved, as tending to make
us contented and happy, in our situations;
indulged too much, it occasions our becoming
dupes to sycophants and flatterers. None fall
so easily under the influence of this prejudice,
as poets, orators, and artisans, who are gene-
rally as much enamoured with their own pro-
ductions, as lovers are with the charms of their
mistresses. "Nemo unquam, neque poeta,
neque orator fuit, qui quenquam meliorem se
arbitraretur," there never was poet, or orator,
Cicero says, who thought any other superior
to himself in his art, nor any lover who did
not find more beauty in his mistress than in
any other woman.
Patrice. Fumus Igni alieno luculentior.
Even the smoke of our own chimney shines
brighter than the fire of a stranger's, for
D 4 "Home
( 40 )
c; Home is home, though ever so homely."
" Bos alienus subinde prospectat foras," the
strange ox frequently looks to the door, ready
to return to the home, whence he has been
lately taken ; and we know that dogs can
scarcely, by any kindness, be prevented from
returning to the houses of their old masters.
" Chaque oiseau trouve son nid bien," the
French say; and the Italians, "Adogniuccello,
il suo nido e bello," every bird prefers his
own nest.
As a comparatively small portion only of
mankind can inhabit the temperate regions of
the earth, or can acquire a larger portion of
the goods of fortune, than are necessary for
their subsistence, if this disposition to be
contented with, and even to give a prefer-
ence to our native soil, and our home, had
not been implanted in us by Providence,
the misery and distress, already so abundant
in the world, would have been greatly in-
creased. But we often carry this affection
too far, and are thence led, not only to prefer
our own possessions, as was noticed under the
last adage, but to think too cheaply of, or
even
C 41 )
even to despise those of our neighbours.
This sort of prejudice is most seen in neigh-
bouring countries, and cannot be better illus-
trated than by adverting to the contemptuous
expressions used by the common people of
this country when speaking of France, which,
though one of the most fertile countries in
the world, they seem to think that it scarcely
produces sufficient for the sustenance of its
inhabitants. This amor patrise is well de-
scribed by Goldsmith in the following lines
in his Traveller.
" The shuddering tenant of the frigid zone,
Boldly proclaims the happiest spot his own.
Extols the treasures of his stormy seas,
And his long night of revelry and ease.
The naked savage panting at the line,
Boasts of his golden sands, and palmy wine,
Basks in the glare, or stems the tepid wave,
And thanks his Gods for all the good they gave,,
Nor less the patriot's boast, where'er we roam,
His first, best country ever is at home."
The reader may not be displeased at seeing
the following on the same subject.
" Cling to your home, if there the meanest shed,
Yield but a hearth and shelter to your head,
And
( 42 )
And some poor plot, with fruitage scantly stored,
Be all that Heaven allots you for your board ;
Unsavoured bread, and herbs that scattered grow,
Wild on the river's brink, or mountain's brow ;
Yet e'en this c-heerless mansion shall provide,
More heart's repose, than all the world beside."
Tales and Poems bij the. Rev. R. BLAND, p. 81.
Frons Occipitio prior.
By this enigmatical expression, that the
forehead in which the eyes are placed, pre-
cedes the hind-head ; the ancients meant to
shew, that all business may be expected to be
best performed, if attended to by the persons
who are to be benefited by it. A philosopher
being asked by his neighbour, what would
best fatten his horse ? answered " the eyes of
its master," as his presence would make his
fields most fertile and productive, the foot of
the owner being the best manure for his land.
"Quando en casa no esta el gato, estiendese
el raton," that is, "When the cat is away, the
mice will play." T. Livius, on the same sub-
ject, says, "Non satis feliciter solere procedere,
quse oculis agas alienis," that business is not
likely
( 43 )
likely to go on well, which is committed to
the management of strangers. The Italians,
French, and Spaniards, as well as ourselves,
have adopted the answer given by the philo-
sopher, among their proverbs, viz. " L'occhio
del Padrone, ingrassa il cavallo." It. " L'ceil
du maitre engraisse le cheval." Fr. "Elojo
del amo engorda el caballo."Sp. that is, "The
eye of the master makes the horse fat." A
lusty man riding on a lean and sorry jade,
being asked how it happened that he looked
so well, and his horse so ill, said, it was because
he provided for himself, but his servant had
the care of the beast.
The word "prior" in the adage, is used in
the sense of potior, or melior, better.
JEqualis lEqualem delect at, and
Simile gaudet simili.
"Like to like." Hence we see persons of
similar dispositions, habits, and years, and
pursuing the same studies, usually congre-
gating together, as most able to assist each
other in their pursuits. " Ogni simile appe-
tisce
( 44 )
tisce il suo simile," every man endeavours
to associate with those who are like himself.
"Chacun aime son semblable," Fr. and which
is nearly the same, " Cada uno busca a su
semejante." Sp. The contrary to this is,
Fig u I us Figitlo invidet, Faber Fabro.
" Two of a trade can never agree," each
of them fearing to be excelled by his rival.
This passion might be turned to their mutual
advantage, if they should be thence induced
to labour to excel each other in their art. It
would then become, " Cos ingeniorum," a
whetstone to their wit. But it more often
expends itself in envying and endeavouring
to depress their rivals.
" The potter hates another of the trade,
If by his hands a finer dish is made;
The smith, his brother smith with scorn doth treaf,
If he his iron strikes with brisker heat."
" Etiam mendicus mendico invidet."
" It is one beggar's woe,
To see another by the door go."
The passion is found also among animals,
" Canes socium in culina nullum amant," or
11 Una dooms non alit.duos canes," the dog
will
( 45 )
will have no companion in the kitchen, anH"
"Monscum monte non miscebitur," two proud
and haughty persons are seldom found toagree.
Principium Dimidium totius, or
Dimidium Facti, qui bene cepit, habet.
" A work well begun is half clone," which
has also been adopted by the Spaniards, the
Italians, and the French. " Buen principio la
mitad es hecho." Sp. "Chi ben commencia a
la meta dell' opra finito." It. " II est bien
avanc6, qui a bien commence*," he has made
good progress in a business, who has begun it
well. We often find great reluctance, and
have much difficulty, in bringing ourselves
to set about a business, but being once en-
gaged in it, we usually then go on with plea-
sure, feeling ourselves interested in carrying
it on to its completion. In morals, an earnest
desire to be good, is in a great measure the
means of becoming good.
Satius est Initiis mederi quam F'mi.
"A stitch in time saves nine." The most
serious diseases, if taken in time, might often
be cured.
" Principiis
( 46' )
" Principiis obsta, sero medicina paratur,
Quum mala per longas invaluere moras,"
oppose the disease in the beginning, for
medicine will be applied too late, when it
has taken deep root, and fixed itself in the
constitution. To the same purport are, "Sero
clypeum post vulnera," it is too late to have
recourse to your shield, after you are wounded.
" La casa quemada, acudis con el agua," the
Spaniards say, " When the house is burnt,
you then bring water.'' Evil dispositions in
children, are also to be corrected before they
become habits. "Qui bien aime, bien chatie,"
or "Spare the rod, and spoil the child.''
Fortes Fortuna adjwcat.
l< Fortune assists the brave," " sed multo
majus ratio," Cicero adds, but reason or con-
sideration, is still more to be depended on ;
therefore, " antequam incipias consulto, et
ubi consulueris, facto opus est," that isr
think before you act, but having well con-
sidered, and formed your plan, go on re-
solutely to the end. To design well, and to
persevere with vigour in the road we have
chalked
{ 47 )
chalked out for ourselves, is the almost cer-
tain way to attain our object. " At in rebus
arcluis," but in great and sudden difficulties,
a bold and courageous effort will frequently
succeed, where reason or deliberation could
give no assistance, for "non est apucl aram
consultandum," when the enemy is within the
walls, it is too late for consultation.
" When dangers urge he that is slow,
Takes from himself, and adds to his foe.''
And, " Quien no se aventura, no ha ventura,"
" nothing venture nothing have." The pro-
verb has been pretty generally adopted. "A
los osados ayuda la fortuna," the Spaniards
say ; and the French " La Fortune aide aux
audacieux." Which being the same as the
Latin, need not to be explained.
Cum Lawis luctari.
Contending with, or reproaching the dead,
which was held to be a great opprobrium, or
scandal among the ancients. It was " vellere
barbam leoni mortuo," taking a dead lion by
the beard. "De mortuis nil nisi bonum,"
that
( 48 )
that is, of the dead, record only what will
tend to their honour, has therefore passed into
a proverb, agreeably to which is the Italian
adage, " Non dir die il vero de vivi, 6 non
parlar che bene de morti," speak only what
is true of the living, and what is honourable
of the dead. But the dead can receive no
harm, and the world may be benefited by
publishing their errors. In Egypt persons
were appointed, we are told, whose office it
was, to examine into the conduct of their
deceased sovereigns; if it had been such as
had been beneficial to the kingdom, the
warmest tribute of praise was paid to their
memories; if bad, their conduct was censured
and their memory reprobated, to serve as a
warning to their successors.
Taurum toilet qui vitulum sustulerit, or
tollere Taurum,
Qua tulerit Vitulum, ilia potest.
" Who has been used to carry a calf, may
in time carry an ox." The adage is said to
have taken its rise from the story of a woman
who
( 49 )
who took delight in nursing and carrying
about with her a calf, and as the animal grew,
her strength so increased, that she was able to
carry it when it became an ox. Or, as Eras-
mus conjectures, from the story of Milo the
Crotonian, who was said, with great ease to
take up an ox, and carry it on his shoulders ;
but who perished miserably, " Wedged in the
oak which he strove to rend." It may be
used to shew the force of habit or custom, and
its influence both on our mental and bodily
powers, which may by use be increased to
an almost incredible degree. Also to shew
the necessity of checking and eradicating the
first germs of vice in children, as, if they be
suffered to fix themselves, they will in time
become too powerful to be subdued.
" Nimia Familiar it as par it Contemptum.^
" Familiaritc- engendre mcpris."
" Familiarity breeds contempt." " E tribus
optimis rebus," Plutarch says, " tres pessimas
oriuntur," from three excellent endowments,
three of the worst of our affections are pro-
E dnced.
duced. Truth begets hatred, familiarity con-
tempt, and success envy. The contrary to this
may be,
Omne ignotum pro magn'ifico est.
We are apt rather to extol those persons
whom we know only by report, but with
whose merit, or real characters, we are not
acquainted. " A prophet is not without ho-
nour," we are told, "save in his own country."
Great men should not associate too familiarly
with the world, ever more ready to blazon their
defects, which reduce them to their own stan-
dard, than to admire those talents and qualities
which they are incapable of imitating. To
posterity they must look for justice, which
never fails paying to their genius and abilities,
the homage that had been refused them by
their own age and country. " Suum cuique
decus posteritas rependet." Posterity will
give to every one the portion of commenda-
tion, to which he was entitled by his merit.
Or the adage may be thus interpreted : 'What
is mentioned in the gross often fills the mind
with surprise, which in detail would excite no
emotion. If we should say of any man that
he
he ordinarily walked between two and three
thousand miles in a year, the account would
seem to be exaggerated ; but if we should say,
he walked six or seven miles in a day, which
would amount to the same number of miles in
the year, no surprize would be excited.
Mandrabuli more Res succedit,
Was used to be said of any business not
going on according to expectation ; or from
persons indulging hopes of advantage from ill-
concerted or ill- matured projects, not likely
to be successful; but rather " ad morem Man-
drabuli," to become every day worse. It may
be applied to those " who expect that age will
perform the promises of youth; and that the
deficiencies of the present day will be supplied
by the morrow:" but who will most likely be
disappointed.
Who Mandrabulus was is not known, but
it is recorded of him, that having found a
considerable treasure, in the fulness of his
heart he presented at the altar of Juno a
golden ram, meaning to make a similar offer-
E 2 ing
ing every year ; but repenting, as it would
seem, of his liberality, the next year he offered
only a ram of silver ; and the following year,
one of brass ; and hence, that is, from the
gift offered at the shrine of the goddess, having
been thus every year lessened in its value,
proceeds the proverb.
Maturbfias senex, si diu velis esse senex.
" Old young and old long." " Quien
quisiere ser mucho tiempo viejo, comiencelo
presto." The Spaniards say, you must begin
to be old, that is, you must leave off the irre-
gularities of youth betimes, if you wish to
enjoy a long and healthy old age : for " quas
peccamus juvenes, ea luimus senes," young
men's knocks, old men feel," and " Senem
juventus pigra, mendicum creat," youth pass-
ed in idleness produces usually an old age of
want and beggary. The French almost in the
same words say, " Jeunesse oiseuse, vieillesse
disetteuse." The pleasures of the senses too
much indulged, or too long persisted in, lay
the foundation of diseases, which either cut
off
( 53 )
off life prematurely, or make the evening of
our days miserable.
" Si quieres vivir sano, haz te viejo temprano."
Senis mutarc Linguam.
It is difficult for persons advanced in years
to acquire a new language. The rigid and
unyielding muscles of aged persons, render
them as unfit for pronouncing a language to
which they have not been accustomed, as the
limbs of a cripple are for dancing. But the
sentiment may be extended further, as they
would be scarcely less successful in attempting
the acquisition of any new art or science ;
such acquisition requiring a greater degree of
vigour, than they can be supposed to have re-
tained. The province of the ancient, if their
time has been well employed, is rather to in-
struct others, than to hunt after new sources
of knowledge. Plutarch says, " that the life
of a vestal virgin was divided into three por-
tions ; in the first of which she learned the
duties of her profession, in the second she
practised them, and in the third she taught
E 3 them
them to others." This is no bad model for per-
sons in every situation of life. The proverb
may be applied to persons attempting anything
for which they are peculiarly disqualified.
Homo longus raro sapiens, and
A metis longus.
Tall men are rarely found to be wise.
The Spaniards say, " El grande de cuerpo, no
es muy hombre.'' That is, the robust man is
rarely a great man ; and the Scotch, " fat
paunches bode lean pates/' Livy seems also
to patronise the opinion, " men of great sta-
ture and bulk," he says, " appear more for-
midable, than they are found to be on trial."
His observation, however, may be supposed to
relate rather to their courage or bodily strength,
than to their genius or understanding. " Sir
Francis Bacon being asked by King James,
what he thought of the French ambassador ;
he answered, that he was a tall proper man.
I, his Majesty replied, but what think you
of his head -piece ? is he proper for the office
of ambassador ? Sir, said Bacon, tall men are
like
like houses of four or five stories, wherein
commonly the uppermost room is worst fur-
nished." And Burton says, that " commonly
your vast bodies and fine features are sottish,
dull, and heavy spirits." Yet, notwithstanding
this coincidence of opinion, of these different
countries and persons, and the suffrages of
others might perhaps be joined ; the observa-
tion will be found to be much oftener contra-
dicted than confirmed; and almost every one's
experience will tell him, that wit and judg-
ment are promiscuously distributed, and fall
as often to the lot of the tall and the robust
as to those of an opposite stature and bulk.
Mustelam habes.
You have a weasel in your house, was said
to persons with whom every thing turned out
unfortunate and perverse. To meet a weasel
was considered by the ancients as ominous,
and portending some misfortune about to hap-
pen. Among huntsmen in this country, Eras-
mus tells us, it was in his time deemed an ill
omen, if any one named a weasel when they
E 4 were
( 56 )
were setting off for their sport. Theophrastus,
in his description of the character of a super-
stitious man, says; " If a weasel crosses the
road he stops short, be his business never so
pressing, and will not stir a foot till somebody
else has gone before him and broke the omen;
or till he himself has weakened the prodigy by
throwing three stones."
E multis Palcis, pauliim Fructus collegi.
" Much straw, but little grain." With
much labour I have obtained but small profit;
or, from a long and laboured discourse, but
little information. " Assai romor et poco
lana." " Great cry but little wool, as the
devil said when he sheared his hogs." This
adage takes it rise from a scene in one of the
Misteries, a kind of dramatic amusement very
popular before the use of plays; in which the
devil is introduced shearing one of those ani-
mals, which continued making a most fright-
ful noise during the operation, to the^ great
diversion of the audience,
mf
Extra
( 57 )
Extra Lutum Peeks hales.
You have been fortunate in getting out of
that difficulty, or that you did not engage in
a business, which, however promising it might
appear, could not but have involved you in
much trouble. Literally it means, in drawing
your feet out of the mud.
Ex Umbra in Solem.
You have explained that difficult passage,
and rendered clear and luminous, what was
before obscure and difficult.
Ex uno omnia specta.
From one act, or circumstance, you will
readily judge what is the real character or
disposition of the man. This may to a cer-
tain degree be admitted as a test; as, if a man
be detected in any deliberate act of villany,
where there has been an evident design to
defraud or injure another, we may without
hesitation pronounce the party to be a bad
man : but the converse of this, may not be
so
( 58 )
so surely depended on, and we may not with
safety, from one single act of charity, or
kindness, pronounce the party to be a good
man, or trust him as such. So also, if a man
from walking over Bagshot Heath, should
take upon him to determine the state of this
country, as to its fertility, and should de-
scribe it as in general barren and inhospitable,
or from being deceived by an individual, with
whom he had been engaged in business, should
determine that the inhabitants are faithless,
and not to be trusted, it is evident, that in
both cases, he would be found to have passed
a rash and precipitate judgment.
/
Ad Consilium ne accesseris, antequam voceris.
" Speak when you are spoken to, and come
when you are called for.5' Advice should not,
generally speaking, be offered until it is re-
quired, for, "proffered service stinks." But if
we see one, in whose welfare we feel ourselves
interested, about to engage in a connection,
or business, by which he is likely to be in-
jured, it becomes then the part of a friend to
interfere,
( 59 )
interfere, and admonish him of his danger,
though his opinion should not have been
asked, or even though caution has been used,
to keep the circumstance from his knowledge.
Still the task is far from being grateful.
" Le mauvais metier," Guy Patin says, " que
celui de censeur; on ne gagne a 1'exercer que
la haine de ceux qu'on reprend, et on ne cor-
rige personne," it is a bad business that of
a censor, he is sure to incur the hatred of
those he reproves, without having the pleasure
of finding them improved by his advice. "Ne
prendre conseil que de sa tete," that is, "Take
counsel only of your own thoughts," the
French say, but this is in some degree con-
tradicted by the following : " Un fou avise
bien un sage," even a fool may suggest what
may deserve the attention of a wise man; we
should therefore listen to advice, let it come
from what quarter it will, for "Al buen consejo
no se halla precio," good advice is inestimable.
Et meum Tclum Cuspidem habet acuminatum.
Even my dart has also a point, and is ca-
pable
( 60 )
pable of inflicting a wound, though it may
not pierce so deep as yours. I would willingly
avoid contest, but if you will continue to
molest me, I will not suffer alone, but will
take caVe you shall feel a part of the evil.
Agreeably to this sentiment also, is the Scot-
tish Order of the Thistle, framed, with its
motto — " Nemo me impune lacessit."
Barbte ten us Sapient cs.
Philosophers even to the beard. Oh, he is
a wise man, you may see it by his beard, may
be applied ironically to persons of grave and
serious manners, who wish to pass themselves
off for men of more learning, or knowledge,
than they really possess. As the beard is not
completely formed until the age of manhood,
it has always been considered as an emblem
of wisdom. " II est terns d'etre sage, quand
on a la barbe au menton," it is time to be
wise now that you have a beard on your chin;
and, "Hombre de barba," with the Spaniards,
means a man of knowledge, or intelligence.
" Diga barba que haga," let your beard advise
you
you what is befitting you to do, and "a poca
barba, poca virguenza," little beard, little
shame, or modesty. " Quixadas sin barbas no
inerecen ser honradas," chins without beards
deserve no honour. " Fa ire la barbe," among
the French, means to deceive, or impose on
any one, by superior address or cunning; also,
to excel in wisdom and sagacity. Among
the Persians, and perhaps generally in the
east, the beard is held in great reverence, and
to speak of it slightingly or disrespectfully,
would be resented, and for a stranger to vio-
late it, by touching it, would probably be
avenged by instant death.
JYb;z est ejusdem et multa, et opportuna dicere.
It is not easy for any one to talk a great
deal, and altogether to the purpose. " A
mucho hablar, mucho errar," talk much, and
err much. " No diga la langua par do pague
la cabeza," " the tongue talks at the head's
cost," and " eating little, and speaking little,
can never do harm." "He that speaks doth
sow, but he that is silent reaps." " En boca
cerrada,
cerrada, no entra moscha," flies do not enter
the mouth that is shut, and " Fous sont sages,
quand ils se taisent," fools are wise, or may
be so reputed, when they are silent.
Aut Regem aut Fatuum nasci oportuit.
A man should either be born a king or an
idiot, he should be at the topr or at the
bottom of the wheel of fortune ; at the least,
there are men so ambitious, of such high and
daring spirits, that they will venture every
thing, their fortunes, and their lives, to attain
to the highest rank in their country. They
will be, "aut Caesar, aut nullus," either kings
or beggars. " O rico, o pinjada," rich, or
hanged, "neck, or nothing." Milton makes
Lucifer say,
" To reign is worth ambition, though in hell.
Better to reign in hell, than serve in heaven."
But the adage seems to have a special refer-
ence to the respect usually paid to idiots.
In Turkey, and in other parts of the east,
they were held in such veneration, that it was
thought to be no less than a sin to oppose, or
control
( 63 )
control them in any thing they were disposed
to do. They had therefore equal liberty with
kings, who say and do whatever they please.
To a late period, it was usual with the nobles,
in this, as well as in other countries of Europe,
to entertain in their houses a fool, for their
diversion, who often took the liberty of re-
proving their masters for their follies, and in
much freer language than any other persons
were permitted to use. When Jaques, in "As
you like it," proposed putting on a fool's coat,
he says,
• " I must have liberty
Withal, as large a charter as the wind,
To blow on whom I please ; for so fools have."
May it be added, what is currently said,
"Fools are fortunate." They also may be
said to be happy, as they neither anticipate
evil, nor even feeLthe full pressure of it when
present. " Dieu aide a trois sortes de per-
sonnes, aux fous, aux enfans, et auxivrognes,"
God protects three sorts of persons, fools,
infants, and drunkards, the latter rarely fall-
ing, it is said, into any danger, even when
full of drink. The French also say, " T£te
de
( 64 )
cle fou ne blanchit jamais," the head of the
fool never becomes grey, which is probably
not better founded than the former obser-
vation.
Minutula Pluvia Imbrem parit.
Many small drops make a shower. " Goutte
a goutte la mer s'egoute," the sea itself
may be emptied by drops. " Petit a. petit
1'oiseau fait son nid," by little and little the
bird makes his nest, and "many a little
makes a mickle." By the accumulation of
small sums, large fortunes may frequently be
made. " Poco 6 spesso empie il borsetto,"
little and often fills the purse. Therefore the
proverb says, "Take care of your pence,
your shillings and your pounds will take
care of themselves. '\ The adage also admo-
nishes, not to disregard slight evils, they may
increase to a considerable magnitude; or small
expenses, for if there be many of them, though
each of them singly may be insignificant, to-
gether they will make a formidable sum. Of
the same tendency is,
Gutta
( 65 )
Gutta cavat Lapidem.
By the constant trickling of water, the solid
stone becomes excavated. This should en-
courage us to perseverance in industry, to
which few things are impossible. " Mad ruga y
veras, trabaja y auras," rise betimes and you
will see, labour assiduously and you will have.
" Oft little add to little, and the amount
Will swell, heaped atoms thus produce a mount."
Hum ausculta, cui quatuor sunt Aures.
Listen to him who has four ears. It is not
known what gave birth to this adage, but it
is understood, as advising to attend to old
and experienced persons, who are slow in
judging, who are more ready to hear than to
speak; or, as the English proverb has it, "who
have wide ears and short tongues."
" He that hears much, and speaks not at all,
Shall be welcome in parlour, in kitchen and hall/'
" Oi, voye, et te taise,
Si tu veux vivre en pais."
That is, if you wish to live quietly, hear, see,
F and
( 66 )
and be silent ; which is taken probably from
the following monkish line.
" Audi, vide, tace, si vis vivere in pace."
A similar sense has, "prospectandum vetulo
latrante cane," when the old dog barks, or
opens, then attend.
Adfelicem inflectere Parietem.
When a vessel, in sailing, inclines too much
to one side, the passengers usually crowd to
the other, where seems to be the greatest
safety, and when fortune ceases to smile on
any one, or he is found to be sinking, it is
then that his friends usually leave him, and
fly to others who are more successful. Though
such conduct cannot but* be condemned by
all ingenuous persons, yet on the other hand,
we should not so connect ourselves with the
fortunes of those who are falling, as to make
our own ruin inevitable with theirs. 1' Juvare
arnicos rebus afflictis decet." We should in-
deed assist our friends in their misfortunes,
but not at the hazard of the destruction of
ourselves arid families, otherwise we should
subject
subject ourselves to the censure implied in.
the following, " Alienos agros irrigas, tuis
sitientibus," while watering the fields of our
neighbour, we leave our own to be parched
with drought. " Harto es necio y loco, quien
vacia su cuerpo, por inchir el de otro," he is
foolish and mad enough, who empties his own
purse to fill that of another.
Manumnonverterim, Digitum
Are Latin phrases used to express the most
perfect supineness and indifference on any
subject, and which we have adopted : " I
would not give a turn of my hand, or hold
out a finger to obtain it," or, "I value not a
straw what such a person may say of me," or,
" there is not the turn of a straw difference
between them."
Emere malo, quam rogare.
I had rather buy what I want, than ask
any one for it. To an ingenuous mind, it is a
hard thing to be obliged to say, I beg; he had
F 2 rather
( 68 )
rather purchase what he stands in need of,
with his own money, or if he has not money,
with the labour of his own hands. " Neque
enim levi mercede emit, qui precatur," he
pays no small price for a favour, who buys it
by intreaties. " If I had money," Socrates
said, "I would this morning have bought
myself a coat." Though the money was im-
mediately supplied by his friend, yet it came,
Seneca observes, too late. It was a shame
that such a man should have been reduced to
the necessity of asking for it.
Ubi amid, ibi opes.
Where there are friends, there is wealth, or,
in the usual acceptation of the proverb, It
is better to have friends without money, than
money without friends. "Aquelles son ricos,
que tienen amigos," they are rich who have
friends. To be possessed of friends, is doubt-
less valuable, as they may stand us in stead
in our troubles ; but in the ordinary occur-
rences of life, money may be depended on
with more certainty, as it will purchase us
both
( 69 )
both conveniences and friends. " Las nece-
dades del rico, por sentencias passan en el
mundo," even the foolish sayings of the rich,
pass in the world as oracles. We may there-
fore more truly say, " Ubi opes, ibi amici,"
he that has wealth has friends ; " Vulgus
amicitias utilitate probat," for friends are
commonly esteemed only in proportion to the
advantages they are able to procure us.
"Hood an ass with reverend purple,
So you can hide his two ambitious ears,
And he shall pass for a cathedral doctor." — Volpone.
Thus aulicum.
Court incense. The splendid promises of
courtiers, like the odoriferous vapour of.
frankincense, please the Qenses for a time,
but they are both of them light and volatile,
and leave no beneficial effects behind them.
Contra Stimulum calces.
1 You are kicking against the pricks," may
be said to persons, who, impatient under any
affliction or injury, by attempting to avenge
F 3 themselves,
( 70 )
themselves, increase their misfortune ; or who
contend with persons capable of inflicting a
much severer punishment, than that which
they are suffering. "Paul, Paul, why per-
secutest thou me? It is hard for thee to kick
against the pricks." The adage takes its rise
from the custom of goading oxen, to make
them go forward, with sticks, having sharp
points. If they are restive and push back-
wards, they force the points of the sticks into
their flesh.
Nullus sum.
I am undone, lost beyond all possibility of
redemption, was the exclamation of Davus,
when he found that he had, by his schemes,
precipitated his master into the very engage-
ment he was employed, and actually meant to
extricate him from.
Nee Obolum habet, unde Restim emat. .
He has not a penny left to buy an halter.
He has no property, " ne in pelle quidem,"
not
( .71 )
not even in his skin. " Ne obolus quiclem
relictus est," he has totally dissipated and
wasted his property, not a morsel, or the
smallest particle of it remains. " He is as poor
as a church mouse."
" Beg," Gratiano says to Shylock, " that
thou may est have leave to hang thyself;
" And yet, thy wealth being forfeit to the state,
Thou hast not left the value of a cord ;
Therefore thou must be hanged at the state's charge."
" No le alcaca la sal al agua," " he is so poor,"
the Spaniards say, " that he hath not salt
enough to season his water." Xenophon, in
his dialogues, makes one of the interlocutors
say, " he had not so much land as would
furnish dust for the body of a wrestler."
De Land caprinA.
Disputing about what is of no value, about
goat's wool, which can be turned to no profit,
and half the disputes in the world are of as
little importance; at the least, the subjects of
them are rarely of half the value of the trouble
and expense incurred in the contest. Of the
F 4 same
( 72 )
same kind are, " De fumo disceptare," vel
" deasini umbra." Plutarch tells a ludicrous
story, as giving origin to the latter adage.
Demosthenes observing, that the judges before
whom he was pleading, paid no attention to
what he was saying, but were discoursing on
matters that had no relation to the subject
before them, said to them, "If you will lend
your attention a little, I have now a story to
relate that will amuse you." Finding they
were turned to him, he said, "A certain
young man hired an ass, to carry provision to
a neighbouring town, but the day proving to
be very hot, and there being no place on the
road affording shelter, he stopped the ass, and
sat himself down on one side of him, so as to
be shaded by the ass from the sun. On this,
the driver insisted on his getting up, aHeging
that he had hired the ass to carry his load,
not to afford him a shade. The man, on the
other hand, contended, that having hired the
ass for the journey, he had a right to use him
as a screen from the sun, as well as to carry
his goods ; besides, he added, the goods on
the back of the ass, which were his, afforded
more
( 73 )
more than half the shade; and so long a dis-
pute ensued, which came at length to blows."
Demosthenes, perceiving the judges were now
fully intent on listening to his story, sud-
denly broke off, and descending from the
rostrum, proceeded to walk out of the court.
The judges calling to him to finish his story,
" I perceive you are ready enough," he said,
" to listen to a ridiculous story about the
shadow of an ass, but when I was pleading
the cause of a man, accused of a crime affect-
ing his life, you had not leisure to pay it the
necessary attention, to enable you to be mas-
ters of the subject on which you were to
decide." A story in many respects similar to
this, is related of Dr. Elmar, who was Bishop
of London in the time of Queen Elizabeth.
In the course of a sermon he was preaching
in his parish church, before he had attained
to the dignity of a bishopric, finding his
auditory careless and inattentive, he read,
with great solemnity, a passage from a Hebrew
book he happened to have with him. This
drawing the attention of the congregation, he
reproved them for their inconsistency in lis-
tening
( 74 )
tening to him when reading a language they
did not understand, and neglecting or refus-
ing to hear him, when explaining to them in
their own language, doctrines, which they
were materially interested to know and un-
derstand.
Talpd ccKcior.
Blinder than a mole. The ancients thought
moles had no eyes, but they have two small
eyes, affording them so much sight, as to en-
able them to know when they have emerged
through the earth, and they no sooner per-
ceive the light, than they return into their
burrows, where alone they can be safe. This
proverb is applied to persons who are exceed-
ingly slow in conceiving, or understanding
what is said to them ; also to persons search-
ing for what lays immediately before them.
" If it was a bear," we say, " it would bite
you." To the same purport is
Leberide c&cior.
By the leberis, the Latins meant the dry
and cast skin of a serpent, or of any other
animal,
( 75 )
animal, accustomed to change its coat, in
which the apertures for the eyes only remain.
With us, it is usual, in censuring the same
defect, to say, " He is as blind as a beetle."
" We are all of us used to be Argus's abroad,
but moles at home," but how much better
would it be to correct an error in ourselves,
than to find an hundred in our neighbours.
PecunicE, obediunt omnla.
" Money masters all things." All things
obey, or are subservient to money, it is there-
fore the principal object of our attention.
" Sine me vocari pessimum, ut dives vocer,"
call the what you will, so you do but admit
me to be rich. " Nemo an bonus : an dives
omnes qua3rimus." When about to treat
with or enter into business with any one,
we do not so much inquire whether he is a
good, as whether he is a rich man ; " Nee
quare et unde ? quid habeat, tantum rogant,"
nor by what means he acquired his money,
but only how much he actually possesses.
" Gifts," we say, " break through stone walls,"
for
( 76 )
for what virtue is proof against a bribe ? " He
that has money in his purse, cannot want a
head for his shoulders." That is, he will never
want persons to advise, assist, and defend him.
" I d-iiiari fan correre i cavallo," " it is mo-
ney that makes the mare to go." " For dinero
buy hi el perro," the dog dances for money ;
and l< Quien dinaro tiene, hazo lo que quiere,"
he that has money may have what he pleases.
" Plate sin with gold, and the strong arm
of justice cannot reach it; clothe it in rags, a
pigmy straw will pierce it." Volpone, in the
comedy of that name, addressing his gold,
says
" Such are thy beauties, and our loves, dear saint,
Riches ! thou dumb god, that giv'st all men tongues ;
That canst do naught, and yet mak'st men do all things ;
The price of souls ; even hell, with thee to boot,
Is made worth heaven. Thou art virtue, fame,
Honour, and all things else. Who can get thee,
He shall be noble, valiant, honest, wise."
On the other hand, we are told, that Fortune
makes those whom she most favours fools;
" Fortuna nimium quern favet, stultum facit,"
and " Ubi mens plurima, ibi minima fortuna/'
those
( 77 )
those who abound in knowledge are usually
most deficient in money. It has a^s° been ob-
served, that riches excite envy, and often ex-
pose the possessors of it to danger : the storm
passes over the shrub, but tears up the oak by
its roots. " God help the rich/' we say, " the
poor can beg."
" Cantabit vacuus coram latrone viator,"
the thief who makes the rich man to tremble,
excites no alarm in the breast of the beggar ;
he has nothing to lose.
" Hence, robbers hence, to yonder wealthier door,
Unenvied poverty protects the poor.
" Non esse cupidum, pecunia est, non esse
emacem, vectigal est," not to be covetous, to
desire riches, is wealth ; not to be extravagant
or expensive, is an estate. Hence poverty
has been called, the harbour of peace and se^
curity, where undisturbed sleep and undissem-
bled joys do dwell. " Fidelius rident tugu-
ria," the laughter of the cottage is more
hearty and sincere than that of the court:
great \vealth therefore conduces but little to
happiness : and " as he who has health is
young;
( 78 )
young; so be who owes nothing is rich."
"Dantur quidem bonis, ne quis mala estimet;
malis autem, ne quis nimis bona," riches are
given to the good, St. Austin says, that they
mav not be esteemed an evil ; to the bad, that
*/
they may not be too highly valued.
Omnium horarum homo.
A companion for all hours or seasons.
This may be said of persons of versatile and
easy dispositions, who can accommodate them-
selves to all circumstances, whether of festivity
or of trouble ; who with the grave can be seri-
ous, with the gay cheerful ; and who are
equally fit to conduct matters of business or
of pleasure: such a man, we are told, was the
philosopher Aristippus.
" Omnis Aristippum decuit color.''
Every thing became him, by which enviable
qualities, he was always a favoured guest at all
tables and in all companies.
Veritatis
(" 79 )
Veritatis simplex est oratio.
Truth needs not the ornament of many
words, it is most lovely then when least
adorned. There are circumstances, however,
in which art may honestly be used ; when we
have any afflicting news to communicate, it is
often necessary to prepare the mind for its re-
ception by some general observations : or
when we would persuade a person to do what
we know to be unpleasant, but which we be-
lieve would be ultimately to his advantage;
or would recal him from courses or connec-
tions, we believe to be injurious to his fame or
fortune. In these cases a blunt declaration of
our intentions would defeat the proposed end,
and we must have recourse to a little art and
management to engage the attention of the
persons whom we wish to persuade. The pro-
verb is opposed to those who. by a multiplicity
of words, endeavour to obscure the truth, and
to induce those they converse with to enter-
tain opinions very different to what they
would have formed, if the story had been told
in a plain and simple manner. Two architects
•having
( 80 )
having offered themselves as candidates to
erect a public building at Athens, the one de-
scribed in a florid and ostentatious manner,
all the parts of the building, and with what
ornaments he would complete it ; when he had
finished, the other only said, " My lords,
what this man has said, I will do." He was
elected.
Injuries sprcta cxolescunt, si irascaris
^ agnita videntur.
Injuries that are slighted and suffered to
pass unnoticed, are soon forgotten; by resent-
ing them, unless you are able to punish the
agressor, you acknowledge yourself to be
hurt, and so afford a triumph to the person
who gave the affront. " Deridet, sed non
derideor," he laugheth, but I am not laugh-
ed at. " The wise man passeth by an injury,
but anger resteth in the bosom of a fool.
Omnes sibi melius esse malunt quam alteri*
We all of us wish better to ourselves than
to others. Though a friend is said to be ano-
ther
( 81 )
ther self, yet what affects our own safety, is
doubtless to be attended to before the con-
cerns of any other person, for " proximus
egomet mihi," I am my own nearest relation ;
and " Charity begins at home." " Tunica pal-
lio propior est." " Near is my shirt," we say,
" but nearer is my skin." To the same purport,
and nearly in the same words are, " Ma che-
mise m'est plus proche que ma robe." Fr.
" Tocca piu la camisa ch' il gippone." It.
" Mas cerca esta la camisa, que el sayo," thajt
is, my shirt is nearer than my coat.
Extra Telorum Jactum.
Beyond bow-shot, or the reach of darts.
" Out of harm's way." " Out of debt, out of
clanger." Be concerned in no disputes, and
neither say nor do any thing of which an ad-
vantage may be taken, is the direction of pru-
dence; but from the mixed nature of human
affairs, not to be completely followed, but by
those who live only for themselves. Let
those, however, who neglect this caution be
sure that they have resolution enough to bear,
* or
( 82 )
or strength sufficient to overcome the difficul-
ties they may have brought upon themselves by
their imprudence. Socrates being asked, who
was the wisest man, answered " he who offends
the least."
Non cuivis homini contingit adire Cormthum.
It is not the fortune of every man to be
able to go to Corinth. This city, from its
commerce, and from the great concourse of
strangers accustomed to visit it, became the
o »
most wealthy, and in time, the most volup-
tuous city in the world ; it was also cele-
brated for its numerous and splendid temples,
baths, theatres, and other exquisitely rich and
beautiful public buildings, and unfortunately
not less so for its debaucheries. It was, there-
fore, only suitable to the circumstances of the
rich to visit a place so dissipated and expen-
sive. Corinth gave its name to the fourth
order of architecture, which was invented and
first employed in the public buildings there,
and to a metallic composition, Corinthian
brass, which was very beautiful and durable,
but
( 83 )
but of which there are no vestiges remaining.
The proverb may be aptly used to deter per-
sons from entering on pursuits, or engaging in
projects much beyond their faculties or powers
to carry into execution.
Fenestram, vel Januam aperire,
May be said when any one has incautiously
given information which may be turned to
the disadvantage of themselves or their friends.
Do you see what consequences may follow,
what mischief may ensue ? you have opened a
door to a thousand evils.
Ovem Lupo commisisti.
" Entregar las ovejas al lobo," you have
trusted the sheep to the care of the wolf, the
geese to the keeping of the fox. This may
be said of a parent who has left his children
in the hands of rapacious guardians, who will
fleece them of their property, not husband and
preserve it : a misfortune which happened to
Erasmus, When in conversation we have dis-
G 2 closed
( 84 )
closed any thing to those who should not have
known it, and who will be enabled to injure
persons whom they wish to oppress ; it may
be said, you have now put him in the power of
his enemy ; " you have given the wolf the
weather to keep."
Nulla Dies sine L'mea.
No day without a line, was the advice and
the practice of Apelles. No one must expect
to be perfect in any art, without incessant
care and diligence; therefore,
" Nulla dies abeat, quin linea ducta supersit,"
no day should be suffered to pass, without leav-
ing some memorial of itself. " Diem perdidi,"
" I have lost a day," was the exclamation of
the Emperor Titus, finding, on a review of
what had been performed, that he had relieved
no distressed person, nor done any act deserv-
ing recollection in the course of the day.
Manibus, Pedibusque.
With the utmost exertion of our hands and
feet,
( 85 )
feet, or " with tooth and nail," as we say.
" Nervis omnibus," " straining every nerve,"
exerting our utmost power or ability to effect
the purpose; " Remis velisque," pushing it on
with oars and sails ; " Omnem movere lapi-
dem," " leaving no stone unturned," to dis-
cover what we are in search of, are forms of
speech used by the Romans, which have been
adopted by us, and are therefore here ad-
mitted ; as may be also " Toto pectore," with
our whole soul, loving or hating any one.
These are all, and indeed many more similar
expressions, treated of by Erasmus as distinct
proverbs ; but it was thought to be better to
bring them together here, in this manner.
It may not be amiss, once for all, to observe,
that I have not confined myself to the sense
given by Erasmus to many of the adages.
As I have frequently passed over very long
disquisitions, when they appeared to me not
suitable to the present state of literature, or of
the times ; so on the other hand, I have some-
times expatiated largely, where he has given
the exposition in two or three lines. Another
considerable difference is, that here are intro-
G 3 duced
( 86 )
duced many corresponding adages, in the
French, Italian," Spanish, and English lan-
guages, none of which are to be found in his
book. It is singular, Jortin remarks, that
though Erasmus spent a large part of his time
in France, Italy, and England, it does not ap-
pear that he was ever able to converse in any
of those languages; or perhaps to read the pro-
ductions of any of the writers in those coun-
tries, excepting such as were written in Latin ;
which, as a language in general use, appears
to have been adopted by most of the literati
down to his time ; excepting perhaps by the
Italians, whose language had attained a higher
degree of polish and perfection than any of
the others.
Sub ornni Lapide Scorpius clormit.
We should believe that under every stone
a scorpion may be lodged, which seems to be
the sense of the adage ; and it is intended to
admonish us in all business to act with deli-
beration and caution, that we may not involve
ourselves
( 87 )
ourselves in troubles and dangers; particularly
we should set a guard over our tongues and
not be too communicative, lest we should
instruct others in any plans we may have
formed for the advancement of our affairs,
who may thence be enabled to become our
rivals, and prevent the completion of our de-
signs : or by speaking too freely of the con-
cerns of others excite enmities which mav be
«/
productive of consequences still more mis-
chievous. " Volto sciolto," the Italians say, " i
pensiert stretti," be free and open in your coun-
tenance and address, but cautious and reserved
in your communications. There are many other
similar cautions ; " Latet anguis in herba,"
there is a snake in the grass, take care how
you tread. " Debaxo de la miel, ay hiel,"
under the honey you may find gall. " Paredes
tien oydos :" and " tras pared, ni tras seto, no
digas tu secreto." tc Walls have ears," be cau-
tious what you say; and " little pitchers have
long ears." Children, even when playing about
you, are often more attentive to what you are
saying, than to their own amusement. " Dizen
los ninos en el solejar, lo que oyen a sus pa-
G 4 dres
v
( 38 )
dres en el bogar," they tell when abroad, \vhat
they hear their parents saying by the fireside.
In the countries where scorpions breed, they
are frequently found lying under stones, as
worms are in this country ; any one therefore
incautiously removing a stone, under which
one of these venemous reptiles may happen to
lie, will be in danger of being stung by the
enraged animal, whence the proverb.
Asinum sub frceno currere doces.
Teaching an ass to obey the rein, which the
ancients thought to be nearly as difficult as
u to wash a black-a-moor white," or to do any
other impossible thing, " Labour in vain."
Though I think it is not now found to be
so difficult, and those animals are made to
serve for many useful purposes. The adage
is used by Horace, and with much elegance,
in his first Satire.
" At si cognates nullo natura labore
Quos tibi dat, retinere veils, servareque amicos;
Infelix operam perclas ; ut si quis asellum
In campo doceat parentem currere frcenis."
Put if you expect to obtain the affection of
your
( 89 )
your relations, or to preserve the esteem of
your friends, without making any return for
their kindness, you will find yourself, wretch
that you are, miserably deceived, as he would
be, who should attempt to teach an ass to be
obedient to the rein.
Annosam Arborem transplantare.
Persons quitting a business or profession in
which they have been long engaged, and had
been successful, and attempting some new
employment, are as little likely to succeed, as a
tree is to flourish, when removed from the soil
in which it had been long fixed.
Aranearum Telas texere.
Weaving of cobwebs, which persons are
said to do, who waste their time and money
in frivolous pursuits ; in procuring what will
be of no use when obtained : in collecting
* O
butterflies, cockle-shells, &c. " et stultus
labor est ineptiarum," and such like fooleries.
Laws also, which by the great are easily
evaded,
( 90 )
evaded, and which seem only made to entrap
the poor, are, by common consent, called cob-
web contrivances. They were so called by
Anarcharsis — "They catch," he said, "small
flies, but wasps and hornets break them with
impunity."
" Hence little villains oft submit to fate,
That great ones may enjoy the world in state."
Sat pulchra, si sat bona.
" Fair enough, if good enough, " for
"handsome is, who handsome does," and
"sat cito si sat bene," "soon enough, if
well enough," are proverbs of all ages, and all
countries, and need no explanation. " Her-
mosa es por cierto, la que es buena de su
cuerpo," the woman who is modest is suffi-
ciently handsome.
Harence mandas Semina. In Aqua vel in Saxis
semen tern fads.
Sowing your grain among stones, where
they cannot take root, in the water, or on
sand.
( 91 )
sand. " In aqua scribis, in harena sedificas,"
writing on water, or building on sand, with
many others, are phrases used by the Romans,
and are applicable to persons bestowing much
labour in effecting what is impossible to be
done, or heaping favours upon an ungrateful
person, from whom no return can be expected.
" Can the ^Ethiopian change his skin, or the
leopard his spots ?"
Later em lavas.
It is like washing bricks, which the more
you scour them, the more muddy they become:
meaning bricks made of clay, and not burnt,
but dried in the sun ; such as were used in
the East, and probably are so now, or " Laver
la te"te d'un ane," by which the French de-
signate such unavailing attempts. The pro-
verb may also be applied to persons, endea-
vouring by fictitious ornaments to make any
thing appear more beautiful and valuable than
it is, or by rhetorical flourishes to give a false
colour to any action.
Surdo
( 92 )
Surdo can is.
You are preaching to the deaf; to prepos-
sessed and prejudiced ears; to persons so be-
sotted and addicted to their vices, that they
will not listen to you, though your advice he
most suitable to them, and such as they can-
not reject, but to their manifest disadvantage.
" They are like to the deaf adder, which
stoppeth her ears, and refuseth to hear the
voice of the charmer, charm he never so
wisely." As the following narrative seems to
give an ingenious explanation of this passage
in the Psalms, it is here added. "There is a
kind of snake in India," Mr. Forbes says, in
his Oriental Memoirs, lately published, " which
is called the dancing snake. They are carried
in baskets throughout Hindostan, and procure
a maintenance for a set of people, who play a
few simple notes on the flute, with which the
snakes seem much delighted, and keep time
by a graceful motion of the head, erecting
about half their length from the ground, and
following the music with gentle curves, like
the undulating lines of a swan's neck. It is a
well attested fact, that when a house is in-
fested
( 93 )
fested with these snakes, and some others of
the coluber genus, which destroy poultry, and
small domestic animals, as also by the larger
serpents of the boa tribe, the musicians are
sent for, who, by playing on a flageolet, find
out their hiding places, and charm them to
destruction ; for no sooner do the snakes hear
the music, than they come from their retreat,
and are easily taken. I imagine," Mr. Forbes
says, " that these musical snakes were known
in Palestine, from the Psalmist comparing the
ungodly to ' the deaf adder, which stoppeth
her ears, and refuseth to hear the voice of the
charmer, charm he never so wisely.' When
the music ceaseth, the snakes appear motion-
less, but if not immediately covered up in the
basket, the spectators are liable to fatal acci-
dents. Among my drawings is that of a cobra
de capello, which danced for an hour on the
table, while I painted it, during which I fre-
quently handled it, to observe the beauty of
the spots, and especially the spectacles on the
hood, not doubting but that its venemous
fangs had been previously extracted. But the
next morning I was informed by my servant,,
that
that while purchasing some fruit, lie observed
the man who had been with me the preceding
evening, entertaining the country people, who
were sitting on the ground around him, with
his dancing snakes, when the animal that I
O '
had so often handled, darted suddenly at the
throat of a young woman, and inflicted a
wound, of which she died in about half an
hour."
Delph'mum nature doces, vel Aquilam volare.
Affecting to give information to persons on
subjects they are better acquainted with than
ourselves, is like teaching birds to fly, or fishes
to swim.
Malta cadant inter Calicem, supremaque Labra.
" Entre la bouche, et le verre,
Le vin souvent tombe a terre."
" Many things happen between the cup and
the lip," was the saying of a servant to his
master, whom he saw anxiously tending a
vine, from which he promised himself an abun-
dant produce of excellent liquor, of which,
however,
( 95 )
however, he was not permitted to partake ;
for, at the moment he was about to taste the
wine, the reward, as he thought, of his labour,
he was told that a boar had broke into his
vineyard, and was destroying his trees ; run-
ning hastily to drive away the beast, it turned
upon him, and killed him. We are hence
taught, not to be too sanguine in our hopes
of success, even in our best concerted projects,
it too often happening that they fail in pro-
ducing the intended advantages. " De la mano
a la boca, se pierde la sopa," is the same sen-
timent in Spanish. The adage may also be
-explained, as admonishing us " to take time
by the forelock," that is. not to let a present
opportunity, or advantage, to pass by, a similar
one may not again occur. " Strike, therefore,
while the iron is hot," and
" He that will not when he may,
When he will he shall have nay."
Incidis in Scyllam, cupiens vitare Charybdim.
Attempting to escape the rocks of Scylla,
we are ingulphed in the whirlpool of Cha-
ry bdis.
( 96 )
rybclis. The two opposite coasts of the strait
dividing Sicily and Italy, were anciently called
by these names, and as they were steep and
rocky, they appeared so formidable, and per-
haps occasioned so many ships to be wrecked,
that Homer makes Ulysses describe them as
two terrible monsters, that stood ready to
destroy any vessels that came within their
reach. All possible endeavours were therefore
used by mariners, to keep their ships in the
middle of the strait. The proverb is applied
to persons who, attempting to avoid one evil,
fall into another more grievous and insupport-
able ; who, attempting to rescue a part of their
property which they see in danger, lose both
their property and their lives. " It is falling,'"
\ve say, " out of the fryingpan into the fire,"
in which form the proverb has been adopted
by the French, the Italians, and the Spanish.
" Sauter de la poile, et se jetter dans les
braises." " Cader d'alla padella nelle bragie."
" Saltar de la sarten, y caer en las brasas,"
but of two evils we should choose the least.
" Meglio 6 dar la lana, che la pecora," better
lose the wool than the sheep.
The
The adage is used by Philip Gualtier, a
Flemish writer of the thirteenth century, in a
poem celebrating the conquests of Alexander
the Great. The lines are an apostrophe, ad-
dressed to Darius, who, flying from Alexander^
fell into the hands of Bessus, one of his gene-
rals.
• "Quo tendis inertem,
Rex periture, fugam ? nescis, lieu, perdite ! nescia
Quern fugias; hostes incurris, d'um fugis hostera.
Incidis in Scyllam, cupiens vitare Charybdim."
Menagiana, vol. 3. p. 130.
Whither, O unfortunate prince, do you bend
your unavailing flight ? you know not, alas,
from whom you are flying; attempting to
avoid one enemy, you fall into the hands of
another, more savage and destructive. Endea-
vouring to escape Chary bclis, you are wrecked
en the rocks of Scylla.
Flamma Fumo est proximo,.
If there were no fire, there could be no
smoke. " Common fame is seldom to blame."
All that we have heard may not be true, but
so much could not have been said, if there
H were
( 98 )
were no foundation. We should avoid the
first approach to vice, or danger; though small
at first, it may increase to an alarming magni-
tude. The smoke may soon be succeeded by
flame. He who would keep his morals un-
tainted, must not associate familiarly with the
debauched and wicked.
" Vice is a monster of such frightful mien,
As to be hated needs but to be seen ;
But seen too oft, familiar with her face,
We first admire, next pity, then embrace."
The fox, when he first saw a lion, ran from
him in great terror, but meeting one a second,
and then a third time, he had courage enough
to approach, and salute him. The Spaniards
and the French use the proverb somewhat
differently. " Cerca le anda el humo, tras
la llama," and " II n'y a point de feu sans
fume"e/' where there is fire, there will be some
smoke; that is, where any foul action has been
committed, it will by some outlet or other
escape, and become known, "Murder will
out," we say.
( 99 )
Paupertas Sapientiam sortita est,
" La P overt a e la Madre chile Invenxione"
" Necessity is the Mother of Invention."
" Magister artis ingeniique largitor venter,"
venter, or the stomach, is the master of all
art, and bestower of genius and invention.
" Hunger," we therefore say, " will break
through stone walls." "The stomach," Rabelais
says, " only speaks by signs, but those signs
are more readily obeyed by every one, than
the statutes of senates, or the commands of
monarchs." To answer is useless, for " El
vientre ayuno, no oye ninguno," " the stomach
has no ears."
Persons who have no property but what is
procured by their industry, on which they
may subsist, will endeavour more diligently
to improve their understandings, than those
who, being amply endowed, find every thing
provided to their hands, without labour.
" Crosses are ladders that do lead to heaven."
Consonant to which the French say, " Vrent
au visage rend un homme sage," wind in a
man's face, that is, adversity, or trouble, makes
ii 2 .him
him wise; and, "a pobrcza no ay verguenca,"
poverty has no shame, that is-, want makes
men bold, and to descend to means, for their
subsistence, which, in better circumstances,
they would be ashamed to have recourse to*
This, more than all o^ther considerations,
should induce every one "Messe tenus propria
vivere," to live within their means, "to let
their purse be their master."
Bis Pueri Senes.
Ancient persons are twice children, or as
we say, " Once a man, and twice a child."
Age ordinarily induces a degree of imbecility,
both in the mind and body, resembling child-
hood. Persons in a very advanced age become
feeble and impotent, their legs tremble, oblig-
ing them to support themselves with a stick ;
their hands shake, so that they are unable to
cut their food, and at length of even carrying
it to their mouths. They become toothless,
and are obliged, like children, to be fed with
spoon-meats; their eyes become weak, incapa-
citating them from reading, and their organs
of
( 101 )
of hearing dull and obtuse, so that they can
no longer take a part in conversation. These
two sources of information heing cut off, the
mind, no longer solicited by the surrounding
objects, or excited by the acquisition of new
materials, becomes languid and inert ; the
traces of the knowledge it had acquired, be-
come faint, and are at length nearly oblite-
rated, and thus is induced a complete second
childhood, "and mere oblivion, sans teeth,
sans eyes, sans taste, sans every thing."
" Ubi jam validis quassatum est viribus aevi
Corpus, et obtusis cecitlerunt viribus artus,
Claudicat ingenium, delirat linguaque mensque."
LUCRET. Lib.\\l. lin. 452.
" When age prevails,
And the quick vigour of each member fails,
The mind's brisk powers decrease, and waste apace,
And grave and reverend folly takes the place."
Trans, by CKEECII.
Crambe bis posita, Mors.
By frequent repetition, even the most plea-
sant and agreeable story tires, and at length
nauseates, as do also the most favourite viands.
The particular plant called Crambe by the
H 3 ancients
( 102 )
ancients is not now known. It was thought
to have the power of preventing the inebriat-
ing effects of wine, and hence we are told, a
portion of it, previously baked, was usually
taken by the /Egyptians, and some other
nations, before sitting down to their tables,
that they might indulge more freely in drink-
ing; but twice baked, or too often taken, it ex^
cited nausea and disgust, whence the proverb.
"Occidit miseros crambe repetita magistros." — JUVENAL,
To hear the same lesson, so oft repeated, is
the death of us poor masters.
Manum de tabula.
Desist, leave off correcting and amending,
"Nimia cura detent magis quam emendat,"
too much care may injure instead of improving
your work. " You should therefore let well
alone." Apelles, seeing Protogenes with too
much care and anxiety, labouring to give a
complete finishing to a picture, which he had
already made extremely beautiful, fearful lest
by such frequent touching, and retouching,
he
C 103 )
he should diminish, instead of heightening its
value, cried out " manum cle tabula." The
adage is of extensive application, being refer-
able to every kind of work, among others, to
this of explaining proverbs, which too much
labour, instead of elucidating, may render
obscure.
Veterem Injuriamferendo, invitas novam.
By quietly bearing, and putting up with
one affront, we often lay ourselves open to
fresh insults. Though humanity and tender-
ness towards our neighbours and associates,
and a disposition to overlook slight offences,
is highly commendable, and is becoming the
frailty of our nature; yet too great facility in
this point, is not only improper, but may in,
the end be highly injurious, even to the parties
whose offence we have overlooked. JEsop has
given us in one of his fables a story, which
may serve to illustrate this adage. " A boy
out of idleness and wantonness, throwing
stones at, and otherwise insulting him, he
had recourse, at first," he says, " to intreaties
n4 to
( 104 }
to induce him to desist: these failing, he gave
him a small piece of money, all, he told the
boy, he could spare ; at the same time he
shewed him a more wealthy person, who was
coining that way, and advised him to throw
stones at him, from whom he might expect a
much larger reward. The boy followed his
advice, but the rich man, instead of in treating,
or bribing him to desist, ordered his servants
to take him before a magistrate, by whom he
was severely punished. " Socrates, indeed,
seemed to be of a different opinion, when he
said, " If an ass kicks me, shall I strike him
again?" but this forbearance must not be car-
ried too far, for, according to the Italian pro-
verb, " Che pecora si fa, il lupo la mangia,"
and the French, " Qui se fait brebis, le loup
le mange," that is, he that makes himself a
sheep, shall be eaten by the wolf. If a strange
dog, going along the street, claps his tail
between his1 legs, and runs away, every cur
will snap at him ; but, if he turns upon them,
and gives a counter snarl, they will let him go
on without further molestation.
Ansam
( 105 )
Ansam qucerere.
Seeking a handle or opportunity for break-
ing an agreement into which any one may
have improvidently entered, or an occasion
for quarrelling ; and to persons of a litigious
disposition, very trifling causes M7511 afford han-
dle sufficient for the purpose. The phrase is
used by us in as many ways, as it was formerly
among the Romans. You know the temper
of the man, be careful that you give him no
handle, no ground for cavilling, though that
may be difficult, as a man so disposed, will
make a handle of any thing. " When we
have determined to beat a dog, the first hedge
we come to will furnish us with a stick for
the purpose."
Oleum et operam perdere.
Losing both oil and labour, which those
were said to do, who had employed much
time, labour, study, and expense, in endea-
vouring to attain an object, without being
able to effect their purpose. Those who con-
tended at the public games among the an-
cients,
( 106 )
cients, were used to anoint their limbs with
oil, previous to their entering on the contest ;
if they were conquered therefore they lost
both oil and labour ; as those did who failed
in the acquisition of knowledge, their re-
searches being principally carried on by the
light of a lamp; whence the adage, which the
following story may serve further to illustrate:
" A man having a suit at law, sent to the
judge as a present a vessel of oil; his antago-
nist, that he might be even with him, sent a
well fatted pig, which turned the scale in his
favour and gained him the cause : the first
man complaining and reminding the judge of
the present he had sent him ; true, said the
judge, but a great hog burst into the room
and overturned the vessel, and so both the oil
and labour were lost."
Mortuum Jlagellas.
It is flogging a dead man, or one who re-
gards your censures as little as do the dead,
may be said to any one reproving a person
who
( 107 )
who is incorrigibly wicked, and who has lost
all sense of shame or decency : or by persons
charged with the commission of crimes of
which they know themselves to be innocent.
Nocumentum, Docitmentum.
" Trouble teaches." Adopted probably for
its jingle, like " harm watch, harm catch ;" and
many more in our language, and like them
containing an useful precept. The sense is,
that it is the part of wisdom or prudence to
profit by our mischances: those who have been
plundered by servants or defrauded by bad
customers, become more cautious in securing
their property, and in inquiring more diligent-
ly into the character of the persons to whom
they give credit, that they are not wasteful
and extravagant spendthrifts, inattentive to
business, or persons of depraved morals. A
merchant who had suffered much in this way
determined at length that he would give no
credit, he therefore put out a sign representing
a fire in which were a number of account
books
( 108 )
books burning; when any one wanted credit,
he told them it was impossible he could give
it, his books being burnt. Trouble ajso and
distress leads us to reflect upon our past con-
duct, and to reform what is amiss. " Periissem
nisi periissem," if I had not suffered, I had
been undone. " If thou be in woe, sorrow,
want, pain, or distress, remember that God
chastiseth them whom he loveth, and that
they that so\v in tears shall reap in joy. As
the furnace proveth the potter's vessel, so doth
trouble and vexation try men's thoughts."
" Ecce spectaculum Deo dignum, vir fortis
mala fortuna compositus," behold a spectacle
worthy of God, a good man contending with
adversity.
Nuces relinquere,
Abandon or throw away your nuts : that is,
leave off childish amusements, and addict your-
self to employments that are more manly and
better suited to your age and present situa-
tion in life. The adage is said to be derived
from
( 109 )
from the bridegroom scattering nuts when
leading his spouse to the temple; intimating
that he now purposed to give up boyish
sports, among which playing with nuts, was
not unfrequent. Those who did not do so,
were said " redire ad nuces," or " nuces repe-
tere," to return to their playthings, to be-
come children again.
sum, non CEdipus.
I am Davus, not CEdipus; that is, I am a
man of plain understanding and no conjuror,
or wizard, may be said to persons speaking
enigmatically or more finely than the subject
requires : or whom we do not wish to under-
stand, or would oblige to be more explicit than
they are inclined or intend to be. CEdipus was
famed, we are told, for expounding the riddle
of the Sphinx, which no one before him had
been able to explain.
Ex Harend Funiculum nectis.
It is like making a rope of sand ; labouring
to
( HO )
to do what can by no art be effected ; this may
be said to persons bringing together in the way
of argument, things not having the least co-
herence or connection. It is like attempting
" jungere vulpes," to yoke foxes; or u mulgere
hircum," to milk a he-goat.
Latum Unguem.
There's not the breadth of a nail, or of a
straw, or of a hair, of difference between them,
and yet even for that trifle, they keep up the
contention and with no small degree of acri-
mony.
" But in the way of bargain, mark ye me,
I'll cavil on the ninth part of a hair!" — Henry IV.
Non tarn Ovum Ovo simile.
He is as like his brother as one egg is to
another. The Latins have numerous adages
of this kind, consisting of a simple compari-
son : it \vas thought right to transplant a few
of them here, particularly such as have cor-
respondent phrases in our language.
Magis
( in )
Magis mutus quam Pisces.
" Muet comme un poisson," as mute as a
fish. The opposite to this is
Turtura loquacior.
More loquacious than the turtle-dove. We
say, perhaps more pertinently, to great chat-
terers, " you prate like a parrot or a magpye,"
which are still more famed for garrulity, than
the turtle-dove, " Quse tamen, non ore tan-
turn, sed etiam postica corporis parte clamare
fertur."
OU(E Amicitia.
Friends to the table. Persons attached to
the fortune, not to the beauty or dispositions
of their mistresses or friends, were so called.
" Te putat ille SUJE captum nidore culinse,
Nee mate conjectat." — JUVENAL.
He thinks you are more attracted by the smell
of his kitchen, than by affection to his person
or regard to his interest, and is not mistaken.
" Fervet olla, vivit amicitia," for such friend-
ship
ship only lasts while the pot continues ttf
boil.
" Amigo del buen tiempo, mudase con ei viento,"
those who are only friends to your good for-*
tune, change with the wind. Young men of
fortune have abundance of such friends, who
are very ready in assisting to disburthen them
of their wealth ; when that is effected, they
become more shy in their attendance, and at
length leave them to reflect at their leisure on
O
the folly of their conduct.
" If Fortune wrap thee warm,
Then friends about thee swarm,
Like bees about a honey-pot :
But, if dame Fortune frown,
And cast thee fairly down,
By Jove thou may'st lie there and rot."
Nat Lee is said to have diverted himself with
singing this song when in Bethlehem. The
sentiment is not ill expressed by our homely
proverb, " no longer pipe, no longer dance."
Multa novit Fitlpes, sed Felis unum magnum.
A fox bragging of the number of tricks
and
( US )
and shifts he occasionally used to escape tile
hounds, a cat that was present, observed that
she had hut one, which was to climb up the
nearest tree or building, and that being com-
pletely effectual was of more value than all
the stratagems of the fo^ which did not al-
ways preserve him from the huntsmen. The
proverb teaches that it is better to rely on
the advice of one sensible friend, than to have
recourse to many whose contrary and discor-
dant opinions would be more likely to perplex
and confound, than to teach us how to escape
from our difficulties. When also we would
convince or persuade, it is better ordinarily
to depend on one powerful argument, than to
use a variety of petty ones ; as " too many
cooks," are said, to " spoil the broth." Against
this tenet, however, we have several apo-
thegms equally accredited, as " vis unita for-
tior," the united power of many agents is
stronger than that of one ; which is probably
as true applied to the understanding as to
bodily strength ; so " quae non prosunt sin-
gula, juncta juvant," though each argument
may be individually weak, yet a number of
i them
them made to bear upon the same point
may be successful. Solomon tells us also,
that " in the multitude of counsel there 13
safety."
Ars varia Vulpi, ast una Echino maxima.
The hedge-hog, for so Erasmus understands
it, though the echinus is properly a marine
animal, escapes its enemies by rolling itself
up in the form of a ball, covered with sharp
spines or thorns which they dare not take
hold of. The adage admits the same expla-
nation as the last.
Auribus Lupum teneo.
I have taken a wolf by the ears, whom I
can with difficulty hold, and dare not let go
lest he tear me in pieces. It may be said
when any one has so entangled himself in
a business, that he can neither go on with
it satisfactorily, nor give it up without suffer,
ing considerable damage : or by one engaged
to
to a mistress, whom lie is afraid to marry on
account of her ill-humour, and from the vio-
lence of his affection he is incapable of leaving.
Macbeth, after the murder of Banquo, and
before he had given himself to the unlawful
commerce with supernatural agents, says,
" I am in blood
Stept in so far, that should I wade no more,
Returning were as tedious as go o'er/'
To the same mode of reasoning we owe half
the robberies and murders that are committed
every year. Martial's description of a captious
but extremely agreeable character may serve
as a further illustration of this adage :
" Difficilis, facilis, jucundus, acerbus es idem,
Nee tecum possum vivere, nee sine te,"
which has thus been translated,
" In all thy humours whether grave or mellow,
Thou 'rt such a touchy, testy, pleasant fellow,
Hast so much wit, and mirth, and spleen about thee.
That there's no living with thee nor without thee."
Those who go to law may be said to hold a
wolf by the ears, or they are like sheep taking
shelter under a hedge of thorns, whence they
will not escape without losing the half of their
i 2 fleeces.
fleeces. Formerly a large estate was conveyed
away by a piece of parchment that would not
hold twenty short lines, which is now hardly
done with twenty skins. This multiplying of
words is pretended to be done for greater
security, but has the contrary effect, " certa
sunt paucis," certainty, or freedom from
doubt is found where there are fewest words.
Ne Hercules quidem adversus duos.
Even Hercules could not contend success-
fully against two, equally strong as himself.
" Two to one are odds at football," may be
said by any one who has been censured for
not doing what, circumstanced as he was, it
was impossible he should perform. The adage
may with equal propriety be applied to the
exertions of the mind ; where much has been
done well, small errors should not be censured
with asperity. A great philosopher should
not be expected to be also a poet, or a man
skilled in one art, to be equally expert in
another. The same sentiment is contained in
Units
Unus Fir, nullus Vir.
From one man unaided by advice, or other
assistance, no great exertion, or the perform-
ance of no very difficult, or intricate business
should be expected. " Two heads are better
than one, or why do folks marry ?"
Nihil ad Versum.
This is not to the purpose, said when a per-
son, attempting to explain any thing, wanders
from the subject, which he leaves more per-
plexed than when he began. The adage is
supposed to have taken its rise from the per-
formers on the stage attempting to represent,
by gesticulation, the sense of the part recited,
in the manner, perhaps, of our pantomime.
Failing in the attempt, this adage, " Nihil ad
versum," was applied ; intimating that the
action did not correspond with the sense, or
meaning of the verse. Or it may refer to the
oracles, which were not unfrequently delivered
in verse, when the event was not consonant
to the prediction.
i 3 Nihil
Nihil ad Fides,
Was used to be applied to persons, whose
manners and conversation, or whose precepts
and mode of living were not consistent, and
who, not very gracefully, tell us, " We should
<Jo as they say, not as they do."
Asinus in Unguent o>
May be said of a clown living in the midst
of delicacies he knows not how to use or
enjoy ; or affecting the company of men of
letters, whose conversation he is incapable of
understanding. Such things suiting him as ill
as perfumes do an ass. " No es la miel para
la boca del asno," honey is not fit for the
mouth of an ass. " Chantez a. 1'ane, il vous
fera des pets."
Asinus inter Simias.
The ass has fallen into the company of
apes, was said when a man of mild and easy
manners, and of weak understanding, was
§een associating with petulant and illnatured
persons,
( "9 )
persons, who insulted, and turned him to
ridicule. Such wanton petulance is well re-
proved by the following :
" Set not thy foot to make the blind to fall,
Nor wilfully offend thy weaker brother ;
Nor wound the dead with the tongue's bitter gall,
Neither rejoice thou in the fall of other."
Of the same kind is " Noctua inter cornices,"
the owl is among ravens, there being the same
dissimilarity between them, as between the
ass and the ape.
„ _
Alii sementemfaciunt, alii metent.
One man labours and another reaps the pro-
fit, or one man commits the crime but another
suffers the punishment. " II bat le buisson
sans prendre 1'oisillon." " One man beats the
bush, and another catches the bird." This
proverb was used, we are told, by Henry the
Fifth, at the siege of Orleans. When the
citizens would have delivered the town to the
Duke of Burgundy, who was in the English
C3 v * O
camp, the king said, " Shall I beat the bush,
and another take the bird ?" no such matter.
i 4 These
( 120 )
These words did so offend the Duke of Bur-
gundy, that he made a peace with the French,
and withdrew his force from the English.
" Uno levanta la caza, y otro la mata," one
man starts the game, and another kills it.
Aliam quercum excute.
Go shake some other tree, you have reaped
sufficient profit, or taken fruit enough from
this. The adage may be used by persons who
have been liberal in assisting any one who still
continues to solicit them: Go to some other
friend, I have done my part. It may also be
used in the way of admonishing any one to
cease exerting himself in any course or busi-
ness from which lie has already gained all
the advantage it is likely to produce, or to
change or dismiss an instructor from whom
o
he has learned all that he is capable of teach-
ing.
In the early ages of the world, when acorns
formed a material part of our sustenance,
there were persons who made it their business
to collect them. When one of these was seen
looking
looking up to a tree, those who observed him
would say, " Aliam quercum excute," go to
some other tree, this has been stripped before,
which being often repeated, came at length to
be used as a proverb.
Pliny tells us that even in his time, many
nations made the acorn a part of their diet,
not having been instructea in the method of
cultivating wheat, or other grain, and Erasmus
says that acorns were considered by the Span-
iards as a dainty, and were served up as a part
of the dessert, in which manner we find them
introduced by the goatherds in Don Quixote.
Fucumjacere.
" Hazer lo bianco negro, y lo negro bianco."
To make white black, and black white.
To deceive with false pretences, or to mis-
represent any matter, and make it appear
different to what it is, was called painting or
discolouring the subject; and as a species of
fucus was anciently used as a dye, persons so
disguising what they treated of, were said
" fucum facere," to give a false colour to it.
The phrase was also applied to women paint-
ing
( 122 )
ing their faces, and making themselves more
fair than nature intended them, whence we
learn that this practice was as usual and
fashionable among the Greeks and Romans,
as it is now among our own fair country-
women. " Visage farde " among the French
means a painted, dissembled, or false c
tenance.
Album Calculum adders.
To approve, to put in a white stone. In
popular assemblies among the ancients, the
persons who had a right to vote, had a white
and a black stone given them. If they agreed
to the proposition, or absolved the person
accused of any crime, they put the white
stone into the urn ; if they disapproved of the
proposal, or thought the person accused guil-
ty, the black one. Hence it is now usual to
say, when a person who has been proposed as
a member of any of our societies, is rejected,
that " he was black balled," though, as it
often happens, neither black nor white balls
were used in the ballot.
" Mos
( 123 )
if Mos erat antiquis niveis atrisque capillis,
JJis daranare reos, illis absolvere culpa." OVID,
Creta vet Carbone notare.
To make a white or a black line, with
chalk, or with charcoal, against the name of
any one, was in like manner used to denote
approbation, or disapproval of his conduct.
Persius, addressing his friend Plotius Macrinus
on his birthday, says,
" Hunc, Macrine, diem numera meliore capillo,
Qui tibi labentes apponit candido annos."
ft Let this auspicious morning be expressed,
With a white stone, distinguished from the rest;
White as thy fame, and as thy honor clear ;
And let new joys attend on thy new added year."
Stylum verfcre.
To change or correct the style or language.
The ancients used tables covered with a coat
of wax, on which they wrote with a style, a
piece of iron, sharp, or pointed at the end, with
which they made the letters, and blunt or flat
at
( 124 )
at the other end, which they used for ob-
literating, or rubbing out what they had
written, either when they purposed making
any alteration, or to employ the table for
other writings. By a good or bad style, they
meant therefore at first, simply to denote the
quality of the instrument with which they
wrote. The term was afterwards applied me-
taphorically to the language, in which sense
it is now used.
The reader may not be displeased, as not
alien to the subject, at seeing the following
short account of the different substances that
were employed for writing on, before the art
of making paper from linen rags was discover-
ed. Among the earliest we find tables of
wood made smooth, and covered with wax, as
has been noted above. But as what was
written on wax might easily be defaced, leaves
of the papyrus, a species of flag, which grew
in great abundance in the marshes of Egypt,
were dryed, and by a particular process pre-
pared for the purpose. On these the letters
were engraved with an instrument similar to
that made use of to write on wax. Leaves so
prepared
( 125 )
prepared were called charta, from a city of
Tyre of that name, near which they were also
found. Though the practice of using the
papyrus has been discontinued for many ages,
yet the terms folia leaves, and charta paper,
derived from it, are still retained. As in
writing a treatise, a great number of these
leaves were required, they were connected,
and kept together by making a hole, and
passing a string through each of them. With
the same string, passed several times around
them, they were confined to prevent their
separating, and being injured or lost, when no
one was reading, or using them, and thence,
Pancirollus thinks, a bundle of them obtained
the name of volumen, or a volume. Another
article used for the purpose, was the inner
bark of certain trees. This was prepared by
beating it, and then incorporating it with a
solution of gum arable. As the inner bark of
trees is called liber, the volumes, or books,
were thence called libri, a name they still re-
tain. Vellum, the last substance to be men-
tioned, is said to owe its origin to the follow-
^
ing circumstance : Eumenes, king of Per-
gamus,
gamus, being' desirous of forming- a library*
that should equal or exceed in number of
volumes, the famed library at Alexandria,
Ptolemy, with a view of rendering his design
abortive, prohibited the exportation of the
papyrus. This exciting the industry of some
artists in the court of Eumenes, they con-
trived a method of preparing the skins of
sheep for the purpose, and it was called
vellum, from vellus a skin, and parchment,
from Pergamus, the place where the art of pre-
paring it was discovered, or if not discovered,
it was there improved, and first brought into
general use.
Umbram suam metuere.
lie is afraid of his own shadow, said of per*
sons \viio are so childishly timid, that they
cannot be prevailed on to undertake the
easiest, and most obviously useful business,
fearing lest it should fail. To such subjects,
and to such as live in a state of constant
alarm, fearing almost impossible accidents,
the following is also applicable.
Quid
( 127 )
Quid si Cesium ruat !
What if the sky should fall ! " When the
sky falls," we say jocularly, " then we may
catch larks."
Funem abrumpere, nimium fendendo.
The chord stretched too tight will break,
and the mind kept too long, and too intensely
meditating on one subject, loses its spring
and becomes feeble.
" Cito rumpas arcum, semper si tensimi habueris,
At si laxaris, cum voles, utilis erit."
The mind must be occasionally relieved
from its studies by amusement, to enable it to
recover its strength, af?d render it fit for fur-
ther exertion. The adage also admonishes,
that we should not make too frequent appli-
cation for assistance, to persons of liberal
dispositions, who have already done as much
as was convenient, or proper, that " we should
not spur a willing horse."
Quicgidd
Quicquid in Buccam, vel in Linguam t-enerit,
ojfundere.
" He says whatever comes uppermost," or
into his mind, but, " habla la boca, con qua
paga la coca," " the tongue speaks at the
head's cost." This is said of careless and
inconsiderate persons, who think they shew
their bravery by saying whatever they please,
regardless whom they may offend ; but the
Spaniard again says, " hablar sin pensar, es
tirar sin encarar," " speaking without think-
ing, is shooting without taking aim," and
he who says all he has a mind to say, must
expect to be told what he has no mind to
hear. In a more honorable way, the adage
applies to persons of integrity, who are inge-
nuous, and open, and in all concerns of busi-
ness, will speak the truth. But even from
such it is not always well received.
" Whoever speaks with plain sincerity,
Is eyed by Fortune with a look askant;
While some low fawning sycophant
Wears every day a new attire,
The friends of verity
Go naked as the goddess they adrhire."
Ctir*
( 129 )
Citra Pulverem, vel citra Laborem.
Obtaining one's end without labour, or
meeting with success far beyond our endea-
vours. The adage was applied to fortunate
persons, who were more prosperous than might
have been expected from the little care and
attention they paid to their business. " Citra
arationem, citraque sementem," their lands
proving productive, though but little cul-
tivated.
There are men, with whom every scheme
or project in which they are engaged succeed,
though they are not remarkable either for
diligence or capacity. Such men are said,
according to a familiar English proverb, " to
be born with a silver spoon in their mouths."
And " give a man luck," we say, " and throw
him into the sea." From the not un frequent
occurrences of such events, arises also the
saying, " E meglio esser fortunato chesavio,"
" It is better to be born fortunate than wise ;"
also, " Gutta fortune pras dolio sapientiie,"
the sense of which the French give in the fol-
lowing, " Mieux vaut une once de fortune,
K qu'une
( 130 )
qiftme iivre de sagesse," an ounce of good
fortune is better than a pound of wisdom.
The proverb, " citra pulverem," without dust,
seems to have taken its rise from the custom
of sprinkling the bodies of wrestlers with
dust, having first anointed them with oil.
This was done with the view of stopping the
pores, to prevent their being exhausted by
perspiring too profusely. Antisthenes, one of
the speakers in the Dialogue called the Ban-
quet, of Xenophon, says, in allusion to this
custom, " he might have as much land, per-
haps, as would furnish a sufficiency of dust,
to cover the body of a wrestler." Sir Francis
Bacon, among his expedients for prolonging
life, recommends taking daily small doses of
nitre, to retard the circulation of the blood,
and anointing the body with oil, to moderate
the perspiration. Hist. Vitas et Mortis.
Lydius Lapis, sive Heradius Lapis.
A stone so called from Heraclea a city in
Lydia, from whence it was brought. It was
used
used to try pieces of metal, with the view of
discovering whether they were gold, or silver,
or what portion of those precious metals were
contained in them, and the adage may be
applied, metaphorically, to persons of acute
sense, and sound judgment,- who are able to
solve difficult, and intricate problems, or
questions.
Ad Amussim.
Made exactly by rule; said of any piece of
work that is perfectly and correctly finished,
or of a literary composition, in which the
subject is judiciously and accurately treated.
A d Unguem.
Perfectly smooth, and polished. The phrase
takes its rise from the workmen's passing their
nail over a piece of work, to find if any in-
equalities remain.
Incudi redder e.
Returned to the anvil, may be applied to
K 2 any
( 132 )
any work that is re-considered, and carefully
corrected and improved.
Indignus qui illl Matellam porrigat.
This is used where there is a very great
difference in the qualities and dispositions of
the persons compared, and means, that the
one is not fit to take off the shoes, or perform
the meanest offices for the other.
" Dispeream bi tu Pyladi prsestare matellam,
Dignus es, aut porcos pascere Pirithoi."
May I die, if you are worthy to be employed
in feeding his hogs, or even in services more
sordid and humiliating.
etiam est Holitor valde opportuna lo-
quutus.
Even the opinion of a clown may be at-
tended to with advantage. "Sa?pe est etiam
sub pallio sordido sapientia," for wisdom not
unfrequently exists under a squalid garment.
" Tierra negra buen pan lleva," black land
produces white bread, and " Debaxo de una
mala capa, hay buen bebedo," under an old
and
( 133 )
and tattered cloak, there may be a good
drinker, that is, a man of understanding. The
Spaniards say, when an old man, and with
them old and wise seem to be synonymous,
ceases to drink, he will soon cease to live.
"Quando el viejo no puede beber, la huessa le
pueden hazer," and " Quixadas sin barbas, no
merecen ser honradas," chins without beards
deserve no honour, which is only clue to age.
Scepe etiam stultus fuit opportuna loquutus,
as Erasmus corrects the adage, that is, Even a
fool may frequently give good advice, which
means no more, than that as a liar may some-
times speak the truth, so may a fool utter a
wise sentence. Rabelais had perhaps an eye
to this adage, when he made Panurge take
the advice of a fool on the subject of his
marriage.
Leonem Larva terres.
Would you frighten a lion with a vizor or
mask, may be said to weak and simple persons,
attempting by noise and blustering, to terrify
and alarm those who are greatly their superiors
*3 in
( 134 )
in strength and courage. " Do you think I
M'as born in a wood to be scared by an owl ?"
" Demens! qui nimbos et non imitabile fulmen,
.Ere, et cornipedum cursu simularat equurum."
Senseless man ! who could strive to imitate
the storms and inimitable thunder of Jupiter,
with the clatter of brazen cymbals, and the
tramp of horses.
Salem et Mensam ne pr&tereas.
You must not neglect those who have been
entertained at your table, or with whom you
have eaten salt. This being contrary to the
laws of hospitality. Salt, from its power of pre-
serving bodies from putrefaction, was thought
to have something in it of a divine nature,
and was thence adopted as a symbol of per-
petuity, and made use of as a mean to conci-
liate friendship. In Ezra, we read, " we are
salted with the salt of the palace," meaning,
we are there nourished and supported ; and
our Saviour calls his disciples " the salt of the
earth," sent to preserve it, or to cure men of
their corruption. The adage means the same
as
( 135 )
as "Ne negligas amicitias consuetudinem, aut
violes jura ejusdem." you must not omit the
usages, or violate the rights of friendship.
The dread which many of our good women
feel on overturning a salt-cellar, is doubtless
a relict of the veneration in which this sub-
stance was anciently held. The ill omen which
such an accident portends, is to be averted by
throwing a few grains of the salt over one's
shoulder; perhaps also the privilege which salt
has obtained, of being made a convertible
term for wit, derives its origin from the same
source. The French say of two persons whose
intimacy is not likely to be of long duration,
" Elles ne mangeront pas un minot de sel
ensemble," they will not eat a bushel of salt
together. A late envoy from Tripoli, having
recommended to the academy in Sweden, to
send some of their members to examine the
plants and other productions of his country,
said, " that in return for the bread and salt he
had received among them, he would give every
assistance in his power, in forwarding their
inquiries." The Germans held in the same
respect, persons with whom they had partici-
K 4 patetl
( 136 )
patecl in the pleasure of drinking wine, and
time has not diminished in them, their reve-
rence for this delightful beverage.
Ne quicquam sapit, qui sibi non sapit.
The man is not to be esteemed wise, who is
not wise or prudent in the management of his
own concerns, who, intent on the business
of others, suffers his own to fall to decay.
On the other hand, the selfish man, whose
thoughts are solely employed in advancing
his own interest, " who would set his neigh-
bour's house on fire, merely to roast his eggs,"
is still more to be blamed. " It is a poor
centre of a man's actions," Lord Verulam
says, " himself, and it does not ordinarily
succeed well with such persons; for, as they
have all their lives sacrificed to themselves,
they become in the end sacrifices to the
inconstancy of fortune, whose wings they
thought by their self- wisdom to have pini-
oned." Still, however, we must take care,
" not to bulge our own vessel, in attempting
to raise that of our neighbour," for, "La carita
comincia
( 137 )
comincia prima da se steffo," chanty begins
at home.
Neque Mel, neque Apes.
No bees, no honey. Every convenience
hath its concomitant inconvenience; if we are
averse to bearing the one, we ought not to
expect to enjoy the other. " If we would
have eggs, we must bear with the cackling of
the hen." " Non s' e rosa senza spine," the
rose has its prickles, and the bee its sting,
their sweets therefore are not to be obtained
without some hazard.
" Feras quod laedit, ut quod prodest perferas."
" You must bear pain, if you look for gain."
" Dii nobis laboribus omnia vendunt," the
goods of fortune are not given, but sold to
us ; that is, they are only to be attained by
labour and industry, and yet we say, " He
pays clear for honey, that licks it from the
thorn."
Facile
( 138 )
Facile qiium valemus, recta Consilia JE grot is
damns.
When free from trouble ourselves, we readily
give advice to those who are afflicted, which
in a similar situation, would not occur to us,
or probably we should not be disposed to
follow, though admonished to it by our nearest
friends
" "Pis each man's office to speak patience
To those who wring under the load of sorrow;
But no man's virtue or sufficiency
To be so moral, when lie shall endure
The like himself."
The Oracle being asked, what was the most
difficult thiny;? answered, "to know our-
O *
selves." What the most easy? "to give
advice to others."
In monendo sapimus omnes, verum ubi
Peccamus ipsi, non videmus propria."
For though we easily espy the faults of others,
and are very ready in admonishing them, yet
we do not easily admit that we are guilty of
similar errors, and are thence apt to consider
fthe admonition of our friends, as impertinent,
and unnecessary.
" Peras
( 139 )
" Peras iraposuit Jupiter nobis duas,
Propriis repletam vitiis, post tergurn dedit,
Alienis ante pectus suspendit gravem.
Hac re, videre nostra mala non possumus,
Alii siraul delinquunt censores sumus."
Jupiter gives to each of us, the Poet says, two
wallets, the one filled with the errors of our
neighbours, the other with our own. That
containing the errors of our neighbours, hangs
to our breasts, but that filled with our own,
rests on our backs. Hence it is, that though
we are well acquainted with the vices of others,
yet we are commonly ignorant of those prac-
tised by ourselves.
Quod supra nos, nihll ad nos.
This was a saying of Socrates, intimating
that we should not trouble ourselves by in-
quiring into matters that do not concern us;
into mysteries that are beyond our compre-
hension ; as, how the heavens and the earth
were formed ; whether, or by whom, the stars
were inhabited ; how far distant from us are
the Pleiades, or any other of the constellations ;
the
( 140 )
the depth of the sea; the nature of space; or
whether there exists such a thing as pure
space ; the mystery of the Trinity, which the
boy told St. Austin, " he would understand,
then, when he should be able to lave the sea
dry," or numerous other similar inquiries,
which would be of little use if they could
be discovered, but upon which many volumes
have been written, neglecting, in the mean
while, to inquire what might make men more
quiet, contented, and happy ; or might tend
to remove the misery and distress with which
the world is overwhelmed.
Qua infra nos, nihil ad nos.
As we are admonished by the preceding
aphorism, not to employ our minds too sedu-
lously in acquiring a knowledge of things
placed far beyond our reach, by this we are
advised not with too much anxiety to seek
after worldly wealth, as large and splendid
houses, rich furniture, clothes, and diet, which,
as they contribute little or nothing to our
happiness, should be deemed unworthy our
regard.
Refricarc
( 141 )
Refrkare Cicatrlcem.
To open a wound afresh, which had been
but lately skinned over, and is therefore very
susceptible of injury ; metaphorically, to re-
mind any one of a past misfortune. It is a
mark of absence of mind, inattention, or ill-
nature, to revive in conversation the memory
of circumstances, in which any of the com-
pany had been concerned, and which had been
the subject of much distress and uneasiness to
them. " No se ha de mentar la soga, en casa
del ahorcado," we should not talk of a halter,
in a house whence any one had been hanged.
" Refricare memoriam," to rub up the memory
of any one," who is disposed to forget his en-
gagement, or promise.
Nullus Hits Nasus est, et, obesce Naris Homo.
They have no nose, or they would have
smelt it out. They are dull, heavy, stupid,
void of ingenuity or sagacity. " Emunctre
naris homo," that is, he is a man of a clear
head, of quick sense, and sound judgment.
The
( 142 )
The sense of smelling has perhaps been taken,
preferably to any of the other senses, though
they are all occasionally used, to denote the
perfection or imperfection of the understand-
ing, from observing the different value that is
put upon dogs, in proportion as they have
this sense more or less perfect. " Olet lucer-
nam," it smells of the lamp, is said of any
work on which much pains have been be-
stowed to make it perfect. " Mener par le
nez," to lead any one by the nose ; or, to have
such influence over him, as to make him say,
do, or believe, whatever we please.
JEdibus in nostris, qucK prava, aut recta
gerantur.
Look to your own household, see that no
disorders prevail there. Before we employ our
minds on objects that do not concern us, or
in studies from which no profit can be ob-
tained, we should see that all is well at home,
that there are no disorders to be corrected,
which neglected may occasion mischief. He
who neglects this may be said to be,
" Procul
( 143 )
" Procul videns, sed cominus videns nihil."
Looking after distant objects, which do not
concern him, and neglecting those that are at
hand, and in which he is nearly interested.
The astrologer who pretended to tell the for-
tunes of his neighbours, did not see the pit
which lay at his feet, and into which he fell.
" Tendens in alta, amice, terrain non vides,
Cupidus futuri, fis rudis praebentium."
Intent on examining the stars, in which you
had no concern, you neglected what lay at
your feet. Too desirous of looking into the
future, you saw nothing of the disaster imme-
diately threatening you.
In $e descendere.
This is to the same purport as the last adage,
and there are many more inculcating the same
doctrine, that we should be more careful in ex-
amining into our own conduct, and less curious
in inquiring into, and censuring the defects of
others. " Rarum est enim ut satis se quisque
vereatur," for there are few men who have so
much reverence for themselves, as to avoid
doing
( 144 )
i
doing wrong from the fear of self-reproach.
The silent and internal questioning our own
secret motives for action, would lead us to
set a true value on our conduct, by directing
us to the springs from whence it proceeded.
It would besides afford a resource to hours
that a man may find heavy on his hands, and
thus employed, he may boldly say with the
philosopher, that he is " nunquam minus
solus, quam cum solus," he is never less alone
than when alone.
<( Ut nemo in sese tentat descendere nemo,
Sed praecedenti spectatur mantica tergo.''
How little solicitous we are in inquiring into
our own errors, and how intent on espying
those of our neighbours.
Festucam ex alterius Oculo ejicere.
Solicitous to remove a small defect from the
eye of your neighbour, regardless of a much
greater one in your own. But, " thou fool,
first take the beam from thine own eye, and
then thou mayest see clearly to remove the
mote from thy neighbour's eye."
" Qui
" Qui ne tuberibus propriis offendat amicum
Postulat, ignoscat verrucis illius."
He who requires of his friend that he should
not notice his greater blemishes, should be
careful not to censure smaller errors that he
may discern in him.
Te cum habita, and
Infra tuam Pelliculam te confine.
Be contented with your own skin. An ass
having put on the skin of a lion, for a time
struck terror into all who beheld him, but the
cheat being at length discovered, he was hoot-
ed, and laughed at, and then cudgelled to death.
The ancients seem to hav thought that they
could not too frequently or too seriously in-
culcate the necessity of turning our attention
to ourselves. Look, the adage intimates, into
your own affairs : live as becomes your cir-
cumstances and fortune, and do not model
your expenses by those of persons of much
larger estates : " on doit avoir la robe selon le
froid," we should cut our coat according to
our cloth ; " stretch your arm no further
L than
( 146 )
than your sleeve will reach ;" and " let your
purse be your master." This may be used to
restrain those whose notions are too lofty and
aspiring, who hazard what they actually pos-
sess in hunting after an increase of fortune, or
of preferment, which, if acquired, would add
little to their comfort, for " honour and ease
are seldom bed-fellows," and, " he that in-
creaseshis riches increases his sorrow." Though
the world is indulgent enough to look upon
the debaucheries and even the vices of the
wealthy with complacency, yet when men in
inferior situations presume to follow their ex-
amples, they are always held in extreme con-
tempt. The ass attempting to imitate the
playfulness and familiarity of the spaniel, in-
stead of caresses met with a cudgel.
Nosce te ipsiim.
Know thyself. If men would search diligent*
ly their owi\minds,and examine minutely their
thoughts and actions, they would be more cau-
tious in censuring the conduct of others, as
they would find in themselves abundantly suf-
ficient
( 147 )
ficient cause for reproof. " It is a good horse
that never stumbles ;" and he is a good man
indeed who cannot reproach himself with nu-
merous slips and errors. " Every bean has its
black," and every man his follies and vices.
The adage also teaches us to set a proper
value upon ourselves, and to be careful not to
do any thing that may degrade us. It is not
known to whom we are indebted for this
golden rule ; we only learn that it is of very
long standing, and was held in such high es-
timation by the ancients, that it was placed
over the doors of their temples, and it was
also supposed by them, that " E coelo descen-
dit," it came down from heaven.
" ' Man know thyself !' this precept from on high.
Came down, imagined by the Deity ;
Oh! be the words indelibly imprest
On the live tablet of each human breast.
Through every change of many colour'd life,
Whether thou seek'st a blessing in a wife ;
Or in the senate dost aspire to stand
'Mid holy Wisdom's venerable band,
Still from the Gods forget not to implore
Self-knowledge, for thy bosom's monitor."
HODGSON'S Juvenal.
i-2 Ne
( 148 )
Ne quid nimis.
Too much even of the best of things will
tire.
" The sweetest honey
Is loathsome in its own deliciousness."
The story that pleased when first heard, by
frequent repetition becomes disgusting. We
should learn to keep the golden mean, and
neither passionately praise nor violently de-
claim against any one.
" Ne nimis aut laudes Tydida, aut vituperes me."
For as there are no men totally free from im-
perfections, so there are few so vicious but
they have some good qualities. The same
rule should guide us in ever}7 part of our com-
merce with the world ; we should be neither
too gay nor too slovenly in our apparel, nor
too liberal nor too sparing in our expenses;
but let every thing be adapted to our circum-
stances and situation in life. " L' abondanza
delle cose, ingenera fastidio," too much even
of a good thing creates disgust; and " assez
y a, si trop n'y a," there is enough, where
there
( 149 )
there is not too much ; and " enough," we
say, " is as good as a feast."
Sponde, Noxa pr&sto est.
Become surety, and danger is near at hand,
or " be bail and pay for it." " He shall be
sore vexed that is surety for a stranger, and
he that hateth suretyship is sure." As it is
not possible, perhaps, in all cases and situa-
tions to avoid being responsible for others, it
may be right to fix some rules to guide us in
this dangerous adventure, for dangerous it
must, even under the most favourable circum-
stances, be esteemed, as by that act we engage
that the party for whom we are security shall
be frugal, industrious and honest ; and if
he fails in any of those points, we subject
ourselves to pay or make good any deficien-
cies that may occur through his misfortune,
inattention or delinquency. The person there-
fore, for whom we purpose being bound, (a
strong term,) should be one of tried fidelity,
whom we have long known, and in whose wel-
fare, either as being a near relation or an inti-
L 3 mate
( 150 ;
mate friend, we feel ourselves strongly inte-
rested ; to this should also be added, that the
sum for which we become surety, be not so
large that the loss of it would materially injure
ourselves or family : " we should so light
another's candle as not to extinguish our
own." " Ni fiez, ni porfies, ni apuestes, ni
prestes, y viviras entre las gentes," that is,
neither be surety, nor contend, nor lay wagers,
nor lend, and you will be esteemed in the
world. Most men are aware of the danger of
being security, but they have not sufficient
confidence to withstand solicitation, they yield
therefore often against their better judgment.
This silly bashfulness, an error most incident
to ingenuous young men, should be strenu-
ously resisted. He who has not learnt to
deny, is only half educated ; he should be put
under guardians as one not yet of age, and
unfit to manage his own concerns. In all
cases, where the business is of magnitude, we
should require time before we comply ; and if
after due consideration, we find that our com-
pliance might involve us in difficulties, we
should take care not to suffer our determina-
tion
tion to be shaken by any further solicitation ;
we may then say with the poet,
" Tis better, Sir, I should you now displease,
Than by complying, risque my future ease."
Duabus sedcre Sellis.
" Avoir le cul entre deux selles," " between
two stools we ofttimes come to the ground."
Irresolute persons who adopt neither side of a
proposition, or who are desirous of being well
with both parties in any contest, as they oblige
neither are generally despised by both. Ci-
cero fell a sacrifice to such indecisive conduct.
Solon established a law, inflicting a severe
punishment on persons refusing to take a part
in public commotions : by such secession the
country was deprived of the advice and assist-
ance of the very persons by whose prudence
much of the mischief attending: °n civil dis-
^j
sensions might be prevented ; or if they could
not entirely appease the tumult by joining
with the party favouring the good of their
country, they would contribute to their suc-
cess.
L 4 Nescts
quid serus Vesper vehat.
You know not what the evening may
produce, or how the present appearances may
be changed : no business shoulc^ be depend-
ed on during its progress, we must wait for
its completion before we give our opinion
of it ; for, " la fin couronne Toeuvre," " it is
the end that crowns the whole." Though
the morning be fair, the evening may be
dark and cloudy; though the business began
with favourable auspices and seemed to pro-
mise a happy conclusion, it may still fail ; or
though the early part of our lives be prosper-
ous, the end may be most disastrous and un-
happy. " La vita il fine, e '1 di loda sera,"
the end commends the life, the evening the
day : " do not halloo, therefore," we say,
" until you are out of the wood ;" that is, un-
til you have completely escaped the danger.
" Prosperity doth bewitch men, seeming clear;
But seas laugh, and shew white when rocks are near."
Simla ,
( 153 )
Simla, Simla est, etiamsl aurea gestet Insignia.
An ape is an ape, though dressed in the
most splended apparel, or
" An ape is an ape, a varlet's a varlet,
Though they be clad in silk or scarlet."
This may be applied to persons who, born
and educated among the common people, on
being advanced by fortune, affect the manners
of gentlemen, but imitate them so wretchedly,
as easily to shew the baseness of the state
from which they have been raised. " One
would think that nature's journeymen had
made them, they imitate humanity so abomi-
nably." " Asperius nihil est, humili cum
surgit in altum," which may be best rendered
by our English adage, " Set a beggar on
horseback, and he will ride to the devil." "Tu
fai come la simia, die piu va in alto, pin
mostra il cula," that is, " an ape, the higher
he climbs, the more he shews his tail."
" Aunque la mona se vista de seda, mona se
queda," although the monkey clothes her-
self in silk, she is still a monkey.
Ira
( 154 )
Ira omnium tardissime scnescit.
Anger becomes old, that is, yields, or gives
way slowly. When the mind is inflamed to
rage, the impression is long in wearing out.
" Cui placet, obliviscitur ; cui dolet, meminit ;"
acts of kindness are soon forgotten, hut the
memory of an offence remains. " Favours
are written on glass, injuries on stone."
" Segnius homines bonaquam mala sentiunt,"
affronts affect us more keenlv, make a strong.
*> ' O
er impression on us, than kindness ; and u Bo-
cado comido, no gana amigo," the morsel that
is eaten, gains no friends. There are some
men of such irritable dispositions, that the
slightest opposition will excite this turbulent
passion, and it not unfrequently happens that
in their rage, they say, or do, what will not
be forgotten, or cannot easily be remedied.
Anger has therefore been not improperly
called " a short madness," " Ira brevis furor,"
or, " una collera subitanea, e una pazzia
passegera," men under the influence of an-
ger being as intractable as those who are
insane ; " Sa3va animi tempestas," a cruel
tempest
( 155 )
tempest of the mind, making the eyes dart
fire, the teeth gnash, and the tongue to falter.
How necessary therefore to check it in its
commencement, and hefore it rises to that
ungovernahle height.
" give me that man
That is not passion's slave, and I will wear him
In my heart's core, ay in my heart of hearts."
Pythagoras advises to efface the print of
the caldron in the ashes, after it has
boiled ; intimating that we should not persist
in our anger, but after the first ebullition,
endeavour to restrain and subdue it. Plato
being about to punish a servant who had
offended him, raised his hand for the purpose
but checking himself, and yet keeping his
hand lifted up, as if in the act of striking,
a friend who was present asked what he was
going to do, " I am about," says he, " to
chastise an angry man." In all contentions
or disputes, when we find we are becoming
warm, it would be wise to retire, or give up
the contest.
" When two discourse, if the one's anger rise,
Then he who lets the contest fall, is wise."
In
In Vino Veritas.
" La verclad esta en el vino," and «' Dans
le vin on dit la ve"riteV' Wine opens the heart
and makes us speak the truth. " Vin dentro,
senno fuora," that is, " When wine is in, wit
is out." " II vino non ha temone," " wine
hath no helm or rudder." " El vino no trae
bragas, ni de paiio, ni de lino," " wine wears
no breeches, neither woollen, nor linen." Men
intoxicated with wine, are easily led to betray
their most secret thoughts. " Quod in corde
sobrii, id in lingua ebrii," " what we think
when sober, when drunk we blab." " As fire
discovers the properties of gold, so wine lays
open the hearts of men ;" and certainly in a
state of ebriety, we have so little command
over ourselves, that there are few things, even
those regarding our personal safety, which a
crafty man might not extract from us.
Though drinking to excess, is in general
improper, and we can hardly conceive a more
despicable character than an habitual sot,
yet occasional intemperance in this way may
be excused. " Nonnunquam," Seneca says,
" usque
*' usque ad ebrietatem veniendum, non ut
mergat nos, sed ut deprimat curas," some-
times we may extend our draught even to
intoxication, not that the wine may drown us,
but that it may drown our cares. It was for
that purpose we are to suppose that Cato had
such frequent recourse to the bottle.
" Narratur et prisci Catonis,
Saspe mero caluisse virtus."
Sylvius, an eminent French physician,
thought that taking wine to intoxication
once in a month, might be useful in strength-
ening the/ligestive power of the stomach; and
the late Dr. Cadogan, who lived to a great
age, is said to have approved, and to have
followed this regimen.
" Qu'il faut a chaque niois,
Du rnoins s'enyvre une fois."
We should get drunk, at the least, once in a
month. This is an old French proverb, fa-
thered, I know not on what authority, upon
Hippocrates. But as some men are quarrel-
some when intoxicated, it is right, to remind
them, " That he that kills a. man when he is
drunk, must be hanged for it when he is
sober."
sober." " He that drinks all night, and is
hanged betimes in the morning, will sleep the
soundlier all the next day," is one of our
jocular proverbs ; as is, " The man was hang-
ed, who left his drink behind him ;" though
this is said to have been done by a thief, on
hearing that he was pursued. He was taken,
we are to suppose, and hanged. Of such stuff,
are some of our old proverbs made. " Drunk-
en folks seldom take harm," is as true perhaps
as " Naught, though often in danger, is sel-
dom hurt." Neither of them will bear a very
exact scrutiny. Not alien to the purport of
this adage are the following lines,
" Dives eram dudum, fecerunt me tria nudum,
Alea, Vina, Venus, per quse sum factus egenus."
I was rich and prosperous, but gaming,
wine, and women have reduced me to misery,
Either of them singly, if followed up, would
be sufficient to produce that effect.
Bos in Lingua.
He has an ox on his tongue. The Athenians
had a piece of money stamped with the figure
of
of an ox, whence any one who was bribed to
be silent, was said to have an ox on his
tongue. The adage was also applied generally
to persons who, restrained by fear, or from
motives of prudence, avoided giving their
opinion on any subject. It is said to have
taken its rise from the following circumstance.
Demosthenes having received a present from
the Milesians, who wished to obtain some
favour from his countrymen, which they were
apprehensive he would oppose, appeared in
the court, with his throat muffled, pretending
that he had so violent a cold, as to be inca-
pable of speaking ; but one of the members of
the court, suspecting the trick, observed to
his brethren, that " Demosthenes had an ox
on his tongue," intimating that it was not a
cold, but a bribe that prevented him from
speaking. The people of /Egina had a piece
of money stamped with the figure of a snail,
with this motto, " Virtutem et sapientiam,
vincunt testudines," that is, money is more
powerful than valour or wisdom*
Currus
( 160 )
Cur r us Bovem trahlt.
" Placing the cart," we say, " before the
horse," literally, The car draws the oxen.
This may be applied to any thing that is con-
ducted preposterously ; to children affecting
to instruct their parents, pupils their masters;
also to persons beginning a business before
they have well considered it, or spending a
fortune before it is come into their possession,
which is, " Eating the calf in the cow's belly.'*
It happens when a waggon going down a
steep hill drags the cattle, instead of being
drawn by them, which gave rise to the adage.
Pennas incidere alicui.
To clip any one's wings, to check him in
his career, " To take him a peg lower," ne-
cessary sometimes to be done to persons who
are too obtrusive and forward ; who assume a
state, and consequence, that does not belong
to them, or who thrust themselves into busi-
ness in which they have no concern.
Omnia
Omnia idem Pulvis.
\Ve are all made of the same materials,
"ejusdem farinas," of the same dust, and in
the grave there is no mark by which we may
distinguish the dust of the king from that of
the clown. As the philosophers rarely sought
after, and therefore seldom acquired wealth,
they were frequent in admonishing the great
men of the world of this truth, " that death
levels all distinctions," and that " Pobreza no
es vileza," poverty is no disgrace.
I dreamt, that buried in my native clay,
Close by a common beggar's side I lay :
And as so mean a neighbour shock'd my pride,
Thus like a corpse of consequence I cried —
" Scoundrel, begone! and henceforth touch me not;
" More manners learn, and at a distance rot."
" How ! scoundrel!" in a haughtier tone cried he ;
" Proud lump of dirt, I scorn thy words and thee ;
" Here all are equal — now my case is thine,
" That is thy rotting place, and this is mine."
The phrase, " He is of the same kidney,
stamp, or mould," is never used by us but to
designate a worthless character.
M Anulus
( 162 )
Anulus aureus in Naribus Suls.
It is putting a ring of gold into a swine's
snout, or " casting pearls before swine," may be
said to any one talking learnedly before persons
who are illiterate, or giving rich and gaudy
clothes to one who is old and decrepid ;
which, instead of adorning, would only serve
-to make him ridiculous. " As a jewel of gold
in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman without
discretion."
In eburna Vagina, plumbeus Gladius.
This is putting a leaden sword into an ivory
scabbard, was the observation of Diogenes the
cynic, on hearing very foul language come
from the mouth of an elegant young man.
Matching, and bringing together things en-
tirely dissimilar, as Hercules and an ape, the
one excelling in strength and courage, the
other only noticed for his foolish gestures,
and mischievous tricks, renders the parties
subject to the censure implied in this, and the
preceding adages.
( 163 )
Artem quavis alit Terra.
The arts are of every country, or every
country is willing to encourage them. Men
of knowledge, particularly in any of the arts
that administer to the necessities, or con-
venience of mankind, find themselves at home
in every country. The poet Simonicles, seeing
all the passengers in a vessel in which he was
sailing, and which was in danger of sinking,
collecting their valuables, said, " Omnia mea
mecum porto," I carry all my valuables about
me, let me but escape drowning, and I have
nothing to fear. " Quien tiene arte, va por
toda parte," he who has learned any art, may
live in any place, every country being ready
to entertain such inmates. " El villano en su
tierra, y el hidalgo donde quiera," the clown
in his own country, the gentleman where he
pleases; his education qualifying him to live
in any country.
A teneris Unguiculis, Ab Incunabulis, Cum
Lacte Nut rids.
It was his disposition from earliest infancy,
M 2 he
( 164 )
he shewed it when in his cradle, he sucked it
in with his mother's milk. There appears to
be a character in some individuals, implanted
by nature itself, which neither precept nor ex-
ample can alter. Persons related to each other
by the nearest ties of consanguinity ; nursed
and educated under the same auspices ; en-
joying the same advantages, stimulated to
action by the same difficulties, have been,
found as dissimilar, as if their characters had
been formed in climates and regions, and
under circumstances the most remote. He
who will reason on the above motto, will find
ample subject of discussion in the brothers
Titus and Domitian, Julian and Gallus.
Omnes attrahens ut magnes Lapis.
Drawing every thing to it, like the load-
stone. Persons of mild and placid disposi-
tions, conciliate the most rugged and harsh
tempers, as the magnet attracts iron.
" Ita facillime
Sine invidia laudem invenias, et amicos pares."
By
( 165 )
By such dispositions men easily acquire a
good name without envy, and procure to
themselves friends.
Magis magni Clerici non sunt magis sapicntes.
The greatest clerks, or scholars, are not the
•wisest men ; that is, they have not the greatest
share of that wisdom which is necessary for
conducting their worldly concerns. To excel
in any art, it is necessary tlfat our attention
be applied to it, if not exclusively, at the
least that it occupy a larger share of it than
any other subject. The man who engages in
the pursuit of literature, will find he has little
time to bestow on any other object ; the
acquisition of money will be with him a sub-
ordinate concern ; he has been taught in the
course of his studies, to consider it as of little
value, and by no means to be put in com-
petition with what he has chosen; no wonder
therefore that he is no favourite of fortune,
to whom he never paid his court, or that,
others, whom he considers, and the world
M 3 agrees
agrees in placing beneath him, receive a larger
portion of her goods, than fall to his lot. Of
what use, Tasso's father asked him, after
chiding him for neglecting the study of the
law, which he had recommended, of what use
is this philosophy, with which you are so en-
amoured ? " It has enabled me, sir," Tasso
replied, " to bear the harshness of your re-
proof;" and Aristotle, being asked the same
question, said, " to do willingly, and from a
conviction of its propriety, what others do on
compulsion."
In tuo Regno es.
You are on your own ground, surrounded
by your friends, or you would not have dared
to have insulted me, or in your own house
where it is not civil to contradict you. " Chien
sur son fumier est hardi," every dog is brave
on his own dunghill. " Chacun est roi en
^a maison," every man is king in his own
house, and " under my cloak," the Spaniards
say, "a fig for the king;" or, which is also
one of their sayings, " Tan se«or es cada uno
en
( 167 )
en su casa, como el rey de sus alcavalas,'
every man is as much master in his houseA as
the king is of his taxes.
Fontes ipsi sit hint.
Even the fountains complain of being thirs*'
ty. The proverb may be applied to persons
who greedily hunt after the goods of fortune,
though they abound in them, or who require
of their friends articles \vhich they might take
from their own stores. Cicero applied it in
this way to his brother, who had asked him
for verses, which he was himself much more
capable of making. Juvenal says, if Cicero,
who was as contemptible as a poet, as he was
great as a pleader, had made verses instead of
orations, he might have preserved his head.
The following is given as a specimen of his
poetry.
" O fortunatam natam, me consule, Romam,"
which is thus rendered by Dry den,
" Fortune fortuneri the failing state of Rome,
While I thy consul sole, consoled thy doom;"
>i 4 for
( 16*8 )
for which he might have been whipped at
school, but would have been in no danger of
losing his head.
Lumen Soli mutuum das.
Affecting to explain things that are of
themselves abundantly clear and intelligible,
or to instruct persons in matters in which they
are well informed, is like holding a light to the
sun — " Holding," Shakespeare says, "thy far-
thing candle to the sun."
In Sylvam Lignaferre.
" Porter de Teau a la mer," carrying wood
to the forest, coals to Newcastle, or water to
the ocean. Adding to the stores of those who
already abound, or aiding those who have no
need of assistance, and neglecting persons who
are in real want, subjects any one to the cen-
sure implied in this adage.
Vdocem
( 169 )
Velocem tardus assequitur.
" The race is not to the swift, nor the battle
to the strong." Ingenuity and perseverance
will often prevail over strength and swiftness,
as the slow tortoise won the race against the
swift hare. The adage may be used whenever
we find persons of weak intellects, or of no
great strength, or agility, advancing them-
selves above others who are far superior to
them in those qualities.
Nosce Tempus.
" Cada cosa en su tiempo, y nabos en Ad-
viento," every thing in its season, and turnips
in Advent. Choose the proper season. "Make
hay while the sun shines." A maxim of great
importance in life. A thing proper in itself,
if unseasonably done, may be mischievous.
The golden ball is held out to every man once
in his life, if not then laid hold of, it may
never again be offered. "Accasca in un punto,
quel che non accasca in cento anni," that may
happen in a moment, which may not again
occur in an hundred years, therefore " keep
your
( 170 )
your hook always baited," that is, be always
prepared, for as Shakespeare has well noted,
" There is a tide in the affairs of men,
Which taken at the flood, leads on to fortune;
Omitted, all the voyage of their life,
Is bound in shallows, and in miseries."
The ancients pictured Time with wings on his
feet, and standing on a wheel ; with a lock of
hair on his forehead, but bald behind ; inti-
mating, that time was perpetually moving, and
once suffered to pass by, it could not be re-
called. Hence we are admonished, " to take
Time by the forelock. "
" elapsum semel,-
Non ipse possit Jupiter reprehendere."
For, if suffered to escape, not Jupiter himself
can reclaim him.
Olet Lucernam.
" It smells of the lamp." The ancients used
lamps when they studied by night, therefore
any discourse or work, that was extremely
elaborated and polished, was said to smell of
the lamp, or to have had bestowed upon it the
" JLimjE labor et mora."
Noct*
( 171 )
Nocte latent Mendce.
Faults, or defects, in the complexion or form
of women, are concealed by darkness. " Ne
femina, ne tela a lume de candela," \yomen,
and linen, shew best by candle-light. Night
also throws her cloak over evil actions. Hence
the Spaniards say, " La noche es capa des
peccadores."
Mafe parta, mate dilabuntur.
" 111 gotten, ill spent. " " Lightly come,
lightly go," and " what is gotten over the
devil's back, is spent under his belly." Riches
obtained by unjust means, are frequently squan-
dered in vicious and disgraceful pursuits.
" What is well got, may meet with disaster,
But what is ill got, destroys both itself and its master."
" La farina del Diavolo, va tutta in crusca,"
the devil's meal turns all to chaff. "Vien pres-
to consummate, 1'ingiustamente acquistato,"
what is unjustly acquired, is quickly con-
sumed. Juvenal, more consonant perhaps to
common experience, says,
" De raal« quaesitis, vix gaudet tertius haeres."
The
The fortune that is acquired by fraud or rapine,
scarcely descends to the third generation.
There is something curious in pursuing thjs
simple, moral observation into real history.
Of all the companions of William the Con-
queror, who obtained the chief military digni-
ties under his jurisdiction, it is worth observ-
ing, that hardly any one had any immediate
male descendants in the third generation.
When Henry the Second ascended the throne
in 1154, only seventy years after the Con-
queror's death, there was no earl in England,
descended in the male line from one who had
been an earl under the Conqueror. The Con-
queror himself, as is well known, faad no male
issue in the third generation. Alexander and
Caesar had no descendants. Will the Emperor
of the French prove an exception to Juvenal's
observation ?
OccultcB Musices nullus Respectus.
Talents that are concealed, are of no use.
Though a man shall have cultivated his mind
with the greatest care, and shall have acquired
a large
( 173 )
a large portion of knowledge, if opportunity
be wanted of producing it to the public, he
will reap little profit from his attainments.
" Scire tuum nihil est, nisi te scire hoc, sciat alter."
There is little pleasure in knowing any subject,
unless we are satisfied that others know that
we are in possession of such knowledge. To
make learning useful, it must be communi-
cated. "Take from the philosopher," Rousseau
says, "the pleasure of being heard, and his
desire for knowledge ceases." Seneca carries
this still further. " Si cum hac exceptione
detur sapientia, ut illam inclusam teneam,
nee enunciem, rejiciam, " if wisdom were
offered to me, on this condition, that I should
not communicate it, I would not accept it.
" Quis enim virtutem ipsam amplectitur, pras-
mia si tollas ?" for who would embrace even
virtue itself, but for the attending reward ?
Lupi ilium priores viderunt.
The wolves have seen him ; or, which is
more consonant to the English adage, " He
has seen a wolf," and to the French, " II a vu
le
( 174 )
le loup," which was said of any one, who, bold
and forward with his tongue, became suddenly-
less talkative and intrusive.
" Edere non poteris vocem, lupus est tibi visus."
You are silent, I perceive, you have seen a wolf.
It was anciently believed that the wolf, by
some occult power, struck those whom it
looked on dumb, as the basilisk was said to
strike them blind. The adage, as it is now
used, is supposed to have taken its rise from
a story in Theocritus, who relates that a lover
was suddenly struck dumb, in the midst of
his courtship, by the appearance of a rival,
named Lycus, which in the Greek language is
the name of a wolf.
Una Hirundo non efficit Ver.
" Una golondrina no haze verano," and in
French, for the adage is every where known,
"Une hirondelle ne fait pas le printems,"
" One swallow does not make a summer." One
single piece of good or bad fortune should not
greatly raise or depress us, what folloM^s may
be of a different complexion. From a single
act of liberality, or the contrary, we should
not,
( 175 )
not, generally, form our opinion of the dis-
position of a man, or from a single speech, of
his learning or ability. A few warm days
occurring in the winter, brought a swallow, it
is said, from his hiding-place, which being seen
by a prodigal young man, he parted with his
cloak, but the frost returning, he soon felt the
want of his garment, and found to his cost,
that " cue swallow did not make a summer,"
which thence, it is said, became proverbial.
" Guarda el sayo," the Spaniards say, " para
Mayo," do not leave off your great coat until
May, or you will be obliged to take to it again.
In utramvis dormire Aurem.
He may sleep on either ear. His fortune
is made, he may now sleep at his ease ; or as
we say, " His name is up, he may go to bed."
" Bonne renomme'e vaut mieux que ceinture
dore'e," a good name is rather to be chosen
than riches; though the French proverb is
founded on an old law among them, prohibit-
ing any but women of good fame, from wear-
ing a golden girdle. We sleep more soundly
and
and quietly lying on one side, than on the back.
To sleep on either ear, means to enjoy undis-
turbed repose, which those only, whose minds
are free from care, may expect. But how few
can boast of this exemption ! Withers, an in-
different poet in the time of James the First,
was used to say, " Nee habeo, nee careo, nee
euro," I neither have any thing, want any
thing, nor care for any thing. But he must
soon after have changed his song, for siding
with Parliament in the troubles that arose in
the next reign, he was taken by the king's
party, and sentenced to be hanged. From
this danger he was rescued on the intercession
of Waller, who pleaded for him, it is said, "in
order that there might be one worse poet
living than himself." The Spaniards, consonant
to this proverb, say, " Cobra buena fama, y
echate a dormir," get a good name, and go to
sleep; and the French, " Qui a bruit cle se
lever matin, peut dormir jusques a diner."
Not alien, in its sense also is, "Give a dog an
ill name, and hang him^" " Famas laboranti
non facile succurritur," it is not easy to re-
cover a lost character.
A It era
( 177 )
Altera Manufert Lapidem, altera Panem
ostentat.
Holding in one hand a stone, in the other
bread, from the custom of enticing dogs, whom
we mean to beat, by holding out to them a
piece of bread ; or a horse, when we want to
harness him, by shewing him corn. The an-
cients, by this apothegm, typified persons of
deceitful and treacherous dispositions,
" Tel par devant fait bon visage,
Qui derriere mord et outrage,"
who speak fair, but mean foul ; whose words
are honey, but their actions gall ; who wound
while they flatter ; who gain your confidence
to betray you. " AlterA manu scabunt, altera
feriunt," who strike with one hand, while they
tickle with the other ; " who cover with their
wings, while they bite with their beaks."
Ex eodem Ore calidum etfrigidum efflare.
" Blowing hot and cold with the same
breath." This those persons are said to do,
who praise what they had before condemned,
or condemn what they had once commended,
N according
( 178 )
according as it suits their purpose. The
adage is founded on the well known apologue
of a Satyr, who received a poor man, nearly
frozen to death, into his hut. Observing the
man to blow or breathe into his hands, the
Satyr asked him, for what purpose he did
that ? " To warm them," the poor man said.
Seeing him afterwards blow into a bason of
pottage he had given him, he asked him,
"And for what purpose do you blow into your
pottage?" and the man telling him that it was
" To cool it," the Satyr turned him out of
doors, declaring he would have no commu-
nication with one, who could blow hot and
cold with the same breath.
Unico Digitulo scalpit Caput.
Scratching the head with a single finger,
which it seems was done by the fops in Greece
and Rome, that they might not discompose
the economy of their hair. The phrase was
therefore applied to men of nice and effeminate
manners, and implied that they paid more
attention to their dress than to the acquire-
ment
ment of more valuable endowments. This
pro verb, which originated among the Grecians,
as did indeed nearly the whole of the collec-
tion made by Erasmus, could only be used by
the Romans after they had conquered that
country, and had begun to adopt their man-
ners, in which they became such proficients,
as in time to outstrip their teachers in volup-
tuousness and vice, as far as they had before
excelled them in magnanimity and courage.
Lentiscum mandere.
Chewing mastic. The juice, or gum of the
mastic tree, was early used as a dentrifice,
being found to make the teeth white, and to
strengthen and preserve the gums. Tooth-
picks were also made of the wood, which those
who were more than ordinarily attentive to
their mouths, used frequently to chew, which
subjected them to the censure implied in this
and in the preceding adage, of being too nice
and delicate in their persons. Those who
could not get mastic toothpicks, made use
x 2 ef
( 180 )
of quills, as appears from the following by
Martial.
" Lentiscum melius, sed si tibi frondea cuspis
Defuerit, denies penna levare potest."
CCECUS Cceco Dux.
The blind leading the blind. Men incapable
of managing their own affairs, pretending to
conduct those of others, or young men ad-
vising with others equally inexperienced as
themselves, instead of following the counsel
of their elders, are like blind men trusting to
the guidance of the blind. "But if the blind
lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch."
" Rehoboam lost his kingdom," Lord Verulam
observes, " not from refusing counsel, but
from taking counsel from young and incon-
siderate men. Young men," he goes on to
say, " in the conduct of affairs, embrace more
than they can hold, stir more than they can
quiet; fly to the end, without considering the
means. They use extreme remedies at first,'
and, which doubleth all errors, they will not
acknowledge
acknowledge or retract them ; like an un-
steady horse, that will neither stop nor turn."
Sine Cortice nature.
To swim without bladders, cork, or any of
the aids usually given to learners. The pro-
verb may be applied to persons who have
made such progress in the knowledge of any
art, that they are no longer in want of masters.
"Sitnul ac duraverit Eetas
Membra animumque tuum, nabis sine cortice,"
when time shall have strengthened your body,
and the powers of your mind, you may swim
without corks, that is, you will no longer stand
in need of a monitor to advise and instruct you.
Ut possumus, quando ut volumus non licet, or
" Non uti libet, sed uti licet, sic vivimus"
We should learn to live as we can, since we
cannot live as we would. " We should make a
virtue of necessity," and be contented though
we should not be able to attain what our am-
bition or cupidity grasps at. So unbounded are
the desires of men, that even those who have
N 3 abundance,
abundance, rarely or never think they have
enough. Happiness does not consist so much
in the largeness of our possessions, as in our
moderating our desires, and using properly
what we have.
" Haec perinde sunt, ut illius animus, qui ea possidet,
Qui uti scit, ei bona, illi qui non utitur recte, mala."
The real wants of nature are few, and ordina-
rily attainable by such a portion of industry,
as we are most, if not all of us, capable of
exerting, provided we are careful to dispense
frugally what we get by our industry or in*
genuity.
" Man wants but little here below,
Nor wants that little long."
u De hambre," the Spaniards say, "a nadie vi
morir, de mucho comer a cien mil," I never
saw a man die of hunger, but thousands die of
over feeding. The follo\ving from St. Austin's
Confessions, as rendered by Burton, is so much
to the purpose of the present argument, that
I am induced to insert it.
"Passing by a village in the territory of
Milan," the writer says, " I saw a poor beggar
that had got, belike, his belly full of meat,
jesting
( 183 )
jesting and merry. I sighed, and said to some
of my friends that were then with me, what a
deal of trouble, madness, pain, and grief, do we
sustain, and exaggerate unto ourselves, to get
that secure happiness, which this poor beggar
hath prevented us. of, and which we perad ven-
ture shall never have ! for that which he hath
now attained with the begging of some small
pieces of silver, a temporal happiness, and pre-
sent heart's ease, I cannot compass with all
my careful windings, and running in and out.
And surely the beggar was very merry, but I
was heavy : he was secure, but I timorous.
And if any man should ask me now, whether
V
I had rather be merry, or still so solicitous and
sad, I should say, merry. If he should ask
me again, whether I had rather be as I am, or
as this beggar was, I should sure choose to be
as 1 am, tortured still with cares and fears, but
out of peevishness, and not out of truth." As
St. Austin was a bishop, wealthy and in great
authority, we learn from this simple story, of
how little avail wealth and power are in pro-
curing to us happiness. The proverb may be
used by any one not meeting with the success
N 4 he
( 184 )
he expected from his exertions, signifying
that he should still receive gratefully and con-
tentedly what had fallen to his lot.
Ut Sementem feceris, it a et metis.
As you have sown so you must expect to
reap. " Quien mala cama haze, en ella se
yaze," " Comme on fait son lit, on se couche,"
" as you have made your bed, so you must
lie:" you must not expect corn from thistles,
or health and prosperity from intemperance
and prodigality. " No hay dulzura sin sudor,"
" there is no sweet without sweat," and " No
hay ganancia, sin fatiga," " no gains without
pains ;" " he that will not work, must not ex-
pect to eat ; " qui est oisif en sa jeunesse,
travaillera en sa vieillesse," it is only from
being industrious and frugal when young, that
we may hope for comfort and plenty in our
old age.
" Quin ubi qua? non decent,
Haud veritus es patrare, fer quae non libeat."
As you were not afraid to do what was un-
fitting, bear now what is unplcasing as the
consequence
( 185 )
consequence of your misdoing. Zeno having
detected his servant in thieving, ordered him
to be whipped ; the servant, in excuse for
what he had done, said it was decreed by the
fates that he should be a thief, alluding to the
doctrine which he had heard his master main-
taining ; and so it was, said Zeno, that you
should be whipped. That our actions are in
some degree governed by fate is a very early
dogma, and is not entirely abandoned,
" And when weak women go astray,
Their stars are more in fault than they."
The Duke de Rochefoucault seems to have
acknowledged the principle : " II semble que
nos actions aient des e"toiles heureuses on mal-
heureuses, a qui elles doivent une grande par-
tie de la louange et du blame qu'on leur
donne :" our actions seem often to be under
the influence of good or bad stars, to which
rather than to our prudence or misconduct,
the principal part of the praise or blame they
may merit, should be attributed.
" Committunt multi eadem diverse crimina fato,
Ille crucem sceleris pretium tulerit, hie diadema."
How different the fates or fortunes of men!
the
( 186 )
the same act of villany that brings one man
to the gallows, raises another to a throne.
This is consonant also to an old English pro-
verb, " one man may steal a horse, more safely
than another may look at him over a hedge ;"
also, "one man's meat is another man's poison."
Deorum Cibus est,
Meat fit for the Gods, who, according to
Homer, feasted only on nectar and ambrosia,
which were supposed to be of such tenuity as
to pass off by transpiration, diffusing around
them rich perfumes : as digestion was per-
formed without labour to the stomach, the
bodies of the gods were supposed never to be-
come old or to be subjected to decay. The
phrase is applied hyperbolically, to any very
rich and superb entertainment ; it is a feast
fit for the gods.
Multis Ictibus dejlcitur Quercus.
There is nothing so difficult, but it may be
effected by perseverance; even the massive and
sturdy
( 187 )
sturdy oak by repeated strokes of the axe is at
length thrown down. " Gutta cavat lapi-
dem," and the constant dripping of water
wears and hollows the solid stone : " el que
trabaja, y madra, hila ora," he that labours
and perseveres, spins gold : " le labeur sur-
monte tout," by labour and perseverance, all
difficulties are surmounted.
Tertius Cato.
He is a third, or another Cato, was Said
ironically of persons affecting a more than or-
dinary degree of gravity, and sanctity of man-
ners. The two Catos, who were in their time
models of wisdom, virtue and patriotism, were
in such high esteem among the Romans, that
they even believed that they had been sent
into the world by the gods, for the purpose of
suppressing vice and banishing it from the
earth. To compare any one therefore to
them, or to call him a third Cato, would have
been the highest compliment that could have
been paid to any human being, but as they
despaired
( 188 )
despaired of seeing ag^n such a character,
the phrase was never used but to ridicule such
persons as endeavoured to assume the appear-
ance without any just pretensions to the ac-
complishments of those great men. Of such
persons, we usually say, " he is a second
Solomon ;" and the jew in the Merchant of
Venice, " he is a second Daniel."
Sapientum octavus.
An eighth wise man. This was applied iro-
nically to persons who were severe censors of
the morals of others, but not very attentive to
propriety in their own conduct. The ancients
seem to have selected seven of the philoso-
phers, who were believed to excel the rest in
wisdom and virtue, and called them the
" seven wise men," and were as little disposed
to add to the number, as to admit there could
be a third Cato. It is not with certainty
agreed by any of the writers whose works
have come down to us, who the seven wise
men were.
Fel
( 189 )
Vtl C&co appareat.
Even a blind man might perceive it, may
be said metaphorically, of a proposition so
clear and perspicuous, that it might be com-
prehended by the weakest intellects. Even a
child may understand it.
Ex Quercubus ac Saxis nati.
This was used figuratively to designate per-
sons of harsh and cruel dispositions, who
could by no intreaties be moved to compas-
sion ; they could not be the progeny of men,
but must have been produced by trees or
rocks, or some such unfeeling bodies. Pope
makes one of his shepherds say,
" I know thee, Love, on foreign mountains bred,
Wolves gave thee suck, and savage tigers fed ;
Thou wert from ^Etna's burning entrails torn,
Got by fierce whirlwinds, and in thunder born."
Virum improbum vel Mm mordeat.
Even a mouse may strike terror into the
mind of a man who has been guilty of any
great
great crime; conscious of his iniquity, he
hears a pursuer in every the lightest noise, for,
*' a guilty conscience needs no accuser ;" this,
at the least, is the case with persons only com-
mencing their career of sin, for veterans in
iniquity are not, perhaps, so easily affrighted.
" Pavore carent qui nihil commiserunt ; at poenam
Semper ob oculos versari putant qui peccarunt."
The innocent are free from fear ; but the
guilty live under the perpetual apprehension
that their crimes will be discovered, and that
the punishment they have merited will over-
take them. " Vivir bien destierra miedo,"
to live well banishes fear.
Bis dat qui cito dat.
" Quien da presto, da dos veces," " he
gives twice who gives in a trice;" and " dono
molto aspettato, e venduto non donato," a
gift long expected or waited for, is not given
but sold : benefits are not so much esteemed
for their value, as for the readiness with which
they are bestowed. " Say not to your neigh-
bour, go and come again, and to-morrow I will
give,
give, when tbou hast it by thee :" the assist-
ance which is not given early is frequently
unavailable : I thank you, what you now
offer might have been useful ; but the time is
past, the mischief your present might have
prevented, is fallen upon me. <l Ingratum
est beneficium quod diu inter manus dan-
tis haesit," the kindness that is long delay-
ed loses its value; " at bis gratum est, quod
ultro offertur," but the favour which comes
unsolicited, is doubly grateful. " Hope de-
ferred niaketh the heart sick :" the petitioner
has paid by anxious expectation more than
the value of the gift ; or he has learned,
while waiting for assistance, how to bear his
trouble, and has accommodated himself to his
situation. " Quo mihi fortunas, si non con-
ceditur uti ?" Of what use is fortune,, when I
am no longer in a capacity of enjoying it ?
" Is not a patron," Dr. Johnson says to the
Earl of Chesterfield, " one who looks with un-
concern on a man struggling for life in the
water, and when he has reached the land, en-
cumbers him with help? The notice which you
have been pleased to take of my labours, had
been
( 192 )
been kind; but it has been delayed until I
am indifferent, and cannot enjoy it; till I am
solitary and cannot impart it; till I am
known and do not want it."
" How little knowest thou who hast not tried,
What hell it is, in suing long to bide,
To waste long days that may be better spent,
To pass long nights in cheerless discontent;
To speed to-day, to be put back to-morrow,
To live on hope, to die with pain and sorrow."
CaudcE Pilos equince paullatim oportet evellere.
Allow me to do that slowly and gradually,
which cannot be effected suddenly and with
violence. " Piuma a piuma se pela 1'occha,"
feather by feather the goose \vas stripped ;
" Petit a petit Toiseau fait son nid," and by
little and little the bird makes its nest.
" Si leonina pellis non satis est, vulpina addenda ;"
" The lion's skin, too short, you know,
Was lengthened by the fox's tail/'
The adage took its rise from a story told by
Plutarch of Sertorius a Roman general, who
finding his soldiers were not pleased with his
wary and cautious mode of conducting a war
in
(193 )
in which he was engaged, he ordered two of
his men, the one young, lusty and strong, the
other, old and feeble, to strip the tails of two
horses, that were brought to them, of their
hair; the young man, grasping the whole of
the tail in his hand, pulled it with all his
strength, and continued his exertions until
he had completely tired himself, without ef-
fecting the business : the old and feeble man
on the contrary, by plucking a few hairs only
at a time, very soon stripped the tail bare and
so accomplished his purpose, with but little
difficulty. Then Sertorius, addressing himself
to his soldiers said, " videtis, commilitones,
quanto plus posset ingenium quam vires,"
you see, my fellow soldiers, of how much more
value deliberation is than strength.
Sonus Dux bomim reddit Comitem.
A good general makes a good soldier, a
good master good servants, a good father
good children, a good magistrate good citi-
zens, not only because each in their station,
will take care that those under their authority
o shall
( 194 )
shall be instructed in every thing that is ne-
cessary to enable them properly to perform
their several duties, but they will themselves
be careful that they set only good examples,
which they know to be more efficacious and
more likely to induce good manners than sim-
ple instruction ; for " precepta ducunt, at ex-
empla trahunt;"
" Example draws where precept fails,
And sermons are less read than tales."
This regimen, however, will not always produce
the desired effect. For though the parent and
the master shall have diligently performed
their parts, there are too many opportunities
and too manv incentives to vice to be found
w
abroad, to hope that the pupil will entirely
escape infection. Hence it not unfrequently
happens, that the most prudent and worthy
parents have to lament the delinquency of
their children, though the greatest care had
been taken to instil and ingraft into them
when young, the principles of honour and in-
tegrity ; for " many a good cow hath a bad
ealf," and " a good Jack, does not always
make
( 195 )
make a good Jill." The sentiment therefore
contained in the following lines,
" Youth, like the softened wax, with ease will take
Those images which first impressions make ;
If those be fair, their lives will all be bright;
If foul, they '11 cloud them o'er with shades of night.''
though frequently, is not universally true.
jElius Spartianus, in the life of the Emperor
Severus, shews by many examples, that men
famed for learning, virtue, or valour, have, for
the most part, either left behind them no chil-
dren, or such as it had been more for their
honour and the interest of human affairs, that
they had died childless. To the instances
produced by this writer, Mr. Ray adds from
our own history, " that Edward the First, a
wise and valiant prince, left us Edward the
Second ; Edward the Black Prince, Richard
the Second; and Henry the Fifth, a valiant
and successful king, Henry the Sixth."
Litem parit Lis, Noxa item Noxam parit*
One dispute, or one injury produces ano-
o 2 ther.
( '96 )
ther. Where the parties are of litigious dis-
positions, and will neither of them give way,
it happens not unfrequently, that from the
most trifling causes, the most serious con-
tentions arise, terminating in a duel, or in a
suit at law, often more disastrous than a duel.
" Nescios, y porfiados, hacen ricos los lat-
rados," fools, and contentious persons, th6
Spaniards say, make the lawyers rich ; they
also say, " Mas vale mala avanencia, que
buena sentencia;" and the Italians, " Meglio
e magro accordo, che grassa sentenza," " A
lean agreement is better than a fat sentence;"
to which we have added, not less sensibly
and impressively, " Agree, for the law is
costly."
Nothing is more generally known, or more
commonly deprecated, than the misery often
occasioned by contention, and yet how very
little influence does this knowledge seem to
have on our conduct ! There are few of us
but can tell stories of families reduced to in-
digence from having too hastily engaged in a
suit at law, in defending a doubtful right to
a slip of land, or other equally insignificant
object,
( 197 )
object, claimed perhaps by some wealthy
neighbour. " Should I suffer myself to be
imposed upon ?" Better suffer a small impo-
sition, than a great injury. No one can tell
on entering into a lawsuit, how or where it
will terminate ; but of one thing we are very
certain, the expense, unless the object be very
considerable, will exceed the sum for which
we are contending, for " Law is a bottomless
pit," an insatiable gulph, and it should be our
care to keep out of its reach. The only dif-
ference made by the painter between two men,
one of whom had gained, and the other lost
his cause, was, that to the unsuccessful party
he gave a ragged coat, and a gloomy despond-
ing countenance : to him who had succeeded
he gave an equally ragged coat, but expressed
in his look a savage joy, not at the profit he
had made, for his apparel shewed the low
state of his finances, but that he had been able
to effect the ruin of his opponent. " Be not
easily provoked," Lord Burleigh admonishes
his son, " to enter into a suit at law, lest in
the end it prove no greater refuge than did
the thicket of brambles to a flock of sheep,
o 3 that,
( 198 )
that, driven from the plain by a tempest, ran
thither for shelter, and there lost their fleeces."
Parturiunt Monies, nascetur ridiculus Mus.
" The mountain laboured and brought forth
a mouse." " La montagne est accouch6e
d'une souris." This may be applied to persons
introducing a story with great pomp and
solemnity, which turns out to be trifling and
insignificant ; to vain and empty boasters,
who have neither the power, nor perhaps the
inclination to do what they are very free in
promising; or when any project, of which
great hopes were formed, proves abortive.
Thesaurus Carbones erant.
Searching for a treasure, they found only
charcoal, may be said of persons who are dis-.
appointed in their expectations, who, after
great labour and expense, find the object of
their search of little value; the end of nume-
rous expensive speculations. Charcoal being
of
of a nature to last for ages when buried under
ground, was used by the ancients to mark the
boundaries of lands. A trench being dug,
dividing the property of two individuals, it
was rilled with charcoal, and then covered
with soil, in which stakes, at regulated dis-
tances, were placed. The stakes might be
removed, but the charcoal remaining, would
for ever shew the original boundaries of the
land.
Dives aut miquus est, aut iniqui Hceres.
A rich man is either a knave or heir to a
knave. " How can you be a good man,"
Sylla was asked, " possessing such immense
wealth, though you received nothing from
your parents?" Consonant to this opinion is
the English adage, " Happy is the man whose
father went to the devil;" and
" Jt is a saying common more than civil,
The son is blest, whose sire is at the devil."
Large fortunes made in a small space of
time, are rarely found to be acquired by fair
and honourable practices ; as is expressed in
o 4 a pas-
( 200 )
a passage in one of the comedies of Menander,
" Nunquam vir aequus dives evasit cito.'r
" Seek not," Lord Verulam says, " great
riches, but such as thou mayest get justly, use
soberly, distribute cheerfully, and leave con-
tentedly." Solomon advises, " to beware of
hasty gathering of riches." Riches obtained
by the ordinary means of industry, increase
slowly, and it is only by bold and hazardous
speculations, that they are made to accumu-
late rapidly. The most honourable merchants,
or those so esteemed, who acquire very large
fortunes, can hardly be said to obtain them
justly. For though they, none of them, con-
fine their traffic within their own capitals, yet
if they are successful, they receive the whole
of the profit ; but if their speculations prove
unfortunate, they involve in their fall all who
were unlucky enough to give them credit.
" The first article, that a young trader offers
for sale," our proverb says, " is his hipnesty."
Hie Funis nihil attraxlt.
This bate has taken no fish. This argument
has
( 201 )
has not prevailed, or this scheme has not an-
swered ; some other mode must be tried, which
may be more successful. " Semper tibi pen-
deat hamus," have your hook always bated ;
though you should fail again and again, con-
tinue your exertions, you will succeed at
length. " Quis enim totum diem jaculans,
non aliquando conlineat?"forwhosoevershoots
often will at length hit the mark. To the same
purport is, " Omnem movere lapidern," " leave
no stone unturned," try every expedient that
is likely to be successful.
Merx ultronea putet.
" Profferred service stinks." We are apt to
esteem of little value, what is obtained with
small labour. The proverb seems to have
taken its origin from the mistrust entertained
of any goods pressed upon us with too much
earnestness by the venders ; from that cir-
cumstance, concluding them to be damaged
or faulty.
" Laudat venales qui vult extrudere merces,"
every man praising the articles he wishes to
dispose
C
dispose of; the purchaser, on the other hand,
labours as hard to depreciate what he is about
to buy. " It is naught, it is naught, says
the buyer, but when he is gone he vaunteth."
" Chi comprar ha bisogno di cent' ochii, chi
vende n' ha assai de uno," he who buys hath
need of an hundred eyes, who sells hath
enough of one. We are all of us also solicitous
of obtaining intelligence that is attempted to
be kept secret, or which is known to a few
persons only, and listen to it with more atten-
tion than to information equally important,
but of more easy acquisition.
Fuimiis Troes, and " Aquifye Troy a."
Troy once was, that is, Troy, though now
destroyed, was once a great and powerful city.
It may be used by persons whose families, or
countries, formerly in repute, have fallen to
decay. Time was when we were of some note
or value. " Fui Caius," is the inscription that
Dr. Caius, or Keys, the founder of a college
of that name at Cambridge, ordered to be in-
scribed on his monument.
Post
( 203 )
Post Festum venisti.
" You are come a day after the fair," the
business is done, there is now no want of your
assistance, may be said to tardy and indolent
persons, who are always too late, whether en-
gaged in business or pleasure. To which how-
ever they may answer, " II vaut mieux tard
que jamais," " Better late than never," and
" Better come at the end of a feast, than at
the beginning of a fray."
Illotls Pedibus ingredi.
Entering with unwashed feet. Alluding to
the custom of washing the feet, anciently
practised by all persons, before the}^ entered
any sacred place, or sat down to their repasts.
It was used to be applied to persons talking
confidently on subjects they did not under-
stand, or irreverently on sacred subjects; or
to those who intruded themselves into busi-
ness, without having previously prepared
themselves by study and application. As the
ancients wore sandals, and no stockings, their
feet
( 204 )
feet and legs were exposed to the mud and
dirt, and required to be washed, when they
had walked any considerable distance, both
for the sake of cleanliness and refreshment.
After washing they were usually anointed with
sweet-scented oil. This custom, at first adopted
from necessity, became at length a religious
ceremony.
Palinodiam canere.
This was used to be said to persons, who
had been obliged, to use a phrase common in
this country, " to eat their words," to retract
the judgment or opinion they had given on
any person or subject ; to praise what they
had before condemned, or to censure what
they had commended. The allegorical punish-
ment of the Braggadochio, in all the old play-
writers, is to be forced to " eat their swords."
The following fable is related, as having
given origin to this adage. The poet Stesi-
chorus, having in a copy of verses severely
censured the conduct of Helena, as a punish-
ment for his offence, he was deprived of his
sight
( 205 )
sight by the gods her protectors. Under-
standing the cause of his disaster, in a sub-
sequent poem, he raised and extolled her
character, as highly as he had before censured
her. Having therefore sung his palinodia,
retracted his censure, which is implied by the
term, he was restored to his sight.
Senecta.
Living like an old eagle. Syrus meeting
Chremes early in the morning, whom he knew
to have drunk hard the night before, addressed
him with this phrase, intimating that drinking
suited him as it did an old eagle. The eagle,
Pliny says, is in the latter part of its life in-
capable of eating any solid food, the upper
mandible growing to such a length, and be-
coming so hooked, that it can only open its
mouth sufficiently to suck the blood of the
animals it takes. Old topers therefore who
usually eat but little, may be said like that
bird, if the story is correct, to live on suction.
The adage may be applied, and with more
propriety, perhaps, to persons enjoying a high
state
( 206 )
state of health, spirits, and activity to an ex-
treme old age, which the eagle, upon better
grounds, is known to do.
Matura Satio sape decipit, sera semper mala est.
Corn early sown may disappoint your ex-
pectation, but sown too late, you will certainly
lose your seed and your labour. A proper
and seasonable time is to be chosen for per-
forming all business ; if it be too precipitately
undertaken, and before you have made the
necessary preparation, it will rarely succeed ;
but if it be delayed too long, and the oppor-
tunity suffered to pass by, that can never be
.recovered, and the business will altogether
fail. The proverb probably took its rise from
the following passage in Cato's treatise De Re
Rustica : " Res rustica sic est, si unam rem sero
feceris, omnia opera sero facies," such is the
nature of husbandry that if one process be
performed too late, the whole of the business
will fail.
Ele-
( 207 )
Elephantus non capit Murem, nee Aquila
Muscas.
The elephant disdains to contend with a
mouse, neither will the eagle stoop to catch a
fly. The brave man is not easily provoked to
punish a coward, and men of enlarged and
liberal minds are above noticing the paltry
censures of trifling, and insignificant scribblers.
De Pilo pendet. De Filo pendet.
" Colgar cle un hilo," it hangs by a hair, by
a thread, as the life of a man does, who is at
sea in a violent storm ; it may be said in all
cases of great and imminent danger, also when
the result of any business depends on some
minute circumstance. The adage is said to
have taken its rise from a device of Dionysius,
tyrant of Syracuse, who ordered one of his
courtiers, who had too highly extolled the
pleasures of royalty, to be placed at a splendid
banquet, attended by numerous servants, all
ready to obey his orders, and surrounded with
.every thing that might serve to exhilarate his
spirits :
( 208 )
spirits: but over his head, suspended by a single
hair, was a massive sword, which threatened
every moment to fall upon, and kill him. The
thought of the danger in which he was placed,
took from him all relish for the dainties before
him, and made him request that he might be
allowed to descend to his former state of pri-
vacy and safety. The tyrant, by this con-
trivance, meant to shew, that if royalty has its
pleasures, it is also surrounded with dangers,
that may well be thought to balance its en-
joyments. " If thou knewest," he said, " with
what cares and anxieties this robe is stuffed,
thou wouldest not stoop to take it from the
ground." " None think the great unhappy,
but the great."
Elephantem ex Muscdfads.
Persons speaking hyperbolically, and mag-
nifying small and insignificant objects, or
treating little offences as great and serious
crimes, may be said to make elephants of flies,
" mountains of mole-hills."
In
( 209 )
In Laqueos Lupus.
The wolf is fallen into a snare, was said,
When a crafty and bad man, who had been a
plague to his neighbours, was visited by any
great misfortune, or suffered a considerable
loss, particularly if this happened when he
was contriving mischief for some other person.
" Craft," we say, " bringeth nothing home,"
that is, nothing that is permanent.
Annosa Vulpes hdud capitur Laqueo.
" Old birds are not to be caught with
chaff." An old fox is not easily taken ; or
with the French, " Un renard n'est pas pris
deux fois a un piege," he is not to be twice
taken in the same snare ; but " Enfin les re-
nards se troiivent chez le pelletier," at length
they come to the furrier, " Tutte le volpe si
trovano in pelliceria." The tricks of crafty
and bad men are not easily detected, but
though such may escape for a time, they are
usually caught at last. " Mucho sabe la zorra,
pero mas el que la toma," the fox is cunning,
but he is more cunning who takes him.
p C apt antes
( 210 )
Captantes capti sumus.
"The biter is bit." Attempting to lead
another into an error, I am fallen into one
myself, from which I am not likely easily to
escape. Assaying to mortify another, by plac-
ing him in a ridiculous light before his com-
panions, he has turned the jest upon me, and
covered me with confusion. Augustus Csesar,
seeing a young man from the country, who
in his features very much resembled his own
family, asked him, by way of scoff, whether
his mother had ever been at Rome? No, said
the youth, but my father has. Princes endea-
vouring to enlarge their dominions at the ex-
pense of their neighbours, are themselves not
unfrequently obliged to yield up a part, or
perhaps the whole of what they before pos-
sessed. "He hath graven and digged a pit,
and is fallen into it himself."
JEthiopcm ex Vultujudico.
The ^Ethiopian may be known by his coun-
tenance, being too distinctly marked to be
mistaken
( 211 )
mistaken even on the slightest view of him ;
but neither persons, nor things, are in general
to be judged of by a superficial view of them,
for, " all is not gold that glitters." Men are
not to be estimated to be friends, merely for
professing themselves to be so. " Del dicho
al hecho ay gran trecho," there is a great
difference between saying and doing, and,
" Tierra negra buen pan lleva," black earth
produces white bread ; we therefore say,
De Fructu Arborem cognosce.
A tree is known by its fruit, and the real
value of a man by his actions.
Satius e$t recurrere, quam currere mall.
It is often better to return, than to go on ;
that is, when any one finds he has taken a
wrong road, it is better to turn back than to
proceed, as the further he goes on, the further
he will be from the place he proposes visiting.
This is the plain and literal sense of the adage ;
but it is used to recommend to us to leave
any scheme or project in which we may have
P2 en*
engaged, if we find it not likely to answer the
intended purpose, and not through pride, and
an unwillingness to acknowledge we have been
in an error, to persist until we have suffered
some great inconvenience, or mischief.
In Man Aquam gutzris, or
" Insanus, medio Flumine quceris Aquam"
Do you hunt for water, though surrounded
by the ocean ; why particularise one fault in
a man, the occurrences of whose life, offer
only a continued series of vice and immorality;
or censure a single error in a work, in which
they so abound, that they are to be met with
in every page ?
Ut Canis e Nilo.
As dogs drink of the river Nile. Menwhoarfe
unsteady in business, attending to it by starts
and snatches, and then leaving it for other em-
ployments, or reading books in the same de-
sultory and careless manner, are said to take
to
( 213 )
to them, as dogs take water from the Nile,
that is, hastily, and without stopping to taste
it. This the dogs are said to do through fear
of the crocodiles, which abound in the upper
part or' that river. A person inquiring, after
the defeat of the forces of Marc Anthony at
Actium, what he had done there, was an-
swered by his friend, "Ut canis in ^Egypto,
bibit et fugit," that is, as the dogs do in
Egypt, drink and run. Marc Anthony is
said on that day only to have shewn himself,
and seeing the superiority of the forces of his
adversary, to have fled, without waiting the
result.
Fluvius cum Mari certas.
Being but a river, do you compare yourself
to the ocean ? A frog trying to extend herself
to the size of an ox, burst, we are told, and
became an object of derision to the spectators.
Men of slender fortunes, emulating the state
and splendor of the wealthy, are ruined, and
are despised even by those who encouraged
them in their expenses.
P 3 <* Qui
( 214 )
" Qui monte plus haul qu'il ne doit,
Descend plus has qu'il ne voudroit."
Those who attempt rising higher than they
ought, generally mar their fortunes, and fall
lower than they would have done, had they
been less ambitious.
Leonem ex Unguibus estimare. Ex Pede
Herculem.
Prom the size of the talons, you may esti-
mate the bulk of an animal, and from the
foot, the stature of the man to whom it be-
longed. Also, from a single stratagem, the
wit and ingenuity, and from a letter, or con-
versation, the learning, or judgment of any
one with whom we are about to be connected
may often be discovered. The rule, how-
ever, is not infallible, for bulk does not always
indicate strength or courage; neither are the
qualities of the mind ordinarily laid open at a
single interview. Hence we say, "Fronti nulla
fides," mens' characters are not always written
on their foreheads, and " No es todb oro, lo
que reluce," all is not gold that glitters ; and
" straight
" straight personages have often crooked
manners ; fair faces, foul vices ; and good
complexions, ill conditions."
It is known, Plutarch says, that the Olympic
stadium was of the length of six hundred feet,
measured by the foot of Hercules; but Pytha-
goras, finding that the stadium used in other
countries, containing the same number of feet
of men of the ordinary stature, was much
shorter, by dividing the space in which it was
deficient into six hundred parts, he determined
the exact length of the foot of Hercules, and
thence of his stature or height, which he found
to be six feet seven inches ; and Phidias the
statuary, from seeing the claw of a lion,
ascertained the size of the animal, whence the
proverbs.
Extremis Digitis attingere.
This may be said by a writer or orator, who
does not mean to enter deeply into the subject
he is discoursing of, but only to handle it
lightly, not to grasp or take hold of the ob-
ject, but to touch it with the ends of his
fingers. "Summis labiis," persons professing
p 4 with
with their lips, more than they intend, has
nearly a similar meaning ; and
Summit Naribus olfacere,
passing an opinion upon a subject from a
very slight inspection or examination of it.
" Molli brachio, et laevi brachio," are also
phrases used to intimate that a business has
been hurried over, without having the ne-
cessary attention paid to it. In handicraft
business we should say, "bestow a little more
elbow-grease upon it,"
De Fcece haurire.
To drain the cask, and drink to the bottom;
metaphorically, to be reduced to the lowest
state of misery and wretchedness.
With persevering industry. Like to school-
masters, who are obliged to repeat the same
lesson to an hundred different boys, and many
times to the same boys, that it may be re-
tained in their memories. There are few things
impossible
( 217 )
impossible to industry. Iron, by repeated
strokes of the hammer, becomes at length soft
and pliable, whence the adage.
In Quadrum re dig ere.
To make any thing perfectly square; meta-
phorically, to reduce to order. Thus the parts
of any object, or of any speech or composition,
agreeing together, they are said to quadrate ;
and the man whose conduct is consistent and
right, is said " to act upon the square." The
phrase seems to be derived from the uniform
and apposite consistency of that figure, whose
every side and angle is answered by its op-
posite.
Dimidium plus toto.
The half is oftentimes more, or better than
the whole ; that is, the half that we possess,
or that may be acquired with safety, is better
than the whole, if it cannot be obtained with-
out danger. By this enigmatical adage, in
frequent use among the ancients, is recom-
mended the " aurea mediocritas," the golden
mean :
( 218 )
mean ; or, moderation in our pursuits of riches
or of power. It is better to be contented with
a middling estate, or to cease speculating when
we have acquired a competency, than by hunt-
ing after more, to hazard what we already
possess. The dog catching at the shadow of
a piece of meat which he saw in the water, lost
that which he held in his mouth. The adage
may also be applied to persons engaged in
controversy, where neither party will give way
though a small concession on each side might
tend to their mutual profit. Erasmus applies
it to the dissensions existing between the Lu-
therans and the Romanists, which then raged
with great violence, neither party being dis-
posed to recede in their pretensions, or both of
them, perhaps, making it a point of conscience
not to yield. " Dum enim theologi quidam,
ac prsesules, nihil omnino volunt de suis dog-
matibus, ac jure concedere, veniunt in peri-
culum ne perdant et ilia, qure bono jure tene-
bant" For while the heads of the Romish
church will yield nothing to the adverse party,
there seems great reason to apprehend they
will lose much of what they would be allowed
to
( 219 )
to retain. My opinion,, he adds, is, that rather
than hazard losing the whole of the authority
they contend for, that they give up a portion
of it, it being hetter to preserve the half,
than by contending for the whole to lose all.
From this, and other passages in his works, it
seems clear that though Erasmus continued to
his death in community with the catholics, he
was much more inclined to the tenets of the
Lutherans, and so indeed the Lutherans be-
lieved, and they reproved him accordingly for
his pusillanimity, in not declaring himself more
openly. But he had not the courage, as he
frankly acknowledged, to become a martyr.
" Non omnes ad martyrium, satis habent ro-
boris ; vereor autem, ne, si quid incident tu-
multus, Petrum sim imitaturus." He was be-
sides, as he says, so averse to contention, that
he should abandon the truth itself, if it could
only be defended by tumult. " Mihi adeo
invisa est discard ia, ut veritas etiam displiceat
seditiosa. " Hesiod, to whom we owe this
adage, tells us, that having been, defrauded of
a portion of his estate by his brother, he was
thence induced to turn his mind more sedu-
lously
( 220 )
x r \
lously to the cultivation of what remained,
which soon became so productive, that he
observed, the judges, who decided the cause,
had not done him so much injury as was ap-
prehended, the half proving in the event to be
more valuable than was the whole.
" Unhappy they to whom God ha'nt revealed,
By a strong light which must their sense controul,
That half a great estate's more than the whole ;
Unhappy, from whom concealed still does lye,
Of roots and herbs, the wholesome luxury."
Ole.o tranquillior.
Attend to me, and I will cure you of your
passions, and make you more soft, supple, and
pliant than oil, "As mild as a turtle-dove."
It is known, that oil poured into water, when
in the highest state of agitation and disturb-
ance, renders it immediately smooth and placid;
hence persons of peaceable and quiet disposi-
tions were said to be, "Oleo tranquilliores," as
those of haughty, unsteady, and passionate
tempers were, " Iracundiores Adria," more
boisterous and turbulent than the Adriatic
sea,
( 221 )
sea, which had the character, though not very
justly, perhaps, of being peculiarly liable to
storms and tempests. Pope seemed to think
that his verses might have an effect on the
mind similar to that of oil on water.
" Know there are lines, which fresh and fresh applied*
Might cure the arrantst puppy of his pride."
Canis in Pr&sepi.
Like the dog in the manger, who would not
suffer the ox to eat of the hay, though he
could make no use of it himself. Those who
have large collections of valuable books, which
they are incapable of reading, and refuse to
let them be consulted by others who might
reap information from them, are guilty of this
vice, as indeed is every one, who will not im-
part, out of his abundance, to those who are
in want.
Summum Jus summa Injuria.
The extreme of justice, that is, strictly ad-
hering to the letter of the law, may prove
highly injurious. As it is impossible that laws
should
( 222 )
should be so framed as to embrace and take
in every species or degree of turpitude or
crimes ; so on the other hand, it cannot be
avoided, but that in the endeavour to restrain
or punish vice, general regulations will be
made prohibiting actions, which, under cer-
tain circumstances, may not be criminal, or
may be even necessary or unavoidable. Hence
it has been found expedient in most civilised
countries, to lodge a power in the supreme
magistrate of pardoning persons, in whose
cases some alleviating circumstances appear,
who, by rigidly adhering to the1 letter of the
law, would suffer the punishment allotted to
the act he had committed. Courts of equity are
also formed, empowered to correct errors in
the wording of deeds or instruments by which
property is transferred, when it appears that
by following the direct meaning of the words
the intention of the parties would be defeated.
By a law of the Romans, children refusing to
support their aged parents were condemned
to be thrown into prison ; " liberi parentes
alant, aut vinciantur." But should the son
be incapable of procuring sustenance for him-
self,
( 223 )
self, it would be highly injurious to condemn
him to suffer the penalty of the laws : a simi-
lar law prevailed at Athens, but was obliga-
tory only on those persons whose parents had
brought them up to some business or calling.
There are other ways in which this popular
adage may be properly applied,
" Insani sapiens nomen ferat, zequus iniqui,
Ultra quam satis est, virtutem si petat ipsam."
We should take care that even our admiration
of virtue be not carried to excess, but remem-
ber, in our censures of the conduct of others,
to make allowance for slight errors and imper-
fections, such as are incident to the nature and
state of man, which occasions that even our
best works fall very short of perfection. " The
archer who shoots beyond the mark misses it,
as well as he that falls short of it." " We may
grasp virtue," Montaigne says, " so hard, till
it becomes vicious." No men are less be-
loved than those who are too rigidly nice and
exact in marking small errors in their families,
though they censure nothing but what is, in
a degree, reprehensible. " Quien las cosas
much®
( 224 )
mucho apura, no vive vida segura," he that is
over-nice in looking into small errors, will never
live an easy and quiet life. There should
be a medium therefore in our prosecution of
virtue, as well as in every other pursuit.
Aberrare a Scopo, non attingere Scopum, extra
Scopum jaculare.
" To miss the mark," to throw beyond or
over-shoot the mark, to be out or mistaken
in our conjecture upon any subject. It is
applicable to any one who in conversation or
writing wanders from the subject proposed
for discussion, as he was said " attingere sco-
pum," " to hit the mark," who delivered what
was pertinent or proper.
Inexplebile Dolium,
A cask which cannot be filled. An appe-
tite that can never be satiated, a thirst after
riches that no acquisition of fortune can sa-
tisfy, have been aptly enough compared to a
leaky
( 225 )
leaky vessel, that can never be filled, the liquor
running out as fast as it is poured in. It
may also be applied to persons who, from in-
capacity or inattention, retain nothing that
they have learned : it is labour lost, " it is like
pouring water into a sieve," to attempt in-
structing such persons.
Aut bibat, aut abeat.
Either drink or begone, and " Odi me-
morem compotorem," I hate the man who
tells what is said at the table. It was a
custom among the ancients, and it is still fol-
lowed, at their convivial meetings, to place one
of the company at the head of the table as
president or moderator for the day, whose
orifice it was to see, among other things, that
each of the guests drank his portion of wine;
and this was one of the laws that was invaria-
bly put in force, " either drink or leave the
company," that none of them might be in a
state to take advantage of any unguarded
expression that might happn to be used.
" Quando a Roma fueres, haz como vieres,"
Q that
that is, " when we are at Rome, we should do
as they do at Rome;" and we should, at least
for the time, accommodate ourselves to the
manners of those persons with whom we asso-
ciate. Antipater of Sidon, who had possibly
been traduced by one of these unfair intru-
ders upon festivity, expresses his indignation
against the whole tribe as follows :
" Not the planet that sinking in ocean,
Foretells future storms to our tars;
Not the sea when in fearful commotion,
Its billows swell high as the stars ;
Not the thunder that rolls in October,
Is so hateful to each honest fellow,
As he who remembers when sober,
The tales that were told him when mellow."
What is told at such times has always been
considered as " said under the rose," or under
a seal of secrecy, of which the rose is an em-
blem. The Germans were used to have a rose
in painting or in sculpture on the ceilings of
the rooms in which they caroused. The rose
was the favoured flower of Venus, and was by
Cupid dedicated to Harpocrates, the God of
Silence, the votaries to his mother being parti-
cularly
( 227 )
cularly interested that their rites should be
kept secret : this property of the rose is cele-
brated in the following tetrastic : —
" Est Rosa flos Veneris ; quo dulcia furta laterent,
Harpocrati, matris dona, dicavit Amor;
Inde rosam mensis hospes suspendit amicis,
Convivze ut sub ea, dicta tacenda sciant."
" The Rose was born for beauty's queen ;
Young Love in playful hour,
From eye and ear her thefts to screen,
To Silence gave the flower.
Hence o'er the friendly board the rose
Suspended blush'd, to shew
That he who would the joy disclose,
Is mirth's and friendship's foe."
Cicero seems to extend the meaning of the
adage, to persons declaiming with too much
violence against the miseries which all men
suffer more or less in this life. Either be
contented with what you meet with here, or
leave them, and see what another world may
afford you. With more propriety it may be
applied to persons railing at the laws and
manners of their own countries; either refrain
from your censures, or go to some place where
you imagine you shall fare better.
Q 2 Frigidam
( 228 )
Frigidam Aquam eff under e.
" To throw cold water on a business," to
retard its progress by idle scruples, or by more
than necessary caution, is at least the manner
in which the phrase is used by us. As few
great actions can be achieved without some
danger, or any work of eminence performed
without hazard, to magnify these and to sup-
pose them to be inevitable, because they are
possible, is to check the progress of invention
and improvement in the world. " Chi troppo
s'assottiglia, si scavessa," who refines too much
concludes nothing, or who makes himself too
wise, becomes a fool. " He that regardeth
the wind, shall not sow; and he that looketh
at the clouds shall not reap ;" the face of the
sky not affording certain signs, indicating
that the weather will continue for a sufficient
space of time favourable to those operations :
we therefore say, " nothing venture, nothing
have:"
• " Our doubts are traitors,
And make us lose the good we oft might win,
By fearing to attempt."
Stultus
( 229 )
Stultus qui Pat re occiso, Liber os relinquat.
Having killed the father, you should have
destroyed the children also ; they being
spared, will at some future time revenge the
death of their parent. When the murderers in-
formed Macbeth, that they had killed Banquo,
but that Fleance his son was fled, " Then," said
the king, " you have scotched the snake, not
killed him." You should have taken care
either not to have provoked the man, or you
should have rendered him incapable of return-
ing the affront.
Oportet Testudinis Carnes aut edere aut non
edere.
Either eat the turtle, that is eat plentifully
of it, or leave it. " Do it or let it alone."
This is said to unsteady or lukewarm persons
who stand long hesitating, who will neither
take nor leave what is offered them, or who set
about a business with so ill a will, that it is
impossible it should succeed. In literature,
Q 3 such
( 230 )
such waywardness is more likely to make
men opiniative coxcombs than to improve
their understandings, as we learn from these
lines of Pope :
" A little learning is a dangerous thing,
Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring;
There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain,
But drinking largely sobers us again."
The flesh of the turtle eaten sparingly, was.
said to disagree with and disturb the stomach,
but taken plentifully, to be innocent and salu»
tary, whence the adage. This, however,
though believed by the ancients, is not very
probable ; it is more consonant to reason, that
it soon became putrid, and was therefore not
fit to be long kept.
Ab Ovo usque ad Mala.
From the eggs to the apples, from the begin-*
ning to the end ; it was said when a story or
an account of any transaction was narrated
circumstantially, from its commencement to
its termination. Alluding to the tables of the
Romans,
Romans, at which eggs were first, apples last
served.
Bonce Leges ex mails Moribus procreantur.
Good laws are the offspring of bad actions.
If men were all just and honest, there would
be no need of laws to restrain them. If there
were no diseases, there would be no need of
physicians ; if no crimes, there would be no
occasion for judges, or executioners. Solon
being asked why he had devised no punish-
ment for parricides, said, " the crime was so
horrible, he could not suppose it would ever
be committed."
Similes habent Labra Lactucas.
" Like lips, like lettuce." Thistles suit the
rough and hard lips of the ass, and coarse and
plain diet the stomach of the clown ; employ-
ments^ clothes, and entertainment should be
adapted to the persons for whom they are pro-
vided ; a dull scholar to a stupid master, and
a froward wife to a peevish and churlish hus-
Q 4 band.
( 232 )
band. "It would be a pity," we say, " that
two houses should be troubled with them."
" Tal carne, tal cultello," the knife should
suit the meat, and " Dios da el frio confonne
a la ropa," the cold is fitted to the coat. The
poor man with his thread-bare and tattered
raiment, is no more incommoded by the cold
than the rich man who is clothed with furs
and velvets. Hence we say, " God suits the
back to the burthen." Whenever we hear
that a mean, sordid, and worthless man has
committed some dirty act, we say it was of a
piece with the man, no better could be ex-
pected of him ; the action suited him as this-
tles do the mouth of an ass, and this is the
usual way of applying the proverb. To the
same purport is,
Dignum Patella Operculum.
A cover worthy such a pot. " What better
could be expected from such a stock," or, in
a favourable way, nothing less was expected
from so excellent a man ; though the adage
is more commonly used in an unfavourable
sense. We have however a phrase which seems
to
( 233 )
to militate against the sense of this proverb,
as when we say of a person performing un-
willingly a duty imposed upon him, " he looks
like an ass mumbling of thistles."
Sijuxta claudum habit es, subclaudicare disces.
If you dwell with the lame, you will learn
to limp likewise. We are all prone to imitate
those with whom we associate. Those who
educate child ren^ therefore should be careful
not to introduce among them any persons
who squint, stammer, or have any remarkable
defect in their gait, or who have any acquired
habits that are unseemly or disgusting. But
such is the capriciousness of mankind, that
in pursuit of the idol fashion, they will
not only subject themselves to inconvenience
and pain, but will maim and distort their
bodies, and fancy such perversions to be beau-
ties. For examples of this kind, we need not
recur to the ladies in China, who submit to be
rendered cripples, in order to distinguish them-
selves from the lower classes of women ; or to
the Esquimaux and other uncultivated people,
who
( 234 )
who wear fish bones stuck through their ears
and nostrils, and deem them to be ornaments,
who suffer themselves to be tattooed, or com-
mit an hundred other extravagances, to add
grace, as they suppose, and dignity to their
persons. The absurdity of these customs have
been equalled at the least by the ladies in this,
and perhaps, in every other country in Europe;
the high-heeled shoes, and the straight and
stiff stays, so long the fashion here, occasion-
ing to those who wore them as much pain,
and were as prejudicial to their health, as the
practices of the savages. But the ladies must
not be allowed to bear the whole of the ridi-
cule attached to these follies. The men may
justly put in a claim for their share. It is
known that Alexander the Great carried his
head a little over the left shoulder. This de-
fect in the prince soon became a fashion, and
then, we are told, " not a soul stirred out un-
til he had adjusted his neck-bone ; the whole
nobility addressed the prince and each other
obliquely, and all matters of importance were
concerted and carried on in the Macedonian
Court, with their polls on one side." As
Diony-
( 235 )
Dionysius was purblind, his courtiers, Plu-
tarch says, the better to conciliate his favour,
affecting to have the same deficiency, ran
against each other, when in his presence,
stumbled over stools, chairs, or whatever hap-
pened to stand in their way ; and he speaks
of another country, where the courtiers carried
their adulation so far, that many of them re-
pudiated wives whom they loved, in compli-
ment to the tyrant who had put away his wife,
with whom he was disgusted. Dr. Heberden
gives a more recent instance of a similar folly.
" When Lewis the XIV. happened to have a
fistula, the French surgeons of that time com-
plain of their being incessantly teazed by peo-
ple who pretended, whatever their complaints
were, that they proceeded from a fistula ; and
if there had been in France, he adds, a mineral
water reputed capable of giving it them, they
would perhaps have flocked thither as eagerly
as Englishmen resort to Bath, in order to get
the gout, the fashionable disease of this coun-
try."
Cor rum-
( 236 )
Corrumpunt Mores bonos Colloquia pram.
c
" Evil communication corrupts good man-
ners." If it is important to prevent children
in particular from associating with those who
have any personal defects, lest they should
adopt them, it is still more necessary to guard
them against the infection of depraved morals;
which are more readily imbibed, take deeper
root, and are with greater difficulty removed
than those affecting only the person. " Cos-
tumbre haze ley," custom has the force of a
law, and " Mudar costumbre a par de muerte,"
to change a custom is next to death. " Tell
me," we say, <{ with whom you associate, and
I will tell you what you are." " Che dorme
co cani, si leva col le pulci," those who sleep
with dogs rise up with fleas, and " La mala
compagnia, e quella che mena huomini a la
furca," it is bad company that brings men to
the gallows. "Company," Falstaff says,
" Villanous company hath undone me ;
Till 1 knew thee, Hal, I knew nothing."
On the other hand, the Spaniards say, " Ari-
mate a buenos, v seras uno dellos," associate
* V
with
( 237 )
with the good, and you will be esteemed one
e>
of them.
Conscientia mills Testes.
Conscience is as a thousand witnesses. We
therefore say, " An evil conscience needs no
accuser." " Heti quam difficile est, crimen
non prodere vultu !" how difficult it is for a
person accused of a crime to avoid betraying
his guilt by his countenance. No man who
has not been long trammelled in wickedness
can bear this test. " Oh coward conscience,
how dost thou affright me !" was the apos-
trophe of Macbeth, after having murdered
his sovereign. " Labour," Lord Bacon says,
" to keep a good conscience ; for he that is dis-
furnished thereof, hath fear for his bedfellow,
care for his companion, and the sting of guilt
for his torment." The following lines from
the Thirteenth Satire of Juvenal as translated
by Mr. Hodgson, give a terrible description
of the power of conscience, in tormenting
those, who may perhaps have escaped punish-
ment by the insulted laws of their country,
"Yet
( 238 )
" Yet can we deem those traitors free from pain,
Who the quick sense of villany retain ?
Whom secret scorpions to confession urge,
While torturing conscience shakes her bloody scourge?
To them belongs more dreadful punishment
Than laws can execute, or judge invent;
By day, by night, condemn'd to hear within,
The sleepless witness of their burning sin.
These are the souls who shrink with pale affright,
When harmless lightnings purge the sultry night;
Who faint, when hollow rumblings from afar,
Foretel the wrath of elemental war ;
Nor deern it chance, nor wind that caus'd the din,
But Jove himself in arms to punish sin."
Not alien to the sense of the proverb, though
dissimilar enough to the lines just quoted, is
the following story :
A clergyman with whom Brantome was
acquainted, preaching to a polite audience
on conjugal infidelity, said he understood
there were some among them, who were so
depraved as to wink at the infidelity of their
wives, in favour of persons from whom they
were soliciting preferment. And now, says
he, I mean to strike the most culpable, lifting
up his hand, as if about to throw something
at him, on which a majority of the married
men
( S39 )
men stooped down their heads ; waiting a small
time, until they had recovered their seats, he
added, I did suppose that some among you
might be guilty, but I did not before know
that so large a proportion of you were so.
J\Iagistratus Virum indicat.
The office shews the man. Men who have
opulence and power, being under little re-
straint, shew their natural dispositions, which
those in more confined circumstances are
obliged to check and subdue. Galba, who
had passed through all the offices of the state
\vith honour, when at length, and late in life,
he was made Emperor of Rome, being pos-
sessed of unlimited power, he became a
monster of cruelty and avarice. He was,
*' Omnium consensu, capax imperii, nisi irn-
perasset," by the consent of all he would
have been fit for the supreme command, if
he had not attained to it ; and of Caligula,
Suetonius says, "Nee servum meliorem ullum,
nee deteriorem dominum fuisse," there never
was
( 240 )
was a better servant, nor a worse master.
Vespasian, on the other hand, who in the early
part of his life, had been a voluptuary, and
shewed little attention to business, being
raised to empire, filled his post with so much
honor, as to be called the Delight of Man-
kind. "• Solus imperatorum Vespasianus mu-
tatus in melius," he was the only one of the
emperors, who became a better man by being
raised to the supreme command.
Manllana Imperia.
Any exceedingly harsh and severe sentence
or punishment, was so called from Titus Man-
lius, who ordered his own son to be first
scourged, and then beheaded, the usual pu-
nishment for disobedience of military orders,
for having, in the heat of battle, advanced
beyond his rank upon the enemy. The story
adds, that Manlius, being some time after
offered the consulship, declined accepting it,
telling the people, that as they could not bear,
his severity, for they had censured him for
his
( 241 )
his cruelty, so neither could he bear their
licentiousness.
Sylosontis Chlamys*
The garment of Syloson ; alluding to a rich
cloak whicfo Syloson gave to Darius, before he
came to the empire. The prince, pleased with
the conduct of the man in making him so
grateful a present, for the garment was exqui-
sitely beautiful, as soon as he was advanced to
the throne, gave him the sovereignty of the
island of Samos. The proverb may be applied
to any one conferring small favours on their
superiors, in the expectation of getting some-
thing of greater value. Syloson, the story
adds, exercised his authority with so much
severity, as usually happens when men of ob-
scure birth are raised to high rank and dignity,
that the people, tired with his tyranny and ra-
paciousness, quitted the country in such num-
bers, as in time to reduce it almost to a desert.
This gave birth to the following, which became
also proverbial.
( 242 )
Opera Sylosontis ampla Reglb.
Which may be rendered, By the favour of
Syloson, there is now room enough, and may
be applied on any similar occasion ; and it
seems as if the present Emperor of the French
wo'uld make room enough in all the countries
that are so unfortunate as to be visifed by him.
It may also be applied where any one has by
extravagance emptied his coffers, or unfur-
nished his house.
Dii laneos Pecks habent.
The gods have their feet shod with wool.
" God comes with leaden feet, but strikes with
iron hands.'' The ancients, by this enigmatical
proverb, intimated that the judgments of the
Deity were executed in so silent a manner,
that trie offenders did not often perceive the
approach of the punishment they were doomed
to suffer, until they felt the stroke. But,
"where vice is, vengeance follows."
" Raro antecedentera scelestura
Deseruit pede pcena claudo."
Punishment*
( 243 )
Punishment, though deferred, rarely fails ul-
timately to be inflicted on those who have'
offended.
— — ' - •-" Vengeance, though slow paced,
At length o'ertakes the guilty, and the -wrath
Of the incensed powers, will fall most sure
On wicked men, when they are most secure."
Zenone modcratior.
More temperate than Zeno; who, both by
example and precept, is said to have inculcated,
in his disciples the advantages of being plain
in their apparel, consulting only what was ne-
cessary and moderate in their diet, and in all
other sensual enjoyments. As by following this
regimen, they would have use for very little
money for their personal conveniences, they
might more readily bestow it, either for the
benefit of their country, or on necessitous
individuals.
Aurum habet Tolosanum.
He has got the gold of Tolosa. Tolosa was
a town in Gallia Narbonensis, which became a
R 2 Ro
Roman colony under Augustus Caesar. Csepio,
one of the consuls, having plundered a temple
of Minerva, their tutelar deity, became from
that time unfortunate in all his transactions;
which was considered as a judgment upon him
for his sacrilege. The same sentence continues
to be passed on persons falling to decay, after
having possessed large property, acquired by
rapine : " I thought it would not thrive with
him :" a harmless prejudice. To the same
purport is the adage " Equus Sejanus," or the
horse of Seius, which whoever possessed, came
to a miserable end. This is said to have been
the fate of four of its owners in succession.
It was therefore said indifferently of persons
who were very unfortunate, " He has the horse
of Seius, or, the gold of Tolosa."
Festina lente.
44 On slow," a frequent motto on dials, and
giving a name to a noble family in this
country ; but to be considered here, as afford-
ing an important rule for human actions.
" Tarry a little, that we may make an end the
sooner,''
( 245 )
sooner," was a favourite saying of Sir Amyas
Paulet, that is, let us consider a little before
we begin, and we shall get through the busi-
ness with less interruption. " Qui nimis pro-
pere, minus prospere,*' too much haste in the
beginning, makes an unhappy ending. " Pro-
pera propere," " make no more haste than good
speed," for "haste makes waste." " Sat cito,
si sat bene," "soon enough, if well enough."
"Presto et bene, non conviene," hastily and
well, rarely or never meet. " Pas a pas on
va bien loin," step by step we may to a great
distance go. " Chi va piano va sano, e anche
lontano," who goes slowly, goes sure, and also
far. " It is good to have a hatch before your
door," that you may be stopped a minute or
two before you get out, which may enable
you to consider, whether you have taken with
you every thing you may have occasion for
in the business you are going upon. From
these adages, and many more might be added,
all bearing on the same point, we see how
highly the precept has been esteemed in all
ages. Erasmus thought it of such general
utility, that it might not improperly be in-
u 3 scribed
( 246 )
scribed upon our public columns and build-
ings, upon the doors of our houses, and upon
our screens, or other pieces of furniture, and
to be engraved upon our rings and seals, that
it might be met by us whichever way we turned
our eyes. " Poco a poco van lexos, y cor-
riendo a mal lugar," slow and softly go far, the
Spaniards say, and haste may bring the busi-
ness to an ill conclusion.
Difficilia quce pulchra.
What is valuable is usually of difficult ac-
quisition. Things that are rare and of great
utility are not ordinarily to be obtained but
with much labour. Learning, which contri-
butes so much to distinguish those who are
possessed of it, is not to be acquired but by
long and continued study and application. It
is difficult to restrain our passions, and to ac-
quire habits of temperance and moderation,
but these when obtained are of inestimable
value. The difficulty with which arts and
sciences are learned is so great, that few
would undertake the labour of acquiring them
but
( 247 0
but for the pleasure and advantages they hold
out to those who possess them.
•• • • " Nothing endears
A good, more than the contemplation : • • '•
Of the difficulty >ve had to obtain it." . ; . ;••
" Non est e terris mollis ad:: astral via,,"
" narrow and difficult is the rway. thai 'Jeaids 'to
life, but broad and easy that w/bidr$etods- to
destruction," " Difficilius est sarciie coticor-
diam, qtiam rumpere," how easy it is to sow
dissensions and, strife among men, but how
difficult to bring them again to peace and har-
mony !
Cumini Sector.
One who would carve or split a cummin seed.
The adage was applied to persons who were
extremely cautious, in examining into the evi-
dence on which any report was founded, be-
fore they admitted it as deserving credit. Of
such a character was the Emperor Antoninus
Pius, to whom the proverb was applied, for his
patience and diligence in examining into the
merits of the causes that came before him;
R 4 and
and if all persons were of the same disposi-
tion, it would put a stop to more than half
the broils, dissensions, and disputes which add
so largely to the catalogue of evils* afflicting
us ; but " oiii dire va par ville," idle reports
that have no foundation, are quickly circu-
lated and easily believed. The adage is, how-
ever, more commonly applied to persons of
mean and sordid dispositions, and has the
same sense as,
Ficos dividers,
Persons who would cut a fig into parts, or
as we say, " who would flay a flint." " He will
tlress an egg and give the broth to the poor."
Though the fruit is not a native of this coun-
try) yet when we mean to .speak contemptu-
ously of any one, we say, " a fig for him," and
" under my cloak," the Spaniards say, " a fig
for the king. "
Neminijidas, nisi cum quo prius Modium
Salis absumpseris.
Or as the French say, " pour bieu connoitre
( 249 )
iin homme, il faut avoir mange un muid de
sel avec lui." As a friend is " alter ipse," ano-
ther self, to whom the most secret transactions
of your life may be communicated, it is neces-
sary you should be well acquainted with him,
before he be admitted to this intimate fami-
liarity, or that you should have known- him,
as the adage expresses it, so long that you
might have eaten a peck of salt with him.
Salt among the eastern nations was the type
of hospitality, and for its many useful quali-
ties, particularly for its power of preserving
bodies from putrefaction, it seems to have
been every where had in high estimation ;
which is the reason, probably, M'hy it is named
here in preference to bread, or other articles
also in daily use at our tables.
Multas Amicitias Silentium diremit.
Silence or neglect destroys friendship. " Non
sunt amici qui degunt procul," they will
not ordinarily long continue to be friends,
who live at a great distance from each other.
As
As we should not be 'hasty in forming
nections, so having -formed tliem, we should
cultivate them with care, and strengthen the
intimacy by frequent conversation and cor-
respondence. " Lontano dag'li occhi lontano
del cuore." " Loin des yeux, lorn du coeur,"
" out of sight, out of mind." :
Pulchrl dixti. Bd& narras.
You have made out a pretty story, was
used to be said, ironically, to any one who had
failed egregiously in delivering £ message or
telling a story ; and similar forms of speech
are not uncommon among ourselves.
Rara Avis.
He is a rare bird indeed, was used to be said
of any one doing an act of unusual generosity
or goodness; or of a man of such strict mo-
rality, that he would not do a mean or unjust
action though he might without fear or de-
tection obtain a fortune by it. A'character
which, though very unco'mntoh in the later
ages
( 251 )
ages of the Roman empire, is, I trust and be-
liev.e, by no means so at this time, in this
country :
" Kara avis in terris, nigroque simillima cygno."
•" Corvo quoque rarior albo."
A phenomenon more rare, Juvenal supposes,
than a white crow or a black swan.
Naribus trahere.
" Menar uno per il naso," It. " Mener par
le nez," " to lead any one by the nose." To
obtain so much influence or such command
over any one, as to induce him to do what-
ever you advise, though equally averse to his
inclination and his interest. The phrase
takes its origin from the custom of leading
animals by rings passed through their nostrils.
This, by ecclesiastical lawyers, is called " hav-
ing the advowson of a man's conscience."
Does not this apply equally to the leaders of
majorities and minorities in certain assem-
blies ?
Ama
( 252 )
Ama tanquam osurus. Odcris tanquam
amaturus.
Or, as the Spaniards say, " quando estes en
enojo, acuerdate que puedes venir a paz, y
quando estes en paz, acuerdate que puedes
venir a enojo," that is, when you are angry
with any one, consider that you may be re-
conciled ; and when you are friends with any
one, that you may be at enmity with him ;
therefore, " del mal que hizieres no tengas
testigo, aunque sea tu amigo," you should not
be so communicative even to your most inti-
mate friend, as to make him privy to your
failings, still less to the vices of which you
should be guilty, as it might tend to alienate
him from you, or enable him to do you an
injury, if your connection should by any
means be dissolved ; an event which, from the
mutability of human affairs and dispositions,
should always be considered as possible at
least : neither should you, on the other
hand, reproach your enemy so bitterly, or
tax him with faults so atrocious, as to make
it
Jt impossible he should ever forgive you ;
as circumstances may occur that may make
it your mutual advantage, or even render
it necessary that your acquaintance should
be renewed. Erasmus states, as one of the
evils attendant on publishing letters to and
from our friends, that occurrences may happen
obliging us to change our opinions, and to
censure those whom we had commended, or to
praise those whom we had before censured :
" jam et illud est incommodi, quod, ut nunc res
sunt mortalium, ex amicissimis nonnunquam
reddantur inimicissimi, et contra ; ut et illos
laudatos, et hos doleas attactos." Erasmus
speaks feelingly here, finding himself called
upon in the latter part of his life, to censure
Ulric Hutton, a violent and turbulent man,
whom in his early works he had liberally com-
mended.
The following observation of the poet
Burns, may be added as further illustrating
this adage. " I am not sure," he says, " not-
withstanding all the sentimental flights of no-
vel-writers, and the sagephilosophy of moralists,
whether we are capable of so intimate and cor-
dial
( 254 )
dial a coalition of friendship, as that one mail
may pour out his bosom, his very thought,
and floating fancy, his very inmost soul, with
unreserved confidence to another, without
hazard of losing part of that respect which man
deserves from man ; or from the unavoidable
imperfection attending human nature, of one
day repenting his confidence." Cicero was,
however, of opinion, that nothing could be
more hostile to the idea of genuine friendship,
than the sentiment contained in this adage,
neither could he believe that it was the saying
of so wise a man as Bion, to whom it is attri-
buted. Certainly it is not in accord with the
picture of true friendship, given in the eluci-
dation of the first and third adages in this:
volume.
Ne Malorum memineris*
Do not revive the memory of troubles that
are past. " Repeat no grievances." The thirty
tyrants, who had seized upon the government
of Athens, having been expelled by Thrasy-
bulus, he enacted a law, "Ne quis de prasteritis
actis
actis accusaretur, aut mulctaretur," that nd
persons should be accused or punished for the
part they had taken during the civil dissen-
sions. He added, "Ne malorum memoriam
revoces," whieh is said to have given origin
to the adage. Not alien to this is what is re-
lated of the Emperor Charles the Fifth. When
he entered Wittenburgh, in the year 1547, he
was much pressed by the Spaniards who were
in his army, to destroy the monument which
had been erected there to Luther, but he
severely reproved them, under penalty of the
forfeiture of their lives, from disturbing the
ashes of that celebrated reformer, to whom he
had nevertheless been, while living, an impla-
cable enemy ; adding, " Nihil mini ultra cum
Luthero," I have nothing further to do with
Luther, he is now amenable to another and a
higher tribunal; neither is it my custom to-
war with the dead, but with those who are
living, and appear in arms against me. Similar
to this was the conduct of Lewis the Eleventh.
When he was urged to deface the monument
of John, Duke of Bedford, who had been
Regent of France in the time of Henry the
Sixth:
( 256 )
Sixth: " He would not," he said, "disturb thft
ashes of the man, whom all France could not
repel when living." Our King Charles the
Second, being recalled from banishment, and
put in possession of his crown and kingdom,
after passing an act of amnesty, required of
his courtiers that they should make no further
mention of their past sufferings, and on any
allusion to them being made, he was used to
check them, reminding them of one of his
father's golden rules, that they were " to re-
peat oo grievances."
Septennis guum sit, nondum edidit Denies.
Though he is seven years of age, he has not
yet cut his teeth, was used to be said to per-
sons, who, though men in years, were, in their
actions, and in their understanding, only
children ; to men passing their time in idle
and boyish amusements, or asking questions
on subjects so trifling and common, that it
would be disgraceful even for children to be
ignorant of them. We say of a person who
suffers himself to be easily outwitted, " he has
not
( 257 )
not got all his teeth," or "he has not cut his
eye-teeth."
Canis festinans cacos parit Catulos.
The dog hastening to produce its young,
brings them into the world blind, that is, im-
mature, and before they are completely formed.
This was used, and may be applied to persons
who are in so much haste to finish what they
undertake, that they leave it imperfect. Those
err similarly, who are too precipitate in giving
their opinion on any work, or action, before
they have had time to examine into its merit.
Lingua, quo vadis ?
Tongue, whither are you going ? The tongue
has been compared, and not unaptly, to the
helm of a ship; though it makes but a small
part of the vessel, yet upon its right or im-
proper movement, depends the safety or de-
struction of the whole. How valuable a dis-
creet and eloquent tongue is, and on the other
hand, what confusion and distress a hasty and
s tur-
( 258 )
turbulent tongue often occasions, we all of us
know ; hence the phrase
" Vincula da linguae, vel tibi vinc'la dabit."
Confine your tongue, or it will bring you into
confinement. Amasis, king of Egypt, having
ordered the philosopher Bias to send him the
best and the worst part of a victim about to
be sacrificed, Bias sent him the tongue of
the animal, intimating, that according as it
was used, that was the part which was capable
of producing the greatest good, or the greatest
evil to the possessor. " Tel coup de langue,
est pire qu'un coup de lance," a stab with the
tongue is worse than a thrust with a lance.
In Node Com ilium.
lt La notte 6 madre di pensiera," night is the
mother of reflection. "La nuit donne conseil,'r
consult, or take counsel of your pillow; that
is, do not precipitately, and on the first pro-
posal, enter into any engagement, that may
have a material influence on your future pro-
spects in life. It is better to sleep, that is, to
deliberate on a business proposed to be done,
than
than to be kept awake by reflections on its
being improvidently finished. Indeed a habit
of deliberating before you act, is useful in in-
ferior matters, taking care, however, that it
may not degenerate into a futile, and trifling
affectation of gravity, that may make you
ridiculous. Our English proverb says, " On
a good bargain think twice." A wise man
rarely determines on the merit of an offer, on
the first view of it, however advantageous it
may seem. A more intimate acquaintance is
wanted to enable him to decide on its actual
value. The worth of the object may be greater
than the price at which it is offered ; but he
will consider whether it may be wanted by him,
or whether by purchasing it at that time, he
may not subject himself to greater inconve-
niences, than the advantages proposed by pos-
sessing it will compensate. "Bon march6 tire
1'argent hors de la bourse," " a good bargain
is a pick-purse." People are often induced to
buy an article because it is cheap, but, "Com-
pra lo que no has menester, y venderas lo que
no podras escusar," " buy what thou hast no
need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy ne-
s2 cessaries;"
( 260 )
cessaries;" and " Quod non opus est asse carum
est," what is not wanted is dear even at a
farthing.
Fronti nulla Fides.
Too much credit must not be given to ap-
pearances. "No es todo oro, lo que reluce,"
and " Tout ce qui reluit n'est pas or," for, all
is not gold that glitters. A beautiful woman
may be a shrew; or a fine horse vicious, or an
ill-goer. A story may be told in such a man-
ner, as to induce us to entertain a much more
favourable opinion of the principal actor in it,
than on a further investigation he shall appear
to deserve. Hence the legal maxim, "Audi
alteram partem," hear the other side. The rule
intended to be inculcated by this maxim, has
been given by the ancients in twenty different
forms, and is in the mouth of every one ; but
though it is so generally known, and the utility
of it so universally assented to, yet it is far
from having that influence on our conduct,
which it seems calculated to produce.
-«&?
Coronam
( 261 )
Coronam quidem gestans, cceterum Siti per-
ditus.
Though bearing a crown, that is, abundantly
honoured, yet dying of thirst, or in want of
necessaries. The adage is supposed to have
taken its origin from the fate of one Connas,
who had been frequently victor in the Olym-
pic and, other games, and therefore often
crowned, and yet was suffered to live and die
in misery and wretchedness. This fate has
attended more than one of the votaries to the
Muses in this country ; though it may be
doubted whether this has happened so much
through the want of patrons and friends, as
from an incorrigible habit of idleness, and dis-
sipation in the sufferers. This was certainly
the case with Savage, and in a stronger degree
with Moreland, an artist of our own time,
famed for his talent in painting rustic scenes.
He died indeed miserable, but rather of drunk-
enness, the vice of Connas also, than of want.
He chose rather, the later years of his life, to
live concealed from his creditors, than by very
moderate exertions, to get what would have
been sufficient to pay his debts, and to support
s 3 him-
himself with credit. The adage was used to
be applied to persons, whose friends were more
liberal in their praise, than in what was neces-
sary for their support and subsistence.
Ubi quis dolet. ibi et ManumJ'requens habet.
"We must scratch where it itches." The
hand will be frequently and spontaneously
moved to the part that is grieved. " Alia va
la lengua, do duele la muela," the tongue goes
to the tooth that is in pain. Men are with
difficulty kept from talking of their misfor-
tunes, or of whatever strongly affects them.
'• What the mind thinks, the tongue speaks,"
or, " Out of the abundance of the heart, the
mouth speaketh." In conversation men are
apt on all occasions to introduce the subjects
that happen to employ their attention; to talk
of their professions, their business, their tra-
vels, or their troubles, without considering
how uninteresting, or even annoying, they
must be to the auditors, and that such dis-
courses should be deferred until the persons
we mean to entertain, may call for, or at the
least
( 263 )
least be disposed to hear them. " Dios te librc
de 1'hombre de un libro," God keep you, the
Spaniards say, from the man who has but one
book.
Quod licet ingratum est, quod non licet
acrius uret.
While it was permitted, we looked upon it
with indifference, it was not until it was
prohibited that we anxiously longed for it.
<f Communiter negligitur, quod communiter
possidetur," what is common, and may be
easily obtained, is in little request.
" Man's curse is, things forbid still to pursue,
What's freely offered, not to hold worth view."
" Furem signata solicitant, aperta effractarius
praeterit," things sealed up excite the cupidity
of the thief, but what lies open is passed by
unnoticed. It was the opinion of one of the
ancients, that executions rather whet than
blunt the edge of vice ; that they do not pro-
duce a desire to do well, but only a care not
to be taken in doing ill.
s 4 Hinc
H'mc illce Lachrymce.
Hence these tears, hence all the concern
he has shewn ; I have not praised his works,
or joined in his projects to amuse and deceive
the public. The adage may be applied on dis-
covering the true causes of the complaints or
actions of any one, which he had studiously
endeavoured to conceal, and to such a cir-
cumstance it owes its origin. Simo, in the
Andrian, supposed at first, that the concern
his son manifested on the death of Chryses,
proceeded from his friendship for the deceased,
but finding, at length, that it arose from his
affection to her sister, equally disappointed
and concerned at the discovery, he burst out
into the exclamation, " Hinc illffi lachrymal,"
this then was the cause of his concern.
Ignis, Mare, Mulier, tria Mala.
Which cannot be better explained than by *
the following lines of Prior.
*' Fire, water, woman, are man's ruin,
Says wise professor Vander Bruin."
"By
( 265 )
" By flames, a house I hired, was lost
Last year, and I must pay the cost.
Next year the sea o'erflowed my ground,
And my best Flanders mare was drowned.
A slave I am to Clara's eyes,
The gipsey knows her power and flies.
Fire, water, woman, are my ruin,
And great thy wisdom, Vander Bruin."
This is something better than the answer of
the Lacedemonian, who being ridiculed for
having married a very little woman, excused
himself, by observing, "that of evils, we should
choose the least." The Spartans, we are told,
fined their king Archidamus, for marrying a
very little woman, concluding that the breed
would degenerate, and that she could only
produce kinglets.
Aureopiscari Hamo.
" Peschar col hamo d'argento," fishing with
a golden or silver hook. Men are often so
eager in pursuit of some favourite object, that
they care not at what cost it is obtained; but
which, when acquired, they find to be of little
value. This is fishing with a golden hook.
The
The proverb was frequent in the mouth of
Augustus Csesar, who used it to restrain the
young men of fashion, at his court, when he
saw them lavishing their fortunes, to obtain
the reputation of having more stately houses,
richer furniture, or finer horses, than others of
their rank, from which they would reap no
solid advantage. It took its rise from a prac-
tice not uncommon with persons who have
been unsuccessful in their sport, who purchase
of more fortunate fishermen a part of what
they have taken, that they may not, by carry-
ing home empty bags, subject themselves to
the laughter of their friends. These therefore
literally fish with golden hooks.
Sera infundo Parcimonia.
It is too late to begin to save when all is
spent.
" It is too late to spare
When me bottom is bare."
" Bolsa vazia faz 6 homo sesuda mas tarde,
an empty purse makes a man wise too late.
To these apothegms we may oppose, "Meglio
tarde
( 267 )
tarde die mai, " " II vaut mieux tarcl que
jamais," " Better late than never," and " It
is never too late to mend." Though by a long
course of imprudence we may have reduced
ourselves to great inconvenience or distress,
we should not despair, scarcely any thing be-
ing impossible for labour and perseverance to
achieve. "Aogni cosa e remedio, fuora qu'
alia morte," there is a remedy for every thing
but death. "Thomas Sackville, earl of Dorset,
having wasted his fortune, was so shocked at
being made to wait in an anti-room at the
house of a citizen, where he went to borrow
money, that he resolved from thenceforward
to become an economist, and by that means
recovered his estate." The proverb, however,
means to recommend that we should pay early
attention to our affairs, and set bounds to
our expenditure, while our estates are entire.
" When thou hast enough, remember the time
of hunger; and when thou art rich, think upon
poverty and need:" take care "that you do
not make the sail too big for the vessel, lest it
should sink." Plato, seeing a young man of
good family, who had wasted his estate, sitting
at
( 268 )
at the door of an inn, feeding on offals, said
to those who were with him, " If this man
had dined temperately, he needed not to have
supped so sparingly." We should consider
that love and respect are rarely conceded to
a lost fortune, and that adversity seldom meets
•with the returns of friendship. "Quien a mano
egena espera, mal yanta y peor cena," he that
depends upon another for subsistence, break-
fasts ill, and sups worse. A man of good edu-
cation, without money, has been compared to
a ship that is well-rigged, but is detained in
port for want of a favourable wind. " Amasser
en saison, depenser par raison, font la bonne
maison," a seasonable gathering, and a reason-
able spending make a good housekeeping. By
a decree of the Emperor Adrian, men who had
wasted their property by gaming, or by fol-
lowing profligate courses, were publicly put
to shame. In later times, the Tuscans brought
such men into the market, on a bier, with an
empty purse before them, and they were obliged
to sit there the whole day, exposed to the de-
rision of the people. Our stocks would be a
good substitute for the bier. At Padua they
had
( 269 )
had a stone, called the seat of turpitude, near
the senate-house, where spendthrifts were com-
pelled to sit with their hinder parts bare, that
by thejr disgrace others might be deterred
from copying their vices. It is too late also
at the latter part of our lives, then to begin to
learn how to live, for though it be true, that
" nulla astas ad perdiscendum sera est," that
is, that it is not impracticable to learn at a
late period ; yet at such a term, we can neither
hope to make the proficiency we might have
done, or to enjoy the benefit from it we should
have obtained if we had begun earlier.
Homines frugi omnia rectkfaciunt.
By a frugal man you may expect every
thing to be justly and faithfully performed.
The same value was attributed to prudence,
which is indeed only another word for fru-
gality; " nullum numen abest si sit pru-
dentia," for without prudence there can be no
virtue. " Sum bonus et frugi," I am honest
and careful, Horace makes his servant say, as
including every virtue. The word frugi among
the
( 270 )
the Romans was of a very extensive significa-
tion, comprehending under it, justice, forti-
tude, constancy and temperance ; by Cicero
it is opposed to nequam, and frugalitas to
neqnitia, as if he thought it impossible for the
improvident and careless to be other than pro-
fligate and wicked, and not perhaps without
reason, as he who is not frugal, will not long
avoid being involved in debt, and he who is
deeply plunged in debt, will be so often ob-
liged to break his engagements, that he will at
length lose all sense of distinction between
o
truth and falsehood; " for lying," as Panta-
gruel tells Panurge, " is only the second vice,
the first vice is being in debt;'' a maxim,
Plutarch says, we have taken from the Per-
sians. Not alien to this is the Italian pro-
verb, " un oncia di prudenza val piu che una
libra d' oro," an ounce of prudence is better
than a pound of gold, and " chi semina virtu
fama raccogli,'' who sows virtue reaps fame.
Sir George Mackenzie, in his history of fru-
gality, says, he heard a Dutch ambassador
tell King Charles the Second, that he had
spent only an hundred guilders in meat and
drink
( 271 )
drink in Holland, during a whole year, nor
had he ever been in better health or company ;
and when the King asked him why he had
done so unusual a thing, he answered, to let
his countrymen see, that one needed not to
have recourse to mean, still less to vicious
practices to get whereon to live : but " there
needed no ghost, methinks, to tell his country-
men that."
Simul sorbere et flare difficile est.
" Sorber y soplar, no se puecle hazar a la
par," it is difficult to sup and blow, that is, to
drink and talk at the same time. Whatever
our employment or pursuit may be, to that we
should direct our thoughts and not distract
our minds by attempting a variety of different
projects at the same time. To bring any one
art or science to perfection, or to achieve any
great object will require our undivided atten-
tion, and must be persevered in for a long
course of time. Milton would not have at-
tained to the eminence to which he rose ill
poetry, nor Newton in philosophy, if they had
not
( 272 )
not confined their studies to those objects.
Rightly therefore the bard,
" One science only will one genius fit,
So vast is art, so narrow human wit."
We are also told in the Scriptures, " that no
man can serve two masters," and that " we
cannot serve God and Mammon." " You can-
not," Phocion said to Antipater, " have me
both for your flatterer and your friend :" and
no man, we are told, can be at once prudent
and in love.
" Amare et sapere vix Deo conceditur."
And the Spaniards say, that honor and profit
cannot exist together, or cannot be contained
in one and the same bag, " Honor y provecho
no caben en un saco." The adage was used
by a servant in one of the comedies of Plau-
tus, whose master had required of him what
was impracticable, viz. to be giving him as-
sistance at home, and doing his business
abroad at the same time.
In Herba esse.
The corn is as yet in the blade, " you are
counting
( 273 )
counting your chickens before they are hatch-
ed;" " hazer la cuenta sin la huespida," or
" reckoning without your host," and " spend-
ing your Michaelmas rent in the Midsummer
moon ;" not considering how many accidents
may happen to thwart and disappoint your
expectations. Young and inexperienced per-
sons are very apt, as soon as they have formed
a plausible project, to begin to reckon their
profits and often to spend them too, and take
it unkind of their friends if they disturb their
confidence with doubts, or do not enter into
their schemes with equal ardour and precipi-
tancy. Poets are also apt, my text says, to
exult too much, on hearing their compositions
praised by those to whom they read them ;
but they should wait if they would know their
true character, until the public have given
their opinion, or until time has stamped them
with its- seal.
Inter indoctos etiam Corydus sonat.
To those unskilled in music the note of the
sparrow may be agreeable, as among illiterate
T persons
( 274 )
persons a dunce may be held in some estima-
tion. The corydus is a species of larks, of a
very inferior quality, which were found in
great abundance near Athens: but as the lark
has some credit among us for its note, the
sparrow is here substituted as better according
with the intention of the adage. " Luscus
convitia jacit in caecum," or " borgne est roy
entre les aveugles," he that hath one eye is a
king among the blind ; and " dixo el cuervo
a la corneja, quita os alia negra," the crow
bids the rook put off his black coat, and the
rook makes the same proposal to the crow.
Ficum cupit.
He wants figs. This was used to be said of
any one paying particular attention to per-
sons much beneath him ; meaning, he is court-
ing me for his own purpose, as may be said
of our gentry going into the shops of little
traders on the eve of a general election, spend-
ing their money with them liberally and treat-
ing them with unusual civility : he wants my
vote.
The
The Athenians were used on the approach
of the season when the figs were coming to
perfection, to visit the cots of the neighbour-
ing peasants, and treat them with great fami-
liarity and kindness, that they might procure
from them some of the finest of the fruit ;
which the rustics at length perceiving, when
any one they did not know, addressed them
in that manner, they would say, what you
want, I suppose, some of our figs ; which
thence became proverbial.
Odium Vatinianum.
Vatinian hatred, by which the Romans
meant to express, an inextinguishable hatred,
such as they bore to Vatinus, for his flagi-
tious vices and cruelty, which had been ex-
posed to them by Cicero.
Ficus Fiats, Ligonem Ligonem vocat.
He calls a fig, a fig ; a spade, a spade. That
is, he is a man of plain and rustic manners,
T 2 and
( 276 )
and calls every thing by its name. " He is
Tom tell-truth." He tells his story as it had
been related to him, and is no respecter of
persons. If a man is just and upright, he gives
him due honour; if crafty and deceitful, what-
ever may be his quality, he calls him a knave.
" But vice has persuaded custom," Sir William
Cornwallis observes, " that to call naught,
naught, is uncivil and dangerous." At any
rate, let those who have any hidden, or not
generally known vices, take care how they
descant upon the follies or vices of others, lest
their own faults should be drawn from their
covert, and exposed to the world. " Desinant
maledicere, malefacta ni noscant sua." .
Bona magis carendo quam fruendo sentimus.
We perceive more the value of an object
when it has escaped from us, than we did when
possessing it, and " Bona a tergo formosis-
sima," good things rarely appear to us in their
full beauty, until we are about to lose them.
The poor man, in the fable, did not know
to what degree he valued life, until death,
whom
( 277 )
whom he had called for, came to take it from
him.
" Pleasures are ever in our hands or eyes,
And when in act they cease, in prospect rise."
" Vdche ne sfait que vaut se queue,
Jusques a ce qu'elle 1'ait perdue."
The co\v did not know the value of her tail,
until she had lost it.
" What we have we prize not to the worth,
Whiles we enjoy it; but being lack'd and lost,
Why then we rack the value; then we find
The virtue, that possession would not give us
Whiles it was ours."
ad Aures guidem scalpendas Ocium est.
He is so full of business, that he has not
time to scratch his ears, by which hyperbolical
expression, the ancients designated persons so
overwhelmed by a multiplicity of employments,
as not to leave them leisure for the most com-
mon and necessary concerns.
T 3 Quot
Quot Servi tot Hostes.
Who has many servants, has as many ene-
mies, which is the way I should choose to
read the adage. If your servants are slaves,
purchased, or taken in war, as they will he
perpetually seeking means to free themselves
from bondage, the more there are of them the
greater the danger, and these are probably the
servants alluded to. In this sense it is not less
true when applied to servants who are hired,
and may be supposed to serve voluntarily. If
you keep more than you have employment
for, they will corrupt each other, and become
vicious through idleness. " Quien ha criados,
ha enemigos no escusados," he who has ser-
vants, has unavoidable enemies. As they can-
not be dispensed with, they are therefore ne-
cessary evils.
The adage more particularly admonishes,
that you do not make confidents of them, but
as far as you are able, keep from them the
knowledge of all circumstances, which di-
vulged might injure you ; but this, if there
are many of them, will not be easily effected.
On this subject Juvenal says,
« O Co-
" O Corydon, Corydon, secretum divitis ullum
Esse putas ? Servi ut taceant ?"
which take as translated by Dryden :
" Dull Corydon ! art thou so stupid grown,
To think a rich man's faults can be unknown ?
Has he not slaves about him ? would not they
Rejoice and laugh, his secrets to betray?
What more effectual to revenge their wrongs,
Than the unbounded freedom of their tongues?"
And though little attention might be paid to
their suffrages, in commendation of their mas-
ters, any scandal they may propagate, will be
readily enough believed. For as the same Poet
says,
" On eagle's wings immortal scandals fly,
While virtuous actions are but born and die."
Prcevisus ante, mollior Ictus venit.
A misfortune that is foreseen affects us less
keenly, than one that falls upon us suddenly
and unexpectedly : we may also by foreseeing
what is about to happen, if not altogether
avoid the stroke, contrive to make it less hurt-
ful to us. Of kin to this, is
T 4 Prce-
( 280 )
Prcemonitus, Pramunitus.
" Forewarned, forearmed ;" which may be
said to any one threatening vengeance. I
thank you for your candour in advertising me
of your intention, I shall now take care to be
prepared for you.
Stultum est timer e quod vitari non potest.
It is foolish to distress ourselves for what
cannot be prevented ; instead of uselessly la-
menting we should summon up our courage,
and endeavour to accommodate ourselves to
the new situation into which we have been
thrown by our misfortunes ; remembering*
" that what can't be cured, must be endured."
Optimum aliena Insanidfrui.
It is good to profit by the follies of others.
" Experience," we say, " makes even fools
wise," but wise men gain experience from the
mis'
( 281 )
misfortunes of others, fools only from their
own ;
" Ex vitio alterius, sapiens emendat suum."
" It is a pleasure," Lord Verulam says, from
Lucretius, " to stand upon the shore and
to see ships tost upon the sea; a pleasure
to stand in the window of a castle, and to
see a battle and the adventure thereof below ;
but no pleasure is comparable to the standing
upon the vantage ground of truth, and to see
the errors and wanderings, and mists and tem-
pests in the vale below. So always," he adds,
" that this prospect be with pity, and not with
swelling or pride."
Acti Labores jucundi.
The remembrance of dangers that are past
is pleasant, particularly if we have escaped by
our own activity, skill, or courage.
Homo est Bulla.
Human life is a bubble. So frail and unsta-
ble is life, so assailable and liable to disease and
accidents, and so easily extinguishable, that
it
( 282 )
it is not unaptly compared to a bubble, which
rising upon water or any other fluid, bursts
and disappears almost as soon as it is formed,
and is succeeded by others equally unsubstan-
tial and evanescent. This fragility of human
life is very properly adduced as an argument
of the immortality of the soul ; the deity
would not have produced into the world a
being endowed with such powers, so capable
of acquiring knowledge, merely to flutter a
few hours on this stage and then to be lost for
.ever. If that were the case, we might then
agree with those philosophers who held it
to be
Optimum non nasci.
Better not to be born, or to have died as
soon as we had seen the light, and before
we should have been subjected " to the thou-
sand natural ills that flesh is heir to." " II n'y
& personne heureux au monde," the French
say, " que celui qui meurt en maillet," none
can be esteemed happy but such as die in
their swaddling clothes; and the Italians to
the
( 283 )
the same purport, " nel mondo non e felice se
non quel che muore in fascie :" for
" " Medio de fonte leporum
Surgit amairaliquid."
Even in the midst of our festivity some me-
lancholy thoughts will intrude themselves to
dash our mirth. And Solomon says, " where-
fore I praised the dead, which are already
dead, more than the living, which are yet
alive; yea, better is he than both they, which
hath not yet been, who hath not seen the evil
work that is done under the sun." This sen-
timent is amplified in the following lines of
Prior's Solomon :
" Thrice happy is the man who now at last,
Has through this doleful vale of misery past J
Who to his destined stage, has carried on
The tedious load, and laid his burthen down.
He's happier, yet, who privileged by fate,
To shorter labour, and a lighter weight,
Received but yesterday the gift of breath,
Ordered to-morrow to return to death."
a
On this theme the Grecian poets and philo-
sophers are very eloquent; with them, " dolere
ac vivere," to suffer and to live, were syno-
nimous,
( 284 )
nimous. The following from Translations from
the Greek Anthology will shew this opinion
of the ancients better than any thing I could
add:
" Thracians who howl around an infant's birth,
And give the funeral hour to songs and mirth,
Well in your grief and gladness are express'd,
That life is labour, and that death is rest."
and these,
" Why fear ye death, the parent of repose,
Who numbs the sense of penury and pain ?
He comes but only once ; nor ever throws,
Triumphant once, his painful shaft again ;
But countless ills upon our life intrude,
Recurring oft in sad vicissitude."
I shall insert one other specimen from an un-
known writer, taken from the same collection.
" Waking we burst at each return of morn,
From death's dull fetters, and again are born ;
No longer ours the moments that are past,
To a new remnant of our lives we haste.
Call not the years thine own that made thee grey,
That left their wrinkles, and are fled away ;
The past no more shall yield thee ill or good,
Gone to the silent times beyond the flood."
That life has its evils, and that they more than
balance its comforts, is pretty generally ad-
mitted ;
( 285 )
mitted ; yet we find that even a long continu-
aace of pain and distress, have not the power,
in many of us, of weaning us from a fondness
for it. Seneca makes one of his characters say,
" Debilem facito manu,
Debilem pede, cox4,
Lubricos quate dentes,
Vita dura superest, bene est."
Take from me the use of my hands and of my
feet, dash out my teeth, and inflict upon me a
thousand other ills, preserve but my life, and
I will still be contented.
" Oh what a dreadful thought it is, to die!
To leave the freshness of this upper sky,
For the cold horrors of the funeral rite,
The land of ghosts and everlasting night!
Oh, slay me not ! the weariest life that pain,
The fever of disgrace, the lengthened chain
Of slavery, can impose on mortal breath,
' Is real bliss,' to what we fear of death.
Greek Anthology.
But this was the complaint of a beautiful young
damsel, whose father was about to sacrifice her,
to appease the anger of Diana, whom he had
offended by killing one of her stags. The
goddess took compassion on the lady, and
sub-
( 286 )
substituted a deer in her place. The following
is more to the purpose. Antisthenes, the stoic,
being very sick, and in great pain, cried out,
" Can no one deliver me from these evils ? "
Diogenes, who was with him, presenting him
a knife, said, "This will relieve you." " I do
not mean from my life," replied Antisthenes,
" but from my disease." The point to which
we should aim, and endeavour to arrive at, is,
not to make our continuance in life an object
of too anxious solicitude, but as Martial teaches
"Summum nee metuas diem, nee optas," nei-
ther to wish, nor fear, to die. " Viva la gal-
lina, y viva con su pepita," let the hen live,
though with the pip ; and " a living dog," we
say, "is better than a dead lion."
Harena sine Cake.
Sand without lime. If too much sand or
rubbish be used in making mortar or cement,
it will not cohere, but crumble into dust. The
adage may be applied to any speech or com-
position, in which order and method have been
neglected, where the parts have no congruity
or
or connection. It was by this phrase that the
Emperor Caligula characterised the works of
Seneca, and not entirely without reason, Eras-
mus observes. For though the writings of that
great observer of human life and manners,
abound with just and pertinent observations,
they are frequently given in so desultory a
manner, that it is not easy to follow and con-
nect them together ; the same may be objected
to the elegant, but unconnected Elegies of
Tibullus, and still more justly, perhaps, to
the Essays of Montaigne.
Furemque Fur cognoscit.
The thief knows or acknowledges his brother
thief. Persons of similar manners, but the bad
particularly, are fond of associating together;
indeed when their characters are known, they
cannot easily get other companions. Hence
we say,
" Tell me with whom thou goest,
And I'll tell thee what thou doest."
for, " Cada uno busca a su semejante,',' or
" Chacun aime son semblable," " birds of a
feather will still flock together/'
Ante-
Antequam incipias, consulto.
Consider, or deliberate maturely, before you
undertake any great work or enterprise ; after
you have embarked in it, it may be too late.
"The beginning of all virtue," Demosthenes
observes, " is deliberation ; and the end and
perfection of it, constancy." When you de-
termine to cross the ocean, remember you.
may have to epcounter storms and tempests,
and before you enter on any new project, that
it may fail. It is necessary to be prepared for
every event, and not like the inconsiderate and
foolish man, at every cross incident or obstacle
you meet with, cry " who would have thought
it !" "Things will have," Lord Verulam says,
" their first, or second agitation ; if they be not
tossed upon the arguments of counsel, they will
be tossed upon the waves of fortune, and be
full of inconstancy, doing and undoing, like the
reeling of a drunken man. It is good to com-
mit the beginnings of all great actions to Argus
with his hundred eyes, and the ends to Briareus
with his hundred hands: for the helmet of
Pluto, which maketh the politic man to go
invisible,
( 139 )
invisible, is secrecy in counsel, and celerity in
the execution." Polonius advises his son to
" Beware
Of entrance to a quarrel, but being in,
Bear 't, that th' oppo&er may beware of thee."
END OF VOL. I.
ERRATA, VOL. I,
Page 21. 1. 16. for Crabones, read Crabroncs.
73. 1. for and so long a, read and so a long.
99. 2. for Invenxione, read Invenzione.
123. 10. for capillo, vead lapillo,
1 1. for candido, read candidus.
137. 1. for steftb, read stesso.
145. 14, for has, read have.
148. 2. dele of.
200. 25. /or bate, read bait,
201. 4. for bated, read baited.
225. 24. for happn, read happen-
LONDON:
Printed by C. Ro worth, Bell-yard, Temple-bar.
PROVERBS,
CHIEFLY TAKEN FROM THE
ADAGIA OF ERASMUS,
WITH EXPLANATIONS;
AND FURTHER ILLUSTRATED BY CORRESPONDING
EXAMPLES FROM THE
SPANISH, ITALIAN, FRENCH & ENGLISH
LANGUAGES.
• BY ROBERT BLAND, M.D. F.S.A.
VOL. II.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR T. EGERTON, MILITARY LIBRARY,
WHITEHALL.
1814.
London: Printed liv f. Rowoith,
Be 11-yard, Temple-bar.
PROVERBS,
VOLUME THE SECOND,
Mendacem memorem, esse oportet.
IL faut qu'un menteur ait bonne memoire,"
a liar ought to have a good memory. When
a transaction is related exactly as it occurred,
there is no probability that the relater should
at any time vary in his account. The circum-
stance must for ever dwell in his mind, in the
very manner he described it. But if a fictitious
story is told, he must have a good memory to
be able at all times to tell it in the same man-
ner. The liar therefore has little chance that
his fiction shall remain long undiscovered, for
should no other circumstance lead to the de-
tection of it, he will, by not adhering always
to the same story, betray the imposition he has
practised ; and it is well that it is so, as there
is no vice that doth so cover a man with shame,
as to be detected in telling a lie. " Clear and
VOL. ii. r, round
( 6 )
round dealing," Lord Verulam says, " is the
honour of man's nature, while a mixture of
falsehood, is like allay in coin of gold or silver,
which may make the metal work better, hut it
embaseth it." Montaigne says, very happily,
" To accuse a man of lying, is as much as to
say, he is a brave towards God, and a coward
towards man."
Qui bene conjiciet, hunc Vatem perhibeto
optimum.
Let him who conjectures best, who from
circumstances draws the most rational con-
clusions, be esteemed your best counsellor or
adviser, or more literally, let him be your
soothsayer or prophet.
" He that conjectures least amiss,
Of all the best of prophets is."
Do not, like the Africans, and other illiterate
and uncultivated people, consult astrologers,
or diviners, with the view of learning your
future destiny, which cannot with any cer-
tainty be foretold. It is true, as is said of
persons having the second sight in Scotland,
there
( 7 )
there is sometimes- a very near, or perhaps, an
exact coincidence between the prediction and
the event, "Quisest enim, qui totum diem
jaculans, non aliquando conlineat?" for, who
shoots often, will at some time hit the mark.
But on inquiry, it would be found, that they
fail fifty times for once that they are right.
But jugglers, or fortune-tellers, as they are call-
ed, are in no small degree of estimation in this
country, and among persons who should be
ashamed of giving encouragement to such
wretched impostures. Erasmus complains, that
they were not less in vogue in his time, and
that they were resorted to by personages of
the highest rank. " Si fuera adevino, no mu-
riera mesquino," if I were a conjuror, I should
not die a beggar, the Spaniards say, which
shews they do not want encouragement in
that country also. Of the Spaniards, it has
been said, that they are less wise, as the French
are found to be more wise, more politic, at the
least, than from their respective habits and
manners, might be expected.
B 2 Pannus
( 8 )
Pannus lacer.
A tattered garment, which, if a man has the
misfortune to be obliged to appear in, it being
what is first seen and noticed, he is usually
rejected, without trying whether, under that
sordid and wretched outside, there may not
lie talents, which might make him a valuable
associate.
" Want is the scorn of every wealthy fool,
And wit in rags is turn'd to ridicule."
But this might be borne, and it might perhaps
be in some measure compensated, if the con-
tempt in which persons so accoutred are held,
should incite in such as have abilities, so much
industry and frugality, as might guarantee
them from falling into a state of indigence,
which is not so impracticable, as it is often
supposed to be. But when men become in-
digent through misfortune, their distress is
more than doubled, when they find that those
who in their prosperity courted, now turn their
backs upon them, and this, it is to be feared,
is no uncommon case.
" poverty,
When no ill else will do 't, makes all friends fly."
An-
( 9 )
Anciently, when any thing was rejected, and
put away with contempt, it was said to be
thrown away like a worn out and tattered
garment. " Did you observe, how he turned
up his nose at it?" is our more common phrase,
when any thing is refused with disdain.
Chius Dominum emit
»
The Chians purchased for themselves mas-
ters. When their country was conquered by
Mithridates, they were delivered, bound with
chains, to their slaves,/ whom they had pur-
chased, to be by them transported to Colchis.
The adage was used when any one by mis-
management had brought upon himself any
severe calamity.
Multce Manus Onus levius reddunt.
"Many hands make light work." This is
too obvious to need being explained. Of the
same kind are, " Two heads are better than,
one, or why do folks marry?" and "in a mul-
titude of counsellors, there is safety." But the
B 3 oppo-
opposite to this is no less true, and we say,
" too many cooks spoil the broth," and " keep
no more cats than catch mice;"' we know also
that where too many men are employed in the
same business, instead of helping, they often-
times hinder each other.
Spem Pretio ernere.
Paying a high price for some future and in-
cidental advantage. " Parting with the sub-
stance for a shadow." The adage advises not
to part with what we actually possess, upon the
distant prospect of some doubtful or uncer-
tain profit ; " e meglio aver hoggi un uovo,
che dimana una gallina," better an egg to-day
than a hen to-morrow, or " a bird in the hand
is worth two in the bush." It would be worse
than madness in any one in possession of a
competence, or exercising successfully any
business or profession to hazard all in pursuit
of some new scheme, which however promis-
ing in appearance, might fail and_involve him
in ruin : and yet of this folly there are few
but are acquainted with some victims. This,
the
( 11 )
the Spaniards say, is " yr por lana, y bolver
tresquilado," going for wool, and returning
home shorn. How many young men again,
spend whole years of their invaluable time, in
cultivating the friendship of some great man
in the hope of obtaining preferment, and are
only at length weaned from the pursuit, in
the course of which they have submitted to
all those insults and mortifications incident to
a state of dependence, by rinding other, per-
haps less obsequious clients, preferred to the
office which had been pointed out to them as
the reward of their servitude : awaked, at
length, from their dream of prosperity, they
find the loss of the expected office the smallest
part of their misery. They have not only neg-
lected to improve the little fortune they pos-
sessed, but have suffered it to slip completely
away, or have so reduced it as not to have a
sufficiency left for their subsistence ; in the
meantime they have contracted habits of idle-
ness, which render it impossible for them to
search out means of recovering what they have
lost : this is buying hope at a dreadfully high
price indeed ! The adage also alludes to a
B 4 custom,
custom, common, we are told, among the an-
cients, and which has descended to the pre-
sent times, of purchasing the produce of an
orchard while the trees were only in blossom,
or of a field of corn as soon -as the seed was
committed to the ground, at stipulated prices.
This species of gaming was carried so far,
that it was not unusual to buy a draught of
fishes, or so many as should be taken at one
cast of a net; or all the game that should be
taken in one day's hunting : and laws, we are
told, were framed to regulate this kind of
traffic.
" Lord Bacon, being in York-house garden,
looking on fishers as they were throwing their
net, asked them what they would take for their
draught; they answered so much, his lordship
would offer them only so much ; they drew
up their net, and in it were only two or three
little fishes ; his lordship then told them, it
had been better for them to have taken his
offer ; they replied, they hoped to have had a
better draught; but, said his lordship, " hope
is a good breakfast, but a bad supper." Au-
brey's Manuscripts.
JEgrot?
( 13 >
JEgroto dum Anima est Spes est.
" While there is life, there is hope," and
" there is life in a muscle." We should not
give up our exertions too early ; what is dif-
ficult, is not therefore to be deemed impossi-
ble, as persons apparently at the point of death
are sometimes found to recover; and a turn not
unfrequently takes place in our affairs, and we
are rescued from difficulties that seemed at
one time hopeless and irremediable.
Tempus omnia revelai.
Time brings all things to light. Truth has
therefore been called the daughter of Time, or
as the Spaniards say, of God, " la verdad es
hija de Dios;" the wicked man hence knows
no peace, but lives in perpetual fear that time,
the great revealer of secrets, should tear off
the veil that hides his crimes and shew him in
his true colours. But time also overturns and
destroys every thing, and takes away even the
memory of them. Hence we have
Tempus
( 14 )
Tempus edax Rerum.
Which cannot be better exemplified than
by the following lines :
" Time lays his hand
On pyramids of brass, and ruins quite
What all the fond artificers did think
Immortal workmanship. He sends his worms
To books, to old records, and they devour
Th' inscriptions ; he loves ingratitude,
For he destroys the memory of man."
Quo semel est iinbuta recens, servabit Odorem
Testa diu.
Vessels will for a long time preserve the scent
of the liquor first put into them, or with which
they were first impregnated. This observa-
tion is very happily introduced by Horace, to
shew the necessity of instilling early good
principles into the minds of young people ;
" maxima debetur pueris reverentia :" and
" Nil dictu foedum visuve hcec limina tangat
Intra quae puer est."
we should reverence youth ; that is, we should
take
take care that nothing be said or done in
their presence offensive to good morals, that
we may not suffer the cruel reflection of hav-
ing led them into vice by our example.
" Sincerum est nisi vas, quodcunque infundis acescit."
For as, unless the vessel is kept clean and
untainted, whatever is put into it will be
spoiled : if the mind be corrupted when young,
it will afterwards reject the most salutary pre-
cepts.
Philip of Macedon thought a good educa-
tion of so much importance, that next to the
pleasure he experienced in having a son to
whom he might leave his empire, he esteemed
that of his being born at a time when he was
able to procure for him so excellent a precep-
tor as Aristotle; under whose tuition he placed
him as soon as he was of an age to receive
his instruction. " It would be well," Roger
Ascham says, " that we should adopt the man-
ners of the Persians, whose children to the
age of twenty-one years were brought up in
learning and exercises of labour, and that in
such places, where they should neither see
that
( IS )
that was uncomely, nor hear that was unho-
nest."
Oculus dexter mlhi sulit.
" My right eye itches," I shall see whom I
have long wished for; and,
" Num vobis tinniebant aures, Parmeno?"
Did not your ears tingle ? for your mistress
was talking of you. We also say, " my face
flushes," some one is talking of me ; and " my
elbow itches," I shall be kissed by a fool.
Plautus has many similar phrases in his come-
dies ; whence we learn, that these supersti-
tious fancies have prevailed among the com-
mon people in all ages.
Sequitur Ver Hyemem.
The spring follows the winter, sunshine
succeeds to rain : " apres ce tems-ci il en
viendra un autre," after this season will come
another and a different one. This, and other si-
milar phrases have been used both by ancients
and
( 17 )
and moderns, to encourage men to bear their
troubles with constancy, by the consolatory
reflection that they cannot last forever. For
though it be true, as the Spaniard notices,
" en cada sendero, ay su atolledera," that in
every road there are sloughs in some part of
it, when these are passed the rest of the way,
may be smooth and level. " It is a long lane,"
we say, " that has no end," and " when things
are at the worst they will mend;" for " etiani
mala fortuna suas habet levitates," even ill-
fortune is changeable and will not last forever;
but prosperity is probably still more faithless
than adversity : when we have attained the
summit of our wishes, we may be doomed to
suffer an early reverse, and our fall will be
the more severe, the greater the eminence
from which we are precipitated. " Di gran
subida gran caicla," from a great height a
great fall, and " after sweet meat comes sour
sauce."
" The prosperous man to-day puts forth
The tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blossoms,
And bears his blushing honours thick upon him :
The third day comes a frost, a killing frost ;
And when he thinks, good easy man, full surely
His
( 18 )
His greatness is a ripening, nips his root.
And then he falls as I do."
Woohey's Speech in King Henry VIII.
Tanguam Ungues Digitosque suos.
The subject is as familiar and as well known
to me, as are my fingers ; to be perfectly
conversant with a business, or to have it, as
we say, " at our fingers' ends."
Rem Acu tetigisti.
"You have hit the matter to a4iair," or
" the nail on the head," that is, you are per-
fectly right in your conjecture.
Dies adimit JEgritudinem.
Time cures the greatest afflictions. There is
no trouble, however pungent, which time has
not the power of softening or removing. It is
also esteemed to have no small influence in
curing diseases affecting the body.
" Medi-
( 19 )
" Medicus dedit qui temporis morbo raoram,
Is plus remedii quam cutis sector dedit."
/
The physician who allows the disease to sub-
sicle gradually, is more successful than he who
has immediate recourse to rough and violent
remedies, which is not unlike the following,
" El tiempo cura el enfermo, que no el un-
guento," it is time, and not medicine that
cures the disease. The Spaniards do not ap-
pear to have had much reverence either for
medicines, or for the dispensers of them. " Si
tienes medico amigo, quitale la gorra, y em-
bialo a casa de tu enemigo," if you have a
physician for your friend, make your bow to
him, and send him to your enemy, as the surest
way to get rid of him. Time also brings things
to perfection. " Col tempo et la paglia si ma-
turano mespoli," time and straw make med-
lars ripe.
Quid nisi Victis Dolor.
What but misery to the conquered; and
" vae victis !" woe to the conquered ! was the
cruel taunt of Brennus to the Romans, com-
plaining
( 20 )
plaining that he exacted more than they had
stipulated to pay, as a ransom for their city;
reproaching them, perhaps, that they had not
made so strenuous a defence as they ought to
have done, before they capitulated. It should
be sounded in the ears of the careless, the in-
dolent, arid the profligate, in short, of all who,
having nothing but their genius or their in-
dustry to depend upon for their support, pass
their time in sloth and inactivity; or who dis-
sipate the property left them by their parents,
in the foolish, or perhaps criminal indulgence
of their passions. What pleasure, or what
comforts, are to be purchased by poverty,
and what are they to expect, when they have
reduced themselves to a state of indigence,
but the neglect of those who would have been
their friends, or the cold consolation of pity ?
How little relief distress may expect from pity,
the following very just observations of Gold-
smith shew : "Pity and friendship are passions
incompatible with each other; and it is impos-
sible that both can reside in any breast, for
the smallest space of time, without impairing
each other. Friendship is made up of esteem
'w and
( 21 )
and pleasure, but pity is composed of sorrow
and contempt. In fact, "he adds, "pity, though
it may often relieve, is but at best a short lived
passion, and seldom affords distress more than
a transitory assistance," which is consonant to
the following observation of Dryden,
"pity only with new objects stays,
But with the tedious sight of woe decays."
Vino vendibili suspensd Hedera nihil Opus.
" Good wine needs no bush." Good actions
are their own interpreters, they need no rhe-
toric to adorn them. The phrase derives its
origin from a custom among vintners, of
hanging out the representation of an ivy bush,
as an indication that they sell wine; a custom
common in Germany, in the time of Erasmus,
and probably much earlier. It is still continued
among us ; many of the principal inns in this
kingdom, both in town and country, being
known by the sign of the bush. While signs
were in fashion, Bacchus astride on his tun,
and ample bunches of grapes, with their hand-
some foliage, were also very general designa-
VOL. ir, c ttons
tions of the good liquor that was to be had
within. The proverb is applicable to persons
too earnest in their commendation of any ar-
ticles they are desirous of selling. The Spa-
niards therefore say, *' El vino que es bueno,
no ha menestcr pregonero," the wine that is
good needs no trumpeter.
The ivy is said to be an antidote to the in-
toxicating power of wine, hence Bacchus is
always painted with a wreath of ivy on his
head, and it may be that it was on account of
this supposed property, that in old times a
bush of ivy was chosen, in preference to any
other, by the vintners. The proverb has been
pretty generally adopted. " Al buon vino,"
the Italians say, " non bisogna frasca," and
the French, " Le bon vin n'a point besoin de
buchcron." Is this the origin of the vulgar
o o
term "Bosky," applied to persons who are
tipsy, or drunk, viz. he has been under the
bush? The Scotch, who are accustomed to fix
a bunch of hay against houses where ale is
sold, say, "Good ale needs no whisp."
Anus
( 23 )
Anus Simla, serd quidem.
The old ape is taken at length. This was
said, when any one, who for a long time, by
craft and cunning, had succeeded in plunder-
ing his neighbours, was at last taken, and
condemned to suffer the punishment due to
his crimes. Our English proverb has it, "The;
old fox is caught at last."
Spartam nactus es hanc orna.
Endeavour to acquit yourself well in what-
ever station or condition of life your lot may
happen to be cast
" Honour and shame from no conditions rise,
Act well your part, there all the honour lies."
The adage is of general application. Princes,
nobles, bishops, lawyers, soldiers, and the
meanest individuals, have each of them their
distinct province; let them fill them worthily.
" Each might his several province well command,
Would all but stoop to what they understand."
" England expects that every man will do
his duty," was the animated speech of Lord
c 2 Nelson
( 24 )
Nelson at the battle of Trafalgar, where that
hero unfortunately fell ; or not, perhaps, un-
fortunately for himself, as it was in the midst
of victory, and crowned with glory. Had he
died immediately after his unsuccessful at-
tempt on the coast of France, or on his expe-
dition to Denmark, he would have left his
fame somewhat diminished, which by his last
brilliant action was again mounted to the stars ;
for the victory at the Nile was not less bril-
liant than that off Trafalgar. Either of them
\vould have been sufficient to immortalise his
name.
Ac k guoi'is Ligno 1\ fer cur ius fiat.
A statue of Mercury may not be made from
every kind of wood. All dispositions and
capacities are not adapted to the higher walks
of literature. It is incumbent on parents to
educate their children, but they should give
them such instruction, as is suited to their
talents. Artificers are careful to make choice
of materials fit for the work they have in hand,
whether metal, stone, or wood ; using the
coarser
coarser sort for rough and common articles, the,
finer for those that require to be more exqui-
sitely finished. " You cannot make," we say,
"a silken purse of a sow's ear," or " a horn of
a pig's tail," or " a good coat," the Spaniards
say, " of coarse or bad wool." " De ruyn paiio
nunca buen sayo."
Ne Gladium tollas Mulier.
Women should not attempt to wield a sword,
for which they are incompetent. Employ in
every business means adapted and adequate
to the purpose; also take care not to irritate
any one whom you are not able to stand
against, or oppose successfully. Brutus ob-
served, that Cicero should not have railed
against, and provoked Marc Anthony, who
was much more powerful than himself. In
the end, this imprudence cost Cicero his life.
What, however, shall we say of those heroines,
Judith in sacred, and Joan of Arc in modern
history, or of the Amazons, who wielded this
forbidden weapon with such advantage against
their enemies, in defiance of tlus adage?
c 3 £.n-
Exiguum Malum, ingens Eonum.
" III luck is good for something." From a
small evil, to extract a considerable advantage,
is the property of a sound and prudent mind. It
is next to profiting by the errors and mischances
of others, to take warning by some check we
may meet with in our progress, and thence to
alter our course. " El hombre mancebo perdi-
endo gana seso," a young man by losing, gains
knowledge. If persons, who are living more
expensively than their income permits, would
be wanted by the first difficulty or disgrace
they suffer, and would institute modes of liv-
ing more suitable to their circumstances, they
would soonrecoverwhat by their improvidence
they had wasted. But pride, a fear of shewing
to their companions they are not so wealthy as
they had boasted, or had appeared to be, pre-
vents their following this salutary counsel,
and they go on until their fall becomes in-
evitable. " Si quid feceris honestum cum la-
bore, labor abit, honestum manet Si quid
feceris turpe cum voluptate, voluptas abit,
turpitude manet," which may be thus ren-
dered :
( 27 )
dered : if by labour and difficulty you have
procured to yourself an advantage, the benefit
will remain, when the labour with which it
was acquired will be forgotten. But if in pur-
suit of pleasure you have degraded yourself,
the disgrace will remain, while no traces of
the pleasure will be retained in your memory.
Ipse semet canit.
" Is your trumpeter dead, that you arc
obliged to praise yourself?" This may be con-
sidered as a caution against vain blasting.
Act so as to be deserving of commendation ;
and though you should not meet with all the
applause you may deserve, you will have the
testimony of your own mind, which will be
abundantly satisfactory. Hear, O ye Vene-
tians, and I will tell ye which is the best thin 2;
' •/ O
in the world : " To contemn it." Sebastian
Foscarius, sometime Duke of Venice, ordered
this to be inscribed on his tomb.
Telpsiim non alens, Canes alls.
Not having sufficient for your own support,
c 4 do
( 28 )
do you pretend to keep dogs ? This was used
to be applied to persons whose income, insuf-
ficient to supply them with necessaries, was
laid out in superfluities ; in keeping servants
and horses, or in an ostentatious use of gaudy
clothes, furniture, or other articles of luxury,
unbecoming th'eir circumstances. " Los que
cabras no tienen, y cabritos venden, de donde
lo vienen ?" those who, having no goats, yet
sell kids, whence do they get them ? is said by
the Spaniards, of persons who, having no es-
tates, qr known income, yet contrive to live at
a great expense.
Cantilenam eandem cams.
To be always singing the same tune, or tell-
ing the same stories, which, though at the first
they might be interesting and pleasant, at
length become, by repetition, tiresome and
disgusting. " Dieu nous garde d'un horn me
qui n'a qu'une affaire;" God keep us, the
French say, from a man who is only acquaint-
ed with one subject, on which he is capable of
conversing; he will introduce it on all occa-
sions,
sions, though it have no affinity to the subject
which the company are discussing. "He will
lug it in by the neck and shoulders."
Ignavis semper Ferice sunt.
To the indolent every day is a holiday, or
clay of rest. Erasmus has taken occasion, in
the explication of this sentence, to shew the
mischiefs incurred by the increasing number
of festivals or holidays, enjoined by the church.
They were intended, he observes, as days of
necessary relaxation for the labouring poor,
but were too frequently passed by them in
the grossest debauchery. The abolishing the
greater part of these holidays, may be esteem-
ed, as not the smallest of the many advantages
produced to this country by the Reformation.
Ne Verb a pro Farina.
" Fair words butter no parsnips." Though
we may for a time be satisfied with kind
speeches, and fair promises, yet as we cannot
take
( 30 )
take them to the market, or they will not pass
there, the satisfaction derived from them will
be but short-lived, and when we find them
totally unproductive, and that they were
merely unmeaning expletives, our resentment
will be in proportion to the dependence we
had placed on them, and to the time we have
lost in the vain expectation of some promised
benefit.
Timidi nunquam statuerunt Trophceum.
Timid persons and such as are not pos-
sessed of personal courage, must not expect to
be honoured with a triumph, which is only ac-
corded to those who have by their valour ob-
tained some signal victory. " Qui a peur de
feuilles ne doit aller au bois," " he that is
afraid of leaves, must not go into a wood/'
Persons of timid dispositions should not en-
gage in hazardous undertakings, or attempt
what can only be achieved by courage and
prowess ; " al hombre osado, la fortuna da la
mano," " fortune favours the bold," " faint
heart never won fair lady," and " none but
the brave deserve the fair !"
Aliorum
( 31 )
Aliorum Medicus, ipse Ulcerlbus scales.
" Who boast of curing poor and rich,
Yet are themselves all over itch.'*
Physicians pretending to cure the diseases of
others, and are themselves loaded with com-
plaints, are the immediate objects of the cen-
sure contained in this adage ; but it may also
be applied to persons railing against vices to
which they are themselves addicted. Persons
whose office it is instruct the people in the
duties of morality and religion, should consi-
der how much their admonitions will lose of
their weight and efficacy if their conduct is
not in a great degree, at the least, consonant
to their doctrine; if they cannot entirely re-
frain from vice, they should be extremely
careful to conceal their deviations from the
precepts they mean to inculcate, lest their ex-
ample should be more powerful than their lec-
tures.
Ne Jfcsopum quidem trivit.
He has not been taught even the fables of
, was used to be said of persons totally
illiterate ; whose education has been so neg-
lected, that they had not been initiated in the
rudiments of literature ; " he has not read his
horn-book or his primer," or "does not know
his alphabet," we say on similar occasions.
The horn-book, it is known, is a piece of
board six or seven inches long and four or
five broad, on which is pasted a strip of paper
containing the alphabet in capital and small
letters, covered with a plate of transparent
horn, to guard it from the fingers of the young
subjects, to whose use it is dedicated : this
description may seem superfluous at present,
but horn-books are now so little used, that, it
is probable, should the name of the contrivance
continue, the form and fashion of it will in a
short time be lost. To the same purport is
Neque nature, neque Literas.
He has neither been taught to read nor to
swim, two things which the Grecians and Ro-
mans were careful their children should be in-
structed in early ; and which it was held to
be disgraceful not to have learned,
Non
( S3 )
Non est mihi cornea Fibra.
I am not made of horn, of brass, of iron, or
such like impenetrable stuff, as to be so totally
void of sense or proper feeling, that I should
hear unmoved a tale of so much distress ; or
so difficult of persuasion, that I should not
listen to so reasonable a request.
Non est Remedium adversus Sycophants
Morsum.
There is no remedy against the tongue of
the sycophant, who, by pretended concern for
your interest, worm themselves into your con-
fidence and get acquainted with your most
intimate concerns. When men who are in-
different to you affect a more than ordinary
regard for your interest, you should be cau-
tious how you converse with them ;
" Halaga la cola el can
Non por ti, sino por el pan,"
the dog wags his tail not for you but for
your bread. It might be well if the sycophant
were content with pillaging, but more usu-
ally they flatter only to betray you ; such men
are
are said, " halagar con la cola, y morder con
la boca," to bite while they fawn upon you
and, if they are as crafty as they are malevo-
lent, you will not discover the villany of their
dispositions until they have done you some
irremediable mischief; until they have alie-
nated the minds of your friends, or raised such
dissensions in your family as nothing but
death will extinguish. When lago saw that
he had succeeded in exciting in Othello a sus-
picion of the incontinence of Desdemona, he
says, exulting in the success of his villany,
• " Not poppy, nor mandragore,
Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world,
Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep
Which thou ow'dst yesterday."
The ancients supposed that there were ma-
gic rings which had the power of defending
those who wore them from certain diseases,
inflicted, as they imagined, by inchantment
or witchcraft, but even these were insufficient
to protect them from the tongue of the slan-
derer.
Dentem
Dent em Dente rodere.
It is one tooth biting another, was used to
be said to any one attempting to hurt what
was out of his reach, and could not be af-
fected by him : or affronting one who could
return the insult with interest; or having a
contest with persons capable of doing him
more mischief than he could do them. It has
the same sense as, " verberare lapidem," beat-
ing a stone; " do not shew your teeth," we
say, "when you cannot bite." The adage
probably took its rise from the fable of the
serpent gnawing a file, which it met with in a
smith's shop, by which it made its own gums
bleed but without hurting the file.
Frustra Herculi.
That is, should any one call Hercules a
coward, who would listen to him ? .The- adage
was applied to anyone speaking ill of persons of
known and approved integrity and character.
•When Cato, whose worth had been often tried,
was
( 36 )
was accused of avarice ; this, Plutarch said,
was as if any one should reproach Hercules
with want of courage.
Ne in Neroum erumpat.
The string may break; this was said to per-
sons who, emboldened by success, were per-
petually engaging in new exploits : such per-
sons were advised by this apothegm to desist,
they had done enough to shew their skill or
courage ; a reverse might happen, or by one
wrong step they might lose all the honour or
emolument they had gained. " The pitcher
that goes often to the well returns broken at
last."
The adage takes its rise from bowmen who,
by overstraining the string, at length occa-
sion it to break, not without danger to them-
selves.
Pluris est oculatus Testis unus, quam auriti
decent.
Better one eye-witness than ten who only
know
( 37 )
know a thing from hearsay ; or, what we see
with our own eyes, is rather to be believed
than what we learn only from report, for " ver y
creer," " seeing is believing," and " ojos que
no ven, coracon que no llora," " what the eye
doth not see, the heart doth not rue."
In caducum Parietem indinare.
Leaning on a broken staff, which cannot
support you, or " on a bruised reed which
will pierce your hand and wound you ;" lite-
rally upon a weak and tottering wall; meta-
phorically, trusting to a false friend who will
betray you, or to one who is incapable of per-
forming what he promises, or of furnishing the
assistance which he undertook to afford you.
Qui jacet in Terra, non hahet undc cadat.
He who is at the bottom can fall no lower.
When plunged into the gulph of poverty and
misery all fear of further distress is over, no
change can take place but it must be for the
better; and so unsettled are all sublunary
VOL. LI. D thins
things that a change may always be expected,
or time and use will make the greatest trouble
tolerable. Hope and patience are two sove-
reign remedies, affording the softest cushion
to lean on in adversity. " Grata superveniet
quae non sperabitur hora," a day of relief
beyond expectation may come, and turn a
lowering morning to a fair afternoon ; or at the
worst, death will at length put an end to our
misery, and when a traveller arrives at the end
of his journey, he soon forgets the hardships
and difficulties he met with on the road. It
was an observation of Seneca, that " bona
re rum secundarum sunt optabilia, adversarum
mirabilia," the good things which belong to
prosperity, are to be wished ; but the good
things that belong to adversity are to be ad-
mired. Queen Catherine, who was repudiated
by Henry the Eighth, used to say, that " she
would not willingly endure the extremity of
either fortune ; but if it were so that of ne-
cessity she must undergo the one, she would
be in adversity, because comfort was never
wanting in that state, but still counsel and
self-government were defective in the other."
"If
( 39 )
" If you have acquired," Plutarch says, " a
command over your passions, and are become
wise and virtuous, you will be pleased with
wealth, for enabling you to be useful to many;
with poverty, for not having much to care
for; with fame, for procuring you honour;
and with obscurity, for keeping you from be-
ing envied."
Verecundia inutilis Viro egenti.
Bashfulness is of no use to a man in want.
The adage teaches that persons liberally edu-
cated but in mean circumstances, should not
refuse to undertake offices, though beneath
them, which might be executed without of-
fending against any moral or religious duty.
This many do, not from their objection to
the labour, but from being ashamed to appear
to their friends, or to the world in a degraded
situation ; they can contemn pleasure, and
bear pain or grief with firmness, but reproach
and obloquy breaks and overwhelms them.
It is the disgrace more than the confinement
that makes a prison hateful. When Johnson
D 2 found
( 40 )
found a pair of shoes placed at his door by
one of his fellow students, actuated by false
shame or by pride, he threw them, with great
indignation, out of the window ; though his
own were so much worn as not to keep his feet
from the stones. But bashfulness or false
modesty is more than useless also, when it
deters men from laying open their circum-
stances to their friends, who both might and
would, by their advice or otherwise, relieve
them, until, by delay, they are become so in-
volved that nothing can prevent their fall : or
when it leads them to conceal their bodily com-
plaints, which not unfrequently happens, from
the physician or surgeon, until they no longer
admit of being cured.
Sustine ct abstine.
Bear and forbear, a phrase frequently used
by Kpictetus, as embracing almost the whole
that philosophy or human reason can teach us-
Of this Epictetus was a memorable example,
no man bearing the evils of life with more
constancy or less coveting its enjoyments.
His
( 41 )
His master Epaphroclitus, for he was a slave
in the early part of his life, diverting himself
with striking his leg with a large stick, he
told him, that if he continued to give such
heavy strokes he would hreak the hone;
which happening as he had foretold, all that
he said on the occasion was, u did not I tell
you, you would break my leg." When after-
wards he had obtained his liberty and was
much followed as a teacher of philosophy, he
still lived in the plainest and simplest man-
ner; his house or cottage had no door, and
the little furniture it contained was of the
meanest kind. When an iron lamp by which
he used to study, was stolen, he said, " I shall
deceive the thief if he should come again, as
he will only find an earthen one." This
earthen lamp, Lucian tells us, was sold for
three thousand drachmas or groats, £75
of our money. He is said to have lived to
his ninety-sixth year. The Mexicans, with-
out being beholden to the tenets of philoso-
phy, have learnt from experience the neces-
sity of undergoing trouble ; they say to their
children on being born, " thou art come into
D 3 the
( 42 )
the world, child, to endure ; suffer, therefore,
and be silent.
Naturam expellas Furca tamen usque
recurret.
Which may be aptly enough rendered by
our English proverb, " what is bred in the
bone, will never get out of the flesh." " Lu-
pus pilum mutat, non mentem," it is easier
for the wolf to change his coat than his dispo-
sition : habits are with difficulty changed, and
with greater difficulty if of such long conti-
nuance as to become a second nature. As
the bough of a tree drawn from its natural
course, recoils and returns to its old position as
soon as the force by which it had been restrained
is removed ; so do we return to old habits as
soon as the motives, whether interest or fear,
which had induced us to quit them, are done
away : the cat that had been transformed into
a fine lady, on seeing a mouse, forgetting the
decorum required by her new form, sprung
from the table where she was sitting to seize
on her prey. " Vizio di natura dura fino alia
sepol-
( 43 )
sepoltura," the vice that is born with us or is
become natural to us, accompanies us to the
grave. A rich miser being at the point of death,
his confessor placed before him a large ^silver
crucifix, and was about to begin an exhorta-
tion, when the usurer, fixing his eyes on the
crucifix, said, " I cannot., sir, lend you much
upon this."
See the camel is dancing, may be said,
when we see a very austere person laughing,
or any one doing what is contrary to his usual
habit or disposition.
Optimum Condimentum Fames.
" Appetite non vuol salza," " hunger is the
best sauce." This apothegm was frequently
in the mouth of Socrates deriding his volup-
tuous countrymen, whose tables were fur-
nished with every species of luxury, and who
used a variety of provocatives to stir up an
appetite, which might be so much better ex-
cited, he told them, at so easy a rate.
D 4 Oestro
(44 )
Oestro percitus.
This was said of persons who were seized
with a sudden commotion or disturbance ot the
mind, as poets by the inspiration of the Muses,
from some resemblance in their conduct,
as it was supposed, to cattle that had been
bitten by the oestrum or gad-fly. It is known
that cattle have such extreme horror of this
insect, that on only hearing the noise it makes
when flying, they run about the fields as if
they were mad. The adage was also used
when any one was seen to apply himself in-
tensely to any kind of business, or study.
" But what fly," Friar John says, " has struck
Panurge, that he is of late become so hard a
student ? " " What maggot," we say, " has he
got in his head."
Tanquam Argivum Clypeum abstulerit, it a
gloriatur.
He is as proud of the transaction, as if he
had despoiled a Grecian warrior of his shield.
The Greeks and Romans defended their shields
with
( 45 )
with the greatest pertinacity, it being held in
the highest degree dishonourable to suffer
them to be taken from them. The adage was
used to be applied to persons boasting of some
insignificant exploit, and magnifying it, as if
they had saved a friend, or their country from
destruction.
Frustra habet, qui non utitur.
It is in vain that he possesses that of which
he makes no use. Of what use are horses or
carriages to persons who never go abroad, of
wit or knowledge to those who do not employ
them in the management of their affairs, or of
money to the avaricious, who are averse to, or
afraid of spending it, even for necessary sus-
tenance.
E tardigradis Asinis Equus non prodiit.
The horse is not the progeny of the slow
paced ass, the sheep of the lion. We do not
easily believe a dull and stupid man to be the
son of an acute, sensible and ingenious parent;
a coward,
( 46 )
a coward, of a brave and spirited, or a de-
bauched and worthless man, to be the progeny
of a good and worthy sire; and yet these ano-
malies not ^infrequently occur.
Fames et Mora Eilem in Nasum conchint.
Hunger, if not speedily satisfied, or any un-
seasonable delay in obtaining what we ear-
nestly desire, excites the bile in the nostrils.
To raise or heat the bile, is used metaphorically
for inflaming the passions; and as some men,
and many animals, are observed to inflate or
blow out their nostrils when angry, it is said
to excite the bile in that organ. The bull,
when enraged, is described as breathing fire
from his nostrils, and of the horse it is said,
"the glory of his nostrils is terrible." The
impatience with which we support delay in
gratifying our expectation is beautifully paint-
ed by Solomon in the following : " Hope de-
ferred, maketh the heart sick, but when it is
accomplished, it is a tree of life."
Tuum
( 47 )
Tuum tlbi narro Somnium,
May be said to any one pretending an inti-
mate acquaintance with the private concerns
of another; and I will tell you the subject of
your last night's dream.
Qui Nucleum esse vult, Nucem frangat oportet.
" Qui veut manger de noyau, qu'il casse la
noix," he that would eat the kernel, must
break the shell; and, "He that will not work,
must not expect to eat." " No hay dulzura,
sin sudor," no sweet, without sweat. " No hay
ganancia, sin fatiga," no gains, without pains;
and " El que trabaja y madra, hila oro," he
who labours and strives, spins gold. This
rule is applicable to persons in every station,
the labour only varies in kind, but all must
perform a part. Providence has ordained that
every thing necessary to our subsistence, as
well as those which custom or habit have made
so to our comfort, as apparel, furniture, houses,
should only be obtained by labour and exer-
tion. To this law the wealthy, and those born
to
( 43 )
to high rank and distinction, are equally sub-
jected with the poor. As the earth will not
produce such a portion of food as is necessary
for the support of its numerous inhabitants,
unless it be cultivated, the labour of perform-
ing which, is usually the lot of the poor; so
neither can men be rendered fit to manage
large possessions, or fill high stations, unless
their minds be well stored with knowledge,
which is not to be acquired without equal care
and diligence.
" The chiefest action for a man of spirit,
Is never to be out of action ; \ve should think
The soul was never put into the body,
AVhich has so many rare and curious pieces
Of mathematical morion, to stand still.
Virtue is ever sowing of her seeds,
In the trenches for the soldier ; in wakeful study
For the scholar; in the furrows of the sea
For men of that profession ; of all which
Arises, and springs up honour."
Juxta Fluviitm Puteumfodit.
It is digging a well in the neighbourhood
©f a river, may be said to persons doing any
thing
( 49 )
thing perfectly preposterous, and useless, as
giving money, books, or any other articles, to
persons who have of them already, more than
they have opportunity or inclination to use.
Beneficium accipere est Libertatem vendere.
He that accepts a favour, forfeits his liberty.
By receiving obligations, particularly if from
persons of bad morals, you are precluded the
liberty of censuring vices so freely as you
might be disposed, or as the subject you are
treating might require, especially those vices
of which you know. them to be guilty; and in
public dissensions, you are restrained from
maintaining your own opinion, unless it ac-
cords with that of your patron. Erasmus,
who manifestly held the same opinions on
many points of religion, as were taught by
Luther and his followers, was yet restrained
from openly espousing them, as he received
nearly the whole of his income, from persons
of the Romish persuasion. " Fille qui prend,"
the French sa}', "son corps vend." The maid
who takes presents, has deprived herself of the
power
( 50 )
power of saying "no," or must permit liberties
to be taken with her, which she would other-
wise resist. " Springes to catch woodcocks,"
says the sententious Polonius, cautioning his
daughter against giving credit to Hamlet's
promises and presents.
Furari Litorts Arenas.
It is stealing sand from the sea shore, may be
said to persons taking home with them, and
prizing things of no value, and which are
neglected and daily trodden under our feet.
Pulverem Oculis ejfundere.
" Jetter de la poudre aux yeux de quelqu'
un," throwing dust into the eyes of any one,
that he may not see what is going on before
him. The adage is applicable to any one at-
tempting to make a business, in itself obvious,
obscure and difficult. A useful stratagem in
war, where it can be effected, is to put an
army into such a position, that in marching
up to the enemy, the dust may be driven to
their
their faces, and from this, the adage is sup-
posed to have taken its origin. Giving a bribe
with the view of obtaining an unjust decision
in any business, is also called throwing dust
into the eyes of the party.
Oderint modo metuant.
Let them hate me, so they do but fear me.
But he of whom many are afraid, ought to be
afraid of many, as was exemplified in the case
of the Emperor Tiberius, who had this saying
frequent in his mouth. He lived to be univer-
sally feared and execrated, and knowing what
a host of enemies he had created by his cruel-
ties and lust, he found it necessary to go into
a sort of banishment, in the island of Caprea,
where he drew out a miserable existence,
alarmed at every noise, and fancying he saw
a dagger in the hand of every one who ap-
proached him. The adage was also used to be
applied to persons, whose sole pleasure or satis-
faction centered in their wealth. Call me what
you will, such men would say, I please myself
with the knowledge that I am rich.
" Populus
-" Populus me sibilat, at mihi plaudo
Ipse domi, simulac nummos contemplor in area."
Caput Artis esf, decere quod facias.
It is the perfection of art or of management
that every one should conform himself to his
circumstances and situation in life, that the
rich and <n-eat should not descend to the
O
manners of the poor, nor the poor emulate
those of the rich ; that the aged should not
mix in the sports and amusements of the
young, nor the young imitate the gravity of
those advanced in years.
Odit Cane pejus et Angue.
Hated worse than a mad dog, or a venemous
serpent. The man who is entirely engrossed
by a passion for accumulating riches, or ho-
nours, is a dupe to parasites, or to a mistress,
who will ruin him, and yet he will not suffer a
word to be said against the object of his pur-
suit, but would hate worse than a mad dog:,
' O»
or a poisonous serpent, whoever should attempt
to wean him from her.
Onmia
( 53 )
Omnia bonos Viros decent.
All things are becoming in good men. If a
man has acquired a character for uprightness
and justice, a favourable construction is put
upon every thing he says or does, On the
contrary, the best actions of bad men are
suspected ; as they are never imagined to pro-
ceed from the heart, some deep and villanous
design is supposed to be couched under them.
" A liar is not to be believed, even when he
speaks the truth*"
In Acre piscari, In Mare venari.
It is fishing in the air, or hunting in the
sea, may be said to persons attempting things
perfectly incompatible; as if those should ex-
pect to enjoy a perfectly retired and quiet life,
who are engaged in any public offices or busi-
ness; or happiness, while eagerly employed in
the pursuit of sensual pleasure; or content-
ment, while anxiously intent on increasing
their wealth which will be much more likely
to add to their cares than to their comfort.
VOL, II.
C 54 )
Negkctis urenda Filiv innasdiur Agris.
As fern and other hurtful weeds spring up
in ground that is not tilled, so do ill humours
abound in the bodies of the idle, and evil
thoughts take possession of their minds. Hence
we truly say, " L'ozio £ il padre di tutti i vizi,"
idleness is the root of all evil, "L'oisivete nous
mene a la mendicite," and leads to beggary.
Idle persons are necessarily restless and un-
happy. " They are never pleased, never well
in body or in mind, but weary still, sickly still,
vexed still, loathing still ; weeping, sighing,
grieving, suspecting, offended with the world,
-and with every object; and this is the reason,"
Burton says, "that so many wealthy and great
personages, become melancholy."
Reperit Deus Nocentem.
God has visited him for his sins. " It has
come home to him at last." The security he
so long enjoyed, proved a snare to him, and
led him to the commission of still greater
crimes, hoping for the same impunity; but
the
( 55 )
the merited punishment has at length over-
taken him. It intimates, that no offence,
though committed ever so privately, can es-
cape the knowledge of the Deity, or ultimately
his just vengeance.
Dem u Ice re Caput.
Patting and stroking the head, as we do of
dogs, and other animals, to put them in good
humour with us. Flattering with soft speeches.
" Praetermitto," St. Jerome says to his cor-
respondent, "salutationis officia, quibus meum
demulces caput," not to mention the kind
speeches and friendly reception I met with,
doubtless with the view of bribing my judg-
ment, and inducing me to favour your pro-
posal.
Catulce, Domlnas imitantes.
See the young whelps looking big, and at-
tempting to imitate their elders, was used to
be said of servants affecting the state and
grandeur of their masters. This is more par-
E 2 ticularly
<
ticularly seen in the conduct of the clerks in*
public offices, who often expect to be addressed
with more ceremony, and to have more atten-
tion paid to them than is required by their
superiors. " The insolence of office " is re-
corded by Shakespeare, as constituting no small
part of the miseries of this life.
Lingua bellare.
To war with the tongue, to spend the whole
of one's rage in coarse and rude language, in
threats which we havie neither the power, nor
inclination, perhaps, to carry into execution,
is the resort of weak and cowardly persons.
Much of this wordy war is practised at the
bar, particularly by those defending a bad
cause. " Qui aspidis venenum in lingua cir-
cumferunt," the poison of asps is under their
lips. Wounds made with the tongue are often
more hurtful than those made with the sword.
" La lengua del inal amigo, mas corta que el
cuchillo," the tongue of a false friend is sharper
than a knife, cuts deeper. " La lengua no ha
osso, e osso fa rompere," the tongue breaks
bones,
bones, though itself has none. " Mors et vita
in manibus linguae," it is often the arbiter of
life and death. An intemperate tongue is not
only injurious to others, but to its possessor,
it is therefore said, " Vincula da lingure vel tibi
vincula dabit," restrain your tongue, or it will
bring you into restraint. Hence there is no
precept more frequently or more strongly in-
culcated, than to set a guard over that mis-
chievous member. " He that keepeth his
mouth, keepeth his life, but he that openeth
wide his lips, shall have destruction," and
" the tongue of the wise is health." " En
boca cerrada no entra moscha," flies do not
enter into the mouth that is shut, or, no mis-
chief can ensue from being silent; and "an
ounce of honey will catch more flies than a
gallon of vinegar." William Paulet, Marquis
of Winchester, who filled high offices in th«
state, during the reigns of Henry the Eighth,
Edward the Sixth, and the Queens Mary and
Elizabeth, being asked by what means he had
preserved himself through so many changes,
said, " by being a willow, and not an oak."
f.3 Re-
( 58 )
Refutantis Laudem immodicam.
Checking immoderate commendation, or
praise. " Nullum ego sum nuinen, quid me
immortalibus eequas?" I am a mere human
being, with all the follies and failings incident
to them, why do ye then raise me to the rank
of the gods, may be said by any one, finding
himself treated with too much homage and
adulation.
Orel habet Galeam.
He has the helmet of Pluto, was used to be
said of persons, who by base and insidious
arts, incited others to acts of villany, without
themselves appearing to be concerned in them.
Those who wore the helmet of Pluto were said
to be invisible, but to see every thing about
them ; whence the adage. The ring of Gyges
was fabled to have a similar power of making
those who wore it invisible. Probably nothing
more is meant by these stories, than that rich
men have great privileges, few persons being
bold enough to scrutinize into their actions,
or
( 59 )
or to censure their errors. " Las necedades
del rico, por sentencias passan en el mundo,"
even the foolish sayings of the rich are es-
teemed as oracles.
Apil opus est.
There is need of parsley here, was used to be
said when any one was affected with a dis-
ease, for which there was no known remedy,
and which would soon extinguish his life; al-
luding to the custom of scattering parsley over
their graves, which was the ancient custom
among the Grecians. They were also used to
crown those who were conquerors in the Isth-
mian games, with this herb.
Prtestat habere acerbos inimicos, guam eos
Amlcos qui dulces videantur.
Better an open enemy, than a false and de-
ceitful friend, or than a friend who is too soft
and easy, and too readily assents to whatever
you propose, was frequently in the mouth of
Cato. An enemy, by being a spy upon our
actions, and by severely censuring our slightest
E 4 errors,
( 60 )
errors, may make us cautious, and even lead
us to reform any follies or vices we may have
accustomed ourselves to, or indulged ourselves
in. Philip of Macedon said the Athenian ora-
tors, who were incessant in their endeavours
to excite the Grecians against him, had by
the severity of their censures, conferred on
him a lasting obligation, for they had taught
him to look into and regulate his conduct in
such a manner, as would conduce materially
to the success of his enterprizes.
Sub Cultro liqult.
He is under the knife, in great danger or
extremity. Our phrase,, "he is under the
hatchet," is of similar import. The adage
was applied when any one who had fallen into
an ambush, into the sea, or into any other
peril, was left to wade through, or extricate
himself by his own strength or ingenuity.
The metaphor is taken from a victim standing
at the altar, ready to be sacrificed.
" fugit improbus et me sub cultro liquit,"
Instead
( 61 )
Instead of assisting, he fled, and left me to
struggle through my difficulties unaided. Oc-
casions offer too frequently of applying this
apothegm.
Date mihi Pelvim.
Bring me a bason, was used to be said, when
any one had so completely worn out the pa-
tience of his auditors, by the tediousness,
absurdity, or wickedness of his discourse, that
it could no longer be borne, and was meant
to express the utmost contempt for the relater.
" It made my gorge rise," or " I could have
spit in the fellow's face."
Quod alibi diminutum, exequatur alibi.
Though deficient in one quality, yet abun-
dantly endowed with others, equally valuable
and productive. He is indeed blind, but has
an exquisite ear to music. He is neither
strong, nor swift of foot, but is a good pen-
man and accountant. Of kin to it are,
" Non omnes possumus omnia," and
" Non omnis fert omnia tellus,"
No
( 6* )
No man should be expected to be intimately
acquainted with every art or science, nor any
land to produce every kind of fruit or grain*
When Philip of Macedon was contending
with the master of his choir, on some musical
subject, the musician, instead of answering
him, said, " God forbid that your majesty
.should be as well instructed in these matters,
as I am."
Usque ad Aras Amicus.
A friend even to the altar, that is, who will
do every thing that is not offensive to good
morals, or that will not oblige him to a breach
of his duty to God, to his family, or neigh-
bours. Such was the answer of Pericles to a
friend, who had required of him in a certain
cause to give a false testimony. He was not
unmindful of his obligation to his friend, but
he dared not violate his duty to the gods. It
•was the custom anciently for persons taking
an oath, to lay one of their hands on the altar,
whence the adage.
The following, from Beloe's translation of
Aulus
( 63 )
Aulus Gellius, places the character of Chilo,
the Lacedemonian, in so pleasing a light, that
I am induced to lay it before the reader. It
has also some reference to the adage before
us. When death was approaching, he thus
spake to his surrounding friends: "That there
is very little of all that I have said and done
in the course of a long life, which has given
me cause of repentance, ye may, perhaps, Avell
know. At this period, I certainly do not de-
lude myself when I say, that I have never
clone any thing, the remembrance of which
gives me uneasiness, one incident alone ex-
cepted. I was once a judge with two others,
on the life of a friend. The law was such as
to require his condemnation. Either, therefore,
a friend was to be lost by a capital punishment,
or the law was to be evaded. In this case, I
silently gave my own vote for his condemna-
tion, but I persuaded my fellow judges to
acquit him. Thus I neither violated the duty
of the friend, nor of the judge. But the fact
gives me this uneasiness; I fear that it was
both perfidious and criminal, to persuade others
to
to do that, which in my own judgment was
not right."
Athos celat Lett era Lemnice Bovis.
Athos covers with its shade the Lemnian
ox. The adage was used to be applied to any
one injuring the character, or obscuring the
fame of another. In the island of Lemnos,
there was formerly the statue of an Ox, of an
immense size. This, however, did not prevent
its being obscured by the shadow of Mount
Athos, which, though at a great distance, ex-
tended itself over a large portion of the island.
JExigit et a Statuis Farinas.
I warrant he will make something of it, he
would get meal even from a statue, nor is there
any thing so mean and worthless, but he will
reap some profit from it. But the adage was
more usually applied to princes, and governors,
exacting large tributes from poor, and almost
desolate places, or obliging the inhabitants of
their
( 65 )
their principal cities to pay such immense sums>
as to reduce the most wealthy and prosperous
of them, to beggary. Of both these, we have
now abundant instances in the conduct of
Buonaparte and his myrmidons. It was also
applied, Erasmus says, to covetous priests,
" apud quos ne sepulchrum quidem gratis con-
ceclitur," who extracted profit even from fune-
rals ; but these dues are now usually paid
readily enough, either out of respect to the
deceased, or from the consoling consideration
that it will be the last cost the survivor will
be put to on their account.
Quid ad Mercurium.
What has this to do with Mercury, was
said when any one through ignorance, or with
the view of distracting the attention of the
auditor, introduced any matter foreign to the
subject intended to be discussed. What has
this to do with the business before us. Mer-
cury seems to have been made use of, as he
was esteemed to be the god, or patron of
eloquence.
A puro
( 66 )
A puro pura defluit Aqua.
From a pure fountain, pure water may be
expected to issue, and from a just and up-
right man, none but kind and beneficent
actions.
Reperire Rimam.
He will find some chink, some aperture by
which he will escape, was said of crafty, subtle,
and cunning men, who, confine them ever so
carefully, would still find some method of get-
ting loose ; a Monkhausen. But the adage
is also applicable to persons who are ingenious
in finding a flaw in any engagement or agree-
ment, when it is no longer their interest to
abide by the terms of it ; to the lower mem-
bers of the law, who read a deed not so much
to find out what was the intention of the par-
ties, as to see whether it may not be made td
bear some other construction.
" To fiud out meanings never meant."
Or who, in penning a deed, contrive to insert
some word of doubtful, or equivocal sense,
that
( 67 )
that may vitiate some of the covenants, always
looking to the advantage of the craft.
Ungentem pungit, pungentem Rusticm
angit.
" Oignez vilain il vous poindra,
Poignez vilain il vous oindra."
If you treat a clown with mildness and ci-
vility he will fancy you are afraid of him, and
will return your kindness with rudeness or
insult ; but if preserving your dignity, you
treat him as your inferior or with some degree
of authority, he will crouch to and fawn upou
you :
" A base unthankful clownish brood,
Return ill offices for good,
But if you should them harshly treat,
Then spaniel-like they '11 lick your feet."
" El ruyn, mientras mas le ruegan, mas se
estiende," a low and base man, the more you
entreat him, the more insolent he becomes.
Cognatio movet Inmdiam.
Relationship excites envy. We rarely envy
the good fortune of those with whom we are
little
( 68 )
little acquainted ; it is those who are nearer
to us, in the same school, college, or regi*
ment; or with whom we are intimately related,
or associated in the same business, or who are
in the same rank in life with ourselves, whose
superior success disturbs us. For the success
of persons very much superior to us rarely
gives rise to this detestable and tormenting
passion, which undermines the health, and
when in excess occasions melancholy, and
even madness. " As a moth gnaws a gar-
ment," Saint Chrysostom says, " so doth envy
consume a man."
-" If she but tastes
The slenderest pittance of commended virtue.
She surfeits of it.''
In the same spirit Swift says,
" To all my foes, O Fortune send
Thy gifts, but never to a friend ;
I scarcely can endure the first,
But this with envy makes me burst."
Stultus semper- inclpit vivere.
The fool is always about to begin to live,
never
never determined or settled as to his course of
life ; like a weathercock, changing his plans
as often as the wind shifts, or taking the ad-
vice of every new acquaintance. It may be
useful to such men to hear what Martial says
on this procrastinating disposition as rendered
by Cowley :
" To-morrow you will live, you always cry ;
In what far country does this morrow lie,
That 'tis so mighty long e'er it arrive ?
Beyond the Indies does this morrow live ?
Tis so far fetched this morrow that I fear
'Twill be both very old and very dear.
To-morrow I will live, the fool doth say ;
To-day itself 's too late, the wise liv'd yesterday."
In C&lum jacularis.
Threatening those whom you cannot hurt,
but whose anger may be highly prejudicial to
yourself, is like hurling your dart against the
heavens, which it cannot reach, but it may
wound you in its return. " Chi piscia contra
il vento, si bagna la camiscia," and " Quien
al cielo escupe, en la cara le cae," who casts
VOL. ii. F his
( 70 )
his spittle against the heavens, will receive it
back on his face.
Ante hac putabam te habere Cormia.
I thought you had been furnished with
horns ; that is, by your blustering, I thought
you had the power, at the least, of defending
yourself; this was used to be said to persons
•who were found on experience to be miserably
defective in courage, or in any other quality
in which they were supposed to excel.
Ante Barbam doces Series.
Being young and inexperienced do you set
yourself up for a teacher ? this among the an-
cients would have been looked upon as a pre-
posterous attempt, and perhaps our manners
are not much mended by our departing from
their practice on this subject. " Odi pueru-
los prsecoci sapientia," I hate these forward
wits, or to see young men thrusting them-
selves into concerns that require rather
strength of heads than of hands. The most
early
( 71 )
early wits were supposed to be least lasting,
and never to attain to perfection ; " soon ripe
soon rotten," is a very old maxim. " Buey
viejo, sulco derecho," an old ox makes a
straight furrow ; and " diablo sabe mucho,
por que es viejo," the devil knows much, the
Spaniards say, because he is old*
Auro Loquente nlhil Collet qucevis Ratio.
Against money or a bribe, reason or elo-
quence are of little avail, an apothegm no
where more known or acknowledged than in
this country, where, according to a saying
imputed to Sir Robert Walpole, every man
has its price. " L' argento 6 un buon passe-
porto," money is a good passport, and " Quien
dinero tiene, haze lo que quiere," he who has
money has friends, fame, and whatever he
pleases : we are not therefore single in the
homage we pay to it, and " money," we say,
" is welcome every where." Ovid also long
since, addressing himself to it, said
" Quid non mortalia pectora cogis,
Auri sacra fames."
F 2 What
C 72 )
What atrocities will not the cursed thirst after
gold impel men to commit !
Durum et durum nonfaciunt Murum.
Two hard bodies will not coalesce to make
a rampart or wall ; there must be a soft sub-
stance placed between, to cement them. Two
proud, haughty, intemperate men will never
agree together, without the intervention of
a mild, quiet, rational, and peaceable dispo-
sition, to soften asperities and bring them into
contact.
Sublatd Lucernd, nihil interest inter
Mulieres.
"Joan is as good as my lady in the dark,"
and " De noche todos los gatos son pardos,"
in the dark all cats are grey. The following,
which is familiar to all my readers, says all
that is necessary on this subject :
" Whilst in the dark on thy soft hand I hung,
And heard the tempting syren in thy tongue j
What flames, what darts, what anguish I endured :
But when the candle entered. I was cured."
J\ fuller
Muller turn bene olet, ubi nihil okt.
A woman then smells most sweet, when she
has no scent ; which may be best illustrated
by the following lines from Ben Jonson :
" Still to be neat, still to be drest,
As you were going to a feast ;
Still to be powdered, still perfum'd,
Lady, it is to be presumed,
Though art's hid causes are not found,
All is not sweet, all is not sound," fyc. fyc.
The French proverb lays a further embargo
on the ladies; " la femme de bien n'a ni
yeux, ni oreilles," discreet women have nei-
ther eyes nor ears ; and the Spaniards would
takeaway their feet also, "la muger en casa, y
la pierna quebrada," the wife at home, and her
leg broken; so averse are they to their gadding
abroad : and in another of their sayings, they
only allow a female to go out three times, "En
la vida, la muger tres salidas ha de hazer," viz.
to be christened, to be married, and to be bu-
ried ; also on giving a girl, who loved going
abroad, to be married, " algodon cogio, qual
la halleres, tal te la doy," she has been gather-
F 3 ing
ing cotton, (been gadding,) you must take her
as you find her. What privileges the women
get by being married, may be learned by the
following, " Madre, que cosa es casar ? Hija,
hilar, parir, y llorar," mother, the daughter
says, what is it to be married ? it is, my child,
to spin, to bear children, and to weep.
" When the mother of the king of Spain was
on her road towards Madrid, she passed
through a little town famous for its manufac-
tory of gloves and stockings ; the magistrates
of the place thought they could not better
express their joy for the reception of their new
queen, than by presenting her with a sample
of those commodities for which their town
was remarkable. The major-domo who con-
ducted the princess, received the gloves very
graciously ; but when the stockings were pre-
sented, he flung them away with great indig-
nation, and severely reprimanded the magis-
trates for this egregious piece of indecency ;
Know, says he, that a Queen of Spain has no
legs. The poor young queen, who, at that
time, understood the language but imperfect-
ly, and had often been frightened by stories
of
( 75 )
of Spanisli jealousy, imagined that they were
to cut off her legs, upon which she fell a cry-
ing and begged them to send her back to
Germany, for that she never could endure the
operation ; and it was with some difficulty
they could appease her. Philip IV is said
never in his life to have laughed heartily, but
at the recital of this story.
Occasiofacit Furem.
" L' occasione fa il ladrone," and " Tocca-
sion fait le larron," " opportunity makes the
thief," we should therefore leave it as little as
possible in the power of those who are about
us, to rob us, that is, we should keep a watch-
ful eye over them ; " a quick landlord makes
a careful tenant," and an exact and severe
master, industrious and honest servants. " En
casa abierta el justo pecca," an open door, or
an open chest, may tempt even a good man to
do a dishonorable action ; " if we place butter
hy the fire it will melt," was the observation
of a Hindoo, who was asked his opinion of an
English country-dance, of which he had been
F 4 a spec^
( 76 )
a spectator ; not conceiving, as it should
seem, that ladies who suffered themselves to be
handled so freely, would resist further liber-
ties if they should be offered.
Procul a Jove, procul a Fulmine.
Far from Jove, far from the thunderbolt.
The countries at the greatest distance from the
court or capital of a kingdom, being out of
view, often escape much of the oppression,
which those nearer at hand are obliged to sub-
mit to.
Priusquam Theognis nasceretur.
Before Theognis was born, was used to be
said of any transaction that occurred so early
that its origin could not easily be traced.
Cicero, in discussing the question how far or
to what degree a man would be justified in
violating the laws of his country, in defend-
ing the life or reputation of his friend, says,
" we must not take up arms against our country
to
( 77 )
to serve our friend," " and who did not know
this," Lucilius observed, " before Theognis
was born," which thence came to be used as
a proverb. Theognis was an early poet of
Megara, whose moral sentences have been
quoted by some of the most considerable of
the Greek writers.
Lingua Amicus.
A friend in words ; any one who by his
conversation seems desirous of being esteemed
a friend, but whose kindness extends no fur-
ther ; who is free in promising, but very back-
ward in performing any friendly office, is the
kind of person intended to be censured by this
adage. " Pollicitis dives, quilibet esse potest,"
any man may be liberal in promises, they cost
nothing. " II se ruine a promettre, et s'acquitte
& ne rien tenir," he ruins himself by promising,
but saves himself by not performing, for "pro-
mettre et tenir sont deux," there is a great
difference between saying and doing, which is
also a Spanish axiom, " Del dicho al hecho,
ay gran trecho.'' " II nous a promis monts
et
( 78 )
ct merveilles," he promises mountains; "more
in a month," we say, " than he will perform in
a year."
Lingua non redarguta.
A tongue not to be silenced. " Qui ratio-
nibusconvicti, non cedunt tamen," who though
convicted, overcome by argument, still refuse
to yield. " Nunquam persuadebis, quamvis
persuaseris," although you have convicted me,
you shall not convince me. Determined, ob-
stinate incredulity.
Serpens ni edat Serpentem, Draco nonftt.
A serpent, unless he feeds on serpents, does
not become a dragon. It need hardly be
mentioned, that the dragon was fabled by the
ancients, as a ferocious and destructive beast,
and as the head of that class of animals. The
adage intimates that kings only become great
potentates by destroying neighbouring princes,
invading and conquering their territories, as
the vast strength of lions, tigers, and other
beasts
( 79 )
beasts of prey, is supported by the destruction
of animals of less bulk and power, and as men
rarely acquire enormous fortunes, but by in-
juring and oppressing other.
Qui vitat Molam, vitat Farinam.
" No mill, no meal," or, if the noise of the
mill offends you, you can have no meal. " Who
will not work, must not expect to eat," " Who
would have eggs, must bear the cackling of
the hen." If the ground be not tilled, it will
produce no grain, or the corn will be choked
with weeds. " Lutum nisi tundatur, non fit
urceus," unless the clay be well pounded and
wrought, it cannot be formed into vessels.
Nothing valuable is to be produced without
industry, "et quid tandem non efficiunt ma-
nus," and to labour and ingenuity, scarcely
any thing is impossible.
• "Thou would'st be great," Lady Macbeth says
to her husband,
" Art not without ambition ; but without
The illness should attend it: what thou would'st highly,
That would'st thou holily ; would'st not play false,
And yet would'st wrongly win."
This
( 80 )
This, though addressed, and suited particu-
larly to Macbeth, is applicable in its principle
to mankind in general. We all of us wish for,
and would abound in the conveniences of life,
but all have not that energy of mind, which is
necessary to set them at work to obtain them.
Hence we find in all barbarous, and semi ci-
vilised countries, the inhabitants are prone to
thieving, as a more compendious way of getting
what they desire, than by their labour. Cap-
tain Cook, lost his life by attempting to make
the people of the Sandwich islands esteem, and
punish robbery, as a crime ; and we see with
what difficulty the propensity is restrained in
this, and other countries of Europe, where we
are taught from our infancy, and it is made
a part of our religion, to refrain from stealing,
and where it is prohibited under the severest
penalties, in some cases, even to forfeiture of
life ; yet many daily hazard that punishment,
rather than exert themselves to procure what
they want by industry : so true it is, that
" Idleness is the root of all evil," as it is also,
that " Lazy folks take the most pains," the
robber procuring his booty with much greater
cliffi-
( 81 )
difficulty and hazard, than it costs the indus-
trious man to obtain what is of equal, or supe-
rior value. In India, we are told, there are
whole tribes, or communities of robbers, the
individuals of which do not shrink from the
imputation. The Mahrattas are a nation of
robbers, and on what other principle are car-
ried on nearly all the wars of Europe ?
Optimum Obsonium para Senectuti.
Make ample provision for old age. " Chi
in prima non pensa, in ultimo sospira," who
does not think before, sighs after, therefore,
" Make hay while the sun shines." " Lay up
against a rainy day," and " Take care to fea-
ther your nest while young," for "Non semper
crit asstas," it will not be always summer ;
and it is as disgraceful for young persons to
neglect the means of improving their fortunes,
as it is for the aged to be over solicitous about
increasing theirs. Diogenes being asked what
he considered as the most wretched state of
man, answered " an indigent old age." This
seems to have been said with too little con-
sideration. Poverty is generally and not un-
deservedly
( 82 )
deservedly esteemed an evil, and the averting
it affords the most powerful incentive to ac-
tion, but the pressure of it must be much less
felt in age, than in the vigour of life. Among
the ancients, indeed, age was itself esteemed
an evil, as it incapacitates from making those
excursions, and following those pleasures which
contribute so much to the felicity of the early
part of our lives. But if with the capacity for
enjoying, we lose the propensity or desire for
having them, it should rather be considered as
a blessing. By losing them we attain a state
of calm and quiet, rarely experienced by the
young, neither would it indeed be suitable to
them, the passions and desires being the gales
which put them in motion, and lead them
to signalize themselves. Without them they
would become torpid, and would do nothing
useful to themselves, nor to the public. Action
therefore is the element of the young, as quiet
and retirement is of the aged. If life has been
passed innocently, and the aged have not to
reproach themselves with having deserted their
duty, or with the commission of any crime for
which they ought to blush, the reflection on
their
their past conduct, and on such acts of bene-
ficence and kindness they may have performed,
or of any thing done by which the community
may eventually be benefited, will abundantly
compensate for what time has taken from them.
The aged will also have learned among other
things, if it should happen to be their lot, to
bear poverty with composure. If little should
now remain to them, their wants will also be
equally few. The plainest and simplest diet,
clothes, and apartments, may very well serve
them, and are, perhaps, the best suited to their
state. The old man, therefore, if his poverty
is not the effect of vice, or folly, will soon
accommodate himself to his situation. But if
he has been himself the author of his degrada-
tion, he will regret and pine, not so much at the
loss of that affluence which he no longer wants,
as at the vices or follies which occasioned the
loss of them. Old and infirm people should
continue to exert themselves in all matters
regarding their persons, as much, and as long
as they can, and they generally may do this,
nearly to the period of the extinction of their
lives, if they early and resolutely resist that
languor,
( 84 )
languor, which feebleness is apt to induce.
While they shew this species of independance,
they will retain the respect of those who are
about them. A total imbecility and incapacity
to perform the common offices of life, is the
most miserable state to which human nature
can be reduced.
llli Mors gratis incubat, qui notus nimis
omnibus, ignotus moritur sibi.
Death falls heavy upon him who, known to
others, is only unknown to himself. Though
self-love is an inherent principle in human
nature, yet how few are there that are solicit-
ous to become acquainted with themselves, or
who can bear to be alone ! Not but that the
student will, with great satisfaction, pass many
hours every day in his study, the merchant in
his closet ; but M'hen their respective labours
are finished, each of them have recourse to
company to amuse and divert their thoughts.
Though ^without living associates before, they
were still in company, but their books being
*lmt, they then find themselves alone; and if
they
( 85 }
they were not to change the scene, they might
be induced to look into themselves, to inquire
Jmto the state of their mind,
" That task which as we follow or despise,
The oldest is a fool, the youngest wise;
Which done, the poorest can no wants endure,
And which not done, the richest must be poor."
In this task, there are few who are inclined to
engage. This does not seem to arise from the
difficulty of the undertaking, but from an
unwillingness to enter on the study, lest it
should lead to self-condemnation, and they
should find it necessary to give up some fa-
vourite pursuit, or practice, which interest, or
pleasure, had made too agreeable to be parted
with. But those who are so averse to this in-
quiry should consider, "that as the tree falls,
so it lies.*' Cowley has well described the
exit of such an one in the following lines.
" To him alas, to him I fear,
The face of death will terrible appear,
Who in his life, flattering his senseless pride,
By being known to all the world beside,
Does Hot himself when he is dying know,
Nor what he is, nor whither he's to go."
t
VOL. n. e Though
o
( 86 )
Though this article is already far extended,
the reader will not be displeased at seeing a
passage from the golden verses of Pythagoras,
on the utility of self-examination, which is
enforced with peculiar energy. The verses,
which well deserve the name of " golden," are
supposed to contain the principal points of
morality, taught by the great philosopher
whose name they bear, and to have been
delivered down to posterity by one of his
disciples.
" Let not the stealing god of sleep surprise,
Nor creep in slumbers on the weary eyes,
Ere ev'ry action of the former day,
Strictly thou dost and righteously survey.
With reverence at thy own tribunal stand,,
And answer justly to thy own demand.
Where have 1 been? in what have I transgress'd?
What good or ill has this day's life express'd ?
Where have I failed in what J ought to do ?
Tn what to God, to man, or to myself I owe?
Inquire severe whate'er from first to last,
From morning's dawn till evening's gloom is past,.
If evil were thy deeds, repenting mourn,
And let thy soul with strong remorse- be torn.
If good, the good with peace of mind repay,
And to thy secret self with pleasure say,
Rejoice, my heart, for all went well to-day.
These.
( 87 )
These thoughts, and chiefly these, thy mind should move';
Employ thy study, and engage thy love.
These are the rules that will to virtue lead,
And teach thy feet her heavenly paths to tread."
Malum Consilium Consult ori pessimum.
Evil counsel is most pernicious to the giver
of it. The adage is applicable to persons \vho
find the mischief they intended for others,
fall upon themselves. " He hath graven and
digged a pit, and hath fallen into the midst
of it himself." Advice is of a sacred nature,
and should he given faithfully, and those who
prostitute it to evil purposes, are deserving of
the severest punishment. The following story
is related as having given rise to this apo-
thegm. The statue of Horatius Codes, who
had defended the passage of a bridge singly
against the whole Etrurian army, being struck
with lightning, the augurs were consulted as
to the expiation proper to be made to the
offended deities, for to that cause the Romans
attributed these and similar accidents; and
they advised, among other things, that the
e 2 statue
( 88 )
statue should be placed in a lower situation ;
meaning, perhaps, where it would be less liable
to a similar injury. But the advice being sup-
posed to be given through treachery, they
were accused, convicted, and put to death.
This was so agreeable to the superstitious
people, that for a long time after they sang
the verse which forms this adage, in triumph,
about the streets. The augurs are said to
have acknowledged their guilt, as many poor
old women, accused of witchcraft, have done
in this country. The story is more circum-
stantially related by Aulus Gellius. See Beloe's
translation of that entertaining work. Though
augury was held in high estimation by the
Greeks and Romans, scarcely any great action
being undertaken among them without having
recourse to it; and the common people in both
countries, as well as many eminent for their
rank, and for their literary attainments, placed
an entire confidence in it, yet there were not
wanting, at all times, persons who held it in
contempt. Cato, the censor, Cicero tells us,
expressed his astonishment, that the auspices
could keep their countenance when two of
them
( 89 )
them met. " Mirari se aiebat, quod non rideret
haruspex haruspicem cum videret." And
Homer makes Hector say to Polydamus, ad-
vising him not to attack the Grecian camp,
on account of some sinister omen.
" Ye vagrants of the sky ! your wings extend,
Or where the suns arise, or where descend ;
To right, to left, unheeded take your way"
" Without a sign, his sword the brave man draws,
And asks no omen but his country's cause.
When Cassius was advised by the augurs not
to fight with the Parthians until the moon
had passed the scorpion, he said, " he was not
afraid of the scorpion, but of the arrows of
the enemy." But some of the augurs were,
doubtless, dupes to their qwn art, and as cre-
dulous, and as foolish, as any modern old
witch.
Corycceus auscultate it.
A Corycsean has been listening. This was
said when any one found that a transaction to
which he thought no one was privy, had been
discovered. The Corycaeans, a band of rob-
G 3 bers
bers inhabiting a mountain of that name, con*
trived, in order that they might know where
to levy contributions with certainty, to mix
among the merchants and traders, and by lis-
tening to their discourse, learned what sort of
goods each of them carried with them, where
the}' were going, and at what time they meant
to set out on their journey ; when taking with
them as many associates as they thought ne-
qessary, they met, and robbed them.
Ammo cegrotanti Medicus est Oratio.
Kind words are a medicine to an afflicted
spirit. " A soft answer turneth away wrath."
" Cortesia de boca mucho valer, y poco costa,"
civility costs little, but has considerable influ-
ence in appeasing restless and unquiet minds.
"An ounce of honey," we say, "will catch
more flics than a gallon of vinegar."
" Sunt verba et voces quibus hunc lenire dolorem
Possis, et magnam morbi depellere partera."
" Know there are words, which fresh and fresh applied,
Will cure the arrantest puppy of his pride."
Pride, and other evil affections of the mind,
were
( 91 )
were by the Stoics considered as diseases, for
which there were no better remedies, than good
and sensible discourses.
Contra Torrente.m niti.
" Striving against the stream," which those
may be said to do who attempt to convince
obstinately perverse persons of the impropriety
of any thing they have once resolved to defend,
or of undertaking any project they have de-
termined to accomplish.
Radit usque ad Cittern.
He shaves close, " ad vivum resecat," " he
cuts to the quick." The phrase is applied to
persons too exact in taking what is their due.
"The avaricious man," as described by Theo-
phrastus, " though his tenants pay him their
rent duly every month, will teaze them for an
odd farthing that remained at their last
reckoning^ and is perpetually inculcating to
his wife never to lend any thing ; for an end
ef a candle, or an handful of suit or of oat-
» 4 meal
meal will amount to money at the year's end.
He makes the barber shave him to the quick,
that it may be the longer before he wants him
again." Shylock would abate nothing of the
penalty of his bond, though it should cost the
debtor his life, but says to those soliciting his
forbearance,
" My deeds upon my head : I crave the law,
The penalty and forfeiture of ray bond."
A late chief magistrate of London, on being
told by one of his workmen, an old and faith"
ful servant, what pleasure he had received in
seeing his master in his state coach, though
pleased with the homage the poor man had
paid him, yet nature so far prevailed, that he
mulcted him a quarter of a day for time lost
in going to see the procession.
Saxum volutum non obducitur Musco.
" Pietra che rotula non piglia muffa," and
" piedra movediza no la cubre moho," that is,
" a rolling stone is ever bare of moss," is used
to be said to persons who are frequently
changing
( 93 )
changing their situation or employment; such
persons being more likely to dissipate and
waste, than to improve and increase their
property. To the same purport is, " Planta
qu£e sjepe transfertur non coalescit," the tree
that is often moved does not thrive.
Anus Hircum olet.
" How like a goat she smells," said of libi-
dinous old women. The phrase, therefore,
taken originally from the Greeks, is neither
modern nor peculiar to this country; though
no where used, it may be presumed, but among
the common people.
JJctbet et Musca Splenam, and
Inest et Formica sua Bills.
" Even a fly has its sting," and " a worm if
trodden upon will turn," and make an» effort
to avenge the injury : we should therefore not
despise an enemy however weak and insignifi-
cant, or wantonly offend any one ; there be-
ing
ing few persons but who may, at some time,
have it in their power to do us an injury, or
who may not in some way be useful to us.
Socrates determined him to be the wisest man,
who gave the least offence.
Camelus desiderans Cornua etiam Aures
perdidit.
The camel, discontented at not having
horns, lost its ears likewise. The adage
teaches that we should be thankful for those
faculties and powers with which it has pleased
Providence to endow us, and not to ask for
properties inconsistent with our state, and
which would be rather injurious to us than
beneficial, as horns would be to the camel,
whose strength does not lie in his neck. The
fable seems to have taken its rise from the
camel's having shorter ears than most animals
of its size, and to its not being or reputed not
to be quick of hearing. Hence the ancients
feigned, that Jupiter, offended at their asking
for horns, had deprived them of their ears
also.
rc
Casnare me doce.
Teach me how to eat, give. me. information
on subjects with which you are acquainted,
and I shall readily listen to you, hut do not
pretend to instruct me in matters of which
you have no knowlege, was said by Bacchus
to Hercules, who was laying down rules for
the construction of tragedies and other poems:
Hercules being as famed for the voracious-
ness of his appetite, as for his great bodily
strength.
Ad pcenitendum properat cito qui judicat.
Who determines precipitately hastens to
repentance ; which cannot be better illus-
trated than by the following, from N. Howe's
translation of the golden verses of Pythago-
ras :
" Let wary thought each enterprise forerun,
And ponder on thy task before begun,
Lest folly should the wretched work deface
And mock thy fruitless labours with disgrace.
Fools huddle on and always are in haste,
Act without thought, and thoughtless words they waste.
But
( 96 )
But thou, in all thou dost, with early cares
Strive to prevent, at first, a fate like theirs ;
That sorrow in the end may never wait,
Nor sharp repentance make thee wise too late/*
In Re mala, Animo si bono utare, adjwoat.
It is good to keep up our spirits under mis-
fortunes and to use our endeavours to miti-
gate or remove them, or if that cannot be
done to bear them with patience, which will
of itself, in time, make them more tolerable
and easy; as is expressed in the following,
" Fortitur ferendo vincitur malum quod evi-
tare non potest," and by the English adage,
V what can't be cured, must be endured," or
" of a bad bargain we should make the best,"
" Of all those sorrows that attend mankind,
With patience bear the lot to thee assign'd ;
Nor think it chance, nor murmur at the load ;
For know, what man calls fortune, is from God."
Inimicus et invidus Vicinorum Oculus.
An enemy and an envious person is an
eye
( 97 }
eye over his neighbour, watching narrowly
into his conduct ; but if known to be so, he
may be highly useful to him by putting him
on his guard : knowing he is watched by one
who is disposed to put the worst construction
upon his actions, he will be so cautious, as to
give him as little opportunity as possible of
doing him an injury : he, therefore, may be
said also to afford an additional eye to his
neighbour ; which is the more direct meaning
of the adage.
Lucrum malurn (Equate Dlspendio.
Gain gotten by unfair means is no better
than a loss; "what is ill gotten rarely
thrives." Those who are in too much haste
to acquire riches, generally commit some error
in the process which defeats their purpose;
or, if they obtain what they sought for, they
have rarely the discretion to use it properly.
" Hasty climbers have sudden falls." The
wealth that is ill-gotten becomes a canker, and
corrodes and destroys what it is put in contact
with. " Una pecora rognosa, ne guasta cen-
to,"
( 98 )
to," " one bad sheep spoils the flock. " The
too eager pursuit of any thing, Feltham says,
"hinders the enjoyment; for it makes men
take indirect ways, which though they pros-
per sometimes, are hlessed never. Wealth
snatched up by unjust and injurious ways,
like a rotten sheep, will infect thy healthful
flock."
Scindere Glctcicm.
" Romper il giaccio," " to break the ice ;"'
any one beginning a discourse or business
which had been long expected, or commenc-
ing a conversation when a company has for
some time sat silent, is said to have broken the
ice.
In Flammam ne. Manum injicito.
Do not thrust your hand into the fire. Whv
V •/
should you embroil yourself in a contention
in which you have no concern ? why put
yourself into hot water; know you not, that
" Those who in quarrels interpose
Must often wipe a bloody nose?"
" DC
( 99 )
*' De los faydos guarte, no seras testigo ni
parte," keep clear from broils, either as witness
or party.
Testudineus Gradus.
A snail's pace, he moves slower than a snail,
or is fit to drive snails, are phrases applied to
persons who are extremely sluggish. " Vi-
cistis cochleam tarditate."
Sine Pennis volire haud facile est.
11 Non si puo volar senza ale," " he would
fain fly, hut he wants wings," is said of per-
sons attempting to do what is much beyond
their power or capacity ; who speak authori-
tatively, without having a right to command
or po\ver to enforce obedience. It may also
be said of any one in excuse for not having
done what was expected of him, but which
he had not the necessary means for accom-
plishing. "II ne faut pas voler avant que
d 'avoir des ailes."
Muria
Murls in Morem.
Living like the mouse, upon the property
of others. Plautus makes his parasite say,
"Quasi mures, semper edimus alienum cibum,"
like the mouse, we always feed upon what
others have provided. '
Obtrudere Palpum.
To deceive with soft speeches. " You must
not think," the sycophant says in Plautus,
" to cajole me with honied words, who am
used to deceive others with them." The word
palpum means a gentle stroke or patting with
the hand, which we use to horses and other
animals to put them into good humour.
Tanquam Suber.
He is like a cork, nothing will depress or
sink him, was used to be said of persons \vho
had passed through great trials, or escaped
from imminent danger without mischief. Of
such
( 101 )
such men we say, u like a cat he has nine
lives," or " throw him as you will he will be
sure to alight upon his feet," " give a man
luck and throw him into the sea."
In Saltu uno duos Apros capere.
" Matar dos paxeros con una piedra,"
" killing two birds with one stone;" I have for-
tunately met with more persons, whom I wish-
ed to see, or done more business in this excur-
sion, than I expected.
Duos insequens Lepores neutrum capit.
By greedily attempting to take two hares
together, they both of them escaped ; like the
dog who, catching at a second piece of meat
which he saw by reflection in the water, lost
that which he had in his mouth. " Quien
mucho abarca poco aprieta," " grasp all, lose
all."
VOL. it. H
( 102 )
Tua Res agitur Paries quum proximus ardet.
When your neighbour's house is on fire, it
is time to look to your own. When you hear
your neighbour traduced, and his character
blackened, you will defend him even from a
regard to yourself, as you may expect the
same liberty to be taken with yours, when you
shall be absent. Turn the mischances of others
to your own benefit ; that is, learn from the
failure and misfortunes of others, to attend to
your own concerns, that you may not suffer
the same disgrace.
Articular um Deliramen ta.
The dreams, or ravings of old women. "Old
wives tales." By such titles, idle and ridicu-
lous stories were used anciently, and still con-
tinue to be called.
Citius quam Asparagi coquuntur.
Quicker than boiling asparagus, was fre-
quently in the mouth of the Emperor Augustus,
when
( 103 )
when he wished any business to be executed
speedily, the asparagus requiring to be boiled
only a few minutes ; or " Aphya ad ignem," a
kind of salted fish, which in dressing it, re-
quired only to be shewn the fire.
BoniPastoris est fonder e Pecus, non deglubere.
The good shepherd shears, but does not flay
his sheep. The good master only exacts such
a portion of labour from his servants, as they
may perform without injuring themselves.
Tiberius Caesar used this proverb, of which
he is reputed to be the author, to restrain the
rapacity of his courtiers, advising him to levy
further imposts upon one of the provinces,
which had been previously largely taxed.
Alexander the Great, on a similar occasion, is
said to have given the following : " Olitorem
odi qui radicitus herbas excidat," he is a bad
gardener, who, instead of cropping, tears the
plants- up by the roots. The woman who
killed the hen, that brought her a golden egg
every day, in the hope of becoming more
H 3 speedily
( 104 )
speedily rich, falls under the censure of this
adage.
Lucri bonus est Odor ex Re qualibet.
The odour of gain is sweet, from whatever
source it may he produced. To the miser,
whatever is profitable, and to the voluptu-
ous, whatever contributes to their pleasure, is
deemed to be good, however impure the source
of it may happen to be. Vespasian, who, but
for his inordinate love of money, was one of
the best of the Roman emperors, made use of
this apothegm, in answer to his son, who had
reproved him for laying a tax on certain vessels
set in the streets, for the reception of urine, for
the use of the dyers.* Taking a piece of money
* That the vessels were placed for the benefit of the
dyers, seems proved by the following, taken from a note to
p. 1?5, of the second volume of Rabelais.
Parisiis quando purpura praparatur, tune artifices in-
vitant Germanicos militcs, et studiosos, qui libenter bibunt,
et eis pnebent largiter optimum vinum, ea conditione, ut
postea urinam reddant in illam lanam. Sic enim audivi &
studioso Parisiensi. Joan. Manlii Libellus Medicus.
from
( 105 )
from his pocket, which he had received from
that impost, and applying it to the nostrils of
his son, he demanded, " Ecquid ea pecunia
puteret," whether he perceived any ill savour
in it ? The same, however, might be asked of
money obtained by robbery, murder, or any
other unjustifiable means, and unfortunately
we too easily excuse ourselves.
" O cives, cives, quaerenda pecunia primum,
Virtus post nummos."
O citizens, let money be your first care.
" Unde habeas curat nemo; sed oportet ha-
bere," no one will inquire how you get your
wealth, but if you would be respected, you
must have it.
Bceta turn Hyeme, turn ^Estate bona.
The baeta is said to have been a kind of
garment, made of skins, long, and sufficiently
large to invest the whole body, equally cal-
culated therefore to guard against the cold in
winter, and the scorching rays of the sun in
summer. The adage was applied by the an-
H 3 cients
( 106 )
cients to any objects that might be made to
answer a variety of useful purposes : to lite-
rature, which is both useful and ornamental
to every age and station in life, and to philo-
sophy, which may enable us to bear prosperity
•without insolence, and adversity without de-
basement.
Salem lingere.
Making a poor and slender meal ; some
simple pulse made savoury with salt, being
the usual diet of the poor, and such as many
of the ancient philosophers were contented
with. Diogenes being invited to dine with a
wealthy nobleman, refused his offer, being
more pleased to lick salt at Athens, he said ;
that is, to make a frugal repast there, than to
feed on the richest dainties. " Leaving the
nobles, clad in purple, and their splendid
tables," Seneca says, " I partake of the frugal
board of Demetrius. When I hear this excel-
lent man discoursing from his couch of straw,
I perceive in him, not a preceptor only, but a
witness of the truth ; and I cannot doubt that
Pro-
( 107 )
Providence has endowed him with such virtues
and talents, that he might be an example, and
a monitor of the present age. " Demetrius
was banished from Rome, on account of the
freedom he used in reproving the vices of the
great.
Velut Umbra sequi.
Following any one as his shadow, as para-
sites do silly young men of fortune, being
constantly seen with them, until they have
disburdened them of their substance, and
then the shadow vanishes of course : or, as
envy does men of talents.
" Envy will merit as its shade pursue,
And like that serves to prove the substance true."
Quid Cceco cum Speculo.
What has a blind man to do with a looking-
glass, an illiterate man with books, or one
who knows not how rightly to use them, with
riches ?
H 4 Mor-
( 108 )
Mordere Labrum.
Biting the lips, was formerly, and is now,
noted as a sign of vexation or anger. "Co-
meclens labra prse iracundia," biting his lips
through rage.
Priusquam Gallus iterum cecmerit.
Before the second crowing of the cock.
Before the invention of dials, hour-glasses,
and clocks, the crowing of the cock was much
attended to, as announcing the dawn, at which
time servants were expected to rise and begin
their labours.
Magis gaudet quam qui Senectam exult.
Was said of any one shewing his joy by
uncommon expressions of hilarity. Literally,
he rejoices more than an old man, restored to
youth ; or, than a cripple, who has recovered
his health and the use of his limbs. It seems
ta have taken its origin, from observing, that
serpents,
( 109 )
serpents, after changing their skins, from be*
ing dull and torpid, become extremely active
and lively.
Imi Subsellii Viri. •
A term of reproach, or contempt. Men of
the lowest form or seat, where parasites, buf-
foons, and persons of inferior condition were
placed at the tables of the great, where they
Avere sometimes admitted, but so placed, and
treated, as to make them sensible, in how little
estimation they were held. Juvenal is very
severe, both on those inflicting, and those
submitting, to such indignities. The phrase
was also used to denote persons filling inferior
situations in public offices, or of little estima-
tion in literature.
Canes timidi vehement ius latrant.
" Barking dogs rarely bite," and " Brag is a
good dog, but hold-fast is a better." Cowards
are fond of noise and blustering, under which
they hope to hide their baseness ; but men of
couragre,
( no )
courage, having nothing that they wish to
conceal, are sedate and quiet, as the deepest
waters flow with the least noise. Churchill
has well depicted cowardice in the following
lines. ^
• " Caution before
With heedful steps the lanthorn bore,
Pointing at graves, while in the rear,
Trembling and talking loud went Fear."
Ultra Vires nihil aggrediendum.
We should be cautious of attempting what
we have not ability to accomplish. " A little
wariness, prevents great weariness." The adage
was used by Paris to Hector, advising him.
against a personal conflict with Achilles, and
it had been well if he had attended to the
admonition, as he lost his life in the contest.
It is not, however, on all occasions to be fol-
lowed, as without trial it is not always easy to
know how far our ability or power extends ;
and where a great object is proposed, it is not
to be neglected from an apprehension, inspired,
perhaps, by timidity of its failing. " In mag-
nis,
( "1 )
nis, et voluisse sat est," it is honourable even
to have attempted a great and noble act ; that
is, if the attempt has been persevered in with
becomingspirit,and the failure, if it should not
succeed, has not been owing to negligence.
We may oppose to this adage, "Nothing ven-
ture, nothing have."
Sua Munera mittit cum Hamo.
His gifts are armed with hooks, with which
he means to catch something of equal, or su-
perior value, as those do who make presents
to persons much their superiors in rank and
fortune. " C'est mettre un petit poisson, pour
en avoir un gros," it is baiting your hook with
a small fish, to catch a large one. The adage
may also be applied to persons who make a
parade of being very communicative, but are
only so to induce those they converse with,
to open their minds on subjects they wish to
be acquainted with, but which should not be
divulged to them.
" Timeo Danaos et dona ferentes,"
Laocoon said to his countrymen, finding them
too
( 112 )
too readily listening to a pretended deserter
from the camp of their enemy ; I am afraid
of the Grecians and will have none of their
gifts. Presents from persons whom we have
no reason to believe to be our friends, should
be received with great caution.
Timidus Plutus.
As fearful as Plutus, the reputed god of
riches. The poor having nothing to lose, have
no dread of thieves, and accustomed to feed
on coarse diet, they find little difficulty in
getting what is necessary for their support.
**' In utramque dormiant aurem, " they can
sleep on either ear, in any posture, or on the
hardest couch. The rich, on the contrary, are
full of care, trouble, and anxiety. " Non so-
lum cruciantur libidine augendi ea quae habent,
sed etiam timore amittendi ea," they are not
only tormented with an incessant desire of in-
creasing their wealth, but with the fear of
losing that which they possess. They believe
that all with whom they have any commerce,
are
( 113 )
are contriving to rob, or cheat them. They
are afraid of their friends, lest they should
want to borrow of them ; they think their
servants are false, and that their wives and
children are combining to deceive, and cozen
them. Their fears increasing with their years,
at length, though abounding with riches, they
are distressed with apprehensions of impending
poverty, imagining they shall become beggars^
or die in a workhouse. To avert this evil, they
deny themselves necessary sustenance. " la
Tiunc scopulum cadaverosi senes ut plurimum
impingunt," on this rock cadaverous old men,
men on the verge of the grave, are for the
most part wrecked, and indeed it is not until
they arrive at that period, when their wants
might be supplied by the smallest income, that
their fears make them imagine that their im-
mense possessions will be exhausted, before
their glass shall be completely run out, and
they perish miserably by the very means that,
properly used, would have preserved them in
health and spirits.
Mails Mala succedunt.
A succession of misfortunes, one following
another, as happens to some ill-starred per-
sons, who have no sooner learned to bear one
trouble, but another falls upon them. Hence
it has been said,
" Fortuna obesse nulli contenta est semel."
" Misfortune seldom comes single." The Spa-
niards therefore say, " Ben vengas si vengas
solo," you are welcome if you come alone.
Eodem Coltyrio mederi omnibus.
Using the same argument or discourse to
persons of different ages, dispositions, and
faculties, is as if a physician should apply the
same remedy in the cure of various and dis-
similar diseases.
Vita Mortalium brevis.
Life is short, and the duration of it also is
uncertain, and not, therefore, at any period of
it,
it, to be wasted in indolence, or in the in-
dulgence of our sensual appetites, but to be
employed in improving our faculties, and in,
performing the duties of our station; in short,
we should take care to pass the portion allotted
to us in such a manner, that at the end of it,
we may have as little as possible to reproach
ourselves with.
" To die is the first contract that was made
'Twixt mankind and the world, it is a debt
For which we were created, and indeed,
To die is man's nature, not his punishment."
Another poet says,
" This life's at longest but one day ;
He who in youth posts hence away,
Leaves us i' the morn. He who has run
His race till manhood, parts at noon ;
And who, at seventy odd, forsakes this light,
He may be said, to take his leave at night."
Spenser addresses the following apostrophe
to us.
" O why do wretched men so much desire,
To draw their days unto the utmost date,
And do not rather wish them soon expire,
Knowing the misery of their estate,
And
And thousand perils which them still await,
Tossing them like a boat amid the main,
That every hour they knock at deathes gate ?
And he that happy seems, and least in pain,
Yet is as nigh his end, as he that most doth plain."
Hippocrates, who was perhaps the author
of this apothegm, extends it further, "Vita
brevis," he says, " et ars longa," intimating
that the longest life is only sufficient to enable
us to acquire a moderate portion of knowledge
in any art or science ; and experience shews
the justice of his position, for even assisted
with the discoveries of our predecessors, neither
medicine, to which he alludes, nor any other
art has arrived at perfection.
Per Ignem incedis,
Or, as Horace gives it,
" Iiicedis per ignes
Snppositos cineri doloso."
You are treading on hot ashes. You are en-
gaged in a difficult 'and hazardous business.
"Take care," we say, "you do not burn your-
self," or, " burn your fingers." Johnson uses
the
the phrase, when entering on the lives of the
poets, who lived near his time, or were his
contemporaries ; meaning, that by speaking
freely of them, and giving his sentiments of
their works there was danger of offending their
friends or relatives. The adage may also mean,
as you are treading on hot ashes, that is, are
in jeopardy, get out of the business, conciliate
the parties whom you have offended, as soon
as you can, as you would run or hasten over
a floor that is burning ; the flame which is at
present smothered, may burst out and destroy
you. That this is also intimated, seems pro-
bable from the following.
Non incedis per Ignem.
You are not walking over a furnace, which
was used to be said to persons appearing to
be in great haste, but who had no urgent
business.
Ausculta, et perpcnde.
Listen and consider. Hear what is said to
you, and weigh it in your mind, before you
VOL. ir. i give
give your opinion. Or it may be said by a
person speaking, " Listen attentively to what
I am about to relate, you will find it deserv-
ing your serious consideration."
Non statim decernendum.
Be not in baste to give your opinion on any
proposition, though pressed to it ever so ear-
nestly. But be ready in all matters of moment
to say, I will consider of it, will advise with
my pillow. A wise man will neither give his
assent nor dissent in anv matter of conse-
w
quence, until he has sufficiently examined it,
and discovered its tendency.
Mortuus per Somnum, vacabis Curis.
Having dreamed you were dead, you will
now be free from care. Such was anciently a
current opinion among the Grecians, as it is
now in some parts of this country. The Spa-
niards sa}', more properly, " De los sueHos no
creas, ni malos, ni buenos," pay no credit to
dreams,
( 119 )
dreams, whether good or bad ; and the French,
11 Tous les songes sont mensonges," all dreams
are lies. Hence, perhaps, an opinion, that all
dreams are to be construed as meaning the
contrary, " After a dream of a wedding," we
say, " comes a corpse." But this is equally as
idle, as taking them literally.
Habet.
He hath it. He has obtained what he
wished for, or, he hath met with his deserts,
which last is always understood in an ill sense.
The expression is said to take its origin from
the exclamation of the spectators in the amphi-
theatre at Rome, who, when they saw a gladi-
ator wounded, were used to cry out "habet/'
A similar expression is used among us, and we
say, when a man in fighting receives a violent
blow, '' he has got enough," or, " he has got
his belly full." Simo used it, when speaking
of his son Pamphilus, to intimate he was taken
or caught by the fair Andiian.
1 2 Palpo
( 120 )
Palpo per cut ere.
To tickle any one fnto a good humour.
" To get on the blind side of any one," as we
do of a horse who happens to have one eye
defective, when we are about to bring any
thing near him which would make him
startle; also to flatter or cajole any one by
praising the qualities of a favourite horse or
dog, or any part of his family to whom we
observe him to be attached.
Suam quisque Homo Rem meminit.
Men are in general abundantly attentive to
their own interest; if, therefore, you wish them
to serve you with diligence, you must make it
their interest to do so :
" Hoc tibi sit argumentum, semper in promptu situm,
Ne quid expectes arnicos facere, quod per te queas."
Be this your rule through life, never leave to
others to perform any business for you, which
you can do yourself: consonant to this we
say, " help yourself and your friends will love
you."
you." The lark, that had made her nest in a
cornfield, was in no haste to quit her habita-
tion so long as she heard that the farmer de-
pended upon the assistance of his neighbours
and friends to get in his harvest, but when her
young ones told her that the master was com-
ing himself with his sons the next day ; now
it is time, she said, to be gone, for the business
will certainly be done. A Venetian noble-
man, we are told, called upon Cosmo de Me-
dicis, to inquire of him by what means he
might improve his fortune, and received from
him the following rules ; " Never to do that
by another which he could do himself; not
to defer until to-morrow what might be done
to-day; and not to neglect small concerns."
Qtice dolent ea molestum est contingere.
" You touched him in a tender part," and
brought to his memory some instance of vice
or folly he would gladly have forgotten. This,
however, is equally a breach of good manners,
as it would be of humanity to tread on the
i 3 foot
( 122 )
foot of a person afflicted with corns or the
gout, or to handle rudely any part that was
diseased or wounded : " No se ha de mentar
la soga, en casa del ahorcado," we should not
mention a halter in the, house of one whose
father was hanged.
To live voluptuously like the Greeks, to
be great topers. The phrase seems to have
been used by the Romans to express their
contempt of the soft and effeminate man-
ners of the Grecians, particularly of that
portion of them who had taken up their resi-
dence at Rome, and were probably the most
worthless of the country, who were not able to
get a living at home. These men, we are
told, had the art, by flattery and by admi-
nistering to the vices of the great, to make
themselves so acceptable that scarcely any
favour could be procured, or even any access
to the nobles could be obtained but through
them. Juvenal severely censures his country-
men for their attachment to these vermin :
"All
( 123 )
" All Greeks are actors, and in this vain town,
Walk a short road to riches and renown.
Smiles the great man ? they laugh with noisy roar ;
Weeps he? their eyes with bidden tears run o'er.
Asks he a fire in winter's usual cold?
The warmest rugs their shivering limbs enfold.
Pants he beneath the summer's common heat ?
Lo ! they are batb'd in sympathetic sweat.
In vain the Roman would contest the prize,
For native genius arms the Greek with lies ;
He, every moment of the night or day,
Mimics the great in all they look or say;
Loads their vain ear with praise that never tires,
And all their folly, all their trash admires."
Hodgson's Translation.
Johnson, in his imitation of the same satire,
has transferred the censure to the French,
who, he seems to think, had obtained the
same influence here, the Grecians had at
Rome :
" Obsequious, artful, voluble and gay,
On Britons' fond credulity they prey.
No gainful trade their industry can 'scape,
They sing, they dance, clean shoes, or cure a clap ;
AH sciences a fasting Monsieur knows,
And bid him go to hell, to hell he goes,"
i 4 Minuit
( 134 )
Minuit Prcesentia Famam.
Intimacy lessens fame. Authors, like kings,
will be most likely to excite a high opinion of
their capacities by being seldom seen, or only
by select persons ; too familiar an intercourse
with the world breaks the charm which the
fame of their works had perhaps raised ; they
are found to be mere mortals, and often with
a larger portion of folly than falls to the lot of
even ordinary men. " How it comes to pass,"
Montaigne says, " I know not, and yet it is
certainly so, there is as much vanity and
weakness of judgment in those who possess
the greatest abilities, who take upon them
learned callings and bookish employments,
as in any other sort of men whatever ; ei-
ther because more is expected and re-
quired from them, and that common defects
are inexcusable in them ; or truly because
the opinion they have of their own learning
makes them more bold to expose and lay
themselves too open, by which they lose and
betray themselves." " A prophet," we are
told,
( 125 )
told, " is not without honour save in his own
country," where he is intimately known, and
where he may be oppressed, and his fame in-
jured by the errors of his kindred as well as
by his own. " Is not this the son of the car-
penter Joseph?" was said of our Saviour, with
the view of lessening him in the estimation of
the people, when they could find nothing in
his character to which blame could be at-
tached.
Quod qiiis Culpa sua contraxit, majus Malum,
or, Bis inter imitur qui suis Armis per it.
The evil which has been occasioned by our
own error or misconduct presseth most se-
verely and is taken the most heavily; the
sting and remorse of the mind accusing itself
doubling the adversity : on the contrary, that
which is occasioned by the treachery or ma-
levolence of others has its alleviation ; partly
perhaps from the mind's being diverted from
contemplating it intensely by searching means
of avenging it, or simply pleasing itself
with
( 126 )
with the expectation, that it will not pass un-
punished. " Remorse," as Dr. Smith observes
in his Theory of Moral Sentiments, " is the
most painful sentiment that can embitter the
human bosom. Any ordinary pitch of forti-
tude may bear up tolerably well under those
calamities, in the procurement of which we
ourselves have had no hand ; but when our
own follies or crimes have made us miserable,
to bear up with manly firmness, and at the
same time to have a proper sense of our mis-
conduct, is a glorious effort of self-com-
mand."
" Of all the numerous ills that hurt our peace,
That press the soul, or wring the mind with anguish,
Beyond comparison the worst are those
That to our follies or our guilt \ve owe."
But the Stoics demand from us more intre-
pidity; they tell us, and with reason, methinks,
that we should not complain of, or sink under
those misfortunes which we have brought upon
ourselves; " Ferre ea molestissime homines non
debent, qua?, ipsorum culpa contracta sunt."
Cleecam
( 127 )
Clavam extorquere Herculi.
Would you attempt to wrest his club from
the hands of Hercules ? may be said to any one
undertaking what is much beyond his capacity
to perform. Such was anciently the reverence
paid to Homer, that to imitate his verses was
thought to be as difficult as to take by force his
club from Hercules, or the thunderbolt from
the hands of Jupiter. The adage may also be
applied to any one entering into a contest
with persons superior to him in fortune and
power. " You may as well take a bear by the
tooth." " He that meddleth with strife that
doth not belong to him, is like one that taketh
a mad dog by the ear."
Tacitus pasci si posset.
If he had eaten quietly what he had ob-
tained ; if he had not boasted of his good for-
tune, before he was completely in possession
of it, he might have enjoyed it unmolested;
but by proclaiming it he has stirred up rivals
for
( 128 )
for the situation, with whom he will find it
difficult to contend, and who may probably
supplant him. The idea is taken from the
fable of the stag who had escaped the hunters
and eluded their search by concealing himself
among the vines, but thinking himself safe,
he began to browse upon the leaves ; the hun-
ters, led to the place by the noise and by the
motion of the boughs, took and killed him.
Or from the crow, who, overcome by the flat-
tery of the fox, attempting to sing, let fall the
cheese that he held in his mouth, which the
fox seized upon and devoured. " Can't you fare
well," we say, " without crying roast meat ?"
Cedro digna Locutus.
A speech deserving to be embalmed, to be
preserved to the latest period of time. " To
be written in letters of gold."
" An erit qui velle recuset
Os populi meruisse ? et cedro digna locutus
Linquere."
" Who lives, we ask, insensible to praise,
Deserves, and yet neglects, the proffer'd bays ?
Who
( 129 )
Who is not pleased that from the bookworm's rage,
The juice of cedar shall preserve his page?"
The ancients were accustomed to varnish
the leaves of the papyrus, on which they had
committed any thing to writing, with an oil
extracted from the cedar, which had the facul-
ty of preserving them from becoming putrid,
as well as of driving away noxious or devour-
ing insects ; the oil of juniper was used, it is
said, for the same purpose and with equal ef-
fect. It is probable that Russia leather, used
in binding books, owes its power of killing or
driving away the bookworm, if it really has
that property, to some similar ingredient used
in its preparation.
Cura esse quod audis.
Endeavour to be what you are reputed to
be, or what you are solicitous to be esteemed.
We are all of us desirous that the world should
think well of us, let us labour then to deserve
their good opinion. Sycophants and flatte-
rers might be of use to us, if, when we hear
ourselves commended by them for qualities
which
( 130 )
which we are conscious we do not possess, we
should forthwith set about to acquire them.
Equi et PoetcE alendi non saginandi.
Poets and horses should be fed, not pam-
pered, was an apothegm of Charles the Ninth,
of France, said, perhaps, rather from the treat-
ment poets have in all ages met with, than
from his own opinion of their merit. Though
he said it, I think, to justify the smallness of
the present he had directed to be given to one
of them, who had addressed a copy of verses
to him. That poets are in a particular manner
neglected, can hardly be said with propriety,
as literary men of all descriptions almost, pass
equally unnoticed. This seems to arise from
the quiet, retired, and unobtrusive manner in
which they ordinarily pass their lives, so that
the world scarcely knows that they are in ex-
istence. I speak of the most valuable and
deserving of them, for there are, in each class,
some who are more than sufficiently forward,
and the little that is bestowed falls principally
among them.
Mel
( 131 )
Flet victus, Victor interiit.
The conquered lament their hard fate, and
the conqueror is undone : a no uncommon
consequence of war, in which, though the
conqueror may not be reduced to the low
state of his opponent, yet he usually finds his
country so weakened by the conte'st, so drained
of men and money, that it scarcely recovers it-
self in an age. The same often happens, on the
termination of a suit at law. The adage took
its rise from the result of the battle at Che-
ronasa, in which the Athenians and Thebans
were destroyed; and Philip, of Macedon, who
conquered them, was soon after assassinated,
by a young man of the name of Pausanias.
Sapientes portant Cornua i?i Pectore, Stulti in
Front e.
" Wise men wear their horns in their breasts,
in their pockets," we say, " fools on their fore-
heads." The Spaniards to the same purport
say, " Los locos tienen el corazon en la boca,
y los cuerdos la boca en el corazon,'' fools have
their
( 132 )
their hearts in their mouths, but wise men keep
their mouths in their hearts. Fools are the
first to proclaim their follies, or those of their
families, which men of sense are careful to
conceal. It is prudent to wink at some irre-
gularities in your children, and friends, to en-
deavour by private admonition, and reproof,
to correct and amend them ; and though these
should fail, you may still hope, that further
experience, and knowledge of the world, may
produce that change in their conduct, which
your labours had failed in procuring. By this
means you will often have the satisfaction of
saving a person, dear to you, from perdition.
Qui non litigat, Calebs est.
The man who has a quiet house, has no
wife. Certainly many of the Greek writers
appear to have had a great horror of matri-
mony, to which, perhaps, may be attributed
the high colon ring thev gave to the character
O v O
of Xantippe, who was not, it is probable, so
great a termagant as they have painted her.
Some of their apothegms follow.
" Mulier
( 133 )
" Mulier in aedibus atra tempestas viro."
A wife, like a tempest, is a perpetual distur-
bance to the house.
" Incendit omnem feminaj zelus domutn."
The restless spirit of the woman keeps the
house in a perpetual flame ; and
"Muliere nil est pejus, atque etiam bond."
Nothing is worse than a woman, even than
the best of them. " It is better," Solomon
says, " to dwell in the wilderness, than with a
contentious and angry woman ;" and in an-
other place, "It is better to dwell in the corner
of the house-top, than with a brawling woman,
and in a wide house." Montaigne has an ob-
servation equally satirical : " The concern,"
he says, " that some women shew at the ab-
sence of their husbands, does not arise from,
their desire of seeing and being with them,
but from their apprehension that they are en-
joying pleasures in which they do not partici-
pate, and which, from their being at a distance,
they have not the power of interrupting." A
similar idea pervades the following, by Bu-
channan, who in the early part of Montaigne's
life, was one of his preceptors.
VOL. ir. K *' Ilia
( 134 )
" Ilia mjhi semper praesenti, dura Neasra,
Me quoties absum, semper abesse dolet,
Non desiderio nostri, non moeret amore,
Sed se non nostri posse dolore frui."
Neasra, who treats me when present with the
greatest cruelty, yet never fails to lament my
absence; not from the affection she bears me,
but she grieves that sne cannot then enjoy
the pleasure of seeing me wretched ; which
may be better liked, perhaps, in the following:
" Neasra present, to my vows unkind,
When absent, still my absence seems to mourn ;
Not moved by love, but that my tortur'd mind,
With anguish unenjoyed by her, is torn."
To finish the bad side of the picture, one only
of our adages shall be given. " To see a
woman weeping," we say, " is as piteous a
sight, as to see a goose go barefoot." From
all which we learn, that as there are some tur-
bulent and ill-disposed women, so there have
not been wanting men, ill-natured enough to
make them the models, from which they chose
to characterize the sex. Hesiod more justly
and more reasonably says,
" Sors potior muliere proba, non obtigit unquarn
Ulla viro, contraque malA nil tetrius usquam est.
As
As the possession of a good woman, consti-
tutes the greatest felicity a man can enjoy, so
the being yoked to a bad one, is the greatest
torment that can be inflicted upon him. The
Spaniards, consonant to this, say, "De buenas
armas es armado, quien con buena muger es
casado," the man is well provided who is mar-
ried to a good woman. " He that hath no
wife," Cornelius Agrippa sayeth, "hath no
house, because he doth not fasten (live) in his
house; and if he have, he dwelleth therein as
a stranger in an inn ; he that hath no wife,
although he be exceeding rich, he hath almost
nothing that may be called his, because he
hath not to whom he may leave it, nor to
whom to trust, all that he hath is in danger
of spoyle; his servants rob him, his companions
beguile him, his neighbours despise him, his
friends regard him not, his kinsfolk seek his
undoing; if he hath any children out of ma-
trimonie, they turn him to shame, wherefore
the laws forbid him to leave them either the
name of their familie, the armes of their pre-
decessors, or their substance ; and he is also,
together with them, put back from all public
K 2 offices
offices and dignities by the consent of all
law makers : this finally is the only state of
life, wherein a man may lead the happiest life
of all, in loving his wife, in bringing up his
children, in governing his familie, in saving
his substance and in encreasing his offspring;
wherein if any charge and labour happen, and
no state of life is without its cross, verily this
only is that light burden and sweet yoke
M'hich is in wedlock."
Mendico ne Parentes quidem Amid sunt.
Poverty has, at times, the power of destroy-
ing even the affection of a parent to his off-
spring. " When poverty comes in at the door,
love flies out at the window." In extreme
poverty, the mind is too intensely employed
in procuring sustenance, to have leisure to
attend to the wants of others, even our nearest
relatives. When Mrs. Thrale reproved a poor
girl, who was sitting, while her mother was on
her legs, and employed ; Johnson excused
the girl, as not owing that attention to her
mother, from whom she only inherited misery
and
( 137 )
and want. But poverty is not without its
advantages. If the poor man has not the
conveniences, so neither has he the cares that
riches never fail to hring with them. His
wants are few, and the labour necessary to
supply them, preserves him in health, and
gives him that composed and quiet sleep,
which does not often attend the pillow of the
wealthy. The wise man therefore says, "give
me neither poverty nor riches."
" Would you be free ? 'tis your chief wish, you say;
Come on, I'll shew thee, friend, the certain way.
If to no feasts abroad thou lov'st to go,
Whilst bounteous God does bread at home bestow ;
If thou the goodness of thy clothes dost prize,
By thine own use, and not by others' eyes;
If (only safe from weather) thou jeanst dwell
In a small house, but a convenient shell ;
If thou, without a sigh, or golden wish,
Canst look upon the beechen bowl and dish ;
If in thy mind such power and greatness be,
The Persian king's a slave compared to thee."
Bellum inejcpertis.
War is approved by the young and incon-
siderate, by those who are unacquainted with
K 3 the
( 138 )
the dreadful waste of life as well as of pro-
perty that it occasions. " Expertus metuit,"
by men of knowledge and experience it is de-
precated. " Iniquissimam pacem justissimo
bello antefero," I prefer, says the sagacious
and humane Cicero, the most impolitic and
disadvantageous peace, to the justest war;
and yet with what precipitancy and on what
trifling occasions do countries often rush into
war with each another ! if sovereigns would
O
weigh the consequences, M'ould put against the
object contended for, the numerous lives that
must necessarily be sacrificed in the contest ;
the number of women who would be rendered
childless, or would lose their husbands on
whom they, and perhaps an infant family,
depended for their support, they would sure-
ly not think it too much to sacrifice a
small portion of their dignity to prevent such
accumulated evils ; these, however, are a small
part only of the miseries of war. They are, in-
deed, all that this country has for many ages
been exposed to experience. On the conti-
nent, when an hostile army enters a country,
what massacres, what destruction marks its
pro-
( 139 )
progress ! whole towns pillaged and destroyed,
and the miserable inhabitants put to the sword,
or the few that escape driven into the fields,
without shelter, without clothes, and without
food, only preserved for a short time to die a
more miserable death than those who perished
by the sword. With this kind of destruction
we have been long threatened, and who can
tell how soon it may fall upon us ! In this
state of things, how mortifying must it be,
to the grave and considerate part of the com-
munity, to see the time and energy of those
who have the care of the government of the
country, employed in rebutting the attacks of
noisy and contentious pseudo-patriots; who
appear to be moving heaven and earth to em-
barrass the proceeding of the ministers, solely,
it is to be feared, in the paltry expectation of
getting into their places : strange infatuation !
that men of the largest property in the state
should be most forward in occasioning its de-
struction : surely so monstrous a procedure
must portend some dreadful catastrophe !
" Quos Deus vult perdere prius dementat/'
God first deprives of their reason those who
K 4 are
( HO )
are doomed to be destroyed. " And God har-
dened Pharaoh's heart," we are told, " blinded
his judgment, that he would not let the.chil-
dren of Israel go ;" it being predetermined
that the ^Egyptians should suffer a severe
chastisement.
Mors omnibus commums.
We must all die, M'e should, therefore, fre-
quently meditate on this our common destiny,
which is equally incident to the young and
the old, the strong and the weak ; no age, no
state of health affording security against the
stroke of death. Whence is it then, that we
treat this common guest as a stranger, and
appear to be surprised when he has taken from
us any near relative or friend ? In this town
we have a regular yearly account of the num-
ber of deaths that occur within a certain dis-
tance ; this, besides the purpose of recording
the diseases which occasion the greatest de-
struction, for which it seems to have been ori-
ginally formed, should have the further use of
familiarizing us with death, and as it appears
that
( 141 )
that from 18 to 20,000 persons die yearly
.within the compass of a few miles, it ought
not to seem extraordinary that ourselves, or
any of our families should be of the number;
it should rather be expected. A friend, con-
doling with Anaxagoras, on the death of his
son, and expressing a more than ordinary
concern on the occasion, was told by that
philosopher, " Sciebam mortalem me genuisse
filium," " that he had never thought his son
to be immortal." And Xenophantes receiving
similar intelligence, hearing that his son died
fighting bravely for his country, said, " I did
not make it my request to the Gods that my
son might be immortal, or that he should be
long lived, for it is not manifest whether this
was convenient for him or no ; but that he
might have integrity in his principles and be
a lover of his country, and now I have my
desire !"
" The time of being here we style amiss,
We call it life, but truly labour 'tis."
These men, therefore, it may be presumed,
had well considered the subject. From the
aversion that many persons have of speaking
or
( 142 )
or thinking of death, it would seem as if they
thought that by such meditation they should
accelerate its approach ; but it would proba-
bly have the contrary effect, for as a large por*
tion of the diseases and deaths of such as live
to an adult age are occasioned by intempe-
rance, a serious contemplation of that circum-
stance might wean them from their irregula-
rities, and so prolong their lives; or if it did
not produce that effect, it might enable them
to meet death with firmness as a guest that was
daily expected :
" Fleres si scires unum tua tempora mensem,
Rides, cum non sit forsitan una dies."
You would weep if you knew you had only one
month to live, yet you pass your time in
gaiety and folly, though perhaps you may
not live a single day. It is not meant by
what is here said, that we should not have a
proper relish for life, or that we should be in-
different about its extinction ;
" For who to dumb forgetfulness a prey,
This pleasing anxious being e'er resigned,
Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day,
Nor cast one longing lingering wish behind ?"
But
( 143 )
But as we know we must die, we should be at
all times ready to meet our fate when the hour
approaches.
Inter Pueros Senev.
Among children or young persons he may
be looked upon as old or intelligent, but
among elderly people he is considered as
young. This was used to be said of persons
of specious or imposing manners, who wished
to appear more learned or wise than on trial
they were found to be. " A doctor among
fools, and a fool among doctors," is, I think,
the phrase by which we designate such cha-
racters.
Ne Jupiter quidem omnibus placet.
It is of importance that we should well con-
sider every project that we may engage in,
that there be a reasonable probability of its
succeeding and that it receive the sanction
of such prudent and sensible friends as we may
think it right to consult; but no measure
however
( 144 )
however well planned should be expected to
meet with general approbation ; Jupiter him-
self not being able to please every one.
Felix Corinthus, at ego sim Teneates.
The Corinthian may, indeed, boast of the
splendour of his city, but the soft and rustic
beauties of Tenia please and satisfy me; may
be said by any one, on hearing the praise of
rank and large possessions too much insisted
on, if he has sense enough to be contented and
to see the advantages of a middling station.
Tenea was a village in the neighbourhood
of Corinth, remarkable for its mild and salu-
brious atmosphere, and for the beauty of its
scenery.
Mala ultro adsunt.
Misfortunes come fast enough, we need not
seek them, which those do who enter into
contests in which they have no concern ; or
who " meet troubles half way," and begin
lamenting before they arrive, the difficulty Js
to
( 145 )
to get rid of them when present "Mischiefs
come by the pound, and go away by the
ounce," which seems a very indifferent imita-
tion of " Les maladies viennent a cheval, re-
tournent a pied," diseases make their attack
on horseback, but retire on foot.
De te Kxemplum capit.
What wonder, since he only follows your
example, may be said to parents reproving
their children for irregularities, or faults, of
which they are themselves guilty.
" If gaming does an aged sire entice,
Then my young master swiftly learns the vice,
And shakes in hanging sleeves the little box and dice.
In sola Sparta expedit senescere.
*
Sparta is the most convenient residence for
aged persons ; age being in a peculiar manner
respected and honoured in that country. The
following story from Valerius Maximus, will
illustrate this position. It is here given from
the sixth Number of the Spectator.
"It
" It happened at Athens, during the repre-
sentation of a play, that an old gentleman
came too late for a place, suitable to his age
and quality. Many of the young men, who
observed the confusion he was in, made signs
to him, that they would accommodate him, if
he came where they sat. The good man
bustled through the crowd accordingly, but
when he came to the seat to which he was in-
vited, the jest was to sit close and expose him,
as he stood, out of countenance, to the audi-
ence. The frolic went round the Athenian
benches ; when the good man skulked towards
the boxes appointed for the Lacedemonians,
that honest people rose up to a man, and with
the greatest respect received him among them.
The Athenians being suddenly touched with
a sense of the Spartan virtue, and their own
degeneracy, gave a thunder of applause; and
the old man cried out, " The Athenians un-
derstand what is right, but the Lacedemo-
nians practise it." So the poet,
" Credebant hoc grande nefas et morte piaudum,
Si juvenis vetulo non assurrexerit," &c.
Divitis
( 147 )
Divitis Seroi mcurimk Servi.
Servants to rich and powerful persons are
the most abject of all servants. On account
of the great distance there is between them
and those they serve, they lose all estimation,
" as the shrubs and underwood, that grow
near or under great trees, are observed to be
the most scrubby and feeble of any in the
field, the trees engrossing to themselves all
the nourishment." " Sirve a senor y sabras
que es dolor," serve a great man, and you will
know what sorrow is. " Cabe Senor, ni cabe
igreja no pongas teja," do not lay a tile, that
is, do not build a house near a lord, nor near
a church, lest they pick a quarrel with you,
and dispossess you of your property.
Malum Vas nonfrangitur.
The worthless vessel escapes being broken
more frequently than one of more value.
" Naught," we say, " though often in danger,
is seldom hurt," and " ill weeds grow apace."
The opinion that the virtuous and discreet are
more
( 148 )
more subject to accident and misfortune, than
the vicious, is too general not to be founded
on observation. The good man, conscious of
not having done, or intended injury to any
one, is not easily led to apprehend mischief
from others, or to use precautions against the
shafts of malice, which he cannot suppose to
be levelled at him ; but the vicious man,
knowing he has deserved, is constantly on his
guard against the enmity of those whom he
has injured or provoked. This habit of watch-
fulness and attention to his safety, occasions
him not only to escape the injuries which
persons less wary meet with, but to obtain a
larger portion of the goods of the world, than
fall to the lot of persons more deserving, but
who are less active and vigilant in using the
means necessary for acquiring them. Or the
adage may be explained in this way : we set
snares for the Canarybird, the Groldfinch, and
other birds of song, and having taken them,
we confine them in cages ; but the Sparrow,
the Swallow, and many others, that neither
contribute to our amusement, nor are used at
our tables, are suffered to enjoy their liberty.
Malum
( 149 )
Malum Munus.
An unseasonable, or improper gift, tending
to the injury, not to the profit of the receiver:
as a large sum of money to voung persons,
which they, not knowing how to use properly,
often apply in such ways, as to become de-
structive to their health, their morals, and
their fortunes ; authority, to ignorant and in-
experienced, or to base and worthless men,
who will use it to the injury of those whom
they ought to favour and protect ; or prefer-
ment in the church, to ignorant and illiterate
divines, who, like the ape, only become the
more disgraced, the higher they rise.
Vox et prceterea nihil.
Plutarch in his apothegms tells us, that a
nightingale being, among other things, set
before a Lacedemonian for his dinner, when
he was about to eat it, observing how very
slender the body of the bird was, and com-
paring it with the strength and beauty of hij>
VOL, ii. i. song,
song, he exclaimed, " Vox es et praterea
nihil," you are all voice; the expression hence
became proverbial, and is applied to persons
\vho abound in words, but have little sense,
" Q.ui dant sine mente sonum/' Cicero there-
fore says, " Malo indisertam prudentiam quam
loquacem stultitiam,"give me rather a prudent
man, who, though unlearned, is silent, than a
loquacious blockhead. For as the poet ob-
serves,
" Words are like leaves, and where they most abound,
Much fruit of sense beneath, is rarely found."
Qui nescit dissimulare, nescit regnare.
" Chi non sa fingere, non sa vivere," who
knows not how to dissemble, knows not how
to reign, or to live, the Italians say. This was
frequently, it is said, in the mouth of King
James the First, but it did not say much in
favour of his sagacity ; and by proclaiming it
as a principle, it must have defeated his pur-
pose in adopting it; as it must have made
him distrusted, even when he meant what he
professed, " a liar not being to be believed,
even
even when he speaks the truth." Lord Veru-
lam says, " Dissimulation is but a faint kind
of policy or wisdom, for it asketh a strong wit,
and a strong heart, to know when to tell truth,
and to do it. Therefore it is the weaker sort
of politics that are the great dissemblers."
Pingere sub Gladio.
To paint with a sword hanging over one's
head ; metaphorically, to perform any business
requiring thought and reflection in the midst
of difficulty and danger, or in the hurricane
and disquiet of a scolding wife, and noisy
children. Protogenes is said to have painted
one of the finest of his pictures, while the city
in which he dwelt was besieged, and in daily
expectation to be taken by storm ; a rare in-
stance of coolness and presence of mind, and
which is said to have given rise to the adage.
Tuts te pin gam Coloribus.
I will paint you in your proper colours,
that is, I will describe you as you are, that
L 2 your
your friends may see with what sort of man
they have to do : with us, the expression is
always used in a bad sense.
Nil act um reputans, si quid superesset
agendum.
Esteeming what is done as nothing, while
any thing remains to be performed. It is a
.mark of a strong and vigorous mind, not to
tire in the pursuit of an object we have deter-
mined to attain, as it is of imbecility to give
up the chace, deterred by obstacles, whicli
perseverance might enable us to surmount.
Should the obstacles opposing the completion
of our design, prove to be insurmountable, if
they are such as could not be foreseen or
known, but from experience, the failure will
reflect no disgrace, and it is better " magnis
excidere ausis," to fail in attempting what was
great and noble, than by a too timid, and
cautious conduct, to continue in indigence
and obscurity.
Nthil
( 153 )
Nihil de Vitdlo.
But where is the yolk, was used to be said
to persons reserving to themselves the best
part of any viands, or other things, of which
they had the distribution. A man dreamed
he had found an egg. A soothsayer who was
consulted to interpret the dream, told him
that it portended he should find a treasure,
the white of the egg representing silver, the
yolk gold. The event corresponding with the
prediction, the man took to the seer, some of
the pieces of silver ; but what, said the seer,
is become of the yolk ? which thence became
proverbial.
Astutior Coccyce.
More crafty than the cuckoo. The cuckoo
is never at the pains of building a nest, but
having found one belonging to some other
bird, fit for her purpose, she throws out the
eggs she finds in it, and deposits her own in
their place. The owner of the nest, not per-
ceiving the fraud, hatches the cuckoo's egg,
L 3
and nurtures the young one, thus freeing
its mother from all care for her offspring.
The cuckoo is a bird of passage ; it appears
in this country in the month of April, and
leaves it in June. The female lays only a
single egg, usually in the nest of the hedge-
sparrow, as we learn from the following distich.
" The hedge-sparrow fed the cuckoo so long,
That she had her head bit off by her young."
Corinthiari.
To live a debauched and voluptuous life,
like the Corinthians. Corinth of old, like
Venice in modern times, was famed for enter-
taining multitudes of courtezans, and for the
great homage that was paid to them. They
served as decoys to attract to the city, the
most wealthy of the inhabitants from all parts
of Greece, to the great emolument of the ar-
tizans and traders, and improvement of the
revenue of the state. Lais, one of the cour-
tezans, was esteemed to be the most beautiful
and accomplished woman of the age in which
she lived. She drew visitors from the most
distant
( 155 )
distant countries, to whom she sold her fa-
vours at a very high price. Of Demosthenes,
who wished to pass an evening with her, she
required ten thousand drachmas. Astonished
at the boldness and largeness of the demand,
he quitted her, " not choosing," he said, "to
buy repentance at so dear a rate."
Leporis Vltam vivit.
He lives a hare's life. He is full of care and
anxiety, like a hare, said to be the most timid
of all animals, which is perpetually on the
watch, and even in its sleep is said not to
shut its eyes, lest it should be surprised and
taken by the dogs. The hares, tired of living
in a state of constant fear and anxiety, were
determined to put an end to their existence,
by drowning themselves. With this resolution,
they rushed clown to a pool of water. Some
frogs, who were near the pool, alarmed at the
noise, leaped into the water, to avoid, the
danger which they supposed threatened them ;
this being noticed by some of the most for-
ward of the hares, they stopped, and observing
L4 to
( 156 )
to their brethren, that their condition was not
worse than that of the frogs, they desisted
from their intention. This is one of the apo-
logues of JEsop, and \vas meant to cure men,
labouring under misfortunes, from thinking
that they are more unhappy than the rest of
mankind ; there being few so miserable, but
they may find others equally, or more wretched
than themselves.
Dolium volvitur.
A cask, when empty, may be rolled or moved
from its place, by a slight impulse, but when
filled, it is not to be moved but by the exertion
of considerable force. The weak and unin-
formed man, like an empty vessel, may be
turned from his purpose, by the most trifling
and insignificant arguments, or rather, having
no fixed principle of action, he is perpetually
wavering, and changing his designs. But the
considerate and wise man, having, on mature
reflection, formed a plan for his conduct, like
the well filled cask, he is not easily to be moved
or deterred from pursuing his object.
"Though
( 157 )
" Though the whole frame of nature round him break,
He unconcerned will hear the mighty crack."
The adage is said to have taken its rise from a
story told of Diogenes, the cynic. When the
city of Abdera, in which he lived, was threat-
ened with a siege, seeing the citizens running
about confusedly, without order, or fixing on
any plan for defending the place, he took the
tub in which he lived into the market, and
rolled it about with great vehemence, intimat-
ing that until they quieted the tumult and
confusion that reigned in the city, they were
equally insignificantly and unprofitably em-
ployed.
Ne priiis Antidotum quam Venenum.
Why take the antidote before you have
swallowed the poison ; why so solicitous to
purge yourself from the imputation of a crime,
before you are accused, or why censure the
doctrines of a book before you have read and
considered it ?
Joe-
Jactantlus mcerent qui minus dole.nt.
They weep most who are least concerned.
They grieve most ostentatiously for their
friends when dead, who regarded them least
when living. " Curas leves loquuntur, in-
gentes stupent," light griefs are noisy and
loquacious, or vent themselves in tears; those
that are more deeply felt, overwhelm and stu-
pify : and " Hasredis fletus sub persona risus
est," the weeping heir laughs under his mask.
The tears of those who are greatly benefited
by the death of the person whose loss they
seem to lament, may be suspected of hypo-
crisy ; weeping only to conceal their joy. " In
our age," Montaigne says, " women commonly
reserve the manifestation of their good of-
fices and their vehement affection towards
their husbands until they have lost them ; a
too slow testimony, and that comes too late :
we should willingly give them leave to laugh
after we are dead, provided they would smile
upon us whilst we are alive. Is it not enough
to make a man revive in spight, thaj she who
spit
( 159 )
spit in my face whilst I was living with her,
shall come to kiss my feet when I am no
more r
Rore vwit more Cicadce.
He feeds, only on the dew, as the grasshop-
per does, " like the cameleon he feeds on air,"
was used to be said, jestingly, of persons inor-
dinately fat and florid, particularly if they pre-
tended to be very delicate in their food, and
to have but slender appetites, as the monks
were accustomed to do.
" Qui Curios simulant, et Bacchanalia vivunt.
" You may read it," Rabelais says, "in their
red snouts and gulching bellies as big as a
tun."
Gallus in suo Sterquilinio plurimum valet.
" Cada gallo canta en su muladar," " every
cock will crow on his own dunghill." Every
man finds himself courageous in his own
house where he is surrounded by his family
and
( 160 )
and friends, who will not suffer him to be op-
pressed. " As iron sharpeneth iron, so doth
the countenance of a friend his neighbour."
Prcestat invidiosum esse quam miserabilem.
" II vaut mieux faire envie que pitie*," it is
better to be envied than pitied ;" for envy is
the attendant on good fortune, as pity is of
distress and misery.
" Envy will merit as its shade pursue.
Like that it serves to show the substance true."
Quod non Opus cst Asse carum est.
What you have no use for is dear at the
price of a farthing. " Buy what thou hast
no need of, and ere long thou shalt sell thy
necessaries."
Nunc twin Ferrum in Igni est.
Your iron is in the fire, \rork it now that
it is soft, and you may give it what fashion
you
( 161 )
you please ; but if you suffeT it to become
cold, it will no longer yield to the hammer.
Having begun the business, it must be dili-
gently attended to or it will not succeed.
" Bisogna battere ii ferro mentre e caldo,"
"strike while the iron is hot;" " make hay
while the sun shines."
Qualis Hera, tails Pedisequce.
Such as is the mistress such will be the ser-
vants. " Like master like man," " Qual la
madre tal la hija," like mother, like daughter ;
" Qual el cuervo tal su hue* vo," as is the crow
so is the egg. It is therefore becoming those
who have the management of the family to set
good examples. " Madre piedosa cria hija
merdosa," an indulgent mother makes a sloth-
ful and sluttish daughter.
Etiamsi Cato dicat.
In Rome, if a very improbable tale was told,
it was usual to say, " I would not believe it,
even though Cato himself should tell it me,"
thus shewing the reverence paid to the me-
mory
( 162 )
mory of that great statesman and philosopher.
The Athenians, who had the same confidence
in the integrity of Aristides as the Romans
had in Cato, used his name on such occasions.
We more commonly say, " though an angel
should affirm it we would not believe it."
Destitutus Ventis, Remos adhibe.
When it is calm you must use your oars.
If one project prove unsuccessful you must
not despair, but have recourse to other means
which may prove more productive. " Post
malam segetem serendum est," though the
harvest has failed this year, you must conti-
nue your exertions in the hope you may speed
better the next ; " worse luck now, better
another time :" though the Spaniards say,
" Contra fortuna, no vale arte ninguna," there
is no use in striving against ill fortune.
Pariter Remum ducere.
As you have entered into the same vessel
you
you must row together, as the boat will not
go on smoothly and regularly unless you move
your oars in concert : so neither must you
expect any business in which you are engaged
to succeed, unless all the parties concerned
are agreed as to the manner of proceeding,
and will act together.
Ut Lupus Ovem amat.
He loves him as the wolf loves the sheep;
or, " as the devil loves holy water." This may
be said of any one pretending a regard for
the interest of a person whom he is endea-
vouring to undermine and would destroy.
Vlam qui nescit ad Mare, eum oportet Amnem
qucerere.
Let him who knows not the way to the sea
take a river for his guide; that is, let him fol-
low the course of a river, which, though per-
haps by a circuitous route, will at length lead
him there ; the sea being the common recep-
tacle
( 164 )
tacle or reservoir into which nearly all rivers
pour their contents. Or let those who wish
for information on any subject on which they
are ignorant inquire of those who are ac-
quainted with them, however humble their
situation : much useful knowledge being often
to be obtained by conversing with the very
lowest of the people ; as in mechanics, hus-
bandry, gardening, Sec.
Presens abest.
Though present he is absent. This was said
of persons who, engaged in thought, paid lit-
tle or no attention to what was said or done
in their company, which led them often into
great absurdities. M. Bruyere in his Carac-
teres, ou Moeurs de ce Siecle, has given an ex-
cellent description of an absent man, but too
much in detail, though perhaps there may be
but few of the instances he produces, which
may not have occurred. It is admirably
abridged in one of the papers of the Spec-
tator.
J\fagis-
( 165 )
Magistratum gerens, audi et justt et injustl.
Being in office, it is your duty to hear all
that can be said on the business before you by
either party, before you decide on its merit.
" Qui statuit aliquid, parte inaudita altera,
JEquum licet statuerit, haud aequus est."
He who determines a cause without hearing
both the parties, though he passes a just sen-
tence, acts unjustly.
Avarus nisi quum moritur nil rectb facif.
The covetous man begins to be considered
with complacence when he ceases to exist, or
never does well until he dies; they are like
swine, e< which are never good until they come
to the knife." The prodigal who dissipates
his fortune by living voluptuously, easily con-
ciliates to himself the friendship or kindness
of the persons with whom he associates ; he
contributes to the support of those who fur-
nish him with the means of enjoying his di-
versions and amusements ; he shares his for-
VOL. ii. M tune
( 166 )
tune with his friends, his servants, and his de-
pendants : he is therefore usually spoken of
with complacency. " He is a generous, liheral,
open-hearted fellow, and no one's enemy but
his own ;" and when his fall is completed,
even those who suffer mingle some regret for
his misfortune, with the concern they feel for
their own loss. But the covetous man neither
meets with, nor is entitled to the same consi-
deration from the world : even the most
harmless of them, those who either came to
their fortune by inheritance, or who have ac-
quired it by fair dealing, as they use it exclu-
sively for their own benefit, are hardly looked
on as forming a part of the community in
which they live ; no one interests himself in
their welfare ; their success is not congratu-
lated, nor their losses commiserated. " The
prodigal robs his heir, the miser himself."
" When all other sins are old in us, and go upon crutches.
Covetousness does but then lay in her cradle.
Lechery loves to dwell in the fairest lodgings,
And covetousness in the oldest buildings."
Par
( 167 )
Par Pari referre.
" Like for like," or " one good turn deserves
another;" we say also, " give him a Rowland
for his Oliver." Dionysius, having engaged a
musician to entertain his company, to induce
him to exert himself he promised to give him
a reward proportioned to the amusement he
should afford his guests ; the singer, in the
hope of obtaining a splendid present, selected
some of his choicest pieces of music, which
he performed with such excellent skill as to
give entire satisfaction to the audience : on
applying for his pay, he was told he had al-
ready received " par pari," like for like. The
pleasure he had enjoyed in expecting the re-
ward, balancing that which the company had
received in hearing him sing; he had also the
further satisfaction of hearing his performance
highly extolled, which is too often the only
emolument that men of genius are able to ob-
tain for their labours.
it 2 Volam
( 168 )
Volam Pedis ostendere.
" To shew a light pair of heels." The phrase
is applied as a reproach to persons leaving
their posts and flying from the enemy instead
of fighting.
JBona Nemini Hora est, quin allcui sit mala.
" One* man's meat is another man's poi-
son." One man's loss is another's gain,
or one man makes a fortune by the ruin of
another : this is universally the case in war,
and not unfrequently in law likewise.
Noli Equi Denies inspicere donati.
" A caval donato non guardar in bocca."'
It. " A cheval donn6, il ne faut pas regarder
aux dens." Fr. " We must not look a gift-
horse in the mouth." Presents are not to be
esteemed by their costliness, but by the inten-
tion of the donor. " Aliquando gratius est
quod
( 169 )
quod facili, quam quod plena manu datur,"
what is given freely and without solicitation,
is more acceptable than a more Valuable and
expensive present, that was not obtained with-
out great entreaty.
Munerum, Animus optimus est.
The goodwill and intention of the donor,
constitutes the principal value of the gift.
Xerxes found a draught of water, present-
ed to him by a soldier in the field of battle,
of inestimable value.
, Fabarum Arrosor.
A devourer of beans. The man is become fat,
was used to be said, by feeding on beans. Ap-
plying it to persons who had accepted a bribe,
to put in his bean, which was their mode of
voting, in favour of one of the candidates for
O '
a public office or magistracy. The manners
therefore of the present times, if they are not
mended in this respect, are not worse than
they were formerly.
M 3 Undarum
( 170 )
Undarum in Ulnis.
Persons were said to be up to the elbows in
the sea and striving with them against the
Avaves, who were contending with difficulties
which threatened to overwhelm them. A sU
milar phrase is used by us, speaking of persons
who have more than sufficient employment,
" he has his hands full," we say, or " he is up
to the elbows in business."
Hodie nihil succedit.
Nothing has succeeded, or prospered with
me this day. This, many among the com-
mon people were apt to suppose, proceeded not
from their having omitted some necessary
caution, but from their having begun the work
on an unlucky day ; and there are now, as
there were formerly, persons who esteem cer-
tain days to be unfortunate in which no new
business should be attempted.
Trochi
( 171 )
Trochl in morem.
Like a top which is always turning round
and changing its situation. The adage may
be applied to persons of versatile dispositions,
who have no fixed design, or intention, they
will now be parsons, lawyers, soldiers; or as
Andrew Borde describes our countrymen,
" I am an Englishman, and naked I stand here,
Musing in my inind, what raiment I shall wear;
For now I will wear this, and now 1 will wear that,
And now I will wear, I cannot tell what."
Borde lived in the early part of the sixteenth
century ; we are now doubtless changed, and
become more steady. There are many other
apothegms censuring this mutability of dis-
position, from which the following only is
taken.
Chamteleonte mutabilior.
More changeable than the chameleon,
which was supposed, though not truly, to
assume the colour of every object it ap-
proached.
w 4 Us us
Usus est alt era Natura.
" Use, or custom, is a second nature." It
is of importance, therefore, in the education
of children, to prevent their acquiring habits
that are ungraceful or vicious ; as whatever
watchfulness or care may be afterwards used,
it will be almost impossible to dispossess them-
Timidi Mater nonjlet.
The mother of the coward does not weep,
that is, does not often lament the untimely
death of her son, or that he has met with any
sinister accident, as he will be careful to keep
out of the way of danger, which the brave
and courageous is continually affronting, and
so falls early.
Nemo sibi nascitur.
" Non sibi sed toti mundo se credere natum."
No one is born, or should think himself
born, solely for himself. The helpless state
in
( 173 )
in which we are produced into the world,
might teach us this maxim, or should we
happen to forget it, a very slight fit of sick-
ness would be sufficient to bring it back to
our memories. But even in health we are
none of us able, without the assistance of
others, to prepare every article necessary
for our comfort, or even for our subsistence.
Every thing we wear, and every thing we eat
or drink, requiring the concurrence of several
hands, to make them fit for our use. This
doubtless was intended by Providence to en-
courage mutual benevolence. As we were in-
debted in early life to our parents, teachers,
and friends, for our maintenance, and for all
the knowledge that was instilled into us, it
becomes our duty to shew our sense of the
obligation, by doing every thing in our power
that may contribute to their comfort, and by
giving the like assistance to those who may
have similar claims upon us. The chain link-
ing us together, is by this means kept entire,
and we become what nature intended, social
beings. Plato is said to have first promul-
gated this adage, "Each of us owing," he
says,
( 174 )
says, " a portion of our time, and of our exer-
tions, to our country, to our parents, and to
our friends."
Quod procedere non potest, recedit, and
Non progredi est regredi.
Nothing in this world is stationary, every
thing tending to improvement, or deteriora-
tion. The land that by culture is brought to
produce a plentiful return of grain, if neglect-
ed, soon becomes barren, or is covered with
weeds. The skill and knowledge that is ac-
quired by assiduous study, is only to be re-
tained by continued application, and the for-
tune which industry has accumulated, to be
preserved by exertions similar, in a great mea-
sure, to those by M'hich it was obtained. This
seems agreeable to the scheme of Providence,
inviting, or rather impelling us to a life of
activity, which is equally necessary for the
preservation of our morals, and our health.
" When things are at the worst they will mend,"
that is, a change will take place, which, in that
case, cannot but be for the better. On the
other
( 175 )
other hand, when they have attained the
highest state of perfection, then ought we,
from the known mutability of human affairs,
to fear a reverse, for " what can no further
advance, must recede," as it is expressed in
the Latin adage, which gave birth to these
reflections.
Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, having
been for many years successful in all his wars,
and transactions of every kind, and acquired
an immense increase of territory, and wealth,
was advised by Amasis, the king of Egypt,
his friend and ally, from a persuasion that
such unexampled good fortune must suffer a
reverse, to part with something of great value,
and which he esteemed highly, to avert the
disaster which he believed threatened him.
He accordingly threw into the sea a ring,
containing the richest jewel that he possessed.
A short time after, a fish being sent to him as.
a present, the ring was found in its stomach,
and restored to its master. Amasis, being
now convinced that Polycrates was devoted
to destruction, would have no further league
with him. The story adds, that he was some
time
( 176 )
time after treacherously murdered at Mag-
nesia, by the order of Oroetes, the governor,
at whose house he was on a visit.
Laudatur et alget.
Though he is abundantly commended, still
he is suffered to live in indigence. It is an
old, and too well founded complaint, that the
good man frequently fails in meeting with
that encouragement and assistance, to which,
by his worth, he seems entitled ; nay, that he
has often the mortification of seeing persons,
of no very nice honour, or who are even ma-
nifestly deficient in moral qualities, intercept-
ing those emoluments, which should be the
reward of uprightness and justice. But the
man who is thus rewarded, was active and in-
dustrious, and had merited the preference that
was given him, by performing some service
that was grateful, useful, or even necessary to
the person through whose means he obtained
his advancement ; while the good man, who
was overlooked, might probably want that
assiduity, or ingenuity, which are necessary
to
( 177 )
to enable us .to- be useful to ourselves, or
others. The preference that is said to be given
to men of bad characters, is not given them
on account of their evil qualities, but for
having cultivated their talents, and rendered
themselves serviceable ; neither are the good
passed over on account of their virtues, but
for not having acquired those qualities which
are necessary to make their virtues conspi-
cuous, and which, if possessed, would enable
them to demand the assistance they complain
is withheld from them. The earth yields its
productions, not in proportion to the good or
bad characters of the possessors, but to the
greater or less degree of knowledge and in-
dustry, that have been displayed in its culti-
vation.
" The lucky have their days, and those they choose,
The unlucky have but hours, and those they lose."
Is it not likely, that activity and ingenuity
often supply the place of kick, or fortune, and
that those who complain they are unfortunate,
or unlucky, are in reality only stupid, or in-
dolent ? and perhaps, this is oftener the case,
than we are willing to confess.
Barba
( 173 )
Barbce tenus sapient es.
You know them to be wise by their beards.
This was used to be applied to persons who
placed all knowledge and goodness in dress,
and external appearance, or in the perform-
ance of certain ceremonies. "I fast twice a
week," said the Pharisee, " and give tithes of
all I possess," but he was not accepted. " Si
philosophum oporteat ex barba metiri, hircos
primam laudem ablaturos," if the beard made
the philosopher, then the goat would have a
just right to that title, or as the Greek epi-
grammatist has it,
" If beards long and bushy true wisdom denote,
Then Plato must yield to a shaggy he-goat."
" At non omnes monachi sunt, qui cuculo
onerantur, nee omnes generosi, qui torquem
gestant auream, aut reges, qui diadernate in-
signiuntur;" but all are not monks who wear
a cowl, or gentlemen who are decorated with
golden chains, or kings who are crowned.
Those only in reality deserve the titles, who
act consistently with the characters they as-
sume. " For there are many who talk of Robin
Hood,
( 179 )
Hood, who never shot with his how." "Diga
barba qua haga," let your beard advise you ;
that is, let it remind you that you are a man,
and that you. do nothing unbecoming that
character.
Gallum habeas Amicum, non Vicinum*
"Ayez le Francois pour ton ami, non pas
pour ton voisin," have the French for your
friend, not for your neighbour. But at this
time, viz. 1812, it is as dangerous to have
them for friends, as for neighbours, nothing
being more fatal than to have the honour of
being numbered among their associates, or
allies, as under that title or pretence, they will
take upon them the entire management of
your country. The Apennines have not been
found a sufficient barrier, to prevent their fra-
ternising (a term they have adopted) with the
Spaniards. In 1809, they invited the king of
Spain, and his son, to their camp, pitched on
the borders of the country, to adjust, as they
pretended, some matters of difference between
them, but, possessed of their persons, they
trans-
( 180 )
transported them to the interior of France,
where they have been detained ever since. In
the mean while they have been carrying on a
destructive war in Spain, treating the inha-
bitants who resisted them as rebels, and oblig-
ing many thousands of them to enter into
their armies, and to fight for them in far dis-
tant countries. They have likewise given to
Spain, as king, one of the brothers of Buona-
parte, the present governor, or emperor, as he
has forced the world to acknowledge him, of
the French. The Spaniards, aided by the forces
of this country, are making a vigorous oppo-
sition to them, and may they in the end be
successful in driving them from their terri-
tories ! an event, which is rather to be hoped
than expected.
Beneficium accipere est Libertatem vendere.
Remember, when you receive an obligation,
you part with your liberty. To admit this in
its full extent, would be to destroy the most
pleasing, as well as the most useful intercourse
among men, that of mutually aiding each
other
other by advice and other good offices. It
refers, therefore, only to those who receive
favours, without endeavouring to make any
return; to persons of mean and grovelling
dispositions, who would live on the bounty of
others, without using any exertions to procure
sustenance for themselves. Such men truly
sell themselves, and must suffer1 all the morti-
fications, and insults, that those on whom they
are dependent, may choose to inflict.
Dos est magnet, Parentum Virtus.
The virtue of the parent is a passport through
life to the child. Parents are particularly called
upon to be careful of their conduct, and not
to do any thing that may degrade them, or
any way impeach or injure their moral cha-
racter : not only that the minds of their chil-
dren may not be corrupted by their ill ex-
ample, but that the estimation in which they
are held, may procure for their offspring, the
countenance of their friends, when they shall
be gone. " I have been young," the Psalmist
s^ays, " but now am old, yet never saw I the
VOL. ir. N righteous
( 182 )
righteous forsaken, nor his seed begging their
bread."
Dttlcis inevpertis Cultura potent is
Expert us mctuit.
To the inexperienced, the patronage of the
great and powerful is desirable; to those
better acquainted with men and things, it is
rather to be dreaded than courted. Youth is
flattered by the attention of persons of supe-
rior rank and fortune; but those more ac-
quainted with the world, know that the great
rarely admit their inferiors to familiarity with
them, but with a view to their own interest.
They want, it is likely, their assistance in
some business or other, and the intimacy ge-
neralty lasts only so long as they are able to
be serviceable to them. " Eat no cherries with
great men, for they will cast the stones in
your eyes." " Like fire, at a distance they give
warmth, but if too near they burn." " They
forget," Sir Walter Raleigh says, " such as have
done them service, when they have obtained
u'bat they wished for, and will rather hate
them
( 183 )
them for having been the means of their ad-
vancement, than acknowledge the favour."
Does not this, however, often happen through
the imprudence of the client, from his forget-
ing the inferiority of his situation, and affect-
ing an equality, which cannot but be oifensive?
and our proverb avers, that "familiarity breeds
contempt."
Necessitas Magistra.
" Necessity is the mother of invention, and
the most powerful provoker of industry, and
ingenuity. " La n^cessite" n'a point de loi,"
and " La necessidad carece de ley." " Neces-
sity has no law," and " Hunger will break
through stone walls."
" Ingenii largitor venter,
Cautum e rudi reddit magistra necessitas."
Necessity makes the dull man bright, the
sluggard active, the unwary cautious. It
sharpens the wit, and makes men more apt
for instruction.
" Jejunus raro stomachus vulgaria terabit.
Hunger is the best cure for daintiness, "it is
N 2 the
( 184 )
the best sauce;" and " A la hambre, no ay pan
malo;" " A hungry dog will eat dirty pud-
ding." To these may be added the following,
" Impletus venter, non vult studere libenter."
A full belly does not excite to mental labour
or exertion, and want sharpens, but luxury
blunts the disposition to study.
Barbati.
Men with beards. The term was applied
by the Romans to persons of plain, simple,
and rustic or primitive manners, who still
retained the customs of their ancestors. They
had not learned to shave their beards, which
only began to be practised among them four
hundred and fifty years after the building of
the city. The first barbers, Pliny tells us,
were introduced there from the island of
Sicily.
Annosa Vulpes hand capitur Laqueo.
An old fox is not easily to be taken in a
snare;
( 185 )
.snare; age has made him cautious. The
proverb may be applied to persons attempting
to impose upon us, and to excite compassion
by the relation of some affecting but impro-
bable story. " Quaere peregrinum," tell your
tale to one less acquainted with you, or
with the circumstances you are relating; they
will gain you no credit here. " A otro perro,
con esse huesso," throw that bone to another
dog:.
Quod de quoque Viro, et cut dicas sape ca-ceto.
We should be careful not to speak ill of
any one who is absent, particularly in mixed
companies, as some of the parties may know
the person who is censured, and may either
resent the affront, or report to his friend what
had been said to his discredit.
Sat cito, si sat bene.
" Soon enough, if well enough," was an
apothegm frequently in the mouth of Cato.
N 3 When
( 186 )
"When we are shown any work of art, we do
not inquire bow long it was in performing,
but how well it is executed. If it is com-
plete, and excellent in its kind, we readily
give due commendation to the artist, whether
it was struck off at a heat, or effected with
much labour, thought, and attention.
Non est Remedium adversus Sycophants
Morsum.
There is no remedy against slander, it
shquld therefore be borne quietly, and treated
with contempt. What, if 1 have not deserved
it ? Then it will be the more easily borne.
When a Roman patrician was ordered by the
Emperor Tiberius to die, his friends in lament-
ing his doom, dwelt strongly on the injustice
of the sentence. That, said he, my fi iendsr is
my greatest consolation; ye do not surely
wish that I had been guilty.
" Latrantem curatne alta Diana canem ?"
Is the moon disturbed at the barking of a
dog? let them scoff, slander, abuse, wrong,
curse
( 187 )
curse and swear, feign and lye, when they
have done all, innocency will vindicate itself,
and " a good conscience is a continual feast."
Bceotum crasso jurares Acre natum.
You would swear he was a native of Bceotia,
a country famed for its thick and foggy air,
and for the stupidity of its inhabitants.
" Tales sunt hoininum mentes, quales pater ipse
Jupiter, auctifera lustravit lampade terras."
" The minds of men do in the weather share,
Dark or serene, as the day's foul or fair."
That most men find themselves in some
degree affected by the temperature of the
atmosphere, are more cheerful and sprightly,
more disposed to gaiety, and more ready to
enter on any business requiring mental exer-
tion, when warmed and enlivened by a bright
sun, and a clear and pleasant state of the air,
than when that luminary is obscured by thick,
foggy, and moist vapours, has not often been
denied, perhaps by no one formally and in
writing, but "by the late Dr. Johnson, who
x 4 treated
( 188 )
treated the opinion with contempt. It was a
mere excuse for idleness, which every one
would find, he says, who would set themselves
doggedly, that is, determinedly to work.
But this, after all, is only saying that the in-
fluence or effects of a damp and gloomy sky
may be successfully counteracted hy a fixed
and vigorous resolution, not to give way to it.
" Sapiens dominahitur astris." " The wise
man will controul the influence of the stars."
Poeta nascitur, nonfit.
The poet must be born such, no art, care,
or instruction, being sufficient to make a man a
poet, who is not naturally blest with a genius,
and with a turn for that divine art, the harmony
of numbers. Art may direct and improve
genius, but it cannot create it. The same
may be said of every other species of science.
By study and practice, any man may acquire
a competent knowledge of music, of painting,
of medicine, and in mechanics, but if he has
not genius, an inventive faculty, or power, he
will never reach to excellence in any of them.
In
( 139 )
In this way only can we account for the slow
progress made towards perfection in every
art or science. Thousands have in all ages
been as carefully, and as completely educated
as Newton, but the whole world has only
produced one Newton. The same may be
said of Bacon, and a few others who have
shone, and still continue to shine, " Veluti
inter ignes luna minores," like the moon among
the smaller lights of heaven. The Spaniards
attribute this quality to valour. " Nace
el valor, no se adquiere," valour must be
born with us, it is not to be acquired by
instruction. It requires indeed to be re-
strained, to be curbed by laws, that it may
not degenerate into brutal violence, and so be
employed to the destruction instead of the
support of society. Three things are neces-
sary, Aristotle says, to enable us to excel in
any art, " Nature, study, and practice;" and
the Italians say, " Nessuno nasce maestro,"
no one is born a master, or perfect in any
art. Every man may learn to write verses, to
draw or paint a picture, to distinguish or
describe diseases, but to do any of these
exquisitely,
( 190 )
exquisitely, there must be present, the higher
qualities of the mind; a superior degree of
sagacity; a quickness in discerning the rela-
tions objects bear to each other; a readiness
in comparing, combining and discriminating
actions or things, not possessed by persons of
common understandings. Let a person not
possessed of genius write a poem. His verses
will be correct, but there will be no invention,
nothing interesting; no brilliancy of thought
or expression, nothing to surprise or dazzle.
A painter, with moderate talents, will be able
to produce a general representation of the
objects intended to be imitated, you will be
in no danger of mistaking his horses for
elephants. But there will be no character
either in his men or beasts, or none according
with the subject His pictures will want
animation ; you \vill see them without emo-
tion, and part from them with indifference.
A physician, though not possessed of an extra-
ordinary portion of sagacity, may soon ac-
quire a knowledge of the diseases that most
frequently occur, and of the common routine
of practice in such cases, so that he will have
the
the satisfaction of knowing, when he fails,
that his patient died " secundum artem." In
more abstruse cases, and in those that are less
common, he will he very likely to mistake one
disease for another, and not perhaps discover
his error, until the mischief is irreparable. It
is rarely, however, that the reputation of the
physician suffers by a blunder of this kind,
which is buried with the patients; " for the
earth covers the errors of the physician."
Physicians have this advantage over the pro-
fessors of other arts. Medicine is held to be
a mystery, into which it would be a sort of
impiety, for persons not initiated to pry.
Like the Philistines for looking into the ark,
they might be smitten with emrods, or some
other plague. It is difficult therefore for
persons not within the pale, to appreciate
their value, or knowledge. The art abounds
also, beyond all others, with technical terms,
and he who has the skill to lard his conversa-
tion with the greatest number of them, will
probably be esteemed the best physician.
There seems also an opinion, more prevalent
than we are individually perhaps disposed to
admit.
admit, that there is something of a fatality in
our deaths; or in other words, that there is a
time fixed, beyond which \ve can none of us
continue to live. This is extremely con-
venient to the professors of medicine, as it
leaves them in full possession of the credit of
curing all the sick that may happen to get
well while under their care, and at the same
time it takes from them all blame or responsi-
bility when they die. " Dios es el que sana,
y el medico lleva la plata." Though it is God
who cures, the physician gets the fee. Thus
we find the Canon in Gil Bias saying, " Je
vois bien qu'il faut mourir, malgre" la vertu de
1'eau ; etquoi qu'il ne reste a peine une goute
de sang, je ne m'en porte pas mieux pour cela.
Ce qui prouve bien que le plus habile medecin
du monde ne sauroit prolonger nos jours,
quand leur terme fatal est arriveV' I know
that I must die notwithstanding the great
efficacy there is in water: and although I
have scarcely a drop of blood remaining in
my veins, I still find myself no better, a clear
proof that the most skilful physician cannot
preserve our lives, when the fatal hour arrives..
Bui
But leaving this digression, this seems the
most rational way of explaining the adage
" Poeta nascitur." It is prohable, however,
that the ancients had a further meaning.
They attached something of divine to the cha-
racter of the poet, who was also called vates,
as supposing him to be the interpreter of the
behests of the deity. The custom among the
poets of invoking the Muses, and calling for
their assistance in the beginning of their works,
without doubt contributed to strengthen the
delusion. This practice has been long since
discontinued. Prior, alluding to the opinion
that poets received their verse- by inspiration,
Says, ludicrously enough,
" If inward wind does truly swell ye,
It must be the cholic in your belly."
Qui Luccrna egent, infundunt Okum.
When we have occasion for a lamp, we trim
it and fill it with oil. Anaxagoras having
been often consulted by Pericles, and very
advantageously, in the government of his coun-
try • becoming old, and finding himself en-
tirely
tirely neglected by his pupil and his former
services forgotten, determined, by a total ab-
stinence from food, to put an end to his ex-
istence ; this being told to Pericles, he called
upon and entreated him to desist from his pur-
pose, as he had business requiring his assist-
ance ; but the philosopher being now near
dying, answered, " O Pericles, et quibus lu-
cerna opus est, infundunt oleum." Thus re-
proving him for his inattention, when he
thought he should have no further occasion
for his advice. The phrase thence became
proverbial.
*
Dulce est Mlseris Socws habuisse Dolor is.
It is a comfort to the wretched to have
companions in their misfortunes. It is plea-
sant, Lucretius says, standing on the shore
to see a ship driven about by a tempest ; or
from the window of a castle, to see a battle;
not that we rejoice in the sufferings of the un-
happy people in the vessel, who all of them,
perhaps, after long struggling with the dan-
ger, perish in the ocean ; or at the fate of
those
those who are killed or wounded in the bat-
tle : the pleasure arises from our being exempt
from the danger in which we see so many of
our fellow creatures immersed. The comfort,
therefore, that we experience in having com-
panions in our troubles, in finding others suf-
fering pains similar to those with which we are
afflicted, does not arise from seeing them in
pain, but from finding that we are not singled
out in a particular manner to bear a greater
portion of evil than falls to the lot of
others : whenever this does happen, it adds-
greatly to the misery of what kind so ever it
may be. Some men are peculiarly unhappy
in this way ; in all public calamities, whether
by sickness-, fire, or inundations, a much larger
than their proportion of the evil, being sure
to fall upon them. But upon what principle
are we to account for the avidity with which
people flock to be present at executions? here
they become voluntary spectators of one of
the most distressing and afflicting scenes that
can be well imagined; particularly when the
execution is attended with any additional cir-
cumstances of horror; when the criminals are
made
( 196 )
made to suffer the most excruciating torture
before death relieves them from their misery,
May we attribute this propensity to curiosity,
to a desire to see in what manner human
strength or courage is able to bear such an
extremity of evil r It were much to be wished,
that women, whose soft and delicate frames
seem to render them unfit for such scenes, did
not make so large a portion of the spectators
ou such occasions,
".I have long been sorry," Mrs. Montagu
says, Letters, Vol. IV, " to see the best of our
sex running continually after public specta-
cles and diversions, to the ruin of their health
and understandings, and neglect of all do-
mestic duties : but I o\vn the late instance of
their going to hear Lord Ferrers's sentence
particularly provoked me: the ladies crowded
to the House of Lords, to see a wretch brought
loaded with crime and shame to the bar, to hear
sentence of a cruel and ignominious death ;
which, considering only this world, cast shame
on his ancestors and all his succeeding family.
There was in this case every thing that could
disgrace human nature and civil distinctions;
but
( 197 )
but it was a sight, and in spite of all pretences
to tenderness and delicacy they went adorned
with jewels, and laughing and gay to see
their fellow creature in the most horrid situa-
tion, making a sad end of this life, and in
fearful expectation of the commencement of
another."
Lord Ferrers, it is known, was hanged for
shooting one of his servants, in the year 1760.
Fuere quondam Milesii.
The Milesians were once a brave and hard}'
people. " Troja fuit." The magnificent city
of Troy once existed, though no vestiges
even of the ruins of its walls and temples now
remain. I was once rich and powerful, but
am now poor, miserable, and wretched ; con-
demned to serve where I formerly command-
ed ; may be said, particularly at this moment,
by many fallen potentates ; fallen, most or
all of them, by their own misconduct and
mistaken notions of government. For the great
changes which have taken place in the condi-
VOL. IT. o tion
tion of the princes of Europe could never have
been effected, if their self-indulgences and
want of energy in the exercise of their high
authorities, frequently the consequence of a
voluptuous life and wrong principles of action,
had not co-operated, unfortunately, too power-
fully with the force of their conqueror and
brought on their ruin: they were enslaved by
their inordinate passions which led to the op-
pression of their subjects, and was ultimately
the occasion of losing their affections. The
people were in the situation of the overloaded
ass in the fable, who, when told to hasten for
there were robbers at hand, answered, it mat-
tered little whom he served since he must still
carry his panniers. But to pursue rny theme:
I was once young, strong, and vigorous, may
be said, but am now old, feeble, and decrepid.
These reflections, though trite, may still have
their utility ; for as they teach us, by shewing
what has happened, to expect reverses in our
state, they tend to enforce upon us the pro-
priety of using our prosperity with modera-
tion.
The Milesians, who have long since ceased
to
( 199 )
to be a people, were not conquered by their
enemies, until they had left off to be strong
and courageous ; until luxury, the conse-
quence of their success, and opulence, had
enervated and enfeebled them.
Massiliam naviges.
You are going the way of the Massilians,
may be said to inconsiderate spendthrifts, who
are dissipating what had been acquired for
them, either by good fortune or the industry
and frugality of their ancestors. The Massi-
lians, once a brave and independent people,
having by their commerce acquired great afflu-
ence, became so debauched, extravagant and
effeminate, as to fall an easy prey to the
neighbouring states.
Non unquam tacuisse nocet, nocet esse
loquutum.
What is retained and kept in the mind can
never injure, it may injure us to have divulged
it. " Quien calla, piedras apana," he that is
o 2 silent
( 200 )
silent is heaping up stones; he is thinking
how he may profit hy what others are saying;
and " Oveja que bala bocada pierde," the
sheep loses a mouthful when it bleats. Silence
is the sanctuary of prudence, and properly
used, it is one of the most valuable attributes
of wisdom. " The fool's bolt is soon shot," he
has little in him, and over that little he has no
controul; he is always, therefore, saying some-
thing that is unseasonable and improper ; he is
precipitate in his judgment, and determines
before he M7ell knows the proposition to which
his assent is required. But the wise man is
reserved and cautious, " he looks before he
leaps," " thinks before he speaks/' and " even
of a good bargain he thinks twice before he
says done," for he knows that appearances
are often deceitful, and that " all is not gold
that glitters," " he has wide ears, and a short
tongue," therefore more ready to hear the opi-
nions of others, than to proclaim his own.
Augustus Cassar bore a sphinx, an emblem of
silence, on his ring, intimating that the coun-
sels of princes should be secret. But silence
is often adopted for very different purposes
and
( 201 )
and from different motives : some make use
of it, to cover their ignorance ; conscious of
their inability to bear a part in the conversa-
tion, they avoid venturing their opinion, and
" wisely keep the fool within," in which they
shew a commendable prudence ; " even a fool
when he holdeth his peace, is counted wise,
and he that shutteth his lips is esteemed a man
of understanding." " Parla poco, ascolto
assai, et non fallirai," speak little and attend
to what falls from others, and you will commit
no error. Others again are silent through
craft, fearful lest by some unguarded expres-
sion they should betray the part they had
taken in some transaction, in which they
would not be thought to have been concern-
ed ; or that they should discover their opi-
nion or intention, which may be the reverse
of what they publicly profess : such men,
to use the strong language of Churchill,
" Lest bokl truth to do sage wisdom spight,
Should burst the portals of their lips by night,
Tremble to trust themselves one hour in sleep."
Yet there is an instance on record, where
o 3 silence
( 202 )
silence is said to have occasioned the destruc-
tion of a country, whence the following :
Amyclas perdidit Silentia.
Amyclas was lost by silence. The magis-
trates of this city having been frequently
alarmed by some of the more timid inhabi-
tants, with reports of an enemy being at hand
when no danger was near, ordered, under the
penalty of a severe punishment, that no one
should again disturb them with such rumours.
At length, when an enemy was actually ap-
proaching, the people not daring, on ac-
count of the law to give the necessary in-
formation, the city was taken. The proverb
may be applied to any one neglecting the
proper opportunity or time for doing any ne-
cessary business.
Ubi tres Medici, duo Athei.
Where there are three physicians, there are
two atheists. Whence could a censure so
senseless, derive its origin ? since physicians,
whose
( 203 )
whose professions led them in a particular
manner to examine into the properties of na-
tural bodies, must have been among the first
to see and admire the order, regularity, and
beauty of their structure.
" Presentemque refert quajlibet herba deum."
Every herb having a signature of the divine
Majesty stamped upon it. Need it be added,
that the anatomy of the human, or of any
other animal body, afforded no less pregnant
proofs of the existence of an all- wise and
powerful Architect; since nothing less than
such a being could have contrived, and put
together, such exquisite pieces of mechanism.
But the habit of inquiring, and looking deeply
into the nature and structure of the bodies
they examined, might make them sceptical,
and not ready to credit what could not be
submitted to a similar test. They might not,
therefore, be disposed to treat with reverence,
the rabble of gods that disgraced the calen-
dars of Greece and Rome ; and this might be
sufficient to induce the common people to
brand them with the name of atheists. Sir
o 4 Thomas
( 204 )
Thomas Brown, in his singular book, "Religio
Medici," after defending the profession from
the imputation of atheism, gives his own creed,
in which, on all material points, he is suffi-
ciently orthodox, but in matters which he
conceived not to be essential, he carved for
himself. Indeed, he seems to have had a very
extended faith, and to have thought that the
more improbable any of the tenets of religion
were, the more merit there was in believing
them. He was a perfect convert to the reso-
lution of Tertullian, "credo quia impossible
est," I believe it, because it is impossible. "I
desire to exercise my faith," he says, "in the
difficultest points ; for to credit ordinary and
visible objects, is not faith, but persuasion."
He joined also heartily in the then popular
opinion of witchcraft. " I have ever believed,"
he says, " and do now know that there are
witches," and he charges those who disbelieve
in them, "as being a sort, not of infidels, but
atheists." Chaucer does not speak very fa-
vourably of the faith of the medical corps.
" Physicians know what is digestible,
But their study is but little in the bible."
• ( 205 )
And another Poet says,
" I have heard, how true
I know not, most physicians as they grow
Greater in skill, grow less in their religion;
Attributing so much to the natural causes,
That they have little faith in that they cannot
Deliver reason for."
Time, which has corrected the erroneous opi-
nion of witches, has also released the studious
in medicine, from the reproach of infidelity,
and they are now allowed to have as just a
sense of religion, as any other of the classes
of mankind.
Multos in summa Pericula misit,
Venturl Timor ipse Mali.
Men are often through the dread of some
misfortune threatening them, so disturbed, and
so completely deprived of judgment, as not to
see, or be able to use the means, which, in a
more easy and quiet state of their minds, would
have been sufficiently obvious, and by which
they might have avoided the evil, so that to
standers by, they seem to have acted under
some
( 206 )
some secret impulse, or to have been fascinated.
It is fear that deprives the bird of the power
of escaping the snake, if it has once caught its
eye; not daring to turn its face from the
frightful object, it necessarily every step it
takes approaches nearer, and at length, depri-
ved of all sense and power, falls into its jaws.
" Quo timoris minus est, eo minus ferme periculi est."
Where there is the least fear, there is, for the
most part, least danger; though the Spaniards
say, " Quien obra sin miedo, yerra su hecho,"
he who acts without fear, aots wrong; but
the word miedo, fear, in this sentence, means
only care, caution or attention.
Rebus in adversis, facile est contenmere Mortem,
Fortius ille facit, qui miser esse potest.
Men of strong minds contend with diffi-
culties and misfortunes, and frequently suc-
cessfully, or if they cannot be completely
averted, bear them patiently, by which means
they become lighter, and their sting is
blunted ;
( 207 )
blunted; it is the coward only that seeks to
escape them by death.
" Hie rogo, non furor est ne moriare
Mori?"
Is it not madness to kill yourselves lest ye
should die ? to suffer the greatest misfortune
that can befall you to escape a less ? — But,
with Martial's leave, this is not a right state-
ment of the position. Men do not kill
themselves to escape dying, but to put an end
to a thousand cares and perplexities which
make life a burthen to them. Agis being
asked which way a man might live free,
answered, " by despising death."
" Emori nolo, sed me esse mortuum nihil estimo."
I feel no difficulty in saying I wish I were
dead, but I have not courage sufficient to
embrace a voluntary death, or to put an end
to my existence.
Quoniam id fieri quod vis non potetf,
Id veils quod possis.
Since you cannot effect what you are solici-
tous
( 208 )
tous to obtain, be contented with what you
have. That is, we should not suffer the want
of something upon which we may have impru-
dently set our affection, to prevent our enjoy-
ing, and being thankful for what we actually
possess, and we should the rather do this, as,
if we are incapable of bounding our desires,
the object we are in pursuit of, would, if
obtained, contribute very little to our con-
tentment.
*' Against our peace \ve arm our will,
Amidst our plenty something still,
For horses, houses, pictures, planting,
To me, to thee, to him are wanting.
That cruel something unpossess'd,
Corrodes, and leavens all the rest;
That something if we could obtain,
Would soon create a future pain."
Venter obesus non gignit Mentem subtilem.
An over crammed belly does not produce a
quick, and ready wit, or " fat paunches make
lean pates." The Lacedemonians, who were
remarkably frugal in their diet, had such an
abhorrence
( 209 )
abhorrence and contempt for fat and corpu-
lent persons, that they were about to banish
from their city, Auclides, one of their country-
men, who, by a course of indolent and volup-
tuous living-, had swelled himself to an enor-
mous bulk, and were only deterred from it by
his engaging to live for the future more
sparingly. They would have no inhabitants
but such as, in time of danger, might be
assisting in repelling an enemy.
Quid ad Farinas ?
What profit do you expect from this, or
how will it conduce to provide you with
bread, to which your attention should be
principally turned, may be said to young
persons, who are seen neglecting their busi-
ness, and spending their time in idle pursuits,
in keeping loose company, in haunting tavern s?
playhouses, and assemblies, in reading novels
and romances, or in taking up the trade of
poetry, without any better call than their
own silly conceit; a vice now very prevalent.
" Quid me numeri tantlem ad farinas juverint?"
Mortui
( 210 )
Mortui non mordent.
The dead do not bite, cannot hurt you.
This apothegm was used by Theodore Chius,
master in rhetoric to Ptolemy king of Egypt,
when consulted by him whether they should
grant an asylum to Pompey, who had landed
on their coast, after being defeated by Julius
Caesar. He advised them to receive him, and
put him to death; adding, " Mortuos non
mordere." Our more common phrase, and
which is probably used by ruffians who deter-
mine to murder those they rob, is, " the
dead tell no tales."
De Calceo solicitus, at Pedem nihil curet.
Looking more to the fashion of the shoe
than to the ease of the feet, which those
persons were said to do, who paid more atten-
tion to the diet than to the education of their
children.
Verbum
Verbum Sapient i.
" A buon intenditore poche parole."
" Le sage entend un demi mot."
" Al buen entendador pocas palabras.
" A word to the wise." To a sensible man,
but few words are ordinarily necessary, and a
fool will not understand you, though you
should give him a long dissertation.
Tanquam meum Nomen.
TanqUam Ungues, Digitosque suos.
It is a subject I am as well acquainted with,
as I am with my own name, or with my
fingers, was used to be said to persons repeat-
ing any well known story or circumstance.
" Totis diebus, Afer, hcec mihi narras,
Et teneo melius ista, quam meum nomen."
You are perpetually teasing me with a repeti-
tion of this story, which is as familiar to me
as my own name.
Mittc
( 212 )
Mitte in Aquam, hoc est, Aufer t medio.
A phrase for which we have no direct sub-
stitute. Take him away, to the river with
him. To the pump or to the horse pond, is
sometimes the cry of the mob in this country,
when they take upon themselves to execute
summary justice on some poor wretch taken
in the act of picking a pocket, or in the com-
mission of some crime for which they con-
ceive them properly to be amenable to their
tribunal. But among the ancients, certain
criminals were condemned to be tied in a sack
and drowned, which is what the adage
alludes to, and this kind of punishment is still
used in Germany. Parricides in Rome were
put into a sack with a cock, a monkey, a ser-
pent, and a dog, and thrown into a river or
into the sea, to which Juvenal alludes, in the
following lines, as translated by Hodgson.
" If votes were free, what slave so lost to shame.
Prefers not Seneca's to Nero's name,
Whose parricides, not one close sack alone,
One serpent, nor one monkey could atone ?"
Xero
Nero, it is known, caused his mother, two
of his wives, and Seneca his tutor to be put to
death.
Perdere Naulum.
" Echar la soga tras el caldero." " It is
throwing the rope after the bucket, the helve
after the hatchet," may be said to persons
under misfortunes, who, instead of exerting
themselves to recover what they have lost,
give way to despair, and so suffer what re-
mains of their property to be wrecked likewise.
" Furor cst post omnia perdere naulum."
But the adage is more immediately appli-
cable to persons who have made an unsuccess-
ful venture, \vho have taken goods to a
country where they are little in request, or
are valued at a very low price. Do not let
them be destroyed, get, at the least, so much
for them as will pay the freight; " of a bad
bargain we should make the best," and, " half
a loaf is better than no bread."
VOL, ir. if Turpz
( 214 )
Turpe siler e.
It is disgraceful to be silent. When a man
is conscious that he is capable of instructing
his fellow-citizens, or those with whom he is
connected, in any art that might be beneficial
to them, it is disgraceful, or perhaps criminal,
to withhold it.
" Be niggards of advice on no pretence,
For the worst avarice is that of sense."
It may also be said by any one, who should
find others not so well qualified as himself,
acquiring honour by the practice of any art or
profession, I must now exert myself, and shew
these men, that it was not through incapacity,
that I have hitherto abstained, " It would be
disgraceful to be any longer silent," and to a
circumstance of this kind, the adage is said to
have owed its origin.
Medice, cur a te ipsum.
Physician, heal thyself. It seems but just,
that those who profess to cure the diseases of
others, should, as a pledge of their capacity,
b§ able to preserve themselves, and families,
from
( 215 )
from the ravages of them. But how few are
able to give this pledge ! Practitioners in
medicine, are neither more remarkable for
longevity, nor for producing or rearing a more
healthy, or a more numerous progeny, than
those who are out of the pale of the profession.
This, however, does not arise from the fault of
the physician, but from the imperfection of
the art ; for though there is no branch of
science that has been cultivated with more
diligence, than this of medicine, or that has
had the advantage of being practised by men
of greater genius, abilities, and learning, or
who have laboured with greater industry, per-
severance, and zeal, to bring it to perfection;
yet they have been so far from attaining their
object, that there are many diseases, and
among them, some of the most frequent, for-
midable, and fatal, for which no adequate, or
successful methods of treatment, have been
discovered. The treatment of rheumatism is
at this time as various, unsettled, and gene-
rally as inefficient, as it was £000 years ago ;
and although so many volumes have beeu
written on asthma, and consumption, it is to
p<2 be
( 216 )
be lamented that no satisfactory proof can be
given, that either of them were ever cured by
medicine. Much might, perhaps, be clone to-
wards the improvement of the practice, if
physicians would follow the model which
the late Dr. Pleberden has left them in his
Commentaries ; in my judgment, one of the
best books which this, or any other age, or
country, has produced on the subject. The
College of Physicians have done something
towards leading practitioners to this mode,
by abolishing the vain titles heretofore given
to drugs and compositions, attributing to them
qualities which experience by no means war-
rants us in believing they possess. But even
in the complaints mentioned above, and many
more might be added, the physician may be
often able to give directions that may retard
their progress, and enable the patient to pass
his life with some degree of comfort; and
he who limits his endeavours to procuring
these advantages, will well deserve their grate-
ful acknowledgments, he will also escape the
censures so frequently thrown on the profes-
sors of the art. " Turba medicorum perii," a
multitude
( 217 )
multitude of physicians have destroyed me,
was the inscription the Emperor Adrian or-
dered to be put upon his monument. It would
be useless, perhaps in some degree mischiev-
ous, to recite the many sarcastic speeches that
have been recorded to degrade the practice
of mediciue. The effect they should have,
and which, indeed, they have had on the more
judicious practitioners, is not, on every occa-
sion, to load their patients with drugs, which,
when not absolutely necessary, deserve a dif-
ferent name than that of medicines. With no
great impropriety they may be called poisons;
for, although they may not kill, yet if they
nauseate, and destroy the tone of the stomach,
and have the effect of checking and prevent-
ing the powers of the constitution in their
efforts to expel the disease, they cannot fail
of doing much mischief. Baglivi, addressing
himself to young practitioners, says, " Quam
paucis remediis curantur morbi ! Quam pi u res
e vita tollit remediorum farrago!" and Sy-
denham advises, in many cases, rather to trust
to nature, it being a great error to imagine
that every case requires the assistance of art.
P 3 It
( 218 I
It should be considered, that as there are some
diseases for which medicine has not yet found
out any cure, there are others for which no
medicines are required, the constitution being
of itself, or only aided by rest, and a simple
and plain diet, sufficient to overcome them.
The French therefore say, with much good
sense, "Un bouillon dechoux fait perd re cinque
sous au medecin," a mess of broth hath lost
the physician his fee. That this adage is an-
cient may be concluded from the smallness of
the fee assigned to the doctor. The Undertaker,
in the Funeral, or Grief a-la-mode, among his
expenses, mentions ten pounds paid for a Trea-
tise against Water-gruel, "a damned healthy
slop, that has done his trade more mischief,"
he says, " than all the faculty." The Spaniards
on this subject say, " Al enfermo que es vida,
el agua le es medicina," the patient who is
not destined to die, will need no other medi-
cine than water : such is their opinion of the
efficacy of abstinence. " It is no less disgrace-
ful,''" Plutarch says, " to ask a physician, what
is easy, and what is hard of digestion, and
what will agree with the stomach, and what
not,
( 219 )
not, than it is to ask what is sweet, or bitter,
or sour." Our English adage, which is much
to this purport, and with which I shall close
this essay is, " Every man is a fool or a phy-
sician, at forty."
Facilius sit Nili Caput invenire.
It Mrould be easier to find the source of the
Nile. This has in all ages been considered as
so difficult, that the proverb was used to re-
present something scarcely possible ever to be
effected : this opinion was not formed until
after a variety of experiments had been made
with a view to its discovery. But the dis-
tance of its head or source from any of the
parts of Africa that had been visited or were
known to Europeans, or to the inhabitants of
the northern parts of that vast continent, is so
great, and the countries lying between them
inhabited by such numerous tribes of savages,
that all the expeditions formed for that pur-
pose had failed, and so many lives had been
lost in the attempt, that the project had for
p 4 many
( 220 )
many ages been laid aside. That one of its
sources is now known, is owing to the genius
or industry of certain Portuguese missiona-
ries. Mr. Bruce, indeed, assumes to himself
the merit of having made this discovery, but
it had been very circumstantially described by
Lobo, in his account of Abyssinia, whose work
on the subject was translated by Dr. Johnson,
and by Sir Peter Wyche, in his " Short Rela-
tion of the River Nile," translated by him
from the Portuguese, and published by order
of the Royal Society in 1673: perhaps a short
extract from this little tract, which is not com-
mon, may be acceptable.
" One of the provinces of Abyssinia," the
•writer says, " is called Agoas ; the inhabitants
of the same name, whether these bestowed
their name or took it from the province. The
higher part of the country is mountainous
and woody, yet not without vallies and groves
of cedars, for goodness and scent not inferior
to those of Lebanus. In this territory is the
known head and source of the Nile, by the
natives called Abani, the father of waters,
from the great collection it makes in the king-
doms
doms and provinces through which it passeth;
for the greatest part of Ethiopia being moun-
tainous and the torrents swelled in the winter,
the mountains so transmit them as to increase
the river, which falling into the Nile make no
little addition to its greatness, causing it to
run with such a stock of water as overflows the
plains of JEgypt. This is the river the Scrip-
ture calleth Gihon, which encompassed the
land of Ethiopia, so doth the Nile with its
turnings and meanders. The head rises in the
most pleasant recess of the territory, having
two springs called eyes, each about the big-
ness of a coachwheel, distant from each other
about twenty paces: the pagan inhabitants
adore as an idol the biggest, offering to it
many sacrifices of cows which they kill there,
flinging the head into the spring, eat the flesh
as holy, lay the bones together in a place de-
signed for that purpose, which at present
make a considerable hill, and would make it
much bigger, if carnivorous beasts and birds
of prey did not, by picking them, lessen and
scatter them."
The curious reader will be struck with ob-
serving
serving how very nearly the account given by
Mr. Bruce resembles this, which is here laid
before him. That Mr. Bruce should take no
notice of either of these books, though it is
scarcely possible but he must have seen or
heard of them, is singular.
Mr. Rennel has however shewn, in a late
publication on the Geography of Herodotus,
that the river, the head of which has been here
described, is only one and an inferior source
of the Nile, and that the largest and princi-
pal source of that celebrated stream rises at a
great distance from Agoas, and much higher
up in the country, and which has probably
never yet been visited by any European.
The principal source of the Nile, therefore,
remaining still undiscovered, the proverb con-
tinues in full force.
Terram video.
I see land, may be said by persons getting
nearly to the end of a long and troublesome
business, or concluding any great work or la-
bour; more directly, and to this the adage
owes its origin-, by those who have been a long
time
( 223 )
time at sea, and perhaps been driven about by
adverse winds, on first espying the shore,
" Thank God, I once more see land 1" an eja-
culation which some of my readers may per-
haps make at finding they have got to the
end of this hook ; and it may not be less satis-
factory to them to learn, that the writer or
collector of this miscellany is too far advanced
in life, to be likely to make any considerable
addition to them.
FINIS.
INDEX.
A a ERR A RE a Scopo — • 224
Ab Incunabulis — — 163
Ab Ovo usque ad Mala — 230
ActiLabores jucundi — 281
Ad Amussim 131
Ad Concilium ne accesseris, antequam voceris 58
Ad felicem inflectere Parietem — — 66
Ad Fincm ubi perveneris, ne veils rcverti 13
Ad pcenitendum properat cito qui judicat vol. ii. 95
At! Unguem 131
Adversus Solem ne loquitor 14
yEdibus in nostris quae prava aut recta geruutur 142
jEgroto dum Anima est, spes est vol. ii. 13
/Equalis aequaletn delectat 43
/Ethiopem ex Vultu judico — 210
A Fabis abstineto — f)
Albas Gallinae Filius 31
Album Calculum addere 122
Alicnos Agros irrigas, tuis sitientibus — 67
Alii sementcm faciunt, alii metent 119
AUorum Medicus, ipse Ulceribus scates vol. ii. 31
Aliam
•26 INDEX.
Page
Aliam Quercum excute — 120
Altera Manu fert Lapidem, altera Panem ostentat 177
Altera Manu scabunt, altera feriunt — 177
Ama tanquam osurus, oderis tanquani amaturus 252
Amens longus — — 54
Amicorum communia sunt omnia — 1
Amyclas perdidit Silentium vol. ii. 203
Anicularum Deliramenta vol. ii. 102
Animo aegrotanti Medicus est Oratio • — vol. ii. 90
An nescis longas Regibns esse Manus ? — — 35
Annosa Vulpes baud capitur Laqueo — 209
and vol. ii. 184
Annosam Arborem transplantare — — 89
Ansam quaerere — — 105
Ante Barbam doces senes — vol. ii. 70
Ante hac putabam te habere Cornua — vol. ii. 70
Antequam incipias, consulto 288
Annulus aureus in Naribus Suis — — 162
Anus Hircum olet — vol. ii. 93
Anus Simia serd quidem vol. ii. 22
Aphya ad Ignem vol. ii. 103
Apii Opus est — — vol. ii. 59
A puro pura defluit Aqua — — vol. ii. 66
Aquilae Senecta — — — 205
Aranearum Telas texere — 89
Arctum Anulum ne gestato — 9
Are varia Vulpi, ast una Echino maxima 114
Artem qurcvis alit Terra — 163
Asinum sub Frceno currere doces 89
Asinus inter Simias — — -•- 115
Asinus
INDEX. 227
Page
Asinus in Unguento — — 118
Asperius nihil est humili cum surgit in altum — • 153
Astutior Coccyge — vol. ii. 153
A teneris Unguiculis 163
Athos celat Latera Lemniae Bovis — vol. ii. 64
Avarus uisi quum moritur, nil recte facit vol. ii. 165
Aureo piscari Hamo 265
Auribus Lupum teneo — 114
Auro loquenti nihil pollet qusevis Ratio — vol. ii. 7 1
Aurum Tolosanum 243
Ausculta et perpende — vol. ii. 117
Aut bibat aut abeat 225
Aut Caesar aut nullus — 6%
Aut Regem aut Fatuum nasci oportuit — 62
BARBJE ten us Sapientes — 60
and vol. ii. 178
Barbati — vol. ii. 18-t
Baeta turn Hyeme turn Estate bona — vol. ii. 105
Belte narras 250
Bellura inexpertis vol. ii. 137
Bcneficium accipere, est Libertatem vendere vol. ii. 49
and 180
Bis dat qui cito dat 190
Bis interimitur qui suis Armis pent vol. ii. 125
Bis Pueri Senes 100
Bceotum in crasso jurares A tire natum vol. ii. 187
Bona k Tergo formosissirna 276
Bona magis carendo quain truendo sentimus — 276
.Bona? Leges ex mails Moribus procreantur 231
Bona
.228 INDEX.
Pagt
Bona nemini Hora est, quin alicui sit mala vol. ii. 16'8
Boni Pastoris est tondere Pecus, non deglubere vol. ii. 103
Bonis vel malis Avibus — — —
Bonus Dux bonum reddit Comitem — -^—
Bos alienus subincle prospectat Foras — —
Bos in Linua — — —
caeco Dux — — 180
Camaelus desiderans Cornua etiam Aures perdidit 44
vol. ii. 94
Camelus saltat — vol. ii. 43
Canes Socium in Culina nullum amant — — 44
Canes timidi vehementius lalrant vol. ii. 109
Canis in Praesepi 221
Canis festinans caecos parit Catulos 257
Canlabit vacuus coram Latrone Viator — 77
Cantilenam eandem canere vol. ii. 2S
Captantes capti sumus — — 210
Catulae Dominas imitantes — vol.ii. 55
Caudaa Pilos equkiae paulatim evellere — 192
Cedro digna locutus vol.ii. 128
Certa sunt paucis 116'
Chamaeleonte mutabilior — vol.ii. 171
Chius Dominum emit — — vol. ii. 9
Cibum in Matellam ne immittito 12
Citius quam Asparagi coquuntur vol. ii. 102
Citra Arationem, citraque Sementem • — 129
Citra Pulverem 129
Clavam extorquere Herculi vol.ii. 127
Ccenare me doces -r* — vol. ii. 95
Cosnatio
IKDEX. 229
Page
Cognatio rnovet Invidiam — vol. ii. 67
Conscientia mille Testes 337
Contra Sfimulum calces — 69
Contra Torrentem niti • — vol. ii. 91
Cor ne edito — — — 7
Corinthiari - — vol. ii. 154
Comix Scorpium rapuit — 26
Coronam quidem gestans caeterum Siti perditus 26l
Corrumpunt Mores bonos Colloquia prava 236
Corycanis auscultavit voL ii. 89
Crambe bis posita, Mors — — — 101
Crehl vel Carbone notare 123
Croesi Pecunioe ter unciam addere 38
Cui placet obliviscitur, cui dolet meminit 154
Cum Lacte Nutricss 163
Cum Larvis luctari 47
Cumini Sector — — 247
Cura esse quod audis — — vol. ii. 129
Currus Bovem trahit •—-;.'• — - — 160
DATE mihi Pelvim *— vol. ii. 6&
Davus sum non CEdipus — — — 109
De Asini Umbra 71
De Calceo solicitus, at Pedem nihil curet vol. ii. 210
De Fiece haurire 2l6
De Filo pendet — 207
De Fructu Arborem cognosce 211
De Fumo disceptare »— 72
De Lana cnprina 71
ii. V Delphiaurn
230 INDEX.
Page
Delphinuai natare doces, vel Aquilam volare — 9*
Deraulcere Caput vol. ii. 55
De mortuis nil nisi bonum — — 47
Den tern Den te rodere • — — vol.ii. 35
Deorum Cibus est — 186
De Pilo pendet — 207
Destitutus Ventis Remos adhibe — vol. ii. l62
De te Exemplum capit — — vol.ii. 145
Dies adimit ^Egritudinem vol. ii. 18
Difficilia qoae pulehra — 246
Difficilius est sarcire Concordiam quam rumpere 24-7
Digitum noft porrexerim 67
Dignum Patella Operculum — 232
Dii Laneos Pedes habent 242
Dimidium facti, qui benc cepit, habet — 45
Dimidium plus toto — — — 257
Divitis Servi niaxime Servi vol. ii. 147
Dives aut iniquus est, aut iniqui hrercs 199
Dolium volvitur — vol, ii. 156
Dos est magna Parentuin Virtus vol. ii. 181
Duabus sedcre Sellis 151
Dulce est miseris Socios habuisse Doloris vol. ii. 194
Dolcis inexpertis Culturu potentis Amici vol. ii. ISO
Duos insequens Lepores, neutrum capit vol. ii, 101
Durum ct durum non faciunt Murum — vol.ii. 72
EANDEM tumlerc Incudem — 2l6
Ejusdem Farinae « — l6l
Elephantus non capit Murem — 207
Elephantem ex Musca facis — , 208
Erner*
231
Page
Emere inalo quam rogare 67
E multis Paleis paulura Fructus 56
Emuncta? Naris Homo 141
Eodem Collyrio mederi omnibus vol. ii. 114
Equi et Poetae alendi mm saginandi vol. ii. 130
Equus Sejauus — — 244
E quovis Ligno non fit Mercurius vol. ii. 24
Et meum Telum Cuspidem habet acuminatum 59
Etiamsi Cato dicat vol. ii. l6\
E tardigradis Asinis, Equus non prodiit vol. ii. 45
Eum ausculta, cui quatuorsunt Aures — 65
Ex eodem Ore calidum et frigidum effkire — 177
Exigit et e Statuis Farinas vol. ii. 64
Exiguum Maluin ingens Bonum vol. ii. 2t>
Ex Harena I'uniculum needs — 10.9
Ex Pede Herculem 214
Ex Quercubus ac Saxis nati 189
Extra Lutum Pedes habes — — • — 57
Extra Telorum Jactum — • — 81
Extra Scopum jaculare 224
Extremis Digitis attingere — • 215
Ex Umbra in Solem — 57
Ex uno omnia specta — 57
FABARUV Arrosor vol. ii. 169
Facile quum valemus, recta Consilia .ZEgrotis damns 138
Facilius sit Nili Capnt invenire vol. ii. 219
Fama; laboranti non facile succurritur — 176
Fames et Mora BHem in Nastim copciunt vol. ii. 46
Q 2 Felix
23* INDRX.
Page
Felix Corinthus, at ego sim Teneates — vol. ii. 144
Fenestram vel Januam aperire 83
Fervet olla, vivit Amicitia — 111
Festina, lente — 244
Festucum ex alterius Oculo ejiccre — 144
Ficum cupit 274
Ficos dividere 243
Ficus Ficus, Ligonem Ligonem vocat 275
Fidelius rident Tuguria 77
Figulus Figulo invidet 44
Flamma Fumo est proxima • — — 97
Flet victus, Victor interiit vol. ii. 131
Fluvius cum Mari certas — — — 213
Fcenum habet in Cornu — 33
Koines ipsi sitiunt — 167
Fortes Fortuna adjuvat — — — 46
Fortuna nimium quern favet, Stultum facit 76
Fortuna obesse nulli contents est semel vol. ii. 1 14
Frigidam Aquam effundere 228
Frons Occipitio prior 42
Front! nulla Fides 260
Frustra habet qui non utitur vol. ii. 45
Frustra Herculi — vol. ii. 35
Fucum facere — — 121
Fuere quondam Milesii vol. ii. 197
Fuimus Troes — — 202
Funem abrumpere nimium tendendo — 127
Furari Litoris Arenas vol. ii. 50
Furemque Fur cognoscit — 287
Galhis
INDEX. 233
Page
Callus in suo Sterquilinio plurimum valet vol. ii. 159
Gall-urn habeas Amicum non Vicinum vol. ii. 179
Gutta Fortunae prae Dolio Sapientiae 129
Gutta cavit Lapidem — 65
HABET vol. ii. 119
Habet et Musca Splenam — vol. ii. 93
Harena sine Calce 2So
Ilarenae mandas Semina — 90
Hie Funis nihil attraxit 200
Hinc illae Lachryma? 26"4
Hirundinem sub eodem Tecto ne habeas 14
Hodie nihil succedit vol. ii. 1?0
Homines frugi omnia recte faciunt — 269
Homo est Bulla — 2STI
Homo longus raro sapiens — 56
IGNAVIS semper Feriae sunt vol.ii. 29
Ignem ne Gladio fodito 8
Ignis, Mare, Mulier, tria Mala 264
Illotis Pedibus ingredi 203
Jmi Subsellii Viri vol. ii. 109
Incidis in Scyllam, cupiens vitare Charybdim — 95
Indignus qui illi Matellam porrigat — 132
Injuriae spretae exolescunt — SO
Inexplebile Dolium — 224
Incudi reddere — 131
Inimicus et invidus VicinorumOculus vol.ii. 96
In Acre piscari — vol. ii. 53
Insanus, medio Flumine queeris Aquara 212
Q 3 Illj
234 INDEX.
Page
Illi Mors gravis incubat, qui notus nimis omnibus
ignotus moritur sibi — — vol. ii. 84
In Annulum, Dei Figuram ne gestato — 15
In Aqua vel in Saxis Sementem facis — ^ 90
In caducum Parietem inclinare — vol. ii. 37
In Coelum jaculare vol.ii. 69
In eburna Vagina plumbeus Gladius 162
Inest et Formicas sua Bilis vol. ii. 93
In Flammam ne Manum injicito vol. ii. 98
In Herba esse — — 272
In Laqueos Lupus • — 166
In Mare venari — vol. ii. 53
In Mari Aquam quasris 212
In Nocte Consilium — — — 258
In Portu navigare 24
In Quudrum redigere — 217
In Re mala, Animo si bono utare, adjuvat vol. ii. 96
In se descendere — — 143
In sola Sparta expedit senescere vol. ii. 145
In Sylvam Ligna ferre — — l6S
In Saltu uno duos Apros capere — - vol. ii. 101
Inter indoctos etiam Corydus sonat — 273
Inter Malleum et Incudem 16
IntraTelorum Jactum — <• 82
Intra tuam Pelliculam te confine 145
In tuo Regno es — — 166
In Vado esse 24
In Vino Veritas — 156'
In vita Minerva — — 20
In utramvis dormire Aurem 175
Ipse
INDEX. 235
Page
Ipse semet canit — vol. ii. 27
Iracundior Adria - — 220
Ira brevis Furor — — • — 154
Ira omnium tardissime senescit — • — 154
Irritare Crabrones — 26
JACTANTIUS raoerent qui minus dolent vol.ii. 158
Jejunus raro Stomachus vulgaria temnit, vol. ii. 183
Jungere Vulpes, aut mulgere llircum — 110
Juxta Fluvium Puteum ibdit vol.ii. 48
Brachio — 37
Laterem lavas — .91
Latet Anguis in Ilerba 87
Latum Unguem — 110
Laudatur et alget vol.ii. 176
Laureum Baculum gesto —
Leberide caecior — 74
Lentiscum mandere 179
Leonem stimulas 27
Leonem ex Unguibus estimare 214
Leonem Larva terres 133
Leporis Vitam vivit TO!, ii. 155
Lingua Amicus — vol. ii. 77
Lingua bellare — vol. ii. 56
Lingua non redarguta vol. ii. 78
Lingua, quo vadis ? 257
Li tern parit Lis, Noxa item Noxam parit 195
Lucri bonus est Odor ex Re qualibet vol. ii. 104
Lucrum malum aequale Dispendio — vol. ii. 97
Q 4 Lucrum
236' INDEX.
Page
Lucrum Pudori praestat vol. ii. 105
Lumen Soli mutuum das — ]68
Lupi ilium priores viderunt — 1/3
Lupus Pilum mutat non Mentem vol. ii. 42
Luscus Convitia jacit in caecum — — 274
Lyd i us Lapis, si ve Heracli us Lapis •*- — 130
MAGIS gaudet quam qui Senectam exuit vol. ii. 108
Magis magni Clerici, non sunt magis Sapientes 165
Magister Artis, Ingeniique Largitor Venter — 99
Magistratum gerens, audi et juste et injustk vol. ii. 165
Magistratus Virum indicat — •*•- 339
Magis mutus quam Pisces — — 115
Mala ultro adsunt — — vol. ii. 144
Male parta, male dilabuntur — — 171
Malis mala succedunt — — vol. ii. 114
Malo accepto, Stultus sapit -^ *— - 18
Malo Nodo malus quzerendus Cuneus — 36
Malum Consilium Consultori pessimum vol.ii. 87
Malum bene conditum ne moveris — • — 27
Malum Munus — — — vol. ii. .149
Malum Vas non frangitur — vol.ii. 147
Mandrabuli More Res succedit — -^51
Manibus Pedibusque • — — -^- 84t
Manliana Imperia — —*• «*— 240
Manum non verterira — — 67
Manum de Tabula — -*— 102
Manus Manum fricat -r- ]9
Massiliam naviges -— vol. ii. 199
Mature fias senex, si diu velis esse senex 52
MaturaSatio sacpe decipit, sera semper mala est 206
INDEX. 237
Page
Meclice, cura te ipsum vol. ii. 214
Mendacem memorem esse oportet' — vol. ii. 1
Mendico ne Parentes quidem Amici sunt vol. ii. 136
Messe tenus propria vivere 100
Merx ultronea putet — — — 201
Alinutula Pluvia Imbrem parit — — 64
Minuit Prassentia Famam — — vol. ii. 124
Mitte in Aquam, hoc est aufer e medio vol. ii. 212
Molli Brachio — — 37
Mons cum Monte non miscebitur — - — 45
Mordere Labrum — — vol. ii. 108
Mors omnibus communis — — vol. ii. 140
Mortui non mordent — — vol. ii. 210
Mortutnn flagellas — — — 106
Mortuus per Somnum vacabis Curis — vol. ii. 118
Mulier turn bene olet, ubi nihil olet — vol. ii. 73
Multa novit Vulpes, sed Felis unum magnum — 112
Multa cadunt inter Calicem supremaque Labra 94
Multas Amicitias Silentium diremit — — 249
Multa; Manus Onus levius reddunt — vol. ii. 9
Multae Regum Aures atque Oculi — — 35
Multis Ictibus dejicitur Quercus — — 186
Multos in summa Pericula misit
Venturi Timor ipse Mali — — vol. ii. 203
Munerum, Animus optimus est — vol. ii. 169
Muris in Morem — vol. ii. 100
Mustelam habes — — — — 55
NAM tuaRes agitur Paries cum proximus ardet vol. ii. 102
Naribus trahere — • — — — 251
Naturam
J38 IXDEX.
Page
Naturam expellas Furca, tamen usque recurret vol.ii. 42
Ne ad Au res quiclem scalpendas Ociom est — 277
Ne .iEsopum quidem trivit — vol.ii. 31
Ne cuivis Dextram injeceris 5
Nee quovis Ligno Mercurius fiat vol. ii. 24
Ne Gladium tollas Mulier vol. ii. 25
Ne gustaris quibus nigra est Cauda — 4
Ne Hercules quidem adversus duos 1 l6
Ne in Nervum erumpat — vol. ii. 36
Ne Jupiter quidem omnibus placet vol. ii. 143
Ne Malorum memineris — 254
Nee Oboluin habet unde Ilestim emat — 70
Ne prius Antidotum quam Venenum — vol. ii. 157
Ne quid nimis — 148
Ne Sus Minervam 19
Ne Sutor ultra Crepidam — 21
Ne Verba pro Farina — vol.ii. 29
Necessitas Magistra — vol. ii. 183
Neglectis uremia Filix innascitur Agris — vol. ii. 54
Nemini fidas nisi cum quo prius Modium Salis
absumpseris — • — 248
Nemo me impune lacessit 60
Nemo sibi nascitur vol. ii. 172
Neque Mel, neque Apes — 137
Neque natare, neque Literas — vol. ii. 32
Nequicquam sapit qui sibi non sapit — 136
Nervis omnibus — — 85
Nescis quid serus Vesper vehat — 152
Nil actum reputans, si quid superesset agendum,
vol. ii. 152
Nihil ad Fides — 118
NibiJ
INDEX. 239
Page
ad Versum — — • — 117
Nihil de Vitello — vol. ii. 153
Nimia Familiaritas parit Contemptum — 49
Nocte latent Menda? 171
Noctua inter Cornices — — 119
Noctua volavit — 29
Nocumentum Documentum 107
Noli Equi Denies inspicere donati vol. ii. 168
Non attingere Scopum — — 224
Non bene imperat, nisi qui paruerit Imperio -— 15
Non cuivis Homini contingit adire Corinthum — 82
Non esse Cupidum Pecunia est, non esse emacera
Vectigal — 77
Non est e Terris mollis ad Astra Via • — 247
Non estejusdem et multa, et opportuna dicere — 6l
Non est miht cornea Fibra vol.ii. 33
Non est Rernedium adversus Sycophantse Morsum
vol. ii. 33, & 185
Non incedisper Ignem — vol.ii. 117
Non omnes possumus omnia vol. ii. 6l
Non omnis fert omnia Tellus — vol. ii. 6l
Non progredi est regredi — vol.ii. 174
Non statim decernendum vol. ii. 118
Non sunt Amici qui degunt procul 249
Non tarn Ovum Ovo simile 110
Non unquam tacuisse nocct — — vol. ii. 199
Non uti libet, sed uti licet, sic vivimus — 181
Nosce te ipsum — 146
Nosce Tempus — 169
Novacula in Cotem 17
Nuces
240 INDEX.
Page
Nuces relinquere — 108
Nulla Dies sine Linea — 84
Nullus illis Nasus est — — 141
Nullus sum — — 70
Num vobis tinniebant Aures — — vol. ii. l6
Nunc tuum Ferrum in Igni est — vol. ii. l6Q
OBTIU'DKRE Palpum — vol. m 100
Occasio facit Furein vol. ii. 75
Occultze Musices nullus Respectus — 172
Oculus dexter mihi salit -<— — — vol. ii. 16
Oderint modo metuant — vol.ii. 51
Ocli memorem Compotorem 225
OditCane pejus et Angue vol. ii. 52
Odium Vatinianum 275
CEstro percitus — — . vol.ii. 44
Oleo tranquilior — — 220
Oleum Camino addere — 37
Oleum et Operam perdere 105
OletLucernam — — 142 and 170
Olitorem odi qui radicitus Herbas excidat 'vol. ii. 103
Ollae Amicitia — 111
Omne ignotum pro magnifico est • 50
Omnes attrahens ut Magnes Lapis 164
Omnes sibi melius malunt quam alteri — 80
Omnia bonos Viros decent vol. ii. 53
Omnia idem Pulvis - l6l
Omnem movere Lapidem — 85
Omnium Horarum Homo 78
Opera Sylosontis ampla Regio — 242
Oportet
INDEX. 24rl
Page
Oportet Testudinis Carnes aut edere, aut non edere 229
Optimum aliena Insania frui 280
Optimum Condimentum Fames vol. ii. 43
Optimum non nasci 282
Optimum Obsonium para Senectuti vol. ii. 81
Orci Galeam habet vol. ii. 58
Ovem Lupo commisisti 83
PALINODIAM canere 204
Palpo percutere vol. ii. 120
Pannus lacer vol. ii. 8
Pariter Remum ducere vol. ii. 162
Par Pari referre vol. ii. 167
Parturiunt Montes, nascetur ridiculus Mus 198
Patriag Fumus Igni alieno luculentior 39
Paupertas Sapientiam sortita est 99
Pecunias obediunt omnia 75
Pennas incidere alicui 160
Percontatorem fugito, nam idem garrulus est 14-
Perdere Naulum • vol. ii. 233
Pergnccari vol. ii. 122
Per Ignem incedis vol. ii. 116
Pingere sub Gladio vol. ii. 155
Piscator ictus sapit — — 19
Pluris est unus ocufatus Testis, quara auriti decem
vol. ii. 36
Poeta nascitur non fit vol.ii. 188
Polypi Mentem obtine 34.
Post Festum venisti 203
Praemonitus prsemunitus 280
Praesens
£42 INDEX.
vol. ii.
qui
vol. ii.
vol. ii.
Page
J64
59
160
279
45
108
76
76
143
245
66'
250
50
121
140
113
11
52
16' I
20
0'
123
W9
65
107
127
19
Qui
Praestat habere acerbos inimicos, quam eos
Praestat invidiosum esse quam miserabilem
vol. ii.
vol. ii.
vol. ii.
Principium Dimidium totius
Priusquam Callus iterum cecinerit
Prospectandum vetulo latrante Cane
vol. ii.
vol. ii.
vol. ii.
Pulverem Oculis effundere
Qujfc dolent ea molestum est cbntingere
vol. ii.
opti-
vol. ii.
vol. ii.
vol. ii.
vol. ii.
Quam quisque norit Artem, in hac se excrceat
Qui bene conjiciat, Yatem hunc pcrhibeto
Quicquid in Buccam, vel in Linguam vcncrit
Quid Coeco cum Speculo
Quid nisi victis Dolor
vol. ii.
IXDEX.
24$
Qui jacet in Terra, non liabet unde cadat vol. ii. 37
Qui Lucerna egent, infuiulunt Oleum vol.ii. 193
Qui nescit dissimulare, nescit regnare vol. ii. 150
Qui nimis p rope re, minus prospere --- 245
Qui non litigat Cselubs est vol. ii. 132
Qui Nucler.m esse vult, Nucem frangat oportet
vol. ii. 47
Qui vital Molam, vital Farinam - vol.ii. 79
Quarta Luna nati - 30
Quod alibi diminutum, exequatur alibi vol. ii. 6'l
Quod de quoque Viro et cui dicas, saepe cavcto vol. ii. 185
Quod in Corde sobrii, id in Lingua ebrii 156
Quod licet ingratum est, quod non licet acrius erit 2(>3
Quod non Opus est, Asse carum est vol. ii. l60
Quod procedere non potest recedit vol. ii. 174
Quod quis Culpa sua contraxit, majus malum vol. ii. 125
Quod supra nos, nihil ad nos 139
Quo seme! est imbuta recens servabit Odorein Testa
din - vol. ii. 14
Quoniam id fieri quod vis non potest,
Id velis quod possis -- vol. ii. 207
Quot Servi tot Hostes 273
RADIT usque ad Cutem vol.ii. .91
Rara Avis 250
Rebus iiv adversis facile est contemnere Mortem
vol.ii. 206
Red ire ad Nuces 309
RefricareCicatricem ; - 141
Refricare- Memoriam 141
Refii-
244 INDEX.
Pag*
Refutantis Laudem immodicam - vol. ii. 58
Rem Acu tetigisti - vol. ii. 18
Remis Velisque - - - 85
Reperire Rimam - vol. ii. 66
Reperit Deus Nocentem — — vol. ii. 54
Res in Cardine est - 16
Res indicabit 17
Rore vixit More Cicadas vol. ii. 159
etiam est Holitor valde opportuna loquutus 132
Saepe etiam Stultus fuit opportuna loquutus 133
Salem et Mensam ne praetereas — — - 134
Salem lingere - - vol.ii. 106
Sapientes portant Cornua in Pectore, Stulti in Fronte
vol.ii. 131
Sapientum octavus - - - " 188
Sat cito si sat ben£ - - 245 and vol. ii. 185
Satius estlnitiis mederi quam Fini 45-
Satius est recurrere quam currere male 21 1
Sat pulchra si sat bona - POP
Saxum volntum non obducitur Muscho vol. ii. 92
Scindere Glaeiem - vol. ri. Qft
Segnius Homines bona quam mala sentiunt -- 154
Semper tibi pendeat Hamus — - 20t
Senem juventus pigra Mendicum creat - • 52
Senis mutare Linguam — ; — 53
Septennis quum sit.nondum edidit Denies - 256
Sequitur \'er Ilyemem vol. ii, l6
Sera in Fundo Parcimonia 256
Sero Clypeum post Vulnera - 46
Sero
INDEX. 245
Page
Sero sapiunt Phryges •• 18
Serpens ni edat Serpentem, Draco non fiet vol. ii. 78
Si juxta claudum habites, subclaudicare disces 233
Simia Simla est, etiamsi aurea gestat Insignia 153
Simile gaudet Simili 43
Similes habent Labra Lectucas • • 231
Simul sorbere et flare, difficile est 271
Sincerum est nisi Vas, quodcunque infundis acescit
vol. ii. 15
Sine Cortice nalare 181
Sine Pennis volare haud facile est vol. ii. 99
Spartam nactus es, lianc orna vol. ii. 23
Spem Pretio emere • vol. ii. JO
Sponde, Noxa est praesto 149
Stultum est timere quod vitari non potest — — 280
Stultus qui, Patre occiso, Liberos relinquat • 229
Stultus semper incipit vivere vol.ii. 68
Stylum vert ere 123
Stia Munera mittit cum Hamo vol.ii. Ill
Suam quisquc Homo Rem meminit vol. ii. 20t
Sub Cultro liquit vol.ii. 6'0
Sub omni Lapide Scorpius dormit 86
Sublata Lucerna nihil interest inter Mulieres vol. ii. 72
Sum bonus et frugi 26'9
Summis Labris • 215
Summis Naribus olfacere 216'
Summum Jus, summa Injuria 221
Suo Jumento Malum accersere 2<j
Surdo Canis 92
Sustine et abstine — - — vol.ii. 40
vou II. u Suum
£46 INDEX.
Page
Suum cuique pulchrum 38
Suum cuique Decus Posteritas rependet 50
Sylosontis Chlamys 241
TACITUS pasci si posset vol. ii. 127
Talpa cascior 74
Tanquam Argivum Clypeura abstulerit, ita glo-
riatur vol. ii. 44
Tanquam meum Nomeu vol. ii. 211
Tanquam Suber vol. ii. 100
Tanquam Ungues Digitosque suos vol. ii. 18
Taurum toilet qui Vitulum sustulerit 48
Te cum habita 145
Te ipsum non alens, Canes alis vol. ii. 27
Tempus edax Rerum vol. ii. 14
Tempus omnia revelat vol. ii. 13
Terram video vol. ii. 222
Tertius Cato 187
Testudineus Gradus vol. ii. 99
Thesaurus Carbones erant 198
Thus Aulicum • 69
Timidi Mater non flet vol. ii. 172
Timidi nunquam statuerunt Trophoeum vol. ii. 30
Timidus Plutus . vol. ii. 112
Tollenti Onus auxiliare, deponenti nequaquam 10
Toto Coelo errare 25
Toto Pec tore 85
Trochi in Morem « vol. ii. 171
Tua Res agitur Paries quum proximus ardet vol. ii. 102
Tuis te pingum Coloribus vol. ii. 151
Tunica
247
Page
Tunica Pallio propior est 81
Turdus ipse sibi malum cacat 25
Turpe silere • • vol. ii. 214-
Turtura loquacior 111
Tuum tibi narro Somnium vol. ii. 47
VEL casco appareat 189
Velocem tardus assequitur 169
Vclut Umbra sequi vol. ii. 107
Venter obesus non gignit Mentem subtilem vol. ii. 208
Ver Hyemem sequitur vol. ii. l6
Verbura Sapienti — — • vol. ii. 211
Verecundia inutilis Viro egenti vol. ii. 39
Veritatis simplex est Oratio • — — 79
Veterem Injuriam ferendo, invitas novam 103
Viam qui nescit ad Mare — — 163
Vicistis Cochleam Tarditate vol. ii. 99
Vino vendibili suspensa Hedera nihil Opus vol. ii. 21
Virtutem etSapientiam vincunt Testudines 159
Virum improbum vel Mus mordeat 189
Vis unita fortior • 113
Vita Mortal! um brevis • vol. ii. 114
Volam Pedis ostendere vol. ii. 168
Vox et Preterea nihil vol. ii. 149
UBI Amici, ibi Opes 68
Ubi Mens plurima, ibi minima Fortuna 76
Ubi quis dblet ibi et Manum frequens habet — — 2o"2
Ubi tres Medici, duo Athei vol. ii. 202
Ultra Vires nihil aggrediendum — — vol. ii. 110
Ululas
24S INDEX.
Page
Ululas Athaenas portare 38
Urabram suam metuere 26 1
Una Domus non alit duos Canes 44
Una Hirundo non efficit Ver 174
Undarum in Ulnis vol. ii. 170
Unico Digitulo scalpit Caput 178
Ungentein pungit, pungentem Rusticus ungit vol. ii. 67
Unus Vir, nullus Vir • 117
Usque ad Aras Amicus vol. ii. 65
Usus est altera Natura vol. ii. 172
Ut Canis e Nilo 212
Ut Lupus Ovem amat vol. ii. l6S
Ut possumus, quando ut volumus non licet 181
Ut Sementem feceris, ita et metes 184
ZEN ox E moderator 243
ERRATA, VOL. II.
Page 31. 1. 7. for it is instruct, read it is to instruct.
60. 4. after the word said, a comma.
14. for hatchet, read hatches.
67. 4. for angit, read ungit.
71 . 14. for its, rtad Ins.
88. last line but one, for auspices, rtad aruspices.
London: Printed by C. Rowortli, BeU-vard, Temple-bar.
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IJA
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| __label__neg | 0 | proverbschieflyt00blaniala | OL7023099M | OL198703W | 566 | 1,814 |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 如何培养小学生自学英语的能力
杨筱艳
语教学法指出，外语学习一般分为三个阶外段：呈现，实践，迁移。呈现是掌握课文阶段，要求记忆范例：实践是从课文中认识规则的阶段，要求变换、延伸、扩展范例；迁移是应用所学语句阶段，要求复用以至自由表达，也称运用。这一理论在现代小学英语课堂教学中体现得尤为明显。对学生自学能力的培养应贯穿于这三个阶段中。
一、在呈现过程中，使预习成为习惯
1.单词的预习及其发散学习
在实际课堂教学中，我们常常发现，学生想说而不敢说或不知如何说。其原因之一是每一课的新词汇对于他们来讲是“消极"的词汇，他们不熟悉新词的发音，这阻碍了他们的语言表达。因此，在平时的教学中，我特别提出了预习新课词汇的要求。要求学生通过听录音、请教老师与家长或同学之间互帮互助等形式预习生词(尤其是生词的发音)，并有意识地安排他们在每堂课的“Free Talk"环节中大声朗读这些生词，以鼓励他们更积极地去预习。在新课的学习中，这些词汇经过教师进一步的纠正发音，讲解其用法以后，就会变成“积极"的词汇，即能用于表达的词江。在旧日句型中，这些是新词汇，在新句型中，它们又变为“已知词汇”，这样，每个训练环节中，只包含一个难点，有利于学生的表达。单词的预习不应仅停留在读会它们这一层面上，还可适当地予以扩展，从而引发同类单
词的学习，比如，学习第一册 Lesson 31七种颜色时，可让他们自学其它颜色的说法，学习第二册 Lesson5，可让他们自学其它有关家庭成员的说法等等，词汇量的丰富，能使学生的表达更为生动、有趣。
2.短文的预习
单词的预习强调的是“朗读其音”，短文的预习强调的是“理解其义”。教师应对学生提出明确的要求：要求他们回家认真预习课文对话或句型，适当做一些翻译，不会译的句子空着，并作上记号，做为课堂听讲时的重点。课堂呈现时，先就课文对话或句型提一些问题，以检查学生预习的情况。在问题的设计上，减少看图即能回答的直观题，如 Who's the boy/girl/man/woman， Is he Mr Green 等，而增加必须理解了课文才能正确回答的题\_学生一时难以答出也无妨，但要提醒他们课堂听讲时将重点放在自己不懂的部分。这样，在教师的引导下，学生能逐步习惯于有针对性地听讲，明确自己的薄弱环节，这种做法体现的不仅仅是预习的形式，而是预习的能力。
3.资料的查找
英语学习中，资料的查找是一个重要的环节，我将这一环节理解为不仅仅是学会查词典学生词，而且也包括对这门语言在运用上约定俗成的知识的了解。比如英语中的一些习惯表达法，讲英语国家的一些习俗以及一些著名的人物和事件等等。如何去了解?可
以让学生问家长、问教师、找书本，或者上网查寻。这看起来与我们学习的主题关系不大，但是对学生能力的形成却起着潜移默化的作用。可以让他们学会如何在学习中通过自己的力量获得知识，使他们了解查资料也是一种学习的方法。而且，这些知识对于学习英语语言本身也是有一定帮助的。如，一学生通过询问家长，向大家介绍了关于为什么美国没有元帅的知识(因为在英语里元帅为 Marshal，而二战名将马歇尔的姓 Marshall 与之只相差一个字母，为了表示对他的尊敬，美国没有设立元帅这一称谓)。这一趣闻引起了学生极大的好奇，激发了他们在课外自学英语知识的积极性，学生知识面的拓宽也常常使教师受益匪浅。
论
坛二教海探航
二、在实践过程中，使学生成为课堂的主人
1.在课堂上遵循“便学利习”的原则
“便学利习”是指选择、创造外语教学技巧应着眼于方便学生，有利于他们学习英语。在实际教学过程中，教师常会不自觉地从“我学英语的经验”出发施教，较少考虑或了解“我的学生将经过什么样的学习经历”或“我的学生会喜欢什么样的学习方式”。外语课堂教学的实践环节能否有效地进行关系到学生对语言的运用，因此，教师在这一环节中可尽可能地减少控制，给学生以自主活动的机制、空间和环境。我在课堂上的具体执行方法是扩大小组活动方式的可选择性，增加小组活动的量，并提高其质。根据课文的实际情况和学生对自己学习状况的了解，他们可以自由选择小组活动的形式：分角色朗读；分角色表演；同座位两两练习；让小组中的一位学生扮演“小翻译官”对小组其他成员所说的句子逐一译成中文的形式，使学生对所学语言表达方式的操练多样化。对于对话中某些句子该用什么样的语气来读，也由学生根据自己对其含义的理解来处理，教师不必规定标准答案，但要做适当的指点。由于具体的学习方式是学生自己选定的，因此，会比教师安排的更切合他们学习的实际要求，效果也显著，这样做也能体现出“小组活动不仅是一个表演的准备过程，更是一个学习的过程”这一思想。我认为，小组活动质量的高低，在很大程度上取决于教师将它作为是一个准备的过程还是一个学习的过程。
2.增加学生的阅读量
小学英语教学中，其实也存在着“阅读量”的问题，而且更为重要的是要使学生学会如何自主阅读。教师应充分利用每单元第三课的“Read and act 部分的小短文，先让学生在规定的时间内自学短文，再笔头回答教师就短文所提的问题。这类短文是对每单元第一课对话形式和内容的一种变换、延伸和扩展。如果学生能够自学这样的短文，对其知识的进一步迁移大有帮助。
三、在迁移过程中，使学生的想象力得到尽可能
的发挥
I.为学生提供范例和语言材料
迁移的过程是学生运用所学语言知识的过程，在这个过程中，教师的任务主要是帮助学生，为他们的语言表达提供范例和材料。所谓范例，不仅是与某个学生做---个示范性的对话，也包括引导学生想象与课文对话相似的生活场景。比如，第四册 Lesson 4是一篇有关购物的对话，教师可引导学生做合理的想象，可以是在商店中买一双袜子，可以是在水果店里买水果，或在文具店里买文具等等。儿童的想象力很丰富.在教师的长期引导下，对于每一个课文场景，他都可以产生合理而广泛的联想，这一能力的形成会使学生的自我学习能力得到巩固。所谓语言材料是指学生表达语言时的注意点。如前文所述、提醒那些想编有关买袜子的对话的学生，在表达时要注意名词复数的运用；为想编有关买水果的对话的学生提供几种水果或几句表达水果好坏的英语说法；为想编有关买文具的对话的学生提供儿种文具的说法等等。教师的这种语言帮助，能有效地培养学生大胆而正确地表达英语的能力。
2.设计新的作业形式
在实际教学中，从培养学生自我学习的角度出发，我尝试着设计了一些新的作业形式，取得了较好的效果。主要的形式有：画字母象形图；阅读短文配图；四人一组编对话及录音作业等。在学生刚刚接触英语字母时，让他们充分发挥自己的想象力，画出白己独特的字母象形图，有时学生将字母H想象成两棵大树之间绑了--张吊床，有的将字母下想象成一把梳子，有的将字母Y想象成一只小虾等等，有些学生思维的巧妙性竟超过了书本上原有的图片，实际上，他们是在无意之间进一步记忆了字母的字形。到了六年级，学生有了一定的词汇量，我便印发一些英语小短文，让他们根据短文的描述作画图作业。比如，学了第四册第17 课“There is/There are"的句型后，我找了一篇描写居室的小短文，让学生在阅读后画出居室的草图。我还打破了一直以来自己做自己的作业这一常规，让学生四人一小组，将课堂上所做的自编对话笔头写下来。执笔的人可轮流担任，但必须经四人一致同意。针对有些同学课堂上因为害羞或反应较慢而没能发言，我让他们回去以后以录音的形式，录下自己在课堂上想说而没能说出的话，再放给同学们听。这些新型的作业形式，能促进他们自我学习能力的形成和发展。
当然，英语是与我们的母语完全不同体系的一种语言，鉴于此点，在英语学习中自我学习能力的形成，还须建立在一定的词汇量与语法的基础上。小学阶段的自我学习能力特别需要教师的指导与帮助，这样的帮助与指导应如春雨之润物，细致而无声。陽
(作者单位：南京市长江路小学) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **塔里木油田地面建设“十三五”回顾和“十四五”展望**
**严东寅，成婷婷，刘百春，蒋余巍，陈亚兵(1.中国石油塔里木油田公司，新疆库尔勒841000；**
**2.中国石油天然气股份有限公司规划总院，北京100083)**
摘要：塔里木油田作为中国第三大油气田，近三十年产量增幅近千倍。文章首先总结了塔里木油田“十三五”期间在建产模式、复杂组分处理技术、完整性管理技术等方面取得的成果。然后，分析了当前的形势和面临的挑战，结合油田生产特征，以工艺系列化、装备大型化、建设效益化、运维智慧化为目标，提出了“十四五”期间塔里木油田在地面工艺技术、数字化精益生产方向的展望。
**关键词：塔里木油田；地面建设；技术；展望**
**中图分类号：TE4 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1008-4800(2021)28-0198-03**
DOI：10.19900/j.cnki.ISSN1008-4800.2021.28.090
**The“13th Five-Year”Review and the “14th Five-Year” Outlook on Ground Construction of Tarim Oilfield**
YAN Dong-yan'， CHENG Ting-ting’， LIU Bai-chun， JIANG Yu-wei'， CHEN Ya-bing'
(1. PetroChina Tarim Oilfield Company， Korla 841000， China；2. PetroChina Planning & Engineering Institute， Beijing 100083， China)
Abstract： As the third largest oil and gas field in China， the Tarim oilfield’s production has increased nearly a thousand times in the past three decades. The article first summarizes the achievements made during the “13th Five-Year Plan" period of the Tarim oilfield in terms of production mode， complex component processing technology， and integrity management technology. Then， the article analyzes the current situation and challenges， combined with the characteristics of oilfield production， and aimed at serialization of processes， large-scale equipment， efficiency in construction， and intelligent operation and maintenance， proposes the “14th Five-Year Plan” of Tarim oilfield on ground engineering construction and technology digital lean production.
Keywords： tarim oilfield； ground engineering， technology， prospect
**0引言**
**塔里木油田位于中国油气资源最大的盆地之一——塔里木盆地，经过30年的发展，目前已开发奥陶、志留、石炭等11 套含油气层系，建设轮南、塔中、哈得、哈拉哈塘等13个油田，投入开发克拉2、牙哈、桑吉等11个气田，油气产量当量从1989年的3万吨，提高到2019年近2900万吨，增幅近千倍。同时，塔里木油田作为国内第三大油气田和西气东输主力气源地，集油气勘探开发、炼油化工、油气销售等上下游一体化业务，是我国重要的油气生产基地少。**
“十四五”期间，为深入贯彻落实习近平总书记关于“提升国内油气勘探开发力度，努力保障国家能源安全”的重要批示精神和中国石油集团“加快塔里木盆地油气勘探”的指示，塔里木油田将持续提升油气产量。然而，国际油价将依旧处在低位，油气田地面建设也面临着老化以及更加严格的安全环保要求，为此，必须全方位、全过程、全要素降本增效12-41。本文通过回顾塔里木油田“十三五”期间的建设成果，总结现存的技术难点与挑战15-81，并对“十四五”期间塔里木油田在新油气田
**效益建产、老油气田滚动开发及提质增效改造、储运及配套公用系统完善等方向的地面工程建设进行整体规划分析，旨在提升系统整体效率，保障油田公司“十四五”末期目标任务的顺利实现。**
**1“十三五”期间地面系统取得的经验成果**
**“十三五”期间，塔里木油田地面系统克服上产节奏快、流体组分复杂、腐蚀环境苛刻、安全环保压力大等问题，通过创新建产模式、持续技术攻关、推行绿色环保技术，建成2大主力上产区域；完成6项重点工程建设；攻关形成2大技术系列；建立1套完整性管理体系。**
1.1形成适用于塔里木油田特色的地面快速建产模式
传统地面配套建产模式，无法满足塔里木油田快速上产需求，通过不断摸索总结设计、建设经验，以“地面地下一体化”为指导，形成“骨架先行，区块接入、互连互通，互为备用”的建产模式。采用这种模式，碳酸盐岩油田基本形成了“鱼刺”骨架格局，格局有三个特点：一是按区布站，库车山前天然气产能区块采用长条形圈闭设计枝状管网，圆形圈闭设计枝状或
辐射管网，塔河南岸原油产能区块按缝布井规律，干线斜插缝洞带，支线与缝洞带平行重合建设骨架管网；二是计转站标准化、撬装化；三是计转站集油半径在6km以内。实现了上产区块产能快速释放，在库车山前建成以常规气田为中心的主力上产区域，在塔河南建成以哈一联为轻质油处理中心的主力上产区域。
1.2全面应用"五化”成果，助力油气田快速建产
“五化”包括：标准化设计(标准模块、定型模块)、工厂化预制(深化图纸、合理布置)、模块化施工(批量预制、现场组装)、规模化采购(集中招标、批量供应)、信息化管理(数据采集、三维设计)。“十三五”期间，塔里木油田全面应用“五化”成果，采用“标准化设计+工厂化预制+现场组合安装”的一体化设计建设管理模式，形成8大类42种一体化集成装置，2019年实施常规中小型站场20座，设计周期缩短30%，供货周期缩短15~25天，施工周期缩短10%~20%
**1.3形成高温高压气田复杂组分处理和优质资源利用技术系列**
针对库车山前井流物因高含固体杂质导致外输产品气不达标的情况，“十三五”期间，形成4项脱固体杂质技术系列，对天然气采用低温分离法或低温分离加化学反应吸附法；对地面处理工艺中的乙二醇采用四级液相物理沉降加气相化学吸附法；对采出水采用絮凝加吸附处理法，满足了处理气达标的要求。同时，初步形成“气提+化学吸附”的凝析油深度脱固体杂质工艺，完成了脱固体杂质剂性能评价和现场小试。
**针对气田原料气因技术过程中蜡导致装置不能连续生产的问题，通过对蜡堵机理的研究，深化蜡组分认识，创新形成注烃溶蜡工艺技术。**
为深度回收凝析气田外输气高附加值产品，从产品收率、工艺可靠性等方面展开研究，创新磁力式透平膨胀制冷+DHX回收工艺，建成国内规模最大的轻烃深度回收装置，C3 回收率达到96%以上。
1.4形成碳酸盐岩油气藏高效开发地面工程技术系列
首先，攻关形成碳酸盐岩油气田地面工艺技术。碳酸盐岩油气田存在高低压井并存、管道输送硫化氢析出等问题，“十三五”期间，塔里木油田总结上百口碳酸盐岩单井生产规律，开展轻质油脱水试验，创新了超深度脱水、原稳气提脱硫等7项工艺技术，并应用于工程实际，提高低压井产量，实现原油、凝析油分质分输。集成配套碳酸盐岩油气藏非金属管应用技术，可缩减回收施工时间80%，降低建设投资，从源头解决管线安全运行问题。
1.5建立完整性技术体系.全面提升油田完整性管理技术水平
**安全环保政策法规日益趋严，油田对完整性技术需求日益**
_国宝_
**迫切，根据塔里木油田特点，以风险管控为主线，以“五个一致、七个统一”为目标，按照“促进融合管理、保持相对独立”的工作原则和“三步走”的思路与 QHSE 体系融合，结合基础理论建立了管道和站场完整性管理手册，填补了油气田完整性管理体系化的空白。同时，在建设期新增五个完整性控制节点，配套五专文件，保障了地面工程项目设计阶段“优生”、建设阶段“优育”对高后果区的管道建立7套定性或半定量管道风险评价模型，开展双高管道识别，开发管道风险评价软件，管道失效率下降72.4%。完整性体系的建立，为地面系统风险受控、降本增效奠定扎实的基础。**
**2面临的形势与挑战**
塔里木油田总体生产管理控制指标较好，多项指标处于中石油先进水平，但面对“决胜3000万，突破3500万、瞄准4000万”的目标，其地面工程的建设也面临着诸多挑战。
一是地面工程建设速度不适应油田发展需求。新油气田上产区块可依托的已建地面配套骨架工程不完善，未能形成配合钻井部署的管网、道路、电力和通讯等工程存在原油拉运、天然气放空的现象。随着天然气产量增大，后期富气产量快速上涨，天然气加工处理能力不足。已开发老油气田，投产运行时间长，地面设备设施出现老化现象，系统负荷率低，亟需优化调整，升级改造。随着勘探开发的深入，采出水量快速上升，已建水处理设施、回注井能力不足，同时，含水量高加剧了腐蚀速度，管道设备安全存在威胁。
**二是油田数字化建设不适应智慧油田要求。油田信息自动化管理与油田发展不适应，油田信息化系统功能作用发挥与油田生产管理不适应。**
**三是复杂井流物处理工艺不完善。随着油气田的不断开发，气田井流物物性越发复杂，气田井流物蜡组分布宽，且主要为正构烷烃(含量为72%)。个别气井井流物中蜡的主要成分为联苯(含量为94%)，物性差异大，不能用同一工艺解决蜡堵问题。**
四是抗风险能力有待提升。塔里木油田的储罐分布较为集中，净化原油及凝析油罐容不足，生产调节能力较差，计量交接界面及职责划分不清，并且设备和集输管线的选材未完全适应超高超深油气藏物性处理的需要。
**3“十四五”地面系统建设展望**
基于“十三五”取得的成果和经验，结合新形势的要求、地面工程现状和持续稳定发展的需要，塔里木油田以高质量发展和稳健发展为原则，坚持问题导向，以经济效益为中心，全面提高地面系统的适应性和保障能力，力争在2025年，提升集输系统密闭率至95%，脱水站负荷率至70%，油田站场数字化覆盖率至100%。
**3.11原油及天然气开发形势**
原油开发突出“一稳三增长”，在“十四五”期间原油产量基本保持稳定，凝析油产量保持上升趋势。碎屑岩黑油通过稳老区、动用难采储量、滚动开发等保持产量：加深断控理论研究，加快三维地震资料采集处理，突出哈拉哈塘塔河南上产，使碳酸盐岩产量不断提升；加快克拉苏整体地面骨架工程的建设，突出库车西部凝析油增产工程；加快乙烷项目建设及投产，提高液体产品产量。天然气开发力推“一稳两快上”，在“十四五”期间保持天然气产量逐年上升，库车地区成为天然气主力上产区块。对已开发气田构建合理开发秩序，均衡开采，控制含水上升，实现精细高效开发；加快新区评价，强化井位部署，加快产能建设，强化生产组织，大力推行标准化、撬装化；按照勘探开发一体化的思路，紧密跟踪勘探进展，提高圈闭钻探成功率、圈闭资源转化率、开发动用率。
3.2油气田数字化建设和精益生产
塔里木油田信息化和数字化建设经历了单机应用、分散建设、集中建设、集成应用，基本实现了数字化油田初级阶段目标，正在开展共享服务建设，迈向数字化油田高级阶段。“十四五”期间，应全面推进智能化油田建设，首先，抓好顶层设计，大力推广电子巡检、远程管控、自动采集、智能分析等信息化技术，全力推动物联网、大数据条件下生产组织方式、管理运行方式变革，逐步实现井站一体化管理、生产智能化管控。在数字化油田建设顶层设计框架下，积极推广地面工程管理领域云计算、大数据、人工智能等信息技术，持续推动与生产经营的深度融合，转变管控模式和生产组织方式，以国际先进油公司为标杆，推进世界一流现代化油气田的建设。
3.3地面工程技术攻关
塔里木油田油气藏类型复杂，井流物高温高压，高含 HS、CO，、Cl等易造成管道与设备腐蚀的组分以及固体杂质、蜡等复杂组分，使得处理工艺复杂多样，生产过程中物性变化快，给油气田地面工程建设带来巨大挑战，基于此，“十四五”期间部著三大技术群，攻关11项重点技术。
**3.3.1工艺优化简化提质提效技术**
第一个是油气水脱固体杂质处理关键技术，通过对前置脱固体杂质、防固体杂质涂层等8方面的研究，形成完善的脱固体杂质技术系列；第二个是天然气高效脱蜡除砂技术，通过对高效注油溶蜡、除砂工艺等5项内容的研究降低脱蜡成本；第三个是油气田深度脱硫提质技术，通过对原油药剂脱硫、轻烃液化气有机硫脱出等4方面的研究，攻克液相脱硫技术难题，全面提升外销产品质量。
**3.3.2油气复杂组分处理关键技术**
**第一个是油气集输处理提质提效关键技术，根据塔里木**
**油田特殊的油气性质，对超长距离油气输送、原油不加热集输、含蜡原油降粘、稠油防控等涉及提质增效方面的技术进行专项攻关；第二个是注水注气及储气库地面配套技术；第三个是高附加值产品高效回收利用技术；第四个是油气工艺全流程标准化、橇装化技术。**
**3.3.3管道和站场完整性提升技术**
**包括完整性数据采集与分析技术、完整性评价与维修维护技术、苛刻介质工况设计选材技术、内外防腐屏障优化提效技术4部分，通过攻关各个环节的完整性管理存在的问题和关键技术，实现油田公司管道和站场全覆盖，进一步降低管道的失效率，保障地面系统安全平稳运行。**
**4结语**
塔里木油田地面工程将朝着工艺系列化、装备大型化、建设效益化、运维智慧化的方向发展，及时运用多种手段解决已有的问题，同时更关注油气管网系统在全空间范围、全生命周期内的运行优化和本质安全提升，围绕“优质高效、智慧油田、绿色矿山、可持续发展”四大核心，完善学科体系和人才梯队建设，加强核心技术自主创新，有效支撑主营业务发展。
**参考文献：**
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\[2\]骄阳网.2019年全国油气增储上产态势良好油气产量、储量实现双升\[EB/OL\]. (2019-12-25). http：//www.joyyang.com/ **news/20191225/122518167.html.**
\[3\]中华人民共和国国家统计局.刘文华：能源总量供需平稳，能源结构继续优化\[EB/OL\](2020-01-19)\[2020-01-21\].http：//www. stats.gov.cn/tjsj/zxfb.
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\[6\]巴玺立，孙铁民，何军，等.国内外气田地面工程技术研究进展\[J\].石油规划设计，2006(02)：6-10，48.
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**作者简介：①严东寅(1986-)，男，汉族，江苏南京人，工程师，本科，** 工学学士，从事油气田地面集输及处理工作。
**②成婷婷(1995-)，女，汉族，四川岳池人，工程师，研究生，工学硕士，从事油气集输储运工作(通讯作者)。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **\[关键词〕语文教学；创新能力；培养；创新过程；创新激情；创新火花；质疑；课外活动**
**〔中图分类号〕 G623.2 \[文献标识码\]A**
**〔文章编号〕1004-0463(2012)06—0058一01**
**培养学生的创新意识及创新能力，是当前新课程改革及教育教学的关键，教师要有意识地结合教学内容，遵循学生的认知规律，重视学生获取知识的过程，鼓励学生质疑问难，提出自己的独特见解，引导学生有条理地进行思考。**
**一、注重创新过程，激发创新激情，捕捉创新火花**
**1.注重创新过程，这是创新能力培养的第一步。众所周知，成人的创新强调创新的结果，如创新产品是否有社会价值，而学生的创新具有不同于成人的特点，它更多强调学生自身的发展。因此，培养学生**
**生不仅敢于质疑，还要善于质疑。在学习一篇新的课文之前，教师应让学生在预习自学的基础上，提出不懂的问题，可以是不懂的词语，也可以是理解课文时遇到的困难，以此引导学生进行有针对性的听讲与思考。**
**比如，语文第一册中有一首古诗《咏鹅》，这是一年级的小学生接触的第一首古诗。书上配了一幅插图，画的是一只白鹅低着头浮在一池碧水之上。在教学时，我让学生结合图画来理解诗句。而班上一名细心的学生就大胆指出该插图画的不对，因为诗上写的是“曲项向天歌”，白鹅应当是伸长了脖子朝向天空的。我听后先是吃了一惊，细想起来却觉得很有道理。作为一名一年级的小学生，敢于怀疑课本，能提出异议，发表自己的见解，是多么的难能可贵，这正是创造精神的体现。于是，我对这名学生的质疑大加赞赏，并鼓励他画出更加符合诗意的图画。**
**三、开辟创新教育的新天地——课外活动**
**1.动手实践，体验乐趣。学生的好奇心强，特别乐于动手。教师应该遵循学生的身心发展规律，解放他们的双手。在动手的过程中，学生自己发现问题、分析问题、解决问题，不仅体验了乐趣，还培养了能力。例如，**
**对学生的探索、冒险行为，教师要善于发现，积极保护，千万不能泼冷水或过多地加以干涉和限制。**
**3.捕捉创新的火花。在教学活动中，教师经常会遇到这样的情况：上图画课时，学生会用蜡笔画出七彩的太阳，甚至将太阳画在水中；回答教师提问时学生会说出很多有创意的答案，但与教师的标准答案有一段距离。这时，如果教师能给予肯定的评价，表扬学生肯动脑筋，夸奖学生的求新求异，定会激发学生的灵感。捕捉学生创新火花时教师应做到：正确对待学生的各种提问，因为提问本身就说明学生在思考，通过提供富有幻想色彩的图书、半制品的游戏材料和开展一物多玩等活动，有意识地训练学生的想象力；让学生多参加社会实践活动，增长知识，开阔视野。**
**二、敢于质疑，善于质疑**
**“小疑则小进，大疑则大进。”因此，教师要积极为学生营造质疑的氛围，鼓励学生开动脑筋，大胆质疑。除此之外，教师还要教给学生质疑的方法，使学**
斗学学术期刊数据库
**教学《动手试一试》一课时，请学生动手做实验，自己总结实验结果，验证科学家说得对不对。通过实践，引发了学生对科学的浓厚兴趣。**
**2.自由发挥，弘扬个性。祖国的语言文字丰富多彩，一句话，一首诗就是一幅画，语言文字所表达的意境美需要学生仔细去体会、去感悟。课文中插图只能欣赏，难以转化成自己的东西。自己动手画一画，效果就大不一样了。如，《云房子》中有这样一-句话：天空像洗过一样干净，只剩下一个笑眯眯的太阳和一片水汪汪的蓝天。教师要求学生把这一情境画下来，出人意料的是，学生竟然画上了飞翔的小鸟，七色的彩虹，放飞的风筝……学生不仅体会到了自然美，还表现出了丰富的创新潜能。**
**总之，开展创新教育，是实施素质教育的关键，是深化教育改革、全面推进素质教育的需要。在此过程中，教师要努力培养和提高小学生的创新思维能力，提高他们创新的自觉性，培养他们的创新精神。**
**●编辑：谢颖丽** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 论稻盛和夫对职业教育的贡献
钟 放
(东北师范大学日本研究所，吉林长春130024)
\[内容摘要\]日本著名企业家稻盛和夫不但在经营方面取得了举世瞩目的成绩，而且在教育领域也做出了很多贡献。他积极支持中日两国的教育事业，热衷于推动产学结合。在理念上，他非常注重受教育主体的潜意识和潜能的开发。同时，他还在继承日本传统教育的基础上，创造出了新的职业教育模式——旨在培养新一代中小企业家的“盛和塾模式”。本文认为他在教育领域的经验和主张值得我国教育工作者借鉴。
\[关键词\]稻盛和夫；产学结合；盛和塾
\[中图分类号\]F279.313 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1008-1593(2007)04-0085-05
\[收稿日期\]2007-11-15
\[作者简介\]钟放(1975-)，男，吉林长春人，东北师范大学日本研究所讲师。
中国近代著名教育家张謇曾经提出“父教育、母实业”的主张，既说明了一个健全的社会应该经济与教育并重，同时又道出了经济与教育的密切关系。张謇创办实业，同时，以实业为基础，大力投资教育，提出过很多教育理念，亲身实践了“父教育、母实业”的主张。在邻国日本，也有一位热心教育的大企业家，他就是被尊为“平成经营之圣”的稻盛和夫。他在多个领域从事经营活动40余年，先后创立的京瓷株式会社和第二电电株式会社都属于“世界500强”企业。稻盛和夫在企业经营方面的成就，笔者另有文章论述，本文着重探讨他在教育领域的贡献。
支持教育事业，推动产学结合
稻盛和夫出生于1932年，1959年开始创业。他大学毕业的时候，由于朝鲜战争引发的“特需景气”已经过去，毕业生普遍面临就业难的问题。他创业不久，日本经济就开始了高速增长时期。他经常亲自到就业市场去招聘应届高中毕业生、大学毕业生。他在实践中认识到了“产学结合”的重
要性。
20世纪90年代后期，稻盛和夫逐渐退出企业经营的第一线。这位大企业家有了更多的精力来支持中日两国的教育事业。
1999年，稻盛和夫在鹿儿岛大学工学部开设了“京瓷经营哲学讲座”，以全学部为对象，打破文科、理科的壁垒，不但讲授经营和陶瓷技术，还讲授人生哲理、伦理学、哲学。2005年，“京瓷经营哲学讲座”发展成为全校组织—“稻盛经营技术学会”。鹿儿岛大学在经营学、陶瓷技术、会计学等学科涌现出很多综合性人才，为社会做出了贡献。稻盛和夫还为鹿儿岛大学工学部开设了“稻盛奖学基金”，以资助那些刻苦学习、充满理想的学生。很多鹿儿岛大学工学部的毕业生进入京瓷公司工作，这是日本“产学结合”的典范。
2001年10月，稻盛和夫与东北师范大学日本研究所合作，成立了“东北师范大学稻盛和夫经营哲学研究中心”，这是国内高校第一个专门研究日本企业家经营思想的学术机构。在稻盛和夫的帮助下，日本研究所培养出了很多懂理论，又具备实
践能力的人才。
2004年8月11日，“中日友好稻盛和夫国际学校”在石家庄成立，京瓷公司每年向石家庄市42中提供 100万元人民币，用于资助贫困学生，奖励品学兼优的学生。
当年 10月13日，稻盛和夫又在景德镇陶瓷学院作了题为《陶瓷领域的革命》的报告。他以亲身经历，为学生们描绘出曾一度被世人封杀于工业原材料围墙之外的传统陶瓷转变为高科技原材料——精密陶瓷的过程；同时，配以翔实的图例，为学生们展示出电子元器件、切削刀具、人工骨关节、家庭用品这些融入京瓷高科技的系列精密陶瓷产品的状况。
为援助“西部大开发”，稻盛和夫和日本京瓷株式会社通过中日友协向中国友好和平发展基金会捐赠100万美元，设立“稻盛京瓷西部开发奖学基金”。基金旨在通过奖励中国西部地区品学兼优、经济困难的大学生，促进中国西部地区教育事业的发展和科技后备人才的成长，同时也致力于促进中日友好关系的发展。
2001年2月13日在人民大会堂举行了“稻盛京瓷西部开发奖学基金”捐赠仪式。稻盛和夫、伊藤谦介专程来京参加。中国人民对外友好协会、中国友好和平发展基金会会长陈昊苏与外交部、教育部、民政部以及西部省份驻京办事机构代表和大学的代表150多人出席了捐赠仪式。中日友好协会会长宋健对稻盛先生与京瓷公司共同出资100万美元设立的“稻盛京瓷西部开发奖学基金”的举动表示衷心的感谢，赞扬稻盛先生通过开展社会文化活动，为人类社会发展进步做出了贡献。“稻盛京瓷西部开发奖学基金”的捐赠，将使我国西部地区的许多学子得到资助，从而受到完整的高等教育。宋健希望得到这笔基金赞助的优秀学子，不仅成为西部开发的栋梁之才，同时也成为中日友好的使者。
稻盛和夫在讲话中说：“稻盛京瓷西部开发奖学基金只不过是在辽阔的中国西部撒下的一颗小小的种子，我们由衷地期待着将来更多的优秀人才成长起来，在不久的将来他们能为西部的开发、发展做贡献。也衷心地盼望着他们能成为增进日中两国之间新的信赖关系和友情的纽带。”1稻盛和夫介绍了京瓷公司在华的合作项目，并表示愿
意为中国的“西部大开发”战略做些贡献。在新的世纪，他希望日中两国加强合作，建立相互信赖的友好关系。该项基金于2001年9月正式启动，赞助了中国西部地区12所大学的360名学生。
注重受教育主体潜意识与潜能的开发
稻盛和夫认为，无论是在学校教育和公司培训中，都要加强对受教育主体的潜意识和潜能的开发\[2\]37。
潜意识也称无意识，是指个体在正常情况下觉察不到，也不能自觉调节和控制的心理现象。潜意识和有意识是相对的。如果把人类的意识现象比做漂浮的冰山，有意识只是露出水面的冰仙一角，无意识才是水下巨大的部分。
稻盛和夫非常强调潜意识的作用。他说：“潜意识是人的守护神，从前世带来的灵魂会帮助你成就事业。潜意识当中有了明确的愿望，就能唤起自己的守护神，或者是我们所谓的灵魂。”\[3\]155他经常教育员工要把明确的愿望深入到潜意识中。即便客观上存在重重困难，几乎没有成功的可能，也必须坚定信念，抱定必须成功的强烈愿望。他举例说：“例如在开发 IBM360 电脑印刷电路板时，潜意识中明确的愿望就是我们成功的根本。愿望渗透到潜意识当中，无时无刻不在思索，客户所要求的产品就会渐渐地在心中形成。”\[3J154
现代心理学表明，潜意识对人的外在表现和行为结果有很大影响。比如，一个人在演讲时怯场，面对听众时，他总是在潜意识里对自己说：“别紧张，千万别紧张。”这种潜意识会更妨碍临场发挥。相反，象稻盛和夫所主张的那样，把明确而又积极的愿望渗透到潜意识当中，效果会很不同。有些人在特定场合“超常发挥”实际上也可归因于其潜意识中积极而强烈的愿望。
与潜意识相关的心理学概念是潜能或潜力。简而言之，潜能是指“人的潜在的尚未成为现实的能量或能力，是一种尚未开掘和发挥的心理能力”4\]。积极的潜意识有利于潜能的发挥。著名的人本主义心理学家马斯洛认为：“潜能不仅仅‘将要是'或‘可能是'，而且它们现在就存在着。人除了一般的生物潜能之外，还有人所特有的心理潜能。潜能既是人体的遗传构成，又是求得发展的内在倾向。它是人类的一种高级需要和冲
动，如对友爱、合作、求知、审美、创造、公正等的需要，这些需要虽不象生理需要那么强烈，但作为一种人性内核的内在潜能，只要环境条件适当，就能发展到可能的程度。”5\]科学家们已经发现：人脑确实具有令人难以置信的灵活性、流动性和可塑性；人脑时刻都在进行自我更新，它的神经网络随着人经验的增加而不断运动变化，并且随时对输入的新信息和能量作出反应。这并不是一种机械性反应，而是把能量转化为人的情感、思想和动机，转化的过程也受到外界一些非生物因素的影响。
稻盛和夫的经营哲学与人本主义心理学有相似之处，两者都强调潜意识的作用，认为人有巨大的潜能可以开发。在稻盛的哲学中，开发潜能的首要办法是“确信能够成功”。这也是许多企业家、心理学家都提倡的方法，这种方法的理论基础就是人本主义心理学的潜能理论。比如，有些人计划做一件事，但一考虑到客观条件，马上失去了信心。他们对现实情况越了解，就越容易得出“不可能”的结论。另外一种人，从内心深处有一种强烈的愿望，一定要成功。不论客观条件如何不利，他都会努力寻找实现这一愿望的办法。根据人本主义心理学的理论，造成两者上述差别的原因是：消极的潜意识妨碍人发挥潜能；积极的潜意识有利于人最大限度地发挥潜能。如何把积极的愿望渗透到潜意识中呢?稻盛和夫认为，应该在头脑中不断描绘愿望实现时的情景。这样日复一日，强烈而积极的愿望就渗透到潜意识中。即使在不工作的时候，人也能够随时捕捉到有助于实现自己目标的信息，比如很好的合作伙伴、重要的商业情报或新产品的创意等。正如稻盛和夫所说：“极好的机会都隐藏在平凡的情景中，但他们只能被那些有强烈的目标意识的人发现。”\[2\]45
稻盛和夫认为，采取能力的“未来进行时”有助于潜能的开发。他要求经营者在相信自身能力将不断提高的前提下设计自己的人生。对能力的“未来进行时”，稻盛和夫解释说：“面向未来，人的能力会不断进步，因此，我们现在认为自己做不到的事情，数年后必然能够做到。如果不相信会成功，人类根本没有办法取得任何进步。人类是神创造的在各方面都能进步的物种。我把这称为能力的“未来进行时’”\[3\]35人都有进取心，并不想
无所事事，只不过，大多数人知难而退。平时，我们还会听到很多人抱怨：“我的外语水平不行，我又不懂这方面的技术，所以我胜任不了这方面的工作。”在稻盛和夫看来，他们的不足之处在于，只用现在的能力进行自我评价，没有认识到自己的能力在将来会有很大提高。相反，如果充分相信自己，不断提高个人能力，将来一定能做成现在做不到的事情。
能力的“未来进行时”思想来源于稻盛和夫的经营实践。在创业初期，京瓷公司主要制作绝缘材料。当时的日本已经有很多基础雄厚的制陶企业，大的电器公司的订单几乎全被它们瓜分。刚刚创业的京瓷公司的生存空间很小，它能得到的只有那些大的制陶企业无法承接的订单。在和一些电器公司洽谈的时候，对方的设计人员经常用怀疑的态度说：“只怕你们做不了这样的东西吧。”他们认为，知名的制陶企业都没有能力承接，资金和技术都没有优势的“街道小厂”就更不用说了。稻盛和夫觉得，如果不抓住这样的机会，自己的企业就无法立足。他恳切地说：“无论如何请让我们试一试，或许可以成功。”如果对方的设计人员没有肯定的答复，稻盛就鼓起勇气，表示有绝对的把握。最终，双方往往能够达成一致：京瓷公司在三个月后要交付样品。
能力的“未来进行时”思想在实践中有很多应用。比如，稻盛和夫指出，企业的开发研究小组不能容纳那些不相信成功，不相信自身能力会提高的人。因为这样的成员本身就没有全身心投入工作，他们在小组中所起的作用是消极的。
只有用发展的眼光，才能看到人的潜能。所以，能力的“未来进行时”的思想是为开发人的潜能服务的。稻盛和夫认为，能力的“未来进行时”的原则不仅对企业的发展很有效，也适用于人类的其他活动。他教育经营者：“绝对不要把自己的能力看得很低，要看到自身的巨大潜力，对于看似难以达成的事情，也不要放弃。”3J102在稻盛和夫的激励下，很多公司的普通员工和经营者焕发出了前所未有的力量，最终实现了他们的工作目标。
创造出培养企业家的“盛和熟模式”
盛和墊是稻盛和夫创立的企业家教育和培训机构。其历史可以追溯到1983年春。最初，一些
京都青年会议所的成员自发地组成了一个学习稻盛经营哲学的组织，名为盛友会，成员还不到五十人。因为正好有与稻盛和夫同处京都之便，大家就想到请他亲自来讲一讲。稻盛和夫出于培养青年企业家的责任感，欣然接受了邀请。参加第一次聚会的有25位年轻的经营者，在稻盛做了半个小时的演讲后，大家便根据一定的题目进行讨论，最后再由稻盛来回答大家的问题。聚会采取的形式并非单纯的授课，而是彼此平等地促膝谈心、双向交流。稻盛由于白天工作繁忙，只有晚上才能和大家交流。尽管是不定期的聚会，而且时间有限，但年轻的经营者参与的热情都很高。
以稻盛和夫为老师的学习会一直没有间断。后来，学习会越开越热烈，引起极大的反响。京都的很多企业家都蹦跃参加，京都以外地区的一些经营者也纷纷赶来，一时间场场爆满，小小的学习会再也难以满足需要。
在这种情况下，许多外地的企业家就开始热心地奔波，希望在本地成立一个分会。他们的想法得到稻盛和夫的支持。另外一些人提出在日本全国范围内成立一个正式组织，以便于学习稻盛和夫经营哲学的活动广泛持久地开展下去。这一提案得到多数人的响应。稻盛和夫感到自己有责任培养新一代的日本企业家，就接受了这个要求。于是，首先在京都正式成立了盛和塾。盛和塾的“盛和”二字，正是从稻盛和夫塾长的名字中取出“盛”与“和”两个字组成的。其中还包含了祝愿大家事业隆盛，人际关系和睦融洽的意思。
盛和塾的成员主要是中小企业经营者。中小企业的员工占日本总劳动人口的绝大多数。这些中小企业的经营者为日本经济的发展和社会的和谐做出了重要贡献。他们工作压力非常大，远没有大企业的领导者风光。为了企业和员工的生存，必须每天四处奔波。在困难和挫折面前，他们有时心急如焚，但还不能在家人和部下面前表露出来，必须装作很有信心。泡沫经济崩溃后，长期不景气使日本中小企业陷认更深的困境。这些企业的经营者相当苦闷。盛和塾为他们提供了一个交流的场所。
回想当初率领20几名员工创业时的艰辛，稻盛更能理解这些中小企业经营者的难处，因此，他不遗余力地把自己的经验和体会传授给盛和塾塾
生。在塾生们听稻盛讲话的时候，企业经营的体验和生活经历已经预先形成了他们各自的“期待视野”。稻盛的讲话和他们的“期待视野”能很好地契合，这是当今日本多数政治领袖、政党、工会、文化团体都无法做到的，所以，中小企业的经营者对盛和垫和稻盛哲学抱有极大的热情。
短短几年，大阪盛和墊、仙台盛和墊等像雨后春笋般纷纷诞生。目前，盛和塾已经发展到近60个，遍布日本列岛。美国、巴西和中国台湾地区也成立了盛和塾。已经有4000多企业家参加了盛和塾。他们所从事的事业，从第二产业到第三产业，从机械到运输，从加工到贸易，几乎涉及所有领域。
2004年春节前，盛和塾塾生若林先生来长春访问，笔者有幸在日本研究所的会议室采访了他。他谈到：“盛和塾作为学习稻盛和夫经营哲学与人生观的场所，已经在全国范围内建立了很多分部......与流行的讲演会和讨论会不同，(盛和塾)是以塾长为中心，大家围成一圈，以塾生的经营体验为材料，坦率地讨论。盛和塾塾生在讨论的时候，围成一圈，形式非常像传统的‘寺子屋’和‘村塾'”寺子屋”和“村塾”是日本江户时代非常著名的两种教育模式。前者针对的是儿童，后者则主要是武士阶级向农民宣讲一些道理。可见，盛和塾这种教育模式受到了日本传统教育的影响。
作为一个非官方的针对小企业家的教育培训机构，整个盛和塾的活动，首先以每个地区盛和塾的独立、自发活动为主，比如大阪盛和塾、东京盛和塾。每个盛和塾都有几个负责人，设立自己的事务所，以此为中心进行活动。
每一个地区塾的会员，一般限制在40到50人左右。这样的人数限制有利于交流。在一些比较大的地区，比如大阪，再进一步分成东大阪塾和北大阪塾。每个地区的盛和整定期召开例会，交流学习稻盛经营哲学的体会。每年召开两次地区大会，邀请塾长参加。在这两次大会上，每个塾生有了聆听塾长教诲的机会。会上，一般先由稻盛和夫讲话，然后，再由几个塾生代表谈自己在经营实践中的体会。针对每个塾生的发言，稻盛和夫都要加以评论。塾长的讲话，往往都是先结合当时的政治、经济形势谈自己的看法，然后再深人现实，谈谈企业经营应该采取的对策。在针对每个
塾生发言所作的评论中，稻盛如同一个医生给病人诊断那样，往往是一针见血地指出对方存在的问题，并抓住其中的要害，然后从自己的经营哲学和经验出发，给对方指明方向。
正式会议后举行的是聚餐会。稻盛和夫和每个塾生交杯对酒，促膝长谈。塾生们把自己在企业经营中遇到的各种烦恼一一倾诉出来，塾长则认真地听，然后提出自己的建议。在这样的交谈中，塾生们平日百思不得其解的很多问题得到了解答；而在这种把酒谈心的过程中，塾生对塾长的信任，塾生彼此之间的亲密关系也进一步加深。
结语
稻盛和夫是日本著名的企业家，他在企业经营方面有独到之处。对教育的贡献，使他在日本企业家中更是独树一帜。换言之，和松下幸之助、
盛田昭夫等企业家相比，他主要的特点在于，在企业经营之外，特别是教育领域做出了很大贡献。他开创的“盛和塾模式”为日本培养出了一批优秀的中小企业家。他的注重开发受教育主体的潜能的思想对我们中国的教育工作者也有很大启示。
\[参考文献\]
\[1\]“在西部撒下一粒种子”——稻盛和夫先生一席谈\[N\].人民日报(海外版)，2001-02-22.
\[2\]\[日\]稻盛和夫.新日本·新经营\[M\].北京：国际文化出版公司，1996.
\[3\]\[日\]针木康雄.从挫折中积极奋起的企业家稻盛和夫\[M\].北京：新华出版社，1996.
\[4\]徐冰.人之动力论\[M\].沈阳：辽宁人民出版社，1998：104，
\[5\]车文博.当代西方心理学新词典\[M\].长春：吉林人民出版社，2001：264-265.
On Famous Japanese Entrepreneur Inamori Kazio's Contribution to Education
ZHONG Fang
(Institute of Japanese Studies， Northeast Normal Univentity， Changchun，Jilin，130024)
Abstract； Not only had Inamori Kazuo， the famous Japanese entrepreneur， achieved so much in business management， but also con-tributed a lot to education. He promoted the work of education vigorously both in China and Japan and supported the integration of pro-ducing and leaming ardently. Theoretically， he always gave priority to exploiting the full potential and ability of the learner. At the same time， he created the “Inamori Private School"， a new leaming pattern for vocational education on the basis of canying on traditional Japanese education system， which aims to bring up a new generation of medium and small entrepreneurs. This paper holds that our edu-cation workers should draw on his experience and opiniong on this filed.
Key words： Inamori Kazuo； integration of producing and learning；Inamori Private School
\[责任编辑：冯
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zh | N/A | N/A | 中亚的转轨：吉尔吉斯斯坦
陈江生 李沛霖
(1.中共中央党校国际战略研究所教授、经济学博士；2.中共中央党校硕士生，北京100091)
\[摘要\]本文通过对吉尔吉斯斯坦经济发展和转轨的叙述和讨论，认为：第一，改革必须从本围的实际出发，绝不能照抄照搬别国的做法；第二，对于经济问题的解决要尊重经济规律，不能以政府少数人的想象为准则。革命如果不能够带来经济发展指导思想和方法上的变革，从经济发展的角度看不如不要。
\[关捷词\]中亚经济；吉尔吉斯斯坦；经济改革
\[中图分类号\] F136.44 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1009-0169(2007)03-0040-04
与中亚的其他几个国家相比，吉尔吉斯斯坦(也称吉尔吉斯共和国)的经济转轨的力度毫不逊色，但似乎成绩并不理想。我们甚至很难用转轨“破除了经济发展的障碍”这样的语言来形容转轨的成就；也不太看好其经济发展的近期前景。但这并不意味着这样的转轨经验是没有意义和不值得研究的，本文就是试图从对其经济发展和转轨的研究中寻找一些规律性的东西。
一、吉尔吉斯斯坦的经济发展
(一)苏联时期的经济发展及问题
有两件事情对苏联时期吉尔吉斯斯坦的经济发展影响非常大。第一件是20世纪30年代苏联的大规模工业化运动。这一运动使吉尔吉斯斯坦从一个完全的农牧业地区发展成为了一个工农业并重的共和国，使其开始有了现代化工业，实际上该国现在的主要工业就是在那时开始建立和发展起来的。第二件是苏联卫国战争。正是这场战争引起的苏联大型工厂疏散，加速了吉的工业发展。1913-1981年，吉国的工业产值增长了378倍。1980年工业产值占全社会总产值的55.6%，大小工业部门已达130个，工业的发展带来了大量的就业机会。
但是，苏联为了在计划经济的体制下加强经济管理，采取依照自然条件和经济条件划分经济区的做法。各经济区服从全苏统一的安排，每一个经济区都有其各自的专业经济分工，并与其他经济区进行劳动交换。按照当时全苏的大分工，吉国主要负责生产畜牧业和开采有色金属，为全苏提供工业原材料，而它所需要的其它生产资料和生活品则由俄罗斯联邦提供。吉国自己并没有形成完善的国民经济体系，生产结构畸形单一，成为了典型的原材料供应基地。这给后来出现的严重的经济危机埋下了巨大的隐患。
(二)独立后的吉尔吉斯经济
1、1991-1996年的经济状况
1991年8月吉尔吉斯斯坦独立，同年12月苏联解体。原来实行的全苏境内的专业化大分工导致各同盟国经济结构单一，生产布局并不完全符合各国的资源和市场状况，因而许多工厂很难在本国或本地区找到原料和市场，处于无用的境地，难以重新扶持起来，只能任其瘫痪，从而造成财产的巨大浪费和生产的急剧下降。原来的传统经济联系遭到破坏，再加上失去了联盟中央的财政补贴，经济一开始就陷入了持续不断的严重衰退之中。同期，吉的国内生产总值下降50%，工业生产下降65%，农产品下降43%，投资几乎减少三分之二。从1991年底到
1993年初，通货膨胀直线上升了将近350倍。国家预算出现了巨大的赤字。1992年和1993年的通货膨胀率分别为1259%和1363%。居高不下的通货膨胀不仅有导致经济崩溃的危险，而且也威胁到社会的政治稳定。
(三)1996-2005年的经济状况
从1996年开始吉尔吉斯斯坦的一些宏观经济指
坦GDP总量的40%)。从而也导致了该国经济的衰退。郁金香革命对吉尔吉斯斯坦经济发展的消极作用还表现在对一些大型企业资产的重新分配上，特别是2005年政变时大规模的抢掠风波导致资本大量外流和国内投资环境恶化，再加上地下经济的猖獗，资本出现严重的外流现象。
进人2006年，吉尔吉斯斯坦经济虽然表现仍然
表1 吉尔吉斯斯坦1996-2004年GDP增长百分率%
| 年份 | 1996 | 1997 | 1998 | 1999 | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| GDP增长率 | 7.1 | 9.9 | 2.1 | 3.7 | 5.4 | 5.3 | 0.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 |
资料来源：国际货币基金组织数据库2006年9月版标开始有所改善。如表1所示，GDP保持了连续8年的增长。恶性通货膨胀的速度受到抑制。1996-1999年，每年通货膨胀率成功地压到了40%以下，2000年为18.7%，2001年后则再没有超过7%。
但是阻碍经济发展的问题并没有得到解决。经济结构单一的状况没有改变；甚至于自己的国民经济体系和国内统一的市场也没能建立起来；生产力低下，商品短缺，国内供需矛盾突出的问题均没有得到有效改变。
(四)2005-2006年的经济状况——郁金香革命后
各种矛盾的积累和外部力量作用的结果终于导致了2005年3月24日郁金香革命的爆发。反对派在美国的支持下上台了。吉尔吉斯斯坦进入了巴基耶夫执政的时代。但是革命并没有给吉尔吉斯斯坦的经济发展带来什么积极的作用，反而影响了经济的发展，2005年当年出现了经济的负增长，GDP值下降了0.6%，农业生产总值下降了4.2%，工业生产总值下降了12.1%。2006年初春，全国有240个企业停产，停产率达到了50%。由于经过10来年的改造，该国经济不再是“工业——-农业”模式，而更具有“农业——服务业”的特征，企业的停产对该国的宏观经济没有产生过多的负面影响。但2005年旅游的总人数减少了44%，旅游收入减少了4.8%；著名的“库姆托尔”金矿开采量也大幅减少(该金矿的产值占吉尔吉斯斯
不是很好，但还是呈现出了增长的趋势。在2006年1-8月，农业、服务业、建筑业以及矿床黄金加工等行业都有了一定的增长，农业加工业增长7%，纺织和缝纫工业增长36%，非金属产品生产增长17.6%；服务业增长了8.1%。据国际货币基金组织估计，2006年的GDP会有5.0%的增长。吉尔吉斯斯坦经济财政部预计2007年吉的经济增幅有可能达5.5%，通胀率不超过5%。
但是，吉国家银行行长阿拉帕耶夫日前也对媒体表示，吉应尽早加人“重债穷国计划"(HIPC)，以便在其帮助下减免债务。俄罗斯媒体近期也称吉尔吉斯斯坦在2006-2007年经济竞争能力指数排名中占107位(总共125个国家)，经济竞争能力令人担忧。而且据统计，吉国的大多数居民生活在贫困线以下，看来虽然吉国内经济形势有所好转，但是仍然不容乐观。
二、吉尔吉斯斯坦的经济转轨
与其他中亚国家一样，吉尔吉斯斯坦没有经过更多的思考便扑向了流行的转轨道路，把所有制改革看作是“对向市场化方向发展的经济进行结构改造的主要工具之一”》总统阿卡耶夫这样说明私有化在经济改革中的地位：“吉尔吉斯斯坦私有化计划是经济改革的最主要的优先方向之一”。他还颇为赞
①②阿斯卡尔·阿卡耶夫：《直言不讳》，耶尔波里译、王沛校，国际文化出版公司2001年中文版，第78页，78页。
③资料来源：国际货币基金组织数据库2006年9月版。
④吉尔吉斯的旅游业产值占GDP的5%以上。
⑤《革命后的吉尔吉斯斯坦经济》，凡婕译自哈萨克斯坦中亚网。
⑥《今日哈撒卡斯坦报》，2006年7月3日。
⑦刘庚岑：《独立后的吉尔吉斯斯坦》，《东欧中亚研究》，1995年第2期。
赏地引用诺贝尔经济学奖得主密尔顿·弗里德曼的一句名言：“通往自由社会大门的钥匙只有三句话：第一，私有化；第二，私有化；第三，还是只有私有化”。所以吉尔吉斯斯坦一独立，就仿照俄罗斯实行了激进的经济改革。
首先是实行非国有化和私有化。吉尔吉斯斯坦迅速通过了《私有化法》、《非国有化、私有化和企业主活动总则法》和《关于加速国家和公共财产非国有化和私有化的紧急措施的命令》等一系列法令。规定私有化分为三个阶段进行：第一阶段，对国营农牧业企业进行私有化，主要是租赁承包，建立私人农场和农村小企业；第二阶段，国有住宅私有化和小私有化；第三，对大中型企业实行非国有化和私有化。截至1999年，吉国经营主体总数中非国有制企业已占96.7%，国有制企业只占3.3%。在工业产值中，国营成分占17%，私营成分占83%。但是后来的事实证明私有化效果并不明显，根据吉国统计委员会的资料，1996年在1963家企业中(占私有化总数的近三分之二)45.5%处于亏损状态，同上一年同期相比，亏损企业有所增加。1998年10月17日，吉国就土地问题进行全民公决，结果90%以上的人赞成土地私有化和土地自由买卖。根据公决的结果，吉国在1999年进行了土地私有化改革。
其次是调整产业结构。一是发展农业，扩大粮食作物种植面积，争取粮食自给自足。二是解决能源自给的问题，利用本国水力资源丰富的特点大力发展水电事业，减少能源进口。三是发展食品工业和轻工业和旅游业。根据阿卡耶夫总统在《难忘的十年》里所说，在洁尔吉斯斯坦经济中，最优先发展的部门是：农业和食品工业，大力发展农牧业，以保证人民的衣食问题；包括纺织和缝纫、皮革和裘皮加工、民间工艺品生产在内的轻工业；燃料、动力工业；采矿工业；电子及微电子工业；旅游业。
再次是放开价格。1992年1月3日，内阁通过决议，决定把受供求影响所形成的自由市场价格应用于生产技术型产品、民用消费品、工程和劳务。同时，对农产品的收购也采用自由市场价格。这一改革的步子迈得确实不小。一般来说，在改革的初期是不敢
放开民用消费品的价格的，而对农产品的收购采用市场价格的措施表明，食品的价格肯定也走向了市场化。1993年，吉国为了实行独立的经济政策，决定退出卢布区，并且发行了自己的货币索姆。
第四是发展外贸和引人外资。吉国由于缺少资源，所以它不可能像哈萨克斯坦和土库曼斯坦那样选择资源密集型的出口发展战略。它采用的是以农业为基础和发展过境贸易的发展战略。同时通过外交和对外经济活动创造良好的环境，发展过境贸易和大量的引入外资来发展经济，并铸造了“新丝绸之路”。1992年起，经济困难重重的吉国开始同外国和国际金融组织缔结一系列贷款协议。截至2000年11月3日，吉政府签署的外国贷款总金额为18.56亿美元。从境外获得的贷款主要用于：支持本国货币稳定、出资紧急进口国家所需商品、弥补国家预算赤字、加强社会保障和卫生保健制度和实施旨在使国家现有生产部门现代化，建立新的有效的生产部门等的措施。建立外资投资委员会，这是一个权利广泛的机构，拥有在外国官方贷款、技术援助、建立货币监控制度以及退出卢布区后实行本国货币的调控工作等多方面的权利。此外，吉尔吉斯斯坦努力发展与国际经济组织的关系，1998年12月20日加入世界贸易组织(WTO)，是独联体国家中最早加人该组织的国家。实行全方位开放政策，广泛开展对外经贸合作。吉尔吉斯斯坦在独立初期就制定了对外经济战略的原则，开展同外国的经贸活动。当然，吉国最重视与俄罗斯的经贸关系，把俄罗斯视为极重要的贸易伙伴。其次是哈萨克斯坦(1999年，从哈进口总额12.9亿美元)和乌兹别克斯坦(1999年，从乌进口总额9.6亿美元)。
三、两点启示
虽然，把吉尔吉斯斯坦的经济转轨列人失败的行列并不可取也反应不了事实，4但是过去10多年的实践和对可见的未来的预期表明转轨对本国的经济发展并没有多大的好处。由此，我们认为吉尔吉斯斯坦的转轨至少有两点是值得我们注意的。
第一，改革必须从本国的实际出发。尽管吉尔吉斯斯坦领导人说，经济改革不会照抄别国的做法，要
①\[吉\]阿卡耶夫：《开诚布公的谈话》，秘闻出版社1998年俄文版，99页。
②吉尔吉斯斯坦统计局编：《吉尔吉斯斯坦数字》，比什凯克，2000年俄文版，63页。
③李春来编译：《1999年吉尔吉斯斯坦社会经济状况统计数字》，《东欧中亚市场研究》，2001年第1期。
④毕竟其私有化的目标已经基本达到了。
走一条不同于西方也不同于社会主义计划经济的“第三条道路”。但实际上它们的经济发展很大程度受到了俄罗斯和国际货币基金组织等的影响和左右。最初几年的经济改革是按照俄罗斯的休克疗法进行的。这种激进的改革所带来的后果也与俄罗斯及其相似：生产大幅度下降，通货膨胀恶性发展，财政赤字扩大，外债负担沉重，人民生活水平下降，社会也不稳定。流亡在俄罗斯的前总统阿卡耶夫在采访中说道：“我现在理解邓小平有多么英明，他一直在呼吁的恰恰是稳定，以便能够长期发展”。在私有化改革过去十多年后，原有大型企业的改造仍未完成。私有化是推进了，但是市场化却实现不了，企业仍然没有活力。而且由于路径问题导致了私有化过程中存在着大量的腐败、违法现象，进一步破坏了经济发展的基础。
第二，对于经济问题的解决要尊重经济规律，不能以政府少数人的想象为准则。政府明确提出要改变畸形单一的经济结构，形成完整的国民经济体系。但是这几乎是给吉尔吉斯斯坦这样的国家出了一个几乎是不可能完成的题目。该国的经济实力，资源状况，人口结构，地理位置，资金条件都不允许其成为一个所谓完整的国民经济体系的经济体。因此，经济结构改造无论投入多少资金也不为过，即使真的有
那么多资金帮助其建立起了那样的经济体也会因为不经济而走向崩溃。不尊重经济规律的结果是资金的浪费和经济的不发展。虽然1999年人均外债54美元，在独联体国家中创下了新纪录。但是大量的外债并没有带来经济的发展，反而带来了人民的贫困加剧。最终是革命。而且革命之后的今天我们仍看不到该国在这个问题上的反省，因此可以预期的是吉尔吉斯斯坦的经济在可预见的未来仍然将在困难中前行。
参考文献：
\[1\]刘庚岑，徐小云.列国志吉尔吉斯斯坦\[M\].北京：社会科学文献出版社，2005.
\[2\]李静杰.十年巨变——中亚和外高加索卷\[M\].北京：中共党史出版社，2004.
\[3\]杨恕.转型的中亚和中国\[M\].北京：北京大学出版社，2005.
\[4\]徐亚清.中亚五国转型研究\[M\].北京：民族出版社，2003.
\[5\]马大正.中亚五国史纲\[M\].乌鲁木齐：新疆人民出版社，2005，
\[6\]鲍敦全，何伦志.经济全球化与21世纪中亚经济\[M\].乌鲁木齐：新疆大学出版社，1997.
\[7\]许新.转型经济的产权改革———俄罗斯东欧中亚国家的私有化\[M\].北京：社会科学文献出版社，2003.
责任编辑：金
声
①相对于该国的GDP。
②郁金香革命以后，为了克服危机，新政府采取了一些积极的措施，支持本国工业生产，加快经济发展的规划。日前，吉政府正式批准了2006-2010年国家发展战略规划。规划旨在确定吉经济优先发展领域，提升吉经济发展潜力，中心任务是2010年前实现年均GDP增长8%，人均GDP770美元的经济发展目标。规划确定的优先发展领域包括：能源、矿山开采、农业与加工工业、中小企业发展、建筑业、旅游业、交通设施建设、技术创新行业等。
—http：//www.sco-ec.gov.cn/crweb/scoc/info/Article.jsp
(上接第39页) 在党的领导人会议上，以社会党主席科瓦奇·拉斯洛为首的一派坚持不放弃扶贫原则，要求改革分配体系，减少贫困；而以久尔恰尼·费伦茨为代表的一派则认为必须改革卫生、福利和教育制度，削减社会开支。社会党的执政质量受到影响，2004年的政府变动与此有关。
捷克社会民主党在2002年组阁时，就在是否与基督教民主联盟——人民党和自由联盟——民主联盟结盟问题上意见不一，不少社民党成员认为社民党与上述其他两党的政治纲领和理念格格不入，主张建立由社民党组成的少数政府。但什皮德拉最终还是选择了与两党结盟，这使社民党内部裂痕加深。
联合政府成立后，社会党内部在三党执政联盟政策上经常出现不同看法。2004年6月社民党在欧洲议会选举中惨败后，一些党员要求追究该党主席什皮德拉的责任，要他辞去党主席和政府总理职务。6月26日，社民党执委会对什皮德拉进行了信任投票，结果什皮德拉仅以6票之差勉强过关。在党内的强大压力下，什皮德拉决定主动辞去社民党主席和政府总理职务，由社民党代理主席格罗斯接任。
可见，加强党的自身建设，坚决与腐败作斗争，增强党的凝聚力，保证全党在思想和行动上的团结统一，对于巩固社会民主党的执政地位至关重要。
责任编辑：金
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|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | Philippine affairs; a retrospect and outlook; an address
author: Schurman, Jacob Gould, 1854-1942
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^crs-f.^/o
Sacbarli College l,if)tars
FROM Tn> BEqj/EST OF
CHARLES SUMNER, LI..D.,
OF feOSTON. "
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PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
A RBiTROSPECT AND OUTLOOK
PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
A RETROSPECT AND OUTLOOK
AN ADDEESS
BY
JACOB GOULD SOHUEMAN
' PRESIDENT OF CORNELL UNITERSITT
'PRESIDENT OF THE FIRST PHILIPPINE COMMISSION
NEW YORK
CHARLES SORIBNERS SONS
1902
-O
I
' «oa
1
/l-a^v^-^vuv L\y\^^^ti.
GOPTBIOHT, 1002, BT
CHARLES SCBIBNEB'S SONS
Pablished, February, 1902
TBOW DIBROTOBT
PBimnNG AND BOOKBZNDnrO COMPANT
NEW TOBK
This address^ though somewhat curtailed^ was deliv-
ered before the members of Cornell University on the
morning of Founder's Day, January 11th. It was re-
peated, in substance, before the Reform Club of Bos-
ton on the evening of January 20th.
CONTENTS
PAOS
Introductory 1
Diplomatic Nbgotiations 6
The Questions of Immediate Independence and
AN American Protectorate for the Filipinos 18
Plan of Government for the Philippines ... 28
The Present Situation in the Philippines . . 49
The Future of the Philippines 81
INDEPEKDENCE FOR THE FILIPINOS.
" The Philippine Islands^ even the most patriotic [Fili-
pinos] declare, cannot at the present time stand alone.
They need the tutelage and protection of the United
States. Bvit they need it in order that in due tim>e they
may, in their opinion, become self-governing and inde-
pendent. For it toould be a misrepresentation of facts
not to report that ultimate independence — independence
after an undefined period of American training — is the
aspiration and goal of the intelligent Filipinos who to-
day so strenuously oppose the suggestion of independence
ai, the present time'' — Report of the First Philippine
Commission, Vol. I., Part IV., Chapter 11., p. 83.
PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
A RETROSPECT AND OUTLOOK
INTRODUCTORY.
Ladies and Oentlemen:
It is now just three years ago since I was summoned
to Washington, and, to my great astonishment, incited
by President McKinley to accept the presidency of a
commission he proposed to send to the PhiUppine Isl-
ands. The treaty under which this oriental archipelago
had been brought under American sovereignty was not
yet ratified by the Senate; but its ratification was as-
sured^ if not before^ at least after the fourth of March,
when the membership of the Senate would undergo a
change favorable to the administration. In view of
this consummation — ^I mean the ratification of the
treaty — ^President McKinley desired to have a body of
civil advisers — a kind of local cabinet — in the Philip-
pines.
I need not say that I felt highly honored by the gra-
cious proposal of President McKinley. Such a mark of
confidence would have been very complimentary under
any circumstances, but my sense of the honor which the
President had in mind was deepened by the circum-
1
4
2 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
stance that it came absolutely \us80ught; indeed, I had
no knowledge or intimation that the President was con-
templating the despatch of a commission to the Philip-
pines.
The President discussed with me the names of a num-
ber of hypothetical colleagues, and, having volunteered
assurances in that regard which I should scarcely have
presumed to solicit, he desired to know whether I would
accept the presidency of the Commission. I replied
that I feared it would be difficult, perhaps impractica-
ble, for me to get away from Cornell University, and
that in any event I could not stay away beyond the open-
ing of the next academic year. But even if a leave of
temporary absence could be secured (and the President
said he would send a message to the Board of Trustees),
there was, I observed, another obstacle that might prove
irremovable. " To be plain, Mr. President," I con-
tinued, "I am opposed to your Philippine policy: I
never wanted the Philippine Islands.'^ " Oh," replied
the President, "that need not trouble you; I didn't
want the Philippine Islands, either; and in the protocol
to the treaty I left myself free not to take them; but —
in the end there was no alternative." My own solution
of the problem had been to leave the Philippines in the
hands of Spain, with the reservation of one or more
naval stations at suitable points for the United States;
but the President met this view with the declaration
that the American people who had gone to war for
the emancipation of Cuba would not, after Commodore
INTRODUOTCRT 3
Dewey's victory in Manila Bay^ consent to leave the
oppressed Filipinos any longer under the domination
of Spain. What remained? If Spain were driven out
of the Philippines, and American sovereignty were not
set up, the peace of the world would be endangered.
This consequence the President drew, and then pointed
out at some length that the Commission he proposed to
send to the Philippines would have the unique oppor-
tunity and the rare duty of advising the Government
and people of the United States, at a critical period in
their history, in regard to the gravest problem confront-
ing them. The Commission was to act as an advisory
cabinet in the Philippines; and, besides the question of
suitable local governments, the President was especially
desirous of recommendations in regard to the political
relations which, in view of Philippine conditions, it
would be wise to establish between the United States
and the 8,000,000 brown men in Asia, for whom the
treaty of Paris invested us with sovereign responsibility.
The treaty eliminated Spain; it was now for the United
States to frame and carry into effect a policy in regard
to the Philippines. To aid the Government at Wash-
ington in shaping that policy, and to co-operate with the
naval and military authorities at Manila in the effective
extension of American sovereignty over the archipelago,
were the principal functions which the President was to
assign to the Commission.
I have other than personal reasons for reciting these
details. They show, in the first place, that President
I
4 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
McKinley's motive in compelling Spain to cede to the
United States her sovereignty over the Philippine Isl-
ands was the humanitarian object of Uberating the Fili-
pinos from misgovemment and oppression; and, in the
I second place, that up to January, 1899, no definitive
■Philippine policy had been adopted or even thought out
by the President, whose mind had not, indeed, travelled
beyond the first step of reUeving Spain of her sovei-
eignty over the archipelago. It was still open to us,
in dealing with the PiKpinos, to grant them indepen-
dence, to establish a protectorate over them, to confer
upon them a colonial form of government, or to admit
them to the dignity of a territoryi or even a State, in
our Union. Absolutely nothing was settled, except
that Spaia should cede to the United States the sover-
eignty which for a dozen generations she had enjoyed
and exercised over the islands. And this absolute carte
blanche which existed as to the future disposition of the
Philippines, and the apparent desirability of eliminating
Spain from the question, undoubtedly induced some
senators of anti-expansionist sentiments to vote for the
ratification of the treaty of Paris, which secured the
constitutional two-thirds vote of the Senate on February
6, 1899.
DIPLOMATIC NEGOTIATIONS 6
DIPLOMATIC NEGOTIATIONS.
At that date, however, we were on the Pacific en
route to the Philippines. After brief stops at Yoko-
hama and Shanghai, we arrived at Hong Eong on
February 22d. It was almost noon; and, as the hour
struck, the war-ships of all nations, gay with bunting,
burst into multitudinous and ear-splitting thunder which
reverberated from the lofty peak of the island to the
rocky shores of the Chinese mainland with all the roar
and din of heaven^s own artiUery. Here in this British
port in Asia the nations were celebrating the birthday
of Washington! But I cannot describe the splendor
of that scene — and still less the patriotic emotions it
awakened in our hearts.
We now stood at the gateway of the Philippines.
But the Philippine situation had completely changed
since we left America. On February 4th, two days
before the ratification of the treaty of Paris by the
Senate, the Philippine army, which had hitherto been
an aid or a neutral, attacked the American army in
Manila. And before that, on January 21st, the in-
surgents had set up a Philippine Eepublic, based on a
constitution adopted by a congress meeting at Malolos,
which claimed the right to exercise sovereign jurisdic-
tion over the archipelago. Emilio Aguinaldo, the for-
mer military dictator, the leader of the insurrection of
1896 as well as that of 1898, was President of the Phil-
ippine EepubKc and commander-in-chief of its military
{
6 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
and naval forces. Aguinaldo enjoyed the confidence of
the insurgents and their sympathizers and abettors —
' all of whom seemed at that time to be Tagaloga — in
virtue of his patriotic services, his attested honesty,
and his remarkable gift of surrounding himself with
able coadjutors and administrators. And so, instead of
) peace and a gradually extending American sovereignty,
our Commission found awaiting us war and a Philip-
pine Eepublic in effective control at least of the Taga-
log provinces in the heart of Luzon. The authority of
the United States was limited to the city of Manila,
and the people of Manila — Tagalog as they are — ^were
in sympathy with the insurgents.
The instructions of the President to our Commission
being flexible, we recast our plans to meet existing cir-
cumstances. We soon discovered that the insurgents
grossly misconceived the intentions of the United States
in regard to the Philippines. To enlighten them and
to win their confidence became, therefore, our primary
aim. Happily, Manila, to which we were at first re-
stricted, is to the Philippines what Paris is to France.
Beginning, then, with Manila, we endeavored to com-
-i mend to those suspicious brown men a policy of liberty
and home rule under American sovereignty. We ex-
hausted every art and method of conciliation to win
them to the cause of peace. And having secured the
confidence and friendship of the leading Filipinos in
Manila, having convinced them of the humane and
beneficent intentions of our Government, having satis-
DIPLOMATIC NEGOTIATIONS 7
fied them that American sovereignty was only another
name for the liberty of Filipinos, we set in motion,
through their agency, currents of good-wiU, amity, and
reconciliation which overflowed the domains of the
Philippine Republic, gradually spread throughout Luzon
and the Visayas, and reached even to the well-guarded
camps of the insurgents in anns. Though we began
with Manila — and that was a matter of expediency as
well as of necessity — I need scarcely say that our ob-
jective point was the Philippine Eepublic. To win the
Philippine Eepublic over to the cause of peace with the
recognition of wAjnerican sovereignty was the supreme
object of all our endeavors.
On one point, however, the Commission was inexor-
able. American sovereignty over the Philippines hav-
ing been established by treaty was a fact which was no
longer open to discussion by Filipinos in arms. And in
meetings of the Commission with them I always ruled
that question out of order and refused to permit any
speaker to debate it. Of course there was another good
groimd for this attitude, namely, that the Tagalog insur-
gents and their Philippine Eepublic did not represent the
inhabitants of the Philippine Islands, but only a minor-,
ity of them. Furthermore, it had become clear to the
Commission that, from a Philippine point of view, in-
dependence, for some time at least, was an impossibility.
For these reasons, and also because Aguinaldo^s men
were rebels in arms, we insisted that the recognition by
them of American sovereignty was the first condition
(
8 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
of peace. On the other hand, we assured them that on
their recognition of American sovereignty, we should
consult them regarding the future government of the
archipelago, which, we were sure, the United States
would make as free, liberal, and democratic as the most
intelligent Filipino desired. These efforts at concilia-
tion culminated in the issue at an opportune time —
when the American army was driving the Philippine
army before it — of a proclamation by the Commission,
in which the aim was to clear away misimderstand-
ings-and you cannot even imagine how grossly the
Filipinos misinterpreted American purpose*— to exhibit
beyond the possibiKty of misapprehension the liberal,
friendly, and beneficent attitude of the United States
to the people of the Philippine Islands.
This proclamation, which I had drafted after many
conferences with Filipinos and careful study of the con-
stitution of the Philippine Republic and other insurgent
documents, produced remarkable effects. In the first
place, it emboldened the Filipinos we had been winning
over in Manila and made them active missionaries in the
cause of peace under American sovereignty. More
than that, it gave them a platform to stand on; an as-
surance of justice, Kberty, and self-government under
the American fiag, which contrasted strongly with the
spoKation and despotism which the insurgent govern-
ment already practised. But, best of all, it enabled
them to form a party in support of American sover-
eignty over the Philippines. They afterward called
DIPLOMATIC NEGOTIATIONS 9
themselves the Federal Party; but they were then
known as Autonomists. One of the ablest and most
helpful of them all, Mr. Florentino Torres, now a judge
of the Supreme Court, in making last spring a report to
General McArthur on the origin and formation of the
Federal Party, wrote as follows:
" They called themselves ' Autonomists,* for they
presented themselves to the Commission, of which Mr.
Schurman was president, in 1899, laid their ideas and
aspirations before it, and accepted the basis for a gov-
ernment announced in the proclamation of said Com-
mission, and the principles upon which an autonomic
administration is founded."*
As Judge Torres goes on to explain, the Autonomists
were afterward joined by disillusionized insurgents:
" The idea of independence having been laid aside,
and American sovereignty having been unconditionally
accepted, there was no essential disagreement between
those who had come over from the revolutionists and the
so-called Autonomists, whom time and circumstances
have proved to have been right, and from the very be-
ginning there has been no difficulty in coming to an
agreement among themselves for the purpose of found-
ing and organizing the poHtical party which was
planned and which, by common consent, they called the
Federal Party. This party is based upon the principles
of «elf-government, essentially and substantially the
same as the principles which were laid down in a pro-
♦ Annual Reports of the War Department for the fiscal year ended
Jnne 80, 1901. Keport of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the
Army. In four parts. Fart II., p. 120.
10 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
posed federal constitution for the future government of
this archipelago, which was drawn up and submitted to
the former Schurman Commission by the Autono-
mists." *
But among the insurgents themselves the efforts of
our Commission to bring about peace and reconciliation
produced results not less favorable and far more dra-
matic tiban those achieved in the formation of a pro-
American party in ManUa. Let me remind you that
the time was April and IS^ay, 1899. Malolos had been
taken by our troops and the insurgents had fled to the
province of Neuva Ecija, where their government was es-
tablished at San Isidro. The head of Aguinaldo's cab-
inet was Apolinario Mabini, a young man of fragile and
paralytic frame, but of a keen, subtile, and logical intel-
lect, imaginative too, more speculative, perhaps, than
practical, a shaper of policies rather than a leader of men,
except in so far as he exhibited inflexible constancy to the
cause of Philippine independence and a fierce, irrecon-
cilable, and inextinguishable hatred of the Government
of the United States. As long as Mabini remained at
the head of Aguinaldo^s cabinet there was no possibility
of inducing the insurgent Filipinos to accept American
sovereignty. But when the proclamation of our Com-
mission reached the insurgent ranks — ^and a large num-
ber of copies circulated among them — ^the leaders per-
ceived that under American sovereignty they would
enjoy greater liberties than they had ever dreamt of
* Annual Reports of the War Department. Fart 11., p. 121.
DIPLOMATIC NEGOTIATIONS 11
under Spanish rule^ and, if not a nominal independence,
at least a firmer and surer self-government than their-
own Philippine Eepublic could ever guarantee. The
demoralization of the Philippine army was meanwhile
going on apace, thanks to the continuous victories of
General Lawton and General MacArthur. And the
Conunission, who had timed the issue of the proclama-
tion, after conference with General Otis, so that the
hand of conciliation might be felt at the same time as
the hand of force, watched anxiously for the result on
the insurgent authorities. Nor had we long to wait for
the realization of our most sanguine expectations. On
May 1st the Congress of the Philippine Eepublic voted J
for the cessation of war and the adoption of peace on
the basis of our proclamation. Mabini's cabinet was
overturned, and a new cabinet was formed, pledged to
peace and reconciliation, with Patemo at its head and
Buencamino as his most important colleague. The
story is told by Buencamino himself in the following
words:
"About that time, in the month of April, a vast
number of copies of the proclamation of the first Com-
mission, presided over by Mr. Schurman, reached the
insurgent field; this document, although vague in its
details, was perfectly clear in its liberal and democratic
principles.
" Don Felipe Buencamino and Don Pedro Patemo,
without any previous agreement, saw in this proclama-
tion a door through which they could enter into friendly
and harmonious relations with the Americans. All the
12 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
members of Congress adopted this policy, with the ex-
S ception of a few partisans of Mabini, who was at that
time president of the cabinet.
" Hence it is that at the first meeting of Congress in
San Isidro, Nueva Ecija, the first day of May, 1899, it
was resolved to change the war policy for one of peace
with the United States; and this change having been ac-
cepted by Don Emilio Aguinaldo, it resulted, as was
natural, in a change in the cabinet, Senor Mabini being
substituted by Don Pedro Patemo, who, with Don
Felipe Buencamino, proclaimed the new policy of con-
ciliation.
" The first political act of the new cabinet was the
appointment of the Commission to come to this city to
confer with the American authorities to agree upon
terms of honorable surrender, this noble mission having
been confided to Senor Buencamino and others of his
colleagues in the cabinet.'^*
Nothing seemed needed to complete the success of
our Commission. We had won over the Philippine Ee-
public to the policy of peace and recognition of Ameri-
can sovereignty over the Philippine Islands. This pol-
icy had been adopted by the Congress of the PhiKppine
Republic by a vote almost unanimous. President Agui-
naldo had concurred. A cabinet in sympathy with the
new policy, and pledged to carry it out, had taken the
place of Mabini and his colleagues. And a commission
of cabinet members had been appointed, and were now
ready to set out, to carry the tidings to us in Manila.
* Annual Reports of the War Department for the fiscal year ended
June SO, 1901. Report of the Lieutenant-General Commanding the
Army. In four parts. Part II., p. IIS.
DIPLOMATIC NEGOTIATIONS 13
But the kaleidoscope shifts, and behold a tragedy!
In its patriotic effort to bring about peace, the Philip-
pine Eepublic itself suffers collapse. Done to death by
its own false friends, I shall never forget that its last
expiring voice was for peace and reconciliation on the
basis of the proclamation issued by our Commission.
But what the congress, cabinet, and president of the
Philippine Eepublic so unanimously resolved, Luna,
the general commanding their army, as completely
frustrated. He arrested the delegates who had been so
solemnly authorized by congress, cabinet, and president
to proceed to Manila, accused them of treason, and sen-
tenced some to imprisonment and others to death.
The friends of peace and reconciliation were, indeed,
avenged. Luna himself was assassinated in the follow-
ing month by adherents of Aguinaldo. Following the
law of self-preservation Aguinaldo immediately took
Luna's place as general in active command of the.
forces. Eepublic or no republic, liberty or despotism,
national prosperity or national misery, the insurgents,
still in arms, were ready to sacrifice everything to their
own selfish ambition, ignorance, and insane folly. The
officers would not abandon their high positions to sink
into their former insignificance in the civil community;
and the soldiers preferred living on others to working
for themselves. Military power released from civil
authority always lapses into a selfish and remorseless
tyranny. And nowhere is this law more tragically il-
histrated than in the Philippines. Such an unholy
\
14 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
carnival of militarism, despotism, brigandage, cruelty,
and wholesale intimidation of peaceful and unoffending
inhabitants as the disorganized insurgent bands have
i since enacted in different parts of the PhiKppine Islands
is without parallel in Occidental history-and finds a
parallel in Asia alone.
The poor Philippine Republic was not only dead, but
— what is equally important in oriental politics — ^it
never again pretended to be alive. In America, indeed,
honest and patriotic, but sadly misinformed, citizens
^ still talked of the new republic of the Orient and that
youthful father of his country, Emilio Aguinaldo.
But the cold fact is, that since those tragic happenings
in the province of Nueva Ecija, in the month of May,
1899, there has not been even the semblance of a Phil-
ippine Republic; all clean gone are its congress, cabinet,
president, and other civil officers; while the opposition
to the establishment of American sovereignty has pro-
ceeded, not so much from the patriotism of the people as
[from the selfishness of individuals, from the lust of mil-
itary power and oppression, and from the spirit of rob-
bery and brigandage.
Nothing remained throughout the area occupied by
the insurgents but to meet force with force; and this
was done first by General Otis, and later, with brilliant
results, by General MacArthur, who had the rare good-
fortune, through General Funston, of capturing Agui-
naldo. But the Philippine Islands are a vast archipel-
ago; and the insurgent operations never embraced the
DIPLOMATIO NEGOTIATIONS 15
whole of it. The insurgents were indeed active in many
provinces of Luzon; and, of the Visayan Islands, Panay,
Cebu, Bohol, Samar, and Leyte, were partly under their
influence or control. But even in 1899, when their
power was at its height, they were not admitted to
Negros, which declared for American sovereignty, and
voluntarily raised the American flag; and, with insignif-
icant exceptions, they got no hold of the great island
of Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago, or the remote isl-
and of Palawan. These southern islands are occupied
by Mohammedan and heathen tribes. Mindanao has a
sprinkling of Christian Filipinos on the coasts, but no
more; Balabac and the Sulu Archipelago are Moham-
medan, and Palawan is settled on the sea-coast by Mo-
hammedans, and in the interior by heathen.
The insurgents, however, were making efforts to win
over the Christian Island of Negros and to enlist the sup-
port of the southern islands. Already they held Zam-
boanga, on the western tip of Mindanao, and some other
points. The Commission thought it desirable to send
encouragement to Negros,and to quicken and strengthen
the loyalty it had so early manifested. And it seemed
especially desirable to secure the Mohammedan chief-
tains of the southern islands, more particularly the Sul-
tan of Sulu, who claimed a kind of suzerainty over them
all. On this business I set out early in June, my col-
leagues remaining in Manila to attend to other matters.
I met with enthusiastic receptions in Bacolod, the capi-
tal of Negros, at Silay on the north and Dumaguete on
)
16 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
the south of the island, as well as at other points; and
at all these towns I had good opportunities of proclaim-
ing to the people the beneficent intentions of our Gov-
ernment and assuring them of the liberty and prosperity
which, would follow peace under American rule. I
visited the towns of Ilo-Ilo and Cebu, which were the
only other points we at that time held in the Visayas,
and then proceeded to Mindanao, Sulu, Palawan, and
the Calamianes, My especial object was to induce
the Sultan of Sulu to enter into an agreement ac-
cepting American sovereignty. I knew the terms of
the agreement which he had made with Spain some
years before. Under these circumstances I told the
Sultan of the war between the United States and
Spain, and of the change of sovereignty in the Phil-
ippine Islands consequent upon that war. He said
that Spain had been an old and inteterate enemy of the
Sulus, and he spoke boastfully of the issues of their
contests with her. I pointed out that, as the United
States desired only its own rights, on which, however,
it would insist, there was no reason why the Sultan
should not be our friend, for the United States would
hold inviolable his rights, and scrupulously respect the
religion, the customs, and the sentiments of his people.
I suggested a renewal of the agreement he had made
with Spain. To this he at first demurred; he wanted
better terms; more particularly he desired to make Mai-
bun (his capital), or Siassi, a free port of his own, I re-
plied that it would be out of the question for the sover-
DIPLOMATIC NEGOTIATIONS 17
eign power to abdicate or part with its jurisdiction over
any of the harbors or territorial waters of the archipel-
ago. He then suggested other modifications in his own
interest But, when all were politely but firmly reject-
ed, the Sultan finally said that if he could not secure any
better terms, he would be willing to acknowledge Amer-
ican sovereignty in the terms of the agreement he had
made with Spain.
I congratulated him on his wise decision, expressed
my admiration of the beauty of his charming island,
and suggested that its resources were capable of indefi-
nite development, if capital and proper skill were only
applied. He spoke of the havoc wrought by pestilence
among his people, and added, with a mingled air of
pathos and helplessness, that he did not even know their
numbers, for, unlike more advanced peoples, they had
never had a census.
I cabled the result of my interview to Washington,
and recommended that this plan of making agreements
be followed with the other chieftains in the southern
islands. In a short time the military authorities began
to carry out this policy; and as a result, the fierce and
implacable Moros of Sulu, Palawan, and Mindanao
never became enemies of the United States. Thus the
great southern islands of the archipelago were saved
to us. Censorious critics blamed us for making a treaty
with the Sultan of Sulu and not emancipating his
slaves! The so-called "treaty" was simply an amica-
ble acceptance by the Sultan of American sovereignty
18 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
over his islands in the same terms in which, after many
bloody contests, he had been forced to recognize the
sovereignty of Spain. As to the abolition of slavery
— and I rode through plantations worked by slaves —
had I mooted such a policy at that meeting in June,
1899, I might have kindled a terrible Mohammedan
war. Contact with Christian civilization will undoubt-
edly lead to emancipation — ^which some of the dates
*, have since proclaimed — and I thought the gradual
abolition of slavery by peaceful methods better than
the provocation of a war of Mohammedans against
Christians, which an insistence on immediate emanci-
pation would in all probability have produced.
THE QUESTIONS OF PHILIPPINE INDE-
PENDENCE AND AN AMEKICAN PKO-
TECTOKATE.
I have no intention of describing the work done by
the first Philippine Commission, In accepting its final
report early in 1900 and discharging it. President Mc-
Kinley, with the generous appreciation that character-
ized the man, spoke in highly laudatory terms of the ser-
vice the Commission had rendered to the Grovemment
and to the country, and invited us to retain our places
in a second Commission which, however, nearly all of
us were obliged to decline. Apart from the diplomatic
and executive functions of the first Commission, and its
confidential advices to Washington, the final report of
PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE 19
four printed volumes may be cited as evidence of the
industry and fidelity with which we studied the Philip-
pine question in its many-sided complexity and its in-
exhaustible difficulty.
It fell to me to investigate, and report upon, two ques-
tions of intense interest and of transcendent importance.
One was the form of government— municipal, provin-
cial, and general — which should be established in the
Philippine Islands. The other, and more fundamental,
question concerned the political relations which ought to
obtain between the Philij^ine Islands and the United
States. The results of my inquiries were, after adop-
tion, embodied in the report of the Commission, and
published first in the preliminary report,* and afterward
in the final report, where, under the heading of " The
Government of the Philippine Islands," they occupy
nearly half of the first volume. The two questions were
studied together, and in each case the determining fac-
tors were the actual circumstances and conditions of the
inhabitants of the archipelago and the sentiments and
ideals of their most intelligent spokesmen.
The question of the political relations of the United
States to the Philippine Islands, to which I had neces-
sarily given much thought and study, became the domi-
nant issue in the presidential campaign, which began
soon after the presentation of the report of our Commis-
sion. On that question I had gone to the Philippines
with decided preferences. As I had been averse to ac-
♦ See the section on " Capacity for Self-government," pp. 181-183.
20 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
cepting from Spain sovereignty over the archipelago,
so I was desirous of finding a way to escape the burden-
some responsibility which I believed we had assumed.
Two questions were constantly recurring to my mind:
Might not the United States grant independence to the
Filipinos? Or, if that were impracticable, might we
not surrender our sovereignty and establish a protecto-
rate?
What I have already said of the collapse of the Phil-
ippine Kepublic, in May, 1899, throws some light on
] these questions. That unhappy organization never had
extensive jurisdiction, except in ink and paper. But
after the spring of 1899, it abdicated even its literary
existence. On whom, then, could the United States have
conferred independence, had it so desired? The Moham-
medan and heathen tribes in the southern islands —
more than a third of the area of the entire archipelago —
were not hostile, and their datos and chieftains were
being secured by agreements, after the model of our
first agreement with the Sultan of Sulu. Or, if we con-
fine attention to the Christianized Philippines, namely,
Luzon and the Visayas and the smaller adjacent islands,
there was no political organization representing their
inhabitants — the defunct Philippine Republic was al-
i most altogether a Tagalog organization — on whom the
trust of sovereignty might have been devolved. There
was not even a single military leader whom all accepted.
Thus at the present time General Lukban, who is fight-
ing us in Samar, and General Malvar, in southern Luzon,
PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE 21
are playing independently their own hands. What rea-
sonable man, indeed, could have expected harmonious
co-operation from Visayans, Tagalogs, Vicols, Hocanos,
and the other peoples of Luzon and the Visayas, who
was aware of their ancient rivalries and jealousies, their
mutually imintelligible languages, and the isolation in
which they lived in consequence of the lack of decent
means of communication?
There was really no political organization to endow
with the function of sovereignty, had the United States \
desired to confer sovereignty upon the Filipinos. And
men of education and men of property were very em-
phatic in their rejection of such a gift, whenever the
hypothesis was presented to them. Let me repeat what
I said in the report of the Commission:*
" While the peoples of the Philippine Islands ardent-
ly desire a full measure of rights and liberties, they do
not, in the opinion of the Commission, generally desire
independence. Hundreds of witnesses testified on this
subject to the Commission and its individual members,
and, though they represented all possible varieties of
opinion — many of them being in sympathy with the in-
surgents — ^they were uniform in their testimony, that in
view of the ignorance and political inexperience of the
masses of the people, the multiplicity of languages, the
divergencies of culture and mode of life, and the obsta-
cles to intercommunication, an independent sovereign
Philippine State was at the present time neither possible
nor desirable, even if its poverty and internal weakness
and lack of coherence would not invite, and the dissatis-
♦ Vol. I., pp. 82-88 ( "The Government of the Philippine Islands ").
/
AV
22 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
faction of aliens entail, the intervention of foreign
powers, with the inevitable result of the division of the
archipelago among them and the disappearance forever
of the dream and hope of a united and self-governing
Philippine commonwealth. The Philippine Islands,
even the most patriotic declare, cannot, at the present
time, stand alone. They need the tutelage and protec-
tion of the United States. But they need it in order
that, in due time, they may, in their opinion, become
self-governing and independent. For it would be a mis-
representation of facts not to report that ultimate inde-
pendence — independence after an undefined period of
American training — is the aspiration and goal of the
Intelligent Filipinos who to-day so strenuously oppose
the suggestion of independence at the present time.^'
But if immediate independence for the Filipinos were
an absolute impossibility (unless the aim were to invite
anarchy and chaos, to be followed by the absorption of
the archipelago at the hands of the great powers of Eu-
rope), might not an American protectorate over the
archipelago be a better solution of the problem than the
retention of that sovereignty which Spain had trans-
/ ^^erred to us by the terms of the treaty of Paris? This
solution, which was subsequently embodied as a plank
in the democratic national platform, engaged much of
my attention in the year 1899. It had the apparent
merit of relieving us of the onerous and thankless under-
taking of governing the Filipinos. For that reason it
appealed strongly to my own sympathies; and my judg-
ment was greatly impressed by the success of die British
AMERICAN PROTECTORATE 23
protectorate which Sir Andrew Clarke had established
over races kindred to the Filipinos in the Federated
Malay States. And Englishmen, whom one meets
everywhere in the Orient, were confident that what they
had done in Perak, Selangor, Pahang, and Negri Sem-
bilan, we ought to do in Luzon, the Visayas, and the
rest of the Philippine Islands. With my own predilec-
tions, and under arguments so cogent, I was quite open
to persuasion that an exchange of our sovereignty for
a protectorate over the Philippine Islands might be our
wisest policy, and that, both from its inherent desira-
bility and the probability, as demonstrated by experi-
ence among other Malayans, of its producing the best
results. But the more I tested this policy in the light
of actual Philippine conditions, the less ground I per-
ceived for the hopes its first formulation had awakened.
■ ^ In a measure, however, this poKcy, in spirit, if not
in the letter, had been adopted, as I have already ex-
plained, in dealing with the inhabitants of the Sulu
^ Archipelago, Mindanao, and Palawan. To take the
/"^ first and typical case, we recognized the Sultan of Sulu
* as the " king and shepherd of his people '' (if I may use
an Homeric phrase of so unclassical a community) ; and
so far as we govern the tribes within his jurisdiction, we
govern them through the Sultan. We have made simi-
lar agreements with Date Mandi and other chieftains
in Mindanao and perhaps Palawan. And this policy is
susceptible of extension to all the tribes, heathen as well
as Mohammedan, which inhabit those southern islands.
\
\
24 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
But, as will be recognized when once pointed out, this
> is a poUcy which presupposes moBa rchs or JSeitains. "
It c an be applied on ly to people s who render obedienca _.
to monarch-like rulers, whether they be called princes^ .
kliedives, sultans, datos, or rajahs. The position is
generally hereditary, and this is the case with the sul-
\^ tanate of Sulu, as it is with the corresponding position
of rajah in the Federated Malay States. Through such
a single and permanent executive or hereditary ruler it
becomes possible for the protecting power to have fixed
relations with the protected community. A State
whose supreme power is divided among executives and
fluctuates from time to time, would wait long in the
market before finding a protector. A protectorate pre-
supposes a definite and permanent ruler to protect; and,
if we may judge from the examples of India, the Malay
Peninsula, Egypt, and other parts of Africa, it is espe-
cially congenial to hereditary rule.
The chieftaincies and sultanates, which still survive
in Mindanao, Palawan, and the Sulu group (where
Spanish sovereignty scarcely extended into the interior,
and was effective only on the coast), existed throughout
the entire archipelago at the time of the Spanish con-
quest. But the Spanish system of government was un-
congenial to the system of native rulership, and by
degrees the native potentates disappeared throughout
Luzon and the Visayan Islands, and all the region in
which Spanish dominion was effective. Thus the Chris-
tianized Filipinos, who number over 6,000,000 souls,
AMERICAN PROTECTORATE 25
are to-day, as I wrote in the report of the Commission,*
" a pure democracy, without distinctions of birth or
rank — a mass of people without hereditary chieftains or
rulers. The Spanish governor-general once ruled them
with the aid of soldiers, civilians, and ecclesiastics from
Spain, and now that Spanish sovereignty is gone, there
are no constituted authorities, no natural leaders, who
con speak for the inhabitants of the archipelago. Agui-
naldo's influence over the Tagalogs might, indeed, have
been utilized, had he not made war upon their liber-
ators; and there are other natives who enjoy much
prestige among the Visayans, Vicols, Pampangos, Pan-
gasinanes, Ilocanos, and Cagayanes. But so long as
obedience remains the essence of government, the fact
is indisputable, that while the sultans of the Malay
Peninsula ruled their own States, there was nothing
corresponding to them in Luzon and the Visayan Isl-
ands, in which, therefore, the Americans were stopped
from instituting a protectorate, even had they desired
to copy in a territory over which they possessed sover-
eignty the practice of the British in dealing with a
territory over which they neither had nor pretended to
have a shadow of sovereignty."
For it must not be forgotten in this connection that
while we went into the Philippine Islands with all the
rights of sovereignty. Great Britain intervened in the
affairs of the Malay States solely on the invitation of
their chieftains. She instituted a protectorate over the
Malay Peninsula because she had no sovereignty there,
and because there existed in the sultans established
♦Vol I., p. 101.
26 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
monarchs who desired, or were induced to ask for, her
protection. And the problem of gaining the country
and governing the people resolved itself simply into the
problem of winning and then controlling the sultans.
In the Malay States, Great Britain set up a protec-
torate because they had sultans and she had no sover-
eignty. In Luzon and the Visayas there are no sultans,
and the United States has sovereignty. The conclusion
in favor of an American protectorate over the Chris-
tianized Philippines is certainly not derived by parity
of reasoning.
I must, however, acknowledge that the policy of an
American protectorate was very dear to the heart of the
insurgents. But in citing the example of the Feder-
ated Malay States, they were playing with a two-edged
weapon. For each of the Malayan States has become
a veiled crowned colony, in which, though everything
is done in the name of the Sultan (who flies his own
flag and enjoys increased income), the British authori-
ties have exclusive control of taxation and expenditures,
give " advice " which the Sultan must adopt, and even
push their dominion to the extent of deposing the Sultan
and settling the succession, or ordaining a general manu-
mission of slaves. These essential features of the Brit-
ish protectorate over the Federated Malay States were
the last thing the insurgents desired to see incorporated
in the scheme of an American protectorate over the
Philippine Islands. The only kind of protectorate they
ever attempted to formulate was one under which the
AMERICAN PROTECTORATE 27
United States, like a good angel, should incur all the
responsibility of protecting a Philippine government
(when one was created) against foreign nations, while
the Philippine officials themselves collected all the rev-
enues and exercised all the power. But, as I showed in
the report of the Commission:
" The idea of a protectorate entertained by the insur-
gent leaders, imder which they should enjoy all the
powers of an independent sovereign government, and
the Americans should assume all obligations to foreign
Mtions for their good use of those powers, mmLLcreate
an impossible sitn fltinn for thfi United^States. Internal
dominion and external responsibiKty must go hand in
hand. Under the chimerical scheme of protection cher-
ished by Aguinaldo, if a foreigner lost his life or prop-
erty through a miscarriage of justice in a Philippine
court, or in consequence of a governor's failure to sup-
press a riot, then the United States would be responsi-
ble for indemnity to the foreigner's government, though
without possessing the power of punishing the offenders,
of preventing such maladministration, or of protecting
itself against similar occurrences in the future. Nor
could the liability to foreign nations be reduced with-
out permitting them directly to seek redress; and such
a course would, it is to be feared, speedily lead to the
appropriation of the Philippine Islands by the great
powers who would not need to seek far for pretences
for intervention.
" Undoubtedly the raising of the American flag in
the PhiKppine Islands has entailed great responsibilities
upon us; but to guarantee external protection while re-
nouncing internal dominion is no way of escaping from
\ r i':
28 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
them; on the contrary, while you pull down the flag,
you only pile up diflSculties/'*
PLAN OF GOVEKNMENT FOE THE
PHILIPPINES.
This conclusion made the question of government a
very important one. As I have already stated, it was
my duty to write that portion of our report. The Com-
mission felt strongly that civil government should be
^established at the earliest possible date. Military rule
^ is always unsatisfactory, and the Philippine reformers
had, in the days of Spanish dominion, always denounced
it, and insisted on civil government as the indispensable
guarantee of their rights and liberties. Of course they
were no more tolerant of the American government of
military occupation. And the Commission fully sym-
pathized with their aspirations for a government regu-
lated by formal and public law, to take the place of the
arbitrary orders of the military commander. After
working out a scheme of civil government, which the
Conmaission adopted, I wrote as follows in regard to the
time and place of putting it into operation:
" The Commission recommend that in all parts of
Luzon and the Visayan Islands where American occu-
pation is effective, this scheme of civil government be
put in operation where practicable, as soon as possible,
though with the retention in every case of such military
forces as may be deemed necessary for the protection
of the civil communities thus organized. And as
♦VoL I., p. 108.
OOVEBNMENT FOB THE PHILIPPINES 29
American authority is extended over the remaining dis-
tricts^ islands, and peoples of the archipelago, there
should be a corresponding extension of civil government
until all the civilized peoples of Luzon, the Visayan
Islands, and the coast of Mindanao enjoy the benefits of
the territorial administration. There is no need to wait
for the suppression of the insurrection in all the islands
before giving civil government and local home rule to
such as are at peace and are fit for it. Considering the
varieties of the peoples and the friendliness of most of
them to the United States, it would be both unjust and
impolitic to treat them all alike as unworthy of civil
government; and looking to the pacification of those
still hostile, the Commission believes that no instrumen-
tality would be so effective to that end as the establish-
ment of civil government in the conimunities which are
already friendly/'*
In outlining a scheme of civU government for the
Philippine Islands, I first studied the system which
Spain had established, and then noted and discussed the
objections which PhiKppine reformers (especially the
radicals and insurgents) made to that system and the
modifications which they proposed for its improvement.
I must refer to the report f for the details of the inves-
tigation, but the following summary of the Spanish sys-
tem of government for the PhiKppines— municipal,
provincial, and general — is so brief that it may be cited
here:
"It goes without saying that the governor-general
was appointed by the Spanish Government. He was
♦ Report, pp. 118-119. f See Vol. I., pp. 43-87.
80 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
assisted by a council of administration, whose members
were, in part, appointed by the Spanish Government,
and in part elected by the provincial juntas, which the
Spanish Government controlled. Spain also appointed
the governor of every province; and of the council or
junta which assisted the governor, only the minority
of the members were elected — and these not by the peo-
ple at large, but by the heads or mayors (^municipal
captains ') of the towns of the province. Thus it was
that neither in the government of the province nor in
the general government of the archipelago had the in-
habitants of the Philippines any control, and scarcely
even a voice. Indeed, those provincial councils, for
which the heads of the municipalities were permitted to
elect a minority of the members, had only advisory
powers in relation to the governor, whose decision in
all matters was supreme; and, besides advising the
governor, the councils had no other function but to
inspect the administration of the affairs of the mu-
nicipalities.
" Even the municipal councils were, therefore, not
bodies controlled by the people. In addition to constant
inspection and direction from the provincial junta,
every municipal council was liable to warning, admoni-
tion, fines, and suspension, at the hands of the governor
of the province. And to make the control from above
still more effective, the governor-general exercised juris-
diction over all the municipal councils, and was vested
with power to discharge members, or even the entire
council itself.
" Even when municipal government had been thus
circumscribed, the masses of the people had no share in
it. Suffrage was limited to the ^ principal people ' of
GOVERNMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES 31
the town, and elections were indirect. The ' principal
people ' were present and past office-holders and persons
paying fifty dollars land tax. The ' principal people,'
as thus constituted, elected by ballot twelve delegates,
and these elected the municipal tribunal, which actually
governed the town." *
In this system of government the PhiKppine re-
formers demanded a number of changes. Some of the
features of the system which contented them are more
surprising than the features they objected to. They
naturally demanded a large measure of decentralization
with increased autonomy and independence for the pro-
vincial and the municipal governments. They demand-
ed direct elections by properly qualified voters. But,
though they favored an extension of the franchise, it
was only to recognize other tax-payers than the land-
owners (to whom the Spanish law restricted the fran-
chise, along with former office-holders), and to admit as
voters persons holding academic degrees, or perhaps
even possessing an elementary education.
But still more surprising than the reformers' aversion
to universal suffrage is their rejection of absolute home
rule for their towns and provinces. The constitution
of the Philippine Republic expressly provides for " in-
tervention " of the central government in the affairs of
the provincial and municipal government. This idea
of "intervention," which is foreign to us, is funda
mental to the whole political life and thought of the
* Idem, pp. 182-188 (Preliminarj Report).
33 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
FOipinos. Acquired from long experience with Spanish
methods of government, the idea has taken such a firm
hold of the mind of the Filipinos that they find govern-
ment of any kind inconceivable without it.
Now if the general government which the United
States sets up for the archipelago is to exercise inspec-
tion, regulation, and control over the functions of the
provincial and municipal governments — and all that is
implied in the notion of ** intervention "— ^-surely these
latter may be intrusted with a large measure of auton-
omy without any danger to the public interests. And
so we recommended that PhiHppine towns and provinces
should be vested with substantially the same powers as
are enjoyed by towns and counties in the United States.
As to suffrage, while favoring its extension, we recom-
mended its limitation by a property or educational qual-
ification. I endeavored to sum up the treatment of pro-
vincial and municipal government as follows:
" It is necessary, in dealing with this subject, to recall
what hiis already been said of the idea entertained by
the Filipinos of the necessity of intervention and control
on the part of the Manila government over the doings
of the provincial and municipal authorities. Even in
local affairs, it is not an absolute but a qualified home
rule they desire; they look for supervision and regula-
tion from the central government at Manila. If this
expectation is satisfied by the continuance of the custom
of inspection and ultimate control from Manila, and
this the Commission deem absolutely essential, it will
be safe, and, in the opinion of the Commission, expedi-
GOVERNMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES 33
ent and desirable to grant to the inhabitants of the
archipelago a large measure of home rule in local affairs.
Their towns should enjoy substantially the rights, priv-
ileges, and immunities of towns in one of the Territories
of the United States.
" As to the provinces, the Commission is of the opin-
ion, in view of the facts submitted in the preceding sec-
tions, that they should be turned into counties (with or
without consolidation or division, as circumstances of
size, population, race, physical features, etc., may de-
termine) and vested with substantially the same func-
tions as those enjoyed by a county in one of the Terri-
tories of the United States. This system might be
applied to Luzon and the Visayan Islands at once, with
some exceptions, though inconsiderable, in the mountain
regions, and a beginning might also be made on the
coasts of Mindanao, while the Sulu Archipelago, calling
for special arrangements with the Sultan, need not be
considered in this connection. It is, of course, intended
that the Filipinos themselves shall, subject to the gen-
eral laws which may be enacted in this regard, manage
their own town and county affairs by the agency of
their own officers whom they themselves elect, with no
contribution to this work from American officials ex-
cept what is implied in the Philippine conception of
intervention and control on the part of the central gov-
ernment at Manila. The suffrage should be restricted
by educational or property qualifications."*
As to the central or general government for the arch-
ipelago, I early became convinced of the necessity of a
radical change in the Spanish system. After an ex-
* Report. VoL I., pp. 97-98.
34 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
tended examination of that system^ I summarized its
defects in the following terms:
" The scheme of government instituted by Spain for
the Philippines was, in itself, far from perfect, and in
its practical operations it was open to the gravest objec-
tions. It failed to accomplish even the primary ends
of good government — the maintenance of peace and
order and the even administration of justice; nor can
there be any doubt that it proved an engine of oppres-
sion and exploitation of the Filipinos. It took their
substance in the form of taxes and contributions, and
gave no equivalent in return. The preceding sections
have shown the use made of the public moneys, which
was in general an unproductive one. The people paid
heavy taxes and were subject to annoying and vexatious
restrictions on their rights; yet the country was not de-
veloped, road&,were not made, popular education was
not established. It almost seemed as though the great
trust of government had been perverted into a mere in-
strument for the benefit of the governing class at the
expense of their subjects. The revenues were swallowed
up by salaries, most of which seemed unnecessary.
The very category of public works is only another des-
ignation for salaries. There were in reality no public
works. The revenues of the archipelago were exhausted
by unproductive expenditures on naval and military es-
tablishments, on salaries and pensions, on the church,
and on the colonial oflSce in Madrid. And the people
governed had no redress, as they had no control or voice
in the matter.
" The most prominent defects in this scheme of gov-
ernment were: (1) The boundless and autocratic powers
of the governor-general; (2) the centralization of all
OOVERNMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES 85
governmental functions in Manila; (3) the absence of
representative institutions in which the Filipinos might
make their needs and desires known; (4) a pernicious
system of taxation; (5) a plethora of officials who lived
on the country, and by their very numbers obstructed,
like a circumlocution office, the public business they pro-
fessed to transact; (6) division of minor responsibilities
through the establishment of rival boards and offices;
(7) the costliness of the system and the corruption it
bred; and (8) confusion between the functions of the
State and the functions of the church and of the relig-
ious orders."*
The first reform, that on which all others depend, is
the admission of the FiHpinos themselves to a participa-
tion in the functions and control of government. They
have reached a stage of progress and civilization, at least
in Luzon and the Visayas, which entitles them to rep-
resentative institutions. And the constitution of the
Philippine Republic was responsive to popular demand
in providing for a representative legislature, which was
designated an assembly. Had Spain granted the reit-
erated demand of Philippine reformers for representa-
tive institutions, it is highly probable that her flag would
to-day be waving over the archipelago. And in this
connection I must reiterate what I have elsewhere said
of our own obligation to understand, appreciate, and
sympathize with the ideas and sentiments of the Fili-
pinos:
" The United States can succeed in governing the
Philippines only by understanding the character and
* Report VoL I., pp. 81-82.
36 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
circumstances of the people and realizing sympathetical-
ly their aspirations and ideals. A government, to stand,
must be firmly rooted in the needsy interests, judgment,
and devotion of the people; and this support is secured
by the a daptation of fovc^ rmnent tn flip (»>ii>T»QnfoT» ^jxA^
possibiliti es of the governed — what they are, what they
liave It in them to become, what they want, and, not
least, what they think they are entitled to have and
enjoy/'*
Of course, so long as the United States retains sov-
ereignty over the PhiHppine Islands, so long must its
control of the central or general government be absolute
and indisputable. The responsibilities of sovereignty
cannot be discharged without corresponding powers.
And in any delegation of political privileges to the peo-
ple of the dependency, the rights reserved to the sov-
ereign power must be plenipotent and unquestionable.
We invite the Filipinos to co-operate with Americans in
the administration of general affairs, from Manila as a
centre, and to undertake, subject to American control,
the administration of the local affairs of the towns and
provinces. But the United States is, and, so long as it
retains sovereignty over the archipelago, it must remain,
the predominant partner.
The problem, then, is to reconcile American sover-
eignty with Philippine autonomy, li we look to the
British Empire for a mo4el, we find the self-governing I
colony, like Canada, which is so independent that Great
Britain exercises only a nominal sovereignty over it; or
* Report. Vol. I., p. 82.
GOVERNMENT FOB THE PHILIPPINES 37
^R)endency, like India, in which the natives are without
M^ representative institutions and are ruled by the arbitrary
^ ^ will of the sovereign or his representatives. The Govern-
ment of Canada or Australia is really independent or
sovereign, but filial piety and community of race, inter-
est, and sentiment serve to maintain the nominal connec-
tion with the mother country. Were the inhabitants of
these colonies of a different race and color from the
British, they would long ago formally have set up as
independent and sovereign communities, as, indeed, the
Boers, European though they are, have during the last
two or three years made incredible exertions to do in
South Africa. The United States, therefore, could not,
without imperilling, or even abdicating, its sovereignty,
confer upon the FiUpinos representative institutions and
responsible government like that of Canada or Aus-
tralia. On the other hand, to govern them as the peo-
ple of India are governed by Great Britain would be to
defeat their aspirations, to belittle their capabilities, and
to frustrate a principal object of their revolt against
Spanish authority, which was the occasion of their fall-
ing under the sovereignty of the United States.
To reconcile the political rights and privileges of the
Filipinos with the inviolable sovereignty of the United
States, I turned to the congressional acts organizing the
successive territories of the Union, beginning with the \
classic Jeffersonian measure of 1804 for the organiza-
tion of the territory of Louisiana. For every necessary
38 PHIUPPINB AFFAIRS
and desirable feature to be incorporated in a bill organ-
izing the government of the Philippine Islands I found
a precedent in the several acts under which Congress
had organized the territories. Thus I recommended
that Congress should retain the right to veto all Philip-
pine legislation; that the Filipinos should be represented
by a delegate in Congress; that the governor of the
Philippine Islands should be appointed by the President
of the United States, and should have at least a restric-
tive veto on the acts of the Philippine legislature; that
this legislature should consist of a lower house, or assem-
bly, elected by the people, under suitable educational
and property qualifications, and of an upper house — a
legislative council or senate — in part elected by the peo-
ple and in part nominated by the President of the
United States; and that members of the governor's cab-
inet or the heads of departments, who were to be partly
Americans and partly FiUpinos, should also be members
of the upper branch of the legislature.
These several features were discussed with prominent
and progressive Filipinos, some of whom were good
enough to embody their views in a model constitution
or law for the organization of the Government of the
archipelago. This bill of theirs is printed as an appen-
dix* to the report of the Commission, and I have dis-
cussed it at some length in the chapters on the plan of
government for the Philippines. My own views, which
the Commission adopted, were outlined as follows:
* See Exhibit VI. (Vol. I., pp. 216-228).
GOVERNMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES 39
" From the very outset, however, it will be safe and
desirable, in the opinion of the Commission, to extend
to the Filipinos larger liberties of self-government than
Jefferson approved of for the inhabitants of Louisiana.
Assuming that in the Sulu Archipelago, and in such
portions of Mindanao and Palawan as are still occupied
by tribal Indians, the Government will be conducted
through the agency of their sultans, datos, or chiefs, it
is to the remainder of the Philippine Islands, more par-
ticularly to Luzon and the Visayas and the coasts of
Mindanao, that the territorial form of government is to
be adapted. Now, the Commission believes that the
people of these regions, under suitable property and edu-
cational qualifications, should be permitted to elect at
least the members of the lower branch of the territorial
legislature. Patemo's scheme of government, as has
been already explained, demanded a legislature elected
by the people for the making of laws on local subjects.
He seems to have had in mind a legislature with a single
chamber, which is also the organization of the legislat-
ure in the constitution of the so-called Philippine Re-
public. But the model constitution (Exhibit VI.) pre-
pared for the Commission by those Filipinos who sought
to adjust the claims of the insurgent leaders to the rights
of American sovereignty provides for a bicameral legis-
lature, whose branches are designated, respectively, the
Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The latter is to
be composed of one hundred and ten members, elected
by the people, who are apportioned among the eleven
regions into which this constitution redistricts the archi-
pelago as fairly as may be in proportion to their popula-
tion, the distribution, however, being subject to modifi-
cation hereafter when a correct census shall have been
taken.
40 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
" But this constitution^ which provides for popular
representation in the lower chamber, does not make the
Senate or upper house wholly elective. Of its twenty-
two members, the eleven regions or electoral districts
are to elect one each, and the other eleven are to be ap-
pointed by the American governor-general, and, when
appointed, to enjoy a life term. It would harmonize
better with American practice to have these appoint-
ments made by the President; and there seems no good
reason why the term of office should not be the same as
that of elective senators, which the constitution fixes at
four years. But here the important thing to emphasize
is the proposal in a constitution, which comes from radi-
cal Filipinos, that the proper TJnited States authority
should appoint half the members of the Senate.
" This constitution also provides that the secretaries
or members of the cabinet of the governor-general may
be members of either chamber; and if not members,
shall have the right to sit and speak in either chamber.
With such safeguards in American hands, the qualified
veto power which this constitution gives the governor-
general (which includes the right to suspend the law for
a year, even after its passage by a two-thirds vote of the
legislature over his veto) would probably be adequate
for the purposes of good government, especially since,
under the territorial plan of government. Congress may
(and should) retain the right to veto all territorial legis-
lation. But for that very reason, in addition to other
good grounds, the Filipinos should be represented by a
delegate in Congress.
" It is important to add, as a further illustration of
the aversion (which amounts almost to abhorrence) of
the Filipinos to military government, that this constitu-
tion provides that the American governor-general shall
GOVERNMENT FOB THE PHILIPPINES 41
be ' a civilian/ just as the Negros constitution also de-
clared, in its bill of rights, that * The military power is
subordinate to the civil, and cannot use its military
functions to deprive the citizen of his civil and political
rights/
"The changes suggested in the Jeffersonian scheme
of government for Louisiana, in the light of the ideals
formulated by prominent and progressive FiKpinos—
that is, an elected lower house with an upper house half
elected and half nominated — ^would practically convert
the scheme into a territorial goverlent of the first
class. And this, after due consideration of circum-
stances and conditions in the PhiKppines, is what the
Commission earnestly recommends."*
But while our territorial form of government ftu>
nished the type of organization the Commission recom-
mended for the Philippines, we insisted that the Philip-
pine government should be held completely aloof from ]
the American system. In so far as the United States '
governed the islands, we were strongly of the opinion
that it should govern them at arm^s length. Anything
like the mingling of Philippine affairs with American
affairs would, in the judgment of the Commission, prove
a serious mistake. The archipelago, we thought, shou ld
remain, politically, as separate from the United States
as India is from the United Kingdom. As it is the
policy of our republic to maintain a national develop-
ment unmixed with Asiatic immigrants, so it is to the \
interest of the Filipinos to have opportunity for a full
and independent development of their own individual
•Vol. I., pp. 109-111.
42 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
capacities, their own racial characteristics, and their
own civilization. Their own organic life being thus
recognized as self-contained and inviolable, when it
reaches a degree of maturity qualifying them for inde-
pendence, a new republic may arise in Asia without any
shock to the United States of America. For if, under
American training, the Filipinos come to fit themselves
for sovereign independence, I have no doubt Americans
will grant it if the FiKpinos then desire it.
The Commission recommended that the finances of
the Philippine Islands should be kept entirely separate
from those of the United States. In that connection I
wrote as follows:
" There are two fundamental principles on which a
successful administration of the finances of dependent
territories must rest. First, their finances must be man-
aged, not for the advantage of the sovereign power, but
for the benefit of the people and the development of the
country whose destinies have been committed to its
supreme control. Up to the eighteenth century all the
great colonizing powers thought of their colonies as
estates to be farmed for the benefit of their European
proprietors. This theory cost England her first colonial
empire in America, and then she abandoned it. Spain
retained it, and her colonial empire has dropped from
her grasp. There is no instance in history of the sue-
cessful government of a colony where profit to the
parent State or its citizens has been a leading considera-
tion.
" The second vital principle of the financial adminisr
tration of dependent territories is that they should be
GOVERNMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES 43
made self-supporting; and to accomplish that object
should be the principal aim of the United States in the
financial administration of the Philippines — and to ac-
complish it while developing the resources of the coun-
try and making public improvements. The detailed
examination of Philippine revenues given in an earlier
chapter shows clearly that the archipelago will be easily
capable of maintaining itself. It has also a large public
domain which will be of great value when the building
of railroads and the making of highways render it ac-
cessible."*
I also argued against the assimilation of the customs
duties and internal-revenue taxes of the Philippine Isl-
ands to those of the United States:
" It has been the practice hitherto to assimilate the
customs duties of new territories to those of the United
States. But, as already shown, this practice rests only
on convenience and expediency; it is not a requirement
of the constitution, which calls only for uniformity of
duties, imposts, and excises throughout the States.
The Conmiission has, however, carefully considered the
feasibility of assimilating the tariff of the Philippines to
that of the United States. The differences, however,
appear to be fundamental and irreconcilable; the tariffs
are as far apart as the corresponding economic, indus-
trial, and social conditions of the two countries. . . .
And so long as the existing chasm remains between the
economic and social conditions of the Philippines and
those of the United States, so long will it remain im-
practicable to identify their tariffs. These conditions
are not more fatal to uniformity of protective tariffs
♦Report. Vol. I, p. 118.
44 PBILIPPINE AFFAIRS
than to uniformity of revenue tariffs; for they make it
equally impossible to devise a uniform dutiable list of
revenue-producing commodities. Accordingly the Com-
mission recommends that at the present time no attempt
be made to assimilate the customs duties of the Philip-
pines to those of the United States. A similar recom-
mendation, and for similar reasons, is also made in
regard to the internal-revenue taxes of the two coun-
tries/'*
But, after all, it is men that make good and bad gov-
ernments. If, therefore, honest and capable adminis-
trators are not secured and retained in office in the Phil-
ippine Islands, the best scheme of government is bound
to miscarry. The Commission felt, therefore, the great-
est anxiety in regard to the civil service of the PhiKp-
pines. We recognized that the patronage or spoils sys-
tem would prove absolutely fatal to good government
in this new oriental territory. Such a system is a vast
handicap to any government; but the incapacity it tol-
erates, the extravagance it breeds, the despotism, mis-
govemment, and corruption in which it issues were
certain, if the system were transferred by us to the
Philippines, to alienate and embitter the inhabitants,
and to necessitate, in consequence, large armies to keep
them in subjection.
It seemed likely to aid in the establishment of the
business or merit system in the Philippines if it were
made known at the outset that, under the scheme of
government recommended by the Commission, compar-
* Report, pp. 116-117.
GOVERNMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES 45
atively few positions would be open to Americans.
There would be needed, first, a very small group of
able Americans to act as the organizing and directing
brain of the civil administration of the Philippines;
and, secondly, another small group to act as supervisors
of native officials. How small the number of Ameri-
cans required may be inferred from British experience
in India and elsewhere. British India has an area of
nearly 1,000,000 square miles and a population of over
230,000,000. Yet the whole of the higher executive
and judicial work in this immense area and over this
enormous population is performed by 1,000 British offi-
cials with the aid of natives, or an average of one British
official to every 1,000 square miles of country and to
every 230,000 inhabitants. A similar work in Ceylon
is discharged, with 25,000 square miles and 3,500,000
population, by seventy-one British officials. Having
brought out these facts in the report, I added the fol-
lowing recommendation in regard to the appointment
and retention of Americans in the Philippine civil ser-
vice:
"Besides the executive, administrative, and judicial
heads, who cannot be selected by means of competitive
examinations, there will be a small number of offices in-
termediate between the heads of departments and the
great body of native officials, in all branches of the Gov-
ernment for which it will be desirable to have American
incumbents. Americans who are candidates for these
positions should be subjected before admission to testa
of fitness in the United States. They should then be
46 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
promoted upon merit, and retained during eflSciency and
good behavior. In some cases it may be desirable, on
account of their experience and training, to transfer
men from the existing classified service to the Philippine
service; and provision should be made to enable such
officials to retain all their rights and privileges as classi-
fied employees. By whichever method secured, Ameri-
can officials in the Philippines should be oflFered salaries
large enough to induce the most capable of their class,
not only to enter and remain in the service, but to give
an honest, effective, and economical administration, free
from any taint of corruption. The appointment to the
service of the best men available, without regard to poli-
tics, and their retention, so long as they discharge their
duties satisfactorily, are, in the opinion of the Commis-
sion, indispensable principles of administration in the
Philippines.''*
As I have already said, however, it was clear to us
that nearly all the offices in the Philippines ought to be
filled by Filipinos themselves. And it was the opinion
of the Commission that no American should be ap-
pointed to any office in the Philippines for which a rea-
sonably qualified Filipino could, by any possibility, be
secured. As to the method of selecting and promoting
natives, I wrote as follows:
" It will be necessary to institute in Manila a civil-
service board, or commission, analogous to that which
exists in many of the States of the Union, whose duty
it shall be to ascertain, by competitive examinations of
a very practical character, the relative qualifications of
♦Report. Vol.1., p. 114.
GOVERNMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES 47
the RHpinos who seek admission to the pubKc service.
The primary demand will be for honesty and integrity;
then for intelligence, capacity, and technical aptitude,
or skill to perform the duties of the office to be filled.
The competitive examinations will secure the selection
of the fittest candidate, while it offers equal opportuni-
ties to all; and though it will be a novelty to the Fili-
pinos, who have been accustomed only to the patronage
or spoils system of appointment, it cannot fail to com-
mend to them a republican form of government, whose
civil service is regulated by justice to all applicants for
admission and directed solely to the welfare of the com-
munity.
*^ In the Philippine civil service there should be, be-
sides provisions for tests of fitness before appointment,
regulations to insure promotion upon merit and a tenure
of office during efficiency and good behavior. It would
be peculiarly detrimental to the public service in a teiv
ritory circumstanced like the Philippines if, on political
ground, natives were liable to removal from office as
soon as they had learned its duties. However it be in
the United States, it is absolutely essential to good gov-
ernment in the PhiHppines that the natives should hold
office during efficiency and good behavior."*
The hope for the future of the Philippines is in edu-
cation. The majority of the Philippine people are un-
educated and very ignorant. But they have a high
appreciation of education and a strong desire to have
their children instructed. They feel that in a genera-
tion modem education has revolutionized Japan. And
a system of free schools for the people has been an im-
* Report. Vol I., pp. 112-113.
48 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
portant element in every Philippine programme of re-
form. And so, along with the merit system of civil
service, the last recommendation in our plan of govern-
ment for the Philippines was this:
" So far as the finances of the Philippines permit,
public education should be promptly established, and
when established, made free to all. * * * English
should be taught in the schools of the archipelago to
the utmost extent feasible." *
I conceived an exceedingly high opinion of the edu-
cated Filipinos, who, however, form a small minority —
possibly ten per cent., at most — of the people. And I
recognized that the popular tendency to admire and al-
most worship their educated men rendered these favored
individuals the natural leaders of the people. To meet
them in a sympathetic and appreciative spirit, t o satisfy
their natural aspirations and ambitions, and to enlist
them actively in the support of American sovereignty
seemed to me the most important object for American
authorities in the Philippines. For myself I can say,
with all sincerity, that to have met and known these
educated Filipinos, to have had social intercourse and
official relations with them, I count one of the pleas-
antest and most interesting recollections in my life. I
described them, and indicated the service they might
render us in the establishment of civil government in
the Philippines, in the following terms:
♦Report, p. 121, p. 114.
GOVERNMENT FOR THE PHILIPPINES 49
" The educated Filipinos, though constituting a mi-
nority, are far more numerous than is generally sup-
posed, and are scattered all over the archipelago; and the
Commission desires to bear the strongest testimony to
the high range of their intelligence, and not only to their
intellectual training, but also to their social refinement,
as well as to the grace and charm of their personal char-
acter. These educated Filipinos, in a word, are the
equals of the men one meets in similar vocations — law,
medicine, business, etc. — ^in Europe or America. It is
scarcely an exaggeration to say that these picked Fili-
pinos will be of infinite value to the United States in
the work of establishing and maintaining civil govern-
ment throughout the archipelago. As leaders of the
people, they must be the chief agents in securing their
people's loyal obedience to the new government, to
which, therefore, the dictates of policy, as well as plain
common sense and justice, require us to secure their own
cordial attachment. And it has been a leading motive
with the Commission in devising a form of government
for the Philippines to frame one which, to the utmost
extent possible, shall satisfy the views and aspirations
of educated Filipinos. They believe that the territorial
system herein set forth will accomplish that object.^'*
THE PKESENT SITUATION IN THE
PHILIPPINES.
But I have already lingered long enough over the
past. Much has happened in the two years since the
first Philippine Commission presented its report. Gen-
eral MacArthur and General Chaffee have conquered
♦Report. Vol. I., p. 120.
60 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
peace tliroughout almost all the islands and provinces
of the archipelago. Judge Taft and his colleagues of
the second Philippine Commission have done excellent
work in the establishment and administration of civil
institutions. And we of the first Philippine Commis-
sion have had the satisfaction of seeing the policies we
recommended in regard to that terra incognita which
we were the first civilian oflB.cials to investigate, largely
adopted by the American people and put in operation
by our successors. For the American people have re-
jected the programme of immediate Philippine indepen-
dence under an American protectorate; civil govern-
ment has been established in all the pacified regions of
the archipelago; the creation of a central government,
indeed, still awaits action by Congress, but provincial
and municipal governments have been organized along
the lines we recommended; courts of justice have been
instituted; an excellent system of civil service has been
adopted; and free public schools, with thousands of
teachers, both Filipinos and Americans, have been
opened in all the pacified provinces. Though much re-
mains to be done, much has already been accomplished
in the Philippines since the treaty of Paris brought
them under the sovereignty of the United States.
There are many aspects of the Philippine question as
it stands to-day, and is likely to stand in the near future.
Some of the more important of these I now propose to
consider. And as fundamental to all others, I begin
with the military situation.
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 51
In 1899 our military forces in the Philippines were
altogether inadequate to the work in hand. In 1900
and 1901, reinforcements were sent, but the improve-
ment of conditions last spring and summer rendered it
unnecessary to despatch the maximum force authorized
by the act of February 2, 1901, entitled " An act to in-
crease the efficiency of the permanent military estab-
lishment of the United States." And in his recent re-
port, the Secretary of War states that " the army in the
Philippines has been reduced since my last report from
2,367 officers and 71,727 enlisted men to 1,111 officers
and 42,128 enlisted men." This force will be still fur-
ther reduced through the expiration of enlistments and
as a result of casualties, but the total enlisted strength
will not fall below 32,079 men. A beginning has also
been made in the creation of a native Philippine force,
as authorized by section thirty-six of the act of Febru-
ary 2, 1901.
Whether these forces are sufficient for the duties as-
signed to them must be left to the commanding-general
to decide. And General Chaffee has shown himself
entirely worthy of public confidence. Having said so
much, may I also be permitted to add that, in dealing
with Orientals, and certainly with Filipinos, it is always
economical to have far more force than the actual mili-
tary undertaking demands. The surplus strength is
needed not for a physical but a psychological purpose —
a purpose of transcendent importance. With a super-
abundance of force, you impress the natives with the
52 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
plenitude of your power. Had this object been con-
stantly kept in mind, had our army always been large
enough to make an impressive exhibition of reserve
strength, I have no doubt that our military task in the
Philippines would have been both easier and shorter
than it has actually proved.
Not that I think a large army will be necessary when
the archipelago has been once completely pacified and
civil government is everywhere in successful operation.
We have the experience of Great Britain in Asia for our
encouragement. Only a few weeks ago Lord Curzon,
the Viceroy of India, made a visit to Upper Burma—
the former dominions of Xing Thebaw and the Shan
States— traversing with ease and safety a country in
which, fifteen years ago, violence, insurrection, and
brigandage were chronic and apparently ineradicable —
a country, too, in which a prolonged guerilla warfare
was the result of British annexation. Under the present
reign of peace, order, tranquillity, and contentment, it
is obvious that the military force which Great Britain
maintains in those regions may be much smaller than
the minimum required a dozen years ago. In the same
way the military forces have already been reduced in
the older British colonies in Asia. The conquest and
pacification of Ceylon was a long and difficult under-
taking; but to-day, in Ceylon, with 3,500,000 inhabi-
tants, the military force numbers only 1,700 officers and
men (mostly British), with a volunteer corps of 1,200
(mostly Asiatics), while the police force consists of
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 63
about 1,600 officers and men (of whom only forty-two
are European). In all India, with its population of
300,000,000, the army scarcely exceeds 200,000 men,
of whom only a third are British. Or take the PhiKp-
pine Islands themselves before the insurrection, and we
find that in 1895 Spain maintained an army of only
13,291 men, of whom only 2,210, mostly of the artil-
lery, were Europeans, the rest being natives. Now,
when the United Staies has dowered the Filipinos with
the freest govemmeiit in Asia, when prosperity has
overlaid the hideous [features of poverty and devastation
which the insurrection has produced, it will be strange
if a small miUtary Wee is not sufficient to maintain
order throughout thd archipelago — and equally strange
if the majority of tpe soldiers are not Filipinos. Tou
may say this hopeful expectation is prophecy; but, if so,
is it not, like scientific prophecy of natural events, a pre-
diction based on the facts of experience under similarity
of circumstances?
Meantime let us be thankful that the work of pacifi-
cation draws to its conclusion. On the fourth of last
July General MacArthur was able to report that
"The armed insurrection is almost entirely sup-
pressed. At the present writing there is no embodied
rebel force in all Luzon above the Pasig. In the De-
partment of Visayas all is pacified, excepting only the
island of Samar."*
* Annual Reports of the War Department, 1901. Fart II.,
p. 97.
64 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
This exception ought to have embraced Cebu and
Bohol also. And with that correction it would seem
that throughout all the pacified regions the insurrection
was not only suppressed, but, in all probability, it was
permanently extinguished, for General MacArthur had
got possession of the means of war. To take Filipinos
prisoners is of little account; but to capture their rifles
is a real victory; for men are plentiful in the Philip-
pines, and rifles cost money, which is very scarce. It
was, therefore, a most pregnant achievement that Gen-
eral MacArthur chronicled when he said that
" The American army has, up to date, secured some
23,000 guns, and, in all probability, will secure several
thousand more."*
The last report of the Taft Commission, which comes
down to October 1, 1901, confirms the earlier report
and hopeful forecast of General MacArthur. In the
Visayas it is true Bohol and Cebu have, on account of
insurgent activities, been since turned back by the civil
to the military authorities. But the province of Batan-
gas, with the adjacent part of Tayabas and Laguna, is
the only portion of Southern Luzon in which the insur-
rection etiU lingers, though there are insurgents in the
sparsely settled and unexplored neighboring island of
Mindoro. Not only has Aguinaldo been captured, but
Tinio, Trias, Cailles, and Belarmino have surrendered;
and of all the prominent insurgent leaders there remain
* Annual Reports of the War Department, 1901. Fart 11., p. 103.
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 55
only Malvar, the military boss of Southern Luzon, and
Lukban, who, since 1898, if not longer, has been the
absolute despot of the remote, turbulent, and always
more or less independent island of Samar.
Those Visayan Islands — Samar, Cebu, and Bohol —
have an entire population of nearly 1,000,000; Batangas
has about 300,000; and, perhaps, it would be fair to
allow from 200,000 to 400,000 for the parts of La-
guna, Tayabas, and Mindoro which are affected by the
disturbances centring in Batangas. You see, then, the
military situation. There is still fighting in provinces
inhabited by 1,500,000 or 1,760,000 people; there is
peace in the remainder of the archipelago inhabited by
6,500,000 people.* The pacified regions have an area
of over 100,000 square miles; the area of insurrectionary
depredations does not exceed 15,000 or 20,000 square
miles. I acknowledge, however, that we are always
liable to trouble in the great island of Mindanao (which
is almost as large as Luzon), and in Palawan, about
both of which we know very little; but at present the
Mohammedan and heathen tribes in those islands are
quiet. The Taft Commission, therefore, feels justified
in reporting that
" Outside of the five provinces named [Cebu, Bohol,
Samar, Batangas, and probably Mindoro] there is peace
in the remainder of the archipelago. All insurrectos
have surrendered, and in most of the provinces, except
*Oii the old assamption that the popalation is about 8,000,000.
The latest figures are lower, about 7,000,000.
66 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
among the Lake Moros^ it is entirely safe during the day
for travellers unattended to go from one town to an-
other."*
May this pax Americana become complete and uni-
versal throughout the archipelago!
Let us turn from the military to the civil situation
of the Philippines. The first Philippine Commission
recommended, as I have already said, that municipal
governments should be created in the Philippine Islands
with powers and functions similar to those enjoyed by
municipalities in the United States; that the municipal
authority should be exercised by officers elected by the
residents of the municipality under the restriction of a
moderate property or educational qualification; and that
these municipal authorities should be subject to such
supervision and control, on the part of American offi-
cials, as was implied in that idea of " intervention ''
which the FiKpinos regard as a universal and necessary
axiom of government. These recommendations were
I substantially adopted by President McKinley and em-
■ bodied in his instructions to the Taf t Commission. The
latter, accordingly, passed a law of this tenor in Janu-
ary, 1901, for the organization of municipal govern-
ments in the Philippines. Under this so-called " mu-
nicipal code " 765 municipal governments have been
organized.
Apart from certain persons who, prior to the capture
of Manila, had held certain municipal offices, the quali-
* Report of the Taft Commission, 1901, p. 8.
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 57
fied electors are persons who own real property to the
value of $250, or who pay an annual tax of $15, or who
speak, read, and write English or Spanish. Out of a
population of 1,000 souls these restrictions yield, on the
average, not more than nineteen qualified voters. But
the diffusion of education now in progress, and the
growth in prosperity which will follow upon the return
of the insurgent Filipinos to the ways of peace and in-
dustry, may be expected gradually to enlarge the elec-
torate. When this latter condition has been realized,
when peace and industry take the place of fighting and
brigandage, it will undoubtedly be safe to lower the
qualifications for voting.
For my own part, I should like to see the amount of
projert3LJndia..atioxu..riudt.now ^;inicipal j
suffrage reduced. And, as acquaintance with a foreign
language is only one test of knowledge and intelligence,
and as it is a test which it is unfair to apply to a whole
race who have little or no need to use foreign languages,
I trust that some more equitable and adequate educa-
tional standard may hereafter be devised. Why not a
successful examination in arithmetic, geography, and
history — ^the examination to be conducted in the ver-
nacular of the native? How many Americans, I wonder,
would enjoy the suffrage, if the condition of admittance
were a reading, writing, and speaking knowledge of
Spanish, or even of French or German? Why should
we expect more of the Filipinos than we ourselves could
fulfil? And, in any case, is Spanish better for them than
SS PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
Tagalog, or Visayan, or Hocano, or Vicol, viHAok they
acquire with their mothers' milk? As to English, which
will be indispensable for the politicians at Manila and
the traders there and elsewhere, does any reasonable
man suppose that the Philippine peoples in general can
be induced to forget their own vernaculars (which come,
as it were, by nature) and laboriously and painfully ac-
quire English which the masses will never have occa-
sion to employ? Such an illusion defies not only the
psychology of language, but the lessons of history.
Why, English experience in Quebec and Spanish ex-
perience in the Philippines, to go no farther afield,
should dispel such a fancy. All history teaches that no
race or people ever abandons its vernacular.
The municipal officers are subject to supervision on
the part of the provincial governments. These provin-
cial governments were organized, pursuant to the Pres-
ident's instructions to the Taft Commission, which were
based on the recommendations of the first Philippine
Commission, imder an act passed by the Commission in
February, 1901. After some changes, thirty-two of
them are still in full operation. The scheme of organi-
zation provides for an elective governor — a Filipino —
and an appointive treasurer and supervisor — Americans
— who together constitute the governing board of the
province, along with an appointive prosecuting attorney
or fiscal and a secretary who have uniformly been Fili-
pinos. It is the function of this provincial government
to collect provincial and also municipal taxes; to con-
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 59
struct highways, bridges, and public buildings; and to
supervise the officers of the several municipalities in the
discharge of their duties. As the majority of the gov-
erning board are Americans, ultimate control is in
American hands.
I have already said more than once that, however ob-
jectionable this plan is to us, it accords with the Philip-
pine political maxim of " intervention " on the part of
the sovereign power for the regulation and control of
the subordinate governmental corporations. This is the
point, however, at which the education of the Filipinos
in the use of free institutions and the practice of self-
government should be taken vigorously in hand. They
should, by degrees, be trained to the point of assuming
entire responsibility for their own municipal and provin-
cial affairs. The machinery of provincial government
now established, which follows in the main the features
of the Spanish system to which the Filipinos were
accustomed, would, by the slight change of making the
treasurer an elective officer, devolve upon the inhabi-
tants of the several provinces full control of their mimic-
ipal and provincial governments, while yet retaining
in the governing board the presence of an American
supervisor who could give them the benefit of American
experience and exert a moral influence that might be al-
most as effective as control. Even if these local govern-
ments should make mistakes, even if the officials some-
times squander, or even embezzle, local funds, they must
eventually be encouraged to take control of their own
s
60 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
local affairs, for in no other way can they practise the
art or form the habit of self-government which it is the
high mission of the United States to teach them. ilTot
power in the government, but Kberty and independence
in the people, is what every genuine republic endeavors
to secure.
I am not suggesting that these changes should be
made immediately. iNor should they be made at any
time without the concurrence of Governor Taft and his
colleagues in the administration, or whosoever may then
represent American authority in the Philippines. But
I am pointing out the lines along which independent
self-government may be developed among the FiHpinos,
and must be developed if we are true to the spirit and
ideals of our own repubUc. I am by no means, how-
ever, dissatisfied with the progress already made. There
is no occasion even for impatience. It is surely a cred-
itable showing that out of a total population of
8,000,000 Filipinos, Christian and non-Christian, about
5,000,000 have already received civil government and
are now, subject to American inspection and control,
themselves administering the affairs of their own towns
and provinces.
And not only this. Provision has also been made
for the administration of justice by civil tribunals, in
which Filipinos are well represented. There is a jus-
tice's court in each of the 765 municipalities, and all
these justices of the peace are Filipinos. There is a
court of first instance in each of the fourteen judicial
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 61
districts into which the archipelago has been divided,
with one judge to each district, besides two for the court
of first instance in the cily of Manila; and of these six-
teen judges at least six are Filipinos. And there is a
supreme court, consisting of a chief justice and six asso-
ciate justices, sitting in Manila, Iloilo, and Cebu, of
whom four are Americans and three FiKpinos— one of
them the wise, high-minded, and capable Florentino
Torres, and another, the chief justice, that model Fili-
pino, Cayetano S. Arellano, a man of spotless integrity,
a lawyer of great eminence and renown, and a gentle-
man of learning, culture, and the most charming refine-
ment of life and manners.
I rejoice, too, that the merit system of civil service,
recommended by the first Commission, has been intro-
duced into the Philippines. The high ideal we set
forth has not been put to shame by practice either in
Washington or Manila. There is no more encouraging
feature about the government of our new dependencies
than the willingness of poHticians to recognize that there
at least public office is a public trust, and that the com-
petitive method of ascertaining fitness should be put in
operation. It has come to be well understood that none
but the best men available have any chance of securing
appointment in the Philippines. And the Secretary of
War can make the highly creditable statement that
"No officer, high or low, has been appointed upon
any one's request, or upon any personal, social, or polit-
ical consideration."*
♦ Report (1901), p. 62.
62 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
As the first Commission pointed out, the number of
offices for which Americans are needed in the Philip-
pines is really not large. Apart from the directing
heads of the administrative and judicial systems and the
supervisors of native officials, there is no place for Amer-
icans in the civil administration of the islands. " Near-
ly all the offices," I wrote, " will, of course, be filled by
Filipinos themselves."* This declaration has been
fully confirmed by subsequent practice. And a civil-
service board, which our Commission recommended,
provides fair and practical tests for the selection of Fili-
pinos for office.
It will be remembered that the prompt establishment
of a system of free public schools, with the fullest oppor-
. tunity for instruction in English, was urgently recom-
mended by the first PhiUppine Commission. Happily
this poKcy was incorporated in the instructions given by
President McKinley to the Taft Commission. And the
results, short as the interval has been, amply confirm the
wisdom and beneficence of the policy. About 800
American teachers are now at work in the Philippines,
and about 200 more will soon be appointed. Between
3,000 and 4,000 Filipinos are employed as elementary
teachers; and of these about 2,000 daily receive at least
one hour of instruction in English. Not less than 150,-
000 children are enrolled in the free primary schools.
The number of native adults receiving English instruc-
tion in evening schools conducted by American teachers
♦Report. Vol I., p. 112.
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 63
was 10,000 in October; but at the rate of increase then
exhibited, there are probably 20,000, or even 30,000,
at the present time. There is a wide and enthusiastic
demand for instruction in EngUsh in aU parts of the
archipelago; and next to that is the demand for instruc-
tion in manual training and the mechanic arts, the lack
of which has hitherto so greatly retarded the progress of
agriculture and other industries in the Phihppines. It
is another proof of the intelligence of the Filipinos that
they so quickly recognize the kind of education they
most need: applied science for the development of the
vast natural resources of their islands, and English for
use in government, and in trade and commerce.
Though the masses of the Filipinos are ignorant and
uneducated, as I have often said, nothing impressed me
so deeply or bespoke such happy augury for the future
as the universal thirst for education, the high esteem in
which knowledge was held by all classes, and the gen-
eral admiration, deference, and hero-worship every-
where shown to the native who had been fortunate
enough to secure an education. There is a general an-
ticipation of the opening of a new era in which, by the
aid of schools, the Philippine Islands may advance in the
steps and emulate the attainments of Japan. Here is
another lever to lift the Filipinos to eventual indepen-
dence. Next to knowledge is the consciousness of igno-
rance, which stimulates its possessor to strive to learn.
It is sad to reflect that there are not school-rooms enough
in the Philippines, or teachers enough for the pupils
64 PHILIPPINE AFFAIB8
who desire to be taught. The provisioii which, under
Spanish dominion, was made for popular education was
universally inadequate; but, alas! many of the school-
houses have disappeared in the havoc wrought by war.
If the municipalities or the central government of the
archipelago are to be allowed to incur debts for any pur-
pose, their first bonds should be issued for school-houses.
The next, I may add, should be for roads.
So far no central Phihppine government has been
organized. The scheme recommended by the first Com-
mission is, with some unimportant modifications, recom-
mended by the Taft Commission in its recent report.
To these modifications I see no objection, except that I
consider the reduction of the membership of the popu-
lar assembly to thirty a dubious change, especially when
I recall that this assembly is to represent 6,000,000 or
7,000,000 people. In New York State, with almost
the same population, and far more homogeneous, we
have an Assembly of 150 members and a Senate of
fifty. The second branch of the Philippine legislature
need not be numerous, if it is to be appointive; but all
the more reason for making the popular branch numer-
ous enough to give adequate representation to all the
diversified districts and peoples of Luzon and the Vis-
ayas. I join cordially with the Taft Commission in
urging Congress to enact a law for the organization of
the central or general government of the Philippine Isl-
ands along the lines recommended by both Commis-
sions.
PBE8ENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 66
I have described the military situation in the Philip-
pines, and also the nature and scope of the civil admin-
istration. Let us next consider the economic condi-
tions.
In spite of insurrectionary disturbances, business is
improving in the Philippines. The imports, not includ-
ing army supplies, for the fiscal year 1901 amounted to
$30,200,000, as against $20,600,000 for the fiscal year
1900; and the exports, $23,200,000, as against $19,-
700,000. I regret to say that only a small share of
this trade is with the United States: of the imports,
$2,800,000, and of the exports, $2,500,000; and though
the imports from the United States for 1901 show a
large percentage of increase over those for the year
1900, the imports from England, France, Germany, and
the British East Indies have increased in a still greater
proportion.
Except in so far as we have maintained peace and
order in the Philippines, we can make no claim to a
share in the successful results achieved by the thrift and
energy of individual Filipinos. Of course without
tranquillity and without law, business is impossible.
The improvement of business in the Philippines is at
least confirmatory evidence of the progress of pacifica-
tion and effective administration. But our Government
is fairly chargeable with having left undone nearly
everything else which a government ought to do for the
development of trade and commerce in the archipelago.
In the only Philippine legislation which Congress has
66 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
yet enacted, not only was no provision made for erecting
in the Philippines those public agencies and instrumen-
talities which in the modem world are absolutely essen-
tial to production, transportation, and exchange, but
there is a specific injunction against the sale or lease of
public lands, timber, and mines, and a practical inhibi-
tion of the granting of franchises. If you throttle bus-
iness, you need not be astonished at its sluggish and
meagre life. Under the conditions, the surprising thing
is that business has so markedly recovered in the Philip-
pines during the past year. Of course the real explana-
tion is the abysmal depths of depression to which it had
sunk during the years of general strife and rapine. A
big percentage of improvement may really signify only
a cessation of total paralysis.
Congress must find time to consider the question of
economic conditions in the Philippines. With the pub-
lic lands, forests, and mines all sealed up; with a practi-
cal prohibition of conmiercial railroads, street-railways,
electric light, telephone, and other municipal fran-
chises; with no right in any municipality, province, or
island to issue bonds for the purpose of making improve-
ments in schools, roads, water supply, and other objects
of prime public importance; with all the inconvenience,
losses, and injustice of an unstable currency; with no
American bank and no power to incorporate legitimate
business concerns; — surely we may invoke Congress in
the name of common sense, in the name of justice, in the
name of humanity, in the name of the unhappy FiK-
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 67
pinos of whose misery they are the passive abettors, not
to close the present session without legislation on all
those subjects which affect so vitally the economic wel-
fare of the Filipinos, the progress of their industries and
commerce, and the development of the rich natural re-
sources of their archipelago.
In the report of the Secretary of War, in the report
of the Philippine Commission, in Mr. Conant's special
report on coinage and banking, you may find all the in-
formation you are likely to desire on these economic and
financial problems in the Philippines. Bills will un-
doubtedly be drafted by experts in the several fields, and
the special committees of Congress may be trusted to
thrash them out. The moment is opportune for dispas-
sionate and scientific legislation on economic and finan-
cial subjects. I look for wise and statesman-like meas-
ures.
Leaving details to the wisdom of Congress— and in
any event there is no time to discuss them at present —
I desire to call attention to one feature of the situation
which, in my judgment, is of vital importance. It does
not affect those measures which Congress may itself en-
act, like banking and currency bills; it has reference to
the exercise of the powers which Congress may grant
to the Philippine government. The Taft Commission
has asked that authority be conferred upon it by Con-
gress to issue bonds; to grant municipal franchises; to
pass a general public-land law; to make laws and regula-
tions in regard to mines and forests; to pass a general
68 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
incorporation law, and to " issue charters to commercial
railroads, with power to make donations of lands, or
guarantee the interest on the investments, or both."*
These objects are all desirable, and some of them indis-
pensable, to the prosperity of the Filipinos. Whether
any of them should be handled by Congress directly, I
shall not venture to discuss. But if they are turned
over by Congress to the discretion of the Philippine
Government, I submit that the delegation of power
should be accompanied by a restriction, which, to my
way of thinking, is all essential. Let me briefly ex-
plain.
The Taft Commission, as I have already said, con-
curs with the first Philippine Commission in recom-
mending the establishment of a central government for
the Philippine Islands in which there shall be a legis-
lature consisting of an upper house, in which the mem-
bers (who are to be both Filipinos and Americans) shall
be partly or wholly appointed by the President -of the
United States, and a lower house, whose members shall
be elected by the Filipinos themselves. But in recom-
mending Congress to enact a law for the establishment
of this central government, they request that it go into
operation on January 1, 1904. Now as the several
grants of power for which the Commission petitions
Congress, taken collectively, have to do with the weight-
iest and most far-reaching subjects which for many years
to come can engage the attention of any government at
♦Report (1901), pp. 149-160.
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 69
Manila, I submit that these powers, if now delegated by
Congress, should not be exercised till the Filipinos
themselves enjoy, through their popular assembly, an
equal share in the legislative deliberations and an equal
voice in the legislative decisions. I should, indeed,
greatly regret the postponement of these beneficent
economic measures till 1904; but, however grievous the
delay, it would be infinitely better than to ignore, and,
by ignoring, to beKttle the popular assembly of Fili-
pinos, who, in 1904, are to become co-ordinate and co-
equal legislators with the members of the Commission.
But another solution is at hand. Why not have the
central government for the archipelago, which the first
and the second Philippine Commissions agree in recom-
mending, begin at an earlier date, say in 1902? As to
the exact time, it might be on July 4th; or, if the Fili-
pinos prefer, on December 30th, the anniversary of the
martyrdom of their scholar patriot, Rizal.
At any rate, I am perfectly clear on the main point.
Either the powers requested by the Commission should
not (if granted) be exercised before January 1, 1904,
when the Filipinos will be represented in a popular as-
sembly, which is to be an organic part of the govern-
ment; or if the powers are to be exercised earlier^ the
inauguration of the new government should be moved
forward to the same date. The Philippines are for the
Filipinos. We have no right to vote away their public
property and franchises without their joint consent. If
FiKpinos, as legislators and administrators, are to join
70 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
US in the govemment of the archipelago, why should the
weightiest and most important business be disposed of
before their admittance? And if we are to train them
up in the ways of self-government, where shall we find
more stimulating and more sobering tasks to set them
for their first lessons?
There is still another reason why Americans should
have the co-operation of Philippine legislators and ad-
ministrators in dealing with Philippine pubKc property
and franchises. They would in this way avail them-
selves of popular sentiment, of local knowledge and cir-
cumstances which it is impossible for Americans other-
wise to ascertain. Take, for example, the subject of
raiboads. The Commission recommends the construc-
tion of 1,000 miles in Luzon, and probably 500 in Min-
danao. Yet, in that connection, they state, very truly,
that " the island of Mindanao, with an area of some-
thing more than 36,000 square miles, except along its
littoral, is practically terra incognita." * Now, the
Christian Filipinos who live on the sea-coast are likely
to know more of the conditions which prevail among the
Mohammedan and heathen tribes in the vast interior
than anybody else. They, with the Jesuit missionaries,
must instruct the Philippine govemment in regard to
that " practically terra incognita." But until they have
been heard, until the subject has been thoroughly
discussed by Filipinos in their popular assembly, who
can tell whether 500 miles of railway in Mindanao
• P. 62.
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 71
would pay operating expenses in the next five or fifty
years?
Nor can the American authorities afford to neglect
the wisdom and the sentiment of the duly elected repre-
sentatives of the Filipinos in fields better known than
Mindanao. The Commission recommends 1,000 miles
of railway for the island of Luzon, which at present has
one railway about 100 miles in length extending north-
ward from Manila to Dagupan. Now, in the great mul-
tiplication of railways contemplated by the Commission,
there is a line from Dagupan on the coast to Benguet in
the mountains, which, though only fifty-five miles in
length, will, of necessity, be very difficult and expensive
to construct. Are there any communities of Filipinos
who desire this raiboad? So far as appears, it is for the
sole benefit of Americans. This road would afford con-
venient access " to the highlands of Benguet, in which,"
says the Conmiission, " it is hoped and believed ultimate-
ly the sanitarium of the Philippines will be located."*
Sanitarium, for whom? Of course for American offi-
cials who find the climate of Manila and other Phil-
ippine towns oppressive and intolerable for certain
portions of the year. And as a railroad cannot be con-
structed in a day, the Commission has already started a
highway. " The only road," according to the report,
" which has been put in course of construction under the
immediate direction of the Commission is that extend-
ing from the town of Pozorubio to the town of Baguio,
• Report (1901), p. 72.
TS PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
in the province of Benguet." * Now, a samtarium for
American officials in the mountains of Benguet is a very
desirable object; if their stay is to be prolonged in the
Philippines, such a sanitarium might even be described
as a hygienic necessity. And, in that case, who can
doubt the expediency of railway extension to Benguet?
But, when all that is conceded — and I concede it fully
— I hold that American authorities have no right to
vote Philippine money or credit for this object with-
out the consent of the representatives of the Philippine
people.
So far, I have said nothing of the Philippine tariff or
of American duties on Philippine merchandise imported
into the United States. The latter is likely to receive
a good deal of attention from Congress and the Ameri-
can people within the next few months, or even weeks.
The former, to judge from the reports of the Secretary
of War and the Philippine Commission, has been satis-
factorily disposed of; though I think that there should
be some official assurance that our open-door policy in
the Orient has been maintained in spirit as well as in
letter by the new tariff bill which went into operation
in the Philippines on November 15th. I should like
to be officially assured that all nations have been treated
alike in the trade and commerce of the Philippines, as
we insist they shall be in the trade and commerce of
China; that no schedules have been lowered for the ad-
vantage of the United States or raised to the detriment
* Report (1901), p. 72.
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 73
of other nations; and that the welfare of the Filipinos
alone has dictated the terms of the tariff, and that it
grants absolutely equal trading privileges to all the na-
tions of the world.
Since the recent decision of the Supreme Court, it
has become necessary for Congress to pass a law fixing
the duties on merchandise coming from the Philippine
Islands into the United States. The bill which has al-
ready passed the House of Eepresentatives levies our
Dingley rates upon these imports. In that respect it
treats the Philippine Islands like the rest of the world.
But this severe jiistice is also tempered with charity;
for the bill provides that all duties collected in the
United States on imports from the PhiKppine Islands
shall be turned over to the Philippine treasury for the
benefit of the government of the archipelago. Some of
you will recall that when, two years ago, it was first
proposed by Congress to apply the Dingley rates to mer-
chandise imported from Porto Eico, I publicly criticised
the measure, on the ground that it violated the promise
of free trade which the commanding-general made to
Porto Eico, when it not only surrendered, but welcomed
the American troops to its shores. And you will also
recall that in a speech on Cuban affairs which I deliv-
ered here, after returning from a visit to the island last
spring, I advocated, on high grounds of policy and hu-
manity, the reduction of the Dingley rates on Cuban
sugar and tobacco coming to the United States. If
Cuba is, as I devoutly hope, to enjoy freer trade with the
74 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
United States, if Porto Bican exports now enter our
markets absolutely free of duty, surely we shall not
deny to our impoverished wards in the Orient that re-
duction of at least fifty per cent, of the Dingley rates on
Philippine tobacco, hemp, sugar, and other merchandise
coming to the United States which the Philippine Com-
mission so wisely recommend in their report.
Such a concession is at once in the interest of the
United States and in the interest of the Philippine Isl-
ands. The latter is seK-evident. The former may not
be so obvious; yet I hold it equally certain. For what
are the means by which sovereign nations retain power
over their dependencies? First of all, and most potent
of all, there is sentiment. But sentiment presupposes
community of race, language, religion, law, political and
social institutions. The cementing force of sentiment
you see in the connection between Australia and Great
Britain. It can never operate to bind the Philippine
Islands to the United States: nature and the course of
human history have otherwise ordained; the different
color of our skins, the different speech of our tongues,
the different life we live absolutely forbid. But there
is another means of retaining a dependency. This is
the primitive method of physical force. It is by phys-
ical force — and physical force alone — that Germany re-
tains her holdings in East Africa, France in Tonkin,
and England in India. But this method is abhorrent to
American sentiment, repugnant to American ideals, and
at utter variance with American practice. Our people
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 75
would not consider such a poKcy for a moment; and they
have effectually restrained their Government from rais-
ing armies to carry it out. Even the temporary neces-
sity of holding and governing the Philippines by force
is painful to the great majority of our people, and they
tolerate it, I believe, only because they see no alterna-
tive, and somehow trust that freedom shall be the happy
end of force. For a sovereign nation so embarrassed at
the disparity between the policy it carries out and the
ideals it cherishes there is a third method of retaining
dependencies of quite peculiar value. Appeal to the
seK-interest of your wards and make their connection
with you profitable. In this way England won the
Scottish Highlanders and the French Canadians, though
counteracting causes denied her success in dealing with
the Celtic Catholics of Ireland and the Dutch Puritans
of South Africa. In this way, if at all, we are to win
the confidence and gratitude (perhaps affection is too
much ever to expect) of the natives of the Philippine
Islands. They must see and feel that their connection
with the United States is advantageous to them. This
appeal to their self-interest might even beget a kind of
sentiment in our favor. But let there be no misunder-
standing as to the terms of this policy. The Filipinos
will never thank you for good roads, or railways, or
schools, or courts of justice, or representative institu-
tions, or an honest and effective administration of their
affairs. These they will, when they get accustomed to
them, take as a matter of course; it is they who pay for
76 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
them; and, if they have any comment to make, it will
be that American officials in the Philippines are well
paid for all the services they render; and the thought,
though, perhaps, unexpressed, will visit their minds, that
Filipinos themselves might govern the Philippines as
well as Americans. Something else is necessary to ap-
peal to their sense of profit and advantage. That some-
thing is a great, manifest, and ever-continuing act of
generosity on the part of the United States. The aboli-
tion or sweeping reduction of our customs duties on the
products of Philippine labor and skill would be just such
a measure. No other field of generosity half so promis-
ing is open to us. Such a concession, though meaning
little to us, would mean everything to the Filipinos.
May Congress have wisdom to utilize this unique and
fruitful opportunity!
Let us now dismiss the economic aspect of Philippine
affairs and turn to the ecclesiastical. Under the domin-
ion of Spain the Catholic Church was established in the
Philippines and received its share of the annual reve-
nues. Taking the normal times preceding the outbreak
of the rebellion, we find in the budget of 1894-95 that
out of a total Philippine revenue of somewhat over $13,-
000,000 (silver), the expenditure on the Church ag-
gregated $1,227,000, of which something more than
half was devoted to the salaries of the parochial clergy.
One of the first acts of the American authorities was to
separate the Church from the State, and to stop the
grant of public moneys to it. That done, it might have
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 77
been supposed that no reUgious problem would remain
to vex the Philippine government. The disestablished
Catholic Church might, indeed, find difficulty in provid-
ing for the cure of the 6,500,000 Catholic souls enu-
merated in the church registry^ but somehow undoubt-
edly that potent and venerable, yet ever fresh and active
organization would accomplish the arduous task.
What made trouble for the government was the
question of the friars. As a class, they had long been
obnoxious to the people of the Philippines; and every
revolutionary movement, since the insurrection in the
'70's, in the province of Cavite, had been animated by
hatred of the friars, and aimed at their expulsion from
the islands and the confiscation of their property. The
causes of this antipathy may be read in Bizal's great
novel. Noli me tangere, which Mr. F. E. Gannett has
translated into English under the title of Friars and
Filipinos. I say nothing of the charge of immoraUty,
which, in all probability, has been much exaggerated.
It was rather, I believe, as victims of institutions that
the friars acquired the hostility of the natives. They
were not only Spanish, but they were the real admin-
istrators of the Spanish government in the archipelago;
and the Filipinos charged them with the injustice,
cruelty, and oppression in which that government is-
sued. And, as though this were not burden enough to
carry, three of the religious corporations — ^the Domini-
cans, the Augustinians, and the RecoUetos — ^having ac-
quired large estates in the islands, suffered attack as un-
78 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
just and oppressive landlords. The total area owned by
the three orders amounts to 403,000 acres; and it throws
much light on Tagalog activity in recent insurrections
that nearly three-fourths of these holdings are in the
Tagalog provinces of Cavite, Laguna, Manila, Bulacan,
Morong, and Bataan, while not less than 121,000 acres
are in the Tagalog province of Cavite, which has always
been a hot-bed of rebellion.
The lands of the religious orders were confiscated by
the constitution of the Philippine Republic, which was
adopted in January, 1899. Already the revolutionists
of 1896 and 1898 had driven from the parishes all the
members of the Dominican, Augustinian, RecoUetan,
and Franciscan orders who acted as priests; and four-
fifths of the 746 regular parishes in the archipelago
were held by members of these orders. The unhappy
monks suffered imprisonment and death at the hands
of the insurgents; they fell a prey to mortaUty; they
escaped to foreign lands or returned to Spain; so that
of the 1,124 who were in the islands in 1896, the ma-
jority had disappeared, and only 472 remained at the
close of the year 1900,
Under the constitution and laws of the United States,
these expelled friars were free to return to their par-
ishes, if the Catholic Church so decreed. And under
the treaty of Paris, which protected all property rights,
the lands which the Malolos constitutional convention
confiscated, were once moire safely vested in the Domin-
icans, RecoUetos, and Franciscans. This was a bitter
PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILIPPINES 79
pill for the Filipinos, who had taken up arms and shed
their blood primarily with the object of expelling the
friars and confiscating their property. The treaty of
Paris balked them of the dearest object of their rebel-
lion!
Of course the United States is blamed by Filipinos
for permitting this defeat of the insurrectionary pro-
gramme. But Church being divorced from State, it is
not for us to dictate what kind of priests the Catholic
Church shall send to its parishes in the Philippines. We
may wish that the Spanish monks were elsewhere, and
that American priests held their places in all those Phil-
ippine parishes. But, of course, officially the United
States is powerless. In the matter of the property of
the religious orders, however, the conditions are entirely
different. And if that question is settled wisely and
justly, I believe it will dispose of the other also; for what
motive could the Catholic Church have in forcing Span-
ish monks on unwilling PhiHppine parishes when the
property ties which now bind them to the archipelago
have been equitably dissolved?
What, then, should be done with the agricultural
holdings and other property of the religious orders?
The government should buy them at a reasonable
price and sell them to individual Filipinos. I have ad-
vocated this policy in season and out of season ever since
my return from the Philippines in the fall of 1899. I
have argued that the government would lose no money
by this purchase and sale; and, even if it did, that the
80 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
settlement of so embarrassing a question was worth all
the sacrifice that the most pessimistic critics could see in
this method of adjustment. I have asserted that this is
the only just and statesman-like policy. We do not want
to deprive the reKgious orders of any property to which
they hold a valid title; under the terms of the treaty of
Paris, we could not if we would. But they have at
least as much interest in selling as we have in buying.
For the discontent of the Filipinos which we wish to
allay, the disappointment which we aim to solace, are
expressions of that same mental attitude which led to
expulsion and persecution of the friars and confiscation
of their property. The friars can never again be happy
or prosperous in their estates; the Filipinos will never
be contented so long as they hold them. Common sense
and justice alike prescribe the course to be adopted:
purchase by the government and sale in small holdings
preferably to the present tenants.
In November, 1899, I first suggested this policy in
the Outlook^'*' and, as I have said, I have been proclaim-
ilig it by pen and voice with a good deal of insistency
ever since. I was glad to find it recommended by the
Secretary of War and the Taf t Commission in their re-
cent reports. Congress should enact it into law with-
out further delay. Unhappily, there has been too much
delay already.
* See Noyember 13, 1889, p. 669.
THB FVTVBB OF THE PHILIPPINES 81
THE FUTUKE OF THE PHILIPPINES.
I now address myseK to the most momentous question
that can be raised in connection with the Philippines.
It might well form the subject, not of a single address
merely, but of a volume; so that I can only touch on its
leading features in the remainder of the time — ^now far
spent and already, I fear, too long — which your gener-
ous patience and close attention embolden me to-day to
devote to the consideration of Philippine affairs. I al-
lude, of course, to our future Philippine policy and the
ultimate destination of the Philippines. This is a seri-
ous question, if ever there was one. It is, however, too
large to discuss with brevity; yet, to omit it altogether
would leave my survey of Philippine affairs a blank at
the most vital point. I am well aware, however, of the
difficulty of the problem, and feel the presimiption of
offering a solution; yet it is the duty of all good citizens
to advise the public in matters of national concern which
they have made a business of investigating, and as re-
gards Philippine affairs, I am determined that whatever
other criticism may be made upon me, I shall not be
foimd wanting in either candor or courage. It seems
to me that the highest act open to constructive states-
manship in America to-day is to conceive and formulate
a wise Philippine policy — a policy which shall be true
to the principles of our republic, accordant with the
facts of the situation, definitive and permanent in its
82 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
character, and, therefore, fitted to shape and color all
legislation requisite for its own gradual realization.
The day of ignorant and enthusiastic ranting on the one
hand and on the other of inertia and drift, of uncertain
courses, of temporary expedients has gone by. The time
approaches to set our Philippine compass by the fixed
stars.
I take as my starting point the motives and objects
with which we went into the PhiKppines. They were
impressively voiced by President McKinley, and I have
already told you how he set them forth to me three years
ago. Our purpose was not selfish, it was humanitarian;
it was not the vanity of self-aggrandizement, it was not
the greed of power and dominion; no, no, not these, but
altruism caring for the happiness of others, philanthropy
reUeving the FiKpinos of oppression and conferring on
them the blessings of liberty. This was the supreme
consideration with President McKinley. It was this
that touched the vein of sentiment in the American
hearts that so overwhelmingly supported him. It does
not matter what judgment you may, in the cooler atmos-
phere of 1902, pass upon that popular sentiment of the
summer of 1898, You may consider it extravagant,
irrational, impractical. I thought at the time that it
went too far; and I publicly pointed out that while,
under the Monroe Doctrine, it might become our duty
to relieve American peoples from European oppression,
we had no call to go into the business of rectifying the
tyrannies of Asia. But the popular heart was stirred
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 83
too deeply to be stilled, and Admiral Dewey's great vic-
tory in Manila Bay had brought the Filipinos within the
range of American solicitude and sympathy.
This is the first fact in the history of our relations
with the Philippines. The political emancipation of the]
Filipinos was the controlling object with the President
and people of the United States. I am, of course, aware
that other and less worthy aims appealed to individual
Americans and to groups of Americans. It would be
strange if it were otherwise, considering how diversified
human motives are apt to be. The jingo saw in the an-
nexation of the Philippines another avenue for spread-
eagleism; to Americans in the Orient it meant an acces-
sion of American influence in Asia; to the Protestant
churchman it offered a new field for missionary enter-
prise; the exploiting capitalist was fascinated by the
riches of Philippine forests, lands, and mines, which
showed like " the wealth of Ormus or of Ind "; and the
sensational press, still delirious from the fever of war
and surfeited with the staleness of piping peace, di&-
cemed in the PhiUppines material for new sensations
which promised to be as stirring as the excitant was re-
mote, unknown, and dangerously explosive. All these
influences, and others, were undoubtedly at work. Yet
it was not these forces singly or in combination that
carried the day; it was the humanitarian object of lib-
erating the Filipinos from Spanish tyranny and bestow-
ing upon them the boon of freedom that decided the
President and people of the United States to compel
\
84 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
Spain to cede to us her sovereignty over the Philippine
Islands.
Fortunate, indeed, that no lower motive prevailed.
Any other object than the humanitarian one of carrying
the gift of freedom to the Filipinos would have ended
in vast and bitter disappointment, or, perhaps, even in
poignant remorse. Did we need the Philippines to
make our power felt in Asia? No, for we can exert the
most potent national influence in all quarters of the
world without owning adjacent territory, as our recent
experiences in Pekin and Panama have demonstrated to
the satisfaction of the most incredulous. And had we
gone into the Philippines for commercial gain, when,
think you, would our traders' profits have amounted to
the hundreds of millions of dollars which the archipelago
has already cost us? And what shall I say of the thou-
Bands of brave and generous yonng Americans who have
lost their lives in the Philippines? No prospect of profit
however assured, no wealth or advantage however colos-
sal, could ever atone for the precious American life-
blood swallowed up by the hungry soil of Luzon and the
Visayas. For such a sacrifice there is only one justifi-
cation. It is the discharge of duty, service in a right-
eous cause. If our presence in the Philippines be not
justified in its purpose and intent, then our soldiers*
blood is on our hands; ay, and all the blood, in that case
innocent, of the Filipinos we have fought, the misery
we have caused their families, and the devastation we
have wrought in their homes.
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 85
This awful responsibility we cannot escape either be-
fore our own consciences or at the bar of history un-
less we have done what we have done in the Philippines
for the sake of redeeming the FiKpinos from foreign op-
pression, saving them from domestic anarchy, and lead-
ing them into the ways of self-government and freedom
— a blessing at once unmeasured and immeasurable.
But I assert that to confer this blessing was the final
cause of our acceptance from Spain of sovereignty over
the Philippines. Nothing has happened since to alter
our purpose. Indeed, all subsequent occurrences have
gone to confirm the wisdom and transcendent nobility
of this end and to exhibit the folly and delusion of any
other end. Selfnseeking ends of every sort are excluded
by American policy and stultified by actual conditions
in the Philippines. We are in the Philippines for the
sake of the Filipinos; but while American sovereignty
is to the Filipinos a great boon, to us this extension of
sovereignty is not advantageous, but burdensome. Yet
we shall carry the burden till they are able to relieve
us, never forgetting the goal, and never renouncing the
humanitarian spirit which inspired our entrance upon
so difficult a task. On this fundamental point Presi-
dent Roosevelt is not less explicit than President Mc-
Kinley. Listen to the noble and memorable words
with which he met his first Congress:
" We are extremely anxious that the natives [Fili-
pinos] shall share the power of governing themselves.
We are anxious, first, for their sakes, and next, because
86 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
it relieves us of a great burden. There need not be the
slightest fear of our not continuing to give them all the
liberty for which they are fit. . . . We do not de-
sire to do for the islanders merely what has elsewhere
been done for tropic peoples by even the best foreign
governments. We hope to do for them what has never
before been done for any people of the tropics — to make
them fit for self-government after the fashion of the
really free nations.^' *
What does this mean but that the Filipinos are to be
taught to govern themselves as Americans or English-
men govern themselves? And is it necessary to observe
that progressive liberty must, from the nature of the
case, issue in sovereign independence, " after the f ^hion
of the really free nations," if, indeed, the Filipinos de-
sire that boon when they have reached the stage of po-
litical enfranchisement qualifying them to assume it?
President Roosevelt does not use these terms; but the
goal is inevitable if you set no limit to the progressive
development of Kberty and self-government.
I make this implication explicit because, though the
goal may be distant, I think it desirable to form a clear
notion of what it really is. I say that, as it would be
inconsistent with our humanitarian Philippine policy to
keep the Filipinos in perpetual dependence, and as we
are to grant them an ever-increasing measure of liberty
and home rule, they are likely one day to become a free
and sovereign people like ourselves. And I say that
* Message of the President of the United States, Fifty-Seventh Con-
gress, First Session^ 1901.
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES
<3i
consummation is infinitely to be preferred to their in-
corporation into the United States of America as a State,
or even as a territory. I wish the Federal Constitution
might be amended so as to provide for the perpetual
exclusion of Asiatic countries from partnership in our
great American Republic. But, whether the constitu-
tion be amended or left intact, I am sure it is the policy
of the American people to admit no Asiatic country to
the status and privileges of a State or territory in this
Republic of the United States of America. Consequent-
ly that independence which is the final term of progres-
sive liberty for the Filipinos, since it cannot realize it-
self by incorporation in our union of American States,
must, perforce, when the hour arrives, find embodiment
in a separate and seU-contained national organization.
Thus, if you look beyond the present and the near
future, you descry in the distance an independent
and sovereign Philippine Republic. The watchword of
progress, the key to the future of the political develop-
ment of the archipelago, is neither colonialism nor feder-
alism, but n ationalism^ rThe destiny of the Philippine
Islands is not to be a State or territory in the United \
States of America, but a daughter republic of ours — a \
new birth of liberty on the other side of the Pacific,
which shall animate and energize those lovely islands of
the tropical seas, and, rearing its head aloft, stand as a
monument of progress and a beacon of hope to all the
oppressed and benighted millions of the Asiatic conti-
nent.
88 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
I say you will never consent to make the Philippine
Islands an integral and organic part of the United States
of America. No poHtical party will ever propose so
insane a programme; no statesman will ever venture to
advocate a poUcy so repugnant to American sentiment.
The case needs no arguing. The objections to the plan
are insuperable; the reasons against it invincible; the
hostility to it ingrained and ineradicable. The grounds
of this antipathetic attitude are fundamental and all-
embracing; they are physical, physiological, ethnologi-
cal, historical, psychological, social, and political. Every
aspect of human existence enters its protest against a
union so unnatural and so unwise.
Very well; what then? A colony, a dependency?
For a time, this status may suffice; as a permanent ar-
rangement, it is impossible. For you propose to dower
the Filipinos with an ever-increasing measure of lib-
erty; but liberty grows by what it feeds on, and moves
rapidly to its goal, which is independence. Then, too,
the Filipinos have condrased x^e experience of centuries
into these last half dozen ye^rs. They have dreamed of
liberty; they have fought for liberty; they have seen in
the east the star of independence. These are facts as
potent as any other — and deeper than most — ^in the life
of nations. The true historian recognizes them and ap-
praises them at their just value. Listen to the language
of the historian of the English people:
" I begin to see that there may be a truer wisdom in
the * humanitarianism ' of Gladstone than in the purely
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 89
political view of Disraeli. The sympathy of peoples
with peoples, the sense of a common humanity between
nations, the aspirations of nationalities after freedom
and independence, are real political forces; and it is just
because Gladstone owns them as forces, and Disraeli dis-
owns them, that the one has been on the right side and
the other on the wrong in parallel questions such as the
upbuilding of Germany and Italy. I think it will be so
in this upbuilding of the Sclave.^'*
These words were uttered in 1877, when Tory Eng-
land was opposing the legitimate aspirations of the
Sclaves and of Bussia. But here, too, as formerly, in
the matter of the German and Italian nationalities, time
has shown that the humanitarian Gladstone was right
and his opponents wrong. As Lord Salisbury, speaking
for his party, not long ago, cynically confessed, " we put
our money on the wrong horse." Sympathy with the
legitimate self-assertion of other races and peoples and
with aspirations after freedom and nationality gave
Gladstone a political insight which the more selfish and
worldly-wise poKticians of his day never attained to.
And what a tragic vindication his treatment of the
Boers has received by the long-continued, mutually ex-
hausting, and desolating struggle in South Africa with
its assured nemesis of distrust, hatred, and racial antip-
athy! Gladstone saw that struggling nationalities are
the jewels of history, the hope and promise of the world.
The American people have always sympathized with
" the aspirations of nationalities after freedom and inde-
* Letters of John Richard Green (1901), p. 447.
90 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
pendence." And when representative institutions have
been conferred upon the Filipinos, if the people,
through their regularly constituted spokesmen — ^which
Luna, Malvar, and Lukban never were — ^petition for
freedom and independence and show that they are capa-
ble of maintaining law and order and discharging their
international obligations, can it be doubted that the
American people would grant such a petition? The
United States would deal as liberally with the Philip-
pines as Great Britain with her colonies; and everybody
knows that if the self-governing commonwealths of Aus-
tralia and Canada to-day desired independence, they
might have it for the asking. The mistake of Agui-
naldo and the insurgents (so far as the insurgents were
not mere brigands and robbers) was in approaching the
United States with rifles instead of petitions.
From the American point of view, then, ever-increas-
ing liberty and self-government is to be our poKcy tow-
ard the Filipinos; and it is the nature of such continu-
ously expanding liberty to issue in independence. This,
then, is our programme for the future, both near and
remote. And I believe that while the great heart of the
American people rejoices at the privilege of granting
progressive liberties to the Filipinos, it throbs with still
keener delight at the prospect of a day when the process
shall be completed by the grant of a perfect indepen-
dence. This, I say, is the necessary outcome of our
\ policy toward the Filipinos. From the American point
of view, Philippine independence is inevitable. And,
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINEa 91
from the American point of view, Philippine indepen-
dence is a consummation devoutly to be wished. Let us
now see toward what goal the conditions and aspirations
of the Filipinos themselves point.
In endeavoring to describe the attitude of the Fili-
pinos to the question in hand, there is danger of permit-
ting fancy or prejudice to take the place of scientific in-
vestigation and impartial statement. If I have erred
in representing the sentiment of Americans on the Phil-
ippine question — I do not think I have, but I say if I
have— my fellow-citizens are here to correct and criti-
cise me. But who shall answer me if I misrepresent the
far-off, silent Filipinos? All the more reason, therefore,
for care, for accuracy, for impartiality, and for sym-
pathy. I know that I have not myseK escaped the ac-
cusation—by partisan journals, happily— of misreport-
ing some things in the PhiHppines. One expects that
from the bigots who, in the solitude of their own rooms,
create Philippine facts to buttress their own political
fabrics. But I notice that in the Philippines my re-
ports and statements have been very differently received.
For three years past I have had the satisfaction of see-
ing that the Filipinos feel they have been sympatheti-
cally apprehended and correctly reported by me. And
only the other day I read in a Manila newspaper that
of all the Americans who had gone to the Philippines,
I was one of a small company — ^only three others were
mentioned — " who had most readily succeeded in ascer*
taining, assimilating, and proclaiming, the opinion of
92 PEIUPpiNE AFFAIRS
the Filipinos {que mas pronto han logrado identificarse
con la opinion filipina)J^*
I have already said enougli of the heterogeneity of
Philippine conditions to render it unnecessary to explain
that no single off-hand formula can exhaustively answer
any question relative to the inhabitants of the Philip-
pines. And in considering the ultimate destiny of the
archipelago^ in endeavoring to formulate a definitive
PhiMppine poKcy for the guidance of the government
and people of the United States, we must first eliminate
the Mohammedan and heathen tribes of Mindanao,
Basilan, Sulu, Palawan, and the smaller islands ad-
jacent to them. Our hold on these peoples is very
slight; of the interior of their islands we know nothing;
our jurisdiction is confined to their waters and to a few
points on their long coast lines where friendly chief-
tains have agreed to accept American suzerainty. Po-
tentially these islands are ours; actually our jurisdic-
tion is almost nominal.
Now, the few sultans and dates we have won over
cannot, I suppose, be credited with much devotion to the
American flag. And the sultans and dates of the in-
numerable tribes in the interior of those southern islands
know nothing of us. Whatever policy, therefore, may
be adopted by the American people as a final solution
of the Philippine question, the wishes of the Moham-
medan and heathen tribes are not likely to be an impor-
tant factor. Of course we should not ignore their
* La Democracia^ Manila, October 14, 1901.
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 93
wishes. But few of them will have anything to say to
us. Yet the demand which their situation makes upon
the holder of sovereignty over the Philippine archi-
pelago will have to receive very serious consideration.
For example, these tribes would, in all probability, not
be so quiet under an independent Philippine Republic,
were one ever established, as they are under American
sovereignty. Now, they are indifferent and passive; but
they might easily become, what they have been in the
past, aggressive, troublesome, bellicose, murderous.
From what I heard from and about the Sultan of Sulu,
I judge that, if American jurisdiction over the Phil-
ippines were ever to cease, he would, if he were per-
mitted to do so, ask for a British protectorate, as his
brother sultans did in the Malay States; for having
visited Singapore, he has learned their history and heard
of their prosperity. And where the Sulu Archipelago
goes, the kindred people of Palawan are likely to go
also. Whether there are enough Christian Filipinos on
the coast of Mindanao to control its future is a ques-
tion; but, geographically and historically, that island,
which was the first on which Magellan landed, is
closely connected with the Christianized islands of
Luzon and the Visayas; and the Jesuits, with rare de-
votion and seK-sacrifice, have here and there carried
Christianity and civilization into the benighted interior.
I need not pursue this subject further. I have said
enough to show that if, with that progressive enlarge-
ment of the liberties of the Christian Filipinos which
(
94 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
it is the policy of the TTnited States to confer, they
should ever attain the goal of sovereign independence,
the new Philippine Republic would find itself confront-
ed with a serions, though, perhaps, not insoluble prob-
lem in the settlement and maintenance of the status of
the Mohammedan and heathen tribes of the great south-
em islands of the archipelago. I turn from these to
Luzon and the Visayas, with the smaller adjacent isl-
ands, all of which are inhabited, with slight exceptions,
by Christian Filipinos. It is these people who will de-
cide the ultimate destiny of the Philippine Islands —
these and the people of the United States, whose senti-
ments I have already endeavored to analyze and ex-
hibit. What do the people of Luzon and the Visayas
desire of the American people? What kind of govern-
ment do they wish eventually for themselves?
I will answer these questions by quoting two passages
which I wrote on that subject in the report of the first
Philippine Commission. The first is this:
" There being no Philippine nation, but only a col-
lection of different peoples, there is no general public
opinion in the archipelago; but the men of property and
education, who alone interest themselves in public af-
fairs, in general recognize as indispensable American
authority, guidance, and protection."*
It is, of course, possible to exaggerate the diversities
of the Christian population of Luzon and the Visayas.
It is true that the vernacular of the Tagalog is not intel-
* Report, p. 121.
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 95
ligible to a Visayan and vice versa, and that the same
is tme of Vicols, Hocanos, etc., but it must be remem-
bered that in every town of the archipelago there are
some educated men who speak Spanish, although the
number in remoter places may be very small. Of
course, of this class you may predicate a public opinion.
And since 1899 it is possible that war, which is a great
unifier, even of disparate communities, when they have
a common enemy, has brought not only in every com-
munity the educated classes and the ignorant masses
into a closer union, but also the different peoples them-
selves — Tagalogs, Visayans, Hocanos, etc. — ^into rela-
tions of co-operation and sympathy, thus deepening, by
universal contrast with the white man, the consciousness
of community of race, and, perhaps, also developing the
latent sentiment of nationality. In 1899, however, the
masses of the people seemed to me indifferent to the out-
come of the contest between the Tagalog insurgents we
were then fighting and the forces of the United States.
As one of them said to me in Cebu, they didn't care so
long as they had their rice and their fish.
The second passage I have abeady quoted. Written
in 1899, it has been verified by all that has since hap-
pened in the Philippines; and, as it is the quintessence
of the political aspirations of the Filipinos, it should be
the animating principle of our definitive and ultimate
Philippine policy. Here it is once more:
" The Philippine Islands, even the most patriotic de-
clare, cannot, at the present time, stand alone. They
96 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
need the tutelage and protection of the United States.
But they need it, in order that, in due time, they may,
in their opinion, become self-governing and indepen-
dent. For it would be a misrepresentation of facts not
to report that ultimate independence — independence
after an undefined period of American training — is the
aspiration and goal of the intelligent Filipinos who to-
day so strenuously oppose the suggestion of indepen-
dence at the present time."*
I believe, as I have said, that this is the essence of
the political aspiration and opinion of intelligent Fili-
pinos; and, as intelligent Filipinos exercise a remarkable
influence over the ignorant masses of the people, this is,
or will become — if, under the quickening agency of war,
it has not already become — the political programme of
all the Christian Filipinos of Luzon, the Visayas, and
the coast of Mindanao; that is, of all Filipinos except
the Mohammedan and heathen tribes, whose political
situation we have already discussed. That their ulti-
mate goal is independence there is no manner of doubt.
Practically all Christian Filipinos are agreed on that
point. But as regards an interval of American tutelage
and training, it seems to me that a difference of opinion
begins to emerge. As I read the Philippine newspapers
— and I take a Manila daily — ^I perceive that while all
recognize American tutelage as unavoidable, not all ac-
knowledge it as good and desirable in itself, though the
majority, I should guess, still consider it indispensable
for a time.
• Report, p. 83.
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 97
Here, then, is the criterion for determining the course
of politics among the Filipinos. All of them, I repeat,
desire independence eventually. But the process of po-
litical enfranchisement may be inamediate, or at least
very rapid, or it may be gradual, progressive, and of
long duration. Each course will undoubtedly have its
advocates; but as all Filipinos favor eventual indepen-
dence, the majority, it may be predicted with safety, will
embrace the policy which leads most quickly and surely
to that goal. Timid men, interested men, conservative
men, old men, without renouncing the goal of indepen-
dence, will in the meantime prefer to endure the ills of
dependence on the United States rather than to fly to
the unknown ills of independence. These Filipinos will
constitute the opportunist party. And opposed to them
will stand the great majority of Filipinos who will agi-
tate for immediate independence, and they will be enti-
tled to call themselves the nationalist party. Such is
the coming political alignment of Filipinos in Luzon
and the Visayas, as I foresee it. All of them in favor
of an independent and sovereign Philippine Republic
as the final consummation of their ideals and aspirations;
but in the meanwhile a small but influential opportunist
party content with temporary dependence on the United
States and a numerous nationalist party clamoring for
immediate independence. I shall be greatly disappoint-
ed if within the next decade these tropical islands do not
prove a most fruitful nursery and forcing-house of vital
politics.
98 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
If , as I believe, the people of the United States stand
ready to grant independence to the Filipinos when they
may safely be intrusted with the use of it, and if , as I
further beKeve, the great majority of Filipinos will agi-
tate to procure it immediately, the only issue that can
arise between them will be with reference to the time
for the establishment of the Philippine Republic, which
both parties agree is some day to be set up.
Those Americans, patriotic but unversed in history,
who desire to recreate the FiHpinos in their own simiU-
tude, will always be able to demonstrate that that ori-
ental clay is still without shape and seemliness in the
American potter's hand, and that for a perfect product,
a vessel of honor and glory, the American wheel must be
kept going for years, or, perhaps, for generations, or
possibly even for centuries. Heaven save the Filipinos
from such an impertinent andr^ddlesome earthly prov-
idence! The Filipinos are to develop along their own
racial lines, not along ours; and it is colossal conceit and
impudence to disparage them because they are different
from ourselves. Capacity for independent seK-govern-
ment does not necessarily mean capacity like ours to
administer a commonwealth Uke ours, but merely capac-
ity of some sort to maintain peace and order, to uphold
law, and to fulfil international obligations. It may be
a matter of only a short time when the Christian Fili-
pinos of Luzon and the Visayas will be as well qualified
to discharge these functions as Mexico, Peru, Argentina,
or Venezuela- And when they are so qualified, the
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINEa 99
American Government has no further duty or bnsineee
in the archipelago. Any decent kind of government of
FiKpinos by Filipinos is better than the best possible
government of Filipinos by Americans.
For that reason, as I have already said, I am anxious
to see Congress grant the Filipinos representative insti-
tutions at once. It is no argument against this policy
that even educated Filipinos do not possess our concep-
tion of civil liberty or of official responsibility. With
such powers, ideas, and sentiments as they have, get
them in harness quickly and let them tug and sweat
under the burden of national affairs. This is the way
men are trained in government. PoHtical aptitudes
and political sentiments are the gift of nature and the
acquisition of personal experience; they cannot be do-
nated by one person or nation to another. And if you
do not at once take the educated Filipinos into active
partnership in the government of the Philippine Isl-
ands, your monopoly of power, if it does not alienate
and embitter them, may have the still worse effect of
tending to discourage and emasculate them. If the Fil-
ipinos are to learn to govern themselves in the manner
of the really free nations, the sooner they get at it, the
better. Passive acquiescence, without partnership, in
American government of the Philippines will atrophy
their own native capacity for self-government. In that
way their dependence would mean their servitude. The
beginning of all national, as of all personal, freedom is
this: " Son of man, stand upon thy feet! " America
100 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
cannot endow the Filipinos with liberty; but by per-
mitting them to govern themselves, starting now with
representative institutions and gradually enlarging their
powers, it can at least put them under conditions favor-
able to the development of liberty. To give them a
good government from above without evoking their own
active co-operation — as England has done for the people
of India — is to sap and atrophy their own capacity for
seK-govemment.
But I have wandered from my theme, which was the
attitude of Filipinos themselves toward the great ques-
tion of the political future of the archipelago. I have
shown, however, that the Christian Filipinos regard in-
dependence as the ultimate destiny of their country, and
I have ventured to read the horoscope of coming politi-
cal parties in Luzon and the Visayas. I see only two
political parties, both, indeed, in accord on the funda-
mental subject of independence, but the one — the
nationalists — ^proclaiming " Behold! now is the accepted
time; now is the day of salvation! " and the oppor-
timists rallying round the conservative banner with the
device, "Not yet: Manana, to-morrow."
It is true, indeed, that for the last two or three years
these tendencies have been obscured. Pacification has
been the great business; and the friendly politician's
platform (no other, of course, was permitted) has had
that end constantly in view. I have already explained
how, under assurances of liberty and self-government,
the first Philippine Commission stimulated the forma-
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINE8 101
tion of the Autonomist Party. This designation of the
party accurately described it. The members of that
organization accepted American sovereignty with the
promise of home rule in local aflfairs. The issue of
eventual independence was not raised. I think it would
have been more fortunate had the Autonomist Party
never changed their name or their programme. But,
whether of their own motion or under American inspira-
tion, they decided that it was not enough to work for the
pacification of the archipelago with the aim of securing
a large measure of autonomy under American sover-
eignty. It may be that they craved a larger indepen-
dence for the Filipinos. At any rate, they adopted the
new name of Federal Party and made the leading plank
in their platform the declaration that " the Philippine
Islands should form an integral part of the United
States of America, to be organized as a territory, with all
the rights and privileges which the Constitution of the
United States concedes to other territories, including
that of becoming in time a State of the Union."* How
seriously this programme has been taken by the mem-
bers of the party is clear from the fact that at the con-
vention where it was unanimously decided to petition
Congress in that regard, I find there were present those
able, prominent, and influential Filipinos (whom I
am happy to call my friends) Mr. Gregorio Araneta,
solicitor-general, and Messrs. Pardo de Tavera, Luzu-
• La Democracia, November 4, 1901 (Draft of Petition to Congress).
Of course this is the latest, not the earliest, formulation of the policj.
102 PHIUPPINS AFFAIRS
riaga, and Legarda^ the native members of the Taft
Philippine Commission.
I have abeady expressed my opinion that this demand
for the incorporation in the United States of America
of the Philippine Islands as a State, or even as a terri-
tory, is inadmissible. I need not here repeat what I
have elsewhere said. Our people want America for the
Americans, as, on the other hand, I recognize that the
Philippines are for the Filipinos. All honor to the au-
tonomists — ^I will call them federalists, if they prefer
it— for the great and beneficent service which, since the
formation of their party in the spring of 1899, they have
rendered in the pacification of the disturbed provinces
of the archipelago! But I say to them, in the frank-
ness of an old friendship, that they are wasting their
political energies and endangering their political influ-
ence in this country by advocating a measure so imprac-
ticable and impossible as the federal union of the Phil-
ippines with the United States.
So far as I can make out, this federalist plank of the
Autonomists' platform rests on a double delusion. First
of all, they expected the Supreme Court, in the four-
teen diamond rings case, to decide that the constitution
followed the flag, and that its provisions applied ex pro-
prio vigore to our new Philippine annexations. Second-
ly, they thought that if the Philippine Islands were in-
corporated as an organic and integral part of the United
States, the Filipinos would secure the benefits of the
constitution without the intervention of congressional
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 103
legislation. In other words, it was their device in a
roundabout way to secure immediate Philippine inde-
pendence, if not absolutely, at least in large measure,
and especially in the shape of immunity from the arbi-
trary and unlimited powers of Congress, of which they
stood in dread. Since the decision of the Supreme
Court reached the Philippines, I notice a change in the
utterances of the party; they hark back to autonomy
with which they began.
" The solution," they say, ^^ of the problem of our
immediate future is found in the formula of autonomy,
a government of our own, the participation of the Pili-
pinos in the government of the Philippines, under the
guidance and direction of America."*
And if you ask why they ever adopted that will-o'-the-
wisp policy of federalism, they reply, in terms not com-
plimentary to us, though exhibiting their own natural
longing for independence, that they hoped in this way
to escape
" special legislation for the Philippines, government of
the Philippines subject to the arbitrary will of Congress
without constitutional restrictions, all which involves
the danger of subjecting the administration of our gov-
ernment to the rise and fall of [American] parties, to
presidential elections, and to the rational selfishness of
commercialism." f
* La Democrada^ November 15, 1901. This joarnal is the organ of
the party,
t Ihid,
104 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
Thus the party baffled and disillusionized goes back to
the practical position of autonomy for the present, leav-
ing the future, officially at least, undefined. If in their
hearts they do not cherish the ideal and faith of national
independence, I have entirely missed the implication of
their successive positions. The Philippines for the Fil-
ipinos; that, I believe, is the hope and aspiration of the
Autonomists and of all parties in Luzon and the Vis-
ayas. And, if I am not greatly mistaken, this is what
you will hear from a popular assembly, as soon as you
confer representative institutions upon the Filipinos.
As it is the policy of the United States to give the
Filipinos liberty after the fashion of the really free na-
tions, or an ever-increasing measure of home rule, which
cannot but eventuate in independence, so, however
clearly or however obscurely they may recognize the
need in the meantime of American protection and tute-
lage, the ultimate goal and final aspiration of the Fili-
pinos themselves is an independent and sovereign Philip-
pine Republic. And, as I wrote in the report of the
first Philippine Commission,
" Perhaps the most encouraging feature in the diffi-
cult problem we have undertaken in the Philippines is
the perfect coincidence between the theory and practice
of our government, on the one hand, and the aspirations
and ideals of the Filipinos on the other."*
As I have already observed, since both Americans
and Filipinos desire the political enfranchisement of the
* P. 86.
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 105
Filipinos, there can be no issue between them, exoept
in regard to the time when an independent and sover-
eign Philippine Eepublio should be established. The
obstacles in the way of such an organization, even for
Christian Luzon and the Visayas, which, in 1899,
seemed to me the most serious, were the lack of homo-
geneity, union, and intercourse among the diverse peo-
ples of these islands — Ilocanos, Tagalogs, Vicols, Vis-
ayans, etc. — in virtue of which they appeared rather a
collection of disparate communities than a single com-
mon nationality; and, secondly, the want of experience
by the natives in government during three centuries of
Spanish dominion, which involved not only ignorance,
but, it was to be feared, an impairment of governing
capacity. These, I say, appeared to me fundamental
objections to the institution of a Philippine Republic
immediately on the pacification of the archipelago; and
in guessing— for no one could, in such a matter, do more
than guess— when it might be safe and expedient to
launch a native sovereign republic, I never ventured to
make the interval of waiting shorter than one genera-
tion.
In view of subsequent facts and experiences, however,
I think it may be not only possible, but feasible, to
shorten the period of preparation and transition under
American sovereignty. First of all, remember that the'
first Philippine Commission reported that ultimate in-
dependence (after a period of American tutelage) was
the goal and aspiration of all intelligent Filipinos. Then
106 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
we have the testimony of the Taft Commission, that the
native officials have proved reasonably capable in the ad-
ministration of public affairs. The test we have made
of the governing capacity of the Filipinos has resulted
more favorably than could have been anticipated by de-
duction from their previous political inexperience. Nor
is thig all, or even the principal item. Tar more impor-
tant and pregnant of hope is the more or less distinct
emei^nce, under the storm and stress of the last two
or three years, of a conmiunity of attitude, interest, sen-
timent, and aspiration, in matters political, among all
the Christian peoples of Luzon, the Visayas, and the lit-
toral of Mindanao. TJndiscoverable, or at any rate un-
discemed, if it existed, in 1899, this consciousBiess of
nationality is to-day so manifest and powerful that Gen-
eral Chaffee, looking at it with the eyes of a military
man, has declared, or at least is reported to have de-
clared, that the natives of these islands are all traitors
to American sovereignty, all have their hearts set on in-
dependence. We know that the strife and passion of war
release pent-up mental, as well as physical, energies, and
bring to the light of day as realities slumbering fancies,
hopes, and sentiments which, in times of peace, merely
flit about the background of consciousness. Scarcely
any one in the Thirteen Colonies dreamt of indepen-
dence when the war against British Imperialism began.
And I suppose Lecky is right in his contention that the
independence they achieved was actually the work of a
small and aggressive minority. It is quite conceivable.
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 107
therefore, that the restricted aspiration after immediate
independence which the first Philippine Commission dis-
cerned in the PhiKppines (and reported), in 1899,
should, after three years of fighting in all or almost all
the provinces of Luzon and the Visayas, have become a
universal passion animating and uniting all these diversi-
fied communities. This is all the more probable, as from
the beginning the racial aspect of the case has been
prominent; and, as against the white man of America,
who succeeded the white man of Europe, the multifari-
ous peoples of Luzon and the Visayas at least felt them-
selves Malayans and FiKpinos. I am not surprised,
therefore, if to-day we have to reckon with a universal
sentiment and idea of nationality among all the peoples
of Luzon and the Visayas with a demand or desire for
immediate independence.
But if that be the case — and General Chaffee's state-
ment seems to confirm it as a fact — the greatest obstacle,
in my judgment, to the establishment in the near future
of a Philippine Republic has been removed. When I
wrote, in 1899, that
" No one can foresee when the diverse peoples of the
Phaippine Islands may be molded together into a na-
tionaKty capable of exercising all the functions of inde-
pendent self-government,"*
though I hoped for the dawning of the day within one
generation (as I there intimated), I did not expect as
* Report of First Philippine Clommisaion, p. 108.
108 PHILIPPINE AFFAIRS
early as 1902 to learn from the commanding-general
that, under the hammer of war and the heat of strife,
the welding of these " diverse peoples '' into a common
nationality had been consummated.
I shall not, however, indulge in guesses as to the date
when the new fabric should be reared. On that point
I desire to be informed by the Filipinos themselves.
And I want to hear not the voice of individuals, however
prominent, but the voice of the people. There is, how-
ever, only one way of securing it. The people can
speak only through the representatives they elect to a
popular assembly or house of representatives. Here
then is another reason why Congress should not delay
granting representative institutions to the Filipinos.
To secure representative institutions, they took up arms
against Spain; the half million educated and propertied
Filipinos who would be more immediately represented
under the Hmited suflFrage proposed, will be conservative
rather than radical; and what they, and the poor and
ignorant millions of their fellow-citizens for whom they
speak, desire, must, in the long run, prevail in the archi-
pelago. The United States is the last people in the
world to argue any other people into political subjection.
And against a whole nation aspiring and struggling to
be independent, it is as impossible to-day to draw up an
indictment as it was when Burke repudiated the task in
connection with the people of the Thirteen American
Colonies.
If the Filipinos desire independence, they should
THE FUTURE OF THE PHILIPPINES 109
have it, when they are qualified to exercise it. The re-
ports of General Chaffee and Governor Taft demon-
strate (whatever their own personal views) that the
difficulties in the way of independence are gradually
disappearing. Let a Philippine popular assembly or
house of representatives say whether the FiKpinos want
independence or not, and if so, at what date they think
the grant should be conferred, and we shall then have
before us all the conditions necessary for the final solu-
tion of the Philippine problem. If it appears probable,
as recent experience seems to indicate, that the Christian
Filipinos of Luzon and the Visayas might, at no distant
day, govern themselves as well as the average Central or
South American Republic, then, in the name of Ameri-
can liberty and democracy, in the name of the political
aspirations and ideals of the Filipinos, and in the name
of justice and humanity, let the Philippine Republic
be established. As President McKinley said to me
three years ago, we went into the Philippines solely with
the humanitarian object of conferring the blessings of
liberty on the Filipinos. In its highest potency, liberty
and independence are one and inseparable.
And to repeat, what ought not to need repetition
anywhere within the limits of our free Republic, any
decent kind of government of Filipinos by Filipinos is
better than the best possible government of Filipinos
by Americans.
9
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the last date stamped below. If another user
places a recall for this item, the borrower will
be notified of the need for an earher return.
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the borrower from overdue fines.
Harvard College Widener Library
Cambridge^ MA 02l_38_ ._ 617-495-2413
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| __label__neg | 0 | philippineaffai00schugoog | OL20528927M | OL13118321W | 133 | 1,902 |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 面向NGN的IP软交换关键技术与协议分析
李利强
(河源市电信分公司 广东河源 517000
摘货：本文探讨了NGN与IP软交换的技术关系，面向NGN的IP软交换关键技术，对软件交换技术进行了探讨，
关键词：下一代网络 NGN 交换 协议
中图分类号：TP3 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-3791(2008)12(a)-0036-01
下一代网络NGN是三网融合的产物。是可以提供包括话音、数据和多媒体等各种业务的综合开放的网络。软交换体系是一种NGN有效的演进方案。是面向网络融合的新一代多媒体业务整体解决方案。它通过优化网络结构，不但实现了网络的融合。更重要的是实现了业务的融合。软交换定位于NGN的控制层，是NGN的核心技术。
1以IP软交换为基础的NGN的基本特征
在向NGN 演进的过程中。网络发展的趋势是统一的IP核心网、分层结构和开放的接口。
1.1分离网关
在非软件交换的网络系统中。TP电话网关可以建立电路交换网(SCN)和1P网之间的呼叫连接。集成网关不但要执行媒体格式转换，还要进行信令转换，在IP网一侧执行H. 323或SIP协议，在SCN一侧执行ISDN /PSTN信令。除此之外，系统还要控制网关内部资源。为每个呼叫建立网关内部的话音通路。
网关分离导致出现了新的协议标准。软交换和MG 之间的接口A采用Megaco(义称为H.248)或MGCP.软交换和SG之间的接口 B 采用 Sigtran。软交换中有Megaco 协议栈和 Sigtran协议栈：MG中有 Megaco 协议栈； SG中IP侧是与软交换中一致的Sigtran 协议栈.SCN侧是SS7协议栈。
1.2统一的IP核心网
NGN采用统一的IP核心网结构、从上到下由业务层、控制层、媒体层和接人层四层构成。应用服务器位于业务层。负责提供增值业务和管理功能；软变换在控制层，负责完成各种呼叫控制和相应业务处理信息的传送，是NGN的核心控制设备；网关在媒体层。负责将用户送来的信息转换成IP网上传送格式；无线网、电话网、有线电视网在接入层，都将作为接人网存在。
1.3开放的接口
以软交换为核心是NGN的主要特征之一，和传统的电路交换相比，它有诸多优势。传统的电路交换是·体化的、不同的子系统间通信采用专有的协议；软交换是开放、分层的体系结构。层问有开放的AP1接口。这样，某一层的改变，不会影响其他层。软交换吸取了IP、ATM、IN(智能网)和TDM等众家之长。形成分层、全开放的体系架构，不但实现了网络的融合，更重要
的是实现了业务的融合。业务真正独立于网络，能够灵活有效地实现业务的提供。
2 IP软交换的技术特点
软交换技术的产生主要基于以下三方面技术的发展：一是IP技术应用于通信领域，成功地研究出基于VoIP 技术的IP电话。二是将电信网络中的互联设备——网关功能分解为两部分：一部分只负责不同网络的媒体格式的适配转换。称之为媒体网关(MGW)，另一部分是网关的所有控制功能单独设置。称之为媒体网关控制器(MGC).、一是智能网技术。智能网将业务控制和呼叫控制分离。提出了独立于交换网络的业务控制架构。
2.1软交换技术的主要特点
(1)业务控制与呼叫控制分离。它使业务真正地从网络中独立出来，为缩短新业务开发周期提供了良好的条件。业务控制与呼叫控制分离使软交换具备了灵活的业务提供方式，用户可以自行配置和定义自己的业务特征，不必关心承载业务的网络形式以及终端类型，真正实现“业务由用户编程实现”的设想。(2)采用开放式业务接口(API)及标准协议。软交换把网络资源、网络能力封装起来，通过标准开放的业务接口与业务应用层相连。各功能实体(控制层设备和传输层设备)之间通过标准的协议进行连接与通信，使业务提供者白由地将传输业务与控制协议相结合，实现业务转移。这样，下一代网络中的功能部件就可以独立发展、扩容和升级、也使各运营商可以根据自己的需要，全部或部分地利用软交换体系的产品，采用适合自己的网络解决方案。
2.2基于软交换技术的网络体系结构
基于软交换的网络体系结构分成媒体接人层，传输服务层、控制层和业务应用层，软交换的核心位丁控制层。(1)媒体接人层：设有各种网关。用于实现异构网络到核心传输网以及异构网络之间的互连通。软交换通过提供基本的呼叫控制和信令处理功能。对网络中的传输和交换资源进行分配和管理，在这些网关之间建立呼叫或进行已定义的其他复杂处理，并生成本次处理的详细记录。(2)传输服务层：提供各种信令和媒体流传输的通道。基干软交换技术的混合网络的传输网可以是工P、ATM或其他任何类型的分组网络，但是更倾向使用IP分组网。(3)控制层：提供呼叫
控制、连接控制和协议处理能力，并为业务应用层提供访问底层稀种册络资源的开放式接口。IP网络用于传统数据业务时没有呼叫连接的概念，但是用于电信业务时，通信双方还是需要先建立某种联系(如确定对方端口地址)。这种联系控制机制在IP网络中被称为会话控制，类似丁电信中的呼叫控制。(4)业务应用层：决定提供和生成哪些业务。并通知控制层做出相应的处理。该层有多种业务生成服务器，提供各种业务控制逻辑，完成增值业务处理。基于软交换技术的混合网络采用分层、开放的体系结构。使上层业务与底层的异构网络无关。体现了业务驱动的理念，为实现多网融合和灵活的业务创造了条件。
3软交换协议
软交换技术的目标是建设一个能够提供话音、数据络。为了实现这一目标，IETF ITU 一T、ISC、IPCC制定并不断完善系列标准协议。如H.248、Megaco、SIP、BICC、SIGTRAN、II. 323等。此协议包含作对等和对等两类协议。非对等协议主要指媒体网关挖制协议H.248/Megaco；对等协议包括SIP、H.323、BICC 等。SIGTRAN为信令传送协议。由于历史原因。这些协议有些相互补充，有些则相互竞争。I.248/Megaco是一个非对等主从协议，与其他协议配合可完成各种 NGN业务。SIP、H.323均为对等协议，存在竞争关系，由于SIP具有简单、通用、易于扩展等特性，逐渐发展成为生流协议。
4结语
我国从上个世纪90年代后期开始启动软交换技术的研究，正式参加了ITU一TSG13组的研究工作。同时，在软交换论坛ISC，义称国际软交换协会)成立之初就参加到其中进行工作。ISC 后又改名为IPCC(国际分组通信论坛)。在软交换技术的研究方面，我国基本上与国际保持同步。 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 参政议政献良策科学管理谋发展
庞晓虹，邱奎
摘要：结合未来天然气产业发展前景，从管理角度出发，为重庆燃气集团公司天然气发展战略提出发展与改革的建议：
关键词：天然气：政协；改革
中图分类号：C913.2 0文献标识码：A 文章编号：1673-1999(2008)07-0067-01
作者简介：庞晓虹(1963-)，女，重庆燃气集团(重庆400010)渝中分公司政工师，主要从事市政燃气输配工作；邱奎，重庆科技学院(重庆401331)教师。
收稿日期：2007-10-24
一、参政议政，建言献策
人民政协作为中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商的重要机构，对·方经济的发展等社会政治活动发挥作用。尤其在上级决策前和执行过程中，通过协商途径协调各方利益，实现党领导下的团结合作，为构建和谐社会发挥作用。渝中区政协在参政议政、建言献策中主要做了两方面的工作。
一是反映社情民意、政协为和谐社会的发展建立了一个协调各方利益和关系的沟通渠道和机制。政协利用在工作生活中遇到的问题，选择有综合性、代表性广泛性、前瞻性的课题展开调查研究，反映社情民意，提出有见解有办法的意见和建议。
是开展民主监督。一个和谐的社会，必然是一个能够对执政党及其领导的政府进行民主监督的社会、其中最重要的就是对重大决策及实施过程进行监督。政协主要依照《章程》的规定，对重大方针政策的贯彻执行，对国家工作人员的工作，通过建议和批评进行监督，对不同阶层的利益集团通过规范的程序(会议的形式)发挥参政议政作用。在政协参政议政活动中笔者也想为自己的企业——重庆燃气集团公司的发展建言献策。
二、找准切入点，发挥优势，促进企业发展
首先，要以主业为龙头，发挥燃气产业优势，带动燃气产业集群发展。产业集群足提升产业竞争力，加快区域经济发展的重要途径。集团公司要在继续做大做强主业的基础上，充分依靠政府、主管部门以及行业协会的支持，发挥集团公司的技术、品牌、市场、融资等优势，促进重庆市燃气器具制造业、CNG 装备制造业、燃气 IT产业的迅速发展。集团公司婴利用液化天然气实现渝东南地区的气化，引进外资和技术力量合作开发制造 CNG 装备产业，自主研发燃气信息化产品等，要力争在年内取得成果，走向市场。集团公司要按照气源多渠道化，资本结构多元化，产业结构多样化的“三多”战略发展思路进一步推进发展
其次，加强技术改造，提升管网设施的安全运行能力。天然气老旧管网设施的改造是政府的一项民心工程，集团公司应安排专项资金，有针对性地对管网薄弱环节和管网瓶颈实施技术改造。在全面消灭主城区供气末端以后，进一步提升
管网设施的安全运行能力。
再次，强化安全意识，进一步完善企业安全管理体系。贯彻落实安全工作“十到位，全方位”要求，按照有效、实用、快捷和共享资源的原则进一步完善基层巡线、抢险装备的配备，保证每一个巡线、抢险岗位的装备配备到位，切实提高各基层供气单位的抢险应急能力，保障抢险工作的及时有效。
三、用好政策，做大做强
要围绕重庆市打造“以中心城市群为依托的核心经济板块”的发展规划，动态调整集团公司“十一五”规划。本着“统筹发展、适当超前”的原则，根据“1小时经济圈”的战略定位，结合集团公司“十一五”发展规划，统筹平衡经济圈内的天然气资源、供气市场，为经济圈建设提供良好的天然气供应保障。以集团公司整合的区县(市)大然气公司为基础，加快推动供气市场向六大区域中心城市拓展；突出梁平、忠县两大资源性区域优势，以主城定位集团公司的外围管网走向，以涪陵和江津作为区域性供区的集散点，促进集团供区“以线连点，以点带面”的布局，最终形成“城网”的供气格局。目前集团公司供气区域已覆盖全市18个区(市)县，同时要加快管网建设不断拓展主城区向周边区域的供气市场。觉彻重庆市经济工作会议精神，积极采取措施，保障集团公司供区内的天然气供给，服务F全市经济发展，配合市政府实施“蓝大行动”1.程，发挥天然气性价比优势，加快发展集体、商业、燃气锅炉(直燃机组)等用气户2：
四、深化改革，加快发展
(一)深化企业改革，完成股份制改造
全面推进集团公司改制上市工作，一是完成企业股份制改造，按照天然气资源优先、资本实力雄厚、法人治理结构完善的要求寻求战略合作伙伴，完成集团公司的资产评估、企业改制、资产重组；二是全面启动企业上市工作，与券商签订咨询协议，进一步完善、充实企业改制上市结构，保证机构的高效运行。
{二)促进公司发展，进一步深化结构调整31
供区结构。按直销管理体制，全面辐射以主城为核心的城市群，进一步拓展“1小时经济圈”和六大区域中心城市的供气市场。
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丽江“纳西古乐"的精心策划和包装：只有在保护傩文化的原生态基础上进行科学有效的开发，才能使这一古老文化展现在游客面前，具有极大的诱惑力和强人持久的生命力，才会为傩文化的产业化发展奠定成功的基础。
(三)联合营销，发挥各自优势
·是针对目前湘西各地在傩文化宣传上没有形成一体和合力、各打各的仗、力量不集中的现象，协圆进行营销传播。要充分发挥电视、播、报刊等传媒作用，通过各种宣传形式，加大社会宣传力度，扩人宣传促销覆盖面。通过举办具有高水准和鲜明特色的大型湘西傩文化旅游节会活动，给各地傩文化提供一个更高更宽的平台，将湘西傩文化旅游进行整体宣传营销，将各地傩文化景区景点推向市场、二是要协问进行品牌建设。湘西各地傩文化旅游片标市场中不管谁是市场格局中的领导者、追随者和补缺者，对整个区域的可持续发展都是不可或缺的。发展湘四傩文化旅游，一定要打造统…-的对外形象，以塑造整体的区域品牌为出发点抓好湘西傩文化项目的展示推介，精心策划“神秘湘西之旅”：一是要整体联动，优势!补，打造湘西傩文化之旅.要结合景点所在区域和居住民族的文化特色和内涵，更全面、更深刻地了解当地的民族民俗文化，与民族民俗文化”捆绑“开发。如张家界以土家族文化唱主角，湘西自治州以苗文化占优势，怀化以独特的侗族风情别具一格，三大少数民族风情相得益彰。如果各
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供气结构。继续扩大有效益的用气类别市场，大力发展居民、商业、集体、锅炉、直燃机组用气，强化公共用气平台的建设，加快推进专用管网职工生活用气的剥离，让专用管网完成历史使命，自然消广：
投资结构。以发展主业为重点，兼顾管网未覆盖的渝东南地区的发展，通过液化天然气的供应方式实现该区域气化：同时，联合石油部门向缺乏天然气资源的地区拓展。
组织结构：从加强工业分子公司基层管理的角度、对部门和基层的职能按照条块结合方式进行调整，尽快适应上市公司要求，重点指导不同类别，不同任务的分子公司发挥各自的优势。
人员结构：严格实行总量控编，向文化程度高和具有专业技能的人员倾斜、规范六大中心工作岗位的上岗资格和业务考核，重点是计算机、外语、业务技能等方面的培训和考核。
五、争创全国一流，树立品牌新形象
要认真总结精神文明建设、行风建设、企业文化建设的先进经验，争创个面-流企业、加强宣传“诚信、利民、安全、创新”企业精神的内涵，突出企业关系面计民生、服务发展、服务社会、服务用户，强调企业对经济社会发展，改善投资环境，提高民众生活质量，节能降耗等做出的贡献，通过打造燃气产业集群，促进集群区域品牌的形成，树立一个全社会公认的能够提供优质公共产品服务的企业新形象。
要从以下几方面抓落实：
加强领导班子建设，提高十部队伍整体素质。 ·是抓班子建设；二是抓干部队伍建设；三是抓人才队伍建设；四是坚持民主集中制。
加强党员队伍建设，发挥党组织的政治核心作用和党员的先锋模范作用。保持共产党员先进性的四个长效机制，即：党员学习教育机制，党员管理机制，党员联系群众机制和党内
地在营销自己的民族民俗文化时，突出傩文化的各自特色，以整体包装为纽带向规模化、综合化发展，集吃、购、娱、游、观为一体，加强参与性与体验性.那么大湘西傩文化之旅就会在竞争川达到合作的效果。发挥各自资金、技术、区位、知名度方面的优势，形成合力，才能达到个体不能达到的效果，创造湘西傩文化大品牌
效应：
(四)加速人才培养，充实"软件”质量
人才是文化旅游的第一要素，是旅游业发展的关键。要打造湘西傩文化之旅，提高文化品位，需要加速培养两方面的人才：是傩文化旅游企业管理人才。可以采取对民俗风情园、展馆等管理人员进行在职培训的方式，逐步提高其管理水平：也可以利用区域内的高等学校，与其合作，采取订单式的培养：还可以积极吸纳了解傩文化，懂民族风情、有知识、会管理的乡土人才，等等。二是傩文化艺术人才。由于古老的傩文化与现时代文化不人流，对傩文化艺术感兴趣、愿意学习傩文化艺术的年轻人已经很少，从总休上看，傩文化艺人的年龄结构极不合理、除了傩技艺人年轻化以外，其他傩文化艺术均处于老龄化结构，有些艺术已经处于后继无人的地步。为此，政府要积极引导傩文化艺人的培养，加大宣传力度，采取相应的鼓励措施，还要不断推进该区域人才开发的资源共享，进行人才资源合作与交流，形成特色人才市场。
民主参与机制。
加强思想政治建设，引导职工转变观念、立足岗位作贡献。，一是载体求新，形式求活，多方位开展形势任务教育。二是意识求变，工作求稳，多渠道掌握化解员工思想矛盾。
加强企业文化建设，打造“重庆燃气”品牌效应。逐步推进VI设计方案的实施、实现“五统一”，即：统职工工作服装，统一工作证形式、统一机关部门职责、出勤及工作安排表样式，统一调压箱、调压柜标识，统办公楼、储配站等重点场站上墙的固定内容、各类制度格式。
加强党风、行风建设，营造良好的企业形象。进步加强行风建设，坚持行风义务监督员制。
发挥群团组织作用，努力构建和谐企业；全心全意依靠职工办企业，切实维护职工合法权益；大力支持工会开展“劳动竞赛”活动：以党建带团建，发挥共青团作用。
以科学发展观为指导，促进公司的高效、快速、可持续的协调发展。尤其在引进气源、拓展项目、占领市场方面，要着力突破气源单…-的格局，古领发达经济圈，拓展工业园区、渝西走廊、峡库区等市场，继续发展 CNG 加气站，建立市场预测机制，建立燃气经营动态管理，加强输差控制的对策研究等，通过效益动态的分析，为投资决策提供依据，为长效的建设和发展打下坚实的基础。
参考文献：
\[1\]宋萍.城市天然气输配调度管理系统|J\].煤气与热力，2002(2).
\[2\]刘春旭，李宏勋、中国天然气产业存在的问题与对策建议\[.J\].石油大学学报(社会科学版)，2002(3).
\[3\]刘毅军，姜海超、开发利用天然气要重视产业链风险|J\]天然气工业，2003(6).
\[4\]蒲自庆.重庆燃气集团“十一五”发展思路与重点工作\[J\].决策导刊，2006(3). | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 素质教育与校风建设
张文斌
摘 要；教育的目标始终应当是：学生在离开学校时，是作为一个和谐的人，而不只是作为一个专家。“育人”并非“制器”知识不等于素质，自然科学和人文科学知识高也不等于素质高。素质教育不只是知识的传授，也不只是知识的简单积累，素质是知识内化为人的品格。素质教育与校风建设相辅相成。素质教育促进良好校风的形成，良好校风必定有利于素质教育的实施。
关键词：素质教育；校风；人才培养
一、素质及素质教育
素质是在人的先天生理基础上，经过后天教育和社会环境的影响，由知识内化而形成的相对稳定的心理品质。首先，作为心理品质，它不是先天的、生来就有的，它是通过教育和礼会环境的影响逐步形成和发展的，是教化的结果，是可以培养、造就和提高的。其次，作为知识内化和升华的结果，只具有单纯的知识不等于具备一定的素质，知识只是素质形成或提高的基础。没有知识作基础，素质的养成和提高便不具有必然性和目标性，仅只有丰富的知识并不等于具有较高的素质。第二，作为一种相对稳定的心理品质，由于它是知识积淀、内化的结果，因而它具有理性的特征，同时它又是潜在的，是通过外在形态来体现的，因此，素质会相对持久地影响和左右着人对待外界和自身的态度。
知识、能力、素质是素质教育的基本要素，并且是相辅相成不能残缺的。这种理念就给传授知识、培养能力赋于了新的内涵，提出了新的要求，对传统的教学思想和方法提出了挑战。
知识是素质形成和提高的基础，没有相应的知识武装，不可能内化和升华为更高的心理品格。按照素质教育的理念，对受教育者除传授专业知识外，更应重视学生“做人”所必备的人文、社会、管理知识的传授，教他们“学会做人”。
能力是素质的一种外在表现，培养学生具有什么样的能力是非常重要的，全面提高学生的整体素质，要更注重培养受教育者社会交往、与他人共处、共事、合作的能力，教他们“学会做事”。
素质与知识、能力密切相关，但素质是更深层次
的东西，素质提高的过程更复杂。所以，加强或重视素质教育，就要更加注重渗透性的教育、养成性教育，更加注重受教育者的体验、内化过程，更加重视指导他们的社会实践，使他们学会掌握知识、应用知识的能力，教他们“学会学习、学会发展”。
从素质教育的思想和理念来看，高质量的人才是知识、能力、素质的高度和谐和完美的统一。从人才培养的角度而言，传授知识、培养能力往往只解决如何做事，而提高素质则更多地解决如何做人的问题，只有将做事与做人有机地结合，要求学生既学会做人，又学会做事、学会学习、学会发展，才是理想的高等教育。这与党的德智体诸方面全面发展的教育方针是完全一致的。
二、素质教育理念
素质教育是一种教育观，它着眼于提高人的内在素养和品质，强调知识内化和身心发展。它是以提高受教育者素质为宗旨，以实现提高全民族整体素质为目标。所以，提高“素质”是这种教育观的灵魂。按照这种思想理念，在教育目标上，它强化了提高学生全面素质的宗旨；在教育内容上，它要求施以较全面的教育；在教育方式上，它充分重视学生主体积极性与创造性的发挥；在教育途径上，它注意理论与实际的结合；在教育评价上，它重视学生基础知识的掌握、基本技能的训练和基本品质的养成，并鼓励不同特色的培养。严格地讲，素质教育本身并不是一种教育模式，它作为一种观念对教育产生影响不是以一种固定的程式出现的。它是人们依据教育实践的要求付与教育的一种思想，而反过来，当人们用以指导教育实践时，它仍然保留着一种思想形态的弹性。
作者简介：张文斌，陕西国防工业职业技术学院副教授、党委书记。
1.高等教育是“育人”，并非“制器”。大学的主旋律是“育人”，而非“制器”，是培养高级人才，而非制造高档器材。人是有思想、有情感、有个性、有精神世界的，何况培养的是高级人才；物是死呆呆的，再高级的器材，即使是高档的智能机器人，也不过只能具有人赋予的最复杂、最精巧的功能或高级程序，其一切都不可越过人所赋予的可能界限这一雷池半步。
大学的教育如果忘记了“育人”的责任，忘记了对大学生人文素质的教育，就等于忘记了人的思想、感情、精神世界，也就等于忘记了人的灵魂，教育也就失去了方向，后果不育而喻。
2.正确掌握素质教育与时俱进的脉搏。从素质的观念出发，高等教育对人才培养问题的认识也经历了一个历史发展过程。教育从一开始就十分重视知识的传授，随着历史的发展，人们逐渐认识到培养能力的重要性。20世纪50至60年代，强调培养能力的重要性。到了90年代，人们深刻地认识到，在构成人才的要素中，比知识、能力更为重要的东西是索质。1994年《党建文汇》第12期一文中讲：能力比知识更重要。知识再丰富，智力不足，运用知识的能力很差，知识也不能很好地发挥作用；素质比能力更重要。知识丰富，能力较强，素质欠佳，像一块三角砖头，摆在哪儿哪儿不平；觉悟比素质更重要。，没有觉悟的管理者，是最危险的管理者。这三句话说明了素质在人才要素中的重要性。
从教育的角度而言，只注重知识的传授和能力的培养，而忽视人才素质的提高，不能算是完善的教育。注重人才家质提高教育理念的提出，在教育理论和实践的发展中具有划时代的意义。从重视传授知识到既重视传授知识又重视能力培养，是教育思想的一次飞跃；从重视传授知识、培养能力的同时，更加重视提高素质，是教育思想的又一次飞跃。
3.人文素质与科学素养密不可分。人类早期的科学发展主要是人文学科，随着生产技术的进步，理工科学在不断推动社会生产力提高的进程中逐步发展。理工和人文，从人类文明的黎明时期开始，本来就是集合在一起的。在人类历史的漫长道路上，两者始终是持久的伴侣，这是因为自然界和人类社会本身就是和谐统一的体系。近代科学发展的不平衡，主要表现就是理工科学与人文科学的分离，前期是人文科学高于理工科学，之后一个较长时期则是理工科学高于人文科学。在此进程中逐渐出现了重理工轻人文的观念，导致自然科学技术突飞猛进，人文社会科学发展相对迟缓。20世纪90年代后，又形成了学科综合化、科学化与人文化结合的理念。现在，强调自然科学与人文科学的结合，不是简单的此消彼
长、量的变化，也不是简单地回归过去、重视人文，而是两者在高层次的相互交融中渗透，这种结合将会产生和发展一种未来的新学科。目前，学校在学科结构和学生的知识结构设计上，应重视文理学科综合；在课程内容上，不是简单的人文、理工课程相加，而是应创新学科内容；在授课方法上，不是将人文(理工)学科内容机械地搬进理工(人文)课堂，而是在相互渗透中实现学生文理思维的有机结合。
翻开中外成功人士大典，可以看出无一例不是文理思维结合的典范。华罗庚是伟大的数学家，在全世界都有影响，同时它义是一位才华横溢的诗人；爱因斯坦是世界著名的物理学家，也是一名相当出色的小提琴手等等。
现在世界一流的大学都很重视人文社会学科的教育。前哈佛大学校长对本科教育的定位是：①提高交流能力；②提高分析能力；③加强解决问题的能力；④培养价值判断能力；⑤提高社会交往和互动的能力；⑥培养个人对环境的理解能力；⑦改善个人对当今世界的了解能力；⑧增强艺术和人文学科的知识。这几条基本上都与人文信息相关，而且是对所有学科学生的基本要求，并不是针对文科学生确定的。这充分说明，在知识经济的时代，需要的是一种全才，而不是工业经济时期那种专门人才，需要的是一个人的观察能力、判断能力、适应能力和学习与创新能力，因为各类人才面对的是同一个变化非常迅速的世界，没有综合素质则难以生存。
三、素质教育与校风建设
关于校风建设，可以说是一个老话题。宏观讲，各级各类学校都有一个校风建设问题；微观看，每一所学校形成的校风各有特点。那么什么是校风?有人讲：校风是学校领导作风、教师教风、后勤职工的服务作风和学生学风组成的有机统一体；还有人讲：校风是一所学校的全体师生员工在共同教育目标的基础上，经过长期的努力而逐渐形成的富有特色的、相对稳定的行为、倾向。《辞海》中解释：校风是学校的风气。
无论怎样理解，作为一种风气的良好校风一旦形成，它对师生员工首先是一种心理影响。生活在同一所学校的人，每个人受到的教育环境影响大体相同。这种师生中每个人心里环境的一致性，往往以心理气氛的形式出现。要是这种心理气氛已成为影响全体师生一种规范力量，它不仅对师生具一种心理约束，而且这种约束会以无形的精神力量发挥着持久的综合作用。
一是激励向上的促进作用。良好的校风会使师生员工产生光荣感和自豪感，使他们为学校和学校
中的每一个成员的进步而感到高兴和自豪，为损害学校荣誉的思想言行而感到耻序和愤懑。这种为集体荣誉的义务感和责任感，促使师生积极为学校争光，并自觉抵制不良行为。生活在这样的环境中，他们的心理和生理方面都会处于积极活跃的状态，唤醒每一个成员的内在潜力，且形成互相激励、互相促进、共同进步的和谐集体。
二是潜移默化的感染作用。良好校风-·旦形成，使生活在这个精神环境中的成员，特别是新人校的师生自觉或不自觉地要受到校风的感染和熏陶，在不知不觉中改变自己原来不适应或不良的思想、惯、作风，适应环境的要求。
三是维护秩序的约束作用。校风如一道无声的命令，通过集体舆论的褒贬，对所有成员产生一种无形的压力，并且促使学校师生自觉、自愿地约束自已，形成与集体成员相同的从众行为，强制他们的心理和行为与校风环境相适应。
四是心理发展的保护和增进作用。良好的校风对丁不良的心理倾向和行为具有强大的抵御力量。它能排除社会上各种不良心理和行为的侵蚀和干扰，从而保护和增进学校全体成员的心理健康和发展。
既然校风是一种风气，那么一个学校的风气好坏就直接影响着学校的品位、格调。学校是一个育人的地方，没有较高的品位、格调，能培养出高素质的人才吗?为了加快学校全面、协调、可持续的发展，不断提高学校的品位，必须加强校风建设。
校风的建设和形成一般有三个阶段。一是不适应阶段。这一阶段学校师生会把校风建设的各项任务看作是对自己的过分要求，会产生行为和心理的不适应感。这一阶段要加强教育，使大家接受校风的概念，充分发挥规章制度和组织纪律的约束作用，使人人在言行上不越轨，为形成良好的校风打下基础。二是部分人认可阶段。这一阶段要靠党团员、各级领导发挥模范带头作用，对多数人起到示范作用，逐渐扩大到大部分及所有师生员上，形成大家自觉遵守的规范。三是自觉习惯阶段。到了这个阶段，师生员工已将校风要求内化为个人的意识，形成习惯，集体
充当教育的主体，有能力进行自我管理。
从心理学角度看，校风是在个体模仿、暗示、从众、认同等心理过程中形成的。只有达到了认同的要求，对学校的全体成员来讲，校风规范才不会形成是外来的、强制的、多余的压力，而是自主的、自觉的、自愿的行动。
校风建设与素质教育是相辅相成、相互促进的。从相互配合的作用看，素质教育的结果，促进了校风建设；校风建设的成效，提高了素质教育的质量。从相互促进的作用看，素质教育的内容是要求不做，结果形成了好的校风；好的校风的形成，促进了素质的内化自觉不做。可见，高素质的行为，必然使校风更好。
作为教育工作者，承担着素质教育和校风建设的重要责任，承担着为社会培养合格人才和学校发展的重任，要认真履行好这一责任。但是，在我国，自1952年大学院系调整后，大学基本上都是按科类设置院校，文理科分校，尤其是行业办学，科类更加单一。教师大都是由这样单科类学校或专业性很强的院校培养出来的，学文科的对理工科学了解不足，学理工的对人文社会科学了解不够，这样必然给学生的全面素质教育带来了教育理念的缺陷和知识面的偏颇。我们一定要加强自身的修养，努力提高自己的思想道德素质、文化素质、业务素质和身体心理素质，牢固树立人文教育与科学教育相融合的教育思想和育人理念，改变教育方法，把传授知识、能力培养和素质教育紧密结合起来，指导帮助学生学会做人，学会做事，学会学习，学会发展。充分发挥教书育人、管理育人、服务育人的作用，为社会培养更多的适用型人才。
参考文献：
\[1\]钱禾喜主编.现代大学生综合素质教育与心理健康教育及心理测试指导全书\[M}.中国教育出版社，卷一至卷四，
\[2\]编委会.中国大学人文启示录\[M\].华中科技大学出版社，卷二至卷六、
\[3\]冯建军.生命与教育\[MJ.教育科学出版社， | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 徐峥“囧”系列电影中女性角色的“囧”境
谷雨
(江西服装学院时尚传媒学院江西南昌330201)
**摘 要：徐峥作为演员出演《人在囧途》电影后，开始以导演身份创造《人再囧途之泰囧》《港囧》《囧妈》等“囧”系列电影。从该系列第一部电影开始女性角色在电影当中的比重呈现出一种越来越大的趋势这一趋势反映在演员的选择、角色戏份的多少以及在整部影片叙事当中的作用甚至片名的确定，《囧妈》作为该系列最后一部电影将主角切换到一对母子之间探讨家庭关系中的“控制式”母爱将女性角色的作用发挥到最大化。**
**关键词：徐峥 “囧”系列电影；女性角色**
中图分类号：J905 文献标识码：A文章编号：1009-9743(2021)03-0133-07
**DOI： 10.13803/j. cnki. issn1009-9743.2021.03.021**
**“囧”系列电影在主题表达、故事风格人物类型上存在很大的相似度，四部影片都包含了公路片元素、现实主义风格与人物角色类型化和符号化等特质。如果说《人在囧途》是“囧”系列电影在我国影视行业的首次试水，《人再囧途之泰囧》则是徐峥作为导演开启“囧”系列电影的模式化制作但这两部电影中的女性角色比较固定和程式化。 《港囧》虽然继续套用该模式但对女性角色的塑造和表达更为丰富，《囧妈》则更为突出现实情境抓住家庭母子关系主题展现女性。虽然女性成为表现主体但依然没有解除女性角色的“囧”境。总体来看女性角色的塑造在整个“囧”系列影片里缺少个性没有独特思考和深刻**
**认识成为边缘人物抑或定型化人物存在。电影作为影视载体应具有相对应的人文关怀女性身份在影片中应得到认同创作者应更多的从女性视点出发，体现女性关怀完成平等的性别表达。**
一、淡化的女性角色呈现
**(一)角色标签的固定化**
**“囧”系列电影一开始都以家庭婚姻的悲欢离合作为整部电影的一个基调因此影片对女性角色呈现就不可避免地会出现妻子、母亲、情妇、女儿等身份上的设定。莫尔维认为“决定性的男性凝视( gaze) 把自己的幻想投射到女性人物身上。”在传统的男权思想或家庭观念当中女性的**
**收稿日期：2020-09-10**
**作者简介：谷雨女白族湖南吉首人艺术学硕士江西服装学院时尚传媒学院助教研究方向为广播电视学。**
**①秦喜清《电影与文化——电影史论·女性电影·后现代美学》北京：北京时代华文书局2015版 第183页。**
**各种身份都会被给予固有的标签例如：慈母贤妻等等。这种看似对女性角色“高大全”设定造成的结果就是女性其他更多的个性和追求往往是被淡化甚至是忽视的。《人在囧途》中女性角色有痴情的小三、背后有苦衷的女骗子、一心照顾家庭的妻子这是该系列影片初始对女性的定位。随后《人再囧途之泰囧》片中出现的女性角色更为丰富并且开始迎合男性观众传达出对女性角色外表的关注。美貌的妻子和空姐、年轻的秘书和导游，一些有过短暂镜头但也是面容姣好的酒店前台、车站人员反映出对于女性认识停留在浅显的外表、身材、性格等层面上。身材姣好、容貌美丽，意味着这是基于男性视角下对女性的一种审视与好奇。 《人再囧途之泰囧》中两个男性在电梯里对一位女性从上到下地打量中流露出来的表情走错房间后徐峥躲在床下幻想这两个场景同时空对比透露出影片对女性魅力价值的一种浅层构建 《港囧》相对前部《人再囧途之泰囧》女性人物增多女性个性更加释放，但人物特质过于扁平化和单一化，大嫂虚荣爱钱、岳母想要外孙、初恋女生爱自由。男主角上门女婿的身份、娘家女强男弱的氛围，这样的设定使得影片中的男女冲突变得强烈，而初恋女生杨伊的特征则是柔软并贴心，满足男性潜在心理对于女性温柔善良的形象塑造，但这种美好只是为了实现主人公对青春的幻想一旦桶破这层情欲初恋的影踪便消失无几。女性是单纯的被看和物恋对象，在男性的绝对目光注视下女性只是一种缺席的、界定阉割的“负面”存在，她们没有表达自身欲望的出口。①“囧”系列影片确实如此女性作为影片里的次要人物她们的人物性格和矛盾冲突没有过多涉及，导致人物状态未发生质的变化女性角色固化、标签化更多担任一种辅助故事发展的功能。**
**(二)戏份比重的设置**
**“回顾百年影视文化史不难发现在20世纪以来的岁月里影视文化不仅没有消除传统文化当中男权话语至上的沉病。相反在新的时代条件和历史氛围下影视文化又制造了新一轮的男权话语加剧了社会文化中两性话语不平衡的态势。”②影视文化作为一种现代文化投射的载体，影片中的社会阶层、人物身份、男女关系等设定都可以瞥见其背后塑造的价值观。 《人在囧途》中女性角色在整部电影中占有比重在同系列电影当中较低，主要女性角色身份设定分别是妻子、情妇、女骗子和女儿。以男主人公为主导的“囧”系列电影中角色的行为理念基本按照传统理念中对相应人物身份进行的类型化呈现：妻子热爱家庭，情妇深爱情人，女儿喜爱父亲。相较于此《人在囧途》对主角家庭以外的旅店女房客和车站女骗子的戏份比重则要更多一些。《人再囧途之泰囧》出现的其他女性角色更多为了满足男性对女性的窥视与好奇女性角色戏份比重整体依然处于较少状态女性只是作为整部电影的扁平化人物辅助叙事表达。 《港囧》中妻子菠菜较《人再囧途之泰囧》中的传统女性形象有了改变不再是全职太太、一心相夫教子的家庭形象，而是一种更接近于现实社会自由平等的女性位置女性角色的戏份比重较前部也有较多增加。和初恋女生赴约虽是影片最初的追求和最大的看点但赴约路上的每次考验才是影片的重中之重初恋女生的人物设定负责承担结尾的叙事功能不会占用过多时长表现。女性角色的戏份在《囧妈》里得到最大化释放主要角色也切换成亲子关系当中认为理所当然为孩子考虑的母亲。电影的主要核心仍然以男性角色为主，母亲在火车上悄悄探头渴望儿子留下，儿子如愿留下一同坐火车并发生一系列故事剧情发展下去依靠儿**
**①秦喜清《电影与文化——电影史论·女性电影·后现代美学》北京：北京时代华文书局2015版 第186页。**
**②李东《当代影视文化的“男性话语”批判》，《辽宁工业大学学报(社会科学版))2010年第1期第71-73页。**
子一路上主观经历的各种事情得以推动进行母亲始终只是作为一个被动参与者的身份介入其中。
**“囧”系列电影中女性意识在不断增强，但大部分女性角色仍没有完全跳脱出既有的观念、伦理和束缚，即使“囧妈”看似强势霸道、追求自我，本质上依然是传统保守，一心为了孩子考虑而选择维护家庭的女性形象 “囧”系列电影的结束篇《囧妈》女性角色相较之前占有比重最大，但本质和精神内核依旧没有太多改变。**
**二、女性角色构建的景观**
**(一)女性身体的暗示**
**徐峥执导的三部影片中，带有明显的现实主义风格且都出现对性文化的暗示影片中无处不存在着“性”这种性暗示通过对女性身份、身材、面容、五官表现从本质达到一种性文化的隐喻。“许多女性主义者认为色情产品把妇女物化为男人愉悦的客体，这促成暴力和权力的性欲化，因此建构了通过权力与暴力寻求愉悦的父权性欲形式。”《人再囧途之泰囧》里出现的女性着装都很得体相貌普遍较好，而酒店做桑拿的服务员等小人物由于样貌一般则没有什么正面镜头，处于画面的边缘位置。对人妖的描写勾勒出诱人的身材曲线对外国人房间里发生的性游戏表现得更为大胆明显关于女性身体的特写画面成为该影片性文化表达的标志。《港囧》从一开场就是夫妻性生活其次言语中也不时调侃性意味的词语虽是玩笑，但也是对性认识的直白探讨。随后一路上“囧”事不断徐来为了寻找开锁工人打开头盔追到一个小型会所几位女性着装暴露并似乎在进行性交易再一次勾起观众对性的想象男主人公对初恋女生杨伊的幻想也充满着性欲与情欲的纠葛， 《囧妈》虽然丰富了女性角色的呈现但依旧出现了对女性身体的暗示，如主**
**角徐伊万走错包厢看到美女正在脱衣服的画面，他欲躲避却藏在了女生裙子里男主人公在火车上邂逅身材高挑穿着性感的俄罗斯美女也暗暗滋长出情欲的幻想，通过两个人喝酒后稍显亲昵的动作体现出来。喜爱美女、注视女性身体都将身体视为一种客观的消费品。鲍德里亚认为消费社会下身体的两大功用是美丽和色情那么女性的身体被刻意强调时更有可能在传递一种价值符号。纵观“囧”系列影片女性形象和女性身体的表现是一致的着装简单大方的女性传统保守反之女性则奔放外向。库克和强斯顿认为在电影结构中女性只不过是父权交换系统中的符号她们不是作为女性的能指而存在，而是作为父权意识形态体系的符号。②男性按照符号化的方式来设想女性身体消费俨然成为这种方式的一个代表。**
**(二)男性需求的满足**
**福柯认为性是一个形象表征，“女性身体是艺术家表达情感或者观念输出的媒介，亦是情欲投射的对象。③因此透过女性，则可以窥到女性角色的运用更多是辅助创作者的情感表达或情欲投射的一种载体。徐峥执导的三部主题有关于“囧”的电影里女性角色引发的性幻想作为一贯固定模式沿用下来。 “某些文化里，身体是作为性符号(尤其是女性)而被赋予价值的，此时身体就有了重要意义。”④《人在囧途之泰囧》电梯里从下而上的男性窥视视角，《港囧》中对性交易场所及女性的扫视，《囧妈》对走错包厢没穿衣服美女的身材勾勒， “它在表象上似乎是解放女性身体而在实质上对于女性身体符号的建构仍然臣服于男性的主流话语男性仍然主控着支配女性身体的权力。”⑤影片里的女性身体从来就不是创作者想要体现的女性平等思想，而是构建一种**
**①\[荷\]L. van Zoonen：《女性主义媒介研究》，曹晋、曹茂译广西：广西师范大学出版社2007版 第25页。**
**②秦喜清《电影与文化-—-电影史论·女性电影·后现代美学》北京：北京时代华文书局2015版 第174页。**
**③邓楚君《女性主体性的建构策略——当代艺术中的女性身体意象探究》，《理论月刊》2019年第6期第76-80页。**
**④王庆奖，杨燕《后现代主义的理论与实践研究：文化权力碎片化》云南：云南大学出版社2014版 第114页。**
**⑤陈晓云.电影城市《中国电影与城市文化(1990-2007年)》北京：中国电影出版社2008版 ，第37页。**
**色欲的景观取悦于大部分观众满足此类受众特定的心理期待。**
**马斯洛需求层次理论将人的需求从低到高依次分为生理需求、安全需求、社交需求、尊重需求和自我实现需求。 “囧”系列影片中徐峥扮演的人物类型一直是商业上有所成绩的中产阶级，哪怕在工作领域获得一定的成绩实现了尊重需求但对生理需求的追寻一直存在，而生理需求背后暗指的肉欲、性欲及情欲，属于第一层级，该层级需求的满足则选用征服女性魅力来实现。《人在囧途》中的商人老板李成功拥有甜美温柔、身材曼妙的情妇《泰囧》里的性意味更为强烈；《港囧》中徐来费劲波折找到初恋女生杨伊后妄想通过身体接触发生点什么《囧妈》里徐伊万看到俄罗斯美女主动贴近不由得亲近起来。这几位男性人物虽然事业有成，但依然为初级生理需求吸引这是一种达到温饱层级后依然渴望的身体欲望和精神浸淫。**
三、女性角色对男权的屈服
**(一)“男主女客”的角色关系**
**黑格尔认为“情境”是由当时世界情况决定的世界情况包括它有时称之为神的普遍力量，即某特定时代的伦理、宗教、法律等方面的人生理想例如恋爱、名誉、光荣、气质、友谊、亲情之类所凝成的“情致”这些情致各有片面性，在特定情境中当事人在行动上决定何去何从，这时才可以显出他的性格，才揭露出他是个什么样的人人格的伟大和刚强的程度只有借矛盾对立的伟大和刚强的程度才能衡量出来。①双男主的戏份在“囧”系列电影里表现得十分明显两个个性迥异的男性一路上不得不共同经历一些事情。最终结尾情节发展不依靠女性人物，故事也不需要女性参与其中更多是辅助事件发生。 《囧妈》虽然主角换成母亲与儿子，但也逃脱不了作**
**为主角的男性人物在特定情境里经历一系列事情从而使其心理发生变化，去改善某种关系的对立与情感上的疏离。主角徐峥一路上囧遇不断人物开始自我心理建设，女性意识则没有直面表示采用间接方式如《人在囧途》男主人公中和女儿通电话时女儿甜美可爱的状态、《人再囧途之泰囧》中钱包里女儿的可爱照片、《港囧》中菠菜妻子录制的惊喜视频、《囧妈》里发现妈妈被骗交费才能去参加演出的宣传单这种细节处委婉暗示女性对男性依恋的态度和情感。莫尔维认为电影反映、揭示甚至操纵着社会对性别差异的认识，决定着电影中的形象、色欲的观看方式以及景观描写。②在凝视概念下男性成为观看者直接看到的欲望主体，女性处于被看的客体，在叙事上辅助故事发展，没有欲望表达的出口，从而揭示女性的被动地位。女性在“囧”系列影片中整体处于边缘位置在叙事方面，前两部影片中女性角色被挤压甚至有意淡化性格、情节，《港囧》和《囧妈》中女性意识稍显突出但依旧限制于推动故事进展。**
**(二)对男权主义的从属**
**男权主义( androcentrism)又称男权制(父权制)将男性身体和生活模式视为正式和理想的社会组织形式.③徐峥执导的“囧”系列电影总是下意识地从男权视角表现女性生存状态。影片中女性对男权的迎合与依从展示了男权统治的地位。从整个情节发展来看，“囧”系列影片主要由男性主导了不同事件的发生从回家与妻子谈离婚、远赴泰国找老周合作、见初恋一面、阻止妻子事业发展这个单方面决定由作为主角的男性发起并在达成路上不断受阻直至最后产生另一番感悟甚至改变当初的决定主要表现内心情感活动的角色是男性女性则丧失了表达权。徐峥在宣传《囧妈》电影时接受南都娱乐采访说，**
**①朱光潜《朱光潜全集：谈美书简·美学拾穗集》北京：中华书局出版社2003版 第97页。**
**②秦喜清《电影与文化——电影史论·女性电影·后现代美学》北京：北京时代华文书局2015版 第182页。**
**③薛胜男《论张艺谋电影的男权主义倾向》，《电影文学》2014年第19期 第52-53页。**
**“囧’系列从来不是一个爆米花电影它是在讨论人物的困境和成长。这里的人物自然指的是徐峥在剧中扮演的中年男士这一身份背后折射的是男性在剧情设定下引起的反思。 《人再囧途之泰囧》中女性意识色彩较前部增加了不少妻子角色的设定开始对夫权有了抗争意识，但当男性与女性这两种角色发生冲突女性角色依旧会服从男性影片里妻子菠菜当初为了能和徐来在一起而自愿牺牲放弃更好的读书机会虽然前半部分她背着老公和国外友人看似暧昧，但最终她的情感落脚点还是落在了帮助丈夫拥有一间画室的梦想上行为背后暗示着女性角色让位自身利益选择家庭。不同情境下人的想法会受到不同的人与事影响，从而体现人物性格。影片设定不同情境下的窘境都为了凸显男主人公心路历程最终恍然大悟真正想要追寻的是什么通过这些事情逐步改变男主角之前的想法和观念。故事围绕男主角一路上经历的境遇进行，主要是为了达到重新塑造男主角内心状态，企图通过男性反思达到深层的真实，即思想内涵的真实，人物性格和心理真实。男性人物由表及里得到饱满塑造后自然缺失女性话语的表达。 “囧”系列影片主旨在于体现中年男性回归本真，找到初心。这里的初心代表回到家庭当中女性归属于家庭中的一部分家庭环境里女性性格更多是柔弱宽容的，即使强势的母亲内心也是柔软无比，整体女性形象被塑造成不那么强势的一方最终臣服于男性话语权中。**
**四、流于形式的回归**
(一)女性角色的“意识与标签之争”
**值得肯定的是“囧”系列电影虽然以标签化模式进行人物建构，但对于女性角色的运用越发重视创作者对于女性角色的体现也是逐渐显现但为了辅助叙事依旧使女性意识更多流于表面导致女性角色在男性为主要人物的电影中依**
**旧显得微不足道。赵建新认为对电影而言，真正深刻的冲突是人物间的心理冲突。①“囧”系列电影票房建立在对男主人公心理建设的转变这反映出女性角色自始至终没有被关照过心理感受，笔墨更多放在对主要人物男主人公的刻画上。《人再囧途之泰囧》中女性的独立人格较前部影片稍微有些突出但过度渲染的美貌与对女性身体的特写还是传达出导演对于观众视觉需求的迎合。《港囧》中女性的独立意识在妻子菠菜这一人物身上得到些微体现事业有成的妻子菠菜甘愿为爱牺牲，看重家庭，她身上也能窥到《泰囧》里的最后选择重归于好的传统妻子的影子。初恋女神杨伊依旧清纯她性格中体现出的自由自在、追寻梦想、认可自我的状态较为符合当代独立女性形象。 《港囧》加强了对女性意识的表现并不断成为一种男性潜意识里的情感寄托。《囧妈》中母亲作为女性具有双重身份，一方面是控制欲强的长辈另一方面还是追求音乐梦想的歌唱人，当与儿子发生矛盾，她不顾一切全然忘记参加演出的事独自下车此刻她的内心还是将家庭看作首选，直到与儿子冰释前嫌她才会选择继续去追逐自己的梦想，即使女性作为主角在面临双重角色的问题冲突时，潜意识的想法依然是让位于家庭在这可以窥见导演传达出别样的文化观和价值观。**
**(二)浅层的女性意识回归**
**“个体被支配性的意识形态所召唤，换句话说个体不可阻挡地置身于支配性的意识形态之中。”②影片里每个人物都会依据自身性格做出下意识地反映和选择这体现出个体受意识形态的支配。因此女性角色做出的决定会体现出个人的价值选择和判断。 《人在囧途》里的李成功在外面即使有情妇只要回归家庭妻子依然选择原谅 《泰囧》里徐朗为了追求事业上的成功无暇照**
**①赵建新《中国电影简史》兰州：兰州大学出版社2007版第235页。**
**②\[美\]玛丽塔斯特肯、莉莎卡特·莱特著周韵译《看的实践：形象、权力和政治》北京：中国人民大学出版社2003版第52页。**
**顾女儿深刻道歉后老婆依然和好如初《《港囧》里的妻子知道徐来所作所为是为了初恋女生但也没有选择立即离婚《囧妈》里徐伊万不满母亲的控制欲与母亲爆发最激烈的争吵，最终母亲也选择与儿子重归于好。女性身份看似越发变得重要甚至凌驾于男性之上，从小三、妻子、初恋、女儿到母亲她们似乎从一开始的被男性选择到最后可以决定放弃男性，仿佛她们已经很符合甚至代表当代独立自主的女性形象身份转变的背后导演依旧以类型化传统女性群像来促成“囧系列”影片喜剧效果的结尾。圆满式结局的套路是男性最终意识到家庭温暖渴望回归女性则顺其自然的接纳，以此满足受众特定的心理期待。**
**《囧妈》里导演直面亲子关系中的爱与束缚，相较于该系列前三部作品女性角色由配角转变成主角身份由妻子、情人转变为母亲。女性思想得到重视并突出表现，儿子一开始对母亲的演出不屑一顾之后竭力帮助母亲实现心愿到最后观看演出时泪流满面说明导演开始有意识凸显女性群体细腻敏感的内心诉求。儿子徐伊万这一男性角色的塑造基本上按照前几部的方式作以简化。影片中当妻子对徐伊万说“她不是他幻想中的老婆时。”徐伊万也在母亲面前说“他不是母亲幻想中的儿子。徐伊万虽不认可母亲的行为方式却在自己婚姻生活中活成了与母亲同样的特质足以证明母亲这一女性角色在家庭中潜移默化的影响。作为“囧”系列终结篇《囧妈》看似女性角色成为主角但行为发起者和母亲这一人物刻画依旧基于徐伊万的塑造从儿子视角进行叙述因此内核始终没变。**
**从“囧”系列电影可见女性角色作为叙事话语的一个符号已经慢慢从边缘走到中心这种回归不应仅是角色比重的增加，戏份和人物情感的**
**逐渐饱满，更应该是一种对女性行为、身份、性格、动机等方面做出的重视与思考。**
**五、结 语**
**“囧”系列电影是一种个人风格十分强烈的影片具有统一独特的叙事方式。《人在囧途》对女性刻画处于一种点到即止的状态，《人再囧途之泰囧》对女性停留在身体窥视与好奇的层面，《港囧》开始有意识的体现出女性的存在与形象，《囧妈》从母亲身份出发探讨人物的成长与情感，该影片中对女性心理叙事不断加强女性意识觉醒与重视得到最大程度体现。**
**《人在囧途》的出演使徐峥看到一种模式化喜剧片的演绎，开启徐峥跨界做导演的大门，随之《泰囧》成为中国影史首部票房过10亿的华语电影，《港囧》虽然剧情和人物扮演上存在诸多诟病，但也取得16.13亿元的票房成绩终结篇《囧妈》发行方欢喜传媒和北京字节跳动达成合作，由字节跳动最少支付人民币6.3亿元买下播放权限间接证明徐峥自导自演的“囧”系列电影的高影响力，说明徐峥代表的“囧”系列影片有人认可其市场潜力并为之买单。徐峥作为中国近几年演员转行做导演队伍里的一个高票房导演代表人物，他以自身演艺经验进行电影创作探索系列喜剧片的全新表达，势必带有他个人化倾向。“囧”系列电影没有对女性角色的主体地位有一个质的思考，不是真正意义上的回归，只是人物形象和特征表现上这种浅层形式的回归女性人物形象塑造也不够鲜明女性思想与情感的表达也较为缺少但形式上的回归也是女性主义不可或缺的一个环节，做到从形式的浅层表达到内容的深层表达才能使“囧”系列影片真正解除女性角色的“囧”境。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]陈乃嘉.徐峥喜剧电影与现实主义的碰撞、疏离与回归\[J\].电影新作 2019(03)：131-134.**
**\[2\]初征.徐峥电景艺术论\[D\].河北师范大学2019.**
**\[3\]张一新.国产喜剧电影的风格转向及其社会动因——冯小刚、徐峥喜剧电影比较\[J\].文化创新比较研究2017(28)：48-50.**
**\[4\]杨翼飞孟祥龙.徐峥导演电影的受众心理学解读\[J\].电影文学2017(19)：94-96.**
**\[5\]张夏凡王秀峰.从《X囧》看定位理论在中国电影产业中的运用\[J\].大众文艺2017(11)：189.**
**(责任编辑：邢** **研)**
**Female Characters in Xu Zheng'ss “Jiong”Films**
**GU Yu**
( Jiangxi Institute of Fashion Technology ， Nanchang ， Jiangxi ，330201)
**Abstract： After starring in “Lost on Journey ”" Xu zheng began producing “Lost in Thailand” “Lost in Hong Kong" and “Lost In Mom"as a director. Since the series of the first film ， the proportion of female characters in the movie presents an increasing trend， this trend is reflected in the choice of actors ， roles， number of the scenes as well as in the film narrative role even the determination of the title “sorry mom” as the series of the final film will lead to switch to a pair of mother and son， Explore the “controlling" maternal love in family relations ， and maximize the role of women.**
**Key words： XU Zheng "Jiong" movies； female characters** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 专教育的培养目标，而培养目标必须符合国情，符合教育发展规律。要实现师专新时期的培养目标，只能从我国当前的实际出发，因地制宜，因材施教，大胆改革，勇于创新。只有这样，才能使师专学生成为“德、智、体、美”全面发展，一专多能，专博结合的初中教师。师专也才能办得丰富多彩，生动活泼，更具有吸引力。
参
考
文
献
\[1\]江泽民.江泽民文选(第三卷)\[M\].北京：人民出
版社，2006，
\[2\]
马克思，恩格斯.马克思恩格斯全集(第三卷)\[M.北京：人民出版社，1980
L3J
马克思，恩格斯.马克思恩格斯全集(第三卷)\[M\].北京：人民出版社，1980.
\[4\]
邓小平.邓小平文选(第二卷)\[M\].北京：人民出版社，1994.
\[5\]
中共中央.中共中央关于教育体制改革的决定(1985-5-27)\[Z.北京：人民出版社，1985.
\[6
杨德广.现代教育理念专论\[M\].北京：人民教育出版社，2005.
On the Training Target of Teachers Colleges in the New Period
ZUO Li-jing
(Wenshan Teachers College， Wenshan 663000， China)
Abstract： Teachers colleges are an important part in the normal education system in China with bounden duties for training teachers for the full implementation of the nine-year compulsory educa-tion. The quality of teachers trained in teachers colleges will influence the education foundation and the general layout and its poor quality will weaken its guiding function. This paper elaborates the training target in teachers colleges in the new period and expounds the related problems in theory and in practice.
Key words： new period； education in teachers colleges； training target
\[责任编辑：
赵云生\]
《希望从这里升起——教育孩子的艺术》出版
e家庭教育与“位育”的关系问题是当今教育实践活动中面临的现实问题，是一种oaeae | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | A course of lectures on future punishment..
author: Rider, Wilson C. [from old catalog]
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UNITED STATES OF AMEBIC A.
COURSE OF LECTURES -
FUTURE PUNISHMENT,
DELIVERED AT THE
BAPTIST MEETING-HOUSE
I.v
CHERRYFIELD.
BY WILSON C. RIDER, A. M.
Pastor of the First Baptist Church in Cherryfield,
PUBLISHED BY REQUEST,
* #
# ■
DANIEL T. PIKE & CO., PRINTERS
MDCCCXXXVK
? *
Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1836, br
WILSON C. RIDER, A. BL,
in the Clerks OfHco of the District Conrt of Maine,
£$//
PREF AC £.
If the opinion of a distinguished philosopher in England, be cor-
rect, that every Christian who can write, ought to leave something
behind him against infidelity, I may be excused in presenting the
following Lectures to the public ; seeing the sentiments I have en-
deavored to expose, are so nearly allied to bare-faced Deism.
The design of this series of Lectures, was to diversify the ordi-
nary course of ministerial instructions, and to bring together vari-
ous facts and considerations, so that they might aid each other by
their arrangement and union. They were prepared, and delivered,
without the least intention of publication ; — but as soon a3 they
were completed, the Church and Society, for whose benefit they
were primarily intended, expressed an earnest wish that they might
be given to the public.
With regard to the immediate effect of these Lectures, all the
expectations of the author have been more than realized. In offer-
ing them to the public he can truly say, that he has yielded with a
reluctance, which could be overcome only by an ascertained earnest-
ness, expressed by members of bis Church, and his brethren in the
Ministry, whos^Wpinion and desire would have weight on the minds
of those who knew them. Indulging the hope that they might con-
tribute to establish the wavering; to g 3 unwary ; and to aid
in the dissemination of truth, and in the - )pression of a baneful
and spreading error, he is now glad ,e importunity was ex-
pressed and has been complied wh has often been remark-
ed to him by those whose sentimei s here exposed, that the
Orthodox do not receive the ndiess punishment as a
Bible truth, of the highest pi tance, but as a mere spec-
ulative proposition, to be adna j purpose of completing a
system of theology, and that v in > -.ctice consistent with
their professions they would ifest so much indifference to
the subject, but would endefl iblish it from reason and rev-
elation, and to impress : die mind. I have felt the re-
proof. And I fear that i r we cannot say, that we "are
pure from the blood of i id especially that Ministers of
the Gospel have not soim arm as loudly, and as repeatedly
&s they ought to have do . they have lamented the baneful
t PREFACE.
Elects of those errors which they saw thousands in the communitT
receiving as sacred truth, while they could keep up the appearance
of being believers in Christianity, and yefe deny all that the natural1
heart deemed offensive in its doctrines, and throw ofif all that it-
deemed uncomfortable in its restraints. But through fear, that no-
ticing such errors, might give them a consequence to which they
were not entitled, they have been induced to stand aloof from the
contest, and to indulge the hope that doctrines so absurd and un-
scriptural wrould, if let alone, die of themselves. Thus did not the
Apostles, and Martyrs, and Reformers in the first ages of Christiaa-
ity, and in the sixteenth, century. They attacked every prevailing
error that threatened the subversion of Christianity, however weak
and contemptible, or popular and powerful it might be. And this
is the duty enjoined upon ministers of the Gospel by the Great
Head of the Church. "Have no fellowship with the unfruitful
works of darkness, but rather reprove them." " Contend, earnestly,
for the faith, once delivered unto the saints."
From these, and other considerations,, the author has deToted the
first three Lectures of this Series to- " TJie Scripture Proofs of End-
less Punishment." He has felt that the exigencies of the time*
rendered it necessary to show, that the grounds, on which this doc-
trine rests, are not slender and fallacious^ bu-t permanent as the truth
of God. Impressed with the full belief that the Reductions of sound
reason, and the principles of common sense> harrnjPrce in every im-
portant point with the Sacred Scriptures, he has also argued the
doctrine of endless punishment, "from facts and considerations that
are independent of direct Scripture testimony" These arguments*
which have been deduced from revelation and reason, might have
been extended, but it is not necessary, since, those who are deter-
mined to reject the doctrine of endless punishment, and to rest their
hope of Heaven on the presumption of its being false, will not b*>
likely to be converted to the truth by the strongest, or most numer>
pus arguments ; for,
" A man convinced against his will,
Is of the same opinion still."
Aware that there is much diversity of opinion among some por-
tions of the Christian community, respecting the nature of futnre
punishment; and that other portions have no definite idea upon the
subject ; and impressed with the belief that a consistent and scrip-
tural view of this subject will serve to illustrate the equity of the*
Divine procedure in punishing his rebellious subjects with Qndloa*
PREFACE. 5
torments, the author has frankly expressed his own views of th<a
" constituent parts of this punishment " or the principal ingredients
in that cup, which is to be the future portion of the wicked. He has
also endeavored to expose the artful and unscriptural " methods by
trhich modern objectors to endless punishment, evade the force of Scrip-
ture testimony on that subject" — " to give the true principle of inter-
pretation, in reference to those passages of Scripture that are supposed
to assert or imply the final salvation of all men" — * to refute the
arguments by which they endeavor to overthrow the doctrine of endless
punishment" and " to point out the sources, the nature, and tlu
dangerous moral consequences of their scheme"
If the doctrine advanced in the following Lectures be true, it is
a most interesting and important doctrine. However contrary to the
teelings or wishes of any, it is by all means necessary to be known.
Surely no man would wish " to flatter himself in his own eyes, till
his iniquity be found to be hateful." And we deem it the more im-
portant that the subjects proposed should receive an ample discus-
sion, because there are a numerous class of people who are sitting
down easy in the expectation of "peace and safety, while sudden
destruction is coming upon them ; ' and we wish to lead them to a
careful and attentive examination of the mental process by which
they arrived at their present conclusions. And we believe that such
persons may not be so attached to their peculiar opinions, as to be
beyond the reach of the Gospel, [f they be treated with kindness,
and if sound arguments be presented, we may rationally hope that
they will be induced to review the subject, and decide the question
with some degree of candor and impartiality. But these Lecture*
are not entered upon solely, nor chiefly for the benefit of that class
of people. There are multitudes of our youth who feel powerfully
inclined to reject a doctrine of such overwhelming import as that of
future and eternal punishment, and to embrace a religious scheme
that is fraught with the most pernicious and fatal consequences ;
and many more still, who in theory admit the doctrine which we
have endeavored to establish, do not possess a strong and practical
conviction of its reality and importance. Our object, therefore,' is
not merely to establish your minds in the speculative notion that
some men will be eternally miserable, but to present such an array
of evidence, as shall create a deep and abiding conviction of the
truth of the doctrine ; and such as shall impress upon the heart the
necessity of fleeing to Christ for pardon and salvation.
Throughout the whole, the author has endeavored to divest these
A*
6 PREFACE.
Lectures from the tone of controversy, and to give them a practical
bearing'. He has used great plainness of speech, for which he need
make no prefatory apologies. If in any case he has seemed to use
language with too much severity, he can safely say, that it has not
been from any unkind feelings towards those whose sentiments he
has exposed, but from an earnest solicitude to promote their spiritu-
al and eternal well-being.
In these Lectures, the autbor makes no pretensions to originality
of thought ana* expression beyond those to which he is entitled. —
To a rational and scriptural view of the truths in the subjects he
has proposed, and to a satisfactory solution of the difficulties which
have been objected to it, the author has devoted much time, labor
and care ; and he has availed himself of all the aid which he could
obtain from his predecessors, to whose writings he could have ac-
cess. Pie has not scrupled to make a free use of their polemical
works,, compressing their ideas into a small compass, and generally
clothing them in his own language, and arranging them in the more
inviting form of popular lectures, and giving them an adaptation to
the capacities of common minds. After these Lectures were deliv-
ered, and he had concluded to publish them, he found it difficult in
many instances to discriminate between the ideas or even the ex-
pressions borrowed from others, and those which were original. — -
Rather, therefore, than attempt to distinguish all the extracts by the
sign of quotation, he prefers to devote his time to other objects which
would better compensate him for his labor.- And it is a question of
but little consequence with the public, whether this or that passage
has been quoted, or this or that argument has been advanced and
supported by another, or whether they are his own. The only ques-
tion of importance is, " What is truth ?" May the God of truth, by
the spirit of his grace, guide the understanding and heart of the
reader, that he- may peruse this volume with a mind divested of ev-
ery prepossession and of all prejudice, and may it be instrumental
in promoting his present and future welfare.
To the people of his charge, whose friendly attentions lie grate-
fully bears in mind, and in whose welfare he cherishes the liveliest
interest, and whose many expressions of kindness and affection he
would gladly reciprocate by his most earnest endeavors to promote
their spiritual and eternal 'ell-being, these Lectures are now in-
scribed, with sentiment ■:" affectionate regard, and fervent prayers,,
by their Pastor,
W. C. RIDER.
cewTEimw.
LECTURE I.
SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF ENDLESS PUNISHMENT.
Matt, xxv : 46. — And these shall go away into everlasting punishment, bat
the righteous into life eternal.
LECTURE II.
SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
John iii : 36. — He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life; and he
that believeth not the Son shall not see life, but the wrath of God abideth on him.
LECTURE HI.
SAME SUBTECT CONTINUED.
Gal. vi : 7,8. — Be not deceived; God is not mocked; for whatsoever a man
soweth,that also shall he reap. For he that sowelh to his flesh, shall of the flesh
reap corruption ; but he that soweth to the spirit, shall of the spirit reap life ev-
erlasting.
LECTURE IV.
COLLATERAL PROOFS OF ENDLESS PUNISHMENT.
Ezekiel xviii : 4. — The soul that sinneth, it shall die.
LECTURE y.
CONSTITUENT PARTS OF THE FUTURE PUNISHMENT OF
THE WICKED.
Mark ix : 44. — Where the worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenched.
LECTURE VI.
ON THE METHODS BY WHICH MODERN OBJECTORS TO
ENDLESS PUNISHMENT EVADE THE FORCE OF SCRIPTURE
TESTIMONY RESPECTING THAT SUBJECT.
Jeremiah xxiii : 16, 17. — Thus saith the Lord of Hosts, Hearken not auto
ih« words of the prophets that prophecy unto you; they make you vain ; they
8 CONTENTS.
rpeak a vision of their own heart and not out of the mouth of the Lord. They
gay unto them that despise me, The Lord hath said ye shall have peace, a»d they
i?ay unto every one that walketh after the imagination of hi3 own heart, No evil
shall come upon you.
LECTURE VII.
SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
Acts xiii : 8,9-, 10. — But F.lymas the sorcerer (for so is his name hy interpret-
ation} withstood them, seeking to turn away the deputy from the faith. Then
Saul (who is ako called Paul) filled with the Holy Ghostj set his eyes on him
and said, O full of all subtlety and all mischief, thou child of the devil, thou en-
emy of all righteousness, wilt thou not cease to pervert the right ways of tha
Lordl
LECTURE VIII.
THE TRUE PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION WITH
EEFRRKRCS TO THOSE PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE WHICH ARE
SUPPOSED TO ASSERT OR IMPLY THAT ALE MA>'Ei;<D
WILL BE ULTIMATELY RESTORED TO PARITY
AND HAPPINESS.
2 Petee. iii : 16.— As also in all his epistles, speaking in themof these things
in which are some things hard to be understood, which they that are unlearned
ai«i unstable wrest, as they do also the other scriptures unto their own destruction-
LECTURE IX.
ON THE ARGUMENTS WHICH OBJECTORS TO THE
DOCTRINE OE ENDLESS PUNISHMENT C RG E AGAINST THAT DOCTRINE.
C iiNESis iii : 4. — Ye shall not surely die,
LECTURE X.
THE SOURCES, THE EVIL NATURE, AND THE DAN-
GEROUS MORAL CONSEQUENCES OF A SCHEME WHICH DENIES
THE DOCTRINE OF ENDLESS PUNISHMENT, AND ADVO-
CATES THE FINAL SALVATION OF ALL MANKIND.
Proverbs xix : 27. — Cease my son, to hear the instruction that eaasetu to
err from the words of knowledge.
APPENDIX.
CONVERSION OF A UNIVERSALIS!*.
IdECTURE I.
SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF ENDLESS PUNISHMENT,
Matthew xxv : 46. — And these shall go away into everlasting punish-
ment ; but the righteous into life eternal.
I 5 tills text it is asserted, that impenitent sinners shall go away
into everlasting punishment. This solemn and affecting declaration
of our Savior and our final Judge has been very generally regard-
ed by Christians of every age and nation, as intending in the strict-
est sense, a punishment endless in duration. But there have been
multitudes of persons, particularly of modern times, who style them-
selves Christians, that have objected to this interpretation, and in-
sisted, either that there will be no punishment hereafter, or that this
punishment will be disciplinary, and that the subjects of it will be
eventually restored to purity and happiness. "In support of this
opinion and in opposition to that which has been generally received
by the whole Christian world, they have advanced various argu-
ments and objections which they consider as unanswerable,, and to
which they apparently yield their own assent/' Now it is propel-
to examine these arguments and objections, and either to expos?
their fallacy, or to acknowledge that they cannot be refuted. But
there is a feeling in some minds, that doctrines, the most absurd and
unscriptural, have no need to be answered. To let error alone,
however, in expectation that it will die of itself, is not an apostolic
course. There is as little scripture as reason for this policy of neg-
lect. The expediency ot answering, seems to depend upon the
10 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect.1.
actual effect of error, more than upon its inherent plausibility or
absurdity. And it is a fact, that thousands in this community are
taught to regard the doctrine of future punishment as a Pagan su-
perstition, and that of universal salvation, as sacred truth. And
they are strengthened in their opinions from the fact, that there is
bo little interest awakened in the minds of the Orthodox, in relation
to this subject; and that they are making no persevering attempt to
establish the doctrine of endless punishment, and to refute the ob-
jections that are alleged against it. They also seem desirous of
persuading the public, that the ground on which we rest our belief
of the doctrine of endless punishment, is very slender and fallacious,
and that we do not receive it as a Bible truth of the highest prac-
tical importance, which ought to be interwoven with the whole train
of our thoughts and actions ; but as a mere speculative proposition,
to be admitted for the purpose of completing a system of Theologi-
cal belief. From these considerations, I think it highly important
that we should state, with all possible perspicuity, the grounds on
which we rest our belief of the doctrine in question.
Before I proceed, however, I shall make a few observations for
the purpose of removing, if possible, a prejudice that many cherish
against this doctrine. The subject is unquestionably awful and
affecting beyond comparison. But few persons of tender sensibilities
can contemplate it in all its magnitude and importance, without the
most overwhelming sensations. No numbers can estimate, no Unite
thought can conceive, how important an object is the final destiny
of one immortal being. How entirely overwhelmed, then, must he
be who contemplates it, when he remembers the affecting declar-
ation of our Saviour, and beholds it verified by melancholy experi-
ence, that "Wide is the gate, and broad is the way that leadeth to
destruction, and many there be which go in thereat."
The subject is also unquestionably perplexing, as well as painful.
Some persons, I am aware, speak of the doctrine in question as be-
ing, in their view, easy of investigation, and free from all embar-
rassment. But it may be fairly questioned, whether they have given
the subject such a thorough and scriptural investigation, as might
furnish them with just views of its nature. Others discourse of it
Lect. 1.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 11
in the style and utterance, that belong to that kind of vehemen^
declamation, which we find often attached to a strain of bitter invec-
tive. Some allowance may here be made for the strong impulses
of ardent minds, and for the mistaken apprehensions of duty. In
this manner we may excuse, but cannot justify, their boldness or
severity, when they would have been more successful, if they had
resorted to a milder and more persuasive strain. Were such per-
sons to remember, that, while they are declaring the doctrine of
endless punishment, they may be at the very same time alleging
arguments which are to effect themselves and to evince their own
final destruction, as well as that of many of their friends, would
not their mode of address be changed, and an air of unaffected ten-
derness and a spirit of genuine compassion be preserved ? The
violence and exaggeration, which have characterized the addresses
of many public speakers on this subject, have no doubt awakened
mere horror concerning it, and led some to the conclusion that the
principles on which it was based were selfish and revengeful.
But awful, affecting, and perplexing, as this subject is, it is often
taught in the sacred Oracles. In establishing the doctrine under
consideration, we must rely wholly upon the testimony of the Bible,
since it is impossible, in the very nature of things, that the fact and
duration of future punishment should be proved by arguments drawn
from the light of nature ; because the intention of God can be known
only by express declarations. Human reason has no eye to pene-
trate beyond the grave — no lamp to explore the deep recesses of
eternity. Without the aid of revelation, man in his fallen state can
know nothing of his future destiny. But the Bible unfolds this sub-
ject with absolute certainty.
It should be our supreme concern, to hear with candor and docil-
ity what the Holy Scriptures teach — and to submit ourselves to
the decisions of these sacred Oracles. We should not presume to
form a theory of religious faith for ourselves, which shall accord
with our prejudices acd prepossessions, and then attempt to support
it by legitimate and grammatical interpretations of the Bible ; but
we should repair to the Bible, divested of every pre-conceived opin-
ion, and determined to receive nothing as evangelical truth, for the
support of which we have not an express precept or example.
m SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. I.
Bearing in mind these remarks, let me now call your candid
attention to the testimony of God respecting the endless punishment
of the wicked. This testimony cannot fail of being peculiarly in-
teresting to us. To know and believe it, as established by the clear
and infallible proofs of Inspiration, may be the very means of pre-
venting your final ruin, and of turning your wayward feet into the
path of life. To cavil with, or to reject this testimony without im-
partial investigation, on the other hand, can be of no possible ben-
efit to you, and may prove fatally injurious. Were there no possible
way of escape " from the wrath to come " provided for lost and per-
ishing sinners, and were not this way published to thenl during their
probation for the rewards of eternity, they might indeed remain in
the most profound ignorance of the evils to which they are advanc-
ing. But as the knowledge of the final destiny ot the sinner is
absolutely necessary in order to induce us to repent and believe the
gospel, this knowledge is of the highest practical importance.
Permit me then to lay before you a concise and comprehensive view
of the Scripture Proofs of the endless duration of future punish-
ment. And let me hope that you will listen with calmness, and
decide with impartiality.
I. All those passages of Scripture, which speak of the
DURATION OF FUTURE PUNISHMENT BY THE TERMS u EVERLASTING,"
" ETERNAL," " FOREVER," AND " FOREVER AND EVER," PROVE THAT
THIS PUNISHMENT WILL BE ENDLESS.
" The sinners in Zion are afraid ; fearfulness hath surprised tbe
hypocrites ; Who among us shall dwell with the devouring fire ?
who among us shall dwell with everlasting burnings ? And many
of them (or the multitudes of them) that sleep in the dust of the earth,
shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and ever-
lasting contempt. It is better for thee to enter into life halt and
maimed, rather than having two hands or two feet to tbe cast into
•everlasting fire. Depart from me ye cursed, into everlasting fire
prepared for the devil and his angels. And these shall go away
into everlasting punishment. But he that shall blaspheme against
the Holy Ghost, hath never forgiveness, but is in danger of eternal
damnation. The Lord Jesus shall be revealed from[heaven, with
Lect. 1.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 15
his mighty angels, in flaming lire, taking vengeance on them that
know not God, and obey not the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ —
who shall be punished with everlasting destruction from the pres-
ence of the Lord, and from the glory of his power. And the an-
gels which kept not their first estate, but left their own habitation,
he hath reserved in everlasting chains, under darkness, unto the
judgment of the great day. Even as Sodom and Gomorrah, and
the cities about them, in like manner, giving themselves over to
fornication and going after strange flesh, are set forth for an exam-
ple, suffering the vengeance of eternal fire. These are wells
without water, clouds that are carried with a tempest, to whom the
mist of darkness is reserved forever. Wandering stars, to whom
is reserved the blackness of darkness forever. If any man wor-
ship the beast, or his image, and receive his mark in his forehead^
or in his hand, the same shall drink of the wine of the wrath of
God, which is poured out without mixture into the cup of his indig-
nation : and he shall be tormented with fire and brimstone in the
presence of the holy angels, and in the presence of the Lamb: and
the smoke of their torment ascendeth up forever and ever. And
they said Alleluia ! and her smoke rose up forever and ever. And
the devil that deceived them was cast into a lake of fire and brim-
stone where the beast and the false prophet are, and shall be tor-
mented day and night forever and ever J1 *
To destroy the practical influence of this testimony, the objectors
to the doctrine of endless punishment allege the few instances in
which the terms everlasting, eternal, &c, are used in scripture, as
connected with punishment. To decide whether a doctrine is
taught in the Bible, it is not necessary to ascertain how many times
it is asserted, but whether it is asserted at all. The truth of a doc-
trine cannot depend upon the frequency with which it is repeated.
One divine asseveration of any truth is sufficient to bind our faith.
Let no one think that the evidence is not conclusive, because the
*Isa. xxxiii. 14. Dan. xh. 2. Matt, xviii. 8— xx v. 41, 46, Mark iii. 29.
2 Thess. i. 7—9. Jude 6, 7. 2 Peter ii. 17. Jude 13- Rev< xiv. 9—11.
Rev. xix. 3. Rev. xx. 10.
B
14 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OP (Lect.1.
words rendered everlasting, &c, are applied to future punishment
but five or six times out of the ninety-six in which they are found
in the New Testament This is as large a proportion as the sub-
ject requires, and as could be expected from the nature of the case.
They are in the New Testament applied to about twenty different
subjects, so that to be applied to one but five or six times only, is
about as frequent as Qouid be reasonably expected. Further, if
these terms do not teach the doctrine of endless punishment because
they are thus seldom applied to it, they do not teach the endless
duration ot the existence of God, for to this they are not much more
frequently applied.
It is also objected that the terms under consideration cannot sig-
nify an absolute eternity, " because in the original, they admit of a
plural number ; that had the meaning of the substantive axon been
eternity, and of the adjective aionios, endless, they could not possess
a plural signification, since it would have involved the same absurd-
ity as is manifest, when, attaching to the term eternity the sense
which it always bears in the English language, we speak of eterni-
ties." The words in English, that are properly expressive of end-
less duration, may not ordinarily admit of a plural number, and if
this were invariably the case it would not follow that it is the same
in the Greek. In the Greek language there are several instances
recorded both by sacred and profane authors, where the plural form
of expression is used to convey the idea of endless duration. Per-
mit me to refer you to a few of the many instances in which the
plural form of expression is thus used in the New Testament. In
Gal. i. 5. — Ho he doxas eis tons aionas ton aionon : To whom bt
glory forever and ever. Thus in Eph. iii. 11. — Kata prosthein ton
aionon : According to his eternal purpose. Thus, Phil. iv. 20.— To
de theo, kai patri hemon, he doxa eis tons aiGnas ton aionon : Where-
fore to God even our Father be the glory forever and ever. So also in
1 Tim. i. 17. — To de basilei ion aionon apMharto, aorato, mono sopho
theo time kai doxe eis tous aionas ton aionon : JVbw to the King eter-
nal, immortal, invisible, to the wise God alone, be honor and glory
Lect. 1.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 15
forever and ever. These passages cannot, I think, be properly trans-
lated, without expressing the idea of endless duration.
But what if the terms forever and ever, everlasting, and eternal,
do not always denote unlimited duration ? Does it then follow, that
salvation will be the ultimate portion of all who die in their sins ?
By no means. We might concede all these terms, and yet th« tes-
timony of scripture in proof of endless punishment would remain
conclusive. The doctrine of endless punishment does not rest
wholly, upon the doubtful interpretation of a few Greek words and
phrases. It is asserted in the Bible in such a variety of forms, and
is so interwoven through the whole texture of the scriptures, that
it would seem that nothing but the consciousness of such conduct as
weakens the hope of eternal felicity, connected with the fear and
dread of endless misery, could induce any one who is conversant
with the Bible to disbelieve or deny its reality.
Since so much is said, however, by the objectors whom I have
mentioned, respecting the limited meaning of these terms under
consideration, let us inquire into their original and proper import ;
the manner in which they are uniformly used in the scriptures of the
Old and JVew Testaments ; the manner in which they are invariably
used in the New Testament scriptures ; and the sense in which Christ
and his apostles must have been understood to have used them, at the
time they spoke and wrote*
These terms do in their original and proper sense denote duration
, without end. It is, I believe, generally allowed by our best Lexi-
cographers, ancient and modern, that aion is a compound of the two
Greek words aei and on, which properly signify always being ; and
that the literal meaning of its derivative aionios is everlasting, eter-
nal, endless. The Greeks were a people of a speculative turn of
mind, and they had an idea of duration without end ; and this is all
the idea of eternity that we can obtain. By them these terms were
understood and used as signifying an absolute eternity,* and thus
* Aristotle, a Grecian philosopher, who lived upwards of three hundred years
prior to the Christian era, explicitly informs us of the meaning which the
Greek writers of his age, and those who were then considered the ancients, af*
J6 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. h
have they been used by the great body of the most profound Gree
scholars ever since. Now, should any one examine the various
classical Greek authors, he would not, I presume, find a more ener-
getic phrase, in the whole compass of their writings, to express the
idea of endless duration than is found in the Bible to express th"
idea of endless punishment
But the only fair and safe rule of interpretation used by all goo-
critics on all other subjects is, to understand words and phrases in
their literal and 'primary sense, unless there be something in the subject
or connection which requires them to be taken in a metaphorical sense.
Now the literal and primary meaning of axon is always being, and
of aiomos is everlasting, eternal. In this sense they should be un-
derstood unless1 their meaning be necessarily res-ricted by the sub-
ject or connection. But when these terms are applied to objects
that relate only to this state of being, as they sometimes are, or
vrhen they are applied to objects which are known to be in their
own nature incapable of eternal duration ; we know from the nature
of the case, that they are used not in their primary but in their fig-
urative sense. And when applied to things that are capable of
endless duration, and there is nothing in the subject or connection
which requires them to be taken in a figurative sense, they should
be understood in their literal and proper acceptation. On this prin-
ciple we say they denote endless duration when applied to the be-
ing and perfection of God, to the stability of his kingdom, to the
dominion of Christ, and to the future felicity of the righteous.
And why not understand them in the same sense in those passages
where they are applied to the future punishment of the wicked. —
There i3 nothing in this, more than in the former cases to restrict
their meaning. It is nowhere said, of that punishment to which the
fixed to the word aiokos, — speaking of the deities whom he eonsidered iramor
tal, unchangeable, self-sufficient, and perfectly happy, — he adds, "They contin-
ue through all aiona, [eternity]. And this the ancients admirably signified hy
the word itself: for they call the time of each person's life, his aion, inasmuch
as nothing, according to the laws ot nature, exists out of its limits, and for the same
reason, that which comprehends the duration of the whole heaven, the whole of
infinite time, of infinity itself is called aiona [eternity], taking its na.me from
its being always [kinai aei} immoxtaj a*d divine.
Lect. 1.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. i7
wicked will go with the devil and his angels,that it will have an end,
nor that it has already come to an end, nor that it is impossible in
the nature of things for it to be endless, I see no reason therefore
for understanding these terms, as used in relation to punishment,
otherwise than in their primary and proper acceptation.
TJie terms under consideration are uniformly used in the scriptures
to denote the longest possible duration of which the subject to which
they are applied is capable and ivhere the duration is limited the limi-
tation is such as necessarily arises from the nature of the case. Thus
when it is said " One generation passelh away, and another cornet!^
but the earth abideth forever,"* it seems to signify merely along pe-
riod. If the destruction of this world mentioned in the scriptures.,
however, denotes the annihilation of its atoms, as well as the ruin
of its form and structure, then when the earth is said to abide for-
ever we are to understand the term in a metaphorical sense ; as sig-
nifying that the earth will endure for a long time compared with
the period of a human generation. But if there is no reason to be-
lieve that the elements ever have been or ever will be annihilated ;,
but after changing their form will become the materials of the " new
earth wherein righteousness shall dwell," then the term is used in
a literal sense and denotes endless duration.
In such other cases, as I have observed, these terms when used
in a metaphorical sense they denote the longest period of which the
subject united with them is capable. Thus when it is said of the
servant whose ear was bored in his master's house, "he shall serve
him eis ton aiona forever "\ the meaning is that he should never go
free, but be a servant during the longest period in which he could
be a servant ; that is during his life. When Hannah devoted her
child, Samuel, to the Lord " eis ton aiona for ever ?% there was no
limitation in her own mind. She did not intend that he should ever
return to a private life. When Jonah cried out in the bitterness of
his soul that the earth with her bars was about him, eis ton aiona
forever"^ the term is not expressive of what it actually proved*
namely, an imprisonment of three days only, but of what it was in
* Eccl. i : 4. f Ex, xx'i : G. % 1 Sam. i : 22. fj Jonah ii ; 6.
13 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. I,
his own painful apprehensions which were that lie should never
more see the light. Thus '* an ordinance eis ton aiona forever?* is
an ordinance continuing through the longest time in which it can
l?e an ordinance, that is, throughout the continuance of the whole
dispensation of which it was an institute. In the same manner the
"everlasting hills,'*f and " everlasting mountains,'*]: denote hills and
mountains that will continue to the end of the world, or as long as
it is possihle for them to continue. And thus when it is said "The
Father will give you another Comforter that he may abide with you
>fS*s ton aiona forever,'' || the meaning is, that they should never be
deprived of the sacred influences of the Holy Spirit. He should
be their constant attendant and guide through life, be with their
successors to the end of time, and afford those consolations of God
which will be the eternal' joy cf all the saints.
According to this rule, if after this world is ended and successive
duration consequently terminated, we read that the wicked shall go
away into everlasting punishment ; this term must be understood in
its most extensive sense as denoting an endless duration. For with
respect to the things of a future world such a duration will then
evidently be possible.
This conclusion is rendered morally certain by the manner in
which the two words aion. and its derivative aionios, translated eter-
nal, forever, and forever and ever, are invariably used in the
scriptures of the New Testament — aion is used in the common
copies of the Greek New Testament in ninety-six instances.
in fifty -five of these the word certainly means unlimited duration,
either past or future, besides those which relate to punishment.
And there is no case in which it is employed to designate a definite
period. With respect to aion when governed by the preposition
eis in which connection it is always used, when applied to the future
punishment of the wicked, it uniformly denotes endless duration.
It is found in this construction in sixty -one places in the Greek
New Testament. In six of these places it is applied to future pun-
ishment. That, in the remaining fifty-five, it undeniably
expresses endless duration, I appeal to the reader. Now if in fifty-
* Num. x : S. f Gen. si: 26. % Kab. iii : 6. || John xiv : 16;
Lect. 1.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. ID
five instances it expresses duration without end, is it not reasona-
ble to conclude that it lias the same meaning in the six instances in
which it is applied to future punishment ? The phrase eis ious aio-
nas Ion aionon commonly renderedjbrerer and ever is used in twen-
ty-one instances in the New Testament. I believe there is not a
single example of its being used to convey any other than the idea
of endless duration. In eighteen instances, it is applied to the con-
tinuance of the perfections, glory, government, and praise of God
the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. In one, it is said of the
righteous in the future world that, u thev shall re i^n eis toils
aionas ion ai aon, forever and ever ■."* In the other remaining two
instances it is applied to future punishment. Is it not reasona-
ble then to conclude that in these two instances it also denotes
endless duration? Would the inspired writers have employed this
phrase eighteen times to denote an absolute eternity and twice to
denote that which was infinitely different, while these were the
only instances in which the phrase was applied to these subjects —
the perfections of God, and the future destiny of the wicked?
The adjective aionios, everlasting, is employed in seventy-one
places in the whole New Testament. In forty-four of these it is
used ia relation to the future life of the righteous, and therefore is
used in the endless sense. In four it is employed in relation to the
perfections of God. In three it is applied to the redemption cf
Christ, the covenant of grace and the gospel. Here it is used in
the endless sense. In eleven it relates to subjects of a miscellane-
ous nature. Once it is applied to the kingdom of Christ. And ia
seven it is used in reference to future punishment. Now in all the
instances in which it relates to future time except the seven in which
it is applied to future punishment, it confessedly denotes unlimited
duration. Is it not reasonable then, to suppose that in these seven
instances it also denotes unlimited duration ? If it has not this mean-
ing in these instances the scriptures do not decide that God is eter-
nal, nor that the happiness of the righteous is without end, nor that
the covenant of grace will always remain,
• Key. xrii.i 5.
20 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. J.
When Christ and his apostles wrote for us a complete system of
theology, if they intended to have been understood they must have
•used the terms in question according* to their known and established
signification, at the time they spoke and wrote. Now the Jews,
especially the Essens and Pharisees, two leading sects among them,
held the doctrine of the endless punishment of the wicked as is
clear from the indubitable testimony of Josephus and Philo. Jose-
phus says, "The Pharisees held that the souls of the wicked were
to be punished with perpetual punishment, and that there was ap-
pointed for them a perpetual prison." He makes a similar remark
respecting the doctrine of the Essens. Philo remarks that, " The
punishment of the wicked is to live forever dying, and to be in
pains and griefs that never cease." The same fact is also abund-
antly proved from Sabbinical writings and from the Tarquins. Plow
then would the Jews understand our Lord and his apostles when
they heard them freely using these terms, everlasting, eternal, for-
ever, and forever and ever, in relation to future punishment ? If the
Jews, who believed in the doctrine of endless punishment, did not
learn it from the scriptures of the Old Testament, but from the idol-
atrous nations around, as some pretend to argue, and if our Lord knew
that this doctrine was false and meant to teach the ultimate resti-
tution of the wicked to virtue and happiness, would he have spoken
of future punishment in language which, according to the establish-
ed usage of the day, was known to express an absolute eternity ?
Would he not have plainly pointed out their error as he did other
errors that had been introduced. Every man in his senses must
believe that by this course he designedly confirmed them in their
error, or else he meant to teach the doctrine of endless punishment.
Having made these general observations, let us go into an exam-
ination of each individual passage which speaks of everlasting pun-
ishment. This we shall do for the purpose of showing the absurdity
of those interpretations which are given to disprove the doctrine of
endless punishment; of giving the true interpretation of these pas-
sages; and of showing that, taken separate, they contain interna1
evidence of the doctrine we are endeavoring to establish.
Lect. 1.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 21
"The sinners in Zion are afraid, fearfulness hath surprised the
hypocrites ; Who among us shall dwell with devouring fire, who
among us shall dwell with everlasting burnings !"* The objectors
to endless punishment interpret this passage as a prediction of the
destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans. But it is necessary to
read this with the preceding chapters only — where the army of the
Assyrians is mentioned by name, to see that the subject is the de-
struction of that army. There is nothing said respecting the de-
struction of Jerusalem.
The true interpretation of the passage before us, I conceive to
be this. When the rebellious Israelites saw the dreadful execution
of the Divine displeasure upon the army of the Assyrians, — the an-
gel smiting in one night eighty-five thousand chosen men, they are
represented as being powerfully impressed with the fear of Jeho-
vah and with a consciousness of having provoked him by their own
revolting idolatry ; and hence they cry out in the anguish of their
souls, " Who among us shall dwell with everlasting burnings 1"
"God's judgments upon the enemies of Zion struck terror upon the
sinners in Zion." They saw that, if the wrath of God was such a
consuming fire, working such devastation and ruin in one night, they
could not endure its everlasting burnings. This opinion is confirm-
ed by the context. From the seventh to the tenth verse, we have
the consternation and distress into which Judah and Jerusalem were
brought by the invasion of Sennacherih's army. In this extremity
God declares, as in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth verses, in the
most sublime strain, that he will arise and exalt himself and demon-
strate that there is a God in the earth who is higher than the highest
and that he will make the invading army as chaff and stubble be-
fore devouring fire, as dried and withered thorns, and as the burn-
ing of lime. He then proclaims to those who were both near and
far off — to near and distant regions, and to present and future ages,
to hear what he had done, and to acknowledge his power. The
sinners in Zion are afraid ; and they cry, u If ho shall dwell before
this devouring fire, before which so vast an army is as chaff and
* Isa. xxxiii : 14.
m SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. I.
sftibble ? Who among us shall dwell with these everlasting burnings
which have made the Assyrians as the turning of lime 7n In the fol-
lowing verses God describes the glory and prosperity of Jerusalem
enriched with the spoils of the Assyrian camp. This fact utterly
excludes that interpretation which makes this passage a prediction
of the destruction of Jerusalem ; and the passage rightly under-
stood is a proof of everlasting punishment. It is the language of
sinners in Zion, inferring the torments of everlasting fire from the
terrors produced by the awful expressions of the divine displeas-
ure exerted upon a mighty army of valiant men in the space of one
night.
" And many (or the multitudes,) of them that sleep in the dust of
the earth, shall awake, some to everlasting life and some to shame
and everlasting contempt"* The expressions of this passage must
have great violence done to them before they can be applied to any
thing else than the resurrection and the final judgment. It is objected,
however, that this passage has reference to the destruction of Je-
rusalem. But I have seen no authority quoted to show that to awake
from a sleep inihe dust, is a proper phraseology to express the be-
ing put to sleep in the dust, by the Roman sword. If it be said that
a moral resurrection, which took place on the day of Pentecost, be
here foretold, — and that those who continued to sleep on, at last
awoke to shame and everlasting contempt in the national calamities
that came upon the Jews in the destruction of their devoted city ;
I would ask, what then were the glorious rewards, attained by those
who rose to everlasting life, that were a suitable comparison to shin-
ing as the brightness of the firmament and as the stars forever ?
The only reward in this life which history records as received by
Christians at that period was the glory of a hasty flight to the town of
Pella. The Jews understood the passage before us, of the resur-
rection of the dead at the end of time, and Christ seems to have
had reference to it when he speaks of the resurrection of life, and
of the resurrection of damnation. And we may suppose that it wavS
in this passage that the Jews relied, who were said by St. Paul to
* Dan.xii: 2
Lect. 1.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 23
expect a resurrection both of the just and of the unjust. To refer
this passage to the resurrection, is perfectly natural and reasonable.
For under the cruel persecution of Antiochus, some basely betray-
ed their religion, while others bravely adhered to it. After the per-
secution was over, the one could not be rewarded nor the other
punished. This therefore would afford the true Christian satisfac-
tion that they both would be recompensed according to their works
at the resurrection and the last judgment. And the Apostle, speak-
ing of the pious Jews who suffered martyrdom under Antiochus,
tells us that though they were tortured, yet they would not renounce
their religion to obtain deliverance, because they hoped to obtain
this better resurrection. "It is better for thee to enter into life
halt or maimed rather than having two hands or two feet to be cast
into everlasting fire."* The absurdity of referring this passage to
the destruction of Jerusalem or to any temporal calamity, has been
shown in another Lecture, and we wait for reasons that have not
been urged for believing that the everlasting fire means any limited
punishment. The same remark will apply to other instances where
this passage occurs in the Gospels.
" Depart from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the
devil and his angels. And these shall go away into everlasting
punishment."! I consider this passage to express the doctrine of
endless misery. The original word translated punishment means
torment, or suffering inflicted for crime. The noun is used but in
one other instance in the New Testament. 1 John iv: 18. — w Fear
hath torment." The verb from which the noun is derived, is twice
used — Acts iv: 21. 2 Pet. ii: 9. In each of these passages it de-
notes anguish, suffering, punishment It does not mean simply a
state or condition, but absolute, positive suffering. In regard to the
meaning of the word everlasting in this place, we observe that the
literal meaning of it expresses absolute eternity ; and the plain and
obvious interpretation of the word demands this signification. The
word here used is the same in the original, as that used to express
the eternal life of the righteous ; if one can be proved to be limited
* Matt. jtYiii : 8. t Matt. \xr : 41, 46.
24 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 1.
in duration, the other can by the same arguments. The proofs,
that the righteous will be happy forever, is the same and no other
than that the wicked will be miserable forever. Now as the oris:-
inal word is the same in both clauses, and as the contrast between
punishment and life is carefully preserved, he must be blinded in
no ordinary degree, who will risk the interests of his soul on inter-
preting the same word temporary in one instance and eternal in
another, of the same sentence, and in reference to the same gener-
al subject, the future destiny of man. It has, however, been con-
tended that the punishment of the wicked here spoken of, will have
an end. This they argue from the difference of the two subjects,
from the difference of the two substantives to which the adjective
is applied, and from other passages to which they refer us as paral-
lel, where the same word is used in the same text in a sense totally
different. Whatever difference there may be, between the two sub-
jects there is, as we have remarked, no more evidence that the
punishment of the wicked will come to an end than that the happi-
ness of the righteous shall have an end. Whatever difference there
may be between the two substantives, punishment and life, the adjec-
tive everlasting is applied to both and this so far as an antithesis
can go to fix its meaning determines the word everlasting to mean
the same when applied to punishment as when applied to life. I
admit that in Hab. iii : 6, the same word is used in the same sentence
in a different sense. But this passage is not parallel with the pas-
sage under consideration, for there is no such antithesis in that as
in this. It has been thought by some that the everlasting ways of
God denote the operations of his providence, by which the mighty
potentates of Canaan were broken to pieces and their kingdoms
totally subdued, and that the term everlasting in both instances is
expressive merely of limited duration. But admitting that the
everlasting ways of God are opposed to the everlasting hills, or that
the former signifies absolute eternity while the latter denotes lim-
ted duration, still the antithesis and the subject direct us in this
case to give them such an exposition; whereas in our text they
direct us to the contrary. Our text is parallel to John v : 29, " Some
Lect. 1.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. So
shall come forth to the resurrection of life and some to the resurrec-
tion of damnation ;" and we might with as much propriety contend
for two entirely different meanings to the word resurrection in the
one case as to the word everlasting in the other. But as this pas-
sage before us will be further noticed in a subsequent lecture, I shall
make no further remarks upon it.
" But he that shall blaspheme against the Holy Ghost hath never
forgiveness, but is in danger of eternal damnation."* This will be
considered in a future lecture. We shall therefore omit giving any
comments upon it for the present. It is so plain and pointed that it
needs no comment — "to never have forgiveness" is equivalent to
endless condemnation. "Who shall be punished with everlasting
destruction from the presence of the Lord and the glory of his
power.vf It is manifest that in this instance everlasting must apply
to something beyond this life. The apostle is comforting the Thes-
salonians under their afflictions and persecutions which they suffer-
ed during the cruel reign of Nero and Domitian. They were di-
rected to look forward to the final judgment, when both the believ-
er's rest, and the recompense of the wicked will be consummated.
They were directed to look forward to that urest which remaineth
for the people of God," which they would experience at the resur-
rection of the just, — when their persecutors and the heathen who
do not acknowledge God, but worship idols, and all who do not
believe the gospel of Jesus Christ, shall experience an everlast-
ing destruction from the presence of the Lord and the glory of his
power, ministered by the same hand that consummates the rest of
the righteous. The time when this righteous recompense is to be
made, 13 at the revelation of the righteous judgments of God, for
then will he judge the world in righteousness. Now the heavens
will retain or conceal Christ till the period of the last judgment.
Then will he be revealed, so this recompense cannot be prior to the
last judgment. The misery of those who are punished will run par-
allel with the line of eternity. Their destruction will not be the
annihilation of their conscious being, but of their well-being.
♦Markiii; 29. f 2 Thess. i; 9.
C
26 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. L
" And the angels, which kept not their first estate, but left their
own habitation, he hath reserved in everlasting chains, under dark-
ness, unto the judgment of the great day. Even as Sodom and Go-
morrah, and the cities about them in like manner giving themselves
over to fornication, and going after strange flesh, are set forth for
an example, suffering the vengeance of eternal fire."* It has been
objected that the fire of hell or eternal fire, is not here meant, for the
following reasons : First, Peter mentions thecase of Sodom and Go-
morrah, but says nothing respecting their going to hell — but this
does not prove that Jude has not. Shall we reject the testimony of
one inspired writer because all have not testified in the same words
to the same point? Again, it is objected that Sodom and Gomorrah
were set forth as an example, if the example were in a future state,
for an example must be visible to be of any effect. But cannot a
fact which is known by sufficient testimony affect us as an example,
unless we witness the fact with our own eyes ? If so, the example
of Christ can be no example to us. The testimony of the passage
then remains unimpaired. In the passage we have a recital of the
former judgments of God upon sinners with a design to awaken
those to whom warning is given in the Epistles. The apostle re-
minds them of the fall of the angels who kept not their original of-
fice, but forfeited it by some mibbehavior. They left their proper
station, rebelled against their Creator and Sovereign Lord, and
thought to have usurped the throne of Omnipotence. Hence God
drove them out of Heaven, notwithstanding their power and num-
bers, and reserved them ever since, in everlasting chains of
confinement, under darkness, unto the judgment of the great day
to be punished. The design of introducing the fall of angels in
this connection is to show how impossible it is for those who rebel
against God, to effect their escape. Are angels reserved, and shall
sinful man escape ! In illustrating the same point, the apostle also
introduces Sodom and Gomorrah and the cities around them who
are set forth as an example of that terrible punishment which is to
be inflicted on the wicked at the general judgment, having under*
* Jude C, 7.
Lect. 1.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 27
rrone the punishment of an eternal fire, a fire whose effects will ba
eternal. Thus will all the ungodly be punished with eternal fire at
the general judgment — the consideration of which should lead them
to speedy repentance. This I conceive to be the import and design
of this passage.
" These are wells without water, clouds that are carried with a
tempest, to whom the mist of darkness is reserved forever."* The
persons spoken of in the context are false teachers who privily in-
troduce destructive heresies, denying even the Lord who bought
them, — who bring upon themselves swift destruction, — whose pun-
ishment threatened of old iingereth not, and whose destruction
slumbereth not, — whom the Lord will keep in ward to the day of
judgment to be punished, — as he spared not the angels who sinned,
but with chains of darkness confining them in Tartarus, delivered
them over to judgment, and as he did not spare the old world, and
as he punished the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. After heaping
upon them a number of opprobrious epithets he adds for whom tht
mist of darkness is reserved forever. Surely there is nothing in
these epithets that would lead us to conclude that their punishment
was some temporal calamity only. The blackness of darkness sig-
nifies a state of disconsolate misery. Here it denotes the punish-
ment of the wicked after the judgment, which our Lord also has
represented by being cast into outer darkness.^ Should any one
however contend that this punishment ot the false teachers was ex-
perienced in this life, he is required to show in what historical fact
they experienced temporal calamities that were fitly represented by
the mists of darkness forever, and by the casting down to hell the
angels that sinned.
" And the smoke of their torment ascendeth up forever and ever.'t
" And they said Alleluiah, and her smoke rose up forever andever."|
" And the devil that deceived them was cast into a lake of fire and
brimstone, where the beast and the false prophet are and shall be
* 2 Pet. ii: 17. f Matt, viii : 12. % Rev. xiv : 11. || Rot. xix : 3.
28 SCRIPTURE PROOFS, &c. (Lect. 1.
tormented c(ay and night forever and ever,"* It is objected that
"these passages have respect to punishment in a future state of ex-
istence." But no reason is assigned why we may not understand
them as a proof of everlasting punishment in the world to come.
They have been so understood by our ablest and best divines, and
no comments of my own upon them will render the grand truth
they exhibit more manifest. I have now finished the examination
of the particular passages in which these words and phrases are
found in application to punishment. I shall therefore proceed to
lay before you a concise view of the forms ot speech in which end-
less punishment is taught in language equally explicit as in the
terms everlasting, eternal, forever, and forever and ever. Rut these
we shall reserve for consideration in a future lecture.
MBCTURE II-
SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED
Johniii: 36, — He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life:
and he that believeth not the Son shall not see life ; but the wrath
of God abideth on him.
Sense and reason cannot make' as acquainted with any thing in
the great concerns of eternity. It is hence evident that if we be-
come at all conversant with the realities of the tuture world, it must
be through some medium wholly distinct from those by which we
become conversant with the things of the present world. Reason
and sense, in this case, can be of no avail. They soon find a limit
to their powers, and set down bewildered and exhausted. What we
need in this situation is, '• the substance of things hoped for and the
evidence of things not seen." We want a hand which can lift the
veil and show us the things which eye hath not seen, nor ear heard,
and of which the heart of man has formed no conception. The
faith which is produced by the Holy Spirit of promise, supplies our
manifold defects in reference to these things. It is like the teles-
cope to the natural eye, — it brings near in their real magnitude, im-
portance, and proportion, the objects of the invisible world. It in-
troduces us into the heaven of heavens, unlocks the mystery and
unfolds the book of seven seals.
Such a faith implies a right temper of heart, and is connected
with eternal life. To exercise this faith in reality, is to rely upon
the testimony of God. It is cordially to credit the account which
God has given of himself, of ourselves, of sin in its nature, effects,
and consequences, of Christ, of earth, heaven, and hell. This faith,
c*
30 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 2.
is not an assent of the understanding only, but of the passions, will,
and affections. Belief is expressly said to be with the heart. "If
thou shalt confess with thy mouth the Lord Jesus, and believe in
thine heart, that God hath raised him from the dead, thou shalt be
saved." " With the heart, man believeth unto righteousness." " If
thou believest with all thine heart, thou mayest."
A lifeless, tame, unmeaning assent, will avail nothing but to mock
God, and increase our guilt and condemnation. To believe in Christ
is to confide in him, rely upon him, and trust to his merits and prom-
ises for salvation. It is to go to him as a lost and ruined sinner, un-
done as to any help in ourselves, or in any created arm, — to act to-
wards him as the Saviour of lost men, and to look to him only for
salvation. God has wisely ordered, that the reception of Christ,
should be the turning point of salvation. Those who thus believe
have everlasting life. They are in possession of that which is a
recovery from spiritual death, and which shall result in eternal life
in heaven. Heaven is begun on earth. Piety is the same in kind
here, that it will be there ; only it will here be purified, expanded,
and perfected. It is here life begun, that will be matured in the
full and perfect bliss of heaven.
But he that has not this evangelical faith, shall not see life. He
shall never enjoy true- happiness in this world nor in the world to
come. He shall never enter the kingdom of heaven. The wrath
of God, or his opposition to sin in its fruits and effects in this and
the coming world, abideth on him. This implies that the unbeliev-
er is now under the wrath of God. It implies also that it will al-
ways remain upon him. It will remain or abide there as its proper
dwelling-place. Now since every avenue into the kingdom of
heaven, and every way of escaping the wrath of God are closed,
except by the Lord Jesus Christ, those who will not believe must
enter the world of spirits as they are ; and there they must re-
ceive the wages of sin, reap the fruit of their doings, and bear un-
pitieil and alone all that God may choose to inflict as the expression
' Ms sense of sin. Such is the miserable condition of the sinner,
they will not come unto Christ that they might have life. They
Lect. 2.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 31
will not believe the record that God has given of his Son. They
choose to remain in this state and encounter all that is fearful and
dreadful in the wrath of Almighty God, rather than come to Christ
who has died to save sinners, and who will bless and save eternally
all who believe in him. Dire infatuation ! How does sin blind the
minds of them who do not believe ! But why this neglect and un-
willingness to believe in Christ ? It is owing to the want of a right
disposition of heart. Many of the truths of the Scriptures are so
contrary to the pride and lusts of the natural heart, and demand
such a sacrifice of prejudices and passions, that the wicked will not
believe them ; and to quiet their consciences, they, however dis-
cordant their doctrines in other respects, embrace a scheme of re-
ligious faith, the tendency of which is to diminish the sinner's tear
of the divine displeasure, and remove his expectation of endless
punishment. But when the light of this fact darts her rays into the
dark mind of the sinner, he is disturbed ; hence he assails this doc-
trine and endeavors to disprove it. And he is very apt to conclude
that if he can show that the terms " everlasting," " eternal," " for-
ever," and "forever and ever," are sometimes used to denote a lim-
ited duration, they entirely overthrow the doctrine of the endless
punishment of the wicked. But this consolation, like their hope,
rests upon a foundation of sand. Strong and even decisive as I
think the argument is, which is derived from these, I am far from
Delieving that they furnish the only, or even the chief source of
evidence in support of the doctrine we are endeavoring to establish.
There are other passages which convey the idea of unlim-
ited duration, (if it can be conveyed by human language), and
there are many forms of speech in which I conceive the eternity of
future punishment is expressed not less decisively than in the terms
we noticed in the preceding Lecture. In proof of this, I remark,
II. That the endless punishment of the wicked is taught
IN AX.L THOSE PASSAGES WHICH DESCRIBE THE FUTURE STATES OF
men in contrast. " Men of this world who have their portion in
this life, and whose belly thou fillest with thy hid treasure : as for
me, I will behold thy face in righteousness : I shall be satisfied when
32 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 2.
I awake in \hj likeness.- The hope of the righteous shall be
gladness, but the expectation of the wicked shall perish. -The
wicked is driven away in his wickedness ; but the righteous hath
hope in his death.- 1 have seen the wicked in great power, and
spreading himself like a green bay tree : yet he passed away, and
lo, he was not; yea I sought him, but he would not be found.
Mark the perfect man, and behold the upright, for the end of that
man is peace. But the transgressors shall be destroyed together ; (he
end of the wicked shall be cut off. The righteous shall be in ever-
lasting remembrance. The desire of the wicked shall perish.
Say ye to the righteous, it shall be well with them, for they shall
eat of the fruit of their doings. Woe unto the wicked ! It shall
be ill with him, for the reward of his hands shall be given him.
And many of them that sleep in the dust of the earth shall- awake,
some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting con-
tempt. Then shall ye return, and discern between the righteous
and the wicked ; between him that serveth God, and him that serv-
eth him not. He will thoroughly purge his floor, and gather his
wheat into the garner ; but he will burn up the chaff with unquench-
able fire. Enter ye in at the strait gate : for wide is the gate,
and broad is the way, that leadeth to destruction, and many there
be which go in thereat : because strait is the gate and narrow
is the way which leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it.
Not every one that saith Lord, Lord, shall enter into the kingdom
of heaven ; but he that doeth the will of my Father which is in
heaven. Many shall come from the east, and west, and shall sit
down with Abraham and Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven :
but the children of the kingdom shall be cast into outer darkness,
there shall be weeping and gnashing of teeth. The field is the
world ; the tares are the children of the wicked one : the enemy
that sowed them is the devil : the harvest is the end of the world :
the reapers are the, angels, — as therefore the tares are gathered and
burned in the fire, so shall it be in the end of the world. The Son
of man shall send forth his angels, and they shall gather out of his
kingdom all things (or scandals) that offend, and them which do in-
Lect. 2.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 33
iquity, and shall cast them into a furnace of fire : there shall be
wailing and gnashing of teeth. — Then shall the righteous shine forth
as the sun in the kingdom of their Father. Again: the kingdom of
heaven is like a net, that was cast into the sea, and gathered of every
kind : which when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat down, and
gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away. So shall it be at
the end of the world. The angels shall come forth and sever the
wicked from among the just, and shall cast them into the furnace of
fire : there shall be wailing and gnashing of teeth. And while
they went to buy, the bridegroom came ; and they that were ready
went in with him to the marriage, and the door was shut. After-
ward came also the other virgins, saying, Lord, Lord, open to us.
But he answered and said, Verily I say unto you, I know you not.
For the time is come, that judgment must begin at the house of
God ; and if it first begin at us, what shall the end be of them that
obey not the gospel of God ? And if the righteous scarcely
be saved, where shall the ungodly and the sinner appear ? Well
done, thou good and faithful servant : thou hast been faithful over
a few things, I will make thee ruler over many things : enter thou
into the joy of thy Lord. And cast ye the unprofitable ser-
vant into outer darkness ; there shall be weeping and gnashing of
teeth. Who then is a faithful and wise servant, whom his
Lord hath made ruler over his household, to give them meat in due
season ? Blessed is that servant, whom his lord, when he cometh,
shall find so doing. Verily I say unto you, that he shall make him
ruler over all his goods. But and if that evil servant shall say in
his heart, My lord delayeth his coming ; and shall begin to smite his
fellow-servants, and to eat and drink with the drunken ; the lord of
that servant shall come in a day when he looketh not for him, and
in an hour that he is- not aware of. And shall cut him asunder, and
appoint him his portion with the hypocrites ; there shall be weeping
and gnashing of teeth. Come, ye blessed of my Father, inherit
the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world.
Depart from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the
devil and his angels. And these shall go away into everlasting
punishment but the righteous into life eternal. He thatbelieveth*
34 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 0,
and is baptized, shall be saved ; but be that believeth not shall be
damned. He that believeth on the Son hath everlasting life ; and
he that believeth not the Son shall not see life ; but the wrath of
God abideth on him. Therefore -whosoever heareth these say-
ings of mine, and doeth them, I will 'liken him unto a wise man,
which built his house upon a rock ; and the rain descended, and the
floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon that house and it
fell not : for it was founded upon a rock. And every one that hear-
eth these sayings of mine, and doeth them not, shall be likened unto
a foolish man, which built his house upon the sand ; and the rain
descended, and the floods came, and the winds blew, and beat upon
that house, and it fell : and great was the fall of it. Son, remem-
ber that thou in thy lifetime receivedst thy good things, and like-
wise Lazarus evil things ; but now he is comforted, and thou art
tormented. And besides all this, between us and you there is a
great gulf fixed ; so that they which would pass from hence to you
cannot ; neither can they pass to us that would come from thence.
Marvel not at this ; the hour is coming, in the which all that
are in the graves shall hear his voice, and shall come forth ; they
that have done good, unto the resurrection of life ; and they that
have done evil, unto the resurrection of damnation. Blessed are
ye poor : for yours is the kingdom of heaven. Blessed are ye that
hunger now : for ye shall be rilled. Blessed are ye that weep now :
for ye shall laugh. Blessed are ye when men shall hate you, and
when they shall separate you from their company, and shall reproach
you, and cast out your name as evil, for the Son of man's sake.
Rejoice ye in that day and leap for joy : for, behold, your reward is
great in heaven. But woe unto you that are rich ! for ye have re-
ceived your consolation. Hath not the potter power over the
clay, of the same lump, to make one vessel unto honor and another
unto dishonor ? What if God, willing to show his wrath, and make
his power known, endured with much long suffering the vessels of
wrath fitted to destruction ; and that he might make known tho
riches of his glory on the vessels of mercy which he had afore pre-
pared unto glory ? The Lord knoweth them that are his. But in
Lect. 2.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 35
a great house there are not only vessels of gold and of silver, but
also of wood and of earth ; and some to honor and some to dishonor.
If a man therefore purge himself from these, he shall be a vessel
unto honor. Be not deceived ; God is not mocked ; for whatsoev-
er a man soweth, that shall he also reap. For he that soweth to
hi3 flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption ; but he that soweth to
the spirit, shall of the spirit reap life e/erlasting. That which
beareth thorns and briars, is rejected, and is nigh unto cursing ;
whose end is to be burned. But, beloved, we are persuaded better
things of you, and things that accompany salvation, though we thus
speak. Blessed are they that do his commandments, that they
may have right to the tree of life, and may enter in through the
gates into the city. For without are dogs, and sorcerers, and whore-
mongers, and murderers, and idolaters, and whosoever loveth and
maketh a lie.- He that overcometh shall inherit all things ; and I
will be his God and he shall be my son. But the feartul, and unbe-
lieving, and the abominable, ana murderers, and whoremongers, and
sorcerers, and idolaters, and all liars shall have their part in the lake
which burnetii with fire and brimstone : which is the second death.
He that is unjust let him be unjust still ; and he which is filthy
let him be filthy still ; and he that is righteous let him be righteous
still ; and he that is holy let him be holy still."*
These passages which I have now quoted, I consider as designed
to express the final destiny of both the righteous and the wicked.
That they do express the final conditions of men, their endless hap-
piness or miser}', will appear from the following considerations. It
is very generally admitted by those who deny the doctrine of end-
less punishment, that there will be no successive duration to the
righteous ; that when they leave this world they enter upon a final
* Ps. xvii. 14, 15. Prov. x. 28.— xiv. 32. Ps. xxxvii. 35— 38.— cxiL 6—10.
Isa. Hi. 10, 11. Dan. xii. 2. Mat. iii. IS. Mat. iii. 12. Luke iii". 17. Mat-
vii. 13, 14, 21.— viii. 11, 12. — xiii. 38—43. Mat. Xiii. 47-50. Mat. xxv. 10
—12. „Pet. iv. 17, IS. Mat. xxv, 21, 30. Mat. xxiv. 45— 51. Mat. xxr.
34,41.-46. Mark xvi.16. John iii. 36- Mat. vii. 24— 27. Luke xvi. 25,
26. Johnv.2S, 29. Luke vi. 22, 24. Rom. ix, 21—23. 2 Tim. ii. 19— 21.
Gal. vi. 7, 8. Heb. vi. 8, 9. Rev. xxii, 14, 15,— xxi. 7, 8. Rot. xxii. 1L
36 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 2.
and everlasting state of happiness. But were it generally denied,
this denial would not invalidate the divine testimonv. Nothing can
be more evident than the fact that the inspired writers of both the
Old and New Testament had a belief in the doctrine of a future
state and a hope of en joy in gits felicities immediately after the ter-
mination of their earthly pilgrimage. They speak decisively of
their expectation of it; and of the consolation the prospect afforded
them under their sufferings. And they have exhibited this doctrine
as a ground of consolation to all true believers. Now it must be
manifest to every student of the Bible that this final state of the
righteous is here presented in strong and pointed contrast with the
future state of the wicked. If this state of the wicked was not of
course final, it would not, in such a number of instances, and in
such a variety of forms of expression, be contrasted with the final
state of the righteous. In this case it would not be a contrast'
But in the passages above quoted there is precisely the same proof
that the wicked will be miserable forever, that there is that the
righteous will be happy forever. If one can be proved to be unlim-
ited in duration, the other can by the same arguments. These rep-
resentations are not merely convincing, they are overwhelming
These eternal states exert a reciprocal influence, in showing forth
the glory of heaven and the misery of hell.
Again, no one of these passages give any intimation of any other
state folloiving this, in which they present in contrast the happiness
of the righteous and the misery of the wicked. Were not the
present a term of probation for the rewards of eternity ; and were
not the soul capable of exerting its powers and faculties in a state
of separation from the. body ; and did it not immediately on leaving
the body enter into a state of happiness or misery ; and were the
punishment of the wicked of limited duration only, and designed as
a kind of discipline to correct their evil dispositions and vicious hab-
its ; and were all men to be eventually restored to purity and happi-
ness we should have expected that something like this would have
been intimated when the future states of men are described. But
nothing like this occurs in any of the foregoing passages, nor in
Lect. 2.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 37
any other. And shall we presume to build a theory of religious
truth upon the mere silence of revelation ? Shall we presume to
advance as a doctrine of the Bible a sentiment, for the support of
which we have neither precept nor example ?
But once more : The phraseology of the foregoing passages, or
of a greater part of them, is inconsistent with any other state follow-
ing that which they describe. On the supposition that salvation had
been appointed as the ultimate portion of all men ; then the men
of this world had not had their portion in this life, but would equally
with the righteous behold the face of God in righteousness, and be
satisfied in his likeness. Their expectation of a glorious immortality
would not perish, but end in gladness ; and though driven away in
their wickedness, yet they would have hope in their death, and this
hope would not prove illusive. Though transgressors shall be de-
stroyed, and the end of the wicked cut off, yet their end shall be
peace as well as that of the perfect and upright man. The desire of
the wicked for endless bliss, shall not perish, but be gratified.
Though it is said that some of the multitudes who sleep in the dust
of the earth shall awake to everlasting life, and others to shame and
everlasting contempt, and though the antithesis determines the word
everlasting to mean the same when applied to shame and contempt
as when applied to life ; yet on the hypothesis which we are oppos-
ing, the wicked who sleep in the dust of the earth shall eventually
awake to everlasting life equally with the righteous. The broad
way, our Saviour tells us, leadeth to destruction. Now if he believ-
ed and taught the final salvation of all men, would he not have hon-
estly told his hearers that there is no way to destruction (or divine
punishment after death), and that, of course, none are in danger of
going there ; and instead of saying strait is the gate and narrow is the
way that leadeth unto life, and few there be that find it, would he not
have declared the more cheering and benevolent idea that the gate of
heaven is wide and that all will eventually^td it ? On this principle
all shall enter the kingdom of heaven, whether they do, or do not the
will of God. The tares will not be gathered and bound in bundles
tto be burned, but will be changed into wheat, and gathered into the
J)
33 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect.£
barn. Those who offend and do iniquity shall shine forth in the
kingdom of God as well as the righteous. The cursed as well as
the blessed shall inherit the kingdom of God, which, by the way, was
also prepared for them from the foundation of the world. They
shall not go away into everlasting punishment but into life eternal.
Those who believe not in Christ shall not perish, but have everlast-
ing life as well as those who believe in him. On this principle, to
come forth to the resurrection of damnation is the same as to come
forth to the resurrection of life. Those who have received their
consolation in this life, and on whom the Son of man hath pronoun-
ced a woe, will share in his beatitudes and receive a great and glo-
rious reward in heaven. Though the sinner reap corruption, as the
fruit of his sowing to the flesh, yet that corruption shall not be the
opposite of everlasting life, since it will issue in it. Though they
bear briers and thorns, yet their end is not to be burned, but to ob-
tain salvation. Whoremongers, and sorcerers, and idolaters, and all
liars, shall not have their part in the lake which burnetii with fire
and brimstone, but shall inherit all things, and shall have equal right
to the tree of life with those who obey the commandments of God.
Thus we see, that the phraseology of the foregoing passages is in-
consistent with any other state following that which they describe.
From these considerations, it appears that these passages are de-
signed to express the final state of men. If so, they in effect ex-
press the endless punishment of the wicked : for if the description
here given of the portion of the wicked, denotes their final state,
there is no possibility of another state succeeding it. And this
truth the sacred Oracles invariably teach. They represent man as
being placed in this world on trial for the rewards of eternity, and
that he will here receive that impress of character which will re-
main forever. It is on this ground that the spirit of inspiration
urges us to do with our might ivhat our hand Jlndeth to do, and as-
sures us that the night comeih wherein no man can work. If our pres-
ent character will have no influence on our future destiny, why this
preparation ? why this discipline of our moral nature ? why this
moulding our hearts to sobriety and devotion ? why our Saviour's
tears over his incorrigible enemies ? why the solicitude of the apostles
Lect. 2.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 39
for the salvation of men ? and why the joy of angels over repenting
sinners ? The Scriptures invariably express and imply, that at the
winding up of all earthly scenes, the final states of men will be
unalterably fixed. — " Ke that is unjust let him be unjust still ; and
he which is filthy let him be filthy still ; and he that is righteous let
him be righteous still ; and he that is holy let him be holy still."
All who contend for a successive duration acknowledge that there
will be a period when the states of all rational creatures will be
fixed forever. This period I conceive to be at death, but if it be
not till after the last judgment, those that are then unholy and filthy
must remain so still. There will be no change in their character.
The Psalmist asks in language which implies a strong negation,
" Wilt thou show wonders to the dead ? Shall the dead arise and
praise thee ? Shall thy loving kindness be declared in the grave,
or thy righteousness in the land of forgetfulness ?" Those then
who enter the future state in an unholy character, must retain that
character forever ; and of course must be excluded from heaven,
for " nothing unclean shall he admitted there ; without holiness no man
shall see the Lord ; and except a man he horn again he cannot see the
kingdom of God" The scriptures have in no single instance given
us the most remote hint, that God> will ever vouchsafe his mercy
and grace to those who die in their sins, or that he will annihilate
his rebellious creatures ; but every thing warrants the opposite con-
clusion. Consequently the allotments of the righteous and the
wicked will be as far asunder as heaven and hell, as unlike as end-
less joy and endless sorrow.
Whoever then hopes to enter heaven without a preparation for it
in the present life, will meet with an awful disappointment.
" Pure are the joys, above the sky,
And all the region peace ;
No wanton lips, nor envious eye,
Can see, or taste the bliss.
Those holy gates forever bar
Pollution, sin, and shame ;
N®ne shall obtain admittance there,
Bui followers of the Lamb."
40 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF . (Le#*. f.
Nor let it be imagined that God will interpose at the hour of death
and by an exertion of his power and benevolence destroy the prin-
ciples of sin, and take the wicked up to the joys of heaven. Such
an inference in every individual case would imply a continued mira-
cle, and would subvert the established order of the divine govern-
ment; as it would supercede the necessity of all those moraHn-
structions and moral preparations which God has appointed for ren-
dering his people 'fc meet for the inheritance of the saints in light ;n
and would prevent the moral renovation of the world which is now
being gradually effected by the combined exertions of those who
are the " light of the world," and the " salt of the earth." It is
true the mercy of God is infinite, and no abandoned sinner need
despair while he remains within the confines of the present state.
But if he pass from time to eternity under the power of revengeful
and depraved passions, he has no ground to hope that he will ever
afterwards be admitted to the felicity of heaven. He must go away
into everlasting punishment.
I remark :
III. That the punishment of the wicked in the future
WORLD, IS SOMETIMES SPOKEN OF IN THE SCRIPTURES BY A NEGA-
TIVE FORM OF EXPRESSION ; AND THEN THE IDEA CONVEYED ISf
THAT IT WILL BE ENDLESS.
"Wherefore I say unto you, All manner of sin and blasphemy
fehall be forgiven unto men ; but the blasphemy against the Holy
Ghost shall not be forgiven unto men. And whosoever speaketh a
word against the Son of man, it shall be forgiven him : but whoso-
ever speaketh against the Holy Ghost, it shall never be forgiven
him neither in this world, neither in the world to come. Between
us and you there is a great gulf fixed : so that they which would
pass from hence to you cannot ; neither can they pass to us that
would come from thence. He that believeth not the Son, shall
not see life, but the wrath of God abideth on him. 1 go my way,
and ye shall seek me, and shall die in your sins : whither I go, ye
cannot come. Be not deceived : neither fornicators, nor idolaters,
nor adulterers, nor effeminate, nor abusers of themselves with, man-
Lect. 2.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 41
kind, nor thieves, nor covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor ex-
tortioners, shall inherit the kingdom of God. Now the works of
the flesh are manifest, which are these ; adultery, fornication, un-
cleanliness, lasciviousness, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance,
emulations, strife, wrath, seditions, heresies, envyings, murders,
drunkenness, reveliings, and such like : of the which I tell you be-
fore, as I have told you in time past, that they which do such things
shall not inherit the kingdom of God. He that showed no mercy
shall have judgment without mercy. Without holiness no man
shall see the Lord. And shall utterly perish in their own corruption.
That which beareth thorns and briers is rejected, As there-
fore the tares are gathered and burned in the fire, so shall it be in
the end of the world. The Son of man shall send forth his angels,
and they shall gather out of his kingdom, ail things that offend, and
them which do iniquity, and shall cast them into a furnace of fire.
There shall be wailing and gnashing of teeth. -Blessed are they
that have right unto the tree of life. For without are dogs, and
sorcerers, and whoremongers, and murderers, and idolaters, and
whosoever ioveth and maketh a lie. And if any man shall take
away from the weds of the book of this prophecy, God shall take
away his part out of the book of life, and out of the holy city, and
from the things which are written in this book."*
A multitude of other passages might be adduced which expressly
assert, that the wicked shall suffer a final and everlasting privation.
But those which I have now cited are sufficient for our present. pur-
pose. When the divine authority of the Scriptures is recognized,
a single assertion is sufficient to determine the truth of any fact, or
the reality of any doctrine.
This negative form of expression is often used in the Bible to
denote the eternity of the Divine existence — Thy years shall have
no end \ the eternity of the Redeemer's kingdom: his dominion is
an everlasting dominion, which shall not pass away ; and the endless
* Matt. xii. 31, 32. Luke xvi. 26. John iii. 36.— viii. 21 . 1 Cor. y'u 9,
10. Gal. v. 19—21, James ii. 13. Heb. xii. 14, 2 Pet. ii. 12. Hcb. vi . £*
Matt. xiii. 40. Rev. xxii, 14. Rev. xxh. 19.
42 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. £
duration of the happiness of the saints : a crown of glory that fadeth
not away ; a kingdom that cannot be moved ; an inheritance that fadeth
not away. May it not then prove with equal clearness, that the fu-
ture punishment ot the wicked will be endless ? If allffuture good
is denied to the wicked ; if those who blaspheme against the Holy
Ghost, shall not have forgiveness to all eternity, but shall be sub-
jected to endless damnation ; if some shall not see 3ifef but the
wrath of God dbideth on them ; if those who die in their sins, are
never to come where Christ is p4f those who are guilty of commit-
ting such acts, as are enumerated by the apostle among the works
of the ftesh, shall not inherit the kingdom of God ; if their end is de-
struction ; and their portion, judgment without mercy ; then unques-
tionably a portion of mankind will fail of salvation, and be finally
lost. To be excluded from all future good, comprises a reprobation
that is final. Do not, my impenitent hearers, think lightly of such
an exclusion ! How should this awaken in you the deepest anxiety^
to think of an eternal separation from God and heaven ! How
eb'ufd you bear to hear the voice of your Sovereign Judge pronounce
the sentence upon you, Depart ye cursed ! Think not that you may
resign the hope of heaven, and yet reckon upon some lower felicity
that will meet your expectations and satisfy your desires. In this
case, there is no wide range of objects amid which you may make
your choice. The objects of choice are only two. If you consent
to forego the bliss of heaven, you must endure the pains of hell
forever. If you seek a substitute for heaven — hell is the only
alternative.
I remark,
IV. That the endless punishmemt of the wicked is assert-
ed by implication; or by forms of speech which imply this
doctrine. All the doctrines and precepts, invitations and com-
mands, promises and threatenings of the Bible, imply rewards to
the righteous, and punishment to the wicked. All the expressions
of love and favor to the righteous, imply hatred and wrath to the
wicked. The argument from this source deserves, and I hope it
will receive your candid and serious attention. When it is said3
Lect. 2.) ENDLESS P0NISHMENT. 43
that "The men of this world have their portion in this life,"* is it
not implied that there is no portion tor them in the future life : that
their portion and enjoyment are confined to this life ?
"Be not thou afraid when one is made rich, when the glory of his
house is increased ; for when he dieth he shall carry nothing away ;;
his glory shall not descend after him—- though while he lived he
blessed his soul. He shall go to the generation of his fathers ; they
shall never see lighL"f
" I was envious at the foolish when I saw the prosperity of the
wicked. — Until I went into the sanctuary of God ; then understood
I their end. Surely thou didst set them in slippery places. Thou
castedst them down into destruction."): This destruction was not
the death of the body, nor any temporal calamity. For the myste-
ry of Divine Providence, of which the Psalmist had been speaking*
was, that the wicked were in prosperity all their days, that they had
more than heart coidd wish, and that there were no bands in their
death. Their being cast down to destruction, and being utterly con-
sumed with terrors, must refer to something which takes place after
death.
When it is said that "God so loved the world that he gave
his onry begotton Son, that whosoever believeih on him should not
perish but have everlasting Z(/e,"ll is it not implied that those who
do not believe shall perish, and that thus to perish, being the oppo-
site of everlasting life, must be equivalent to endless misery ?
"I pray for them, I pray not for the world."** There is then a
world of people for whom Jesus did not pray. We are not to sup-
pose that the term world, refers simply to all wicked men, for Christ
prayed "that the world may believe that thou hast sent me," and
on the cross he prayed for his crucifiers, and murderers ; nor does
the term refer to the Gentiles in distinction from the Jews, but to
the non-elect as opposed to the elect. For them, Christ in his ever-
prevalent intercession, does not pray. He intercedes only for those
who should believe on him, and were given to him in the covenant
* Psalm Xvii. 14. f Psalm xlix. 16—19. $ Psalm lxxiii. 3, 17, 18.
II John iii. 16. ** John xvii. 9.
C4 - SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 2.
of redemption. If there are some then for whom Christ does not
pray, there are of course some who will not share in the benefits of
his mediation, without a participation in which they cannot be sav-
ed. Harmonizing- with tills idea is 1 John v. Vo. "If a man see
his brother sin a sin which is not unto death, he shall ask, and he
shall give him life for a sin which is not unto death. There is a
sin unto death. I do say that he shall not pray far it." By the sin
unto death, we are to understand a sin obstinately continued in and
never repented of, the punishment of which is to end in his eter-
nal death. But why not pray for those who commit this sin it their
salvation be possible, nay certain? Does God forbid his people to
pray for those whom he is willing to admit to his heavenly kingdom ?
If their salvation be possible,! presume no suiticient reason can be
given why we should not pray for it:
""And he spake a parable unto them, saying, The ground of a
certain rich man brought forth plentifully: and he thought within
himself, saying*, What shall I do, because I have no room where to
bestow my fruits ? And he said, This will I do : I will pull down
my barns, and build greater; and there will I bestow all my fruits
and my goods. And I will say to my soul, Soul, thou hast much
goods laid up for many years ; take thine ease, eat, drink, and be
merry. But God said unto him, Thou fool ! this night thy soul shall
be required of thee: then whose shall those thing:- be, which thou
hast provided ? So is he that layeth up treasure for himself, and is
not rich towards God.5** From this instructive parable, we learn
the folly of providing a large superfluity for a future continuance on
earth, to the neglect of making provision for the world to come, in-
to which we may be immediately hurried, and where we must
exist forever. But if all .are to be finally saved, wherein was that
man a fool for placing his affections and dependence for happiness
on his abundant earthly portion^ to the neglect of being rich to-
wards God ? On that supposition, he would be just as sure of be-
ing rich towards God forever as he would, if he had not loved, and
idolized his earthly treasures. On the supposition of the salvation
* Luke xii. 16—21.
Lect.2.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 45
of all men, the rich do byno means receive their consolation in this
life, but they are to receive infinitely the greatest consolation in the
future life.
"Ye have lived in pleasure on the earth and been wanton ; ye'
have nourished your hearts as in the day of slaughter ; ye have
condemned and killed the just, and "he doth not resist you. Be pa-
tient, therefore, brethren, unto the coming of the Lord.''* Here is
a tremendous implication of punishment, coming upon the rich men
who oppress the poor. They were bid to weep and cry bitterly, on
account of the miseries that were coming upon them, when the Lord;
should come and give them the due reward of their deeds.
"Woe unto you that are rich, for you have received your consola-
tion."! Does not this imply that there is no more consolation for
them hereafter ? If not, how could they have received the conso-
lation which they had sought, and which they had had reason to ex-
pect? And why was a wo pronounced upon them ?
" For yourselves know perfectly, that the day of the Lord Com-
eth as a thief in the night. For when they shall say, Peace,, and
safety, — then, sudden destruction cometh upon them ; and they
shall not esc ape. "i The apostle is referring his brethren to the par-
ticular season at which Christ will come to judgment. He- told
them that they knew thafrhis second coming would be sudden and
unexpected, and would occasion great consternation to the wicked.
He also assured his brethren, that the destruction which would then
come upon the ungodly, would admit of no escape, or remedy.
They shall not escape the terrible judgment and punishment of thafe
dread day of the Lord. Does not this imply an infliction of God's-
anger, which will last as long as their existence ?
If repentance be absolutely necessary in order to salvation, and
if it be impossible to convert to the saving faith of the gospel, those
who after being made acquainted with all the proofs by which God
had thought tit to establish Christ's mission, should think him an
impostor and renounce his gospel :|| then there are some whose sal-
* James v , 5, 6. f Luka vi. 24. i 1 Thcss. v. 25 3. || Heb. vi, 4— <k
dG SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Legt. %
vation is impossible — since it is impossible to renew such to repent-
ance, it is impossible that they should be saved.
" If we sin wilfully, after that we have received the knowledge
of the truth, there remaineth no more sacrifice for sins ; but a cer-
tain fearful looking" for of judgment, and fiery indignation, which
shall devour the adversaries."'* Now if there be no more, or no
longer, a sacrifice for the sin of those who with a full and fixed res-
olution despise and reject Christ, the only Saviour ; despise and re-
ject the Holy Spirit, the only sanctifier ; and despise and renounc-e
the only way of salvation ; and who do this with an obstinate and
malicious intent, after they have known and professed the Christian
religion ; this must be the same thing as the sacrifice offered by
Christ which is the only medium of a sinner's salvation being of no
saving effect, because the death of Christ was not appointed to ex-
piate such a sin, and because it is never repented of, and there be-
ing no sacrifice, and no repentance, there can be no satisfaction,
and consequently no pardon ; else a fearful looking for of judg-
ment and fiery indignation would not be the inevitable doom cf
these wilful adversaries of God. And if the judgment and fiery
indignation, which shall devour the adversaries, remain for them,
they must suffer without a probability of escape.
" Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall enter into
the kingdom of heaven ; but he that doeth the will of my Father
which is in heaven. Many will say unto me in that day, Lord,
Lord, have we not prophesied in thy name ? and in thy name have
cast out devils ? and in thy name done many wonderful works ?
And then will I profess unto them, I never knew you : Depart from
me ye that work iniquity."! The day here referred to must mean
the last day, the day of judgment, the tim3 when the pretenders to
prophecy and piety will be judged and rewarded. It appears,
from this whole passage, that many after having made great attain-
ments, and great professions in religious life, will not enter heaven
but will be addressed by a— Depart from me. But suppose the
* IIeb. x. 26, 27. t Matt. vii. 21, 22, 23.
Lsct. 2.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 47
phrase, Kingdom of God, here used, denotes what the objectors to
endless punishment tell us, viz,., a spiritual life. Then we have
hypocrites earnestly desiring to be christians, but forbidden to come
to the desired privilege. And when in this life did the Lord ever
refuse any, who sought admittance into his favor, on the ground
that they had been workers of iniquity ? Is he not willing that all
should come to repentance and the knowledge of the truth? Ha3
he excluded any who do not exclude themselves ?
When we read such passages as these, " Looking diligently, lest
any man fail of the grace of God;' * " How shall we escape, if we
neglect so great salvation ;,?f " What is a man profited if he shall
gain the whole world and lose his own soul ;"J is it not implied
that those who are not diligent to secure an interest in the favor of
God, but neglect the salvation which the gospel reveals, and seek
the world to the neglect of the future well-being of their souls,
shall not be saved, shall fail of the grace of God, and shall lose their
souls ?
M What is a man profited if he shall gain the whole world and
lose himself, or be cast away."|| If some men be lost, or castaway,
they cannot all be saved. A man may lose his health, his prop-
erty, his reputation, and even his natural life, and yet in fact be
saved — from everlasting perdition. But if he be lost so as to be
cast away, he cannot be finally saved.
"He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved, and he that
believeth not, shall be damned."## Here salvation is offered only on
condition of believing ; and that not a salvation from the destruction
of Jerusalem, for it was a condition to be proclaimed to all the
world, till time should be longer. Go yz into all the world and preach
the gospel to every creature. He that believeth (in all the world) shall
be saved, and he that believeth not shall be damned, shall be con-
demned by God, and cast off from his presence. This obviously
implies that the unbeliever will be adjudged to be guilty, by God,
in the day of judgment ; that he will deserve eternal death, and that
* Heb. *ii. 15. f Heb. ii. 3. t Matt. xvi. 26.
i| Luke ix. 25. ** Mark xvi. 16.
48 SCRIPTURE PROOFS, OF (Lect. 2.
"he will be cast out into a place of endless woe. Is it asked how it
can be just in God to condemn men forever for not believing the
gospel? We answer: God has a right to appoint his own terms of
mercy. Man is a sinner, and has no claim on God for salvation.
He knowingly, and willingly, rejects that method of salvation which
God has appointed. He despises and contemns the gospel. And
it is owing to his love to sin, and hatred to God, that he does this.
"Now as he has no confidence in God, does not believe that he is
worthy of supreme love, and does not seek his favor, he must be
wretched. As he rejects God he must go into eternity without a
Father and a God. As he has no source of comfort in himself, and
as he is now deprived of those earthly objects from which he deriv-
ed all his happiness in this life, he must die forever. There is no
being in eternity but God that can make ^man happy, and without
his favor the sinner must be miserable. " Consider this, ye that
forget God, lest he tear you in pieces and there be none to deliver"
you out of his avenging hand.
The remaining Scripture proofs which I shall bring on this sub-
ject will be considered in the following Lecture. In the meantime
I hope you will consider seriously the preceding testimony. Be
not so unwise as to yield to the dictates of mere feeling on this
subject. It is a matter to be decided not by the wishes of men, but
by the testimony of God. To this then, as the only source of evi-
dence, be your appeal. If the doctrine is taught here, that the
punishment of the wicked will be eternal, remember that heaven
and earth shall sooner pass away, than one jot or tittle of what Je-
hovah has threatened shall fail of being accomplished. And if this
doctrine be true it will seriously affect your eternal destiny. O
then come to the sacred Records divested of all prejudice, and
every prepossession, that you may obtain full information on this
point. You are immortal beings, and can you feel otherwise than
anxious to acquire the most correct information that can be obtain-
ed, respecting that world which is to be your everlasting abode ?
The prudent man looketh well to his going. Permit me as one who
Lect. 2.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 49
loves your souls, to intreat you to ponder the paths of your feet
Self-deception can profit you nothing-.
The Scriptures are able to make you wise unto salvation. Go to
the Bible with humble prayer, and in the spirit of sincere inquiry,
and it will point you to the heavenly city. It will open to you the
bottomless pit, and show you the quenchless flame and the undying;
worm. It will point to the blood which can cleanse from ail sin*
Seek then sincerely to know the truth ; and remember that God has
said of those who love not the truth, they shall be given up to strong
delusion to believe a lie that they might be damned, because they
believed not the truth, but had pleasure in unrighteousness,
" Ye sinners seek his grace,
Whose wrath ye cannot bear — ■
Fly to the shelter of his cross
And seek salvation there."
LECTURE III.
SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
Gal. vi : 7, 8. — Be not deceived ; God is not mocked ; for whatsoever
a man soweth, that shall he also reap. For he that soiveth to his
flesh, shall of the flesh reap corruption : but he that soweth to the
Spirit, shall of the Spirit reap life everlasting.
The solemn warning here given is of the highest practical im-
portance. Perhaps there is nothing to which depraved creatures
are more addicted, though nothing be more dangerous, than to form
an erroneous judgment or receive a false impression of our state,
character, and conduct. It is from this predilection in favor of
something that shall prophesy good concerning them, that the
truth is rejected and those doctrines and systems of religion em-
braced, which flatter their pride, and strengthen their hands, that
they should not turn from their wicked way. The human heart
loves to be soothed. The pleasing sound of peace, peace, though
there be no peace, will be gratefully received. Such characters
are they " which say to the seers, See not, and to the prophets,
prophesy not unto us right things — speak unto us smooth things,
prophesy deceits." But let us not deceive ourselves, God will not
be mocked. For as in the natural, so in the moral world, " whatso-
ever a man soweth, that shall he also reap." According as we be-
have ourselves now, so will our account be in the great day. All
that is done in this life is preparatory to another. The present is
Lficr. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 51
our seed-time ; in the other world will be the great harvest. And
as the husbandman reaps in the harvest according to the nature and
measure of seed that he sows, so our joys and sorrows in a future
world will bear a relation to that which is wrought in this. "If we
sow to the flesh, we shall of the flesh reap corruption." Those
who live a carnal, sensual life, who, instead of devoting themselves
and their all to the glory of God, and the good of others, spend
their time in the works of the flesh, must expect no other fruit from
such a course than destruction. Between unrepentant guilt here,
and misery hereafter, there is an unalterable connection. The fruit
which arises from sowing to the flesh is termed corruption. This
word does not signify the destruction of being, but of well-being ;
and the enduring of tribulation, and anguish, and everlasting de-
spair- This destruction must be the opposite of everlasting life,
for it is contrasted with it ; and what can this be short of eternal
death ? I trust, my hearers, that I shall not weary your patience by
dwelling upon this subject, for if the doctrine which we are discus-
sing be true, it is a truth of the greatest moment. Permit me then
to remark,
V. That the endless punishment of the wicked is taught
IN THOSE TEXTS WHICH EXPRESSLY ASSERT THAT SOME WILL BE
forever excluded from heaven. " Verily I say unto you, all
sins shall be forgiven unto the sons of men, and blasphemies where-
with soever they shall blaspheme : but he that shall blaspheme
against the Holy Ghost hath never forgiveness, but is in danger of
eternal damnation,"* In this place, as in Matt. xii. 31, 32, Jesus
proceeds to state the awful nature and tremendous consequences of
the sin against the Holy Ghost. -This sin consists in an obstinate
and wilful ascription of the miraculous powers of Jesus Christ to
demoniacal agency. Those- who, when they saw the miracles of
Jesus, and his apostles, and could not resist the conviction that they
were real, refused to yield to his authority, and ascribed his works
to the agency of the Prince of the devils, rejected the strongest
possible evidence of the truth of the Christian religion, and insult-
♦Mark Hi, 23, 29.
52 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 3.
ed and abused the Holy Ghost, that very; spirit by which Jesus
wrought his miracles. That this was what was intended by this sin
is clear from Mark iii. 30. <s Because they said he hath an unclean
spirit." This sin was manifestly against the Holy One ; it was re-
proaching the divine character, charging it to be in league with Sa-
tan, and blaspheming the power of God displayed in the miracles he
wrought. This sin could never be forgiven. St. Matthew tells us
that, " it shall not be forgiven in this world nor in the world to come*"
It is well known " the world to come,'' according to the notion of
the Jews, was a world without end, extending from the commence-
ment of the reign of the Messiah on through eternity. That this is
the meaning of the phrase, and that it implies the impossibility of
forgiveness to the sinner to all eternity, is confirmed by the testimo-
ny of Mark, who says that "he hath never forgiveness, but is in
danger of eternal damnation" It means then, not the future age or
dispensation known among the Jews as the world to eome^ but it
means that the guilt will be unpardoned forever ; that such is the
purpose of God that he will not forgive a sin so direct, awful and
presumptuous — a sin committed under such aggravated circumstan-
ces. Those, who committed this sin, refusing to profit by the best
means which infinite wisdom and boundless compassion had devis-
ed to make them wise and happy ; blaspheming the miraculous pow-
ers of Christ ; persecuting and otherwise injuriously treating his
Church ; apostatizing from the truth,, and turning to sensual gratifi-
cations after having enjoyed great religious advantages, obtained
much light, felt strong convictions and made some progress in re-
forming their conduct ; and adding to all their other crimes that of
final impenitence, must leave this world wholly unprepared for the
next, and suffer the full penalty of unrepentant guilt.
Let there be whatever uncertainty there may as. to the precise
meaning of the word eternal, in this instance, still the true meaning
of the passage is settled by the other branch of the sentence ;
" hath never forgiveness." It is equivalent to John x. 28 : " I give
unto them eternal life and they shall never perish.'' Were there
any uncertainty as to the precise meaning of the word eternal herev
Lect. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 53
still the other member of the sentence would render its meaning
perfectly clear, for that must be endless life which is equivalent to
their never perishing; and by the same rule, that must be endless
damnation which is directly the opposite of their ever being forgiv-
en. If thi3 passage does not express the idea of endless punish-
ment, what language can express it? To guard the mind against
the idea that a limited punishment only is intended, the never hav-
ing forgiveness, is prefixed, which ought to set the subject at rest.
"Marvel not at this : for the hour is coming, in the which all that
are in the graves shall hear his voice, and shall come forth, they
that have done good, unto the resurrection of life, and they that
have done evil, unto the resurrection of damnation."* The word
damnation means the sentence passed on one by a judge,— -judg-
ment, or condemnation. Here it applies only to the judgment pro-
nounced by God upon the wicked. Those who have in this life
done evil shall be raised up to be condemned or damned. That this
passage refers to a future judgment and to the general resurrection,
and not to any thisg that takes place in this life, is clear from the
following considerations. Jesus had just spoken of a moral resur-
rection, which would be effected in this life by the power of the
gospel. He adds here, that something still more wonderful should
take place. " All that are in the graves shall hear his voice." But
if a moral resurrection be meant in both cases, then we have the
speaker saying, There is to be a moral resurrection, but marvel not
at this, there is to be something more wonderful, a moral resurrecr
tion. By those who are in their graves, Christ evidently means the
dead. Sinners are sometimes said to be dead in sin, but not to be
in a grave. This is applied in the Scriptures only to those who are
deceased. The language here used in relation to the righteous,
cannot be applied to any thing in this liie, nor is the language em-
ployed of the evil, applicable to any thing in this life. In what
condition among men can it be said with any appearance of truth
and soberness, that they are brought forth from their graves to the
resurrection of damnation ? This passage controverts the idea that
* John r. 28, 29.
54 . SCRIPTURE PROOFS, Of (tic*. 3.
all men will be saved immediately at death, and proves that at the
day of judgment the wicked will be condemned. Let it be added
that if then condemned, they will be lost forever. There is no re-
demption in hell — no Saviour — no Holy Spirit— no offers of mercy ;
but
" Darkness, death, and long despair
Reign in eternal silence there."
When one said to our Saviour, " Lord, are there few that be sav-
ed ?"* was there not a convenient opportunity afforded him to have
taught, on this occasion, that all men would finally be saved, if he
did believe and teach that doctrine ? " Lord,, are there few that be
saved ?" It was a prevalent opinion among the Jews, that but few
would enter heaven. On this subject the man wished the opinion
of Jesus. The whole context shows that no temporal preservation,
but deliverance from the wrath to come was meant, and is fully
confirmed by the subsequent mention of the " strait gate." This
was a question of idle curiosity. An answer to it would have done
little good. It was far more important that the man should secure
his own salvation. Our Lord gave him no intimation that all would
be saved, but advised him as he does all; to strive to enter into
heaven, for many would seek to enter in and should not be able. If
in this life they should neglect the concerns of religion, and be
wholly engrossed with the affairs of time ; and at death or at the
judgment, they should seek to enter into heaven, they will not be
able, for then it will be forever too late. The master of the house
will have risen up and shut the door. They might, during the term
of their probation, have availed themselves of the opportunity to
have obtained admittance into the kingdom of heaven ; but now it
is too late. The day of mercy is over : death is come, and heaven
barred against them. Christ then declares that he will say unto
these workers of iniquity, " Depart from me," and adds, " there shall
be Jweeping and gnashing of teeth, when ye shall see Abraham,
and Isaac, and Jacob, and all the prophets, in the kingdom of Godf
* Luke xiii. 28—29.
Lkct. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 55
and you yourselves thrust oui" "And many shall come from the
east and from' the west, and shall sit down with Abraham and Isaac
and Jacob, in the kingdom of God. But the children of the king-
dom shall be cast out into outer darkness ; there shall be weeping
and smashing of teeth."* To be cast into outer darkness is an im-
age of future punishment. It is not improbable that the image was
taken from Roman dungeons. These were commonly constructed
under ground ; were impervious to the light of day , and of course
were dark, damp, and pestilential. Masters were in the habit of
constructing such prisons for the vilest of their slaves, where the
unhappy convict, without light, company, or comfort, spends his
days and nights in weeping from grief, and gnashing his teeth from
vexation. The image expresses the fact that the wicked who are
lost, will be shut out of the light and happiness of heaven, and will
be confined in gloomy darkness, and weep in hopeless grief, and
gnash their teeth in indignation against God.
" The Son of man goeth as it was determined of him ; but woe
unto that man by whom he is betrayed."f "The Son of man go-
eth as it is written of him ; but woe unto that man by whom the Son
of man is betrayed! it had been good for that man if he had not
been born."f This language was spoken of Judas, who was denom-
inated by our Saviour, "the son of perdition," (John xvii. 12.) and
who having betrayed his Lord and Master into the hands of sinners
was driven by remorse of conscience to commit suicide, " that he
might go to his own place." — (Acts i. 25.) On the principle of
Universal Salvation it can be said of no man, "good for him if he
had not been born," for should a period ever arrive when he should
be liberated from punishment, and restored to eternal happiness,
this would infinitely overbalance all possible temporary suffering, of
whatever acuteness and continuance, and would therefore prove his
existence, on the whole, to be an incalculable blessing. Is Judas
in heaven ? Will he ever be there, and dwell there, forever? How
then is he " lost" and the " son of perdition V* And how could it
have been said of him " Good for that man if he had not been born ?"
* Matt. yiii. 11, 12. f Luke xxii. 22. % Matt. x*vi. 24.
5(1 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 3.
Should it be urged that this was a proverbial mode of speaking
among the Jews, I admit it. Dr. Gill, in his notes on this and the
parallel passage i» Mark xiv. 21, says, "This is a Rabbinical ex-
pression frequently used in one form or other, and sometimes as our
Lord spake it." But what does this prove ; that our Saviour lied'
and that it was good for Judas that he had been born ? Would he
have used language that implied infinitely more than was intended
to be conveyed ? Should it be urged that Job and Jeremiah used
such language in reference to themselves. — (Job iii. 3. Jer. xx. 14,
18.) I would ask what this proves? When Job cursed the day of
his birth he was enduring a great amount of bodily and mental suf-
fering ; and he had not had those views of the divine perfections
which produced in him true humility, and submission to God, and
which led him to abhor himself and repent in dust and ashes. Be-
ing unhumbled, and cherishing no hope in the mercy of God, and
suffering the most extreme anguish; no doubt he felt that it would
have been good for him not to have been born. But the subsequent
history of Job proves, that in this case he spake unadvisedly with
his lips. Jeremiah, when he cursed the day of his birth, was under
the infinence of powerful temptation. And here we see the weak-
ness of the best of men, who are but men at best. But we are not
to infer from hence, that it would have been good for Jeremiah that
he had never been born. But Christ spake as never man spake-
What he said was always to the purpose. He never spake unadvis-
edly with his lips. We therefore conclude that when he said, it
would have been good for Judas if he had not been born, he would
have us understand that the crime of Judas was so exceedingly ag-
gravated, and that his punishment must necessarily be so great, that
even an eternity of bliss could not counterbalance it. There can
be no meaning to this passage, if it does not express the endless du-
ration of future punishment. It follows, that in relation to one in-
dividual the sufferings of hell will be eternal, If of one, then it is
equally certain and proper that all the finally impenitent should per-
ish forever. The punishment of Judas proves also, that sinners
•cannot plead the decrees of God as an excuse for their sins. God
Lect. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 57
will punish crimes for what they arc in themselves considered. His
own inscrutable purposes, in relation to human actions, will not
change the nature of these actions, or screen the sinner from the
punishment which he deserves.
In Matt, xviii. 23, &c, we have the parable of the servant who
owed ten thousand talents and had nothing to pay. This servant his
Lord ultimately commanded to be thrown into prison, and there be
confined till he should pay the whole debt. How evident it is that
this man could never pay the debt, and must remain there forever.
The moral of this parable is, "so shall my heavenly Father do also
unto you, if ye from your hearts forgive not every one his brother
their trespasses." We are greatly indebted to God. We owe him
ten thousand talents and have nothing to pay. Now in order to ob-
tain forgiveness of God, we must possess a forgiving spirit. It is-
indispensably necessary to pardon and peace, that we not only do
justly, but love mercy, and walk humbly with God. If we show no
mercy, we shall have judgment without mercy. We shall be cast
into the prison of hell, and must there remain forever and ever.
" And the city had no need of the sun, neither of the moon to
shine in it: for the glory of God did lighten it, and the Lamb is the
light thereof. And the nations of them which are saved, shall walk
in the light of rt: and the kings of the earth do bring their glory
and honor into it. And the gates of it shall not be shut at all by
day, for there shall be no night there. And they shall bring the
glory and honor of the nations into it. And there shall in no ivise
enter into it any thing that defileth, neither whatsoever worketh
abomination, or maketh a lie ; but they who are written in the
Lamb's book of life.'5* According to the plain declaration of scrip-
ture, all impenitent sinners are defilers. They are neither cleans-
ed from the filthiness of the flesh, nor the spirit. Their hearts and
consciences are defiled. They all work that which is abominable
in the sight of the Lord. Such being their true character they will
in no wise be permitted to enter the heavenly city. Therefore not
only will not all men be saved, as some will be excluded frcm ths
* Sev. *xi. 23- £7,
53 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect 3.
heavenly city ; but some may have not their names written in the
Lamb's book of life ; and this is a further evidence that all will not
be saved.
VI. Those passages of scripture which speak of the
WICKED AS PERISHING, BEING CAST AWAY, REJECTED, BURNT UP AS
chaff, &c, teach the same doctrine. " The preaching of the
cross is to them that perish, foolishness, but to us who are saved, it
is the power of God."* " For we are unto God a sweet savour of
Christ, in them that are saved, and in them that perish; to the one
we are a savour of death unto death, and to the other, the savour
of life unto life."f Perishing is here put in contrast with being sav-
ed* " But these are natural brute beasts, made to be taken and de-
stroyed, speak evil of the things they understand not, and shall ut-
terly perish in their own corruption.''^ " That which beareth briers
and thorns is rejected', but the chaff will be burned up with un-
quenchable nre."|| By .the chaff, here, is represented the wicked.
They are represented as being driven away like chaff before the
wind. Job compares them (chap. xxi. verse 18.) to the chaff which
the wind driveth away. They are also represented as chaff which
the fire consumes. — (Isa. v. 24.) This image is often used to ex-
press judgments. " Thou shalt thresh the mountains and beat them
small, and shalt make the hills as chaff."— (Isa. xl. 1 — 15.) By the
unquenchable fire is meant the eternal sufferings of the wicked in
he'll. The image is used to express extreme suffering, since a
death by burning is one of the most horrible that can be conceived.
" As the tares are gathered and burned in the fire, so shall it be in
the end of the world. The Son of man shall send forth his angels,
and shall gather out of his kingdom all things that offend and them
which do iniquity, and shall cast them into a furnace of fire."**
Let such testimony speak for itself. If all are finally saved there is
no propriety in speaking of any as lost, perished, rejected, and cast
out, at the end of the world, into unquenchable fire. We may be
assured that the compassionate Saviour and his apostles would not
* Cor. i. 18. f 2 Cor. ii. 15, 16. % 2 Pet. ii. 12.
II Matt. iii. 12. ** Matt. %\\v 4Q, 41, 42,
Laor. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT 59
deceive, or use words to torment and tantalize us. They would not
tell us of hell-fire which had no existence. We may be sure eve-
•7 word is full of meaning. If they meant to say the wicked will
3 after, then they will suffer. To these passages might be added,
as every one knows who is conversant with the Bible, a multitude
of other passages declaring the same truth, in the same unambigu-
ous manner. And they must be considered as teaching the doc-
trine of annihilation or eternal woe. That they do not teach the
doctrine of annihilation we shall hereafter show. They must then
teach the doctrine of endless punishment. Perdition, destruction*
&c. are ever in scripture set in opposition to destruction. But
where is the contrast, if those who are cast away, rejected, lost, de-
stroyed, be finally saved ?
VII. The doctrine in question is taught in all those texts
WHICH INTIMATE THAT A CHANGE OF HEART AND A PREPARATION
FOR HEAVEN ARE CONFINED TO THE PRESENT LIFE. "Seek ye the
Lord while he may he found, and call ye upon him while he is near:
let the wicked forsake his way and the unrighteous man his thoughts,
and let him return unto the Lord, and he will have mercy upon him,
and to our God, for he will abundantly pardon."* "Because I have
called, and ye refused ; I have stretched out my hand, and no man
regarded : but ye have set at nought all my counsel, and would none
of my reproof. I also will laugh at your calamity; I will mock
when your fear cometh ; when your fear cometh as a desolation and
your destruction as a whirlwind. When distress and anguish cometh
upon you, then they shall call upon me, but I will not answer ; they
shall seek me early but shall not find me ; for that they hated in-
struction and did not choose the fear of the Lord : they would none
of my counsel, they despised my reproof. Therefore shall they eat
of the fruit of their own ways and be filled with their own devices."f
These and many similar passages teach us that man has a limited
time to prepare for the retributions of eternity, and that there will
be no successful calling upon the Lord, and consequently no salva-
* Isa. It. 6, 7. f Prov. i. 24—31.
60 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 3.
tion after a limited period. If God shall never answer their calls,
and they shall find they will never be saved —
" Great God, on what a slender thread
Hang everlasting things !
The eternal states of all the dead
Upon life's feeble strings !
Infinite joy or endless woe
Attend on every breath ;
And yet how unconcerned we go,
Upon the brink of death!
Waken, O Lord, our drowsy sense,
To walk this dangerous road ;
And if our souls are hurried hence,
May they be found with God."
" While ye have the light walk in the light, that ye may be the
children of the light.'1* Christ is the true light that will not de-
ceive us. " He coming into the world enlightened every man." —
(John i. 9.) By his own personal ministry, and by his spirit and
apostles, light or teaching is graciously afforded to all. This light
however is in the gospel, and not in the creature, until he who was
sometimes darkness is made light in the Lord. But it is the duty of
all to believe in this light, to subscribe to the truths which it discov-
ers, and to walk in the path to which it directs us. By and by God
will take from us the light of the gospel which alone can show us
the way to Christ, and then we shall have no longer an opportunity
of becoming the children of the light, but shall wander endlessly
in mistakes and errors and woe.
"While they (the foolish virgins) went to buy, the bridegroom
came ; and they that were ready went in with him to the marriage :
and the door was shut. Afterward came also the other virgins, say-
* John xii. 36.
Lect. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 61
ing, Lord, Lord, open to us. But he answered and said, Verily, I
say unto you, I know you not?'* The marriage ceremony took place
before the bride left her father's house ; but a feast was given at the
house of her husband, and which was also called the marriage or a
part of the marriage solemnities. This part of the parable doubt-
less represents the entrance of those who are ready, into the king-
dom of heaven when the Son of man shall come to call us to an ac-
count. The door was shut. No more could be admitted to the
marriage feast. J know you not. You were not in the company
of those who attended me at the marriage feast, and are unknown
to me. The word know is often used in the sense of approving and
loving. You are not my real friends and followers. Now, my hear-
ers, we are all like the virgins going to meet the bridegroom, — the
Lord Jesus Christ. He is coming, not to destroy Jerusalem, but to
judge the world. Like the coming of the bridegroom, his coming
will be sudden ; to many it will be an unexpected event. But when
they shall see him coming at death or at the judgment, like the fool-
ish virgins, they ■will begin to prepare to meet their God. But it
will be too late. They that are ready will enter in, and heaven will
be forever closed against all others.
"To-day if you will hear his voice harden not your hearts. Be*
hold now is the accepted time, behold now is the day of salvation."f
Now sinners have an opportunity to hear God's voice, and to hear it
not merely externally, but internally, with appropriate feelings, with
repentance, faith, and prayer. If they do not avail themselves of
this opportunity to hear his voice, they must of course harden their
hearts against it. And thus they will fail of securing an interest in
the salvation of Christ. For during this accepted time and day of
salvation,
" when mortals may
Secure the blessings of the day,"
they hardened their hearts.
"He that being often reproved, hardeneth his neck, shall sudden-
ly be destroyed, and that without remedy ."J They who sin in spite
* Matt . xxv. 10—12. t Heb. iii. 7.-2 Cor. vi. 2. J Prov. xxix. 1.
m SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF ("Lect.3.
of admonitions and reproofs which are designed and adapted to
bring sinners to repentance and salvation, will be eventually given
up to a judicial hardness of heart. Their day of grace will be
spent, and their ruin will be without remedy. For them, there will
be no recovering mercy. If we continue to harden our hearts
through this our only term of probation, God will swear in his wrath
that we shall not enter into that rest which he has reserved in heaven
for the people of God.
" See that ye refuse not him that speaketh ; for if they escaped
not, who refused him that spake on earth, much more shall not we
escape, if we turn away from him that speaketh from heaven.
Looking diligently lest any man fail of the grace of God, lest there
be any fornicator or profane person, as Esau, who for one morsel of
meat sold his birthright. For ye know that afterward when he
would have inherited the blessing, he was rejected ; for he found
no place of repentance, though he sought it carefully with tears."*
If we turn away from him who speaks from heaven, it will be equal-
ly impossible for us to escape the wrath of God, and obtain the
blessing of salvation as it was for those to escape punishment who
transgressed the law of Moses, or for Esau to obtain the blessing of
his father after he had sold his birthright.
"Rejoice and be exceeding glad, for great is your reward hi
heaven; for so persecuted they the prophets which were before you.
-— — Rejoice ye in that day, and leap for joy; for behold your re-
ward is great in heaven. But rejoice, inasmuch as ye are made par-
takers of Christ's sufferings, that when his glory shall be revealed,
ye may be glad with exceeding joy ."f Here it is expressly assert-
ed that eternal life is the reward of holiness in the present life.
Now, if our future condition is not affected by our conduct in this
life, why speak of a reward in heaven ?
" Whosoever shall deny me before men, him will I also deny be-
fore my Father which is in heaven. Whosoever therefore shall
be ashamed of me, and of my words, in this adulterous and sinful
generation, of him shall the Son of man be ashamed, when hecom-
* Heb. xii. 25. xii. 15—17. f Matt, v, 12. Luke vi. 23. 1 PeUiv. U.
Lxct. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 63
eth in the glory of his Father, with the holy angels."* He that is
ashamed to own attachment to Christ on account of his lowly ap-
pearance, his poverty, his contempt, and his sufferings, and is asham-
ed of his doctrines and institutions in this life, shall be excluded
from heaven hereafter. They who will not acknowledge Christ
here, but cast him out and despise him, must be cast out by him and
consigned to eternal and hopeless sorrows. Those who honor Christ,
he will honor; but those who despise him shall be lightly esteemed.
" Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and
rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal ; but
lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor
rust doth corrupt. Seek first the kingdom of God and his righ-
teousness, and all these things shall be added unto yon. Sell
that ye have and give alms : provide yourselves bags which wax
not old, a treasure in the heavens that faileth not. Laying up in
store a good foundation against the time to come. Be ye also
ready ; for in such an hour as ye think not, the Son of man cometh."f
Do not these passages also obviously imply that a preparation for
heaven must be sought and obtained in the present life, and that if
this preparation be not had here, we can never be admitted into
heaven ?
" Agree with thine adversary quickly, whilst thou art in the way
with him, lest at any time the adversary deliver thee unto the judge,
and the judge deliver thee to the officer, and thou be cast into pris-
on. Verily, I say unto thee, Thou shaltby no means come out
thence till thou hast paid the uttermost farthing.''^ These verses
naturally introduce the case of such persons as are exposed to law-
suits for injuring their neighbors. Now, to go to law, to be liti-
gious, is a violation always ot the law requiring us to love our
neighbors as ourselves. In this case, we should if possible come
to an agreement before the trial, lest being found guilty, we should
be cast into prison, and continue there, till the last farthing should
be paid. But under this counsel a more important instruction is
* Matt. x. 38. Mark viii. S3. f Matt. vi. 19, 20, 33. Luke lit 33. 1
Tim. vi. 19. Matt. xxiv. 44. $ Matt. v. 25, 26,
64 SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect 3.
couched. Whatever injuries that are done to men, are sins com-
mitted ultimately against God, who is our adversary at law. If we
have violated one of the great commandments, by not loving our
neighbor as ourselves, God has an action against us. We must
soon appear before the judgment seat of Christ. A way of peace
and reconciliation is revealed in the gospel. If we are not recon-
ciled to our brother, nor our God, before death, our case will be tri-
ed at the supreme court of heaven, from which there can be no ap-
peal ; and we shall be found guilty, and condemned, and cast into
the prison of hell. From this infernal prison there will be no re-
lease.
VIII. There is another class of texts which expressly
ASSERT THAT THE PUNISHMENT OF THE WICKED WILL BE ENDLESS
in duration, in language not less expressive than that which we
have already noticed. " And if thy hand or thy foot offend thee,
cut them off and cast them from thee : it is better for thee to enter
into life halt or maimed, rather than having two hands to be cast in-
to everlasting fire, And if thy hand offend thee, cut it off: it is
better for thee to enter into life maimed, than having two hands, to
go into hell, into the fire that never shall be quenched ; where their
worm dieth not and the fire is not quenched"* The immediate means
of sufferings to the impenitent are styled by our Saviour, " the fire
that shall not be quenched and the worm that dieth not." Our Lord
in this passage and connection, repeats five times in succession, that
the fire into which the wicked are cast, will i>ever be quenched ;
and three times he speaks of hell as a place wMere their worm dieth
not. And still further to show the perpetuity of the sufferings of
the wicked, he adds, "For every one shall be salted with fire. As
it is the property of salt to preserve from decay substances to which
it is suitably applied, so the wicked will be salted with fire, as to
become inconsumable. Thus their torments, instead of putting an
end to their sufferings, will continue them in being.
It has been asked whether the wicked will be burned in a literal
fire, and the common impression has been that they will. To us,
* Malt, xviii. 8, Luke ix. 43, 4-1,
Lect. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 65
however, this is a subject of comparatively little consequence. The
fact that the wicked will be eternally punished, cursed of God,
should awe every heart and lead every sinner to seek repentance,
and forgiveness of God. As however the body will be raised, it is
not improbable that a mode of punishment will be adopted, suited
to the raised bodies of the wicked. It may perhaps bear some
analogy to suffering here in its various forms of flames, and every
other earthly woe that tortures the mortal body in this life. But I
would not now dwell upon this point. We shall in a future lecture
inquire in what the future punishment of the wicked consists. It
is sufficient for us now to know and feel that this punishment is
eternal.
w But after thy hardness and impenitent heart treasurest up unto
thyself wrath against the day of wrath, and revelation of the righ-
teous judgment of God, who will render to every man according to
his deeds : to them who by patient continuance in well doing, seek
tor glory and honor and immortality, eternal life : but unto them that
are contentious, and do not obey the truth, but obey unrighteous-
ness, indignation and wrath, tribulation and anguish, upon every
soul of man that doeth evil, to the Jew first, and also to the Gen-
tile.n* Can the doctrine of eternal rewards and punishments have
a more unequivocal assertion ? Here an impenitent life is repre-.
sented as treasuring up wrath against the day of wrath, and it is
asserted that in that day of wrath, God will render to all his ration-
al creatures according to their deeds. Then eternal life will be
awarded to those who by well-doing have sought for glory and hon-
or and immortality ; and indignation and wrath, tribulation and an-
guish, the opposite of eternal life, shall be awarded to those who
obey not the truth, but obey unrighteousness.
u I saw a great white throne, and him that sat on it, from who««
face the earth and the heavens fled away. And I saw the dead,
small and great, stand before God ; and the books were opened ;
and another book was opened which was the book of life ; and the
dead were judged out of those things which were written in the
• Rom. ii. 5—9.
P*
6G SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect.S.
books according to their works. And the sea gave np the dead
which were in it, and death and hell delivered up the dead which
were in them, and they were judged every man according to their
works. And death and hell were cast into the lake of fire. This
is the second death. And whosoever was not found written in the
book of life, was cast into the lake of fire."# A more impressive
description of the resurrection of the dead and of eternal judgment
is scarcely in the power of human language. Lo, the dead, "both
small and great stand before God! Death and hell, or the grave
were cast into the lake of fire." Prior to the day of judgment
death and hell were the receptacles of the ungodly. Here they
were confined as in a prison. But having received their doom, they
shall go away into everlasting punishment. This is the second
death. In this dreadful abyss all will be cast, as the just punish-
ment of their sins, excepting those whose names are "written in
the book of life.'9 I conceive that the doctrine of endless punish-
ment is not taught in any plainer manner in any confession of faith
on the globe. And if these passages can be explained away, all
those confessions may. Nothing can stand before such criticisms*
Thus 1 have given you a very summary view of the testimony of
God, respecting the endless punishment of the wicked. The great-
er part of this testimony is taken from our Lord's discourse, who
knew the truth, and was himself to be the judge of the world. This
renders the evidence peculiarly interesting. We have the declar-
ation of him who knew the character, desert, and destiny of all
men.
I would now request .you, my dear hearers, to pause, and consider
prayerfully the preceding arguments, and decide as on a dying pil-
low. Can these most unequivocal declarations of God's word be
honestly and safely set aside ? Is that system worthy of your con-
fidence, which fearlessly proposes to make a covenant with death,
and with hell, to be at an agreement? Is it safe to hope for heaven
while going on still in your trespasses ? Is it wise to trust the des-
tiny of your soul upon that system which has a tendency to take
* Rev. xx. 11—15.
Lect. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 67
away every powerful incentive to holiness, to remove all perma-
nent restraints, to leave men in bondage to their evil propensities,
and to lead them to hope that they shall be as well off in the end by-
disobeying God, as by obeying him ? Is it prudent to risk your sal-
vation on a doctrine which is rejected by the pious and praying part
of the community, and embraced chiefly by those whom the Bible
denominates wicked, and which speaks peace to the wicked to
whom God has said, « There is no peace ;' which confounds all dis-
tinctions between sin and holiness, and makes the hearts of the
righteous sad by its lies, and strengthens the hands of the wicked
that he should not turn from his evil Y*ray by falsely promising him
life?
O be entreated, fellow-sinner, attentively to consider the endless
duration of future punishment! It is this which will constitute the
most terrible ingredient in that cup which will be the portion of the
wicked. Dreadful as will be their sufferings, they would not be so
intolerable, were there any hope of their termination. But of this
there can be no hope. Every thing will conspire to force upon the
sinner's mind a conviction that his existence and his sufferings will
be commensurate with eternity. The misery of being lost, how in-
expressible ! It is misery without relief, without hope, without
limits, — ever increasing, with capacities perpetually strengthened
and enlarged to bear accumulating woe. O, might hope enter this
dark mansion, might its guilty inmates be struck into nonexistence
at any period ever so remote, might one drop of water be applied
to their parched tongue, what a luxury! But all this will be denied.
Will you then say, " If I must be damned, there is no alternative,
Rather than live as the Bible requires, I will run the hazard?" Be-
fore you rest in this fatal resolve, stop for a moment, and think
what it is to sink down in the faintness of despair forever, under the
wrath and curse of God! And will you wade down to ruin since
the Son of God died to save you, died on the or .,, J.ied in agonies,
and is now waiting to be gracious ? Shall it I as it respects
you, that Christ died in vain ? Shall you ils, ^vhich might be
raised to a glorious immortality, and eel eK : high praisss of
m SCRIPTURE PROOFS OF (Lect. 3.
God to all eternity, writhe in agonies forever ? There is virtue
enough in the blood of the everlasting covenant to quench the
flames of hell that are kindling in your breasts, and to deliver you
from going down to the pit of endless woe. In Christ there is a
full and complete salvation. And he. that repents of his sin, and
believes in the Lord Jesus Christ, shall be saved.
What then is your resolve ? Will you turn away and say, "These
are hard sayings ; my feelings revolt at such sentiments ; I cannot
believe that the punishment of the wicked will be endless, nor that
my eternal destiny will depend under God upon the manner in
which I conduct myself in this life ; I do not want to hear any more
of these things?'5 Iirannouneing the terrors of the Lord, we do
not denounce against you endless wrath. But, knowing the terrors
of the Lord, we would persuade you to repentance. We would
have you, also, know and feel the terrors of the Lord, that you
might be persuaded, by us to be reconciled to God.
Did we know that you had already committed the unpardonable
gin, or that your clay of probation were closed, and your final destiny
sealed, it would be useless for us to tell you of these things, and
we might be considered as tormenting you before the time. But
since we hope you are within the reach of mercy, how can we for-
bear to use all possible means to awaken you from your lethargy
of sin ! Hqyt can we forbear to tell you that " Your judgment lin-
gereth not, and your damnation slumbereth not." — (2 Pet. ii. 3.)
My careless hearers! death! perdition! everlasting destruction !
the yawning lake of pitchy darkness, from which arises the smoke
of an eternal torment ! are before you. Your path is in the broad
and frequented way that leadeth to destruction. And will you not
stop and listen a moment? Will you not bear with your friend ?
Will you pass on to be punished ? Shall those eyes which now
behold so many objects of delight, be fixed in despair and glare in
eternal fire ? Shall that bosom which now swells with the elastici-
ty of health and youthful spirits, feel the gnawing of that worm
that never dies ? Shall that ear which now hears the sound of the
gospel, hear the awful voice of Jehovah declare to yoa, " Depart
Lect. 3.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 69
ye cursed into everlasting fire ?" Must I see some of those who
are dear to me, for whose salvation I have labored, and wept, and
prayed, and whom I would have gladly plucked as brands out of
the burning, weltering beneath the burning billows of Jehovah's
wrath ?
But I cannot proceed. The thought is overwhelming, that any
of my dear hearers will die in their sins, and sink in unabated
flames, and converse with everlasting groans, and weep, and wail,
and gnash their teeth in a world of endless rebellion against God.
I can only point you to the cross of Christ. The door of mercy is
now open, but it may soon be shut. Jesus is now pleading but he
will not plead always. O "behold the Lamb of God that taketh
away the sin of the world !" Cast yourself upon his clemency and
seek for forgiveness in the way he has prescribed.
But are you yet at ease ? How can I then cease to warn you ?
My soul follows after you with ardent desires and bleeding pangs.
But what can I do for your salvation ? I would therefore turn my
expostulation to supplication. O Lord God Almighty 1 with holy ,
awe I speak thy revered name. Reach forth thine arm of mercy,
and pluck these precious souls from everlasting burnings. Must
they perish forever ? O Lord ! of thine infinite mercy prevent it.
Holy Spirit of promise ! aid my supplications, and of thine efficient
agency, turn these sinners from darkness unto light, and from the
power of Satan unto God. O guide them into all truth. Lord Je-
sus ! pity them, pardon them, and save them. Remember thy dy-
ing groans! remember Calvary! and let thy love flow into their
bosoms, and melt and purify their obdurate and defiled hearts..
And thine will be the glory forever. Amen,
U3CTUKE IV.
COLLATERAL PROOFS OF ENDLESS PUNISHMENT.
Ezekiel xviii : 4. — " The soul that sinnelh, it shall die.'*
Ay impious proverb had been taken up by the Jews, in their cap-
tivity, which -carried with it an awful impeachment of the rectitude
of the Divine procedure. " Ye use this proverb concerning the
land of Israel,"' since it is desolated by the judgments of God,
" saying, The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's
teeth are set on edge." The import of thi3 proverb was, that the
children, though themselves innocent, suffered for the sins of their
parents.
That there was some occasion for this proverb, it cannot be deni-
ed. God had said that he would "visit the iniquity of the fathers
upon the children, unto the third and fourth generation." — (Deut. v.
9.) — and he had often declared, that in bringing present ruin upon Ju-
dah and Jerusalem, he had had an eye to the sins of Manas3eh, and
ether preceding kings.
A parent, who is possessed of wealth, or blessed with a healthful
constitution, may squander the one by idleness, gambling and in-
temperance ; or destroy the other by a lewd manner of living.
Consequently, his children, who have a just claim on his best exer-
tions to educate and support them, and to make a reasonable provis-
ion for their happiness, are reduced to poverty and wretchedness by
his imprudence, or afflicted with a diseased constitution by his li-
Leot.4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT 71
bidinous habit3. In each case the proverb is just ; " The fathers
have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge.1'
But it was not in this sense that the profane Jews used this prov-
erb. They intended it as a reflection upon God, and an awful im-
peachment of the equity of his proceedings with them as individu-
als and as a nation. To repel this awful and impious charge, the
prophet was directed to say unto them, " Behold all souls are mine ;
as the soul of the father, so also the soul of the son is mine ; the
soul that sinneth, it shall die. The son shall not bear the iniquity of
the father, neither shall the father bear the iniquity of the son: the
righteousness of the righteous shall be upon him ; and the wicked-
ness of the wicked shall be upon him."
This proverb is, in principle, if not in form, still used for the pur-
pose it was employed by the wicked Jews. In the language of
modern sinners it is said, " That the posterity of Adam have no con-
trol over their moral condition when born, and that, therefore, it is
derogatory to the rectitude of the divine procedure, to bring them
into existence with a depraved nature, in which they would be ren-
dered morally certain of committing actual transgression as soon as
their capacity should be matured to perform voluntary acts, and. then
to punish them for those acts." That the descendants of Adam
have no control over their moral condition, when born, is a self-
evident proposition. But that it is unjust in God to bring them into
existence with a depraved nature, in which they would commit act-
ual sin a3 soon as their capacity should be matured to perform vol-
untary acts, and then punish them for those acts, must be denied.
That he has appointed and brought into operation such a consti-
tution of things, is manifest. The Author of Nature has made this
the law of nature, that like should produce like, that the stream
should become impure when the fountain is poisoned, and that the
branches should die when the root is destroyed. Herce, Adam was
constituted the public head of all his posterity, so that his transgres-
sion involved their being transgressors from the womb, and alike ex-
posed to death-with himself. And thus we are informed that Adam,
after hi3 fall, "begat a son in his own likeness" — (G n. v: 3.) — And
n COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Legt. 4,
St. Paul informs us, " that by one man's disobedience many were
made (or constituted) sinners." — (Rom. v: 39.) Now since events
have been thus ordered by the Supreme Ruler of the Universe, we
should not for a moment question the rectitude of his procedure ;
for in him there is no unrighteousness. " Shall not the Judge of all
the earth do right ?" — (Gen. xviii : 25.)
But, though we may not be able to reconcile the connection be-
tween our inherent depravity, and our free agency and moral
accountability, so as to be guilty for our own sins only ; yet it may
be safely affirmed that it is for our own voluntary acts only that we
are accountable, and for our own crimes only that we are punishable.
Much might be said to render this evident and unquestionable.
The Bible which reveals the manner in which sin originated in
our world, though it teaches us that human depravity is the fatal
inheritance of all mankind ; yet it charges them with the guilt of
their own sinful acts, without allowing any excuse in consequence
of their relation to their fallen head.
In the serious conviction for sin, which all in a greater or less de-
gree feel, experience teaches us that the guilt of our own transgres-
sion, as well as the act, is our own. Who ever felt sorrow of heart
or repented of the sins of the first parents of our race ? No one.
We may mourn over the sins of others, but we cannot repent of
them.
The principle on which the final destinies of men will be fixed at
the day of judgment, will be according to the moral character of
their own works, performed in this life, and independent of the mor-
al character of the works performed by any other being with whom
we are connected in this state of being. " Every one of us shall
give account of himself unto God." — (Rom. xiv. 12.)
To the impenitent and unrenewed sinner then, the same reply
may be given that the prophet was directed to give to the Jews.
" The soul that sinneth, it shall die" It is in temporal calamities on-
ly that innocent children suffer in consequence of the wickedness
of their parents. But as it respects spiritual and eternal misery, no
4>ne will be punished for the transgression committed by another.
Lect. 4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 3$
You have therefore no ground to palliate or deny the guilt of yoor
own sinful acts, as you will not be permitted to lay their guilt upon
any other being but yourselves. Though your sinful actions result
from inherent depravity, over which you have no control, yet you
are under no irresistible impulse to sin. You are free agents, as
you have ability to follow your inclinations. And you are not less
obliged to love and serve God with all your heart, than was Adam
in paradise. Now, if you continue in sin, you must reap the con-
sequences. "The soul that sinneth, it shall die."' There is no al-
ternative.
This declaration contains an important truth, which is not limited
to any age or nation. It is a declaration of universal concern; fco
the explanation and proof of which, your serious attention is
now requested. What I propose is,
J. To EXPLAIN IN A BRIEF MANNER THE PRINCIPAL TERMS CON-
TAINED IN THE PASSAGE BEFORE US ; and
II. To ESTABLISH THE TRUTH WHICH THEY EXHIBIT, VIZ. END-
LESS PUNISHMENT ; FROM FACTS AND CONSIDERATIONS WHICH, IN-
DEPENDENT OF DIRECT SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY, APPEAR TO MY OWN
MIND CONCLUSIVE PROOFS THAT THE PUNISHMENT OF THE WICKED
IN A FUTURE STATE, WILL BE ENDLESS.
By the soul, as a general and comprehensive term, is meant th«
spiritual, rational, and immortal part of man ; which is the origin of
our thoughts, and desires, and reasoning ; which distinguishes us
from the brute creation, and which has some resemblance to its Di-
vine Author. This must be spiritual, because it thinks; and it
must be immortal, because it is spiritual.
By sin, which the soul commits, the violation of the divine law is
intended ; for "sin is the transgression of the law." — (1 John iii. 4.)
The death, to which the soul, guilty of the transgression of th*
divine law, is exposed, is such a death as the soul can die. It is not
annihilation, or ceasing to exist ; but it is losing all hope, all re-
straint, and sinking into everlasting horror and wretchedness. Th*
soul, being immortal, is capable of experiencing this dea^Sfci^-
cording to the testimony of the Bible, it must thus 4&*elf t^r"
roM
4*
74 COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lect 4.
aer persist in the ways of transgression. When the sinner expe-
riences this death, he ceases to be a prisoner of hope, and plunges
into a state of endless despair and wretchedness. This is the sec-
ond death. God stating to Adam what would be the inevitable con-
sequence of transgression, said, " In the day thou eatest thereof
thou shalt surely die," — (Gen. ii. 17.) — or, dying thou shalt die.
The import of this first threatening to man is, " In the day that thou
firmest, thou shalt experience, death spiritual, by the guilt and pow-
er of sin, death temporal, which shall then begin in thee by decays,
infirmities, dangers, and other harbingers of death, and death eternal,
which shall immediately succeed the other." This was particularly-
addressed to Adam, but through him, as a federal head, to all his
posterity. Accordingly, we find the divine declaration afterwards,
" The soul (meaning any person) that sinneth, it shall die." In the
epistle to the Romans, it is said that " The wages of sin is death."
(Rom. vi. 23.) Death, as here used, denotes the awful punishment
of sin, in the everlasting banishment of the sinner from the pres-
ence and favor of God. This is as justly due to the sinner, as the
food and pay which generals give to their soldiers for their services.
The wages which sin gives to its slaves, is eternal death. That
this is the idea intended to be conveyed in this passage, is evident
from the latter part of the verse. " But the gift of God is eternal
life through Jesus Christ our Lord." Here death is contrasted with
eternal life, and must be the opposite, or it would not be a contrast.
The phrase " eternal life," is opposed to death, and proves incontes-
tibly, that that means eternal death. The one is as long as the oth-
er. As there is no doubt about the duration of life, so there can be
none about the duration of death.
In this sense the term death, as contained in our text, is to be
understood. " The soul that sinneth, it shall die." It shall be for-
ever excluded from the happiness of heaven, and sink to endless
misery. Having thus explained the principal terms contained in
the text, I proceed,
M
Lect. 4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 7*
II. TO ESTABLISH THE TRUTH WHICH THEY EXHIBIT, VIZ., XKDLXSf
PUNISHMENT; FROM FACTS AND CONSIDERATIONS WHICH, INDEPENDENT
OF DIRECT SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY, APPEAR TO MY OWN MIND, CONCLU-
SIVE PROOFS THAT THE PUNISHMENT OF THE WICKED, IN A FUTUB*
5TATE, WILL BE ENDLESS.
1, The first argument in support of this proposition, will be dravm
from the constitution and fitness of things.
No creature which God has made, can be happy, unless the ob-
jects of its pursuit, and the sources from whence it seeks for happi-
ness, are suited to the capacities of its nature.
The various kinds of the brute creation, while unmolested, and
sufficiently provided for, lie down or range abroad, and attain the
summit of that enjoyment of which their nature is capable. But
they are uneasy when out of their place, though in a situation that
pleases other creatures.
Man is possessed, in common with the brute, of an animal nature.
This is satisfied only in those objects of pursuit from whence arisee
a gratification that is suited to his animal desires.
Man is possessed also of an intellectual nature, which is gratified
according to his peculiar turn of mind, in the various pursuits of
life adapted to its capacities, from the occupations of the man of
business, up to the deeper studies of the philosopher. But these
objects pursued to the greatest extent, and with complete success,
can only impart that enjoyment which his intellectual nature is ca-
pable of receiving. Something more is yet necessary to render him
perfectly happy ; for he possesses a constitution of mind still higher
than mere animal or intellectual being.
He is a moral accountable creature ; possessing a capacity of
knowing, loving, serving, and enjoying God as the Source of all
excellence. And such is the constitution of his moral nature, that
he cannot be happy without the proper exercise of this capacity*
any more than any other creature can be supported and rendered
comfortable out of its element. Hence it is that man is not happy
in his unregenerate and sinful state. His moral nature meets with
nothing, amid all the variety of objects which fill his eye, engroue
7¥ COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lect. 4,
his affections, and occupy his time, that is capable of affording the
«rjoyment which this nature in its proper exercise is fitted to re-
vive, and which it is necessary that it should receive in order to
real happiness. Does man feel perfectly happy, while conscious
that he is made for another world, he lives only for this ? What
though he toil from morning to, night with incessant care to lay up-
a few fleeting treasures ! What though he pants for fame, and ob-
tains the elevation of office ! What though he indulges in sensual
gratifications, and in vanity, ambition and pride ! What though hfr
amuses himself with pictures oi fancy, with fantastic exhibitions, and
with theatrical scenes, and vain shows! What though he explore
the fields of literature and science, but does not aspire after moral
excellence, nor devote his active powers to the glory of his Creator
and the good of his fellow men ! Does he find any thing like sub-
stantial bliss in all the objects of his pursuit? An aching void
within, with a voice that cannot be silenced, demands something
more to satisfy the boundless desires and fill the capacities of the
immortal mind.
By the fall, man's moral nature has become awfully depraved.
Its energies are not directed towards his Creator, as the source of
all true happiness ; for " God is not in all his thoughts." The
objects ot pursuit and the sources of enjoyment suited to his moral
nature, are by him disregarded. He labors solely for the meat that
perishes, and rejects that which endures unto everlasting life. He
hoards the trifles of time, and squanders, or with dire infatuation^
rejects the treasures of eternity. Who is there that naturally
engages in the spiritual worship and service of God, and finds the ra-
ft delight?- Are not these things the weariness and aversion of
natural men? Whoever carefully watch the prevailing disposition
of their hearts, while they seriously contemplate the moral per-
fections of God, his laws, threatnings and judgments, and their own
past and present sins, will find a "witness m themselves" to the
truth of revelation, that " the carnal mind is enmity against God, it
is not subject to the law of God, neither indeed can be." Hence,
ik except a man be born again," he cannot take any plea-sure in Godi.
Uc*. 4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT, 7T
nor can God take any pleasure in him. He cannot be subject to th*
law of God, nor regard his service as a privilege, honor and hap-
piness. He is a rebel against the divine government, a nuisance
in the universe of God, incapable of those sublime and rapturou*
emotions which swell the bosoms of celestial intelligence, an<$
altogether unqualified for mingling in their society. Such an indi-
vidual must be miserable. Change of place will produce no change
of nature, no reformation of the heart and life. Death is but a
separation of the soul from the body. Hence every mind will carry
into the eternal world just that impress which it has at the moment
of death. We have no warrant to believe that he who dies impeni-
tent, a blasphemer, a murderer, a hater of God, will have a different
disposition implanted in him after death. His disembodied spirit
will enter upon its future and everlasting state of being, with th«
same dispositions and desires that it had in this life. Were it
admitted to heaven, it could not relish the company, the work, th«
worship and the joy of that world. It would have no meetness for
the inheritance of the saints in light. Its re-union with the body at
its resurrection will only serve to increase those desires, and per-
petuate that disposition. It will effect no moral change. For a*
no description is given in the Bible respecting the change of tb»
bodies of the wicked, when raised, as there is respecting the bodies
of the righteous, we infer that no change will pass upon them by
which they will be improved. In the re-union of a depraved soul, with
a body whose members will serve only as the instruments of em
and of suffering, it will follow of course, that misery must be th»
unavoidable consequence. And this misery must be eternal; for
such a soul being left to itself will recede farther and farther from
God, and will go into an eternal separation from his likeness and
favor.
From the constitution and fitness of things then it is evident, that
the soul that sinneth, it shall die. For such is the nature of God, of
holiness, of happiness, and such is the state of the natural heart,
that man cannot be either holy or happy, but must eternally depart
from God unless his nature is changed by the power of divmt
78 COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lect. 4.
grace. And as this change is effected only in this life, those who
die in their sins must go away into everlasting punishment.
2. A second proof in support of this proposition will he drawn
from the evil nature and tendency of sin. Sin is not a breach of
decorum, nor a violation of the civil law merely, but it is explained
by the inspired penman to be, "the transgression of the law of
God." This law is nothing less than his perfect and immutable
will. It is the great instrument of government and happiness to
his kingdom. It forms the basis ot the divine administration. It is
the rule of his conduct towards his rational creatures, and their rule
of conduct towards him. Its design is to maintain subjection to the
Ruler of the universe, and thus to diffuse a perfect harmony through
ail the relations of created intelligences. The government of God
■is not a government of arbitrary power, but a government of law.
This law is holy, just and good; holy, as it requires supreme love
to God, and the same love to our fellow men as we bear to our-
selves ; just, as being founded in the strictest equity, and admin-
istered with the greatest exactness ; good, as being equally adapted
to promote the essential happiness of the creature and the declara-
tive glory of the Creator. Its requisitions are all equitable and
reasonable. To transgress this holy and benevolent law then, is to
rebel against the will of God, to insult the majesty of his throne,
and to strike at the foundation of his authority, and even his very
existence. Sin is therefore a direct opposition to God, a perversion
and misuse of the noblest faculties with which man is endowed, and
involves in its principle, infinite moral evil. As it is committed
against a God of infinite excellence, and as it tends to produce
endless discord, universal rebellion and boundless misery through
the empire of the Eternal, it must be an evil of infinite magnitude.
It is an admission of that principle, which could it possibly prevail
without being checked in its progress, would instigate the whole
race of creatures to join in rebellion against their Creator, and thus
to introduce into the whole government of God, universal anarchy,
misrule, confusion, and every evil work. Now the moral nature of
an cfFence is estimated according to the excellence of the character
Lect. 4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 79
against whom it is committed, the circumstances under which it is
committed, and its tendency to evil. If a child offer an insult to his
earthly parent, his conduct is much more base than such treatment
to a stranger. The more wise, the more kind and good the parent,
the more unnatural and the more hateful is the ingratitude of the
child. If the offence be committed without any provocation, the
guilt of it is attended with greater aggravations. Apply this to
offences, to innumerable provocations committed by dependent
creatures against a God of infinite purity, unbounded wisdom and
unequalled goodness, and you will be at a loss to determine how-
atrocious sach offences are, or what punishment such criminals
deserve. Again, suppose a formidable conspiracy should be raised
against the character, life and laws of those who are invested with
supreme authority in the land, and more especially ifth$t authority
had always been exercised under the direction of wisdom and good*
ness ; such an offence would be branded with the blackest infamy,
and would call for the most ignominious punishment,— for if not
thus immediately and effectually restrained, it would tend to over-
throw the government, jeopardize the lives of its citizens, and
produce the greatest evils to society. Sin, my brethren, is moral
high treason against the Supreme Governor of the Universe. It is
a denial of his truth, a disobedience to his commands, a despite to
his government, a disregard to his threatnings, and a dishonor to his
name. It is an offence of the deepest die, and committed under the
most aggravated circumstances. It has a tendency not only to
tarnish the glory of the Divine Majesty, and to introduce infinite
evil into his government, but if its will were equal to its power, to
dethrone the Almighty and strike him out of existence, and to take
the reins of universal government into its own hands. A being
who commits such atrocious crimes, is deserving of endless punish-
ment. If one man sin against another, the judge shall judge him,
but if a man sin against the Lord, who shall intreat for him?
Is it objected that sin cannot be an evil of infinite magnitude
because it is committed in the brief period of time which constitutes
the present life? This objection is not conclusive, because it
ED COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Let*. 4.
proves too much, since it supposes that no crime can be punished
for a longer period than was consumed in the perpetration of it
But if it be once allowed that a crime may be punished for a longer
term of time than was consumed in the perpetration of it, the whole
objection that a creature cannot in a finite life commit such a sin as
shall deserve an endless punishment, must be given up. For if he
may in one day meditate, form his plan, and commit a crime worthy
of a punishment that shall continue a year, he may in one day com-
mit a crime that is worthy of a punishment that shall continue
during his life. Hence in determining the duration of punishment,
no regard is had to the time taken up in the perpetration of the
crime. Consequently there is no absurdity in supposing that the
crimes of a finite life may deserve an endless punishment. Who-
ever has a just view of the moral nature of sin, will respond to the
sentiments of Eiiphaz the Temanite : " Is not thy wickedness great?
and thine iniquities infinite ?" Our sins, my hearers, are infinite in
number, and in enormity. They have been committed against the
clearest light and the most endearing manifestations of the divino
benevolence, and must deserve infinite punishment.
S. The promises of the Gospel in general afford a direct argument
m favor of endless punishment. These promises are peculiar in two
respects ; they refer to a peculiar kind of blessings, and to a very
peculiar character. They comprise a deliverance from all sin, and
the bestowment of eternal happiness. In establishing this point, I
shall notice a few of those passages of scripture which bring to view
the nature of the Gospel promises.
John says to hi3 Christian brethren, when speaking of the distin>
guishing love of Christ, " we shall be like him ; for we shall see him
as he is." Paul assures us, that ^Christ gave himself for us, that h*
might redeem us from all iniquity and purify unto himself a peculiar
people." For this he travailed in soul, and he will "see of the
travail of his soul and be satisfied." Our Saviour says with respect
to those who overcome, "that they shall walk with me in white ; for
they are worthy." The redeemed are represented as before the
•throne of God, and serving him day and night in his temple, with
Lb«t.4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT 81
robes washed and made white in the blood of the Lamb. In antici-
pation of ibis entire freedom from sin, the Revelator uttered the
following remarkable ascription of praise to the Savior: "Unto hiia
that loved us and washed us from our sins in his own blood." To
show the absolute purity of heaven it is also said, that " there shall
in no wise enter into it any thing that deflleth, neither whatsoever
worketh abomination or maketh a lie, but they which are written in
the Lamb's book of life." These quotations are sufficient to show
that one of the grand objects of the divine promise is a deliverance
from all sin.
The other pequriar blessing included under the promises of the
Gospel, is eternal happiness. I do not deny that other great blessings
are promised in the Gosper, but eternal happiness is a peculiar and
distinguished blessing. Christ has brought "life and immortality
to light in the gospel." "Godliness is profitable unto all things,
having promise of the life that now is, and of that which is to come."
Thus Christians are called "heirs of God, and joiRt heirs with*
Christ." This proves that their inheritance shall be as enduring as
his. St. Matthew says that the righteous "shall shine forth as the-
6un, in the kingdom of their Father." And St. Paul says, that to
those " who by patient continuance in well doing, seek for glory,
honor and immortality, God will, render eternal life." " Being made
free from sin, and become the servants of God, ye have your fruit
unto holiness, and the end everlasting life." Jesus said to his disci-
ples, "I am the bread of life— he that cometh to me shajl never
hunger, and he that believeth on me shall never thirst. Whosoever
drinketh of the water that I shall give him, shall never thirst; but
the water that I shall give him, shall be in him a well of water,
springing up into everlasting life." " The righteous shall* go into
life eternal." " He that overcometh shall not be hurt of the second
death." These passages with a great variety of others, going U>
establish the same point, prove beyond a doubt that perfect holines*
and eternal happiness are the distinguishing characteristics of the*
promises of the gospel..
S2 COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lect.4.
These promises, however, are made to a peculiar character. They
are aot made to mankind in general, a3 are the offers of mercy.
In all the promises of the gospel, perfect holiness and eternal life
are proffered to a defined character. It is he that overcometh, that
shall walk with the Saviour in white. It is to godliness that the
promise is made not only of this life, but also of that which is to
come. Those are called children of God in distinction from the
world, that are joint heirs with Chiist. It is the righteous that shall
»hine forth in the kingdom of God. It is he that believeth that shall
he saved, and the righteous shall go into life eternal. It is to them
who by patient continuance in well doing, seek for glory, honor and
immortality, that God will give eternal life. Now since the prom-
ised blessings of perfect holiness and eternal happiness are in their
application restricted wholly to a particular class of men, termed the
righteous, believers in Christ, children of God, &c, the inference is*
unavoidable that all men will not be saved. When it is said that
to them who by a patient continuance in well doing, seek for glory,
honor and immortality, God will give eternal life, is it not strongly
implied that all will not seek glory and honor and immortality ? and
£0 eternal life will not be given to all ? When it is said " he that
•overcometh shall not be hurt of the second death," does not this
promise imply that all who do not overcome shall be hurt of the
second death ? The scriptures are entirely without force and
meaning, which contain the promises of holiness and happiness
and make these promises to a defined character, if they are applicable
to all. But since these blessings are promised to a defined character,
it is evident that all will not receive eternal happiness. Many will
seek to enter in and shall not be able. But if any are shut out of
heaven, and deprived of eternal happiness, they must of necessity
remain in a state of unspeakable misery. They must go away into
everlasting punishment. They do not fall within the terms of that
definition of character to whom the promises of the gospel are
made, and must of course be excluded from a participation of the
promised blessings.
Lect.4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 83
4. A fourth proof in support of this proposition arises from the
benevolent nature of ike doctrine of endless punishment. The doctrine
of future punishment is a benevolent one. Its benevolence is
manifest from its design and tendency. Our Lord and his apostles
speak of the wrath of God as provoked by nothing but impiety and
immorality. It is the murderer, the thief, the liar, the slanderer,
the impure, and the impenitent, who have to expect the fiery indig-
nation, the future tribulation and anguish. The doctrine, terrible as
it is, leans with its whole stress to the side favorable to virtue. If
any complain of the severity of the threat, let them abandon their
evil ways and its severity will not touch them.
And not only in the preaching of Christ and his apostles is the
threatening clearly attached to nothing else but a vicious and
irreligious life, but it is employed in no other way and for no other
purpose than to enforce the invitations of mercy.
Thus defined and thus employed, the doctrine, painful and appal-
ling as it may be, was clearly a benevolent doctrine. And it must
have been grossly perverted, if in any case it has ceased to deserve
that commendation. It was at first a benevolent doctrine, and such
it has been in all ages of the world ; and such it ever will be con-
sidered to be wherever it is clearly understood. And whoever,
after the example of Christ the Saviour of the world, spends his
time, talents and influence in the endeavor to lead his fellow men
to the arms of the divine compassion, because there remains a
"fearful looking for of judgment and fiery indignation" which shall
fall on the impenitent, is not only not possessed of selfish and
revengeful principles, but deserves the praise and will win the
recompense of the highest and purest philanthropy.
Let no one complain of the severity of this doctrine. Let him
repent and return to God and it shall be well with him. Thb
presents a powerful motive for men to humble themselves before
Almighty God and instantly sue for the pardon of sin. It says,
" Let the wicked forsake his way and the unrighteous man his
thoughts, and let him return unto the Lord and he will have mercy
upon him, and unto our God for he will abundantly pardon."
U COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lect. 4.
5. A ffth proof, in support of this proposition, crises from the
moral perfections and government of God. " God is love" All his
moral excellences, as justice, truth and holiness, are but modifica-
tions of this principle. As his nature is holy and opposed to
whatever is inimical to moral rectitude, his perfections must be
employed to counteract, lessen and prevent the evil tendency of
sin to the universe, to exalt his glory, and to promote the best good
of his everlasting kingdom. For this purpose he rules his accounta-
ble creatures by a holy and benevolent law. The lav/ of infinite
rectitude forms the basis of his administration, and the universal
rule of right and wrong for the government of his subjects.
It is essential to the salutary influence of all laws, that they should
be guarded with a penalty. Without this sanction they would
contain nothing more than advice. And as no blame would be
attached to an individual for refusing to follow the advice of others,
so no punishment would ensue from such a course. Consequently,
the law of God without this sanction would not forbid us to love the
objects of this world more than his infinite excellence, to reject the
appointments of his wisdom, to dispute the authority of his govern-
ment, and to introduce confusion and every evil work into his fair
creation. Hence the law of God is clothed with a most tremendous
penalty. And the dignity and stability of the divine government
require that this law should be implicitly obeyed ; and if obedience
be withheld, that the penalty should be inflicted upon the
.transgressor.
This point may be illustrated by the following remark : Good
will to the citizens of any government, requires that the constituted
authorities should take all proper measures for the execution of
justice on offenders in conformity with the spirit of the laws, and
for the general good of their constituents. Should they tacitly
permit the laws to be violated with impunity, they would invite
disobedience, and would suffer the peace and good order of society
to be destroyed. Such conduct would be an expression of the
highest malevolence to that government, the best interests of which
it was their duty to protect and promote. It follows that the same
-Lect.4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. U
principle of benevolence which in any good government will lead
the constituted authorities to enact the best code of laws, will lead
them also to call to account and inflict due punishment upon those
who should obstinately refuse submission to these laws.
Let this remark be applied to the moral government of God, and
it will satisfactorily appear that he cannot suffer sin to go unpun-
ished. Did he not invariably execute the penalty annexed to hi*
law, the whole universe would be thrown into a state of anarchy and
confusion. God is love, and he manifests his benevolence as would
a supreme magistrate, who calls public offenders to justice and
inflicts on them the penalties of the law.
Human minds are so linked together in this state of being that
ire almost necessarily transmit our characters, sentiments and
dispositions, from one to the other. An evil example, or a corrupt
sentiment, may be lodged in the mind of an individual and produce
fruit an hundred fold. This one person, corrupted, communicates
the poison to his associates, and they again to theirs, and thus it
may go on and increase from generation to generation; and its
influence may surpass all power of calculation. It may extend
beyond the sphere of human society, and reach beyond the bounds
of time. Who can say,that if its progress were not arrested, it would
not continue to extend its influence to the remote ages of eternity?
So this one mind, corrupted, may become the centre of a vortex
which shall draw into its voracious gulf, millions of millions of
immortal minds. Such wide and wasting ruin may be the extended
result of one evil example or corrupt sentiment. Hence the pun-
ishment of those who have set the laws of God at defiance, is
appointed as an example to the rest of creation. Their offence
being infinite, as it is the violation of an infinite obligation, and as
it tends to produce infinite disorder to the government of God, it is
necessary that the expression of his abhorrence of their crime
should be proportionate to its malignity. Such an expression was
the death of Christ. But this avails only on behalf of those who
are by faith personally and savingly interested in the merits of his
death. All who do not possess this temper of mind and tenor of
H
86 COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lect 4,
life, must be " set forth as examples suffering the vengeance of
eternal fire," and thus like enemies and traitors to a human govern-
ment, be made to answer such an end by their death as shall
counteract the evil influence of the example afforded by their life.
6. Jl sixth proof of the truth we are noiv considering^ is most
strikingly manifested in ths death of Christ. His tears and groans
and blood on Calvary, all proclaim " the soul that sinneth it shall
die." That God, consistently with his official character as moral
Governor of the universe, might bestow the riches of his grace upon
penitent sinners, was one principal object in the mission of our
Saviour to earth. All mankind had transgressed the divine Lrw,
and the punishment of this transgression had been rendered indis-
pensable. It would be inconsistent with the divine perfections to
suffer the law of God to be violated with impunity. It would have
an unfavorable bearing upon the divine holiness, law and govern-
ment. It would imply that God did not regard the transgression of
his lav/ as an atrocious evil. But sin wag an evil of such a magni-
tude, so heinous in the divine mind, that a holy God could not suffer
it to pass without an adequate testimonial of the abhorrence in
which it was held by him.
But how great an evil, let me ask, was it esteemed in the sight
of the omniscient Jehovah ? What sacrifice must be made, rather
than that it should in any instance be pardoned without an adequate
satisfaction ? This wre learn from the event. The sacrifice which
God made was no less than the Son of his love, an innocent victim,
given up to suffer and die the accursed death of the cross. Nothing
short of this could have afforded an adequate expression of the
malignity of sin. Could its foul stain have been removed and its
everlasting consequences prevented at a cheaper rate, surely the
only begotten Son of God had not poured out his soul unto death
for the remission of sins. It is the characteristic of infinite wisdom
to expend no more upon an object than its attainment requires.
Hence we must believe that Christ suffered no more than was
necessary to satisfy the claims of justice and to procure our pardon
and justification, Here then the demerit of sin is to be learned
Lect.4.) ESS PUNISHMENT. 87
Jesus Christ, an inn victim, the object of the Father's ever-
lasting love, pmst suffer end die, not an ordinary death, but the
ignominious tortures iiixion. He must suffer all that Omnipo-
tence could inflict bat human nature, supported by divinity,
could endure. e view the intense agonies of the Son of
God, in the g smane and upon the cross, we see the
infinite evil of sin.
But the sttfi th of Christ does not constitute the
sinner any in re :ct of the divine favor, nor any the less
deserving of punishment. Sin is sin still. The death of Christ
instead of lessening, has enhanced the evil of sin. For this is our
"condemnation that light is come into the world and men love
darkness rather than light." — (John 3: 19.) Sin is now an evil of
greater magnitude, as it is committed against greater light and love
than it would have been had not Jesus died. And the sinner is still
in the hands of justice, and is exposed to that awful punishment
which is so strikingly manifested by the death of Christ*
7. The doctrine of endless punishment may be argued from the
joy of angels over Viz repentance of sinners. "I s.ay unto you, that
likewise joy shell be in heaven ever one sinner that repenteth, more
than ninety and nine jest persons which need no repentance." —
(Luke 15: 7.) " There is joy in the presence of the angels of God
over one sinner that repenteth." — (Luke 15: 10.) It is a ^principle
of human nature, that the recovery of an object in danger of being
lost, affords much more joy than the oxuiet possession of one that is
safe. This our Lord illustrated by the case of the lost sJieep and of
the piece ofsilv&r* It might be illustrated by many other facts and
considerations. On this same principle, there is joy io heaven
among the angels of God over those who repent on earth. Itcaanot.
be implied that there is more joy in heaven over one penitent sin-
ner, than over ninety and nine self-righteous Pharisees; for these
last would cause that holy society to weep rather than to rejoice.
The sense is, there is more joy over one penitent sinner than over
ninety and nine (or over however many) really just persons, such as
the Pharisees supposed themselves to be. Our Saviour did not
U COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lect. 4.
Mtean to imply that there were any just persons on earth, who need
ao repentance. There never have been any, and there never will
Ve any.— (EccL 7 : 20— Psl. 14 : 2, 3— Rom. 3 : 10-38.) He meant
merely, that angels rejoice over the repentance of one sinner more
fchanTthey do over many just ones like themselves who have never
waned. But why this joy of angels over those who repent of their
«ms on earth ? They see the guilt and danger of men — they know
what God has done for them, and they rejoice at the recovery of any
from the ruins of the fall. Angels whose opportunities of observing
and capacities of judging are vastly superior to ours, know of how
much value is the immortal soul. They know that every sinner
must perish unless he repents, and they rejoice at his repentance
because it brings him back from the love and service of sin to the
love and service of God, and because it will deliver him from a
•ourse of eternal sinning and suffering, and raise him to glory and
honor and immortality. Were not the souls of men of immense
Talue — were they not in imminent danger of being lost — and were
not this loss irretrievable — would angels thus rejoice over the re-
pentance of sinners ? Surely not. But they know what is meant
by eternal death, and hence their deep feeling and intense anxiety
about the soul that can never die. And hence their joy over the
repentant sinner.
8. The unutterable anxiety which inspired men felt for the conver-
sion of sinners, is a further proof that the fate of those who die in
their sins will be inconcievably dreadful. The adage is just, that
" actions speak louder than words." The apostles preached and
prayed and labored as though they were deeply concerned for the
salvation of men. They earnestly desired and fervently prayed that
sinners might be converted. Take for example the apostle PauL
He wept over the " enemies of the cross of Christ," who minded
only earthly things, and whose end he feared would be destruction.
It was his heart's desire and prayer to God that his brethren, the
Jews, might believe in Christ as the true Messiah, and be saved.
He had great heaviness and continual sorrow of heart, and was
willing to make any sacrifice, however great, if he might thereby
Lect. 4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 89
promote the salvation of men. Such was the conduct of Paul. The
reason for his conduct he has in one instance assigned. " Knowing
therefore the terrors of the Lord, we persuade men." — (2 Cor. 5:11.)
Here we learn that the apprehension he had of the terrors of the
Lord, was the cause of his solicitude and exertion in persuading
men. By this terror of the Lord, he could not mean some evil to
be suffered in this life by those who should not regard his persua-
sions. He had been citing his brethren to the judgment seat of
Christ, where all must appear and receive the things done in the
body according to that they have done, whether they be good or
bad. It was doubtless this terror of the Lord, revealed at the judg-
ment, which induced him to persuade men.
But waiving this point, suppose the terror of the Lord meant
nothing more than temporal judgments, inflicted on those who
rejected the gospel. Then we have the apostle exhausting the
energies of his mind and body in labors, dangers and sufferings, to
persuade men away from some possible safferings that they might
experience in the present life, if they did not repent; and to per-
suade them to encounter the more sure and severe calamities that
were the inevitable lot of the Christian. Further, if Paul knew (and
he did know it if true) that all men would be eventually saved,
would he not have told the world that it was not from the considera-
tion of the terrors of the judgment seat of Christ, that he was
induced to persuade men ? The terror, on this supposition, would
not be from rejecting the gospel, but from receiving it, which
exposed a man to temporal dangers. The apostle then ought to
have said, knowing the terror of bonds and imprisonments, the rack
and the btake. which those must experience who repent, we per-
suade men not to embrace the Christian religion. The terror was
on the other side of the question. It was the receiving and not the
rejecting of the gospel, that exposed a man to temporal dangers.
Hence if Paul labored solely to promote the temporal welfare of hi*
fellow men, to be consistent he must have persuaded them not %o
embrace that religion which led to labors, dangers, and suffering.
On another occasion, giving an explanation of the reasons of h'm
90 COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Iect. 4.
conduct, he says, "that he might by all means save some" Paul was
anxious not only to conduct himself so as to secure the salvation of
his fellow-creatures, but that all to whom the treasure of the gospel
was committed should do the same. This is apparent from his ad-
dress to Timothy : iC Take heed unto thyself and unto thy doctrine ;
continue in them : for in doing this, thou shalt both save thyself and
them that hear thee." Now, upon the supposition that Paul knew
that all men would be saved, it is strange that he snould manifest
this solicitude about it. It is not natural for mankind to be anxious
for an event to take place, which they know cannot be prevented.
We see no one anxious lest the sun should not continue to rise and
set, and the seasons observe their appointed successions. And the
reason is obvious. All men are satisfied that the sun will continue
to rise and set, and the seasons observe their successions, as they
have done. Now, if Paul knew, (and if it is a truth, he did unques-
tionably know it,) that all men would be saved, why this anxiety
respecting their salvation ? His conduct can be accounted for, only
on the supposition that he considered his hearers to be in eminent
danger of being finally lost
If it be replied, that his efforts were to save men from the trou-
bles of this life ; I would ask, if his converts were wont to experi-
ence that kind of salvation ? Did he expect they would ? Did he
not rather tell them, that all who will live godly in Christ Jesus,
shall suffer persecution ? From what else, then, did he labor to
save men, but from the "everlasting destruction from the presence
of the Lord and the glory of his power." Here was an object
worthy of the labors of an apostle.
But, suppose Paul had actually devoted his life to the spread of
the gospel that held out universal immunity from punishment in the
future life ; would not his course of life and tone of preaching have
been far different ? Those who preach such a gospel, to be con-
sistent, must labor to convince men that hell is a chimera, and
heaven the sure portion of the sinner as, well as the saint. And
was this the main point to which the labors of Paul were directed ?~
Were all the energies of his soul, directed to the purpose of per-
Lect.4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT 91
suading men that there was no hell, no wrath to come, and that
every course of sin was sure to end in heaven ? Was he careful
to make it appear that the damnation of which he sometimes spoke,
meant nothing more than temporal evils ? No. The precepts and
examples of Paul, then, are every way, a standing evidence of the
doctrine of endless punishment.
9. Another proof of the doctrine in question, is derived from its
tendency to produce genuine practical piety. " Every good tree
bringeth forth good fruit ; but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil
fruit." The characters of men are known by their conduct, and by
their influence upon society. We have no other means of judging
of the characters of individuals. Just so we say, there is no other
criterion by which we may test religious systems, than by their
effects upon those who embrace them. And we judge that religious
system most accordant with truth and sound principles, which pro-
duces the best practical results.
Now, that system which holds the doctrine of eternal punishment
leads many persons to come out from the world by an open and public
profession of their faith in Christ. It is an undoubted requisition
of Christianity, that men should unite themselves in a distinct body,
known as a Church. The apostles, and early christians, did thus
unite themselves together, by their own voluntary consent. Saul,
after his conversion, essayed to join himself to the disciples. They
received the ordinances of the gospel : Baptism, and the Lord's
Supper. They had elders appointed, and deacons chosen; and
persons were publicly excommuaicated when they departed from
the faith, or habitually violated the precepts of religion. Ever
since the establishment of the Christian religion, there has been a
public profession of faith, and a regular organization of churches,
wherever religion has prospered. At the present time, that system
which holds the doctrine of eternal punishment, leads mulitudes to
come out from the world, and to publicly profess their faith in Christ.
Nor does it produce this result in those places merely, where this
doctrine is popular; but it plants churches in the midst of opposition
and reproach, and induces those who embrace Christ, publicly to
93 COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lbot.4.
profess Lis name and to endure reproach for his sake. Where is
there a parallel to this, among those systems of religion which re-
ject the doctrine of endless punishment? Wherever they the
more extensively prevail, there is the less of religious profession.
Look over the country, and you will find but very few who have
been led by these systems to come out from the world and profess
religion. When Paul went to a certain place and preached, many
believed and were baptized. He organized a church, appointed its
proper officers, and went to another place ; and the same results
generally followed. It is so still, in very many places where those
ministers preach who hold the doctrine of endless punishment.
Here is an evidence that this is the true doctrine.
Again, that system which holds the doctrine of eternal punish-
ment, leads io a life of prayer, and to active exertion to send the gospel
to the destitute. There is scarcely any one duty more powerfully
enforced, and more frequently insisted on, in the New Testament,
than the duty of prayer. Our Saviour frequently inculcated this
duty, and enforced it by his own example. The apostle Paul fre-
quently instructed his fellow-christians to pray always with all
prayerjj; and the disciples are frequently represented as convened
together for a prayer meeting. Now, observe the fact, that very
many of those who believe in endless punishment, do actually pray
in the public assembly, in the social circle, in their families, and
maintain secret devotion. Believers in endless punishment do now
frequenly convene together for the purpose of prayer. But on
what occasions do the objectors to endless punishment hold prayer
aseeting? And is neglect of prayer a fruit of correct views of
religion ? Rather, is not that the true system of religion, which
leads to a life of prayer ? And does not the doctrine of endless
punishment, as held by the Orthodox, produce such a result? This
doctrine also leads to active exertion. It will not be denied that our
Saviour felt a spirit of compassion for the spiritual welfare of men.
This led him to leave the highest throne above, and to submit to
the cross of deepest woe. The apostles, richly imbued with his
spirit, went every where preaching the word. They endured many
Lect. 4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 93
labors, dangers, and sufferings. They counted not their lives dear
unto themselves, if they might finish their course with joy, in testi-
fying the gospel of the grace of God.
Now the same spirit prevails in some good degree among those
who hold the doctrine of eternal punishment, — some have given
their property, others have relinquished their fortunes, friends,
country and all, for the sake of bearing the glad tidings of the gos-
pel to the ends of the earth. Now what society of objectors make
such sacrifices to send the gospel to the destitute ? No one can be
found. And have not those denominations who are planting then'
missions all over the heathen world, a better claim to be considered .
as actuated by the spirit of Christ than those who stay at home and
oppose this work ? Again, that system which maintains the doctrine
of endless punishment, often reclaims men from vicious habits and
from a life of sin. The Methodist missionaries among the Indians
of Canada, inform us that of an extensive tribe where drunkenness-
extensively prevailed, almost the whole body of the people have
been led through the sanctifying influence of the gospel, to abandon
wholly the use of intoxicating stimulants. When David Brainard
preached the gospel to our western Indians and they felt its heavenly
influence, they abandoned their habits of witchcraft, drunkenness,
and idolatry, to which they had been wholly addicted. And
wherever the gospel has been preached by the Orthodox in Christian
or heathen lands,, and has been believed, it has produced an entire
reformation in the heart and the life. Now does the opposite
system often reclaim men from vicious habits and from a life of sin?
I have seen the objectors to endless punishment converted to a
belief of this system, and on this change taking place, I have seen
a happy change in their moral deportment. But can an instance be
found in which a devout, and humble, and consistent believer in
endless punishment, has become more pious and heavenly by reject-
ing that doctrine and embracing the opposite scheme. The process
is something like this : They neglect the private and public duties
of religion ; leave the communion table and the conference room ;
fall into some habitual vices, and then embrace a svstem which
94 COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lect. 4.
advocates the salvation of all men. You will often hear it said of
an individual, that a few years ago it was thought that he experienced
religion. But since he has become vicious, he has been excommu-
nicated from the church and joined with the Universalists. But
you never hear the reverse of this with respect to any one. Here
then is a further evidence that that system is the* true one which
corrects the habits and reforms the life.
Once more, — the system which holds the doctrine of endless
punishment, never occasions distress in a dying hour ; while its
opposite frequently hads to the most distressing apprehensions on a
dzalh bed. I do not say that all the objectors to endless punishment
find their foundation to fail them in a dying hour. They may
sometimes die in peace. Men whd have been ardently attached to
a theory like theirs, who are attached to their country, may die
bravely in its defence. Nor is it pretended that all who embrace
the opposite system die in peace and triumph. The point to which
I wish to call your attention is this : — When the objector to endless
punishment dies in distress of mind, he charges his distressing
apprehensions upon the character of his religious system; but when
the believer in endless punishment dies in distress, he charges his
distressing apprehensions not to the character of his system, but to
ills nonconformity to its principles. Though he may exclaim, I am
going to hell, yet he does not disavow the principles he formerly
embraced. He does not say, this false and dangerous system has
ruined my soul. He only laments that his life was not conformed
to its principles. But the objector on his death bed cries out, I am
going to kcli, and warns his friends not to embrace a religious
system that has rained his soul. Be disavows it, and declares that
it will not abide the trials of a dying hour. Is it said that those
who renounced their belief in the doctrine of universal salvation in
a dying hour, never really believed it? Well, but there are
instances efpersens who pretend to believe in future punishment
who never really believe in it. And why do not they confess their
hypocrisy in the hour of death? The doctrine of endless punish-
ment harmonizes with the dictates of an enlightened conscience,
Lect. 4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 95
and the serious convictions of an enlightened mind in a dying hour.
These are evidences that it is a doctrine of the Bible, and ought
to be believed.
10. The last proof of the doctrine in question which I shall now
bring, is derived from the facts exhibited in the state of fallen angels,
and in those of our race who have died in impenitence. Angels who
kept not their first estate, but sinned against the Most High, were
cast down from heaven, and are reserved in chains of darkness, unto
the judgment of the great day, to be punished. Banished from the
presence of God and the society of the Blessed, they will never
more enjoy that society, nor behold his face in peace. For them
no mercy is designed. As they have lost the knowledge, image,
and favor of the only Source of enjoyment to moral natures, and as
no mercy is provided for them, they must of course be miserable
forever.
Sinners of our race who have closed their mortal career in
impenitence, are left in the same hopeless condition. While on
earth, "they were of their father the devil, and the lusts of their
father they will do," (John 8 : 44.) and now with him they have
departed accursed into everlasting lire prepared for the devil and
his angels.
Such were the antedeluvians, who disregarded the expostulations
and admonitions of Noah, during the term of God's long suffering,
while the ark was preparing. The patience of God having been at
length quite exhausted, he brought in the flood upon the world of
the ungodly. The deluge came and swept to destruction these
despisers of the riches of divine grace.
Such were the inhabitants of Sodom and the other cities of the
plain. When Lot warned them of their approaching ruin, they
regarded him as one that mocked. But having filled up the measure
of their iniquity, "by their unlawfnl deeds," they were swept from
the earth by a storm of fire and brimstone rained down from heaven,
and many hundreds of years afterwards were represented by Jude
as " examples to those who should afterwards live ungodly, suffering
the vengeance of eternal fire."
96 COLLATERAL PROOFS OF (Lsex. 4.
Such was Judas, the betrayer of our Lord, of whom it was said,
H Good for that man if he had never been born." Such were the
Jews, who crucified their Lord and then refused to believe on him
.as the true Messiah.
Look at these facts to which we have here alluded. Do they ex-
hibit no marks of God's hatred to sin ; no evidence of his determin-
ation to punish it in all those who go on still is ther trespasses ?
•Do they not exemplify these principles and arguments laid down in
his discourse? Do they not deelare the endless punishment of the
sinner ? These are facts that cannot be controverted, and therefore
furnish a practical proof of the endless punishment of the wicked.
Thus it appears, my dear hearers, from the constitution and fitness
of things; from the evil nature and tendency of sin ; from the
promises of the gospel ; from the moral perfections and government
of God; from the sufferings and death of Christ; from the joy of
angels over the repentance of sinners; from the unutterable
anxiety of inspired men for their conversion ; from the tendency of
the doctrine of endless punishment; and from the facts exhibited
in the case of fallen angels, and finally impenitent men ; that our
text is fully established, so far as it is possible for human reason to
confirm the dictates of Revelation. " The soul that sinneth, it shall
die." — It & shall go awaj into everlasting punishment."
From the view which we have taken of this subject, we may
learn,
l3t. In. what light mankind should regard themselves, considered
OfS sinners. That we are all contaminated with sin, but few will
wholly deny. But it is one thing to acknowledge in general that
we are sinners, and quite another to have a scriptural view of our
guilt and danger. While the impenitent will not wholly extenuate
their guilt, they are grossly and wilfully ignorant of the exceeding
sinfulness of sin, and of the nature and duration of that punishment
which is the just desert of the sinner. But in this and the preceding
lectures, you, my impenitent hearers, have been presented with a
mass of scripture evidence to prove that dying in your present
character, endless misery will be your inevitable doom. Nothing'
Lect. 4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT, 97
but alienation of heart, and an unwillingness to come to the light,
can possibly hinder you from perceiving this testimony which so
fully exhibits this important truth. Only one positive proof remains,
which I pray God none of my hearers may ever receive; the actual
endurance of the pains of hell forever.
Fellow sinner, your condition is truly alarming. Would you be
convinced of your guilt as transgressors of the divine law ; would
you open your eyes to your danger, hanging over the burning billows
of eternal woe, you could not remain easy until you had obtained a
satisfactory evidence that your soul had been cleansed, and your
pardon sealed in that blood which was shed on Calvary for the
remission of sin.
2d. Another inference worthy of notice is, that sinners have no
excuse to plead for presuming that God will not punish them eternally*
From the nature of the case it is evident, that the sinner, who is in
supreme love with sin, and who is destitute of the knowledge, like-
ness and favor of God, must, if left to himself, retain his present
character, die in his sins., and be forever miserable. Unless Jehovah
should change, he could not be happy were he admitted to heaven.
But Jehovah cannot change ; for the least alteration in his character
would mar its perfection and subvert his moral government. How
then can the sinner, who has not one qualification for the heavenly
inheritance, be happy ? From correct reasonings on the nature and
desert of sin, the perfections of God, and his relation to the universe
as its moral Governor, it has been proved that the soul that sinneth
it shall die. From facts and considerations which exhibit these
4
■ principles, and from direct scripture testimony, the same truth i3
clearly exhibited. Have sinners then any excuse for believing that
the punishment of the wicked will not be endless? Is not every
ground of excuse covered ? Has not the Lord written their char-
acter and sentence as with the brightness of the sunbeams ? They
want not evidence of the truth of our text.
3d. Again we remark, that this subject furnishes sinners milh a
powerful motive to induce them to forsake their sins. It not only leads
them to a just discovery of the evil and demerit of sin, but urges
l
98 COLLATERAL PROOFS OP (Lect. 4,
them to forsake it. And why should they not forsake that which i*
in itself so vile, and so at war with their own happiness and the
happiness of the universe ?
That you, fellow sinners, may not continue in sin till your term
of probation is closed, and your final destiny is sealed in the pit of
woe, permit me to point you to the only door of hope. This is the
Lord Jesus Christ. Behold the compassionate and suffering Jesus
on Calvary, pouring out his soul in bitter agonies for the expiation
of sin! Hear the language of my text in his dying groans, "The
foul that sinneth it shall die !" How strong was his love ; how deep
was his compassion ! And can you withstand such love, such com-
passion ! Did the Son of God die for such rebels as we, and can
you persist in sin and resist all overtures of his mercy ? O surely
you cannot. Methinks I hear you say, " What a rebel I have been.;
I have been the most ungrateful creature on earth ; I have sinned
against the Lord, and wronged my own soul. I see my danger; I
am under the wrath of God, justly condemned, and deserving of
eternal banishment from all that is desirable in heaven.
"My lips with shame my sin confess
Against thy law, against thy grace ;
Lord should thy judgment grow severe,
I am condemned, but thou art clear.
" Should sudden vengeance seize my breath,
I must pronounce thee just in death ;
And if my soul were sent to hell,
Thy righteous law approves it well.
"Yet save a trembling sinner, Lord!
Whose hope still hovering round thy word,
Would light on some sweet promise there.
Some sure support against despair."
L*q*. 4.) ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. *»
I see a sufficient fullness in Jesus Christ 1 I am overcome with
thy mercy, Lord Jesus ! I yield and give my heart to God ! I
believe, help my unbelief!
" Here Lord I give myself away,
Tis all that I can do."
God of all grace, grant of thine infinite mercy, that every sinn«r
in this assembly may prove himself this humble, sincere, and grate
ful penitent, and to thy name be all the glory ! Amen.
IJBCTI7RE V.
CONSTITUENT PARTS OP THE FUTURE PUNISHMENT
OF THE WICKED.
Mark ix : 44. — "Where their worm dieih not, and the fire is not
quenched"
This. language is highly figurative. The figures are clearly
taken from Isaiah lxvi : 24. In describing the future glory, peace
and prosperity of the kingdom of the Messiah, Isaiah says that the
people of God shall go forth and look upon the carcasses of men
who have transgressed against the Lord. Their enemies shall be
overcome and slain,, and they shall be delivered out of the hand of
their oppressors, and shall triumph over all their foes. The figures
are taken from heaps of the dead slain in battle ;. and the prophet
says that the number shall be so great that their worm which feed*
upon them shall not die, while there are carcasses to be devoured ;
and that the fire used to barn the bodies of the dead shall net be
extinguished till they are consumed. The figures, therefore, denote
great misery, and certain and terrible destruction.
By these sensible images our Saviour describes the torments of
hell, as by the sensible image of reclining upon the bosom of
Abraham he describes the bliss of heaven. They are intended to
denote that the destruction of the wicked will be awful, wide spread,
and eternal. In this sense our Saviour must have been understood
when he uttered the solemn declaration of our text ; for these
emblematical images were in use among the Jews to express the
Lect. 5.) FUTURE PUNISHMENT. 101
doctrine of future punishment long before the time of our Saviour.
The son of Sirach says, " The vengeance of the ungodly is fire and
worms" — Eccl. vii : 17 And Judith says, "Woe to the nations that
rise up against my kindred ! the Lord Almighty shall take vengeance
on them in the day of judgment, in putting fire and worms into their
flesh ; and they shall feel them and weep forever." — Judith xvi: 17.
Hence our Lord in warning his hearers to part with all occasions of
gin, however valued, and pressing this duty from the consideration
of the "Gehenna of fire," ''where their worm dieth not and the fire is
not quenched,' which is the certain doom of all who persist in sin,
must have been understood as asserting the common doctrine of the
day, the doctrine to which they held whom he addressed, and which
they were accustomed to express in the same terms.
It is not to be supposed that there will be any real worm .in hell-
perhaps no material fire. How can a living worm, or an elementary
fire operate on the soul, which is a spiritual substance. Further,
the fire must needs be extinguished when the pile was consumed :
and the worms must die when the food on which they fed failed.
But our Saviour tells us that the worm of the wicked dieth not, and
the fire is not quenched. That our Saviour did not mean to be
understood as asserting or even implying that the wicked would be
burnt in the valley of Kinnon, is evident from the very language
of our text, and the source whence he derived it. He quoted the
phraseology of our text from Isaiah, as we have already noticed.
And this phraseology as used by Isaiah, did not originate from the
fires in the valley of Ilinnon ; for the scenes in question never had
existence in his day. The desecration of the valley of Hinnon by
Josiah, and of course the use of fires there to consume the offal,
prevented its breeding a pestilence, did not take place until more
than sixty years after the death of Isaiah. He must then mean a
spiritual punishment which would be ioathesome, dreadful, and
eternal.
As there is much diversity of opinion respecting what will consti-
tute th.3 principal ingredients in that cup which will be the portion
of the wicked in the future world; and as a scriptural view of this
m CONSTITUENT PARTS OF (Lect, 5,
subject will serve to illustrate the equity of the divine procedure
in pimishing the wicked forever ; I shall on the present occasion
enquire — Of what the punishment of the wicked in the future ivorld
will consist ? or in other words, what is included in the terms, "Tho
worm that dieth not," and " the fire that is not quenched.''
The gnawing worm and the unquenchable fire which will prey
ypon the wicked hereafter, includes
t. Their passions and desires. That these are capable of prey*
ing upon tlie sinner and occasioning even in this life the most acute
sufferings, those of you whose passions' and desires are naturally
strong, need not be informed. They were implanted in our nature
by our wise and benevolent Creator, to extend the means of our
happiness, by rendering us more capable of loving, serving and
enjoying him ; and when directed to proper objects, and under the
restraining influence of divine grace, they are the sources of inno-
cent enjoyment. But in consequence of the depravity of our
natures, and the powerful objects which act upon these passions and
desires, they are often intemperately excited ; and gathering force
by gratification, and irritated by the interference of those who pur-
sue the same objects, they hurry men into every kind of excess —
burst forth into all the variety of crimes that have prevailed in every
age and nation, and produce every species of immorality, impiety,
blasphemy, and of other daring offences against the supreme Gov-
ernor of the universe. And from their sinful indulgence a great
amount of temporal suffering is occasioned. In confirmation of this
I would refer you to facts. Look at the envious man who turns
pale, and who feels a secret pang when be hears a more fortunate
rival commended, or sees him successful. Is not the envious mart
his own tormentor? "Envy slayeth the silly one. — (Job v:2.)
"Envy is the rottenness of the bones." — (Job xiv : 30.) It consumes
the flesh, preys -upon the spirits, makes the countenance pallid, and
is the rottenness of the bones. "Who can stand before envy?"
Look at the covetous mar, who wears himself out in the pursuit of
wealth, and \i daily harassed with craving desires and anxious cares.
Can any worm gnaw like these ? "The love of money is the root
Lect. 5.) FUTURE PUNISHMENT. 10&
of all evil, which while some have coveted after, they have erred
from the faith, and pierced themselves through with many sorrows."
(Tim. vi : 10.) Their thoughts are busied, their time occupied, their
attention wearied, the vigor of both their mind and body exhausted,
and their whole soul immersed in harassing avocations. These
render them constantly unhappy. Look at the votary of ambition.
He first aims at some humble office — obtains it, and looks forward
to one of higher rank. This also being obtained, he is still more
anxious for another of still higher grade, Thus, like a chariot
wheel, he heats himself in his career. He endures wearisome days,
and painful nights, w^hile he eagerly pants for promotion ; but is
kept down by a more fortunate rival or by some adverse circum-
stances. He is constantly jealous of a competitor, and his mind is
full of contrivances to overreach or circumvent his antagonist, to
humble his rival, and to gain that popular applause which floats on
the breath of the unthinking multitude. Is there no gnawing worm
ct work in his breast ? Look at the man of pride and vanity, who
adores his person and possessions, and attempts to appear before
others in a superior light to what he is, and who envies the excel-
lencies that others possess ; is anxious to gain admirers ; is impatient
of contradiction, and is filled with distress or rage at every real or
fancied neglect. Is there no corroding tooth at work in his breast?
Look at the passionate and revengeful man, " who hath no rule over
his own spirit."' Is not the very bosom of his enjoyment a thorny
pillow? Look at the drunkard, whose soul is inflamed with intoxi-
cating potions. Does he not experience unnumbered woes,
unalleviat.ed sorrows, angry contentions, riotous babblings, and deep
and cureless wounds? Look at the man of pleasure, who seeks for
happiness in the ways of transgression, and finds that
*Each pleasure hath its poison too,
And every sweet its snare ; '"'
and you will find fresh proof of this truth.
It is true that the sinful indulgence of these passions and desirea
do not render men completely miserable in this life. They are
often attended with a high degree of mirth and jollity. And when.
104 CONSTITUENT PARTS OF (Lect.5.
they would lead from sin to sin and from crime to crime, their influ-
ence is controlled by counteracting causes.
But in the future world the passions and desires of the sinner
will start up into giant strength. All outward and inward restraints
will be removed. The impenitent and obdurate sinner, who in the
midst of light and knowledge, with vivid conceptions of his duty,
has lived without God in the world ; has violated the laws of both
natural and revealed religion ; outraged the best affections of his
heart, and trampled upon the dearest interests of mankind ; will
there rind that his passions and desires are his tormentors. There
the wicked will find nothing to divert their attention, to raise their
expectation, or to assist them for a moment in forgetting their
misery. Every object of desire will now be taken away, while the
desire will not only remain, but be increased in an inconceivable
intensity. It seems to be the wise design of the great liewarder,
to punish his guilty creatures in the world to come with those very
passions which they have in this life perverted to gratify a depraved
heart. Hence the punishment of the wicked will be proportionate
to the number and aggravation of their sins. The glutton and the
drunkard will be forever tortured with inconceivable hunger and
thirst. The spiritual sluggard will be incessantly goaded with
prickling thorns and btirning stings. The envious man will be
overwhelmed with the pains of disappointed malignity ! O how he
will envy the saints in light! Their sweet songs — their golden
harps — their robes of spotless purity — are all materials for the cor-
rosion of his envy — for the gnawing of that worm which never dies.
The man of pride will be filled with "shame and everlasting con-
tempt." The shame of being lost, how insupportable ! Who can
bear the slow finger of scorn as it points to the guilty outcasts from
the divine favor ? Where will the sinner hide from the shame of
his nakedness ? He gathers up perhaps his mantle of self-right-
eousness, and folds it around him, but alas, it is all filthiness and
rags. He is ashamed to wear it. He is ashamed of the unholy
influence which he has exerted — ashamed of his companies in
guilt— ashamed to look up to that world of light and glory which h%
Lect.5.) FUTURE PUNISHMENT. 105
might have inherited— ashamed as he there beholds the saints ia
glory. And contempt coupled with shame. Oh! who can bear
contempt ? We shun it as an adder that? biteth. But the portion
of the wicked will be "shame and contempt." The covetous will
be straitened with inexpressible want. The man of a jealous dis-
position will there find that this most cruel and unrelenting of all
the passions will find full scope. All the fires of hell cannot burn it
out. The floods of perdition cannot drown it. Those who loved
cursing — cursing shall come upon them. As all restraints will be
removed, the passions must rise to the highest pitch of fury ; and as
there will be nothing to divert them from one object to another, or
give them that respite which sleep now affords, they must be sources
of inconceivable misery.
Nor is this all. Nothing inflames passion more than suffering.
Men who at other times can preserve an equanimity of temper,
often become impatient, discontented, and enraged when afflicted
with pain and sickness, or harassed with losses and disappointments.
How terrible then will the passions ofthe wicked be enraged by the
sufferings of a future state, where no respite of pain, no consolation
of sorrow, no hope in despair can be found; but where they must
suffer the most extreme anguish forever and ever! O how will
they curse themselves and rage against their former madness and
fully, to think of the low delights and criminal pleasures of flesh
for the sake of which they consented to part with their God and their
reversion in the skies ! How will they curse God, and look upward
and blaspheme him because of their plagues! No doubt this prin-
ciple of malignity which predominates in the hearts of the wicked,
will be the source of the greater part of that misery they are
doomed to sutler in the eternal world. We need represent to our-
selves nothing more horrible in the place of punishment, than by
supposing that the Almighty will leave the wicked to themselves to
give full scope to their malevolent dispositions, and " to eat of the
fruit of their own ways, and to be filled with their own devices."
The effects produced by the uncontrolled influence of pride, ambi-
tion, malignant passions, falsehood, deceit, envy, hatred, malice and
106 CONSTITUENT PARTS OF (Lect. 5.
revenge, which now exercise a sovereign sway over the hearts of
the wicked, would be such a3 may be fitly represented by the
emblems of the " worm that never dies, and the fire that is never
quenched," and of their necessary concomitants, " weeping, and
wailing, and gnashing of teeth." Let us sappose many thousands
of millions of such characters as Nero, Tiberius, Caligula, Antiochus,
Epiphanes, Hamilcar, Asdrubal, Tamerlane, Mustapha, and Bona-
parte associated together in a world where no pleasing objects meet
the eye or cheer the heart; and let us suppose that the malignant
passions which reigned in their minds during their mortal career,
still continue to rage with uncontrolled and perpetual violence
sgainst all surrounding associates : in this case such a scene of
misery would be produced as exceeds all power of thought. This
is the society of hell ; this is the essence of future misery.
2. The gnawing worm and unquenchable fire of which our
Saviour speaks, includes the understanding of simiers. In this life,
their understanding is blinded and perverted in consequence of a
depraved heart. But in the future state it will be cleared and
enlarged. Then they will " see as they are seen, and know as they
are known." No mental deception will then be permitted to ba
indulged. The veil will be torn from every eye, and all objects
will appear in their true light. That film which now obscures the
understanding of the wicked, and gives it the wonderful power of
viewing good as evil and evil as good; and of so changing the
appearance of objects as to bring itself to view the most atrocious
crimes with ferocious delight and approbation, will then be removed.
Every error of the mind which led them to entertain wrong views
<>f the moral perfections of God, to reject the appointments of his
wisdom, to despise his word and ordinances, to villify his people
and to render that homage to the creature which was due alono to
the Creator, will be refuted and cleared away from the understand-
ing. O how will this augment the misery of the wicked, to know
what a heaven of happiness they have lost, and what a hell of
misery they have procured to themselves !
Lect.5.) FUTURE PUNISHMENT. 107
As their understanding will be cleared and rectified, so ifcs capaci-
ties will be enlarged, and this will of course increase their capacity
for suffering. How dismal will it be to the poor outcasts from the
divine favor, to know assuredly that they have lost their all; their
eternal well being ; and that they shall never be released from their
torments. While they hear the weepings, and wailings, and gnash-
ing of teeth in these regions of remorse, and view the "great gulf
that is fixed," which must separate them forever from heaven and
happiness, they will adopt the language of Satan in Milton's Para-
dise lost
"Me miserable ! which way shall I fly
Infinite wrath, and infinite despair —
Which way I fly is hell — Myself am hell:
And in the lowest deep, a lower deep
Still threatening to devour me opens wide,
To which the hell I suffer seems a heaven.'1 — (Book iv.)
3. A deprivation of all future good will be another ingredient in
the future cup of the wicked. This is the blackness and the darkness
of perdition ; and alas ! who can bear it ? It is so fearful, so intense,
«o gloomy, so ceaseless. It is the total eclipse which shuts out all
light forever — the deep dungeon which immures the soul in eternal
midnight. Confined to one dreary corner of the universe— sur-
rounded by the " mist of darkness," " the blackness of darkness" —
they will be cut off from all intercourse with the regions of moral
perfection, and prevented from contemplating the sublime scenery
of the Creator's empire. Oh! who can dwell forever shut out from
light ? How appalling that dark abyss, where there is no sun, no
moon, no twinkling star, no coming morn — nothing but the dense
smoke of the bottomless pit! Nothing can be more tormenting to
minds endowed with capacious powers, than the thought of being
forever deprived of the opportunity of exercising them on the glo-
rious objects which they know to exist, but which they can never
contemplate. And yet this is but a faint image of what the soul
must endure forever. As the happiness of the righteous will consist
108 CONSTITUENT PARTS OF (Lect.5.
in "seeing God as he is," so it will in all probability form one bitter
ingredient in the future lot of the wicked, that they shall be deprived
of the transporting view of the Creator's glory as displayed in the
physical and moral economy of the universe.
4. The reflections of the sinner's own breast will in all probability
form one constituent part of his misery in the future world. Even
in this world his reflections are often painful. Though he may be
surrounded by all those gaudy images and fascinating charms which
make him an object of envy to the unthinking multitude, yet could
you penetrate the secret recesses of his mind when he has retired
from the world and communes with his own heart, you would
discover a gnawing worm. Created and sustained by God, he is
rationally convinced that he should have a supreme regard to the
will and glory pf his Creator and kind Benefactor. He reflects
upon the-many mercies that his heavenly Father has bestowed upon
him, and of his unmindfulness of the claims of his Benefactor, and
of the many crimes which he has been guilty of committing against
him — and his soul is filled with anguish. As a transgressor his way
is hard. The recollection of the sins he has committed, the mercies
he has abused, and the golden opportunities he has misimproved,
often fill his mind with the most painful sensations.
What then must be the reflections of the sinner when his eyes will
be opened to all the enormity of his crimes ! These must form a
dreadful aggravation of his misery in the future state. Then he will
not be a Nero, reflecting upon his crimes with the blunted feelings
of a man who could cause hundreds of innocent beings to be covered
with skins of wild beasts and torn in pieces by devouring dogs; or
fastened to crosses and wrapt up in combustible garments and set
on fire; and who could gaze upon the tragical scene with ferocious
delight; but a Nero contemplating his wanton cruelty with the
sensibility of a Howard, and the just estimation of moral worth of a
St. Paul.
They will then reflect that once they were within the reach of
mercy, and had life and death set before them. They will reflect
on the many gospel sermons they have heard, the many ordinances
Lect. 5.) FUTURE PUNISHMENT. 103
which they have beheld, the thunders of Sinai which have rolled
over their heads, and the melting strains of Calvary which have fell
upon their ears, and how painful will be their reflection !
It will be painful to reflect also how easy they might have escaped
their present misery, and for the sake of what they consented to
part with their eternal well being. Oh ! how it will gnaw the hearts
of sinners to know and reflect that they wilfully procured their own
destruction, notwithstanding there was an abundant provision made
in the gospel for the salvation of all men who would consent to be
saved on the terms of the gospel ; and that there was the most vig-
orous and united efforts made to put them in possession of this
inestimable blessing ! " Son remember," will be the worm — and
ohJ how it will sting like a serpent in that thought, " how have I
hated instruction !"
5. The gnawing worm and the unquenchable fire includes also
the consciences of sinners, The reproaches of the sinner's own
conscience will cleave to the damned as worms to a dead body.
And the sufferings inflicted by conscience will be even more painful
than those which are caused by the passions and desires, or the
intellectual or moral powers of the sinner. Even in this life her
scourge draws blood at every stroke. You that have ever been so
unhappy as to wound your own consciences, can bear testimony to
this truth. You may have changed your climate. You may have
left the parched regions of the south and gone to the wintry scenes
of the north; but still the barbed arrow has remained fast in your
side, and the pain of remorse has followed you through all the
changes of your abode. What balm can allay the aching of a
bruised spirit? What art of healing can reach the troubled soul
that feels with keen anguish the scorpion sting of an infuriated
conscience ? It was the testimony of this faithful monitor of his
misdeeds that made the Roman governor tremble before Paul, for
he was raised above the fear of all human punishment, and that drew
Judas to despair, madness and suicide. How often have many indi-
viduals, both in the higher and lower ranks of life, who without any
.external cause or apprehension of punishment from men, been seized
110 CONSTITUENT PARTS OF (Lect. 5,
-frith inward terrors and writhed under the agonies of an accusing
conscience, which neither the charms of music nor all the delights
of the sons of men could assuage ! The power of conscience is
strikingly seen in the history of Belshazzar. This elated monarch
amid the shouts of long live the King, lifts the golden cup which he
had taken out of the house of God to his polluted lips, that he might
crown his dissipation with sacrilegious impiety. The cup passes
round, and the king with his wives and concubines and a thousand
of his nobles drink confusion to Cyrus and his army, And now the
voice of joy and the noise of mirth resounds through the palace.
The hour is devoted to dissipation and profanity. But it is done.
The triumphing of the wicked is short. The king lets fall the cup
from his trembling hand ; his countenance is changed, and his night
debauchery is turned into unutterable horror — Lo ! the silence of
death reigns through the palace, and every eye is fixed, and all
faces gather paleness, as a shadow wearing the appearance of the
fingers of a man's hand glides along the wall of the palace and
writes in mysterious characters, " Mem, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin"
But why this premature distress ? Perhaps yonder inscription
declares some joyful intelligence of the destruction of their enemies.
Why then do the thoughts of the king terrify him, and his knee3
smite one against another ? His terror cannot proceed from the
sentence of condemnation written on the wall, for he is ignorant
both of the writing and of its meaning. But he was conscious of
the wickedness of which he had been guilty, and therefore he con-
sidered the extraordinary appearance upon the wall as an awful
foreboding of punishment from that Almighty and Invisible Being
whom he had offended. Ah ! there are seasons when the ungodly,
even in their most pr jsperous moments, feel the lash of a guilty
conscience, and the curse of Cain in their breasts. In their secret
retirements and fortified retreats, where no eye but the eye of God
is upon them, and when no hostile invasion is apprehended, they
tremble at a shadow, and feel a thousand disquietudes from the
reproaches of a monitor which they cannot escape.
Lect.50 FUTURE PUNISHMENT. Ill
" Conscience, the torturer of the soul unseen,
Does fiercely brandish a sharp scourge within —
Severe decrees may keep our tongues in awe,
But to our thoughts what edict can give law ?
Even you yourself to your own breasts shall tell
Your crimes, and your own conscience be your hell."
But her keen reproaches here arel mere whispers compared
with the thundering voice in which she will speak hereafter. Here
her voice is often drowned, and her reproaches stifled. Here she is
often lulled asleep by opiates. But she will not always sleep on
the myrtle bed. In the future state the sinner will have no means
of silencing her voice ; and she will speak without interruption or
intermission. She will be no longer seared or blinded, but will see
every thing in the clear light of eternity ; and the voice of her
accusations will be more painful than the sting of a scorpion.
How painful have been the reproaches of the sinner's conscience
on his dying bed ! The guilt, the fear, the horror wThich appeared
in his countenance — his bitter regret, and the awful forebodings of
endless misery which seemed to prey upon his mind, have wrung
with anguish the hearts of all who surrounded his bedside. I have
been told by persons on a dying bed that the pains of their body
were extreme, but that their bodily sufferings were nothing in com-
parison to the anguish of their souls. And a dying infidel has been
known to exclaim, " Sure there is a God, for nothing less than
Omnipotence could inflict what I now feel !" What then must b«
the pangs inflicted by the reproaches of conscience in eternity?
6. Another ingredient in that tup which will be the future
portion of the wicked is the power of recognition. As we have
satisfactory evidence that the happiness of departed saints consists
partly in the knowledge which they have of each other's btessedness,
so we have sufficient reason to conclude that the misery of hell
consists partly in the knowledge which lost souls have of each
other's doom. The man who employed his talents in ridiculing
others because they were serious, and thus occasioned them to stifle
J12 CONSTITUENT PARTS OF (Lect. 5.
their serious impressions ; who allured the thoughtless and inexpe-
rienced into scenes of mirth and dissipation ; or tempted them to
become deistical or profane ; or who induced them to embrace per-
nicious and fatal errors in principle and in practice^ may find when
it is too late to repent his folly, that these victims whom he has
ridiculed and deceived, are his tormenters. The wailings of those
deluded, unhappy beings,, and their angry curses that they will heap
upon the instruments of their ruin,, will add a pang to the keenness
of that anguish which he will he called to endure. The frowns and
bitter accusations of companions in woe will fill up the measure of
his sorrows. No doubt those who have been leaders in wickedness^
and have by precept or example led others to become infidel in
sentiment and profligate and impious in practice, and thus ruined
them for time and eternity, will be rendered most miserable by the
reproaches and bitter accusations of those v/hom they have ruined.
No doubt many admired writers who have already passed into the
unseen world, would wish to come back and publish a recantation
of their sceptical, heretical, and licentious works. No doubt many
play-actors would desire the opportunity on earth of acting a differ-
ent part on the stage from that by which they inflamed the unhal-
lowed passions and corrupted the morals of mankind. No doubt
many miniature painters would wish to come back and give a differ-
ent coloring to those obscene pictures by which they have ruined
many souls. No doubt many false teachers would now be willing
to come back and publish and defend a more orthordox creed than
that which they once preached. For men will be accountable for
all the effects of their conduct, however widely they may spread,
and however disastrous may be their consequences. Oh ! how
great will be the agony of that despair when the poor outcasts from
the divine favor shall hear the groans and shrieks and lamentations,
of their wretched companions in woe. Companions in sin must be
sharers in punishment as tares bound in bundles for the flames. A3
heaven is represented as a social state,, and as much of the bliss of
glorified saints will result from social intercourse, so the society of
the wicked will be an aggravation of their misery.. And as the
Lect. 5.) FUTURE PUNISHMENT. 113
tares bound in bundles and burned in that capacity, will increase
the fury of the flame that shall consume each individual tare, so
must the wicked be a torment to each other in a future state. O
"Lord gather not my soul with sinners," but let it be bound in "the
bundle of life with the Lord!"
7. Once more. Another constituent part of future punishment
is the ivrath of God fastening upon a guilty conscience. What must
it be to see yourselves surrounded by a just and holy God and to
meet his piercing, withering glance, fixed upon you wherever you
turn your eye! How dreadful to see the eternal God, the Sovreign
of the universe, who has been through time loading you with his
favors, for which you have been ungrateful, and which you have
devoted to the vilest purposes, now regarding you with severe dis-
pleasure. O this. will be indeed a fire to the soul that shall burn
to the lowest hell ! a fire that will be felt in all the faculties of the
soul, when a God of inflexible justice shall avenge himself, his law,
his Son, his Spirit, and his covenant, on all the despisers of the
riches of his grace. Oh ! it is a fearful thing to fall into the hands
of the living God ! Who of us, my hearers, can stand before the
indignation of the Almighty, whose anger^burns to the lowest hell?
The anguish of this flame is as much greater than that of any mate-
rial fire as the Creator is superior to the creature.
Such I conceive to be the principal ingredients in the future cup
of the wicked. O then, my friends, be fearful lest after all that has
been said and done, you should by lamentable experience find that
your passions and desires, your understanding, your consciousness of
loss, your refections, the leproaches of your conscience, the recogni-
tion of your companions in guilt, and the ivrath of a holy and just
God should constitute a worm that will feed on your souls forever^
and be a fire in your breasts that shall never be quenched.
Do you hope for future happiness ? The foundation of thi3 is
substantially the same as that which forms the basis of happiness
in this world. As in the present life there are certain endowments
necessary for securing substantial happiness, so there are certain
moral qualifications indispensably requisite in order to prepare us
J*
114 CONSTITUENT PARTS, &e\ (Lect.5.
for the employments and bliss of the life to come. For it is a de-
cree of Heaven — founded on the moral laws which govern the
universe, which, like the law of the Medes and Persians, cannot be
changed — that, " Without holiness no man shall see the Lord" The
foundation oi future felicity must be laid in " repentance towards
God, and faith in our Lord Jesus Christ." We must be convinced
of our inherent depravity as the descendants of the first Adam ; of
the guilt and demerit of our offences ; of the spotless purity and infi-
nite rectitude of that Being whom we have offended ; and of the awful
consequences of unrepentant guilt. We must view the extent and
purity of the divine law. We must renounce all hope of justifica-
tion before God, by our works, and must receive with humility and
gratitude that full and free salvation which is exhibited in the gos-
pel, and must " behold " by an eye of faith " the Lamb of God that,
taketh away the sin of the world." We must depend alone on the
aid of the Spirit to enable us to subdue the corrupt propensities of
our natures, to renew our souls after the Divine image, and to inspire
us to abound in all those fruits of righteousness which are to the
praise and glory of God. And you must give all diligence to make
your calling and election sure, "by adding to your faith, courage ;
and to courage, knowledge ; and to knowledge, temperance ; and
to temperance, patience ; and to patience, godliness ; and to godli-
ness, the love of the brethren ; and to love of the brethren, love to
all men. — And thus there shall be richly ministered to you an en-
trance into the everlasting kingdom of our Lord and Saviour Jesus-
Christ."* This may the Lord dispose you to do ; and to his name be
all the glory, world without end. Amen.
* 2. Pet. i. 5—7, 11.— Macknight's Translation.
IJECTfJRE VI.
ON THE METHODS BY WHICH MODERN OBJECTORS
TO THE DOCTRINE OF ENDEESS PUNISHMENT, EVADE THE
FORCE OF SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY RESPECTING
THAT SUBJECT.
Jeremiah xxiii : 16, 17. — " Thus saiili the Lord of Hosts, Hearkeir
not unto the words of the prophets that prophesy unto you; they
make you vain : they speak a vision of their own heart and not out
of the mouth of the Lord. They say unto them that despise met
The Lord hath said ye shall have peace ; and they say unto every
one that walketh after the imagination of his own heart, A'o evil
shall come upon you.n
On former occasions, I have stated the proofs of endless punish-
ment. If you have folly examined these proofs, and weighed them
ns on a dying pillow, you are, I think, reduced to this alternative;
either to admit the doctrine we have endeavored to establish, or to
reject the authority of the Bible. The Scriptures, as we have
already shown, do, in a variety of instances, and in the most une-
quivocal manner, assert the endless punishment of the wicked.
Now, if they do at the same time assert the contrary, they must be
regarded as a medley of absurdity and contradiction, and ought to
be rejected as an unsafe guide in matters of faith and practice. A
book, which is calculated in its nature and tendency to lead men
116 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect.6.
astray in an article of vital importance to their present and future
well-being, ought to be put out of their hands,, and consigned to
oblivion.
Indeed, it may be fairly questioned whether the objectors to
endless punishment, have much respect for the authority of the
Bible. Do they not often question the credibility of portions of
Scripture history ? and are not their views of its authenticity and
divine inspiration very vague and undetermined ? True, they
admit the testimony of Scripture when they think it favors their
views ; and what class of errorists do not the same ? But they seem
to find but little difficulty in rejecting it, when it is against them.
Do they not, when closely pursued and driven from all their sub-
terfuges by the force of Scripture arguments, frankly confess often-
times, that they do not believe all that the Bible says?
Hence it is a fact, that Infidels and Atheists rejoice in the spread
of those sentiments peculiar to the objectors in question, as being
favorable to their views ; and they are generally the advocates and
supporters of these several denominations of objectors, when they
advocate and support any. In all our towns and villages where
they are not sufficiently numerous to organize themselves into a
distinct society, they are at the present day extensively uniting
their efforts with these several denominations, giving their money
to erect meeting-houses ; to educate and support ministers ; to en-
dow colleges and Theological schools ; and to aid in the circulation
of their religious publications. And this they do, as they have in
some instances acknowledged, not because they believe in the dis-
tinguishing sentiments of these religious sects, but because they
regard them as best adapted to prepare the way for what they deem
the best of all ; barefaced Deism, and downright Atheism. Abner
Kneeland, that apostle of Infidelity, who was once a distinguished
Universalist preacher, thus describes the difference between hia
former sentiments and those which he holds at the present time :
"The difference between these Ultra Universalists, as Adin Baliou
calls them, and us Free Inquirers, is nothing more than a dream of
the imagination, against which we shall not contend, and for which
Lect. 6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 117
there can be no real objection in not contending." I know that
Universalists will be offended at this, and say it is not a fair repre-
sentation of their sentiments. But let them show by facts and
arguments, and by their fruits that they are here misrepresented ;
and that their sentiments are not substantially the same as those of
the Free Inquirers. Until this is done, we shall believe that Uni-
versalism not only has a tendency to Infidelity, but is a species of
it. This same remark might, with the strictest propriety, be exten-
ded to other classes of objectors. They all maintain the doctrine
of philosophical necessity, or fate, and the sufficiency of human
reason, independent of Revelation, to ascertain what i3 truth. They
deny the doctrine of total depravity of human nature ; the divinity,
incarnation, and vicarious sufferings of Christ ; the doctrine of the
Trinity, future judgment, and endless punishment. And they sus-
tain their sentiments by positive assertions, dexterous sophistry,
and false principles of interpretation. In these and many other
points there is a striking analogy between these objectors,- and.
Infidels.
I grant that these religious sects, who deny the doctrine of end-
less punishment, profess to regard the Bible as the^word of God-L
But do they not deny in practice what they admit in theory ? Do
they not give painful evidence, in treating the sacred Oracles with
levity, and by asserting that they contain mistakes in philosophy^
errors in chronology, and discrepancies in historical facts ; that
their professed veneration for the Bible is a mere garb which they
have stolen from the sanctuary, by means of which they may the
better deceivG those who are " willingly ignorant" 2 Even when
they recur to the Scriptures in proving or defending their favorite
systems, how is the sacred text tortured to make it speak what was-
never intended by the Holy Ghost! This passage and that, they
will tell us, have a figurative meaning, and then they assume the
prerogative to understand the figure as they please. Thus they can
make the Scriptures mean anything or nothing, just as it suit-^ their
systems ? I do not deny that there are figures and metaphors in
the Bible, and some of them* in the Old Testament especially, difil-
J 18 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 6.
cult to be understood. But for men to suppose a figure in the Bible
when they please, and then explain it as they please, with no refer-
ence to the rules of language or of criticism, is trifling, and impious.
To explain away the Scriptures in this manner, carries every unbi-
assed, reflecting mind to the conclusion, that those who do it, pro-
fess a veneration for them only for the purpose of the more success-
fully hurling their poisoned arrows against vital piety and experi-
mental religion. That this is not a groundless charge, is manifest
from their endeavors to evade, set aside, or wrest the Scriptures,
which teach the doctrine of future and endless punishment.
I. One method by which they evade the testimony of these scrip-
tures is, BY ADOPTING FALSE PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION.
A false principle of interpretation they adopt in relation to the
terms evti'lasting^etejmal, forever, and forever and ever. Because these
terms are sometimes used in a figurative sense, and applied to things
which have an end, they maintain that they invariably have a limited
meaning when applied to punishment. The rule of interpretation
generally adopted by the great body of them is, "that where a word
is used in relation to different subjects, the subject itself must
determine the meaning of the word." By this expedient, all those
passages of scripture in which the words " everl acting, eternal, for-
ever and ever,"' as applied to future punishment, are found, are set
aside. And they require that there be something in the nature of
this punishment which necessarily leads us to receive the Greek
word aion, and its derivative aionios, in an endless sense ; " since it
is not the word but the subject which gives the idea of endless
duration." As words are sometimes used in a figurative as'well as
a literal sense, I admit that the subject including the scope of the
writer, should be taken into consideration if we would determine in
which of these senses the words are used. But for us to determine
the meaning of a word by one's limited view of what is right and
wrong, is virtually setting reason above revelation, and openly pay-
ing to her divine honors. The Bible is altogether superfluous as a
standard of faith ; for if our reason is infallible we need no other
revelation. But if we can arrive witli absolute certainty at the
Lsct.6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 119
truth of any doctrine of revelation from facts and considerations
which do not derive their force from express declaration, or which
are altogether independent of the aid of scripture terms, why criti-
cise upon them, and why endeavor to invalidate their testimony ?
Is it said, " we ought to be reasonable men ?" I answer, true ;
but then only are you reasonable men when you acknowledge that
God's thoughts and ways are infinitely above ours, and that he must
be true, though every man is thereby made a liar. The Bible is not
contrary to right reason, which is nothing less than the will of God ;
but it is often contrary to the reason of man, who is a creature of
yesterday and knows comparatively nothing. If not, then man's
reason is infinite and infallible.
But if this rule of interpretation, plausible as it may appear, be
admitted, it will go to subvert every principle of just reasoning.
On this principle, you may disprove almost any thing that you please.
Thus should one attempt to prove the divinity of Christ from his
being called Jehovah, this mode of reasoning would render such
evidence of no account; because the same appellation is sometimes
given to temporal objects, as an altar, a mountain, or the Church oj
God, (Ex. xvii : 15 — Gen. xxii : 14 — Ezek. xlviii : 35) — " and the
meaning of the word can be determined only by the nature of the
subject." Were Christ frequently called Jehovah, we could not on
this principle believe him to be the true God, because the word is
applied to other things which are known to be temporal. Again,
should one attempt to prove the omniscience of God from its being
said that his understanding is infinite; you might reply, that this
word is sometimes used to express only a very great degree, as
when the strength of Ethiopia and Egypt is said to have been
infinite. — (Nahum iii: 9.) Once more ; should one attempt to prove
the endless existence of God from his beinor called the everlasting
God; the endless dominion of Christ from its being said that he
shall reign forever ; and of the endless duration of the heavenly
inheritance from its being called eternal life; these terms you might
reply, are sometimes used to express only a limited duration; — and
thus you might assert that the self-existent Jehovah may be struck
120 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 6.
into non-existence ; that the kingdom of Christ may be abolished ;
and that the happiness of the righteous may come to an end.
Nothing will stand before such a rule of interpretation.
To object to the words " everlasting, &c." as being too weak and
indeterminate in their application, for the purpose of conveying the
idea of endless duration, is trifling, unless others could be named
which are more conclusive. Now what terms could have been used
that would have set the matter at rest? Perhaps it may be said
that if the word endless had been used, you would believe that
future punishment is unlimited in duration. But this word is liable
to the same objections, and falls before the same criticisms. God
said that there was no end of the store and glory of Egypt — (Nah.
ii: 9) — the apostle counselled Timothy not to give heed to endless
genealogies — (1 Timothy i : 4) — and it is common to speak of a
loquacious person as being an endless talker. Hence it might be
objected that the term* endless is very indeterminate.
Suppose our English translation were the original scriptures, and
the words everlasting, eternal, forever, and forever and ever, were
used in them as they now are, who of common sense would in this
case question whether they expressed the doctrine of endless pun-
ishment ? And yet our words are used in the same metaphorical
sense, while their literal and proper meaning is that of eternal dura-
tion. If these words are properly applied to limited punishments,
why are they not currently used in application to such punishments ?
But should we call imprisonment for life an everlasting punishment,
we should have at least the credit of originality.
Now the only true principle of interpretation, as we have already
remarked,* is to understand words and phrases in their proper and
primary meaning, unless there be something in the subject or con-
nexion which requires them to be understood in a figurative sense.
Hence we draw the conclusion, as there is nothing in the subject or
connexion to limit the meaning of the terms under consideration, when
used to denote the future jiunishment of the wicked, any more then when
used to denote the endless existence of God ; that they are to be taken
* Lecture 1,
Lect. 6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 121
in their literal and primary sense, which is endless as we have
already shown*; and that that principle of interpretation which would
set aside the literal and primary meaning of terms at pleasure, or which
would lead us to understand them according to our views of the fitness
of things, is false and ought to be rejected.
In the same manner the objectors under consideration, evade the
force of those passages in which the word hell is used to denote a
place of future punishment. Because the Greek and Hebrew words
translated hell, do not always denote a place of future punishment,
they at once assert that they never do. But should it be admitted
that these words mean only the grave, or a place of punishment in
this world, and have no reference to the future state of men, will it
follow that all men will be saved ? By no means. The doctrine of
endless punishment rests on other testimony, -which would not be
in the least invalidated by this concession. If it were impossible
to show that the Scriptures speak of a place in which the wicked
are to be punished, the fact would not make it at all the less eviderig;
that they are to be punished. The fact, that the laws of the State
do not designate the place where persons guilty of capital crimes
shall be publicly executed, does not make it the less certain that
they are to be executed in some place. God has said that the wick-
ed shall "go away into everlasting punishment," and "shall be
punished with everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord
and the glory of his power." He who has denounced these threat-
nings, will be at no loss to find a plase for their execution. But if
we can show that the Bible not only declares the fact, but desig-
nates the place of endless punishment, that involves an additional
proof of endless punishment ; and shows that it is palpably false to
assert, that the words in the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, trans-
lated hell, do in no case denote the place and the state of future
punishment. This, I trust, will be satisfactorily made to appear.
In doing this, I shall first inquire into the meaning of the Hebrew
word sheol. This word though frequently used in the Old Testa-
ment, is seldom translated hell. It primarily signified the place or
* Lecture 1.
K
122 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect.O.
state of the dead. Nor is it incredible, that this word having such
a primary meaning, should come to be used in a secondary sense.
Human language is formed by giving names to ideas that are con-
ceived in the mind through the medium of the senses. But as spir-
itual objects are not received through that medium, but through
faith, human language in its original formation had no names for
these objects. Hence, in deseribing things spiritual and eternal,
the mind gives to them the name of those objects of sense and
time to which they seem analogous. From this source originated
the secondary meaning of the word shcol. The same might be said
of many other words used as names for spiritual and eternal things.
Heaven originally meant the visible expanse or firmament alone.
And for the want of a better word, was in the course of time adopt-
ed to express the unseen abode of the blessed. We cannot speak
of the perfections of God without using words in a like secondary
sease. By the same transfer of language the words lije and death
are frequently used in Scripture to express the rewards of the
righteous and the punishment of the wicked. Owing to the poverty
of human language, and the inequality in the number of words to
the number of ideas in any language, words are often used in a fig-
urative sense. This is a settled principle of language which no
one disputes in form. Now the fact, that sheol did not primarily
mean a place of punishment, does not weaken the proof that in
some instances it has that meaning, any more than the fact, that
heaven did not primarily mean a place of future happiness, prove*
that word to be never used in this sense. Having admitted that
the primary and most general use of the word sheol was to desig-
nate the place and the state of the dead ; I shall now notice some
passages where I conceive the word is used in its secondary sense,
to designate a place of punishment.
Psalm ix : 17. — " The wicked shall be turned into hell (sheol) with
all the nations that forget God." If sheol in this passage means
only the place of the dead, what more is threatened against the
wicked who forget God, than what is endured by the righteous who
•erve and obey him ? Both alike die and are turned into the grave,
Lict.6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 123
and if this is all that is implied by the denunciation, I cannot sec
the propriety or even the justice of it. Is it said that it is one thing
to die and another to be cut off by the judgments of God? True.
But is it not death in both cases ? Sheol in the passage before us
obviouily implies a pit of destruction in which the wicked and all
their comforts and hopes shall perish forever ; for their state is con-
trasted with that of the poor and needy who shall not always be for-
gotten, and whose expectation shall not perish forever.
Psalm xlix : 15. — " But God will redeem my soul from the power
of the grave (sheol)." The subject of this Psalm is the prosperity
of the wicked in this life and their melancholy end, and the reverse
which takes place in favor of the righteous at death. How will
God redeem his people from the power of sheol, if it be not from
suffering in sheol after death, while death is left to feed upon the
wicked ? How will death feed upon the wicked in a sense which
it does not feed upon the righteous, if there be no distinction by re-
wards and punishments beyond this life ?
Deut. xxxii : 22 — " A fire is kindled in mine anger, and it shall
burn to the lowest hell (sheol)" The imagery of the text is that of
a fire which, kindled on the surface of the earth, should burn even
to its centre, and according to the general notion of the ancients,
quite through the place which was peopled with miserable departed
spirits— sheol here seems to intimate that the wrath of God would
pursue its objects after death even to the place where the fire is not
quenched. By the lowest hell is implied that there will be different
degrees of misery in the world of woe.
I might cite many other passages in which the term in question
plainly designates the place of future punishment. But my limits
will not allow me to be more particular. Nor is it necessary ; for
these specimens are sufficient to show the use of the word when
employed in its secondary sense, and that those assert what is falst
when they say it does in no case denote the place of future
punishment.
In proof of the same point, I pass second to consider the meaning
of the Greek word Hadts. This means literally a place devoid of
124 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 6.
light — a dark, obscure abode — and by Greek writers was used to
designate those dark and obscure regions where disembodied spirits
were supposed to dwell. It is of the same import with sheol of the
Old Testament, and is used in the New Testament in the same
sense. "This place, according to the notions of the Hebrews, was
a vast subterranean receptacle, where the souls of the dead existed
in a separate state until the resurrection of their bodies. The re-
gion of the blessed they supposed to be in the upper part of this
receptacle, while beneath was the abyss or Gehenna in which the
souls of the wicked were subjected to punishment."* Josephus in
his discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades, remarks, " that it is
a place not regularly finished — a subterranean region, wherein the
light of this world does not shine. This place is allotted as a place
of custody for souls. In this region there is a certain place set
apart as a lake of unquenchable fire, wherein we suppose no one has
hitherto been cast, but it is prepared for a day afore determined by
God, in which one righteous sentence shall deservedly be passed
upon all men ; when the unjust and those that have been disobedi-
ent to God, and have given honor to such idols as have been i&e
vain operations of the hands of men, as to God himself, shall be
adjudged to this everlasting punishment, as having been the causes
of defilement ; while the just shall obtain an incorruptible and never
fading kingdom. These are now indeed confined in Hades, but not
in the same place wherein the unjust are confined."
"There is one descent into this region, at whose gate we believe
there stands an archangel with a host, which gate when those that
are conducted down by the angels appointed over souls, they do not
go the same way; but the just are guided to the right hand, and
led with hymns sung by the angels appointed over that place into a
region of light into which the just have dwelt from the beginning
of the world. This place we call the bosom of Abraham."
" But the unjust are dragged by force to the left hand by the
angels allotted for punishment ; no longer going with a good will,,
but as prisoners driven by violence, to whom are sent the angels
* Robinson's CalmeU
Lect. 6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 125
appointed over them to reproach them and threaten them with their
terrible looks, and to thrust them still downwards. Now the angela
that are set over these souls drag them into the neighborhood of
hell itself, who when they are hard by it, continually hear the noise
of it, and do not stand clear of the hot vapor itself; but when they
have a near view of this spectacle, and of a terrible and exceeding
great prospect of fire, they are struck with a iearful expectation of
a future judgment, and in effect punished hereby. Not only so, but
where they see the place of their fathers and of the just, they are
hereby punished ; for a chaos deep and large is fixed between them,
inasmuch that a just man that hath compassion on them, cannot be
admitted, nor can an unjust man if he were bold enough to attempt
it, pass over it."
Hades then, though a general designation of the world of spirits,
carries with it the idea of future rewards and punishments. It
occurs but eleven times in the New Testament. That here it does
sometimes denote a place of future punishment I shall proceed
to show.
Matt. xi:23— "And thou Capernaum, which art exalted unto
heaven, shall be brought down to hell (hades.)" Capernaum was a
city of Judea highly honored by the person, instructions, and mira-
cles of Jesus Christ. " Exalted unto heaven," says Dr. Clark, " was
a Hebrew metaphor, expressive of the utmost prosperity, and the
possession of the greatest privileges." But she, though thus
highly favored in point of religious privileges, abused and misim.
proved them all. "She repented not." Hence our Lord proceeds
to foreordain her doom. " Shalt be brought down to hell." That
hades here does not denote a place of punishment in a future world.,
remains to be proved. To my own mind this is included in th*
threatnings denounced. Our Saviour is citing his hearers to the
day of final and universal judgment, and assuring them that it will
be more tolerable for the land of Sodom in that day than for Caper-
naum. But why ? Because she being cast down to hell, will b§
consigned to future punishment.
126 METHODS OP EVADING (Lect. 6.
Matt.xvi: 18 — "On this rock will I build my church, and the
gates of hell (hades) shall not prevail against it." Ancient cities
were surrounded witty walls. In the gates by which they were
entered were the principal places for holding courts and transacting
all public business. Hence the v/ord gates became a name for the
powers, designSj machinations and evil purposes of the city. Hell,
which means the place of departed spirits, is here by a figure of
rhetoric put for fallen spirits there* Thus when it is said that the
gates of hades shall not prevail against the Church, it is meant that
all the plots, stratagems and machinations of the devil and his instru-
ments shall not be able to destroy the Church. Hades is here
represented as the strong holds of wickedness, and as the central
origin of all the wicked counsels and enterprises against the Church.
And if this be true, what can it imply other than the abode of pun-
ishment occupied by the devil and his angels ?
Luke xvi : 22, 23 — "The rich man also died and was buried.
And in hell (hades) he lifted up his eyes, being in torments." Does
not hades here mean literally a dark obscure place, where departed
spirits go, and especially the place where wicked spirits go ? The
following circumstances are related of it in the parable : It is far
off from the abode of the righteous. It is a place of torment. Be-
tween it and heaven there is a great and impassable gulf fixed. It
is represented by torments in a flame. Does it not then mean a
place of misery, far from heaven, where the wicked shall be punished
forever? Consequently there is a place of suffering beyond the
grave — a hell. If there is not, then this parable has no meaning.
It is impossible to make any thing else of it, unless it is designed
to teach the doctrine of rewards and punishments beyond the grave.
What then is the conclusion ? Why, that sheol and hades denote
the unseen world, into which all men enter at death ; a place of
happiness to the righteous and of punishment to the wicked. Yet
the words better express the place of the wicked dead than the
righteous dead. They convey the idea of darkness, gloom, wan-
dering ; the idea of a sad and unfixed abode, unlike heaven; Thus
was sheol understood by the Jews> and thus was hades understood
Lect.G.) scripture testimony. 107
by the Greeks. How false then the assertion that hades and sheol
have no reference to a place of future punishment. Whoever
asserts this, contradicts the opinions of the Jewish and Christian
Church, the dictates of common sense, and what is more, the plain
language of the Bible.
To the same point I remark, third, that there is another term still
more expressive than the two which we have just noticed. I refer
to the Greek word Gehenna. This word, like all others applied to
the scenes of the future world, was originally applied to what ex-
isted in this world. It is made up of two Hebrew words and signi-
fies the valley of Hinnon. It was anciently a pleasant valley, near
to Jerusalem on the east. Here the idolatrous Israelites establish-
ed the worship of Moloch, and sacraficed their own children to the
idol by burning them. In order that the cries of the child might
not be heard, they made a great noise with drums about the idoL
These drums were called Toph ; and hence a common name for
the valley was Tophet. After the return of the Jews from captiv-
ity, this place was held in such abhorrence on account of the former
abominations that had been practised there, that, by the example of
Josiah, (2 Kings xxiii: 10,) it was made the place where to throw
the carcasses of dead animals, the dead bodies of malefactors, and
every species of filth. To prevent the pestilence, which such a
mass of putrefaction would occasion, constant fires were kept burn-
ing in the valley in order to consume the whole. Having been the
scene of much cruelty, the receptacle of much pollution and of per-
petual worms, and lurid fires blazing by day and by night, it was
one of the most appalling and terrifric objects with which a Jew was
acquainted. By an easy metaphor, the Jews who could imagine no
severer torment than that of fire, transferred that name to the infer-
nal fire — the place of endless wrath.
This word is used eleven times by our Saviour, and once by the
apostle James. In what sense they used this word, we shall now
attempt to settle by an examination of the particular passages where
it occurs.
1*8 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect.6.
Matt, v : 22. — "But whosoever Bhall say thou fool, shall be in dan-
ger of hell fire ( Gehenna of fire)." The amount of this difficult
passage is this. The Jews considered but one crime, viz: actual
murder, a violation of the sixth commandment. But our Lord in-
sists that the commandment, taken from its true extent, prohibited
not only the overt act but the feelings and words which should lead
to it. He specifies three forms of such violation: unjust anger;
anger accompanied 'with an expression of contempt ; and anger ac-
companied with wickedness* This was going to the root or princi-
ple of things, and vindicating the commandments of the moral law,
from the corrupt and partial interpretations of the Scribes. The
different degrees of punishment here referred to, allude doubtless
to the courts of justice among the Jews. Among them there was
three degrees of condemnation ; the judgment, the council, and the
fre of Hinnon. Jesus says likewise, there shall be grades of con-
demnation for violating the sixth commandment. Not only murder
shall be punished by God, but anger, and contemptuous, provoking
language, shall be regarded by hirn as a violation of the law, and as
endangering a man's salvation. As these offences were not actu-
ally cognizable before the Jewish tribunals, Christ must mean that
they shall be hereafter punished by God. We are not to understand
the passage as a statement of the comparative guilt of the three
sins, for all sin exposes to hell fire ; but how many degrees of evil
there are short of actual murder which exposed a person to the
awful curse of God, and the Gehenna of fire. That the destruction
of Jerusalem, is the punishment here intended by hell fire, is impos-
sible, for it was not an event generally suspected, when the sermon
on the Mount was delivered, and of course such a meaning of the
word could not then have been received by those who heard our
Saviour's discourse. That Gehenna in this passage means anything
else than hell, remains yet to be proved.
Matt, v : 29, 30.—" And if thy right eye offend thee, pluck it out,
and cast it from thee : for it is profitable for thee that one of thy
members should perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast
into hell (Geftenna)." "And if thy right hand offend thee, cut it
Lect. 6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 129
off, and cast it from thee : for it is profitable for thee that one of thy
members should perish, and not that thy whole body should be cast
into hell ( Gehenna)" The word rendered offend in this and several
other passages in the New Testament, does not mean to displeasef
but to cause to offend, to snare the sold, and allure it into sin. Nor
was it our Lord's design that we should literally maim our bodies,
but overcome the evil propensities of our natures and resist our
wanton desires, and abandon the dearest objects, which cause us ta
sin. It is better to deny ourselves the gratification of an evil pas*
sion here, though dear to us as a right hand or a right eye, than to
go down to hell forever. The tremendous consequences held out
to induce such sacrafices, teaches us that a single lust, persisted in,
will issue in eternal ruin. "Thy whole body be cast into hell"
The body with all its unsubdued and vicious propensities will con-
stitute no small part of the misery of hell. The sinner will be sent
there as he is ; with all his evil desires, and wicked passions, with-
out any possibility of gratification forever. This is all that is ne-
cessary to constitute an eternal hell. But what evidence is there,
that this passage refers to a literal punishment in the valley ofHi'n-
non ? What connection would the cutting1 off of an offending
member have with being burnt in that valley ? What court had
authority to inflict this punishment on a person who should not
mortify his sinful propensities ? The Jews had no laws respecting
such offences. There was no manner of danger from the literal
burning.
Matt, x : 28. — " And fear not them which kill the body, but are
not able to kill the soul : but rather fear him which is able to de-
stroy both soul and body in hell ( Gehenna)" — See also Luke xii : 5..
Does hell in these passages mean the literal valley of Hinnon?
What more could be destroyed than the body by a literal burning
in that valley ? Call the soul what you please,, still it must mean
something which no human tribunal could destroy. If it be said
that Gehenna does mean the valley of Hinnon ;; the meaning of the
passage before us would amount to nothing more than this, " fear
pot him who can kill you in one way, but entertain the greatest
130 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 6.
dread of him who can kill you in another." Our Saviour had been
exhorting his disciples to boldness and perseverance in proclaim-
ing the gospel, which as a system addressed to the Jews, " was ad-
rerse not only to their habitual opinions, but to those opinions upon
which their hopes, their partialities, their consolation, was founded."*
This would expose them to many labors, dangers and sufferings.
And if the above definition of Gehenna, which I reject, be the true
one, then our Saviour exhorted hi3 disciples to take the most direct
method to incur the hatred of the Jews, and the highest pun-
ishment they could inflict. Hi3 language, then,* amounts simply
to this : Fear not the danger of Gehenna, and yet make it morally cer-
tain that you shall suffer the punishment of Gehenna. Rush into the
danger of Gehenna, and yet do ail you can to avoid it. Did our
Lord ever utter such a medley of contradiction and falsehood ?
These passages prove that man has a soul that may perish by being
subjected to misery, and that the bodies of the wicked will be
raised up to be punished forever. Gehenna, then, designates a place
of punishment, infinitely more terrible than the valley of Hinnon.
Matt, xviii: 9 — " And if thine eye offend thee, pluck it out and
cast it from thee ; it is better for thee to enter into life with one
eye, rather than having two eyes to be cast into hell fire (Gehenna
of fire.)" Is it said that Gehenna in this passage does not mean hell,
because Christ was addressing his disciples ? I admit that Christ
was speaking to his disciples. And may it not be necessary even
for those whom the Lord may know to be the heirs of salvation, in
certain situations to be urged to self-denials by a consideration of
the danger of hell, as a means of preserving them from it? The
contrast between entering into life and going into Gehenna, proves
that Gehenna means the opposite of heaven. It is better to enter
into life maimed than having two eyes to go into hell. Is it said that
to enter into life means only to come in possession of that spiritual
life which believers have in this world ? I answer, the disciples
were supposed to be already entered into this life, and they could
«ot be properly exhorted to labor for the attainment of that which
* Paley's Evidences.
Lect.6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 131
they already enjoyed. Consequently there was no entering into life
reserved for them, but entering into heaven. And if so, then the
everlasting fire and the Gehenna of lire is contrasted with heaven,
and must be the opposite of it, or there would not be a contrast
And what is the opposite ot heaven but everlasting punishment ?
This passage then is a conclusive proof that the punishment of the
wicked will be eternal.
Matt, xxiii: 15— "Woe unto you, Scribes and Pharisees, hypo-
crites ! for ye compass sea and land to make one proselyte, and
when he is made, ye make him two-fold more the child of hell
(Gehenna) than yourselves." A proselyte was one that should come
over from a foreign nation, religion or sect, to us. The Pharisees
look every means to gain proselytes in order to swell their numbers,
or to amass wealth by extorting their money. But when they had
done this they took no pains to instruct them, or to restrain them,
and consequently they were left to the full indulgence of their vices.
To be a child of hell, was a Hebrew phrase, signifying to be deser^
ving of hell, to be awfully wicked. And the passage implies that
the wicked and blasphemous proselytes, as they had renounced their
former superstitions by which they had been measurably restrained,
were now twice as bad, and as much deserving of hell as were the
Jews themselves, whom he calls in a few verses preceding a gene-
ration of vipers, exposed to the damnation of hell. If Gehenna
means a literal burning, the proselytes must be deserving of being
burnt alive twice, which would be impossible.
Matt, xxiii: 33— r" Ye serpents, ye generation of vipers, how can
ye escape the damnation of hell (Gehenna) ?" This refers beyond
all question to future punishment. So great was their wickedness
and hypocricy, that if they persevered in this course it would be
impossible to escape the damnation that should come upon the
guilty in the world to come. This passage then must refer to
spiritual punishment in a ^future state. It cannot refer to a literal
burning in the valley of Hinnon, for the Scribes and Pharisees were
the leading men of the Jewish nation, and had the supreme power
in their own hands. And we cannot suppose that they would
332 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. ft;
apprehend any serious danger of having this literal punishment
inflicted upon themselves, since it would be in their power to avoid
it if they should please. Nor does the damnation of hell here refer
to the destruction of Jerusalem ; for there is no place where Christ
plainly uses the phrase in that sense. But is it asked, how can the
word hell here mean future punishment, since our Lord adds, (verse
36,) " Verily I say unto you, all these things shall come upon this
generation." And can any one find it difficult to conceive how
punishment in a future world should come upon the men of that
generation, when he hears the Son of God calling them serpents and
a generation of vipers, and accuses them of being guilty of the
righteous blood that was shed upon the earth, from the blood of
Abel unto the blood of Zecharias, whom they slew between the
temple and the altar ?
Mark ix; 43-47 — "And if thy hand offend thee, cut it off; it is
better for thee to enter into life maimed, than having two hands to
go into hell, (Gehenna,) into the fire that shall never be quenched;
where their worm dieth not and the fire is not quenched. And if
thy foot offend thee, cut it off; it Is better for thee to enter halt into
life, than having two feet to be cast into hell, (Gehenna,) into the
fire that never shall be quenched. Where their worm dieth not
and the fire is not quenched. And if thine eye offend thee, pluck
it out ; it is better for thee to enter into the kingdom of God with
one eye, than having two eyes to be cast into hell fire (Gehenna of
fire/)" This passage is essentially the same as those in Matthew v
29, 30 — and xviii : 8, 9, We therefore need offer no comments
upon it.
James iii : 6 — " And the tongue is a fire, a world of iniquity ;
even so is the tongue among our members that it defileth the whole
body, and setteth on fire the course of nature ; and is set on fire of
hell (Gehenna.)11 If hell here means the valley of Hinnon, I would
inquire what this valley had to do in originating the mischiefs of
the tongue ? Further, if the word means the destruction of Jerusa-
lem in all other cases, why not here ? Surely if the word was
generally appropriated to that idea, the readers of James must have
Lect.6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 133
understood him in that sense. But as it regards the sense or non-
sense of the passage, you may as well say that the destruction of
Jerusalem sets on fire the tongue of every slanderer, false teacher,
ridiculer of sacred things, and corrupter of the morals of mankind,
as that the valley of Hinnon does it. There is no instance of the
use of the word that brings to my mind a more resistless demonstra-
tion that it had become appropriated to express a world of woe. It
is not here used, however, merely as a place of punishment, but
as the source of an infernal influence. And as it is a place prepared
for the devil, it is by a metonymy put for the devil himself, as by a
similar rhetorical figure heaven is put for God. The apostle repre-
sents the tongue as set on fire from hell rather than from the devil,
because lie is speaking of fire and burning, whose origin he elegantly
deduces from the flames of hell.
Thus I have noticed the passages in which Gehenna is used in
the New Testament. I shall now notice some objections to its
being used in the sense of a place of future punishment, and offer
some further objections to its being used in any other sense. It is
objected that " the word Gehenna occurs but twelve times in the
New Testament." But what if it had occurred but once only. The
truth of a doctrine cannot depend upon the frequency with which
it is repeated. One decisive declaration is sufficient. Further, the
word valley of Hinnon does not occur so many times in the Old
Testament as this does in the New ; and is that any proof that it is
not there used in a literal sense ?
It is also objected, that " the term is not used in the Old Testa-
ment to designate the place of endless punishment to the wicked."
And what then ? Is there nothing revealed or taken for granted in
the New Testament that is not revealed or taken for granted in the
Old ? Nor is this term used in the Old Testament as a name for
the destruction of Jerusalem.
It is further objected, that " this word Gehenna is used by our
Lord and by James only." True — and is their testimony not suffi-
cient ? A similar objection might be raised against the existence of
God. You might go over a great part of the sacred writings on this
L |
m METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 6.
subject, telling us that not only many of the Old Testament writers,
but a large proportion of the New, make no mention of it. And
when you have thus established your point, you may say, "is not
this a proof that the scriptures do not teach the eternal existence of
God?" Again it is objected, that " nearly all our Lord said about
Gehenna he said to his disciples." And was not the principal part
of his preaching addressed to his disciples, and through them to the
world ? What was spoken to them in the ear, they were com-
manded to proclaim upon the house tops. Other objections might
be named, but they are so frivolous that I will let them have (he
mortification of answering themselves.
When our Lord spoke of the Gehenna and the Gehenna of fire he
eould not allude to the destruction of Jerusalem, and mean to assert
that those who were not converted to Christianity would be involved
in that calamity. If that destruction were then universally expected ,
and was generally designated by the name Gehenna,the case would
be different. But the predictions of it in the Old Testament do not
seem to have been understood, Christ himself predicted it only in
the hearing of a few, and never in plain and direct terms till near
the close of his ministry, and after he had delivered his discourses
in which this term is used. It is incredible then to suppose that his
hearers would recognize that event in his brief allusions to Gehenna.
Further, if Gehenna was the current name for the expected destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, why did not our Lord and his apostles in their
discourses on this subject, use the word at least in one instance,
where it3 meaning would be confined to that destruction ? We
should have expected that where the word is used so often, it would
in one instance be definitely used to denote the coming ruin of
Jerusalem. But nothing of this occurs in any passage where the
destruction of Jerusalem is predicted by Christ and his apostles.
Those then who would refer Gehenna and Gehenna of fire to the
destruction of Jerusalem, do it not only without precept and example,
but without any reason unless it be to evade the scriptures.
If our Lord meant to assert that those who should not embrace
the christian religion would be literally burnt in the valley of Hin-
Lsct.6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 135
non, he declared what never took place. And I am unwilling to
accuse him of falsehood. I can find no evidence that the valley of
Hinnon was used as a place of punishment in the time of Christ and
his apostles. If it was so used, I would ask why Christ and hii
apostles never spake of it as a place of punishment, or were never
threatened with punishment in it? Of course if our Lord did not
mean by Gehenna a place of literal punishment, he must have meant
by it that part of hades in which the Jews supposed that demons and
wicked men would be tormented forever.
But if it be said that "Jesus used this word figuratively to repre-
sent the torments which the soul must experience that should reject
the truth, under the testimony of the word of God like fire ; and that
as fire and brimstone are used to whiten and purify articles of
clothing, so the word of God and the moving of his spirit whitens
and purifies the soul" — how then could our Lord represent it as a
fire that is not quenched? If the Gehenna of fire means the truth
of God and the operation of his spirit, by which the soul is purified
from sin, why are we exhorted to entertain the greatest dread of
being cast into this flame ? Why are we exhorted to do all in our
power to avoid it? If that be the true import of Gehenna, it is to
be viewed as a world of mercy. No sinner need fear or dread be-
ing cast into it. He should rejoice in being cast into it ; for hereby
his soul will be purified from the effects and consequences of sin.
I now leave to your decision the question whether Gehenna does
not mean a place of punishment in the future world.
To the same point I remark, fourth, that there is one more term
once used in the New Testament, and translated hell, which I
shall briefly notice, since it has been subjected to perversion equal-
ly with those which we have already considered. I refer to Tarta-
rosas.
2 Peter ii : 4.—" For if God spared not the angels that sinned
but cast them down to hell (Tartarosas), and delivered them into
chains of darkness to be reserved unto judgment." The word Tar-
tarus is not found in the Lxx., nor in any place of the New
Testament but here. Its meaning must therefore be sought for
136 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect.6.
among the Greeks, and determined according to the scope of the
apostle's argument. Homer represents Tartarus as a deep place,
under the earth. — (Iliad viii., line 13.) In like manner Hesiod
speaks of Tartarus as a place far under ground, where the Titans
are bound with chains in thick darkness. — (Theogon,line 119-718.)
The Greeks had no definite idea of it, but according to their poets
it was a deep, dark place — the lowest hell. It probably was deriv-
ed from tarasso, to trouble, to disquiet, to Jill with consternation ; and
its meaning is probably synonimous with the meaning of hades.
In the case before us the context is so decisive as to the meaning:
of the word, that if it had been left blank, we could not fill the
blank with any thing short of what means a place of future punish-
ment to the wicked. This is manifest, for the writer is speaking
directly of punishment. In the verses preceding, speaking of false
teachers, who privily introduce destructive errors, he says, " whose
judgment now of a longtime," that is, whose punishment threaten-
ed of old "lingereth not and whose damnation slumbereth not."
And he then proceeds, — " For if God spared not the angels that
sinned, but confining them in Tartarus with chains of darkness
hath delivered them over to be kept for judgment ; and brought a
flood in upon the ungodly, and overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah,"
he will not spare them. Since the Greeks named the place where
they supposed the enemies of their gods would be confined after
death, Tartarus, Peter when writing in the Greek language con-
cerning the confining of the evil angels, calls the place of their
confinement Tartarus, I will not now stop to notice the trifling ob-
jection, that, the "angels that sinned," here, mean Korah and his
company or any other company but the angels that sinned, whom
Jude tells us left their own habitation and are reserved in everlast-
ing chains under darkness, unto the judgment of the great day ;
and whom our Saviour represents as having prepared for them ever-
lasting fire.
Thus I have noticed the principal passages in which the word
hell is used to denote a place of future punishment ; and have we
not found abundant evidence that the assertion is false, that this-
Lect. 6.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY, 137
word does in no case denote the place of future punishment ? I
hope, my impenitent hearers, that you will ponder well the paths of
your feet, and not be inclined for a moment to rest the future and
eternal destiny of your soul upon a system that must be supported
by such a wretched perversion of the plain declarations of Scrip-
ture. And if there be a hell, as I humbly conceive I have proved,
I feel constrained as I take my leave of this part of my subject, to
say to those who pervert the Scriptures to prove the contrary, as
Paul said to the sorcerer — " O full of all subtlety and all mischief
thou child of the devil, thou enemy of all righteousness, wilt thou not
cease to pervert the right ways of the Lord V
LECTURE VII.
SAME SUBJECT CONTINUED.
Acts xiii: 8-10. — "But Elymas, the sorcerer, (for so is his name by
interpretation) withstood them, seeking to turn away the deputy from
the faith. Then Saul, (who is also called Paul,) filled with the Holy
Ghost, set his eyes on him, and said, O full of all subtlety, and all
mischief thou child of the devil, thou enemy of all righteousness, wilt
thou not cease to pervert the right ways of the Lord ?"
Sergius Paulus, a proconsul of Cyprus a candid and intelligent
man, called for Barnabas and Saul, and desired to hear from them
the import of their new doctrine. It is an evidence of his candor
that he was willing to listen to the instructions of the professed
ministers of God. But Elymas, the magician, being sensible that,
if the influence of the truth should be extended over the mind of
the deputy, he himself would be seen to bean impostor, and would
have to give up his impositions, endeavored to prevent the salutary
influence of the truth on his mind. Then Paul, inspired to detect
sin, looked at him intently and said, " O full of all subtlety and
mischief, -thou child of the devil, thou enemy of all righteousness,
wilt thou not cease to pervert the right ways of the Lord ?" The
•mischief and subtlety of Elymas, consisted, probably, in slight of
band, legerdemain, or tricks, aided by skill in the abstruse sciences.
Practising deceit and iniquity, and being under the influence and
promoting the designs of Satan, he is called his child, and an enemy
to all righteousness. A man who lives in sin will hate the truth
and will directly or indirectly oppose it. In what way he opposed
Lect. 7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 139
Paul and Barnabas, is not known. It is probable that he misrepre-
sented their doctrine, and vilified their character ; and thus retarded
the progress of the gospel. The expression " wilt thou not ceastV
implies that he had been sedulously employed for a considerable
time, in perverting the right ways of the Lord. " The right ways
of the Lord" denote the strait paths or doctrines of the Christian
religion, in opposition to the crooked and perverse arts of deceivers
and impostors.
What I propose in this Lecture is, to notice some other methods
by which the objectors of endless punishment evade the force of
Scripture testimony, and thus like Elymas, the sorcerer, pervert the
right ways of the Lord. Having remarked in the preceding Lec-
ture, that they evade the Scriptures by adopting false principles of
interpretation ; I proceed to remark,
II. That they evade the testimony of Scripture by asserting that,
>;OT SINGERS, BUT THEIR SINS ARE TO EE DESTROYED IN THE FU-
TURE world. By this method, all those passages are set aside
which speak of the wicked as being burnt up, consumed, castaway,
and destroyed. Some take the ground that such passages mean
only that the vices and bad dispositions of the wicked will be de-
stroyed at death, while they themselves will be admitted into the
kingdom of heaven. But, there is nothing in death to destroy the
existence of sin in the soul, neither is there any thing in it to
change its nature. It is a part of the nature of sin to produce mis-
ery, just as truly as it belongs to the sun to impart heat and light.
But owin^ to the countervailing influences which grow out of our
present condition, this tendency is not always apparent. But when
the sinner is completely removed from them in the future world,
what can prevent sin from having its legitimate operation in ren-
dering him completely wretched ? To explain away the obvious
meaning of the Bible, by asserting that not sinners but their sins
are to be punished in a future state, is too palpably absurd to need
refutation. What is sin, independent of a voluntary agent who
commits it ? How can sin, as an abstract thing, be punished ? Sin
is the voluntary act of transgressors, and, if reached at all, must be
140 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 7.
reached by punishing the transgressors. And it will not be until
I can be told how our courts of justice will be able to punish per-
jury, theft, and murder, in the abstract ; while the persons guilty
of these offences shall go free : that I shall believe that the sins of
the wicked will be sent away into everlasting punishment, while
they themselves will be, immediately after death, admitted into the
kingdom of heaven.
IIT. Another evasion is, that all punishment threatened to
THE WICKED IS ENDURED IN THE PRESENT LIFE. By this expedient
all those passages are explained away which denounce judgments
against the wicked in a future state, as denoting the evils that are
experienced in the present life. But can any rational being admit
such, an opinion? Are the tfereatnings of Jehovah, the curse of the
divine law, the solemnities of a future retribution, the perdition of
ungodly mQn, and the wrath to come, to be so explained away as to
mean only the calamities which men endure in this life ? I will
now show by rational and scriptural arguments that sin is not pun-
ished in this life to the extent of its deserts. If sin is punished in
this life to the extent of its desert, it must be either in the outward
trials and afflictions of the sinner, in pain and distress of body, or in
anguish and remorse of conscience, or in all of these.
That the wicked have a portion of the trials and afflictions of this
life it will not be denied. But if the whole punishment of sin con-
sists in these, we may expect to see an exact proportion, so far as
we can judge, between the degrees of criminality and the trials and
afflictions suffered. But is this proved by observation and scripture ?
No — so far from it that many of the wicked have fewer trials and
afflictions than many of the righteous. Says Job, " Wherefore do
the wicked live, become old, yea and are mighty in power ?• Their
seed is established in the earth and their offspring before their eyes.
Their houses are safe from fear, neither is the rod of God upon
them."* Jeremiah says, " Wherefore doth the way of the wicked
prosper ? Wherefore are all they happy that deal very treacher-
ously?"f The Psalmist is very explicit on this subject, and says, "I
* Job xxi : 7-9. f Jer. xii : 1.
Lect.7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 141
was envious at the foolish when I saw the prosperity of the wicked.
For there are no bands in their death, but their strength is firm.
They are not in trouble as other men, neither are they plagued like
other men. Behold these are the ungodly who prosper in the world,
they increase in riches. Verily I have cleansed my heart in vain,
and washed my hands in innocency. For all the day long have I
been plagued, and chastened every morning. When I thought to
know this it was too painful for me ; until I went into the sanctuary
of God: then understood I their end. Surely thou didst set them
in slippery places ; thou castedst them down into destruction as in
a moment."* There was a time when Asaph was not clear in the
doctrine of divine providence. But when he had entered the sanct-
uary, and by reading the law learnt the character of the providence
of God towards men in this life, he saw that the prosperity of the
wicked was not to be envied, and that the righteous should not
murmur under afflictions. The case of the rich man in the gospel
will fully illustrate the subject of the above Psalm. He prospered
in the world. He was clothed in purple and line linen and fared
sumptuously every day. He was not in trouble like Lazarus. But
how was he brought down to destruction ! He died, and in hell he
lifted up his eyes beingjn torments. In his life-time he received his
good things, while Lazarus received his evil things. B^t now
Lazarus is comforted and he is tormented in a flame.
These testimonies are abundantly sufficient to show what indeed
our own observation teaches, that rewards and punishments are not
awarded to men even in this life exactly according to the virtues
and vices of mankind. But do the wicked receive their whole
punishment in the pains and afflictions of body which they suffer in
this life ? I admit that they may suffer great bodily afflictions.
But do they suffer more in these respects than the righteous ? If it
be said that some wicked people suffer more than some righteous,
it would be nothing to the point, for some righteous people suffer
more than some wicked. It must be made to appear that the
wicked suffer as much more than the righteous as they are more-
*Psalm lsxiii.
143 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect, 7.
guilty, and that they suffer in exact proportion to the demerit of
their guilt ; or the position that the wicked have all their punish-
ment in the pains and afflictions of body which they surfer here,
must be given up. This has never been done. Nor can it be
proved that the wicked have more pains and afflictions than the
righteous.
And that the wicked do not receive their full desert of punishment
in the anguish and remorse of conscience which they suffer, may be
clearly shown. I acknowledge that some wicked men suffer much
from remorse of conscience. But this is the effect of their guilt.
If men received their whole deserved punishment in remorse of
conscience, we should expect to see the anguish and remorse of a
person increase continually as he progresses in sin. But is not the
reverse of this often found to be the fact ? The observation of
every person who is acquainted with the drunkard and libertine,
who has visited our State prisons and common jails, must convince
him that the lashes of conscience are not increased, but diminished,
by a descending progress in vice. The commission of one sin
goes to destroy the principle of resistance, and thus prepares the
way for the commission of another. And many by a continued
progress in sin have their conscience seared so as to be past feeling.
Thus I have examined every possible way in which the wicked
may be supposed to suffer in this life, and the result of the whole
is, that they do not here receive all the punishment which they
deserve. Consequently a punishment awaits them in the world to
come.
If it were true, as* some pretend, that the wicked are punished
only in the present life, then how absurd to talk of salvation. A
criminal who has suffered the full penalty of the law, need not be
told that his liberation is an act of mercy. He has a right to
demand it as an act of justice. In like manner if men receive the
due punishment of their sins in this life, they can claim exemption
from future punishment on the ground of right. They have satisfied
the utmost demands of the divine law. Now salvation is deliver-
ance from the guilt, the condemnation, and the punishment of sin.
Lect. 7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 143
But this idea supposes that we are not delivered from these, but
suffer them to their full extent. It would be ludicrous for a crimi-
nal to say that he had been saved from state prison because he had
actually suffered out his full term of confinement. Equally ridicu-
lous is it to talk of salvation when the sinner suffers to the full
extent of his guilt. There is not a particle of salvation about it.
But there is another serious objection to the idea we are now
opposing. It destroys the idea of forgiveness ; for this implies that
the sinner forgiven is not punished according to law and justice.
But some tell us that the idea of forgiveness is perfectly consonant
with the idea of suffering the whole penalty of the law. And so
we have been told that salvation and damnation in substance mean
the same thing; but who believes it? Should a man tell us that
black was white and white black, or that wrath was love and guilt
innocence, who would believe these palpable contradictions ? But
they might as well believe this, as to believe that the sinner is par-
doned and still suffers the whole curse of the divine law.
There is yet another serious objection to this sentiment. If all
are discharged on the ground of justice, by enduring the whole
penalty of the law, the system of grace revealed in the Bible falls
to the ground. Grace is favor conferred on the guilty and undeser-
ving. But those who have suffered the whole penalty of God's
law, and have thus discharged all its claims, cannot say "by grace
I am saved." Theirs therefore will not be the song of redeeming
love. Here then is a system that destroys the idea of salvation,
forgiveness and grace. Had the wicked attempted to devise a sys-
tem directly opposite to the Bible, they could not have hit upon one
more suited to their purpose than this. It is as we have seen, false
in fact, and overturns the whole system of man's redemption as
revealed in the Bible.
IV. But though by far the greater part of the objectors under
-consideration deny all future punishment, yet there are some few
of the more sober and candid among them who hold that there is
a future state of probation, and that future punishment js
ONLY DISCIPLINARY AND LIMITED. By this evaFion all those tCXtS
144 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect.7.
which threaten the wicked with everlasting destruction and punish-
ment, are explained to mean the chastisements only of a father,
inflicted on his disobedient children during a limited period, and for
their best interest.
But this doctrine in question is all mere assumption. I am not
aware that there is a single text of scripture that even intimates
that the future punishment of the wicked is designed for their
good, or that their moral character will be changed after death.
The last account the Bible gives us of them is, " that they died and
were buried, and in hell lifted up their eyes being in torments." It
sentences them to everlasting punishment ; leaves them in hell, and
is entirely silent as to their being placed under a painful and lasting
discipline after death that will correct their evil dispositions and
vicious habits, and form in their minds the love of virtue, by which
they will be prepared for heaven.
This notion is contradicted by the analogy of experience. Would
a parent, if he wished to reform his vicious child, place him in the
society of those who were equally or even more abandoned than
his child ? And is it not true in fact, that the wicked who in the
present life have been doomed by the sentence of human law to
confinement with those of a similar character to their own, have
generally come away monuments not of the reforming, but of the
corrupting and hardening influence of such kind of punishment?
Where then is the ground for believing that the wieked by being
continually associated with those in whom the principles of false-
hood, deceit and malignity, and the passions of pride, hatred, malice,
and revenge rage with uncontrolled and perpetual violence ; and
who continually blaspheme God and oppose the interests of his
kingdom ; will become conformed to* his image and acquire a relish
for his service ?
This doctrine is contrary to the express declarations of the Scrip-
tures. The punishment of the wicked is declared to be everlasting
in such a variety of instances and in such a variety of forms of ex-
pression as to preclude the idea of its being limited, and of a puri-
fying influence. They are said to endure "the wrath," "the ven-
Lect. 7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 145
geance," "the fiery indignation," "the fierceness of the wrath of
Almighty God,v "judgment without mercy," and all the threatnings
of the divine lav/ without any mixture of good. Does this lan-
guage express sufferings, designed only for the reformation of those
who endure them ?
According to the opinion now under consideration, all endure the
whole penalty of the law, and are strictly punished according to
their deserts* Of course they are not saved by grace, nor is their
deliverance in any sense to be ascribed to Christ. Grace
and mercy have no portion in their restoration to the divine
favor. When an offender has served out the term of his sentence
in the penitentiary, would he think of petitioning the Governor
to grant him his pardon? If a pardon were offered him just as he
was leaving the prison-gates, would he receive it as a great favor?
Need a person who has paid his debt, be told, that his debt was
generously forgiven him ? Contemptible absurdity ! If the doe-
trine of universal restoration be true, the sinner will enter heaven
without being under any obligation to God for pardoning him, or
the Lord Jesus for redeeming him, or the Holy Ghost for sanctify-
ing him. Is not this utterly inconsistent with the whole tenor of
Scriptures ? Does it not sink the grace of the gospel into a mere
farce ?
If the punishment of the wicked is only a necessary and salutary
discipline, designed to promote their ultimate happiness, then pun-
ishment inflicted for any other end is unjust. In this case he
deserves no more punishment for breaking the law, than will repair
the injury sustained by himself. It is therefore unjust to punish
him for the injury and insult he may have done to the government
of God, and the interests of the Universe, excepting so far as he
at the same time injures himself. But this implies that they are not
injured and insulted by the transgressor, and that therefore no rep-
aration is to be made to them.
Will any one assume this ground, that sin has not a serious bear-
ing upon the interests of the Divine holiness, law, and government?
If he will thus deny its influence, he may deny its existence, But
M
146 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 7,
if you acknowledge that the transgressor sin3 against God, and
injures his government ; and that the justice of God, and the dignity
of his authority, and the interests of the universe, require punish-
ment to make a reparation, and that for this purpose God has sanc-
tioned his law with a penalty, then you must give up the ground of
disciplinary punishment as untenable.
Again, if future punishment is disciplinary, it is inflicted without
the least necessity, and is therefore a wanton exercise of cruelty ;
for the repentance and reformation of the sinner might be effected
without the imposition of dreadful torments for ages of ages. That
same power and wisdom which lead many to repentance in this life,
might by similar or superior means lead all to repentance. Or if a
more clear exhibition of truth and stronger motives v/ere necessary,
God might exhibit the truth in such a convincing manner, and might
render motives so inducing as inevitably to produce conviction that
should result in genuine repentance and conversion to God. Why
are the fires of hell kindled at all ? Why are sinners doomed to
unutterable woes for ages on ages when it is God's purpose to par-
don and save them ?
Once more, if the sufferings of the wicked are for their ultimate
and everlasting good, they are not to be regarded in any proper
sense as punishment. Punishment is the infliction of positive evil ;
it is subjecting the guilty to sufferings which, all things considered,
are an evil to them. If then the wicked suffer in the future life only
for their good, they are not punished. A man who goes through a
painful course of medicine, or submits to the amputation of a limb,
in order to restore health or preserve life, is in no sense punished.
If future punishment be disciplinary, the wicked while enduring the
pains of hell will have occasion for thanksgiving for what they will
endure ; for by this salutary discipline they are being prepared for
the purity and happiness of heaven. But is hell a world of mercy ?
Does God there cause all things to work together for good to those
who hate and oppose him ? This is equally as absurd and ridiculous
as to suppose that the wicked receive all their punishment in this
life.
Lbct.7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 147
V. Some evade the force of scripture testimony by denying the
IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL AND THAT IT IS CAPABLE OF SUFFER-
ING OR ENJOYMENT IN AN INTERMEDIATE STATE. They acknowl-
edge that the whole doctrine of future punishment whether limited
or endless, depends upon this: "Is the soul immortal, and is it
capable of suffering or enjoyment in an intermediate state ?" Hence
they are reduced to the only alternative, either to admit the doctrine
of future punishment, or to deny the immortality of the soul and its
existence after death and before the resurrection.
The immortality of the soul is a subject of infinite moment to
man as a social, rational and accountable intelligence. If he have
not an immortal soul, religion is a shadow, life a dream, and the
approach of death a scene of darkness and despair. But if man is
destined to an eternal existence, an immense importance must attach
to all his present affections, actions and pursuits. All decisive and
complete information on this point is of the greatest moment ; for all-
error and uncertainty in a matter of such importance must enfeeble
and unsettle the mind, and detract from the efficacy of those motives
which excite and animate the soul to aspire after the felicities of
another world. There is too much reason to believe that the indif-
ference to religion which so generally prevails, and the unhallowed
practices to which it gives rise, are owing principally to the want of
a full conviction of the reality of a future state.
Now that the soul is immortal might be argued from the Light of
Nature. From the consideration of the universal belief which this
doctrine has obtained among all nations and in all ages ; from the
strong and restless desires after future existence and enjoyment
implanted in the human breast ; from the strong desires of the mind
after general knowledge, and the capacious intellectual faculties
with which man is furnished ; from the susceptibility of the mind
for endless progress towards intellectual and moral perfection, and
the unlimited range of view which is opened to it throughout the
immensity of space and duration ; from the painful apprehensions of
the mind under the influence of remorse ; from the justice and
providence of God, and from the absurdity of supposing that the
148 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 7,
intelligent and thinking principle in man will ever be annihilate d,
we might argue the immortality of the soul. But the only sure
ground on which to rest the proof of this doctrine is the word of
God. This clearly establishes the point by declaring not only thai
the soul is capable of existing forever, but that it is the unalterable
purpose of the Creator that it should thus exist. — (Matt, x: 28.)
The ancient patriarchs, and other illustrious characters that
flourished under the Jewish dispensation, lived and died in the full
persuasion of the immortality of the soul ; and it was in the hope of
another life that they received the promises. " As for me," says the
Psalmist, "I shall behold thy face in righteousness ; I shall be satis-
fied when I awake in thy likeness." "My flesh shall rest in hope ;
for thou wilt not leave my soul among the dead. Thou wilt show
me the path of life ; in thy presence is fullness of joy ; at thy right
hand are pleasures forevermore." " God will redeem my soul from
the grave, for he will receive me." "Whom have I in heaven but
thee, and there is none upon earth that I desire besides thee. Thou
wilt guide me with thy counsel and afterward receive me to glory.**
Nothing can be more clear and express than such declarations. If
the Psalmist did not believe in the immortality of the soul, and did
not hope to enjoy the felicities of another world after the termina-
tion of his earthly pilgrimage, his language is absolutely without
meaning. What rational interpretation can be given of the express-
ions of his being redeemed from the grave and put in possession of
fullness of joy and everlasting pleasures, if his view was confined to
the narrow limits of time. Job, that illustrious exampl s of patience,
consoled his spirit under the most acute suffering by the hopes he
entertained of a blessed immortality. "I know," says he, " that my
redeemer liveth, and that he shall stand at the latter day upon the
earth ; and after 1 shall awake though this body be destroyed yet ia
my flesh shall I see God." In many other passages of the prophets
the same truth is exhibited. When Balaam desired that his death
might be like that of the righteous, it must be in the hope and
expectation of a glorious immortality. Another decisive proof that
the Israelites believed in the immortality of the soul is found m
Lie*. 7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 149
their persuasion that the souls of the dead sometimes appeared after
their decease, as Samuel to Saul, (1 Sam. xxviii: 13-15,) and Jere-
miah to Judas Maccabeus, (2 Mac. xv: 14.) When Christ walked
upon the sea the apostles took him for an apparition, and after his
resurrection he referred to this current belief. The Saduceeswho
denied the immortality of the soul, were regarded by their nation as
a kind of heretics.
In the christian revelation the doctrine of immortality is taken for
granted, and incidentally interwoven through all the discourses of
our Saviour and his apostles as a truth which lies at the foundation
of our religion, and never ought to be called in question. It is true
they have not attempted to prove it by any labored arguments or
supernatural evidences. It is assumed as true, as Moses in giving
an account of the creation assumed as true the being of God. Paul
when looking forward to the dissolution of his mortal frame, declares
in his own behalf and in behalf of all christians, " Our light affliction,
which is but for a moment, worketh out for us a far more exceeding
and eternal weight of glory ; while we look not at the things which
are seen, but at those which are not seen, for the things which are
seen are temporal, but the things which are not seen are eternal."
The apostle Peter declares that believers " are regenerated to the
lively hope of an incorruptible, undefiled, and unfading inheritance
reserved for them in heaven." And our Saviour declares in refer-
ence to his disciples, " I give unto them eternal life and they shall
never perish" These passages clearly demonstrate the immortality
of the soul. I shall now pass to notice in particular the evidence
of its existence after death and before the resurrection.
The language of Scripture constantly implies that the soul is
capable of exerting its powers and faculties in a state of separation
from fhe body. The apostle, during his vision, could not tell
whether he was in the body or out of the body, and he speaks of being
w absent fron the body and present with the Lord." Now if a man
can be absent from the body and at the same time be present with
the Lord, what more is wanted to prove the conscious existence of
separate spirits ? We frequently read of " things done in the body/'
150 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect.7.
which implies that some agent is capable of doing things out of the
body. In Eccl. xii : 7, Solomon confutes the sentiments of those
who suppose " that one event happeneth to man and to beast, that
they both alike die/' by saying, " Then shall the dust return to the
earth as it was, and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it."
Here it is directly asserted that after our mortal part shall return to
its original dust, there is a spirit to return to God. In Matt, xyii,
it is written, " And after six days Jesus took Peter and James and
John into an high mountain and was transfigured before them ; and
there appeared unto them Moses and Eiias talking with them." It
is a question whether these persons were here in body or in spirit
only. Whatever may be pretended of Elias or Elijah, that distin-
guished prophet who is said to have been taken to heaven without
dying, Moses surely died and was buried in the land of Moab. And
his body could not be there. Is it said that this is a vision and
ought not to be literally interpreted ? The word translated vision
means sight, appearance, what they had seen on the mount. Hence
to assume that the persons seen were not the real persons of Moses
and Elijah, and the voice heard was not the real voice, is to take
for granted what the word will not justify. Besides, Peter repre-
sents these things as real— -(2 Peter i: 16-18} — " For we have not
followed cunningly devised fables, when we made known unto you
the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ, but were eye witnesses of his
majesty. For he received from God the Father, honor and glory
when there came such a voice to him from the excellent glory, This
is my beloved Son in whom I am well pleased. And this voice
which came from heaven we heard when we were with him in the
holy mount." If these things were all real, does this not prove that
the spirit of Moses had existence after his body was dead ? In Heb.
xii: 23, we read of the " spirits of the just made perfect" as#vell as
of " an innumerable company of angels." The answer of our Lord
to those Saducees who caviled about the doctrine of the resurrection,
is equally decisive against those who deny the doctrine of the tnfer-
mediate state. His argument to prove the doctrine of a future
existence was, that God said to Moses, "I am the God of thy father^
Lsct.7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 151
the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob."
" And God is not the God of the dead but of the living-." If the
holy patriarchs, whose names are here commemmorated with so
much honor, were reduced to the mere clods of the valley, and their
souls were struck into non-existence, God would never own the
high relation to those whom he has finally abandoned and suffered
to sink into a state of unconscious existence. Consequently Abra-
ham, Isaac and Jacob, though dead in body, were living and
intelligent beings in another state at that time. The phrase "He
was gathered to his people" implies a similar sentiment. In Gen.
xxv, it is said "Abraham rave up the ghost and was gathered to his
people." This expression does not import that he was buried with
his fathers, for the fathers of Abraham were buried several
hundreds of miles from the qp.ye of Machpelah, in which the mortal
remains of Abraham were reposited. The true meaning therefore
must be that he was 'gathered' to the blessed society of those con-
genial spirits who had passed into the unseen world. The translation
of Enoch is proof in point. Paul says, " by faith Enoch was transla-
ted that lie should not see death, and was not found because God
had translated him. — (Keb. xi : 5.) Now to translate does not mean
to annihilate, but to transfer to another state of being. He wTent to
dwell with God, for God took him. Now he passed into the invisi-
ble world with or without a body. But to go into the world of spirits
with a mortal body, is a contradiction of terms. His translation
must be the assumption of a glorified body such as the saints will
receive after the resurrection, and such as the righteous will assume
who at the second coming of Christ are alive upon the earth.
The scriptures likewise teach us that both the righteous and the
wicked immediately on leaving the body enter into a state of happi-
ness or misery. Lazarus as soon as he died was carried by angels
into the bosom of A-braham; and when "the rich man died and was
buried, in hell he lifted up his eyes being in torments." — (Luke xvi :
19.) The conclusion is unavoidable that their spirits were in another
world. Do you say that this is a parabolical representation ? What
if it be — has it therefore no plain and intelligible meaning? And
152 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect.7.
what truth does it inculcate if not that souls go into a state of
happiness or misery at death ? I apprehend that in ninety-nine
cases out of a hundred, every unbiassed person on hearing for the
first time the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, would have a
conviction on his mind that the immortal part of one was in a state
of happiness, and that of the other in a state of misery. This is the
obvious meaning of the parable. This was the sense in which our
Lord must have been understood. And would he have uttered
even in parables what had a direct tendency to mislead the reader,
and to raise an expectation of a state which had no existence ? But
he was pleased to confirm this inference by his address to the dying
thief upon the cross : " This day shalt thou be with me in paradise."
But this could not be unless his soul had existed in a state of hap-
piness, while his body was buried witn the other malefactor. The
apostle "had a desire to depart and be with Christ," which he con-
sidered as far better than living on earth. But he would not have
been any sooner with Christ for departing this life were he to be
entirely under the power of death until the resurrection. Nor could
lie be present witli the Lord while absent from the body, if at death he
should sink into a state of unconscious existence and thus remain
till the second coming of Christ. The Revelator was directed to
write "Blessed are the dead that die in the Lord from henceforth7
even so saith the Spirit." This also implies that the righteous at
death enter into a state of happiness. John "saw an innumerable
company of souls before the throne of heaven, crying for vengeance
on their persecutors, but were required to wait till the rest of their
brethren had finished their testimony." — (Rev. vi : 9-11.) Interpret
this passage as you will, still the facts it relates must precede the
resurrection. Hence it proves a conscious existence of the soul
after death. How absurd then is the conclusion that the soul is not
immortal, and that it will not exist in a state of happiness or misery
after death and before the resurrection!
But suppose the soul is annihilated at death and reanimated at the
resurrection, it is not essentially the same mind. It is a new crea-
tion when rebuilt. But if the mind be in its essential properties ak
Lect.7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 153
the resurrection what it was when it left the world, then the sinner
must have all those passions and affections which he has in this life,
and he what he would be if he should not sink into a state of uncon-
scious existence. This would not avoid the necessity of his.
suffering in the eternal world ; for he must be what he was when he
left the world, a guilty, wretched and polluted being.
VI. Another evasion ivliich I shall notice is, the denial of the
EXISTENCE AND AGENCY OF EVIL SPIRITS. Should W6 give Way to
speculative notions of the existence and agency of evil spirits, we
may presently lose ourselves. All that we can know of them is
repealed in the Bible. To the Bible then let us repair.
The objectors to endless punishment have labored hard to dis-
prove the existence of a being called the devil. They argue that
" the word devil or Satan in the Old and New Testament signifies
only the principle of natural or moral evil, personified by the well
known figure in rhetoric — The devil is only an allegorical person-
age. ' The relative bearing of this subject upon the futsre punish-
ment of the wicked would not sustain me in going fully into the
proof of the reality and agency of evil spirits. Yet it may be proper
for me to present a few thoughts on Satanic influence, and cite a
few passages of scripture which to my own mind prove the existence
and agency of evil spirits.
Many eminent saints and christians of undoubted veracity and
sanity, have frequently declared that the most horrid and blasphe-
mous thoughts which can be imagined have been suddenly and
unexpectedly suggested to their minds, to expel which they have
exerted every energy of their moral powers. Now I ask, does not
the fact that these thoughts were unwelcome, unsought for, and
unexpectedly forced on their minds, prove that they wer£ the effect
of some influence foreign to and independent of the mind ? And if
so, was it the influence of a good or a bad being?
The language of the scriptures on the existence and agency of
evil spirits is such, that it is impossible to understand it in any other
than a literal sense. The language of inspiration not only
represents the devil as a real, intelligent agent, but describes hiru
154 METHODS OP EVADING (Lect. 7.
as having an influence on the human mind. To this point are the
following passages of scripture : " The god of this world blindeth
the minds of them that believe not." " The prince of the power
of the air, the spirit that now worketh in the children of disobedi-
ence.'' " Be sober, be vigilant, because your adversary the devil,
as a roaring lion, walketh about seeking whom he may devour."
" For this purpose the son of God was manifested, that he might
destroy the works of the devil." " Resist the devil, and he will
flee from you." " Put on the whole armor of God, that ye may be
able to stand against the wiles of the devil : for we wrestle not
against flesh and blood, but against principalities and powers, against
the rulers of the darkness of this world, against spiritual wicked-
ness in high places." " The devil taketh him up into a high moun-
tain." "The devil having put it into Judas' heart to betray
him," &c.
These and many ether passages which might be cited, abundantly
teach to my mind the fact that there is a being of vast and exten-
sive intellect; who is an enemy of all righteousness, and who with
u his angels," has free access to the minds of men, tempting them
to rebel against God and to destroy themselves, and that this being
is the Devil.
That Satanic influence is possible, no man ought to dispute, 'un-
less he can prove it impossible. And can it be proved that Satan
cannot communicate ideas to the human mind ? That simple spirit
can influence spirits dwelling in bodies, cannot be denied without
denying the influence of the Holy Spirit on the minds of men. I
presume that no man will undertake to prove the impossibility of
♦Satanic influence on the human mind.
But is it said that we may account for the influence mentioned in
the passages above quoted, without imputing it to infernal agency ?
But God has told us that Satan has an influence on the human mind,
and that'ought to put the subject to rest. We are not at liberty to
explain away the literal meaning of the scriptures, and understand
them in a metaphorical sense, unless the subject or connection show
that they are metaphorical. If the scriptures on this subject are to
Lect. 7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 155
"be understood in a metaphorical sense, the influence of Satan mean-
ing no more than moral evil, then the inspired writers, instead of
using great plainness of speech, must have so written as to deceive
mankind. Take for illustration a few passages. " When any one
heareth the word and understandeth it not, then cometh the wicked
one and catcheth away that which was sown in the heart: this is he
which received seed by the way-side." Christ is here explaining
the parable of the sowers, and giving the plain and literal meaning.
And can we suppose that he wrould explain one dark metaphor by
another equally dark ? The wicked one taking the word out of the
heart, must have been quite as obscure as the fowls of heaven de-
vouring it.
The same might be observed of the parable of the tares. It is
said that "while men slept the enemy came and sowed tares among
the wheat and went his way." In giving the plain and real mean-
ing of this parable, our Lord said that the enemy that sowed them
was the devil. But if Satan has no influence on the mind, this
instead of explaining was only perplexing the subject.
In fine, it is easy to see that the existence and agency of evil
spirits must stand or fall together. If the one is metaphorical, so is
the other. If the one be given up, so may the other. And thus the
scripture account " of the angels who kept not their first estate
being reserved to everlasting chains, under darkness, unto the
judgment of the great day," may be all a mere farce. And if there
is in reality no such beings, the whole testimony of scripture is
reduced to uncertainty. We may believe nothing which God has
revealed if we can find a more simple way of accounting for facts
which he has told us to be the effects of specific causes, than by
acknowledging such causes to produce such effects.
God has represented in his word a real, malignant being, who fell
from heaven with all his company, and who has come with all his
legions to this apostate world for the purpose of instigating man to
persist in his rebellion against his Creator, and to resist all overtures
of peace. God has also represented him as the grand mover of
idolatry, snperstition, wars and persecutions, and as ruling in the
156 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 7.
children of disobedience and leading them, captive at his will. He
is a lying spirit in the mouth of false prophets, seducers and heretics.
It is he that torments and possesses men. He inspires them with
evil designs, as he did David when he drew him into sin by tempting
him to number Israel ; Judas to betray his Lord ; and Ananias and
Sapphira to conceal the price of their field. Places pre-eminent for
wickedness are styled "Satan's seat." He roves full of rage like a
roaring lion, to tempt, to betray, and to involve us in guilt and ruin.
When we consider the plain testimony of scripture on the exist-
ence and agency of evil spirits on the human mind, have we not
abundant evidence of their existence and agency ; and that those
who deny this fact and endeavor to explain the scriptures so as to
justify such a denial, are perverting the scriptures ? If the power
of Satan be an Eastern metaphor, so may the power Gf God be in
delivering men from it. There is no doctrine in the Bible but that
might be thus explained entirely away. Let us believe what God
has said, and conform our faith to the decision of the sacred
scriptures.
VII. Another evasion tvhich I shall notice, is, that the judg-
ment DAY IS PASSED AWAY ALREADY, OR THAT EVERY MAN IS
JUDGED AND REWARDED IN THE PRESENT LIFE. By this expedient
all those passages are explained away which speak of a judgment
to come, of every man standing before the judgment-seat of Christ;
and of Christ as coming in the clouds of heaven with power and
with great glory to judge the world. Since a few texts are found,
in which the coming of Christ is spoken of with reference to some
special manifestation of his power and glory in the present world,
the position is assumed as demonstrably true, that wherever his
coming is spoken of in the scriptures, it must have the same limita-
tion, and relate only to the scenes of this life. It is asserted that
all the judgment there is for the transgressor is in the present life,
because if it be admitted that there is a judgment in a future state
it will follow of course that there will be also punishment in a fu-
ture state. Of this, the objectors of future punishment are aware ;
hence their attempts to disprove the doctrine of the general judg-
Lect. 7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 157
inentat the end of the world. But were the Bible silent upon this
point, it might be conclusively proved from facts and considerations
independent of direct scripture testimony, that there is to be a judg-
ment after death.
That there will be a future judgment, may be inferred from the
partial displays of divine justice in this world. If there be a righte-
ous God, he will fully reward the righteous and punish the wicked.
But this is not done in the present dispensation of things. Whether
rewards and punishments are invariably awarded to men in the
present life according to their moral actions, is a point that has been
long settled. The experience of all ages has shown that pleasure
and pain, prosperity and adversity, are not distributed by providence
exactly according to the virtues and vices of mankind, but scattered
with a promiscuous hand. Though various instances occur in which
those who have distinguished themselves by their crimes are dis-
tinguished by the judgments of Go*?, while those who have been
eminent for piety and virtue were signally delivered by the inter-
position of divine providence, yet the objects of God's hatred and
iove are not uniformly distinguished by the present distribution of
things. The wicked are often in prosperity all their days, while the
righteous are in adversity. As it respects public calamities, the
distress is general and indiscriminate. If drought, famine, pesti-
lence, floods or fires are commissioned to spread wide disasters,
they have no warrant except in a few miraculous instances to exempt
the righteous. Hence the tie that binds human society must be
severed before there can be a perfect retribution ; for the state of
individuals is inseparably connected with that of society, and good
and bad men must share alike in public blessings and calamities.
We also infer a future judgment from the fact that although this
is not a state of perfect retribution, yet God in his providence does
here begin to reward virtue and punish vice. Had no distinction
whatever taken place in the present life between the righteous and
the wicked, there might have been some ground to conclude that
the ancient complaint was just, "that all things come alike to all
men ; there is one event to the righteous and the wicked."
N
158 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 7.
But to suppose that God regards with equal eye the evil and the
good, is in effect to annihilate his existence, as it contradicts every
notion which holy beings have entertained of him. It would repre-
sent him as having less regard for virtue than many of his creatures
on earth ; for but few of them are so depraved as not to wish the
virtuous rewarded and the vicious punished. Now God is a being
of order, and he has displayed it in his moral government. He ha3
shown himself favorable to virtue and unfavorable to vice. He does
begin to reward and punish in the present life. Thus we see the
throne of the Almighty already set for judgment ; and by his begin-
ning to reward and punish here, we infer what he will do hereafter,
when the characters of moral agents will be fully adjusted.
Conscience also intimates to man when he sins that he deserves
to be punished. Now the reproaches of conscience are altogether
inexplicable, if there be no retribution beyond the grave. We are
therefore led to the conclusion that those terrors which assail the
wicked may be considered the beginnings of that misery and anguish
which will be consummated in the world to come, in the cases of
those who add final impenitence to all their other crimes.
When we see or hear of great crimes committed by others, such
as murders, perjuries, robbery, treachery, oppression in all its
forms, and tyranny in all its degrees from that practiced towards
the African slave, up to that exercised over the lives and liberties
of millions of cringing vassals, through the forbearance of God, or
the imperfection of human laws ; we feel something within us de-
manding that such should receive condign punishment. From these
considerations it seems reasonable to expect that there will be a
judgment after death.
But it is not on an argument of this kind that I principally rely
for proof of a future judgment. We are not left to the mere dic-
tates of reason on this subject. God, in his word, has revealed in
the clearest manner, that there will be a day of reckoning at the
end of the word. " I said in my heart, God shall judge the righteous
and the wicked." " For God shall bring every work into judgment
with every secret thing, whether it be good or whether it be evil.n
Lsct. 7. SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 159
(Ecc. liii : 17. — xii : 14.) " God hath appointed a day, in the which
he will judge the world in righteousness by that man whom he hath
ordained."— (Acts xvii: 30, 31.) " We shall all stand before the
Judgment seat of Christ." — [Rom. xiv: 10.) "For we must all ap-
pear before the judgment seat of Christ, that everyone may receive
of the things done in his body, according to that he hath done,
whether it be good or bad." — (2 Cor. v : 10.) Here it may be ob-
served that the retrospective phrase, the things done in his body,
determine the time of the judgment to a period beyond this life.
" But I say unto you, that every idle word that men shall speak,
they shall give account thereof in the day of judgment." — (Matt.
xii : 36.) " And as Paul reasoned of righteousness, temperance,
and judgment to come, Felix trembled," — (Acts xxiv: 25.) "When
the Son of Man shall come in his glory and all his angels with him,
then shall he sit upon the throne of his glory and before him shall
be gathered all nations : and he shall separate them one from an-
other, as a shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats ; and he
shall set the sheep on his right hand, but the goats on the left. And
these shall go away into everlasting punishment: but th© righteous
into life eternal." — (Matt, xxv : 31-46.) These passages so clearly
refer to the general judgment at a future indefinite time, that noth-
ing need be said to establish this application of them. Another
class of texts clearly limits the judgment to a period subsequent to
death and the resurrection. " It is appointed unto men once to die,
but after this the judgment." — (Heb. ix : 27.) " I charge, there-
fore, before God, and the Lord Jesus Christ, who shall judge the
quick and the dead at his appearing and his kingdom." — (2 Tim.
iv : 1.) " Who shall give account to him that is ready to judge the
quick and the dead." — (1 Pet. iv: 5.) By the quick we are to un-
derstand those who shall be alive on the earth when Christ comes
to judgment; and by the dead those who are so in a literal sens*.
The dead will be raised, and those who are alive upon the earth at
that time, will be changed, and both together will be judged. " But
the heavens and the earth which are now, by the same, word are
kept in store, reserved unto fire against the day of judgment and
160 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 7.
the perdition of the ungodly men." — (2 Pet. iii : 7.) " For I am
ready to be offered, and the time of my departure is at hand ; I
have fought the good fight, I have finished my course, I have kept
the faith ; henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of righteous-
ness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, shall give me at that
day ; and not to me only, but to all them that love his appearing.'*
(2 Tim. iv: 6-8.) "And I saw the dead, small and great, stand
before God, and the books were opened; and another book was
opened, which is the book of life ; and the dead were judged out
of the things which were written in the books according to their
works. And the sea gave up the dead which were in it, and death
and hell delivered up the dead which were in them : and they were
judged every man according to their works. And death and hell
were cast into the lake of fire. This is the second death, And
whoever was not found written in the book of life, was cast into
the lake of fire." — (Rev. xx: 12-15.) Death and hell, taken liter-
ally, are things which belong to time. Prior to the day of Judg-
ment, the ungodly were confined under their power as in a prison,
but having received their doom, they shall not be remanded back
thither, but go into everlasting punishment. St. Peter speaks of
the angels who sinned and were cast down to Tartarus, and deliv-
ered in chains of darkness to be reserved unto judgment. — (2 Pet.
ii : 4.) St. Jude, speaking of the same characters, is more explicit.
" And the angels which kept not their first estate, but left their own
habitation, he hath reserved in everlasting chains, under darkness,,
unto the judgment of the great day." — (Jude 6.) Though the sub-
jects of the judgment in these two last passages, are fallen angels,
and not sinners of mankind ; yet the argument from their case, in
support of the future judgment, is equally strong as though spoken
of men : for it is not the subjects but the certainty of future judg-
ment that is the object of inquiry.
There is another class of texts which speaks of the judgment
and its attending circumstances. " The Lord Jesus shall be reveal-
ed from heaven, with his mighty angels, in flaming fire, taking ven-
geance on them that know not God, and that obey not the gospel
Lect. 7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 161
of our Lord Jesus Christ.5' — (2 Thess. i : 7, 8.) " Behold he cometh
with clouds ; and every eye shall see him, and they also "which
pierced him, and all kindreds of the earth shall wail because of him.
Even so, amen." — (Rev. i : 7.) The inspired writers speak of the
visible heavens and earth as waxing old, and passing away ; yea, of
a general conflagration as connected with the judgment.
These are but a small portion of the passages which announce a
judgment to come. But they are plain and decisive. They dis-
close a judgment to occur after death, and to embrace all mankind.
Now, let me ask, have scenes on earth ever been witnessed that
correspond with the awful descriptions which the Bible gives of the
final judgment? Has the Lord Jesus descended from heaven, in
the clouds of heaven, visible to every eye, and penetrating every
soul ? Have all men, all nations, the dead both small and great,
the quick and the dead, stood before God ? Has the Judge of all
separated them the one from the other, as a shepherd divideth his
sheep from the goats, sitting his sheep on his right hand, and the
goats on the left ? Has he pronounced sentence upon them accord-
ing to their characters, saying to those on his right hand, Come, ye
blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for yon from
the foundation of the world, and to those on his left, Depart, ye
cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and his angels ?
Has the sentence been actually executed? Have the righteous
entered into life eternal, and the wicked gone away into everlast-
ing punishment ? Are the wicked now experiencing everlasting
destruction from the presence of the Lord and the glory of his
power, and the righteous shining forth in the kingdom of their God ?
These are scenes which mark the second coming of Christ, and the
last judgment ; when he will come to judge the world in right-
eousness.
I am not unaware that it is objected that all that is said in the 25th
chapter of St. Matthew respecting the final judgment, is referred to
the destruction of Jerusalem. But any one who knows the manner
in which the objectors treat this and the preceding chapter, can
have no doubt that their present interpretation of them is only a
162 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect.7.
subterfuge to avoid the solemn truths which there bear down upon
a guilty conscience. But what was there, let me ask, in the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem that corresponds with the scenes described in the
25th chapter of Matthew ? Did the son of man then come in his
power and great glory, and all the holy angels with him ? Did he
then sit upon the throne of his glory and gather before him all na-
tions ? Did he separate them one from another ? Did he go into a
formal and strict examination of their respective characters ? Did
he judge them out of the books, and award the righteous everlasting
life, and send the wicked away into everlasting punishment ? The
man who can interpret all this as referring to the destruction of
Jerusalem by the Roman army, is not to be reasoned with. To
convince him is a hopeless task ; for if he does not believe God he
will not be persuaded by man.
If we compare the 31st verse of this chapter with the 30th and
31st verses of the preceding, we shall see that Christ teaches us to
conceive of his coming to the destruction of Jerusalem as emblem-
atical of his second coming to judgment. That he here does refer
to the last judgment is evident from the fact that it was in answer
to an express inquiry respecting the end of the world. All nations
were assembled, which was not done at the destruction of Jerusa-
lem, and the rewards and punishments are declared to be eternal.
Once more :
VIII. It is objected thai in case should the scheme of universal
salvation fail, the final punishment threatened in the Bible to the
wicked consists not in an eternal preservation in misery,
but in a total extinction of conscious being. Many pas-
sages are conceived not only strongly to favor but expressly to
assert this opinion. It is true that it is countenanced by the sound
of several expressions which occur in the New Testament. But a
careful examination of these passages will show that their meaning
is far different from that, which a less thorough investigation would
seem to indicate. A candid and full examination of the scriptures
will convince any mind that they afford no evidence of such a
hypothesis.
Lect.7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 163
The advocates of this doctrine contend that those passages which
affirm that the wicked shall be destroyed, or perish, or be consumed,
or suffer death, decidedly prove that they will be punished with the
utter extinction of conscious being. Let us briefly notice a few of
those passages in which such expressions are found.
Apolluini, the word commonly rendered to destroy or perish, is
found in about ninety instances in the New Testament. It is used
in several different senses, but never in the sense of a total extinction
of conscious being. It often means to render miserable. Schleusner
renders it " miseram reddo, poenis officio, molestam ac indignationem
creo alicui." (Matt, x : 28— Rom. ii : 12— xiv : 15—2 Cor. ii : 15—
1 Cor. xv : 18 — Luke xiii : 3—5.) Jlpoleia, generally translated death
or destruction, occurs about twenty times in the New Testament.
It sometimes signifies temporal, death ; at other times calamity of
any kind. Schleusner renders it misery or calamity, and observes
that it is used to denote the divine punishment of offences both in
this and in a future life. (2 Pet. ii : 1 — iii : 16 — Phil, iii : 19 — Rom.
ix: 22 — Matt. vii:13.) Oleihros, rendered death and destruction, is
no where used to denote the extinction of the thinking principle.-
It literally signifies the destruction of the animal life, which is called
death; and by a transfer of language it is used figuratively for divine
punishment. after death. It generally signifies pain, misery, punish-
ment—(1 Thess. v : 3—2 Thess. i :9.)
On the word Thanalos, death, and the phrase Thanalos deuteros>
the second death, the advocates of the doctrine of annihilation lay
the greatest stress. They contend that the strict and invariable
meaning of death is the total extinction of conscious being, and that
the doctrine of the resurrection affords the only satisfactory evi-
dence that this extinction of being will not be endless ; and that
since the wicked are threatened with a second death from which
there i's no promise of deliverance, we must conclude that their
punishment will be endless and irrecoverable destruction. Now a
little attention to this subject will show that the principle on which
this argument is based is fallacious. Tlianalos does not denote
the extinction of conscious existence. It literally signifies the
164 METHODS OF EVADING (Lect. 7.
destruction of animal life. And the place of the dead is made the
place of punishment, so death is made the name of punishment
itself. When this word relates to the wicked it denotes punish-
ment after death. — (Rom. vi : 23 — viii: .31 — Jam. i: 15.) And the
second death does not denote the destruction of all being, hut of
ivell being. It is expressly said to consist in being " cast into a lake
of fire and brimstone, and as having part in that la.ke." — (Rev. ii: 11
— -xx: 14-15.) This does not describe annihilation, nor can it be
made to consist in it. The lake of fire and brimstone is called the
second death to intimate, that as the soul or thinking principle in
man is not destroyed in the first death or destruction of the body,
so neither is it to be extinguished at the general conflagration at
the end of the world. And seeing the wicked shall never be deliv-
ered from this second death by the resurrection, it is properly
termed " everlasting destruction from the presence cf the Lord and
the glory of his power." This everlasting destruction cannot mean
annihilation ; for that would not be an exertion but a suspension of
divine power ; for if this power be withheld for a moment the whole
creation would sink into nothing.
The punishment of wicked men will be the same as that of wick-
ed angels; but their punishment consists not in annihilation, but in
torment. "Depart ye cursed into everlasting fire prepared for the
devil and his angels." — (Matt, xxv: 41.) The present punishment
of these fallen beings is torment. They are "cast down to help' —
they "believe and tremble" — they cried saying, " what have we to
do with thee? art thou come to torment us before the time?"
Could they persuade themselves that they would be annihilated,
would they not rathar believe and rejoice than tremble ?
The different degrees of punishment which is threatened in the
Bible to the wicked, proves that it does not consist in annihilation,
for that admits of no degree.
The happiness of the righteous does not consist in eternal being,
but in eternal well being. And as the punishment of the wicked is
every where contrasted with the future well being of the righteous..
Lbct.7.) SCRIPTURE TESTIMONY. 165
it must consist not in a loss of conscious existence but of well being,
which is equivalent to endless punishment.
If it be said that punishment will consist in torment proportioned
in every case to the degrees of guilt, and will end in total extinction
of life and intelligence, it may be replied that this is making it to
be a compound partly of torment and partly of annihilation* And
is it credible that this was the termination of punishment that our
Lord held up to his disciples as an object of dread? Can this be
the destruction of the soul and body in hell ? Is it credible that
our Lord should threaten the wicked with putting an end to their
miseries ?
It is highly unreasonable, if not absurd, to suppose that the think-
ing principle in man will ever be annihilated. To sink into eternal
oblivion is. impossible ! Reason tells us that we cannot die. So
far as our knowledge extends, there does not appear a single in-
stance of annihilation throughout the material system. Changes
are indeed incessantly taking place, in countless variety, through-
out every department of nature. The spots of the Sun, the belts
of Jupiter, the surface of the Moon, and the rings of Saturn, and
several portions of the starry heavens, are constantly varying their
aspects. But no instance has yet occurred of any portion of matter
in these worlds and systems of worlds being reduced to annihilation.
The matter of which this earth is composed, abhors nothingness.
Do not the most common objects in nature bid defiance to the hand
of the destroyer. Mountains are crumbling down ; islands are
emerging from the bottom of the sea, and sinking again into the
abyss. Earthquakes and volcanoes have produced frequent devas-
tations. The invisible atmosphere is also the scene of constant
changes, by the mixture and decomposition of gasses. The vege-
table and animal kingdoms are either progressively advancing to
maturity or falling into decay. Still, however, amid all these
changes and transformations no example of annihilation has yet
occurred to the eye of the most penetrating observer. A piece of
coal undergoes the process of combustion, and its component parts
are dissolved, but the elementary particles of which it was com-
m METHODS OF EVADING, &c. (Lect. 7.
posed still remain in existence. Since, then, it appears that anni-
hilation forms no part of the plan of the Creator in the material
world, will he annihilate the world of mind? Reason says, no.
The soul contains no principle of dissolution within itself, since it
m a spiritual and uncompounded substance. And what is testified
by reason is confirmed by Scripture. This informs us that all the
repositories of the dead shall consign their charge to the dominion
of immortality. Even in the absence of the body the soul lives and
feels and acts, as we have seen, and our Lord tells us of those who
eannot kill the soul. Hence wo must believe that the soul is death-
less, and that the spark of life and intelligence which the Almighty
has created in man, will never be extinguised. For you, fellow
sinner, there will be no escape through the dark retreat of anni-
hilation. You may in the moments of your desparation seek for
this dark and dismal door into nonentity. But you will find it barred
firm with adamant, and locked with eternal bolts. Look at this
awful fact, and think of that despair that will seize those guilty
souls, who will look in vain for this dark door by which they may
©lude the grasp and be concealed from the withering glance of the
Almighty Avenger! Fellow sinners, you may now evade the force
of Scripture testimony, but you will not always be able so to do.
O then let it be your concern to know what the Scriptures do teach,
and submit yourselves to the decisions of the Oracles of God.
"Search the Scriptures, for in them ye think ye have eternal life,
and they are they that testify of me."
MECTUKE ¥111.
TRUE PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION, IN REFER-
ENCE TO THOSE PASSAGES OF SCRIPTURE WHICH ARE SUPPOSED
TO ASSERT OR IMPLY THAT ALL MANKIND WILL ULTIMATELY
BE RESTORED TO PURITY AND HAPPINESS.
2 Pet. iii : 16. — "As also in all his epistles, speaking in them of these
things ; in which are some things hard to he understood, which they
that are unlearned and unstable wrest, as they do also the othzr
scriptures, unto their own destruction"
In the latter part of the apostolic age, many false teachers arose9
among whom the Nichclaitans and the Simonians were the^most
remarkable. They perverted the doctrines of the gospel respecting
justification by faith ; so as to make them a pretence for gratifying
the vilest propensities of human nature without restraint. And to
gain credit to their impious explications of the doctrines of the
gospel, these impostors denied the divine authority of Christ and
his apostles, and arrogated to themselves an illumination superior
to that of the apostles of Christ. They assured their disciples that
they were at liberty to gratify all their passions and appetites, and
that Christ would not punish them for these nor any other sins.
These doctrines were extremely agreeable to the corruptions of
the natural heart. By embracing these, the wicked could keep up
the appearance of being believers in the Christian religion, while
they denied all that was offensive in its doctrines, and threw off all
that was uncomfortable in its restraints. To stop the mouths of
these false teachers, and to guard his brethren against the evil ten-
dency of their doctrines, and to establish them in the belief of
168 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect.8.
those things which the Lord himself had taught and which his
apostles had delivered in his name, Peter wrote this second epistle.
The scriptures are our only rule of faith and practice. In them
are clearly exhibited all those truths which are necessary for us to
know in order to duty and salvation. But among the subjects con-
tained in the Bible, some are not easy to be understood. This
obscurity does not arise from any inaccuracy of expression, but
from the grandeur and sublimity of the subjects produced. This is
an evidence of the divine inspiration of the scriptures ; for had they
been originated by man they might have been easily apprehended ;
but that which emanates from God must of necessity be beyond
the comprehension of mortals, unless it were possible for finite
minds to grasp infinity. Such being the character of those subjects
produced in the volume of Inspiration, we are required to bow our
reason to its authority and to suspend our judgment, and wait for
further light where a passage is not obvious, rather than commit
ourselves to a decision that may prove to be unsound. The Bible
is a depth which we shall never fathom in all its parts. It involves
a thousand mysteries beyond the short-sighted view of mortals.
Yet in its most important features, the truths it contains are clear
and obvious. They lie upon its surface, occur again and again,
and are stated in every variety of form. They are declared in such
terms, and presented with such illustrations, that the vast bulk of
mankind may comprehend them as well as the learned few. It is
not strength of intellect, but a right temper of mind, that is wanting
in order to a true understanding of the Bible.
But owing to a depraved heart, nourished by a wicked life, the
unlearned, the unteachable who are averse to the truth, and the
unstable who have no fixed religious principles and no firm attach-
ment to virtue, wrest the scriptures. By far-fetched criticisms and
false interpretations, they distort, pervert and put to the torture, the
plain and obvious as well as the more difficult passages of revelation,
to make them speak a meaning different from what the Holy Ghost
intended. There is no one instance in which the character of false
teachers is more manifest than in their perversion of the plain and
Lect. 8.) OP INTERPRETATION. 169
obvious meaning of the Bible. They form a theory of their own
which has a tendency to diminish their fear of the divine displeasure,
and remove their painful apprehensions of future punishment, and
which supports their hope of future happiness apart from present
holiness ; and then they pervert the sacred truth in such a manner
as to support their belief. The reason of this is obvious. While
they are crying peace, peace, and while their hope of future bliss is
based on the presumption that there is no wrath to come, no undying
worm, no unquenchable fire, no hell ; the Bible with a voice of seven
fold vengeance proclaims, "that it shall be ill with the wicked, for
the reward of his hands shall be given him." Hence, like Haman,
they find that all their fancied hopes avail them nothing, while the
Bible, with its pointed precepts and awful sanctions, like Mordecai
at the king's gate, is disturbing their peace and blasting their hopes.
Hence they torture the scriptures so as to speak a sentiment that
shall accord with the prevailing inclinations of their hearts. But in
doing this they will effect their own ruin. They wrest the scriptures
to their own destruction. As they do not embrace the love of the
truth that they might be saved, God will permit the effectual work-
ing of error in their minds to lead them even to believe a lie, that
they may be damned who have not believed the truth, but have
taken pleasure in iniquity.
What I propose, on the present occasion, is to 'go into an exam-
ination of some of those leading passages of scripture on which
the objectors to future punishment rely for support. In doing this,
I presume, we shall find a practical illustration of the truth of our
assertion, that they wrest the scriptures.
Time will not allow me to go into a minute examination of every
individual passage, which is supposed to imply or assert the final
salvation of all men. I choose rather to classify them, and by giv-
ing in as few words as possible the real meanirg of these classes,
to enable you to determine what is the true meaning of partic-
ular passages.
Much reliance is placed on that class of texts in which Christ is
said to have "tasted death for every man>" (Heb. ii : 9) — to have
o
170 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8,
" given himself a ransom for all," (1 Tim. ii : 6) — to have "suffered
the just for the unjust that he might bring us to God," (1 Pet. iii : 18)
-—to be "the propitiation for the sins of the whole world," (1 John
ii : 2)— to have " died for all," (2 Cor. v : 15)— and to be " the Lamb
of God that taketh away the sins of the world," (John i: 29.) But
do these passages assert that Christ will save all men ? No — nor
do they even imply this. All they assert is, that Christ by his suf-
ferings and death has made a full and complete atonement for sin,
and thereby opened a way in which all men may be saved. His
work was not confined to any part of the world, but was designed to
open the way of pardon to all men. He came into the world with
powers and provisions adequate for all men, and made salvation
possible to all. But it is one thing that a way should be prepared,
and quite another to be found walking in that way. In the parable
of the great supper the provision is abundant, and the invitation is
full and free ; but this did not avail those who refused to comply
with it; for it was added, "none of these men which were bidden
shall taste of my supper." Nor will the offer of pardon freely made
to sinners through the death of Christ, avail us any thing without
a cordial acceptance of him. The sacrifice of Christ does not, in
itself considered, secure the salvation of any. It is the price or
ransom, on the efficacy of which the reconciliation of mankind
depends. The benefits flowing from the death of Christ are freely
offered ; but they can never be enjoyed unless we comply with the
conditions on which they are offered. This is an important consid-
eration which many seem to overlook. They read that " Christ
died for all ;" that the offers of pardon and eternal life are made to
all, and hence they conclude that all will be saved. But they should
remember that while the offers of mercy are made to all, the prom-
ises of mercy are to those only who comply with the terms of the
gospel. Although Christ has died for all, yet we read of those
" who deny the Lord that bought them," or made them his professed
people,"and bring upon themselves swift destruction." — (2 Pet. ii : 1.)
The death of Christ avails only on the part of true believers. To
all others " he is a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence." — (1
Lect.8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 171
Pet. ii: 8.) They are condemned by the very fact that Christ ii
come into the world. — (John iii : 19.)
There is another class of texts, in which it is said God " hath
no pleasure in the death of the wicked," (Ezek. xxxiii: 11) — is "not
willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repent-
ance," (2 Pet. iii : 9) — "who will have all men to be saved and
come to the knowledge of the truth." — (ITim.ii: 4.) Is it here
expressly asserted that all men will be saved ? Plainly not. These
and similar passages simply express the general benevolence of
God, or his readiness to pardon and save repenting, returning sin-
ners. But they do not assert that any of our race will be saved.
The argument which the objectors to endless punishment derive
from these passages, is this : "Whatsoever God wills, will come
to pass. God wills the salvation of all men ; therefore all men will
be saved." Let us examine this argument. Is not the fundamen-
tal principle on which it is based, fallacious ? God has a purpose, and
whatever he decrees, he will most certainly bring to pass. But it is
not said that God has purposed to save all men. He " delights not
in the death of the sinner ;" and " will have all men to be saved."
Will this event then surely come to pass ? God is said to have no
pleasure in the death of him that dieth : yet he dieth. Jehovah is
said to have no pleasure in iniquity ; yet iniquity exists. God now
commands all men every where to repent, and it is declared that it
is his will that all should come to repentance, and the knowledge
of the truth. But shall we thence infer that there are no impeni-
tent sinners who are ignorant of the truth ? God wills the sancti-
fication of all men. "This is the will of God even your sanctifica-
tion." He also wills that " all men should be perfect in this life,
even as their Father in heaven is perfect." But does this prove
that all men are in fact now perfect ? By no means. Nor is the
fact that God is said to will the salvation of all men any evidence
that all will be saved. In 1 Tim. ii: 4, where God has declared by
St. Paul, that he will have all men to be saved, the word here trans-
lated will is not expressive of a purpose 6r decree. It is not the
same word which the apostle uses in Rom. viii: 29, 30, and oth©r
172 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. &
places where he declares the gracious purposes of heaven. It here
expresses merely the preceptive ivill of God, which requires all men
to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth. In 2 Pet.
iii : 9, where it is said that God is not willing that any should per-
ish, the word not ivilling cannot be understood of the ultimate de-
termination of the Divine will. It is never used by persons who
write good English, to express a purpose or decree. Nor does the
Greek of Peter designate a Divine purpose ; it being the same
word which is used by Mark xv r 15, where it is said, " Pilate will-
ing to content the people ;" and also by Luke xxii : 42, where
Christ says, " Father, if thou be willing, remove this cup from me."
The meaning of Peter, especially if we read the whole verse, is
obvious. The word merely expresses benevolent feelings. It is not
the good pleasure of God, as revealed in the benevolent principles
of the gospel that any should perish. But this does not prove that
God has purposed the salvation of all men.
Again, it is said, " God is the Saviour of all men," (1 Tim. iv. 10.)
But here only a part of the sentence is quoted, " He is the Sav-
iour of all men, especially of those that believe." The word Sav-
iour is to be understood agreeably to its usage in other passages,
as preserver. Thus it is used in Psalm xxxvi : 6 — " Lord, thou
preservest man and beast ;" and in Job vii : 20 — " I have sinned, O
thou preserver of men." By the care of his providence God pro-
tects the bodies, and prolongs the lives of the children of men.
And he has a general good will to the eternal salvation of all men •,
and hence he has left no one of the human family in the same hope-
less condition as that of fallen angels. Now if he be thus the
Saviour of all men, will he not preserve his people ? If such is his
good will to all his creatures, will he not provide for those who are
by faith new creatures ? This passage is of the same import with
that in John iii : 16 — " God so loved the world, that he gave his only
begotten Son," not that all -men should unconditionally be saved,
but "that whosoever believeth in him might not perish but have ever-
lasting life."
It is said again : " As in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall a!
Lsct.8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 178
be made alive." — (1 Cor. xv : 22.) "In this passage," it is said, "the
evils produced by sin are compared with the benefits received by
Christ, and it supposes the life imparted by him will prove an un-
speakable blessing-." But the whole context shows that the apostle
is here speaking of temporal death and the resurrection of the body,
and has not the remotestreferen.ee to the future conditions of either
the righteous or the wicked. If this passage was used in reference
to the future states of men, it would not prove that all will be saved.
The true meaning of the apostle in the above passage is, that as
the first Adam ruined his posterity by sin and was the cause of nat-
ural death, so the Lord Jesus, the second Adam, will raise all man-
kind from the dead, that in the body all may receive rewards and
punishments according to their works. It has been supposed by
some that the resurrection here spoken of, refers solely to Chris-
tians. But if it includes all mankind, will it follow that all will be
made alive in Christ by a glorious resurrection unto life ? Let the
solemn declaration of our Lord decide. " The hour is coming, in
the which all that are in their graves shall hear his voice, and come
forth ; they that have done good, unto the resurrection of life ; and
they that have done evil, unto the resurrection of damnation."
" If any man be in Christ, he is a new creature ; old things are
passed away ; behold all things are become new." — (2 Cor. v: 17.)
All who are savingly interested in the merits of Christ, are new
creatures, by virtue of their union with him. Their former vicious
inclinations, bad practices, and corrupt principles, have passed
away. But it remains to be proved, that all will, in a saving sense,
be in Christ. There have been sinners to whom Christ said, " De-
part from me, IJknow you not ; ye shall die in your sins, and whither
I go ye cannot come." None but those who are by faith, in Christ
will ever be admitted to a participation of the joys and the glories
of the heavenly world.
Again : " If any man sin, we have an advocate with the Father,
Jesus Christ the righteous." — (1 John ii : 1.) That Christ in any
special sense advocates the cause of all the human race, is no where
taught in the sacred volume. His prayer on the cross for his nnrjh
174 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect.SV
derers, was only for those who knew not ivliai they did. — (Luke xxiii :
34.) " Had they known the true Messiah, they would not have
crucified the Lord of glory." — (1 Cor. ii : 8.) Christ says expressly
"I pray not for the ivorld, but for them which thou hast given me."
(John xvii: 9.) Nor have we any example of Christ's ever praying
for any more than his disciples and those who should believe on
him through their word. As many as were given to Christ in the
covenant of redemption shall come unto him and be saved. For
them he offers his prevalent intercession ; for them he is an Advo-
cate with the Father.
The final salvation of all men is supposed to be favored by those
passages which speak of God as being merciful. " The Lord, God,
gracious and merciful, long-suffering1 and abundant in goodness and
truth, keeping mercy for thousands, and forgiving iniquity and
transgression and sin."— (Ex. xxxiv : 6, 7.) " The Lord your God
is gracious and merciful, and will not turn away his face from you
if you return unto him." — (2 Chron. xxx : 9.) " The Lord is mer-
ciful and gracious ; slow to anger and plenteous in mercy : he hath
not dealt with us after our sins, nor rewarded us according to our
iniquities ; for as the heaven is high above the earth, so great is his
mercy toward them that fear him ; as far as the east is from the
west, so far hath he removed our transgressions from us. Like as
a .father pitieth his children, so hath the Lord compassion on them
tlmt fear him." — (Ps. ciii: 8-14.) It must be manifest that these
passages have not the remotest reference to the future conditions
Of men. They only assert the compassion and clemency of God
in the present life. But because God is merciful, will it follow that
he is not angry with the wicked every day ? Because he is long-
suffering, does it follow that he will bear with sinners eternally and
not take vengeance ? Because he is abundant in truth, does it fol-
low that he will violate his word, and save them that believe not
and love not our Lord Jesus Christ ? Though the special mercy of
God is not restricted to this life, yet it is invariably restricted to
character. God is merciful, but he is also just and will by no means
clear the guilty. Of the wicked it is said, " he that made them will
Lect. 8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 175
not have mercy upon them, and he that formed them will show them
no favor" "The Lord is good to all, and his tender mercies are over
all his works.7' — (Ps. cxlv : £).) That that mercy which is to endure
forever is over all the works of God, is not declared. It has never
been questioned that all mankind arc subjects of the divine benevo-
lence in respect of the common blessings of this life. And this is
evidently that kind of goodness of which the Psalmist speaks : —
" Thou openest thine hand and satbflest the desire of every living
thing.*' By all the works of God we are to understand not only the
rational but the irrational creation. And does any one suppose
that God has provided salvation for his irrational creatures?
Those passages which represent the Deity as chastening his
children with the disposition of a parent, are urged in proof that
future punishment will be disciplinary and for the final good of all
who enduro it. "Thou shalt consider in thine heart that as a man
chasteneth his son, so the Lord thy God chasteneth thee." — (Deut.
Viii : 5.) "Happy is the man whom the Lord correcteth, therefore
despise not thou the chastening of the Lord.5' — (Job v : 17.) "My
son despise not thou the chastening of the Lord, nor faint when
thou art rebuked of him ; for whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth*
and scourgeth every son whom he receiveth. If you endure chasten-
ing, God dealeth with you as with sons, for what son is he whom
the father chasteneth not ? Furthermore we have had fathers of
our flesh who corrected us and we gave them reverence. Shall we
not rather be in subjection to the Father of spirits and live? For
they verily, for a few days chastened us after their own pleasure ;
but he for our profit, that we might be partakers of his holiness.*' —
(Heb. xii : 5-10.) These passages have no reference to a future
state. They represent the merciful dealings of God with his crea-
tures during their probationary state. But they do not imply, much
less assert, a willing subjection to the Father of spirits. Many
either despise the chastenmgs of the Lord, or faint when they are
rebuked of him. It is true God does not in this life willingly afflict
and grieve the children of men, but acts as a wise and good magis-
trate who never punishes from caprice, but for the general good of
170 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8.
the whole. In the present life God often punishes for the correction
of the offender and in the future always for the general good of the
universe.
"I will not contend forever, neither will I be always wroth ; for
the spirit should fail before me, and the souls which I have made. —
(Isa, Ivii : 36.) This passage is adduced to prove the impossibility
of future punishment being endless. " No soul could sustain endless
punishment ; such punishment would annihilate." It is then not
true "there is nothing too hard for the Lord."— (Jer. xxxii : 16.)
God cannot preserve souls to endure endless torments. The pas-
sage speaks only of the fatherly chastisements of God to hi3
'peculiar people' who are in the context said to put their trust in
the Lord; and that too in the present life since it was promised
them that they " should possess the land and inherit his holy moun-
tain." The meaning is, that God will not contend and be wroth
forever against them on account of their imperfections, for then
would their faith fail and their souls sink in despair. But however
mercifully God deals with those who are "of a contrite and humble
spirit," '-the wicked are like the troubled sea, wrhen it cannot rest,
whose waters cast up mire and dirt. There is no peace, saith my
God, to the wicked."
"He shall see of the travail of his soul and be satisfied." — (Isa.
liiiill.) No doubt the salvation of sinners affords the Saviour
unspeakable delight. But he will be satisfied with whatever is the
will of his Father. And whatever may be desirable to his benevo-
lent heart, nothing can be more so than the satisfying of the claims
of justice. If it be said these claims require the salvation of all men
because " the Lord hath laid on him the iniquity of us all," I reply,
he suffered no more for all than would have been necessary for the
salvation of a single individual, and no other sufferings were neces-
sary whether more are saved than will be. But Christ will be
satisfied with the portion which the Father will divide to him. A
division is a part divided to him out of the great family of man.
And this is expressly stated : " Therefore will I divide him a portion
with the great, and he shall divide the spoil with the strong."
Lect.8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 177
"Repent and be baptized every one of you ; and ye shall receive
the gift of the Holy Ghost; for the promise is unto you and to your
children and to all that are afar off, even as many as the Lord our
God shall call."— (Acts ii : 38, 39.) By those afar off, it is probable
Peter meant the Jews who were scattered in other nations ; for he
does not seem yet to understand that the gospel is to be preached
to the Gentiles. Yet the promise was equally applicable to the
Gentiles as to the Jews. The Gentiles are sometimes clearly indi-
cated by the expression afar off. Peter declared that the promise
was to as many of the Jews and Gentiles as the Lord our God should
call, and no more. He did not say that the Jews should receive the
gift of the Holy Ghost unless they should " repent" and " be baptized
in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins."
"Thou hast given him power over all flesh, that he should give
eternal life to as many as thou hast given him."— (John xvii: 2.)
" All that the Father giveth me shall come to me, and him that
cometh to me I will in no wise cast out." — (John vi : 37.) That God
has given to Christ the power over all flesh is admitted. He has
power to govern at his will and- to save or destroy. But this is not
an assurance that ail will com« to him in the appointed way of sal-
vation and be saved. It is no where asserted that Christ will save all
that God has given him the power over. He has power to give eter-
nal life to as many and no more than were given to him. A parallel
passage is recorded in Matt, xx : 23 : " But to sit on my right hand,
and on my left, is not mine to give except to those for whom it is
prepared of my Father." Christ had the power of bestowing his
favors, but he can confer them on those only who should be entitled
to them according to the purpose of his Father.
" The creature was made subject to vanity, not willingly, but by
reason of him who hath subjected the same in hope ; because the
creature itself also shall be delivered from the bondage of corruption
into the glorious liberty of the sons of God." — (Rom. viii : 20, 21.)
This passage is adduced to prove that the motive of God in making-
man subject to vanity, was that he might experience salvation*
.deliverance, and eternal redemption. This is altogether a forced:
178 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8.
construction of this passage. To assert that the creature means
ths race of man, is to assume the point which wants proof. By the
creature (ktisis) we are not to understand mankind, but the whole
creation animate and inanimate. By " being made subject to vanity"
is meant that when man apostatized from his Maker, all the creatures
of God were brought under the influence of his revolt, and made to
subserve the cause of his rebellion. As when Achan sinned, all
that pertained to him suffered ; so when our first parents sinned, the
whole creation, in so far as it was connected with man, partook of
the effects. As when a rebellion breaks out in a province, the
resources of the country being seized by the rebels are turned to
the support of their wicked course, so every thing which God has
created for the accommodation of man has been by him perverted
to the purposes of corruption. The creatures have been subjected
to the vanity of serving idols and the lusts of men, and have them-
selves been turned into Gods and worshipped to the exclusion of the
Creator. In these and a thousand other ways, the creatures of God
have been subjected to vanity. To this vanity or bondage they are
subjected " not willingly," as was the case with man; for every
creature naturally inclines to serve and honor its Creator. "But by
reason of him who hath subjected the same in hope." God could
have easily crushed the rebellion that man had raised against him
and have delivered the creatures from their servitude. But he saw
fit to subject the creatures to this vanity for a season, till in his own
due time when he will deliver them from this bondage of corruption
by other means. The time fixed for the emancipation of creation
from under the effects of sin, is at " the manifestation of the sons of
God," Qc the redemption of their bodies from the bondage of corrup-
tion by the resurrection. As the whole of the creatures of God
were cursed for man's sake, they are by a beautiful rhetorical figure
represented as groaning under that curse, and earnestly wishing to
be delivered from it. As the redemption or resurrection of our
bodies will mark the period when creation shall be delivered from
its cumbrous load of sin, it is considered as the birth day of a new
creation. Hence the interests of the sons of God are described as-
Lect. 8.) Or INTERPRETATION. 179
including those of creation in general. The glorions liberty of the
one will be the glorious liberty of the ether. "The earnest expec-
tation of the creature waitetn for the manifestations of the sons of
God." Now as the new heavens and the new earth will after the
resurrection be the abode of righteousness, and no more subject to
the vanity of subserving the cause of sin, their liberty will be the
same as that of glorified saints.
But whatever interpretation be given of this difficult passage,
you will observe that there is a distinction between the ereature
and the christian, showing that the two are not cue and the same.
If by the creature we are to understand christians, Ave make the
apostle to deal in unmeaning tautology, as will be seen by compar-
ing the 22d and 23d verses. If by the creature is meant unregen-
erate men, I would ask if they are not willingly subject to vanity ?
It is by their own voluntary offence that they are made miserable.
And it is not the case with all mankind that they expect or desire a
future and glorious resurrection. Seme suppose death to be an
eternal sleep. And among all classes of unregenerate men, there
is nothing seen in their thoughts and pursuits expressive of the
greatest earnestness of desire for a glorious immortality, but an
almost total indifference to this subject. And their groaning is not
like that of the christian, to be delivered from all the remains
of sin.
It is said again, "Israel shall be saved with an everlasting salva-
tion. In the Lord shall all the seed of Israel be justified and shall
glory." — (Isa. xlv : 17,25.) " All Israel shall be saved ; as it is
written : there shall come out of Zion a deliverer, and shall turn
away ungodliness from Jacob." — (Rom. xi : So.) These and similar
passages are adduced to prove the final salvation of all the Jews.
But a careful examination of them will show that they are not ap-
plicable to the Jews as individual subjects of God's moral govern-
ment, and that they do not imply the final salvation of all the literal
descendants of Abraham. The apostle Paul in the ninth chapter
of his epistle to the Romans, reasons very conclusively, that, "they
are not all Israel which are of Israel, neither because they are the
180 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8.
seed of Abraham are they all children f and in the third chapter
of his epistle to the Galatians, he shows who are the heirs of
promise which God made to Abraham, and consequently who are
the Israelites indeed, who shall be saved with an everlasting salva-
tion. aIf ye are Christ's, then are ye Abraham's seed and heirs
according to the promise."
Universalists refer us to Ezekiel xvi: 44-63, in proof of the
future emendation of the ancient Sodomites. They argue that
u Sodom and her daughters must be taken literally for the cities of
Sodom and the neighboring cities of the plain ; that the prophecy
must refer to the very persons who were destroyed, seeing they
left no descendants, and that there is therefore the same reason to
expect the restoration of Sodom, as the fulfilment of God's gracious
promises towards Jerusalem." This interpretation, plausible as it
may appear, does not prove that the ancient Sodomites will be
saved from "the vengeance of eternal fire" and admitted into the
kingdom of heaven, but barely that they are to return to their for-
mer estate. And does any one seriously think that after the last
judgment the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, of Samaria and Jeru-
salem, will be rebuilt and their ancient inhabitants repossess them?
Whoever believes this, is not to be reasoned with. Where it is
said, " When I shall bring again their captivity, the captivity of
Sodom and her daughters, and the captivity of Samaria and her
daughters, and then will I bring again the captivity of thy captives
in the midst of them," (Ezek. xvi : 53,) the prophet is describing
that the captivity of the wicked Jews and their ruin shall be irre-
coverable as that of Sodom and Samaria. As Sodom and Samaria
were never brought back nor returned to their former state, let not
the Jews who are now in captivity expect it. Sooner shall the
Sodomites arises out of the salt sea and the Samaritans return from
the land of Assyria, than the wicked Jews who are now scattered
among all the nations of the earth for their hurt, again enjoy peace
and prosperity in their native land. This is the language of keen
reproof.
It is very plain from the passage itself that the prophet does not
Lect. 8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 181
speak of the restoration of the ancient inhabitants of the literal
Sodom, which God destroyed by a storm of fire and brimstone
from heaven. For if it be admitted that the Jews who were now in
captivity were themselves to be delivered from their bondage to the
Babylonians, this deliverance the Jews were to receive, according to
the passage, "in the midst of Sodom and her daughters and Samaria
and her daughters." But the Jews were never delivered from the
Babylonish captivity in ike midst of or in connection with the Sodom-
ites that perished in the days of Abraham. Hence all attempts to
prove from the passage the restoration of those Sodomites from the
abodes of woe, is trifling in the extreme. The prophet says nothing
about the deliverance of the literal Sodom from the "vengeance of
o
eternal fire," and nothing about such a deliverance or{ Samaria and
Jerusalem.
In the latter part of this chapter (verses 60-63^ we have the lan-
guage of free mercy to the penitent. God dec1 ^red that he would
take them into covenant with himself, and be r acified towards them.
But this is not addressed to the same individ uais against whom the
threatnings are directed. It contains a p ,recious promise which
was fulfilled in part at the return of the pe nitentand reformed Jews
cut of Babylon, and which will be full 1 accomplished under the
gospel dispensation, when the Jews sh^ \\ be brought in with the
fullness of the Gentiles.
"Moab shall be destroyed from be' ino. a people. Yet will I bring
again the captivity of Moab in the h tter dayS." ( Jer. xiviii : 42, 47.)
"But it shall come to pass in the ] ^er ^ayS that I will bring again
the captivity of Elam, saith the hr ^.^ » / jer. xjix : 39.) From these
passages it is inferred that the Moabites and Elamites " are to be
I restored to happiness in afv ^fe staU unless these express promises
of God fail of being accorm m%he&» But these declarations respect-
ing Moab and Elam hav ^ ^ reference to their future state. These
threatnings and pror- ^ respecting them have long since been
literally fulfilled by j^ vrtat* captivity and their deliverance
from it. J
Moab was ma ^ ^.^ fiye yeMg after tne destruction of Jwa-
p
/
182 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8.
salem, and was carried beyond the Euphrates as the prophets had
threatened, (Jer. ix : 2G — xii : 14, 15 — xlviii : 47,) but they were after-
wards restored to their native land.
Elam, sometimes called Elymais, was a province of Persia. The
word sometimes denotes the whole country possessed by the ancient
Persians. The Elamites, like the Moabites, were made captives
by Nebuchadnezzar, according to the divine threatning by the
prophet; but when Cyrus had destroyed Babylon, and brought the
empire into the hands of the Persians, the Elamites no doubt return-
ed in triumph out of all the countries whither they were scattered,
and settled again in their own country. They were among the
instruments- mployed by divine providence in the deliverance of
the Jews from\ their captivity in Babylon.
But if we adroit that these promises made to Moab and Elam
were promises of .spiritual and saving- blessings, we have no occasion
to leave the earth* and search the regions of wretchedness and
despair. These wiL have their accomplishment in the days of the
Messiah, when the Ge utiles under the yoke of sin and Satan, shall
be brought back by divi ne grace. These nations have never been
entirely cut off from the k earth. Hence their restoration cannot be
from the abodes of woe I DUt fr°m their national and their spiritual
captivity.
"Behold the rio-hteous slk^ be recompensed in the earth, much
more the wicked and the sin) ner#" — (Prov. Xl: 31.) This passage
is adduced to prove that the wi> "ked receive all the punishment that
they deserve in the present lil. e- But ^ tne text Proves this, ft
equally proves that the righteou£ * receive their full recompense in
this life, and so there is no happn ncss reserved for them in the
world to come. Further, this interpr* ,tation is not only contrary to
plain facts and the whole tenor of the\ Blble' but il emirely set3
aside the grace of the gospel. Were all a ie0 Pumsbed in tllis ]ife
to the full extent of their deserts there wou$ ] be n° nGcd of a Sav"
iour, and no room for the exercise of mercy. 1 ' 'hc obvioU9 meaning
of the text is that the righteous will receive some' ' SP°Cial t0k€nS °f
the divine favor even in this life, and the sinner wk "U b° VisltCd WH
Lect.8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 183
divine judgments. Though the present is not a state of perfect yet
it is a state of providential retribution. Though many sins go un-
punished in the earth, and services unrewarded -which indicates that
there is a judgment to come, yet the righteous are often recom-
pensed for their righteousness in the earth. The wicked, also, and
the sinner are sometimes signally punished in this life. And if the
righteous who do not deserve the least reward have part of their
recompense in this world, much more shall the wicked who deserve
the most severe punishment have part of their punishment on earth
as an ernest of the wrath to come. This is a warning to the wick-
ed. Stand in awe and sin not! " If those have two heavens who
merit none, much more shall they have two hells that merit both."
" But the wisdom that is from above, is first pure, then peaceable,
gentle, and easy to be entreated, full of mercy and good fruits,
without partiality, and without hypocrisy." — (James iii : 17.) "God
is no respecter of persons : but in every nation he that feareth him
and worketh righteousness is accepted with him." — (Acts x: 34,35.)
It is argued from these passages that God treats all his rational
creatures in every respect alike. But this is contradicted by all
experience and scripture. The inequalities found in the divine
distribution of good and evil in this life is as much a proof of partial-
ity, as rewards and punishments in the life to come. True, God is
not a respecter of persons. But this does not refer to the doctrine
of divine sovereignty. It simply affirms that God will not save a
man because he is a Jew, nor because he possesses any external
privileges. But it does not affirm that he will not make a difference
in their character, and then treat them according to their character.
Though none are to be saved by external privileges, and none to be
lost by want of them, yet God invariably will respect character ;
and " he that feareth him and worketh righteousness is accepted
with him."
" Gird thy sword upon thy thigh, O most mighty ; with thy
glory and thy majesty. And in thy majesty ride prosper-
ously, because of truth, and meekness and righteousness ; and let
thy right hand teach thee terrible things. Thine arrows are sharp
184 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8.
in the hearts of the King's enemies ; whereby the people fall under
thee." — (Ps. xlv : 3-6.) What are the terrible things performed by
the right hand of the mighty King of Zion. He rides prosperously
when he destroys his incorrigible enemies, as well as when he
brings sinners to bow to the sceptre of his grace. And the psalm-
ist speaks of the former event as well as the latter. The right
hand of Christ, expert in warfare, and his arrows of mercy and
wrath will readily execute his purpose. And those who do not bow
to his sceptre of mercy, must fall so as to be made his footstool.
"Ask of me and 1 shall give thee the heathen for thine inheri-
tance and the uttermost parts of the earth for thy possession." —
(Ps. ii:8.) Christ began to have the heathen for his inheritance
when the gospel was first published to the Gentiles, and he will
have the uttermost parts of the earth for his possession in the time
o(f the Millennium. But this does not prove the salvation of all who
have died in their sins.
"In the resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage
but are as the angels of God in heaven." — (Matt, xxii : 30— Luke
xx : 35, 38.) From these passages it is argued that all men in the
future world will be like the angels of God — holy, spotless and
pure. But this is said only of those men who are counted worthy to
obtain that world, and not of all men.
"And he shall send Jesus, which before was preached unto you,
whom the heavens must receive, until the times of restitution of all
things, which God has spoken by the mouth of all his holy prophets
since the world began." — (x\cts iii: 20, 21.) This passage is addu-
ced to prove the final restoration of all wicked men and devils from
their abodes of mjsery to final happiness at some period beyond the
resurrection and the last judgment. But the times of restitution
cannot mean any period beyond the last judgment ; for till then and
no longer will the heavens detain Christ. This truth had frequently
been declared by the mouth of the holy prophets. The common
belief of the Jews was that the Messiah would reign on the earth
forever. Hence it was important that the apostles should establish
the fact that he had ascended to heaven. It was necessary that he
Lect.8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 185
should do this, to direct the affairs of the universe for the welfare
of the Church, and that he should there exercise his office as a priest
in interceding for his people. "Until the times of restitution."
This implies that he would then return to earth ; but it does not
imply that he would not again ascend to heaven. "Restitution of
all things." The noun rendered restitution (apokatastaseos) has the
idea of consummation, completion, fulfilment. Thus it is used by the
Greek classics. In this sense the passage means that the heavens
must receive the Lord Jesus until all things spoken by the prophets
in relation to his work, his reign, the spread of the gospel, and the
triumph of the cross, shall have been fulfilled. "All things."9 All
things spoken of by the prophets, and no more. The expression is
limited by the connection to this; and of course it does not prove
that all men shall be saved, or that all the evils of sin can be re-
moved. This can never be ; for the mischief has been done and
can never be undone. But every thing which has been foretold by
the prophets, shall receive their completion. The utter overthrow
of the powers of darkness ; the destruction of the last enemy death ;
the bringing baGk of peace and righteousness to flow in their ancient
channels, and the final adjustment of all human affairs, may with
great propriety be called "the times of restitution of all things."
But nothing of this implies the restoration of wicked men and devils
to their original state. " Suppose a formidable conspiracy should
break out in one of the provinces of an earthly king; if he should
crush this rebellion and call the offenders to justice, and punish
some and pardon others, and restore law and order in his revolted
province, such a period might be termed a restitution of all things.
But this would not imply that all the conspirators would be restored
to all their privileges and dignities."* Besides, if the phrase im-
plies the salvation of all men at last, then the discourse of Peter
amounts to this : " Repent and be converted that your sins may be
blotted out, since you live under the times of the gospel, the reign
of the Messiah, the times of refreshing ; because at the times of
restitution your sins will be blotted out whether you do or do not
* Fuller.
186 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8,
repent." And was this the motive by which Peter urged the great
duty of repentance ? Was it not rather that they should seek to
avoid the vengeance due to the wicked, and to be admitted to
heaven when the Lord Jesus shall return to judge the world?
"1 will put enmity between thee and the woman, and between
thy seed and her seed ; it shall bruise thy head and thou shalt
bruise his heel." — (Gen. iii : 15.) From this passage it is contended
that " Moses, one of the earliest prophets, foretold the destruction
of all evil, when he represented sin under the figure of a serpent
whose head the seed of the woman was to bruise." But who would
suppose that bruising the head of a General, strikes him and all his
army into non-existence ? A serpent's head may be much bruised
without terminating his existence. In like manner the power and
kingdom of Satan may be much circumscribed, and yet he may live
in sin and wretchedness forever. Satan was to have his head
bruised and his dominion reduced within narrow limits, but what is
this to do with the salvation of all men? But if it be contended
that by Satan is meant moral evil only, to have its head bruised by
the seed of the woman does not prove the salvation of all men.
"Seventy weeks are determined upon thy people, and upon thy
holy city, to finish the transgression and to make an end of sins3 and
to make reconciliation for iniquity." — (Dan. ix: 24.) This passage.
is uro-ed to Drove that God will make an end of sin after the resur-
rection and the last judgment, by restoring all mankind to his favor.
But the passage has no reference to any period beyond time, since
what is here related or predicted was to be accomplished within
seventy years or within seventy weeks, that is, four hundred and
fifty years from the time of the commencement of the prophecy,*
* Some have proposed a different translation of this difficult passage". They
•appose this declaration of the angel to contain an answer to Daniel's prayer,
who was anxious lo know when the seventy years of captivity would be termin-
ated. They render the passage thus : " The seventy years indeed concerning
thy people, and concerning thy holy city, to finish the transgression, to end sins,
lo expiate iniquity, to bring buck the righteousness of ancient times, and to
complete the vision of the prophet and to consecrate the sanctuary, are termin-
ating.
Lect. 8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 187-
This prophecy has long since been accomplished. And does any
one seriously believe that an end has been made of all sin? Is
there no moral evil now in the world ? He who denies this, contra-
dicts the plain dictates of reason and common sense, as well as the
most decisive declarations of the Bible. And cannot God be said
to make an end of sin unless all the individuals in creation are con-
verted? When God said to Zedekiah, " thou profane and wicked
prince of Israel, whose days are come when iniquity shall have an
end," (Ezek. xxi ; 25,) did he mean that he was then restored to the
divine favor and freed from all sin ? And when God said to his
people, that " their iniquity had an end," (Ezek. xxxv : 5,) does he
mean that they were then m a state of sinless perfection ? Rather
is it not manifest that by sin and iniquity having an end is meant
that the perpetrators of them had filled up the measure of their
iniquity, and that they for the punishment of their sins should be
shut up in Babylon, as in a prison, and rendered incapable of doing
further mischief? Such was the accomplishment of the prophecy
under consideration, which though it may have a bearing upon the
return of the Jews from their captivity, yet it extends down to the
advent of the Messiah. Christ came to take away sins. He is " the
Lamb of God that taketh away the sins of the world." Not that he
has actually removed ail sin or guilt from the world, but that he has
made abundant provision for the cancelling of human guilt, and
instituted means for taking away the sin of the world. In this sense
he has expiated sin and restrained transgression5 though multitudes
have much more sin than if he had done nothing. But suppose that
we admit that to end sins or to take away the sin of the world did
import its actual removal, the expression would be perfectly consist-
ent with the endless perdition of ungodly men. The disciples of
Christ though b, part of the human family, " are not of the world." —
(John xvii : 16.)
"Thou hast created all things, and fbr thy pleasure they are and
were created." — (Rev. iv : 11.) The "pleasure of the Lord shall
prosper in his (Christ's) hands." — (fea. liii : 10.) " 3o shall thy word
be that goeth forth out of thy mouth ; it shall not return unto me
188 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8;
void ; but it shall accomplish that which I please, and it shall pros-
per in the thing whereto I send it." — (Isa. lv : 11.) "I will do all
my pleasure." — (Isa. xlvi : 10.) Here it is said, " God created all
men for his pleasure and therefore not for ultimate death, and that
surely his pleasure will be accomplished." The fact that God's
ultimate will as it respects the destinies of the universe, will be
answered, no one disputes. But that it is not his will at the wind-
ing up of all scenes of time, to send forth his angels and gather out
of his kingdom all things that offend and the which do iniquity, and
cast them into a furnace of fire, where shall be wailing and gnash-
ing of teeth, is the point to be proved. If this cannot be done, it
cannot be proved that God will eventually make all men completely
happy. These passages would have been to the point if they had
asserted that it was the purpose of God to save all men.
"Being put to death in the flesh but quickened by the spirit ; by
which spirit also he went and preached unto the spirits in prison,
which sometimes were disobedient, when once the long-suffering of
God waited in the days of Noah, while the ark was preparing."
(1 Pet. iii: 18-20.) It is argued from this passage that " though
the old world were disobedient in the days of Noah and perished in
their iniquity, yet Jesus owned them by visiting them in their prison
after death ;" he "preached to them the gospel of salvation, though
they had died in their sins so many years before ;" therefore " all
who perish in every age will have the same privilege and will be
saved." But admitting that Christ after his death did actually visit
the spirits of the old world in their prison of woe, and there preach
to them the gospel ; it would not follow that all who perish in
every age will have the same privilege and be saved. The gospel
is now preached to many who are not savingly benefitted by it ; but
live and die in their sins. And admitting that Christ did actually
preach to these spirits in prison, what evidence have we that they
did not treat his message as wicked men treat it on earth ? The
passage, however, rightly understood, gives no intimation that
Christ did, after his death on the cross, visit the spirits of the old
world. Christ by the same Spirit who made him alive, is said to
Lect. 8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 189
have preached to the antedeluvians, because his spirit inspired Noah
to preach to them, as is plain from Gen. vi: 3, "My spirit shall not
always strive with man.'' Hence Noah is called " a preacher of
righteousness." As the economy of man's redemption from the
beginning has been under the direction of Christ, the preaching of
the ancient prophets is attributed directly to him. And the Spirit
who was in the ancient prophets is expressly affirmed to be the
a Spirit of Christ." Thus Christ by his Spirit upon the mind and
through the ministration of Noah preached to the old world. The
time when he went and preached was when the long suffering of
God waited in the days of Noah while the ark wras preparing. It
was during the one hundred and twenty years in which Noah was
a preacher of righteousness. During that period when the patience
of God waited for the reformation of the old world and he delayed
the deluge. The spirits in prison are expressly said to have been
disobedient in the days of Noah ; hence we cannot suppose that
(pneumasi) spirits is of the same signification as (psuchai) souls,
verse 20, The apostle is speaking of the antedeluvians in their
present state. They were men on earth in the flesh when Christ
preached to them by his spirit, but they are now " spirits in prison,"
detained like the fallen angels unto the judgment of the great day.
This gives an easy sense to the passage, and at the same time does
not interfere with any doctrine of the Bible.
If any one should choose to understand by the prison either the
human body or human corruptions, the passage will be equally far
from affording the least countenance and support to the doctrine of
universal salvation. For the fact that Christ preached to the ante-
deluvians by his Spirit while they were in the body, wallowing in
their corruptions, is no evidence that they will ever be restored to
the moral image and favor of God. Many now hear the gospel who
do not believe and obey its precepts, and it is to them a "savour of
death unto death/'
Another class of texts which are thought to favor the doctrine of
universal reconciliation, consist of such as speak of Christ as " reign-
ing until he hath put all enemies under his feet," (1 Cor. xv:25,)—
190 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8.
of "every knee bowing to Christ,5' (Isa.xi: 23.) — and of "ail things
in heaven, on earth, and under the earth, bowing at the name of
Jesus," (Phil, ii: 10.) These and similar texts are in the highest
degree figurative, and are to be understood with such limitations as
are necessarily suggested by the nature of the subject and other
plain declarations of scripture. The most that a fair interpretation
of the texts in question can be made to prove, is the glorious exal-
tation of Christ as head over the Church, and over all things unto
the Church, and the subjection of all things to his coatrol. Doubt-
less the Lord Jesus will rule till he has put all enemies under his
feet. "The last enemy that shall be destroyed is death." This
language is manifestly used in reference to the resurrection of the
bodies of those w7ho sleep in Jesus. For "when this corruption
shall put on incorruption then shall be brought to pass the saying,
death is swallowed up in victory." This is the same thing as the
last enemy being destroyed. And when the resurrection is accom-
plished and the judgment finished, and the righteous introduced
into the presence of God, " then cometh the end" of the present
state of things, "when he shall have delivered up (or re-established)
the kingdom to the Father ; when he shall have put down all (oppo-
sing) rule, and all authority and power." But does this mean that
he will save all men ? One would think " to be placed under foot"
denotes the condition not of friends but of vanquished rebels. Fur-
ther, these things are to attend the last judgment, and do not include
the "second death" which is the wages of sin.
Doubtless " every knee shall bow to Christ." But is this neces-
sarily expressive of a holy and voluntary submission to him ? Is it
a proof that all will be saved? Surely not. The submission of
every knee in heaven, earth and hell, to Jesus, is no more a proof
that all will be saved than the confession of the devil that Christ
was the Son of Cod was an evidence that he was a proper subject
of salvation. The same inspired writer applies this language to the
universal conviction which shall be produced at the general judg-
ment, when " every mouth shall be stopped and all the world become
guilty before God." "We shall all stand before the judgment seat
Lect. 8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 191
of Christ ; for it is written, As I live saith the Lord, every knee
shall bow to me, and every tongue shall confess to God. So then
every one shall give account of himself to God."— (Rom.xiv : 10-12.
Another passage adduced, as affirming that all mankind will be
ultimately restored to purity and happiness, is this : " Having made
known to us the mystery of his will, according to his good pleasure,
which he purposed in himself; concerning the dispensation of the
fulness of times, that he would gather together to himself, in one
all things through Christ, which are in the heavens, and which are
on the earth : even in him.'' — (Eph. 1 : 9, 10.) By the dispensation
we are to understand the plan which God had formed for gathering
together all believers in one visible Church under Christ as their
head. The word (oikGnomai) properly signifies a plan formed for
the management of any business. By the (tapania) all things, we
are to understand all holy beings. This passage supposes that sin
has effected a disunion between men and the other parts of the
universe. But through the mediation of Christ a reunion is effected.
By the blood of Christ believers are reconciled to him, and through
him they are united to all who love him throughout the extent of
his creation. "The interpretation of the ancient fathers," says
Whitby, "seems to give this sense, that God hath by this dispensa-
tion gathered under one head, viz. Christ, the head of the Church,
all things on earth, that is, believers of all nations, Jews and Gen-
tiles, and all things in heaven, that is, the angelic hosts." By
" things in heaven'5 Beza understands the glorified saints who died
before Christ came into the world, and who are not to be made
perfect till the resurrection. It is the design of God to unite in one
happy society all holy beings under one head who is Jesus Christ.
Surely nothing can be gathered from this passage to favor the
doctrine of universal salvation. It does not imply, much less assert,
that all men will be ultimately restored to purity and happiness. If
we take the phrase all things in its most extended sense, as inclu-
ding the whole ereation animate and inanimate, this expresses only
the universal dominion of Christ. But how this involves the salva-
tion of all men does not appear.
192 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect.8.
Much reliance is placed by the objectors to endless punishment
on this text : " It hath pleased the Father that in him, (Christ,) all
fullness should dwell; and having made peace through the blood of his
cross, by him to reconcile all things untdliimself ; by him, I say, wheth-
er they be things in heaven, or things in earth."— Col. i : 19, 20.) If
by the reconciliation of all things in heaven and in earth is denoted
the salvation of all the inhabitants of heaven and earth, it would
follow, that the holy angels are saved. But salvation is deliverance
from sin and punishment. This the sinless angels cannot experi-
ence. Further, if by all things in heaven and earth we understand
all their inhabitants are to be reconciled, the apostle must have
dealt in unmeaning tautology when he declared to the Collossians :
"And you that were sometimes alienated and enemies in your minds
by wicked works yet now hath he reconciled." — (Col. i : 21.) The
word (apokatallaxai) translated to reconcile, signifies here to unite,
simply ; because the good angels are said to be reconciled to Christ
who were never at variance with him. The meaning of the passage
is that through the blood of the cross all holy beings are united in
one blessed society under Christ as their head, and that peace is
established between God and the sinner and between sinners them-
selves.
Much reliance is placed by these objectors under consideration
on those passages which speak of " all the ends of the earth remem-
bering and turning to the Lord," and of " all the kindreds of the
nations coming and worshipping before him ;"' (Ps. xxii : 27)— of "all
nations — glorifying his name ;" (Ps. lxxxvi : 9) — of "all the kings
of the earth praising the Lord ;" (Ps. cxxxviii: 4) — of "the glory
of the Lord being revealed, and all flesh seeing of it together ;"
(Isa. xl: 5) — of "all the ends of the earth seeing the salvation of
the Lord ;" (lsa. Jx : 10) — and of " the people being all righteous ;"
(Isa. lx: 21. But texts of this descriptions it is manifest to every
eandid, intelligent student of the Bible, have not the remotest ref-
erence to the subject They are glorious predictions of the com-
ing spiritual reign of Christ on earth, in the latter-day glory of the
Church, when the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the glory
Lect. 8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 193
of God. Then indeed shall the ends of the earth turn unto the
Lord, and all the kindreds of the earth shall come and worship
before him. Then^hall the gtory of the Lord be revealed, and the
ends of the earth shall see liis salvation. The Church of Christ
will then arrive to a state of prosperity which it has never yet en-
joyed. Christianity will be diffused through all nations and Christ
will reign on earth by his spiritual presence in a glorious manner.
In fact the knowledge of the Lord shall fill the earth as the waters
cover the sea. And who knows but the present convulsions among
the different nations, the overthrow which popery has had in places
where it has been dominant for centuries, and the present efforts to
promote the cause of benevolent exertion, are forerunners of events
which may usher in the happy morn of that bright and glorious day
when the whole world shall be filled with the glory of God ? But
what has the future spread of the gospel and the conversion of the
world to do in proving the final salvation of those who have lived
and died in their sins? Surprising that those who are accounted
teachers in Israel should infer from texts which predict the Millen-
nium when the world shall be filled with the knowledge of the Lord,
that all will be saved !
I grant that in the account of the new heavens and the new earth
which we have recorded in the 21st chapter of Revelations, it is
said among other things that " there shall be no more death," and
afterwards, " no more curse." But who would think of applying this
to all mankind, since it is said in the same chapter that " the fearful,
and unbelieving, and the abominable, and murderers, and whore-
mongers, and sorcerers, and idolators, and all liars shall have their
part in the lake which burns with fire and brimstone, which is the
second death."
" I will ransom them from the power of the grave ; I will redeem
them from death. O death, I will be thy plagues ; O grave, I will
be thy destruction." — (Hosea xiii: 14.) But how the assertion that
God would ransom from the power of the grave the men of Ephraim
and prevent the ravages of death among them, proves that all men
J94 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect.S.
will be raised from the grave to a glorious immortality, is not clear
to every mind.
6 So also in the resurrection of the dead. It is sown in corruption,
it is raised in incorruption — it is raised in glory — it is raised a spir-
itual body." — (1 Cor. xv: 42-44.) Here it is said "Paul in his
account of the resurrection does not admit of the existence of sin in
the future state. When he cries out triumphantly, ( O death where
is thy sting V he certainly means that sin was absent, for 'the sting
of death is sin.'"
The fact that Paul does not teach future punishment in a given
passage, does not exclude his teaching of it in another. That sin
was absent from those who, in the words of the apostle, could
triumph over death, is admitted. But he who reads the chapter
will look in vain for evidence that this triumph is reserved for all.
He will discover no evidence that those who die in a state of enmity
against God and holiness, will get the victory over death through
our Lord Jesus Christ
It is said all must be saved, for " God hath not appointed us to
wrath, but to obtain salvation by our Lord Jesus Christ."— r(l
Thess. v : 9.) The apostle speaks this of himself and of his breth-
ren, and gives it no application to those who remain children of
wrath ; and who will presume to take the children's bread and give
it to dogs ?
"Wherefore as by one man sin entered into the world, and death
by sin ; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned;
(for until the law sin was in the world, but sin is not imputed where
there is no law. Nevertheless death reigned from Adam to Moses,
even over them that had not sinned after the similitude of Adam's
transgression, who is the figure of him that was to come. But not
as the offence, so also is the free gift. For if through the offence
of one many be dead, much more the grace of God, and the gift by
grace, which is by one man, Jesus Christ, hath abounded unto many.
And not as it was by one that sinned, so is the gift; for the judg-
ment was by one to condemnation, but the free gift is of many
offences unto justification. For if by one man's offence death
Lsct.8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 195
reigned by one ; much more they which receive abundance of grace,
and of the gift of righteousness, shall reign in life by one, Jesus
Christ.) Therefore as by the offence of one, judgment came upon
all men to condemnation ; even so by the righteousness of one, the
free gift is come upon all men to justification of life. For as by one
man's disobedience many were made sinners, so by the obedience
of one many shall be made righteous. Moreover, the law entered,
that the offence might abound. But where sin abounded, grace did
much more abound ; that as sin hath reigned unto death, even so
might grace reign through righteousness unto eternal life by Jesus
Christ our Lord."— (Rom. v : 12-21.) The style of the apostle in
this passage is remarkably intricate and perplexed ; and many
things in it are hard to be understood. And I trust you will not,
my hearers, be so rash as to risk your eternal destiny upon the cor-
rectness of the doubtful interpretation of a single passage. We
must suppose the apostle always consistent with himself in his
writings ; but if we allow this passage to mean that the whole hu-
man race will without exception be restored to virtue and happiness,
it contradicts a multitude of other passages in his writings which
are plainly against that doctrine.
To give a just exposition of this beautiful and sublime passage,
it is necessary to understand the scope of the epistle and the par-
ticular design of the apostle in this place. The scope of this part
of the epistle is to show that justification before God can be obtain-
ed, either by Jews or Gentiles, only by faith in his Son. "Being
justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Christ
Jesus." " By whom also we have access by faith into this grace in
which we stand and rejoice in hope of the glory of God." By a
connected body of evidence, the apostle proves that both Jews and
Gentiles are under sin, and consequently incapable of being justified
by a righteous God on the ground of their own merits. Since all
have sinned and come short of heaven, they cannot be justified or
acquitted from the sentence of condemnation under which they lie
by any works of their own, but of free grace through the redemption
of Jesus Christ.
196 TRUE PRINCIPLES (Lect. 8.
The particular design of the apostle in this place, i$ to show on
what grounds justified believers rejoice in God through Jesus Christ,
by whom they have received the means of reconciliation. — (ver. 11.)
These are illustrated by an appeal to the connection between Adam
and his descendants who are all joined with him in sin and its con-
sequences. He affirms that sin entered into the world by Adamr
and that all his posterity are with him involved in guilt, and exposed
to death, temporal, spiritual, and eternal. "By the offence and diso-
bedience of one, many were made or (constituted) sinners, and judg-
ment came upon all men to condemnation." So, argues the apostle ;
believers in Christ have a peculiar and endeared connection with
him. This connection is different in its principle from that of Adam
and his posterity, yet it is not less certain. As all his posterity
were joined with Adam in sin, and were in a state of condemnation^.
so believers are joined with Christ by his free grace, and are in a
state of justification. This connection between Adam and his pos-
terity and Christ and believers, differs in this respect. Tht sentence
of condemnation tvas for one offence only, but the gracious gift of
pardon is of many offences to righteousness to the person who is par-
doned. Now if it is consistent with justice that Adam and his
posterity should be connected with sin and its consequences, much
more is it consistent with justice and goodness that they who
receive the overflowing of grace and of the gift of Christ's right-
eousness by imputation shall reign in a happy life through Jesus
Christ. The benefits flowing to believers through the death of
Christ, however, infinitely outweigh the evils flowing from the sin
of Adam.
The abounding grace of which the apostle speaks, refers to the
number and magnitude of sins forgiven, and not to the number of
persons who receive it, unless you fall into the absurdity of suppo-
sing that more are saved in Christ than were constituted sinners by
the fall. " Where sin abounded, grace did much more abound."
Even where the introduction of the written law had charged human
guilt with its heaviest aggravations, there the introduction of the
gospel unfolded a depth of contrivance, power and compassion in
Lect. 8.) OF INTERPRETATION. 197
the divine mind fully adequate to the exigencies of the case. And
it is reasonable to suppose that it should be so ; because the good-
ness of God disposes to bestow blessings through Christ infinite in
decree as well as in duration. Thus he who receives and relies
upon the gospel of Christ for pardon and acceptance with God, shall
find the grace of God revealed in it as flowing through the cross,
infinitely to exceed his most enlarged conceptions, wants and
desires. Where sin has abounded, as to degrees of demerit it has
limits, though the punishment annexed to it is unlimited in duration ;
but the grace of God is unlimited in degree as well as in duration.
The riches of Christ are Unsearchable,, They spring from an inex-
haustible source. This is undoubtedly the argument of the apostle.
Notwithstanding all the obscurity and perplexity of his language,
arising from the nature of the subject and the omission in some
cases of the second member of comparison, which he supposes the
reader to have supplied in his own mind, whoever reads the passage
with attention must perceive that these were the leading ideas which
the apostle had in his mind.
These passages which I have briefly noticed, are I believe the
strongest which can be brought to overthrow the doctrine of
endless punishment and to establish the hypothesis of universal
salvation. Whether they are sufficient to set aside the multitudes
of plain and positive declarations of scripture which have been
adduced in the preceding Lectures in proof of endless punishment,
I leave it with my hearers to decide. One thing is plain ; there is
not a single passage of scripture that denies the endless duration of
future punishment. But if it is not a Bible doctrine, ought we not
to expect such a denial ? The belief of that doctrine must occasion
in the minds of some at least, painful apprehensions. Nov/ Christ
endeavored to remove from the minds of his hearers all painful
apprehensions of things that would never tahe place. We have
already seen that in the time of Christ and his apostles the doctrine
of endless punishment was the common doctrine of the day. Should
we not then expect that if there was no punishment endless in dura-
tion, they would have assured the world that their doctrine was
193 TRUE PRINCIPLES, &c. (Lect.8.
false ? Further ; they inveighed against every error $ however
powerful and popular or weak and contemptible. Why then did
they n<)t lift a warning voice against the belief of the doctrine of
endlesfc punishment ?
Th^re is not a single passage in the Bible that directly asserts or
even implies the final salvation of all men. This doctrine is not
derived from plain and direct declarations of scripture, but from
strained explanations, from far-fetched inferences, and from a
wretched perversion of language. In short, that theory which
denies the doctrine of endless punishment and advocates the final
salvation of all men, is but "the baseless fabric of a vision," advo-
cated by those only who wish to find happiness apart from holiness.
Every one who is willing to give his heart to God, will be satisfied
to seek admittance into the kingdom of heaven by becoming holy
in Christ Jesus, and will think too much of its purity to dream of
meeting there the impure ; while he will have too much good sense
to assume the idea of any purification which is not commenced in
this life. But others will wrest the scriptures to their own destruc-
tion. Those of them who should watch for souls as they that must
give account, will prophesy smooth things in saying to the wicked
it shall be well with him, and lead thousands of deluded beings
blindfold to hell with themselves. " O my soul come not thou into
their secret ; unto their assembly mine honor, be not thou united."
That this may not be your sin and punishment may the Lord prevent
by his grace, and may you all strive to enter into heaven at the
strait gate.
ON THE ARGUMENTS WHICH THE OBJECTORS TO
TEE DOCTRINE OF ENDLESS PUNISHMENT URGE
AGAINST THAT DOCTRINE.
Gen. iii: 4. — "Ye shall not surely dieP
From the sacred annals of the Hebrews, the only authentic
account of primeval ages, we learn that after the Deity had spake
into being this mighty globe, he created and placed upon it the
father and founder of the whole human race. " And God said, let
us make man in our image; after our likeness." — (Gen. i : 26.)
Adam was created in the image and likeness of his Maker. His
understanding was enlightened, his will was holy, and his passions
and affections were pure. With him there was no warfare between
the flesh and the spirit. The propensities of his nature were in
sweet accordance with the dictates of his pure mind. And as he
was without any principle of imperfection or corruption, the past,
the present, and the future with him had no regret, no guilt, no
terror.
He was placed in the garden of Eden, where, with countenance
glowing with the lestre of perfect innocence and beauty, and with
an intelligent mind that raised him high in the scale of created
beings, he walked the shady groves, gazed on the majestic scenery
of nature, and looked "through nature up to nature's God." He
was a very glorious being ; the favorite of heaven, and the lord of
this lower world. But though every object around and within was
adapted to fill him with the most exquisite delight, still his paradise
200 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect.9,
was incomplete. Endowed with a social nature, he had no society*
Of all the creatures which God had made, there were none with
whom he could associate ; none to share his pleasures ; none to
whom he could communicate his sentiments. He was alone. This
defect however scarcely existed, before it was supplied by the good-
ness of his Maker. Thus were things peculiarly adapted to the
accommodation of man. The positive command of God to Adam in
paradise not to eat of " the tree of knowledge of good and evil,'*
which was given for the trial of his obedience, so exactly accorded
with his holy nature that it did not infringe upon his happinesss.
Happy were the human pair amidst the delightful garden until a
certain prophet, and the first of Universalist prophets, in his journey
came that way and disturbed their peace and tranquillity by endeav-
oring to reverse the prohibition of the Almighty, and predicting as
in our text, "Ye shall not surely die" All his endeavors were very
artful. He assumed th^ form of the serpent that he might the better
succeed with his temptations, and hence he is culled the "old
serpent, the devil."
He begins by first calling in question the truth of God, and
insinuating that the terms which he had prescribed were severe, if
not capricious. "Yea, hath God said, Ye shall net eat of every
tree of the garden?" He then deals in positive assertions. In
contradiction to the divine assurance, he affirms with unhesitating
effrontery, that our first parents should net die, even though they
tasted of the fruit of the interdicted tree. As truth and falsehood
are directly opposed to each other, Satan hesitates not to make God
a liar, and to echo his words with a fiat contradiction, "Ye shall not
surely die /" And he confidently asserts that God knew if they eat
of the forbidden fruit they would be advanced to honor, and happi-
ness, and power. Alas, how often has man been flattered and
enticed into sin at the expense of God himself. Surely we need
not be at a loss in judging whence those doctrines proceed which
invalidate the divine threatning, and teach sinners going on still in
their tresspasses, "ye shall not surely die." From that day in
which our first mother was beguiled by the subtlety of the serpent.
Lect. 9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT, 201
to the present, Satan has been carrying on the same delusion in the
hearts of the children of men, tempting them to sin, and lulling their
consciences into security by whispering to them, " Ye shall not
surely die." While they are committing the very acts, and indulging
the very propensities, and walking in the very courses, of which
God has declared that the " end is death," Satan tells them that
they shall not die ; and he teaches them " while they hear the words
of God's curse, to bless themselves in their hearts, saying, I shall
have peace, though I walk in the imagination of my heart.'' Do we
not perceive a striking resemblance between the labors of certain
classes of errorists and those of the deceiver of mankind ? What I
propose on the present occasion, is to consider some of the modes
of reasoning adopted by the objectors under consideration to sup-
port the doctrine of universal salvation and overthrow that of endless
punishment. But in doing this I feel no little embarrassment, for
they appear to possess no uniformity of character. They are
Restorationists, Destructionists, Rellyanists, moderate and ultra
Universalists, Fatalists, Unitarians, Deists or Athiests, as will best
serve their purpose, which is to get rid of the doctrine ol endless
punishment. And they are followed by the impenitent multitude
who seem to say, " Only tell us we shall all get to heaven ; only
assure us there is no danger of that eternal fire, which we have
been taught to dread and expect; and only prove it by denouncing
the Orthodox, and talking much, in general terms, about the love of
God, and all is well." And the methods by which they endeavor to
get rid of the doctrine of endless punishment are as various and
contradictory as their systems of religion or rather irreligion. Some
profess to rely upon the atonement of Christ as securing the salva-
tion of all men. Some expect to escape punishment through some
opening made in the remissness of the divine government. Others
rely upon the goodness of God. Others assert that all men are
punished in the present life. Others hold that future punishment
is disciplinary and limited. Others again build their hopes of future
blessedness on the ground of fatalism ;. rather than admit the doc-
trine of future punishment, they deny the guilt and demerit of sin.
203 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect.9.
tt All things," say they, " happen by an irresistable necessity, and
therefore our actions which are denominated sinful are not deserving,
of punishment, and consequently all men must be happy." And
others again deny the conscious existence of the soul in a future
state.
Now it will not be expected that I should in one lecture follow
these errorists through all their shifts and windings. It would be a
task as unprofitable as it would be tedious. I shall therefore only
notice some of the more popular and plausible arguments which are
urged against the doctrine of endless punishment. And if these
can be shown to be fallacious, you will not I trust rest upon those
which are more evanescent, and display more of the subtlety of the
deceiver who assured the first parents of our race that they should
not surely die.
1. Some rely upon the death of Christ as overthrowing the doctrine
of endless punishment and securing the salvation of all men. They
assert that Christ died for all, and consequently all will be saved;
whether willing or unwilling, prepared or unprepared, they must be
sayed. The death of Christ is an event that holds a most prominent
place in the history of man's redemption. The sacred writers have
interwoven it with the most interesting considerations and events.
It is the centre and soul of the great system of grace revealed in
the Bible. It is the common nucleus around which all the great
truths of revealed religion cluster.
But the expiatory sacrifice offered by our Saviour on Calvary is
no where represented as securing the salvation of all or of any of
mankind. The sufferings of Christ have no respect to commutative
or to distributalive but to public justice. They did not satisfy com-
mutative justice. Though Christ gave himself a ransom for all, and
bought us with a price, yet man while under sin is a slave, a pris-
oner, and a captive. In the death of Christ there was no exchange
of benefits. It is not to be regarded in the light of a commercial
transaction, where one commodity is exchanged for another. Nor
did Christ by his death satisfy dislributative justice, since that respects
personal character only, and consists in an equal distribution of
Lect.9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 203
rewards and punishments. It condemns men as sinners, and
rewards them as righteous. Their moral character is the only
ground on which moral justice respects them. But sin and holiness
are personal, and cannot be transferred in reality, so as to render the
subjects of them any more or less worthy. The death of Christ
therefore did not constitute the sinner any more deserving of happi-
ness or any less worthy of punishment. Sin is sin still. It is not
justified, nor is the guilt of it lessened. The road to ruin and the
gate are as broad as ever. If any man has sinned, it will always
remain a truth that he has sinned ; and according to distributative
justice he deserves punishment. But Christ did satisfy public jus-
tice. His death exhibited the law and the transgression of it in
such a light that no injury would accrue to the moral system, and
no imputation would lie against the moral Governor of the universe,
should he pardon the sinner and admit him to heaven, or should he
leave him to die in his sins. Perfect justice is therefore done to the
universe, though all the transgressors be not punished according to
their personal demerit.
Hence from the death of Christ nothing can be inferred as to the
number that shall be finally saved. A way is made possible for
the salvation of all men, and the penitent may be treated in a way
of mercy. But the death of Christ, in itself considered, does not
secure the salvation of any. Those who are saved, have their sal-
vation secured on other grounds. The death of Christ avails only
on the part of those who repent and believe the gospel. "He that
believeth not the son, shall not see life, but the wrath of God abid-
eth on him." The death of Christ, so far from being the ground
of salvation to all, will but aggravate the condemnation of many.
" He that despised Moses' law, died without me?xy, — of how much
6orer punishment, suppose ye shall be thought worthy, who hath
trodden under foot the Son of God, and hath counted the blood of
the covenant wherewith he (Christ) was sanctified an unholy thing,
and hath done despite unto the spirit of grace ?" — (Heb. x : 28, 29.)
A rejected ransom will secure the salvation of no one who rejects it.
"He that believeth not shall be damned."— (Mark xvi: 16.)
304 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect. 9.
2. Others assert that the doctrine of endless punishment is incon-
sistent with the goodness of God. Were it assumed that he who
gave us existence, and bestowed upon us all things richly to enjoy,
is a Being ef infinite goodness, it would be taking for granted only
what all Christians allow. He is solely good, as all the goodness
found in creatures is only an emanation of the divine goodness. He
is the chief good, the sum and substance of all excellence. In him
there is nothing but goodness, and nothing but goodness proceeds
from him. He is infinitely good in himself, and his goodness shines
through all his works. But what does this prove ? Does it prove
that natural and moral evil cannot exist under the government of
God, and that the subjects of his government must be holy and con-
sequently happy forever? Are all the subjects of the divine gov-
ernment now perfectly holy and happy ? Has not sin existed on
earth for nearly six thousand years, and have not sorrow, sickness,
pain and death been the unenviable but certain lot of the whole
human family ? The inheritance of affliction, is assure as the laws
which regulate the motion of the planets ; for " man is born to
trouble, as the sparks fly upward." And is not all this perfectly
consistent with the goodness of God ? No one will, I presume*
impeach his goodness in permitting the introduction and continu
ance of natural and moral evil.
How then do you know that sin and punishment may not exist in
a future world, and that their existence may not be perfectly con-
sistent with the goodness of God? This, those who profess to
believe in a limited punishment after death, acknowledge. How
then do they know that endless punishment may not bo equally
consistent with the goodness of God ? If it is consistent with the
Divine benevolence to punish sinners for a year, an age^ or for ages
of ages, why may it not be consistent also with the same benevo-
lence that they should be punished forever? Wicked men often
endure a great amount of suffering in the present life. They not
only ^suffer those evils which are the common lot of man, but as
transgressors of the divine law their way is hard. They seek riches
and find poverty ; honor, and find shame and contempt ; happiness,
Lect.9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 205
and find misery. Why then may they not endure sufferings in the
life to come ? Do you say, temporal sufferings may be so overruled
as to promote the general good of the universe ? And why may
not eternal misery? The scriptures assure us that the punishment
of the finally impenitent and incorrigible is appointed expressly for
an example to the rest of creation. It is never represented as
being inflicted upon them by a being of almighty power merely to
show his power over the vanquished, nor with such kind of wrath
as bears no relation to the general good. God does not punish be-
cause he delights in the misery of his creatures, but because , in
many cases, punishment is rendered absolutely necessary in order
that the permanency of his government should be maintained.
This government as -we have seen,* is not a government of arbi-
trary power, but a government of law. Now if law be the basis of
the merciful administration of God, then the character and destiny
of moral agents must be determined according to their conformity
or non-conformity to this law. Is it inconsistent with a supreme
magistrate as benevolent and good, to doom certain persons to death?
Is it not rather an act of his benevolence ? Should a person guilty
of high treason persuade himself and his accomplices in crime that
His Excellency could not consent to their execution without ceas-
ing to be that lovely and good character for which he had been
famed, would not his reasoning be considered unsound? And as
punishment inflicted on the transgressor of any statute law, is in
perfect accordance with the strictest goodness in the constituted
authorities, so is the endless punishment of the Hno.]}y impenitent
with the goodness of God.
Further; if the goodness of God proves the future holiness and
happiness of all men, does it not equally prove their present holiness
and happiness ? If sin and misery must come to an end because
they are contrary to the divine benevolence, why ought they not to
be now at an end ? I apprehend it would be as easy to prove that
the present existence of sin and misery is as contrary to the] divine
benevolence as their future existence. This argument drawn from
* Lecture ir.
rt
206 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect. 9,
the goodness of God, proves nothing, to the point, unless it can be
shown that sin and misery do not now exist. And will any one
assert this ? We have the awful testimony of scripture, experience
and observation, to prove that all mankind are now far from being
either holy or happy.
3. But it is said that endless punishment is inconsistent with the
justice of our deserts. Who among men, I would ask, are qualified
to decide this point? Are we not too much infected with sin, and
is not our judgment too much biased by a depraved heart, to. be
suitable judges of the guilt and demerit of sin ? We are too much
disposed to make our feelings and our sympathies the standard of
truth, to be suitable judges in this case. There are but few children
who would not think their parents unmerciful to chastise them.
And there is scarcely a thief or murderer who would not think the
law severe and the judge cruel, if they should give and execute
against them the sentence of death. But would a company of
criminals be deemed proper judges of the equity of that law which
condemns them ? And does any human being know enough of the
government of God and of the evil of sin, to determine what laws he
should enact and what penalties he should annex to them ? This
consideration is sufficient to set aside all objections that are urged
against the doctrine of endless punishment on the ground of its
being unjust. Of this we are incompetent judges. Here our only
source of evidence is the word of God. The fact of future punish-
ment and its duration are purely matters of revelation. God has
spoken explicitly respecting them, and it is our duty to hear and
believe what he has said, and not to attempt to be wise above what
is written.
But may not the endless punishment of the wicked be perfectly
consistent with the justice of our deserts ? May not such a punish-
ment inflicted on the sinner dying in impenitence, be a treatment
of him by his Judge correspondent to his moral conduct and personal
character ? A just punishment is that which is proportioned to the
crime punished ; and it may be said to be thus proportioned when
by the degree and duration of the punishment is exhibited a just
LtcT.9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 207
idea of the moral evil or vicious tendency of the crime, and a proper
motive to restrain all intelligent beings from the commission of it.
Now we have estimated the evil of sin against God. We have seen
that it is an infinite evil, because it is committed against a being of
infinite excellence ; it is the transgression of an infinite law, and
has a tendency to produce mischief of infinite extent in the universe
of God. What then does the sinner deserve ? The fact that God
by his overruling and restraining providence has prevented sin from
producing its full effect, does not diminish the guilt of the transgres-
sor. The nature of sin is not changed nor its guilt removed.
Sinners are just as criminal as if their sins actually produced all the
evils to which they tend. Such being the nature and tendency of
sin, it deserves an infinite punishment; for such a punishment is no
more than proportionate to its demerit. If the transgression be
infinite and the punishment be infinite, it is manifest that endless
punishment is no more than what sin deserves. Therefore it is
just, which was the thing to be proved.
Remember, dear hearers, by what rule you estimate the evil of a
crime against an inferior, an equal, a parent, and a chief magistrate
of a nation; then consider the greatness, the majesty, and the glory
of the infinite Jehovah, until you feel that he is unsearchable in all
his perfections and attributes ; and after this say, as in his presence,
do not your sins justly expose you to endless punishment? With
a clear view of the holiness and justice of that Being against whom
you have sinned, can you put your hand upon the Bible and say,
"O God thou wouldst be unjust to inflict endless punishment upon
me;' Would not your reason and conscience as well as the sacred
scriptures condemn you for such atheistic impiety, and cause you to
tremble lest divine vengeance should justly award you with that
punishment which you impiously declared to be unjust?
4. The doctrine of endless punishment is said to be derogatory to
the character of God, because it proves that God is unable to save all
mankind, or he is unwilling. "If you say he is able and not willing,
you impeach his goodness; — if you say he is willing but not able,
you deny his omnipotence." This argument if it proves any thing,
508 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect.&
it proves too much. If it be pursued it will run into absurdities
and contradict plain matters of fact. It lies equally strong against
limited punishment hereafter, and even against suffering in this life.
The sufferings of this life are proverbial. Now, either God is una-
ble to prevent these sufferings, or he is unwilling. If you say he is
unable, you deny his omnipotence. But if you acknowledge his
power and yet say he is unwilling, you impeach his goodness. Is it
replied, " There is more propriety in temporary sufferings than in
eternal misery ?" Not if temporary suffering is unnecessary. " But
a portion of misery is necessary in order that you may know how to
prize and enjoy happiness. For much of our relish of happiness is
by comparing it with pain, with which we may have been experi-
mentally acquainted." If it be true that a portion of misery is
necessary in order that man may know how to prize and relish hap-
piness, it follows that he must commit sin to augment his happiness.
An excellent argument to deter the wicked from transgression 1
And can God give us this relish of happiness in no other way?
Must there be some pain in order that there may be a good deal of
pleasure? Surely God must be deficient both in wisdom and in
power if he could devise no other system by which to give his crea-
tures a relish for happiness, but such an one as involves so much
temporal suffering. " But the miseries of the present life are bless-
ings to those who suffer them.'7 Was the drowning of Pharaoh
represented as a blessing to him? Was the overthrow of Sodom
and the other cities of the plain, represented as a blessing to them?
Was the deluge a blessing to the old world ? Was the destruction
of Jerusalem represented as a blessing to the wicked Jews who
crucified their Lord and King ? The miseries of this life are no
where represented as being blessings to the wicked. " All things,"
it is true, " work together for good," but this is confined solely to
those " who love God, and who are the called according to his pur-
pose." But if the miseries of the present life are designed as a
salutary discipline for the reformation of the wicked, why are they
not reformed ? Why does not the wretchedness and the misery of
the drunkard reform him ? Is it not a fact that the wicked instead
Lect.9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 209
of being reformed by their own sin and by consequence of suffering,
wax worse and worse ? Does not the commission of sin go to
destroy the principle of resistance, to blind the understanding, and
harden the heart, and thus to prepare the way for the commission
of other sins ?
5. It is argued that endless punishment confounds all degrees of
punishment, by giving infinite punishment to all. But we do not con-
tend that every sin deserves an infinite degree of endless punish-
ment. The degree of punishment that sin deserves, it becomes us
to leave to God, who alone can determine it. Does the doctrine of
endless punishment determine the degree of misery which sin de-
serves? Can there be no diversity of suffering, unless it be in du-
ration? Will all endure the same degree of sufferings, whose pun-
ishment is endless ? How grossly absurd the idea of future
punishment to admit such a notion ! There is sufficient evidence
to believe that there will be different degrees of glory in heaven,
proportioned to works of piety in the present life. As the labors
and sufferings of the presentlife, in behalf of Christ, bear a relation
to heavenly blessedness ; those being diverse of this must also be
the same. The doctrine of rewards in heaven is both reasonable
and scriptural. Though salvation be all of grace, rewards contain
nothing inconsistent with it ; because those very works, which it
pleases God to honor, are the real effects of his own operation, and
have respect to the mediation of his Son. And in connecting re-
wards with the obedience of his people, God shows not only his
love to Christ and to them, but his regard to righteousness. Hence
it is reasonable, as well as scriptural, to suppose that there will be
different degrees of glory. But if the objection we are consider-
ing, be true, there can be no diversity, unless it be in duration.
Hence, all degrees of happiness are confounded ; for God must
give an infinite degree of happiness to all his saints, since if it be
without end it must be infinite in degree. Thus the objection, if it
prove any thing, proves too mach. The truth is, there will be dif-
ferent degrees of happiness in the future world. As every saint
}s rewarded according to his works, and as some are more distil
a
210 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect.9.
guished for piety and good works their rewards will be greater i-n
proportion. By the same rule, as the sins of some are of a deeper
die and of a more aggravated nature than others, we must conclude.
as all will be rewarded according to their works, that punishment
in the future life will be different in degree, though it be invariably
endless in duration.
6. It is argued that God induces all good men to pray for the sal-
vation of all men, which he could not do if it were opposed to his will ?
and that " if wz ask any thing according to his loill, he heareth us"
and that " the desire ofihz righteous shall he granted." Consequently
all men will he saved. This argument is far from being conclusive.
If God never wills that to take place for the general good which
is not in itself desirable, then every thing which does^ take place*
even sin in all its forms and results, is just what is in itself and in
every way desirable to him. He is then well pleased with all the
sin and misery there are in the world, The wicked are not an
abomination in his sight. And he is as well pleased with the acts
of Satan as he is with those of Gabriel. God has no where com-
manded his people to pray for the final salvation of ail men. We
are commanded to pray for all men, for kings and for all in author-
ity, that we may lead quiet and peaceable lives in all godliness and
honesty. But does it follow that all men, kings, and all in authority
are just what we pray they may be ? Is the argument varied, and
is it said " God will hear and answer the prayers of his people ; they
pray for the salvation of all men: hence all must be saved?" God
has no where said that he will hear and answer every prayer that is
offered. Says James, " ye ask and receive not, because ye ask
amiss ;" and God says, " though ye make many prayers, yet will I
not hear you." We have no promise of any answer to our prayers
unless they are offered in faith. If offered in faith, God will hear
and answer. "All things whatsoever ye shall ask in prayer, helicv-
ing, ye shall receive." " Whatsoever things ye desire, when ye
pray helieve that ye receive them, and ye shall have them." Now
that all or any of the people of God pray in faith for the salvation
of all men, remains to be proved. Is all prayer the prayer of faith ?
Lect. 9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 211
Do not the people of God often pray for things that they do not re-
ceive ? In order that prayer be offered in faith, it must be founded
on the oath and promise of God, and accord with the intercession
of Christ. God will hear and answer the intercession of his Son.
And this is for his immediate disciples and for all thuse who shall
believe on him through their wrord. If Christians pray in faith for
the final salvation of all for wThom Christ intercedes, their prayers
will be answered. They cannot pray in faith for the salvation of
others, because their faith will then cease to he faith ; it will be
presumption, because it is not founded upon the promises of the
scriptures.
7. It is argued that " if God created mankind and placed ihem in
this state of being, under circumstances which he certainly foreknew
would issue in their fall and ruin ; he willed this their fall and ruin ;
and thai it is of no importance thai he forewarned, ihem to avoid the
evil: "whatever be the event, he is chargeable wiihil. But God hath
sworn by himself that he ivilleih not the death of the sinner ; thai is, he
willeth it not as death eternal. If therefore it occur, it is a part of
his economy of grace, and finally a minisiraiio7i unto life!9* Let us
examine this argument.
It is true that God is the supreme moral Governor of the universe,
who does all his pleasure in the armies of heaven, and among the in-
habitants of the earth ; and whatever exists must, in a certain sense,
accord with his will. But he willeth not evil, however, as evil, but
* " To say that it is not God's decree, but man's sin which renders him mis-
erable forever, is trifling in the extreme ; for since God is his Creator, he must
be the Author of that nature which he brings with him into i!ie worJd — so if he
is utterly indisposed, disabled, and made opposite to all that is spiri ually good,
and wholly inclined to all evil and that continually, it is such in consequence of
his Creator having been pleased to make him so. The circumstances in which
mankind are. placed are likewise entirely God's appointment. He is the Author
of their n:iture, such as it is, when they commence the career of life, and of
the circumstances which call their propensities into action; both ihe nature and
the c. •curnstances are such that the ultimate result could net possibly be other-
wise than it is. He wills the propensity ; he wills the means ; and he so adapt*
the means to the propensity, and the propensity to the mean:-, as to secure the
end ; and to affirm, therefore, that he does not will the end, \< utterly absurd."
Smith ok the Divide Government.
212 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect. 9,
for wise ends permits it to exist. The good and not the evil that
shall arise is properly the object of the divine volition. But it is
not true that God on this account is chargeable with man's sin ;
and that he willed his fall and ruin ; and that all his cautions and
warnings are of no account ; and that if the sinner suffer eternal
death, he is chargeable with this death of the sinner.
Is it not a fact that God created man and placed him in circum-
stances which he most certainly foreknew would issue in his fall,
and that he did notwithstanding caution and warn him against apos-
tacy ; and does he not still continue to caution and warn sinners
against the commission of those very sins which he foreknows they
will commit ? Who then will, with atheistic impiety, dare to ar-
raign the conduct of their Maker, and accuse him of insincerity ?
Who will deny the accountability of man, and accuse God of being
accountable for all the evil there is in the universe?
If this be true, it must follow that man is not to blame for all his
rebellion against his Maker, nor justly accountable for any of its
results. Sin and all its consequences, are, by this hypothesis trans-
ferred from the sinner to the Creator. " It is God, who, knowing
all events and placing us in such circumstances as he does, that is
accountable. And it is of no account that he forewarns us of the
evil." "God sent us into the world with sinful dispositions which
we cannot remove. He gave us a law which it is impossible for us
to obey. Hence he would be unjust in condemning us to eternal
punishment for not obeying " the law which knows that we cannot
obey." Impious reasoning!
But what is the testimony of scripture on this point ? " Let no
man say when he is tempted, lam tempted of God, for God cannot
be tempted to evil, neither tempteth he any man ; but every man is
tempted when he is drawn away of his own lusts and enticed ; then,
when lust hath conceived, it bringeth forth sin, and sin when it
is finished bringeth forth death." — (lames i: 13— J 5.)
Would the individual who had wholesome food provided for him
in abundance, which he refused to eat, be able to blame any one but
himself because he was famishing? Would the individual who
Lsct. 9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 213
voluntarily took poison, be just in throwing the blame on God for
not preventing his wicked design ? And will sinful man blame God
for that which is his own fault ?
The doctrine of necessity and the evil actions of men being in
accordance with the will of God, is utterly subversive of the doc-
trine of repentance. All men are commanded to repent. But does
God command his creatures to repent for having done his will?
This represents God as being at variance with himself! He con-
vinces us by his spirit that we are wrong for doing actions that are
in accordance with his will, and then he produces sorrow in our
hearts for having done these actions. But how can wre be sorry for
an action that is not contrary to the will of God ? I cannot see how
a person can repent while he believes that his actions are in perfect
accordance with the will of God.
This doctrine is equally at variance with the doctrine of forgive-
ness. What need has he to be forgiven who has never resisted the
will of God ? Where there is nothing done in opposition to the
will of God, there can be no blame ; and where there is no blame it
is an insult to talk of forgiveness, or of the need of a Mediator to
effect a reconciliation. On this ground the whole doctrine of for-
giveness and condemnation is a mere farce. But if, as we know,
the doctrine of forgiveness is a doctrine of the Bible, then it follows
that this doctrine of necessity is a gross delusion of the devil ; a
false light which he erects to decoy the voyagers to eternity upon
rocks and treacherous quicksands. This sentiment is full of blas-
phemy. With one stroke it sweeps away the justice of all punish-
ment, and subverts the whole foundation of gospel grace.
Let those who have advocated this sentiment of necessity, consider
how they will be able to roll away this reproach which they have
the temerity to charge to their Creator by throwing all the blame
of their sinful actions upon him !
It is not true that man is not able to do his duty and cannot
deserve eternal punishment. If this were the case, then it would
follow of course that all the blame of man's sins would be trans-
ferred from him to his Creator. But man is not a machine. He is
214 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect.9.
a free moral agent. And his inability is not physical but moral.
It may be thus illustrated. You go to a person indolently reposing
upon Ins downy couch, and ask him to arise and walk with you to a
certain place. You hold out to him every proper inducement neces-
sary for him to comply. But he says, " I am not able.* By this he
means that he does not choose to accompany you. This is the
inability of the sinner. He does not obey the commands of God
because he chooses to disobey them. This inability so far from
rendering him in the least excusable, is his sin. And will the sin-
ner dare reproach his Maker, and charge him wkh his voluntary
actions for which he alone is accountable and punishable ?
8. Some argue that, God can and does produce holiness at the last
moments of the earthly existence of all those sinners ivho were not
made holy before, in the ivay of repentance, faith, and obedience to the
gospel. But who can believe that the great Jehovah would com-
mand repentance, faith and obedience, upon pain of damnation, and
then in case any of his creatures should choose to live in disobedi-
ence, hold himself bound to produce holiness in them at the last
moment of their lives, and save them from the wrath to come? It
would defeat all the threatnings of his law. Nor is this all. It
would prove that his threatnings are falsehoods held out to deceive
his creatures. In this case they could not have been given with a
sincere intention. And what effect will the disclosure of this senti-
ment be likely to produce on the sinner? Will it inspire reverence
and godly fear? Will it not rather produce infidelity and an utter
contempt of both the law and the gospel.
I do not deny that God may produce holiness in the sinner at the
last moment. But this will not be done in those who do not put
forth the least desire or effort towards it. Moral holiness cannot be
produced in this way. Man is an intelligent being and a free agent,
and God deals, with him as such. Repentance and ftith are essen-
tial branches of Christian holiness, and necessarily imply a convic-
tion of sin, sorrow for it, and the yielding of the heart to God.
What shall we say then of those, who being near the borders of
the grave, are unwilling to hear serious discourse and fervent prayers,
Lect. 9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 215
and any thing said about a preparation for death ? Here, to say
the least, repentance is extremely doubtful.
What shall we say of the countless multitudes of impenitent
sinners who in every age and land, being suddenly deprived of
reason, die in a state of mental derangement ? The act of repent-
ance and faith is the work of a right mind ; if there be therefore
such a thing as an impenitent sinner dying without reason, that
sinner dies without faith and repentance.
What shall we say of those incorrigible sinners who have been
cut off by the judgments of God! Did they all repent, or were
they saved without repentance ?
What shall we say of the man who returns from the revels of
Bacchus and dies in a state so far intoxicated that he has no power
over himself! Was he made holy and taken to heaven while he
was drunk ?
What shall we say of those unhappy beings who having contemn-
ed the Saviour, despised the gospel, and in the last moments being
filled with despair and enmity against God, die dreadfully blasphe-
ming his name, like Altamont and the once honorable Francis
Newport! They die without repentance and apparently forsaken
of God.
What shall we say then of those who commit murder and then
deliberately add to this crime that of suicide ! Does God interpose
for those bloody men, and contrary to the only way revealed in the
gospel for the salvation of sinners, fit them for heaven without
repentance ? Our Saviour tells us of some who shall die in their
sin?. Can they die in their sins and at the same time be saved
from them ? If so, how can they die in their sins and in the last
moment be saved from them ? And where is the proof that God
will produce holiness in the sinner at the last moment? And how
can he do this without changing the will and affections of the sin-
ner? And what evidence, I ask again, is there that God will
produce holiness at last in all who have broken his law and abused
his goodness through life, and died in their sins? This argument
assumes every thing and proves nothing!
216 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect. 9.
9. Some, with a view to invalidate the doctrine of endless punish-
ment, assert that the principles of the Orthodox are selfish and revenge-
ful. They charge them wi\h anticipating a high degree of satis-
faction in looking down from heaven, and beholding the sufferings
of their fellow-beings ; that they " expect to feast their eyes on
the smoke and flame of their torment ;" that parents in heaven will
rejoice in seeing their children in hell ; and that a great part of
the happiness of heaven will result from seeing dear friends and
near connections burning in the unquenchable flames of hell."
Now this false and slanderous representation is one of the most
successful means by which the unprincipled and vicious have been
prejudiced against the doctrine of endless punishment, and in favor
of universal salvation. Thus have the prejudice and rage of the
wicked been awakened against the doctrines of the Bible.
But can we charitably suppose that this work of deception is done
through ignorance ? Have we not every reason to conclude that
it originates from a malicious disposition ? No doubt the whole
administration of God, when rightly understood, will receive the
high approbation of all holy intelligences. They will rejoice in the
righteous government of God when they see rebellious subjects of
his kingdom shut up in prison, and prevented from doing further
mischief. The inspired writers frequently express themselves in
anthems of praise, when the enemies of truth and of holiness are
punished ; not that they rejoice in the misery of any being, but that
they rejoice in the wise and equitable government of the great Je-
hovah. Thus Moses, Miriam and Josiah sang a song of praise to
God when he had destroyed their enemies. And ere long the
whole Church will sing the song of Moses and the Lamb, as tri-
umphing over the fall of every anti-christian power ; and the Lord,
shall reign forever and ever to the eternal joy of his people, and the
eternal confusion of his enemies. In their everlasting destruction
the saints will be called upon to ascribe salvation and glory and
honor and power unto the Lord their God.
Should a formidable conspiracy be raised against any good gov-
ernment, would it not afford joy to all the loyal and peaceful subjects
LieT.9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 217
of that government should the constituted authorities send out
their forces, quell the rebellion, and call the offenders to justice ?
Suppose these good and loyal subjects, by the proclamation of their
Governor, should celebrate a day of public thanksgiving to God in
consequence of the overthrow of their enemies, would it not be false
and unjust to charge them with selfish and revengeful feelings ?
The same objection which is urged against the Orthodox may be
urged against the principles and feelings of many of the saints re-
corded in the scriptures of the Old and New Testament. But it
maybe well for us to be careful how we judge of the principles and
feelings of good men.
30. With a view of disproving the doctrine of endless punishment,
the objectors are very fond of appealing to the sympathies of our
nature. " What man," it is asked, " of common sensibility, could
endure to see a fellow man tormented in the fire, or with devouring
worms, for one year, or one month, or one day ? What parent could
take its own child and cast it into a furnace of fire, or confine it in a
gloomy dungeon during its life ? Would he if he were able punish
it with endless misery, or inflict upon it intolerable anguish for a
very protracted period ? If a human parent who acted in this man-
ner should be rewarded with universal execration, who can believe
any hypothesis which attributes such conduct to the benevolent
Father of men ? God has more goodness than man, and more love
than any earthly parent. How then can it be supposed that he will
cast any of his children into the lake of fire and consume them
forever ?"
This is a very favorite argument with many, and one vdrich they
wield with great success over young and unthinking minds. But in
reply it might be asked, what parent could drown his children in
the ocean, or consume them in the fire; or leave them to perish with
hunger ? What parent could break their bones, or mangle their
flesh, or send them pain, sickness and death? And yet God, the
great Parent of all, brings all these things upon the children of men
in the course of his providence. Has he then less kindness and love
than earthly parents ? This would follow according to the^hypoth-
s
218 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect. 9,
esis we are now opposing. According to this principle Noah would
not have expected the deluge, though warned of it by God himself
and commanded to prepare for it. He would have said, " Are not
all these human beings the children of God, the objects of his love
and mercy, and can it be supposed that he intends to destroy them ?
True they have corrupted their way before God, but for this they
are not to blame. They are just what their Creator made them to
be. If they are sinners exceedingly, would it not be far better that
they should be converted and rendered completely happy than to be
destroyed ?" So Noah would have reasoned had he believed in the
doctrine of universal salvation. And so did the inhabitants of the
old world in all probability reason, when warned of threatened and
impending judgment. They did not believe that they should be
destroyed ; but the deluge came and swept them away.
Reasoning on this principle, Lot would not have believed the
message of those celestial beings who came to announce the
destruction of Sodom. " Is not God," he would have said, " the
Parent of these Sodomites, and is it possible that he should destroy
them with fire enraged with brimstone ? Who of all these parents
could be so cruel as to design such evil against their tender off-
spring ? And is not God, the Parent of all, more merciful than
they? True these heavenly messengers have announced that the
Lord will destroy this place with fire from heaven ; and they appear
to be sincere and to give lucid evidence that they are sent by God
to announce this judgment. But their language cannot be under-
stood in its literal import ; it must have a figurative meaning. God
is merciful, and he will not be so cruel as to bring such a judgment
upon this place. This fire which he threatens, must signify the fire
of his love." So Lot would have reasoned had he been a Univer-
salist, and so did reason the inhabitants of Sodom. But the fire
from heaven did descend at the appointed hour notwithstanding, and
destroyed them all. But if Lot did expect this judgment to be a
merciful chastisement designed for the good of the Sodomites, why
did he warn and intreat his sons-in-law to escape from the city, and
assign as his reason that the Lord would destroy that place ? This
Lect.9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 219
would be defeating the very object of that salutary discipline under
which they were to be placed. You see then, my hearers, how
absurd the arguments drawn from the sympathies of our nature
against the doctrine of endless punishment The argument drawn
from the circumstance that endless punishment is abhorrent to their
feelings, and that God will not inflict it, lies as we have seen equally
against the sufferings of this world and against matter of fact, and
therefore it cannot be sound. The truth is, on this subject and all
others, feelings must all yield to matter of fact, and to actual expe-
rience. Whatever is, is truth, and whatever contradicts it is
falsehood.
11. It is said that the proper meaning of the term Gospel is glad
tidings, and it is glad tidings to all men. But if only a select number
are to enjoy its benefits, how can it be glad tidings to all ? It can
certainly be no favor, no matter of joy to those who are finally lost
In reply to this argument, I would enquire is it necessary in order
to impart value to a favor, that it be actually received ? Did the
man in the parable who made a splendid feast and bade many,
manifest no kindness to those who rejected his invitations? Sup-
pose a hundred criminals under sentence of death and waiting
their execution, would it be no favor to them if the chief magistrate
should order the doors of their prison to be set open and a full and
free pardon to be offered to them, on condition of their confessing
their guilt and promising amendment, unless all should accept his
offer ? Would not the offer in itself be glad tidings, even if they
should all reject it, and die in prison or be led forth to execution?
Are not the tidings of an infallible remedy for a disease with which
we may be afflicted good tidings, whether we regard them or not ?
And are not the tidings just as good if we neglect them and dra
through our neglect, as if we obtain the remedy and thereby secure
a restoration to health? The invitation of the gospel is full and
free. None are excluded from the offers of mercy who do not
exclude themselves. All who will may accept them, and this is all
that is necessary in order to render the gospel glad tidings.
Whether it be received or rejected does not in the least alter its
220 ON THE ARGUMENTS (Lect.9,-
uature and design. It does not cease to be glad tidings by being
perverted, abased, and rejected to our ruin.
12. It is said men receive in this world all the punishment they
deserve^ and therefore cannot be justly punished beyond this life. This
argument we have already noticed,* but it may be expedient and
proper to give it a further examination. This argument takes for
granted that wicked men are punished in the present life according
to the guilt and demerit of their sins.
But this is false in fact. Admit if you please that the more
aggravated crimes are usually followed by something like a speedy
retribution ; what punishment, let me ask, do they endure who con-
temn God, who are unjust, cruel, proud, selfish, avaricious and
revengeful ? Do you say remorse of conscience ? The consciences
of some are seared as with a hot iron, so as to be past feeling.
What remorse of conscience has a West India pirate, a highway
robber, or a nightly assassin. They do not feel half so much as a
tender-hearted christian feels for neglecting family or secret devo-
tions, or indulging in a worldly minded spirit for a single day.
The truth is, the more wicked a man is, the less he suffers from
remorse of conscience, so that if this be the appointed punishment
of the wicked, the more sinful they are the less punishment they
will have to endure. Let such a sentiment be exhibited, and will it
deter men from the commission of sin?
This doctrine is impossible in the very nature of things. If the
sinner must suffer the whole punishment of his sins, must bear
the^whole weight of his transgressions, how can he receive all
his punishment in this life ? How can that man who commits sui-
cide, and by that sin passes beyond the boundaries of time into
eternity, suffer the punishment of his sins ? He commits one of
the greatest crimes, and yet does not remain a moment in the world
to suffer for it. Hence he must suffer in a future state, as he does
not remain a moment after his crime to suffer in this.
This doctrine is contrary to scripture. The general course of
Providence is accurately described in the words of our Saviour.
* Lecture v.
Lect. 9.) AGAINST ENDLESS PUNISHMENT. 221
u He maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and sendeth
his rain on the just and on the unjust." That God will reward ev-
ery man according to the deeds done in his body, is the concurrent
testimony of the Bible. Now as facts prove that some men are
more wicked than others, it must also be proved that the wicked suf-
fer more in this life than the righteous, and that the more wicked a
man is the more he must suffer. This has never been done. The
language of scripture as well as the universal experience and ob-
servation of mankind bear testimony to the contrary. Consequently
this doctrine under consideration is contrary to scripture.
If men are punished in the present life according to their deserts,
then the scheme which advocates the salvation of all men is false.
For this goes to prove that all men are saved. But from what are
they saved ? They are saved from nothing if they endure the whole
penalty of the law. It is absurd to talk of salvation after men have
received all the punishment due to their offences and thereby fully
satisfied the claims of divine justice. Full punishment and free
salvation are totally inconsistent with each other. Now if you as-
sert that all are punished according to their deserts, then none are
saved. But if you say all are saved, then none are punished as they
deserve. I am not unaware of the evasion of some respecting the
meaning of the term salvation. They would persuade us that it is
deliverance from the dominion only and not from the guilt of sin.
But does this idea accord with scripture. Does that explain salva-
tion to mean simply the deliverance from the power of sin. Is all
that it says of pardon, forgiveness, and remission of sin, without
meaning? Is not pardon a deliverance from the punishment of sin,
and remission a release from the penalty of the divine law ? To
explain these terms, then, to denote only freedom from the power
of sin, furnishes an example of the facility with which some can
wrest the scriptures, and perverts the plainest words of the lan-
guage.
These arguments I have thus briefly noticed, are, I believe, the
strongest and most plausible that are adduced by the objectors to
endless punishment, against that doctrine and in favor of the final
s*
222 ON THE ARGUMENTS, &c. (Lect. &
salvation of all men. Whether they have been fairly met and ans-
wered in this discourse, I leave it with the judgment of the serious
and candid to decide. To me it appears that the arguments which
I have noticed, are altogether fallacious, built upon unfounded as-
sumptions, and perverted inferences ; and that they are not sup-
ported by a single text of scripture. If others think otherwise, I
hope they will investigate the subject with candor. As truth is
important, and the result of our investigations may carry with them
eternal consequences, let us seek the truth with candor and prayer
and embrace it with joy, that we may be saved by its influence.
liECTUSE X,
ON THE SOURCES, THE EVIL NATURE, AND THE DAN-
GEROUS MORAL CONSEQUENCES OF A SCHEME, WHICH DENIES
THE DOCTRINE OF ENDLESS PUNISHMENT, AND ADVO-
CATES THE FINAL SALVATION OF ALL MEN.
Proverbs xix : 27. — " Cease, my son, to hear the instruction which
causeih to err from the words of knowledge"
Principles are not objects of speculation merely ; they are the
foundation and frame-work of character. They are the main-springs
of purpose and action, and enter into the essence of all we do-
Moral beings are in this life, and in that which is to come, just what
they are in principle. " As a man thinketh in his heart, so is he."
And as principles are the immediate and chief objects of God's
cognizance in moral being, so they form the principal ground of
acquittal or condemnation at his righteous tribunal. Good principles
are the primary elements of a good character. It is, therefore, just
as important that we should adopt correct principles, as it is, that
we should here sustain a character morally good, and hereafter en-
joy the presence and favor of Almighty God.
The scriptures are very full and explicit, in representations cf the
unholy and destructive influence of erroneous principles. They
represent them as increasing unto more ungodliness, and eating as
doth a gangrene. They are fruitful and productive; and on this
account they are the more dangerous. They will destroy the soul
as a gangrene destroys the body. Let a system of false opinions^
in respect to religion, oDce get possession of any mind, and what
224 SOURCES OF MODERN (Lect. 10.
can you expect to emanate from this poisonous fountain but the
bitter streams of pollution and death? Hence it is that those evil
men, who corrupt the morals of our youth, begin their work of death
by assailing their religious principles. In this they act with keen
discernment of what constitutes the strength and safety of a virtu-
ous character — correct moral principles. It is in reference to efforts
like these, that the wise man gives the advice contained in our text:
" Cease, my son, to hear the instruction which causeth to err from
the words of knowledge." Those persons whose minds are not
firmly established in the truth, by listening to the instruction which
causeth to err from the words of knowledge, are liable to be led
away with the error of the wicked. Familiarity with error, as with
vice, has a tendency to make us insensible of its deformity ; and
those, who are comparatively unacquainted with the word of God,
are not properly furnished for an encounter with error.
Under the fullest conviction, that what has been said of error in
general, is applicable to that scheme which denies the doctrine of
endless punishment and advocates the final salvation of all men, we
would, in the most serious and affectionate manner, lift our warning
voice against it. In doing this, we shall notice its sources ; its
NATURE ; AND ITS DANGEROUS MORAL CONSEQUENCES ; which if
clearly ascertained, will be so many presumptive proofs of the fal-
lacy of its principle, a persuasive to its abettors to give up a scheme
that is based on error, and supported by a perversion of the sacred
scriptures, and a loud dissuasive to all from listening to their in^
structions, and embracing a religious belief that is fraught with the
most pernicious and fatal consequences.
Sources of Modern Universalisbi.
•I. Let us then in the first place inquire into some of the causes
which incline the minds of men to reject the doctrine of future retribu-
tions, and to embrace the doctrine of universal salvation. That the
cause cannot be traced to any firm and satisfactory evidence of
truth, may be seen from the indefinite manner in which the doctrine
is held, and from the confusion and shifting of the arguments by
Lect.10.) UNIVERSALISM. 225
which it is defended. One point is assumed, and it is this and this
alone which characterizes the doctrine, viz : that all men will ulti-
mately he made perfectly holy and happy. But as to the time whenr
and the means by which this is to be effected, the advocates of this
scheme are not agreed. Some think that all men will be happy
like the angels in heaven the moment they enter the next conscious
existence, and that no distinctions will exist among mankind beyond
the grave. Others suppose that there will be a period of punish-
ment indefinitely long beyond the grave, which will terminate in
the reformation and consequent happiness of all the wicked.
Nor is there a greater uniformity as it respects the manner of
salvation. Some expect to be saved through the infinite merits of
Christ ; and thus they yield the position as untenable, that mankind
will be saved by enduring the whole penalty of the law. Some
suppose that it would not consist with the benevolence of God to
inflict eternal punishment for the sins committed in this life. Oth-
ers will tell us that endless punishment is inconsistent with our
deserts. Some expect that irresistible grace will draw all men to
heaven; and others, that irresistible justice will drive all men
there. Some expect to be purified by the blood of Christ without a
change of heart in the present life, and others to be purified by the
flames of hell. One is expecting salvation by the fogiveness of sin,
and another by suffering the whole penalty of the law.
And the main arguments by which not only different persons, but
the same persons at different times, defend their system, are as vari-
ous and contradictory as their system itself. Now the conclusion
to which all this brings us is, that the doctrine in question does not
rest in the perception of solid proof. We should have supposed that
if this main point, universal salvation, was reached by a chain of
evidences that led to it, all who have arrived at this conclusion
would do it by a corresponding course. But as their arguments
are various and contradictory, we conclude, and not without reason,,
that the main position is first assumed without regard to proof. A
system which in the hands of its advocates is constantly changing
its form and resting upon some new foundation, must be rather the
226 SOURCES OF MODERN (Lect.10,
offspring of man's convenience and desire, than any firm and satis-
factory evidence of truth obtained from an impartial study of the
Bible.
This is a disease of the mind which no reasoning can cure. All
that can be attempted with any rational hope of success, is to point
out some of the more obvious sources of this scheme, that its abet-
tors may be induced to retrace their steps and to observe the mental
process by which they arrived at their present conclusions, and to
decide the question with some degree of candor and impartiality.
We come then directly to the question: What are the causes
which incline the minds of some men to reject the doctrine of end-
less punishment and embrace that of universal salvation ?
There are many at the present day, who are laboring to reason
themselves out of all truth, both human and divine. They are
making rapid advances in the cause of infidelity, And they em-
ploy every method possible, to disprove the authenticity and divine
inspiration of the holy scriptures, and to arrive at the certainty that
all things are the result of chance, and consequently uncertain.
They need not declare to the world their motives. Were they not
rationally convinced that the Bible teaches the doctrine of a future
state and of eternal rewards and punishments, they would not, lam
persuaded, waste their energies to convince themselves and others
that the Bible is a cunningly devised fable, and clamorously exult
that he is a slave who fears to die, and that death is an eternal sleep.
Let the doctrine of future retribution be expunged from the Bible,
and every Infidel would exchange his " Age of Reason," and his
;t Chesterfield," for this sacred volume. It is because they find an
overwhelming evidence that the Bible teaches the doctrine of
endless punishment that they renounce a book which bears a
mighty impress of divinity, and which contains, as they acknowledge,
the most excellent system of commands, precepts and institutions.
But so painful are their apprehensions of a future state, and so strong
are their fears that the Bible is the word of God, that they would re-
joice to find it on their side to confirm their wavering hopes that all
will be well should not death prove an eternal sleep. And this is
Lect. 10.) UNIVERSALIS^. 227
just what the scheme under consideration promises. It says to
those who despise the Lord, " The Lord hath said ye shall have
peace ;" and to every one who walks in the imagination of his heart
it says, " No evil shall come upon you." Hence they renounce their
barren infidelity and embrace this "blessed doctrine,"
This doctrine is in accordance with the depraved inclinations of
the natural heart. It is a fact that men naturally love darkness
rather than light. Of this fact, experience and observation furnish
abundant proof. This fact is confirmed by the dictates of our en-
lightened conscience, and the unequivocal declarations of Inspira-
tion. Taking for granted then this fact, it amounts to nothing more
or less than a predisposition in the natural heart to the reception of
error. Now this natural aversion to truth is peculiarly favorable to
the influence of error. Hence the reason why many embrace Uni-
versalism. The sons of pleasure, who wish to indulge in every
sinful gratification, and to procrastinate repentance or entirely dis-
pense with it, here find a comfortable hope and a pleasing substi-
tute for the humbling and purifying doctrines of the cross. It per-
fectly coincides with the prevailing inclination of their hearts. Ev-
ery man must see at once what an influence this predisposition of
the mind in favor of an idea, must have upon the decisions of the
understanding. It is familiar to every one with how much ease a
man may convince himself of that which he wishes to be true. By
dexterous sophistry, and all the arts of self-deception, he may make
falsehood and vice appear to his own mind as truth and virtue.
Now is there any doctrine, that a man, determined on a life of sin-
ful indulgence, can have a greater wish to believe than this, that
there ivill be no future retribution? Those who object to endless
punishment assign as a reason why it should not be preached, that
it occasions in the minds of many, a great amount of suffering.
Consequently, if the minds of some men suffer so much, by enter-
taining the idea of future misery as the fruit of a life of sin, is it at all
strange, considering how much the decisions of the judgment are
influenced by interest and desire, that some should come to per-
suade themselves that there is no future retribution ? The human
228 SOURCES OF MODERN (Lect. 10,
heart loves to be soothed. The pleasing sound of peace, peace% will
ever be gratefully received.
A wicked life also is a fruitful source of the doctrine under con-
sideration. It quiets the conscience and ministers to a life of sin.
What the celebrated Earl of Rochester said of the Bible, is true of
the doctrine of endless punishment. " A bad life is the only grand
objection to it." Wicked and dissolute men have the strongest
objection to the doctrine of future punishment, and the most power-
ful bias of mind in favor of universal salvation. Is it not a fact that
wicked and dissolute men are generally inclined to reject the doc-
trine of endless punishment and embrace the opposite scheme ?
The drunkard rejoices in it, and belches it out with the fumes of his
-own feted breath. The libertine, the knave, the blasphemer, and sin-
ners of every description, hail this scheme as good news of great
joy to their unsanctified hearts. Thus a wicked life, by secret and
unobserved influence, throws the mind under a bias towards the
hope that all mankind will be ultimately saved.
In this doctrine the wicked man finds all the ideas he had occa-
sion for, to secure him from the fears of death and its consequences.
His occasion for such ideas are as frequent as his wicked acts and
his reflections upon them. Every admonition of conscience stirs up
tumult and agony in his heart. The man who is determined to
indulge in forbidden gratifications, must force the reproaches of his
own conscience or screen himself behind the false refuge of Univer-
sal ism. This proves to him a shield which the sharpest arrows of
the Almighty can scarcely penetrate. He is at ease under the -
preaching of the word, the warnings of providence, and revivals of
religion. Hence he finds himself pledged to a universalist belief.
He sees that the whole tenor of his life demands such a belief; and
that if he does not restrain it, he must abandon without delay his
wicked practices. But retaining it, he can live as he pleases
without doing violence to his convictions. Thus the doctrine swells
the number of its adherents by being a place of refuge to shield the <
ungodly from the fears of divine punishment after death, and from
the scorpion sting of an awakened conscience.
Lect. 10.) UNIVERSALISM. 229
I do not say that all who advocate universal salvation are disso-
lute men. There may be many of correct morals. I affirm no fur-
ther than that a wicked life fosters Universalism, and Universalism
favors a wicked life.
Again, Universalism sometimes settles into the mind during a
period of religious excitement Many have indulged a speculative
belief of a future state of rewards and punishments ; but they ex-
pected that it would by some means or other be well with them at
last. And so long as they were permitted to indulge this expecta-
tion undisturbed, they rested easy. But when a faithful ministry,
urged, upon their own acknowledged principles, the necessity of a
change of heart and an actual preparation for heaven in the present
life, and the danger of procrastination, and the awful consequences
of unrepentant guilt, they found themselves exposed to the wrath
of God, and have nothing to defend themselves against the arrows
of conviction. They now saw that in practice they were not con-
sistent with their professions. And they have been driven to the
dire necessity either to get a new heart or a new doctrine. Some
have to their exceeding great joy and to the joy of all holy beings
repented of their sins and embraced the long neglected Saviour.
But others saw that in the system which rejects endless punishment,
there was a doctrine which exactly coincided with the prevailing
inclination of their hearts ; a doctrine, which held out a " heaven
for all and a hell for none.33 This doctrine they eagerly embraced.
And as their belief in it approached to assurance, their sense of se-
curity in sin increased; and they wanted nothing else to quiet their
1 fears of a future retribution. To this source is to be attributed the
apparent prevalence of this doctrine. 1 say apparent ; for it existed
in the heart before. It is a doctrine of the natural heart. But now
it becomes more visible, systematic and formidable. In proportion
I as the gospel is faithfully preached with the Holy Ghost sent down
from heaven, and the character, duty and destiny of man is faithfully
set before him, this error will show itself. It is not a fruit of the
gospel, but a fruit of the unregenerate heart ; and where the bles-
T
239 SOURCES OF MODERN (Lect. 10.
s-ed fruits of the gospel are apparent, these wild tares of nature will
often appear.
This doctrine sometimes settles into the mind after a season of
special convictions of conscience. Religious impressions, if stifled or
effaced, generally leave the mind in a^ worse condition— less dis-
posed to the reception of truth, and more disposed to the reception
of error. " The last state of that man is worse than the first."
Persons who, after having been awakened to a sense of their guilt
and danger, and having commenced an external reformation and
formed many purposes of religious life, have again relapsed into an
irreligious and stupid state and are annoyed by the doctrines of
divine grace, are much inclined to embrace that doctrine which
shall quiet their consciences by the assurance that there is no day
of judgment, no hell, no wrath to come. On this ground there is
some truth in the pretences sometimes put forth, that revivals of
religion often contribute to increase the number of Infidels and
Universalists. But if Universalists reap a harvest after a revival of
religion, of sueh persons as have resisted convictions and turned
from the holy commandment delivered unto them, it would be noth-
ing strange. Seasons of powerful awakenings now, as in the days
of the apostles, are of a sealing character; and while to many the
means of graca on such occasions are a savor of life unto life, to
others they are a savor of death unto death.
Again, familiar intercourse with men whose conversation abounds
with objections to the truth and cavilings against the distinguish-
ing doctrines of the divine sovereignty, tends to spread the doctrine
of Universalism. The power of precept and example is proverbial.
We are creatures of imitation, and by the constitution of things our
habits of thought and action are very much formed on the model of
those with whom we familiarly associate. If a young man familiarly
associates with these of loose and erroneous sentiments and actually
hostile to the truth, his mind is actually open to whatever erroneous
sentiments they may wish to communicate. He has perhaps been
educated m the belief of future rewards and punishments, and when
he first hears it assailed by infidel cavils and scoffs, he shudders at
Lect. 10.) UNIVERSALIS*!. 231
the impiety. Pie hears the same thing again, but with less horror
than before. He hears it again and again, and at length ceases to
be affected by the impiety. At no remote period he takes the ob-
jector by the hand and greets him as his brother. " To hear objec-
tions against the truth continually repeated, without being answered ;
to hear the cause of Christ attacked in every possible form, without
being in a situation in a becoming manner to undertake its defence,
must have a powerful and injurious tendency. Conversation, if we
intend to please and be pleased, should never b© a scene of contin-
ual dispute ; we must either relinquish such society or hold our
peace. That person who feels himself called upon, on every occa-
sion, to defend his religion, will grow weary of contention, and seek
repose in other kinds of society. But if he continues in it, he will
learn at length to be silent. Silence will lead to acquiescence, and
finally he will adjust his opinions to the standard of those with
whom he associates. If any man supposes that he has strength of
mind to continue in such society, without having the foundations of
his confidence in the truth weakened, that man is entirely unac-
quainted with his ovvTn heart." When a man daily associates with
those who are advocating Universal salvation, he puts himself under
a dangerous influence, not only unarmed, but in a posture favorable
to drink in the poison.
There are many persons whose minds are so loosely, balanced and
of such limited information respecting the future destiny of man and
his obligation to his Creator, that one of the most frivolous objections
to the truth is enough to overthrow their faith. The man who, if
properly armed, might stand his ground against a band of ruffians,
would, if stripped of his armor, fall into their hands an easy prey.
In like manner, the man who has been long accustomed to study his
Bible might meet with but little danger from being assailed by the
cavils of the enemies of truth ; but he who is not well acquainted
with his Bible, might be easily entangled in their sophistry and led
away with their errors. Suppose that a man of some cunning should
approach an unguarded youth who has never doubted the reality of
a future state and the doctrine of endless punishment, and has never
232 SOURCES OF MODERN (Lect. 1CL
known nor examined the broad and solid basis on which they rest*
And suppose this person should begin to cavil with the doctrine of
endless punishment and raise his objections against it The youth
knows not how to dispose of these evasions and objections, since he
is ignprant of the whole ground of positive proof. He revolves these
objections and cavils in his mind. He views the doctrine of Uni-
versalism as pleasant to the eye and much to be desired to make
one happy. He concludes that there is much truth in the scheme
presented to his reception, and that he has fortunately found out
the true doctrine. He becomes prepossessed in favor of this system*
which holds out that all men, their sins to the contrary notwith-
standing, will ultimately go to heaven. His youthful mind now
bloats with pride and self conceit. Thus a mere suggestion that
would have no influence upon a mind that possesses a deep and
thorough knowledge of the Bible, gives a fatal turn to his conclu-
sions. Cavils that might be satisfactorily answered in various ways,,
and the fallacy of which a thorough knowledge of the word of God
would enable him to detect, assume from his ignorance the weight
of arguments. Thus advantage is taken of his ignorance, and his
prepossessions secured in favor of Universalism.
This result is often facilitated by the love of novelty and the pride
of opinion. There is something exceedingly flattering in many
youthful minds in the reflection, that they are set free from puritan-
ical prejudices, and that they have broken away from the trammels
of education, and are giving the world a fine example of independ-
ent thought and action. But this spirit finds but little nourishment
in the way of truth ; for that is the path of the wayfaring man and
the simple and unlettered, as well as the learned few walk in iu
Filled with ignorance and self-conceit, he looks down upon the
littleness of a world that is weak enough to believe the Bible. He
embraces the doctrine of Universal Salvation, because it seems to
emancipate his mind from superstition and prejudice, and because
it puts no restraint upon his wayward passions and appetites. He
can rejoice in his youth ; and let his heart cheer him in the days of
his youth ; and walk in the ways, of his heart, and in the sight of
Legt.10.) - UNIVERSALISM. 333
his eyes, without the painful apprehensions of being brought
into judgment.
The very fears of Universalists themselves are doubtless the caus«
of much care and labor to extend their opinions. In answer to the
question, "if you are sure that all men will be saved whether they
believe so or not, why are you so anxious to induce men to believe
in the final salvation of all men, as though the salvation of men de-
pended on their believing it," they answer because we want you to
enjoy the comfort in this life, which a belief in our doctrine affords.
But who can believe that that is the reason ? The true reason is,
they have many fears and misgivings with respect to their own doc-
trine, and they feel themselves fortified and secure in proportion as
they swell the number of their confederacy. "They fear thai the
foundation they are resting upon may prove insecure, they wish
therefore to be strengthened by the co-operation of others, and feel
a guilty satisfaction, in proportion as they multiply disciples among
their associates, and are thus enabled to hear an echo in every voice,
and see the reflections of Universalism in every breast. Taey feel
their fears allayed, their perturbation subside, in proportion as they
swell their numbers by extensive confederation." Were it not for
the fears and misgivings of Universalists themselves, they would not
make such vigorous exertions to disseminate their sentiments.
Were there no preaching of a future judgment, no Bibles teaching
that the wicked shall go away into everlasting punishment, no
christian precept and example to alarm the consciences of the wicked,
no books, no conversation to alarm the quiet Universalists, the zeal
of its advocates would soon expire. Universalism itself would die
and rot out of remembrance, for then there would be nothing to
disturb their minds, and awake their apprehensions, and create oc-
casion for making proselytes to their faith.
And then the unlimited facilities which the apostles of Universal-
ism have for access to the minds of the young, and ignorant, and
vicious, affords another source of their doctrine. In short, were it
possible to collect in one view, all the causes which are now ope-
rating, and all the advantages under which they operate, we should
334 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lew. 10,
not wonder that so many are found to join in the ranks of Univer-
saiism. And are there so many fruitful sources of the fatal error
.of Universalism ? Then venture not, my friends, in the way of
evil instruction. Regard with more horror that man who would
shake your faith in the doctrine of a future retribution, than the
assassin who waits to plunge the dagger into your heart. He only
Aims at the death of your body, which must soon die, according to
the course of nature ; but the other aims at the death of the soul—
a death that is fraught with everlasting anguish. Never yield to
listen to the instructions of those who reject the doctrine of endless
punishment, until you have made up your minds to encounter tha
agonies of the lost.
Nature and Consequences of Modern Universalis^:.
II. Let us proceed, in the second place, to point out the evil na-
ture and dangerous moral consequences of that scheme which denies
the doctrine of endless punishment, and advocates the final salvation of
all men. 1 shall express my honest convictions without reserve.
You will remember that I am attacking a system of error, and net
the characters or motives of those who defend it. None therefore,
I trust, will take otTence at my plainness of speech.
1 . This scheme excludes the mercy of God, and sinks the grace of
the gospel into a mere farce. It asserts that il the wicked Will receive
a punishment exactly proportioned to the demerit of their sins ; that
all the hell there is, * is inevitably certain to the wicked ; that their
portion in the lake of fire and brimstone, is, and ever will be in ex-
act ratio to their deserts." If this be true, there is no room left
for the exercise of mercy. Yet the advocates of this scheme are
constantly declaiming about the goodness of God. But what does
this language mean, when explained upon their own principles?
According to their scheme, millions of our race will be saved, who
will not be indebted either to the grace of God or the death of Christ
for their salvation ; and consequently must have a heaven to them-
selves, as they will not be permitted to ascribe their salvation to. G©<£
ajid the Lamb.
Lect. 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 235
Further; if endless putiishment be unjust and was never threat-
ened, exemption from it must be the sinner's right, and can never
be attributed to the mercy of God; neither could a Mediator be
needed to induce a righteous God to liberate the sinner when he
had suffered the full penalty of the divine law. A state prisoner,
having served out his term of years, does not consider his liberation
an act of mercy. On this principle the gospel reveals no pardon for
sinners, and Christ redeems no sinners from the curse of the law ;
since its penalty is invariably inflicted upon every transgressed.
Many leave the world unreformed. If they enter upon heavenly
happiness when they awake from the sleep of death, then Christ
certainly has no share in their redemption. They are made holy
either by passing through the grave, or by the resurrection, or by a
miracle ; in either case Christ does not redeem them from their
iniquities. It is true Universalists call Jesus of Nazareth uour
Saviour," but this is only unmeaning cant. If their doctrine be cor-
rect, he never did and never can save any one. And i3 this the
gospel which they are pleased to call glad tidings ? Is that scheme
glad tidings which reveals no pardon, no forgiveness, but represents
the sinner as suffering the whole penalty of the law? But do they
maintain that God punishes sin to the full extent of its demerit and
then forgives it ? Contemptible absurdity ! The sinner receives
every lash that his transgressions really deserve, and then the God
of all grace mercifully pardons him. Who can believe such an
absurdity ? Such a pardon would not be worth more than one from
the Pope of Rome.
2. Modern Universalism is an irrational system. Is it maintained
that punishment is confined to the present state ; that the wicked are
not to be punished at all in a fsture state ? This position must be
maintained on the ground that they shall change their characters
when they change worlds, or that moral evil is to be buried with the
body in the grave. Is it said that the wicked at death are delivered
from all sin ? But hy what means is thi3 accomplished ? Is it by
death? What fact can be adduced in proof or illustration of the
power ascribed to death, of changing and purifying the sotfl?
236 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10.
What is death ? It is only the dissolution of the animal functions,
which however closely connected with the mind, are entirely dis-
tinct from its powers and faculties. But why should the soul grow
pure from the dissolution of the body ? Many of the corporeal
faculties often perish during life, and does character change with
them? Is vice plucked from the mind by this destruction of its
chief corporeal instruments ? Death is a mere passage from one
state to another. There is nothing in it that can effect the moral
state of the soul.
This idea contradicts our experience of the nature and laws of
mind ; as it destroys all analogy between the past and the present,
and seems to destroy even a man's identity. This idea shows an
utter ignorance of moral goodness. This belongs to free agents,
and it supposes moral liberty. A man cannot be made holy as a
machine is put in operation by an outward force. But to suppose
moral goodness to be diffused into the mind at death just as a ma-
chine is put in operation, is to destroy all moral agency and
accountability, and to degrade a free being into a machine. To
suppose no connection to exist between our present character and
our future destiny, is to take away the use of the present state.
Why are we placed in a state of discipline ; why should there be a
moulding of our hearts to sobriety, circumspection and devotion, if
we are all of us, be our present characters what they may, soon and
suddenly to be made perfect in purity and happiness by a sovereign
act of Omnipotence ?
But is it maintained that there is a degree of punishment in a fu-
ture state which will terminate in the reformation and consequent
happiness of all mankind^ But if the punishment of the sinner is
hereafter to come to a termination, in what manner is it to be effect-
ed ? Is it said that his sufferings will be disciplinary ? ButHhis is
all gratuitous assumption. No such influence is attributed to the
sufferings of the wicked in the word of God. Further, this notion
is contradicted by the analogy of experience. The wicked, who
for their crimes, have been doomed to confinement with those who
were even move abandoned than themselves, are seldom if ever re-
Lkct.10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALIS*!.. 237
formed by such kind of punishment. And where is the evidence
that the wicked, by being associated with those who continually
eurse God and look upward, in the future world will be reformed ?
Surely then there is no reason for believing that all mankind will
be ultimately saved. This scheme does not coincide with the de-
cisions of reason, and is opposed to the soundest conclusions of
reason. And will any one attempt to palm off upon the credulity
of a community a religious belief so at war with the principles of
sound reason and common sense ? And will any one be credulous
enough to believe this irrational system ?
3. This doctrine is inconsistent with that fear and enmity which
wicked men manifested to the preaching of Christ and his apostles.
The fact is unquestionable that their fears were excited and their
enmity awakened. Christ and his apostles doubtless preached the
truth ; and they used the most consummate wisdom in timing and
giving their instructions. Of course, if the dcatrine of universal
salvation be true, they faithfully, and affectionately, and plainly
preached that doctrine. They never preached any other doctrine
inconsistent with it. And they must have been understood to have
preached that doctrine, for they adapted their addresses to the ca-
pacities of their hearers, and used great plainness of speech.
But Christ and his apostles rarely preached a sermon which did
not excite great alarm among their hearers, and send them away
murmuring and disaffected with the preacher. Under the ministry
of the apostles, sinners were "pricked in their hearts," were sud-
denly and deeply affected with grief, and under the influence of
their anguish and alarm they exclaimed with earnestness, " Men
and brethren, what shall we do ?" When Paul reasoned with Felix
the Roman Governor, of righteousness, temperance, and judgment
to come, he "trembled;" he was alarmed and terrified in view of
his past sins and in the apprehension of the judgment to come. It
seems to have been a full conviction of his guilty and perishing con-
dition, as a lost and ruined sinner, that induced the Jailor at Phil-
lippi to inquire, " What must I do to be saved ?" It is evident that
by this question, he did net refer to any danger to which he might
238 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect.10.
be exposed from what had happened. He could not consider him-
self exposed to any temporal punishment by the Romans, since
none of the prisoners had escaped or showed any disposition to es-
cape ; and for the effects of the earthquake, he could not be held
responsible. The apostles understood him as referring to the eter-
nal salvation of his soul, as is manifest from the answer ; since to
believe on the Lord Jesus Christ would have no effect in saving
him from danger of punishment to which he might be exposed from
what had taken place. Now if Christ and his apostles believed
and taught that all mankind will be ultimately saved, why did their
preaching cause their hearers to tremble, and in deep anxiety to
inquire what they should do to be saved ? Their solicitude is per-
fectly natural upon the supposition that they were taught the reality
of a future state and the danger of their going away into everlast-
ing punishment. We can easily see that a firm belief of this truth
and a lively apprehension of it would occasion the very trembling
and excite the anxious inquiry which were in reality produced.
But as the opinion under consideration is inconsistent with their
having been taught any such thing, it renders the fact of their so-
licitude wholly unaccountable. Were such effects ever known to
follow the preaching of those who deny the doctrine of future pun-
ishment? Are sinners pricked in their hearts, and, from a deep
sense of their guilt and danger, do they ever come to these teach-
ers with the question, " what must we do to be saved ?" What is
there so painfully alarming to wicked men in being told that God
loves them, and regards them as his children, and is determined to
make them completely happy forever ?t
And why were Christ and his apostles bitterly opposed aad per-
secuted in declaring these glad tidings ? Why did the world mani-
fest so much enmity ? Why were they often enraged and indig-
nant? and. why -did they express the bitterness and malignity of
their feelings in gnashing their tteih, and putting Christ and the
apostles to death ? Were the world unwilling to receive this doc-
trine, even when supported by a Teacher exhibiting decisive cre-
dentials that h§ was sent of God ? Were the world unyielding in
Legt. 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALIS!!. 239
their defence of the gloomy subjects of religion, like Baptists and
other evangelical churches of the present age, firmly maintaining
the doctrine of total depravity, and the necessity of a change in the
present life as a preparation for heaven ? Were these the austere
sentiments of the world that set them so against Christ and his
apostles ? And was the enmity of the world awakened by their
preaching a mere liberal system of religion and for allowing the
people to live after their own pleasure ? Did you ever know a
wicked man to hate and oppose others because they taught him the
doctrine of Universalism ? Does any man feel opposed to it and
reject it because he means to live in sin, and risk the consequen-
ces ? Do not the very vilest characters, and the most abandoned
sinners, receive this doctrine without any opposition ? You may
vindicate it, with all the zeal and argument you can command, to
an abandoned congregation, and it will not offend them. Men of
serious godliness, who pray in their families, who maintain secret
devotion, who observe the Christian Sabbath, who walk humbly
with God, and who are actively engaged in promoting the cause of
benevolent exertion, feel a deep abhorrence of this doctrine, and
do all they can by moral means to oppose its progress. But when
were the gay, the worldly, the impenitent, and the irreverent,
known to do this ? And yet by this class, Christ and his apostles
were opposed and persecuted. Now the question before us is,; for
what were they persecuted and opposed? Were they persecuted
for declaring the glad tidings of the final salvation of all men? In-
credible ! since wicked men have always received this doctrine as
good news of great joy to their unsanctified hearts. Thus the doc-
trine is inconsistent with both the fear and the enmity manifested
to the preaching of Christ and his apostles.
4. Ihis doctrine makes the labors and sufferings of the apostles of
no real value, nay, the result of the most egregious folly. They did
expose themselves to all kinds of hardship, fatigue, suffering, perse-
cution, and even the most cruel and barbarous death. Take the
case of Paul, since he was caught up into the third heaven and must
have known whether the righteous only were admitted there, or
MO MATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect.IO.
whether the vile and filthy and depraved were sharing in the bless-
edness of heaven equally with the righteous. What was his life ?
One scene of la*bor, danger and suffering. He was scourged, whip-
ped, stoned, beaten and tormented for the name of Jesus. The
deplorable condition of his Jewish brethren who had crucified the
Messiah, excited in his bosom continual sorrow and great heaviness
of heart. He served the Lord with many tears. He tells the
Ephesian elders that "By the space of three years he ceased not to
warn every man night and day, with tears." He told the Philippi-
ans of many among them weeping that they were the enemies of the
cross of Christ. But why all this zeal and crying and lamentation ?
For what did he labor and pray and suffer ? To save a few Jews
from the coming destruction of Jerusalem ? To save a remnant of
the chosen people from temporal death ? On the principle of Uni-
versalism all his hearers in a few years would be released from
suffering and never more experience any torment. If he knew (and
he must have known it if true) that all are to be made holy and happy
who rejected as well as those who embraced the gospel, how child-
ish his tears! How foolish his submission to persecution! He
labored and suffered for mere nothing.
5. This doctrine represents God as often treating the wicked far
better than he does the righteous ; and thus it is inconsistent with the
character of God as the great Rewarder, and with the great truth that
mankind are here on probation for the rewards of eternity. " Bloody
and deceitful men," it is said, " do not live out half their days."
They die then in the midst of their earthly pilgrimage and are taken
directly up to heaven ; while the righteous are left to linger out in
this world of sin and sorrow the full term of their earthly existence
and arrive late at the kingdom of heaven. In this case the judg-
ments of God upon the wicked, cutting them off in the midst of their
days, must, for aught I can see, be regarded as blessings. On this
principle, how much more highly favored were the antedeluvians
than Noah ! The people of that day rilled the earth with violence,
notwithstanding they were favored with the faithful ministry of
Noah, a preacher of righteousness. Now the flood, which has been
Lect. 10.) OP MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 241
generally regarded by christians as a judgment upon those who
perished in it, and was so considered by the apostles, must be con-
sidered a blessing upon them, and a judgment upon Noah confined
as he was in the ark, called to witness the dying agonies of a world,
and enduring the sorrows of this seemingly dreadful catastrophe for
forty days and forty nights ; and left at last to dwell here below, a
solitary individual, for some hundreds of years, before he was per-
mitted to join his companions in bliss. To this solitary pilgrimage
was he driven for no other reason than for being a just man and
perfect in his generation, and for walking with God ; while the true
cause of his companions being so soon received to heaven was,
because they had corrupted their way before the Lord and rilled the
earth with violence.
Lot too would not have been dispossessed of his inheritance,
deprived of the society of his wife, and doomed to endure the many
vexations and disappointments that befel him in his advanced age,
had he been as wicked as the men of Sodom ; but after a momen-
tary pang in the " devouring flame of love" on whose rapid wings
they went to paradise, he would have been received immediately up
to the mansions of bliss.
How unfortunate was it that Moses shoulurhave respect unto the
recompense of reward, and consequently choose rather to suffer
affliction with the people of God than to enjoy the pleasures of sin
for a season, and to esteem the reproaches of Christ of far greater
riches than all the treasures of Egypt? Had he been like the
Egyptians, and not a servant of the Most High God, he had escaped
the labors and hardships of a forty years' journey through the wil-
derness, in which he was doomed to hear the reproaches and mur-
murs of a stiff-necked and rebellious people, and he. had passed
safely through the waves of the R,edSea into the rest prepaid for
the people of God.
Yes, " Pharaoh and his mighty host,
Had godlike honors given —
A pleasant breeze brought them with e^se,
By water up to heaven." — (Peck.)
u
242 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect.10,
And not to mention other cases, how much more happy was
Judas Ibcariot than the other disciples of our Lord ! He for traitor-
ously selling his Lord and Master for the paltry sum of " thirty
pieces of silver," was freed from all the labors, dangers and suffer-
ings incident to the apostles, and after a momentary pang he swung
off the gallows into heaven and received a crown of glory that
fadeth not away, and is now with the rest of the apostles "sitting
on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel,"
" Know he is not a wretch abhorred.
Nor for his crimes accurst ;
He by a cord out- went his Lord '
And got to heaven first;" — (Pecs.)
while the disciples who were faithful to their Master were not
received into heaven until they endured many unparalleled sufferings
in this world. Do you say all this is foolish and absurd? I grant
that it is so, but it is the folly and absurdity of Universalism.
Further ; this system is inconsistent with the character of God as
a Rewarder. The essential idea of reward is recompense, remunera-
tion, distinction, and a distinction rendered manifest by a visible
difference in the tre aliment of the disobedient and the obedient.
What is bestowed upon all, irrespective of character, is reward to
none. Now let me ask is there any such distinction made between
the righteous and the wicked in the present life as is implied in the
idea of a perfect retribution ? In this life, while men are on proba-
tion for the rewards of eternity, God does not make that visible
distinction between him that serveth him and' him that serveth him
not, which he designs ultimately to make, and which the promises
and threatnings of his word require. Is it said "that virtue is its
own inward, and vice its own punishment ?" This sentiment is not
correct. God and mankind universally reject it. Every parent
who puni^es his disobedient child, rejects it. Every master who
punishes his unfaithful servant, rejects it. Every magistrate who
calls public ofUnders to justice and punishes them, rejects it. And
even God himsell as often as he punishes the transgressor of his
Lect. 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 243
law, rejects it. If sin be its own punishment, then all punishment
human and divine, inflicted on the transgressor, must be a wanton
act of cruelty. And if virtue is its own reward, then every reward
bestowed upon an individual for the performance of a virtuous
action is altogether gratuitous. But admitting virtue to be its own
reward and vice its own punishment, it would be nothing to the
point. The question is, does God invariably reward virtue and pun-
ish vice in the present life ? Does he invariably make such a visible
distinction in the present life, between the righteous and the wicked,
as clearly shows him to be a perfect Rewarder?
Whether rewards and punishments are invariably awarded to men
in the present life according to their moral characters, is a point
which has been lonsr settled. The exnerience of all ages has
shown, that pleasure and pain, prosperity and adversity, are not dis-
tributed by Providence exactly according to the virtues and vices
of mankind, but are scattered with a promiscuous hand. Though
various instances occur, in which those who have worked them-
selves out by their crimes have been marked out by the judgments
of God, and signally punished in the present life ; while those who
have been eminent for piety, have been signally delivered by the
interposition of Divine Providence ; yet the objects of God's love
and hatred are not uniformly distinguished by the present distribu-
tion of things. The allotments of divine providence in this life,
are generally the same with respect to the righteous and the wick-
ed. Neither the rewards of the one, nor the punishment of the
other, is what might be expected from the hand of the wise Gov-
ernor of the universe, were the present a state of perfect retribu-
tion. Admit, if you please, that the grosser vices often bring their
own punishment. But what will you say of that man who is en-
gaged in the iniquitous traffic of intoxicating stimulants ? He is
dealing out the " blue ruin" to his customers ; urging them to drink ;
and trusting them to whatever quantities they may request. He
takes their property and their bread out of the mouths of their chil-
dren. Pie has no regard for the tears of a broken-hearted mother,
or the cries of naked, starving children. He has no regard to
244 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10.
truth or honesty in any of his transactions, any farther than they
will promote his present pecuniary interests. He is profane and
corrupt, ,and is given to many secret vices. And while his riches
are increased, and his influence on account of his wealth, extended,
he is generally free from the compunctions of conscience. He has
become so hardened in his iniquity that he suffers but little from the
accusations of this monitor of his misdeeds. He believes that all
will fare alike in another world, and experiences no remorse for his
disobedience. The drunkard, especially in the first stages of in-
toxication, often enjoys a high degree of mirth and pleasure. The
unprincipled and depraved miser daily enjoys more or less pleasure
of a certain kind, unaccompanied by any thing like painful suffer-
ing. Look at the unprincipled libertine, who can sport with female
chastity, and who has seduced many an innocent female, and has
been the means of bringing them to the brothel. While he is
bringing many a tender and beautiful female to ruin and destruc-
tion, he drowns his painful reflections by excessive quantities of
intoxicating liquors. He suffers but very little real remorse on ac-
count of his numerous, aggravated, diabolical crimes. And is his
' . So t
sin his own punishment? He is violently hurried to the grave by
some disease which instantly deprives him of his reason. And is
he rewarded in this life according to the deeds done in the body ?
How many of the most impious and profligate are permitted to
spend all their days in prosperity ; " to chant to the sound of the
harp and the viol ; to drink wine in bowls ; and to annoint them-
selves with the chief ointment.5' " They are not in trouble like
other men, neither are they plagued like other men. Their eyes
stand out with fatness, and they have more than heart can wish."
They are " clothed in purple and fine linen, and fare sumptuously
every day."
On the other hand, many of the excellent of the earth pass all
their days in adversity. "They are plagued all the day long, and
chastened every morning." They are afflicted, persecuted, tor-
mented ; and many of their sufferings are for righteousness' sake.
Take an account of Paul's experience. " Are they ministers of
Lect.10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 245
Christ? I, more ; in labors more abundant, in stripes above meas-
ure, in prisons more frequent, in deaths oft; of the Jews five times
received I forty stripes save one. Thrice was I beaten with rods ;
once was 1 stoned ; thrice I suffered shipwreck ; a night and a day
have I been in the deep ; in journeyings often ; in perils of water ;
in perils of robbers ; in perils by my own countrymen ; in perils by
the heathen ; in perils in the city ; in perils in the wilderness; in
perils in the sea ; in perils among false brethen ; in weariness and
painfulness; in faintings often ; in co]d and nakedness. Besides
these things which are without, that which cometh upon me daily,
the care of all the churches.'' Now will any one say that all these
sufferings were laid upon Paul because of his pre-eminent wicked-
ness ? I think not. How idle then the assertion that the present
is a state of perfect retributions.
Now, if what has been asserted be true, that rewards and pun-
ishments are not always distributed in this life according to the
moral characters of men, then there must be another state — a state
of exact retributions, in which God will render to every man ac-
cording to his works. But if all are saved at death, whether peni-
tent or impenitent, present actions have no reference to future ret-
ribution, and present character no influence on future destiny. The
future condition of the soul is not affected by conduct or character
here. We have nothing to hope or fear from any thing we do in
this life. Eternal life is sure to all, whether they embrace the gos-
pel or reject it; whether they practice holiness or wallow in vice,
leave this world by a natural death, or die by the awful crime of
3uicide. To these monstrous and absurd conclusions are we neces-
sarily driven, if we adopt the sentiment that the same happiness is
in reserve for the wicked in the future world, as for the righteous.
Now will any sober person believe this gross absurdity ? Is it not
at war with the dictates of conscience, the precepts of the Bible,
and the moral sense of mankind?
6. Again, this sentiment makes God cruel, unjust and false to his
creatures. It is founded upon ultra Calvinism. It is a fact which
I presume but few will deny, that most of those who advocate the
TT*
246 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10,
salvation of all men are fatalists. Their motto is, " Whatever is,
is right." ' " Every thing takes place according to the will of God."
From these premises, they, by a train of logical reasoning, go onto
prove their doctrine. "All the actions of men are unavoidable.
God has willed the act, and he wills the means. They are both
fixed by the decrees of God. A merciful God will not punish his
sentient beings for unavoidable acts. Therefore, God will not pun-
ish his creatures with endless torments." Again, it is argued.
" All the actions of men are in strict accordance with the will of
God. God will never punish his creatures for doing his will.
Therefore he will never punish men with endless torments, since
their actions are in accordance with the will of God."
Now it is admitted by all that God does punish men in this life,
if not in the life to come. And the scriptures plainly show that
God does punish the wicked for their sins. It follows of course on
this hypothesis that God is not merciful, for he punishes men for
actions which they cannot help, and for actions that are in accord-
ance with his will. Is it said, "God is merciful in this punishment
because he designs it for their benefit— because he designs by it to
reclaim them, and prepare them for greater happiness ? But from
what -does God design to reclaim them ? — from doing his will ?
Further ; if their actions are in accordance with the will of God,
and are unavoidable, they cannot be blame v.7 or thy. Wherein can
man be to blame for doing that which he could not help ? As his
acts are all unavoidable, he must be entirely innocent. Now for
God to inflict punishment upon an innocent being, is an oppressive
and cruel act. Would the infinitely merciful Creator inflict suffer-
ings upon his creatures for performing the duties which it is his will
that they should perform ? Is it not surprising that those who pro-
fess to believe in a system that above all others should represent
God as merciful and kind, should hold to such an unmerciful and
cruel doctrine ? This vindication of the character of God is like
Judas' salutation of Christ. It betrays what it professes to embrace.
Once more ; this system not only makes God cruel and unjust to-
his creatures, but it makes him false to them. Many things are
Lect.10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 247
represented in scripture as taking place contrary to the preceptive
will of God ; but how can this be if all the actions of men are in
accordance with his will? God has given us a holy and benevolent
Jaw, and forbidden us to disobey it; and yet if we do disobey it, we
act according to his will. Is not this an imposition ? If God has
made us just what we are, he is of course the author of that monitor
within our breasts which upbraids the transgressor and makes his
way hard. But all these compunctions of conscience are false if
men have been doing what they were under an irresistible necessity
to perform. And has God placed a faculty in the human breast by
which we acquire our notions cf right and wrong, that testifies to a
lie to make the transgressor feel that he is very much to blame for
performing an unavoidable act ? The scriptures therefore must be
rejected, and conscience must be accounted the mere result of a
false education. For God would not send a messenger to the soul
to give it false alarms. But if conscience be called the creation of
a false education, yet if God controls all things by an irresistible
decree, this false education must have been directly or indirectly
the work of God. God caused us to be thus educated and deceived
and tormented. Take what view of this subject you please, when
explained on the principle of Universaiism, it makes God unjust,
cruel and deceptive.
7. This scheme which we are now considering, perverts the judg-
ment, stupifies the conscience, hardens ike hearty and tends to infidelity*
It may well be questioned whether a man can become a confirmed
Universalist without perverting his judgment. He must it seems
disregard the strongest intimations of his own mind. The violence
which requires to be done to the Bible ere this doctrine can be
received, goes to introduce a habit of treating the sacred oracles
with levity and contempt, and cf perverting thern in support of a
preconceived opinion. In proof of the assertion that those who
maintain this doctrine pervert the scriptures, I would appeal to facts.
Look at a few specimens of expositions from those who rank the
first as Universalist divines — expositions which outrage every prin-
ciple cf sound criticism and every dictate of common sense. Take
843 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10.
the following from Luke : " And I say unto you, my friends, be not
afraid of them that kill the body, and after that have no more that
they can do ; but I will forewarn you whom ye shall fear ; fear him
which after he hath killed, hath power to cast into hell ; yea, I say
unto you fear him." Now compare this plain declaration of scrip-
ture with the universalist paraphrase. " And I say unto you, my
friends, be not so much afraid of them (the Jews) who have power
to scourge you in their synagogues and administer cruel tortures to
your bodies, but have no authority to take your lives, as of the more
-extensive authority, (the Romans,) to which your brethren the Jews
will deliver you, by bringing you before governors and kings ; for
this power can, after inflicting cruelties on your bodies, doom your
lives and bodies to be destroyed in Gehenna" Take another speci-
men : " And as it is appointed unto men once to die, but after this
the judgment." Now read the exposition. ";And as it is appoint-
ed unto men once to die,' means, as it is appointed unto the men
who are high priests, to die once a year, by proxy, in their sacrifices ;
< and after this the judgment,' means, after the high priest died in
his sacrifices he entered into the most holy place, bearing the judg-
ment of the people, or the justification of the people." We might
fill a volume of such specimens. And can a man believe such inter-
pretations of the sacred scriptures without a perverted judgment?
This scheme also stupifies the conscience. When conscience
would lift her warning voice and tell the sinner "thou hast done
wrong, thou hast sinned against the Lord and wronged thy own
soul," he will find a retreat from her reproaches behind his
principles.
The great object of desire to a wicked man is a heaven suited to
the prevailing inclination of his heart. If this be not granted, his
next object is to be exempted from all punishment. And if this
cannot be, he would prefer a punishment of limited duration. And
if he can persuade himself that God means by such expressions as
the following, "eternal damnation," "hath never forgiveness," noth-
ing more than a lasting chastisement, he will naturally wish that
the degree of punishment may be abated, as well as its duration
Lect. 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 249
shortened. And what he wishes to have true, he will labor to work
himself up to some kind of conviction is true. This conviction,
which is after ail but that flattering hope which promises itself the
object of desire, he will construe into confident expectation. By
this mental process he will harden his heart.
Again ; to explain away the obvious import of scripture threat-
nings, is connected with light thoughts of bin, and will lead on to a
rejection of the gospel. The whole system of redemption by Jesus
Christ rests upon the scripture declaration of the " exceeding sin-
fulness of sin." And if the scripture threatenings be given up, or
construed to mean any thing or nothing, and light thoughts of sin
be admitted, the heart will become hardened.
It is obvious, also, that Universalism naturally tends to open infi-
delity. Have not many of its preachers publicly renounced Chris-
tianity ? Is not one of the oldest and ablest of the number, now
editing an atheistical publication, and lecturing to a society of un-
believers? Have not many, who were formerly its most active
supporters, arrayed themselves in opposition to Christianity ! Some
who have left the society of the Universalists, for the societies of
the Sceptics, declare that the principles of reasoning and interpre-
tation they formerly adopted lead directly to the rejection of all
revelation. A physician, who was a noted infidel, once united with
a society of Universalists. One of his acquaintance said to him,
u Doctor, how came }^ou to join yourself to those people, when you
yourself do not profess to believe in any religion ?." "That is it,"
he replied, " I joined them because they are nearest to my belief of
any society I know of. Many, who now remain within the pale of
Universalist societies, are in principle, infidel. Have we not here
practical evidence that Universalism tends to infidelity, nay, that it
is itself a species of infidelity ?
8. This doctrine is deeply licentious in its tendency, and fatal to
all who embrace it. I will not now speak of its actual influence on
those who have embraced the system. That would be foreign to
my purpose. The scheme is of recent origin, and its actual influ-
ence is counteracted by causes that are of a redeeming character-
250 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10.
It is rny intention to mention some of the reasons which convince me
that the natural tendency, of the system is pernicious. It is replete
with infinite mischief.
Does it not tend to suicide ? Here is a merchant of fair reputa-
tion, and promising family, and of respectable connections. He is
tempted to take another man's property by stealth. He thinks the
theft may be kept an everlasting secret. The property is tempt-
ing. He yields, and takes it. At length the theft is detected. He
is taken up, tried, and condemned. He knows his family and
friends are disgraced, and his reputation ruined. Shall he submit
to all this mental punishment, and to that civil punishment that is
to be inflicted upon him ? Or shall he, by an easy death, avoid all
misery, and enter heaven ? If he acts in accordance with the mo-
tives which generally regulate human actions, on his own princi-
ples, he will surely take his life and escape to heaven. Now, look
into the world. How many do }Tou see who have no prospect be-
fore them but suffering, or ignominy, or punishment ? Is it not the
dictates of sound wisdom to shun the evil and seek the good ?
Will they not act in accordance with the principle of our nature in
escaping misery ? This they can never do while they remain in
this world. And as the desire of happiness is natural to man, will
they not obey its dictates ? Now if they are sure of an unimpeded
entrance into bliss without any intervening pain, after quitting their
earthly stage of action, will they not hasten their exit ? I cannot
answer for others, but for myself I am willing to state my deliber-
ate conviction. If I should be placed in such circumstances, and
had as firm a belief in Universalism as I have in the opposite, I
should not hesitate one moment. And I should be most fooJish not
to escape from months of misery to perfect and endless bliss, when
the simple act of releasing myself from this world of woe would not
cost me as much pain as I experience for one hour. Now, "cutting
the throat from ear to ear is the shortest cut to heaven." And
this is very convenient. It saves us the trouble of repentance and
amendment. It ends our sorrow and our sins in the twinkling of
an eye. In this way I should please God. He wishes, as do all
Lect. 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 251
fond parents, to have his children happy. And I cannot please him
more than by gratifying his paternal solicitude, and hastening, as
did Judas and Crowningshield, into his presence. Nor is this all.
I think I have some benevolent feelings. I wish to see every one
enjoying happiness. I frequently meet with many individuals who
I must believe, endure a great amount of mental and bodily suffer-
ing. If I had a firm belief in Universalism, I could not help urg-
ing them to commit suicide. I should do this on the principle of
benevolence. I see not how I could do otherwise, and act as a
consistent and benevolent Christian.
Now, is it not a fact before the public, that many professed Uni-
versalists have committed suicide ? And do they not act out fully
their principles ; and prove their faith by their works ? Mankind
who believe that they are accountable to their Maker, and that their
present character and conduct has a moulding influence upon their
future destiny, would not dare to end their lives by their own vio-
lent hand, and thus rush unbidden into the presence of the Al-
mighty with a lie in their right hand. But those who deny the
doctrine of future punishment, to be consistent, would use the first
implement of death they could find, ratsbane, rope, or razor, to work
out an eternal weight of glory. A gentleman, " occupying stations
of distinguishing usefulness and responsibility," communicated to
the editor of the Christian Soldier some facts which fell under his
own observation. " In the southern part of Worcester county, (Mss.)
where I at that time resided, there occurred, only a few years since,
not less than seven or eight cases of suicide, and all them professed
Universalists ; — in one town, two men by hanging ; in another, two
females, one by hanging, and the other by opium ; in a third, three
men, two by shooting and one by hanging ; and in a fourth, a young
man, by shooting." You have probably heard of Mr. Giles' case.
"He, in 1827, being accused of a crime, determined to evade the
sentence of human laws, by hastening to the protection of his
Heavenly Father. He accordingly wrote a note expressing his
full belief of the final salvation of all men, and a wish that his coffin
might be made a by Universalist, and his funeral sermon preached by
■232 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10.
a Universalist minister ; and then went away and hanged himself.1'
This surely was the natural tendeney of his belief. If it is true
that all mankind are candidates for heaven, and that all will be
happy the moment they enter the next conscious existence beyond
the grave ; when they can be no longer happy on earth, the sooner
they leave this world the better. Hence, if an individual can per-
suade himself that all will be happy after death, will he not be
tempted to hasten his exit by his own hand ? Now I believe that
wilful suicide is a crime of fearful magnitude. It is treason against
the divine sovereignty. The prerogative of God, to fix the " bounds
ef our habitation," and appoint our time, are defied. The ar-
rangements of infinite wTisdom are arraigned and condemned by
this unnatural act. The moral government of God is insulted. It
is treason against nature, and her most powerful law, self-preserva-
tion. It is treason against society, which has claims upon the indi-
vidual from which he cannot be absolved without its consent —
except by the will of God, who having at the first formed the bonds
of society, has a right to sever them at his pleasure. It is treason
against the revealed will of God. His express command is " thou
shalt do no murder ;" and he is no less guilty who lifts his hand
against himself, than he who assassinates his neighbor. Is not that
sentiment then which obviously tends to suicide, of pernicious
tendency ?
Does not Universalism strike at the root of all experimental
religion ? Does it not destroy all moral distinctions between virtue
and vice ? Does it not take off every restraint from the corruptions
of human nature and open the flood-gates of iniquity ? Does it not
ssem to offer a bounty on wickedness? I know that Uuiversalists
will be offended at this. And I am well persuaded that it will have
but little other influence on their minds than to offend or enrage
them. They may deny however if they please, the licentious and
dangerous tendency of their doctrine. But so long as reason and
conscience have any influence over the minds of men, they will
believe, as they ever have done, that sentiments like the above take
off every restraint from vice, and strike at the dearest interests of
morality and religion.
Lkct. 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 253
Is it asserted that universal salvation is universal love; therefore
the preaching of this doctrine produces universal love ? But to
assert that the preaching of this doctrine disarms men of their
enmity, is assuming what is not proved. It also makes salvation
and the doctrine of salvation the same thing, which is not true. The
question is, what doctrine is the most calculated to reform the
world, and what the most calculated to encourage men to persist in
sin ? Now we have seen that the doctrine of future punishment
imposes a restraint upon the evil propensities of the natural heart,
and that the opposite doctrine takes off every restraint. Hence,
this latter is not in its nature and tendency calculated to promote
universal holiness. Will not a man who sincerely believes it, reason
thus, if he reasons at all ? " I am placed in this world for happiness ;
I must live again after death ; I must be happy in heaven ; God will
at all events make me both good and happy after death ; I will
therefore indulge myself in the pleasures of sin ; I will gratify my
passions and appetites ; I do not believe that the punishment attend-
ant on such a course will be half so great as the enjoyment. But
if I find myself involved in distress and see no fair prospect of hav-
ing more happiness than misery here, I will release myself from all
my sufferings. I will go home to glory."
Again, is it asserted that some who embrace Universalism are
moral ? This may be true. I do not say that all who embrace this
doctrine are dissolute men. I do not deny but there are some
Universalists of correct moral deportment. And with regard to
their morality as a sect, I do not and I need not affirm. Of this
every man may form his own opinion. But that their morality is the
fruit of their principles, remains to be proved. But if they are
moral, they are so on other principles than those of Universalism.
This assumes that though they indulge in all manner of enormities
during this life, yet they shall never forfeit the love of God nor
endanger their eternal salvation. Of course it destroys the great
system of motives to holiness of heart and holiness of life. It saps
the very foundation of Christian morality. It teaches U9 to take
such a course as will ensure the greatest degree of present happi-
v
254 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect.10„
ness. This can be frequently obtained by deviations from the path
of rectitude. Their morality in ail probability is owing to the influ-
ence of early religious education, or to the want of a full belief in
their own doctrine.
Once more ; is it replied that bad men are to be found in every
denomination of professing Christians ? This also is undoubtedly
true. But the question is, does not that system which we are now
exposing, enlist the judgment, the will, and even self-love itself on
the side of sinful indulgences, and furnish ground for hope and joy
to the sinner going on still in his trespasses, even supposing he
continues in them until death ? Does it not strengthen the hands
of the wicked that he should not turn from his wicked ways by
falsely promising him life ? But it is not the good or bad conduct
of a few individuals in any body of professing Christians that proves
any thing on either side. It is the conduct of the body in general
from which we ought to form our estimation. And brought to this
test, the system before us must be pronounced of licentious tendency.
That there are those who profess to believe in the doctrine of eter-
nal rewards and punishmests, and hear this doctrine preached from
Sabbath to Sabbath and yet continue in sin, will be readily granted
But who ever urged the doctrine of eternal punishment as a ground
for living in sin ? On the contrary, does it not furnish a powerful
motive against sin ? The reason why some men hear the doctrine
of endless punishment preached, and give their assent to it, and
yet live in sin, is obviously this : they are, as it respects themselves
building their hopes of heaven upon the sandy foundation of future
repentance and amendment, or up on the presumption that they shall
all finally get safe to heaven They are in fact, whatever may be
their professed sentiments, relying upon the doctrine of universal
salvation.
In con'iunation of the foregoing remarks, let me appeal to facts.
What is the usual effect of this doctrine in places where it is
p, ached at the present day ? Where has there been a revival o*
religion under the preaching of this doctrine ? Has it ever pro-
duced conviction for sin ? Does it ever excite the inquiry so often
Lect.10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 255
made under the preaching of the apostles and their successors,
" What must I do to be saved ?" Where has there been a reforma-
tion of morals by the preaching of this doctrine ? Look at its
fruits ! The very lads in our streets who have heard this doctrine,
when reproved for their immoralities and reminded of the solemn
consequences of their conduct, have replied, u we do not believe in
the doctrine of future punishment." " There is no hell." A travel-
ler in one of the New England States called at a public house for
entertainment. He saw a company at the bar indulging in profanity
and ribaldry. Their reply to his counsel and reproof was, " We are
all Universalists here." And to mention one case more as a speci-
men of the feelings of thousands, a debauchee was found by a
missionary, in doubtful company, in West Boston. " The preacher
expostulated with him for his conduct, and asked him where he
supposed such a course would lead him." And what do you think
was his reply ? Was he conscience-smitten, and did he promise
repentance and amendment ? No. His reply was, u I believe in
the doctrine of universal salvation." With this salvo to his con-
science, he shielded off the reproofs of the man of God. This was
his certificate for indulgence. With this he could buy his pardon
for any indulgence in sin that he might wish to practice.
I have known drunkards, and swearers, and libertines, and infidels
to become converts to this scheme, but the profession of their new
faith produced no reformation of character. They were drunkards,
and swearers, and libertines, and infidels still. Under the influence
of cfteir new faith, they have remained the same impenitent, prayer-
less and filthy persons they were before. Their new faith has im-
posed no restraint upon their wayward hearts and lives. The prac-
tical language of their faith is,
"Go riot, drink, and every ill pursue,
For joys eternal are reserved for you —
Fear not to sin till death shall close your eyes ;
Live as you please, yours is the immortal prize."
25(3 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. Ht
I would enquire who generally compose the audience of Univer-
salist preachers ? Are they the more serious part of the community ?
Are they persons who give the most substantial evidence of genuine
piety ? Do they generally pray in their families, in secret, and in
the public assembly? Do they generally observe the christian
sabbath and the public ordinances of the gospel ? Have they any
foundations of charity ? Have they their associations for the relief
of the poor, their charity schools, and their seminaries of learning?
Some exertions have been made to establish a literary institution in
this State, but without any signal success. And this is as might be
expected, since many of them have sneered at the idea of our pres-
ent attainments having any bearing on our future condition.
Those who according to the Bible give the best evidence of piety,
reject this doctrine as false and ruinous to the best interests of man.
The greater part of the community who are sober and industrious,
though not professedly pious, reject this doctrine. They reason
thus, — if the doctrine is true it is useless, and if it is false they do
not want to hear it. And they reason very correctly.
So far as my observation extends, and I have had a very favora-
ble opportunity of forming a correct opinion, the persons who
generally attend upon Universalist preaching are the more ungodly
part of the community. I have observed that persons of deistical
sentiments who have long endeavored to discredit divine revelation,
and thus subvert the foundations of Christianity until their open
opposition to the Bible has become unpopular, are the first to attend
on the instructions of Universalist preachers, and to become the
open advocates of their scheme ; that they might, it would seem, be
screened from the odium which has been heaped upon them for
rejecting the Bible, by thus becoming believers in Christianity,
while they could reject all its doctrines which imposed a restraint
upon their moral and corporeal powers. I have observed that those
who are addicted to profanity, who habitually neglect the public
worship of God, and who violate the institution of the christian
sabbath by business, amusement, or gambling, will be seen attend-
ing on that preaching which says, " you ought not to be wicked it
Lect 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 257
is true, but if you are, God will love you just as well." This they
do, iu all probability, not because they love the service of the sanc-
tuary or rejoice in the purifying influence of truth, but because they
love to hear it proclaimed that "they should be glad and rejoice in
the midst of their impiety, for heaven with all its glories is theirs
forever." I have observed that those persons who have violated
their marriage contract, and who are accustomed " to drink stolen,
waters as sweeter than their own," are usually highly gratified to
hear that there are no rewards and punishments beyond the grave,
and that " adulterers shall inherit the kingdom of God." I have
observed also that the drunkard is very much delighted to hear that
"glorious doctrine of impartial grace" which assures him that
drunkards shall inherit the kingdom of God, and yes,
" That tottering drunkard shall to glory reel."
Under the influence of ardent spirits and infernal spirits, he
becomes a convert to, and an apostle of, this new-fangled divinity,
and belches it out with the exhalations of his own fceted breath.
He is the loudest in its praise under the influence of strong drink.
I have also observed that those young men who are of loose princi-
ples and habits, who are accustomed to sport with female chastity,
and whose steps according to the Bible take hold on death and hell,
delight to hear it asserted in the most astounding manner that the
Bible lies, and that all fornicators shall inherit the kingdom of God.
I have further observed that if there are any persons of respecta-
bility and correct morals who attend on the preaching of Universal-
ists, they are usually sceptical respecting the doctrine of total
depravity of human nature, personal election, regeneration by the
Spirit ; and they are violently opposed to revivals of religion, and
to most of the benevolent operations of the day in which all evan-
gelical christians are engaged. They are not seen co-operating
with Bible societies in sending the word of life to the perishing.
They manifest no interest in the prosperity of Foreign and Domes-
tic Missions. The cause of Missions is the cause of God ; and he
is now giving signal success in planting the standard of the cross
" v*
253 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10,
in heathen lands. In Tahiti a nation has been born in a day. The
Sandwich Islanders have cast their idols to the moles and the bats.
The spirit of Christianity has been shed forth in copious effusions
upon Ceylon. India has received the word of life. In Burmah
there are many delightful tokens of the near approach of that
blessed period when idolatry shall cease, and the religion of Christ
become triumphant. In Africa the waters of salvation are begin-
ning to flow and to fertilize her moral deserts. In France and
Germany the gospel has shed forth her pure and holy light. Even
in China, where Satan has long fortified himself in his strong holds
behind her imperial battlements, and utterly forbid the entrance of
the gospel, preparations are now making to storm his castle, to
take from him his armor in which he trusts, and to spoil his goods
and divide the spoils. The western wilderness has begun to bud
and blossom as the rose. In addition to this, the spirit of free
enquiry has gone forth. The wants of the six hundred millions of
heathen have become known, and their deplorable condition has
affected the hearts and opened the hands of the pious and benevo-
lent. Many of our pious youth have come forward and offered
themselves for the missionary service. Missionaries have already
gone, and are now going, to the four quarters of the globe, and
their power and means of doing good are annually augmenting.
The glorious work of evangelizing the heathen is commenced, and
the holy enterprise will go on till the seventh angel shall proclaim
that "The kingdoms of this world are become the kingdom of our
Lord and of his Christ." Now who manifest the most of the
benevolent spirit of Christianity, those who are engaged in the
cause of Missions, or those who stay at home and oppose this work ?
The sum of all the foregoing is, that Universalism is highly objec-
tionable. It is of the most pernicious moral tendency.
Now look at Universalism as it has existed in this country for the
last twenty years. Many societies it is true have been formed, but
many have dwindled into insignificance. Many have a name to
lire, but are virtually dead. Many have preaching but a ^ew sab-
baths during the year. Some have sold their houses of public
Lect.10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 259
worship to other societies. And though some societies are in a
prosperous condition, yet as a denomination they are on the wane-
Now look at the character of its preachers. Is their preaching in
accordance with the commission given by our Saviour to his
apostles ? Is it the grand object of the preachers of Universalism
to make their hearers practical christians ; to make them love God
with all their hearts and their neighbors as themselves ? Do they
not spend much of their time in ridiculing, slandering, and condemn-
ing other denominations ? If they can hunt up a lie, or give chase
to some defamatory insinuation, they desire no better business.
They are fond of wielding the weapon of slander against their
orthodox adversaries. Let any matter of fact be published, like the
appendix to these Lectures, and let it be vouched by the most indu-.
bitable testimony, and you may not be surprised to hear them call
it an orthodox lie. Do they not devote much of their public labors
in defending the peculiar dogmas of their creed, and in explaining
away those passages which seem to teach a contrary doctrine ? I
leave these questions for each one to answer for himself.
It is no pleasing task to say any such things of the religious prin-
ciples or characters and preaching of any class of men. I make no
personal reflections upon any one. Personal invective I consider
both impertinent and hurtful. I do not ridicule Universalism. Jt
13 in itself ridiculous, and I have attempted nothing further than to
expose it as it is. To point out the inconsistency and absurdity of
an erroneous system, and to do it in a cool and dispassionate man-
ner, is not inconsistent with the principles of natural and revealed
religion. If I have in any instance deviated from this, I ask the
pardon of my hearers.
I would have forborne to have said these things did I not believe
that Universalism is one of the most pernicious heresies ever in-
vented by man. But believing as I do, that it is of pernicious
tendency to both civil and religious society, I cannot suppress what
are obviously its practical consequences.
In places where this doctrine is newly broached, its corrupting
tendency is counteracted by the force of early religious education,,
260 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10.
cind the prevalence of sentiments and habits formed under an evan-
gelical ministry. Here its pernicious effects may not at first appear.
But what would be the effect if this doctrine were to become the
general doctrine of the day, and were it preached from sabbath to
sabbath in all our congregations ? What would be the result if all
believed this doctrine and acted fully up to its principles ? What
would be the effect should a preacher from sabbath to sabbath
address the prayerless, the impenitent, and the vicious part
of his audience in something like the following language ? —
"Are any of you afraid of endless punishment? There is no
such thing. This life is a state of retribution as well as of
probation. Here virtue receives an ample reivard of happiness, and
here sin meets a competent punishment of misery. Punishment in
the future state is not threatened in the divine word. Men will not
be punished in the future world for the sins of this life. The future
condition of men will not be affected by the characters they have
here formed. Are any of you afraid of hell ? There is no such
place of punishment. Hell means only the grave. It is only a
false terror got up by the orthodox to scare people. All the terrors
of the divine law are only works of mercy by which God is bring-
ing the sinner to the bliss of heaven. The thunders of the divine-
power, the lightnings of his wrath, are so many loud and unequivo-
cal proclamations of God's universal and impartial love to all his
offspring. Let your hearts be at rest. Heaven is yours. In the
midst of all your blasphemies, your extortions, your robberies, your
murders, rejoice and be exceeding glad for great is your reward in
heaven. And should you find that by walking in the imagination
of your own hearts your present misery is greater than your happi-
ness, you have only to deliver yourselves from the distressing
consequences of your guilt by putting an end to your life.
4 For all who fall by suicide,
Are wise beyond compare,
They spill their blood, then fly to God
And reign eternal there.' "
Lect. 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALIS^!. 261
Can you doubt what would be the effect of such preaching were
it to become general ? Would it not take off all fear and all re-
straint from the corrupt propensities of fallen natures, and be follow-
ed by the most deplorable dissoluteness of manners and morals ?
It is fitted to this end, and has already had this effect upon many.
By embracing this doctrine, many of our youth have lo3t all sense
of mora] obligation, and have given themselves up to the most
criminal excesses. Has it not then every work of what the apostle
calls a " damnable doctrine ?"
Concluding Remarks.
And now in bringing these Lectures to a close, permit me to
make one solemn appeal to your heart3 and consciences. In
addressing you upon these subjects discussed, I have proceeded
upon the supposition that you, my dear hearers, were not fully con-
firmed in the belief of the final salvation of all men. On any other
ground I should have considered my labor as almost in vain. For
I have long regarded a confirmed Universalist as one of the most
hopeless characters in the community. Should a ray of divine light
beam upon his darkened understanding, and should he feel that he
was resting upon a sandy foundation, the pride of consistency and
regard to present comfort would lead him to hold fast his delusion.
How difficult would it be for him to come down from the high stand
which he has taken into the dust, and to acknowledge, after all his
confident boasting, that he has been left to believe a lie ? How
hard to be assailed with the hiss of contempt from those who have
congratulated him in being freed from puritanical prejudices! If
doubts should sometimes force themselves upon his mind, is it not
probable that the fear of the world's dread laugh, and the feeling of
safety he loves to cherish, would lead him to hold fast his error ?
Now I am anxious to warn you from following his steps. I would
persuade you to shun the baneful influence of those errors which
some are at the present day disseminating with great apparent
zeal. Be not deceived by their 'pretensions to superior knowledge
and penetration. Men of the strongest minds and of the most exten-
262 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect.10.
sive literary attainments, have often fallen into the grossest absur-
dities in their religious speculations, and then have employed all
their wit, and sophistry, and learning, to maintain and propagate
them. Some, confiding in their superior abilities, have been allured
into their errors. But this betrays great mental weakness. Great
men are not always wise and good men. They are as liable to err
as any others. Hence you should not receive any opinion without
strict examination. Look at it in all its bearings, and compare it
with the Bible. Take the Bible, and not human authority, for your
guide.
Be not biased in favor of error on account of the amiable moral
character of its advocates. Men of the strictest morality have dis-
seminated the most false and pernicious doctrines. A person may
himself maintain an unsullied purity of outward deportment for the
purpose of gaining the confidence of his fellow men, and inducing
them the more readily to listen to and imbibe his erroneous doc-
trines. Hence those who teach them are to be shunned as corrupt-
ers of mankind.
Believe not the propagators of error, though they may make the
greatest pretensions to liberality, sincerity, and impartiality. Such
pretensions often deceive and prejudice the incredulous. Those
who use such artifices, therefore, are the more dangerous, and their
seductive influence is to be the more studiously avoided. " Cease,
my son, to hear the instruction that cause th to err from the words of
knowledge."
You and I, my friends, must soon die and go into eternity. After
a few more revolving suns, and we must pass into the unseen world.
There shall we know from joyful or woful experience what wil be
the future destiny of man.
Now, before you make up your minds to embrace that doetrine
which we have been exposing, seriously ponder the thoughts that
bave been here suggested. In relation to a subject which involves
the interests of the unseen world, and concerns our future and ever-
lasting well-being, it becomes us to proceed with caution. A mis-
take here may prove fatal. Yield not to the mere dictates of feel-
Lect. 10.) OF MODERN UNI VERS ALISM. 263
ing on this subject. It is a maxim, the correctness of which is
generally admitted, that, in every question of duty and happiness,
where one side is doubtful and the other is safe, or where one side
is the more safe than the other, it is the manifest dictate of wisdom
to take the safer side. Now those who believe in the immortality
of the soul, the intermediate state, and who repent of sin and be-
lieve in Christ, and who live soberly, righteously and godly in this
world, will certainly be happy after death. Of this there can be
no doubt. This truth \ have never heard called in question. It
shall be well with the righteous. " The Lord will give grace and
glory, and no good thing will he withhold from them that walk up-
rightly." Perfect holiness and eternal happiness are promised
blessings that Infinite Love and Almighty Power will bestow upon
them. On the other hand, it cannot be pretended that there is the
same scriptural evidence that it will be well with the wicked after
death. To say the least, there is much in the Bible that seems to
indicate the contrary. How then would a wise and prudent man
act? Would he risk the future and eternal destiny of his soul on
what may prove fallacious, and ruin him forever ? Acting on a safe
principle, you will reject that system which wre have been exposing
and cleave unto that doctrine which leads to a life that is unto holi-
ness, the end of which is everlasting felicity in heaven.
Dear youth ! I know that owing to the influences by which
you are surrounded and to the moral state of your hearts, you are
in imminent danger of embracing the delusive scheme of universal
salvation. To you, therefore, we would give the caution and direc-
tion contained in our text, " Cease, my son, to hear the instruction
that causeth to err from the words of knowledge." The voice of
reason and the voice of God warns you to shun the presence and
influence of those who lie in wait to deceive and destroy. Shun
their doctrine as you would avoid the snares of death. It may be
agreeable to you for the present to hear a doctrine which has a ten-
dency to quiet your apprehensions of a state of future punishment,
but at the last it will sting like a serpent and bite like an adder.
Set a high value upon the Bible. Be not satisfied with a mere as-
364 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10.
sent to its authority or its doctrines, but let your faith in both be
intelligent and influential. Study it daily, with diligence and
prayer. Endeavor not only to become acquainted with its truths,
but imbued with its spirit. This volume is able to make you wise
unto salvation through the faith in Jesus Christ. O ! then bind it
to your heart as man's richest treasure, as heaven's best gift. In
this way you will become fortified against the influence of evil pre-
cepts and examples, and will have a sure guide through this dark
world — will have a substantial solace in all your afflictions, losses,
and disappointments, and an unfailing source of comfort in the hour
of death.
My Christian brethren ! a solemn and important duty devolves
upon you. "Ye are the light of the world ; a city set on an hill
that cannot be hid." If you have friends that profess to believe in
thfc doctrine of universal salvation, endeavor by every tender and
faithful persuasion to induce them to think and reflect, and retrace
their steps. Let it appear in your daily deportment and in your
precepts that you are a firm and sincere believer in the doctrine of
future retribution. Let it be your aim not merely to establish their
faith in the speculative notion of endless punishment, but to present
such an array of evidence before their minds as shall give them
an abiding conviction of the absurdity of their scheme, and the
truth of your doctrine ; and which as shall lead them to feel the
necessity of having a better foundation on which to rest than the
unsubstantial prop of Universalism. You need not waste your en-
ergies in controversy with them, for they will admit and deny just
what they please. But urge upon them the necessity of practical
piety — repentance towards God, and faith in our Lord Jesus Christ.
And enforce your instructions from the solemn consequences of a
religious or an irreligious life. Be faithful, so that if they do not
heed your instructions you can take them to record that you are
pure from their blood. And especially " watch and keep your gar-
ments clean." This is of the utmost importance. If those who
reject the doctrine of endless punishment can And any thing that
seems to favor their scheme, in any of the writings of any author
Lect. 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALIS!*!. 265
who was a professed believer in the doctrine of future punishment,
they will use it as a weapon against the truth. Thus if any thing
can be found to favor their views in the fanciful and diffuse writings
of Adam Clark, the wild assertions of Parkhurst and Gill, the unrea-
sonable and unscriptural concessions of Campbell and Stewart, they
will bring it forward as a proof that the orthodox writers do not
believe in the doctrine of endless punishment. And if they can find
that any of the members of orthodox churches are wavering on this
point, or are professedly believing in the final salvation of all men,
it is trumpetted the length and breadth of the land that the orthodox
reject the doctrine of endless punishment. And they take encour-
agement from this source to settle down more firmly than ever in
the belief of their favorite delusion. I believe there are but few
instances in any orthodox church where persons can be found who
do not believe in the doctrine of endless punishment. If any cases
of the kind occur, they are found in persons who are living in the
neglect of their covenant obligations, and are unworthy of a place
in the christian church. On this point the Baptist, as a denomina-
tion, believe, " That there is a radical and essential difference be-
tween the righteous and the wicked ; that such only as are justified
through faith in the name of the Lord Jesus and sanctified by the
spirit of our God, are righteous in his esteem ; while all such as
continue in impenitence and unbelief, are in his sight wicked and
under the curse ; and this distinction holds among men both in and
after death." They also believe, "That the end of this world is
approaching ; that at the last day Christ will descend from heaven,
and raise the dead from the grave to final retribution ; that a solemn
separation will then take place ; that the wicked will be adjudged
to endless punishment and the righteous to endless joy ; and that
the final judgment will fix forever the final state of men in heaven
or hell on principles of righteousness." I know of no orthodox
minister who rejects the doctrine of endless pnnishment, and no
worthy member in any orthodox church that professes to believe in
the doctrine of universal salvation. In view of these things, breth-
ren, let us be consistent. Let us feel our responsibility. Let us
do our duty.
w
266 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10.
To the confirmed Universalist I would now address myself
with kindness and affection. And may I not hope that yon will
hear me with calmness and decide with impartiality ? Permit me
to propose to you a few questions. What was the state of your
mind when you first inclined to your present views ? Had you no
aversion to the holy and humbling doctrines and duties of religion ;
no fears of future punishment ; no wish to find out some method by
which you might enjoy the pleasures of sin for a season, and yet be
sure of going to heaven ? Was it when you were deeply anxious
about the salvation of your soul, and earnestly seeking relief by fer-
vent prayer, and by diligently reading the holy scriptures, that you
adopted your present religious sentiments ? Or was it not rather
when you were living in neglect of prayer, when you were engross-
ed in pleasure and business of this life, and when you were indul-
ging a speculative turn of mind? In short, was it the love of
holiness or the love of sin— a delight in the self-denying duties of
religion, or an aversion to them — that led you to seek repose and
quiet in the place you now occupy ? Retrace your steps ! Ponder
the paths of your feet ?
When Rousseau Was impressed with the doctrine of eternal pun-
ishment he could scarcely endure his existence ; but he confesses
that he found, in the reasonings of a certain lady with whom he lived
in the greatest possible familiarity, all those ideas which he had
occasion for. She would tranquilize his mind by persuading him
that "the supreme Being would not be perfectly just, were he just
with us, for not having given us the means of being perfectly holy,
he would be unjust in requiring more than he has given." Have
you not found the same in the conversation and writings of those
whose sentiments you have embraced ? Were you not, previous to
your embracing your present system of belief, living in disobedience
to the known commands of God ? And did not the holy precepts
and awful threatnings of the Bible gall your spirits ? And did you
not settle down in your present belief to shield you from the fears
of the just judgments of God and the stings of an accusing con-
science ? Was not this the true source whence originated your
Lect. 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISAl. 267
present belief? Was not something like this the process of your
minds in coming to the conclusion that all mankind will be happy
immediately on entering the next conscious existence ?
What in respect to yourself has been the practical influence of
your doctrine ? The gospel of Jesus Christ when received, produ-
ces repentance for sin, faith, prayer, and a conscientious performance
of all the moral duties of religion. Has this been the practical in-
fluence of your system ? Since you settled down in your present
belief have you had a deeper insight into the corruptions of human
nature ? Have you had a deeper conviction for sin and a stronger
desire to be delivered from it than you had before ? Are you more
conscientious, uniform, and devoted in the duties of the christian
life, and more concerned for the glory of God, and more anxious for
the spiritual welfare of your fellow men ? Do you pray more in
your family and in your closet ? Do you keep the sabbath more
strictly ? Do you read the Bible more seriously, and with more
fervent prayer that the Spirit of truth would guide you into all evan-
gelical truth? Do you feel more cf a benevolent concern for
careless, christless sinners around you, and for the millions of be-
nighted heathen who are perishing in their sins ? Have you enlist-
ed in the cause of benevolent exertion with all your soul ?
I would enquire again what is the use of your doctrine ? If it is
true, there will be no danger in not believing of it ; and nothing is
gained so far as I can see, in believing in it. What motive then
can you urge to induce any one to embrace your system ? Do you
say it affords peace and comfort to the mind, and delivers it from
many tormenting fears ? But to whom, I would ask, does it afford
peace and comfort ? Are such characters as the Bible denominates
humble, penitent, devout, and as are devoted to the glory of God
and the welfare of men, cheered and encouraged by your system?
No, they are safe and happy without it, and have no need of its
consolations. Those who, according to the Bible, give the best
evidence of piety, have in every age of the Christian church abhor-
red and rejected your doctrine and embraced the opposite scheme.
Who then are comforted by your system? The impenitent, the
jm NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. 10.
profligate, and the abandoned. They are encouraged, it is true,
not to forsake their sins, but to believe that they shall have peace
though they live in sin and walk after the imagination of their
heart. Hence if your doctrine is true, it is a truth of such a nature
that the world would be far better without the knowledge of it than
with it. It not only does no good, but it is of a very pernicious ten-
dency, as has been already shown.
I would enquire again, is your doctrine safe ? Those who believe
in a future state of retribution, and prepare for it by a life of peni-
tence, faith and prayer, will be saved. On this point there can be
no doubt. Now you cannot pretend that there is the same certainty
that it will be well with the wicked in the future world. Nothing
but the clearest evidence that your system cannot possibly prove
false, can justify any one in risking the interests of his immortal
soul upon its correctness. Have you that evidence ? Have you
not rather many fears and misgivings that your system may fail you
at last? By relying upon it then, do you not run the risk of losing
every thing, and of falling into endless perdition ? If your system
be true and we are in an error, we can plead that we were misled
by interpreting the scriptures in their literal and most obvious
meaning, and from the fact that the early Christian fathers believed
and taught the doctrine of endless punishment, and our fears only
' will be disappointed. And disappointed fear will not be a serious
evil. We shall be agreeably disappointed, and shall have excited
only in this life some painful anticipations in the minds of our un-
godly hearers which have a tendency to deter them from trans-
gression. But if you are wrong, your hopes will be disappointed.
Your mistake will prove inexcusable and fatal ; and you will have
flattered and deceived your hearers to their eternal ruin. Your
error will be that of the false prophets who belied the Lord and
said, " It shall riot come upon you."
I would enquire once more, are you certain that your system is
correct ? Have you proceeded in the investigation of the subject
with that caution and that patient investigation that you cannot be
mistaken ? Are you certain that the doctrine of future punishment
Lect.10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALISM. 269
is not taught in the Bible ? Are you certain that there is no danger
that the finally impenitent shall go away into everlasting punish-
ment? If there be but a bare possibility of your system proving
fallacious, and there be any means of lessening that possibility,
would you not be infatuated not to attend to them ? Now nothing
but the fullest evidence that your system cannot prove false, can
justify you for a moment in risking your eternal interests upon its
correctness. Should it prove false, your reflections will be similar
to those of that miserable man, Francis Spira, on his dying bed.
"Take heed, ' said he to the spectators who surrounded his dying
pillow, "of relying on that faith which works not a holy and unbla-
mable life worthy of a believer. Credit me, it will fail you. I have
tried it; I presumed I had gotten the right faith; preached it to
others; I had all places in scripture in memory that might support
it ; I thought myself sure ; and in the mean time lived impiously
and carelessly ; and behold noiv the judgment of God hath overtaken
me not to correction but to damnation" Have you the right faith ?
Do you firmly believe in your doctrine ? ' Do you now feel satisfied ?
I do not ask whether you have been able to hold an argument with
an antagonist, nor whether you have gained proselytes. You may
have done both. But are you now satisfied ? Have you no reproofs
of conscience, no misgivings of heart ? If you experience occa-
sional forebodings, what are you doing ? Because you have some
doubts and misgivings, are you laboring more sedulously to confirm
yourself and others in your favorite delusion? But perhaps you
think you firmly believe in your doctrine, and do not wish to be
disturbed. Well, the time is coming that will try every man's
foundation of what sort it is. O ! the solemn consequences should
your foundation fail you in that trying hour. You may retain your
confidence in it till near the close of life. But multitudes who have
been as confident in your system as you now are, in the season of
health, have had their eyes opened on a death bed to all the dreari-
ness of their condition, and have renounced their doctrine as a fatal
delusion f but the instance never wras known of one giving up a
* See Appendix.
270 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES (Lect. !&
belief of future punishment in a dying hour. 1 do not say that all
Universalists find their foundation to fail them in a dying hour.
Cases indeed occur in which the soul clings to it to the last, and
even with apparent triumph. Many do believe a lie and hold fast
their delusion to the last. But the cases are far more frequent of
those who though they have through life remained unshaken, yet at
the near approach of death they have been filled with distress and
terror, and have confessed that their false system has ruined them.
Now where can a person be found who believed in the doctrine of
endless punishment during life, that has testified with his dying
breath that his principles have ruined him ? If lie has been a specu-
lative believer only in the doctrine, and on his death bed has a
foretaste of despair, he testifies that his system has done him no
harm j that his speculative views have been correct ; and that he
has failed through want of a heart conformed to the spirit of his
speculative faith.
Are you certain that when you will be called to die. your founda-
tion will not give way and leave you to sink down in the faintness
of despair forever ? What would be your feelings if summoned to
the bar of God, you should hear the Judge with a frown of terrible
indignation pronounce upon you the sentence of condemnation, and
say, "Depart ye cursed into everlasting fire prepared for the devil
and his angels.'' " O that you were wise, that you understood this ;
that you would consider on your latter end!5' Deal honestly with
yourselves ! When I think of your danger I tremble for your fate I
And what shall I say more ?
In view of what has been said in these Lectures, we see that you
are in danger of endless punishment. You are condemned already,
and the wrath of God abideth upon you. It is for this reason that
Christ has died for you, and is now offering you his salvation.
" Behold the Lamb of God that taketh away the sin of the world !"
Here is the offer of a gratuitous pardon. Yonder is the New
Jerusalem with its pearly gates and its streets paved with gold.
Below is the bottomless pit from which arises the smoke of an
eternal torment. With these scenes before you, will you remain
Lect 10.) OF MODERN UNIVERSALIS*!. 271
unconcerned! unconverted! O renounce your delusion and return
home to the bosom of your offended God on the ground of a gracious
pardon, or you must perish forever!
" Ye sinners seek his grace,
Whose wrath ye cannot bear !
Fly to the shelter of his cross,
And find salvation there.
So shall that curse remove,
By which the Saviour bled ;
And the last awful day, shall pour
His blessing on your head." — Doddridge.
If the on cf truth contained in these Lectures should not
convince you of the false and unseripturai character of Universalism?
but should provoke you to give them a review and furnish to them a
reply, I hope you will pursue a fair christian course. I hope you
will not charts me with misrepresentation. If you believe in no
punishment beyond the grave, or in a limited one only, ycu must
take that portion of these Lectures only which belongs to yourself.
I hope ycu will not charge me with contradicting myself. This
is a commc:: . .■:: when all argument fails. You may
take passages from their connection and place them beside each
other, that, without the illustration contained in the context, may
have the appearance of contradiction. I hope you will not puff me
as an author that has presented the very ablest book to the public
evsr written on future punishment, and then take one or more cf the
weakest ar; a and one or more of the less conclusive texts?
and hold them up before the eyes of your readers as a fair specimen
of the whole work. You will have accomplished nothing to the
purpose till you shall have answered every argument and explained
away every passage of scripture. I hope you will meet every argu-
ment and exposition wit] . . Some when they cannot answer
an objection, will talk about the subject, endeavor to establish un-
founded premises by which to bring cut conclusions that shall
over mi; and c ill raise a cloud cf words
272 NATURE AND CONSEQUENCES, &c. (Lect. 10.
before the eyes of their readers, go round and round the subject,
and eventually evade the real point at issue.
I hope you will not endeavor to overthrow the arguments for
endless punishment by sneers, ridicule, wit and sophistry, with which
many of your writers abound. It is easier to frame a sneer than a
solid argument. But the time is gone by when this mode of attack
will have any influence on the minds of sensible men. Such as
these Lectures are, they are now thrown into the hands of the
public. They may contain errors which a more matured judgment
would rectify.
Owing to my distance from the press, and my want of an oppor-
tunity to examine the corrected proof sheets, a few trifling mistakes
appear in the text, which I request the reader to correct ; some of
the most important of which I have noticed in the Errata.
To the candid and pious of every denomination I would say in
conclusion, in the language of young Coleridge,
" If aught of error or intemperate truth
Should meet thine ear, think thou that riper age
Will calm it down, and let thy love forgive it."
THE POWER OF DIVINE GRACE ILLUSTRATED IN THET
SURPRISING CONVERSION OF A PROFESSED UNIVERSALIS!*..
The death of Mr. Nathan Dyer is one of those striking instan-
ces of mortality which we record with more than ordinary interest.
The grief which this bereavement has inflicted upon a numerous
circle of surviving friends, is greatly mitigated, as it clearly illus-
trates the efficacious power of divine grace in fitting the soul for a
happy transition from its state of probation to its eternal destiny.
Mr. Dyer was born in Steuben, Vv'ashington County, Maine, in
1808. He was a young gentleman of respectable connexions, good
natural judgment and disposition, and a more than ordinary thirst
for mental improvement. His advantages for literary culture were
quite limited ; but having a disposition to improve by those he en-
joyed, he acquired a respectable common education. He was the
subject of early religious impressions. But these impressions of
childhood and youth soon wore away, in consequence of his becom-
ing associsted with those evil men who corrupt and destroy the
young by thrusting into their hands books and newspapers which
are artfully designed to unhinge their moral and religious principles,
* While delivering the preceding Lectures, the subject of this narrative was
called to exchange worlds. The circumstances of his last painful illness were
peculiarly interesting, as they illustrate the power of sovereign grace in the
conversion of the sinner. These circumstances I related in the sermon which I
preached at his funeral, and also in the delivery of these Lectures. I have now
thrown the remarks then made into this appendix, hoping they may prove
interesting to the friends of religion. — W. G. Rider.
274 THE SURPRISING CONVERSION
and by assailing the great truths of religion with sophistry and ridi-
cule. At twenty-one he became a confirmed sceptic. He now put
away the subject of religion with entire thoughtlessness and with
fixed aversion ; and exhausted all the resources of his wit, ridicule,
and argument to disprove the validity and divine authenticity of por-
tions of the holy scriptures. And by endeavoring to bring into
contempt a part of the Bible, he aimed to destroy the authority of
the whole. How long he persisted in questioning the sacred char-
acter of the scriptures, I am not able to state with precision. On
reflection, however, he came to the conclusion that the Bible, which
contained the very best system of morals, and the most excellent
institutions, and bore so many signatures of divinity, must be of
divine authenticity and inspiration.
But he foresaw that if he received the Bible as the word of God,
he must admit the doctrine of eternal rewards and punishments.
To the reception of this truth his heart was barred. And owing to
the stratagems of Satan, the spiritual adversary ; the want of a real
hold of Christianity in its substantial blessings ; the pride of reason
the fruit of man's corrupt and depraved nature ; and the strength of
youthful passions, he was led to enquire if he could not be a be-
liever in Christianity, and yet deny all that he deemed offensive in
its doctrines and uncomfortable in its restraints.
That modification of Christianity of recent date which existed
under the name of Universalism, was at this time preached in the
place of his residence. He listened to the pleasing sound of "peace,
peace," for a few sabbaths, and became prepossessed in favor of this
new-fangled divinity. It announced to him that eternal felicity
was sure to him and to the whole human family, though they should
walk in the imaginations of their own hearts to add drunkenness to
thirst.
The scheme appeared exactly suited to the prevailing inclination
of his heart, and coincided with his reigning views and pursuits. It
promised him impunity in the paths of vice, and confirmed his wa-
vering hopes and feeble prospects of future happiness. After listen-
ing to the principles and preaching of Universalists for a few weeks,
OF A PROFESSED UNIVERSALIS1!1. 275
he declared himself fully established in their doctrine. He soon
became a firm and decided advocate for Universalism, anxious to
banish the scruples of more cautious minds, and to carry them at all
lengths with his own. And he was too successful. Yet he was at
times led to ponder the paths of his feet, and to examine the foun-
dation of his hope for eternity. Conscience, awakened from her
lethargy, would condemn him for his impiety and immorality, and
lash him with her scorpion stings. She would at times prevent him
from entirely believing his own lie. When he was the most confi-
dent in his belief of the final salvation of all men, he was afraid to
read any author who treated the doctrine of future punishment in
a calm and searching manner. And he did not like to read those
passages of scripture which seemed to imply or express that doctrine.
They made him uneasy. Conscience would reprove him, and he
found it difficult to silence her remonstrances.
He appears, however, to have taken no small pains to rid himself
of his scruples. His very fears and misgivings, with regard to the
truth of his system, led him to cling to it with greater tenacity,
His wicked life threw his mind under a bias towards the hope that
though he should rejoice in his youth, and let his heart cheer him in
the days of his youth, and walk in the ways of his heart and in the
sight of his eyes, yet for these things God would not bring him into
judgment. And then his belief confirmed its dominion in the hope
which it imparted to his impenitent life. And as his confidence in
Universalism increased, his hatred and opposition to experimental
religion appeared the more virulent. Pie considered holiness and
piety as empty names, and repentance, faith, humility and devotion
as hypocricy, pride, and self-righteousness. He habitually treated
vital religion with scorn, ridicule and blasphemy, and called its pro-
fessors bigots, fanatics, and hypocrites. Nor did he stop here.
As his principles had a tendency to destroy all moral distinction
between virtue and vice, so did his practice. He advocated that all
would be happy after death whose life had been one continual de-
velopment of a depraved heart, evil dispositions, and impure conver-
sation ; and he acted upon his principles. The whole of his conduct
676 THE SURPRISING CONVERSION
illustrates the depravity of fallen creatures. Ye advocates of human
innocence and purity, behold your doctrine exemplified in the sub-
ject of this narrative ! — conceived in sin ; shapen in iniquity ; every
imagination of the thoughts of the hearty only evil, continually ;
and the whole life one descending progress in wickedness ! And
such would all the posterity of the first parents of our race be, if left
to themselves, and deprived of the restraints of divine providence.
But the disease which terminated his life accomplishing its work
by a very gradual process, gave him an opportunity to investigate
the subject of his actual preparation for the solemnities of a dying
hour. Yet he remained firm and unmoved in his opinion that he
had nothing to fear from the approach of death. His mind was
perfectly at rest. Ke had nothing on his conscience. Having
lived in the constant neglect of God and his worship, he was now
drawing near the borders of the grave carelessly indifferent to the
concerns of his immortal soul.
He had at this time no intercourse with persons wbo publicly
professed experimental religion, nor did he request it. He mani-
fested a strong unwillingness to have any pious person enter his
room and converse with him on experimental religion. By the re-
quest of a pious relative of his, the Rev. Mr. S. was called to con-
verse and pray with him ; but he would not suffer this minister to
enter his sick bed-room. His reply, when asked if he was willing
that Mr. S. should visit and converse with him, was, " Tell him I
don't want to see him nor have him say any thing to me. My mind
is composed — I don't want to have it disturbed."
The stupid insensibility and impenitency of his mind seemed to
keep pace with the rapidity of his decline. Though rapidly draw-
ing near the verge of death and eternity, yet he retained his confi-
dence and seemed about to expire in the full belief of his favorite
delusion. But at the near approach of death, his delusion vanished
as a dream when one awaketh. The opening scenes of eternity
revealed to him the unsubstantial character of his foundation, and
annihilated his fallacious hope. He saw that he had erected the
fabric of his hope upon the sand of error instead of the rock of
OP A PROFESSED UNIVERSALIS!1. 277
truth, and that it would not bear the trial. He became alarmed in
view of his condition. A conviction of his sinfulness and an appre-
hension of "sudden destruction without remedy," swept away ail
the proofs which he had sedulously collected in favor of Universal-
ism. He became fully convinced that the doctrine of endless pun-
ishment was no fiction, but a truth of momentous import, whether
he believed it to be so or not ; and that by shutting his eyes against
it, would by no means diminish but greatly augment his danger.
About this time, a Mr. P. visited him and made some enquiries
respecting his views and feelings in prospect of the near approach
of death. He replied, UI am conscious that I must soon die, and I
feel that I am not prepared for death." Mr. P. knowing what had
been his former belief, remarked that his former associates in sin
and in error who had witnessed his confidence in his delusion,
would now say that he had been frightened by the selfish and re-
vengeful principles of the Orthodox. To this he replied, <; No
person has said any thing to me about the concerns of my soul, or
the subject of religion. The reflections of my own mind have con-
vinced me that I am a sinner, undone, and that dying in my sins,
an eternal hell is my portion."
Sensible that he could not live, and that he was unprepared to
die, he sent an earnest and express message to me to come over
and see him. I hastened to the chamber of the sick man, and found
him in an agony of terror, deepening every moment with death in
immediate view, and an awful eternity before him. As soon as I
had seated myself by his bedside, he began to express his views and
feelings. With a countenance that spoke more forcibly than even
his own words, he looked upon me and said, " How glad I am you
have taken pains to come over and see me. I was afraid that I
should not see you before I should die. I have been quite anxious
for some time, to see you 5 for it has appeared to me that you could
tell me what I must do to be saved. I have in years past based my
hope of heaven and happiness upon the doctrine of universal salva-
tion ; and I have been entirely blinded in my delusion till of late.
But I now find that it is a scheme of the most licentious and danger-
x
$78 THE SURPRISING CONVERSION
otis tendency. My principles afford me no comfort and support
now I am sick and about to die. It is said by some that ' the doctrine
of Universalism answers well enough to live by, but it does not
sufrice for the dying hour ;' but I am convinced that it will answer
neither to live hy nor to die hy. 1 am fully convinced that eter-
nal rewards and punishments are substantial realities. And I am
afraid that I have so long held to my delusion, and despised and
rejected the Saviour, that there is no mercy for me. I know if I
die in this state I must go to hell."
I here availed myself of the opportunity to open to and impress
upon his mind the fundamental doctrines of the gospel, and to pre-
sent to hirn. the offer of a long-neglected Saviour. He listened
with the greatest eagerness, and would often interrupt me that I
might explain to him more fully some grand truth of revelation. I
felt that the Spirit of God was opening his heart to the reception of
divine truth. Having explained to him the grand method of salva-
tion through Jesus Christ, warned him of his guilt and danger, and
directed him to " the Lamb of God that taketh away the sins of the
world," 1 put tip a short prayer in his behalf, and left him for an hour
to his own reflections.
On my return I found him in the same state of mind, only his
anxiety and distress was augmented. " O, (said he,) I fear there t3
no mercy for me. I have lived in sin all my days. I have wasted
all those precious privileges and golden opportunities which God
graciously afforded me to become wise unto salvation. I would not
seek and serve the Lord, and now it is too late" 1 told him to look
to Christ for mercy, and repeated to him a number of encouraging
sentences out of the Bible ; but he still cried out, "God is merciful,
but it is too late. There is no mercy for me."
He had a great sense of his entire and deep rooted depravity. I
was reminded by his confessions, of the lamentation of a sinner as
described by Mason:
"I have been Satan's willing slave, 4
And his most easy pray ;
He was not readier to command
Than I was to obey.
I
OF A PROFESSED UNIVERSALIS!*. 279
If any time he left my soul,
Yet still his work went on ;
I've been a tempter to myself —
Ah ! Lord, what have I done !"
Though he mourned over the number and aggravation of his
actual transgressions, yet his greatest distress arose from a sense
of the wickedness of his heart. He seemed also to recognize the
justice of God in his eternal condemnation, and expressed a wonder
that God had borne with him so long, and had not cast him down to
hell. And he was sensible that there was no hope of salvation
for him from any source but the unmerited grace of God. But he
could not see how it was possible for him to be saved. "I see
(says he) that it would be just in God to cast me off forever ; but I
do not see how God can be just and have mercy upon such a sinner
as I am." I reminded him that nothing was " too hard for the Lord ;"
that he could " pardon iniquity and pass by the transgression of the
remnant of his heritage ;" that he had publicly exhibited his Son a
propitiatory sacrifice for the sins of men, and he can now " be just
and the justifier of him which believeth in Jesus."
He remained in great distress of mind through the day. As his
strength and state of mind would permit, I conversed with and pray-
ed for him. I felt my soul in an unusual degree drawn out in prayer
to God for his salvation. And I obtained a kind of assurance that
God would have mercy upon this dying man.
In the after part of the day, his mind, under the operations of the
Holy Spirit, was brought to a crisis. He could turn neither to the
right hand nor to the left. He was cut off from every source of
-consolation except that which arises from faith in Christ, and of this
he felt himself incapable. And he would vent the sorrow of his
heart in language similar to that of the weeping prophet. M He
hath buiided against me, and compassed me .with gall and travail.
He hath set me in dark places as those that be dead of old. He
hath hedged me about that I cannot get out ; he hath made my
chain heavy. Also when I cry he shutteth out my prayer!" He
appeared to be "shut up unto the faith which should afterwards be
280 THE SURPRISING CONVERSION
revealed." To show more fully the real state of his mind, I will
relate a few of his expressions as he lay and conversed with himself.
" This then is the only alternative. I must repent and return home
to God by Jesus Christ, or sink down to hell forever. I have been
a great sinner. I grow no better, but worse. I cannot make amends
for my transgressions, nor can I make myself any better. My own
righteousness is filthy rags. The only alternative is to yield and
give my heart to God. I must go to him just as I am. But oh ! if
I had somewhat to recommend me to the Saviour, I could goto him
with assurance ; but if I should now give myself away to him, vile
and hell-deserving as I am, he would certainly cast me off." Here
he burst into tears and gave vent to the bitter agonies of his soul.
Though convinced that Christ was the only Saviour, yet he
"would not come to him that he might have life." He had not yet
dared to venture his all upon the mercy of God. But the Holy
Spirit, intimately acquainted with the inward structure of the human
mind, without doing violence to his moral nature, was gradually
preparing him to renounce his own righteousness and to find peace
and joy in the Saviour. His mind now became deeply impressed.
He cried, and groaned, and prayed that the mercy which he had so
lightly esteemed, might be extended to him. Frequently would he
exclaim " what must I do to be saved ? what must I do to be saved ?"
After his mind became more calm, I opened and gave to him a
historical sketch of the four leprous men at the gate of Samaria,
while the city was besieged by the army of the Syrians. I remarked
that their lives were truly in jeopardy. They saw no prospect of
escaping immediate death, whether they returned into the city or
remained where they were. Hence they took their lives in their
hands and threw themselves upon the mercy of those from whom
they had no reason to expect any favor. Death was before them,,
" and they said one to another, why sit we here till we die ? If we
say, we will enter into the city, then the famine is in the city, and
we shall die there ; and if we sit still here, we die also. Now.,
therefore, come and let us fall unto the host of the Syrians ; if they
save us alive, we shall live ; and if they kill us, we shall but die?'
OF A PROFESSED UNIVERSALIST. 281
Thus, I observed, you must come to God. These men went to the
camp of the Syrians, not having one condition to propose or one
plea to make. You must fall into the hands of the Lord, and leave
it with him to decide what shall be done. While these men were
forming their resolution and carrying it into execution, God was
graciously working out their deliverance. If you make a full sur-
render of yourself and your all into the hands of the Lord, he will
work out your deliverance and salvation.
" O, (says he,) I would venture my soul upon the mercy of God if
he would previously give me an assurance that he will not cast me
off." Thus he manifested that he had yet no confidence in God, no
love to his character, and no faith in his word; but was under the
workings of a self-righteous spirit. Re would not accept of mercy
as one of the chief of sinners. I told him that God had promised
that those who should come to him he would in no wise cabt off.
" Perhaps so, (he replied,) but I am afraid to venture upon the mercy
of God and leave it with him to decide what shall be done."
This occasioned a violent struggle in his mind, and I felt to hope
that the time was near when God would release his soul from its
bondage to sin and Satan. His convictions of the exceeding sinful-
ness of sin, and of the holiness and justice of God, were overwhelm-
ing. But it was done. Early in the evening he began to express
some degree of faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. aO, (says he to me
as I approached his bed-side,) I do find it safe trusting in the Lord.
I can trust my soul in the hands of the Saviour. He will save unto
the uttermost all who come to God by him. God in Christ can be
just and yet save the chief of sinners. The apostle says, 'This is a
faithful saying and worthy of all acceptation, that Christ Jesus came
into the world to save sinners of whom I am chief.' 'The blood of
Jesus Christ cleanseth from all sin.' My mind is calm. Perhaps I
am deceived ; but my feelings are different from what I ever before
experienced. After he had repeated several passages of scripture
very distinctly, and had made some comments upon them, he calmly
engaged in prayer.
A short time after, I enquired into the state of his mind. He
x*
282 THE SURPRISING CONVERSION'
observed, " I have no evidence that my sins are forgiven ; but my
mind is tranquil." I repeated to him the following stanzas of Br.
Watts:
" My lips with shame my sins confess,
Against thy law, against thy grace ;
Lord, should thy judgments grow severe,
I am condemned, but thou art clear.
Should sudden vengeance seize my breath, #
I must pronounce thee just in death ;
And if my soul were sent to hell,
Thy righteous law approves it well.
Yet save a trembling sinner, Lord,
Whose hope, still hovering round thy word,
Would light on some sweet promise there,
Some sure support against despair."
" These lines (he remarked) express my case. These are my I
lugs." His mind was peaceful and calm through the night. In the
morning his countenance assumed a heavenly aspect, and his ema-
ciated system seemed re-animated, and with his tongue he uttered
praise to divine grace. Yet he was almost afraid to hope. He
remarked that his heart was very deceitful and desperately wicked ;
that it had deceived him often, and he was afraid that it would de-
ceive him again.
The Bible before neglected, or consulted only for the purpose of
finding arguments to support a pre-ccnceived theory of religion,
now became his constant companion and guide. He read it and
heard it read with delight. He told me that the Bible appeared like
a new book.
"Precious Bible! what a treasure
Does the word of God afford."
Christians, before despised and ridiculed, he now deem the ex-
cellent of the earth. He desired their company and their prayers.
lie loved them because he discovered in them the image of his
Saviour, and because they were beloved for the Father's sake.
As his bodily strength failed him, his spiritual strength increased.
From this period to the time of his death, it was difficult for any
OF A PROFESSED UNIVERSAUST. 283
one to enter Mr. Dyer's sick room and converse with him or hear
him converse, without being constrained to acknowledge the power
of divine grace in his conversion. Although some who knew him
in his former character and belief supposed him to be beyond the
reach of the gospel, and so attached to his peculiar doctrines, that
all reasoning with him would be in vain ; yet the reality of his con-
version to God possesses an indubitable claim to our belief. His
repentance and faith appeared to be the genuine work of the Holy
Spirit on his mind. He manifested an ardent attachment to Christ
to his people, to his word, and to his cause. His conversation with
those who had been his former associates in sin and error, was char-
acterized by a spirit of compassion and Christian fidelity. He
warned them of the pernicious and fatal tendency of their scheme,
and besought them, with tears, to renounce it, and embrace the
Saviour.
When I was about to take my leave of him, he clasped my hand,
with tears ; thanked God for my visit to him ; requested me to
preach his funeral sermon, and to say to the congregation that it
was his dying testimony that Universalism was a fatal and soul-
ruining system ; and then, commending me to God, he bid me
farewell — expressing a belief that we should meet in heaven, where
parting would be known no more.
From this time until the day of his death he seemed like one
waiting for the coming of his Lord. One day, while reflecting on
these words, " Then they that gladly received his word were bap-
tized./' "He that believeth and is baptized shall be saved," his mind
was led into the ordinance of believers' baptism. He saw the
command and example was to believe and be baptized. And baptism
by immersion which had before appeared to him a fit subject of
laughter and ridicule, now appeared to him to be an ordinance of
Christ, of peculiar delight. And he expressed a wish that he might
obey the command of Christ and be buried with him by baptism.
Yet as he considered this not essential to salvation, he was will-
ing to depart and be with Christ, where he could enjoy his
presence without having submitted to those ordinances which Gcd
has given to his Church on earth.
284 THE SURPRISING CONVERSION
He often expressed an earnest desire to depart this life and b&
with Christ. Yet he was not impatient. Though very fretful and
peevish before his conversion, yet after his conversion he endured
his extreme pains without one complaint or the slightest murmur.
A short time before his decease,, he called his parents and broth-
ers and sisters to his bedside, and warned and intreated them to
prepare to meet him in heaven. He addressed them individually
on the concerns of their undying souls and in a language and tone
that drew tears from every eye in the room. He then appeared to
be absorbed in devout meditation, and composing himself to die,
virtually saying, in the language of Addison, " Come see how a
Christian can die ;" he submissively yielded his spirit to God on the
21th day of April, 1835, aged 26 years, 4 months and 17 days,
leaving for the consolation of surviving friends, pleasing evidence
that their loss is his eternal gain.
Is not this a monument of divine grace — a brand plucked from
the eternal burnings ?
" Great is the work my heart replied,
And be the glory Thine. "
I have already exceeded the limits which I had prescribed in
composing this narrative, but I cannot conclude without adverting to
the solemn warning which it suggests to those who are building
their hopes of future blessedness upon the exceedingly frail founda-
tion of Universal Salvation. Mr. Dyer was once as confident of
peace and safety from this source as any one of you can possibly
be ; and had he died as he lived hardened in his iniquity, and in a
state of stupid insensibility, and in the full be-lief of his delusion,
you would have probably pronounced his death happy and glorious.
But he lived to bless God that he was rescued from the belief of a
delusion which hardened his heart, and quieted his apprehensions
of danger, while he was under the sentence of condemnation and
every moment exposed to endless punishment. And he looked upon
his rescue from the delusive scheme of Universalism as a deliver-
ance from the belief of a lie that was working out his eternal dam-
OF A PROFESSED UNIVERSALIS!*. 285
nation. And he often expressed a wonder that God by the reno-
vating power of his Holy Spirit had opened his eyes to see his
guilt and danger, and had turned his wayward feet into the paths
of life. " O what a wonder it is that God did not give me up to my
strong delusions to believe my own lie and be damned, since I did
not love the truth but had pleasure in unrighteousness."
Some of you may say, that Mr. Dyer was never decidedly attached
to the doctrine of Universaiism, and that his misgivings were oc-
casioned by his not being an honest, thorough-going believer in that
scheme. I should not have anticipated this objection had I not
already received it from a source whence we might expect such
objections to be raised. But to this I would reply, that he betrayed
no doubt or misgivings on this ground. He found Universalism was
the grand delusion by which the father of lies first succeeded in
introducing sin into the world, and by which he is still tempting the
children of men to sin, and lulling their consciences into security.
And such will you find it to be sooner or later. It may now appear
to you a pleasing doctrine, but it will infallibly deceive and disap-
point you. Like a mercenary friend who will fawn around you in
the hour of prosperity, but who will forsake you in adversity, will
your principles prove in sickness and the near approach of death.
Avoid this doctrine then as you would the snares of death. Cease
to listen to the pleasing delusion that "you shall have peace though
you walk in the imagination of your heart to add drunkenness to
thirst." You are now on probation for the rewards :of eternity.
What you do in the present life, is fixing your destiny in the com-
ing world. O that you would examine the unsubstantial nature of
your hopes ; renounce them and seek the mercy of God in Christ,
before your final doom is sealed in that world of endless rebellion
against God where errors can never be retracted, where mistakes
can never be rectified, where evils can never be remedied, and
where joy and hope can never come ! *
Let no one, from the perusal of this narrative, presume that he
may continue through life in a course of iniquity and impiety, and
that he has only to repent at last and all will be well. There is
28$ THE SURPRISING CONVERSION
only ose instance recorded in scripture of the mercy of God being
sought and obtained at the last hour of life by one who had lived in
the neglect of God and his worship, that none might presume ; and
there is o^te that none might despair. An instance of divine mercy
being extended even at the last hour, is here related, and earnestly
and affectionately recommended to the attentive perusal of those
who imagine that they can safely live in sin and neglect the con-
cerns of their immortal souls to the last ; but who will have painfully
to acknowledge, with Mr. D., if awakened to reflection, that " they
would not seek the Lord in health and strength, and now it is too
late" O that you were wise ! that you understood this ! that you
would consider your latter end! O that you would not defer to the
weakness and agitation of a dying hour an attention to the things
which belong to your everlasting peace, lest you should then find
that they are forever hid from your eyes. " Seek ye the Lord while
he may be found, and call ye upon him while he is near." "To-day,
if you will hear his voice, harden not your hearts ; for " he that
being often reproved hardeneth his neck, shall suddenly be destroyed
and that without remedy." O that such persons who are presuming
on a death-bed repentance and amendment, could have been per-
mitted to witness the horrors of mind and the anguish of spirit which
this person had "with death in immediate view and an awful eter-
nity before him," they would not thus continue in sin that grace
might abound. Could they have listened to his heart-rending cries
for mercy, and heard him lament that he had neglected God and
religion, that now it was too late, and that he must " die in his sins"
and "go away into everlasting punishment," surely they would not
heap to themselves wrath against the day of wrath and revelation
of the righteous judgments of God. And if they should indulge the
trembling hope that the cry for mercy at the last hour may be heard,
how faint and uncertain does this hope appear when we consider
how often a sick bed repentance proves spurious, and when we
contrast this hope with the peaceful assurance, the holy confidence,
and the glorious triumph that sheds its blessed lustre over those
who at the close of a life spent in the service of God, can say, "I
OF A PROFESSED UNIVERSALIS!1. 286
am now ready to be offered, and the time of my departure is at hand.
I have fought a good fight ; 1 have finished my course ; I have kept
the faith. Henceforth there is ]aid up for me a crown of righteous-
ness which the Lord the righteous Judge shall give me at that day."
M Mark the perfect man, and behold the upright ; for the end of that
man is peace." Though the christian who is permitted to look
back upon a life spent in the service of God, builds his hopes exclu-
sively on the atonement and righteousness of Christ, yet his holy
and consistent life which is the fruit of genuine faith, affords him
comfort and support in the hour of his departure. O that such aa
are living without God and' without any well-grounded hope, could
be persuaded to seek their happiness in him and in his service.
Then would they learn that while "the way of the transgressor is
hard," " the ways of wisdom are ways of pleasantness and all bar
paths are peace."
T3S EFTP-
ERRATA.
Page 14, for prosihein read 'prothesin.' P. 18, in line 10, for they
read 'the disciples.5 P. 19, for ainon read 'aionorJ P. 20, for
Sabbinical read ' the Rabbinical,' and for Tarquins read ' Targums.'
P. 23, in line 15, for has been read ' will be.' P. 26, line 7, blot out
not ; and 28, blot out ever since. P. 30, in line 18, for here read
'* there,' and line 2, from bottom, for £7ie sinner read ' sinners.' P. 40,
for inference read 'interference.' P. 47, line 6 from bottom, after
be, add ' no.' P. 53, line 13, for are read 'as.' P. 59, line 11, for
destruction read ' salvation.' P. 60, line 2, after shall insert ' never'
find. P. 70, for precedure read 'procedure.' P. 94, line 14, for
*iieir$ read 'those.' P. 128, in line 5, for from read 'in.' P. 129,
line 12, for teaches read 'teach.' P. 139, line 10, for o/read 'to.'
P. 156, line 2 from bottom for o/read ' to.' P. 188, line 9, for the
read ' them.' P. 209, line 19, blot out of P. 212, line 25, after
which add ' he.' P. 221, line 5 from bottom, for perverts read 'per-
vert.' P. 229, line 15, for have read ' had.' P. 233, for the quiei
Universalisis read 'the quiet of Universalism.' P. 228, for restrain
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blot out and. P. 261, for work read ' mark.' P. 264, for which read
'such.' P. 251, for Giles* case read 'Giles Cone.' P. 101, for pre-
vented read 'and prevent.'
Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process.
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide
Treatment Date: August 2005
PreservationTechnologies
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| __label__neg | 0 | courseoflectures01ride | OL25099721M | OL16279680W | 298 | 1,836 |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **大学生就业过程中存在的问题及对策**
**周玉利**
**(湖南科技大学法学院，湖南湘潭411201)**
**摘 要：随着教育改革的深入和高校扩招的持续，大学毕业生逐年增多，就业形势日益严峻。实践中损害大学生就业合法权益的现象时有发生。因此，加强大学生就业的法律保护势在必行。加强大学生合法权益的保护，需要社会、学校和个人的共同努力，创建一个良好的就业环境，促进大学生顺利就业。**
**关键词：大学生；就业；对策**
**中图分类号：G646 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1008-4681{2009)03-0123-02**
**自1998年的高校“并轨"扩大招生以来，高校毕业生从2001 年的 114万剧增至2008年的559万，竞争日趋激烈，就业形势日益严峻，大学生在就业过程中为了得到一份工作而丧失了应有的警惕，忽视了自身权益的保护。大学生就业不仅关系到每个学生的前途，还直接影响到高校的可持续发展，更是关系到我国经济发展状况和社会稳定的一件大事。**
**_一_ 大学生就业过程中面临的问题**
**(一)大学生与用人单位所处的地位不平等**
**大学生与用人单位签订劳动合同是依靠出卖自己的劳动力换取劳动报酬，维持自己的生存。大学生不论在经济地位还是在信息掌握方面远远落后于用人单位，始终存在不平等。基于目前就业市场供小于求的现状，大学生为获得工作，不得不接受一些不合理的条件或降低自己的要求，一旦双方签订劳动合同，则大学生成为用人单位的一员，双方形成隶属关系，二者是管理与被管理的地位。**
**(二)大学生在求职中遭遇歧视**
**大学生就业过程中，用人单位存在违反法律法规的现象，其中最突出的表现是就业歧视问题，它严重破坏了就业平等权。主要表现有：1、就业机会不均等。用人单位基于用人偏见或降低劳动力成本考虑，从性别、身高、血型、地域等因素拒绝录用或限制录用某些大学生，如：报考公务员的某些职位明确要求“党员”或“有经验者”。2、就业条件不平等。有些用人单位虽未明确拒绝招聘某些大学生，但在选聘人员时却附加某些限制性条件或提高用人标准，从而剥夺大学生公平竞争权利。3、就业结果不公平。某些大学生虽就业了，但他是以降低待遇，放弃工作中某些权利为代价的，如：降低工资，取消职业培训，合同期内不结婚生子等不公平待遇，这些都侵犯了大学生的平等就业权。**
**(三)用人单位的违约**
**按照用人单位违约时间来划分，可分为用人单位的预期违约和实际违约。用人单位的预期违约是指在大学生报到期限届满之前明确表示或者以自己的行为表明不接受大学生，这种情况在就业市场中比较普遍；实际违约指用人单位在报到期限到来后不接受大学生，这两种违约情况，用人单位都应承担违约责任。用人单位违约的原因大部分情况是用人单位在签约后又发现更优秀或更适合的大学生或因各种关系需要与签约人解除协议。**
**在现实生活中，用人单位的责任承担常常并不能使大学生满意，或者说其责任的承担不能够填补大学生的损失。因为就业协议事关大学生的职业劳动，是大学生能够在特定用人单位开始职业生涯的法定证明。用人单位拒绝履行就业协议就意味着大学生就业希望落空，但该用人单位并不能承担继续为大学生提供工作岗位的可能。由于在就业协议的签定程序上，用人单位往往是就业协议书签署三方中最迟者，且不存在用人单位返还就业协议书的时效机制，大学生就无可奈何地成了最后的苦果吞食者。如：2007年4月6日一名应届毕业生已经与天津一家单位签订了三方协议，但在毕业的前一天，单位突然退回就业协议书，通知说不要他了，理由是原来的职位不需要人了。并且拒绝不提他们的违约问题。该生还有不到40个小时就毕业了，马上要离校，这个突然的变故给他带来很大的伤害，因为这个单位他拒绝了很多企业，并且这个时候很多单位的招聘都截止了。**
**(四)就业协议和劳动合同概念分不清**
**就业协议是应届毕业生与用人单位、学校三方之间订立的。对用人单位的性质没有限制，适用于任何用人单位。它是大学生和用人单位关于将来就业意向的约定，体现大学生愿意到该用人单位就业，用人单位愿意接受该大学生。就业协议书是就业主管部门编制就业计划，派发报到的证据，是大学生落户和进行人事代理的依据，通过订立协议书，可以预防用人单位和大学生双方在双向选择过程中的随意性。**
**劳动合同是指劳动者与用人单位确立劳动关系、明确双方权利义务的协议。其条款主要包括用人单位的名称、住所和法定代表人或者主要负责人，劳动者的姓名、住址和居民身份证或者其他有效身份证件号码，劳动合同期限、工作内容和工作地点、工作时间和休息休假、劳动报酬、社会保险，劳动保护、劳动条件和职业危害防护，以及法律、法规规定应当纳人劳动合同的其他事项。订立和变更劳动合同，应当遵循平等自愿、协商一致的原则，不得违反法律、法规。**
**在现实生活中，有时当大学生报到后用人单位拒绝与其签订劳动合同或在签订劳动合同时变更相关条款。在这种情况下多数大学生委曲求全，不懂得或者不敢运用法律的武器维护自己的合法权益。究其原因一是大学生法律意识淡薄，二是由于目前就业难，怕失去就业机会。**
**(五)见习期与试用期的界限不明**
**见习期是对应雁毕业生进行业务适应及考核的一种制**
**收稿日期：2009-01-05**
**作者简介：周玉利(1979-)，女，湖南东安人，湖南科技大学法学院法律系讲师，法学硕士。研究方向：民商法。**
**度，不是劳动合同制度下的概念，而是人事制度下的做法，适用于政府机关及事业单位招收应届毕业生的情况。根据相关规定，用人单位招收应届生后，原则上都要安排见习，期限为一年。对人学前已从事一年以上有关专业实际工作的，经所在单位批准，可免去见习期。见习期满如果合格，则对该职工办理转正手续，为其评定专业职称，聘任相应职务，确定工作岗位。如果见习期满，达不到见习要求的，可延长见习期半年到一年，或者降低工资标准；表现特别不好的，可予以辞退，由学校重新分配。**
**试用期是指用人单位对新招收的大学生进行思想品德、劳动态度、实际工作能力、身体情况等进行进一步考察的时间期限，适用于初次就业或再次就业时改变劳动岗位或工种的劳动者。在试用期内，用人单位可考察大学生是否适合其工作岗位，考察大学生是否与录用要求相一致的时间，避免用人单位遭受不必要的损失。同时也可以维护新招收大学生的利益，使被录用的大学生有时间考察了解用人单位的工作内容、劳动条件、劳动报酬等是否符合劳动合同的规定。**
**当下，有相当一部分企业以“试用期”为由，不与大学生签订劳动合同，以达到随时解聘大学生的目的。企业用偷梁换柱的方法，用大学生为期一年的见习期代替试用期，无形之中将最长不超过六个月的试用期延长至一年。**
**(六)合同中的“霸王条款”**
**用人单位在劳动合同的订立中居于主导地位，在劳动合同订立时多使用的是预先拟定好的合同文本，大学生就业者只有签与不签的选择，很少也很难与用人单位讨价还价，使劳动合同事实上成为格式条款。虽然格式条款具有节省成本、提高效率的作用，但其广泛运用导致了诸多问题的产生。在劳动合同中，格式条款的不合理主要体现在：第一，用人单位回避提醒义务，使大学生难以注意限制自身权利的条款；第二，用人单位免除自身责任；第三，用人单位注明劳动合同条款的最终解释权归自己拥有，一旦发生争执，大学生往往由于已经承认格式条款而处于不利的地位。鉴于格式条款存在的问题，很多学者认为格式条款是对合同自由的破坏，甚至有的学者将其称为“合同的死亡”21。**
**_一_ 加强大学生就业保护的对策**
**加强大学生就业的保护必须注重多管齐下，需要大学生自身以及高校和社会的共同努力，建立良好的就业环境。**
**(一)发挥政府的政策引导和行为主导作用**
**政府对大学生就业市场应进行干预，采取相应的措施：建立全国性就业信息的公开机制，矫正因信息不对称给大学生带来的影响；对进人招聘场所或人才交流中心的用人单位进行事先资格审核，严惩招聘市场中的歧视行为和违法行为，规范就业市场；尽快制定和完善非正规部门或灵活就业的社会保障制度；对于自主创业和面向基层的大学生，政府部门应该多提供优惠政策，加强政策引导，扩大影响，保证社会对人才的需求，又实现大学生资源合理配置。此外，营造有利于大学生就业的社会氛围。一方面，有必要加大宜传力度，通过正确的舆论来引导大学生面向基层、面向实践，降低家庭与大学生超过现实情形的就业预期；另一方面，广泛调动社会力量尤其是社会团体，共同推进大学生就业工作。**
**(二)探索高校对大学生就业的法律保护**
**目前侵犯大学生就业合法权益事件时有发生，有条件的学校和地方应该把大学生就业权益保障纳人学校的重要议事日程，组织成立大学生就业权益保障与服务中心等专门机构，为大学生在求职过程中出现的法律问题提供法律咨询，**
**并帮助受侵害的大学生制定适当的维权方案，保护其合法权益。同时，还可以利用网络渠道，开设“大学生在线维权服务”，设置专门的电子邮箱，接受电子邮件咨询，接受当面咨询，提供法律建议及维权方案，宣传权益保护知识。要建立完善的信息服务网络，依托便利、快捷的网络信息服务平台，广开信息渠道，注重信息的搜集整理与反馈，让大学生充分了解就业市场行情和动态，帮助大学生及时、迅速地抢占就业市场。此外，针对目前的严峻就业形势，高校还应加强大学生的全程就业教育、职业教育和择业，进一步加强对学校培养目标的科学定位，改革教学内容和教学方法，开设与劳动、实习、就业有关的选修课，以市场为需求，加强对大学生劳动法律意识的指导、培训，开展一系列劳动法专题讲座。**
**(三)增强大学生就业中的自我法律保护**
**对大学生而言，首先，认清形势转变就业观念，树立自强自立意识，以积极乐观的心态适应市场的需求；着眼于长远的发展，加强竞争意识，增强择业主动性，树立终身学习的理念。其次，大学毕业生要准确定位，规划好职业生涯，掌握择业技巧。最后，大学生应该加强对国家劳动就业法律法规的学习，不仅熟悉掌握实体权利，而且得掌握程序规则，当发生劳动争议时，寻求法律保护途径和争议解决程序规则，运用法律手段维护自己的合法权益，要勇于向上级主管部门和学校进行申诉并听取他们的处理意见，同时也可以提交当地的劳动仲裁机构进行调解和仲裁，或直接向人民法院提起诉讼。**
**除了法律意识、维权意识，毕业生还应当具有证据意识。法律是用证据说话的，大学生在就业过程中应“多留一个心眼”，牢固树立证据意识。证据意识的培养主要体现在三个方面：一是收集证据的意识，要求大学生在就业时要有意识地叫对方出示或者提供相关资料，来佐证一定的事实，如要求公司出示营业执照、要对方出示表明身份的证件等；二是保存证据的意识，要求大学生注意保存现有的证据，以便将来在仲裁或诉讼时支持自己的观点，如要注意保存单位在招聘时的海报，与单位往来的传真、邮件等；三是运用证据的意识，大学生要有用证据证明案件事实的意识，知道什么样的事实需要什么样的证据证明，知道一定事实的举证责任是在对方还是己方等等。**
**诚信意识不可缺少。大学生诚信意识的培养主要包括两个方面，一是大学生自己在求职过程中必须如实向用人单位介绍自己的情况，要实事求是。如果大学生故意隐瞒自身情况、欺骗单位，可能导致就业协议无效，并要承担缔约过失责任；更为重要的一点是要能够意识到用人单位是不是诚信，比如意识到单位介绍的情况是不是真实、其招聘的真实目的是什么等。**
**(四)健全相关的法律法规，完善立法保护**
**目前我国针对大学生就业权益保护方面还不完善，建议尽快制定《大学生权益保护法》、《反劳动就业歧视法》，进一步完善现有的《劳动法)。尽管《就业促进法》专章规定了就业歧视，但操作性不强，建议通过立法明确规定就业歧视的概念、种类、法律责任、救济方式与途径等，规范用人单位的用人行为和保障劳动者的就业权。另外，要加强可法保障，落实侵权诉讼，畅通救济途径，保障救济权利实现。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]黄永乐.对高校就业市场中违约与侵权现象的法律思考\[J\].黑龙江教育研究，2007，(6).**
**\[2\]梁彗星.民商法论丛(第2卷)\[M\].北京：法律出版社，1994.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 我国高校专业评估：历史、问题及发展策略
刘自团
(厦门大学教育研究院，福建厦门361005)
摘要：我国的高校专业评估工作自开展以来，已经历了零星实践、试点和扩大试点并逐步推开三个阶段。在取得巨大成就的同时，它在评估的体系、标准和主体等方面还存在着一些突出的问题。为了更好地发挥专业评估的作用，应积极构建科学的专业评估体系，不同类型、层次高校的专业评估要分类进行指导，专业评价主体要从单一走向多元，““按类招生”的专业评估要突出学校自我评价。
关键词：高校；专业；专业评估；高等教育评估
中图分类号： G647 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1008-0627(2008)04-0072-05
专业评估作为一种高等教育质量保障活动，是评估主体依据一定的评估日的和标准，利用可行的评估手段，对高校专业所进行的价值判断的过程。它既是对高校各种专业教育质量的评判，也是高校办学水平评估的重要组成部分。我国的高校专业评估工作自20世纪七、八十年代开始开展以来，目前已成为我国高等教育评估的一种重要形式。本文就我国开展高校专业评估的历史作系统梳理，并就其中存在的问题作深入分析，以期今后能为进-步推进我国高校专业评估工作有所裨益。
一、历史回顾
我国高校专业评估是随着高等教育评估的研究和实践的发展而发展起来的。。参照我国高等教育评估的阶段划分，依据专业评估的范围、主体、目的及内容等的不同，可以将我国高校专业评估的历史划分为以下三个阶段。
(一)专业评估的零星实践阶段(1978年至1985年4月)
1978年党的十一届三中全会后，由于恢复正常教学秩序和开展教育改革的需要，
一
一些高校开始在某些教育活动中开展教育评估工作。而教育行政部门正式提出对高校进行评估是1983年，在当年召开的高教工作会议上原教育部正式提出要对重点院校进行评议。之后，高校中的教育评估活动开始活跃起来。专业评估在这一吋期主要表现为--些高等学校自行组织的校内专业评估和个别地区教育主管部门组织的专业办学水平评估，如1984年同济大学组织专业评估委员会对本校的专业进行了评估，并根据评估的结果对专业进行了分类；1985年4到6月，上海市高教局组织对全市二十所高等院校的二十四个本、专科管理类专业点进行了一次评估，重点是评估各专业的教学水平、教材质量和基础设施等。这些高校内部和地区性的专业评估实践活动，尽管是零星的，并且存在不够完善之处，但却对我国高等学校专业办学水平评估起了有益的探索作用。
(二)专业评估的试点阶段(1985年5月至1989年12月)
1985年5月，中共中央《关于教育体制改革的决定》颁布之后，包括高校专业评估在内的高等教育评估活动开始在全国范围内有组织、有计划地开展起来。但由于对评估缺乏深入的了解，再加上没有相应的实践基础、因此全国性的评估活动开始了最基础的探索实践阶段—试点阶段。在有关部门的大力推动下，全国性的专业评估试点工作也正式开始启动，根据工作中心的不同，整个专业评估试点工作又可以分为前后两个阶段。
收稿日期：2008-03-05
作者简介：刘自团(1975-)，男，河南汝州人，厦门大学教育研究院博士研究生。
前一阶段截至到1987年6月，是专业评估的研究和试点准备阶段。其起始标志是1985年6月原国家教委在黑龙江省镜泊湖召开的“高等工程教育评估问题专题讨论会”。在这次会议上国家教委决定以高等工程本科教育评估试点为突破11，逐步建立高等教育评估制度。根据这次会议的部署，工业院校评估试点分专业学科办学水平评估、高等学校办学水平综合评估和课程评估三个层次进行，专业学科办学水平评估由于其范围广、可比性大，是学校评估的基础，从而被确定为三个层次中的重点。之后，这三个层次评估试点分别召开工作会议，建立了相应的组织。专业学科办学水平试点单位会议于1986年3月在湖南大学召开，原机械工业部、电子工业部和城乡建设环境保护部分别就自己负责的机械制造工艺与设备专业、计算机及应用专业和供热通风与空调工程专业等试点专业学科评估指标体系初步方案作了介绍，并制订出供评估试点单位实测用的指标体系与实测表。会后，各专业又选取部分试点高校，经过多次实测后对评估指标体系和评估实施方案进行了修改和完善，为下一阶段评估试点实测做好了方案上的准备：
后一阶段截至到1989年12月，是专业评估试点开展阶段。其起始的标志是1987年6月原国家教委在西北工业大学召开的“高等工程教育评估试点工作会议”。会议在总结评估研究相试点准备工作的情况和经验基础上，又部署了下一个阶段的评估试点工作，制定了三个层次评估试点的方案。为了使评估试点能稳步进行，国家教委对专业办学水平的具体部署是稳定范围，每个专业各选择25~30个专业点进行试点工作。评估试点工作从1987年6月开始，到1989年结束，全国共有80多所高等工科学校参加了上述三个层次的试点工作。1989年12月国家教委在郑州解放军炮兵指挥学院召开的高等教育评估试点总结会议，高等工业学校教育评估取得了可贵的实践经验。
这一阶段与国家有关部委统一专业评估试点相对应的是各省、市教育行政部门组织的专业评估实践活动。如广东省高等教育局于1986年5月制订了《广东省高等医学院校医学专业(本科)办学水平评估方案》，并于 11月组织专家评估组对全省8所医学院校医学专业办学水平进行了评估；1989年，河南省教委曾组织对全省19所大专院校的中文专业的评估等。总结这一时期专业评估试点工作的主要特点是：校际间相同专业的比较评估，评估不排名次，其目的是诊断教育工作状况，交流教育工作经验，促进互相学习，共同提高。\[
(三)专业评估的扩大试点并逐步推开阶段(1990年至今)
1990年10月，国家教委又发布了《普通高等学校教育评估暂行规定》，这是高等学校评估走向规范化的标志，专业评估由此也进入了扩大试点并逐步推开的新阶段。这一时期专业评估有以下几个特点：
第一，全国性的专业评估试点工作进一步扩大。如1993年9到10月，按照国家教委的部署，应用化学专业评估专业组对山东大学、青岛大学、华东理工大学、复旦大学进行了化学专业评估的试点工作。3到20世纪90年代中期前后，专业评估已成为我国开展高等教育评估的最主要、最基本的形式。
第二，一些带有专业认证性质的评估工作开始开展。1996年，上海市教育委员会和上海市旅游事业管理局共同对本市普通高校旅游管理专业开展社会评估。根据评估方案中有关评估原则和方法的介绍，该评估是选优评估和合格评估(鉴定)相结合。首先进行合格评估(鉴定)，获得合格的专业由上海市教育委员会和上海市旅游事业管理局共同颁发合格铜牌和证书。然后在此基础上，再进行选优评估。该评估虽然尚不能称作严格意义上的专业认证，但它至少已经包含了认证的成分。
第三，专业评估的标准开始向国际看齐。1990年6月，建设部成立了建筑学专业教育评估委员会，并于1991年11月组织对清华、同济、天津、东南大学等4所大学建筑类专业进行试点评估工作。该专业评估一开始就瞄准国际标准，为我国建立建筑学专业职业学位评估制度并与有关国家达到互相承认创造了条件。之所以这样说，是因为建立注册建筑师制度是我国建筑学与国际接轨的重要途径，而这项工作最根本的基础就是学历的承认和建筑学本科专业评估结论是否能够得到国际上
的认可。因此，要建立注册建筑师制度首先要制定专业教育际准，进行专业教育评估，这是实现注册建筑师资格国际相互认可的首要条件。4同时，该专业评估也为其他建筑类专业开展评估奠定了很好的基础，参照建筑学专业的评估，我国又开展了对城市规划、土木工程、建筑环境和设备、工程管理等建筑工程专业的评估工作。
第四，社会专业团体开始参与到专业评估中来。1993年，第一届全国高等学校建筑工程专业教育委员会经国家建设部批准成立，委员会主要由工程教育界和工程界的资深学者和工程师组成，具有专业权威性，其中，教授占44%、高级工程师占44%、建设部和教育部有关负责人占12%。该委员会利用5年左右的时间分两批对提出申请的21所高等学校的土本工程专业点进行了市核性评估，最终18个专业点获得通过。
第五，评估的类型更加多样。除了地区性和校内评估外，由社会中介机构开展的评估活动也如火如荼地开展起来，如广东管理科学院曾在2002和2003年分别对全国高校的11个学科门、71个学科类、258个本科专业进行了排名。
二、问题分析
我国高校专业评估自开展以来在促进高校学科专业建设和提高教学教育质量方面所起的作用，大家是有目共睹的。但随着专业评估实践的迅速发展，其中也反映出一些问题，正严重影响着我国高校专业评估地进一步深入开展。
(一)没有将专业评估与本科教育工作水平评估很好地区分开
专业评估与本科教育工作水平评估尽管都是高等教育评估的重要形式，并且在评内容上还存在着交叉的一面，但专业评估远远没有本科教学工作水平的评估范围宽泛。本科教学工作水平评估可以从办学指导思想、师资队伍、教学条件与利用、教学建设与改革、教学管理、学风、教学效果等角度全方位地进行审视，既可以明确学校本科教学工作的传统，又能突出高校自身的办学特色。面对于专业评估来讲，它只是对某个专业建设和发展情况的考察，其观测的范围仅限于教学条件、教学管理、教育质量和社会评价等与专业建设相关的情况。在实际的评估实践中，由于人们没有科学地将专业评估与本科教育工作水平很好地区分开来，因此是一些大学的本科专业评估指标体系与教育部对高校本科教学水平的评估指标几乎完全一致。虽然也能比较全面地反映专业教学工作的各个方面，但一些关键因素没有体现出来，如专业满足社会需要的程度，培养计划与培养目标的符合程度等，这反映了人们对综合评估与专业评估关系的模糊认识。\[6\]
(二)不同类型、不同层次高校的专业办学水平评估采用同一标准的做法不够科学
我国高等学校不仅在办学类型上存在着培养目标的差异，就是同一类型的学校由于办学历史或办学基础的不同，在办学水平方面也存在着层次上的不同。同一个专业不分本科院校与专科院校、重点大学和非重点大学，而提出统一的培养目标和规格、统一的课程设置和教学条件要求，规定采用统一的教学模式，最后用统一的标准衡量人才培养的质量，这显然与社会对人才多层次、多类型、多规格的需求是相悖的。在许多省、市开展的地区性专业评估实践中，往往是本、专科院校的同寸-一专业用同一个指标体系，用相同的评估标准，这在一定程度上模糊了本科院校和专科院校在人才培养类型上的差异。而早期进行的本科专业评估试点工作，往往是拟定评估指标体系后，先选择少数学校进行实测，对评估指标体系进行完善后，才在全国范围内进行试点，被选择实测的学校，往往是办学水平较高或办学基础较好的高校，由此制定出的评估指标体系，在全国所有开设该专业的高校进行试点评估，其操作程序和评估结论有待推敲。以建筑学专业为例，实测选择的是清华大学、同济大学、天津大学、东南大学，这四所大学的建筑类专业差不多在当时代表着我国建筑学专业的最高水平，用在此基础上得出的评估指标体系来衡量全国所有高校建筑学专业的办学水平，本身这种价值判断就存在着某种偏向。单一的评价体系与多样化的高等教育系统之间的矛盾使专业评估受到的质疑不断增加。
(三)专业评估的主体相对还比较单一
专业是高校最基本的教学单位，其建设和发展是学校办学的基础，是影响高校办学整体水平的关键。对于专业这个复杂的事物做出价值判断，应当是多角度多方面的，既要考虑是否符合教育的基本规律，又要判断是否遵从教育管理的基本原则，还有考察其对社会人才需求的满足程度，因此，专业评估的主体应由来自各方面的专家和人士组成。。但由于我国的高校基本上都是国家办学，因此对高等教育进行的评估多源白于政府的行为，其直接动机在于加强教育行政管理。1990年国家教育委员会发布的《普通高等学校教育评估暂行规定》就明确指出思想收治教育、专业(学科)、课程或其他教育工作的单项评估，主要由国务院有关部门和省(自治区、直辖市)教育行政部门组织实施。也就是说，与西方发达国家教育为本的价值取向不同，我国的高等教育评估较强地体现了政府管理部门的意愿：就已开展的专业评估实践来讲，评估的主体还比较单一，或是高校所属的主管部委，或是教育行政管理部门，即使有学术机构和社会团体参与，也是以政府行政部门组织为主，专业评估还没有很好地将其可能涉及到的多个主体结合起来。
(四)按类招生的培养模式不利于开展校际专业办学水平评估
随着高等教育改革地不断深入和素质教育地不断推进，很多高校，特别是一些重点大学都开始在部分院系实行按学院和学科大类招生，学生入学后经过基础课的共同学习，在人学二年级下学期或三年级，根据学院提供的专业选修课程要求，按照自身的发展目标、兴趣特长和能力等来确定专业或专业方向。实行“按类招生”虽然拓宽了高校的专业面向，增强了高校适应社会需要的灵活性和自主性，给予了学生更多的学习自主性和选择性，但同时也给专业评估增加了一定的难度。在具体评估时，是按专业大类统一制定评估指标体系，还是根据不同专业或专业方向分别来评估，这确实是个崭新的课题，需要专业权威、教育行政主管部门和社会用人单位共同来完成。
三、发展策略
针对上述分析中所反映出的问题，，今后我国高校的专业评估工作应在以下几个方面做出努力。
(一)构建科学的专业评估体系
专业评估作为我国高校办学水平评估的重要组成部分，目前还没有建立起单独的评估体系。\[8\]今后，评估在高校的专业建设方面将发挥更大作用，因此构建科学的高校专业评估指标体系就显得卡常必要。专业评估体系的构建要注意从以下几个方面做起：首先，是在教育部的统一部署下，依据高等教育专业评估的目标，努力把教育行政部门、专家学者以及社会用人部门等不同评估主体的人才培养观与质量观统一起来，使专业评估既体现政府意志，还能突出其专业权威性和社会性。其次，在具体的操作程序和发展目标上力争与国际惯例接轨，为进一步实现高校专业认证和我国就业市场准入打下基础，最终实现专业评估、专业认证与职业资格准入制度的衔接与统一。再次，在评估的具体标准和细则上，既要涵盖专业的人才培养方案、办学条件、教育过程与管理、教育质量等环节，同时又要突出各要素在专业人才培养工作中的地位和作用；既要体现不同专业的特点，又要考虑同一专业不同办学条件和不同社会需求的差异等，多层面多角度积极构建以全面提高办学质量和水平为内涵的专业评估体系。
(二)不同类型、不同层次高校的专业评估要分类进行指导
对不同类型、不同层次高校的专业评估进行分类指导既是科学进行高等教育评估的前提，也是我国高等教育发展的实际需要。首先，大众化高等教育体系中，不同类型、不同层次高校的人才培养目标和规格不同，专业评估也应当体现其多样化和多层次性。其次，同一类型高校，由于各白的特色与优势，以及所具有的条件和所处的环境不同，在发展目标与定位上也存在着较大的差异。为此，同一专业在性质类别不同、办学水平不同的高校之间进行评估，其评估标准的指标体系框架可以是一样的，但具体的内涵及其定量要求则应该不同。最后，就专业评估本身而言也要有层次上的区分，不仅要开展保证专业教育最低质量的专业认证、说明专业办学状况的水平评估，还要进行各
式各样的专业排名。其中认证是基础，是最低标准，而专业层次的水平评估和专业排名是较高的要求，可以促进我国专业教育质量的不断提升，促进社会各界对高等教育质量的关注和参与。\[9只有如此，，专业评估才能更加符合高等教育发展的实际，专业评估的结论才能被人们所信服，从而才能更好地发挥专业评估的积极作用和意义。
(三)专业评价主体要从单一走向多元
为了更好地发挥专业评估在专业建设和高校办学水平中的作用，高校的专业评估工作应吸收更多的专业学术机构、社会团体和专家参与。评价主体的多元化不仅可以发挥各评价主体的积极性与创造性，使他们从不同的价值观和不同的视角去市视评估，通过不断地协商和交流，最终促进学科专业评价体系的不断完善与发展，而且还可以增强社会和高校之间的交流和相互理解，使专业评估既监控学校的教学质量，又反映社会、行业对人才质量的要求，从而成为教育与社会的一个接口。
(四)“按类招生”的专业评估要突出学校自我评价
针对近年来诸高校所进行的“按类招生”改革，国家教育行政部门要积极转变在专业评估中的传统角色和作用，努力发挥好宏观指导和咨询、服务功能，使专业评估从之前的政府主导转向高校内部自评为主。在具体的评估实践中，教育行政部门可以根据专业的培养目标和规格的相关要求，制定供各评估高校参考的基本的评估指标体系和评估标准，而具体的评估方案和措施，由高校根据自身的具体情况制定。唯有如此，才能进一步调动高校的办学积极性，不断促进高校的专业建设，从而能更好地去适应社会和经济发展的要求。
参考文献
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上海市高教局教学处.专业评估的一种尝试一上海高校管理类专业对口检查报告围\].上海高教研究，1986(1)：69~72.
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李化树，中国高等教育评估制度及其发展趋势\[\].中国高等教育评估，1995(2)； 38~42
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应用化学专业评估专家组.应用化学专业评估研究与实践\[\].中国高等教育评估，1994(2)： 48~50.
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李先逵.不断总结，把专业教育评估工作推向新的高度—一第二届全国高等学校建筑学专业教育评估委员会成立会议讲话\[\].高等建筑教育、1995(1)：1-4.
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董秀华.专业认证：中国高教评估不可忽视的视角\[J\].中国高等教育评估，2004(4)： 9~14.
刘春惠，顾留华
大学专业评估：内部评估与外部评估的比较\[\]，北京邮电大学学报，2007(1)：74~79.
1.7\]
周志刚，王致和.高等工程教育本科专业评估的实践与思号J\]中国高等教育评估，1994(1)： 44~46.
\[8\]
张彦通，李茂国，张志英，关于我国高等教育专业评估工作的者干思考\[\].高等日程教育研究，2005(3)：37~40.
i9\]
张彦通，韩哓燕.积极实施专业评估完善我国高等教育评估体系.高教探索.2005(2)：50~51.
A Review and Analysis of Problems with Program Evaluation in Chinese Colleges and Universities
LIU Zi-tuan
(Institute of Education， Xiamen University， Xiamen 361005， China)
Abstract： Program cvaluation in Chinese colleges and universities has made great progress in three stages： the sporadic practice， trial and promotion. However， some problems exist in evaluation system， criteria and objects. In order to give full play of its role， the author holds that scientific system of program evaluation be established to guide the assessment in varied levels and classes of colleges and universities， with diversified objects to be evaluated. Self-assessment can be developed in the institutions with classified cnrollment.
Key words： colleges and universities； major； program evaluation； higher learning evaluation
(责任编辑 裴云) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 计算机图书写作架构模式的探讨
**孙学瑛**
**电子工业出版社，100036，北京**
**摘要运用良好的图书写作架构模式，能让作者写作起来更为轻松便利、有据可依；据此出版的图书思路清晰，使读者阅读起来能迅速把握全书主旨，易产生学习共鸣；还使编辑对于稿件的定位更加迅捷明朗，做到心中有数。计算机图书发展至今已形成不少成熟的可遵循的写作架构模式。笔者通过十余年的编辑工作总结和对市场数百种计算机图书的调研，总结出5种写作架构模式，分别是从入门到精通式、大全宝典式、教程教学式、案例精选式和精华内容总结式。**
**关键词 计算机图书；IT出版；写作模式；架构；畅销书；互联网+时代**
DOI：10.16510/j.cnki.kjycb.2015.07.014
据2014年开卷报告统计，科技出版占整体出版市场的8.0%，而计算机图书在其中占据主要部分。相对于社科等出版门类，计算机图书是一个偏小的门类，但因其单本价格高且被大众普遍接受，计算机图书成为出版市场中的一枝独秀。尤其是在当前互联网+"时代信息技术被提升到基
次认证、优中选优。读者对照本书，可以一目了然地分辨中药材的真伪。本书已成为全国中药生产、经销、检验、使用、科研、教学和监督管理部门等中药材各领域人员的必备工具书。
6 结语
**高品质的图书离不开编辑对图书内容体系的整体把控和与作者积极有效的沟通，这样才能使作者的写作始终与编辑的选题意图、内容架构保持一致，这样编写出来的书稿，既保证了科学性和权威性，又有与众不同的图书创意。书稿为根，编辑加工为本，经过编辑深耕细作、查缺补漏、润色**
**础设施建设这一高度的大背景下，随着计算机技术研发人员的薪资越来越高，学习计算机技术的人也越来越多，再加上计算机技术更新速度日益加快，计算机图书这个独特的小众出版领域将会更加壮大。计算机图书如果能遵从良好的架构模式，可以使读者阅读和学习起来更轻松，那么就会实现更好的销量。本文将梳理目前市场上计算机图书常见的几种架构模式，并分析其写作特点和成书难易程度。**
1 从入门到精通式
**“从入门到精通式”是计算机图书写作架构模式当中应用比较广泛、并被读者普遍接受的模式。说它应用广泛，可将从入门到精通”作为关键词在目前三大售书网站上搜索，截至2015年6月1日，在当当网可以搜索到3204种图书产品，在京东上有4507种，在亚马逊上有1721种。实际上，这种写作架构模式还包括由从新手到高手”入门与实战”从基础到实践”从入门到实战"从入**
修饰的图书，方具有旺盛的生命力。
**参考文献**
**\[11\]中国出版协会2013年工作总结和2014年工作要点** \[EB/OL\].(2014-04-15)\[2015-03-25\].http：//wWW. **pac.org.cn/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=sho** **w&catid=30&id=625.**
**2\]** **杨迎春.提高图书品质的三个环节\[J\].科技与出版，2015(1)：38-41.**
\[ **3** 3 **\]鹫尾贤也.编辑力\[M\].陈宝莲，译.杭州：浙江人民出版社，2013.**
**门到实践”等关键字构成书名的图书。再从2014年9月开卷数据中进行筛选，在2000个数据当中，”从入门到精通”的图书有214个，占超过10%的份额，可见其在计算机图书出版领域当中占有重要位置。这种筛选同样能够扩展到这一模式所涵盖的相关关键词，如入门与实战”从基础到实践”从入门到实战”从入门到实践”等。**
**那么，这种深受计算机图书读者喜爱的模式有什么规律可循呢?如何运用这种模式来架构好的计算机图书呢?这一模式有什么样的写作规律呢?笔者结合自己近15年策划出版的400多种图书的经验以及对市场上近30种此种模式图书进行的分析，试图从模式构成、写作规律、模式应用三方面来回答以上问题。**
**1.1 模式构成**
从入门到精通式，顾名思义，运用这种模式撰写的图书会尝试为读者呈现一种针对某一种或某一组合软件从入门到精通、从新手到高手、从理论到实战的学习路线，因此其模式一般会涵盖以下几个方面。
**(1)软件初识：通常第一章或者前两章是针对主题软件的简介，包括软件特点、应用范围、版本、学习方法、环境搭建等相关内容。**
**(2)软件剖析：针对软件的剖析是整本图书的主要内容，也是重点内容，这一内容同样按照从容易到困难的顺序进行安排。**
**(3)综合案例：一般以一个能够综合前面所讲基础知识的大型案例来结束整本书。读者学习完成前面的内容，最后再把一个综合案例理解透彻，基本就能达到精通”或者高手”的水平。**
**这一写作模式可基于上述内容再加以细化，如有的畅销书在每一章会配备相应的教学视频、实战练习题、技巧小贴士、拓展阅读等来充实图书内容。笔者通过调查得知，在这类图书畅销榜中，教学视频光盘是必备的。**
**1.2 写作规律**
**由模式构成可以看出，从入门到精通式虽然有精通”，但其大部分内容主要定位于入门”，是针对初学者而设计的，在行文和结构安排上要充分考虑初学者的特点，因此，这类模式图书的写**
**作规律通常包括以下几个要素。**
**(1)行文简单：尽可能用比较简单的语言描述知识，避免使用生僻和高冷的字词，让读者能轻松理解图书内容。**
(2)讲解详尽：尽可能把每一个操作步骤的内容设置得细致而全面，最好用比较新颖的版式来表现，使读者在阅读时一目了然，快速掌握书中内容。
(3)实例典型：尽可能把实际工作当中要用到的各类知识透彻详尽地用典型的实例来呈现，最好每一个知识点设置一个实例和一个练习，以增强初学者的学习印象。
**(4)小栏目贴心：写作者可以用心设置一些类似于注意"、说明”和技巧”等小栏目，作为读者学习中的小窍门和警示点，让读者更快掌握应用技巧，实现从入门到精通的学习目的。**
1.3模式应用
**从入门到精通式广泛应用于编程语言、办公软件、绘图软件、新手学电脑应用、网页设计、黑客攻防等内容的图书。这一写作模式在计算机图书中应用的历史比较长，很多作者很早就擅长以此模式撰写图书，因其非常符合读者期望用一本书把软件学会”的学习心理，所以一直久用不衰。但是近两年来，这一架构模式的图书销量有下降趋势，而应用范围也发生了一些改变，比如开始应用于一些诸如游戏开发软件( Unity )等新兴软件之类的图书。**
**_2_ 大全宝典式**
**大全宝典式，其实是从入门到精通式的大全版。相对于从入门到精通式，它更全面、更细致，几乎囊括所有图书所写主题的基础和高级知识，也是计算机图书应用比较广泛、深受读者喜爱的一种写作模式，读者一般把这类图书当作查询字典"。这一模式图书的销售关键词一般包括完全自学手册"、权威指南”等。通过分析一系列经典且市场表现良好的宝典"丛书，包括《Linux宝典》定价99元)《Python宝典》定价79.8元)《SQL Server 2012宝典》定价89元 入《SQL宝典》定价79元)《网页制作与网站建设宝典(第2版)》(含CD光盘1张，定价99元)，笔者总结出大全宝典式图书的模式构成、写作规律和模式应用。**
**2.1 模式构成**
**这一写作模式的图书多具备查询字典”的功能，内容多而全，定价一般近百元，其模式构成可以用几个词来概括。**
**(1)全面：以这一模式写作的图书因为要尽量兼顾初级、中级、高级读者，所以在章节的编排和内容的深度、广度设置方面要下足功夫，尽量满足所有读者的学习需求，包括查询和实战功能。**
**(2)细致：因冠吠宝典"二字，所以这类图书的讲解要尽量细致，争取覆盖每一个知识点，最好结合大量实例进行讲解，每一个知识点均配备操作示例，并对每一个操作示例给出详细的操作步骤和注释说明。这样的图书，读者才愿意出高价购买。**
**(3)实用：这一写作模式不能因全”细”而丧失实用性，尽量避免内容冗长，可采用概念和操作实例相结合的方法，在实例中总结概念，在概念中拓展实例。**
**(4)易写：此模式图书因为内容全且价格贵，看似很难撰写，但只要摸清软件使用的规律，按照安装、配置、使用、问题分析等环节分别组织各章节内容，写起来反而会很省力。**
**2.2写作规律**
**大全宝典式不同于从入门到精通式，它需要作者付出极大的智慧、体力和耐力。因其同时覆盖初级、中级、高级读者，作者的写作角度须据知识点的难易程度而变化。适合初学者的知识点，文字须简单、清晰且易懂；适合中级读者的内容，虽不必过于细致，但也要交代全面；适合高级读者的内容，可对一些基础知识做标注，提示高级读者可以跳过这些知识，以重点学习适合自己的内容。大全宝典式的写作规律可总结如下。**
**(1)内容要全面覆盖图书主题的方方面面，作者须做好充分的素材和心理方面的双重准备。**
**(2)写作基本思路可按照从入门到精通式来安排，但是内容涵盖面一定要比从入门到精通式更全面、更细致。**
(3)知识点当中最好带有实例操作，让读者学习起来更轻松。
**2.3 模式应用**
**从上述所列经典图书得知，大全宝典式的应**
**用范围基本集中于编程语言、开发工具以及一些专有软件。**
**3 教程教学式**
**如前文所述，从入门到精通式是最被读者普遍接受的一种模式，但实际上，教程教学式才是计算机图书应用最多的一种模式，这两种模式有时也会有交集。在京东计算机与网络”类目下以“教程”为关键词筛选，可以搜索到10.4万种图书商品，远远超过从入门到精通式，其中也有不少与从入门到精通式图书重合。这种模式最典型的图书大都冠以完全自学教程”的书名。**
**3.1 模式构成**
**教程教学式图书主要引导读者理解相关知识，或者指导其完成某种任务，内容包括向读者介绍本图书主题的历史、作用、特性等。读者如果需要了解某一软件或者编程语言，大多首先倾向于选择教程。其模式构成具有如下特点。**
**(1)内容主体基本由图书主题的各个分支知识点构成，好的教程教学式图书会覆盖主题涉及的所有知识点。**
**(2)每个知识点一般会配备小结、复习题和练习题，用心的作者还会配备关键点学习、实战练习等。**
**(3)因为是教程，所以这一模式的图书中，课件是必不可少的，配备课件以方便教师选作教程，在教学当中使用。**
**3.2 _2_ 写作规律**
**教程教学式一般会以图书主题的各个知识点为主要线索构架，因此其写作规律主要有以下几点。**
**(1)覆盖图书主题的主要知识点，须细致到位，不可模棱两可，容不得半点差错。**
(2)教程教学式有时也可加入一些知识点的相应实例，以便于读者加深理解，尤其是在一些书名为完全自学教程"的图书中，这更是必不可少的。
**(3)教程教学式一般会配有练习题及答案，所以在写作之前，须针对读者水平，分章节设计好相应题目。**
(4)配备课件，包括教学视频和PPT课件，以方便教师教学。
(5)写作时要同时考虑教师和学生的需求，站
在教育者的角度(包括培训师和学校教师)写作，并使用适合学生水平的措辞。
3.3 模式应用
**教程教学式被广泛应用于编程语言、图形图像软件、办公软件以及专有软件等相关内容的计算机图书。尤其突出的是图形图像软件图书，代表性作品《Photoshop完全自学教程》畅销多年，深受读者喜爱；在编程语言领域当中，该模式应用的经典案例是《C++ Primer》，这是一本经典教材，在读者心目当中地位极高。**
_4_ 案例精选式
**案例精选式是计算机图书架构模式当中最容易写作的，也是比较受读者欢迎的。跟随书中案例一步一步地操作完成就能取得成果，这样的学习方式很容易使读者获得成就感，因而读者更愿意选择这一模式的图书。**
**4.1 模式构成**
**在京东计算机与网络"类目下输入例”这个关键字，即可大致筛选这类模式的图书，搜索结果为1546种图书商品。从数量上看虽然比前述模式少很多，但其也是计算机图书必不可少的一种写作模式。这类模式的代表图书主要包括《中文版 Photoshop CC实战618例X《C#开发实战1200例》《PHP开发实战1200例》等。可以看出，这类模式的图书基本上用 NN例"来结束书名，于读者是碗大实惠”，例子越多就越受读者欢迎。该模式构成具有如下特点。**
(1)不从软件初识着手，直接从案例开始切入，每章内的案例按从易到难的顺序设置，但章节之间不一定是循序渐进的，所以读者可以从自己感兴趣的任意一章开始学习。这类图书基本定位于中级和高级读者，所以没有软件入门知识。
(2)讲解案例的过程中会涉及操作讲解、技巧分享、思路分析等内容，作者须把案例的内涵充分表述出来，同时还要体现作者的专业功底。同样的案例，不同作者写出的效果完全不一样。经验丰富的作者会通过案例授予读者使用经验、技巧以及行业知识，读者读完、学完、操作完书中案例即可实现技术上的大幅提升。
(3)因为该类图书的主要内容由案例组成，所以教学视频光盘必不可少。光盘录制视频的质量也较为重要，讲解声音宏厚、教学气场强大的视频更容易吸引读者继续学习下去。
**_4.2_ 写作规律**
**案例式写作要求作者在写作前期收集大量的案例，再按知识点难易程度综合布局整本图书。笔者经过阅读市场上的30余本相关图书之后，总结其写作规律如下。**
(1)精选案例。案例的挑选非常有技巧，既要具备实战性又要适合读者学习，作者须在二者当中权衡并取得最佳平衡点。同时，针对不同的软件，精选案例的规则不尽相同，作者也须针对主题仔细权衡。
**(2)各案例当中的体例和版式须精心安排。案例类图书书的市场竞争激烈，如果案例不是很出众，那么由案例总结出的技巧、经验和行业知识等内容就须合理且突出，这样才能使读者在学习案例之余有更多收获。**
**(3)文字通顺易懂，对专业术语要细心解释。**
(4)视频光盘须完全、真实地再现案例操作过程。案例类图书的文字远不如视频呈现得直观，所以对光盘制作须投入更多。
4.3 模式应用
**案例式写作最早出现在图形图像软件的相关图书中，如Photoshop、CorelDraw、Flash等 ，尤其是Photoshop应用最为广泛，无论人像处理还是字体特效等内容，均有这一模式写作的图书，而且这一模式曾经在图形图像软件领域的图书中风靡一时，被争相效仿。后来，这一模式逐渐地被应用到编程语言、专用软件的相关图书当中，但一直不如在图形图像领域中应用得广泛。**
5 精华内容总结式
**前文所述的所有模式，基本上已经或者正在成为历史和经典，在当下的互联网大数据时代，速读成为潮流，简读成为时尚，精华内容总结式图书也正在成为新时期的宠儿。精华内容总结式是展现作者个性的一种写作模式，作者发挥自身所长、所好，架构属于自己的图书，或为博客集锦，或是经验之作，亦可是观点集合。因此，笔者对此类模**
**式的研究无法如前述模式那样，通过搜索某一关键词来获得相关素材，只能在自身认知范围内对这一模式进行总结。**
**5.1 模式构成**
**笔者挑选了4本具有代表性的精华内容总结式图书来进行研究，包括《微信公众平台开发最佳实践》定价69元)《和秋叶一起学PPT：又快又好打造说服力幻灯片(第2版)》(彩印，99元)、《数据化管理：洞悉零售及电子商务运营》(全采，59.9元)、《大型网站系统与Java中间件实践》，它们基本是2014年度畅销书榜上的闪耀明星。**
**可以看出，以这一模式写作的图书，书名不再有前述任一模式的标签式痕迹，如从新手到高手”从入门到精通”完全自学教程”等。从书名可以看出，此类图书突显了作者的个性和经验，更有吸引力，更具时代特征。那么这一模式有规律可循吗?可以探析一下其模式构成。**
**(1)突破或者摒弃以往计算机图书的构架模式，通常是作者通过日常经验的积累总结而成，或从博客、Google黑板报、微信公众号等记录中整理、修改而形成。**
(2)此类图书并不一定都遵循从易到难的写作思路，而是从各个并列的方面总结成书，只要是站在趋势前沿的前瞻之作，其销量基本都不错。
(3)此类图书除了对知识点的罗列总结之外，可能还包含一些个性化的题外话，比如职业规划、技术感想、幕后故事(如双十一背后的技术故事等)，读者除了从中学到技术之外，还能读到其他有意思的内容。
**5.22写作规律**
**精华内容总结式的写作相对随意但具有个性，其写作规律大致可总结如下。**
**(1)把准时代的脉搏写作。畅销的内容一定是有价值、对读者有帮助的，所以只要图书主题内容有价值，就可突破固定的架构规则，无限制地组织内容写作。比如《软文营销》一书，作者把平时与读者在论坛上的问答整理成90例，全部写进图书，此书深受读者喜爱，阅读起来不枯燥，且容易查询。**
**(2)小说式技术写作。精华内容总结式不再按照以前枯燥的、一步一步操作的机械模式写作，**
**而可以添加一些故事、人物对话甚至小说情节来提升读者的阅读兴趣，使读者有身临其境之感。**
(3)段落简短、文字有趣，故事性写作居多，有的还配有漫画插图。无论在文字还是版式上，均可彰显作者的个性，尽情发挥其才华。
5.3 模式应用
**精华内容总结式符合时代需求，更多地被网络技术红人和牛人采用，应用于当下流行技术和观点等相关内容的写作，比如微信、大型网站、海量运维、数据分析等，用这种模式写出来的图书，更适合当下读者的阅读口味，有图有数据，有趣而不枯燥，读者容易一气通读完。这种模式的图书使读者愉悦地享受阅读之趣，轻松地学会新兴技术!**
_6_ 结语
**本文所总结的五大计算机图书写作模式，本质上体现了国人学习计算机技术的基本模式：从入门到精通式为读者学习计算机技术提供初级入口；大全宝典式为读者在学习和工作过程中提供参考和查询的依据；教程教学式为读者提供学习范本；案例精选式为读者提供可直接应用于实际工作的案例；精华内容总结式则为读者开阔思路、活跃思维打开一扇门。**
**本文所总结的五大计算机图书写作模式，同时也体现出策划编辑基于读者使用心理的策划思路和出版规划。从入门到精通式适合入门级读者，符合其希望迅速精通某种计算机技术的心理；大全宝典式满足读者查询某种软件包含的各种功能的需求，卖点在一个全”字；用案例精选式写作的图书满足读者拿来就能用的学习心理。但随着互联网的大面积普及，这三种模式正在被逐渐淘汰。此外，教程教学式基于传统教材的思路，每章配备练习题及答案，并最好配备课件，以配合教师教学使用，因此这种模式的经典教程还能长销许多年；精华内容总结式是目前用得较多的模式，干货多、内容独特、符合潮流是这类模式图书的主要卖点。**
**目前，在互联网+”这样的大背景下，传统出版行业，尤其是与互联网技术息息相关的计算机图书出版领域，将会在现存的写作模式基础上不断推陈出新，呈现更多的变化和创新。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **提炼宁波特色核心价值观初探**
**◎冯建波**
值观是人们对周围的客观事价物(包括人、事、物)的意义、重要性的总评价和总看法。一方面表现为价值取向、价值追求，凝结为一定的价值目标：另一方面表现为价值尺度和准则，成为人们判断价值事物有无价值及价值大小的评价标准。核心价值观是社会普遍认同并由人们共同遵守的价值目标和行为准则，因此价值观的表述既能包含人们对理想社会的基本看法，就是我们想建设一个什么样的理想社会，又能包含实现这个目标的基本行动准则，是目标与行为的结合。
**价值观的提炼首先必须要处理好**
**三个关系：**
一是价值观与城市精神的关系。城市精神是一座城市的灵魂，是一种文明素养和道德理想的综合反映，是一种意志品格与文化特色的提炼，是城市市民认同的精神价值与共同追求。城市精神与价值观的相同点是，它们都具有目标性、导向性、阶段性，都是一座城市的共同精神家园。但城市精神更加突出时代性、地域性和外在性，其体现的是城市的精神特征与表象符号，更多强调的是精神的激励作用；而价值观则更加强调普适性和基础性、长远性，体现在其作为齐家治国之本、修身立命之本的意义， _一_ 一个
**通城之光(丁红摄)**
人只要达到了核心价值观的标准和要求，无论其富贵贫贱，无论其顺境逆境，都会获得精神的愉悦感和优越感，对社会而言亦则达到了和谐的境界。
二是价值观与社会特征、发展目标的关系。在我国社会主义建设的新时期，党和国家确定了社会主义建设的阶段性目标和长远目标，对小康建设、现代化建设、和谐社会建设提出了相关的目标要求，并对道德建设提出了相关的要求。例如，中国特色社会主义建设的“富强、民主、文明、和谐”的目标，和谐社会建设的“民主法治、公平正义、诚信友爱、充满活力、安定有序、人与自然和谐相处’28字的基本特征；再如，作为社会主义国家，我们的最终目标是实现“人的自由而全面发展”的共产主义社会目标。这些社会特征和发展目标也是核心价值观提炼的重要因素，它们是价值观的实践展开，是反映奋斗目标、发展主题、政治文明建设任务等要求的工具性范畴，价值观提炼既要为发展目标达成服务，并包含发展目标和社会特征的内容，但核心价值观应该是原点性的概念，是所有实践的最终指向，在表达上更加具有抽象性和基础性，我们完全可以从核心价值观中把它们推导出来。
三是价值观的传承、借鉴与创新的关系。任何国家构建社会核心价值观都离不开本国的传统文化，同时又要借鉴吸收现代文明，实现两者结合。因此，价值观的提炼一方面要注重传统道德文化传承，挖掘传统价值理念在现代社会中的积极内涵，另一方面，
又以开放的姿态借鉴和吸收现代文明成果。日本、韩国、新加坡等亚洲国家十分重视价值观的传承与创新。韩国对社会核心价值观的构建，是将传统儒家文化中的“忠”、“孝”、“礼”等思想作为社会共同的道德标准，又吸收和推行民主、法治、人权、正义等价值观；日本在尊重和继承儒家传统文化的基础上，吸收现代文明的民主、宪政、自由等价值观，同时融合本民族特有的国家崇拜、等级崇拜、神道教文化，形成了重义、重秩序、知礼、爱国以及追求自由、民主的社会核心价值观；新加坡把传统的儒家思想与现代社会的民主、法治、公平、包容等理念相结合，形成了“国家至上，社会为先；家庭为根，社会为本；关怀扶持，尊重个人；求同存异，协商共识；种族和谐，宗教宽容”的“共同价值观”。因此，价值观的提炼，还必须在传承和借鉴的基础上，综合发展目标、发展要求、现实状况，积极进行创新，体现“我们的价值观”的要求。
**提炼宁波特色核心价值观的要素来源：**
第一，要体现社会主义核心价值体系要求。社会主义核心价值体系是党的十六届六中全会首次明确提出的一个科学命题。社会主义核心价值体系在中国整体社会价值体系中居于核心地位，发挥着主导作用，决定着整个价值体系的基本特征和基本方向。社会主义核心价值体系包括四个方面的基本内容，即马克思主义指导思想、中国特色社会主义共同理想、以爱国主义为核心的民族精神和以改革创新为核心的时代精神、以“八荣八耻”为主要内容的社会主义荣辱观。。宁波特色的核心价值观的提炼必须以社会主义核心价值体系为基础，是在宁波实践的基础上，对社会主义核心价值体系的通俗化、、宁波化的精炼表述。社会主义核心价值体系是提炼宁波特色核心价值观之“核”。
第二，要体现中华传统文化的精髓。中华文明源远流长、生生不息的
发展，不仅为中华民族而且为全人类留下宝贵的精神财富，七千年创造的璀璨文化既融合了中华各民族的文化精髓，也博采众长地借鉴吸收了外来的优秀文明成果，形成了融“儒、道、释”于一体的东方文化。在实践中，我们的先辈逐步形成了完整的核心价值体系，既提出了核心价值观，也提出了基本道德观，将“仁、义、礼、智、信”作为核心价值观，称为“五常”在“五常”的基础上，将“孝，悌，忠，信，礼，义，廉，耻”作为社会的基本道德标准，称为“八德”并对个人提出了“温、良、恭、俭、让”品格要求；中华传统文化还十分强调“秩序”、“劳动”“和谐”等观念，这是中华民族延续发展的“文脉”，是当前的核心价值观提炼之“魂”。
第三，要体现世界文明和当代中国发展的成果。经过包括中华民族在内的人类几千年的孜孜探索，人类社会已经形成了共同的价值观念，如平等、自由、仁爱、民主、公平、正义、和平、和谐等价值观念。自“辛亥革命”“五四”以来，中国人民反帝反封建、追求民族独立和国家复兴的脚步一刻也没有停止，特别是“五四”运动使“德先生”(民主)和“赛先生”(科学)的理念成为全体中国人民的共识。新中国成立后，我国在艰苦奋斗、独立自主的旗帜下积极推动社会主义建设，特别是30多年历程的改革开放是中华大地上一场伟大的变革，不仅巨大地推动了经济社会的发展，也在这个发展进程中创造和积累了丰富的精神财富，并成为继续推动改革发展的不竭动力，解放思想、改革开放、开拓创新等理念成为时代的最强音，追求效率、民主法治、公平正义和崇尚科学、终身学习等观念深人人心。这是当前核心价值提炼之“基”。
第四，要体现宁波区域文化的特征。宁波是我国的历史文化名城，有着七千年的“河姆渡”古文化，南宋以来，小以宁波为核心的“浙东学派”开始发展，并在明清时期形成顶峰，“浙东学派”倡导的“经世致用”的实用主义理念渗透到治学治世的各个方面，
“浙东学派”代表人物王阳明提出的“格物致志”、“致良知”等思想引导国人不断追求真理、修炼自己；宁波自古就是我国重要的开放港口，港口文化、开放文化从隋唐开始就承继下来，并造成了宁波人“搏击风浪”、、“海纳百川”、“开放包容”的传统；宁波人在商品经济中讲诚信经营，注重发展实业，灵活应对市场变化，善于创新经营方式，并最终成为“宁波帮”兴盛壮大的精神动力；同时宁波人还素来崇尚“低调节俭”、“乐善好施”、“凭良心做人”等做人准则，并养成了“回报家乡和社会”等桑莘情怀。改革开放以来，宁波人将这些优秀传统精神进一步发扬光大，开拓进取、奋勇争先、脚踏实地造就了宁波新的辉煌。这些地域特色文化精神，既是宁波未来发展的精神支柱，也是提炼宁波特色核心价值观之“根”。
第五，要体现宁波未来发展目标的要求。按照市十二次党代会提出的“两基本”和“四好”目标，今后宁波的发展必须始终坚持主题主线不动摇坚持民生优先不动摇，坚持改革开放不动摇，坚持特色发展不动摇，坚持“三思三创”不动摇，这“五个坚持”，是宁波科学发展、率先发展、特色发展的重要原则和重要关键。目前，开展以思进思变思发展、创业创新创一流为内容的“三思三创”活动，已经作为全面贯彻落实市十二次党代会目标任务的重要抓手和载体，弘扬“三思三创”精神，就是坚持和弘扬改革创新的时代精神，在全社会塑造一种永不自满、永不懈怠、永不停滞、永不言败的精神风貌；同时，在今年的全市宣传思想工作会议上，王辉忠同志关于“忠诚、公正、诚信、明礼、创新、担当”的六种价值取向，丰富和开阔了宁波特色核心价值观提炼的思路，并为提炼工作指明了方向。宁波城市的定位、发展目标和实现目标需要确立的精神支撑，是宁波特色核心价值观提炼之“需”。
(作者为宁波市委党校副校长)责任编辑：邵燕成 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **经济与管理研究**
**乡村振兴战略下要素国际流动的环境效果**
李晓春，伍云云
**(南京大学商学院，江苏南京210093)**
\[摘要\]乡村振兴战略和环境保护是当前经济工作中的重点。伴随经济全球化和“一带一路”战略的不断深入，生产要素国际流动日趋频繁。乡村振兴是国家重要发展战略，其重要抓手是实现农业现代化。因此，在小农户与现代农业共存的经济背景下，分析要素国际流动的环境效果，并根据现代农业发展的不同特征，对乡村振兴战略实施初始阶段和全面实施阶段分别进行分析后发现：在战略实施初始阶段，劳动流入加剧污染，反之改善环境；在战略全面实施阶段，资本流入改善环境，反之恶化环境。
**\[关键词\]乡村振兴战略；现代农业；要素国际流动；小农户；环境效果；农业污染**
**\[中图分类号\]F240 \[文献标志码\]A \[文章编号\]1004-4833(2020)-01-0100-11**
**一、引言**
党的十九大报告提出实施乡村振兴战略。乡村振兴战略的核心就是发展现代农业，农业现代化是乡村振兴战略的重要抓手，要实现乡村振兴，就一定要有现代农业的普及和强大。Li 和 Shen认为，现代农业是一种以市场导向为核心，引入现代生产设备和科学技术进行生产和管理，实现单位土地面积收益高于小农的新兴农业要实现农业现代化仅凭劳动力的投入是不够的，还需要一定规模的资本投入，这是以家庭为经营单位的小农经济很难做到的，也是区别现代农业与小农户的重要标志。由于资本的积累有一个由少到多的过程，随着乡村振兴战略实施，现代农业也有一个从初始到普及的发展过程。与此同时，中国国情决定了小农户将长期存在。在我国乡村振兴过程中，小农和现代农业共存也将是长期的经济状态。
另外，在经济全球化的进程中，发展中国家特别是新兴经济体国家面临的要素国际流动问题十分突出。这是因为新兴经济体国家的经济活跃，是国际资本和劳动力等生产要素频繁进出之地。这些国家在经济快速增长的同时，越来越多的国家企业开始寻求海外市场，更多地对国外进行设厂或资本投资。根据我国商务部、国家统计局、国家外汇管理局联合发布的《2016年度中国对外直接投资统计公报》，2016年我国对外直接投资流量创下1961.5亿美元的历史新高，随着“一带一路”战略的深入推进，我国要素的国际流动会进一步加快。在国际资本快速流动的同时，我们不能忽略另外一个生产要素——劳动力的国际流动，它的流动也是双向的：一些发达国家的技术劳动力为寻求工作并期望取得更高的收入，向发展中国家转移。在我国，根据《2016年度人力资源和社会保障事业发展统计公报》显示，到2016年底，有23.5万外国人在中国获得就业许可证。另外，不少发展中国家的部分劳动力为了追求高收入、高生活水平，向海外流出的总量也很巨大。以我国的数据为例，根据《中国国际移民报告(2018)》统计，2015年，世界各地有来自中国大陆的移民964.61万人，美国、加拿大、日本以及“一带一路”沿线国家等是我国移民主要目的国。
本文还关注环境。众所周知，发展中国家大多面临严重的环境问题，而发达国家已经越过库茨捏兹曲线的拐点，走上了环境保护与经济发展并举的道路，其中有一些国家把本国落后的高能耗、高污染的“夕阳产业”转移到发展中国家，而许多发展中国家为了自身经济快速发展、降低社会失业率，会减少或者放弃对部分产业的环境管制，以牺牲环境为代价发展经济。进入21世纪以后，在经济一体化和国际产业大转移的背景下，我国曾着力
**\[收稿日期\]2019-06-06**
\[基金项目\]教育部人文社会科学重点研究基地重大项目(17JJD630002)；南京大学中国社会主义市场建设协同创新项目
\[作者简介\]李晓春(1958一)，男，江苏南京人，南京大学商学院教授，博士生导师，从事发展经济学、劳动力经济学研究，E-mail：[email protected]；伍云云(1991一)，女，江西南昌人，南京大学商学院博士研究生，从事劳动经济学研究。
①商务部、国家统计局和国家外汇管理局2017年发布的《2016年度中国对外直接投资统计公报》。
②人力资源和社会保障部2017年发布的《2016年度人力资源和社会保障事业发展统计公报》。
③全球化智库(CCG)和西南财经大学2018年发布的《中国国际移民报告(2018)》。
扮演了“世界工厂”的角色，雾霾、酸雨等环境污染问题十分严重。虽然我国政府已经开始制定一系列政策措施以保护和治理环境，但是仍然无法完全避免经济快速增长带来的环境污染的影响。
当我们将乡村振兴战略、要素的国际流动和环境保护放在一起的时候，就会发现这三者都是当前我国经济工作中的重点。并且我们有理由相信三者之间存在着某种互动联系。众所周知，一个发展中经济体的环境状况与其经济规模有关，国际要素的流动会引起经济规模变化，从而导致环境发生变化；而这又与实施乡村振兴战略、发展现代农业息息相关，因为发展现代农业会影响农村地区要素的需求和供给，影响国际要素在城乡地区的分配，进而使得经济规模产生变化、从而引起环境改变。伴随经济全球化和“一带一路”战略的不断深入，一个问题自然地在我们面前形成：在乡村振兴战略的背景下，要素的国际流动又会对环境产生什么样的影响?为了经济建顺利发展，我们有必要厘清其中的作用机制。然而，既有的经济学研究成果中却很少将三者联系在一起。
理论研究对于乡村振兴战略的关联研究主要体现在对于现代农业发展的研究上。虽然当前许多发展中国家已将发展现代农业作为促进经济发展的重要方策，但国际理论经济学术界对现代农业的理论研究却并不多见。主要成果有： Chaudhuri在存在现代农业部门的情况下，主要讨论匡际资本流入对于国家福利以及失业率的影响；Li和 Shen 考虑了政府对现代农业部门利息率和工资的补贴政策经济效果；Nag 和 Banerjee则在农村二元经济下，考虑农业贸易自由化以及资本市场自由化对于非技术劳动力和技术劳动力工资差异的影响3，Li和Wu讨论了现代农业发展的环境效果{4I。所有这些国际研究，都没有涉及要素的国际流动。我国学者对于现代农业的研究多始于20世纪90年代，关注点大多集中于对现代农业的效益评价，并以实证研究为主流。例如：张九汉中提出“要优化农业结构、建设高效农业”5l；王英姿建议提升农业发展质量和人力资源素质以实现从小农向现代农业的转型；王雅鹏等认为现代农业科技创新体系是实现我国农业现代化的重要战略支撑I?。国内对现代农业的研究有从引进外资于现代农业角度分析，但没有考虑劳动要素国际流动与资本流出问题I1。
作为国际经济学的一个传统课题，要素的国际转移向来就是学者们关注的重点。近几年，在一般均衡的理论模型下，有许多学者对要素国际流动进行讨论。例如，Kar和 Guha-Khasnobis 讨论了资本流入、技术劳动力流动对发展中国家部门生产、非技术劳动力和技术劳动力工资差异的影响；Yabuuchi 在城乡两部门经济结构下，讨论资本、非技术劳动力、技术劳动力的国际流动对发展中国家非技术劳动力失业率和福利的影响11ol； Beladi 等同样是在城乡两部门经济结构下，讨论资本、非技术劳动力、技术劳动力的国际流动对发展中国家非技术劳动力和技术劳动力工资差异的影响；Chaudhuri 和 Banerjee 在二元经济结构下，区分城市非技术产品生产部门和城市技术产品生产部门，讨论国际资本流入对非技术劳动力的失业率、非技术劳动力和技术劳动力工资差异的影响1；Chaudhuri 和 Gupta 的文章考虑经济中存在非正式部门，讨论要素国际流动对非正式资本利息率的影响I。但是，在诸多研究国际要素流动的研究成果中却几乎都没有涉及现代农业。
国外理论经济学界对于经济发展与环境保护的问题的研究已经较为深入，在一般均衡的理论分析模型之下讨论此类问题的文章也较多。如 Daitoh讨论环境保护政策以及贸易自由化对发展中国家失业率和福利的影响1141，又如 Tawada 和 Sun讨论污染治理技术对于失业率和劳动力福利的影响115l。以上两篇着重于讨论环境保护政策、措施等对经济带来的影响。也有学者就不同经济因素对环境的影响进行了讨论，如 Tsakiris 等讨论国际资本流动以及税收政策对国家环境的影响116。近年来上，我国在全球经济舞台发挥着越来越重要的作用，因而我国学者对国际贸易、经济一体化等课题给予了很大的关注，由此带来的环境研究成果也比较多。例如，包群等认为FDI的增长会使得国内环境污染恶化，不利于经济的可持续发展；计志英等认为FDI与我国环境污染呈“倒U”型关系，即符合环境库兹涅茨曲线181；而盛斌和吕越等却认为FDI的增加有利于我国环境的改善19。但是，与诸多研究资本国际流动对环境影响的文章不同，劳动要素的国际转移对于环境的影响分析却较为少见。我国学术界分析劳动力转移对于环境的影响的文献如下：理论研究有李晓春研究了农村劳动力转移与工业污染的关联机制以及农村劳动力转移的环境经济效果1201；实证研究有周密和徐爱燕在使用化肥等农业科技产品替代转出劳动力的前提下，研究了化肥平均吸收率的降低对水体造成的环境污染问题2。
综上所述，我们不难看到，国内外理论经济学界目前都缺少将乡村振兴、国际要素流动和环境保护三者结合在一起研究的成果。这不完全是经济学者们的忽略，造成这样状况的一个原因是，经济学的理论研究往往来自于经济运行中的实际问题，在既往的各国经济发展中还很少出现乡村振兴战略、要素的国际流动和环境同时发挥重要作用的场景，而我国出现这样的场景与我国的经济规模、发展模式有关(对此话题可以另外行文讨论)。
正是因为我国处在了经济发展新时代，缺少了这方面的研究与经济发展的政策需求不符。特别是正当我国积极推动乡村振兴战略、发展现代农业和积极建设生态文明、美丽中国之时，需要处理好要素国际流动所引致的环境问题，需要在理论研究方面找出新的市场机制为乡村振兴战略的顺利实施保驾护航，从而使得本文研究的积极意义得以彰显。
本文正是为了解决上述问题，将关注的焦点聚焦于实施乡村振兴战略中要素国际流动对于环境的影响。本文建立一个包含城乡二元经济与农村二元经济的三部门一般均衡模型，将生产要素作为外生变量，将乡村振兴战略中现代农业发展分为初始阶段和普及阶段，考察这两阶段的要素国际流动时对环境的影响。本文的主要结论为：在乡村振兴战略实施初始阶段，劳动力流入使得环境状况变差，劳动力流出使得环境状况变好；在乡村振兴战略全面实施阶段，资本流入使得环境状况变好，资本流出使得环境状况变差。
**二、乡村振兴战略实施的初始阶段**
在乡村振兴战略的初始阶段，城乡融合刚刚起步，现代农业多是先在交通便利或城市周边地区发展起来。这些地区受城市部门的影响大，本节建立分析模型时将考虑这个特点。
(一)建模
本文考虑一个小国开放经济。经济中有三个生产部门，城市部门、现代农业部门和小农部门。经济中存在三种生产要素，即劳动力L、资本K和土地T。城市部门X 使用劳动力和资本生产进口竞争产品，现代农业部门X，使用劳动力、资本和土地生产进口的产品，小农部门X，使用劳动力和土地生产可供出口的产品。城市部门的生产函数如下：
对于环境污染问题，本文假定污染物只产生于城市部门的生产中，且其在生产中排放的废气、废渣、废水等有害物质通过大气、河流等媒介使农业用水和土地受到污染，造成农业部门的生产效率下降。因此，本文假定E为环境的最优水平，u为城市部门生产单位产品排放污染物的比率，也代表了城市部门生产的技术水平，技术水平越高，单位产品污染物排放比率越小，即u值越小，用e来衡量经济中的环境状况，则可以表示为：
其中，0≤e≤1，当e=1时，环境状况最佳，而e越小，表示环境状况越差。在考虑到环境污染的情况下，现代农业部门与小农部门的生产函数可表示如下：
其中，0<8，，8，<1，s，和s，为常数，生产函数F(j=1，2，3)对每个生产要素都是增函数，且满足一阶齐次性和严格拟凹性。
_ayw+agr=p_ ( 5 )
**_e_**
其中qj(i=L，K，T；j=1，2，3)表示的是在第j部门，不考虑环境污染时，生产一单位产品所需投入的第i种生产要素的量(如a\_=L，/F)；w表示城市部门和现代农业部门劳动力的工资；w表示小农部门劳动力的工资；r表示城市部门和现代农业部门资本的利息率；表示两个农业部门土地的地租；p(j=1，2，3)表示三个部门产品的市场价格，这里本文假定所有部门的产品均可贸易，产品价格就是国际产品价格。
①在乡村振兴战略实施的初始阶段、现代农业发展初期，国家多选择生产经济价值较高的农产品，如油料作物和水果等。对发展中国家而言这类商品供给不足，故设为可进口。
在本文考虑的模型中，资本在城市部门与现代农业部门之间自由流动，其利息率为完全弹性；土地在两个农业部门之间自由流动，因而地租也为完全弹性。另外，注意到在乡村振兴战略的初始阶段，现代农业往往先从交通便利或城市周边地区发展，受城市部门的影响大，所以城市部门和现代农业部门面对相同的劳动力市场，它们的工资w均为外生给定，即此两部门劳动力工资存在向下刚性；而在小农部门中，劳动力的工资w为完全弹性。本文用L，表示城市部门以及现代农业部门存在的失业人数，用入，表示这两个部门劳动力的失业率，因而有入=L，/(L+L，)。在劳动力市场处于转移均衡时，小农部门劳动力的工资等于城市部门和现代农业部门劳动力的期望工资，即刚性工资w与在这两个部门找到工作的概率(L，+L，)/(L，+L+L，)的乘积，因此劳动力的转移均衡式如下：
_L，+L2_
**也即：**
w(1+入，)=w。 (8')
劳动力、资本和土地三个生产要素的市场出清条件可以表示如下：
其中，L、K和T分别为劳动力、资本和土地这三个生产要素的禀赋量，为外生给定。
至此，本文的基础理论模型构建完成，由(2)、(5)、(6)、(7)、(8')、(9)、(10)、(11)这八个公式组成，包含八个内生变量w、r、r、A，e、x，x，和x，。
**(二)要素的国际流动对环境影响的分析**
对(2)、(5)、(6)、(7)、(8')、(9)、(10)、(11)式进行全微分，得到：
A， 0 入72
其中，“”表示变化率(如w=dw/w)；0(i=L，K，T；j=1，2，3)是在j部门中，投入i要素的成本占产品价格的比重(如0k=rayp)；(i=L，K，T；j=1，2，3)是在j部门中，投入i要素的量占i要素禀赋量的比重(如入=Xau L)；S；(i，j=L，K，T；h=1，2，3)是在h部门中，i要素和j要素的偏替代弹性(如 Sk=)，且存在St>0(i/j)，S\*<0(i=j)；A，=入SL-(1+A)(Au+入，)<0，B，=(1+入)(入\_SK+ALS)>0，C，=(1+入，)入S\[r+入S>0，Bz=入KjSKK +AkzSRK <0，Cz=入x2Sxr>0， A；=入rS元>0， B，=入r2STk>0， C，=入rSrr +入r，S，r<0， D=e(1+A，)入u一\[(1+入，)入\_2+Ag-1\]uX，/E。
在已建立的模型基础上，模型的动态调整过程如下：
①城市周边的农村劳动力进人城市的转移成本低，若是现代农业的工资低于城市工资，就不能吸引劳动力。
i=d，(anX，+HRz42-K) (D5)
其中，“，”代表随时间的变化率；d，(j=1，…，3)表示调整速度，且d>0。在产品市场上，根据马歇尔调整过程，当需求方付出的价格不等于供给方所能接受的价格时，对产品数量进行调整；在要素市场上，由于要素禀赋量外生给定，则调整要素价格使要素需求等于要素供给。
(D1)式至(D6)式调整方程的雅可比矩阵的行列式值为：
由此可得：
根据劳斯-赫尔维茨(Routh-Hurwitz)定理，模型局部稳定的必要条件是 sign J=(-1)，其中k表示模型中的行数(也即列数)。所以，本文中假定均衡是稳定的，则有J>0，根据(D7)式可知△，>0，其中▲，为(12)式中矩阵的行列式值。
1.劳动力的国际流动对环境影响的分析
解(12)式，我们可以得到：
我们对(2)式进行全微分可得e=-uX，leEx，在结合(13)式可知，e/L<0。根据以上公式，可得命题1。
命题1：乡村振兴战略实施的初始阶段，劳动要素流入会使得环境状况变差；反之，劳动要素流出会使得环境状况变好。
劳动力流入发展中国家时，大部分流入的劳动力其自身素质、技术水平都较高，因而其中必有部分会涌入工资较高、对劳动力素质要求也较高的城市部门以及现代农业部门，此时城市部门的生产规模必会扩张，该部门生产的扩大会导致污染排放的增加，因而使得环境状况变差。劳动力国际流出的情况可同理分析。
2.资本的国际流动对环境影响的分析
解(12)式，我们可以得到：
根据以上计算结果，可得如下命题2。
命题2：乡村振兴战略实施的初始阶段，当现代农业部门的人均土地密集度高于小农部门时，资本流入使得
环境状况变差，资本流出使得环境状况变好；当现代农业部门的人均土地密集度低于小农部门或较为接近时，资本流入使得环境状况变好，资本流出使得环境状况变差。
当资本流入时，如果现代农业部门的人均土地密集度高于小农部门，意味着现代农业部门的生产较为依赖土地要素，考虑到只有城市部门和现代农业部门使用资本要素，加上乡村振兴战略处于初始阶段，现代农业尚为弱小，城市部门的人均资本密集度应该高于现代农业部门，根据雷布津斯基(Rybczynski)定理，大部分资本会进入城市部门，增加城市部门的生产规模，从而使得污染排放上升，环境状况变差。如果现代农业部门的人均土地密集度低于小农部门或者较为接近，就意味着现代农业部门的生产较为依赖于劳动要素，此时流入资本的大部分进入了城市部门，也会有一些资本进入现代农业部门，从而加大了现代农业部门对劳动力的需求，吸引城市部门和小农部门的劳动力进入现代农业部门。城市部门为求保持生产规模的稳定和增长，会使用更多的资本替代流出的劳动力，其结果必然是走向资本密集型生产，生产技术水平上升，u.值下降，从而污染排放下降，环境得到改善。资本流出的情况可同理分析。
**三、乡村振兴战略全面实施阶段**
随着乡村振兴战略全面实施，现代农业得到全面普及，现代农业部门将发生两个特质性变化：其一，现代农业的进一步发展，会深入到远离城市的农村地区，这些地区受城市部门的影响逐渐减弱，因而在乡村振兴战略全面实施之后，现代农业部门的劳动力工资变为完全弹性；其二，现代农业生产已不再局限于经济附加值较高的产品，而是涵盖所有农产品类别，此时，可以设定两个农业部门分别以现代与传统技术生产相同产品，产品价格均 _为p(p=pz=py)。_
(一)建模
虽然乡村振兴战略已经发展到全面实施，但三个部门的生产函数以及城市部门的生产对于环境的影响与前模型相同，即为(1)式至(4)式。
城市部门劳动力工资仍旧为外生给定，但两个农业部门的劳动力工资为完全弹性，这一点与前模型是不一样的。在完全竞争的市场条件下，有(5)式以及如下等式成：
**812W2 _厂在72T_ (15)**
83W3 在T32
其中，wz和w，分别为现代农业部门和小农部门的劳动力工资，均为完全弹性，且一般而言有wz>w，成，否则现代农业就没有足够能力吸引劳动要素来使得现代农业不断发展以及振兴乡村战略得以全面实施。本文用L，表示此时城市部门存在的劳动力的失业人数，用入，表示城市部门劳动力的失业率，因而有入=L，/L。在劳动力市场转移均衡时，小农部门劳动力的工资，一方面等于城市部门劳动力的期望工资，即为城市部门的刚性工资w与在城市部门找到工作的机会L，/(L，+L)的乘积，根据哈里斯一托达罗(Harris-Todaro)模型进行劳动力转移；另一方面又等于现代农业部门劳动力的工资，根据刘易斯(Lewis )模型进行劳动力转移，因此有如下劳动力的转移均衡式：
**L，**
(17)
即：
W3=W2 (18)
其中，(17)式表示的是小农部门向城市部门劳动力转移的均衡式，(18)式表示的是小农部门向现代农业部门劳动力转移的均衡式。
①此时，农民将权衡采用传统方式生产的工资与作为农业工人在现代农业部门的工资，只要现代农业部门的工资高于传统农业，农民就向现代农业转移，只有两部门工资相等时才停止转移。
资本和土地的市场出清条件仍同(10)式和(11)式。至此，本文的拓展理论模型构建完成，由(2)、(5)、(15)、(16)(17')、(18)、(19)(10)和(11)式这九个公式组成，包含九个内生变量w，、wzr、t、hz\\e、xiX，和X，。
(二)要素的国际流动对环境影响的分析
_0_ 0 0 _0_ 0(W
**入3**
_e九K1 0_ _K_
_0_ Ar八 _T)_
其中E，=A2SL+A，SL-(1+A，)入，<0， F，=(1+入，)入Sk+A，S>0，G，=A，S+入，SL>0，E，=A2SR>0， Fz=入x1SkK + 九K2SRK<0，G，=入x2SK7>0，1E，=ArS+入rSu>0， F，=入rSx>0， G，=入，2S+A，，Srr<0，H，=e(1+A)入1一-(A：+A-1)uX，/E。
在已建立的模型基础上，模型的动态调整过程如下：
(D8)
p1 _2_
**2**
其中，d(j=8，…，13)表示调整速度，且d>0。同样地，在产品市场上，根据马歇尔调整过程，当需求方付出的价格不等于供给方所能接受的价格时，对产品数量进行调整；在要素市场上，由于要素禀赋量外生给定，则调整要素价格使要素需求等于要素供给。
(D8)式至(D13)式调整方程的雅可比矩阵的行列式值为：
由此可得：
根据劳斯-赫尔维茨定理，模型局部稳定的必要条件是 sign J=(-1)，其中k表示模型中的行数(也即列数)。所以，本文中假定均衡是稳定的，则有|J>0，根据(D14)式可知△，>0，其中▲，为(20)式中矩阵的行列式值。
1.劳动力的国际流动对环境影响的分析
解(20)式，我们可以得到：
根据以上公式，我们可得命题3。
命题3：在乡村振兴战略全面实施阶段，当现代农业部门的人均土地密集度高于小农部门时，劳动要素流入使得环境状况变差，劳动要素流出使得环境状况变好；当现代农业部门的人均土地密集度低于小农部门时，劳动要素流入使得环境状况变好，劳动要素流出使得环境状况变差。
劳动要素流入时，如果现代农业部门相较于小农部门人均土地密集度较高，意味着现代农业部门的生产较为依赖于土地要素，此时，劳动力会更多地流向城市部门与小农部门，两部门的生产规模增加，城市部门生产规模的扩张会导致更多的污染排放，使得发展中国家环境状况变差。反之，如果现代农业部门的人均土地密集度较低，就意味着现代农业部门的生产较为依赖劳动力要素，两个农村部门的劳动力要素本身就较为密集，因而根据雷布津斯基定理可知劳动力会流向现代农业与小农部门，经济总资本禀赋量不变，资本此时流向城市部门，城市部门用资本投入替代劳动力的流出以确保生产规模的稳定，此时城市部门生产技术水平上升，污染排放减少，从而环境得到改善。对于此阶段劳动要素国际流出的环境效果也可同理分析。
2.资本的国际流动对环境影响的分析
解(12)式，我们可以得到：
对(2)式进行全微分，并结合(22)式可知，e/k>0。根据以上公式，我们可得如下命题4。
命题4：在乡村振兴战略全面实施阶段，资本流入使得环境变好；资本流出使得环境状况变差。
资本流入发展中国家时，由于此时乡村振兴战略已处于全面实施阶段，现代农业部门的人均资本密集度相对于城市部门有所上升，甚至与城市部门人均资本密集度十分接近或者相同，从而资本在此两部门间可能会出现不同的流向。如果城市部门人均资本密集度仍然较高，国际资本涌入城市部门，以资本替代劳动力来确保生产规模的稳步增长，会使得城市生产技术水平上升，环境状况改善；如果现代农业部门的人均资本密集度接近或者与城市部门相同时，资本在流向城市部门的同时也会流向现代农业部门，故而城市部门以资本替代劳动力，使得生产技术水平上升的同时，现代农业部门的生产扩大却不影响环境，从而环境状况得到改善。资本流出情况可同理分析。
**四、数值模拟**
为考察本文模型对发展中国家国际要素流动的环境效果的解释力，这部分将用我国的宏观经济数据对模型的参数进行校准，并根据校准的参数对模型进行数值模拟，以检验模型对我国国际要素流动的环境效果的有效性，并检验理论模型在我国经济中的数值特征，以判断不同要素流动对我国环境的影响程度，同时进行敏感性分析以检验模型的稳健性。
(一)参数校准
为进行数值模拟，基于本文理论模型中对生产函数的性质假设，我们以C-D函数形式设定三个部门的生产函数分别为：
_X，=L；K-8，X=eLKT-B-B，X，=e\*L}T-，_
其中的α，B，Bz，y分别为对应要素的产出弹性，e和：z表示环境(污染)对农业生产的外部性。本文令环境质量函数为e=1-8X，其中8=u/E。模型的主要参数包括产出弹性a，B，Ba，y；工业污染参数8；环境外部性参数sj和8z；工资和产品价格参数w，pi，pz和p；初始禀赋参数L，K，T。
我们以《中国统计年鉴2016年》的数据作为模拟的基准数据，以城镇就业人员平均工资表示城市工资W=51448.7927元，第二、三产业的就业人数56107万人与增加值679912.7亿元，可以计算出α=0.425。第一产业包含了两个农业部门的总值，以蒋和平等给出的2016年各省市农业现代化的综合发展指数为权重2，可以得到现代农业部门的就业人数4959.14万人、增加值26346.573亿元、工资22220.6148元以及农用地数量21389.3643万公顷。同时，可以计算出小农部门的就业人数 16536.86万人、农用地数量 43123.2957万公顷以及增加值37318.967亿元，本文以农村居民人均可支配收入12363元为小农工资。医此，可以计算出β=0.418，B，=0.264，y=0.548。至此，我们便得到了具体的生产函数，并根据各部门增加值可以计算出p和pz。计算污染参数根据污染指数与第二、三产业增加值的相关系数，得到8=0.0000087357726；环境外部性参数根据世界银行(2007)关于
中国农业污染成本的调查，各省污染损失与第一产业 表1参数校准值
增加值的比例得到(1-e)/e，再按上述现代农业赋权
法，可以得到e= 0.993768834，e\*=0.994624522。模
型参数校准值汇总于表1。
| **变量名** | | **Y** | | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **校准值** | **0.425** | **0.4180.2640.548 8.73577E-6** | | | | | **0.009** | **0.008** |
| **变量名** | **W** | **P1** | **Pz** | **P3** | | | **K** | **T** |
| **校准值 51448.7927 12.045 6.145 1.471** | | | | | **80694** | **572206.896 64512.66** | | |
由于现代农业发展不同阶段主要区别在于与城市
的距离，从而导致雇佣劳动力的工资不同。而在中国经济实践中，现代农业劳动力工资比城市部门低而又高于小农，因而可认定中国现代农业发展处于初期向普及期过渡的阶段。我们先对现代农业发展初期模型的参数进行校准，现代农业工资的影响系数为0.432(=w/w)。另外，理论模型中劳动力的转移仅考虑工资与失业因素，我们将工资与失业以外影响劳动力转移的因素用影响系数3.778(基于转移方程的初始均衡推算得到)来表示。同理，发展中国家的资本并不能在城乡自由流动，我们考虑用影响系数2来表述现代农业利率大幅度高于城市。
(二)数值模拟 5
在参数校准的基础上，我们进行数值模拟分析，以检验在现实经济数据下模型的结论是否与理论分析一致。由于我国的乡村振兴战略还没有发展到全面实施阶段，故而我们用于校准参数的宏观数据只能适合于乡村振兴战略实施前或实施初始阶段，所以，本文仅对乡村振兴战略初始阶段的要素国际流动的环境效果进行数值模拟，结果如下：图1描绘了乡村振兴战略实施初始阶段的劳动和资本国际流动的环境效果，横轴表示本国要素存量与初始值的比例，小于1部分表示要素国际流出，数值越小表示要素流出的越多；大于1部分表示要素国际流入，数值越大表示要素流入的越多；纵轴表示环境质量，数值越大环境质量越好。当劳动要素流出时环境改善而劳动力流入时环境恶化；资本国际流出时环境同样改善而资本国际流入时环境恶化。考虑资本的国际流动对环境的影响时，结果依赖于ap2/a2一(1+入，)am，/aus符号，根据表3，该式大于零，即az/a2>(1+)，)ary/auy，此时理论分析要求资本与环境反方向变化，与数值模拟结果一致。可以看到，乡村振兴战略实施初始阶段模型的模拟结果与命题1和命题2的结论一致。另外，比较表2和表3的数值，我们还可以看出国际资本流进(流出)对环境的
**图1初始阶段模型的数值模拟**
①根据统计年鉴，城镇就业人员包括国有单位城镇就业人员、城镇集体单位城镇就业人员、股份合作单位城镇就业人员、联营单位城镇就业人员、有限责任公司城镇就业人员、私营企业城镇就业人员、港澳台商投资单位城镇就业人员、外商投资单位城镇就业人员、个体城镇就业人员等。城镇就业人员平均工资估算为各类就业人员人均工资以就业人数为权重的平均值。
②现代农业工资为各省农村居民可支配收入按相应的农业现代化的综合发展指数为权重再根据就业人数加权平均得到。
③根据当前国内外就环境评价体系的构造研究，本文参考有代表性的指标体系，构建本文指标体系。本文将污染指数按照工业废气排放量、二氧化硫排放量、烟尘排放量、工业粉尘排放量、废水排放总量、化学需氧量、工业固体废物排放量和工业固体废物产生量分别赋予0.1631、0.1494、0.0905、0.0977.0.1632、0.0913、0.0967和0.1480的权重计算。
影响大于劳动力流进(流出)对环境的影响，从而获得命题5。
命题5：乡村振兴战略实施初始阶段，国际资本流进(出)对环境的影响大于劳动力流进(出)对环境的影响。
(三)敏感性检验
在参数校准时，污染参数8的计算是根据污染指数的权数与第二、三产业增加值的相关系数进行的，而污染指数的权数以及第二、三产业增加值相关系数的选取有一定的主观因素，未必准确。本节将检验采用不同的污染参数是否会影响到文章结论。在前面的参数校准中，我们计算得到的污染参数8=0.0000087357726。在此，我们选择两个污染参数8=0.000005和8=0.00001，并用与前面相同的方法分别重新校准环境外部性参数：当8=0.000005时，8=0.019，8=0.016；当8=0.00001时，8，=0.008，8，=0.006。表4描绘了不同污染参数下模拟的我国国
际要素流动的环境效果。从表4可以看出，不同
的污染参数对我们的模型结果没有影响，说明本文模型结果时稳健的。综上所述，敏感性检验表明本文结果对参数选择是稳健的，本文的理论模型可以解释在我国实施乡村振兴战略的情况下国际要素流动对环境的影响。
**五、研究结论**
本文通过构建一个农村二元经济的理论模型，探讨在乡村振兴战略的实施中，国际资本与劳动力国际双向流动对发展中国家环境产生的影响。通过本文的研究不难看出，在乡村振兴战
| **8=0.000005** | | | | | **8=0.000010** | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **初期** | | **普及期** | | | | **初期** | **普及期** | |
| **L** | **K** | **L** | **K** | **L** | | **K** | **L** | **K** |
| **0.95 0.7193410.73079 0.7210870.729176 0.438684 0.461593 0.44212 0.458172** | | | | | | | | |
| **0.96 0.7190240.7281830.720420.7268910.438049 0.456376 0.440797 0.453636** | | | | | | | | |
| **0.97 0.7187070.725576 0.719753 0.7246070.4374140.45116 0.439474 0.449102** | | | | | | | | |
| **0.98 0.718389 0.722969 0.719087 0.722323 0.4367790.4459430.4381510.44457** | | | | | | | | |
| **0.99 0.718072 0.7203620.7184210.720039 0.436144 0.440726 0.43683 0.440039** | | | | | | | | |
| **0.717755 0.717755 0.717755 0.717755 0.43551** | | | | | | **0.43551** | **0.43551** | **0.43551** |
| **1.01 0.7174370.7151480.717089 0.7154710.434875 0.430293 0.43419 0.430982** | | | | | | | | |
| **1.02 0.71712 0.712541 0.716424 0.713188 0.434240.4250750.432871 0.426456** | | | | | | | | |
| **1.03 0.7168030.709933 0.715759 0.710904 0.433605 0.419858 0.431553 0.421931** | | | | | | | | |
| **1.04 0.716486 0.707326 0.715094 0.708621 0.432970.4146410.430236 0.417408** | | | | | | | | |
| **1.05 0.7161680.704719 0.71443 0.706338 0.432335 0.409423 0.4289040.412887** | | | | | | | | |
略实施的背景下，要素的国际流动对发展中国家的环境状况有较大影响，而且在乡村振兴战略的不同发展阶段其影响程度与方向均有所不同。
将乡村振兴、要素国际流动以及环境联系在一起研究，既是我国现实经济发展的需要，又是本文与既有文献不同之处。其实，乡村振兴、要素国际流动以及环境三者的同时出现，不仅仅是我国独有的经济现象，也是一些发展中国家正在面对或将要面对的经济、环境现象。本文将其规律进行梳理、并理论模型化，进而做分析研究，就是为了探明其内在的市场机制，为制定出更为合理的经济、环境政策提供理论依据，使经济发展更有效率。本文的理论模型建立在一般均衡的理论上，其结论对于与我国经济发展相类似的发展中国家均适用。本文的第四部分，我们根据中国的宏观数据对论文理论模型的参数进行了校准，并对本文的理论模型进行了数值模拟和敏感性检验，结果表明本文的模型可以解释我国乡村振兴战略下国际要素流动的环境影响，并且对于我国而言，在乡村振兴战略的初始阶段国际资本流动对环境的影响大于国际劳动流动对环境的影响。本文的结论可以作为有关部门进行政策研判时的参考依据。另外，用实际数据做实证分析对本文理论进一步验证是我们未来研究的方向。
**参考文献：**
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**\[8\]惠恩才.利用FDI发展中国现代农业的思考\[J\].农业经济问题，2010(7)：82-86.**
\[9\] Kar S， Guha-Khasnobis B. Foreign capital， skillformation， and migration of skilled workers \[J\]. Journal of Policy Reform， 2006， 9(2)：107-123.
\[10\] YabuuchiS.Unemployment and international factor movement in the presenceofskilled and unskilled labor \[J.Review of Development Economics，2007，11(3)：437-449.
\[11\] Beladi H， Chaudhuri S， Yabuuchi S. Can international factor mobility reduce wage inequality in a dual economy? \[J\]. Review of International **Economics， 2008，16，(5)：893-903.**
**\[12\] Chaudhuri S， Banerjee D. Foreign capital inflow， skilled-unskilled wage inequality and unemployment of unskilled labour in a fair wage model** \[J\]. Economic Modelling， 2010， 27(1)：477-486.
**\[13\] Chaudhuri S， Gupta M R. International factor mobility， informal interest rate and capital market imperfection： A general equilibrium analysis** \[J\]. Economic Modelling， 2014， 37(2)：184-192.
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\[16\] Tsakiris N， Hatzipanayotou P， Michael M S. Pollution， capital mobility and tax policies with unemployment \[J\].Review of Development Economics，2008， 12(2)：223-236.
\[17\]包群，吕越，陈媛媛.外商投资与我国环境污染——基于工业行业面板数据的经验研究\[J\].南开学报(哲学社会科学版)，2010(3)：93-103.
\[18\]计志英，毛杰，赖小锋.FDI规模对我国环境污染的影响效应研究——基于30个省级面板数据模型的实证检验\[J\].世界经济研究， **2012(3)：56-64.**
\[19\]盛斌，吕越.外国直接投资对中国环境的影响——来自工业行业面板数据的实证研究 \[J\].中国社会科学，2012(5)：54-75.
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\[责任编辑：杨志辉\]
**Environmental Effects of International Factors Movement under the Ru-ral Vitalization Strategy**
LI Xiaochun， WU Yunyun
**(School of Economics， Nanjing University， Nanjing 210093， China)**
**Abstract：Rural revitalization strategy and environmental protection are the focus of current economic work. With the deepening of economic globalization and " Belt and Road" strategy， the international movement of production factors is becoming more and more frequent. However， existing economic research rarely links them together. Rural revitalization is an important national de-velopment strategy， and its comnerstone is to realize and develop agricultural modernization. It’s vital to analyze the international factors movement and coordinate the coexistence of small farm households and modern agriculture. This paper constructs a three-sector general equilibrium model and studies the environmental effects of the international factors movement under the strategy of rural revitalization. The main conclusions are as follows： at the beginning of modemn agriculture， international labor inflow harmed the environment of developing countries， whereas the outflow improved the environment； since the popularization of modern agriculture ， the capital inflow has improved the environment， whereas outflow harmed the environment.**
**Keywords： rural revitalization strategy； modern agriculture， international factors movement； small farm households， environmen-tal effect， agricultural pollution** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | Washington : or, The revolution : a drama founded upon the historic events of the war for American independence
author: Allen, Ethan, 1832-1911
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
WASHINGTON ;
OR,
THE REVOLUTION
ETHAN ALLEN.
ETHAN ALLEN was born in New Jersey, sixty years ago,
upon the banks of Manasquan River, a beautiful stream,
which, taking its rise near the battle grounds of Mon-
mouth, flows through the county of that name and enters the
ocean just south of Long Branch. Capt. Samuel Fleming
Allen, his father, was in active service in the war of 1812, and
his grandfather, Capt. Sam. Allen, in the war of the Revolution
was a minute-man guarding the Jersey shore. Though the latter
was but a mere youth in 1776, his daring spirit and command-
ing influence led him into deeds of heroism, no less dashing than
those recorded of his relative, Col. Ethan Allen, of Vermont
fame. The subject of this sketch lived upon his father's farm
until fourteen years of age, and since that time New York city
has been his home. He graduated at Brown's University in
1860, and was selected as the orator of his class. Leaving col-
lege one year before graduation, he studied law in this city. In
1861 he was made Deputy United States District Attorney for
the District of New York, under Mr. Lincoln's administration,
and resigning this place in 1869, he has since held no official
position. From 1869 to 1885 he was actively engaged in his
profession, and with marked success. Mr. Allen has taken
great interest in political affairs, but generally for the purpose
of securing the highest probity in official conduct. From boy-
hood he has been ever deeply imbued with a sense of gratitude
for those who suffered so greatly a century ago, that this na-
tion, and ultimately the world, might enjoy political emancipa-
tion from monarchy. He is the uncompromising foe to any one,
no matter how high his station, who by his official turpitude
checks the political influence of our revolutionary sires, which
should be ever progressive. Mr. Allen has had ambition for
political preferment, not from motives of personal gain, but
from the loftier desire and pardonable pride of being a part of
the grandest system of government the planet has ever known.
He has never been successful, because he has not the nature
requisite to win in party warfare — that is, the capacity to turn,
and fawn, and promise and betray. In sorrow that a people
of such great heritage can fall so low, at times, in official
corruption — the gravest danger of a republic — he has written
the " Drama of the Revolution," that the story concisely told
may be known to all, and thus stimulate an ever-living pur-
pose to guard the legacy of our ancestors, by the maintenance
of honesty in government.
TO THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS OF REVOLUTIONARY SIRES,
AND TO THE FRIENDS OF
HUMAN LIBERTY THE WORLD OVER,
WHO SUSTAIN THE
DECLARATION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE,
SUCCESSFULLY DEFENDED BY
WASHINGTON AND HIS COMPEERS,
THIS WORK IS
RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY
THE AUTHOR.
OR,
THE REVOLUTION
A DRAMA
upon tbe f>tetoric Events of tbe
Mar for Bmerican IfnDepenoence
BY
ETHAN ALLEN
ILLUSTRATED BY
ROBERT W. CHAMBERS
IN Two PARTS. EACH PART, FIVE ACTS
PART FIRST: Fron^. the Boston Massacre to the Surrender of
Burgoyne
PART SECOND : From Valley Forge to Washington's Inaugura-
tion as President of the United States
PART FIRST
Fc TENNYSON NEELY
PUBLISHER
CHICAGO NEW YORK
1895
COPYRIGHTED BY
ETHAN ALLEN,
1894.
All Rights Reserved.
INTRODUCTION.
IT was no part of the author's intention to prepare this
drama for actual presentation upon the stage, although
such a drama may be evolved from it. This drama, as
here presented, is much too long, and in some parts too
prolix and slow of action, for a place in the theater.
This is because accuracy demanded the recital of many
details necessary to a pretended full record of events
within the time covered, and yet unnecessary for presen-
tation behind the footlights. Therefore, the " acting
play " was unavoidably sacrificed to the " historic drama,"
truthfully told. The chief aim of the author has been to
secure to the reader a personal intimacy with the actors
in the great struggle which made the United States of
America, by having them live again in his presence.
Every character has been drawn as closely as possible
to that which he filled in life. History is descriptive,
and hence cannot present a personality as vividly as the
drama, which enables the dead to speak and walk as if
within the hearing and the sight of the living. We plod
through many volumes of historical narration and leave
off with a knowledge of events, and of the actors in
them, insignificant with that we gain from personal
contact with the drama. The memory of those heroes
who gave free government to the earth in the trials of
the American Revolution is becoming weaker with
advancing years ; and if it can be reawakened by a
closer relationship with them through the drama, and
thus be re-enkindled a greater appreciation of what they
suffered one hundred years ago in the cause of liberty,
much will be accomplished. And if, in addition to
this, a firmer resolve is made by those who read this
vii
vni INTRODUCTION.
story to secure themselves against threatening dangers
and to extend over the world the blessings our fathers
gave by a devoted allegiance to law and order, as
honestly expressed in the will of the majority, the only
sovereign of an intelligent and a free people, then this
has not been written in vain.
THE AUTHOR.
CONTENTS OF PART FIRST,
SCENE i.
" 2.
" 3-
" 4-
" 5-
" 6.
" 7-
ACT I.
Gen. Gage and the Boston Massacre,
Boston Harbor and the Destruction of the Tea,
George
Lib-
Buckingham Palace : Interview between
III., Lord North, Franklin, and Others,
Richmond, Va. : Patrick Henry's Oration,
erty or Death." The Two Aged Citizens,
Suburbs of Boston : Watching for the Signal.
Ride of Paul Revere, .....
Battle of Lexington. The Rout and Pursuit,
Battle of Bunker Hill. Death of Warren, .
PAGE
I
6
II
19
23
26
32
ACT II.
SCENE i. Washington in Camp at Cambridge. Condition of
the Army, ....... 38
" 2. Cassel : The Landgrave and England's Embassa-
dor Negotiate for Hessian Troops, ... 45
" 3. Buckingham Palace : King George and his Minis-
ters. The King Enraged at Catherine of Russia, 51
" 4. Independence Hall, Philadelphia : The Declara-
tion Proclaimed. " Yankee Doodle," . . 58
ACT III.
SCENE i. Battle of Long Island. Howe and his Generals, 69
" 2. Harlem Heights : Washington and his Generals.
The Attempt to Poison Washington, . . 72
" 3. Military Prison in New York City : Cunningham,
British Provost-Marshal, and his Victims. The
Execution of Nathan Hale, .... 79
" 4. Baskingridge, N. J.: Capture of Gen. Charles Lee
by the British. Lee's Disloyalty to Washington, 88
" 5. Washington's Camp West of the Delaware, before
the Assault on Trenton. Washington's Resolve, 99
ix
X CONTENTS OF PART FIRST.
SCENE 6. Trenton, Christmas Day : Col. Rail, in Revelry,
Disregards Warning of Washington's Approach, 112
" 7. Trenton : The Snowstorm. The Battle. Wash-
ington at the Head of his Column. Rail Mor-
tally Wounded, 105
" 8. Trenton Again : The Night Before the Battle of
Princeton, . 107
" 9. Battle of Princeton. Death of Gen. Mercer, . 109
ACT IV.
SCENE i. Versailles, France: Louis XVI., Vergennes,
Franklin, and Lafayette, . . . .112
" 2. Buckingham Palace: King George III., North,
Germain, and Burgoyne. Burgoyne made the
American Commander, 121
" 3. Washington at Middlebrook. Arnold in Consul-
tation, 126
" 4. Gen. Howe in New York. Refuses to Help Bur-
goyne and Prepares to Assail Philadelphia, . 133
" 5. Gen. Carleton in Canada. Refuses to Help Bur-
goyne. The Quarrel. Riedesel and Burgoyne, 136
" 6. Fort Stanwix : The Battle, and Death of Herkimer.
Arnold Marches to its Relief. The Flight of
St. Leger, 140
" 7. Burgoyne at Fort Edward. Sends Baum to Ben-
nington, . 143
8. Battle of Bennington. Gen. Stark, . . .145
" 9. Gen Schuyler at Albany. Yields Command to
Gates, 147
" 10. Battle of Brandywine. Washington, Sullivan, and
Greene, etc., 148
" II. Philadelphia: Victorious Entry of Corn wallis, . 154
ACT V.
SCENE i. Gen. Arnold on Bemis Heights. Mother Yost and
Interview, 156
" 2. The Taylor House on the Hudson. Inside the
British Lines. Madam Riedesel, Lady Ackland,
Burgoyne, etc., 160
3. Gen. Arnold and Mother Yost : Interview at the
Devil's Glen on the Hudson, .... 165
4. Camp of Gates. First Day's Battle of Saratoga.
Arnold, etc 169
5. The Battle on. Burgoyne, Fraser, etc., on the Field, 172
6. Again the Camp of Gates. The Day after First
Battle. Quarrel between Gates and Arnold, . 175
CONTENTS OF PART FIRST. XI
SCENE 7. The Battlefield between the Armies : Gen. Lin-
coln, Arnold, etc., . . . . . .176
" 8. Again the Camp of Gates. The Second Battle
Begins 180
" q. The Battlefield : Gen. Lincoln and Others. After
they Retire, Gen. Burgoyne, Breyman, Riedesel,
etc. These Retire, Followed by Arnold, who
Plunges into the Fight and Wins the Day, . 183
" IO. Camp of Gates upon Saratoga Heights. The Sur-
render of Burgoyne. Gates, Schuyler, etc. Bur-
goyne and his Generals. The Toast of Burgoyne,
" I Drink to Washington," . 191
PERSONS REPRESENTED.
AMERICANS :
GEO. WASHINGTON.
GEN. PUTNAM.
GEN. ARNOLD.
GEN. GATES.
GEN. KNOX, at first Captain.
GEN. GREEN, at first Colonel.
GEN. SCHUVLER.
GEN. SULLIVAN.
GEN. MERCER.
GEN. STARK.
GEN. LINCOLN.
GEN. LEE.
FARMER DICK, afterward Col.
- STANDISH.
FARMER GEORGE, afterward Col.
ALDEN.
NATHAN HALE.
BENJ. FRANKLIN.
SAM. ADAMS.
JOHN ADAMS.
EDWARD RUTLEDGE.
JOHN DICKINSON.
JOHN WITHERSPOON.
FRENCHMEN :
Louis XVI., King of France.
VKRGENNES, his Minister.
LAFAYETTE, General in Ameri-
can Army.
ENGLISH :
GEORGE III., King of England.
LORD NORTH, his Prime Minister.
HILLSBOROUGH, ex-Secretary of
State.
HARRINGTON, Secretary of War.
GERMAIN, Secretary of State.
GEN. GAGE.
GEN. HOWE.
ADMIRAL HOWE.
GEN. CORNWALLIS.
GEN. CARLETON.
GEN. BURGOYNE.
GEN. CLINTON.
GEN. FRASER.
COL. FAUCITT, English Embassa-
dor.
CAPT. CUNNINGHAM, English
Provost Marshal.
GERMANS :
FREDERICK II., Landgrave pf
Hesse Cassel.
VON SCHLIEFFEN, his Minister.
COL. RALL.
GEN. RIEDESEL.
COL. BAUM.
COL. BREYMANN.
Females : Madam Riedesel, Lady Ackland, Mother Yost, a
witch.
Unnamed Persons : Speakers, Aids. Orderlies, etc., etc.
First, Second, and Third Aid to Gen. Gage. First, Second,
Third, and Fourth Speaker at the tea ships. First and Second Citi-
zen at Richmond. American Captain, Militiaman, English Captain,
xii
PERSONS REPRESENTED. Xiii
Lieutenant, and Sergeant at Lexington. First, Second, and Third
Aid, Orderly, Soldier, and Prisoner at Bunker Hill. First and
Second Keeper ; First, Second, and Third Soldier or Guard ; First,
Second, Third, and Fourth Prisoner to Provost Marshal Cunning-
ham, and Corporal to Cunningham with Nathan Hale. British Cap-
tain who captured Gen. Lee. First and Second Countryman to Col.
Rail. Hessian officer on Long Island and at Trenton. First
and Second Aid to Cornwallis at Trenton. Aid to Washington at
Princeton. Messenger to Arnold near Fort Stanwix. Aid to Stark
at Bennington. Aids to Washington at Brandywine. Soldier on
Bemis Heights. First Aid to Gates at Saratoga. Aid to Burgoyne
at Saratoga. Aid reporting to Lincoln at Saratoga. "A Voice,"
Servant, Singers, Soldiers, and Citizens.
WASHINGTON;
OR,
THE REVOLUTION
ACT I. .
SCENE I. Boston. Headquarters of the British Military
Commander in America. Time: evening, ^th of
March, 1770.'
Enter GEN. GAGE and three AIDS.
GEN. GAGE \Musing\ — Who was that audacious
minion of the South, who gave the head to this great
disorder, with his pernicious resolutions of resistance to
England's law?2 As memory now recalls, he offered
and passed them, too, in Virginia's House of Burgesses —
let me see Yes, it is now five years ago. Time
beats a more rapid wing when affairs are so exacting.
And in support thereof, with unblushing impudence,
1 On the evening of the 5th of March a collision took place [Boston]
between ihe military and the people. — Frost.
3 In Virginia House of Burgesses, at Williamsburgh, the Stamp
Act being received in May, 1765, Patrick Henry, in a series of reso-
lutions offered by him, included these : " Sixih. The inhabitants
of these Colonies are not bound to yield obedience to any law to
impose any taxation upon them other than the laws of the General
Assembly of this Colony. Seventh. That any person who shall, by
speaking or writing, maintain otherwise, shall be deemed an enemy,
etc." — Morse's Patrick Henry.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
said : " Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell,
and George III. may profit by their example.8
FIRST AID — General, that was Patrick Henry.
GAGE — An arrant knave, whatever his name may
be, thus to stun the ears of
men with the name of his
Gracious Majesty, in such
suggestion. Has he hanged ?
FIRST AID — Not that I have
heard.
GAGE — Why not ? Does
treason to our King go un-
punished ?
FIRST AID — I cannot answer.
This man is under the shield
of the civil law ; and has never
been within your authority.
GAGE — And lucky for him
he has not. His resolves, charged with highest treason,
and his supporting phrase linked therewith, have
gathered force year by year, seducing loyalty from
contented hearts ; and now upon the sky political,
they are as a sign in the heavens when angry Mars
1 Patrick Henry, on May 30, 1765, in support of his resolutions
[thereafter adopted], reaching a cTimax, said: "Caesar had his
Brutus; Charles I. had his Cromwell, and George III. (cries of
' Treason, Treason ') may profit by their example. If this be treason,
make the most of it." — Morse's Patrick Henry.
Meantime, on the wings of the wind, were borne, north and south,
the fiery words of entire series [resolutions], to kindle a great flame
of dauntless purpose, while Patrick himself was only half conscious
of his fatal work. — Morse's Patrick Henry.
They were a virtual declaration of resistance to the Stamp Act by
the Legislature of a great Colony. And, moreover, tliey were the
very first declaration of resistance which was so made. — Morse's
Patrick Henry,
They [the resolutions] proved eventually the occasion of those
great disorders which afterward broke out in the Colonies. — Morse's
Patrick Henry.
Gen. Gage wrote to Secretary Conway, that the "Virginia
resolves " had given the signal for a general outcry over the conti-
nent.— Morse's Patrick Henry.
WASHINGTON, CR THE REVOLUTION. 3
flames on the front of war.4 Here in Boston, around
and near us, are those who look with his eyes, glancing
defiance in the face of royalty. British lead must cure
these ills of state.
FIRST AID — The prescription, then, can come none
too soon.
GAGE — Ah ! Do you instruct your general ?
FIRST AID— Pardon me : but the unruly crowd grow
daily more so. I have seen our officers drink deep of
humiliation, and yet, as soldiers, no offense resenting. It
is hard to bear taunts and stones and know that your
musket's loaded.*
4 In the autumn of 1774, an able writer, looking back over the
political history of the Colonies from the year of the Stamp Act,
singled out the "Virginia resolves "as the baneful cause of all the
troubles that had come upon the land. — Morse's Patrick Henry.
6 The men of Boston applauded the spirit of the " Yankees." [The
people of New York expressed open abhorrence of the soldiers, etc.]
And the more they [the soldiers] paraded with their muskets, the
WASHINGTON. OR THE REVOLUTION.
GAGE — I have issued the proper orders. The hinds
shall feel the rod of correction. For seven years I have
commanded the King's forces in America ; and since
October, '68, — now it is March and '70, — have had head-
quarters here. In all that time I have borne my share
of studied disrespect. Are not these people bone of our
bone ? If so, why not, then, amenable to law as were
their fathers ?
SECOND AID — They contend that the law, no voice of
theirs approving, is oppressive ; and hence to be rejected
as a weight laid on by foreign hands. The Stamp Act
fires them to these deeds of violence.
GAGE — There it is again ! Why, man, you talk the
jargon of the mob, and should be feed their orator. The
Stamp Act ! the
Stamp Act ! on
right and left —
no other cry.
Well, at this tar-
get, then ! This
law was made by
King and Parlia-
ment — a self-
sufficient reason
for obedience.
The record is
evidence of su-
preme forbear-
ance. In '65 was this Act proclaimed, and in '66
repealed — do you mark that word ? repealed— by King
and Parliament, in deference to the minions who flout us
here to-day. In '67 — since balked authority will reassert
itself, pride and duty stimulating — another Act, retaining
the principle of the first, but with scope enlarged to
cover taxation as port duties, was again proclaimed.
This the law till now ; and the report is just at hand
that, under the wise direction of Lord North — long may
he live Prime Minister of England ! — this last statute is
more they were despised as men who desired to terrify and had no
power to harm. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 5
modified, or soon will be, and the duties of '67 therefrom
erased, excepting that on tea. This is retained as ex-
pressive of the right to tax these Colonies.8 Can gener-
osity further go ? For five years a rebellious people
have thus swayed back and forth the supreme powers of
the realm. The law is now fixed, and we are here as the
King's right arm to enforce submission. [A great up-
roar is heard from the street.] What means this com-
motion ? [THIRD AID rushes to the window and looks
down into the street. GAGE agitated.] What is it ?
Speak !
THIRD AID — The mob sullenly retreat before the
military. The falling flakes obscure much, but as I see,
the people pelt the soldiers with showers of snow-balls
as they advance.7
GAGE — Who commands the soldiers ?
THIRD AID — Captain Preston leads and gives the
orders.
GAGE — A valiant officer ! Less than two months ago
our comrades drew blood on Golden Hill, in New
York City, from these self-styled Sons of Liberty,8 who
there meet in Hampden Hall — a name odious to loyalty
— and plan their hostile schemes. Retaliating, as they
choose to say, they conspire and combine with the other
Colonies to refuse English goods ; and swear that tea
shall not be landed nor consumed upon this soil, because
of duties. To erect liberty poles to reckless sentiment
is their chief contentment, which our lads cut down.
'In 1770 Lord North was appointed Prime Minister. His first
measure was a repeal of the port duties, with the exception of the
duty on tea ; this left the right to tax in full force. — Frost.
1 A detachment of soldiers [Boston massacre], under the command
of Capt. Preston, in King Street, after being assaulted with snow-
balls and other missiles, fired upon the populace, killing three men
and wounding others. — Frost.
8 In the course of the day, January 18, 1770, Seers [Isaac Seers, a
Son of Liberty] and others entered into a skirmish with the soldiers,
who had [on January 13] cut down the liberty pole. In a general
fight the soldiers retreated to Golden Hill. In this trouble several
were wounded and one killed. This was the first fight of the Revo-
lution.— Stones History of New York City.
6 WASHINGTON, OK THE REVOLUTION.
One, Isaac Seers, I remember, is the chief malefactor
there, as are Hancock and Sam. Adams here.
THIRD AID — Great
God ! There will be
bloodshed. The sol-
diers prepare to fire.
GAGE — So be it,
then ! [All rush to
the window. The rat-
tling of musketry is
heard, and the smoth-
ered cry of citizens.
Returning from the win-
dow] The hour has
struck, and death grap-
ples with disloyalty.
What street is this ?
FIRST AID — It is
King Street.
GAGE — And this is
March, the month of
Mars, the very god
of War ; the place bears its name as if in royal
honor. Happy omen — Mars and the King ! War con-
fronts us now — and it shall be a war of subjugation.
[All retire.
SCENE II. Boston Harbor. Time, December 16, 1773,
evening. Ships at the dock. Upon the wharf enter a
crowd of unarmed citizens, male and female. FARMER
RICHARD STANDISH among them; called FARMER
DICK.
FIRST SPEAKER — There lies the evidence of our
abasement.1 [Pointing to the ships] Right here in Bos-
ton Harbor. And this more shame to us.
1 The East India Tea Company had shipped cargoes to Boston.
When the first ship appeared, December, 1773, in Boston Harbor,
a mass meeting was held at Faneuil Hall. It was adjourned to the
Old South Meeting House. Sam. Adams, Hancock, and Warren,
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 7
SECOND SPEAKER — Won't wood burn ? There are
three of them.
[Cries and shouts : " Burn ? Yes ! Yes ! Try it,
try it ! "
THIRD SPEAKER — The night is cold. A real Decem-
ber nip. Nine days
cold at Christmas.
more and Christmas. Always
FOURTH SPEAKER — A fire will do us good.
\Cries : " A fire ! a fire ! "
FIRST SPEAKER — No ! No ! Citizens, hear me ! We
must do no violence.
and others conducted the business. On motion of Sam. Adams it
was resolved the tea should go back. " The only way to get rid of
it," said another, " is to throw it overboard." A watch was proposed
to see that it did not land. A party of twenty-five was appointed
to guard the tea ships during the night. At first the consignees
refused to send it back. The master of one vessel, the Dartmouth,
finally agreed the tea should go back. It was thought this ended
the matter, as the other consignees did the same. But a clearance
for the ships was refused at the Custom House. On December 16,
1773, two thousand citizens assembled in the Old South Meet-
ing House. It was voted the tea should not be landed. Josinh
Quincy tried to restrain them from violence and urged moderation.
— Bancroft.
8
WASHINGTON. OR THE REVOLUTION.
FOURTH SPEAKER — Why not ? Tell me that ? Vio-
lence enough is done to us ! Who says we' must do no
violence ? Better keep such advice at home.
FIRST SPEAKER — Our leaders. This is private prop-
erty. There are the ships as well as the cargo. It is
the cargo with which we quarrel, not the ships.
FOURTH SPEAKER — We lead ourselves when we see
a pirate. That is a pirate ship. No better than a
pirate, and loaded with our poison ; if we take it, it
will surely take us, in chains. We'll sink her. What
say you all ?
[Cries : " Sink her, burn her, a tinder box, a box !
Bring us a box."
FIRST SPEAKER — You will not sink her while I am
here, unless you sink me, too. In the " old South "
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 9
this very night, yes, and for many nights, in Faneuil
Hall, you have heard Sam. Adams, Hancock, Warren,
and the rest, advise that these ships and cargoes be sent
back to London, and you have then applauded. Stand
by your approval. That's what I say.
THIRD SPEAKER — That's what they do in New York,
Philadelphia, and Charleston. Send them back. What
is good enough for them, is good enough for us.8 We
will stand together, and obey our leaders.
[Cries : " Too late, too late. To the bottom
with them."
FARMER DICK — A word before you act. You shall
not touch a single rattling upon this ship. I place
myself between you and it, and he who reaches her
deck must first meet me.
FOURTH SPEAKER — Who are you to defy us thus ?
We are the people, the Sons of Liberty. Down
with him !
[A rush is made and DICK assumes an attitude of
defiance.
FARMER DICK — You ask who I am ? You have the
right to know ? My name is Richard Standish, some-
times called Dick Standish or Farmer Dick. My home
is in old Middlesex, within sight of Boston. Since the
time when my revered ancestors helped to lay the foun-
dations of New England's rectitude, we have been
taught that law covers property as well as life. You
wrong yourselves to do as you propose.
FOURTH SPEAKER — He says well. The law, the law.
The law will guard us. Let us look to the law.
[Cries : " So we will, so we will ! "
SECOND SPEAKER — But if they attempt to unload this
tea ? Then let them take care.
FARMER DICK — If that is done, or even threatened,
then we will meet again.
FIRST SPEAKER — The threat is made. The owners
* Tea ships were sent to New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston,
as well as to Boston, and they were sent back. — Frost.
to WASHINGTON, OK THE REVOLUTION.
insist upon landing it, and refuse to send it back. Have
you not heard ? But no matter. Not a creature will
drink it. Let it alone. It would choke our people.
FARMER DICK — Wisely
said, good friend ! But
I did not know of the
threat to land it. I would
oppose such an effort. If
the destruction of this
cargo must come, let it
be by organized hostility
that carries with it the
assurance of a principle ;
not by an irresponsible
mob, whose acts count
for nothing.
[Many voices : " Three
cheers for Farm-
er Dick ! Three
cheers!" They are
given.
FIRST SPEAKER — And now, all to Faneuil Hall, to
hear our great orators upon these wild times.
[Cries of " Yes, yes ! To Faneuil Hall, to Faneuil
Hall!" Alt retire.
[Pantomime follows.* A party of fifty men rush
upon the stage disguised as Mohawk Indians.
They perform a short dance upon the wharf.
They then open the hatches of the ships, take out
the cargo, and pour it into the water. Then
another short dance upon the wharf. All re-
tire.
3 On the evening of i6th of December, 1773, the meeting in the
Old South Meeting House was adjourned by Sam. Adams, he
saying it could do no more. Then a warwhoop sounded. Fifty or
more, disguised as Indians, passed the door, and encouraged by
Adams and Hancock and others they marched to the wharf of the
tea ships. While the people looked on the tea chests were broken
open and the contents emptied into the bay, without the least injury
to other property. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
II
SCENE III. — London, Buckingham Palace. Time: Feb-
ruary, 1775.* Royal Audience Chamber.
Enter KING GEORGE III., LORD NORTH, Prime Minis-
ter; EARL OF HILLSBOROUGH, Ex-Minister oj
State, and ADMIRAL LORD HOWE.
THE KING — Since we have held the scepter no
weightier care has come to us.
These Colonies are the jewels of
our crown and have given prom-
ise, in the ripeness of time,
with a sturdy light, to em-
blazon our throne. As age
saps the limbs of giants, who
lean at last upon lusty youth,
so, in the round of nature, this
venerable but undaunted isle
might expect the comfort of
this younger stock. In earlier
days our faithful subjects have
given of their,, substance that this Western land
should take its station as a worthy compeer among
settled states. The blood of England has paid the price
for these rebellious children of protection against the
stealthy savage and a foreign king. Shall all this go as
waste, and we supinely fold our arms because ungrateful
treason bids us do so ? Such has never been the quality
of English rule, nor should it be so now. Why is it,
Howe, that you still persist in urging a milder policy
than we are disposed to follow ?
* Franklin left London for home the 2Oth of March, 1775. — Ban-
croft.
This scene is laid just previous to his departure. There is no his-
toric record that Franklin saw the King before he left, but it is a
warrantable dramatic liberty to assert he did. He had been ten years
in England as agent of the Colonies. A terrible issue was upon all
concerned. It was presumably his duty to confer with the King.
The actual political sentiments of all the parties to this scene have
been presented as accurately with history as possible.
In 1770 Franklin was made the agent of Massachusetts to lay com-
plaints before the King. — Bancroft.
12
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
ADMIRAL HOWE — Pardon me, your Majesty. Among
your subjects let my deeds, and those of ancestors with-
out a stain, be sponsor for my sincerity that lags behind
none other. I abate nothing of your claim upon those
who now give frowns where gratitude should show. I
ask an audience for this modest man, who seeks to ex-
plain the reason of estrangement.
KING — Lord Dartmouth is our Secretary of State,
succeeding Hillsborough, whom here we gladly greet.
Why shall this man trouble
us and not the Minister,
whose duty it is to listen ;
and doubtless his pleasure,
too.
HOWE — He is about to
leave these shores, and per-
haps forever. In loyalty he
would say farewell ; and to
this add, if so permitted, his
final plea for peace, over
which fierce Moloch now
shakes his dreaded spear.
KING — Have we not, through our ministers, been sur-
feited these many weary years with all that he would say ?
HOWE — Your Majesty, a King who would not be mis-
led where controversy holds should hear either argument.
Ministers are but mortal, and swaying too far to the side
of self-conviction is only natural. But, when done, the
sovereign is sj;ill the loser. This man, who seeks to
speak face to face with his King, — from whose hands
justice receives no wound, — is thus impelled, that no
argument shall fail of fair presentment in a matter so
swelling in importance.1
1 " I [Thomas Jefferson], at Philadelphia, called upon the beloved
Franklin. He gave me a paper which I afterward gave to his son.
It contained a narrative of the negotiations between Franklin and the
British ministry to prevent a contest of arms. This negotiation was
brought about by Lord Howe [Admiral Howe of the Revolution],
who was friendly to America and intimate with Dr. Franklin." —
Randolph.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 13
KING — Agarn, what is his name ? There are in Lon-
don many agents of these colonies.
HOWE — Benjamin Franklin.
KING — Franklin — a name not unknown. Is he that
man who, some twenty years ago, drew down the light-
ning?
HOWE — The same, your Majesty ; and, by proof now
admitted, established the
unity of lightning and
electricity.
KING — A wise man
and a benefactor.
NORTH — He should
try his hand upon his
stiff-necked countrymen,
and draw from them
the lightning of dis-
obedience.
HILLSBOROUGH — And
thus save them, perhaps,
from other experiments, with the sword as chief weapon.
NORTH — But you would try the rod before the sword ?
HILLSBOROUGH — Aye ! and if one did not serve, the
other should. A most pernicious fellow.2
NORTH — So much so, that you are now Ex-Minister.
Hillsborough, you have good cause to say, " a most per-
nicious fellow."3
KING — We will hear this man. \_The KING bows to
HOWE, who retires^ A sovereign can do no wrong by
2 " His lordship [Hillsborough] I knew had expressed himself
toward me [Franklin] in angry terms, calling me a factious, mischiev-
ous fellow and the like." — Bigelow.
'"Lord Hillsborough, notified by the Committee of Council's
approbation of our grant (urged by Franklin) in opposition to his
report, had resigned. [That is, as Secretary of State for the Colonies.]
I was told, as a secret, that Lord Hillsborough was much chagrined
at being out of place and could never forgive me, etc." [He held
Franklin responsible.] — Bigelow.
Franklin suggested Lord Dartmouth in August, 1772, as Hills-
borough's successor. — Morse 's Franklin.
14 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
bending his ear to seek the truth, no matter whence it
comes. My lords [to NORTH and HILLSBOROUGH, who
wove away], you will each remain, since, through years
of official duties, you know this man.
Re-enter ADMIRAL HOWE with FRANKLIN.
KING — Your petition for audience favorably con-
sidered, we are pleased to
hear that which you would
urge.
FRANKLIN — And may my
speech, your Majesty, be
worthy of my text, the pac-
ification of the American
Colonies.
NORTH — For years, you
with others joined, have been sermonizing upon that
text, and mended nothing of affairs. Are you still
here as authorized representative?
FRANKLIN — I am here specially as the agent of Penn-
sylvania,4 Massachusetts, and others of the Colonies. I
may assume to speak for all, since one interest unites
them as a single family. My countrymen plead for
equality with others under the Constitution. To accept
less in their eyes is ignominious. If they are stubborn
in their demand, be it remembered they are of English
origin, and this quality their heritage.
KING — Will you be specific ?
FRANKLIN — They are taxed without representation ;
they may be transported from among their peers to be
tried by strangers in a foreign land ; they are made to
contribute to a military force for their own subjugation ;
the army is billeted in their homes, as in a conquered
province ; their officials for domestic and civil order
are named in a distant land, and sent to rule over them
at their charge ; laws have been passed to close their
4 On the 26th of October, 1764, Pennsylvania made Franklin its
agent in England. In 1770 Massachusetts did the same. — Bancroft,
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 15
ports, and also to subvert their chartered governments.6
Shall I go on ?
HILLSBOROUGH — And for this, they would openly
rebel ; ignoring parental right to such return as comes
from grateful offspring.
FRANKLIN — The Danes and Saxons peopled this great
isle ; and after them the Norman engrafted a hardier
shoot upon the parent tree. A rugged union these, whose
commingled blood over all competitors has raised the
standard of letters, science, art, and war. Should Dane,
Saxon, or Norman now prefer their motherhood as their
right to rule, what would be the answer ? As England
would speak, so speaks America to-day, my Lord Hills-
borough.
HOWE — But the Stamp Act of '65, one source of
grievance, was repealed in '66, to which your voice con-
tributed in our House of Commons.6
FRANKLIN — The repeal came, but with it a declaration
of right to bind the Colonies.7 A luscious fruit was
extended with a thorn, and the thorn has left its sting.
And following came a statute enlarging the demands
upon my people. Pardon me for being tedious.
Though this last has since been modified, and the bur-
dens lightened — for which the present Ministry be
praised B — the act of kindness, like the Trojan steed, con-
ceals a danger. If our tea is legally dutiable, by your sole
decree, then all things may be so. We are no party to
the making of these laws and changes, and hence com-
plain.
NORTH — But you had champions. Fox, and Pitt,
and Burke, and others gave us trouble, holding in part
your views. Do you count them as nothing ?
5 See Declaration of Independence.
6 Franklin was examined in the British House of Commons in
1766, relative to the repeal of the Stamp Act. — Bigelow.
7 The repeal of the Stamp Act of 1765 was March 18, 1766, but
affirmed "the right of Parliament to bind the Colonies in all cases
whatsoever." — Bigelow.
8 Lord Howe's Revenue Act of 1770, repealing the duties of 1767,
except that on tea.
i6
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
FRANKLIN — Gratefully as America will ever hold
these illustrious names in memory, yet they are not the
chosen of our will : but are the noble gifts which Right
often gains in her battle with the Wrong. It is to the
honor of our nature that long suffering sometimes finds
a voluntary friend.
HOWE — And Heaven bless with peace the efforts of
these friends !
FRANKLIN — My father was born upon this soil. I
would gladly call it home, if so I may — a wish held in
common with my people, who are to English stock also
kinsmen. These words suggest the daily prayer of
millions across the sea.
KING — Such loyalty is not expressed in deeds.
FRANKLIN — Pardon me, your Majesty. Every foot
of soil in America pours forth its rill of loyalty from this
ancient spring. New England repeats Old England,
as one soul breathes from another's loins. States and
towns, by names of love, bind us with kith in this noble
realm, as if garnered in one common sheaf from English
shires.
KING — Your people have shed the blood of our sol-
diers. You have entered into a combination of non-
intercourse. You re-
fuse our products and
^- defy the laws. In
->i savage disguise you
have wasted the car-
goes of our faithful
subjects. Language
most treasonable has
found public utterance.
For all this, shall we be
at peace as the price
of obedience ? The
cost outweighs the gain.
-Be at peace, your Majesty, because Eng-
land's sovereign fears to do a wrong. Be at peace,
because you would not oppress the humblest of your
FRANKLIN
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 17
subjects. He rules most wisely, who bows to a just
demand. My people have transgressed. But who may
weigh with nicety an act of overwrought feeling,
and say here is too much, or there too little done to
win a generous pardon ? Zealous of their liberties,
Americans, with the courage of their fathers, have stood
on guard, and perhaps sometimes have wounded pru-
jdence. My King, look favorably upon those who ask
only that they may live as men, not slaves.
KING — And, if we do not see the light as you do,
what then ?
FRANKLIN — Your Majesty, would that I could make
you feel the weight of my
forebodings ! America will
never consent to be ruled
as a subordinate. Never !
Never ! Never ! '
NORTH — Then imperial
policy must yield to popu-
lar clamor. This means
abdication.
FRANKLIN — Say that imperial policy must yield to
popular rights, and both gain strength from mutual con-
tentment.
NORTH — While in the Commons I never voted for a
popular measure, but ever chose the opposite.10 When
simple duty shall direct the affairs of men, the people
will obey such government as their superiors may grant.
Why should men reach above their station, and wish to
leave the spade to spoil the scepter ? Men are born to
their proper place, and we who come into the world to
9 Examination of Franklin before the Commons in February, 1766 :
Q. "Do you not think the people of America would submit to
pay the stamp duty ?"
A. " No, never, never, unless compelled by force of arms."
— Bigelow.
10 Lord North was opposed to reform and to every popular meas-
ure. He boasted, " that since he had sat in the House of Commons
he had voted against all popular and in favor of all unpopular meas-
ures."— Bancroft.
1 8 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
rule find opposition irksome which emanates from the
people only.
FRANKLIN — I am speechless, my Lord, to such a
statement.
NORTH — If, as you say, our Colonies will not give con-
sent to such laws as the King and Parliament may approve,
this realm must still progress as best it may without it.
My voice is for unconditional submission. And, if re-
bellion come, then confiscation will serve to replenish
our nobles for heavy losses borne through years of Con-
tinental wars. So conflict will bring its consolation in
rewards to those who have won them by their fidelity to
the Crown."
FRANKLIN — I can say no more than to thank your
Majesty for this hearing.18
KING — May it lead to a better understanding between
us and our subjects !
\The KING, NORTH, and HILLSBOROUGH retire.
HOWE — [FRANKLIN exhibits emotion]1* Comfort, my
friend. My heart went with you, but the King was
obdurate.
FRANKLIN — It is now ten years since last I came upon
English soil, and in all that time have sought to ward
the impending blow. I must now go home. Home !
Why, where is that ? Not here ! Not here ! Oh, my
Lord, may you never know how heavy is the heart of
him who can no longer call the land of his father, home !
Such fate comes to me. England ! England ! Gladly
as I would cling to your glories as partly mine, I re-
11 "I [Franklin] remember that Lord North's answers [in the ne-
gotiations of Lord Howe, see Note i] were dry and unyielding for
unconditional submission, and betrayed an indifference to a rupture.
He said : ' A rebellion was not to be deprecated on the part of Great
Britain ; that the confiscations it would produce would provide for
many of their friends.' " — Randolph.
"This statement of Lord North [Note n] to Franklin indicated
so cool a purpose in the ministry as to render a compromise hopeless,
and the negotiation ended. — Randolph.
11 Franklin cherished a personal regard for the King, and as late
as 1773 sought excuses for his conduct, — Morse's Franklin,
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 19
nounce you now ! My home, henceforth, is with those
who recognize man by the stamp of God upon him, and
for the worth which this sign shows. Be it the destiny
of the land to which I hasten to give this sign over all
the world — a rank that shall yet rebuke the insolence of
kings !
HOWE — You talk with rashness. And yet I cannot
chicle.
FRANKLIN — No ! No ! my Lord ! In this dark hour
let me have my way, as one who looks into the future
with the gifts of prophecy. The curtain lifts upon my
vision, and the horrors of the coming years make a stout
man tremble. America will fight — fight — to her last
shilling and her last man. In this contest the very chil-
dren just released from the parental knee will forget
their weakness ; the blushing maiden and the beardless
boy rushing for precedence, to cast into the caldron of
seething war their mite for their country's freedom. The
torch, the tomahawk, and the bullet may do their work,
but death itself, though it ride upon every gale, shall
not subdue us ! Beyond this dread havoc I see the con-
solation— a new nation and a new era, the boon for op-
pressed humanity. The price is heavy, but the gain is
great. This hope lightens present burdens. Home
first, my Lord, and then to France ! [All retire.
SCENE IV. Street in Richmond, Va. Time : March 24,
1775-
Enter two aged citizens from opposite directions. '
FIRST CITIZEN — Good morning, neighbor James —
that is, if anything may be called good now.
SECOND CITIZEN — No, no, William ! Be sure you
make no criticism. Keep a civil, a civil tongue. The
tongue ! Oh, the tongue needs watching ! Now, I say,
all things are good. No man can blame me for that —
never !
FIRST CITIZEN — Heard you of the State convention
20
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
yesterday? The King has been railed against — right
here in Richmond. Heard you of that, I ask you ?
SECOND CITIZEN — Of course ; of "course ! I keep an
open ear as well as a prudent tongue. I can't help what
other men will do and say.
FIRST CITIZEN — Mark me, neighbor. With all your
prudence, you will sweat from trouble. Do you hear
me ? Other men make trouble, and
you bear it like an ass. It's a load
upon you, whether you will or no.
This railing upon the anointed of the
Lord will be an ache in your bones
yet. See now ?
SECOND CITIZEN — Well, out with
it ! Out with it, now ! How came
it all ? Has a new tax been called
for ? Or a new levy against the red-
skins ? There was a ring around the
moon last night wider than my farm
— too wide for quiet times. Look
for events when you see that. Yes, yes !
FIRST CITIZEN — You know Patrick Henry?
SECOND CITIZEN — Know him ? All men know him.
For years he has been the tribune of the people, resisting
tyranny to the very verge of danger. A bold and likely
man. No wrong to him, I hope. The very stones
would mutiny, if so.
FIRST CITIZEN — No wrong to him — no, indeed. But
wrong from him. Aye, yes ! He has done wrong in
speaking as he has. The very air is full of reports. He
may involve us all yet.
SECOND CITIZEN — What has he said now ? My life,
but it was honest. Honest, though it sets old Virginia
in a flame.
FIRST CITIZEN — He has done that very thing. He
defied King George, our true King ! That is what he
did. Openly ! Openly, as if he had never heard of a
halter for traitors.
SECOND CITIZEN — The good God, who doeth all
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 21
things well, never yet provided a foot of earth mean
enough to grow the hemp to make a halter for Patrick
Henry. He is himself a king — nature's appointed king
of brave and honest men.
FIRST CITIZEN — There is trouble in the North. Un-
ruly men have dared to stand against royal authority.
Mutiny ! Do you hear ? Rank mutiny and rebellion !
Well, what does Henry last night in the convention
gathered in the old church, but commend such conduct.
Yes, he did. Do you oppose the King ? Tell me, now.
SECOND CITIZEN — I cannot say. I wish peace with
all. I would lay these old bones under the sod, with as
little trouble as possible between now and then. But,
as I love justice, I dare not take a stand against Patrick
Henry. For, though he wears no golden crown upon
his head, yet he is God's anointed, who wears the crown
of courage to dare all things for his fellow-creatures.
FIRST CITIZEN — Think of it ! He proclaimed, " The
next gale that sweeps from the North will bring to our
ears the clash of resounding arms " ; then asked, " Why
stand we here idle ? " " Is life so dear or peace so sweet
as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? "
Is it slavery to obey the King and Parliament ? Then he
closed — hush ! I hardly dare to utter such perfidy — with
the words, " I know not what course others may take,
but as for me, give me liberty or give me death ! " '
What think you of that ?
SECOND CITIZEN [standing
amazed ~\ — What do I think
of that ? So much do I think
of it that the very thought is
overwhelming. It is as if
the Blue Mountains, which
overtop our State like sen-
tinels, were suddenly aflame
with a blaze to light the world. Indeed, this is impor-
tant news. Liberty or death, did you say ? Portentous
words and herald of great deeds !
' These extracts are from a speech by Patrick Henry on March 23,
1775, in a State convention in Richmond, Va. — Morse's Patrick Henry.
22 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
FIRST CITIZEN — Why think you this ? Are all things
turned topsy-turvy, and King and order no longer re-
spected ? This is rank treason, whoever says it.
SECOND CITIZEN — We will be swept with the current.
I see ! I see ! Choose for yourself, neighbor ; but, as
for me, I go with the tide that swells toward the haven
of liberty. Discussion between us is idle now. Henry
has thrown the gauge of battle, and we are for or against
him. Would that I could coin each drop that still holds
life within this withered frame into a thousand men, and
each man armed to sustain our bravest orator. Why,
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 23
this news warms me into youth, and puts vigor in my
limbs. If I may be of service, I shall die content.
FIRST CITIZEN — I am carried along by you, and see
through your eyes. We will stand or fall together.
What say you ? Down with King George and all his
tribe, if that be right, and I guess it is, if Patrick Henry
says so !
SECOND CITIZEN — Friend, you speak with the tongue
of all true sons of this soil. United we must be, and
united all good men will be. Let us learn more of this,
and our knowledge keep company with the rising storm.
Come, come ! The ring around the moon — I read it
now — liberty or death ! \Both retire.
SCENE V. A lonely spot in the suburbs of Boston. The city
in the distance. Time : evening, April 18, 1775.
Enter two farmers armed, viz., FARMER DICK STANDISH
and FARMER GEORGE ALDEN.
FARMER GEORGE [Peering toward Boston\ — Dick,
my eyes are tired with watching.
FARMER DICK — Tired or not, we must not fail to see
the signal.1
GEORGE — The church steeple is as black as our cat.
DICK — And it may continue so. No lantern was to
shine unless old Gage sent forth his troops.
GEORGE — Who hangs the signal ?
DICK — I don't know nor care. It is enough that our
friends are alert, and we will surely* know if the red-
coats move at all.
GEORGE — I shall be glad to welcome them — I loaded
on purpose.
DICK — It would grieve me if I wasted ammunition.
1 Gen. Gage resolved to strike a blow [from Boston], as the King
desired, and seize the military stores at Concord. The attempt had
been expected [by the patriots] and signals were concerted to an-
nounce the first movement of the troops for the country. — Bancroft.
24 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
" Old Rocks " can find a squirrel's eye at a hundred
paces.
{Affectionately pats " Old Rocks" his rifle.
GEORGE — See ! What is that? A light in the steeple,
sure !
DICK {Peering ouf\ — I see nothing.
GEORGE — There ! There !
DICK — Go to a doctor, to heal an excited mind. The
steeple is yet as black and silent as the clouds above it.
GEORGE — You too would be excited, had you torn
yourself from home as I was forced to do.
DICK — We fared the same then, for I came off by
trickery. Mother and the little ones suspected me and
dogged my steps; I pretended to be asleep, and when
all was quiet, I slipped away.
GEORGE — Grandfather helped me, and I am here.
DICK — What, he in his eightieth year, and yet alive
to this?"
GEORGE — You should see him ! He sits by the hour,
with that old sword he wore at Louisburg, and at
1 In the Battle of Lexington fell the octogenarian, Josiah Haynes.
— Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 25
Quebec, and talks to it. "Are you here?" says he.
" Stand by me, for I shall need you yet. Cursed tyrants,
why did I hack this blade for you upon the enemy ? "
and more like this. And upon sudden approach he
springs up and grasps the hilt as if a foe were here —
and then sinks back again. We humor him, and stand
with bowed and humbled heads in the presence of this
helpless patriotism, that would scale the rampart, yet
cannot reach the base.
DICK — There are thousands like him. Even the
women and children are full of fight.
GEORGE — I know it. But I see this example and so
speak of him. It fires my blood and crams me from top
to toe with vengeance. He knew I was to watch for
the signal to-night, and would have come, had I con-
sented.
DICK— What is that light ? Quick ! See ! in the old
church steeple !
GEORGE — I send you to the doctor this time.
DICK — God ! Man, can't you see ? Where are you
looking ? There, in the belfry !
GEORGE — Yes, yes ! I was looking higher up. It
is there ! It is the signal. The soldiers are coming,
and we must alarm our friends. Hark ! Hark ! I
hear the clattering of a horse-
man. He comes this way.
Listen !
DICK — I see him. There !
There ! He rides with the
wind — don't you see him ? A
hundred miles around there is
not a creature who does not
know him — the post-rider of
the Sons of Liberty.
GEORGE — It is Paul Revere.3
DICK — Of course ! Of course ! He flies faster than
'Warren, at ten o'clock [at night, April 18, 1775] dispatched
William Daws through Roxbury, and Paul Revere by way of
Charleston to Lexington. — Bancroft.
26 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
the gale. The fire-eyed hawk would beat his wings in
vain and lag behind him. To Concord — on to Concord
he goes, to prick to his spring the crouching lion of old
Middlesex. This is our work as well to do — so both of
us away. "Old Rocks" shall speak for liberty before
another day. [Both retire.
SCENE VI. — A wood on roadside near Lexington. Time :
April 19, 1775.
Enter in haste, an ENGLISH CAPTAIN, exhausted.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — Where can Lieut. Harris be ?
These men fight like devils.
Enter an ENGLISH LIEUTENANT — rushing on.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — Well met, Lieut. Harris ! From a
distance I saw you moving in this direction, and thought
to cross you. Col. Smith's orders are to hurry messen-
gers to Gen. Gage for re-enforcements.1
LIEUTENANT — Am I to take this order, Captain ?
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — Yes. As the Colonel's mounted
aid to-day, this duty falls to you. The safety of the
whole command may rest with your performance.
Others have been dispatched upon like mission, for num-
bers cheat chance of failure. The dispersal of an angry
mob is not the work before us, but the subjugation of
men, who look with steady scorn into the very muz-
zles— that's what we have been sent to do.
LIEUTENANT — My horse is down, and alone I was
seeking our troops.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — Cross to the right — there are
our disjointed lines. Impress the first and fleetest steed
— the orders of the Colonel commanding — and ride as
if hell were after you ; for so it is.
LIEUTENANT — Yes ! and in me, too. A drop of
'On the evening of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent Colonel
Smith and Major Pitcairn with a force to destroy the stores at
Concord. — Frost.
28 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
water — oh ! for a drop of water — our men, flying from
these huntsmen, drop in their tracks from fatigue and
thirst.' [Retires.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — We must change our books
and revise the art of war, when war-scarred veterans
are thus routed by mud-smeared plowmen.1
Enter from behind him an ENGLISH SERGEANT, who
rushes upon the stage.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN [Startled and raising his sword,
swinging around.] Who's there ? Surrender, or die !
SERGEANT — Why, Captain, don't you know me ?
ENGLISH CAPTAIN [Exhausted and staggering into
the SERGEANT'S arms.'] Know you ? Know you ? I
don't know myself. Sergeant, where is our company?
Bearing important dispatches I left the line, and was
pursued. Exhausted, I reached this spot and conveyed
my orders to an aid.
SERGEANT — Like others, our company have aban-
doned the common road. Over pathless fields each
seeks in flight his safety. On every side the enemy
harass us.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — May the fiend catch them all !
The surprise of this stings most. To be defeated where
possibilities might crown a rival, can be borne ; but de-
feated when contempt rode foremost in your march, is
humiliating. What place is this?
SERGEANT — They call it Lexington.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — May it never have historian, for
our sake ! It was at the meeting house, as these people
call it, — and well named, for here we met much more
than we expected, — a sleepy militia was this morning en-
countered, rubbing their eyes, as we thought, to see the
run rise. We had marched through the night and were
1 British troops, greatly exhausted and fatigued, began to run
rather than retreat in order. — Bancroft.
1 The indignant yeomanry of the land, armed with their fathers'
weapons, poured to the spot of this strange tragedy. — Frost, quoting
Ed-ward Everett.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
29
in no humor for civilities. These leek-eating soldiers
stood with arms in their hands and treason in their
looks. It was the sullenness of the caged beast before
the lash. Major Pitcairn rode up ancj commanded :
" Lay down your arms and disperse, you rebels ! " Not
a man obeyed ; not a man stirred in his tracks. There
they stood, in embattled line, disputing the King's au-
thority. A volley followed.4 That was all I saw. Ser-
geant, how many fell ? I was blind with rage and rushed
onward with my company. The stores at Concord, the
object sought
4 When the British troops reached Lexington, about five o'clock
in the morning, a small body of militia was paraded in front of the
meeting house. Major Pitcairn rode up, calling out, "Disperse,
ye rebels ; disperse." His soldiers commenced a scattering fire.
Eight [seven by Bancroft] were killed and a number wounded. —
Frost.
The main body now proceeded to Concord and destroyed the
stores. — Frost,
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SERGEANT — Seven fell at our fire and more were
wounded. They then fell back, and without returning
a shot.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — Yes ; fell back to strike a better
blow.
SERGEANT — But we destroyed the stores at Concord,
or such as we could find, before the sun was three hours
up, and then turned homeward.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — And then our rout. That is the
word to use. It is now past noon, and English soldiers
are scurrying still be-
fore these rabbit-hunters.
They seemed to rise out
of the very ground after
the volley at the Concord
Bridge.* The bushes,
fences, and the trees gave
them life, and every hill-
top has swarmed all day
with the motley gather-
ing.' They surely had no-
tice of our coming. Their
rifles, flint-locks, and even
pitchforks — for such their
weapons were — have
borne us down, carrying
the best of armament.
What is the war-cry, at
which they rally and rush
on ? I did not catch it ;
but feared more than once that it might catch me.
SERGEANT — I heard the same. The cry was Liberty
or Death !
5 While they [the British] were engaged on their errand [in Con-
cord] the militia of Concord and neighboring towns gathered at the
Concord Bridge. The British at the bridge began to tear it up, and
fired upon the militia. A general action now ensued, which ter-
minated in the retreat of the British. It was now noon. — Frost, quot-
ing Everett.
* Every height of ground was covered with the avengers. Every
patch of trees, every rock, every stone-wall was lined with an unin-
termitted fire. — Frost, quoting Everett.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 31
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — Liberty or Death ! Was that it ?
Backed by courage, this cry in itself is an assaulting
column. Oh, that re-enforcements were come !
Enter an AMERICAN CAPTAIN with FARMER DICK and
two armed men, rushing upon the stage.
AMERICAN CAPTAIN — Surrender !
ENGLISH CAPTAIN [drawing his sword\ — To whom,
and by what authority ?
AMERICAN CAPTAIN — By the authority of united free-
men, to whom God alone is king !
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — Insolent traitor ! Crawl to my
feet for pardon, lest I let out your worthless life as an
offering to England's sovereign — your King and mine.
[Advances with his sword as if to strike, and the
Americans level their guns.
AMERICAN CAPTAIN [with his sword throws up the
muzzles of the other arms] — Don't fire, men. We respect
the defenseless, however great the provocation.
FARMER DICK — I wanted Old Rocks to look at him ;
that is all, and know him if we meet again. I'll hold the
charge for other game. Bullets are scarce and game is
plenty.
ENGLISH CAPTAIN — We are your prisoners.
Enter two American MILITIAMEN, who rush upon the stage,
armed.
MILITIAMAN [to AMERICAN CAPTAIN] — Quick, quick,
captain, or the British will be upon you ! Lord Percy
has come up with fresh troops.7 Our men are saving
their prisoners and falling back. The assailants retire also.
AMERICAN CAPTAIN — Between here and Boston our
friends may continue the dance by us begun. Here we
will stop. A glorious ending of a glorious day. For-
ward— march !
[All retire, the prisoners between the soldiers.
1 At that moment [two in the afternoon] Lord Percy came in sight
with a fresh brigade. He received the fugitives in a hollow square,
who lay down for rest upon the ground, their tongues hanging out of
their mouths like those of dogs after a chase. — Bancroft.
32 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SCENE VII. A redoubt on Bunker s Hill. Time : June
*7» I775- American soldiers on guard, looking over
toivard Boston, with and without uniform. FARMER
DICK with them.
Enter GEN. PUTNAM, with three AIDS.
PUTNAM — Let no man fire till he can see the whites
of their eyes.1 The slaughter on yonder field attests
the wisdom of this opening
order. First Lexington, and
last month Ticonderoga."
This is a good beginning.
April gave the shower, and
May the bud ; this blazing
June shall help the ripening.
So roll the months until the-
harvest. Twice to-day have
solid columns pushed up to
our muzzles, and been twice
hurled back with bloody
reckoning.3 Praised be for-
tune, that binds the Mystic
and the Charles on either
side, and so masses them in
front on this narrow neck.
FIRST AID — The enemy form again and prepare for a
third assault.
PUTNAM — Well, let them come. We will receive them
as before ; and then home to dinner, after a good day's
work. Where is Prescott, our chief in this day's
struggle ? 4
1 " Let no man fire till he can see the whites of their eyes," was
Prescott's order at Bunker Hill.
8 Lexington, April 19, 1775 ; Ticonderoga captured by Ethan Allen
May 10, 1775.
* The British troops marched to the attack [Bunker Hill]. The
Americans poured upon them such a deadly fire that their line was
broken and driven in disorder. They were rallied and again led to
the charge, received another deadly fire and a second time retreated
in confusion. — Frost.
4 Prescott was commander-in-chief by consent of all. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 33
SECOND AID — Just now he is inspecting the right.
_ PUTNAM — And Gen. Stark ? I have not seen him,
though I have traversed half the line.
THIRD AID — Gen. Stark is at the water battery near
the rail fence.
PUTNAM — And Warren ?
FIRST AID — On the left. He has held his place since
noon, as a volunteer in the ranks.5
PUTNAM — It was at that hour of noon the fight began,
while the sun, with its impartial beams, was scorching
either army.' That smoke in
the distance ! Look !
SECOND AID — It is Charles-
town, burning still, fanned into
flame again with the changing
breeze.
PUTNAM — Degenerate com-
manders ! Did not this in-
fernal heat of a summer's sun
and giant battle suffice, with-
out this torch ! In our next
volley be all this avenged.
From daylight till now, these ships of war in front,
with the water batteries, have rained upon us, and yet
the men budge not.7
Enter an ORDERLY in great haste, from the right.
ORDERLY — The commanding officer's compliments to
Gen. Putnam,8 and directs an immediate supply of bul-
lets to Gen. Stark.
5 Prescott proposed that he [Warren] should take command ; he
answered, as he had done to Putnam: "I come as a volunteer to
learn from a soldier of experience." — Bancroft.
6 The day was one of the hottest of the season. — Bancroft.
1 The cannonade from the batteries and the shipping could not dis-
lodge them. — Bancroft.
8 Putnam [though without command] was everywhere cheering the
whole command. From first to last Putnam took an active interest,
and the appointment of Prescott to the command was with his con-
currence.— Bancroft.
34 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
PUTNAM — May Heaven then defend us ! Has it
come to this ? Bullets ! We have none here to spare.9
The foe prepares again to follow the paths it has crim-
soned twice already, and our pouches are nearly empty.
I can send none. Not one.
ORDERLY — Is this the answer to Col. Prescott ?
PUTNAM — No ! No ! The very ground we tread
upon supplies the need. Tell Col. Prescott to turn to
the stones around him. The hills — the roads — the
paths we walk are full of bullets, long hidden for our
purpose. The great King above us all placed them
there against the direful need of this very day. Pound
up the rock and therein find the stony bullet, that will
speak to the English heart as eloquently as lead in this
strife for freedom. Take this message back.
[ORDERLY retires.
PUTNAM — So long as trusty rifles and the solid hills
remain, who shall feel dismay ?
Enter four SOLDIERS with an ENGLISH MAJOR as prisoner.
PUTNAM — What have we here ?
SOLDIER — This prisoner was taken in the second as-
sault ; and Gen. Warren requests that you will question
him.
PUTNAM — Who commands these assaulting columns
and their strength ? Answer, if you would live.
PRISONER — By Gen. Gage's orders, Gen. Howe and
Gen. Pigot with about two thousand men made the
attack this noon. Being repulsed, the second effort —
now three thousand men advancing — ended as the first.
Before I was made a prisoner, I learned that Gen.
Clinton now gives his aid.
PUTNAM — How heavy has been your loss ?
PRISONER — More than a thousand soldiers lie on the
ground in front.
* The ammunition [for the fight] had been distributed in haste.
Two flints, a gill of powder, and fifteen balls to each man. The balls
had to be suited to guns of different caliber. It was the rude turn-out
of yeoman soldiery. — Irving.
'WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 35
PUTNAM — Terrific punishment. But no more than
justice. What means this present changing of the fleet
and of the artillery ? I0
PRISONER — I know no more than I can guess.
PUTNAM — Well, then, as you guess.
PRISONER — It is to enfilade your lines ; and so assist
the attack in front, already found to be disastrous where
unsupported.
PUTNAM — You are right. I have no more to ask.
You may go. [SOLDIERS retire with the PRISONER.
PUTNAM — This change of ships ! These enfilading
batteries ! Without sufficient artillery, how can we
oppose ?
Enter an ORDERLY from the left.
ORDERLY — Major Knowlton sends word to Gen. Put-
nam that Gen. Warren has been hit and has this instant
died.11
PUTNAM — Dead ! Warren dead ! You've chilled
the very pith and marrow of my life to tell me so.
Gallant and gentle Warren dead ; and we of only half
his worth still left with vigor. This is rank injustice,
chargeable to death. Martyr to the rights of man, in
immortal realms be now chief embassador to annul
these wrongs of tyrants. My friend gone ! Forever
gone ! This loss — this heavy loss to us — is like that of
a man with a limb lopped off, an eye plucked out, and
compelled to go the way of life henceforth without their
helpful service. For he was both prop and sight upon
our toilsome journey. This sorrow will sit on every
lid throughout the land, and flood great grief with tears.
The festering victims, now strewing yonder slopes, all
combined in one, were fractionized in life, by the greater
, virtues of this single soul. Immortal spirit ! hover near
10 While a part of his force [the British] was engaged [for a third
assault] the rest brought field-pieces to enfilade the breastwork on
the left. — Irving.
The number of killed and wounded of Gage's troops was at least
one thousand and fifty. — Bancroft.
11 Just at the moment of retreat fell Joseph Warren. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
us now, while yet the battle warms ; our vengeful swords
will exact great recompense, or some of us shall bear you
friendly company !
Enter an ORDERLY in great haste from the left.
ORDERLY — Major Knowlton's compliments to Gen.
Putnam, and requests his help for an immediate jupply
of powder.18
PUTNAM [staggering back in alarm] — You know not
what you ask • and so strike terror to a soul that never
quailed before. I have
sought the cave of the
savage beast, and alone
dragged him forth to
slaughter; facing his
glowing eyes a'nd hiss-
ing anger, these nerves
were like stringed steel,
which now shake with
fear.13 There is the
advancing foe. Here
we stand, as firm as
the eternal hills, if with
means provided to hurl
them back again. What can we do ? Great God ! It is
your cause that trembles in the balance for want of this
commodity. Oh ! would that I could transmute these
perspiring drops, each one into a ton, your chief should
have it all ! Where in all nature's laboratory may we
find powder, ready magazined, to help us do our work
upon these advancing hosts ? Bullets may be found
innocent of molds, but powder may not be so quarried.
I can send no powder. [ORDERLY re fires.'] The fight is
already on, and lamentation turns not back the foe.
Each man to his place, and in our last volley let no shot
fail to find its living target. Take aim, steady, fire !
[A volley with a cheer is fired from the redoubt.
19 The Americans had fired their last round — their ammunition was
exhausted. — Irving.
15 At Pomfret, Conn., where he lived, Putnam, about 1740, entered
a she-wolf's den and killed the beast. — Irving.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
37
PUTNAM — Well done ! Well done ! The lines reel
again. So be it ever, with a foe confronting New Eng-
land's rifles.
Enter ORDERLY* in great haste from the right.
ORDERLY — The commanding officer, Col. Prescott,
orders a retreat from failure of ammunition.14
PUTNAM — Then we will retire, before the enemy forms
again.
FARMER DICK — Shall we reverse our empty guns, and
let these English know that both ends are mortal ?ls
PUTNAM — Do you so, every man. A wise suggestion.
Sound the retreat ! {Bugle
sounds retreat.] Dismal ne-
cessity that compels this
order. Fall back, with face
to the foe, that he may see
we intend to spring again.
The ancient Greek upon the
Attic plain beat down the
Persian, though ten to one
against him, and gave the world an empire. The pride
of England humbled here, there is no seer with vision
far enough to see the glories of the coming state.
We've done our work like men to-day ;
Let him dispute who will.
Hence, with the name of Marathon,
Write that of Bunker Hill.
{Bugles again sound retreat. The Americans fall
back, and English soldiers rush in over- the
redoubt.
14 The ammunition being expended, Prescott gave the word of
retreat. — Bancroft.
uThe ammunition exhausted, now succeeded a deadly struggle,
hand to hand, with bayonets, stones, and the stocks of their muskets.
— Irving.
CURTAIN.
END OF ACT I.
ACT II.
SCENE I. Open tent of the Commander-in-Chief of the
American forces at Cambridge. Time: November ;
1775 '> mght.
GEN. GEORGE WASHING TON found in his tent examining
records by the light of a candle.
WASHINGTON — The sword, unsheathed and without
a scabbard, is given to my keeping.1 Heavy responsi-
bility, to weave into the robe of order these tangled
shreds ! ' The brave man's hopes, the coward's fears, the
patriot's wish, and the traitor's
cunning are here for sifting ;
the good from the evil gather-
ing. May one man do this work ?
Presumptuous mortal he, who
would not lean confidingly upon
more than mortal promise. I
must walk. This care weighs
upon me and sleep is banished,
except when nature grimly asserts
her claims, regardless of a burning
brain, and then the body sleeps.
[ Walks out before his tent.] This frosty air is full of
exhilaration, nature's tonic to amend our waste. As far
as the eye can reach, from camp to camp, light calls to
1 George Washington was made by Congress Commander-in-Chief
of the Continental Army, June 15, 1775. On the 3d of July following
he took command of the army at Cambridge. — Bancroft.
* The camp contained a people in arms rather than an army. No
one could tell its numbers or its stores. The soldiers had enlisted
under different agreements and short periods. Each Colony had its
own military government and system of supplies. — Bancroft.
38
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 39
light, Be watchful of the foe.3 Without a flag, without
a purpose definite, without arms, ammunition, and
money, was ever commander more sorely tried ?4 The
daring spirit is here, but all else is absent.5 Coming
and leaving at their own will, since a July sun saw my
arrival, twice over, if no more, have these changing
thousands been trained to military order ; and this
needed order as many times been lost.8 The mothers
on the surrounding acres are the commissaries to these
soldier sons.7 Gathered here to resist the King, daily
the chaplain calls down blessings upon his royal head,
and the soldiers say, Amen.8 With no organized state
directing us, what are we but rebels against defined au-
thority. Marvelous uprising ! 9 Marvelous submission
of mortal powers to forces yet unknown !
Enter FRANKLIN.
FRANKLIN — From my tent I saw you, General ; and
could not resist an old man's wakefulness and wish to
8 Washington found the army in a semicircle nine miles long.—
Bancroft,
4 No flag had yet been adopted by Congress, and the soldiers filled
college halls, churches, and dwelt as accident permitted. — Bancroft.
6 In the great number of able-bodied men — active, zealous, and
courageous — Washington saw the materials for a good army. But
there was the most urgent need of tents, clothing, hospitals, of every
kind of arms, and, most of all, of powder. And yet no money had
been provided. The life of Washington at Cambridge was one con-
tinual round of vexation and fatigue. — Bancroft.
The supply of arms and ammunition was scanty, the troops being
without bayonets and having but nine rounds of cartridges each. —
Frost.
6 From short enlistments troops were constantly changing, and lost
as soon as trained. — Bancroft.
1 The mothers, wives, brothers, and sisters of the soldiers were
constantly coming to the camp with supplies of clothing and house-
hold gifts. Each householder was a commissary.— Bancroft.
8 The chaplains kept alive the custom of daily prayer. — Bancroft.
[And, of course, prayed for the King, since there was no formal
separation.]
The Colonists were professing allegiance to a power which their
martial battalions were opposing. — Frost.
9 But for this [private aid] the forces must have dispersed. Why
they did not cannot exactly be told. — Bancroft.
40 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
join you in the healthful draughts which this November
night distills.10
WASHINGTON — To me you are ever welcome ; both by
day and night.
FRANKLIN — I have been busy with the plan, for
which, with Lynch and Harrison as commissioners from
Congress, I am here in your camp in Cambridge.
WASHINGTON — If you have reached a plan available,
you have now the right to be called once more a bene-
factor.
FRANKLIN — As you already know, in July last I re-
ported a method to Congress for changing this chaos of
divided Colonies into a solid and central power.
WASHINGTON — With deepest interest I have watched
your steps. Unless good counsel directs us some such
way, all is surely lost.
FRANKLIN — I urged the independence of each separate
State. These confederated into a Union, with powers
limited, for the good of all.11
WASHINGTON — A self-evident advantage. No interest
lost to any, no pride wounded, and strength added to
every part — being bound as many into one. This is a
safe road to follow.
FRANKLIN — The pear that hangs suspended — without
shock rudely applied — will not fall till ripe and ready,
for so nature wills. The state will grow, as grows the
fruit, and at maturity with a blessing shield us. In
either case, to hasten time and season is a danger.
WASHINGTON — Then, as I read your words, we are not
10 On the 30th of September, 1775, Congress appointed Franklin,
Lynch, and Harrison to visit the camp of Washington and to devise
a method for enlisting the army anew, because all supplies were
needed, and, by the terms of enlistment, the army would disband
in December. — Bancroft.
11 On the 2ist of July, 1775, Franklin submitted a plan for confed-
erating the Colonies into one nation. Each Colony was to pass its
own laws and constitution, while the powers of the general govern-
ment were to include all questions of war, peace, alliance, etc. — Ban-
croft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 41
ripe for separation, though here we gather, armed for
this to strike. Do you favor independence ?
FRANKLIN — Yes, yes ! A thousand times, yes ! But
I stand almost alone. I have been in touch with the
English, and know the temper of those who rule. I am
for independence 'now, this very hour. But I outrun
the general wish. Old attachments are hard to break,
so much does custom bind us.
WASHINGTON — One year ago our Congress petitioned
the King for justice. He scoffed at our claims. Since
then Lexington and Bunker Hill have testified to our
love for freedom. In the face of this, and mindful of
outrage since added from royal arrogance, the present
Congress votes another petition for pacification. This
last, the King will not deign even to receive into his
royal hands.12
FRANKLIN — The people are patient and long-suffering.
But the hour of independence is hurrying on. The King
helps us in his proclamation denouncing us for punish-
ment. While America was on her knees, he aimed a
dagger at her heart.13
WASHINGTON — I, too, have dallied with this allegiance
to the King, as if it were a crime to question it. But,
healed from this sentimentality, base because it leads to
servility, I am ready to cast my fate and fortunes for
independence. The ashes of Falmouth, now smolder-
ing under Capt. Mowat's murderous guns, even while
we are talking here, help to stifle former friendship.14
12 The petition to the King of the summer of 1775 was sent to him
by Richard Penn of Philadelphia. He reached London August 14.
The King would not see him. He was determined, he said, to force
the Americans to submission. Lord North published a proclamation
declaring them rebels and forbidding all intercourse with them. —
Bancroft.
13 When this proclamation reached America, men said, " While
America is still on her knees the King aims a dagger at her heart."
The people now began to entertain the idea of independence. — Ban-
croft.
14 Capt. Mowat, in a ship of sixteen guns, with three others, on tbe
morning of the i6th of October, 1775, laid Falmouth [now Portland]
in ashes. The indignation of Washington was kindled at these savage
cruelties. — Bancroft.
4* WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
FRANKLIN — We must die in our allegiance to the
monarch before we can be born in the freedom of the
man.
WASHINGTON — Meanwhile the army must be main-
tained. You know its needs and mine.
FRANKLIN — In sympathy know them, and will provide.
The plan I spoke of ? We have agreed, my associates
and myself, that to you we delegate the power, in the
name of the Continental
Congress, to recruit an
army of twenty- three
thousand men, and to
equip them as seems
just to you. The New
England Colonies, as
separate States, will
confirm your acts ; and
Congress also, with the
voice of all.14
WASHINGTON — The authority is the best our condition
knows, and I cheerfully accept.
Enter COL. NATHANIEL GREENE and CAPT. HENRY
KNOX.
WASHINGTON — Good- evening, gentlemen. [To FRANK-
LIN.] Here are two of my trusted officers, who are
making the rounds.
FRANKLIN — We know each other well. Our visit
here in camp has been so long, your rolls should bear
us. Knox is, I think, a maker of books from yonder
city, whence, like myself, he is driven forth, and so as
a fellow-craftsman comes near to me.
KNOX — It touches my pride to be called your fellow-
15 Franklin, as leading adviser from Congress [to camp of Wash-
ington], devised a scheme for supplying a new army of twenty-three
thousand men, whom the general could enlist without delay for the
next campaign. The arrangement was an agreement between the
army, the Continental Congress, and the New England colonies. —
Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 43
craftsman, though I make only the covers of the book,
while you make that which the covers hold.
FRANKLIN — And so we help each other in the same
trade ; and as I said, are fellow-craftsmen.
WASHINGTON — And what report do you bring to
me ?
GREENE — As always. There is suffering everywhere,
and need of all things.
KNOX — The things most plentiful are stout hearts
and empty stomachs.
GREENE — And the things absent are food, clothes,
guns, and ammunition.
WASHINGTON [to FRANKLIN] — And yet the people
loudly clamor at my delay to strike the enemy. Can we
with naked fists beat down the power of England ? Our
strength, at this hour, is the ignorance of the enemy of
our weakness.16
FRANKLIN — Ignorance of what we might do, has
strewn the earth with failures since the flood. May
these Britons continue to illustrate my proverb !
WASHINGTON — I dare not make my condition known
to these fireside tacticians and silence them. With
other burdens I must take their censure, patiently.
FRANLKIN — It is unjust even to criminality. But
where in this world does absolute right abide ? Cen-
sure existence, and call life an error. You may do this
with as much justice as have these simple fools, who,
blindly ignorant, assume to censure you.
KNOX — Plenty of artillery and powder would con-
vert me to a belief that all things were right and just.
A fair show, and I could go home again. Yes, to that
home I see yonder in my daily rounds. Ticonderoga
16 The country expected tidings of the expulsion of the British
from Boston, when the want of gunpowder compelled inactivity.
The General [Washington] might have shielded his good name by
letting the truth be known, but the public cause would suffer ; and
braving the shafts of censure, he submitted in silence to the reproach
of inactivity, at which his soul revolted. — Bancroft.
44 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
has given us here some heavy guns. But what are guns
without powder?
WASHINGTON — The want of supplies is our strongest
adversary. For this need, Ethan Allen failed before
Montreal, and now, loaded with chains, is on his way to
a British prison."
FRANKLIN — The valiant Montgomery redeemed all
this, and Montreal has just received him.18 You have
other schemes afoot toward Canada ?
WASHINGTON — It has been my wish to unite Canada
with ourselves. 1 have ordered Colonel Benedict
Arnold — a braver man never led assault — to march by
Eastern journeys, and to join Montgomery before
Quebec.19 I am hopeful and in turn am also
anxious.
KNOX — By your leave, we will resume our journey of
the camp. [KNOX and GREENE bow and retire.
FRANKLIN — I will catch a lesson in this good example,
and so say good-night. [FRANKLIN bows and retires.
WASHINGTON — What mockery to say good-night to
me. Bad-night pushes good-night from its stool and
sits instead. Good-night, that watches for the coming
of the jocund day, to arouse from restful sleep, calls
not to me — calls not to me !
\Retires to his tent, which closes.
11 Ethan Allen indulged in the vision of surprising Montreal as he
had done Ticonderoga. On the night of September 24, 1775, he
crossed to Long Point, though he had so few canoes that but a third
of his party could embark at once. He was surprised, and surren-
dered. He was chained and sent to England. — Bancroft.
18 On November 12, 1775, uuopposed, Montgomery took posses-
sion of Montreal. — Bancroft.
" In the hope of aiding the efforts against Canada, Washington
organized an expedition to the lower St. Lawrence. For its chief
officer, he selected Benedict Arnold. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 45
SCENE II. Room in the royal residence at Cassel. Time :
January 31, 1776.
Enter FREDERICK II., LANDGRAVE of Hesse Cassel,
and COL. WILLIAM FAUCITT of the British Army, and
agent of the British ministry.
LANDGRAVE — What you say, colonel, is very true.
His Majesty, our royal cousin, no doubt wants troops.
We are well assured of that.1 Other-
wise you would not be here to seek
them at our hands. But the pay for
these troops — the money and the reve-
nue to us ? Men are costly, when one
has a surplus to sell, to him who wants
to buy.
FAUCITT — The question of money
need not delay our treaty. We pay lib-
erally because the necessity is great. In
negotiations your minister has not forgotten the prince
he serves. It is understood you have the men ; so we
have bargained for them.
LANDGRAVE — Regiment after regiment, idle and
voracious. Troops have no right to impoverish their
prince with fearful appetites, when they can earn for him
a few marks by service abroad.
FAUCITT — Soldiers are sometimes biased and will
serve willingly only their own country and its king.
LANDGRAVE — Cheap sentimentality ! I assure you
that such a rule for our military would shake the thrones
of half the princes of Europe. The true soldier asks
for no more than orders. What is it to him whether he
serves in the East or in the West ? His life belongs to
the state, and the ruling prince is the state. I need
money, and my army can earn it for me. I sell it to
1 Faucitt hurried to Cassel. where his coming was expected by one
[the Landgrave Frederick II.] who well knew the strait to which the
English ministry was reduced. To this man Faucitt delivered a
letter from the British king. Negotiations were had with Gen.
Schlieffen, the minister of the Landgrave. — Bancroft.
46 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
you. How simple ! Will you pay the price ? Yes.
Very well ; my soldiers will go where you order, serve
as you will, and kill your enemy as they would kill
mine.
FAUCITT — Your Serene Highness is informed of the
price we offer to each soldier ?
LANDGRAVE — I have pondered it well and with ap-
proval. Our royal cousin of England — by marriage and
by blood closely knit into our heart — will now strengthen
these ties with a royal revenue, so needful to our
exhausted treasury. This kindness of our kinsman
touches us deeply ; and may good report thereof reach
him by his embassador ! [FAUCITT bows humbly.
FAUCITT — England will pay your men four pounds
each and grant one hundred acres of land as bounty.
This to every man and non-commissioned officer.*
LANDGRAVE — The men ? I have told you already
this price gives content. But I am not so much inter-*
ested in the men as in the state. What income is fixed
upon for me ? When I sell my ox, to supply the prov-
ender for him is, of necessity, by the purchaser assumed,
to keep him living for his work. The duty was mine,
is yours, and to-morrow may be another's. But the
value of that beast comes to me as owner, and hence
interests me most. It affects my life by adding to its
pleasures. What subsidy does your King propose for
me ?
FAUCITT — His Majesty of England requests from
Hesse Cassel a force of twelve thousand five hundred
men.* They shall swear allegiance to him and serve as
if his subjects.4 For this, so long as the compact runs,
you shall receive each year a subsidy of four hundred
thousand pounds in sterling money. This subsidy shall
1 The British army was recruited in Germany by the help of liberal
promises. Four pounds and one hundred acres of land were guaran-
teed to every private and non-commissioned officer. — Von Eelking.
* Hesse Cassel agreed to supply twelve thousand five hundred
men. — Von Eelking.
4 They were to take the oath of allegiance and service to the King
of England. — Von Eelking.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
47
continue for two years after your troops come home, the
work for us being done.5
LANDGRAVE — Four hundred thousand pounds a year.
Let me see. How much is that in marks? I have a
better head for marks. Have you paper, that you can
give me this in marks ?
FAUCITT — Twenty marks, German, make an English
pound. Hence the subsidy to you is, annually, eight
millions of marks.
LANDGRAVE — Eight millions. I like that ; a good
round sum. I never believed before that subjects could
be turned to so much profit. But about France ? When
my men are away, France may trouble us. That nation
loves us not, remembering the last war.
FAUCITT — This has not been forgotten. A treaty of
alliance and protection has been arranged with your
minister ; and England's arm will be raised to strike
him who would smite you because of our compact.
Enter BARON VON SCHLIEFFEN, minister of tJie LAND-
GRAVE.
FAUCITT — Here comes the baron ; and in good time
to sanction all, so far as his
authority may serve, as
minister of your Serene
Highness.
VON SCHLIEFFEN [to
LANDGRAVE] — I received
orders to attend you only
now. Pardon me, if I were
needed sooner.
LANDGRAVE — All in
good time, dear baron. The
contract proposed between
Great Britain and ourselves has been here outlined by
1 About the amount paid Hesse Cassel as subsidies for eight years,
was three millions sterling, with additions, making it about four
hundred thousand sterling yearly. — Von Eelking.
48 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
her embassador. I am pleased with it, and so thank
you for care to our interests.
\The BARON bows to the LANDGRAVE.
VON SCHLIEFFEN — These troops will serve, as en-
gaged, in America ? A long journey, and a strange and
feverish land to Europeans ?
LANDGRAVE — Be the journey four times as long, and
the land spread over to the ear-tips with mortal fevers,
what is that to me? It is the duty of my troops to do
as their prince commands; and if danger opposes, that
is the tonic of brave men.
VON SCHLIEFFEN — The cause is honorable ? To re-
press disorder ?
LANDGRAVE — It is more than honorable. It will be
famous as well as honorable. There are laurels to be
gained for our brave men in grappling with restless sub-
jects who dare to rise against their King. The cause of
England is the cause of all. We royal and reigning
families cannot draw too near together, and, with one
common blow, rid the earth of this ribaldry of freedom.
The aunt of England's sovereign shares my crown as
consort. This warmth is natural.*
FAUCITT — Your wife, her Serene Highness, will surely
strengthen our alliance with her prayers ?
LANDGRAVE — I can't say as to that. She does not live
with me, you know. No ; my cheerful way of life
offends her austerity. Too much morality is dangerous
to connubial ties. I have striven to avoid this danger in
myself. But what care I ? Eight millions of marks a
year ! Happy is the prince who can turn his subjects
into so much ready cash.
VON SCHLIEFFEN — It pays to raise men, if only to
export them.
LANDGRAVE — The very best of merchandise.
VON SCHLIEFFEN — Yes, your Serene Highness.
* Frederick II. Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, was a brute. The
wife of his youth, a daughter of George II., the gentlest of her race,
was forced to fly from his inhumanity to others for protection. — Ban-
croft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 49
LANDGRAVE — No breakage ; no packing troubles.
You face your goods correctly, and they walk away.
[Laughs heartily.
VON SCHLIEFFEN — Yes, your Serene Highness.
LANDGRAVE — Remember, Schlieffen — full cellars this
season, and the best vintage — the very best.
VON SCHLIEFFEN — Yes, your Serene Highness.
LANDGRAVE — And beauty — all Europe shall be under
contribution. The opera — we will live in song.
VON SCHLIEFFEN — Yes, your Serene Highness.
LANDGRAVE — And the dance ; the whirling dance.
There is a new step in Paris. Yes, we must have it
here. Remember, we must have it
here. Eight millions of marks a
year !
VON SCHLIEFFEN — Yes, your Se-
rene Highness.
LANDGRAVE — We will make a par-
adise of Cassel. A paradise. Noth-
ing so becomes a prince as flowing
wine and captivating
FAUCITT — You halt, your Serene Highness.
LANDGRAVE — And a captivating ballet. I live and
thrill in the raptures of the dance.7
VON SCHLIEFFEN — Next year your troops will be
fighting in America for England's King.
LANDGRAVE — And while my troops are fighting there
we will be dancing here. This American rebellion !
What luck ! What great luck it brings ! Eight mil-
lions of marks a year !
FAUCITT — And further increase if more men are re-
quired.
LANDGRAVE — Welcome the necessity ! We will meet
it to our last man. Grandest opportunity for princely
7 He [Frederick II.] sought to introduce into Cassel French modes
of life ; had his opera, ballet-dancers, his French play-house, etc.,
etc. — Bancroft.
50 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
liberality in aid of a royal brother. May it never cease !
But tell me, Faucitt, what have my royal neighbors done ?
FAUCITT — The Duke of Brunswick comes to Eng-
land's aid with five thousand men.
LANDGRAVE — And Ferdinand, his son ? Why, he
should seek the conflict in person, since he is brother-in-
law of his Britannic Majesty. [Laughs heartily.] But
his wife has left him, too.8 [Laughs heartily.'] It is
such a joke ! He and I are twins in the same sorrow.
But we bear it ; yes, we bear it. How strange it is
women will act so ! And besides Brunswick ?
FAUCITT — The Prince of Waldeck graciously adds a
single regiment.
LANDGRAVE — And the Hereditary Prince, ray gay and
wayward son of Hanau ?
FAUCITT — In emulation of his noble father, his Serene
Highness will send one thousand men and take his subsidy.
LANDGRAVE — I am cheered at this, for he, too, needs
money. Is greater compensation than I receive paid to
any ?
FAUCITT — You stand in vantage of them all in profit
gained.
LANDGRAVE — It would distress me, distress me much,
to cheapen the market value. Schlieffen, have means
been taken to secure the men, since we have sold them
and the price determined ?
VON SCHLIEFFEN — The intentions of your Serene
Highness noised abroad, our people fly in all directions.
The workshop is deserted and the home vacated. Once
across our borders they feel secure from impressment
for this alien war.*
8 Ferdinand [son of Duke of Brunswick] married Augusta, the sis-
ter of George III., who afterwards abandoned him. He was indif-
ferent to his English wife and abandoned to sensual pleasures. —
Bancroft.
9 To escape impressment his [Frederick's] subjects fled to Han-
over. King George of Hanover was called upon to discourage the
elopement of Hessian subjects into his country, when the demand for
men was so great, to enable the Landgrave to fulfill his engagement
with Great Britain. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 51
LANDGRAVE — Our neighbors shall return them wher-
ever found. Unmannered creatures ! Is this their
loyalty to their reigning prince ? We must not be em-
barrassed in getting men, for that would endanger the
revenues which this compact brings. What shall we do ?
Schlieffen, this is for you to answer. For this you are
our minister. It worries us to solve such dilemmas.
VON SCHLIEFFEN — If your Serene Highness will ap-
prove, it shall loudly be proclaimed, so that every ear
shall hear it — and, hearing, shall believe — that in America,
a land rich with spoils and pleasures, every man shall
have free license for plunder, and appetite go unre-
strained. So self-interest may secure to us what force
may not.10
LANDGRAVE — This it is, Faucitt, to have a sagacious
minister of state. As you propose, so be it done.
Enter a servant, who bows to the LANDGRAVE.
LANDGRAVE [to FAUCITT] — In yonder room a ban-
quet is prepared to soften the hardships of this tedu
ous world. Our minister, with the treaty ready, will
there invite our signatures. And then in wine — in
luscious wine — we'll pledge our wishes for success to
England. Eight millions of marks a year, and all for
nothing. Wine, wine ! now for the flowing wine !
[All retire.
SCENE III. Buckingham Palace, London. Time : Feb-
ruary, 1776. Royal Council Chamber.
Enter LORD NORTH, Prime Minister; LORD BAR-
RINGTON, Secretary of War, and LORD GEORGE
GERMAIN, Secretary of State (successor to Dart-
mouth}.
NORTH — It will pinch our people, but they must pay
the price. When disaster blows in your face, shut your
eyes, till better things come round ; then open and
10 Yet many went willingly, after they had been made to believe
that in America they would have free license to plunder and to in-
dulge their passions. — Bancroft.
52 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
make repairs. In such disaster we have come forth
from Continental wars.1 These foreign levies are our
repairs of state, and medicate our ills, like ointment on
an open wound. In titanic strife, we were engulfed
with mighty nations, and emerged therefrom tired and
worn and bruised. When nature sleeps from mere
exhaustion, the prudent surgeon permits time for rest.
So rests England now. For these Colonial troubles —
which nip us as an insect in a summer's night, more
annoying than dangerous — money will buy us soldiers
from foreign princes, which the sergeant would fail to
recruit at home. My Lords, could we have better
done?1
GERMAIN — With the force secured, we will crush
rebellion within a year. For so short a labor the cost
cannot be heavy.' What say you, Barrington ?
BARRINGTON — What is there to say ? When any
path is admitted to be the only way, then that way pur-
sue. It was impossible to fill our armies on British
soil.4 The fight against revolt was over, unless some
friendly hand sustained in part our load. England pays
the price. She gets the men, the fight is made and, as
we hope, won. And there an end of it. Those cavil
most who least can show a remedy.
Enter KING GEORGE III., in a rage.
[All exclaim : " The King ! " All bow to the KING.
KING — Will surprises never cease ? Are we the King
of England, or but a scullion to take orders and advice !
1 The Seven Years' War, from 1756 to 1763, between England,
France, and Spain, was, at the same time, a Continental war, in
which many states were engaged. It was the effort to repair the
expenditures for this war that led to the Stamp Act of 1765.
* Lord North said, in the Hou-<e of Commons, February, 1776 :
" The troops are wanted. The terms are less than we could have
expected. The force will enable us to drive America to submission,
perhaps without further effusion of blood. — Bancroft.
8 Lord Cornwall said, "Our business [reducing America] will be
effected within a year. So these German troops are had on terms
lower than ever before." — Bancroft.
4 Lord Barrington said : " British recruits could not be procured
on any terms." — Bancroft.
OR THE REVOLUTION. 53
I'd rather be of things inanimate, and take my cue and
course as the rain and gale should turn me, than be a
king without a king's supremacy. Who would not, in
pride of royal state, shorten his wind, and with it life
emotional, sooner than bear the taunts of weaklings,
whom in greater merit he treads upon, yet kills not ?
From that great Norman, whose heavy lance once
shook this aspiring Isle, to the present hour, his blood
has not been more humiliated.
\The Lords are all surprised at the KING'S flass fan.
NORTH — Your Majesty ?
KING — My Lords. You will excuse this warmth,
but while burns the flame the heat will radiate. Know
you of this Catharine — this Empress — and of her cour-
tesy to us ?
NORTH — As England's first minister, of course I
know ; and marveled much when that knowledge came.
KING — We wrote to her in person — a sovereign to a
sovereign. Her clerk this sovereign answers, and as if
she were bartering for a gown.0 The stress for troops
weighs heavily upon us. Under our necessity, and im-
pelled by unrequited favors from us hitherto received,
we wrote this Russian Empress, and asked for soldiers.
After weeks of waiting — our royal person in the embas-
sador who spoke with our voice, put off now with this
and then with that excuse, good to a mendicant for
office or official favor6 — this queen, or empress, or what
you will, to our royal hands sends her lackey's letter,
in which she " really cannot" ; " It is against her con-
science" ; " It would bring dishonor upon her army" ;
" It wounded dignity for two great states to join to put
down a rebellion unsupported by any foreign power."
B To Catharine [Empress of Russia] King George wrote for troops,
with his own hand. Her answer was purposely by the hand of her
private secretary. The King said the Empress was not " genteel,"
and had not the civility to answer him in her own hand, and had
thrown out expressions not civil to civilized ears. — Bancroft.
6 Gunning, the English agent, asked for twenty thousand men,
and was made to wait long at the Russian court before any definite
reply was given, and put off with various excuses. — Bancroft.
$4 WASHINGTON, OR TffP. REVOLUTION.
And then advises — mark the climax — advises — just
Heaven ! shall the proud Saxon bear this from the
Slav — that " we make peace with our offended subjects." T
Did discourtesy ever further go ?
HARRINGTON — Your Majesty, deign to pardon me.
This royal state is kept far toward the East, where
civilized conduct is seldom taken as example. From
Great Peter down, Russia has not posed for her polite-
ness. The bear is never nice, where he may set his foot,
so he gets forward.
KING — A diplomatic view, my lord, and philosophical.
But her honor — the honor of Catharine, Empress of All
the Russias ! She looks to it none too soon — for safely
keeping it. And her conscience, too ! How we quicken
conscience when it runs with our desires, and strangle it
opposing ! But no more of that. Holland — but with
better grace — follows Russia in refusal. Is this so,
Barrington ?
BARRINGTON — Holland, your Majesty, will furnish
troops, but only for Continental service. This is a
refusal in disguise.8
KING — Then so much the greater, upon the records
of our gratitude, is the debt we owe these German kins-
men. They have done well. What is the aggregate of
their supply ?
BARRINGTON — Hesse Cassel, Brunswick, and the rest,
together give an army of about twenty thousand men.
And more, if needed.
KING — A good round number. What say you, North ?
1 The Empress said to Gunning : " Has any progress been made
toward settling your dispute with America ? For God's sake, put
an end to it as soon as possible. There is an impropriety in employ-
ing my troops under a power unknown to them. Moreover, it reflects
upon our dignity for this juncture of forces of two monarchies and
two nations, simply to calm a rebellion not supported by any foreign
power," and she proffered the advice that England make peace with
her offended subjects. — Bancroft.
8 The Netherlands declined the request of the King of England
for troops, but disguised the refusal under form of a consent to lend
a brigade, on condition that it should not be used out of Europe.
— Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 55
Will the work now begin, blows and subjugation ? We
are tired of these petitions from the hands of treason.*
NORTH — Your Majesty, the only petition that your
minister receives hereafter from these men will be while
they are prostrate at his feet, and with halters around
their necks.10
GERMAIN — And with the force now at the disposal of
the King and Parliament, this petition must soon be
handed in. In the hour of subjugation, I trust duty
will hold the scales of justice so far above the reach of
mercy, that the principal actors in this foul revolt shall
feel the halter. Samuel Adams and Hancock of Boston
have forfeited their lives to the state." Indulgence to
these should be a stranger.
KING — We will not punish or discuss a pardon before
capture and conviction, lest the court may forestall the
constable. Barrington, have plans been formulated for
the campaign ? I should be glad to know what my
ministers propose.
BARRINGTON — Gen. Howe is now in Boston with
about ten thousand men. He is there besieged since
Bunker Hill, and in command since the recall of Gage.
The army of the rebels, a larger force, hem him in, and
for many months have held him to inaction.1* The
time has not been lost. During this England purchased
her foreign levies, and in the spring campaign, now
coming near, expects to crush audacity.
GERMAIN — The battles past were needful to certify
the intention of the revolt. It becomes us now to act
with such power as to certify, in turn, that England
scourges even unto death revolting subjects. To-day,
well armed, the state moves swiftly on to restored
supremacy.
'The King said, " Blows must decide." — Bancroft.
10 This language was actually used by the Prime Minister.
11 Gage, in his proclamation of amnesty before recall, excepted
from pardon Hancock and Sam. Adams.
12 Washington having besieged Howe in Boston since July, 1775,
resolved to force him to evacuate the place. This he did, and Gen.
Howe, with his army, left Boston March 17, 1776.
5 6 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION,
KING — Who commands the army in opposition ?
NORTH — His name — his name — indeed, it escapes me
now.
BARRINGTON — His name, your Majesty, is Washing-
ton. I think, George Washington.
KING — Is he experienced in arms?
BARRINGTON — I have made inquiry, and learn that he
is brave and capable. He served your grandsire of
glorious memory, and was aid to Braddock when he fell.
But skill and courage may not avail him. His army is a
mob without discipline, and, as believed, without means
to live. Hunger may drive them home before we reach
them. Such an army must dissolve before veterans,
well armed and fed.
KING — Again. How stand your intentions for the
approaching spring?1'
NORTH — As Secretary of War, Barrington will inform
your Majesty.
BARRINGTON — Of our generals, Carleton commands in
Canada, Howe in the Middle Colonies, and Sir Henry
Clinton in the South. To Carleton, Gen. Burgoyne will
sail with ten thousand troops, including the men of
Brunswick. Sir Peter Parker and Cornwallis, with about
the same number, depart from Cork to join Clinton in
the Carolinas ; and to Howe, an army of twenty thousand
will be added, sailing under his brother the admiral, to
concentrate against New York, if the general so ad-
vises. About seventeen thousand of the troops of Hesse
Cassel and of our other German friends are here in-
cluded. In these expeditions go many hundred ships of
war, covering the vast seas with cannon."
KING — A prodigious host. Enough to create a
famine, — where farmers go to war and fields to waste, —
13 This referred to the spring of 1776.
14 This was the disposition (originating with the King himself) of
the German mercenaries and of the English recruits, added thereto,
as authenticated by all the histories. The force against Carolina
sailed from Cork about the end of February, 1776, but did not reach
Clinton, at Cape Fear, till May.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
57
and so starve them into submission. These three grand
divisions, after foothold on the land, will join each other
from end to end, from North to South, and so divide,
overrun, and crush the traitors ! Is that the plan ?
NORTH— Such is the expectation and the hope, your
Majesty.
KING — Other aids must not be forgotten. The army
gathered should be sufficient to stamp out these ragged
mobs before next autumn s suns grow cold ; and it come
sailing home again to join next winter's revelries. Yet,
let us fail not to use any weapon lying in our path,
though it seems to-day superfluous. The savage and
the tomahawk,15 the servile laborer of the South, and the
15 All through the war the King urged the employment of the
Indians. " Lose no time," he urged, "to induce them to take up
the hatchet against his Majesty's rebellious subjects in America." —
Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
resident still loyal to the crown — of whom there must be
many thousands — may carry consternation and death
outside of the track of armies ! Is all this well con-
sidered ?
GERMAIN — Your secretaries have neglected nothing,
your Majesty. Heretofore, advised of your far-reaching
scrutiny and care — well
approved by Parliament
— the ministry and the
sovereign have been one
in purpose and in thought.
Our agents have tapped
at every wigwam in Amer-
ica, the slaves have been
fired for revenge, and
among the people those
still friendly have been
upheld with promises.
KING — Then England
has no more to do at
home. Here we set our
royal standard and await
the end ! So shine the sun upon it, flaunting in the
East, that its reflected glories glance back to us from
our victorious banners in the West ! \All retire.
SCENE IV, Plaza in front of Independence Hall, Phil-
adelphia. Time: Thursday ', July 4, 1776. Early
evening.
Enter SAMUEL ADAMS, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, JOHN
ADAMS, EDWARD RUTLEDGE, JOHN DICKINSON, and
JOHN WITHERSPOON, all delegates to the Continental
Congress, and on the way to the evening session.
SAMUEL ADAMS — This balmy evening air invites a
rest beneath these stately trees before the closing labors
within yonder hall. How refreshing is this southern
breeze, following a glaring day !
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 59
RUTLEDGE — And with it bearing such weighty news ;
it is tempered as we would.1
FRANKLIN — On Friday last was that done in Charles-
ton Harbor which illuminates a history. Citizens melt-
ing the weights of windows to furnish bullets.4 Can
people so determined be subdued ? It was a grand vic-
tory. Fifty ships of the line beaten off and defeated by
less than five hundred men. Sergeant Jasper, like a
second Curtius, from the ramparts of Moultrie — it is
thus I name the fort — leaped into the fiery gulf and
brought back the flag. A deed for song, when brave
deeds are sung.3
SAMUEL ADAMS — More than this. The Cherokees,
prompted to attack the people from the rear at the
moment of assault in front, for a while gave rein to their
murderous instincts and many fell beneath the toma-
hawk. Accursed inhumanity ! In the end the savage
was driven off, his wigwams burned, and a chief gave
up a life for every settler slain. For a time has been
checked this danger. So rumor decks herself this day.
A double victory — the British and the Indians conquered.4
DICKINSON — All this is well authenticated ?
SAMUEL ADAMS — No doubt whatever. Posts have
just come in.
FRANKLIN — The year so far brings profit to our
cause. There have been losses, but also gains. Canada
weighs heavily at my heart. Montgomery's death, just
1 This was news of the battle of Fort Moultrie, fought June 28,
1776, and the repulse of Sir Peter Parker's fleet.
2 It is said that the citizens of Charleston melted the window
weights for bullets in this battle. — Frost.
* William Jasper, a sergeant, saw that the flag, the staff cut by a
cannon ball, had fallen over the ramparts. He leaped through an
embrasure, and braving the thickest fire from the ships, snatched
up the flag and planted it again upon the fort. — Bancroft.
* When Sir Peter Parker appeared in Charleston Harbor, the Cher-
okee Indians invaded the western frontier, marking their course with
murder and devasta ion When the fleet was dispersed, they were
attacked, their chiefs killed, and their villages burned. Thus, at
this time, the Americans triumphed over both the British and the
Indians. — Frost.
60 WASHINGTON, OR 7WE REVOLUTION.
as the new year was breaking upon the world, added
sorrow to hearts already sore with trials."
SAMUEL ADAMS — The disasters in Canada lie at the
doors of Congress. What madness tempted us, as if
skilled in arms, to command our commander ? It was
assumption for which the country has dearly paid,
though the debt was by us created. Five thousand men,
by Washington much needed, line with so many graves
the Canadian waters, and with nothing to our advan-
tage. Congress ordered this, and Washington obeyed.
To him the honor of obedience, to us the shame of the
command."
DICKINSON — Washington approved of the assault
upon Quebec ?
SAMUEL ADAMS — So he did, within the limits of pru-
dence ; and dispatched Col. Benedict Arnold by way
of the Kennebec to join Montgomery. There it should
have been left. But Congress followed with its own
levies of thousands for this northern sally, and a kitchen
campaign by kitchen generals has brought home disas-
ter ; so it always will.
JOHN ADAMS — I beg you cease, good cousin. For I
plead guilty as a kitchen general.
SAMUEL ADAMS — No matter now. So were we all,
5 Gen. Montgomery, in conjunction with Benedict Arnold, as-
saulted Quebec, and fell in the attack, December 31, 1775. —
Bancroft.
• Congress being of the opinion the security of Canada was a great
concern, on the 25th of March, 1776, directed Washington to send four
battalions into Canada. On the 23d of April, without consulting Wash-
ington, Congress ordered him to send six more battalions to Can-
ada. He resigned himself to the ill-considered votes of Congress and
obeyed, and sent off more than three thousand men at the time when
the British were concentrating thirty thousand veteran troops against
New York City. But having thus stripped Washington of about
half his force, Congress next ordered that provisions and powder, of
which his stock was low, and clothing for ten thousand men, should
follow. The enemy and the smallpox decimated this command in
Canada, so that about four thousand only remained. In July, 1776,
a little more than two months, fragments of this defeated army
began to return, with a loss of more than five thousand men. —
Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
61
here in Philadelphia. A zealous hand, though gripping
hard in honesty, guided by ignorance, may do a heinous
deed. Let us remember this.
FRANKLIN — With other gains we count the departure
of Gen. Howe from Boston in March. To compel
this was a master-stroke of a Caesar and a Fabius.
To know when to assail and when to refuse a battle,
unite the merits of these Roman heroes. Howe, with
his army, was glad safely to creep away from the state
he was sent to ruin.
JOHN ADAMS — I wonder much if he took with him
the proclamation of Gen. Gage giving the pardon of
the King to all but Han-
cock and my good cousin
here. They were reserved
for the halter. It must be
because they deserved it.
[All laugh.] The King can
do no wrong. So, according
to this good old saw, he was
right in selecting Samuel for
the rope. As for Hancock,
we should once more petition
the King to spare him till
the present Congress ends.
Degenerate servants of
the people, we select to
preside over us a man whom the King calls a felon.
FRANKLIN — The strife is yet young. We shall often
commit like offense before it's ended.
SAMUEL ADAMS — This night we crown the grandest
event of mortals, with a declaration to the world of the
facts impelling us to independence. The document is
drawn by a master's hand. - In this Jefferson becomes
immortal. Four days of discussion secures the resolu-
tion of Lee that these United Colonies are free and
independent. Now for the declaration which awaits
our signatures. How stands the record ? On Monday
last the first vote. And time, heavy with regret, must
forever witness that the voices of South Carolina and
62 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
Pennsylvania were against it on that day. The matter
being worthy of fuller consideration, on Tuesday South
Carolina redeemed her name and changed for Inde-
pendence. Pennsylvania, too, with Dickinson and
Morris absent, gladly seized this chance to side with the
majority. Do I report correctly ? '
WITHERSPOON — The minutes certify how exact are
your recitals.
JOHN ADAMS — And so all the Colonies, as they ought,
united upon this measure, as if one thought controlled.
The discussion yesterday and to-day over the form of
the great deed of right, upon which our title rests as
freemen, closes to-night, and makes this day — mark my
words — in importance to mankind second only to that
which was hallowed by divinity. We are unanimous in
what we do, and the voice of all cannot be wrong.8
DICKINSON — May your enthusiasm never lose its heat.
Alas ! I fear it will.*
JOHN ADAMS — Hot or cold, I stand for what Con-
gress has decreed. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or
perish, I am for independence ! You amaze me, Dick-
inson, in still holding out.
DICKINSON — I fear, and hence hesitate. All is so
dark. This declaration may expose us to graver dan-
gers. Shall we take a step we may not maintain, and
recede with infamy or persist to our destruction ? 10
T This statement of the debate and vote on the declaration is
according to Bancroft.
8 John Adams made the celebrated prediction that the Fourth of
July would be made memorable by the ringing of bells and tokens
of general rejoicing. — Frost.
The lives and liberties of millions yet unborn were interested in
independence, said John Adams. — Bancroft.
1 Among the sincere and honorable opponents of independence
was John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. (He never voted for it.)—
Frost.
10 Dickinson said : " The declaration may expose us to greater
outrages. We ought not to commit our country upon an alternative,
where to recede would be infamy and to persist, destruction. The
door of accommodation with Great Britain should be left open." —
Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR 7 VI £ REVOLUTION. 63
FRANKLIN — What are the triumphs of this world
worth without risk and trials, which sweeten victory as
labor enriches food by whetting appetite ?
DICKINSON — The door of accommodation to Great
Britain should be kept open.
FRANKLIN — Then, when comes the time to close it ?
How much humiliation must we bear before, this super-
stitious reverence for royalty burned away, man shall be
recognized in his greater capabilities without a master ?
How much more evil must this King do ? Lives destroy
and towns engulf in flames ? Twice has the Congress
of this people petitioned him, and twice been spurned
with insults. It was in close touch with British rulers
that I learned the lesson of independence.
DICKINSON — We propose to form a new government.
This work, so difficult, ought to precede what we do
to-day, not follow it.11
JOHN ADAMS — Why, man, you need a guardian for
wits that once upon a time have set tongues to patriotic
music.12 Can we on with the new government before
we are off with the old ? To-day we declare to all the
world our independence of England. To-morrow we
organize a new government, this day born. We are ripe
for independence as the first act in our drama.
WITHERSPOON — Yes ; and not only are we ripe, but
the danger is, the fruit will rot upon the tree unless soon
gathered. We stand to-day an armed mob, without a
flag, without a symbol of authority to command. Wash-
ington, as a New Year's gift, improvised a banner. But,
representing nothing, any piece of bunting is of its
value.13
11 " The formation of our government," said Dickinson, " ought to
precede the assumption of our station among sovereigns. The con-
federation ought to be settled before the Declaration of Independ-
ence."— Bancroft.
12 Referring to what are known as " The Farmer's Letters," writ-
ten by Dickinson in the early days of the controversy.
13 " The country," said Witherspoon of New Jersey, " is not only
ripe for independence, but is in danger of becoming rotten for want
of it, if the declaration is longer delayed." — Bancroft,
64 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SAMUEL ADAMS — What purpose have we, without the
declaration we make to-day ? A crowd of simple mal-
contents, we are daily berating the King and praying for
the King.14 Do we believe in freedom, or do we still
hug slavery ? And fawn upon royalty, since its kicks
and cuffs remind us where it is, giving opportunity ?
Fishmongers, quarreling in the street, and for the hour
repelling the officers of the law, yet waiting to be
quelled, repeat the position of these Colonies for twelve
months past.
RUTLEDGE — Too much rashness is ever dangerous.
I would rather avoid than repent it.
SAMUEL ADAMS — No man can be rash in resisting a
wrong which would enslave him ; at least no man of
spirit.
RUTLEDGE — There you have it. To be spirited we
must do violence, even if to our injury.15 So I remem-
ber, in foolish youth, with courage roused to do, the
venturesome boy pushed forward with thoughtless
taunts, walked here and there in many perils ; all to
show his spirit, which, while still in his shrill, piping
notes of triumph, was quelled by his mother's shoe.
Deliver me from this ! Yet on the second ballot I voted
for independence, and will sign the declaration. Moul-
trie settled that six days ago.
SAMUEL ADAMS — I rejoice that I have a prompter to
tell me when it is rash to oppose a tyrant. At this mo-
ment the waters are covered with the fleets of England,
bearing to our shores hired mercenaries to take our lives
at so much per head. Like foxes for which a premium
is paid, we live and walk until these huntsmen come.
Some there are who would call it rash to resiot this in-
famy, and proper manhood to accept it. I'd rather be
14 Up even to this date, in religious service, prayers were offered
for the King. There was yet no allegiance to any other power. It
was simply a mob in uproar.
14 Edward Rutledge said : " No reason could be assigned for
passing this measure [independence] but the reason of every mad-
man— a show of spirit." — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 65
an owl, and hoot my lonely hours away upon a blighted
limb, than such a counterfeit !
RUTLEDGE — In our disjointed state, to propose a
treaty to any nation now at peace — and we must have
treaties since we cannot live alone — would require the
impudence found only in New England ! "
SAMUEL ADAMS — Rutledge, this to me ? [ADAMS ad-
vances threateningly tou>ard RUTLEDGE, and FRANKLIN
steps betiveen them.] Is this the language of Moultrie to
Bunker Hill? Shall a man, who for ten years and more
has stood within the shadow of the halter, in defense of
human rights and man's equality, receive this as his re-
ward ? Could I thus speak to Carolina, this very day so
proudly plumed over the tyranny her valor crushed ?
First let me drink to the besotted death^ of every sense,
and then loss of memory be excuse for such ingratitude !
Fie, fie ! Rutledge !
FRANKLIN — Let me, as middle-man, stand between
the heat of extreme sections. Rutledge, believe me,
in days to come it will grieve you
heavily to carry your hasty words,
a burden of discourtesy.
RUTLEDGE — I meant no wrong,
nor thought it would be taken so.
Adams, with all my heart, I regret
the rash expression.
[Extends his hand.
SAMUEL ADAMS — And with all my
soul I again receive you as my
country's friend and mine !
[ They grasp hands.
FRANKLIN — So may Carolina ever
stand in link with Massachusetts when wrong threatens
either !
JOHN ADAMS — The hour has come for the final test,
" Edward Rutledge said : " That it required the impudence of a
New Englander, for us in our disjointed state, to propose a treaty to
any nation now at peace." — Bancroft.
66 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
the signatures. To it with courage, for each may sign
his death warrant.
[All retire within Independence Hall. The Plaza
is then suddenly filled with the populace — men,
women, and children. Voices : " Indepen-
dence forever ! " " Down with the King ! "
" Now for the declaration ! " " Jefferson
forever ! " " Liberty or Death ! " The throng
all the while move restlessly over the stage before
the closed doors. A voice begins to sing " Yankee
Doodle," and all join in, viz.:
Once on a time old Johnny Bull flew in a raging fury,
And swore that Jonathan should have no trials, sir, by jury ;
That no elections should be held across the briny waters ;
"And now, "said he, " I'll tax the tea of all his sons and daughters."
Chorus — Yankee doodle, doodle, do ; Yankee doodle dandy ;
Yankee doodle, keep it up ; Yankee doodle dandy.
A VOICE — I heard that at Bunker Hill. Give us an-
other verse.
[Another stanza is sung, all joining in, and many
now dancing, viz.:
John sent the tea from o'er the sea with heavy duties rated,
But whether Hyson or Bohea I never heard it stated.
Then Jonathan began to pout ; he laid a strong embargo ;
" I'll drink no-tea, by Jove ! " said he ; then over went the cargo.
Chorus — Yankee doodle, doodle do, etc., etc.
A VOICE — One verse more and on with the dance.
[Singing continued.
Then John sat down in burly state, and blustered like a grandee ;
And in derision made a tune called, " Yankee doodle dandy !"
And Johnny sent a regiment, big words and looks to bandy ;
But we will send them home again, with his Yankee doodle dandy ! "
Chorus — Yankee doodle, doodle, do, etc., etc.
[Suddenly the doors of Independence Hall are thrown
open, and upon the steps appear SAMUEL ADAMS,
holding the declaration in his hand, with FRANK-
LIN by his side, RUTLEDGE, WITHERSPOON,
and others.
11 These words were written about 1836, by George P. Morris of
New York.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 67
RUTLEDGE — Peace, good citizens, and hear the dec-
laration of your representatives.18
SAMUEL ADAMS [reading] — We hold these truths to
be self-evident : That all men are created free and
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with cer-
tain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness. We, therefore, the repre-
sentatives of the United States of America, in Congress
assembled, do solemnly publish and declare, that these
Colonies are free and independent ; that they are ab-
solved from all allegiance to the British Crown ! And
for the support of this declaration we mutually pledge
to each other -our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred
honor !
WITHERSPOON — The deed is done ! Long live the
United States of America ! [All huzza.
FRANKLIN [Cannon are heard in the distance and a
18 The Declaration of Independence was passed and signed on the
4th of July, 1776 ; was publicly proclaimed to the people from the
door of the State House in Philadelphia, and received with shouts,
amid the ringing of bells and firing of cannon. — Frost.
The debates [on independence] ran through the 2d, 3d. and 4th of
July, and on the evening of the 4th closed. The declaration was
signed by every member present, except Mr. Dickinson.
The declaration thus signed on the 4th, on paper, was engrossed
on parchment and signed again on the 2d of August. — Jefferson's
Autobiographic, in Randolph's Jefferson's Correspondence.
68 WASftlXGTOtt, OR THE REVOLUTION.
heavy bell begins to ring] — Listen ! The Bell of Liberty !
Henceforth ring on, and on, forever.
[Suddenly, while the bell still tolls, the entire assem-
blage assume an attitude of devotion. Some
fall on their knees. Some are with uplifted
hands, and all sing :
Praise God, from whom all blessings flow ;
Praise him, all creatures here below ;
Praise him above, ye heavenly hosts ;
Praise father, son, and Holy Ghost.
[At the close of the singing, the bell still ringing and
cannon booming, the curtain falls.
END OF ACT II.
ACT III.
SCENE I. Room in headquarters of GEN. HOWE on Long
Island* Time : August 28, 1776, the day after the bat-
tle on Long Island.
Enter GEN. HOWE, his brother, ADMIRAL HOWE, GEN.
LORD CORNWALLIS, COL. RALL, and a HESSIAN
OFFICER.
GEN. HOWE — Yes, brother, we will rest to-day. We
earned it yesterday.
ADMIRAL HOWE — It is better to rest when the work
is finished, not when partly done. The wounded game
may creep away.1
GEN. HOWE — You men of the sea fight under cover,
and all skies are the same to you. We of the army feel
it, and shiver when the clouds empty their wealth upon
*The battle of Long Island was fought August 27, 1776, and the
troops of the English were under the command of Gen. Sir William
Howe. The English fleet in the bay was under his brother,
Admiral Lord Richard Howe. The American forces were badly
beaten, and at the end of the day sought refuge in their intrench-
ments, having lost some thousands in killed, wounded, and prison-
ers. When Gen. Howe left Bo.-ton in March, 1776, he sailed to
Halifax, and there remained until July, when he reached Staten
Island, New York, with a force of ten thousand men. Here he was
joined by his brother, Admiral Howe, from England, with re-en-
forcements of twenty thousand men. With this force of thirty
thousand he began the struggle for New York against Washing-
ton, with about ten thousand, and many of these unarmed and raw
recruits. This scene is on the day after the battle.
1 Gen. Howe was of a sluggish mold, and succumbed unresist-
ingly to his sensual nature. He was wanting in alertness. Indo-
lence was his bane. — Bancroft.
The elder brother [Admiral Howe] was active, energetic, and
able ; but his brother was pleasure-loving, forgetting his duty in dis-
sipation. He had his mistress by his side, and his table was open to
all. — Von Eel king.
?o WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
us. Did you ever see it rain harder ? The drubbing we
gave the rebels yesterday will hold them in their lines
till we order them out as prisoners. No, we will not
assault to-day, nor perhaps to-morrow, but pick up our
trophies when more convenient.
COL. RALL — The game cannot escape us. We are in
front and the river is behind.
GEN. HOWE — And your guns, brother, sweep the
river. And so it is safely caged. Why, then, should we
advance, to swim, as we may do, in this water-loaded air,
before we regale ourselves ? *
ADMIRAL HOWE — My guns are not yet in position to
prevent retreat. The wind and tide prevented.'
GEN. HOWE — Well, all in good time you will have
them there. Meantime these weeping clouds give to
him, as to us, the same dread of motion. Col. Rail,
what are the results of yesterday ?
COL. RALL — At least three thousand five hundred
kiled, wounded, and in our hands. Four generals and
many officers of lesser rank. It was a good day's work
CORNWALLIS — Gen. Sullivan and Lord Sterling are
among the prisoners.
GEN. HOWE— Lord Sterling on the rebels' side? Do
Lords fight with them ?
HESSIAN OFFICER — He is, from his title, the only
gentleman among them. They are all a sorry set.4
ADMIRAL HOWE — But they fight like men, overbur-
dened by disadvantage.
COL. RALL — No doubt. Their guns? Why, they
9 On this day [the day after the battle] the rain fell heavily. In
some places in the lines the men in the trenches stood in water. —
Bancroft,
1 Howe opened his cannonade in the morning [after the battle],
but because of the rain did no more. He neglected to put men of-
war in the East River to cut off the American retreat. — Von Eelking.
4 A Hessian officer in his report says: "Among the so-called
colonels and other officers were tailors, shoemakers, barbers, and
base mechanics. They are mere rebels. Gen. Putnam is a butcher."
— Von Eelking.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. ?i
bear nothing but their own private pieces, which have
served for robins. We could fire twice while they were
driving home their charge. It was ludicrous to see them
thus confronting veterans of Europe.6 [Laughs heartily.
HESSIAN OFFICER — And such arms as this mob did
possess would speed toward us with such feeble force
whatever was sent, that
it fell midway. [Laughs]
Since it did not reach us,
we were ignorant whether
lead was used or no.
[Still laughs.] In return
for this, we each picked
our man at pleasure.6
[GEN. HOWE laughs
heartily at this recital.
GEN. HOWE — It really
turns my heart to sym-
pathy, as when the
butcher stands with up-
lifted ax to slay the help-
less steer. But a soldier
is the ax. So they stood
up to be shot down ?
Such also was my ex-
perience wherever I ob-
served the field.
HESSIAN OFFICER — They are as vile in origin as poor
in equipment. [Laughs] Who do you suppose these
officers are whom we have met and captured ? [Laughs
heartily] I have been at special pains to know. [All
laugh] Why, tailors ! a general a tailor ! [Laughs]
and shoemakers, and — you would not believe it — base
"Vonllerrigen of the Hessians reported: "Their [American]
riflemen took a quarter of an hour to load, and we Germans over-
whelmed them by rapid firing and drove them with the bayonet." —
Von Eelking.
6 The Hessians who received the surrender of Gens. Sullivan and
Sterling and more than half the captives, made no boast of having
routed ill-armed militia. — Bancroft.
7* WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
mechanics. Indeed, this is true ! My sides ache with
merriment. [Laughing.] 7
ADMIRAL HOWE — These misguided men are our
countrymen, and you laugh at England when you clothe
with ridicule her children.
COL. RALL — We laugh not at the man, but at the
force he confronts us with. We Europeans have tested
the strength of discipline, with weapons such as Mars
himself might wear. It amuses us to meet this mob
without a uniform. Even the commanders needed the
dress of gentlemen, fit to be captured in.8
CORNWALLIS — New York is now at our mercy, when
we care to enter.
GEN. HOWE — We opened this day with artillery, to
let the stricken know that we were awake. That will
do for to-day. When the skies are blue again, then we
will finish our work. Meantime it is meet that we in-
dulge ourselves. Brother, forget for an hour your som-
ber side, and bring the other into action. You will dine
with me, and so, gentlemen, will you all. [Bows to all.
[All retire.
SCENE II. Room in Washington's Headquarters > Harlem
Heights. Time: September 17, 1776.
Enter GEN. PUTNAM and GEN. GREENE.
PUTNAM — By Heavens ! Greene, your illness came
near being a fatal illness to us all. At last, I rejoice
to see you with your sword again upon your thigh.
GREENE — Since I laid the plans for the fight on Long
Island, it would have been more orderly had I executed
them. How differently affairs might run and end if we
could control our bodies as servants of our will !
PUTNAM — I was precipitated into the command. A
7 See Note 4.
8 Hardly one regiment [of the Americans] was uniformed or
armed. Their artillery consisted of wretched iron guns, mounted on
ships' carriages. — Von Eelking.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 73
general ignorant of the field, I blundered. But for the
skill of our chief, we surely had lost our army.1
GREENE — A remarkable man !
PUTNAM — As clearly as I see this shining hilt, he saw
the necessity of retreat when the disastrous day had
closed. Those there were, with swelling ignorance, who
disdained to yield an inch to the enemy, and would
fight it out there and then.2 And some of our warlike
heroes in Congress, who never attacked anything more
dangerous than a fishbone in a hungry meal, even now
wag their tongues in hurtful criticism.3
GREENE — I often wonder how long these burdens can
be borne.
PUTNAM — The day after the battle a drenching rain ;
and the next, again a drenching rain. These were worth
a thousand guns, to hold the enemy in his lines and to
protect us in ours. During these eight-and-forty hours
Washington was sleepless.4 The storms which swept
1 Just before the battle on Long Island was to open, Gen. Greene
[who had been in command of the Americans] became ill of a raging
fever. His loss was irreparable, for the work in Brooklyn had been
built under his eye, and he was familiar with the surroundings. —
Bancroft.
On August 24th, Gen. Putnam took command in place of Greene.
Putnam, having no time to familiarize himself with the plans of
Greene, blundered in many ways while the fight was on. The disas-
ters of the day were due to the incapacity of Putnam. — Bancroft.
8 On the morning after the disastrous repulse Washington went
over to Brooklyn and took command. At a council of war, some
were against giving the enemy an inch of ground, but Washington
ordered a retreat. The rain fell for two days and nights with
little intermission (the 2Sth and 2gth of August), and on the morning
of August 3Oth, a heavy fog settled over Brooklyn and the East
River. Meantime Washington had reached New York without
the loss of a man. — Bancroft.
8 Rumor quadrupled the force of Washington to Congress, and it
expected him to stay the enemy at the threshold. When on the
2d of September, Gen. Sullivan [who, a prisoner to Howe, had been
by him sent to Congress with propositions] was introduced to John
Adams, he exclaimed : " Oh, the decoy duck ! would that the first
bullet of the enemy on Long Island had passed through his brain."
— Bancroft.
4 For eight-and-forty hours [following the battle] Washington
gave no moment to sleep, and by night and by day was on horse-
74 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
the plains by day and night were both sun and light to
him, since so they served him in his purpose. Then a
heavy fog settled over all, and our army, safely ferried to
New York, left empty hillocks to the enemy.6
GREENE — Putnam, this was a marvelous work, as I
learn the story now.
PUTNAM — Strongly intrenched upon these hills of
Harlem, we could defy all England, if we had those
twin giants of successful war, discipline and ammuni-
tion. Now, discouragement may come like a thief, to
steal away the courage of our men.
GREENE — But the retreat from New York to these
suburban heights ?
PUTNAM — We were faced by heavy guns on either
river, that looked upon us from more than a hundred
keels. The enemy entered the city from the north to
close us in. He was foiled. Yes, foiled by a woman, —
may the name of Murray never be lost by a grateful
people, — who held Howe in social dalliance till our army
had slipped away. So here we are, ready to cross
swords again when these hirelings may come."
back in the lines. All the time he continued abroad in the wind
and rain. — Bancroft.
6 See Note 2.
* The I3th of September the British fixed upon for landing in New
York. Washington's men refused to resist their entrance, and at
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 75
GREENE — When, if ever, shall we cope with our foe,
equipped as soldiers should be ?
PUTNAM — Greene, equipment is not the sorest of our
needs. Confidence and trust in our general would be,
to the work before us, like rain to a parched soil.
GREENE — He is most anxious about Carleton and the
department of the North.7
PUTNAM — And rightly so. Gen. Gates, in July last,
gave up Crown Point, the doorway through which Carle-
ton must pass to strike us from the North. He failed
to report this to Washington — refused to acknowledge
him as his superior, and law-givers at Philadelphia have
encouraged this.8 Oh, that we had a Tarpeian rock
from which to hurl such shallow patriots, and I were
executioner !
GREENE — Here comes his Excellency.
Enter GEN. WASHINGTON, who bows to the others,
WASHINGTON — My apologies, gentlemen, to you
Kip's Bay, on the I5th, fled in confusion. Putnam was cut off, with
a force of four thousand men, in the lower part of the city. Putnam
escaped by hugging close to the Hudson on his way out of the city
to Harlem Heights. But the respite that saved Putnam was due to
Mary Lindley, wife of Robert Murray. When Gen. Howe and
officers came to her house on Murray Hill she detained them at lunch
until every American regiment had escaped. On the i6th Washing-
ton was intrenched on Harlem Heights and had a skirmish with the
British, in which Col. Knowlton and Maj. Leitch were killed. Put-
nam and Greene joined in this action. — Bancroft.
1 1n May, 1776, Burgoyne had arrived in Canada with heavy re-
enforcements to Gen. Carleton. (See Scenes, Act II.) With this
powerful armament threatening from the North, and after the failure
at this time of the American expedition of Congress into Canada, fol-
lowed by the surrender of Crown Point by Gates, Washington was
naturally filled with anxiety for affairs outside of the struggle for
New York City.
8 In July, 1776, Crown Point was abandoned by Gates, who had
been appointed by Congress to the command of the forces in Canada.
This surrender he [Gates] neglected to report to his superior [Wash-
ington]. When Washington expressed sorrow at the retreat from
Crown Point Gates resented this as an interference and referred the
matter to Congress. While he set himself up as a rival of the
comrnander-in-chief, he was intriguing with Congress to supersede
Schuylcr. — Bancroft.
7 6 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
both. I was involved in duties that would control me.
Greene, I am glad to greet you, and, I trust, with a body
purged from recent ills. You have been greatly missed.
GREENE — I seek opportunity to cancel the debt of
absence.
WASHINGTON — This came in the skirmish yesterday.
You, both of you, there drained the cup of praise which
falls to valorous deeds. But the loss of Knowlton and
of Leitch ! Insatiable Death is gorged too often with
the best ! •
PUTNAM — We have called, general, for your orders.
WASHINGTON — The army will rest here until forced to
fall back. These days will likely be very few.
GREENE — We have a strong defense upon these hills.
And beyond, but a little way, we may securely rest, till
tired of monotony.
WASHINGTON — All are traps, into which we must not
fall. Our policy is retreat, and then again retreat. We
fight a defensive war. Keep the enemy in front ; and
back and back, into the land, until, at last, the Alle-
ghanies, nature's great redoubt, will be ours, with
advantage all our own ! Rash would it be to risk a
general action ! But Congress, I am aware, favors more
aggressive measures.10
PUTNAM — What can these civilians in Philadelphia
know of war that we in the field should follow ? While
they plan campaigns upon Turkish carpets, our limbs are
weary with the tramp and our swords red from want of
time to clean them. Shall such men presume to give
military orders to our chief ? Congress be
WASHINGTON [sternly] — General, general !
PUTNAM — Then Congress be blessed.
' Referring to the Battle of Harlem, on September 16, 1776. (See
Note 6.)
10 It was his [Washington's] design not to risk a general engage-
ment, but to harass the English by skirmishers ; cutting off their sup-
plies and exhausting their patience. — Frost.
" If overpowered, we must cross the Alleghanies," said Washing-
ton.— Irving.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
77
WASHINGTON — Of what worth to win the good we
hope for, if we rebel against the weighty orders of the
state ? We may advise, but we may not resist the au-
thority we profess to serve.
Error in our superiors is
chargeable to infirmity of na-
ture, which time and reflection
often cure !
GREENE — Then be it the
prayer of all just men that
the cure comes soon.
WASHINGTON — Gentlemen,
what punishment is due to
him just detected in an effort
to poison the general-in-chief ?
GREENE and PUTNAM [in
unison] — To poison you ?
WASHINGTON — This
very day I was to have
been a victim. Provi-
dence has preserved my
life ; for what ends I
know not.
GREENE — The culprit has been captured ?
WASHINGTON — Yes ; one of my own guard. And by
me trusted, I may say literally trusted, almost unto
death !
PUTNAM — He should die at sunset, and the whole
army see the creature die !
WASHINGTON — His youth pleads against this punish-
ment. The enemy is the chief malefactor. Why hang
the deluded boy while the greater criminal survives ? It
is more humane to send him out of camp to the care of
those who used him.11
11 In 1776, when the army was near New York, Washington was
informed of an attempt upon his life by poison, to be placed in his
pease at dinner. Harold, one of his guard, was the culprit. Wash-
ington sat down to dinner between Gates and Wooster. When the
pease were placed upon the table he called the guilty man to him and
7 3 WASHINGTON, OK THE REVOLUTION.
PUTNAM— A merciful decree !
WASHINGTON — We shall be fortunate if this be the
last effort made to gain this end. He who engages
the savage will not hesitate at assassination ! I face it
as among the chances of war !
GREENE— The foe will never learn the lesson taught in
the generosity of this decision.
WASHINGTON — I fear he will not. But the fault be
his, not mine. In the realms of kindness I should not
limp because he is lame. I confess I am grieved lest
a man of every noble grace, perhaps now in the hands of
the invaders, with a cruel fate, may illustrate our argument.
PUTNAM — I trust this proof may fail, if it add a sor-
row to a load piled to huge weight already.
WASHINGTON — It was necessary that the strength and
the intentions of the enemy should be known from some
authentic source. When deficient in all that supplies an
army, resort to indirection that helps toward equality.
In war this argument justifies the employment of a spy.
GREENE— A spy ! a spy in the other camp !
WASHINGTON — One of the bravest and truest of New
England's sons a few days since tendered to me his ser-
vice. So I was impressed by my only interview. He
knew the risks. He weighed them well, and faltered
not, since it was to serve his country: After visiting
both the Hessian and the British camps he was to return
to me. He is overdue, and his absence fills me with alarm.
PUTNAM— I think I know him.
WASHINGTON — He was sent to me by Col. Knowlton
from a Connecticut regiment. His rank is captain, and
his name is Nathan Hale.1*
said, " Shall I eat of these pease ? " The youth turned pale, and stam-
mered, " I don't know." Again Washington repeated his question,
raiding the vegetable to his lips. Here the culprit broke down and the
crime was known. — " Romanccof the Revolution" pub. in Phil., 1870.
" When, after the disaster on Long Island, Washington needed to
know of the intentions of the enemy, Nathan Hale, a captain in
Knowlton 's regiment, volunteered to venture, under a disguise,
within the British lines on Long Island. He was detected and exe-
cuted. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
79
PUTNAM — A man of noble qualities. I know him
well. I hope for his safe return. But if not, if furious
war claims a martyr, searching our army through, it
would fail to find a brighter name than that of Nathan
Hale. [All retire.
SCENE III. Military prison in New York City. " The
New fail" (Hall of Records , 1893). The court-yard
of the prison. Time : September 21, 1776, midnight.
Enter CAPT. CUNNINGHAM, British provost-marshal,
armed soldiers as a guard, and two keepers.
CUNNINGHAM — How many rascals have died to-
night ? ' [ Thumps a table.
FIRST KEEPER — We have sent four out for burial since
sundown.
CUNNINGHAM — Four! No more?
You are the prison physician to keep
these rats alive, and not the keeper
of the spade, to bury them. Man,
if you had said four hundred, I
would have hugged you. In the
prison ship, where I spent last night,
we disposed of thirty.
SECOND KEEPER — I robbed over
sixty of their food last night. This
will help the record.
CUNNINGHAM — Too slow, too
slow ! We starve them, we rob them,
we pinch them with raging thirst,
and yet they live. Men, we are all
too kind. There is too much heart
among us. Do you understand me ?
[An attendant appears, bearing a
decanter and mugs.
FIRST KEEPER — Captain, will you
have the decanter upon the table ?
1 The particular " horror " of war is the military prison. In 1776
nearly five thousand Americans were confined in the Jersey prison
8o WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
CUNNINGHAM — Yes, and the mugs, that we may drain
a bumper to the King. [The attendant places a bottle and
mugs upon the table.] This is the best fire for these chilly
hours. [Pours out a huge drink and drains it off] That
is good. That makes some amend for being here. Any
prisoners brought in to-day ?
SECOND KEEPER — Some from Harlem Heights.
CUNNINGHAM — What had they?
SECOND KEEPER — The clothes they stood in.
CUNNINGHAM — Bah ! Did you drown them ? How
do such trash expect to pay for their keeping here?
[Drinks another glass.] Our generals are too humane for
this war. Why take such prisoners? A blow on the
crown is cheaper.
FIRST KEEPER — My assistant is mistaken. We found
a few watches and some keepsakes.
CUNNINGHAM [greedily] — And you secured them all ?
All — every item ? If you allowed as much of value to
escape as could be felt by sensitive fingers, I'd lash you,
every one, every one of you. Keepsakes and spoils, I
am here for these. [ To one of the armed soldiers of the
guard] Fellow, how dare you smirk at me ?
[Reeling from drink, he offers to strike //////, and the
soldier dodges.
FIRST SOLDIE"R — Colonel, I did not smirk at you.
CUNNINGHAM — Colonel ! How dare you call me
colonel ? Say general to me, or I will shoot you with
your own musket. .General ! Remember now, every
one of you, general ! I will be general to my guard,
even though my superiors are slow in promotion, and
ship, the Middle Dutch, North Dutch, and French churches, King's
College, the New Jail, sugar houses, and the City Hall. The " New
Jail" (now, 1893, Hall of Records) was destined for the more noto-
rious rebels, civil, naval, and military. So closely were they packed,
they formed a solid mass. The provost marshal was Capt. Cun-
ningham, notorious for his cruelty. He was executed in London,
August 10, 1791, for forgery. — Memorial Hist, of New York, J.
Grant Wilson.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 81
still keep me captain. I know my deserts, and promote
myself. [Staggers with intoxication.
FIRST SOLDIER — General, I did not smirk at you.
CUNNINGHAM — That's better. Have a drink. [Pours
out for him a dram, which the soldier drains off.] How
the wind roars ! Well, let it roar ! We are snug. [To
SECOND SOLDIER.] Your face is new. Your eyes are
crossed — and your nose — your nose is loose. You seem
to have two noses, and they are not at rest. Who are
you ?
SECOND SOLDIER — I am William Clayton, general.
CUNNINGHAM — Where did you come from ?
SECOND SOLDIER — I am from Monmouth in New
Jersey.
CUNNINGHAM — How got you here ? Here in the
King's livery, that should be worn by men with straight
eyes and — a single nose ?
SECOND SOLDIER — I served the King there, and was
ordered here by Gen. Howe.
CUNNINGHAM — You lie ! Gen. Howe never stoops to
such promotions. It is only men of rank whom he con-
siders. [Strikes his breast.
SECOND SOLDIER — I am not cunning in such matters.
I was given place here in the prison guard, and thought it
was Gen. Howe.
CUNNINGHAM — What did you do in that land — that
land — that traded you to us ?
SECOND SOLDIER — I was loyal to the King.
CUNNINGHAM — Good ! And you smote his enemies ?
SECOND SOLDIER — My nearest neighhor, and once my
dearest friend, is with Washington. I burned his home.
CUNNINGHAM — Brave heart, drink ! [Gives him a
mug, which he drains.'] And his chicks ? Did he have
any ?
SECOND SOLDIER — His wife, bearing her infant in her
arms, escaped through the snow to friendly shelter.
8z WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
CUNNINGHAM — Bungler that you are ! [Smites him
with a small stick from a chair near him.] You shall have
no more drink. You should have brained them both.
You shall be cashiered for neglect of duty. [To THIRD
SOLDIER.] Weazen-faced hero in the King's toggery, how
got you into this place ? I have ten other prisons in this
town,* and in them all, no man on guard who looks like
you. Your hair is too red for this place, and your
paunch too lean — too like our prisoners. Fatness, fat-
ness pleases us. You are not fat. Where came you
from ? Loon, answer me.
THIRD SOLDIER — I am an honest boy, born in Con-
necticut, not very far from here.
CUNNINGHAM — What did you eat and drink, to get
that shape ? Roots, weeds, and vinegar, I am certain.
Be careful of our rich diet here, or apoplexy ! What
deed of valor belongs to you ?
THIRD SOLDIER — I quarreled with my brother because
he was a rebel. The night he was to leave to serve with
Putnam, in the dark, I crawled up and shot him in the
back. I then came here.
CUNNINGHAM — Cadaverous and red-headed Caesar,
shake hands with your general. [They shake hands cor-
dially] Oh, that I had a thousand mighty men like
you ! We will warm that shriveled but heroic front with
drink.
[He fills a mug for the soldier and one for himself,
and both drink.
[ While drinking , a dozen prisoners from different
sides of the court enter the place. They are
emaciated, ragged, and suffering. FARMER
DICK, tunu CAPT. STANDISH, is among them.
FIRST PRISONER — General, it is so cold. By day we
scorch in summer's heat, but at night, we shiver, for
winter's chill comes with September's gales. No clothes
— no fire.
SECOND PRISONER — General, I have not tasted food
1 See Note i.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 83
for two days. I am slowly dying. For pity, help
us!8
[CUNNINGHAM moves up and down the court in
great impatience.
THIRD PRISONER — My brother died last night. I
nursed him to the last. I must follow him, if I have no
relief. For two days I have parched with thirst for
want of a glass of water. I was captured on Long Island.
FOURTH PRISONER — And I on Harlem Heights. I
have been but four days here, and already know how
blessed it would have been to have died in battle. This
imprisonment would be punishment to Lucifer. Gen-
eral, be merciful !
CUNNINGHAM [furiously] — Curses upon you all !
This very morning the town was fired, no doubt by some
friendly hand of yours, and is still smoking in its ashes ;
and yet you cry for warmth and fire. Knaves and
traitors to your King, starve and thirst and die ! 4 [The
prisoners all fall back before his fury, except CAPT. STAN-
DISH.] Had I a thousand smoking joints, they should
feed the sewers, instead of you. Back now to your holes,
impudent scum — and die — die as the only duty left
to do. [They all move off but CAPT. STANDISH.
CAPT. STANDISH — Provost-Marshal Cunningham, I
ask a word with you before I go.
CUNNINGHAM — Varlet ! Do you brave my orders ?
[Raises his stick as if to strike him.
3 In the North Dutch Church [on William Street] eight hundred
prisoners were incarcerated without fuel or bedding during two of the
coldest winters New York has ever known. Their provisions were
scanty and poor, and, of course they died from cold and starvation.
"We never," says Oliver Woodruff, one of the prisoners, "drew
as much provision for three days as a man would eat at a com-
mon meal. For three months in that inclement season, the only
fire I saw were the lamps in the city. There was not a pane of
glass in the windows, and nothing to keep out the cold except
the iron grates." And so of the other prisons. Many were poi-
soned for the sake of their watches and silver buckles. — " History of
New York City" Win. L. Stone.
4 About one o'clock on the morning of the 2ist [September 21,
1776] a fire chanced to break out near Whitehall Street [New York
City]. More than four hundred houses were burned. — Bancroft.
84 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
STANDISH — Dare to lay a blow on me, and these fists
shall be the hammers of your sudden death ! 6
[Raises his clenched fists and moves threateningly
upon CUNNINGHAM, who becomes quiet.
CUNNINGHAM — Who are you ? $uch courage is not
of every day.
STANDISH — I am Richard Standish, Captain in the
Continental Army.
CUNNINGHAM — What word would you with me ?
\Becomes suddenly sobered.
STANDISH — I have a dream to relate, which will
interest you. At all events, I desire you to hear it. I
intend you shall.
CUNNINGHAM — A dream ? Nothing so captivates me
as a dream.
STANDISH — Then listen. [Prisoners and guards gather
round to hear.~\ Last night, as I lay famished, I fell into
an uneasy sleep. The vision I then saw has appeared
twice before ; hence so marvelous. I thought the war
was over and our arms victorious. The King and his
hirelings were driven from our shores. I was next in
London — a free American citizen — the equal of any
sovereign, for I felt I was myself a king.
CUNNINGHAM — A curse upon your comments ! The
dream, the dream !
STANDISH — Curiosity took me to Newgate Prison.
The sufferings from the Briton here led me to seek
what he did at home. It was the day for an execu-
tion. The crime was forgery. How vivid is the pic-
ture here before me, now ! This moment I see in part
my dream. The culprit was brought forth, bound.
Cowardly wretch ! he cringed and writhed and begged
for mercy, but none was shown. The noose was around
his neck. His fainting form, I see it now upon the
trap. Hell or Heaven is to receive him. The black
cap is lifted for farewell. I look. I tremble in amaze-
6 This was the language really used by Ethan Allen to Gen.
Prescott, who threatened him after his capture before Montreal.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 85
ment. Is it possible ? God is just, and retribution
comes. I look again, and the villain is — it is — William
Cunningham ! British Provost-Marshal of New York
— it is you, it is you ! * [All fall back horror-stricken.
CUNNINGHAM [blanches
with fear and staggers. —
Aside] — I have had that
very dream. What can this
mean ? It shakes me in
every fiber. It will never do
to falter here. [Aloud.'] Do you hope to frighten a sol-
6 Provost-Marshal Cunningham was executed in London for for-
gery August 10, 1791. In his dying confession he said : " I
was made Provost-Marshal of the Royal Army, which enabled me
to wreak my vengeance on the Americans. I shudder to think of
the murders I have caused. In New York City there were more
than two thousand prisoners starved by stopping their rations,
which I sold. There were also two hundred and seventy-five pris-
oners executed. The people on the street were ordered at midnight
to put out their lights and not to appear at the windows, on pain of
death. Then the unfortunate prisoner was gagged and hung and
buried." — Memorial History of New York,J. Grant Wilson.
86 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
dier in the British army with the visions of a treach-
erous and diseased brain ? I have heard enough. All
of you, back to your dungeons, or my guard shall force
you there. [All the prisoners retire .] I- would much
that I had not heard the ravings of this madman. I
know not why, but my heart sinks at the recital.
Enter an English CORPORAL and a guard of soldiers, with
NATHAN HALE as a prisoner.
CORPORAL [holding papers in his hand] — Orders for
Capt. Cunningham, Provost-Marshal of New York.
CUNNINGHAM — I am that man.
CORPORAL [handing him the papers} — With these
orders, I am to deliver to you this prisoner.
CUNNINGHAM [reading] — A spy ! I see we have a
spy. He is to die at daylight. That is here already, so
he dies at once. Prisoner, you know your fate.
HALE — I know it, and am prepared to meet it.
CUNNINGHAM — You will die like a dog, because taken
in a work most foul.
HALE — Any service for the public good is honorable,
when necessary ! Such service did I seek to render to
my people, and I now regret it not.
CUNNINGHAM — Still unrepentant ! You ought to die
twice for a speech like that. [Aside.] I'll not be
cheated into mercy by a dream. What's a dream to me
more than to any other man ? [Aloud.] Who pre-
sided at your trial ? These papers state not.
HALE — I had no trial. I was seized at Huntington,
Long Island — betrayed by a cousin who is against our
cause. Was taken before Gen. Howe. I told him that
my name was Nathan Hale ; my rank, captain, in Knowl-
ton's Connecticut Rangers of the Continental Army,
and that, as a spy, I was within his lines.
CUNNINGHAM — And he served you right when he
ordered you to the scaffold. Guards, prepare the pris-
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 87
oner for immediate execution ! [ The guards strip off his
coat, tie his arms behind him, and place the noose around his
neck.] This work revives me and gives me spirit. May
the devil catch all dreamers ! I am a man again !
HALE — In these last moments, I ask for man's final
consolation — a Bible and a clergyman.
CUNNINGHAM — You shall have neither. What have I
to do with Bibles and such drivelers ? The devil is
already waiting for your soul ! Let him have it quickly,
nor seek to change a just fate !
HALE — May I write ? I would send a letter to my
mother ; and a farewell, a long farewell, to another, as
dear to me as she. No man worthy of the name would
refuse this !
CUNNINGHAM — You shall not write. I would not
have the ragged traitors know that one among them
could die so bravely. Moreover, you are prepared for
the cart, and we have no time to waste in comfort to a
spy. Your hour has come. Guards, take your places !
[ The guards arrange themselves on each side of the
prisoner.
HALE [raising his eyes'] — I only regret that I have but
one life to lose for my country ! 7
CUNNINGHAM — Forward, march! [All retire.
1 Nathan Hale volunteered his services to gather information within
the lines of the enemy for Washington. (See Note 1 2, Scene 2.) He
was captured on Long Island just as he was returning to the American
camp. He was taken before Gen. Howe, in New York City, and to
him Hale boldly avowed his position. He was ordered, without a
trial, to immediate execution at daylight, and sent to the infamous
Cunningham to enforce it, on September 21, 1776 (the day of the
great fire). He was presumably brought to [the Hall of Records]
" the New Jail," as this was the prison for prominent captives. His
letters were destroyed, for Cunningham would not have the Ameri-
cans know one of them could die so bravely. He was not permitted
to write to his mother, nor to have a Bible. When he ascended the
scaffold on the morning of September 22, 1776, his dying words
were : "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my
country ! "
88
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SCENE IV. A room in headquarters of GEN. CHARLES
LEE, of Continental Army, at £askingridge, New Jer-
sey. Time : Forenoon, December 13, 1776.
Enter CAPT. STANDISH and "FARMER GEORGE," noiv
CAPT. GEORGE ALDEN, of the Continental Army.
Both in uniform.
CAPT. STANDISH — Dear friend of peaceful days, I re-
joice to meet you, though it's a great surprise.
CAPT. ALDEN — I can almost fancy, Dick, seeing your
honest face, that I am home again.
STANDISH— I notice, George, that you have now your
straps, as well as I.
ALDEN — Yes, I am a captain, and aid to Gen. Charles
Lee.
STANDISH — And I am captain, and aid to Gen.
Washington.
ALDEN — Dick, I heard you were a prisoner.
STANDISH — Two months ago I was a prisoner. But I
have quickly gained my freedom, as you see.
ALDEN — The brutal Cunningham, after all, must have
a streak of kindness to let you go. How did you escape
from him ?
STANDISH — I told him of a dream.
ALDEN — And was a solclrer managed from a dream ?
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 89
STANDISH — It was a weird visitor of the night. It
surely frightened him. He shunned me as a ghost, and
soon got rid of me.
ALDEN — I shall resort to dreams hereafter.
STANDISH — But to business. I am the bearer of
orders to General Lee from the Commander-in-Chief,
now encamped upon the Delaware. They are to be
delivered immediately.
[ALDEN receives the papers from STANDISH.
ALDEN — I will hand them to the General, who is in his
private chamber. I will return at once to you.
[ALDEN retires with the papers.
STANDISH [musing] — My friend George Alden an
aid to this man ? I do not rejoice at this, for I could
wish him a better fortune. [ALDEN returns.
ALDEN — The General requests that you await his
answer. Dick, what were you saying to yourself as I
came back ?
STANDISH — When ?
ALDEN — Just now, as I returned.
STANDISH — Nothing worth repeating. I was musing,
George.
ALDEN — Yes, Dick, No secrets from me ! I heard
you say, " I could wish him a better fortune." Tell me,
what meant you by this ?
STANDISH — Will you have it, George ? Old friend,
whose last crust would half be mine, shall I tell you ?
ALDEN — Dick, Dick Standish, you have grown false
to me unless you tell me.
STANDISH — Are we quite alone ? No danger of other
ears ?
ALDEN — In this mansion of bygope clays, if you
should shout, besides myself the walls alone would be
your listener.
STANDISH — Then, George, I could wish you a better
fortune than that of aid to this man, Charles Lee. I
believe him to be a cursed traitor ! I echo no man's
opinion, but I have my own. As the confidential aid
90 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
to Washington I have learned much, and, as I think,
know him well.
ALDEN — Dick, Dick ! Ought I stand here and listen
and not resent this assault upon my superior ? Re-
member, Dick, I wear a sword and am a soldier.
STANDISH — George, here we meet as friends. Put up
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 91
the sword and forget that we are soldiers. This man
Lee is in rank insubordination at this moment to our
great commander. The orders I have just brought re-
quire him at once to join his strength to Washington's,
now across the Delaware. I have carried such before,
and they were of no avail. They will be so now. O
George ! if you knew the heavy load which our chief
daily bears from necessity, you would burst with anger,
as I do now, to have it needlessly augmented.
ALDEN — By Heavens, Dick ! make good your words,
and though he ranked me as the sun the planets, he
should know me as alien to his conduct !
STANDISH — He has friends in Congress, the seat of
civil power, and hence is sustained as a daily menace to
our cause. How often, in this world, does it happen
that virtue unwittingly lays her tribute upon the brow of
vice, and after seeks to cleanse the act of wrong by deep
repentance. This man Lee was in the South, and there
did little more than cavil at better men.1 After the dis-
aster on Long Island he was ordered North to assist our
General." Would that he had stayed where he was
harmless, and been food for Southern fevers !
ALDEN — It is not his fault that he came, however.
STANDISH — The fault was afterward. The retreat
from New York was done when Harlem and White
Plains came tapping upon its heels. With the certainty
of sunshine when the storm abates, so Washington saw
safety in retreat across the Hudson. Early in Novem-
ber a deserter from Fort Washington gave Howe its
plans, and thus the key for capture. Putnam crossed
with some force to Fort Lee, then in command of
Greene, which also included Fort Washington, on the
1 Gen. Charles Lee was sent South in March, 1776. He was as
querulous as ever. Not till the 4th of June did he reach Charleston.
On the 28th of June, at the battle of Fort Moultrie, Lee for the tenth
or eleventh time charged Col. Moultrie to finish the bridge for his
retreat, and said the fort was a slaughter pen. — Bancroft.
* Early in September, 1776, Congress called Lee to the North to
command in case of mishap to Washington. — Bancroft.
92 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
eastern bank.8 Gen. Lee, receiving orders to follow,
refused obedience and openly criticised his chief. His
command was further up the river.*
ALDEN — Then Lee was not responsible for Fort
Washington and its loss. This was the work of Greene.
STANDISH — Not directly. But it was impropriety to
belittle the plans of his superior. Greene — than whom
no truer patriot ever carried sword — construed his or-
ders to retreat as optional with him to hold Fort Wash-
ington or not, and so decided that Magaw defend it.
Congress — the bungler will ever spoil a master's work —
would have it thus, and Greene was so far excused.* On
the night before the assault I was in the boat that car-
ried Washington toward the eastern shore. In mid-
stream Putnam and Greene were met, and counsel had,
such as the stream afforded. It was too late to repair
the wrong. Greene contended, even then, that Howe
would attack in vain. All returned to Fort Lee, and
8 Since the Hudson had been forced by ships of the enemy, and a
deserter had given to Howe the plans of the fort, Washington saw
that Fort Washington could not be held. He said it would not be
prudent to hazard stores and men at this place. " I leave to you
[he wrote to Gen. Greene,] to give such orders of evacuation as you
may judge best, so far revoking orders to Col. Magaw to defend it.
You will immediately have all the stores removed." Putnam, on
the gth of November, crossed into Jersey with five thousand men. —
Bancroft.
4 Lee, with a force of seven thousand, was further up at King's
Bridge. The orders to him were : " If the enemy remove the greater
part of their force to the west side of the Hudson I [Washington]
have no doubt of your following with all possible dispatch." But to
Lee the prospect of a separate command was so alluring that he re-
solved not to join his superior. — Bancroft.
8 Greene framed measures contrary to Washington's intentions and
orders. (See Note 3.) He questioned the directions received ; in-
sisted Fort Washington should beheld. Instead, therefore, of vacat-
ing it, he took upon himself to send over from west side of the Hudson
re-enforcements ; and, in a report to Congress counteracting the urgent
remonstrances of his chief, he encouraged Congress to believe that
Howe would fail in his attempt. Previous to these events Congress
had opposed the idea of further retreat. — Bancroft.
Greene considered Washington's orders [see Note 3] optional to
retreat or not, since it was left to him to give the orders, and decided
to hold the fort.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 93
our General awaited the coming day with the gravest
apprehensions. The end you know.*
ALDEN — It was a grievous loss. Twenty-five hun-
dred of our best soldiers, and much needed stores !
STANDISH — It was more grievous to witness the sore
distress of our great-hearted chieftain. Through all,
not a word of censure, though the offense was heavy.
He never does complain.7 If he would, it were much
better. Distress may fly, in words that blaze and burn,
from the overburdened soul, when hot temper holds ajar
the door. But so patient, and so undismayed ! There
is something of mystery about this man that inspires a
sense of awe which no other mortal gives ! I tell you,
George, he is the one hope we have of victory, and upon
his single palm he bears up our falling fortunes, as God
bears up the world !
ALDEN — How cruel to add in weight a needless
feather to his burdens !
STANDISH — After the fall of Fort Washington, Corn-
wallis commanded in New Jersey, with directions to
follow Washington and to destroy him. Fort Lee next
6 Before the assault and fall of Fort Washington, the General-in-
Chief, who had been reconnoitering the river at the North, returned
to Fort Lee, and to his great grief found what Greene had done.
" The importance of the Hudson" had induced Congress to intervene
by an order which left Washington no authority to abandon it except
from necessity. Greene insisted still that it could be held. Under
all this advice Washington now hesitated to give an absolute order to
withdraw. — Bancroft.
On the night of the I4th November the British took their position,
and on the 15th summoned Magaw to surrender. This was sent to
Greene and by him to Washington. Washington crossed the river
late that night, and was met by Putnam and Greene, and a consulta-
tion held in the stream. Greene was still confident. It was then
too late to change affairs, and Washington returned to Fort Lee.
The result was Fort Washington the next day surrendered with
garrison and stores. — Bancroft.
1 Greene, to whose rashness the disaster was due, would not assume
his share of responsibility. The grief of Washington was great
that he did not instantly on his return from inspection of the
Highlands countermand the orders of Greene ; but he never excused
himself by throwing the blame on another. No hope remained in
the United States but in Washington. — Bancroft.
94 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
was threatened. Greene, now all obedience, retreated
and joined his general at Newark. Gen. Lee, your
commander here, was still at King's Bridge with more
than seven thousand men. Short enlistments — that
military curse still upon us — and other casualties had
reduced the army now west of the Hudson to about
three thousand. Lee was peremptorily ordered to cross.
Then, as now, I conveyed the order.8
ALDEN — I never knew of such command. I need
not ask if Lee refused.
STANDISH — He refused ; he still refuses, and will re-
fuse to-day. Washington fell back from Newark as
Cornwallis came in and bivouacked at New Brunswick.
Lee still disobeyed.' Flushed with victory, the brothers
Howe scattered wide their proclamations of pardon — a
tempting bait to men so sore of heart as ours ! Even
delegates in Congress accepted the terms, and lesser
men by thousands went trooping to British power. With
his army dissolving around him and hope blown upon
the freezing breath of winter, it was Washington alone
who could say, I will not despair.10
ALDEN — Will the world ever know this mighty man ;
or knowing, will it appreciate ?
STANDISH — In this extremity, Schuyler sent seven
regiments from the north to the aid of our distressed
8 Earl Cornwallis then took command in New Jersey. His first
object was Fort Lee. Drop after drop of sorrow was falling into the
cup of Washington. On November 17 he gave orders to Lee to join
him with his division, but the orders were willfully slighted. In the
following weeks they were repeated constantly, mingled with en-
treaty, and were always disobeyed. — Bancroft.
On the fall of Forts Washington and Lee, Washington with his
little army of about three thousand, ill-armed, worse clad, and with-
out tents, blankets, or provisions, commenced a disastrous retreat
through New Jersey. — Frost.
9 At New Brunswick, where the American army arrived on the
evening of November 28, it found short repose. Lee, importuned
sometimes twice a day, still remained east of the Hudson. — Bancroft.
10 All this while Washington was forced to conceal his weakness
and bear loads of censure from those ignorant of his condition.
In these trials he said to Livingston, " I will not despair." — Ban-
croft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 95
commander. To the aid of this mighty man, as you call
him — now mighty in his woe ! On December i — this
very month I speak of — how dates of trial fasten upon
one's memory as with fangs of steel — Cornwallis still
pushing on, Washington left New Brunswick. Then he
crossed the Delaware, pleading now with Lee, since orders
failed. Meantime and on December 3, — for I would be
accurate when accusation loads my speech, — this lazy
general, this Charles Lee, crossed the Hudson and ad-
vanced to where we this moment stand, in the center of
New Jersey. Does he come to join Washington ? God
forgive him, for I never will ! He has come to inter-
cept the regiments from Schuyler. By virtue of his
rank, this man turns them to his own command. He
has se»t an officer to help defend Rhode Island. If
sent to the moon he would be as serviceable ; and he
intends to follow with his
stolen soldiers." George,
have I made good my words,
that this man is a villain and
a traitor to the land we fight CF*Q
for?
ALDEN — So well, Dick,
that I shall seek as soon
as may be, other service.
With him I cannot remain.
The serpent that strikes and kills were a more honest
friend, since it gives some warning of its intended battle.
Here comes the General.
11 On the 1st of December, just as Washington was leaving New
Brunswick, he renewed his urgency with Lee, telling him Philadelphia,
the seat of Congress, was the object of the enemy. Washington crossed
the Delaware with Cornwallis and Howe in close pursuit. Washing-
ington from here entreated Lee to join him ; he got an evasive an-
swer. Lee was impatient to gain the chief command. From the east
of the Hudson Lee wrote to Rush: "I could do you much good
might I but dictate one week." He had received one explicit order
and another peremptory order to pass into New Jersey. He [Lee]
said, " These orders were absolute insanity." He said, " There are
times when we must consent to treason against the laws of the state
for the salvation of the state. The present crisis demands this brave,
virtuous kind of treason." He wrote criticising Washington for in-
96 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
Enter GEN. LEE in morning gown and slippers.
LEE \to STANDISH] — Inclosed is my answer to Gen.
Washington. How is the General ? Across New Jer-
sey he seemed light of foot. One might say he were a
fugitive from closely pressing powers.
STANDISH — If he were light of foot, it was to hurry to
that desired goal which ends our trials. There are some
who are slow of foot on this very mission.
LEE— Give my considerations to the General.
STANDISH — Thanks. He will doubtless be overjoyed
thereat. [STANDISH retires.
LEE [to ALDEN] — What meant the Captain that some
were slow of foot ?
ALDEN — Through these drifting snows it is nearer
truth to say " slow of foot." Thus I took him.
LEE — A shrewd interpretation, and, as I guess, a just
one. [ALDEN retiresl\ The alluring promise of my
scheme for a separate command overtops my hopes. If
the supreme command should quickly follow, then my
end is gained.14 This revolt were throttled here, if
England held forth the offer of deserved rank within her
armies. At the head of this uprising, I could compel
this offer as the price of peace. What to me is indepen-
dence— the end and all of these Confederate braggarts —
but a means to help my purpose ? Charles Lee, late of
European legions, now serves Charles Lee of the Con-
tinenal Army, and gives to empty air the sham of
deeper feeling. John Adams — whose honesty in this
strife gives weight to counsel — favors me as the mili-
tary head that should be." A powerful support ! So
decision. " Indecision is a much greater disqualification than stu-
pidity or want of courage," he said, referring to Washington. On
December 3 Lee crossed the Hudson, but not to join Washington.
To the center of New Jersey he marched, and there incorporated into
his own command three thousand men whom Schuyler had sent from
the northern army to the relief of Washington. — Bancroft.
15 Lee was planning for the chief command. See Note n.
'"John Adams was ever ready to belittle Washington and exalt this
Lee.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 97
do shrewd men often thrive by aid of dullards, too
shallow to comprehend. Greene and Gates are partial.
Washington commands me to join him. Rush, since I
have told him this, knows that I will not do so.14 Shall
I, once of high estate in the army of a king, consent at
last to follow the commands of this surveyor of sheep-
browsed hills? His cheap and hungry followers— the
spawn of England's refuse population driven to these
shores — I despise, as I do him.15 Yet, it serves me well
still further to dissemble. I have here cut off and taken
to myself, three thousand soldiers which the gentle-
mannered Schuyler sent to him from the North. This
further cripples him and strengthens me. So may it
be! While Congress, or its leading spirits, remain my
approving friends, Washington may plead and fret and
fail. He stands in my way. Then let him fail.
[CAPT. ALDEN rushes in, greatly alarmed.
ALDEN — The cavalry ! the British cavalry are upon
us ! Away, General, away, and save yourself."
LEE [also in great alarm] — Heaven help us ! Where
can I go ? The house is surrounded ! [Looking from
the window.] We are prisoners !
\Thundering noises are heard at the room doors.
They are burst open, and British troopers rush
in from each side of the rooms.
"From Morristown he [Lee] announced to Rush " that it was not
his intention to join the army of Washington." — Bancroft.
15 Lee had not one talent of a commander. He affected to look
down upon his associates in the American army as " very bad com-
pany." His alienation from Great Britain was petulance for being
neglected. He esteemed the people he then served [Americans] un-
worthy of a place among the nations. — Bancroft.
'*On December 13, while at Baskingridge, in the morning he
wrote to Gen. Gates saying, "A certain great man [Washington] is
most damnably deficient." Before he had folded the letter Wilkin-
son at the window cried out, " Here are the British cavalry." An
English lieutenant with dragoons had surrounded his house. He
was ordered to come forth. He came out pale from fear, unarmed,
bareheaded, without a cloak, in slippers, etc., and entreated the
dragoons to spare his life. They seized him just as he was, placed
him on a horse, and within four minutes of their coming were off
with him, together with his aid. — Bancroft.
98
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
BRITISH CAPTAIN — You are prisoners. [Flourishing
his sword.] Do you surrender ?
LEE — Yes, we surrender. I have not my sword. Shall
I get my sword ? I will secure it for you.
[ Afove s off as if to leave the room.
BRITISH CAPTAIN [stepping in front of LEE] — Never
mind the sword. We want you. Gen. Howe will be
glad to see you.
LEE — Shall I dress to go with you ? I will prepare
myself. [Again moves to leave the room.
BRITISH CAPTAIN [still bars his exit] — We run no
risks, General. You will not pass.
LEE [rubbing his hands in
abject submission] — Gentle-
men, spare my life ! Spare
my life ! I trust you will
do me no harm. I entreat
you, gentlemen, as soldiers
of the King, of my King
—do you mark me? of
my Ki»g- whom i have
much offended — let me
live ! I have been drawn
into this — this most fool-
ish revolt. I will explain
to Gen. Howe. I know
him well. We have fought
as comrades together ; a
good and valiant man. I will explain to him.
BRITISH CAPTAIN — Then do so when you may. Sol-
diers, secure your prisoners!
[Soldiers advance and bind both GEN. LEE and
ALDEN.
LEE — Oh ! oh ! [Cringing and entreating.] This is so
wrong, so wrong to treat a general thus. But, save me,
Captain ! Save me from violence ! I will make amends
for what I have done. I will ! I will !
BRITISH CAPTAIN — To horse with both the prisoners
and away ! To horse ! To horse ! [All retire.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 99
SCENE V. Tent of WASHINGTON, in camp of Continental
Army, west side of the Delaware. Time : Christmas
Day, 1776.
Enter GENS. GREENE, STARK, MERCER, SULLIVAN, and
KNOX.
SULLIVAN — It is five days since I brought into camp
the men of Lee.1 The great enterprise of this hour has
been thus long delayed, that these men might rally from
hunger and frozen limbs.
MERCER — It is a Christmas blessing that you are with
us now, succeeding Lee when captured.
STARK — On the same day, Sullivan, that you came in,
Gates brought five hundred good New Englanders,
whom, in his absence, I now command. Were I super-
stitious, I should say our conjunction here, at the very
point of such distress, means much that is beyond us.
KNOX — On this holy day, may the result of work laid
out to do confirm your thoughts.
GREENE — I am permitted, gentlemen, to detail this
work. The General-in-Chief would revive the hopes of
patriots, and stay the unseemly rush for British pardons,
by a blow at Trenton. The enemy there, as elsewhere,
season their coming with cruelty most unnatural. Plun-
der rules the hour, and opposition invites to sudden
death without a trial. So runs the law as these Hessians
make it.4
MERCER — This sword shall help to change this law, or
I will fall its victim.
GREENE — Nobly said, good Mercer ! The plan for
assault stands thus : Maxwell from Morristown will dis-
1 On December 20 Gen. Sullivan arrived in the camp of Washing-
ton on the Delaware with the troops which Lee had commanded.
The capture of Lee, December 13, gave Sullivan the command. But
they were in a miserable plight. — Irving.
8 By orders of Count Donop [Hessian commander near Trenton]
the inhabitants who should fire upon any of the army were to be
hanged upon the nearest tree without further process. Provisions
were seized alike from Whig and Tory. Life and property were at
the mercy of the foreign hirelings. — Bancroft.
too WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
tress the enemy ; Griffin, on his other side, will worry
him from Mount Holly, assail Donop at Burlington, and
hold him there. Ewing, with five hundred, will cross
the Delaware at Trenton, and so assail him. Putnam
will do the same, leading a force from Philadelphia, since
Congress, some days since removed to Baltimore, re-
leases his hand — a hand of iron when it strikes the foe.
Gen. Gates, two thousand strong, will cross from Bristol.
The main attack will be made by Washington, with us to
aid him.3 To-night these plans, thus working in each
direction, must distract the enemy and give him to us a
prisoner.
SULLIVAN — My blood is already up for action, and
tedious will be the minutes that run before this blow.
Who but our great commander could have arranged a
game in war, for us so certain when played as planned ?
Enter WASHINGTON in excitement, holding dispatches in
his hand.
WASHINGTON — Gentlemen, I beg you, pardon me, but
I am sorely tried. The bitterest curse I could wish my
enemy would be to have him fill my position.4
SULLIVAN — General, our swords are ready to redress
any wrong to you.
WASHINGTON — Have my plans been submitted to this
council?
GREENE — Yes, in every detail, and all approved.
WASHINGTON — Would it were so with others upon
whom I have depended ! These dispatches \lie runs
them over\ Gates disapproves wholly, and has left his
post at Bristol. Griffin, flying before Donop, has left
the Jersey shore. Ewing will not attempt to cross the
river in this storm ; and Putnam — you, too, Putnam,
8 The arrangements for the assault upon Trenton, as made by
Wnshington. were substantially as stated in this scene by Gen. Greene.
It is from Bancroft.
4 Washington, before White Plains, had said : " Such is my situa-
tion that, if I were to wish the bitterest curse to an enemy on this side
of the grave, I should put him in my stead." — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. IOI
must I record you with the rest ? — he would not think
of it.6
[WASHINGTON sinks back into a c/iair, and ewers
his eyes with his hand.
KNOX — This is a heavy disappointment.
SULLIVAN — Men cower before this war of the winds
whom bullets could not scare. General, what shall
we do ?
WASHINGTON \rising from his chair, and with vehe-
mence]— Do ! Do ! What shall we do ? I shall go to
this assault, if I have to go alone ! It is a dire neces-
sity.' Without it, this war is ended and our country
lost. We will cross the Delaware to-night — to-night, I
say ! — and, before the morning's sun, smite the enemy.
The storm, this tempest, the river of running ice — they
are all to us the blessed weapons of offense, since they
lure the foe" to his rest and ruin. Who will not dive shall
not gain the coral. What means this fury of the ele-
ments, if not a shield to cover us in our work ? Oh !
the greater storm, that surges here within, makes that
without mere sunshine. I wish that others, for a few
hours only, could feel as I do ! Generals, I am resolved
to go forward. We have here twenty-four hundred men.
At Mackonkey's ferry, this night, we can reach the other
side ; we will do so, since we so resolve, and by daylight
raise our flag in Trenton. Have I your approval ?
GENERALS [all in unison] — You have ! you have !
5 The day for the attack arrived, and Washington was abandoned.
Gates 'willfully turned his back on danger, duty, and honor. Eager
to intrigue with Congress at Baltimore for chief command of the
Northern Army, Gates rode away from Bristol ; Griffin, flying be-
fore Donop, had abandoned New Jersey. Putnam would not think of
crossing the river. Cadwallader [succeeding Gates] sent word to
Washington it was impossible to cross. Ewing did not even make
the attempt. — Bancroft.
8 Washington answered Cadwallader "that notwithstanding the
discouraging accounts [these failures came to Washington about the
time his force was to move], I am determined to cross the river and
make the attack on Trenton in the morning." " Our numbers are
less than I supposed," said Washington, " but necessity, dire neces-
sity, must justify an attack." — Bancroft.
102 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
WASHINGTON [drawing his sword and raising it in
air] — Then pledge me with your swords.
[Generals all cross his sword with theirs.
SULLIVAN — Wherever our commander leads, we fol-
low !
WASHINGTON — I am satisfied, for I know the metal of
these blades. Each one to his command, and be pre-
pared at three o'clock to march. Good angels, aid us as
our cause deserves ! v [All retire.
SCENE VI. Trenton. Headquarters of COL. RALL, Com-
mander of the Hessians. Time : midnight, Christmas,
1776.
Enter COL. RALL, with three OFFICERS.
COL. RALL [partly intoxicated] — Come, seat yourselves,
and let us have another round. It would never do to
let Christmas go without a final bumper. The wine is
ordered.1 [Enter a servant with decanter and glasses] I
have run three days of revelry, and need repairs. But
one more glass, and then to bed. [They all Jill glasses.]
Here's to home and swift promotion ! [All drink with a
huzza]
1 Col. Rail [commanding the Hessians at Trenton] till late into the
night sat by his warm fire, while Washington was crossing the Dela-
ware . — Ba ncroft.
Col. Rail, when urged to guard against surprise, said : " Let them
come ; we will receive them with the bayonet." " It is not necessary
to intrench. The rebels are a bad set." It was Christmas Eve,
dark and stormy ; Rail went to an entertainment. The night before
the attack [Christmas night] Rail had been carousing. — I'on Eelking.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. **>$
OFFICER — That was a pleasant toast.
COL. RALL — And a just one. This war is closed. The
end has been won by our arms — we, of Hesse-Cassel.
Then we should wear the laurels with new straps upon
our shoulders. Cornwallis is in New York, and has left
this command to me. He goes soon to London. Howe
is to be made a Knight of the Bath. To-night the
army, in grand carousals, make New York a bedlam.
All are looking to the King for a reward. Must we be
forgotten ? No, no ! I tell you, no ! [ Thumps the
table.]
OFFICERS [all in unisoti\ — No, no !
Enter ORDERLY and whispers to COL. RALL.
COL. RALL — Show them in. No secrets here ! Show
them in. [ORDERLY retires.
Enter two COUNTRYMEN, who bow to COL. RALL.
COL. RALL — I am Col. Rail. Speak, if you have any-
thing to say.
FIRST COUNTRYMAN — We live on the other side of the
Delaware. We are loyal to the King, and hate his ene-
mies. We have come to tell you that Washington and
his army are this night crossing the river to attack this
town.3
COL. RALL — Good news ! good news, this ! for then we
shall take him prisoner, with his wretched followers.
They are a bad set. But they won't come here. You
croak to me false statements. They won't come here.
They will keep far from Col. Rail.
SECOND COUNTRYMAN — But, Colonel, they are now
crossing, and we have learned the intention
COL. RALL — Did you see them at the river ?
FIRST COUNTRYMAN — No, we did not see them there,
but we know that was the route.
" Rail received warning. Shortly before the 26th of December two
American deserters came in and reported that Washington was about
to cross the Delaware to attack Trenton. — Von Eelkinr.
104 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
COL. RALL — How do you know so much ?
SECOND COUNTRYMAN — We tracked them. We went
over a part of the march.
COL. RALL — How could you track them in this falling
and shifting snow? Tracks would be swept away in
minutes. If you come to deceive us, we will have you
punished. Beware that you bring no lies to these head-
quarters.
FIRST COUNTRYMAN — We tracked them by their
blood-stained footsteps, over ice and frozen ground.8
COL. RALL [loudly laughing, the other officers joining] —
And you fear lest such beggars as these, who spend
their blood upon their march, shall at last conquer us
with their skeletons ? If they come, we'll meet them
with the bayonet and toss their bare bones into yonder
snow-drifts. You have done well to come, and so be
thanked. You may go. [T/ic COUNTRYMEN retire.
COL. RALL — Gentlemen, we will now to bed, and a
good sleep to all in spite of Washington and his bleed-
ing tramps. [All retire.
' Wilkinson [aid to Gates], who joined Washington's troops before
the crossing, said " he traced the route easily by the blood on the
snow from the feet of the men who wore broken shoes. " — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 105
SCENE VII. Trenton. A street. A snow storm. Time:
day -break, December 26, 1776.
WASHINGTON, with drawn sword, enters, soldiers fol-
lowing.
WASHINGTON — So far all is well. The pickets have
been surprised, and fortune favors us. Sullivan and
Stark, two props that never fail, may you be faithful
now ! Men, there form the enemy : with the bayonet
charge ! '
[WASHINGTON and his troop rush off the stage.
Enter GEN. SULLIVAN, with soldiers.
SULLIVAN — On every side we have pressed them back.
The Colonel of these Hessians fights with the courage of
despair ; but he is surrounded and must yield. Soldiers,
once more into the fray !
[GEN. SULLIVAN and his troops rush off the stage.
Enter COL. RALL alone, with drawn sword.
COL. RALL — The air is as full of bullets as of flakes
of snow. The artillery is silenced, and the guns of my
brave Hessians are wet and useless. Oh ! for an hour
of Donop. If I could but reach him ! These men fight
like fiends, and from their hidings their shots strike as
they will. No matter, my brave grenadiers shall redeem
the day.3 [CoL. RALL rushes off the stage.
Enter WASHINGTON and GREENE, with soldiers and aids.
WASHINGTON — Where is Gen. Stark ? Is he safe ?
GREENE — He and all are safe. The Hessians are
1 Washington entered the town by King Street, Sullivan by the
river road. Sullivan reported to Washington that the arms of his
party were wet. "Then tell Gen. Sullivan to use the bayonet,"
said Washington. — Bancroft.
* The Hessians could do nothing with the bayonet, for there was
no enemy in sight. The deadly bullets came from the riflemen be-
hind walls, trees, doors, and covers. It rained balls. The guns of
the Hessians were wet and useless. Their artillery, too, was un-
lucky. Rail placed himself at the head of his troops, crying, " My
grenadiers, forward ! " — VonEelking.
106 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
overwhelmed, and their dead strew the ground. On our
side not a man has fallen.8
Enter MERCER and KNOX hurriedly.
MERCER — I seek our General. [To WASHINGTON.]
The Hessians surrender and Rail is lost. Wounded and
falling from his horse, he is still alive, though his hurt is
mortal.
WASHINGTON — Let our firing cease. Knox, will you
quickly give such orders ? [KNOX retires.
Enter COL. RALL, supported, but in dying condition.
COL. RALL [to WASHINGTON] — To you I give my
sword, won as a soldier should ever wish, by valorous
deeds. My army are your prisoners.4 [WASHINGTON
receives his swordJ\ I beg of you, sir, with the breath
of a dying man, that you will be kind to those now in
your keeping through the chance of war.6
WASHINGTON — I am much distressed at your misfor-
tune. I grant your wish. [To an aid.] See that Col.
Rail is conveyed as gently as possible to proper shelter,
and there granted the tenderest care.' •
COL. RALL — I thank you, General.
[CoL. RALL goes off, assisted by soldiers.
WASHINGTON [handing RALL'S sword to an aid~\ —
Guard this with care. It is a brave man's relic. Gen.
Mercer, will you see that the prisoners and stores are
made ready to transport across the Delaware ?7 Corn-
1 The action, in which the Americans lost not one man, lasted
thirty minutes. — Bancroft.
* Rail paid with his life the penalty of his carelessness. Wounded,
he fell from his horse. Two non-commissioned officers raised and
supported him to Washington. Pale and covered with blood, Rail
surrendered his sword. — Von Eelking.
6 In a few broken words he begged Washington to be kind to his
men, and Washington promised that he would, and in a friendly way
tried to console him. — Von Eelking.
• Washington had the dying man carried to the house of a well-to-
do Quaker family, and committed him to their care. Col. Rail died
the same evening. — Von Eelking.
7 Washington rode up after the surrender, and after a few kind words
ordered the troops to be escorted across the Delaware. — Von Eelking.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 107
wallis will be upon us soon, and he should not find us
here burdened with our trophies. [MERCER retires.
WASHINGTON — And now, I trust, turns the tide so
steadily set against us. Back to camp and then for
Princeton. [All retire.
SCENE VIII. Trenton. Another street in suburb on north
bank of A ssanpink River. Time: January 2, 1777.
Enter CORN WALLIS and two AIDS.
CORNWALLIS — Here we are in Trenton, and at a time
when I had hoped to be upon the sea. Seven days ago
Rail, upon this spot, paid
with his life the price of
negligence. The new year
is but two days old, and
before the third is spent we
must repair this damage.1
FIRST AID — Across this
river Washington awaits
us. On this side, with a
force of five thousand
veterans in hot pursuit,
he cannot now escape. He has not three thousand.
CORNWALLIS — What is this stream which divides us
here ?
SECOND AID — It is called the Assanpink.2
CORNWALLIS — The day is nearly spent and our army
tired, so we will rest here to-night. To-morrow, at sun-
rise, advance and bag the game. Meantime be his camp
'On the 2d of January, 1777, Cornwallis, leaving three regiments
at Princeton, advanced upon the Americans at Trenton with the
flower of the British army, just as Washington expected. — Bancroft.
2 In the afternoon of January 2 the army of Washington had safely
crossed the Assanpink, which the British could not cross without a
battle. — Bancroft.
lo8 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
closely watched lest the entrapped stealthily moves
away.' [All retire.
Enter WASHINGTON and PUTNAM, on south bank of Assan-
pink River.
PUTNAM — That we have an army to-day is because
you have pledged your private fortune to pay the men,
and thus have held them into the new year.4
WASHINGTON— I count that as nothing if we but
cripple the invader. Now is the time to clip his wings,
since across New Jersey he spreads them so. He will
not soar so high, nor swoop so deadly, if we repeat in
Princeton what we did here one week ago.6
PUTNAM — On this river we may defy him. He cannot
cross it, our riflemen opposed.
WASHINGTON — We dare not risk this battle. Again
strategy must aid, and to you, General, I will now
divulge my plan. Mercer already knows it.
PUTNAM — I am all eagerness to hear.
WASHINGTON — As I foresaw, since great anxiety peers
into the future with keenest vision, Lord Cornwallis has
come upon us with a weighty army. He now lies en-
camped upon the other bank, whence flame his angry
fires, and doubtless dreams of victory with the morning's
sun ; and of the end and home. We know the country
and its roads. This knowledge should be to us a power,
so we use it skillfully. Have all our camp made bright
and burning, and kept so, as if we, too, strove in honest
J Cornwallis coming up on the opposite bank, his lordship retired
to rest with the sportsman's vaunt, "We will bag the fox in the
morning." Meantime a night watch was set upon Washington's
army. — Irving.
4 The term of enlistments of some of Washington's troops expired
with ihe New Year's Day. The paymaster was out of money, and
public credit was exhausted. Washington pledged his own fortune
to these men, if they would stay six weeks longer, and they stayed. —
Bancroft.
*" Now," said Washington, " is the time to clip their [British]
wings, when they are so spread." — Frost.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
109
rivalry to illumine the hours to a hopeful dawn. At
midnight put our army in motion — the lights left glim-
mering along our lines — and, passing round his lordship,
we will strive at daylight to deal a telling blow at Prince-
ton ; and this before he shakes off his lazy slumber here.'
PUTNAM — A plan easy of execution. I rejoice to
have a part to do. [All retire.
SCENE IX. A road near Princeton. Time : daylight,
January 3, 1777.
Enter WASHINGTON and AID, with soldiers.
WASHINGTON — We have struck the rear of the British
line, already on the march to Trenton to join Cornwallis.
He may return upon us. His strength I do not know,
but I am hopeful.1 [To his AID.] Where is Mercer ?
'While the British slept, it was not so with Washington. He
knew the byways leading out of the place. Soon after midnight,
sending word to Putnam to occupy Crosswicks, Washington marched
his army into the road to Princeton. The American campfires flamed
along the Assanpink, and the drowsy British surmised nothing. —
Bancroft.
1 When Washington reached Princeton, at daylight, January 3, two
regiments had already passed on the way to join Cornwallis at Trenton.
— Bancroft.
no WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
AID — He is to the west, as ordered, to destroy the
bridge over Stony Brook.
WASHINGTON — Surely he is too late ; for these re-en-
forcements, which we would have stopped, have already
passed. Yet, he will do whatever man can do.a [Artil-
lery heard at a distance.} Whose cannon these ? Listen !
There comes the roar again. It is a call to us that Mer-
cer is engaged, and needs us. So far, we have had our
way. Soldiers, to the sound of Mercer's guns ! March !
[All retire.
GEN. MERCER, with drawn sword and with soldiers, rushes
upon the stage.
MERCER — To the front, brave men, and the fight is
ours ! The British are coming with the bayonet. Give
them the rifle in return. They have had it to-day
already.
[Before the volley is delivered, enter the British, who
charge with the bayonet. MERCER'S troops,
having no bayonets, retire. In the fighting,
MERCER falls from bayonet wounds. Musketry
is heard in the distance. WASHINGTON, with
a force, then rushes on, and, after some fighting
with sword and bayonet, the British give way
and retire.
Enter AID.
AID \to WASHINGTON] — The enemy, overwhelmed by
the deadly fire of Gen. Hitchcock, throw down their
arms and yield as prisoners.
* Mercer, at Princeton, was sent to the west to destroy the bridge
over Stony Brook, and to cut off these regiments. He was too late ;
and these regiments, discovering Americans in their rear, returned to
attack. Washington, hearing the sound of Mercer's cannon, marched
to his aid. But meantime the British had charged Mercer with the
bayonet. Mercer's troops, having no bayonets, being riflemen, gave
way. Just then Washington came upon the ground and, in despera-
tion, rode up to within thirty yards of the British line. Each line
gave a volley. Gen. Hitchcock then brought up his brigade, and the
British fled. The action, from first to last, lasted twenty minutes.
The British lost 200 killed and 250 prisoners. The great loss of
the Americans was the death of Gen. Mercet who was killed in the
bayonet charge. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. in
WASHINGTON — Then the day is our own. Hitchcock,
with New England's hearts of oak, came up just in
time. Cornwallis will return. But he must not find us.
\To AID.] Take orders to Gen. Putnam to secure the
prisoners and guns. [Am retires. — Bending over the
body of MERCER.] And thus a heavy grief comes in to
swallow up our joy ! It so often happens, on this weary
round of life, that happiness, within the self-same hour
won, is changed to infelicity ; and in the very zenith of
exultation, envious Fortune, coming with rapid steps, to
our unwilling lips presses the cup of bitterness. Thus,
now, is pricked the bubble of our pleasure. The foe
yield. What counts this to lighten heavy hearts, since
Mercer lies here, dead ? 8 Farewell, brave man ! Let
the muffled drum be the only music till he receives an
honored sepulcher. [Rising.] And then to Morristown,
to winter quarters, and a well-earned rest !
1 Mercer was unconscious upon the field and apparently dead.
Mortally wounded, he died nine days after.
CURTAIN.
END OF ACT III.
ACT IV.
SCENE I. Room of COUNT DE VERGENNES, Minister of
KING Louis XVI., in Royal Palace, at Versailles,
France. Time: February, 1777.
COUNT DE VERGENNES, Minister of Foreign Affairs,
seated at a table.
VERGENNES — Since the English Henry was at Agin-
court no time has been more auspicious to amend that
history. The New World passed from our grasp at
Quebec, and again the Briton beat us down. France
can now revel in a revenge that cancels ages of humilia-
tion. Before me Choiseul saw the future as I do now
and humored this revolt. To follow him is wisdom.1
Strike from England these Colonies, and she no longer
threatens as the Colossus she hopes to be. Spain would
have France do the deed of injury, but to share in it
she dares not.8 Nor is it policy that France too greedily
advances to opportunity. Diplomacy shall hide the hand
of mail, and that extend which is loaded with good inten-
tions. The British Embassador suspects our purpose —
but filmy suspicion, with no solid proof supporting — the
shadow, and not the knowledge of open act, is thus far
his possession. Hence Lord Stormont storms in vain.*
Enter Louis XVI., King of France.
Heaven grant that your Majesty is in health this
morning !
1 Due de Choiseul was minister of Louis XV. Choiseul watched
the rising spirit of Colonial independence with joy. " Here," he
said, " is the happy opportunity for dividing the British Empire." —
Bancroft.
J Choiseul proposed to Spain a plan of commercial co-operation to
benefit the Colonies, but the King of Spain did not act upon it. —
Bancroft.
•Vergennes said, in 1775, "The King's proclamation [of 1775]
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 1 13
Louis — Thanks, good Count. Receiving my sum-
mons, perhaps you divined the motive of this meeting ?
VERGENNES — The Colonies, now in revolt from Eng-
land?
Louis — Precisely. I am much harassed, not knowing
what to do. Maurepas and Turgot — far-seeing men — are
both against our interference.4
VERGENNES — How difficult it is to map the future,
and line it here and there as if subject to our hand like
the firm and measurable earth !
If this may be done with the
precision of mechanics, then
the statesman has survived his
skill, and the dolt is as good
as he in politics. Uncertainty
ever hides behind the curtain
of the future, and doubt rides
with all foretelling. Choiseul
was of opinion the opposite of
Maurepas, and, as I think, was
wiser in his reasoning. Now
or never is the time to bring
England to her knee, and we do this with the weapon
we extend in friendship to these Colonies.
Louis — Shall I forget my place and the duty which
royalty owes to royalty ? Joseph of Austria, my royal
brother, and here my visitor, refuses to see the agents of
cuts off the possibility of retreat ; America or the British ministers
must succumb." — Bancroft.
On October 31, 1775, Lord Stormont, the British ambassador,
was received by Vergennes at the French Court, who said to him :
" France would not increase the embarrassments of England."
" The consequences of the acts of the British ministry," said Ver-
gennes, " are as obvious as those from the cession of Canada. I see
the consequences which must follow the independence of North
America. They might, when they pleased, conquer both your islands
and ours and advance in power over both North and South America.
The time for this being remote is none the less sure." Vergennes
had the courage of Choiseul, and he was equally sensitive for the
dignity of France. — Bancroft.
4 Maurepas and Turgot, both ministers of Louis XVI., did not
deem it prudent to oppose Great Britain.
114 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
this revolt, saying, " I am a king by trade ! " So, in-
deed, am I ; and, therefore, may not hurt my guild more
than he of other calling.*
VERGENNES — Sire, as the years roll on, great changes
come. The people, once the puppet of the throne, are
become its prop and master ! The king who notes not
this, or gives to it but little of respect, may some day
miss the path of safety. Frenchmen to-day burn with
a fiery frenzy to strike our rival across the Channel.8 It
may scorch him sadly, even though he wears a crown,
who seeks to check Vesuvius while he flames !
Louis — Your words fall upon ears which receive their
lesson because they must. All Paris, all France, the
Continent, go stumbling over rank and station to caress
this'democrat — this Franklin — whose name obscures all
others.7
VERGENNES — Then let us profit from this current of
opinion, since it runs to the defeat of England. This
modern Prometheus controls the lightning ; and, he per-
mitting, we may direct the bolt !
Louis — We are not prepared for war, and the Colonies
may fail.
VERGENNES — It is prudent they be smelted for a sea-
son, that we may know if they are gold or dross. When
their swords shall win the right to kindness, then be it
extended openly. Meanwhile, under cover, we alone
shall know that which we do.
Louis — Their agents are already informed, in answer
to that petition, handed to us when this year was young,
that we cannot furnish either ships or cargoes.8
6 In 1777 Joseph II. of Austria was in Paris. He said : " I am a
king by trade." Nor would he permit a visit from Franklin. — Ban-
croft.
6 To strike the nation's rival [England] was the sentiment of every
Frenchman except the King. — Bancroft. ^
1 Franklin reached Paris December 21, 1776, and his fame and
presence acted like a spell. He received the homage of the gay
capital. — Bancroft.
* " The King could not as yet," so Franklin and his associate com-
missioners were told, " furnish the Americans with either ships or
cargoes. Time and events must be waited for." — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 115
VERGENNES — Yes, sire. In happy contentment did
they receive your gracious answer of refusal. This con-
tentment grew from the private gift extended in your
royal hand of credit and of money, which meant so
much to them at home. The restless Beaumarchais
quickly pushed to sea three ships, burdened deep with
arms. Two of these have safely sailed their course ; the
third fell a prize to British guns.'
Louis — Then thus far has tribute been granted to the
people. But we play a game that needs a crafty hand.
The ocean is swept by American privateers, and they
seek our harbors for their confiscations. The state must
not forget its honor, even in deference to the people,
wild with zeal to hurt our rival.
VERGENNES— All this admitted, Stormont has done
no more than beat the air in harmless protest. We
surely would not try to change the drama as now it
runs.10
Louis — France sleeps serenely while your discretion
guards. [Exit the KING.
VERGENNES — So may France always sleep ! Charles,
a son of France — the mighty Hammer, for distinction
called — struck down the Moor and saved all Europe to
the Cross, the Crescent rising never more to threaten.
She is ever found in the lead of liberal thought, whence
grow generous states. France has earned the right to
sleep serenely, if she sleeps at all.
9 <; The King, unable to enter into a detail of supplies, will, never-
theless," so the commissioners were told, " mark his benevolence to
the Americans by giving them secret succor which will extend their
credit." This promise the King kept, and half a million of livres
were paid the American commissioners quarterly. This was in
answer to petition of the commissioners to the King, presented Janu-
ary, 1777, requesting ships, ammunition, and arms. — Bancroft.
With this aid three ships, laden with supplies, sailed for America.
One was captured, and the other two reached America in time for the
summer campaign of 1777. — Bancroft.
10 Stormont complained to his government [England], and reported
how little his remonstrances were heeded. — Bancroft.
Ii6 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
Enter FRANKLIN.
VERGENNES — Good-morning, doctor. You have op-
portunely come. I expected you.
FRANKLIN — You please me much, if coming, I hear
good news. A lackey told me you were present, and as
I have come on your com-
mands I was not then too
bold to enter.
VERGENNES — You are
now, as ever, welcome.
The King has just de-
parted.
FRANKLIN — And, I
hope, left behind him,
in your keeping, good
intentions for
those I serve.
VERGENNES
— Louis is a
king, and, as a
king, has no
love for sub-
jects who re-
bel." No king
has. Charles
of Spain will not sanction popular revolt, and so decides.
Louis, however, bows to his people, wh'o, through their
Ministers, — or some of them, — daily make their wishes
known to him.
FRANKLIN — The French are friendly to our cause.
But not so you, who govern. Upon my landing, I
was forbidden to enter Paris. Forbidden, as if a
culprit.
11 The King would burst out into a passion whenever he heard of
help furnished to the Americans. But he could not suppress the
enthusiasm of the French nation. The King was petulant at the
praises of Franklin ; it was the public opinion of France that swayed
him to help the young republic. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. II?
VERGENNES — You came, however. The restraining
order was much too late, or you too venturesome.1*
FRANKLIN — And, being here, you would not turn me
out for a dozen Englands ? It was so unfortunate, you
failed in time to stop me.19 [Both laugh.
VERGENNES — It was a lapse most lamentable, and so
the Embassador of England was informed.
FRANKLIN — The shipment of many cargoes for our
help have been forbidden from these ports.
VERGENNES — In all these, again, too late ! The orders
limped, and the cargoes sped. A strange misfortune, as
England knows.14
FRANKLIN — You have denied the rights of harbor to
our privateers ?
VERGENNES — And in every case you have enjoyed
that right as if you owned this kingdom. And saucily
have your ships, with stomachs filled from keel to deck,
put out to sea for further depredations. How like a
snail in motion have been official mandates here, when
aimed against America ! Upon each lapse, as a convent
nun, with eyes demurely floored, we make to England
sighs of deep repentance. Then comes the offense
again.15
1J An order was sent to Franklin not to come to Paris ; but the
order came too late to Nantes, where Franklin landed, to prevent his
coming. — Morse's Franklin.
13 Vergennes said to Stormont " that, should Franklin [missing the
order] innocently arrive in Paris, it would be scandalous and against
laws of nations to send him away." — Morse s Franklin.
The British Embassador sent an official note to Vergennes that " he
would quit France the moment permission was accorded to this chief
of the rebels to set foot in Paris." He was informed that a courier
had been sent to the seaport to forbid the Doctor's coming to Paris,
but they could not say it would reach him in time. — Bigelow.
14 Ships were constantly leaving France for the United States,
laden with all they most needed, and American vessels were received
and protected. When Stormont remonstrated, they would be stopped.
But presently the ship would take its cargo and sail, and the renewed
complaints of Stormont would be put atade by the quiet earnestness
of Vergennes. — Bancroft.
Is See Note 14. The Reprisal [American privateer] replenished its
stores at Nantes, cruised off the French coast, and its five new prizes
Ii8 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
FRANKLIN [laughing heartily] — Count, it grieves me
much to note such negligence. I fear that you give that
worthy Embassador of England cause for much anxiety.
Watch me ! Watch me closely, or here I'll equip an
army, and with it march away.
VERGENNES — A thing most likely. Your pleasantry
may be reality when you
have successfully held
the field a little longer.
Be content that equivo-
cation aids you now,
and till the iron hand
filled with material gifts
openly supplants it.
FRANKLIN — I can ask
no more.16 You gave me
notice, Count, that I
should meet a stranger
here.
VERGENNES — An impetuous youth, who will not be
denied admittance to your presence. He is now due.
Enter LAFAYETTE.
Good-morning, Marquis. You are on the tick of
punctuality. Dr. Franklin, this is the Marquis de Lafay-
ette, whom I commend to you.
[DR. FRANKLIN and LAFAYETTE bow.
FRANKLIN — It gives me the greatest pleasure to meet
any friend of yours, Vergennes. I did not catch the
name.
were unmoored in French harbors. Stormont hurried to complain.
" You come too late," said Vergennes ; "orders have been sent that
the American ship and her prizes put to sea." The Reprisal continued
these depredations till midsummer. Stormont remonstrated with
passion, and Vergennes prevaricated. — Bancroft.
16 These measures sanctioned by France were a war in disguise
against England. — Bancroft.
Franklin knew, just as well as Vergennes did, that the French
ministry was all the time favoring the privateersmen far beyond the
law, and ihat it was ready to resort to any device for that purpose. —
Morse's Franklin.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 119
LAFAYETTE— My name is Gilbert Mortierde Lafayette.
Called here at home Marquis de Lafayette.
FRANKLIN — And, Marquis, something of your name
and family I know already. What service may I render
you ?
LAFAYETTE — Commend me to your government. I
have closed a contract with Mr. Deane, your colleague,
to serve your people, as best I can, in arms."
FRANKLIN — Such commendation you shall have, and
my heart dictate it. But you are young for such a dar-
ing enterprise.
LAFAYETTE — If youth be my
only fault, then this can be cured.
FRANKLIN — But you must
live to cure it. I would not en-
courage your journey across
the sea. Disaster has followed
us in America — though the
news of Trenton and of Prince-
ton, lately come, revive brave
expectations.
LAFAYETTE — If your country
did not need my sword, I would not tender it. I seek
to confer, not to receive, a favor.
FRANKLIN — I am overwhelmed with such as offer aid,
but from very different motives — who would fight our
battles, if sure profit followed ! We are very poor in
purse. You should know the worst.
LAFAYETTE — The greater reason this for my engage-
ment. I am rich in purse, and will provide my own
ship for transportation. Then I am not debtor to any
man.18
" Franklin commended Lafayette by letters which had real value,
from the fact of the extreme rarity of such warranty from this source.
— Morse ' s Franklin.
18 When Franklin told Lafayette plainly that the credit of the gov-
ernment was too low to furnish the volunteers [Lafayette, De Kalb,
and others] a transport, " Then," said the young man, " I will pur-
chase one myself." And he did so. — Bancroft.
120 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
FRANKLIN — You are a favorite of the Court. Dis-
tinguished in rank, with youth and health and wealth to
buttress it securely. A young wife adds to favors which
fall upon you, thick as flowers poured from the cornu-
copian horn.
VERGENNES — To this you may add, the King, in dis-
approval, forbids this madcap's journey to America.19
FRANKLIN — What moves you to this sacrifice of pleas-
ures, which others would dare much to keep when
gained ?
LAFAYETTE — Were I made for no better end than to
loll in drowsy dullness, it were well to ask me as you
have. The dog in my kennel,
which this hand feeds, is sleek
from luxury, and daily fawns for
more. I could take a lesson from
his contentment, and in the
rounds of ease sing my own life
away : and be a dog. With this
as highest wish, then let me die
at once, a groveler upon the earth,
and give place to some better
beast. From across the water
he who listens hears that men of
brave thoughts, and with high,
inspiring aims, are up in action
to lift mankind into a higher destiny. Wrong is to be
suppressed, tyranny trampled down, and liberty de-
fended. Such purpose thrills, as if proclaimed with
voice supernal, and every man, worthy of the name,
should join his kindred. Shall 1 sit here and seek a lazy
rest when others in godlike deeds are spurring on to
Fame's proud temple that reaches up to heaven ? The
thought of duty in such stirring times urges the im-
patient body on, and healthy fiber tires from inaction.
The clarion call of heroes, swelling across the sea, sounds
19 Lafayette received orders from the King [Louis XVI.] to give
up his expedition to America. But he braved the order, and sailed
on the 26th of April, 1777. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 121
in my ears, and I cry back to them, I come ! — I
come ! 20
VERGENNES — All the young men of France are thus
impelled, and our gracious Queen abets them.*1
FRANKLIN [to LAFAYETTE] — So far as I can direct it,
you shall stand with the best in our armies. [All retire.
SCENE II. Royal Council Chamber, Buckingham Palace ',
London. Same as Act If. Scene 3. Time : February ',
1777.
Enter KING GEORGE III., LORD NORTH, LORD GER-
MAIN, and GEN. BURGOYNE.
KING — This news of Trenton comes to plague us, at
the time when expectation had fixed its seal upon the
bond of victory. Bad work has been somewhere done.
GERMAIN — Our Generals have been slow to harvest
after advantage gained, your Majesty. At Long Island
and on the heights of Harlem a quick advance would
have secured to us all who stood opposed in arms. The
autumnal fruits thus garnered into our bins as the reward
of summer's trials, the barren stubble left could not dis-
quiet us. Across New Jersey we kept the traitors in
front, when we should have gathered them behind as
prisoners. At Trenton we slept until the enemy, at his
pleasure, awoke us with his guns. I am no soldier, but
as a novice say this is not the way to conquer. Burgoyne,
is this so?1
so To his young wife Lafayette wrote while at sea : " From love to
me become a good American. The welfare of America is clearly
bound up in the welfare of all mankind ; it is about to become the
safe asylum of virtue, tolerance, equality, and peaceful liberty." —
Bancroft.
21 The Queen of France [Marie Antoinette] applauded the heroism
of Lafayette. " The same folly," said Vergennes, "has turned the
heads of our young people." — Bancroft.
1 Germain sought to screen the ministry by throwing the blame
upon the delays or inactivity of Clinton, Carleton, and Howe. — Ban-
croft.
122 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
BURGOYNE — Excuse me if I hesitate to criticise my
fellow-soldiers. This is the courtesy of arms.
NORTH — Howe fails to recognize the efficacy of ener-
getic action. A younger and more dashing chief will
redeem the past ; and I think we have him here, though
he is too modest to admit it.
BURGOYNE — You do me too much honor, if your ref-
erence be to me.
KING — Gen. Howe calls for fifteen thousand more
troops. We are not preparing to assail all Europe after
the Colonies. Yet upon such a levy might such sus-
picion rest."
GERMAIN — We cannot get them. Every effort has
been put forth with our German friends, hitherto so
generous, and the additions made to us will not exceed
three thousand.
KING— Carleton, too, calls for thirty thousand. Bur-
goyne, are so many men required ? 3
BURGOYNE — Your Majesty, with skill led forward — a
wise plan, of course, preceding — one-third of this num-
ber could cleave from north to south as the ax divides
the log by blow of proper aim.
KING — Have you arranged a plan ?
GERMAIN — We have, your Majesty, to be followed
upon your approval. The line of strategy is now as it
was a year ago — a march from Canada to New York,
down a dividing stream, the Hudson named. To our
General Carleton last autumn was given the order to do
this deed. He advanced to Crown Point, scattering
opposition, and there encamped ; further motion was to
return upon his march to Canada, leaving, as we learn,
a stricken enemy wondering at his retreat. Thus he in
* Gen. Howe [in the spring of 1777] had requested re-enforcements
of fifteen thousand men. But Germain professed to think such a
requisition ought not to be complied with. — Bancroft.
* Gen. Carleton [in Canada] wanted thirty thousand more. — Von
Eelking.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 123
part did the work assigned him. The better half re-
mained undone when he fell back.4
KING — We have in America too many generals who,
like this one, promise much and do but little.
GERMAIN — Burgoyne agrees, with ten thousand men,
to march to Albany, the central point in a field of action.
With a column from the west, through the Mohawk
Valley, and Gen. Howe from New York, all conjoining
here, the work is not in part, but wholly done ; and then
rebellion, as we believe, dealt a mortal wound.
KING — Who is to lead this column from the West ?
GERMAIN — No one has yet been named. It is a wild
march through a savage land.
KING — Then let it be Col. Barry St. Leger. A
trusty man for a desperate work. And chief command
be given to Burgoyne, who is here to pledge success.
We are weary of this delay to restore to our kingdom
peace.6
BURGOYNE — Bearing this confidence of your Majesty,
I will be in Canada before May blossoms fall ; and mov-
ing at once bring victory home when the fruits ripen in
the autumn.6
GERMAIN — Upon the calendar this is a year remark-
able. Three like figures mark it. May three sevens,
4 On the I4th of October, 1776, Carleton landed at Crown Point
[driving Arnold before him]. He waited for tidings from Howe,
and on the 28th of October his army began its return to Canada.
On November 3 his rear guard abandoned Crown Point. British
officers were astonished at his retreat, which seemed to the Americans
a flight that could not be accounted for. — Bancroft,
6 This plan [marching from Canada to Albany, with a union there
from West and South] appeared magnificent to the Cabinet in Lon-
don, and was persisted in through the fascinating promises of Bur-
goyne. St. Leger was selected by the King to conduct the ex-
pedition against Fort Stanwix and through the Mohawk Valley. —
Bancroft.
6 Burgoyne, on the 6th of May, 1777, with his re-enforcements
arrived at Quebec with orders to supersede Gen. Carleton with the
army that was to move to Albany as soon as it crossed the border of
Canada into hostile territory. — Bancroft.
124 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION
with the unit in front of all, be the lucky number in the
links of time that wins a rest from this tedious strife !
KING — What success attends recruiting in America ?
GERMAIN — In New York, and in New Jersey, we
have gained more
than a regiment of
resident soldiers.
Loyalty to the
crown is still there
found, and heard,
too, when free to
speak.7
KING — This does
not include sav-
age support? My
thoughts run to this.
GERMAIN — Brant,
the chief of many
Indian tribes, is
enlisted with us.
Thousands will fol-
low in his train,
with tomahawk and
scalping knife ; ter-
rible both to civ-
ilized communities.
I maintain my prom-
ise to the Commons, that the plan just submitted will
surely end this war, and before this year is closed.8
KING — There is one annoyance that should have
7 American recruiting stations were established for British service.
De Lancey, in New York, recruited about six hundred and Cortlandt
Skinner, in New Jersey, about five hundred. — Bancroft.
8 The King greatly favored the employment of Indians. "Lose
no time," he ordered, "to induce them to take up the hatchet against
the rebellious subjects in America." Joseph Brant, the Mohawk
chief, roused his countrymen for the war. Germain drew out the
plan of the Northern campaign in concert with Hurgoyne. These
preparations, Germain assured the House of Commons, would end
the war. — Bancroft.
r
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 125
abatement even at cost of severest remedy. Our com-
merce moves with timid sail, since armed cruisers of
America dare molest it. No recognized power grants
charters of the sea to these marauders ; hence they are
pirates, and should as such be treated.
GERMAIN — The naval commissions, as issued now, so
direct. Armed vessels of America are pirates, as we
make the law ; and within the scope of our instructions
their men, as soon as captured, are to be hanged at the
English yardarm.9
KING — Lord Stormont continues to report the perfidy
of France. She receives these corsairs and their prizes,
all the while professing friendship and neutrality for us,
a friendly power.10 .
GERMAIN — More than that ; she entertains, upon the
footing of an embassador, this Franklin, too long toler-
ated here in London. And the court and mob exalt
him as a hero.
BURGOYNE — If all goes as here provided, the day is
near when French manners must be mended ! Tumble
your hero into the gutter and he becomes as loathsome
as his companion there, even to his idolaters ! When
their banners are toppled down by the King's artillery,
the gutter awaits them all ! In the campaign this day
arranged we shall do our best to teach the need of
greater honesty in French diplomacy !
KING — Blow high or low, traitors are on the rack;
and we'll not rest till treason bows the neck. \_All retire.
9 In February, 1777, letters were granted to private ships to make
prizes of American vessels ; and American privateersmen were to be
treated as pirates. — Bancroft.
10 See Notes 14 and 15, Act IV. Scene I.
126 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SCENE III. Camp of WASHINGTON, at Middlebrook, N. J.
Time : May 28, 1777.
Enter GEN. BENEDICT ARNOLD and CAPT., now COL.,
STANDISH.
STANDISH — Here we are in the camp of my chief, and
here I could contentedly remain.
ARNOLD — Since you left, however, you have changed
the signs upon your shoulders to a higher grade. In the
army we live for rank and honors.
STANDISH — And you, too, General, have been for-
tunate. What Congress denied to your merits a few
weeks ago you have wrung from it by your valor since —
the epaulets of a Major General.1
ARNOLD — These sages of civil life ; they select com-
manders from the soil they grow upon as they do their
cabbage ! I was born in Connecticut, and that State
had two major generals to it accredited. Because of
this, though I were an Alexander, geography was as
fatal to me as a ton of lead around my neck in the open
sea, in these new selections ! Standish, this was to me
an insult, which sooner or later I would have avenged
upon these men. And as it is, I fear, sometimes, that I
may remember it when I should not do so !'
STANDISH — Danbury changed that and humiliated the
humiliators.
ARNOLD — But for Washington, who knew a wrong
was done, and urged a remedy, I am not sure Congress
would have revised its map. For like reason, since I
know no other, Stark was neglected. He breasted
1 On April 23, 1777, a corps of British, under Gen. Tryon, made
an effort to destroy an American magazine at Danbury, Conn. Ar-
nold and Wooster assailed them in front and rear, and they were
routed. Congress, at Washington's instance, appointed Arnold a
Major General. — Bancroft.
'Congress, in appointing four more major generals [in 1777], on
the pretext that Connecticut already had two, passed over Arnold,
the oldest Brigadier. Arnold was very angry, and wrote: ""By
Heavens ! I am a villain if I seek not a brave revenge for wounded
honor ! " — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 127
hostile bullets at Bunker Hill, at Princeton, and in other
fights between. Had he been Great Jove, and smitten
the enemy with his lightnings, having been born in New
Hampshire, his deeds would weigh as nothing against
this natal error. Stark has gone home angry. To
curse his native hills, no
doubt, for playing the base
trick of wet-nursing him !
STANDISH — You are in
error as to Stark. In him
Congress found a stubborn
will, but little used to the
obedient mood, and so did
not call him.8 Gallant
Stark ! No matter where
he sulks or hides, when
the blast of war blows in
his ears, he will be found
in the front ranks for free-
dom ! Honor holds him
fast to honor's shield, heedless of the rank his shoulders
carry ! Gen. Try on will not seek to cross swords
again with you, Gen. Arnold !
ARNOLD — Perhaps not. At Danbury we were out-
numbered heavily. Tryon destroyed the stores and
burned the village. But homeward bound we caught
him. While I was in front at Ridgewood, brave Woos-
ter, from behind, pushed him on, as the mastiff tears at
the flanks of the frightened bull ! We rode fetlock
stained among the dead ! Night came to the relief of
these torch-bearing Britons, and under its friendly cover
they escaped our further vengeance !
STANDISH — Your horse was shot under you ! And
for this Congress votes you a fresh animal, and in rank
makes you what you are ! Wooster, pressing close, fell
*On the same day six new brigadiers were appointed. Stark stood
at the head of the roll for New Hampshire, but was passed over on
the idea that he was self-willed. Chafing at the injustice, he retired
to his farm. — Bancroft.
128 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
with his face to the British line ! I then crimsoned my
sword with the wine of British lives in recompense ! 4
ARNOLD — And so heavy was the toll exacted that you
are now a Colonel.
Enter WASHINGTON.
WASHINGTON [bowing to both~\ — Gen. Arnold, to this
camp I could give no one a warmer welcome. Of late,
as heretofore, — for so your habit is, — you have been giv-
ing these English a cutting blade ! At Danbury you
added new laurels to such as already twine around you !
ARNOLD — General, the hardships of war are lighter
when they are softened with such commendation.
WASHINGTON — Since Princeton, we have rested upon
these Jersey hills. But winter has folded his icy wings,
and summer brings a grateful recompense for his nipping
rage. Howe, shaking off a city's dullness, has ventured
forth to tread among our flowers, and, like busy bees, we
have stung him back again. To-day we advance our
camp from Morristown here to Middlebrook to test the
courage of these Britons. In New York City, and within
its call, they have a force of twenty-five thousand men,
and we confront them with one-third that number.6
4 On the return of Tryon from Danbury, Arnold confronted him
and Wooster hung upon his rear. Arnold's horse was killed under
him and Wooster fell mortally wounded. The British fled, with a
loss of two hundred men. — Bancroft.
6 On May 28, 1777, Washington advanced his army from Morris-
town to Middlebrook. Gen. Howe had now a force of thirty thousand
men, with which he passed into New Jersey. Washington, to meet
this force, had seven thousand five hundred. Howe tried to draw
Washington from his strong position, and failed. On June 22 Howe
returned to Amboy, with the Americans assailing his rear, and Wash-
ington advanced to Quibletown. Howe turned upon him, and Wash-
ington fell back to his mountain passes. — Frost.
On the 3Oth of June Howe left New Jersey, never again to step on
its soil. A great American victory could have accomplished no more.
— Bancroft.
Congress fretted at Washington's caution. To all censures Wash-
ington replied : " As I have one great object in view, I shall steadily
move to the accomplishment of it." And in this he baffled an enemy
of much more than twice his number. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 129
ARNOLD — You will whip Howe badly, with no greater
difference between you. One to five against us, I regard
as fair battle. He will not assail you upon present
terms.
WASHINGTON — You jest on serious things. I dare not
venture a struggle against such odds, unless intrenched.
If he throws the gauge, — and so he may, — I will repel
him from these hills, which are nature's battlements. But
I would not risk a conflict in the open field. Suspecting
him of wish for Philadelphia to quarter in next winter,
should he cross New Jersey to gain his end, we are here
to dispute the road. If he wins his goal, we shall still be
near to watch and worry him, as once we did when Bos-
ton gave him shelter.
STANDISH — I notice, General, that you at least have not
lost heart, since even to the coming winter you forecast
your plans.
WASHINGTON — If, after Long Island, I held fast to
hope, I surely will do so now. Thanks to Franklin and
to generous France, we are at last equipped. Guns,
stores, and ammunition have crossed the seas to us.
13° WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
Our little navy has done its share ; and, in a measure
independent of them all, we now make for ourselves
things most needed. Unity, unity of action, is what we
sadly want to-day.
ARNOLD — The old cry: our cause still weakened from
the jealousy of meaner men, who fawn at the feet of
power, and by private favor win the place of eminence.
And Congress favors this ! Will this go on forever?
WASHINGTON — I make no reflections upon any man,
and will be no partisan, since I am the Chief. It is a
grave danger that Schuyler and Gates will not act in
harmony. To their dissensions we may chiefly charge
the loss of our stores at Peekskill.6
STANDISH — Schuyler is the older in rank. Gates
should not seek to climb at his cost.
WASHINGTON — In March last Congress ordered that
my judgment in the army should be supreme. It was a
decree of empty sound, for, since then, Congress has
taken sole charge of this Northern quarrel. When Gates
was made, one year ago this June, commander of the
forces operating in Canada, it was not supposed that he
would claim from this to rank Schuyler, when this same
Canadian army came within our borders. This he did,
however, and Congress opposed his view.7
STANDISH — And straightway, like a tricky politician,
Gates began to flatter and plead for place to Schuyler's
detriment. For this he sought Congress, and left you
at the ferry ; and while the Delaware you crossed to
Trenton, he crossed to Baltimore. From that day he
has bombarded the civil rulers in his own behalf.8
WASHINGTON — I will not join you, Standish, in your
criticism. Men are weak. And even those of merit
• In the early part of the year [1777] the stores of the American
army deposited at Peekskill were destroyed. — Bancroft.
1 Harmony between them [Schuyler and Gates] was impossible. —
Bancroft.
8 Just before Washington moved across the Delaware [to assault
Trenton, in which Gates was to assist], a letter was handed him from
Gates. "From Gen. Gates. Where is he?" said Washington.
" On his way to Congress in Baltimore," was the answer. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. I31
sometimes value themselves higher than others do.
Schuyler, fretting from interference, in petulance wrote
to Congress, and that body, without consulting me, not
even giving notice of the act, appointed Gates as chief
of Schuyler's army.'
ARNOLD — Were I the head of our troops, Congress
should know the danger of such insolence.
WASHINGTON — Then, Arnold, I rejoice that you are
not that head. There can be but one supreme authority
in the state, and we should bow to that, though error
at times may taint it. Gates was of opinion that too
many troops were here, and asked Congress to divide
my command for his benefit. The makers of our laws
so ordered, and I obeyed. I did think application should
be made by Gates to me as Chief ; but, since he thought
otherwise, I would not cavil about the shadow, if the
substance was to be made more secure. The substance
is to destroy the invaders of our soil ; all else is
shadow.10
ARNOLD — I assure you, General, you act with too
much patience. Times are out of joint when subordi-
nates thus flout their commander ; yielding does not
mend them. With all his cunning, Gates lost his
game. Schuyler is again in favor.
WASHINGTON — So you know that, do you ? In the
turn of fortune's wheel, only one week ago, Schuyler
was once more by Congress given command of the
Northern Army. But will this stay so ? I have laid the
9 Congress, without consulting the Commander-in-chief, directed
Gates to repair to Ticonderoga and take command of the army there
[superseding Schuyler] . — Bancroft.
10 Gates, in April, 1777, wrote to Congress : "I foresee the worst
consequences from too great a proportion of the army being in New
Jersey " [with Washington]. Congress forthwith ordered Washing-
ton to forward troops to Gates, and he did so. Washington thought
application should be made to him. — Bancroft.
" My own difficulties have been increased [wrote Washington] by the
extra aid of troops which I have spared from this army. [Sent to
Gates.] But it is to be hoped all will yet end well. If the cause is
advanced, indifferent it is to me where or in what quarter it happens."
— Irving. '
132 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
plans for meeting these hirelings from Canada, but who,
at last, will execute them ? Arnold, I intend to send
you there, when the plot ripens and the battle comes
threatening on.11
ARNOLD — Wherever Washington directs, there will
Arnold go, pledged to do his utmost.
WASHINGTON — This I know, and therefore want
Arnold at our Northern gates, where giants will assail.
I cannot tell — indeed, I do not yet know — who will lead
the British, but the importance of the movement will
enlist their best. Standish, you also will gather new
honors there, or have the opportunity. I cast from my-
self the bayonet and flint of my own armor — for such
are you to me — when I send you off. But I would de-
feat these visitors at any cost. Near New York I must
remain to watch the head assailant, who there encamps
his mightiest power. With such strength as I may
gather here, I will trust myself to fortune. [All retire.
11 Alarmed at Schuyler's [now again, July, 1777, in command in
place of Gates] want of fortitude, Washington ordered Arnold, who
was fearless, to join Schuyler at Saratoga ; and also, even to his irre-
trievable loss, Glover's Brigade, in addition to others sent. — Ban-
croft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 133
SCENE IV. Headquarters of GEN. HOWE in New York
City. Time: June, 1777.
Enter GEN. HOWE, GEN. SIR HENRY CLINTON, and
GEN. LORD CORNWALLIS.
HOWE — Sir Henry, I shall do no such thing. If this
be disobedience of orders, then Germain may make the
most of it.
CLINTON — It is commanded, so I read, that you and
your power shall join Burgoyne at Albany, when he
comes there, the expected conqueror.
HOWE — Not so, Sir Henry. I am notified thjit Bur-
goyne will try and join me by way of the Hudson.
Very well. This he may do, if he can. It is an outrage
that Carleton is so treated ; and also much of insult
this order brings to me. Should we, who have grown
old in dodging cannon balls, now bow in deference to
this upstart John Burgoyne? These men who plan
campaigns in London may come and execute them. I
have written Germain that this Northern army will get
little of aid from me ; and that while he makes plans,
I do the same — that I have resolved to assail Phila-
delphia.1
CORNWALLIS — General, was not that a hasty letter,
which cooler thought will wish to cancel ?
HOWE— No ! By the heavens above us, no ! For
years I have had a soldier's fare here in America. Lived
in wretched tents, and many times, of necessity, with
coarsest food satisfied dainty appetite. Have frozen in
the winter and scorched in summer's heat, and through
it all planned, marched, and fought ; and with all borne
such anxiety as is known only to a chief commander.
'Gen. Howe was notified that Burgoyne had orders to force a
junction with his army. Gen. Howe was indignant [at Burgoyne's
command] and dispatched to the Secretary [Lord Germain] his plan
of campaign. He announced his determination to evacuate the Jer-
seys and invade Pennsylvania by water from the sea. He further
made known to Carleton and to the Secretary [Germain], that the
army which was to advance from Canada [under Burgoyne] would
receive but little assistance from him. — Bancroft.
134 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
CLINTON — And, as I think, have won great battles,
worthy of reward.
HOWE — And this reward ? It is that I give myself as
a wing to this fledgling, that he may soar, and say to a
gaping world, " Look, I am the conqueror of America ! "
Again, I will not do it. I have asked for re-enforce-
ments, and, where I expected fifteen
thousand, got but three. This noble lord
is mortified, indeed, that my successes are
tarnished by defeat.* He has written so.
Who rolls on, and still on, to successive
triumphs ? The highest soaring pinion from
mere exhaustion will sometimes seek the plain, though it
mounts again.
CLINTON — It is the fault with some never once upon
a field of battle, to think they can set the fighting squad-
rons best.
CORNWALLIS — It is the wisdom of ignorance. The
world is full of it.
HOWE— Then I will not yield to it. I would rather
be a traitor to a fool than to my King.
CLINTON — General, pardon me ; you are rash. You
will feel less of injury when the fever goes. Meantime
let me counsel moderation both in speech and conduct.
CORNWALLIS — As your friend, I urge Sir Henry's wise
advice.
HOWE — I accept your cooler judgment, gentlemen,
and sink the man into the soldier. These are my plans :
I leave you here, Sir Henry, with six thousand, to keep
* In May Howe received letters from Germain, after the news of
the disasters at Trenton and Princeton had reached England, who
expressed his mortification that the brilliancy of Howe's successes
had been tarnished. — Bancroft.
Germain gave it as the King's opinion "that a 'warm diversion'
should be made upon the coast of Massachusetts." Gen. Howe
answered, "It was not consistent with other operations." — Ban-
croft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 135
what we have gained.* Such aid as you may give Bur-
goyne be your affair, not mine. With the rest I will
sail for Philadelphia, — since the sea is more friendly than
dry land, — and so give up the march intended. As you
know, when Washington advanced from his hills in
Morristown to Middlebrook, I offered battle upon the
plain, which he declined. I will not attack his intrench-
ments, nor move across New Jersey, with him on flank
and rear. It is now high summer, and we can best show
our regard for July the Fourth, become the day of honor
with these proud reformers, by sailing hence at this
pompous time, and advancing, as wind and tide may
favor us, upon the town where was hatched this ill-
feathered bird of independence. I will gain it, or Ger-
main may mortify again at my tarnished glory.
CLINTON — With knowledge of the grave responsibility,
I assume command here ; as so you honor me.
HOWE — Cornwallis, you sail with me.
CORNWALLIS — Whenever the sails are bellied by fav-
oring winds, I shall be found on board. [All retire.
8 On the 5th of July Gen. Howe, leaving six thousand men in New
York under Sir Henry Clinton, began to embark the main body of
his army for an expedition against Philadelphia. — Bancroft.
136 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SCENE V. Headquarters of GEN. CARLETON at Three
Rivers, Canada? Time : June, 1777.
Enter GEN. SIR Guv CARLETON and GEN. FREDERICK
RIEDESEL.
CARLETON — You men of Germany must learn the
field from us, who for years have tramped through its
briers and felt the pricking thorns.
RIEDESEL — An old soldier can claim some right to
judge the future, from the weight of his artillery and
that opposed. This campaign will surely end a wretched
war and England regain her own. I am posing as a
prophet.4
CARLETON — And so have others, and been scourged,
by loss of reputation as seers, for doing so. You men
from Brunswick will better know the enemy when you
have met him. You may then revise your prophecy.
RIEDESEL — The plan of uniting the army of Canada
with that of Howe at Albany, St. Leger advancing
from the west, is well laid. Successful execution must
bring the end, as I have prophesied.
CARLETON — Who will stand sponsor for such successful
execution? 1 will not. If you consent, then great is your
generosity. I have tried to gain the views of Howe
thereon, and the cave of silence is not more quiet, so
far, than he.* I much suspect he turns his eyes away
and refuses to see the signal of attack in this direction.
And I do not censure him ; though between us there is
no friendship that should make either fret at the other's
1 It was at Three Rivers, Canada, that the British army in early
June, 1777, held high revelry ; and as soon as it passed th*Canadian
borders, Ca'leton ceased to command.
* " ThN campaign [under Burgoyne] will surely end the war," was
the opinion given by Riedesel. — Bancroft.
1 Gen. Carleton had tried to get word from Howe, and failed.
Gen. Carleton sent out small bodies of Indians to gather news of
Howe's army. Riedesel wrote the Duke of Brunswick [spring of
*777] that Cnrleton had not the slightest idea of Howe's plans or the
whereabouts of his army. — Von Etlking.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 137
injury.4 He, as well as I, has been overreached by a
subordinate. This plan of attack is mine. Another
would pluck and wear its honors.5
RIEDESEL — Gen. Carleton, I came here to fight the
enemies of King George ; not to mingle in the quarrels
of his officers.
CARLETON — Nor shall you find any quarrel, with me a
party. I obey as a soldier should, but not beyond the
letter of my supplanting order, stintedly construed. I
have turned over the
army of Canada — that
part about to cross the
border — to Gen. Bur-
goyne. Such is the
command. He may
lead it where and how
he will, but I go not
with him to grace his
car. I remain in Can-
ada, as Gen. Burgoyne
knows from me.8
RIEDESEL — And so
all of us who march
will share in a common
loss.
CARLETON — In '59 I was with Wolfe before Quebec ;
and on my person bear the scars of battle there as my
credentials. For years I have been the ranking soldier
of the King in all America, but specially have com-
«.
4 Riedesel wrote his sovereign that the relations between Carleton
and Howe were very much strained. — Von Eelking.
6 The plan was Carleton's, made in 1776, of moving the Canadian
army to Altnny, there to be joined by Howe from the south and
by an expedi ion through the Mohawk Valley. — Von Eelking.
The scheme was Caileton's, who outranked Howe, and, on the
union of forces, would have chief command. — Bancroft.
6 On May 6, 1777, Burgoyne reached Quebec. Carleton was
amnzed at dispatches censuring his conduct in the last campaign ; and
ordering him to make over to an inferior officer [Burgoyne] the com-
mand of the Canadian army as soon as it should cross the boundary
of the province of Quebec [Canada]. — Bancroft.
138 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
manded the Canadian army. Some service is set to my
account. But what of that ? A life of toil and tri-
umphs, such as the great Macedonian endured and won,
would all go as nothing, should an unfriendly Minister be
the critic.7
Enter GEN. BURGOYNE.
RIEDESEL — Good-morning, General..
BURGOYNE — Also to you, Riedesel. And may every
morning renew a blessing to you, Gen. Carleton !
CARLETON — A timely salutation, and needed much
by me.
BURGOYNE — I am sure you would not scold Dame
Fortune, who has crowned an honored brow so
lavishly.
CARLETON — And yet, sometimes, her good intent will
fail, counterpoised by the bad intent of others.
BURGOYNE — We all meet disappointments. Constant
pleasures sicken, as continued sweets would do. Variety
is the new birth of daily life, and rescues the humblest
from monotony. Too smooth a road is tiresome, as one
too rough, and the reason in each the same.
CARLETON — A soldier seldom finds his road too
smooth.
BURGOYNE — I trust, Gen. Carleton, to yourself per-
taining, I am free from the charge of any act that
roughens it.
CARLETON — I am without evidence, and so acquit
you. But this 1 know : You have my command ; how
you gained it, while I was at the post of duty here and
you in London, three thousand miles away, you can
better answer.
BURGOYNE — Do you doubt me in this ? Or do you
put in question my loyalty to you, whom so long I fol-
lowed with most willing steps ?
7 Carleton answered with passionate recrimination the reproaches
of Germain. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION, 1.39
CARLETON — I know not whom to doubt or question.
But I shall know in time. The guilty man shall answer
to me for this affront, even though he be a Minister of
the King.
BURGOYNE — I regret that thus you arraign Germain ;
for to him, as I perceive, you point.8
CARLETON — He has censured me ; and, after, deprived
me of command as one unfit to lead. That command is
now yours. May you have honor in keeping it !
BURGOYNE — And the honor in keeping it, no whit
outweigh the honor in obtaining it ! And both be as
two rills that, flowing through the land, are each unto
the other a counterpart in clear and sparkling volume.
CARLETON — You sing in a lofty strain. You were
with the King and his advisers when 1 fell from the
grace of all. He who seeks a place which royalty may
give, it is better for him to bombard a prince's ears than
a battery of hostile guns.
BURGOYNE [grasping the hilt of his sword~\ — Gen.
Carleton, your words convey a meaning for which the
speaker should feel resentment from this blade, did they
fall from other lips.
RIEDESEL [stepping between theni\ — When two com-
manders of such rank assail each other, both injure a
prop that upholds a throne.
BURGOYNE — Gen. Riedesel, if you are ready, we will
join the army and move at once upon our expedition.
The Avives and families of officers, who so desire, have
permission to attend our march, since no danger can
threaten them.0 [All retire.
8 See Note 7.
' Officers' wives attended their husbands, promising themselves an
agreeable trip. — Bancroft.
140 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SCENE VI. Encampment in the Valley of the Mohawk, near
Fort Stanwix. Time: August, 1777.
Enter GEN. BENEDICT ARNOLD and COL. STANDISH.
ARNOLD — We need go no further at such breathless
pace. Herkimer has paralyzed this arm of Burgoyne
without our aid. Fort Stanwix
has not yielded, but St. Leger
has, and is now in full retreat.
STANDISH — Glorious news !
From what source obtained ?
ARNOLD — A scout just in re-
' ports it. In ambuscade of sav-
age warriors at Oriskany, Herki-
mer was sorely pressed, till
Gansevoort sent relief from the
fort upon the report to him of
the approach and battle. This changed the conflict.
The Indians carried some scalps away, but left in death
many of their braves as recompense.
STANDISH — Schuyler will find in this great solace for
all his troubles, and they are many.
ARNOLD — The plan to strike the enemy and wound
him here was wise. Our march back to Albany will be
quickened from the news we carry.1
Enter a MESSENGER.
MESSENGER — I am sent to you, Gen. Arnold, to make
report.
ARNOLD — You may give it here. Who sends you ?
MESSENGER — Col. Gansevoort. After the fight at
1 Gen. Schuyler [now end of July, 1777, again in command of the
Northern army over Gales] had ordered Gen. Arnold [as suggested
by Washington], with a Massachusetts brigade, to go to the relief of
Fort Stanwix, defended by Col. Gansevoort against St. Leger. —
Stone's Burgoyne' s Exp. , etc.
In the battle of Oriskany, the savages fought with wild valor.
But thirty-three and more among them, the chief warriors of the
Senecas, lay dead beneath the trees. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 141
Oriskany, — where slaughter sought the Indian as if
death's favorite, — by savage scouts reports were carried
to St. Leger that you were approaching, many thou-
sand strong. Whether true or false, the end was that,
panic-stricken, these red-skinned allies of the English
swept from their General's hands all authority. They
turned in plunder upon the men they served, and many
a British soldier now mourns their contact. St. Leger,
infected with the fear, followed them in retreat. When
this flight began, you, with such force as you may lead,
were yet forty miles away. Tents, artillery, and stores
are left to us.a
ARNOLD — Then we have not marched in vain. Upon
my head be the guilt of the false rumor that did an
army's labor. While marching hither — this you may
report to Gansevoort — Hon-Yost was taken as a spy
and condemned, as such, to die. His mother, an Indian
witch or gypsy, begged his life, which I gave back on
condition that he carry the tale into St. Leger's camp,
now by you reported.3 For surety, his brother was held
as hostage. He has done his work. The brother gains
his freedom ; and the fortune-telling mother may now
resume her ghostly task of turning the mirror of the
future to the present eye. If Deception were a deity,
and did good like this, I'd worship her. Here we find
* Long before Arnold, with his relief expedition, approached, an
Indian ran into St. Leger's camp, reporting that a thousand men
were coming against them. Another, and still another, Indian
came, increasing the number to thousands. The wild warriors
turned to the robbery of British officers and made off. St. Leger,
in a panic, followed, though Arnold was yet forty miles away. —
Bancroft.
8 On the journey to Foit Stanwix, Arnold had captured a half-
witted fellow named Hon-Yost Schuyler, who had spent his life
among the Indians. He was condemned to die. His mother im-
plored Arnold to spare his life. The old woman was a gypsy in
character, and pleaded with eloquence and pathos. Arnold con-
sented that Hon-Yost should live on condition that Hon-Yost should
hasten to the camp of St. Leger and so alarm him that he would fly.
The mother offered herself as hostage, but his brother was accepted,
and Hon-Yost undertook the task. Hon-Yost did as agreed, and the
ruse succeeded. Hon-Yost then gave Gansevoort his first infor-
mation of the advance of Arnold. — Stone's Burgoync's Exp,, etc.
142 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
rich recompense for tiresome days of tramping through
trackless forests. And how fares gallant Herkimer ?
MESSENGER — Wounded, he refused to leave while the
fight was on. Supported by a tree, he ordered the battle
to the end. Though yet alive, his wound is mortal.4
ARNOLD — I wish that part had been left untold ; for it
is a heavy cloud upon a radiant sky. To him, in such a
death, is all the gain, and the loss is ours. Most favored
of mortals, he, to strike, and, striking, win the first
blow in this last campaign of tyranny. Wounded aixl
dying, he would not leave the fight while yet life's cur-
rent run — it was thus you made report— and that stop-
ping, he mounts to bivouac eternal. Immortal sacrifice !
In years to come, little children upon their sire's knee
will be told this tale, and, wondering, lisp " Brave
Herkimer ! " Gray-
beards tottering un-
der the load of
years, when they re-
peat the story o'er
and o'er a thousand
times, with rekind-
ling eye will add
1 -^F~* at close, to round
their eulogy:
" Grand Old Her-
kimer ! " Beware,
Burgoyne ! Trem-
ble at the name of
Herkkner ! He yet fights on, for deathless is his exam-
ple. This August heat glows with good news. Then
let it rage and burn its blessings upon our submissive
heads !
MESSENGER — In this battle was raised over the fort
the banner of the Republic, last June adopted. Thir-
4 Herkimer [in the battle of Oriskany of August 6, 1777] fell,
wounded below the knee ; but he remained on the ground giving
orders to the end. He was placed against the trunk of a tree for
support, and thus continued the battle. — Stone's Burgoyne 's Exp., etc.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 143
teen stripes of red and white, and thirteen stars upon a
ground of blue.5
STANDISH — Why, this is the baptism of our flag.
Emblem of free men, thus saluted, its destiny be the
engirdled globe !
ARNOLD — To our troops, the command — on, on to
grasp the hand of honest Gansevoort — and then right
about and back to Albany ; there to finish with the
invader, so badly crippled here. \All retire.
SCENE VII. Camp of GEN. BURGOYNE on the Hudson
at Fort Edward. Time: August, 1777.
Enter GEN. BURGOYNE, COL. BAUM, andCo-L. BREYMAN.
BURGOYNE — Thus far we have advanced into the heart
of opposition without a pause. As once before, Crown
Point has fallen, but this time has been held. Fraser
and Riedesel, refusing to sit in idleness when other
trophies there were to win, moved on and captured
Ticonderoga, with stores and prisoners.1 This without
a gun to speak for its surrender. My proclamation that
this army would not retreat, time and our march defend ! *
COL. BAUM — But at great labor, General. We have
been an army of axmen, hewing our roads through for-
ests which even the savage could not enter. Our soldiers
are much worn, having much endured.
BURGOYNE — Rest will ease the pains of their tedious
labors, which have given muscle as well as patience.
6 The captured colors [taken from the British in a sortie from Fort
Stanwix] were displayed on the fort under the Continental flag
[adopted by Congress in June previous], the first time a captured
banner had floated under the Stars and Stripes. — Bancroft.
'On the soth of June, 1777, the army [British] occupied Crown
Point. Gen. Fraser pushed forward to Ticonderoga. On July i
Gen. Riedesel followed. Ticonderoga surrendered without a gun. —
Stone's Burgoyne's Exp., etc.
4 In the evening [June 30, at Crown Point] Burgoyne issued his
proclamation : " This army embarks to-morrow to approach the
enemy. This army must not retreat." — Stone's Burgoyne s Exp., etc,
144 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
August is yet young, and in this month we will prepare
for the end we seek in the month that follows.
BREYMAN — My soldiers are pleading for more food.
Before us, as we have advanced, the land has been swept
and barren left, as if nothing thrived but trees.*
BURGOYNE. — At Bennington, near at hand, are maga-
zines which would feed our soldiers. Col. Baum, will
you take a detachment of your faithful Brunswickers
and bring home these needed stores ? A support of
savages will help you much, for this people dread the
tomahawk, from terrible experience. The red children
of our King have brought us many scalps, and Brant,
their leader, moves them as a demon, in ways of
slaughter.
COL. BAUM — I will march at once. A Brunswicker is
always ready to obey his prince ! And here you stand
with his authority.
BURGOYNE — This land you visit is rich in horses. Our
cavalry have suffered. If you will gather in about a
thousand, and bring them with you when you come
trooping back, we will hail you homeward with greater
obligations.4
COL. BAUM — Expect me back with this evidence of
loyalty to England's King ! \Exit COL. BAUM.
BREYMAN — I trust that Baum will return with well-
filled sacks, for the need is great. Supplies from Eng-
land, following our tramp, is not assuring ; and it would
take time to gather them.
BURGOYNE — We have gone too far, been too success-
ful, for apprehension now.
BREYMAN — I will give promise to my soldiers of relief,
as I have such from you. \Exit BREYMAN.
1 Schuyler, in falling back from Ticonderoga, had devastated the
country.
4 To aid St. Leger by a diversion, and fill his camp and gain horses,
ca' tie, and provisions from the magazines at Bennington, Burgoyne,
on the nth of August, sent an expedition there under Col. Baum. —
Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
145
BURGOYNE — I have left open no road for retreat ; so
we must go forward. It is not supplies that give me
anxiety. Where is St. Leger ? This is the grave
question. Can he have failed ?
With his well-armed veterans
against this mob ; I'll not believe
it! And Howe cannot, or he will
not, respond ! Like Carleton, is
he, too, nursing his hate at the
rise of a younger soldier?' If
this be true, so much greener will
be the bays I wear, gained without
their aid ! Burgoyne, your star
is rising to mid-heaven. When in the zenith there it
shall remain ! [Retires.
SCENE VIII. Camp of GEN. STARK, near Bennington^ Vt.
Time: August 16, 1777.
Enter GEN. STARK, with soldiers.
STARK — Bennington is saved ! On front and right
we have given our leaden salutations to these hirelings !
They do not like our hospitality, and would fly from it
if they could. Their savage allies have left them to
fate and fled to refuge ! Their cannon cease to belch
in thunder, as our marksmen have picked from them
the cannoneers ! Baum, the commander, is dead, and
his fate be that of all ! l
Enter an AID in great haste.
AID \to GEN. STARK] — Heavy re-enforcements have
6 Burgoyne had asked Carleton to garrison Ticonderoga for him.
Carleton refused, and left Burgoyne to drain the life-blood of his
army for the garrison. — Bancroft.
1 On August 1 6 Stark concerted with his officers the plan of the day.
At three o'clock in the afternoon Baum [at Bennington] was assailed
in front and right. New England sharpshooters picked off the can-
noneers and the Indians fled. Baum fell mortally wounded. — Ban-
croft.
146 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
just arrived, and I learn that Col. Br^yman leads them.
They are worn with a rapid march.
STARK — Carry word to Warner to bring his regiment
into action. [Am retires.
Now is the hour to send these new arrivals up to
heaven, while the fatigues of this world are on them ;
and so give them in the next much needed rest !
Soldiers, there come the enemy ! Every man look well
to his priming, and see to it that not a bullet fails !
To-day we conquer, or this night Molly Stark shall sleep
a widow ! Charge!1
[All rush off the stage upon the enemy.
[A group of savage warriors, plumed and armed,
and shouting the war-whoop, fly panic-stricken
across the stage. These are followed by a
company of English soldiers, also in flight.
Re-enter GEN. STARK.
STARK — The cowards fly, and like stricken deer make
for a place of safety ! The artillery, the field, and a
thousand prisoners re-
main ! Accursed min-
ions of a tyrant King,
this is your welcome
upon freemen's soil !
Re-enter soldiers.
Men of New Eng-
land, gathered to re-
pel invasion, you have
made this spot forever
to be honored by your
valor! Burgoyne must
stagger, here hit with
a vital wound, and if he falls it is your hands that helped
to smite him down ! Upon the calendar be this August
1 Breyman came upto re-enforce Baum, with troops much fatigued.
Warner came up just now with a fresh regiment, and with it Stark
began a new attack. The fight raged till sunset, when the British
fled in retreat. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OK THE REVOLUTION. 14?
day marked for a memorial of brave deeds, done for the
liberty of man ! Carry its report wherever winds may
blow, that this much we do for Washington and Inde-
pendence ! \Cheers\. And now home again to our
neglected fields. March ! \All retire.
SCENE IX. Room in house of GEN. PHILIP SCHUYLER, at
Albany. Time: August 19, 1777.
Enter GEN. PHILIP SCHUYLER.
SCHUYLER — In the crowning hour of my success
Congress again supplants me in command. From May
till August I have planned to conquer the common
enemy, and all this while Gates has planned to conquer
me. Each of us has been successful. On this igth
day of August I yield to him this army. Shall I now
feel wounded because my rival wins ? Perish the
thought, worthy of basest mortals ! By greater support
to him, in loyalty to our cause — thus overtopping all
personal resentments — I win greater laurels than the
sword can gain ! Oriskany and Bennington both remain
as loud-tongued champions of my rule, this day ended,
and so they must remain forever. I bow to the au-
thority of the state, as expressed in Congress, without a
murmur ! '
Enter GEN. HORATIO GATES.
Gen. Gates, I welcome you with all my heart to what
was my headquarters of the Northern Continental Army
— now yours, if you will choose it !
'On the ^.th of August, 1777, Congress appointed Gates again to
supersede Schuyler in the Northern Army. But before Gates as-
sumed command Fort Stanwix was safe and the victory of Benning-
ton achieved. Gates did not assume command till August 19.
Schuyler proffered his services to the General by whom he was
superseded, and heartily wished him success. Congress ordered
Washington to send to Gates Morgan's corps of riflemen [besides the
other troops theretofore sent], and Washington promptly obeyed. —
Bancroft.
148 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
GATES — Your kindness, Gen. Schuyler, is no more
than I might anticipate ; knowing, as all do, your fidelity
to the Republic, to the check of all other feelings!
SCHUYLER — To-day, and now, I formally withdraw
from the command. And as my successor, I tender to
you all aid and obedience in our common purpose to
defeat the invaders of our country.
GATES — I thank you ; and will draw heavily upon that
nobility of character which never yet has failed.
SCHUYLER — I am ready to explain my plan for resist-
ing Burgoyne when he offers battle, as soon he must.
These you will follow or change,
as your better judgment may
direct. From the day he left
Canada I have had the land
before him swept, as if the
great Sahara had here a sister
in desolation. He must starve or
fight ; and fighting, he must fall.
GATES — To-morrow we will
confer together upon this mat-
ter. I shall be fortunate if these
plans for the future be as effective as those against St.
Leger and Gen. Baum. And still more fortunate, if I
may execute them.
SCHUYLER — To-morrow I shall be at your service,
Gen. Gates. [All retire.
SCENE X. Camp of GEN. WASHINGTON at ChadcTs Fora
on the Brandy wine. Time : September 1 1, 1777.
Enter GEN. SULLIVAN, GEN. GREENE, and MARQUIS DE
LAFAYETTE.
SULLIVAN — What day is this ? and what name does
this place carry ?
LAFAYETTE — The nth of September. This spot is
called Chadd's Ferry on the Brandywine.
GREENE— On the 26th of August Howe reached
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 149
the Elk with his eyes upon Philadelphia. The hawk is
fluttering above his prey.
LAFAYETTE — I deem it a gift of some good angel that
I may help to check his march. And I am not the only
foreigner to this soil, who to-day thus rejoices. Casimir
Pulaski will draw his sword, and, like all Poles without
a country, he will win a country here or gain a grave.1
SULLIVAN — Howe comes on with twenty thousand ;
and we oppose with but half that number.
LAFAYETTE — And yet we should win the day, finding
safety in the justice of our quarrel. In July last Col.
Barton carried to captivity Gen. Prescott from the very
front of his command. Numbers opposed checked him
not. It was a desperate act, born of desperate courage.
Such honor brave men envy."
SULLIVAN — If we had the troops which would be here
but for timid tongues clamoring at the North, no fear
need shake us. Morgan and his riflemen have been sent
to Gates. Schuyler plead in vain.3
GREENE — Schuyler's fall was illumined by Oriskany
and Bennington. So a departing day, with gorgeous
tinting, flashes in the rays of a brilliant sun.
SULLIVAN — His loss of Ticonderoga, and his desper-
ate cries for help in terror of Burgoyne, unhorsed him.
Congress sought a firmer hand. But since, Gates calls
with as loud a voice, and Washington replies at his own
cost of veteran soldiers. With raw militia, whose train-
ing has been upon some village green, in the vanity of
their belief focusing the eyes of all the world upon their
strut and showy uniforms, must we drive home these
veterans of a hundred conflicts.
1 The battle of Brandy wine was the first battle in which Lafayette
drew his sword in the American cause. Count Pulaski, a Polish
nobleman, was also in this battle. — Frost.
* Gen. Prescott, commander of the British forces in Rhode Island,
had his quarters at a farmhouse a mile from his troops. On the
night of the loth of July, 1777, Col. Barton, with a few volunteers,
captured him and hurried him away a prisoner. — Bancroft.
8 See Note I, Scene 9.
15° WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
Enter WASHINGTON.
WASHINGTON — Here, directly in the path of Gen.
Howe, will we make our stand. Here fling out our
banners and be shield to Philadelphia. We contest his
privilege to cross this river flowing at our front. The
rapids below Chadd's Ford help us on the left, which we
intrust to the militia. The forests along the Brandy-
wine join with the current to protect in that direction.
On the right will come the struggle which makes or mars
this day, and, Gen. Sullivan, I intrust this point to you.4
SULLIVAN — I shall make effort to deserve the confi-
dence so reposed.
WASHINGTQN — From information, to me reliable, Gen.
Howe, attended by Cornwallis, marched this morning
with more than half his power up the valley, intending
to cross the Brandywine to our side ; and then moving
down, to strike the right wing of our line. Since we are
owners in this land, and he a visitor, we will play the
generous host and anticipate his visit. Across this
stream, and in front of us, encamp the battalions he has
left behind. Here he is vulnerable, and at this spot may
be wounded mortally, if no move fails in this bloody
game. Go, Sullivan, and at a point above cross the
Brandywine to the shore of Howe, before he visits us,
and take your place between him and those whom he has
left. And then see to it with all your strength, that he
may not return to aid his mewing kittens while we, with
tigers' claws, are tearing them. He will surely strive to
retrace his march when he hears of your position. You
have force enough to hold him back, and that done
means his present overthrow.'
4 On the 8th of September Howe sent a strong column in front of
the Americans to feign an attack. On the morrow he intended to
turn Washington's right. Washington had divined his purpose, and
took a position above Chadd's Ford [in the Brandywine], on the north
side of the Brandywine, directly in Howe's path. — Bancroft.
6 Washington had certain information of the movement of Howe,
and resolved to strike at once at the division in front. Sending Sul-
livan to cross the Brandywine at a higher ford, and to prevent the
hasty return of Howe, and to threaten Knyphausen (who was left in
front of Washington), the movement began. The Brandywine (on
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SULLIVAN — This shall be done. [Exit SULLIVAN.
WASHINGTON — Greene, put your troops in motion and
assail in front. The river here is shallow. You have an
easy conquest, for these
Hessians whom you meet
are much encumbered, and
surprise may give birth to
panic. In straits of dan-
ger the unexpected sick-
ens judgment, and leaves
it smitten with overcrowd-
ing doubts, each point-
ing a threatening spear.
This indecision is the
javelin which we now
invoke.
GREENE — Knyphausen commands these Hessians
opposite. I hope I may induce him to come home
with me.' [Exit GREENE.
WASHINGTON — Lafayette, will you join Pulaski, now
in his tent, and both report for service to Gen. Sterling,
who is on the right. There may be work to test your
metal before the sun goes down.
[Exit LAFAYETTE.
If we gain this day, and I see no sign otherwise, then
shall we send greetings to the North worthy of those
received. Herkimer and Stark have there clipped either
hostile wing, and against his retreat — if this hawk flies
that way — the wide-extended cage is firmly closed. So at
last this high-soaring pinion falls into the fowler's net,
that is spread in front and rear. Burgoyne marches to
defeat, else argument mocks at its just conclusions. He
comes in pomp to hear the linnet sing, and he shall stay
to hear the lion roar.
the left) below Chadd's Ford was a rapid, and the militia was placed
there. Sullivan, who was sent up the river on the right, where he
was to cross, was hidden by a thick wood along the river. Greene
was ordered to make the attack in front, and was at the water's edge
about to begin. — Bancroft.
« See Note 5.
IS* WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
Enter AID, in great haste.
WASHINGTON — In your face I read bad news. What
has gone wrong ?
AID — I hope all goes well, your Excellency. At least,
I come not to croak disaster. I am from Gen. Sullivan
to say that he has disobeyed your orders, as he finds no
proof of the march of Howe, as you have been in-
formed.7
WASHINGTON — Oh ! The most dismal news that
courier could bring. Orders disobeyed, and in that act
ruin threatened. The sky so full of promise, without a
note of warning, now suddenly hurtles its bolts of danger.
And all because some subordinate assumes to revise his
chief and to disobey his orders. Quick, to Gen. Greene,
now at the river bank in front, and say he must not ad-
vance, but report at once to me. Quick — speed is life,
and death may be in tardy steps." \Exit AID.
What cruel demon has come to check us here, wreck-
ing highest expectations ?
Enter AID in haste.
Out with it ! What new thrust comes again to wound ?
AID — Gen. Stevens sends me to say that Cornwallis
has crossed the Brandywine and in great force, upon
this shore, is moving to turn our right.
WASHINGTON — As I expected. To Sullivan at once !
Ride as horse never before was driven, and direct him,
from me, to form at once across this advance, and to
check it. To check it, if strong hearts can do so.'
[Exit AID.
Oh, Sullivan ! Sullivan ! The air infected is, and
1 Just as Greene was to begin the attack a messenger came from
Sullivan, announcing that he had disobeyed his orders ; as the " in-
formation [to Washington] on which these orders were founded must
be wrong." — Bancroft.
8 Washington's information was correct ; but Sullivan's failure
upset all the plans. Greene was at once recalled. — Bancroft.
9 After two hours word was brought that Cornwallis and Howe
had passed the forks on the right [as they planned], and were then
marching [on the north side of the river] against Washington's right.
Sullivan was ordered to confront this advance. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 153
disease breathed upon a healthy brain, when a man
so good does a wrong so great ! Had you obeyed your
orders and crossed to the other shore, Cornwallis had
not been free to come to this. He must then have
turned to assist divisions which your guns cut off.
Enter AID, in haste.
And still a running current of choking seas. It must
be breasted with head above the waves, or all is lost.
Speak ! I am prepared to hear.
AID — On the right, Gen. Sullivan with Generals
Stevens and Sterling, with the main body of the British
are heavily engaged. Gen. Howe has joined Cornwallis.
With heavier weight opposed, our lines waver and may
give way. Lafayette is wounded.
WASHINGTON — If that noble youth is wounded, then
so am I, for I am drawn to him. See to it that the best
of surgeons here plies his skill. [Exit AID.
Howe, under cover of this attack, will move to our
rear. This must not happen while a soldier is left in
arms.
Enter GEN. GREENE.
[To GREENE] — Fly, General, to the support of Sulli-
van, now engaged with Howe and Cornwallis. With
154 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
all your force, and Heaven give to each arm a giant's
strength ! The night comes too slowly on. Its darkness
is worth ten thousand men. Stop ! This is a trying
moment, when all is put to hazard. My army is in peril ;
to save it, I risk myself. Greene, I go with you, and
in person will lead your soldiers. And now away, to
change the fortunes of misfortune's day.10 [All retire.
SCENE XI. Street in Philadelphia. Time: September
26. 1777.
Enter British troops with flags and beating drums. GEN.
CORNWALLIS and a CITIZEN. Troops halt.
CORNWALLIS — And thus we victoriously enter the
City of Independence. Where now are these boasters of
human rights, these pullers down of kings ? I am told
that they have fled. Sir, tell me whither have they
gone ?
CITIZEN — If you refer to the American Congress, it
has adjourned to Lancaster. Alarmed by the report of
your success at Brandywine, it moved away.1
CORNWALLIS — Our success there was not so great as
our plan provided. We expected to bring the Conti-
nental army into this town as prisoners — to follow our
cohorts as captives in a Caesarian triumph. All was
favorable at Brandywine, until Washington came upon
the field, and then we advanced no further. Our pur-
suit was checked, and we were glad to hold what we had
when the sun went down. We did no more. On the
morning Washington was gone. So stood affairs, till
10 Generals Sterling and Stevens were hotly pressed by Howe and
Cornwallis. Lafayette was wounded. But at the sound of the can-
non on the right, Washington, taking Greene with him, moved swiftly
to the support of Sullivan and met him in full retreat. Washington's
approach checked the pursuit. Darkness ended the contest. — Ban-
croft.
'On the 1 8th of September Alexander Hamilton, at Philadelphia,
gave Congress notice of immediate danger, and its members fled in
the night to Lancaster. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 15$
the 2ist, when our road was barred by Wayne — I learned
his name from a deserter — but he had the prudence to
retire ; and five days later,
being granted an open way,
good, loyal souls now find us
here.*
CITIZEN — And all good
citizens who still love the
King — and I am one — feel
safer for your coming.
CORNWALLIS — Here we
settle down to test your hos-
pitality, till another winter
howls its frosts away. Great
has been the task of get-
ting to this end, and great
will be the joy of the rest it
brings. We receive it with
more zest for the labor it
has cost, as that fruit tastes
sweetest whi&h hung upon
the farthest limb. And now
to quarters ! [ To the soldiers^
Forward ! March !
[ The drums again beat, and soldiers march on, while
the curtain falls.
2 On the 26th of September, Cornwallis with the grenadiers entered
Philadelphia ; but it was too late to aid Burgoyne. — Bancroft.
END OF ACT IV.
ACT V.
SCENE I. A clearing upon Bemis Heights. Time : morn-
ing, September 15, 1777.
GEN. BENEDICT ARNOLD, with a glass, surveying the dis-
tance.
ARNOLD — Yonder smoke proclaims the enemy. But
in what force ? That is the question. Were I com-
mander here, I would quickly know and, knowing, act.
With stupidity at the head, stolid ignorance settles upon
our army. Here on Bemis Heights good Kosciusko
lays our camp, and in the impregnability of battlements
by this Pole erected lie our hopes. I came to serve with
Schuyler, and find Gates instead, wearing Schuyler's
plumes. Congress orders thus, and in its united wisdom
Congress can do no wrong. So runs the new catechism
which our arms defend. Congress maybe right, and yet
I hold to doubts, when it demands that the wreath which
we are here to win shall settle upon this man's head.1
1 Burgoyne crossed the Hudson at Schuylerville on September 13,
1777, and encamped about six miles from the American camp.
Neither army at this time [September 15] knew of the condition or
strength of the other. Gates encamped on Bemis Heights September
12 with a force of nine thousand men. Intrenchments were then and
there made by Kosciusko, the Pole who had consented to serve the
American cause. When Arnold was sent North by Washington,
Schuyler was in command. It was under Schuyler, as commander of
the Northern Army, that Arnold went to Fort Stanwix. Schuyler
now [since August 4 by appointment, and August 19 by actual
assumption of office] again superseded by Gates, Arnold suddenly
found himself in service under Gates, whom he did not like. The
New England people, however, hated Schuyler, or rather withdrew
from him their confidence, partly because of the retreats daily made
before the advance of Burgoyne from Canada. Col. Brown, with
New England troops, under direction of Gen. Lincoln, had now
attacked Burgoyne in the rear. Ticonderoga was assailed by Col.
Brown, and many prisoners taken, with stores. This was all by
arrangement and plan of Washington, as Notes will show, further on.
156
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 157
Enter a file of soldiers, dragging MOTHER YOST, an
Indian ivitch, bound, her head covered, and holding a
crooked staff.
ARNOLD — Men, if such you are, release this creature !
Cut these cords, and give back her freedom ! [Cords are
cut] What brutes are
you, that, a dozen strong,
you thus bind a helpless
woman, whose close com-
panions, as her frame and
rags exhibit, are gaunt
hunger and pinching pov-
erty ?
SOLDIER — She is a
witch, an Indian witch.
ARNOLD — An Indian
witch ? What mean you
by this ?
SOLDIER — She prowls
around the camp, and
tells fortunes. She has
been seen before. And
we believe her dangerous.
Some say she is a spy. We seized her to bring before you
for judgment, and she resisted. And so we bound her.
MOTHER YOST [suddenly removing the covering of her
head] — You know me, General ?
ARNOLD — Unsightly hag ! Yes, you are Mother
Yost.2
MOTHER YOST — We meet again. To you, all good
come ! To these cowardly pale-faces [to the soldiers],
cramps and pinching pains run through their bones for
touching the red daughter of the Great Spirit ! With an
Indian's curse I blight you ! and the red man make your
faces like the snow in terror of what he may do !
s See Note 3, Act. IV. Scene 6. Mother Yost, the mother of
Hon-Yost, who acted for Arnold to frighten St. Leger from Fort
Stanwix, for which service Arnold pardoned Hon-Yost from death as
a spy. — Stone's Burgnyne's Campaign, etc.
IS8 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
ARNOLD — That is enough, Mother Yost. Keep your
curses for a better time. \To the soldiers.] Retire, all
of you, and leave this prisoner with me. \Exit soldiers.]
Mother Yost, I have hitherto done you some service ?
MOTHER YOST — And I have been of service to you,
Gen. Arnold.3 The pale-face at times wants the aid of
the red child of the forest.
ARNOLD — I freely admit obligations. Your son, Hon-
Yost, faithfully carried my false rumor to St. Leger, and
scattered his forces as the angry winds scatter the
leaves.
MOTHER YOST — Manitou heard him promise. An
Indian is never false to him who holds the sun and the
moon as his.
ARNOLD — But I gave to your son his life. The
brother would have hung as his hostage, if Hon had not
journeyed to Fort Stanwix, as he agreed to do.
MOTHER YOST — Yes, hung as a spy, as Lovelace was.
And the earth cover him where the tree grows ! * His
spirit now roams abroad, and talks with Mother Yost.
Yes, yes ! Talks with me. Great deeds are brewing.
A panther cried last night with the voice of a dog ;
Mother Yost understood.
•
ARNOLD — What brings you here ?
MOTHER YOST — I came from the valley where the
Mohawk flows and sings, to see you. A feather from a
flying crow fell at my feet. It was a message from the
Great Spirit that Gen. Arnold wanted me. I caYne over
hills and through forests that never saw the moon, and
my feet tired not. I am here.
ARNOLD — Weird and mysterious creature! my flesh
creeps in your presence. You have come in good
season, for I do want you.
1 Referring to what her son, Hon- Yost, had clone.
4 About the time of Burgoyne's campaign, Thomas Lovelace, a
malignant Tory, was condemned as a spy. Gen. Stark presided at
his court-martial. lie was hung upon an oak tree, and was buried in
a standing posture near the tree. — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION, 159
MOTHER YOST — I knew it ! I knew it ! The great
pines whispered and pointed the way as I came. What
deed would you have me do ?
ARNOLD — As I know, you have wit and judgment.
Find out for me where Burgoyne's army lies ; his
strength, and what he is about to do. Bring report to
me. Quickly do it, and have quick reward.
MOTHER YOST — And what reward will come to
Mother Yost ?
ARNOLD — Foul, audacious scum of an accursed race !
You shall live a little longer to starve and freeze ! Is
not this enough ? See, I will do more. I can trust you,
for I have done so. Here is money. [He drops, one by
one, several coins into her hands.]
MOTHER YOST — I do as you will have it. Mother
Yost serves him who serves her. This will bring com-
fort to Mother Yost. May she bring such to you !
ARNOLD — Now be off and at your work. When will
we meet next ?
MOTHER YOST — On Thursday, three days away ; on
Thursday you shall know all. But not here. Not here,
where these prying pale-faces may look into the red
daughter's heart and tie her hands again ! Not here,
not here !
ARNOLD — Then name your hour and place.
MOTHER YOST — In the Devil's Glen, at nine, on
Thursday night. Upon the river, about a mile away.
You know the spot.
ARNOLD — I know it well. Meet me there ; and fail
not, if you hope for mercy ! Go !
[Exit MOTHER YOST.
This crooked, uncanny specter, seemingly not of this
world, yet in it ; a dozen scouts were not her value in
gathering what we need to know. [Exit.
160 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SCENE II. A room in the Taylor House, within British
lines and near to the British camp, before the battle of
Saratoga,
Enter MADAM RIEDESEL and LADY ACKLAND.
MADAM RIEDESEL — Dear Lady Harriet, we have
much need to prop our fortitude for our husbands'
sakes ; and for the army, too, since we are its special
wards. Of all the women on the weary march we have
been most favored.
LADY ACKLAND — My heart resolves like a lion, yet
throbs like a deer ! To be out of this, worlds for
recompense to return again
would weigh as nothing !
MADAM RIEDESEL — How
mistaken all have been ! I
came from Germany, and, as
I supposed, since so the
heralds told us, upon a jour-
ney where the dance and
pleasure were to be sole
sources of fatigue.
LADY ACKLAND — And so
I, from England. We dance
and have danced again since
we left Quebec ; but how irregular the measure ! I de-
clare secretly to you, madam, I am frightened nearly
unto death.
MADAM RIEDESEL — These men will not avow it to us,
for we are women, but I can see we contend against a
bitter and courageous enemy.
LADY ACKLAND — And, as my husband has confessed
to me, who are fighting for rights as sacred and just as
is the right to live. This accursed thirst for power,
where might maintains it at the price of justice, I already
hate it !
MADAM RIEDESEL — Hush, woman. You are, at heart,
a traitor to your King ! The rebels use no stronger
argument !
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 161
LADY ACKLAND — Then it may find a place upon our
private records, for no other eye than yours, that half
the army of the King, in the lowest depths of con-
science, feel as I do, and bring into battle, when it is on,
a divided heart ! Such an army never conquers !
MADAM RIEDESEL — Beyond this, Frederick says that
we are badly led ; hesitate when we should go forward,
and push on when prudence leads to the camp ! St.
Leger has failed, and the defeat and death of Banm at
Bennington ! Oh, I can't reflect upon these dismal ends
of such high-sounding promises, and look with hope into
the days in front of us !
Enter GEN. BURGOYNE, GEN. FREDERICK RIEDESEL, and
COL. BREYMAN.
MADAM RIEDESEL and LADY ACKLAND {bowing} —
Good-morning, gentlemen.
BURGOYNE — And many returns to each of you of a
day so bright as this.
MADAM RIESEDEL — I hope, General, you are as stout
of heart as ever ; and regard our foe as so much game,
which good huntsmen bring home at last !
BURGOYNE — That we will gain the approaching battle
I have the faith with which I left Quebec. But the
work is not so easy that we set it down in the sports-
man's catalogue. We oppose a people terribly aroused
and of Spartan valor !
LADY ACKLAND — In short, you would say they are of
English origin ; and hence English grit is against Eng-
lish grit contending !
BREYMAN — Well said, Lady Ackland ! All around us
we have felt this truth ; a deeper impression, thus receiv-
ing it, than when imbibed from your occult reasoning.
Baum is dead ; St. Leger is driven back ; and we are in
want of food for our soldiers. I have seen more hopeful
days than these in war.1
'"Supplies [after battle of Bennington] are very scarce," wrote a
Brunswick officer. " This army is fed with bread made of flour sent
from England, and with meat salted there. And the difficulty in
getting food brought to the front is incalculable." — Von Eelking.
1 62 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
Enter an orderly, who speaks to MADAM RIEDESEL.
MADAM RIEDESEL — Let her come in. [Orderly retires.]
A poor Indian squaw, who has been here before, and
claims the right to visit, since her people serve our
cause.
Enter MOTHER YOST.
MOTHER YOST — The red child of the Great King
fears to come where so many pale-faces meet together.
It was to the pale squaw I came, so I will go back again.
BURGOYNE — No ; stay where you are. This good
lady [bowing to MADAM RIEDESEL] vouches for you,
and you need no better friend. What is your name,
and where have you lived ?
MOTHER YOST — I came from the Mohawk, and they
call me Mother Yost. My people follow Brant, the Big
Chief, and this name the white children give him. He
rises at the call of the Great King across the blue
waters." My son was condemned by the wicked pale-
faces, who give trouble to the Great King, to be hung as
a spy. He was not hung.3 When the moon was dark,
1 Brant was then in the service of Burgoyne.
•See Note 2, Scene I.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 163
and the faces of all the children of Manitou of one color,
he escaped.
BURGOYNE — You have suffered in our cause. What
know you now of these wicked pale-faces? How many
are in front of us. and where are they ?*
MOTHER YOST — I was sent by him who blows a breath
and the mountain shakes, to tell this where you would
hear it. Before you are not many. So many as the
leaves left upon a tree when the frosts have come ; and
they may be counted. Fear makes their knees shake,
as when the panther approaches in the open field. The
bird flies when the hunter shows himself. If you hasten,
you may trap the bird before he spreads his wings.
GEN. RIEDESEL — Heavens, Gen. Burgoyne ! this is
important information, and with my life I will indorse
its truthfulness ! Up to this moment we have been in
utter ignorance of the enemy. In these primeval forests
our scouts have not located a battalion.
BREYMAN — You say in front of us. How far away ?
MOTHER YOST — As far as the crow would fly while the
white man sits at meat.
MADAM RIEDESEL — This is the mode of speech of
these simple souls. I have given time to understand it.
It means, in one hour, while the white man dines, the
crow can fly the space.
LADY ACKLAND — And the crow will fly ten miles.
BURGOYNE — Then we have placed the foe ; at least ten
miles away ; few and full of fear ! Madam Riedesel, we
came to make a social call ; but to a council of war, with
you assisting, it suddenly is changed. We shall move
to-morrow on to Albany.
GEN. RIEDESEL — With pur force six thousand strong,
we must make a successful march.
BURGOYNE — Col. Breyman, will you please to attend
me in conference with Gen. Phillips, and with Fraser,
4 On the 1 5th of September Burgoyne gave the order to advance in
search of the enemy. That general had no knowledge of the position
of the Americans. — Stone's Burgoyne' s Campaign, etc.
164 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
too? For the present, Riedesel, we leave you here, and
say to all adieu. \Exit BURGOYNE and BREYMAN.
MADAM RIEDESEL — Frederick ! Frederick! this means
approaching battle, and now my fears come on again.
GEN. RIEDESEL — Be a soldier's wife, for such you have
ever been.
MOTHER YOST — The wives of the wicked pale-faces
have no fear. While I came on I saw one lighting with
fire her fields of maize.
See ! See there from this
window where the smoke
now rises ! "
LADY ACKLAND — It is
too true. Desperate sac-
rifice of devoted souls !
MADAM RIEDESEL —
Frederick ! with a wom-
an's instinct, I tell you
here and now, people who
can do these deeds cannot be conquered. Oh ! that we
were safely out of it !
MOTHER YOST — I have more to walk before the day
lies down to sleep. I go, I go. [Exit MOTHER YOST.
GEN. RIEDESEL — This simple savage has given aid
to-day far beyond what she can understand.
MADAM RIEDESEL — These savages are our burden,
however much they serve. We are responsible for their
bloody deeds. The face of Jane McCrea is before me
always8 — before me now, whichever way I turn — as one
confederate with those guilty of her murder. Do I not
consort with men who placed this hapless child where
the tomahawk, which let her gentle spirit forth, is our
approved instrument? Frederick, there is blood upon
my hands ! and, as if in hate besprinkled, it will not out,
6 It has been stated that Mrs. Schuyler, wife of Gen. Schuyler,
with her own hands fired her fields of wheat.
8 Jane McCrea had been murdered a few days before, by Indians,
to whom she was intrusted for escort to British lines.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 165
wash them as I may ! Now more slaughter ! heaping
wrong on wrong, and all the more so if our side prevails.
A cruel, unjust war ! I see it now. [ Weeps.]
GEN. RIEDESEL — You must not harbor thoughts so
dismal. I will lead you to your room. [All retire.
SCENE III. The Devil's Glen. A dark ravine of rocks
upon the Hudson. Terrific gale, with thunder and
flashes of lightning. Time: night, September 18, 1777.
Enter GEN. ARNOLD, slowly descending into the glen.
ARNOLD — This is the Devil's Glen ! and it well
deserves the name. Heavens ! Such peals of thunder !
Where is the devil I was to meet ? The time is up.
\A vivid flash, and MOTHER YOST is seen upon the brink
of the glen above, with outstretched arms, facing the galeJ\
What is that ? Ye gods ! that is a sight to appall a
man of stouter nerves than mine ! [Another flash, and
the same sight.~\ It is the savage witch ; facing this
tumult as if she ruled the storm ! J
[Amid continuous thunder and lightning, MOTHER
YOST descends into the glen, as ARNOLD had
done.
MOTHER YOST — I said I would come. I am here !
ARNOLD — Then out with your report ! Can I live to
hear it in this place, appalling to the imps of hell ?
MOTHER YOST — I saw the big chief of the great
King.
ARNOLD — You saw Burgoyne ?
1 Just north of Saratoga lived Angelina Tubs, a veritable witch.
Many are the wild and startling tales told of Angelina. Had she
been mistress of the whirlwind, she could not have more delighted
in storms. She has been seen, her form erect and arms extended,
standing upon the verge of fearful precipices, in the midst of awful
tempests, conversing, as it were, with unseen spirits ; her hair
streaming in the wind, while the thunder was riving the rocks, and
the red lightning encircling her as in a winding sheet of flame. —
Stone's Reminiscences of Saratoga.
1 66 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
MOTHER YOST-
heard them talk.
-Yes ; saw him and other chiefs, and
ARNOLD— What said they ? The truth, the truth only,
or this place shall seem like a summer dell with what I
bring you to. [Heaiy crash of thunder.
MOTHER YOST — The soldiers of the great King are
so many as six thousand, and no more. They have
begun the march on the
road to Albany. If they
meet you — Hark ! Do you
hear?
ARNOLD — I hear nothing
but the thunder.
MOTHER YOST — As I
came this way, a panther
crossed me. Next, a pack
of wolves howled at the
heels of Mother Yost. They
were close as I came down.
Listen! there ! \Vivid light-
ning] Did you not see
them ?
ARNOLD — Where ?
MOTHER YOST — There
upon the edge, where I came from.
ARNOLD — What ?
MOTHER YOST — The lean wolves, with white teeth ;
and tongues as red as berries.
ARNOLD — No ; I saw them not. Fearless consort of
fiends that sport with terrors damnable, say what you
have to say, and let me go ! {Lightning and thunder, and
ARNOLD crouches] Great Ajax would tremble at these
spiteful flashes.
MOTHER YOST — Ha, ha ! \Utters a fiendish laugh]
The panther and the wolves3 are now tearing each other.
1 The nights [after the battle of September 19] also were rendered
hideous by the howls of large packs of wolves that were attracted
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 167
I hear them. The red children of the forest have good
ears. If the soldiers of the great King meet you to-
morrow— I say to-morrow — the panthers and the wolves
will then, too, tear each other.
ARNOLD — I understand you. What did you tell
Burgoyne of us ? He questioned you ?
MOTHER YOST — I told him the wicked pale-faces were
few, like the leaves when the frost comes ; and these ten
miles away, and full of fear.
ARNOLD — Cunning you are ; and lied so wickedly,
because I paid you.
MOTHER YOST — If it does you good, it was no lie.
It was a thing used as needed to help you on. A gun
went off when you did not intend to shoot ; and yet it
killed the deer. The trees echoed a lie, since it was not
the truth that the owner willed it so ; but the meat to
the hungry was as sweet.
ARNOLD — Intelligent and faithful, you shall not fail of
friendship. You plan that Burgoyne shall be ambushed
and surprised. Your lie was for his undoing ; hence, a
mere instrument of war. True, though savage logic.
I will leave, you here, to follow when I am gone.
MOTHER YOST — One thing more.
ARNOLD — And what is that, gaunt witch ?
MOTHER YOST — I have here the eye of owl that
hooted while it was day ; the wing of crow that like a
robin sung ; the claw of a young bear that never tasted
prey. The Great Spirit is with Mother Yost when she
carries these. I would tell your fortune. [Thunder.
ARNOLD — Quick, then, before these loud thunders
deafen me. What want you ?
by the partially buried bodies of those slain in the action of the
igth. — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
Mr. Stafford [who became a resident of Saratoga in 1783] found
the wolves were not the only animals that were troublesome. When
he " camped out," he invariably kept a fire burning to guard against
panthers. — Stone's Reminiscences of Saratoga.
168 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
MOTHER YOST — To see your hand.
ARNOLD — How can you see it in such a night as this ?
MOTHER YOST — Stretch it forth, and the Great Eye
will hold his light to it.
ARNOLD [extending his hand~\ — Here it is, then.
I A vivid flash of lightning.
MOTHER YOST — I see, I
see ! I have seen all. Fear
nothing. When the Great
Spirit calls, Arnold from his
couch will go to meet him.
Be of great courage, then,
when death darts every-
where, for no harm comes to
him.
ARNOLD — I have no fear
of hurt. Since you would
tell my fortune, be thorough
with it. What of the future ?
That future which hides
rewards and honors from
ambitious men.
MOTHER YOST- — The sun
shall shine to-morrow upon
Arnold's head, and show great honors there. Before the
new moon grows old and is new again, Arnold shall be
linked with fame.
ARNOLD — A pleasing and fair-spoken witch, and a
good prediction ; much too good for birth in a spot so
damnable. But what of the future beyond the changing
moon ?
MOTHER YOST [shrinking bacli\ — Ask no more. Be
content with what you have. [Moves away in terror.]
ARNOLD — Why, now, your fear excites my wonder of
what you have to say. Tell me, before I force you so
to do.
MOTHER YOST — Arnold, beware of envy and the hate
that follows at its heels. In its grasp the strong man
shakes more than these hills when the thunder smites.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 169
See the lightning of the Great Spirit, and listen to his
voice. Beware, Arnold, beware, when Manitou makes
such a storm within ! The sun that shines to-day, to-
morrow will hide itself in clouds. No more, no more !
I go, I go !
[MOTHER YOST, in the glare of the lightning, files
up the glen.
ARNOLD — Stop, unmannered hag ! I was to go be-
fore. She is gone !. Has a blessing or a curse been left
behind ? \Crouches at a dap of thunder.} That storm
within ! I feel it now, comporting with this external.
I will not be made the stone by which others climb.
Prophetic witch, your oracle is easy. In proud revolt
shall Arnold some day rise ; though the sun shines or
black clouds bar the skies ! \Exit up the side of the glen.
SCENE IV. Headquarters 0/GEN. GATES on Bemis Heights.
Time : September 19, 1777.
Enter GEN. GATES, GEN. ARNOLD, and COL. STANDISH.
GATES — Having advanced our camp thus far toward
the approaching foe, here we fling our banners to the
breeze and throw the gauge of
battle. Bryan, the trusty scout,
brings word that, on the i5th,
Burgoyne crossed the Hudson,
and, in three columns advanc-
ing from the North, will strike
us to-day, unless we first
strike him. Strover, whose
faithful eye has seen every
movement, confirms what Bryan
gives. This is the i9th of
September : before the sun
from his mid-heaven throne surveys the teeming world,
blows may answer blows.1
1 Bryan was selected by Gates to act as a scout and to penetrate
within the enemy's lines. Alexander Biyan entered the British camp
at Fort Edward in August. Obtaining his information that there
17° WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
ARNOLD — I can seal with confidence the story of your
scouts, vouching its truth. How informed, is not im-
portant. Fiery action is the present cue.
GATES — Gen. Arnold, you will command the left wing
of our force and lead it into battle, if it opens.'
ARNOLD — The enemy is deceived or ignorant as to
our strength or place. So I believe. We should begin
the assault, before he awakens from his ignorance or
feels the supporting arm of Clinton. Putnam, as the
eye of Washington, still guards the Hudson, shutting its
watery gates against re-enforcements there. Now is the
hou r of advantage. [A gun is heard in the distance.
GATES — Ah ! That gun ! That gun is the Briton's
signal, and, Arnold, your advice prevails. Col. Stand-
ish, will you order Morgan to answer it with his rifles ?
So we begin the ball.1 [Exit COL. STANDISH.
ARNOLD — I will also seek the field. This is a day for
heads to fall, and if ours, then a glorious exit gained.4
[Exit ARNOLD.
GATES [goes to a table, unrolls and consults a map. The
firing of guns heard in the distance] — This is the chart of
my growing fortunes. Here is the game of chess, with
each piece fixed upon its proper square ; and, if moved
with skill, no check can come to us. [The firing draws
was to be an immediate advance, he started from the British camp for
home on the morning of September 15 [the day Arnold was on the
lookout at Bemis Heights, Scene I.]. He arrived at the headquarters
of Gates on the night of September 16. His information led to tlie
preparation to meet Burgoyne on September 19. John Strover also
acted as scout to assist Bryan. — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
8 By four o'clock [on September 19] the action had become general,
and Arnold, with nine Continental regiments and Morgan's corps,
completely engaged the whole force of Burgoyne and Fraser. — Stone's
Burgoyne' s Campaign, etc.
Between three and four in the afternoon [September 19] Gen.
Arnold, with nine regiments and Morgan's riflemen, was closely
engaged with the whole right wing of the British army. — frost.
1 In concurrence with the advice of Arnold, Gates ordered out
Morgan's riflemen, who began the attack. The place contended for
was Freeman's farm. — Bancroft.
4 See Note 2.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 17*
nearer.] By the valor of those who serve do I rise or
fall. [Still nearer are heard the guns] The loud-mouthed
voice of battle comes this way ! [Listens in alarm] Is
this repulse or stratagem ? [Again consults the map] We
have the vantage of position, and, besides, Morgan and
his riflemen are ever a wall of consuming fire. [Listens,
still in alarm, to the roar of guns] The fear that now knocks
so suddenly at my heart may not, shall not, come in,
since I am so hedged around with men of lion courage.
[Examines the map again] Our forces, set with tact, are
well in hand ; so advantage must wait on action. This
impatience for report shrivels the most hopeful argu-
ment. Here comes a courier.
Enter hurriedly CAPT., now COL., GEORGE ALDEN.
COL. ALDEN — Morgan, upon your order, sprung to
action as springs the lioness when its prey comes within
its eye. He found Breyman at Free-
man's farm ; and after such welcome
to him as a soldier gives when human
lives are the pawns to win, he has fal-
len back, and bids me report all this
to you. In three lines, the British are
advancing.
GATES— Order Scammell and Cilley,
with New Hampshire's battalions,
quickly to Morgan's aid.*
[Exit COL. ALDEN.]
How soon the pot begins to boil
when martial fires force it ! From yonder point I will
observe the game. [Exit.
6 Morgan fell back before the division of Burgoyne. To support
him, Gates ordered out New Hampshire battalions under Col. Scam-
mel and Col. Cilley. —Bancroft.
I?2 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
SCENE V. The field within the lines of GEN. BURGOYNE.
Freeman's Farm.
Enter GEN. BURGOYNE and GEN. ERASER, with soldiers.
BURGOYNE — We encountered opposition before it was
expected. The old witch betrayed or ignorantly misled
us. Sorely pressed as we have been, you came up none
too soon.
FRASER — Hearing your guns, not yielding the heights,
I moved from the right to your support. I fear we are
outnumbered.1
BURGOYNE — Phillips is on with his artillery ; but in
these woods it is an encumbrance. From report of
prisoners, Arnold leads the line opposed."
Enter an AID in haste.
AID — Lieut. Hervey is down and our cannon are cap-
tured. Five times to-day have they changed hands.
BURGOYNE — Then one change more, and they come
bacjc again. General Fraser! to the rescue with all your
force, and may that suffice to redeem the day.
FRASER — Whatever strong arms can do shall now be
done. [Exit GEN. FRASER.
AID — Gen. Burgoyne, through yonder trees I see hos-
tile uniforms this way steadily advancing, though our
troops make effort to impede their progress.
BURGOYNE — All fall back to station more secure.
[All retire.
Enter GEN. ARNOLD, COL. STANDISH, and COL. ALDEN,
and soldiers.
ARNOLD — Who was that general officer just now re-
tired from this spot ?
ALDEN — I have seen him once before to-day, while
1 Fraser, on the right, wheeled his troops, and coming to Burgoyne's
relief, forced Morgan to give way. — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign,
etc.
* The ground being covered with woods, embarrassed the British
in the use of their artillery. [See Scene IV., Note 2.] — Stone's Bur-
goyne's Campaign, etc.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 173
pressing on with Courtlandt and Livingston at the head
of New York soldiers.8 Cook with his men was on his
flank, and we thought him captured. He rode with
desperate but, we thought, despairing courage in the
face of our leaden storm.
ARNOLD \with great vehemence\ — But who is he, I
say?
ALDEN — All said that he was Gen. Burgoyne.
ARNOLD — As I supposed, and we have lost him. Were
I not leading in the fight to-day, I'd follow him, though
the way between us were
strewn with teeth of the
fabled dragon. I tire with
pursuit of smaller game.
STANDISH — No need for
such rash risk to a com-
mander who supplies the
puissance of a thousand
men in the terror of his
name. Burgoyne is at the muzzles of our rifles and
cannot escape.
ARNOLD — This day has tried the metal of both sides.
Face to face, and man to man, muscle and stout hearts
gain the prize.4 My arm yet thrills for one more bout
before the sun goes down. Again into the whirl.
[All retire.
Enter GEN. RIEDESEL and BREYMAN, with soldiers.
RIEDESEL — These men overmatch us with their rifles.
A man falls at every fire. We have not such soldiers.
BREYMAN — For this clearing called Freeman's Farm,
both sides have this day struggled.5 We hold it now,
* At four Gates ordered out the New York regiment of Courtlandt,
following them in half an hour by that of Henry Livingston. —
— Bancroft.
4 The battle was one of courage, not of maneuver ; man fought
against man ; regiment against regiment. — Bancroft.
6 The forces contended for Freeman's farm, which was now held
by one, and now by the other of the two armies. — Von Eelking.
174 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
and the sun is nearly run. It will surely set with victory
for us.
RIEDESEL — And our relief secures it. Coming on,
the very air proclaimed our utter rout.' But before our
v*
bayonets the enemy has fallen back, and the day is too
far gone for him to renew the struggle. Again we have
saved this Briton, as we did at Hubbardstown.
BREVMAN— And for to-morrow as well ; we could have
clinched this victory, if Burgoyne had permitted us to
pursue while our bayonets were in that humor.
RIEDESEL — It was a mistake to call us away. But we
only serve, and hence we obey.7 \All retire.
' Before the sun went down Burgoyne was in danger of a rout ; the
troops about him wavered, when Riedesel came to his aid. — Ban-
croft.
1 The Germans thus, for the second time [before at Hubbards-
town], saved the English, and followed up their pursuit of the
Americans, until Burgoyne ordered them to stop — much to the dis-
content of the Germans. — Von Eelking.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 175
SCENE VI. Same as Act V. Scene 4. Headquarters of
GEN. GATES on Bemis Heights,
X. GATES, ARNOLD, STANDISH, and soldiers.
GATES — The result of yesterday was our victory.
ARNOLD — Burgoyne holds the field ; but since we did
not contend for that we have not lost it. To check him
in his march being our purpose, this was done. And so
far it was our triumph.
STANDISH — Burgoyne is badly crippled. Six hundred
men passed from his command to the world of shadows.
He was in no position to lose so many.
ARNOLD — While he is in this plight, finish him. Gen.
Gates, yesterday I advised that the fight begin. To-day
I advise its continuance with swiftest action.
GATES — When would you renew it ?
ARNOLD — Now ; this hour. Burgoyne is outside of
intrenchments and demoralized. We are here to fight,
and not to loll the hours away in rest ! With your con-
sent, I will once more head our lines and end invasion
here ! '
GATES — I cannot consent to this. Our troops are
tired.
ARNOLD — Our troops are not tired ! Sir, brave men
never tire while great deeds remain undone ! You may
be tired ; but those who yesterday faced English bullets
are not !
GATES — Gen. Arnold, this language is grossly wrong.
ARNOLD — It is not wrong. It becomes right — yes,
the right and proper speech — when from the man who
wins the battle to him who would basely lose it !
GATES — I will not suffer this from you nor any man !
ARNOLD — Nor will I longer suffer you ! The enemy
invites you to pick from the ground his bruised and
bleeding form, and you refuse ! When he grows strong
1 An attack upon the remains of Burgoyne's division, while it was
still disconnected and without intrenchment, was urged by Arnold. —
Bancroft.
1 76 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
again, and looks forth behind high battlements, perhaps
you will be ready then to urge the further sacrifice of
heroic men ! Scheming servitor for honors filched from
Schuyler's brow, I serve with you no longer !"
GATES — But for the impropriety of the act — my place
constraining — I should demand a soldier's satisfaction
for this gross insult !
ARNOLD — The day is not yet born, nor will it ever
have its place in time, when Gates calls Arnold to a
combat ! I want release from every duty here. I go to
Philadelphia, there to consort with soldiers !
GATES — With all my heart. Attend me to this room
adjoining, and there we settle all. [All retire.
SCENE VII. The field between the two camps. In the woods.
Time : October 6th.
Enter GEN. LINCOLN, GEN. ARNOLD, COL. STANDISH,
and soldiers.
LINCOLN — We will go no further. The opposing
pickets may surprise us. Gen. Arnold, I am tired of
this delay.
ARNOLD — I became weary when the sun hid his face
on the i pth. The enemy were at our mercy. Had not
this man Gates refused me re-enforcements while the
hunt was on, no hostile battalion would have here re-
mained to confront us again to-day ! '
LINCOLN — I brought two thousand sturdy men to
camp after Burgoyne's repulse, arriving on the 22cl of
September— two weeks ago to-day. The frosts of Octo-
ber begin to chill their ardor.1
* Gates refused the advice of Arnold [to renew the battle at once].
The quarrel between them grew more bitter, and Arnold demanded
and received a passport to Philadelphia. But Arnold afterward re-
lented, but Gates would not restore him to a command. — Bancroft.
'On the igth of September Arnold, while the fight was on, asked
for re-enforcements, and Gates refused them. — Irving.
8 On the 22d of September Gen. Lincoln arrived with two thousand
men and took command of the right wing. — Hancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 177
STANDISH — And it may be as long again before they
warm themselves behind their fire-locks.
ARNOLD — Why came you here at all ? You knew this
commander.
LINCOLN — It was at the call of Washington, which
was heard in all New England. Lethargy, like a fatal
sleep, held us while
Schuyler stayed ; and
Gates, as his successor,
aroused us not. But
Washington's appeal
lighted camp-fires upon
every hill. It was this
which sent Stark to
Bennington and primed
thousands of idle guns!3
ARNOLD — It was he who planned against St. Leger.4
STANDISH — No point in this vast struggle is beyond
his care. And if he ever fails, it is because poor work-
men botch him.
LINCOLN — Under my orders, Col. Brown assailed
Ticonderoga before Morgan's rifles had ceased to echo
through these pines, in September's battle. Much gained
in prisoners and stores, elated us to Burgoyne's depres-
sion. We now hold the road behind him at all impor-
tant points, as well as bar his progress. Thus viciously,
we hold him in a vice !
ARNOLD— The thing to do is to fight, fight, fight !
3 In August, to hasten the rising in New England, Washington
wrote directly to the Brigadiers of Massachusetts and Connecticut
urging them to march to Saratoga. Touched by the ringing appeals
of Washington, thousands of men from New England States were in
motion toward Saratoga. — Bancroft.
4 Washington ordered Arnold to the North to aid Schuyler, and he
bade him [Schuyler], " Never despair!" That Burgoyne would be
weakened by his garrison duties ; that a party in Vermont should
constantly keep the enemy in anxiety for their rear ; that Arnold
should go to the relief of Fort Stanwix ; that if all worked together
Burgoyne would find it equally difficult to advance or retreat. — Ban-
croft.
1 78 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
So I have said to Gates ; and we have quarreled on this
issue.
LINCOLN — And hence you are without command. Nor
will Gates restore you. So you will not tread a measure
when the next dance comes on.
ARNOLD — And if I don't, then write me down as the
dull ass of Washington's major generals. These stars
upon my uniform carry with them the privilege to com-
mand. They will dazzle when the embattled lightnings
begin to play, nearest to the foe. No danger there of
meeting Gates, whose state and nerves seek safer sta-
tion. I withdrew in anger. I now elect to stay and
finish the work Washington sent me here to do. I shall
be in the dance when the music swells!
LINCOLN — Turbulent and restless spirit ! You were
born sword in hand, and for strife was your ordaining !
Before breakfast it is your love to fight. Before dinner
and supper, too, you would do the same; and after each
meal resume where you left off. In the feast that re-
stores nature's wasted strength you'd hurry on, and be-
grudge the minutes given thus, as so much filched from
favorite pastime. This is the tiger's quality, and is the
courage of brutish beasts — grandest in the brute that is
grandest in brutality. True courage shines most in him
who, fearing any hurt, yet loyal to duty, marches with
steadiest step even to the lips of belching cannon.
ARNOLD — If I were ordained to fight, then I am thus
compelled. The occasion when, I hope, is left for me to
choose. I find such occasion now, when the fighting
plume befits it as priestly robes do prayer. By thou-
sands our kindred are this moment wasting in New York
prisons, while Cunningham's curses are the benediction
to their departing souls. All this rushes with the blood,
and nerves my arm and steels my sword for action.
After the occasion passes, I'll be as gentle as yon hurt-
less wren ; and bury this blade as deep as the volcanic
fires it came from. Then I'll turn in my toes as I walk
along; be knock-kneed ; of simpering smile and lisping
tongue, and thus ape the manners of lily-livered men.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION, 1 79
All this I'll do for peace, though for naught of this was
ever I ordained.
LINCOLN — [A gun is hcard^\ That gun was not ours,
and is much too near. We will move away. [All retire.
Enter GEN. BURGOYNE, RIEDESEL, FRASER, and soldiers.
BURGOYNE — It was on the 2ist that Sir Henry
promised aid. The 6th of October is here, though not
yet gone, and no further word from him, nor sign of
help.4
RIEDESEL — In all this time we have heard the morn-
ing drums of the opposing force, so closely are we to
each other camped, and yet know nothing of his power
or position. This spot whereon we stand is common
ground between us.'
BURGOYNE — That he has not assailed us in all this
time reveals timidity or weakness.
FRASER — It may be he only waits till we come forth
to more certain overthrow. So the hunter waits for the
starved lion driven to his lair.
BURGOYNE — At the council yesterday each of you
voted for retreat. Phillips his advice refused.7
RIEDESEL — I still maintain and urge my vote. Our
men are on rations much cut down. The foragers are
captured and our cattle driven off. The sick and
wounded are a heavy burden. I will vouch for a safe
withdrawal, if made before all the doors to Canada are
closed — trusting this is not so already.
FRASER — I am of the opinion that in retreat we escape
from greatest danger.
6 On the 2ist of September Burgoyne received from Sir Henry
Clinton a promise of aid, but it never came. — Bancroft.
• During the period of inaction following the battle of September
19, the Briti-ih were so near the Americans that they could hear their
morning and evening guns, their dru;ns, and other noises of the
camp, and yet they knew not their position or strength. — Stone's Bur-
goyne's Campaign, etc.
1 On the evening of October 5 Burgoyne called a council of war,
and Riedesel and Fraser advised that the army fall back. Phillips
gave no opinion. — Stone's Burgoyne s Campaign, etc.
l8o WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
BURGOYNE — I have said this army would not retreat."
How against the gorge it goes to swallow your own
words, reversing what they meant. Honor, reputation,
pride — all cry out against it.
RIEDESEL — The safety of the army.
BURGOYNE — I know ! I know ! Still, I am but human,
and so follow human guides. Thus shall it be. To-
morrow, with a selected force of full fifteen hundred men,
in person leading them, we will advance and know what
is before us. If we then retreat, we shall do so because
knowledge gained compels it.' [All retire.
SCENE VIII. Same as Act V. Scene 4. Headquarters
of GEN. GATES on JBetnis Heights. Time : October 7,
1777.
Enter GEN. GATES, GEN. LINCOLN, COL. STANDISH,
three AIDS, and soldiers.
GATES — [Drums are heard in the distance.] What is
the meaning of that beat to arms from our drums ?
Enter COL. ALDEN hurriedly.
ALDEN — The enemy in front advances in force, with
show of battle.
GATES — Then we will indulge him. Order Morgan to
begin the game, and Gen. Dearborn to support him with
all his infantry.1 [Exit COL. ALDEN.
8 Referring to his proclamation when the army left Canada.
' Burgoyne [after the council of war. See Note 7] decided that
he would make a reconnaissance in force, and get at the position of
the Americans, before he fell back, as advised. — Stone's Burgoyne's
Campaign, etc.
Burgoyne would not hear of a retreat. — Von Eelking.
1 An aid of Gen. Gates reported to him on October 7 that the
enemy was advancing, and, in his opinion, offering battle. " I would
indulge them," said the aid. "Well, then," said Gates, "order
Morgan to begin the game." — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
Morgan was striving to reach the rear of the British, upon whom
Dearborn impetuously descended. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 181
STANDISH — From what I observed before entrance
here, a greater force than this is needed.
GATES — Then Poor's and
Larned's brigades advance at
once. Convey this order.2
[Exit COL. STANDISH.
[To FIRST AID]— Go as far
to the front as possible, and,
with eye and ear noting what
is done, report here to me
immediately.
[Exit FIRST AID.
LINCOLN — My place is yon-
der to head my column when
hot work begins.
GATES — The center of the
line be your place, Gen. Lin-
coln.3
[Exit GEN. LINCOLN.
[To SECOND AID] — Convey
to Generals Nixon and Glover
my orders, that if not so ar-
ranged as previously advised,
they hold the right to-day."
[Exit SECOND AID.
[To THIRD AID] — And Morgan and Larned the left,
so far as conditions favor it. Go quickly.5
[Exit THIRD AID.
2 Poor and Larned's brigades were ordered to attack the left. —
Irving.
3 Gen. Lincoln was ordered to the center of the line. See Note 5,
post.
4 Generals Nixon and Glover to the right of the line. See Note
5, post.
6 And Morgan and Larned to the left of the line. On the 7th of
October the American army [for battle], with their right wing on the
North River and their left extending to Bemis Heights. Gen-
erals Nixon and Glover commanded on the right, Lincoln the center,
and Morgan and Larned the left. — Stone 's Burgoynis Campaign,
etc.
1 82 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
GATES \inu sing~\ — Again, as on the ipth of Septem-
ber, I am alone with Fate, which extends or withholds
the laurel. No fear shakes me now, since we attack
a baffled foe and assail with heavier numbers. The
columns in which I trust, would change even a drooping
cause to victory ; then much more surely will they crush
an enemy half vanquished from one defeat. This day,
this hour, brings to me the trophies of a soldier, such as
the most aspiring might be proud to wear !
Enter FIRST AID hurriedly.
Welcome be your quick return, if good news be your
proclamation ! Your celerity, if joined with good report,
shall not go unrewarded.
FIRST AID — The British advance in three columns.
Burgoyne leads the center;
with Col. Ackland on the
left, and Gen. Fraser on the
right.' Morgan opened the
combat, and, with the rush
of a torrent, struck Fraser
*and swept him back ; then
around upon the other flank
of the British he opened his
galling fire ; now Dearborn
saluted them in front, and
rout ensued. Lord Balcarres
rallied the fugitives, and again they came into action.7
Poor and his brigade, with telling volleys, faced the
grape of British grenadiers till they, panic-stricken, fled ;
6 Burgoyne's order of battle was : Col. Ackland and his British
grenadiers and Major Williams, with artillery, formed the left [oppo-
site Nixon and Glover on the American right]. Next was Burgoyne,
with Riedesel and Gen. Phillips in the center [opposite Gen. Lincoln].
And Gen. Fraser and Lord Balcarres were on the extreme right [op-
posite Morgan and Lamed on the American left]. — Irving.
7 As soon as the action began, Morgan poured like a torrent upon
Fraser, and forced him back ; then, by a rapid movement to the left,
he fell upon the flank of the British right, and it was on the point of
giving way. Dearborn just then gave such a galling fire in front that
they broke and fled in wild confusion. Balcarres rallied them again,
and they came into action. — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 183
while Col. Cilley turned captured guns back upon these
losers, now in full retreat."
GATES — Then the battle is now on, and all this is
done within the time it takes to tell of it. This impetu-
osity of our troops, born of confidence,
is worth a grand division of half-hearted
men ; besides, in force, we are two to
one. And the foe are so quickly fall-
ing back ? So you have reported ?
FIRST AID — I gathered the facts
while spurs were pricking my animal
to fullest speed, with Col. Wilkinson9
keeping at my side and cramming me.
He bid me say that the British are now
retreating, back to the intrenchments from which they
marched forth this noon.
GATES — Then we will push nearer to the front, and
closer be to messengers of like glad tidings.
\All retire.
SCENE IX. A place on the field behveen the contending lines.
Enter GEN. LINCOLN, with COL. STANDISH and soldiers.
LINCOLN — Good fortune
favoring, the day is ours.
STANDISH — Burgoyne is in
retreat.
LINCOLN — Fraser has fallen ; and at the command of
Morgan.1
8 Poor, with his brigade, marched steadily against the grenadiers
and artillery of Ackland and Williams. They awaited a shower of
grape and musket-balls, and then rushed forward, firing right and
left. They mowed the grenadiers down at every shot. Ackland was
wounded, and the grenadiers gave way. Artillery was taken and re-
taken, till, at last, Cilley kept it and turned it upon the flying British.
— Stone's Burgoyne' s Campaign, etc.
9 Col. Wilkinson was chief aid to Gen. Gates, and was specially
sent out at this precise moment to gather news of the action.
1 Gen. Fraser, from the right of the British lines, moved to aid the
faltering center ; and here he was observed by Gen. Morgan, and
singled out as a target for " Tim Murphy," a sharpshooter. Fraser
fell, mortally wounded. — Stone's Biirgoyne's Campaign, etc.
184 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
STANDISH — Ackland and Sir Francis Clark, both
wounded, are our prisoners. Williams, the chief of
their artillery, is dead. Their loss is great in men and
guns.
LINCOLN — This spot, so far in advance, may again see
the enemy. Follow me ; work is yet to do. [All retire.
Enter BURGOYNE, RIEDESEL, BREYMAN, and soldiers.
BURGOYNE — We are surely outnum-
bered. And braver men than we have
met to-day never crossed a field.
RIEDESEL — To our intrenchments !
There is no time to spare.
BURGOYNE — The retreat
has been sounded, and every
battalion is moving back.*
BREYMAN — Behind the
breastworks we will repel
them, if their audacity carries
them so far.
BURGOYNE — When Fraser
fell, what was done? I was not near.
RIEDESEL — I had him removed to where Madam Riede-
sel remains, and committed to her care. And so with
many others as unfortunate.
BURGOYNE — Unhappy woman ! At this same hour
some of us were engaged with her to dinner. The table
of the intended feast has become a bloody bier ! And
Col. Ackland?'
BREYMAN — Wounded, he was carried into the Ameri-
can lines.
* Upon the fall of Fraser, Burgoyne ordered a retreat to the great
redoubt. — Stone 's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
* Madam Riedesel said, in speaking afterward, that, on the very day
of the reconnaissance [the day of the battle], Burgoyne, Phillips,
Fraser, and other officers, were engaged to dine with her ; and in the
very house, some of the expected guests were brought to die, at the
very hour appointed for the dinner. — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign,
etc.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 185
BURGOYNE — I have not avoided danger. You both
will witness this, if ever called.
RIEDESEL — You have exposed yourself to rashness.4
BURGOYNE — I could win no bullet as a friend, though
many came so near and so many were to spare. But
the fight is not yet closed, and shall not be, with us
beyond it. My sword is yet my own. [All retire.
Enter hurriedly GEN. LINCOLN, COL. STANDISH, COL.
ALDEN, and AIDS.
LINCOLN — I thought the struggle for the day was
over. The foe are hurrying to their intrenchments.
Arnold now renews the battle, his own
will directing.
STANDISH — He is a Major-General,
and so, ranking all near to him in the
action, the troops obey him.
LINCOLN — And though he is not
my commander in rank, yet in the ab-
sence of a superior chieftain, I will
gladly take his orders.6
STANDISH — The soldiers follow him
as they would no other. His name is magic to enthuse
them. They would storm the devil, and drag him
from his sulphurous home, — or at-
tempt it, — if he led them on.
LINCOLN — What place is this ?
ALDEN — Though of various names,
the one that covers all is Saratoga.
4 Burgoyne exposed himself fearlessly ; a shot passed through his
hat, and another through his waistcoat. — Bancroft.
6 Arnold, who had now [ju>t as the British began to retreat] come
upon the field, without command, without a staff, yet carrying author-
ity as the highest officer present in action, gave orders for an attack
upon the strongest point of the British lines. — Bancroft.
On hearing the din of battle, he [Arnold] could restrain himself no
longer, and dashed forward to the scene of battle. He was received
with acclamation. Being the superior officer in the field, his orders
were obeyed, of course. — Irving.
Gen. Lincoln's commission of Major-General was dated February
T9. J777 I and that of Benedict Arnold May 2, 1777. — Arnold's
Life of Benedict Arnold.
1 86 \\-ASIlIXGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
Enter AID in haste.
AID \to GEN. LINCOLN] — Gen. Arnold is preparing to
storm the enemy in his works, and orders all to hold
their powers at his command.
LINCOLN — Standish, will you from yonder height sur-
vey the lines, and make statement of this changed con-
dition ? Arnold has just come upon the ground which
our hands have won, and again forward presses the
panting columns we halted in their shouts of triumph.
{Exit STANDISH.
[To AID] — Report to Gen. Arnold that we are ready,
if he calls. [Exit AID.
[To ALDEN] — To Gen. Gates, wherever he may be
found, with the report that Arnold assumes command,
and prepares to pursue the British, even into his camp.*
This will be news to him.
[Exit COL. ALDEN.
Our dogs of war, resting their heads between their
paws and licking their bloody chops, wearied with their
'Arnold, putting himself at the head of the troops, attacked the
Hessians in the enemy's center, and broke them with repeated
charges. — Irving.
Scarcely had the British passed within their camp, when it was
stormed with great fury. Arnold, at the head of the column,
rushed upon the British, against a severe charge of grape and small-
arms. Lord Balcarres defended the intrenchment. — Irving.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 187
excesses, begin to growl again, because Arnold calls to
them.
Enter COL. STANDISH.
STANDISH — The very fiend of war, incarnated for the
hour, now riots in human slaughter. The two lines are
formefl; and while one falls back, ours, with greedy
steps, fills up the retiring space, and still
onward drives retreat ! Each to the other
volleys in such quick succession that the air
is heavy with resounding thunders ; while a
sulphurous pall shuts from the view a wreck
of life in hideous ruin sinking.7
LINCOLN — In such a scene, surely Arnold holds high
revelry.
STANDISH — He rides between the lines. In wanton-
ness, he wooes the bullets of either side, disdaining the
General's place behind his
soldiers. Out from the rift-
ing clouds of battle, flashes
now and then a glint of steel,
as when the forked light-
nings gleam in the inky
heavens. It is the sword of
Arnold, working a magic spell
of self-forgetfulness upon
his frenzied followers. His
coal-black steed is white
with foam, and dashes here
and there as if tempest-tossed,
nor felt the earth beneath
him ; and every minute the
wild and maddened line
presses close, and closer still, after a mad com-
7 The action was fierce and the loss of life terrible. "So severe
was the fighting at this point [before the great n doubt, defended
by Balcarres, wrote one engaged in the conflict] that in the low
ground in front of the redoubt, the blood and water were knee deep." —
Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
1 88 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
mander.8 He loudly calls upon Lord Balcarres, who
hurries the retreating columns toward the great re-
doubt ; so the wounded brute, pushed on with terror,
gathers his brood into his rocky den. And along the
ranks of these pursuing furies, above the din, is heard
the battle cry of " Liberty or Death ! "
LINCOLN — I am all on fire while you the picture fur-
nish of this lurid struggle. And in it all my part I'll
grandly play, or rest with epitaph before another day.
[All retire.
Enter a British officer, flying; ARNOLD in pursuit.
ARNOLD — Quick-footed Mercury, go not so fast ; for
you have naught. to fear from me while greater game is
flying. This sword is dyed with ruddy currents, let
from baser mortals, and is henceforth reserved for dain-
tier handiwork. Lord Balcarres, these hills have this
day echoed with Arnold's call to you. Come forth, and
you and I, like those ancient Romans, hang victory upon
8 " He [Arnold] behaved like a madman more than a cool and
discreet officer," writes Woodruff, a sergeant, in this battle.
Spurring his horse onward with the ferocity of a tiger, he dashed
from vhe left to the extreme right of the British lines, exposed to the
cross-fire of the two armies. — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
Indeed, his actions seemed to partake of frenzy — riding here and
there, brandishing his sword and cheering the men on to acts of
desperation. — Irving.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 189
the better sword we carry ! Come forth, I say ! and let
me clip your name in two, taking from the honest half
that title which, like its kind, is worn by the silliest fools
as often as by the noblest men ; and so is a common sham
that all mankind should slash and tread upon. Now
for the Hessian lines, while halts the day ; since these
English will here no longer stay ! [Exit.
Enter GEN. GATES, AIDS, and soldiers.
GATES [addressing an AID] — Arnold has no com-
mand to-day, nor do I intend him any. I am moved at
what you tell me. His presence is intrusion. Here
come further tidings.
Enter COL. ALDEN.
ALDEN — As directed by Gen. Lincoln, I report to you.
I have inquired where join the assailant and assailed.
When the retreat began, and
while our soldiers rested, Gen.
Arnold, at this very moment,
ordered a renewal of the bat-
tle. Assuming command, he
led pursuit even to the British camp. After the first
attack upon the main intrenchments, at the head of
the divisions of Brooks and Lamed, he drove at the
Hessians. In his furious onset, he en-
tered the breastworks of the enemy just as
their defender, Breyman, fell. Still the
gale is blowing.9
GATES — Go with this order to Gen.
Arnold. Others have preceded it, but
are so far unheeded. And say, also, to
enforce what here is writ : it is my com-
mand that he immediately retires. Go
quickly, or he will do something rash.
' Arnold, leaving his attack upon the great redoubt I against
Balcarres], placed himself at the head of Larned's brigade, and
attacked the Brunswickers so fiercely that Col. Breyman was killed,
leaving the key of the British position in the hands of the
Americans. — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
190 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
ALDEN — General, he has done something rash. He
has vanquished Burgoyne.10 [Exit ALDEN.
GATES [listening] — The intervening space increas-
ing, of lesser fury is the sound of battle. Listen !
Listen ! Farther and farther recedes the roll of our
angry rifles, pushing the enemy before it to sure
destruction !
AID — The roar is fainter than it was.
GATES -[aside] — The glory of this day shall be mine
without a rival. And so the recall of Arnold is a well-
timed deed.
Enter COL. STANDISH.
STANDISH — I come from the Hessian redoubt. All
was going well, and a complete capture of the invaders
seemed at hand, when Arnold, wounded, fell. Just then
was handed him your order to retire. In obedience, our
forces withdrew ; and the foe, now shattered without
hope, gain a breathing spell.11
10 In the midst of his [Arnold's] success, Gates' order was handed
to him, to leave the field and return to camp, Gates saying "he
feared that he [Arnold] would do something rash." — Stone's Bur-
goynSs Campaign, etc.
11 Just as Arnold had forced his way into the camp of the enemy,
a shot from the retreating Hessians killed his [Arnold's] horse and
wounded him in the same leg which had received a wound before
Quebec. He was borne off the field, and just then was handed
Gates' order to withdraw. — Irving.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 191
GATES — In good time Burgoyne must yield. We need
not press him now.
STANDISH— Here comes Gen. Arnold, carried by his
men and followed by a retinue.
[Cheering is heard from without, and cheering
soldiers enter.
Great Jove, giving his bolts a little time to cool,
wretched mortals gain a peaceful
hour.
GATES — I grieve with any man
who suffers.
STANDISH — To him who suffers
in the right, this thought is physic
to assuage the keenest pain.
Enter COL. ALDEN, a detachment of Morgan's riflemen,
and other officers and soldiers, followed by GEN.
ARNOLD, wounded and carried.
All hail ! All hail ! to Benedict Arnold, the hero of
Saratoga ! [All cheer.
GATES [/^ARNOLD] — Are you badly hurt?
ARNOLD — A scratch ! A ball in the same leg that got
another at Quebec. This will heal as the other has.
GATES — The battle has been fought and won. Now
to a surgeon and to kinder nursing than this place pro-
vides. [Cheering. All retire.
SCENE X. Headquarters of GEN. GATES upon Saratoga
Heights.
Enter GEN. GATES, GEN. SCHUYLER, aids and soldiers.
GATES — This final act would be marred, Gen. Schuyler,
without your presence. Here we fix the place of sur-
render now agreed upon.1
SCHUYLER — No one can extend to you more hearty
1 Gen. Schuyler was invited, and was present at the surrender of
Burgoyne, October 17, 1777.
I92 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
congratulations. This crowning act of glory is inter-
woven with a chaplet from our honored chief.
GATES— I have not heard ?
SCHUYLER — It is from post, just in. Washington as-
sumed the offensive at Germantown ; and on the 3d gave
Howe a lesson in audacity. With an army of inferior
size and mostly raw militia — and these so poorly equipped
that more than a thousand men were shoeless — he in-
vited the Briton to the open plain. In short, assaulted
him.
GATES — And with what result ?
SCHUYLER — In a heavy fog, confusion usurped the
place of certainty, and the movement failed therefrom.
It was a drawn battle, and advantage fell to neither,
except that the Briton learned from this that his pillow
in Philadelphia was not to be an easy one.
GATES — It is surely an advantage to our side to teach
the other such a lesson ; and to leave anxiety to corrode
the hope of rest. What is the next move ?
SCHUYLER — Washington will go into winter quarters
at Valley Forge," and from that point in the months to
8 On the 3d of October Washington planned to assail a part of the
British force at Germantown. A heavy fog prevented the pre-
arranged union of forces, and the battle was drawn. The renewal of
an attack so soon after Brandywine inspirited Congress and the
army. Washington later went into quarters at Valley Forge. —
Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 193
come, reduce the British commissary as he did at Cam-
bridge ; and after at Morristown. If you can starve your
adversary, you do as well as to win his sword in open
conflict.
GATES— Short rations to Burgoyne were to us worth
batteries of artillery. We have starved him as well
as whipped him to a surrender. Even in his hunger,
we have made his sleep uneasy since the yth. Daily
we have pounded him. And at last, with Fellows on
the other side of the Hudson, Stark at Fort Edward,
and the main army pushing him in front, the circle of
fire was complete and the end inevitable. Six thousand
194 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
prisoners and arms and cannon fall to us. Since leav-
ing Canada Burgoyne loses ten thousand soldiers.3
SCHUYLER — Is it an unconditional surrender?
GATES — In reality it is so. Though
some concessions are made as salve
to wounded pride, which amount to
nothing : Putnam's letter, that Sir
Henry Clinton had forced the pathway
of the Hudson, smoothed the road
with me, quickly to yield to these con-
cessions.
SCHUYLER — I never believed that Putnam would let
Sir Henry pass.
GATES — He was outmaneuvered and withdrew from
Peekskill, when the English landed at a point below.
The way was open then for storming our forts, Clinton
and Montgomery. They fell, though the Governor and
his brother made a stout defense of both ; and sold them
dearly. This was on the yth. Then Putnam hurried
his post to me, that the path was clear and that Sir
Henry and all his power might strike us here at any
time.4
SCHUYLER — These surely were moments of harrow-
ing anxiety?
GATES — And yet Sir Henry did not choose to come ;
now we care not how soon he does. [Drums are
heard approaching^ The troops are up and moving ;
at the hour of noon, on yonder green in front of old
Fort Hardy, will the prisoners ground their arms.
Enter of the Americans, GEN. ARNOLD (wounded and car-
ried), GEN. LINCOLN, Morgan s riflemen, generals
and officers, aids and soldiers.
GATES — Brave compatriots ! Thus saluting, in this
* These are the results as given by Bancroft.
4 Sir Henry Clinton having made an effort to pass the Hudson,
Putnam failed to defend it ; and Forts Clinton and Montgomery fell
after a stubborn resistance. On the ~th of October Putnam wrote to
Gates, " I cannot prevent the enemy from advancing ; prepare for
the worst." — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION. 1 95
hour of triumph, one injunction I lay upon you all :
Nothing so becomes the victor as humility, which gives
the conqueror a double crown. Your valorous arms
have gained so many laurels upon this field that
wounds now from no good reason made, adding naught,
would tarnish those you have. Let the enemy, as he
marches by to his humiliation, see upon your faces
no look of exultation ; nor hear from your lips words
of senseless insult. Such orders have been proclaimed
through all the lines. Alone with his sorrow of defeat,
a soldier's sorest trial, the prisoner will go to the place
provided, there to yield up the arms which he has
borne so gallantly against us.5
\_A line of British troops begin then to cross the rear
of the stage, marching to the j>lace of grounded
arms.
Enter of the British, GENS. BURGOYNE, PHILLIPS,
RIEDESEL, with aids, officers, and staff.
BURGOYNE — The fortune of war, Gen. Gates, has
made me your prisoner.
5 The British marched out of their lines and laid down their arms
in mute astonishment that none of the American soldiers were present
to witness the spectacle. — Bancroft.
I96 WASHINGTON, OK THE REVOLUTION.
GATES — And I shall always be ready to testify from
no fault of yours, Gen. Burgoyne.*
[ They shake hands cordially.
BURGOYNE — This sword is yours by right of con-
quest. [Hands his sword to GATES.
GATES {taking the sword] — And yours, by right of
valor. The greater claim wipes out the lesser, and the
sword remains your own.7 [Hands back the sword.
BURGOYNE [receiving his sword] — It lightens the cruel
hardships of a soldier's life, when a heavy load like mine
is lifted from bending
shoulders with such
generous words,
winged with kindness
and magnanimity.
GATES — To these marching columns [pointing to the
English tine, still tramping across the stage} I have or-
dered ample rations, that they may find in us no stint of
hospitality.8 [Burgoyne bows.
And upon you, Gen. Burgoyne, as well as upon such
6 When the generals met on the day of the surrender, Burgoyne,
raising his hat, said: "The fortune of war, Gen. Gates, has made
me your prisoner." To which Gates replied, " I shall always be
ready to testify that it has not been through any fault of yours, Gen.
Burgoyne. " — Irving.
1 Burgoyne, drawing his sword in the presence of the two armies,
presented it to Gen. Gates. The latter received it with a courteous
bow, and immediately returned it to the vanquished General. — Stone's
Burgoyne s Campaign, etc. '
* Upon the surrender bread was served to the British soldiers, for
they had none left, nor flour. — Bancroft.
WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION". 197
officials as are your attendants here, we lay the privilege
of playing host to-day ; a happy part, when honored
guests accept with a good will, and so enrich the poorest
banquet. You will all dine with me ; nor hold me at
fault if, in these hours so heavy with affairs now closed,
our neglected table is not what our love and our duty,
too, would make it ! '
BURGOYNE — We join the feast prepared and thus pro-
posed, with grateful hearts to you, who thus honor us as
guests.
[ Two orderlies enter and quickly pass to all the offi-
cers a salver covered with glasses filled with
wine.
GATES — Meanwhile, since we await the preparations,
we will tease the appetite, to a greater greed when the
summons calls us to the sitting. A rare old stock, Gen-
eral, as I can testify !
\All of the officers take in their hands a glass of
wine.
9 Burgoyne, with his Generals, dined with Gen. Gates in his tent on
boards laid across barrels. The dinner was served in four dishes, the
Americans at this time being accustomed to plain and frugal food. —
Stone's Bttrgoyne's Campaign, etc.
198 WASHINGTON, OR THE REVOLUTION.
BURGOYNE — By the double right of guest and pris-
oner I offer here the toast. [All bow in acquiescence. —
Holding high his glass.] I drink to Washington ! 10
ALL [repeat] — To Washington !
[ They drain their glasses.
10 At the entertainment given by Gen. Gates, Gen. Burgoyne pro-
posed a toast to Gen. Washington. — Stone's Burgoyne's Campaign, etc.
[CURTAIN FALLS.]
END OF ACT V. AND PART I.
HISTORICAL REFERENCES.
' History of the United States." Bancroft.
' Life of Washington." Irving.
' Burgoyne's Campaign and St. Leger's Expedition." W. L.
Stone.
' German Allied Troops in the Revolution." Max Von Eelking.
' History of the United States." Frost.
' Life of Franklin." Bigelow.
' Life of Franklin." Morse.
'Life of Patrick Henry." Morse.
'Jefferson's Correspondence, Etc." Thos. Jefferson Randolph.
1829.
' Reminiscences of Saratoga." W. L. Stone.
' History of New York City." W. L. Stone.
1 Romance of the Revolution." Philadelphia, 1870.
' Memorial History of New York." James Grant Wilson. 1893.
'Life of Benedict Arnold." Isaac N. Arnold.
INDEX.
Ackland, Col., Commands British Left Wing at Saratoga, 182
Made Prisoner by Gates at Saratoga, 184
Lady, At Saratoga, 160-63
Adams, Samuel, A Son of Liberty, In the Tea Riot, 9
Before Independence Hall, 58
Excepted in Pardon of Gen. Gage, 61
Quarrel with Rutledge, 65
Adams, John, Before Independence Hall, 58
Sink or Swim — for Independence, 62
Favors Gen. Lee over Washington as Military Head, 96
Aids to Gage in Boston, 2, 3, 4, 5
Putnam at Bunker Hill, 32-38
Cornwallis at Trenton, 107
Aid to Washington at Trenton, 106
Washington at Princeton, 109
Stark at Bennington, 145
Aids to Washington at Brandywine, 152, 153
Burgoyne at Saratoga, 172
Gates at Saratoga, 1 80, 181, 182
Albany, Meeting of Schuyler and Gates, 147
Alden (now Farmer George), On Watch for the Signal, 23
Geo., Capt., Meets Standish at Baskingridge, 88
• Made Prisoner with Lee at Baskingridge, 98
Col. (before Capt.), At Saratoga, 171, 172
Allen, Ethan, Made Prisoner at Montreal, 44
American Captain, At Lexington, 31
Cruisers, To be Treated as Pirates, 125
Assanpink River, Trenton, 107
Arnold, Benedict, Col., Sent to Canada by Washington, 44
At Danbury, 126
Gen. (Promoted), In Camp of Washington at Middlebrook,
126-33
Enraged at Delayed Promotion, 126
Ordered by Washington to Saratoga, 132
On March to Fort Stanwix, 140
On Hearing of the Death of Herkimer, 142
On Bemis Heights, 156
202 INDEX.
Arnold, Benedict, Col., On Bemis Heights, Mother Yost, a Prisoner,
and Interview, 157-59
Interview with Mother Yost at Devil's Glen, 165-69
His Threats at Devil's Glen, 169
Commands Left Wing on September 19 at Saratoga, 170
Quarrel with Gates at Saratoga, 175
Interview with Gen. Lincoln at Saratoga, 176-179
Renews the Battle of October 7 at Saratoga, 185
Pursues in Fight and Calls for Lord Balcarres at Saratoga, 188
Wounded in Second Battle at Saratoga, 190
Carried from the Field, and Cheered as the Hero of Saratoga,
191
B
Baum, Col. (Hessian), Sent by Burgoyne to Bennington, 144
Killed at Bennington, 145
Balcarres, Lord, Gen., An English Commander at Saratoga, 182
Barrington, Sec. of War, English, Approves of Purchased Troops, 52
His Opinion of Washington, 56
Recounts the Purchased Troops to Sail, 56
Bell of Liberty, Rung in Independence Hall, 68
Bennington, Battle of, 145-46
Boston Harbor, Destruction of Tea, 6
Massacre, Citizens Shot Down, 6
Brandywine, Battle of, 148-54
Brant, The Mohawk Chief, King and Germain Expect Much of
Him, 124
Breyman, Col., At Bennington, 146
At Saratoga, 173
Killed at Saratoga, 189
British Captain, Captures Gen. Lee at Baskingridge, 98
Brooks, Gen., An American Commander at Saratoga, 189
Brunswick, Duke of, Sells Troops to England, 50
Bryan, A Scout to Gates at Saratoga, 169
Buckingham Palace, The King and his Cabinet Meet Franklin, n
Bunker Hill, The Battle, 32-38
— ^— Bullets Exhausted (Americans'), 34
Powder Exhausted (Americans'), 36
The Retreat, 37
Burgoyne, Jqhn, Gen., With King and Cabinet at London, 121
Named by the King to Command, 123
Pledges Himself to King George, 123, 125
Incensed at Carleton, 138,139
At Fort Edward, 143
Sends Baum to Bennington, 144
With Lady Ackland and Riedesel and Mother Yost at Sara-
toga, 161-64
In Battle of September 19, 172
Refuses to Retreat at Saratoga, 180
INDEX. 203
Burgoyne, John, Gen., Resolves upon a Reconnoissance in Force,
i So
Surrenders his Sword to Gen. Gates, 196
Receives back his Sword from Gates, 196
Entertained at Dinner by Gates, 197
Offers the Toast : " I Drink to Washington," 198
Burke, Edmund, A Friend to America, Reference of Lord North, 15
Cambridge, Camp of Washington : His Command, 38
Camp of Washington, West of the Delaware, 99
Canada, Arnold Sent to Canada by Washington, 44
Disastrous Expedition Ordered by Congress, 60
Captain, British, Who Captured General Lee at Baskingridge, 98
American, At Lexington, 31
English, At Lexington, 26
Carleton, Sir Guy, Gen., Calls for Thirty Thousand Troops, 122
At Three Rivers, 136
Refuses to leave Canada, 137
Quarrels with Burgoyne, 138, 139
Indignant at Lord Germain, 139
Cassel, Hesse, Sells Troops to England, 45-52
Charlestown, The Burning of, 33
Cherokees, Indians, Defeated, 59
Church Steeple, Boston, The Signal Light that British Troops
would March, 23
Cilly, Col., At Saratoga, 171
Citizens, Aged, 1st and 2d, Richmond, Va., 19-24
Clark, Sir Francis, An English Officer, Mortally Wounded at Sara-
toga, 184
Clinton, Sir Henry, Gen., At Bunker Hill, 34
In Command at New York, 135
Clinton, Fort, Captured by Gen. Sir Henry Clinton, 194
Concord, Stores Destroyed, 30
Congress, Partial to Gen. Lee as Military Head, 97
At Philadelphia, 154
Leave for Lancaster, 154
Cornwallis, Lord, Gen., At Battle of Long Island, 70
— At Trenton, 107
At Brandywine, 152
Enters Philadelphia, 154
Corporal, To Cunningham, with Prisoner, Nathan Hale, 86
Countrymen, Who Tell Rail at Trenton of Washington's March, 103
Courtland, Col., An American Officer at Saratoga, 173
Cunningham, William, British Provost Marshal at New York, 79
Drinks with His Subordinates, 80, 81, 82
Cruelty to His Prisoners, 82, 83
On the Burning of New York City, 83
Braved by Standish, 83, 84
204 INDEX.
Cunningham, William, Hears of a Dream from Prisoner Standish, 84
Executes Nathan Hale, 86, 87
Is Executed at Newgate after the War, 85
D
Danbury, Battle of, Tryon Defeated by Arnold, 127
Gen. Wooster Killed, 127
Dartmouth, Lord, English Secretary of State, 12
Dearborn, Gen., An American Commander at Saratoga, 182
Declaration of Independence, Signed, 66
Proclaimed, 67
Delaware, West Side of, Camp of Washington before Battle of
Trenton, 99
Devil's Glen, At Saratoga, 165
Mother Yost Informs Arnold of Movements of Burgoyne,
166,167
Mother Yost Tells the Fortune of Arnold, 168
Dickinson, John, Before Independence Hall, 58
Dick Standish (Farmer Dick), In the Tea Riot, 9
Duke of Brunswick, Sells Troops to England, 50
E
English, The Surrender at Saratoga, 195
Lieutenant, At Lexington (Harris), 26
Captain, At Lexington, 26
Faneuil Hall, Boston, During the Tea Riots, IO
Farmer Dick (Standish), In the Tea Riot, 9
Faucit, William, Col., England's Agent to Landgrave for Troops,
45-52
Ferdinand, Son of Duke of Brunswick, Sells Troops to England, 50
Flag (The American), First Raised in Battle at Fort Stanwix, 142
Fort Stanwix, The Battle, Herkimer Slain, 140-43
Fort Washington, Captured by Gen. Howe, 93
Fox, Charles, Friend to America, Referred to by Lord North. 15
Franklin, Benj., Interview with King George III. and his Ministers,
14-18
- Agent in England of the American Colonies, 14
Gives to the King the Reasons of Complaint, 14
Refers to Danes and Saxons and Their Right to Rule, 15
Renounces England as His Home, 18
Prophesies the Greatness of Free America, 19
- Commissioner of Congress at Cambridge, 40
INDEX. 205
Franklin, Benj., Declares for Independence at Cambridge, 41
Before Independence Hall, 58
With Count de Vergennes, Minister of France, 116-21
Meets with Lafayette, 118
Dissuades Lafayette from His Journey, 119
Agrees, however, to Aid Lafayette, if He Will Visit America,
120
Fraser, Gen., English General at Saratoga, 172-79
Advises Gen. Burgoyne to Retreat, 179
Prominent in Battle at Saratoga, 172
Commands Right Wing, Battle of October 7, 182
Killed at Saratoga by Riflemen of Morgan, 183
Frederick II., Landgrave of Hesse, Sells Troops to England, 45-52
Insists upon his Subsidy for Troops, 46
His Baseness and Debaucheries, 48
His Revelries in Hesse from this Subsidy, 49
Freeman's Farm, the Battlefield at Saratoga, 173
Gage Thomas, Gen., Rails against Patrick Henry, I
Commander of King's Troops in America, I
Discusses the Stamp Act and Approves, 4, 5
Responsible for the Boston Massacre, 4
Orders the English Troops at Bunker Hill, 34
In a Proclamation of Pardon, Excepted John Hancock and
Sam. Adams, 6l
Ganzevoort, Peter, Col., At Fort Stanwix, 140
Gates, Horatio, Gen., Intrigues against Washington ; Refused to
Report to Him Crown Point, 75
Intrigues against Schuyler, 130-131
Abandons Washington at Battle of Trenton, 130
Meets Schuyler at Albany and Takes Command, 147-48
At Saratoga, Camp at first Battle — Headquarters, 169
At Saratoga Orders Battle of September 19 to Begin, 170
At Saratoga Orders Arnold to Command Left Wing, 170
Quarrels with Arnold, 175
Camp at Saratoga at Second Battle, 1 80
His Selfishness, 190
Orders Arnold from the Field, after Arnold Had Won the
Second Battle of October 7, 189
Address to His Troops, at the Surrender, 194
Receives the Sword of Burgoyne, 196
Returns the Sword of Burgoyne, 196
Entertains Burgoyne and Officers at Dinner, 196
George III., His Interview with Franklin, 14-18
Refuses the Petitions of the Colonies, 41
Enraged at Catherine of Russia, 52
Accuses the Empress of Discourtesy, 54
206 INDEX.
George III., Is Grateful to German Princes for Troops, 54
Demands Blows and Subjugation for the Rebels, 55
Wants Savages Employed to Subdue America, 57, 124
Hears of Trenton, the Battle and Defeat, 121
Names Burgoyne to the Saratoga Expedition, 123
Names Col. St. Leger to the Expedition through the Mo-
hawk Valley, 123
Indignant at French Diplomacy, 125
Germain, Geo., Lord, Approves of Purchased Troops, 52
Explains the Loss of Trenton, 121
Germantown, Battle of, 192
Glover, Gen., An American Commander at Saratoga, 181
Golden Hill, New York City, First Blood of the Revolution, 5
Greene, Nathaniel, Col., At Cambridge, 42
Gen. (Promoted), At Harlem Heights, 72
Putnam Explains to Him Loss of Battle of Long Island, 72
In Camp West of the Delaware, 99
At Brandywine, 148-54
Guards, To Provost- Marshal Cunningham, 79
Who Bind Nathan Hale, 87
H
Hale, Nathan, A Prisoner to Cunningham, 86
His Execution as a Spy, 86-87
Hampden Hall, Meeting Place of Patriots in New York City, 5
Hanau, Prince of, Sells Troops to England, 50
Hancock, John, A Son of Liberty, 6
Excepted in Gage's Pardon, 61
Hardy, Old Fort, Place of Surrender at Saratoga, 194
Harlem Heights, Battle of, 76, 91
Harris, Lieut., English, At Lexington, 26
Harrison, Benj., Commissioner of Congress at Cambridge, 40
Henry, Patrick, Denounced by Gen. Gage, 2
His Oration, Liberty or Death, at Richmond, Va., 21
Herkimer, Nicholas, Gen., Killed at Fort Stanwix, 142
Hervy, Lieut., (English) Officer Killed at Saratoga, 172
Hessian Officer at Battle of Long Island, 70-71
Hillsborough, Lord, Interview with Franklin, 14-18
Hitchcock, Gen., At Princeton, no
Hon Yost Schuyler, Spy for Arnold at Fort Stanwix, 141
Howe, Robert, Lord, Admiral, Interview with Franklin, 14-19
Admiral, At Battle of Long Island, 69-73
Howe, Sir William, Gen., At Bunker Hill, 34
At Battle of Long Island, 69-73
At New York, 74-133
Calls for Ten Thousand More Troops, 122
Refuses to Help Gen. Burgoyne, 133
Resolves to Attack Philadelphia, 133
INDEX. 207
Howe, Sir William, Gen., Indignant that Burgoyne should be Placed
over Him, 133, 134
Refuses Battle to Washington in New Jersey, 135
At Brandy wine, 153
Independence, Record of Vote for, 61, 62
Declaration of, Signed, 66
" " Proclaimed, 67
Indian Witch, Mother Yost, 157
Indians (Savages), at Bennington, 146
They Murder Jane McCrea, 164
The Cherokees Defeaied, 59
They Cause the Dtfeat of St. Leger at Fort Stanwix, 141
(Americans Disguised as Mohawks), Destroy the Tea in Bos-
ton Harbor, 10
Jefferson. Thomas, Author of Declaration of Independence, 61
Jail, the New (Hall of Records, N. Y. City), One of Cunningham's
Prisons. 79
Joseph, King of Austria, Refuses to See in Paris the Agents of the
Revolt, 113
K
Keepers, To Provos'-Marshal Cunningham, 79, 80
King George III. (See George III.)
Interview with Franklin, 14-18
Enraged at Catherine of Russia, 52
Hears News of Trenton, 121
Approves the Plan to Attack Albany, 122
Names Burgoyne to a Command, 123
Names St. Leger to a Command, 123
Kingsbridge, Gen. Lee heie Withheld Troops from Washington, 94
King Louis XVI. of Fiance, Interview wuh His Minuter Vergennes,
112-15
Helps the Colonies because He Must, 114
Knowlton, Thomas, Major, At Bunker Hill, 35
Killed at Harlem Heights, 76
Knox, Henry Capt., At Cambridge, 42
Gen. (Promoted), In Camp West of the Delaware, 99
At Trenton, 106
Kosciuszko, Thaddeus Gen., Engineer on Bemis Heights, 156
Knyphausen, Gen., at Brandy wine, 151
208 INDEX.
Lafayette, Marquis, Interview with Franklin, 118
Will Pay for his Transportation, lig
His Reasons for Aiding America, 120
At Bran-fywine, Wounded, 153
Landgrave of He«e Cassel (see Frederick II.) Sells Troops to Eng-
land, 45-52
Lamed, Gen., an American Commander at Saratoga, 181
Lee, Charles, Gen., at Baskingricge, N. J., 88-98
Accused as a Traitor at Baskingridge, 89
Refused to Obey Orders of Washington, 91
Diverted Troops from Washington, 95
Soliloquy at Ba>kingridge, 96
Made Prisoner at Baskingridge, 98
Cringing Cowardice when Made Prisoner, 98
Leitch, Major, Killed at Harlem Heights, 76
Lexington, The Battle of, 26-31
The First Shot at the " Meeting House," 28
Rout of the British Troops, 30
Livingston, Col., An American Officer at Saratoga, 173
Lincoln, Benj., Gen., An American Officer at Saratoga, 176
Interview with Arnold at Saratoga, 176-79
Louis XVI. , King of France (see King Louis XVI.)
Long Island, The Battle of, 69
Lovelace, A Tory, Hung as a Spy at Saratoga, 158
Lynch, Thomas, A Commissioner of Congress to Cambridge, 40
M
Militiaman, American, at Lexington, 31
McCrea, Jane, Murdered by Indians, 164
Mercer, Hugh, Gen., in Camp West of the Delaware, 99
Gen., At Trenton, 106
Killed at Princeton, no
Messenger to Arnold from Fort Stanwix, 140
Middlesex Co., near Boston, 9
Middlebrook, Camp of Washington, 126
Ministry, British, and King, Plan to Capture Albany, 122
Mohawk Indians (Americans Disguised as such) Destroy the Tea, 10
Morgan, Dan, Gen., His Riflemen at Saratoga, 171
Orders the Death of Fraser at Saratoga, 183
Morristown, Camp of Washington, 128
Montgomery, Richard, Gen., at Montreal, 44
Death of before Quebec, 59
Fort, Captured by Sir Henry Clinton, 194
Moultrie, Fort, Battle of, 59
Mowat, Capt., Burns Falmouth, 41
Murray, (Mary Lindley) Robert, Mrs., Detained Howe in New York
after Battle of Long Island, 74
INDEX. 209
N
Nixon, Gen., An American Commander at Saratoga, 181
North, Lord, Prime Minister of George III., Interview with Frank-
lin, 14-18
Approves of the Purchase of Troops, 51, 52
Suggests Burgoyne to Command, 122
Old South Church, Boston, 8
Orderly to Putnam, Bunker Hill, 33, 35, 36, 37
" Old Rocks," the Rifle of Farmer" Dick, 25
Officer, Hessian, At Battle of Long Island, 70
, On the Social Standing of Americans, 71
In Revelry with Rail at Trenton, 103
Oriskany, Battle of, or Fort Stanwix, 140
Peekskill, Loss of Stores, 130
Percy, Hugh, Lord, Gen., Rescues the British at Lexington, 31
Pigot, Gen., At Bunker Hill, 34
Pitcairn, Major, His Orders at Lexington, 29
Pitt, William, Referred to by Lord North as a Friend to America, 15
Philadelphia, Cornwallis Enters, 154
Phillips, English General at Saratoga, 179
Poor, Gen., An American Commander at Saratoga, 181
Prescott, William, Col., At Bunker Hill, 32
Preston, Capt., Commands Troops at Boston Massacre, 5
Princeton, Washington's Plan to Strike, 108
Battle of, 109
Prisoner, To Putnam at Bunker Hill, 34
Prisoners of Provost-Marshal Cunningham, 82, 83
Putnam, Israel, Gen., At Bunker Hill, 32
Tells Prescott to get Bullets from the Stones at Bunker Hill,
34
Apostrophe to Warren (Dead) at Bunker Hill, 35
Alarm for Want of Powder at Bunker Hill, 36
Orders Soldiers to use Butts of Muskets at Bunker Hill, 37
At Harlem Heights Curses Congress ; Explains to Greene
Battle of Long Island, 72-79
— At Trenton, 108
— At Princeton, ill
— Loss of Peekskill, 130
Beaten by Sir Henry Clinton on the Hudson, 194
Pulaski, Gen., At Brandywine, 149
210 INDEX.
Rabbit Hunters, At Lexington, 30
Rail, Col., At Battle of Long Island, 69-73
In Command at Trenton, 102
In Revelry at Trenton, 102
Disregards Report of Washington's Approach, 103-4
Gives his Sword to Washington, 106
Killed at Trenton, 106
Revere, Paul, His Ride to Lexington and Concord, 25
Richmond, Va., Meeting of Two Aged Citizens at, 19
Riedesel, Frederick, Gen., At Three Rivers, 136
At Saratoga, 173
Advises Burgoyne to Retreat, 179
Madam, At Saratoga, 160-65
Receives the Wounded at Saratoga, 184
Rutledge, Edward, Before Independence Hall, 58
Quarrel with Samuel Adams, 65
St. Leger, Named by the King to Command Mohawk Expedition,
123
Defeat and Retreat from Fort Stanwix, 140, 141
Saratoga, The Two Battles, First, 170, Second, 180
Scammel, Col., At Saratoga, An American Officer, 171
Schuyler, Philip, Gen., Sent Troops to Washington, 94
Gates Intrigues Against Him, 130
Gives Gates Command at Albany, 147, 148
At Surrender at Saratoga, 191
Sears, Isaac, Leader of Sons of Liberty of New York City, 6
Sergeant, English, At Lexington, 28
Ships, Tea, Boston Harbor, 10
Sons of Liberty, Patriots of Revolution, 5
Soldiers, To Provost Marshal Cunningham, 80, 81, 82
— Who Bind Mother Yost, 157
Speakers, At the Tea Ships, Boston Harbor, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Standish (Farmer Dick), At Tea Ships, 9
On Watch near Boston for the Signal in the Church Steeple,
23
At Lexington, 31
Prisoner to Cunningham, 82
• Tells His Dream to Cunningham, 84
Capt. (Promoted), At Baskingridge, 88
— Accuses Lee of Treason at Baskingidge. 89
Orders from Washington to Gen. Lee, 89
Col. (Promoted), For Danbury, 128
At Camp at Middlebrook, 126-33
Ordered by Washington to Saratoga, 132
INDEX. 211
Standish, Col., With Arnold at Fort Stanwix, 140
At Saratoga, 169-77
Describes Arnold at Saratoga, Second Battle, 187
Stanwix, Fort, Battle of and Retreat of St. Leger, 140-43
Stark, John, Gen., At Bunker Hill, 33
In Camp West of the Delaware, 99
At Trenton, 105
Angry at Neglect by Congress, 127
At Bennington, 145
Sterling, Alexander, Gen., At Long Island, 70
Stormont, Lord, English Embassador to France, The Sport of Ver-
gennes and Franklin, 112-19
Strover, A Scout to Gates, 169
Sullivan, John, Gen., In Camp West of the Delaware, 99
At Trenton, 105
At Brandy wine, 148, 149, 150
Taylor House, Saratoga, In British Lines, 160
Tea, Destroyed in Boston Harbor, 10
Three Rivers, Canada, Carleton, 136
Ticonderoga, Gives Guns and Powder to Camp at Cambridge, 43
Trenton, Plan of Battle Explained, 99
Officers Refuse to Stand by Plans of Washington, 101
Rail in Revelry at Trenton, 102
Countrymen Inform Rail at Trenton of Washington's March,
103
The Battle, 105
Washington Leads the Attack, 105
Terrific Snow Storm, 105
After Battle, Arrival of Cornwallis, 107
— Washington Again There, 108
Tryon, Gen., Defeated by Gen. Arnold at Danbury, 127
Von Schlieffen, Minister to Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, 47-52
Vergennes, Minister of Louis XVI. of France, 112-21
His Soliloquy, 112
Interview with Louis XVI., 112-15
Interview With Benjamin Franklin, 116-21
w
Warner, Seth, Col., At Bennington, 146
Warren, Joseph, Gen., Spoken of at Tea Riot, 9
At Bunker Hill, 33
Killed at Bunker Hill, 35
212 INDEX,
Waldeck, Prince of, Sells Troops to England, 50
Warriors, Savage, At Bennington, 146
Washington, George, Gen., Takes Command at Cambridge, 38
Recounts the Wants of the Army, 38
Commissioners to His Camp from Congress Form a Plan of
Relief, 40
At Harlem Heights, 72
An Attempt to Poison Him, 77
Makes Known the Mission of Nathan Hale, 78
His Retreat across New Jersey, 93, 94, 95
In Camp West of the Delaware, 99
Resolves to Attack Trenton, if he Does so Alone, IOI
The Pledge with the Swords, 102
At Trenton, The Battle, 105
Again at Trenton, 108
Eludes Corawallis at Trenton, 108
At Princeton, 109
Over the Body of Gen. Mercer, in
Orders Camp at Morristown, in
In Camp at Middlebrook, 126
Interview with Gen. Arnold at Middlebrook, 128-33
At Middlebrook, Orders Arnold to Saratoga, 132
At Brandy wine, 150-54
Distress at Sullivan's Failure, 152
Leads the Troops of Greene, 1 54
At Germantown, 192
Washington, Fort, Its Fall, 93
Wayne, Anthony, Gen., Opposed Cornwallis at Brandy wine, 155
White Plains, Battle of, 72, 91
Wilkinson, Col., Aid to Gates at Saratoga, 183
Williams, Gen., An English Officer, Killed at Saratoga, 184
Witherspoon, John, Before Independence Hall, 58
Wooster, Daniel, Gen., Killed at Danbury, 127
Yankee Doodle, Sung Before Independence Hall, 66
Yost, Hon Schuyler, a Decoy of Arnold to St. Leger, 141
Yost, Mother, an Indian Witch, Prisoner to Arnold on Bemis
Heights, 157
Interview with Madam Riedesel, Burgoyne, and Others, at
Saratoga, 162-64
Interview with Arnold at Devil's Glen, 165-69
Defying the Lightning at Devil's Glen, 165
Informs Arnold of Burgoyne at Devil's Glen, 166-67
Tells Arnold his Fortune at Devil's Glen, 168
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zh | N/A | N/A | **见证家乡石油城的绿色转型**
十年弹指一挥间，我们不仅再度拥有了湛蓝的天空、清澈的河流、新鲜的空气，社会方方面面也正变得更美好，生活更幸福、城市更现代、生态更和谐、环境更宜居。
文王若昕
我的家乡在山东省东营市，黄河滚滚而来，与渤海湾在此交汇，造就了黄蓝交界的奇观和风光旖旎的黄河三角洲湿地。同时，它也是一座因石油而兴的年轻城市，1961年，这里打出了第一口工业油流井干-——华八井，标志着胜利油田被发现；3年后，华北石油勘探会战打响，来自全国各地的石油工人汇集而来，油田建设拉开序幕。
作为“油三代”家庭的孩子，我最早听说的故事就是姥爷姥姥从大西北千里迁徙至东营的经历。半个世纪里，石油人浴血奋斗，用一口口喷薄的油井坚守为祖国献石油的初心，不但为祖国摘掉了“贫油国”的帽子，还在盐碱滩涂上建起现代化都市。激情燃烧的建设岁月里，空气中时常有呛人的味道，而人们习焉不察。
及至10年前的2012年，家乡的石油化工产业迎来了辉煌的顶点，重度污染下的生活也日渐逼仄。城市西南方的化工产业园规模庞大，炼油装置鳞次栉比，塔身上连绵成片的立杆灯明亮耀眼，塔顶的红色夜航灯闪烁跳动，夜深时偶尔能看到烟囱火炬在熊熊燃烧，高度发达的机械大都会画面跃然眼前。粗粝的
机械心脏日夜运转，维系着工业社会的脉搏，异常刺鼻的空气，粗暴地钻进门窗紧闭的房间、车厢，令人无处可逃。
当时我在念初中，印象里每逢冬去春来，雾霾就会如约而至，返青的绿化带和行道树上总是蒙着一层薄灰，让人忘记了新绿的色彩。父亲回忆中可以游泳和捕虾的小河泛起了泡沫，灰色的天空倒映在绿色的河面上，宛如颓废的油画。周末去城区周边钓鱼的爷爷，为了钓到鱼，只能越走越偏远，“期盼环境尽早修复”经常挂在他嘴边。
民之所盼，政之所向。就在那年，党的十八大将生态文明建设纳人“五位一体”总体布局，习近平总书记明确提出“人民对美好生活的向往，就是我们的奋斗目标”。在政策引领下，经过几年的不懈努力，家乡的环境质量明显好转。2018年度的东营市城区环境空气质量监测数据显示，当年环境空气质量综合指数下降幅度居全省第一。重污染天气少了，街头和公园里运动的人多了，城市的精气神又回来了。良好的空气质量增强了城市发展的信心，黄河口(东营)国际马拉松赛成为城市形象的新名片，这个经国际田联评定的“金标赛事”
每年吸引着70多个参赛国家的3万余名参赛选手，在跑友圈享有盛誉。
绿水青山就是金山银山，家乡以壮士断腕的决心和创新智慧，探索出加快推动产业转型升级与绿色低碳发展有机融合的道路。
制定重污染天气应急体系，更新应急减排清单，严格落实减排措施，推行“一行一策”“一企一策”整治方案，科学精准指导污染防治，在重点点位设立大气污染监测设备并接入网络，确保实时全天候监督，切实保障整改力度…··
营二井纪念基地，作为胜利油田的发源地之一，前些年还只有陈旧的设备遗存和纪念碑，如今在传承“油城记忆”的同时，增设了风光热储多能互补设施，若从空中俯瞰，黄河岸边成片的太阳能光伏板覆盖在以油井为中心的大地上，将光能转化为电能、热能，不远处硕大的风力发电机缓缓旋转，向城市输出着清洁能源。
类似的新能源项目不仅盘活了空置场地和资源，而且相较于传统火电，在运行、维护等方面的投资成本均有明显优势，可以有效减轻大气污染，节约淡水资源，减少燃煤电厂产生的噪声及燃
料、灰渣运输处置对环境和生态的影响。
打赢污染防治攻坚战，实现绿色共享创新发展，离不开顶层设计与严格监管，更离不开千千万万劳动者的智慧与拼搏。记得高中那几年，父亲总是加班到深夜，我学业紧张，一直没顾上询问他的加班原因。直到某天，父亲终于有空回家吃饭，突然在饭桌上说起生产硫酸铵化肥的事，这跟我印象里他的工作并不相关，我起初还以为是他换了工作，听着听着才明白，原来高强度的加班是为了安装脱硫脱硝装置，以使锅炉烟气中的有害物质转化为工业副产品硫酸铵。这种产品既可以直接作为化肥使用，也可以送入化肥厂进行再加工，最后播撒到全国各地的田野上，化作风中摇曳的稻穗、充盈饱满的谷粒和农民丰收的喜悦。那天，我忽然觉得，每天和各种机器打交道的老爸其实也很浪漫，只是
不善言辞的他选择和伙伴们一起，把沉默的诗篇写进了排放达标的设备里和持续明朗的蓝天上。
雄关漫道真如铁，而今迈步从头越。片面索取自然资源图发展的老路不会长久，我们必须走出一条人与自然和谐共生的新路。胜利油田作为东营这片热土最初的建设者，而今转型成为绿色低碳发展的探路者。
离开城区，在远郊的黄河三角洲国家级自然保护区内，道路两旁一度矗立着许多石油钻井设施，抽油机与芦苇荡在夕阳下的剪影曾是独到的工业景致。如今，随着环保力度的加大，油水井生产设施悉数撤出，2017年以来，保护区内湿地面积增加188平方公里、增长了12.3%，昔日盐碱滩，真正成为生物多样性富集的大湿地。每年来过冬的候鸟越来越多，湿地“候鸟的国际机场”的
美誉传扬四海，仅在他处难得一见的国家一级保护动物丹顶鹤，就有数百只之多，它们在这里成群结队，自由自在地觅食、飞翔、打闹，引得大量摄影师和游客前来打卡拍摄。
十年弹指一挥间，我们不仅再度拥有了湛蓝的天空、清澈的河流、新鲜的空气，社会方方面面也正变得更美好，生活更幸福、城市更现代、生态更和谐、环境更宜居。作为“油三代”的我即将接过家乡建设的重任，我深知久久为功、驰而不息的道理。每个人的奔跑与奋斗、失落与荣耀，时间自会给出答案。
**作者为青岛大学文学与新闻传播学院新闻系硕士研究生**
**责任编辑：王哲** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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author: Matthew Berkeley Hill
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■'. -■ " . • • .■
*,:
ESSENTIALS OF BANDAGING.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
SYPHILIS,
AND LOCAL CONTAGIOUS DISORDERS.
By BERKELEY HrLL, M.B. Lond., P.R.C.S.,
Surgeon to University College and to the Lock Hospitals.
Demy 8vo. 16*.
LONDON :
SMITH, ELDER, & CO., 15, WATERLOO PLACE.
THE
ESSENTIALS OF BANDAGING;
FOR MANAGING FRACTURES AND
DISLOCATIONS:
FOR ADMINISTERING ETHER AND CHLOROFORM, AND
FOR USING OTHER SURGICAL APPARATUS.
ILLUSTRATED BY 126 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
BERKELEY HILL,
THIRD EDITION.
Sl> 111' A SXW CSSPIMM OH BVMQ1C ' t L
2- 7*1
LONDON:
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
PEEFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
When preparing a Third Edition, I have en-
deavoured to maintain the usefulness of this little
book, by remedying omissions, and by adding
new instructions where such appeared desirable.
With this object, I have inserted a new chapter ;
where are collected together the various land-
marks and rallying points which may be detected
on the surface of the body, and employed in exa-
mining injuries and diseases of the deeper parts.
In collecting these landmarks, I have availed
myself freely of Mr. Holden's article in the St.
Bartholomew's Hospital Reports, and of Mr. Bel-
lamy's work on Surgical Anatomy.
In the Appendix are lists of the preparations
requisite for the sick-room and for the operating
theatre ; lists also of the instruments and ap-
pliances needful, or probably wanted, fot -^et-
VI PREFACE.
forming ordinary operations. It is hoped that
they will help the dresser or assistant to check
his preparations before the operation commences.
I again owe to Mr. Clover's kindness his re-
vision of the instructions for administering ether,
which have been added to those for chloroform,
contained in earlier editions. I need not add
that this is a sufficient guarantee for their
correctness.
Mr. A. W. Meredith has carefully revised with
me the whole text, and has re-written the de-
scription of Anti-septic dressings, to bring it into
accord with the latest improvements in that mode
of treating wounds.
Several new drawings have been furnished by
Mr. Sherwin.
55, Wimpole Street,
April, 1876.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
BANDAGING.
PAGE
General rules. — Different materials of bandages. — Position of
the operator. — Mode of holding the bandage. — Varieties
of turns ; the simple spiral ; the reverse ; the figure of 8 1 — 4
Bandaging the head. — The common roller — The knotted
bandage. — The capelline bandage. — The shawl cap. — The
four-tail bandage. — Fastening ice bladders to the head.
— -Compressing the jugular vein 4—9
Bandaging the trunk. — The breast. — The groin. — After
operation for hernia. — For tapping the belly. — The T-
bandage. — The strait jacket. — Manacles for delirious
patients. — To suspend the testicles . . . 9 — 14
Bandaging the upper extremity. — The fingers. — The thumb.
— The hand. — The fore-arm. — The elbow. — The shoulder.
— The axilla. — Wound of the palmar arch. — Bleeding at
the elbow 14—21
Bandaging the lower extremity. — The foot. — The leg. — The
thigh. — The heel.— The toe. — The knee. — A stump. —
Extending a stump. — The many-tailed bandage. — Elas-
tic socks *L\-^
VUl CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
STRAPPING.
PAOE
General rules. —Strapping the breast. — The testes. — Ulcer-
ated legs.— Joints. — The ankle. — Scott's mercurial dress-
ing 25—30
CHAPTER III.
TREATMENT OF FRACTURES.
The head and trwnk. — Of the lower jaw ; by the external
splint and bandage ; by interdental splints, Morrell
Lavallee's plan.— Of the ribs ; by plaster ; by a body
roller.— Of the pelvis 31—36
The upper extremity. — Of metacarpal bones ; by a gutta-
percha glove ; by a ball of tow. — Of phalanges. — Of the
lower end of the radius ; by the pistol splint ; by the
gutta-percha gauntlet. — Of both bones of the forearm. —
Of the olecranon ; by figures of 8 and an inside splint ;
by Hamilton's plan. — Of the humerus near the elbow ;
by lateral hollowed splints ; by a gutta-percha L-shaped
splint. — Stromeyer's cushion. — Of the shaft of the
humerus. — Of the anatomical or surgical neck, and of
the great tuberosity of the humerus, by a cap for the
shoulder ; by simple confinement. — Of the acromion.—
Of the clavicle ; by an axillary pad and elevation of the
elbow ; the American ring pad ; by strapping plaster ;
by a figure of 8 behind the back .... 36—60
The lower extremity. — Rupture of the tendo Achillis. — Sepa-
ration of the epiphysis of the os calcis. — Fracture of
the fibula, by Dupuytren's splint. — Of the tibia, by
Mclntyre's splint ; slinging the splint ; elevating it on a
block. — Transverse fracture of the tibia, by lateral
splints ; in the flexed position ; by horse-shoe anterior
splint. — Of the patella ; by back splint and figure of 8 ;
by starch ; bandage. — Of the shaft of the femur; by
CONTENTS. IX
PAGE
Liston's mode of using the long splint ; by using elastic
extension ; Coxeter's elastic perineal band ; elastic stir-
nip ; the Scotch method ; by continuous extension with '
the limb bent ; tendency to angular union ; double in-
cline planes-; slinging the double incline planes in frac-
ture of the neck of the femur ; by continuous extension
of weight and pulley 60 — 85
The starch bandage. — The plaster of paris bandage. — Plaster
of paris splint. — Gum and chalk and other stiffening
mixtures. — Sand-bags.— Cradles ; Salter's swing cradle ;
Canopy cradle 85 — 95
Leather splints ; Splint for the hip.— Poro-plastic felt. —
Gooch's flexible splint 95 — 8
CHAPTER IV.
DISLOCATIONS.
General rules. — Of the lower jaw. — Of the clavicle. — Of the
shoulder ; signs of dislocation into the axilla ; when be-
neath the clavicle ; when behind the scapula. Modes of
reduction ; by the heel in the axilla ; the clove-hitch
knot ; by simple extension.— -Of the elbow, signs when
both bones go backwards ; distinctions between disloca-
tion and fracture near the elbow ; the mode of reduction
by the knee inside the fore-arm ; by extension at the
wrist. — Of the radius only, by extension at the wrist. —
Of the thumb and fingers ; handle for commanding the
phalanx. — At the hip ; signs of dislocation backwards,
reduction by extension ; by manipulation or leverage ;
signs of dislocation downwards, mode of reduction ;
signs of dislocation on to the pubes, mode of reduction.
— Of the knee ; incomplete, lateral, and posterior ; mode
of reduction. — Of the patella, mode of reduction. — Of
the foot, mode of reduction .... 99 — 115
Scarpa's shoes. — Points to be attended to in fitting the shoe.
— Casting in plaster of paris . 1\$ — \\&
X CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V.
MISCELLANEOUS.
p
The hair suture. — The eye douche, drops for the eye. —
Syringing the ears. —Nasal douche ; Epistaxis ; Ice-cold
injection ; Plugging the nares ; Belloc's sound. — Draw-
ing teeth ; varieties of forceps ; extracting incisors and
canines, bicuspids, upper molars, lower molars, wisdom
molars, roots ; the elevator. — Stopping bleeding after
extraction. — Sore nipples ; nipple shields. — Plugging
the vagina ; Kite's tail-plug for vagina. — Injecting
the urethra. — Catheters, silver ; different kinds of
flexible catheters and bougies ; sounds. — Passing
catheters and bougies ; conformation of the urethra ;
difficulties ; passing the female catheter. — Washing
out the bladder. — Tying in catheters. — Position for
lithotomy. — Bed-sores, applications to prevent the
formation of bed-sores ; the floating-bed ; the water-
cushion. — The coin-catcher. — The stomach pump, when
used to empty the stomach or to inject food. — Transfu-
sion of blood ; precautions ; mode of using the appa-
ratus. — Tourniquets ; Petit' s ; make-shift ; Bloodless
operations ; Elastic tourniquets ; Signoroni's ; King ;
Lister's ; Carte's. — Mercurial fumigation ; general ;
local. — Hot air baths. — Vapour baths. — The aspirator.
— Cupping. — Leeches. — Stopping leech bites. — Tents. —
Setons. — Drainage tubes. — Issues. — Trusses, require-
ments of, inguinal, femoral, umbilical, Salmon and Ody's.
— Cauteries, iron ; galvanic. — Caustics. — Vesicants,
mustard, cantharides, iodine. — Corrigan's hammer. —
Poultices and fomentations. — Lister's mode of dressing
with carbolic acid ; chloride of zinc ; Volkmann's spoon.
— Boracic acid; salicylic acid. — Irrigation coiL — Es-
march's irrigator. — Administration of chloroform, pre-
cautions; dangers; methods; Clover's inhaler for ether. —
Artificial respiration. — Local anaesthesia. — Ether spray,
pulverised fluids. — Chloroform vapour to the uterus. —
Subcutaneous injection. — Collodion. — Vaccination 119 — 2
CONTENTS. XI
CHAPTER VI.
SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
PAGE
The Head, cranial region ; facial region ; cavity of the nose ;
of the mouth. — The Neck, anterior region ; lateral region ;
posterior region. — The Thorax, the front; the heart;
the longs ; the great vessels ; attachment of the dia-
phragm ; region for tapping : The back, origin of the
spinal nerves ; situation of the great plexuses ; distri-
bution of main cords. — The Abdomen ; position for
examining. Surface marks in front ; Linea alba, parts
it overlies ; position of gravid uterus at different periods ;
Operations performed in linea alba. — Regions of the ab-
domen ; arrangement of viscera therein ; abdominal
aorta ; its chief branches. — Inguinal hernia ; land-
marks of scrotal tumours. Femoral hernia ; employment
of taxis. — Fold of the groin. — The Perin«um ; limits,
contents. — Examining the rectum ; parts to be felt
therein. — The Upper Extremity, the shoulder surface-
marks ; the alterations of shape produced by injuries ;
mode of examination. — The Arm. — The Elbow ; bony
landmarks ; hollow in front of the elbow ; alterations of
shape through injury. — The Fore-arm. — The Wrist;
landmarks. — The back of the Hand ; the Palm ; the
Fingers. — The Lower Extremity.-— The Groin, the Hip,
the Buttock ; their bony landmarks, Dislocation and Frac-
ture ; Nelaton's line ; Bryant's rule ; change in shape of
soft parts from disease. — The Femoral Artery. — The
gluteal, the ischiatic, the pudic arteries. — The knee ; the
patella, the ham ; the tumours of the ham. — The Leg ;
the calf. — The ankle.— The foot; landmarks of the
foot. .... 211—272
Xll CONTENTS.
APPENDIX.
Pi
List of Appliances for the Operating Room and the
Sick Room. — List of Sedatives and Restoratives.
— For the arrest of Hemorrhage . . 273 — 2
List of Instruments employed in Operations —
On the Head and Neck,
Trephining the skulL — Operations on the eye.— Hare-lip —
Resection of the jaw. — Excision of the tongue. — Cleft
palate. — Excision of tonsils. — Laryngotomy. — Tracheo-
tomy ........ 278 — 2
On the Trunk.
Removal of breast or tumours. — Naevus. — Tapping the pleura.
— Tapping the belly. — Colotomy. — Ovariotomy. — Caesa-
rian section. — Strangulated hernia. — Radical cure of
hernia. — Haemorrhoids. — Fistula in ano. — Cleft peri-
naeum. — Extirpation of the cervix uteri. — Amputation
of the penis. — Circumcision. — Excision of testis. — Tap-
ping a hydrocele. — Vesico- vaginal fistula. — Retention of
urine. — External urethrotomy. — lithotomy. — Litho-
trity. — For removing foreign bodies from the urethra
and bladder . 282—2
On the Limbs.
Ligature of the larger arteries. — Resections : of the head of
the humerus, the elbow, the hip, the knee. — Removal of
necrosed bone. — Amputations : at the shoulder-joint ;
arm ; fore-arm and wrist ; metacarpus ; hip ; thigh
and leg ; Syme and Chopart's operation ; metatarsus
and toes . 291—2
THE
ESSENTIALS OF BANDAGING,
&C.
CHAPTER I.
BANDAGING.
General Rules. — Ordinary bandages are strips of
unbleached calico 6 or 8 yards long, having a breadth
of f inch for the fingers and toes, 2, or 2 J inches for
the upper limb, 3 inches for the lower limb, and 6
inches for the body. These, when tightly rolled for
use, are termed rollers. Besides these rollers for
general use there are special bandages, such as rollers
of muslin for using with plaster of Paris, of stocking-
webbing when elasticity is needed ; or, of Welsh or
domett flannel for irritable skins.
The annexed figure on page 2 depicts a small winder
for rolling bandages, invented by Mr. Clover, and im-
proved by Mr. Coxeter.
Position of the Operator. — He should place himself
opposite his patient, not at the side of- the \\m\> ta \&
2 BANDAGING.
bandaged; the limb too should be bent to the position
it will occupy when the bandage is completed.
Before applying any kind of apparatus, the surgeon
should see that the limb is carefully washed and
dried.
Boa to hold a Roller. — When applying a roller it
is best to begin by placing the outer surface of the
Tig. 1. — Bandage
roller next the skin (see fig. 3, page 4), for h then
unwinds more readily, and the first turns are more
easily secured ; moreover the bandage should be carried
from the inner side of the limb by the front to the
outer side, for the muscles are thuH more firmly and
pleasantly confined than by turns passing in the
opposite direction ; of course this observation supposes
GENERAL RUMS.
Tfche patient's hand and forearm to be in their usual
position of sezni-pronation.
Varieties of Turns. — In Carrying a bandage up a
limb, it is necessary, in order to support the parts
evenly, to employ a combination of three different
turns. The simple spired, reverse, and the figure of 8.
The simple spiral turn is used only where the cir-
cumference of the part increases slightly, as the wrist ;
but when the limb enlarges too fast to allow the fresh
turn to overlap the previous one regularly, the turn
must be interrupted, and the bandage brought back
again by reverse, or by figure of 8.
To reverse the bandage, the thumb of the unoc-
cupied hand fixes the lower border of the bandage at
Fig. 2.— Reversing a roller.
the highest point of the turn while the roller is turned
over in the other hand, and then passed downwards to
overlap the previous turn evenly. At the moment of
reversing (see fig. 2), the bandage should be held quite
slack, and not unrolled more than is necessarj to ms&&
B 7.
4
BANDAGING.
the reverse. All the reverses must be carried one
above the other along the
outer side of the limb,
and only employed where
really necessary.
Figures of 8 are made,
as their name implies, by
passing the roller alter-
nately upwards and down-
wards as it enwraps the
limb (see fig. 3). They are
adopted where the enlarge-
ment is too great and
irregular for reverses to lie evenly, over the ankle
and elbow joint for instance.
Pig. 3.— Figure of 8 turn.
THE HEAD.
Bandages for the Head. — A roller is commonly
applied in three different ways to the head. 1st. For
keeping simple dressings in place.
Apparatus. — 1. A roller 2 inches wide, and of the
usual length. 2. Some pins.
A turn is first carried round the head, above the brows
and below the occipital protuberance, and fastened by
a pin ; this being done, the roller is carried across the
dressing, and getting into the line of the first turn, is
passed round the head again, then across the dressing
and round the head by oblique and horizontal turns
alternately, the latter to fix the former, and prevent them
from slipping off the dressing (see fig. 4). In the figure
KNOTTED BANDAGE.
Fig. 4.— Bandage for retaining
dressings in position, showing
two sets of oblique turns.
the oblique turns have been doubled, and would fix
dressings on each side of the head. The shawl cap and
fourtail bandage are also
used to keep dressings in
place (see p. 7).
Knotted Bandage. —
This is used when pressure
on the superficial temporal
artery is required.
Apparatus. — 1. A band-
age 8 yards long, 2 inches
wide, rolled into 2 heads.
2. Some lint. 3. A piece
of a wine cork one-third of
an inch thick. 4. Needle,
thread, and pins.
The cork is folded in a double thickness of lint;
over this are placed six or eight more folds of lint of
gradually increasing size, and the whole are kept in
shape by a stitch passed through them and through
the cork. When the corners are trimmed away this
forms a graduated compress, and is laid on the wound
with the small end downwards.
One head of the roller is taken in each hand, its
middle laid over the compress on the injured temple,
say the right; the ends are carried round the head,
one just above the eyebrows to the left temple, and
the other backwards below the occipital protuberance
to the same point ; the ends are then crossed and
changed from one hand to the other to be brought to
the wounded temple. Here they are again tightly
crossed, one end being carried under the chin sjq&\fj
BANDAGING.
Fig. S.-
id Bandage.
the left side to the vertex, there meeting the other end,
which has passed over the
head in the opposite direo-
tion (see fig. 5). Here the
hands again change ends,
and the bandaging ia
continued till each end
\ reaches the right temple.
There they are again crossed
or " knotted," but this time
they are passed horizontally
round the head. Having
done this the ends are
pinned and cut off, or if
necessary the kuots are repeated before fastening ; but
the firgt pair, if tightly drawn, suffice as well as several
To insure firm pressure, care should be taken that
each " knot " overlies its
predecessor.
The Capelline
Bandage is rarely re-
quired, but is used when
the restlessness of the
patient renders it difficult
to keep dressings or ice-
bags in their pi ace.
It is also the bandage
employed to keep the
dressings on the stump of
Fig. ft— Capelline Bandage. a \\xab.
Apparatun. — 1. A double-headed roller, 2 inches wide
and 12 yards long. 2. Some pins.
SHAWL CAP.
The middle of the roller is laid against the forehead
just above the brows, and the ends passed behind the
occiput, where they are crossed. After this, one end
continues to encircle the head horizontally, fastening
down at the forehead and occiput alternately the other
end of the roller as it goes forwards and backwards.
The second head of the bandage, starting from the
occiput, is brought over the top along the middle to
the bridge of the nose, and passes under the encircling
turn, which fixes it. It is then carried back to the
occiput, on the right of the mesial band ; when again
fixed behind by the encircling turn, it is brought for-
ward on the left side of the mesial band and fixed in
front. This arrangement is repeated until the head is
covered in a closely fitting
cap (see fig. 6).
In beginning this band-
age, it is necessary to keep
the first circle low down,
close to the brows in front,
and below the occipital pro-
tuberance behind, or the
cap will not fit firmly over
the skull.
A Shawl Cap is readily
improvised with a silk
or cambric handkerchief
folded diagonally into a tri-
angle; the base of the triangle is then carried over
the brow, the apex let fall behind the occiput, where
the ends cross, and catching in the apex, come round
to the front to be tied on the forehead.
Fig. 7.— Shawl Cap.
'%
8 BANDAGING.
•. ./
The shawl cap is readily applied to retain dressings
on a stump.
The Four-tail Bandage.— Instead of applying the
handkerchief in the manner just described, it may be
split from each end to within six inches of the middle,
and so converted into a broad four-tail bandage ; the
middle is laid on the top of the head, the hinder ends
tied under the chin, and the forward ones behind the
nape of the neck. Or a piece of calico, 1£ yards long
and 6 inches wide, is split from each end 3 inches
short of the centre — one pair of tails being rather
wider than the other. If used on the face, the middle
is put against the point of the chin, the two narrow
tails are carried backwards to the nape, crossed, and
pinned together on the forehead above the brows.
The two broader tails are carried upwards in front of
the ears, where they turn round the two narrow tails,
to be either tied or pinned at the vertex. Four-tail
bandages are used elsewhere, as in the axilla, to keep
poultices in place, <fcc.
To apply Ice-Bladders to the Head. — This is
done by folding a thin napkin over the bladder, which
is then laid against the head or part to be kept cool,
and the ends of the napkin are pinned tightly down to
the pillow at each side. In this way the bag cannot
slip, and its weight is at the same time prevented from
pressing on the head.
To compress the Jugular Vein after bleeding.
— After venisection of the external jugular vein it is
requisite to keep a compress of lint on the wound.
This is done by fastening a f inch- wide bandage on the
neck with two simple turns ; it is then carried in a figure
BANDAGE FOR BREAST. - 9
*.
of 8 round the neck, across the compress and under the
armpit of the further side, and round the neck again.
If the figure of 8 is passed pretty firmly, sufficient
pressure is made to check bleeding without interfering
with the circulation through the vessels; the turns
round the neck of course must not be tight.
THE TRUNK.
To bandage the. Breast.
Apparatus. — 1. A roller 3 inches wide and 8 yards
long. 2. Pins.
The roller is first carried once round the waist below
the breast, beginning in front and passing towards the
sound side. When the bandage is fixed, the roller
ascends over the lower
part of the diseased
breast to the opposite
shoulder, and comes back
by the arm-pit to the
horizontal turn ; where
it passes round the
waist to fix the oblique
turn. The bandage is ~ ~ ^^^ for a Breast ;
continued by repeating
the oblique turns over the breast and shoulder, and
the horizontal turns round the body until the breast
is fully compressed. Each turn over the breast is
carried higher than the preceding one, and each turn
round the body overlaps the oblique one to keep it in
place (see fig. 8).
To bandage both Breasts. — This is readily done
10
BANDAGING.
by first bandaging one breast in the manner described :
then, having carried the roller over the shoulder of the
side already bandaged, bring it across the sternum and
under the second breast to the horizontal turns, which
it follows alternately with oblique ones, as was done
in bandaging the first breast. The only difference is,
that in compressing the first breast the bandage was
passed obliquely upwards, for the second it is carried
obliquely downwards over the breast.
Spica Bandage at the Groin.
Apparatus. — 1. A roller 2£ or 3 inches wide. 2.
Some pins.
Lay the end on the groin to be bandaged, carry the
roller between the great trochanter and the crista ilii
behind the pelvis to the other
side, passing there also be-
tween the crista ilii and tro-
chanter. Next take the roller
downwards in front of the
pubes and the injured groin,
outwards and round the thigh
below the trochanter to the
gluteal fold, and pass it up
between the thighs to the
groin, where the figure of 8 is
completed. More similar turns
are to be passed in the same
way round the body and
below the buttock (see fig. 9). At the groin the
turns should overlap, each lying a little above the
preceding turn. A pin, when the necessary number
of turns is completed, fastens down the end.
Fig. 9.— Spica for the Groin.
THE T BANDAGE. 11
Body bandage for tapping the Belly in Ascites.
— This is made of two thicknesses of stout flannel, 2
feet wide in the middle, where it forms a continuous
sheet for 18 inches, but beyond that it is split into
3 tails, 6 inches wide and 3 feet long. In the middle
line, 4 inches below the centre, is a round hole 2
inches across, through which the surgeon reaches the
skin to insert the trocar.
When in use, the middle of the bandage is placed in
front with the hole in the mesial line of the body,
and midway between the umbilicus and pubes ; the
ends of the right side are passed behind the back to the
left, interlacing with those from the left side. When
all is ready, an assistant standing on each side of the
bed pulls steadily on the ends to keep up continuous
pressure on the abdominal viscera as the fluid escapes.
After the fluid is evacuated the ends are wound
firmly round the body in front, while the puncture in
the wall of the belly is closed by a fold of lint attached
with a strip of plaster, or to prevent the troublesome
oozing of fluid which sometimes follows the operation,
a hair-lip pin may be inserted, and the edges thus
retained in apposition by a twisted silk suture.
The T Bandage is used to apply dressings, com-
presses, &c, to the anus or perinseum. A roller 3
inches wide is fastened by a couple of turns round the
pelvis, and then fixed by a pin at the middle line in
front. From this point the roller is carried tightly
over the dressings to the corresponding point behind,
and returned once or twice more until sufficient pres-
sure is gained, when it is fastened off. The bandage
may be prepared beforehand by sewing to the centre
12 BANDAGING.
of a strip of calico 3 inches wide and 1 J yards long, a
similar strip a yard [long in the shape of the letter T.
When applied, the longer strip is carried round
the body with the attached piece at the sacrum, and
made fast in front. The attached piece is then
brought tightly forward and fastened also in front.
The Strait Jacket is made of jean or stout can-
vas. It is cut long enough to reach below the waist,
around which a strong tape is carried to be drawn
tight and tied after the jacket is put on. The alcoves
are several inches longer than the arms, and their ends
can be drawn close by a long tape which runs in the
gathers ; a similar tape confines the garment round .
the neck, and it is tied behind by tapes down the
sides. When the jacket is to be put on a patient it
is first turned inside out, then one of the nurses or
assistants thrusts his own arms through the sleeves,
and facing the patient, invites him to shake hands.
Having thus obtained possession of the patient's hands,
TO SUSPEND THE TESTICLES. 13
he holds them fast while a second assistant, standing
behind the patient, pulls the jacket off the first assistant
on to the patient, whose hands are thus drawn through
the sleeves before he perceives the object of the
manoeuvre. The jacket is next tied round the neck
and behind, the tapes of the sleeves are carried round
the body, drawn tight till the arms are folded across
the chest, and fastened to the bed on each side, or tied
round the body.
Manaclesfor Delirious Patients. — Instead of the strait
jacket a double leathern muff is sometimes used to
restrain unruly patients. • It irritates them less, and is
far more easily applied (see fig. 10).
In wearing it the arms are crossed in front, and a
strap drawn tight round both wrists. Each hand is
thrust into a stout leathern glove, or muff, connected
with the wrist-strap, and capable of being tightened
over the fingers by a strap and buckle across the
glove.
To suspend the Testicles. — Suspensories are
made specially for this purpose, but a very efficient
one can be improvised with a pocket handkerchief and
a piece of bandage. The bandage is tied tightly round
the hips for a girdle, the handkerchief is folded three-
corner wise, and its longest side slipped behind the
testes, the ends being passed over the girdle (see fig.
11), and tied again behind the scrotum. The loose
apex of the handkerchief is drawn up in front over
the girdle and pinned to it, which is all that is re-
quired (see fig. 12).
When the patient is recumbent, the testes may be
supported by a strip of diachylon plaster ^ fe&\»\a&%
14
BANDAGING.
and 4 inches wide, passed across from hip to hip
underneath the scrotum and testes, which lie sup
ported on a shelf
Another way of raising the testes is to place a soft
Fig. 11.— Shawl Suspensory
for the Testes, in the first
stage of application.
Fig. 12.-— Suspensory for
Testes completed.
pincushion between the thighs, and allow the swollen
gland to rest on the cushion.
UPPER EXTREMITY.
Bandage for the Finger and Thumb.
Apparatus. — A i-inch wide roller.
The fingers are bandaged to prevent cedema when
splints are tightly attached to the fore or upper arm.
A roller § inch wide is passed once round the wrist
and then carried over the back of the hand to the
little finger ; then wound in spirals round it to the
tip and returned up the finger, completed by a figure
of 8 round the wrist and the root of the finger, and re-
turned to the wrist The roller is then brought across
the back of the hand to the nest finger, to which it is
THE HAND AND ARM.
15
applied in the same manner. The process is repeated
until all the four fingers are covered. It is a good
precaution to place a shred of cotton wool between
each finger before carrying the figure of 8 turn round
the root ; it prevents the band-
ages from chafing the tender
The thumb is bandaged rather
differently : the roller is com-
menced in the same way round
the wrist, but the first turn is
carried at once beyond the last
joint, turned once or twice round
the last phalanx, and continued
by reverses to the metacarpo-
phalangeal joint ; the ball of the
thumb is then covered by figures
of 8 round the thumb and wrist.
This bandage is called the spica for the thumb, and is
sometimes employed to compress bleeding wounds of
the ball of the thumb, when it is applied without
previously covering the phalanges, as in fig. 13.
The Hand and Arm.
Apparatus. — 1. A roller 2i inches wide for an adult,
but narrower for a child.
2. Some cotton wool.
A little cotton wool should be placed in the palm
before applying the roller. The bandage commences
with figures of 8 carried round the hand and wrist.
The roller is first passed across the back of the hand
from the radial border of the thumb to the root of the
little finger (see fig. 14), and then across the ^olm.
BANDAGING.
reaching the back of the hand between the thumb and
Kg. 14. — Commencing to bandage
When the hand is covered by these figures of 8 the
bandage is passed up
the forearm by reverses
placed over the extensor
muscles till the elbow is
nearly reached. Before
going further a doaail of
cotton wool is placed in
the bend of the elbow,
and on the inner con-
dyle ; the joint is bent
to the degree that will be
required by the splint,
and the patient told to
grasp some part of his dress, or the sleeve of the other
arm, that he may not unconsciously extend the joint
again while the bandage
is being rolled round it.
The elbow is covered
by first carrying the
roller round the joint, so
that the point of the
olecranon rests on the
centre of the turn (see
dotted lines fig. 15).
The bandage is then
continued in figures of
the dotted urn*. g j passing above and
below the first turn until the elbow is covered in and
the bandage of the forearm its completed.
Fig. 15. — Bandage c
WOUND OF TflE PALMAB ARCH. 17
The arm is covered by spirak and reverses till the
armpit is reached. Before bandaging the shoulder the
armpit is protected by cotton wool or a doable fold
of soft blanket ; the roller is then carried in front of
and over the shoulder, across
the back to the opposite axilla,
where also some wool should,
be placed, then across the
chest to the top of the shoul-
der again, and under the arm-
pit to the front (see fig. 16).
These figures of 8 are repeated
as often as necessary to com- ^ 16 .^ pica ^^ for
plete the covering. The the shoulder.
bandage is applied in this
method for dressings; but when pressure is needed the
first turn may be carried at once to the root of the
neck, and each succeeding turn made to overlap below
the last, until the point of the shoulder is gained, as
in fig. 38, p. 54. These are called the spica for the
shoulder.
Wound of the Palmar arch. — Bleeding from
this wound can usually be stopped by pressure on the
bleeding point ; when this fails an attempt should be
made to tie the vessel at the wound, and if this be
impracticable the arteries of the forearm must be
deligated.
For compression the following is necessary : —
Apparatus. — 1. Petit's tourniquet.
2. Straight wooden splint.
3. Rollers 2 inches wide, and f inch wide for fingers.
4. Pad and cotton wool.
18 BANDAGING.
5. Lint.
6. A slip of a wine cork.
7. Scissors and needle and thread.
8. Lunar caustic.
Step 1. Apply the tourniquet to the brachial artery,
to control the haemorrhage while the apparatus is being
adjusted.
Step 2. Make a graduated compress by folding a
sixpence or disk of a cork in two or three thicknesses
of lint, trim the lint into circular disks and prepare a
dozen similar disks of increasing size ; lay these one
on each other to form a round cone about one inch
high with the piece of cork at the apex, and fasten
them together by a thread.
Step 3. Clean and dry the wound, then rub its
surface carefully with nitrate of silver, to lessen sub-
sequent suppuration.
Step 4. Bandage the fingers and thumb, and pre-
pare the splint, which should be straight, as broad as
the forearm, and long enough to reach from the elbow
to the tips of the fingers; it should be lightly
padded.
Step 5. Envelope the wrist with a little wool ; next
lay the graduated compress on the wound, the small
end downwards, and maintain it firmly in position
with the left thumb, while the splint is applied to the
back of the hand and forearm. The splint is then
fixed by a roller carried in figures of 8 round the hand
and wrist across the compress until that is tightly
pressed into the wound, and then continued along the
forearm. A fold of wool is laid in front of the elbow,
the tourniquet removed, and the roller is carried to
VENISECTION. 19
the axilla while the forearm is raised, flexed across the
chest, and fastened to the side.
This apparatus is worn without being disturbed for
three or four days if bleeding do not return ; but at
the end of this time it should be examined ; if painful,
or if discharge ooze out at the wound, the bandage
should be removed and readjusted less firmly than
before, a piece of wet lint replacing the graduated
compress.
Venisection. — Bleeding and bandage at the bend
of the elbow.
Apparatus. — 1. Lancet.
2. Tape.
3. Pledget of lint.
4. Dish. f
5. Staff.
In opening a vein at the bend of the elbow, the
median basilic is selected, simply because it is usually
the largest, but any branch that is superficial, and well
filled with blood, may be opened.
The patient should sit or stand, in which positions,
syncope, one of the objects of bleeding, is attained by
the abstraction of a less amount of blood than in the
horizontal posture.
The surgeon places a graduated bleeding dish on a
chair or stool within his reach, and a pledget of lint in
his waistcoat pocket ; he next gives the patient a heavy
book, or staff to grasp in his hand. The arm being
bare to the shoulder, a tape, j inch broad and 1 J- yard
long, is tied round the arm tight enough to impede the
venous, but not the arterial flow.
The surgeon standing opposite his patted wcA
20
BANDAGING.
grasping the arm to be bled with his left hand, so
that his thumb controls and steadies the swollen vein
below the proposed incision, takes his lancet between
the right forefinger and thumb ; then going through
skin and vein at one stroke, carries the lancet upwards
for about J inch along the vein. The puncture of the
lancet should be quite vertical, and the extraction
also made quite vertically, that the slit in the vein
may correspond to the slit in the skin.
This being done, the operator lays aside his lancet,
and takes up the dish, holding it so that the blood
shall flow into it : when the dish is placed, he lifts his
left thumb from the vein cautiously or the sudden
spirt of blood will fall outside the dish and be lost.
When the desired amount is drawn, the operator
compresses the vein
again with the left
thumb, and setting
down the dish, puts
the pledget of lint
over the wound. He
keeps the pledget in
place with his left
thumb, while he re-
leases the tape round
the arm and places
its middle obliquely
across the pledget.
His left thumb presses
the pledget on the
wound, while the right hand takes the end of the tape
which is farthest from his lefty and passes it under the
Fig. 17. —Adjusting the tape alter
bleeding.
THE FOOT. 21
forearm below the elbow to his left fingers, which grasp
it tightly. He then takes the other end with his
right hand (see fig. 17), and bringing it round the
arm above the elbow, carries it across the pledget : as
he does this, he replaces his left thumb on the com-
press by his right forefinger, which he keeps there
while he brings up the end of the tape he has already
in his left fingers, and throws it over the arm above
Fig. 18.— The bandage completed.
his right forefinger, and lets it go ; then passing his
left hand below the right forefinger, he catches the
same end of the tape again and draws it back. The
two ends thus locked in a loop over the compress,
are secured by tying them in a bow outside the elbow
and the operation is finished (see fig. 18).
THE LOWER EXTREMITY.
For adults the most useful width for the rollers is
3 inches, and the length the ordinary one of 8 yards.
The Foot is usually bandaged without covering the
heel, and the bandage is begun as follows : —
The roller being held in the right hand for the right
foot, or in the left hand for the left foot, the unoccupied
hand takes the end, and passing it under the sole,
brings it up on the back of the foot just behind the
22
BANDAGING.
toes, where it is made fast by carrying the roller out-
wards over the back. When one turn is completed,
the bandaging is continued by reverses until the meta-
tarsus is covered ; then one or two figures of 8 round
the foot and ankle carry the bandage to the leg, where
it proceeds upwards by spiral turns round the small of
the leg, and by reverses round the calf. The reverses
lie at equal distance up the leg, on the muscles, not
over the bone, that the skin be not pinched between
the crease of the bandage and the bone. When the
calf is passed, the roller is continued by figures of 8
above and below the knee, until that joint is covered
in, then by reverses up the thigh to the groin, where
the bandage termi-
nates by a spica
round the body (see
page 10). This is the
ordinary bandage for
the lower limb. There
are some varieties for
particular parts - } these
are : —
To cover the
Heel — Holding the
roller as for the foot,
pass the end behind
the heel, and bring the
roller by the inside over the front of the ankle-joint,
to complete the turn. In doing this, the point of
the heel must catch the middle of the bandage. If
the foot is a long one, the roller should be three
inches broad ; but a narrower bandage is more easily
Fig. 19.— Covering the HeeL
EXTENDING A STUMP. 23
fitted on a small foot. After the first turn, the roller
is carried in figures of 8 round the foot and ankle,
passing alternately above and below the first turn until
the joint is covered as in fig. 19.
To bandage a Toe. — Take two turns round the
foot, with a bandage one inch wide, then pass it round
the toe to be raised, and back again round the foot.
This figure of 8 lifts a toe above the rest if taken from
the dorsal, and depresses it if taken from the plantar
surface.
The Knee is bandaged by beginning with a simple
turn round the leg above the calf, then carrying the
roller across the patella to the thigh above the knee,
where a circular turn is taken round the thigh before
descending over the patella to the leg below the knee;
this process is repeated until the knee is covered.
To bandage a Stump. — The flaps are first sup-
ported by two or more strips of plaster, one inch wide
and ten or twelve inches long, carried from the under
surface of the limb over the face of the stump, and a
slip of wet lint and oilsilk is applied to the wound.
The muscles and soft parts are next confined by a
bandage. This is first fixed by simple turns below the
nearest joint, and brought downwards in figures of 8
round the limb till the end of the stump is reached,
which is next covered in by oblique and circular turns
carried alternately over the face of the stump and
round the limb, as is shown in fig. 4 for bandaging the
head. Or, if a double-headed roller be used, in the
manner directed for the capelline bandage on p. 6.
Extending a Stump. — When the soft parts fall
away from the bone, they may be drawn down by at-
24 BANDAGING.
taching a weight by cord and pulley, as described for
extending the hip-joint (see page 84). The stump
should be lightly bandaged and the cord be connected
with each flap by an extension stirrup (vide p. 77).
The weight is one or two pounds at first, and should
be increased from time to time as required.
Many-tail, or 18-tail Bandage, or bandage of
Scultetus. — A roller is cut into short lengths long
enough to encircle the limb and to allow the ends
to overlap 2 or 3 inches ; these are applied separately,
the lowest first, the next overlapping it, and the next
overlapping the second until the requisite number
are applied. Sometimes the tails are attached to each
other before they are used. When this is done, they
are so laid out on a table that the second overlaps one
third of the width of the first, while the third overlaps
the second to the same extent, and so on. A vertical
strip is next laid across their middle, and fastened
to each tail by a stitch ; but this arrangement is not a
necessary part of the bandage, and it prevents single
tails from being removed. This bandage is used in
compound fractures and other wounds, as the soiled
strips can be replaced without raising the limb to pass
the roller under it
Elastic Socks and Stockings are made to sup-
port varicose veins of the legs. They are woven of
india-rubber webbing with silk or cotton. The latter
are the lowest priced and often even the most com-
fortable to wear. The stockings should fit carefully
everywhere, especially at the small of the leg, where
they generally are too slack, while they cut at the
upper end below the knee.
CHAPTER II.
STRAPPING.
Strapping is a method of supporting weak or
swollen joints and other parts. Sheets of calico, wash-
leather, or white-buckskin, spread with lead or soap
plaster, are prepared for this purpose. A sheet should
be rubbed with a dry cloth before using, to remove
adherent dust, &c. It is then cut into strips varying
in width between f inch and 2 inches, according to the
evenness of the surface to be covered : narrow strips
fit best over joints and irregular surfaces. When
applied to a limb, the strips should be about one-third
longer than its circumference. Each strip or strap is
first warmed by holding it to a fire, or by applying
its unplastered side to a can of boiling water; when
hot, the strip is drawn tightly and evenly over the
part. If the surface to be strapped be irregular, it is
best to dip each strip of plaster in hot water before
applying it; being thus rendered quite supple the
strap fits the limb more exactly. When the limb is
thickly beset with hairs, it is a good plan to shave
the part where the plaster will lie before putting on
the straps.
Strapping the Breast. — Strapping is put on the
breast in the same way as the bandage (page 9). The
straps should be not more than 2 inches wide, and long
enough to pass forward under the axilla and breast
from the lower angle of the scapula on the side of the
injured breast, across the chest as far as the spine of
the other scapula. The strips are warmed and laid on
alternately over the breast and across the chest, until
the former is fairly supported.
Strapping has this advantage over a bandage — ite
circular strips do not pass completely round the chest
and thereby hamper the breathing as the roller does.
To strap the Testicle.
Apparatiu. — 1. Strips of soap plaster spread on
calico, or better, on wash-leather, \- inch wide and 12
inches long.
2. A can of boiling water.
3. Razor and soap.
First, shave the scrotum ; then tighten the skin
over the testis with the left thumb and forefinger
passed above it ; take a strip
of plaster 6 inches long and J
inch wide, and encircle the
cord tightly with it ; next pass
another strap of the same
width, 9 or 10 inches long,
from the back of this ring,
over the testicle to the front,
drawing it tight also (see fig.
20). The strapping is con-
tinued by applying fresh straps
which overlap each other until
the whole testis is covered in. Lastly, take a strip 18 or
20 inches long, and, beginning at the ring above, wind
STRAPPING ULCERS AND JOINTS.
27
it round and round the testicle until all the vertical
strips are confined in place by this spiral one.
The strapping should be re-applied the second or
third day, as the testicle by that time will have shrunk
within its case.
Strapping Ulcers and Joints. — Cut strips of
plaster one-third longer than the circumference of the
part to be strapped ; if that is irregular, as the ankle
or wrist, they must be narrow : commonly the width
varies between f inch and 1£ inch. The strips are
warmed, the middle passed behind the limb, the ends
crossed in front (see fig. 21), and drawn tight, but with
Fig. 21.— Strapping an Ulcer. Fig. 22.— Strapping the Ankle.
sufficient obliquity for the margins of the strip to lie
evenly. The strapping is begun as low down the limb
as requisite, and continued upwards by laying on more
strips, each overlapping about two-thirds of the pre-
ceding strap. When the process is finished, the ends
28
STRAPPING.
should meet along the same line, and all the upper-
most ones be on the same side.
The ankle is strapped differently. Strips are pre-
pared about 1 inch wide; one is carried behind the
heel and its ends brought forward till they meet on
the dorsum of the foot ; a second, encircling the foot
at the toes, secures the
first; a third is again
carried behind the heel
above the first, and is
fixed by a fourth round
the foot. This iB con-
tinued until the foot
and ankle are firmly
Fig. 23.— Plaster for Ankle. supported (see fig. 22).
To strap the Ankle with one piece of plaster.
— The following measurements are required : — 1. The
first begins at the back
of the leg just above
the malleoli, and passes
behind the heel to the
middle of the sole
opposite the middle of
the 5th metatarsal bone.
2. The second is carried
round the ankle-joint at
the point of the heel.
Next, cut a piece of dia-
chylon plaster spread on
Fig. 24.— Ankle plastered. stout linen or buckskin
leather of the required dimensions (usually about 10
inches by 13 inches in the adult male), and cut from
STRAPPING WITH MERCURIAL OINTMENT. 29
the shorter sides a slit running diagonally from a point
2 inches from the base to the point where the heel
will rest (see fig. 23.) The foot is put on the plaster,
and the two upper flaps are brought forward round the
ankle, care being taken to wrap well round the joint,
making the plaster fit smoothly over the uneven sur-
faces j the lower flaps are afterwards brought up on
each side to the dorsum from the sole, and complete
the covering as shown in fig. 24.
Strapping a Joint with Mercurial Ointment.
(Scott's Bandage.)
Apparatus. — 1. Mercurial ointment.
2. Diachylon plaster.
3. Lint.
4. Spirit of camphor.
5. Cotton wool.
6. Freshly scalded starch, or solution of gum.
7. Binder s millboard.
Spread the ointment on a piece of lint large enough
to envelop the joint, and to extend four or six inches
above and below it ; then wash the joint with warm
water and soap, and dry it carefully ; next sponge it
well with the spirit of camphor for five minutes. Tear
the lint into strips and wrap them round the joint ;
then strap the part firmly from below upwards over
the lint with strips of diachylon plaster, each over-
lapping the preceding one. Lastly, envelop the joint
in a thin layer of cotton wool, and roll a bandage
soaked in starch over all. If the patient wears no
other kind of splint the bandage may be «tae&^\i«&&&.
30 STRAPPING.
by laying a piece of millboard well softened in boiling
water along each side of the joint before the starch
bandage is applied. As the enlargement of the joint
shrinks, this application must be renewed; usually
every fortnight is often enough.
CHAPTER III.
•
FKACTUKES.
HEAD AND TRUNK.
Fracture of the lower Jaw.— The External
Splint and Bandage. — A method requiring the
lower jaw to be firmly fixed against the upper one
while the broken bone knits.
Apparatus. — 1. One and a half yards of bandage four
inches wide.
2. A piece of gutta-percha, sole leather, or binder s
millboard.
3. Dentists' silk or wire.
4. Boiling hot, and cold water.
5. A punch.
6. A pad or fold of blanket.
Step 1. The fracture is first reduced. While the
apparatus is being fitted, the recurrence of the dis-
placement is prevented by the hands of an assistant,
or by lacing the teeth together with stout silk or wire.
It is well also to wet the patient's chin with a sponge
and cold water, to prevent the gutta-percha from stick-
ing to his beard while it is soft.
Step 2. A piece of gutta-percha is prepared 2 J inches
wide and long enough to reach from one angle of the
jaw to the other when passing in front of the chin.
This is softened thoroughly by immersion in boiling
$2 FRACTURES.
water, and when quite pliable should be quickly re-
moved from the hot and plunged for a moment into
cold, water ; the operator s hands should also be wetted.
If a towel be previously laid in the hot basin, the
gutta-percha can be lifted on it without stretching.,
It should be laid on a table, and its surface sponged
with cold water to prevent its sticking to the skin ; it
is then slit from each end into tails 1 inch and 1 J
inch wide, leaving 2 inches uncut at the centre. So
prepared, the splint is applied to the jaw with the
middle pressing against the chin, the narrower ends
being carried horizontally backwards to the angles of
the jaw ; the broader part is next bent up beneath the
chin, its ends overlapping the horizontal ones. While
the splint is still soft, the surgeon presses it firmly
upwards that the gutta-percha may mould itself accu-
rately to the chin. When set, the splint is removed,
trimmed, and punched with holes here and there for
perspiration. A covering of wash-leather may be
added, if desired. When the splint is finished, it is
replaced on the chin. If sole leather or pasteboard
be used instead of gutta-percha, they must be prepared
in the same way, but allowed to remain on the chin
twenty-four hours that they may set before the final
trimming and adjustment.
Step 3. A bandage, 4 inches wide and 1£ yard long,
and slit from each end to about 2 inches from the
centre, is then applied to the splint, and a small pad
of folded flannel should be placed at the nape of the
neck to protect the skin from the crossed bandage.
When all is ready, the two upper ends are carried
behind the neck, drawn tight, and tied in a knot ;
THE LOWER JAW.
93
the lower ends are taken upwards, and fastened at the
vertex (see fig. 25).
Tbe loose ends of the bandage already tied at the
nape, are brought forward, and taking a turn round
the upright bandage at the temples are pinned or
stitched firmly on the brows.
The ligatures that
may have been nsed on
the teeth can now be
removed, or if they cause
no pain, they may be
left for a week or two.
It is a useful precau-
tion to place a piece of
soap plaster spread on
soft leather, under tbe
chin and along the
throat, to protect the
skin from the chafing of
the splint while it is
Sometimes the jaws elose too nearly to allow food
to be taken between them. It is then necessary to
place a thin wedge of softened gutta-percha, H inch
long, | inch wide, and about \ iuch thick, between the
molars on each aide. The gutta-percha must not be
softened muuh, or when tbe bite is taken the teeth
will pass through it. These plugs should be omitted
unless absolutely required, as the fragments keep a
better position without them.
On emergency, when gutta-percha, leather, or paste-
board are not at band, tbe jaw may be set, and then
34 FRACTURES.
*
kept in position by a four-tail bandage, made from a
pocket-handkerchief, until more complicated apparatus
can be prepared.
The apparatus must be worn five weeks before it is
laid aside and mastication permitted.
Interdental Splints. — In cases of unusual diffi-
culty, interdental splints may be employed. To fashion
some of these, the mechanical skill of a dentist is
requisite, unless Morel Lavalleii plan is resorted to.
He applied a mould or socket to the line of the teeth,
and kept it in place by pressure underneath the jaw.
He first brought the fragments into apposition by
means of threads and wire. Then he took a piece of
gutta-percha, about \ inch thick and \ inch broad,
and long enough to extend, when bent along the lower
jaw, from one wisdom molar to the other. This was
softened in water, and pressed on the teeth ; next a
well-padded horse-shoe plate was placed under the
chin, reaching from one angle of the jaw to the other,
and two wires were passed through the side of this plate
opposite the angle of the mouth ; these were drawn
through the plate by a screw nut ; their upper ends
being curved into hooks with sharpened points. The
points catch into the gutta-percha ; by screwing up
the nuts, the chinplate was raised, and the teeth driven
up and bedded into the splint.
This method, however, has its disadvantages. If the
fracture take place behind the first molar, the bearing
on the upper fragment is too slight to keep it down in
its place.
A fractured Rib is very well treated by strapping
the injured side alone, without enrolling the chest in a
'<#•
*
A FRACTURED RIB.
35
tight bandage, which harasses the patient by impeding
respiration.
Apparatus. — 1. Diachylon plaster.
2. Can of boiling water.
Strips of plaster long enough to reach from the
spinal column
to the sternum,
and 2 inches
wide, are to be
firmly drawn
round the
injured side.
The first strip
should be Car- ^ 26.— Strapping a broken Rib.
ried as high as can be managed under the arm-pit.
The next strip overlaps it about an inch (fig. 26), each
succeeding strip overlapping and fixing the preceding
one until the lower ribs are covered in. The arm
should then be bandaged to the side, and supported
in a sling.
A second mode of treating fractured ribs, is to take
a flannel roller 6 inches wide, and 8 yards long, and
carry it firmly round the chest in successive spirals,
beginning at the armpits, and passing down till the
waist is reached. The turns of the roller may be kept
from slipping down by throwing across the shoulders
two strips of bandage like a pair of braces, and stitch-
ing each turn to the brace in front and behind. The
arm should be confined to the side as in the other
method. This plan has the inconvenience before men-
tioned of interfering with respiration.
In Fracture of the Pelvis, the fragments are k&\fc
36 FRACTURES.
in position by a broad roller carried several times
round the pelvis and fastened. Or, more effectually, by
a case of starch bandage, or of plaster of Paris.
THE UPPER EXTREMITY.
Fracture of the Metacarpal Bones.
Apparatus. — 1. A piece of gutta-percha.
2. A roller 2 inches wide.
In treating this fracture it is important to keep the
broken bone in place without confining the wrist or
fingers.
A pattern of the palm and dorsum of the hand is
cut out of paper, which is doubled round the radial
side, letting the thumb out through a hole of con-
venient size to clear it (see figure 27). The piece of
paper is then laid on a sheet of gutta-percha \ inch
thick, and the requisite quantity cut off; a hole as big
as a pea is next punched in the gutta-percha in the
middle, about 1 inch from the lower border, or at a
point correspond-
ing to the hole in
the paper for the
thumb. The frag-
ments are then
Fig. 27. — Gutta-percha Glove for fractured pushed into place
Metacarpal Bone. r
and held so by an
assistant, while the surgeon softens the gutta-percha
in boiling water ; when thoroughly soft, he draws the
thumb through the little hole punched in the gutta-
percha, and moulds the splint to the palm and back of
the hand, bringing the ends of the gutta-percha to-
gether at the ulnar side of the hand ; the fragments
PHALANGES. 37
are held carefully in position till the splint is set It
is important that the, gutta-percha be pressed well into
the hollow of the palm, in order that the broken ends
of the bone may be kept in their places. The splint
is afterwards removed and trimmed. A few holes
should be punched in it after it is moulded to allow
perspiration to escape. The splint may then be
covered with wash-leather, and a pair of straps with
buckles stitched on to keep it in place. It is worn for
three or four weeks, or until the fragments are united.
Should gutta-percha not be at hand, another plan is
effectual.
Apparatus. — 1. A firm ball of tow large enough to
fill the palm, stitched in old linen.
2. A roller 2 inches wide.
The broken bone is first replaced ; then the hand and
fingers are bound on to the ball by carrying the roller
around them until they are all immovably confined.
This plan has the disadvantage of confining the
whole hand for the fracture of one metacarpal bone ;
the gutta-percha allows free use of all but the meta-
carpal bones.
Broken Phalanges are treated by bandaging them
on to a slip of wood long enough to reach into the
palm ; the slip must be well padded, that the some-
what concave anterior surface of the digit may accom-
modate itself on the flat splint. If more than one
finger be injured, and the fracture be compound, the
splint should reach up the palmar aspect of the hand
and forearm. Fingers should be cut in it to correspond
with the fingers to be fastened to the splint.
A trough or stall of gutta-percha moulded to the
38 FRACTURES.
finger is a much safer method of keeping the fragments
in position.
Fracture of the lower end of the Badius.—
Collet Fracture. — The displacement in this fracture is
mainly due to the lower end of the radius and the
carpus being carried backwards while the shaft projects
in front.
Apparatus. — 1. A straight splint of wood. A second
splint, curved at its lower end.
2. Pads and cotton wool.
3. A roller 2 inches wide.
4. A sling.
5. A strip of plaster.
6. Pins.
The objects to be attained in treating this fracture
are to press the lower fragment forwards and to draw
(adduct) the hand towards the ulnar side of the limb.
For this purpose a straight and a curved splint are
used.
No bandage should be placed under the splints in
treating any fracture of the shaft of the radius or ulna,
lest the broken ends be pressed into the interosseous
space.
Step 1. Prepare the splints. The straight splint
should reach, when
the arm is bent to
a right angle and
the thumb is up-
Fig. 28.— Pistol Splint for fracture of the _ Q «j a A.,*™ * lu+u
Radius near the lower end. Wards, trom a little
below the inner
condyle to the lower end of the upper fragment or
shaft; the curved or pistol splint extends from the
COLLES' FRACTURE. 39
outer condyle to the joint of the first and second
phalanges. The width of both splints should slightly
exceed that of the forearm. The bend of the lower
end of the pistol splint should be abrupt, and directed
towards the ulnar border opposite the wrist, where the
margin of the splint should make an obtuse angle of
about 1£ right angles (see fig. 28).
Pads used with these and other wooden splints are
made of layers of cotton wool, carded sheep's wool,
tow, or folds of old blanket. These materials should
be stitched in old linen or calico, and covered outside
with oiled silk where likely to be stained with the dis-
charge from wounds.
The pads must be thicker below than above, to keep
the splints parallel along the forearm : and that of the
pistol splint is thickest opposite the carpus, to push the
lower fragment forwards.
Fixed deformity opposite the wrist is usually present
from impaction of the fragments ; moderate extension
may be employed to remove this, but forcible or con-
tinued efforts give great pain and do harm, by strain-
ing the already torn ligaments still further. After
these preparations the splints are applied.
Step 2. Put a very little cotton wool in the palm
and across the root of the thumb, before the roller is
begun, lest it chafe the carpus in front. The curved
splint, with the barrel or longer part inclined down-
wards below the forearm, is next attached to the back
of the hand by a roller carried in figures of 8 round
the hand and root of the thumb, but not above the
wrist (see fig. 29). This is made fast by a pin.
Step 3. liaise the straight part of the outside splint
40
FRACTURES.
till parallel to the forearm, thus adducting the hand
to the ulnar side ; and fix the splint by a strap of
plaster an inch wide carried round it and the forearm
below the elbow.
Fig. 29.— Fracture of the Radius.
Step 4. Apply the inside straight splint next, keep-
ing the front of the carpus and of the lower fragment
exposed. Draw the two splints together by simple
spiral turns of a roller, begun just below the elbow and
carried down to the lower end of the inside splint, there
fasten it off.
Step 5. Put a narrow sling under the forearm be-
tween the elbow and the wrist to support the limb
comfortably.
When the apparatus is finished the position of the
broken fragments should be visible (see fig. 29) and
not concealed by bandage. The hand should also be
quite free of the sling, lest it be drawn from its proper
position of adduction. The fragments are in good
position when the hollow on the anterior aspect of the
wrist and the prominence on the corresponding pos-
terior surface are removed.
The Gutta-percha Gauntlet is another plan of
treating fracture of the lower end of the radius that
GUTTA-PERCHA GAUNTLET. 41
may often be adopted from the first, and may always
replace the wooden splints and bandage when the
swelling has subsided. It was contrived by Mr. Heather
Bigg, and permits the patient to use his hand to some
extent while the bone is uniting.
Apparatus. — 1. A piece of gutta-percha J inch thick,
wide enough to enwrap the metacarpus and wrist, and
long enough to reach up the lower half of the forearm.
Two thirds across the width, and about 1 inch from the
lower end, a small round hole is punched. The sheet
is then softened in hot water, and applied to the
hand, the thumb being thrust through the hole
punched to receive it, which rapidly enlarges when
soft. The gutta-percha is then adjusted to the hand
and forearm, its borders meeting at the ulnar side of
the limb, rather
nearer the inner
border of the arm
than is depicted
in ^g. 30.
If the fracture
Fig. 30.— Gutta-percha Gauntlet lor
18 recent, it must Colles' Fracture.
be reduced while
the splint is soft by extending the hand and holding
the parts in the required position until the gutta-
percha is set. Before removing the splints superfluous
edges should be marked, and, when the splint is off,
trimmed away with a knife. Holes must also be
punched at frequent intervals that the perspiration
may escape. The splint is next lined with wash-
leather and fitted with a pair of straps and buckles
to keep it in place.
42 FRACTURES.
By this plan the fingers are left free, and some
motion allowed also to the thumb. The only joints
kept immoveable are those of the carpus and wrist.
Apparatus of some kind must be worn three weeks
continuously ; then for a fortnight longer, while it is
removed every day to allow passive motion of the
fingers and gradually of the wrist also to be practised.
Care should be taken to warn the patient that pain
and stiffness last long in these fractures, lest he blame
the surgeon because he does not quickly recover the
full use of his arm.
Fracture of the Shaft of one or both Bones of
the Forearm.
Apparatus. — 1. Two straight wooden splints.
2. Pads and wool.
3. 2-inch wide roller.
4. Sling.
The treatment is the same whether one or both bones
are broken. Caution has been already given against
bandaging the forearm underneath the splints.
Step 1. Prepare two straight wooden splints ; one to go
in front of, and one behind ther forearm. The posterior
or outside splint reaches from the external condyle to
the end of the metacarpus ; the anterior or inside
splint from a little below the internal condyle only as
far as the wrist, keeping clear of the ball of the thumb.
The splints should be slightly broader than the fore-
arm, and well padded; towards the lower end the
padding should be thicker than above. The forearm is
bent to a right angle and the thumb put upwards.
Step 2. Reduce the fracture by gentle slow extension
at the wrist ; this being effected, apply the splints to
SHAFTS OF RADIUS AND ULNA. 43
the forearm, and let an assistant hold them while the
bandage is rolled on.
Step 3. When a little wool has been wrapped round
the hand and wrist, fasten the dorsal splint by figures
Fig. 31. — Fracture of both Bones of the Forearm.
of 8 carried round those parts ; then draw the two
splints together by simple spirals continued to the
elbow (see fig. 31).
Step 4. Support the forearm in a sling, to complete
the apparatus.
The splints are worn three weeks ; after this, passive
motion may be practised daily, and the splints finally
abandoned ten days later. But a sling is still required
some ten days after the splints are laid aside.
Sometimes the longer splint is laid on the palmar
aspect of the forearm, from 1 inch below the inner con-
dyle to the tips of the fingers, and the shorter splint
from the outer condyle to the metacarpus. If this
plan is adopted the padding of the splint opposite the
wrist and palm must be nicely adjusted to support the
limb and steady it thoroughly. -
When the ulna alone is broken, an anterior splint
reaching from the inner condyle to the tips of the fin-
gers often suffices without a second one.
When the shaft of the radius is broken high up (a rare
accident) the displacement is sometimes very difficult
of reduction unless the wrist be well supinated. To
44 FRACTURES.
preserve this position it may be necessary to use a
wooden angular splint, and to fix the vertical part to
the arm behind the elbow, while the horizontal part is
carried along the back of the forearm.
Fracture of the Olecranon. — This fracture, if
seen early before effusion takes place, may be put up
at once, but if delay till the joint is swollen has
occurred, the limb must be kept quiet on a pillow, or
on a splint in an easy position with evaporating lotions,
until the effusion is absorbed, before any means can be
taken to restore the position of the olecranon. Though
the straight position of the elbow is usually employed,
it is not essential for even very close union of the
fragments.
In treating this fracture the following plan is useful.
Apparatus. — 1. Straight hollow splint.
2. 2-inch rollers and finger rollers.
3. Pad, wool, and lint.
4. Strapping plaster.
o. Pins.
Step 1. Bandage the fingers ; wrap the hand in
cotton wool and bandage it. When the wrist is passed,
fasten the bandage for a time by a pin, and straighten
the arm.
Step 2. Push the olecranon down as close as possible
to the rest of the ulna, and put a dossil of lint over it.
Place the middle of a strap of plaster an inch wide
and 16 inches long, on the lint, and carry its ends
round the forearm in a figure of 8 j to some extent
this alone fixes the fragment.
Step 3. Continue the bandage up the forearm by
reverses, keeping the elbow straight ; wrap some cotton
OLECRANON. 45
wool round the bruised joint, and then cover it in by
figures of 8 carried over the compress of lint and the
forearm, to draw down the olecranon (see fig. 32).
When this is secured, prolong the bandage to the del-
toid, to confine the action of the triceps muscle.
Step 4. Pad lightly a hollow splint about 2 inches
wide, reaching from the axilla nearly to the wrist,
Fig. 32.— Bringing down the Olecranon with Figures of 8.
and apply it along the anterior aspect of the limb,
then fix it by a second roller. This completes the
apparatus.
The splints and rollers should be removed on the
fourth or fifth day, that the position of the fragments
may be examined and the roller again applied to draw
them closer together. After ten or twelve days, passive
motion of the wrist and fingers, with pronation and
supination of the radius, should be adopted, but great
care is to be taken that the patient does not inadver-
tenly bend the elbow joint while free of the splint.
The splint must be worn, with the frequent removals
directed above, for five weeks, during which time gentle
flexion of the elbow should be practised after fourteen
days of complete rest. During passive motion, the sur-
geon's finger pushes the olecranon against the ulna.
46 FRACTURES. *^
Hamilton notches his splint at each border about
its middle so that the notches shall be 3 inches below
the level of the olecranon (see fig. 33). He begins the
j
Fig. 33.— Hamilton's Splint for Fracture of Olecranon.
bandaging by fastening his splint on to the hand and
forearm, as high as the notches ; here the roller is
carried above the olecranon and again down to the
notches ; this is repeated again and again, each turn
below the last, until the notches are all covered, he
then continues the bandage upwards by circular turns
until the top of the splint is reached.
Fractures of the Humerus near the elbow.—
These resemble dislocations of the ulna and radius
backwards, but are distinguished from them by the
ease with which the bones slip into place and again
slip back from it when left to themselves ; by cre-
pitus ; and, when the fracture is above the condyles,
the common accident, by those projections retaining
their natural relation to the olecranon. In children
and youths the articulating surface of the humerus
may separate from the shaft without carrying the rest
of the lower epiphysis with it. In this rare accident
the main distinctions are : from the usual fracture, the
projection of the olecranon behind the condyles ; from
dislocation, the absence of the hollow of the sigmoid
notch, and facility of reduction.
In ordinary cases, where the deformity is reduced
without much difficulty, and the injury to the joint is
,-t
*'
>*^- FRACTURE Of THE HUMERUS. 47
not severe, lateral rectangular splints of leather, hol-
lowed wood, or wire gauze, answer very well. These
are placed both inside and outside the limb, and reach
from the axilla and shoulder to the wrist. They are
applied in the following manner : —
Apparatus — 1. Lateral hollowed angular splints.
2. Pads and wool.
3. Rollers 2 inches wide for the arm and 1 inch
wide for the fingers.
4. Sling.
Step 1. The splints must be prepared.
Wooden and wire gauze splints are double. One,
inside the arm, reaches from the axilla to the wrist,
the forearm being bent to a right angle. The other
extends, on the outside, from the deltoid to the wrist.
They are better if provided with hinges opposite the
elbow, so that their angle can be altered, if desired, in
the later stage of the treatment. Splints of wood or
wire gauze must be evenly and lightly padded before
application.
Step 2. Bend the arm to a right angle with the
thumb upwards. An assistant next reduces the frac-
ture, and holds it in position. Then apply the splints.
When adjusting the inside splint, care must be taken
that the internal condyle is eased from pressure by
sufficient padding above and below it. Next fasten on
the splints by a roller begun at their lower ends,
leaving the hand free, and carried up to the elbow.
Before turning round that joint a soft pad must be
placed in the hollow of the elbow to push the lower
end of the humerus back, and the length of the arm
should be measured against the unbroken one to make
V
r
48 *.* FRACTURES.
sure that the shortening is reduced. Extension is kept
up the whole time the splint is being fixed to the arm.
That is done by carrying the roller round the elbow
with figures of 8 and by simple spirals up to the axilla,
where it is finished off.
Step 3. Lastly, the forearm is supported in a sling
under the wrist, leaving the elbow free (as in fig. 36,
page 52).
After three weeks of complete immobility, passive
motion should be applied to the elbow daily, during
the fortnight or three weeks more that the splint is
still worn.
If the displacement returns very easily, it is better
to use an L-shaped splint passing behind the arm and
below the forearm. This may be made of wood, or of
leather, or of gutta-percha, in the mode about to be
described.
The L-shaped splint of gutta-percha, or leather, is
made as follows : —
Apparatus. — 1. Sheet gutta-percha £ inch thick.
2. A tray or wide wash-hand basin.
3. A basin of cold water.
4. A kettle of boiling water.
5. A towel.
6. A knife.
7. A sheet of newspaper.
Cut a pattern of paper reaching, while the elbow is
bent and the thumb upwards, from the arm-pit down
the back of the arm and under the elbow and forearm
to the wrist. The sides must be brought forward to
the biceps and front of the forearm as seen in fig. 34.
Next cut from the sheet of gutta-percha a piece to
LOWER END OF THE HU1HJHJS. 4&
match the pattern, and sew it between two layers of
white calico. Prepare the tray with the hot water,
lay in it the gutta-percha, and cover it with almost
boiling water, adding more water as the first cook ;
this may be done by an assistant, while the surgeon
grasps the forearm and reduces the fracture. When
the gutta-percha is soft, the assistant lifts it from the
tray, and plunges it a moment into cold water. He
then lays it on the
limb, which is kept
at a right angle,
with the bone in
place, while the
gutta - percha is
setting to the limb.
This done, the
splint is removed
to be trimmed,
perforated, and
covered with wasb-
i ii. ti. • ii. ^8- 8*.— Gutta-percha Splint fur fruet
leather. It is then v at the lower end of Hume™,
ready for use.
Leather takes so much time to set that it should
not be used in recent fractures. When the bone is
partly set, leather is a useful substitute for wood. It
is prepared from a pattern in the same manner aB the
gutta-pevcha, but is trimmed before soaking, not after
it is moulded, like gutta-percha. If possible it should
have twenty-four hours soaking in water before being
fitted to the limb; but when this cannot be done,
immersion in hot water, into which a tencupful of
vinegar haH been thrown, will make the leather quite
50 FRACTURES.
supple in a quarter of an hour. The leather splint
must be worn twenty-four hours while it sets, and then
be removed for covering (see Leather Splints).
Stromeyers cushion for gunshot injuries about the
elbow. — This consists of an elastic cushion of horse-
hair, triangular in shape, and thicker at the base than
at the apex (see fig. 35). When in use the narrow
apex is placed
in the axilla,
and then fixed
by two tapes,
passing in front
of the chest and
behind the back
to the opposite
shoulder, where
Fig. 35.— Stromeyer's cushion. they are tied ;
the broad base is interposed between the chest wall
and the elbow, and thus forms a pad for the arm ; it is
maintained in position by tapes passing round the waist,
and there tied.
Fractured Shaft of the Humerus.
Apparatus. — 1. Three straight hollow splints.
2. One L-shaped to reach from the axilla to the wrist .
3. Boilers 2 inches wide, and 1 inch for the fingers,
or straps and buckles.
4. Pads and wool.
5. Sling. «
When broken below the attachment of the deltoid
and coraco-brachialis muscles the displacement of the
bone is commonly prevented with ease ; neither shoulder
nor elbow-joint need be fixed, and it is not necessary
SHAFT OF HUMERUS. 51
to apply the splints so tightly as to cause impediment
to the venous circulation. If, however, the pectoral
muscles or deltoid be connected with the lower frag-
ment, the displacement is sometimes obstinate ; in
such cases it is necessary to buckle the splints lightly.
For this to be done, the fingers and hand must be pre-
viously bandaged to prevent oedema ; with this addi-
tion, the method of treatment is the same in both
varieties of fracture.
Step 1. Select the splints ; they should be hollowed ;
of wood, perforated sheet zinc, or wire gauze, about 2
inches broad, lightly padded, and provided with straps
and buckles.
The external one reaches from the acromion to the
outer condyle ; the inner L-shaped one from the axilla
to the wrist ; a third shorter one is placed behind the
arm, and if there is much projection forwards of the
lower fragment, a fourth very short one is added in
front. The patient should sit on a chair while the
apparatus is being put on.
Step 2. The fingers and thumb are bandaged, a
little wool being placed in the palm of the hand ; the
L-shaped splint, properly padded, is then applied as
directed, and maintained in position by an assistant,
while a roller is carried round the hand and wrist, and
up the forearm over the splint to the elbow, round
which it is carried before being made fast.
The fingers need not be bandaged when the frag-
ments can be kept in position without much pressure.
Step 3. An assistant grasping the elbow in one
hand, pulls down the lower fragment, while he steadies
the shoulder with the other. The displacement thus
FKACTUKE9.
reduced, the surgeon applies the remaining splints,
taking care that the inside splint does not reach
too high into the axilla, lest it compress the axillary
rein.
In simple cases, the splints should be drawn close by
straps and buckles ; where the muscles are powerful, a
roller should be wound round the splints instead of straps.
Step 4. A 2-inch wide
roller is fastened to the arm
above the elbow, and then
carried round the trunk to
the arm again, to steady
the limb against the body.
Step 5. The hand and
wrist are supported by a
sling over the shoulders,
the elbow being allowed to
hang (see fig. 36).
This apparatus is worn
tbree weeks, when the band-
ages are removed, and the
splints applied less tightly
than before. The inner |_-shaped one may be re-
placed by a straight one reaching from the axilla to the
inner condyle. All may be substituted by a sheath of
gutta-percha moulded to the arm from the acromion to
the elbow, and buckled on to the limb. The arm
must be supported by splints for five weeks, but pas-
sive motion of the elbow and wrist should be adopted
after the third week. The wrist especially should be
set at liberty as soon as possible. In treating this
fracture great care is necessary that the bone be kept
Fig. 38.— Fractured Shaft of
NEAR THE SHOULDER.
53
in accurate and close position, as the humerus is spe-
cially prone to remain un-united for many months.
Fracture of the Anatomical or Surgical Neck of
the Humerus, of the Great Tuberosity, and of the Neck
of the Scapula. These fractures are similarly treated.
A. By the slioulder cap.
Apparatus. — 1. Paper for pattern.
2. Gutta-percha, leather, or mill-board.
3. Pads. A soft thin pad, 10 inches long, 5 inches
wide (a treble fold of thick flannel or blanket answers
very well), is wanted to line the axilla. If the cap is
of leather or gutta-percha, a lining of wash-leather
should be added after the splint is made.
4. Rollers, 2 inches and 1 inch wide for the fingers.
5. Scissors and pins.
6. A tray, and kettle of hot water.
7. A towel, and basin of cold water.
8. Sling.
9. Cotton wool.
Step 1. Cut out a paper pattern
of the splint on the limb to be fitted.
The pattern should reach along the
clavicle to the root of the neck, and
over the scapula to its posterior
border, and be continued down the
arm to the elbow, tapering as it goes,
but having its anterior and posterior
margins brought sufficiently to the
inner side of the arm to give the
splint a good grasp of the limb in
descending. The end should be left
long enough to turn a couple of inches round ttva
ig. 37.— uap for
fracture near the
shoulder.
54
FRACTURES.
point of the elbow (see fig. 37). A notch must be cut
at the upper end of the paper pattern to make it fit on
the shoulder between the clavicle and the spine of the
scapula. This notch should not be repeated in the
gutta-percha, as that can be moulded on without it ;
and for that reason the cap is much more serviceable
when made of gutta-percha than of leather, where a
notch must be cut and stitched together when the
leather is set. The gutta-percha, when cut to pattern,
must be softened in the manner described in making
the splint for the elbow at page 49, fig. 34 ; then accu-
rately adjusted to the shoulder as high as the root of
the neck, and turned under the point of the elbow a
couple of inches (see fig. 37), while the forearm is well
raised across the chest.
When set, the splint must be removed that it may
be trimmed and lined with wash-leather. If of gutta-
percha, it must be perforated
with small holes ; if of leather,
the notch at the shoulder must
be stitched together. Next
prepare a soft thin pad, 5 or 6
inches broad, and 8 or 10
inches long, to fill the axilla.
Step 2. Bandage the fingers
and thumb separately, then,
putting a little wool in the
palm and round the wrist,
Fig. 38.— Fracture at the upper bandage the hand and forearm
end of Humerus. The ap- « .. ,, , ..
paratus completed. as far as the el bow, where the
bandage is fastened.
Step 3. Apply the splint First get on the cap ;
FRACTURE OF THE GREAT TUBEROSITY. 55
then put the soft pad in the axilla, filling it out if the
arm-pit is very hollow with cotton wool, and bend the
elbow till the hand lies on the breast of the opposite
side. Then, while an assistant holds the limb and
apparatus in position, fasten them all in place by con-
tinuing the roller of the forearm in figures of 8 round
the elbow until the splint is well fixed to it ; and carry
the roller up the arm by reverses to the axilla.
Step 4. A little wool or piece of flannel having been
placed in the opposite arm-pit to prevent chafing, a
spioa for the shoulder is then applied (see page 17),
beginning at the root of the neck and working down-
wards. Careful extension is continued by the assistant
all the time this bandage is being put on, until the
head of the bone is well drawn into the cap.
Step 5. The arm is drawn to the side, and the fore-
arm fixed against the chest by a roller carried round
the arm and trunk and over the shoulder (see fig. 38).
After three weeks the forearm may be released, but
the cap and axillary pad must be continued to be worn
two or three weeks longer while the arm is well drawn
to the side, and the wrist carried in a sling.
B. By simply confining the limb to the side.
For impacted fracture of the neck occurring in old
people, a small pad may be placed between the chest
wall and the arm, which is then well drawn to the side
and fixed by a bandage to the trunk, while the wrist is
supported in a sling. Evaporating lotions can then be
used to the exposed shoulder. In young children
fracture about the head of the bone may be treated by
applying a light, well-starched bandage (see page 85).
Fracture of the Great Tuberosity of the hume-
56 FRACTURES.
rus is difficult to treat, on account of the tuberosity
being carried backwards by the muscles and the hume-
rus being rotated forwards. Hence the parts must be
braced together with a firm cap of gutta-percha moulded
on to the shoulder while soft, and while the fractured
parts are held in apposition, which may be done by
the fingers, or by putting on a wet roller firmly over
the shoulder as a spica before the splint is set. When
the splint is hard the bandage may be taken off, and
the splint removed and finished ready for application.
In doing this, the steps are the same as for fracture of
the surgical neck of the humerus, and the necessity for
fixing the arm well to the side of the body as great as
in that fracture.
Fracture of the Acromion is treated very much
like fracture of the clavicle, that is, the arm is well
raised by a sling under the elbow, and then fastened to
the side. It is not necessary to fill the axilla with a
pad, as in fracture of the clavicle, for in this case the
shoulder is not drawn inwards.
Fracture of the Clavicle.
Apparatm. — 1. Axillary pad.
2. Boiler, 3 inches wide.
3. Sliog.
4. Wool
5. Pins, or needle and thread.
Fractures of the clavicle nearly always leave some
deformity after union ; this is best avoided by keeping
the patient on his back on a flat couch with the head
alone supported by a cushion, and the arm fixed to the
side until union has taken place. As most persons will
not submit to a fortnight or three weeks' confinement
FRACTURE OF THE CLAVICLE.
57
in fcecl for this accident, the fragments must be kept
in position as nearly as possible by apparatus while the
patient goes about.
The displacement of the outer fragment is inwards,
downwards, and forwards. Many varieties of apparatus
are employed to prevent this displacement during
umoD j the following mode is perhaps as effectual as
any other in accomplishing this object.
Step 1. Fix in the arm-pit a firm wedge-shaped pad
of bedtick filled with chaff ; 5 inches broad, 6 inches
long, and 1| or 2 inches thick
at the thick end, or j list enough
to fill the axilla and throw out
the humerus without compress-
ing the axillary vein, hence the
thickness varies with the hol-
lowness of the axilla (see fig.
39). A band and buckle are
stitched to the thick end,
which is uppermost. When
in use, this band is passed
over the opposite shoulder and
keeps the pad in place. A
little wool should be put under the band, where it
crosses the root of the neck, to prevent chafing.
Step 2. The elbow is elevated by an assistant, who
keeps the arm vertical and lays the fingers on the
breast bone. A roller, attached to the arm by a
couple of turns, is carried behind the back round the
trunk, and over the arm above the elbow, drawing that
close to the side.
Step 3. To support the elbow, the longest border or
Fig 39.— Wedge-shaped pad for
broken Collar-bone, attached
to the American ring-pad.
58
FRACTURES.
base of a three-cornered handkerchief is carried under
it, one end passes in front, the other behind the body ;
both are then drawn tightly and crossed over the
opposite shoulder, where one end is taken under the
axilla, protected by a pad of wool, and the two are
tied in front. In giving this
direction the ring-pads shown
in the figures are supposed
not to be at hand. Lastly,
the loose corner at the wrist
is folded neatly and pinned up
(see fig. 40).
This apparatus must be
watched from time to time,
and re-adjusted if any part
slips. The sling and pad are
to be worn for four weeks.
Union sometimes takes place in three weeks or less,
in which case the pad may be removed so much the
earlier ; but a sling should be worn for a fortnight
after the bandage and pad are laid aside. In children
the pad must be very much thinner and shorter than
that described; the sling should be replaced by a
bandage carried alternately round the body, and over
the opposite shoulder. After it is put on the turns
should be well stitched together, and well smeared with
stiff starch. In bandaging children, great care must be
taken to protect with wool the parts likely to be chafed.
The American surgeons have a very good plan for
attaching the sling to the sound shoulder. Instead of
carrying the ends of the sling round the shoulder
and under the axilla, they pass over the shoulder a
Pig. 40. — Apparatus for
broken Clavicle finished.
FRACTURE OF THE CLAVICLE. 59
loose but well-stuffed collar or ring-pad (see fig. 39),
to which they fasten the ends of the sling in front and
behind ; this prevents all cutting or chafing under the
armpit, and distributes the strain evenly.
Sayre, of New York, recommends the following
method, which is frequently adopted in University
College Hospital : —
Step 1. A long strip of plaster 4 inches wide, fixed
by one end to the middle of the injured arm, on the
belly of the biceps, is carried outwards round the arm
and behind the body, across the opposite axilla and
front of the chest, to end below the nipple on the
injured side.
Step 2. A small folded compress is passed up to fill
the axilla.
Step 3. A second strip of plaster, of width and length
equal to the first, is fixed by one end to the acromion
process on the sound side. It is then brought down
across the back to the forearm, j ust in front of the elbow,
whence it is drawn tightly upwards across the front of
the chest to the sound acromion again, thus lifting the
injured arm and thrusting upwards the shoulder.
Figure-of-8 bandage, — Many surgeons still employ
a figure-of-8 bandage carried under each axilla and
crossed behind the back. Under any circumstances
this is exceedingly irksome to the patient, but is least
so if two silk handkerchiefs be substituted for the
bandage, one being passed round each shoulder and
the ends of both braced tightly together behind the
back. A little wadding should be rolled up in the
centre of each silk handkerchief, to prevent the arm-
pit being galled. The wedge-shaped pad may be
60 FRACTURES.
dispensed with if the shoulders are braced back,
but the elbow must still be raised and drawn to the
side.
LOWER EXTREMITY.
Buptured tendo Achillis is treated by extend-
ing the foot and flexing the knee ; for this purpose the
patient wears a high-heeled slipper. A band is sewn
to the heel, drawn tight, and fastened to a buckle
and strap round the thigh, just above the knee. The
patient should not walk for a month unless he will
use a wooden leg on which he can kneel, with the knee
bent.
Separation of the Epiphysis of the Calcaneum,
which sometimes occurs instead of rupture of the
tendo Achillis, is treated in the same way.
A more secure method for maintaining extension of
the foot is to apply a narrow straight splint, well
padded along the shin to the toes, and bandaging the
leg and foot firmly to it.
Fracture of the Fibula. — DupuytrerCs Splint —
When the fibula only is broken, it may be treated in
several ways 3 this, however, is the common plan : —
Apparatus. — 1. Straight wooden splint.
2. Pad and wooL
3. A roller.
4. Pins.
Step 1. The splint should be about 3 inches broad,
and long enough to reach from the head of the tibia
to i inches beyond the sole of the foot. A notch
1 \ or 2 inches deep is generally cut at the lower end of
the splint to catch the bandage in. The splint is then
FRACTURE OF THE FIBULA,
61
)
padded, care being taken that the padding is suffi-
ciently thick to prevent galling at the upper end
against the inner condyle of the tibia, and that it
becomes thicker as it descends along the leg, for that
to rest easily against the spluft ; lastly, the pad should
end in a thick boss or projection opposite the internal
malleolus, beyond which it should not reach, lest it
interfere with the rotation and adduction of the foot
inward 8.
Step 2. The splint, when thus pre-
pared, is applied along the inner side
of the leg, care being taken in doing this
that the internal malleolus is against
the middle of the splint, and not
allowed by the assistant to slip towards
the anterior or posterior border.
Step 3. A roller is then carried round
the limb and splint, beginning below
the knee and continuing in simple
spirals for three or four turns, when
it is fastened and cut off.
Step 4. A light layer of wool is
wrapped round the outside of the ankle,
heel, and dorsum of the foot. Then
a roller, beginning at the splint, passes
outwards in front of the ankle over
the external malleolus, behind the heel
and the splint ; then over the dorsum
to the outer margin of the foot, next
under the sole through the notch of
the splint to the front of the ankle
joint again, where it repeats the same course three
Fig. 41. — Dupuy-
tren's Splint for
fracture of the
Fibula.
62 FRACTURES.
or four times. Each turn must be tightly applied
and made to draw the foot well inwards to the splint,
and in doing so to tilt outwards the broken part of
the fibula (see fig. 41).
This splint is cumbersome, hence after two or three
weeks, should be replaced by a light starch or gum
casing for the foot and leg, leaving the knee free.
Fractures of the Tibia with or without the fibula,
and fractures at the ankle joint.
These fractures are often, from their obliquity, diffi-
cult to keep in good position ; in such cases Mclntyre's
Splint is very generally used in the early part of the
treatment. For this splint the following apparatus is
required : —
1. Mclntyre's splint.
2. Pads for the double incline plane and foot-piece.
3. Sock of flannel for the foot.
4. Rollers, 3 inches wide.
5. Wool, pins, needle and thread, strapping plaster.
6a. A sling-cradle, or
66. Board, block, gimlet, screws and screw-driver.
The Mclntyre's Splint may be used either bent or
straight, whichever position of the knee most relaxes
the tension of the muscles on the fragments. As a
general rule the straight position is best if the fracture
is high up, and the bent one, when the bones are
broken near the ankle joint.
Step 1. A splint of suitable length is selected, by
measuring the sound leg. The joint of the splint
should be put opposite the patella, and space be left
below the foot for the foot-piece to slide along the
slots when extension is made.
FRACTURES OF THE TIBIA. 63
The splint is next padded, the hollow where the
lower part of the calf and small of the leg will come
being well filled, that the leg may be thoroughly sup-
ported ; but the space behind the heel and tendo
Achillis must be left quite clear. A small pad is then
fastened by a strip of strapping or by needle and
thread to the foot-piece.
Step 2. The limb having been first cleaned and
dried, the dorsum of the foot and ankle are wrapped in
an even layer of cotton wooL A sock or boot made of
flannel is next put on the foot. This may be readily
extemporised by cutting off the foot of an angola
stocking, slitting it up along the back to the toes, and
sewing on to the sole, one inch in front of the heel, the
middle of a piece of tape £ inch wide and 18 inches
long. The foot is then wrapped in the sock, the edges
drawn together by a needle and thread, care being
taken that the sock fits closely round the ankle and
dorsum of the foot. A little wool having been wrapped
round the knee, the limb is next raised while the
splint is placed under it ; the screw is turned until the
inclined planes are at an angle suited for the main-
tenance of the fragments in position, and the foot-
piece is pushed up to the foot with its screw-pin loose,
that it may be adjusted to the amount of flexion or ex-
tension necessary for the foot ; this being ascertained,
the screw is tightened to keep it so while the foot is
fastened to the foot-piece. For this the strings of the
sock are brought over the top of the foot-piece, and
drawn tight before tying them.
The position of the heel is very important. It
should not sink below the splint, or it will rest on the
64
FRACTURES.
bandage ; neither should it be drawn up too high, or
the weight of the leg will hang on the sock, instead of
resting on the pad ; both frequent causes of pain at
the heel. When the proper position is obtained, the
strings are made fast to the pin behind the foot-piece,
and the foot is steadied by two or three turns of a
roller carried round it and the foot-piece (fig. 42).
Fig. 42. — Mclntyre's Splint The thigh fixed ready for extension
of the leg.
Step 3. The thigh is next fastened to the thigh-
piece by a roller carried from the top of the splint
downwards along the thigh to the knee, or below that
joint if the fracture is near the ankle.
In doing this the roller is passed inside the screw,
should that be placed underneath the splint, as in fig.
44, page 66, and not at the side as in fig. 42 — for the
screw will be wanted free for further adjustment.
Step 4. An assistant grasps with both hands the
foot and foot-piece, and pulls them downwards until
the shortening is removed. While doing this, he tilts
the foot up or down as the surgeon finds necessary for
adjusting the fragments, who also bends the knee and
raises or lowers the foot until a good position is at-
tained. The general rule is to keep the great toe and
the inner malleolus in a line with the patella. This
McINTYKES SPLINT.
done, the surgeon tightens up the screw -pi ti of the
foot-piece, and completes the attachment of the foot
by continuing his roller with figures of 8 round the
foot and ankle ; these turns should not however pass
above the fracture, and should be no more than suffi-
cient to secure the position of the foot and of the
lower fragments (see fig. 44).
Step 5. The bandaging usually ceases here. If the
limb swell, a separate roller may be carried along the leg
to support the muscles aud restrain oedema, otherwise
the leg is best left bare, that the position of the frag-
ments may be watched, and evaporating lotions applied.
i 6<r. This consists in slinging the limb, for
which Salter's Cradle is very convenient (see fig. 43),
or an ordinary bed cradle answers very well, from
which the limb can be slung on pieces of bandage
carried underneath the splint at the knee and ankle.
66 FRACTUEES
6ft. Instead of elevating the limb by a sling, it is
also customary to raise and fix the splint on a block
(fig. 44), 6, 8, 10, or even 12 inches high, as may be
necessary; this block slides in a groove on a board
3 feet square, put between the matrass and bedstead,
to afford a firm support for the block.
In ordinary cases the limb is kept on the splint
three weeks, until the irritation has subsided, and
partial union is attained; the splint may then be
replaced by a starch bandage, and the patient may
leave his bed.
Transverse Fracture of the tibia alone, or even
of both bones, when the displacement is small, is very
well treated by a hollow splint on each side. Both
splints are cut away opposite the malleoli, and the
inside one may end at the tarsus ; the outside one
passes to the toes. The splints reach on each side to
TRANSVERSE FRACTURE.
67
the head of the tibia, but ought not to extend above
the knee-joint (see fig. 45).
Step 1. They are padded lightly
and evenly along their whole length,
and applied to the limb on each
aide.
Step 2. They should then be
fastened by figure of 8 round the foot
and ankle until the foot is securely
fixed in them. The bandage should
then be fastened off, and extension
made by an assistant, who grasps
the foot and ankle with both hands
while the surgeon fixes the splints
to the limb above the fracture,
beginning his roller at the top just
below the knee, and continuing it i
downwards with spiral turns until Fig. *
the fracture is reached, above which tili^ 1 """ tor °" 1
point it should terminate (fig. 46).
After the apparatus is applied, the limb may be either
supported upright by sand-bags, or slung in a cradle,
-Lateral Splints for simple tr universe fracture of tire Tibia.
for three weeks, after which the splints are advanta-
geously replaced by a starch bandage for three weeks
68 FRACTURES.
Flexing tlie Leg for Fracture of tlie Tibia.
Sometimes, when there is unusual difficulty in pre-
venting displacement of the fragments while the limb
is nearly straight, the bones can be readily kept in
position if the patient lies on the same side as the injured
limb and the knee, is well flexed. For such cases these
splints are very suitable ; they should be applied after
the limb has been bent and the fragments brought
into apposition. When the splints have been put on,
a roller may be carried round the leg and thigh to
keep the limb in its bent position.
Hor&eslwe Anterior Splint.
This splint is often used when there is much dis-
placement of the foot backwards.
Apparatus. — 1. Straight wooden splint of the shape
described below.
2. Pad.
3. Roller, 2J inches wide.
4. Two handkerchiefs.
5. Cotton wool.
6. Two strips of plaster.
7. Pins, needle, and thread.
Step 1. The splint is 3 inches wide at the top,
and, tapering slightly, reaches from the tubercle of
the tibia to the front of the ankle, where it widens
again rapidly, and bifurcates into two horns, 6 inches
long. Two holes, J an inch wide, are made at the
upper end of the splint (see fig. 47). The pad
should be prepared thicker at the sides than in the
middle (and most thick on the inside), to preserve
THE TIBIA.
ea
the edge of the tibia from pressure. The pad should
also be considerably thicker at the lower part, that the
splint may reBt evenly on the anterior surface of the
limb. The pad and splint are fastened together by
strips of plaster.
Step 2. The splint, thus prepared, is laid along the
front of the leg, while an assistant maintains tho foot
in good position.
Step 3. A folded handkerchief is next passed round
the back of the limb at the top of the splint, and the
ends, brought through the holes, are tied in front.
Step 4. A roller is applied from above downwards,
and fastened off at the ankle.
Step 5, A ' bird's nest ' pad of cotton wool is laid
70 FRACTURES.
under the point of the heel. A folded handkerchief
is next carried beneath the heel and wool, one end
being brought up on each side .of the foot, when a
turn is taken round the horn of the splint, and both
ends knotted together over the foot (see fig. 48). It
is a good plan to nip up a small fold of the handkerchief,
before and behind the heel, with a needle and thread.
Fracture of the Patella. — When this bone is
broken there is usually much swelling from effusion
into the knee-joint ; while this is present, rest, with
cold lotions, and elevation of the foot, are generally
considered necessary. When the effusion has sub-
sided, the upper fragment must be brought down to
the lower one, by some means like the following.
Apparatus. — 1. Straight wooden splint with a foot-
piece.
2. Pads.
3. Diachylon plaster.
4. Roller.
5. Lint and wool, pins.
6. Two hooks or screws, gimlet, and screw-driver.
Step 1. The splint is first fitted ; it should reach
from the buttock to the heel, at which point a foot-
piece rises for the foot to rest against ; at the back
of the splint a line should be marked 3 inches above,
and another 3 inches below the knee-cap, into which a
stout screw or hook is inserted before the splint is put
on. It is then well padded, to support the ham and
leg, while the heel is left free, and a pad is put between
the sole and the foot-piece. A firm crescent-shaped
pad is prepared to sit like a saddle above the upper
fragment.
THE PATELLA.
71
Step 2. The limb is laid on the splint, while an
assistant draws the patella as nearly as possible into
its place ; the surgeon lays the crescentic pad on the
thigh above the patella. He next takes a strap of
plaster 2 inches broad and 20 long, warms it, and lays
the middle across the compress, drawing each end first
tightly round the limb, and then downwards and for-
wards in a figure of 8 ; a similar strap is fixed below
the lower fragment. The knee, shin, ankle, and foot
are then protected by a layer of cotton wool, and the
bandaging begins.
Step 3. The roller first fastens the foot against the
Fig. 49.— Fractured Patella, drawing down the upper fragment
foot-piece by figures of 8, then passes up the leg by
reverses until opposite the lower hook, where it is
fastened.
Step 4. A second roller is then begun at the top of
the thigh and brought down the limb till it reaches
the compress above the patella; from this point it
passes below the lower screw at the back of the splint
and makes one circular turn round the leg ; the roller
is then taken upwards across the compress (as shown
72 FRACTURES.
■
in fig. 49) to the upper screw, where it also makes a
circular turn ; having done this it again descends to
reach the lower screw, and is returned as before. Each
of these turns should be drawn tightly to bring the
upper fragment as near the lower one as possible ;
when this is done the bandage is completed over the
knee by figures of 8. It suffices to fix the lower frag-
ment, which cannot be drawn up to meet the upper
one ; the latter must descend to it.
Step 5. The limb is lastly put into position by
elevating the heel and by raising the body with pillows
till it is in a half-sitting position.
The patient wears this splint four weeks, during the
first fortnight of which the bandage should be per-
severingly re-applied every three or four days until
the upper fragment is brought into apposition with
the lower one. After this the splint may be changed
for a light starch or gutta-percha case, to be worn for
six weeks more, and then replaced by a back splint of
leather and knee-cap, that must not be laid aside for
another period of three or four weeks.
If the patient can be persuaded not to bend his
knee for four months, the union of the fragments
will be less likely to yield afterwards. He should be
also warned that much stiffness will result from the
long fixed position necessary to procure good union
between the fragments ; but the stiffness will all
subside in time, notwithstanding the long-enforced
rigidity.
Anotlier Plan of treating fractured knee-cap consists
in applying a well-starched apparatus as early as pos-
sible after the accident.
THE PATELLA. 73
Apparatus. — 1. Sheet of millboard.
2. Rollers.
3. Cotton wool.
4. A basin of freshly-scalded starch.
5. Lint and strip of plaster.
Step 1. Prepare two pasteboard splints, to reach from
below the groin to within 3 inches of the ankle joint,
wide enough to nearly enclose the limb ; an interval
of 2 or 3 inches is to be left between the edges in
front.
Step 2. Envelope the limb in an even layer of
cotton wool. If there be much difficulty in maintain-
ing the fragments in good apposition, place a small
pad of lint above the upper one, and fix it by a strip
of plaster, carried in a figure of 8 underneath the
knee to the front of the leg.
Step 3. Next bandage the foot and ankle ; apply the
splints prepared as directed at page 85, and carry a
roller, well starched as it is laid on, from the ankle to
the groin ; care should be taken to cover in the knee
well by figures of 8, arranged to fix the upper fragment
securely.
Step 4. After applying one or two more layers of
starched bandage, put the limb into position by raising
the heel till the starch is dried.
If the case, when dry, is at all loose, it should
be cut open. When the position of the fragments has
been ascertained to be satisfactory, the edges must be
pared where necessary, and the case be re-adjusted by
a tightly-applied bandage.
The patient may get about on crutches in eight or
ten days' time.
/
74 FRACTURES.
Fracture of the Shaft of the Thigh-bone.—
The long Splint.
Apparatus. — 1. A wooden splint.
2. Rollers, 3 inches wide (one of 6 inches wide).
3. Perineal band.
4. Strapping, needle, thread, and pins.
5. Pad and wool.
The splint for an adult should be 2 £ or 3 inches
wide, and long enough to reach from the nipple be-
yond the heel for 6 inches ; two round holes, f inch
diameter, are cut at its upper end, and at the lower
end two notches two inches deep.
ListonJs Mode of applying tlie Long Splint
Step 1. The limb is first washed with soap and
water, well dried, and afterwards dusted with starch
powder, especially at the perinceum.
Step 2. The end of a roller is split for a few
inches, and .tied in the holes at the upper end of
the splint. The roller itself is carried down the
inside of the splint and attached temporarily to the
notches at the other end; a pad is then fastened on, by
drawing the margins together with needle and thread
across the outside of the splint, or by tying strips of
bandage round the pad and splint at phort distances.
Step 3. Prepare the perineal band. This consists of
a silk handkerchief or napkin folded into aflat ribbon,
1 inch wide and covered for about 1 foot of its length
with * oiled silk. A piece of smooth brown paper,
1 foot long and 4 inches wide, folded into a ribbon
1 inch wide, makes an excellent foundation for the silk
handkerchief to be folded upon. A band thus pre-
LONG SPLINT. 75
pared is too stiff to become a cord after it has been
worn a few days, which a simple handkerchief is
apt to do. One end of the band is passed in front
of the groin, and one behind the buttock, great care
being taken that it bears on the tuber ischii in the
perinseum.
Step 4. The ankle and dorsum of the foot are
wrapped in a layer of cotton wool, and the splint
applied along the outside of the body. The ends of
the perineal band are drawn separately through the
holes in the splint, and left loose. The bandage which
was fastened to the splint is now released from the
notch; and, taking with it the end of the pad, is
carried under the sole, then in front of the ankle to
the splint, and behind the leg round the internal
malleolus to the front again. Here it crosses outwards
and goes then through the lower notch of the splint
to the inside of the foot again. This figure of 8 is
carried four times over the dorsum of the foot, twice
through each notch of the splint, and is made fast by
a pin or a stitch. In doing this, care must be taken
to keep the leg and splint parallel, and that the splint
does not ride over the back of the foot ; the external
malleolus should be midway between the margins of
the splint; moreover, the bandage must fit firmly
round the ankle and splint, not spreading over the
dorsum more than can be helped, to avoid straining
the front of the ankle. (Means for more effectually
preventing this will be afterwards detailed.) All
being ready for extension, an assistant, grasping the
leg and splint above the ankle, pulls out the shortening
till the broken bone is in a good position, while the
76
FRACTURES.
surgeon tightens the perineal band, and makes the
ends fast in a knot.
Step 5. The surgeon returns
to the foot of the patient, and,
having laid soma cotton wool
along the shin and round the
knee, continues the bandage.
This is carried up the leg and
over the knee by reverses and
figures of ft'. It is customary
to cany the bondage farther
than the knee, but this is not
an essential part of the ap-
paratus, which is simply to
keep up the extension in the
direction of the axis of the
limb. A bandage conceals the
limb, and the position of the
broken ends of the bone. But
it steadies the thigh, and eon-
fines the muscles, thereby pre-
venting pain.
Step G. First protecting the
bony parts with cotton wool,
the muscles about the hip are
confined by a spica carried
round the body audthe splint,
not merely a simple figure of "Sith "itatk" tuSap eite«-
8 as depicted in the figure, jKta* Sfto'tta «St°?J
but a series of overlapping ft**™*-
turns which ascend and cover in the hips well.
.Aftewards the upper end of the splint is drawn
I<ONG SPLINT. 77
close to the body by a few turns of a broad roller
carried round the cliest from above downwards (see
fig. 50).
The perineal band must be changed whenever it gets
soiled, and the skin washed before a clean one is
applied. After the first few days the band need not
be very tight ; it suffices if not slack or loose. Mr.
Coxeter makes india-rubber tubes in the shape of
a perineal band ; these are filled with water when in
use (see fig. 51).
Fig. 51. — Coxeter's elastic perineal band.
Stirrup extension is a mode of relieving the strain
on the front of the ankle, caused by the pressure of
the roller which fixes the splint to it. A 3-inch wide
roller or bit of wood of the same breadth is laid
against the sole of the foot, and a stout india-rubber
ring 2 inches in diameter is slipped over it. A piece
of strapping plaster, 2 \ feet long and 2 inches wide, is
passed half-way through the ring, and fixed securely
to the bandage or bit of wood forming the bar of the
stirrup, after which the ends of the plaster are carried
np the leg on each side. The plaster is kept in place
by a roller or second strip laid on in spirals up the
limb as in fig. 52, and the india-rubber ring is hitched
against a hook at the end of the splint. By this
FRACTURES.
means the strai n is transferred to the leg, and the ankle
is left free. It is perfectly successful, and very easy
to the patient.
52.— MiKle
i.l 'trail,'-'
the ankle.
Fig. 63. — Fracture
Eelow the tro-
chanters ; bone in
lingular -union.
The long splint is to he worn continuously for six
weeks ; or, what is better, after the first three weeks it
may be replaced by a starch bandage, and the patient
LONG SPLINT. 79
allowed to get about on crutches with his leg slung
from his neck.
The Scotch method of applying tlie Long Splint.
Apparatus. — 1. A long splint as already described
on page 74.
2. A sheet of millboard for short splints.
3. A sheet or tablecloth.
4. Two large-sized handkerchiefs or slings.
5. Cotton wool, oiled silk, and bandage.
6. One dozen stout carpet pins.
Step 1. Prepare two pasteboard or thin wooden
splints, one to reach from the trochanter major to the
external condyle, the other to extend from the inner
side of the groin to the internal condyle; pad the
splints lightly with cotton wool. If required, a short
anterior splint may be added, as seen in the figure.
Step 2. Fold the sheet so that it will extend from
the heel to the crest of the ilium, and wrap it round
the long splint, leaving only sufficient unrolled to
envelope the limb.
Step 3. Next place a folded handkerchief round the
back of the leg above the ankle, and cross the ends
over the foot. Another handkerchief should be ap-
plied as a perineal band (see page 74).
Step 4. While one assistant holds the ends of the
perineal band, another grasps the leg above the ankle
and extends the limb. The surgeon then applies the
short thigh splints, and firmly secures them by loops
of bandage.
Step 5. He next adjusts the long splint to the outer
. FRACTUBES.
side of the limb, passing the free portion of the sheet
under the ankle, leg, and thigh, and folding down the
upper border of the sheet sufficiently to allow it to fit
evenly at the perinteu.ni and over the groin in front.
The ends of the perineal band are then passed through
the holes [in. the splint and tied firmly together,
DOUBLE INCLINE. 81
and the ends of the lower handkerchief are also
fastened, by tying them over the notch, below the
foot. Thus extension is maintained.
Step 6. Having protected the point of the heel with
a * bird's-nest ' of fiotton wool, the surgeon draws the
sheet smoothly and evenly over the front of the
limb, and fastens it by carpet pins along the anterior
edge of the splint.
Step 7. Finally, the upper end of the splint is
maintained in position by a few turns of a chest
roller.
Continuous Extension with the Limjs flexed.—
The muscles attached to the upper end of the femur
sometimes cause so much flexion and rotation outwards
of the upper fragment that union of the bones in this
position produces a result approaching that in fig. 53,
drawn from a preparation in the museum of University
College.
This crooked union is prevented by bending the
thigh and relaxing the muscles of the hip. This object
Fig. 50.— Double incline planes.
is accomplished by using the double incline planes, as
shown in figs. 56 and 57.
The limb is raised over a wooden frame about 8 inches
82 FRACTURES.
broad, with a double slope high enough at the apex for
the leg and foot to hang unsupported down the further
side (fig. 56). It is well padded before being applied,
and the leg and thigh are secured to it by a roller
passed round the limb and plane. A better mode of
steadying the limb is to fix a trough of gutta-percha
while the limb lies on the plane. When the trough is
set, it is screwed down to the wood at one or two
points*
Slinging the double incline planes was prac-
tised many years ago by Mayor of Lausanne, and has
been revived recently. It is an apparatus very
easy for the patient, and particularly well suited for
compound fractures of the thigh, for fractures near
the trochanters that require a flexed position, or for
fractures of the neck of the femur where the patient's
feebleness does not permit the constraint of the long
splint.
Apparatus. — 1. A bent wire frame (see fig. 57) with
a separate foot-piece.
2. Two pulleys, a rope with tent stretchers passing
up to hooks in the ceiling, or some suitable support.
3. One long and one short soft pad.
4. Strapping plaster, and some ends of bandage.
Step 1. The limb is washed and dried, and the short
pad fitted to the foot-piece, which is furnished with
some hooks at its lower surface, where ends of bandage
or tape can be fastened, for fixing it to the wire frame.
The frame is next prepared by passing strips of bandage
across it from side to side at short intervals, to make
a support on which the limb is laid ; if there is no
wound, a soft pad may be put on the frame first, but
WEIGHT AND PULLEY EXTENSION.
a3
if one be present, the limb should rest immediately on
the strips of bandage, which can be changed whenever
soiled, and replaced by clean ones without disturbing
the limb. These strips should be tacked on with a
needle and thread, so that, when the limb is placed on
Fig. 57.— Double incline plane, slung.
the apparatus, they can be shortened or lengthened till
the leg bears evenly on them.
Step 2. The foot-piece is adjusted and fastened to*
84 FRACTURES*
the foot by straps of plaster carried round it and up
each side of the leg, as was done for the stirrup exten-
sion in the ' long splint ' (p. 77).
Step 3. The limb is next placed in the cradle
formed for it, to the lower end of which the foot-piece
is tied securely; the ropes are rove through the pulleys
and tightened till the limb swings easily. The point
of attachment of the ropes must not be just above the
limb, but beyond it, that the leg may be drawn away
from the body along its own axis. The weight of the
body makes counter-extension sufficient to remove all
shortening in a few days.
Fracture of the shaft of the thigh bone in the
adult may also be treated by simple extension, with a
weight and pulley, as described at page 85, for hip
disease or fracture occurring in young children.
It is a good plan in most cases, at any rate for
the first week or two, to enclose the thigh within
three or four short well padded wooden splints, as
they serve to maintain the ends of the bone in good
position.
Continuous Extension in the straight position
is employed for fractures of the femur and in hip-disease.
It is procured as follows. A stirrup is fastened to the
leg in the way described at p. 77 ; to this a cord and
weight are attached below the sole of the foot, and
passed over a pulley fixed to a tripod frame (fig. 58), or
any convenient object beyond the bed, in a line with
the axis of the limb. The weight should balance the
contraction of the muscles, and usually varies between
2 and 6 lbe. A perineal band fastened behind the
patient's head keeps the body from following the limb.
STARCH BANDAGE.
The weight may be a common scale weight, or a bag
with a hole at the bottom closed by a string, and
Fig. 68.— Fncture of the femur. Extension by weight and pnllaj.
filled with shot or sand, or a can with a tap at the
bottom filled with water : these arrangements allow
increase or lessening of the weight, without slackening
the cord and moving tbe limb. This apparatus
requires no bandages, which are difficult to keep
clean in children, and exerts a very even and con-
tinuous strain on the limb.
The perineal band may be often dispensed with, by
laying the patient on a flat matress and raising the
foot of the bedstead a few inches higher than the head;
the body then sinks towards the head of the bed and
resists the extension of the leg.
Starch bandage. — The following mode of apply-
ing the starch bandage and pasteboard splints may be
used in all varieties of fracture ; the length of the
splints and the number of joints that should be in-
cluded depend on the bone that is broken.
86 FRACTURES.
Some surgeons apply the starch apparatus immedi-
ately after the fracture has happened, others wait until
partial union is procured and the irritability of the
muscles has subsided.
Apparatus. — 1. Sheets of bookbinder's millboard.
2. Rollers suitable for the size of the limb.
3. Cotton wool.
4. A basin of freshly scalded starch.
5. A long strip of plaster, to reach as high as the
bandage will extend up the limb.
6. If the fracture be recent, a wooden splint will
generally be necessary to keep up extension while the
starch is drying.
As a general rule, the joint at the lower end of the
fractured bone should always be fixed, and that at
the upper end also, if the fracture is near that point.
For an example of the mode of fitting, let us suppose
the femur to be broken between the middle and lower
thirds as in fig. 60.
Step 1. The limb is first measured for the splints.
The length from the top of the sacrum to the heel,
from the tuber ischii to the inside of the foot, and from
the iliac crest to the outside of the foot, should be
taken, and three strips of millboard prepared of
corresponding lengths ; the posterior one being 3
inches wide above and 2 inches, or, if the limb is
small, li inches wide at the heel. The inner and
outer strips of similar width must be cut with side
pieces for the foot, and these side-pieces stop short of
the roots of the toes. For a child's thigh, the foot
need not be included; it suffices for the splints to
reach the small of the leg, though to prevent shorten-
STARCH BANDAGE. 87
ing in an adult it is usually necessary to include the
•whole lintb. The splints are readily cut, by first
marking on the sheet of millboard the required width
and length of the strips, then bending the sheet over
the edge of a table along these lines. The two lateral
splints may be first taken from the sheet in one wide
strip, after allowing for the foot-piece ; the two strips
are separated through a diagonal line, so that the broad
end of one splint is taken from the other (see fig. 59).
Fig. 50.— Diagram showing the mode of cutting out splints from
a sheet of millboard.
When the strips are cut they should be laid on a
large tea-tray, boiling water poured over them, and a
minute or two later, some boiling hot thin starch ; this
soon soaks into and softens the millboard till it is
thoroughly pliant. When somewhat softened, the edges
should be thinned by peeling off little strips along
them, after which some more boiling water may be
poured on and allowed to soak in while the limb is
prepared.
Step 2. The limb is washed and dried ; a strip of
diachylon plaster one inch wide is laid along the front
to protect the skin when the case is being cut open
88 FRACTURES.
after it is dry ; the limb is next wrapped evenly in
cotton wool, putting a scrap between each toe. This
is best done by unrolling a sheet of wadding, splitting
the sheet into a layer of suitable thickness, and tearing
it into strips about three inches broad, which are then
wound evenly round the limb as high as the splints
will reach.
Step 3. The splints are next adjusted and moulded
to the limb, being temporarily secured by a few ends of
bandage tied round them. One assistant grasps the
splints and foot at the ankle and keeps up extension,
while another holds the thigh. The surgeon then
proceeds to roll the bandages, first round the foot and
ankle, and then up the leg, rubbing in the warm starch
as he proceeds. Each turn of the roller should be made
as tightly as possible, for when the case dries it always
grows loose by the evaporation of the water it holds.
As reverses are always difficult to cut through after-
wards, they should be avoided, and the bandage laid
on in simple spiral or figure of 8 turns. When the
perinteum is reached, the surgeon wraps round the
pelvis a broad strip of cotton wool, while an assistant
on each side of the patient supports his body on a
folded sheet or jack-towel, and a third holds the
broken limb. The bandaging is then continued in a
well-fitting spica, and ended by a few circular turns
round the body. If the splint touches the crest of
the ilium it should be shortened till it clears tHat
point, or it will gall the patient afterwards. A fold
of soft lint in addition to the cotton wool should line
the splint at the perinseum, or the sharp edge of the
bandage, when it is dry, will chafe there also. When
/
V
STARCH BANDAGE. 89
the first bandage is complete, the limb should be
smeared again with starch, and a dry bandage rolled
over it from below upwards, which must be similarly-
saturated with starch as it is laid on the limb,
and when finished the whole is well covered with
starch.
If the fracture is recent, and no union has taken place,
a long splint should be put on outside the case, fastened
to the foot and extended by a perineal band, while the
starch is drying, that the limb may not shorten. With
children it is best to apply the wooden splint in all
cases, as they are apt to wriggle about, or sit up in
bed and disarrange the case while it is in a pliant con-
dition. I£ the wood splint is not used, the limb should
be supported in a good position by sand-bags laid
along its sides.
In three days the starch is quite dry, but the drying
may be hastened by hot- water bottles or hot sand-bags
laid in the bed.* The case must then be cut up along
the front from bottom to top ; it will often be found
loose, especially where swelling had existed before ;
this is best remedied by paring the overlapping edges
with scissors. If any projecting part is chafed, an
accident that ought not to happen, the case may be
lifted from the sore part by a little more wool laid
around, not on the part pinched. The limb being in a
satisfactory position, and the case fitting properly, a
roller is carried up over the whole to keep it in place
while it is worn (fig. 60).
* Yandell finds the following batter dries in two or three
hours : — Beat the whites of one dozen eggs to a stiff froth, then
stir in flour briskly to a moderately thick batter.
90
FRACTURES.
The patient need not now be confined to bed ; on
the contrary, the limb should be supported by a sling
round his neck, while he gets about with crutches, if
his leg be the part injured.
Fig. CO. —Starch bandage.
The fracture should be examined from time to time,
and at the end of three weeks some of the joints pre-
Tiously confined in the splint may be released by
cutting off the part covering them ; but if the part is
a dependent one, such as the leg, it should be sup-
ported by a bandage after the splint has been removed.
The limb may also be washed with soap and water,
and then anointed with simple ointment, if the skin
be roughened or irritated by long confinement.
In six weeks the starch splint may usually be dis-
carded, and a roller alone worn for a few weeks longer.
Plaster of Paris Bandage.
Apparatus. — 1. Freshly burned white plaster of
Paris. If the plaster have become stale by keeping
in improperly closed vessels, and it be impossible to
obtain fresh plaster, the water the plaster has
absorbed from the atmosphere can be driven off by
heating the powder in a drying oven to 200° F. or
PLASTER OF PARIS BANDAGE. 91
260° F., but not higher, as greater heat destroys the
power of ' setting.'
2. Rollers, about 2£ inches wide, of muslin, with a
coarse open texture.
3. A roller of Welsh flannel 3 inches wide and G
yards long.
4. Basin of cold water, sponge, and a kitchen spoon.
5. Soft lard or spermaceti ointment.
Step. 1. The muslin rollers are best prepared by
being loaded with dry powder just before they are
used. To do this the roller should be gradually
unrolled on a table while one person rubs in the
powder, and a second rolls the loaded bandage up
again. But this is not essential. Unloaded rollers,
if well wetted, answer very well if the cream is laid on
thoroughly as they are applied. When three or four
are loaded they should be plunged for a minute into
cold water, and are then ready for use. While this is
being done the limb should be thoroughly washed and
dried ; supported, if the fracture be recent, by sand-
bags.
Step 2. The surgeon carefully greases the limb
wherever the plaster will reach, and rolls a Welsh
flannel roller round it for about 3 inches at the points
where the plaster roller will cease. This protects the
skin from the rough edge of the case when the appa-
ratus is set and hard. Indeed, if the whole of the
surface to be covered with plaster be enveloped in a
flannel roller, the apparatus is more comfortable to
the patient, and in this case the grease may be dis-
pensed with. When the limb is prepared the Burgeon
intrusts it to assistants, who will maintain reduction
92
FRACTURES.
while he lays on the plaster rollers, wetting them freely
as they are laid on, with a sponge at hand in a basin
of cold water. Usually two layers of roller give suffi-
cient rigidity to the apparatus ; but* if the limb is
heavy, the case should be strengthened, by smearing
over it au additional coating of plaster. This is pre-
pared by shaking the powder into a basin of water
kept constantly stirred, till it has the consistence of
cream. The surgeon must watch that the fractured
Fi£. 61.- Flatter of Paris Bandage, f<
fr.r simple
>le fracture vl the tibia.
bones are kept in position till the plaster is set, a
process sufficiently advanced in five minutes, for
the bandage, supported by sand-bags, to be left till
When the plaster is quite set the bone is
able and may be carried about without risk of dis-
placement. In deciding what joints should be included
iu the bandage, the same rules obtain in this as for the
starch bandage. No more joints should be rendered
immoveable than are necessary to obtain command of
PLASTER OF PARIS BANDAGE. 93
the broken bone. When the fracture is near a joint,
that joint must be confined to prevent the bones from
moving. When the fracture is near the middle of a
bone, sufficient control can be exercised to prevent the
broken ends from moving, and the joint may remain
free.
If the plaster apparatus is applied over a wound, the
latter should be covered "with greased lint, and its
position noted before the rollers are applied; when the
apparatus is set, the plaster must be dissolved around
the wound by touching it with strong nitro-hydro-
chloric acid ; when this is carried completely round,
the isolated fragment of plaster may be removed, and
the wound exposed.
For removal, the roller can be softened by acid along
a line, and slit up with scissors, when the apparatus
comes off in a piece.
Common rollers can be made to answer the purpose
tolerably well when bandages of loose texture are not
at hand.
Gum thickened with powdered chalk, glue, poro-
plastic felt, paraffin, &c, are also employed for
stiffening bandages and flexible splints, after they are
moulded to a limb, but none of them are as readily
procured or have much advantage over starch and
plaster of Paris. Silicate of soda stiffens the bandage
sufficiently to need no pasteboard splints, but it re-
quires as much time as starch to set and dry. A
detailed description of the mode of using them is un-
necessary.
Sand-bags are very useful, when laid along an
injured limb, to prop it up on either side. For this
94 FRACTURES.
purpose they are better than pillows, as their weight
prevents their slipping from under the part they sup-
port. They should be made of macintosh cloth, of
about 4 or G inches diameter, and in lengths varying
from 1 to 4 feet, well closed that the sand may not
escape through the seams; the macintosh should be
covered with flannel, renewed from time to time.
The sand should be washed and well dried before the
bags are filled, that it may not rot the cloth containing
it. Moreover, the bags should be only three quarters
full, or they will be too hard to adapt themselves to
the limb when in use.
Cradles are light arched frames of wire or cane to
support the bedclothes over an injured limb. On
emergency an efficient cradle can be constructed from
a band-box, by knocking out the bottom and putting
the leg through it. If used to protect a foot, a notch
may be cut -with strong scissors, not a knife, for that
splits the wood.
If the cradle is stout enough, it is useful to sling a
broken limb in its splint, and often great relief is thus
given to the patient. Dr. Salter's Swing » Cradle is
specially contrived for the purpose, and is shown,
fig. 43, page 65.
The Canopy Cradle is a handy arrangement, con-
isting of a straight wooden blade, like a large paper
knife, which is placed underneath the bedclothes. The
clothes and blade are then grasped from the outside
by a notched block of wood suspended by an easily
disposed cord and ring from the ceiling or bed frame.
When this mode of suspension is not convenient, as in
a low bedstead without curtains, the weight may be
PLASTER OF PARIS BANDAGE. 95
supported on a cord, running diagonally from the head
to the foot of the bed.
Leather Splints — For these sole leather, to be
purchased at any leather dealer's, is used. In preparing
them, the required length should be first noted down,
then a series of transverse measurements taken at
the widest and narrowest parts of the limb and over
the projections of joints, <fcc, or a pattern may be first
cut in paper and laid on the sheet of leather from
which a corresponding piece is cut. The splint should
always be so arranged that its edges do not bear on any
bony point, the shin, or malleoli, for example, but
either fall short of or pass beyond them. The hair side
of the leather should go next the skin, as it is the
smoothest and least irritating. The edges of the
splint must be thinned by bevelling off the outside for
about an inch all round, and no sharp corners should
be left. When the leather is prepared it should be
soaked, if the time can be spared, for twenty-four
hours in cold water, but when wanted quickly it can
be softened in a few minutes by soaking it in warm
water to which a little vinegar is added — this, how-
ever, renders the leather brittle when dry, and apt to
curl at the edges. When the leather is softened, a
very thin even layer of cotton wadding or of lint is
laid on next the skin ; the splint is then moulded to
the limb with the hands, and bandaged firmly; in
twelve hours it will be dry and rigid. The roller is
then unwound, and any parts of the splint pressing
on bony projections are marked before removal. It is
then trimmed, and laid between two layers of wash-
leather stitched together round the edges. The splint
96 FRACTURES.
is now finished, and can be either fastened on by
a roller or by two or more straps and buckles stitched
to it.
When support is required for a joint, the splint
should be fitted on the sides, where the leather may
have the rigidity of its width instead of only that of
its thickness to prevent bending.
Leather Splint for the Hip This joint is by far
the most difficult to fit. The hip splint should obtain
a good grasp of its fixed point, the pelvis, and a stiff
bearing on the front of the thigh where its pressure
is to be exerted. There are many plans of procuring
a satisfactory fit. The following is one of the best.
First cut a pattern on a sheet of paper from which
to shape the leather. If possible the patient should
stand while the pattern is fitting. Take a sheet of
paper large enough to reach round the body, and long
enough to extend from the waist to the leg below the
knee. Lay it against the diseased hip, carry its ver-
tical margin a little beyond the middle line in front
towards the sound side, and the other part round the
body behind, till the front is reached on the sound
side. Feel for the anterior iliac spine, and mark
with a pencil the point midway between it and the
pubes ; from this draw one horizontal line inwards to
the border of the paper, arid a second obliquely to the
perinseum. Then seek for the junction of the sacrum
and iliac bone behind, which corresponds pretty nearly
to the point first found in front ; from this mark the
gluteal fold. Next carry a line vertically from the
upper border of the sheet of paper to the great tro-
chanter ; and lastly, mark the level of the pelvis.
HIP SPLINT.
97
«
Lay the sheet on a table and slit it with scissors along
■
the lines marked, apply it a second time to the body
and bend the thigh part round the thigh, making its
Fig. 62.— Leather splint for the hip.
anterior margin reach well to the inside of the limb,
while the posterior part should almost meet it from
behind. The splint should also reach downwards to
the back of the knee. The paper is then trimmed
down to these dimensions. The hip part is next
trimmed so that it clears the buttock on the sound
side and passes round to the anterior iliac spine of
that side. The pattern being complete, cut a piece of
sole-leather to correspond, arranging that the hair or
' slwrV side of the leather will lie next the skin; bevel
off the outer edge all round, and soak the leather till
thoroughly soft in water, wipe it dry, and bandage it
carefully first to the trunk and next to the thigh.
When it is set, superfluous and overlapping edges
must be marked before removal ; lastly, the sides of
*SL
98 FRACTtTRES.
the vertical notch, between the hip and trochanter,
are stitched together, and the splint is covered with
wash-leather.
When extension of the hip is required (see page 85),
it can be applied to the leg below the splint without
lessening the support that affords.
The accompanying figure, 62, is drawn from, a splint
fitted by Mr. Heather Bigg on the plan just described.
Gutta-percha may always be substituted for leather
in these splints, and the same plan of fitting is used,
except that the notching requisite in leather is not
necessary in using gutta-percha ; for the directions to
use this material, see page 49.
Poro-plastic felt is another useful material for
moulding splints. The felt, first softened in hot water,
is bandaged on to the limb; it hardens very quickly,
and forms a light and firm support.
Gooch's flexible wooden splints consist of thin laths
of wood fastened side by side on stout oiled cloth or
leather. They are very light, can be easily shaped ;
and the impermeable covering has the advantage of
preventing their being soiled by discharges.
CHAPTER IV.
DISLOCATIONS.
The main obstacles in reducing dislocations are
entanglement together of the displaced bones, and
contraction of the muscles ; the entanglement of the
bones determines the direction in which extension
must be made, and also that of the counter extension, or
point at which the body is fixed to resist the traction
practised on the limb ; this should be exactly opposite
to the direction in which the limb will be drawn. The
muscles can always be relaxed by chloroform, hence it
is better when they are powerful, not to use the limb
as a lever to prize the head of the bone into its place.
Steady extension instead is better, to disengage the
bone from the parts against which it is caught, and to
bring it opposite its socket, into which the hands of
the surgeon guide it with less risk of laceration of the
soft parts than attends forcible leverage.
Lower Jaw. — This bone is dislocated on one or
both sides ; when the condyle has slipped forward
from the glenoid fossa, the contracted temporal muscle
prevents the bone from regaining its proper position,
and causes the coronoid process to hitch against the
malar bone.
100
DISLOCATIONS.
Treatment — Apparatus. — 1. A towel.
2. A four-tail bandage.
The patient should be seated in a high-backed chair,
resting his head against the back. The surgeon winds
the towel round both thumbs, and standing immediately
in front of his patient, places a thumb on the second
molar of both
sides, if the
dislocation be
double, or on
one side only,
if that be alone
displaced (see
ftg. 63). He
then presses
steadily down-
wards until
the condyle is
released, when it slips back to its place. The
return of the bone may be aided by pushing up the
chin with the fingers after the ramus of the jaw has
been lowered.
When the jaw is replaced, a four-tail bandage or split
handkerchief should be tied over the nucha and vertex
of the head, to keep the jaw closed (see fig. 25, page 33).
Biting or chewing should not be attempted for ten days
or a fortnight. The patient should be warned also
that when the jaw has been once dislocated it very
readily slips out of place again ; he must thenceforth
avoid gaping or opening the jaw very widely.
The Clavicle is rarely dislocated, nevertheless both
the inner and the outer end may be displaced. The
Fig. 63.— Dislocation of the jaw.
THE SHOULDER. 101
signs are obvious — the end of the bone is felt in its
new position. The treatment for all is the same.
Apparatus. — 1. Roller, 2J inches wide.
2. A piece of old blanket.
The blanket should be torn into strips about a foot
square, and folded thrice, thus making a long soft pad
to line the axilla, one for each armpit. The patient is
next seated on a stool ; an assistant standing behind,
draws back the shoulder while he presses on the spine
with his knee; the dislocation being reduced, the
surgeon fixes the bone by a figure of 8 carried round
the shoulders and across the back. The forearm is
then bent and fastened to the body by a few turns of
the roller round it and the chest. This prevents the
pectorals from acting on the bone. The apparatus
may be laid aside at the end of a week, but the arm
must be fixed to the trunk for a fortnight longer.
This bone is often difficult to keep in place after
dislocation, and even the most accurately fitted appa-
ratus sometimes fails to effect its object, hence many
varieties of collar and yoke have been devised by
different surgeons to accomplish this purpose.
The Shoulder is dislocated in three directions,
downwards, inwards, and backwards. These have sub-
ordinate varieties, but the signs depend chiefly on the
direction of the greatest displacement.
Signs of dislocation into the axilla. When the bone
is displaced below the glenoid fossa, the acromion is
prominent ; underneath it, the surgeon feels a hollow
instead of the head of the humerus, which the finger
detects in the axilla. Movement of the shoulder is
very limited and painful. If the elbovr i& totota&.
102 DISLOCATIONS.
while the finger is in the armpit, the head will be
found to move with the rest of the bone.
If the head of the bone is carried more inwards on
to the ribs, it can be seen and felt near the clavicle ;
the hollow is again readily detected below the acromion,
while the axis of the arm is altered, being directed
inside its proper position.
When the bone is carried backwards the head is
plainly felt on the scapula below the spine.
For the reduction of these dislocations several plans
are employed. When recent, the two first displace-
ments can generally be restored without chloroform,
Fig. 64. — Reducing a dislocated shoulder by the heel in the armpit.
but if the patient is muscular, it often saves time and
pain to produce anesthesia before attempting to re-
place the bone.
By the heel in the axilla (fig. 64). — The patient lies
flat on a couch ; the surgeon pulling off his boot from
the left foot if he has to reduce a left dislocation, and
THE SHOULDER. 103
vice versd, the right boot, seats himself on the couch
facing the patient. Putting his unbooted foot into
the armpit, he grasps the forearm with both hands
and pulls steadily downwards. When the head of the
bone is disengaged, the muscles draw it into the socket,
and the movements of the limb become at once easy
and natural. The arm must then be fixed to the side
by a roller for a fortnight, and the shoulder is wetted
with an evaporating lotion to allay the pain and in-
flammation resulting from the laceration of the soft
parts. Should the surgeon's strength be insufficient
for the requisite extension, a jack towel may be at-
tached in a clove-hitch round the arm above the elbow
and held by an assistant, who, standing behind the
surgeon, draws steadily in the same direction.
To make a clove-hitch. — Grasp the towel in the left
hand, the little finger .being downwards, then pro-
nating the right hand till the
little finger is upmost, seize
the towel below the left hand ;
if the wrists are then rotated
in opposite directions the towel
will be drawn into two loops,
of which the ends cross above
the connecting part between
the loops (see fig. 65) ; if one
hand holds the loops and the
other pulls the ends, the loops
Will be found not to slip, how- Fig. 65.— The Clove-hitch knot
ever tight the ends are pulled.
Reduction by simple extension. — The patient again
lies flat on his back, a jack towel is passed rwuo*L V&>
104
DISLOCATIONS.
body and fastened behind the opposite shoulder for
counter- extension, while a second towel or skein of
worsted is attached to the arm above the elbow by a
clove-hitch and intrusted to two or three assistants, who
are desired to pull quietly and steadily directly away
from the patient's body. The surgeon meanwhile
reduced by simple extension.
watches the progress of the extension, altering its
direction as he finds the head more or less engaged
against the scapula, and finally with his hands thrusts
the head into its socket. Sometimes there is much
difficulty in getting the head back to the gleuoid fossa,
even when the humerus is completely disengaged from
the scapula ; this difficulty is often overcome if an
assistant rotates the humerus backwards and forwards,
while the extension at the elbow and the pressure on
THE ELBOW. 105
the head of the humerus are steadily maintained.
When the limb is replaced, it is fixed to the side as
before directed.
If the dislocation has existed more than a few hours,
relaxation of the muscles by chloroform and extension
of the limb carried directly away from the body, are
more sure of success than the heel in the axilla, be-
■ cause they allow greater power to be exerted in a
steadier manner than is possible by the other mode.
The Elbow. — The signs of dislocation at this joint
are tolerably evident, but there is often co-existent
fracture of the coronoid or olecranon processes. Sepa-
ration of the articulating surfaces of the humerus from
the shaft is sometimes mistaken for dislocation of the
forearm backwards.
In dislocation of both bones backwards the olecranon
is very plainly felt behind the lower end of the
humerus ; the sigmoid notch is generally to be made
out, and the forearm is fixed at a right angle. The
altered relation of the olecranon to the condyles
Eunices to distinguish dislocation from fracture of the
humerus at its lower end, where the olecranon also
goes backwards, but the condyles go with it. The im-
mobility of the joint distinguishes it from separation
of the lower articular surfaces of the humerus from the
shaft, an accident, moreover, only met with in children.
Other distinctions between dislocation and fracture
are, extreme extension, limited movement, the diffi-
culty of restoring the bones to their natural position,
and the absence of crepitus ; lastly, the peculiar form
of the articular surfaces can sometimes be made out.
In reducing the backward dislocations the natieui
106
DISLOCATIONS.
sits on a chair on which the surgeon rests his foot,
pressing his knee against the forearm at the elbow for
a fulcrum ; then, grasping the wrist with one hand,
and steadying the arm with the other, he flexes tha
elbow to dislodge the ooronoid process from the fossa
at the back of the humerus ; when this is done, the
articulating surfaces slip into place. This plan is com-
monly adopted when the olecranon is displaced, but if
it fails to reduce the dislocation, direct extension at
the wrist must be employed, as for the following
dislocation.
When the radius only is displaced, the body should
be fixed by a jack towel
carried under the armpit of
tbe injured side, and over
the shonlder of the sound
side. A wetted bandage is
rolled round the forearm,
and a second towel is at
tacbed by a clove-hitch (see
fig. 65, page 103) to it for ex-
tension, which is made in tbe
axis of the limb until the
surgeon's hand can push the
radius into its place on the
outer condyle.
In all dislocations of the
elbow, when the bones are
„, u.i-.im. i,.n„i L„r. r.,,™ rgtumgd^ the limb should be
bent to a right angle and put on a lateral angular
splint for a week or ten days, after which time it
ehoa]d be worn in a sling a fortnight louger.
iueiug dislocation
THE THUMB AND FINGERS. 107
The Thumb and Fingers. — When the first phalanx
is dislocated from the head of the metacarpal bone, it
is sometimes very difficult of reduction. The most
effectual mode is steady extension, which is procured
by fastening the thumb to a piece of wood, which
serves as a handle to give command of the phalanx,
and is contrived as follows : the thumb is first bandaged
with a narrow wetted roller over the two phalanges,
and a thick layer of cotton 'wool is rolled round it ; a
piece of stiff wood, 1 inch wide, ^ inch thick, and 12
long, is perforated at one end with three pairs of holes
| inch distant from each other and from the end ;
through these, three stout tapes, § inch wide and 2
feet long, are threaded, leaving three loops on one
side of the piece of wood (fig. 68). The wood is then
Fig. 68.— Handle for obtaining grasp of the thumb in dislocation.
applied to the palmar aspect of the phalanges, the
loops passed over the thumb, their ends drawn tight,
and tied, not in a bow as the figure represents, but in a
knot wound round the end of the stick. The stick
thus attached becomes a good handle for extending the
digit, and also a long lever for altering the direction of
the phalanx if desired. Langenbeck of Berlin employs
a pair of forceps to seize the .thumb, instead of the
108 DISLOCATIONS.
wooden handle just described. But with the greatest
care and perseverance it is sometimes impossible to re-
place the bone unless the constricting bands be divided
with a tenotome.
Hip-joint. — There are three chief directions in
which the hip is dislocated. First backwards on the
dorsum ilii, or further on to the sciatic notch. In
this dislocation the limb is shortened, moved with
difficulty, drawn inwards over the other, and its great
toe touches some part of the back of the other foot.
The hip itself is altered, the great trochanter being
nearer to the crista ilii, and more prominent than on
the uninjured side, and the head is often plainly felt
in its new position. Resistance to extension of the
limb, limited movement of the hip, with rotation in-
wards, are the distinguishing points between this dis-
location and fracture at the neck of the femur.
Treatment. — Apparatus. — A complete apparatus for
this purpose is contrived and sold by instrument
makers, but a sufficiently serviceable one can be ex-
temporised when the former is not at hand ; it
consists of : —
1. A rope running in two pulley blocks.
2. Three jack towels or skeins of worsted.
3. Two stout hooks to screw into the wall, or some
firm object, to obtain fixed. attachment.
4. A wetted roller 3 inches wide.
The complete apparatus is as follows : —
Apparatus. — 1. A set of multiplying pulleys.
2. A leathern padded girth, 2 inches wide and 3
feet long, having at each end an iron ring.
3. A stout leathern belt about 6 inches broad,
furnished with buckles, straps, and rings to fasten
on to the thigh above the knee ; a rope is ran through
STg. 69.— Dislocation of the di
the rings to connect the hook of the pulleys with the
thigh.
4. Two strong iron hooks to screw into the wall, for
fixing the apparatus.
5. Half-a-dozen yards of stout cord.
6. A hook, fitted with a buckle and strap, and hinged
so that, by turning a pin, it flies open and at once
disengages itself. If this be interposed between the
pulleys and the belt fixed on the thigh, the limb may
be instantaneously released when desired.
Treatment. — Step 1. The patient is laid on a flat
couch, and put under the influence of chloroform.
When he is narcotised, a jack towel, or if it be at
110 DISLOCATIONS.
hand the pelvic girdle, is carried across the perinseum,
arranging it to bear on the tuber ischii behind and
the pubes in front, its ends being attached to one
of the hooks screwed into the wall behind, anSr
about six inches below the level of the patient. This
towel should be put slightly on the stretch, that the
pelvis may be kept in the position first assigned to it
when the pulleys begin to draw. A wet roller is put
on the lower third of the thigh, the jack towel slipped
up the leg to the bandage, and fastened in a clove
hitch. Another jack towel is then doubled and passed
up the limb to the perinaeum. The patient is next
turned on to his sound side, and the belt of the thigh
connected by the disengaging hook to the pulleys, which
are drawn out from each other as far as their cord will
allow, and attached to a hook fixed a little above the
level of the patient, on a line carried from the hip
across the junction of the middle and lower thirds of
the uninjured thigh (see fig. 69).
Step. 2. The surgeon being ready, an assistant draws
on the pulley cord, getting gradual extension of the
limb as required by the surgeon, who, keeping his
hands on the hip and great trochanter, watches
the progress of the head of the bone towards the
acetabulum.
Step 3. When the bone has reached the edge of the
acetabulum, a second assistant slips the doubled jack-
towel over his shoulders, and by raising his body, lifts
the femur away from the brim of the acetabulum,
while the surgeon, grasping the foot and knee, makes
a few movements of rotation backwards and forwards
to ease the head into its socket.
FEMUR DOWNWARDS. Ill
When a reduction is effected, the limb should be put
in a long splint or starch bandage for three weeks, and
the patient not allowed to exercise the limb freely or
* jriolently for a. month afterwards.
Reduction by manipulation. — When the patient is
not very muscular, and the dislocation recent, the
bone can often be speedily returned by movements of
flexion and rotation.
The patient is put fully under chloroform and laid
on a matress on the floor. The surgeon grasps the
small of the leg by the front, and passes his other
hand behind the knee, bending the leg till it is at a
right angle with the thigh : the thigh is bent over the
belly. Next, he adducts the thigh a little and rotates
it inwards by turning out the toes, to disengage the
head from behind the socket. The third step is to
carry the knee outwards. When the thigh is perpen-
dicular, the abduction is changed for circumduction
and rotation outwards. During these latter move-
ments the limb is jerked towards the ceiling. Lastly
the limb is straightened as the head drops into the
socket.
The pelvis may be steadied by the surgeon's foot
divested of its boot, on the iliac spine.
Dislocation downwards into the thyroid fora-
men. The limb is lengthened, capable of little mo-
tion ; the knee is bent ; the toe points forwards, and
away from the other foot. Here the reduction is
best managed by extension ; the apparatus required
being the same as that employed in dislocation back-
wards, but it is differently arranged.
Step. 1. The patient lies on his back, the pelvic
112
DISLOCATIONS.
girth, or towel, is carried round the pelvis and fastened
to the wall on a level with his body, opposite the
uninjured Bide. A jack towel is put round the upper
part of the dislocated thigh, and attached to the pul-
leys outside, which are listened to the wall opposite
(see fig. 70).
Step 2. Extension is then made by an assistant, the
surgeon grasps the leg above the ankle, and rotating
the limb inwards and outwards, but without lifting it
from the bed, guides the head into the acetabulum.
Here, as after dislocation backwards, a long splint
should be worn on the limb for three weeks before the
patient is allowed to move about at all.
Reduction by Manipulation, — The patient being pre-
pared as above directed (page 111) the surgeon flexes
THE PUBES.
113
the limb towards the perpendicular and abducts it
slightly ; he then rotates the thigh strongly inwards,
at the same time adducting it and, carrying the knee
towards the floor, finally straightens the limb.
Dislocation on to the Pubes. — The limb is easily
moved at the hip, shortened, rotated outwards, and the
head of the bone is felt in the groin.
The same apparatus is used in this as in the dis-
location on the dorsum ilii. It is applied as follows : —
Step 1. The patient lies on his back (fig. 71), with
his legs separated. The pelvic band is passed over the
perinteum and pubes, and attached above the patient,
in a line passing from the pelvis a little to his sound
aide. A double jack towel is slipped up the limb to
the perineum ; the pulleys are fastened to the thigh
above the knee and fixed, in the manner directed on
114 DISLOCATIONS.
page 110, to the wall below and external to the injured
side of the body.
Step 2. Extension is then steadily made, while the
surgeon watches the head getting free from the pubes,
over the edge of which a second, assistant slipping his
neck through the doubled towel, raises the bone a
little outwards. The surgeon in the meantime en-
courages the bone by rotation to enter the socket.
Reduction by Manipulation. — The surgeon draws the
limb downwards, at the same time flexing it gradually
on the abdomen as far as possible; he then rotates the
thigh inwards, and directing the head of the bone by
its shaft, gradually rocks it downwards into its
place.
A splint is necessary here also after reduction.
The Knee. — These dislocations are rarely complete,
and are easily reduced ; the lateral ones by flexing the
thigh on the belly, straightening the leg, and rotating
it a little from side to side.
Anotlier Plan. — Apparatus. — Two jack towels. This
is more useful when the tibia is carried backwards.
Lay the patient on his back, and slip a jack towel in a
clove-hitch up the leg to the ham, and another round
the small of the leg ; the thigh is bent and retained
in an upright position by an assistant holding the
jack towel at the ham, while a second pulls on the
one at the ankle and so disengages the bones from
each other, when the surgeon readily slips them into
place.
After reduction is accomplished, the limb should be
fixed in a leathern back splint until the inflammation
subsides.
Scarpa's shoes. 115
Dislocation of the Patella — The displacement of
this bone on to the outer or inner condyle is generally
easily reduced if the knee be straightened and the vasti
relaxed by bending the thigh on the belly. When the
patella is turned on its own axis, the side, not the
under surface, is locked against the condyle, and re-
duction is sometimes extremely difficult or impossible.
The same movements must be adopted as for simple
lateral displacement, and the surgeon must endeavour
to release the bone by pressing its upper edge down- ,
wards with his thumbs.
After their reduction, all dislocations about the
knee-joint must be treated by rest, straight splints,
and evaporating lotions.
The Foot is very rarely dislocated from the leg
without fracture of the malleoli. Its reduction re-
quires simple extension of the foot on the leg, with the
knee bent ; the surgeon grasps the heel in one hand,
the foot in the other, while an assistant fixes the thigh
in the half-bent position. The foot is first drawn
downwards to disengage it from the tibia, and then
directed into its place.
After reduction the limb should be put in a Mc-
Intyre's splint, in the way described for fracture of the
tibia near the ankle-joint.
Scarpa's Shoes are instruments for restoring de-
formed feet to their natural shape. The shoe (fig. 72)
consists of a flat metal sole broader and longer than the
foot, furnished with a rest for the heel. A rod,
attached to the side of the sole beneath the ankle,
reaches up the limb, to which it is secured by one
broad band and buckle below, and by a sfccoxA staore*
\1
116 DISLOCATIONS.
the knee, opposite which joint the iron stem moves
on a free joint backwards and forwards. Opposite the
malleoli are set the centres of
movement required for the
restoration of the deformity;
they are moved by a key.
The foot is fastened to the
sole by straps across the in-
step and ankle ; the toes are
restrained by a strap passing
round them and fixed to a
horizontal toe-bar by the side
of the foot.
The limb must not be very
tightly braced into the shoe ;
in children, if fhe straps ore
drawn tight the skin almost
invariably inflames, and even
sloughs where it is com-
pressed. Before the instru-
ment is applied, the limb
should be bandaged with a
soft cotton, or Domett's flannel roller. The foot is first
fixed to the sole or shoe, and then the leg to the rod.
Traction is increased gradually with frequent small
alterations, as the foot yields to the tension and regains
its natural position.
Casting in Plaster of Paris. — It is often con-
venient, when ordering an apparatus for deformity,
to send the instrument-maker a cast of the de-
formed part. This is readily made in the following
way;—
CASTING IN PLASTER. 117
Apparatus. — 1. Two packets of freshly-burned plaster
of Paris.
2. Some pasteboard, an old bandbox, or several news-
papers.
3. Olive oil.
4. A basin of cold water.
Step 1. The part to be modelled should be laid in an
easy position, thoroughly oiled, and a shell or trough
of pasteboard roughly built round it to contain the
plaster till it sets.
Step 2. The plaster is then prepared by shaking the
powder into cold water, till a thick cream without
lumps is formed ; this is secured by constantly stirring
the water as the plaster is shaken in. The cream is
then poured into the trough, little by little, that it
may make its way into the inequalities and recesses
under the limb, until the limb is half immersed, leaving
the projecting parts, such as joints, half exposed, so
that the halves of the mould may separate opposite
them. This first instalment is then allowed to set,
and a fresh supply of plaster is prepared.
Step 3. The surface of the hardened mould is oiled,
that the fresh cream may not stick to it, and the whole
of the limb is then covered by pouring the cream on a
second time. Plenty of plaster should be laid over the
projecting parts that the mould may be strong enough
for use. It should be f inch thick everywhere, and
1 inch thick along the sides. When the second half
is set, the trough or shell is cleared away, and the
two halves of the mould removed from the limb
separately.
For casting, the mould is well oiled inside and filled
118 DISLOCATIONS.
with cream, which sets into the cast required. While
the plaster is liquid, the mould should be well shaken,
that the air bubbles may be all driven from the surface
of the cast.
CHAPTER V.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Suture. — This is a useful method for bringing
the margins of small scalp wounds together, where
plasters are not employed. It consists in taking a
lock of hair J or -J of an inch on each side of the wound,
and tying them together over a double thickness of
lint ; by this means the margins of the wound are
kept together, and the dressing in place. The slits
left after the removal of small sebaceous tumours are
very conveniently treated in this way.
The Eye
Douche is a
small elastic
bottle fitted
with a nozzle
and flexible
tube, ending in
a rose, through
which, by
means of a
valve, the water
Fig. 73.-Eye Douche. \ 9
is drawn from
a vessel and driven in a fine spray over the eye held
120 MISCELLANEOUS.
open to receive it (see fig. 73). The syringe in fig. 73
is very useful for a variety of purposes.
Eye-Drops. — Little bottles are sold by chemists
for this purpose, with a tubular stopper ; at one end of
the stopper is a fine jet, the other is closed by a piece
of indian rubber stretched over it ; on pressing this a
drop escapes from the jet. In dropping astringents
into the eye the patient should hold his head well
back ; while the surgeon raises one lid from the eye,
drops in the lotion, and then raises the other and
drops it in again, and tells the patient to move his
eyelids about a little to force the lotion over the whole
conjunctiva.
Syringing the Ears is best performed by a
syringe having a long nozzle to direct the current of
soap and water down the meatus to the wax. Figure
74 consists of a syringe with double opening and air
chamber; when in action it supplies a continuous
gentle current, which breaks up the concretions more
speedily and with less discomfort to the patient than
the intermitting jet of a common syringe ; but an
important part of the apparatus is the long slender
nozzle to direct the stream well into the meatus. The
instrument-makers supply a little spout or shoot to
hang under the ear, to turn off the water into a
basin clear of the neck. If time permit, the patient
should keep the ear charged with olive oil for a
few days before syringing, that the wax may be
softened. After the wax is removed, the irritation of
the canal is best allayed by a little glycerine or olive
oil put into the meatus, and covered by a pledget
of cotton wool, large enough to fill the concha and
ICE-COLD INJECTION.
121
too large to enter the passage, where it may be lost
sight of.
Fig. 74.— Syringe for sending a continuous current into the nose or ear, &c.
Pop the Nasal Douche, a convenient form con-
sists of 1J yards of ordinary indian rubber tubing
-J inch in diameter, to one end of which is attached
a perforated metal cone, and to the other an ordinary
broad-shouldered nozzle. The weighted end rests at
the bottom of a vessel containing the injection, placed
on a level above the patient's head. The tube is then
made to act as a syphon, delivering the fluid through
the nozzle in a continuous stream. The patient should
hold the head forward and the mouth open over a
basin, as the soft palate thus closes the pharynx, when,
if the nozzle be fitted closely into the nostril, the fluid
passes from one meatus to the other in a forcible
122 MISCELLANEOUS.
stream, "which cleanses the nares and upper part of the
pharynx thoroughly and issues on the face from the
open nostril.
Ice-Cold Injection. — In obstinate epistaxis the
nares are sometimes plugged, hut, before proceeding
to this painful mode of treatment, a simpler, plan
should first be tried ; namely, the injection of ice-cold
water into the nostril along which the blood flows.
The stream should be directed upwards that the water
may first dislodge the clots entangled in the meatuses,
and then flow over the bleeding surface. This is best
done by employing the nasal douche above described,
or a clyster bottle (see fig. 74), one tube of which lies
in a vessel of ice-cold water (containing solution of
gallic acid or other styptic if desired, though cold
water alone usually suffices), the other tube, having a
long narrow nozzle, is passed up the nostril and directed
upwards among the spongy bones. With this appa-
ratus the water is injected steadily for half an hour,
before being abandoned as unsuccessful. The patient
is kept still, sitting upright in a cool room. If these
means fail to check the flow of blood, the nares may
then be plugged.
Plugging the Nares.
Apparatus. — 1 . A flexible catheter, No. 7, or Belloc's
sound.
2. Whipcord.
3. Lint.
4. Scissors.
Step 1. Roll up a strip of lint tightly into a mass,
1 inch broad and \ an inch thick, trim the ends away
with scissors till the mass is of a size to enter a
PLUGGING! THE NARES. 123
posterior Maris, then tie the wedge in the middle of a
yard of whipcord previously doubled. If blood trickle
down both nostrils, both must be plugged, and two such
plugs must be prepared ; next, make two more similar
rolls of lint, and tie these up with a short piece of silk
or twine to prevent their unrolling.
Step 2. Pass- along the interior of the catheter a
yard of twine, and draw its end through the eye of
the catheter a few
inches, then intro-
duce the catheter
through the naris
directly back-
wards, not upwards
iior downwards,
because, when the
patient is upright,
the floor of the
nose is nearly hori-
zontal. When the
catheter has
reached the pha-
rynx, the finger, or
a. forceps, must be
passedthroughthe "&KSW 2
mouth to catch ■*«»"»<»*•
the string hanging from the end of the catheter
and bring it out of the mouth, where it is held
while the instrument is withdrawn from the nose.
The step is repeated in the other nostril if re-
quired.
Step 3. Next wash out the nostrils with a few
MI5CELIANE0US.
syringefuls of ice-cold water, in which b
Step 4. Fasten the double string of the plug to the
end of twine banging out of the mouth (see fig. 75), and
then draw out the other end through the nose ; this
will carry the plug to the pharyns, where the finger
guides it over the soft palate and thrusts one of its
ends into the nans, where the strings draw it tight,
Tfao plug tor the anterior nostril is then put in place,
and the strings tied tightly over it (see fig. 76). Thus
the plug in front keeps
the plug behind in place,
and vice ver»&. The end
of string from the pos-
terior naris, left hangiug
out of the mouth, must
next be tied to the string
of the anterior plug to
keep it out of the pa-
tient's way, till wanted to
withdraw the posterior
plug, when that is to be
removed. If blood run
from both aides, the other
nares are stopped by a re-
petition of thisoperation.
This apparatus is very painful, and, if borne so long
as a couple of days, should always be taken out then.
If bleeding recur, which is very unlikely, fresh plugs
must be introduced. Sometimes the posterior plugs
are soaked in styptic solutions ; this is a bad plan,
because the bleeding part is not at the posterior
Fig. 7fi.-r-lnng!iiB tlie naren; tlis
BMngH from tho lwiterior pluif
tied over ttie anterior plug.
DRAWING TEETH. 125
naris, and the styptics increase the soreness the plugs
themselves produce.
Belloc's Sound.— Fig. 77 is a curved silver cannula
like a female catheter, furnished with a long spring
stylet, that arches round in a circle when thrust out
of the cannula, and has a hole at the end to carry a
thread. The long stylet can be unscrewed into two
parts, when not in use. The figure represents the
instrument with the stylet ready for protrusion, and
the same arching forwards after it is protruded.
The cannula is passed along the meatus till the
end reaches the pharynx, then the stylet is protruded
Fig. 77. — Belloc's Sound, for drawing a thread from the mouth
along the meatus.
and arches forward till it reaches the teeth, when
a thread is passed through the hole, and the stylet
being withdrawn, the thread is carried with it into
the pharynx and through the nostril, where it can be
used to draw the plug into its place at the posterior
naris.
Tooth Drawing. — A surgeon is frequently required
to draw a tooth on emergency, and should be provided
with instruments (see fig. 78), Seven pairs of forceps
126
MISCELLANEOUS.
and an elevator are sufficient for all he is likely to
deal with. They are differently shaped for the dif-
Fig. 78.— Tooth Forceps.
ferent teeth, which vary much at the neck, the part
grasped in the forceps.
For the operation the patient should be seated
in a high-backed chair; the surgeon stands at his
right side, holds the jaw with his left hand, while
Fig. 79.— Upper in-
cisor tooth and
forceps.
Fig. 80.— Lower cen-
tral incisor and
forceps.
Fig. 81. — External
aspect of upper bi-
cuspid tooth, and
bicuspid forceps.
with the right he thrusts the beaks of the forceps
between the gum and the tcoth on its lingual and
buccal aspects ; having reached the neck, he holds the
DRAWING TEfcTH. 127
tooth firmly, pushing it inwards and outwards with
a rotary motion of the wrist (except for the molar
teeth). Sadden tugs break the tooth and leave the
fang behind; when loosened by rotation and lateral
motion, or ' rocking,' the forceps readily lift the tooth
out of its socket.
For the tipper incisors the beaks of the forceps are
straight, slightly hollowed inside, to give them hold of
the teeth, and have crescentic edges (see fig. 79).
The upper incisors and canines can be drawn by the
same pair, as the shape of these teeth at the neck
varies to a small extent.
For the lower incisors a very narrow forceps is neces-
sary. The beaks (fig. 80) should be curved at the
joint sufficiently to form an angle of 25° with the
handles, that the latter may clear the upper jaw (see
^g. 82). The edge of the beaks is crescentic, similar to
that of the upper incisors. These forceps are also very
useful for removing roots, as their fineness enables them
to sink between the stump and the alveolus with ease.
For the bicuspids, beaks with crescentic edges also
are used, but the inside of the beak is more hollowed
to fit the round neck of these teeth (see
fig. 81). All the bicuspids can be drawn
with the same pair, but it is convenient
to have forceps bent at the joint to clear K 82 _ L
the upper jaw when extracting a lower wcuspid foi-
bicuspid (see fig. 82).
For the tipper molars two forceps are required, one
for each side of the jaw ; the beaks of these are well
hollowed to admit the crown of the tooth. The inner
beak terminates in a crescentic border to fit the large
128 MISCELLANEOUS.
internal fang (see figs. 83 and 84); the outer beak has
two smaller grooves separated by a point, that passes
between the two external fangs.
In drawing these teeth the forceps should be thrust
as high as possible and held firmly, while the fangs are
loosened by moving the tooth from side to side, but from
the multiplicity of fangs, rotary motion is not available.
The wisdom molars are often difficult to seize from
being almost buried in the jaw ; as they resemble a
bicuspid in shape, the bicuspid forceps (fig. 81) should be
employed ; if this fails to penetrate between the tooth
and the alveolus, the narrow incisor forceps (fig. 80)
Fig. 83.— Left upper molar Fig. 84. —Right
tooth and forcej s. upper molar
forceps.
can be driven up till it grasps the tooth. Not utifre-
quently the fang of this tooth in the lower jaw is
curved backwards and prevents extraction when the
tooth has been loosened ; this difficulty may be over-
come by pushing the crown of the tooth a little
backwards so as to tilt the fang forwards out of place.
When the molars are closely set, or the tooth to be
extracted is overhung by its neighbour, it is often
difficult to avoid tearing the gum extensively and
even carrying away more than one tooth ; tearing the
gum is prevented by lancing it before applying the
DRAWING TEETH.
129
forceps, and slow and steady movements of the wrist
usually prevent the latter accident, or the overhang-
ing tooth may be filed away before the forceps are
applied.
The inferior molars (fig. 85) have forceps, whose
beaks are doubly grooved and pointed,
to enable them to seize the neck on
each side between the two fangs.
In raising stumps, so much decayed
that the forceps will not hold them, the
elevator must be employed ; this instru-
ment (fig. 86), straight, pointed, and a
little grooved at the point, is thrust
down between the alveolus and the
tooth ; the jaw being then the fulcrum,
the elevator is the lever to push for-
wards the fang ; when thus loosened it
is easily lifted out. In working with
an elevator there is some risk of thrust-
ing the point through the alveolus, and
wounding the tongue or floor of the mouth, hence it
should always be guided and covered by the left fore-
finger. In removing the
fangs of incisors the nar-
row forceps are most use-
ful, and should it not be
possible to penetrate between the fang and the alveolus,
the alveolar border may be included in the grasp of
the forceps and brought away with the tooth. The
injury thus inflicted is very unimportant and much
pain is saved.
After the tcoth is extracted the mo\&\v daovWVafc
Fig 85.— Inferior
molar tooth and
forceps.
Fig. 80. —Elevator.
130 MISCELLANEOUS. ..-/. *
well washed with warm water a few times, the attend-
ing bleeding being of no importance, except in indi-
viduals of hajmorrhagic diathesis, in whom measures
should be at once taken to arrest the flow.
To stop a bleeding socket the alveolus must be well
cleared of clots, and fragments of sponge, soaked in
a solution of perchloride of iron, one part of the salt
to three of water, packed into the cavity. A plug of
cork is placed between the jaws, and a four-tailed
bandage (see page 33) carried round the head to keep
them firmly closed. Should this plan fail, the socket
must be cleared again, and the wire of the galvanic
cautery pushed well down to the bottom and then
heated till it has cauterised the cavity.
Nipple Shields and Artificial Nipples made of
flexible ivory, vulcanised india-rubber, &c, are re-
quired when the nipple is chafed and excoriated by the
child's sucking, especially if his mouth be attacked by
thrush, as is usually the case. When the nipple is sore
it should be well washed and dried after suckling,
covered with glycerine of starch or plastic collodion and
protected by a shield. If much inflamed it may be
wrapped in lint dipped in alum water or solution of
sulphate of zinc (one grain to the ounce), and deep
chinks should be freely rubbed with lunar caustic.
The breast should be regularly emptied by the breast-
pump if the child's sucking gives much pain, lest
the accumulation of milk in the ducts cause milk
abscess.
Plugging the Vagina is employed in cases of rapid
haemorrhage from the womb, <fcc.
Apparatus. — 1. A silk pocket-handkerchief.
'„.;'/'>■ PLUGGING TUE VAGINA. 131
2. A dry new fine sponge or pellets of cotton wool.
3. Silk thread.
4. A body roller or folded sheet.
The sponge should be cut into pieces the size of nuts ;
if the sponge is compressed it answers better. When
prepared, the vagina should be cleared of coagula by a
syringeful of ice-cold water ; the handkerchief, un-
folded and thrown over the right hand, is passed up
the vagina till its centre reaches the os uteri, 1li3
borders and ends then project from the vagina. The
interior of the handkerchief is next filled by firmly
packing the sponge in bit by bit until the vagina is
distended by the mass ; the ends of the handkerchief
are then tied together. The sponge swells as it ab-
sorbs the blood, and compresses the bleeding vessels
by its distention.
The abdomen and uterus are then supported by a
body roller, or folded sheet, wrapped tightly round the
hips and waist, while the patient lightly clad, is kept
quiet in a cool chamber.
When the plug has answered its purpose it is re-
moved, by withdrawing the sponge bit by bit, and the
vagina is washed with tepid water.
The kite's tail plug. — Masses of cotton wool the size
of a hen's egg are tied at two inches' distance from
each other along a long string. When about a dozen are
tied on, a speculum is introduced, and the first ball
of wool is passed to the bleeding point and pushed
firmly against it, and then another, and so on, until
the vagina is firmly packed. An end of string is left
hanging out of the vulva, whereby the plug may be
removed when necessary. Each mass cotc&& w*vj
\^1
1 32 MISCELLANEOUS.
successively with ease as the string is pulled out of the
vagina.
Injecting the Urethra often fails from the in-
efficient mode in which it is done. The syringe
employed should be short enough to be worked easily
with one hand, and need not contain more than two
or four tea-spoonfuls, as the capacity of the urethra
does not exceed that amount. One of such a size
is" just 2 inches in length, and easily worked by one
hand. The opening through the nozzle should also
be wide, that a forcible stream may be injected into
the urethra.
The patient should fill the syringe, then place on a
chair or stool before him a chamber-pot, and make
water to clear out the discharge collected in the
urethra. He then inserts the slightly bulbous nozzle
into the meatus urinarius, and grasps the sides of the
glans with the left forefinger and thumb to close the
mouth of the passage. The right thumb next presses
down the piston slowly, so that the whole of the in-
jection passes into the canal and distends it ; keeping
the meatus shut with his left finger and thumb, the
patient lays down the syringe and rubs the under part
of the penis backwards and forwards, that the injection
may be forced into all folds or follicles of the mucous
membrane. Having thus occupied about thirty seconds,
he releases the mouth of the passage, when the fluid
is ejected sharply into the vessel placed ready to receive
it. This rapid ejection is a test of the proper per-
formance of the operation.
In counselling the use of astringent solutions, the
surgeon should always caution the patient not to
CATHETERS AND BOUGIES. 133
employ one that produces severe smarting, which lasts
more than a few minutes after injection. If it causes
much pain, the solution is too strong.
Catheters and Bougies. — Silver catheters arc
made in sizes, increasing from No. J to No. 12, the
first having a diameter of 0*64 inch, the latter 0*2>
inch. Larger ones than these are seldom employed.
Fig. 87.— Silver catheter.
The curve preferred by different surgeons varies
much ; that depicted in fig. 87 is the one used by Sir
Henry Thompson; it begins at 3 J inches from the
0©=
Fig. 88.— English Flexible catheter.
point, and ends when the point is at right angles
with the stem. Each catheter is fitted with a wire
stylet.
The flexible catheters are of many kinds; the English
=—=—=—-=— ————— ~-~ T"~—"~~ ~— - r
Fig. 80. — French bulbous-ended catheter.
gum elastic (fig. 88), the French black flexible (fig. 89),
and the vulcanised india-rubber (fig. 90), catheters.
134 MISCELLANEOUS.
being the three varieties most generally employed.
English flexible catheters should be kept on stylets
well curved at the last 3 inches, that, when the stylet
Fig. 90. — Vulcanised india-rubber catheter.
is withdrawn, for the catheter to be passed, the latter
may retain sufficient curve to pass over the neck of
the bladder easily.
Vulcanised india-rubber catheters are now made with
projections at the eyes to prevent them from slipping
Fig. 01.— The retaining catheter.
oat of the bladder. Fig. 91 represents one pattern of
these retaining catheters.
Sounds are solid, being of steel, plated or gilt.
Their curve varies, and is generally 20 or 30 degrees
more obtuse than that of the catheters.
Bougies are made of the same materials as the
flexible catheters ; they are kept straight, and the
more supple they are the better, the black bulbous-
ended bougies being the most, useful variety for dilat-
ing the urethra.
Bullet Headed Bougies (Bougies a bouh) are used
for exploring the urethra in cases of gleet, where the
discharge is often kept tip by a stricture or a tender
patch of chronic inflammation of the mucous mem-
brane. They are made of metal, or of black gum
BOUGIE& 135
mounted on a very flexible leaden wire; the latter
kind are preferable. The stem of the instrument is
^j)
Fig. 02.— The bullet-headed bougie.
slender, no bigger than a No. 3 or No. 4 bougie of
the English scale; the end terminates in an egg-
shaped bulb of any required size. These bougies are
most useful from No. 4 to No. 20 of the English
scale, corresponding to Nos. 10 and 30 of the milli-
metrical scale. The stem should be marked with white
rings an inch apart, the fifth inch from the bulb having
a ring broader than the rest, so that when the instru-
ment is passing over a tender part, or is arrested by a
stricture, the distance of the impediment down the
urethra can be at once estimated. In withdrawing
the instrument, the wide base of the olive shows
the exact position and length of those strictures
which are not too narrow for the olive-head to slip by,
for it is nipped by the stricture and released as soon as
the narrowing is passed. By using instruments large
enough to fill the normal urethra, an induration be-
neath the mucous membrane can be detected in its
earliest stage before it has produced symptoms dia-
gnostic of stricture.
Rigid instruments have one advantage over flexible
ones, in that their points can be guided by the sur-
geon; the points of flexible instruments cannot be
directed, hence the introduction of the latter into a
stricture is less easily managed, consequently bougies
with various kinds of points should be kept. But
136 MISCELLANEOUS.
flexible instruments cause far less irritation than rigid
ones, and should always be employed instead of the
latter "when possible : with patience and practice much
of the difficulty attending their introduction is over-
come. The French bougies, with tapering ends and
bulbous points, slip more easily through a stricture
than instruments having the same diameter through-
out, and- bbugies with fine tapering points can some-
times be introduced where others fail.
Passing Catheters. — In passing instruments along
the urethra the conformation of its interior should be
borne in mind. From the meatus to the triangular liga-
ment, the normal urethra, when gently stretched, be-
comes a straight tube ; having, nevertheless, just within
the meatus, a pouch in the roof, the lacuna magna, where
the point of the instrument may catch if not turned
downwards. At the bulbous part the urethra enlarges
in capacity by having a slight downward curve in its
floor, jusfc before the triangular ligament is reached.
In this depression, the beak of the catheter is apt to
sink below the level of the passage through the liga-
ment, which is always a fixed point. Beyond the
triangular ligament the urethra curves gently upwards,
has a floor beset with irregularities, in which the point
of the instrument easily catches, if not raised as it
passes along the curve.
An oily solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 20, may
advantageously substitute the ordinary lubricating
oil, when it is necessary to draw off a patient's water
frequently.
A Silver Catheter is passed most easily while the
patient is in a horizontal position, with the shoulders
PASSING CATHETERS. 137
low and the thighs separated. The surgeon stands on
the left side of the patient, and holds the catheter,
previously warmed and lubricated with oil or lard,
lightly between the thumb and two* first fingers of the
right hand, the beak downwards and the stem across
the patient's left groin. Then taking the penis be-
tween the middle and ring fingers of the left hand, the
palm being upwards, he pushes back the foreskin with
the thumb and forefinger, and -steadies the meatus
while introducing the beak of the catheter. This
done, he draws the penis gently along the catheter
as the point is lowered to the perinseum, but without
raising his right wrist until the instrument has tra-
velled 5 or 6 inches along the passage and reached the
triaugular ligament. The surgeon then carries his
right wrist to the middle line of the patient's body,
and while pushing the point onwards, raises the hand
round a curve till it again sinks between the patient's,
thighs. When the bladder is reached he withdraws
the stylet that the urine may escape. Three points of
difficulty are usual in passing catheters ; the lacuna
magna just within the meatus, the triangular ligament,,
and the prostatic part of the urethra just before the
bladder is reached. The first is escaped by keeping
the beak along the floor of the urethra for the first
two inches ; the second is best avoided by raising the
wrist as the instrument passes the triangular ligament,
and directing the beak against the upper surface of the
urethra, lest, being in the enlarged bulbous part, it
sink below the opening in the ligament; the third
difficulty is overcome by depressing the hand well as.
the point approaches the bladder.
138 MISCELLANEOUS.
To pass tlie catheter in the upright position, the
patient is placed against a wall or firm object, with his
heels eight or ten inches apart and five from the wall,
that he may rest easily during the operation. The
surgeon seats himself opposite the patient and grasps the
penis with the two middle fingers of the left hand, the
palm upwards ; he next exposes the meatus with the
thumb and forefinger, and his right hand holding the
catheter by its middle obliquely across the left side of
the patient, he draws the penis on to the instrument
6ll the triangular ligament is reached. He then carries
the shaft of the catheter to the middle line, and, hold-
ing it by its end, brings the right hand downwards and
forwards, to carry the point upwards over the obstruc-
tion at the neck of the bladder.
The operation should be done slowly and with great
gentleness, giving the urethra time " to swallow the
instrument," as the French surgeons express it. Hasty
or forcible movements tend to thrust the point against
the wall of the urethra, where it hitches, if it does not
penetrate and make a false passage. However easy
the introduction may have been, the withdrawal of the
catheter should be always done slowly to avoid giving
pain to the patient.
When the canal suddenly contracts, as from a stric-
ture, the point of the sound often stops at the obstruc-
tion ; by withdrawing the instrument a little, and
diverting its point to another side or along the
upper part of the urethra, a point where the ob-
struction is less abrupt will often be found to let the
catheter glide into the stricture. The floor of the
urethra should always be avoided, as false passages
PASSING CATHETERS. 139
nearly always branch off from the floor close to the
stricture.
Difficult narrow strictures are most easily overcome
by injecting a drachm of warm olive oil into the
urethra, and then passing fine black gum or whale-
bone bougies (bougies filiformes) along the urethra.
These, from their fineness (their diameter is only \ or
§ of a millimetre, about y-J-^ inch), are very apt to
catch in false passages ; if so, the bougie should be left
engaged in the false passage, and held in the left hand
while another bougie is passed along the urethra ; if,
in its turn, this one gets into a false passage, it also
should be left, and a third passed ; and so on till all
the false routes are occupied, or a bougie enters the
stricture and reaches the bladder, which is known bv
the readiness with which it will pass backwards and
forwards. The other bougies should then be with-
drawn, and the bougie which has passed the stricture
be tied in for twenty-four hours, until the passage is
sufficiently dilated to allow a small catheter to replace
it. If the patient is not suffering from retention of
urine, there need be no anxiety about evacuating his
bladder, as urine will find its way alongside of the
bougie when he attempts to make water. In passing
to relieve retention, No. \ English flexible catheter
should be used instead of bougies ; but when the
stricture is too narrow for these, a bougie may still be
tried, as the urine will generally dribble by the side of
the bougie with sufficient rapidity to relieve the
patient.
English flexible Catlieters should be kept on stylets
curved as represented in fig. 88, that the first 3 inches
140 MISCELLANEOUS.
of the instrument, "when the stylet is withdrawn, may
retain sufficient curve to ride over the impediment at
the neck of the bladder. In warm weather, after being
oiled, they should be dipped in cold water just before
using, to render them a little stiffer, and less likely to
lose their curve while traversing the urethra. Any
curve may be imparted to the English flexible catheter
by first softening it in hot water, and then holding it
in the required curve while it is dipped in cold water
to set it
They may also be passed while the patient lies or
stands, and the movements are the same as for the
silver catheter.
Bulbous-ended or probe-ended CatJwlers and Bougies
{Bougies olivaires) are always straight ; their supple-
ness, their tapering ends, and their smooth rounded
point enable them to glide along the urethra, and to
accommodate themselves readily to the windings of
the passage ; for which reason they are the easiest to
pass both for the patient and the surgeon. In passing
them they are slightly warmed if the weather is cold,
to restore their flexibility, and gently pushed along the
canal till the bladder is reached.
Elbowed or Coude Catlieters. — These have a fixed
abrupt curve of 1^ right angles, as represented in the
*f
Fig. 93.— The Coude catheter.
figure, \ or £ inch from the point. They are most
useful in cases of enlarged or inflamed prostate.
PASSING CATHETERS. 141
Vulcanised India-Rubber Catheters (figs. 90 and 91)
are used when the bladder is to be kept empty ; their
suppleness renders them un irritating, and as phos-
phates crust on them very slowly, they may be worn
for a week without being changed.
They are easily passed by threading them on a long
stylet with the appropriate curve, and tying them
firmly to it. The stylet is withdrawn after they are
passed.
To pass a Catheter in the Female. — The
patient may lie on her side or on her back ; if on her
side, the knees should be well drawn up ; if on her
back, the thighs must be somewhat separated. Before
introducing the catheter, a wine bottle or narrow-
necked bed urinal should be placed in the bed ready
to receive the urine. If the ordinary slightly curved
female catheter be not at hand, a No. 7 or 8 flexible
one does just as well.
Having oiled the instrument, go to the patient's
back, and take the catheter in the right hand if the
patient lies on her right side, and in the left hand if
she lies on her left side ; if she lies on her back, go to
either side and take the catheter in the hand nearest
her feet. Hold the stem of the catheter in the palm,
so that the beak lies against the tip of the forefinger,
while the thumb and second and third fingers grasp the
stem. Then passing the hand under the bed-clothes,
seek the buttock; from that pass the forefinger to
the perinsDum, and let it enter the vulva, keeping the
back of the finger against the posterior part, then pass
it between the nymph se to the entry of the vagina.
This is known by the tip of the forefinger being lightly
142 MISCELLANEOUS.
grasped, uuless the vagina is very wide. Keeping the
finger just within the entry, feel for the arch of the
pubes in front ; having found this, withdraw the tip of
the finger slightly from the vagina : in doing this, it will
strike a small projection of mucous membrane hanging
just at the anterior margin of the entry. Keep the
finger steady against this, while the other hand pushes
the catheter gently onwards, which then rarely fails to
enter the urethral opening close above the projection
of mucous membrane. Having penetrated the urethra,
arrange the catheter in the receptacle for the urine, and
push the instrument into the bladder.
To Wash out the Bladder. — Apparatus. — 1. A
flexible catheter ; Nos. 8 or 9 are convenient sizes ;
but a smaller one can be employed.
2. A caoutchouc bottle, holding six ounces, and
fitted with a tapering nozzle and stop-
cock. (Fig. 94).
During the operation the patient
should stand, if possible, as the mucus
is thus more easily cleared from the
bladder. The surgeon first fills his
bottle completely with tepid water,
that no air may remain ; then directing
his patient to stand against a wall or
some firm object, passes the catheter
™ n , „. .. and draws off the urine. He next in-
Fig. 04.— Elastic
india-rubber ser t s the nozzle into the catheter, and,
bottle for in- '
jecting. turning the cock, compresses the bottle
slowly until two or three ounces of water have run into
the bladder ; this he lets escape by removing the bottle
for a minute, and then repeats his operation till the
TYING IN A SILVER CATHETER. 143
water returns clear, without exhausting the patient's
strength. Three or four small injections wash the
sediment and mucus from the bladder as quickly,
and with far less fatigue or risk of spasm than a pro-
longed flow of water through a stiff double current
catheter. In this way the bladder may be washed
twice or thrice daily to the great comfort of the
patient.
Injections of solutions of nitrate of silver, carbolic
acid, alum, &c, in the proportion of 1 part to 100, or
to 50 of water, can be used instead of water for this
purpose.
To Tie in a Silver Catheter.
Apparatus, — 1.
A few yards of tape
£ inch wide. ^"SHii/ ~y'^'
2. A roller.
3. A spigot of
wood; or,
4. A yard and a
half of fine india- Fig 95 __ A silver cat h e ter tied in the urethra.
rubber tubing.
A narrow roller is tied round the hips ; from this, on
each side, a tape is passed round the thigh at the
groin, and fastened before and behind to the roller
round the hips (see fig. 95) ; a narrow tape run through
the rings of the catheter connects them with the loops
in the groins. The tapes are tied short enough to
prevent the catheter slipping out ; a yard or two of
narrow india-rubber tubing, fixed on to the end of the
catheter, conveys the urine to a pan under the bed,
and keeps the bed dry, or a spigot of \voo&fttt&\\£>
144} MISCELLANEOUS.
the catheter may be inserted, for the patient to draw
out when he desires to void his urine.
To Tie in a Flexible Catheter. (Fig. 96).
Apparatus. — 1. A piece of soft twine, or Berlin wool,
about 15 inches long.
A catheter is first passed into the
bladder, and the urine runs off. The
catheter is then gently withdrawn, till
the stream ceases, that the end of the
instrument may remain just without
the neck of the bladder. The string
should be tied round the catheter J an
inch from the meatus, its ends gathered
together and tied in a knot about 1
inch farther on. The foreskin is then
drawn back, the ends passed beneath
Fig 96 —a flexible the glans and tied round the penis
catheter tied in ..... ,, ... ,_
the urethra ; the behind the corona ; the superfluous
string fastened be- ,. . . jz*» jii«» i .
hind the corona string is snipped oti, and the foreskin
ceded 1 VSie fore- brought forward. The catheter is
8 "" cut off obliquely \ an inch beyond the
string and then stopped with a spigot, direction being
given to the patient to withdraw the spigot, and push
the catheter a little further in when he wants to make
water.
To Tie a Patient in Position for Lithotomy.
Apparatus. — Two bandages, each 3 yards long and
2 inches wide, of calico or saddle-girth, with tapes
sewed on the ends.
The patient is laid on his back, a slip-knot made in
the middle of the bandage and passed over the wrist ;
the hand is then made to grasp the foot, the thumb
14 5
above, the fingers under the sole (fig. 97) ; one end of
the bandage is carried behind and inside the ankle to
the dorsum of the foot, where it meets the other end
passing in front
oftheankle. The
ends are then car-
ried under the
sole, brought up
and tied in
double bow over
the back of the
hand. The assist-
ants who hold
the patient stand
facing the sur-
geon, on either
side of the table,
in order to keep the thighs widely and evenly separated
during the operation. The one in charge of the right
limb passes his left arm round the thigh, and grasps
the leg below the knee, while his right hand holds the
everted foot, and thus steadies the abducted limb —
mutatis mutandis for the second assistant.
Bedsores are best treated by great cleanliness, and
by washing the skin exposed to the discharges with
spirit of wine every day. Brown-Sequard recommends
cold and heat to be applied daily, by means of an ice
bag for ten minutes, followed by a warm poultice for
an hour. The pressure of the skin over the sacrum
or trochanters is prevented by a ring of soft thick felt,
a one side with adhesive plaster, and applied
a plaster round the prominent bone.
Fig. 9T.— Tying fo
146 MISCELLANEOUS
In addition to these local applicatiefhs, the pressure
of the body should be evenly distributed over its under
surface by placing the patient on a water citfkhion, or,
better, on Arnott's water-bed.
Arnotfs Floating Bed, — In the hydrostatic or float-
ing bed of Dr. Arnott, the patient floats on the surface
of a trough of water, into which he sinks until he has
displaced his own weight of the fluid ; the floating
apparatus, or raft, so to speak, on which he lies, being
a sheet of water-proofing, and a thin matress or folded
blanket. . The bed consists of a trough running on
large castors, about 8 feet long, 2 feet 8 inches wide,
and 1 deep, with a tap at the bottom for letting out
the water, and a spout in one corner to fill it by.
Over the top a macintosh cloth is spread, its edges
being firmly nailed to the margin of the trough, but
the cloth is left slack enough to float easily on the
surface of the water when the trough is partly filled.
This slackness is requisite to allow the water displaced
Fig. 98.— Water-bed.
by the weight of the patient's body to rise up round
him without tightening the cloth, or the floating prin-
ciple of the bed is not carried out, and the pressure of
the patient's weight not evenly distributed over his
T&$ COIN CATCHER.
14'
body (see fig. $8). Three or four blankets are laid
evenly over the macintosh, and these again are pro-
tected J«bra the moisture of tho patient by a macin-
tosh under-sheet. If a matress is used, it must be
very thin, and supple enough to let the surface of the
water adjust itself to the patient's body and receive
the pressure evenly. The temperature of the water
employed to fill the bath should be about 50° Fahr.
Water Cushions are made of stout macintosh cloth,
half or two-thirds full of water, and laid on the
matress beneath the blanket and sheet (see fig. 99V
/
- — r""*T";\i
t"*" innr--*
Fig. 99.— Water-cushion.
They are more portable than the water-bed, but
they are simply soft pillows, and do not counter-
balance the weight of the patient in the manner of
the floating bed.
The Water Matress, constructed on the same prin-
ciple as a water cushion, is employed as a convenient
substitute for the water-bed, though less efficient. It
is laid on an ordinary matress, and covered by two or
three folded blankets, and a macintosh under-sheet.
The Coin Catcher is an ingenious contrivance
for removing a coin or other foreign body impacted in
the gullet. It consists of a flexible whalebone rod
(see fig. 100) tapering slightly towards one end, to
148 MISCELLANEOUS.
which is attached a double broad shouldered metal
cradle, working freely on a pivot, so as to project from
either side of the rod This is passed below the foreign
«•
Fig. 100.— The coin catcher.
body, which, on the instrument being withdrawn, is
caught by the projecting wing and easily brought up.
A sponge is attached to the other end of the rod to
sweep out fish-bones, &c, when in the gullet.
The Stomach-Pump is used for emptying the
stomach, or for injecting fluid food when patients
refuse to swallow.
It consists of a brass syringe holding 4 ounces, of
which the nozzle is connected with two tubes, one at
the end, the other at the side. The passage through
them is directed by a valve which is governed by a
lever lying on the barrel (see fig. 101). When the lever
is at rest, the current passes in and out of the syringe
by the lateral tube ; when depressed, by the direct
tube. The elastic tubes with smooth nozzles, about
2 feet long, are fitted to the syringe. There is also a
gag of hard wood, having a hole in the middle, through
which the tube passes on its way to the stomach, to
protect it from the patient's teeth.
When the pump is employed to remove the contents
of the stomach, two washhand-basins are placed at
hand, one empty, one full of tepid water. The patient
THE STOMACH-PUMP.
149
is seated in a high-backed chair to steady his head ;
one assistant holds his hands, while a second screws the
small end of the gag between the teeth and forces open
the mouth, across which it is then easily fixed. The
flexible tube, being well oiled, is next passed across the
Fig. 101. — The stomach-pump.
pharynx and down the gullet slowly and cautiously,
without staying for any effort of vomiting it may in-
duce; when about 20 inches are passed through the
gag the nozzle has reached the stomach. First, two or
three syringefuls of water are injected into the stomach ;
then, removing the second tube from the basin of water
to the empty basin, the action of the syringe is reversed,
by pressing on the lever as the piston is raised, and
letting it fly up when the piston is depressed. Thus
two syringefuls may be withdrawn, then fresh water is
again injected and withdrawn, until the contents of the
stomach are removed and the water returns clear.
Precaution must be always taken not to exhaust from
the stomach before water is injected, lest the coats of
that organ be injured by being sucked against the
nozzle of the tube.
If desirable, antidotes may be dissolved or suspended
in the water injected. When the pump is used for
150
MISCELLANEOUS.
feeding patients, one or two pints of beef tea, eggs
beaten with milk or wine, Liebig's soup, <fcc., are the
kinds of food suited for the purpose. Each time the
pump is used, it should be thoroughly cleaned by
syringing through it plenty of warm water, and the
tubes must be unscrewed to wipe the joints carefully.
Fine oesophageal tubes, varying in size from No. 12 to
No. 6 of the English catheter scale, are manufactured
to use in feeding patients with stricture of the gullet.
Transfusion of Blood. — The points of greatest
importance in performing this operation are : —
1. That the supply of blood come from a vigorous
adult.
2. That the transfer be made within two minutes of
the blood's escape from the
vein of the supplier.
3. That, to prevent coagula-
tion, the blood should pass
over as small a surface, and
suffer as little exposure as
possible in transit.
^^^^ - 4. Care must be taken to
^fi^^ I prevent air entering the vein
/^^ III with the blood.
^-~3^ The apparatus described
below is that devised by Dr.
Graily Hewitt, and depicted
in the Obstetrical Society's
Transactions for 1864, page
137. It consists of a glass
syringe holding two ounces (fig. 102), with a piston
easily attached and removed ; its nozzle is curved and
2oz
J
Fig. 102.— Graily Hewitt's
syringe for transfusion
of blood.
TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD. 151
fits the mouth of a cannula of silver. The nozzle
of the syringe is provided with a little stopper
attached by a chain ; a stylet likewise fills the cannula,
to be withdrawn when the blood is injected through
the latter.
The success of the operation depends in great
measure on the rapidity with which it is performed,
and requires the aid of two assistants that the various
steps may follow each other as quickly as possible.
Apparatus. — 1. Syringe, cannula and stylet.
2. Lancet.
3. Scalpel.
4. Forceps.
5. Three yards of tape, one inch wide, and lint.
6. A silver wire suture.
7. A basin of cold water.
8. Brandy and Sal Volatile.
Step 1. See that the piston-rod works properly in
the syringe, and that the instrument is fit for use ;
then place it in the basin of cold water with the cannula
to lie till wanted.
Step 2. Place the person supplying the blood on a
couch or easy chair in the same chamber, but so that
he cannot see the recipient, lest he faint and his blood
consequently flow feebly. Tie up the arm as for vene-
section ; lay ready the lancet, and direct the assistant,
in charge of the supplier of blood, to keep his thumb
on the vein when it is opened, that the flow may be
checked when blood is not required.
Step 3. Place a tape round the arm of the recipient,
above the point for injection, and another below it at
a convenient distance, and lay bare a vein (usually the
152 MISCELLANEOUS.
median basilic) for an inch and a half of its course ;
holding the vein by the forceps, make a slit with the
scalpel and introduce the cannula, which is then in-
trusted to the second assistant. The stylet is with-
drawn, and a minute drop of blood escapes through
the cannula, showing that the point has been properly
introduced into the vein. The assistant replaces the
stylet and slackens the upper ligature, while the sur-
geon proceeds to fill his syringe.
Step. 4. The surgeon, going to the supplier of blood,
makes a large opening in the vein with a lancet, or if
the first assistant be a surgeon also, he may do this
while the chief operator is preparing the vein of the
recipient. When the vein is open and the blood flow-
ing freely, the barrel of the syringe is inverted over it
and filled with blood ; when full, the nozzle is stopped
by the plug and the piston attached while the syringe
is carried to the recipient.
Step 5. This being reached, the plug is pulled out,
the nozzle inserted into the cannula, and the blood
slowly injected by depressing the piston gently, but
without quite emptying the syringe. A minute should
be spent in injecting one ounce and a half, and a pause
of five minutes ensue before a second supply is intro-
duced. This interval may be employed in cleaning
the syringe, &c, and procuring a fresh supply of
blood ; 3-4 ounces of blood are usually sufficient,, but
10 ounces have been injected on some occasions. The
perturbation of the supplier (generally a near friend of
the recipient), renders it necessary he should drink
freely of brandy and water, that the blood flow forcibly
when required.
TOURNIQUETS. 153
Flexible tubes with nozzles to fit the veins of the
donor and recipient, with an elastic injecting ball, are
also contrived for the transfusion of blood, but the
india rubber, if not constantly in use, becomes brittle,
and consequently cannot be trusted for an emergency
that seldom occurs. There are also difficulties in
bringing the donor and recipient as near to each other
as the immediate flow of the blood through the india
rubber tube requires.
Step 6. When sufficient blood has been introduced,
both patients' wounds are dressed, as after venesection
(see page 20), the long incision of the recipient being
closed by a point of suture under the pad.
Tourniquets. — Tourniquets are of several kinds.
When haemorrhage has to be temporarily arrested,
that of Petit (fig. 103) is generally used. It consists
of a strap of stout webbing and buckle, that can be
Fig. 103. — Petit's tourniquet applied to the popliteal artery.
rapidly tightened by a few turns of a screw. To use
this tourniquet, lay a roller over the artery and carry
the end once or twice round the limb to steady the
roller, then pass the strap over the roller, keeping the
154
MISCELLANEOUS.
buckle about two inches away from the screw and the
screw on the anterior or outer aspect of the limb, not
over the pad, lest that be displaced when the screw is
tightened. The tourniquet should be screwed up as
quickly as possible, that the limb be not charged with
blood by obstructing the venous, before the arterial
flow is checked.
To improvise a Tour-
niquet. — A tourniquet
may readily be formed
on emergency from a
handkerchief, a stone,
and a stick. Fold a
stone the size of an egg
in the middle of a hand-
kerchief, lay it over the
main artery, tie the
ends of the handkerchief
round the limb, slip the
stick underneath and
twist it rouud, till the
tightened handkerchief
draws the Btone on to
the artery and arrests
the flow of Wood (see
fig. 104).
Bloodless Operations. — Prof. Esmarch's elastic
bandage has been much used of late years to dimmish
the loss of blood during operations on the limbs.
The apparatus consists of — 1. A stout webbed highly
elastic roller, about i yards long and 3 inches wide.
2. A piece of stout india rubber tubing, 2 feet
TOURNIQUETS. 155
long, in each end of which is fixed a wooden plug,
carrying a hook. A better one is Coxeter's elastic
tourniquet.
Before applying the elastic roller the limb is raised
and rubbed towards the trunk, in order to diminish the
quantity of blood in it ; the roller is then tightly
applied from the extremity upwards in spiral turns,
overlapping each other, and continued for some dis-
tance beyond the proposed seat of operation, as, for
example, to the middle third of the thigh for an
amputation of the leg. The elastic tubing is next drawn
tightly round the limb, and the ends hooked together,
close to the highest turn of the roller, which is then
removed, leaving the limb blanched and exsanguine.
After the operation the main vessels are tied before
loosening the constricting band, which is then gra-
dually relaxed and smaller arteries secured.
In JSignoroni's Horseshoe tourniquet (fig. 105) the
extremities of the shoe can be approximated to each
other by a rack screw working a hinge. The ends are
furnished with pads, one broad and flat to bear on the
limb away from the artery, the other rounded to com-
press the vessel itself. The tourniquet does not arrest
the whole circulation in the limb. It can therefore
be applied for a longer time than Petit's. However,
it easily slips out of place, and soon becomes very irk-
some and painful.
The Ring Tourniquet (fig. 106) is used when pressure
is desired on the main artery of such a limb as the
arm. It is less easily displaced than the Signoroni,
but, like that, soon becomes irksome by its continual
pressure.
156
MISCELLANEOUS.
The Abdominal Tourniquet of Professor Lister is a
very effectual contrivance for compressing the aorta
Fig. 105.— The horse-shoe tourniquet.
during amputation through the hip joint, and opera-
tions where a tourniquet can-
not be placed on the limb. It
consists (see fig. 107) of a
semicircular bar, with a broad
pad to fit on the lumbar ver-
tebrae behind, while in front it
holds a long screw-pin carrying
a pad. This instrument passes
round the left side, and its pad
is forced down into the abdo-
men, one inch to the left of
the umbilicus, until the aorta
is compressed against the spine.
Carte 1 s Tourniquets (fig. 108) are employed to control
Fig. 106. — Ring tourniquet
TOURNIQUETS. 157
and diminish the flow of blood through an aneurism.
They are intended to be worn for several days, and are
Fig. 107.— Lister's tourniquet for compressing the aorta.
fitted with many contrivances for obtaining a con-
tinuous pressure on the artery without completely
arresting the flow of blood. They are always used in
pairs ; in the figure, one presses the external iliac on
the pubes, the other the femoral artery. The first is
fastened to the body round the hips, the second round
the thigh. They are constructed as follows : an arm
attached to a pad reaches round the limb to the
artery, over which it supports a ball and socket joint
turning in any direction, but fixed by a screw clamp.
This joint has a long screw carrying the compress
down to the artery. There is a little play of the screw
in the ball of the joint, controlled by india-rubber
bands, that the compress may yield slightly before the
arterial pulse. In the solidification of an aneurism by
this means, the flow of the blood is intended to continue ;
158 MISCELLANEOUS. *■
hence the current through the vessel need not be e#>i»*
pletely obstructed by the pressure of the tourniquet,
and the elastic bands prevent that pressure from be*
coming insupportable.
Fig. 108.— Carle's tourniquets ior femoral aneurism.
When the tourniquets are applied, the patient must
lie on a flat hair matress, have 'his limb well washed
and dried, lightly but evenly bandaged, and somewhat
raised. If the thigh is hairy it should be shaved
where the pads will press, and dusted with powdered
French chalk. The tourniquets are next adjusted, as
seen in fig. 108 ; the patient is taught to change the
pressure when it grows irksome, by screwing down
the second pad, and then releasing the first.
Fumigation. — Mercurial vapour baths are con-
trived in various ways. The following plan succeeds
perfectly well when the whole surface of the body is to
be exposed to the vapour (fig. 109).
Apparatus. — A Langston Parker's lamp made by
MERCURIAL FUMIGATION. 159
«awt instrument makers. In this a spirit lamp, hold-
ing the required amount of spirit, ia enclosed in a
cage, on the top of which is a receptacle for the
calomel, and a small saucer for water (fig. 110). The
flame beneath boils the water and volatilises the
calomel. Water is added, because the calomel vapour,
when associated with steam, acts more efficiently than
with dry air.
The lamp is placed under a high wicker chair, on
which the patient sits undressed, and round his neck
a frame is tied, made of cane hoops, with a woolen
cover sewn over them ; this falls to tie ground and
encloses his body in a chamber, where the vapour is
1 60 MISCELLANEOUS.
confined while being absorbed into the skin. A blanket
thrown over the frame completes the preparation. The
cloak is more expensive, but a more effectual screen
when made of macintosh cloth.
The patient, in four or five minutes, usually breaks
into a violent perspiration, his pulse quickens much,
sometimes even syncope occurs ; hence, he should not
be left alone until the bath is over. This, if the flame
Fig. 110.— Lamp for fumigating.
is strong and the quantity of calomel not very great —
one or two scruples being a common dose— occupies a
quarter of an hour. When the bath is over the patient
should at once get into bed, and lie there a few hcAirs ;
then he may rise and be sponged with tepid water.
Moderate but tolerably speedy mercurialisation of the
system is thus induced.
Local Fumigation is employed when the disease
is confined to a few obstinate patches of eruption.
For this purpose an earthenware alembic (fig. Ill)
is fitted to the lamp used for general fumigation ; the
calomel is thrown into the bottom of the alembic.
The flame plays over the outside, and heating it,
sublimes the calomel, which reaches the mouth of
HOT-AIH BAT*
161
the alembic and condenses on any part to which it is
applied.
The throat may be fumigated by inhaling the vapour
as it escapes from this alembic, or by sucking air
Kg. 111.— Lamp
through the apout of an earthenware teapot in which
the calomel has been placed, and heated by a spirit
lamp underneath.
The Hot-Air Bath is easily obtained by undress-
ing the patient, putting him to bed on a matress, and
fastening across the bed two or three lengths of cane
or stout wire, over which a blanket is next thrown.
The patient's body is thus enclosed in a small chamber,
the air of which is then heated by putting inside, on
an earthenware plate, a spirit lamp, surrounded by a
kitchen lemon-grater to protect the bed clothes from
162 MISCELLANEOUS.
its flatne. Sheets should be dispensed with while the
lamp is alight, lest they catch fire. The temperature
of the air should be watched, lest it grow hot enough
ta scorch, but it must be kept up till the patient
breaks into a sharp perspiration, when the lamp may
be removed and the patient allowed to cool slowly.
The action of the bath is greatly accelerated by
sponging the patient all over as he lies in bed with
tepid water, when the air grows warm.
Lamps protected with wire gauze, and furnished with
a cradle to keep the bed clothes up, are sold at the
instrument-makers, and are more free from risk.
The Vapour Bath. — The patient is put to bed as
in the hot-air bath, and a few feet of vulcanised india-
rubber tubing, fastened to the spout of a tea-kettle on
the fire, bring a supply of vapour into the bed.
The vapour bath may precede the hot-air bath, and
will greatly quicken the action of the latter.
The Aspirator consists of a metal-fitted glass
syringe, with an accurately adapted piston, and capable
of holding from two to four ounces of fluid. The nozzle
is connected with two short metal tubes, one at the end,
the other at the side, each of which is fitted with a
stopcock.
When in use, a sharp-pointed hollow needle is fitted
to the end tube (see fig. 112), while a piece of india-
rubber tubing connected with the side tube serves to
convey the fluid from the syringe into a vessel. A
short length of flexible tubing, interposed between the
nozzle and the puncturing needle, protects that from
jogs while it is in the wound.
The needle, previously dipped in carbolic oil, is then
THE ASPIRATOR.
163
thrust well through the skin, etc., into the cavity to
be emptied ; the piston is raiBed, and the stopcock is
then opened, when the fluid will be drawn up into the
partial vacuum in the
syringe.
When filled, the
syringe can be readily
emptied, without
withdrawing the
needle, by turning
the stopcock to open
by the side tube,
through which the
fluid is then expelled.
This process is re-
peated until the
cavity is emptied,
when the needle is
suddenly withdrawn
to prevent the entry
of air, and the minute
puncture left to close
of itself.
Capping. — Dry
and Wet Cupping.
Apparatus. — 1.
series or nest of exhausting glasses.
2. Boxes of lancets of different sizes for incising the
skin, called scarificators.
3. A spirit lamp.
The glasses are G oz., 4 oz., 2 oz., and I oz. in size,
of rounded shape, with thick smooth edges (fig. 1V3>Y
Kg. 112.— The Aspirator.
A. shows the ftetual tMckneas of tlia i
1C4 MISCELLANEOUS.
In dry cupping the object is to relieve internal con-
gestion by drawing the blood into the subcutaneous
cellular tissue. The back and loins, where the skin is
tolerably loose, are moat suitable places for this pro-
ceeding.
Fig. 113.— Cupping glasses, lamp, scarificator, mi spirit battle.
The Operation.
Step. 1. Light the spirit lamp, direct the patient to
sit forwards, and lay bare the back ready for the
glasses, which should be placed on the bed within
reach of the operator's right hand.
Step. 2. Rarity the air in a glass by plunging the
flame into it a few moments, and then quickly clap the
mouth of the glass on the skin ; leave it there while a
second and third glass are heated and applied, when
the first should be removed and its vacuum restored
before it is replaced. When the glasses are put on
again, their rims should not lie exactly in the rings
LEECHES. 165
marked on the skin by previous applications, or the
bruises may inflame and slough afterwards at these
parts. The application and removal of the glasses
should be done as lightly as possible to prevent all un-
necessary pain.
A few repetitions of this incomplete vacuum
causes the skin to puff up readily into the glasses,
and much blood is thereby attracted into the cellular
tissue.
Wet or Bloody Cupping.— When it is desired to take
blood from the body, the skin is first punctured or scari-
fied by the scarificators, half a dozen incisions being made
at a blow by as many lancets protruding from a box,
when a spring it holds is touched ; the glasses are then
laid over these incisions, and the necessary amount of
blood removed by their exhausting power.
Leeches. — Each leech should draw about 2 drachms
of blood, and if the bite is well fomented, another
drachm will escape from the wound afterwards.
Before the leeches are applied, the skin should be
well washed with warm water, and carefully dried.
The leeches should not be taken from their box, but
the box inverted over the part, when they will quickly
fasten themselves. If the leeches are applied in a
dependent position, a soft napkin may be pinned
round the box to support them as they grow heavy,
and to enable them to suck as long as possible.
They should be allowed to drop off; if pulled oft
they are apt to tear the wound, or leave part of
their suckers in it, which causes much irritation
afterwards.
The leech is put in a little glass when applied to the
166 MISCELLANEOUS.
gums or the cervix uteri, and held against the part he
is to suck.
If the leeches do not bite readily the part should
be smeared with blood or warm milk, and the leeches
put into lukewarm water a few minutes ; immersion
Fig. Ill— A leech-bite, and a leech-bite secured
with a needle.
in small beer is also said to stimulate them to bite.
The bite is tripartite ; three saw cuts, ^th of an inch
long, radiating from a centre (see fig. 114).
If the bites bleed longer than is desired, they may
be stopped by pinching the skin between the finger
and thumb, wiping the bite thoroughly dry, and filling
it with a little bit of amadou or fine sponge, soaked
in solution of perchloride of iron ; a larger piece of
amadou is placed over the first, and the whole com-
pressed with a turn of a bandage or long strip of
plaster. If this fails, a sewing needle may be passed
through the skin beneath the centre of the bite, and
the bleeding surface constricted by twisting a thread
round it under the needle (fig. 114).
Leech-bites should never be left bleeding, especially
DRAINAGE-TUBES. 167
iii children, for a dangerous amount of blood may be
lost from them in a few hours.
Tents are instruments made of some substance
that enlarges as it absorbs liquid ; they are employed
to dilate apertures of sinuses or natural passages, as
the cervix uteri, <fec, and are generally short rods 2 to
3 inches long, and ■£$ to £ inch in thickness, made of
a whalebone stem, wound round with compressed
sponge, which is smeared with wax to keep it in shape.
Slips of gentian root, or of laminaria digitata, which
rapidly enlarge as they imbibe moisture, are also em-
ployed [for this purpose
Setons are strips of varnished calico, 6 or 8 inches
long and | of an inch in breadth ; a thread is fastened
to each end, which are tied together while the seton is
worn. The seton is employed to excite irritation
either along the course of a sinus, or in some super-
ficial situation, as the nape of the neck, to relieve
congestion of internal parts. In sinuses, a few threads
of dentist's silk usually produce the required amount
of irritation.
Ohassaignao's Drainage-tubes are a form of
seton ; they are india-rubber tubes of the calibre of a
wheat straw, or larger, of any requisite length, and
perforated with holes at short distances ; they are
carried into the cavity to be drained, by hitching the
prong of a forked probe, made for the purpose, through
one end of the tube and thrusting it along the sinus,
or across the abscess. The skin is then incised over
the further end of the sinus to bring the probe out,
and the ends of the tube are tied together.
In the Lister's method of treating wounds, drainage
168 MISCELLANEOUS.
tubes steeped in antiseptic solutions are much em-
ployed, their preparation and use is described (p. 182).
The advantages of these tubes are, the small amount
of irritation they provoke, and the ready exit furnished
for the matter along their interior.
An Issue is a contrivance for keeping up irritation
of the surface. A piece 0/ diachylon plaster the size
of a half-crown, with a hole in the centre as large as a
pea, is laid over the skin where the issue is to be
formed. A bit of potassa fusa is laid in the hole and
kept in situ by a second plaster, for an hour or till the
skin is destroyed under the hole. The plasters are
then removed, the wound washed, and a fresh piece of
the same size put on, having at its centre a slit £ inch
long, under which a pea is slipped into the sore and
covered over by another smaller piece of plaster. The
discharge that soon sets up must be washed away twice
daily, and the plaster and pea renewed from time to
time as they become soiled. Instead of plaster, some-
times a fresh ivy-leaf is laid over the pea, and then
2 or 3 thicknesses of old linen. The whole dressing
is kept in place, and the wound protected by a small
wire gauze armlet, which is buckled on over all.
Trusses for ruptures. These are various, in shape,
strength of spring, <fcc.
Whatever variety of truss is employed, care should
be taken that the pressure be made in the right
direction, and that it be sufficient, but not too great
for the strain it has to support.
In reducible hernia the pressure for inguinal rupture
should be exerted on the inguinal canal and directly
backwards (see fig. 115). For umbilical rupture, the
TRUSSES. 169
pressure should be also backwards, and be brought to
bear rather on the tendinous margins of the hernial
opening than on the aperture itself. In femoral
rupture the pressure should be directed backwards
against the femoral canal (see fig. 116). The pad in
all should be large enough to well cover the passage
Fig. 115.— Inguinal truss. Fig. 116.— Femoral truss.
through which the rupture passes, that the pressure
may be executed upon adjacent structures, rather than
directly on the relaxed tissues coveriug the ring. The
efficiency and comfort of a truss much depend on the
completeness with which it fulfils these conditions.
The adequacy of a truss should always be tested by
directing the patient to separate his legs, lean forward
over the back of a chair, and cough or strain deeply.
If the truss support the rupture during this exertion
it fits satisfactorily.
For irreducible hernia, large air, or spring-padded
trusses are made, which prevent further descent of the
viscera, but they are exceedingly difficult to fit and
often unsatisfactory in use.
170 MISCELLANEOUS.
In inguinal Jiernia the truss consists of a pad, a
spring, and a neck, with guide straps.
The pad is made of various materials, fine carded
wool is among the best when well stuffed into a
properly shaped ovoid leather pad. Mr. Wood recom-
mends the use of a pad made of boxwood, and shaped
like a horse-shoe, with the inner horn larger and
longer than the outer. In most cases a fixed pad is
better than a moveable one.
The pad should compress the canal and be convex
if the patient is stout (but in all cases should be as
small as will ensure fair compression). A very flaccid
belly-wall, and a large gap or protrusion require a large
surface on the pad. The spring should be supple and
padded behind to rest on the two sacro-iliac synchon-
droses, without bearing on the spine. The spring,
narrowing as it comes forward, embraces the pelvis ;
and opposite the anterior iliac spine inclines down-
wards, because the hernia is a little lower than the
resting-place of the spring behind. When the rupture
is almost reached, the spring takes a slight elbow or
bend (the neck), that its pressure may be directed
against the hernia more fully. Understraps, generally
not necessary, should be omitted if possible.
In trusses for children when the testis is not de-
scended, the pad should have a notch at its lower
border in which the testis may rest uncompressed.
In the truss for femoral liernia, the spring bears
behind the body and encircles the hips in the same
manner as in the inguinal truss, but when opposite the
femoral artery it turns abruptly downwards towards
the saphenous opening. The pad should be somewhat
TRUSSES. 171
convex, not oval but rounded, and should be placed in
the groove of the groin, that most of the pressure
exerted on the crural canal may fall exactly between
the crural ring above and the saphenous opening below.
The under-strap should be attached to the stud at the
lower end of the pad, and pass round the perinseum
and fold of the buttock, and be fastened to the spring
opposite the great trochanter. It should be made of
knitted bandage that it may be changed and washed
frequently.
Wlien measuring a patient for an inguinal truss, the
circumference of the body round the hips (between the
crista ilii and the great trochanter) should be taken ;
and this is generally sufficient. When more detail is
needed, the distance between the symphysis pubis and
the anterior iliac spine, half of which denotes the
position of the internal abdominal ring, may be added.
This and the inguinal canal are to be supported by the
pad of the truss. For a femoral hernia the same
measurement should be taken round the body, and
also the distance of the saphenous opening from the
symphysis pubis and from the anterior superior iliac
spine. A third measurement from the anterior iliac
spine to the symphysis pubis gives the triangle of the
groin. These will enable the maker to put the pad
at the proper angle with the spring, so that it com-
presses the saphenous opening, and clears the crest of
the pubes.
Every patient should, while he wears a truss, show
himself from time to time to the surgeon to ensure
that any defect in his apparatus may be quickly
remedied. It is a useful precaution also to keep two
172 MISCELLANEOUS.
trusses at hand, so that if one breaks, the patient may
at once apply the other.
Salmon and Ody's truss consists of a spring passing
round the hip from a circular pad, which bears on the
sacrum to a second
oval pad. Both pads
are attached to the
spring by a ball and
socket joint. There
is also a slide for
shortening or length-
ening the spring if
Fig. 117.— Salmon and Ody's truss. desired ( fig. 117).
This truss is worn
round the sound side of the body and reaches beyond
the middle line to the hernial opening, with the object
of directing the pressure of the spring outwards and
backwards, or exactly counter to the course of the
hernia inwards.
Umbilical Iwrnia. — Spring trusses are not adapted
for restraining umbilical hernia. The support consists
of a broad belt fitted to the belly, made in front
of elastic webbing, and on each flank, of white jean.
Behind, the belt is fastened by straps and buckles, or
by lacing, the better plan. In the centre, the elastic
part carries a nearly flat air-cushion, measuring about
3 inches transversely and 2£ vertically. This cushion
is placed against the aperture of the belly, and presses
back the protrusion. The size of the pad varies with
the size of the hernia, but it should always largely
exceed the extent of the gap in the abdominal
wall. The pad, when the apparatus is used for an
CAUTERIES. 173
infant, should not be too prominent, as it is then more
difficult to keep in place, and also by pressing into the
aperture hinders it from closing. The pad for an
infant is best made of a disc of ivory, 1 J inch broad
and | an inch to 1 inch thick, stitched in a little case
in the centre of the girdle. Mr. Wood recommends
the employment of an oval cup-shaped pad, made of
vulcanized indiarubber, by which the pressure is
brought to bear on the tendinous margins of the
hernial opening in such a way as to tend to close them
towards the median line. The quantity of elastic
tissue should be much less in the infant's belt than in
those for adults, that the belt may be frequently
washed. The difficulty of keeping the apparatus in
place is lessened by attaching two bands to the upper
border, to pass over the shoulders and cross behind
before fastening to the belt, like braces. Two similar
ones may be fastened to the lower border and carried
under the thighs. These bands should be of soft
webbing, and several pairs kept in store, that they may
be frequently changed and washed.
Cauteries.
Cautery irons. — These are masses of iron of different
shapes; some pointed, others rounded like buttons,
(fee, set in a stem a foot long, fixed in a thick wooden
handle. They are heated in a charcoal brazier or
common fire to bright redness if required to destroy
deeply, but short of redness if intended only to scorch
the surface.
As these irons are inconvenient for many cases from
their bulk, and yet soon lose their heat if made small,
other cauteries have been devised to which the heat
174 MISCELLANEOUS.
can be quickly renewed, such as Nekton's or Bruce's
gas cauteries, and other inventions.
Galvanic Cautery. — The instrument consists of a
platinum wire, made to glow by passing through it a
powerful galvanic current. The wire should be thick
(about T V of an inch), and all the other conducting
surfaces sufficiently large to offer no impediment to
the current where heat is not desired. The battery
best adapted for this purpose is a Grove's battery.
The main advantage of a galvanic cautery is that
the wire can be passed while cold exactly where it is
required, and then heated when it is in place. It is
exceedingly useful in fistulse between the urethra and
rectum, or in destroying vascular growths, nsevi, &c.,
where it is desirable not to destroy all the skin cover-
ing the tumour. Again, by this means, an intense heat
can be applied to -a very limited area, and more quickly
renewed than by any other plan, for the wire, even when
plunged in the tissue, is never far below a red heat.
The platinum wire has been arranged in several
forms, to suit different requirements, the most useful
being the galvanic ecraseur of Middeldorpf. This in-
strument consists of a loop of wire, which, by means
of a rod and screw, can be shortened as it burns its
way through the mass of tissue it encloses.
Of chemical caustics a host exist ; these most com-
monly employed are : — nitrate of silver, solid, or in
saturated solutions (2 drachms to the oz. of water,
&c.) ; fuming nitric acid ; solution of nitrate of mercury
in nitric acid; oil of vitriol made into a paste with
powdered charcoal; chloride of zinc mixed with dry
starch, then rolled into cakes and cut in slices ; Vienna
BLISTERS. 175
paste, that is, equal parts of potassa fusa and quick-
lime worked into a paste with spirits of wine ; potassa
fusa itself; solution of chromic acid. Some surgeons
prefer one, some another ; as a rule, the liquid caustics
are employed where the surface to be destroyed is un-
even and spongy, and solid caustics where the surface
is smooth, and a long continued action is desired.
Vesicants and irritants. — Of the commonest are
mustard poultices, made by mixing mustard flour in a
basin with luke-warm water, i.e. about 100° F., to a
paste and spreading it on muslin, which is again folded
over the exposed surface of the mustard. Boiling
water and vinegar should not be used, for they lessen
the pungency of the poultice. If the full effect be de-
sired, the poultice should remain on the skin fifteen or
twenty minutes. If only slight reddening is wanted,
the mustard flour should be diluted with its bulk of
linseed meal before mixing it "with water.
A stronger vesicant is Corrigan's hammer, a button
of polished steel with a flat surface, fixed to a handle ;
when used it should be plunged for a couple of minutes
in boiling water, or heated over a spirit lamp, but care
must be taken not to overheat it, or it will bring the
cuticle away with it. It is pressed on the skin for ten
or fifteen seconds ; this is sufficient to cause reddening
and vesication.
Blisters are raised by the emplastrum lyttse, Bullen's
liquor epispasticus, or pate epispastique, which is milder
in its effect than the two preceding preparations of
Spanish fly. Solution of iodine and iodide of potash,
in three times their bulk of spirit of wine, also pro-
duces a blister when laid on freely.
176 MISCELLANEOUS.
Poultices are made of linseed meal, bread, or starch,
and are means for applying warmth and moisture
without absolutely wetting. Bread poultices sodden
the parts to which the are applied most, and starch
least, of the three kinds.
Before making a poultice all the materials should
be at hand and thoroughly warmed before a good
fire. They are — boiling water, a broad knife or
spatula, soft old linen or muslin, oil silk, tapes,
strapping plaster, bandages, a piece of old blanket,
flannel or cotton wadding, safety pins, or needle and
thread.
The linen on which the poultice is to be spread
should be cut of the intended size, and when for use
about the neck or shoulder should have some tapes
sewn on to it to tie it on to the body. The oil silk
should be large enough to cover the poultice next
which it is laid, to keep in the moisture. The flannel
or wadding are used to wrap over and keep in the heat
of the poultice ; the strapping or bandage to fix every
thing in situ as required.
When poultices are continued long, their surfaces
should be smeared with lard before application ; this
protects the skin somewhat from the irritation that
arises ; also when the poultice is to be laid between
folds of skin or on hairy situations, as the buttocks
and perinseum, it is better to cover the poultice with
a thin cambric handkerchief lest some of the meal
stick to the parts.
The Linseed Poultice is made as follows : pour boil-
ing water into a well-heated basin till the basin is half
full, then scatter meal with the left hand on the water
POULTICES. 177
while that is kept continually stirred with a broad
knife, adding more and more meal until the mass
becomes quite soft and gelatinous, but too stiff to
cling to the knife ; then turn it out on the linen, also
well heated at the fire, and spread it in a layer about
£ an inch thick, turn up the edge of the linen for \ an
inch all round, and carry the poultice at once to the
patient. If it has to be carried far, the poultice should
be laid between two very hot plates ; apply it to the
part to be poulticed, lay on the oil silk, and cover that
with the hot flannel or cotton wadding, and fasten
these in place with pins or a stitch. Wadding is put
where the part is irregular, as the neck or axilla ; un-
less the wadding is well placed and the poultice is
fastened by strings, it will soon fall into a narrow
band, leaving exposed the part that it should warm
and moisten.
Tlie Bread Poultice is made as follows : the materials
being all at hand, as detailed in the directions for
making a linseed poultice, crumble the inside of a
moderately stale loaf until about half a pint or a pint
of crumbs are prepared ; then pour boiling water into
a basin, and throw in crumbs gradually in the same
manner as the linseed meal, until a soft porous mass
is prepared. The remaining steps are the same as
those for making the linseed poultice.
The poultice can be made to hold more water if it is
turned into a saucepan after mixing, and a little more
water added while it simmers for half an hour at a
slow fire. Any superfluous water must be drained off,
and the poultice covered with muslin when it is made
in this way.
178 MISCELLANEOUS. % "V
•
A cold Bread Poultice Higginbottom directs to be
made as follows : " Take a penny loaf, remove the
crust, put the soft part in a pan with a pint of cold
water ; let it boil gently for an hour, stirring constantly
till it is of a medium consistency ; when cold, spread
on linen half an inch thick. Put the rest in a basin
for use, covering it to keep it damp. Use no grease or
oiL"
The Starch Poultice is made as follows : rub a little
starch in a basin with cold water till it has the con-
sistence of cream, then mix in boiling water till the
starch is a thick jelly, and spread it on the linen while
hot. Starch poultices retain their heat a long time,
but yield very little moisture to the part. They are
chiefly used as emollients to inflamed affections of the
skin, <fec.
An elegant substitute for a poultice consists of a
sheet of spongiopiline, well soaked in boiling water,
and applied under oil silk : or several folds of lint
soaked in boiling water, and then • gently wrung out,
may be used in the same way.
Hot fomentations are a means for applying heat when
moisture is not desired. A ready mode is to take a
piece of blanket or thick flannel, soak it in boiling
water and dry it by wringing in a folded towel, and
then wrap it over the part to be fomented with a piece
of oil silk or a hot dry flannel over it. Laudanum,
turpentine, and other applications are sprinkled over
the flannel, when soothing or counter-irritating effects
are required in addition to the warmth. A bag of
bran makes a light warm fomentation if heated in
a steam kitchen, or steamer for boiling potatoes.
TREATMENT OF WOUNDS. 179
When absolutely dry heat is desired, chamomile
flowers, bran, or sand, may be heated in an oven, and
poured into hot flannel bags.
Dry heat is also very agreeably obtained by filling
india rubber bags and cushions with hot water : they
are rather heavy, but retain their heat many hours.
Antiseptic Treatment of Wounds.
Lister's method of dressing wounds.
1. Carbolic acid : — The properties which concern the
surgeon may be briefly recapitulated as follows.
The acid is highly volatile, and in sufficient quantity
indefinitely postpones the putrefaction of organic fluids.
It is soluble in different degrees in water, alcohol,
ether, glycerine, fixed oils, gutta percha, india-rubber,
resin, &c. Its varying affinity for these substances
enables the surgeon to modify the application of the
acid in various ways ; these modifications are necessary
fully to utilise its properties.
Water dissolves the crystallised acid but sparingly,
1 part in 20 being a concentrated solution, and allows
it to escape readily ; the aqueous solution is therefore
useful when the effects of the acid are required copi-
ously, but only temporarily. Glycerine and the fixed
oils dissolve a far greater amount of the acid than
water does, and the solutions, as regards tenacity, hold
an intermediate place between the aqueous solution
and the resinous mixture. This latter substance, while
forming a mild preparation, has likewise the property,
owing to its strong affinity for the acid, of storing it up
for a considerable time.
Carbolic acid stimulates raw surfaces, and when
concentrated, even destroys animal tissues. It is a
180 MISCELLANEOUS.
local anaesthetic; ou its application in solution of
moderate strength, wounds lose their sensibility aftet
the first smarting has passed off. When absorbed in
large quantities, the acid first induces vomiting, and
after large doses a peculiar kind of delirium ensues,
followed by temporary paralysis of sense and motion ;
fatal results have followed its internal administration.
It is rapidly absorbed into the blood from wounded
surfaces, as well as through the unbroken skin, and is
thence discharged from the body by the lungs and kid-
neys. In most cases the urine of a patient with a
wound dressed with carbolic acid, although of normal
colour when passed, assumes a dark greenish brown
hue after a few hours' exposure to the air and light.
The following are the preparations and materials
employed. Watery solutions of 1 part of acid to 20 of
water are used for purifying the epidermis of a part
about to be operated on ; for cleansing dirty instru-
ments and spouges, and also for washing accidental
wounds, so as to destroy once for all any septic organ-
isms that may have been introduced into them.
A solution of 1 part of acid to 40 of water is em-
ployed for the spray, for squeezing out the sponges,
for wetting the hands of the surgeon and assistant,
and for remoistening instruments laid aside tempo-
rarily during an operation ; for washing the surface of
wounds while the dressings are changed, and for soak-
ing the linen rag used as a guard to cover the wound
whenever the spray is intermitted.*
* A solution of 1 part of the acid to 5 parts of spirit may be
injected through an elastic catheter connected with the syringe by
means of a piece of india-rubber tubing, into the recesses of the
TREATMENT OF WOUNDS. 181
Oily solutions of the strength of 1 part of acid to
either 10 or 20 parts of olive oil, are employed for
various purposes, among others, for moistening the
sharp cannula of the aspirator previously to using it,
for soaking strips of lint or gauze to be used as drains,
&c. These solutions are also applied on lint to the in-
terior of wounds where it is desirable to have the con-
stant active operation of an antiseptic, which admits of
being frequently changed.
Antiseptic gauze. — This consists of a light cotton
material prepared by being charged, in a proportion
nearly equal to its own weight, with a compound of 1
part of crystallised carbolic acid, 5 parts of common
resin, and 7 parts of solid paraffin.*
For a dressing, this material is folded in eight layers,
of sufficient size to cover an area extending usually for
8 inches in every direction from the wound. Between
the two outermost layers is inserted a sheet of very
thin macintosh cloth, of the description commonly
known as hat lining ; the object of this impermeable
layer is to diffuse the discharges evenly throughout
the folds of the dressing, in order to prevent the pos-
sibility of their soaking through the gauze at any one
point, and so exhausting the carbolic acid at that spot,
without utilising the rest of the dressing.
The protective consists of ordinary oiled silk, which
is first coated with a layer of copal varnish, and when dry
wound caused by a bad compound fracture when first seen some
hours after the accident.
* The prepared gauze may be obtained in London from Messrs.
Macfarlane, 5, Barge Yard, Bucklersbury.
182 MISCELLANEOUS.
is brushed over with a mixture of dextrine and starch.
This protective, first moistened in 1 to 40 solution, is
placed over the wound beneath the dressing, to protect
its surface from immediate contact with the carbolic
acid contained in the gauze. It is used only in cases
where it is desirable to procure speedy healing.
Vulcanized india-rubber drainage tubes are used,
varying in size from a crowquill to that of the little
finger; at various intervals holes are cut in them,
equal in diameter to half that of the tube. One or
more tubes, according to the extent of the wound,
should be inserted to the required depth, and their
ends be cut level with the surface. They are kept in
position by two pieces of silk passed through opposite
sides of the orifice and knotted at the extremity furthest
from the tube.
As the cavity of the wound gradually fills, the gra-
nulations tend to push the tube out, and it will there-
fore require to be shortened from time to time ; but
this should not be done too hastily. Its use should be
continued in abscesses until the cavity is completely
closed, and in wounds so long as even trifling oozing
exists. The drainage tubes should be kept immersed
in 1 to 20 watery solution.
Either carbolised silk or metallic sutures may be em-
ployed in operations under the spray. The former are
prepared by immersing a reel of silk in a mixture of
melted bees-wax, with about one- tenth part of carbolic
acid, the thread being drawn through a dry cloth as it
leaves the liquid, to remove the superfluous wax.
Carbolised catgut is used for ligaturing vessels when
torsion is not advisable ; both ends of the ligature are
TREATMENT OF WOUNDS. 183
cut short. The catgut should be kept immersed in an
oily solution (1 part to 5).*
The spray producer commonly employed consists of
a modified form of Kichardson's ether spray apparatus,
filled with 1 to 40 watery solution. By its means a
cloud of spray imbued with carbolic acid is maintained
in the immediate vicinity of an aseptic wound when-
ever it is exposed for any purpose.
Mr. Lister now uses a modification of Siegle's steam
spray producer, which throws a larger cloud of spray.t
The following are the materials required for dress-
ing wounds with carbolic acid : —
1. Watery solutions (1 part in 20 and 1 part in 40).
2. Oily solutions (1 part in 10 and 1 part in 20).
3. Old linen — lint.
4. Prepared catgut ligatures.
5. Drainage tubes of various sizes.
6. Carbolised silk, or metallic sutures.
7. Oiled silk protective.
8. Antiseptic gauze.
9. Hat lining.
10. Strips of gauze to be used for packing.
11. Gauze bandages.
12. Safety or nursery pins.
13. Spray producer, containing 1 to 40 watery
solution.
14. Syringes.
Id. A gum elastic catheter.
* For preparation, see Mr. Lister's article on "Amputation,"
in 2nd edition of " Holmes's Surgery," vol. v., page 622.
f To be obtained of Young, Edinburgh, or Mayer and Meltzer,
London.
1 84 MISCELLANEOUS.
16. Piece of india-rubber tubing.
17. Sponges soaked in 1 to 40 lotion.
To dress a recent wound.
1. All haemorrhage having ceased or been arrested,
wash the part, and syringe out the wound thoroughly
with 1 to 20 lotion under the spray ; and then cover
the wound with a guard soaked in 1 to 40 lotion.
2. Prepare the dressing, if this has not been pre-
viously done, by folding eight layers of gauze, large
enough well to envelope the part ; place a sheet of hat
lining of equal dimensions between the two outermost
layers.
3. Cut a piece of protective a little larger than the
surface of the wound ; then remove the guard under
the spray, and apply the protective, moistened in 1 to
40 lotion, over the edges of the wound.
4. Place a small piece of gauze wrung out of 1 to 40
solution over the protective, and apply the dressing,
wrapping it carefully over the part, and taking care
that the centre of the gauze be placed immediately
over the wound, and that the spray be steadily main-
tained until the part is well covered in.
5. Fix the dressing securely by carrying a gauze
roller evenly and firmly over and around the mass,
taking care well to cover in the edges.
6. Finally secure the bandage with safety pins in-
serted, so as to prevent the possibility of the dressing
shifting at any part. Care must be taken not to thrust
the pins through the centre of the sheet of hat lining,
or its efficacy will be destroyed.*
Should the surface of the part to be enveloped by
* Mr. Lister now employs, in some cases, an elastic bandage,
which has the advantage of greater a^udty.
TREATMENT OF WOUNDS. 185
the dressiDg be uneven, as in the neighbourhood of a
large joint, or should the discharge be likely to prove
very abundant, it is a good plan to place loosely
crumpled-up strips of gauze inside the dressing before
closing it ; these serve to adapt it closely to the part.
In cases of compound fracture, the wound is first
dressed as above described, while an assistant main-
tains the limb in good position; padded splints are
then applied over all.
In changing a dressing, care should be taken by
placing the hand over the seat of the wound, to pre-
vent the gauze being raised from the surface before the
spray can be directed over it.
All dressings should, as a general rule, be changed
within 24 hours at furthest from the time of being first
applied; but during the subsequent progress of the
case, the gauze may be left undisturbed for periods
varying from two days to a week, provided that no
discharge show beyond the edge of the folded
dressing.
In situations where there is not a sufficient surface
of skin available for the gauze to cover in the vicinity
of the wound, as about the pubes for example, after
herniotomy, the deficiency in size may be compensated
by increased thickness of the dressing, the gauze being
used in 16 or even 32 layers instead of 8.
To open an abscess.
1. Cleanse the surface of the part with 1 to 20
lotion, and shave it if necessary.
2. Make the required incision, under the spray,
with a knife previously dipped in 1 to 20 solution.
3. Having pressed out the pus, insert a drainage
186 MISCELLANEOUS.
tube, or a strip of lint soaked in 1 to 10 oily solu-
tion.
4. Next place over the incision a small piece of
gauze wetted in the watery solution, and over all apply
a dressing as above directed.
In cases of chronic effusion of fluid in the bursa
patellae 9 or of small abscesses in situations where a scar
is undesirable, the fluid may be evacuated under the
spray by a puncture with a tenotomy knife ; a small
drainage tube is then inserted, and a pad of gauze ap-
plied and retained by a bandage.
In the case of ischio-rectal abscess, the parts should
be first well washed in 1 to 20 solution, and the abscess
opened under the spray ; a pad of lint soaked in
1 to 10 oily solution should then be applied and
retained in place by a T bandage, and this dressing
should be changed every five or six hours.
The patient should be directed before defecation, to
draw the pad and bandage to one side, at the same
time keeping the wound covered. The parts should be
well cleansed with the oily solution, before the pad is
readjusted.
2. Chloride of zinc in aqueous solution of 40 grains
to the ounce is a powerful antiseptic. A single
application of it to a recent wound, though with-
out producing a visible slough, will prevent the occur-
rence of putrefaction in the cut surface during a period
of from 48 to 72 hours. Hence it is applied to opera-
tion wounds in situations which render the subsequent
avoidance of putrefaction impossible, as for example
about the jaws, in the vicinity of the anus, and in the
neighbourhood of sinuses due to caries.
TKEATMENT OF WOUNDS. 187
The sharp spoon is an instrument recommended by
Professor Volkmann, of Halle, for scraping carious
bone. He also employs it for clearing out the pyogenic
membrane of putrid abscesses and sinuses, and remov-
ing all granulations around the diseased bones after
excision. The wounds are afterwards well washed
with chloride of zinc lotion and treated antiseptically.
3. Boraeic acid is an extremely bland and unirritating
antiseptic, but owing to its non- volatility, is applicable
only for the treatment of superficial wounds. The
crystals, which are very soft and unctuous, are much
more soluble in hot than in cold water.
The acid is employed in three forms : —
1. As a cold saturated aqueous solution.
2. As boraeic lint ; this is prepared by immersion in
a boiling saturated solution, whereby the lint absorbs
nearly its own weight of the crystals.
3. As boraeic ointment.*
To dress ulcers of the leg.
1. First cleanse the sore with solution of chloride of
zinc (40 grains to 1 ounce), and well wash the sur-
rounding skin with carbolic lotion (1 to 20).
2. Next apply a piece of protective, rather larger
than the sore, moistened in boraeic lotion.
3. Place over this a fold or two of boraeic lint,
soaked in the lotion, and large enough to extend for
an inch or more over the edge of the protective.
4. Finally, retain the dressing with an ordinary
bandage.
This may be left undisturbed for a period varying
* For the preparation of the ointment, see an article by Mr.
Lister, in the Lancet, June 5th, 1875, page 787.
188 MISCELLANEOUS.
from two to five days, according to the amount of
discharge.
The lint soaked in boracic lotion may also be used
in the same way as an ordinary water dressing to foul
ulcers, or to deep burns with foul sloughs. It then
requires changing once a day or oftener.
The ointment may be employed spread on thin
linen, to dress superficial ulcers — no protective is then
used.
4. Salicylic acid has been recently recommended as
an efficient antiseptic, by Professor Thiersch, of Leipzig,
who employs it in preference to carbolic acid.*
Salicylic acid is inodorous, non- volatile, and less irri-
tating than carbolic acid ; it is soluble at the ordinary
temperature of the air in the proportion of 1 part to
300 of distilled water.
The following are the preparations employed : —
1. An aqueous solution (1 part of acid to 300), used
for washing and irrigating wounds, and as spray. Sa-
licylic spray causes sneezing and coughing, hence the
carbolic spray is often substituted for it.
2. A dressing, consisting of cotton wool charged with
the acid in the respective proportions of 3 and of 10
per lOO.t The wool of the latter strength is usually
coloured with carmine to distinguish it from the
weaker preparation.
Professor Thiersch also employs for large suppurating
wounds a dressing of prepared jute, which material,
* See the London Medical Record of May 26th and June 2nd,
1875, pp. 317 and 334.
t The prepared wool may be obtained in London, of Messrs.
Krohne and Sesemann, Duke Street, Manchester Square.
TREATMENT OF WOUNDS. 189
owing to its greater permeability, admits of a more
equal distribution of the discharges throughout its
substance. The jute is prepared by impregnation in a
warm aqueous solution of salicylic acid (4 parts to 100),
to which 20 per 100 of glycerine is added to prevent
the acid from falling off in dust.
Apparatus. — 1. Salicylic lotion (1 to 300).
2. Carbolic or salicylic spray.
3. Salicylic wool, two strengths.
4. Drainage tubes soaked in carbolic acid.
5. Carbolised catgut.
6. Metallic or carbolised silk sutures.
7. Carbolised gauze bandages.
8. Fenestrated gutta percha membrane, or carbolised
gauze.
9. Syringes and sponges— nail-brush.
10. Soap, spirits of wine, and oil of turpentine.
11. Eazor, macintosh sheeting.
To dress an operation or recent wound.
1. The surface of the part is first shaved, if neces-
sary ; and then cleaned with soap, water, spirit, and
oil of turpentine, after which it is scrubbed with a nail-
brush and salicylic lotion.
2. The operation is then performed under the
spray, which is continued until the wound is covered
up.
3. Haemorrhage is arrested by means of catgut
ligatures.
4. The wound is well washed with salicylic lotion ;
drainage tubes are inserted, and the edges, accurately
fitted together, are united by metallic or carbolised
silk sutures.
190 MISCELLANEOUS.
5. The wound is then again washed out with the
lotion, until the fluid escapes nearly pure through the
drainage tubes.
6. A strip of fenestrated gutta percha tissue, or of
carbolised gauze is next laid over the edges of the
wound, to prevent the dressing from adhering to them.
7. A layer of the coloured wool, half an inch thick,
and large enough to extend over a surface of four
inches in every direction from the wound is then ap-
plied, and covered by two layers of the weaker wool of
equal thickness and size. The whole dressing is
retained by an evenly applied gauze bandage.
If no pain or fever occur, the dressing is left un-
changed for eight or ten days, during which time' any
spots of secretion that appear on the surface are to be
covered with fresh cotton wool.
At the end of this period the dressing is renewed
under the spray ; the drainage tubes are removed, new
ones being introduced if required, and the wound is
well washed out with salicylic lotion before re-applying
the dressing.
Large open wounds are covered with a thin layer of
salicylic wool, which is either moistened from time to
time with the lotion, or better, is irrigated by Esmarch's
irrigator.
Small abscesses are treated by puncture and a
drainage tube, and dressed with dry wool.
Large deep-seated abscesses should be freely incised,
and the cavity be well washed out with salicylic lotion ;
counter openings are then made if required, and tubes
inserted so as to ensure thorough drainage, and the
wool applied as already described.
IRRIGATION.
191
Irrigation. — The continual flow of ice-cold water is
used to prevent inflammation of certain wounds. In
using cold, it is particularly necessary that the tem-
perature of the water remain steady, for alterations of
temperature cause alterations in the capacity of the
blood vessels, and promote congestion rather than
diminish it ; hence irrigation, badly attended to, be-
Fig. 118.— Irrigating a wound.
comes an evil instead of a benefit. The simplest way
(see fig. 118) of contriving irrigation is to lay the
limb in an easy position on pillows, protected by a
sheet of india-rubber cloth, weighted at one corner to
draw the cloth into a channel, down which the water
trickles into a receiver under the bed ; over the limb a
jar, wrapped in blanket, is suspended. This is filled
with water from time to time, and kept charged with
192
MISCELLANEOUS.
lumps of ice. A syphon is made by a few feet of
fine india-rubber tubing reaching from the bottom of
the jar to the wound, the escape of water through
the tube being moderated by drawing the end more
or less tightly through a bit of cleft stick. It is
sufficient that the wound should be kept constantly
and thoroughly wetted; more than that is waste of
cooling power.
A spiral coil of india-rubber tubing disposed round
the part to be cooled is a more rapid and efficient
method of refrigeration ; the coils, made large enough
to fit loosely, should be held together by an interlacing
narrow tape. When in use, one end weighted to make
it sink is put into a vessel of ice-cold water, placed two
or three feet above the patient, and the other end, pro-
vided with a small tap to regulate the flow, is dropped
into a receiver on the floor. If the receivers are
wooden buckets, well wrapped in blanket, the occa-
sional addition of a lump of ice keeps the temperature
of the water sufficiently low, and by changing the
position of the vessels as the
upper one empties and the lower
one fills, the current is made to
pass backwards and forwards as
long as required.
Esmarch's Irrigator. — This is
a simple contrivance for washing
out wounds and sinuses with a
stream of water. It consists of
a tall can of block tin (see fig.
119), with an orifice at the lower end, to which a
couple of feet of india-rubber tubing are attached.
Fig. 119.— Esniarch's
Irrigator.
CHLQBOF08M, 193
The tube is fitted with art ivory nozzle and a hook,
so that when the stream is not wanted the flow of
water is stopped by hanging the nozzle on the upper
edge of the can. The stream can be made more or
less forcible by raising or lowering the can above the
wound.
The Administration of Chloroform. — In ad-
ministering chloroform the main points to be borne
in mind are — 1. That if the patient is fit to undergo
an operation at all he may inhale chloroform. 2. The
patient should be fasting ; this is the most effectual
preventive of sickness. 3. He should be in an easy
position, clad in a loose but warm night-dress, which
does not interfere with ordinary or with artificial re-
spiration, should that be suddenly required. 4. The
patient must never inhale more than 4 per cent, of
chloroform vapour in the air he respires ; on the other
hand, the vapour may circulate in the blood without
harm for an indefinite time, provided it never pass be-
yond a certain concentration. 5. Chloroform is a
sedative and depressant ; the pulse gives the earliest
indication of syncope, and the respiration should be con-
stantly watched the whole time chloroform is inhaled.
It should be noted that the pulse often fails suddenly
at the first flow of blood in an operation. Again, when
the patient is deeply narcotised, the jaw may gape and
the tongue sink back till it closes the glottis. From
this cause respiration sometimes ceases, and danger
quickly arises if the chin is not drawn up to raise the
epiglottis. In beginning to inhale, the quantity of
vapour should be small, and gradually increased. The
patient must be cautioned not to talk, to avoid the
194 MISCELLANEOUS.
irritation and coughing chloroform sometimes excites
while he is speaking. He should also shut his eyes
lest the vapour make them smart. After inhalation
has been continued a few minutes the patient is often
quiet and inattentive, though easily roused by pain*
His condition at this stage should be tested by asking
him to give his hand, or by pinching him gently ; if no
notice be taken of these stimuli, the conjunctiva should
be touched, and the amount of winking thus excited
will enable the chloroformist to judge if the patient
will resist when the knife is applied. Patients vary
much in the time passed before recovering conscious*
ness ; if they remain soundly asleep, breathing freely
and with good pulse, it is better to avoid rousing or
moving them until they wake spontaneously ; such
patients suffer less confusion and vomiting than those
who are quickly alive to what is going on around them.
Signs of Danger. — Sudden failure or irregularity of
the pulse, with pallor, or any alteration of the respi-
ratory movements, are of great importance. If any
such changes occur, the chloroform must be at once
removed, a free supply of fresh air ensured, the tongue
drawn well forward with a forceps. If the breathing
do not quickly improve, artificial respiration must be
set up immediately (see p. 201), and continued for at
least an hour before recovery is despaired of. Ster-
torous breathing is not alarming unless accompanied
by feeble pulse, shallow respiration, and dilatation of
the pupils ; with these it becomes a sign of a comatose
condition.
As subordinate adjuvants for faintness the following
are useful : — moistening the tongue and lips with
CHLOROFORM. 195
brandy from time to time, or letting the patient sip a
small quantity from the spout of a feeding cup. In
complete syncope, galvanism to the epigastrium, or a
hot iron or scalding water to the prsecordia may be
employed, but nothing should ever inter/ere with the main-
tenance of artificial respiration, which is of far greater
efficacy in restoring suspended animation than anything
else.
The inhalation of four or five drops of nitrite of
amyle from a handkerchief is a powerful restorative in
syncope.
Elevation of the trunk and lower extremities, so
that the head hangs perpendicular for a few seconds,
has rapidly revived patients from severe syncope.
Chloroform is safely given on a handkerchief or in
various ways, if the administrator is careful to watch
the respiration and pulse, and to guard against the
patient, by a sudden deep inspiration, taking too large
a dose of vapour at once. Exact measurement of the
quantity of liquid poured on the handkerchief at a
time is misleading, as it is no index of the concentra-
tion of the air respired by the patient. Of far greater
consequence is it to insure a free supply of atmospheric
air, by keeping the evaporating surface a few inches
from the mouth and nostrils.
The safest mode of giving chloroform is by Clover's
Inhaler (fig. 120), now used in many London hospitals
and elsewhere. It renders it impossible to give the
patient too strong a dose, by preparing an atmosphere
of known strength for him to breathe. Clover's ap-
paratus consists of a bag of 8,000 or 10,000 cubic
inches' capacity, suspended by a loop behind the cMqtq-
MISCELLANEOUS.
formist's back, from thia a flexible tube brings the
vapor- charged air to a mask, fitting over the noae and
Fig. 130.— Clover"« apparatus for adminiataring cliloroform.
mouth of the patient This mask has a flexible metal
border for adjusting it to different faces ; and a valve
that opens and closes, to allow more or less common
air to be respired with that drawn from the reservoir if
desired.
The reservoir is supplied by pumping from a bellows,
which holds 1000 cubic inches, successive quantities of
air, driven through an evaporating box heated by hot
water, into which 32 J minims of chloroform are injected
from a graduated syringe each time the bellows is filled.
Care should bo taken to fiU the bellows thoroughly
before pumping into the reservoir, otherwise the atmo-
197
sphere may become more charged with chloroform
vapour than the safe ratio of 4 per cent. By these
means, an atmosphere of known strength is prepared
for the inhalation; that is, one containing about 4 per
cent, of vapour. This apparatus is very easy to use,
and the most efficient in producing anesthesia quickly
and pleasantly.
Fig. 12L— Clover's chloroform bellowi
The administration of Ether The rules apply
for the administration of ether that have already been
laid down in the description of chloroform administra-
tion, Ether depresses less than chloroform, hence is
less liable to produce syncope, but irritates the ah-
passages more, and may cause bronchial irritation.
Ether is not easily administered when the no33 and
mouth cannot be closed, thus chloroform is most suit-
able for operations on the face or month.
198 MISCELLANEOUS.
Ether may be safely inhaled from a towel folded
into a cone, and fastened with one or two pins. The
ether is plentifully sprinkled oyer the interior of the
cone, which is placed over the patient's nose and
mouth, that the vapour may be copiously inspired.
Mr, Clover's gas and ether apparatus consists of : —
1. A wrought-iron cylinder, charged with liquid
nitrous oxide gas, and fitted with a screw tap, which is
worked by means of a key, K, moved by the foot.
2. A metallic gas reservoir, R, connected by a long
flexible tube with the gas bag, to prevent the first
rapid expansion of the gas from bursting the bag.
3. A double-chambered vessel, E, containing ether,
surrounded by water ; the temperature of the ether,
which should not exceed 70° Fahr., is indicated
by a thermometer seen through a window in the wall
of the vessel (fig. 122). The quantity of ether in the
vessel can also be ascertained through this window. A
hook serves to suspend the vessel from a strap passed
round the neck of the administrator.
4. An ovoid india-rubber bag, G, connected with the
ether vessel, and with the face-piece. The bag com-
municates by the flexible tube, F, with the gas reservoir.
Through the bag passes another flexible tube, open at
one end to the ether chamber, and at the other to the
face-piece.
5. The regulator is a triple-wayed stopcock, Re, which,
lettered A, E and 6, is placed between the mask and the
bag. When the valve is turned, so that A is exposed,
air enters the mask; when E comes round, ether
vapour alone is inhaled ; and when G is brought for-
ward, gas only is respired.
The administrator, having first filled the bag with
gas, carefully adjusts the face-piece, and turns the
regulator to the letter G. The patient is allowed to
inhale the gas, which he breathes out through an ex-
200 MISCELLANEOUS.
piratory valve in the side of the regulate* When he
is brought sufficiently under its influence not to notice
the taste or smell of the ether, usually in from thirty
seconds to a minute, the regulator is gradually turned
from G towards E. This movement closes the expi-
ratory valve, and the breath now passes through the
tube contained in the bag into the ether vessel, and
from this into the other end of the bag. During in-
spiration the current is reversed, and the gas passes
from the bag through the ether vessel, and along the
flexible tube to the patient, carrying with it an amount
of ether vapour proportionate to the temperature of
the ether.
When the temperature of the ether is 68° Fahr., the
vapour may induce swallowing or coughing, and it is.
rarely found necessaiy to turn the regulator beyond
half way between A and E, unless when there is diffi-
culty in making the face-piece fit closely, and air enters
beneath it.
As soon as complete insensibility is induced, a
small quantity of air is admitted by turning the regu-
lator to A, or^ by slightly raising the face-piece from
the face, and anaesthesia is maintained by adjusting the
supply of ether vapour and air, according to the con-
dition of the patient.
Ether may be given without gas by the same appa-
ratus. The gas-tubes should be detached, and the-
opening closed. The bag should be filled (whilst the
regulator shows G) by catching the patient's breath
during three or four expirations, and then the regu-
lator should be turned towards E gradually, so as to
avoid giving enough ether to induce coughing.
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION. 201
When nitrwus oxide gas it given alone for operations
not requiring prolonged anesthesia, such as drawing
teeth, opening abscesses, and the like operations, a
mask, india-rubber bag, and tube, and liquid gaa bottle
are the apparatus employed.
Care must be taken that the mask fits closely to the
face, for nitrous oxide gae causes no struggling or excite-
ment when inspired pure, but the admixture of a small
portion of common air produces the well-known effects
of laughing gas.
Artificial Inspiration. — Ifany. plans are em-
ployed; but the two most efficient are those to be
described.
Marshall Hall'* Method, — Lay the patient on the
floor, with the clothing round his neck, chest, and ab-
domen loose ; if wet, remove it, and throw over bis.
body a warm blanket. Clear out the mouth, and turn
the patient on hi* fact, one arm being folded under his
forehead (see fig. 123), and the chest raised on a folded
coat or firm cushion. Next, turn the patient well on
his side, while an assistant supports tbe head and arm
doubled underneath it (see fig. 124), and confines his
attention to keeping the head forward and the mouth
•202
MISCELLANEOUS.
open daring the movements to and fro. When two
seconds have elapsed turn the body again face down-
wards, and allow it to remain bo for two seconds, and
then raise it as before. This series of movements,
Fig. 1H.— Artillclil Respiration. lUrelull Hull's method. 2nd poaltloB
occasionally varying the side, should be repeated about
fifteen times a minute and continued until spontaneous
respiration is restored, or, until two hours have been
thus spent in vain.
Silvetter't Method. — Lay the patient on a flat surface,
the head and shoulders supported on his coat folded
into a firm cushion. Loosen all tight clothing, and if
wet replace it by a warm dry blanket, his arms being
ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION.
203
outside the blanket. Clear the mouth of dirt, blood,
<fec., draw the tongue forwards, and fasten it to the chin
by a piece of string or tape tied round it and the lower
jaw. Next, standing at the patient's head, grasp the
arms at the elbows, and draw them gently and steadily
upwards till the hands meet above the head (see fig. 125);
keep them so stretched for two seconds. Then slowly
replace the elbows by the sides, and press gently
inwards for two seconds (see fig. 126). These move-
ments are repeated without hurry about fifteen times
Fig. 126.— Artificial Respiration. Silvester's Method.
Compressing the Chest
in a minute, until a spontaneous effort to breathe is
made, when exertion should be directed to restoring
the circulation by rubbing the limbs upwards towards
the body, and by placing hot bottles at the pit of the
stomach, to the armpits, between the thighs, and to
the feet. Should natural breathing not commence,
artificial respiration should be continued for two hours
before success is despaired o£
Biohardson's Ether Spray Producer (fig. 127)
consists of a tube on which two india-rubber bags are
placed ; one, protected by a silk net, acts as a reser-
voir ; the other, furnished with a valve, is the pump ;
204
MISCELLANEOUS.
these drive a constant stream of air oyer the tip of a
fine tube projecting from a flask of ether ; this sucks
up the ether and throws it in fine spray on the surface
to be chilled by its evaporation. The ether for this
purpose must be very pure and dry, having a specific
Fig. 127. — The Spray-producer.
gravity of *720, or the evaporation will not be suffi-
ciently rapid to produce congelation. The first effect
of the spray is a numbing aching pain with reddening
of the surface. This is succeeded by a pricking pain.
In ten seconds, if the ether be good, a dead white hue
spreads rapidly over the skin, and when this appears
the surface is quite insensible.
The bottle and elastic air-pump may be attached to
the glass jet seen in the corner of fig. 127, which then
makes an apparatus for injecting astringent solutions
SUBCUTANEOUS INJECTION. 205
in spray over the nasal passages, the throat, and air-
tubes ; but the tubes used for watery fluids are much
wider than that for pulverising ether into spray.
Tannin in solution of 3 — 10 grains to the ounce of
water, sulphate of zinc, or alum in similar quantity,
may be thus inhaled with much benefit by persons
suffering from chronic congestion of the mucous mem-
branes.
Injecting Chloroform Vapour into the Uterus
is a ready means of relieving pain in cancer of that
organ ; special apparatus is made for the purpose, but
an ordinary elastic clyster syringe will answer the
purpose, if the flask is unscrewed and a few drops of
chloroform are poured on to a bit of sponge put into
it, from time to time, while air is pumped through the
delivery tube, which is passed up the vagina to the
ulcerated cervix-uteri.
Subcutaneous Injection. — The syringe for this
operation (fig. 128) consists of a graduated glass tube
holding six minims. The piston works in a silver
continuation of the graduated tube, and is thus kept
clear of the solutions used for injection. To the
nozzle of the syringe fine sharp-pointed cannulse are
screwed on ; they are of different lengths, some of
steel, others of steel gilt ; the gilding renders.the points
very blunt, and consequently much more painful to
insert. In filling the syringe, care should be taken
not to draw the fluid above the level of the graduation
on the tube, that the exact amount injected, may be
read off as the liquid sinks in the tube. The finer the
cannula, and the sharper its point, the less pain is
caused by its introduction.
206
MISCELLANEOUS.
The solution of morphia should contain a grain in
six drops and be as little acid as possible. In injecting
Fig. 128.— Subcutaneous Injection.
morphia, it should be recollected that £ grain is the
usual dose to allay pain, and produce sleep ; doses
even far smaller often suffice for this purpose, though
very much greater quantities can be administered by
injection, where long use has rendered the patient
tolerant of the drug. Some persons dread the punc-
ture considerably ; for them the pain may be entirely
prevented by numbing the surface with ether-spray
(see page 204) before inserting the syringe, though
usually the pain is too trifling for this precaution to be
necessary*
A spot should be chosen where the skin is loose and
has a good layer of fat, the arm, for example, and the
skin should be steadied by putting it on the stretch
with the left thumb and fingers, while the point of the
cannula, held at right angles with the surface, is thrust
quickly, with a slight rotatory motion, completely
through the skin into the subcutaneous cellular tissue.
VACCINATION. 207
If the fluid is injected into the skin itself, inflammation
and suppuration of the puncture sometimes ensues.
After the cannula is withdrawn, the finger should be
placed for a few seconds over the puncture, or much
of the fluid will leak out again. When large quantities
of solution (one or two syringefuls) are injected the
cannula need not always be withdrawn, the nozzle can
be unscrewed and the syringe charged again ; but more
than ten or twelve drops injected into one place gene-
rally causes much pain, even where the cellular tissue
is very loose.
The syringe and cannula should be carefully cleaned,
by sending plenty of cold water through them each
time they are used, and the point frequently sharpened
on a hone, or the cannula will rust and become unfit
for use.
Collodion is much used in drawing the edges
of small wounds together, &c. Preston's plastic col-
lodion, or the flexible collodion of the British Phar-
macopoeia, 1867, have advantages over the common
form by furnishing a tougher pellicle, yielding to the
movements of the skin beneath without cracking.
Collodion should be kept for use in a small wide-
mouthed bottle, with stopper and brush, and when
employed should be laid on quickly in a thick mass, so
that the crust it leaves shall be of one layer. A tougher
crust is obtained if a piece of muslin is soaked in the
collodion and then laid on the wound, than if the
collodion is used alone.
Vaccination. — The lymph of the vaccine vesicle,
taken between the seventh and tenth days, is pre-
served for use on lancet-shaped slips of bone 1 inch
208 MISCELLANEOUS.
Jong, called points. These are dipped in the lymph as
it exudes from the vesicle, and exposed to the air till
dry ; they are then wrapped in paper ready for use.
When used, the lymph should be moistened, by hold-
ing the points over a vessel of steaming water a few
seconds, before inserting them in the wound made to
receive the lymph.
The points often lose the virus in a few days, and
should, if possible, be used the same day they are
charged.
The lymph may be much longer preserved if her-
metically sealed in glass tubes. These are about the
thickness of a darning-needle, 3 inches long, and open
at both ends. When the tube is to be charged, one end
is inserted in the lymph exuding from a punctured
vesicle ; a drop, then enters the tube by capillary
attraction, but filling not more than half its interior :
a few shakes of the hand will send the drop a little
further in. The lymph end of the tube is then taken
in the thumb and forefinger, while the unoccupied
part of the tube is passed once or twice quickly
through the flame of a candle. This rarifies the air,
and while it is warm the end is closed, by melting it at
the edge of the flame. The second end is then closed
in the same way as the first. When the lymph is
wanted for use, the ends of the tube are broken, and
the lymph blown out on the point of a lancet.
Lymph preserved in these tubes retains its efficacy an
indefinite time. The National Vaccine Establishment,
care of the Medical officer of the Local Government
Board, London, S.W., supplies to medical practitioners
both points and tubes gratis on application.
VACCINATION. 209
In performing the operation the common lancet does
very well ; but two or three forms of narrow-grooved
lancets are employed by surgeons for this purpose.
The operation is most successful when the lymph is
transferred direct from arm to arm ; the lancet making
the puncture is then charged at the vesicle of a child
vaccinated a week before, and points are unnecessary.
When making the puncture the surgeon grasps the
child's arm in his left hand and puts the skin on the
stretch over the insertion of the deltoid with his left
forefinger and thumb. He next pushes the lancet
downwards beneath the cuticle, about 1-1 0th of an
inch, to raise a little pocket. He then charges his
lancet with lymph and inserts it into the pocket, or
if using points, inserts the moistened point for a
minute. As he withdraws the point he presses down
the pocket on the point with his left thumb, that
the lymph may be well wiped off the point and left in
the wound. This process is repeated at four or five places
and the operation is complete. The corium should
not be penetrated, or it will bleed freely and the blood
will wash away the lymph; one drop of blood is of
little consequence ; indeed, it shows that an absorbing
surface has been reached.
The phenomena following the insertion of the vaccine
virus in an infant's arm are as follows : — On the second
day the puncture is slightly elevated ; on the third it
begins to grow red; on the fifth it is marked by a
distinct vesicle with a depressed centre and red areola ;
on the eighth the vesicle is perfect, of pearl-like aspect,
full of clear lymph ; the areola, often little marked by
the eighth day, rapidly increases on the ninth and
210 MISCELLANEOUS.
tenth days, and reaches an inch or more in diameter.
This bright-red inflammatory action in the skin is
essential to show the system is properly infected with
the vaccine disease ; by the twelfth day the areola
has lessened, the lymph is yellow, and often escapes
by rupture of the vesicle ; on the fourteenth day the
vesicle has dried to a scab, that falls on the twenty-
first day, leaving a dotted cicatrix, the vestige of the
multilocular structure of the vesicle. The three im-
portant marks diagnostic of the vaccination bein<r
satisfactory, are — 1, the pearly multilocular vesicle of
the 8th — 9th day ; 2, the widely-spread areola on the
9th — 12th day; 3, the well-marked foveated cicatrix
after the scab has fallen.
Observation shows that the number of people who
take small-pox after vaccination is very small indeed,
when more than three well-marked scars exist ; and
this number at least should be secured by making five
insertions of lymph at the time of vaccination.
CHAPTER VI.
SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
Certain fixed points and marks on the surface of
the body have bearings of which a precise knowledge
is necessary in investigating injuries and disease.
The Head comprises the cranial and facial regions, "'
the interior of the nose and of the mouth, and the
pharynx.
In the cranial region, the occipital protuberance, the
frontal and parietal eminences, the mastoid process, the
zygoma, the upper margin of the orbit, and the ex-
ternal angular process of the frontal bone, can be always
detected. Making use of these : —
1. The occipital protuberance marks the site of the
convergence of the venous sinuses in the torcular
herophili.
2. A line drawn from the occipital protuberance
through the meatus auditorius externus to the external
angular process of the frontal bone, corresponds to the
lower level of the great brain ; the posterior lobe being
behind the auditory meatus, the middle and anterior
lobes opposite and in front of it. Below the posterior
part of the line is the little brain and the medulla
oblongata. The lateral simis, EtacVivft^ Itm. ^^ \ss*-
212 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
cular heropbili, passes outwards for three-fourths of the
distance between the occipital protuberance and the
external auditory meatus along this line.
3. A line carried directly forwards from the occiput
over the skull to the root of the bridge of the nose,
denotes the position of the superior longitudinal sinus.
It also corresponds to the sagittal suture, and crosses
the site of the fontanelles.
In a healthy child the posterior fontanelle is closed
before birth ; the anterior is open during the greater
part of the first year, but closes towards the end of
the first, or in the course of the second year.
The usual thickness of the skull in health is -J- inch.
It is often as thin as cartridge paper at certain points
between the eminences, but it may also bo J inch thick
in the healthy state.
4. The course of the middle meningeal artery to the
vertex, between the skull and the dura mater, is de-
noted with tolerable exactness by a line drawn upwards
from the level of the external angular process of the
frontal bone at 1^ inches behind that point.
The position of the sinuses and of the middle me-
ningeal artery influences the selection of a situation for
trephining the skull.
5. The anterior temporal artery, the vessel punctured
for bleeding at the temple, can be felt pulsating 1£
inches behind and above the external angular pro-
cess of the frontal bone at the edge of the temporal
fossa.
G. The supra-orbital artery can be felt pulsating
at the juncture of the inner and middle thirds of the
upper margin of the orbit.
FACIAL REGION* 213
7. The trunk of the temporal artery can be felt just in
front of the tragus of the ear. Here it crosses the root of
the zygoma, and it may be compressed against that bone.
The occipital artery can be felt half-way between
the occiput and the mastoid process, at which point it
emerges from beneath the attachment of the trapezius
muscle.
The external auditory canal is about \\ inches in
length in the adult, but much less in infants, owing to
the shallowness of the osseous part of the passage at
birth : the outer third being cartilaginous, the inner
two-thirds osseous. It is directed inwards and slightly
forwards, being also arched with a downward concavity.
To straighten the canal for inspection, draw the auricle
upwards, backwards, and a little outwards. With a
good light, the membrana tympani can be seen. When
healthy, it is a greyish membrane, slightly receding
and placed obliquely forwards and inwards across the
canal. The handle of the malleus can be descried
through the membrane.
In the facial region the bony points which serve
as guides are the margins of the orbit, the margin,
angle, and ramus of the lower jaw.
1. The supra-orbital notch is to be found at the
junction of the inner and middle thirds of the upper
margin of the orbit. It marks the position of the
supra orbital vessels and nerve, and a straight line
drawn from it through the interval between the lower
bicuspid teeth crosses the points of issue of the three
facial brandies of tlie fifth cranial nerve. Sometimes
these are divided to relieve pain in tic douloureux.
214 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
2. The external carotid artery mounts to the side of
the head just behind the ramus. It must be avoided
in incisions or in puncturing abscesses.
3. The facial artery crosses the margin of the lower
jaw just in front of the masseter muscle and here it
may be compressed. The artery can be felt to pulsate
also near the angle of the mouth and the ala of
the nose.
4. At the inner corner of the orbit is the guide to
the lachrymal sac : namely, the lower border of the
tendo oculi, which is made tense by drawing the lids
outwards when the sac is to be opened. The punctum
lachrymal e is also easily seen at the inner end of each
eyelid ; when passing a probe along the duct, the lid
should be drawn slightly outwards.
0. A line drawn from the bottom of the lobe of the
ear to a point midway between the ala of the nose and
the corner of the mouth denotes the course of the
parotid duct, and the branch of the facial nerve to
the buccinator. The Stenson's duct opens into the
mouth, opposite the second upper molar tooth.
The greater part of the parotid gland lies immedi-
ately below the ear, but besides deeper prolongations
a superficial part reaches to the front of the masseter
muscle. In incising abscesses in this part, the knife
should be carried horizontally forward to avoid cutting
the twigs of the pes anserinus of the facial nerve.
The Cavity of the Nose When inspecting this
cavity, push the head backwards and raise the tip.
The parts to be seen are :—
1. The septum narium. This is said to be occasion-
THE MOUTH. 215
ally perforated by a small hole in health. When per-
forated by disease, the hole, if small, is usually at the
junction of the cartilage and the bone ; and it en
larges chiefly at the expense of the bone.
2. The inferior spongy bone.
3. The lower and middle meatuses. In the lower
meatus £ inch behind the bony margin of the nostril,
overhung by the inferior turbinated bone, the ductus
ad nasvm opens. It can be reached and entered by a
probe of which the last half inch is bent to a semicircle
and the remainder to a larger curve in the opposite
direction like an italic/. Polypi can be seen as bluish-
pink bodies blocking the passage of the inferior meatus.
When growing entirely in the nose, they start from the
superior turbinated bone, but they may invade the
cavity of the nose from the antrum of Highmore, or
from the pharynx.
Irregular bends in the cartilage of the septum,
caused by injuries to the nose, sometimes make pro-
jections in the meatus, which are mistaken for polypi.
The real nature of the projection is easily detected by
observing that the obstruction in one meatus is com-
pensated by the widening of the other meatus.
In the Mouth — when wide open and the tongue
laid back — the hard and soft palate are to be seen, at
the junction of which in the mesial line a natural de-
pression or seam sometimes exists.
The tonsils are placed between the pillars of the
fauces. In health they do not project beyond the
arches. They are separated by a thin fascia from the
internal carotid artery, so that, when cutting or lane.
216 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
ing them, the point of the knife should be directed
obliquely towards the centre of the pharynx, while
the swollen gland itself is drawn forwards and in-
wards.
If the tongue is raised, on its under surface the
ranine veins are seen on each side of the mesial furrow.
They indicate the position of the ranine arteries. The
frentim lingua) passes from the tongue to the jaw in
the mesial line. When it is prolonged to the tip of the
tongue, and is to be snipped to set free that member,
a blunt-pointed scissors should be used, and the
points directed towards the jaw, to avoid the blood
vessels of the tongue. A ridge passes outwards from
the frenum in the floor of the mouth ; here ducts of
salivary glands open. Beneath it the sublingual gland
is placed and ranulse form.
The finger in the mouth can detect the following : —
1. The tuberosity of the superior maxilla*
2. The coronoid process of the inferior maxilla. Be-
tween these points is a deep depression, in which a
deep temporal abscess may point and be incised.
3. The pterygo-maxillary ligament.
4. The gustatory nerve lies just below the last molar
tooth of the lower jaw, near the pterygo-maxillary
ligament. As the finger is passed over the nerve,
a thrill of heat and pain is felt in the mouth. At this
point the nerve is sometimes cut across to relieve the
pain of cancer in the tongue.
However tightly the jaws are set in tetanus, a flexible
catheter can always be passed behind the teeth into
the mouth.
The finger may be passed over the tonsils to the
THE NECK. 217
pharynx, the greater part of the walls of which can bo
reached. If the finger be turned upwards round the
soft palate, the posterior nares, and the orifices of the
Eustachian tubes may be examined ; certain tumours,
such as nasal or pharyngeal polypi, gummata of the
palate and pharynx, abscess in the tonsils, retro-
pharyngeal abscess and impacted foreign bodies, may
also be detected.
The Neck may be divided into anterior, lateral,
and posterior regions. The anterior reaches on each
side from the middle line to the sterno-mastoid
muscle ; the lateral from the sterno-mastoid to the
trapezius muscle, in a backward direction, and down-
wards to the collar-bone. The posterior region ex-
tends from the occiput to the seventh cervical spine.
In most male adults the various landmarks are con-
spicuous, but in women and children the neck is
smooth and rounded ; therefore to bring the several
marks into relief, where the anterior region is ex-
amined, the head should be thrown back over a small
pillow placed behind the shoulders.
In this position the wind-pipe is drawn half an inch
higher above the sternum, and the carotid arteries are
brought nearer to the surface.
Keeping to the middle line, the most conspicuous
land mark is the pomum adami, angular and prominent
in most men, but rounded and projecting but slightly
in women and children. The rounded upper border,
with the central notch, is readily detected.
The superior thyroid artery lies on the upper part of
the lobe of the thyroid body, and can be felt pulsating
213 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
outside the thyroid cartilage. It is often wounded in
cases of " cut throat."
A little above this edge the body of the hyoid bone
can be felt, its great horns extending on each side. In
a muscular neck, with small amount of fat, the ante-
rior belly of the digastric muscle can be denned, pass-
ing from the body of the hyoid bone to the chin. In
the hollow between the horn of the hyoid and
the border of the jaw, the sub-maxillary salivary
gland can be felt or even seen in thin persons. The
lymphatic glands of this region are affected and en-
larged by irritation of the lips and chin, and of the floor
of the mouth.
Between the hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage the
finger feels tlie thyro-hyoid membrane. This is fre-
quently severed in cases of cut-throat ; the epiglottis
lies above the incision when that is carried through
this membrane.
Passing downwards in the middle line from the
pomum adami, first a depression, and then a hard
smooth surface, are felt ; the hard surface is the cricoid
cartilage, the depression is the cricothyroid membrane.
Through this membrane the wind-pipe is opened in
laryngotomy.
The cricoid cartilage can be felt in both sexes at all
ages. It is placed opposite the fifth cervical vertebra.
The cricoid cartilage is a landmark in tying the
common carotid artery, and in examining the gullet,
which commences behind the cricoid ; and here foreign
bodies, too large to pass to the stomach, lodge, and
may be felt. In ossophagotomy, the cricoid cartilage is
a necessary point of reference.
THE NECK. 219
In tractotomy the cricoid cartilage is the guide for
the trachea (which is small and very moveable in
children), for the second, third, and fourth rings are
covered by the isthmus thyroidece, and the lower rings
are too deeply placed to be felt by the finger. At the
level of the sternum the trachea is one inch below the
surface.
The isthmus thyroidece lies immediately below the
cricoid. It is indistinct in men, but in women is often
easily made out as a soft narrow band, even when the
thyroid body is not enlarged. On each side of the
trachea of the cricoid and thyroid cartilages, the lobes
of the thyroid body, are placed. Being attached to the
larynx, this body rises with the larynx when the act of
swallowing begins, and falls to its usual position at the
end of that act. Hence an enlarged thyroid body
(bronchocele) is distinguished from other tumours of
the neck by two characteristics, (a). The mass rises
and falls during deglutition. (6). The superior thyroid
artery, coursing forwards and downwards at the level of
the thyroid cartilage, is usually larger and always more
prominent when the underlying thyroid body is en-
larged. Tumours of the neck not originating in the
thyroid body, may be pushed aside, but do not rise,
during deglutition, and if they affect the superior
thyroid artery, they conceal it.
The sterno-mastoid muscle forms in all persons an
easily defined landmark, and it guides to several im-
portant structures. It separates the anterior from the
lateral region of the neck.
Near the anterior border the anterior jugular vein is
usually to be found.
220 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
The anterior border overlies the common carotid
artery. The position of this vessel, as far as its bifur-
cation opposite the upper border of the thyroid carti-
lage, is indicated by a line drawn from the sterno-
clavicular joint to a point midway between the mastoid
process and the angle of the jaw, being least overlaid
by muscle opposite the cricoid cartilage.
The pulsations of this vessel can be felt along the
whole of its length above the sternum. It may be
compressed by the thumb against the transverse pro-
cess and body of the sixth cervical vertebra, though in
doing this it is difficult to avoid pressing on the in-
ternal jugular vein and pneumogastric nerve. The
landmarks for the preliminary incision, when about to
tie the artery in the usual place, are : the anterior
border of the sterno-mastoid, the angle of the jaw, and
the cricoid cartilage.
The internal jugular vein lies behind the interval
between the sternal and clavicular parts of the
muscle.
The lateral region of the neck is bounded in front
by the cleido-mastoid muscles, behind by the trapezius,
and below by the clavicle. It is marked on the surface
by a depression that varies in size according to the
width of the clavicular attachment of the denning
muscles. This region can be most readily explored
when the elbow is supported on a chair-back or table,
and the neck slightly bent to that side. This position,
by relaxing the muscles and fascia, permits the finger
to explore the deeper parts of the region.
The subclavian artery is felt a little above the clavicle,
just outside the border of the cleido-mastoid muscle.
THE NECK. 221
The vessel is here passing over the first rib, against,
which it may be compressed. To do this the thumb or
the ring of a door key, round which a strip of lint is
wound as padding, is thrust downwards and backwards
just above the insertion of the cleido-mastoid muscle.
This point of the cleido-mastoid denotes the tubercle
of the first rib and the anterior scalenus muscle, land-
marks required in cutting down upon the subclavian
artery.
The external jugular vein crosses the sterno-mastoid
usually about the middle of that muscle, and enters
the lateral region to reach the subclavian vein. Its
course is tolerably well denned by a line drawn on the
skin from the angle of the jaw to the middle of the
clavicle. If the finger be pushed into the depression
just above the middle of the clavicle, the vein is
usually compressed, and by filling out becomes con-
spicuous. When this vein is cut, to let blood, the in-
cision is made directly upwards at the part which over-
lies the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle. This direction
is somewhat transverse to the course of the vein, but
it is also across the fibres of the platysma muscle,
which must be so cut that they may gape, and not ob-
struct the flow of blood.
In a long thin neck the omo-hyoid muscle is visible
during forced inspiration, making tense the cervical
fascia.
The lymphatic glands in the lateral region are ex-
tremely numerous and are frequently enlarged. Several
form a chain contained in a fold of the fascia, just be-
hind and beneath the sterno-mastoid, where they are
easily detected.
222 SURFACE-GUIDES AXD
are met with : among which are cysts of th 1^
lular tissue of the neck, abscesses around the^
phatic glands, solid tumours pressing on the carotidTr
subclavian arteries, or aneurism of the carotid
subclavian arteries, and gummata in the substance °f
the sterno-mastoid (usually near the sternal end of th«
muscle). Abscess from the cellular tissue between th
deep vessels of the neck and the pharyngeal mnmik l
sometimes wanders forwards until it points in fro t
of the sterno-mastoid in the upper part of th
In defining the origin and nature of any swellin *
this region, its relations to the landmarks ino* S m
_ ^*° jusx enu-
merated must be ascertained.
The posterior reyion, or nape of the n<&, extends
from the occiput and superior curved line to the so"
of the seventh cervical vertebra. The borders of th
trapezius form its lateral boundaries. The last th
cervical spines can be felt at the lower end through th
skin. At the upper end the nuchal lymphatic glands
enlarge with irritation of the scalp. In weakly persons
the cellular tissue suppurates about the glands when
the surface is irritated by pediculi or impetigo and
abscess forms at the nucha.
The thick skin of this part is a favourite seat of
boils and carbuncles, and, at the lowest part, of fatty
tumours. The large number of short fibrous con-
nections between the skin and deep fascia here, render
the skin less moveable, and greatly interfere with the
excision of tumours.
The thorax has some landmarks to be detected in
THE THORAX. 223
all persons, and others which cannot be made out in
the very fat.
Those to be always made out in front are, the clavi-
cles, the sterno-clavicular joint, the sternal notch, the
joint between the first and second pieces of the breast-
bone, and the nipples.
Those which can be generally felt are, the sternum,
the ensiform cartilage, the costal cartilages except the
first, the lower ribs, the apex beat of the heart, and
the interval between the great pectoral and the del-
toid muscle which forms a depression just below the
clavicle.
The nipple in the male lies over the fourth rib. In
the female it varies much.
In the axillary and infra-axillary regions of the chest,
the following landmarks are constantly to be made
out : — •
The border of the great pectoral and latissimus
muscles forming the anterior and posterior boundaries
of the arm-pit, and the two last ribs.
In addition to these some more can generally be
detected.
If the arm is raised from the body, 4 digitations of
the serratus become prominent. They correspond to
the 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th ribs.
In thin persons the ribs and intercostal spaces can
be felt and seen between the pectoral and latissimus,
as well as the cartilages of the lower ribs which form
the border of the chest-wall.
The most prominent part of the forward curve of
the clavicle marks the last part of the subclavian
artery.
224 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
The inner third of that bone overlies the subclavian
rein.
The iinifr end of the clavicle marks the confluence of
the subclavian and internal jugular teins into the inno-
minate vein.
The sternal notch marks the upper border of the
first piece or manubrium sterni, as the articulation
between the first and second does the lower border.
Behind the sternal notch in the middle line the
trachea enters the chest 1 inch below the surface ; and,
passing deeply behind the great vessels, it divides into
hronchi beneath the aortic arch opposite the joint
between the handle and the blade of the breast bone.
Behind the upper part of tlie manubrium are the
commencements of the innominate and left carotid
arteries from the highest part of the aortic arch ; and
the left innominate vein.
Close to the right side of the manubrium are the right
innominate vein and the upper part of the superior vena
cava.
The sterno-claxicular joint of the right side at its
upper margin marks the bifurcation of the innominate
artery into right subclavian and common carotid arteries ;
that of the left side marks the left common carotid
artery.
The junction of tlie first and second pieces of the
sternum marks the second costal cartilage, an important
landmark in ascertaining the area of the heart.
The Jiearts area in the front of the chest : ttoo-thirds
are to the left of the middle line, one-third to the
right.
Roughly defined, the heart lies behind the 4th, 5th,
THE THORAX. 225
and 6th left cartilages, and that much of the sternum
and intercostal spaces which is on a level with those
cartilages. But the position of the organ is altered
by the movements of the body, the amount of air in
the lungs, and of blood in the heart. Hence it varies
somewhat from the following exact dimensions, which
are taken from an adult in an erect position, breathing
quietly.
The upper edge of the auricles is marked by a line
drawn across the sternum from the second right inter*
space to the first left interspace. The right auricle ex*
tends for one inch to the right of the sternum.
The auriculo-ventricular sulcus is denoted by a line
from the sternal end of the fifth right cartilage, to the
second left interspace, half-way along the cartilage.
The lower border of the right ventricle is marked by
a nearly horizontal line from the sternal end of the fifth
right cartilage to a point two indies below and half-an-
inch inside the nipple.
The upper border of the left ventricle is marked by a
nearly vertical line drawn from a point in the second
left interspace opposite the third cartilage to a point
two inches below the left nipple (i.e., in the fifth inter*
space).
The opening from the right auricle to the ventricle
(tricuspid) is behind the sternum opposite to the fourth
interspace.
The opening from the left auricle to the ventricle
(mitral) is in the third interspace, nearly one inch to the
left of the sternum.
The aortic opening is placed behind the third left
cartilage close to the sternum.
226 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
The pulmonic opening is a little higher and more
superficial than the aortic It is placed at the left
border of the sternum in the second interspace.
If the area of the heart's dulness does not rise above
the second cartilage, there is no pericardial effusion of
any consequence.
The heart would be involved in a wound traversing
the chest above the sixth rib. The lungs in a wound
traversing the chest above a line carried obliquely
backwards and downwards from the sixth cartilage to
the tenth or eleventh rib.
The line of the arch of tJie aorta can be defined
on the surface in only the anterior part of its
course.
It begins in the third left interspace close to the
sternum, and ascends behind that bone to the upper
border of the second right cartilage. Here it again
curves to the left till it reaches the middle of the manu-
brium sternty its highest point, thence it crosses back-
wards to the left side of the body of the second dorsal
vertebra, and descends to the lower border of the body
of the third dorsal vertebra, where it takes the name
of the descending aorta.
The area of the lungs. The apices reach into the
root of the neck for i inch above the inner end of the
clavicle, and 1$ inch above the first rib. In emphy-
sematous persons they can be seen bulging upwards
during forced expiration.
The anterior borders of the lungs : That of the right
lung passing from the root of tlie neck $ inch above the
inner end of the clavicle, reaches the middle line
behind the lower half of the manubrium, and con-
THE THORAX. 227
tinues along the middle of the sternum to the sixth
cartilage.
The anterior border of the left lung commences at
the apex above the inner end of the clavicle, but does
not quite reach to the mesial line behind the sternum*
Opposite the fourth left cartilage the border leaves the
sternum, and passes outwards to the junction of the
fifth rib and cartilage, where it turns sharply back
across the fifth interspace, to the middle of the sixth
cartilage, where it joins the inferior border or base.
The j> -shaped notch thus formed allows the apex of
the heart to reach the thoracic wall uncovered by
lung.
The surface of the diaphragm is arched on its right
half, thus the base of the lung descends in front of the
liver in the fifth interspace.
The base of the right lung corresponds to a line
drawn on the surface from the middle of the sternum
opposite the sixth cartilage, along the sixth carti-
lage, then downwards and backwards across the sixth,
seventh, and eighth ribs, and interspaces to the ninth
rib. At the ninth rib it is in the infra-axillary region,
and passing thence to the back, it descends to the
level of the tenth rib.
The base of the left lung, beginning about the middle
of the sixth left cartilage, passes outwards along the
sixth cartilage, and trending downwards to the tenth
rib in the infra-axillary region, falls to the eleventh
rib in the back.
The posterior borders of the lungs correspond to the
inner part of the vertebral grooves in the back from
the first dorsal spine to the twelfth dorsal sniufi.
V4^
228 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
The attachment of the diaphragm to the thorax cor-
responds to a line on the surface drawn from the ensi-
forra cartilage along the cartilages of the seventh and
succeeding lower ribs to the first lumbar spina The
arching of the diaphragm in the normal condition cor-
responds to a double arched line starting on each side
from the ninth costal cartilage and rising to the fourth
interspace on the right side, and to the fifth rib on
the left ; expiration or enlargement and distension of
the abdominal viscera may raise this arch. The liver
dulness on the right, and the heart's apex-beat and
stomach note on the left, being additional signs of the
position of the diaphragm. Forced expiration brings
the arch of the diaphragm to the third interspace.
Forced inspiration carries it down to the level of jthe
ensiform cartilage in front and the tenth rib behind.
In disease, Walshe records that it may be carried as
high as the second interspace, or depressed below the
false ribs.
The internal mammary artery reaches the intercostal
spaces below the first rib, and courses downwards
behind the cartilages near the sternum to the sixth
interspace, where it divides into two large branches.
It might be wounded by a stab or torn in fracture of
the sternum, and bleed freely ; its cut ends may be
tied in the three upper interspaces.
In the lateral or axillary and infra-axillary regions,
several operations may be performed for which ac-
quaintance with the landmarks is necessary*
Abscesses in the axilla collect within the stout fascia
which forms a floor for that region. Incisions through
it should be made vertically, and midway between the
THE THORAX. 229
pectoral and deltoid muscles, where the fascia is sepa-
rated for a considerable extent from the wall of the
chest, to avoid wounding the large vessels which are
contiguous to these borders (the external mammary
and the axillary vessels to the arm).
A circle carried horizontally through the nipples
crosses the sixth interspace in the infra-axillary region.
The lower border of the pectoralis corresponds to the
fifth rib. The depression below the clavicle between
the deltoid and pectoral muscles marks the axillary
artery in its first part and the coracoid process. It is
filled by the head of the humerus in subclavicular
dislocation.
The axillary artery can be felt in the arm-pit for
nearly the whole of its course from the lower border of
the first rib to the lower border of the teres major
muscle. It may be compressed against the neck of
the humerus.
In tapping the chest the infra-axillary region is
generally preferred, as it is not thickly covered by
muscles. The sixth or seventh interspaces are com-
monly selected, but the trocar may be inserted at any
point of the chest-wall, if fluid is ascertained to be
behind the point.
Hepatic abscesses may also be opened in the infra-
axillary regions.
In the dorsal region of the thorax there are some
landmarks of importance readily made out. The spines
of the vertebrae can always be felt, owing to the close
attachment of the skin to them. Their position may
be made evident to the eye by rubbing the skin along
them smartly a few times with the finger. A pink
230 SCBFACE-GCIDES JlSD LANDMARKS,
spot appears over each spinous process for a few
minutes.
The seventh cervical spine is a prominent landmark
from which the rest may be counted. Some are denoted
by other marks. Thus the scapula overlaps the ribs from
the second to the ninth. Its spine, always to be felt,
corresponds to the third dorsal spine. When the arm
is raised, the inferior angle of the scapula is level with
the seventh rib.
The third dorsal spine corresponds to the termina-
tion of the aortic arch and to the bronchi.
The angles of the ribs can be made out in even
moderately fat persons. Between them and the ver-
tebral spines lie the vertebral grooves occupied by
muscles.
Abscesses formed around carious transverse pro-
cesses or laminae of the dorsal vertebrae, often point
at the outer borders of the trapezius and latissimus
dorsi, the strong fascial envelope of those muscles
attached to the spinous processes and tubercles of
the ribs, impedes the pus from pointing in the ver-
tebral groove.
These muscles can be readily denned in most persons.
The anterior border of the trapezius limits posteriorly
the lateral region of the neck, and the latissimus
dorsi the axilla. Both arise from the spinous pro-
cesses, and are directed outwards and upwards. Oppo-
site the base of the scapula the muscles are separated,
leaving a small part of the rhomboideus subcutaneous.
Through this area, which is comparatively free from
muscles, the pleura may be opened when it is desired
to drain the cavity at the hinder part
THE THORAX. 231
Origin of Spinal Nerves.
The eight cervical nerves rise from the portion of the
cord which extends from the occiput to tlie sixth vertebra.
The six upper dorsal nerves arise opposite the
seventh cervical and five upper dorsal vertebrae.
The six lower dorsal nerves arise from the cord oppo-
site the fifth and following vertebrae down to the eleventh
dorsal vertebra.
The five lumbar nerves arise opposite the eleventh
and twelfth dorsal vertebrae.
The five sacral nerves arise opposite the twelfth dorsal
and the first lumbar vertebras.
The spinal cord ends at the upper border of the
second lumbar vertebra in the cauda equina.
Of the cervical plexus, the anterior branches of the
three upper nerves, and a great part of the fourth, lie
opposite the four upper cervical vertebrae.
Of the brachial plexus, the anterior branches of the
fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth cervical, with the first
dorsal and part of the fourth cervical nerve, are placed
in the lower part of the neck, between the fifth cervical
vertebra and the coracoid process.
The exact seat of an injury to the spinal cord due
to fracture of the vertebrae, or other cause, can often
be diagnosed by ascertaining the particular part of the
skin which is insensible, or the groups of muscles which
are paralysed.
The two internal cutaneous nerves of the brachial
plexus are formed from the first dorsal and eighth
cervical trunks. They supply no muscles, but are
distributed to the skin of the inner side of the arm
and of the forearm.
232 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
The median and ulnar nerves are derived from the
first dorsal and eighth and seventh cervical nerves. The
median has also fibres from the sixth and fifth cervical
Together they supply sensibility to the palm, the front
of the wrist and fingers, and the back of the little and
ring fingers. They also supply all the flexors of the
wrist and fingers and the pronators of the fore-
arm.
The musculo-spiral nerve is formed of fibres from the
eighth, seventh, sixth, and fifth cervical nerves. It
supplies sensibility to the outer and posterior aspects of
the hand, forearm, and lower part of the arm. It also
supplies all the extensors and supinators of the hand,
wrist, and elbow.
The musculocutaneous nerve has a higher origin than
the two preceding. It is composed of fibres from the
seventh, sixth, and fifth cervical nerves. This nerve
supplies the skin of the back of the lower part of the
forearm and the ball of the thumb. The muscles it
supplies are the flexors of the elbow, viz., the biceps
and brachialis anticus, and the coraco-brachialis.
The circumflex nerve arising from all four lower cer-
vical trunks, supplies the skin over the lower part of the
shoulder, and upper part of the arm on the outer side.
It is distributed to the deltoid and teres minor
muscles.
The subscapular nerve arises from the same trunks
and supplies the subscapular, teres major and part of
the latissimus dorsi muscles.
The two anterior thoracic nerves arise from all five
trunks, that for the great pectoral muscle coming from
the seventh, sixth, and fifth trunks ; that for the small
THE ABDOMEN. 233
pectoral from the first dorsal and eighth cervical
trunks.
The posterior thoracic nerve arising from the sixth
and fifth trunks supplies the serratus magnus, an im-
portant accessory muscle in respiration.
Thus injuries of the cord below the first dorsal ver-
tebra do not paralyse the upper limbs, though owing
to many of the intercostal and some of the accessory
respiratory muscles being paralysed, breathing is im-
peded, and becomes mainly diaphragmatic. If the
spinal marrow be injured below the sixth vertebra the
parts supplied by the cervical plexus would not be
affected, nor the greater part of those supplied by the
brachial plexus, most of the trunks of which leave the
spinal cord above that vertebra. Injury at the level
of the third vertebra would destroy the phrenic nerve
which rises mainly from the fourth cervical trunk, and,
by stopping all respiratory movement at once, would
cause immediate death.
The Abdomen.
Before an examination is made of the abdomen, the
patient should lie horizontal, with the head and shoul-
ders slightly raised, and a pillow or bolster is to be
placed under the knees, to relax all fasciae. The
patient should be encouraged to talk, or hold his
mouth open, that the diaphragm and muscles of the
abdominal wall may not be fixed. If spasm is present,
chloroform should be given. In feeling for the viscera,
apply the flat hand, not the tips of the fingers, which
excite muscular contraction, and press gently inwards ;
234 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
the solid viscus or the posterior wall of the belly will
thus Boon be reached and recognised.
These bony landmarks can always be made out. The
last two ribs and the cartilaginous margin of the
thorax. The iliac crest terminating in front at the
anterior superior spine. In the middle line below, the
symphysis pubis can be felt by tucking the finger under
the subcutaneous fat and pushing upwards the thin
skin of the root of the penis. When the symphysis is
reached the spine of the pvbes can be detected by
carrying the finger a little outwards. The ensiform
cartilage can be made out in all but the very fat
There are also surface marks of the abdominal wall.
The belly is generally more or less convex in front ; at
the sides between the iliac crest and ribs it is usually
depressed. Along the middle line is a slight groove,
which marks the linea alba and the interval between
the two recti abdominis muscles below. The umbilicus
is a landmark always present. Towards the thorax
the groove widens into a hollow, the epigastric fossa,
or "pit of the stomach." At the lower end, the
groove ceases a little above the pubes in the mons
veneris. On each side of the groove is the projection
of the rectus muscle ; in well formed bodies there are
two or three transverse depressions, corresponding to
the linear transversa?. One is opposite the umbilicus,
one near the ribs, and one between them three or four
inches above the navel. Occasionally there is a fourth
linea below the navel. Between the linese transversa the
contracted muscle may form swellings, that are some-
times mistaken for abscess. Abscess does also form in
the sheath of the rectus, beneath the muscle, and if the
THE ABDOMEN. 235
obscure swelling it produces is hastily examined, may
be mistaken for tumour within the belly. In thin
bodies where spasm is considerable, the recti become
clearly defined, and the muscular fibres of the obliqui rise
into distinct and tolerably firm cords under the fingers.
Between the anterior iliac spine and the pubic sym*
physis, Pouparfs ligament can be traced, generally with
a few inguinal lymphatic glands lying along it.
At the pubic spine the external abdominal ring,
with the cord issuing from it in the male can be easily
felt. In health it usually admits the tip of the little
finger.
The linea alba. This underlies the groove on the
surface, and has much surgical importance, owing to its
being traversed by no large blood-vessels or nerves. It
occupies the middle line from the ensiform cartilage to
the pubes. It is thin and usually narrow, though in
weakly persons it sometimes bulges forwards widely
between the recti. The gap thus formed is then
plainly visible. The umbilicus is placed in the linea
alba, a little below the halfway point of the line, and
about the level of the third lumbar vertebra. The
peritoneum closely invests its posterior aspect through-
out, except when the distended bladder rises above the
pubes.
The following viscera are crossed by the linea alba
proceeding from above downwards. The left lobe of
the liver, the stomach, the pancreas and solar plexus,
the transverse colon : these are above the umbilicus.
Below the umbilicus are the small intestines, with the
mesentery covered by the great omentum.
A dull percussion note along the linea alba may be.
236 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
produced by the ascent of other viscera above their
usual position.
The urinary bladder, when completely distended,
rises behind the pubes, and separates the peritoneum
from the abdominal wall for about two inches. The
bladder may rise much higher, even midway between
the umbilicus and the ensiform cartilage when unnatu-
rally distended by retention ; but the peritoneum then
intervenes in a parietal and visceral layer between the
wall of the belly and the viscus.
The gravid uterus also rises along the linea alba
during gestation, and the degree of elevation marks
the age of the pregnancy. At the third month the
fundus is level with the top of the pelvis. By the
end of the fourth month it is two fingers 1 breadth above
the pubes. In the fifth month the fundus is half way to
the navel. By the sixth month the fundus is level with
the navel. In the seventh month two inches above tJie
navel. In the eighth month the fundus is two fingers 9
breadth below the epigastric fossa. At the end of the
ninth month the uterus has gained its highest eleva-
tion, it fills out the pit of the stomach, and presses
the lower ribs outwards. During the tenth month the
fundus falls slowly, till at the end of gestation it is two
inches below the ensiform cartilage.
Besides these healthy enlargements of the viscera ;
in disease, ovarian, uterine, and, for a short distance,
even prostatic tumours, may rise out of the pelvis
along the linea alba. Other tumours, such as aneu*
rism, cancer, faecal accumulations, though the latter are
more common in the flanks, may be felt in the abdo*
men behind the linea alba.
THE ABDOMEN. 237
Umbilical hernia protrudes at the umbilicus in the
linea alba ; hernia at any other part of the interval
between the recti being ventral.
The following operations are performed by incisions
in this line : —
1. The most common, tapping the peritoneal cavity
for relief of ascites.
2. Gastrotomy, for relief of internal strangula-
tion.
3. Herniotomy for umbilical hernia.
4. Ovariotomy.
5. Caesarian section.
6. The high operation for stone.
7. Tapping the bladder above the pubes, for reten-
tion of urine.
In the two last operations the peritoneum is not
opened.
Regions of the abdomen. The belly is divided arbi-
trarily into a fixed number of regions, in which the
viscera are described as being situated. The limits of
the regions are imaginary, [and are represented on
the surface by lines drawn through certain fixed
points.
Two Jiorizontal lines divide the abdomen into three
zones, upper, middle, and lower. The upper line
encircles the body through the most prominent of
the lower costal cartilages, the ninth. The lower
line encircles the body through the most prominent
part of the iliac crest. Two vertical lines subdivide
these zones into regions. They ascend from the
centre of Poupart's ligament to the costal cartilage (the
eighth).
238 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
The nine regions thus defined are : —
Right hypochondriac Epigastric Left hypochondriac
Right lumbar. Umbilical. Left lumbar.
Right iliac. Hypogastric Left iliac.
The viscera lie in those regions as follows : The
stomach lies in the left hypochondriac, epigastric and
part of the right hypochondriac regions. But this
viscus is capable of much alteration of position. When
distended it may push up the diaphragm and encroach
on the space allotted to the heart, as high as the fourth
rib, or even into the axillary region. It may be
pushed up by accumulation of fluid, or by tumour in
the belly. It may be pushed downwards by fluid in
the pleura, or by compression of the hypochondria
with tight lacing. It may also be dragged downwards
by the great omentum entering a hernial sac. The
right end being less fixed undergoes more displacement
than the left.
The pylorus can be felt when hardened and enlarged
by disease, on the right of the umbilicus.
The liver is placed in the right hypochondriac, the
epigastric, and to a small amount in the left hypo-
chondriac regions. Its position in health changes
when the diaphragm rises or falls, and with the posi-p
tion of the body. When the body is erect, the anterior
border falls below the margin of the ribs, and can
be felt with the hand. When lying down the
anterior border may disappear within the hypochon-
drium, though usually it is still perceptible. Behind
the linea alba the anterior border reaches nearly half
way to the umbilicus. The upper surface rises in
THE ABDOMEN. 239
ordinary respiration to the fifth rib, but forced respira-
tion carries it as high as the fourth rib. On the
surface of the body the upper surface is about one
inch below the level of the nipple at the lower border of
the pectoralis. Percussion reveals its area by the dull
note returned over the liver's surface. In the back
the broad border is opposite the twelfth dorsal and first
lumbar vertebrae.
The fundus of the gall bladder cannot be distin-
guished, but it is placed at the anterior margin behind
the outer border of the rectus, opposite the ninth cartilage.
The large intestine begins in the right iliac region,
and ascends through the right lumbar to the hypo-
chondrium. It then crosses the abdomen above the
navel, through the umbilical or umbilical and epi-
gastric regions, to the left hypochondrium. Finally it
descends through the left lumbar and iliac regions to
the pelvis, where it ends at the anus. In the left iliac
region is the sigmoid flexure of the descending colon.
Scybala in the gut may often be felt through the
abdominal wall, their mobility usually suffices to dis-
tinguish them from tumours. Like the stomach, the
great intestine is often much disturbed from its usual
position.
In intussusception the invaginated part of the in-
testine forms a firm rounded tumour that may be dis-
tinctly felt along the course of the great intestine
through the umbilical, left hypochondriac and lumbar
regions towards the pelvis.
Of the small intestine, the duodenum is tolerably
fixed. It courses round the head of the pancreas,
nearly opposite the first and second lumbar vertebr<MB|
240 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
from two indies above the umbilicus to the level of tliat
landmark. The pyloric end moves with the changes of
position of the stomach. It occupies part of the right
hypochondriac, right lumbar, and umbilical regions.
The ileum and jejunum are placed in the umbilical,
hypogastric, both lumbar and both iliac regions. Part
often descends into the pelvis.
The great omentum is usually spread out over the
small intestine in the umbilical, hypogastric, lumbar
and iliac regions, but it may be tucked up into the
left hypochondrium, or part of it may be dragged into
some of the outlets of the body as a hernial protrusion.
The pancreas is behind the stomach in the left hypo-
chondriac, umbilical and right lumbar regions. In
very thin persons it may be felt two inches above tJie
umbilicus, crossing the aorta about the junction of the
first and second lumbar vertebrae.
The spleen lies in the left hypochondrium, opposite
the ninth, tenth, and eleventh ribs. Its area of dulness
is imperfect, as it is overlapped above by the lung. In
health its anterior margin does not project beyond the
ribs. In disease it extends downwards, towards the
umbilical region, and is readily felt.
The kidneys lie in the lumbar regions, on the psoas
and quadratus, and on the last rib opposite the twelfth
dorsal and two first lumbar vertebrae. They are very
difficult to feel in the ordinary condition. To seek for
the kidney, place one hand near the outer border of
the rectus below the ninth cartilage, and the other be-
hind on the erector spinae. Then pressing them firmly
together, bring both hands slowly outwards. If the
kidney is enlarged, it will be felt indistinctly, as the
THE ABDOMEN. 241
hands reach the border of the erector. When the
kidney is moveable it will be felt changing position
tinder the hands, and pain will be caused to the pa-
tient. When the kidney is inflamed, this manipula-
tion excites aching pain. Besides enlarged kidney,
peri-nephritic abscess may be detected in this region.
Lower down, in the iliac fossa, psoas and iliac abscess
may be felt ; to be diagnosed from peri-nephritic
abscess.
The abdominal aorta passes down the abdomen a
little to the left of the mesial line of the body, and
divides at the level of the higliest part of the crista ilii,
or opposite a point on the surface one finger's breadth
below and one to the left of the umbilicus. It may be
compressed against the body of the third lumbar ver-
tebra at the level of the umbilicus. Above the navel,
pressure would injure the pancreas or solar plexus, and
the vessel is usually compressed near its bifurcation.
The coeliac axis arises in the epigastric region, oppo-
site the body of the first or second lumbar vertebra.
The superior mesenteric artery arises in the umbilical
region, above tlie level of tlie umbilicus, behind the pan-
creas, opposite the body of the second lumbar
vertebra.
The solar plexus, surrounding the coeliac axis and
superior mesenteric vessels, is in the epigastric and
umbilical regions, opposite the two or three upper
lumbar vertebrae, at tlie level of and above tlie umbilicus.
The common iliac arteries, about two inches . long,
course from the bifurcation of the aorta at the level
of the highest part of the iliac crest along a line slightly
arched outwards towards the midway point of Pouparfs
242 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
ligament They divide again about the level of the an-
terior superior iliac spine, (exactly), opposite the interver-
tebral substance between the last lumbar and first sacral
vertebrae.
The external branch continues this course to Pou-
part's ligament, below which arch it becomes the com-
mon femoral vessel.
Poupart's ligament, the anterior iliac spine and iliac
crest, are thus the surface-marks for exposing the iliac
arteries.
Inguinal hernia. — The landmarks useful in ex-
amining the groin for hernia are — the pubic spine,
anterior iliac spine, Poupart's ligament, external
abdominal ring, spermatic cord, vas deferens, and
testis.
The pubic spine is at the level of the great trochanter,
a point always easily detected, and the finger will reach
the spine if carried directly inwards across the groin
from this point, when, as in women, it is not conve-
nient to find the spine by pushing the finger beneath
the mons veneris.
The external abdominal ring lies just above and out-
side the spine. Generally both pillars can be felt, and
the outer one always attached to the spine. Besides
giving passage to the cord, it is usually wide enough to
admit the tip of the little finger in health. When
dilated by the passage of hernia, the finger can pass
within the canal as far as the internal abdominal ring.
Along this canal a hernia, or a fluid tumour, or en-
larged spermatic cord may be felt easily in thin
persons. The internal ring cannot be distinguished on
the surface in the natural state, the guides to it being
THE ABDOMEN. 243
the midway 'point of Poupart's ligament and the &r-
ternal iliac artery pulsating on the pubes. The ring is
placed about $ inch above Poupart's ligament. In old
herniae the weight of the protrusion has often dragged
the internal ring opposite the external one, and a
single opening, wide enough to admit three or four
fingers, is formed, through which the posterior sur-
face of the pubes and a part of the pelvic cavity may
be felt.
The epigastric artery cannot be distinguished on the
surface, but it runs' from the half -way point of Pouparfs
ligament, along the inner side of the internal ring, to
the rectus, and gains the sheath of that muscle pretty
yearly midway between the pvbes and the umbilicus.
When the internal ring is drawn towards the middle
line, the course of the artery becomes more vertical.
The contents of the scrotum must be examined in
diagnosing the nature of a tumour of' the groin or
scrotum. The spermatic cord with the vas deferens at
the hinder part feeling like a whip-cord, the testis, the
epididymis with the globus major above, the globus minor
below, can all be distinguished in the natural con-
dition of the parts. Sometimes the epididymis descends
on the front or outer part of the testis, instead of its
regular position ; in such cases it is much more loosely
attached to the testicle.
The testis in scrotal hernia lies at the bottom of the
scrotum behind the protrusion, and is often concealed
by the hernia.
Inguinal hernia is readily distinguished from nearly
all tumours connected with the testis by the latter
not being continued along the inguinal canal.
244 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
Certain affections of the testis cause swelling along
the canal They are — a, incomplete descent of the
testis ; b, fluid in the sheath of the cord ; c, varicocele ;
d, malignant disease of testicle invading the cord;
<% abscess pointing along the cord ; /, glandular
tumours of the canal. Poupart's ligament passing
beloio the neck of the mass to the spine of the pubes
distinguishes the inguinal from femoral hernia and
tumours of Scarpa's triangle proper.
Femoral hernia has the following landmarks :—
The pubic spine, the anterior iliac spine, Pouparfs liga-
ment, and the femoral artery.
The saplwenous opening is about 1 \ inch external to
the pubic spine, on a level with or a little above it.
The falciform border, when stretched by carrying
the thigh outwards, can be distinguished. If the thigh
is flexed and adducted, the fascia becomes lax, and
the rupture, generally overlying Poupart's ligament,
can be made out as a continuous mass passing in-
wards between the femoral artery and the pubic spine,
at the deepest point of which tumour an impulse on
coughing can be usually perceived.
Besides hernia, Scarpa's space may be the seat of
enlarged lymphatic glands, aneurisms, fatty and cystic
tumours, psoas abscess, and enlarged bursa beneath
the psoas tendon.
In addition to the distinctions derived from the dif-
ferent relation of inguinal and femoral hernia to the
more prominent landmarks, inguinal hernia is usually
pear-shaped, and lies above the fold of the groin.
Femoral hernia is more or less globular to the touch,
and lies commonly below the fold of the groin. The
THE PERJN^UM. 245
ring that is not occupied by the rupture is almost
always easily made out.
In employing taxis to reduce an inguinal rupture,
bend the thigh and grasp the largest part of the mass
with one hand and compress steadily, while the fingers
of the other hand move the neck gently backwards
and forwards to pass in the parts nearest to the
abdomen. For femoral rupture, the thigh must be
adducted as well as flexed, and the mass of the
tumour drawn down a little before it is pressed
steadily upwards to the crural ring.
Two chains of lymphatic glands are placed in the
groin. One lying along Poupart's ligament is affected
by irritation of the genitals and strains of the ab-
dominal wall. The other, more vertical, overlying the
femoral vessels, is affected by irritants acting on tho
lower extremity. Some of the group can be felt
under the skin in thin persons in their healthy con-
dition ; chronic irritation enlarges those naturally large
enough to be felt, and enables a much greater number
to be detected.
The Perinseum.
This region is most easily examined when the body
is in the position for lithotomy.
The limits of the perinseum are readily made out
on the surface. At the sides are the tubera ischii oppo-
site, and about two inches from, the anus. From
them the rami converge forwards to the symphysis
pubis. In the middle line behind is the coccyx. Be-
tween the coccyx and the tubera ischii the firm flesh
is supported by the sacro-sciatic ligaments* Within
246 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
these boundaries the surface is arched and moderately
firm in front of the anus, but soft and yielding behind
that outlet. The raphi divides the area longitudinally,
and is the guide to the urethra and for perineal in-
cisions. An imaginary line from the front of one
tuber ischii to the other divides the urethral triangle
from the anal triangle. The central point of the
perinseum is two inches in front of the anus. Just
anterior to this point, the bulb of the urethra, with
the corpus spongiosum passing forwards, is to be felt
in all but very fat persons and young children, in
whom the bulb is very small. In a thin person the
lower border of the triangular ligament can be felt just
below and behind the bulb. The front of the bulb is
the posterior limit of the scrotum, a common place
for perineal abscess and for urinary fistula to point.
On each side on the ramus of the pubes the crus
penis is distinct.
The urethra passes through the triangular ligament
one inch below the symphysis pubis, and £ inch above
the central point of the perineeura.
The bladder is generally about three inches from the
surface, but this depth varies greatly in different persons.
At the anus in health the outlet shows brownish
skin drawn into radiating folds. If the anus be
greatly opened, the mucous membrane becomes visible.
A palish line marks the junction of the skin and
mucous membrane which corresponds to the lower
margin of the internal sphincter.
The margin of the anus contains a large number of
follicles, where subcutaneous abscess may form and be
mistaken for fistula.
THE PERINJEUM. 247
The anus may be closed by membrane — atresia ant.
To examine the rectum, let the patient lie on one
side "with the knees drawn up that a good light may
fall on the anus. When the prostate is specially to
be examined, the patient should lie on his back with
his knees well bent. The finger, guarded by a layer
of soap under the nail and round the margin, and
well oiled, should be very slowly introduced to avoid
causing pain and spasm. While the finger is travelling
inwards, the tip should be applied to the mucous
surface on all sides to seek for fissures, ulcers, <fcc.
The finger passed within tJie anus detects —
1. The sphincter ani and its upper border. When
the finger is tightly grasped, there is probably a fissure
or ulcer of the mucous membrane on the sphincter,
generally just at the entry, and often over the tip of
the coccyx. The internal opening of a fistula is rarely
far above the upper border of the sphincter ani.
2. The prostate lies 1£ inch within the anus, i. e.
just past the sphincter. Its characteristic shape and
firm consistence should be noted. When not enlarged,
the finger passes beyond its base. When inflamed, it
is very sensitive, and doughy to the touch. Abscess may
be discovered by fluctuation over a limited area.
3. If a catheter be in the urethra, the membranous
part of the urethra can be traced.
4. The trigone or base of the bladder. When the
bladder is greatly distended, the trigone and bas fond
fill up the rectum as a soft yielding tumour which
fluctuates when the apex is palpated above the pubes.
Usually the peritoneal lining of the back of the bladder
and front of the rectum does not pass between the
248 SURFACE- GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
trigone and the last piece of the gut, thus leaving two
inches free from peritonaeum. In such cases the opera-
tion of tapping the bladder at the trigone is safely
performed through the rectum. Occasionally the
recto- vesical pouch reaches the prostate, and would be
inevitably punctured twice by the thrust of the trocar
through the rectum into the bladder.
5. The vesical® seminales can rarely be made out,
unless affected by tubercular disease; this usually
occurs in cases of tubercular testicle.
6. Higher up than the preceding, the transverse
folds of the mucous membrane of the rectum, and
in health its velvety softness may be felt. This part
of the rectum is very loose and easily torn in old
people, so that if the clyster pipe be roughly intro-
duced, it may perforate the wall of the rectum and
the clyster be thrown into the ischio-rectal fossa, or
even into the cavity of the peritoneum. To avoid
this, use great gentleness and direct the nozzle back-
wards.
7. Faecal accumulations.
8. Stricture ; that from syphilis begins at the anus,
with much induration of the skin and mucous mem-
brane surrounding the outlet; that from malignant
disease commences three to four inches up the canal.
9. Haemorrhoids depending from the last two inches
of the gut, or polypi.
10. Abnormal development of the rectum, imper-
forate rectum, communication between the rectum and
the vagina.
11. Ischio-rectal abscess.
12. In children a stone, or the sound in the bladder.
THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 249
13. Also in children, the line of attachment of the
rectovesical fascia, the sciatic notches and ligaments,
the coccyx and concavity of the pelvis, and even the
brim of the pelvis.
14. Ovarian and uterine and other pelvic tumours.
The Upper Extremity.
The surface marks tf the shoulder are of much im-
portance in ascertaining the seat and nature of injuries
and of diseases which are met with about that joint.
Several of them are also guides for the direction of
incisions during operations.
The following landmarks may always be detected.
The clavicle in its whole length, the spine and acro-
mion process of the scapula, the great tuberosity, the
sliaft of the humerus ; and if the fingers are passed
into the arm-pit, the neck and head of that bone.
The deltoid, and coraco-brachialis muscles with the
border and tendon of the great pectoral muscle are
more or less distinct.
Generally also can be distinguished the inferior
angle, inferior and inner costas of the scapula with
the coracoid process placed deeply in the depression
between the great pectoral and deltoid muscles. The
relative changes of position which these landmarks
undergo, are also important in diagnosing the nature
of the injury or disease under examination. When
the arm hangs supine ("little finger to the seam
of the trousers "), the acromion, the external condyle
of the humerus and the styloid process of the radius
are in the same line on the outside, while the head
and the internal condyle of the humerus are in a line
250 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
with the styloid process of the ulna. In this position
the bicipital groove, along which obscure swelling from
abscess takes a course, looks directly forwards.
In the natural condition, a projection is sometimes
developed at the acromial end of the clavicle, which
may be mistaken for dislocation upwards of that bone
when swelling follows a severe contusion of this part.
Again, the symphysis between the acromion and the spine
remains in rare instances mobile throughout life, and
may suggest a fracture of the acromion. If these con-
ditions are natural they will exist on both shoulders.
Hence, in examining a limb suspected of injury, it is
always well to examine the corresponding part of the
opposite side.
The characteristic roundness of the shoulder is due to
the deltoid muscle and the upper end of the humerus.
It is lost in dislocation or in atrophy from paralysis of
the muscle, when the head falls away from the acromion,
and the aspect of the shoulder is much changed. On
the other hand the growth of tumours, fractures of the
neck, effusions into the capsule or neighbouring syno-
vial bursse, more or less increase the fulness of the
shoulder. Fractures of the anatomical neck cause little
alteration to the shape of the shoulder. If the bone is
broken at the surgical neck, the axis of the shaft is
drawn towards the coracoid process by the pectoral
muscle; the front of the shoulder is fuller than natural.
In deciding whether the upper end is broken or is
separated at the epiphysis, it must be borne in mind
that the head and tuberosity unite in the fifth year,
and the shaft and upper end in the twentieth year.
To define the tuberosities and head of the humerus,
THE SHOULDER. 251
the surgeon should rotate the arm with one hand,
holding the elbow bent, while the other is placed over
the acromion and deltoid. A larger surface of the head
may be felt by the fingers placed in the top of the arm-
pit during the rotation of the arm.
In measuring the humerus, carry the tape from the
symphysis, not from the extremity of the acromion to
the outer condyle.
Along the anterior border of the deltoid is a groove.
In this lies the cephalic vein before it dips between
the deltoid and pectoral muscles to reach the axillary
vein.
This groove in front of the deltoid also marks the
position of the coracoid process, and immediately
within and below that, the axillary artery, surrounded
by the trunks of the brachial plexus and the companion
veins. The course of the nervo-arterial cord can be
felt in the axilla from the first rib to the teres tendon.
There the artery becomes the brachial trunk. The
vessel lies against the neck of the humerus in the
axilla, if the arm is drawn away from the body, and
may be compressed against that bone.
In cutting doum upon this artery the surface guide
is the inner border of the coraco-brachialis muscle.
The posterior border of the shoulder is formed by
that of the deltoid, and is usually easily defined.
Beneath the deltoid muscle, protecting it from the
upper end of the humerus, is a large bursa ; effusion
into this bursa follows blows on the shoulder, and
must be distinguished from effusion into the capsule of
the joint. Bursse are also interposed between the
bone and the tendons inserted into the tuberosities.
252 SURFACE-GUIDES AKD LANDMARKS.
The buna at the lesser tuberosity may swell and
simulate an enlarged gland or abscess at the apex of
the axilla.
In the arm the main components are easily denned.
Behind is the triceps rounded above and flattened at the
elbow unto the tendon for insertion into the olecranon.
In front, the biceps contracts suddenly just above the
elbow into its tendon for the tubercle on the radius.
In the groove on tlu inner side are the vessels and
nerves, having for their guide the inner border of the
biceps which overhangs them in the middle of the arm.
Besides the deeper vessels the basilic vein lies in this
groove. It can be seen in the lower part of the arm
until it dips beneath the fascia to join the brachial
vessels.
1? he bone may be felt on either side of the biceps
muscle.
The artery may be compressed against the bone
throughout its course.
Tlie Elbow. — The bony land-marks* are, on tlie outer
side, the external condyle with the external supra-
condyloid ridge rising from it. Below and a little
behind the condyle is a depression, well marked in most
persons, in which the head of tlie radius can be felt rotat-
ing during pronation and supination of the fore-arm.
On the inner side is the inner condyle, so prominent
under the skin that it needs careful padding whenever
an L-shaped splint is worn inside the arm. The inner
supra-condyloid ridge can also be plainly felt. Be-
hind is the olecranon; between this and the inner
condyle is the cord of the ulnar nerve or " funny bone."
It can seldom be distinguished by the bystander, though
THE ELBOW. 253
a blow on it produces the well-known painful sensation.
When fluid is effused into the elbow-joint, swelling is
produced on either side of the triceps insertion and
just below the outer condyle, quickly filling up the
pit under which the head of the radius rolls. Swelling
over the tip of the olecranon is caused by effusion into
the bursa between the skin and the bone. Swelling,
obscure and very painful, at the back of the olecranon
is caused by effusion into the bursa between the tendon
of the triceps and the olecranon. Swelling situated in
the neighbourhood of the inner condyle, accompanied
by brawny infiltration of the skin and fluctuation, is
sometimes caused by inflammation of the epitrochlear
lymphatic gland which lies in front of the fascia and
internal inter-muscular septum just above the condyle.
There are occasionally two lymphatic glands, they
receive absorbent vessels chiefly from the inner side of
the surface of the forearm and little fingers, and hence
are irritated most commonly by inflammation of that
part.
The hollow in front of tlie elbow. Here the superficial
veins of the forearm receive large affluents from the
interior ; their copious supply of blood renders them
suitable for venisection.
The median vein of the forearm divides at the apex
of the hollow into the median cephalic on the outer
side, and median basilic on the inner side. The outer
branch joins the radial vein at the outer side of the
elbow, and, forming the cephalic vein, mounts the outer
side of the arm. The inner branch, that which usually
receives the deep affluents, passes inwards in front of
the condyle to join one or two ulnar veins and form the
254 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
basilic vein. As the median basilic inclines to the
ulnar veins it overlies a tough band from the biceps
tendon to the fascia of the forearm, which separates the
vein from the brachial artery beneath. Being thus
more firmly supported and more copiously supplied with
blood, it is usually selected for venisection. Too
deep an insertion of the lancet may penetrate through
the floor of the vein, the aponeurosis from the biceps,
and the coat of the artery, and thus establish a com-
munication between the artery and the vein, which if
permanent, will form an aneurismal varix.
The normal relation of the bony points at the elbow
has to be carefully studied. The olecranon in extreme
flexion of the elbow is in front of the condyles. In
rectangular or semi-flexion, the olecranon is immediately
beneath the condyles. In extreme extension the ole-
cranon is on a level with and behind the condyles.
In fracture of the humerus just above the condyles,
the relations of these landmarks are unchanged,
though the position of the condyles and olecranon
to the shaft of the humerus is much altered. The
elbow is carried backwards and the lower end of the
shaft causes projection forwards of the belly of the
biceps above the hollow in front of the elbow. This
deformity is usually without much difficulty reduced with
crepitus, but easily recurs if the limb is left to itself.
In dislocation the relation of the olecranon is greatly
altered. That process is carried away from the lower
end of the humerus, is more or less firmly fixed, and
if carried backwards, the lower end of the humerus
forms a h&rd fulness obliterating th$ hollow in front of
the elbow. In this case also, unless the swelling be
THE WRIST. 255
very abundant, the great sigmoid notch can be dis-
tinguished behind the condyles.
The lower epiphysis of the humerus joins the shaft
in the eighteenth year. Before this age, disjunction
may take place. In this case the signs are more ob-
scure, the grating is not like bony crepitus, and the
exact point where the humerus is divided is difficult
to make out. But the maintenance of the natural
position of the olecranon in regard to the condyles is
still the chief distinction from dislocation.
In the forearm, above the wrist, there are few salient
points. The ulna is subcutaneous from the olecranon
to the styloid process. The radius can be readily felt
in the lower third of the fore-arm. Anteriorly and
posteriorly the muscles make fleshy prominences in
the upper part. In the lower part the tendons of
several can be distinguished, and serve as land-marks.
The contour of the muscles is affected to some ex-
tent by the attachment of their aponeurosis to the
ulna along the inner and posterior parts of the fore-
arm.
On the posterior aspect of the torist, at the inner side,
is the head of the tdna, the most prominent part of the
bone. The part felt under the skin projects between the
tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris at the inner side,
and the tendon of the extensor minimi diyiti at the
outer side. The tendon of the extensor carpi fills the
groove in the head of the ulna, and can usually be
distinguished from the bone. A little below, and to the
inner side of the tendon of the extensor carpi, is the
styloid process. When the hand is pronated 9 the head of
the ulna is most prominent and easily detected. In
256 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
supination, on the contrary, the styloid process is most
prominent, for the radius in supinating round the ulna,
raises the extensor muscles above the level of the
head in that position. The cuneiform bone can be
felt at the back of the wrist below the head of the
ulna, overlaid by the tendons of the ulnar extensor
and extensors of the little finger.
At the radial side of the back of the wrist is the
lower extremity of the radius, overlaid by tendons of
the extensors. The extensor secundi intemodii pollicis
becomes prominent when the thumb is extended, and is
then the guide to the oblique groove on the posterior
margin of the radius, through which it plays. At this
groove the radius is frequently broken in Colles'
fracture. The styloid process of the radius is overlaid
by the tendons of the two first extensors of the
thumb, which somewhat conceal it Immediately
below the styloid process is the tubercle of tlie scaplwid
bone.
The styloid process of the radius reaches a little
lower in the limb than the styloid of the ulna.
When the thumb is extended, the tendons of its
extensor muscles form prominent ridges. In the
hollow between these ridges, at the back of the
carpus, just below the end of the radius, are the radial
vein and the two tendons of the radial extensors of
the wrist ; more deeply still lies the last part of
the radial artery.
The superficial veins can be seen coursing over the
back of the hand and wrist, while towards the
knuckles, the extensors of the fingers are also distin-
guishable when they are set in action. If the ring
THE UPPER EXTREMITY. 257
finger be moved while the other fingers are rigidly
extended, the connecting bands from it to the ten-
dons of the middle and little fingers, can be seen or
felt sliding under the skin, near the knuckle.
The posterior annular ligament cannot be defined
beneath the skin ; but the bones to which it is
attached at the outer end, the back of the lower end
of the radius, near the styloid process, and the back of
the cuneiform and pisiform bones, at the inner end, can
be readily distinguished. It is divided into six compart-
ments for the tendons : three are on the radius. The
outermost for the two first extensors of the thumb ;
the second for the two radial extensors of the wrist ;
the third oblique one for the extensor secundi inter-
nodii ; the fourth gives passage to the common ex-
tensor of the fingers, and the extensor indicis ; the
fifth lies between the radius and ulna, for the ex-
tensor minimi digiti ; and the sixth is attached to the
inner part of the head of the ulna, just external to
the styloid process to give passage to the extensor
ulnaris.
Bursal tumours, or "ganglia," are frequently found
at the back of the wrist and hand, in the synovial
sheaths.
At the front of the forearm, the radius can be felt in
all persons, and the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis
can be felt or seen in the lower part, as far as the
wrist, where it disappears under the annular ligament
opposite the styloid process of the radius. This ten-
don is the guide to the radial artery, when that vessel
is obscured by swelling. In the natural state the
artery can be felt or seen to pulsate in. front <& -&&
258 SUEFACE-GUIDES AXD LANDMARKS.
lower end of the radius, on the outer side of this ten'
don. The position of the artery in the forearm is
denoted on the surface by a line drawn from the centre
of the Itollmo in front of the elbow, to the styloid
process of the radios. Sometimes the superficial volar
branch rises two or three inches above the wrist ; it
then accompanies the radial trunk, and thus is pro-
duced the double pulse (" Pulsus duplex").
At the centre of tlie forearm, about the wrist, unless
the patient be very fat, the tendon of the palmaris
longus can be felt. It passes over the annular liga-
ment, and is the surface guide for the median nerve.
At the inner side of the forearm the tendon of the
flexor carpi vlnaris is felt in all but the very fat, and
if traced downwards, the attachment to the pisiform
bone below the styloid process of the ulna can be dis-
tinguished. This muscle is the guide for the ulnar
artery, which lies close to the outer side of the tendon.
The tendon usually overhangs the vessel ; though at
the wrist the artery becomes quite superficial before it
enters the palm, over the annular ligament, close to
the pisiform bone. The ulnar nerve is on the inner
side of the artery.
The anterior annular ligament, like the posterior,
cannot be defined in the healthy condition of the
wrist But when the synovial bursa of the flexors
of the fingers is distended with fluid, its limits
often become distinct. It is attached to the pisi-
form and unciform bone at the inner end, and to
the scaphoid and trapezium at the outer end. Beneath
the outer end the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis
passes in a separate synovial sheath. Sometimes this
THE UPPEK EXTREMITY. 259
sheath being distended, forms a small bursal tumour,
or "ganglion," just above the annular ligament, close
to the styloid process.
The large synovial slieath, for all the tendons of the
two flexors of the fingers, reaches underneath the
annular ligament as far as tlie middle . of the palm, and
above tlie twist for 1£ or 2 indies.
To open it or to open an abscess of the front of the
forearm, near the "wrist, an incision may be safely made
close to the inner side of the flexor carpi radialis ; at
this point the median nerve, in the centre of the limb,
and the radial artery at the outer border of the tendon
will be avoided.
In tlie palm two transverse creases in the skin cor-
respond to the level of the articulation of the meta-
carpal bones with the phalanges.
The prominent fleshy mass on the outer part of the
palm is called the ball of the thumb, or tlienar pro-
minence ; that on the inner part, the hypotlienar
prominence.
In the hollow between them the fascia is very thick,
and beneath it the superficial palmar arch of the ulnar
artery courses opposite a line draivn on the surface,
directly inwards, from the web of the thumb. This is
the vessel that is usually injured in " wounds of tlie
palmar arch." The deep palmar arch of the radial
artery lies beneath the tendons on the bases of the
metacarpal bones, and a little nearer the wrist than the
superficial arch, about opposite to the centres of the
thenar and hypothenar prominences on the surface.
The digital brandies of the superficial arch arise
opposite the clefts of the fingers^ so that a6«ce*s of tta.
260 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
palm must be opened opposite the centre of the fingers,
over the head of the metacarpal bone, to avoid the
vessels and nerves, and in the louder half of the palm,
to avoid the superficial arch and the common sheath of
the tendons under the annular ligament.
On the fingers the knife should be kept to the middle
of the back or front, that the digital vessels may not be
wounded when laying open a thecal abscess or whitlow.
In amputating a phalanx, it should be recollected
that the articulation lies beneath the lower of the two
creases, into which the skin falls at the bach of each
joint, and that the projection in each side of the base
of the phalanx can be felt a little above the crease on
the palmar surface of the joint.
The Lower Extremity.
The surface marks of the groin, hip, and buttock
are — anteriorly, the swell of the tensor vaginse femoris,
and the sartorius on the outer side, and the swell of
the adductors on the inner side ; between them is the
hollow of Scarpa's space. Posteriorly, the swell of the
gluteus maximus, abruptly limited below by the
gluteal fold.
The bony landmarks are — at the upper and posterior
part, the iliac crest, from the anterior spine to the
posterior spine. In the middle line behind, at the
bottom of a deep groove, between the glutei, are the
spines of the sacrum and coccyx. At the inner and
lower part are the pubes, including the symphysis,
spine, horizontal and descending rami ; the ramus and
tuberosity of the ischium. Externally is the great
trochanter, easily recognised in all persons, its situation
THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 261
being at the bottom of a depression when the femur is
everted, and prominent when the limb is rotated in-
wards or adducted. The tip of the great trochanter
is i inch below the level of the head of the femur,
and on a level with the pubic spine. Hence the
horizontal furrow across the front of the thigh between
these processes passes over the capsule of the hip
joint Fulness here, in the line of the artery, with
tenderness, are present when the capsule is distended
with fluid, as in early stages of hip disease.
Deep abscesses point in Scarpa's triangle. Those
coming forward below Poupart's ligament, and internal
to the artery, are usually psoas. When still below
Poupart's ligament, but external to the artery, they
are from the hip joint. If external to the artery, but
above Poupart's ligament, they are iliac.
The great trochanter is altered in its relations to the
crista ilii and anterior spine, by dislocation of the head
of the femur, by fracture of the neck, and by absorp-
tion of the head and neck of the bone, in morbus
coxae.
In dislocation to the dorsum, the trochanter is
carried further from the spine than natural, but is
nearer to the crest. In the other dislocations it is
approximated to the spine in pubic, but carried down-
wards from both crest and spine in thyroid dis-
location.
NelatorCs line. — According to Nekton's observations,
in health, the upper border of the great trochanter is
crossed by a line from the anterior iliac spine to the
most prominent part of the tuber ischii, in every
position of the thigh. When there is dislocation
262 SURFACE-GUIDES AND IJLNDMARKS.
backwards, the trochanter has passed above this line,
towards the spinal column.
In fracture of tlie neck the great trochanter is
nearer the anterior spine. When the shaft of the un-
injured femur is rotated, it traverses the arc of a
circle, having the head and neck for a radius ; but
when the neck is broken, the trochanter revolves in
the axis of the shaft.
Mr. Bryant employs this changed relation as a
pathognomonic sign of fracture of the neck. He
places the body in an exactly horizontal position,
and drops a vertical line from the anterior spine.
When the neck of the femur is unbroken, the distance
between the tip of the trochanter and this line is the
same on both sides of the body. When there is frac-
ture, the distance is shortened in amount corresponding
to the shortening of the broken neck.
Wasting of the gluteus, and consequent loss of depth
to the gluteal furrow are early signs of hip disease.
This gluteal furrow is the best place to feel the great
sciatic nerve at the level of the ischial tuberosity. It
is midway between that point and the great trochanter.
Pressure here produces pain if the nerve is affected.
Pressure higher up on the gluteus, opposite the tip of
the great trochanter, may give pain by compressing
the capsule of the hip-joint when that is inflamed.
The femoral artery enters the thigh at the lower
border of the horizontal ramus of the pubes, midway
between the anterior iliac spine and the symphysis
pubis. When the knee is half-bent and the thigh
rotated outwards, the course of the vessel is denoted
by a line from the centre of Fouvarfs ligament to the
THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 263
side of the inner condyle of the femur. At first the
vessel is some distance in front of the neck of the
femur, but at the lower part of Scarpa's space it lies
along the inner side of the shaft, and should be there
compressed by a tourniquet.
The most convenient place for immediately controlling
the circulation through the lower extremity is the last
part of the external iliac resting on the pubes, where
the vessel can be felt to pulsate in all persons. The
least fatiguing mode of applying pressure is to grasp
the top of the thigh with both hands, the fingers pass-
ing backwards on the outside and inside, while the
thumbs are thrust down on the vessel, one over the
other. Pressure is kept up by the thumbs alternately
to prevent the hands becoming fatigued if one or both
be used continuously.
The gluteal artery issues from the pelvis at the
juncture of the upper and middle thirds of a line drawn
from the posterior iliac spine to tlie tuber ischii.
The ischiatic artery leaves the pelvis about half an
inch inside the gluteal artery, and nearly at the same
level.
The pudic artery lies over the ischial spine, at the
juncture of the inner and middle thirds of a line drawn
from tlie tuber ischii to tlie great trochanter, when the
thigh is rotated inwards.
If the body is supported in a sitting posture on a
firm level surface the pressure is borne on the bony
points only ; if, however, the body is placed on a soft
yielding cushion, some of the pressure reaches these
vessels, and, compressing them, interrupts their circu-
264 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
lation, and over-loads the inferior haemorrhoids], aterine
and other vessels,
In the region of the knee, the following bony points
can be distinguished : —
The patella, with its ligament, passing down to the
anterior tuberosity of the tibia in front ; the tuberosity
on each condyle of the femur ; the external and internal
tuberosities of the tibia ; the head of the fibula ; and
midway between the head of the fibula and the anterior
tuberosity, a small eminence on the tibia.
The surface marks vary with the position of the limb.
In front, if the leg be extended, the patella and tendon
of the quadriceps are in bold relief; with a farrow on
each side of the tendon. If the knee is bent, the
patella sinks into the trochlear groove, when the con-
dyles with the space between them become very evident.
The tuberosities of the tibia are more easily made out.
In this position the tibia can also be rotated on the
femur.
Externally, there is a depression which corresponds
with the juncture of the femur and tibia and external
semilunar cartilage ; above this depression is the ex-
ternal condyle of the femur ; below it, the outer tuberosity
of the tibia ; which is the landmark of the line for
entering the joint in resection. Just behind the external
tuberosity is the head of the fibula and tendon of the
biceps. Below the highest part of the head of the
fibula, behind and internal to the tendon of the biceps,
is the external popliteal nerve. This may be divided
in tenotomy of the biceps if the knife be carried too
near the head of the fibula and directed inwards
instead of outwards against the tendon.
THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 265
Internally, between the internal condyle and internal
tuberosity, the finger can be laid on the internal semi-
lunar cartilage, a point sensitive to pressure in early
stages of inflammation of the articulation from jar,
or strain of the lateral ligament The point of attach-
ment of the tendon of tlie adductor magnus muscle to
the tuberosity on the internal condyle is on the level
of the line of the epiphysis, and almost on that of the
upper border of the trochlear surface. The internal
saphenous vein winds round the limb behind this
condyle.
When effusion takes place into the capsule of the
joint, the furrows on each side of the ligament are
filled to bulging, and the prominence of the patella
and its ligament are lost, the former " floating " on its
trochlea. The capsule ascends for three fingers' breadth
above the patella, and its limits become plainly marked
when distended by fluid.
When the knee is bent, the capsule is drawn down-
wards ; hence, when operating on the thigh near the
knee bend that joint.
Effusion into the bursa patelke pushes forward the
skin over the lower part of the patella and the liga-
ment into a prominent well-defined tumour which does
not fill up the furrows at the sides of the ligament.
The bursa between the ligamentum patellae and the
tibia is occasionally distended with fluid. It makes no
defined swelling, but a general fulness of the front of
the tibia partially occupying the lateral furrows. It is
usually much more painful than distension of the super-
ficial bursa.
Posteriorly, when the knee is straightened, the sur-
266 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
face of the ham is convex, and the boundaries ill-
defined, the least concealed tendon is the semitendinous.
The boundaries of the popliteal space are most
salient when the knee is somewhat bent. The biceps
on the outer side, and the semitendinosus on the inner,
being easily distinguished in all persons. This position
relaxes the fascia covering the space, when the contents
can be better examined. At the lower part the ex-
ternal saphenous vein disappears to enter the ham;
this is very evident when the vein is varicose. The
internal popliteal nerve is placed in the middle of the
space just beneath the fascia, and when the limb is
straight the nerves can be felt through the skin in some
persons as round cords at the upper end of the space.
The popliteal artery lying deeply at the bottom of
the space cannot be felt to pulsate readily. When it
pulsations are obvious, probably some morbid swelling
conveys the vibration to the surface. The vessel
divides at the lower border of the popliteus muscle
into anterior and posterior tibial arteries. This divi-
sion corresponds to a point on the outside of the leg,
about lj inches below the head of the fibula.
The tumours which may develope in the popliteal
space are, enlarged bursa) of the hamstring tendons,
abscess connected with the lymphatic glands, cystic
and solid tumours and aneurism.
The bursa most commonly enlarged is that between
the semimembranosus and the inner head of the gastro-
cnemius. When the knee is flexed it disappears or be-
comes flaccid, when the knee is straightened and the
weight of the body thrown on the limb, it becomes a
prominent, firm, somewhat irregular tumour in the
THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 267
middle of the ham. It does not throb with the
artery. In about one of every five cases dissected,
the bursa is found to communicate with the synovial
capsule of the knee-joint.
The bursa between the inner Jiead of the gastro-
cnemius and inner condyle, by distension makes a swell-
ing behind that point of bone, ill-defined, but causing
pain in walking. It frequently communicates with the
joint ; more often still, the bursa beneath the outer
liead of the gastrocnemius and the outer condyle is a
prolongation of the joint's synovial capsule.
Abscess is usually connected with the lymphatic
glands of the space, most of which are arranged deeply
around the artery. When of slow formatipn, with
moderate inflammation of the cellular tissue, they
may vibrate with the arterial pulsation. They have no
expansile thrill, and can often be sufficiently isolated
from the vessel to lose their vibration.
Aneurism is distinguished by the signs proper to
all aneurismal swellings, and generally by its limits,
being tolerably easily defined. Diffused or suppu-
rating aneurism, though ill-defined, has special cha-
racters — among them, the state of the pulse in the
arteries of the leg.
Solid tumours are more difficult to distinguish,
especially if the aneurism be solidified or almost so.
Then the several signs proper to tumours formed inde-
pendently of the artery must be sought for, and the ab-
sence of those proper to aneurism ascertained with care.
In the leg the bony landmarks are, of the tibia, the
inner surface for the whole of its length, the inner
tuberosity and the internal malleolus, the anterior or
268 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
shin ridge and the inner border. On the outer side are
the liead of the fibula above, and the lower fourth of the
shaft terminating in the external malleolus, below.
In front the muscles form a smooth convex surface
above, closely confined by the aponeurosis attached to
the tibia and fibula. Below they divide into tendons
that cross the front of the ankle-joint in three con-
spicuous divisions. The most internal, the tibialis an-
ticus ; the next, the long extensor of the great toe :
both of these are on the tibia. The third, the bundle
of the common extensor and peroneus tertius, is in
front of the joint between the tibia and fibula.
On the outer side of the calf there is a groove, well
marked when the muscles are in action ; this indicates
the interval between the soleus and the peronei muscles.
Posteriorly, the swell of the calf is caused above by the
gastrocnemius, below by the soleus tapering into the
tendo achillis at the small of the leg. Above the heel
the tendon is easily distinguished in all persons. It
is narrowest opposite the ankle, the point where it is
divided in tenotomy.
The internal saphenous vein crossing in front of the
internal malleolus, passes up the inner side of the leg.
Varicosity of this vein renders it tortuous, prominent,
and irregular.
In a well formed leg the inner edge of tlie patella,
the inner side of the ankle, and the inner side of the
great toe are in a line, thus forming a guide for the
reposition of the fragments of a broken tibia.
The anterior tibial artery, rarely ligatured in its con-
tinuity, is sometimes to be secured at the bleeding
point when injured. The guide on the surface is a
THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 269
line drawn from the inner side of the head of the
fibula to the centre of the front of the ankle-joint It
lies mainly along the outer border of the tibialis an-
ticus muscle.
The posterior tibial artery can be felt beating about
half an inch from the edge of the tibia, opposite the
ankle. The course of the vessel is represented on the
surface by a line drawn from the centre of the top of
tlve calf to a point midway between the tip of the in-
ternal malleolus and the inner tubercle of the heel.
The guides for the tendons cut in treating clubfoot
are found as follow : —
The tendon of the tibialis posticus lies close to the
inner edge of the tibia, midway between the posterior
and anterior borders of the leg, and may be made
salient by abducting the foot, while the thumb is
placed over the tendon. In children it is often very
difficult to feel this tendon, and the midway point
remains the chief guide. This point is anterior to the
artery, which runs midway between the tibia and the pos-
terior border of the leg at the ankle. The peronei
tendons lie close behind the fibula, at the ankle, lying
in a common sheath, and should be made tense by
flexing the ankle and adducting it. The tendon of the
larger muscle is most superficial, that of the peroneus
brevis is close behind the bone. They are cut two
inches above the tip of the malleolus.
The tibialis anticus crosses the front of the tibia and
ankle-joint to gain the scaphoid and internal cuneiform
bone. It is usually both felt and seen without diffi-
culty when the foot is rotated outwards. It is divided
sometimes as it crosses the tibia above the ankle, but
270 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
most frequently on tJie scapltoid bone ; the knife being
introduced between the artery and the tendon.
At tike ankle the bony projections are : — the internal
malleolus short and broad, is placed rather in front of
the centre of the joint. The external malleolus is
longer, more pointed and opposite the centre of the
joint. It is the landmark for the incision in Syme's
amputation. The anterior margin of the lower end
of the tibia can be traced across the ankle-joint,
crossed by the tendons of the extensors of the toes,
and flexors of the ankle. Behind the outer malleolus
the external saphenous vein ascends to the leg. The
back of the ankle-joint is divided into two hollows
by the tendo achillis, which is sub-cutaneous from its
origin to its insertion at the heel.
The Foot. — In examining the foot the bony land-
marks employed on the inner side of the foot are (1)
the tubercle of the os calcis, (2) the inner malleolus,
and (3), immediately below it, the sustentaculum tali.
In front of the inner malleolus is (4) the tubercle of
the scaphoid. Besides these, there are (5) the internal
cuneiform bone, and (6) the base of the first metatarsal
bone.
Along the outer side of the foot are the following
osseous points ; (1) The outer tubercle of the os calcis,
(2) the external malleolus, (3) the small tid>ercle on tlie
os calcis between tlie peronei tendons, the short tendon
above, and the long tendon below it; (4) the pro-
jecting base of tlie fifth metatarsal bone.
On the dorsum of the foot the scaphoid is promi-
nent on the inner side, and the cuboid can be felt
under the skin opposite the base of the fifth meta-
THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 271
tarsal bone. When the foot is extended the head of
the astragalus projects in front of the lower border of
the tibia. The tendons of the extensors are easily
distinguished along the dorsum of the foot to the
toes.
The dorsal artery can be felt pulsating in a line
from the centre of the ankle to the first interosseous
space outside the base of the metatarsal bone of the
great toe. The tendon of the long extensor of the
great toe runs on the inner side of the vessel, and the
tendon of the short extensor running on its outer side
for most of its course, crosses the artery about half an
inch before that vessel dips to the sole.
The external plantar artery traverses the foot ob-
liquely from the midway point between the inner mal-
leolus and inner tubercle of the os calcis to the base of
ilie fifth metatarsal bone. In this part the thickness of
the first layer of muscles intervenes between it and
the plantar fascia, a structure it is necessary to divide
.in some forms of talipes.
From the fifth metatarsal bone to the base of the
first metatarsal, the vessel is placed high in the sole
close to the bones. From this part the digital ar-
teries are given off opposite the webs of the toes.
The internal irtantar artery is separated from the
surface by the thickness of the abductor pollicis. It
is inconsiderable in size.
The plantar nerves have the same connection as the
arteries.
The webs of the toes correspond nearly to the joint
between the first and second phalanges.
For Symfs and Pirogojfs amputations at the ankle ;
272 SURFACE-GUIDES AND LANDMARKS.
the external malleolus shows the centre of the joint
on the outer side of the ankle, and a point one-third
of an inch behind the tip of the inner malleolus in-
dicates the central point on the inner aspect.
The incisions start and terminate at these points.
For Choparfs amputation, on the inner side the
joint between the scaphoid and astragalus is indicated
by a point just behind the tubercle of the scaphoid.
On the outer side the joint between the calcaneum and
cuboid bone is indicated by a point half an inch behind
the base of the fifth metatarsal bone.
In resecting the first metatarsal bone the articulation
between it and the cuboid is one inch in front of the
tubercle on the scaphoid. The incision would begin
half an inch in front of the scaphoid. For resecting
the fifth metatarsal the articulation is half an inch in
front of the base of the bone, and the incision is com-
menced opposite the tip.
LISTS
OF THE
JNSTEUMENTS AND APPLIANCES EEQUISITE
OE OCCASIONALLY USEFUL
IN
MOST OF THE IMPOETANT AND OEDINAEY
OPEEATIONS IN SUEGEEY.
f
y
l:
fi
I
GENERAL PREPARATIONS.
275
PREPARATIONS AND REQUISITES FOR OPERATIONS IN
GENERAL.
The Operating Room.
The Sick Bed and Bed-Room.
Sedatives and Restoratives.
The Arrest of Hemorrhage.
OPERATING ROOM,
Having a good Light and Windows that open readily, and a Fire
in Winter.
1. Firm table, 4 feet long, 2 feet
13. Cotton wool.
wide, and 3 feet high.
14. Tow.
2. Pillows.
15. Perchloride of iron.
3. Blankets.
16. Basins, large and small.
4. Towels.
17. Hot and cold water, ice.
5. Old linen.
18. Bucket and slop- jar.
6. Mackintosh sheets.
19. Sponges.
7. Old carpet, or old sheet
to
20. Chloroform and inhaler.
cover the floor.
21. Oil
8. Tray of sawdust or sand.
22. Pins.
9. Bandages.
23. Scissors.
10. Strapping plaster.
24. Brandy.
11. Lint.
25. Ammonia.
12. Oiled silk.
26. Fire for heating cauteries
^•L
276
GENERAL PREPARATIONS.
SICE BOOM AND BED.
1.
Iron bedstead.
18.
Bed-urinal and bed-stool.
2.
Wool and hair mattress.
19.
Basins.
3.
Several pillows, soft and of
20.
Cold water.
different sizes.
21.
Condy's fluid.
4.
Air and water cushions.
22.
Sir W. Burnett's fluid.
5.
Blankets, small single ones.
23.
A bed-rest chair.
6.
Pieces of soft flannel.
24.
Night lights.
7.
Six sets of sheets and pillow-
25.
A fire, or in summer a lamp
cases.
to burn in the fireplace,
8.
Old soft linen.
to create a draught of air.
9.
Cotton-wool.
26.
Enamelled saucepan.
10.
Towels.
27.
Two feeding cups.
11.
Soft pocket-handkerchiefs.
28.
Spittoon.
12.
Three pieces of Mackintosh,
29.
Tea-equipage.
2 feet 6 inches square.
30.
Tea-kettle.
13.
Bed cradle.
31.
Medicine measure.
14.
Light bedgowns.
32.
Apparatus for keeping food
15.
Flannel jacket, and flannel
warm, with lamp.
Zouave drawers, or cotton
33.
Flowers.
jackets and pyjamas.
34.
A fan.
16.
Hot- water bottles and bags.
35.
A Rimmel's perfume va-
17.
Bed-pan.
poriser.
Before a room is occupied by a patient who has been operated on,
it should be thoroughly cleaned ; the walls and ceiling should be weir
brushed, the carpet taken away and the floor thoroughly scrubbed with
soda. All curtains and chintz furniture should be removed, old window-
blinds replaced by new green ones, and the window made to open
readily at the top and bottom. A fire or oil-lamp should be lighted,
in the fireplace to maintain a circulation of air. If the season require
a fire, the iron fender should be removed and replaced by a wooden
tray of sand or ashes, to prevent the noise of cinders and fire-irons
falling on the fender and hearth. It is well also to flush all the
drains, water-closets, and sinks in the house with disinfecting fluid
one or two days before the operation, and a store of Sir William
Burnett's, or similar disinfecting fluid, should be made ready to clear
away the foetid odours of discharges as they arise.
When possible, it is a great advantage to have two beds of similar
height and size, that the patient may occupy them alternately. The
cool bed refreshes the patient greatly, and the vacated bed is easily
cleaned and aired without fatigue to the sick person.
GENERAL PREPARATIONS.
277
SEDATIVES.
1. Tincture of opium.
2. Solution of morphia, and hypo-
dermic syringe.
3. Morphia suppositories.
4. Ice.
5. Chloral-hydrate solution.
RESTORATIVES.
1. Brandy, champagne, sherry.
2. Eau-de-cologne.
3. Iiqnoi* ammonise.
4. Smelling salts.
5. Nitrite of amyl.
6. An electrical Jbattery.
7. Chicken-broth.
8. Beef-tea.
9. Milk.
10. Lime-water.
11. Soda-water.
12. Eggs.
13. French bread.
14. Biscuits.
15. Arrow-root.
16. Liebig's extract of meat.
17. Brand's essence of beef.
THE ARREST OF HEMORRHAGE.
1. Artery forceps.
12. Richardson's styptic colloid.
2. Torsion forceps.
13. Ice, ice-cold water.
3. Tourniquet.
14. Cautery irons.
4. Tenaculum.
15. Galvanic cautery wire.
5. Hare-lip pins.
16. Ligatures, silk, fine hemp,
6. Acupressure needles.
and whipcord.
7. Naevus needle.
17. Lint.
8. Wire nippers.
18. Amadou.
9. Solution of perchloride of iron
19. Bandages.
(equal parts of the salt and
20. Compressed sponge.
water).
21. Scissors.
10. Solid perchloride of iron.
22. Sutures.
11. Friar's balsam.
23. Glass syringe.
(See List for the Ligature of Arteries.).
278
OPERATIONS ON THE HEAD.
INSTRUMENTS AND APPLIANCES FOR THE FOLLOWING
OPERATIONS ABOUT THE HEAD AND NECK.
Trephining the Skull.
Operations oh the Eye.
Hare-lip.
Resection of the Jaw.
Excision of the Tongue.
Cleft Palate.
Excision of Tonsils.
Laryngotoxt.
Tracheotomy.
TREPHINING THE SKULL.
1. Scalpel.
2. Trephines— several crowns.
3. Hey's saw.
4. Elevator.
f>. Stout dissecting forceps.
6. Brash to clean away the bone-
dost.
7. Probe.
8. Quill, cut like a tooth-pick,
to clear the groove of bone
dust.
9. Lenticular knife.
10. Small polypus forceps.
11. Sponges.
12. Lint.
13. Ice.
14. Bandages.
OPERATIONS ON THE EYE
Strabismus.
1.
Chloroform, if used.
6. Fine curved needles, and finest
2.
Laurence's or other head-
thread.
fixer.
7. Lint.
3.
Specula, of different sizes.
8. Ice, or cold water.
4.
Toothed forceps.
9. Eye bandage.
5.
Strabismus scissors and hooks.
10. Sponges.
Extirpation of the Eyeball,
1. Chloroform.
10. Perchloride of iron.
2. Head-fixer.
11. Fine curved needles, and finest
3. Speculum.
silk thread.
4. Toothed forceps.
12. Lint.
5. Curved scissors.
13. Pulled lint.
6. Strabismus hook.
14. Basin.
7. Small and large sponges.
15. Bandage.
8. Dissecting forceps.
18. Sponges.
9, Ice-cold water.
i
OPERATIONS ON THE HEAD.
279
OPEBAHONS ON THE BYR-cmtinued.
Cataract (Congenital).
1. Atropine drops.
7. Lint.
2. Chloroform.
8. Cold water.
3. Head-fixer.
9. Gelatine plaster.
4. Speculum.
10. Wool and bandage.
5. Lacerating needles.
11. Sponges.
6. Toothed forceps, to fix eyeball.
Cataract (Senile). ''
1. Atropine drops.
9. Platinum spatula, to adjus
2. Chloroform.
edges of wound.
3. Head-fixer.
10. Small sponges.
4. Speculum.
11. Basin and water.
5. Lacerating needles.
12. Gelatine plaster.
6. Toothed forceps.
13. Wool and bandage.
7. Cataract knives.
14. Lint.
8. Scoop.
Iridet
;tomy.
1. Chloroform, if used.
9. Light curved scissors.
2. Head-fixer.
10. Lint.
3. Specula.
11. Gelatine plaster.
4. Toothed forceps.
12. Wool and bandage.
5. Bight-angled knives.
13. Atropine drops.
6. Iris forceps.
14. Small sponges and basin.
7. Iris hooks.
15. Hot and cold water.
g. Capsule scissors, if required.
HAB
R-LIP.
1. Scalpel.
11. Sponges.
2. Artery forceps, or s
harp hook.
12. Large towel to wrap the
3. Hare-lip pins.
child in.
4. Wire nippers.
•
13. Chloroform and inhaler.
5. Dentist's silk twist.
14. Bone nippers.
6. Strapping plaster.
15. Sequestrum forceps.
7. Silver suture.
16. A knitting needle ; and
8. Collodion.
17. Spirit lamp to check deep
9. Scissors.
hemorrhage by the actual
10. Cheek compressor.
cautery.
280
OPERATIONS ON THE HEAD.
RESECTION OP THE JAW, AND TUMOURS CONNECTED
WITH IT.
1. Scalpels.
16. Wire nippers.
2. Artery forceps.
17. Actual cautery.
3. Torsion forceps.
18. Perchloride of iron.
4. Ligatures.
19. Ice.
6. Retractors.
20. Sutures, silk and wire.
6. Tooth forceps.
21. Solution of chloride of zinc.
7. Narrow saw.
22. lint.
8. Hoy's saw.
23. Bandages.
9. Bone-cutting forceps.
24. Plaster.
10. Lion forceps.
25. Collodion.
11. Sequestrum forceps.
26. Mackintosh sheet.
12. Gouges.
27. Small sponges tied on sticks.
13. Chisel.
28. Larger sponges.
14. Gag.
29. Chloroform and inhaler.
15. Hare-lip pins.
EXCISION OF THE TONGUE.
1.
Scalpel.
19.
Needle for passing the chain.
2.
Torsion forceps.
20.
Sharp and blunt hooks.
3.
Artery forceps.
21.
Stout silk
4.
Vulsellum, or tongue forceps.
22.
Metallic sutures.
5.
Gag.
23.
Ligatures.
6.
Archimedian bone-drill.
24.
Ice.
7.
Cheek retractor.
25.
Perchloride of iron.
8.
Incisor tooth forceps.
26.
Cautery irons.
9.
Narrow saw.
27.
Solution of chloride of zinc.
10.
Nsbvus needle, and
28.
Collodion.
11.
Half a yard of thick whipcord.
29.
Small sponges mounted oi
12.
Stout copper wire.
sticks ; larger sponges.
13.
Key for twisting the wire
30:
Brandy.
tight
31.
Chloroform and inhaler.
14.
Wire nippers.
32.
Lint.
15.
Stout acupressure needle.
33.
Mackintosh sheet.
16.
Hare-lip pins.
34.
Syringe.
17.
Galvanic ecraseur.
35.
Laryngotomy tube, and
18.
Two ecraseurs.
Trendlenburg's bag.
OPERATIONS ON THE HEAD.
281
CLEFT PALATE.
1. Long-handled narrow-bladed i 8.
knife.
2. Fergusson's knife, for dividing
the palatine muscles.
3. Long-handled curved scissors.
4. Slender toothed forceps, to seize
the soft palate.
5. Long-handled needles, with the
eye at the point for passing
sutures.
6. Long-handled fine hooks, blunt
and sharp.
7. Smith's gag.
Smith's elevator, for the hard
palate.
9. Chisel for the hard palate.
10. Fine blue silk or catgut.
11. Long-handled ordinary straight
scissors.
12. Ice, ice-cold water.
13. Mackintosh sheet.
14. Sponges set on sticks.
15. Glass syringe for washing the
mouth.
16. Chloroform and inhaler.
17. Bandage.
EXCISION OF TONSILS.
1. Long vulsellum.
2. Tonsil guillotines ;
or, probe-pointed bistoury, the
posterior two-thirds of j the
blade covered with lint or
plaster ;
or, tonsil excisors of various
kinds.
3. Ice, ice-cold water.
4. Gag (for children).
To repress Haemorrhage from the Tonsils.
1. A small lump of ice held in
a long vulsellum against the
tonsil.
2. Small sponge on the end of a
stick, dipped in ice-cold
solution of perchloride of
iron, or other styptic.
3. Long straight polypus or gullet
4.
forceps with padded ends, to
compress the tonsil ; one
blade being passed within
the mouth, the other outside
against the neck.
For the apparatus for deli-
gating common carotid, see
p. 291.
LARYNGOTOMY IN THE CRICO-THYROID SPACE.
1. Scalpel.
2. Laryngotomy tube.
3. Artery forceps, and ligature
silk.
4. Torsion forceps.
5. Tapes.
6. Sharp and blunt hooks.
7. Two hooked forceps.
8. Sponges.
282
OPERATIONS ON THE HEAD.
TRACHEOTOMY.
1. Scalpel.
2. Dissecting forceps.
3. Blunt hooks.
4. Sharp hook to draw forward
trachea.
5. Double trachea tube and tapes.
6. Trachea-dilator, to assist intro-
duction of tube.
7. Torsion forceps.
8. Artery forceps.
9. Ligatures.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Sponges.
If a foreign body is lodged in
the windpipe, forceps of
various kinds to extract
with.
Probes and flexible No. 8 or 9
urethral bougie.
Strapping plaster.
Silver suture.
Scissors.
Mackintosh sheet.
INSTRUMENTS, &c., FOR THE FOLLOWING OPERATIONS
ABOUT THE TRUNK.
Removal of the Breast or
Tumours.
Njbvus.
Tapping: the Pleura.
Tapping the Belly,
colotomy.
Ovariotomy.
Gssarian Section.
Strangulated Hernia.
Radical Cure of Hernia.
Hemorrhoids.
Fistula in Ano.
Cleft Perinjeum.
Extirpation of the Cervix
Uteri.
Amputation of the Penis.
Circumcision.
Excision of Testis.
Tapping a Hydrocele.
Vesioo-Vaginal Fistula-
Retention of Urine.
External Urethrotomy.
Lithotomy.
Lithotrity.
Removing Foreign Bodies from
the Urethra and Bladder.
OPERATIONS ON THE TRUNK.
283
BJEMOVAL OF THE BREAST OR TUMOURS.
1. Scalpel.
11.
Lint.
2. Artery forceps.
12.
Diachylon plaster.
3. Torsion forceps.
13.
Oiled silk.
4. Dissecting forceps.
14.
Sponges.
5. Double hook, or vulsellum.
15.
Scissors.
6. Blunt and sharp hooks.
16.
Three-inch wide rollers.
7. Tenaculum.
17.
Folded towel compress.
8. Fine ligatures.
18.
Chloroform and inhaler.
9. Half-yard .of stout whipcord,
19.
Waterproof sheet.
for irremovable glands.
20.
Drainage tubes.
10. Wire or silk sutures.
N2BVUS.
For Ligature.
1. Naevus needles, straight and
curved.
2. Suture silk, stout compressed
whipcord.
3. Scalpel
4. Scissors.
5. Lint.
6. Chloroform and inhaler.
7. Sponge and water.
For Cauterising,
1. Acupressure needles.
2. Spirit lamp.
3. Galvanic cautery.
4. Gas cautery.
1. Scalpel.
2. Dissecting forceps.
3. Toothed forceps.
4. Blunt hooks.
5. Artery forceps.
6. Sharp hooks.
For Excising.
7. Ligature.
8. Lint.
9. Bandage.
10. Sponge.
11. Sutures.
12. Diachylon plaster.
284
OPERATIONS ON THE TRUNK.
NiEVUS— continued.
For Injecting.
1. Pravaz's injecting syringe. | 2. Solution of perchloride of iron.
For Patting Setont.
1. Small fine suture needles, or
2. Large handled needles.
3. Fine silk suture.
4. Coarse silk sutures, steeped in
perchloride of iron.
TAPPING THE PLEURA.
1. The aspirator.
2. Small scalpeL
3. Trocar, fitted with india-rubber
tube.
4. Bucket.
5. Lint.
6. Collodion.
7. Strapping.
8. Scissors.
9. Brandy.
10. Mackintosh sheet.
TAPPING THE BELLY.
1. Body bandage (see p. 11).
2. Scalpel.
3. Trocar, with india-rubber tube.
4. Suture.
5. Hare-lip pins.
15. Wire nippers.
7. Silk ligature.
8. Collodion.
9. Scissors.
10. Lint.
11. Bucket.
12. Diachylon plaster.
13. Brandy.
AMUSSAT'S OPERATION OP COLOTOMY AND GASTROTOMY.
1. Scalpel.
2. Probe-pointed bistoury.
3. Director.
4. Dissecting forceps.
5. Artery forceps.
6. Retractors.
7. Thick silk suture, threaded at
each end through a curved
needle.
8. Fine ligatures.
9. Sponges.
10. Lint.
11. Tow.
12. Oil
13. Mackintosh sheet.
14. Large syringe full of warm
water.
15. Chloroform and inhaler.
OPERATIONS ON THE TRUNK.
285
OVARIOTOMY.
1. Room raised to temperature
of 70° F.
2. ScalpeL
3. Clamp.
4. Vulcanised india-rubber tub-
ing, to fix on cannula.
5. Torsion forceps.
6. Artery forceps and ligatures.
7. Fine ligatures.
8. Broad retractors.
9. Blunt hooks.
10. Ovariotomy trocar.
11. Naevus needles, threaded.
12. Hare-lip pins.
13. Wire nippers.
14. Strong whipcord.
15. Silk sutures and silver wire.
16. Diachylon plaster.
17. Catheter for emptying the
bladder.
18. Soft napkins.
19. Bandage or laced napkin.
20. Chloroform and inhaler.
21. Cautery irons.
22. Silver pins.
23. Sponges (counted).
24. Cotton wool.
25. Warm flannels.
26. Brandy and ammonia.
27. Mackintosh sheets.
OESARIAN SECTION.
1. Room maintained at tempera-
ture of 70° F.
2. Catheter to empty bladder.
3. Large scalpel.
4. Straight probed-pointed bis-
toury.
5. Director.
6. Large blunt hooks.
7. Large syringe and vaginal
tube, for washing out uterus
per vaginam.
8. Artery forceps.
9. Ligatures, fine and stout whip-
cord.
10. Torsion forceps.
11. Hare-lip pins, stout and long.
12. Suture silk.
13. Fine sutures.
14. Folded linen compress.
15. Broad body roller.
16. Flannel.
17. Cotton wool.
18. Warm flannels.
19. Chloroform and inhaler.
20. Sponges (counted).
21 . Mackintosh sheets.
286
OPERATIONS ON THE TRUNK.
STRANGULATED HERNIA.
1. Scalpel.
2. Straight bistoury.
3. Probe-pointed bistoury.
4. Hernia knife.
5. Narrow director.
6. Broad director.
7. Dissecting forceps.
8. Blunt hooks.
9. Fine hook for a very tense sac.
10. Artery forceps.
11. Torsion forceps.
12. Probe.
13. Scissors.
14. Ligatures.
15. Sutures.
16. Lint.
17. Diachylon plaster.
18. Three-inch wide roller.
19. Compress.
20. Razor.
21. Sponges.
22. Half grain of morphia sup-
pository.
23. Chloroform and inhaler.
24. Mackintosh sheet.
25. Oil.
26. Aspirator.
WOOD'S OPERATION POR RADICAL CURE OP HERNIA.
1. Razor, or scalpel, for shaving
the groin.
2. Tenotomy knife.
3. Needle.
4. Compressed whipcord, well
waxed and soaped.
5. Glass or box-wood compress.
6. Two pads of lint.
7. Lint.
8. Bandage.
9. Scissors.
10. Sutures.
11. Collodion.
12. Sponges.
13. Chloroform and inhaler.
14. Oil.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
HEMORRHOIDS.
External, — Excision of.
1. Vulsellum, or hook, or ringed
forceps.
2. Knife-edged scissors curved on
the flat.
3. Artery forceps.
4. Torsion forceps.
5. Ligatures.
6. Lint and T'bandage.
7. Smith's clamp.
8. Cautery iron.
9. Oil.
10. Sponges.
11. Mackintosh sheet.
12. Opium suppository.
Internal.
Enema of warm water.
Hook, vulsellum, or ring forceps.
Thin compressed whipcord.
Neevus needles threaded, to
transfix the base of the pile.
Scissors.
Smith's clamp.
7. Ice.
8. Solid perchloride of iron.
9. Lint and cotton wool.
10. Opium suppository.
11. Oil.
12. Sponges.
13. Mackintosh sheet.
OPERATIONS ON THE TRUNK.
287
PROLAPSUS ANI.
The same as for haemorrhoids.
FISTULA IN ANO.
1. Probes of various sizes, some
grooved.
Director.
Probe-pointed curved bistoury.
Straight sharp-pointed bistoury.
Tenaculum.
Threaded curved needle set in
a handle.
7. Torsion forceps.
8. Artery forceps.
n
3.
4.
5.
6.
9. Stout ligature.
10. Cautery iron.
11. Lint, cotton wool.
12. Sponges.
13. Compress.
14. T-bandage.
15. Oil.
16. Chloroform and inhaler.
17. Mackintosh sheet.
18. Suppository.
CLEFT PERINEUM.
1. Scalpel.
2. Hooked forceps, or vulsellum.
3. Toothed forceps.
4. Curved nrevus needles,
threaded.
5. Stout whipcord, or stout silk.
6. Suture silk.
7. Wire suture.
| 8. Glass rods, or No. 12 bougies.
9. Collodion.
10. Lint.
11. Sponges, on handles.
12. Oil.
13. Chloroform and inhaler.
14. Catheter.
EXTIRPAfrON OF THE CERVIX UTERI.
1. Two hooked forceps, or long
vulsella.
2. Specula (bivalve and duck-bill).
3. Ecraseur.
4. Two wool holders.
5. Small sponges on sticks.
6. Scalpel.
7. Straight probe-pointed bis-
toury.
8. Bistoury curved on the flat.
9. Long-handled straight scissors.
10. Long-handled curved scissors.
11. Artery forceps.
12. Ligatures.
13. Hare-lip pins.
14. Dentists' silk.
15. Cautery irons.
16. Perchloride of iron.
17. Solution of chloride of zinc.
18. Ice.
19. Lint (if plugging necessary,
see p. 130).
20. Compressed sponge in pieces.
21. Soft silk handkerchief.
22. Cotton wool.
23. Suppository.
288
OPERATIONS ON THE TRUNK.
AMPUTATION OP THE PENIS.
1. Tape to tie round the root of
penis, or Clover's disk.
2. Straight bistoury.
3. Scalpel.
4. Artery forceps.
5. Torsion forceps.
6. Dissecting forceps.
7. Scissors.
8. Fine ligatures.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Fine suture, to fix the flap
mucous membrane of t
urethra.
Flexible catheter.
Lint.
Tape.
Ice.
Chloroform and inhaler.
Oil.
Mackintosh sheet.
CIRCUMCISION.
1. Small straight bistoury.
2. Polypus forceps.
3. Half -inch wide tape, or Clover's
disk.
4. Artery forceps.
5. Fine ligatures.
6. Silk suture.
7. Torsion forceps.
8. Scissors.
9. Lint.
10. Ice.
11. Chloroform and inhaler.
12. Mackintosh sheet.
13. Otis' coil-refrigerator.
EXCISION OF TESTIS.
1. Scalpel, or bistoury.
8. Scissors.
2. Large sharp hook.
9. Chloroform and inhaler
3. Blunt hooks.
10. Lint.
4. Stout whipcord.
11. Plaster.
5. Fine ligature.
12. Oiled silk.
6. Artery forceps.
13. Mackintosh sheet.
7. Sutures, silk or wire.
TAPPING AND INJECTING A HYDROCELE
1. Trocar.
2. Vulcanite syringe, with nozzle
to fit cannula.
3. Solution of iodine.
4. Suspender for the testicles.
5. Lint.
6. Collodion.
7. Plaster.
OPERATIONS ON THE TRUNK.
289
YESICO-VAGINAL FISTULA.
1. Duckbill speculum.
2. Scalpels set in long handles,
curved blades.
3. Long-handled curved scissors.
4. Long-handled forceps.
5. Long-handled hooked forceps.
6. Long-handled sharp hook.
7. Narrow curved spatula.
8. Needles to carry silver wire
suture.
9. Silver wire.
10. Probes.
11. Short curved needles, to carry
fine silk suture.
12. Needle holder.
13. Suture tightener.
14. Lead clamp.
15. Awl for perforating the clamp.
16. Clamp adjuster.
17. Split shot.
18. Forceps for placing and
pinching the shot.
19. Small sponges in holders.
20. Large sponges.
21. Sims' catheter.
22. Ice-cold water.
23. Syringe and flexible catheter
for injecting the bladder,
to test the perfect closure
of the fissure.
24. Chloroform and inhaler.
25. Oil.
26. Mackintosh sheet.
RETENTION OF URINE.
1. Flexible catheters (Nos. 8 to £),
(English and French).
2. Filiform bougies (No. \).
3. Silver catheters.
4. Long prostatic catheter.
5. Oil.
6. Glass syringe.
7. Injecting bottle.
8. Tapes and string.
9. Strapping plaster.
10. Scissors.
11. Trocar for tapping per rectum.
12. Tincture of opium.
13. Morphia suppository.
14. Chloroform and inhaler.
15. Hot bath.
EXTERNAL URETHROTOMY.
1. Scalpels.
2. Catheters, silver.
3. Catheters, flexible.
4. Four feet of india-rubber tubing
to fit catheter.
5. Probes, straight, and grooved
with flat handles.
6. Syme's shouldered narrowed
grooved staff ; or
7. Marshall's long jointed grooved
sound, with flexible catheter
sliding on it.
8. Curved director.
9. Lithotomy tapes or anklets.
10. Tapes.
11. Tenaculum.
12. Artery forceps.
13. Ligature.
14. Sponges.
15. Oil.
16. Ice.
17. Chloroform and inhaler.
18. Needles, threaded with blue-
silk.
290
APPENDIX.
LITHOTOMY.
1. Pair of lithotomy tapes or
anklets.
2. Sound.
8. Staff.
4. Lithotomy scalpels.
5. Forceps.
6. Scoops.
7. Searcher.
8. Four-ounce syringe with
bulbous nozzle.
9. Bistouri cach6.
10. Tubes with and without petti-
coats.
11. Artery forceps.
12. Tenaculum.
13. Ligatures.
14. Lint.
15. Half grain morphia suppo-
sitory.
16. Chloroform and inhaler.
17. (ML
18. Sponges.
19. Bandages and tape.
20. Gorget.
21. Lithotrite.
LITHOTBITY.
1. Lithotrites, fenestrated and
flat.
2. Hollow sound, with a short
beak.
3. Clover's apparatus for washing
out the bladder.
4. on.
5. Lithotrity catheters.
6. Urethral forceps.
7. Injecting bottle, with nozzle
to fit the hollow sound.
8. Half grain morphia suppo-
sitory.
9. Hot linseed poultice.
10. Firm bolster or pillow.
FOR REMOVING FOREIGN BODIES FROM THE URETHRA
AND BLADDER,
1.
Catheters, silver, flexible.
13. Charriere's hair-pin retractor,
2.
Sounds of different curves.
14. Charriere's bougie retractor.
3.
Bougies a boule.
15. Three-branched forceps. -
4.
Urethral forceps with long
16. Endoscope.
blades.
17. Oil.
5.
Fine dressing forceps.
18. Glass syringe.
6.
Fine polypus forceps.
19. Scalpel.
7.
Coxeter's urethral forceps.
20. Dissecting forceps.
8.
Urethral lithotrite forceps.
21. Hook.
9.
Hunter's tube forceps.
22. Artery forceps.
10.
Loop of wire set in long
23. Ligature.
handle.
24. Sutures.
11.
Leroy d'Etiolles' jointed scoop.
25. Tapes.
12.
Leroy's tube, and sliding
26. Sponges.
hook.
\ t l1 % Chloroform and inhaler.
AMPUTATIONS.
291
INSTRUMENTS FOR OPERATIONS ON THE LIMBS.
Ligature of the Larger Arte-
ries.
Resections of the Head of
the Humerus, Elbow, Hip,
and Knee.
Removal of Necrosed Bone.
Amputations at the Shoulder-
Joint, Arm, Forearm and
Wrist, Metacarpus ; Hip,
Thigh, and Leg, bt Syme's
and kchopart's operations.
Metatarsus.
LIGATURE OF THE LARGE ARTERIES.
I. Scalpel.
12. Artery forceps.
2. Grooved director.
13. Fine ligatures.
3. Dissecting forceps.
14. Sutures.
4. Broad grooved director.
15. Scissors.
5. Probe.
16. Sponges on sticks.
6. Blunt hooks.
17. larger sponges. *
7. Metallic retractors.
18. Strapping.
8. Aneurism needle.
19. Lint.
9. Ditto, helix curve.
20. Bandage.
10. Waxed compressed whipcord.
21. Chloroform and inhaler
11. Tourniquet.
22. Mackintosh sheet.
RESECTION OF THE SHOULDER.
1. Scalpels.
13. Key to compress the
2. Saw (Irish bow-saw).
clavian artery.
3. Retractors.
14. Cautery iron.
4. Lion forceps.
15. Wire nippers.
5. Blunt hooks.
16. Lint.
6. Artery forceps.
17. Bandages.
7. Torsion forceps.
18. Strapping.
8. Tenacula.
19. Oiled silk.
9. Acupressure needles.
20. Sponges.
10. Linen retractors.
21. Mackintosh sheet.
11. Ligatures.
22. Chloroform and inhaler.
12. Sutures.
23. Drainage tubes
-a^
sub-
292
APPENDIX.
RESECTION OP THE ELBOW.
1. Straight bistoury.
13. lint.
2. Retractors.
14. Oiled skin.
3. Blunt hooks.
15. Bandages.
4. Bow-saw.
16. Strapping.
5. Probes.
17. Sponges.
0. Gouges.
18. Mackintosh sheet.
7. Torsion forceps.
19. Angular splint to support the
8. Artery forceps.
arm.
9. Lion forceps.
20. Chloroform and inhaler.
10. Bone forceps.
21. Tourniquet ;
11. Ligatures.
or, Esmarch's elastic band.
12. Sutures.
22. Drainage tubes.
RESECTION OP THE UPPER END OP THE FEMUR.
1. Strong bistoury.
14. Ligatures.
2. Probe-pointed bistoury.
15. Sutures.
3. Long probes.
16. Bandages.
4. Bow-saw.
17. Lint.
5. Retractors.
18. Sponges.
6. Blunt hooks.
19. Straight bracketed long splint
7. Narrow linen retractor.
and pads.
8. Gouges and chisels.
20. Chloroform and inhaler.
9. Bone forceps.
21. Mackintosh sheet.
10. Artery forceps.
22. Esmarch's elastic band.
11. Torsion forceps.
23. Cautery iron.
12. Lion forceps.
24. Drainage tubes.
13. Tenaculum.
RESECTION OF THE KNEE.
1. Straight bistoury.
13. Sutures.
2. Scalpels.
14. Tourniquet ; or,
3. Metallic retractors.
Esmarch's elastic band.
4. Bow-saw.
15. Sponges.
5. Gouges.
16. Lint.
6. Chisels.
17. Bandages.
7. Artery forceps.
18. Oiled sik.
8. Torsion forceps.
19. Mcln tyre's splint and pads
9. Lion forceps.
20. Chloroform and inhaler.
10. Acupressure needle.
21. Cautery iron.
11. Tenaculum.
22. Drainage tubes.
12. Ligatures.
1
AMPUTATIONS. 293
REMOVING
NECROSED BONE.
1. Scalpels.
15. Tenaculum.
2. Straight and curved
bis-
16. Torsion forceps.
touries with sharp
and
17. Acupressure needles.
probe points.
18. Ligatures.
3. Long and short probes.
19. Sutures.
4. Directors.
20. Lint and cotton wool.
5. Retractors.
21. Sponges.
6. Gouges.
22. Bandages.
7. Chisels.
23. Oiled silk.
8. Bone forceps (various).
24. Mackintosh sheet.
9. Gouge forceps.
25. Chloroform and inhaler.
10. Sequestrum forceps.
26. Tourniquet ; or, Esmarch's
11. Lion forceps.
elastic band.
12. Osteotrites.
27. Cautery iron.
33, Trephine.
28. Drainage tubes.
14. Artery forceps.
AMPUTATION AT
TH
E SHOULDER JOINT.
1. Long amputating knife.
10. Bandages.
2. Artery forceps.
11. Lint and cotton wool.
3. Fine ligatures, stout ligatures.
12. Oiled silk.
4. Tenaculum.
13. Sponges.
5. Acupressure needles.
14. Cautery irons.
6. Needle nippers.
15. Ice.
7. Key to compress subclavian
16. Mackintosh sheet.
artery.
17. Chloroform and inhaler.
8. Sutures.
18. Drainage tubes.
9. Diachylon plaster.
AMPUTATION
OF THE ARM.
1. Tourniquet; or,
14. Bandages.
Esmarch's elastic band.
15. Wadding.
2. Amputating knife.
16. Straight splints.
3. Saw.
17. Sponges.
4. Artery forceps.
18. Mackintosh sheet.
5. Torsion forceps.
19. Chloroform and inhaler.
6. Ligatures.
20. Cautery iron.
7. Sutures.
21. Drainage tubes.
8. Tenaculum.
9. Acupressure needles .
If a circular amputation —
10. Wire nippers.
11. Diachylon plaster.
22. Split linen retractor ; and
12. Lint.
23. Round-pointed straight-edged
13. Oiled silk.
knife.
294
APPENDIX.
AMPUTATION OF THE
FOREARM AND WRIST.
1. Tourniquet ; or,
10. Sutures.
Esmarch's elastic band.
11. Lint.
2. Large bistoury, or small am-
12. Wool.
putating knife.
13. Splints.
3. Torsion forceps.
14. Bandages.
4. Artery forceps.
15. Oiled silk.
5. Saw.
16. Sponges.
6. Acupressure needles.
17. Mackintosh sheet.
7. Needle nippers.
18. Chloroform and inhaler.
8. Tenaculum.
19. Drainage tubes.
9. Fine ligatures.
AMPUTATION OF METACARP
AL BONES AND PHALANGES.
1. Tourniquet ; or,
10. Narrow bandage.
Esmarch's elastic band.
11. Wadding.
2. Narrow-bladed bistoury.
12 . Splint to support the arm and
3. Bone pliers.
hand.
4. Lion forceps.
13. Bandage.
5. Torsion forceps.
14. Lint.
6. Artery forceps.
15. Oiled silk.
7. Fine ligatures.
16. Mackintosh sheet.
8 . Small sutures.
17. Sponges.
9. Diachylon plaster.
18. Chloroform and inhaler.
AMPUTATION AT THE HIP JOINT.
1. Lister's aorta compressor ; or,
Esmarch's elastic band.
Long hip knife.
Scalpel.
Artery forceps.
Stout and fine ligatures.
Torsion forceps.
7. Tenaculum.
8. Acupressure needles.
Needle nippers.
A bone-holder or lion forceps,
if the bone is too short to
Lold by the hand.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
9.
10.
11. Silk and silver sutures.
12. Lint.
13. Diachylon plaster.
14. Sponges.
15. Bandages.
16. Cotton wool.
17. Ice.
18. Chloroform and inhaler.
19. Mackintosh sheet.
20. Drainage tubes.
\
AMPUTATIONS.
295
AMPUTATION OP THE THIGH AND LEG.
1. Tourniquet ; or,
17. Bandages.
Esmarch's elastic band.
18. Oiled silk.
2. Amputating knife.
19. Cautery iron.
3. Scalpel.
20. Ice.
4. Bone forceps.
21. Sponges.
5. Saw.
22. Mackintosh sheet.
6. Bone pliers.
23. Chloroform and inhaler.
7. Torsion forceps.
24. Drainage tubes.
8. Artery forceps.
9. Stout and fine ligatures.
In a circular amputation —
10. Sutures.
25. A round pointed knife.
11. Tenaculum.
26. A linen retractor split into
12. Diachylon plaster.
two tongues for the thigh,
13. Hair-lip pins.
and three for the leg, the
14. Wire nippers.
centre one being well
15. Lint.
waxed.
16. Cotton wool.
AMPUTATION AT THE ANKLE AND FOOT.
(Si/me'tand Chopart'8 Operations.)
1. Tourniquet; or,
Esmarch's elastic band.
2. Strong bistoury.
3. Strong scalpel (Syme's)
4. Saw.
5. Lion forceps.
6. Bone pliers.
7. Artery forceps.
8. Torsion forceps.
9. Tenaculum.
10. Acupressure needles.
11. Wire nippers.
12. Cautery iron.
13. Diachylon plaster.
14. Sutures.
15. Lint.
16. Bandages.
17. Oiled silk.
18. Wool.
19. Sponges.
20. Chloroform and inhaler.
21. Mackintosh sheet.
22. Drainage tubes.
296
APPENDIX.
AMPUTATION OF THE METATABSAL BONES AND TOES.
I. Tourniquet; or,
9. Needle nippers.
Esmarch's elastic band.
10. Artery forceps.
2. Straight bistoury.
11. ligatures.
3. Lion's tooth, or sequestrum
12. Sutures.
forceps.
13. Cautery iron.
4. Narrow saw.
14. Diachylon plaster.
5. Bone pliers.
15. lint and wool.
6. Tenaculum.
16. Bandages.
7. Torsion forceps.
17. Mackintosh sheet.
8. Acupressure needles.
18. Chloroform and inhaler.
INDEX.
Abdomen, landmarks of, 233.
regions of, 237.
Abdominal support, ix.
Abscess, of axilla, 228.
of spine, 230.
near wrist, 259.
Acromion, fracture of, 56.
Air-bath, the hot, 161.
Angular splint, 47.
union, 78.
Ankle, bony landmarks of, 27a
strapping the, 28.
Anterior temporal artery, guide to,
2x2.
tibial artery, 268.
Antiseptic dressing, 179 — 190.
Anus, 246.
parts felt within, 247.
Aorta, abdominal, 241.
arch of, 226.
orifice of, 225.
Arch, palmar, wound of, 17.
Arm, landmarks of, 251.
Artificial nipples, 13a
respiration, 201.
Ascites, bandage for, 11.
Aspirator, the, 162.
Astragalus, head of, 271.
Auditory canal, 2x3.
Auricles, position of, 225.
B.
Bandages, x.
arm, 17.
belly, 11.
bleeding jugular vein, 8.
breast, 9.
elbow, 16.
fingers, 14.
- foot, 21.
- groin, 10.
hand, 15.
head, 4.
heel, 22.
— — knee, 23.
leg, 22.
many-tail, 24
plaster of parts, 90
scultetus, 24.
shoulder, 17.
spica, xo, 15,
- starch, 85.
stump, 23.
thumb, 15.
toe, 23.
Band box cradle, 94.
Bath, the hot air, 161.
— - the vapour, 162.
Bed, the floating, 146.
— — the sick, 276.
Bedsores, 145.
Belloc's sound, 125.
Belly, bandage for, xx.
Bladder, ice, 8.
298
INDEX.
Bladder, washing oat the, 142. |
Bleeding, capping, 165.
at elbow, 19.
leech bites, z6&
socket of tooth, 130.
tape, 19.
Blisters, 175.
Block for Mclntyre's splint, 66.
Blood, transfusion of, 15a
Bloodless operations, 154.
Boracic add, 187. .
Boogies, 134, 140.
Bread poultice, 177.
cold, 178.
Breast, strapping the, 25.
Bryant's rule, 263.
Bulbous ended catheter, 133, 135.
C.
Calcaneum, separation of the epi-
physis of, 60.
Calf, surface marks of, 268.
Calomel fumigation, 159.
Cantharides, 175.
Cap for shoulder, 53.
Capelline bandage, 6.
Carbolic acid dressing, 179.
Casting in plaster of paris, 116,
Catheters, 133, 140.
coudS, 140.
passing, 136.
in the female, 141.
tying in, 144.
Caustics, 174.
Cauteries, 173.
Cautery irons, 173.
galvanic, 174.
Cerebrum, level of, 211.
Chassaignac's drainage tubes, 167.
Chloroform, administration of, 193.
in dislocations, 99.
to the uterus, 305.
Chopart'8 amputation, landmarks
for, 272.
Clavicle as a landmark, 223.
dislocation of, zoo.
fracture of the, 56.
ring pad for, 57.
figure of 8 for, 59.
Clove hitch, the, 103.
Clover's apparatus, 198.
inhaler, 195, 197-
Costiac axis, position of, 241.
Coin-catcher, 147.
Cold injection, 122.
irrigation, 191.
Cones' fracture, 38.
Collodion, 207.
Colon, position at, 239.
Common carotid artery. 220.
Co m po u nd fracture, openings in
splints for, 92.
Compress, graduated, 18.
Conformation of urethra, 136.
Continuous extension, 82, 84.
Corrigan's hammer, 175.
Coude catheter, 140.
Coxeter*s elastic perineal band, 77.
Cradles, 94.
band box, 94.
canopy, 94.
Salter's, 65.
Cranial region, 2x1.
Cricoid cartilage, 2x8.
Crico-hyoid membrane, 2x8.
Cupping, bleeding, 165.
dry, 163.
Cushions, water, 147.
D.
Delirious patients, manacles for, 12.
Diaphragm, attachment of, 228.
Difficulties in passing catheters, 137.
Disjunction of articular surfaces, 46.
Dislocations, 99.
clavicle, 100.
elbow, 106.
distinction from frac-
ture of, 46.
fingers, 107.
foot, 115.
hip, z«8.
reduction by ma-
nipulation, 1 xx,
112, 114.
knee, 114.
- lower jaw, 99.
— — shoulder, xox.
V thumb, 107
INDEX.
299
Distribution of nerves, 231.
Domett's flannel roller, z.
Dorsal artery of foot, 271.
Double inclines, 81.
slung, 82.
Drainage tubes, 167, 182.
Drawing teeth, 125.
Drops for eye, 120.
Dry cupping, 163.
Drying starch bandages, 89.
Ductus ad nasuxn, 2x5.
Duodenum, position of, 239.
Dupuytren's splint, 61.
E.
Ears, syringing the, 120.
Eight, figure of, 4.
Eighteen-tail bandage, 24.
Elastic extension, 77.
perineal band, 77.
socks, 24.
stirrup, 76.
Elbow, bandaging the, 16.
dislocation at, 106.
fracture near, 46.
landmarks of, 252.
Elevator, 129.
Emplastrum lyttae, 175.
Epigastric artery, 243.
Epiphysis of Os Caleis, separation of
the, 60.
Epispasticus, liquor, 175.
Epistaxis, 122.
Esmarch's elastic bandage, 154.
irrigator, 192.
Essentials of a truss, 70.
Ether, administering, 197.
— — spray, 204.
Extension in fractures, 84.
in hip disease, 84.
in the long splint, 74.
by weight and pulley, 84.
External abdominal ring, 242.
— — auditory passage, 213.
— — carotid artery, 213.
jugular vein, 221.
— — malleolus, 270.
- plantar artery, 271.
Eye douche, 119.
——drops, 120.
P.
Face, landmarks of, 2x3.
Facial artery, 2x4.
Feeding by the stomach pump, 148.
Female, passing catheter for, 141.
Femoral hernia, 244.
truss, 169.
Femur, fracture of, 74.
Fibula, fracture of, 6b.
Fifth metatarsal bone as a landmark,
27a
Figure of 8, turn, 4.
Fingers, bandaging, 14.
dislocation of, X07.
— — splint for, 36.
- surface-marks of, 260.
Flannel rollers, 1, 91.
Flexible catheters, 133, 140.
Floating bed, 146.
Fold of the groin, 245.
Fomentations, 178.
Fontanelles, 2x2.
Foot, bandaging the, 21.
dislocation of the, 115.
— — landmarks of, 270.
Forceps, tooth, 126.
bicuspid, 126.
— — incisor, X26.
molar, 128.
Forearm, bandaging the, x6.
landmarks of, 255, 257.
Four-tail bandage, 8.
Fractures, 31.
acromion, 56.
clavicle, 56.
- Colles', 38.
elbow, 46.
— — femur, shaft of, 74.
— - fibula, 60.
— — forearm, 42.
humerus, neck of, 54.
shaft of, 50.
- — lower end of, 46.
great tuberosity
of, 55-
300
INDEX.
Fractures, jaw, 31.
metacarpal bones, 36.
olecranon, 44.
os calcis, 60.
patella, 7a
pelvis, 35.
phalanges, 37.
radius, 38, 45.
rib, 34.
tibia, 62.
transverse ditto, 68.
ulna, 43.
French bulbous ended catheters, 133.
Fumigation, 158.
general, 159.
local, 160.
G.
Gao, for stomach-pump, 148.
Gall bladder, position of, 239.
Galvanic cautery,. 174.
Gauntlet for fractured radius, 41.
Gauze, wire, 47.
General rules, 1.
Glove for metacarpal bones, 36.
Gluteal artery, 263.
furrow, 262.
Graduated compress, 18.
Great trochanter as a landmark, 261.
Groin, spica for, xo.
landmarks of, 244.
Gum and chalk, 93.
Gustatory nerve, guide for cutting,
2x6.
Gutta-percha, 31, 40, 49, 53.
H.
HAEMORRHAGE, aiTOSt Of, 277.
from the tonsils, 281.
Hair suture, 119.
Ham, 266.
Hammer, Corrigan's, 175.
Hand, bandaging the, 15.
Handle for extending the thumb,
107.
Head-bandage, 4.
Head, ice bladder for, 8.
— landmarks of, 211.
Heart, area of, 224.
Heel, to bandage the, 22.
Hernia, 242, 244.
spica, 10.
trusses for, 168.
Hip-disease, extension in, 84.
dislocation, 108.
splint, 95.
surface marks of, 260.
Hitch, the clove, 103.
Hollow in front of elbow, 253.
Horizontal position in fractured
clavicle, 56.
Horseshoe splint, 68.
tourniquet, 155.
Hot air bath, 161.
fomentations, 178.
— — water cushions, 179.
How to hold a roller, 2.
Hyoid bone, 2x8.
Ice bladders on head, 8.
cold injections, 122.
Iliac arteries, 241.
Improvised tourniquet, 154.
Incline, double, 81.
* slung, 83.
India-rubber coil, 192.
Inguinal hernia, 242.
Injecting bottle, 142.
■ syringe, 121.
chloroform to the uterus
205.
- the urethra, 132.
Injection, subcutaneous, 205.
Instruments, lists of, 273—296.
Interdental splints, 34.
Internal abdominal ring, 242. .
jugular vein, 220.
malleolus, 270.
— — mammary artery, 228.
saphena vein, position of,
268.
Iodine blisters, 175.
V
INDEX.
SOI
Irrigation, 191.
Irri ator, Esmarch's, 192.
Irritants, 75.
Ischiatic artery, 263.
Issues, 168.
Isthmus thyroideae, 219.
J.
Jacket, strait, 12.
Jaw, fracture of, 31.
Joints, strapping, 27.
Jugular vein, bandage for, 8.
Kidney, position of, 240.
Kite's tail plug, 131.
Knee, bandage for, 23.
dislocation of, 114.
surface marks, 264.
Knee-pan, fracture of, 70.
Knotted bandage, 5.
L.
L-shaped splint for arm, 8.
Lachrymal sac, guide to, 214.
Lamp for air bath, 161.
Landmarks, 21 z.
Large intestine, position of, 239.
Lateral sinus, 211.
splints for the tibia, 67.
Leather splints, 94.
— for hip, 96.
Leeches, 65.
to make them bite, 166.
to stop the bites, 166.
- in the mouth, 165.
at the cervix uteri, 165.
Left ventricle, position of, 225.
Leg, bandage for, 22.
surface marks of, 267.
Linea alba, 235.
operations in, 237.
Linseed poultice, 176.
Lister's dressing, 179.
Lister's tourniquet, 157.
Liston's long splint, 74.
Lists of instruments, 273—296.
Lithotomy position, 144.
Liver, position of, 238.
Local anaesthesia, 205.
Long splint, 74. '
Longitudinal sinus, 212.
Lower extremity, surface marks of,
260.
Lower jaw, fracture of, 31.
Lungs, surface guides for, 226.
M.
Mc Iktyre's splint, 64.
Makeshift tourniquet, 154.
Manacles for delirious patients, 13.
Many-tail bandage, 24.
Marshall Hall's method, 201.
Materials for rollers, 1.
Mayor's double incline, 81.
Membrana tympani, 2x3.
Mercurial fumigation, 158.
ointment, 29.
Middle meningeal artery, guide to,
212.
Millboard for splints, 87.
Mitral of orifice, 225.
Mixing plaster, 116.
Mouth, cavity of, 215.
parts to be felt in, 216.
parts to be seen in, 2x5.
Muslin rollers for plaster of paris, 91.
Mustard poultices, 175.
N.
Nape of neck, 222.
Nares, plugging the, 122.
Nasal douche, 120.
Neck of humerus, fracture of, 52.
surface guides of, 2x7.
Nehtton's line, 261.
Nipple, position of, 223.
shields, 130.
Nose, cavity of, 214.
1 parts to be seen in, 3x4.
302
INDEX.
O.
Occipital artery, 213.
Olecranon, fracture of, 44.
Omentum, position of, 240.
Omohyoid muscle, 221.
Operating room, the, 275.
08 uteri, leeches to, 166.
Palm, surface marks of, 259.
Palmar arch, wound of, 17.
Pancreas, position of, 240.
Paraffine, 93.
Paris, bandages of plaster of, 89.
plaster of, casting in, 116.
— splints of, 87.
Parotid duct, guide to, 2x4.
Passing catheters, 136.
Pasteboard splints, 87.
Patella, dislocation of the, 1x5.
fracture of the, 70.
■ starch bandage for, 73.
— — back splint for, 71.
as a landmark, 264.
Pelvis, fracture of the, 35.
Perineal band, 77.
Perineum, landmarks of, 245.
Peronei, tendons of, 269.
Petit's tourniquet, 153.
Phalanges, broken, 37.
Pharynx, parts to be felt in, 217.
Pirogoff'8 amputation, landmarks for,
272.
Pistol splint, 38.
Plugging nares, 122.
— vagina, 130.
Points for vaccine, 207.
Polypi, starting point of, 2x5.
Pomum adami, 2x7.
Popliteal space, surface marks of,
2x6.
Position of bandager, 1.
for lithotomy, 144.
Posterior tibial artery, 269.
Poultice, 176,
bread, 177.
linseed, 176.
Poultice, mustard, 175.
— — starch, 178.
Pubes, dislocation on, 113.
— — as a landmark, 242.
Pudic artery, position of, 263.
Pulley, extension by weight, 84.
Pulleys, for dislocation, 108.
Pulmonic opening, 226.
Pulverised fluids, 204.
Pump, the stomach, 148.
Pylorus, position of, 238.
R.
Radial artery at wrist, 257.
Ranine vessels, 216.
Removing a starch bandage, 88.
— - a plaster of paris bandage,
89.
bodies from urethra, in-
struments for, 290.
Respiration, artificial, 201.
Restoratives, 277.
Reverse turn, 3.
Rib, roller for, 35.
strapping, 35.
Richardson's spray producer, 203.
Right ventricle, position of, 225.
Ring pad, 58.
Rollers, how to hold, 2.
— — varieties of, 1.
muslin, for plaster of paris,
90.
Rules, general, 1.
Ruptured tendo achillis, 60.
S.
Salicylic acid, 188.
Salter's cradle, 65.
Sand bags, 92.
Saphenous opening, landmark for,
244.
Scarificator, 163.
Scarpa's shoes, 1x5.
Scotch sheet for long splint, 80.
Scott's bandage 29.
^CNtoaXXX, <SO05V5akfc q£ , 243.
V
INDEX.
303
cultetus, bandage of, 24.
Second costal cartilage, 224.
Sedatives, 277.
Separation of epiphysis of the os
calcis, 60.
Separation of lower end of humerus.
46.
Setons, 167.
Shawl cap, 7.
Shot-bag weight, 84.
Shoulder, bandage for, 17.
cap, 53.
dislocation at, xoi.
surface-marks of, 249.
Signoroni's tourniquet, 155.
Silicate of soda, 93.
Silver catheters, 133, 136.
Silvester's method, 202.
Skull, thickness of, 2x2.
Slinging a starch bandage, 89.
Slung double incline, 83.
Sock, elastic, 24.
Socket, a bleeding, 30.
Solar plexus, 241.
Sore nipples, 30.
Sores, bed, 145.
Sound, Belloc's, 123.
Sounds, 134.
Spica for groin, 10.
shoulder, 17.
for thumb, 15.
Spinal nerves, origin of, 231.
Spines, as land-marks, 230.
Spiral coil, 192.
turn, 3.
Spleen, position of, 240.
Splint, the long, 74.
• the hip, 95.
Spray producer, 203.
Starch bandage, 85.
time of applying, 85.
poultice, 178.
rollers, 90.
Sternal notch, 224.
Sterno-clavicular joint, 224.
Sterno-mastoid muscle, 219.
Sternum, as a landmark, 224.
first joint of, 224.
Stirrup extension, 77.
Stockings, elastic, 24.
Stocking-web rollers, 1.
Stomach, position of, 238.
pump, the, 146.
Strait jacket, 12.
Strapping, 25.
ankle, 27.
the breast, 25.
joints, 27.
— — with mercurial
ointment, 29.
ribs, 35.
— — testes, 26.
ulcers, 27.
Strictures of the urethra, 138.
Stromeyer's cushion, 5a
Stump, bandaging a, 23.
extending, 23,
Stumps, extracting, 129.
ubclavian artery, 220, 223.
" vein, 224.
Subcutaneous injection, 205.
Superior mesenteric artery, 241.
Superior thyroid artery, 217.
Supporting interdental splints, 34.
Supra-orbital artery, guide to, 212.
vessels, 2x3.
Surface guides, 2x1.
Suspending the testes, 13.
Sustentaculum tali, 270.
Syme's amputation, landmarks for,
272.
Syringing the ears, 12a
T.
T-BANDAGE, II.
Taking off a starch bandage, 89.
— - plaster of paris, 92.
Tape for bleeding, 20.
Tapping, bandage for, xx.
the chest, guides for, 229.
Temporal artery, 212.
Tendo achillis, ruptured, 60.
Tenotomy in club foot, 269.
Tents, 167.
Testes, strapping, 26.
suspending, 13.
Testing e. trus*^ t&v
304
INDEX.
Tetanus, to feed in, 2x6.
Thorax, surface guide of, 223.
Thumb, bandage for, 14.
dislocation of, 107.
Thyro-hyoid membrane, 2x8.
Thyroid tumours, 210.
Tibia, fractures of, 68.
Tibialis anticus, tendon of, 269.
posticus, tendon of, 269.
Toe, bandaging a, 23.
Tongue-tie, to cut, 216.
nails, bleeding, 281.
mode of lancing, 2x3.
Tooth drawing, 125.
Torcular herophili, 211.
urniquets, 153.
abdominal, 157.
Carte's, 156.
horseshoe, 155.
makeshift, 154.
Petit's, 153.
ring, 156.
Signoroni's, 155.
Tracheotomy, 2x9.
Transfusion of blood, 150.
Tricuspid orifice, 225.
Trunk, bandaging the, 9.
T russes, 168, 173.
measuring for, 171.
— — femoral, 169.
«— — inguinal, 169.
— — umbilical, 173.
Salmon & Ody's, 172.
Tubercle of scaphoid, 270.
os calcis, 27a
Tubes, drainage, 182.
Tumours of neck, 221.
Tying for lithotomy, 144.
in a flexible catheter, 144.
in a silver catheter, 143.
U.
Ulcers, strapping^.
Ulnar artery at wrist, 258.
Union, angular, 78.
Upper extremity, landmarks of, 249.
Urethra, confirmation of, 136.
injecting the, 132.
Urethral syringe, 132.
Uterus, enlargement of, 237.
V.
Vaccination, 207.
Vapina, plugging the, 130.
Vapour bath, the, 162.
Varieties of turns, 3.
— of splints for the elbow, 47.
Venisection, 19, 253.
Vesicants, 175.
Vesicle in vaccination, 209.
Vienna paste, 174.
Vulcanised india-rubber catheter,
134-
W.
Waistcoat, strait, X2.
Washing out the bladder, 142.
Water-bed, 146.
can weight, 85.
cushion, 147.
Weight for pulley, 85.
Wire gauze splints, 51.
Wool cotton, 15.
Wound of palmar arch, 17. -
opening in splint for, 93.
Wrist, landmarks of, 255.
Z.
Zinc, chloride of, 186.
THE END.
BRADBURX, MHTCW, & CO., RIOTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
WORKS PUBLISHED BY SMITH, ELDER, ft GO.
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zh | N/A | N/A | **本刊讯11月20日，安徽少儿出版社主办的童话大师托芙·扬松诞辰百年纪念文集”暨”国际安徒生奖大奖书系”新书推介会在上海举行。**
**安徽少儿出版社社长张克文介绍说，"童话大师托芙·扬松诞辰百年纪念文集”是安少社为纪念世界著名奇幻文学大师托芙·扬松诞辰100周年而精心策划推出的精品图书。这一译介出版工程历时两年，为了保持作品的原汁原味，安少社此次将推出自瑞典语直接翻译的托芙·扬**
**松作品，这在国内尚属首次。该套文集涵盖了4部文学作品和1部个人传记，是目前国内唯一引进的托芙·扬松的个人传记，为童话大师诞辰100周年送上了 _—_ \-份特殊的礼物。托芙·扬松曾于1966年获得国际安徒生奖，出版其作品是安少社对此前重磅推出的”国际安徒生奖大奖书系”的丰富和补充。**
**安少社总编辑徐凤梅对该文集的酝酿和出版准备、上市发布时间以及相关内容作了详细介绍，与会专家对这一深**
浙少社：中国原创绘本精品系列”走出国门
**本刊讯 (记者缪立平)11月20日，浙江少年儿童出版社与英国若意文化，就“中国原创绘本精品系列”中的《晒龙袍的六月六》《水与墨的故事》签订版权输出合约。据浙少社社长汪忠介绍，”中国原创绘本精品系列”自2010年1月正式启动到现在，已出版23册，是一套经历时间沉淀的丛书，集合了多位如蔡皋、姚红、周翔、陶文杰、周合、梁培龙、熊亮、唐云辉等国内著名插图画家以及冰波、任溶溶、郑春华、向华等名作家的代表作品。丛书的出版理念”中国故事、世界表达”并不是单纯的图书出版，而是将作者资源、作品资源、编辑资源三项优势联合起来，以全新的方式对外推广中国文化。**
**据介绍，浙少社近年来不仅专注于国内市场，也致力于中国出版走出去，通过纸质图书版权走出去：每年输出数十种图书到海外，保持着稳定的势头，正努力重点开拓非华语地区版权输出；通过数字出版走出去：创新出版思路，打开合作渠道，积极探索走出去数字出版新模式；通过文化创意走出去：依托社内子公司平台，拓展落实形式多样的文化创意走出去项目。**
2014年全国大中专教材公共论坛” _”在_ 在京举办
**本刊讯 (记者缪立平)11月28日，中国出版集团公司、中国新华书店协会、《全国大中专教学用书汇编》编委会主办，新华书店总店承办的”2014年全国大中专教材公共论坛”在北京举行。**
**中国新闻出版研究院副院长范军，中国职教学会教学工作委员会常务理事刘晨，北京英捷特数字出版技术有限公司总裁孙赫男，中国新华书店协烩常务副理事长、新华书店总店总经理茅院生，电子工业出版社教育综合出版部主任郝黎明等嘉宾分别就”严把职业教育教材出版发行关””职业教育的发展与教材建设””从碎片中挖掘版权价值——高等教育内容素材的复用”“互联网时代教材采选模式的创新”“教材数字化的探索”等主题做了主旨报告，为行业贡献了智慧与思想。会上还发布了由新华书店总店信息中心编制的《2004-2014中国职业教育教材发展报告》，报告从职业教育发展环境、教材建设、发行渠道等角度剖析数据内涵，展示中国职业教育、教材近年来的发展历程，为行业发展提供参考和依据。**
**论坛上，新华书店总店与共建企业签署了”全国大中专教材网络采选系统”战略合作协议，通过共建共享，让数字化、网络化的教材采选平台与资源、渠道实现对接。**
**具文学价值和出版分量的出版工程给予高度评价。**
**从”国际安徒生奖大奖书系”到“童话大师托芙·扬松诞辰百年纪念文集" ，安少社坚持不遗余力地促进中外儿童文学交流，将世界上最优秀的儿童文学作品推荐给中国读者和儿童文学创作、出版、研究领域的专业人士。这些图书的推出对推动中国儿童阅读，丰富文学视野、提升艺术品位无疑将产生重要的作用。 (张怡)**
**北京出版集团：利用书展开拓东南亚市场**
**本刊讯 11月21日至30日，北京出版集团携500种2000余册优秀图书参加了马来西亚第十六届书香世界中华书展，这是北京出版集团继2013年在新西兰举办”北京出版集团精品图书展”后，再次组团参展国外图书展示展销活动，并举办了形式多样、 _内_ 容丰富的文化活动，其中”北京出版集团走读健康海外行”是文化交流活动的重头戏之一。著名中医专家张秀勤、张雪亮为马来西亚、新加坡两地热爱中医药文化的人士，带去了”刮出健康来——做自己的健康专家”和“养生需要私人订制”的健康专题讲座，并在马来西亚的重要媒体进行了广泛宣传报道。**
**在谈到集团在马来西亚、新加坡为什么举办”走读健康海外行”活动时，北京出版集团副总经理李清霞告诉记者，”2013年夏天，北京出版集团作为主宾省入驻南国书香节，京版图书和期刊深受读者喜爱，尤其是举办的走读健康-—京版集团健康专家宣讲团广东行'多场讲座广受欢迎，也引起了马来西亚出版商、新加坡零售书店的极大关注。经过双方一年多的共同努.力，促成了这次文化交流”。(毛雷)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **房地产企业成本管理的不足及管控策略**
**石晓霞**
(上海市黄浦第一房屋征收服务事务所有限公司，上海2200025)
摘要：2021年，我国楼市政策不断收紧，房地产行业增速减缓。分析房地产的现状及发展趋势，房地产市场将会继续分化，且逐步迈进多元化经营时代，加上各种新技术、新理念的涌现，也为房企增强核心竞争力提供更多可能。在当前经济形势下，国家针对房地产行业出台了一系列政策文件，在政策的加持下房地产企业迎来新的挑战，也面临着经济高质量发展带来的新机遇。成本管理是房地产企业内部管理体系的重要组成之一，与企业经营发展密切联系，但现如今以一味压缩成本为核心的传统成本管理模式显然不再适用，难以满足我国房企稳步实现营销目标、扩大利润空间的实际需求。要想在挑战和机遇并存的环境下得以稳定运营与长足发展，加强成本管理尤为重要，只有创新成本管理模式，将各项目成本费用支出加以严格控制，才能缓解成本压力，改善经营效率。本文简单阐述房地产企业成本构成与成本管理的意义，对其存在的不足进行分析，并从多个方面探究了相应的策略，以帮助房地产企业进一步提升成本管控水平，在更远的将来获得稳定发展。
关键词：房地产企业；成本管理；不足；策略
**中图分类号：F299.233 文献识别码：A 文章编号：2096-3157(2022)23-0079-03**
一、前言
**成本管理是新时期房地产企业扩大利润空间、提高竞争实力而采取的必要手段，成本管理工作的开展以成本构成要素为依据，对于企业的业务项目各环节费用加以控制。房地产企业成本管理工作具有复杂性的特点，涉及多项内容，基于市场竞争愈加激烈以及经济高质量发展的背景，企业必须从战略层面高度重视成本管理，全面推行成本控制，制定可行的成本管控方案，建立健全管控体系，将成本管理落实到具体项目的具体环节中，以实现降本增效的目的。本文将就房地产企业成本管理展开分析与探究，希望能够为房地产企业实现有效的成本控制、完善成本管理体系提供一定借鉴与参考。**
**二、房地产企业的成本构成与成本管理的意义**
**通常而言，一般房地产企业的成本构成为土地费用、工程费用、市政公共设施费用三项。而对于从事于征收业务的房地产企业，除土地使用成本以外，土地征收成本控制也是重中之重，包括土地收储成本(土地补偿费、安置补助款、收地管理成本等)、房屋补偿成本，企业应当严格按照国家法律法规对原有房产拥有人给予补偿，对补偿过程中产生的安置成本进行细分以及严格把控，只有加强成本管理，才能做好成本的有效控制，并实现企业价值最大化。**
**房地产企业成本管理的意义体现如下：第一，有利于提升企业决策水平，通过加强对征收业务的成本管理与控制，可全面掌握征收业务全过程的成本支出与资源配置情况，以成本管理作为企业决策制定的参考依据，成本管理的效果对决策水平**
起到直接影响，可进一步利用成本战略来实现“降本增效”；第二，有利于提高企业整体管理水平，通过加强项目各环节的成本控制，可全面掌握成本费用支出、资金流动等情况，为管理者制定决策提供参考依据，避免出现决策失误而引发风险，同时帮助企业获得竞争优势，促使企业核心竞争实力不断提升，进而提升整体管理水平“。
三、房地产企业成本管理的不足
1.缺乏战略成本管理的理念
战略成本管理顾名思义就是从战略角度对企业成本加以控制，是传统成本管理的变革与升级，应以战略眼光来分析问题，识别成本驱动因素，把握战略性成本信息。然而目前，部分房地产企业缺乏战略成本管理的理念，对成本管理的认知停留在表层，未能充分考虑市场变化因素，将战略成本与传统成本混淆，简单地作为一种降低成本费用支出的工具。还有的房地产企业已经实行战略成本管理，但却对并没有将其应用于具体的战略制定以及贯彻实施过程中，导致战略成本的作用难以发挥，同时还会投入更多的人力、财力等成本，必然增加企业成本支出，不利于形成企业自身的战略优势。
**2.成本管理体系有待完善**
对于房地产企业而言，建立完善的成本管理体系是实现成本有效控制的龙要前提。目前许多房地产企业沿用传统成本管理模式，现有成本管理体系有待完善，主要体现为：(1)决策缺乏前瞻性，各阶段存在一定的成本管理问题，如未能做好事前调研分析工作，成本预算不足，未能将估算的总成本分配到
各工作项目，易出现成本失控的现象。(2)岗位划分不清，跨组织结构不合理，部分岗位职责交叉不清，财务与成本的权责界限模糊，而且审核流程过于繁琐，效率偏低，如征收工作中的人力成本及沟通成本可能会增加，不确定因素过多，相关费用审核慢，对被征收对象的政策讲解、签约、安置等，成本支出不透明且难以控制。(3)缺少信息反馈沟通机制，各环节成本相关信息传递不及时，无法实现事前遏制，成本控制效果不佳，成本管理工作开展受阻，甚至还会导致企业产生更多不必要的成本支出。
**3.成本核算流程不规范，对象不明确**
部分房地产企业对于成本核算不够重视，所选取的成本分配方法简单，在工序复杂、项目众多的情况下则会暴露出一定弊端，而且成本核算流程不规范，未能根据企业的业务特点选择适宜的计算方法。确定成本核算对象是房地产企业成本核算中的一项首要工作，但是在成本信息不全、成本核算基础缺失、成本核算内控薄弱、确定核算对象要求不严等多种因素影响之下，部分房地产企业常出现对自身财务状况、经营现状等估计不准确的作况，无法进一步明确成本核算的对象，最终成本计算准确性偏低，而且还会影响资金正常周转，甚至导致资产流失。
**4.合约管理不规范，变更管控困难**
房地产企业在开展业务之前会签订合约，但如果合约管理不规范，合同中各项条款未能严格履行，则会导致成本增加，并且合同变更管控困难，不利于企业加强成本管理。在合约签订阶段，预算项目与成本相脱节，同一合同牵涉不同成本项目，对成本数据采集、分析等造成影响，成本预算工作开展不顺利。合同变更时，责任划定困难，在各种因素的影响下，合同变更必然会导致成本开支提高，而且成本费用无法得到有效预算，涌现更多成本管理方面的风险问题\[31。
**5.成本监控不到位，补偿资金管理分散**
**土地征用及拆迁补偿费是从事于征收业务的房地产企业成本管理工作的重点，在多重因素的影响之下，目前部分企业的成本监控不到位，无法实现有效的控制，还存在补偿资金管理分散的问题。具体是指：征地拆迁规划不稳定，对于其中重点难点把握不准，尚未从征地范围、房屋数量等方面展开综合分析，从规划拆迁到补偿的整个环节，缺少统一的成本监控；补偿标准对于其他影响因素的考虑不全面，如征地是否存在历史遗留问题、是否具有民风民俗等，此种成本费用未实现事前准确预测与评估，只是在拆迁过程中得知，导致成本控制与管理之后。补偿资金管理分散是因资金下拨的流程过于烦琐，审核速度较 _慢，_ ，可能导致部分资金不能落到实处，对被征收对象的交房积极性造成影响；还因资金滞留，计划性不足，出现资金使用不合理的情况，不利于维护资金安全与稳定。另外，对于补偿资金管理房地产企业缺少全面跟踪监管机制，相应的监督力度偏弱，且未能进一步展开成本分析工作，可能导致成本居高不下，甚至使项目难以顺利结算。**
四、新时期加强房地产企业成本管控的有效策略
1.实施全成本管控，树立战略成本管理意识
**全成本管控是指从不同角度对企业各项业务的成本费用支出展开控制与管理，具有全面性、全员性的特征。新时期，房地产企业要想实现对成本的严格把控，则应实施全成本管控，并牢固树立战略成本意识。一方面，注重企业各部门员工参与到成本管理中，加强部门之间的沟通与联系，加强过程监管与控制，对于成本支出的实际情况有全方位的了解，便于实施成本相关工作。另一方面，以战略为导向，将成本管控与房地产企业战略相结合，涉及业务项目的各阶段成本支出，从战略角度出发，对企业各项活动以及内外环境变化展开全面分析，把握市场动向、政策变动、行业竞争等，逐渐将成本管理融入长期发展战略，实现战略目标以及成本管理目标。**
**2.优化组织结构，完善房地产成本管理体系**
新时期，对于房地产企业而言要想加强各环节成本费用支出的有效控制，首要任务则是从管理体系入手，优化组织结构，做好一系列基础性工作，有序展开成本控制与管理工作。第一，建立专门的成本管理小组，由专业成本管理人员组成，覆盖企业各项业务中的各个部门，负责日常成本管理工作，明确责任与管控权限。第二，建立成本归口管理责任制度，遵循不相容岗位相分离的原则，既要划分职责，又要注重内部协调与沟通，将目标成本细化分解，对应到各个岗位，实现有章可循、专人负责。以征收成本控制为例，既要根据实际情况确定时间以及人员安排，又要明确划分责任，每户被征收对象应由固定经办人负责，负责讲解政策、分析被征收对象实际情况等，加快工作进程。对于征收补偿安置成本，在评估之前明晰户口及产权文件，掌握重要资料，坚持合理、合法的原则，根据房屋种类，选用适宜的评估方法，增强评估的准确性，确定其补偿金额，如农村房屋征收采用成本法进行估价，以政府定价为准，考虑房屋重置价，至少不低于正常市场价格，以期保障各项工作的有序推进，避免产生不必要的额外成本。
另外，信息化环境中房地产企业还应从长远角度出发，加强成本管控信息化建设，引入先进的成本管理软件，实现自动化、信息化处理，将成本方面的相关信息共享，适当缩减冗余中间环节，确保信息传递效率，由专业人员展开更加深入且准确的分析，落实成本控制计划，与此同时展开成本动态监控，强化成本预算管理，注重执行过程分析，重点关注变动较大的指标，结合成本项目总额，展开比对分析，及时预警与调整，确保总指标稳定。以某房地产企业为例，该企业应用ERP系统，将成本预算控制、资产购置保管等作为成本控制重要内容，专人负责成本会计，通过 ERP 系统获取、收集、整合、审核大量数据信息，打印单据，根据成本汇总表，输入记账凭证，进行账务处理，大大提高了成本控制与管理工作效率，并减少了人为操作失误带来的风险。
**3.规范成本核算流程，确定成本核算对象**
为了正确地计算成本，首先必须确定成本核算对象。房地产企业必须结合成本管理的要求，规范成本核算流程，选择恰当的计算防范，以有效归集成本支出口。第一，结合房地产征收业务的特点，根据功能区分、权益区分、分类归集等，确定成本核算对象。第二，遵循受益与配比原则，确定成本分配方法以及标准，据此各成本费用在成本核算对象间分配。第三，计算各成本核算对象的总成本，包括土地征用及征收补偿费、现场管理费用等，编制相应的成本计算表；第四，根据成本核算和管理要求，总括反映各成本核算对象的成本情况。为进一步提升成本核算水平，还应完善成本核算相关制度，加强成本核算内控规范，在制度的约束作用下，保障成本会计信息的真实性与准确性，并注重夯实成本核算的基础，由专人完成成本预测、控制以及决策等工作，形成“算管结合”的成本管控体系，严格按照政策要求以及企业实际情况确定成本核算对象，提高成本计算的准确性，进一步全面提升成本核算工作的效率与质量。
4.落实合同全流程管理，降低成本管理风险
**针对合约管理不规范的问题，房地产企业应当落实合同的全流程管理，即全面把握合同签订的整个流程，加强过程监管与控制，降低成本管理风险，避免因合同失误而产生额外的费用同。以某房地产公司为例，在合同签订之前完成一系列调研与准备工作，了解签订对象的实际情况，拟定符合规范的合同，将各项条例固化，明确双方的权责与义务，对于特殊业务可指明特殊条款。对于合同变更的情况，为了规范合同管理，降低成本支出，事前了解具体原因，进行变更设计与现场签证。各职能部门以权责范围为依据，对房地产业务项目的实际执行情况展开审核与监管，评析是否严格按照合同规定，把握时间节点，有计划地执行合同，严格履行相关手续。**
**5.加强征地拆迁成本监控，严控成本支出，做好资金补偿管理工作**
**新形势下，为了严控成本支出，房地产企业需要以自身业务实际为准，将重心放在加强政府拆迁成本监控上，通过建立事前、事中、事后的管理机制，实现有效的监管，强化资金管理，解决实际难题，把好重点关卡，确保每一笔资金用到实处。**
第一，前期做好费用预测与评估工作，由专人负责统计、拟定方案、实地调研等工作。在统计征地拆迁标的物数量的过程中，可利用信息技术，全方位采集相关资料，包括地形、房产等，作为基础的数据保证；在拟定方案的过程中，需要以国家政策、法律法规等为准，明确标准以及具体规定，结合征收拆迁项目的特性与现状，科学拟定适宜的方案；在实地调研的过程中，由多人协同配合，确认房屋规格、结构、拆迁范围内人数、涉及的企业数量等，收集更加准确、更加真实的数据信息。第二，中期做好指导、监督、协调等工作，既要注重对征
收项目全过程成本支出的控制，不定期抽查、抽审，又要关注项目补偿方案的统一执行，针对特殊情况，建立解决问题的平台，及时处理好存在历史遗留、具有民风民俗等导致的成本增加，必须将成本严控在一定范围之内，预防超支。第三，后期做好跟踪管理工作，对各项具体工作的完成质量、效率以及员工业绩展开综合评价，加大监督评价的力度，把好重点关卡，第一时间发现并处理异常情况。第四，资金补偿管理必须以国家财政部下达的政策文件为主要参考依据，建立相应的管理制度，规范资金使用，按照具体的征收拆迁项目实行专款专用，制定进度款控制方案，规范资金审核批准流程，适当缩减其中的不必要环节，提高审批效率。另外，房地产企业还可搭建资金拨款数据管理系统，尽可能实现集中管控、统一划拨，确保资金安全，并使资金有关数据更具规划化，在此基础上提升成本分析工作质量，为工程顺利结算提供保障。
五、结语
**总而言之，房地产企业在我国市场经济中的地位不可替代，而如今在复杂多变的市场中企业生存发展面临着一定挑战。新时期如何加强成本管控是房地产企业最为关注的一项问题，与企业稳定运营以及长足发展息息相关，做好成本管控工作更加有利于扩大企业利润空间。因此，对于房地产企业而言，必须结合自身特性以及具体业务项目，分析成本构成，正确认知成本管控的意义，立足于实际，探究目前成本管理存在的不足，采取树立战略成本管理意识、完善房地产成本管理体系、规范成本核算流程等策略，不断提升成本管理与控制水平，拓宽成本管理范畴，实现精细化成本管控，从而进一步推动房地产企业可持续发展。**
**参考文献：**
\[1\]甘轮利.房地产企业成本管控存在的问题与措施\[J\].纳 **税，2021，15(3)：173-174.**
\[2\]李华，微利时代房地产企业成本管理的竞争力研究\[J\]. **中国乡镇企业会计，2020(8)：103-105.**
\[3\]周平.房地产企业成本管控研究 \[J\].中国市场，2019(12)： **79-80.**
\[4\]李劲松.房地产企业成本管控的问题及对策的研究\[J\]. **现代营销(创富信息版)，2018(10)：151-152.**
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\[6\]张卫红，金晓芬.基于目标成本管理的房地产成本精细化 **管理体系研究\[J\].工程经济，2018， 28(10)：12-16.**
**作者简介：**
**石晓霞，供职于上海市黄浦第一房屋征收服务事务所有限公司。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 中药复方制剂治疗运动性贫血的效果研究
陈 晨
**(周口师范学院体育学院，河南周口466000)**
**摘 要：为了探寻中药复方制剂治疗运动性贫血的临床疗效和安全性，将40只运动性贫血小鼠和20名运动性贫血运动员分别按照随机数字表法均分为对照组和实验组.实验组小鼠每日灌服中药复方汤剂3次，每次2mL，7d后分别检测血细胞数量、铁调素蛋白、膜转运蛋白、血清 MDA、肝脏 SOD含量.实验组运动员每日早晚餐后服用中药复方汤剂各100 mL，15，30，45，60d后分别检测红细胞内游离原卟啉、血液红细胞的数量、血清铁蛋白、血红蛋白、血清转铁蛋白.治疗后各实验组的各项指标均显著地优于对照组，两组比较差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05).实验组在治疗期间均未见明显的不良反应发生.中药复方制剂治疗运动性贫血的疗效比较显著，安全性较好.**
**关键词：中药；运动性贫血；疗效；安全性**
中图分类号：G804 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1671-9476(2021)02-0064-03
**运动员的剧烈竞技体育训练常常使红细胞遭受机械性的损伤，引发高血浆容量反应、红细胞破坏增加、血红蛋白浓度降低以及铁代谢紊乱等，从而导致运动员的运动性贫血1-61.运动性贫血的运动员会出现内分泌失调、神经系统障碍以及呼吸系统障碍等症状，最终导致运动员身体功能的低下、运动能力的减弱、运动成绩的下降7.使用补铁药物这种传统治疗运动性贫血的方法虽然治疗效果比较好，但有诸多的副作用，如食欲减退、腹泻等消化功能障碍\[8-101.因此，当今运动医学面临的重要课题之一就是探索更有效、更安全地防治运动性贫血的干预措施与科学方法.中医药源远流长，博大精深，以疗效显著、无副作用或副作用小为其特色.如何将中医药运用于运动医学领域，筛选出疗效更好的中药复方制剂，更好地发挥其独特的优势，是当前研究的热点.因此，笔者通过实验研究了中药复方制剂治疗运动性贫血的临床疗效和安全性，旨在为运动医学的临床治疗提供新的线索和参考依据.**
**资料与方法**
**1.1 主要仪器**
**低温超速离心机(Beekman Coulter)；DHG-**
9303型恒温干燥箱(上海一恒科学仪器有限公司)； Multiskan GO型酶标仪(Thermo)； He-moCue WBC 型全自动血细胞分析仪(美国雷度)； Z2 型血细胞计数器(Beekman Coulter).
**1.2 主要试剂**
**红细胞稀释液和无菌的 PBS 购于鼎国生物；肝脏超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、丙二醛(MDA)、膜转运蛋白、铁调素蛋白检测试剂盒购于上海生工；人类红细胞内游离原卟啉、血清铁蛋白、血红蛋白、血清转铁蛋白检测试剂盒购于武汉博士德.**
**1.3 中药复方制剂**
**中药复方制剂由茯苓、焦白术、炒赤芍、生地炭、全当归、广橘红、炒杏仁、法半夏、炒杜仲、党参、山萸肉、北沙参、补骨脂、砂仁、白茅根、鹿角胶(烊化)等16味中药配制而成，干燥法浓缩药液.**
**1.4 方解**
**茯苓、焦白术健脾和胃，以开化源；炒赤芍、生地炭、全当归养血滋肝；北沙参、广橘红、炒杏仁、法半夏清肺理气降逆；炒杜仲、补骨脂补肾壮阳；党参补益气血；砂仁醒脾行瘀；白茅根清肺止血；山萸肉敛肺止汗、补肾潜阳；鹿角胶益精填髓、补血止衄.**
**1.5 治疗运动性贫血实验**
**1.5.1 小鼠运动性贫血模型的构建**
收稿日期：2020-06-12；修回日期：2020-07-18
**作者简介：陈晨(1991一)，女，河南唐河人，硕士，研究方向：体育教育训练学.**
**随机把体重大小均匀一致的8周龄雄性小鼠40只分成对照组和实验组，每组20只小鼠每日保持40 min 的跑台训练，注射2%的苯肼于实验组的小鼠皮下，并测定小鼠红细胞的含量，完成了运动性贫血小鼠模型的构建.实验组小鼠每日灌服中药复方汤剂3次，每次2mL，7d后处死所有小鼠，**
**分离小鼠肝脏组织、血液及血清，分别检测血细胞数量、铁调素蛋白、膜转运蛋白、血清MDA、肝脏SOD 含量.**
**1.5.2 实验组和对照组运动员的实验**
**实验组和对照组的运动性贫血运动员各随机分配 10名，运动员实验前的基本情况见表1.**
| 组别 | | 男女比例 | 年龄/岁 | 身高/cm | 体重/kg | 运动性贫血程度 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 实验组 | 10 | l：1 | 23.18±0.25 | 173.32±0.13 | 62.13±0.02 | 中度 |
| 对照组 | 10 | 1：1 | 23.15±0.21 | 173.26±0.11 | 62.11±0.05 | 中度 |
**通过计算可知，两组运动员的基本信息无显著性差异，可以开展对比实验.实验组运动员每日早晚餐后服用中药复方汤剂各100 mL，连续服用60 d.实验开始前后的15，30，45，60d分别检测血清铁蛋白、血清转铁蛋白、血红蛋白、血液红细胞的数量以及红细胞内游离原卟啉.**
**1.5.3检测运动性贫血小鼠的相关指标**
**采集断颈小鼠的血液后，测定血液中的红细胞含量用细胞计数板计数法.使用血液稀释液稀释10uL的血液10倍后，采用全自动血细胞分析仪、硫代巴比妥酸比色法、ELISA法，按照试剂盒说明书分别检测铁调素蛋白、膜转运蛋白、血清MDA、肝脏 SOD 含量.**
**1.5.4 检测运动性贫血运动员的相关指标**
**采集实验组和对照组运动员的血液样本，用亚铁嗪法和 ELISA法分别对红细胞内游离原卟啉、血清铁蛋白、血清转铁蛋白、血红蛋白的含量进行检测.**
1.5.5 不良反应事件
**密切观察实验过程中运动员和小鼠的健康状态.**
**1.5.6 数据统计分析方法**
**采用 SPSS19 软件包对实验结果进行计算分析，以均数士标准差表示，当P<0.05时，表明差异显著.**
**_2_ 兰结果与分析**
**2.1 实验组和对照组小鼠实验结果的比较**
**实验组和对照组小鼠的实验结果见表2.由表2可知，实验组运动性贫血小鼠的铁调素蛋白、膜转运蛋白、血清MDA、肝脏 SOD、血红细胞含量均高于对照组，除了肝脏 SOD 外，其他均出现了显著性差异， P<0.05.**
**_2.2 内_ 两组运动员实验结果的比较**
**运动性贫血运动员实验组和对照组的研究结果比较见表3和表4.**
_表2_ 两组小鼠检测结果的比较(x±5)
| 组别 | 血红细胞数/(T/L) | MDA/(ng/mL) | SOD/( ng/mL) | 膜转运蛋白/(ng/mL) | 铁调素蛋白/(ng/mL) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 实验组 | 3.36±0.13\* | 6.53±0.03\* | 3.49±0.14 | 15.63±0.15\* | 19.68±0.02\* |
| 对照组 | 1.31±0.21 | 2.68±0.02 | 1.35±0.12 | 4.69±0.23 | 8.51±0.03 |
**注：\*表示P<0.05，差异显著，下同.**
**表3运动员血红细胞数检测结果的比较(x±s)**
| 组别 | 0 d/(T/L) | 15 d/(T/L) | 30 d/(T/L) | 45 d/(T/L) | 60 d/(T/L) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 实验组 | 1.14±0.01 | 1.46±0.11 | 2.62±0.06\* | 3.39±0.01\* | 5.51±0.02\* |
| 对照组 | 1.13±0.02 | 1.18±0.05 | 1.36±0.05 | 1.95±0.02 | 2.25±0.04 |
表4 运动员血液样本检测结果的比较(x±s)
| 组别 | 阶段 | 血红蛋白/(ng/mL) | 血清铁蛋白/(ng/mL) | 血清转铁蛋白/(mg/dL) | 游离原卟啉/(ng/mL) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 实验组 | 开始 | 1.11±0.02 | 2.13±0.03 | 32.18±0.12 | 2.66±0.03 |
| | 结束 | 4.46±0.03\* | 7.32±0.02\* | 22.13±0.36\* | 5.12±0.05\* |
| 对照组 | 开始 | 1.12±0.04 | 2.14±0.02 | 20.71±0.86 | 2.65±0.04 |
| | 结束 | 1.88±0.03 | 3.31±0.03 | 20.68±0.69 | 3.14±0.02 |
**从表3和表4可以看出，实验组运动性贫血运动员连续服用中药复方制剂30d后，血细胞数量**
**明显增多，已经显著高于对照组运动员.60d后，实验组运动性贫血运动员的血细胞数量已经高于对**
**照组运动员的2倍以上.在实验开始和结束阶段，该中药复方制剂能显著改善运动性贫血运动员的贫血症状，对其血红蛋白、红细胞内游离原卟啉、血清铁蛋白、血清转铁蛋白含量的影响非显著，具有统计学差异.**
2.3 不良反应事件
**在整个实验过程中，所有参加实验的小鼠和运动员均未见任何明显的不良反应事件发生，说明该中药复方制剂较为安全.**
**3 讨论**
**体育运动员普遍存在运动性贫血现象，这严重影响了体育成绩的提高和体育水平的发挥.自从日本吉村学者提出了运动性贫血的概念以后，运动医学界的大多数学者对其进行了大量的研究与探索.目前公认的导致运动性贫血的可能原因主要有以下几点1-15\]：1)剧烈运动使体内的抗利尿激素表达紊乱，大幅度提高了体内的含水量，从而稀释了血液；2)剧烈运动可使运动员的红细胞破裂，导致血管内溶血；3)运动员的长期剧烈耐力训练可引起消化道出血；4)训练可使女性运动员的月经不调，可导致运动性贫血的发生；5)运动员的铁元素摄入不足也会患上运动性贫血症.**
**本研究发现所检测的各项指标，实验组均显著优于对照组，与侯本华\[16\]、覃荣周等I7以及曹建民等118\]的研究结果基本一致.这表明了复方中药制剂可有效地制止运动员的运动性贫血，使其造血机能加强，红细胞不致下降，其具体作用的分子机制将有待于进一步探讨.**
**运动性贫血隶属于中医学的“虚劳”范畴，以心悸气短、头晕耳鸣、面色无华、神疲乏力、诸般出血等为其主要的临床症状.多因诸般劳损导致脾肾虚寒、中气不健、化源不足、肝脾不升、肺胃不降、阳浮于上、阴沉于下、气血生化匮.血源于肾、统于脾、藏于肝、注于心.气源于胃、藏于肺、纳于肾.肾主骨、骨生髓、髓为血之源.肾虚时，肾精不能化气，气虚则无力推动血液的运行，血液生化匮乏，从而导致血虚；血虚无以生气，从而导致气虚，以致出现气血两虚的症状.因此，本研究采用气血双补的中药复方制剂进行加减治疗，诸药合用，在调理中气的基础上兼及四维，使升降紊乱的脏腑气机恢复其升降之常，则正气因之充旺，而能祛邪外出使病愈.本研究临床取得了较好的疗效，这为运动医学临床利用有效的中药复方制剂干预治疗运动员的运动性贫**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]张缨，文茹.运动性贫血的发生机制与检测\[J\].北京体育大学学报，2001，24(3)：331-334.**
**\[2\]赵杰修，田野，曹建民，等.不同运动方式对大鼠血红蛋白浓度的影响一大鼠运动性贫血模型建立方法探讨\[J\].中国运动医学杂志，2004，23(4)：436-440.**
**\[3\]李晓琳.中药在运动医学中的应用研究综述\[J\].哈尔滨体育学院学报，2016，34(3)：12-16.**
**L4」王琦，黄鹤.运动性贫血运动员铁代谢状况的研究LJJ.广州体育学院学报，2010，30(3)：92一95.**
**\[5\]金丽，田野，赵杰修，等.大鼠运动性贫血时以营养干预对红细胞膜脂质过氧化的影响\[J\].体育科学，2005，25** (8)：75一78.
**\[6\]唐晖，姚绩伟，谢敏豪，等.运动性贫血的研究进展\[J\].武汉体育学院学报，2007，41(8)：45一51.**
**L7」金丽，田野，赵杰修，等.抗运动性贫血剂对运动员红细胞形态的影响\[J\].武汉体育学院学报，2009，43(8)：46** 一50.
**\[8\]郭静璐，周春明，于天舒.运动性血红蛋白降低的机理及** 营养防治\[J\].冰雪运动，2016，38(6)：90一93.
**\[9\]刘君雯，聂集林.耐力运动对女运动员铁代谢及铁调素的影响\[J\].吉首大学学报(自然科学版)，2015，36(5)：** 91一93.
**\[10\]张红红.缺铁性贫血研究新进展及对运动领域的启示\[J\].中国体育教练员，2016(5)：18一19.**
**\[11\]张宗国，任建生.加味“八珍汤”对少年男子散打运动员血睾酮、皮质醇和血红蛋白的影响研究\[J\].中国应用生** 理学杂志，2011，27(3)：323一324.
**\[12\]李增明，陶渊.中药防治运动性贫血的研究\[J\].白求恩军医学院学报，2007，5(1)：36.**
**\[13\]董静，罗桂林.抗运动性贫血中药的现代药理研究\[J\].辽宁中医药大学学报，2009.11(6)：39.**
**\[14\]付燕，熊若虹.中药治疗耐力项目运动员运动性贫血疗** 效观察\[J\].北京中医药，2010，29(3)：203-204.
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**\[16\]侯本华，孔喜良，刘洪珍.复方壮阳中药对运动大鼠造血机能的影响\[J\].中国应用生理学杂志，2013，29(5)：** 421一422.
**\[17\]覃荣周，王君良，郭文清，等.中药内服联合足底反射疗法治疗运动性贫血的临床研究\[J\].时珍国医国药，** 2013，24(9)：2184-2185.
**\[18\]曹建民，田野，赵杰修，等.铁制剂和中药营养干预对运动性贫血运动员血清铁蛋白、转铁蛋白影响的研究\[J\].医学研究杂志，2006，35(10)：17一19.**
**(责任编辑** **闫建军)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | The elements; speculations as to their nature and origin
author: Tilden, William A. (William Augustus), Sir, 1842-1926
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
LIBRARY
OF THK
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
Class
HARPER'S LIBRARY of LIVING THOUGHT
THE
ELEMENTS
SPECULATIONS AS TO
THEIR NATURE AND
ORIGIN
BY
SIR WILLIAM A.
TILDEN
HARPER
BROTHERS
LONDONXNEWYOKK
THE ELEMENTS
SPECULATIONS AS TO THEIR
NATURE AND ORIGIN
BY
SIR WILLIAM A. TILDEN
F.R.S., D.SC. LOND., HON. SC.D. DUB., D.SC. VIC., LL.D. BIRM.
Fellow of the University of London. Past President
of the Institute of Chemistry and of the Chemical
Society, Late Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
College of Science and Royal School of Mines.
Davy Medallist of the Royal Society, Honorary Member
of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, of the
Society of Public Analysts, of the Bristol Society oj
Naturalists, of the Birmingham Philosophical Society
and of the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, etc.
Professor Emeritus in the Imperial College of Science
and Technology.
LONDON AND NEW YORK
HARPER & BROTHERS
45 ALBEMARLE STREET, W.
1910
PREFACE
\ 7[ 7HEN in October last, by invitation
* • of the Council of the Chemical
Society, I gave the Mendeleeff Memorial
Lecture, it was my privilege to proclaim, on
behalf of English science, a eulogium of the
famous Russian chemist. It would have
been inappropriate to the occasion to have
discussed in much detail the various hypo-
theses which from time to time have been
framed in connection with the idea of
evolution as applied to the elements, and
all the more so for the reason that this idea
seems to have been always repugnant to the
mind of Mendeleeff himself. I am therefore
glad of the opportunity afforded by this
series to place side by side ideas which
have been long fermenting in my own mind
and in the minds of other chemists. In
doing this I do not pretend to have treated
vii
216668
PREFACE
the subject with any approach to historical
completeness. The literature connected
with the subject is very extensive, and is
still expanding.
What I have tried to do is to render the
discussion intelligible to the very large
number of educated persons possessing an
elementary knowledge of chemistry, as
well as to offer a few suggestions to expert
chemists. In doing this I have had to
exercise my own judgment in the selection
of those contributions to the inquiry which
seemed to possess the greatest importance.
I am conscious that this lays me open to
criticism, alike from those whose views
have been discussed and from those who
have not been mentioned, as well as from
those who see points of attack in the
exposition of my own notions. Such,
however, is always the position of one who
ventures to enter a field so open to specula-
tion as the subject of this little book.
Here we are dealing only with the physical
PREFACE
view of the phenomena observed or discov-
ered. Concerning the metaphysical view, we
must accept the dictum of Herbert Spencer :
" Matter, in its ultimate nature, is as abso-
lutely incomprehensible as Space and Time.
Whatever supposition we frame leaves us
nothing but a choice between opposite
absurdities." (First Principles, vi. ed. (1900),
p. 46.)
I cannot conclude without expressing
my best thanks to Sir William Crookes for
his kindness in allowing the use of the block
for the diagram on page 74.
W. A. T.
April, 1910.
IX
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE ELEMENTS . l
II. INTERRELATIONS AMONG ATOMIC
WEIGHTS . 25
III. THE PERIODIC LAW . 51
IV. THEORIES OF EVOLUTION . 71
V. SPECULATIONS . . . 108
INDEX . . • • !37
XI
THE ELEMENTS
CHAPTER I
" CHEMICAL analysis and synthesis go no farther than to
the separation of particles one from another and to their
reunion. No new creation or destruction of matter is
within the reach of chemical agency. We might as well
attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system,
or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or
destroy a particle of hydrogen. All the changes we can
produce consist in separating particles that are in a state of
cohesion or combination, and joining those that were pre-
viously at a distance."
DALTON'S Chemical Philosophy (1808), vol. i, p. 212.
THE ancient Greek philosophers, and
probably others in earlier times, from
the contemplation of the order of things
unfolded before them, were led to the dis-
cussion of problems which could never have
been resolved by the methods alone avail-
able in the early ages of the world.
The substitution of artificial for natural
conditions in the study of phenomena, in
B I
THE ELEMENTS
other words the use of experiment, is the
characteristic of modern philosophy, and
without it the modern student would be in
nearly the same position as Democritus and
Leucippus, and would doubtless remain in
the same dialectical obscurity.
But experimental physics and chemistry,
comparatively recent as they are in their
origin, have led us far beyond anything
which in ancient times could have been con-
ceived as possible in respect to positive
knowledge of the constitution and order of
the visible universe. Questions as to the
nature and origin of matter can therefore
be treated at the present day as within the
range of reasonable subjects of study, to
which answers can be framed in terms
which, if not final, are at any rate general,
consistent, and intelligible.
Chemistry teaches us that all the immense
diversity of matters which go to make up
the solid earth, with its attendant ocean and
atmosphere, together with the sun and all
DEFINITION OF ELEMENT
the heavenly host of stars and nebulae, are
composed of a limited number of distinct
substances which are called " elements."*
* Perhaps it may not be superfluous to remind the reader
that the word "element" has received at different periods in
the history of philosophy several distinct applications. The
four elements— fire, water, earth, air— of the Aristotelean
system, were succeeded in the sixteenth century by the salt,
sulphur, and mercury, or the tria prima of the alchemists.
To Robert Boyle we owe the connotation now universally
attached in scientific language to this word, which is applied
to those substances, about eighty in number, from which, by
the operation of ordinary chemical processes, only one kind
of matter can be obtained. Iron, for example, is placed
among the elements, while iron rust is a compound of two
elements, iron and oxygen. Notwithstanding the belief
now generally entertained that some of the so-called
elements subsist in a condition of continuous decay, this
application of the word is convenient and is likely to be
retained for some time to come.
The state of knowledge and opinion in Boyle's time may
be inferred from the following caustic passage in his famous
book entitled, The Sceptical Chymist" (1680), pp. 23, 24.
" The doctrine of the four Elements was framed by Aris-
totle after he had leasurely considered those Theories of
former Philosophers. . . . Nor has an Hypothesis so
deliberately and maturely established been called in Ques-
tion till in the last Century Paracelsus and some few other
sooty Empiricks rather than (as they are fain to call them-
selves) Philosophers having their eyes darken'd and their
Braines troubl'd with the smoak of their own Furnaces,
began to rail at the Peripatetick Doctrine, which they were
too illiterate to understand, and to tell the credulous World
THE ELEMENTS
Many of these are familiar in daily life. Such
metals as pure gold, silver, iron, copper,
lead, tin, zinc, etc., are elements, as also are
the atmospheric gases oxygen, nitrogen,
argon. These are for the most part capable
of associating together in chemical " com-
pounds," in which the properties of the
" elements," as commonly known, are con-
cealed and substances of different aspect
and properties result. Water, for example,
is a very different thing from the oxygen and
hydrogen into which by appropriate treat-
ment it can be wholly resolved. The change
of a compound into elements is always accom-
panied by a redistribution of the energy
inherent in the matter concerned and in the
matter with which it is in contact, or in the
that they could see but three Ingredients in mixt Bodies ;
which to gain themselves the repute of Inventors they
endeavoured to disguise by calling them instead of Earth
and Fire and Vapour, Salt, Sulphur, and Mercury ; to
which they gave the canting title of Hypostatical Principles,
but when they came to describe them they showed how
little they understood what they meant by them by disagree-
ing as much from one another as from the truth they agreed
in opposing."
4
DIVISIBILITY OF MATTER
" ether "* in which all are immersed. In the
majority of cases the separation of elements
from a compound is attended by absorption
of energy, which is given out again in the
form of heat if they are allowed or caused to
combine. Water, for example, when strongly
heated gives oxygen gas and hydrogen gas,
and these if allowed to combine again re-
produce water, at the same time giving
forth heat equivalent in amount to the
energy used up in the destruction of the
compound.
The old question whether the divisibility
of matter is finite or infinite, debated
throughout ancient and medieval times
without the possibility of reaching a con-
clusion, has been in modern times decisively
answered by physics and chemistry.
It is no longer a subject of debate, but it is
with practical unanimity agreed that the
texture of all kinds of matter is not con-
tinuous, but is discrete or granular. Hence
* See Lodge, The Ether of Space. This series.
5
THE ELEMENTS
the Atomic and Molecular Theory, which
asserts that there is a limit to divisibility,
and the coarseness or fineness of the atomic
particles is merely a detail.
The nature of the evidence on which this
conclusion is based is derived wholly from
modern experimental investigations, on the
one hand, of the properties of liquids and
especially of gases ; and on the other, from
the establishment of the fundamental quanti-
tative laws of chemical combination.
The facts of gaseous and liquid diffusion
are familiar, and alone they are sufficient
to prove that in a mass of any fluid portions
of it are constantly moving about, and that
these moving portions are very small is
indicated by their passage through the pores
of earthenware, or even of various mem-
branes.
A hundred years ago it was discovered
that when two substances unite to form a
chemical compound the ratio between the
quantities of the two so uniting is constant.
6
DEFINITE PROPORTIONS
That is to say, any selected chemical com-
pound consists of two or more elements
associated together in proportions which
never vary. Water, for example, is always
composed of hydrogen and oxygen in the
proportions of i part by weight of the
former to 8 parts by weight of the latter,
and no kind or variety of water is known in
which the two components are united in
different proportions. There is indeed an-
other compound of hydrogen with oxygen,
in which the weight of the oxygen is sixteen
times that of the hydrogen, but this com-
pound is wholly different from water in all
its properties. It will be noticed that the
proportion of oxygen in the second com-
pound is exactly twice the proportion in the
former. There are many examples of the
same kind, and in all such cases when two
substances unite in several proportions it
will be found that the proportion of one
element in the successive compounds are
multiples of the proportion of this element
7
THE ELEMENTS
occurring in the first of the series. Com-
pounds are known containing 28 parts of
nitrogen combined with 16 parts of oxygen,
and with twice, three times, four times,
and five times 16 parts of oxygen in the
successive stages.
This is a simple illustration of the opera-
tion of the law of multiple proportions, and
for this no satisfactory explanation has
been given except that which is furnished
by the Atomic Theory of Dalton.
Dalton's theory was announced in his
New System of Chemical Philosophy, which
he published in 1808. But for many years
the system made little progress owing to the
fact that on the one hand Dalton and his
contemporaries had no standard by which
the relative weights of the atoms of different
elements could be determined ; and on the
other hand because a distinction in terms,
generally acceptable to physicists and
chemists, had not been established
between the ultimate particles of ele-
8
ATOM AND MOLECULE
ments and of compounds. While it is
perfectly justifiable to speak of an atom of
water, meaning thereby the particle which
if further subdivided would be no longer
water, but would become a mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen, yet this use of the
word atom is liable to lead to confusion, and
another term was required. This was pro-
vided later by the use of the word molecule,
which signifies the smallest particle of an
element or of a compound capable of in-
dependent existence, the term atom being
reserved for the smallest portion of an
element ever found in a molecule.
The conception of the molecule as distinct
from the atom we owe to Avogadro, who,
in 1811, put forward a hypothesis which has
only in much later times been generally
accepted by chemists. A famous French
chemist, Gay-Lussac, established by experi-
ment the law with which is generally associ-
ated his name, namely, that when gases unite
together the volumes which unite stand to
9
THE ELEMENTS
one another in a simple ratio. For example,
one volume of hydrogen combines with one
volume of chlorine, producing two volumes
of hydrogen chloride gas, one volume of
hydrogen chloride combines with one volume
of ammonia, two volumes of hydrogen com-
bine with one volume of oxygen, etc. In
order to explain this discovery Avogadro
assumed that equal volumes of different
gases, at the same temperature and pressure,
contain the same number of molecules, a
statement which is often expressed other-
wise by saying that the densities of
gases are proportional to the molecular
weights of the substances of which they
consist.
If this be accepted then a means is pro-
vided whereby atomic weights may be deter-
mined, and for all those elements which are
capable of yielding gaseous or vaporisable
compounds the atomic weights so deter-
mined are comparable with one another and
with a common standard. All that is fur-
10
STANDARD FOR ATOMIC WEIGHTS
ther necessary is to agree upon some one
element the atomic weight of which may be
adopted as the unit. For this purpose hydro-
gen, as forming the lightest gas known, and
as the element which enters into combination
in the smallest known proportion, has during
the last half century been accepted. Latterly
for reasons which at this point need not be
considered, the scale of hydrogen as the
unit, =i, has been, by international con-
sent, exchanged for one in which the atomic
weight of oxygen is taken as exactly 16,
and consequently that of hydrogen becomes
i -008.
The Atomic Theory is further supported
by the remarkable achievements in the do-
main of stereochemistry which have been
recorded during the last thirty years. Not-
withstanding the large number of hypo-
theses which have been put forward no
explanation is yet established of that
property of atoms which is called their
valency. But though it is not possible to
ii
THE ELEMENTS
explain what is the nature of the link by
which atoms unite together in chemical com-
bination, it is possible by the aid of the
assumption that matter consists of atoms
united into groups or clusters, called mole-
cules, and the further assumption that when
these atoms occupy in space certain positions
relatively to one another, to show that the
molecules so constituted exhibit certain
recognisable properties. It is now a familiar
operation to proceed to build up such con-
geries of atoms with the certainty that the
resulting compound will exhibit the ex-
pected properties.
And, further, it has been shown in a large
number of cases that, given a limited number
of atoms, a limited number of arrangements
are alone possible, and any attempts to pro-
duce other compounds in which the rules
imposed by valency are not complied with
result in failure.
This is not the place for an exposition of
the results of modern stereochemical in-
12
STEREOISOMERIC COMPOUNDS
vestigation, but for the sake of illustration
a single familiar example may be quoted.
There are four kinds of tartaric acid, namely :
(i) common tartaric acid which rotates the
plane of polarisation of light toward the
right ; (2) another variety which rotates to
the left ; (3) racemic acid, which has no
rotatory power, but is optically inactive be-
cause it consists of a mixture in exactly equal
quantities of the two active varieties which
are separable by simple processes from each
other ; and (4) an optically inactive form of
tartaric acid which is not resolvable into two
active forms. These acids consist of carbon
hydrogen and oxygen in the proportions re-
presented by the formula C4H6O6, and they
agree in chemical reactions which are ex-
pressed by saying that they are dihydroxy-
succinic acids, and hence that they consist
of the atomic clusters or radicles repre-
sented by the symbols C2H2, 2HO, and
2CO2H.
Two of these acids act on polarised light
13
THE ELEMENTS
in such a way as to show that their molecules
must be unsymmetrical in opposite senses,
the one corresponding to a right-handed
spiral, the other to a left-handed spiral.
In racemic acid the dextro-rotatory effect of
one of these molecules is exactly neutralised
by the lavorotatory effect of the other. The
other inactive compound must be accounted
for in a different way, namely by the assump-
tion that the internal parts of each molecule
are so arranged that the lopsidedness pro-
duced by one constituent is counterbalanced
by another so situated as to act in the
opposite direction relatively to the centre
of gravity.
The phenomena exhibited by the tartaric
acids were discovered by Pasteur, about
1850, and he anticipated to some extent
the hypotheses introduced and accepted
twenty-five years later. But it was not till
the idea of attributing to the atom of carbon
a peculiarity of configuration was published
almost simultaneously by Le Bel and Van't
'4
THE CARBON ATOM
Hoff * that the atomic and molecular hypo-
theses became qualified to explain all the
facts. The four units of valency of an atom
of carbon being supposed to act only in
certain directions represented by the straight
lines drawn from the centre of a regular
tetrahedron to its solid angles, it was found
possible to account for the right- and left-
handed optical properties of the tartaric
acids and the many other similarly active
compounds.
It might of course be said that in making
use of this conception one hypothesis is
employed to support another, but the facts
which fit in with the theory are so numerous
and its use has led to so many discoveries
of compounds, the existence of which was
previously unsuspected, that supposition is
changed into conviction that this is really
* "Sur les formulas de structure dans 1'espace," J. H. Van't
Hoff in Archives Neerland, ix (1874), p. 445. "Sur les
relations qui existent entre les formules atomiques des corps
organiques, et le pouvoir rotatoire de leurs dissolutions,"
J. A. Le Bel, Bulletin Soc. Chim.y Paris, xxii (1874),
P- 337-
15
THE ELEMENTS
the physical explanation of the observed
facts.
Further support for the theory is derived
from the results of applying to the com-
pounds of elements other than carbon
similar methods of investigation. For it has
been found that nitrogen, sulphur, tin, and
probably some of the metals are also cap-
able of giving rise to isomeric compounds of
which the optical and other physical relation-
ships finds 'a corresponding explanation.
""Having briefly reviewed the chief con-
siderations which have led to the adoption
of the Atomic Theory, it is proper to survey
equally briefly the facts and arguments by
the aid of which chemists have finally arrived
at a system of numbers which represent the
relative masses of the atoms of elements.
These numbers are really ratios or fractions in
which the denominator is suppressed, being
understood to be throughout the value of
the atomic weight of the element hydrogen,
the smallest at present known. In Dalton's
16
STANDARD FOR ATOMIC WEIGHTS
time, and long afterwards, the numbers
called atomic weights were in reality the
chemical combining ratios of the elements,
and these might or might not coincide with
the numbers which are now chosen in
accordance with the results of the applica-
tion of rules agreed upon since that day.
It is not necessary to trace all the various
suggestions put forward during nearly half
a century with the object of reducing these
figures to order. It is sufficient to say that
to Cannizzaro is due the credit of success-
fully convincing the chemical world of the
desirability of adopting a uniform standard,
and of bringing to a focus the proposals of
other chemists, especially those of Gerhardt,
Odling, Williamson, and others, based on
" the corner-stone of the modern theory of
molecules and atoms/' * the theory of
Avogadro on the constitution of gases.
The process by which an atomic weight is
* Cannizzaro : Faraday Lecture, 1872. Trans. Chem.
Sof.t 25, 946.
C 17
THE ELEMENTS
determined resolves itself into two distinct
parts, of which the first is dependent upon
accuracy in experiment ; the second on the
selection of appropriate theoretical con-
siderations.
The first requisite in all cases is the deter-
mination of the chemical combining ratio
of the element, or what is frequently, though
not very correctly, called the equivalent.
This is accomplished by estimating, with
every precaution to secure accuracy, either
the proportions in which two elements unite
together, or the amount set free by the
process of electrolysis from a solution of the
compound and a comparison of the weight
thus deposited with the weight of some
standard substance, such as silver, set free
at the same time by the same current. The
proportions in which oxygen and hydrogen
unite to form water have been repeatedly
investigated, as also the composition of
hydrogen chloride, and the chlorides and
oxides of many metals, as well as non-metals.
18
AVOGADRO'S RULE
In fact, whenever a compound can be ob-
tained in a pure definite state, in which it
can be readily weighed, its composition has
been the subject of laborious investigation,
and thus a series of numbers have been
arrived at which represent with a greater or
less degree of accuracy combining weights
of all the elements.
The second step is to choose a multiple of
the number representing the combining
weight, such that the product complies with
one or all of the following rules.
i. Application of the rule of Avogadro :
The atomic weight of an element is the
smallest quantity ever found in two volumes
of the vapour of any of its vaporisable
compounds, the bulk of one part by
weight of hydrogen being taken as one
volume.
Practically this amounts to comparing
the densities of the vapours of the several
compounds containing the element in ques-
tion with the density of hydrogen as the
19
THE ELEMENTS
unit. The results in the case of carbon may
be tabulated as follows :
Compound
Density
Density x 2
Weight
of Carbo
containing Carbon.
H— i. or weight
in, 2 vols
of 2 vols.
Marsh gas .
8 16
12
Ethane
15 30
24
Carbon monoxide
14 28
12
Carbon dioxide .
22 44
12
Alcohol
23 46
24
Ether .
37 74
48
Aniline
46-5 93
72
The atomic weight of carbon is taken as
12, because this is the smallest weight of
carbon ever found in two volumes of the
vapour, that is in a molecular weight.
2. Application of the rule of Dulong and
Petit.
While the relation of specific heat to
atomic weight is expressible in the great
maj ority of cases by the equation S.H. xA.W.
= constant =6 -4 (approx.) this does not
hold good save under exceptional conditions
for carbon and several other elements. But
20
DULONG AND PETIT
it is especially useful in connection with
the metals, many of which do not form
volatile compounds, and hence cannot be
tested by the hypothesis of Avogadro. It
is, however, most important to notice that
in those cases, tin, mercury, zinc, for example,
in which both methods can be applied, the
atomic weight deduced from the application
of one rule is identical with that which is
deduced from the application of the other.
3. The observation of isomorphism is
often a useful guide. The case of vanadium
furnishes an interesting example. Fifty
years ago this element was supposed, on the
authority of analyses made by Berzelius,
to belong to the same family as chromium,
and its highest oxide was represented as a
trioxide. But the mineral vanadinite, con-
sisting of lead vanadate and chloride, was
shown to crystallise in the same form as
apatite or calcium fluo-phosphate, and
pyromorphite or lead chlorophosphate, and
in some cases to crystallise with these
21
THE ELEMENTS
minerals in all proportions. Hence it ap-
pears that vanadic acid is the crystallo-
graphic representative of phosphoric acid,
and vanadic oxide like phosphoric oxide is a
pentoxide. The whole chemical history of
the compounds of vanadium was shown by
Roscoe to conform to this view, and hence
the atomic weight of vanadium was shown
to be approximately 51, instead of 137 as
previously supposed, and the substance
represented by Berzelius as the metal turned
out to be an oxide.
4. The position of the elements in the
periodic scheme, to be described later, has
been frequently turned to account within
the last forty years. Beryllium (glucinum)
affords an illustration of the application of
this principle. Formerly supposed to be
related to aluminium this metal was repre-
sented as forming a sesquioxide, Be2O3,
and having the atomic weight 13 (approx.).
By reference to the table (p. 46) it ap-
pears that between carbon (at. wt. 12) and
22
USE OF PERIODIC SCHEME
nitrogen (at. wt. 14) there is no appropriate
place for an element with the properties
of a metal, nor indeed for any element
whatever, if the scheme truly represents
the mutual relationships of the ele-
ments. This remark led to further investiga-
tion of the physical and chemical properties
of beryllium with the result that, from ob-
servation of the specific heat of the metal at
various temperatures and a study of the
characters of its salts, this element was
shown to be related not to aluminium, but
to magnesium, and to have an atomic
weight 9-1.
Other methods and considerations are re-
sorted to in special cases, but these are more
appropriately set forth at length in the usual
textbooks of chemistry. All that need be
noted specially in this place is the funda-
mental fact that the numbers now recog-
nised by chemists as representing the rela-
tive values of atomic weights have been
calculated upon the same scale and are all
23
THE ELEMENTS
adjusted to a common standard. As already
stated, a period exceeding half a century
elapsed from the introduction and adoption
of the Atomic Theory into chemistry before
this uniformity was secured and before the
relations of the elements to one another and
to a general comprehensive scheme was recog-
nised. It is out of a study of this scheme
that modern speculations as to the nature
and origin of all matter have chiefly origin-
ated.
CHAPTER [II
INTERRELATIONS AMONG ATOMIC WEIGHTS
"WE think in relations." — HERBERT SPENCER. First
Principles^ vi (ed. 1900), p. 145.
FROM the previous chapter it is obvious
that until the atomic weights had been
reduced by common consent to one uniform
scale or standard, it was not possible to per-
ceive any general law governing the whole.
Nevertheless many attempts were made to
discover relations among the numbers in use.
The first and one of the most famous of these
is known in chemical literature as " Prout's
hypothesis."* This assumes that the atomic
* Ann. Phil., vi (1815), 321 j vii (1816), in.
Prout's views were published anonymously under the
title, On the Relations between the Specific Gravities of
Bodies in their Gaseous State and the Weights of their Atoms.
His thesis is summed up in the following passage (loc.
cit. vii, 113): "There is an advantage in considering the
volume of hydrogen equal to the atom, as, in this case, the
specific gravities of most, or perhaps all, elementary sub-
stances (hydrogen being i) will either exactly coincide with
or be some multiple of the weights of their atoms."
25
THE ELEMENTS
weights of all the other elements are multiples
of the atomic weight of hydrogen.
The case of chlorine, of which the atomic
weight has always been known to be approxi-
mately 35|, proved an insuperable obstacle
to the adoption of Prout's original view, and
subsequently attempts were made to fit the
numbers which resulted from more and more
accurate experiment to a unit assumed to
to be first one-half, and subsequently one-
fourth, of the atomic weight of hydrogen.
Prout's hypothesis has been revived from
time to time, but the progress of research has
shown that in its original form, at any rate,
the hypothesis is based on an illusion.
But though a comprehensive scheme was
not possible the recognition of families of
closely allied elements led to much study of
the numerical relations among their atomic
weights. Among the elements first to
attract notice were the halogens — chlorine,
bromine, and iodine ; the sulphur group —
sulphur, selenion, and tellurium; and the
26
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
alkali metals — potassium, sodium, and lith-
ium. The nature of the relation observed
will be sufficiently indicated by one case.
Adopting the atomic weights that are
used by Doebereiner in his memoir* for
sulphur 32-239, selenion 79-263, and tellur-
ium 129-243, it can be shown that these
conform very nearly to an arithmetical pro-
gression, for
In other words, the atomic weight of selenion,
which in properties stands between sulphur
and tellurium, is very nearly the arithmetic
mean of the atomic weights of the other two
elements.
The next step in advance is represented
by the various attempts to establish an
analogy between series of related elements
and groups of carbon compounds, which
about 1848 began to be arranged in " homo-
* " Versuche zu einer Gruppirung der elementaren Stoffe
nach ihrer Analogic." Pogg, Ann. (1829) !5> 301-
27
THE ELEMENTS
logous " series. Such a series consists of
compounds of the same type containing, in
addition to carbon, the same elements, ex-
hibiting the same chemical characteristics,
but differing from one another in mole-
cular weight, and hence in physical
properties.
The composition of such a series is ex-
pressible by a general formula in which,
passing from any one term to the next above
or below, there is a uniform difference of one
atom of carbon and two atoms of hydrogen,
or CH2. An example will render this quite
clear.
The normal primary alcohols.
Name.
Formula
Molecular
Boiling
n 2n+2
weight.
point.
Methylic
. CH40
32
66°
Ethylic
. C2H60
46
78-3°
Propylic
• C3HS0
60
97-4°
Butylic
. C4H100
74
116-8°
Amylic
• C5H20
88
137°
Hexylic
. C6H140
102
J57°
Heptylic
• C7H160
116
i?5°
etc.
etc.
etc.
etc.
28
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
These are all compounds containing one
atom of oxygen in the form of hydroxyl, HO,
while the carbon and hydrogen increase by
successive additions of CH2, and this in-
crease is accompanied by a fairly steady
rise in the boiling point, increase of specific
gravity, and gradual change in viscosity till,
in the highest terms not given in the table,
the alcohol becomes a crystalline solid at
common temperatures.
Selecting any three successive terms the
molecular weights show the same kind of
relation, though with greater numerical ex-
actitude, as that which is observed among
the atomic weights in a natural family of
elements.
For example :
Amylic+Heptylic Alcohol, 88+n6= R .. A]
2 2.
This is parallel with the relation existing
among the alkali metals :
Lithium + Potassium^; + 39'i -Sodium 23-0
2 2
29
THE ELEMENTS
The formula of the alcohols may be
written H2O-1-MCH2, and by giving to n any
desired value the formula of any term of the
series may be arrived at.
Similarly the atomic weights of the ele-
ments composing a natural family may be
calculated by adopting the atomic weight
of the first term as the basis to which addi-
tions may be made of a common increment.
Thus the alkali metals may be treated as
derived from the basis 7, with differences
equal to ni6, so that a being the value of
the basis, a-\-nd gives the atomic weight,
a = 7 = Lithium
a+ d = 7 + 16 = 23 = Sodium
a + 2d = 7 + 32 = 39 = Potassium
In some cases it is necessary to assume
two values for the increment, as in the case
of the halogens and several other groups.
Thus for the halogens :
a = 1 9 — Fluorine
a+ d= 19 + 16-5 = 35-5 = Chlorine
a + id+ d' = i9 + 33+28 = 80 = Bromine
38 + 33 + 56 = 127 = Iodine
30
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
Several attempts in this direction were
made in the middle of the nineteenth century,
and of these the memoir of Dumas* repre-
sents perhaps the most determined and
comprehensive.
It is unquestionably true that something
akin to homology is to be traced in many
families of elements, but at present in no
case has a satisfactory formula been dis-
covered for the calculation of the atomic
weights so as to bring them into harmony
with the values deduced from the most
exact experiment s.f
The arrangement of the elements in
groups consisting of closely allied members
does not, however, provide the clue to a
scheme by which the whole of the elements
could be shown to belong to one system of
things. Prout's hypothesis seems to have
been the only attempt to provide a general
* ' ' Memoire sur les I^quiv. des Corps Simples. " Ann.
Chim. Phys. [3], iv, 129.
t See, however, later, chapter iv.
31
THE ELEMENTS
law up to a period which commences about
1860-62. As already mentioned, this is
attributable to two causes, namely, first the
want of knowledge about the chemical
characters of a considerable number of the
elements ; and secondly, the want of co-
ordination among the atomic weights.
Of the chemists to whom the study of
this question appealed strongly Odling
should first be mentioned. Having occupied
himself with the relations traceable among
atomic weights from 1857 onward, Odling
published, in 1864, an article containing a
table in which the atomic weights of forty-
five of the best-known elements are arranged
horizontally in the order of their generally
received groups, and perpendicularly in the
order of their several atomic weights (W aits' s
Diet., iii, 975).
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
Mo 96
Pd 106-5
W 184
Au 196-5
Pt 197
Li 7
£ 9
B ii
C 12
N 14
O 16
F 19
Na 23
Mg 24
Al 27-5
Si 28
P 31
s 32
Cl 35-5
Zn 65
As 75
Se 79-5
Br 80
Ag 108
Cd 112
Sn 118
Sb 122
Te 129
I 127
Hg 200
Tl 203
Pb 207
Bi 210
K 39
Ca 40
Ti 48
Cr 52-5
Mn 55
etc.
Rb 85
Sr 87-5
Zr 895
Cs 133
Ba 137
V 138
Th 231
Here chromium and manganese are sup-
posed to represent the metals of the iron
group, and palladium and platinum their
respective congeners, so that the total num-
ber of elements provided for amounts to
about fifty-two. It will be seen later that
this table embodies a scheme which is only
one step removed from the presentation of
the periodic law which has since become the
commonly accepted basis of classification.
In the meantime other chemists and
physicists were at work on the problem, and
D 33
THE ELEMENTS
in order that as far as possible justice may
be done to the several publications which en-
sued, mention must be made of some of them.
In 1862 Beguyer de Chancourtois,* a
French geologist, conceived the idea of repre-
senting geometrically the relations among
the atomic weights of the then known ele-
ments by the device of a spiral drawn upon
the surface of a cylinder with circular base
divided into sixteen equal parts, the spiral
cutting the generatrices (vertical lines) of the
cylinder at an angle of 45°. By measuring
off from the base lengths corresponding to
what he called " the characteristic numbers/'
that is the atomic weights, de Chancourtois
showed that elements of similar character
often found places on the same generating
line. Thus oxygen, sulphur, selenion, and
tellurium stand vertically above one another,
as also do the members of several other
natural families, though intermingled wit{\
others not related to them,
* Comptes Rendus, 1862 and 1863,
34
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
But the language of the memoir is so
obscure that it is uncertain whether the
author really recognised the general relation-
ship of properties to atomic weight.* At one
time he seems to be discussing the distribu-
tion of the elements in minerals, and at
another to be confused by the fact that the
atomic weights are not whole numbers, and
the differences between them are not con-
stant, and therefore cannot exhibit simple
geometrical relationships on his " Vis tel-
lurique," or telluric helix.
Among other early attempts to trace a
law of general application the several papers
* The following passage extracted from one of his
memoirs sufficiently explains his position : —
" La proposition fondamentale de mon systeme : Les
rapports des proprittts des corps sont manifesto's par des
rapports simples de position de leurs points caracttristiqucs.
Par exemple, 1'oxygene, le soufre, le selenium, le tellure, le
bismuth, s'alignent sensiblement sur une generatrice, tandis
que le magnesium, le calcium, le fer, le strontium, 1'urane, le
barium s'alignent sur une generatrice opposee ; a c6te de la
premiere figurent d'une part 1'hydrogene et le zinc, d'autre
part le brome et 1'iode, le cuivre et le plomb ; a cote de la
deuxieme s'alignent le lithium, le sodium, le potassium et le
manganese, etc. etc." Comptes RenditSi 54 (1862), 75$.
35
THE ELEMENTS
of J. A. R. Newlands claim the most atten-
tion, for this chemist was the first to draw
attention definitely to the periodic character
of the relation which is observable among
the majority of the elements when a list is
drawn up in the order of the numerical
value of their atomic weights. Newlands'
first paper (Chem. News, Feb., 1863), and
several succeeding papers, treat of the rela-
tions among the equivalents, and as at this
time the relation of the atomic weights to
the equivalents was still undetermined by
any uniform rule, the research was not al-
ways successful.
In a communication made to the Chemical
Society, in March, 1866, the author adopted
Cannizzaro's system, and was thereby led to
revise some of his previous statements, and
succeeded in enunciating on a more satis-
factory basis the " Law of Octaves " which
he had formulated two years previously
(Aug., 1864).
His own words were as follows : ''If the
36
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
elements are arranged in the order of their
equivalents, calling hydrogen i, lithium 2,
glucinum 3, boron 4, and so on (a separate
number being attached to each element
having a distinct equivalent of its own, and
where two elements happen to have the
same equivalent, both being designated by
the same number) it will be observed that
elements having consecutive numbers fre-
quently either belong to the same group or
occupy similar positions in different groups."
And referring to a tabular arrangement of
some of the elements he proceeded : " Here
the difference between the number of the
lowest member of a group and that
immediately above it is 7 ; in other
words, the eighth element starting from
a given one is a kind of repetition of
the first, like the eighth note of an octave
in music."
The following table was given later,
when corrected atomic weights had been
adopted.
37
THE ELEMENTS
ELEMENTS ARRANGED IN OCTAVES
No.
H 1
Li 2
G 3
Bo 4
C 5
N 6
0 7
No. No.
F 8C1 15
Na 9K 16
Mg lOiCa 17
Al HCr IS
Si 12Ti 19
P 13 Mn 20
S 14 Fe 21
No.
Co & Ni 22
Cu 23
Zn 24
Y 25
In 26
As 27
Se 28
No.
Br 29
Rb 30
Sr 31
Ce & La 32
Zr S3
Di & Mo 34
Ro&Ru35
No. No.
Pel 36ll 42
Ag 37lCs 44
Cd38JBa& V 45
U 39 Ta 46
Sn 40 W 47
Sb41|Nb 48
Te43IAu 49
No.
Pt & Ir 50
Os 51
Hg 52
Tl 53
Pb 54
Bi 55
Th 56
(Chem. News, March 9, 1866.)
At the meeting of the Chemical Society,
when this table was brought forward, the
objection was raised by Dr. Gladstone that
no provision is made for elements which re-
mained to be discovered. As the previous
few years had brought forth caesium, rubi-
dium, thallium, and indium there was con-
siderable force in the remark, and to this
curious mistake on the part of the author
may be partly attributed the fact that he
was not more successful in sustaining his
fundamental idea. Nevertheless it must be
admitted that Newlands was the first to
announce definitely the discovery that the
properties of the elements are a periodic
function of their atomic weights, and this is
clearly stated in his enunciation of his law
38
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
of octaves, and is obvious from the positions
assigned to a majority of the elements in the
table. Unfortunately, he appears to have
appreciated very imperfectly the importance
of the principle involved, and he wrote no
more on the subject till 1872, after the
publication of MendeleefFs famous memoir,
of which an account will now be given.
From what has gone before it is obvious
that the way was being prepared for a
generalisation concerning the relation of
properties to atomic weight, and it was
therefore natural that Professor Mendeleeff,
being occupied in the compilation of his
well-known work entitled, in the English
translation, The Principles of Chemistry,
should have his attention strongly attracted
to the subject.
In March, 1869, Mendeleeff communicated
to the Russian Chemical Society a memoir,
of which an abstract only appeared, in
German (Zeitsch. /. Chem., v, 405), and of
which the following is a translation, slightly
39
THE ELEMENTS
abbreviated, several obvious misprints being
corrected, as well as one important error of
translation, the Russian word for periodic
having been rendered by the German
" stufenweise," or gradual.
" When the elements are arranged in
vertical columns, according to increasing
atomic weight, so that the horizontal lines
contain analogous elements, again according
to increasing atomic weight, the following
arrangement results, from which several
general conclusions may be derived :
li- 50 Zr = 90 ? =180
V = 51 Nb» 94 Ta =182
Cr= 52 Mo= 96 W =186
Mn= 55 Rh=104'4 Pt =197 '4
Fe= 56 -Ru =104'4 Ir =»198
Ni=Co= 59 Pd «106-6 Os =199
H =1
Cu= 63-4 Ag =108
Hg = 200
Be- 9-4
Mg=24
Zn= 65-2 Cd =112
B =11
Al =27'4
? = 68 Ur =116
Au=197?
C =12
Si =28
? - 70 Sn =118
N ~14
P =81
As- 75 Sb =122
Bi =210?
O =16
S =32
Se= 79-4 Te =128?
F =19
Cl =35-5
Br= 80 I =127
Li = 7
Na=23
K =39
Rb= 85-4 Cs =133
Tl =204
Ca-40
Sr* 87-6 Ba =137
Pb =207
-45
Ce= 92
£r=56
La= 94
Yt=60
Di« 95
? In =75-6
Th = 118
\J
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
" i. The elements according to the mag-
nitude of atomic weight show a periodic
change of properties.
"2. Chemically analogous elements have
atomic weights either in agreement (Pt,Ir,Os),
or increasing by equal amounts (K, Rb, Cs).
"3. The arrangement according to atomic
weights corresponds with the valency of the
elements, and to a certain extent the differ-
ence in chemical behaviour, for example, Li,
Be, B, C, N, O, F.
" 4. The elements most widely distributed
in nature have small atomic weights, and all
such elements are distinguished by their
characteristic behaviour. They are thus
typical elements and the lightest element,
hydrogen, is therefore rightly chosen as the
typical unit of mass.
"5. The magnitude of the atomic weight
determines the properties of the element.
Hence the compounds of S and Te, of Cl and
I show, beside many analogies, striking
differences.
41
THE ELEMENTS
" 6. It allows the discovery of many new
elements to be foreseen; for example,
analogues of Si and Al with atomic weights
between 65 and 75.
" 7. Some atomic weights will experience
correction ; for example, Te cannot have the
atomic weight 128, but 123 to 126."
From the foregoing table the principle of
periodicity, that is, recurrence of similar
properties at regular intervals with increase
of atomic weight, is less obvious than it
afterwards became when, in 1871, the
arrangement was modified so as to assume
the form now commonly adopted in text-
books of chemistry.
In the meantime the study of the ques-
tion led the German Professor Lothar Meyer
to conclusions practically identical with
those of Mendeleeff, and by his famous dia-
gram of atomic volumes to illustrate very
clearly the periodic recurrence of many of
the physical properties of the elements when
arranged in the order of atomic weights.
42
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
It is only necessary to remind the reader
that by " atomic volume " is meant the
quotient which results from dividing the
atomic weight by the density. It therefore
represents the volume in cubic centimetres
which would be occupied by the atomic
weight of the element taken in grams.
Meyer's table,* of which a portion is here
reproduced, speaks for itself. Tracing al-
most any well recognised natural family of
elements, it can be seen from the curve that
the successive terms occupy corresponding
positions. For example, lithium, sodium,
potassium, rubidium, and caesium occupy
the successive apices and have the greatest
known atomic volumes. This character is
associated with great chemical activity. In
like manner calcium, strontium, and barium
are to be found in corresponding positions on
the descending portions of the curve, while
chlorine, bromine, and iodine, sulphur,
selenion, and tellurium occupy places on the
* Annalen (Dec., 1869). Supplement, p. 354.
43
\ X
1
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
ascending portions. Other properties and
relations are similarly recognisable.
Nevertheless, Mendeleeff is rightly re-
garded as the discoverer of the law. His title
to be so regarded is based on the fact that
he not only proclaimed the law afresh, and
apparently in ignorance of Newlands' work,
but he displayed that deep conviction of its
important consequences which led him to
some of the most striking and interesting of
its applications. A detailed account of many
of these is to be found in all the best text-
books of chemistry ; it is unnecessary, there-
fore, to do more than to indicate by a single
example the application of the principle,
which is embodied in Mendeleeffs revised
table, to the prediction of new elements
and a prevision of their physical and
chemical properties.
The table, in its latest form, as arranged
by Mendeleeff, in 1904, to include all the
known elements except the " rare earths/*
is shown below.
45
THE ELEMENTS
Series.
0 ..
Zero group.
JK
Group I.
Group II.
Group III.
Group IV.
_
1 ..
y
Hydrogen,
H = 1-008
-
-
-
2 ..
Helium,
He = 4'0
Lithium,
Li = 7 '03
Beryllium,
Be=9'l
Boron,
B = 11'0
Carbon,
C = 120
3 ..
Neon,
Ne = 19-9
Sodium,
Na = 23-05
Magnesium,
Mg = 24'l
Aluminium,
Al-27'0
Silicon,
Si = 28-4
4 ..
Argon,
Ar=38
Potassium,
K = 39'l
Calcium,
Ca=40'l
Scandium,
Sc = 44'l
Titanium, •
Ti = 48'l
5 ..
-
Copper, •
Cu = 63-6
Zinc,
Zn = 65'4
Gallium,
Ga=70'0
Germanium,
Ge=72'3
6 ..
Krypton,
Kr = 81-8
Rubidium,
Rb = 85-4
Strontium.
Sr=87'6
Yttrium,
Y = 89'0
Zirconium,
Zr=906
V ••
-
Silver,
Ag = 107'9
Cadmium,
Cd = 112-4
Indium,
In = 114-0
Tin, '
Sn =119-0
8 ..
Xenon,
Xe = 128
Caesium,
Cs = 132'9
Barium,
Ba*137'4
Lanthanum,
La = 139
Cerium,
Ce = 140
. .
10 ..
—
—
—
Ytterbium,
Yb=173
—
11 ..
-
Gold,
Au -=197-2
Mercury,
Hg = 200-0
Thallium,
Tl= 204-1
Lead, •
Pb = 206'9
12 :.
'-
-
Radium,
Rd = 224
-
Thorium,
Th = 232
46
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
Group V.
Group VI.
Group VII.
Group VIII.
Nitrogen,
N=14'04
Oxygen.
O = 16-0
Fluorine,
F-19-0
— — — .
Phosphorus
Sulphur,
5 = 32-06
Chlorine,
Cl-35'45
- - -
Vanadium,
V = 51-4
Chromium,
Manganese,
Mn = 55'0
Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,
Fe = 55'9 Co = 59 Ni = 59 (Cu)
Arsenic, •
As = 75-0
Selenium,
Se=79'0
Bromine,
Br-79-95
- - . -
Niobium,
Molybden'm
Mo =96-0
-
Ruthenium, Rhodium, Palladium.
Ru = 101'7 Rh = 103 -0 Pd = 106-5 (Ag)
Antimony,
Sb = 120-0
Tellurium,
Te = 127
Iodine,
1 = 127
— — —
Tantalum,
Ta= 183-0
Tungsten,
W = 184
—
Osmium, Indium, Platinum,
Os = 191 Ir = 193 Pt = 194-9 (Au)
Bismuth,',
Bi = 208
-
—
_ __. _
-
Uranium,
U=239
• :. _
•--''--.• -
47
THE ELEMENTS
In 1871, when Mendeleeff drew up this
table, the spaces corresponding to atomic
weights 44, 70, and 72 were vacant. To the
hypothetical elements expected to occupy
these positions he gave the names ekaboron,
akaluminium, and ekasilicon, and to each he
assigned the properties which were soon
afterwards recognised in the new elements
scandium (at. wt. 44), gallium (at. wt. 69-9),
and germanium (at. wt. 72-5).
To the element standing next after zinc
Mendeleeff gave the name eka-aluminium,
and the following is the outline he gave of its
properties :* "It will be in the same group
as Al, and should consequently give R2O3,
RC13, R2(SO4)3, alums, and like compounds
analogous to those of aluminium. Its oxide
should be more easily reducible to metal
than alumina, just as zinc oxide is more
easily reduced than magnesia. The oxide
R2O3 should, like alumina, have feeble but
clearly expressed basic properties. The
* Principles^ ii, 84 (Engl. ed., 1891).
48
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
metal reduced from its compounds should
have a greater atomic volume than zinc,
because in the fifth series, proceeding from
zinc to bromine, the volume increases. And
as the volume of zinc is 9-2, and of arsenic 18,
therefore that of our metal should be near
to 12. This is also evident from the fact
that the volume of aluminium =11, and of
indium = 14, and our metal is situated in the
III group, between aluminium and indium.
If its volume is 11-5 and its atomic weight
be about 69, then its density will be nearly
5-9. The fact of zinc being more volatile
than magnesium gives reason for thinking
that the metal in question will be more
volatile than aluminium, and therefore for
expecting its discovery by the aid of the
spectroscope, etc."
In 1875 Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovered
by means of the spectroscope a new metal in
a zinc blende from the Pyrenees. This he
named gallium, and it was found by subse-
quent study to have the atomic weight 69-8,
E 49
THE ELEMENTS
the density 5-9, to form a sesquioxide Ga2O3,
and an octahedral alum, like common alum.
The metal is soluble in acids and in alkaline
hydroxide, and possesses many of the pro-
perties of aluminium. It is, however, much
more fusible, melting at 30° ; just as zinc is
more fusible than magnesium.
Similar predictions concerning the other
two hypothetical elements mentioned above
were completely confirmed by the properties
observed in the metals scandium and ger-
manium. No justification could be more
complete, and Mendeleeff's scheme has con-
tinued to furnish the guiding principle of the
greater part of modern inorganic chemical
research.
CHAPTER III
THE PERIODIC LAW
"As in Mathematics so in Natural Philosophy, the investi-
gation of difficult things by the method of analysis ought
ever to precede the method of composition."
NEWTON, Optic ks.
HAVING traced the gradual course of
development of the idea which is em-
bodied in Mendeleeff's scheme of the elements
it will now be useful to examine more closely
his statement of the " Periodic Law/'
Mendeleeff 's own words rendered into Eng-
lish in the latest edition of his Principles
(1905, vol. ii, p. 17) appear as follows :
" The properties of the elements, as well as
the forms and properties of their compounds,
are in periodic dependence on, or (express-
ing ourselves algebraically) form a periodic
function of, the atomic weights of the
elements."
In order that the question of the general
THE ELEMENTS
validity of this law may be fairly considered
it is necessary first of all to inquire whether
there is any reason to expect the discovery,
by further research, of substances of ele-
mental character at present unrecognised.
In order to answer this question the first
thing to do is to examine the list of elements
now generally acknowledged, and it will be
found that they form a continuous series,
with a roughly uniform progression in the
value of the atomic weight in passing from
term to term. The following table contains
the names and atomic weights of the eighty-
one elements recognised by the International
Committee on Atomic Weights with the
numerical values adopted by that body.
ELEMENTS
ARRANGED IN ORDER ACCORDING TO
ATOMIC WEIGHT
Hydrogen . . 1-008
Helium . . . 4-0
Lithium . . 7-00
Beryllium (Glucinum) 9-1
Boron . . il-o
Carbon . . . 12-00
Nitrogen
Oxygen .
Fluorine
Neon .
Sodium .
Magnesium
. 14-01
. 1 6-00
. 19-0
. 2O-O
. 23-00
. 24-32
52
THE PERIODIC LAW
Aluminium .
. 27-1 Indium . 114-8
Silicon .
. 28-3
Tin
119-0
Phosphorus .
. 31-0
Antimony
120-2
Sulphur
. 32-07
*Tellurium
127-5
Chlorine
Iodine .
I26-92
*Argon .
• 39-9
Xenon .
I30-7
Potassium
. 39-10
Caesium
I32.8I
Calcium
. 40-09
Barium .
137-37
Scandium
. 44-1
Lanthanum
139-0
Titanium
. 48-1
Cerium .
I40-25
Vanadium
. 51-2
Praseodymiur
n
I40-6
Chromium
. 52-0
Neodymium
144-3
Manganese .
• 54-93
Samarium
I50-4
Iron
Nickel
• 55-85
. 58-68
Europium
Gadolinium
152-0
157-3
Cobalt
58-97
Terbium
I59-2
Copper
Zinc
• 63-57
• 65-37
Dysprosium
Erbium .
162-5
167-4
Gallium
. 69-9
Thulium
168-5
Germanium .
• 72-5
Ytterbium
1720
Arsenic .
Lutecium
1740
Selenion
. 79-2
Tantalum
181-0
Bromine
. 79-92
Tungsten
184-0
Krypton
. 83-0
Osmium
1909
Rubidium
. 85-45
Iridium .
I93'1
Strontium .
. 87-62
Platinum
195-0
Yttrium
. 89-0
Gold .
197-2
Zirconium
. 90-6
Mercury
200-0
Niobium(Columbium)93'5
Thallium
2O4O
Molybdenum .
. 96-0
Lead .
207-IO
Ruthenium .
. 101-7
Bismuth
208-0
Rhodium
. 102-9
Radium
226-4
Palladium
. 106-7
Thorium
232-42
Silver .
. 107-88
Uranium
Cadmium
. 112-40
(Total 8 1.)
* Argon and tellurium are placed out of numerical order
on account of the uncertainty still attaching to the relative
values of their atomic weights and those of the elements
immediately following them.
53
THE ELEMENTS
It will be observed that in passing from
one element to the next in the list the differ-
ences between the atomic weights vary from
0-29 (Co - Ni) to 4-6 (Cu - Co), among the ele-
ments of which the atomic weights are not
very large and most of which have been
determined with considerable approach to
accuracy.
The relatively large difference, 7-3, be-
tween antimony and tellurium is attributed
to some error in the atomic weight of
tellurium, of which no sufficient explanation
has yet been found ; but there is a gap be-
tween molybdenum and ruthenium amount-
ing to 57 units, which is supposed to indicate
a vacancy appropriated in the Mendeleeff
scheme to a homologue of manganese. The
atomic weights of the fourteen elements,
beginning with lanthanum, are confessedly
uncertain, but that they all lie between
lanthanum and tantalum seems probable,
because, although the individual numbers
are doubtless inexact, the average difference
54
THE PERIODIC LAW
between any two consecutive terms is ap-
proximately the same as the average differ-
ence between successive atomic weights
among the better known elements preceding
them. Ta - La=i8i — 139=42 for thirteen
intervals, or about 3-2.
Between tungsten and osmium a differ-
ence of 6-9 units seems to indicate
something missing, and from bismuth, 208,
to radium, 226-4, there is a wide interval
which seems to indicate about four vacant
places. It is, of course, uncertain whether
the same order of increase is to be ex-
pected in the larger numbers, and whether
some irregularity is possible or even prob-
able here.
It should also be noted that the differences,
approximately three units each, among the
three elements with smallest known atomic
weights, namely :
H i -008 He 4-0 Li 7-00
are greater than the differences observed
55
THE ELEMENTS
among the elements immediately following
them, namely :
Li 7-00 Be 9-1 BII-O C 12-00 N 14-01
O 16-00 F 19-0 Ne 20-0
which show an average difference of less
than two units between successive terms.
At present no element is known with a
smaller atomic weight than hydrogen or
a larger atomic weight than uranium. Re-
membering that the " atomic weights " are
only ratios and represent only the relative
magnitude of the masses of the atoms, and
not their absolute masses in terms of any
standard, there is nothing in theory to pre-
clude the expectation of additions of new
substances to either extremity of the series.
However, the spectroscopic simplicity of
hydrogen seems to hint that its constitution
is near the limit at one end, and the belief
that radio-activity is occasioned by the in-
stability of the larger atoms at the other
end leads to the suspicion, if not the convic-
56
THE PERIODIC LAW
tion, that the series is limited by this in-
stability, which, so far as is at present
known, is associated with an atomic weight
approximating to 240.
From this point of view, then, the total
number of new elements to be expected is
not large, and they are for the most part
such as would exhibit metallic characters
and a high atomic weight.
The significance of these differences among
the successive atomic weights is more easily
recognised when the elements are arranged
in such a table as that of Mendele'eff (p. 46),
where their natural affinities are brought
into view and a number of natural families
can be at once selected, each possessing well-
marked characters common to the whole
family. The most strongly marked of these
families are the following :
1. Helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon.
2. Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium,
caesium.
57
THE ELEMENTS
3. Beryllium, magnesium, zinc, cadmium,
mercury.
4. Calcium, strontium, barium, radium.
5. Aluminium, gallium, indium.
6. Silicon, titanium, zirconium.
7. Germanium, tin, lead.
8. Nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, anti-
mony, bismuth.
9. Vanadium, niobium, tantalum.
10. Oxygen, sulphur, selenion, tellurium.
11. Fluorine, chlorine^ bromine, iodine.
12. Chromium, manganese, cobalt, iron,
nickel, copper.
13. Chromium, molybdenum, tungsten,
and uranium.
14. Ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, os-
mium, iridium, platinum.
Here it may be to the advantage of the
reader if a sketch is given of the characters
by which one or two of these families are
distinguished, in order to indicate the sort
of features which are regarded as important
in determining relationships. These are
58
THE PERIODIC LAW
at once divisible into two kinds, namely,
(i) those which are recognised as matters of
fact, such as the physical and chemical pro-
perties of the elements and of their chief
compounds ; and (2) valency, which is to
some extent involved in theory.
Concerning the former it will be found in
all cases that density, fusibility, or volatility,
and chemical activity are obviously related
to atomic weight, the density always in-
creasing with increasing atomic weight, while
volatility generally diminishes among the
non-metals, and increases among the metals
with rise in the value of atomic weight.
As to valency, br the capacity displayed
by the atom of the element to associate with
other atoms, ^ if used alone this character
would bring together quite incongruous
materials, while it sometimes separates very
similar substances. Phosphorus and sulphur,
for example, are very much alike, as are also
antimony and tellurium and other elements,
which are properly placed in separate
59
THE ELEMENTS
families in consideration of their differences
of valency.
The alkali metals may be taken as an
example. These substances are silvery
white, very fusible, volatile solids, which
communicate to flame characteristic colours,
those given by potassium, rubidium, and
caesium being purplish and almost indistin-
guishable from each other by the eye. By
means of the spectroscope these lights are
resolvable into a very small number of
bright lines. These metals decompose water
violently and are distinguished by their
tendency to unite with oxygen, their electro-
positive character increasing as the atomic
weight increases. Their salts are with very
few exceptions easily soluble in water, and
the corresponding salts are usually isomor-
phous. Thus the chlorides, bromides, and
iodides, when anhydrous, crystallise in cubes,
and the sulphates, with the exception of
lithium sulphate, unite with aluminium
sulphate and water to form alums which
60
THE PERIODIC LAW
crystallise in regular octahedrons. Their
chief physical properties are shown in the
following table :
Li Na K Rb Cs
Atomic Wt. . 7*0 23*0 39*1 85^45 132*81
Density . . 0-59 0*97 o'8; 1-52 r88
Atomic Vol. . ii'9 23-6 44-9 56*2 70*6
Melting Pt. . 186° 95° 62° 38*5° 26°
Boiling Pt. above red 742° 667° ? ?
These elements are all univalent, that is,
one atom of the metal is capable of combin-
ing with or of displacing one atom of hydro-
gen, and there is no well recognised evidence
that they ever show a greater capacity for
combination.
Turning now to the opposite side of the
table, the halogens may be taken as an ex-
ample of a well-defined natural family.
These are all very volatile substances, the
vapours of which exhibit characteristic
colours ; fluorine pale yellow, chlorine green-
ish yellow, bromine orange-red, iodine deep
purple. By reason of their low boiling points
fluorine and chlorine are gaseous at atmo-
spheric pressure and temperature, while
bromine is a red dense liquid, and iodine a
61
THE ELEMENTS
black, lustrous, crystalline solid. They are
distinguished by the tendency they exhibit
to combine with hydrogen and metals, and
not, by any direct process, with oxygen.
Fluorine is the most electro-negative element
known, displacing chlorine from the chlorides
and entering into combination with hydro-
gen even in the dark and at very low tem-
peratures. It seems to be incapable of com-
bining with oxygen under any circumstances.
The following table exhibits the chief
physical properties of these elements, and as
in the case of the metals it may be noticed
that these properties follow the numerical
magnitude of the atomic weight, the chemi-
cal activity standing in the inverse order,
fluorine being the most active, while iodine
is the least.
F Cl
Br
I
Atomic Wt. .
. 19-0 35-46
79-92
126-92
Density gas (H=i)
• 19 35'5
80
127
,, liquid I
•14 (at -200°) i '42
3'l8
—
,, or solid
- .
4 '9
Atomic Vol. . .
. i6'6 25-0
2S'I
257
Melting Pt. . .
below -210°
7° to - 8°
114°
Boiling Pt. .
at atmos. pressure .
} -187° -33°
63°
184°
62
THE PERIODIC LAW
In this family, as in many others, the
first and last members of the series exhibit
abnormalities, but it is unnecessary in this
place to enter into details regarding the
peculiarities of fluorine, on the one hand,
and of iodine on the other.
The valency of the group in their com-
pounds with hydrogen and the metals is
habitually represented by one unit ; but
in certain compounds, notably in those
which contain oxygen, it is necessary to
assume a higher degree of combining capa-
city, amounting to three, or, according to
some chemists, five or even seven, units.
If the table of elements drawn up by
Mendeleeff is now inspected it becomes at
once obvious that, after Series i, of
which hydrogen is the only acknowledged
member, the two following lines illustrate
perfectly the principle of periodicity. Here
the ninth element, counting from the first,
exhibits an almost perfect reproduction of
the same assemblage of properties as the
first with such modification as might be
63
THE ELEMENTS
expected from the increase of density which
follows the increase of atomic weight. The
fourth series, however, shows greater differ-
ences, first in respect to the positions assigned
to chromium and manganese respectively,
which in their metallic character are wholly
unlike the sulphur and halogen groups to
which they are attached ; and secondly, in
the fact that the atomic weights of iron,
nickel, and cobalt bring these elements into
close association with manganese and to pro-
vide places for them it is necessary to assume
an extension of the period by the addition
of an eighth group. Admitting this modifica-
tion, the characteristics of these metals
should be revived later on among elements
of higher atomic weight. The platinum
metals do in two series represent correlatives
of the iron group which they resemble in
difficult fusibility, in the tendency to occlude
hydrogen and in the formation of complex
cyanides and ammines. Complete revival
of characteristics is not to be looked for, and
there is considerable modification of valency.
64
THE PERIODIC LAW
Passing over the difficulties encountered
in respect to individual elements such as
those already mentioned and others, the
most serious problem is presented by the
elements related to cerium, and constituting
the substances long known as the " rare
earths." Thirteen of these substances are
recognised by the Atomic Weight Committee,
and will be found in the table of atomic
weights, commencing with lanthanum, 139,
and ending with lutecium, 174.
These metals form sesquioxides, and their
sulphates constitute an isomorphous group,
with the general formula R2(SO4)3,8H2O.
Some of them have been reduced to the
metallic state and their densities have been
found to approximate to the density of iron,
but with much lower melting-point.
Dens. M.P.*
Cerium . . . 7-04 623°
Lanthanum . .6-15 810°
Praseodymium . . 6-47 94°°
Neodymium . . 6-96 840°
Samarium . -7*75 —
(Iron . . . .7-84 above 1600°)
* Muthmann and Weiss, Annalen, 1904, 331, I.
F 65
THE ELEMENTS
Two kinds of difficulty arise in connection
with the placing of these metals in the
scheme. They are all usually trivalent,
forming sesquioxides, and therefore cannot
fall into successive groups with different
valencies, and they are much less easily
reducible than the platinum metals ; and in
respect to density they do not fall between
the two subdivisions of those metals, the
lighter with density about 12, and the
heavier with density 21-22, shown in Group
VIII.
Mendeleeff's enunciation of the periodic
principle, therefore, can only be accepted
with some qualification.
An inspection of the table shows that
following Series 3 there is an obvious division
of each group vertically into two sub-groups,
one of which preserves, substantially, the
character of the type ; the other displays a
very rapid development of quite new fea-
tures. This is perhaps best shown by tabu-
lating the former separately, as follows :
66
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THE ELEMENTS
Here it will be perceived that as atomic
weight increases in each vertical column
there is a tendency to increase in the electro-
positive character of the element, indicated
among the metals by the greater difficulty
encountered in the isolation of the metal
from its compounds and in the more strongly
marked basic character of the oxides.
Among the non-metals the increase of atomic
weight in any group is attended by gradual
development of metalloidal characters, as
may be noticed in passing from phosphorus
to antimony, from sulphur to tellurium, and
from chlorine to iodine.
The elements omitted are all metallic in
character, and, as with the rest, their metallic
qualities in each group suffer modification,
but in the inverse order, for reduction to the
metallic state is here generally easier among
the elements of highest atomic weight, and
the basic properties of the oxides are most
strongly marked among those of lower
atomic weight. This may be recognised in
68
THE PERIODIC LAW
following the successive members of such
a family as copper, silver, gold, or zinc,
cadmium, mercury ; or by comparison of
the iron group with the two sub-groups of
platinum metals.
The elements referred to are arranged in
their several groups and series in the follow-
ing table. (See next page.)
69
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CHAPTER IV
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
" WE may almost consider the 717x6x77 I/XT; of the ancients
to be realised in hydrogen, an opinion, by the way, not
altogether new."
W. PROUT, Ann. Phil., 6 (1815), p. 321.
7 (1816), p. in.
MENDELEEFF, the prophet of the
periodic doctrine, was to the last
strenuously opposed to any conception
which involved the idea of the evolution of
the chemical elements from a primordial
unique form of matter. The periodic scheme
of arrangement is, however, so suggestive
of some process of evolution that chemists
and physicists have been for many years
fascinated by the inquiry how such numeri-
cal relations can be accounted for if they are
not to be understood as indicating a common
origin, or the operation of some genetic
process.
Since the discovery of the periodic law
71
THE ELEMENTS
several forms of hypothesis have been
brought forward. Among the earlier hypo-
theses the most notable is associated with
the name of Sir William Crookes, who, since
its original presentation in 1886, has on
several occasions reiterated and amplified
the expression of his views.
Crookes' ideas on the " Genesis of the
Elements"* are based on a revival of
the hypothesis of the existence in the
dawn of the universe of a primal " ur-
stoff " or " protyle " consisting of an
infinite number of immeasurably small
particles gradually accreting out of form-
less mist and moving with inconceiv-
able velocity in all directions. These fine
particles are assumed to have gradually
heaped themselves into masses of increasing
size, by the operation of the selective process
which results from the tendency of particles
with approximately the same rate and kind
* JB.A. Report, Birmingham, 1886. Trans. Chtm. Soc.,
1888, Presidential Address.
72
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
of motion to separate from a crowd and to
keep together. Now, picturing in imagina-
tion the influence of lowering temperature,
operating concurrently with the action of
the imponderable matter or source of energy
called electricity, it may be supposed that
at intervals clusters of particles are formed
having a more or less stable character, and
that these clusters correspond to the atoms
of the " elements " of the chemist. This
process of evolution is represented diagram-
matically by Crookes by means of a figure of
eight.*
In this figure each of the loops is divided
into eight equal parts, and upon it the
elements are supposed to follow one another
at equal distances along the spiral, a gap of
* This figure is the outcome of several modifications
introduced into a diagram originally published by Professor
Emerson Reynolds (Chemical News (1886), liv, i), which
was employed as a substitute for the tabular arrangement of
Mendeleef. The diagram consisted of a zigzag curve, upon
which the symbols of the elements were placed in the order
of their atomic weights, and was designed to impress the
idea of periodic relation of properties to atomic weight.
73
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
one division being left at the point of cross-
ing. " Let me'suppose," he says,* " at the
birth of the elements, as we now know them,
the action of the vis generatrix might be
diagrammatically represented by a journey
to and fro in cycles along a figure of eight
path, while simultaneously time is flowing
on, and some circumstance by which the
element-forming cause is conditioned (e.g.
temperature) is declining (variations which
I have endeavoured to represent by the
downward slope). The result of the first
cycle may be represented in the diagram by
supposing that the unknown formative cause
has scattered along its journey the group-
ings now called hydrogen, lithium, glucinum,
boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine,
sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon,
phosphorus, sulphur, and chlorine. But the
swing of the pendulum is not arrested at
the end of the first round. It still proceeds
on its journey, and had the conditions re-
* Proc. R. Soc., Ixiii, 409 (1898).
rs
THE ELEMENTS
mained constant the next elementary group-
ing generated would again be lithium, and
the original cycle would eternally reappear,
producing again and again the same fourteen
elements. But the conditions are not quite
the same. Those represented by the two
mutually rectangular horizontal components
of the motion (say chemical and electrical
energy) are not materially modified ; that to
which the vertical component corresponds
has lessened, and so, instead of lithium being
repeated by lithium, the groupings which
form the commencement of the second cycle
are not lithium, but its lineal descendant
potassium."
From this it appears that the elements
represent stages in the more and more con-
densed and complex grouping of the same
primal matter or protyle. They are not sup-
posed to be formed in succession from one
another, glucinum from lithium, boron from
glucinum, and so forth.
The expression " lithium . . . lineal de-
76
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
scendant of potassium/' occurring at the close
of the passage quoted above, is therefore to
be understood as merely referring to the posi-
tion of potassium vertically below lithium,
both being formed by condensation of the
same material, though the atom of potassium
is not supposed to result from the previous
formation of an atom of lithium, and the
subsequent accretion upon it of more protyle.
The fundamental idea is admirably illus-
trated by this diagram and model, but there
are some points in both the idea and the
model which present difficulty. In particular
the position of hydrogen is unsatisfactory,
represented, as it is, in a relation toward
chlorine the same as that of lithium toward
potassium, while sodium is separated from
lithium and the rest of the alkali metals.
Hydrogen is unquestionably a positive
element, and whenever liberated by electro-
lysis it appears at the cathode. Its chemical
activity is considerably less than that of the
alkali metals, lithium and the rest, but it is
77
THE ELEMENTS
greater than is commonly supposed, and its
inferior energy, as a chemical agent, is due
largely to its gaseous condition at all common
temperatures. Nevertheless, it is well known
that even hydrogen gas, at common tempera-
tures and pressures, in contact with solutions
of silver nitrate precipitates metallic silver,
and the system zinc, dilute sulphuric acid
and hydrogen reaches a condition of equili-
brium when the pressure of the hydrogen
evolved by the zinc reaches a certain
amount.
Of course, it is now known that Graham's
dream that hydrogen in the solid form would
present the features of an ordinary metal
has not been fulfilled, for in the solid state
hydrogen appears as a colourless mass, of
low density, resembling white paraffin wax.
On the other hand, the halogens are
volatile substances possessing in their ordin-
ary state a greater degree of chemical
activity than any other elements. Fluorine,
especially, is a pale yellow gas, condensable
78
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
by cold and pressure to a liquid which boils
at - 187° C., and at - 210° is still liquid.
Even when solid at a temperature of about
- 253°, as only 20° above the absolute zero
of temperature, it explodes when mixed with
liquid hydrogen at the same temperature.
The arrangement exhibited by the lemnis-
cate spiral places fluorine vertically over
the positions occupied by three clusters of
metals, the first composed of manganese,
iron, nickel, and cobalt, the lower two con-
taining platinum and its congeners.
In the Mendeleeff table (p. 47) manganese
alone is placed in the same column as the
halogens, a position assigned to it solely on
the ground of its isomorphism, in the per-
manganates, with chlorine in the perchlor-
ates. Iron, cobalt, and nickel form a
separate series in the eighth group.
But there is a further question which is
not made clear in the paper from which the
passage given above is quoted. Already, in
1891, Crookes had shown to the Electrical
79
THE ELEMENTS
Engineers* that in an exhausted tube through
which an electrical discharge is passing the
stream of cathode rays near the negative
pole was always negatively electrified, while
the other contents of the tube were posi-
tively electrified, and he explained that " the
division of the molecule into groups of
electro-positive and electro-negative atoms
is necessary for a consistent explanation of
the genesis of the elements."
This view was illustrated by a remarkable
experiment in which a silver pole was used
as the cathode in a vacuum tube, a mica
screen with a hole in the middle being placed
in front of the silver. With a high vacuum,
the poles being connected with a coil, and
the silver being negative, a stream of what
the author formerly described as " radiant
matter " shot from the silver pole and, pass-
ing through the hole in the mica plate, im-
pinged on the glass, producing phosphores-
cence. After the continuance of the discharge
* /. Inst. Elect. Eng., xx, 10 (1891).
80
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
for some time metallic silver was seen to be
deposited on the mica screen in the neigh-
bourhood of the pole. This silver was always
found to be electro-positive.
Later, in 1902,* the author, reviewing
these facts and others, says, " In twenty-
five years one's theories may change, al-
though the facts on which they are based
remain immovable. What I then called
' radiant matter ' now passes as ' electrons.'
. . . Thus my early hypotheses fall into
order by the substitution of one expression
for the other. A chemical ion consists of a
material nucleus or atom of matter con-
stituting by far the larger portion of the
mass, and a few electrons or atoms of elec-
tricity. The electrons are the same as the
' satellites ' of Lord Kelvin and the ' cor-
puscles ' or particles of J. J. Thomson."
In all his later writings Crookes makes
use of the current doctrine as to the dual
electrical character of the components of
* Proc. R. Soc ., Ixix, 411.
G 8l
THE ELEMENTS
ordinary matter, but referring to the ques-
tion as to the cause of inertia in matter, he
says : * " The electron appears only as ap-
parent mass, by reason of its electro-
dynamic properties, and if we consider all
forms of matter to be merely congeries of
electrons, the inertia of matter would be
explained without any material basis. On
this view the electron would be the ' protyle '
of 1886, whose different groupings cause the
Genesis of the Elements."
The question which remains obscure is
whether the theory requires one kind of
electron only, or two kinds of electron
originally opposite in character.
A very interesting paper, entitled, " The
Evolution and Devolution of the Elements,"
has been published more recently by Messrs.
A. C. and A. E. Jessup.f Though the pro-
cess of evolution, that is, the production of
elements of high atomic weight from others
* " Modern Views on Matter." Address to the Congress
of Applied Chemistry in Berlin, 1903.
t Phil. Mag. (vi), xv, 21 (1908).
82
. THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
of low atomic weight, cannot be recognised
in any terrestrial phenomena, these authors
express the opinion, as others have done, that
the operations described by Crookes in the
enunciation of his hypothesis may actually be
watched in progress in the stars and nebulae.
Many years ago Sir Norman Lockyer*
proposed a classification of stars according
to their supposed differences of temperature,
and ranged certain elements in the order of
their appearance in such stars. This order
may be broadly represented as following the
magnitude of the atomic weights. Helium,
gas X, for which the name " asterium "
was proposed, and hydrogen appear in the
hottest ; calcium and magnesium in those
of somewhat lower temperature ; while
iron and allied metals are found only in stars
of presumably more advanced age and lower
temperature.
The Messieurs Jessup point out that sup-
posing evolution to have occurred, it might
* Proc. R. Soc., Ixi, 204.
83
THE ELEMENTS
proceed in one of two ways, either in the
strict order of atomic weight along the
horizontal lines of Mendeleeff's table as
assumed in the hypothesis of Crookes, or in
groups of chemically related elements, that
is, down the vertical columns of the table.
They prefer the latter view, chiefly on the
ground that the order in which the elements
appear in the nebulae and stars is not the
unbroken order of the atomic weights.
They also point out that the spectra of the
earliest nebulae consist of three lines only,
corresponding to hydrogen and two un-
known elements. As the nebula grows more
compact two more lines appear, indicative
of hydrogen and helium respectively. Con-
sequently it is supposed that in the nebulous
stage of matter there are four substances, of
which hydrogen and helium only are known
on the earth. They also consider it probable
that except these four no other elements
exist in the early nebulae, and with this
assumption they proceed to account for the
84
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
production of all the other elements. To the
two primary substances, which, in addition
to hydrogen and helium, are supposed to be
the parents of the rest, they give the names
proto-beryllium and proto-boron, with
atomic weights 1-33 and 2 respectively.
In order to provide for the development
of their views as to the order in which evolu-
tion occurred they have modified the table
of Mendeleeff so as to give it the form shown
on page 86. Assuming that all matter was
at some period in the form of corpuscles, it
is supposed that the four primary elements
consist of stable clusters of corpuscles which
gather round themselves other corpuscles in
the form of concentric rings. The authors,
however, refrain from speculation as to the
arrangement, but in order to account for
the production of the several groups which
appear in the table a process of direct evolu-
tion is imagined for the families the members
of which closely resemble one another, while
an indirect process is required for the rest.
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THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
Thus the direct process in the first three
columns is easily intelligible, but to account
for the ten elements following titanium it is
suggested that they are the results of some
indirect process of evolution from silicon. It
may be observed that the direct process leads
to the formation of elements of precisely the
same general character and identical valency,
while the indirect process leads to the
formation of elements of different valencies.
The authors also make use of the idea of
possible devolution, and regarding iron,
nickel, and cobalt as abnormally constituted
derivatives of manganese, they consider
copper, zinc, gallium, and germanium as
the products of a return to more normal
structure. Silver, cadmium, indium, and tin
are similarly regarded as recovery products
of ruthenium, rhodium, and palladium ;
while gold, mercury, thallium, and lead are
successive recovery products from osmium,
iridium, and platinum.
There is much ingenious argument in this
87
THE ELEMENTS
paper, and the superior probability of direct
over indirect evolution of the natural families
so far as this principle is applied in the paper
is a point of interest. But the assumption
of the four protons is a source of difficulty,
and as will be seen later is a less probable
hypothesis than that of two. The authors
admit the anomalies in the atomic weights
of tellurium and argon, which according
to all available experimental evidence are
greater than those of iodine and potassium
respectively. This admission, it must be
remembered, however, is not in harmony
with Mendeleeff's periodic law. The arrange-
ment of the elements in the table will not
commend itself to all chemists on account
of the disruption of familiar associations,
such as the separation of zinc from mag-
nesium, vanadium from phosphorus, tin
from the carbon group, and so forth.
In the Mendeleeff chart of the elements
nothing is more striking than the gathering
together of the negative elements into one
88
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
corner of the table, fluorine, the most electro-
negative element known, being at the ex-
tremity opposite to the position of lithium
at the head of the most electro-positive of
the metals, which are flanked by the zero
group of inactive elements, helium, argon,
etc. If the table were wrapped round a
cylinder, the groups being vertical, this
argon group would stand between positive
and negative. It is noticeable that the
elements exhibiting more or less well-defined
metallic characters are far more numerous
than those which present negative charac-
ters, and the physical properties of the latter
are far more diverse. There is an unmis-
takable family likeness about the substances
called metals which, coupled with their rela-
tively large number, seems to indicate that
this form of matter was more easily produced
or was relatively more stable under the
conditions of high temperature or electrical
stress which probably characterised the
initial stages of evolution.
89
THE ELEMENTS
The metals are, as a rule, solid, lustrous
bodies possessing relatively high conductivity
for heat and electricity, together with
malleability and ductility. Mercury, which
is so fusible as to be liquid at common tem-
peratures, possesses the above-mentioned
characters when in the solid state. On the
other hand, there are, of course, several
which are deficient to some extent in one
or other of the common characteristics.
They all agree, however, in being deposited
at the cathode when any of their compounds
are submitted in the liquid state to the
action of an electric current.
The non-metals comprise a miscellaneous
set of substances of which the majority are
distinguished by being liberated at the
anode in the course of electrolysis. Several
of them, however, especially carbon, are not
known to be deposited electrolytically. As
to their physical condition at common tem-
peratures, some are almost infusible solids,
like carbon and silicon ; some are easily
90
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
melted, like phosphorus and sulphur ; one
is a liquid — bromine — and several are gases,
like nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine.
Roughly dividing the chemically active
elements into the two classes, and omitting
hydrogen, we find there are fifty-two metals
to thirteen non-metals. Now if the members
of the several groups from I to VII be con-
sidered, reading vertically downwards, it
will be found that as the atomic weight in-
creases there is generally a tendency to an
increase in the positive characters of the
element ; but among the negative elements
there is never an increase in the negative
character. Thus there is a well-marked in-
tensification of positive character in pass-
ing down the group potassium, rubidium,
caesium, and there is something very similar
observable in the next group, calcium, stron-
tium, barium. Sodium, copper, silver, and
magnesium, zinc, cadmium, do not show a
corresponding development of the positive
character ; but in these cases there are
91
THE ELEMENTS
other anomalies such as, in the latter group,
fusibility and volatility increasing with
atomic weight instead of the reverse as
usual. On the other hand, chlorine, bromine,
iodine, and sulphur, selenion, tellurium
or phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, exhibit
in each group a tendency to the suppression
of the negative or chlorous character, and
even to the development of metallic appear-
ance and basic properties, as the atomic
weight is increased.
Berzelius, a century ago, attempted to
explain the relative positions of the elements
in an electro-chemical series by the assump-
tion that each atom carries charges of
positive and negative electricity, the pre-
ponderance of one or the other serving to
determine the chemical character of the sub-
stance.
In more recent times the idea of the co-
existence of two elementary principles in
the atoms of the chemical " elements " has
been discussed more than once.
92
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
Carnelly, in 1885 (Brit. Assoc. Reports),
brought forward the idea that these sub-
stances are not strictly simple or elemental,
but are compound radicals made up of, at
least, two simple elements A and B. The
element A was supposed to be identical with
carbon, while B was connected with a
negative weight, - 2, and it was suggested
that it might be the ether of space. The
conception of a negative weight has never
been acceptable, and the hypothesis has for
many years dropped out of sight.
According to another suggestion by C. S.
Palmer (Proc. Colorado Scient. Soc.),* the
existence is assumed of two sub-elements,
to which the names " kalidium " and
" oxidium " were given.
The hypothesis that hydrogen is the
proximate ingredient of the elements was
discarded by the author because the atomic
weights have not been found to be exact
* The original article is abstracted in Venable's Periodic
Law, and is referred to in footnotes in Palmer's translation
of Nernst's Theoretical Chemistry.
93
THE ELEMENTS
multiples of unity, and because hydrogen is
inherently basic, and while it might be
looked upon as the prototype of base-
forming elements, it could not be the origin
of the acid-forming elements. The author
suggests that possibly hydrogen is a member
of a complete independent series as yet un-
known. The properties of the last element
of this series, or prefluorine, were discussed
by Palmer, and here he seems to have antici-
pated Mendeleeff. As to kalidium and
oxidium, the two hypothetical components
of all the elements, they are not regarded by
Palmer as isolable forms of matter, but
merely as representing antithetic qualities
which are jointly responsible for the pro-
perties of the elements as we know them.
Within the last ten years investigations on
the discharge of electricity through gases,
especially by Sir J. J. Thomson and his
school, have led to the development of a
corpuscular theory of matter which, when
more fully developed, will probably go far to
94
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
account for many of the chemical characters
of the elements and their periodic relation
to atomic weight.
The following is a brief outline of the
theory, of which details should be studied in
The Corpuscular Theory of Matter, by J. J.
Thomson.*
When any gas, enclosed in a highly ex-
hausted glass tube so that the gas pressure
is exceedingly small, is exposed to an electric
discharge, the rays proceeding from the
cathode in straight lines exhibit several
distinctive properties. They cause a phos-
phorescence of the glass surface upon which
they strike, and they are deflected by a
magnet and by an electrified body in such
a manner as to indicate that they consist of
streams of negatively electrified particles.
They also are capable of penetrating thin
sheets of certain metals, and it becomes
obvious that these particles are much smaller
than the atoms or molecules of ordinary
* Constable and Co., 1907.
95
THE ELEMENTS
gases. By experimental methods, of which
an account is given in the work cited, Sir
J. J. Thomson has shown that these small
particles or " corpuscles," as he called them,
have a mass which is only about T^ of the
mass of a hydrogen atom. Each corpuscle
carries a charge of negative electricity equal
to that which is carried by an atom of
hydrogen in the process of electrolysis. The
separation of a corpuscle from an atom im-
plies that the residue retains an equal posi-
tive charge. The carriers of positive elec-
tricity are, however, not corpuscles like those
which carry negative electricity, but seem
to be masses of which the least is comparable
with the mass of an atom of hydrogen.
Negative corpuscles are producible not
only from attenuated gases under the action
of electric discharge, but are obtained from
all kinds of matter, such as metals at a red
heat, from heated oxides like lime, and
from radio-active substances such as ura-
nium and radium.
96
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
The corpuscular theory of matter assumes
that an atom of any element consists of a
mass of corpuscles, which, being all elec-
trically negative, repel one another, and
must therefore be held together by the
presence of positive electricity equivalent
in amount, so as to produce that electrical
neutrality which is the condition of the
atoms in their normal state. There seems
to be no definite knowledge at present as to
the form in which the positive electricity
exists in an atom, but as already stated no
positively electrified body has been found
having a mass much less than that of an atom
of hydrogen. The distribution of negative
particles within a sphere of positive elec-
tricity of uniform density has been the sub-
ject of mathematical investigation by the
author of the theory,* with results which
are extremely interesting from the point of
view of the chemist.
When the presence of only one corpuscle
* Phil. Mag., March, 1904,
H 97
THE ELEMENTS
is assumed it obviously goes to the centre
oi the sphere. When a larger number are
supposed to be present the cases in which
they are confined to a plane passing through
the centre of the sphere have alone been in-
vestigated.
It is shown in the paper referred to that
five is the greatest number of corpuscles
which can be in equilibrium in a single ring,
but if others are placed within the ring then
a larger number can maintain equilibrium in
the ring. Thus, though a ring consisting of
six corpuscles placed at the corners of a regu-
lar hexagon is unstable by itself, it becomes
stable when one corpuscle is placed in the
centre of the hexagon. A greater number will
arrange themselves in a series of concentric
rings, the number of corpuscles in each ring
increasing as the radius of the ring increases.
The following table shows the numbers of
corpuscles from one to sixty-nine, arranged
in rings, the first row showing the numbers
which may fall into one ring, the second^
98
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
series the numbers which may produce two
rings, the third series those which produce
three rings, and so on. (See next page.)
The numbers in the same vertical columns
are repeated from series to series, the in-
creased number of corpuscles in the addi-
tional ring forming the top line. Thus, in
the first column, we find in the first series 5,
i ; in the second series n, 5, i ; in the
third series 15, n, 5, i ; and in the fourth
17, 15, n, 5, i. This similarity of arrange-
ment means, that supposing atoms so con-
stituted they would have similar properties,
and the substances so formed would present
the characters of a natural family, such as
are to be found in the " groups " of the
periodic table of elements.
The relation of these configurations to the
periodic scheme of the elements may be
further shown as follows : Consider the
properties of all the configurations which
have 20 corpuscles in the outer ring. (See
following table.) The smallest number with
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THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
an outer ring of 20 is 59, and in this case the
number within is only just sufficient to
render the ring of 20 stable, consequently
any disturbance from without may cause the
outer ring to shed one negative corpuscle,
whereby the residue of 58 acquires a charge
of positive electricity, and the atom so con-
stituted would present the character of a
univalent positive element if it could retain
the charge.
Passing from 59 to 60 the outer ring is
more stable because there is one more cor-
puscle within, and the stability goes on in-
creasing till there is a total of 67 corpuscles
in the atom. The addition of one more
corpuscle makes the arrangement unstable,
because it now goes into the outer ring, which
then consists of 21 corpuscles, and one of
these can be easily detached, as in the case
of the arrangement of 59 corpuscles already
considered, and the result is another electro-
positive atom.
Now the change from 59 to 67 corresponds
101
THE ELEMENTS
to the addition of 8 corpuscles, but each
addition of one corresponds to a new arrange-
ment in the inner rings, as shown by the
gradually increasing numbers in the lower
rows of figures in the table, thus 16 to 17
in the second row, 13 to 14 in the third,
8 to 10 in the fourth, and 2 to 5 in the last
row. So that as additional corpuscles are
introduced the stability of the system in-
creases till the total number is 67, while the
addition of one more, just as the subtraction
of one from 59, would produce instability.
It can be shown, then, that a series of
atoms constituted on this hypothesis, with
20 corpuscles in the outer ring, would possess
valencies corresponding to those assigned to
the elements in the first two series in the
periodic scheme ; thus :
Number . 59 60 61 62 6j 64 65 66 67
Valencv!' +O +1 +2 + 3 + 4 -| -1 -I -«
Valency j _g _; _6 _s _4 +5 +6 +? +8
Total .. 888888888
The elements corresponding are :
He Li Be B C N O F Ne
Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl A
102
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
The constant sum of positive and negative
valencies in the series quoted seems to sug-
gest Abegg's hypothesis of normal and con-
tra valencies.
It must, however, be observed that the
parallel between the hypothetical series
shown above and the elements as they stand
in the periodic scheme is, in the present
position of the hypothesis, far from satis-
factory, if only for the reason that there is a
difference of only one corpuscle between the
successive terms. The corpuscle has a mass
equal to about TTVu of the hydrogen atom,
while the differences between the known
elements He, Li, Be, etc., are much greater
and are not uniform in passing from one
element to the next.
Moreover, as pointed out by Thomson
himself, the agreement between the hypo-
thetical and actual, shown in the numbers
just quoted, is merely accidental, and until
the mathematical difficulties of an investiga-
tion in which the corpuscles are not confined
103
THE ELEMENTS
to one plane have been overcome the theory
cannot be further tested. The number of
corpuscles in an atom is probably greater
than the numbers assumed in the previous
argument ; but on this point there seems
to be no satisfactory evidence at present.
There is, however, reason to think that
whatever the number of corpuscles present
the valency of the atom would vary periodi-
cally with the number, that is, with the
atomic weight.
The word corpuscle which has been used
throughout the previous statement, ab-
stracted from Sir J. J. Thomson's book, is
now usually replaced by the word " electron/'
a term originally introduced by Dr. John-
stone Stoney to designate the unit or atomic
quantity of electricity. That this atomic
quantity of electricity is separable from
atoms of ordinary matter has been shown
by work on the electric discharge through
gases already referred to, and the idea that
the electrical condition of matter, and its
104
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
chemical activity, whether positive or nega-
tive, depend on the addition or removal of
electrons has of late found much favour.
Sir William Ramsay,* adopting this
hypothesis, has suggested a notation for
representing chemical combination, the
link between two atoms being represented
by the appropriate number of electrons
represented by the symbol E. Common
salt, for example, would be expressed on
this system by the formula NaECl. This
seems to imply that the electron or electrons
which are supposed to be the cause of
valency and to incite atoms to combine are
external to the atoms concerned. This is a
proposition which would admit of argument,
and has indeed been challenged. The evi-
dence available for either view is at present
only of an indirect character, and is not
ripe for discussion.
Another way of treating the question is
* Presidential Address to the Chemical Society, J. Chem.
Soc., xciii, 774 (April, 1908).
105
THE ELEMENTS
represented by the recent paper of Dr.
James Moir.* The author assumes the
cause of valency, at all events of the funda-
mental valency, of each element to be the
presence in varying proportions of a sub-
element of atomic weight T}o or -0089. De-
noting this by /x, then the univalent elements
contain I/UL, the bivalent Z/UL, the tervalent
3/x, and so on. The greater part of the
mass of the atom is conceived as due to the
polymerisation of an entity consisting of the
hydrogen atom less /m.. Denoting this by U,
then hydrogen is H-f/x, lithium yH-f/x,
carbon i2H-f-4,u, oxygen I6H+2/X, neon
20H.
The^atom of hydrogen is thus made up of
•9989 -[--0089= i -0078 : oxygen is similarly
•9989 x i6 + -oo89 x 2 = 16-000.
The author has calculated the whole of
the atomic weights in this manner, and the
agreement with the recognised figures de-
rived from the results of experiment is quite
* /. Chem. Soc.t xcv, 1752 (Nov., 1909).
1 06
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
remarkable, a difference not exceeding -04
being found in the great majority of cases.
It is obvious that the resultant value for
the calculated atomic weight will depend on
the valency assumed for the element, and in
the author's table certain elements seem to
have been treated rather arbitrarily. Thus
S has only 2/x assigned to it, P, As, and Sb
only 3/x each, while Cr has 6yu, and V has 5^.
On the whole, whatever may prove to be
the physical significance of Moir's hypo-
thesis, his numerical results are far more
satisfactory than the earlier attempts to
express by more or less complicated formulae
the relationship between the atomic weights.
The majority of such formulae contained
constants or variables, which for the most
part had no physical or chemical signifi-
cance. Moreover, the atomic weights, ac-
cepted as the result of refined modern ex-
periment, are in some few cases substantially
different from those of thirty to forty
years ago.
107
CHAPTER V
SPECULATIONS
"!F we be curious to know what matter is, we plunge at
once into that deep which surrounds us on every side, and
which never yet was fathomed by human intellect.
" With regard to its ultimate constitution we cannot hope
to attain to a clearer conception than that which presented
itself to the comprehensive but humble mind of Newton,
and that transcendent philosopher has thus embodied the
result of his patient investigations : —
"'It seems probable to me that God in the beginning
formed matter in solid massy, hard, impenetrable, movable
particles, of such sizes and figures and with such other
properties, and in such proportion to space as most con-
duced to the end for which He formed them ; and that those
primitive particles being solids are incomparably harder
than any porous bodies compounded of them ; even so very
hard as never to wear or break in pieces, no ordinary power
being able to divide what God Himself made one in the first
creation.'"— DANIELL'S Chemical Philosophy (1843), p. 7.
the foregoing chapter it appears
1 that modern ideas as to the genesis
of the elements, and hence of all matter,
stand in strong contrast with those which
chiefly prevailed among experimental philo-
sophers from the time of Newton, and seem
1 08
SPECULATIONS
to reflect in an altered form the speculative
views of the ancients.
Assuming the possibility of the evolution
of matter, as we know it, from a primal
essence, several questions require to be con-
sidered in order that the process may be
pictured in terms of those forms of energy
and those forces with which we are familiar.
The earliest stages are too difficult, and must
be passed over without an attempt at ex-
planation ; for supposing a protyle, it is im-
possible to say what led to the first differ-
entiation into discrete parts ; and if all were
alike in mass and movement, what impressed
one set of particles with the property of
assuming the state called positive while
another set acquired the power of becoming
negative electrically. Nor can we say
whether electricity is itself something super-
added to matter or whether it is matter it-
self. Facts now at our disposal show that
all matter is resolvable into the two parts,
positive and negative, and the elements of
109
THE ELEMENTS
the chemist of which all terrestrial matter
consists are capable of being brought into
a common scheme. The questions which
admit of discussion are concerned with the
relative probabilities of the different possible
views as to the order in which these elements
have been evolved, and the manner in which
the negative protyle may be supposed to have
co-operated with the positive toward the
formative process. The question may also
be considered whether it is probable that
the elements have all been formed one after
another in an order corresponding with the
order of their atomic weights, and whether
the process should be supposed to be of a
generally uniform character throughout, or
whether it is not justifiable to imagine that
this uniformitarian view should be modified
so as to admit the occasional operation of
energy derived from sources other than
those immediately and continuously con-
cerned in the formative process.
In order to enter on this discussion a few
no
SPECULATIONS
facts should be recalled. The study of the
radio-active elements, so far as it has gone
within the few years that these substances
have been recognised, has revealed one
fact which is of great importance in connec-
tion with the question of evolution.
Radium, the best known of these ele-
ments, is a metal the compounds of which
resemble those of barium, but with the im-
portant difference that it undergoes spon-
taneous disintegration and decay, giving off
particles of helium and a gaseous emanation
which is ultimately resolved into helium and
nothing else. What may be the residue left
after the escape of the emanation from
radium is not known with certainty, but it
is believed to be one of the common metals.
Radium, then, seems to contain within its
atom a store of helium, the escape of which
is attended by the liberation of an enormous
amount of energy, so that the process may
be compared with the decomposition of
an " endothermic " chemical compound,
in
THE ELEMENTS
with the qualification that the energy
liberated is vastly greater than the amount
liberated in any known chemical process.
The constitution of radium is probably
imitated by that of the other radio-active
elements, actinium, polonium, etc., which,
in respect to their chemical characters, are
at present very imperfectly known, though
there is reason to believe that they agree in
possessing metallic characters.
It seems to be established that metals of
the ordinary type, such as potassium and
the rest of the alkali metals, and others under
special conditions, emit /3 rays similar to those
of radium, which are attributed to the ex-
pulsion of negative particles or electrons ;
but there is at present no evidence that any-
thing corresponding to an emanation resolv-
able into helium escapes from them. It is
conceivable that the instability of the radio-
active elements may be due not only to their
larger atomic mass, but to their peculiar
constitution, the helium atoms expelled
I.I 2
SPECULATIONS
from radium, for example, being apparently
ready formed within its larger atom, which
would thus possess a sort of grained struc-
ture, while in ordinary inactive stable ele-
ments the electrons may be supposed im-
bedded in the positive shell in positions from
which they are not so readily dislodged.
From the experiments of J. J. Thomson
it appears that helium itself, like other gases,
under the influence of the electric discharge
gives negative corpuscles in the rays from
the cathode, and positively charged particles
simultaneously. Hence helium and the rest
of the argon group are also probably con-
stituted of positive and negative protyles,
and the chemical inactivity of these ele-
ments must be attributed to the peculiar
intimate kind of association in which the
two protyles exist.*
* It would seem, however, that dissociated as they are
under the action of electricity some chemical activity ought
to be induced under these circumstances, and the reason why
it has not been observed is that the amount thus dissociated is
too small to be recognisable by any ordinary chemical agent.
Ramsay, " L'Helium," Ann. Chim. [7] xiii, 38 (1898).
I II3
THE ELEMENTS
Supposing Crookes' figure of eight to be
accepted as the basis of a diagrammatic
representation of the changing conditions
under which the protyle condenses into
atoms of matter it seems to need some
modification. For inasmuch as condensa-
tion, mechanical or chemical, is always
accompanied by loss of energy to the
system, every time that an element is
formed an evolution of energy takes place,
which, whether it take the form of heat or
of electrical potential, must temporarily
arrest the process of condensation till it has
in some way become dissipated. It would
also seem probable that, supposing a similar
constitution for both, the formation of a
large atom from protyle must be attended
by the separation of a larger amount of
energy than is the formation of a small
atom. The successive steps of the process
by which the elements are severally pro-
duced according to the order of their atomic
weights must therefore become slower and
114
SPECULATIONS
slower, so that the intervals occurring be-
tween the deposition of one atom and the
next will become necessarily greater. Hence
the distribution of the elements at equal
intervals along the curve does not seem to
harmonise with probability. The periods
represented by the lemniscate track should
increase in descending so as to bring in the
element of time.
It might be argued that if the elements of
high atomic weight were formed slowly they
would probably be more stable than those
of smaller atomic weight formed more
quickly, or at least equal in stability. This,
however, does not seem to be the case, for
the radio-active elements are all found
among those of the highest atomic weight,
so that some elements seem to have been
formed hastily with an internal constitution
not framed to assure permanence. It is
therefore conceivable that the process of
condensation did not always result in the
formation of one element at a time ; a non-
«S
THE ELEMENTS
metal may have attended the production of
a metal, or an element of high atomic weight
may have come into existence simultane-
ously with one of low atomic weight.
An analogy is afforded by the processes
of polymerisation of ordinary matter. For
example, aldehyde C2H4O is convertible
simultaneously into paraldehyde (C2H4O)3
and metaldehyde (C2H4O)n, the change being
attended by evolution of heat and con-
traction.
The condensation of protyle must, how-
ever, be imagined as an interaction of posi-
tive and negative particles, and an analogy,
as far as it goes, might be found in the
action of hydrogen on sulphur at an elevated
temperature. Here we should have balanced
actions :
H2 + S ^ — ^ H2S
nS ^~^ Sn allotropic sulphur ;
while the proportions formed, and the
state of equilibrium maintained, are under
the operation of the law of mass action.
116
SPECULATIONS
We have already seen that of the known
elements those which exhibit the metallic
character are by far more numerous than
those which are definitely non-metallic, and
this seems to suggest that probably the
constitution of the metals is generally more
stable than that of the non-metals. But
inasmuch as radium and the other radio-
active elements, which are all of high atomic
weight, are actually in process of spontaneous
disintegration, they must differ from the
rest in regard to internal constitution, and a
suggestion has already (p. 112) been made
as to the possible cause of their instability.*
These elements, radium, actinium, polonium,
are now all that remain of what was prob-
ably in earlier stages of creation a more
* It is not very clear why the disintegration should take
place atom by atom, or, in other words, what it is that
determines the explosion of one atom rather than another in
its immediate neighbourhood, and having presumably the
same constitution. It does not appear to be the result of
mass action, for the products of disintegration pass away
as soon as liberated, and do not seem to accumulate in the
residue.
117
THE ELEMENTS
numerous family of similarly radio-active
bodies. For as radium yields helium the
first term of the chemically inactive series,
it seems legitimate to suggest a similar origin
for neon, argon, krypton, and xenon. It is
improbable that any traces of these ele-
ments remain among the constituents of
the earth. Their formation must have been
the result of a process of condensation of
the hypothetical protyles, but they were
probably formed at an early stage of the
process of evolution, as by-products in the
operations from which issued the common
permanent elements of relatively low atomic
weight, which at this day constitute the
basis of all terrestrial and most celestial
things.
The disintegration of these large atoms
must have been attended by the liberation
of large stores of energy greater even than
that which is known to be set free from
radium> and this liberation of energy must
have been a disturbing agency, possibly
nS
SPECULATIONS
intermittent, which may well be credited
with some of the irregularities in the develop-
ment of the scheme of creation which- re-
sulted in the elements of our system.
Substances of this character are already
known among the products of the disinte-
gration of radium, all of which are rather
short-lived, but probably have a definite
atomic weight. Of these the most important
is the " emanation " from radium. This is
a chemically inert gas which may be con-
densed at a low temperature to a solid, and
the period of half transformation of which
is 3-8 days. It is ultimately resolved wholly
into helium, and in the process of trans-
formation gives out heat at the rate of
75 gram calories per hour, at its maximum,
for the emanation released from i gram
of radium.* This enormous liberation of
energy in so concentrated a form may well
be credited with the power of arresting or
promoting, according to circumstances, a
* Rutherford's Radio-activity^ 2nd ed., p. 431.
THE ELEMENTS
process of condensation proceeding in any
material in contact with the emanation.
Such a change on a large scale may have
affected the nature of the products hypo-
thetically resulting from the condensation
of " protyle."
To some such agencies may be reasonably
attributed Mendeleeff's eighth group, the
anomalous atomic weight of tellurium, the
peculiarities of the cerium group of earth
metals, and even the eccentricities of in-
dividual elements such as mercury or
thallium.
Turning now to the elements o{ lowest
atomic weight, the spectroscope has shown
that hydrogen and helium appear more
widely distributed in nebulae and stars than
elements of greater atomic weight, such as
calcium, magnesium, and iron. But the
evidence concerning the existence of other
elements, to which names such as asterium,
nebulium, and coronium have been given,
is, to say the least, very uncertain. Hence
120
SPECULATIONS
the hypothesis of Jessup (p. 84) is founded
on a very insecure basis. The latest an-
nouncement of the kind comes from Pro-
fessor Wolf, of Heidelberg, and attention
has been drawn to it in Nature by Professor
Brauner, of Prague.* From experiments on
centrifugal rotation of a mixture of gases,
by Lobry de Bruyn and others, it appears
to be established that the constituents
of such a mixture are partially separated
by very rapid rotation, the gas of higher
density, and hence greatest molecular
weight, present becoming concentrated
in the periphery as the radius of rota-
tion is increased. Wolf finds that the
ring nebula in Lyra consists of four gases,
which, owing to rapid rotation of the ring,
have become separated into four different
layers. The smallest ring A, representing
the innermost part, is composed of an un-
known gas. The next larger, B, consists of
hydrogen ; the next, C, external to B, con-
* Nature, Ixxx., 158 (April 8, 1909).
121
THE ELEMENTS
sists of helium ; while the outermost ring,
D, consists of another unknown gas. So
that A must be lighter than hydrogen, and
D must be heavier than helium.
Professor Brauner reminds us that Men-
deleeff supposed the existence of an element
with atomic weight 0-4, or one-fifth the
density of hydrogen, but belonging to the
inactive series like helium ; and this ele-
ment he provisionally identified with
Young's coronium, a gas hitherto recognised
only in the sun. The nature of the denser
gas leaves room for speculation. Brauner
himself suggests a gas with a smaller atomic
weight than helium, but having a larger
molecular weight. This implies that its
molecule must be composed of more than
one atom, and it therefore would not fall
into the argon family. I have recently *
suggested the possibility of an element
standing toward the halogens in the same
* "Mendele'eff Memorial Lecture." /. Chem. Soc., xcv,
149(1909).
122
SPECULATIONS
relation, as regards atomic weight, as
hydrogen to the alkali metals. This would
have a density about 2-8, and a molecular
weight 5-4. Mendeleeff, in his latest specu-
lations (1905) concerning the possibility of
still undiscovered elements, suggested the
existence of an element of the halogen
group with atomic weight about 3. The
non-metals are notoriously more difficult of
recognition than elements of metallic or
metalloidal character. But the identifica-
tion of oxygen and nitrogen, and recently of
sulphur,* in some of the hotter stars lends
some support to the idea that the spectrum
observed by Wolf may be due to an element
of this kind.
In Mendeleeff's latest table of the ele-
ments (pp. 46-47) y is supposed to be a
very light gas of the same monatomic con-
stitution and inactive character as helium,
and may be identified hereafter with " coron-
ium," which is found in the sun's coronal
* Lockyer, Froc. R. Socty Ixxx, 50, 1907.
123
THE ELEMENTS
atmosphere. This gas, according to Men-
deleeff, would have a density about 0-2, and
therefore a molecular weight and atomic
weight about 0-4, or about one-tenth that of
helium.
The x in this table is the " ether " of the
physicist for which Mendeleeff, disregarding
conventional ideas, assumed a molecular
structure with an extremely small density
and atomic weight. The properties attri-
buted to the ether, which pervades all space
and penetrates through all ordinary matter,
show, however, that, whatever it may be, it is
not a gas. x may stand for the present
purpose to represent the hypothetical posi-
tive protyle, while x may be placed in the
corresponding "position at the end of Series 0
as the symbol of the other, negative, parent
of common matter.
Having now cleared the ground, we may
proceed to consider what are the most
probable lines along which evolution may
be supposed to have been accomplished,
124
SPECULATIONS
and a few general principles must be laid
down before attempting to display any
general scheme.
i. Mendeleeffs periodic law is applicable
to a large number of elements, though,
strictly speaking, the scheme does not pro-
vide for all. The properties of the elements
are undoubtedly determined partly by
atomic weight, but they are also influenced,
perhaps in a greater degree, by what must
be supposed to be their internal constitution,
or the arrangement of the electrons within
the atom. It does not, however, follow that
they were evolved one after another in the
order shown in the table. The curves of
Reynolds and Crookes are much too simple
in assuming the operation of uniform
physical conditions from first to last.
Whereas from the irregularities and anom-
alies noticeable in so many parts of the
scheme it seems more likely that the pro-
cesses of construction assumed several forms,
and were liable to interruption or accelera-
125
THE ELEMENTS
tion from causes which have been already
referred to.
Thus while a large number of the elements
may have been produced by simple con-
densation together of positive and negative
protyle, others were probably formed by
disruption of big atoms, a kind of depoly-
merisation, or again by special and peculiar
processes due to the disturbing effects of
energy introduced by such disruption.
2. The radio-active elements were prob-
ably formed by direct condensation of
protyle, but this condensation occurring
without the loss of so much energy as may
be supposed to occur during the formation
of the common stable elements, an unstable
endothermic structure resulted.
3. Condensation probably occurred in the
order of the natural families, that is, down
the vertical columns of Mendele"efFs groups,
so far as the cases of closely allied elements
are concerned. It is, for example, highly
probable that sodium was formed immedi-
126
SPECULATIONS
ately after lithium, followed by potassium,
rubidium, and caesium.
The idea that the metals owe their obvious
community of characteristics to the presence
in them of a common constituent is of no
recent date. It was the radical principle of
the ancient doctrine concerning transmuta-
tion. The alchemists believed that the
" base " metals and the " noble " metals
differed only by reason of the presence in
the former of some kind of disease or im-
purity which obscured the pure metallic
qualities of their noble relatives silver and
gold. The notion was quite seriously referred
to by Davy in the early part of the nine-
teenth century, and is one which has been
repeatedly revived.
The families of negative elements were
probably produced in a similar manner,
though in this case the modification of
character which attends increase of atomic
weight is more marked, the change amount-
ing to a partial change of function, as may
127
THE ELEMENTS
be seen by comparing together sulphur and
tellurium, or still more obviously phosphorus
with bismuth, or silicon with lead.
4. It seems to be agreed that a limit is
set to the magnitude of atomic weight in
consequence of the general instability of
elements with large atoms. Uranium stands
at present at the end of the known series.
It is believed to be undergoing spontaneous
disintegration, but it is evidently more
stable than radium, which is supposed to be
derived from it, and this affords direct
evidence that constitution has more to do
than mere mass in determining the character
of an atom.
Here it may be remarked that both radium
and polonium seem to be in process of forma-
tion now and always from uranium, and in
the absence of information as to the nature
of the change a question arises as to the real
nature of the primal stuff. Is it uranium
itself or something of still higher atomic
weight existing in small quantity in uranium?
128
SPECULATIONS
5. The elements of the argon group were
pretty certainly products of devolution from
substances of high atomic weight, most of
which have become extinct so far as this
earth is concerned.
Probably a few other elements of the
ordinary type, e.g. lead, represent the
residues of this disruptive operation.
6. Evolution of some families may be
assumed not to have proceeded by the
simple accretion of matter or electrons as
suggested (3), but starting from one or
other of the typical elements the course of
condensation may have followed more than
one path, while preserving the same general
character of product. Take the case of the
iron metals, for example. The ordinary
arrangement of the metals in the periodic
scheme separates iron, nickel, and cobalt,
on the one hand, from copper and zinc ; and
on the other from manganese and chromium.
But these metals form an isomorphous group
in which the isomorphism is repeated in the
K 129
THE ELEMENTS
salts corresponding to the ferrous, as well as
to the ferric salts and to the chromates as
far as they go.
The valency of manganese has been mis-
represented on the basis only of the isomor-
phism of permanganate with per chlorate
in order to force it into the halogen group.
Placing these metals in the following order
the reader is reminded of their close inter-
relationship, as well as the gradual decline
of valency, and of the permanence of the
higher oxides among them.
Valency.
At. Wt.
Density. At.
Vol.
Chromium .
II
III
IV
VI
52-0
6-9
7
*S
Manganese .
II
III
IV
VI
54-9
6-85108-0
7
'4
Iron , ; ,
II
III
IV
VI
55'8
7*8
7
•i
Cobalt
II
III
IV
VI ?
59 -o
87
6
•8
Nickel
II
III
—
587
8-8
6
7
Copper
II
—
—
—
63-6
8-9
7
•i
Zinc . . II — — — 65-4 6-9 9-5
Cobalt appears to be related to manganese
much in the same way as nickel to iron.
The only metal from which the whole
group could be descended is aluminium,
which is isomorphous with iron in the ferric
130
SPECULATIONS
state, but has the lower density, 2-6, and
lower melting-point, 650°, which agree with
its lower atomic weight, 27-1.
In the following table, which preserves the
chief features of the periodic scheme, an
attempt is made to indicate the probable
order of evolution. The two lateral divisions
marked A contain the families which are
supposed to have been formed by direct
process of condensation, the successive ele-
ments being produced one after the other,
as indicated by the arrows. The middle
division, B, contains elements which for the
most part are supposed to have been pro-
duced indirectly or irregularly. Concerning
the " rare earths," no attempt has been
made to trace their origin, though it is pos-
sible that they are descended from alumin-
ium through scandium, yttrium, and lan-
thanum, x stands for the hypothetical pre-
fluorine referred to on pages 122-3.
The diagram speaks for itself, but it may
be as well to point out that the first eight
THE ELEMENTS
elements, including hydrogen, are supposed
to be formed by direct union of x and ~%, the
two hypothetical protyles ; and this is in-
dicated by the lines terminating in each case
in an arrow-head. The next seven are sup-
posed to result from condensation upon the
body of the already formed atom of more
protyle, positive or negative, according to
the structure and requirements of the atom
which forms the nucleus.
According to this view sodium was formed
from lithium, magnesium from beryllium,
and so forth. A similar development is sup-
posed to proceed downwards into the suc-
cessive families ranged in the departments
of the table marked A, the order of succes-
sion being indicated by arrow-heads. Where
no arrow-head is shown no opinion is ex-
pressed, although the line may pass through
a symbol. For example, tantalum is sup-
posed to be the lineal descendant and de-
rivative of columbium (niobium) without im-
plying any view in regard to praseodymium.
132
> is.) (i
5 Extinct ?
\ _
Em? IX Ae9 V
»w Co ,Cu >^
:, ^
* ^
• *^
^u__»_^ 1
:a
n :
n •
(Ga) (Tk) (Dy) (
?-r) C
»)
_Ir >R ^ |
^S
1
•v
Extinct? Exlmct? £»hwl ? R,?
Te face page 132
SPECULATIONS
In the division B the elements are repre-
sented as being formed in the order repre-
sented for the most part along horizontal
lines, in most cases the development pro-
ceeding in the direction of increasing atomic
weight. The most doubtful case is the deri-
vation of ruthenium from iron, but the series
Ru - Ro - Pd - Ag
is parallel to the series
Os - Ir - Pt - Au
How the elements on the last horizontal
line came into existence it is not possible
to suggest in a diagram, but the probable
process has been sketched in par. 2.
From what has gone before it seems prob-
able that the chemical elements, and hence
all material substances of which the earth,
the sea, the air, and the host of heavenly
bodies are all composed, resulted from a
change, corresponding to condensation, in
something of which we have no direct and
intimate knowledge. Some have imagined
this primal essence of all things to be iden-
THE ELEMENTS
tical with the ether of space. As yet we
know nothing with certainty, but it is
thought that by means of the spectroscope
some stages of the operation may be seen
in progress in the nebulae and stars. This
affords a wide field for speculation, and
possibly our knowledge may never become
more certain than it is to-day. In some
departments of thought, however, we must
be content with circumstantial evidence,
which, if only sufficient in amount, may
serve as a satisfaction to the mind.
Until quite recently the elements of the
inorganic world were supposed to be fixed,
immutable with the lapse of ages or under
the mighty forces concerned in the making
of worlds. But within a few years we have
learned that some atoms, at any rate, are
not permanent, but are continually crum-
bling away.
There seems in all this no obvious parallel
between the changes which have led to the
formation of the elements and the evolution
SPECULATIONS
of living beings. In organic evolution spon-
taneous variation of form and function, and
the struggle for existence, leads to the survi-
val of the fittest. If some of the elements are
actually exposed in nature to the attack of
a or ft particles, atoms of helium, or some-
thing else, moving with immense velocity
comparable with that of light, they may be
breaking down.
As yet it is impossible to say whether all
may not be suffering a slow waste which in
the long run must lead back to the primal
chaos.
" How real existence is to be studied or
discovered is, I suspect, beyond you and me.
But we may admit so much that the know-
ledge of things is not to be derived from
names. No ; they must be studied and in-
vestigated in themselves " (Socrates, in
Plato's Cratylus; Jowett's translation).
INDEX
Abegg, 103
Alkali Metals, 60
Argon Group, Origin of,
118, 129
Asterium, 83
Atomic Theory, 8
— Volume, 43
— Weights Standardised,
17
Interrelations among,
25> 56
Avogadro's Hypothesis, 9,
17, 19
Berzelius, 92
Boisbaudran, L. de, 49
Brauner, 121
Bruyn, de, 12 1
Cannizzaro, 17
Carnelly, 93
Chancourtois, B. de, 34
Coronium, 122, 123
Corpuscles in rings (table),
100
Corpuscular Theory of
Matter, 95
Crookes, W., 72, 73, 79,
8r, 125
Crookes' Figure of Eight,
74, H4
Dalton's Atomic Theory, 8
Davy, 127
Definite Proportions Law, 7
Divisibility of Matter, 5
Doebereiner, 27
Dulong and Petit, Law of,
20
Dumas, 31
Element, Definitions of, 3
Elements arranged by Od-
ling, 32
de Chancourtois, 34
Newlands, 36
Mendeleeff, 40, 46
— in order of Atomic
Weight, 52
— Natural Families of, 57
Emanation from Radium,
119
Energy absorbed in de-
composition, 5
137
INDEX
Energy evolved in combina-
tion, 5
Equivalents determined, 1 8
Ether (Mendeleeff), 124
Evolution, Theories of, 71
Gay-Lussac's Law of Vol-
umes, 9
Genesis of the Elements
(Crookes), 72
Gerhardt, 17
Gladstone, 38
Graham, 78
Halogens, Properties of, 61
Helium, chemical activity,
"3
Helium in stars, 83
Hoflf, Van't, 15
Homologous series, 27
Hydrogen in stars, 83
Iron Group, 130
Isomorphism, 21
Jessup, 82
— (Table of Elements), 86
Kalidium, 94
Kelvin, 8 1
Law of Octaves, 36
LeBel.J. A., 14
Lockyer,J. N., 83
Mendeleeff, 39, 45, 48, 51,
66, 71, 88, 124
Metals, characters of, 90
— Base and Noble, 127
Meyer, L., 42
Meyer's Curve, 44
Moir, J., 106
Nebula in Lyra, 12 1
Newton, 108
Non-Metals, characters of,
90
Octaves, Law of, 36
Odling, 17, 32
Oxidium, 94
Palmer, 93
Pasteur, 14
Periodic Law, 51
Periodic Scheme, 22, 66, 70,
125
Polymerisation, 116
Prefluorine, 94, 122, 131
Proto-beryllium, 85
Proto-boron, 85
Protyle, 72
Prout's Hypothesis, 25
Radio-active Elements, for-
mation of, 115, 126
Radium, in, 117
Ramsay, 105
Rare Earths, 65
I38
INDEX
Reynolds, E., 73, 125
Speculation, 108
Spiral representing Evolu-
tion (Crookes), 74
Stars, Components of, 83
Stereochemistry, n
Stoney, Johnstone, 104
Tartaric Acids, 13
Thomson, J. J., 81, 94, 113
Uranium the limit, 56, 128
Valency, 59
Van't Hoff, 15
Vis tellurique, 35
Williamson, 17
Wolf, 121
Young, 122
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| __label__neg | 0 | elementsspeculat00tildrich | OL7068330M | OL15237862W | 170 | 1,910 |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 高校招生就业工作探析
武 莹
**(吉林建筑大学长春130000)**
**摘要：从政策性导向、市场的趋向性、工作取向三方面对高校招生就业工作进行探析。为了促进高校招生和就业工作的顺利开展，国家推行了一系列的优惠政策进一步完善高校招生、就业工作。市场化趋向有其正面的导向作用能够培养出符合现代化建设要求的人才满足市场环境的需求。工作取向主要包括政府、用人单位和高校这几个方向，旨在充分发挥教育资源的优势实现人才资源的开发。招生和就业制度的改革深化促进了高校生源市场和企业就业市场的良性互动，使高校毕业生有了更多的实现自我价值的机会也使得高校朝着更好的方向发展。**
关键词：高校；招生；就业
中图分类号： G647.38 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1674-8646(2022)09-0070-02
**Exploration of Enrollment and Employment of Colleges and Universities**
Wu Ying
**( Jilin Jianzhu University ， Changchun 130000 ， China)**
**Abstract： The study explores the college enrollment and employment from political orientation ， market tropism and task orientation. In order to promote the smooth development of enrollment and employment of colleges and universities， China has carried out a series of preferential policies， to further perfect college enrollment and employment.1Market tropism has positive leading role. It can train talents who are qualified with modern construction ， and satisfy the demands of market environment. Task orientation mainly includes government ， employer and college to fully play the advantages of market environment ， and achieve the development of talent resource. The deep reform of enrollment and employment system promotes the benign interaction of student source market and enterprise employment market ， to make college graduates better achieve self-value， and promote the college development.**
**Key words： Colleges and universities； Enrollment； Employment**
**高等教育招生和就业受到政策、市场等因素影响，在目前形势下的招生、就业工作如何合理开展是一个重要课题本研究将从政策性导向、市场的趋向性、工作取向三方面进行分析。**
**1 政策性导向**
**A. 为了促进高校招生和就业工作的顺利开展国家推行了一系列的优惠政策，各高校也在公斗、公正、透明的原则下根据市场运作的基础结合有效的评估和监督手段进一步完善高校招生、就业工作。**
**B.高等院校结合社会发展需求，明确所需实际人才丰富自身办学形式扩大高校招生规模。国家给予高校招生专业设置更大的自主权在部分城市开始试点“一年两考”将考试要求从标准化转向个性化。高校生毕业后从等待定向分配到鼓励自主择业将高考改革和国家需要、社会结构的变化保持同步为培养具有创新思维、国际眼光的优秀人才打下基础。**
**收稿日期：2022-02-15**
**C. 开辟多种形式的学习通道将终身学习落到实处采用各种举措营造具有更多选择、更加科学、更加公正的学习氛围为高校生毕业后的就业、再学习指明方向，开辟道路。**
**D. 国家陆续出台各种政策扩大高校学生就业选择范围鼓励学生到非国有企业就业并对招收高校毕业生的企业给予一定的优惠扶持，解决毕业生就业中的一些问题。**
**_2_ 市场的趋向性**
**自改革开放以来社会经济发展日益加快市场化运作逐渐规范市场化机制对高校招生、就业方向的影响也越来越明显。考生对市场化资源的配置、就业方向有明显的趋向性。在市场化机制的引导下高校招生可以概括为以下几个特点。**
**_2.1_ 趋名性**
**近年来有的企业非211高校毕业生不招还有一些企业在招聘时对名牌大学毕业生放宽条件部分高考生也存在不考虑自身实际情况非211学校不上的心**
**态。实际上接受高等教育的学生都属于精英教育的一份子有些普通高校的教育内容、方式更适应市场化的需求培养出的人才在知识和实践能力方面更突出。一些被不积极的心态所困扰的学生和企业将市场趋名性的影响变大不利于市场化经济发展中高校教育的建设2。**
2.2 趋热性
**随着经济的发展各类新兴行业不断出现与此相匹配的专业也成为了大家眼中的热门专业。一些高考生选择专业时过于追逐热门专业忽略了自身的特点、兴趣爱好、专长优势。高校毕业生们希望自身能得到好的待遇，谋求高发展平台，于是大量涌向热门专业导致供大于求反而造成了市场就业的困难。许多高考生经历了学校选择的趋名性后又陷入了专业选择的趋热性。从社会发展的运行规律来看，行业的“冷暖”是相对的必然会有转化表现越“热”的行业可能“冷”得也越快社会发展需要的是全方面人才。**
2.3 趋变性
**高校毕业生在高学历的优势下，需要一个理论与实践相结合的过程这样才能将所学知识更好地运用在实际工作中，同时也是用人单位培养学生企业忠诚度的良好时机。然而一些用人单位看重眼前利益希望在短时间内获得利益的最大化热衷于招收实践经验丰富的人才重使用轻培养这在一定程度上使得高校毕业生的就业会面临一些困难。部分高校毕业生在这种形势下通过择业一就业一择业不断跟着感觉走秉持“没有最好只有更好”的信念频频跳槽希望能找到更高收入、更好发展的工作这反而可能迷失自己找不到自身的社会归属感。人员的频繁跳槽也使得用人单位措手不及不利于企业的长期发展。**
**市场化趋向有其正面的导向作用，能够指导考生们招生就业而其他方面的影响更需要得到足够的重视。良好正面的趋向性指导才能符合我国实施的素质教育理念，能够培养出符合现代化建设要求的人才满足市场环境的需求。**
**3 工作取向**
**生产力三要素中人占据第一位培养人才才能取得社会进步和企业发展。在市场化选择的引导下要将高校招生、就业工作进一步做好、做强充分发挥教育资源的优势实现人才资源的开发。**
**A. 政府方面。在顺应市场化规律的前提下政府增强对市场的调控，做好前瞻性指导。通过对就业市场的预测及时制定和修正相关政策通过政策的指引导向市场，使得生源选择更有目的性达到资源配置的最大化。**
B.用人单位方面。用人单位要有长远眼光，充分认识到高校毕业生能力后发的优势注重人才的培养。要通过各种措施增加凝聚力的培养，吸引更多人才的加入，做到“以心留人”情感将团聚更多的人才为企业所用。
**C.高校方面。高校在专业设置、教学模式、教学内容、适应社会等方面的发展要根据市场需求进行及时调整根据经济结构变化进行创新培养出合格的现代化人才。高校对毕业生的就业指导要专业、系统符合市场化要求。作为人才培养摇篮的高等院校它的发展也需要依赖于新型人才的培养才能扩宽自身发展空间。高校要努力实现“两个转变、两个统一”：**
**(1)专门型人才培养向复合型人才培养的转变。我国的教育理念是素质教育，培养的人才需要具有创新性、独特性。高校不是“象牙塔”，不能脱离社会独立存在复合型人才的出现是社会发展的必然结果。“会做事、能学习、会做人”的复合型人才培养对高校的教育方式、内容、形式都提出了更高的要求。学校的纵深发展是学生全面发展的先决条件；(2)就业观念从对口就业向适应就业的转变。对口就业是过去人们就业时时常提到的词语这是当时计划经济时期出现的产物。随着改革开放社会经济体制发生变革这种就业观点已经不太适用于当前的就业形势。高校生需要转变观念适应时代的发展做到“干一行、爱一行”寻求更广阔的发展空间；(3)生源市场与就业市场的统一。地方高校受客观条件的制约在生源市场上与名牌院校之间还存在一些差距而随着就业市场的良性发展和促进就业政策的出台各种吸引人才的措施使得高校毕业生顺利就业。招生和就业的良性互动，使得生源市场和就业市场可以互相呼应，满足双方的需求；(4)就业和创业的统一。高校毕业生作为优质人才要认清自身价值的实现方式可以鼓励高校毕业生先就业再择业，在立足于社会后通过创业提升自身实现人生的更高价值。**
**_4_ 结语**
**招生和就业制度的改革深化促进了高校生源市场和企业就业市场的良性互动，使高校毕业生有了更多的实现自我价值的机会，也使得高校朝着更好的方向发展。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]刘建国，徐炜.加强新形势下高校毕业生就业工作的思考\[J\].中** 国大学生就业2007(20)：50-51.
**\[2\]李安民申让平杜永峰等.新形势下高校做好毕业生就业指导工作的对策思考\[J\].中国大学生就业2003(08)：10-12.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **幼儿这样玩球**
《幼儿这样玩球》是福建省幼儿教育吴海云名师工作室团队2017年5月至今三年多的实践与研究成果。该书分为“篮球篇”与“足球篇”两个部分，每个部分包括相应的球类游戏及基本动作概述、游戏实例等内容。
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zh | N/A | N/A | 马克思主义基本原理与中华优秀传统文化相结合的典范
《习近平用典》体现的哲学价值
**梁爱强李倩**
**(河南科技大学马克思主义学院河南洛阳471023)**
**摘 要扬智者之帆行慧者之路。习近平总书记在讲话中大量引经据典赋予中华优秀传统文化以时代价值生动阐述了马克思主义基本原理与中华优秀传统文化相结合的思想观点。习近平总书记用典中所蕴含的以人民为中心的人民观、推动中华文化创新的发展观以及指导开展工作的矛盾观和实践观是马克思主义中国化的重要体现。我们从中不仅能够汲取治国理政的传统智慧学习其中蕴含的马克思主义哲学观，而且对于我们深入理解习近平总书记关于“两个结合”的重要思想以及中华优秀传统文化具有重要意义。**
**关键词：马克思主义中国化中华优秀传统文化《习近平用典》哲学价值**
**中图分类号：A81 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1002-2589(2022)03-0053-04**
习近平总书记不仅高度重视文化工作而且在讲话中多运用诗词名句反映紧要的社会问题，体现了其经世致用的实践理念。从《习近平用典》一书中我们可以看出按照古典名句的内容和用处，分为敬民、修身、为政、立德等13个篇章主要涉及如何修身、从政、治国、平天下等内容。一方面，习近平总书记用典对解决我国现实问题和促进社会发展具有重要意义；另一方面，对于学习习近平总书记“七一”重要讲话精神学习“两个结合”重大理论观点落实马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合、同中华优秀传统文化相结合具有重要意义。
一、人民观以人民为中心的民本价值诉求
马克思主义经典作家高度肯定了人民群众在社会发展中的决定作用。习近平总书记运用传统诗词精粹展现了敬民爱民的立场情怀、勤政为民的政德理念和福祉惠民的天下理念。
(一)敬民爱民的立场情怀
古时具有代表性的民本思想，像孟子“民贵君轻”、荀子“君舟民水”等。，“民惟邦本，本固邦宁”这句话本出自《尚书·五子之歌》它强调了人民为国家政治之根本、社稷安宁之保障，这就要求执政者要始终坚持以广大人民群众为国家政治利益中心的基本政治理念。“人民”和“群众”是习近平总书记重要讲话热词中出现量和频率最高的两个词语。他多次引据国学经典来充分体现他的敬民爱民的正确政治立场情怀，如他以孟子的“乐民之乐者，民亦乐其乐忧民之忧者，民亦忧其忧”要求广大党员干部多想民之所想多解民之所忧将群众利益放在心上，以行动赢得广大人民群众的支持他以《道德经四十九章》中“圣人无常心，以百姓心为心”等来强调以民为本指导思想的内在重要性，指出我们要关切人民利益，同样地，从关切人民利
益的角度和立场想出大办法、解决大难题，将百姓的事看作是关切自己利益的事情去研究他先后多次引用“安得广厦千万间，大庇天下寒士俱欢颜”等敬民、爱民的古诗句教导党员干部要爱护人民关心人民疾苦、知晓人民忧乐，创造性继承和发展了“民惟邦本”的思想。
(二)勤政为民的政德理念
人民群众是社会历史阶段、各领域活动建设的主体，推进社会历史发展的主体力量。体恤民情、了解民意和执政为民是党员干部科学、民主和依法执政的必要条件。历史的经验告诉我们“水能载舟、亦能覆舟”。因此继承和发展传统的“民惟邦本”思想党员干部应该做到“勤政为民”。早在2007年，习近平同志曾在《浙江日报》“之江新语”专栏发表《主仆关系不容颠倒》的相关短论引用了晏子“德莫高于爱民行莫贱于害民”的经典名句解释了正己爱民，为民做主是各级领导干部的责任只有为人民着想才会受到推崇损害人民利益就会受到世人的抨击。他通过引用这些经典语句告诉我们党只有扎根广大人民群众维护广大人民群众的根本利益，才能真正得到人民群众的热烈拥护，为政者的最高政治标准也就是要做到执政爱民、为民。引用管子“政之所兴在顺民心政之所废在逆民心”用以解释政权的成败在于人心的公正顺逆，政令所以能够有效推行在于顺应民心政令所以废弛在于违逆不顺民心。意为我们党与广大人民群众始终保持的是一种鱼和水、血和肉的亲密关系。仔细回顾我们党的百年历史光辉奋斗征程时刻离不开广大人民群众对我们党的关心与支持。
(三)福祉惠民的天下理念
“凡治国之道，必先富民”这句出自《管子》释为治理国家的原则，首先是必须保证人民富裕中。“民”指我国全体人民群众，“先”也就是首先“富”的基本概念是指我国人民
**收稿日期2021-11-10**
**作者简介梁爱强教授从事思想政治教育研究李倩硕士研究生从事马克思主义理论研究。**
群众物质生活层面的富裕和人民精神层面的富足。在历史上，国家出现流寇、暴动的事件起因往往是土地兼并等导致农民群众丧失劳动创造财富的生活保障迫不得已发动“扰乱”国泰民安的前提便是“富”有富才有泰。随着经济水平的提升，从我国社会主要矛盾的三次变化可以看出，人民逐渐形成的美好生活需要已经取代传统物质文化生活需要成为我国人民最迫切需求，侧面也反映我国人民迫切追求的“富”已经不单单只是指物质文化层面的富裕更多指新时代人民的多层次的社会需求。随着人民文化素质的不断提升更加迫切注重文化对外的创新传播和其在国际上的影响力必然需要不断增强我国文化软实力，提高人民的思想文化自觉和精神文化自信。在《百家讲坛》系列特别节目中，专门讲述了习近平总书记运用典故的故事，不仅给人耳目一新的视听感觉，而且彰显了他身体力行为我们展示如何创新传播中华优秀传统文化。这就像一场精神思想文化盛宴我们不仅能够从中感受传统文化博大精深的魅力更能感受到一场古今结合的时代强音在这里，平“语”还详述了“但愿苍生俱饱暖不辞辛苦出山林”治国有常而利民为本”等典故的深刻含义。
二、发展观推动中华优秀传统文化创造性转化创新性发展
我们必须丰富传统文化的内涵，把握中华优秀传统文化的精髓，包括以民为本、道法自然、为政以德、革故鼎新等还须掌握文化的创新发展路径，对内融入国民教育对外走向世界。
(一)把握中华优秀传统文化的精髓
习近平总书记对传统文化的创造性继承主要体现在，引用以民为本、道法自然、为政以德、革故鼎新等传统思想为解决当代中国面临的社会问题提供启迪。
1.以民为本
古时第一次民本思想出自《尚书·五子之歌》曰：皇祖有训，民可近不可下，民惟邦本本固邦宁”西周时期曾提出“敬德保民”的学说；进入春秋动荡的年代，孔子提出了影响颇深的“仁政”观念，孟子提出“民贵君轻”学说，荀子提出“天之生民，非为君也；天之立君，以为民也”的为民观汉武帝时期“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”构建后，民本思想进入主流意识；直到晚清时期龚自珍提出的“落红不是无情物，化作春泥更护花”等。在中国古代历史阶段，民本思想在一定程度上成为一种必不可少的政治文明不仅培育了“贤臣”和“明君”，而且对现代中国政治建设具有深远意义。在《习近平用典》中，习近平总书记基于理论实践对古代中国传统民本思想进行了创造性的深入阐释与创新发展展现了具有中国鲜明特色的马克思主义人民观。他非常善于提炼引用古代儒家思想去谈敬民，像他常规地提到《孟子》中“乐民之乐者，民亦乐其乐；忧民之忧者，民亦忧其忧”这句话表达出了执政者为民应当以时时顺应当下
社会群众的快乐为快乐，执政者为民之乐而乐，并且执政者体恤人民忧苦，人民也会体恤执政者的忧苦的思想。在总结我国改革开放发展经验中，“乐民之乐”主要行动体现在我国改革开放发展成果惠及广大人民群众，“忧民之忧”主要行动体现在为广大人民群众排忧解难深刻体现了党员干部以人为本、执政为民的精神。
2.道法自然
春秋战国是我国治理国家重要理念出现的黄金时代，各家学说纷纷登上历史的舞台。《道德经》是老子的代表作老子的核心思想是“无为”老子将“无为”看作执政者治理天下的手段，主要是顺其自然不做过多的干预，以寻常制度治理社会，简称“无为而治”。习近平总书记多次引用道家思想“治大国若烹小鲜”来隐喻其治国理政思维“治大国若烹小鲜”出自老子《道德经》第六十章日解释为治理国家就像烹饪小鱼这里的“小鲜”无论解释为“小鱼”还是“菜肴”，都是以烹饪比喻治理国家，强调烹饪不能随意翻动火候和油盐酱醋要适当，不能操之过急，否则菜肴会烧焦。，“治大国若烹小鲜”在这里象征着一种恰到好处的治国手段大动作可能会给国家带来动乱合理有序开展工作才是最佳方法。主要体现在：一要有所为，有所不为，既不能急求政绩，也不能撒手不管；二要严谨施政；三要有宏观战略思维四要以人民为中心。历史的经验告诉我们地方制定经济发展政策要认真严谨，稳中求进坚持稳定与改革共进、整体性和协调性统一。
3.为政以德
古有名句“国无德不兴，人无德不立”在《习近平用典》中讲修德 80则、206次，“德治”包含了中国源远流长的道德观。从儒家推崇的“修身、齐家、治国、平天下”的追求到如今依法治国与以德治国相结合的国家治理准则注重道德建设永不过时。另一方面，为政以德也是古往今来一直提倡的价值理念。“政者正也。其身正不令而行其身不正虽令不从”出自《习近平用典》为政篇。古义释为：为政者行为端正，不用下命令，百姓也会按照他的旨意去做；如果为政者行为不端，那么三令五申百姓也不会服从。这对执政者能力和水平有了更高的要求。对于领导干部想要提高自身的影响力和号召力，首先要注重修身立德其次要清正廉洁，才会得到人民群众的拥护和追随。他引用“非淡泊无以明志非宁静无以致远”以及“吾日三省吾身”提醒领导干部要经常开展批评与自我批评，以“君子义以为质”劝导领导干部要以善良心和正义品德作为自己的精神品质。
**4.革故鼎新**
《易经》中有：“革去故也鼎取新也”。解释为：革除旧的东西建立新的东西象征着改革创新，与时俱进。在历史上商汤曾经将“苟日新，日日新，又日新”这几个字刻在自己的洗澡用具上，用来时刻不断提醒自己弃旧图新不
断自我反省和不断探索革新；商鞅在总结历史经验基础上进行变法，使秦国旧制度被彻底废除经济得到发展。如今，创新驱动发展已经是一个民族兴旺发达的内生动力。在新发展理念“创新、协调、绿色、开放、共享”中创新被摆在极其重要位置。在科技发展层面，中国一直在努力实现高水平科技自立自强，为建设创新型国家而努力，构建新的发展格局。神舟十二号载人飞船将3名航天员送入核心舱，中国人终于拥有了属于自己的“太空之家”，这是我国在科技创新领域取得的最新进步。我国向来鼓励科技人员要敢于走别人没有走过的路提醒科技人员在短道速滑般的科技竞争场中，既要有比较速度的勇气又要有坚持创新的耐力。全面建设社会主义现代化国家必须坚持科技为先发挥科技创新的关键和中坚作用。
(二)掌握中华优秀传统文化的创新发展路径
马克思主义与中华优秀传统文化的结合在社会上起到一石激起千层浪的作用。以书籍和影视作品为例，平“语”逐渐走进千万家对中小学生学习传统文化提供教学资源更多的传统文化的创新发展路径仍需要我们进一步探索。
**1.对内融入国民教育**
中华优秀传统文化是涵养学生家国情怀的精神源泉，影响着中华儿女的价值选择和目标追求。古典名句是写在中华文化历史长河中，体现我们历经风雨砥砺前行的宝贵精神结晶。在引经据典的代表作品《习近平用典》以及有关影视节目中彰显了中华优秀传统文化的自信，是帮助中华儿女进行价值选择的重要科教资源。近期《百家讲坛》系列特别节目《平“语”近人》中，从第一季《一枝一叶总关情》治国有常民为本》到第二季的引用著名历史典故《敢教日月换新天》和《直挂云帆济沧海》，以“初心”为开篇主题展现了中华民族继往开来、砥砺前行的精神，以“梦想”作为结尾感召当代青年以奋斗放飞梦想。中华文化博大精深若是追根溯源必能从厚重典籍中找寻源头意在引导我们加强对经典著作的阅读。如马克思所说：任何真正的哲学都是自己时代精神上的精华”，中国的古典文化能够在新时代焕发色彩，也正是因为它蕴含的古典风韵所彰显的“文化自信”。
**2.对外经典走向世界**
随着世界政治、经济全球化的快速推进发展文化交流日益增强，中华优秀传统文化逐渐走向海外受到不同国家的认同，但是传播载体比较狭窄，主要集中在留学生以及商品贸易过程中，加上翻译现状不尽如人意很难将富有古韵的传统经典进行有效传播以及合理解释。如何提升中外文化对话中的中国声音成为一个新兴话题。在外交话语中“用典”是中华优秀传统文化创新性发展的典范，与传统语言文化相比彰显了外交话语中的中国特色。如“长风破浪会有时，直挂云帆济沧海”此句出自唐朝诗人李白
的《行路难》寓意解释为“尽管前路障碍重重，但在共同努力下相信总会有一天能够造福两岸人民乘风破浪扬帆远航”以及他经常引用名句“己所不欲，勿施于人”，用以提倡国家之间的平等相待互相尊重共创美好未来等。
**三、矛盾观解决生态和科技问题以构建新发展格局**
我们要用矛盾分析法处理我国改革开放发展过程中的各种矛盾难题，对于大国竞争加剧的问题，中国也要力争实现科技自立自强，全力构建新发展格局。
(一)在矛盾相互转化中把握经济发展和环境保护
《韩非子·喻老》里有“千丈之堤以蝼蚁之穴溃；百尺之室，以突隙之烟焚”习近平总书记曾借用这句告诉人民群众进行革命和建设是为了解决中国现实问题，但是对问题熟视无睹，回避矛盾会导致问题因得不到解决而恶化最后造成严重损失。首先矛盾本身是必然存在的要正确承认一个事物存在发展的全过程及其中的矛盾。其次，矛盾也有各种主次之分在不同实际条件下矛盾可以相互影响转化产生的作用也不同。最后，不能完全忽视一些次要矛盾的作用小矛盾也会引起大事件小矛盾也会发展成为大矛盾。我国经济社会发展和环境资源保护的关系是进行现代化建设过程中矛盾的两个方面，相互斗争又相辅相成。习近平总书记也曾引用唐代诗人杜甫的《绝句二首》诗中的“迟日江山丽春风花草香”旨在明确倡导人们尊重自然融入自然追求美好生活。我们可以仔细纵观一下千年人类文明发展史和社会生态发展史，生态兴则文明兴，生态衰则文明衰。工业文明时代，人们对于生态环境需求较低所以乱砍滥伐、竭泽而渔的现象较多，当时的人们较少考虑自身活动对环境造成的后果，因此在获得“金山银山”的同时难免会失去了“绿水青山”。如今随着时代进步乱砍滥伐这种现象逐渐减少人们生活各方面需求也得到提升，开始意识到生态环境是生存发展的命脉人与自然和谐相处理念开始深入人心人们逐渐走向一条既要金山银山又要绿水青山的“双赢”道路。
(二)将“两点论”和“重点论”结合实现科技创新
坚持“两点论”和“重点论”的统一是掌握矛盾分析法解决实际问题的正确方法。创新是“五位一体”发展理念之首更是习近平总书记在科技领域谈及的重要话题。习近平总书记“典”燃科技强国引擎主要体现在：一是引用墨子的经典论述“力，形之所以奋也”这里的“力”指的是科技动力“奋”指的是科技事物的生命运动力和发展，也就是将科技创新比作推动我国现代化经济体系建设的第一动力；二是引用屈原《离骚》中那句充满豪情壮志的经典哲学名句“亦余心之所善兮虽九死其犹未悔”来激励广大科技工作者要追求卓越积极探索抢占科技竞争和未来发展的制高点；三是引用《三国志》中的“功以才成业由才广”和魏源在《默询下·治篇九》“人材者求之则愈出置之则愈匮”抒发择天下英才而用之的心情，表达了对科研人员的
尊重和关爱意在重视人才、求贤若渴，人才才会涌现，提醒党员干部不仅要有识才的慧眼，更要有爱才的诚意，才会共同推进社会进步。科学技术创新是推动我国现阶段实现国家科技创新技术自立自强的重要手段，不仅如此我国想要综合国力持续稳步提升，既要将科技创新发展摆在围绕国家经济发展全局的核心战略位置解决经济发展创新动力不足问题，也要全面贯彻执行五大发展理念将“两点论”和“重点论”结合起来推进改革。
四、实践观：务实推动治理体系和治理能力现代化
中华优秀传统文化之所以源远流长是因为它具有时代感召力，在历史的不同阶段能够显示出特有的引领作用。在社会实践中我们要贯彻落实“两个结合”的重要思想，把马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合、同中华优秀传统文化相结合，将理论应用于实践焕发中华优秀传统文化的生机活力。
(一)善于学习涵养立德之心
“学而优则仕”。我们中华民族向来被认为是善学、爱学、重学的伟大民族关于学习，古人给我们留下了诸多宝贵的“劝学”思想学会善于从优秀典籍中汲取智慧是我们当代青年学习的重要途径。“知之者不如好之者，好之者不如乐之者”教导人们乐于学习勤学好问，学而不思则罔，思而不学则殆”教导人们读书、思考相结合才会避免收效甚微，“纸上得来终觉浅，绝知此事要躬行”教导我们从生活实践中树立求真的认知，书本上的知识要付诸实践，“老而好学如炳烛之明”传递给我们终身学习的重要性等等。除了坚持开展党的终身学习教育以外社会上也非常迫切需要有学习和实践的紧迫氛围所以习近平总书记不仅以身作则热爱学习，而且督促各级党员干部一定要认真贯彻落实学习党史、党章党规党纪、哲学、历史等。《习近平用典》中，以儒家重要人物孔子最多，其余作者为孟子、荀子和司马迁等。其中我们可以明显看出作者多是“古圣先贤”“先贤”的各种治理方法思想中蕴含着许多历史文化精华和睿智哲思这些中华优秀传统政治智慧和品德对领导干部提升选贤任能的能力仍具有重要作用。《习近平用典》中的“贤人”基本理念就在教导领导干部选才育人要以尊德敬贤为先，做到尊贤敬贤，习近平总书记多次提到的“尚贤者政之本也”“贤”的两点属性，一是品行高尚、道德高尚，二是具备出众的专业才能这句话出自《墨子·尚贤》，意为国家崇尚优秀贤能、推崇优秀贤才、任用优秀贤才这是国家治国理政的根本所在用以教导领导干部在工作中需要做到任贤有方，为国家建设选拔任用优秀人才。《习近平用典》中蕴含的明德理念，为党员干部如何做到为政以
**德提供有益经验，一要坚定理想行为遵循社会主义核心价值观，二要涵养立德之心忠诚于党清廉自守。**
(二)实干兴邦工作落到实处
实践的观点是马克思主义哲学的核心观点。在《习近平用典》一书中多处体现了实践出真知的观点要求领导干部在工作中以人民为中心学习工作相结合，做到知行合一“纸上得来终觉浅绝知此事要躬行”，书本上的知识是浅薄的，真正将知识转化为能力需要依靠亲身实践要坚持知行合一，人们要投身实践磨炼本领，学会在实践中悟真谛、学真知，习近平总书记借此教导广大青年学习必须躬身实践，既要勤勤恳恳学习，又要注重社会经验的积累。“宰相必起于州部猛将必发于卒伍”即宰相和猛将的成功多来自基层实践基层人民群众生活水平是衡量各级领导干部工作实效的重要标准这句话常用来引导干部要定期深入基层调研越是艰苦的环境越能深刻考验干部的决心毅力要求干部要在调研和实践中增强自己的工作本领。习近平总书记在任河北省正定县委书记时，也经常下乡调查，骑自行车路经滤沱河沙滩还要扛着车走，虽然辛苦，但是能够真实地了解民情。《习近平用典》中蕴含的为民思想，时时刻刻提醒新时代党员干部要关心人民疾苦，察民情、解民忧。
**五、结语**
对于传承经典，习近平总书记给我们做了很好的典范。关注“用典”是中华儿女了解中华优秀传统文化和关注时政热点的重要途径。他带领我们重温中国历史承继中匡传统，将传统文化与实践相结合，向世界发出了中国声音这不仅带领我们再次去感受了古代先贤的智慧学习了马克思主义哲学的魅力，而且是学习“两个结合”重要思想的重要途径。
**参考文献：**
\[1\]人民日报评论部.习近平用典：第2辑\[M\].北京人民日报 **出版社20187.**
\[2\]习近平谈治国理政第2卷\[M\].北京：外文出版社2017：213.
\[3\]白永军.老子“无为”思想研究\[D\].郑州：河南大学2013.
\[4\]人民日报评论部.习近平用典\[M\].北京：人民日报出版社，2015 25.
\[5\]习近平谈治国理政：第3卷\[M\].北京：外文出版社，2020：373. | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | \[旅游理论研究\]
对旅游产业集群若干基本问题的探讨
夏正超1，谢春山1.2
(1.辽宁师范大学历史文化旅游学院，辽宁大连116029；2.东北师范大学城市与环境科学学院，吉林长春130024)
\[摘 要\]随着旅游业的发展，旅游产业集群已经引起一些学者的关注，但对旅游产业集群的相关概念与内涵等的研究探讨尚显不足，对产业集群的创新研究更是鲜有涉及。详细介绍了国内外有关旅游产业集群的最新研究成果，在借鉴相关成果的基础上深入分析探讨了旅游产业集群的内涵、对象、形成机制、构成、特点、创新等问题，以期将旅游产业的研究进一步引向深入。
\[关键词\]旅游产业集群；形成机制：构成；特点，创新
\[中图分类号\]F590 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1008-6080(2007)04-0479-05
一、研究背景
产业集群作为区域经济学的一个研究课题被反复讨论，它通常被研究者用来描述产业组织的空间分布，产业集群不仅构成当今世界经济的基本空间构架，还常常是一个国家或地区的竞争力之所在。当人们还在为集群理论是否能应用到旅游研究而争论的时候，已有学者开始旅游产业集群研究的实践，这不但丰富了集群理论、将集群理论扩大到服务业领域，而且从新的视角审视旅游产业，对发展旅游产业提出了新的思路。但是产业集群理论处于动态的发展过程，旅游学理论尚未成熟，研究者的学术背景不同，因而对旅游产业集群的基本理论远未达成共识。由于对旅游产业集群的特殊性没有足够的重视，对旅游产业集群的构成主体理解有误，对旅游产业集群创新能力和创新方式鲜有涉及，致使很多人认为“旅游产业集群”很不可靠。为此鲁明勇专门撰文对旅游产业集群基本理论进行了分析，但我们认为对这些基本问题还要进一步深入的分析。为此本文借鉴已有研究成果，主要从旅游学角度分析旅游产业集群的一些基本问题，以期将旅游业集群的研究引向深入。
二、文献述评
国外关于产业集群的理论研究比较成熟，与旅游产业集群相关联的诸多概念、思想、发展问题及发展战略等己经被提出，但多属于实证研究。
国内从产业集群的角度来研究旅游现象只是近几年的事情。旅游产业集群的概念、特点、构成内容、集群优势等是主要的研究领域，并普遍认为在经济全球化的背景下，旅游产业集群有利于发挥区域旅游产业的竞争力，因而主张把旅游产业集群当作一种提升目的地的新的战略模式。龙勤将波特的集群理论应用到生态旅游的发展中，宁奉菊、尹贻梅认为企业集群是一种提升目的地竞争力的新的战略模式。袁莉、田定湘、刘艳、刘鞠林对旅游产业集群的效应进行了分析L5-6\]，邓冰等分析了旅游产业集群的基本特征，阐述了政府在旅游产业的集聚过程中的基本作用。庄军分析了旅游产业集群的宏观、中观和微观层次以及4种网络结构。
一些学者进行了相关的案例研究，刘恒江对上海旅游产业集群的形成与发展进行了系统的研究。.王兆峰以湘鄂渝黔边区为对象研究旅游产业集群竞争力提升L10\]，麻学锋、吕白羽提出武陵山区旅游产业集群发展的对策1，王树雄、于正东探讨了湖南旅游产业集群化发展模式L121，张梦以大九寨沟国际旅游区为例详细分析了旅游产业集群化发展的制约因素，提出大九寨沟国际旅游区发展产业集群的对策1133。李凤霞对旅游产业集群理论和增长三角旅游产业集群发展的一般规律进行了总结，提出相应的发展模式和对策L14J。
\[基金项目\]辽宁省教育厅高等学校人文社科研究项目(2005228)中期成果
\[收稿日期\]2007-01-15
\[作者简介\]夏正超(1980-
)，男，河南固始人，辽宁师范大学历史文化旅游学院2005级研究生；谢春山(1966-
)，男，辽宁绥中人，现任辽
宁师范大学历史文化旅游学院副院长、副教授、硕士生导师，东北师范大学区域经济学博士生。
有的学者从旅游产业与其他产业之间的关联带动作用入手分析旅游产业集群现象15-16\]。
三、旅游产业集群内涵
(一)产业集群的一般内涵
波特教授1990年在《国家竞争优势》书中正式提出产业集群概念，根据他的定义，产业集群是一组在地理上靠近的相互联系的公司和关联的机构，它们同处或相关于一个特定的产业领域，由于具有共性和互补性而联系在一起17。关于集群的对象，有学者认为包括处于产业链上下游的供应商、研究机构、金融机构、行业协会以及配套的其他中介组织。产业集群拼非大量企业的简单聚集，而是在一个相对狭小区域内，通过某个附加值的生产链而形成一个相互联系、相互作用的企业网络1181。“产业集群”揭示了相关产业的联系和合作，从而获得产业竞争优势的现象和机制胆，而其竞争优势主要来自产业集群的“创新”波特创新性产业集群的思想是当代产业集群的核心。从各位学者论述中我们认为：
1.集群的主体不但包括企业，还包括相应的服务机构如金融、交通机构、研究培训机构、行业协会以及行政管理和服务性机构。这些机构的存在有利于培育金融市场、人才市场、技术市场，促进资金、信息、人才等在集群内的流动，降低交易费用，提高创新能力。
2.集群的一般特征是产业的地理集中性。集群中的企业基于产业链的联系集中到一定区域，也即所谓的“扎堆”。
3.集群核心特征是主体结网并互动。这些企业连同区域内的相关机构发生贸易和非贸易的联系。产业集群，不仅仅是“企业”组织这一单一“行为主体”，而是所有的“行为主体”包括“支持企业的众多公共机构或私营机构”，这些行为主体，在“空间集中、部门集中”，在一定的社会文化联系基础上遵守共同的行为准则，并在“物品、服务、信息、人员”方面基于贸易和非贸易联系9\]。
4.集群追求的重要目标是创新。集群内主体的贸易和非贸易的联系，形成有利于知识学习和知识溢出的环境，促进学习型组织的形成，刺激创新，培育核心竞争力。
(二)旅游产业集群的内涵
1.旅游产业具有“集群”性
集群从一开始就主要是基于制造业的产业集群，因此，人们对属于第三产业的旅游产业是不是存在产业集群表示怀疑。中国集群研究专家王缉慈认为集群研究可以拓宽到旅游产业，旅游产业的关联度高，涉
及的产业和部门多，现实中在一定区域内，存在着大量的为旅游者提供旅游产品和服务的企业和公共部门聚集的现象。在一些大型的风景区和一些优秀旅游城市，已经形成了众多为旅游者提供食、住、行、游、购、娱服务的相互关联的企业集群，在长三角、珠三角、大武陵源区、九寨沟旅游区、湘鄂渝黔边区等区域内也存在着这样的现象，这些企业密切配合，共同为旅游者的整个旅途提供完整的旅游经历。
显然，众多的旅游企业和相关部门“集聚”在一定的区域，“它们同处或相关于一个特定的产业领域，由于具有共性和互补性而联系在一起”，并且不断地创新产品和服务，提高区域旅游产业的市场竞争力。因此，旅游产业集群是存在的，用集群现象来研究旅游产业是可行的。
2.旅游产业集群
根据以上的分析，我们认为：旅游产业集群是围绕特定区域的旅游吸引物形成的旅游核心产业、旅游依托产业、相关辅助机构以及旅游组织和教育培训机构在空间上集聚，组成一个完整的旅游服务体系，这些主体基于旅游产业结网并互动，协同工作，创新旅游产品和服务，提高旅游产业竞争力。
旅游产业集群的对象(行为主体)是直接或者间接提供旅游产品和服务的企业和其他组织机构，主要包括旅游企业、依托企业，还包括教育、培训、信息等机构以及行业组织和政府公共部门等。值得说明的是：由于旅游资源在发展旅游业中位于突出地位，区域旅游业往往围绕“核心”旅游资源集聚，因而有学者认为旅游资源是旅游产业集群对象，明确将“旅游吸引物”纳入集群主体之中。后来的研究者有意无意地重复着这样的观点，因而明确旅游产业集群的对象具有重要的理论意义。
四、旅游产业集群的形成机制
(一)旅游产业集群形成的动因
1.自然性因素的吸引力。旅游资源具有不可移动性，是吸引旅游者来此旅游的原始动力。自然性资源丰富的地区形成绝对比较优势，因而赋予绝对优势的竞争力，往往吸引大量的企业集聚。
2.区位选择吸引力。旅游产业的投入产出性质决定了其在经营活动中必须遵循经济学上的“投入一产出”原则，以最小的成本获得最大的经济利益，为了实现区位成本的最小化，旅游企业往往向景色优美、客流量大的旅游区或旅游城市集聚。
3.规模经济吸引力。旅游产业集群的专业化分工协调，生产旅游最终产品的一部分，共同配合服务于
旅游者。这种专业化分工协调降低了生产成本和经营成本，并且可以共享基础设施、促进外部服务业的发展，从而形成规模经济效应，这是产业集群形成的重要动力。
4.空间交易成本因素。集群内企业互相靠近，空间距离近，可以减少旅游企业的运输成本和游客的运输成本。现代信息技术的发展可以克服距离等因素的障碍，但集群效应可以使交易占据优势。集群可以促进互信机制的建立以及交易习惯形成，从而增进相互信任，减少交易的额外成本。
5.协同创新环境因素。集群协同创新环境有利于知识、信息、技术的外溢，从而促使大量从事专业化分工企业的集聚。创新可能首先发生在那些有实力、有开拓能力的企业中，通过这些企业的示范效应，集群创新能力得到提高。
6.文化、制度因素。旅游区或旅游城市的企业“扎堆”会形成一种特定的文化氛围，这种文化氛围形成知识的溢出效应、人才集聚效应、学习创新效应以及企业家精神等。政府也会提供各种支持，制定相应的优惠、鼓励政策，吸引更多企业进入。
(二)旅游产业集群形成的基本模式
以上是从静态的角度分析旅游产业集群的形成因素，不能完全解释旅游产业集群形成的动态过程。综合考虑其形成因素，可以发现旅游产业集群形成的两种基本模式：
1.自发形成型。旅游产业集群多是自发形成的，在此过程中市场起主要作用。由于企业对利润最大化的追求，旅游产业主要向风景区周围及旅游城市集聚。在这一过程中首先是核心旅游企业自上而下形成具备观赏、游览、娱乐等功能的系列企业，然后在其外围形成众多功能不同、协同配合的企业群。这一过程的基本线索是：核心企业——关联类企业——依托类‘企业以及各个企业所需的基础设施建设。贯穿这一过程的是社会环境、文化氛围的形成，各种制度建设，以及集聚效应的形成。
2.外力推动型。旅游产业集群也可以通过规划实现，这就需要政府在其中发挥重要作用。比如提供良好的基础设施，为企业家创业、投资提供便利；制定优惠的产业政策鼓励创业、吸引投资；收集行业的市场与技术信息，为企业提供咨询服务及市场促销支持；制订行业标准，培育诚信机制；树立本地的良好形象，创建“区域品牌”。此外，对于自发形成的产业集群雏形，政府要能尽早识别，并以产业集群的方式予以培育；对于政府有意识规划发展的产业集群，在一开始
就需要有明确的发展战略。
五、旅游产业集群的构成
旅游产业和旅游产业集群是两个既有联系又有区别，分别属于两个不同层次的概念。前者是后者形成的基础，后者是在前者空间集聚基础上逐渐形成的。二者在构成上存在着层次对应关系，构成旅游产业的不同层次在空间上的集聚形成了旅游产业集群的三个层次：
第一是核心产业群，即提供核心旅游产品的企业集群。旅游产品是指为满足旅游者的愉悦需要而在一定地域上被生产或开发出来以供销售的物象与劳务的总和，按照这一定义，最典型最核心的旅游产品形式就是已经被开发出来的旅游地\[201，即景区景点，它提供了旅游产品的核心价值。景区景点是企业在旅游资源的基础上追加了人类的劳动，形成所谓的资源依托型产品；除此之外，有些地方可以凭借人、财、物、信息等优势摆脱资源瓶颈开发所谓的资源脱离型产品。正是这些核心产品的存在才吸引着人们从异地前来旅游，旅游业得以发展，提供这些产品的企业就成为旅游产业集群的核心层。
第二是要素供应产业群。同其他产业所生产的产品不同，一个完整的旅游产品是由各个单项旅游产品组成的，展现在游客面前的产品是以整体旅游产品形式出现。整体旅游产品是在核心旅游产品的基础上追加各种利益，能够满足旅游者多种需要甚至全部需要。追加利益可以是提供核心旅游产品的企业实现的，但更多的是在销售过程中由中间商追加的。因而就形成以旅行社为龙头，包括饭店、宾馆、交通、旅游商店、休闲娱乐等企业构成的要素供应产业群。
第三是相关辅助产业群，就是为旅游业提供硬件软件支持和服务的行业群和机构等。涉及第一产业的农业、林业、畜牧业和渔业的相关部分；第二产业的轻工业、重工业和建筑业等部门和行业中的相关部分；第三产业的邮电通讯、金融保险、公共服务、卫生体育、文化艺术、教育培训、信息咨询等行业中的相关部分以及国家机关中与旅游相关的部门，如旅游行政管理部门、海关、边检等\[211。这些部门、行业或产业都域多或少地与旅游产业在经济上发生直接或者间接的联系，这些部门和企业为旅游产业的发展提供了支持，是旅游产业集群的重要参与者。
这三个层次之间的关系还应辩证地看，核心企业的存在是旅游产业集群存在的根本，如果没有核心企业的努力就不会有其他企业的集聚和旅游产业的发展。没有要素供应层提供丰富多彩的追加产品，旅游
核心产品的展现将会很单调，甚至成为旅游产业发展的瓶颈。随着旅游产业的发展，要素供应层的发展将是旅游产业集群竞争力的重要来源，如同样是提供核心产品的旅行社市场效益各不相同，恰恰说明追加利益在一定程度上决定企业的成败。相关辅助层既是集群的支撑又是集群的重要参与者，是集群发展不可或缺的部分。
六、旅游产业集群的特点
(一)产业地理集中度高而产业集中度低
产业的地理集中是由于产业集聚以及市场、信息源、控制和决策基地和各种有联系的活动的地理集中所决定的。产业的地理集中程度与产业集中程度并不是正相关的，在产业集中度较低的部门，企业却往往在地理上集聚成群，个别地方产业集群产品的产量在全国或世界上该产品的总产量中所占的比重很高，也就是说，形成很高的地理集中度。不同的产业，由于利用规模经济和范围经济的可能性不同，产业集中程度有很大差异7。旅游产业集群有着明显的地理集中性，大量的旅游企业及相关机构以核心旅游企业为中心聚集，所提供的旅游产品在国内的市场占有率高，形成良好的经济效益。集群以中小企业为主，市场垄断程度低，特别是以旅行社为主体的中介企业具有这样的特征。这种企业极具柔性，能够以自己的特色产品迅速占领市场且进退自如。
(二)旅游产业集群企业横向一体化强于垂直一体化
旅游产品不同于一般的产品而是有一个核心产品，企业以核心产品为基础提供各种追加利益从而形成完整的旅游产品，最后以典型的“旅游线路”形式提供给旅游者。在这条线上，各个企业密切配合，为旅游者提供完整的旅游经历，任何一个企业提供的产品不合格都会在游客的经历中留下阴影。与制造业中的企业上下游的垂直一体化不同，旅游产业中的企业几乎都要面对游客，各个企业基于旅游经历协同配合，因而旅游产业集群中横向一体化明显强于垂直一体化。这种特点对旅游接待和企业的顾客满意度提出了挑战。
(三)旅游产业集群区域整合力强
现代旅游产业发展的特点越来越表现出跨区域性，产业的竞争力也有待于区域产业的整合。产业集群的存在有利于促进旅游产业的区域整合。国内的著名大型风景区常常跨越行政区限，形成一种天然的整合优势；发展较好的旅游区正冲破行政区域障碍进行跨区域旅游产业整合。通过整合，优势互补，拓展了集
群企业的生存空间，提高了区域旅游产业的竞争力。
七、旅游产业集群创新
(一)创新的动力机制
1.创新示范效应
旅游产业集群内某些企业创新获得成功后就会刺激新的需求，成为集群内的核心企业或者处于领导地位，为企业带来高额利润。集群中大量同类企业彼此接近，容易受创新成功企业所获得利益的引诱，引发模仿和攀比效应而进行创新活动122J。
2.需求拉动效应
市场需求是创新活动的前提，需求带动的经济效应刺激创新。旅游者的需求处于不断的变化之中，需求更加多样化。旅游产业集群的集聚效应可以吸引大量的客源，并能反应市场的需求变化，市场需求变化信息在集群内传递并产生累积效应，刺激创新。
3.技术推动效应
旅游产业集群的发展也需要高投入和高技术，并不是有了旅游资源就有竞争力。集群内传统景区的升级改造、人造景观及娱乐场所的建设、饭店的建设、市场营销和管理等无不渗透着现代科学技术发展的成就。集群内企业由于地理接近，技术信息在集群内传播速度快，加速新技术的应用和发展，促进集群创新。
4.市场竞争效应
竞争是创新的动力。大量企业在一定区域内集聚，大多数企业为小企业，市场竞争激烈。为了生存和发展必然要走出价格战等竞争误区，走创新发展之路。另外，面对外资企业的进入，竞争更加激烈，创新是集群必然的选择。
(二)创新的途径
1.产品创新
旅游产业集群提供的产品是组合产品，由核心产品和追加旅游产品组成。旅游产品的创新是对任何一个产品层次的全新开发或者部分改进。就核心产品而言，创新主要表现在资源依托型产品的深度开发、重塑形象以及凭借资金技术优势凭空而造的景区景点和游乐场所。集群产品创新将提供丰富多彩的产品供旅游者选择，提高集群竞争力。
2.服务创新
旅游业从根本上说是服务业，游客追求的是物质享受基础上的精神享受。提供优质的物质产品固然非常重要，但是提供优质的服务更能锦上添花。集群内大量企业、学校、科研机构及部门由于知识的传播、贮存及模仿将促进服务的标准化和个性化。标准化是个性化的基础，个性化是有效的竞争手段。与物质产品
创新相比，服务创新更不容易被模仿。
3.管理创新
管理水平的高低导致对资源(人，财，物，时间，信息)的利用方式不同，因而企业的竞争优势不同。管理水平的提高是无止境的，也就是说没有最好只有更好。我国旅游企业还没有建立完全的现代企业制度，管理比较落后。集群内的企业要健康发展，必须创新管理理念、制度、方法和管理过程，提高企业的竞争优势。
4.品牌创新
品牌包括集群企业品牌和区域品牌。集群内大量
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Probe into Some Basic Problems of the Tourism Industry Cluster
XIA Zheng-chaol，XIE Chun-san1.2
(1. College of History culture &. Tourism，Liaoning Normal University，Dalian 116029， China；
2\. College of Urban and Environmental Sciences， Northeast Normal University， Changchun 130024，China )
Abstract：With the development of tourism， the tourism industry cluster has aroused the attention of some scholars. However， there are still inadequate studies of the tourism industry clusters relevant concepts and connotations. Especially， the innovation of the tourism industry cluster is little involved. This paper introduces the latest research achievements in the tourism industry clusters. On the basis of the results related to the tourism industry cluster， it has analyzed deeply the tourism industry cluster's content， object， composition， formation mechanism.characteristics， innovation and other issues， in order to lead the research of the tourism industry cluster to the further level.
Key words：tourism industry eluster； formation mechanism； characteristics； composition； innovation
\[责任编辑：连云凯\] | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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