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zh | N/A | N/A | 教育理论向实践转化的现实路径
**一刘庆昌**
**摘 要，教育理论向实践转化无法逾越作为教育实践主体的教育实践者现实的路径只能是把教育理论转化为教育实践者的教育力量：这里所谓教育力量是由教育实践者的教育价值信念教育思维及教育行为规则有机合成的因此教育理论只有转化为教育实践者的教育价值信念教育思维和教育行为规则才能最终走进实践**
**关键词，教育理论.教育实践，价值信念，教育思维.行为规则**
中图分类号.G40-01 文献标志码.A 文章编号：1674-2311(2015)6-0003-06
**作者简介：刘庆昌男山西大学教育科学学院教授教育学博士主要研究方向为教育哲学和教学论(山西太原 030006)。**
**教育理论与实践的关系问题几乎是一个经典的和永恒的问题在不同的历史时期这一问题会以不同的方式表现出来有孰先孰后孰难孰易的争论有孰重孰轻孰主孰次的问题辩论而当这些辩争尘埃落定之后一个真正的问题才逐渐显现此即教育理论如何指导实践或转化到实践中去对这一问题教育领域的人们在认知上和操作上都做了许多有益的探索认识澄明的同时类似于教学设计教育实验行动研究这样的类工学行动也方兴未艾人们似乎感受到了教育理论向实践转化的越来越强烈的现实性从而会设想，如果教育实践者具有了足够的动力并掌握了相关的设计实验和行动研究的方法教育理论与实践的间隙就会自然弥合我对此也持基本乐观的态度作为对这种趋势的配合和支持认为在理论上讨论·教育理论向实践转化的现实路径·也有必要本文认为教育理论向实践转化有三条现实的路径分**
**别是转化为教育实践者的价值信念教育思维和行为规则**
**一教育理论转化为实践者个人的价值信念**
**人文实践是文化的实践显著的特征是一定的价值信念贯穿于整个实践过程不同的人不同的组织不同的国家的教育各有特色感觉上是教育行为格式的不同进一步追问则会发现关于教育的价值信念不同才是真正的原因直接面向具体的教育实践就能够意识到教育行为操作是以教育价值信念为土壤和前提的那人们的教育价值信念又从何而来呢，多数适应了和适应着环境的人他们的教育价值信念就来自于无时无处不在的传统而对于那些总想超越环境的人来说他们的信念很大的可能是来自教育理论不难看到一些因学习了教育理论而与众不同的人他**
**们的与众不同最初并非表现为教育操作上的不同而是表现为对教育现实的批评甚至表现为不招人喜欢的好高骛远：其实质是他们掌握了尚未在现实中实现的教育理论换个角度看他们选择的教育理论已经转化为他们的教育价值信念对这一现象我们做如下的操作性理解**
**(一)教育理论揭示的真启迪了人的归属意识**
**理论的第一功能是·描述\_解释，，此处的描述不是感觉意义上的素描而是驱离现象之后的关于事物深层结构的反映是以真为旨归的教育学首先回答教育是什么成功的结果当然是对教育真相的把握其自身并无价值的色彩但是被揭示出来的教育真相会令人惊异地给人以可贵的归属感我们说。做什么就要像什么，可以演绎为。做教育就要像教育，，怎样就算是像教育呢，答案只能是我们所做的事情不只是借用了教育的名号还体现了教育的真相如果我们接受了教育是善意的干预这一揭示我们就可以反观自身行为是否真实的干预以及我们的干预中和内心中是否具备了善意假设我们的行为的确是真实的干预并且具备了善意不必赞叹理论的高明而应庆幸我们行为的到位假设我们的行为没有符合理论对教育真相的揭示是否有些许的失落呢，我们或许有失落说到底是对职业行为归属感的迷惘**
**教育理论揭示的真通向人的归属意识借助的是个体心理上名实相副的意向在人文世界中个体重视身份这里的身份不单有与名位利益相关的意涵也有自我行为符合所展现概念的意义相对而言后者更为根本理由是职业行为先有名正才能涉及地位和名利的问题设若有人向我们说。你做的哪算是教育，那人一定自认为掌握了教育的真相.设若我们辩护道。我做的怎么就不算是教育，一则我们自认为也掌握了教育的真相二则我们可能是在追寻教育的真相进一步假设我们接受了某种揭示教育真相的理论对于作为实践者的我们绝不仅仅是获得了一种理论的信息而且还获得了可以作为教育者自信的理由但这一切的获得均需要我们在内心确立名实相副的坚定意向否则任何关于教育真相的理论揭示都是外在于我们的无关信息**
**二、教育理论建构的理激发了人的理性自觉**
**教育的理在很长的历史时期内是教育内部约定俗成的结果也会折射教育之外的其他人文实践的道理但当人类有了教育的理论自觉之后教育的理就与教育理论的建构形成了合理的关系 我们意识到教育自身的变化是教育之理的变化还意识到教育的理在近代以来越来越来自教育思想家理论家的建构虽然他们对教育之理的建构总发生在一定的人文语境中从而与人文世界整体血脉相连但这样的建构又是十分必要的若问教育理论家思想家为什么要建构教育之理理性的回答一定是为了建构新的教育教育工程师则会通过把教育之理转化为教育者的理性自觉最终把新的教育由理念变为现实**
**没有理论的实践是盲目的仅仅把理论作为知识存储于大脑和没有理论也无很大的差别只有理论激发了实践者的理性自觉理论才会成为实践者实践的依据教育理论建构的教育之理比起所谓教育的客观真相对教育实践者来说更有价值也更能牵动教育实践者的精神世界实践者的角色促成实践者的本位立场有吸引力的教育道理可以引发他们的合理联想有潜力把他们带进新的教育格局和秩序之中教育道理的文本一定程度上和哲学的和文学的文本相似读者可以毫无功利地阅读却能获得认识上的启迪和情感上的激发我们之所以执着于某种教育理念的实现固然由于它的正确和美好更由于某种教育的道理激发了我们的理性自觉**
**(三)教育理论表达的善促成了人的教育信仰**
**被人们界定的教育是向善的因此凡实践性的教育理论无不内含着向善的品质越是文明的社会越容易对教育有溢美之词越是经典的教育理论越富含善和美的原则天然的类教育行为是利于人的这是最基础的善在群体文化基础上建构的教育则在纯粹利益的基础上同时追求善和美并会用善和美来规则追求利益的行为对于这一切教育理论会用适当的方式进行表达一般来说教育理论重在表达善的价值既有目的的善也有手段的善更强调目的善和手段善的融合统一教育目的的善先是得失之利后是利他之德还有完全之美得失之利引导教育不做不利于人的事情利他之德引导教育不做有害于他人的事情完善之美引导教育把人引至和谐教育以知识和**
**美德为资源的自然具有了积极的气质以成人成才为目标又自然拥有了道德的品格以建构好的教育为宗旨的教育理论在精神上是对善的表达它作用于教育实践者的最大收益应是促成教育者的教育信仰教育实践者个人的价值信念离不开之于教育的归属感不能缺少对于教育的理性自觉但最高表现形式应是他们在理论的作用下在实践中形成的教育信仰人们基本默认教育信仰存在的必要性但对教育信仰内涵的认识分歧重重有研究者回顾了2000-2014年期间我国教育信仰研究的状况其中介绍了有关教育信仰内容的认识，有认为教育信仰包括对人自身的信仰对生命的信仰和对教育中爱的信仰.有认为教育信仰包括育人为本的宗原观 传道为先的使命观兼济天下的社会责任观和推崇学术的文化境界观，有认为教育信仰是教师认知教育情感教育意志等因素综合作用的结果u各自的认识看起来不同但相互之间也无冲突不同的是各自认识的视角和任务 我们至少能从有限的机制中认识到教育信仰的对象有人自身生命和爱教育信仰外显是宗原观使命观社会责任观和文化境界观教育信仰的形成机制是教育者教育认知教育情感教育意志等因素的综合作用这与我们的认识具有内在的相通性**
**对人自身生命和爱的信仰是人类人文的精髓当代人本主义教育的精神核心也如约历史地表达了这一精髓青由于人本主义的深入人心教育的技术理性也逐渐接受了人本主义的规约当我们听到教育领域人本生命爱的声音时完全可以把它理解为教育理论对教育实践者的影响 如果教育者有了教育信仰意味着有了基于教育职业的使命责任和文化境界这说明教育者已经属于教育即有了归属感说明他们已经形成了教育实践的理性自觉这也要归功于历来的教育家对教育的深刻认识在此基础上我们就能很顺畅地理解教育信仰来自教育认知 教育情感教育意志等因素的综合作用**
**稍加概括教育理论借助一定的机制转化为教育实践者的价值信念是一种方式和路径哲学家冯契有一个哲学命题为。化理论为方法化理论为德性，彭漪涟认为这是“克服科学与人生理智与情感脱节的新思路和新门径，，对我们的思考很有启示 不可否**
**认人们思考教育理论为实践服务的时候更多地着力于把教育理论化为教育方法这就是教育技术理性的社会心理基础这样的社会心理反过来使教育理论研究更重视教育实践中的技术问题客观地说只有少数的人文主义倾向和兴趣的理论工作者和实践工作者在宣扬教育实践的伦理哲学意义尽管这样的声音是美丽和柔弱的却也已经让更多的人领悟到教育理论不仅可以影响教育活动的效率还可以增益教育活动的文化内涵和精神品质实际上这种现象的发生一点也不怪异教育理论和思想从来就不只具有技术的内涵 _函_ 无论中外教育者的形象都是经师与人师贤者与智者的统一本质上是兼具方法与德性的人对于教育者来说代他的教育的方法和教育的德性既可以来源于生活实践也可以来源于教育理论 反过来教育理论既可以改善教育者的教育方法也可以改善教育者的教育德性就教育德性的改善而言教育理论转化为实践者个人的价值信念是一条重要的途径**
**二教育理论转化为实践者的教育思维**
**教育思维是脱离教育情境的一般教育实践理性个体一旦形成了自己独特的教育思维基本上等于建成了他在具体教育情境中处理教育问题完成教育任务的方法基地对于教育实践有特殊的意义承认这一点教育理论通过转化为教育实践者的教育思维进而走向实践就很好理解了前文已述及教育思维处在教育理论与教育实践的中间位置发挥着两者互通的中介作用这里我们主要在尽可能的操作水平上探讨教育理论转化为教育实践者的教育思维的基本过程因教育思维是教育观及其支配下的教育操作思路的统一体我们将依次讨论教育理论与教育观与一定教育观支配下的教育操作思路的具体连接**
**(一)教育理论与个体的教育观**
**描述性的和解释性的教育理论内含的是科学的思维其自身是没有价值倾向的它为接受者提供教育的概念和原理以使他们获得对教育的客观认识虽然如此由于对真相的敬畏也可算作一种特殊的价值行为所以描述性的和解释性的教育理论必然成为个体教育观形成的认识论基础认识了教育的真相**
**教育实践者的教育行动就有了归属感这种归属感也能促发一定的教育情感进而通过教育意志控制具体的教育行为使之符合教育的真义u我做的是教育吗，这样的反思性提问客观上起到了监控教育行为的作用在这样的过程中·做教育就要像教育：就成为基础性的教育观**
**实践性的教育理论自身就是价值性的它对教育实践者教育观的形成便具有相对直接快捷的影响我理解实践性的教育理论从起点上就力图用好的教育设想替代不好的教育实际即便在认识上可以掩饰武断的特征其价值追求也是显而易见的由于教育观是教育实践者个体对教育的个性化的主观的看法反映着个体主观的教育理想这就与实践性的教育理论具有内在品质上的一致这种一致性顺理成章地使得具体的实践性教育理论在极端的情况下能够直接被实践者接受进而成为自己的教育观 比如幼儿教育领域的蒙氏教育实践者实际上就是忠实地接受了蒙台梭利的教育理念他们的教育观就是蒙台梭利的教育观其信念的坚定性甚至能够让他们毫无顾忌地成为蒙氏主义者**
**不过类似这样忠实地接受某种个人教育理论的现象在实践中并非主流大多数教育实践者虽然拥有强度不同的教育观但通常不会是某种主义者他们的教育观一般呈现出综合性质换言之就是汲取百家之长结构出一定时代背景下的个性化的教育观这种教育观形成的现象更值得我们研究**
**实践性的教育理论主要有以下的表现形式.(1)形式上是关于事物特征的客观描述类似好教师的特征有效教学的特征高情商的表现等表面上看是对u好教师，u有效教学，和。高情商·的客观性描述事实上观点的提出者已经把自己认为的。好，，和高，融进描述中了接受到这类信息时教育实践者可以有两种反应一是把这类描述不加怀疑地视为知识以无批判的态度把自己的行为表现与这类描述进行对照比较假如接受者碰巧是积极上进的人他的教育观就这样自然地得以确立二是以批判的态度对待这类描述这并不必然导致简单地拒绝某种认识批判带来的反向思考或者修正性思考同样可以促成他的教育观(2)形式上是中立的教育操作程序或曰教育**
**模式教育活动的程序或曰模式感觉上只是对教育行为的结构和顺序安排但要知道任何一种教育活动程序或模式都是一定教育理念支配下的教育过程设计并非对客观上自然存在的行为格式的白描 正如查有梁所说的教育模式上有理论基础下有操作程序 它处于理论与应用的中介理论是什么，在这里就是各种类型的教育理论转化而来的教育价值信念所以教育活动的程序或巨模式并不是无涉价值的事物当教育实践者接受了一种教育活动程序或模式时 实际上连同作为程序和模式认识论基础的教育理念 我们也可以说他接受了一种整体的教育思维**
**(二)教育理论与个体的教育操作思路**
**实际上接受了一种教育活动程序或模式就等于接受了一种教育思维 尽管如此我们仍有必要讨论教育理论对个体教育操作思路形成的机制 _1_ 在/教育思维论、中我专门论述了教育操作思路形成的原理这里择其要义来阐明教育理论在其中的作用教育模式的构建从技术角度讲很像是模型方法的应用实质上是一个认识过程需要解决一系列认识上的问题这些问题主要表现为以下两个方面**
**首先要明确教育目的手我们知道教育目的当然有抽象的一般的意义比如。培养人，，就是这种抽象的一般意义但培养什么样的人呢，这就有了社会历史文化的内涵 _1_ 在中国历史上君子真人实科人才建设者接班人全面发展的人等都是不同环境下教育家理想中的人每一种理想的人的背后都隐藏着教育家对教育与人及社会关系的认识这样的认识在今天都存在于符合知识规范的教育理论中中教育模式的构建者所确立的教育目的就是对各种理论认识的选择和组合**
**其次要确定为达到教育目的要做什么和怎么做马要做什么是教育行为方式的选择问题教师的讲示范演示等学生的听模仿观察等师生生生之间的问答对话辩论竞赛合作等就是具体的教育行为方式这些方式本身无异于它们在日常生活过程中的样子是纯粹的中性行为但教育要培养的人的品质规格不同其意义也就不同各种方式是否被采用被采用之后在模式中的比例顺序如何均受到要培养的人的特征影响怎么做即是对具体教育行为方**
**式的秩序安排问题 构建教育模式的人心中潜存着“结构\_功能…的思维他们实际上是在制造服务于教育目的达成的教育功能 _当_ 当然目的的引导只是前提性的因素 教育模式的构建还要遵循教育活动的规律而规律是由各种具体的像教学理论训育理论组织管理理论这样的教育活动理论揭示的**
**也许最为重要的是教育实践者对教育思维这一现象的彻底自觉至少迄今为止教育思维对于教育领域的人们来说还是一个陌生的概念教育思维内含的。教育观教育操作思路，联接尽管客观地存在但认识上的自觉尚待时日如果教育思维概念不能深入人心我们掌握多少教育理论也无法有意识地把理论转化到教育思维中去理论除了认识的功能它对实践的作用只能是经由实践者的理性自觉人类教育理性的进化在很大程度上是由不断出现的新概念促成的而理论家做的就是概念的工作他们要么确立新概念要么修正旧概念目的都是要增益和提高人的理性能力和水平立足于教育工学我们尤其强调教育思维作为教育理论走向教育实践的中介并希望这一认识能被越来越多的教育实践者知悉**
**三教育理论转化为实践者的行为准则**
**有一个不容忽略的事实是教育实践者在教育过程中的实际作为就他们自己而言会有一种由习惯固化下来的模式而且这个模式他们常常并无自觉教育价值信念对他们来说不可能完全没有但出于意识的深层直接并可言说的支撑他们作为的基本上是一系列的行为准则 如果是这样要让教育理论作用于实践就不能忽略把它有意识地转化为教育者的行为准则孝教育活动和其他人类活动一样都是主体的自主行为在自然的状态下看似随意却也不是无所拘束和没有章法无论什么水平的教育活动在主体那里都是井然有序的原因是每个实践主体都有他自己行为的准则**
**关于行为准则有资料显示是个人集体和社会的行为所服从的约束条件并把它划分为。应该型和u不能，型两种基本类型其中.应该型行为准则是主体选择和实施能够产生最大正向价值效应的行为**
**准则 即主体行为所必须达到的价值高度u不能，型行为准则是主体逃避和拒绝能够产生最大负向价值效应的行为准则 即主体行为所避免超越的价值界限直观地理解应该的是具体主体设定的理想不能的是具体主体设定的底线实际的教育行为品质就游弋在理想和底线之间教育实践者心中无疑是有此种界限的这种界限保证了他们的教育行为一方面不会走出教育的范围另一方面具有走向好教育的可能性 可以说教育行为准则是教育实践者具有教育意识的直接基础当然也是他们教育实践的直接依据**
**教育理论向教育行为准则的转化因教育理论的类型不同存在着不同的情形**
**(一)教育理论为教育实践者提供一般意义上的教育区间**
**本质主义的教育理论会提供。教育是什么，的答案其形式是对教育概念进行界定界定的意义在于圈定教育的范围具体到教育行为教育概念的界定会明示或暗示在什么条件下日常的行为能成为教育行为哪些日常行为在任何条件下都不可能成为教育行为实际上等于为教育行为划定了底线对于此类问题教育实践者是少有考虑的传统成规的沿袭足以支持他们的教育认知但基于如此教育认知的教育行为近于职业内部的社会本能行为理性的自觉是极其有限的有了教育的理论界定教育实践者就有了把自己从庸识中解放出来的条件他们可以把教育的界定作为参照有意识地监控和反思自己的作为这样的过程至少能够确保教育实践者的作为的确属于教育在一定意义上当实践者理解和认可一种教育的界定后教育的界定就由外在的知识转化为他们自己行为准则的内容成分**
**实践的价值性的教育理论则会提供。好教育是什么…的答案其形式也可能是对教育概念的界定实质上是表达界定者的教育理想 正因此好教育是什么…的答案通常是完全合理的多种多样这与本质主义寻求教育本相的对唯一答案的追求是不同的般来说人们对教育的底线更容易取得共识而对教育的美好则更容易浮想联翩 人性的复杂性和美好的丰富性使得不同立场兴趣价值取向及文化背景影**
**响下的人们会对好的教育产生富有个性的思想结论这就不难理解进入我们视野的。好教育…图景永远是有差异的丰富多彩 即使教育实践者极尽选择组合的智慧也不可能把所有。好教育，的图景都融入自己的教育行为准则 听起来这是一种乱象却符合人的教育实际如果人们失去了针对。好教育…的积极想象教育思想理论的流派纷呈是无法理解的不同教育实践者以及教育实践组织的特色也会成为荒诞实践者不必心存顾虑只要与符合自己心性和认知的教育理论相遇就可以在教育的区间内确定自己的教育理想 一旦实践者选择了一种。好教育是什么…的答案这种理论就直接滋养了实践者的教育行为准则理论也因此以此方式走向了教育实践补充一句实践的价值理论是多元的存在决定了它对教育实践者的影响主要是通过呈示观点和启发认识来实现**
**二、教育理论为教育实践者提供教育操作的原则和规则**
**教育理论家在对教育做形而上学的或理性分析的同时也在关注教育活动操作层面的问题若作历史的分析还能发现教育理论对教育活动操作的关注是贯穿始终的自然是先于教育基本理论分析的在教育操作问题的思考上教育理论早期是教育思想、的核心是方法和原则两种内容但工程思维迟迟没能进入教育思想的领域使得关于教育方法的思考也具有原则的品格教育原则顾名思义就是人们进行教育活动时需要遵循的基本要求但审视具体的教育原则却也能够发现教育原则并不是在保证教育实践者不突破教育的底线而是在把教育实践者引至好教育的方向我们通常把原则理解为主观见之于客观的结果在其中既有客观规律的成分也有人的价值性目的的成分尤其是像教育这样的人文性活动虽然根植于人的生产生活却是在人对主观价值追求的历史过程中不断重复着..建构\_解构\_重构，，的格式因而教育原则不可能是一些原生的规则而是基于教育自然规律的人文创造**
**教育理论中的教育原则存在着不同层次**
**第一层次是社会历史文化背景下的教育精神在教育活动操作上的反映在这一层次教育原则实为教育精神的操作形式我曾根据。爱智统一，的教育**
**精神提出了。以学生为目的，u以人道为师道，u讲究策略：“统一心力，四条教育原则网这四条教育原则内含的逻辑是教育实践者不能把学生作为达到任何目的手段应该以学生为目的，不能坚持违逆人道的师生关系原则应该把人道本身作为师道.不能随心所欲基于本能进行教育应该讲究教育的方式方法.不能让自己处于有心无力或有力无心的状态应该把教育的情怀和教育的能力统一起来我们意识到教育原则内含的原来也是·应该和。不能，可见一切的行为准则还真逃不出这样的主观逻辑**
**第二层次是承载教育属性的具体类型活动的操作要求在这一层次教育原则表现为生动的教育智慧我们知道教学和训育是实现教育的最基本过程教育理论的原则成果也主要集中在这两个领域 先说教学原则最为人熟知的有循序渐进因材施教启发诱导理论联系实际等和第一层次的四条原则相比两者具有内在精神的相通但教学原则明显走在由道及术的途中能够让人体会到某种高明 教师循着这样的原则进行教学就不仅仅是完成了教学的本分而是趋近理想的教学再再说训育原则较为基本的原则是.晓之以理动之以情导之以行持之以恒，这既是经验的总结又是规律的应用因未涉及更细微的训育细节所以是原则又因可以被直接遵循具有明显的策略性质与教学原则的情形完全相同**
**我国的教育学是很重视教育活动原则探讨的至今仍不断地向教育实践者提供符合规律和时代精神的各种教育原则客观而言这也是教育学影响实践的最有效的途径**
**除了教育原则教育理论还会为教育实践者提供较为细致的教育操作规则这种规则附着于一定的教育方法或教育模式上正是这些操作性的规则对实际教育情境中的教育实践者发挥着指南作用在/爱智统一的教育原理一文中我认为教育操作规则包含以下内容.(1)教育者应该做什么才能使一种教育方法的意图得以实现：(2)教育者应该避免做什么才能不破坏一种教育方法的主旨，(3)教育者需要有什么样的准备才能驾驭和操作一种教育方法，(4)一种教育方法需要何种客观的物质基础和精神环境在这**
**\[6\]谭永生教育所形成的人力资本的计量及其对中国经济增长贡献的实证研究教育与经济2006.(011：33-36.**
**7\]杭永宝中国教育对经济增长贡献率分类测算及其相关分析\[jj教育研究，2007，(2)38-47.**
**110\]陈晋玲教育层次结构与经济增长关系的实证研究** **基于2000-2011年面板数据分析\[J重庆大学学报社会科学版2013，(5)：166-172.**
**\[8\]郭庆旺贾俊雪公共教育政策经济增长与人力资本溢价\[J\].经济研究，2009，(2)：22-35.**
**\[111刘新荣教育投入及其结构对中国经济增长的影响教育与经济2013，(3)：49-55.**
**9张军吴桂英张吉鹏中国省际物质资本存量估算.1952-**
**Impaction of Secondary Vocational Education Input on Economic Growth**
**Xu Xiao**
**Abstract： Using the 1995-2012 provincial panel data， the paper analyses the impact of secondary vocational education Input on economic growth. It is found that compared with the ordinary high school education expenditure， secondary vocational education expenditure has less influence on the regional economic growth， and shows significant regional differences. At last， it deeply discussed China’s problems and some suggestions are put forward.**
**Keywords： secondary vocational education expenditure， dilemma， economic growth**
**责任编辑.肖洪寿**
**(上接第8页)**
**里我们又感觉到了。应该，和。.不能的存在这的确是行为准则的内在结构**
**归结起来要把教育理论转化到教育实践中去无法逾越作为教育实践主体的教育实践者现实的路径只能是把教育理论转化为教育实践者的教育力量这里所谓教育力量是由教育实践者的教育价值信念教育思维及教育操作的原则和规则有机合成的**
**参考文献**
**11田友谊我国教育信仰研究的回顾与反思** **基于2000-2014年研究文献的分析Mg.上海教育科研，2014，(11)：23-277.**
**\[2\]查有梁论教育模式建构p\]教育研究，1997，(6)：48-54.**
**\[3\]搜狗百科行为准则\[EB/OL\]. http：//baike.sogou.com/v63720024.htm.**
**\[4.1刘庆昌教育者的哲学ryn北京，中国社会出版社2004：100**
**A Realistic Path of Putting Educational Theory into Practice Liu Qingchang**
**Abstract： The transformation from educational theory into practice can’t ignore educational practitioners who are the main bodies of educational practice. A realistic path is to change educationaltheory into practitioners’educational power. In this paper， what is called educational power is an organic combination of educational practitioners’ belief of educational value， educational thinking and educational behavior rules. Therefore， educational theory must change into practitioners’ belief of educational value， educational thinking and educational behavior rules， and then it will turn into practice ultimately.**
**Keywords： educational theory， educational practice， belief of value， educational thinking， behavior rules**
**责任编辑程方生** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | _配_
国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库National Social Sciences Database
**后冷战时期美俄关系的三个循环**
陶文钊
【内容提要】在克林顿、小布什和奥巴马三位总统时期，美俄关系经历了三个循环，每次都是高开低走，而且不断走向低谷。影响两国关系的主要问题是北约东扩、美国在欧洲部署导弹防御系统、美国介入格鲁吉亚、乌克兰的“颜色革命”等。20多年来，美俄关系发展的这种轨迹并非偶然，主要是两国的战略目标背道而驰，美国要维护超级大国独霸世界的单极格局，俄罗斯不承认这种格局，寻求恢复大国地位；两国的国家利益存在结构性矛盾，美国对俄罗斯的核心利益和重大关切非但不尊重不照顾，反而屡屡予以侵犯；美国寻求在海外推广民主和自由，干涉俄罗斯内政；双方都有“例外论”的文化背景和“救世主”的强烈使命感。今后美俄关系的调整空间不大，未来仍将在低水平徘徊。
【关键词】美俄关系 北约东扩导弹防御系统颜色革命
【作者简介】陶文钊，中国社会科学院荣誉学部委员、美国研究所研究员，和平与发展研究中心特约研究员。
**【中图分类号】D815**
**【文献标识码】A**
**【文章编号】1006-6241(2020)04-0001-19**
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后冷战时期，在美国威廉·克林顿(William Clinton)、乔治·沃克·布什 (George Walker Bush， 简称小布什)、巴拉克·奥巴马(Barack Obama)三位总统任内，美俄关系经历了三个循环，每次都是高开低走，且低点越来越低，成为冷战后国际形势的一个突出特点。
1992年是老布什任期的最后一年。苏联的突然解体出乎美国意料。但布什政府很清楚，要确保俄罗斯不会再回到共产主义、冷战永久结束，以及苏联留下的庞大核武库不会对美国安全构成威胁。俄罗斯领导人鲍里斯·叶利钦则认定，共产主义的实验在俄罗斯已经失败，其出路在于与苏联一刀两断，尽快实行社会转型，融入以美国为首的西方体系。1992年2月初叶利钦访美，在戴维营会晤布什，两人谈得十分投机；年中叶利钦再度访美，双方签署了39项协定，涉汲两国关系的多个方面，叶利钦还应邀在美国国会发表演讲，受到热烈欢迎。这一年可以视为美俄关系的短暂过渡时期。
**一、美俄关系中的“三个循环”**
**(一)克林顿-叶利钦时期**
克林顿认定，美俄关系是美国外交的重中之重。克林顿政府对俄罗斯有三大担忧：一是共产党和民族主义势力卷土重来；二是俄罗斯的改革可能受挫，它将决定俄是否走回头路，也将对其他新独立国家的改革产生重要影响；三是防止俄罗斯再分裂，发生类似南斯拉夫那样的混乱和内战。\[2\]要避免这三种可能，就要支持叶利钦的领导地位和改革派。美方在叶利钦身上下了赌注。图3国务卿克里斯托弗 (Warren Christopher)指出，帮助俄罗斯建立自由社会和市场经济“是我们这个时代面临的最大挑战”，“是美国外交政策
\[1\] 海运、李静杰总主编，学刚、姜毅主编：《叶利钦时代的俄罗斯·外交卷》，北京：人民出版社2001年版，第79一80页。
\[2\] Robert Legvold， Return to Cold War， Cambridge UK ： Polity Press， 2016，pp. 92-93.
\[3\] James M. Goldgeier and Michael McFaul， Power and Purpose. U.S. Policy toward Russia after the Cold War， Brookings Institution press， 2003， p. 124.
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的首要选择”，在这里，美国外交政策的三个支柱(安全、经济、在海外推广民主)汇集在一起，“服务于美国最高的安全、经济和道德利益”。1993年4月初，克林顿与叶利钦在加拿大温哥华举行了会晤，两位领导人的关系正式建立起来。此后克林顿政府一直支持叶利钦到其任期结束。1993年9、10月间，叶利钦与副总统鲁茨科伊及议会的分歧演变成了严重的冲突，克林顿公开表示支持叶利钦，谴责议会派。1994年第一次车臣战争爆发之初，克林顿一度为俄罗斯的政策辩护，称“车臣是俄罗斯联邦的一部分”。\[3\]1995年5月，克林顿出席俄罗斯卫国战争胜利纪念庆典，并指示美驻俄使馆官员，“叶利钦现在处境很困难，要尽可能多给他一点空间，因为我们找不到比他更好的俄罗斯伙伴了”。\[4\]克林顿还向叶利钦承诺，在他第二任期选举之前北约不采取东扩的实际步骤。
这一时期美俄合作取得的一个重大成果是对苏联留下的庞大核武库的处理。苏联的核武器及运载工具80%部署在俄罗斯，20%部署在乌克兰、白俄罗斯、哈萨克斯坦。此后数年中，美、俄、乌、白、哈进行合作，清除了部署在乌、白、哈三国的核武器、运载工具及发射装置，美国还制定了“纳恩一卢格减少威胁合作计划”(CTR)。此举在国际形势出现大动荡的时期维护了核不扩散体制，避免了可能的核扩散。\[51
**\[1\] Warren Christopher， In the Stream of History. Shaping Foreign Policy for a New Era，** Stanford University Press， 1998， p.45.
\[2\] William J. Clinton， “Remarks and an Exchange With Reporters on Russia，”October 3，1993. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley， The American Presidency Project， http：//www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?p.
\[3\] William J. Clinton， “Remarks in Cleveland， Ohio， at the White House Conference on Trade and Investment in Central and Eastern Europe，” January 13，1995，Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley， The American Presidency Project， https：//www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ **node/220780id=47152**
**\[4\] William Burns， The Black Channel. A Memoire of American Diplomacy and the Case for** Its Renewal， New York： Random House， 2019， pp.104-105.
\[5\]陶文钊：《苏联解体后美俄管理核武器扩散的经验与启发》，载《国际关系研究》2018年第5期。
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在这一时期对美俄关系影响最大的是北约东扩。克林顿政府实行双轨政策：一方面支持叶利钦的领导地位及俄罗斯的改革，并在一定程度上满足俄罗斯对大国地位的追求；另一方面采取比较谨慎、渐进但却是坚定的北约东扩举措，这是对俄罗斯改革可能失败的一种对冲，并设计了“和平伙伴关系”计划作为东扩的过渡。美国的北约东扩计划遭到俄罗斯的激烈反对。1994年12月初在布达佩斯举行的欧安会峰会上，克林顿第一次明确表示北约“和平伙伴关系”开启了北约扩大的大门，遭到叶利钦的坚决反对，自此俄美关系进入下行轨道。第二次车臣战争爆发后，美国改变支持立场，频繁批评俄罗斯，双边关系变得紧张起来。
前南斯拉夫联盟地区的动荡则是美俄关系中的又一刺激因素。在波黑战争中，俄罗斯与西方总体上是合作的，但在科索沃战争中双方立场对立。首先，美国和北约的单边主义做法大大伤害了俄罗斯的自尊，打破了叶利钦多年追求的与美、欧成为平等伙伴的梦想。其次，北约东扩后第一次大规模使用武力轰炸塞尔维亚，使俄罗斯精英和民众普遍认为北约扩容是对俄罗斯的安全威胁。叫第三，美国和北约未经联合国授权，把欧安组织撇在一边，急于确立以“人权高于主权”为核心的新的国际关系准则，建立“由民主国家组成的能够维护和平、制止屠杀的国际组织”。2这不免使俄罗斯担心，北约对科索沃的干预将成为美国霸权主义的新模式。科索沃战争使美俄关系跌落到了冷战后两国关系的低谷。
**(二)乔治·沃克·布什-普京时期**
导致这一时期美俄关系重启的压倒性原因是美国的反恐。“9·11”恐怖袭击之后，布什政府需要建立一个尽可能广泛的全球反恐联盟，这为美
**\[1\] A. II. I\[bITaHKOB， BHeIHAS IIOJIHTHKa PocHH.Or Top6a卜eBa Io IIyTHHa(MockBa** 《HayyHas KHuta》，2008)，cTp131
\[2\]郑羽主编：《既非盟友，也非敌人》，北京：世界知识出版社2006年版，第752页； J. Marcus， “Kosovo and After： American Primacy in the Twenty-First Century，” Washington Quarterly， winter 2000， https：//muse.jhu.edu/article/36513/pdf.
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俄关系的发展提供了机遇。
在俄罗斯方面，普京执政后现实地认识到“俄罗斯正处于数百年来最困难的历史时期”，“要优先考虑的任务是在俄罗斯周围建立稳定的、安全的环境，能够让我们最大限度地集中力量和资源解决国家的社会经济发展任务”。\[11而要这样做改善对美关系是必不可少的。‘“9·11”事件发生后，普京敏锐地抓住了发展对美关系的机会之窗，主动对美国打击“基地”组织和塔利班的战争提供了一系列的配合和帮助，尤其是为美国和反恐联盟部队通过中亚进入阿富汗开了绿灯，美俄关系迅速改善。2002年5月布什访俄，两国发表了《新战略关系共同宣言》，并签订了继续削减进攻性战略武器的《莫斯科条约》，把双方实战部署的核弹头削减到1700—2200枚。俄罗斯与北约的关系也有所改善，成立了北约一俄罗斯新理事会，双方进行了战术性合作。
这一时期美俄关系的转折点是格鲁吉亚和乌克兰。美国极为关注2004年12月乌克兰的总统选举，总统及政要都亲自发声对乌施压，强调要举行“一次自由、公正和透明的选举”；前任和现政府官员、国会议员不断走访基辅；国会发表声明、通过决议；美国和欧盟的非政府组织积极推动街头政治等，终于使亲美的候选人尤先科当上总统。普京指责美国推行“以漂亮的假民主的辞藻”包装起来的“专横的外交”，反对美国和欧盟对乌克兰内部事务的粗暴干涉。2格鲁吉亚发生“玫瑰革命”时，俄罗斯还把它当做“偶然性的”个案，及至乌克兰的“橙色革命”，俄罗斯已经意识到，美西方正有计划、有准备、系统性地在原苏联国家发动“颜色革命”，扶植亲西方的政治人物上台执政，继而威胁到俄在独联体地区的传统利益。从此，俄罗斯不再奉行以妥协换取与美合作和稳定两国关系的方针，转而实行不放弃对美合作、
\[1\]中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所编辑、翻译：《普京文集》， **，北京：中国社** 会科学出版社2002年版，第2、16、251页。
\[2\] William Schineider， “Ukraine’s Orange Revolution”， December 2004， https：//www. theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2004/12/ukraines-orange-revolution/305157/；安格斯·罗克斯伯勒著：《强权与铁腕——普京传》，胡利平、林华译，北京：中信出版社2014年版，第133页。
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同时坚决捍卫俄核心利益的政策。俄罗斯制订了新的非政府组织法，对国内组织进行有效管控，对国外组织实行严格限制。
北约东扩与美国在欧洲部署反导系统仍然是困扰美俄关系的两大争议。1999年，北约实行了冷战后的第一波东扩，波兰、匈牙利、捷克入约。在美俄谈判《俄罗斯与北约相互关系基本文件》时，俄罗斯就一再表示，原苏联国家不得加入北约，主要指的是立陶宛等波罗的海三国。\[2\]2004年3月，斯洛伐克、保加利亚、罗马尼亚、斯洛文尼亚以及波罗的海三国入约。北约成员国由先前的19个猛增到26个。同时美方还一意孤行，不顾德、法等欧洲盟国的反对，竭力要把格鲁吉亚和乌克兰拉进北约。乌克兰是俄罗斯的“非常邻国”，关系到俄的核心利益，美国强拉乌、格入约的举动深深地刺痛了俄罗斯。
建立反导体系是美国一直追求的目标。为此，布什政府在2001年12月退出了《反导条约》。此后数年中，美方又以反恐战争的需要为借口，加速了在欧洲部署反导系统的步伐。2007年，布什政府决定在捷克设置雷达，在波兰部署拦截装置。遭到两国多数民众的反对。图对于美国的上述行径，俄罗斯持强烈反对立场。2008年2月20日，普京在《国情咨文》中再次对美国部署反导系统提出严厉警告：如果美国开始建设反导系统，俄罗斯将把洲际导弹重新对准美方的导弹基地，并可能在波罗的海地区的加里宁格
\[1\]柳丰华：《梅普组合的外交战略》，北京：中国社会科学出版社2012年版，第80页。
\[2\] Strobe Talbott， The Russia Hand： A Memoir of Presidential Diplomacy， New York： **Random House， 2002，** pp.234-237； James M. Goldgeier and Michael McFaul， Power and **Purpose， p.207.**
\[3\]根据2007年3、4月间的民调，在波兰只有25%的受访者支持该计划，57%的民众表示反对。捷克约有60%的民众反对在本国境内建立美国雷达基地，约73%的人认为应就这一问题举行全民公决。Robert Burns，U.S. Might Negotiate Missile Defense， April 24， 2007， http：//www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/24/AR2007042400871.html；《美国在东欧部署导弹防御系统进入实质阶段》，2007年5月10日，新华网， http：//mil.news.sina.com.cn/2007-05-10/1407443468.html。
勒部署导弹。，“反导系统问题严重损害了美俄两国间的互信。
2008年8月，俄罗斯与格鲁吉亚之间爆发了“五日战争”。萨卡什维利当政后，格俄关系持续紧张，格方不断制造舆论要以武力手段解决阿布哈兹和南奥赛梯这两个分离地区的问题。而布什政府则发出了混乱的信息，国务卿赖斯曾叮嘱萨卡什维利，如果爆发战争美国帮不了他；但副总统切尼办公室则鼓励他与俄罗斯对抗。28月7日，萨卡什维利打响了第一枪，而俄罗斯以压倒性的军力进行反击，格多年的军事建设成果毁于一旦。俄罗斯这次出手实际上是对这一时期屡遭美国打压的强烈反弹，表明俄罗斯有决心、有能力捍卫自己的根本利益。“五日战争”使这一时期的美俄关系跌入谷底。
**(三)奥巴马-梅德韦杰夫、普京时期**
奥巴马总统重启对俄关系是有足够理由的。首先，全球金融危机需要国际社会合力应对；其次，阿富汗战争没有结束，俄罗斯和中亚对于美国和盟国部队进出阿富汗依旧至关重要，稳定阿富汗形势需要俄罗斯配合；第三，奥巴马提出“无核世界”的理念，寻求进一步削减核武器，防止核扩散；第四，奥巴马寻求重启中东和平进程，俄罗斯是是“中东四方”之一，在中东的影响不可低估。
俄罗斯也有重启对美关系的需求。首先，金融危机，尤其是随之而来的油价下跌使俄经济遭受沉重打击，参与二十国集团克服金融危机、恢复全球经济增长符合俄利益；第二，俄格“五日战争”后，美欧均对俄施加经济制裁，给俄经济带来负面影响，俄急需改变这种局面。奥巴马当政后，美方在一段时间内调整政策，在涉俄问题上保持克制，没有对俄国内政治进行公开指责，对于乌克兰、格鲁吉亚加入北约问题采取谨慎态度，避免
\[1\] Steven Hildreth， Carl Ek， Long-Range Ballistic Missile Detense in Europe (CRS Report for Congress)， April 26， 2010， p.22.
\[2\]安格斯·罗克斯伯勒著：《强权与铁腕——普京传》，胡利平、林华译，北京：中信出版社2014年版，第217—218页； William Burns， Back Channel， p.241.
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对2010年的乌克兰选举和吉尔吉斯斯坦政权更迭进行干预。
美俄关系重启成果显著。首先，达成了《进一步削减进攻性战略武器条约》，双方实战部署的核弹头将削减到1500—1675枚，超过了 2002年《莫斯科条约》的规定；第二，两国加强了在阿富汗问题上的合作，成立了“北方运输网络”，方便了美军和盟军部队进出阿富汗；第三，在伊朗核问题上保持了合作，最终达成了关于伊核问题政治解决的全面协议；第四，两国关系的机制化取得进展，成立了“美俄双边总统委员会”，下设19个工作小组，具体推动解决两国关系中的各种问题。
但双边关系的升温没有保持多久。俄罗斯2012年大选前，美国等西方国家不断热炒普京可能再次参选，并与梅德韦杰夫“王车易位”，批评普京操纵民主与法制，是俄民主政治的倒退。美方还公开对2011年底的俄罗斯杜马选举进行指责，希拉里在公开场合抨击选举存在“舞弊行为并受到操纵”“，应该进行“彻底调查”。、2普京总理随后进行激烈反驳引，双方针锋相对，撕破了脸皮。
美俄之间还爆发了“法律战”。2009年11月，俄罗斯一名税务会计师谢尔盖·马格尼茨基在被监禁11个月后因“突发心脏病”死于狱中。奥巴马政府、国会和人权组织认为这是俄政府蓄意压制和谋害“持不同政见者”的严重事件。2012年12月，美国参议院表决通过了《马格尼茨基法》，禁止向涉案的俄官员发放入境签证。俄罗斯也立法禁止侵犯俄罗斯公民权利的美国人入境，禁止他们在俄投资并冻结其在俄资产；取缔接受外国资助并侵害俄利益的非政府组织；禁止美国人收养俄儿童，并终结美俄收养条约。\[47
\[1\] Hillary Clinton， **“ Remarks at the Bonn Conference Center.”December 5.** 2011，https：//2009-2017.state.gov/secretary/20092013clinton/rm/2011/12/178267.htm.
\[2\]“ Clinton Cites’Serious Concerns’about Russian Election，" December 6， 2011， https：//www.cnn.com/2011/12/06/world/europe/russia-elections-clinton/index.html.
\[3\]“ Putin Says US Stoked Russian Protesters，” December 8， 2011，https：//www.reuters. com/article/us-russia/putin-says-u-s-stoked-russian-protests-idUSTRE7B610S20111208.
**\[4\] Jim Nichol， Russian Political， Economic， and Security Issues and U.S. Interests ( CRS** Report for Congress)， March 31，2014， p.15.
这一时期两国关系的拐点是2013年8月俄罗斯批准美国家安全局前合同雇损斯诺登(Edward Snowden) 的临时避难申请。此事激怒了奥巴马，以致他取消了在9月出席圣彼得堡二十国集团峰会期间与普京会晤的约定。
美国在欧洲部署反导系统的问题继续困扰着美俄关系。奥巴马当政后，五角大楼取消了原定在波兰和捷克的部署计划，决定分四个阶段在欧洲部署海基和陆基的反导系统，一时缓解了美俄关系。但双方在谈判《进一步削减进攻性战略武器条约》时发生分歧，俄方坚持要把反导问题包括在内，美方不允。“之后，双方又进行了数年的谈判和折冲，都提出了自己的方案。克里米亚危机后，北约在2014年9月的威尔士峰会上重新将俄罗斯定位为对手，终结了此前20余年北约一俄罗斯的伙伴关系，美俄关于导弹防御系统的交涉也就此告终。2015年1月，北约决定在波罗的海三国、罗马尼亚和保加利亚建立导弹防御体系指挥和控制中心，2016年底前到位。俄罗斯则确认在加里宁格勒部署了伊斯坎德尔导弹。
把美俄关系带入冷战后两国关系最低谷的是2014年的克里米亚危机。2013年，乌克兰又处于一个抉择关头：或者加入欧盟的《联系国协定》，或者加入俄罗斯的关税同盟。乌总统亚努科维奇两边都不敢得罪，犹豫再三后决定暂不签署《联系国协定》。这一决定引发了大规模的群众抗议示威。美国与欧盟官员在广场上向示威者发放食品，参议员到访基辅对抗议者表示支持。抗议导致了乌政权更迭，重新燃起了占克里米亚居民多数的俄罗斯人脱离乌克兰、回归俄罗斯的希望。2014年3月16日，克里米亚举行全民公决，96%以上的投票者支持加入俄罗斯。普京迅速吸纳克里米亚入俄。美国与欧盟作出强烈反应，包括对俄实施经济制裁、进行大规模的军事演习等。
\[1\] Barack Obama，“The President's News Conference With President Dmitry A. Medvedev of Russia in Moscow，" July 6， 2009， Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley， The American Presidency Profect， https：//www.presidency.ucsb.edu/node/287563.
**二、美俄关系波动的深层驱动力**
20多年的美俄关系之所以呈现上述状况，决非偶然。“高开”说明双方有共同利益，如维护战略稳定、打击恐怖主义、防止核扩散等。即使在两国关系最差的时候，双方在反恐、阿富汗、朝鲜和伊核等问题上也维持着合作。“低走”说明双方有着根本的、难以克服的矛盾和分歧。其主要由以下四方面决定。
**(一)战略目标南辕北辙**
冷战结束后，美国的主流观点是资本主义与共产主义的意识形态和社会制度的斗争已经终结，自由民主制度已经取得了最终的决定性胜利，世界进入了自由资本主义一统天下的时代，即由美国缔造、领导的国际秩序一统天下。从国家实力的角度讲，美国是毫无疑问的唯一的超级大国……，世界进入了美国的“单极时刻”“单极格局”。美国的战略目标就是要维护一个稳定的单极体系。\[11
但俄罗斯显然不认同由美国主导的单极世界。俄罗斯认为，冷战结束后世界从两极对抗向着多极化过渡、演进，多极世界尚未形成，这个过程是曲折的，但发展方向是确定的。俄罗斯的战略目标就是要成为多极世界中的重要一极。叶利钦明确地把推动世界多极化作为俄罗斯外交战略的目标，在俄罗斯的多个重要外交文件中、在俄中两国的多项联合声明和文件中都一再进行阐述。1992年12月，俄中两国发表的联合声明中明确指出，
\[1\] Francis Fukuyama，“The End of History?” The National Interest，Summer 1989，https：//history.msu.edu/hst203/files/2011/02/Fukuyama-The-End-of-History.pdf； Charles Krauthammer，“ The Unipolar Moment Revisited，”The National Interest， Winter 2002-2003， file：///C：/Users/Administrator/Downloads/Krauthammer\_347.pdf；兹比格纽·布热津斯基：《大棋局——美国的首要地位及其地缘战略》，中国国际问题研究所译，上海人民出版社1998年版，第5、13、19、32、254页。
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“双方重申，中俄两国都不在亚洲和太平洋地区以及世界其他地区谋求霸权，也反对任何形式的霸权主义和强权政治”。1993年4月出台的《俄罗斯联邦外交政策构想》强调，“俄罗斯将致力于建立能够真实反映当今世界及其利益多样性的多极国际关系体系”。21996年4月，俄中联合声明进一步指出：“世界多极化趋势在发展”，并提出了“建立公正合理的国际政治、经济新秩序”的问题。，13\]普里马科夫1996年出任外长后，对多极框架下的世界新秩序进行了比较全面、系统的阐述和界定，使之成为俄罗斯对当代世界发展趋势的基本认识和俄罗斯对外政策的重要指导思想。【4\]1997年，俄中两国更是专门就国际格局发表联合声明强调，双方将努力推动世界多极化的发展和国际新秩序的建立，以回应时代和历史的迫切要求。\[51
为什么“单极”和“多极”这个看似抽象的国际秩序观问题对美俄关系如此重要呢?首先，在单极格局和霸权主义治下，国家之间是不平等的，霸权国家是主宰，其他国家则处于附和、追随的地位。冷战后，美国惯于在国际关系中实行“长臂管辖”，动辄对别国实行制裁，正是这种强权政治的体现。其次，，“从1992年起，俄罗斯的一个主要目标就是重新恢复其大国地位，并且得到美国的平等对待”。161993年4月出台的《俄罗斯联邦外交政策基本构想》即把恢复大国地位作为俄罗斯外交政策的主要目标。例叶
\[1\]《关于中俄相互关系基础的联合声明》(1992年12月)， http：//www.cctv.com/special/903/6/70491.html。
\[2\]郑羽主编：《既非盟友，也非敌人》，北京：世界知识出版社2006年版，第133页。
\[3\]《中俄联合声明》(1996年4月)， http：//www.cctv.com/special/903/6/70501.html。
\[4\]海运、李静杰总主编，学刚、姜毅主编：《叶利钦时代的俄罗斯·外交卷》，北京： **人民出版社2001年版，第49—50页。**
\[5\]《中俄关于世界多极化和建立国际新秩序的联合声明》(1997年4月23日)， http：//www.cctv.com/special/903/6/70494.html，2020年4月15日。
\[6\]安琪拉-斯登特：《有限伙伴——21世纪美俄关系新常态》，欧阳瑾、宋和坤译，北京：石油工业出版社2016年版，第3页。
\[7\]王郦久、刘桂琳主编：《跨世纪的俄罗斯》，北京：时事出版社1997年版，第175页。
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利钦在1994年2月《国情咨文》中强调，俄罗斯外交“应结束有缺陷的单方面让步”，“永远符合俄罗斯的大国地位”。
普京刚当政时俄罗斯的地位相当虚弱，但他也明确地提出，俄罗斯外交战略的核心目标——要发挥一个世界性大国的作用，融入世界体系，成为国际规则的制定者和维护者；积极推进世界格局的多极化，希望俄罗斯能够成为未来世界国际政治格局中的“重要一极”。 _2_
美国把俄罗斯恢复大国地位的梦想视为对美国单极霸权的挑战，想方设法予以打压、遏制。美国对俄罗斯有一种深深的疑虑：苏联的崩溃不等于俄罗斯帝国的崩溃，俄恢复大国地位就意味着恢复昔日的帝国。苏联解体初期民调数据表明，大约2/3的俄民众乃至大多数民主派政治家认为，苏联的解体是一个悲剧性错误，必须用某种办法来纠正。叶利钦的政敌如鲁茨科伊、日里诺夫斯基还在唤起俄罗斯的自豪感，斥责苏联崩溃的负面后果。1996年初，俄杜马竟宣布苏联的解散是无效的。 _\[_ 3 _3_ 2005年4月，普京在《国情咨文》曾指出，“苏联的解体是本世纪最大的地缘政治灾难”。\[4\]而美国决意把俄罗斯的影响局限在现有边界之内，削弱、剥夺俄在新独立国家的影响力，这也是美国迫使俄尽快从原苏联国家撤兵，坚持北约东扩、在中东欧部署反导系统，在原苏联国家与俄罗斯展开角力的原因所在。
俄罗斯认为，冷战结束后，美国的单极霸权一直在挤压俄战略空间，俄罗斯是地缘政治博弈的受害者囚，强烈反对美国的霸权主义和强权政治。
\[1\]郑羽主编：《既非盟友，也非敌人》，北京：世界知识出版社2006年版，第31页。
\[2\]左凤荣：《重振俄罗斯——普京的对外战略与外交政策》，北京：商务印书馆2008年版，第110页。
\[3\]兹比格纽·布热津斯基：《大失控与大混乱》，潘嘉玢、刘瑞祥译，北京：中国社会科学出版社1995年版，第 191、262页；兹比格纽·布热津斯基著、 **中国国际问题研究** 所译：《大棋局》，上海人民出版社2010年版，第142页。
\[4\] Vladimir Putin， “Annual Address to the FederalAssembly of the Russian Federation， April 25， 2005， http：//en.kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/22931.
\[5\]庞大鹏主编：《普京新时期的俄罗斯(2011-2015)》，北京：社会科学文献出版社2017年版，第356页。
2007年4月，普京在慕尼黑欧安会上直言：“我认为单极模式不仅是不可接受的，而且在当今的世界也是行不通的……..因为这种模式的一个根本缺陷是，它没有近代文明的道德基础”；“非法的单边行动连一个问题也解决不了。不仅如此，这种行动还成为新的人类悲剧和紧张局势策源地的促成因素。”M2007年出台的《俄联邦外交政策基本构想》指出：“单极世界的神话在伊拉克彻底破灭了……世界上绝大多数国家已经认同世界格局多极化的现实性。”2
**(二)国家利益的结构性矛盾**
如前所述，在后冷战时期，美俄两国是有共同利益的，这些利益是两国合作的基础。当共同利益突出的时候，如“9·11”袭击之后、世界金融危机后的一段时间，两国的合作也是有成果的。在这些合作中，尤其是在反恐方面，俄罗斯协助、配合美国，主动与中亚各国协调，允许美国和盟国部队、武器和后勤物资过境出入阿富汗。布什政府是以反恐划线的，而在反恐阵线中俄罗斯是一个极其重要的盟友。俄方照顾了美方的核心利益，当然有理由要求美国投桃报李，在涉及俄方核心利益的问题上给予照顾。对许多俄罗斯人来说，美国坚持北约东扩，一意孤行地退出《反导条约》，说明美国在事关俄罗斯重大安全利益的问题上不考虑俄罗斯人的感受。而美方却变本加厉，不仅没有停止北约东扩和部署反导系统的脚步，反而在格鲁吉亚、乌克兰策动“颜色革命”，这就深深地伤害了俄方核心利益。
保持乌克兰和格鲁吉亚在东西方之间的平衡关系、防止两国加入北约
\[1\] Vladimir Putin，"Speech and the Following **Discussion at the Munich Security** Conference，” February 10， 2007，http：//en.kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/2403.奥巴马第二任期任美驻俄大使的迈克福尔( Michael McFaul)称这是“令人震惊的”讲话，普京“最终决定把他考虑了多年、也许十几年的话大声地说出来了”。Michael McFaul， From Cold War to Hot Peace， New York， Houghton Mifflin Harcourt， 2018， p.72.
\[2\]邢广成、张建国主编：《梅德韦杰夫和普京：最高权力的组合》，长春出版社2008年版，第178页。
对于俄罗斯来说至关重要。首先是地缘政治的重要性。乌克兰的某种中立地位提供了北约与俄罗斯之间的缓冲地带，一旦乌加入北约，北约的军事部署就逼近了俄罗斯的边界，这是对俄实实在在的安全威胁。其次是俄罗斯与两国的特殊关系，尤其是俄乌关系。乌克兰是俄罗斯的“非常邻国”，两国在历史上有密切的关系。克里米亚事件的发生有着深刻的历史、文化、地缘、民众心理等复杂原因，它无疑关系到俄罗斯的核心利益。美国同样看重乌克兰的重要地位，布热津斯基指出：“乌克兰是欧亚棋盘上一个新的重要地带。……没有乌克兰，俄罗斯就不再是一个欧亚帝国…·如果莫斯科重新控制了拥有5200万人口、重要资源及黑海出海口的乌克兰，将自然而然地重获建立一个地跨欧亚强大帝国的资本。”乌克兰危机之后，国际问题观察者的普遍看法是：西方的战略是使苏联解体的现状维持下去，将俄罗斯的势力遏制在边界之内；而俄罗斯的战略是实现独联体国家特别是三个斯拉夫国家——俄罗斯、乌克兰、白俄罗斯的重新一体化。两国利益诉求的这种结构性矛盾难以解决。 _2_
**(三)意识形态的根本分歧**
冷战后，在海外推广民主在美国对外战略中的地位得到前所未有的提升。布什政府更热衷于推广民主，并把“9·11”恐怖袭击定义为是对民主和自由的攻击，是对“自由堡垒的进攻”，还把阿富汗战争命名为“持久自由行动”。图布什的两个《就职演说》和2002年9月、2006年3月的两个《国家安全战略报告》都是拓展民主和自由的宣言书和计划书。时任国务卿
\[1\]兹比格纽·布热津斯基：《大棋局——美国的首要地位及其地缘战略》， **中国国际** 问题研究所译，上海人民出版社2007年版，第62页。
\[2\]庞大鹏主编：《普京新时期的俄罗斯(2011—2015)》，第363页。
\[3\] National Review，“We Will Prevail”： President George W. Bush on War， Terrorism， and Freedom， The Continuum International Publishing Group， 2003，pp.7，34.
_配_
赖斯也声称，拓展民主是美国外交的终极目的。\[11
拓展民主和自由在美国对俄政策中同样占有重要地位。克林顿政府认定，实行了市场经济和民主化的改革之后，俄罗斯就不会再重建帝国，冷战的成果就巩固了；而叶利钦是俄罗斯政治家中最坚决主张实行改革的人，因而也是美国在莫斯科的最佳人选，但他对普京却没有这样的信心。2000年6月，克林顿最后一次访俄。在结束访问去机场的路上，他告诫叶利钦：“你是一位充满激情的真正的民主派人士和改革家。可我不知道普京是否和你一样。你一定要对他留意，运用你的影响确保他继续沿着正确的道路走下去。”\[2但普京已经足够成熟和自信，他不需要一个监护人。
俄罗斯有自身的国情，美国的民主不可能移栽到俄罗斯。2005年，普京在《国情咨文》中强调：“俄罗斯将根据人民的意志来选择民主……要保障自由和民主的基本原则得到最好的实施，应该考虑到本国的历史、地缘政治和其他因素以及民主的基本规范。俄罗斯作为主权国家将自主决定推进本国民主进程的方式和时间表。”图此后，俄罗斯主流媒体上便频繁出现“主权民主”的提法，并将其作为普京政治哲学的一部分加以宣传。美方依然信奉美式民主的普遍适用性，并对俄罗斯“缺乏民主”不断进行批评，俄方则一再进行针锋相对的反击。2005年2月下旬，布什访问欧洲，与普京在斯洛伐克首都布拉迪斯拉发会晤。在记者会上，双方就俄罗斯的民主进行了辩论。布什说：“民主显然有些共同的东西……希望俄罗斯能够兑现对这些公认的原则的承诺。”普京则表示，俄罗斯会遵循“对民主基本原则”
\[1\] Condoleezza Rice **e** “Transformational Diplomacy： Remarks at Georgetown School of Foreign Service， January 18， 2006， https：//2001-2009.state.gov/secretary/rm/2006/59306.htm.
\[2\]安格斯·罗克斯伯勒：《强权与铁腕-\_普京传》，胡利平、林华译，北京：中信 **出版社2014年版，第7页。**
\[3\] Vladimir Putin， “Annual Address to the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation， **55** April 25， 2005， http：//en.kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/22931.
的承诺，但“民主不应伴随着国家的垮台和人民的贫困化”。这显然是指美国给伊拉克带来的灾难。
2006年7月15日，在圣彼得堡八国集团峰会后布什与普京举行的记者会上，布什称：“我希望在世界一些地方，如伊拉克实行的媒体自由、宗教信仰自由等，也能在俄罗斯发生。”普京毫不客气地反击说：“坦率地说，像伊拉克这样的民主我们宁可不要。”2美国政府和非政府组织在俄罗斯扶植所谓“公民社会”、就马格尼茨基事件立法、批评俄罗斯的选举等，都被俄罗斯视为干涉其内政。2006年10月21日，赖斯在访俄期间接受俄《新报》采访，批评俄压制媒体自由，称俄自由媒体和电子媒体的未来是美国的“一大关注”，她还批评俄政府停止了许多外国非政府组织的活动。图当这种干涉发展到在格鲁吉亚和乌克兰介入“颜色革命”时，事情的性质就起了变化。这成了另一种形式的“政权更迭”：美国政府和民间结合起来，在乌克兰培植“公民社会”，支持自由媒体，扶植反对派，鼓动街头政治，使亲美派当政，侵蚀俄罗斯的利益，扩大西方的盟友。不仅如此，俄方感到自身也可能成为“颜色革命”的目标，这样美国的所谓“民主”“自由”就成了对俄现行政权和体制的直接威胁，这是对俄美关系最具破坏力的因素。.14普京对此予以公开谴责。他在2007年4月的《国情咨文》中指出，“我国稳定的、逐渐发展的政策不是所有人都喜欢的。有些人巧妙使用假民主的辞藻，想让我们回到不久之前去……用于直接干涉我国内政的资金源源不断地从国外涌入……目的
\[1\] Elisabeth Bumiller and David Sanger， “Bush and Putin Exhibit Tension over Democracy，”February 25， 2005， https：//www.nytimes.com/2005/02/25/world/europe/bush-and-putin-exhibit-tension-over-democracy.html.
\[2\]“ Putin Dismisses Bush’s Call for Russia to Follow Iraqi Model of Democracy，"July17，2006， https：//www.democracynow.org/2006/7/17/putin\_dismisses\_bushs\_call\_for\_russia.
\[3\] Thom Shanker， “ Rice Criticizes Russia’s Limits on News Media，”October 22，2006， https：//www.nytimes.com/2006/10/22/world/europe/22rice.html.
\[4\] Michael McFaul， From Cold War to Hot Peace， p.131.
只有一个，确保他们单方面的优势和好处，寻求他们自己的利益。”山
**(四)两种文化背景的冲突**
美国外交中历来有一种源于“美国例外论”的理想主义。这种观点认为，上帝选择了美利坚民族，把它安置在北美这片新大陆上，并赋予了它特殊的使命——建立一个自由和民主的样板，美国的价值观具有普世意义，将它推广到世界各地是美利坚民族的使命。这种“美国例外论”在不同的时候、面对不同的问题，可以演绎出不同的内容，如“民主和平论”“人权高于主权论”以及布什政府的“大中东民主计划”。对于原苏联国家，美国也在努力拓展民主自由，并把关注的重点放在了俄罗斯。希望俄罗斯的民主转型得以顺利进行，并带动一大片。而当美国认为俄罗斯的民主转型有所“倒退”时，美方的批评、施压即随之而来。
但俄罗斯也有自己的“例外论”。东正教是俄罗斯的文化之源，东正教在俄罗斯的民族性格和民族文化的形成和发展过程中都产生过深刻的影响，东正教的核心教义—―“弥赛亚意识”(救世主思想)被俄罗斯一些学者奉为俄罗斯的“思想”和“灵魂”，贯穿了俄罗斯社会的千年发展史。其核心是：“俄罗斯是一个特殊的国家，它不同于世界上别的国家。俄罗斯民族的思想界感到，俄罗斯是神选的，是赋有神性的”，“俄罗斯，就其精神而言，负有解放各个民族的使命。”\]这种“弥赛亚意识”正是俄罗斯“大国主义”外交的文化根源。这种意识贯穿于俄民族发展的各个阶段，深刻影响了其政治、社会及历史进程。14\]在“弥赛亚意识”的影响下，俄罗斯形成了一种
\[1\] Vladimir Putin， “ Annual Address to the Federal Assembly，" April 26， 2007，http：//en.kremlin.ru/events/president/transcripts/24203.
\[2\]参见周琪主编：《意识形态与美国外交》，上海人民出版社2006年版，导论。
\[3\]尼古拉·别尔嘉耶夫：《俄罗斯的命运》，汪剑钊译，北京：译林出版社2011年版，第1、9页。
\[4\]邢悦、王晋：《“弥赛亚意识”与俄罗斯的“大国主义”外交》，载《国际政治》2017年第6期，第55—57页。
以“救世主义”为核心的复杂的民族性格和心理，包括俄罗斯民族对其国家地位的认知与期盼、对其领导人的期盼。在后冷战时期，这种意识对俄美关系的影响主要表现在三个方面。
第一，重新寻求俄罗斯的大国地位。苏联解体后，东正教全面回归，在经过短暂的迷茫之后，“弥赛亚意识”下的民族优越感使俄罗斯人的“大国心态”全面复苏。俄国内各派别在许多问题上包括发展道路等基本问题上看法分歧，但在恢复大国地位上的主张却非常一致，俄罗斯不能居于屈从美国的地位。普京阐述了他的“强国意识”：“俄罗斯过去是、将来也还会是一个伟大的国家。它的地缘政治、经济和文化的不可分割的特征决定了这一点。在俄罗斯整个历史进程中，它们还决定着俄罗斯人的思想倾向和国家的政策。”11但美国认为俄虚弱不堪、社会落后，不堪充当美国的全球伙伴，不接受俄罗斯与美国平起平坐的要求。\[21
第二，双对独联体国家具有强烈的“使命意识”。1993年11月，俄国家安全委员会通过了《俄联邦军事理论基本原则》，宣布原苏联地区为俄的“特殊利益地区”，俄对保障该地区的和平与稳定负有“特殊责任”。引俄罗斯把原苏联国家视为“近邻外国”，要努力维护对这些国家的主导地位。1994年以后，为应对北约东扩，俄进一步强化独联体外交，把确保独联体势力范围作为俄外交的重要任务。1995年9月，叶利钦签署《俄罗斯联邦对独联体国家战略方针》，提出要‘“加快独联体国家一体化进程”，“增强俄罗斯在独联体国家关系中的主导作用”。俄罗斯陆续提出了《独联体集体安全条约》、俄白同盟、关税同盟、欧亚经济联盟等举措，以强化了独联体一体化进程，突出俄的领导地位，并区分亲疏，软硬兼施。同时，俄罗斯以独联体作为依托，
\[1\]中国社会科学院俄罗斯东欧中亚研究所编辑、翻译：《普京文集》，北京：中国社会科学出版社2002年版，第9页。
\[2\]兹比格纽·布热津斯基：《大棋局》， 中国国际问题研究所译，上海人民出版社2010年版，第131—132页。
\[3\]王郦久、刘桂琳主编：《跨世纪的俄罗斯》，北京：时事出版社1997年版，第184页。
增强自身在国际事务中与西方周旋的砝码，服务于其整体外交战略的需要。
第三，依赖权威，崇拜强人。在“弥赛亚意识”影响下，俄罗斯人崇拜、拥戴强硬的国家领导人。在经过上世纪90年代国内治理不善、国际地位下降之后，俄罗斯民族渴望有一位新的“救世主”带领他们从黑暗走向光明，普京的出现满足了民众对威权的期盼和向往。普京临危受命，面临内忧外患，表现出镇定、冷静、自信、强悍的性格特征，在内政和外交上都显示了十分典型的“强人风格”。内政方面，普京以雷霆手段镇压了车臣叛匪；改革联邦体制，加强总统权力和垂直领导；梅普实行“王车易位”和共治。在外交方面，总统权力几乎不受限制；在“乌克兰危机”和“克里米亚入俄”事件中即使遭到美欧联手制裁也决不服软。\[11
从以上回顾和分析中可以看出，后冷战时期美俄关系呈现三个周期不是偶然的，而是具有历史必然性的。美俄双方的利益和政策难以作出大幅度调整，两国在经济上的互补性和相互依赖程度很低，双方关系改善的空间不大。但两国毕竟是世界上数一数二的核大国，在维护双方和全球战略稳定方面的共同利益仍然存在，在可以预见的未来两国关系仍将在低水平上徘徊。
**【收稿日期：2020-06-18】**
【修回日期：2020-07-22】
(责任编辑：邢嫣)
\[1\]俄独立机构勒瓦达分析中心称，在乌克兰危机期间，普京的支持率稳步上升，2014年1月份为65%，2月达到69%，3月中旬克里米亚入俄后升至72%。聂鲁彬：《普京因强硬出手克里米亚危机民意支持度飙升》，2014年3月31 日， https：//world.huanqiu. com/article/9CaKrnJEJnD。
**ABSTRACTS**
**01**
**Three Cycles in the US-Russia Relations in the Post-Cold War Era， by Tao Wenzhao， honorary academician， CASS， senior fellow at Institute of American Studies， CASS， and guest researcher of CPDS. During the Clinton， George W·Bush and Obama administrations， the US-Russia relations underwent three cycles， with each cycle starting high and ending low， and their overall relationship heading toward the bottom. The major issues affecting their bilateral relations include the eastward expansion of NATO， American deployment of missile defense systems in Europe， and American involvement in the“color revolution”in Georgia and Ukraine among others. Such a development trajectory of the US-Russia relations over the past two decades or so is not incidental， as the strategic objectives of the two countries run in opposite directions with the US trying to maintain a unipolar world it dominates， while Russia denying such a world pattern and seeking to restore its major power status. In addition， structural contradictions exist in the national interests of the two countries； the US repeatedly violates Russia’s core interests and concerns instead of respecting and accommodating them； the US seeks to promote democracy and freedom overseas， with which to intervene in Russia’s internal affairs； and both countries have the cultural background to pursue “exceptionalism”， and a strong sense of messianic mission. In future， the space is very limited for the two countries to adjust their relations， which will remain low in the foreseeable future.**
**20 A Probe into the Cause for the Conservative Trend of Japan’s Foreign Policy， by Yang Luhui， director at Institute of Contemporary Socialism and Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies， Shangdong University；**
**Three Cycles in the US-Russian Relations in the Post-Cold War Era**
_By Tao Wenzhao_
**In the post-Cold War era， the US-Russian relations underwent three cycles during the William Clinton， George Walker Bush and Barack Obama administrations， with each cycle beginning high and ending up low， and with each low becoming lower than the previous one， which became a prominent feature of the international situation after the end of the Cold War.**
**The Clinton administration had three major concerns about Russia： first， communist party and nationalism would come back， and such a possibility recurred again and again； second， Russian reforms could possibly be frustrated， which would determine whether Russia would go back and if the gains of the Cold War were solid， and seriously affect the reforms of other newly independent states； third， preventing Russia from further disintegrating， and getting into chaos or a civil war like Yugoslavia. To avoid these three possibilities， the US should support Yeltsin’s leadership and the reformists. The Clinton administration identified Yeltsin as “the only horse the reform forces have”， on whom the US could bet. During this period， the US-Russian cooperation made an important achievement， namely properly disposing the huge arsenal of nuclear weapons left by the former Soviet Union and upholding the nuclear nonproliferation regime against great turmoil in international situation， thus avoiding a possible nuclear proliferation.**
**In this period， NATO eastward expansion exerted the greatest impact**
**on the US-Russian relations. The Clinton administration pursued a two-track policy： on the one hand， supporting Yeltsin's leadership and Russian reforms， and satisfying Russia's pursuit of great power status to a certain extent； while on the other hand， expanding NATO eastward through cautious and gradual but resolved measures， which served as a hedge against possible failures of Russian reforms. Russia was united in its opposition against NATO's eastward expansion， for which the two countries played back and forth. The war in Chechnya was another source of disagreement between the US and Russia. Particularly， after the second war in Chechnya， the US would criticize Russia whenever opportunity arose， thus further straining the relations between the two countries.**
**Chaos and civil wars in the former Yugoslavia constituted another irritant to the relations between the two countries. The airstrike launched by NATO against Serbia in the spring of 1999 greatly undermined the US-Russian relations. First， the war in Kosovo badly hurt Russia’s pride， and shattered Yeltsin's long-pursued dream of becoming an equal partner with the US and Europe， hence making Russia feel deeply frustrated and ashamed. Second， this was the first large-scale use of force after NATO's eastward expansion began， indicating the expansion of NATO was a real threat to Russian security. Third， the idea of“humanitarian intervention”prevailing in the West then made Russia worry that air raid by NATO on Serbia would become a new model of American hegemony. The Kosovo war brought the US-Russian relations to the bottom of their bilateral relations in the wake of the Cold War.**
**The overwhelming cause that led the George Walker Bush administration to restart the US-Russian relations was the 9/11 terrorist attack and the war on terror waged by the US soon after the attack. Putin keenly seized the window of opportunity to improve relations with America， offering a series of cooperation and assistance to American wars on al-Qaeda and Taliban， and particularly giving a green light to the troops of the US and the global coalition against terror to get into Afghanistan via Central Asia， which rapidly warmed up the US-Russian relations.**
**During this period， the turning point in the US-Russian relations involved Georgia and Ukraine， particularly the “color revolution”in**
**Ukraine. When the “rose revolution” took place in Georgia， Russia treated it as a “contingency”. But when the“orange revolution”occurred in Ukraine， Russia came to realize that the West led by the US intended to launch color revolutions in a planned and systematic way in the former Soviet republics to bring pro-Western politicians to power， which not only threatened Russia's traditional interests in CIS， but also Russia’s own political security. Thereafter， Russia abandoned the policy highlighting compromise in exchange for cooperation with the US and stable relations between the two countries， while pursuing a policy of not abandoning cooperation with the US， but resolutely safeguarding Russia’s core interests instead.**
**The eastward expansion of NATO and the US deployment of anti-missile systems in Europe remained two major controversies that plagued Russia's relations with the United States. After two rounds of eastward expansions respectively in 1999 and 2004， NATO’s membership grew dramatically to 26 from 19. As Russia had remained accommodating， the US reached out for a yard after taking an inch， as it went so far as to try hard to bring Georgia and Ukraine into NATO despite the opposition from its European allies and the fact that the public support for Ukraine's NATO membership was not very high in Ukraine. This hurt Russia deeply.**
**To build a network of anti-missile systems has long been an American pursuit. By 2007， the George W. Bush administration had decided to deploy radars in Czech and interceptors in Poland， while the public opinion in Czech and Poland opposed deploying anti-missile systems on their territories. Thus， the deployment of anti-missile systems had seriously undermined mutual trust between the US and Russia.**
**A five-day war broke out between Russia and Georgia in August 2008with Mikhail Saakashvili firing the first shot， while Russia responded with overwhelming military forces. Russia’s fight-back was in fact a powerful reaction to the repeated crackdowns by the US on Russia during the period， thus bringing the US-Russian relations to a new low.**
**The Obama administration had every reason to resume American relations with Russia. First， the global financial crisis called for a concerted response from the international community. Second， as the war in Afghanistan was still raging on， the US needed Russia’s support and**
**cooperation to stabilize the situation in Afghanistan as Russia and Central Asia remained important for the troops of the US and its allies to get into and out of Afghanistan. Third， as Obama proposed an idea of building “a nuclear-free world"， and sought for further reduction of nuclear weapons and prevention of nuclear proliferation， Russia was a major player in this regard. Fourth， as Obama sought to restart the Middle East peace process， Russia had an influence that could not be underestimated in the Middle East as a member of the “Middle East Quartet”.**
**Russia also needed to resume its relations with the United States. First， due to the financial crisis， international oil prices were off the cliff， hence badly hurting Russia’s economy. As a result， overcoming the financial crisis with G20 and restoring global economic growth conformed with Russia’s interests. Second， Russia was eager to get out of the shadow of“five-day war”and rebuild its international image. As the two sides had mutual demands， relations between the US and Russia were restarted soon after Obama got into office. For some time， the US made certain policy adjustments， and showed constraint on issues concerning Russia， no longer criticizing Russia’s domestic politics publicly. As for Ukraine's and Georgia’s NATO membership， Obama remained cautious， while refraining from interfering in Ukraine's election and Kyrgyzstan’s regime change in 2010.**
**The resumption of relations was rather fruitful. First， the US and Russia concluded a new START Treaty. Second， the two sides strengthened cooperation on Afghanistan， and established the “northern transport network”to facilitate the movement of US and allied troops and supplies into and out of Afghanistan. Third， they maintained cooperation on the Iranian nuclear issue， which led to the conclusion of the Comprehensive Agreement on a political settlement of the Iranian nuclear issue. Fourth， progress was made in institutionalizing their bilateral relations， as the two countries established the“Bilateral Presidential Commission of the United States and Russia”that had several working groups under it responsible for promoting resolution of various specific issues in bilateral relations.**
**Nevertheless， the warming up of bilateral relations was short-lived. Some American politicians and media excoriated Putin for changing**
**position with Medvedev； openly interfered in Russia’s internal affairs， and adopted the Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act， which banned issuance of entry visas to Russian officials involved in the case. Putin severely criticized the Act as “completely political”and“unfriendly”， as well as a slap in the face to Russia. The break point in bilateral relations occurred in August 2013， when Russia approved the temporary asylum application of Edward Snowden， a former contract staff of the US National Intelligence Agency， which so infuriated Obama that he cancelled his appointment to meet Putin during the G20 summit to be held in St. Peters burg in September.**
**The US deployment of anti-missile systems in Europe continued to perplex the US-Russian relations. After years’of negotiations and setbacks， there was no consensus reached. In January 2015， NATO decided to set up missile defense command and control centers in the three Baltic states， Romania and Bulgaria， which would be completed by the end of 2016. Meanwhile， Russia confirmed that it had deployed Iskander missiles in Kaliningrad.**
**What brought the post-Cold War US-Russian relations to a nadir was the Ukrainian crisis in 2014. At the end of 2013， tumult broke out again in Ukraine as Ukrainian President Yanukovych decided not to sign the Association Agreement with the EU for the time being. The US and EU supported the mass rallies in Ukraine that ended in a regime change in Ukraine. The unrest in Ukraine boosted the secessionist tendency of the ethnic Russians living in southeastern part of Ukraine， which rekindled the hope of the ethnic Russians， who were the majority of the Crimean population， to return with Crimea to Russia. Putin acted swiftly and resolutely to fulfill their dream of departing Ukraine and joining Russia， for which the US and the EU reacted with tough measures， including imposing economic sanctions on Russia.**
**Such a development trajectory of the US-Russian relations over some20 years was not accidental.“Beginning high” meant that both sides had shared interests， such as maintaining strategic stability， fighting against terrorism， and preventing nuclear proliferation. Even at the worst of their relations， the US and Russia maintained cooperation on**
**counter-terrorism， Afghanistan， Iranian nuclear issue and North Korean nuclear issue.“Ending up low”indicated that there were fundamental and insurmountable contradictions and differences between them. including： first， the strategic objectives of the US and Russia ran counter to each other， as the US wanted to maintain unipolarity in the world highlighting its supremacy， while Russia refused to recognize such a world pattern， and sought to restore its major power status. Second， there were structural contradictions between their national interests. but the US blindly pursued its own national interests and absolute security， while disrespecting and even repeatedly violating Russia’s core national interests and major concerns. Third， the US sought to promote democracy and freedom abroad， interfered in Russia’s internal affairs， and even threatened the security of Russia's political system. Fourth， both the US and Russia had a culture of“exceptionalism” and a strong sense of messianic mission， and Russia saw the former Soviet republics as a space where it had“privileged interests”. In the foreseeable future， there is little room for adjustment in the US-Russian relations， which will remain at a low level.**
**(The author is an Honorary Academician of CASS， and a senior fellow at the Institute of American Studies， CASS. This article was received on May 20，2020.)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 商务部发布
《零售业基层岗位技能要求》标准
经商务部公告发布的《零售业基层岗位技能要求》系列行业标准 营业员、收货员、防损员、生鲜工、收银员(
SB/
T10512.15-2008)，将于2009年8月1日起正式实施。
国税总局：
加强房地产市场税收征管
国家税务总局近日下发通知，要求各地税务机关加强股权交易、反避税、房地产业等领域的税收征管。
通知称，对居民企业转让股权交易，要主动取得股东在工商部门股权登记变更信息和股权交易所股权转让信息，充分利用现行政策，加大企业所得税征收力度。
“要加强房地产业税收和建筑安装业管理。”税务总局在通知中强调，要根据项目开发经营链条，将土地储备、土地一级开发、土地供应、取得土地使用权、勘探、设计、开工、监理、售房、保有、物业管理、二手房交易、租赁等所有环节涉税行为，都纳入控管范围。
白酒消费税8月1日起调整
国家税务总局近日正式制定了《白酒消费税最低计税价格核定管理办法(试行)》，对我国白酒消费税制作出调整。该办法自2009年8月1日走执行。目前，中国对白酒行业征收的消费税包括20%的“从价税”和0.5元/斤的“从量税”，这次调整的是“从价税”，税率不变，对计税价格进行了调整。办法规定，白酒生产企业销售给销售单位的白酒，生产企业消费税计税价格高于销售单位对外销售价格70%(含70%)以上的，税务机关暂不核定消费税最低计税价格。
“70%以下的，消费税最低计税价格由税务机关根据生产规模、白酒品牌、利润水平等情况在销售单位对外销售价格50%至70%范围内自行核定。”办法同时规定，而对其中生产规模较大，利润水平较高的企业生产的需要核定消费税最低计税价格的白酒，税务机关核价幅度原则上应选择在销售单位对外销售价格60%至70%范围内。
旅游安全预警 10月实施
为保障旅游者的人身财产安全，国家旅游局公布了《旅游者安全保障办法(初稿)》(下称“办法”)，将于今年10月1日开始实施。其具体内容为：
不能故意隐瞒健康信息；应及时披露旅游潜在风险；突发事件1小时内要上报；首次实施旅游安全预警。
旅游四色预警的含义：
☆红色预警建议不要前往该目的地旅游；
☆橙色预警建议重新考虑前往该目的地旅游的必要性，避免不必要的旅游；
☆黄色预警建议高度关注旅游目的地已经发生或可能发生的、影响旅游安全的因素；
☆蓝色预警建议关注旅游目的地已经发生或可能发生的、影响旅游安全的因素。
商务部全国范围打击虚假家电下乡
现在起到明年2月份，商务部等9部委将在全国范围内开展打击借“家电下乡”等名义制售假劣浐品专项整治工作。
整治任务包括查处非中标企业借“家电下乡”名义制售产品；查处违规印刷、销售和使用“家电下乡”专用包装材料和标识的行为；打击借“家电下乡”之名进行欺诈；规范中标企业的生产和销售行为；规范“家电下乡”产品销售发票管理等6项。 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **异生神话的多重文化意蕴阐释**
——从《妖传》《西游记》《红楼梦》谈起
卢 梦
(湖北师范大学党委统战部湖北黄石435002)
**(摘 要) “异生”是指人类不经两性孕育或胎体孕育而出现的有别于常态的新生现象在中国古代神话传说、民间故事、小说创作中常有记载和表现形态多以感生、卵生、石生为主经过漫长时间的接受和吸收从最初一种朴素的原始思维到与民间文化相融再到古典文学创作累积构成后世异生神话母题，包含多重文化意蕴从原始生殖力崇拜到宗圣救世精神彰显再到个体生命价值回归，从宏大的人类起源探索视角转向中观社会价值观念体系探索再到微观生命个性主体意义的三段跨越承载着多重文化意蕴。**
**(关键词) 异生神话；古典小说；文化意蕴；阐释；**
(中图分类号)\[109.2 (文献标志码)A (文章编号)2096-3130(2021)04-0067-06
**doi： 10.3969 /j. issn. 2096-3130.2021.04.011**
**神话传说作为中华文化源头虽然受到儒家不语“怪力乱神”思想的影响不断被史化、仙化、甚至再创造但其中依旧有一部分保留着它的原始状态这些带有原始意义的文字内容展现出以已观物、以己感人的原始思维模式，即对自然和生命的直接体验其中就有异生神话。在后世主要以神话传说、民间故事、小说创作中的人物形象、情节内容为形态持续至今并且在流传的过程中不断被再创作者赋予新的内涵从而构建具有多重文化意蕴的异生母题。**
**一、生命之本——原始生殖力崇拜**
**神话“盘古开天地”在中华文化中一直有着十分深远的影响展现了原始先民们的天地生命观徐整《三五历纪》记载“天地混沌如鸡子盘古生其中，万八千岁天地开辟，阳清为天，阴浊为地。”1《张衡·浑仪注》云“浑天如鸡子。天体圆如弹丸地如鸡(子)中黄弧居于天内，天大而地小。天表里有水，天之包地，犹壳之襄黄。”2天地如鸡子的原始观念认为孕育天地(宇宙)的母体就如卵生鸡子，内含盘古生长和天地形成的神秘力量这种天然而生的卵生存在形态蕴含着极强的原始生殖力量这种无性天成**
**的(天地)宇宙自然观也被原始先民们同理地认为人类存续的状态也如同鸡子一样因而在《山海经·大荒南经》中“有卵民之国，其民皆生卵。”3\]《山海经》所载卵民之国是对天地(宇宙)卵生观念的直接继承和移植，将天地(宇宙)卵生式的天然生殖力量移植到人身上潜意识里希望借此实现人生命如天地(宇宙)形成那样的长久不息。**
**这种异生(卵生)现象的类比思维反映在汉文古籍中就是《诗经·商颂·玄鸟》： “天命玄鸟降而生商。”4\]《史记·殷本纪》载 殷契母曰简狄，有絨氏之女，为帝兽次妃。三人行浴见玄鸟堕其卵，简狄取吞之，因孕生契。”\[5\]简狄吞玄鸟卵而生契的生育模式也属异生现象的一种。从《诗经》到史记》商祖契的母亲简狄吞玄鸟卵而生他的神话传说细节得到进一步完善是否可以推测这个“玄鸟卵”就是契的原始状态，契就在鸟卵里面，而简狄可能只是一个代孕母体。在人类学家看来母体子宫就如宇宙孕育生命的状态，二者在功能上有着极强的相似性，从某种意义来说契的出生就是一种无性自然孕育过程，是盘古创世宇宙观念的复刻契与盘古出**
**\[收稿日期\]2021—03—02**
**\[作者简介\]\]卢梦男湖北大冶人现任湖北师范大学党委统战部科员。**
**生相似，玄鸟卵与混沌鸡子雷同这种创世宇宙观降格到先祖出世神话就是先民原始思维对生殖力崇拜的最好诠释因为每个族群都希望如同天地(宇宙)形成那样得到长久延续如史记·秦本纪》载 “秦之先，帝颛顼之苗裔孙曰女修。女修织，玄鸟陨卵，女修吞之，生子大业。”\[6\]不同于吞卵而生的商祖契和秦祖大业周祖后稷则是感生。 《诗经·大雅·生民》：“厥初生民，时维姜源。生民如何?克禋克祀，以弗无子。履帝武敏歆，攸介攸止载震载夙，载生载育，时维后稷.”《郑笺》： “时则有大神之迹姜源履之足不能满履其拇指之处心体歆歆然如有人道感己者也。于是遂有身。”姜螈踩了天帝的脚印而受孕从某种意义来看这种感生而孕的状态似乎比卵生更原始、更质朴、更神秘更能体现先民们对生殖神秘力量的崇拜，因为卵生需要“卵子”本身这个介质，而感生无需任何介质，所以关于感生神话有更多记载如华胥感雷而生宓牺(伏羲)、握登感大虹而生舜、附宝感电而生轩(黄帝)、庆都感赤龙而生赤帝、女枢感月光而生颛顼等神话这类母体无需接触物质而直接感受自然现象受孕的现象应该是感生神话的原始状态，他们把自己的生存状态与自然现象看成是一体的自古以来雷、虹、电等自然现象被先人认为是某种神秘自然力量的象征，当看到这些自然现象本能地想要这种神秘的自然力量赋予到他们自己身上，而交感怀孕是获取这种神秘力量的最好证明。在姜源踩大神脚印而孕的神话中大神本身就是某种力量的象征或者说大神是自然现象具象的象征，这个个体(大神)拥有长生不死的神秘力量和强大的生命力，所以姜源在踩到大神脚趾后感受到了大神的力量于是“心体歆歆然”交感而孕。**
**卵生与感生两种异生神话类型在形式上获得存在一定的差异但所体现原始思维观念却是一致的，卵生、感生背后隐喻着浓重的生殖观念和对生命力的崇拜这种无性的生殖模式是原始先民对生命孕育最直接的体认。而在人类漫长的历史文化演进过程中石头扮演着重要的文化角色形成丰富多样的石生神话 《太平御览·随巢子》载曰“禹生于昆石，启生于石”“禹生于石”最原始的意义是指禹直接从石头中生出来石头是禹的母胎。 《汉书·武帝纪》颜师古注引《淮南子》：“启夏禹子也。禹治洪水，通帳**
**辕山，化为熊，谓涂山氏日6“欲饷，闻鼓声乃来。禹跳石，误中鼓。涂山氏往，见禹方作熊，惭而去至嵩山下化为石方生启。禹曰!归我子。石破北方而启生。”8同样石生的禹的儿子启也是石生，他由涂山氏化作石头而生，同样是石生，禹和启存在一定差异石生禹神话所体现的是人自然而生的生殖观念石生启神话一方面继承了其父石生生殖理念，另一方面在观念上有所进步，承认“母子石缘关系”启不仅仅是石头生出且这块石头是其母亲化成。故刘锡诚认为 “石头是生育婴儿的母亲或母体。这种以石头作为生育婴儿的母亲或母体的观念是相当古老、相当原始、相当幼稚的，说明这种神话生成之时代人们至少还没有产生人的出生需要男女交配、受精、妊娠的观念，把人和作为自然物体的石头等同起来，人是可以由自然物生出来的。”9J石生神话最著名也最为人们熟知的是明代《西游记》中石猴吸收天地日月之灵气后从石头中孕育而出宋代杜绾《云林石谱》说：：“天地至精之气，结而为石负土而出，状为奇怪。”10J小说赋予了他神通广大的能力，成为了一个家喻户晓的神话人物。从出生开始石猴始终把追求长生不老作为追求并且成为作者潜意识里认为石头具有生殖力和生命力的现实投射石头神话经过几千年的流传其生殖力和生命力的文化意义依旧焕发着生命力。**
**从天地混沌(鸡子)而生的宇宙观到大禹石生(夏启石生)、商契卵生、周后稷感生、石生石猴的生命观，异生神话(母题)在民族记忆里烙下了深深的印记是对生命本源、生命存在的浪漫想象和苦苦追寻并且作为一种从远古时代积淀而成的原始记忆得到了后世人们的认同，出现在各种典籍和文学创作中构建出各种情节故事和人物形象。 “故《史记·高祖本纪》记载 “刘温尝息大泽之陂梦与神遇。是时雷电晦冥太公往视，则见蛟龙于其上，已而有身，遂产高祖。清太祖努尔哈赤其母亲曾梦见天眼大开，一只雪羽神鹰直扑怀中然后怀孕时三月而生太祖。”1\]这种朝代开国国君“感生神话”其实就是效仿夏、商、周始祖出生模式，“感生神话”模式出现在开国皇帝的出生事迹里一方面借此表现了他们出生的非凡性另一方面展现他们不同常人的生命力，借助神力以期强化“君权天授”的印象达到皇权永固的效果。**
二、史传之本——宗圣救世精神彰显
**开国君主借异生神话展现其出生的神异和所要强化的“君权天授”理念在正史中多有叙述并且在民间广为流传且被吸收到后世文学作品中成为中国古代文学创作的重要来源。异生神话在古代小说中的存在形式经过演化、变体融入小说，不断成熟至高度契合甚至成为小说创作的隐含关键宋元话本、明清小说的发展让融入小说创作中的异生神话内容增添了故事情节的传奇性、人物形象的文化性和读者更深刻的阅读体验和生命感知。**
**在明清小说中异生神话所传递的生命力崇拜意识发展成为宗圣救世精神。 “元末明初罗贯中著中国神魔小说开山之作《三遂平妖传》”【12\]经过两百多年的发展，明末冯梦龙对其进行编补成书《平妖传》。小说中融入卵生情节塑造了卵生而出的蛋子和尚形象，由于《三遂平妖传》尚处于话本小说向章回体小说过渡阶段蛋子和尚的人物形象并不完整冯梦龙补本《平妖传》才将蛋子和尚塑造得更加完整并且赋予了该形象深厚的文化意蕴。第三十七回写道蛋子和尚的出生 “昔年有优婆女十二岁出家修行，三十余年不曾破戒，一十三个月不产。一日在迎晖山下经过腹中作痒产下一蛋弃之水潭而去。有迎晖僧拾得此蛋送鸡巢中抱出一小儿来。从幼披剃为僧，是名蛋子和尚。”13编补者冯梦龙将蛋子和尚的出生形式融合为感生与卵生结合潜意识里体现了他那种崇圣思维惯性显然冯梦龙有意安排蛋子和尚在小说中起到圣王似的意图是非常明显的在平定王则叛乱过程中正是由于蛋子和尚在关键时刻态度转变才有了朝廷最终胜利借蛋子和尚彰显了冯梦龙宗圣救世的创作态度，而在明末国朝动荡、山河摇曳中他的宗圣救明的心理则更为强烈，希望本朝有像蛋子和尚一样拥有神通的人物来拯救明代。**
**百回本《西游记》已经成为深入人心的文学经典唐僧师徒四人西天取经的故事脍炙人口。至于西天取经的缘由，第八回写如来道 “那南膳部洲者贪淫乐祸多杀多正所谓口舌凶场是非恶海。我今有三藏真经，可以劝人为善。”L14J在唐太宗游地府后，修建“水陆大会”，超度冥府孤魂以期稳固江山唐僧只讲得小乘佛教法因而度不得亡者超升，而大乘佛法三藏，能超亡者**
**升天，能度难人脱苦。如来所讲的是东土现实世界和唐太宗所见的冥界世界，都亟需拯救。唐僧其实就是替唐太宗求取真经，祈保江山永固从某种意义来讲作为御弟的唐僧就是太宗西天取经的代言人有着十分明显的救世(救唐)象征，而唐僧本人也带着救赎自己的潜在任务。孙悟空也是异生，小说中写道 “东胜神洲傲来国花果山上，十洲之祖脉，三岛之来龙，自开清浊而立鸿蒙判后而成。山正当顶上有一块仙石盖自开天劈以来，每受天真地秀日精月华感之既久遂有通灵之意。内育仙胞产一卵，因见风，化作一石猴。”15J这一段是石猴出生背景介绍，蕴含三层意思：一是孕育石猴的母胎是盘古创世神话(清浊而立)后而形成的大地十洲祖脉；二是祖脉聚集天地灵气，日月精华，仙石内的仙胎养成是吸收天地之灵气；三是仙石的存在天然地与盘古创世神话联系在一起，赋予了石猴创世、救世的精神。如果说从花果山神石中孕育出来造就了石猴肉体生命那么在五指山被压五百年后蹦石而出则是象征着他的二次重生因此石头对于神秘孕育有着极为深刻的意义。石猴被赋予了救世使命，而这种救世使命与最初他大闹天宫时要推翻玉帝的“救世”想法完全背离，五指山下的淬炼让他真正找回了自己，获得精神重生。从小说来看在路途艰险、妖魔鬼怪等着吃唐僧肉的征途上唐僧一人注定是无法完成这样艰巨任务的整个西游取经过程几乎是孙悟空一人承担了降妖除魔的重担天地孕育而生的石猴注定要完成他的救世任务并且以收放心的反复考验完成了他成佛成圣的生命历程和宏大使命。**
**小说《红楼梦》前五回设置女娲补天的神话楔子剩下一块顽石弃在青埂峰下自经锻炼之后通灵性此石听到一僧一道红尘所讲荣华富贵之事后动了凡心经僧人幻术后变成了一块美玉由此敷衍出《红楼梦》这部传世之作。主人公贾宝玉衔玉而生这种非卵生与石生式地直接母胎托生形态是异生现象变体是一种更为高级的异生神话变形这种形态带有极为强烈的创作主体主观投射他将异生神话的精神内核嵌入整部小说中，看似不作为小说主线实则时时刻刻将这种神话隐含观念潜在地投射在小说中影响小说演进过程和小说结局。女娲补天石的生命本体赋予了这块玉石原始意义上的神性与灵性玉石本身作为一块被女娲修炼过的五彩宝石**
**最终却成了一块遗石这种“原始罪恶感”其实一直伴随着它自己，“独自无材不堪入选”在它被一僧一道带入红尘后实则成了肉体宝玉的精神寄托和依靠小说三次写到宝玉失去这块宝玉后变得疯疯癫癫找到后宝玉则恢复常态。而神瑛侍者与绛珠仙子的前世浇灌之恩为贾宝玉与林黛玉“木石前盟”奠定了还泪爱情故事基调，因此贾宝玉从出生就天然地兼有补天遗石与神瑛侍者二者的精神内核，但也正是被这两种身份融合的贾宝玉不可避免地成为小说故事叙述的核心人物。世代累勋的贾家看似兴盛却在开头第二回借冷子兴之口道出“百足之虫，死而不僵“钟鸣鼎食之家，一代不如一代”的潜在危机。在这种高门大族由盛而衰的环境背景下是需要一个核心人物来转变局面的正出嫡子的宝玉自然而然被贾家期望成为家族仕途经济的接班人和振兴者，偏偏这块顽石不化、石性不改的通灵宝玉不愿意走经济文章这条被认为最正确、最有前途的道路自己却享受着家族地位所带来的丰厚物质和无限风光，回应着补天顽石来这世上享受荣华富贵的目的。贾宝玉所处境遇虽比不上圣人救世，但可类比这种家族式的救赎圣人异生神话模式由此移位成皇亲大家族式的衰退借此投射社会虽然宝玉身上有补天五彩玉石和神瑛侍者的“神力”，却无法以此来实现自我拯救。异生神话潜在的原始意义与个体现实世界形成了巨大的差距和鸿沟小说结局本身蕴含着的悲剧张力赋予承受多重压力的故事人物个体比命运、家族、世俗更为深刻的意义这种宏大救世意义与个体救赎价值形成文本结果的割裂造成个体命运的悲剧性从而映射出文本作者的时代悲剧，《红楼梦》中宝玉这种“异生”神话对于神话解读、小说意蕴和文学文化则有更为广泛的意义。**
**三、个体之归——生命价值终极追寻**
**冯梦龙编补后的《平妖传》有了十分明显的劝诫主题，也有着很强烈的儒家出世色彩，而小说中的蛋子和尚出生有着极为明显的佛教元素和强烈的个性色彩。他出生在迎晖寺，“从幼不忌荤酒好的是使枪把棒”16\]受到排挤离开后，想要游各处名山，访个异人，传个惊天动地的道法在他盗得袁公法后寻找圣姑姑修炼，拥有法术。他挺身而出打死靠婴儿修炼的妖头陀拒绝帮贪官运送赃物，以十分自然的状态在江湖漂**
**泊过着自由随意的生活，只想做个快活逍遥自在的地仙。因为知州贪污，他便协助王则、圣姑姑举事谋反后来王则夺人妻女、贪淫恋色蛋子和尚觉得不合天理，不辞而去隐居在城外甘泉寺，“山古留仙迹庵幽石作邻。。一声天际籁，不惹世间尘。”后来被白猿神点拨变化成诸葛遂智模样与九天玄女娘娘一同平乱平乱后淡然回到甘泉寺待到真诸葛遂智和尚回到甘泉寺的时候他便道“老菩萨摸要开口，贫僧已悟了，还你个明白去也。”蛋子和尚悟出佛法真谛坐化而去。蛋子和尚在经桌上写下偈子云“假你本非真真我亦是假。撇却假你我自有真爹妈。咦!亏你今朝肯认真笑我十年空作耍。”1从蛋子和尚一生来看，他亦妖非妖亦正非正亦佛非佛从一个卵生蛋子到最后大悟坐化真真假假在他看来都是顺其自然率性而为、不拘小节有着极为鲜明的个性特征。同时他的性格、行为从某种意义上说也与佛教禅宗修行方式相契合所以他说“假你本非真真我亦是假。”他在儒家的入世与释家的出世之间徘徊，但都在入与出之间实现了个体价值并找到了最终归宿。**
**《西游记》中的石猴孙悟空，他也与蛋子和尚有相类似的经历，为了求得长生不老之术，他漂洋过海寻求仙道，拜了地祖菩提祖师为师在灵台方寸山中的斜月三星洞中修行菩提老祖给石猴取名孙悟空正是“鸿蒙初辟原无姓，打破顽空需悟空。”名字正好应合石猴出生之意。孙悟空在习得七十二变等法术之后，他闹龙宫、闯地府、斗天庭要坐上玉帝皇位净个寿与天齐这与猴子好斗、争强的自然天性相同有法术傍身的孙悟空更加无所畏惧偷蟠桃、盗仙丹与如来斗法最终被压在五行山下五百年后被观音菩萨点化后，跟随唐僧踏上了西天取经之路，取经成功后得到如来的认可被封为斗战胜佛。他从一个桀骜不驯的石猴到取经孙悟空再到斗战神佛他始终能够跟随自己的本心，即使已经在取经路上了，他的取经态度也并非一成不变，从一开始态度不明确到后来逐渐一心一意护送唐僧取得真经。从整部小说来看孙悟空作为小说中最关键的人物，他对取经的态度转变和修心过程是小说重点叙述内容，而他对于取经态度的渐变过程就是不断修行、自我修心的过程这部修心小说一直暗合着佛教修行方式，因而“小说中一直出现的《心经》则是小说的深层核心”18\]在**
**历劫过程中不断修炼本心实现个体生命价值。这与蛋子和尚的人生历程和修炼结果是极为相似的二者都是异生，经历过入山修炼后获得法术能力经历曲折的人生在历劫中修炼自我本心体悟人生真谛最后修成自我，实现生命价值。**
**古典小说发展至《红楼梦》达到高潮，贾宝玉本体(肉体)看似与凡人无异，而其出生所衔之宝玉则可看成是石生异化的变体，宝玉(玉石)不是以原始的形式出现，而是原始母神女娲补天所剩的五彩石因其无法参与到具有宏大意义的补天大业上，于是天然地带有“无材遗恨”的原始记忆只好转而追求个体生命内在的终极意义在大观园中他讨厌文章经济之学这种原始记忆深深地嵌入到宝玉的精神世界里从无用之石(玉)被跛足道人施法幻化成一块美玉，“缩成扇坠，可佩可拿镌上数字”就是这块小小宝玉石成了宝玉的精神之玉(欲)，让他在凡尘中尽享荣华富贵的同时摆脱不了潜意识里深重的补恨和潜在自卑感，由“石”到“玉”的五彩补天石和由宝玉石再到宝玉异生的宝玉形象承载着更为复杂和深刻隐喻意义。**
**“无材补恨”的潜意识让宝玉只想在女儿乡里享受荣华富贵殊不知出生便含着宝玉石的宝玉所要经历的就是将“无用之材”的自己变成“有用之材”的栋梁，而这样的经历是宝玉作为贾家嫡子所必须承担的现实责任注定要将其个体价值与家庭、社会价值绑定在一起，而这却与“宝玉石”来到人间的初衷是相悖离的，可想而知前世“无材补天”的原罪羞愧感和今生“无材救世”的现责无力感双重困境造成了宝玉精神处境的极度困顿。也只有在大观园里荣华富贵和儿女之情，才能让他的精神和身体获得愉悦，所以每当他面对四书五经和经济文章的时候要么应付了事要么干脆逃避即使是有那么一两次主动阅读这类书籍文章，他也是为了讨好大观园里的女孩子。宝玉另一个精神上的异生母体就是绛珠仙子与神瑛侍者前世所结的“木石前盟”二人在第一次见面时似曾相识之感，接触中对彼此感情的反复试探以及“金玉良缘”的纠缠交葛到最后黛玉泪尽而亡宝玉在大观远的女儿香里历劫而这个劫的因就是前世绛珠仙子在今世还泪报恩的果，第一二○回甄士隐道：“宝玉，即宝玉也。那年荣宁查抄之前，钗黛分**
**离之日此玉早已离世。a一为避祸二为撮合从此夙愿一了，形质归一。”19\]在宁府查抄之时作为宝玉精神依托的“宝玉石”避祸不现，作为宝玉爱情托生的“绛珠草”还泪完成此刻宝玉一同了却前世体验富贵繁荣与受泪报恩的两桩夙愿至此宝玉已然是一副凡胎肉体历劫之后的“宝玉石”跟着一僧一道脱体(宝玉)通灵作歌：“我所居兮，青埂之峰。我所游兮，鸿蒙太空。谁与我游兮，吾谁与从。渺渺茫茫兮归彼大荒。”201最终得悟宝玉回归大荒。照应第五回宝玉听《红楼梦》十二支演出“开辟鸿蒙……..好一似食尽鸟投林，落了片白茫茫大地真干净!”121J白茫茫一片真干净与鸿蒙之初一切未现的状态不一样它是“宝玉石”在游历人间繁华后留给贾家宝玉无材救世的遗恨后的空白，它是绛珠草遗泪还珠让贾家宝玉在经历大观园女儿香纷扰后掺杂人间情欲的痴妄它是石神去后空壳宝玉遗留贾府命运的慨叹和与之缔结婚约而独守空房“金玉良缘”的悲讽以及时代强赋个体生命的无限悲剧。**
**从璞石炼成五彩石，由石幻玉再由玉到世俗历劫脱体通灵贾宝玉一体两神三命(贾宝玉、补天神石、神瑛侍者)完成了异体托生的神话再生，以追求个性自张的现实悲剧结局达成了补天遗石和绛珠仙子的前世夙愿完满在历经物质与精神双重历劫后而归于空，所以《红楼梦》在全书的结尾处又重新让石头出场，以照应全书“方知石兄下凡一次，磨出光明，修成圆觉，也可谓无复遗憾了。”在历尽红尘凡劫之后，宝玉石重新归结为一块冷峻寂寞的石头宝玉则以出家的结局回应了小说“石一玉一石”来去回环一场空的人生悲剧，从这个意义上讲卵生的蛋子和尚与石生的孙悟空两个人物形象以及小说终极意义都没有达到《红楼梦》的高度。正如空空道人道尽“因空见色，由色生情，传情入色自色悟空。”22\]这种“空”的境界正是对生命价值的最好追求和历程诠释具有普遍的象征意义。**
**总之异生神话从最原始卵生神话的宇宙观到感生传说的生命观再到石生小说的价值观承载着原始先人们对生命力的崇拜和宗圣救世观念以及个体生命价值的执着追求神话跨越时空呈现在文学作品中让这些原始思维潜意识图像得以复活并得到文本意义的全新诠释让读者在**
**阅读中获得生命的思考和启迪。**
**\[参** **考** **文献\]**
**\[1\]朱桂元吴肃民等编.中国少数民族神话汇编\[M\].北京：中央民族大学出版社，1984：284.**
**\[2\]洪颐煊.《经典集林》卷27\[M\]浙江大学CADAL 网站上所载影印古籍.**
\[3\]方 **涛.山海经译注\[M\].北京：中华书局，2009：239.**
**\[4\]\[7\]程俊英.诗经译注\[M\]，上海：上海古籍出版社，** 2012：356 279.
**\[5\]\[6\]司马迁.史记\[M\].北京：中华书局，1999：67，125.**
**\[8\]班** **固，颜师古注.汉书\[M\].北京：中华书局，1999：135.**
**\[9\]刘锡诚马昌仪.石与石神\[M\].北京：学苑出版社，1994：33.**
**\[10\]杜绾著寇** **甲孙林编.云林石谱\[M\].北京：中华书局2012：1.**
**\[11\]王秋萍.感生神话——中国门第观念的文化渊源\[J\].青海师范大学学报.2006(5).**
**\[12\]卢梦.略论明代小说中神魔叙述的转变\[D\].湖北师范大学 2018：71.**
**\[13\]\[16\]\[17\]罗贯中著冯梦龙编补.平妖传\[M\].南** 昌：豫章书社1981：325 63 354
**\[14\]\[15\]吴承恩.西游记\[M\].北京：人民文学出版社2018：87 3.**
\[18\]卢 **司梦.“圆式”——论《西游记》结构模式\[J\].湖北师范学院学报2016(04).**
**\[19\]\[20\]\[21\]\[22\]曹雪芹著无名氏续，程伟元、高鹗整理.红楼梦\[M\].北京：人民文学出版社，2018：1599 1592 86 6.**
**(责任编辑：胡光波)**
**Explanation of the multi-cultural implications of alien myths**
**_——Starting from The Legend of the Ping Monster ， Journey to the West，_ _and A Dream of Red Mansions_**
LU Meng
**( United Front Work Department ， Hubei Normal University ， Huangshi 435002 ， China)**
Abstract “Dysplasia” refers to the human without gender inoculation or tire body breed is different from the normal newborn phenomenon ， in ancient Chinese myths and legends ， folk tales ， novels often recorded and performance ，and more form to in-duced ，egg-laying and rock is given priority to ， after a long time to accept and absorb ， from the initial a simple primitive thinking to compatibility with folk culture to classical literary creation ， Cumulative form later ， dysplasia female myth antithesis multiple cultural implication ，from the original fertility cult to ZongSheng salvation spirit reveal to individual life value return， from grand human origins to explore to medium system of social values to explore to three sections across the micro main body personality life meaning， carrying multiple cultural implication. | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **广西机电职业技术学院校企合作机制的探索与创新**
**韦传亮**
**(广西机电职业技术学院，广西南宁，530007)**
**\[摘 要\]围绕技能型人才的培养要素，通过有效的方式引厂入校、共建区域技术服务中心、建立区域校企合作工作站、成立技能大师工作室等方式，把职业教育嵌入区域行业企业供应链，成为企业供应链的某一环节，有效解决职业教育的生产性和职业性问题。**
**\[关键词\]校企合作；共同体；企业供应链**
**中图分类号：G710 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1674-3083(2014)06-0105-04**
**1前言**
**职业教育的人才培养区别于学术型教育的特点，就是以技能高低为核心的教学体系，以培养学生具有高度的职业索养和掌握高超的技术技能为最终目标的教育类型。鉴于学校受生产经营场所和前沿技术应用制约，高度的职业素养和高超的技术技能单凭学校的资源，无疑是难以实现的，而通过与企业合作，针对技能型人才培养因素进行资源配置，是解决培养学生的职业性、技能性的有效手段。**
**校企合作对职业教育的现实意义体现在，有利于获得实际工作体验，有利于提高职业能力，有利于提升职业素养，有利于对接企业技能人才的实际需求。**
**2校企合作共同体企业的选择**
**以解决培养学生的职业性和技能性为主旨，围绕技能型人才的培养要素，通过校企共同体的建设，把职业教育嵌入区域行业企**
**业供应链，成为企业供应链的某一环节，有效解决专业与产业、职业岗位对接，专业课程内容与职业标准对接，教学过程与生产过程对接的问题。**
**由于校企合作是职业教育的需求，职业院校发起的校企合作基础是有众多企业的广泛参与，毕竟校企合作不是一种纯粹的商业行为，是一种集利益、义务、公益的混合性行为，职业院校的需求很大程度上具有单向性，合作的主动权主要取决于企业。在校企合作的关系中，企业的积极性是关键，，对于如何选择好合作企业，提高合作绩效，是职业院校必须认真审视的问题。**
**2.1调研行业企业，了解企业需求**
**专业建设必须适应区域经济的发展，适应区域产业转型和升级的需求，适应支柱新兴产业的需要。专业教师必须了解专业所处行业的规模发展、技术发展、用人趋势的情况，积极与行业企业沟通，了解企业对专业**
**收稿日期：2014-10-30**
**作者简介：韦传亮(1966一)，男，硕士，教授。研究方向：** **工商管理、高职教育。**
**的需求。**
**2.2挖掘专业优势，寻找合作契机**
**参照调研企业的需求，从专业在区域产业、行业中的地位、专业带头人的背景、、专业教师团队的技术水平、毕业生在行业的表现、行业企业对专业的评价等方面挖掘专业自身优势，结合企业需求，寻找合作的结合点。**
**2.3综合评价，择优选择**
**通过与企业的积极沟通，在众多有合作意向的企业中，按照企业的需求与专业对校企合作的需求进行综合评价，选择合作意向相对强烈的行业龙头企业、地方支柱企业、技术含量高企业、用人较多企业等。**
**2.4优势互补，商定合作模式**
**依据双方优势互补原则，商议多样化的合作模式，如订单培养、技术合作、职业培训、教师实践、其他资源共亨等。**
**2.5加强往来，巩固关系**
**对合作企业，采用分层次、定职责的方式定期不定期举行交流，密切彼此往来，多站在企业的立场思考问题，多方争取企业对学校的理解，争取企业对学校的支持，携手同心，巩固双方关系，深化学院、系部、专业与企业之间的合作。**
**3校企合作共同体的建设**
**3.1资源租赁方式，共建校中厂**
**学院通过场地租赁，企业投入设备的方式，共建4家“校中厂”。与南宁市科创进口汽车维修有限责任公司共建机电职院快修分厂，与南宁鼎光电子有限公司共建机电职院电子教学工厂，与广西春茂电气自动化工程有限公司共建机电职院自动化设备生产车间，与广西桂华物流有限公司共建机电职院快递中心。通过优势资源互补，企业获得了人才、经济、政策、社会等多元利益，，学校获得设备、资金、培训、就业等多方实惠，倍增双方利益，实现互惠共赢。**
**3.2来料加工方式，融入企业供应链**
**学院实训基地的先进性和在区域行业企业的优势，得到了企业的高度认可，南宁广发重**
**工集团有限公司将“压力容器”生产任务，通过来料加工方式依托学院焊接实训基地进行生产，有效解决“压力容器”生产的焊接工艺和订单压力。同时，该公司与学院建立远程互动可视化教学系统，将公司“压力容器”生产现场真实的生产过程、工作流程等信息实时通过远程互动可视化教学系统传送到课堂，突破教学的时空限制，实现高新技术实施过程现场与教学课堂的互动。**
**3.3依托行业优势，建立广西区域技术中心**
**依托学院的优质专业基地和技术优势，抢古区域行业技术制高点，通过联合知名企业，建立了西门子(中国)有限公司数控技术应用培训基地、广西机电职业技术学院FANUC数控系统应用中心、广西焊接与切割高新技术应用研发推广中心、广西焊接与切割高新技术应用研发推广中心、美的中央空调技术服务实操培训中心等多家企业区域技术服务中心，有针对性地将国内外公司先进技术和项目引入学院，充分利用我院的师资优势和合作企业的技术优势，开展针对区域相关企业和职业学校的技术服务和技术培训。此外，企业借助学校内现代技术制造中心的资源，与学校合作，派企业技术能人到相关专业担任兼职教师，承担部分实践教学和岗前培训任务，为公司选拔合适人才。另 _一方_ 面，我们派专任教师到企业顶岗实践，，了解企业新技术、新设备、新Ⅰ艺，学习企业先进管理理念，提升工程实践能力。通过校企合作，实现双方互惠共赢。**
**3.4发挥区域示范作用，共建企业示范基地**
由于看重我院在广西制造业中培养技术技能型人才的核心地位、相应的资源配套和人才支撑，一些行业企业在我院投资建设广西区域样板或示范性基地，用以推广他们的技术和产品服务。其中中国电信股份有限公司南宁分公司投入640.27万元建立“智慧校园”；中国焊接协会授权、提供行业政策与相关资源与我院共建“中国焊接协会机器人
**焊接(南宁)培训基地”；广西天润热能科技发展有限公司公司投入724.72万元共建“学生宿舍热水供水工程BOT”项目。**
**3.5牵手全国技术能手，建立技能大师工作室**
**以国家技术能手为主导，由广西技术能手和专业骨干教师组成，建立技能大师工作室，我们共建立了“技能大师(焊工)工作室”、6“技能大师(维修电工)工作室”、“技能大师(钳工)工作室”、““技能大师(车工)工作室”等4个技能大师工作室。技能人师工作室是校企深度合作的新探索，以“双核导向”为理念的能力培养体系，!以“核心岗位能力、核心职业技能”为导向，通过技能大师的言传身教和职业指导，提升学生的职业素养和职业能力。汇集了6名国家技术能手和15名广西技术能手的技能大师工作室不仅是高技能人才开展技术攻关的场所，还将成为高技能人才绝技绝活代际传承，培养更多具有绝技绝活的能工巧匠的摇篮。**
**4校企合作取得的成效**
**2009年以来，合作企业对学院的资金投入达2033万元；7家企业在学院设立奖学金；合作企业捐赠给学校的设备总值180万元；403家企业与我院签定校企合作协议；企业兼职教师702人参与专业教学，课时达87520；合作企业接收的顶岗实习学生量达13638人月；校外顶岗实习(10人以上)基地达137家。由此可见，校企合作有效提高了企业参与学院校企合作、共同培养技术技能型人才的热情，也调动了学院教师参与校企合作的积极性。**
**4.1形成了政府支持、企业参与、校企共育的良性局面**
**项目的建设，广西地方政府出台了职业教育、校企合作有关政策11项，区域行业企业以资金、人才、设备、生产基地等方式普遍参与学院的专业建设、课程建设、师资互派、生产实习及顶岗实习，切实解决了技术技能型人才培养过程中先进技术运用、实践**
**教学等问题，形成了校企人才共育、过程共管、成果共享、责任共担的紧密合作关系。**
**4.2助力广西主导产业，与企业相生相伴、共同成长**
**广西南南铝加工有限公司是广西千亿产业重大建设项目承建单位。项目总投资60亿，，自2010年开工建设到现在，每年分别聘用学院毕业生49人、68人、87人，3年共聘用近200人。像南南铝加工公司相生相伴、共同成长一样，学院毕业生在上汽通用五菱股份有限公司、柳州五菱工业集团、玉柴机器集团等广西主导产业企业的人数，3年来达到1500多人。有力地服务了广西区域主导产业的发展。**
**4.3助推家庭贫困生成才**
**学院学生中，近81%为农村家庭和城镇贫困家庭生源，通过在我院学习，毕业生中近67%在南宁、柳州、桂林等广西中儿城市就业，24%在珠三角城市就业，技术技能型人才的教育，有力地促进了农村学生价值的增值： 2014年学院毕业生初次就业薪资平均达2180元/月，改善了农村家庭生活，同时也促进了农村劳动力向城镇的转移。**
**5校企合作的思考与展望**
**5.1更好服务区域产业，服务学生价值的增值**
**学院专业设置中有过半的专业与广西优先重点发展的14+10千亿元产业相关。在未来几年，要进一步密切关注广西优先重点发展的14+10千亿元产业技术发展趋势，实施专业聚焦计划，做特做强几个核心专业，提升专业服务产业发展能力，保障学院在广西技术技能型人才培养的顶尖优势。在专业定位中，要更加重视培养学生的学习能力和发展能力，着力激发学生的创新能力和对未来职业的憧憬，增强学生的可持续发展能力。**
**5.2更有效助推中小微企业，服务结构调整和产业升级**
**中小微企业是区域经济和社会发展的重要力量，是保持区域经济平稳健康可持续发展的**
**重要基础，是促进就业、改善民生和维护社会和谐稳定的重要保障。在创造就业、推动创新、维护社会稳定等方面，中小企业有着独特的优势。学院应更加着力巩固技术服务平台，聚集区域技术研发能力，为处于产业低端的中**
**小微企业提供产品开发、技术推广、先进实用技术培训服务，提高中小微企业生产效率、产业竞争能力和转型升级能力。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]吴岩.探索中国特色社会主义教育现代化发展之路全面实现首都教育现代化\[J\].北京教育：高教版，2008(1)：5-9.**
**职业，2007(23)：8-10.**
**\[4\]国务院.国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要(2010-2020年)\[N\].光明日报，22010(3-2).**
**\[2\]姜蕙.当代国际高等职业教育概述\[M\].兰州：兰州大学出版社，2002.**
**\[3\]马成荣.校企合作模式研究\[J\].教育与**
**Exploration and Innovation of School-enterprise Cooperation-A Case Study of Guangxi Technological College of Machinery and Electricity**
**Wei Chuanliang**
**(Guangxi Technological College of Machinery and Electricity， Nanning， Guangxi 530007)**
**Abstract： On the basis of the needs of skilled talents， the college has drawn some factories into school and built some technology service centers. Establishing workstations with enterprises and technical masters’studios are also very effective in school-enterprise cooperation. Adding vocational education to the enterprise supply chain can help to solve those problems in vocational education effectively.**
**Key words： school-enterprise cooperation； community； enterprise supply chain** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **协同育人背景下校外实践双导师制建设新举措**
邓洪达，赵美玉，曹献龙，余大亮，兰伟，曹鹏军
摘要：协同育人校外实践的目标是提高人方实践能力和创新能力。只有提升双导师制建设质量，才能切实提高本科：教育教学水平.实现全面提高人才能力的目标，指出了双导师制建设中存在的缺乏双导师制建设制度保障、缺乏双导师制建设机制、缺乏双导师制建设监督机制等问题，从建立健全双导师制保障制度、双导师制建设内容、双导师制监督机制等方面提出双导师制建设新举措。
关键词：协同育人；校外实践，双导师制；保障制度
中图分类号：G642.0 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1673-1999(2020)03-0102-03
作者简介：邓洪达(1977一).男，博士，雪庆科技学院冶金与材料工程学院副教授，研究方向为油气田腐蚀与防护、半导体氧化物利用；赵美玉{1981一)，女，硕士，重庆科技学院外国语学院讲师，研究方向为商务英语实践；曹献龙(1980一)，男，硕士，重庆科技学院冶金与材料工程学院副教授，研究方向为镁合含表面处理技术；佘大亮(1989一)，男，博士，重庆科技学院冶金与材料工程学院讲师，研究方向为镁合金力学性能；兰伟(1975一)，男，硕士，重庆科技学院冷金与材料工程学院教授，研究方内为材料表面处理技术；曾鹏王(1960一)，男，硕士，重庆科技学院冶金与材料工程学院教授，研究方向为大块非晶金属材料制备。
收稿日期：2019-07-17
基金项目：2017年度重庆市研究生教育教学改革研究项目“研究生参与开放实验平台管理模式的探索与实践”(yjg173048)；2017 年度重庆市研究生教育教学改革研究项目“油气材料工程专业学位研究生培养方案研究与实践”(yig173028)：2017年度重庆科技学院本科教育教学改革研究项目“企业主导的金属材料工程专业生产实习教学运行管理新模式的构建与实践”{201726)：2017年度度庆科技学院研究生教育教学改革研究项目“研究生参与实验室开放管理模式的研究与实践"(YJG2017y005)；2018年度童庆科技学院研究生教育教学改革研究项目“构建和实践现代学徙制
专业学位研究生专业实践新模式及其质量评价体系"(YJG2018y004)。
2018年教育部发布的《教育部关于加快建设高水平木科教育全面提高人才培养能力的意见》(教高\[2018\]2号)提出，以全面提高人才培养能力为核心点，形成高水平人才培养体系，培养德智体关劳全面发展的礼会主义建设者和接班人1.校外实践教学活动是人才实践能力和创新能力培养的重要环节，但当前校外实践教学也是高校本科教育工作的“痛点”为此，《教育部关于加快建设高水平本科教育全面提高人才培养能力的意见》从培养H标、师资队伍、教学资源、教学管理等角度提出构建全方位、全过程、深融合的协同育人新思路在校企协同育人新机制中，师资队伍建设无疑是实现高水平人才培养模式的关键基础，是增强学生创新创业能力、岗位就业竞争力的重要前提条件，是全面提高人才培养质量的重要保障为了推进行业企业参与人才培养全过程，2014年教育部颁发《教育部关于开展现代学徒制试点工作的意见》(教职成(014)9号)31，强调加强专兼结合师资队伍建设，构建现代学徒制师资队伍。现代学徒制师资队伍建设实质上就是向学生配备由学校专业骨干教师和合作企业技术骨干、企业师傅共同组成的
**双导师制\[4\]，伴随双导师制\[5-1\]在职业教育中的成功应用，光前双导师制已扩展应用到本科教育?，甚至是研究生教育中。为了建设高水平本科教育，校企只有协同推进双导师制建设，实实在在地解决双导师制建设存在的问题，提出切实可行的解决措施，小能真正提高本科教育水平。**
**一、双导师制建设存在的问题**
(一)缺乏双导师制建设制度保障
在校企合作中，企业属丁盈利组织，没有提供公共服务的义务；高校属于公益类或准公益类事业组织，尤盈利但需承担公共服务的义务。当前很多企业不愿意与高校合作，究其原因，主要是因为缺乏双导师制建设制度保障。虽然各地教育行政部门儿经制定本地区双导师制建设试点实施办法?，但是没有开台任何政策给了参与企业经济利益补偿。由丁当前企业需妆承担3/4的协同阶人成本，因此，企业不愿意投人额外资金用丁校企双导师制教师队伍建设。另外，基丁当前教育成本增加和教育经费不足的情况，高校没有是够的资金和精力开展双导师制建设。
因此，如果没有国家、企业和高校的共同支持和保障，那么，推行双导师制建设就非常困难，甚至会在校企协同育人的大潮流中出现企业冷、高校热或校企都冷的尴尬局面，
**(二)缺乏双导师制建设机制**
当前校企合作师资队伍一般山学校专业骨干教师和合作企业技术骨下或基层管理骨下构成然而，学校指导教师缺乏工程实践背景和现场经验，企业指导教师教学能力弱。学校指导教师只能简单地全科参与学生实习管理，不能提供现场实践指导，且指导学生参加实践活动的积极性不高。企业指导教师虽然具有丰富的工程实践经验和解决复杂工程问题的能力，但在教学内容、教学组织和教学方法的选择上缺乏经验，只能从宏观上讲解T艺，不能解释生产中为什么必须设计某工序；只能讲授如何解决工艺问题，不能解释问题背后的原因；只能讲解生产现场管理条例，不能讲解如何统筹现场管理。虽然挂职锻炼能够提高校内导师的现场实践指导能力，增强校外导师的教学管理能力，但仍存在双导师制建设成果没有延续性、建设组织架构简单等问题，另外，缺乏全面、合理的校企导师考核制度，校内导师只是按时完成既定工作任务，校外导师只是象征性地开展部分实践工作，进而导致校内导师的实践能力、校外导师的教学能力没有得到提升。
**(三)缺乏双导师制建设监督机制**
虽然高校实践基地名义上开展了双导师制建设，但缺乏双导师制校企协同监督机制，因此，双导师制在实践小是否发挥作用、建设成效如何等问题亟待解决。在当前协同育人的背景下，双导师制建设质量影响着校企协同育人建设水平。
**二、解决措施**
**(一)建立健全双导师制保障制度**
1.建立健全国家保障制度
国家多部委(如财政部、科技部、教育部、人社部等)应参与制定协同育人保障政策文件，协同育人保障制度要在经费体制改革和社会效益等方面保障企业培养本科人才实践能力和创新能力所需要的条件；在经费体制改革和社会效益等方面保障高校协同育人所需要的条件，例如，国家要从税收、经济补偿、人小引进、企业社会贡献等方面切实给予更多的优惠政策，促进企业积极参与协同育人。同样，国家婴从生均拨款标准、高校社会贞献、高校建设政策支持等方面给予高校优惠政策，提高高校开展双导师制建设的积极性制定相关政策鼓励高校教师到企业参加实践锻炼活动，鼓励企业教师将现场管理经验和心得传授给学生
2.建立健全校企保障制度
校企共同制定导师权益保障制度。采用经济补偿的方式保障校外导师仝程参与人小培养方案制定、校企合作型课程教学、实践环节指导的经济利益，将实践服务作为奖金分配、升职加薪和评优评奖等优先考虑条件，根据参与校外实践教学工作量和实践教学质量学生满意度米确立校内导师工作奖励，并在教师岗位定级和职称中报小了以优先考虑
**(二)建立健全双导师制建设内容**
**1.管理机构建设**
建立双导师制三级管理机构：山高校二级单位领导与企业主管部门领导组成领导小组，负责协同育人工作小组人、财、物的保障和监督工作；山专业系主任与企业负责生产、人事和财务的负责人组成二级管理机构，制定选聘、考核和激励管理文件，负责人、财、物的实施工作；山校内导师和校外导师组成二级管理机构，校内导师负责实践活动的对接和协助管理工作，校外导师负责学生实践活动的组织安排、现场管理和考核工作双导师制三级管理机构共同制定和修订双导师制建设的相关制度文件
2.双导师队伍建设
建立由校内导师和校外导师共同组成的双导师队伍，以教师流动编制或设立兼职教师岗位等方式解决校内外导师流动障碍问题，以万聘共用，双向挂职锻炼、横向联合技术研发和参与人才培养日标建设等方式推进双导师队伍建设通过制定校内外导师的选聘条件、选聘基本流程、工作职责以及工作管理等制度文件推进双导师队伍建设110
3.考核措施建设
以统筹考核内容、细化考核指标、明确考核标准、合理考核惩戒为指导思想，开展双导师制考核措施建设工作。校外导师不能按照企业员工的标准进行考核，要将其参与协同育人的工作量、指导效果和安全责任等作为额外考核指标。校内导师不能简单按照校内教师教学、科研(发布论文、科研项、申报专利等)和服务工作标准考核，安对校外实践工作量、实践管理效果、安全责任等方面给予额外工作奖励。
**(三)建立健全双导师制监督机制**
1.建立双导师制监督机构
双导师制监督机构山高校二级单位领导和企业主管部门领导组成领导小组，负责检查双导师制建设工作的落实情况，并将检查结果反馈给协同育人管理机构
2.构建系统监督执行内容
从师资选聘、师资管理、师资考核、师资个人发展等方面监督双导师制建设工作，从校内外导师参与工作量、工作成果、学生满意度、导师互动性等方
**三、结语**
校企协同育人过程中，双导师制建设质量直接决定着高水平本科实践能力和创新能力培养效果双导师制建设质量来源于国家是否提供校企经费、管理和社会效应等保障制度，校企双方是否愿意协同建立执行力强的双导师制三级管理机构，是否制定系统、合理、完善的双导师制建设管理制度，是否构建合理且无争议性的考核制度，是否建立流畅运转的监督机构等，只有切实解决企业和高校的利益问题，排除双导师制建设障碍，才能促进校企协同膏人工作的高效开展，进而推进高水平本科教育教学建设工作。
**参考文献：**
\[1\]教育部.教育部关于加快建设高水平本科教育全面提高人才培养能力的意见\[EB/OL\].(2018-10-08).hllp：/www.noe. **gov.cn/srcsite/A08/s7056/201810/t20181017 351887.html.**
\[2\]吴祝武.本科实习教学改革的探索与实践.实验技术与管
**(上接第101页)**
训，提供创业项日孵化软硬件支持，通过融合共哼方式培养学生创新创业能力和专业能力，孵化民族地区经济社会发展需要的创业项目，创造经济效益；积极与企业和科研基地协同构建众创空间，为学生提供创新创业实践平台；开发校地、校企合作项日，结合民族地区实际，形成可行性强的研究项目、创业项日、规划方案、T艺设计等。
四是推进科研融入保障。地方民族院校妻构建创新创业教育融入专业教育的科研项目团队，着力研究“融入”教育的方式方法；积极推进学校教学与科研组织和企业等生产单位、地方研究所、甚至与地方政府进行有机融合，让科研与学生创新创业教育、学生创新技术运用、创业项日落地、生产发展等相结合，推进创新创业项日孵化落地；积极推进科研反哺教学，将研究成果融入专业教育中，实现理论研究理论教学、实践探索成果与实践教学相结合，突出针对性、应用性。
**五是推进人小培养考评体系融入保障。构建合理的教学评估指标体系和教师绩效评估指标体系对授课单位是否有完善的人才培养模式，是否有规范的教学运作方式，是否有较好的教学效果等进行**
|3|教育部.教育部关于开展现代学徒制试点工作的意见EB/OL(2014-08-27).hltp：//www.moe.guv.cu/sresile/A07/s7055/ **201408/t20140827 174583.htm1.**
**\[4\]赵红军，吕铭，王振光.现代学徒制双导师队伍建设的研究** 与实践J教育教学论坛，2019(16)
\[5\]顾心怡，杨志强基于现代学徒制的“双导师”师资队伍建设研究\[J.职教通讯.2017(28).
|6|李传伟，董先，姜义.现代学徒制培养模式之双师队伍建设研究与实践J包头职业技术学院学报，2015(1)
|7|贾君瑞，严帅.现代学徒制对应用型本科院校实践教学的启示\[】中国成人教育.2017(17).
|8|吴建新，欧阳河政府有效介入下的职业教育校企合作长效机制研究职教论坛，2017(10).
|9|河务院.国务院关于办快发展现代职业教育的决定|EB/O1.(2014-05-02).Lllp：//www.gur.cu/zhengce/conlenl/2014-06/ **22/conlenl 8901.hl.m.**
110|韩玉辉，张庆玲.基于现代学徒制的高职“双导师”队伍建设探索与实践\[\].中国职业技术教育，2018(34).
(编辑：刘姝)
考查。从教师的素质、行为、结果等方面进行评价，细化评价指标，突出实践教学效果考查。采取教师自评、领导评价、同行评价、学生评价的多元评价方式，以获得相对公平公正的评价结果，通过考评进行等级排序，并给予相应的奖励，对存在的问题及时反馈，积极弥补完善.合理、完善的地方民族院校人才培养考评体系，能够提高教学质量，培养出民族地区需要的具有创新创业能力的应用型人才。
**参考文献：**
|1|国务院办公厅.国务院办公厅关于深化高等学校创新创业教育改革的实施意见EB/O1L(2015-05-04).http：//www.gov.cn/zhengee/conlenl/2015-05/13/conlenl\_9740.lilm.
\[2\]李家华，卢旭东.把创新创业教育融入高校人才培养体系\[J.中国高等教育，2010(12)
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**\[5\] DONALD F， KURATKO. The Emergence of Entrepreneurship** **Educalion： Developmenl， Trends and Chullenges\[J1. En-lrepreneurship Theury and Praclice，2005(9).** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 农村经产妇分娩巨大儿相关因素及其预防的探讨
**潘惠敏 黄 飞**
**RELATED FACTORS OF RURAL MULTIPARA MACROSOMIA DELIVERY _PAN Huimin， HUANG Fei_**
**【摘 要\] 目的 探讨农村经产妇分娩巨大儿相关因素，采取相应措施，减少巨大儿的发生。方法 回顾性分析2004年12月-2009年12月在我院分娩巨大儿的60例无妊娠期糖尿病、无严重内外科合并症农村经产妇资料(研究组)，与同期分娩巨大儿的初产妇比较(初产对照组)，并与随机选择的同期分娩正常体重儿无妊娠合并症的经产妇作对照分析(经产对照纽)。结果 ①研究组与初产对照组比较，正规产前检查率明显降低，产前诊断巨大儿符合率、择期剖宫产率均低，过期妊娠、新生儿窒息率增加。②研究组平均孕龄、孕末期体重、宫高、腹围、产时及产后2小时出血量、异常产程、剖宫产率均高于经产对照组，差异有统计学意义(p<0.05)。结论 过期妊娠增加、孕末期体重明显增加、分娩次数增加是农村经产妇分娩巨大儿的主要相关因素，加强农村经产妇围产期保健，重视正规产前检查，及时恰当地进行干预，有助于减少巨大儿的发生。**
**【关键词】 农村经产妇 巨大儿 相关因素**
**doi：10.3969/j.issn.1671-332X.2010.03.021**
**胎儿体重达到或超过4000g称为巨大胎儿，国内发生率约7%。对巨大儿分娩处理不当，可引起严重的并发症，随着人民保健意识水平的提高初产妇围生期保健已得到系统监测，初产妇分娩巨大儿的处理已引起重视，但在农村，由于受主观或客观因索的影响，经产妇分娩巨大儿的产前保健还是薄弱环节，对巨大儿的预测存在困难，使产科医生对经产妇巨大儿处理犹豫不决，处理不当，给母婴健康带来危害。现就我院经产妇分娩巨大儿的相关因素及其预防分析如下。**
**1 资料与方法**
**1.1 临床资料 2004年12月~2009年12月我院分娩总例数3421例，巨大儿218例，发生率6.3%.单胎头位无妊**
**潘惠敏** **黄** **飞：信宜市怀乡中心卫生院** **广东信宜525324**
**(接上页)**
**第一天，裸眼视力恢复到0.1以上者可达90.1%，而达到0.4%以上者只有19.8%。但随着时间的延长，术后炎症反应的消退，伤口的愈合，病人视力逐渐提高，三个月后大部分患者均能恢复到0.5以上的裸眼视力。但因复诊的资料不全，未能作进一步的统计。这和国内有关本术式视力恢复过程的报道是相符的。作为基层中医院，因设备条件及当地消费水平的限制，白内障囊外摘除联合人工晶体植人术因设备相对简单、投资少、手术费用低、远期效果好等特点，仍不失为一种理想的白内障复明手术，其手术复明效果及术后患者的生活质量是令人满意的。**
**术后视力欠佳(在0.1以下者)的病例中，大部分患者在术前晶体浑浊的情况下，经检查怀疑可能有严重的眼底病变，已预知其术后视力恢复可能不理想。但经术前谈话，在患者本人和家属的要求下，我们仍为患者施行了手术。结果10例中术前视力7例光感，3例为手动或指数，而术后除了1例陈旧性视网膜脱离视力仍为光感者外，其他病例均有不**
**娠期糖尿病、无严重内外科合并症巨大儿200例中，随机选择分娩巨大儿的经产妇60例(研究组)，分娩巨大儿的初产妇60例(初产对照组)，并随机选择同期分娩无妊娠期糖尿病、无严重内外科合并症且分娩正常体重儿的经产妇60例作对照(经产对照组)。**
**1.2 方法 研究组和初产对照组产前情况、分娩情况等相关因素分析比较，并与经产对照组的平均孕龄、孕末期体重、宫高、腹围、双顶径、分娩情况及其并发症进行回顾性对比分析。**
**1.3 统计方法 采用x检验和t检验。 p<0.05 有统计学意义。**
**_2_ 结果**
**_2.1_ 研究组与初产对照组产前情况比较 研究组正规产前检查率明显低，产前诊断出巨大儿符合率低，过期妊娠发生比例高(p<0.05)。见表1。**
**yeAgpalpe4Mgge4&pr-A小-11mpm从hep心p-4H仙.M仙llgew\*134--M--k--4hp**
**同程度的提高。**
**术中发生后囊膜破裂、玻璃体脱出是该手术最常见的并发症。在出现上述并发症的9眼中，7例经前房内注人透明质酸钠，压迫玻璃体后退，并剪除溢出之玻璃体后，利用残留的后囊膜作支撑，植人后房型人工晶体，固定于睫状沟；2例因后囊膜残破明显，植人的人工晶体漂浮，需作缝线吊襻处理。我们的资料显示：术中出现后囊膜破裂、玻璃体溢出并发症者，其术后第一天视力恢复较没有并发症者差，这可能与术中创伤较大、术后炎症反应较重有关。但如果在此并发症发生后，仔细观察后囊膜破裂情况及作出相应的处理，大部分出现后囊膜破裂、玻璃体溢出并发症的术眼仍然能植人人工晶体，获得较好的视力。白内障囊外摘除联合人工晶体植人手术中出现后囊膜破裂、玻璃体溢出往往在所难免。术前控制眼压、尽量采用撕囊技术、恰当地应用透明质酸钠、清晰的手术显微镜及精良的手术技巧，是预防及减少此类并发症的关键。**
**表1 研究组与初产对照组产前情况比较 n(%)**
| **分组** | **正规产** | **未作产** | **产前诊断** | **过期** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **分组** | **前检查** | **前检查** | **巨大儿** | **妊娠** |
| **研究组** | **24(40)** | **13(21.6)22(36.6)16(26.6)** | | |
| **初产对照组** | **55(91.6)** | **1(1.6)50(83.3)** | | **2(3.3)** |
| **P** | **<0.05** | **<0.05** | **<0.05** | **<0.05** |
**2.2 研究组与初产对照组分娩情况比较 研究组剖宫产率及择期手术率低于初产对照组，但急症剖宫产、新生儿窒息率均高于初产对照组(p<0.05)。产后出血发生率高于初产对照组，无统计学意义(p>0.05)。研究组有4例会阴Ⅲ度裂伤，而初产对照组没有出现会阴Ⅲ度裂伤病例。见表2.**
**表2 研究组与初产对照组分娩情况比较 n\[%}**
| **分组** | **子** | **剖宫产** | | **阴Ⅲ** | **产后** | **新生儿** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **分组** | **子** | **急症n(%)** | **择期** | **度裂伤** | **出血** | **窒息** |
| **研究组** | | **34(56.6)10** | **24** | **4(6)2(3.3)11(18.3)** | | |
| **初产对照组** | | **52(86.6)48** | **上** | **0** | **1(1.6)** | **2(3.3)** |
| **P** | | **<0.05** | | | **\>0.05** | **<0.05** |
**孕末期体重、宫高、腹围、产时及产后2小时出血量、新生儿体重比较，差异有非常显著性(p<0.01)。研究组平均孕龄、孕末期体重明显高于经产对照组，表明孕周、孕末期体重与分娩巨大儿有关。②因未作系统产前检查，产前1周内B超检查的研究组有24例，胎儿双顶径平均为(96.1±1.5)mm，经产对照组有26例胎儿双顶径平均为(91.38±2.47)mm，差异有显著性(p<0.01)。见表3。**
**表3 研究组与经产妇对照组临床特征比较 \[元±S\]**
| **分组** | **儿** | **孕龄(d)** | **孕末期体重(kg)** | **宫高(cm)** | **腹围(cm)** | **新生儿体重(g)产时产后2h出血量(ml)** | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **研究组** | **60** | **289±8.6** | **73.7±3.99** | **38.89±1.27** | **103.84±3.02** | **4181±243.9** | **272.34±131.65** |
| **经产对照组** | **60** | **274.3±8.7** | **66.57±3.8** | **33.93±1.09** | **93.98±1.34** | **3342±291.43** | **200.40±58.23** |
| | | **<0.01** | **<0.01** | **<0.01** | **<0.01** | **<0.01** | **<0.01** |
**2.4 研究组与经产对照组分娩情况及其并发症比较**
**研究组异常产程、剖产、阴道助产、新生儿窒息率与经产对照组比较差异有显著性(p<0.05)，发生率均高于对照组。经产对照组未出现新生儿产伤、产妇会阴Ⅲ度裂伤等严重并发症，而研究组有5例因产妇未作产前检查，临产后接生员护送人院时已破膜及宫口开全，对胎儿体重估计不足，未发现巨大儿，出现阴道分娩难产，造成1例新生儿产伤，4例会阴Ⅲ度裂伤。见表4。**
**_表4_ 研究组与经产对照组分娩情况及其并发症比较 n(%)**
| **分组** | | **异常** | | **剖宫** | **新儿** | **新生儿会阴Ⅲ** | | **产后** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **分组** | | **产程** | | **产** | **新儿** | **产伤** | **度裂** | **出血** |
| **研究组** | **60** | **15(25)** | **8(13.3) 34(56.6) 11(18.3)** | | | | **4** | |
| **经产对照 60** | | **3(5)** | **0** | **3(0.5)** | **2(0.33\]** | | | |
| **p** | | **<0.01** | | **<0.01** | **<0.05** | | | |
**3 讨论**
**农村经产妇分娩巨大儿的相关因素：①过期妊娠增加：胎儿在宫内的生长速度和妊娠持续时间是决定胎儿出生体重的两个直接因索，过期妊娠胎盘功能正常者，能维持胎儿继续生长，成为巨大儿2。从表1结果看出，60例分娩巨大儿的经产妇中，正规产前检查率明显低，甚至从未做产前检查，未能及时准确推算预产期，缺少干预性治疗，导致过期妊娠发生率增加，从而使巨大儿发生增加。②孕末期体重明显增加：胎儿的生长发育由遗传因素及宫内环境所决定，当供给胎儿的营养过多时可刺激胎儿生长，易发生巨大儿。农村孕妇本人及家属对再次妊娠重视程度下降，忽视围产期保健，孕妇得不到系统监测和干预性治疗，得不到合理性营养指导，导致脂肪、蛋白质摄入过量，使经产妇孕期体重明显增加，造成经产妇肥胖，使胎儿过度发育，巨大儿发生率增加。③分娩次数增加：经产妇胎儿体重随着分娩次数增多而增加，这与孕产次增加，宫腔内体积变化、经产妇腹壁松**
**驰有关。此外农村经产妇大部分无固定职业，一旦妊娠体力劳动自然明显减少，产前充分休息，活动量减少，加上生活水平提高，高营养状态等亦导致巨大儿发生增加。**
**宫高加腹围≥140 cm 可作为筛查巨大几指标，结合B超检查胎儿双顶径、股骨长度、腹围及孕前、孕末期体重可提高巨大儿诊断准确率。但因产前检查率低，诊断巨大儿困难，符合率低。本资料结果显示农村经产妇分娩巨大儿不是剖宫产手术绝对指征，可在严密观察下阴道试产，但巨大儿使阴道分娩手术助产、急症剖宫产机会增加，新生儿窒息、异常产程、产后出血发生率增加，甚至出现会阴Ⅲ度裂伤、新生凡产伤等严重并发症，对母儿危害大。因此，探讨与农村经产妇分娩巨大儿的相关因素，采取相应有效措施，预防巨大儿的发生，对做好农村妇幼保健工作，提高产科质量，具有重要临床意义。具体如下：①发动社会力量，开展经产妇圈产期保健宣传，提高经产妇自我保健意识，积极参加孕期保健。②加强孕期宣教，使产妇及家属认识孕期体重过度增加及过期妊娠的危害性。③加强农村经产妇围产期保健管理，及时建卡建册，定期产前检查，监测宫高、腹围、胎儿双顶径，根据各孕期增长情况，指导孕妇合理饮食、适量运动，及时发现、控制孕期体重过度增长，孕晚期常规筛渣巨大儿，并给与积极干預，适时终止妊娠，防止过期妊娠等均可降低农村经产妇巨大儿的发生，从而降低了分娩巨大儿并发症的发生率，提高产科质量，确保母婴安全。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\]** **\[2\]乐杰.妇产科\[M\].7版.北京：人民卫生出版社，2007：123，**
**\[3** 于 **荣，韩小英.经产妇妊娠现状相关因素分析\[J\].中国遗传与优生杂志，2005，13(12)：65.**
**乐杰.妇产科\[M\].6版.北京：人民卫生出版社，2005：130.** 14
**李** **红，赵** **欣，郭玉娜.150例巨大儿产前诊断与分娩结局探讨\[J\].中国实用妇产科杂志，2007，23(2)：15.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **书评·书讯**
**两岸共襄文化业子海再出新成果**
**“子海”工程首批重大成果《子海珍本编》第一辑问世**
**李才朝**
**山东大学主办，凤凰出版社、台湾商务印书馆协办的《子海》首批重大成果发布暨“两岸古籍珍本合璧工程”论证会，于2013年11月30日在山东大学召开。**
**一、盛世盛会 文化强省**
**出席本次成果发布会的领导与嘉宾有：海峡两岸关系协会副会长孙亚夫先生，中共山东省委常委、常务副省长孙伟先生，山东省原副省长、第八届山东省政协副主席林书香先生，第九届山东省政协副主席王志民先生，四川大学杰出教授项楚先生，台湾大学名誉教授、世新大学讲座教授曾永义先生，全国哲学社会科学规划办公室副主任杨庆存教授，山东大学校长张荣教授。出席发布会的还有来自国务院台湾事务办公室、教育部、清华大学、浙江大学、华东师范大学、河南大学、台湾大学、台北大学、江苏凤凰出版社、台湾商务印书馆、国家图书馆、中国科学院图书馆、天津图书馆、山东省台办、山东省发改委、山东省财政厅、山东省图书馆等单位的领导、专家、学者。**
**发布会第一阶段，与会领导与嘉宾发表讲话。这些讲话高度评价了《子海》及其首批重大成果-—《子海珍本编》第一辑，于两岸学术界、文化界、图书出版界的重大意义，充分肯定了《子海》编纂中心与海峡两岸、国内外学者勇担光大中华优秀传统文化使命的精神以及为此所付出的艰苦卓绝的劳动。嗣后，张荣校长代表山东大学向国家图书馆、教育部、全国哲学社会科学规划办公室、山东省发改委、山东省财政厅、山东大学西部对口支援高校等单位赠书。发布会第二阶段，专家学者各陈已见，对《子海》整理与研究的工作提出了详实宝贵的意见与建议。**
**“《子海》整理与研究”以学术研究的方式既具体扎实地传承古代优秀文化，又与时俱进地服务**
**于当代新文化建设。习近平总书记在视察曲阜孔子研究院时强调，一个国家、一个民族的强盛总是以文化兴盛为支撑的，中华民族伟大复兴需要以中华文化发展繁荣为条件，对历史文化特别是先人传承下来的道德规范要坚持古为今用、推陈出新，有鉴别地加以对待，有扬弃地予以继承。《子海》编纂工程的意义不止是古籍整理与研究新范式的尝试，对于民族社会而言，弘扬优秀传统文代始于典籍整理出版，进而挖掘其现实意义。而《子海》编纂工程，整理与研究共进，物质保存与文化揭示并举，必然会为发掘文化资源和强化文化建设提供有力的智力支持，同时对加快山东文化强省建设具有重要意义。**
**二、立足根基 勇肩使命**
**“子海”即“子书渊海”的简称。“子书渊海”既意味着子部典籍的汇萃，也意味着中国古代优秀文化传统的涵蕴。较之经、史、集部典籍，子书是道德规范、价值理念、哲学思想等方面的渊薮。子书的整理与研究，不仅仅是放大中国优秀传统文化的影子这么简单，通过思想内容的剔抉，以之服务于社会主义核心价值体系建设，才是其终极意义所在。所谓“先秦诸子，半在齐鲁”，山东无可置疑地成为中国传统文化与子学的重镇。而山东大学素以文史见长，前辈学者如高亨、童书业、冯沅君、陆侃如、萧涤非、王仲華、殷孟伦、黄云眉、黄公渚、郑鹤声等先生，以文献整理为治学之基，注重子部典籍，留下了丰厚的整理与研究成果。在高亨先生的《先秦诸子研究文献目录》的基础上，已故著名古籍整理与研究专家董治安先生策划了“《子海》整理与研究”的课题。**
**2010年全国哲学社会科学规划办公室批准山东大学实施“《子海》整理与研究”重大委托项目。为此，山东大学专门成立《子海》编纂中心，山**
**东省财政厅、山东省发改委拨付专项资金，国家社科规划办连续支持资金，使得项目有了有力的保障。此后，《子海》编纂中心致力于多级协同创新体的建立，汇集海峡两岸及国外学者167名参加此项目。经过3年来各方的共同努力，海峡两岸联合推出了《子海》首批重大成果——影印子部珍贵古籍善本543种的《子海珍本编》174册，分为大陆卷124册和台湾卷50册。**
**《子海》课题组运用现代科技手段，创新成果形式，扩展传播渠道，积极探索古籍整理和研究的新路子，保持开阔的学术视野及敏锐的学术嗅觉，用科学规范的管理和优秀丰富的成果力争成为中国古籍整理的典范。创造性的整理方式是确保产出优质成果的首要前提，如《子海精华编》规定：其一，部头较大且前人未曾整理者，采用标点、校勘的方式整理；其二，前人曾经标点、校勘者，或采用抽换底本的方式整理，或采用集校的方式整理，或采用注释疏证的方式整理，或综合使用以上方式；其三，前人已有较好的注本者，采用集注、汇评、补正等方式整理；其四，若整理者对所整理的典籍有深入独到的研究心得，创获较多，亦可采用研究性、综合性的整理方式。《子海》课题组人员正是严格遵循、贯彻此四项原则，不惮其烦地商讨论证，参详有无，斟酌去取，才取得了令人瞩目的成绩，获得了学术界广泛的认可。**
**三、两岸合璧 共襄大业**
**“《子海》整理与研究”就是将子部精华典籍予以整理，对传统子学进行研究，为民族文化事业的发展提供文献依据和智力支持，以推动中国文化走向世界的大型文化建设系统工程。项目工程最终将形成收录500种子部要籍的《精华编》、收录5000种子部古籍的《珍本编》收录100种子学研**
本·中 幸专小 中专川中 一
**(上接第122页)**
**统而论之，“攻乎异端，斯害也已”章可作如是解：孔子认为“政之所欲”不同，故“为政殊矣”，因此为政者要“各因其事”针对政弊制定不同的治国之策，专治于这些政策(攻乎异端)，政弊所致的危害也就可以消除(斯害也已)。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]钱穆.论语新解\[M\].北京：三联书店，2002.**
**究专著的《研究编》以及相应的对外《翻译编》成书5600余种，总体规模为《四库全书》收书数量的一倍半。**
**《子海珍本编》第一辑(大陆卷)收子部古籍543种，影印出版国家图书馆所藏珍贵古籍369种、影印出版天津图书馆所藏珍贵古籍32种、影印出版山东省图书馆所藏珍贵古籍34种、影印出版山东大学图书馆所藏珍贵古籍25种，共460种，出版为大16K硬精装124册。《子海珍本编》第一辑(台湾卷)影印出版台湾“中研院”傅斯年图书馆所藏珍贵古籍73种、影印出版台湾“国家图书馆”所藏珍贵古籍20种，出版为大16K硬精装50册。其中影印宋金元本47种、稿本84种、明清抄本148种、明刻本224种，计503种，占此辑影印总数的92.6%；文献价值极高的海内外孤本不下80种，学术价值重大；并将各馆藏残本合璧，如《大德重校圣济总录》，台湾“中研院”存日本抄本二百卷一百二十二册，日本宫内厅书陵部仅存覆宋刊本残本三十五卷，大陆4家存残本三十七卷(内1卷重复)，此次影印将各残本合为一体，为学界提供了最为全面的珍贵资料。**
**文化复兴是中华民族复兴的应有之义，陆台携手，倾力合作，互通有无，各尽其能，方可毕显其功。“《子海》整理与研究”项目为此进行了成功的探索，它所创立的古籍编纂出版的新方式开启了两岸文化合作的新模式，它所体现的两岸通力合作，共襄中华民族文化大业的精神印证了血浓于水的同胞之情，为今后两岸文化交流树立了崭新的标的，提供了有益的借鉴。两岸古籍珍本合璧，几代有识之士梦圆，是此盛举必将载之史册，铭之丰碑。**
**(责任编辑：谷玉梅)**
**_本_**
**\[2\]杨朝明，宋立林.孔子家语通解\[M\].济南：齐鲁书社，2009.**
**\[3\]杨朝明.《孔子家语·弟子行》研究\[C\]//杨朝明.孔子学刊：4.上海：上海古籍出版社，2013.**
**\[4\]河北省文物研究所定州汉基竹简整理小组.定州汉墓竹简论语\[M\].北京：文物出版社，1997.**
**\[5\]黄怀信.论语汇校集释\[M\].上海：上海古籍出版社，2008.**
**L6\]陈霞.《论语》"思无邪”与孔子的诗教思想EJJ管子学刊，2005，(04).**
**(责任编辑：王珏)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 质量信用基本概念浅新
叶如意咸奎桐周莉
一、背景
近几年，频频发生的质量安全事故说明我国市场上的产品质量还存在很多隐患，众多的质量失信事件给广大消费者以及社会经济嘟带来了严重损失。在此情况下，我国政府越来越重视消费品的质量安全，2008年国务院“三定”方案已经把质量诚信体系建设明确列为国家质检总局的职能之一，标志着对质量信用的监管和服务已经成为我国政府的一项重要职责。然而，无论学术界还是官方对质量信用经济学内涵以及相关基本概念的认知还存在一定程度的模糊和分歧。本文根据《企业质量信用等级划分通则》国家标准，对质量信用的内涵和基本概念进行了进一步探讨，对加强质量信用相关研究及制定相关监管和服务政策都具有较重要的理论指导意义。
二、质量信用内涵
随着人们对消费品质量安全的关注程度日渐提高，企业的各种质量欺诈和不法行为越来越受到广大消费者的憎恶，也受到政府的重点监管，质量信用作为一个近几年才出现的新名词，就逐渐被人们所熟知，也在媒体、论文、报告中随处可见，但是人们对质量信用的内涵却并不一定清晰，经常把质量信用与质量诚信进行等同，但是质量诚信属于道德层面，质量信用应该和信用一样，具有经济学的内涵。为了更好地理解质量信用的内涵，需要先大致介绍一下信用的内涵。
1.信用
GB/T 22117-2008《信用基本术语》中对信用的定义是：“建立在信任的基础上，不用立即付款或担保就可获得资金、物资或服务的能力。这种能力以在约定期限内偿还的承诺为条件”。此定义明确了“在约定期限内偿还的承诺"条件，其实质是一种约定或契约，而信用正是在此契约关系中产生，信用的本质正是描述在此契约关系中需要随后支付或偿还方的守约可能和违约风险。
可见，正确把握信用的内涵，需要从双方的契约关系入手。而质量信用也是如此，质量契约是在企业与消费者之间建立的质量契约关系中产生的。。目前，
与质量契约相关的研究很多，但明确提出企业与消费者之间质量契约的比较有限。为了帮助读者理解质量信用，本文继续介绍一下质量契约的含义。
2.质量契约
通常，企业会通过各种途径向消费者传递关于产品的信息，例如广告、产品包装、标识、价格等等。企业向消费者传递的各种信息对消费者选择该公司的产品具有很大的引导作用。
例如，如果消费者没有使用过某产品，但见过该产品的广告，该广告承诺能够满足消费者某方面的需求，而且消费者根据所在国家或地区的广告监管和消费者保护法律来看，该广告存在虚假信息的可能性极低，那么消费者就可以合理地认为该产品可以符合自身需求，从而选择购买该产品。这样，企业应该遵守的质量相关法律法规、质量安全相关的强制性标准认证，以及企业的广告宣传、产品标识、承诺和品牌等信息，2都是消费者对产品的质量和价值形成预期的依据，对消费者的购买决策起到重要的引导作用。
还有一种特殊的情况。经济学家发现有一种商品，它的价值很难被消费者评价，这种商品的价格还会成为企业向消费者传递信息的一个渠道。例如，有企业推出一些高端牛奶，标价比普通的高很多，让消费者误以为这是质量很高的高档牛奶，会对健康有很大益处，结果在前不久就被政府部门宣布该产品违规添加不应添加的物质，还有网友爆料该物质会致癌。这就是通过价格向消费者传递质量信息的一个特殊案例。
经济学家威廉姆森曾说：“许多问题乍看之下，似乎缺乏签订和执行合同的外观，但一经仔细观察，原来它们都具有含蓄的签订和执行合同的性质”。从契约经济学来看，企业的各种宣传、明示承诺以及虽然企业没有明示但消费者可以合理预期的要求均构成企业与消费者关于产品质量的一种契约关系，而政府的法律法规等则构成了对这种契约关系的部分保护。正是出于对企业应该遵守这种质量契约的合理要求，消费者对其产品满足自身需求的质量特性形成一个期望，构成选择和购买该产品的原因之一。
从以上分析可知，在所处经济社会环境中，企业向消费者做出的包括广告宣传、包装标识、价格等在内的，各种凡是能够使消费者依此对其产品质量形成合理预期，进而影响消费者购买决策的各种行为，均构成该企业向消费者提供的质量契约。
3.质量信用内涵
理解了质量契约的含义，质量信用的内涵就不难把握了。消费者的购物通常是“·手交钱，一手交物”的方式，而消费者对产品进行消费，享用产品提供的价值却总是在购买行为发生之后。由于消费者难以在购买时准确判断该产品的质量和实际使用价值，难以判断是否能够真正满足自己的需求，所以在购买和消费行为当中，消费者常常会面临到所购买的产品达不到预期质量要求，需要为此承担按标价付款后却不能满足预定需求的风险。大部分理性购买行为发生的时候，消费者对该产品的质量和满足自身需求的特性都存在一个期望，正是这个期望决定了消费者的购买行为能否发生，但是由于产生该期望的信息来源非常广泛，例如常常包含众多的企业自我宣传甚至虚假承诺等引导内容，使得消费者在购买时存在的对产品的合理预期并不一定能够在实际消费时得到满足，这就是质量信用风险。
从质量契约的角度来看，理性消费者正是出于对与企业之间质量契约存在的认知以及对企业履约的预期，才做出的产品、品牌型号选择和购买决策，并为此付出包括产品价格在内的货币成本，但是企业能否通过所提供的产品兑现各种形式质量契约的过程却滞后于消费者的付费，导致消费者承担企业未能履约(产品达不到预期质量，不能满足预定需求)的风险。由于消费者在购买行为发生时产生的质量预期常常受到企业的引导，质量契约的内容和守约情况也取决于企业提供的实际产品质量能否与其提供的各种宣传引导信息相吻合，所以该风险完全由消费者来承担是不合理的。因此，我们认为质量信用正是基于质量契约，并与消费者承担的不合理风险相对应的关于企业的一种信任取得能力。
经过分析可知，质量信用的本质反映了企业在与消费者之间各种形式质量契约中的守约情况，同时也反应了企业在消费者实际购买消费(产品价值转移)之前取得并保持消费者对其产品质量信任的能力。
三、质量信用基本概念
1.质量信用
行GB/T 23791-2009《企业质量信用等级划分通则》对质量信用的定义是：
“取得并保持对其质量信任的能力。。”
注：这种能力由企业在遵守质量相关法律法规、执行标准以及兑现质量承诺(或履行质量约定)的基础上，提供产品在生命周期内满足顾客的需求或期望来实现。
从前文对质量信用内涵的阐述，可知质量信用必须基于企业与消费者的质量契约关系。离开质量契约，质量信用无从谈起，如果把质量信用与日常生活中的质量诚信对等便失去了其基于质量契约的经济学内涵。该定义虽然没有明确质量契约，但该定义的注解隐含了质量契约的内容。
此外，正确把握质量信用的内涵，还需要明确：
(1)质量信用的主体是企业。质量信用评价结果反映了企业在质量契约方面过去的守约情况和未来的守约可能。
(2)产品是质量信用的重要载体，通过产品满足消费者的合理预期是企业遵守质量契约的唯一途径。所以，质量信用可以评价企业对自身生产的产品质量的负责态度，考查企业自身条件对产品质量的提供能力和保障水平，质量信用可以通过产品质量来表现，但不是产品质量本身。
2.质量信用风险
GB/T 23791-2009《企业质量信用等级划分通则》对质量信用风险的定义是：
“因质量信用问题导致顾客潜在损失的可能性。”
注：因违反质量相关法律法规、未执行标准、没有兑现质量承诺(或履行质量约定)，或提供的产品未能满足顾客的需求或期望，导致顾客潜在损失的可能性。
常常有人误认为企业质量信用风险是企业因为质量失信导致失去顾客、承担赔偿或处罚甚至破产的风险。但实际上，质量信用风险指的是顾客因为所购买产品未能达到顾客对该产品质量的合理预期，未能满足顾客的预定需求的风险。该风险是指顾客承担的风险，不仅仅包括因为产品质量问题导致的损失或伤害，还包括产品应该满足但未满足需求的风险。例如，当某企业通过广告或其他方式告诉消费者，该企业的某洗发产品能够起到防止脱发和黑发的效果，但是购买使用后的效果却和普通洗发水没有明显区别，购买该产品的消费者就会遭遇需求未能按预期满足的危害，这就是质量信用风险描述的损失内容。当企业的质量信用水平较低时，选择该企业产品的顾客不能按预期满足需求的可能性就较大，质量信用风险就较高。
(作者单位：中国标准化研究院) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **浅析水稻绿色优质高效栽培技术推广措施**
詹建平
虽然我国地域广袤，南北地理环境，气候特征等造成生活习惯，饮食习惯上的差异，但是大米，一直以来都是我国人民的重要口粮，而且大米在世界范围内都是重要的主食品种，作为农业生产大国，种植一直是农业经济中的支柱产业，尤其是水稻种植，随着我国水稻种植技术的不断进步与突破，水稻种植早已经突破了地下限制，贯穿南北，甚至延伸到更多自然环境较为恶劣的地方，比如沙漠稻，海水稻等等。显而易见，我国十数亿人口的吃饭问题是一个大问题，所以，数十年以来，我国农业技术团队一直致力于水稻的优产高产技术研发，并且，通过技术人才数十年的努力，终于将我国的水稻种植技术提升到了前所未有的高度，为国家粮食安全做出了巨大的贡献。安徽地处长江与淮河两大水系之中，具有得天独厚的水稻种植条件，随着水稻种植技术的不断进步，水稻种植的目的除了解决饥饿问题，促进农业经济发展之外，还需要适应和满足社会高速发展形势下，人们通过饮食来促进自身健康的需求。所以，在水稻种植过程中，除了注重高产的实现之外，还需要切实应用有效的绿色种植技术来实现优产，减少污染与公害，在食品源头通过优质的农产品来落实食品安全关，促进人类身体健康。本文就水稻绿色优质高效栽培技术的实施，以及水稻绿色优质高效栽培技术的推广策略进行简要阐述，以供参考。
**一、水稻绿色优质高效栽培技术的实施**
1、做好种植基地的考察与确认工作
我国的农作物种类非常丰富，水稻是最为常见，也最为普遍的一种。一直以来，我国群众多以水稻为主要口粮，很多地区，一天三顿都是米饭。如今，随着水稻种植技术的进步，不同的水稻品种越来越多，每一款水稻都有需要相应的生长环境、适宜的温度、充分的水分、肥料，以及科学的田间管理。这样才能够很好的实现优产与高产。水稻绿色优质高效栽培技实施的前提就是要充分、准确的了解其的生长习性与生长周期，结合当地的气候条件，技术条件以及市场环境进行综合考量。所以，绿色优质高效栽培技术实施的第一步就是要做好基地的考察与选择，毕竟绿色种植技术的理念是无污染、公害轻，那么就需要对种植基地进行全面的了解与考察，确保生态环境，空气，有机质含量较高的地带进行绿色优质高效栽培技术的实施，选择的标准在于几个方面，一是土壤质量，重金属含量低，有机物质含量高；二是空气质量，众所周知，当前我国的空气污染现象较为严重，这是由于
**工业生产以及规模不断扩大，且粗放型管理所造成的，实施绿色优质高效栽培技术的水稻种植基地要选择离工业区较远，并结合过往空气指数质量来进行选择；三是做好当地降雨量的调查与了解，做好水量分析，众所周知，水稻种植需要充足的水源，这样才能满足水稻各个时期生长所需的充足水分，当然，也不是水量越足越好，也要避免发生洪涝灾害对水稻生长产生不利影响，这是由于，安徽地区除了水资源丰富外，还是著名的泄洪区，所以，在绿色水稻优质高效推广技术实施时，也要做好实地勘查，结合当地水利工程的蓄水能力，灌溉能力等条件进行综合选择。**
2、做好水稻品种的优选工作
**优质高产水稻种植如养育小孩，是否细心、精心，其结果也会有不同的呈现。所以水稻的种植技术体现在选种、选田、选技术上，种子质量的优劣，田间的肥沃程度，种植技术与田间管理技术的科学性都是影响水稻产量和质量的关键因素，也是种植成功的必要条件。很显然，水稻实现优产高产是需要诸多条件的，除了前期的基地条件确认与选择之外，种子的选择也十分关键。所以在水稻品种选择之前，要考虑几个方面，一是要考虑存活率的高低，二是要考虑是否有充分的技术力量支持，三是要结合市场前景考虑经济收益，种植的目的是为了打开市场，增加收益，如果产量高但销量低也无法取得平衡，不利于农业经济的可持续发展。而且水稻绿色优质高效栽培技术的实施是一项系统性的工程，从地质考察、气候考察，并且要结合水环境，生态环境，再选择适宜的水稻品种，选择优质的、病虫害轻的优质水稻品种，并对水稻种子进行筛选，以保证稻种的纯净程度。这是由于优质，抗病虫害能力强的水稻品种，能够切实提升后期的管理效率，病虫害几率小，用药的几率也就小，相应的无公害的理念也就更容易实现，优产更有把握。因此，优选良种是把好水稻绿色优质高效栽培的第一关。首先要结合我区的实际情况，如天气特征、土壤特征来选择来源可靠，检验合格，适宜的水稻品种。种子的外观上要求颗粒饱满、大小均匀，而且要求检疫检验合格，源头可追溯的供应商，把好源头品质关。**
3、采用科学的手段，做好水层管理
**做好基地选择，良种选择之后，便是最为核心的管理环节，水层管理，水稻顾名思义，需要良好的水环境支持，但并不是水越多越好，而且在不同的阶段，对水量、水层的要求各不相同，这也就是为什么一样的地区，一样的品种，实施相同的栽培技术，**
**但是在最终的成果上仍然会存在较大的差异。这是由于水稻的种植除了基地的选择，良种的选择之外，还需要科学的管理手段来进行全过程的管理，包括肥料的管理，水层水量的管理，以及田间杂草的清除等，这都是影响绿色水稻栽培成功的重要因素。在绿色水稻优质高效栽培技术实施过程中，最为关键的是水稻中后期，水层管理是重中之重，水质好坏、水层的变化都会影响水稻的生长，这是因为，水稻在不同的生长周期内对水分的要求也是各不相同的。所以，在绿色水稻栽培技术的实施中，要视水稻的生产情况对水层进行科学管理，尤其是中后期水稻生长速度明显加大，对肥水的需求增加，而合适的水层能够对温度有一定的调节作用，比如在5厘米左右的水层范围是最佳范围，所以，也不能一味的满灌，否则会影响水稻生长环境的通透性。当水稻生长至灌浆后期，要依据田间湿度情况进行灌溉，湿灌溉与浅灌溉能够有效促进水稻根叶的生长。**
**4、加强病虫害的防治**
**病虫害是严重影响水稻质量与产量的重要原因，也是水稻种植管理工作中的重中之重。很多情况下，水稻在前期长势良好，但由于病虫害的预防与控制手段不当，就会导致减产减收。而且在防治过程中由于不正确的防治手段而导致农药超标、残留的问题直接影响了绿色水稻栽培的质量。水稻在不同的生长阶段，发生病虫害的几率不同，所产生的病虫害种类也不同，就我区而言，稻瘟病、二化螟、稻飞虱、纹枯病等都是严重妨碍水稻生产的主要病害。在防治方面，要以预防为主，这就需要密切关注水稻长势，采取统防统治的形式来进行控制。争取在病虫害早期发现端倪而采取针对性的手段获得较好的防治效果。当然，即使出现病虫害之后，也无须慌张，水稻的常见病害都是可防可治的。通过针对病虫害的特征，选用合适的药剂，比如，在防稻飞虱和二化螟的同时，加人宁南霉素、病毒灵、菌毒靖等，提高水稻抗病能力。适宜的药剂配方还要配以合适的喷雾机，如飞防技术等，以提高防治能力和防治范围。**
5、做好后期的倒伏、早衰、贪青预防，及时收获
**倒伏、早衰等问题是严重影响水稻种植效率的大问题，究其背后的原因，还是与肥水管理不当有关。所以，为了保障水稻生长顺利，就需要结合不同时期的肥水需要进行科学的田间管理，这样，水稻在生长过程中才能够有效的进行光合作用，满足不同附件生长痧需的水分与养分。除此之外，也要结合天气情况与水稻的生长情况进行适时的收获，以免过于成熟而导致倒伏。一般情况下，水稻植株由青转黄，且籽粒饱满变硬时便可选择晴天进行收获。**
**二、水稻绿色优质高效栽培技术的推广措施**
基于当前社会发展的形势，以及市场需求的发展方向，很显然，绿色无污染食品的市场占有率在稳步提升。为了实现绿色社会构建下的现代化农业生产、生态农业推广需求，需要将更加先进的绿色优质高效栽培技术进行深入的推广。推广方式可以传统与现代相结合，-一方面，要继续做好农技人员走进基层的工作，将先进的水稻栽培管理技术以传统的宣传方式让更多农民以及种植户所熟知，比如通过讲座宣传，印发种植手册等方式；二是要积极利用先进新媒体平台，将水稻绿色优质高效栽培技术以更新颖、更便捷，更深入的形式进行宣传与推广，比如以农技人员为主，建立微信群，或是通过相关主管部门微信公众号，或是短视频平台等，对水稻的种植、管理、病虫害防治技术进行全面的宣传，新媒体平台兼具直观性与生动性，能够起到更好的推广效果。
综上所述，水稻是人民群众的主要口粮，我国十亿多人口，绝大多数的群众都将大米作为日常生活的主食。我国的水稻种植技术有目共睹，不仅解决了本国十几亿人口的吃饭问题，而且由于水稻种植的年年高产，不仅促进了本国农业经济的发展，而且我国也是主要的粮食出口国之一，每年还会向境外出口大量粮食，以帮助其他国家解决饥饿问题。尽管我国在水稻种植上取得了如此可喜的成就，但随着社会经济的发展，人民生活质量的提升，以及自身健康意识的觉醒，通过从饮食上来预防疾病，促进身体健康，已经深入的影响到人们的健康观念。所以，在农业生产过程中，粗放型的，一味追求产量的时代已经一去不复返。现代农业的目标是在兼顾良好生产效益的同时兼顾生态效益，以及社会效益，这也是近年来，绿色无公害农产品越来越受到市场追捧的重要原因之一。水稻作为重要的农业生产作物，要积极响应绿色社会的发展观，在实际的种植过程中，除了优选好的水稻品种之外，还需要应用先进的绿色优质高效栽培技术提升水稻种植效益。
**(作者单位：246400 安徽省安庆市太湖县城西乡农业农村** 综合服务中心) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | Bonanza rule illustrated
author: Birdsall, S. H. [from old catalog]
PS 1099
I Copy 1
/
\
Wholesale and Retail Dealer in
Agricultural Implements and Barbed Wire.
-SOLE AGENT FOR-
The Cooper Wagon, McOormick's Self-Binders, Eeapers and Mowers,
Cassaday Sulky Plows, Thomas' Sulkey Hay Rakes and Oliver's Chilled Iron Plows.
Field and Garden Seeds in Bulk.
THE LARGEST STOCK OF VEGETABLE & FLOWER SEEDS IN THE STATE
Send for my 100 page catalogue. Mailed free to all applicants.
383 & 385 WAZEE ST., DENVER,COLORAeO.
Telephone 232.
THE
LABOR ENQUIRER,
^TN[ BOLD AND FEJBLK JDIOCJTE OP THE POOB.^^
Published Every Saturday at 370 Larimer St., Denyer.
The (hily Journal in Colorado Devoted Exclusively to the Interests
of the Workingnien. 4 Stuif of (Jontributors Composed of
some of the Ablest Writers in the Country.
pi^t?^>cti p Mom, 01.50 pei:^ i^eci^ ii/i abvcvna^.
J. R. BUCHANAN, Editor and Publisher.
FOB POBE ELISTIC BBBBEB STIltaPS CO TO MTEB OPP, m LI13IMEB SL, DfffiB.
BONANZA RULE
ILLUSTRATED.
JLSI "mU" POIIIEBiy'S CINPESSIOIIS. S SPIIII REVfUTIOII.
, BiRDSALL,
AUTHOR OF THE
New Kindergarten for Music.
The cut on the cover represents Senators en route to Washington, and how they traveled,
Both in 1776 and 1883.
Entered According to Act of Congress in the Year 1883, by 8. H. Birdsall, in the Office of the
lAbrarian of Congress at Washington, D. C.
^ MAY 01 ,.i>r.
DENVER, COLORADO :
CARTER & APP, 370 LARIMER STREET.
1883.
Op
w^sh'ImG
479 1-2 & 481 LARIMER STREET.
NEW AND SECOND-HAND FDDNITIIRE,
STO'7"ES, ETC
BOUGHT AND SOLD.
IF YOU WANT BAEGAmS CALL
Largest Stock in the State.
479 1-2 LARIMER STREET. 481.
W 1 '»'
'^Ali
m
jSL4
-DEALER IX —
%
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"^ff^:^ 1^^ ^^-^^ l^ ^Ti\
DENVER, COLORADO.
\o
The Puritans.
1620.
From priestly intolerance over tlie sea
The Puritan lathers determined to flee;
And manfully breasted the waves of the ocean,
Preferring e'en perils to life-long commotion.
Now braving rough breakers on waters untried,
Now fighting with savages, whom they defied ;
Fully determined oppression to shun,
And conqiier the object for which they begun.
They struggled with obstacles, destiny, fate.
To govern the country, and build up the State.
The child grew quickly to act like a sage,
And learned in his boyhood the lessons of age.
And skilled in the arts pertaining to peace,
"When ttither declined, the ^n took his place.
The path of the pilgrim beset and harrassed.
Was shaded with .sorrow wherever he passed.
And murderous savages — barbarous — wild,
Threatened the lather, the mother and child;
And sorrow still lacking to fill their cup full.
Was freely supplied ])y old Johnnie Bull.
The people grew sullen and P>rittains so grufi',
That war Avas the (lonsequence — war sure enough-
The Tories and Hessians all fought with a will.
Till badly defeated at proud Bunker Hill :
In subsequent battles they acted less brave,
And fied i'rom the Yankees, their bacons to save.
Victory perching at last on our banners,
Taught the intruders a lesson in manners,
lint the demon of shivery haunted the land.
Creating disturbance on every hand ; and
Threatened at length the life of the nation,
Breeding corruption and low degredation,
Till the war tocsin sounded a thousand alavnis,
Calling American brothers to arms.
At Sumpter the booming of cannon was heard,
And quickly the soul of the nation was stirred,
Till brother to brother and father to son,
Presented a bayonet, sabre or gun.
The bloodiest battles continued for years
Filling the country with mourning and tears.
The Rebels, at length, convinced of their lollj'.
Footsore and weary, fired their last volley :
Slavery dead, and the nation reclaimed.
The cradle of liberty proudly remained.
And serf-ridden governments, over the sea,
Stood blessing America, happy and free ;
And soldiers and citizens joined to prolong
The sound of the singing and joy of the song ;
While millions of freemen united to say,
" Thrice happy our country," the voice of their lay,
" The land of the free and the home of the brave,
'Neath the folds of her banner there breathes not a slave ;
And Li)»erty's goddess stands over the graves
Of soldiers and sailors, and proudly she waves
The star spangled banner in triumph o'erhead,
To honor the names of our patriot dead :
And long may it wave on the laud and the sea.
The flag of a countrj' united and free.
I'roud flag of our countrv. long, lon<i' mav il wave
O'er the jidiuc of flic live. r-iT NKVKK THE SLAVIC
And the new se\ eiitv-six in the drama oJ' time,
Hand down to the aftes a record .snlilime.
And the millions that people ('ohiml)ia's shore.
Unite in ])roud anthems of piai.se to adore
The ijrandeur and strensitli of a nation that's free,
Whose ensign the emltlem of treedom shall be."'
1883.
"It was a lilorious happy day,"
The patriot fathers used to .say,
" When Coltimhia prudently
Ruled with righteous dignitj' ;
Her banner from the mast or tree
Floated o'er tlie hind and sea.
And on eaeh fair and ample fold
These words were traced as if in gold :
" All laws mu.st be for equity,
Administered in purity."
By statesmen all the laws were framed,
Nor^as corruption ever named.
IMan was neighltor, friend and brother.
And tliis one strove to help the other.
To conquer in the busy .strife,
The cryint!; ills of human life.
The ship of state ran safely, guided
By honest hand, and chart provided ;
Nor wrecks were seen along the strand,
Which stretched away on either hand :
Their captain schooled to perfect skill.
Had learned his chart— the people's will —
Not so in these our later times ;
When men are honored for their crimes.
The venal crew who legislate,
Apostate are — degenerate.
The story must 1)e told with shame,
How these for pay, and those for fame.
Have ])artered human rights .so ))old.
And sold the people out for gold.
H Mas a base and w icked crime,
Effects of which may last, through time.
The iieople's choice to immolate.
-6-
Selecting ghouls to rule to State.
We sing again, oh! sad refrain,
And tears shoiihl flow like falling rain.
The people were like cattle sold,
For " silver threads among the gold."
Unlike Lycurgns, good and true,
A patriot ever, through and through,
"Who served his country and her cause
By teaching virtue and just laws ;
For freedom's sake engaged in strife.
And for the same surrendered life ;
Attaining thus the lofty station, •
Of saviour to his home and nation.
These venal men who worship self,
Sell all their votes for gold and i)elf.
Wu are Idolaters.
They V>ow to wealth, virtue berate,
And trade the choicest gifts of State,
As auctioneers the world around
Sell paltry toys wherever found.
Cheap hucksters they in wretched plight,
Forgetful ])oth of truth and right ;
In imitation of the clown,
Devoid of greatness or renown.
"Whisky drinking chicfest i-loasure,
illiey revel in Ihcir slolen treasure,
Fjuch follow meekly — wealth directs,
r>ach thankful lor the pay he gets,
('nuld Washington liom Heaven return.
With scorn his patriot soul would burn ;
One .so nnust'd to sights iniimrc,
Xevcn- eould the slinck endure.
A\}(\ Jefferson, wliose Avisdoni /ranied
The Constitution and orcUiined
A <i'o\ernu\ent so free lor all,
How eouhl he view the thieves so small,
And keep within the pale of reason —
They eonteni])latin,<i' wholesale treason —
The elass of men (?) who legislate,
Make such a fearf,,l wreck of State?
(Jid iliekf>rv, too. eould he draw near.
And learn the ])1ans and ]ilottint';s (|iieer,
Of politicians in our day
What \\ould the hero think and say?
Thinj:;s are so changed and in a mix.
('om])ared with times of seventy-six ;
His hitter words like )ieltiim' hail,
Melhinks would pnhlic sin assail.
Until the people, sick of faction,
Should rouse themselves to timely action
Against the caucus — nest of crimes,
Run by the schemers of the times,
Till politicians, quite outdone,
Slionlu take the hint — get uj) and ran,
And money kinjis in mcjiner plight
Should flee before the p(aph''s might.
And Henry Clisy, wlio sits above
'Mid scenes of purity and love.
Could he hiolc downwai'd from the skies.
What dreadful sights would grc-t his eyes.
Our sons and daughters, what disgracv:-
Tjie phogeny of Saxon rack —
Driven out of place and out of home,
.•\nd then compelled as tramps to roam,
At beck of Shylock — base pretendei- —
The ancient cruel money lender;
Because in truth his purchased laws
Have undermined the people's la\\s.
Abe Lincoln, too, the sainted martyr.
Could he behold men trade and V)ar1er
The ohices and gifts oi' State,
He would indeed the thieves berate.
And raise his voice for prompt reliel'
To all the millions bowed with grief:
A!id then with sorrow sjieak again,
R<'))eatiug o\r in sad ivfrain,
Till' TRT'Tii thai many hero's tried
To liee llie land, ))ut fell and died;
Who never, wliile in bloody striie,
To save Die nation's sacred life,
Had .seen the end Avith cviIk IVanjilit,
Nor grasped the all important thought,
That with the ireedom to the slave,
Our COtTNTRY TO THK RICH WE (lAVK
With all the blessings of the land,
lieaching out on every hand,
And all tlie hidden wealth untold.
Of silver ore jis well as gold.
And after telling other things.
Would turn his talk to money kings.
" Bonanza kings, ye rich and great,
Who long have managed things of state;
How can you longer take th^ blame
Of giving freedom but in name
To all the millions — toiling masses —
Who bow- to you and cringe like asses.
Soon men will write of all of you.
That ye are but a thieving crew.
.1 moment pause I and lend an ear
To all the mutterings — railings queer^
< )f voters who have taken fright,
J>y reason of your lordly plight ;
Because, in truth, they understand
The very laws which ye demand:
King-s must make of two or three.
And fi'om serfdom brave men flee."
That men are free, " of right should be,"
Does scarcely with the times agree;
'Tis now "the coat of model sliape,"
Not rkal worth "the man must make
For see, 'tis known throughout the land.
And heralded on every hand.
Get all the gold by stealth you can ;
Oct gold by good or evil plan.
"Ill fares the land," the bard has said,
And all men feel the trutli with dread,
"To hast«»ning ills an easy prey.
When riches grow and men decay."
-10-
Alas! how sadly true of lute —
vSee Colorado's awful fate —
That wealth alone, not statesmanship
The State can rule with hellish gi-ip ;
Monopolies their laws enforce,
And every year keep getting worse ;
While virtue lags to rear of xitn,
And 8atan gets the hindmost man.
Picture of Life.
How .strange is the picture pi-fsentcd — how i-ife
With traces of sorrow to millions in life;
Whom, lest they get money by fraud or by luck,
Their lives present simply a ki'sti.e fok ihimjk.
Lecturers tell us to trust for the bread,
Which Shylock is holding just over our head ;
Some tell it in earnest, repeat it in tears,
While others, base cowards, have doubted for yeai-s.
We gladly would take it as wholesome advic-e,
P>ut strongly it savoi-s of Shylock's device.
While pastors and people his methoils defend.
He, trebblinghis income, has money to lend.
Could all the world see in this picture presented.
The FATLrui'] <»f I.I^•ES therein represented.
Not ]n'eachers, no lawyers, aj)ostles pretended.
Could flatter them Asses and keep them contented.
The ol)ject and end, our country's grand mi.ssion.
W^e never shall see (I speak with contrition)
'Till all of the millions who labor for bread.
Discarding lalse teachei-s, with sense in their head.
To thought and new effort, their lives all devote,
And carefully husband that treasure, the votf..
11
ONE "dozen
719 ANY PERSON WHO WILL ORGANIZE A CLUB OF 10 PATRONS.
CAEIMT SIZE PHOTOllEAPHS TO MEIBERS OF CLUB, $2,00 PER COZEN,
C. C. WEIGHT, PHOTOGEAPEEE,
m iifiiHa ST., SOI. \m, \m wmmi mi siqse.
First-class Work our Motto. Satisfaction Guaranteed.
GOOD CLEAN BI-^DS.
FIRST-CLASH MEALS.
JACOB DANIEL, PROPRIETOR.
iti 4 iff Mwm ilo5 Mia m^ & WM^ ^wMi^i itlssa^a
Only 2 Blocks from New Union Depot.
Now Range and New IC^itchcn. Well Calculated for Day Boarders.
LAR&E NEW ADDITION. Board M Lodging IrpiQ $L00 to $L50 per Day. single meals, 25
^^AT. .A_. BTJI^IE^, l^.TD.
OFFICE AT RESIDENCE, 486 WELTON ST.,
DENVER, COLORADO.
Hours i— Until i» a. m.; 12 to 3 p. ui.; 0 to 7 p. m.
-12
"W
NEW AND SECOND-HAND
.^^^
^y^
m
m^
^■^
BOUGHT AND SOLD.
General Jobbing and Furniture Repairing
Solicited and Promptly Attended To.
STORE, 4/8 l-nmENCE STREET,
.@ JSL ©
. J^ili V J .iU
it WwtJ^^m
Q-yib ^-ein-e^-al cj^cipa-lt:W\.c^j
A
-2 Lawrence St,
COHTEACTOHS AUD BTJILDEES,
Screen Doors and Windows, Bank, Bar, Store and Office Fittings
a Specialty. All kinds of Jobbing and Repaiiing
Done to Order.
-^?\.m m sPECificiTiis m biiiliibes furnisiei jt shubt notice.-^^
FURNITURE MADE AND REPAIRED.
gP0P ]M0. 26S IOTP ^W., DENVER, Ceii8^^D0.
TELEPHONE NO. 194.
Has made arrangements by which he will be able to Clean, Dye or Repair any quantity of
Gentlemen's (or Ladies') Clothing in the very best manner, on the shortest notice,
and at such Low Prices that there will be no excuse for anyone wearing
soiled or unrepaired Clothing. Our place is
356 ScivuzcviCQ Street, &van<^ c)Mcch.
WE ALSO KEEP A FINE ASSORTMENT OF WOOLENS.
I GOOD FIT UNO fJSHIONJBLE ST!L[ COJRJNTEEO.
]Sr. B._We also have some cards, to be had on application, showing altitudes, street car time
tables, distances and fares from Denver to all parts ; also tire alarm boxes.
J. BRAY, 356 LAWRENCE STREET,
Between Pattens & Crater's Druji Store.
A WEEK"LY DEVOTED TO THE INTERESTS of WOMEN.
OFF/CE BACK OF 266 FIFTEENTH STREET.
-14
l/l
JM
-SHOP AND OFFICE IN-
ir^i\T^!i
I?
(A'^
BETWEEN FOUBJEENTH AND FIFTKENTU,
J:
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wt •ijp*i "^r^^ Tar
I' ^^ '
AND-
DONE PROMPTLY AND IN THE BEST MANNER.
Wc
[OMAS AHB MATEEIAt AlV/AJS ©K lAKB,
pi<
^
ALIi MATP:RTAIi USED OF THE BEST, AND ALL WORK GUARANTEED FIRST-CLASS.
CANVASS, WHEN REQUIRED, USED TO SPREAD OVER CARPETS AND
FURNITURB WHEN PATCHING OR KALHOMINING. NO NECES-
SITY EOR REMOVING CARPETS.
Jottings from the Spirit World.
S. H. BiuDSALL., Medium p?-o tern.
<•»»> ■
Last night, while sleeping sound in bed,
A spirit rapped so near my head.
It roused me out of sleep profound ;
And then I listened to the sound.
It rapped, and tapped, and rapped again.
Until I spelled " Brick " Pomeroy's name.
■' You've lived in Denver," said my guest,
"And known the .sage of the Great West."
" I have indeed, said I in fear,
But' what the deuce has brought you hei-e? "
'■ I've come to tell you news I think
Of Pomeroy's passage o'er the Drink."
" I fear you're joking, " then I said.
He answerd, " Nay, poor ' Brick ' is dead.
Business troubles played him out —
Though people said he had the gout."
" You'd scarcely think," again qouth he,
" That his own spirit speaks with thee."
" But all the' same," said he, the elf,
" I'm Pomeroy's spirit, I myself."
And then he told me o'er and o'er,
His business failures by the score.
Here, briefly then, is what he[]said.
In loud, clear raps, close to my head :
"For twenty years, or less, or more,
When you were dressed in pinafore,
I made a living — what a sell —
Repeating jokes just made to tell.
Old musty things, I told them o'er,
Just as, yon see, I'd done before
Ten thousand times, in days of yore,
From out the stock I held in store.
When came the war, for a quite a time
16—
I played it double — played it fine—
With'power from officers of State
To raise one regiment or eight,
I spent my time now doing that,
Then editing the Democeat —
Its pages filled with Rebel cant —
Eclipsing everthing blatant.
(I made it peppery, understand,)
And sent it thus throughout the land
Where the cotton thrives in breezes bland.
This two-faced business I allowed
Would bring me money from the crowd;
And so it did without a doubt,
' Till Union soldiers found me out.
They threatened death to the deceiver;
Would throw my press into the river ;
And thus almost before I knew it,
There plans were fixed to make me rue it.
Thence to New York my stej^s I wended.
And fierce with Tammany contended
For a share of spoils, and made demand
Foi- thirty thousand paid in hand ;
With this — to me a very " bar'l " —
I got into a partj' snarl,
And here I'll tell you in my ditty
Of failures at Chicago city ;
Then how I busted at La Crosse,
And how I failed as party Boss ;
Then with my partner after that
I fought till business tumbled flat.
When caught in such a dreadful plight,
I sought for refuge in far flight,
And traveled westward day and night
Until I came to far ofl" Denver,
Where first they called me "arch pretender."
The lectui-e field then next I entered.
And all my energy I centered
To tell my plans — the same defining —
For getting rich at '' paper mining."
I traveled over vale and mountain.
Dispensing "gas" as from a fountain ;
But for my folly thus bestowing,
A pittance was my only showing. ,
And here again how hard I tried,
But business failures multiplied.
I purchased holes made in the ground.
And spread ten thousand lies around
About the riches I had found.
I started scores of enterprises,
To see them end as hugh disguises.
For years I tried and tried again
To raise the wind, but tried in vain ;
All enterprises went the same,
Leaving nothing but a name.
My name I loaned, to every i>lan
Proposed by company or man,
For gaining rich bonanza prizes,
By means of sundry new devices.
Sometimes I piled it on too thick
And made my verdant patrons sick ;
As all who on my word relied.
Were disappointed and they sighed.
I gave protection — by my word —
To workingmen — the con\mon herd —
Their earnings held, and did it well.
And now 'tis hard to hear them tell
That I had given to my wife
Their ca.sh, and thus stir up a strife :
And then again, to hear them say,
That she had .stored it all away
For usefulness some rainy day :
Or, she had huilded mansions great,
The finest found within the State,
And just because we lived in fa.shion,
The ill-bred crew flew in a passion
And threatened me with hempen rope,
At sight of which I lost all hope.
.Just then I tunneled through a mountain.
A passage way for train or fountain ;
I made the great Atlantic tunnel
And ran it straight (?) as any funnel.
This proved to me a very strike
Nor human ever saw the like;
By thousands daily came the gold,
-18-
Nor yet can half the truth be told ;
Thousands of stock were sold — let's see !
Two hundred thousand, or else three ;
And, but that Hugo played the deuce,
The cash had been to me of use.
Alas ! for me, that business craze
Fired my brain into a blaze.
Oh, Hugo! Hugo! how in time
Can you atone for all your crime ?
I had faint hope until that day,
Could I have had my own sweet way,
That I could buy a place and station,
As senator \Yithin the nation..
Alas! too much to luck I've trusted,
And find at last my hope is busted.
A POLITICAL HUCKSTER.
As an expert at turning my coat now and then,
Old partners commended me over all men,
A self-chosen leader and full of vain pranks,
I never would march to a tune in the ranks;
A Bourbon I was at one time you see,
Wlien it fattened me most a Bourbon to be;
Tlien raving around like a country bushwhacker,
I, turning about, became a Greanbackor.
Next to prove myself Christain, high-minded, forgiving,
-l}t-
1 \()ti(l lifjmbliraii, true as you're liviii^i:
Thivt ticket I voted lor ))iincii)le, surel_\ ,
Then quickly came out as a nionfirclito purely.
Attcniptinu; one other dei)arture, dear nie !
Has branded nie jdainly, as all men can see.
Political Huckster, the worst of my class,
And meanest a])pearinfi a iilayed out jackass.
'Political Huckster!' I'll carry the brand
To the verj' la.st day I shall live in the land :
A Bourbon I started way back in the i)ast,
And a. cringing old P.ourbon I'll die at the last."
I KLAIMEI) POOR HCGO.
" Last yejir when'er I voted crooked
I blamed poor Hugo, and he took it :
Thus getting l)<)ld I tried tlie .same,
(You understand, I tried the game)
Of laying business blame on Preyer.
In this I tailed of my desire.
For Hugo, still on mischief bent,
And burning with his foul intent.
Threw my fat into the tire,
P>y (tailing mo a willful liar.
I railed at Hugo, slandered him,
-Vnd said his name was synonym
I'or all the evils hoiu of sin :
Said he had ruined ' Moiite stock,'
Whicli tumbled with tremeodous shook —
Bhimed hiin lor the lall of ' Standard,'
And cruelly his name I slandered,
For selling ' Buckeye ' stock too low.
And thus on him all blame did throw.
His every act of covert fraud,
I spread it quickly all abroad ; /
I even said he was a knave.
And thus I tried myself to save,
When ruin faced me everywhere ;
It turned my brain, I do declare !
Til us when I lost my grip and name
Here to the spirit land I came.
My character — so people wrote —
I murdered first, then cut my throat ; "
Said I, " Now, ' Brick,' just tell your mind.
Since all the .scenes you've been behind.
And let me know what you have found.
While you the spirit world around
Have traversed in your fcri%l flights.
Whether good or evil sights,
Whether ghosts or angels bright, *
There, brought you dread or pure delight.
I asked him what He thought to-day
Of others who had passed away,
And left no record prose or rhyme
To show how spirits spend Iheir time." •
"Alas ! " said he, " 'tis here as there,
The spirits shun me everywhei-e.
I called, one day, to say regards
To Satan and his duskj' pards ;
But found the doors all clo.st'd with bars,
And to myself I said : ' my s tars !
Will Devils shun me like the rest?
Where out of hell shall I be blest! '
Just then old Nick stuck out his head,
And in his liice I quickly read
The stem rebuke, which came too soon.
As well as my impending doom ;
I prayed, ' O, Nick ! do let me in? '
He smiling answered: 'That's too thin.
n
Your CHAKAiTKE I can't impeach;
But to be i)lain, you're such a leech.
Too long I've .sheltered .such a.s thee,
Go quickly, go, I bid, you, flee !
I fear you'd ruin all my legion.s.
Should I admit yon in my region.s ;
Besides, you see, it wouldn't pay.
For bu.sine.s.s chance.s day by day
Are growing less. Take my advice,
Be off, vou sinner, in a trice.' "
THE DEVIL'S APOLOGY.
" Here scores of good fellows, lawyers and judges.
Sit down at their ease and laugh between nudges,
To think of the farmers and miners — the geese —
Whose plethoric; pockets, whenever they plea.se.
Year after year by their wits they ci?n fleece.
Then following doctors come .some who can preach,
Each one in his calling — forgive me — a leecli.
Tiien on come a motley crowd — tramps by the score
-Vll skilled in the leeching, like those on before:
Bankers and merchants, beer venders ahead,
All looking for pelf, and each trying to lead,
And when the whole force of them here represented.
Are fed by my people until they're contented.
What's left for the scribbler, what think ye, old pard V
Except a lean bone or a crust that is hard."
BUT, TO MY STOKY AGAIN.
'■ When Satan saw my bitter grief,
As if to offer slight relief.
He said : ' Why not Saint Peter try ? '
The wicked elf, what hope had I,
Since for a place in Hell I'd striven.
How could I take, e'en though 'twere given.
The darkest corner up in Heaven?
Of the whole truth this is the gist —
I've l)een T)oth rogue and egotist ;
And now, alas, 'tis late relenting.
But duty calls for this repenting.
I've slandered good men all my life.
And sought delight in making strife ;
I'm justly called a ba.se deceiver,
Because I've lied on Jimmy Weaver.
And now a message I will send.
In some degree to make amend
P'or all the baneful, cruel loss
My deeds have cost the Greenback cause.
I'll try at least to seem sincere,
And HUMBT'G thus the spirits here;
Just as I used to .do down there.
When spreading falsehoods everywhere.
Here is the message full and true,
And 'tis the last from me to you."
THE SPIRIT MESSAGE.
A Complimcni to Wcncrr.
A Weaver's beam is in the air.
Look out 'twill tall most anywhere,
The wielder deems it best.
The heads he hits will surely ache.
The hearts he's won for freedom's sake,
Will si)read the light till all partake
23
Of c<iiial laws and — rest,
Rest from the pillage of the lew,
Rest from the laws a thieving crew
Have fastened on to us.
Rest from the scourge of money kings.
Rest from incorporated thugs and kings.
Rest from the ills of all those things
Which now oppress us.
And last tl»e sage and sainted Martyr,
Read what the press said of the matter.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
One said old " Brick " had heen a sinner,
Another, the world will he the winnei-,
A third declared Pomeroy has busted,
A fourth ; he never could he trusted.
Pomeroy pays nor cares a sniff
At hand of whom, though he be sheriff,
It matters not for time or manner,
" Brick " always paj's, so reads his banner.
MY RAILROAD SCHEME.
A railroad up the rugged height,
UpwaBd, upwai-d, out of sight
I built to reach my A.-P. tunnel,
Its course as straight as any gunwale
I laid my plans, and, quick as thought.
The work o'er rugged steeps was wrought.
The scheme is new and may seem queer,
And possibly some fools may sneer.
Because in truth 'tis quite too soon
To build a railroad to the moon ;
But I am bound, with skillful hand
To build to moon or spirit land.
The Spread Eagle.
Unlike the grey eagle, proud king of the sky,
"With storm-daring pinion and sun-gazing eye.
High mounts tlie dead monster, Pomeroy the composer.
Most brilliant in thought, but a crafty bull-dozer
From soaring aloft at the dizziest hight.
He strangely descends to the meanest plight.
Berating good measures, as all men well know.
In conduct he likens the carrion crow,
With tallons so monstrous, his pen for a bill,
He floats on huge pinions at wild fancy's will.
And perches alott on some vast mountain peak,
From whence dowuAvard gazing for prey he doth seek ;
Thence earthward he plunges to less dizzy height,
Till some putrid carcass appears to his sight,
And from its worst filth he there takes a bite.
And every foul stench his pen thus discloses.
His paper thrust under a half dozen noses.
And now an old story just here I'll relate.
From which a good lesson Old Brick Dust may t:\ke.
A clumsy old animal, once on a time,
(It's told as a fable, not given in rhyme,)
In lion skin frightful, manouvered so bold ;
Thousands were frightened, both the young and the old.
In broad, open lane or busiest street,
Fear fell upon all he there chanced to meet.
Thus wildly he capered for many long years.
Till careless at last he showed his huge ears.
Then all of the timid ones, ten times a score,
Got after the fraud with multitudes more.
The people all beat him with clubs, rocks and sticks,
And made him a target for ten thousand bricks ;
Flayed the skin from his back, cut off his lop ear.s.
And crippled the monster for months and for years.
Of all shabby creatures, he worst of his class.
The meanest appeared — a played out jackass.
Thus " Brick" as a writer oh<>;M never to be
A donkey concealed, as all men can see,
A high moral motive he ever should have,
And erring ones ever he trying to save.
Slaves Are They!
" Slaves are they who dare not be
In the right with two or three."
Slaves aie they unfit to live
"Who dare not choose in life to give
The choicest work of head and hand
To farther freedom in the land.
Slaves are thej'^ who shout and sing
The praises of some party ring.
Slaves are they to gi-eatness lost
Who cling to wrong at country's cost.
Slaves are they, tit but to die,
Who day by day work on the sly,
To help vile rogues and party bosses,
Mo matter what the nation's losses.
A MAN'S A MAN FOR A' THAT.
How often the casket of daintiest plan
Contains neither gizzard nor soul of a man.
When elected to places of honor and trust,
Such show in their make-up nothing but dust.
Of dignified bearing they show quite enough,
While lacking all manlier, sturdier stuff.
The scratch of their pen coats a five or a ten,
But when it comes theirs to pay, how is it then ?
O Mores, tempores, O, customs and times,
What other mean words shall I use in my rhymes
To express my abhorrence, contempt and disdain.
For creatures of fashion, the.se things they call men.
-26-
Labor Song.
Tune, Marching Along.
Workmen are gatlie'ring from near and afar,
Sliylock lias sounded the call for a war,
Thousands of bankers, a unit their cause,
By " Pooling their issues" are making our laws.
CHORUS,
Marching along, we are marching along.
For truth and the right we are marching along,
" The banks they must go " be our watchward and soing.
For truth and the right we are marching along.
Old parties respond to the last vile request
Tlie echo resounds through the f'ast and the West,
" The Greenback must go" is the cry loiul and strong —
Sherman gave the key-note and Hayes sang the song.
"The banks they must go" with thier liv'ry and bonds-
When workmen arise bearing banners with songs ;
They shall rise in their might, rise an army millions strong
For truth and the right they'll be marching along.
When gold coin and Shylock in fright fled away
The greenback stood by us in war's darkest day ;
It paid off the soldier his every demand,
And surely deserves now a place in the land.
-27-
Markham
H
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lANGE,
TABLE DE NOTE.
EVERYTHING STEIOTLY FIRST-OLASS.
JOHN W. WISENSTINE, Caterer.
W
MEAIS 25 GENTS.
WH^
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DR. DRURY, DENTIST,
$8.00 •
FOE BEST SET OF TEETH.
piniNGS »T m m ysym rbtes.
TEETH EXTRACTED WITHOUT PAIN.
Office, Opera House Block, Denver, Colo.
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Chris. IvEBkrt.
Ad. Kltxkenspor.
MANUFACTURERS OF
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For Particulars and Samples Address as Above.
-29-
A. \Vi:iGiiT. J. M. PouTEOUs. M. o. Uichckkek.
ini DfE^OlTHM RE
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LADIES' & GENTS' GARMENTS CLEANED, DYED, SCOURED & REPAIRED.
ALL WORK CALLED FOR AND DELIVERED.
Prices Reasonable and Work Guaranteed. Notify Us by Postal.
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The above Awsociatioa is prepared to tran.^act all Lej^itimate Detective Hnsiuess, in all its
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CDONALD& NORRIS,
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GOR.iFIFTEENTH AND^LAWRENCE STREETS, - DENVER, COLORADO.
Cor. l.'ith and Lawrence .Sts. P. O. Tiox, 1051.
E. H. Pierce
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In no city in the country has the art of I'liotooraphy reached srreater peiil-ction than
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| __label__neg | 0 | bonanzaruleillus00bird | OL23414981M | OL13810965W | 40 | 1,883 |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规互嵌路径研究 _—_ \-以嵌入性理论为视角
**陈建科**
(中共江苏省委党校公共管理教研部江苏南京210009)
**\[摘要\]自贸区行政法治试验具有为高水平制度创新进行压力测试的示范意义具有为新时代法治政府建设提供实践样板的窗口作用。对于行政法治试验中的关键议题如投资、贸易和金融管理机制等传统的行政法学已独木难支需要与党内法规有机统一来解决。这背后的逻辑可以用嵌入性理论来解释包括结构性和关系性嵌入两种思路，既关注法律关系网络整体的价值，也重视行政行为在网络中的法律地位。然而本应同属一体的自贸区行政法治试验与党规之间却存在体制性脱嵌问题表现为两者关系的碎片化、绝对性、模糊性、间断性和弱联结。因此，有必要参照嵌入性理论确立自贸区行政法治试验与党规之间关系的整体性、相对性、明确性、延续性和强联结，从根本上解决两者之间的体制性脱嵌困局。**
**\[关键词\]自贸区；行政法治试验；党内法规；互嵌理论**
\[中图分类号\]D921 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]2097-129X(2022)03-0032-12
**一、问题提出与文献回顾**
**研究“自贸区建设中行政法治试验与党内法规互嵌机制”议题目标是破解自贸区建设中行政法治试验与党内法规之间的体制性脱嵌困局。学界对自贸区行政法治试验、党内法规以及两者间关系的研究成果不断增多积累了一定基础同时也存在着严重不足这就为本研究提供了较大空间。**
**(一)问题的提出**
**自贸区行政法治试验即于正式的突破性制度变革前，先在自由贸易试验区或者自由贸易港进行局部试验积累经验待条件成熟后再在全国广泛推行通常称“先行先试”核心是“制度创新”1。**
**「收稿日期12022-05-30**
**\[基金项目\]本文为江苏省社会科学基金“江苏自贸试验区与其他开放平台联动发展机制研究"(20GLC004)和南京市社会科学基金“南京自贸区与其他开放平台联动发展机制研究"(20YB07)的阶段性成果**
**\[作者简介\]陈建科(1988一)男河南驻马店人管理学博士中共江苏省委党校公共管理教研部副教授，中国(江苏)自贸试验区研究院特聘研究员江苏省第六期“333高层次人才培养工程”第三层次培养对象。**
**其价值在于示范意义——先行先试，为高水平乃至最高水平制度创新提供压力测试；在于窗口作用——敢闯敢试为社会主义现代化强国目标下的法治政府建设提供实践样板。新时代对于自由贸易试验区建设中的关键议题如突破性改革的对象与模式抉择、统筹协同、风险化解、容错纠错与鼓励激励等行政法治试验已独木难支亟须与党内法规有机统一来深入研议。然而原应同属一个整体的行政法治试验与党内法规之间在一些关键议题上仍然面临着体制性脱嵌问题主要表现为自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规作为一个整体的作用尚未充分发挥两者相互之间的法律关系地位不明确党组织在自贸试验区行政法治试验中的中心作用不明显，自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规互嵌存在模糊性、间断性和低强度等问题。对此，传统的行政法学分析框架已难以维持充分的理论供给。党的十八大以来以习近平同志为核心的党中央高度重视党内法规制度建设党内法规理论研究逐渐成为一门显学学理化、体系化水平不断提高。本文以自贸区建设中行政法治试验与党内法规之间的体制性脱嵌问题为出发点运用互嵌理论这一支点搭建两者有机统一的学理框架明确两者互嵌的具体场景探寻互嵌的策略体系从而实现研究目标。**
**(二)相关文献回顾**
**有关自贸区行政法治试验的研究呈现出波浪式发展的历程经历了从传统范式向复杂性治理的转向与革新。在我国相关研究在改革开放后异军突起 自2013年设立上海自贸试验区后蓬勃发展。自1978年改革开放至2013年上海自贸试验区设立研究主要集中在出口加工区、保税区等开放区域的行政法治试验建构逻辑主要有国家试错和地方竞争两种理论倾向。自2013年上海建设自贸试验区以来学界重新关注自贸区行政法治试验及其规制问题，采用国际比较等方法研究自贸区法治试验的运作机制和法律规范力图为推动在自贸区域谈判和自贸区域谈判受阻情况下的国家对外开放提供兼具理论性和实操性的参考资料31.在国外，以“二战”为分水岭研究经历了革新传统范式以应对复杂性治理的波浪式发展历程。 “二战”前，世界上自贸区仅数十个相关研究运用开放性实验主义决策范式推动自贸区行政法治试验在问题识别和路径探寻方面的研究4。 “二战”后，自贸区得到了极大发展相关研究积极向行为科学靠拢掀起了决策科学化的热潮行政法治试验的合法性、可行性、普遍性和公平性越来越得到认可S。21世纪面对环境的复杂性和不确定性，中国的制度试验模式引起了西方学者巨大的兴趣161。**
**长期以来党规研究集中在党建学科领域，政治学也有研究，但是并不深入法学对党规现象研究的理论和实践需求处于不参与、不回应以及不重视的状态切。国内相关研究经历了从概念到实体化、规范化再到学理化、体系化的发展历程3。民主革命时期，中国共产党通过党内法规规范党内关系的传统得以确立；中华人民共和国成立至党的十一届三中全会前党内法规研究逐步规范化和系统化但仍有一定的历史局限性。党的十一届三中全会到党的十八大前，研究的规范性和稳定性加强更具系统性。党的十八大以来理论界围绕党内法规的学科化、学理化、体系化进一步深化研究由诸多单个党内法规规则精妙结合形成了结构化的制度体系00\]，以及由党规的内涵、效力、与国法的关系等共同组成了党规学的知识体系。西方政党法治化研究的进程可以分为三个阶段.**
**战”前是政党地位的消极认可阶段没有专门对政党权力与地位进行积极论说的研究2。 “二战”后政治民主化浪潮席卷全球西方学者积极推动政党入宪宪法的作用从单一地限制政党活动，转变为发挥和抑制两种作用并存13\]。20世纪后期以来西方政党法治的研究呈多元化样态，主要集中在规范和治理政党行为、建立规范有序的法治秩序、制定专门性的《政党法》等方面。**
**对于自贸区建设中行政法治试验与党内法规间的关系鲜有专门论述，只是散见于有关文献之中。我国传统的行政法学将开发开放区域的行政法治试验视为一种“传送带”模式进入新时代，传统行政法学开始受党和国家机构改革等新的治理模式挑战。党的十八大之前的研究是与代议制、有限政府、责任政府等理论密切相连的，与党内法规之间是一种时隐若现、若即若离的模糊关系党的十八大以后开始明确强调依法治国与依规治党的有机统一传统“传动带”模式受到挑战\[141。目前自贸区行政法治试验研究和党内法规研究仍是两个体系学者们提出的根本出路是构建整体性治理理论体系15\]。在西方国家，自现代政党诞生以来，除非执政党对行政法治试验的间接领导行政法学界一般不把党内法规作为法律渊源，两者之间界限分明\[16。研究表明，自贸区的基本组织形式早在政党出现之前就已存在西方执政党对行政活动也是有影响的这种影响大多是通过间接方式进行进而成为西方国家党政关系的基本特征。研究也认为，如今西方有关自贸区的行政法治试验与政党法治关系的基本制度安排就是在政党与政府反复博弈中形成的正如美国现代政府制度就是联邦党人和民主党人通过采用辩论、妥协和制宪等方式间接影响决定的131。**
**综上所述学界对自贸区建设中行政法治试验、党内法规及其相互关系的研究不断增多，提供了极具价值的研究成果然而仍存在着诸多不足：其一现有一些研究囫囵吞枣，不事加工直接引入西方法治理论话语体系；其二虽然党内法规研究日益成为一门显学但是自贸区行政法治试验研究并未真正重视党内法规的价值；其三现有研究大多限于本学科的“学术领地”缺少理论构建、规范分析和政策言说的融合互动。这就为本研究留下了较大空间。同时，该领域的研究呈以下趋势：第一，党内法规理论研究将为中国特色法治理论话语体系构建提供肥沃的理论滋养进而跳出西方法治理论话语体系的窠臼；第二未来行政法学者将把党内法规纳入研究视野，以回应治理新模式对传统行政法学的挑战；第三研究将从碎片化走向体系化，为解决自贸区建设中行政法治试验与党内法规的体制性脱嵌问题提供充分的学理和制度支撑。因此，本文针对既有研究不足立基于研究趋势，以自贸区建设中行政法治试验与党内法规的相互关系为研究对象主要回答三个问题：一是互嵌的理论基础是什么?二是如何准确理解自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规的实践困境及其表现形式?三是实现自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规互嵌的具体路径有哪些?**
二、理论逻辑：嵌入性理论及其逻辑展开
嵌入性理论是新经济社会学的核心理论。1944年 Polanyi 在其《大变革》一书中首先提出了“嵌
**入性”这一概念。后来经过学界发展嵌入性理论体系不断完善最具代表性的是 Granovetter 的嵌入性理论包括以信任、监督、制度成本为分析单元的关系性嵌入和结构性嵌入两种思路。**
**(一) Granovetter 的嵌入性理论**
**“嵌入性”这一概念被提出以后，对经济社会学的研究产生了深远的影响学者们越来越认识到，研究经济行为不能不考虑其所处的社会关系。1985年Granovetter 在《美国社会学期刊》上发表《经济行为和社会结构：嵌入性问题》，对 Polanyi 提出的“嵌入性”概念进行了创造性的重构9把嵌入性理论研究推向了一个新的阶段。**
**尽管嵌入性这一概念是由 Polanyi 首先提出来的，但是 Granovetter 对嵌入性概念的界定与之还是存在差别。 Polanyi 认为经济活动是一个制度化的过程；而 Granovetter 认为这种制度过程实际上是一种人际互动并强调在研究组织理论时人际互动是组织活动的前提和基础，同时也是决定交易成本的重要因素1201。**
**Granovetter 认为，行为和制度如何受到社会关系结构的影响一直是社会学的经典论题之一。新古典主义经济学家认为经济行为是非社会化的而改革派经济学家则将经济行为带向了过度社会化的另外一个极端。虽然这两派观点截然相反，但是它们又有一个相似之处，那就是都忽略了经济行为的社会关系网络嵌入性强度的问题。 Granovetter 在此基础上重构了嵌入性理论，认为经济行为在非市场化社会并不像发展经济学派宣称的那么少，随着现代化的发展嵌入性也不像他们所言的那么多但是这种嵌入性从根本上来讲都是更为实质性的嵌入。**
**总体而言 Granovetter 的嵌入性理论的主要贡献表现在四个方面：其一复活了 Polanyi 的“嵌入性”概念并进行重新阐释为解释经济行为的嵌入性提供了理论基础；其二，修正了经济学的“理性人”的基本假设，认为经济活动中的人是适度社会化的；其三在嵌入的具体内容上将人际关系网络作为分析要素认为制度是人际关系网络的凝固，避免了制度分析大而化之、只见制度不见人的弊端为与经济学特别是制度经济学对话提供了基础并将社会关系网络分析方法作为经济社会学的主要分析方法21\]。**
**(二)嵌入性理论的逻辑展开**
**组织嵌入性将组织视为一个开放的社会关系网络组织与社会关系网络的持续联系形成了网格化的嵌入格局。网络外的组织与网络内的组织加强联系可以获得比网络外其他组织更多的信息和资源。同样当组织嵌入复杂的社会关系网络时也可以获得更多的信息和资源能力。因此，从社会网络分析的角度来看嵌入性理论最受学者关注的是结构嵌入性和关系嵌入性两种思路。**
**1.结构嵌入性：社会网络结构及组织在网络中的位置为组织带来超额利益**
**结构嵌入性的主要观点是社会网络结构以及组织在社会网络结构中的位置可以为组织带来超额的信息和资源。这种观点不仅关注组织在网络中的位置，如“结构洞”与联通度问题，也关注社会网络整体的功能和价值如网络密度、网络封闭性等问题。研究焦点基本集中在组织在结构中的位置以及网络密度及其对组织行为和行为效果的影响方面。组织嵌入社会关系网络，可以为组织带来**
**直接或者间接的影响可能是积极性影响，也可能是消极性约束。其中影响最大的莫过于“结构洞”理论即处在“结构洞”位置的组织能够获得控制组织的能力。尽管结构性嵌入理论广受关注但是该理论仅仅从社会关系网络整体的宏观角度对组织行为进行分析欠缺对网络关系的嵌入性及其与结构性嵌入的相互联系的分析1221。**
**这里重点分析一下网络密度和“结构洞”理论。网络中组织之间联系程度越高网络密度就越高。高密度网络信息流动速度高运行封闭性强容易形成共同的信任、标准、行为模式和约束机制。然而高密度网络也有弊端获得的同质性低质量信息和资源较多难以获得异质性高质量的信息和资源多样化竞争程度也较低。如果高密度网络中的组织要获得比较优势就必须对其所处的网络进行优化减去冗余部分联结需要联结而未曾联结或者联结度不够的社会关系。**
**“结构洞”是两个互不联结的网络关系稠密地带这里虽然信息和资源流动的机会很少甚至没有但是却为活动其间的组织提供了网络利益。网络能力较强的组织通常会想方设法将自己置于“结构洞”位置中去。处在这样位置的组织接近信息拥有较多社会联结可以充当中介人角色，以获得比其他关系紧密地带的组织更强的竞争优势。高密度的网络提高结构的自主性却减弱网络的中心性效应；同质性网络的封闭性功能与异质性网络的“结构洞”特征是互补的关系1231。**
**2.关系性嵌入：与社会网络内组织的互惠交往是提升组织效能的重要作用机制**
不仅网络结构可为组织带来超额信息和资源优势组织间的相互关系同样可以影响组织行为和效果这就是组织的关系嵌入性问题。组织行为中有三种资本财力资本、人力资本和社会关系资本。财力和人力资本意味着生产力，内外部的相互关系则代表着社会资本。与财力和人力资本不同社会资本属于社会关系双方强调回报率通过一定的社会关系，社会资本也可以转化为财力资本和人力资本\[24\]。
**社会关系影响组织绩效是通过关系的内容、方向、延续性和强度来实现的这也是关系性嵌入理论的重要构成要素。研究表明，个人间与组织间的社会关系强度是有差别的。Granovetter 在他1977年发表于《美国社会学杂志》上的《弱联结的力量》一文中认为可以通过持续时间、紧密程度、互动频率以及相互服务内容等变量的组合，来测度组织所拥有的关系是强联结、弱联结还是强弱混合联结25\]。强联结，有利于借助对方获得保护从而降低组织面临的不确定性控制组织的行为，但是获得的信息和资源容易重叠而低效；弱联结也是有力量的可提高信息和资源的异质性和有效性，但是往往容易被忽视。**
**概括来说关系嵌入性研究获得了一定程度的认可，但还存在不少争议。目前关于关系嵌入性对组织行为和绩效的影响主要有四种观点：第一关系嵌入性对组织行为和绩效起到正向促进的作用；第二关系嵌入性对组织行为和绩效的影响是消极的；第三组织行为和绩效与关系嵌入性之间是倒U字型关系只有适度的嵌入才能够对组织绩效起到最佳效果；第四有学者认为两者是权变关系只有在具体情境中才能准确把握。**
**三、困境识别：体制性脱嵌及其表现形式**
**自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规之间面临的最大问题是体制性脱嵌这也是本文要解决的核心问题。按照嵌入性理论分析框架应从结构嵌入性视阈对自贸区行政法治试验与党规体系的整体功能和价值问题进行分析从关系嵌入性角度对自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规互嵌机制存在的困境展开探讨。**
**(一)自贸区行政法治试验或者党规作为法律关系网络其整体功能尚未充分发挥**
**中国自贸试验区设立的目标是建立法治化、市场化和国际化的营商环境126\]这在21个自贸试验区的建设方案以及地方性立法中显而易见。比如在2013年《中国(上海)自由贸易试验区总体方案》2015年方案2.0版本、2017年方案3.0版本、2019年的升级版《中国(上海)自由贸易试验区临港新片区总体方案》以及2014年的《中国(上海)自由贸易试验区条例》中都将自贸试验区建设目标界定为具有国际水准的法治环境规范的自贸试验区着力培育国际化、法治化营商环境。所谓法治化不仅是国家法律及其实施党内法规及其实施也是法治化的重要体现。党的十八届四中全会通过的《中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定》在全面依法治国的总目标中提出要贯彻中国特色社会主义法治理论形成完善的党内法规体系建设中国特色社会主义法治体系。党内法规虽然不属于法律规范271但是党内法规体系是中国特色法治体系的重要组成部分。各个自贸试验区建设方案均明确建设过程中应当坚持党的领导把党的领导贯彻落实到自贸试验区建设的全过程各方面各领域而党内法规则是实现党的领导的重要法治方式。但是两者之间这种互相促进、相辅相成的关系并未充分发挥在学者研究甚至在自贸区行政法治试验的实际操作中，也难以寻觅到党内法规的身影。学术界党内法规的研究被隐藏在了党史党建、政治学之中法学特别是行政法学界对党内法规的重视不够。学者们有关行政法治试验的研究特别是先行先试的法治保障方面，鲜见涉及党内法规的整体功能和价值。**
**(二)自贸区行政法治试验在党规体系中的法律地位不清反之亦然**
**为加强党中央的集中统一领导在自贸区行政法治试验过程中重大问题应当主动报请党中央研究贯彻落实党中央的重大决策并及时报告决策落实情况\[28\]执行党的干部政策结合自己所分管的工作负责任地向党中央推荐干部在所分管领域落实全面从严治党责任，自觉同违反党章、党纪的行为作斗争。因此，有关重大决策、干部人事政策、纪律政策、宣传报道政策等领域的党内法规似乎有自贸区行政法治试验的位置，归属于“重大问题”。坚持党的领导把党的领导贯彻落实到行政法治试验的各领域各方面和各环节领导的显然不是简单意义上的事项而是重大事项。然而，什么是“重大事项'，“重大事项”有哪些判断标准，由谁来判断是否属于“重大事项”以及半断“重大事项”有没有什么程序都还是模糊不清的。**
**(三)自贸区党组织在行政法治试验与党规间的“结构洞”效应较弱**
**“结构洞”有静态“结构洞”和动态“结构洞”之分。其一在静态“结构洞”中自贸区党组织具有**
**视野优势、整合优势、控制优势和引领优势1291。然而当前部分自贸区党组织并没有形成视野优势，虽然占据着多个“结构洞”接近多方面的信息和资源，但是并没有因此增强解决问题的创造性。其二由于视野优势欠缺自贸区党组织在执行创新性任务时往往难以有效整合相关资源。处在“结构洞”位置的党组织对流经其间的信息本应有着控制的条件，但是这一优势却常被浪费。其三虽然需要通过“结构洞”为各自体系提供经验，但是处于这一有利位置的部分自贸区党组织却没有什么经验可供借鉴和遵循。即便我们假设处在“结构洞”位置的自贸区党组织具有较强的优势，但是随着时间的推进维护“结构洞”的成本可能增加，获得的信息价值会下降收益相应减少，“结构洞”的有效性就会弱化甚至消失。**
**(四)自贸区行政法治试验与党规互嵌的明确性不足**
**行政法治试验是一种介于立法授权和行政授权之间的一种授权制度具有独立的法律地位。本质上行政法治试验包含暂时调整实施、暂时停止实施部分法律规定以及授权特定主体实施两方面的内容。前者本质上是法律效力的中止和制定新法的混合后者属于类似特许的行政法律制度。作为公权力的一种表达和行使方式行政法治试验不论是内容还是方向都应当是明确的然而由于情势变化较快以及法治的滞后性和模糊性，使得这一追求陷入了尴尬境地。那么，作为与行政法治试验互嵌的党内法规，也是一种公权力的行使方式，亦应当是明确的。基于同样的理由党内法规在内容与方式上的不确定性在将来的较长一段时期是必然存在的。具体而言在涉及支持行政法治试验的党规制定、解释和使用过程中仍存在含糊其词的情况在贯彻党内法规的过程中还面临着理论上党规的明确性与政治性、模糊性之间的逻辑困境，以及实践上党规不明确性内容的类型化认知问题\[30\]。**
**(五)自贸区行政法治试验与党规互嵌的延续性较差**
**在自贸区建设过程中社会转型会带来各方面的社会风险如群体事件、信任危机等这会将各方面纠纷特别是行政纠纷，下沉到自贸区基层从而削弱行政法治试验与党规之间互嵌的延续性31。法律效力的持续性与制度规范的稳定性是密切相关的如果法的稳定性较差则很难保障法律效力的延续性。按照宪法的规定国务院有权设立自贸区因应自贸区先行先试的需要全国人大常委会可以授权相关法律规定在自贸区暂时调整实施或者停止实施，或者授权决定由特定主体实施这就是立法授权为自贸区提供法治保障。授权立法模式程序简便、方式灵活，能够很快适应自贸区制度创新的需要\[32\]。调整实施或者停止实施的暂时性和自贸区的试验性决定了互嵌机制的规则是变动不居的。人的注意力有限组织的注意力和资源也是有限的。同时，由于立法主体多元性，若缺乏系统的安排互嵌机制除了作为单个规则其延续性会受到影响，作为一个规则系统的延续性也会大打折扣。**
**(六)自贸区行政法治试验与党规互嵌的强度较低**
**研究表明自贸区行政法治试验与党规之间的强联结，有利于提升制度创新的效果事实却是两者之间联结的强度处于较低的水平。这种低强度的联结体现在消极性和积极性两个方面。在消极**
**层面上党内法规在制定过程中还存在与行政法治试验相冲突的现象；在积极意义上，尚有党内法规在制定、解释、适用过程中不能与行政法治试验之间积极调适的问题33\]。这种低强度的联结现象与人们对党规与行政法治试验之间强联结的正当性怀疑有关。其实，不论是从党规和自贸区行政组织法协同治理的现实需要出发，还是从优化党的领导权理论、法治成本/收益理论、党规国法关系协调理论来讲高强度的联结均具有正当性4J。高强度意味着主体范围大、规则标准高以及责任要求严，然而在理应高强度联结的领域如“党的直接管理领域'“党政共治领域”充斥着低水平的嵌入性问题这不得不引起重视。**
四、实现路径：自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规互嵌的五种机制
**对自贸区行政法治试验与党规互嵌机制存在的六大困境需要有针对性地进行剖解。依照“嵌入性理论”的逻辑架构可从互嵌机制的整体性、相对性、明确性、延续性和有效性构建角度破解其面临的碎片化、绝对性、模糊性、间断性和弱联结的困境。**
**(一)整体性互嵌机制**
**构建整体性互嵌机制的本质是充分发挥自贸区行政法治试验和党内法规作为一个整体的价值和功能进而体现中国特色社会主义制度优势。国家对自贸区的定位是新时代对外开放的新高地，以及新时代坚持和完善中国特色社会主义制度的试验田，这亦是对自贸区行政法治试验的定位。2008年以来我国面对的国际形势波诡云谲美国为了从战略上围堵中国，试图胁迫WTO 按照自己的意图来改革同时另起炉灶建立 TPP 以造成对中国新的孤立和不利局面。虽然特朗普上台伊始退出了 TPP 但是 TPP 仍然为美国留下了能够随时回归的通道。可以预见美国未来复归TPP的可能性极大中国仍将面临较大压力，这也是为什么批量设置、顶层设计和深度建设自贸区(港)的重要原因。**
**然而不论怎么改TPP中一些条款有可能危害我国金融安全、数据安全、意识形态安全等国家安全因此完全接纳 TPP 系统规则是不可能的。我国最大的国情是党的领导中国特色社会主义制度的最大优势是党的领导不断将制度优势转化为治理效能具体表现之一就是充分发挥党内法规的整体功能和价值不断加强党的组织法规、党的领导法规、党的建设法规建设。从理论上来讲就是研究党内法规的本质和规律厘清党内法规学的学科标准、研究对象、研究范围、研究方法35夯实党规学作为一门独立学科的基础为增强党内法规的规范性、时效性与协调性提供支持361。**
**(二)相对性互嵌机制**
**实现互嵌的相对性核心是确立自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规之间的相对性法律地位。从本质上来讲所谓相对性法律地位即一方在另一方规范体系中所处的位置。由于党的领导是全面领导可以说两者相对位置高度重合只要是重要的事项、过程都有对方的位置。**
**各地自贸区建设总体方案均强调要坚持党的领导将党的领导通过自贸区建设各领域各方面和全过程得到更全面更具体更深入的执行与落实。需要注意的是坚持和加强党的领导强调的是对重大事项的领导包括投资贸易金融人才等制度创新等核心制度37。行政法治试验中重大事项的决策如果离开党总揽全局、协调各方的领导作用离开党的《党政领导干部选拔任用工作条例》《推进领导干部能上能下规定》等对行政法治试验起到鼓励激励、容错纠错和能上能下作用的党内法规的支持恐怕难以实现甚至产生系统性风险。**
**(三)明确性互嵌机制**
**形成明确性互嵌机制要求互嵌的内容要相对明确。当前，有关自贸区的法律规范主要包括立法目的、体例、管理体制、创新举措等方面内容互嵌的明确性也主要体现在这些方面。自贸区设立的直接目的是发挥其推进和保障制度创新试验田作用，可以推导出推进制度性开放和以开放倒逼改革的间接目的。各地的立法特别是各省市的自贸区条例内容大致相似，包括总则、附则、管理体制、投资、贸易、金融、法治环境等共同选择，也有特色定位如广东省的“粤港澳合作与交流”、福建省的“闽台合作”以及天津市的“服务京津冀一体化”等\[38\]。管理体制上一般是管委会模式加领导小组模式两种在创新举措上采取鼓励、服务、容错和法治的原则。当前我国自贸试验区建设缺乏国家层面立法以提供全国性的法制支持所以不断有学者建议尽快制定《中国自贸区法》39固定自贸区制度试验创新成果将行政法治试验与党内法规互嵌的内容明确下来，为未来的自贸区设立、运营和管理提供更具全局性、权威性和根本性的法律依据。**
**(四)延续性互嵌机制**
**提高自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规互嵌的延续性本质在于提高互嵌机制的法治化、系统化、服务性和创造性水平。第一，提高法治能力和水平，解决互嵌能力不足问题。制度终究还是要靠人来执行的关键在于提高立法者执法者的能力，明确互嵌的思路和发展方向不能当“旁观者”和“搅局者”\[40\]。第二提高互嵌机制的系统化程度。行政法治试验是一个系统党内法规制度建设也是一个系统两者的互嵌更是一个系统工程。提高互嵌的延续性需要运用系统化思维，以解决互嵌机制存在的碎片化和延续性不足的问题。第三发挥党内法规的服务功能。自贸区党工委领导能力的强弱关键在于服务自贸区行政法治试验水平的高低除了将重心放在自贸区风险防控和秩序维护上，还需要关注党内法规对自贸区的服务功能的发挥；同时要尽力满足服务功能发挥过程中面临的人财物的需求把资源向基层下沉和集中。第四创新互嵌方式。提高自贸区公职人员制度创新的主动性将制度创新成果与年终绩效挂钩强化学习掌握自贸区的本质特征积极对接国际上最先进的自贸区规则创造性地转化适用。**
**(五)有效性互嵌机制**
**增强互嵌机制的有效性关键在于提高互嵌机制的强度明确互嵌的方向、提高互嵌的标准以及严格互嵌的责任要求。首先明确互嵌的方向。将党的领导贯彻到自贸区建设的全过程。党内法规应当明确党组织的功能主要在于总揽全局、协调各方，同时为行政法治试验提供鼓励激励、容错纠错**
**和能上能下的制度支持促进自贸区公职人员积极作为。其次，提高互嵌的标准。在自贸区进行试验的都是国际上最高水平的投资贸易金融规则，唯有提高互嵌的标准严格把握互嵌的主体、范围、程序和职责权限同时把风险控制在可控的范围之内，才能真正地提升制度创新的有效性。再次严格把握责任要件。理性认知的局限、宽容理念的价值以及权力理性的实践为容错纠错机制的存在提供了正当性411。自贸区的制度创新是试验性的应客观审慎地看待有关行为严格区分试验失败和违法违规之间的界限为自贸区行政法治试验留有空间。同时自贸区制度创新也面临着一定风险，为了平衡秩序和活力、稳定与创新之间的关系该追责的须依法依规进行追责。**
**五、余论**
**自贸区具有从战略上为最高水平的制度创新提供压力测试的示范意义，有着为中国特色社会主义法治政府建设提供实践样板的窗口价值。因此，中央赋予自贸区更大改革自主权让自贸区大胆闯、大胆试，自主进行改革创新其中最重要的表现形式就是行政法治试验。行政法治试验中的核心议题如投资自由便利、贸易自由便利、货物运输进出自由便利、人员进出自由便利和数据跨境安全有序流动等问题由于涉及国家安全不得不由党内法规来提供保障机制，以确保自贸区行政法治试验的稳定有序。可以说自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规已经深深地嵌套在了一起。**
**对于前述最新挑战传统的行政法学已经捉襟见肘必须与党内法规有机统一来解决。这背后的理论逻辑是嵌入性理论其不仅关注网络整体的价值和功能，也关注行政主体在网络中的法律地位包括结构性嵌入和关系性嵌入两种思路。以嵌入性理论为视角本文认为自贸区行政法治试验与党规之间存在体制性脱嵌问题具体表现为两者间关系的碎片化、绝对性、模糊性、间断性和弱联结。面对自贸区行政法治试验与党规互嵌机制存在的现实困境需要有针对性地进行剖解依照嵌入性理论的逻辑架构提升互嵌机制的整体性、相对性、明确性、延续性和有效性，以系统性地解决两者之间的体制性脱嵌问题。**
**还有一些问题需要进一步研究。嵌入性理论来源于新经济社会学其理论假设具有很强的解释能力和借鉴价值但仍需要结合行政法学研究方法进行适应性改造。自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规之间的互嵌机制有助于解决两者之间的体制性脱嵌问题将党的领导落实到自贸区建设的全过程。然而不得不引起深入思考的是：行政法治试验以及党内法规作为一个关系网络整体其本质特征是什么?行政法治试验在党内法规中处于什么位置?党内法规在行政法治试验中又是什么法律地位?自贸区行政法治试验与党内法规互嵌的范围及其判断标准是什么?什么情况下适用强联结?强联结的效力范围怎么界定?本文最大的价值就在于抛砖引玉若能引起学界对嵌入性理论以及自贸区行政法治试验与党规互嵌问题的“惊鸿一瞥”足以达到研究目的。**
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\[责任编辑：王张强刘祺\] | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 区域经济竞争力提升的和谐机理研究
程森成
(武汉理工大学管理学院，湖北武汉430070)
摘要：在资源流动日益加速的环境下，区域经济体在吸引稀缺资源时正面临越来越多的竞争者，提升区域经济竞争力已成为一个具有非常现实意义的重大问题。本文将从系统论的视角入手，首先梳理了区域竞争力提升的理论基础；然后建立了区域经济竞争力提升的三角形模型；最后根据该模型进一步探讨核心竞争力、环境竞争力和基础竞争力等子系统及其内部次级子系统各要素对区域经济竞争力提升的和谐机理。
关键词：区域经济竞争力；和谐机理；核心竞争力；环境竞争力；基础竞争力
中图分类号：F301 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1004-0544(2007)07-0070-04
一、引言
在资源流动日益加速的环境下，区域经济体在吸引稀缺资源时正面临越来越多的竞争者，单纯依赖本土市场和传统资源的都市和地区逐渐失去竞争优势，这对于中国的以“计划”为特征的区域经济挑战更为严峻。如果不能迅速实现区域经济转型，不能在转型中提升区域经济竞争力，就会在经济全球化和区域一体化的大环境中面临淘汰。所以提升区域经济竞争力已成为一个具有非常现实意义的重大问题。
改革开放以来，中国的经济社会发展很大程度上受到以新古典经济学为主导、注重劳动生产率和资本生产率的经济理论的影响。然而这种经济理论能否从根本上指导区域经济竞争力的提升，在我国自然资本日益稀缺的条件下受到了严重的挑战。
国内外的学者在考虑到区域经济竞争力提升的多元要素时，虽然涉及到自然、经济、社会、人力资源、制度等多维层面，但仅仅是自然、经济、社会、人力资源、制度等多维层面的某一个或几个方面的列举，基本上未考虑生态和环境问题，因而也不可能具有使遭受威胁和破坏的资源与环境基础得到补偿、保护和发展的内在要求。这种片面追求经济高速增长的区域经济发展模式，使我们付出了沉重的环境成本和生态代价，反过来又制约着经济增长和区域差距的缩小。本文将从系统论的视角人手，探讨核心竞争力、环境竞争力和基础竞争力等子系统及其内部次级子系统各要素对区域经济竞争力提升的和谐机理。
二、区域竞争力提升的理论基础
(一)产业集群与竞争优势论
理论研究与发展的实践表明，通过产业的内部集聚而快速发展起来的区域，往往具有更强的创新功能和竞争力。波特(Porter， 1998)认为，在经济全球化进程中，一些区域内由于产业的集聚而出现的产业集群可以从三方面影响企业和区域的竞争：一是提高企业的生产率；二是指明创新方向和提高创新速度；三是促进新企业的建立，从而扩大和加强集群本身。实际上，新时期的产业集聚不再仅仅是传统意义上的资金、劳动力等生产要素在地域空间上的累积和区际间的流动，往往更强调在柔性集聚过程中知识、技术等要素的重新组合与创新，强调本地工程师、技术工人等要索的集中以及本地熟练劳动力市场的形成。
(二)城市竞争力模型论
1989年起，世界经济论坛(WEF)与瑞士洛桑国际管理发展学院(IMD)开始携手合作进行此项研究，国际竞争力从概念到方法都获得了丰富和发展。其城市竞争力模型应由三部分构成，即基础实力子系统(简称“基础竞争力”，)、核心能力子系统(简称“核心竞争力”和环境子系统(简称“环境竞争力”。当然这三个子系统的划分也不是绝对的，各子系统又有若干要素构成，这些要索之间又具有一定的兼容、交叉性。WEF- IMD的国际竞争力评价体系包括国家经济实力、企业管理、国际化、政府管理、金融、基础设施、科学技术、国民素质8大要素，每个要素又包括若干方面，具体指标共
200 多个，分别反映国际竞争力的各项功能。国
(三)区域经济发展梯度理论
区域经济发展梯度理论是根据弗农 (Vernon)的产业生命周期理论演进而来的，这种理论认为处在不同生命周期阶段的产业具有不同的空间布局规律，由此产生了区域经济发展梯度和区域经济技术水平的空间差异；创新活动大都发源子高梯度地区，之后随着时间推移及产业生命周期阶段的变化，主要通过多层次的城市系统向低梯度地区转移；同时，相对落后的低梯度地区也可以根据实际情况，引进国外领先技术，发展高新技术产业，借助后发优势实现超越，然后向较高梯度地区进行反梯度推移。判
综合而言，国内外学者对区域经济竞争力提升研究的基本分析逻辑是找出影响区域经济增长的因素，然后进行定量或定性分析，计算出一种或几种因素对增长或差距的贡献程度。现有研究在考虑到区域经济竞争力提升的多元要素时，虽然涉及到自然、经济、社会、人力资源、制度等多维层面，但仅仅是自然、经济、社会、人力资源、制度等多维层面的某一个或几个方面的列举，基本上未考虑生态和环境问题，因而也不可能保证区域经济竞争力的和谐提升。如果区域经济体片面追求经济高速增长，将使其付出沉重的环境成本和生态代价，反过来又制约着竞争力的进一步提升。另外，要素的系统结构整合和功能强化问题也很少被涉及。要素的多少与其功能并不必然成正比关系，如何把多元要素纳人一个系统中，整合多元要素为复合系统，发挥系统的整体优化功能和乘数效应，具有非常重要的理论价值与现实意义。四
因此，有必要构建一个全面涵盖影响区域经济竞争力提升的所有重要因素的系统理论框架，以指导区域经济竞争力的和谐提升。
三、区域经济竞争力提升的三角形模型
目前，国内学者对区域经济竞争力提升的探讨，主要侧重于发掘决定和影响竞争力强弱的诸因素，进而揭示竞争力的形成与强化机制，探索提升竞争力的有效途径，但对某些理论的支持性和解释性争议较大。四具体体现在影响区域经济竞争力提升的多元要索之间的内在联系存在较大的分歧。
本文依据 WEF-IMD 的城市竞争力模型来建立区域经济竞争力提升的三角形模型，据此进一步分析区域经济竞争力提升的和谐机理。从区域竞争力各子系统之间的关系看，彼此具有密切的内在联系。首先，基础竞争力是区域经济总体实力的反映，是区域经济
竞争力的静态综合体现，也是区域经济参与竞争，获得竞争优势的基本前提。其次，核心竞争力主要体现区域经济的发展潜力。区域经济发展的直接结果是既形成人口的集聚中心，又形成产业，尤其是二、三产业的集聚中心。进入工业化社会以来，城市的竞争和发展，虽非全部，但主要还是通过城市产业来实现的。区域集聚、吸引和利用各种资源要素的能力，也是区域经济获得竞争力的最根本手段，主要是通过企业或产业来体现和完成的。在此过程中，企业或产业主要起到一种资源转换的作用。这种作用的发挥程度，又同时影响并受制于区域经济的综合增长能力、集聚能力、创新能力和对外开放能力等相关能力。因此，产业或企业的资源转换能力与上述几种能力一起共同构成城市的发展能力，这也是区域经济竞争力的核心和动态体现。再次，环境竞争力主要起支撑平台作用，体现城市的可持续性。上述几个子系统，是一种相互依存、相互影响、相互制约的关系。它们密不可分，共同构成一个完整的区域经济竞争力系统。只有当三者有机结合并形成一种良性循环时，区域经济才能持续提升竞争力。据此，参考陈通、沈海滨对企业价值增长稳定性的分析，本文建立区域经济竞争力提升的三角形模型，如图1所示。
图1 区域经济竞争力提升的三角形模型
四、区域经济竞争力提升的和谐机理
(一)区域经济竞争力提升的静态和谐机理
若在发展区域经济的过程中一味追求经济利益，基础竞争力和核心竞争力虽然得到了满足，但如果以牺牲环境竞争力为代价，便无法构成区域经济竞争力提升的和谐三角形。根据几何原理，等边三角形最稳定，所以区域经济增长量(三角形面积)为零。同理，一味追求核心竞争力或环境竞争力也会得到相同结果。因此，三个因素是区域经济竞争力提升的三个极，如果有一边不均衡，将会使基础竞争力、核心竞争力、环境竞争力中的某一种受到影响，从而影响区域经济竞争力提升。为实现区域经济竞争力的和谐提升，应当遵循
三角形构成基本原理，同时兼顾基础竞争力、核心竞争力、环境竞争力三方面的提升，不能有失偏颇。
(二)区域经济竞争力提升的动态和谐机理
区域经济的发展过程中，会受到许多因素的影响，如人才素质、经济结构、制度创新和保障能力。这些来源于外部的因素作用于区域经济体时，会先影响基础竞争力、核心竞争力、环境竞争力的各环节，后影响区域经济竞争力的和谐提升。区域经济竞争力提升的动态和谐机理是指基础竞争力、核心竞争力、环境竞争力三方面的利益是区域经济增长的增函数，影响区域经济竞争力提升的决定性因素就是最短的一边。为了实现区域经济增长量的最大化，就要合理配置区域经济内部各种资源，及时补上最短的那块“木板”。将外部压力看作是作用于区域经济竞争力提升的三角形模型的力量，在作用下，三角形的三条边会被压缩，从而使三角形面积-区域经济增长缩小，如图2所示。
图2 外部压力作用于区域经济
图3 受力分析
下面以一个顶点为例做出受力分析，如图3。设外部压力为F，区域经济竞争力提升的三角形模型的边长分别为：基础竞争力a、核心竞争力b、环境竞争力c。根据三角形计算公式和受力平衡分析，得出F作用于三角形a、b两边的顶点后，分别在a、b两边产生的分力F和F的值为：
其中，0为a边与c边的夹角，为b边与c边的夹角。假设 aob，则Bk8，易得 coso>cose，又 sin(8j+0)>0，所以F<FL。
同理若 akb，则易得出F>FL。
容易看出，短边所承受的压力反而更大，势必会被压得更短。例如某地区当有外部因素影响其核心竟争力时，往往会采取一些短期行为，比如以牺牲环境为代价，大量建设高能耗、高污染的项目，这势必会降低环境竞争力，从而减少区域经济竞争力的提升。由此可见，区域经济体为了实现稳定的竞争力提升，增强抵御外界风险的防范能力，应尽可能的使三边均衡受力，区域经济竞争力提升的三角形便会十分稳定。
(三)区域经济竞争力提升的内部利益分配分析
区域经济竞争力提升的三角形模型中，基础竞争力、核心竞争力、环境竞争力越高(边长越长)，区域经济增长的空间就越大(三角形面积)。但实际上，由于区域可供分配资源是有限的，不可能无限地通过满足三者利益而使区域经济总量增长。因此必须通过合理的决策，使区域经济在有限的资源下，寻求最佳分配方案，不但使三者利益得到满足，而且使区域经济总量增长达到最大。设区域经济可供分配的资源总量为P，即P是区域经济竞争力提升三角形模型的周长。
设P=-p=4+5+c，根据三角，根据三角形面积2
2
计算公式可以得出区域经济总量增长(三角形面积)：
经数学计算易得出，在为定值的条件下，当时，三角形面积S最大，此时该三角形为等边三角形(三边相等)。因此，可以得出结论：在区域经济可供分配的资源一定的条件下，基础竞争力、核心竞争力、环境竞争力达到均衡时，该区域经济总量增长为最大。
如上所述，无论是区域经济竞争力提升三角形模型的静态和谐机理分析，还是动态和谐机理分析和内部利益分配分析，都客观要求区域经济的基础竞争力、核心竞争力、环境竞争力三者实现和谐发展为第一要义，唯如此，区域经济竞争力的提升、区域经济增长才能达到最大，并且稳定性最强。
五、区域经济竞争力和谐提升的对策
(一)基于竞争力差异性的合理定位
区域内企业应充分理解市场的状况，考虑当地的知识来源、要素与需求条件等各方面因素，适当选择本企业的定位，并通过行业协会等机构与群内其他企业沟通以影响本产业群的定位。企业不应过于强调技术领先，但竞争应从低要素投人转向对降低总成本的追
求，最终实现差异化竞争，从模仿性的低质低价产品转向较高质量的差异化产品。网
(二)完善政府行为
在区域经济中，政府机构是重要的成员之一，其主要职能是，制定相关产业政策，为企业提供服务，而不是干预企业的正常经营活动。在区域经济活动中，政府越开明，办事效率越高，区域经济的效率就越高，竞争力就越强。完善政府行为，一方面，应加强所在地域公共产品的建设。把区域内的公共产品如道路交通、通讯、电力、交易市场等基础设施建设好，这样才能便于利用好各种资源，实现规模效益递增。此外，应加大环境保护与治理力度，严格控制新污染源的增加，加强对现有污染企业的综合治理，包括继续关停一批小化工、小造纸、小印染、小制革、小电镀、小水泥等治理无望的企业；对规模较大的企业限期完成污染治理，并在资金、技术等方面给予支持：逐步将污染型企业向指定区域搬迁，由企业缴纳统一治污费，集中进行污染处理。图另一方面，政府应制定切实可行的政策支持目标体系。它包括金融服务体系、法律政策体系、财税政策体系、环境支持体系、技术仓新服务体系以及其他社会化服务体系。
(三)加强区域间的协作与分工
垂直一体化和水平一体化分工与协作，能够迅速提供区域经济体的效率。面对国际市场企业竞争的新形势，我国企业更没有必要搞小而全，自成体系出独家产品。否则，将不能提高生产经营效率和竞争力。同时，由于具有专业化分工协作的功能和要求，区域经济体才有存在的理由。但从目前的情况看，我国许多企业受到地方保护主义的影响，在实际生产经营中却往往表现出“一方诸侯”的倾向，协作配套自觉性严重不足。特别是那些稍具有一定实力的中小企业，更不愿为别人做配角和辅助性工作。因此，需要强化区域经济体生产体系的专业化水平和配套协作功能，培育成员企业间的合作竞争意识，从单纯的竞争导向转变为合作竞争导向。由于区域内的信息交流与知识转移主要是在内部网络中进行的，即便在缺乏知识中心的情况下，网络中的关联企业也能通过知识积累产生创新，因此，区域内企业应增进相互间的交往，产业链上下游企业、同行
业企业之间都应该加强沟通协作，通过联合技术开发、战略联盟、人员培训、行业规范等形式来解决单个企业难解决的诸如技术开发能力、资金能力不足，以及由于技术和市场的不确定性所带来的创新风险等问题，共同开发新产品和新工艺，实现创新资源和创新成果的共享。向
总之，从系统论的观点来着，区域经济竞争力提升的和谐机理强调竞争力的提升是一种动态反馈系统。核心竞争力的提高，一方面可以为区域经济积累更多的财富，强化基础竞争力，另一方面会对区域环境提出更高的要求，从而促进环境的改善，由此形成一个正反馈系统。如果基础竞争力较强，一方面有能力创造更好的、更高层次的区域发展环境，提高居民福利水平，另一方面，可以为区域经济核心竞争力的发挥提供基础保障和强有力的动力支撑。总之只有核心竞争力、基础竞争力和环境竞争力之间形成和谐发展的态势，区域经济竞争力提升三角形模型才能形成一种和谐机理，区域经济增长总量将不断扩张，区域经济竞争力随之增强。这一过程的产生是一个区域经济体本身在超越其他区域经济体的过程中，由小变大，由低级向高级不断演进的一种形象的动态体现。反之亦言，区域经济竞争力将不断降低，持续下去甚至会出现衰落的可能。
参考文献：
\[1\]桂拉旦，李具恒.区域可持续和谐发展的广义梯度理论论纳\[.中国软科学，2005，(3)：114.
\[2\]盖文启，朱华晟.产业的柔性集聚及其区域竞争力门经济理论与经济管理，2001，(10)：27.
\[3\]黄晓芬.基于资源生产率的城市绿色竞争力研究D\]同济大学博士论文，2006，(3)：22.
\[4\]芦岩，陈柳钦.国内区域竞争力研究综述——历程、进展与问题|\].河南社会科学，2006，(4)：149.
\[5\]陈通，沈海滨.企业价值增长稳定性的三角形分析.辽宁工学院学报，2006，(2)：64-66.
\[6\]周邦瑶.浙江省特色产业群竞争力提升机制和支撑系统研究ID\].浙江工业大学硕士学位论文，2004，42-43.
责任编辑
刘凤刚 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 谈经济报道本土特色的体现
口胡 蓉
(常德日报社，湖南 常德 415000)
党的十七大胜利乃开后，我国进人『全面建设小康社会的历史新阶段。经济领域的变化异彩纷呈，市场经济如火如荼，经济生活丰富多彩，经济改革风起云涌，这些都为我们的经济报道提供了广阔的空间。在大背景和新形势下，公众对经济生活的关切度也日益提高，经济报道日渐成为媒体的新宠。
那么，作为名地市党报的记者，在采写经济报道的过程中，如何才能写出有特色的经济报道?笔者谈一点粗浅的认识，望与同仁交流探讨。
把握全局 找准方向
地方党报作为一张综合性日报，最基本的功能是什么?就是把政治新闻、经济新闻做得最全最专，最具权威性。重大经济、政治事件，影响经济社会走向，影响人的命运。所以，经济新闻，重要、贴近，具有极高的关注度。作为一个读者，读报为了什么?是要了解昨天发生了什么。及时报道国际国内和省内发生的事
先没有看到的东西。
1998年5月，我到吴山镇采访，看到不少农民在自家承包田种草莓、药材和烟叶，山上种柑橘。经了解，发现农民的种植观念发生了变化，他们围绕市场自发搞调整，有的靠调整调出了效益，调出了市场，走上了脱贫致富之路。我根据掌握的素材，没有就事写事，而是采用新闻分析方式，写了一篇《用市场指导种植》。我采取对每段新闻事实先叙述，后穿插记者思考，对报道新闻事实作简要的评点，分析，让读者从中受到启迪。
在写第一段“草莓成了抢手货”时，
情，是报纸最基本也是最重要的功能。其他功能，都是由此衍生出来的。报业竞争的实践表明，那些市场竞争力强，深受读者喜爱的报纸，无不是主打新闻牌，靠新闻打天下。
而经济新闻是竞争决胜的关键。事件最具吸引力，给人留下的印象就最深。每当报纸报道与群众息息相关的经济事件，读者关注度马上就提高。经济报道，要紧贴群众生活，要能调动人们的视觉、听觉、触觉、嗅觉。看-一张报纸新闻处理的水平，很大程度上就看经济报道是否联系群众生活的方方面面，看它能不能保持读者对事件更持久的兴趣。
在传媒业异常发达、读者拥有多种选择的报业市场上，任何一家报纸都不可能一网打尽所有读者，不可能提供读者需要的所有信息和知识，都只能在读者对象、时间空间、报道内容等方面有所侧重。而作为一张地方报纸，所报道的重大经济事件，影响经济社会走向，影响人的命运。所以，经济新闻，重要、贴近，
我是这样写的记者思考：“农产品由卖方市场转向买方市场，逼使生产者不得不改变过去只抓种养不顾市场的做法。吴山农民围绕市场抓调整，可以说是聪明之举。”在写第二段“坡岗处处橘花香”时，我这样写的记者思考：“有些农产品生产旺季时供大于求，淡季时又求大于供。如何解决这个矛盾，吴山农民瞅准时间差上的空档，反季或淡季销售，可以说是市场观念的成熟之举。”在写第一段“药材烟叶也走俏”时，我是这样写的记者思考：“市场是只无形的‘手'，只有抓着这只‘手'，才能有利可
具有极高的关注度。
作为地方党报，之所以要把经济报道立足于本地，是与其党报的优势分不开的，这包括党报的品牌优势、资源优势和队伍优势，发挥好这一个优势，就可以形成党报的核心竞争力。经济报道，就是要在抓好一般性新闻的基础上，抓好重点地域、重点行业与产业的突破。重点决定着经济走向，决定着报道的经济和礼会效益。地方党报的经济报道之所以要立足于本地，是因为可以借助党报地位，许多新闻别人搞不到，党报可以搞到，党报记者写出的稿件，审稿可以比较容易过关，别的报纸就做不到。
经济新闻地域性强、必须有开放意识、世界眼光，从联系中去把握新闻事件的报道角度和素材的取舍，不能仅仅局限于地区，却要始终与地区变化挂钩；党报的读者，有相当数量是决策者和经营管理者，要满足他们的需求，让业界看重，就要把经济新闻做得有见解，做得专业、有用；党报的读者，又可以归位于一
图。吴山农民从教训中醒悟过来，可以说是明智之举。”虽然每段只有几十个字的记者思考，但分析中肯，言简意赅，恰到好处，起到了画龙点睛的作用。不仅深化了主题，给人以启示，而且又增加了报道的理性色彩，使报道有了一定的深度。
总之，要想写好分析性的经济新闻，记者除了深入采访，调查研究，掌握丰富的材料外，重要的一条是要多学点经济方面的知识、政策和理论，提高自己分析问题、认识问题的能力。不然，话说不到点子上，评也评不到点子上。
50 斗学学术期刊数据库
个个普通的消费者。
紧扣政策 服务中心
新闻宣传要全面贯彻“三个代表”重要思想，做到贴近实际，贴近群众，贴近生活，这是以胡锦涛同志为总书记的党中央对新闻宣传工作提出的新要求。常德被誉为“鱼米之乡”，历年来是一个农业大市，近几年，市委、市政府大力打造“工业常德、文化名城、和谐常德”。常德经济已经逐渐融人世界经济的发展中，地区经济的发展影响着世界，世界经济的发展也影响着地区经济。在全球经济一体化的今天，搞好经济报道就必须充分认识和了解中国经济发展的方向和世界经济出现的若干不论大小的变化。
目前，我国正在加快建设文明、繁荣、民主的现代化的步伐，不少国家包括经济发达的美国、英国等的投资商都看好中国，纷纷到我国投资，这是目前我国经济发展所呈现的良好局面。作为地方党报专门从事市场经济报道的记者，只有在思想上充分认识到这一点，才能够敏锐地捕捉到本地区经济发展的新信息、新动向，写出有特色、有积极引导和监督作用的文章。当然作为定位于服务型的经济信息报道版面，如何在配合重大经济决策、重要经济活动的同时，把受众关注，需要了解的热点问题，通俗生动地报道出来，同样也需要有一个全局观念。也就是要站在国际、国内经济发展的高度，来观察常德经济发展的特点，了解掌握常德经济各个时期的特点和进程。将经济发达地区的新经验、新理念、新成就介绍给广大受众。同时有针对性地对一些经济现象进行剖析，挖掘出全局性、前沿性的经济新闻的深度报道，使经济报道既符合市场经济的价值观，也成为区域经济发展的“看点”。
所以地方经济报道的报道思想就是保留传统权威、提高实用价值，立足本土经济变迁。经济报道必须要服务于经济，这是经济报道存在的前提。我国媒体基本上都是由政府创办的，尤其是党报曾经在报业中占有绝对的优势，因此党报的经济报道往往是代党委说话，造成了很多“经济报道”并不纯粹，他们仅仅是
“政治报道”的改头换面，是“政治报道”的翻版。有些经济新闻则是计划经济的一些流程报道，虽然是经济，但却不是新闻。今天我们已经进人了市场经济社会，经济报道的“身份”必须要回归，经济报道必须有用，必须能为战斗在经济前线的劳动者提供实实在在的服务。
地方党报因为都是政府创办的，在权威性上有很大的优势。因此，经济报道应该坚持这一传统，多在地方主流新闻上下功夫，将政府的政策和从官方渠道得到的有效信息告诉给公众。尤其是各级主流媒体更应该站得高，看得远，充
分利用自己的资源，写出有宏观指导性的报道。
立足本土凸显特色
以《常德日报》为例，可以看出地方党报的经济报道立足于本土，报道地域经济，就能使媒体更能有话语权。
1.围绕焦点做足经济文章
2009年5月1日起，《常德日报》推出了“沅澧流域行”新农村大型采访活动，在新中国成立60周年，中央提出以科学发展观为指导，建设和谐社会，沿沅澧两水顺流采访，探访乡镇、村组、农家，见证了沧桑变化，采访新农村建设典型
人物和典型事件。《常德日报》一版连续刊登了《大山深处的“绿色银行”》《竹林村民“不差钱”》《小水电照亮大山窝》等，报道从宏观着眼，微观人手，以新旧对比、纪实的手法记录见闻，以动态消息、通讯、日记、图片等体裁为主，个案采访、现象调查、行动记录穿插进行，全方位、多视角地展示我市新农村建设成果，很有新闻价值。2009年5月19日《常德日报》以显著位置推出消息《承接产业转移共建发展平台常德签约项目总投资逾百亿》，是记者在随同参加2009年湖南承接产业转移粤港澳招商活动推介会上获得的信息，正暗合了我省、我市的打造工业强省、工业强市的号召。
2.贴近群众报道焦点新闻
2009年5月26日《常德日报》关于食品安全的报道也十分引人瞩目，文章《食品，想说放心不容易》，即准确直观地表示该新闻的意图，并配有新法突出的十大变化，在《中华人民共和国食品安全法》6月1日起，即将实施前推出专版，文章来得非常及时，且直至重心，贴近群众生活，关注群众利益，有较强的可读性。2009年5月6日《常德日报》二版《锦绣武陵满眼新》围绕群众黄金周消费情况进行盘点报道，如《常德，向旅游大市进发》、《昂首迈进黄金周》、《黄金周里淘金》等，都做到了宏观与微观相结合，贴近生活，贴近群众，赢得了读者。特别是一组“乡村发现”把常德的风景和新的黄金周消费现象都生动表现出来，更使这张党报紧密联系读者。
上述的经济报道内容，都是以本土新闻为主，有现象也有深入分析。一方面分析、挖掘了政策内容，一方面分析经济现象背后的原因，给地区党报读者以很强的指导性。
进人新世纪，经济生活已经变得丰富而复杂。面对复杂的经济现象，广大受众迫切需要媒体帮助他们分析现象背后的原因，指导他们更有效地从事经济活动。经济生活的复杂性，要求经济记者必须要有相当深厚的经济学专业知识，否则经济报道很难做出深度。只有立足本土、把握政策，才能使地方党报充分显示其喉舌功能。■
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zh | N/A | N/A | **同一词义下的词汇更替使用现象**
**———以《左传》 《史记》位移动词用词差异为例**
**口卢 腾**
**摘 要：汉语词汇在同一语义下会出现词汇更替使用的现象，表示同一语义的词增多，增多的同时，旧词或者旧义也会发生不同程度的改变。通过考察《左传》和《史记》位移动词中表““渡水”、表“到达”、表“去”的用词情况，可以进一步印证词汇发展的规律性。**
**关键词： 《左传》 《史记》 位移动词 词汇更替**
**导师唐子恒先生曾经写过《论汉语词汇发展中的更替现象——以<左传><史记>用诃差异为例》，论述了“船一舟”“楹一柱”“田一猎”“启一开”“疾一病”五组词在两书中的运用，从而探讨春秋至西汉初年汉语词汇发展的规律。笔者在整理《左传》和《史记》的位移动词时，深受启发，也发现了几组词在使用上的不同，由于本文选取的词都呈现了“由无到有”的现象，因此可以将其不同简单归结为两种情况：第一，表示同一语义的词逐渐增多；第二，有些两书共有的词在意义上并不一致，在-定程度上出现了词义发展演变的情况。**
**本文主要从语义相类的角度选择了三组词，在成文过程中侧重考察《史记》中多出的“新词新义”@。现就笔者掌握的材料作一简单梳理。**
**一、表示“渡水”义**
**表示“渡水”义， 《左传》有“涉、济”，《《史记》则有“涉、济、渡”。**
**“涉”在《左传》里有两义：一表“渡水”，另表“进入”。。《《史记》沿用了这两种用法，除却人名后，同时出现了表“经历”的义项。如：**
**(1)犹然遭此苗，况以中材而涉乱世之末流乎?其遇害何可胜道哉! (《史记·游侠列传》)11**
**“济”的本义“济水”是水名，作为动词“渡过水拦流”义的出现也较早，笔者搜集的《左传》语料就印证了**
**这点。**
**(2)及鄢，乱次以济，逆无次。(《左传·桓公十三年》)\[2**
**(3)及败，宋桓公逆诸河，宵济。一。(《左传·闵公二年》)**
**当然，在词义演变的过程中，“济”也出现了其他用法，它在《史记》中除了作“渡水”义外，更多是用作表示其他义。**
**①作名词，表示水名、地名等。**
**(4)故秦所灭齐王建孙田安，项羽方渡河救赵， 田安下济北数城，，引其兵降项羽，故立安为济北王。 (《史记·项羽本纪》)**
**②作动词，表示救助、帮助。**
**(5)必长生若此而不死兮，虽济万世不足以喜。(《史记·司马相如列传》)**
**③作动词，表示成就、成功。**
**(6)分夹而进， 事蚤济也。 (《史记·乐书》)**
**(7)此十六族者，世济其美，不陨其名。 (《史记·五帝本纪》)**
**④作形容词，表示众多。**
**(8)至秦有天下，悉内六国礼仪，采择其善，虽不合圣制，其尊君抑臣，朝廷济济，依古以来。(《史记·礼书》)**
**据《说文》，，“渡，济也”， “济，济水也”，二者虽不互训，但至少可以证明， “渡”与“济”在语义上有共通之处。**
**相对于《左传》， 《史记》新出现了“渡”。 “十三经”中， “渡”只出现一次： “济，渡也。 _。”(_ (《尔雅·释言》)\[3：(P2585)“渡”作为训释词来解释被训释词，其规范性可能不及“济”，但在意义上与被训释的“济”几乎等同。除此之外，《《老子》 《庄子》 《墨子》等古籍中也不见“渡”。**
**检索至汉代典籍， “渡”的使用明显增多，只在刘向《说苑》中就有17见。如：**
**(9)田子方渡西河，造程黄。(《说苑·臣术》)4\](P74)**
**(10)呼谁能渡王者。(《说苑·善说》)\[4\]{P479)**
**(11)梁相死，惠子欲之梁。渡河而遮堕水中，船人救之。((《说苑·杂言》)14\](P716)**
**需要注意的是，第二例是使动用法，不过总体上仍与“渡水”有关。在《史记》中， “渡”的使用也十分普遍，与“涉、济”共同承担“渡水”义。如：**
**(12)武王渡河，中 白鱼跃入王舟中，武王俯取以祭。。(《史记·周本纪》)**
**(13)项梁乃以八千人渡江而西。((《史记·项羽本纪》**
**据笔者观察， 《史记》在表“渡水”义时倾向于使用《左传》不曾有的“渡”，使用频率明显高于其他两者。随着时代的发展，语言逐渐丰富而严密， “济、涉”在《史记》中表达的意义远比“渡水”丰富，都出现了词义演变的现象，演变的意义还在一定程度上主导着它们二者的使用，新兴的“渡”也后来居上，在表“渡水”义时明显占有优势。它们在语言表达中的搭配逐渐趋于稳定。**
**二、表示“到达”义**
**表示“到达”义，《《左传》有“及、至”， 《史记》则有“至、抵(邸)、到”。**
**据《说文》， “及，逮也。g”《左传》用其本义如“无庸，将自及”(《左传·隐公元年》)，引申为“到达”，如： “不及黄泉，无相见也!”(《左传·隐公元年》)“及”的“到达”义在《左传》中比较常见。 《史记》里“及”作动词的用法有三种，如下：**
**①表“兄死弟继位”义。**
**(14)父死子继，兄死弟及，天下通义也。(《《史记·宋微子世家》)**
**②表“遭受”义。**
**(15)公徐行即免死，疾行则及祸。 (《《史记·项羽本纪》)**
**(16)欲以去赵盾，令先，毋及难。(《史记·晋世)atabase家》)**
**③表“牵连、连累”义。**
**(17)非徒然也，君贵用事久，多失礼於王兄弟，兄弟诚立，祸且及身，何以保相印江东之封乎?((《史记·春申君列传》)**
**可见， 《史记》里的“及”与《左传》意义相差较大，这恰恰是词义演变的结果。**
**《史记》里的“抵”和“邸”均表示“到达”义。《说文》： “邸，属国舍也。。”“邸”表“到达”最早可追溯到《楚辞·九章·涉江》：“步余马兮山皋，邸余车兮方林。”{5\](P57)“邸”在《史记》中大多沿用基本义作名词使用，而“到达”义较为少见，只见一处：“令凿泾水自中山西邸瓠口为渠。 ”(《史记·河渠书》)其余多用“抵”。《说文》： “抵，挤也。”在先秦典籍中，笔者只在《周礼》和《荀子》中各发现“抵”的一处用法，均不作“到达”义使用。直至汉代典籍， “抵”作“到达”的用法逐渐出现，在《史记》中表现出了极其鲜活的生命力。**
**(18)三十五年，除道，道九原抵云阳，錾山埋谷，直通之。。(《史记·秦始皇本纪》)**
**(19)始皇欲游天下，道九原，直抵甘泉。(《史记·蒙恬列传》)**
**(20)北道酒泉抵大夏. (《史记·大宛列传》)**
**另外， “抵”在《史记》中并不单单表示“到达”，运用十分灵活丰富。如：**
**①表“抵偿”，多构成“抵罪”出现。**
**(21)杀人者死，伤人及盗抵罪。 (《史记·高祖本纪》)**
**(22)其後安国坐法抵罪，蒙狱吏田甲辱安国，(《史记·韩长孺列传》)**
**②与“大”构成“大抵”后表“大都”，表示总括一般情况，这在现代汉语中也比较常见。**
**(23)然不能半自出，天下大抵无虑皆铸金钱矣.(《史记·平淮书》)**
**(24)故其著书十余万言，大抵率寓言也。。( _(_ 《史记·老子韩非列传》)**
**③表“触”。**
**(25)此细民之愚无知抵死，朕甚不取。(《史记·孝文本纪》)**
**笔者以为，此种用法承其本义而来，是词义本义抽象化的结果，在现代汉语中仍然使用。另外， “即为孙叔敖衣冠，抵掌谈语。((《史记·滑稽列传》)”中的“抵**
**掌”即“击掌、鼓掌”义，这里的“抵”是实实在在的“触”，与“抵”的本义“挤、推”更为接近。**
**另外， 《史记》里的“到”也有“到达”义。 《说文》： “到，至也。 《左传》里有一处“到”，不过是作人名出现。在对比《左传》 《公羊传》 《谷梁传》后，笔者发现前两者在宣公十二年明显存在一处不同。**
**(26)孤不天，不能事君，使君怀怒以及敝邑，孤之 _罪也。_ (《左传》)**
**(27)寡人无良，边垂之臣，以干天祸，是以使君王沛焉，，辱到敝邑。。(《公羊传》)(6}(P2285\]**
**《左传》用“及”，，《《公羊传》用“到”，除此之外， 《公羊传》和《谷梁传》均没再发现“到”的用法。**
**据观察， “到”作“到达”义在先秦典籍中不乏例证。**
**(28)碱父孔武，靡国不到。 (《诗·大雅·韩奕》)L7\](P6572)**
**另外，还作“到…….的时间”使用。**
**(29)管仲相桓公，霸诸侯， 一匡天下，民到于今受其赐。 (《论语·宪问第十四》)\[8\](P2512)**
**(30)伯夷叔齐饿于首阳之下，民到于今称之。(《论语·季氏第十六》)\[3\](P2522)**
**比起《左传》， 《史记》里“到”的用法更普遍。**
**(31)於是天子北至朔方，东到太山，巡海上，并北边以归。 《史记·平准书》**
**(32)兵到大梁，去.'(《史记·魏世家》)另外，也出现了“欺骗”义，但并不占主流。如：**
**(33)与楚攻魏，魏折而入於楚，韩固其与国也，是秦孤也，不如出兵以到之，魏楚大战，秦取西河之外以归。((《史记·韩世家》)**
**这里的“到”是“倒”的古学，当是“颠倒”，意为“迷惑、欺骗”，**
**以上分析显示，从《左传》到《史记》，词义演变的情况非常复杂。从纵向上看，本义的使用并不一定占主流，而引申义有可能会涵盖所有用法；从横向上看，有的词在同一时期、同一著作里的用法也不再单·，呈现的面貌更加复杂多样，有利于我们进行比较研究。**
**三、表示“前往，到……去”义**
**表示“前往，到……去”义， 《左传》有“如、造”， 《史记》则有“如、造、诣、之”，我们重点考察“诣、之”，**
**“诣”在先秦著作中并不多见。**
**(34)诸城门若亭，谨候视往来行者符，将传疑，若无符，皆诣县廷言。(《墨子·号令第七十》)\[9\](P584)**
**(35)晏子至，楚王賜晏子酒，酒酣，吏二缚一人诣**
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**《说文》： “诣，候至也。 ”其本义特指到尊长那里去，作“晋谒、造访”讲，而后慢慢发展成一般的“前往、到”义， 《史记》里这样的用法不乏例证。**
**(36)萧何亦发关中老弱未傅悉诣荥阳，复大振。(《史记·项羽本纪》)**
**(37)大司马周殷叛楚，以舒屠六，举九江兵，随刘贾、彭越皆会垓下，诣项王。。(《史记·项羽本纪》)**
**《史记》中“诣”屑跟地点名词的用法远远多于后跟指人名词的用法，上文例句中的“诣项王”既可以理解成特指到尊长那里去，也可理解为一般意义的“到”。笔者以为，司马迁时代的“诣”不再受制于严格的使用标准，它本身的晚兴一般义在日常语言交际中更适合生存，而本义也并未完全消亡，仍然保留，只不过区分界限已经不太明显。**
**至于“之”， 《说文》：“之，出也。”本指植物枝茎的生出、滋长，后引中为“去、往”义。**
**(38)自伯之东，首如飞蓬。 (《诗经·卫风·伯兮》)\[7(P327\]**
**(39)张良是时从沛公，项伯乃夜驰之沛公军，私见张良，具告以事，欲呼张良与俱去。(《史记·项羽本纪》)**
**(40)项王出之国，使人徙义帝。 (《史记·项羽本纪》)**
**(41)项王不使之国，与俱至彭城。。((《史记·项羽本纪》)**
**总体来看，i“L之”的用法很多，除表示“到”，更多是作助词，用作主谓之间或者定语和中心语之间。这种用法在先秦著作中已很普遍，到了《史记》，已不具备代表性，本文不过多描述。**
**正如唐子恒先生所言， “用词更替现象复杂”\[15\]，“更替是一个渐变过程”.15\]。上文考察的新词新义并不是突现的，其“由无到有”都会经历一个或短或长的酝酿期。 《左传》到《史记》不过经历了大概三百年的时间，在整个汉语史中并不久远，但这个时期整个社会由于政治、经济、文化的影响都呈现了很大的变化，进而影响到语言文字的使用。一些新词出现后会削弱旧词的使 _用，比如“渡”，“渡”出现后，_ “涉”和“济”的“渡水”义就不常用了，而旧词的旧义则出现了两种变化：是旧义仍旧保留却不占主导，并且衍变出更多的义项，如“济”“诣”；二是旧义消亡，衍变的新义成为主流，如“及”**
**另外，我们也应该关注新词新义的产生机制，除前人总结过的语言内在的、外在的原因外，有些新词诞生伊始与旧词并无差别，如《说文》里的“济，济水也”和**
**汉语“字母词”探究**
**口徐可馨**
**摘 要：近年来，随着经济、信息全球化进程的加快，越来越多的字母词进入了汉语词汇系统，为人们所接受、运用，这一现象引起了学者们的关注。本文通过对字母词的界定、分类，进而分析字母词的特点，以期对字母词的研究尽绵薄之力，**
**关键词：字母词 界定 类别 特点 规范**
**字母词在五四时期就已经出现在汉语书面语中，这一时期字母词的结构一般是外文字母在汉字中间或是汉字前。近年来，大量的字母词进入汉语词汇系统。本文在综合了前辈学者研究成果的基础上，从字母词的定义出发，研究字母词的分类、特点，对待字母词的态度并提出有关规范化的建议。**
**一、字母词的界定**
**字母词承载着一定的意义，是汉语词汇系统中不可**
**“渡，济也”，后起的“渡”仍是“济”。既然没有差异，那还有出现更替的必要吗?唐先生论述的人们在语言使用中的求新求异心理应该可以给这个问题提供一个参考答案。**
**内容注释：**
**①“新词新义”只是一个概称便于叙述，并不意味着本文考察的词全部为《史记》首次出现。**
**引用注释：**
**\[1\]司马迁.史记\[M\].韩兆琦译注.北京：：中华书局，2010.**
**\[2\]杨伯峻.春秋左传注\[M\].北京：中华书局，2010.**
**\[3\]十三经注疏·尔雅注疏\[M\].北京：** **中华书局，1980.**
**\[4\]\[汉\]刘向.说苑全译\[M\]、王瑛，王天海译注.贵阳：贵州人民出**
**版社，1992.** 国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库National Social Sciences Database
**缺少的组成部分。由于字母词中存在很多英文短语的缩写形式，如“CEO(首席执行官)”是“Chieff Executive Officer”的缩写形式、 “DNA(脱氧核糖核酸)”是“Deoxyribo0NNucleic Acid”的缩写形式。笔者认为，字母词指汉语中纯外文字母、汉语拼音的缩写形式或者汉语拼音与外文字母的组合形式，还应该包括字母与汉字、数字的组合形式。其中字母词中还可以包括符号。所以，字母词应定义为：字母词在书面形式上有**
**\[5\]楚辞\[M\].朱熹集注.上海：上海古籍出版社，2010，57页.**
**\[6\]十三经注疏·春秋公羊传注疏\[M\].北京：** **中华书局，1980：2285.**
**\[7\]十三经注疏·毛诗正义\[M\].北京：** **中华书局， 1980：572.**
**\[8\]十三经注疏·论语注疏\[M\].北京：中华书局： 1980： 2512.以下《论语》引文，版本同。**
**\[9\]墨子全译\[M\].周才珠，，齐瑞端译注.贵阳：贵州人民出版社，2009：584.**
**\[10\]晏子春秋全译\[M\].李万寿译注.贵阳：贵州人民出版社，2009：227.**
**\[11\]唐子恒.论汉语词汇发展中的更替现象——以《左传》** **《史记》用词差异为例\[J\].山东大学学报，2012(哲学社会科学版)，(1)，**
**(卢腾** **济南山东大学文学与新闻传播学院** **250100)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **分析上海市大气颗粒物与能见度的关系**
**李晓燕 吴洁**
**(上海市松江区环境监测站 上海 2016001**
**摘要：大气能见度是衡量区域大气环境质量的重要指标，受气束因素和空气污染的双重影响，在空气污染因素中，造成大气能见度降低的主要原因在于空气中悬浮的大气颗粒物对可见光散射和吸收所产生的消光作用。大气能见度低不仅会迫害生态环境和人居环境，还会造成人们呼吸系统发病率的慧剧上升，本文对上海市大气颗粒物的粒度粒形、PM10质量浓度.总碳质量浓度与能见度的关系进行分析。**
**关键词：上海市 大气颗粒物 能见度**
**中图分类号：X513 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-3791(2013)04(a)-0222-02**
**上海市环境空气质量执行国家《环境空气质量标准》(GB3095-2012).近几年来，全市环境控制质量总体保持稳定，能够达到国家二级标准要求，连续9年环境空气质量优良率保持在85%以上，总悬浮颗粒物浓度基本稳定在150 ug/m'，明显低于国家二级标准要求的200 ug/m，同时可吸人颗粒物随之是逐年下降趋势。大气颗粒物是影响大气能见度的重要因素，不同粒度粒形、总碳质量浓度、PM10质量浓度会对大气能见度产生不同程度的影响。**
**_1_ 大气颗粒物与能见度的关系**
**常规气象数据采用上海市松江南部新城高铁片区环境质量观测值，观测时段为02时、07时、14时和19时的温度、风速、气压、相对湿度、能见度及天气现象。大气颗粒物的粒度粒形、PM\]0质量浓度(粒径<10**
**um的颗粒物)、总碳质量浓度均采用实地采样观测数据。**
**1.1粒度粒形与能见度的关系**
**1.1.1粒度与能见度的关系**
**大气颗粒物对可见光的吸收和散射直接影响到大气能见度，其中颗粒物的散射是降低大气能见度的关键因素，并且颗粒物粒径的变化会导致其散射特性的变化。将2010年7月1一2010年7月27日期间，采集样品中粒度为2-4jm颗粒数百分比和大于10颗粒数百分比与日均能见度做散点图进行分析发现：大气能见度随2~4um颗粒数百分比的增大而降低，两者成负相关，相关系数为-0.550；大气能见度随大于10pm颗粒数百分比的增大而提高，两者成正相关，相关系数为0.523。由此可见，2~4pm颗粒数能够造成大气可见度的降低，且能见度随着颗粒数的增多而降低。**
**图1 PM10浓度与能见度散点图**
**图2点总碳浓度与能见度散点图**
**1.1.2粒形与能见度的关系**
**将2010年7月1一2010年7月27日期间，采样日大气颗粒物形状因子和分维度与日均能见度进行分析发现，能见度与不规则或边缘破碎形态颗粒物的相关性不大，而与圆形或近似圆形的颗粒物相关性较大，但是相关系数没有通过显著性检验，仅为0.436。同时，能见度与分维度的相关性不大，而与1一1.1分维度的颗粒百分比呈负相关，相关系数为-0.581。**
**1.2 PM10 浓度与能见度的关系**
**细小颗粒物能够吸收和散射可见光，且其浓度与大气透明度呈反相关，即颗粒物浓度越高，大气能见度越低。将2010年5月一2010年8月期间，采样样品PM10浓度与日均能见度做散点图进行分析可知(如图1)，能见度与PM10浓度呈负相关，能见度随着PM10浓度的增大而降低，相关系数为-0，609。根据此次采样数据计算得知， PM10浓度处于0.15mg/m²左右，能够明显改善大气能见度。**
**1.3总碳与能见度的关系**
**大气颗粒物中的元素碳能够吸收可见光，有机碳能够散射可见光，这使得总碳对大气能见度的影响程度较大。将2010年7月1一2010年7月27日期间，采样样品PM10中总碳浓度与大气能见度进行相关性趋势分析(如图2)，总碳浓度与能见度成负相关，能见度随着总碳浓度的增大而降低，相关系数为-0.652。根据此次采样数据计算得知，总碳浓度控制在0.01~0.1 ug/m²之间，大气能见度可保证在3-10km之间，且总碳浓度在0.03 mg/m\*范围内变化时，其对应的能见度也会出现明显变化。**
**_2_ 上海典型日粒度粒形、PM10浓度、总碳浓度与能见度的关系**
**2.1浮尘夫气粒度粒形、PM10 浓度、总碳浓度与能见度的关系**
**2011年5月1日，上海市受北方沙尘的影**
**的技术保障。**
**2.3室内光环境设计**
**随着建筑设计理念的提高，光环境设让已成为现代建筑设计的一个有机组成部分，自然采光是实现绿色自然的必要因素。在设计室内光环境中，通过选择不同自然光环境，除节能环保外，更能以其丰富的变化，对室内空间起到装饰作用。当然这并不意味着自然光环境设计要有大大的玻璃窗，并非窗面积越大、照射进阳光越充足，就越达到目的——这种设计思维是错误的。光环境设计是个系统工程，需要综合考虑照度、气候、色彩、景观、室外环境等各种因素。光源进人室内的方式有直射光、漫射光和地面的反射光等不同形式，只有达到亮度分布的合理性和创造性，才能使人在视觉上更为习惯和舒适。**
**通常引光的方式有顶部采光，侧面采光及兼有顶部和侧面的混和采光。对于室内设计师来说，在原有建筑的基础上，在合理利用自然光的原则下，有针对性地制造丰富的室内光环境是获得更为半富和细腻的室内环境的重要手段。在居住空间里，常常会因为业主的需求，涉及到对阳台的封闭处理。那么，对顶部的处理就可以考虑完全封闭和灵活封闭。完全封闭既是采用硬性不透光的材料，将顶部做成实体，这样有利于隔热、安全，但浪费了天然的光资源；半封闭可采用木材、钢材与透明材料玻璃结合，再加上可开可关的木帘、布帘控制设**
**(上接222页)**
**响区域继续向东、向南扩散，致使空气中的颗粒物浓度急剧上升，出现浮尘天气，大气能见度降低，达到轻度污染的标准，尤其在崇明县、闸北区、虹口区等区域的浮尘天气更为严重。对当日能见度与大气颗粒物的粒度粒形、PM10浓度、总碳浓度的关系进行相关性分析发现，受沙尘天气的影响，大气颗粒物的粒度均值偏小，颗粒粒径在6~10um范围内的变化较大，多为矿物颗粒； PM10浓度值较高，高于年均的3.5倍；总碳浓度高于年均1.2倍。由此说明，总碳浓度受PM10浓度的影响，伴随着PM10浓度的增大而提升，进而使浮沉天气的能见度降低。2.2霾天气粒度粒形、PM10浓度、总碳浓**
**度与能见度的关系**
**2011年5月17日，上海市有霾天气，空气质量为三级，达到轻度污染的标准，当天能见度为5~7km。对当天能见度与粒度粒形、PM10浓度、总碳浓度的关系进行分析，**
**施，让顶部隐约透出蓝天白云和繁星夜空，为家创造出丰富的“天窗”。而在大型的公共空间，由于现代施工材料和工艺的缘故，室内设计师就是空间与光环境的二次创造者。大多数框架结构的钢筋水泥建筑体，为室内设计师提供了更多更广泛的围合空间的舞台，而天棚的封闭方式、墙面的虚和方式都涉及到了对光环境的再创造。尽可能多且有效地利用自然采光，以丰富的手法来组合室内多种采光方式，以智能高效的方式来决定采光的物理属性，要求室内设计师不断完善自己的专业素养，学习更多的光电知识，从而为业主创造出更好的室内光环境。**
**2.4自然材质的运用**
**除了采用自然元素，对天然的材料、肌理和色彩的运用，对原始形态景观的追求也是自然风尚最明显的处理手法和外在表现形式。这种风格不追求精致高雅、绚丽奢华，而是将返璞归真，宁静淡泊、悠闲清新的意趣作为室内环境营造的主旨。在室内装饰材料的选择上，例如采用毛石饰面为文化墙，铺设鹅卵石为地面，放置野外寻得的石头为点点缀、用原木稍加雕琢为茶几、采用自然的棉麻布为隔断等等，让这样的环境充满了自然的气息、乡村的味道。天然的材料必定带来天然的肌理，让使用者即使在室内久处，也有身在室外的清新感受。而在色彩运用上，多显现天然材料的本色，如天空的湛蓝、砂石的灰、原木的棕褐、**
**受霾天气的影响，大气颗粒物的均值明显减小，仅为年均值的48%，颗粒粒径在6-10um范围内的百分比明显降低，由此可知，大气能见度随细小颗粒物的增多而降低：PM10浓度、总碳浓度为年均值的3倍和4倍，可见，大气能见度随PM10浓度、总碳浓度的增高而降低。这也是造成霾天气能见度降低的主要因素。**
**3结论**
**通过分析上海市松江区大气颗粒物与能见度的关系得出以下结论：不同粒度粒形与能见度的关系不同，能见度与2-4um颗粒数百分比成负相关，与10umi颗粒数百分比成正相关，与1一1.1分维度的颗粒百分比呈负相关；能见度与PM10浓度呈负相关：能见度与总碳浓度成负相关。当PM10浓度控制在0.15mg/m左右，总碳浓度控制在0.03 mg/m范围内时，大气能见度能够得到良好改善。**
**植物的鲜绿，仿佛一片自然天成的景色。就算使用墙纸，也让其图案和色彩表现这些自然材质和色彩。可以说，自然材料的运用，让室内室外的景观共融，“借景入室”，扩大了室内空间的视觉和心理“场域”，增加了使用者的丰富联想，让室内空间更具活性的生命力。**
**3 结语**
**总之，自然风尚室内设计将阳光、水体、植物作为室内设计的元素，创造出高品质的绿色室内生态空间环境，扩展了室内空间的有限性，使室内的形、光、色，质模拟自然的活力与和谐，让室内室外景观共融，为室内环境创造出健康宁静、朴拙天然的气息。今后，自然风尚必将成为建筑室内设计的主流风格之一。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\]张学清.浅谈室内设计的主题与风格\[J\].内蒙古科技与经济，2008(14).**
**\[2\]庄妍.浅淡自然、简约对室内设计风格的影响\[J\].科技促进发展，2009(6).**
**\[3\]胡大勇.论室内设计对传统文化的继承与发扬\[J\].装饰，2006(5).**
**参考文献**
**\[1\]张素敏.石家庄市大气能见度变化与大气颗粒物的关系研究\[D\].河北师范大学，2009(3).**
**\[2\]正炜，解佳宁，路宗敏，等.天津市大气能见度与空气污染物关系分析及控制措施\[月.环境污染与防治，2010(12).**
**\[3\]曾友石，王广华，姚剑.上海市郊大气含碳颗粒物污染特征\[J\].环境科学学报，2013(1).**
**\[4\]杨健儿.上海市近地表大气颗粒物污染特征及来源分析研究\[D\].华东师范大学，2011(5).** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **从压力控制到社会支持：仇恨犯罪的治理转型**
**高 玥1，单 勇2**
**\[摘 要\]在当前仇恨犯罪频发、犯罪风险高涨及社会管理创新的时代背景下，以往源自“压力维稳”的“压力控制"政策愈发不适应犯罪治理的新形势。借助底层视角分析仇恨犯罪，底层抗拒构成了仇恨犯罪频发的深层社会原因：化解底层抗拒的社会支持政策应获得高度重视，从压力控制到社会支持构成了仇恨犯罪治理的新趋势。**
**\[关键词\]仇恨犯罪；压力控制：底层抗拒；礼会支持**
**一、“压力控制”政策无法有效应对仇恨犯罪**
**当前，由个人以报复社会为目的而实施的闹市行区、校园行区、连环枪击、公交爆炸、开车撞人、破坏铁路等交通设施的仇恨犯罪频发。这种仇恨犯罪也被称为个人恐怖主义、极端暴力犯罪，但由于仇恨犯罪更能反映该种犯罪类型的心理本质，所以学界更倾向于使用源自美国的“仇恨犯罪”指代此类犯罪①。**
**在美国，基于种族和宗教等动因、针对“被污名化群体”的仇恨犯罪(又称偏见犯罪)屡禁不止。对此，以1968年《联邦仇恨犯罪防治法》、1990年《联邦仇恨犯罪统计法》，2009年《联邦地方执行仇恨犯罪防治法》等法案为主的反仇恨犯罪法律体系日臻完善；截至2009年，美国共有47个州规定对仇恨犯罪予以刑事处罚。由于社会结构、法律制度、文化背景等方面差异，中美仇恨犯罪不可等量齐观。不同于在美国基于种族、宗教、性取向等偏见而实施的犯罪，仇恨犯罪在我国主要表现为底层群体实施的暴力抗拒。这种暴力抗拒一般由处于社会边缘的底层群体成员实施，不具有组织性；多针对公共场所的临时性聚集人群实施侵害，并不像恐怖犯罪一样针对军警、政府机构；多采用极端暴力的方式报复社**
**会，这一点与恐怖犯罪具有相似之处。**
**以往仇恨犯罪的治理模式是在“维稳”总体框架下依靠政法机构及政府力量开展“压力控制”。这种“压力控制”政策由于下述原因，无法实现真正减少仇恨犯罪的治理目标：**
**第一，在治理理念上，源自“压力维稳”的“压力控制”政策往往更偏重于对仇恨犯罪的应急处置与事后打击，相对忽视相关群众基本权利的维护，仅能实现治标的效果。**
**学界较早地对盲目追求“刚性稳定”的“压力维稳”政策进行了反思2，并指出中国必须由刚性稳定过渡到韧性稳定。 _白_ “压力维稳”导向下的“压力控制”政策具有明显的事后性、应急性及短期性。事后性往往表现为只有仇恨犯罪发生时，相关部门才行动起来采取事后处置、安抚、打击等相关工作，事前的社会政策和预防措施乏力。应急性表现为在仇恨犯罪发生后政府随即肩动应急处置机制，将仇恨犯罪视为社会危机事件，动员各种政府资源联合应对；针对仇恨犯罪的系统性、全局性的治理措施相对受到忽视。上述事后性和应急性特征必然导致仇恨犯罪治理的短期性。**
**第二，在治理主体上，“压力控制”政策更依赖和推崇政府力量的主导，社会参与泛力，不当**
**\[收稿日期\]2014-02-21**
**\[基金项目\]国家社科基金一般项目(14BFX044)；教育部人文社会科学研究青年基金项目(13YJC820013)；浙江省自然科学基金一股项目(Y14G030059)。**
**①国内相关研究主要有：王文华：《“仇恨犯罪"若于问题研究》，《河北法学》，2011年第4期；王文华：《群体性暴力事件与仇恨犯罪：刑法与刑事政策的回应》，《甘肃政法学院学报》，2011年第4期：陆玮：《我国社会转型时期的仇恨犯罪现象研究》，华东政法大学硕士论文，2012年：顾为平：《美国仇恨犯排论纲》《湖南公安高等专科学校学报》，2009年第5期。**
**维稳、体制性防卫过当等问题突出。当前，仇恨犯罪治理主体主要限于政府力量，在政法委牵头、公安机关打击、基层政府组织配合的治理框架下，仇恨犯罪的应急处置往往能够保持较高的效率；但个案的及时处置不能替代全局性的预防工作，有时政府处置措施还容易引发体制性防卫过当等问题。此外，由于社会参与的不足，如何监督政府的“压力控制”、防止权力异化和滥用也是仇恨犯罪的防控难题。**
**第三，在治理机制上，“压力控制”政策在客观上弱化了法律的权威，治理手段的强制性明显。“压力控制”政策往往依托各级政府的行政推动，政府行为的法律依据问题有时遭受冷遇。毕竟，事后性的应急处置无法替代系统性的法律保障，城市公共安全风险只有置于健全的法律体系之下才是可控的犯罪风险。**
**第四，在实践效果上，“压力控制”政策并未实现仇恨犯罪的有效控制，相反，近年来仇恨犯罪还出现了较为明显的扩散趋势。基于新闻媒体的报道，仇恨犯罪不仅广泛发生于人口聚集的省会城市等大中城市，还发生在农村及铁路交通沿线①；仇恨犯罪的实施方式(如爆炸、校园行凶、闹市行凶等)具有明显的模仿效应②；仇恨犯罪的目标具有随意性，社会上的任何人都有可能成为被害人。**
**可见，以往“压力控制”政策弊端重重，仇恨犯罪治理模式已经到了必须转型的时刻；而仇恨犯罪治理转型则取决于对该罪深层次社会原因的认识。**
**二、底层抗拒：仇恨犯罪的深层社会原因**
**“底层研究源于20世纪70年代以后，印度学术界对后殖民主义意识形态形塑下的精英主义史观进行了反思和批判。底层研究的影响迅速由印度波及美国、拉丁美洲和东亚等地，形成了以古哈、查特吉等为代表的印度‘底层研究学派’”\[41“底层研究的崛起与底层群体的反抗运动不断涌现有关。”5\]底层抗争的研究范式获得深人探讨，国家在底层抗争中的角色、底层抗争的治理模式、通过互联网的社会抗争及刑事社会抗拒的实证考察等问题获得深入研讨。于是，底层研究和底层视角为仇恨犯罪原因探讨提供了全新的思路。**
**首先，由于对社会转型的不适应，底层群体**
**在社会失范背景下更容易遭受各种挫折且被边缘化，社会底层成为反社会心理最易集聚的群体，构成犯罪高危人群。**
**随着社会转型的深人，社会各阶层、群体之间的分化与冲突已成为当前社会一个不争的基本事实。受以往单纯追求 GDP的政绩考核影响，政府在社会保障、医疗、福利等领域对底层群体帮扶亟待提升。随着社会竞争的加剧，各个行业的准人门槛日益提高，社会各阶层之间的流动日渐固化。于是，处于社会底层的某些群体逐渐被边缘化，社会矛盾频发的现实环境为仇恨犯罪提供了天然的“培养基”。按照默顿的社会失范理论，犯罪主要发生于以下两种情况：第一种情况，当社会成员认同社会所提出的共同价值观或奋斗目标，而社会所提供实现这些目标的合法手段或方式极为有限时，必然会有人会试图运用不合法的手段来实现合法的目标。第二种情况，当社会成员不认同主流社会的价值观，也不认同实现目标的合法手段时，反抗、泄愤、破坏及敌意行为就会大量发生。对于社会一般人的犯罪动因来说，可能第一种情况最为常见；但对于底层群体来说，上述两种情况均较常见，尤其是对于频繁遭受挫折、具有较为强烈反社会心理的底层成员来说，第二种情况往往构成实施仇恨犯罪的基本动因。**
**其次，在“压力维稳”和“压力控制”下，底层群体与政府及其他阶层的冲突更易激化、更为突出。以往的“压力控制”政策尽管能起到较好的治标效果，但对社会底层群体的生存状况并未起到根本性的改变。每次应急处置的成功仅局限于案件告破、罪犯落网的层面；每次应急处置的不当之处还会引发新的矛盾和对立。当然，实施“压力控制”政策并非没有意义，但只有“压力控制”政策与其他治本的公共政策配合运用时，才能形成犯罪治理的合力。中国历史的丰富经验反复说明了一个道理，即对社会底层群体，面包比管制更有效。**
**最后，从犯罪亚文化角度看，对生存或基本生活遭受威胁的群体大谈道德与守法的效果可想而知，底层身份为底层群体实施暴力抗争提供了貌似“正当的理由”。**
**结合我国现实情况，群体性的底层抗拒往往表现为群体性事件，而个体实施的底层抗拒在极**
**如2014年4月发生的K7034次列车脱轨案就系铁路职工基于报复社会目的而实施的。**
**如在2010年福建南平校园惨案发生后的几十天内，在我国其他城市的中小学，幼儿园连续发生了数起校园行凶案件：造成了惨烈的后果，引发社会各界对校园安全的深刻反思。**
**端层面往往表现为仇恨犯罪。这些群体性事件与仇恨犯罪频发的背后不仅有利益之争，还有支撑底层群体内在反社会心理的犯罪亚文化。这种反社会心理主要表现为在合法维权或谋利渠道屡屡碰壁后所形成的挫折感、绝望感支配下的报复社会、发泄不满情绪心理。如“仇富”“仇官”对他人权益的漠视等心态。由于底层群体成员本身缺乏一定技能、接受教育的水平有限、经济地位低下，该群体成员更易接受这种反社会心理。可见，仇恨犯罪与底层抗拒存在紧密关联，遏制仇恨犯罪必须改善该群体的生存状况进而消解犯罪亚文化。**
**三、以社会支持化解底层抗拒**
**通过对底层群体实施仇恨犯罪原因的剖析，可以发现以往重刑事政策轻社会政策、重事后应急处置轻事前预防的“压力控制”政策值得反思，政府以往“压力维稳”及自上而下的控制模式不利于化解底层群体的暴力抗争。而以改善底层群体生存状况、保障底层群体利益表达机制制度化的社会支持政策则有助于从根本上减少仇恨犯罪。**
**首先，社会支持政策不仅是刑事政策，更是改善底层群体的一揽子解决方案与系统性社会工程，从而为仇恨犯罪治理提供了一种全新的治理模式。**
**美国学者卡伦较早地将源自社会学、心理学的社会支持理论系统引入犯罪学研究，通过对犯罪学中社会控制理论的反思，该理论强调对潜在罪犯给予各类型的社会支持构成了预防犯罪的有效策略。“社会支持理论无疑为犯罪学理论提供了一个新的研究方向，也为社会政策制定者提供了一个‘正面的’、非控制性的预防和减少犯罪行为的理论依据。”可见，“最好的社会政策就是最好的刑事政策”，社会支持政策不仅是刑事政策，更准确地说是社会公共政策。该政策是围绕改善社会底层群体的生活状况而提出的，该政策能够综合运用法律、经济、慈善、救济、文化等多种手段，动员政府、社区、民众等多种主体，开展多层次、类型化的实践活动。该政策为仇恨犯罪治理提供了一种根本性的解决思路。**
**其次，社会支持政策能够有效改善底层群体的生活状况，为底层抗拒心理的化解提供坚实的物质基础。所谓“仓廪实面知礼节”社会支持政策通过就业、教育、医疗、救济、住房等举措的实施有助于改善底层群体的生活状况，提高其生活水平。在发达国家，移民犯罪往往较为突出，但**
**随着移民因逐渐融人所在社会而改善其生活条件，这部分移民的犯罪率就逐渐下降；在我国，农民工犯罪较为突出，但随着农民工的市民化进程加速，这部分农民工的犯罪率亦逐步下降。可见，生活条件的改善、经济收人的增加能够有效推进底层群体融入主流社会，能够有效化解社会抗拒心理。**
**再次，社会支持政策能够有效动员最广泛的社会力量关注底层群体，为底层抗拒心理的化解提供最为丰富的治理资源。作为综合治理系统，仇恨犯罪治理离不开多元社会主体的参与；作为系统工程，社会支持措施的实施也离不开各类社会群体的广泛参与。实际上，社会支持政策本身就需要依靠多元主体、在多个层面上、开展多种措施，尤其是在社会基层与基础领域，对底层群体的社会支持措施更易组织和发动社区力量深人参与。来自社会各界的关心和帮助，是消除高危人群抗拒心理和反社会心理的最佳工具。**
**最后，社会支持政策重视为底层群体的利益表达、权利维护提供制度设计，为底层抗拒心理的化解提供法律保障。如何将各种社会支持措施的实施日常化和稳定化，这就需要法律制度的保障。社会支持政策中最关键因素就是社会支持体系的法律法规的制定与实施。**
**总之，社会支持政策不仅表现为化解底层抗拒的具体措施，也是国家治理仇恨犯罪的总体方略，更代表了刑事政策的发展方向。**
**\[参考文献\]**
**\[1\]孙道萃.美国仇恨犯罪介评与我国刑法理论的应对：新及样体性亨件的刑事治理观\[J\].华中师范大学研究生学报：2012(3)：27-43.**
**\[2\]于建嵘.当前我国群体性事件的主要类型及其基沐特征LJJ.中国政法大学学报，2009(6)：114-160.**
**\[3\]于建嵘.当前压力维稳的困境与出路** ....再论中国社会 **的刚性稳定\[J\].探索与争鸣，2012(9)：3-6.**
**\[4」工洪伟，当代中国底层社会\*以身抗争”的效度和限度分析一个“艾滋村民”抗争维权的启示「\].社会，2010(2)：215-234.**
**\[5\]王庆明，陆遥，底层视角：单向度历史叙事的拆解** \---印 **度“底层研究”的一种进路\[\].社会科学战线，2008(6)：224-227.**
**\[6\]张旭，单勇.犯罪学基本理论研究\[M\].北京：高等教育出版社，2010：135.**
**L7」江山河.社会支持理论\[M\]//曹立群，任昕.犯罪学，北京：中国人民大学出版社，2008：100，**
**(作者单位：1.吉林大学社会科学学报编辑部；**
**2.浙江工业大学法学院)**
**\[责任编辑：何宏俭\]** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **... 民心网是我省加强党同人民群众血肉联系的重要平台。 _一_ 十年来，依托民心网，大连为群众解决了大量实际问题，涌现出一批先进典型，赢得了群众称赞。希望民心网一如既往地关注大连，支持大连。祝愿民心网再接再厉，越办越好!**
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**一份耕耘一份收获。今年以来，在县委、县政府的全力支持下，经过基层联网单位的共同努力，民心网工作取得了实实在在的进步。我们要认真贯彻执行《本溪县民心网工作管理办法》，严肃责任追究，进一步提高民意诉求办理工作质量和效率，使这项工作进人全省先进行列。**
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zh | N/A | N/A | **高校女性管理人员工作满意度质性研究**
**金风华**
**摘 要：采用自编的半结构访谈提纲对浙江省某高校11名女性管理人员进行深度访谈，通过对访谈内容的类属分析以及与前期量化研究结果的比对，发现个人发展、工作回报、工作压力、工作时间、工作成就、工作关系、组织气氛、工作条件是影响高校女性管理人员工作满意度的八类因素。针对八类因素的不同影响和作用，建议注重高校女性管理人员职业生涯特殊阶段的规划，在录用考核、薪酬晋升等制度设计中增加性别敏感度，在高校组织氛围建设中强化女性关爱。**
**关键词：高校女性管理人员；工作满意度；影响因素；质性研究**
**DOI 编码：10.3969/j.issn.1007-3698.2012.01.007 收稿日期：2011-11-18**
**中图分类号： G776 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1007-3698(2012)01-0045-06**
**作者简介：金风华，女，浙江师范大学妇女发展研究中心助理研究员，主要研究方向为高等教育管理、知识女性发展。321004**
**基金项目：本文系2010年度浙江省教育科学规划研究课题 _‘_ “高校女性教育管理人员工作满意度研究”(项目编号：SCG5)和2011年度教育部人文社会科学研究青年基金项目“高校知识女性专业发展研究：基于演进中的社会性别分析框架”(项目编号：11YJC880041)的部分研究成果。**
**一、问题的提出**
**自上世纪末我国高等教育步人大众化快车道以来的十余年间，我国普通高校31.67万名管理人员中，有女性管理人员约 14.33万人，比 1998年的7.15万人翻一番有余，其男女性别比亦从1.49降低为1.21，形成了一个庞大的职业知识女性群体。然而，检索中国知网(CNKI)相关国内研究发现，这一群体只是近年才进入研究者视野，现有研究主要从高校女性管理人员的地位、角色定位、心理素质等方面进行了探讨。IITI4笔者前期已对高校管理人员工作满意度进行量化研究并分析了性别差异啊，而从社会性别视角，运用质性研究方法中的半结构访谈法(Semi-structured Interview)，进一步探索高校女性管理人员工作满意度影响因素，对高校女性管理人员个人职业生涯发展、高校人力资源开发管理和组织绩效管理具有方法论意义。因而，本文拟在前期量化研究的基础上，继续对高校女性管理人员工作满意度的影响因素、影响程度、类型划分、所起作用**
**进行探索性研究，以期更好地揭示其内在特征，为提高高校女性管理人员的工作满意度和完善高校人力资源管理制度提供具有针对性的建议。**
**二、方法和步骤**
**(一)研究对象**
**本研究选择浙江省某省属本科院校为被试单位。该校1998年12月底有女性管理人员108人，至2011年10月底达到229人，增长了112%。根据典型性和代表性原则，选取11名女性管理人员为访谈对象。这11名访谈对象的基本情况见表1。**
**(二)工具与方法**
**本研究设计了《高校女性管理人员工作满意度访谈提纲》《访谈知情同意书》两种工具。其中，《高校女性管理人员工作满意度访谈提纲》分为三个独立部分：访谈对象资料、访谈目的、访谈问题。研究者还制作了包括记录访谈步骤、访谈问题、访谈内容以及注意事项在内的纸质记录材料。采用半结构访谈方式对需要进一步挖掘的内容运用深度访谈**
**表1 访谈对象基本情况统计**
| **被试特征** | **分类** | **人数** | **比例(%)** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **年龄** | **36—55岁** | **8** | **72.73** |
| **年龄** | **35岁及以下** | **3** | **27.27** |
| | **副厅级** | **1** | **9.09** |
| **职务** | **正处级** | **2** | **18.18** |
| **职务** | **副处级** | **3** | **27.27** |
| **职务** | **正科级** | **2** | **18.18** |
| **职务** | **副科级** | **1** | **9.09** |
| | **普通人员** | **2** | **18.18** |
| **职称** | **正高** | **3** | **27.27** |
| **职称** | **副高** | **3** | **27.27** |
| **职称** | **中级** | **4** | **36.36** |
| **职称** | **初级** | **1** | **9.09** |
| **学历** | **初级** | **1** | **9.09** |
| **学历** | **博士** | **2** | **18.18** |
| **学历** | **硕士** | **5** | **45.45** |
| **学历** | **大学本科(均硕士在读)** | **4** | **36.36** |
**(Depth-interviewing)和探测技术(Probing technique)深人询问，访谈过程同时使用录音笔。录音材料转化成文字材料后，对访谈资料进行分析编码，采用质性分析软件 Nvivo8 按照一级、二级、三级逐级编码登录，并作类属分析。最后运用扎根理论(Grounded Theory)原理进行概念轴绎并分析比较。**
**(三)步骤**
**1.确定取样策略和标准。由研究人员和专家根据被试单位女性管理人员的年龄分层、职务层级、技术职称、学历学位等情况确定取样标准，访谈对**
**象的四类人口社会统计学变量比例与该校总体女性管理人员的相应比例大致相当。**
**2.预访谈。以前期量化研究得到的8类工作满意度影响因素为蓝本，编制预访谈提纲。先抽取3名访谈对象进行预访谈，根据预访谈编码结果进行两次修改完善后，形成正式访谈提纲。**
**3.抽选正式受访者。根据取样标准和比例，按照目的性抽象原则，在被试学校不同管理部门和管理岗位抽取8名正式访谈对象。**
**4.实施访谈，采集数据。在访谈前尽可能熟悉访谈对象个人背景。单次访谈时间控制在90一120分钟。**
**5.访谈录音文本转录。及时将笔记和录音材料整理成文本，11份访谈记录文本约3.2万字符。**
**6.基于文本编码。由于本研究中访谈的目的是为了求证前期量化研究需进一步挖掘原因的问题，因而设计为围绕量化研究基本问题展开的半结构式访谈。一级编码采用开放式；二级编码按8个因素下属问题的关键词进行关联式或轴心式归类，对大量“本土概念”进行涵义剖析后，有的归入二级关键词，有的直接添加成为新二级关键词；三级编码按工作回报、工作关系、组织气氛、个人发展、工作时间、工作成就、工作条件、工作压力八个核心因素分类。正式编码时，在词句旁注明所归属因素及层级，对涵盖若干因素的词句特别注明。**
**7.统计分析编码结果。分别统计11份访谈材料中的一、二、三级编码频次，形成的三级编码总频次统计结果见表2。**
**表211位访谈对象八类工作满意度因素的频次统计**
| **因素** | **个人发展** | **工作回报** | **工作压力** | **工作时间** | **工作成就** | **工作关系** | **组织气氛** | **工作条件** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **代码** | **频次** | **频次** | **频次** | **频次** | **频次** | **频次** | **频次** | **频次** |
| **A** | **14** | **12** | **13** | **12** | **8** | **10** | **6** | **5** |
| **B** | **15** | **11** | **10** | **13** | **11** | **11** | **8** | **6** |
| **C** | **17** | **9** | **11** | **13** | **5** | **8** | **4** | **3** |
| **D** | **16** | **8** | **10** | **10** | **8** | **6** | **5** | **6** |
| **E** | **12** | **7** | **6** | **9** | **7** | **9** | **6** | **7** |
| **F** | **16** | **13** | **13** | **14** | **9** | **12** | **7** | **7** |
| **G** | **15** | **8** | **5** | **3** | **8** | **12** | **5** | **5** |
| **H** | **13** | **13** | **8** | **8** | **11** | **6** | **6** | **11** |
| **1** | **11** | **8** | **9** | **3** | **10** | **7** | **5** | **9** |
| **J** | **10** | **17** | **12** | **2** | **12** | **6** | **8** | **7** |
| **K** | **9** | **10** | **5** | **8** | **8** | **4** | **3** | **5** |
**将11个样本中八类因素按频次求和，再按序排列后可以看出，总体上，高校女性管理人员在日常工作中所感受到的工作满意度影响因素，与本研究前期量化研究产生的排序结果不尽一致。阿量化与质性研究结果对比见表3。**
**表3问卷调查与访谈调查各因子重要性对比**
| **序号** | **问卷调查中** **各因子重要性排序** | **访谈调查中** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **序号** | **问卷调查中** **各因子重要性排序** | **各因子重要性排序** |
| | **工作回报** | **个人发展** |
| **2** | **工作关系** | **工作回报** |
| **3** | **组织气氛** | **工作压力** |
| **4** | **个人发展** | **工作时间** |
| **5** | **工作时间** | **工作成就** |
| **6** | **工作成就** | **工作关系** |
| **7** | **工作条件** | **组织气氛** |
| | **工作压力** | **工作条件** |
**通过对半结构访谈材料的整理提炼，结合前期量化研究形成的初步结论，笔者采用意义探究的深度访谈和经验分析对影响高校女性管理人员工作满意度的主要因素进行如下分析。**
**1.个人发展和工作成就是高校女性管理人员工作满意度的核心要素**
**访谈发现，个人发展、工作成就始终是当前高校女性管理人员工作满意度的核心因素，尤其是中高层女性管理干部始终保持昂扬向上的心态，不断在工作中追求、实现自身人生价值。针对前期量化研究中，在“工作成就”和“个人发展”两个因素上高校女性管理人员呈现出比男性相对较低的统计结果，笔者产生了疑问：为什么不同性别的高校管理人员步入中青年，晋升处级职务、高级职称后，女性不如男性满意呢?如何解释这些差异?通过访谈和分析，对此解释为：高校女性管理人员在遭遇晋升“玻璃天花板”时团，尽管对此并不满意，但仍能积极调整心态，在挖掘工作内涵和追求工作意义上找到自身内在价值。**
**K(普通干部、助研、硕士)：“我们部门工作独立性和自主性要求特别高，要自已控制好工作进程和节奏。我每年都用掉好几个记事本，过段时间看看心里特别有成就感。**
**F(副处、正高、博士)：“作为学校双肩挑干部，如何**
**协调教学、科研、管理这三者的关系，始终是我天天面对的一个矛盾。不过每块工作都给我带来了快乐，有工作成就感。**
**F(正科、讲师、硕士)：“我是老正科。对自己工作和服务的对象有很深的感情。至于今后能不能上，那是组织上的事，我不多作考虑。把自己手头工作做好最重要，服务对象满意了，我的工作也就成功了。”**
**2.工作回报是高校女性管理人员工作满意度的重要基础**
**访谈统计显示，工作回报依然是高校女性管理人员重要的工作满意度因素。这是因为，在社会分工越来越细的现代社会，参加工作是个体从社会中取得生存资源、实现自身再生产和人类再生产的重要保障。11位访谈对象中，对目前工作回报有1位表示“非常满意”，6位表示““满意”，3位表示“一般”，1位表示“不满意”。访谈资料分析表明，工作回报中的公正因素十分重要。这符合亚当斯的公平理论，即收入满意度不仅与个体自己付出和回报的比值相关，还与同类人员比较相关。具体情况为：有的是因为职称、职务晋升带来收入大幅提升，跟过去比较产生了较大满意度；有的是与校内其他岗位工作人员收入相比较，如与同期进入教师岗位人员的收入相比，产生了或高或低的满意度；有的是与同期进入其他行业的人员的收入相比，产生了或高或低的满意度。**
**F(正科、讲师、硕士)：“我们机关奖金是全校平均，谈不上满意不满意。但高校里有寒暑假，这一点我觉得特别满意。**
**H(正科，助研，本科)：“我挺满意的。我是财会专业，有同学在地方银行，工作压力大，收入比我低；有同学在出口企业，受欧美经济影响，企业不景气；也有同学在省城高校，住房公积金虽比地方高校高，但买房压力更大。’**
**3.工作压力是高校女性管理人员工作满意度的负面因素**
**近年来，高校办学规模迅速扩大，办学层次逐步提升，师生数量急剧增加，这给高校管理人员带来了较大的工作压力。11位访谈对象无一例外地提及了工作压力。主要原因有：工作内涵扩大，工作要求变高，服务对象增多，事务性工作过多。外在表现为：时常产生焦虑感，时有工作倦怠、情绪耗竭感，有时身体莫名不适，家庭、工作、学习、生活的多边平衡感较差。与高校教师的教学科研压力相比，女**
**性管理人员感到尽管事务繁忙，毕竟工作性质相对单纯；可又带来学术地位底层化、行政地位边缘化问题，产生职称晋升压力。此外，近年高校为节约办学成本，提高管理效能，在管理岗位实行了人事代理制、年薪合同制，管理人员需年度考核优秀、拥有硕士及以上学位，才有资格申请正式编制。按照中央相关文件，事业单位管理岗位均须面向社会公开招考，这一制度的施行更给高校管理人员带来极大压力。**
**I(副科、初级、本科)：“这几年学校规模扩大，师生数增加，工作量大大加大，晚上经常加班，有时下班回家累得只想躺下、**
**K(普通干部、助研、硕士)：“我刚进高校，是聘用合同制，还不是正式编制，压力挺大，0**
**4.工作关系与组织气氛是高校女性管理人员工作满意度的生态条件**
**访谈中有近72%的研究对象表示，对高校和部门内部的组织氛围、人际关系感到满意或很满意，只有约18%左右表示不太满意。这说明尽管目前高校内部管理体制尚处于不断变革和完善的过程中，但由于高校管理人员具备一定的文化素养和服务意识，人际关系和组织气氛总体不错。**
**K(普通干部、助研、硕士)：“我们部门氛围很好。各自工作虽多，但只要有综合性工作，领导不用吩咐，大家都会主动配合。**
**E(副处、副高、硕士)：“刚上副处时，我就非常注意向部门一把手、科长、同志们学习。处长给了我很大帮助，部里同志们也对我工作很支持。**
**C(正处、副高、大学)：“作为学院党委书记要时刻关注教师思想动态，才能有针对性地开展工作。要配合院长工作，做好搭台补台。院务要及时公开，作风民主，做事规范，这样教职工们才放心安心。”**
**5.工作时间和工作条件是高校女性管理人员工作满意度的必备要素**
**随着我国高等教育大众化步伐加快，浙江省高等教育规模也出现大扩张大发展。目前，浙江省各高校基建任务基本完成，教学、科研、实验、行政等条件得到极大改善，但如何节约办学资源，使人、财、物组合发挥最大功效，是管理中需要解决的新问题。**
**J(普通干部、助研、本科)：“行政大楼工作环境、条件总体不错。不过我们大科室6个人共用一室，白天嘈**
**杂，只能晚上搞文字材料。”**
**E(副处、副高、硕士)：“比较满意处级干部有独立办公室，思考问题、撰写材料、与人交流不受干扰。到过日本高校办公室，挤得身都转不开。感觉我们办公设备太浪费，而日本的资源节约意识特别强。 _FF_**
**通过访谈调查，我们得出以下结论：追求工作成就和个人发展是目前高校女性管理人员的核心动力，也是实现其自身价值的有效途径；良好的上下级和同事关系，是高校女性管理人员顺利开展工作的重要依托；收入福利、带薪假期等依然是高校女性管理人员工作满意度的主要源泉；在拓展办学内涵、提升办学层次过程中，由于制度设计、职责分工不尽合理等原因，给部分女性管理人员带来了较大的工作压力；大部分高校女性管理人员对目前高校基建完成后的工作环境、办公条件改善表示满意，但在民主参与、扩大话语权等方面满意度不高。**
**四、建议**
**根据访谈研究结果，结合相关理论，本研究提出如下建议：**
**1.协助规划职业生涯，灵活调整发展预期**
**多项研究揭示，高校教育管理领域中存在女性干部“基层多、高层少，正职少、副职多”的状况。项对教育部直属72所高等院校的研究显示：我国高等院校中女性管理者大都为中初级，高层女性凤毛麟角。日在本研究所调查的高校中，11名厅级干部中女性1名，占9.09%；61名正处级干部中女性4名，占 6.56%；125名副处级干部中女性28名，占22.4%，亦呈“尖塔型”。对这一普遍现象，研究者们有不同解释。马丁·科维恩顿(Martin Covington)认为：“那些寻求避免失败的人可以，也常常是受到高度激励的人。”840-41这一观点可以解释为什么在高校，包括管理系统，许多女性历经艰苦奋斗，发展到某一高度后会产生心理危机，严重时甚至会对自身存在价值和远景前途丧失信心。有研究认为，就性别差异看，随着年龄阶段的变化，男性在31一40岁阶段，成就动机处于稳定上升趋势，而女性却相反，呈持续下降趋势。P9p201-209 许多女性管理人员不敢或不愿追求更高一级的行政职务，究其原因，是因为在高校这一学术机构中，高学历、高职称、既具有科研实力又具有一定管理能力的人员更容易进入中高管理层。而女性在25一35岁这一人生黄金时期往往面临着生育、哺育和抚养幼子等人类社会和家庭**
**成员再生产任务，不得不暂时延缓职业进程，教学、科研精力投人相对受阻，学历提升、学位获取、职称评聘机会相对减少，这直接影响了女性晋升的机会。因此，高校应充分重视并协助女性管理人员进行科学合理的职业生涯规划，完善女性管理人员职业发展保障机制。通过合理规划、教育培训、公平晋升等手段，给予每位女性管理人员成长的空间和发挥潜能的机会，使其树立信心，对其自身发展充满期待。**
**要特别对步人职业生涯中后期的高校女性管理人员给予关注。首先，目前高校实行的男女不同年龄退休制度，极大地降低了高校中高层女性管理人员职业生涯的成就预期，挫伤了其工作积极性。其次，由于高校中年女性管理人员的知识结构、能经验与时代飞速发展对职业提出的新要求之间往往存在差异，使得其面临严峻的职业挑战，导致成就动机下降，避免失败动机加强。\[0第三，这一阶段的女性管理人员自身将进人或正经历更年期，家庭中子女处于成长问题高发期，父母健康状况开始衰退，都需要她们付出更多时间和精力，职业和家庭矛盾冲突特别激烈。高校应特别注意帮助她们做好职业——家庭平衡计划，提供咨询服务，以便帮助她们缓解精神压力。**
**2.灵活运用激励因素，建立合理的薪酬制度**
**研究结果显示，在“工作回报”因素上高校女性管理人员满意度均值处于中偏上水平，35岁以上年龄组显著高于35岁及以下年龄组，高级职称群体显著高于初中级职称群体，处级干部显著高于科级及以下干部。这些结果表明：随着工龄增长、职务升迁、职称升高，高校女性管理人员的工作回报在同步增长。因此，相关待遇的小幅度提高对大部分中老年高校女性管理人员所起的激励作用并不大。但对35岁及以下的高校女性管理人员群体来说，由于资历浅、积累少、需求多，物质激励作用还是相当大，能有效调动工作积极性，属激励因素。因此，在不同职级工作薪酬增幅设计上，要适当考虑不同年龄段群体对物质激励因素的不同需求，对于越能产生激励效果的职级越要加大薪水增量的水平。**
**女性在工作回报满意度上总体高于男性，且35岁及以下、初级职称的女性显著高于同条件男性。本研究对此解释为：外部发展指标相同但性别不同的青年高校管理人员之间，青年女性对工作薪酬的预期低于青年男性，她们仅把工作薪酬作为满足生**
**活需要的保证因素；而对青年男性来说，工作薪酬不仅是满足其生存需要的基础保证，由于其刚踏上社会产生的强烈成就动机，往往将薪酬当作体现内在社会价值、证明工作能力的标尺，所以同样的薪水男性反而产生较低的满意度。事实上，我们不可能建立男女有别的工作薪酬体制，因此，如何运用其他针对性激励手段来促进高校女性管理人员发展，是需要我们进一步思考的问题。**
**3.加快推行职员制度，畅通多种晋升渠道**
**目前，高校行政管理人员的晋升渠道主要还是领导职务晋升和专业技术职务晋升并行的“双阶梯制”。领导职务晋升制度是只对少部分人起作用的层级激励体系，目前大部分高校管理人员走的还是专业技术职务晋升之路。但专业技术职务评聘的主要依据是学术论文、著作、科研项目等学术成果，高校管理人员与专职教师相比，更难取得真正有价值的科研成果。针对上述弊端，笔者建议加快推行高校职员制，为高校管理人员提供一条符合客观实际的晋升渠道，更好地引导他们走专家型管理之路。**
**在加快推行高校职员制过程中，结合本研究结果，笔者认为，在职业分类这一职员制首要环节上，要注意结合不同年龄和资历的管理人员作不同需求分析：刚进入高校管理队伍的年轻人关注的是个人能力素质提升而非职务晋升，处于职业生涯初期的管理人员更关心的是个人成长和职务晋升，而进入职业生涯末期的管理人员需要稳定的待遇和工作环境。另外，本研究还发现：在学历变量上，高校女性管理人员在各因素满意度上呈升势，且从硕士到博士存在明显上升趋势；而高校男性管理人员的情况截然不同，从大专到本科到硕士，各因素满意度有明显下降趋势，到博士才出现上升趋势。这说明学历较高、不同性别的高校管理人员对能激发工作积极性和满意度的因素需求不同，建议在职位设计和人员配备时适当考虑学历和性别因素。**
**此外，高等教育改革发展客观上要求管理队伍专业化，这在高校发展规划、人力资源管理、学生事务、财务管理、图资档案、工程卫生等部门都已体现。因此，在推行职员制时，建议保留专业技术职务晋升渠道，促进高校管理工作专业化、管理人员专家化。**
**4.丰富优化工作内容，营造和谐的组织气氛**
**访谈中发现，由于高校行政管理工作缺乏挑战性、变化性，许多女性管理人员产生了程度不等的**
**职业倦怠感，工作中常会出现情绪衰竭。本次调查显示：高校女性管理人员工作总满意度虽在均值之上，但对工作压力和工作时间的满意度并不高。从高校管理工作设计本身看，它的激励因素应包括工作的意义、工作目标的挑战性、符合个人意愿、能产生工作兴趣等。从笔者进行的访谈和日常观察看，目前大部分高校女性管理人员从事例行单调的事务性工作，工作中要求发掘潜能和特长的机会较少；高校管理部门中缺乏鼓励创新的工作氛围，较少考虑管理人员的个性特长而实行岗位轮换制度，同时也缺乏优化工作设计和丰富工作内容等现代管理手段，人力资源挖掘理念还未真正体现。因此，高校管理工作设计要适度扩大工作范围和责任，丰富工作内容，优化工作流程，使其具有更多挑战性，以最大限度地开发高校女性管理人员这一知识服务型人力资本群体的工作价值。**
**研究结果表明：在“组织气氛”因素上，女性满意度明显高于男性，35岁及以下年龄段女性满意度显著高于男性；高校民主参与的推进及和谐校园氛围的营造，对女性管理人员组织气氛满意度产生了较大正向影响。而组织气氛、人际关系与女性管理人员的工作积极性都存在明显正向关系，即学校和部门组织气氛越好，工作关系越融洽，女性管理人员的工作满意度就越高。因此，高校应大力加强校风建设，优化校园人际关系，使得高校女性管理人员通过工作不仅仅取得必要的物质收益，还满足其社会交往、获得友谊和建立密切人际关系的需要。事实证明，精神激励只有在人际关系和谐、心情舒**
**畅、上下形成合力的内部环境中才能得到最佳效果。因此，高校必须重视感情建设，处理好对女性管理人员严格要求、关怀和尊重之间的关系，想方设法为她们排忧解难，尽可能地满足她们的合理需求，使其置身于集体的温暖之中。**
**【参考文献】**
**\[1\]孙杰.高校女性管理者地位状况研究\[DI南京师范大学硕士学位论文，2007.**
**\[2\]刘利群.高等教育中女性管理者的角色透视\[J\].教育探索，2002，(6).**
**\[3\] 张爱淑，袁迎菊.高校女性管理者的自我认知与社会认同\[\].中国矿业大学学报(社会科学版)，2006，(4).**
**\[4\]李海生，论教育管理研究中的社会性别视角缺失门教育发展研究，2005，(19).**
**\[5\]金风华.高校教育管理人员工作满意度测量研究门.河北师范大学学报(教育科学版)，2010，(11).**
**\[6\]金风华.高校管理人员工作满意度的性别差异研究\[J中华女子学院学报，2011，(1).**
**\[7\]D·A·科特，黄育馥，玻璃天花板的影响\[\].国外社会科学，2002，(4).**
**\[8\] Martin V.Covington. Making the Grade： A Self-worth Per-spective on Motivation and School Reform\[M\]. New York：Cambridge University Press，1992.**
**\[9\] 余安邦，杨国枢，成就动机本土化省思\[A\].杨中芳，高尚仁.中国人·中国心——人格与社会篇\[M\].台北：远流出版公司，1991.**
**\[10\]李颖.高校教师职业生涯发展及其管理激励创新研究\[D\].苏州大学硕士学位论文，2004.**
**Qualitative Research on College Female Managers Job Satisfaction**
**JIN Fenghua**
**Abstract： A study on the job satisfaction of college female managers was conducted with self-made semi-structured interviews. The sample consisted of 11 female managers from a college in Zhejiang Province and results indicate that there are 8 factors implicated in job satisfaction. According to comparisons between further analysis and the preliminary study， some suggestions were put forth， such as assistance in career planning and flexible adjustment of development， flexibility in the use of incentives to establish a rational system of remuneration， variety of promotion channels and workplace atmosphere.**
**Key words： college female managers； job satisfaction； depth interview** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | _1_ 一体三翼"引领学生走向深度学习
李亮芝郭秀平\_北京市第十八中学
北京市第十八中学全面引入学习共同体理念，与“走校"“走班”“走位”式教学相结合，探索出了“一体三翼”的课程实施模式，即以学习共同体为“体”，以“群内走校.校内走班、班内走位"为翼，一体三翼互相配合，共同引领学生走向深度学习。
我们聚焦自主.合作、探究的学习模式，与佐藤学教授团队合作，全面引入学习共同体理念，彻底抛弃了“排排坐.仔细听.认真记"的传统讲授式课堂，重新营造课堂生态。
1.学习共同体：改变课堂的物理空间
将课桌调整为4名学生可以两两面对面坐着的桌位，4名学生结成一个学习共同体，这个学习共同体不是一个根据“契约"建立起来的“他组织”，而是在属于学生的时间和空间内，在学生发挥主体性作用的过程中，在没有外界的特定干预下，形成的一种自发和自觉的“自组织”。
在这个学习共同体中，学生个体之间能够自由交往，能够通过与自我和他人进行对话而找到自我认同，从而实现真正的对话与合作，学生成为课堂的主体.学习的主人。学习共同体保障了学生的“学习权"，激发了学生的探究意识，启迪了新思维，促进了深度学习，培养了学生运用复杂概念创造新概念.新理论.新产品的能力。
在全面进行课堂改革的基础上，我们围绕着学
习共同体，实行了“群内走校"“校内走班”“班内走位"的课程实施模式，以深入推进学习共同体建设，推动学生进行深度学习。
2.群内走校：共享集群教育资源
满足学生全面而有个性的发展对课程资源的需求非常大，在现实条件下，单体学校难以完全满足学生的发展需求，这就需要在区域层面给予课程.师资等教学软硬件以及制度上的配套与支持。
2010年5月，北京市丰台区方庄地区27家教育单位联合建立了以北京十八中为龙头的方庄教育集群(现已扩大到46所)，集群打通了校际界限，实行课程.师资等教育资源共建.共享，开发了精品集群课程，构建了良好的课程结构和丰富的课程品类。集群内学生可以根据自己的兴趣爱好和发展需求，有计划.有组织地在集群内选择跨校课程，在职业学校.专业学校.普通学校间"走校"上课，这就是“群内走校"。
集群内教师通过集群平台发布课程，学生通过平台了解课程，并根据自己的兴趣爱好和时间安排选择课程，这样，一个“集群班"就愉快地产生了。例如，北京十八中利用已有的丰富的实验室资源及中学教学优势，有针对性地面向集群内小学开发了系列小学科学课程，在集群平台上先后共接收了约1400人次，类似的针对性的集群课程还有艺术类.
体育类和科技类，包括集群国画班.集群击剑班.集群航模班等。北京十八中的学生也可以去其他学校参加集群课程学习，如到丰台区职业教育中心学校学习家政课程一。。“群内走校”不仅满足了学生发展的课程需求，也使学生在与校外师生的交流中，进一步丰富和扩大想象空间.心智空间，促进了全面发展。
3.校内走班：满足学生个性发展
“校内走班”有年级内.跨年级两种方式。体育.艺术.科技等选修课允许学生在全校范围内跨年级选课，进行走班上课。目前，每学期开设近50门各类选修课，这些选修课成为了学生拓宽眼界.
丰富见识.增长能力的重要补充。
在年级层面，根据新的中高考改革的具体要求，走班教学分为分学科走班和分层级走班。分学科走班主要有两种，一种是高二年级学生根据自己选择的未来高考科目分学科走班上课；另一种是体育学科，为了满足不同学生的兴趣爱好及个性发展需求，同一年级开设了4类科目，包括体能(基础训练).羽毛球.篮球、足球，学生自由选择科目，组成体育班，进行专项训练。
根据学生的学业基础.兴趣爱好.智力水平.潜在能力.学习动机.学习方法等方面的差异，我们在语文.数学.英语三门统考学科开展分层走班教学。分层教学包括教学内容分层.教学方法分层.学生评价分层等。教师在教学时针对不同层级的学生布置不同的任务，设计不同的学习目标，进行不同标准的评价，从而保障学生个性化学习的权利，达到因材施教的目的，推动学生全面而有个性地发展。
分层教学不是固定不变的，而是允许学生根据自己的学习和发展情况的变化，随时进行合理流
动。例如，语文分A.B.C三类班，班级的差异主要是拓展知识的量及深度不同，A班为统一教学外还学有余力的学生提供更丰富的供给。
学校在实行走班教学的同时，仍然保留原先的“行政班"和班主任设置 _一_ 。 _口_ “行政班”和班主任的保留有利于组织主题教育活动和集体活动，有利于培养学生的归属感.荣誉感，也有利于学校的文化建设。
4班内走位：保持学习的开放性
所谓“班内走位"，即在进行小组合作学习时，小组成员可以“串组"，可以进行小组间交流，可以与其他学习小组进行知识.信息.思维的交换和传递。同时，教师会根据不同的课型及教学内容进行小组的调整。教师在课上的教学站位也会有所调整，教师不是一直站在讲台前，而是在各小组间走动。，“班内走位"体现了学习小组这种“自组织"的开放性，既能够同外界及时发生联系，又能保持学习小组成员的及时更新.流动。
“走校"“走班”“走位"对教师的指导工作提出了新的要求。我们在年级层面设置了学生导师，导师与班主任互相配合，全面引导学生自我发展。学校要求每位教师都成为导师，采用双向选择制度，每位学生可以选择两至三位导师，并进行排序，教师根据选报情况确定三至四位学生为导生，最后综合考虑，形成配对。导师通过深入.持久的师生交往，全面.具体地了解学生个体的身心特征和发展需求，指导和帮助学生进行学习规划.生涯规划.职业规划，帮助学生认识自我，形成更为清晰的发展目标，找到更有效的学习方法，为今后的发展奠定良好的基础。辞
编辑\_于萍 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **我国行政管理体制改革的另一种路径选择——行政三分制**
**李菁怡**
**(中共南京市委党校哲学教研部，江苏南京210001**
**摘要：建国以来，我国历经数次行政管理体制改革，1998年以前的政府行政改革都陷入了机构“精简-—-膨胀—-再精简———再膨胀”的恶性循环。1998年以后逐渐步入正轨，此后的两次机构改革都强调“转变政府职能”，十六大提出"按照精简、统一、效能的原則和决策、执行、监督相协调的要求，继续推进政府机构改革”，探索适合中国国情的行政管理体制”：党的十七大强调，要加快行政管理体制改革，建设服务型政府， “要坚持用制度管权、管事、管人，建立健全决策权、执行权、监督权既相互制约又相互协调的权力结构和运行机制。”**
**关键词：行政管理：体制；改革**
**中图分类号： D63**
**文献标识码：A**
**文章编号：1671-6183(2010)06-0038-03**
**￥前，新一轮的政府机构改革以“大部制”为主题，从国务院到地方政府，已经逐渐展开。2001年深圳以“行政三分制”为主题进行了行政管理体制改革，但曾一度中止。2009年6月川央再次批准深圳推行“行政三分制”的行政改革方法，这意味着“行**
**政三分制”将再现历史舞台，并将借“大部制”改革之风顺利开展下去。**
**一、行政三分制的内涵**
**(一)行政三分制的定义**
**行政三分制是二战后各建立起的“小政府、大社会”改革过程中形成的政府管理模式，其主要内容是将行政管理职能相对分离为决策、执行、监督三部分，并使三者相辅和成、相互制约、相互协调，这种模式起源于英国，已被大多数国家所采用，这种模式的优点是将政府决策与执行相分离，能够克服部门利益，以达到-定程度的相互监督。将政府事务、职能细化分类，以大行业、大系统的方式设立决策部门。事实上这是…种开放式的公权利运作的过程，扩大了决策的民主性、科学性，增强了决策和执行的公开性、透明度。同时以整个权力运作过程的有效责任机制和监督机制，实现权、责、利的高度统一，有利于提高决策和执行的效率叫，**
**(二)行政三分制的内容**
**行政一分制的主要内容是将行政管理职**
**能分为决策、执行和监督三部分，在相对分离的基础上，三者相辅相成、相互制约、相互协调。决策局负责政策制定和政策调整而没有执行权；执行局专司执法，照章办事，独立运作，不承担决策任务；监察局和审计局作为监督部门直属市长管辖。以深圳市为例，深圳行政三分制改革的主要内容是：在建立公共财政的基础上，进-步转变政府职能，深化行政许可制度改革，探索在比较完善的市场经济条件下政府职能的合理定位；巩固、完善行之有效的大行业、大系统管理体制，并根据经济和社会发展情况有所创新；参照国外决策与执行分开的管理模式，按照决策、执行、监督相对分开的要求，调整政府机构组织形式，探索建立决策科学、执行高效、监督有力的政府机构形式，创建新型的公共行政管理体制：探索建立“电子政府"，即运用计算机网络技术等现代管理手段，完善运行机制，规范行政行为，提高行政效能，实现公开透明**
**深圳即将推出的“行政三分制”倾向性比较高的方案是在事务、职能分析的基础上，以大行业、大系统的方式设立决策部门，并就每个决策部门关联的业务设立若干**
**作者简介：李菁怡(1981-)，女，辽宁锦州人，中共南京市委党校、南京市行政学院哲学教研部助教。**
**个执行局，决策权在决策局，执行权、审批权在执行局。重大决策如有关法规、政策、办法等主要由决策部门来制定，决策部门和执行部门之间的关系用绩效合同来规定，执行部门按照法规、政策、办法来运作，履行其绩效合同，实现其责任、目标、任务等等，从而形成纵向的制约关系。监督部门属于相对独立的机构，按部外制(直属于市长)方式设置，主要包括行政监察和会计检查(审计)机构，实施法纪监督、政策评价、会计检查和绩效监督。**
**深圳市选择了“慢决策，快执行”的思路。慢下来不是拖拖拉拉、消磨时间，而是通过听证、议政、民意调查、专家咨询、市民参与等多种方式，使决策更加细致、透明、合理、科学，从而减少失误和执行阻力，为“快执行”奠定坚实的基础。从深圳行政三分制改革的主要内容来看，它与英国、香港、新西兰等地的做法基本一致，遵循了新公共管理理论的核心理念，主张通过引进市场机制来完善政府公共组织，以达到精简机构、节省开支、提高效率之功效1**
**(三)行政三分制的作用**
**第一，行政效率提高。行政三分制将决策、执行和监督相对分离，分散了决策权，集中了执行权，强化了监督权。也就是说，决策将通过民意调查、听证、专家咨询等途径；广泛采取民意，保证了决策的民主化，科学化；执行将由专门的执行局负责，只负责执行，更加突出执行的效率；而监督将由独立的部门来进行，但不是事后监督，而是事前、事中、事后都可以进行监督，更能保证监督的作用，从而也提高了行政的效率。以前，政府往往是“决策快，执行慢”，将转变为“决策慢下来，执行快起来”。**
**第二，促进公共服务，行政三分制不仅仅将“决策、执行、监督”三权分立，更主要的是为了建设公共服务型社会。行政二分制，将进步转变政府职能，强化政府的服务功能，将传统的政府“管制”转变为“服务”。与之相配套，将大力建设社会组织(非政府组织)和中介服务组织，把政府的部分职责让渡于社会，充分发挥市场的自由调节能力，使资源得到更有效、充分的配置。**
**第二，促进政府廉活。传统的政府行政权力过大，并且集决策、执行、监督权丁·身，往往容易造成腐败，以及责权不清，使得资源极大的浪费。孟德斯鸠曾说过，没有约束的权力将导致腐败，绝对的权力导致绝对的腐败。而行政三分制将决策权、执行权和监督权相对分离，分散了行政权力，相互制约，使得权责更加明确，并且，监督权将单独行使监督作用，能有效预防腐败，并且可以约束权力的滥用4**
**二、当前政府部门存在问题**
**建国以来，虽然我国经历了多次的政府机构改革，但始终未彻底改变传统政府部门的弊病，即机构庞大、人浮于事、办事官僚化等。当前，随着经济的发展和政治文明的进步，在不断推进具有中国特色的行政管理机制的改革中，我国政府部门仍然存在一些问题，如行政内部监督权作用较小、权力过于集中、资源利用率低、行政效率低下、服务功能不突出等。**
**(一)监督权作用较小**
**集决策、执行、监督于一身的政府行政权由行政机关白我规划、自我执行，行政部门内部监督仅靠自我监督，缺乏有效的监督力。行政机关同时掌握决策权、执行权和监督权，既要决策，又要执行决策的内容，还要进行事中、事后的监督。这样，使得所有权力集于一个部门，而没有单独行使监督的力量，无法实施有效的监督，对本部门的监督作用也不能真正起到效果。此外，还缺少行政外部监督力量，如民众的监督、网络监督及舆论监督等。因此，行政部门内部的监督不能真正起到有效的监督作用，也无法更好的发挥外部的监督力量，即监督作用较小。**
**(二)权力过于集中**
**中国政府自建国以来一直沿用的是原苏联政府的权力集中模式，政府部门融决策、执行、监督于一体，实际上形成了行政权的部门垄断，往往造成公共政策“部门意志化”，决策缺乏科学性、民主性。决策失误是当前政府部门存在的基本问题，也是权力集中的典型表现。并且，行政权力的约束力**
**比较弱，既行政三权(决策权、执行权、监督权)为一体，权力之间缺乏有效的约束机制，责权分工不明确，往往权力也集中于部门首长一人之中，这样最容易导致政府部门寻租或官员腐败现象的产生，据报道，仅2009年就有十儿位省部级官员落马，其原因不乏权力过大且无有效的约束力。**
**(三)资源利用率低**
**传统的政府模式，决策权、执行权、监督权均出自于一个部门，由一个共同群体来完成所有的工作，内部分工不明确，往往是临时安排任务，缺乏专门对口业务部门，使得人力资源不能得到有效的利用。另外，由于行政权集于-体，尤论行使哪一种权力，政府部门对行政成本的考虑都是极少的，这样对人力和物力资源都会产生一定的浪费，从而会增加政府部门的行政成本。**
**(四)行政效率低下**
**行政部门集决策、执行和监督：职能于一体，现行的中国政府部门经常是决策快，执行起来却慢下来，以致造成有些工程是一托再拖，最后没人再去过问这些“烂摊子”。行政效率低下是当前政府存在的最主要的弊病，也是人民抱怨之声最大的，造成这样的结果，主要是行政部门内部责权没有划清界限，决策与执行混在一起，最后发生问题也不知道是决策的问题还是执行的问题，而且监督力量也在决策与执行权之内，无法真正发挥监督的作用。**
**(五)服务功能不突出**
**伴随着新公共管理运动的发展，政府不断在完善自我的各项功能，我国政府也开始推动建设具有中国特色的公共服务型政府的行政改革运动，当前，政府部门还处于传统的“管理”阶段，在不断向“服务”型政府转变，服务功能还没有真正发挥作用。主要原因有，政府内部的职能划分不清，政府的各项功能不能完全发挥出来，而且政府工作人员的服务理念还没有完全建立起来， “以人为本”、 “为人民服务”还未深入人心，造成工作中缺乏人文精神。另外，由丁，日前“大政府”的存在，政府包揽了太多的社会服务功能，使得市场不能发挥真正的服务功能，并且市场缺乏服务相关的配套体系，如社会中介服务组织。因此，政府的公共服**
**务还没有充分体现出来，仍需不断加强政府的服务功能151.**
**三、用行政三分制来完善政府部门的问题**
**行政三分制，不仅仅是将行政权一分为三(决策权、执行权、监督权)，更主要的是在行政三分制的改革下，将带动其他部门和社会相关部门的改革，也促使政府的职能转变，从“管制政府”逐渐向“公共服务型政府”转变，主要体现在以下儿个方面，分别为监督权独立、权力相互制约、资源有效整合，行政效率提高、强化服务功能。**
**(一)监督权独立**
**行政三分制改革最大的特色就是将行政机关内部的权力进行划分，其中包括监督权的独立，即从行政权中单独把监督相对分离。独立出来的监督权可单独开展工作，并将对决策权和执行权产生一定的约束力。70年代以前，香港政府公权私用，官员贪污腐败成风，人民生活苦不堪言，自从政府行政改革以后，建立了专门监督公权力的廉政公署，而独立手行政机关之外，直接问最高行政长官负责，直接制约了行政权力的行使，不仅监督政府政策的实施，而且还监督行政官员的个人财产及收人状况，这样有效地预防了腐败和政府部门的寻租行为，如今香港政府成为全球最廉洁、高效的政府之一。从香港政府的成功经验我们可以得出，监督权的独立是政府高效、廉洁的根本，也是加大对政府行政权监督力的最基本保障。**
**(二)权力分离并相互制约**
**行政三分制将行政部门内部的决策权、执行权、监督权相对分离，彼此将相互协调，相互制约。行政一分制中的“二权分立”不同于西方社会的厂权分立，它是我国社会主义政治文明建设的重要理论成果，是结合中国建国以来历次行政管理体制改革的经验总结，及对我国行政管理体制改革大胆的尝试、行政权的分离，将削弱各部门的权力，有效的抑制权力寻租，也能问接地预防官员的腐败现象。行政权的分离，并不是绝对的分离，而是一种行政权的相对分离，也需要决策权、执行权以及监督权之间的相百**
**协调、互相配合，不仅仅是对行政权的约東，更能有效地发挥各部门的职能作用，促进行政部门的高效、廉洁运作。**
**(三)资源有效整合**
**行政三分制，有利于提高公共资源整体配置效率。决策、执行、监督二权和对分开，责权将分明、各部门更能发挥其职能作用，专业的部门对应专业的业务，人力资源能够得到充分的利用，也将降低了行政成本。执行权将更有效力，决策局对应相应的执行部门，减少人力和物力的损耗。监督权的独立，将更加能发挥监督的作用，也将大大降低监督的成本。面对全球性政府规模不断扩张、政府掌控资源不断增加的趋势，改善政府管理，提高政府资源的利用率，特别是加强公共服务的绩效管理，有利于提高全社会资源配置的效率和改善国民整体福利。**
**(四)行政效率提高**
**行政效率是当代政府生存之本，也是术来政府改革的方向。行政一分制改革的日标之一就是让“决策慢下来，执行快起来”，提高行政效率，也问接使得行政成本最小化。行政一分制后将建立若干决策局，并与决策局职能相对应地建立相关的执行局。决策局，将集中政府的专项决策职能， “让决策慢下米”是行政三分制的亮点之一，通过专家咨询、政策实施证、民意调查等，加强政府决策的科学性、民主性，执行权与决策权相对分离，即执行权独立于决策权之外，专门执行决策局的决策、更有助于责权分明，执行力将更有效。监督权独立也是行政效率提高的有效措施之，以前监督混淆于决策沐和执行权中，事后监督的情况比较多，临督权的独立使得监督可以在决策、执行中及执行后随时进行。**
**(五)强化服务功能**
**公共服务，是21世纪公共行政和政府改革的核心理念，公共服务以合作为基础，强调政府的服务性，强调公民的权利。在建设公共服务性政府的大背景下，行政三分制结合“大部制”改革，更应该突出政府的服务精神，打造全心全意为人民服务的政府。可以说“大部制”改革为行政分制提供了全新的改革思路，整合职能相同及相类似的部**
**门，更能有效地发挥各部门的整体作用。实施行政分制，第一，有助于缓解我国当前面临的各种突出社会问题，强化政府公共服务职能，加快改善我国公共服务状况，顺利推进和谐社会建设；第二，有利于健全公共服务供给的体制机制，加强政府公共服务绩效管理，强化政府部门决策、执行和监督的责任，促进政府内间接竞争机制的形成，引导各级政府逐步树立以公共服务为中心的政府职能观和绩效观；；第三，有利于公众参与公共服务的管理与监督，不仅为政府进一步改善我国公共服务提供决策参考，而目可以满足公众的信息需求，提高他们参与政府管理和监督的能力，有利于推动决策的科学化和民主化，有利于提升政府在公众心中的公信力161**
**总之，深圳的“行政三分制”将是我国行政管理体制改革的新路径，但是要正确处理好“决策权、执行权、监督权”三者的关系，在\_者相对分离的基础上，使之达到相辅相成、相互协调、相互制约，行政权合理、有效地运用，更好地发挥政府的宏观调控职能。并且，要把握住“大部制”的思路，积极推动政府部门行政三分制政革，它将引领我国政府部门开创新的局面，为构建社会主义和谐社会搭建新的平台，创建具有中国特色的公共服务型政府。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]李荣华.行政改革向纵深发展的标志\[公共财政，2003(1)**
**\[2\]李文良，等.中国政府职能转变问题报告\[M\].北京：中国发展出版社，2003.**
**\[3\]佚名.从“权力重分”开刀深圳政府机构改革细节曝光\[EB/OL\].南方网，2003-01.**
**\[4\]佚名.深圳再造“行政三分"\[\]南方农村报，2009(7).**
**\[5\]邓聿文，行政三分制在中国不具备可行性J\].思想理论动态参阅，2009(11).**
**\[6\]\[美\]珍妮特·V·登哈特，罗伯特·B·登哈特.新公共服务：服务而非掌舵\[M\].丁煌，译.北京：中国人民出版社，2004.**
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zh | N/A | N/A | 文旅融合趋势下高校图书馆服务地方经济建设议
牟景华
(黑河学院图书馆，黑龙江黑河164300)
摘商要：文旅融合促进产业发展已上升到国家层面，”以旅彰文””以文促旅”已成为当前文化与旅游产业融合的必然选择。在此背景下，发挥图书馆信息服务的职能作用，依托地方文献资源与创新服务为地方经济发展助力，使地方文化旅游产业得到快速提升和发展，充分发挥图书馆促进文化旅游事业的使命与作用。
关键词：文旅融合；高校图书馆；地方经济
中图分类号：G25 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1674-9499(2020)10-0181-02
随着人们生活水平的不断提高，追求高品质生活的人越来越多，促使旅游业蓬勃发展。2018年3月，中共中央印发的《深化党和国家机构改革方案》，将原文化部和国家旅游局的职责整合，组建中华人民共和国文化和旅游部，作为国务院组成部门。文化和旅游融合发展作为一项重要的机构改革任务受到各方热切关注。以文促旅、以旅彰文，既要做到文化引领旅游，促进旅游的提质升级，为旅游体验增添故事与温度，又要通过旅游促进文化传承发展，讲好中国故事，讲好地方故事，提升旅游吸引力，增强文化自信，推动文化和旅游业融人经济社会发展全局。现阶段，在开发自然旅游资源越来越热的情况下，文化与旅游的结合越来越凸显重要。
2019年末，全国爆发了有史以来最严重的新冠肺炎疫情，导致全国旅游产业极度萧条。2020年2月26日文化与旅游部市场管理司刘克智司长在记者招待会上就疫情给文化旅游带来的损失提出了补救措施。由此可见，文旅融合与产业发展受到了国务院的高度重视。发展文化产业需要与旅游相结合，旅游是文化产业发展的重要组成部分。从旅游角度来讲，旅游行为本身就是一种文化活动。长期以来，文旅一直都在自发融合，近几年，我国把发展文化产业上升到了国家战略层面。文化是旅游的灵魂，旅游是文化的载体，文化与旅游相互融合、相互促进、相得益彰。通过旅游实现感知、了解、体察人类文化具体内容。文化既可以给旅游提供一种真实的体验，也能展示一个地方的独特魅力，而旅游则可以将文化具体表象有效地传递给游客，文化和旅游二者相辅相成，只有协调发展才能取得预期效果2。
习近平总书记提出： “绿水青山，就是金山银山”的环保理念，不仅为我国环保事业指明了方向，也为旅游产业发展指明了道路。黑河山清水秀，得天独厚的自然环境和人文条件是发展旅游业最理想的天堂。地方文化产业的发展离不开图书馆的支撑，作为普通高校图书馆，为地方经济建设服务是应尽的责任，作为馆员要解放思想，力求服务创新，扎
实做好各项工作。脚踏实地地为黑河的文化和旅游产业的繁荣发展作应有的贡献。
一、广泛搜集地方文献，为地方文化事业发展奠定基础
地方文献是记载当地行政辖区内政治、经济、文化、地理、人民生产生活以及民族风俗、自然变化等一切信息的载体。这些地方文献信息，是当地政府借鉴和指导地方经济建设不可多得的宝贵财富。图书馆作为文献信息中心，必须高度重视地方文献资源建设。图书馆通过各种渠道广泛搜集地方文献资源，形成系统的地方文献资源体系，更好地为地方经济建设服务。首先，得益于地方政府及相应的职能部门对黑河仅有的一所高校图书馆馆藏建设十分关注，主动提供其部门编撰的文献资料。图书馆也密切关注和了解形成地方文献的职能部门以及文献发行(或成书)的动态，并与这些地方职能部门建立赠予或互换关系，同时也通过其他各种方式获取一定数量的地方文献。其次，在图书馆订购的数据库和专业网站下载大量的地方文献作为现有藏书漏缺的补充，在条件允许的情况下，组织专人对部分电子文献进行二次加工，并打印装订成册，供读者研究和阅读。最后，通过图书采访和参加全国大型图书采购会，订购出版发行的地方文献，使地方文献馆藏量不断增加，藏书质量不断提高。
通过对这些文献的加工整理，可以提炼出不同专题的文化题材。比如，地方少数民族文化题材、东北抗联和抗日题材、著名的人物题材、古建筑风格题材、知青题材、满清政府抗击沙皇俄国题材、黑河渔业资源、矿产资源、深林资源等题材。而这些题材往往与地方文化事业息息相关，是地方文化艺术再加工的基本素材。因此，要求在众多文献中提炼出读者需要的专题信息，既对当地的自然环境有比较全面的了解，又要有详实的文献资料为佐证，不断提高二次文献加工的质量，把图书馆的文献信息与地方文化紧密联系起来，
收稿日期：2020-08-05
基金项目：黑龙江省省属高校基本科研业务费科研项目”大数据环境下俄罗斯文献创新服务模式研究”(2019-KYYWF-0478)
作者简介：牟景华(1963一)，男，吉林伊通人，研究馆员，主要从事图书馆学、地方文献学研究。
为地方文化旅游产业提供精准的文献信息服务，有效助力地方文化事业的发展。
二、建立地方文献资源数据库，为研究和了解黑河的读者提供信息保障
黑河市位于祖国的北部边垂，与布拉戈维申斯克市是一江相隔中俄两国边境线上的双子城，独特的地理位置，不同的两国风情；快速发展的两国城市；湛蓝的蓝天白云和清澈的黑龙江水以及凉爽的北国夏日，无不吸引国内外游客到黑河驻足游玩，饱览黑河的秀丽风光。黑河市有著名的五大连池风景区，有签订缓珲条约的瑷珲古城，有闻名遐迩的振边酒厂厂址，有日本侵华战争的孙吴胜山要塞遗址，有江东六十四屯庚子俄难史，有在党关怀下定居下来的鄂伦春民族乡，有响应号召上山下乡的知青创业史……这么丰富的自然和人文资源形成了黑河独有的内容详实的文献史料，这些鲜活的史实需要专业的队伍、专业的人员在千头万绪的信息当中整理出来，分门别类储存起来，形成“二次文献信息”，以满足不同读者的需求。随着现代化科学技术的飞速发展，计算机和互联网的广泛应用以及手机终端的普及，人们获取信息的方式更加简单和快捷。因此，建立地方文献资源数据库显得尤为紧迫和重要，数据库的建立可以有效打破时间和空间的限制，便于读者及时访问和查阅相关信息，达到图书馆远程、高效、精准服务的目的。这也是对地方文旅融合、发展旅游事业所作的贡献。
三、以文献信息为依托，加强对当地文化内涵的挖掘
黑河自然资源和文化资源丰富。在文献的整理中，要分两条主线加以细化，深人挖掘黑河地方文化内涵。第一，抓住黑河自然资源这条线，黑河的自然景观林林种种，形成了一道道亮丽的北国风景线。加工时要在文献记载的基础上提炼加工，以绵延的小兴安岭林区及林区特产野生动物、植物资源、亭亭玉立的白桦、苍劲的青松和种类丰富的林业资源、辽阔的黑龙江及渔业资源、丰富的金矿和煤炭等矿产资源等，尽可能详尽地加以论述，并注明出处，以保证形成的二次文献真实可靠，给读者留下身临其境的感受。第二是抓住文化资源这条线，黑河位于黑龙江中上游区域，新石器时代早期就有人类在这块土地上辛勤劳作、繁衍生息，产生了独特的地域文化和各民族特色。包括辽金文化遗址、十里长江蕴藏的丰富故事、金戈铁马抗击沙俄的九位黑龙江将军的英勇事迹、打响抗日第一枪的马占山将军的抗战史、为民族的独立和解放而牺牲的东北
抗联战士的光辉诗篇、王肃烈士和无数民族英雄汇成的英雄群体、知青的奋斗史、北大荒人扎根边疆建设祖国的奋斗史，以及勤劳善良的各族人民谱写的壮丽赞歌。把这些光辉事迹搜集整理，使其有血有肉、个性丰满，最后形成完整的二次文献呈现在读者面前，让读者有耳目一新或亲近事物真相的感受。这些鲜活的故事情节，形成了丰富和灿烂的地域文化，足以吸引众多国内外游客的欲望和到此一游的冲动与渴望。从而，为黑河文化增添了飞向远方的翅膀，吸引更多读者关注黑河、向往黑河，为黑河文旅融合注入新活力。
四、开展丰富多彩阅读推广活动，加深学子对黑河的了解，为宣传黑河助力
图书馆通过组织阅读推广活动，充分调动了读者的阅读热情。通过组织读者摄影比赛、朗读经典、制作书签等丰富多彩活动，鼓励读者了解当地风土文化。图书馆举办的各种形式知识讲座，既丰富了读者获取信息的渠道，又提高了读者的信息素养。特别是图书馆新馆投人使用以来，各种形式的阅读活动层出不穷。读者通过自己的认知能力和审美观点，拍摄和制作了很多反映黑河地方题材的优秀作品，从而加深了广大学生对黑河的感情，这种感情是一股巨大的人力资源，会把在黑河学习生活的一切美好记忆带到祖国各地，起到巨大的宣传作用，为黑河当地旅游业的发展播下希望的种子。
五、结语
总之，文旅融合对图书馆改变服务观念、增加服务项目、提高服务意识都提出了新要求。文旅融合带动了旅游经济的快速发展，也彰显了文化是旅游的灵魂，旅游是文化的载体这一理念。做好文化产业与地方旅游产业的融合，是地方旅游业可持续发展的重要基础和途径。而在文化产业环节中，图书馆起到举足轻重的促进作用。
参考文献：
\[1\]中共中央印发《深化党和国家机构改革方案》(全文)\[EB/OL\].(2018-03-21)
\[2020-08-01\].http：//www.xinhuanet.com//zgjx/2018-03/21/c
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137054755.
\[2\]司长刘克智回答记者提问\[EB/OL\].(2020-02-27)\[2020-08-01\].https：//www.
thepaper.cn/newsDetail
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6188485.
\[3\]伍茜.论图书馆在文旅融合时代的使命与创新\[\].新西部，2019(24).
\[4\]厉建梅.文旅融合下文化遗产与旅游品牌建设研究——以山东天上王城为
个案\[D\]济南：山东大学博士论文，2016.
A Discussion on Serving L ocal E conomic Construction by University Library under the Trend of C ultural and Tourism Integration
Mu Jinghua
(Library of Heihe University， Heihe 164300， China)
Abstract： The industrial development can be promoted by integrating culture and tourism， which has become a strategy at the national level.“Promoting tourism with tourism” and “promoting tourism with culture" have become the inevitable choice for the current integration of culture and tourism industry. In this context， the library should play a functional role of information service， and boost local economic development by relying on local literature resources and innovative services. In order to make the local cultural tourism industry get rapid promotion and development， the library give full play to the mission and role of promoting the cultural tourism industry.
Key words： cultural and tourism integration； university library， local economy
\[责任编辑：师清芳\] | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 抓住基本点简化有理数运算的教学
李霏
\[内容摘要\]为什么一个六岁的小孩能那么快地学会加减法，而一个初一学生却用一个星期反而不明白?原因是忽视了人本身的生活经验和整体体悟。作者通过实践，依靠学生这一资源，利用其已有的知识和生活经验进行教学，提出了抓住基本知识点简化有理数运算的教学方法。
\[关键词\]基本知识点；有理数运算；教学方法
\[作者简介\]李霏，顺德大良南江中学(广东顺德，528300)
为什么初中一年级的数学教学往往有近三分之一不能合格?其关键是数学教师一进人有理数的运算的学习，就把很多学生糊涂了。他们明明在生活中不是数学应用的低能儿，如：存款，买东西找钱，记帐付钱，都能算得清清楚楚，面我们在数学教学中认真地去教了，为什么学生却反而不明白了呢?关于这一章节内容，有没有更好的更简单的教学方法呢?在我十多年来的数学教学中，我一直在思考着这个问题。
为此，我做过这样的试验：当我6岁的女儿学了简单的数的加减计算以后，我做了一个教学尝试：借助听天气预报中零下几度的经验。我让她看着温度计，问“有没有比0小的数”“有，有负几度”她答。 “那比0小1的数是儿?”“-1。我惊讶了。更加坚定了试验的信心，继续问她：“..1与-2谁大呢?”“-1℃比0℃低1℃，-2℃更低，比0℃低2℃，所以-2比-1小。”“那比-1小1的数呢?”“-2。
””
4“好”我惊叹： “那0-1是几?”“-1，因为比0℃低1℃是-1℃。D “-1-1呢?” “-2，比-1℃低1℃是-2℃。”“真了不起。那-1+2呢?” “不就是比-1℃高2℃吗?是+1。 “好家伙。 ”我想这不是不教而会吗?“那-1-9呢? “-1℃往下降低9℃，应是-10。”我赞叹： “真不错，还能触类旁通了
呢! 听她说完后，我就想：在下次的初一数学教学中，我一定要试一试这种教法。没提过相反数，绝对值，加法法则，减法法则。但加减法显然已基本为她所接受了。只是没进行1-(-5)， -1+(-5)，1-(+5)类型的学习了。
我常常很疑惑地想：一个小孩这么快就很自然地学会了的东西，为什么我们在初一用一个多星期的时间教完以后，学生却反而不明白呢?在接触了生本理念以后，我大胆地猜测，这就象研究怎么呼吸以后，反而让人呼吸不畅了。这是出于这一章节把教材过度分析化、条文化，忽视了人本身的生活经验和整体感悟所致。在小学数学四则运算中，最基础的知识都只有数数，读数、写数。到初中只是增加了负数面已。因此我想大胆地探究一下：在初中有理数运算的教学中，到底有几个最基本的核心知识点?是否能简化这一章知识的教学，还时间空间子学生，以增强教学的有效性，切实地减少数学教学中出现的差生。
我经过仔细地分析，发现有理数的运算在初中阶段的教学任务中，只要抓住两个基本知识点：1、正负数表示相反意义的量；2、加、减法运算互为逆运算。并结合温度计上，温度的高低变化关系这一生活经验即可。加正几即增大儿，减正几即减小几。如：-3+5即比-3大5的数，联系
到温度计上比--3℃高5℃的数是2℃即可得2。-3~5即比-3小5的数，联系到温度计1比-3℃还低5℃的数是-8℃即可得-8。同理3+5不用说了，3-5则联系到温度计上比3℃低5℃的数，是-2℃。也可由5-3得5比3多2，月3-5中被减数少2。所以减得的结果为-2。
而对加负儿和减负几的理解，我想可以利用两个基本知识点进行加减法的灵活占化。卜面以5+(-3)和5-(-3)的教学为例：5+3是比5多3的数，那5+(-3)还是比5增加3的数吗?根据直觉学生易知不是。在理解了第一基本知识点的基础上，学生是可以理解：-3与3相反，所以应是相反地比5减少3的数。不需要指明加法法则，减法法则。类似地在5-(-3)这一易错点处，我设问：5-3是比5减小3的数，那5-(-3)还是比5减小3的数吗?明显地学生会理解到：因为-3与3相反，减少应相反地变成增加。5-(-3)是比5加多3的数。另外5-(+3)中的+3即为3.易得5-(+3)=5-3.这样，对有理数加减运算的各种类型都可以让学生掌握了。
在有理数的乘除法中，只增添了符号的判断。我想这样来让学生理解。2×3=6，2x(-3)=?学生易推得-6。因为2×(-3)=(-3)+{-3))=-3-3=-6：这说明---个因数变成相反数，则积也变成相反数-6。对于(-2)×(-
3)，自然由积再变一次相反数即可得6。
我还可以形象地描述：区数中每有一个负数后，积的符号是怎么变的?因数中有一个加负号后是表示向后(相反方向)转·次，结果变成相反数。所以有两个加负号后就表示向后转两次，试验之下，学生很形象地看到：又转回了原向，即(-2)×(-3)由6变一次相反数为-6后，接着又变一次相反数为-(-6)=6。转两次后是+6了。并且可总结出不管有几个因数相乘，其中有儿个负因数，积由绝对值的积变几次相反数即可。因而通过这个向后转，也很容易让学生形象地理解到：偶数个负因数相乘，积为正。奇数个负因数相乘，积为负。而除法可转化为乘法。这样对于乘除法中的符号问题也就可以很容易地解决了。
基于以上这两个基本知识点都不属于工具知识，而是属于第二层次的规律性知识。我们没有必要把它扩大化。不需要学生先学相反数，绝对值，也不需要加法法则，减法法则、乘法法则，除法法则这么多条文、步骤使问题复杂化、抽象化。我认为这一章的教学，完全可以依靠学生这一资源，利用其已有知识和生活经验，整个以学生为主体，在教师创设的实际情景中，通过学生自身的活动去获得，故而大胆作出以上构想。
Simplify The Rational Number Operation： Comprehensive Basic Knowledge Points
Li Fei
Abstract： Why a only six years old girl can grasp addition and subtraction so quickly， on the contrary a junior l high school student can’t comprehend addition and subtraction even if he spends a week on it. The reason is that he ignores the life experiment and the whole sentiment of human being. In the course of practice， the teaching method of comprehensive the basic knowledge points to simplify rational number operation is put forward only if we lean upon the students， making full use of their own knowledge and life experiment.
Key words： basic knowledge points； rational number operation； teaching method | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 创旅游名牌与长株潭城市建设一体化对策研究
张丽华欧阳沙
(湖南商学院，长沙 410205
〔摘 要〕本文拟将构建旅游名牌新模式与长株潭城市建设结合起来研究，从理念、行为、视觉三方面设计长株潭旅游名牌形象，提出长株洋旅游名牌开发的突破口。
\[关键词〕长株洋旅游名牌；形象设计；模型设计；对策研究
\[中图分类号〕F299，276.4；F592.764 \[文献标识码\]A 〔文章编号\]1008-2107(2008)06-0100-04
The Study of the Constracture of Chang-Zhu -Tan City by Creating of Famous Tourism Tourism Model
Zhang - Lihua OuYang - sha
(Hunan Business college ， Changsha 410205)
\[Abstract\] This paper， by creating of famous tourism model， combining the constracture of Chang -Zhu -Tan City ， designs conception， action ， visual Chang-Zhu - Tan of tourism image， and proposes it’s development strategies.
\[Key words\] Chang - Zhu - Tan tourism， Image design， model design， countermeasure study
2007年12月14日，国务院同意批准武汉城市圈和长株潭城市群为全国资源节约型和环境友好型社会建设综合配套改革试验区。长株潭城市群为全国资源节约型和环境友好型社会建设综合配套改革试验区，国家重大改革措施可以在长株潭先行先试，通过创旅游名牌，以创旅游名牌重点领域和关键环节为切入点，整合国内外、省内外的各种旅游要素和创新资源，可以打造长株潭城市群，打造全省核心增长极，促使长株潭城市群构筑全国资源节约型和环境友好型社会建设综合配套改革试验区体制优势，率先形成发展活力，带动全省区域协调发展，
我省是旅游资源大省，长株潭旅游名牌的发展已引起社会的广泛关注，旅游名牌为长株潭城市发展注人的活力和推动长株潭持续发展所展现出的作用将在长株潭发展中充分体现出来，成为发展的新动力、新模式和新途径，对落实两型社会建设具有重要意义。以设计旅游名牌产品新模式为切人
点兴建长株潭，是一项复杂的系统工程，一旦起步，就是一个循环、逐步提高的系统过程。
一、长株潭旅游名牌产品的新模式设计
1.依托发展农业旅游园区兴城模式。这种模式主要是建设大型的农业示范园区即产业庄园建设新型城市模式。一方面是现代农业生产加工基地，另一方面也可以向游客开放，以展示现代农业生产的成果，集生产、研发、销售、交流和旅游为一体的现代化农庄基地。坚持走农业产业化道路，现已取得良好成效，比较成熟的有袁隆平水稻杂交研究园(中心)，望城县国家农业科技园区和省高科技食品工业园区、葡萄酒庄园、香料庄园和西瓜庄园等。袁隆平水稻杂交研究园(中心)，十多项水稻研究、实验成果和技术为世界首创，引来大批国内外专家前来学习、考察，杂交稻作为中国发明专利转让到美国、印度等几十个国家。望城县国家农业科技
〔收稿日期〕2008-10-25
〔基金项目〕长沙市科技局研究项目《两型社会建设中以创旅游名牌提升长株潭城市品位对策研究》\[批准文件号：长财企指(2008)31号\]的阶段性成果，
〔作者简介〕张丽华(1959-)、女，湖南益阳人，湖南商学院科研处教授，研究方向：旅游经济管理；欧阳沙，(1974-)，女，湖南
国家哲学张
长
沙
沙人，湖南商学院经济与管理实验教学中心，硕士，研究方向：经济管理。
园区和省高科技食品工业园区涌现出一大批品牌产品，如：派派牛奶、旺旺点心以及茶、果、烟等多项农产品，满足了市场需要。在发展现代农业生产的同时又可以发展观光旅游，通过现代化大型农业生产基地或园区这种旅游模式来建设新城郊.
2.依托发展农业科技旅游兴城模式。依托保护开发古今农业科技发展的历史遗迹、现代农业科技景观设施等进行旅游活动的兴城模式。农业科技旅游将成为当前一个时期内我国旅游的一个热点，从宏观上讲，与农业科技有关的地物和人群都可包含在内，从微观上讲，以人的视觉所观察到的具体的农业科技景观，主要有水利、农田、梯田、农具、技术及现代农业高科技及设施景观(大棚农业、动植物克隆技术、无土栽培技术、昆虫博物馆、国际节水科技博物馆)等。这种自然考察游、科技园区游、科技场馆游模式可以提高旅游者特别是公民、学生的素质，领略现代农业科技的内容，增强科技感性认识，培养观察能力和创新能力，提高科技文化性。
3.依托传统工业基地旅游兴城模式。株洲、湘潭作为老工业基地，有义务也有优势推出工业旅游项目，使之成为国内外游客了解长株潭工业文化的一个窗口，株洲要重点发展以铁路机械为主体的先进制造业以及一部分高新技术产业，大力发展交通运输业，进一步壮大有色冶金、机械、化工、建材四大支柱产业，构建高水平的现代物流中心。湘潭要重点发展新材料、机电光一体化等高新技术产业和钢铁、机电、汽车、建材等工业部门，创造和谐发展环境，以城郊独特的信息流、人才流、现代物流、资金流等社会资源为依托，以产品设计、研究开发、营销管理、技术服务和生产制造为主体，与城市功能和生态环境相协调，力争发展生产占用空间小、污染小、低能耗、市场反应迅速、就业溶量大、产品附加值高、产业发展适应性强等特点的工业门类。
4.依托景观型旅游产品兴城模式。主要是水库、水电站等，其特殊的行业性质决定了企业在选址时对地形地貌的特殊要求，同时企业又与衍生的风景合为一体，风景景观在整个工业旅游产品中具有突出的地位。人们在旅游的过程中，不仅可以探究这类企业特有的水轮机、变压器、发电机组和中央控制室，气势磅礴的铁塔和输电线路以及雄伟的钢筋混凝土重力坝等工业建筑，而且还可以回归自然，享受独特的自然风光。
5.依托企业成长型名牌产品兴城模式。这类企业一般具有良好的成长性，而且更重要的是具有先进科学的管理模式。让消费者亲眼目睹产品生产的全过程，感受企业先进的管理水平和科学的企业文化，是一种比广告更为形象的宣传方式。开展这类工业旅游，就其内容而言，应在生产过程、厂区厂貌参观的基础上，增加企业名牌产品的展示和创建公益性较强的行业科普景点。
特、品种多样、装潢美观、花色艳丽、声响清脆、色香齐全和燃放安全而享誉世界。上世纪90年代以来，浏阳抓住国内部分县域退出了烟花产业的机遇，把烟花产业作为其县域特色产业来抓，大力扶持发展乡镇烟花企业，并由政府牵头做好原材料的采购、产品销售以及相关科技的研发等配套服务，为烟花产业的发展提供一个良好的发展环境。政府在产品的销售上做文章，一一方面将产品积极送出去，或参加各类国际烟花大赛，或提供给国内外重大活动；另一方面将客户引进来，举办“中国浏阳国际烟花节”，不但扩大烟花的销售量，更使“烟花之乡浏阳”深人人心。目前全县有花炮厂近千家，从业者达14万多人，产品畅销全国和世界56个国家和地区。一个出口量古国内出口份额的60%、产值达30多亿元、利税占全县一半左右的浏阳烟花产业集群成为浏阳县域经济发展最强有力的推进器。
6.依托发展工业旅游园区兴城模式。主要是高新技术开发区，工业园区已经成为科技型企业发展的优良平台，在园区内不仅聚积了大量国内外的优秀企业，加上园区的统一规划和管理、优美的环境、完善的服务配套设施，便利的交通道路，为旅游开发提供了综合优势，如长沙县经济发展与长沙县坚持以“园区兴工，工业兴县”的战略方针是分木开，进人新世纪后，长沙县迎来了可口可乐和LG曙光等13家世界500强企业和国内一大批知名企业集团的落户，长沙县成为中西部地区先进制造业基地，2005年在"全国百强县”中排名第53位，成为中西部地区第二强县。
7.依托建设湘江水景风光带兴城模式。将湘江作为长株潭建设的生态主轴线，用湘江把三市有机地联系起来，把许多风景名胜区和产业集群串联起来，以此为基础建设湘江风光带和湘江产业带。规划建设范围为468.86平方千米，北起长沙月亮岛，南至株洲空洲岛，沿江两岸共256千米， 规划179个重大建设项目。工作重点包括：构建临水生态楼盘，创建滨水型生态宜居城市群。长株潭城市群的理想结构，应当是三市主城区三足鼎立，辅以卫星城镇、间隔足够绿地、中部空心化，湘江作为景观廊道的生态型大都市区。此外，株洲滨江地带、湘潭易家湾、晤山、长沙岳麓山、橘子洲、三叉矶、月亮岛、铜官以及刻阳河、捞力河等，可共同开发为山水景致秀美、文化内涵丰富的滨江风光带。在三市一体化建设的过程中，要充分尊重城市历史，刻意普造文化氛围，新城与老城之间，城市与周围的环境景观之间，要注重协调呼应，充分展现名江、名洲、名山、名城、名人的特色。
二、长株潭旅游名牌开发与城市建设一体化的对策
(一)长株潭旅游名牌开发与城市硬件建设一体化
1.交通形象设计。应加强对长株潭城市道路交通的建设，构筑公路、铁路、水运、航空等多种运输方式组成的立
体交通运输网，加强区内连接市县的高速公路的建设，落实“一--体化”规划中的轻轨铁路、沿江高等级连接线和三市外环线建设，构筑起黄花国际机场、京广、武广、湘黔、浙赣铁路干线，长石、长茶、醴浏等铁路支线，京珠高速公路，106、107、319，320国道，湘江航道等对外交通立体式的交通网络，并通过对中心区道的整治，来解决交通问题。交通形象设计的中心是长株潭道路交通设施标准化，尤其要加快道路交通标志标准化形象的设计，确保游客旅途的安全快捷。具体说侧重引导形象的设计，火车站、汽车站、广场、体育馆等城市“窗口”，由于交通流量大，应在统一规划建设的基础上，综合整治，全方位绿化并保持其序列性和导向性，不但在功能上要注意“窗口”作用，同时还要规范管理这些地域的交通，治安、环保状况，并合理配备旅游厕所。
按照长株潭建设标准营造良好的旅游引导形象，注重解决人车分流问题；按长株潭社区命名各条街路、设置导示标志，在交通点线和旅游景点处设立醒目而准确的中、英、韩、日语导示牌；在外地游客住、行、游各方面提供景点导游地图并随时开通电信导游服务业务等。
侧重车辆客运形象的设计，建立定点、准时、有序的旅游客运文明形象，提高旅游用车的档次，适当增加豪华型大巴和中巴的数量，加大对私营客运的管理，坚决保障并维护游客的正当权益。侧重长株潭社区道路形象的设计，科学合理地规划好交通干线的格局，保证长株潭社区路宽敞、洁净，通畅；在长株潭社区科学醒目地设置导游标志；注重在长株潭社区路的亮化、绿化、美化的同时融人地方文化。
2.建筑设施形象设计。最先进入长株潭的第一印象区主要是机场、火车站、汽车站、广场、旅游区的门景区、宾馆饭店的建筑外形等，游客离开某区或某吸引物是最后印象区，在很多情况下最后印象与第一印象重合。一般来说，第一印象区好形象的意义比最后印象区大，最后印象区坏形象的影响比第一印象区大，所以我们要加大“第一印象区”、“最后印象区”的建设。株洲、湘潭是重污染的工业城市，城市建设相对说比较落后，城市建设是进行旅游形象设计和建设的“重中之重”，在当前资金匮乏的不利条件下，要将有限的人力、物力和财力集中投到这里来，对各种形象要素进行合理规划、有效管理，使旅游者产生最佳的形象认知。长株潭建筑物形象设计，力求把建筑装饰风格融人其中，因地制宜地进行分区建设，体现长株潭的特色，形成错落有致，风格迥异，集艺术性、观赏性、现代性、标志性、实用性于一体的与地方文脉相一致的建筑物造型。
3.生态形象设计。生态旅游是长株潭旅游名牌发展的努力方向，在生态形象设计中要确立政策框架、原则和行为准则。株洲、湘潭位于长沙湘江上游和夏季盛行风向的上风向，长株潭区域其空间布局的困难又在株洲、湘潭是重污染的工业城市，长沙的生态环境要求又明显高于株洲、湘潭两市，因此，长株潭生态形象设计必须统一规划，统筹建设，
共同保护，综合治理，绝不能各自为政，各行其是。要在湘江设置多道环境监测断面，规定严格的环境控制指标，要求各工业区域从严控制和抓紧治理，并落实责任制，重点治理区域包括株洲霞湾、湘潭岳塘和竹埠港。长株潭生态形象设计要多做湘江的文章，借助于湘江突出城市群的特色，湘江是长株潭生态旅游一体化的生态主轴线，建设好湘江风光带和湘江产业带。湘江两岸楼盘，应作为长株潭高档次的生活区、办公区和服务区，成为城市群的重要标志。长株潭生态形象设计应以特有的山、水、洲为基础，以主城绿化为核心，以建设绿化广场为重点，以湘江风光带，绕城绿化和道路绿化为纽带，通过点(公园、小游园)、线(环线带、轴带道路绿化)、面(单位附属地、居民绿地)状绿地的结合，形成完善的现代绿地系统和高水平的点线面相结合的绿色网络体系。
4.旅游标志物形象设计。长株潭旅游名牌建设要重视旅游标志物形象设计，通过一定方式把抽象的理念加以形象化、视觉化，旅游标志是旅游形象的典型代表或浓缩，具有独特性、客观性和美观性。某地唯其独有标志的形象特征，某地唯其独有的吸引物构成旅游标志物，火车站、汽车站、广场、体育馆、世界之窗、岳麓书院、橘子洲区、海底世界、石燕生态公园、炎帝广场、水利设施工程景观、现代工农业科技景观、梯田景观、技术景观、农具等标志物可作为长株潭以及各个吸引物的形象指代。浅显易懂的标志物，对地方文脉高度概括，给旅游者或目标市场的人群形成强烈的视觉冲击，独特的识别记忆，达到旅游者高度认知的效果。长株潭旅游名牌形象标志设计，要重视长株潭名称标准字、标准色、标志性的图案等内容的设计，长株潭名称的使用要体现统一样式、统一字体、统一颜色、统一大小，规范标准化的字体容易辨认且易于记忆，能使旅游地的视觉形象得到强化，产生深刻印象。
为了使长株潭旅游名牌形象对外宣传，要重视旅游地纪念品的设计，旅游地纪念品是旅游形象展现、延伸、传播的载体之一，好的旅游纪念品对旅游地有很好的联想作用，开发具有地方特色、具有历史纪念意义、具有纪念价值和收藏价值的旅游纪念品，以旅游区特有的标志物为题材，能使旅游纪念品更具有意义，能激发旅游购买者。
(二)长株潭旅游名牌开发与城市软件建设一体化
1.管理形象设计。管理者的形象、水平、政策、措施、秩序等直接关系到长株潭城市的向心力和凝聚力，关系到对外的亲和力，这就要求管理者在管理过程中将长株潭旅游名牌形象看作是一个不断演变的系统，应充分认识系统的动态性、循环性特征，在实践操作中，应从长株潭旅游名牌形象专家队伍的成立、调查分析诊断、形象导向模式的确定、旅游名牌形象定位策略、旅游名牌形象主题确定到长株潭旅游名牌形象的塑造、传播、评价，切实负起监管的责任。长株潭旅游名牌管理部门应及时获取、分析形象的最新信息，预
测可能出现的形象问题，对已经出现的形象问题与形象危机，根据实际情况实施纠正措施，为旅游者提供优良的实际体验形象，并制定出符合实际、科学的形象管理标准，在质量和信誉方面达到一定水平。
2.市民行为设计。在旅游服务行业的公民，通过服务行为影响旅游者的满意水平，不在旅游服务行业的公民，分布面广，其生活方式、语言、服饰、活动行为等和风景一样成为旅游者眼中吕的地的一部分，是长株潭目的地旅游名牌形象的体现，政府及其相关职能部门应进一步加大对公民宣传、教育和引导的力度，结合法律、法规等手段约束公民行为，倡导并落实“公民行为规范”，倡导市民言行文明、举止规范，培育健康、守法、安全、有序的行为风尚；提倡对游客热情、友好、真诚的态度，严禁欺诈游客的行为。不断强化公民的旅游主体意识和参与意识，逐步形成“人人都是旅游环境，人人都是旅游资源”的公民个体行为形象。
3.服务行为设计。各种接待性的服务，是旅游名牌形象的窗口，关系到游客对该地区旅游名牌形象的评价，主要体现在无形的主客关系和有形的服务内容上。体现在旅游业中的民航、车船、住宿、饭店、旅游购物商场等方面的服务子上，体现在团队旅游中导游服务上；体现在旅游者在旅游活动的核心环节一游览和娱乐时所接受的服务上。服务人员应力求将一些有地方生活情趣的内容纳入到服务中，良好旅游服务形象的塑造要切实提高服务人员的文化和道德修养，提高接待水平和服务质量。目前急需对长株潭旅游从业人员的职业素质做限制性规定：对服务运营管理要求、卫生、环保方面的目标要求、安全防范作相关规定。
(4)节庆活动设计。旅游名牌有多方位、大规模的宣传活动以及所引起的广泛关注形成巨大的轰动效应，能够使更多的人通过各种媒介或实地游览留下深刻印象，从而在短期内强化旅游名牌的形象。旅游节庆活动设计是长株潭塑造、推荐旅游形象的重要途径，通过具有浓郁地方文化特色、参与性强的旅游节庆活动的开展，如开展旅游者参与讲旅游地的方言、唱地方民歌或湖南花鼓戏、设计长株潭的主题曲比赛的节庆活动，使游客在游览过程中增进人们对长株潭的自然和人文环境的体验、了解，进一步了解长株潭旅游地的历史文化。又如为推介以地方传统为基础形成的“火宫殿”“玉楼东”“扬裕兴”“新华楼”“黄鸭叫”等饮食品牌积极开展饮食文化节庆活动，使游客产生“食在湖南”的形象感知，增进人们对长株潭的地方风味和土特产的体验、了解、赞美和享受。
三、旅游名牌产品开发与长株潭城市建设一体化的突破口
1.强化政府协调统一引导职能。长株潭三市政府职能一定要着眼于区域经济一体化的需要，必须树立区域科学发展观，在一系列正式规则的制定和制度实施机制方面保持高度的协调统一性，重塑城市政府间的关系，以改变在传统体制下形成的城城分割、条块分割以及由此而导致的种种弊端。要引导社会各群体形成较为统一的城市群意识，保证实施机制效能的充分发挥。三市的政府职能一定要着眼于区域经济一体化的需要.加快转变政府职能，为跨行政区公共服务的实现寻求有效的方法
2.设置跨市区的实质性合作机构。应尽快建立一个跨越三市之上又与三市政府不存在行政隶属关系的综合协调机构
长株潭城市政府联合委员会，省政府应给予其必要的财物支持。为了增强委员会的权威性，便于其顺利开展工作，委员会内设立常委会及各专业规划办公室，城市政府的行政首脑和规划局局长组成联合委员会，政府联合委员会是最高决策机构，负责日常工作。委员会应具有各市政府所协议出让的某些实质性的公共服务职能，借助这一平台在一定程度上实现各城市跨区域的产业政策、基础设施等的一体规划，为三市政府在公共交通、治安、消防、环保、高等教育等方面的发展提供规划和决策咨询以及促进区域内的人才、资本、技术交流，破除城市间的隐性壁垒。 L.
3.重视制定统一的法律法规。由于各个城市有各自的利益.因此，很有必要制定统一的法律法规，以法律法规来规范各市的权利、义务和行为，实现城市群体优先发展的目标。
\[参考文献\]
\[1\]田定湘.长株潭旅游资源整合探索\[J\].求索，2004(10)
\[2\]米翔.中部崛起崛起背景下长株潭城市群一体化建设研究\[J\]，城市，2007(10).
\[3\]曾万涛、长株潭城市群新型城市化研究\[』\].时代经贸，2008(3).
\[4\]关杨，沈玉芳.基于区域视角的中国工业旅游发展的思考\[J\].旅游科学，2007(1).
\[5\]湖南省“十一五”旅游业发展规划 \[R\].湖南省公众信息网，2007(22).
(责任编辑：罗蕾) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **城市道路病害产生的原因及防治措施**
**朱立校**
**(江苏农垦工程建设监理有限公司，江苏淮安223001)**
**摘 要：随着城市道路建设的迅速发展，道路施工工艺和施工技术水平也有很大的提高。尽管如此，但由于道路建设工程数量的不断增加，参与施工的企业和人数也随之增加。因其水平参差不齐，施工操作又不很规范，施工中的质量监管体系也不健全，诸多因素就造成了一系列的质量缺陷，本文分析了城市市政道路产生病害的主观和客观原因，同时，针对沥青路面和水泥路面产生的问题，提出了一些预防措施**
**关键词：市政道路；波浪；车辙；裂缝**
**近年来，城市道路建设发展迅速，道路施工工艺和施工技术水平也有很大的提高。尽管如此，但由于道路建设工程数量的不断增加，参与施工的企业和人数也随之增加。因其水平参差不齐，施T作又不很规范，施工中的质量监管体系也不健全，诸多因素就造成了一系列的质量缺陷。**
**1病害产生的原因**
**1.1主观原因**
**工程技术施工管理的好坏直接关系到工程的质量，有些发包商为了节省工程投资造价，降低工程成本，将1程单价压得很低，一些具备施工条件的单位很难接受此项工程.这样就给技术力量很低的单位来完成此项工程，他们以低廉的价格、简易的工序、拼揍的技术力量和施工机械进行施工，施丁中管理不严格，监理水平有限，业务水平低，甚至没有试验室，缺乏必要的平行对比试验，抽样化验很少，管理人员和机械设备力量不足，再加上对路基路面高标准严要求认识较低、缺乏强有力的质量意识等方面都会对质量有很大的影响。**
**有些单位在管理上的疏漏，造成质量上的问题很多，有的为了节约资金，节省材料，获取更多的利润，在施工中不按质量要求去执行。例如：很多单位在施工中用回填Ⅰ拌合二合上，这样拌合会影响到质量，由于回填土的上质纷杂不均匀给碾压和质量控制带来很大景响。**
**1.2客观原因**
**路基是形成路面的主要基础，柔性路面在荷载的作用下，过量的弹性和塑性变形新产生的表面酬浆和路面凸凹不平，其主要原因是路基强度不够所造成的，因而路面对路基支承的要求首先表现在路基低抗变形的能力、**
**由于沥青材料及以沥青作为胶结斜的沥青面层，具有热软冷脆的特性，故沥青路面的病害形成主要：表现为两个相反的方面：一是波浪、拥包和车辙；再就是开裂，并进而形成坑函或松动脱落，前者是沥青面层塑性变形逐渐累积的结果，与沥青的种类、稠度、用量及混合料的配合比有关，而后者则是沥青面层的抗变形能力小于路面的变形改造成的，除亦与j产生波浪、拥包的因素有关外，实践还表明，它与整个路面的强度，特别是刚度有着密切的关系。**
**2沥青混合料路面的通病及防治措施**
**2.1路面不平整**
**波浪，沥青撒布不均形成油垄，经过行车不断撞击而造成高低不平；壅包，面层较溥，以及面层与基层的粘结较差，容易产生此现象；坑槽，基层局部强度不足，在行车作用下容易产生。**
**叮采取如下防治措施：轻微的波浪可在热季采用强行压平的方法处治，严重的波浪则需用热拌沥市混合料填平。·般采取铲平的办法来处治藥包。坑槽处治的方法是将坑槽范围挖成矩形，槽壁应垂自，在四周涂刷热沥青后，从基层到面层用与原结构相同的材料填补，并予夯实。**
**2.2施\_L接缝处理不当**
**沥青路面的各种施工缝处，由于压实不足，容易产生台阶、裂缝、松散的现象。**
**可采取如下防治措施：纵横冷接缝必须按有关施1技术规范处**
**动，格控制，细化管理。既要管结果，更要抓过程，将质量第一的精神落实到每个人、每道工序，只有这样才能多创优质工程，多建市氏满意的精品工程。**
**3结束语**
**总之，影响城市道路1程施工质量的因素是多方面的，需动员各方力量，实行综合管理，以确保城市道路工程的高质量。若达此日标，则城巿道路工程质量较差的难题将得到圆满的解决，同时必然取得令人满**
**理好，在摊铺新料前，须将已压实的路面边缘塌斜部分用切割机切除，切线顺直，侧壁垂直，清扫碎粒料后，涂刷 0.3kg/m?~0.6kg/m²粘层沥青，然后再摊铺新料，并掌握女松铺系数；纵向接缝须采用合理的碾压工艺，在碾压纵向接缝时，压路机应先在已压实的路面上行走，碾压新铺层的10cm~20cm，然后压实新铺部分，再伸过已压实路面 10cm~20cm，接缝须得到允分压实，达到紧密、平顺的要求。**
2.3其他通病
**泛油，由J混合料中沥青用量偏多、沥青稠度太低引起的；啃边，沥青路面边缘不断缺损，参差不齐，路面宽度减小。可采取如下防治措施：可以根据泛油的轻重程度，采取铺撒较粗粒径的矿料予以处治；对啃边的处治方法是设置路缘石、加宽路面、加固路肩。**
**3水泥混凝土路面通病及防治措施**
**3.1混凝七板块裂缝**
**山于养生不够，表层风干收缩，产生网状，浅而细的发丝裂纹；和由于角隅处基层接触面积较小，单位面积所承受的压力大，基层相对沉降就大，造成板下落空，失去支撑，角隅处便产生局部裂纹；切缝时间过迟，造成收缩裂缝和开放交通后路面基层有下沉致似板块折裂；出于施工操作失误或原材料问题产生裂缝。**
**可采取如下防治措施：混凝上板浇筑后，按规范规定时间及时覆盖养生，养生期间必须经常保持湿澜，绝不能曝晒和风十，养生时间一般不应少于 14d；角隅处要注意对混凝土的振捣，必要时可加设角隅钢筋，软上路基地段，可作加固设计，做成钢筋混凝土路面板；切缝时间：当混凝土强度达到设计强度 25%~30%时可以切缝。**
**3.2胀缝处破损、拱胀、错台、填缝料脱落**
**山于胀缝内的滑动传力杆位置不正确、胀缝下部嵌缝板与上部缝隙未对齐、胀缝材料不良或填灌工艺不当等原因造成混凝上路面在运营一段时间后，胀缝两侧的板面即出现裂缝、破损、出坑，严重时山现相邻两板块错台或拱起，胀缝中的填料被挤出路面被行车带 _走。_**
**可采取如下防治措施：胀缝设传力杆的，传力杆必须设在板厚中央处；填缝料要选择耐热耐寒性能好，粘结力好，不易脱落的材料；填料不宜填满缝隙全深，最好在浇灌填料前先用多孔柔性材料填塞缝底，然后再加填料；接缝产生挤碎面积不人，只有1cm~3cm的啃边时，可清除接缝中杂物，用沥青砂或密级配沥青混凝十补平夯实，当挤碎较严重时，可用切割机械将挤碎部分切出正规和直壁的槽形，然后清洗槽内杂物并晾干，用沥青砂或密级配沥青混凝土夯实补平。**
4结语
**在公路工程施工中要避免质量缺陷与很多因素有关，如施工设备、施上水平、管理水平、技术质量因素等，只有全面提高施工队伍的整体素质，真正做到按施工技术规范施工，按操作规程操作，才能避免或减少质量缺陷。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\].JTC D24-2002，公路水泥混凝土路面设计规范\[S\]·**
**\[2\]JTC F30-2003，公路水泥混凝土路面施工技术规范\[S\].**
**\[3\]钱月香.水泥混凝土路面常见质量病害的成因及其对策门.山西建鏡，2006，32(9)：84-85.**
**意的经济效益和社会效益。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\]温金祥.市政道路工程施工方法与质量控制儿.中国西部科技，2005，(8).**
**|2|王鹏.道路工程施工项目管理与成本控制\[J.青海交通科技，2006，(1).** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 地方普通高校服务区域创新驱动发展探析
圍刘克勤
**摘 要地方普通高校是与区域联系最为紧密的创新组织。当前改革进入深水区经济的转型和升级需要依靠创新驱动发展战略。地方高校服务区域创新驱动发展在科研定位与创新导向、平台建设与创新驱动关系、政策激励与企业对接等方面尚存在不少问题。为此地方高校要整合优势资源进行合理科研定位通过共建创新平台模式，促进行业、企业创新发展通过建设良好的创新驱动生态环境运用系统失灵理论激活和控制高校的创新服务活动，达到高校有效服务创新驱动战略的目标。**
**关键词：地方普通高校；区域创新；社会服务**
2012年，创新驱动发展战略首先在全国科技创新大会上提出。党的十八大报告中进一步强调要实施创新驱动发展战略，并明确提出“科技创新是提高社会生产力和综合国力的战略支撑必须摆在国家发展全局的核心位置。”这标志着我国将逐步实现以创新驱动代替生产要素驱动。在我国经济发展初期，普遍依靠自然环境、劳动力、土地等生产要素的消耗和整合推动发展。随着经济发展速度的加快，依赖生产要素驱动发展的弊端日益显现，而整合各类生产要素实现各类生产要素可持续发展的创新驱动发展优势不断凸显。
地方普通高校是我国高等教育重要的组成部分在服务区域经济建设和社会发展培养应用型专门人才、产业科技创新和研发等方面具有重要作用。随着高等教育大众化时代的到来，以谋求平等为目标，为大众服务为使命的地方高校迅速崛起，有力地促进高等教育更加贴近各地方社会发展的实际需求，服务社会成为高校特别是地方普通高校的重大职能。大学的使命正在从传递知识走向发展知识，
从远离世俗的“象牙塔”成为“服务社会站”。地方普通高校是提升一个地区文化软实力的主阵地，是人才建设的主力军、科技创新的动力站。促进地方普通高校服务区域创新驱动发展不仅使其成为推动区域创新驱动发展战略实施的强力引擎，而且将是实现地方普通高校转型发展的必然选择。
一、地方普通高校服务区域创新驱动发展的基本内涵
地方普通高校是国家创新驱动发展体系中的重要组成部分实施服务创新驱动发展战略，既是学校自身优化发展的需要和使命，也是推动办学地所在区域创新驱动发展的重要环节。
地方普通高校服务区域创新驱动发展是指以高校中从事知识创新、技术研发的教研人员为主体，以科技创新为驱动力和服务重点，通过整合高校、企业、政府等各方资源发挥地方高校人才培养、科学研究、社会服务三大功能的集聚优势大力推进科教结合，产学研合作为高校人才培养提供支撑以加
刘克勤/丽水职业技术学院副院长 **副研究员** **丽水市社会科学联合会副主席** **(丽水** **323000)**
快转变区域经济发展方式为目标，通过科技创新成果转化助推区域创新驱动发展的内涵式发展方式。地方普通高校实施创新驱动发展战略最大贡献点在于人才培养和科技创新，构建有利于地方高校发展的创新驱动体系其理想的模式是建设企业主体、市场主导、政府与高校力量适度介入的以技术创新为主要任务的产学研联合体。
地方普通高校是与区域联系最为紧密的创新组织在改革进入深水区阶段，创新驱动发展是其有为有位的重要抓手。创新是一个组织体的生命，决定着组织体的存续和发展。高等院校既是教学中心又是科研中心教师既有教学任务又有科研任务。地方普通高等院校不仅是培养地方性人才的摇篮，而且具有进行科技创新、知识创新以促进地方经济与社会大力发展的重要职能。在经济发达地区的高等院校，地方高等院校的知识转化为生产力略为便捷而在欠发达地区，产学研的链条没有建立起来，地方普通高等院校的知识转化为生产力存在一定的障碍，需要通过知识创新加强地方院校更好地服务于地方经济与社会发展的能力。地方普通高校在知识创新基础上充分利用政府创新引导政策实施高校与区域行业企业的有效合作。知识创新和技术创新的有效结合技术创新与市场导向的有机结合，最大限度地发挥高校和企业技术骨干的创新能动性，实现企业的技术升级和技术储备。
实施创新驱动发展的根本任务是解决好两个关键点：一是“创新”要大力提倡原始创新：二是“驱动”要实现科技成果的商业化、产业化和社会化。凹这就要求地方普通高校在服务创新驱动发展过程中要多元创新，包括科教创新、管理创新、机制创新、体制创新。同时强调多元化的转变通过创新与人才培养融合、与经济发展融合逐步将要素驱动转化为创新驱动。为此地方普通高校要做好三大对接工作，即创新型人才培养与市场需求相对接，创新科技成果与商品化、产业化相对接，创新型管理与可持续发展的机制相对接。
二、当前地方高校服务区域创新驱动发展存在的问题
地方普通高校服务创新驱动发展助推区域经济崛起，需要利益需求、目标满足等方面的博弈。科技
创新和知识生产是高校服务创新驱动发展的主要活动，地方普通高校创新能力不如大院名校是不争的事实。从地方普通高校科技统计情况分析地方普通高校科研能力总体不强，体现在完成的重大项目不多、高层次项目不多、科研到款量不多。如浙江省地方普通高校的科研到款总量只相当于两所综合性大学的科研到款总量。从笔者调查情况看地方普通高校的科技服务定位不够准确，自我特色发挥不明显，大多在模仿综合性大学的科研路子。这些现象在很大程度上影响其科技创新作用的发挥和仓新能力的提升，归纳起来主要存在如下不足：
1.在科研定位与创新导向方面。目前地方普通高校明显存在研究力量分散、实力不强和缺乏竞争力等现象， 其根本问题在于缺乏准确的科研定位。定位不准确是目前地方普通高校科研活动的一大通病，大多数地方普通高校没有根据本校教师科技创新水平进行总体的、战略层面的学校科研顶层设计和特色发展引导。盲目仿效成功高校案例忽视自身的优势。科学研究和技术服务的突破方向不够明确，把两者都作为重点来抓结果都抓不出成效。大部分学校的科研规划也仅仅侧重于制定科研项目、科研经费额和科研奖项等硬指标科研定位尚不明晰。科研规划看起来目标宏伟，也具有一定的操作性，但如果从地方普通高校的科研发展方向、科研竞争力培育和科研特色培养等方面看，尚未清晰表明科研定位这一核心引领。
从发展导向上看，各地方普通高校基本照搬省内综合性大学的科研激励制度，没有根据地方性高校的科研水平和特点分析自身的优势，进行科技服务创新驱动的引导。大多数教师只是根据自身的兴趣与爱好在远离企业和市场的研究领域开展创新活动，在现有职称评定体系中进行科研和完成科研考核任务不注重科技转化的引导；而且这种惯性由来已久，已经严重影响技术创新。
2.在平台建设与创新驱动关系方面。一是科研设备和维护经费投入不足，结构性矛盾突出。在升本前实验室设备已经老化，维持正常教学需要已较困难，升本后虽然有了一定改善，但也只是适应一般性的教学性实验需要，就较高水平科研而言科研设备和实验室维护等经费远远满足不了实际需要。二是科研资料建设滞后，科研信息化水平较低。无论对基
础研究还是应用研究，科研信息资料建设和科研信息化建设都是基本的前提条件。由于信息资源形态的变化数字资源已经成为前沿科技的主流资源。但是，地方高校在科研资源建设和科研信息化水平建设方面明显滞后，这种滞后不仅表现在信息化服务硬件建设方面还表现在信息服务的思想意识上。
虽然有的地方普通高校也构建了一些科技研发平台，有的还建有省级研发平台投入大量资金，但至今没有发挥其创新主体作用。有的地方普通高校，为了一项科研课题或者个别科研人员研究需要，花费重金建设实验室，一旦课题结束或科研人员调离，实验室则得不到充分利用，有限教育教学和科研资源的利用效益低下。究其原因就是错误地认为平台建设是为了争取资源、为了争取名气。在平台建成后没有人才的集聚没有系统进行科技创新服务设计及思考平台运行策略和运行方式。因此造成了运行失灵的局面周大量资金的投入效果低下，减缓了服务创新驱动发展的步伐。
3.在政策激励与企业对接方面。自1990年代以来我国各级科研管理部门制定、实施了一百多项针对科技创新的政策法规，这对我国高校科技创新的发展起到了重要的推动作用。与此同时，高校自身也制定了一系列科技创新激励制度与措施，这在很大程度上提高和促进了高校教师的科研积极性。所有地方普通高校都先后制定并出台了一系列科研管理规章制度， 如重点学科建设管理办法、科研工作量计算办法、科研奖励与资助办法、科研基地建设管理办法、学术著作出版资助办法、科研岗位聘任制和优秀中青年科研人才培养等。但从近年来的科研激励结果看，一些激励政策导致教科研人员片面追求成果数量的增加忽略科研与行业、产业之间的实用性关联忽略科学研究对地方区域发展的指导作用。地方普通高校科研工作一味追求成果的“量”而不注重“质”。为了在短期内取得较多的科技成果学校大都规定了科研的硬指标。在科研人员科研考核上以论文的级别、数量、科研项目数、获奖成果数等作为主要的评价标准。在岗位竞争和评价体系的压力下，科研人员误认为只要有论文、有项目就可以了再加上现今社会上非法刊物增多导致伪科研的泛滥学术垃圾被大量产生，严重危害了高校的科研风气。另外，专利数不断攀升但专利转化率持续低靡高层次
论文数增多但实际应用性不高。这些现象都是在成果转化推广与应用方面政策导向不够明确带来的后果。
三、地方普通高校服务区域创新驱动发展的路径选择
大学必须融入社会，因为大学存在与发展的唯一理由就是社会需要，但大学绝不能被社会世俗所同化。日地方普通高校是区域发展的“助推器”建设创新驱动发展新平台，集成协同优势地方谱通高校服务区域创新驱动发展：
**1.完善以创新驱动为导向的科研定位**
地方普通高校科技管理部门要认真分析自身创新服务的优势与弱项，找到政策环境下企业需求和自身服务能力相适应的结合点，从而确定一个时期创新服务的重点再进行系统设计确立科学合理的定位。要摒弃单纯模仿知名大学科学研究和技术服务的激励政策和考核方法的做法，扬己之长，避己之短不断拓展服务空间和创新领域逐步成为区域创新驱动的有生力量成为区域内某些领域的引领者。应特别注意以下几点：一是要尊重客观量力而行。地方高校科研定位，既不能仿照教学研究型大学的科研定位，也不能照抄照搬其他教学型大学的科研定位，不能从领导者个人好恶出发，主观随意确定，而要实事求是量力而行。二是要有所侧重突出重点。具体要围绕教学中心地位围绕教学需要结合本校科研实际情况，把着力点放在影响教学和科研的基础、关键和原则性问题上，抓住重点，力争有所突破。三是要通盘考虑教学与科研相互配合形成合力。四是要大胆谨慎积极稳妥。五是要立足现在，着眼长远发展。
2.建立以解决问题为导向的创新驱动机制
地方普通高校要以体制机制改革为强大动力，着力推动科技与教育、科技与经济的紧密结合进一步提升科技服务经济社会的能力。要综合运用规划引导、政策推动和项目牵引手段，在科研指导思想、评价体系、科教体制机制上实现三大转变。
一是在科研指导思想上，要实现从成果导向向解决问题导向的转变。通过评价约束和分配激励政策引导鼓励科研人员深入行业、企业一线，面向生产实际中的关键技术问题，从以往的“为职称而研
究”转变为“为攻关而研究”，多做有转化可能的“立地式”科研。
二是在科研评价体系上，实现从追求量的扩张向追求质的提升转变。建立以创新质量和社会贡献率为主要导向的评价机制，注重原始创新和解决实际生产需求的绩效，建立分类评价、开放评价机制。不以单纯的论文、课题、专利等数量作为考核目标，而是趋向关注应用、成果转化、企业采用、政府部门采纳。
三是在科教体制机制上，实现从分散封闭向协同开放的转变。地方普通高校应充分释放人才、资本、信息、技术等创新要素的活力突破高校与其他创新主体间的壁垒形成广泛协同的新局面。通过“科技特派员”“访问工程师”“产业联络员”等鼓励政策推动科技人才向企业、基层流动聚集以把学校建成社区学习中心的理念，开放学校的科研仪器设备、图书信息资料推动学校与企业的深度融合。
3.发挥平台在创新驱动中的应有作用
各地方普通高校都建有研发平台，包括省级重大科技创新服务平台、市级高新技术研究开发中心和校级重点实验室等，地方普通高校的这些平台有时因缺乏团队合作及与企业合作的能力，在区域创新驱动活动中没有起到应用的作用。如何使已经建成的平台在运行中做到互动不失灵，切实为行业、企业创新驱动发展服务，是目前建设平台的一大难题。要解决好这一问题，一定要做好与企业的创新合作。
一是要引导高校平台团队成员下企业的工作，充分调动或统筹做好政府部门提出的“1+6”或“2+5”企业兼职、挂职模式闯让挂职人员沉下心，从企业实际需求出发，直接或间接为企业创新服务。
二是通过平台团队成员与企业技术骨干合作，帮助企业建立新的高新技术研究开发中心，并争取成为市级、省级高新技术研究开发中心。与企业共同制定研发中心的年度创新计划，确定每个成员的目标任务完成企业确定的研发任务服务企业的技术创新活动。合作过程中要发挥各自特长分工协作开展创新研发活动。
三是统筹学校研发力量加入技术创新联盟体，为区域沧新驱动活动服务。如浙江省教育厅为贯彻落实省委、省政府创新驱动精神制订了浙江省“高新园区产学合作对接专项行动计划”到2014年全省
将建设高校产学研联盟中心15个左右作为地方普通高校要思考如何调动研发人员的主动性，积极参与到技术创新联盟体中。要发挥好团队力量统筹研发资源，以加入联盟体创新活动的实效，提升地方高校创新驱动服务的能力。
4.激活创新驱动的运行机制
创新驱动机制是最重要的动力机制，只有不断完善创新驱动机制，才能保障创新驱动活动健康、稳定运行。要处理好政策激励与企业对接问题，关键是要形成稳定、灵活的创新驱动机制，创新驱动发展的效率和质量，很大程度上取决于机制的运行状态和运行生态这一生态结构可用下图表示：
**创新驱动运行机制结构生态图**
从这一内在结构生态图来看，创新人才是动力机制，创新政策是保障机制，创新文化是提升机制，创新评价是运行机制。要素间互为作用、形成生态循环。创新人才是实现创新文化的基础，创新政策是孕育创新人才的保证，创新评价催化创新人才和创新文化的产生，创新政策推动创新评价的改革。创新人才推动理论、知识、技术的创新，多方形成良性互动循环推动创新机制稳定、健康的运行。
创新驱动机制中的各环节之间连贯性强、关系密切，其中一个环节的实施通常会影响到另一个环节。创新人才是动力机制，是第一推动力。人才是科学发展的第一资源、第一要素是转型之要、竞争之本、活力之源。如何吸引人才、使用人才、培育人才是地方高校创新驱动机制运行发展的首要任务。有了创新人才才能促进理论创新、知识创新、技术创新。政策的创新不仅能“筑巢引凤”，形成国内外优秀人才向往和聚集的“磁场”效应，吸引人才、留住人才；还能最大效率地激发人才的潜力，为区域经济社会发展服务。同时，创新政策的推动带来评价机制的创新，进一步反映在创新人才的考核和工作效率上能
大大激发创新人才的工作热情和创造热情，发挥人才创新优势催生、带动地方区域文化创新，形成良好的创新驱动发展氛围，助推区域经济崛起。
本文系浙江省哲学社会科学重点研究基地浙江师范大学教育学一级学科基地招标项目“联合体式，
社会服务体系构建研究”丽水市高层次人才培养资助项目“基于新农业经营主体的区域协同创新中心研究”(2013RC09)的部分成果。
**(责任编辑** **翁伟斌)**
**参考文献**
**\[\]\]陈勇星.屠文娟.江苏省实施创新驱动战略的路径选择\[J\].科学管理研究2013(4).**
**\[2\]王瑞敏滕青卢斐斐.影响高校专利转化的因素分析和对策研究\[J\].科研管理，2013(3).**
\[3\]眭依凡.理性捍卫大学\[M\].北京：北京大学出版社2013.
**\[4\]创新驱动发展.创新高校科技发展方式的转变变-——2012年度教育部科学技术委员会年会综述\[\].中国高校科技，2013(1)：4-8.**
**\[5\]浙江省人民政府办公厅.关于印发浙江省“八培增、两提高"科技服务专项行动总体实施方案的通知\[N\].2013-07-18.**
**\[6\]浙江省教育厅.浙江省高新园区产学研合作对接专项行动计划(2013-2017年)实施意见\[Z\].2013.**
**On Local Colleges and Universities Boosting the Regional Innovation-Driven Development**
**Liu Keqin**
**(Lishui Vocatuiond & Technical college， Lishui 323000)**
Abstract： Local colleges and universities are the innovation organizationsthatare most closely linked with the region.
**Exploring the ways of serving regional innovation-driven development is vital in practice to local colleges and universities. However， problems about direction of research orientation and implementation， relationship between platform construction and innovation， and policy support and school-company cooperation are still exist in local colleges and universities servicing regional innovation-driven development. This article proposed the idea of constructing the commonwealth institute and other new platforms to make full use of integration synergies and achieve the "three changes"， creating the "four vectors"， and optimizing the "one mechanism"， so as to boost the regional innovation-driven development.**
Key words： local colleges and universities， regional innovation-driven development ， commonwealth institute
教育部：本科高校年底前出台本校学术委员会章程
《高等学校学术委员会规程》于今年3月1日起正式实施教育部今天下发关于贯彻实施《规程》的通知，要求实施本科以上教育的高校，应当在今年年底前完成本校学术委员会章程及学术委员会的组建或者改组工作。
通知要求，高校可以对现有的学科建设、教师聘任、教学指导、科学研究、学术道德等学术机构的职能和组织架构进行调整整合为学术委员会的专门委员会也可以保留有关学术组织的独立地位，但要相应调整职能明确与学术委员会的关系并接受学术委员会的指导、监督。
通知提出高校要确立学术委员会校内最高学术机构地位，对有突出学术成就的青年教师可适当降低对专业技术职务要求，可选择有突出学术创建和潜力学生作为特邀委员进入学术委员会。
通知强调高校应当按照信息公开的要求将本学校学术委员会章程及相关制度、学术委员会组成和运行情况、年度报告等通过学校网站等途径予以公开。教育部也将适时委托第三方或以其他方式，对部属高校以及随机抽取的部分地方高校进行评估。
来源《中国教育报》2014-03-22 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **依据“活教育”理念实施“五育”融合教育以科学探究活动“大树你好”为例**
**林芸**
**{厦门市湖里区东渡幼儿园，福建厦门361013)**
摘 要 在幼儿园教育教学实践中，可依据“活教育”理念，因地制宜，开展“五育”融合课程，实施“全面化”的教育策略：一是拓展活的教育资源，丰富“五育”融合课程条件；二是构建活的育人课程，提升“五育”融合学习内涵；三是采取活的指导策略，助力“五育"融合能力发展，以期把幼儿培养成为身心和谐发展的完整的人。
关键词 “活教育”；“五育”融合；科学探究活动
教育家陈鹤琴提出“活教育”理论体系。书本主义的教育是“死的教育”，而“活的教育”，则教材是活的，方法是活的，课本也是活的。其目的论的核心是培养学生“做人、做中国人、做世界人”，其课程论主张要从儿童的生活出发，以自然、社会、文学、艺术、健康五类活动设置课程，完成儿童的完整生活，提倡“应当用整个的教学法去进行教学，立谋各科间的联络”11；其方法论强调“做中教、做中学、做中求进步”，反对以教师为中心的注入式教学方法，认为学校的一切活动都应以儿童为中心、为主体，应采用启发式教学方法，培养儿童研究和创造能力。
2018年9月，习近平总书记在全国教育大会上明确指出，要“努力构建德智体美劳全面发展的教育体系”。2019年发布的《中国教育现代化2035》，提出“更加注重学生全面发展，大力发展素质教育，促进德育、智育、体育、美育和劳动教育的有机融合”，进一步明晰了“五育”融合的教育发展目标。2“五育”融合的根本主旨是要回归教育的本质规律，回答教育究竟“如何培养人”这个根本问题。2那么，幼儿园如何依据“活教育”理念，实施“五育”融合，多渠道、多方位对幼儿进行完整化、全面化的教育呢?本文试以科学探究活动“大树你好”实践为例，展开探索与思考。
**一、拓展活的教育资源，丰富“五育”融合课程条件**
陈鹤琴在《活教育》月刊《发刊词》中提出：“我们要利用大自然、大社会做我们的活教材。”幼儿教育是学校教育和终身教育的奠基阶段，幼儿园应在大自
然、大社会中充分拓展活的教育资源，丰富幼儿亲身感知、实际体验、获取知识经验的渠道，为开展“五育”融合课程、实施“全面化教育”创造条件。
(一)活用园本资源
“幼儿园应构建以儿童为中心的环境，让儿童通过环境成为活动的主人。儿童通过环境去探索和学习，让自己的经验和同伴的经验产生互动，看到自己的经历和成长。”3\]幼儿园要充分利用园本资源，追随幼儿学习和发展需要，支持幼儿自主规划和创设环境，动态呈现课程的推进和幼儿学习的轨迹，包括幼儿的记录、作品、活动图片等，反映幼儿当下的兴趣、思考、实践与经验的获得，记录发现的问题、遇到的困惑以及解决问题的方法，从而引发幼儿持续的思考与探究。教师要通过创设良好的生态环境来激发幼儿的学习兴趣，提升学习动机，使其在与环境的互动与融合中，实现认知、能力、情感的协同发展。\[4\]
东渡幼儿园园内绿树成荫，花卉、植物种类丰富，为幼儿亲近、探究大自然提供可能。在春天，幼儿园操场的大叶榕落下金黄的树叶。幼儿们惊奇地捡起地上的落叶，问道：“这是什么树的树叶?为什么是在春天落叶呢?”教师以此为契机，开启科学探究活动“大树你好”。在接下来的日子里，幼儿亲眼见证大叶榕在春天变化出满树金黄的叶子，叶子不断飘落，最后只剩下光秃秃的树干和树枝。 _一_ 一周后，大叶榕又吐出嫩绿的新芽，换上嫩绿的新装。大叶榕的神奇变化引发幼儿各种各样的问题。教师顺应幼儿的探究兴趣，支持、鼓励幼儿用自己的方式探寻大叶榕春天落
叶的秘密。幼儿在找到问题答案的同时，又不断产生出新的问题，这促使他们不断深入到新一轮的探究发现中。幼儿捡树叶、扫落叶、给树叶分类、调查树叶变黄的秘密、做树叶粘贴画、探究绿叶与枯叶的不同，“五育”融合教育潜移默化地渗透其中。
(二)开发周边环境
幼儿园可结合实际，开发利用周边环境，指导家长利用节假日丰富幼儿认知经验，发展幼儿良好的学习品质。结合幼儿对大树的探究兴趣，各班组织开展“家庭科探小分队”活动。家长利用周末时间，带领幼儿登狐尾山、走山海健康步道，开展自然探究活动：认识不同树的名称，观察树的特征，了解树是哪些小动物的家；捡拾落叶、松果、树子，带回幼儿园作为区域探究的材料。在登山健步行的过程中，家长和幼儿还随手捡拾垃圾并分类投放到垃圾箱里。幼儿通过走一走、看一看、摸一摸、数一数、比一比，积累有关树的知识经验，获得对树的审美体验，发展体能，萌发保护大自然的情感。
(三)引入家长资源
幼儿家长的职业特点、工作经验、专业特长等，有助于幼儿了解社会角色、学习社会规则、丰富职业认知。幼儿园可引入家长资源，为幼儿的学习和发展服务。为了拓展“大树你好”科学探究活动，幼儿园开设“东幼科探小课堂”栏目，利用幼儿园微信公众号，推送亲子科探小视频，以图文并茂的形式呈现操作过程、实验记录单，引发更多幼儿对科学现象的关注与思考，支持幼儿在探究中观察发现、体验操作、记录表达；鼓励家长与幼儿自制“科学探究绘本”，以撕贴、拓印添画、水粉画等多元化的表征方式，记录、呈现自己对树的生长过程的探究发现。上述活动丰富了语言区科学探究阅读素材，支持了幼儿的同伴互助式学习，为幼儿的表达表征、交流分享提供平台。
(四)整合社区资源
《幼儿园教育指导纲要(试行)》指出：“幼儿园应与家庭、社区密切合作，综合利用各种教育资源，共同为幼儿的发展创造良好的条件。”结合“大树你好”科学探究活动，幼儿园组织幼儿走进社区，开展“科技周”“世界环境日”等主题宣传活动。幼儿通过诗朗诵《给未来一片绿》，抒发爱护每一棵树的情感，呼吁大家做“大自然的小天使”；举办大树写生作品展示，呈现幼儿对树的审美表达；开展写生作品义卖活动，并
把义卖所得捐给社区“爱心蓄水池”。在活动中，幼儿的表现力、表达能力得到培养，获得社会性发展，提升道德素养。
**二、构建活的育人课程，提升“五育”融合学习内涵**
实施“五育”融合教育，必须加强和改进育人课程建设，提升课程学习内涵，为幼儿“全面化”发展打下坚实的基础。“一日生活皆课程”，幼儿园应顺应幼儿学习和发展的需要，建设活的育人课程，让“五育”融合的发展目标自然渗透其中。对大树的探究，逐渐引发幼儿对更多植物的兴趣。基于此，幼儿园结合本园实际，开发具有园本特色的课程，如东幼科探小课堂等，在一日活动中落实“五育”融合发展目标。
每天离园前，各班结合本班幼儿年龄特点、感兴趣的问题，借助学习强国平台科普天地、科学小实验、科普影视等栏目，组织幼儿观看有关树的科学探究小视频，丰富幼儿相关科学知识经验，为幼儿开展主题探究活动打下良好的基础。“主题探究是引导幼儿对一个主题或多个论题作深入探究的活动，是根基于‘儿童为本'的课程观。它强调儿童自主性的学习，注重内在的学习动机，同时不忽略教师的引导角色。”5\]各班追随本班幼儿探究兴趣，生成“森林餐吧”香香桂花树”“神奇大叶榕”等科学探究小主题活动，引导幼儿感知树的特征，了解树与大自然、与人们生活的关系，发展探究能力、语言表达能力，尝试协商解决问题，体验想象与创造的快乐。
在“大树你好”科学探究活动中，每班幼儿在幼儿园认养一棵树，并为大树命名、制作名牌。幼儿用眼睛看、用鼻子闻、用双手触摸、用心灵感受，在观察中发现、在探索中思考、在游戏中收获。在家长的帮助、支持下，幼儿对自己认养的树进行持续性的观察与探究，定期记录发现、体验、实践与收获，以图文并茂的形式呈现探究学习的轨迹与成果，不断丰富并形成“我的探究故事”记事本。“探究故事”的记录和展示，让家长和幼儿享受有意义的亲子陪伴，提升幼儿好奇与兴趣、专注与坚持等学习品质，同时培养生命意识以及热爱大自然的情感。
幼儿还利用晨间户外活动时间探秘小公园，观察桂花树、变叶木、芒果树等，记录自己的探究发现；开展自然写生，用画笔表现俊秀挺拔的小叶樟、五彩斑斓的变叶木等。教师支持幼儿用拓印、滚刷、线描、剪
贴等多种形式仓作树叶主题画，并在幼儿园门厅展示主题画作品。在此过程中，幼儿充分感受大自然的美好，全面提升综合素养，并获得审美情趣的熏陶。
此外，各班的科学区、自然角、低结构材料区、语言区等为幼儿开展科学探究活动提供了丰富的材料、多样化的平台。教师与幼儿一起收集树叶、树子、树枝、树桩、木制品等，摆放在科学区、自然角，以便了解树的特征、用途；在语言区征集有关树的绘本，在阅读中探寻更多有关树的秘密；在科学区墙面自主展示幼儿探究的照片和记录单等，动态呈现幼儿探究的轨迹，让幼儿成为环境的主人。
**三、采取活的指导策略，助力“五育”融合能力发展**
儿童的发展是一个整体，要注重领域之间、目标之间的相互渗透和整合，促进幼儿身心全面协调发展，而不应片面追求某一方面或几个方面的发展。I6\]教师要观察、了解幼儿的最近发展区，依据幼儿的学习和发展需要，灵活采取适宜的支持策略，助推幼儿在探究活动中获得“五育”融合能力发展。
(一)培养幼儿树立自主探究意识
教师应鼓励幼儿根据探究需要，自主选择、寻找探究工具与材料，指导幼儿结合感兴趣的问题，设计探究思路或步骤，与环境、材料、同伴积极互动，并通过探究故事的记录，真实、生动地体现自己探究学习的轨迹。例如，教师支持幼儿对大树开展探究，和幼儿一起调查幼儿园里树的种类、数量和用途；鼓励幼儿餐后到树下散步，仰望树的高大，手拉手把树干围起来，量一量树干有多粗；指导幼儿自主制定区域规则，科学有序地分类摆放树叶、松果、树枝、树种等探究材料；在区域活动结束后，自主收拾整理探究材料，做环境管理的主人。
**(二)引导幼儿采用多元探究模式**
教师应结合幼儿的年龄特点，鼓励幼儿采用灵活多样的探究模式，在动手动脑中寻找答案、解决问题，进行持续、多元的深度学习。例如，在“大树你好”主题探究活动中，教师引导小班幼儿捡拾落叶，观察落叶的形状、颜色，摸一摸树干是粗糙的还是光滑的；中班幼儿以同伴互助的形式制作叶脉书签，给低矮的树木套上塑料袋，观察、了解树叶的呼吸；大班幼儿以小
组探究的形式开展有关大叶榕生长秘密的调查。幼儿还在树下开展“树叶大战”体育游戏，在捧树叶、追逐跑、撒树叶的过程中，感知力的作用方式与树叶飘落方向、速度的关系，锻炼躲闪、追逐跑等运动技能，获得趣味性体育活动带来的快乐。多元化的探究模式带来丰富的探究体验，让幼儿获得多维度的发展。
(三)鼓励幼儿运用多种表达方式
基于幼儿对树的多维度探究与感知，教师在不同领域的活动中，鼓励幼儿用多种方式表达自己的认识。例如，小班语言活动《小树叶飘呀飘》中，通过对树叶飘落形态的观察和想象来仿编儿歌；中班幼儿歌唱《小树叶》，体验小树叶离开树叶妈妈的感受，用肢体语言表现小树叶飘落的动态；大班写生活动《大叶榕》中，幼儿以线描、水粉等表现手法，表达自己对大叶榕独特的审美感受。幼儿形成探究记录单，有心智绘图、表格、流程图、探究地图、实验步骤图、场景图等多种表征形式。
在教育教学实践中，幼儿园可依据“活教育”理念，有机整合德育、智育、体育、美育和劳动教育发展目标，把“五育”融合课程实施自然渗透在幼儿的一日活动中，发掘课程的最大价值，促进幼儿身心和谐发展。
**参考文献**
\[1\]上海市陈鹤琴教育思想研究会.陈鹤琴与上海教育 **\[M\].上海：上海教育出版社，2012：74.**
\[2\]宁本涛.“五育”融合本质的再认识\[N\].中国教师报， **2020-12-09(6).**
\[3\]王海英，等.儿童视野的幼儿园环境创设\[M\].北京：人 **民教育出版社，2019：51.**
\[4\]黄静.暖认知理念下的幼儿园生态体验活动\[J\].学前教育研究，2022(11).
\[5\]许卓娅.什么是主题探究活动什么是主题探究活动课 **程 \[EB/OL\]. \[2022-12-01\]. https：//www. yuerzhinan. com/zhishi/172258.htm1.**
\[6\]李季湄，冯晓霞.《3-6岁儿童学习与发展指南》解读\[M\].北京：人民教育出版社，2013：287.
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_兰_ 一
**DOI：10.3969/j.jssn.1008-3499.2010.05.017**
**礼貌原则在研究生英语教学中的应用**
**胡淑兰**
**(兰州交通大学外国语学院，甘肃兰州 730070)**
**摘 要：英国语言学家利奇(Geoffrey. N. Leech)在《语用学原则》一书中提出了与格赖斯(H.P. Griee)的合作原则相补益的礼貌原则。经过小学、中学、大学阶段的学习，研究生巴具有相当的英语功底，但研究生英语学习中仍存在焦虑心理等严重问题。结合教学实践，提出将礼貌原则引入研究生英语教学，有助于研究生减少其焦虑感，增强学习英语的兴趣，提高其英语水平。**
**关键词：礼貌原则；研究生；英语教学**
**中图分类号：G643；H319.9 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1008-3499(2010)05-0048-03**
**“礼貌”是日常生活中具有道德伦理意义的一项行为准则，是人们维系和谐的人际关系所作的种种努力。礼貌研究就成为以语言使用为主要对象的语用学研究的一个重要领域。将礼貌原则引人英语教学，达到理想的教学效果，是许多语言教学者、习得者和研究者共同关注的问题。在几年的研究生英语教学中，笔者发现将礼貌原则引人研究生英语教学中可以在一定程度上帮助研究生增强学习英语的兴趣，提高英语水平。**
**一、礼貌语言研究回顾**
**礼貌作为一种社会现象，无论在哪一个语言集团中都是存在的，这是一种普遍的现象。它制约着人们的言行，调节着人们的交际活动。因此，礼貌是达到良好的交际效果所不可或缺的重要因素之一。英国著名语言学家利奇(Geoffrey. N. Leech)在《语用学原则》中提出了与格赖斯(H.P. Grice)的合作原则相补益的礼貌原则，它有6条准则，每条准则又各有两条次准则。**
**(1)得体准则：尽量减少表达有损于他人的观点。①尽量少让别人吃亏；②尽量多使别人得益。**
**(2)慷慨准则：尽量表达利于他人的观点。①尽量少使自己得益：②尽量多让自己吃亏。**
**(3)赞誉准则：减沙贬损他人。①尽量少贬低别人；②尽量多贬低自己。**
**(4)谦逊准则：减少对自己的表扬。①尽量少赞誉自己；②尽量多贬低自己。**
**(5)一致准则：减少自己与别人在观点上的不一**
**致。①尽量减少双方的分歧：②尽量增加双方一致。**
**(6)同情准则：减少自己与别人在情感上的对立。①尽量减少双方的反感：②尽量增加双方的同情。**
**不难看出，上述准则都尽量使自己受惠最小使别人受惠最大；或使自己受损最大使别人受损最小。因此，惠和损(benefit and cost)是礼貌原则的本质现象，策略准则是6条准则中最根本的一条。就师生课堂交际而言，Leech 的“得体准则”、“赞誉准则”“同情准则”“一致准则”的使用显得尤为重要。**
**二、非英语专业研究生学习英语的心理特点**
**根据美国著名成人教育学家诺尔斯的观点，个体随着年龄的增长到青年时期便产生了一种强烈的独立感，这种独立意味着他在心理上和社会开始从依赖的、他律的前成年期向独立的、自律的成年期转化。作为成人的研究生，这种独立的心理特点使其在学习过程中具备了一些得天独厚的优势，比如有较强的独立学习能力、自我完善的动机和较强的自制力等；但同时其在外语学习中的焦虑感问题也较为突出。**
**(1)研究生由于有着很强的独立意识，相对于青少年学生来说交际的欲望要稍微弱一些；而强烈的自尊心使得自我保护意识要更为强烈。这一特点表现在外语学习中就是较少主动发起交际，而对别人发起的交际也表现出一种矜持和有所保留的态度。**
**(2)在外语学习的课堂中，对学生的测试几乎每天都在进行，例如回答老师关于课文练习的问题。与青少年学生相比，研究生学生更容易对这类测试或考试感到紧张。因为考试焦虑的起因是学生过去经历**
**收稿日期：2010-03-11；修订日期：2010-04-15**
**作者简介：胡淑兰(1977一)，女，甘肃兰州人，兰州交通大学外国语学院讲师，主要从事语篇分析和语用学研究，(E-mail)[email protected]。**
**了过多的失败，而回忆中只注意自己失败的经验；研究生学生在这方面的经验毫无疑问要更多，所以在测试和考试之前和过程中会产生负面的、不相关的想法，从而无法专注于课堂教学内容。值得一提的是，这样的学生在为考试焦虑的同时，也同时在为自己不能集中精力于课堂而着急，从而加重了焦虑的程度。**
**(3)研究生对负面评价的恐惧尤其突出。如前面所说，研究生普遍拥有独立人格和强烈的自尊心，其中很多研究生还拥有一定的社会地位和正面评价。然而在外语学习方面，由于水平不高、时间的限制、方法的不当等原因造成了学习效果不尽如人意，因此研究生对于自身外语学习评价的预期普遍偏低，这会挫伤个体的自尊心和自信心，在交际过程中产生“自己不如别人”的感觉，从而产生严重的焦虑感。**
**如果不能有效地减轻研究生在外语学习中表现出来的这些焦虑情绪，势必丧失外语学习的乐趣和积极性，久而久之会将英语学习当成一种心理负担，而重度焦虑将导致学生逃避甚至抵触外语学习，因此研究减轻研究生外语学习焦虑的有效策略显得十分必要。研究生具有很强的自尊心和自我意识- _—_ 也就是说他们对“面子威胁”的担心更加强烈，他们更渴望得到别人的认可和赞同。师生关系是否和谐直接影响到课堂教学的成果。课堂上如何避免这些威胁面子的言语行为选择，对于老师来说就是如何恰当地使用礼貌策略。**
**三、礼貌原则在研究生英语教学中的应用**
**(一)得体原则**
**得体准则是指少让别人吃亏，多使别人受益。得体准则是礼貌原则中最根本也是最重要的一条准则。其实质是以听话人为“利益中心”的礼貌用语基本策略。如果说话人言语行为偏离听话人利益中心，就会被认为不礼貌。语言交际总是为着一定目的的合作，它是建立在心理接触基础上的人际交往，即语言交往总是伴随着一定的心理调节。在师生语言交际中，教师往往处于主导地位，具有主动性，学生处于被动地位，这样，往往容易产生诸如自卑、紧张、羞怯等心理障碍，从而影响师生的语言交际效果。所以在总的策略上将学生置于利益中心，一方面可以让学生在师生交际中尽量多受惠，克服学生的紧张和羞怯心理，从而提升学生的自信心，消除自卑心理；另一方面，降低老师在师生交际中的绝对主导，建立起尽量对等的师生交际话语环境。这条准则是顺利完成师生语言交际目的，提高交际效果的重要保证。**
**根据这一原则可以得出以下两个结论。首先，通过祈使句来看，提供(offer)比要求(request)要礼貌一**
**些。如：Take the chance.就比 Give me your answer.要礼貌。其次，在表示请求时，不直接比直接要礼貌一些。所以根据礼貌由浅至深的程度，直接的祈使句不如普通的疑问句礼貌，普通的疑问句又不如首先提出“是否可以做出请求的”疑问句礼貌。例如：**
**Answer the question.**
**Can you answer the question?**
**Would you like to answer the question?**
**这三句话的礼貌程度是逐步加深的。请求越来越不明显，从而给听者更大的拒绝的自由。比如在请学生回答问题时，尽量避免使用“Answer the ques-tion!"这样的命令式语句，而应该尽量多采用“Would you like to answer the question?"这类商量的口吻。因为这样就降低了教师在课堂上的绝对主导，缩短了教师和学生间的社会距离，建立了一个相对平等的交流环境，教学效果肯定也会得到相应的提高。**
**(二)赞誉准则**
**赞誉准则的核心是减少表达对他人的贬损，是在对语言损益的权衡中采取中语言选择。现在十分流行的“赏识教育”也就是以“赞誉准则”为基础的。研究生的自尊心和自我意识都十分强烈，很多学生在课堂上不敢回答问题或者不积极参与课堂活动，正是担心回答错误会受到老师的批评和同学的嘲笑。如果教师在课堂上多鼓励，多赞扬，不仅维护了学生的“正面子”，也帮助学生逐步增强了自信心，使学生更加乐于学。**
**在口语课堂上，经常会出现学生面对老师的问题哑口无言的情况，这个时候，作为老师应该鼓励学生，肯定他的实力，相信他有能力回答这个问题：**
**Your English is very good. I think you can an-swer this question. Let's have a try again，OK?**
**在学生回答了问题之后，哪怕他没答对，教师也应该对其加以鼓励：**
**You have done it well， but if you do it better，I will be more satisfied.**
**学生听到这样的赞誉，一定会很愉快地接受拼且会想方设法地做得更好。**
**(三)同情准则**
**同情准则的核心就是减少交际双方在情感上的对立，要求说话者尽量减少对对方的反感和厌恶，尽量夸大对对方的同情。教师要充分重视使用这条准则，设身处地地站在学生的立场，分析他们目前的任务和解决问题的办法，避免采用居高临下，盛气凌人的语言。例如在课堂上，有的学生的英语口语带有地方口音，老师多次纠正都无法让其改正，这时教师将心比心，理解学生的地方口音是有客观条件的，从而**
**更耐心的教其改正，这样可以减少学生的学习焦虑情绪并减低学生失败时的挫折感，同时有助于缓和课堂气氛，增强学生的自信心，从而达到实现有效教学的目的。**
**在传统教育中，“严师出高徒”一直被曲解为教师对学生的严格就是可以严词厉句，可以对学生任意斥骂，甚至体罚。其实，这样往往事与愿违，达不到预期的教育效果。在语言使用上也违背了“赞誉准则”。在教育过程中，教师应以赞扬的语言激励学生朝着一定的目标前进，要让学生看到希望，增强信心。**
**(四)一致准则**
**一致准则也就是减少自己与别人在观点上的不一致。“求同存异”是十分有效的交际方法之一。如前所述，研究生普遍拥有强烈的自尊心，对负面评价的恐惧尤其突出。因此当遇到学生在课堂上提出一些自己的看法和观点，如果这些看法和观点是错误的，教师尽量不直接在课堂上指出来：**
**“You are wrong!”**
**“Why do you have such stupid idea?"**
**这时候老师可以说：**
**“Perhaps you are right. I'll look it up in the dic-tionary， and we continuc to discuss the question to-morrow.”**
**课间可单独指出错误，学生下次会更积极主动地思考问题。另外一个教学实例，学生拿着自己修改过的翻译练习来请教：**
**Student： What about my translation this time? I think it's better.**
**T1： Yes，I couldn’t agree with you more， I like the words you chose. I think you can also use this word bere.**
**T3： I don’t think it’s good at all.**
**在这三个回答中，礼貌程度也是依次递减的。而第三个回答根本上违反了一致准则。教师和学生这时候处于对立面。而且也打击了学生的自信心，伤害了学生的“正面子”。有些学生甚至会因此失去学习英语的兴趣。而如果我们能采用第一种回答、下子就缩短了和学生的心理距离。因此在研究生英语教学中，一致准则的作用也是不可忽视的。**
**研究生作为特殊英语学习者，在学习英语的过程中不可避免的出现焦虑感，这会在一定程度上阻碍他们在英语学习上取得进一步的提高。如果我们在研究生英语教学的各个环节都注意合理使用礼貌原则，那么我们就会很好地维护学生的“正面子”，形成和谐的师生关系，这样就必然会激发学生的学习兴趣，提高教学效果。**
**参考文献：**
\[1\] **BROWN G，LEVISION S. Some universals of languagt** **usage： politeness phenomena \[M\]. Cambridge： Carn-bridge University Press，1978.**
**\[2\]** **LEECH G N. Principles of Pragmatics \[M\]. London：Longman，1983.**
**\[3\]** **杜军.英汉礼貌原则对比与跨文化交际教学\[J\].牡丹江师范学院学报：哲学社会版，2008(3)：96-98.**
**\[43** **刘润清.关于 Leech 的礼貌原则\[J\].外语教学与研究，1987(2)：3-5，**
**\[5\]** **易红，胡晓琼.礼貌原则在英语写作教学中的运用门\].三峡大学学报：人文社会科学版。2006(S1)：135-137.**
**E6\]** **张国，赵薇.论礼貌语言的得体性\[J\].中国海洋大学学报：社会科学版，2005(3)：85-88.**
**\[7\]** **郑素华.礼貌原则在大学英语教学巾的应用\[J.牡丹江大学学报，2007(11)：175-177.**
**Application of Politeness Principle in Postgraduate’s English Teaching**
**HU Shui-lan**
**(School of Foreign Languages， Lanzhou Jiaotong University， Lanzhou 730070，China)**
**Abstract： Geoffrey. N. Leech， the famous English linguist， comes up with politeness principle in Princi-ples of Pragmalics， which compensates for the cooperative principle put forward by H. P. Grice. After the learning in primary sehool， middle school and college， postgraduates have grasped basic knowledge of English， but they still have some serious problems in English usage. Years of postgraduate English teach-ing proved that students’ anxiety in learning could be reduced by introducing politeness principle； their in-terest could also be inspired while English level being improved.**
**Key words： politeness principle； postgraduates； English teaching** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **纪念报道如何书写历史**
\-品评《悲壮的起点，不屈的抗争——1931-1937年局部抗战启示录》
**文/陈文举**
**在众多抗战题材的新闻报道中，标志着抗战全面爆发的1937年“七七事变”后的历史，得到媒体较多的着墨。而1931一1937年这段可歌可泣的6年局部抗战史稍显沉寂和单薄，这不仅体现在历史学界的研究分水岭，而且在相关的新闻报道中表现尤为明显。**
**在中国人民抗日战争暨世界反法西斯战争胜利70周年纪念日到来前，新华社组织记者奔赴东北三省、河北、内蒙古、上海等地，寻访1931-1937年发生在中华大地的那段抗争史，遍访坚守14年抗战的抗联足迹、江桥抗战、长城抗战、察哈尔抗战旧址及英雄家属后裔、研究学者专家，采写了重头文章《悲壮的起点，不屈的抗争——I931一1937年局部抗战启示录》(后文简称“《启示录》”)，于2015年8月10日播发。在短时间内被全国各大新闻媒体、客户端，微博、微信等广为转载和传播，产生了重大的影响。**
**作为新闻传播领域的特殊种类，纪念报道绝不仅仅是重温历史，缅怀历史，相比较而言，思想性、可读性、启示性应成为衡量报道质量的重中之重。《启示录》一文相对不少纪念报道而言，较好地实现了上述目的和要求。**
**主题与历史**
**《启示录》这篇通讯选题的价值和意义，从这段历史较少出现在大众视野就体现出来。除了纪念“九一八事变”之外，包括东北抗联在内的英勇抗争的这段局部抗战史涉及太少，这固然与之前强调“8年抗战”99**
**的史学论证有关，也与这段历史是“耻辱的开始”“未放一枪一炮”的认识误差有关，因这段历史长期以来容易被忽略或被遮蔽，也让该文在史料的叙事中占得先机。**
**纪念报道的价值在于追溯历史，观照现实，启迪未来。要实现这一目标，主题的开掘是报道成功的基础。在主题的开掘上，《启示录》从中国人民奋起抗争的起点、拉开世界反法西斯战争序幕的高度谋篇布局，将落脚点放在中国共产党在民族生死攸关之际，作为重要力量肩负起民族的重任，倡导抗日民族统一战线策略、在东北独立领导抗日力量发挥主导作用等重大历史史料上，从而揭示民众觉醒的悲壮历程，从血与火的淬**
**炼中诞生的伟大的抗战精神，以及中华民族生生不息的根魂所在。**
**主题与历史的咬合则是还原现场的最佳手段。文章以历史回溯、纵横交织的方式，分“这个战争，从一九三一年就开始了”“义勇军领袖都是共产党员”“这块土地是我们的”三大板块展开叙述，彰显了局部抗战对于中国和世界的历史意义、中国共产党在其中的先锋性作用和同胞们对生于斯长于斯的这块土地的坚定捍卫，既有对抗战历史的打捞和挖掘，又有重点的突出，且以爱国热情为贯穿其中的纽带，将全文紧密地交织在一起，通篇读来，给人以一气呵成、意犹未尽之感。在梳理和集成丰富历史材料的基础上，文章以历史发展的时间顺序，较为详尽地展示了东北军驻北大营620团的第一枪、辽西抗日义勇军、东北民众抗日救国会、东北抗日联军的创建、“一二九”学生运动的爆发，直至最终形成抗日民族统一战线等新闻事实的过程，并进行多侧面、多角度的分析解读，其价值显然与传递单一信息的体裁不可同日而语，加深了读者对1931-1937年局部抗战的全方位了解。**
**与此同时，记者用凝重的笔触、客观的形式对抗战的悲壮过程进行分析解释，从而进一步扩展和深化了报道的内容。报道没有停留于对史实的重复陈述，而是以敏锐的观察力和判断力，对大量的、复杂的新闻素材进行分析、归纳、梳理、加工，带领读者进入一个个复杂、壮阔的历史场景，以穿针引线的文字探寻和解释历史的归因，并将之与民族复兴的梦**
**想相勾连：“一个民族伟大复兴的梦想，籍由无数悲壮的牺牲，从这里浴火重生。”**
**宏大历史与细节表达**
**抗战全面爆发前的6年，波澜壮阔，充满了不屈的抗争和残酷的牺牲，非一篇短文可以尽述。作者在充分掌握历史和现实材料的基础上，精心挑选有代表性、极富感染力的历史细节，以不长的篇幅，勾勒出抗日战争的宏大画卷，提纲契领地点出局部抗战对全面抗战的精神孕育作用，可谓四两拨千斤。**
**历史细节的象征表达，照进现实。在强敌入侵、民族危难之际，中国的抗日战争从“悲壮的起点”开始。记者选取了一个典型细节，既是历史事实，又在冥冥之中隐含着巧合与象征： “东北军驻北大营620团团长王铁汉接到了‘不抵抗，等候交涉’的指示后，忍无可忍，违令阻击，持枪杀出一条血路。”正如王铁汉最终“杀出一条血路”一样，中国的抗日战争在经历了14年艰苦卓绝的战斗之后，换来了最终的胜利。。“落败的北大营旧址定格了那个耻辱的夜晚，审判日本战犯特别军事法庭旧址依旧肃穆庄严，两地相距还不足5公 _里。”—“它们是中国抗日战争真正的起点_ 和极富象征意义的终点。**
**又如，在展现“不屈的抗争”时，作者采取了欲抑先扬凸显细节的手法。先看今天的东北大地，，“山川竞秀，沃野千里。冬天，是滑雪爱好者的乐园。夏日，是民众消暑胜地。”随即将镜头闪回到80多年前抗联老战士周淑玲和黄殿军充满细节的回忆：“环境异常艰苦，只能靠野菜、树皮、草根充饥，被围困的时候一根萝卜坚持一个礼拜。有时候吃不上饭，只能喝尿。”“饿得皮包骨，我们还是坚持与日伪军频繁作战，饿死、冻死和战死者不计其数。”在历史和现实之间穿插对照，是为了让我们这些后人铭记历史，勿忘先烈：为挽救国难的抗日将士们挑战人类生存极限的方式是何等惨烈!抗日战争的胜利是多么的来之不易，中国共产党人付出了如此巨大的牺牲!**
**细节中的人物凸显历史的宏大力量。历史不仅是由史实构成，更是由人构成，由那些走在时代前列、体现时代精神的英雄所书写、所构筑。因此，报道事实，要通过的人的行动来体现。对人物的细节化表达，更勾画出这幅历史画卷的悲壮、凄美。习近平总书记9月2日在颁发中国人民抗日战争胜利70周年纪念章仪式上说，一个有希望的民族不能没有英雄，一个有前途的国家不能没有先锋。包括抗战英雄在内的一切民族英雄，都是中华民族的脊梁。在记者的笔下，为中华民族的生死存亡抛头颅洒热血的英雄人物们从历史的画卷中走出来，走到我们的面前，鲜活立体，毫发毕现。**
**孙铭武的昂首陈情、陈翰章的父子“反目”、赵尚志之父的沉郁坚韧、马占山将军的拍案而起…..我们看到的是一个个鲜活的、充满血性的、大写的人，正是这些可歌可泣的人物构筑了伟大的抗日战争史，而这些远去的历史事实因“人”而生动，因4“人”的可歌可泣而具有永恒的价值。**
**当年涌动在白山黑水间不屈的信念，通过这些英雄个体的言行得到淋漓尽致的体现。在全家30余人作为“反满抗属”被追捕，房屋地产全部被没收的情况下，孙铭武昂首陈情：“国破家亡，有产何用，倘东北有光复之一日，钜患其没收耶!”言辞慷慨，大义凛然，国难当头毁家纾难、决不放弃抵抗的神情跃然纸上，给人以极大的感染。**
**抗联英雄赵尚志之父在作者短短的白描中，沉郁坚韧，予人以极大的震撼。赵父得知其子死讯后没有落泪，平静地对家人说：“我死后，在我坟前戳个板儿，上面写上‘赵尚志之父’五个字足矣。”**
**思想的叙事与议论**
**体现思想性，需要正确处理纪念报道的叙事与议论，这是本文另一个成功的实践表达。作者洞幽烛微，以旁观者的身份客观叙述，但历史的启示力透纸背，从丰富和悲壮的史实中生发出拳拳的忧国之心、爱国之情。这**
**是通过夹叙夹议的文字娓娓道出的结果。这些文字既是新闻报道本身，同时又超出了一般的报道而具有了历史的意义，超越于一时一地的价值而具有了历时性的内涵和力量。**
**突出史料的思想性。该文不仅仅有紧凑的结构、流畅的语言，更为突出的是以史实和思想取胜。作者将自己的思想寓于恰到好处的议论中，善于用议论作过渡，让议论起到承上启下的作用，既使文章衔接自然，又增加了文章的深度。在回顾了东北抗战所付出的巨大牺牲“东北14年抗战中，有70位以上的中共将领献出了生命”“仅在1931年到1937年间，抗联歼敌就达10.35万人”后，记者从中引发的议论自然而然却惊人猛醒，如“局部战场的抗战，牺牲惨烈、何其悲壮!”“84年沧桑，历史在冥冥中总有些巧合，昭示出正义的真谛。”**
**基于历史的叙议交融。这篇报道寓议于叙，不露痕迹，使人难以区分哪些段落是叙，哪些段落是议，体现了作者高超的表现技巧。如“为了这块土地，为了最后的胜利，无数英魂长眠在白山黑水，长城内外。”“无数的牺牲换来了最终的胜利。”回望历史后平实的叙述，充满了悲壮之情和难平之绪，作者的议论也与叙述一起，成为水乳交融的整体，不可分割。**
**在报道的最后部分，作者以历史的启示作结： _：_ “回首那悲壮的6年，那些在抗争中孕育出的伟大抗战精神，起自民众的觉醒，化成民族的意志。四万万同胞在她的先进分子带领下，英勇投入世界反法西斯东方主战场的滚滚洪流。历史无言，精神不朽。”寥寥数语，将6年局部抗战的最重要意义点出，有烘云托月之效果。而这些议论之所以精彩，是因为记者写出了自己独到深刻的见解，且用如此简洁明快的语言表达出来，达到了“人人意中之所有，人人笔下之所无”的境界。 (作者单位：暨南大学新闻中心；报道原文载于2015年8月11日《新华每日电讯》，发表时的标题为《1931-1937：局部抗战启示录》)**
**_一_ 编辑张垒 [email protected]** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 学术论文引文的“必要性”与“适度性”探究
戴作芳，龚如义
(四川教育学院学报期刊社，成都 610041)\*
摘 要：引文在学术论文论证过程中的“必要性”和引用文字数量的“适度性”，是构成学术引用“合理性”的两个重要条件。当前学术论文存在“过度引用”、“文字复制比”偏高现象，就在于作者对引文的“必要”和“适度”认识不足，从而造成引文的不合理。学术期刊应用"学术不端检测系统”，可从技术上较好解决学术论文引文的识别，为专家和编辑的审稿提供有力的支持，遏制因引文不当所带来的学术不端现象，引导作者在参考文献引用的“必要性”、“适度性”和标注方面下功夫，营造良好的学术研究规范和论文撰写规范。
关键词：学术论文；合理引用；学术不端检测；文字复制；高校学报；学术规范；学术道德
doi：10.3969/j.issn. 1000-5757.2009.08.063
中图分类号：G237.5；G644.4 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1000-5757{2009)08-0063-04
一、学术论文参考文献引文“合理性”问题值得注意
学术论文的主创内容与引用的参考文献观点、文字、数据等引文内容构成一篇学术论文的有机整体。对被引用的参考文献而言，被引用是一种带评价性的学术传播，其被引次数、引用期刊等是构成该被引文章、被引学术期刊学术评价的重要计量统计资料。近年来，学术论文引用参考文献篇均引用量大幅增长，其动因除了“文献积累增长”“学术意识强化”、“信息收集力提高”诸因素外，引文的“异化”现象也是一个重要的原因。学术期刊公开要求“刊用论文的篇均文献引用量一般不少于10条/篇。请尽可能多引用文献，...”习，也助推了论文参考文献趋多的倾向；另外，在收录的期刊数据库中，论文所列参考文献越多，被他人点击机率越高，也是数据库网络时代传播动因的必然趋势。
学术论文文末所列的参考文献表是文内实际引文的源文献可检索路径，引文是所列参考文献参与学术论文构建的具体成分。对学术期刊而言，既要把握参考文献表所列文献在该论文中的学术意义，也要把握实际引文在学术论证中的必要性和适度性，既避免文献选择的不当，也避免引文的“过度”、“抄袭”“剽窃”。但客观而论，面对目前大量存在的参考文献标注不规范、且与实际引文脱节的学术论文，仅凭编辑或审稿专家个人经验及有限条件，要识别学术论文实际引文，并审定其引文的“必要性”和“适度性”，难度极大。因而，引文“合理性”问题常常只在发表后让社会检验，造成一方面对论文抄袭、学术不端口诛笔伐、声色俱厉，另一方面是抄袭剽窃绵绵不绝，令各方头疼。
学术论文引用参考文献时，引用哪些、如何引用，虽有学术道德、科研规范作依据的，但因引用的动机、目的、方式、内容、学科、习惯不同，其理解和标注模式生出种种差异。但对
于学术研究而言，查阅了他人相关研究成果，借鉴了他人的研究方法、视角，吸收了有关的思想观点、事例、数据，用于对自己的学术观点进行独创性地探讨、深化、完善，其过程既为学术研究所必需，也是学术研究活动的重要内容。在撰写承载学术研究成果的论文时，作者合理地引用参考文献中的文字、资料、数据、观点对自己的论文作必要的引证、补充、描述、参照、比对，按规范方式标示为夹注、脚注、文末注释或参考文献表等，是学术论文撰写必不可少的基本工作。这一工作也是评价论文学术水平、作者研究能力的重要因素。由于参考文献介人论文撰写时深度、角度不同，或因学科引证习惯不同、或因采用的引证技术规范不同，学术论文具体的参考文献标注方式可以不同，但对引文的合理性要求、对参考文献规范性要求，则是中外学界概莫能外的…致要求。
就参考文献的概念而论，所谓“参考”是指在科学研究过程中、论文撰写过程中“为了学习或研究而查阅有关资料”、“利用有关材料帮助了解情况”“寻求知识”的研究思维活动。所谓“引用”是写文章时，或采用现成语，如：成语、诗句、格言、典故等，或采用他人享有著作权的文字、符号、数字，或采用自己已发表作品的某些学术思想、观点，等等。总之，凡采用非本文产生的统计数据、发掘史料、实验结果，来表达本文的新的学术思想、观点、结论，这就是学术引用，所引用部分即称引文，提供引文的文献称参考文献。可见，那种把“参考文献”当作“书目”罗列，文中并无引用的做法，其荒谬在于所作的罗列既无限制也无意义，与学术研究规范相悖。论文撰写者对文中哪些观点与内容是自己原创提出的，哪些是通过查阅参考文献获取且在文章论证过程中引证、引用了的，心中必须清楚，这是作者的研究能力、学术水平以及学术道德之所在。近年学术论文在
收稿日期：2009-07-18
作者简介：戴作芳(1963一)，女，四川成都人，助理研究员，研究方向：期刊管理；龚如义(1948一-)，男，四川成都人，副编审，研究方向：期刊出版。
数量上与时俱增的同时，众多论文作者对参考引文的认识和运用现状究竟如何呢?
2008年底，中国知网推出了供学术期刊对来稿及自己刊物已发表文章进行“文字复制比检测”的“学术期刊学术不端检测系统(AMLC)”(以下称“检测系统”)。该“检测系统”以学术期刊、硕博论文、报纸、专利、年鉴、标准、工具书等数据库为后台资料库，供编辑审稿时对被检测论文的“文字复制比”进行比对分析统计。“文字复制”是指逐字引用他人文章中的句子、段落甚至全文，“文字复制比”是被检测文章与“检测系统"论文数据库中源文献的雷同字数与被检测文章总字数之比。“文字复制比”通常是判定抄袭的重要标志。
本文笔者通过该"检测系统”，对某高校学报2009年1月至6月的全部1844篇来稿进行“文字复制比”测试测试结果显示，“文字复制比”30%以上的文章约占全部来稿23.4%，即超过1/5稿件因引用过度涉嫌抄袭而不可刊用；“文字复制比”10%-29%的文章占全部来稿26.7%，这部分文章程度不同的存在引用不当的种种问题；“文字复制比"10%以下至0%的，占全部来稿49.9%，即未检出引用过度的文章尚不足一半。因“检测系统”的数据库尚未覆盖浩若烟海的网络论坛、博客等网上论文，被检测文章如抄袭网上论文还存在漏检的可能，因此，现实的状况应该比统计数据还要严重。
笔者所进行的测试虽是一家之测，但管中窥豹，对一般学术期刊而言，不无警世意义。面对超过一半的学术论文引用参考文献缺乏“合理性”，其中1/5稿件因此不能刊用的事实，学术期刊应该对学术论文引文的“合理性"问题引起足够的关注并进行认真的研究。
二、学术论文引文“合理性”的前提是引用的“必要性”
合理的学术引用势必产生一定数量的相同或相似的文字，但这种引用“一定数量的相同或相似的文字”的前提是应该遵守学术论证所需的“必要性”原则。
“必要性”指引文是学术论文论证必不可少的内容，是论文原创部分的必要补充，是论文总体不可缺少的组成部分。这样的引文，与学术论文的原创表述相得亦彰，体现了学术研究是站在前人肩上进行的新的研究，对论文学术性有不可替代的提升作用。有研究者总结参考文献的引用动机有15种之多，引用方式有直接引用、间接引用、转引、自引4J167，引用的作用有驳引、证引、启引(5187。无论出于何种引用动机、引用方式，“必要性”原则都是学术引用应该遵循的原则之一16。有文章认为，当前对参考文献引用的“必要性”研究大为不足，已是当前研究的盲点5188。
学术论文参考文献规范确是近年来的讨论热点，著文较多，但讨论者大多是期刊编辑，注重的是编排规范，对引用的“必要性"讨论不多。学术论证中引用的文字所包含的学术内容，是否为论证所“必要”，又因学术问题和研究者本身的复杂性，客观上难以给出一个普适的描述。从世界各国及我国《著作权法》条文看，学术研究中引用他人著作权成果的法定许可叫做“引用的合理性”。但是，法律对学术研究引用的“合理性”描述要么是原则化概述，要么是例举各种“合理引用”的情形4。原则性概述具有模
糊性，例举法又不可穷尽。为使学术引用的“合理性”在稿件审定乃至学术鉴别中有操作的实际意义，其中的“必要性"便是既有学术内核又具操作价值的概念。学术论文作者首先应从自己在研究过程中“参考"“借鉴”“阅读”过的众多文献中，确认体现论文学术论证“必要性”的参考文献。当论文交代学术思想来龙去脉、学术观点构建体系时，不引证则传承不明、观点体系不完整，不引证则论述不周全、逻辑不严谨等情况时必须使用的参考文献，便有引用的“必要性”，可引可不引的就没有“必要性”。确认文中所采用的参考文献引用的必要性后，按照“必要则用”和“用则必标"的原则，对文中涉及引文的种种情况逐一核实标注。如：①必须引用或涉及的他人文章中的观点、数据、事例、案例、专项技术、相关的重要史料；②引用的名人言论、经典言论；③引用重要(时政、学术)会议观点、结论、资料；④评述或综述类论文中必须引用或引述的他人论文、演讲、诗词、言辞；⑤引用的国家或行业标准，⑥论文概念释义直接引用的辞书条目等等。把学术论文撰写中具有引用“必要性”的参考文献在文中引用处和文末参考文献表中规范地标注出来，供专家和同行从学科、专业角度，结合所引用参考文献诸因素，评价、鉴定学术论文的原创性及学术水平和价值，是作者在完成学术论文时应该完成的基本工作。
参考文献引用的“必要性"反对引用参考文献时盲目求多。文后“参考文献”的数量当然反映作者学术研究、信息收集能力，但学术论文实际引文与学术论文相结合而达到的学术水平才是期刊取舍标准，学术期刊岂能以文末“篇均文献引用量一般不少于10条/篇”【2\]的简单目测代替学术内容的审定，且对具体的某一篇文章而言，要求其“篇均多少多少”有何意义?鉴于期刊和作者为各自的学术包装对参考文献多多亦善的共识日增，当下尤其应该注意，参考文献的“多”一定要在“必要性”的前提之下，否则，参考文献多而不当、勉强凑数，严肃的审稿专家、认真的读者都会对论文的学术水平、作者的学术道德产生质疑。参考文献的学术评价功能被低俗或狭隘的功利主义所利用，产生与原有学术意图背道而驰的效果，被社会诟病为学术不端。“检测系统”把待测论汶与源文献中的相同文字以彩色字体在对照文章中显著标出，审稿编辑或专家可以从引用文字在两边论文中论证环节的位置，判断其引文在论证功能上的“必要性"，客观评价学术论文的原创水平，在参考文献“必要性”关口，有效制止参考文献评价功能的技术变异和道德变异。
三、学术论文引文\*合理性"的量化限制是引文字数的“适度性”
“适度性”是指学术论文合理引用时对引文所占比例及引用字数的数量限制问题。这个问题在我国尚没有定论。文化部1985年曾颁布实施《图书、期刊版权保护试行条件实施细则》，该文件规定：“作者在一部作品中引用他人作品的片断”不得超过“被引用作品的十分之一”、“引用一人或多人的作品，所引用的总量不得超过本人创作作品总量的十分之一”还对文学类作品引用字数作了限制。但该文件系“内部掌握"并未向社会公布，且于2003
年12月4日为国家版权局废止印。世界各国除少数国家，如美国、英国和当年的苏联等在对不同文体引用时也有一些单词数量限制外：8-91，大多不作具体规定。中国版权协会理事长沈仁干曾指出，“究竟引用多少为'适当’，目前还是一个十分困难与复杂问题，有待于作出新的规定”。合理引用的数量“适度性”问题的法律阙如，便造成“过度引用"泛滥，以至成了为“抄袭"\*剽窃”辩解的遁词.10)。
文字复制比 10%~29%的文章占总投稿数26.7%，这部分文章中，评述、综述类文章确需引述较多其他文章中的观点、资料，或有的文章引用了较多公知公用的常识或名人名言，审定此类稿件时，大致仍可参照“引用的数量不超过与引用目的相符的数量(6)”，“引用目的仅限于介绍、评论某一作品或者说明某一问题(7)”等条件，审视其引用是“适度”的，还是以“引用”为名行“复制"之实。。“文字复制比”所体现的学术引文的限制性量化标准以多少为宜，至今并无法律条文可资，事实上也很难在"适度”与“不适度”之间划出一条绝对数量或比例的界限，只有当提起诉讼时，由法院根据具体案例进行判决。考虑目前我们学术论文现状和学术道德规范教育的前景，笔者认为，在引文不构成引用者文章实质内容的前提下，目前可以按引文不超过全文10%为参考标准。当然，这不可能是绝对标准。一篇文章如果其实质内容或核心观点是抄袭而来，违背了“引用部分不得构成引用人作品的主要部分或者实质部分(8)”的“适当引用”必备条件，其引用也属学术不端。美国历史上第一个著作权案例，败诉的抄袭者，其抄袭文字比例仅4.5%；近有报导，西南交大副校长、博导黄某自己的博士论文被举报抄袭，其比例占全文7%，因所引文字为论文理论核心，1121经西南交大最高学术机构一学术委员会认定为抄袭。另一方面，由于表述文字的通用程度不同，“检测系统”统计有一-个正常误差幅度，具体掌握时，“合理引用”的上限以不超过 10%+5%为宜。当检测出一定比例的文学复制但低于30%时，对其引文要认真审查。如上海大学某博导发表论文中一篇抄袭率25%，一篇抄袭率为30%，受到严处。因此，审稿时判断其引用部分是否构成文章实质或核心部分、是判断文章学术价值的重要程序，文章引用不当，将使文章轻则缺乏创新、重则有抄袭剽窃侵犯他人著作权之虞。当然，由于学科差异、稿类差异、期刊差异，学术期刊可以寻求或制订各自适宜的参考标准。对确实具有原创学术价值的论文，当其参考引文不当而引用比例偏高时，可指导或告诫作者从论文参考文献的“公开性”(来源于正式出版机构、注册网站的公开文献)、代表性"(能代表同类文献者)、时效性”(文献的新颖程度)、尤其是从“必要性”和“适度性”诸方面进行重新审视、修改16.14，使论文参考文献符合科学化、规范化、标准化。
文字复制比30%以上的文章大多对引文未考究其“必要性”，简单地做“誉文公”。这类文章中，有的对他人文章中的文字不加修改，大段直接照抄，或把他人文章的观点、创意、核心概念变换部分文字、词语改头换面写成自己文章；有的则集其他若干文章之精华重组成文；或引用学术观点时把原作者对观点的阐述文字、列举史料、经典案例、统
计表格等等，不管篇幅大小统统引用；.凡此种种不一而足。这类高文字复制比文章共同点是：引文大多没有标注，或以错引、伪引的标注来蒙骗审稿者、编者、读者。当编辑询问其中一些作者何以引用不标注或标注不规范时，这些作者或以“漏引”为辩词，或以“暗引”、“意引”而自诩，对古人所谓“当明引不当暗袭”的剽窃大忌174毫无概念。此类文章不可视为过度引用，而应归于涉嫌抄袭剽窃。尤需注意的是，超高比例“文字复制比”文章甚至可能是枪手代庖、网商水货、重复发表等等违规、违法所为，断不可用。同时值得注意且被测试证实了的事实是：有的文章由于大量、多篇引用他人文章中的精华文字，易于博得编辑或审稿人的青睐得以发表，发表后也易于被其他文摘刊物转载、转摘，甚至可能还有较高的引用频次和下载量。此类文章的发表与传播，扰乱了学术研究的规则和秩序，助长了投机取巧的不正之风，给原创作者造成极大不公甚至伤害。现实生活中，此类文章常成为诉讼之源，给期刊带来的不是荣誉、不是利益，而是法律、经济、信誉上麻烦。制止过度引用、杜绝抄袭，还原创者以公道，还学术以公平，是学术期刊在审定来稿的引文时所应负的重要责任。因此，凡检测出文字复制比高于30%的文章，应概不送审。
四、结语
随着采用“检测系统"的学术期刊、学术机构、高等院校增多15-171，那种“天下文章一大抄，就看抄不会抄”的令学术界尴尬的局面应当有大的改观。由于学术期刊还可以通过“检测系统”检测自己刊物已发表文章，各学术期刊不妨检测一下自己期刊历年发表的文章尤其是重点文章的“文字复制”情况，相信必有精彩的发现。对学术论文引文可能造成的学术不端问题，学术期刊守土有责。学术期刊应注意充分利用“检测系统”，审定学术论文稿件引文的“必要性”、适度性”，判断其“合理性”，防止过度引用、制止抄袭剽窃，通过调控审稿程序和标准，引导作者在参考文献引用的必要性、适度性和标注的规范性诸方面下大的功夫，写出规范合格的学术论文，发表真正有学术价值的学术论文，为营造良好的学术论文撰写规范和学术道德环境尽学术期刊应尽的责任。
注释：
(1) 某高校学报2009年1月至6月的全部1844篇来稿“文字复制比”测试数据：
| 文字复制比 | 文章篇数 | 占总篇数% | 分段统计 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 0% | 679 | 36.8% | 49.9% |
| 5%~9% | 241 | 13.1% | 49.9% |
| 10%~19% | 307 | 16.7% | 26.7% |
| 20%~29% | 185 | 10.0% | 26.7% |
| 30%~39% | 146 | 7.9% | 23.4% |
| 40%~49% | 95 | 5.2% | 23.4% |
| 50%~59% | 62 | 3.4% | 23.4% |
| 60%~69% | 50 | 2.7% | 23.4% |
| 70%~79% | 50 | 2.7% | 23.4% |
| 80%~89% | 18 | 1.0% | 23.4% |
| 90%~99% | 11 | 0.5% | 23.4% |
| 合计 | 1844 | 100% | 100% |
(2)
科学文献的引用动机比较复杂，按照学者 M. Wein-stock 的研究，文献引用的动机有15种。见 http：//c79. cnki. net/oldenki/wxpj/index4， htm#b1
(3)
如《伯尔尼公约》第十条对“合理使用”描述：“从一部合法公之于众的作品中摘出引文，包括以报刊提要形式引用报刊期刊的文章，只要符合合理使用，在为达到目的的正当需要范围内，就属合法”。
(4)
“合理使用”的法定许可情形，前苏联及东欧国家在上世纪五六十年代版权法例举合理使用情形有14种，美、英、日、印度等国版权法例举合理使用情形8种(见沈仁千《著作权法概论》第四章第二节)。中国《著作权法》例举合理使用情形12种。
(5)
文化部，《图书、期刊版权保护试行条例实施细则》，第十五条(一)
(6)
《版权和邻接权法律术语词汇》(世界知识产权组织)：“只要引用的数量不超过与引用目的相符的数量……此种适当引用属于‘合理使用'的范围”
(7)
中华人民共和国著作权法实施条例，1991版，第二十七条，(一)
(8)
中华人民共和国著作权法实施条例，1991版，第二十七条，(二)
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2634086.htm.
The Necessity and Moderation of the Rationality for Academic Papers Citation
DAI Zuo -fang， GONG Ru-yi
(Editorial Department， Sichuan College of Education， Chengdu 610041， China)
Abstract：The necessity of reference and the moderation of its quantity are two important conditions of the suitability for academic eita-tion. Excessive citation and high copied word： are caused by authors inadequate understanding of the necessity and moderation and make the citation unreasonable. Academic journals can apply AMLC (Academic Misconduct Literature Cheek) to better identify academic paper s citation in technique， provide forceful support for experts and editors， prevent academic misconduct caused by improper citation， and guide authors to attach more attention to the necessity， moderation and quotation， in order to construct a benign standard of academic study and paper writing.
Key words：academic paper； rational citation； AMLC； copied words； college joumal； academic morality； academic joumnal
(责任编辑：张
楠
责任校对：张
楠) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **新中国70年社会主义意识形态引领力提升的历史经验与现实镜鉴**
**郑敬斌 任虹宇**
**(山东大学马克思主义学院，山东济南 250100)**
**\[摘要\] 作为党的十九大提出的全新论述，社会主义意识形态引领力指社会主义意识形态引领整合其他非主流意识形态的能力，具有作用目标的方向性，作用阶段的超越性，作用效果的非均衡性等三个特性。我们党在新中国70年社会主义建设改革实践进程中不断探索社会主义意识形态引领力建设发展的规律。。中国特色社会主义进入新时代，社会主义意识形态引领力作为合力，在防范力、统摄力、引导力方面面临着资本主义意识形态渗透、利益分化思想多元、传播生态变革等时代挑战。因此，有效回应和破解时代挑战，要在总结继承历史经验基础上，坚持立破并举、坚持理论创新、坚持有效传播、坚持利益满足，不断提升党的社会主义意识形态领导力、社会主义意识形态理论说服力、宣传教育引导影响力与人民群众美好生活的感召力。**
**\[关键词\] 社会主义意识形态引领力；历史经验；新时代；提升**
**\[中图分类号\]D261.5 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1003-4145\[2019\]12-0021-06**
**继党的十九大报告首次提出“社会主义意识形态引领力”表述后，在2018年8月召开的全国宣传思想工作会议上，习近平总书记再次强调：“建设具有强大凝聚力和引领力的社会主义意识形态，是全党特别是宣传思想战线必须担负起的一个战略任务。”①这表明党对社会主义意识形态建设规律的深化认知与定位，更说明新时代社会主义意识形态引领力提升的重要性与迫切性。因此，在明晰“社会主义意识形态引领力”这一重要命题的科学意蕴基础上，回溯新中国70年历史，全面总结发展经验，结合时代境遇客观审视当前社会主义意识形态引领力实际状况，可为在新的历史方位下有效提升社会主义意识形态引领力提供现实镜鉴。**
**一、社会主义意识形态引领力的科学意蕴**
**目前，相关研究普遍存在将“社会主义意识形态引领力”视为不证自明的概念直接加以使用的现象，这在一定程度上造成了学界对社会主义意识形态“吸引力”“凝聚力”、“引领力”等概念的混淆和模糊使用。故而，厘清“社会主义意识形态引领力”的科学内涵成为研究的首要问题。**
**(一)社会主义意识形态引领力的科学内涵**
**何为“社会主义意识形态引领力”?从词组角度分析，社会主义意识形态引领力是由“社会主义意识形态”与“引领力”共同组成。“引”在日常生活的语境中有两层含义，一个是从核心而去，另一个是向核心而来，分别意指离向驱动和内向吸引，离向驱动回答的是方向为何、去往何处的问题，内向吸引依靠自身魅力：“领”为领导，谁来领导取决于群体背后所拥有的“硬实力”；“力”内在地包含两个特定规定性，即力的作用方向与力的作用效果。因此，“引领力”是一个糅合“领导权”与“吸引力”软实力的概念，方向为何、领导地位如何获得、领导核心如何产生、引领魅力源自何处、以何种方式实现引领等均是这一概念应有之义。基于此，社会主义意识形态引领力的核心蕴含是指，以中国共产党为领导核心、代表最广大人民群众根本利益的**
**收稿日期：2019-03-14**
**作者简介：郑敬斌(1984一)，男，山东大学马克思主义学院副院长、教授、博士研究生导师，主要从事马克思主义文化理论研究。任虹宇(1996一)，山东大学马克思主义学院硕士研究生，主要从事意识形态建设问题研究。**
**基金项目：本文系国家社科基金一般项目“新时代高校意识形态风险防范机制研究”(项目编号：19BKS150)的阶段性成果。**
**①张洋：《举旗帜聚民心育新人兴文化展形象更好完成新形势下宣传思想工作使命任务》，《人民日报》2018年8月23日01版。**
**科学系统的思想观念体系，依靠自身理论魅力，借助宣传教育引导的方式手段，引领整合其他非主流意识形态的能力。其中，中国特色社会主义方向是力的作用方向，党是领导核心，科学系统的社会主义意识形态理论决定了其内蕴的引领魅力，宣传教育引导则是社会主义意识形态引领力实现的重要方式和手段。**
**此外，辨析社会主义意识形态“引领力”与“吸引力”、“凝聚力”“引导力”等概念区别可以更清晰地理解社会主义意识形态引领力的内涵外延。社会主义意识形态“吸引力”“凝聚力”是指作为客体的社会主义意识形态对主体的人的一种吸引、向心凝聚的强度，指向的是社会主义意识形态这一客体本身。社会主义意识形态“引导力”强调的是引导方式、引导手段的能力程度。相较于社会主义意识形态“吸引力”“凝聚力”“引导力”，社会主义意识形态引领力是一个概念升华，它不仅强调客体的社会主义意识形态，强调引导的手段方式，还强调领导者、领头羊的角色身份与引领的前进方向。这一新范畴、新表述的使用彰显了我们党对意识形态工作规律更深层次和更高水平的认知与判断，实现了对以往意识形态建设认知的继承和超越。**
**(二)社会主义意识形态引领力的主要特征**
**作用目标的方向性。 “方向”强调和回答的是“举什么旗，走什么路”的问题。社会主义意识形态引领力的作用方向正是对中国特色社会主义道路的坚持和发展。这一方向选择是对百年前中华民族屈辱历史中选择马克思主义的继承和发展，是对新中国成立以来社会主义道路探索的接续奋斗，是对改革开放事业伟大实践的深刻总结，是历史的选择也是人民的选择，因而具有悠长的历史渊源和广泛的现实基础。党的十九大报告再次强调了要始终坚持和发展中国特色社会主义，这也为社会主义意识形态引领力指明了前进方向。**
**作用阶段的超越性。在中国特色社会主义事业发展进程中，社会主义意识形态作为科学思想观念体系的集合伴随着人民群众的实践而日渐丰富，在不断蓄力中实现对前一阶段的超越，如此螺旋上升，酝酿着社会主义意识形态的不竭引领力。同时，社会主义意识形态引领力又是对当前社会现实的超越。它总是能够在立足现实并超越现实的基础上描绘出美好未来的蓝图，整合社会意识，引领国家前进方向。**
**作用效果的非均衡性。社会主义意识形态引领力作用效果的非均衡性与作用对象的个人素质、能力差异等相关。一般而言，作用对象文化素养越高，接受教育渠道越广，社会主义意识形态引领力的效果愈发明显。同时，力的效果也与作用群体所处的社会阶层、所拥有的经济地位和享受的社会红利成正相关。对部分处于社会底层的群体来说，社会主义意识形态对他们的引领力就相对薄弱。当然，也正是非均衡性特性的存在，为我们提供了有效提升社会主义意识形态引领力效果的方向和思路，那就是从薄弱环节着手采取针对性举措，改善和克服短板，从而整体性地维护和保障其效用的发挥。**
**二、新中国70年社会主义意识形态引领力提升的历史经验**
**虽然“社会主义意识形态引领力”是一个新表述，但其建设历程却并非如此。纵观新中国成立70年来社会主义建设改革的各个历史阶段，社会主义意识形态引领力在不断地总结继承前一阶段工作经验基础上实现超越，从而积累了丰富经验。回溯总结这些历史经验，对于在新的历史方位下实现“建设具有强大引领力的社会主义意识形态”这一党和国家的重大战略目标具有重要意义。**
**(一)党对社会主义意识形态的领导从未动摇**
**意识形态战线，我们不占领，敌人便会占领。社会主义意识形态本身内蕴的阶级属性决定了党对社会主义意识形态领导的合法性。中国共产党是中国工人阶级的先锋队，始终代表最广大人民群众的根本利益，因此能够确保社会主义意识形态引领力始终朝着正确方向发力。在70年的社会主义建设历程中，意识形态工作始终是党的一项十分重要的工作，形成了党管宣传、党管意识形态和任何时期都要牢牢掌握意识形态领导权、管理权、话语权的原则经验。在中国共产党的领导下，马克思主义在中国实现了两次伟大的历史性飞跃，产生了毛泽东思想和中国特色社会主义理论体系。这些思想始终是社会主义意识形态中最为科学、最为精华的理论成果，也成为社会主义意识形态引领力提升过程中的理论武装和指导思想。同时，党在战略战术上的高度重视，经济资源的大力投入、制度的保障与完善，人才队伍的配备等，使社会主义意识形态引领力的提升得到更多助力，助推社会主义意识形态引领力产生与发挥更大效用。**
**(二)社会主义意识形态理论持续深化**
**“一个民族想要站在科学的最高峰，就一刻也不能没有理论思维。”①70年来，社会主义意识形态理论体**
**①《马克思恩格斯选集》第3卷，人民出版社2012年版，第875页。**
**系始终以火热实践为根基，以人民立场为底蕴，以时代回应为站位，不断实现理论体系的自我创新与发展。在中国革命、建设、改革的各个历史时期，人民群众为民族解放、国家富强、人民幸福不断投身于社会主义建设的火热实践，也在此过程中创造产生代表其利益、为其服务的社会主义意识形态，并随着中国特色社会主义事业的不断推进而日益丰富发展。人民立场是社会主义意识形态理论体系70年持续创新的深邃真谛。社会主义意识形态与以往意识形态的最大区别就在于，它是为“绝大多数人谋利益”的，它代表的是广大人民群众的根本利益，反映的是广大人民群众的现实需要。从“为了人民”到再次重申“为了谁，依靠谁，我是谁”，“以人民为中心”的根本立场贯穿社会主义意识形态的方方面面。时代回应是社会主义意识形态理论创新的鲜明品格。“解放思想、实事求是”是70年来贯穿党的意识形态理论体系深化的主线。从“什么是社会主义，怎样建设社会主义”，“建设一个什么样的党，怎样建设党”，“实现什么样的发展，怎样发展”到“坚持和发展什么样的中国特色社会主义、怎样坚持和发展中国特色社会主义”，马克思主义中国化理论成果的每一次创新都始终是根据客观实际回答和解决自己时代面临的重大课题。**
**(三)意识形态宣传教育引导常抓不放**
**列宁在《怎么办?》一文中深刻指出：“现代社会主义意识，只有在深刻的科学知识的基础上才能产生出来……可见，社会主义意识是一种从外面灌输到无产阶级的阶级斗争中去的东西，并不是一种从这个斗争中自发产生出来的东西。”①列宁的这一论述明示我们，社会主义意识形态不会自发产生，不会自动来到人的头脑中并发挥作用，必须经过长期系统的宣传、教育、普及工作。广泛有效的宣传教育引导可以使社会主义意识形态如同无处不在的“精神空气”弥散在社会生活的方方面面，然后通过对社会心理的积极导向，形成社会主义意识形态引领力得以实现的社会基础。我们党历来高度重视意识形态宣传教育工作的重要性与实效性，新中国成立之初社会主义意识形态的宣传网络体系就已初步完善。在改革开放进程中，强调“越是发展经济，越是改革开放，越要加强思想政治工作”②。党的十八大以来，党中央领导集体作出一系列重大部署与安排，如高度重视传播手段建设和创新，强调新闻舆论工作的团结鼓劲和正面宣传，宣传思想干部要不断增强脚力、眼力、脑力、笔力等，宣传思想工作的良好开展大幅提升了社会主义意识形态引领力。**
**(四)群众利益满足始终如一**
**正如马克思深刻指出的，“‘思想’一旦离开‘利益’，就一定会使自己出丑”③。人们的价值取向归根到底是由自身利益取向决定的。社会主义意识形态引领力的效用，在根源上取决于是否能够满足人民群众的利益关切。社会主义意识形态与资本主义意识形态最本质的区别就在于前者始终代表无产阶级的利益。科学的社会主义意识形态在创立之初，便将“实现全人类的解放”作为口号。在中国，“为国家谋复兴、为人民谋幸福”的初心和使命贯穿新中国70年社会主义建设历程，中国共产党始终如一地代表着最广大人民群众的根本利益。党的十八大召开后，在十八届中央政治局常委首次同中外记者见面时，习近平庄严指出：“人民群众对美好生活的向往，就是我们的奋斗目标。”④党的十九大报告作出“我国社会主要矛盾已经转化为人民日益增长的美好生活需要和不平衡不充分的发展之间的矛盾”⑤的重要研判。“美好生活”背后的深刻意蕴正是代表广大人民群众利益的社会主义意识形态的终极旨向。**
**三、新时代社会主义意识形态引领力提升的现实境遇**
**新中国70年来，秉持经验、继承创新，社会主义意识形态引领力得以不断提升和持续建设。尤其是党的十八大以来，以习近平同志为核心的党中央通过一系列重大举措有效扭转了意识形态领域的被动局面，社会主义意识形态的主导地位得以巩固和加强，社会主义意识形态引领力明显提升。但建设具有强大引领力的社会主义意识形态是一项系统而又长久的工程，在未来很长一段时间内也仍将是全党全国的重大战略任务。立足新的历史阶段，社会主义意识形态引领力作为合力，在防范力、统摄力、导力等方面同样面临着诸多新问题、新挑战。**
**①《列宁选集》第1卷，人民出版社 1995年版，第325页。**
**②《江泽民文选》第3卷，人民出版社 2006年版，第74页。**
**③《马克思恩格斯文集》第1卷，人民出版社2009年版，第 286页。**
**④《习近平谈治国理政》第1卷，外文出版社2018年版，第4页。**
**⑤习近平：《决胜全面建成小康社会夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告》，人民出版社2017年版，第11页。**
**(一)资本主义意识形态渗透威胁社会主义意识形态防范力**
**社会主义意识形态防范力天然内蕴在社会主义意识形态整合引领其他意识形态的过程之中。，“现代意识形态家惯于按照‘我们与他们'即朋友与敌人的关系思考问题。”①意识形态存在着鲜明的排他性，泾渭分明的价值主张与政治诉求只有在与其他意识形态竞争搏斗中才能凸显自身价值优越性，才能被社会成员择优选择。因此，一种意识形态赢得广泛认同的过程不可避免地伴随着对其他意识形态渗透侵袭的抵制与防范。自共产主义的幽灵在欧洲上空游荡，共产主义与资本主义的竞争搏斗便已出现，百年来资本主义从未放弃对共产主义的围剿扼杀。在中国革命建设改革的各个历史阶段，社会主义意识形态引领力发挥效用的过程始终伴随着对西方意识形态渗透的防范与抵制。尤其是新时代中国日益走进国际舞台中央扮演更重要的国际角色，西方资本主义国家更是加紧了对我国社会主义意识形态的渗透。西方“普世价值观”裹挟在“自由”“民主”的糖衣下借由先进互联网技术输入中国，企图掀起“和平演变”发动“颜色革命”；历史虚无主义、价值虚无主义、宪政主义等在学术包装之下堂而皇之地在我国高等学府传播；一些社会热点问题被西方别有用心的势力炒作利用成为攻击中国特色社会主义制度、道路的素材，对广大人民群众的思想观念和价值选择造成巨大干扰。各种反马克思主义、非马克思主义思潮在社会主义中国大地上交织激荡，斗争激烈的意识形态态势对社会主义意识形态的防范能力造成不小的冲击与挑战。“如果从观念上来考察，那么一定的意识形式(意识形态)的解体足以使整个时代覆灭。”②在新的历史条件下，高举马克思主义理论旗帜，有效应对和防范资本主义意识形态的渗透成为社会主义意识形态引领力提升的关键一环。**
**(二)利益分化思想多元弱化社会主义意识形态统摄力**
**建设具有强大引领力的社会主义意识形态，就是要巩固全党全国人民团结奋斗的共同思想基础，为中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦凝心聚力。这其中，只有社会主义意识形态在全部社会意识中占据统摄主导地位，才具备引领十四亿中华儿女齐心协力为伟大征程团结奋斗的能力。在改革开放四十年的历史征程中，社会开放程度更高，人民群众的视野更加开阔，思维也更加活跃。同时，伴随着社会生产力的不断发展，社会资源也不断重新分配，社会阶层分化日益明显。社会存在决定社会意识，作为现实利益在人们头脑中的再现，广大人民群众的思想观念和价值观念日益多元。这就无形中加大了主流意识形态统摄整合全部社会意识的难度：市场经济下形成的物质消费主义消解着共产主义的崇高信仰；个人利己主义弱化着社会主义核心价值观的价值导向；民粹主义、民族主义挑动公众极端非理性情绪造成官方舆论场与民间舆论场的二元割裂；泛儒化主义披着复兴中华传统文化的外衣挑战马克思主义的主导地位。各类政治诉求“你方唱罢我登场”，而一旦主流意识形态不能够满足某一诉求，则会严重有损其对该群体的引领能力。新时代下，全面深化改革进入闯关夺隘的关键时期，利益格局再次重塑调整，人们的思想观念分化趋势有增无减。社会主要矛盾调整，发展不平衡不充分造成的城乡、东西部等利益冲突更加凸显，广大人民群众对美好生活的向往，尤其是社会底层民众强烈的美好生活诉求与中产阶级的政治诉求不断强化，乱花渐欲迷人眼的多元利益诉求与价值观念分解着社会主义意识形态团结整合、统摄引领我国社会多元意识的能力。**
**(三)传播生态变革挑战社会主义意识形态引导力**
**在2016年党的新闻舆论工作座谈会上，习近平总书记在原有新闻舆论传播力、影响力、公信力基础上提出“引导力”，指出要“切实提高党的新闻舆论传播力、引导力、影响力、公信力”③。新闻舆论具有鲜明的意识形态属性，新闻舆论引导力的提升包含在社会主义意识形态引领力建设当中。事实上，近几年党中央对舆论舆情的引导高度关注，一个重要原因就在于传播生态的变革。传播场域、传播主体、传播工具、传播方式等的变革成为中国社会舆情舆论的重要催化剂。人在哪里，意识形态工作的重点就应该在哪里。据第43 次《中国互联网络发展状况统计报告》显示，截至2018年12月，我国网民数量为 8.29亿，互联网普及率高达59.6%④。意识形态传播的主阵地已经由传统现实场域渐而转移到网络虚拟场域。意识形态传播主体不再单一地掌握在党和政府及其所属的官方媒体手中，每个拿着手机、电脑的人都可以借助比特流实现随时随地**
**①\[美\]克拉莫尼克、F.M.华特金斯：《意识形态的时代》，章必功译，同济大学出版社2006年版，第8页。**
**②《马克思恩格斯全集》第30卷，人民出版社1995年版，第 539页。**
**③《习近平谈治国理政》第2卷，外文出版社2017年版，第331页。**
**④中国互联网络信息中心：《第43次中国互联网络发展状况统计报告》，2019年。**
**的信息传播与接收，成为意识形态传播主体现实或潜在的一员。承载意识形态传播的工具更新速度极快，除了电视广播报纸等传统媒体外，“两微一端”等新媒体平台，尤其是移动网络下的各类应用程序雨后春笋般涌现。能否顺应时代大势，适应甚至引领这些由技术引发的变革中的传播生态，对社会主义意识形态引领力的建设与效用的发挥而言，既是机遇也是挑战。同时，伴随着中国国际地位的提升，社会主义意识形态不仅要在国内社会环境中淬炼引导力，更要在国际舞台上讲好“中国故事”。面对百年未有之大变局的国际态势，社会主义意识形态如何在世界范围内释放出更强劲的话语影响力也是需要重点破解的时代课题。**
**四、新时代社会主义意识形态引领力提升的现实镜鉴**
**信息化改变了社会主义意识形态的传播格局和传播方式，全球化裹挟着刻意渗透的资本主义意识形态，市场化带来复杂利益群体和多元社会思潮，这些都对新时代社会主义意识形态引领力的提升造成冲击与挑战。立足新时代，有效提升社会主义意识形态引领力要在总结继承历史经验基础上，采取针对性策略和举措回应和破解新的时代挑战。**
**(一)坚持立破并举，提升党对社会主义意识形态的领导力**
**立足于新时代，需要坚持立破并举的原则，既不断深入推进习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想的宣传教育，又要敢于担责、勇于亮剑，同错误社会思潮展开辩驳，以不断提升党对社会主义意识形态的领导力。**
**一是以立为本，深入推进习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想宣传教育。在2013年和2018年的全国宣传思想工作会议上，习近平总书记都反复强调“要巩固马克思主义在意识形态领域的指导地位，巩固全党全国人民团结奋斗的共同思想基础”①。习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想，是马克思主义中国化的最新理论成果，也是党和国家在新时代的重要指导思想，在社会主义意识形态中占据统摄地位。立足新时代，面对新形势新任务，习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想兼具与时俱进的时代品格、全心全意为人民服务的人民理念，是科学系统的重大理论创新，因而要不断深化习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想的宣传普及教育工作，使其真正成为全党全社会的重要思想武器。**
**二是以破为重，勇于同错误思潮作斗争。当前，西方意识形态的渗透、多元社会思潮的交锋不断冲击着社会主义意识形态引领力，我国意识形态领域面临着许多重大风险和考验。因此，需要不断深入推进意识形态风险防范责任制，建立健全意识形态风险预警、管控、评估等机制，并压实各级党委党组织的工作责任，克服形式主义、责任推卸等现象，以真正提升党在意识形态领域的领导能力和管理能力。严峻的形势要求我们要始终高举马克思主义旗帜，坚持马克思主义真理，不断增强政治敏锐度和理论鉴别批判力，同那些诋毁中国特色社会主义事业和社会主义意识形态的错误言论旗帜鲜明地作斗争。**
**(二)坚持理论创新，增强社会主义意识形态理论的说服力**
**理论的生命力在于不断创新。立足新时代，社会主义意识形态理论的创新主要体现在两个方面，一是立足时代之需、回应人民之惑，真正做到与时俱进；二是被广大人民群众认可，指向理论的话语创新。**
**一是理论要以问题意识为导向，始终保持与时代同频共振。时代是思想之母，实践是理论之源，社会主义意识形态理论从不源自书斋里的臆造或幻想，它始终在回应现实中产生发展，并用于指导实践。中国特色社会主义进入了新时代，逆全球化抬头，互联网进入“后半程”，这些新的时代特征的出现，对以往产生的社会主义意识形态理论发出挑战，迫切需要产生与时俱进的理论去回应解释新世界；问题是时代的格言，“是公开的、无畏的、左右一切个人的时代声音”。社会主义意识形态理论的创新要坚持鲜明的问题导向，始终在发现问题、解决问题中与时代同频共振。**
**二是理论要以人民为中心，始终保持与人民互动互进。理论要想“彻底”，需要“抓住事物的根本”。人民立场是社会主义意识形态理论的基本立场，是社会主义意识形态理论最为根本的逻辑。社会主义意识形态理论产生于广大人民群众的实践；同时，社会主义意识形态理论要想掌握群众，也必须服务于广大人民群众。社会主义意识形态理论与广大人民群众始终互动互进，这就要求始终坚持以人民为中心，将满足广大人民群众对美好精神生活的需要作为工作的出发点和立足点，始终与人民群众的生活相通相融，将抽象的理论融入人民群众的日常生活，将深邃的理论用简单质朴的语言进行表达，贴近人民群众的话语方式，让社会主义意识形态理论从“空中楼阁”飞人“寻常百姓家”。**
**①《习近平谈治国理政》第1卷，外文出版社2018年版，第153页。**
**(三)坚持有效传播，扩大宣传教育引导的影响力**
**社会主义意识形态引领力，是社会主义意识形态对全体社会成员的引领，但这并不意味着社会主义意识形态引领力的实现仅是“主一客”体的闭环作用，这其中离不开在社会群体中的传播扩散和影响。在传播学理论中，传播理念、传播内容、传播方式是“铁三角”，有效的传播离不开这三个要素。社会主义意识形态引领力的提升需要根据受众需求变更传播理念，用受众喜闻乐见的传播话语和差序化、分层化的传播方式形成传播合力。一是要树立“因时而变、随事而制”的社会主义意识形态传播新理念。意识形态宣传工作始终是做人的工作，其工作重点当是聚焦于人之所在。在 Web3.0 时代，社会主义意识形态宣传格局发生深刻变革，新传播技术的兴起、舆论环境的演化、媒体矩阵的调整，诸多因素的合力作用令广大受众需求发生巨大变革。因此，社会主义意识形态的宣传也应不断变革调整，去适应和满足受众需求。二是要创造“喜闻乐见、情理兼具”的社会主义意识形态宣传新话语。最高限度的马克思主义=最高限度的通俗化。①社会主义意识形态理论不应是高空的“云朵”，不应是经院派的演绎，它要能深刻直观地表达人民群众的生活实践，因此要真正创作和宣传人民群众喜闻乐见的内容；要充分把握大众的认知规律和认知需求，用社会主义意识形态理论的科学性、真理性说服人，也要用有温度、有情感的感召力感化人。三是要运用“分层定制、差序传播”的社会主义意识形态宣传新形式。个体文化层次、个人素养、思想觉悟等的不同，要求社会主义意识形态的宣传要因人而异，作出个性化、差异化的调整。传统的不顾宣传对象不同需求的“一锅煮”式的宣传方式已经落伍。如今，数据化、智能化、网络化的时代生活为分众化、差异化传播提供了可能，利用算法、大数据等先进技术进行社会主义意识形态内容的生产，为受众对象进行宣传“内容定制”成为易事，更加保障了宣传的实效性和针对性。**
**(四)坚持利益满足，强化人民群众美好生活的感召力**
**人民群众对美好生活的向往，既是对当前生活的要求，也是对未来生活的期待。因此，社会主义意识形态引领力的实现需要从现实及未来两方面着手。其一，要满足人民群众的现实利益需求。随着物质生活的日渐丰富和满足，人民群众对精神文明、政治文明、生态文明等各方面有了更高的要求和期待，而发展的不平衡不充分成了限制因素。这背后存在的问题正是东西部、城乡、各行业各产业间利益分配不均。在全面深化改革的新时代，调整利益分配关系、满足不同群体的利益诉求成为解决社会主要矛盾的关键，也是社会主义意识形态引领力生成的根本途径。因此，要加快发展生产力，不断提高人民群众的生活水平，让更多的人享受到改革开放所带来的红利；同时，着重解决好教育、就业、医疗、环境、社保等社会热点问题，牢牢把实现好、发展好、维护好人民群众最关心、最直接和最现实的根本利益作为一切工作的重点。其二，塑造共同利益愿景凝聚奋斗力量。马克思指出：“要使各民族真正团结起来，他们就必须有共同的利益。”②共同利益愿景的导向和凝聚功能，可以使全体社会成员形成共同追求，迸发共同激情，朝着共同愿景团结奋斗。这一利益愿景要逐层深化。当前，全面建成小康社会是所有贫困人群的利益目标，也是党中央最为紧要的任务目标。在决胜之年，这一目标激励着党中央带领全国人民克服重大风险和重大挑战，一鼓作气向全面小康的终点冲刺。2020年，这一目标实现之后，便需要提出新的共同利益愿景团结引领广大人民群众继续奋进。这一利益愿景要具体与整体相统一。党的十九大提出的“两步走”战略则是具体目标的体现。两个阶段的具体目标，使21世纪中叶建成社会主义现代化强国的总任务更具操作性；而“国家富强、民族振兴、人民幸福”这一美好蓝图是全体中华儿女的共同奋斗目标，这一目标给予全国各族人民明确的、持续稳定的奋斗方向，具有强大感召力，感召着广大人民群众撸起袖子加油干，为美好未来生活而不懈奋斗。**
**(责任编辑：周文升)**
**①《列宁全集》第36卷，人民出版社1985年版，第467-468页。**
**②《马克思恩格斯全集》第4卷，人民出版社1958年，第409页。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **递延所得税确认条件分析**
**张勇军王永辉**
**(哈尔滨东安发动机(集团)有限公司财务会计部哈尔滨150066 中国航空工业集团公司计划财务部北京100022)**
**【摘要】本文结合企业会计准则和所得税法规定，对递延所得税确认条件进行了归纳总结，并通过会计实务中的一些常见事项予以验证。**
**【关键词】所得税 确认条件 分析**
**新企业会计准则中，与以往相比，所得税会计准则差异相对较大，新的所得税会计准则对递延所得税确认的规定不够明晰，对财会人员学习掌握该准则和企业实务操作带来了一定困难。本文结合企业会计准则和所得税法规定，对递延所得税确认条件进行了归纳总结，并通过常见实务事项予以验证。**
**一、递延所得税确认条件初步归纳**
**按照企业会计准则的规定，我国所得税会计采用资产负债表债务法，要求企业从资产负债表出发，通过比较资产负债表上列示的资产、负债按照会计准则规定确定的账面价值与按照税法规定确定的计税基础，对于两者的差异，分别应纳税暂时性差异与可抵扣暂时性差异确认相关的递延所得税负债与递延所得税资产，并在此基础上确定每一会计期间利润表中的所得税费用。**
**因此，可以初步归纳递延所得税确认的基本条件有：①企业会计准则和所得税法对同一业务事项的规定不同，形成了账面价值和计税基础的差异。②这种差异是资产或负债项目产生的，与所有者权益项目和利润表项目不相关。③作为暂时性差异，这种差异在可预计未来应该能够转回。对于第③个条件，又可以衍生两个条件：一是该资产或负债项目的差异在未来期间最终可以消除，例如企业会计准则对固定资产计提折旧的规定与税法的规定可能不一致，但是在固定资产报废或者处置时，折旧计提的这种差异将最终消除。二是这种差异能够影响未来期间应纳税所得额，如果部分影响只能认定为部分转回，如果无法影响则不能认定为能够转回，例如可抵扣暂时性差异确认时，要求企业未来期间能够产生相应的应纳税所得额。**
**二、递延所得税确认条件实例验证**
**为了验证上述初步归纳的递延所得税确认条件，通过下述企业常见实务事项的所得税会计处理进行验证，具体分析如下(为简便起见，下述事项假定企业未来期间能够产生足够的应纳税所得额)：**
国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库
**1.准备性质资产负债项目。企业会计准则中，准备性质资产负债项目主要包括坏账准备、存货跌价准备、资产减值准备、预计负债、应付工资结余等项目，可以按照相关准则规定和适用条件进行计提。税法规定，实际发生的资产损失或者成本费用准予在企业所得税前扣除，计提的各类准备性质款项不能在税前扣除。按照上述归纳的递延所得税确认条件，企业会计准则和税法对准备性质资产负债项目规定不同，产生的差异形成的项目属于资产或负债项目，资产准备类科目在资产处置或收回时消除差异，预计负债在实际发生时消除差异，这种差异在可预计未来能够转回，所以要确认递延所得税。**
**2.需要分摊的资产。企业会计准则规定，对于固定资产、无形资产、长期待摊费用等资产，企业可以根据实际制定适用的折旧、摊销方法和年限。税法规定，这类资产折旧或摊销一般应采取直线法，并规定了最低年限。按照上述归纳的递延所得税确认条件，企业会计准则和税法对需要分摊的资产项目规定不同，产生的差异形成的项目属于资产项目，资产分摊完毕或处置时消除差异，这种差异在可预计未来能够转回，所以要确认递延所得税。**
**3.以公允价值后续计量的资产或负债。企业会计准则规定，交易性金融资产、可供出售金融资产、采用公允价值后续计量的投资性房地产、采用公允价值后续计量的金融负债等项目可以采用公允价值后续计量。税法规定，以公允价值计量的资产或负债持有期间公允价值变动不计入应纳税所得额。按照上述归纳的递延所得税确认条件，企业会计准则和税法对以公允价值后续计量的资产或负债规定不同，产生的差异形成的项目属于资产或负债项目，资产或负债处置时消除差异，这种差异在可预计未来能够转回，所以要确认递延所得税。**
**4.政府补助。企业会计准则规定，与收益相关的政府补助应当在其补偿的相关费用或损失发生的期间计人当期损益，与资产相关的政府补助应当随着相关资产的使用逐渐计人**
**以后各期的收益。这样就产生不计人当期损益的政府补助，形成递延收益负债项目。**
**税法规定，企业取得的各类财政性资金，除属于国家投资和资金使用后要求归还本金的以外，均应计人企业当年收人总额，即要求全额计入应税收入，不得递延。按照上述归纳的递延所得税确认条件，企业会计准则和税法对政府补助规定不同，产生的差异形成的递延收益项目属于负债项目，递延收益摊销完毕后差异最终消除，这种暂时性差异在可预计未来能够转回，所以要确认递延所得税。**
**5.长期股权投资。企业会计准则规定，长期股权投资原始账面价值有可能会调整，例如按权益法核算时，初始投资成本小于取得投资时应享有被投资单位可辨认净资产公允价值份额，或者被投资单位实现净利润或者发生亏损。税法规定，符合条件的居民企业之间的股息、红利等权益性收益为免税收人，即居民企业直接投资于其他居民企业取得的投资收益。企业投资期间，投资资产的成本在计算应纳税所得额时不得扣除，企业在转让或者处置投资资产时，投资资产的成本准予扣除。**
**按照上述归纳的递延所得税确认条件，企业会计准则和税法对长期股权投资规定不同，产生的差异形成的长期股权投资项目属于资产项目，这种暂时性差异在可预计未来是否能够转回，对此再进一步分析：**
**(1)长期股权投资期末账面价值大于原始账面价值。企业拟长期持有的情况下，对于初始投资成本调整产生的差异，预计未来不会转回；对于因确认投资收益产生的暂时性差异，如果在未来期间逐期分回现金股利或利润时免税，不影响未来期间应纳税所得额；对于因确认应享有被投资单位其他权益变动而产生的差异，在长期持有的情况下预计未来也不会转回。所以，这种暂时性差异在可预计未来不能转回，不应确认递延所得税负债，如果企业将持有意图由长期持有转变为拟近期出售的情况下，这种暂时性差异则在可预计未来能够转回，应确认递延所得税负债。**
**(2)长期股权投资期末账面价值小于原始账面价值。企业拟长期持有的情况下，被投资单位长期亏损，可预见未来不能盈利，这种差异在可预计未来不能转回，不应确认递延所得税资产。如果企业将持有意图由长期持有转变为拟近期出售的情况下或者被投资单位在可预见未来不能盈利，这种差异在可预见未来很可能转回，则应确认递延所得税资产。**
**6.合并财务报表抵销业务。企业会计准则规定，企业在编制合并财务报表时，一般情况下，会涉及三方面抵销业务：一是债权债务的抵销；二是持有并表单位长期股权投资的抵销；三是未实现内部交易损益的抵销，涉及存货、固定资产、无形资产等项目。**
**税法规定，居民企业按照法人资格申报缴纳企业所得税，除国务院另有规定外，企业之间不得合并缴纳企业所得税。按照上述归纳的递延所得税确认条件，企业会计准则和**
**税法对合并财务报表规定不同，上述产生的差异形成的项目属于资产或负债项目，这种暂时性差异在可预计未来是否能够转回，分情形进一步分析：①对于抵销的债权债务，虽然这种暂时性差异在可预计未来能够转回，但因为债权债务对递延所得税资产和负债影响金额相同、方向正好相反，所以不确认递延所得税。②对于抵销的持有并表单位的长期股权投资，这种差异无法消除，在可预计未来不能转回，所以不确认递延所得税。③对于未实现内部交易损益的抵销，如果内部交易的资产最终出售或处置，这种暂时性差异在可预计未来能够转回，所以应确认递延所得税。**
**7.研究开发费用。企业会计准则规定，企业内部研究开发费用，满足资本化条件的可以确认为无形资产，否则应计人当期损益。税法规定，企业研究开发费用，未形成无形资产计人当期损益的，按照研究开发费用的50%加计扣除；形成无形资产的，按照无形资产成本的150%摊销。按照上述归纳的递延所得税确认条件，企业会计准则和税法对研究开发费用规定不同，形成无形资产属于资产项目，但是研发费用的计税基础永远比资产或成本高50%，这种暂时性差异无法转回，因此不能确认递延所得税。**
**8.特殊项目。特殊项目主要有两项，分别为：在以后纳税年度结转扣除的广告费和业务宣传费支出以及可抵扣亏损。企业会计准则规定，这些项目本身不符合资产或负债确认条件，没有确认为报表项目。税法规定，企业发生的符合条件的广告费和业务宣传费支出，除另有规定外，不超过当年销售收入15%的部分准予扣除，超过部分准予在以后纳税年度结转扣除；企业经营亏损可用于抵减以后5个年度应纳税所得额。**
**企业会计准则和税法对这两项特殊项目规定不同，在以后结转或抵减后差异将消除，这种差异在可预计未来能够转回。虽然这两个项目不属于资产项目，按照上述归纳的递延所得税确认条件不应确认递延所得税，但是所得税会计准则规定，这两项特殊项目产生的暂时性差异要确认递延所得税资产。**
**9.小结。通过验证，上述归纳条件在这些事项确认递延所得税时，除了所得税会计准则规定的两个特殊项目外，能够全部适用，而且这些事项涵盖了企业实务中绝大部分具体业务。所以，在通常情况下，上述归纳的谜延所得税确认条件可以用于辨别是否应该确认递延所得税，有助于财务岗位人员学习所得税会计准则和提高企业实务操作准确性。**
**主要参考文献**
**1.财政部会计司编写组.企业会计准则讲解2010.北京：人民出版社，2010**
**2.中国注册会计师协会.2012年度注册会计师全国统一考试辅导教材(会计).北京：中国财政经济出版社，2012**
**3.中国注册会计师协会.2012年度注册会计师全国统一考试辅导教材(税法).北京：中国财政经济出版社，2012** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | The point of view of modern education
author: Marsh, Harriet A. (Harriet Anne), 1848-1933
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i
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
UBRARY OF THE
GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF EDUCATION
^
• ^^S^' ''
iA ft filADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCAtWU
* /^'^^ HHOrflOC C GUTMAN UBRA^
eilADUAri SCNOOl OF EOUCATIOII
Copyright 1905
PUBLIC SCHOOL PUBLISHING COMPANY
BLOOMINGTON, ILLINOIS
10-
To my dear father f my first and noblest teacher^ this book
is affectionately dedicated by the author.
Preface
np^ HIS little book is the substance of lec-
tures before Mothers' clubs delivered
from month to month through a series of
years. It is an effort to make application of
some of the recent discoveries in science to
the training of children.
The now generally accepted theory of the
growth of the human race through the ages,
and of each individual born into the world in
modern times, is that known as evolution.
The old education was founded upon a radi-
cally different view of the world and of man.
Educational practice, especially in later gener-
ations, has not been consistent with its theory,
in many important respects, and progressive
teachers have felt handicapped by a doctrine
which was opposed to their methods.
Every institution of the social world is
now adjusting itself to the theory of evolution.
' The church, the home, and the school have
been more tardy than science and industrial
society in obeying its call, but the school is
now seeking to conform, in its methods, to
this new movement as rapidly as conditions
will permit.
This little volume is merely a series of
suggestions, which the thoughtful teacher may
find helpful in her study of children and of
the relations of the school to the home. It
is addressed quite as much to parents as to
teachers and the author hopes it may help to
bring the school and the home into a close
and more sympathetic union.
Table of Contents
Chaytu Pagi
I The Growth of the Affections . . i
II The Three Nerve Centers . . 13
III The Child and His Teachers . . 24
IV What the Child Should Learn . 4 i
V What the Child Should Learn . . 60
(Conttnutd)
VI What the Child Should Learn . 72
{Conttmud)
VII Influences ..... 96
VIII Influences (CbfftfirM^) . . . 116
IX Conclusion . . . . .13^
List of Reference Books 146
THE POINT OF VIEW OF
MODERN EDUCATION.
I.
THE GROWTH OF THE AFFECTIONS.
npHE HOME is the cradle of the human af-
•^ fections, and since these have most to do
with our happiness, it seems profitable to con-
sider their laws of growth, so that the child
may be placed under conditions most favorable
to their proper development.
The child enters the world a little animal and
though his advent is attended with all the help-
lessness indicative of greater brain power, nev-
ertheless his marks of superiority are, at this
time, completely hidden, and his needs are
largely those of his brothers in the animal king-
dom. The young of any species find great com-
fort and enjoyment in warmth — animal
warmth — instinctively "snuggling" up to any
living object near them, particularly at night;
and every naturalist can tell of the various "ar-
2 THE POINT OF VIEW.
tificial mothers" in the form of bunches of hair
or rolls of fur that have been devised to meet
the need so piteously emphasized by little or-
phans of every form and color. The human
baby is no exception to this rule; he learns to
know his mother through the sense of touch,
and, perhaps, of smell. Himself an animal, his
budding affections must have a material or
sense basis upon which the higher love is
builded as he rises to a higher plane. The little
cot bed and the artificial means of nourish-
ment, so often employed from the moment of
birth, may, therefore, become a hindrance to
this development, even though they are fre-
quently a hygienic necessity.
Again, the child, like the adult, instinctively
seeks companionship suited to his own degree
of intelligence. He cannot, at first, understand
or appreciate the society of grown people, but
his dawning interest is aroused by the pres-
ence of animals ; a pet of some kind, as a dog
or a cat, something which he can fondle and
play with, is an absolutely necessary condition
of his early, growth toward a loving and affec-
tionate manhood. Later on comes the desire
for the society of other children ; but the child
GROWTH OF THE AFFECTIONS. 3
is well on toward youth before he really loves
parents and friends. We should not, therefore,
expect too much of dawning capabilities lest
we weaken them by too early or too vigorous
exercise.
Propinquity has also much to do with this
matter. The child becomes attached only to
those with whom he is brought in contact;
hence it follows that he should spend his early
years in the bosom of his family, where all in-
terest centers in the home. Attachments and
habits, the strongest known to man, are now
forming for life, and any affection or occupa-
tion which seriously diverts attention from the
home must prove prejudicial to them, no mat-
ter how valuable it may be for other things.
For this reason, the custom of sending chil-
dren early to school, except when it is the least
of two evils, should be abandoned. The estab-
lishment of a wrong relation is most harmful
because of the fact that it makes more difficult
the establishment of a right one later. If, dur-
ing the years that should be devoted to the
formation of family ties, other absorbing re-
lationships are allowed to share the child's
mind, we must not complain, when later on it is
4 THE POINT OF VIEW.
found that his strongest attachments and great-
est interests are sought outside of the home.
Statistics show that children entering school
under seven years of age suffer a distinct loss
in weight and nerve power, yet how often we
see mothers in comfortable circumstances
eager to place babies of four in the kindergar-
ten. The fact that the tfeatmient there is often
more humane and scientific than that of the
home does not remove the evils just stated.
The mere nervous excitement attendant upon
getting ready for school at a certain hour not
infrequently deprives the child of all appetite
for breakfast, and he then rushes off to engage
for several hours in directed play, while all
other animals of the same age, relatively, are
allowed to frisk at will in the fields, or to doze
unmolested when tired. Why is the child with
his millions of nerve cells denied the fresh air
and the freedom so necessary to the develop-
ment of all other animals ? What farmer would
subject young calves, or lambs, or colts, or any-
thing that breathes and has money value, to
the same treatment ? No directed "play," how-
ever pleasant in itself, is pure play, for the rea-
son that the child's mind is on the stretch to
GROWTH OF THE AFFECTIONS. 5
observe and follow the teacher's motions and
directions ; hence the three or four hours in the
kindergarten are as great a drain upon the
child's nerve power as our morning in the office
or the school-room is upon us. What he needs is
more undirected play, more rest, more repose,
more fresh air.
But there is another phase of this import-
ant subject. The child becomes more and more
interested in his school, just at the time when
tminterrupted family life should lay the foun-
dation of the holiest and most sacred relation-
ships. No human being can serve two masters,
and the home life suffers in consequence. Ten
or twelve years later he may leave home with
comparative safety, but now, in infancy, he
receives impressions, cultivates affections, and
forms habits which cannot be gained in later
years. Failure to understand this principle is
the one cause of the present decline in home
influence and parental authority. During theN
first seven or eight years of life every effort \
should be made to center the child's enjoyment \
and interest in the family circle. An entertain-
ing story after supper, a rosy cheeked apple at
bed time, some domestic animal to pet and f on-
6 THE POINT OF VIEW.
die as one's own, a flower bed to dig and culti-
vate, keeps many a boy and girl from perdition.
Curtains and carpets are sometimes preserved
at the price of human souls.
Some family duty is, also, of gjeat value in
promoting affection, for we generally learn
to love those dependent upon us. But these
duties must, at first, be very simple and very
few. Putting father's slippers ready every
evening, placing baby's spoon by his plate at
meal time, are quite sufficient for beginners,
and the child is delighted to find himself of use ;
while if no one but he is allowed to perform
these little services, a sense of responsibility
and helpfulness is gradually developed — ^an ac-
quisition of great value in after life. Little gifts
at Christmas and upon birthdays also tend to
strengthen affection, if they are the product of
the child's own effort, A single flower seed
sown and tended by little hands to place on
mother's stand in recognition of some anniver-
sary, brings a joy to both recipient and giver
which no expensive purchase could bestow;
while, all the time, loving memories are taking
root, simple habits forming which will follow
one to his grave. Perhaps no single device is so
GROWTH OF THE AFFECTIONS. 7
valuable in promoting these qualities as is a
Christmas tree prepared by the children them-
selves. There is the saving of the pennies ; the
chains to be made ; the popcorn to be strung ;
the delighted and important consultations in
comers ; the wonderful secrets to be kept ; the
happy dreams and the presents ; a bit of card-
board stitched in colored wool to grace father's
new book as a marker; a biead chain for the
young lady of the family ; a spool box made by
the son for mother, and regarded by all the
children as a marvelous work of art; and
grand-mother's needle book — Heaven help us !
One lies before me now made in my own child-
hood for one of these occasions — a poor faded
thing fit only for the rag-bag! The fingers that
fashioned and the hands that received it are
resting together in the dust, but the memory
of that far off Christmas morning and its at-
tendant associations are among the strongest
influences that bind me to home and family.
These early memories are always the most last-
ing, and children united in a loving partnership
during infancy are apt to continue the rela-
tionship through life.
Aside from these considerations it is well
8 THE POINT OF VIEW.
to learn, early in life, the enjoyment that may
be gotten from simple things. Wealth may be
a great blessing, and often is, but one is apt to
forget that the truest pleasures are not bought
with money. The child who starts upon a ca-
reer of indiscriminate spending is always dis-
contented and unhappy. No purse is long
enough to supply every want, and life is robbed
of all real happiness by the constant desire for
some new possession or some new experience.
This mental attitude is, of course, fatal to all
spiritual growth, and explains why children
possessing all the advantages of wealth and
opportunity sometimes appear less intelligent
and less resourceful than those in poorer cir-
cumstances. Necessity is the mother of inven-
tion and uneducated human beings seldom
make an effort unless impelled by want or de-
sire. Fill the home, especially during the early
years, with pleasant and tender experiences,^
with co-operative occupations and amusements.
We begin life as animals, our affections are
bom in the mere animal or physical sensations
of warmth and comfort; later comes the at-
tachment to pets — the kitten or the pony; then
the desire for the companionship of other chil-
GROWTH OF THE AFFECTIONS. 9
dren. These in time lay the foundation for love
of parents and of other adult relatives. The
ties of honne cannot be made too strong or too
lasting; they are the steps by which the hu-
man soul climbs to love of his fellows, to altru-
ism, nay more, to the love of God himself. The
child born in a home destitute of affection sel-
dom emerges with a large love for the race,
because he carries with him the loveless rela-
tions formed in the family and, of course, it
follows that one who has not learned to love his
fellow whom he hath seen cannot reach the cul-
minating point of human affection, the love of
God. Home cannot be too peaceful, too happy,
too attractive. It is when development is ar-
rested in one or the other of these stages that
man remains a materialist and fails to attain
his highest possibilities.
Another great aid to the cultivation of affec-
tion is an early acquaintance with nature, such
an acquaintance from infancy as can come only
from a free, untrammeled companionship with
all her various forms. There are many reasons
why this should be. Man enters the world with
about one hundred fifty rudimentary organs;
organs which are now of no use except as a
—2
lo THE POINT OF VIEW.
sort of scaffolding upon which other organs are
built ; for nature does not seem willing to dis-
card anything once miade, preferring rather to
change it gradually into something else as the
needs of the organism become different. Take,
for example, the tadpole ; as he gains in growth
his tail is slowly absorbed. If, for any reason,
he should be deprived of his tail he would have
no hind legs when he develops into a frog.
Ages ago, in another form, man lived in the
water and required a breathing apparatus like
that of other aquatic animals. Traces of the gill
slits, are even now discernible in the sides of the
head of the embryo child where they form the
basis of the ear passages, organs of the throat,
etc. Now as the human body travels upward
through all its various stages to reach its pres-
ent development, so it is claimed that the mind
in like manner repeats the experiences of the
race, each stage forming the foundation upon
which the next is based.
Experiences, reaching through ages, may be
lived in a few weeks by us, and some even
come to us before birth. It is interesting to
watch the child as he passes through some of
the more easily discerned of these steps. At one
GROWTH OF THE AFFECTIONS, n
time he is a robber and pounces down upon his
playmates pretending to rob them. He is now
in the stage of development represented by the
race as it roamed the ancient plains in quest of
plunder. Again he is a tramp and lives the mi-
gratory life of remote ancestry. So he passes
through the numberless experiences of the past
and under proper conditions emerges, into
healthy mental maturity. But if, for any cause,
he is arrested in one of these stages, the effect
is deplorable. Arrest in the predatory state
may mean to be a robber in one form or an-
other all one's life; in the migratory stage
to be a tramp ; and so of the others. A crimi-
nal is an example of arrested development.
The early race lived with nature. Primitive
man worshiped the sun and moon. God dwelt
in the fountains and the trees; stones became
charms and superstition peopled the earth with
spirits. Out of all this, man, as he grows intel-
ligent, progresses steadily toward a pure and
elevating faith. Thus it is with the child ; he,
too, must pass through these experiences. Let
him pray to the moon, if he will ; let him talk to
the flowers and fill his dirty little pocket with
stones which he fondly believes in as charms.
12 THE POINT OF VIEW.
Let him pet and fondle his older brothers, the
dog and the horse ; let him learn to love all
forms of nature. His faith as a Christian will
be stronger for these experiences. It is only
when man's development is arrested that he re-
mains a pagan, a worshiper of nature instead
of nature's God.*
*See Drummond's ** Ascent of Man,** Chapter 2; also "Peda-
gofirical Seminary,** October, 1901; "Some Fundamental Princi-
ples in Sunday School and Bible Teachingr.**
THE THREE NERVE CENTERS. 13
11.
THE THREE NERVE CENTERS.
There are, in the human body, three nerve
centers whose well being is of commanding im-
portance to health and happiness. The first
of these is situated below and back of the heart,
and its condition through life depends very
largely upon the. child's condition and training
during the first ten years. Of course man's
crowning glory is his soul, his spiritual nature,
but as all the manifestations of his spirit must
be made through and by nueans of the body, it
follows that this body should be properly de-
veloped and kept in the best possible condition,
if for no other reason than that it may do its
work well.
I. The nerve center just referred to has much
to do with the stomach and is largely the cause
of what is called the "blues." Its unhealthy
state has caused many a man to give himself up
for lost, and is the prime cause of more than
half the misery and despair in the world. It is
14 THE POINT OF VIEW.
impossible for any human being to take a hope-
less view of life when this nerve center is
strong and well. How important, then, that
the child have a good start in this respect. Dur-
ing the first ten or twelve years he is, or should
be, a healthy animal; plenty of simple food,
plenty of sleep and much living in the open air
are his essential requirements. If he is in normal
health he does not care for nor understand
the sermons we so persistently preach to
him; all our ethical lessons, with their
sugar-coated moral tucked in at the end, slip
from him as easily as water from a duck's back.
We should be thankful that it is so. It is the
child's only protection from later indifference,
hypocrisy, or morbid introspection. When
older he miay learn by these means, perhaps,
but not now. Nature has provided other teach-
ers for these early years, but his chief business
now is to gain perfect health, a strong, vigor-
ous body, and the needed sense training which
cannot be acquired later, which are all so
necessary to the well-being of this important
nerve center. No social elevation or wealth
acquired in later life can compensate for neg-
lect of these requirements. How many capi-
THE THREE NERVE CENTERS. 15
talists and scholars would cheerfully yield half
their kingdom could they gain sweet, refresh-
ing sleep and be able to enjoy a good dinner!
We must see to it, therefore, that children store
up in early life nerve force for later years.
2. As he emerges from infancy it is notice-
able that he becomies more active ; the tasting,
touching, and smelling of every object that he
encounters gradually abate as he gains sense
experience, and new activities come into play.
Heretofore his motions have been largely such
as were controlled by the muscles of the trunk
or body, but he now begins to use those of the
arms and legs. Hitherto the large head has
made rapid locomotion somewhat difficult, but
when the different miembers assume juster pro-
portions he becomes more and more active —
running, jumping, and climbing. It is the busi-
ness of these years to cultivate the muscles of
the arms and legs, not only on account of the
mere physical growth stimulated by this means,
but also because the will depends upon this sort
of exercise for healthy, normal development.
This nerve center supposed to be the special
organ of the will is situated in the lower and
back part of the skull above the spine. Through
1 6 THE POINT OF VIEW.
this lesser brain the will controls the muscular
system and the highest authority in America
has told us that it is well nigh impossible for a
strong, healthy will to exist without the cultiva-
tion of these muscles. Schools which recognize
this necessity provide for games such as ball
playing, leap frog, battledoor and shuttlecock,
and a host of others which give the activity so
much craved by the young, growing limbs. It
is, therefore, an unforttuiate error to keep little
girls shut up in the house and to dress them in
such manner that free play of the limbs is pre-
vented. A tomboy usually develops into a
healthy, womanly woman ; a pale, delicate girl
becomes — ^what ?
3. The higher nerve centers, those which
have to do with thought and the higher emo-
tions, are the last to develop and are dependent
upon the muscles of the fingers. It is this fact
that furnishes the argument for manual training
in the schools, and renders wood carving, fancy
work and weaving, when not too fine or intri-
cate, of immense importance to the growing
boy or girl. The period when this work is most
beneficial to the child is from the tenth to the
fifteenth year, though there may be variations
THE THREE NERVE CENTERS. 17
according to development or treatment. Chil-
dren begin to show interest in these occupa-
tions about the ninth year, and may do the
coarser kinds of sewing, etc., with great profit.
The only objection to this time is the general
tendency to give too much and too intricate
work, so that it assumes somewhat the char-
acter of drudgery, whereas the tasks should be
very simple, admitting of very large stitches
and employing plenty of pure color. The great
importance of these facts is, as yet, not well
imderstood by women generally. They are apt
to think that any exercise which brings the
muscles into play is good — and this is true in a
general sense — ^but the truth which needs
strongest emphasis is that certain nerve cen-
ters are developed along with certain muscles,
and that this development is accomplished best
at certain quite well defined periods of the
child's life.
Moreover, the exercise miust be of a kind
adapted to the muscles we wish to train. Young
men enter our Normal colleges every semester
confident that years spent in felling trees, or
following the plow, have given them superior
muscle training, but a very few weeks' ex-
1 8 THE POINT OF VIEW.
perience teaches that such development is, in
many instances, but Httle better than none — so
difficult is it to cure bad habits, to bring stiff-
ened miuscles into play, or to enlarge nerve cells
that are dependent for healthy growth upon the
proper exercise of certain sets of muscles at
earlier periods of life.
The higher nerve centers (as has been said)
have to do with the higher emotions ; feelings
of benevolence, the desire to help the race, to be
of use to one's fellows, love of God — all have
their seat in these brain cells that are developed
through the muscles of the hands and fingers.
There is, perhaps, no single truth that has so
much to do with the welfare of the race as
this. A small, undeveloped hand is not a mark
of beauty, as some think, but of weakness; a
sure indication of certain neglected, unedu-
cated muscles, and a consequent lack of will
and of emotional strength.
This is often the source of wrong conclu-
sions. For instance, an individual who has not
attained this cultivation of the fingers may, per-
haps, possess a stronger emotional nature than
one who has received this training; but this
is not a right comparison. What one is should
THE THREE NERVE CENTERS. 19
be compared with what he might have been.
How much richer would this man of deep emo-
tions have been had he received this training?
The wealthy and the very poor are alike handi-
capped in the application of this principle ; one
by the hard, daily grind of poverty which con-
verts them into miere machines, and the other
by a failure to understand its significance and a
consequent disinclination to all labor, particu-
larly manual labor. This is only natural.
Few, if any, are inclined to work, or to
make any kind of effort unless some benefit
is to be gained thereby. When once it is
generally understood that the development
of the higher nerve centers and the higher
emotions depends upon the cultivation of the
fingers, and that the time for this cultivation is
from the ninth to the fifteenth year, there will
be a marked change in public sentiment. Not
only will the rich feel that their children's wel-
fare depends upon a recognition of and con-
formity to this truth, but the mutual attitude
of capital and labor must change because expert
skill in hand work will give the employer a re-
spect for the strength and patience necessary to
success in this kind of occupation. Nothing so
20 THE POINT OF VIEW.
tends to sympathy as a common experience-
Some one has said that to help an ant one must
be an ant; so, to understand and appreciate
the dignity of labor one must labor. Knowl-
edge in this field cannot be gained by proxy.
An organ is ready for work at the time it at-
tains its growth, and this readiness is generally
indicated by an interest in the kind of work
the organ is intended to do. So, in general, it
is a good thing to consult the child's inclina-
tions when planning his occupations. Of course
this, like every other rule, can be carried to ex-
tremes. Any one can recall children who are
never required to do anything against their
wishes, and who flit from one fancy to another
in a manner suggestive of very injurious hab-
its. A sharp, dean cut distinction should al-
ways be drawn between this sort of dissipation
and a genuine interest. Necessarily the child
must have a great deal of latitude in early
years. His object just now is to gain many new
interests; something which cannot be done im-
less he is allowed numberless experiences, and
large freedom. System and thoroughness are
a drawback to this kind of growth ; their time
comes later. Nevertheless this does not mean
THE THREE NERVE CENTERS. 21
that during the first ten or twelve years tlie
child should flit from one object to another
until it is impossible for him to concentrate his
mind upon anything for more than a moment
at a time. As he nears his teens, all the tastes
and fancies that have sprouted during infancy
and childhood should begin to arrange them-
selves. Some will drop out of existence alto-
gether, and some will gradually expand with
his mental growth into instruments of good
or evil, for he now begins to show the results
of earlier training. While it is important that
the child should have large opportunities for
observation and day dreaming, yet at the same
time, certain habits of application should have
begun to shape themselves in his mind and a
certain sense of responsibility should be aroused
if he is to become useful and efficient later on.
Every phase of education has its own par-
ticular period, and nothing is miore fascinating
than the study which is to enable us to know
not only what is to be done but when to do it.
Perhaps an illustration will make this point
clearer. Children are interested in the phenom-
ena of nature at a very tender age. In fact
their attention is attracted to these as soon as
22 THE POINT OF VIEW.
they begin to notice. It follows that they should
live much of the time with nature from birth.
Delay in this companionship is often disastrous
to this interest. The child of six or eight is de-
lighted to work in a garden, to sow seeds or
rake the soil, and when you gain his confidence
he will entertain you for hours with tales of the
robin that lost its leg, or the bobolink that an-
swered his call. But let this dawning interest
be starved or stifled and we have indifference in
later years. Last spring some older pupils,
about three hundred, were given flower seeds
with instructions concerning the planting and
care of the plants. At the same time seeds and
instructions were given to an equal number of
primary children. In the early autumn these
gardens were examined with the result that just
twenty times as many neat, flourishing flower
beds were found in the gardens of the smaller
children as in those of the grammar grades. The
reason is not far to seek ; the time for the best
and fullest cultivation of this interest had gone
by. Then, too, the older children had a greater
nimiber of interests. Their attention has be-
come dissipated by the numberless attractions
of the bicycle and the rowing party, the foot
THE THREE NERVE CENTERS. 23
ball game and the hunt, until growing flowers
seemed very tame, and one recognizes the grim
humor of the B 7th composition which stated
gravely that the only real use of the flower
bed was to provide blossoms for the button-
hole "when a boy went out of an evenin.' "
The purpose of this chapter is to suggest the
following truths :
Each nerve center has its own appropriate
set of muscles upon which it depends for devel-
opment.
Each set of muscles has a definite time or age
for development.
The higher emotional nature depends upon
the development of the fingers and hand.
If we accept the division of time suggested
by Dr. Sherman Davis, we may say :
Period of first teeth — sense training related
to groups of ganglia or nerve center back of
and below the heart.
Period of second teeth — muscle training of
arm and leg related to development of the will.
Period of wisdom teeth — development of the
higher emotional nature.*
*B.ea.d ScoU*s OrgamcEducaitottt ChsL^ter 1; A Study in Touth-
, year 1897-8, v ol. ll, Fagre 1291 ; InAu
on Gr<mth^ Journal Ezper. Med. 1896. Vol. I, Pagre 516; Relation
Between Growth and l>isease„ American Medical Association
1891; Significance of Palatal Deformtties in Idiots^ Journal of
Medical Science, London, Jan 1897, Vol. 43, Pag-e 72.
24 THE POINT OF VIEW.
III.
THE CHILD AND HIS TEACHERS.
TVT UCH has been said in the former chapters
-*^ ^ to show that the chief function of edu-
cation in the first ten or twelve years is
the cultivation of a strong, healthy body, and
that neglect of this is sure to entail suffering or
weakness in after life. But, while bearing
this in mind, it must not be forgotten that this
period is also most important to mental and
moral development, and that whether we so
intend or not, nearly all the fundamental pro-
cesses of education have been established or ar-
rested long before the child reaches his teens.
Now, of course, if the child has intelligent,
capable parents and an ideal home it would be
far better for him not to enter a school room
during his first decade, but since many intelli-
gent people have not the opportunity to devote
themselves to their children's education, and
since many more are not able to do this work
even when leisure permits, it follows that the
THE CHILD AND HIS TEACHERS. 25
primary school is a most valuable and necessary
institution, a sort of auxiliary home, in which
the true teacher becomes a kind of foster parent
to carry on the training which must be given
during this period ; but as the rare attempts at
foster parenthood among the lower animals are
generally rendered unsuccessful through lack
of experience and knowledge of conditions, so
in the school room much havoc is wrought by
its assumption of responsibilities which do not
belong to it.
Nothing is more fatal to either an individual
or an institution than an attempt to relieve it of
duties peculiarly its own. As the poor are pau-
perized and debased by any assistance which
does not render them self-dependent, so is the
home shorn of its greatest strength when its
sacred obligations are relegated to another in-
stitution. The home must continue to be the
educational institution par excellence, while the
church, the school, and the state must rally to
its aid, if only for their own self preservation ;
but their support must be of such a character as
shall recognize its needful supremacy, and rein-
force its dignity and its power to maintain it.
Many people seem to assume that education
-3
26 THE POINT OF VIEW.
begins with the child's entrance into the school
room, but, in point of fact, it commences in the
cradle, and children learn many rudimentary
principles long before they can talk. During
childhood the young have a multitude of teach-
ers whose methods are of the best, and whose
success is always assured. Their ends, whether
good or bad, are invariably attained. They
work unceasingly during every waking mo-
ment, and all we can do is to secure the condi-
tions under which these influences act favorably
to the child's best development ; like a mirror,
he reflects his surroundings most truthfully.
Chief among these teachers are Observation,
Imitation, and Habit.
OBSERVATION.
If it were possible for us to remember and
relate first impressions, we would be much
astonished to learn how early observation be-
gins to act its part. Shortly after birth the
child notices light, then color — ^red or yellow
being the first to attract attention. So import-
ant and lasting are these first sense experiences
that the kindergarten suspends a red or yellow
ball over the cradle as the preliminary step in
THE CHILD AND HIS TEACHERS. 27
that color training of which they are so justly
proud. Statistics show that children thus
trained are rarely if ever color blind. Of
course other sense impressions, notably that of
touch, are equally permanent and vivid — ^that
of sight being prominently mentioned because
it is a familiar illustration of this principle.
IMITATION.
As the child grows older the power of obser-
vation grows. Appearance and actions are
noted and distinguished and at a very early age
he begins to imitate what he observes. It is
impossible to over-estimate the power acquired
from this second teacher. Imitation has been
the chief agency in making the world what it is
to-day, and to it you and I owe our customs,
our dress, and our habits of life. Without it the
human race would still be merely animals, and
our little animal, the child, would be incapable
of education. To be sure, he cannot learn in
our adult way but only as a child. Things of
an abstract nature are unnoticed by him, but he
observes and imitates all he sees and hears;
nothing objective escapes him. This suggests
the keynote of all successful training. The child
28 THE POINT OF VIEW.
is influenced by what we do; hence the neces-
sity of absolute honesty and genuine kindness
in the home and in the school room. Do we
wish him to be truthful, to respect law, to love
his neighbor as himself ? All these things must
be seen in his own home and in the school, for
the child reflects with unerring accuracy, not
what he is told, but what he sees others do.
Everyone knows of the imitative power of the
Chinese, and some will recall the anecedote of
the California mistress who, upon the departure
of Kate, her Irish cook, installed the second girl,
the celestial John, in the kitchen. At the end
of the week came the usual supply of groceries
which the new cook was directed to put away
"just as Kate did," and forthwith commenced a
most startling performance. John proceeded to
take toll of every article before placing it in its
proper receptacle. First a few ounces of butter
were taken from a roll, wrapped in paper and
placed under one end of a couch ; a handful of
tea disappeared as if by magic in a glass jar be-
hind the wood box, and in a few minutes all the
petty dishonesties of months stood disclosed.
John understood a little English but Kate's
words had made slight impression on him. It
THE CHILD AND HIS TEACHERS. 29
was her actions that were painted indelibly on
his mind.
It is so with the infant child. Words are,
comparatively speaking, unnoticed, but what
we do, the concrete, is closely observed and imi-
tated. These earliest impressions are the deep-
est and last the longest. When the mind be-
comes enfeebled by age or disease it loses its
latest acquisitions first. Very old people recall
with accuracy occurrences of early childhood,
while the events of later years are entirely for-
gotten. It is this fact that makes the good home
so important and so sacred.
If the relationship suggested in the first chap-
ter has been faithfully maintained during in-
fancy there exists a sympathetic understanding
in the home which is unattainable under other
conditions. As all the manifestations of spirit
must be made by and through our physic:*l
bodies, so all our affections must have a sense
basis from which, under proper care, they de-
velop healthily and normally. It is generally
when the affections are arrested in this early
stage that a human being becomes a materialist
in doctrine and a sensualist in practice.
As has been said, the best teacher for the lit-
30 THE POINT OF VIEW.
tie child is a good mother. The world, it is
true, is full of noble foster parents but every
fiber in the child's body yearns for S3mipathy, a
mother's love, and long before he is able to ex-
press himself in words he knows by instinct
whether the arms that encircle him are his
mother's. Nothing can take the place of this
sympathy, and no human being can become a
complete substitute for the mother. A weak,
careless mother may be better for the child
than a good teacher or family relative.
It is generally supposed that the child who
loses its mother at birth and falls into the hands
of a good step-mother never knows the differ-
ence, and it is often asserted that the young
step-mother feels the same affection for the lit-
tle orphan as for her own offspring. Such
a condition seldom exists. Nature never in-
tended that a relationship so sacred should be
counterfeited. In an orphan asylum the chil-
dren are generally better fed, better clothed,
and better cared for than they ever were in
their own homes. The nurses love and caress
them, but upon every face, even of the babies,
is a certain pathetic expression which shows the
unconscious craving for mother's love. As well
THE CHILD AND HIS TEACHERS. 3i
might one say that the hapless chick hatched in
an incubator is as happy and comfortable as
one bom under more natural conditions, as to
say that human babyhood perfectly fulfills its
destiny save in its mother's arms.
Some time ago six little children attended a
certain school. The father was a drunkard,
the mother washed for their daily bread, and
the children were ragged and dirty (before
they entered and had received clothing from
the teachers.) The matron of a benevolent in-
stitution undertook to place them in a better
environment, and called upon the teachers for
their help in making the transfer. To her as-
tonishment they declined, giving as their rea-
son that the children loved their mother dearly
and were happy in their attachment to one an-
other. True, they would have had better
clothes, better food, and a cleaner home, but
after all, parental love "is the fulfilling of the
law" during the child's period of nurture.
We are often much amused at the child's
power of imitation, and nowhere is this more
strikingly shown than in his play. We are
coming to realize that play is the child's best
teacher. Watch the baby girl as she washes
32 THE POINT OF VIEW.
and dresses her doll, prepares its imaginary
meal, takes it out for a walk. Every act is a
copy of what she sees in the home, and all is
a preparation for the duties of later life.
But play means more than this.
Every child, in a sense, goes through the men-
tal and physical experiences of the race. Proof
of this theory is traced in children's games,
each of which is supposed to indicate the period
of development of the child at that time. For
instance, we find our boy at one time with an
inclination to live in caves; at another he de-
lights in pursuit and capture; at another, in
deeds of bravery. These are generally thought
to be mere games which the child selects by
chance or in imitation of other children, with-
out regard to their order of development ; but,
in point of fact, each of these games is indica-
tive of a certain period in the race's history.
The child plays at being a robber because he is,
at that time, living the experiences of the race
at the time when all were robbers. When he
plays at being a tramp he is in the stage in
which his ancestors were migratory. These
phases of civilization show more plainly and
last longer with some children than with others,
THE CHILD AND HIS TEACHERS. 33
but all have them in greater or less degree
They promote healthy and normal growth. The
only possible danger in indulging them is thct
the mind may be arrested in one or the other of
these stages. The child, whose body grows to
manhood while his mind remains in the migra-
tory period, becomes a tramp; if he does not
develop beyond the predatory age he becomes
a robber, and so on. A criminal, as said be-
fore, is an example of arrested moral develop-
ment. In the next chapter we shall consider the
means of preventing this arrest; but we will
now return to our subject.
HABIT.
The child's teachers considered thus far are
Observation, Imitation, and Plays. Few ap-
preciate the immense importance of these fac-
tors in the child's education, and still fewer
understand that he learns far more from his
games and other associations with children,
than from any school yet organized.
The ease with which the child forms habits
is another peculiarity which renders the first
ten years so important. Perhaps no one has
ever given the physiological basis of habit bet-
34 THE POINT OF VIEW.
ter than Dr. James, of Harvard University.
He says, in effect, that all sensations enter
through the senses — such as the sense of touch,
or sight, or hearing. That which enters the
brain must come out again. Now the pathway
traversed by these discharged sensations be-
comes a habit if used often enough.
To explain more fully — Suppose a child sees
or hears something which angers him. In-
stantly a message is flashed from a nerve center
to the appropriate muscles telling the hand to
strike, or the foot to kick. If this message is
obeyed, a faint pathway through the brain is
traced. The next similar feeling of anger
transmits a similar message and the obedient
muscles again strike or kick. The same path
is traversed by this second discharge, and the
channel is worn a little deeper. Suppose this
line of action is followed day after day. Is it
not clear that after a time the child will kick or
strike automatically whenever he is angered?
This automatic impulse is a habit.
The reason habits are so easily formed in
childhood lies in the fact that more blood is
supplied to the brain during this period, and the
brain is softer and more plastic. For this rea-
THE CHILD AND HIS TEACHERS. 35
son, too, the habits and impressions of infancy
and youth are the strongest, those which come
to us last being the first to leave.
These physiological facts are of great mo-
ment, and suggest that moral teaching is made
most effective by personal example. The child
is interested in the object, the concrete, and imi-
tates what he sees. Let him observe our gen-
tleness or truthfulness and he will follow that,
if it is not beyond his power to appreciate.
Every good impulse should iind outlet in an
appropriate action, else it is lost and the capa-
bility for future good impulses is weakened.
So if the child reads a touching story, sees a pa-
thetic play, or is touched by some scene of suf-
fering, the feeling of pity thus aroused should
find an outlet in some kind action, even though
trivial. In this way the habit of alleviating
suffering is formed, which will grow with the
child's growth, unless we drain his sympathies
by too early and too active stimulation.
There is great danger of this latter, especi-
ally when the child is particularly susceptible
to feeling keenly the sufferings of others. Pre-
cocity in any direction should not be encour-
aged, for the child pays dearly for it in later
36 THE POINT OP VIEW.
life. Remember that it is the business of the
first twelve years to cultivate a healthy, happy
body as the foundation of later muscular
strength and nerve force. But let us remember
to cultivate this healthy body by exercising it
in giving utterance to good impulses through
appropriate action.
The dawn of the higher emotional nature
comes with the dawn of the period of adoles-
cense, and the child should enter this period of
his life with emotions fresh, and with fancy
free. Undue excitement, undue stimulation
of any sort is largely responsible for the jaded,
blase little men and women one so often meets.
Some times the children are so overworked
that they have no nerve force left for the duties
or enjoyments of later years. What is taken
for indifference or c)nnicism is really fatigue.
Often a baby of three or four years is enrolled
in a kindergarten ; he loves the teacher, and the
games and the community life appeal to him.
His naturally bright mind becomes still brighter
under this stimulation. At six he enters the
primary school and continues to delight both
mother and teacher until he reaches the third
or fourth grade, and then our prodigy begins
THE CHILD AND HIS TEACHERS. 37
to show an alarming change. The lessons once
so easy are dull and difficult. The teacher
whose room he has just entered does not "un-
derstand him." She fails "to explain" suffi-
ciently, and school becomes hateful to him.
The difficulty lies in the fact that the child is
simply worn out. All the strength and nerve
force which should have been stored up for the
wear and tear of later years has been exhausted
by his too early application to work. He is not
able to go on any more than a locomotive is
able to move after the supply of coal and water
is exhausted. Everyone is familiar with exam-
ples of this kind, and many know, also, that
statistics show that the child entering school
under seven loses in weight and is retarded in
growth during the first year. Who will make
the application ? Is it not possible that the con-
ditions for "race suicide" begin right here?
I.AW Olf ASSOCIATION.
The fourth and last teacher to be mentioned
is the law of association, which means that if
two things are once associated together in the
mind the later appearance of one will recall the
other. This principle is wonderfully useful in
38 THE POINT OP VIEW.
many ways by helping to fix or recall that
which we wish to remember, but, like every
other good thing, it is capable of working mis-
chief under unfavorable conditions. We let
the child play in a certain room some morning.
Our return to the room a week after recalls
the play to the child's mind even though it may
not have occurred to him in the meantime. And
it is surprising how soon these associations are
formed. A romp with the pillows at bedtime
brings a request for a romp the next night.
Good or bad, happy or sad, these connected
pictures are constantly forming the child's
mind and it is for us to see to it that, so far as
possible, they are happy and good. Even very
young animals show the influence of this law.
Their tricks are learned by means of certain as-
sociations, and many have heard of the horse
(not young) which was loaned to a clergyman
who wished to take his friend for a drive. The
road chosen happened to be one often traversed
by the horse's owner, and the clergyman's cha-
grin may be imagined as the faithful animal,
of its own accord, would draw up to every pub-
lic house on the road. So if children are al-
lowed to play in a certain street, or garden, or
THE CHILD AND HIS TEACHERS. 39
building, a later return to this place will recall
the occupations associated with it, and render
a different train of thought difficult to follow.
Human intelligence presents many strange
inconsistencies. This law of association,
though often disregarded in training children,
is well understood and keenly followed in its
relation to other interests. This is particularly
true in an army. Visit a fort at sundown when
the flag is being lowered. Observe the order
and precision in every movement, the martial
music, the bared head, the respectful silence as
the sacred emblem flutters to the ground. All
this ceremony and parade are not for appear-
ance only; they have a far deeper meaning.
Everything pertaining to the flag is treated
with the greatest respect and formality. Why?
So that in every phase of the soldier's life the
presence of the flag shall recall the feelings with
which it has been associated. This is absolutely
necessary to the unity and strength of the army.
How long would any people remain united if
their flag was treated with disrespect?
So too with the religious emotions. Better
a thousand times that no prayer be offered, no
hymn sung, than to conduct any religious exer-
40 THE POINT OP VIEW.
cise with children who are laughing and chat-
tering. They should never believe that prayer
or praise to God can be offered under such con-
ditions. When once the child makes this irrev-
erent association in his mind he has taken a
long step in the direction of irreligion and un-
belief.
RESUME.
1. The child's education commences as soon
as he begins to take notice, and his character is-
largely formed before he enters school.
2. The child is interested in the concrete, the
objective; he therefore, pays more attention
to actions than to words.
3. The chief factors in his education are ob-
servation, association, habit, and games and
plays.*
^Consult the foUowiugr for further sngrerestions: Study of
Imitation— Annual Report Commissioner of Education. Vol. I,
1896-97, chapter 13; Industrial Education, same, pagre 443: College
Athletics , same, pagre 705; Physical Traininff^ Annual Reports of
Commissioner of Education, 1898, Vol. I, pagre 487; Babies and
Jlfonieys—Popnla.r Science Monthly, Jan., 1895, Vol. 46, pagre 371;
The Boyhood of Great Men^ Annual Report of Education, 1898, Vol.
2, pagre 1294; The Sorrows of Childhood^ Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 9.
WHAT THE CHILD SHOULD LEARN. 41
IV.
WHAT THE CHILD SHOULD LEARN.
** A little natural philosophy and the first entrance into it doth
dispose the opinion to atheism; bat on the other side, much natu-
ral philosophy and the wadingr deep into it will brinsr men's
minds to nligion,**-^BacoM.
TT IS generally admitted that the first nine
•*' years of life are the most important from
an educational point of view, but compara-
tively few are equally clear as to the time when
the child's education really begins. Fewer still
have decided convictions as to where he should
begin. Many suppose his entrance into the kind-
ergarten or the primary school marks the be-
ginning of this important work, while others
place it at a still later period.
The child enters the world in a perfectly
helpless condition. Practically he is blind, deaf
and dumb; unconscious of any object— even of
himself. Gradually the outer world is revealed
to him through the sense of touch. This awak-
ens desire or inclination. His education com-
mences the moment this inclination or desire
encounters opposition, and its trend is deter-
42 THE POINT OF VIEW.
mined by the manner in which the obstacle is
surmounted.
Thus a very young babe is rocked to sleep,
or carried to and fro. A few experiences of this
nature teach him the pleasurable sensation of
motion and he refuses to be lulled to sleep by
other means. Whether it is physiologically
harmful to rock a child to sleep or to walk about
with him is not now the question. Do his de-
sires conflict with the parent's will ? Here his
education begins. It is his first lesson in obedi-
ence, and according to its method he takes his
first step downward toward self-indulgence and
ruin, or upward toward self-control. Whether
we will it or not, we find ourselves confronted,
from birth to old age, by obstacles which we
must surmount or to which we must yield. The
decision as to which ones shall be overcome, and
which shall be permitted to prevail against us,
constitute the chief problem of life. The abil-
ity to overcome or to yield as judgment may
direct, can only be gained through self-control,
and self-control comes only through practice in
obedience to law. Law must come to the child,
at first, from without. Later he finds it within ;
he becomes a law imto himself. But until the
OBEDIENCE. 43
knowledge of the truth has made him free he
must obey external law.
Now it would be the height of folly to as-
sume that all children learn the lessons of obed-
ience with equal ease or in the same time. Her-
edity and environment each exerts its influence
and very much depends upon the wisdom of
those who enforce the obedience. The require-
ments at first should be few and simple, so as
not to perplex or distress the little ones need-
lessly; but when once the decision has been
made obedience should be secured. Under such
conditions it is cruelly wrong to issue unneces-
sary prohibitions. The best and wisest of us
often err in this respect because our childhood is
so far behind us that we have only a misty rec-
ollection of the sharp struggles and the keen
disappointments of infancy. It is the only safe
rule never to say "No" or "Yes" to a child un-
less we have a good reason for doing so. Of
course conflict is inevitable here. Perfect
agreement between the parent's will and the
child's would show the inability of the child to
choose, — a condition bordering on imbecility —
or else the governing power would need to be
omniscient, while the governed would need the
44 THE POINT OP VIEW.
ability to recognize this omniscience under all
conditions, coupled with a self-control so mar-
velous that he could at all times subjugate his
desire to his judgment — conditions impossible
alike to the adult and the child. But the neces-
sity for this struggle should cause us no anxiety ;
it should be welcomed rather as nature's method
of growth. No opposition, no combat ; no com-
bat, no growth. Every square foot of earth pro-
claims this universal law of nature; every
plant, every animal, every insect living upon
the earth is living because of its ability to
maintain this conflict. Man is no exception to
this law. Every muscle, every nerve and brain
cell in his body is subject to this law of growth
manifest in all other forms of life, while our
moral and spiritual development are alike de-
pendent upon the same all embracing principle.
"To the stars through difficulties."
USE AND ABUSE OF PUNISHMENT.
Since the fundamental principle of growth,
physical and spiritual, is obedience to law, it
follows that the first lesson for those who know
not the law, must be that of obedience to
some force or power outside of themselves and
PUNISHMENTS. 45
quite other than their will or desire. Of course
at a later period the element of choice enters
into this conformity, but now they are receiving
their first lesson in obedience to the will of an-
other. Judgment has not yet become active.
The child is incapable of any real choice; so
the first page of life's primer demands obedience
per se, and it must be mastered thoroughly if
he would read the succeeding chapters under-
standingly. The child may not wish to obey.
Inclination is strong and he feels no need of
disregarding it. Compulsion may become nec-
essary, and this brings us face to face with the
question of punishments.
Punishments are generally of two classes:
( I ) the deprivation of certain privileges, as the
forfeiting of a coveted outing, or the omission
of the bed-time story. (2) In the second class
are included all attempts to "make the punish-
ment fit the crime." The floor littered with bits
of paper must be restored to its former condi-
tion; injury to property must be repaired to
the extent of the offender's ability — the object
being to awaken the child's mind to a recogni-
tion of the rights of others, and at the same
time teach him to feel that wrong-doing always
46 THE POINT OP VIEW.
brings with it the need of reparation. This lat-
ter class of punishment is in all respects mojst
logical and salutary, but there are cases — ^but
not many — ^where neither of these methods
seems efficacious, and appeal is made to physi-
cal pain or discomfort.
Of Q>rporal Punishment so much has been
said in recent years, and the matter is so im-
portant, that it behooves us to look into the sub-
ject with some care. The objections made to
this mode of correction are as follows : —
First — ^The sensation of physical pain is
evanescent ; it passes off more quickly than any
other of equal intensity.
Second — Physical pain causes a great de-
struction of nerve tissue, and is, therefore, irom
an econ(Mnic standpoint, a most expensive and
unwarranted method of correction.
Third — ^It is merely an appeal to our animal
nature, and, for this reason, it is degrading
and brutalizing.
Fourth — Real obedience, that of the heart, is
never gained through corporal punishment.
Fifth — ^The highest and noblest efforts possi-
ble to man are obtained through interest — i. e.,
our best is attained only under pleasurable con-
ditions.
PUNISHMENTS. 47
Sixth — Corporal punishment attacks and
dulls the child's sense of honor.
Let us consider these objections for a mo-
ment, at the same time bearing two cautions in
mind : First, that nothing is so false, so decep-
tive, as a half truth ; second, that blind adher-
ence to any principle, especially when accom-
panied, as it often is, by a disregard of co-oper-
ating or adjusting laws, must necessarily result
in injury if not in the total subversion of the
principle.
As to the first objection, that physical pain is
the most fleeting of all sensations, little need be
said since the argument is in favor of rather
than opposed to its use. No one would wish to
inflict any sort of punishment that could last an
instant longer than the purpose of it rendered
necessary.
The alleged destruction of nerve tissue, so far
as it is true, is a far more serious charge against
this means of coercion, but it should be under-
stood, clearly and unmistakably, that the brutal
and unmerited whippings of a former genera-
tion are not considered, and therefore not reck-
oned with in these pages; for them no excuse
can be offered save ignorance and that mysteri-
48 THE POINT OP VIEW.
ous and all pervading influence generally known
as "the spirit of the times."
History teaches that severity is not neces-
sary to the efficacy of punishment — ^rather the
contrary — its chief requirements being just-
ness, certainty, and, above all, a perfect adapta-
tion to the physical and mental status of the
culprit. Now if we admit that the human child
is in the beginning merely an animal and that
his spiritual nature is a potentiality to become a
reality through a process of growth, there must
be a mixture of physical and spiritual influences
used in his correction. This evolution may be
rapid or comparatively slow, being dependent
upon heredity and environment. Some unfor-
tunate beings seem to be arrested in this animal
stage, and to remain in it all their lives (as is
true of many criminals), while others born un-
der happier conditions appear to grow out of it
very early. Now while the animal nature pre-
dominates appeal maybe made through physical
pain and discomfort, but it should give place to
other means as rapidly as the higher nature is
awakened and the child becomes amenable to.
higher motives for right conduct. The infant
has no idea of moral duty, and a few light slaps
PUNISHMENTS. 49
of the hand with a reproving countenance are
often the only argument the very young child
can understand. Such admonition best fits the
conditions.
A kind-hearted and able physician once stated
that when the little body was stiffened with an-
ger, the limbs rigid and the face red with con-
gested blood, a few light slaps upon the lower
part of the body, acting as. a counter irritant,
gave the best possible relief to the overcharged
blood vessels, producing a similar effect to that
produced by the mustard plaster. With the
average child the necessity for this mode of
punishment ought to disappear gradually, and
should seldom be necessary after the ninth or
tenth year.
Many, of course, will not need it at all ; but
it is to be feared their number is smaller than
maternal affection or sentiment leads some to
think. Our chief difficulty in child training
seems to lie in the inability to see that the child
grows in a regular and well defined order.
Stage follows stage in an appointed suc-
cession, and each stage should receive the treat-
ment adapted to it. While it may be possible,
by judicious care, to make this progression from
so THE POINT OP VIEW.
stage to stage more rapid, it is also possible that
under certain other conditions this natural ad-
vancement may be retarded or even checked
altogether by injudicious treatment
Be this as it may, nothing can be gained by
urging ethical motives for conduct before
the ethical nature has budded, for we know
that any hot-house forcing of spiritual growth
is fatal to later development. All danger sig-
nals must be regarded, and so far as human
wisdom can discern, the proper remedy for each
stage should be provided. The immature na-
ture capable of appreciating only physical sen-
sations, must be appealed to through his physi-
cal sensations, and neither affection nor vanity
should lead us to suppose that the child we love
so tenderly is to develop under different laws
from those which govern and always have gov-
erned the race.
All this may sound despotic to advanced no-
tions of child education, and more applicable
to a primitive age, or to a military form of gov-
ernment than to a free republic, but if evolution
is the law of the universe, does it not suggest
that the child, passing through the different ex-
periences of the race, can be restrained best
PUNISHMENTS. 51
in each stage of development by the means
that have been adopted by the best and most in-
telligent of the race at each corresponding step
in human history? Despotic appeals to physical
pain seem to have been the earliest means of
control employed by any people. Though ad-
vancement has greatly modified these elemen-
tary practices, is it not probable that the young
child passes through enough of this early ex-
perience of the race to render a touch of them
salutary?
Does it seem irrational to conclude that a be-
ing in whom the animal nature is so prominent
as in the young child can be best controlled,
sometimes, through his physical sensations?
Will not his adherence to law, in future years,
be stronger and more enduring because it has
grown, step by step, from this physical basis in
accord with what seems to be a law of both our
physical and spiritual development?
It is useless for parent or teacher to ignore
the fact that children must grow according to
natural laws. As well might the frog refuse to
pass its childhood as a tadpole, or the butterfly
to crawl before it flies, as for man to refuse to
recognize that he begins life as an animal, and
52 THE POINT OF VIEW.
that his transformation into a spiritual being is
by a slow process of growth out of the animal
into the spiritual.
The most serious defect in our system at
present seems to lie in the very general effort
to present ethical motives for conduct before
the ethical nature is sufficiently developed to
appreciate them. History reveals the fact that
no race of people has exhibited the highest
standard of virtue in its childhood. It has
grown slowly, step by step. What reason have
we to suppose that our embryo man can spring
full-fledged into a virtuous manhood ? And can
it be brutalizing to use the means of correction
which best answer to his stage of growth? It
would be brutal to retain this mode of punish-
ment after the child is capable of responding
to higher motives, and the higher motive should
be employed as soon as it can be appreciated
and it should be presented to him repeatedly
before he can appreciate it.
It is true, to be sure, that genuine obedience,
obedience that springs from the heart, is not
the direct result of coercion. But the child does
not rise to this plane of duty at a bound. This
moral excellence is a superstructure whose
MORAL STRENGTH. 53
foundation is obedience to external authority
which has become habit in childhood. To ig-
nore this order of growth is an error too pre-
valent in the education of the young.
Then, too, we are prone to lay great stress
upon the pleasure of work, the value of interest,
its effect upon effort, etc. While all this em-
phasis cannot be laid too early, and too much
cannot be said in favor of it, there is another
truth equally important which the present gen-
eration is in danger of forgetting — ^the import-
ant part which struggle plays in the child's de-
velopment.
One thinker has said that the child gains his
moral strength through the conflict of his own
will with that of his parents ; and he adds "that
as the child progresses toward manhood he
should gradually gain his freedom, lest he know
not how to use his liberty upon reaching matur-
ity, and how to govern others having never
governed himself.'' He declares that "self-gov-
ernment is first dependent upon that implicit
obedience in childhood to a higher will which
leads to self-control ; and second, to judicious
freedom in thought and conduct which, being
gained slowly and by degrees, gives scope to
54 THE POINT OF VIEW.
the judgment. Success in life, great or small,
is determined by the degree of self-control that
has been acquired.
The assertion that corporal punishment dulls
the child's sense of honor implies that the sense
of honor has awakened in the child. When
this sense has become active, corporal punish-
ment is never the remedy. But the humiliation
that attends the violation of one's sense of per-
sonal dignity or honor is not possible to a child
who has no such sense. When it is once awak-
ened the child can be better controlled by other
influences.
Much has been said about the decline of par-
ental authority during the past quarter of the
century. There are grounds for this charge.
Not least among these is the fact that parents
of the generation now reaching maturity re-
ceived a training in which one of the elements
of leadership was lacking; — ^that of freedom.
Fifty years ago a child in a well ordered home
was "seen but not heard." But when that gener-
ation neared the age when self-assertion is ben-
eficial, pedagogy took a turn: — the little child
came to the front and has remained there ever
since as leader of the procession. As a natural
MORAL STRENGTH. 55
consequence the mothers of the present day
have remained in the background. They re-
ceived the necessary training in obedience, but
the freedom which should have come later was
denied them. They never "came out" until
called to assume the leadership of their own
home. Is it any wonder that judgment was
sometimes lacking? The men of this age found
a partial corrective in their earlier and more
active contact with the outer world, but the
error has affected with full force the more se-
cluded girl just budding into womanhood.
This lack, however, will hot be felt by many
of the children now nearing maturity. In a
majority of cases they have enjoyed unlimited
freedom from babyhood, the preliminary train-
ing in obedience having been eliminated from
their education. Modern sentiment is prone to
revolt from suppression of any kind. It would
be wrong to deny that many advantages have
accrued to children under this freer dispensa-
tion, but the evidence is cumulative that free-
dom without obedience will always prove as
great an evil as obedience without freedom.
Life is a partial failure everywhere without
both.
56 THE POINT OF VIEW.
The leading objectors to corporal punish-
ment are not always our ablest thinkers. With
honorable exceptions they are persons engaged
in occupations offering little opportunity for
intelligent personal investigation of the subject.
This retards true progress for the reason that
there is always a large number of people who are
easily swayed by what seems to them to be pub-
lic opinion because it happens to be the only
opinion publicly expressed at the time. We
should be slow to abolish by law this mode of
correction from the school where children of all
stages of development are grouped together un-
der teachers who, in their efforts to maintain
the required discipline, are often led to the
adoption of means far less honorable and effica-
cious ; such as pinching, jerking, shaking, hold-
ing up to ridicule, shutting in the dark, and
"nagging ;" practices too often the recourse of
those whose poor health, lack of pedagogical
training, or overcrowded school room, make
coercion necessary to secure order.
But, it must be borne in mind that corporal
punishment loses its efficacy as the child gains
in appreciation of higher motives for conduct.
Punishment, to be effective, should be :
MORAL STRENGTH. 57
First, certain. The element of uncertainty
often seems to awaken in the child a desire to
see how far and how long he can disobey with
impunity. The same impulse which induces an
older person to bet on the board of trade, or
to frequent the gaming tables at Monte Carlo,
will lead the boy to take chances on his teacher's
patience or powers of endurance. Punishment
should be certain for many reasons.
Second, it should be just. History shows no
bloodier page than that which records the race's
struggle for fair treatment; and no effort at
restraint which lacks this element is. effective
for long. Though our ethical standard is
higher than his, the child's moral sense is often
keener than ours. His horizon is narrow and,
therefore, he should be encouraged to state his
view of the matter and punishment should not
be administered until there is sufficient evidence
that the child believes it to be just.
Third, it should be adapted to the child's de-
velopment. It is the height of cruelty to force
upon the child motives he cannot understand.
It is brutal to continue a mode of punishment
that he has outgrown. Sound judgment and a
kind heart should determine both the rewards
58 THE POINT OF VIEW.
and the punishments of the school, and they
should be the sound judgment and kind heart
of the teacher in charge. Farming out children
for punishment to the principal or superintend-
ent does not strengthen the teacher and is gen-
erally harmful to the child.
OTHER PUNISHMENTS.
The same general principles apply to all
forms of punishment, inasmuch as all are for
the same purpose; and it need hardly be said
that the mildest means that will accomplish the
desired end are always the best. Few realize the
suffering of a nervous child put to bed in the
dark or shut up in closet. Tantalizing, taunt-
ing and exposing to ridicule are especially rep-
rehensible.
Whatever the means of correction used it
must be remembered that its efficacy will de-
pend not only upon the spirit and manner of it,
but also upon its inf requency.
When the French Revolution was at its
height, once sensitive ladies attended public
executions, calmly sipping coffee as they wit-
nessed the most revolting acts of cruelty. We
express horror at the brutality of our ancestors,
INFREQUENCY OF PUNISHMENTS. 59
but we should soon find ourselves doing the
same thing under similar conditions, simply be-
cause any experience, pleasurable or painful,
will affect us less the second time when it did
the first ; every repetition lessens the effect un-
til we become in a measure indifferent to what
were once intense feelings.
This law must be taken into the account in
the child's training, since we are apt, other-
wise, to render him callous to all the means we
employ for his improvement. Wisdom and
self-control are never more necessary than
when we attempt to correct the fault of another.
It is also well to remember that the immature
mind is not always the inferior mind. Superi-
ority in age, the relation to parent or teacher,
or any other exterior condition will not give us
governing power unless we have learned to
govern ourselves.
"Punishments as seen by Children*' Pedagogical Stmtnary, Vol.
3, P. 235; "Educative Value of Children's Questioningr" Popular
Science Monthly, XLIV, P. 799; "Child Study & Religious Educa-
tion" Child Study Monthly, Oct. 1896, Vol. 2, P. 289; "Fatigue in
School Children^' Educational Review, Jan. 1898, P. 34; the Public
School and tbe Public I^ibrary" Annual Report Commissioner of
Education 1898, Vol. 1, P. 487; "The History of Sunday Schools"
Annual report Com. of Education 1896-97, Vol. 1, P. 351.
6o THE POINT OF VIEW.
CHAPTER V.
WHAT THE CHILD SHOULD LEARN.—
Continued.
F WE believe that among the first lessons
I
the child must learn, is obedience, pure and
simple, the next matter for our consideration is
the direction this obedience shall take. The
child advances from the general to the specific
application of this law and learns by degrees
that while he is expected to follow the actual
guidance of those around him, there are certain
acts which are always forbidden because of
some inherent quality in themselves. This
would cover such infringements of the moral
law, as stealing, lying, and the like.
Steaung.
Of course, the little child at first knows no
distinction between his property and another's.
He learns this chiefly from the way in which
his belongings are considered. His treatment
of his neighbor in adult life depends very
FORBIDDEN ACTS. 6i
much upon these first experiences in the home.
Why should we expect him to grow in re-
spect for the property of others when his
treasures are kicked about, or thrown away, or
given to younger brothers or sisters without
reference to his wishes? He learns by what he
sees more than by what we tell him, and if his
property is respected, he gradually grows into
a respect for the property of others. By degrees
this distinction may become sharp and clear;
then the chances are that in manhood he will
have regard for the Golden Rule.
Nearly all the confusion between capital and
labor has had its counterpart in the child's ex-
periences during the first ten years of his life.
If his rights are ignored, why should he not
show the same disregard for the rights of oth-
ers? At first it shows itself in appropriating
the things belonging to others, which grows
into a general disrespect for others' rights, and
an inability to appreciate what is due to them.
It has been observed that children whose fam-
ilies have been pauperized by the injudicious
charity of churches and benevolent societies
are generally not regardful of property rights.
This does not necessarily arise from any inher-
62 THE POINT OF VIEW.
ent dishonesty ; it simply means that false kind-
ness has prevented any sharp distinction be-
tween mine and thine from getting a lodgment
in their convictions, and they feel at liberty to
appropriate whatever seems desirable without
any very great consideration of the owners'
wishes. Children who are not paupers fre-
quently show this lack of training in other
ways: — fences are marked, lawns trampled,
and we look on with good natured indifference,
failing to recognize that this small and appar-
ently unimportant disregard of property rights
is the nucleus of future oppression and strife.
Later experience may lead him to a recogpnition
of such of these principles as are necessary to
success in business, but a real, genuine consid-
eration for others must be taught in babyhood
and preserved as a possession of inestimable
value throughout the years of growth, if it shall
become an ingredient of the character.
Dr. G. Stanley Hall in his suggestive paper
on "Children's Lies" gives an insight into this
subject not realized before, and which every
teacher of children should carefully study. It
is true of all animals that they lie, so far as
their intelligence permits, and man inherits his
CHILDREN'S LIES. 63
full share of this propensity, without the ani-
mal's excuse that it is now necessary to his sur-
vival. The instinct can be suppressed most
easily in early childhood.
In the animal world are seen many evidences
of this instinct to deceive. Spiders feign
death in times of danger, a habit followed by
many small animals and insects. Birds resort
to all sorts of tricks to divert an enemy's atten-
tion from their nests; while the fox, the dog;
and many others do their part in maintain-
ing this characteristic whenever self-preserva-
tion or interest renders it desirable or necessary.
The little child, at first, lies as innocently as
other animals, which of course is no lie in the
moral sense of the word.
Then the time comes when the imagination
begins to bud, and some children find it hard to
distinguish between what actually occurred and
what he imagines occurred. And, too, there
is that inability to relate occurrences accurately
which is, in some degree, the effect of deficient
sense training, and memory. A short time
ago a daily paper gave an abstract of a lecture
on lying in which the speaker deplored the "fa-
tal tendency" of children to imitate and spoke
64 THE POINT OF VIEW.
at length of all their little games, such as keejK
ing house, playing school, tending baby and the
like, as the beginning of this sinful habit. De-
luded soul, he failed to see that the whole race
learns by imitation. The ability to imitate in-
telligently has brought Japan to the front, while
the inability to imitate keeps the barbarian bar-
barous.
If the hypothesis that man inherits a ten-
dency to lie in common with other animals is
excepted, then he must pass through this
stage of race experience, as he does through his
nomadic and robber stages. No danger need be
feh for the normal child with proper training.
It is the child who is arrested in this stage that
becomes and remains a liar. Of course we all
see the preventive. The child must live in an
atmosphere of truthfulness. His gift of imita-
tion enables him to follow what he sees, and
this gradually crystallizes into habit, forming
a good foundation for the ethical training of la-
ter years. It is easy to preach to or nag a young
child until he becomes either a hypocrite or a
coward, or to punish so severely as to make him
an accomplished liar. But few, if any, can with-
stand the warm, sunny influence of a kind and
SELFISHNESS. 65
truthful home or school. There are times when
it becomes necessary to punish falsehood ; but
it is well to know first what is in the child's
mind before doing it. A kind, sympathetic talk
with him will often reveal ideas or deductions
unsuspected by the adult mind, which show a
conscience void of offense. Surely it is worth
the trouble.
On the other hand, many a young schemer
is most artful in his attempts to deceive. It is
most important that this type of child should
not be allowed to escape the teachers' or the
parents' vigilance. It is he that swells the
mournful army of swindlers and defaulters
found in the various avenues of business.
We place many obstacles in the cliild's way.
The deceptions of social and business life,
the daily insincerities which the average person
practices almost unconsciously, all these puzzle
and bewilder the immature mind. Surely we
who provide these conditions should be fair,
and act as truthfully as we would have him do.
Selfishness.
Selfishness in the young child is merely the
instinct of self-preservation which he shares in
66 THE POINT OF VIEW.
common with other animals. At first it is per-
fectly right and natural; he grows out of it
gradually as the altruistic attributes of his na-
ture and feelings of sympathy begin to assert
themselves. Too strenuous and too early ef-
forts to teach him generosity, self-denial, and
the like, react dangerously later on. His at-
tempts in this direction should be few and sim-
ple, at first, and of such a nature as to give him
pleasure. To illustrate: A short time ago a
neighbor's little son reached his fifth birthday.
An aunt sent him a small, heart-shaped box of
bon-bons. In the afternoon a few friends
called. "Pass your pretty candies to the ladies,"
said his mother, with the result that only two
poor little gum drops were left in the box. Now
don't you think this was a hard lesson for the
average boy? His mother wished him to grow
up a noble, unselfish man. What do you .think
of her methods? Is she likely to succeed in her
effort?
The Christian religion sometimes requires us
to give up all we hold dear ; but we rarely meet
this demand cheerfully at five. The average
child loves to share his possessions occasion-
ally ; let him begin by doing so in small meas-
FIGHTING. 67
ure, at first — so small that his sense of loss or
deprivation is counterbalanced by the sjrmpa-
thetic pleasure he feels — until the altruistic na-
ture begins to assert itself.
Fighting.
Reference has been made to the instinct of
self-preservation. This shows itself in various
ways. At a very early age the child tries to
defend himself, to protect his property, or to
acquire something which instinct teaches him is
desirable, and he does it by means of the only
weapons known to him — ^his teeth, hands, and
feet — ^he fights. Remember, he is yet only a
little animal and seeks to preserve himself as
other animals do. This is, therefore, a per-
fectly normal effort in line with all the instincts
which preserve animal life from extinction. The
child must pass through this stage. Nations
have not yet passed beyond it. If he is arrested
in it he will go through life a brute. Repugnant
as it may be to our feelings the child must be
allowed this experience. It is necessary to his
moral growth; it is the natural and healthy
foundation of the mental and moral struggle
70 THE POINT OP VIEW.
istic teaching of the New Testament for the
period of adolescence when the altruistic quali-
ties become active.
Reference to literature is made in this con-
nection merely to show why the child prefers
stories of conflict at this age. If this craving
is indulged judiciously, and he is allowed to
fight, when he believes he is fighting for jus-
tice and right, he passes through this stage of
development safely, and is stronger and more
wholesome for the experience. It is well, per-
haps, that nature asserts herself so vigorously
in this matter that the average boy follows her
promptings in spite of the maternal dictum that
"no matter what happens, little son mustn't
fight."
After many years spent in the school room,
the writer can recall but one instance in which
a mother succeeded in enforcing this command
literally and absolutely, and is thankful that
she can recall no more. The victim, when
she first met him, was a boy of fourteen,
very tall, well proportioned, with excellent fea-
tures and good coloring, gentlemanly. in man-
ner, the pleasing effect of which was somewhat
marred by a general limpness, both mental and
FIGHTING. n
physical, which was at once explained when,
after some indignity offered by smaller boys,
the mother explained, "My son is preparing
for the ministry ; no matter what the boys do
to him, he cannot fight, he has never struck any-
one in his life." In vain the teacher pleaded
for a saner and more logical treatment. The
result may be imagined. As the others
learned the situation, George became the butt
of the school. Every indignity was offered
which ingenuity could invent, and at the close
of each session he generally ran across th\>
fields followed by a crowd of nimble tormen-
ters. Years have passed and iGeorge is now a
man, probably in the ministry, and it would
be interesting to know how well the dignity of
the church militant is maintained by one who
was never allowed to assert and defend his
own.
Then, too, it must be remembered that boys
do very much of their fighting simply to deter-
mine which is the better man ; they are living
in the period of conquest. The principal of the
Grand Rapids Ungraded School reports an al-
most total cessation of street fights since the
boys are allowed to box during the last fifteen
to thirty minutes on Friday afternoon.
72 THE POINT OP VIEW.
VI.
WHAT THE CHILD SHOULD LEARN.
(Continued.)
It has already been suggested that for the
good of the nation, as well as the individ-
ual, children ought not to enter the school
room before completing the eleventh year. It
seems absurd to most readers to make a
statement so directly opposed to the prevail-
ing opinion. Emigration brings to our shores
thousands of children whose first and only
lessons in good citizenship are gained in
the public schools during infancy or early child-
hood ; then, there are other thousands of native
born parents whose indifference, lack of prep-
aration, of opportunity, or of money, renders
them unfit or unable to assume the elementary
education of their children. There is also the
youthful army of bread-winners, whom stern
necessity forces into our industrial life so
early that they must attend school during
childhood, if at all; and there, too, is the un-
fortunate only child whose early experience
EDUCATIONAL VALUES. 73
in community life is gained almost entirely
from the same source. Earnest and fair-minded
parents entertain a wholesome fear of defects
in education which may handicap their children
in the "competitive examinations" which await
them in every comer of the business world.
It may be, therefore, that the contents of this
chapter will be taken with many misgivings
as to their common sense. Its suggestions
must be modified and adapted to the environ-
ment of each individual child, if they shall
prove of any value.
Ideal conditions surround the child when it
feels the blessed influences of an intelligent and
loving home. But these conditions are too sel-
dom realized ; so it comes to pass that the pub-
lic school with all its imperfections becomes the
chief instrumentality in the moulding and
leavening process which converts the embryo
anarchist into a loyal citizen, and imparts hope
and intelligence to that great mass of human-
ity which, deprived of its influences, must live
as the beast liveth. Most that can be done for
the following generation is to come from con-
sidering all the conditions. We must estimate
even the defects at their true value, and then
-6
74 THE POINT OP VIEW.
choose the best that each one's own peculiar
circumstances render possible; remembering
always that a blind adherence to any princi-
ple, however good, often defeats the end
sought.
Since present public opinion requires chil-
dren to attend school in their infancy, and since
the average parent is not in a position to ignore
this requirement without placing his children
at great disadvantage, it follows that all de-
sired change in the process of educating the
young must be brought about by degrees.
Under present conditions the child is almost
exclusively dominated by the feminine mind,
and as this state of things will, in all probabil-
ity, continue for some years, it becomes
woman's duty to fit herself for the task. Moth-
erhood will take on a higher and a'holier signifi-
cance as women learn better how to study
their children from the standpoint of science
as well as of sentiment. Sentiment is, of course,
a most important factor in child training, but
he who trusts to it entirely may be likened to a
builder who fashions his structure without
foundation or scaffolding.
EDUCATIONAL VALUES. 75
An accurate knowledge of conditions and a
true estimate of educational values are the
greatest needs of the average woman. Without
them we fail to recognize the relations of the
part to the whole, and thus many a fundamental
principle is ignored, many a defect disregarded,
because its importance to the perfection of the
structure is never suspected.
Take for illustration the universal in-
stinct of children to destroy — a disposition
prominently active at a certain stage of growth.
It has its place and value, but must in a short
time give place to another impulse. Failure to
understand that this is a mere animal impulse
is the cause of the unrestrained destruction of
trees and shrubs, the mutilation of fences and
buildings, long after this natural instinct
should have been arrested. The American is a
good natured soul, and sometimes too good-
natured. The damage may be trifling. "Boys
will be boys" parents say. They are indiffer-
ent, or ashamed to complain since popular sen-
timent is with the offender; so the child goes
on his way, and no one seems to connect the ut-
ter disregard of life and property in later
life with the pernicious, unchecked habit of
child life.
76 THE POINT OP VIEW.
Take another illustration. At five o'clock
all street cars are crowded. A mother enters
with a child for whom no fare will be paid,
5t being under ag^; the car becomes filled
to overflowing, but the child retains its seat
while some old person, perhaps, paying full
fare is obliged to stand. Who can say that this
may not be the first lesson in a long course of
training which eventually produces the bank
defaulter, or the cool, merciless speculator m
the necessities of life? Would this mother so
manifest her selfishness were she trained to see
the connection between the numberless petty
dishonesties of daily life, and the keen, system-
atic dishonesty which is practiced later? "It
is the little foxes that spoil the vines."
We send the child to the kindergarten at
four or five, and make the usual transition to
the primary room later. What the active young
body suffers from this "promotion" the adult
does not appreciate. Seated before a desk, de-
prived of natural unrestrained freedom, he is
suddenly put to the study of objects much
smaller than an5rthing previously considered by
him. Letters, figures, alphabet cards, and the
tjrpe of the ordinary reader are a severe tax
NUMBER WORK. 77
upon the strength and nervous energy of the
little fellow whose eyes, unaccustomed through
thousands of years of ancestral life to such ex-
ercise are now adapting their lenses slowly
(few realize how slowly) to the requirements
of civilized man. The great prevalence of
diseases of the eyes among school children in
later generations has a close connection with
the too rapid adaptation of the "muscles of
accommodation" to the work of the school.
Some of the present generation escape much
of the senseless thralldom of our last two or
three generations, for we are slowly growing
in knowledge.
The educational value placed upon the study
of numbers by the average school is out of all
proportion to its real worth. True the "devel-
opment" of the number two in the "baby
class" was no longer continued after the fact
was discovered that a canary bird knows the
difference between one lump of sugar and two,
and that the same remarkable perspicuity was
observed in the case of young puppies. Some
reckless individual, unknown to fame, hazarded
the opinion that the number two is known to
the child before he enters school. This settled
78 THE POINT OF VIEW.
it. Hereafter school work might begin with
"three." We are still giving the child much
that would come to him naturally if he were
allowed to wait until his mind was ready for it.
Aye, there's the rub, — "when the mind is
ready." Children must be kept off the street
five or six hours out of twenty-four. To do this
we must keep them busy.
The educational possibilities of manual
work and of gardening are known to but few
even of the educators. Their equipment costs
some money it is true, but not so much is
needed as some localities expend. The study
of arithmetic has a commercial value in the
eyes of the father — ^who earns two dol-
lars a day and has six children who must
early learn the secret of "getting on in the
world" — which surpasses that of manual train-
ing. Will money-making always compel us
to tear the bud open before it is ready to
bloom ? What the little learner needs is to see
the relations between things before he deals
with ideas. Let him play (or work) with
blocks until he knows beyond all possibility of
doubt how one-third or one-fifth of a thing
compares in size with the whole thing. Let
NUMBER WORK. 79
him learn this through the experiences of sight
and touch, and a little later his mind will grasp
the various combinations of numbers with a
freedom and power unknown to the child who
has juggled with figures until he is already a
mental dyspeptic.
But we are forgetting that "seventy-five per
cent of our pupils leave school at the comple-
tion of the fourth grade." Not so many as
that, but many. Yet the gamin, or the beggar
understands number to the extent of his neces-
sity, which is often far beyond the attainments
of the school-boy. What the child really needs
is to feel that number, thpugh abstract in itself,
is connected with all the material things of
life. So too of language; the sentence, or
clause, or connective, whose dead form he sees
laid out, as if for burial, on the pages of his
grammar, lives and moves and has its being in*
the thought and feeling of the warm, pulsing
myriads of human beings aroimd him. These
studies seem dry and hard because we give-
them to the child before they enter into his ex-
perience. We may sugar-coat them with at-
tractive devices and colored chalk but, nine
times out of ten, he is interested more in the
80 THE POINT OF VIEW.
novelty or play of colors, than in the mathe-
matical or grammatical facts they teach.
Sometimes the child spends his time in class
not in the search for truth so much as in trying
to discover what his teacher would have him
say. That is, he learns to follow the workings
of her mind rather than to develop the power
of independent thought. This is not the best
occupation for a human soul. It is, however,
an excellent training for a puppet who is to
spend its life either in the treadmill of fashion-
able society, or imprisoned in the shop or the
factory. It is not expected that a machine
shall think.
Parents often complain that their children
are "so dreamy" in school. We never get
nearer to heaven than in our day-dreams.
They lift us from the material to the real ; they
perfume the lump of clay ; they imbue the clod
with life ; they transform the cell into a palace ;
they expand the powers of the soul. In prepar-
ing the child for future bondage, if we must,
let us spare him the one gift that testifies to his
immortal lineage.
We are told that the public school does what
it is created to do when it trains the masses
EXPRESSION. 8 1
for useful and honorable citizenship by teach-
ing them reading, writing, and arithmetic. It
works for uniformity and exactness; it turns
out good book-keepers, alert tradesmen, care-
ful workmen. It is for the average child, not
the genius. (How would Shakespeare have
come through the treadmill of a public school ?
Probably he would have run away. Truancy
is not always crime.)
The private school is often sought as a relief
from this too severe training, and it is apt to
fall into the other extreme. School training, like
every other predetermined course of procedure,
has its Scylla and Charybdis. It is the fate of
nearly every virtue that it has its corresponding
vice, into which it may degenerate when the
part is mistaken for the whole. Formerly it
was thought that the commanding function of
the school was the gaining of information. To
know the mechanics of knowledge, — the pro-
cesses in arithmetic, the use of script letters in
writing, the ready pronunciation of the words
in reading — ^was the first thing to be taught,
and these were then to be used during the re-
mainder of the child's school days in gaining
the knowledge embodied in the text-books.
82 THE POINT OF VIEW.
Fill up the mind in school, as you would fill a
store-house with grain, to be used later as the
exigencies of life shall require. Nor has this
primitive notion gone out of the convictions of
men.
But modern education is declaring that the
first and last purpose of systematic instruction
in school is expression.
Since, then, expression is the business of life,
cultivation of the means of expression becomes
imperative. The artisan who best expresses
his thought in a bit of wood or metal is the
most successful. This is true of the artist with
his brush or of the writer with his pen ; in fact it
holds good in any of the seven modes of expres-
sion employed by man. The highest mode is
language, spoken or written. The ability to
communicate with one's fellow, is, perhaps,
man's greatest gift, and when it is considered
that, at first, a few sounds expressive of hun-
ger, cold, satisfaction, and the like, comprised
his entire vocabulary, that no word was ever
formed or used by him until some need or
emotion forced its utterance, we will begin to
understand that language grows as the soul
grows, and that no one is prompted to speak or
EXPRESSION. 83
write until he has something to say. If this be
true it would follow logically that no child
should be expected to talk or write except un-
der the impulse of interest.
If language is the expression of thought,
then one cannot exist without the other, and
each must, in turn, react upon and develop its
complement; so the child must be given sub-
jects of interest to him in his life rather than
ours, and he will then express himself readily
enough.
We must remember that man talked a long
time before he began to write. The child fol-
lows to some degree the order of development
of the race. The average city child or, at
least, the average city boy, possesses three lan-
guages — ^that of the home, of the street, and a
third, a restricted and stilted tongue by which
he tries to give utterance to what he thinks the
teacher wishes him to say, and from which he
seldom lapses in her presence save when some
emotion surprises him into naturalness. It is
generally conceded that the structure of the
child's language is fixed during his earliest
years; some going so far as to say that his
forms of speech are fixed before he is five years
84 THE POINT OF VIEW.
old. Of course, in doing this he imitates
the language he hears. No other course is
possible to him. Perhaps this is the reason
why people of wealth and refinement place
their children in the care of nurse maids who,
generally speaking, are unable to construct an
English sentence correctly! We are fond of
saying that the age of fetish worship is long
past, but the fetish is still with us. This must
be so, else we could not permit the child to
form the most careless habits of speech, and
then place him in the charmed atmosphere of
the school room, resting in the belief that the
teacher with her educational sponge can wipe
off all the indelible impressions that habit
and environment have graven with a pen of
iron upon the infant mind.
Alcott says "Man does only what he
chooses." It is equally true that man always
lives up to what he really believes. It is a
question whether he can ever lie to himself,
however much he may try to do so. If, for in-
stance, you and I really believed that certain
early influences made or marred the child's fu-
ture usefulness to such a degree that all later
effort could only modify, never entirely eradi-
IMITATION. 8s
cate the evil, that the wounds when healed left
a most ugly scar, would we dream of submit-
ting the child to conditions we now regard
with indifference simply because we entertain
the erroneous idea that the young mind is a
slate from which all habits may be washed at
will?
It has been already suggested that imitation
is a powerful factor in education. Few per-
sons, if any, learn to speak correctly through
a study of grammatical rules. They are valu-
able as a preliminary exercise in logic, as an
aid to acquiring a foreign language, or in set-
tling knotty questions in the construction of
one's own ; but the child speaks what he hears.
If he is surrounded by cultivated people their
speech is his by imitation, and this is equally
true when the conditions are reversed. People
who have read and studied very little will speak
and write with habitual correctness and ele-
gance if they have always enjoyed the society
of good models, and it is only when some un-
usual and rare construction comes up that their
ignorance of S3mtax becomes apparent. Of
course, any young child is apt at first to say
"I done," or "It is broke," or "I seen," etc.,
86 THE POINT OF VIEW.
but if pains are taken to make him use the cor-
rect forms a few times each day, he will soon
employ them habitually; not because he knows
any reason for doing so, but simply because
his memory will remind his tongue and by and
by he learns to speak correctly as he would
learn a tune. Imitation, training, habit — ^these
seem to be the whole secret of early language
training, and many teachers make note of the
most objectionable errors of their pupils and
give frequent practice in the correct forms.
This is particularly effective in treating the
mistakes peculiar to the locality. Suppose, for
example, that the children in a district are ac-
customed to say "trim" for thrown; the sim-
ple devices of leading the pupils to make up lit-
tle stories, employing the correct forms of these
words, using only the odd moments when one
is waiting for the recess, or the class gong, has
an educational value that cannot be estimated.
In time the exercises may be so varied and so
skillfully conducted as to modify the speech of
an entire neighborhood.
Then, too, there is the influence of good liter-
ature which awakens a lively interest. A child
can read and appreciate a book, which one
READING. 87
would think far beyond his attainments, pro-
vided the matter interests him. The fact that
he does not know many of the words does not
seem to deaden the interest nor to mar the ef-
fect upon his language, and as he grows older
these words return to him with their true
meaning, particularly if he is allowed to read
the same book many times. Without doubt
many children do too much desultory reading
at too early an age. There is a time when this
is necessary, but until he is well on toward his
teens it would seem better to read and re-read
a few books thoroughly than to swallow like a
cormorant many books, though they may be
good literature. It is well to give him early a
few good models with which to lay the founda-
tion of his language. Later he reads omniv-
orously, not for structure, but for information.
The two processes should never be confounded
or one mistaken for the other. (This opinion,
however, is controverted by many excellent
teachers.)
It is a common error to explain every word
the child reads. If assistance is given, it
should only be that which will bring the child
into S)rmpathetic touch with what he is read-
88 THE POINT OF VIEW.
ing. Suppose, for instance, he has Whittier's
Snowbound — any narrative or incident show-
ing the severity of a New England winter, the
depth of a fall of snow in that locality, the
simple comfort and family joys of old-fash-
ioned country life, would be in order. It is of
no consequence whether he can or cannot spell
and define all the words in the poem or draw a
correct copy of the andirons, or produce a sil-
houette of the cat generally found in the illus-
tration on a certain page. What shall it profit
a child if he learns the whole poem by heart un-
less he understands and is in harmony with the
environment of the scene; unless the beauty
of its picture pervades and enlarges his mental
vision and arouses his sympathy?
The mission of good literature is just this^
and if, by any means, he fails to catch its real
lesson, then he may gain an abundance of
ideas and facts but miss the growth and expan-
sion of soul which is the real object of all good
literature. So let the child brood over a few
good books if he will, never meddling or help-
ing except in the way indicated, and not doing
this unnecessarily. He will be stronger and
better for this silent uninterrupted communion
COMPOSITION. 89
with his book or, rather, with the people he
comes to know there. There is an old adage :
"Beware of the man of one book." Oliver
Cromwell was one of these men of one book.
His was the Bible, and he gave liberty of con-
science to England.
The root of a plant grows in the darkness;
the process of development is not carried on be-
fore the curious eye. What would happen if
the plant were dug up occasionally that we
might note the increasing length of the fibres,
or, better still,; that we might watch them
grow ? We seem to understand plant life better
than our own.
The child must write, the school says, write
unceasingly, whether he has an3rthing to write
about or not. But a wiser injunction is, "First
the blade, then the ear, after that the full corn
in the ear." "First the ear," the school says ;
no wonder that the full corn is lacking.
Man took ages to develop oral speech. The
little child should do an immense amount of
talking before he begins to express himself in
writing. This is the time in which the ear should
be cultivated — something almost forgotten in
the school. The young writer cannot give
—7
90 THE POINT OF VIEW.
attention to form at the same moment that he
is supposed to be writing from impulse. He
cannot kindle the celestial fire and while it
burns write to margin with ink and pen and
dot his i's and cross his t's and slant all his let-
ters according to rule. Look at the manu-
scripts of our famous authors; not all were
able to attain excellence in mechanical form
while burning with great thoughts. But some
seem to think the child must do all this from
the start, when both form and substance are
new to him.
This idea is hoary with age, but modern
methods are better. They recognize that di-
vided attention by young children is fatal to
progress. From the child's experience in learn-
ing to talk, we should direct his experience in
learning to write. He learns to talk by practice
in talking; he must learn to write by practice
in writing. In writing — ^by which is meant
graphic expression of thought — ^the child's at-
tention must be held to what he wishes to say
and the hand must obey the impulse of the
mind, as the tongue obeys the impulse of the
mind in learning to talk. The child would
never learn to talk by first making a phonic
COMPOSITION. 91
synthesis of each word. In writing he simply
draws the form of the word that is in his mind.
It may lack some letters and other things, but
the muscles of his fingers draw it as the muscles
of his vocal organs formed his first words — ^by
imitation. Drill in perfecting this form is a
separate school exercise, not to be confused with
writing, any more than a phonic drill is to be
confused with talking. Soft, unsized paper, a
lead pencil not too short, nor too hard, and well
sharpened, are needed to lure the youthful t)rro
into this avenue of expression. Later the rocks
and sharp stones will not appear so formidable ;
but at first he should see only the smooth, in-
viting sand. Oddly enough this figure carries
one back to primitive times when children
in many a dame's school took their first
writing lesson in large boxes of fine sand. The
characters they made were large and did not
strain the eye, but cultivated the necessary free-
dom of the arm. "How crude," we say, yet we
have nothing today that satisfactorily takes the
place of that obsolete box of sand. Children
love to write in this way. Perhaps our early
ancestors did the same in the first stages of this
art, and the child thus repeats the experiences
of the race.
92 THE POINT OF VIEW.
Time was, also, when our forefathers gained
from myths their first noions of justice, truth,
and honor. Vague, imaginative, living close
to nature, their dawning emotions could find
utterance in no other channel. All that the race
felt of love and virtue was transmitted in
this way. The little child must travel the same
road. Why not allow him to ride in the same
easy, comfortable conveyance that the young of
all ages have been carried in? Later he must
walk, of course, but he will be stronger because
of the myth and fairy tale. His crude ideas of
justice are satisfied when the wicked giant or
the cruel witch is punished, when the good king
is rewarded, or the fair maiden restored to her
friends.
Suppose the child could start in life from
our commercial point of view, what would he
be when a man? Hard and dry as a nut, with-
out imagination, enthusiasm or ideals. Heaven
preserve the child's soul from an exclusive diet
of facts. He needs facts to be sure, but he
needs ideals and images of beauty to direct the
use of his facts. One cannot tie the mind to a
little circuit of facts, as he would tether a cow,
and escape Gradgrind's disaster. Such treat-
LITERATURE. 93
ment is proper for the cow, but not for a
growing, aspiring human soul. Then give him
the beautiful m3rths he loves; let him love
Santa Claus. His childish heart will respond
to all these pictures of nobleness and sacrifice.
Later they fade away and are relegated to the
background as pretty fancies, perhaps, but
their impressions remain. He has grown out
of them, cast them aside, but, like the rudiment-
ary organs of the body, they form the founda-
tions upon which his present ideas of justice
and virtue are built. As the tadpole, deprived
of its tail, fails as a frog to develop the hind
legs, so surely does a human soul deprived of
the nourishment proper to each period, fail in
realizing his own native possibilities.
One does not feed a babe on meat. The
Old Testament teachers understood this fact.
It is probable that their pupils did not cavil
about the size of the whale's throat, or ques-
tion whether or not the sun could stand still.
The thought of God's love was brought home
in a way that would best appeal to them in
their stage of development. Perhaps they un-
derstood the figurative language of the East
better than we, but the lesson was taught, the
94 THE POINT OF VIEW.
truth implanted. We in a more advanced age
may criticise as we will the means used; but
the impression was made, its vehicle has per-
formed its task as no other could in that time
and age. All along the road the child gives
outward and visible signs of this repetition of
his race's experience, in his occupations; his
games ; his reading ; his interest in bead work,
weaving, basketry, and pottery; and his desire
to learn of primitive peoples.
Later in the fifth to seventh grades, there are
reasons why he does not like to sing. There i6,
of course, change of voice in boys with its ac-
companying self -consciousness ; but greater
than all is the fact that he does not get the right
kind of songs. He is in the soldier stage and
craves martial music. Try a boy with chang-
ing voice on whistling popular airs. Cultivate
rh3rthm, by the use of the bones, drum, clappers
to accompany the piano. This craving for
rhythm sends our boy to clog dances.
After change of voice the boy who sang air
is suddenly dropped to the harmony and, at the
same time, to the adjustment of a strange
voice. Songs in unison should therefore be
alternated with harmonized melodies. There
MUSIC. 95
is right here a comparatively untried field for
composers in the setting of songs that will
give the boy-tenors and basses the melody,
while the soprano and alto voices take the har-
mony.
96 THE POINT OF VIEW.
VII.
INFLUENCES.
THE fundamental aim in all education is
the realization of true family life. The civ-
ilization of every people is measured by
this standard. Human greatness has its rise in
the home. No man has ever attained distinc-
tion in any field of thought or industry whose
early years have not been blessed with some
enjoyment of home life. He may have been an
orphan or been bom in poverty, but some ex-
perience of home has crept into his lonely life.
If man sprang into existence full grown, ready
for all the emergencies and experiences of life,
there would be no family ties; the joys and
griefs and discipline of parenthood and child-
hood would be unknown. All the loving care,
the self-sacrifice, the forbearance, which have
been slowly evolved through the long, long
evolution of the race, would be unknown, and
we would have no more sense of kindred than
INFLUENCES. 97
a chicken or a cat. The intelligence of animals
is in proportion to the length of their infancy.
Man, the highest type of animal, is the most
helpless of all creatures at birth. The ever in-
creasing experiences of each generation send
each succeeding man into the world with a
larger number of brain cells. The greater the
number of these, the longer he remains an in-
fant. If it were possible for man to materially
shorten his period of infancy the result would
not be so beneficial as he sometimes imagines.
The two great necessities of the home are
love and a certain degree of seclusion or ex-
clusiveness. A too public life dissipates the
affections. To love God and one's neighbor
requires frequent and close communion. Man
is not prepared for either imtil he has learned
the alphabet of love in the home, where he mas-
ters it a few letters at a time. A may be a little
poodle, B a ragged doll ; each succeeding letter
will mark a higher experience. Formerly man's
safety depended upon the seclusion of his
home, and now that he has passed beyond the
need of mere physical protection the growing
soul demands a similar seclusion. The young
child suffers from too early exposure. The
98 THE POINT OF VIEW.
boarding house and the restaurant work seri-
ous injury to him. The removal of the front
fence, insignificant as it seems, is performing
its part in destroying the home feeling, for
now a seat upon the front porch means partici-
pation in the life of the street. The flat, the
hotel, and the restaurant are blessings to those
for whom they were originally intended; but
the little child does not gain there that sense of
personal responsibility and of loving sympathy,
nor experience the thousand little homely joys
and privileges which may be his in the humblest
cottage. These public houses have an expan-
siveness, a sense of publicity, to which the
young child should not be compelled to adapt
himself. Even the adult needs repeated with-
drawal into the privacy of the home.
Ever3rthing that tends to multiply the simple
joys of family life is distinctively educative
and helpful. The Christmas Tree and the birth-
day cake do more than the spelling book to
make the child a useful, happy man ; not that
we love the speller less, but the child more.
The whole subject resolves itself into a ques-
tion of values. Education means the ability to
estimate truly the great and small things of
INFLUENCES. 90
life, to note the connection of each to the whole
and to place each in its proper relations.
The good, hot, Sunday dinner eaten by the
poor laborer in his own kitchen, in the society
of wife and children, is distinctively educative.
Perhaps this is a materialistic view, but we
must pass through the lower into the higher,
for this is the law of growth. "If man love
not his brother whom he hath seen, how can
he love God whom he hath not seen?"
It follows, then, that the home should be a
place of rest, of repose, of love. Handsome
rooms are not needed, in fact, walls covered
with pictures, and shelves with bric-a-brac are
often a distinctive drawback to spiritual and
mental growth, the general impression being
that of confusion. Simple, homely comfort
seems to be the better influence; a pretty bed-
room to which friends may be invited may keep
the boy from wandering, while an open grate
fire and a comfortable arm chair often have the
same influence upon the father. Some years
ago a certain old theatre in New York was es-
pecially popular with business and professional
men. Neither the plays nor the settings were
better than those of other houses, yet men could
loo THE POINT OF VIEW.
attend there when too tired or too dull to go
elsewhere. At length the house was remodeled
and then the charm was gone. A certain
length of seat had afforded a peculiarly com-
fortable rest for the long thigh bone ; this had
proved the irresistible attraction. Perhaps
builders of churches would do well to heed the
suggestion.
Fox terriers are prone to seek different
homes; it is a characteristic of the breed. A
friend of mine remarked that hers had never
done so and probably never would. "How do
you manage?'' asked one. "It's easy," she re-
plied, "I try to make him very welcome when
he comes back from an outing." The kindly
pat on the head, and "Good old doggie" from
each member of the family always awaited
him, and he knew it. Human animals are
amenable to the same influences.
One can never estimate fully the effect of
environment. For example, how would
"Snowbound" have gotten itself written in a
modern flat with all the appliances of steam
and electricity? And this leads me to repeat
what I have said before — ^that we are not al-
ways mindful of the difficulties young people
INFLUENCES. loi
sometimes encounter in their study of litera-
ture. Many a boy in the eighth grade to-day
has never seen a shepherd, or a genuine old
fire-place; many more are growing up who
have never seen a lamp. Can mere verbal ref-
erence to these things recall to them the same
picture that comes to you and to me? This is
a world of change. In another century the
child may find similar difficulty in understand-
ing an allusion to the horse and buggy.
Fun is essential to a happy home or a good
school. Few situations exist in the ordinary
routine of daily life that do not present some
element of humor, and the child should be en-
couraged to look for this. Muddy coffee and
tough steak for breakfast are not especially
appetizing or agreeable, but it is not always
possible to avoid them; while a good hearty
laugh may render their assimilation easier.
Habitual cheerfulness is spontaneous only in
perfect health, but the confirmed invalid may
attain unto it^ for it is contagious. The most
dejected and wretched of human beings are
made less wretched by the effort to be cheerful.
It is often wise to assume a gentle courtesy
and good nature that are not spontaneous. The
102 THE POINT OF VIEW.
form stimulates the growth of the virtue, ex-
cept in hypocrites. Every well-meaning effort
to be cheerful promotes the growth of cheer-
fulness. The virtue grows by what it feeds
upon.
Christian philosophy differs fundamentally
from that of Herbert Spencer, but the church
owes him a debt of gratitude, in that he has
helped to show that man cannot be educated in
sections. Nor are the three R's deemed suffi-
cient for the most meager preparation for liv-
ing; the school is now interested in the three
H's — ^head, heart, and hand. The visible re-
sult is the present strong trend toward all
kind of training for the hand, and toward
music, literature, and good behavior for the
heart. This is the most notable mark of mod-
em education.
UNION OP SCHOOI, AND HOM^.
When once this co-operation fairly sets in
there will be an improvement in the education
of children beyond the realization of our fond-
est dreams. Mothers will then regard their
children from the standpoint of science as well
as from that of sentiment. It will then be seen
INFLUENCES. 103
that the suffering children are not found exclu-
sively among the very poor. The power of
self-control now sadly lacking in the present
generation, will be regained when we begin to
realize that concentration must begin in the
home in early childhood. It cannot exist in an
atmosphere of excitement and unrest. The
■child who has a superabundance of toys and
books, who goes ever3rwhere and is constantly
•on the alert for some new pleasure, cannot
learn it This power comes slowly, a certain
degree of repose being necessary to its growth.
The present facilities for rapid transit, the tele-
phone and many other inventions so conducive
to our comfort and convenience, encourage a
diversity of activity and experience not favor-
able to repose. We cannot get away from
them, but their influence may be greatly modi-
fied when parent and teacher shall study such
problems together. The young child is incapa-
ble of concentrating its attention for long,
tut that ability increases with judicious exer-
cise. The simple life and daily recurring duties
of the homes of the first half of the last century
were more favorable to this needed repose.
104 THE POINT OF VIEW.
Intelligent experiment in the nursery will do
much to aid the primary teacher in determin-
ing the length and character of her various exer-
cises, and will emphasize the necessity for more
frequent rest periods; while the mother who
now complains that her eight-year-old daughter
"lacks concentration" will know that this power
must be nurtured in the home before the child
enters school, and that even under the most
favorable conditions not much can be expected.
Few of us see the child as he really is. This is
particularly true of the boy whom one mother
regards as a sort of athletic girl, while the
mother of high ideals and sensitive tempera-
ment often does him incalculable injury by her
anal)rtic, anxious study of his physical and
moral symptoms. The boy is bathed, washed,
dosed, read to, dissected, lectured and prayed
with until he becomes a canting little hypocrite,
a callous young sinner, or a morbid, shrinking,
over-conscientious creature with small realiza-
tion of his birthright of a happy wholesome
childhood. No one needs Divine guidance more
than the teacher, but we ought to study God's
plan as set forth in his works. We might im-
prove our definition of prayer. Emerson would
help us.
INFLUENCES. 105
The school is apt to expend its energy in
teaching abstract knowledge. What the child
thus acquires, he sees through a glass darkly.
His great, perhaps greatest, school need is
wholesome, interesting occupation for hours
out of school. A few flower seeds, some bits of
wood and a set of carving tools, a chest of car-
penters' tools may save him from perdition, if
they come at the right time. We wait too long
— until after he has formed other tastes. A
child in the second or third grade is interested
in growing flowers, in carrying soil in his cart,
in gathering bits of paper on the lawn with his
broom handle, into the end of which he has
driven a long nail for a spike — anything, in
fact, which will employ his restless muscles in
useful ways, and these interests continue with-
out flagging through the fourth grade ; but in
the fifth grade there is a change. Pupils here
show little interest in these occupations unless
they have already learned to love them, and in
the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades they look
with a sort of elevated toleration upon those
who seem to like this sort of thing. They have
acquired other tastes.
io6 THE POINT OF VIEW.
The inability to employ leisure moments to
advantage pervades all classes of society. It
impels the rich to all manner of excesses, while
the poor take to the saloon or the street comer.
Both classes are suffering the punishment of
empty-mindedness. Some years ago a prosper-
ous Australian city became able to pay its work-
ing men better wages. Certain business firms
made it easy for their employes to support their
families comfortably by working but little more
than half a day. The released laborer took to
drink, became idle, quarrelsome, and obnox-
ious ; the women, too, grew discontented. They
neglected their homes, complained of their large
families, and tried to imitate the selfish idleness
of the wealthier classes. They followed the
only course open to them. It is probable that
this experience would be repeated in every city
in many individual cases.
Every child loves to do something; let us
make that something educative. Some will
collect insects or gather fossils and beautiful
stones, while others are interested in the habits
of fish or birds. Noted naturalists have been
created in this way, and a man whom we all
know has become eminent through a collection
INFLUENCES. 107
of weeds which he commenced in early boy-
hood. No outlay of money is needed for this
sort of work; in fact, interest generally de-
clines in the ratio that expensive outfits are pro-
vided. The chief requirement is a wise and
sympathetic mother and teacher, not afraid of
toads and snakes; one who says little but
helps much ; one who does not show displeas-
ure at a little dirt and can, if necessary, assist
the boy in his various undertakings. Agas-
siz's mother helped him dig the receptacles for
the fish he so loved, and this community of in-
terest in his early childhood formed a tie which
lasted during life. Who can say how much of
future greatness has had its rise in this whole-
some companionship and direction of early
childhood ?
It is suggested above that a simple outfit,
that meets all requirements, is better than a
more elaborate one. A boy likes something
that he has made or provided for himself, some-
thing he is not afraid of spoiling. A common
glass fruit jar makes a fine aquarium, and
much is gained if he is invited to bring his
treasure to school as an adornment for the win-
dow sill. It is here that the home and the
1 08 THE POINT OF VIEW.
school have much in common; a judicious
hint from the mother may be followed by en-
couragement of some particular taste which
needed only this influence to develop and
strengthen, it, while the teacher, in her turn,
may be able to make many valuable suggestions
from her point of view. The child at school is
generally a far different being from the child
at home — often better, sometimes worse — ^but
he is rarely the same in both places. This dual
existence is a distressing fact, seldom under-
stood, but it suggests a fruitful field of study.
Another advantage of this co-operation is
the change of views and opinions that is sure
to result on* both sides. Children often evince
interests and tendencies which seem evidences
of unusual talent to the eyes of maternal affec-
tion, but when the child works daily with
thirty or forty others of the same age, in the
same environment, many an intelligent mother
has been surprised to find that the darling who
appeared so brilliant at home is not the star of
his class but is merely a good average. Nothing
is so helpful in correcting false impressions of
this kind as comparison, and a kind-hearted
teacher can offer many helpful suggestions.
INFLUENCES. 109
This is particularly true when she is asked (as
she often is) to name the child's leading ten-
dency or interest, or to state what she thinks
the child will be best fitted for when a man.
This is always a hard question for the conscien-
tious teacher. Only tact and perfect truthful-
ness will keep her in the right path. Few
children show strongly marked and continuous
tastes in early childhood. They generally
evince a variety of tendencies, a desire to flit
from one interest to another. This is perfectly
normal as this is the period of budding inter-
ests, and only a strong and constantly recurring
interest should be taken seriously.
Then there is the period of puberty when
lassitude makes physical exertion painful. The
boy may find in books the path of least resist-
ance. His physical condition is mistaken for
an awakened love of study. We think our hero
entering upon a professional career, when, in
fact, his body is developing so fast that he has
no energy for the voluntary muscles.
Parents who have grown weary with toil
look up to professional life as an opportunity
for elegant leisure, and they insist upon thrust-
ing their children into it without regard to
no THE POINT OF VIEW.
their fitness or choice. This sort of thing
will continue until all classes of society form
truer ideals. It is vain to talk of the dignity
of menial toil, so long as wealth continues in-
solent and overbearing toward the toiler. No
one is so quick to see the real estimate placed
upon labor as the laborer himself. If he is
ignorant he accepts the standard which money
sets up. If intelligent, he protests and is un-
happy. His family strives to follow the lead
of wealth in its expenditures, with the result
that his expenses exceed his income, thus ren-
dering life false to its very core.
There is a wide difference between drudgery
and intelligent labor — ^labor with brains behind
it. Many people whose lives are spent in a
nerve-wrecking struggle to appear what they
are not, would be glad to live plainly and simply
within their incomes if they could only know
that inexpensive raiment, and an imf ashionable
domicile did not consign their children and
themselves to social oblivion ; that culture and
intelligence do not count. Many a young
woman would exchange the comfortless factory
or merchant's counter for a cosy kitchen, if shp
could feel that the brain power put into scien-
INFLUENCES. m
tific house-work was respected equally with
that which writes books or conducts a busi-
ness.
Co-operative study of parents and teachers
will emphasize the necessity of independent
effort on the part of the child, and of drill to
secure facility.
By a wrong use of this developing method
of teaching, the inductive method has been
misapplied, until the average child waits to
have his work done for him; I mean the
work that he should do for himself. The
joy of conquest is rarely his. This is a great
wrong, for the normally developed child loves
to wrestle, mentally as well as physically, and
one of the keenest and most wholesome pleas-
ures he can ever know is the satisfaction that
always follows a conflict in which he has come,
off victor. Two-thirds of the fighting in which
boys indulge is for the purpose of deciding
superiority in courage, or strength, or skill.
Tact can turn this desire for conquest into the
field of mental effort, and the boy will gain
pleasure in fighting the problems he meets in
his daily work. How can he better learn to
fig^ht his own besetting sins than by the persist-
112 THE POINT OF VIEW.
ent exercise of a self -initiative in mastering his
tasks?
Then, too, we love to do that which we can
do well. It may be that no one engages in
work of any kind merely for the pleasure of
the work, but as skill comes his joy in the exe-
cution increases. Skill comes only with repeti-
tion. We find in ourselves aptitudes for some
particular kinds of work, but even these must
be trained. He must have practice, repetition ;
and the experience that comes from this will
make our enjoyment complete. The young per-
son of to-day is a comparative stranger to this
enjoyment. He has a restless sort of interest
when he has any, but persistent concentration
upon one thing until it is well done is rare As
the time draws near for him to leave school he
ought to be familiar with the joy of conquest
which comes from independent and sustained
conflict.
The artisan of to-day has lost a great incen-
tive and pleasure in that he seldom sees his work
grow under his hands to a complete whole.
The tailor of old found a joy in the completed
coat. That is unknown to the workman in the
factory engaged, day after day, in working to
INFLUENCES. 113
the finish some particular part of the garment
only. The former system had an educational
value, while the other is merely a mechanical,
soul-killing grind. No wonder that the victim
of these unhappy conditions flies to the billiard
table, the saloon, the theatre, as soon as the
evening comes. Every cell of his body is cry-
ing out for a change, and dissipation is the only
relief which society has provided from the dead-
ening monotony of the day's work. Is the
fault his or ours? In what degree are we pre-
paring the children to resist such a fate? We
condemn intemperance, and assail high heaven
with our prayers, while we ignore the effects of
food, the forming of intemperate habits of feel-
ing and conduct, the evils of social dissipation,
and when the mischief is done, we run about
seeking to reform our victims. Surely we, the
parents and teachers, are to blame for the bend-
ing of the twig that makes the crooked tree.
The fullest answer that can come from prayer
is the impulse to supply an environment for the
child that will lead him toward a good stand-
ard of life at every step. God gives every bird
its food, but does not drop it into the bird's
mouth. We sometimes look to the clouds for
help when the aid we seek is within us.
114 THE POINT OF VIEW.
Another matter for co-operative study is that
of amusements. How much and how little may
the growing child have? What amusements
are suited to each age? — ^their relative value? —
their use and abuse? Temperament, health,
and social conditions all have their bearing on
this important topic. What someone calls the
"principle of innoculation" can be often ap-
plied to advantage. It is impossible to vacci-
nate the child with certain amusements and
pastimes innocent in themselves — but made in-
struments of evil by some in later life — at the
age he craves them, in such a way that, al-
though he may take to them violently for a
time, he will recover and become indifferent to
them before he is grown.
Another subject for co-operative considera-
tion is that of promotions. Complaint is often
heard that the teacher "crowds the pupil,"
"crams him," "pushes him on before he is
ready." But the parent is often to blame in
this matter. When the child has not done the
work who is it that begs and implores the
teacher to give him a condition, even when
the child is in poor health and absolutely unfit
for any great mental effort? And the reasons
INFLUENCES. 115
given for the request — "J^hn feels so bad!"
"All his plasrmates have gone into a higher
room;" "He is the tallest boy in his class;"
"His father promised him a gold watch if he
went up at the end of the term." Frequent
meetings of mothers and teachers would show
up this matter in its true light. The class spirit
is a valuable asset in the school, and chagrin
and mortification are serious drawbacks which
should be eliminated from the child's life as
much as possible ; but a little study of the con-
ditions and work will provide the parent with
higher and more humane reasons for desiring
promotion, while the teacher may gain a more
S3rmpathetic insight into the mental and physi-
cal conditions of the home. Inflexible courses
of study and the same promotion tests for all
classes of pupils have many sins recorded
against them.
ii6 THE POINT OF VIEW.
VIII
INFLUENCES.
Continued,
THE question of athletics for girls de-
mands serious consideration. Twenty-
five years of its study and practice
have transformed the once delicate American
girl into a Diana. • Her mental and physical
improvement is admitted, but in view of
woman's maternal functions, may not muscu-
lar development be carried too far? It is not
best that all muscles should be like iron. Ob-
serve the physical exercises given to girls in
their teens — ^the kneeling, bending, posing,
and many others. To put a group of thirty or
forty girls and boys through this every day
without the slightest reference to individual
conditions or sex is unwise. The spiritual con-
trol of the physical body resulting in grace of
movement and instant response to the will is
education ; but girls have no call to be athletes.
INFLUENCES. 117
Few of us realize as we ought the value of
short and frequent rest periods. Every girl
should be trained in this art from early child-
hood. The ability to lie prone upon the back
for a few minutes, and to sleep at will for a
quarter of an hour, would save many a school
girl from collapse. These habits are not so
much a matter of leisure and opportunity as of
self-control. Napoleon so trained himself that
he could fall asleep whenever he willed — even
in the saddle. Though not physically robust,
he had more endurance than any of his com-
rades. He knew the value of minutes. Noth-
ing is more beneficial to health than self-con-
trol. Training of this kind often prevents in-
sanity, and a noted prison official declares
there would be fewer murderers if the children
in the public schools acquired the power to sit
perfectly still for five minutes each day. The
self-control thus gained would arrest the fatal
blow until the passion that prompted it had
subsided. Why not make the rest habit second
nature from early childhood?
Sleep and fresh air are wonderful remedies
for tired nerves. Throw open the window
when the child goes to bed and he will awaken
ii8 THE POINT OF VIEW.
refreshed, if he is properly protected from a
draft. Perhaps earlier generations owed some
of their sturdiness to the fact that their houses
were more open to the weather, and air-tight
windows were a thing unknown.
Certain kinds of piano practice requiring
monotonous repetition, with no thought back
of it, are excessively wearing, and should never
be tolerated. In the last chapter, something
was said favorable to drill, but the drill there
referred to was educative, because its partici-
pants are interested in it and employ it as a
means of acquiring some desired facility or
skill. The conditions are different when the
child is allowed to strum on the piano wearily
and drearily, intent only upon filling a certain
number of minutes. This pernicious custom is
doing much to discourage piano teaching, and
perhaps the time is near when parents will re-
alize that the young piano pupil should never
practice without supervision. Better thirty
minutes of work under the teacher's eye than
hours spent in fumbling the key board with
eyes furtively watching the clock and the mind
wandering off to the anticipated release from
drudgery.
INFLUENCES. 119
Not only are the educational advantages of
such a course apparent, but the saving in time
and money as well as the economy of effort
must also appeal to us. A large number of our
children have lost much of their spontaneity
and healthful enthusiasm in life, and deadening
piano-practice is one of the causes. Surely
mother and teacher will eventually come to-
gether on this subject and evolve something
better than our present method. There is a
growing number of instructors in music that
are working for a reform. The entire field
offers abundant opportunity to any who will
work patiently and honestly, while the rewards
are as great and as certain as any found in
other paths of original research.
If the mothers and teachers in each commu-
nity would agree upon one or two simple prob-
lems within the experience of the average
woman, and study them together until some
reasonable solution had been discovered, the
results would be far more helpful and valuable
than anything attained thus far. We seem to
fear that we will not be considered learned un-
less we busy ourselves with some abstruse sub-
ject, and write papers upon it, which are as lit-
I20 THE POINT OF VIEW.
tie understood by the listeners as they are by
the writers — forgetting that simplicity is the
mark of wisdom. The educational doctrines
of Plato and Aristotle are interesting to be
sure, but why not study modern American
methods instead? They ought to be more
helpful.
As to the subject of foods, in view of mod-
ern research, scarcely any one topic is so uni-
versally important. In some instances it is pos-
sible to change the sex of an organism through
its food, as in the case of the bee and tadpole.
Criminology has shown that moral degeneracy
attends enfeebled physical conditions which
have their rise in poorly nourished and
poorly warmed bodies. Indeed the three agen-
cies are food, temperance, and social influences.
Everyone realizes the importance of the last,
but what association of women in the country
have studied the subject of foods persistently
and intelligently until some definite conclusion
has been reached in reference to the relative
values of certain articles of diet? They know
more of the conquest of Peru. We flit like
butterflies over vast fields of literature and
history without any definite aim or purpose be-
INFLUENCES. 121
yond a vague desire for improvement or show.
What is the matter ? Are we afraid of appear-
ing ignorant or common? How can the study
of anything great or useful belittle us? How
can we help shining a little in its reflected light ?
Foods are mentioned only as an illustration.
There are many other topics of study exceed-
ingly important and quite as common.
The average club woman seems to pass
through three distinct stages of evolution.
First comes the essay stage, in which the young
matron writes "lovely papers" whose weak-
ness is their total failure to touch life at any
point. To be sure, the blue satin bow that
adorned the graduation theme a few years be-
fore is now conspicuously absent, but this is
the only difference between the two produc-
tions. Marriage and motherhood have not yet
greatly widened her horizon, but there is a
freshness, a keenness of interest, a rosy opti-
mism that is certainly very promising. In the
second stage, our fledgling is now full fledged,
disporting herself in the shadowy vale of mys-
ticism. The religions of Asia and the philos-
ophy of the Nile are her delight. The meta-
physical and esoteric she revels in. She daz-
122 THE POINT OF VIEW.
zles her club on an afternoon with her own
bewilderment.
The growth of many a club woman is ar-
rested at this stage. My near neighbor, a sin-
cere and lovable woman, goes every Wednes-
day afternoon to discuss the needs, physical
and spiritual of the babes in Booraboolaga,
and returns much uplifted and refreshed; her
own infant in the meantime spends hours in
the care of a nurse maid who places its nursing
bottle on the stone parapet, while she, herself
a child, joins in the play of the group intrusted
to her care. As I write, the scorching sun is
shining full upon the bottle from which the
innocent babe slakes its thirst from time to
time. Tomorrow we shall hear of a "trouble-
some night," "the child's inherited delicacy of
stomach," etc. Yet before bedtime, I, myself,
may be gnilty of as glaring an inconsistency
and lay my head upon my pillow with a similar
sense of superiority that sustains the little
mother in the next square. And so we go on
until, perchance, some reach the third stage in
which sincere, wholesome, helpful, sane club
work is done. The frivolous and the immature
dropped by the wayside, but the work done by
INFLUENCES. 123
those who remain, is effective because they
have learned to form true estimates of values
and live up to the rules they lay down for
others.
This latter is the secret of success in all pre-
ventive and reformatory work whether in the
school or the home. Nothing so tests one's sin-
cerity as an honest attempt to live up to his
own theories. It is easy to exhort a poor
woman, who earns her bread by scrubbing, to
keep the Sabbath holy, and to make her home
attractive and fit for the abode of angels, bul
let us suppose that we are deprived of our own
Sunday drive, and shut up six days in the week
in a hot, steamy kitchen with a fretful babe.
"I could not reform an ant unless I became
one," says Tolstoi. He lived under the same
conditions, and carried the same burdens, as the
peasant he was trying to help. Did we but fol-
low the advice we give to others so freely, the
slums had long ago repented in sackcloth and
ashes. The slums are as keen as children in not-
ing the discrepancy between our theory and our
practice. They know that we do not believe
what we say, or we would do it ourselves. This
feeling of unreality is pernicious not alone in
124 THE POINT OF VIEW.
club life; it vitiates the home life, and is re-
flected in greater or less degree by every mem-
ber of the family circle. Everyone is influenced
by the unseen, unspoken, but not unfelt, atti-
tude of those with whom he lives, and this is
especially true of the very young. The dis-
honest parent or teacher will unconsciously
lead his children in the direction of dishonesty,
even though he tries to appear upright before
them. Perhaps this is what is meant by "visit-
ing the sins of the fathers upon the children."
Few realize the immense importance of their
mental attitude upon a subject in its influence up-
on others, especially upon those who are younger
or dependent in any way upon them. It is not
easy to be wholly honest. Indeed relative hon-
esty is all that weak human nature has been
able to attain thus far, but we shall have pro-
gressed far, both in intelligence and virtue,
when we are content to appear as we really are^
instead of straining every nerve to seem what
we are not. Club work has a great opportunity
right here.
"Why all this fuss about children," re-
marked an old woman at a mothers' meeting a
short time ago ; "In my days we were taught
INFLUENCES. 125
to keep the commandments and were spanked
when we did wrong." "Yes," said another,
"But what do you mean by keeping the com-
mandments ?" This seems to be the kernel of
the whole subject. The commandments are
interpreted by each generation anew, and by
each individual according to his ability to keep
abreast of, or rise above the generally accepted
views of the time. The simple savage keeps
the decalogue when he refrains from the
grosser crimes of murder, robbery, and the
like. The more subtle violations of the law,
such as slander, the trickeries of the commer-
cial world, and the imreality of domestic life
are beyond his comprehension. To him, sin
is the commission of certain acts, while with us
it is the intentional failure to choose the highest
good. To him, religion is the acceptance of a
certain creed, to us it is a condition of heart
One evidence of the divine origin of the Christ-
ian religion is that no one can live up to it.
All that human nature can do is to approximate
it. When man reaches his ideal it is no
longer his ideal. When we are able to under-
stand all truth and to bring science and reve-
lation into perfect accord, then we shall be as
126 THE POINT OF VIEW.
gods, and growth will cease. As the invention
of the tool marked the arrest of the develop-
ment of the body, so would the possession of all
knowledge bring about the arrest of the growth
of the mind. The power to think, is the very
breath of man's nostrils, and marks the differ-
ence between a joyless, automatic, deadening
adherence to rules, and a warm, glad growth,
pulsating with life and happiness. Each year
finds us a little nearer death, or a little more
alive.
This is, in part, the reason why some mothers
and teachers wear out so much more quickly
than others. The letter kills but he spirit
makes alive. No one knew this better than the
great Froebel, and no one has labored more
earnestly and intelligently than he to restore
to the child the conditions for perpetual growth.
His principles are applicable to every age or
form of government, but their application must
differ according to the grade of civilization.
His system originated under a despotic form of
government, and was intended to counteract,
in a degree, the evils of a military regime,
which regarded the individual merely as a unit
to be trained for state purposes. Under these
INFLUENCES. 127
conditions it is quite in order to pursue certain
methods, which, in our own country may work
harm when used by the unskillful.
Mothers should beware lest the teacher as-
sume her prerogatives. The public school oc-
cupies a peculiar position. Emigration brings
to its doors many totally unacquainted with
the language and customs of their adopted
country. Add to these the poor, whose parents
work early and late, and it can be readily seen
that the public school is the only institution by
which certain evils can be remedied. Under
these conditions it has easily, almost impercep-
tibly, advanced far beyond its original function,
while the home has gradually retreated. , Now
the disadvantage of a wrong relation lies in
the fact that it prevents the establishment of a
right one. Foster parenthood is not strikingly
prominent in biology; its adoption by man is
comparatively recent, and, like other new
things, apt to be put to uses for which it is not
intended, to the serious injury of all concerned.
One striking defect in our attempts at educa-
tion is the failure to provide interests and oc-
cupations for old age. So much thought is
spent upon the beginning of life, so little upon
128 THE POINT OF VIEW.
the end. Infancy is, of course, the time for
building the foundation ; childhood and youth
are our chief solicitude and must always be;
middle age receives some attention; but the
declining years are often unlovely and as
naked as a leafless tree.
The early part of life is spent in preparation
and pleasure ; then come family cares, business
anxieties, the struggle for a competence; and
when, at last, declining strength indicates that
the period of active warfare is over, the worker
sinks out of public view, thankful indeed if his
labors have provided a stage for the closing
scene in his little drama.
Science is seeking to discover how to pro-
long life, but what benefit is the mere lengthen-
ing of years if the time thus added is empty
and uninteresting. Old age should be a period
of usefulness and rational enjoyment, and both
parent and teacher should work definitely to-
ward this end. No educational system is ade-
quate that does not build for old age. Having
health it does not require great material wealth.
The appetite diminishes as physical activity de-
clines; warmth, cleanliness, and a small
amount of food make up the sum of its daily
INFLUENCES. 129
necessities ; but what it chiefly craves is recog-
nition ; its secret grief lies in its consciousness
of waning power, in the knowledge of a lost
usefulness. Ths should never be, and need not
be. "Old men for counsel, young men for
strength" is the vital and active principle of
the best civilization. Growing knowledge
brings better modes of living which tend to-
ward a steadily increasing length of life.
This calls for a re-adjustment of educational
methods to meet the demand of this longer pe-
riod of repose. Man's education should lay
the foundation for emplo3rment in old age. We
remain young only so long as the mind is ac-
tive. Age is not determined by years; many
die of old age in their youth. Some are never
alive, while others remind one of a kernel
which is full of germinal activity. The serious
evil in luxurious living is the distaste it gives
for persistent effort and the constantly grow-
ing desire for something new. Both are fatal
to happiness at any time of life. The properly
educated mind never loses its delight in a beau-
tiful sunset, in a clear sky, or in the tint of a
flower, but the ability to feel and enjoy the
companionship with nature must be cultivated
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130 THE POINT OF VIEW.
as well as the art of money getting or money
spending. Books are the chief resource for the
energies of old age, and they are always with
us. Teach the child to love good reading, and
he will have the great minds of the world for
his friends when he is old and they will never
fail him. Neither financial adversity nor a
body shorn of its strength can separate them
from him.
No one is ever older than he feels. Hospi-
tality to new ideas is the fountain of perpetual
youth. Every child should learn how to use
the public library and the museum before he
completes the eighth grade. A stiff fornuil
visit under supervision once or twice a year is
not enough. He should know the officials as
tried and trusted friends. This relationship
should grow with his years. Thank God there
are many men and women in the world today
who are doing untold good by winning the
confidence of their youthful friends and guid-
ing their tastes in the right direction.
The boy or girl who learns to use these two
institutions properly is educated for all time.
When once the child has acquired the habit of
dawdling, gossiping, or lounging on the street
INFLUENCES. 131
comer, it is exceedingly hard to create interest
in better things. There is a deadening influ-
ence in these and kindred indulgences that is
not easily explained. They affect all classes
of society, and when once they become a part
of the child's life, his sensibilities seem to be
seared as with a hot iron.
Music is a never failing source of enjoy-
ment. Every one should learn to play some in-
strument. It may not always be possible nor
profitable to continue this accomplishment
through life, but the study of a musical instru-
ment, even if one acquires but little skill in us-
ing it, will lead to a musical knowledge and a
discriminating taste that enlarges one's hori-
zon and adds much to the happiness of declin-
ing years. This pleasure is not dependent on
the exhaustive study of elaborate compositions.
Very many intelligent people do not respond to
dassical music, but the appreciation grows if
we continue in a receptive attitude. The sim-
ple old-fashioned melodies, endeared to us by
association as well as by their intrinsic
beauty, ought never be left out of the home.
Every boy and girl should learn to play and
sing them. Good music has kept many a
132 THE POINT OF VIEW.
hearthstone sweet and pure and the old tunes
have followed the wanderer to the uttermost
parts of the earth, awakening memories of
home.
The picture of an old father or mother spend-
ing a twihght existence beside a barely tolerant
fireside is a disgrace to humanity, a blot upon
civilization ; and the home which tolerates such
an exposition of hypocrisy and selfishness well
deserves all the discontent and unrest from
which it suffers. It does suffer, for every act
brings its inevitable consequence, whether of
joy or pain, and the hearth that is guilty of so
flagrant an act of cruelty is a stranger to peace
and contentment. Teach the child to reverence
the aged if you would make his own life happy.
Above all, lead him to feel the joy of loving
service. An act enobles or dwarfs according
to the motive behind it. The "servant girl"
problem would be solved if this principle per-
vaded the home. One child washes dishes with
a feeling of discontent and repugnance. The
work to her is miserable drudgery. Another
performs the service with a glad, joyful heart;
she is helping to make the loved ones comfort-
able. Which, think you, will be the better able
INFLUENCES. i33
to train and appreciate servants when she has
attained to womanhood? Each is performing
the same service but one is becoming hard and
sordid, while the other is growing in beauty
of soul, in a joy of living which the other will
never know even though the wealth of the In-
dies were poured into her lap. Which will you
have? There is no neutral ground. We must
choose one or the other. The same question
comes to each one, though in a different form ;
rich and poor alike must meet and answer it —
shall it be the service prompted by love, or the
service that is mere drudgery? Slave or free,
which are we? Heaven is within us if we will
have it so.
The old German tale of the little girl whose
loaf of bread was sour because she wore a sour
look while kneading it is as true as history. Let
the little ones learn it. The child who com-
plains of being ill after indulging in a fit of
anger is probably telling the truth. He is suf-
fering from poison. The fluids coursing
through his body are changed, and the repair
of the tissues is arrested, in a measure. If joy
and love bring health, why should not anger
and hate bring sickness?
134 THE POINT OF VIEW.
Suggestion is a wonderful power but little
understood, and like every other influence it is
capable of producing good or evil results. As
some years in the child's life are considered
more critical than others with reference to
physical and spiritual well-being, so too, some
months of each year may be more critical than
others with reference to the formation of
tastes and habits.
The parent is apt to say that his child's bad
habits have been acquired in school. Such a
parent would be surprised if he discovered how
accurately, yet unconsciously, the child portrays
his home life in the school. The average
teacher cannot fail to form a tolerably correct
picture of each pupil's environment out of
school by his conduct within it.
The public school is the most truly demo-
cratic institution in the country; without it, a
caste system would prevail as well defined as in
any old time monarchy. Within the school-
room are found representatives of all classes
of society who there learn to estimate one an-
other at their true worth regardless of wealth
or social position.
. INFLUENCES. i35
A friend who has just returned from a visit
to her native city asks, "What makes the work
so bad in the schools?*' Primarily it is be-
cause school officers elected by popular vote
seek to meet the wishes of their constituents,
except when they have some personal interest
of their own to advance. If the people's
ideals are low, their representatives have
low ideals, and the work of the board is
poorly done. The teaching force is under the
control of officers who have their finger on the
pulse of public opinion. If that is indifferent,
the schools are apt to be farmed out for the
advancement of private interests. As are the
people, so are the schools.
The present intensely commercial spirit that
pervades all departments of educational work
is the chief obstacle to progress. At the close
of the Civil War conditions gave opportimities
for the acquirement of wealth hitherto un-
known. Many who were poor suddenly be-
came rich, while the wealthy multiplied their
possessions by thousands. The present fren-
zied pursuit of wealth is the result. The at-
mosphere has become saturated with this
desire, and every school inspector, lawyer, or
136 THE POINT OF VIEW.
politician who mounts the platform preaches
the doctrine of "getting on." Commercial
prosperity is the fetish of the nation, and greed
and corruption are rampant everywhere. For-
merly those who had done most for their fellow
men were the standards set up for the young.
But these ideals have vanished like hoar frost
on a May morning. Men are now looked upon
and admired as heroes, not for the service they
have done, but for the great wealth they have
acquired, and the boys who listened to their
eloquence clothed in faulty syntax conclude
that correct speech and decent consideration
for others are not necessary to success.
We are nearing the dawn of a better day, be-
cause the homes and the school are uniting in
planting the conviction in the hearts of the
rising generation that it is "Righteousness that
exalteth a nation." The generation now at the
helm are irrevocably committed to the ideals so
indelibly impressed upon them in their youth,
that they cannot change materially, and the
hope of the country is in the children who are
to follow us. So deep seated is this convic-
tion in the minds of little children that wealth
is the chief purpose of life, that they write in
INFLUENCES. i37
their exercise books : "My reason for attending
school is, I must get on in my lessons, for I
want to get money."
138 THE POINT OF VIEW.
T
IX.
CONCLUSION.
HE trend of thought has altered much dur-
ing the past fifty or sixty years, and no-
where is this more apparent than in the
treatment of children. The term "New Edu-
cation" is not altogether a misnomer, though
it is not really an attempt to introduce something
new. It is rather an endeavor to discover what
has been in man for centuries, and is funda-
mental and lasting. Influences which have
tended to stimulate this study are classified as
follows :
First — ^The scientific discoveries of Darwin
and others.
Second — The application of these discover-
ies by Herbert Spencer and his colleagues.
Third — The so-called Higher Criticism of
the Bible and Religion.
Fourth — ^The many inventions which, by
rapid transit and facilitating various industries,
have rapidly changed our national life.
CONCLUSION. 139
The first and second classes of influences have
been already considered in this book. Of the
third class it is only needful to say that the
accepted modern definition of the word ever-
lasting as not necessarily meaning endless or
eternal, in the sense popularly understood, has
modified our theories of the world to come.
The good and evil effects of the comparatively
sudden change in what have heretofore been
considered the fundamental propositions of the
Christian religion, have been many and import-
ant. A large and more hopeful view of the
future has been accompanied by a growing dis-
regard of present duty. The two conflicting
influences are resulting in a confusion of mind
which is dangerous to the rising generation, and
is changing the character of the home as well
as the sense of moral obligation among the
people in general. This seems to be the imme-
diate results of every shifting of ground from
one fundamental view to another in the growth
of public opinion. But there are other reasons
for the present prevailing disregard of justice
and of duty.
Prior to 1848 we were a small people living
on the Atlantic coast ; little was known of the
140 THE POINT OF VIEW.
country west of the Mississippi, and the vast
resources of the area beyond were as yet not
even dreamed of. The prevalence of hand la-
bor, and the difficulties of travel tended to keep
the people near together in little communities
where all, coming under the same influences
and possessing the same interests, necessarily
shared in the same views and opinions. At this
time the school and the home were closely con-
nected. The teacher knew the members of each
family in the district, and respect for law and
authority was felt even when obedience did not
follow.
But there came a change. The tide of emi-
gration set in, bringing people to our shores
from every nation. Facilities for travel grew
apace; the use of machinery in place of hand
labor transformed society in every center. Then
same the great influx of domestic inventions;
later the telephone, the gas stove, and the vari-
ous applications of electricity, after these the
electric car, the bicycle, and the automobile.
The general result has been the bringing to-
gether in constantly changing combinations,
people of every creed and degree of intelligence
and morality. The home, the school, the
CONCLUSION. 141
church, the neighborhood, and the state felt
the influence. The home, from its secluded
character, was the last to show the effects of
this change, and it may be the last to re-adjust
itself to the new conditions.
The multiplication of amusements and the
diminution of household requirements have
produced restlessness in the home life fatal to
that repose so necessary to the best home
training.
The school-child of today is more intelligent
and less reliable than the child of earlier gener-
ations. How can we bring back this sterling trait
without losing what is gained by better school
instruction? If the country is to hold together,
if the five institutions of our civilization are to
survive and improve, childhood must be taught
a higher respect for law and law-givers. The
minor influences tending in an opposite direc-
tion must be checked, no matter how unim-
portant they may seem. The important things
are the small things. The youth who speaks of
the chief executive as "Teddy," and uses a
pocket handkerchief bordered with small
American flags, has received his first lesson in
disregard of law and disrespect of country.
142 THE POINT OF VIEW.
The country is greatly agitated just now on
the subject of divorce. The seat of the evil
cannot be reached by legislation. The prepa-
ration for marriage should begin in the cradle.
The child who is indulged from babyhood, who
knows no will but its own, who cares for no
one but itself, is not apt to make in after years
an ideal husband or wife. Strange that women
so often excuse in their sons those traits of
character that, in their husbands, have caused
them suffering.
One g^eat evil that confronts the home today
is the withdrawal of the father from family
life. The causes are many. Among the chief,
is the rise of commercial spirit and the increas-
ing competition in all branches of industry.
Many a father is compelled to strain every
nerve to keep abreast of his competitors, and
when night comes he is fit for nothing but the
easy chair, or some light entertainment that
will make no demand upon brain or body. This
is the chief reason why our theaters are filled
with light plays that appeal only to the eye;
the reason why the son steals out of the door
to go where he can "enjoy himself;" the rea-
son why the wife fails to talk over with her
CONCLUSION. 143
husband the growing faults in their boy, and
seek for the counsel which only a father can
give. Meanwhile the mad pace goes on ; how
much or how little each parent is to blame for
the iliad of woes experienced and threatened^
the parent only knows.
But one thing is certain; few men are able
to give their children both moral stamina and
large wealth. To raise truly intelligent chil-
dren requires a blending of both feminine and
masculine ideals. There must be close daily
personal contact with both parents. Schools
and masters however clever can not give the
effective touch — it must be warm, close, intelli-
gent family life. The man who makes a for-
tune rarely has energy to enjoy it afterward.
The effort has been too great, and he generally
regrets when too late that he spent so much to
gain so little.
It is all merely a question of ideals and in
this, as in everything else, each one must make
his choice. One gets what he works for, for
the most part, especially in the life that is
worth living.
Two men were digging under my window
a few months ago, when one dropped his
146 POINT OF VIEW.
List of Valuable Books of Reference to be
found in most small Public Libraries.
Chapter I.
Babies and Monkeys.— PopwZar Science Monthly, Jan
uary, 1895, Vol. 46, p. 371.
The Tree Dwellers.— The Age of Fear.— Katherine
E. Dopp. — Band, McNally & Company, Chicago.
The Primitive Family.— Thwing.
The Evolution of The Family.- Popular Science
Monthly, Vol. 40, p. 257.
The Story of Ab.— Stanley Waterloo.
The Story of Primitive Man. — Cladd. — Appleton&
Company.
Early Man in Britain. — Dawkins. — McMillan Co.
How to Make Baskets.— Mary White.
Indian Basketry. — George W. Jones.
Drummond's Ascent of Man.
Some Fundamental Principles of Sunday School and
Bible Teaching.— PedagfOf^Z Seminary, Decem-
ber, 1901.
Chapter II.
The Motor Ability of Children.— Annual Report,
Commissioner of Education, 1898, Vol. 2, p. 1291.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE. 147
Influence of Exercise on Growth.— Journal Exper.
Med., 1896, Vol. 1, p. 516.
Relation Between Growth and Disease.— Am. Medi-
cal Association, 1891.
Influences of Palatal Deformities in Idiots. — Journal
of Medical Science, Jan. 1897, Vol. 43, p. 72.
A Study in Youthful Desf eneracy. — Pedagogical Semi-
nary, p. 221, Dec. 1906.
Chapter III.
Fati^e in School Children.— JBditcationaZ Beview
Jan. 1898, p. 34.
Study of Imitation. — Annual Report, Commissioner
of Education, Vol. 1, 1896-97, Chapter 13.
Physical Traininsr.— Same, 1898, Vol. 1, p. 487.
Chapter IV.
Child Study and Religious Education.— C/ii7d Study
MontJUy, Oct. 1896, Vol. 2, p. 289.
The Early Cave Men.— The Age of Combat.— Kather-
ine E. Dopp.
The Later Cave Men.— The Age of the Chase. —
Katherine E. Dopp.
The Tent Dwellers.— The Early Pishing Man.—
Katherine K Dopp.
Chapter V.
The Place of Industries in Elementary Education
—Katherine E. Dopp.
i48 POINT OF VIEW.
Some Steps in the Evolution of Social Occupations.
— Katherlne E. Dopp.
The Elementary School Teacher, March and April, 1903.
Origin of Inventions. — Mason.
Punishments as Seen by Children,— Pedagogical Semi'
nary, Vol. 3, p. 236.
Educative Value of Children's Questioning.— Poj!>u2ar
Science Monthly, Vol. 44, p. 799.
Chapter VI.
Industrial Education.— Annual Report, Commis-
sioner of Education, 1896, Vol. 1, p. 443.
The Sorrows of Childhood.—Atlantic Monihly, Vol. 9.
The Boyhood of Great Men.— Annual Report, Com-
missioner of Education, 1898, Vol. 2, p. 1294.
Increase in Volume of Heart at Puberty.— Annual
Report, Commissioner of Education, Vol. 1, 1898
p. 995.
Growth of First Bom Children.— Same, p. 1100.
Children Larger Bom in Summer.— Same, p. 994.
Only Children.— Same, 1898, Vol. 2, p. 1349.
Miscellaneous.
A Mornings Observation of a Baby.— Fletcher B.
Dresslar.
The First Modern Schoolmaster.— Wm. H. Burnham.
Children's Ideals.— Adelaide E. Wyckoff.
All may be found in Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 8,
No. 4, Dec. 1901.
School Breakdown.— Jfedtcal News, 1900, Vol. 77,
p. 208.
APPENDIX
LESSON PAPERS SUOOESTING STUDIES POR
CLUBS OF TEACHERS AND PARENTS
LESSON PAPERS.
The foUowiuflr Study Papers have been used by a number of
clubs of teachers and parents. Thev cover a wide ran are of
topics, all of which have a direct bearing- on the proper care of
children in their physical, intellectual, and moral arrowth.
Study Paper No. i.
FATIGUE.
Fatigue is caused by a sort of toxin or poison which
is brought about in this way: The muscles are made
up of little bundles of tubes filled with a substance
called albuminoid. The nerves carry messages from the
brain to the muscles. When a muscle is required to
work it receives a message like a tiny electric shock;
this causes the albuminoid to contract, and the muscle
is shortened.
As the muscles work they throw off tiny particles of
waste matter and other impurities ; these are burned by
the oxygen in the blood, destroyed by the liver, or
thrown off by the kidneys. When this waste matter col-
lects more rapidly than it can be destroyed or carried
off, it gradually checks the contraction of the fluid in the
muscles and they move more and more slowly. Then
too. the blood becomes poisoned by the waste matter
ana this causes fatigue.
Muscle fatigue is the only kind known. Brain work
fatigues the whole body because (it is supposed) the
waste thrown off by its activity is carried into the mus-
cles bv the blood; it is also possible that the brain
robs the muscles of useful substances to supply its own
needs; for thought work requires an immense supply
of energy, and the brain is found well nourished even
when death has resulted from starvation.
A muscle not fatigued may contract one-third of its
length. It has an alkaline taste; when fatigued it has
an acid taste. (Read Mosso's New Book on Fatigue.")
164 APPENDIX.
REMEDIES— BATHING, FRESH AIR, SLEEP.
Bathing — From one to two and one-half pints of
waste matter passes out through the skin every twenty-
four hours, so we can easily see how necessary it is to
keep all the pores open. Every child should have one or
two baths a week, but he should never bathe after eat-
ing or when very tired. No two children are alike, but
a little experience will teach you how often your chil-
dren should bathe, the best time of day, and whether
the bath should be cold, warm, or tepid. Plunge baths
are often very dangerous.
It is supposed that there is no such thing as brain-
fag. About eighty per cent of the fatigue and "Nervous-
ness" experienced by school children and adults is
caused by eye-strain, straining the muscles of the eye.
A very large proportion of pupils who are restless,
inattentive and mischievous, are suffering from defective
sight or hearing of which they or their parents are en-
tirely unconscious. This condition adds immensely to
the ordinary fatigue of school work.
Children are required to write too much during the
first eight years of school life. Three fourths of the
copying, keeping of note books, etc, etc., is an absolute
hindrance to the training of the ear, the modulation of
the voice, and the exercise of thought. The eyes are
strained and worn before the child reaches manhood.
This barbarous custom is kept alive by tradition, and is
an easy method of keeping children quiet. Its extreme
cruelty, as well as its stultifying effect upon the mind,
is not suspected by the average parent or teacher.
The custom of correcting papers in the evening has
a similar effect upon the teacher. To avoid this kind of
work entirely is barely possible under present condi-
tions; but it must be remembered that the average
teacher loses in elasticity, in the power to interest and
to control, in exact proportion to her adherence to this
custom.
From early childhood the pupil should be taught to
rest the eyes when tired; to avoid a highly colored
lamp shade or table cover (particularly if red), and to
avoid a light falling upon Uie face or book.
Of course the best arranged program is one which
APPENDIX. 165
places studies making the greatest demand upon nerve
force, as language, etc., etc., at times when pupils are
least fatigued and provides, also, for a moment's rest or
relaxation between each recitation. Of course the ideal
rest is free play in the open air ; when this is impossible
anything giving freedom of movement, even a whisper-
ing recess, is helpful.
Physical exercises are really very hard work, as the
attention is strained to follow directions. Rest means
free, gentle, undirected movement, such as comes, for
instance, from tossing a bean bag, etc.
Too much cannot be said against children being al-
lowed to march while singing or with the arms in a
constrained position. Free play in the fresh air is the
best possible rest for children after school, or indeed at
any time when fatigued, as the larger supply of oxygen
in the air bums the waste matter in the muscles and
blood more rapidly. The cheerful enjoyment of the
play is also exceedingly beneficial. The child who habit-
ually sits down to a story-book upon his return from
school needs watching.
Sleep Table, from "Physical Nature of Child," by
Rowe: The child needs — from 6 to 8 years of age,
eleven or twelve hours of sleep; from 9 to ii years of
a^e, ten or eleven hours; from 12 to 14 years of age,
nme or ten hours.
Does your child get this amount?
Does he breathe fresh air while sleeping?
The study of music is a great educator; but what
do you think of the senseless, monotonous piano prac-
tice so often heard?
At what hour does your child practice best? How
many minutes at a time does she practice? Does her
piano-stool have a back to it? Do her feet touch the
floor?
How long could you practice under her conditions
before exhaustion?
What do you think of the parent who allows the child
to practice at noon or immediately upon her return
from school in the afternoon?
Why is it wrong to do any hard work immediately
after a meal?
156 APPENDIX.
Eye-strain and deafness cause an immense amount
of fatigue, even when their existence is not suspected
by the parent.
Are your children all right in these respects, or do
you merely suppose so?
What means have you taken to make sure?
We have had children in school so deaf that they
could not hear the teacher speal^ others have been so
blind they could scarcely read in large print, yet in
nearly every instance the parents have told us that noth-
inPT was the matter. Why?
Study Paper No. 2.
SLEEP.
1. How many hours sleep a day should be taken by
a very young child? The child of seven? of ten? of
fourteen? the young person? the adult?
2. Does the child of nervous temperament need
more or less sleep than a phlegmatic child?
3. Why is sleep taken before midnight worth so much
more than that taken after midnight or in the day-time?
4. Does this give any reason for an early bed hour?
5. Is it true that the waste tissues of the body are re-
paired only during sleep?
6. Then what is the result of insufficient sleep?
7. Why is it wrong to rock children to sleep? to
dandle them? to put them to sleep in a lighted room?
to allow them to sleep with much older people?
8. Have you noticed the injurious effect of electric
light upon the sleep of plants, animals or human beings?
9. How may a very careful attention to these prin-
ciples be of very great help to persons who inherit ten-
dencies to nervous disease or insanity?
10. How may care in these respects help the child in
his school work. In preparing for life?
APPENDIX. 157
Study Paper No. 3.
FOODS.
What foods are most useful in producing warmth?
In producing fat? In producing bone? etc Name
some foods that are most easily digested.
Why should all housekeepers study these facts?
Are the most expensive foods always the best foods ?
Is not the contrary very often true?
Should not every woman (rich and poor alike)
learn to cook good, plain, nutritious dishes?
What connection do you see between poorly cooked,
innutritions food and poor lessons in school?
Between poor, badly cooked food and an intemperate
husband?
Which, in your opinion, is the better way to check
intemperance : (a) By giving the child good, well
cooked food from infancy, and teaching him self-con-
trol and obedience in all things; or (b) By passing
laws in regard to drunkenness after he is grown up?
Are we not, as a people, intemperate in eating, in
work, in pleasure?
Do not these forms of intemperance lead to drunken-
ness, or, at least, make it easier?
Are the seeds of drunkenness sown in the child be-
fore he is eighteen, even though he has never tasted
liquor? How do you explain this saying, if true?
Read Scientific American of November 12, i8q8;
November 19, i8q8; also Scientific American Supple-
ment for Jaunary 15, 1897.
Manual of Foods, issued by the Battle Creek Sani-
tarium.
Ralston's Model Meals, published by Ralston Health
Club, Washington, D. C.
Orr's Circle of Sciences.
Johnson's Encyclopedia.
Popular Lectures on Food. Dr. Lancaster.
Food and Feeding, Chapter 4, Sir Henry Thompson.
Food Materials and Their Adulteration. Ellen M.
Richards.
Dietetic Value of Bread. John Goodfellow.
NoTB.— Many of these books and articles may be fonnd in the
pnblic librarv.
100 APPENDIX.
3. The school is the child's home.
(a) What is the condition of your child's
school? Are the rooms neat and attractive?
Is the yard or garden nicely kept? and,
above all, are the out-buildings clean, well-
painted and free from obscene writings?
(b) If not, who is to blame? The teacher is
generally more than willing to do her share,
but she must be aided by the parents ; and,
remember, you are not helping her, you
are working to make your own children
clean, wholesome, useful men and women.
(c) Suppose every woman in the country did a
little toward supplying her school with the
needed books, curtains, pictures, etc., and
insisted that tiie garden, out-buildings, etc,
be kept clean. What would be the effect
upon the state?
(d) What plans have you in reference to this
matter? How far are you influencing pub-
lic sentiment on this subject? Does your
club intend to hold any meetings at which
public-minded citizens will speak on the
needs of your district? Have you planned
any entertainment by which money may be
raised for these purposes?
Send to Hon. Jason Hammond, Lansing, Michigan,
for a copy of his report on the school buildings of the
state.
Study Paper No. 6.
CARE OF THE BODY.
I. Children are often considered idle or stupid, and
are sometimes put back in their classes simply because
they cannot hear or see well. What should a parent do
under such circumstances? In what part of the school
room should such children be placed?
As the ear and eye are extremely delicate, is it not
APPENDIX. 161
exceedingly dangerous to attempt to treat at home de-
fects in tiiese organs as disease? Would it not be a good
plan for your club to have a plain, sensible talk each
year from some good doctor or specialist on the care
of these organs?
2. Are diseases of the stomach or lungs ever affected
by decasdng teeth?
What kinds of food are best calculated to produce
strong teeth?
When is this diet most effective, early or late in life?
Does the parents' diet affect this matter in any way?
Why is it necessary that the child should learn early
in life to keep the mouth clean? Should you think
habitual cleanlmess in this respect helpful to the preven-
tion of disease? Why?
Why is the occasional use of a little soap exceed-
ingly beneficial in cleansing the mouth and throat?
3. The Hair and the Nails. Why should each child be
taught to brush the hair carefully each day? Is the
excessive use of the brush harmful?
Why should care be taken to cut the nails smoothly
and evenly?
Why is it injurious to scrape them with a sharp in-
strument, as a knife ?
Some time ago an examination was made in a cer-
tain city of the dirt found under children's nails, which
resulted in the discovery of fourteen different kinds of
germs. What do you think of this subject?
4. The Skin. The skin contains thousands upon
thousands of tiny pores through which much waste and
impure matter escapes from the body. If these little
pores are clogged up, what is likely to happen?
Some children are benefited by a daily bath ; others
should not bathe so frequently. Some find the cold
bath more helpful, while others need warm or tepid
water. What is your child's habit?
What can you say of the dry bath (rubbing the
body briskly with a dry towel) when the use of water is
not prudent?
Often, when the child is peevish and fretful, a gentle
sponge bath, followed by a brisk rubbing with a towel.
162 APPENDIX.
induces sound sleep at night, while the lessons in school
seem pleasanter and easier. How do you account for
this?
5. Clothing. How many little children suffer untold
pain from wearing shoes which they have outgfrown,
but which are still "too good" to be laid aside?
What have you to say of stockings too short in the
foot? Of tight stiffly starched under-clothing? Of
bands too tight? Of garments too short in the body?
Is it true that little boys are made to suffer in this
way as much as little girls?
What is the strain upon the nerves, temper and
health of children thus tortured?
6. Moral Effect. What effect will perfect cleanliness,
as suggested above, have upon the child's moral nature ?
Will it be helpful in teaching that reverence for the
body, as the home for the soul, is conducive to purity in
thought and deed?
What effect will it have upon his work, his future
usefulness and citizenship?
Study Paper No. 7.
DANGEROUS COMMUNICABLE DISEASES.
Consumption Form 175
Diphtheria Form 107
Typhoid Form 124
Scarlet Fever Form no
Measles Form 176
Whooping Cough Form 229
Smallpox Form
Above is printed a list of the most dangerous com-
municable diseases in the order of the communicability,
the most dangerous being given first; opposite of each
name is placed the number of the form or pamphlet
giving instructions on the prevention of such disease.
Any or all of these pamphlets may be obtained free
upon application to Dr. H. B. Baker, Secretary Board
of Health, Lansing, Michigan.
APPENDIX. 163
From this list it will be seen that consumption
causes most deaths, and that smallpox (of which every-
one is so much afraid) causes very few. Consumption
is spread very much by the carelessness of consumptive
patients in spitting on the street, in public buildings, on
the car, at home, etc. (See Form 175.) What can you
say of this habit? What should children be taught in
regard to this habit? If they are allowed to follow
dirty, untidy practices when well, will it not be difficult
for them to show self-restraint when sick? Mention
other evils arising from this habit.
Diphtheria, How far are patients and teachers re-
sponsible for the spread of diphtheria? How far may
they be responsible for the growth of any disease?
Can the teacher do very much in this direction with-
out help from the parents?
What, then, is your duty? The duty of your club?
If any epidemic breaks out in your district this winter
shall you feel that strict vigilance on the part of every-
one might have prevented it?
Is it true that in trying to prevent disease in other
people's homes we keep it from our own? Are the
drainage, sanitary arrangements, etc., in your neighbor-
hood good? Are you responsible for them in any way?
If they are not? How?
Study Paper No. 8.
The five institutions of civilization are the home, the
church, the school, the neighborhood, and the state.
Any influence which disturbs one of them must, in time,
affect the other four. Papers 9, 10, and 11 continue
this discussion.
HOW SHALL MORALS BE TAUGHT?
1. Every human being is a teacher of morals and the
character of our work is decided by what we are, rather
than what we say. What then, is our duty?
2. The mother is to the little child as God; that is,
the little child gets its first ideas of Gk>d's love, trudi
164 APPENDIX.
and justice from what it sees her do, and it is exceed-
ingly hard to alter these ideas afterward. What, then*
should the mother be?
3. Moral instruction should be given very sparingly,
as a too great use of these means will make the child,
according to its temperament indifferent, hypocritical or
morbidly conscientious. How, then, can we accomplish
this work?
4. What did Emerson mean wheft he told his daughter
that he cared more to know who her teachers were than
to learn what studies she had chosen?
5. We are apt to forget that the child's moral char-
acter is largely determined before he enters school, and
that the u&ind word at the table, the unseemly joke
and improper picture in the newspaper are among his
most powerful teachers. What is your duty and mine?
The teacher stands next, in influence, to the parent.
As the child's moral character is determined very early
and it is very hard to change afterward, do you not
think that every parent and teacher ought to work to-
gether in this field? Is not your child apt to suffer if
you do not? What, then, do you intend to do? Will
not your club discuss these topics?
Our own attitude toward truth determines always
the worth of our teaching; the lesson (no matter
whether it be a page in arithmetic or a portion of the
Bible) is only a tool used in the building of character.
For the latest and most advanced thought on this
subject read:
1. The Bible.
2. Can Moral Conduct be Taught in the Schools? —
Forum, January, 1893.
3. The Moral and Religious Training of Children
and Adolescents. Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1891.
4. Froebel's Education of Man.
NoTB.— Consult public library.
APPENDIX. 165
Study Paper No. 9.
THE CHILD'S PLACE IN THE FAMILY.
During the first months of a child's life he needs
absolute repose; in fact, all his wants are expressed by
tiie words warmth, cleanliness, food and sleep. What
do you think of this point? Are very young children
ever rocked, dandled or played with until their nerves
are unduly stimulated or excited? Do you think this
habit frequently lays a foundation for the nervous dis-
orders of later life? What, then, would you advise?
As the child grows older he needs short periods of
activity. These periods gradually gfrow longer, but
whether long or short, they should be followed by pe-
riods of absolute repose, for in this way only does the
mind grow.
All over the country our little ones suffer from the
lack of repose; not only do they have too little sleep,
l>ut their tender minds are stimulated too constantly.
Too many toys, too many amusements, too many books
are among the influences which tend to keep them in a
state of nervous excitement during the great part of
their waking hours. Is it surprismg that they break
down, or that much of the fatigue which is supposed to
arise from over-study is really due to these causes ?
Then, too, the position the child frequently occupies
in the family is quite wearing. He rules when he should
be ruled, and the tired little feet seen so often in the
school room or street car tell only too plainly the weari-
ness of the task.
Above all, he should learn the meaning of the word
must, for perfect self-control and cheerful obedience to
authority, even though the reason for the command is
not always known, are absolutely necessary to his peace
of mind. What is your opinion on this point?
Suppose our children had fewer and simpler amuse-
ments, were taught a more perfect obedience, ate sim-
pler food and retired earlier, what, do you think, the
result would be? Do you think their school work
-would seem so difficult?
im
THE
PLACE OF THl
COMl
1. What are the chief
member of the community
will best fit him for perfo ^
2. Why 15 self-control -
acquired, and when is tt^-*
Many parents believe th^*-
by allowing the child to h»J
infancy. What do you th. *
It IS sometimes thou^^
freedom (speaking relati^
^ies of |i^
in fir *hem :
necessar
■^ til// Qtian
^^ -td Oi this r
"■^^ that of ^
should be even greater tt^^ >a<:5W far ^^:
you think this true ? If s^^ ^ j^ ^ren ?
le the trainmg of your c*^ ^j^a^s; I^ne Qf
How far do you thinlc ^^^ti 9 f^,
in lesson papers No.^ 7. »* f <i down ,
apply to the suggestions ^^^^^^ ^'^ ch
Suppose you were ot?* ^^^f mere ,
between the acquiremen^t^ ^^^ iti thc^
lined in the studies conta^*;* ^erstandir,:
riculum, or a thorough ^ *IVe v*^*^^Jc( Vr
with, his fellow men, wh»^^
Study F^
per No
A STREET
• , ^^^1 h<=*w far
It is, perhaps, doubtt^^Uy carr;
in this article may be ^^^^^^tis provi
whose municipal regula.^* ^^^t as n
cleanliness of its street^ ' *^e state, r^ '
for use in all corners of, ^ ^ot, by -, J
actual work it outlines *^^ult it sp^,V
est and most important *'*^
• % <>
rr
APPENDIX. 169
ailure in life to the food eaten before his
lore to the food given them during the
childhood, so that a people's intelligence
adged by the care shown in the selection
1 of its food.
eeds food to build it up and to repair or
■ 1 also supplies the body with heat and
r, so it becomes a necessity to know
e best able to build up, which to supply
It is also necessary to know how to
- not to waste or destroy those properties.
his subject keeps many families poor,
mportant compounds found in the body
This compound builds up the bone mus-
of the body. It is found in lean meat,
- eggs, and in the extracts of meats and
'les.
i'ound in meats, butter, etc, also in olives
^e supply the body witii fat and also with
'rates. These contain different kinds of
H-*r* . ■ '^^ ^^^ fi^re of plants or cellulose. These
t;^**^ "^^ any kinds of grains, in potatoes; and in
r,;^ - , nilk sugar. Starch and sugar supply the
iV* gy and also with fat.
V^ • >^. ' value of different kinds of food in ref-
j fat, energy, etc., may be learned by study
•i^'": , letins sent out by the government
i^»/* day given to their study will save many
Q j^^^.^ dollars. It is said that no one whose in-
\ ^^ * or less should spend more than 19 cents
5:^^*1;, • od. A careful study will show that the
V e foods are often the least valuable. If
f, ^5^ are needed they will be sent postpaid
?»^"'^^ large (for educational purposes) to any
.. '*:5^ e to Experiment Station, Department of
'«>•?* -v- ashington, D. C.
: /"^ i ^ iven a few in most common use :
-»-^^ '- e Principles of Bread Making, No. I12.
t^.\ -. 1 their uses as food. No. 128.
V'" ^'^ food. No. 93.
168 APPENDIX.
Study Paper No. 12.
CARE AND CHOICE OF CLOTHING.
COMPILED BY AUCE MARSH.
How many garments should a child wear in warm
weather? In cold weather? Where should the weight
be sustained, from the shoulders or hips? Is wool
next the skin advisable for all children?
What grade of stockings wear best for boys? Does
it pay to make stockings over? Do you know of any
good way to make the heels and knees of stockings
wear longer? Have you any good patterns of childreirs
garments to lend?
Should boys, as well as girls, be taught to sew on
buttons, patch, etc.? Will it be of advantage to them
as they ^ow older to know how to sew? How much
systematic instruction do children receive in sewing?
Should children be allowed any voice in the selection
of garments or as to the manner in which they shall
be made ? Would a reasonable amount of liberty in this
regard lead to independence of character and individual
taste?
Should children know the cost of clothing for one
year? Will they learn to save when older if they do
not establish the habit when voung? What do you
think of children having an allowance? Having bank
books ?
"The mother wi' her needle an* her shears,
Gars auld claes look amaist as weel's the new."
— Bums.
Study Paper No. 13.
FOODS.
Our health, happiness, and ability to work well de-
pends so much upon the food we eat that it becomes an
important matter in every home. Many a man owes
APPENDIX. 169
his success or failure in life to the food eaten before his
birth; many more to the food given them during the
early years of childhood, so that a people's intelligence
mav be fairly judged by the care shown in the selection
and preparation of its food.
The body needs food to build it up and to repair or
mend it; food also supplies the body with heat and
muscular power, so it becomes a necessity to know
which foods are best able to build up, which to supply
heat or power. It is also necessary to know how to
cook food so as not to waste or destroy those properties.
Ignorance on this subject keeps many families poor.
The most important compounds found in the body
and in food are :
1. Protein, This compound builds up the bone mus-
cle and tissues of the body. It is found in lean meat,
in the white of eggs, and in the extracts of meats and
certain vegetables.
2. Fats, as found in meats, butter, etc., also in olives
nuts, etc. These supply the body with fat and also with
heat or caloric.
3. Carbohydrates, These contain different kinds of
sugar, starch and the fibre of plants or cellulose. These
are found in many kinds of grains, in potatoes ; and in
milk is found milk sugar. Starch and sugar supply the
body with energy and also with fat.
The relative value of different kinds of food in ref-
erence to heat, fat, energy, etc., may be learned by study
of Food Bulletins sent out by the government
Ten minutes a day given to their study will save many
a family many dollars. It is said that no one whose in-
come is $1600 or less should spend more than 19 cents
per day for food. A careful study will show that the
most exepensive foods are often the least valuable. If
more bulletins are needed they will be sent postpaid
and free of charge (for educational purposes) to any
tiddress. Write to Experiment Station, Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Below are given a few in most common use :
1. Bread, the Principles of Bread Making, No. 112.
2. Eggs, and their uses as food. No. 128.
3. Sugar, as food. No. 93.
168 APPENDIX.
Study Paper No. 12.
CARE AND CHOICE OF CLOTHING.
COMPILED BY AUCE MARSH.
How many garments should a child wear in warm
weather? In cold weather? Where should the weight
be sustained, from the shoulders or hips? Is wool
next the skin advisable for all children?
What grade of stockings wear best for boys? Does
it pay to make stockings over? Do you know of any
good way to make the heels and knees of stockings
wear longer? Have you any good patterns of children's
garments to lend?
Should boys, as well as girls, be taught to sew on
buttons, patch, etc? Will it be of advantage to them
as they p-ow older to know how to sew? How much
systematic instruction do children receive in sewing?
Should children be allowed any voice in the selection
of garments or as to the manner in which they shall
be made? Would a reasonable amount of liberty in this
regard lead to independence of character and individual
taste ?
Should children know the cost of clothing for one
year? Will they learn to save when older if they do
not establish the habit when voung? What do you
think of children having an allowance? Having bank
books ?
"The mother wi' her needle an' her shears.
Gars auld claes look amaist as weePs the new."
Study Paper No. 13.
FOODS.
Our health, happiness, and ability to work well de-
pends so much upon the food we eat that it becomes an
important matter in every home. Many a man owes
APPENDIX. 169
his success or failure in life to the food eaten before his
birth; many more to the food given them during the
early years of childhood, so that a people's intelligence
may be fairly judged by the care shown in the selection
and preparation of its food.
The body needs food to build it up and to repair or
mend it; food also supplies the body with heat and
muscular power, so it becomes a necessity to know
which foods are best able to build up, which to supply
heat or power. It is also necessary to know how to
cook food so as not to waste or destroy those properties.
Ignorance on this subject keeps many families poor.
The most important compounds found in the body
and in food are :
1. Protein, This compound builds up the bone mus-
cle and tissues of the body. It is found in lean meat,
in the white of eggs, and in the extracts of meats and
certain vegetables.
2. Fats, as found in meats, butter, etc., also in olives
nuts, etc These supply the body with fat and also with
heat or caloric.
3. Carbohydrates. These contain different kinds of
sugar, starch and the fibre of plants or cellulose. These
are found in many kinds of grains, in potatoes ; and in
milk is found milk sugar. Starch and sugar supply the
body with energy and also with fat.
The relative value of different kinds of food in ref-
erence to heat, fat, energy, etc., may be learned by study
of Food Bulletins sent out by the government
Ten minutes a day given to their study will save many
a family many dollars. It is said that no one whose in-
come is $1600 or less should spend more than 19 cents
per day for food. A careful study will show that the
most exepensive foods are often the least valuable. If
more bulletins are needed they will be sent postpaid
and free of charge (for educational purposes) to any
.iddress. Write to Experiment Station, Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Below are given a few in most common use :
1. Bread, the Principles of Bread Making, No. 112.
2. Eggs, and their uses as food. No. 128.
3. Sugar, as food. No. 93.
168 APPBNDIX.
Study Paper No. 12.
CARE AND CHOICE OF CLOTHING.
COMPILED BY AUCE MARSH.
How many garments should a child wear in warm
weather? In cold weather? Where should the weight
be sustained, from the shoulders or hips? Is wool
next the skin advisable for all children?
What grade of stockings wear best for boys? Does
it pay to make stockings over? Do you know of any
good way to make the heels and knees of stockings
wear longer? Have you any good patterns of childrenrs
garments to lend?
Should boys, as well as girls, be taught to sew on
buttons, patch, etc? Will it be of advantage to tiicm
as they p-ow older to know how to sew? How much
systematic instruction do children receive in sewing?
Should children be allowed any voice in the selection
of garments or as to the manner in which they shall
be made? Would a reasonable amount of liberty in this
regard lead to independence of character and individual
taste ?
Should children know the cost of clothing for one
year? Will they learn to save when older if they do
not establish the habit when voung? What do you
think of children having an allowance? Having bank
books ?
"The mother wi' her needle an* her shears.
Gars auld claes look amaist as weeFs the new."
— Bums,
Study Paper No. 13.
FOODS.
Our health, happiness, and ability to work well de-
pends so much upon the food we eat that it becomes an
important matter in every home. Many a man owes
APPENDIX. 169
his success or failure in life to the food eaten before his
birth; many more to the food given them during the
early years of childhood, so that a people's intelligence
mav be fairl:^ judged by the care shown in the selection
and preparation of its food.
The body needs food to build it up and to repair or
mend it; food also supplies the body with heat and
muscular power, so it becomes a necessity to know
which foods are best able to build up, which to supply
heat or power. It is also necessary to know how to
cook food so as not to waste or destroy those properties.
Ignorance on this subject keeps many families poor.
The most important compounds found in the body
and in food are :
1. Protein, This compound builds up the bone mus-
cle and tissues of the body. It is found in lean meat,
in the white of eggs, and in the extracts of meats and
certain vegetables.
2. Fats, as found in meats, butter, etc., also in olives
nuts, etc. These supply the body with fat and also with
heat or caloric.
3. Carbohydrates, These contain diflFerent kinds of
sugar, starch and the fibre of plants or cellulose. These
are found in many kinds of grains, in potatoes ; and in
milk is found milk sugar. Starch and sugar supply the
body with energy and also with fat.
The relative value of different kinds of food in ref-
erence to heat, fat, energy, etc., may be learned by study
of Food Bulletins sent out by the government
Ten minutes a day given to their study will save many
a family many dollars. It is said that no one whose in-
come is $1600 or less should spend more than 19 cents
per day for food. A careful study will show that the
most exepensive foods are often the least valuable. If
more bulletins are needed they will be sent postpaid
and free of charge (for educational purposes) to any
address. Write to Experiment Station, Department of
Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
Below are given a few in most common use :
1. Bread, the Principles of Bread Making, No. 112.
2. Eggs, and their uses as food. No. 128.
3. Sugar, as food. No. 93.
174 APPENDIX.
QUESTIONS.
1. Some tendencies should be gotten rid of and
some may be kept and developed into something val-
uable. Suppose your boy shows signs of becoming a
wanderer or a tramp. How would you treat him?
2. The best way to get rid of a harmful tendency
it to put something of an opposite nature in its place.
What effect would permanent possessions as a pet, a
flower garden, or a pretty bed-room have upon a child
inclined to wander away from home?
3. How would you apply this principle to a child
inclined to steal? To be idle?
Read Drummond's "Ascent of Man," Chapter 2.
Scott's "Organic Education," Chapter i.
"A Study in Youthful Degeneracy," Pedagogical
Seminary for 1896-97, page 221.
"The Play Instinct," Current Literature, November,
1903, page 554.
"Some Fundamental Principles in Sunday School
Teaching, Etc.," Pedagogical Seminary, December, 1901,
page 437.
Study Paper No. 16.
THE SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST.
It is in the power X)f science, without proving recre-
ant to its own methods, to maintain every one of the
fundamental truths which give to Religion its perma-
nent value — Fiske's Cosmic Philosophy, Vol. 2, P. 467.
The survival of the fittest is a law which governs
every plant and animal that lives or has lived on earth.
Example — ^A single codfish will lay six million eggs
a year; if all lived and multiplied, in a few years the
ocean would be full, yet the supply of cod is always the
same, or nearly the same. What does this show?
Many plants produce at least 100 seeds each ; in ten
years (if all lived and produced the same number) this
would give 100,000,000,000,000 plants, yet plant life re-
mains about the same. What does this show?
APPENDIX. 175
Protective coloration of animals; animals living in
deserts, as camels, snakes, etc., etc., are the same color
as the gravel upon which they lie. In warm countries,
where flowers and plants are brilliant, the birds have
very brilliant plumage. These are only a few chosen
from hundreds of examples, but all go to show that
the most conspicuous animals would be noticed more
than those which resemble their surroundings, and
thus would be more apt to be sought by their enemies,
or killed for food, etc. This, in time, would tend to
the extermination of those organisms which do not
follow this law, and we have the theory of Protective
Coloration. Of course, in plant life, it is easy to see
how the plants that can best adapt themselves to their
conditions of soil, moisture, etc., would be most apt to
survive. Now let us apply this principle to the human
race and see what place it holds in our physical, men-
tal, and spiritual growth.
Of course, the underlying principle is adaptation
to conditions. Every square inch of ground occupied
by plant or animal life is a battlefield upon which the
struggle goes unceasingly. Indeed this struggle is so
keen that many adopt entirely new habits gradually;
as for instance, the sheep in Northwestern Europe
which subsist upon fish in winter. Of course, the or-
ganism most successful in its struggle to adapt itself
to conditions survives. The rest die. Is this true of
man? If so, what are the principles governing his
growth and development?
1. In our discussion last month we learned that
"conditions conducive to well being are conducive to
growth."
2. That the conditions conducive to mental, moral
and physiological growth are (a) warmth, (b) proper
food and good sociological conditions; each of which
will be considered in its proper order.
Read Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 5, Page 381.
3. The brain may be developed in two ways, (a J by
stimulation of the senses by intellectual work; (b) by
muscular exercises. Which is the more natural? What
is the danger of too early or too much intellectual
work ?
176 APPENDIX.
Some scholars think that children should not learn
to read or to write until the tenth year, and that in
earlier years there should be no intellectual work at all.
What do you think of this theory?
Read Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 13, page 71.
Of course the child best prepared for this struggle
is the one that survives. How shall you apply the de-
ductions nven above?
Read Darwin's "Origin of Species."
Read Drummond's "Ascent of Man."
Read Fiske's "Cosmic Philosophy," VoL 2.
And for another view of this subject take Cooky's
"Human Nature and the Social Order."
Study Paper No. 17.
*'SOME REASONS WHY PUPILS ARE NOT AL-
WAYS PROMOTED AT THE END OF
THE TERM."
The great lack in pupils to-day is the power to
study, to control themselves, to concentrate their mind
upon aity given subject Causes:
ia) The spirit of unrest at home,
b) -
Too many books, toys and amusements.
ic) Pupils are allowed too much liberty evenings,
d) The decline of parental authority and the con-
sequent lack of obedience and self-control on the part
of the pupil.
(e) A lack of responsibility, caused, in many in-
stances, by having no set task or duty to perform for
the family.
Notes :
No child in the Hancock School ought to study
more than one and one-half hours at home, and in the
lower rooms pupils can easily prepare all their lessons
in school. If any child does differently one of four
things is probably true:
(a) The pupil is in too high a class.
(b) The lessons are unnecessarily long.
APPENDIX. 177
^c) Some physical disability exists.
(d) The child docs not know how to study.
Often a pupil sits in a room with the family, join-
ing from time to time in the conversation. When bed-
time comes he says (and believes) that he has studied
three or four hours, when, in point of fact, his mind
has not been on his books for twenty consecutive min-
utes. He should have a quiet corner by himself, if
possible, though here the trouble will be just as great
if he allows his mind to wander to some unexpected
treat, amusement, or pleasant occupation.
Kindly remember that the school is the reflection
of the home; that our great need, from the primary
grade to the high school, is the power to do a little
work well, in other words, the ability to study and keep
the mind from wandering. Pupils cannot get this
power without the help of home. As a rule the les-
sons are not too long or too difficult, but many students
cannot master them simply because they have never
learned the beginnings of self-control or self-mastery.
Parents generally give this help cheerfully when
once the necessity for it is understood, and, in such
instances, children rarely fail.
Please keep this paper for reference, and if your
child is not promoted at the end of the term, try to
determine which of these causes were instrumental to
this condition.
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|
zh | N/A | N/A | **网络时代的大学生思想政治教育研究**
**郑文新**
**(杭州师范大学，杭州310018)**
**摘 要：当代社会进入互联网时代，信息技术迅猛发展，社会生活的各个方面都得到深刻变化。高等院校由于在人才培养和信息资源中的重要地位，而成为中国网络发展的前沿。以大学生为主体的网民数量日趋壮大，网络对大学生的思想观念、价值取向、思维方式、行为模式都产生了影响，因此给高校的思想政治教育工作提出课题。研究网络为思想政治教育带来的机遇与挑战，对因势利导利用网络做好大学生的思想政治教育工作具有重大的现实意义。**
**关键词：网络；大学生；思想政治教育**
**中图分类号：G641 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1002-2589(2013)23-0389-02**
**随着信息技术的迅猛发展，网络作为新的信息传播媒介，深刻地改变着社会生活的各个方面、网络越来越成为大学生获取信息的主要渠道，并对大学生的学习、生活乃至思想观念产生了深刻的影响。因此，大学生必然面临互联网对其行为模式、价值取向、政治态度、心理发展、道德观念等方面的巨大冲击。在这个时代如何利用网络提供的条件做好大学生的思想政治教育工作就成为高校面临的--项重大任务。同时，网络时代的到来为大学生的思想收治教育提供了新的手段，使得传统的思想政治教育方式面临挑战，要求进行思想政治教育方式与模式的创新。**
**思想政治教育是指社会或社会群体用一定的思想观念、政治观点、道德规范对其成员施加有目的、有计划、有组织的影响，使他们形成符合一定社会一定阶级所需要的思想品德的社会实践活动。思想政治教育的开展，总是以一定的环境因素为前提，社会环境是影响思想政治教育的外部条件。目前，随着网络信息技术的迅猛发展，我们所处的社会进人网络化时代。**
**大学生作为中国未来的中坚力量，是我国社会主义事业的接班人，担负着建设祖国的重任，对其思想政治教育尤为重要，特别是在网络时代，这种深刻的社会环境的变化对大学生的思想观念、价值取向、思维方式、行为模式的广泛而深刻的影响。因此，必然要加强大学生的思想政治教育。如何以现有的教育方式为依托，充分运用现代信息技术，探索新的教育方式，提高工作实效，增强影响力，这是思想政治工作中一个亟待研究和解决的新课题。**
**一、网络时代互联网为大学生思想政治教育带来的机遇**
**1.互联网拓宽了大学生思想政治教育的时间和空间**
**由于互联网是全天候开放的，没有时间的限制，并且交互式的远程交流打破了空间的限制，为思想政治教育的传播提供了广阔的空间。通过网络，学生可以了解到各种思想观点、社会思潮、社会现象，开阔眼界。在网络中，学生**
**还可以自由地交流，迅速了解到国内外政治、经济、文化等各方面的信息。在这种网络环境下的思想政治教育形式还有内容上都能够贴近大学生思想实际。不仅如此，网络环境使得原来相对狭小的教育空间变成开放性的空间，使原来思想政治教育内容与实际不相符合的状况得到改善，使得思想政治教育更具有实效和针对性。**
**2.互联网的关联性使大学生思想政治教育社会化**
**网络的关联性使得高校思想政治教育网络能够与家庭、政府机构等社会机构相连，为社会各界参加大学生的思想政治教育工作提供了便利，同时拓宽了大学生思想政治教育的视野。能够实现大学生思想政治教育工作中家庭与社会力量的有机结合，使大学生的思想政治教育工作收到更好的效果，有利于扩大大学生思想政治教育的优势。**
**3.网络的平等性使思想政治教育更接近大学生**
**网络具有平等性，所有人都可以在网络上自由地发表言论、自由的交流和学习，人们的信仰、价值观、道德伦理、文化观念等等以前所未有的规模碰撞与融合。这样，通过网络进行思想政治教育不仅能够缩短人们之间的物理距离，同时也能拉近教育者与受教育者之间的心理距离。大学生的思想政治教育由传统的、被动式的灌输教育转变为积极地、主动地与教育者交流，在交流中感悟并且潜移默化地接受教育。**
**4.互联网使大学生思想政治教育的模式得到创新**
**思想政治教育是针对性较强的教育，网络特有的信息集成性、交互性、共享性和可选择性，为高校思想政治教育工作提供了具有个性特色的教育环境，网络的匿名性使大学生们能够自由地在网上发表意见、抒发观点。这使得更容易了解到学生真实的思想动态，从而提高了思想教育工作的针对性。通过这种互联网带来的新的匿名的交流模式，大学生的思想政治教更有针对性更能贴近学生的实际。**
**收稿日期：2013-07-04**
**作者简介：郑文新(1989-)，女，山东聊城人，2012级国外马克思主义研究专业硕士研究生，从事后马克思主义研究。**
NationalSocial SciencesDatabase
**二、网络时代对大学生思想政治教育带来的挑战**
**在看到网络时代对大学生思想政治教育带来机遇的同时也应清醒地认识到，网络给大学生思想政治教育带来的不仅是机遇还有严峻的挑战。**
**1.高校思想政治教育工作者面临的挑战**
**网络时代的到来对高校思想政治教育者提出了更高的要求，网络上的信息资源量丰富而且共享，学生可以通过网络了解世界，这就使高校的思想政治教育工作者丧失了信息优势，这对高校思想政治教育工作者来说是一个巨大的挑战。而现在高校缺乏一些既懂技术又懂思想政治教育的人才队伍，研究和宣传网络信息时代高校思想政治教育的新情况、新特点。同时，对网络在高校思想政治教育工作中的作用认识不清，重视程度不够，高校思想政治教育工作者对其地位由主导到被削弱的转变不适应。**
**2.大学生思想政治教育方式面临的挑战**
**大学生思想政治教育工作的主要内容是世界观教育、政治观教育、人生观教育、法制观教育和道德观教育。网络的开放性、交互性、共享性使每个学生在都能够获取信息、自由表达、交流思想；网络的匿名性使学生可以在更广阔的空间自由交流；网络的多媒体性使得网络信息具有吸引力，这对传统的思想政治教育方式与手段提出了挑战。而现在高校的思想政治教育者普遍存在对互联网在思想政治教育工作中的重要作用认识不强，在思想政治教育过程中对互联网的利用率较低的情况。**
**3.高校舆论导向控制和管理能力面临的挑战**
**互联网的平等与交互改变了信息的可控性。网络信息传播高度的自由化、网络的匿名性造成了网络资源良莠不齐，有些不良信息混杂其中，黄色网站以及充斥着暴力、迷信的网站与信息也掺杂其中。同时，网络的虚拟性导致一些大学生人际交往的障碍与道德的弱化。甚至有些学生整日沉迷网络聊天或者网络游戏中，严重影响了他们的身心健康。网络信息的全球化使不同国家之间在信息交流过程中价值观、思想观念和文化观念之间的碰撞与冲突更加激烈，可能会对学生的价值观造成冲击，对高校的舆论导向控制与管理提出了挑战。**
**三、网络时代做好大学生思想政治教育工作的对策**
**1.实现传统思想政治教育方式与网络思想政治教育新模式的结合**
**传统的思想道德教育的过程提倡，“教育者施加影响，改造受教育者。”即教师不论是在知识传播还是在道德教化上都充当了权威的角色，而学生只是无条件、被动地接受来自教师的灌输。传统思想政治教育一般采用课堂教学、个别谈心、座谈讨论等面对面的方式使受教育者提高认识。网络思想政治教育则是利用现代计算机网络技术让受教育者在网络上获取信息，学习知识，从而提高其认识。传统思想政治教育方式受时间、地点等条件的限制，而利用网络，能够使思想政治教育打破时间与空间的限制，扩大教育的受众规模，提高高校思想政治教育的效果。教师也可以运用一些最新的网络交流方式及时了解学生的思想动态与关注点，许多高校都建立了微博、论坛等等，上面往往有一些学生在现实中不愿说、不敢说的意见，对此，除了加强对微博、论坛等的监管外，还需要教师密切关注，正确引导。开展网上心理咨询，利用网络匿名性的特点，对存在心理问题的学生进行心理疏导，排除心理障碍，充分发挥网络在思想政治教育中的作用，并且对于高校网站上的**
**学生意见区，也不能形同虚设，无人管理。教师等思想政治教育工作者要通过这一渠道了解学生的思想动态与需求，及时反馈，因势利导做好思想政治教育工作。总之，要以一种宽松的态度、柔和的手段来进行交流，既要进行理想信念教育，又要恰如其分地让受教育者心服口服，只有这样才能有效地选准切人点，抓住着力点，让工作事半功倍，教育成果更加显著。在积极开展大学生的网络思想政治教育工作时，不能忽视传统的思想政治教育方式。网上的教育需要网下来巩固，网上发现的问题也需要网下的教育来解决，网上网下相互配合优势互补。所以，应该在继承和发扬传统思想政治教育方式的基础上，充分发挥网络的创新功能和技术优势，将网络思想政治教育与传统思想政治教育结合起来，增强大学生思想政治教育的活力。**
**2.健全管理体制，构筑抵制不良冲击的“防火墙”**
**首先，高校要健全规章制度，来规范网络运作。在高校建立起专门的网络信息管理机构，制定网络行为规范，加强对局域网、校园网的管理，不仅要通过行为规范来使学生提高认识自觉规范自身的网络行为，而且要通过审查监控来规范大学生的网络行为。还要对网上反动和不健康的内容进行清理过滤，通过分析监控，及时发现学生的思想动向以及存在的问题，并及时有效地进行针对性教育，在校园形成一种健康的网络环境。其次，宣传网络伦理，推动道德自律。加强对大学生进行网络伦理网络法制的教育，提提高高1他们的认识，使其具备网络法律意识、树立正确的网络道德观念。要教育学生遵守网络行为规范文明上网，自觉抵制网络垃圾的侵袭，并能自觉维护网络秩序。再次，国家应当加强网络立法，强化法律约束。减少思想政治教育的随意性，规范发展网络思想政治教育工作，建立健全互联网立法已是刻不容缓。**
**综上所述，时代在不断发展进步，新的技术形式层出不穷，我国大学生的思想政治教育也应适应时代的变化，努力创新、积极变革。今天对大学生进行思想政治教育应结合网络时代的新的情况，利用时代发展的最新成果，创新教育的形式从而更有效地进行对大学生的思想政治教育。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]陈万柏，张耀灿.思想政治教育学原理\[M\].北京：高等教育出版社，2007.**
**\[2\]朱彩萍.网络时代的青年思想政治工作\[\]甘肃理论学刊，2002，(5).**
**\[3\]武宝珍.当代大学生公民意识的思考\[\].中国市场：学术刊，2007，(Z1).**
**\[4\]粟湘福.网络时代高校思想政治教育研究\[J\].湖南社会科学，2004，(3).**
**\[5\]刘龙洲，廖志鹏.论青少年网络思想政治教育中的沟通问题\[\].湘潭师范学院学报：社会科学版，2007，(3).**
**\[6\]江泽民.在中央思想政治工作会议上的讲话\[N\].长江日报，2000-06-29.**
**\[7\]江益民.挑战与对策一网络时代的大学生德育途径的探索\[\].学位与研究生教育，2001，(1).**
**\[8\]上海交大党委研究室课题组.网络条件下高校思想政治工作的实践与思考\[\]学校党建与思想教育，2003，(6).**
**\[9\]徐芳.网络时代高校思想政治教育探析\[民营科技，2008，(9).**
**(责任编辑：宋** **佳)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **日本少子化政策演变及对中国生育支持政策的启示**
李 健
摘 要：日本自20世纪90年代中期开始制定、实施了一系列促进生育、抑制少子化进程的政策和法律法规，目前已形成了一套较为完善的政策体系，并收到一定成效，但还未能彻底扭转少子化的大趋势。本文在回顾日本少子化严峻发展状况的基础上，对日本近30年来少子化政策的演变进行了系统的时系列梳理，并及时跟进到2020年以来日本针对既往少子化政策效果低迷所采取的一系列新举措。同时，通过对日本少子化政策发展的阶段划分，总结日本少子化政策的发展演变中，从聚焦育儿扩展到多领域、从儿童/育儿群体扩展到全员全世代社会保障、行政应急措施与法律基石相结合、不断增强财政支持的主要特点，并总结经验教训，为我国生育支持政策的制定和实施提供参考。
关键词：日本；少子化；现状；政策演变
DOI：10.19633/j.cnki.11-2579/d.2022.0096
2020年我国总和生育率跌至1.3，低于国际社会通认的1.5警戒线，且出生人口呈走低趋势，出现少子化风险的倾向。在这样人口发展的关键转折之际，系统梳理研究国外、尤其是与我国在社会习俗和价值观上有较多共性的日本的少子化政策发展以及经验教训，对我国生育支持政策的制定和实施有着重要意义。
人口更替水平的一种社会现象。1989年(日本平成元年)，日本总和生育率跌至1.57，打破之前最低的1.58，被称为“少子化冲击元年”。也正是以1989年为契机，日本政府认识到少子化问题的严重性，在1992年的《国民生活白皮书》中，作为官方文件第一次使用了“少子化”来描述日本出生率下降以及儿童数量减少现象。并从20世纪90年代中期开始制定、实施了一系列促进生育、遏制少子化进程的政策和法律法规，目前已形成了一套较为完善的政策体系，并收到一定成效。
我国也从20世纪90年代开始，从现状、原因、影
响和政策等方面对日本的少子化进行了介绍11J12J，并逐步就少子化对女性就业31、教育14\]\[5\]、经济增长16\]、综合国力17等方面的影响进行了深刻分析。近年来，在进一步追踪日本少子化现状及政策发展状况的同时，在政策体系方面，山田昌弘、胡澎指出当前日本少子化政策在设计和实施中忽略了包括中国在内的亚洲国家固有的价值观，一直是以欧美国家的少子化政策为基础范式，因此难以奏效(8，王伟总结了日本少子化政策体系的特点，以及以经济援助、保育服务、工作方式改革、工作与生活相协调的施政重点9；王晓峰、全龙杰重点介绍了日本少子化政策体系的国会立法、内阁决议、少子化社会对策会议、政府职能部门等四个层次，以及经济援助、生育和育儿援助、工作方式改革三条主线110。
本文在回顾日本少子化严峻发展状况的基础上，以日本历年《少子化社会对策白皮书》为主线，对20世纪90年代中期以来近30年日本少子化政策的演变历程进行了系统的时系列梳理，并及时跟进到2020年以来日本针对既往少子化政策效果低迷所采取的一系列新举措。同时，通过对日本少子化政策发展的阶段划分，总结其演变的主要特点及其经验教训，为我国生育支持政策的制定和实施提供有益参考。
**二、日本少子化现象的严峻现状**
日本在2007年人口达到峰值(1亿2777万人)后进入人口减少时代。2020年总人口1亿2571万人，其中儿童(0~14岁)、劳动适龄人口(15~64岁)、65岁及以上人口占比分别为12.0%、59.3%、28.8%，儿童占比远低于联合国推算的全世界儿童占比(25.4%)，同时65岁及以上人口占比也远高于世界平均(9.3%)。从年出生人数来看(参见图1)，日本在1947一1949年的第一次婴儿潮时期约270万人，1971一1974的第二次婴儿潮时期最高约210万人，1975年跌破200万人，之后基本呈逐年减少趋势，2019年更是跌破90万人。总和生育率从20世纪50年代开始呈波动下降趋势，2005年跌至历史最低点1.26。之后呈现波动微升的趋势，在2015年达到近年峰值(1.45)。可以看出日本政府近年所采取的一系列少子化政策起到了一定成效。但之后总和生育率又转入减少趋势，2020年降至1.34，从中也表现出解决生育问题的艰巨性和复杂性。
注：依据日本厚生劳动省《人口动态统计》绘制。
图1 日本出生人口和总和生育率变迁
依据国立社会保障与人口问题研究所发布的《日本未来推算人口(2017年基准)》，2053年日本总人口将跌破1亿人。这样急速的人口减少不仅会带来严峻的经济和社会保障问题，也会严重影响到国家和社会的存在基础。
**三、日本少子化政策演变**
面对严峻的少子化境况，日本自20世纪90年代中期开始制定、推行了一系列遏制少子化进程的政策和法律法规，根据其主要目标和特征，大致可以分为以下四个阶段。
1.以保育服务为中心的少子化政策初建阶段(1994—2003年)111
日本少子化政策的第一阶段大致为1994年到2003年，这一阶段主要以《天使计划》和《新天使计划》为标志，以直接提升保育质量和数量为主要目的和手段(参见表1)。
日本自第二次婴儿潮(1971一1974年)以来，30年间出生数和总和生育率均呈下降趋势。1989年的总和生育率降至1.57，被称为“1.57冲击”，引发了日本各界对少子化的关注。政府也意识到总和生育率持续下降这一严峻问题，分别于1994年和1999年提出了《天使计划》和《新天使计划》。其特征都是以保育服务为中心，充实保育政策以及推进地区育儿援助中心建设。具体有扩大保育数量、涵盖0~2岁低龄儿童、延长保育时间等。与《天使计划》相比，《新天使计划》还广泛增加了雇佣、母子保健、咨询、教育等内容。从实际效果来看，从1994年到2004年，保育所入所儿童及其中未满3岁的低龄儿童分别由159万人和41万人，增长到197万人和62万人，分别增长了38万人和21万人，计划的目标值基本达成，政策取得一定成
| 时间 | 政策 | 级别 | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 时间 | 政策 | 法律 | 内阁决议 | 少子化社会对策会议 | 职能 部门及其他 |
| 1994.12 | 《天使计划》 | | | | |
| 1994.12 | 《紧急保育对策等5年项目》 | | | | |
| 1999.12 | 《少子化对策推进基本方针》 | | | | |
| 1999.12 | 《新天使计划》 | | | | |
| 2001.07 | 《工作和育儿两立援助方针-—待入园(所)儿童归零作战等》 | | | | |
| 2002.09 | 《少子化对策+1》 | | | | |
注：依据日本内阁府令和3年《少子化社会对策白皮书》编制。效，但从结果来看未能扭转少子化的大趋势。
2.以法律为基础的少子化政策体系构建阶段(2003—2015年)
日本少子化政策的第二阶段大致为2003年到2015年，这一阶段主要以《少子化社会对策基本法》《少子化社会对策纲要》《少子化社会对策基本法新纲要——儿童、育儿展望》以及相关法律法规为标志，建立起较为完备的以法律为基础的少子化政策体系(参见表2)。
表2 日本少子化政策(第二阶段：法制体系)
| 时间 | 政策 | 级别 | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 时间 | 政策 | 法律 | 内阁决议 | 少子化社会对策会议 | 职能部门及其他 |
| 2003.07 | 《少子化社会对策基本法》 | | | | |
| 2003.07 | 《下--代育成援助对策促进法》 | | | | |
| 2004.06 | 《少子化社会对策纲要》 | | | | |
| 2004.12 | 《儿童、育儿援助计划》 | | | | |
| 2006.06 | 《关于新少子化对策》 | | | | |
| 2007.12 | 《日本支持儿童及家庭重点战略》 | | | | |
(续表)
| 时间 | 政策 | 级别 | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 时间 | 政策 | 法律 | 内阁决议 | 少子化社会对策会议 | 职能 部门及其 他 |
| 2007.12 | 《工作与生活协调发展宪章》及行动指南 | | | | |
| 2008.02 | 《新待入园(所)儿童归零作战》 | | | | |
| 2010.01 | 《少子化社会对策基本 法新纲要-——儿童、育儿展望》 | | | | |
| 2010.01 | 《儿童、育儿新系统研讨会议》 | | | | |
| 2010.11 | 《待入园(所)儿童消减先手项目》 | | | | |
| 2012.03 | 《儿童、育儿新系统相关基本制度》 | | | | |
| 2012.08 | 《儿童、育儿援助法等相关三法》 | | | | |
| 2013.04 | 《加速消减待入园(所)儿童计划》 | | | | |
| 2013.06 | 《突破少子化危机紧急对策》 | | | | |
| 2014.07 | 《放学后儿童综合计划》 | | | | |
| 2014.11 | 《地区、人与工作振兴法》 | | | | |
| 2014.12 | 《地区、人与工作长期展望及综合战略》 | | | | |
**注：依据日本内阁府令和3年《少子化社会对策白书》编制。**
2003年日本制定了《少子化社会对策基本法》，这是日本应对少子化问题的基础法律。2004年依据该法律制定了《少子化社会对策纲要》(以下简称《纲要》)。《纲要》将少子化对策定位为以举国之力践行的重要政策，明确提出以“让孩子健康成长的社会、让人们可以从生育、养育中感受到安心和喜悦的社会”为目标，扭转少子化的进程。并从“促进青年自立的愿望和能力”“消除育儿中的不安”“合力构建育儿制度的新支撑”三个角度出发，提出了“促进青年自立和儿童健康成长”“对工作、家庭二者兼顾的援助以及对工作方式的再思考”“理解生命的重要性和家庭的作用”“合力构建育儿制度的新支撑”四个重点课题。2010年基于《少子化社会对策基本法》制定
了新纲要——《儿童、育儿展望》。新纲要强调以儿童和养育者视角出发的援助政策，并提出政策实施中重视生命和成长、回应困难之声、加强日常生活援助三个重要准则。
此外，在《少子化社会对策基本法》的基础上，于2003年制定了《下一代育成援助对策促进法》，以促进地方公共团体和企业采取计划性措施，援助下一代成长；；于2012年通过了与社会保障、税收综合改革相关的《儿童、育儿援助法等相关三法》112J，将社会保障由之前主要面向老年人的三种经费支出扩大为包括少子化对策在内的四种经费(养老金、医疗、看护、少子化对策)；并根据《儿童、育儿援助法》着手“儿童、育儿援助新制度”的准备工作，2014年度利用消费税率提高到8%获得的税收，在待入园(所)儿童较多的市镇村等推行了《紧急确保保育项目》；于2014年通过了《地区、人与工作振兴法》，将少子化问题与地区振兴联系起来。
在一系列法制基础建设和第一次、第二次《少子化社会对策纲要》的实施中，日本总和生育率从2005年的1.26到2013年的1.43，呈现出缓慢增长趋势。
**3.多领域综合推进少子化政策阶段(2015一2020年)**
日本少子化政策的第三阶段大致为2015年到2020年，这一阶段主要以《第三次少子化社会对策纲要》为标志，进入多领域综合推进少子化政策阶段，政策不仅仅止步于育儿援助，而是从财政、婚姻、教育、工作方式闲地区振兴等多领域入手，协同推进政策实施(参见表3)。
2013年的《突破少子化危机紧急对策》以及2015年《第三次少子化社会对策纲要》突破了以往少子化对策的框架，新增加了对结婚的援助，《第三次少子化社会对策纲要》满足了青年在低年龄即可结婚生子的愿望，并进一步照顾多子女家庭，改革男女工作方式，提出结合地区特点、实际情况以及长期效果，强化细化各项措施的工作方针。
育儿援助及财政方面，根据2012年颁布的《儿童、育儿援助法等相关三法》，从2015年起“儿童、育儿援助新制度”正式实施。2016年对《儿童、育儿援助法》进一步进行修订，加强对企业内以保育为目的设施的补贴力度。。于2017年颁布了《安心育儿计划》，规划至2022年年度末增加32万人的保育配置，在2017年出台的《新经济政策一揽子计划》中，将此目标提前到2020年度末。对于利用保育所的双职工家
表3 日本少子化政策(第三阶段： _：多_ 多领域综合推进)
| 时间 | 政策 | 级别 | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 时间 | 政策 | 法律 | 内阁决议 | 少子化社会对策会议 | 职能部门及其他 |
| 2015.03 | 《第三次少子化社会对策纲要》 | | | | |
| 2015.04 | 《下一代育成援助对策促进法》延长 | | | | |
| 2016.04 | 《儿童、育儿援助法修订》 | | | | |
| 2016.06 | K《日本一亿总活跃计划》 | | | | |
| 2017.03 | 《工作方式改革实施计划》 | | | | |
| 2017.06 | 《安心育儿计划》 | | | | |
| 2017.12 | 《新经济政策一揽子计划》 | | | | |
| 2018.04 | 《儿童、育儿援助法修订》 | | | | |
| 2018.06 | 《育人革命基本构想》 | | | | |
| 2018.07 | 《促进工作方式改革相关法律整备法》 | | | | |
| 2019.04 | 《新放学后儿童综合计划》 | | | | |
| 2019.05 | 《儿童、育儿援助法的部分修订》 | | | | |
| 2019.05 | 《大学等学业援助相关法律》 | | | | |
| 2019.12 | 《地区、人与工作长期展望及综合战略》第二期 | | | | |
注：依据日本内阁府令和3年《少子化社会对策白皮书》编制。庭，儿童上学后也面临着放学后可以安全安心托管的问题，从培养下一代的观点出发，让所有儿童在放学后参与体验多样化的活动也是一项重要措施，为此，文部科学省和厚生劳动省联合，于2014年和2019年分别制定了《放学后儿童综合计划》和《新放学后儿童综合计划》。其中《新放学后儿童综合计划》提出至2021年和2023年度末，增加放学后儿童俱乐部25万人和30万人的配额目标。
教育方面，2017年提出的《新经济政策一揽子计划》以“育人革命”和“生产性革命”为主轴，其中，，“育人革命”包含了幼儿教育的无偿化、消除待入园(所)儿童、高等教育无偿化等规模2兆日元的
政策提案。根据2019年通过的《儿童、育儿援助法的部分修订》以及《大学等学业援助相关法律》，，于2019年开始实施幼儿教育、保育无偿化，并于2020年开始实施针对低收入家庭的高等教育援助新制度。
工作方式改革方面，2016年《日本一亿总活跃计划》从正面应对经济成长的瓶颈——少子高龄化，为实现“意愿生育率1.8”\[13\]，提出了加强青年的稳定雇佣、改善非正式雇佣待遇、推进工作方式改革、完善多样化的保育服务、破除接受教育的制约等2016一2025年的10年路线图。2018年， 为了综合推进工作方式改革，实现劳动者可根据自身情况选择多样化的工作方式，日本通常国会会议通过了《促进工作方式改革相关法律整备法》，以纠正长时间劳动、实现灵活多样化的工作方式、确保与雇佣形态无关均能得到公正待遇等。
地区振兴方面，2014年通过《地区、人与工作振兴法》，将少子化、超高龄化和地方振兴结合起来，并于2014年和2019年依次公布了对人口和经济进行中长期展望的《地区、人与工作振兴长期展望及综合战略》一期和二期规划。在包括结婚、生子、育儿援助的基本目标的指引下，提升地方活力，纠正东京圈人口单极集中趋势，实现“由充满活力的地区构成的社会”。
在这段时期内，日本总和生育率从2015年的1.45，下滑至2019年的1.36，虽然这一时期日本少子化政策日趋完善和全面，但由于少子化问题的复杂性以及政策效果的滞后性，想要彻底扭转少子化趋势仍是一个巨大的挑战。但也需要看出，总和生育率虽然又转入下降趋势，但仍高于2001一2007年之间的水平，表明日本少子化政策至少在减缓少子化进程的严重性上，起到一定成效。
4.全世代型社会保障改革方针推进阶段(2020年之间的)
日本少子化政策的第四阶段大致可从2020年开始，这一阶段主要以《第四次少子化社会对策纲要》为标志，进入到以《全世代型社会保障改革方针》推进少子化政策的新阶段(参见表4)。
2020年5月内阁会议通过了《第四次少子化社会对策纲要》，提出为实现“意愿生育率1.8”，以“创造一个易于青年、育儿世代发展的友好环境”“满足多样化育儿家庭的多种需求”“根据地区实际情况采取细致措施”“建立一个温暖的适宜结婚、怀孕、生育、育儿的社会”“积极利用科学技术成果等新资源”
表4 日本少子化政策(第四阶段：全世代型社会保障)
| 时间 | 政策 | 级别 | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 时间 | 政策 | 法律 | 内阁决议 | 少子化职能部社会对 策会议 | 门 及其他 |
| 2020.05 | 《第四次少子化社会对策纲要》 | | | | |
| 2020.12 | 《全世代型社会保障改革方针》 | | | | |
| 2020.12 | 《新育儿安心计划》 | | | | |
| 2021.05 | 《儿童、育儿援助法及儿童津贴法的部分法律修订》 | | | | |
| 2021.06 | 《关于育儿休假、护理休假等育儿或家庭看护劳动者权益的相关法律以及雇佣保险法的部分修订》 | | | | |
**注：依据日本内阁府令和3年《少子化社会对策白皮书》编制。**
五个基本思想为基础，依据社会形势变化，推动符合令和时代和以当事人为视角的少子化对策。
2020年12月内阁会议通过了《全世代型社会保障改革方针》，提出人生百年的时代已经到来，不仅要针对老年群体，对儿童群体、育儿群体，甚至对正当年群体都要给予广泛的、使其安心的保障，从养老金、劳动、医疗、看护、少子化对策等全方位，对社会保障进行可持续性改革。并确立了《第四次少子化社会对策纲要》的具体施政方向：
婚姻援助方面，进一步加强对采取综合性婚姻援助的地方公共团体进行经济补贴。将对交友平台的补助率由1/2提高到2/3，加强对房租、搬家费用等新婚生活的援助，放宽对年龄、收入和补助金额的上限。
生育援助方面，将不孕治疗纳入保险，从2022年度开始实施。在纳入保险之前，废除现行的补助制度中对收入的限制，并提高补助额度(首次30万日元)，以减轻家庭的经济负担。推进社会对不孕治疗的友好氛围，从增加专门咨询员到出院后母子身心健康护理，增强从怀孕到育儿的无缝隙援助。
育儿环境建设方面，为了消减待入园(所)儿童问题，于2020年12月发布了《新育儿安心计划》，提出在2021一2024年度末，扩充约14万人的保育名额，并通过提升职业魅力增加保育员数量、活用地区所有育儿资源等，尽快消减待入园(所)儿童。对积极推
进员工育儿休假的中小企业予以补助(企业平均50万日元)。为推进男性参与育儿活动，从2020年度开始，实施男性国家公务员1个月以上的育儿假，同时促进民间企业的男性育儿假，国会于2021年提出了《关于育儿休假、护理休假等育儿或家庭看护劳动者权益的相关法律以及雇佣保险法的部分修订》。
地区和社会援助方面，为了让育儿家庭于所在地区安全且安心地养育子女，结合地区特点，推进以利用者援助为核心的多功能型育儿援助地区建设，并为促进各育儿援助机构间的合作，对《儿童、育儿援助法及儿童津贴法》的部分法律进行了修订。
税制及经济援助方面，延长扩大了对结婚、育儿等资金赠与的不征税期限和范围，对国家和地方公共团体实施育儿补助免征税费。
**应对新冠肺炎疫情方面，对不安和有困难状况的孕妇进行电话和网络咨询援助、护理指导等，对难以回家乡生育的孕妇提供育儿援助服务等，对孕妇和婴幼儿提供综合援助。**
**四、日本少子化政策演变的主要特点**
日本从20世纪90年代开始实施了一系列少子化政策。纵观日本少子化政策的演变，可以看出日本不断根据实际状况改善、修订政策，在摸索中试行的特点。其政策演变的几个主要特点为：
1.窗口前移、范围扩大，从聚焦育儿扩展到婚姻、教育及环境建设等多领域
从前面对日本少子化政策的梳理可以看出，日本少子化政策的初期主要以提升保育质量和数量为主要目标，《天使计划》《新天使计划》均以扩大保育规模、延长保育时间、扩展涵盖范围、充实相关服务为主要内容，第一次和第二次《少子化社会对策纲要》也是从生育和养育出发，提出相应的环境建设以及从儿童和养育者视角出发的援助准则。
而有学者指出日本生育率低下的主要原因是未婚化增长以及婚内生育率降低，其中前者的影响更大，总和生育率从20世纪70年代左右的2.01降至2012年的1.38，变化量的约90%是由婚姻行为带来，只有约10%是由夫妻生育行为带来的影响【14\]。政府也从2013年的《突破少子化危机紧急对策》开始重视婚姻行为，将结婚、怀孕、生育援助作为政策实施的“三驾马车”。2015年的《第三次少子化社会对策纲要》正式突破以往少子化政策
的框架，增加了对结婚的援助，在进一步充实育儿援助政策的同时，帮助青年实现在低年龄即可结婚生子的愿望。并颁布了与税收改革相关的《儿童、育儿援助法等相关三法》，以及推行幼儿教育/保育的无偿化、高等教育援助制度、纠正长时间劳动、实现灵活多样的工作方式、确保与雇佣形态无关均能得到公正待遇、提升地方活力等，从财政、教育、工作方式和地区振兴等多领域入手，协同推进政策实施。
2.从儿童和育儿群体扩展到全员全世代的社会保障
与施政范围扩大，逐渐覆盖多领域的政策内容相匹配，日本少子化政策对象也逐步由儿童和育儿群体过渡到对全员全世代的覆盖。
少子化政策初期，以《天使计划》和《新天使计划》为代表，施政对象主要为育儿和儿童群体。从施政效果来看，虽收到一定成效，但未能扭转少子化发展的大趋势。日本总和生育率从1994年的1.50一路跌至2005年的1.26。此后，日本除了向育儿以及儿童群体扩大财政投入外，还以助学金贷款和奖学金等形式扩展到初中、高中、大学等各求学阶段。当前，日本以《全世代型社会保障改革方针》为标志，开展了对社会保障体系的全方位改革。与之相应，《第四次少子化社会对策纲要》的主要施政方向也扩展到结婚援助、怀孕/生育援助、工作与育儿兼顾、地区社会援助、经济援助、应对新冠肺炎疫情等多领域，施政对象涵盖儿童、青少年、育儿以及正当年群体。例如对结婚生活援助中，年龄从原来的34岁扩大到39岁，包含了一部分中年群体。日本2015年30~34岁男性约2人中1人、女性约3人中1人未婚；35~39岁男性约3人中1人、女性约4人中1人未婚，大龄未婚化现象明显是影响生育率的一个重要原因115\]。而日本泡沫经济破裂后，就业环境恶化，并随着终身雇佣制的瓦解催生出大量的非正式雇佣员工。非正式雇佣员工收入不稳定，福利待遇差，这些都是直接导致很多人不能结婚，甚至不敢结婚的重要原因。严峻的少子化问题是社会环境、以及人们意识和行为综合作用的结果，因此，不仅限于育儿和儿童群体，以全世代为对象，整合多领域的政策措施，才是综合解决少子化问题的方向所在。
**3.行政应急措施与法律基石相结合建设少子化政策体系**
日本在应对少子化问题中采取的政策大致可分为相关法律、内阁决议通过、少子化社会对策会议(以
内阁总理大臣为会长，由全体内阁成员组成)决议通过、职能部门及其他出台四种类型(参见表1至表4)。其中后两种，尤其是职能部门和专项会议出台的政策程序相对简单，进入实施阶段快，具有较强的机动性和灵活性。例如1994年出台的第一部少子化政策《天使计划》就是由文部省、厚生省、劳动省、建设省联合制定颁布，并同时由大藏省、厚生省和自治省联合推出了《紧急保育对策等5年项目》，确定了少子化政策的起始方针和举措。之后相关部门陆续出台了《新天使计划》《少子化对策+1》《工作与生活协调发展宪章》等十余部针对少子化严峻状况及新现象制定的机动、紧急的应对举措。
在以政府职能部门为主推出紧急应对措施的同时，日本于2003年制定了《少子化社会对策基本法》，确立了应对少子化问题的基础法律，并依据该法律依次从2004年到2020年制定了四次由内阁决议通过的《少子化社会对策纲要》，形成日本少子化对策的基本框架。此外，日本还从2003年开始相继颁布了《下一代育成援助对策促进法》《儿童、育儿援助法等相关三法》《地区、人与工作振兴法》《促进工作方式改革相关法律整备法》《大学等学业援助相关法律》及相关修订，涉及儿童、育儿、财政、劳动、教育等多领域，形成了针对少子化进程的较为完备的法律体系。
这样日本由较为机动、灵活的行政举措和较为完备的法律基础构成了较为完整的少子化政策体系。其中法律制度奠定了政策体系的根基；重要的政策经由内阁会议决定，确定政策的重点领域和措施；少子化社会对策会议制定更为具体的计划；相关职能部门负责政策的具体实施并针对具体情况出台紧急应对措施。从中可以看出日本少子化政策依据具体情况，不断积累经验，从实践经验中形成法律，再由法律约束指导实践的发展过程。
4.不断扩大财源、增强财政支持是少子化政策实施的关键所在
日本少子化社会政策相关预算在平成萧条期财政紧张的状况下不断加大投入。近20年间，从2003年度的1兆4772亿日元到2021年度的5兆9574亿日元(约为3341亿人民币)，提升幅度明显。其中最重要的举措之一——儿童补贴，从1972年度向143.5万名儿童发放了422亿日元，到2019年度向1641.0万名儿童发放了2兆678亿日元(约为1160亿人民币)116\]，不论在对象数量还是额度上都有大幅提升，目前约占日本少
子化财政的近一半左右。儿童补贴是日本对育儿家庭提供经济援助的重要方式，始于1972年，是在日本少子化对策开始之前就建立起来的一项社会保障制度。近50年来不断扩大补贴对象和额度，成为了少子化对策中的一项重要举措，目前儿童补贴的实施对象是0~15岁儿童，0~3岁一律为15000日元/月；3~12岁为10000日元/月(三孩及以上为15000日元/月)，13~15岁一律为10000日元/月117。
在财政紧张的情况下，日本一边通过立法扩充财源，一边积极号召社会力量给予支持。政府在2012年推出与社会保障、税收综合改革相关的《儿童、育儿援助法等相关三法》，将少子化对策经费纳入社会保障财政之中。并在2013年度修正预算中创设了“地区少子化对策强化补贴”。直接的财政支持可以带来较为明显的政策效果，2014年度利用消费税率提高到8%获得的税收，在待入园(所)儿童较多的市镇村等开展了“紧急确保保育项目”，实现了约22万人的保育扩容，超额完成目标。2017年的“育人革命”包含了幼儿教育的无偿化、消除待入园(所)儿童、高等教育的无偿化等规模2兆日元的政策，切实解决育儿和教育负担，将社会保障制度推向全世代型。2019年，将消费税提高到10%，为以上这些政策提供了稳定财源。同时，在以全社会之力支持育儿的大方向下，日本开始积极倡导经济界给予大力协助，以进一步巩固和扩大财政来源。
**五、经验教训及对我国生育政策制定和实施的启示**
日本针对少子化的严峻状况采取了紧急应对举措和法律制度相结合的政策体系，不断扩大财源、增强对重点项目的针对性投入，将援助窗口前移至婚姻援助、以全员全世代多领域的社会保障来遏制少子化进程。从目前的效果来看，对少子化进程起到了一定的缓解作用，但还未能彻底扭转少子化的大趋势，其经验和教训可以为我国生育政策的制定和实施提供以下几点启示：
**1.采取更为积极的政策举措、建设生育友好社会环境，彻底扭转少子化社会生育意识**
从日本以及少子化较为严峻的发达国家的人口发展状况可以看出，少子化趋势一旦形成很难扭转。日本在1989年总和生育率跌至1.57，而在此之前，早在1974年就已跌至2.05，开始低于人口更替水平。然而
由于1971一1974年日本迎来第二次婴儿潮，且“人口爆炸论”在世界范围盛行，因此日本提出了控制人口增长的宣言118.。之后总和生育率基本呈下降趋势，却没有引起政府的警觉。1989年“1.57冲击”后，直到1994年底《天使计划》出台，政策的反应速度也不能说是迅速。之后日本虽然出台了一系列法律法规和政策措施，却难以扭转少子化的大趋势。对人口发展形势的错误判断、坐视总和生育率下降、政策出台不够及时，是造成日本现今少子化境况严峻的一个重要原因。而法国等近年来少子化政策效果较好的国家，大多在总和生育率还不是太低时就及时出台了各种针对少子化的政策措施，被认为是政策取得成效的一个重要因素1191。
我国总和生育率自1992年跌破2.0，1999年跌至1.59，之后呈缓慢上升趋势，2019年为1.70，虽然略高于日本，但长期低于人口更替水平。2020年更是跌至1.3，低于国际警戒线，且出生人口呈走低趋势，已呈现少子化现象的端倪。由于人口惯性和政策制定、实施以及效果显现的滞后性，政策对人口现象的影响往往要经过几十年才会显现出来。扭转人们对生育、家庭的意识，以及建立一个可以让人们安心生育、养育的社会更是需要长期的投入和宣传，不是一朝一夕一蹴而就的，这也就要求扭转少子化趋势的政策宜早不宜晚，越早采取行动，所面对的困难就越小，收效也会越高。因此，在我国还未进入少子化的加速期之前，在端倪之初即采取积极彻底的政策措施至关重要。
**2.结合地域特点，以多领域综合性政策措施，覆盖社会全体成员**
日本少子化的初期政策主要以提升保育质量和数量为目标，辅助以工作方式改革，直到2013年的《突破少子化危机紧急对策》才开始重视婚姻等行为的重要作用，2015年的《第三次少子化社会对策纲要》才正式加入了对结婚的援助。而学者普遍认为，对于日本总和生育率下降和出生人口减少，婚姻行为的影响要远大于或大于生育行为。2019年日本千人结婚率4.7，仅为20世纪70年代前半期的一半左右。造成结婚率降低、晚婚晚育、大龄未婚率的原因错综复杂，有价值观/婚育观的变化、缺乏安定的经济条件、无法兼顾工作和家庭、女性结婚和生育的机会成本增加，以及与异性交往机会少等多种原因。从对日本少子化政策的梳理可以看出，只聚焦于生育/育儿援助的单一政策效果有限。就业、结婚、生育、育儿、教
育以及养老这一系列环节环环相扣、彼此之间密不可分，对任何一个环节的保障缺失都会削弱其他环节的政策效果。日本近年来提出的涵盖儿童群体、青少年群体、育儿群体，以及正当年群体的《全世代型社会保障改革方针》，正是对多年来少子化政策探索的总结。
因此，我国的少子化政策在制定和实施中，虽应有所侧重，却不应仅针对儿童或育儿群体，也不应仅限于生育和育儿等单一领域、仅采用增加产假、育儿假等单一手段，而是应从当事人的角度出发，制定综合全面且覆盖社会全员的政策措施。例如，生育津贴的领取因有参保要求，将大量非正式就业或未就业女性排除在外，今后可考虑转换为儿童津贴，以儿童为主体，从出生前即可申请，0岁开始领取，切实覆盖全体儿童和育儿群体；进一步扩充公立幼儿园/托儿所、普惠园建设；以北京将辅助生殖技术项目纳入医保为契机，探讨将不孕不育检测、治疗全面纳入保险；在育儿援助之外，重点加强对青年交友、婚恋、成家的援助；促进工作与家庭兼顾的工作方式、完善新兴就业群体在内的各类就业的社会保障等等，从多领域入手，协同制定和推进政策实施。同时，我国幅员辽阔，不同地域/地区、城乡，不同规模的城市所面临的境况和问题都有着较大差异，因此应结合各自特点，分别制定具有针对性的政策细则。
3.政策制定应目标明确、重点突出，并及时开展评估以检验效果
日本政府由于在战争时期的人口扩张政策饱受谴责，对制定“人口政策”顾虑重重，甚至将涉及人口的大多举措称为“对策”，且日本社会普遍认为结婚和生育涉及个人隐私，不应该由国家政策来引导1201。因此，日本少子化对策中迟迟没有提及可量化的宏观目标。直到2016年的《日本一亿总活跃计划》才具体提出“意愿生育率1.8”以及50年后仍维持充满活力的1亿人口的战略目标。但从中仍可以看出日本少子化对策宏观目标的模糊性，即虽然少子化由总和生育率定义，但却既不以总和生育率，也不以出生人口数作为少子化对策直接的宏观目标。因此少子化对策中，虽然有一系列具体目标，如在《日本一亿总活跃计划》中针对意愿生育率1.8，提出到2020年，非本意非正式25~34岁青年员工古比减半、结婚意愿实现率达80%等细化目标，但这些具体目标与总目标之间的关系并不清晰，难以对政策总体的达成效果进行有
效评估，从而及时发现问题并进行纠正。
因此，我国的少子化政策首先应该设置明确的人口政策目标，而后根据总体目标进一步细化为就业、婚恋、生育、育儿、教育、保险、财政等各领域的具体目标，这样具体指标的达成才能与总体目标联系起来，从而通过对具体指标实施效果的评估，及时掌握总体人口政策目标的达成情况。同时，少子化政策的制定和实施既要覆盖多领域、涵盖全体社会成员，也要确定重点领域和施政顺序。从近年来的研究成果来看，工作及收入不稳定是阻碍结婚、生育的一大关键要素(21)。结合当前经济社会发展状况以及日本少子化政策的经验，除了延长育儿假时间、提高育儿假薪资、增设公立及普惠型幼儿园/托儿所等直接与生育相关的政策外，应尽快建立起以儿童为主体的儿童津贴制度，避免育儿家庭因没有(正式)工作没有参保而不能领取生育津贴的困境，同时重点加强对青年、尤其是劳动权益保障不能完全覆盖的新兴就业群体的劳动待遇的提升；加强青年婚育观/家庭观建设、促进交友交往，探讨对结婚/多子女家庭提供一定补贴或退税优惠，从实际层面对青年的婚恋进行援助，切实促进青年的结婚意愿和能力，而后逐步扩展到教育、保险以及财政等各个方面。
4.倡导社会力量、加强财政支持力度是少子化政策实施效果的重要保障
日本不断加大对少子化政策的财政支持，少子化社会政策相关预算从2003年度的1兆4772亿日元到2021年度的5兆9574亿日元，有着大幅提升。然而与其他发达国家相比，2018年日本用于家庭的社会性
支出占GDP比重为1.65%，与瑞典的3.42%、英国的3.19%、法国的2.93%和德国的2.40%仍有着较为明显的差距。政策的实施离不开强有力的财政支持，瑞典和法国等近年来总和生育率有较好趋势的国家均有着强有力的家庭补贴政策。截至2017年，法国的家庭补贴已达30多种\[22\]，用于家庭的社会性支出达661.60亿欧元，与日本相当，而法国人口仅为日本的一半左右。因此，如何确保少子化政策的财政来源、增加对少子化政策的经济投入，一直是日本少子化政策中的一个重要问题。
从日本少子化政策的实施情况也可以看出，增强针对性财政投入会收到较好的政策效果。少子化问题关系到国家和社会的发展，应举全国之力增加对政策实施的经济保障。这就需要在不断扩大国家财政支持力度的同时，积极倡导社会各界给予支持，既要有充足的财源支持，又要注意不把负担过多地推给企业。同时，应进一步加强对政策的费用一效益分析，做到科学指导下的统筹分配，科学评估政策的实施效果，及时调整和修订政策，让有限的资金发挥最大的作用。■
\[基金项目：本文系中国青少年研究中心立项课题“中国青年发展指数研究”(项目编号：21GH02)的阶段性成果\]
李债： **：** 中国青少年研究中心青年发展研究所
助理研究员，博士
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\[25\]郑松泰.“信息主导”背景下农民工的生存状态和身份认同\[j\].社会学研究，2010(2)：106-124.
\[26\]周大鸣.互联网时代的新生代农民工研究\[j\].社会科学家，2021(10)：9-14.
**\[27\]阎云翔，杨雯琦.社会自我主义：中国式亲密关系——中国北方农村的代际亲密关系与下行式家庭主义\[1\].探索与争鸣，** 2017(7)：4-15.
\[28\]魏澜，张乐天.家庭本位的“关系”实践：私人书信中的家庭主义图像(1972—1995年)\[j\].社会，2021(2)：27-55.
\[29\]黄宗智.中国的现代家庭：来自经济史和法律史的视角\[j\].开放时代，2011(5)：82-105.
\[30\]张静.公共性与家庭主义——社会建设的基础性原则辨析\[j\].北京工业大学学报(社会科学版)，2011(3)：1-4.
\[31\]杜平.透视流动家庭：文化规范与生活实践互构下的性别秩序\[J」.妇女研究论丛，2019(6)：32-42.
\[32\]蔡玲.流动的背后：家庭关系与男性气质建构\[j\].中国农村观察，2018(4)：17-31.
\[33\]多地发布建筑业清退令，超龄农民工路在何方?\[N\].工人日报，2022-03-18.
\[34\]谭娜，周先波.中国农村老年人“无休止劳动”存在吗?——基于年龄和健康对劳动供给时间影响的研究\[j\].经济评论，2013(2)：19-29.
\[35\]程杰.养老保障的劳动供给效应\[j\].经济研究，2014(10)：60-73.
\[36\]程杰.“退而不休”的劳动者：转型中国的一个典型现象\[j\].劳动经济研究，2014(5)：68-103.
\[37\]钱穆.中国历史文化导论(修订本)\[M\].北京：商务印书馆，1994：34.
\[38\] Studs Terkel. Hard Times： An Oral History of the Great Depression \[M\]. pocket， 1982： 28-29.
(上接第119页)
\[13\]意愿生育率1.8(日语为“希望出生率1.8”)于2014年《地区、人与工作振兴长期展望》中首次提出，是指青年一代实现其结婚和生育意愿时的生育率。具体公式为\[(已婚者占比×计划子女数)+(未婚者占比×有结婚意愿者占比×意愿子女数)\]×离婚等影响系数。根据2010年普查、第14次生育意愿基本调查、2012年日本未来推算人口中的系数，得出\[(34%×2.07人)+(66%×89%×2.12人)\]×0.938≈1.8.
\[14\]岩澤美帆.少子化艺心大乌U九未婚化书上U夫婦/)变化.人口减少七少子化対策(高橋重鄉·大淵寬編).原書房，2015.\[15\]总务省.国势调查\[R\].2015.
\[16\]儿童手当.内阁府， https： //www8. cao. go. jp/shoushi/jidouteate/index. html， 2021-12-04.
\[17\]抚养者收入超出限额时，根据法律给予特例支付(儿童每人每月一律5000日元).
\[19\]\[22\]田中景.日本和法国的少子化对策及启示\[j\].人口学刊，2020，42(2)：90-102.
\[21\]守泉理惠.第4次少子化社会対策大綱七日本/少子化対策0到達点\[R\].国立社会保障·人口問題研究所「日中韓记扫汁石少子高龄化0実態七対忘汇関寸石研究」令和2年度總括研究報告書.2020 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 斗学学不期刊数据库
nees Database
城市党报的最初探索
**天内第一张城市党报的诞生**
**石家庄解放后，毛泽东同志曾这样说：我们要将“晋察冀区、晋冀鲁豫和山东的渤海区统一在一个党委(华北局)、一个政府、一个军事机构的指挥下”，“这三区业已连成一片，共有人口5000万”7“该区的领导中心设在石家庄”。石家庄成为如此大的一个解放区的指挥中心，创办中心城市报纸迫在眉睫。**
**1947年11月18日，在石家庄解放仅6天之后，，《石家庄日报》的前身《新石门日报》就在胜利的凯歌声中诞生了。作为关内第一张城市党报，它在中国新闻史上写下了浓重的一笔。**
**创刊之初，报社领导班子的配备是非常强的。报社设社长兼总编辑，副总编辑。编辑部下设编辑科、副刊、资料室、报务科：采通部下设采访科、通联科：经理部下设工厂、广告发行科、业务科、纸场。报社的主要领导在解放区都是知名的新闻工作者，大多还是从延安来的老革命。**
**当时，报纸和通讯社是合一的。通讯社称新华通讯社石门分社，周游兼分社社长。《石家庄日报》记者又是新华社记者，向报社供稿的同时向新华总社供稿。大决战的胜利消息和毛主席的重要文章以及党的重大方针政策都是通过电台的同志来接收，然后再通过电台和报纸传播出去。**
**(图文由红色收藏家、石家庄日报社王律提供)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 事业单位养老保险政策改革的思考
李
威
\[摘 要\]事业单位养老政策改革既是事业单位体制改革的重要环节，也是整个社会保障制度改革的重要组成部分I作为一项正在全国试点推广的改革必然面临一些现实的挑战，诸如政策法制不健全难以推进扣原政策待遇不合理和改革配套措施不完善问题凸显等，势必会影响这项政策的改革过程有必要结合现状进行分析提出一些完善改革的可行性建议，以确保各项改革措施稳步推进，尽早落实I
「关键词1事业单位 养老保险政策 改革
\[中图分类号\]8 \[文献标识码\] \[文章编号\]8665 (66)6566
56
目前随着我国企业职工基本养老保险制度改革的不断深入业已形成了统一缴费比例统一帐户规模统一养老金支付结构和标准统一的企业养老保险制度扣虽然事业单位养老保险制度也是整个社会保障体系的重要组成部分，但是其改革却相对滞后不仅影响了整个社会保障制度的发展与完善制约了全国统一的劳动力市场的形成而且加重了国家财政负担阻碍了社会主义和谐社会的建设·据有关部门统计截止666年底，全国事业单位总数达8 万个职工人数超过6 万，是国家公务员的~倍，占全国财政供养人数的八成鉴于当前我国社会保障制度建设和改革的形势有必要加快和深化对事业单位养老保险政策的改革
一1事业单位养老保险政策的改革历程
由于各种原因我国事业单位养老保险政策改革起步较晚是从6世纪6年代逐步开始的纵观全国各地事业单位养老保险制度改革的实际事业单位养老保险政策改革大体经历了改革启动时期改革试点时期和改革推广时期三个发展阶段·
(一)改革启动时期(8 8年 年)
8 8年 月国务院发布的川关于企业职工养老保险制度改革的决定中第十二条规定国家机关事业单位的养老保险制度改革由人事部负责I-这项规定的出台标志着我国正式拉开了事业单位养老政策改革的序幕紧接着在8 年8月下发了关于机关事业单位养老保险制度改革有关问题的通知，对机关事业单位养老保险制度改革情况机关事业单位劳动合同制工人养老保险基金管理问题进行了明确并指出要在总结中国现行干部退休制度的基础上建立全国统一的具有中国特色的机关事业单位养老保险制度·
收稿日期
6
86
8 年党的十四届三中全会通过关于经济体制改革若干问题的决定，其中就提出要在全国建立多层次社会保障体系人事部根据文件精神，进一步指出要求各省市1区进行机关事业单位社会保障制度改革试点由于多方面的原因事业单位职工的养老保险政策改革在这一时期没有启动，仍维持传统的离退休养老制度刃
(二)改革试点时期(8
年
66 年)
8 年86月，国家人事部在镇江市召开了全国机关事业单位社会保险工作会议，会议提出了机关事业单位社会保险制度改革试点工作的目标祖原则步骤和要求祖紧接着先后有云南江苏·福建山东辽宁山西等省下发有关机关事业单位养老保险改革的文件，在不同范围和人员中开始试点到66年底全国有 个省自治区直辖市的 个地市1888个县市相继开展了机关事业单位养老保险改革试点\[8
666年86月党的十六届六中全会通过的关于构建社会主义和谐社会若干重大问题的决定明确指出要把-加快机关事业单位养老保险制度改革-作为-加强制度建设，保障社会公平正义-的一项重要任务66年86月党的十七大报告中明确指出努力使全体人民-老有所养-廿促进企业机关事业单位基本养老保险制度改革-0
(三)改革推广时期(66年至今)
666年 月，国务院常务会议讨论并原则通过的·事业单位工作人员养老保险制度改革试点方案确定在山西·上海·浙江广东1重庆 省市先期开展试点，与事业单位分类改革配套推进以广东省为例广东省事业单位分类改革于66年8月起实施，省直单位改革计划于66 年底完成市门县1乡镇事业单位改革将于
事业单位养老保险政策改革面临的挑战
(一)政策法制不健全难以推进
迄今为止经过全国人大通过的涉及养老保险相关规定的法律仅有三部中华人民共和国宪法Ⅲ中华人民共和国劳动法和中华人民共和国老年人权益保障法且这些法律中的规定大都是原则性的规定目前，在国家层面我国还未出台一部全面完整的川社会保障法，至今建立适用于所有劳动者的基本养老保险制度的条件缺乏，从而导致全国各地事业单位养老保险政策得不到明确的法律规范与指导 年月 日国家人力资源和社会保障部正式下发了全国-事业单位养老保险制度改革方案一山西上海·浙江广东重庆省市将试点此方案虽然对改革的指导思想主要内容1保障措施和适用范围方面有了一定的规范和统一，但是各地事业单位养老保险政策改革业已出现的多样性差异性和矛盾性的现实情况在一定时期内还难以得到改善·例如，国家没有出台有关事业单位养老保险基金征缴的政策法规基金征缴缺乏强化执行手段多数地方政府财政部门将事业单位养老保险费用未纳入预算从而导致事业单位自身应缴部分也没有预算开支的渠道1另外部分试点改革的地区中财政全额拨款的事业单位有的未曾纳入参保范围，已纳入的地区中也有出现随意停保退保的现象，对改革造成极大的负面影响因此，应尽快制定社会保障法，健全养老保险政策的法律保障体系其已成为当前事业单位养老保险制度改革的关键口
(二)原政策待遇过高难以变革
众所周知，自上世纪 年代以来，我国就实行机关事业单位人员与企业单位人员不同的退休养老制度安排，事业单位人员在退休待遇上一直明显高于企业人 社会化发放程度不高随着我国企业养老保险制员在养老保险金缴纳方面事业单位人员有国家财政 度改革的不断深入企业职工养老保险金的发放业已基专门拨付，个人不用缴纳任何费用，也不需要承担任何 本实现 1社会化发放，并受到广大离退休人员的一责任无论是在职或是退休事业单位人员都享有稳定 致好评但是事业单位职工养老金只有少数地方采取比企业更高的工资待遇和福利这次事业单位养老保险 社会化发放，大多数地方仍采取养老金发放到参保单政策改革意味着事业单位人员将承担更多的缴费义务，位，由参保单位再发放给离退休人员这样就易造成参并对其原来享有的过高待遇有所降低因此，事业单位 保单位克扣拖延发放离退休人员养老金的问题出现工作人员普遍不愿意进行这项改革，有些地区有些人员 甚至有些社保经办机构采取征收与发放联动的办法，即甚至采用非法手段来抵制和阻碍改革的推进扣 收到了保险费后，再发放离退休人员养老金导致离退休人员不能及时足额领取到养老金造成社会不安定的因素
(三)改革配套措施不完善问题凸现
缴费基数比例不统一目前各省市在事业单位养老保险缴费基数方面不尽相同有地方按照人事部门核定的档案工资为基数征收；有的地方按工资总额(包括奖金·福利·过节费等实际收入)为基数征收1；有的单位是以-单基数-征收，即以在职人员的工资总额作为缴费基数；有的单位是以-双基数-征收，即以在职人员
工资总额和离退休人员养老金之和作为缴费基数此外不同地区不同行业的征缴比例也高低不一这样势必造成事业单位养老保险的缴费负担不公平影响整个社会的和谐与稳定
征缴计发办法不统一目前，我国事业单位养老保险征缴计发办法不统一主要有两种方式：一种是-全额征缴，全额拨付一即养老保险经办机构按照应征缴的保险费向事业单位全额征收再按照应拨付的养老金全额拨付结算给单位另一种是差额征缴差额拨付一即养老保险经办机构按照应征缴的保险费与应拨付的养老金的差额向事业单位征收或拨付保险费·由此可知，无论事业单位采取何种方式离退休人员的养老金都是由所在的单位发放的，其拨付与单位的缴费相关联缴费不足或缴纳不起养老保险费的单位的离退休人员的养老金就无法得到保障特别是在一些经济不发达地区或财政困难单位，离退休人员养老金迟发欠发甚至不发的现象仍不同程度存在导致一些老年人的基本生活都得不到保障
管理部门职责不规范自 年国家机构改革之后，事业单位社会保险从人事部门整体划转到劳动和社会保障部门统一管理，但是离退休人员养老保险待遇政策的制定和退休审批权仍由人事部门负责，形成了人与事的管理相分离由于大多数的养老经办机构移交给劳动和社会保障部门管理而事业单位职工的工资调整1退休审批等政策的制定和业务操作仍被人事部门控制，导致劳动保障部门对养老保险金的缴纳缺乏有效的制约手段加之部分地区和单位财政困难收益较差开始出现欠缴甚至不缴养老保险费用的问题\]此外，各地有关养老保险管理的机构设置也不统一，有的单独设立事业单位专门经办机构，有的是多种保险合一机构管理，部门之间的职能交叉经常出现各种矛盾与冲突
三1完善事业单位养老保险政策改革的建议
(一)加快立法进程统一养老保险法律制度
事业单位养老保险制度是整个养老保险法律制度
的一个重要内在组成部分坚持立法先行是世界各国发展养老保险制度的主要经验之一业已成为养老保险制度的发展趋势扣目前我国事业单位养老保险制度处于改革的关键时期但是各地出台的政策性文件还停留在-决定---通知-和部门规章的层次必须借鉴国外社会保障立法的实践和经验，结合中国的国情由全国人民代表大会制定一部统一的具有普遍约束力的养老保险法中华人民共和国社会保险法这部法律也应当适用于事业单位养老保险制度鉴于中国事业单位的特殊性质，应由国务院及相关部门建立一套完善的强制性的多层次养老保险制度事业单位养老保险规章以及各省市自治区立法机关制定的相关细则等组成的法律体系这样形成一个既有基本法律又有行政法规0部门规章及地方性法规相结合的立法体系统一全国事业单位养老保险法律制度不仅是中国养老保险政策法制化规划化的需要，也是事业单位体制改革的客观要求
(二)统筹制度管理，妥善解决新旧日制度待遇差别问题
针对当前事业单位养老保险政策改革中存在的退休人员待遇差别问题必须借鉴我国企业单位养老保险政策改革的经验，实行与企业相同的基础养老金模式，员实行社区管理，逐步实行基本养老金社会化发放，提在退休人员的基本养老金调整·发放及其他管理上实行统一的办法当然应当结合事业单位的实际情况，建立事业单位补充养老保险制度保证事业单位人员养老待遇不降低，同时也要缩短与企业单位人员的待遇差距，使得企业事业单位基本养老保险制度既有联系又能体现特点在事业单位养老保险制度改革中既要充分考虑原制度下退休人员的既得利益，又要合理确定新制度下退休人员的待遇水平还要解决好两种人的养老金平衡问题，保证他们的待遇基本不降低在新旧制度的衔接上要统筹安排照顾各方面的实际情况特别是在养老金计发水平·待遇调整等关键问题上，要保证两种制度下退休人员的待遇基本平衡不受较大波动
(三)完善配套措施，促进各项改革措施稳步落实
事业单位养老保险政策改革是一项综合性的系统工程，既要着眼于建立新制度创新管理机制，同时也要完善相关配套措施首先要科学合理地制定缴费基数和比例在国家最新颁布的事业单位工作人员养老保险制度改革试点方案的指导下各地区应根据当地经济发展状况以及事业单位的实际情况科学合理地制定缴费基数和比例，真正体现权力与义务相一致的原则，使得事业单位工作人员在养老保险方面的个人缴费与养老保险待遇相协调其次要建立征缴统筹机制，实行养老保险金的结构化计发办法却建立一套完备的事业单位基本养老费征缴统筹机制，改变现行事业单位养老保险费用由国家征缴和拨付的单一体制，实现事业单位基本养老保险费由国家1单位和个人共同负担实行社会
统筹与个人账户相结合的新机制同时，当前还必须从根本上改变事业单位职工以工作年限和本人的工资基数为依据的养老保险金计发办法与企业同步实行以缴费工作年限和缴费工资额为依据的养老保险金计发办法汕1在按规定计发基础养老金和个人账户养老金的同时，可按照企业的办法再增加一块过渡性养老金，确保事业单位离退休人员的退休金在改革前后都能够足额发放到位四再次要健全机制统一管理机构川养老保险业务是一项专业性很强的工作需要有专门的机构和专门人才进行统筹管理方能取得明显成效因此政府的有关部门应当健全机制，改变目前机关事业单位养老保险一家事两家管-的状况将机关事业单位的养老保险政策离退休审批权限等统一纳入社会保障部门管理以提高工作效能这样既能真正实现职责明晰业务专管·提高效率的作用，也能最大限度地克服和减少管理不善·部门不协调效率低下I成本浪费等弊端最后，要逐步实现事业单位养老保险金完全社会化发放按照建立和完善独立于企事业单位之外的社会保障体系的要求改变现行的事业单位退休人员管理和养老金发放均由单位负责的管理办法积极创造条件对退休人高事业单位养老保险社会化管理服务水平
参考文献：
\[\]劳动保障部财政部1人事部J关于事业单位工
作人员基本养老保险制度改革有关问题的汇报J
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\[\]广东省人事厅1财政厅劳动保障厅J广东省事
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\]董黎明J机关事业单位养老保险制度的人性化选
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\]秦建国J我国机关事业单位养老保险制度改革研究\[\]\]理论探讨J
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\[\]陈宗利机关事业单位养老保险制度改革探析\[
\]经济师J
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\]于大川事业单位养老保险制度改革探析\[\]J宜春学院学报J
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\]晓梅J我国机关事业单位养老保险制度改革探
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(作者李威广州市广州大学城广州大学邮编：)
责任编辑谭本基
责任校对陈
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zh | N/A | N/A | 专家建议出租汽车行业推行政府主导下规范的公司化经营模式
——第五次学术午餐会侧记
租汽车行业究竟存在哪些问出题?如何对行业进行定位?采取何种监督方式和监管模式?如何促进行业的健康发展?这些困扰我国出租汽车行业的问题也是世界性的问题，欧美一些发达国家关于出租汽车行业的公共政策的讨论依旧是现在进行时。日前，国务院发展研究中心学术委员会举行第五次学术午餐会，就出租汽车行业改革问题展开专门讨论。
此次学术午餐会的主讲人是国务院发展研究中心发展战略和区域经济研究部部长张军扩，他和他的研究团队先后考察了八个不同类型的城市的出租汽车发展和管理状况，同包括出租汽车司机、出租汽车公司管理层、政府管理部门负责人在内的许多人员进行了交流座谈，在分析我国出租汽车行业发展历史进程、法律环境、产业状况和管理体制，总结国际经验的基础上已经对相关重要问题形成了基本认识。
学术午餐会开始之前，摆放在每个参会者面前的是一份简要描述了 12条基本认识的报告摘要，其中最受关注的两条莫过于“鼓励和引导出租汽车实行规范的公司化经营，公司必须以公开竞争的方式取得经营权，新投放运力原则上不再向个体经营者出让”、“政府部门除了要对出租车行业的服务质量进行监管外，还应当对之
进行数量和价格监管”。
“是公司化还是个体化”和“要不要放开数量控制”一直是出租汽车行业发展中争议颇大的两个问题，各方也看法不一。对于出租汽车行业，大家对于之前揭露的黑幕的印象很深，认为是政府把出租汽车的经营权要么低价、要么无偿地转给出租汽车公司，公司从中获取很大的利益，同时又向司机收取很高的“份子钱”，压榨司机，司机成为弱势群体。理论界一直以来的改革思路就是希望能放松政府管制、取消公司环节、实现个体化经营。因此，在没有看到总报告的分析和解释之前，对于这两条结论，参会者都在心中划起了问号，邻座之间也在交换着意见。张军扩似乎早已预料到这番疑惑，他并没有对结论逐一进行分析说明，而是给大家讲了三个调研故事。
张军扩坦言，他们之前也认为放松政府管制、取消公司环节、个体私营化可能是一个正确的方向，也正是带着这样的初衷，第一站的调研就选在了在我国较早采取出租汽车私人经营模式的W市。然而，令他们意想不到的是第一场调研会就遭遇到“一盆冷水”，该市出租汽车管理部门的负责人明确表示他们的改革是基本不成功的。
在该市现有的3328辆出租汽车中，有3287辆的经营权归个人所有。这样的产权改革稳定了产权关系，在
产权比较明确、没有调整行业准人规模的情况下，近年来没有出现大的群体性事件。但是由于采取的是经营权永久有效的方式，也不规定司机必须自己开车，并且可以继承和转让，导致出租汽车的经营权成为投资热点，其二级市场的价格最高炒到100多万元，那些过去三四万块钱得到产权的司机，现在许多人已经自已不开车了，而是当上了老板，甚至出现“出租”出租汽车的现象，就是车主把经营权和车辆完全委托给中介公司，类似于房产中介，由中介公司负责雇佣司机开车，真正开车的司机都是外地的小伙子，收入不高，所以说个体化经营的方式并不必然带来司机利益的改善。而车主已经结成了利益共同体，反对政府扩大市场准入，这增加了政府投放新的运力的难度。
经营权改革之后，出租汽车公司还是承担管理的职能，出租汽车要挂靠在公司的名义下经营，每个月的挂靠服务费为120元，公司只能从事一些简单的服务事项，管理职能形同虚设，一个直观的事实就是在举行公司调研会的时候，三家公司只来了一位老太太、两位老先生三，，“年轻人都走了”，公司实际上已经名存实亡。这就导致政府出租汽车管理部门要直接面对 3300多个出租汽车车主，难以实行有效监管。
在采取规范的公司化经营模式的
H市，情况却大不一样。最明显的就是一线司机的利益得到明显的改善，司机高兴地表示他们终于从““彷徨阶段”进人了“心花怒放阶段”，每月的收入都在3000元左右。H市在规范整个出租汽车行业发展的过程中，逐步推行真正意义上的公司化经营管理模式，公司全额出资获得经营权并购买车辆，实行经营权有条件延续转让方案，建立“以服务质量为核心”的评价体系，对于违反监管条件、达不到标准的经营者，行业主管部门可以中止、调整、减少、终止经营权，有助于建立市场退出机制。政府通过规范合同强力介人公司与可机之间的利益分享格局，让公司与可机共享收益、共担风险。
但在行业准人和价格监管方面H市仍存在缺陷，导致整体社会福利的下降。。自1997年至今10年内没有增加出租汽车的数量，目前为12137辆，运力不能满足市场的需求，乘客等待时间长，这是以牺牲消费者的福利来保持出租车行业较高的整体利润水平。另外，低至3元的起始运价也容易形成出租车和大容量公共交通的竞争，挤占了城市道路这一公共资源。
在Q市调研，看到的是到目前为止还不规范的公司化管理的弊端。张军扩说，在Q市要打到车常常是需要“抢”的，主城区只有7000多辆出租车，平均有效里程利用率在2007年截止到9月底已经上升为71.88%，市场运力严重不足。虽然主城区正在推行公司自营的模式，但原来的承包人模式依旧在运行，公司向承包人收取较高的承包费，再扣除每月应该上交的营业收人，，一线司机收入微薄，心理自然不平衡，他们普遍认为公司在政府的保护下市场竞争不激烈，主要靠承包牌照获取高额的垄断利润。而同时，政府主管部门对于行业标准合同、服务质量等的监管也不到位。
听完三个故事之后，每一个参会
者都陷人思考之中，主持午餐会的国务院发展研究中心副主任刘世锦指出出租汽车产品的特点是其质量光靠司机的觉悟是无法保证的，，一定需要监管，而因为产品是服务，生产过程与消费过程重叠，与有形产品的监管有差别，如果政府直接面对动辄数以万计的同机，又要进行日常性的监管，其难度可以想象，因此一定要有中间层级。
这样，政府要有效管理出租汽车市场，就面临两种选择：要么大幅度增加政府部门的监管资源，形成庞大的政府监管机构；要么在中间衍生出新的政府代理机构，也就是事业单位。这两种行政管理的方式，都需要由政府承担监管成本。而行业监管则是采取规范的公司化方式，将监管成本社会化。哪种模式能够使社会总成本最小化，哪种模式就是好的模式。
反对公司化的观点目的是要解决中间环节对可机的盘剥，希望一线运营司机的利益能得到保障。而通过对所考察的三个城市的实践经验来看，问题的关键不在于实行公司化经营还是个体化经营，而在于在政府特许经营模式下如何有效监管、协调经营权.持有人与司机的收益分配关系。个体化经营依旧会出现车主“出租”出租汽车的情况而使一线运营司机叫苦连天，规范的公司化经营同样也可以通过政府干预公司与司机间的合同来进行规范，从而保证一线运营司机的合理收人。
对此，刘世锦的观点是要给不同的模式探索的空间，当然也需要对不同的模式进行评估，总结一些好的经验，相互借鉴，最终会自动走向趋同，不要轻易确定一种模式强行推广。
抛开公司化还是个体化的区别来分析这三个故事，背后隐藏着一个共同的问题——准入限制，市场运力不足，从而造成出租汽车行业产生较高的垄断收益，.又促使获得这些收益的人有较强的激励反对扩大准入。那么
出租汽车行业到底能不能像餐饮行业一样完全放开经营呢?这就牵涉到政府管制的问题，对此，参会者的争论还是比较多的，讨论的气氛也越来越热烈。
国务院发展研究中心对外经济研究部副部长隆国强形象地比喻为“小行业后边藏着大问题”，在规制行业，政府在供给方面既管数量又管价格，这意味着政府要特别聪明，才能使供给数量和价格相匹配。但实践证明供不应求和供过于求总是存在的，需求在动态变化，而服务提供者却能够形成利益集述，最终将监管者俘获，像W市就已经出现了这样的情况。
张军扩补充道，对于价格的监管全世界概莫能外，而数量控制的问题他们在调研时也感到非常疑惑，每到一个地方都会反复问究竟为什么要管数量，最后总结为两个原因：一是城市道路是公共资源，市场供求决定的数量不一定是优化城市综合交通体系和城市道路资源配置所需要的数量；二是通过运价和经营权价格的调控间接控制数量的方式不符合我国国情，一旦放开很容易导致供给过剩，使城市公共秩序和司机个人财产遭受损失。
国务院发展研究中心发展战略和区域经济研究部副部长高世楫也指出，各国大量实践和理论界的许多研究表明，出租汽车经营模式多样、有许多问题没有明确的答案。在没有准人监管的情况下出租汽车会过度进人，这是因为这个行业为低劳动技能者提供了就业机会，简单的数量限制是最常见的办法，但英国伦敦就没有出租车牌照的限制，却通过严格控制从业者资格的办法来防止准入过度，保持了出租汽车市场的稳定。发达市场经济国家出租车市场的另一个显著特征就是结构更完善，除常见的马路巡游的出租车外，还存在一个庞大的电话叫车的出租车市场。这种种方式，都值得我们参考借鉴。 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **供电企业员工的学习与效果评价**
**魏卢豫，郝月照**
**(国网山西省电力公司，山西 太原 030008)**
**\[摘 要\]文章从学习内容、学习方法和学习效果的评价三个方面探讨供电企业员工的学习与成长，对提高供电企业员工素质、提升工作效率有一定的指导意义。**
**\[关键词\]供电企业员工；学习与成长； PDCA 循环**
**供电公司当前正处于改革发展的关键阶段，新形势、新任务为各级员工特别是年轻员工提供了干事创业的广阔平台，也对能力素质提出了更高要求，在这种形势下提出本文的研究论题具有重大的意义和价值。**
**供电企业员工的学习内容**
**国外教育专家指出，在现代生活中，一个人在一生中所学的知识只有10%左右是学校传授的，其余的90%左右是在工作岗位上不断学习得来的。因此，为了适应社会的需要，自身发展的需要，我们还必须继续甘当“学生”。**
**1.1 政治素质的提高**
**政治素质是人们从事社会政治活动所必需的基本条件和基本品质，是个人的政治方向、政治立场、政治观念、政治态度、政治信仰、政治技能的综合表现。供电企业员工只有坚定正确的政治方向，严守政治纪律和政治规矩，在思想上、政治上、行动上始终与党中央保持高度一致，坚决贯彻中央决策部署，严格落实公司党组要求，才能提高员工的政治素质。**
**1.2 道德品质的修炼**
**“仁、义、礼、智、信”这五个字是传统道德最浓缩的精华所在，也是现在社会最需要的道德品质。一个品质优秀的人，一定要志存高远(仁)、尊敬他人(礼)、尊敬他人的研究成果(义)、诚实守信(信)、实事求是(智)。供电企业员工只有修炼道德品质，创新和发展特高压和智能电网技术，才能构建全球能源互联网，解决世界能源问题。**
**1.3法制意识的强化**
**供电企业领导干部和员工要提高运用法治思维和法治方式的能力，努力以法治凝聚改革共识、规范发展行为、促进矛盾化解、保障社会和谐。这种法治思维和法治能力可以概括为新时期领导干部必备的法治意识，应当包括应有的法治思维、法治观念和法治能力。供电企业员工只有严格自律、清正廉洁，强化法治观念，提升法治素质，学法、懂法、守法、用法，养成依法履职、依规办事的习惯，做到慎独慎微，既干事又干净，才能筑牢拒腐防变的思想防线：**
**1.4 职业素养的提升**
**职业素养是劳动者对社会职业了解与适应能力的一种综合体现，其主要表现在职业兴趣、职业能力、职业个性及职业情况等方面。供电企业员工只有坚持干中学、学中干，多深人基层调查研究，在改革攻坚主战场、生产经营第一线、**
**供电服务最前沿，提炼真知，摸索经验，增长本领，超前应对可能出现的风险，有效解决改革发展中的各种难题，才能实现自己的价值。**
**_2_ 供电企业员工的学习方法**
**_2.1_ 与智者为伍**
**现实中，人与人的交往构成了纷繁复杂的社会关系，每个身处其中的人都会受到种种环境的影响。谈到这一问题，我们自然会想起西晋思想家傅玄曾说过：“近朱者赤，近墨者黑”这句话现在常用来比喻经常与优秀人才一起交往，自己也会向好的方向发展，反之亦然。供电企业员工在日常生活工作中，与积极向上、刻苦专业的人为伍，在不经意间接受一些潜移默化的影响，从而不知不觉地改变自己的品行，提升白我。**
**2.2工作中成长**
**从我们走出学校，工作就成为生活的重要组成部分。只有在工作中快速成长，让工作更富成效，让生活更显精彩，才是我们的目标。在工作中用快乐的心去体会，用幸福的眼睛去发现，我们就会收获快乐、收获成长、收获进步。职场不可能人人都是精英，企业需要的是敬业而忠实的员工，供电企业员工必须“不骄不躁、谦虚谨慎、勤奋好学、踏踏实实”，才能成为优秀的企业员工。**
**2.3 网络上汲取**
**互联网将成为第三次工业革命的·部分，它像取之不尽、用之不竭的大海，它是丰富的百宝箱。不懂知识，百度会告诉你；想买的东西，鼠标就能搞定。随着“互联网+”的兴起，网络将成为我们生活的必需。任何人、任何时间、任何地点、从任何章节开始、学习任何课程， “五个任何”体现了网络学习的特点，它为我们节省了时间、充实了自己、拓宽了自己的知识面。供电企业员工要持之以恒的关注互联网，利用局域网，在网络大学汲取成长。**
**_2.4_ 聆听中感悟**
**在世界各大商学院和商业研究机构对成功管理者的调查中，沟通能力始终排在首位。聆听，是成功沟通的关键环节。供电企业员工通过参加一期培训，听一堂专题讲座，看一段微信视频…….欣赏身边一道道美丽的风景，在聆听中充实自己，在欣赏中美化人生。**
**3 供电企业员工学习的持续改进**
**PDCA 循环作为全面质量管理体系运转的基本方法，也**
**可以应用到供电企业员工素质持续改进中。PDCA循环，可以使员工素质改进的工作步骤更加条理化、系统化、图像化和科学化。计划阶段，要通过工作调查、员工访问等，摸清供电企业员工对学习和成长的要求，确定学习和成长的目标和计划等，要有企业、部门、个人的详细目标与计划；执行阶段，实施计划阶段所规定的内容，根据计划内容进行员工培训，员工自主学习，定期讨论，课题和论文的申报与写作等工作；检查阶段，在供电企业员工素质改进计划执行过程之中或执行之后，检查执行情况，看是否符合计划的预期结果效果；处理阶段，主要是根据检查结果，采取相应的工作改进措施，把成功的经验尽可能纳人新的供电企业员工素质改进计划中，进行标准化，出现的问题，分析原因，转人下一个 PDCA 循环去改进。**
**_4_ 供电企业员工学习效果的评价**
**人才是企业长远发展的保障，只有员工技能和综合素质提高了，工作质量才能提高，企业才有生命力。**
**4.1 员工满意度**
**员工满意度是员工自我评价、上级和下级对其评价的一个参考。在对员工满意度目标的实现过程中，从自我满意度、上级和下属对其工作满意程度三个方面实现，分别用自我评价达满意程度的比率、上级和下级对其评价达满意程度的比率三个指标体现。由于该模块主观性较强，因此最终赋权方面适当降低了权重。**
**_4.2_ 个人素养**
**组织开展习总系列讲话、企业文化、普法知识的网络答题活动，分为优、良、合格、差四个档次进行评价。**
**4.3 工作质量**
**(上接P73)**
**_4_ 电力设备的维修准则**
**电力设备的检修不能没有计划，我们在相关的维修中，需要对于故障电力设备的维修顺序进行有效的安排，优化电力设备的维修过程。维修计划制订准则有以下几点。**
**4.1 计划行之有效**
**在满足全部的企业要求和约束条件之下，维修计划必须要做到行之有效，维修计划主要的约束条件有以下几点：**
**维修技术的确定、电力系统的特点、物资资源的限制等。首先我们要考虑机组维修的设备状态，确定好维修期和维修时间，确保维修工作不会被中途打断，从而可以高效地进行维修，对于企业生产的影响尽量降到最小。其次在维修时间段之内，我们也要根据机组的类型和维修标准制订合理的计划，从而使维修的结果能够满足企业的要求，还要根据最可靠标准满足系统的要求。**
**_4.2_ 优化方案**
**由于一些相关技术维修人员不可能同时进行多台设备的检修工作，所以我们需要提前做好分析和调查，从而进**
**果；质量评估指标以质量评估维度为基础，将之与具体工作相结合并细化而成，要用可量化衡量的简练语言来表达，如xx率、××数等。**
**_4.4_ 人才当量密度**
**人才当量密度是指长期职工学历、职称、技能等级按系数进行折算，三者之中最高的折算值累加之和占本企业长期职工人数的比率。人力资源部通过当量密度关注员工素质现状，积极鼓励员T参加继续教育和学历深造，鼓励每一位符合条件的员工参加职称、技能鉴定的申报。此项指标的最终值作为一个奖励系数，个人达到规定目标则给予大于1的一定系数，若没有达到则无奖励系数。**
5 结 论
**根据马斯洛层次需求理论，当一个人满足了生存、安全等生理上的基本需要后，就有满足自尊和自我实现的心理需求。企业要利用员工的这种内在需求，激励员工在岗位上不断学习和进步，自觉地学习新知识、新技术，反思职业活动过程中的对与错，总结经验，提高个人素质和修养，在企业的辉煌中实现自己的价值。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]王萍萍，李琪.基于学习与成长角度的供电企业绩效评估研究 \[J\].中国电力教育 CEPE，2009 (8)：246-247.**
**\[2\]常献贞，教师在职学习与成长\[】\].职教创新，2010(3)： 78.**
**\[3\]屈桂华.浅谈青年教师的学习与成长J.科教导刊，2012(5)：121.**
**\[4\]付宏，夏清华，肖建忠.新创企业中的学习与成长\[J\].中大管理研究，2009 (4)： 102-110.**
**\[作者简介\]魏卢豫(1987一)，男，山东临沂人，助理工程师。研究方向：信息系统；郝月照(1969一)，男，山西吕梁人，高级工程师。研究方向：信息系统。**
**在精细化管理的要求下，员工工作质量可通过建立工作标准来解决，工作标准包含两项核心内容：质量评估维度和质量评估指标。质量评估维度需考虑关键工作步骤和工作结忧...分**
**行规划，按照所属公司专业和地理位置等因素来对维修人员进行工作区域的划分，并且要对维修所需要的设备进行合理的规划使用。优化准则主要包括便利性、可靠性和费用标准等。**
**电力设备维修计划的优化管理是-项十分重要的工作，根据当前经济的发展，我们针对目前企业电力设备维修过程巾的一些不足，需要进行相关的探索和优化，全面实现设备维修管理工作的效率最大化，同时最大限度地提升和保证企业的效益。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1、巫世晶，向农.电力设备维修计划优化管理研究\[J\].电力建设，2004(2)：48-51.**
**\[2\]赵芳.电力设备维修计划优化的讨论\[J\].科技创新与应用，2014(34)： 148.**
**\[3\]李晓琳，刘磊，杨杰.探讨电力设备维修计划的优化管理J.科技展望，2015(9)：87.**
**\[4\]陈绍宽，贾顺平，杜鹏，等，基于可靠性最大的铁路牵引变电所维修计划优化模型\[J\].交通运输系统工程与信息，2011(3).** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **高校体育教学中情感教育渗透论析**
**那海波**
**\[摘要\]基于高校体育教学的情感教育具有丰富的内涵，它在体育教学中具有很多优势条件，在优化体育教学、提升学生的全面素质中具有积极的作用，应当积极地实施体育教学中的情感渗透教育。**
**\[关键词\]高校体育教学 情感教育 内涵 优势 作用 实施**
**\[作者简介\]那海波(1970-)，女，吉林吉林人，江苏工业学院体育部，助理研究员，主要从事体育教学管理工作。(江苏 常州213164〕**
**\[中图分类号\]G712 \[文献标识码A \[文章编号\]1004-3985(2010)14-0172-02**
**高校体育教学是技能性强的教育，其本质特点决定了教师不是作为劳动力出现在无生命力的机器面前，也不同于培育花草树木的园丁，其工作的对象是有血有肉、有情有感、有思有虑、思维活跃的青年学生，这就决定了学校要发挥体育教学的主导作用，重视和实施情感渗透教育。**
**一、基于体育教学视野的情感教育内涵**
**情感是人对事物的感官体验与反应，是由外界事物对人的大脑刺激引起的心理应激状态。一般来说，情感包括积极的和消极的，而且各自又可能包含丰富的内容，在很多情况下他们是相连的，共同体现在人对外界事物的反应之中。体育课程自身的特点决定了能够使大学生得到各种情感体验，如体育动作要领学习掌握后，学生会产生满意、愉快的情感；体育测试、竞技比赛中会产生紧张情感；测试顺利过关或取得比赛好成绩就会产生欢悦的情感等。因此，情感教育是体育教育过程的重要手段，它需要教师在体育教学中关注学生的态度、情绪、情感以及信念，促进学生的个体发展和整个社会的健康发展，基于体育教学的情感教育，就是在体育教学中，使学生身心获得积极的情感体验。**
**情感教育的相对立的教育方式就是“唯埋智教育”，这种教育没有将情感渗透列人教育可行于段中，而将知识传授的月标作为教育的中心位置，具体表现为在教育过程中漠视、扭曲和阻碍学生的情感需求，师生之间、同学之间缺乏正常的情感交流，教育活动没有生气，教育形式深板，学生缺乏主动性和兴趣性等。**
**一个人的情感体验与其生活态度、精神状况、工作效率、智力潜能的发挥存在着十分密切的关系，是人智力、人格、思维发展的重要内容。情感是催化大学生认知明理、促进他们提升道德境界、激励学生奋发前进的动力。因此，情感在教育教学中有着重要作用。青年大学生证是人生中的黄金时期，思想活跃，思维敏捷，对周围的事物反应敏感，情感体验强烈而丰富。作为教育工作者，要善于影响、1导和把握大学生的情绪，在教育过程中尊重和培养学生的社会性情感品质，激发大学生积极的情感体验，增强学生的自我情感调控能力，促使他们对体育课程，学习、生活和周围的事物产生积极的情感体验，形成独立健全的个性与人格特征，真正成为品德、智力、体质、美感及劳动态度和刊惯都得到全面发展的人才。**
**二、高校体育教学中具有进行情感渗透教育的优势条件**
**1.教学项目的丰富性。相对丁中学生而言，大学生进行体育**
**教学除按照大纲的基本要求完成基本的学生身体素质达标外，高校体育教学基本处于宽松的环境，很多常规性的体育项目纳人了教学内容，其中也不乏很多艺术体育项目，这开阔了学生体育知识视野，丰富广学生业余活动的内容，有利于激发大学生的新奇、兴奋、快乐与满足的情感。**
**2.教学对象的团体性。高校体育教学是较为正规、完整的体育教学，每个大学生都要接受基本的体育教育，每个个体往往与自己所在的班集体起接受体育教育教学。体育竞技活动需要竞争，体育要领学习往往需要彼此的鼓励、支持和帮助，同学之间需要互相观摩、相互鼓励、彼此协作、团结友爱，这种教学环境，很容易激发和强化大学生的集体主义荣誉感和同学间的亲密友情，也有利于形成团结、和谐的师生关系和同学关系。**
**3.教学形式的竞技性。在大学体育教学中，为了提升教学的效果，丰富体育教学的内容，教师往往以组织学生比赛的形式，让学生深化对体育有关技能的掌握和认识，所以，体育教学中的竞技场景非常普遍。这对于培养学生的进取精神，激发大学生奋斗、勇敢、顽强、忘我奋斗的乐观主义情感很有益处。**
**4.教学项目的难度性。在高校体育教学、训练中，无论在动作要领还是体力要求上，很多项目都具有一定的难度。而要完成这些项目，就必须通过教师的悉心指导和学生多次训练，才能使学生克服生理上和心理上的困难，掌握有关的动作或完成有关休育活动。同时，在这个过程中，学生必然经历一次又一次的“艰苦、忍耐、坚持”等心理与情感的体验，这可使其形成不畏困难、顽强勇敢的心理品质，也有利于引导其养成自我批评、自我检查的习惯，从而强化优点，克服缺点。**
**三、情感渗透教育，对于优化高校体育教学，促进大学生的全面成长具有积极的作用**
**体育课程以互动性、实践性较强的特点，在学生情感渗透与情感培养中具有独特的优势，发挥着重要的作用。体育教学中的对学生的情感渗透教育，在激发学生良好的情绪，优化体育教学过程中有不可忽视的作用，对于促进体育教学任务的完成，提高体育教学的效果具有积极的意义。**
**1.情感渗透促进大学生接纳体育。体育课程是为了调动学生脑力和体力，实现人的大脑活动与身体动作的协调一致。体育教学中，教师要充分利用情感渗透教育手段，激发大学生学习体育、参与体育的内在动力，让学生带着浓厚兴趣参加体育课。教**
**师对学生的理解、尊重、欣赏与鼓励的态度，必然得到学生崇敬、信任和亲近的回应，这种情感的交流互动，不但可以形成感情和谐、融洽的师生关系，还使得学生产生主动学习的内在驱动力，使学生首先接纳体育课程，引起学生的学习兴趣，有利于形成良好的教学氛围。但体育教学中的情感渗透教育，并不是迎合学生的多方面兴趣和要求，而只有那些与体育教学大纲一致，符合休育课程学习任务以及与大学生个体发展和社会进步相联系的兴趣才能纳人体育教学的视野。**
**2.情感渗透提升教学效果。在教学中，学生是主体，教师起着主导作用。教师只有充分运用情感手段，才能调动学生的主体性。体育教学中，面对每一个难度动作或需要付出体力、耐力的运动项日，教师只有运用爱护、关心、尊重、鼓励等情感影响，才能使学生得到普遍的心理支持。在体育课上，教师关怀、爱护与期盼的眼神、话语必然引起学生情感的波涛，产生思想的共鸣，这对于活跃课堂气氛，形成一种积极、健康、轻松、奋进的学习环境有益，有利于学生突破心理障碍，战胜白身困难，从而迅速掌握学习要领。**
**3.情感渗透促进大学生的人格完善。在体育教学中，采取良好的情感渗透的方式，可以促进大学生在接受体育教学中学会尊重、宽容、善良、同情、友善、白尊、白信，形成集体主义观念、坚忍不拔的精神和良好的人际关系，这些是人学生良好人格形成的重要方面，有利于学生大学时代的生活和学习，今后的成才与发展。**
**4.情感渗透可以促使大学生的智力发展。体育教学的特点就是互动性强，对于正处于智力发展时期的青年学生来说，师生互动、体育活动中的同学之间的彼此互动，大脑与动作的协调与互动，可以刺激学生快速反应，尤其是激励学生发展形象思维，有助于突破大学生头脑中理性与非理性、逻辑与非逻辑之间的僵硬对峙，从而使学生对事物的认识出感性认识向理性认识飞跃，最終激发人学生的创新创造性思维发展。**
**5.情感渗透可以使大学生形成良好的审美情趣。体育是展示人的体能、运动技巧的特殊运动方式，它蕴涵了人体的美和运动的美。几乎任何·项体育项目都能展现人体的力量、速度、灵巧、耐力和生命活力，展现人类的形态美与心灵美。情感渗透教育的重要内容就是要向广大学生展示这种美，理解这种美，欣赏这种美。通过休育教学中向大学生诠释体育运动水乳交融的美，有利于开阔大学生的市美视野，促进大学生的审美追求，从而使他们的人生更加绚丽多彩。**
**四、在体育教学中，积极实施情感教育的渗透**
**1.要制订情感教育渗透的实施方案。高校要根据自己的专业特点和学校特点，将体育教学中的对大学生的情感教育纳入教学课程体系的方案。在组织调研的基础上，由学校提出实施体育情感教学的实施细则，组织有关教师精心设计教学方案，通过观摩、总结，找出教学过程中情感渗透的关键环节，推出情感教育优秀的教师，加强学校体育教学中情感教育的检查、督导，促进情感教学基本建设。**
**2.积极挖掘情感教育素材。高校体育教研室要调动体育教研人员的积极性，认真学习、深人领会体育课程教学大纲和教材，充分挖掘教材的情感教育素材，研究并设计实施情感教育的**
**情境、方法和内容。尤其要鼓励教师多涉猎有关心理学、公共关系学、美学、运动心理学等学科的知识，深入了解大学生的情感需求和变化规律，找出生动、丰富的情感教育素材，并将之融于教学过程中。要按照体育教学目标的要求，着力提高体育教学的效果.培养学生的体育兴趣、体育索养和体育人文精神，促进大学生素质的全面提高。**
**3.发挥教师的主导作用。体育教学中的情感教学需要由教师来具体实施，所以要加强对教师的情感教学培训，使教师掌握基本的情感教学方法。应当突出教学中教师对学生的关爱，这是教师发挥情感教育的核心内容，要对他们的身体、情绪和需求进行换位思考，仔细体会他们的所想、所需，在教学动员、下达任务、具体指导中体现对学生尊重、理解和心理支持，要让学生感觉到教师对学生的关心和爱护。教师对学生的挚爱和期待将对学生的情感产生很大的触动作用、使他们产生巨大的感染力和推动力，激发他们刻苦、顽强学习的精神。**
**4.创造适宜的情境来激发学生的积极情感.情境是引起学生产生情感体验的外在环境和条件，在体育教学中，对学生的情感激发不是随机的，也不是漫无目标的，需要教师在备课中进行构思情节、设计情境，需要课前做好教师情绪的白我调节，设备、场地的认真准备等。情境的体现应当自然、恰当，激发情境的方法应当科学、有针对性，针对学生的年龄特点和心理特点，围绕实现体育目标来进行。·般来说，体育教学中的情境分为动员情境、鼓励情境、支持情境，有时还需要有批评学生的情境安排。要激发学生积极的情感，使大学生体验到新奇、成功，体验到美的感受，同时，唤起大学生的荣誉感、追德感，激发学生热爱集体、相互帮助、团结协作的精神等。**
**5.注重教学中个体的差异。大千世界中，个体在各方面的差异存在是必然的，在体育教学中，会存在各种运动心理、运动技能、感知敏感度不同的学生。作为教学工作者，要体现以人为本，尊重不同个体之间的差别，休现对各个个体的尊重、坦解，在教学中针对不同个体的情况提出不同要求的目标，体现对运动弱势个体的爱护，鼓励他们增强信心，加强对他们有针对性的认识，增强他们的信心，使每个学生在体育课中发现和挖掘自身体能和运动优势，找到自身的价值。**
**6.体现情感交流互动。情感交流体现在教师与学生之间以‘及团体内学生与学生之间的交流。作为教师要充分利用课前、课中、课下各种机会进行交流、谈心，应用自己敬业、宽容、严谨、执著、友爱、奋进等情感去影响带动学生，激发学生参加休育锻炼的热情。其中情感交流的最佳日标就是建立和谐的师生关系、集体关系，而在这种“人际关系”中，情感作为 ·种内动力，在教师与学生的相互作用中占着重要的地位。已**
**\[参考文献\]**
**\[1\]王向东.浅谈情感在高校体育教学活动中的育人作用\[J\].教学研究，1998(2).**
**\[2\]张凤霞，土岗.传统教学论对学校体育教育的影响分析孙山西师大体育学院学报，1996(2).** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 写信告贪官：纪委买单
我省“信访绿色邮政”开通
口 娟
从8月1日起，凡省内群众寄给省、市(州)、县(市、区)纪检监察机关的普通信件，可免费邮寄——这是我省启动的“信访绿色邮政”。我省也是国内首个在省、市(州)、县(市、区)三级同时开展信访绿色邮政工作的省份。
我省纪检监察机关同步开通信访绿色邮政，是省纪委和省监察厅继启用新的举报电话号码、开通网络举报信箱后，在畅通信访举报渠道、规范信访举报秩序上的又一创新举措。
据悉，享受免费邮寄的信件必须是普通信件，写信人到邮局直接投递或邮箱投递均可，信件内容可为检举、揭发、表扬、感谢等。挂号信、特快专递、包裹等非普通信件，则不能享受免费。在寄信
位、进家庭、进市场；“五上”即上墙面、上桌面.上讲台、上舞台、上网络。
注重实效 成果明显
廉政文化建设是一项长期任务，我省各级工商部门坚持着眼长远，整体规划，分步实施，一步一个脚印地逐步推进，讲求实际效果。经过多年的努力T作，我省工商系统探索出了开展廉政文化建设工作的一些有效途径和方式，工商廉政文化建设逐步进人有领导、有计划、有步骤推进的良性轨道。
随着一批廉政文化景观的建成、众多廉政文化活动的开展和廉政制度的健全，工商机关和干部队伍中进一步营造出“以廉为美、以廉为乐、以廉为柴”的法制环境和文化氛围。通过文化的浸染
时，信封正面地址必须写为省、市(州)、县(市、区)三级纪检监察祝关，或纪检监察机关的举报中心或信访办等，投递对象不能为个人。
信访件将进行分类处理。对群众反映属于纪检监察业务范围内的问题，由受理的纪检监察机关及时认真办理：对群众反映不属于纪检监察业务范围的问题，由收信纪检监察机关将信访件转有关职能部门处理。
对于群众以真实姓名投寄的举报信，纪检监察机关将按照“谁办理、谁回复”的原则，由承办单位负责对信访人当面回复。上级纪检监察机关还将对回复情况进行抽查，努力提高群众满意度。
省纪委、省监察厅正加快建设纪检
监察信息管理系统。该系统预计最快可于10月建成启用。届时，通过邮局寄出的举报信，将按照干部管理权限，分级录人信息管理系统，从而实现对信访举报件转交办过程的全程监控，也方便群众查询受理和办理情况。
省纪委表示、邮政系统已在内部采取了相关措施。一旦出现信访件被半路丢失或拦截的情况，将进行严市查处。省纪委信访室同时提醒，信访人可凭有效证件到信访件的承办机关查询受理和办理情况，同时，群众还可拨打 028-84444444 向省纪委、省监察厅咨询信访政策，纪律或提出意见，建议。
行为少了；辛勤工作不计得失的人多了.
偷奸耍滑投机取巧的人少了；想为群众所想、急为群众所急的现象多了，门难进脸难看事难办的现象少了。”达州市达县工商行政管理局一名负责人说。
这正是，一花引来百花开，廉风吹来满眼春! | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | The story of the Book of Mormon
author: Reynolds, George
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THE STORY
OF THE
BOOK OF MORMON
By elder GEORGE REYNOLDS.
I
Author of "The Myth of the Manuscript Found." "Are We of Israel?'
Treatise on "The Book^of Abraham."
"Truth shall spring out of the earth ; and righteousness shall look down
from heaven." — Psalm, LXXXl', ji.
Wiblp Qriginal |llusbi;abions.
BY G. M. OTTINGER, WM. T. ARMITAGE, JOHN HELD. W. C. MORRIS AND OTHERS.
Salt Lake City:
JOS. HYRUM PARRY, PuBUSHER.
^ry
Entered according to a<5l of Congress, in the year IS88, by
C.EORGE REYNOLDS
AND
JOSEPH HYRUM PARRY,
In the office of the Librarian of Congfress at Washington.
}ffW^^'
PREFACE.
|HE book of mormon is the record of God's
©t^ dealings with the peoples of ancient America,
from the age of the building of the Tower of
Babel to four hundred and twenty-one years after the
birth of Christ. It is the stick of Bphraim, spoken of
b}' Hzekiel; the Bible of the western continent. Not
that it supersedes the Bible or in any way interferes
with it, any more than the history of Peru interferes
with or supersedes the history of Greece; but, on the
other hand, in many places it confirms Bible history,
demonstrates Bible truths, sustains Bible doctrines,
and fulfils Bible prophecy.
For many years we have taken great pleasure in
perusing its sacred pages and studying its truths. The
more we read it the more we found it contained. Like
other inspired records, every time it was opened we dis-
covered new and ofttimes unexpedled testimonies of its
divinity. From reading it we turned to writing of it ;
and much that this volume contains has been penned
at various intervals, from the days we were in prison
for conscience sake, where portions were written, to the
present. And now we present it to the reader with the
feeling that the work is but commenced; that what
remains unsaid is probably as important as what is
given, but with the hope that what we have done will
not prove ineffectual in spreading the truth, in increas-
ing knowledge concerning God's dealings with man-
kind, and aiding in the development of the purposes of
iv PREFACE.
Jehovah. If this be accomplished we shall feel that
great has been our reward.
This volume presents one unique feature, in that
it is the first attempt made to illustrate the Book of
Mormon; and we have pleasure in realizing that the
leading illustrations are the work of home artists. To
break fresh ground in such a direction is no light
undertaking; the difficulties are numerous, none more
so than the absence of information in the Book of
Mormon of the dress and artificial surroundings of
the peoples whose history it recounts. Each artist
has given his own ideas of the scenes depidled, and
as so much is left to the imagination, some readers will
doubtless praise where others will blame ; and the same
effort will be the subjeA of the most confliAing
criticism.
Not the least interesting feature of the book will,
we believe, be found in the reprodu6lions of portions of
certain ancient Aztec historical charts. These have
been the subje(5ls of controversy for centuries past;
many efforts have been made at their translation;
but all such attempts have been ineffedlual, and in
many cases ludicrous. It required the publication of
the Book of Mormon to turn on them the light of
divine truth, when their intent at once became
apparent. Others, we trust, in time will be discovered
which will be added testimonies to its genuineness
and divine authenticity , as well as to the sacred mis-
sion of the instrument in God's hands in bringing it
forth — the youthful Prophet, Joseph Smith.
Gko. Reynolds.
December, 1888.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
America the First Inhabited of all Lands. — Its Ancient Peoples. — The
Garden of Eden. — The Antediluvians. — The Jaredites. — The Ne-
phites and Lamanites. 17
CHAPTER I.
Ancient Jerusalem. — Lehi. — His Vision. — His Call to Preach to the
Jews. — They Persecute Him. — He is Commanded of God to take his
Family into the Wilderness. — Their Departure. — The Return of his
Sons to Jerusalem to obtain the Records. — They are Ill-treated by
Laban. — His Death. — Zoram accompanies the Brothers into the
Wilderness. 20
CHAPTER II.
The Rejoicing Over the Records. — Nephi and his Brothers again Re-
turn to Jerusalem. — They Conduct Ishmael and his Family into the
Wilderness. — Lehi's Dream. — The Tree of Life. — The Rod of Iron.
— The Boturini Manuscript. — Nephi's Vision. .... 30
CHAPTER III.
Marriages in the Company. — The Liahona. — The Journey Continued. —
Nephi Breaks his Bow. — Death of Ishmael. — They Reach the
Ocean. — Nephi Builds a Ship. — They cross the Great Waters and
reach the Promised Land. 42
CHAPTER IV.
The Promised Land. — Chili. — Its Natural Productions. — The Death of
Lehi. — His Blessing on his Posterity. — Pjophecies of his Ancestor
Joseph 54
CHAPTER V.
The Nephites and Lamanites Separate. — The Nephites seek a New
Home. — Nephi chosen King. — He builds a Temple. — Instructs his
People in the Arts of Peace. — War with the Lamanites. — The
Sword of Laban. — Nephi's Death. — Jacob, his brother, becomes
the Chief Priest. — Jacob's Teachings on Marriage. . • • 57
CHAPTER VI.
The Condition of the Lamanites. — Shcrem, the First Anti-Christ. — His
Recantation and Dreadful End. 62
vi CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VII. .
Enos, the Son of Jacob. — The Nephites and Lamanites of his day. —
His Testimony and Prophecies. 65
CHAPTER VIII.
Jarom. — Omni. — Amaron. — Chcmish. — Abinadom.— Amaleki.— Mosiah.
— Review of Nephite History for four hundred years. ... 68
CHAPTER IX.
Causes that led to the migration from the land of Nephi. — The People
of Zarahenila. — Mulek and his Colony. — The fusion of the two
Nations. — Mosiah made King. — His happy Reign. ... 72
CHAPTER X.
The Reign of King Benjamin. — The Progress of his People. — His last
great Speech. — He establishes the Church of Christ. — All the
I'eople Covenant with God. — Mosiah II. anointed King ... 79
CHAPTER XI.
ZenifF Returns to the Land of Nephi. — His Treaty with the Lamanites.
— The Prosperity' of the People of ZeniiT. — The Treaty Broken. —
War. — Peace and Wars again. — The Death of ZenifF. — Noah's
wicked Reign. — His Wars with the Lamanites. — The Prophet
Abinadi. — His terrible Message of God's Wrath. — He is Martyred.
T-Alma. — He pleads for Abinadi. — Is cast out. — Flees to the Place
of Mormon 86
CHAPTER XII.
The Waters of Mormon. — Alma, Helam and others Baptised therein. —
The Church Organized. — The King Warned. — He sends Troops. —
Alma and his People flee to the Land of Helam. — They build a
City 95
CHAPTER XIII.
King Noah's Subjects Rebel. — (rideon. — The Lamanites Invade Lehi-
Nephi. — The Nephites Retreat. — A Part Surrender. — The New-
Terms of Peace. — Noah is Burned to Death. — Limhi made King. —
Noah's Priests Escape. — They Seize some Lamanite Maidens. —
Another War. — The Nephites Vicflorious. — The King of the Laman-
ites Wounded. — Mutual E-xplanations. ...... 98
CHAPTER XIV.
The Bondage of the People of Limhi. — An Expedition North. — Finding
of the Jaredite Records. — The Arrival of Amnion. — The People of
Limhi Escape. — The Pursuit.— The Amulonites. — The People of
Alma. — They are brought into Bondage. — Their Deliverance. 103
CONTENTS. Vll
CHAPTER XV.
Mosiali's good Reign. — The Circumstances of his Advent. — He Assem-
bles the People. — The Baptism of Limhi. — Churches organized
throughout the Land. no
CHAPTER XVI.
The Unbelief of the Youth of Zarahemla. — The Younger Alma and the
Sons of Mosiah. — They Encourage the Persecutions against the
Church. — They are Met by an Angel. — His Message. — Alma's
awful Condition. — His Vision and Testimony. — The Changed Life
of the Young Men. .......... ij2
CPIAPTER XVH.
The Growth of the People in Zarahemla. — They Build man}- Cities. —
Mosiah's Sons Desire to take a Mission to the Lamanites — Mosiah
Inquires of the Lord. — The Divine Answer. . . . . • 1 19
CHAPTER XVIII.
Mosiah's Sons Refuse the Kingdom. — He Grants the People a Constitu-
tion.— The People to Elect their Rulers. — Alma, the Younger,
First Chief Judge I2i
CHAPTER XIX.
The Mission of the Sons of Mosiah to the Lamanites. — Their Journey
in the Wilderness. — Amnion Brought before King Lamoni. — The
Confli(5l at the Waters of Sebus.- — The Miraculous Conversion of
Lamoni and his Family. — Abish the Waiting Woman. . . . 123
CHAPTER XX.
Ammon and Lamoni start for the Land of Middoni. — They meet the
old King. — His rage at seeing Ammon. — He Endeavors to kill his
Son. — Aaron and his Brethren Liberated. — A Sketch of their labors
and sufferings. — The Conversion of Lamoni's Father and his
Household. . . . . . . . . . . • '31
CHAPTER XXI.
The King issues a Proclamation. — The Results of the Labors of the
sons of Mosiah. — The People of Anti-Nephi-Lehi. — They Burj^ their
Weapons of War. — Are Massacred by the Thousand. — They Re-
move to the Territory of the Nephites, who give them the Land of
Jershon. . . . . . . . . . . . .136
CHAPTER XXII.
Review of the Mission of the sons of Mosiah. — Its Importance and
Great Length. — Its Results to both Races. — The Dates of its Lead-
ing Occurrences. .......... 140
vni CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIII.
The days of the Judges.— Their Names and Reikis. — The Heresy of
Nehor. — He Slays Gideon and is Executed. — Amlici's Rebellion. —
The Battle of Amnihu. — The Conflicl at the Crossing of the Sidon.
—A third Battle 143
CHAPTER XXIV.
Alma Resigns the Chief Judgeship. — Nephihah Chosen. — Alma Minis-
ters in Zarahemla, Gideon, Melek and Ammonihah. — Condition of
the last named City. — It Rejects the Message Alma bears. — An An-
gel meets Him. — Aniulek. — The Lawyer Zeezrom. — The great Con-
trovers)-. — Zeezrom Converted and cast out. — The Martyrdom of
the Believers. — Alma and Amulek in Prison. — Their Deliverance. . 151
CHAPTER XXV.
Zeezrom Sick with Fever. — His Miraculous Recovery. — The Destruc-
tion of Ammonihah. — The Invasion of the Land of Noah. — Zoram,
the Nephite Commander, seeks the mind of the Lord. — It is Given;
its Results. — The war Ended. — Alma's Ministrations. . . 161
CHAPTER XXVI.
Korihor, the Anti-Christ. — His False Teachings and Blasphemy. — He
is taken before Alma. — Is Struck Dumb. — His Miserable End. —
The Heresy rooted out 167
CHAPTER XXVII.
Zoram and the Zoramites. — Their Peculiar Heres}-. — Tlie land of An-
tionum. — The Rameuniptom. — Alma's Mission to these People. —
Those who Receive his Teachings Persecuted. — Tliev flee to Jer-
slion. 171
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Another War. — Moroni the Leader of the Nephites. — The Taclicsof the
Lamanites. — Zerahemnah. — The Battle at Riplah. — Defeat of the
Lamanites. . . . . . . . . . -177
CHAPTER XXIX.
Alma's Charge to his Sous. — He Transfers the Records to Ikhuiian. —
He Leaves the World. — Zcezrom's latter Days. — Helamau's i\Iin-
istrations. . . . . . . . . . . . iSi
CHAPTER XXX.
;\malickiah.— His Apostasy and Treason. — Moroni's Title of Liberty. —
The Nephites Respond to his Call. — Lehonti. — He is Poisoned by
Amalickiah. — The King of the Lamanites Treacherously Slain. —
Amalickiah Marries the (jueen and is Proclaimed King. — A Disas-
trous Lamaiiite Raid. 183
CONTENTS. IX
CHAPTER XXXI.
A few years of Peace. — Teaiicuin. — The Contention between Lehi and
Morianton. — Amalickiah's terrible Invasion. — His Success. — He is
stopped at Bountiful by Teancum. — Teancum slays Anialickiah. —
Amnioron made King of the Lamanites. ..... 191
CHAPTER XXXII.
Jacob the Zoramite. — His Chara<5leristics. — The Strategy by which
Mulek was Taken. — The fierce Battle between Jacob and the
Nephite Forces. — Jacob's Death . 195
CHAPTER XXXIII.
The War in the Southwest. — Antipiis. — Helanian and his Two Thou-
sand Sons. — Their Valor and Faith. — The Repulse of the Laman-
ites . . 201
CHAPTER XXXIV.
The Relief of Manti. — The Overthrow of the Kingmen. — Pachus
Slain. — The Struggle at Moroni. — Teancum slays Ammoron, but at
the Cost of his own Life. — Teancum's Noble Character. . . 206
CHAPTER XXXV.
Peace Once More. — The Results of the War. — The Labors of Helaman.
— Shiblon Receives the Records. — Hagoth, the Ship-builder. —
Another War. — Moronihah.— Pahoran's Death. — Contention Re-
garding the Chief Judgeship. — Paanchi's Rebellion. — The Gadian-
ton Bands. — Assassination of Pahoran II. — Another Lamanite In-
vasion. ............ 210
CHAPTER XXXVI.
Pacumeni Slain. — Helaman chosen Chief Judge. — The Conspiracy to
slay Him. — Kishkumen Killed. — The Prosperity of the Nephites
under Helaman. . . . . . . . . .215
CHAPTER XXXVII.
The Sons of Helaman. — Nephi's Righteous Rule. — The Lamanites
again invade Zarahemla. — They drive the Nephites into the North-
em Continent. — The Ministrations of Nephi and Lehi. — The Man-
ifestations of God's power in the City of Nephi. — Aminadab. — The
Conversion of the Lamanites. — Universal Peace. .... 218
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Growth of Evil among the Nephites. — The Increase of the Gadianton
Robbers. — Nephi's Announcement of the Murder of the Chief
Judge. — The Discovery. — Nephi Arrested. — He is proven Innocent.
God's Covenant with him. — Increase of Iniquity. — A terrible
Famine. — The welcome Rain. — The trend to Death. . . . 22^
X CONTENTS.
CHAITER XXXIX.
Samuel, the Lanianite. — His Mission ami rropliecies. — The vain At-
tempt to Destroy him.— He Returns to his own Country. . 231
CHAITER XL.
Nephi translated. — His son Neplii. — Time of the Savior's Cominjjj. —
The Conspiracy to slay the Believers. — The Revelation to Nephi. —
The promised Signs Appear. — Increase of the Gadianton Robbers.
— War. — Lachoneus Gathers all the People to one land. — The end
of the Struggle. 236
CHAPTER XIJ.
The last Chief Judge Murdered and the Republic Overthrown. — The
signs of the Savior's Death appear. — A terrible Storm. — The
Universal Darkness. — The unparalleled Destrudlion. — The Terror of
those Hours 243
CHAPTER XLII.
The Voice from Heaven. — The Savior testifies of Himself. — Silence
throughout the Land. — How oft would Christ have gathered His
People. — The Darkness Departs. . , . . . . .251
CHAPTER XLIII.
Christ Appears in the land Bountiful. — The Testimony of the Father. —
Jesus calls Twelve Disciples. — His Teachings to them and to the
Multitude. 254
CHAPTER XLIV.
The Beatitudes. — Divers lustrudlions and Cautions on Forgiveness,
Chastity, Charity, etc 258
CHAPTER XLV.
On Alms-giving. — "After this manner Pray ye." — On Fasting, Integ-
rity, Trust in God, etc 263
CHAPTER XLVI.
Judge Not. — The Beam and the Mote. — "Beware of False Prophets." —
Good and Evil Fruit. — The House Built on the Rock. . . . 266
CHAPTER XLVIL
Tlie I'ulfilment of the Mosaic law. — "Other Sheep Have I." — The Ten
Tribes. — The Events of the Latter Days. 269
CHAPTER XLVHI.
The vSavior heals the Sick. — He Blesses the Children of the Nephites.
— Angels Minister unto them. 275
CONTENTS. XI
CHAPTER XLIX.
The Sacrament Adtninistered. — The Savior's teachings Regarding it. —
He Confers on His Disciples the power to give the Holy Ghost. —
He Ascends into Heaven. ........ 278
CHAPTER Iv.
Jesns Returns and Renews His Teachings. — He Administers the Sacra-
ment.— He Explains the Teachings of the Prophets. — The words
of Malachi. 281
CHAPTER LI.
The Savior continues His Ministrations. — He Raises a man from the
Dead. — The Labors of the Twelve. — The Name of the Church. —
The Three who should Remain. 286
CHAPTER LH.
The Long Continued Era of Peace and Righteoiisness. — Death of
Neplii. — His son Amos. — Amos the Second 290
CHAPTER LIII.
The Commencement of the Apostas}'. — It Grows in Intensity. — The
Persecution of the Disciples. — Lamanites again. — Re-appearance of
the Gadianton Bands. — War. — Ammaron Hides the Records. . 293
CHAPTER LTV.
The Last long Series of Wars. — Mormon. — The final Conflicfl at Cumo-
rah. — The Last of the Nephites. . . . . . . . 298
CHAPTER LV.
The Historians of the Nephites. — The Plates of Nephi. — List of their
Custodians. — Their Lengthened Years. ...... 302
CHAPTER LVI.
The Women of the Book of Mormon.— Their Condition and Position. —
Abish. — Isabel. — Marriage. — Anmlek. ...... 307
CHAPTER LVII.
Domestic Life among the Nephites. — Household duties.— Dress. — Orna-
ments.— Homes.— -Food. — Manufaclures. — Transportation. . -313
CHAPTER LVIII.
Agriculture among the Nephites. — Grains. — Stock Raising. — Irrigation. 320
CHAPTER LIX.
Science and Literature among the Nephites. — Their Astronomy and
Geography. — The Learning of Eygpt. ...... 324
CHAPTER LX.
The Art of War among the Nephites. — Their Weapons, Armor and For-
tifications.— Moroni's Line of Defense 330
Xll CONTEXTS.
CHAPTER LXI.
The Laws of the Nephites. — The Roman and Nephite Civilizations. —
The Laws under the Kings. — Position of the Priesthood. — Slaver^-.
— Criminal Offenses. 338
CHAMBER LXII.
The Laws under the Jinlges. — The Voice of the People. — Eleclions. —
Rights of the People. — Church and State. — The Criminal Proced-
ure ■ 347
CHAPTER LXHL
Laws of the Nephites, continued. — The Division into Tribes, — The Mes-
sianic Dispensation. — The final Convulsion 356
CHAPTER LXIV.
The Money of the Nephites. — Their Coins. — Barley the Standard of
Value. . 360
CHAPTER LXV.
Personal Appearance of the Nephites. — Their Beauty. — Testimony of
Remains found. — The Dark-skinned Lamanites 364
CHAPTER LXVI.
Language of the Nephites. — The Influence of the Egyptian. — Nephite
Words. — Rameumptom. — Liahona. — Rabbanah. — The Lamanite
Tongue. — Word Building. . . . . . _ . . . 368
CHAPTER LXVIL
Nephite Proper Names. — Bible Names. — Sariah. — Nephi. — Sam. —
Melek. — Gershon. — Isabel. — Aha, etc. — Prefixes and Suffixes. • 376
CHAPTER LXVIII.
The Lands of the Nephites. — Mulek and Lehi. — Zarahenila and Nephi. —
The Wilderness. — The Land of First Inheritance. — The Journeys
Northward. — The Waters of Mormon. — Lehi-Nephi. . . . 3S2
CHAPTER LXIX.
Nephi in the hands of the Lamanites. — The lands of Shemlon. Shilom,
Helani, Amnion, Ishmael, Middoni, Jerusalem, etc. . ' . . 395
CHAPTER LXX.
The Lands of the Nephites, continued. — Zarahenila. — ^Jershon. — Au-
tionum. — Manti. — Gideon. 399
CHAPTER LXXI.
Lamlsitl' the Xf|ihitcs, conliin'cd. Mimin. Melek. Aninioiiiliali. Nuali.
— Sidom. — Aaron. — Lelii. — Mnlek. Bountiful. Tlic Southwest Bor-
der 404
CONTKNTS. Xlll
CHAPTER I.XXII.
The Landsof Antuni, Teancuiii, Joshua, David, etc. — Cuniorali. — The Hills
of the Nephites. - The Ixivcr Sidon. .....,'. 411
CHAPTER LXXHI.
Keligion of the Nei)hites. — It is Stated by Nephi.— The Priesthood and
Ordinances tliereof. — Baptism. — Confirmation. — Ordination. — The
Sacrament. — Spiritual Gifts. 417
CHAPTER LXXIV.
Miracles Among the Nephites. -The Miracles of Christ. — John and the
Three Nephites — Translations 425
CHAPTER LXXV.
The Prophecies Regarding the Savior. — Their Comjtloteness and Detail. ^ —
Names and Titles gi\ en to Christ. .......
430
CHAPTER LXXVI.
Nephite Apostates. — The Order of Nehor. — Amalekites. — Amalickiahites.
— Araulonites. — Abinadi's Prophecy. — The Cadiantons. . . . 435
CHAPTER LXXVII.
Church Discijiline among the Nephites. — Treatment of the Unrepentant. —
The Word of the Lord Regarding Transgressor.*. — The Testimony of
Moroni.
CHAPTER LXXVni.
442
Tiie Discovery of the Jaredite Record. — Coriautunir. — Ether.— The Disper-
sion ut Babel. — The Journey of the Jarcdites. — Atlantis. . . . 446
CHAPTER LXXIX.
Moriancumr. — Building the Barges. — The Finger of the Lord.^ — The Ap-
pearing of the Savior. — The Voyage. . . . . . . . 452
CHAPTER LXXX.
The Land of Promise. — A Monarchy Established. — The Kings of the
.Taredites from Orihah to Omer. — Akish. — The Daughter of Jared. . 457
CHAPTER LXXXI.
The Kings of the .Taredites from Omer to Coriantumr. — The Material
Prosperity of the Rice. . . . . . . . . . 460
CHAPTER LXXXIL
The Judgments of God on the .Taredites. — The Extinction of the Race. —
The hill Raniah. — Shiz and Coriantumr. — Ether. .... 463
BOOK OF MORMON CHRONOLOGY 472
APPENDIX 4S.S
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE.
Appearance of Christ to the Nephites, Ar7nitage, FroDtispiece
Ancient Jerusalem,
Ancient Aztec Alap, (Part i.)
Wilderness near the Red Sea,
Ancient Aztec Alap, (Part 2.)
Vision of Nephi,
Ancient Aztec Map, (Part 3,)
Ancient Aztec Map, (Part 4.)
Ancient Hieroglyphic Chart,
First Sacrifice on the Promised Land,
Joseph sold by his Brethren,
The Country of the Nephites,
The Jews led away to Captivity,
Babylon, .....
Nazareth, .....
The Land of Helam,
Discover}^ of the Records of the Jaredites,
Baptism of Limhi,
The Wilderness, ....
The Wilderness of Hermounts,
The Martyrdoms at Ammonihah,
•
21
Bo/unfu\
25
•
32
Boturiiii,
37
. Held,
39
Boturhii,
44
Boluiijii,
45
Farrcri,
51
Ottingcr,
53
•
56
•
59
•
75
•
76
84
CkC
97
es,
Ottingcr,
105
Odiiiocr,
1^3
■
124
•
150
//rid,
157
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONvS.
XV
PAGE.
The Deliverance of Alma and Amulek, Hcld^ i6i
Moroni Raises the "Title of Libert}^," Ottingcr, 185
Teancum Slays Amalickiah, . . Morris^ 195
The New Star, 238
Bethlehem, ....... 239
The River Jordan, ..... 245
The Crucifixion, ...... 247
Destru(5lion of Zarahemla, . . Oftiiiqer, 249
The House on the Rock and on the Sand, . 268
Shepherd and his Flocks, . . . . 271
The Three Nephites and wild Beasts, . Held, 293
The Mothers of the Nephites, . . . 313
South American Fruits, . . . . 320
Ancient Egyptian Chara6lers, . . . 370
Copy of Characters on the Plates, . . 371
Christ before Pilate, . . . Munkacs)\ 431
The Original Home of the Jaredites, . . 446
The Tower of Babel, ..... 447
Appearance of Christ to the Brother of Jared,
Held, 455
Prophets Preaching to the Jaredites, . Held, 463
Ether Finishing his Record, . . Morris^ 467
r t
THE
5tory of {\)(( BooK of /T\or/r\09.
INTRODUCTION.
AMERICA THE FIRST INHABITED OF ALL LANDvS — ITS ANCIENT
PEOPLES — THE GARDEN OF EDEN — THE ANTEDILUVI-
ANS—THE JAREDITES— THE NEPHITES AND LAMANITES.
^npHB story that we are about to relate is a true one.
It is the histor}' of the races who lived on this
broad land of ours long, long ago. From it we shall
learn man 3' lessons of God's great love for man. We
shall also learn how often his love has been spurned,
how apt his favored children have been to walk in ways
of sin, and how prone to disobey his holy law. It
is a stor}' full of light and shade, one which it will be
well for all of us to take to heart, for by so doing our
faith in God will increase, and we shall be prompted to
strive the more earnestly to avoid the evils that others
by their misdeeds have brought upon themselves and
their posterity.
l8 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
America, the Taiid we love, is, in our Heavenl}-
Father's eyes, choice above all other lands as the home
of his sons and daughters, whom he has placed upon
this earth. For all God's creatures are not here. He
has made man\' worlds and filled them with his chil-
dren. How man}?^ we know not ; tlie\' are countless to
us. The stars, that shine in myriads in the heavens,
are nearly all suns like the one that gives us light; the
remaining few are worlds like unto this on which we
dwell; and ours is one of the ver}- smallest of them
all. To the works of God there is no beginning,
neither is there any end.
God made America the richest of all lands.
He filled its depths with precious minerals ; he
caused the most lovely trees, and herbs, and flowers to
grow upon its surface. In all things he made it most
desirable as a home for man. And here he planted
the Garden of Eden, and placed our first parents
— Adam and Eve — therein. From that garden the}-
were afterwards driven forth when they failed to keep
God's law. But they did not leave this continent.
Here the}- still remained ; here their sons and daugh-
ters were born, until many strong people had sprung
from them. It was in this land that Cain slew his
brother Abel ; it was here that Enoch and his city
dwelt, that Noah preached to the ungodly, and the
ark was built. But when the flood was over and the
waters sank, that ark, by the winds and waves, had
been carried far away to a new land, until it rested on
Mount Ararat. Then for a short time America was
without inhabitant.
But not long after the deluge the wicked tried
to build a tower that would reach so high that if ever
STORY O'F THE BOOK OF MORMON. I9
another flood came the}- might escape the rising
waters by ascending it. This is called the Tower of
Babel. The Lord was angry with those who at-
tempted to build this tower, for he had promised that
he would never again destro}^ the earth with the wa-
ters of a flood. But they did not believe him ; and in
their unbelief they went to work to constru(5l it. In
his anger he confounded their language, that they
could not understand each other. Then he scattered
them abroad upon the face of the earth. Some few,
better than the others, he brought to i\merica. Here
he made them a great nation ; and they filled the land
for many hundreds of years. By and by they grew
exceedingl}' wicked and gathered together in vast ar-
mies to war with one another. And they fought so ter-
ribl}^ that at last the}- were all destroyed, — all except
one man. These people were called the Jaredites.
Bv this we see that this continent was a second
time left without inhabitants, because of the great
wickedness of the people.
After this the Lord brought another people to
fill this land. They were a branch of the house of
Israel, and we call them the Nephites and Lamanites.
They also grew great, prospered, flourished, and fell.
Like the Jaredites, at the last, they destroyed each
other in war, and there were but few left. But from
those few have come the many tribes of Indians that
to-day are found scattered far and wide over both
North and South America, and on some of the outly-
ing islands of the sea.
Thus fell a third race who would not serve God ;
for he had decreed that the wicked should not in-
herit this land. To one of his ancient servants he
20 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
declared, ''If iniquity shall abound cursed shall be the
land for their sakes ; but unto the righteous it shall be
blessed forever." (ii Nephi i. 7.)
North America was the first of all lands to be
inhabited; it was here that Adam and Eve dwelt.
The Jaredites from the. Tower of Babel also first
landed here. But the Nephites made their earliest
settlements on the western shores of the southern
continent, where b}- degrees they spread north and
south, then east and west, until their cities and vil-
lages could be seen in every part of the land.
CHAPTER I.
ANCIENT JERUSALEM — LEHI — HIS VISION — HIS CALL TO
PREACH TO THE JEWS — THEY PERSECUTE HIM — HE IS
COMMANDED OF GOD TO TAKE HIS FAMILY' INTO THE
WILDERNESS— THEIR DEPARTURE— THE RETURN OF HIS
SONS TO JERUSALEM TO OBTAIN THE. RECORDS — THEY
ARE ILL TREATED BY LABAN — HIS DEATH — ZORAM AC-
COMPANIES THE BROTHERS INTO THE WILDERNESS.
/^UR Story opens in the royal city of Jerusalem, in
the first year of the reign of King Zedekiah, or ex-
a6lly six hundred years before the birth of our Savior.
It was then very grand and very beautiful, the capital
of the Kingdom of Judah, and the chief city of all
Israel. In name it was holy, for the Temple of the
Lord was there. Its busy streets were crowded with a
mixed multitude. Priests and Levites who officiated
in the ordinances of the law of Moses, worshipers
from the other tribes of Jacob, warriors of the armies
22 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
of Jiidah, courtiers and attendants on the king, mer-
chants from Egypt, from T^-re and Sidon and from
many other parts, artificers in various trades, all these
combined to make it wealthy and renowned, a busy
mart of trade, a centre of civilization, and a sacred
city.
Holy it should have been, but the glory of the
Lord had departed from his house. Its people had be-
come very wicked. They were filled with pride and
greed ; they heeded not the law of the Lord ; their
affe(5lions were set upon the things of this world ;
they served God with their lips onh', while their
hearts were far from him. He had sent unto them
his prophets, but one after another they had rejedled
these holy men ; man\' they had persecuted, and some
they had slain.
In this city, at that time, dwelt a worthy man
named Lehi. He was of the tribe of Manasseh, but
had made his home in Jerusalem all his days, though
it was a cit}^ of the Kingdom of Judah. He was a
man who had been prospered of the Lord and had
gathered around him considerable wealth. His wife's
name was Sariah, and they had four sons and some
daughters. The names of the sous, in the order of
their ages, were Laman, Lemuel, Sam and Nephi ; the
number or names of the daughters are nowhere given
in the sacred history.
To this good man the word of the L»nTl came.
God raised him up to be a prophet. He sent him
with a message to the people of Jerusalem. As a serv-
ant of the Lord he had to warn them of many evils
that would come upon them if they did not cease from
their wicked \va\s. But the\- paid no heed to his
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 23
words ; they refused to listen to his warning. Indeed,
they became very angry because he told them of their
sins, and before long they sought to kill him.
God gave to Lehi many dreams and visions. One
day a pillar of fire came and rested on a rock before
him ; and then he heard and saw many wonderful
things. The things which he had seen and heard so
overpowered him that he went home to his house at
Jerusalem, and threw himself on his bed. Then be-
ing overcome by the Holy Spirit he was carried away
in a vision. In that vision he saw God sitting upon
his throne, surrounded by vast hosts of angels who
were singing and praising the Lord. And he saw a
holy Being, surrounded by a glory as bright as the sun
at noon day, come down out of the midst of heaven.
It was the Lord Jesus. Our Savior was followed by
twelve others whose brightness exceeded that of the
stars. They were Christ's Apostles. These came down
and went forth on the face of the earth.
And in the vision the Savior came to Lehi and
gave him a book, and bade him read it. In that book
was an account of events that had not yet taken place.
It was full of the woes that should happen to Jerusa-
lem and her people, if they repented not of their sins and
follies. It told how that great cit}" should be taken by
her enemies and destroyed ; how numbers of the inhab-
itants should perish, while many should be carried cap-
tive into Babylon. All of which was fulfilled a few
years later. These things with others were what Lehi
told the Jews ; and as they did not believe his words
they became enraged at him and ill treated him. How
gracious was our heavenly Father to shew such •
great things to Lehi, and to reveal to him so much
24 STORY OF THP: BOOK OF MORMON.
with regard to the earthly life of our Lord and Savior,
whose coming in the flesh was yet six hundred years in
the future.
Before long the Lord was satisfied with what Lehi
had said and done. He told him, in a dream, that as
the Jews had rejected his message and sought his life,
to leave them to the destruclion that would surely
come upon them. God then direc1:ed him to leave Je-
rusalem and take his family and journey into the wil-
derness. This Lehi did. He left behind him his gold
and other precious things, and only carried with him
what was needful for the use of his famil}^ during their
travels. Like Abraham before him, he went not know-
ing whither he M'as going, but went because God had
commanded him ; and, like Abraham, he was led by Di-
vine power to a blessed land of promise.
When Lehi and his family left Jerusalem they
traveled southward to the borders of the Red Sea.
When they reached there they pitched their tents and
rested for a season in a valley near a river which
emptied into the sea. In this valley Lehi built an
altar, and upon it he offered a sacrifice to the Lord,
and gave thanks unto him for his great goodness
in bringing them out of the doomed chief city of
Judah.
It Avas while Lehi's little company were camped
in this valley, to which he gave the name of the Valley
of Lemuel, that the dispositions of the four 3'oung men
began to shew themselves. Laman and Lemuel here
commenced to grumble, to complain and to rebel ; while
Nephi was obedient in all things to the word of God
and the wishes of his father. He sought the Holy
One in earnest prayer in his own Ix'half and in tliat
26 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
of his brothers, and the Lord made him many precious
promises, all of which were, in due time, fulfilled.
While encamped in this valley the Lord, in a
dream, commanded Lehi to send his sons back to Je-
rusalem to obtain certain plates on which was en-
graven a record of the Jews. They also contained a
genealogy or list of Lehi's forefathers. These plates
were kept by a rich man named Laban, who held
them because, like Lehi, he was a descendant of that
Joseph who was sold into Egypt.
When Lehi's elder sons heard this they mur-
mured. They did not want to go back to the city.
They said it was a hard thing to do, and the}- claimed
to be afraid of Laban. But Nephi neither feared nor
murmured, for he was a man of much faith. On this
occasion he said to his father, I will go and do the
things which God has commanded, for I know that
the Lord gives no commandment to the children of
men, save he prepares a wa}^ that they nia\' do the
thing that he requires of them. When Lehi saw how
strong was his son's faith he greath' rejoiced, for he
perceived that Nephi had been much blessed of the
Lord,
At last all the sons consented to return and get
the plates. They took their tents with them, traveled
as they came, and in a few days reached Jerusalem.
When they arrived they cast lots to decide which of
them should first visit Laban. The lot fell upon Laman.
As he had no faith in his mission, we can readilv
understand that he failed to get the records. He went
to Laban's house, which was a very fine one, and
talked with him on the matter. But Laban grew angry,
would not let him have the plates, called him a robber,
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 2 7
and drove him out of the house. When Laman re-
turned to his brothers they were very sad at hearing
how violenth' Laban had adled. All but Nephi wished
to return to their father in the wilderness ; but he
would not consent. He had come up to Jerusalem to
do what God had commanded, and he was not going
back until he had done it. He said to his brothers,
"As the Lord liveth, and as we live, we will not go down
unto our father in the wilderness, until we have accom-
plished the thing which the Lord has commanded us."
Brave words from a heart of faith, and they accom-
plished their purpose.
Nephi next proposed that the}^ should go to their
father's house and colle6l some of the gold, silver and
other precious things which he had left behind, take
them to Laban and offer them to him in exchange for
the records.
The}^ did all this ; still Laban would not let them
have the plates. But when he saw how great was the
value of the propert}' which they offered him, he de-
sired very much to get it ; for he was a wicked man, filled
with greed and covetousness. So he thrust the brothers
out of his house and kept their property. Xot con-
tent with this he sent his servants after them to slay
them. But the servants did not overtake them, for
Nephi and his brothers ran very swiftly and hid them-
selves in a cave in the wilderness outside of the walls
of the city.
Laman and Lemuel were now furious at their lack
of success. In their anger they spoke many hard words
to Sam and Nephi, and moreover they beat them with
a rod. W^hile thus engaged an angel of the Lord stood
before them and rebuked them for their cruel treatment
28 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
of their 3'ouiiger brothers. He further told them to go
up to Jerusalem once again, and Laban should be de-
livered into their hands.
Even though an angel from heaven had appeared
to them, Laman and Lemuel still murmured and did
not want to go back to the house of Laban. But after
some persuasion from Nephi they reluclantl}' followed
him. His faith had made him their leader, which po-
sition he ever afterwards held.
Nephi caused his brethren to hide themselves with-
out the walls, and then went forward alone, not knowing
exactly where he was going, but suffering himself to be
guided by the Spirit of the Lord. It was now night.
When near the house of Laban he came across a man
lying in a drunken stupor on the ground. It proved
to be Laban himself
The Spirit of the Lord now diredled Nephi to slay
Laban, telling him that it was better that one man
should die than that a nation should dwindle and perish
in unbelief. This the Nephites undoubtedly would have
done had tlie}^ not had the law of the Lord with them ;
and this law was engraved on these plates. As we pro-
ceed we shall find that both the Lamanites and the peo-
ple of Zarahemla sank in sin and dwindled in unbelief
from this very cause, that they had no Divine records.
For all that the Spirit thus prompted, still Nephi
felt loath to slay Laban, although he had robbed him
and his brothers of their father's property and sought to
take awaj^ their lives. But at last he obeyed the voice
of the Spirit, and drawing Laban's own sword from its
sheath with it he smote off this wicked man's head.
Nephi next removed Laban's armor from the dead
body and put it on his ow 11 })ers()n; he also look the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 29
sword of Labaii and girded it around liis waist. Then
he went to the dead man's house, and, imitating
Laban's voice, he commanded the servant who had the
keys of the room where the records were kept to go with
him and get them. The servant, whose name was Zoram,
obeyed, and brought forth the records, for he thought
it was his master who was talking to him.
Nephi, still acting as though he was Laban, had
Zoram go with him to where his brothers were hid.
When Laman, Lemuel and Sam saw him coming they
became greatly afraid, for the}^ did not know him, dressed
as he was, in the armor of Laban ; and he had some little
difficult}' in making them understand that he was their
brother, and that they had no cause for fear. But
when Zoram discovered that Nephi was not his master,
he also was seized with fear, and would have run away
had not Nephi held him. We may be sure Nephi did
not want Zoram to return to Jerusalem, lest he should
gather a body of men and follow him and his brothers
into the wilderness and slay them. So he spake kind
and encouraging words to Zoram, who very soon con-
sented to make a covenant of friendship with Nephi and
go with him to the place where Lehi had pitched his
tents.
CHAPTER II.
THE REJOICING OVER THE RECORDS — NEI'HI AND HIS
BROTHERS AGAIN RETURN TO JERUSALEM— THEY CON-
DUCT ISHMAEL AND HIS FAMILY INTO THE WILDER-
NESS—LEHI'S DREAM— THE TREE OF LIFE — THE ROD
OF IRON — THE BOTURINI MANUvSCRIPT — NEPHFS VISION.
^TTHEN Nephi and his companions reached their
father's tent in the wilderness their parents were
exceedingly glad. Sariah had mourned during their
absence because she fancied her sons would never re-
turn alive ; and with those feelings she had upbraided
her husband for sending them away. She charged
him with being a visionary man, who was always giv-
ing heed to dreams in which she had little faith. All
this was changed when her boys got back ; then she
was willing to acknowledge the inspiration of Heaven
in her husband's visions.
The first thing Lehi did when his sons arrived
was to offer a sacrifice to the Lord, as a token of his
gratitude for their safe return. Next he examined the
records, and rejoiced much to find that they contained
the five books of Moses, and a histor}' of the Jews to
the commencement of the reign of King Zedekiah.
These plates also contained many of the prophecies of
the holy prophets, and a genealogy of Lehi's fathers.
We may be well assured how grateful Lehi felt to the
Lord for placing these sacred records in his hands, so
that his people could have the Law of the Lord and
the history of their ancestors always in their posses-
sion. It is a great thing to any people to possess the
annals of their forefathers. This is particularly true
of those who, like Lehi's family, are separated from
the rest of the world. It tends to keep them from
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. . 3 1
sinking into idolatry, and from corrnpting the laws of
heaven ; it preserves the pnrity of their language, and
conne6ls them with those from whom they have sprung,
in that they retain a knowledge of their nationality,
which is a great stay and help to any race that is
building up a new civilization.
But the four young men had to return once again
to Jerusalem. God intended to make of Lehi's pos-
terity a great nation. This could scarcely be done
unless his sons married. But they had no young
maidens with them in the wilderness who would do for
wives. So the Lord told Lehi to send his sons to a
man named Ishmael, of the tribe of Kphraim, who
dwelt in Jerusalem, and desire him and his family
to join them on their journey. The reason why God
sent them to Ishmael was that he was a good man and
had a number of daughters. When Lehi's sons de-
livered their message the Lord softened Ishmael's
heart and he consented to go wath them ; and soon he
and his famih' were on the way to the valley b}' the
Red Sea where Lehi was encamped.
As they journej^ed, however, thej^ had the usual
trouble. Laman and Lemuel had another fit of rebel-
iousness. They induced some of the family of Ish-
mael to join them, and for a time there was great di-
vision in the little company. Nephi, inspired with the
Spirit of the Lord, rebuked them for their folly. This
so angered them that they bound him with cords, in-
tending in their cruelt}- to leave him to perish in the
wilderness, or to be devoured by wild beasts. But
Nephi pra3'ed in great faith to the Lord to give him
strength to burst the bands which held hiui. The Lord
answered his pra3'er and the cords were loosened from
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 33
his hands and feet. Being now free he again reproved
his brethren, which renewed their anger. Once more
the}' songht to take his life, bnt Ishmael's wife and
one of her sons and a danghter so earnestly plead for
him that the hearts of the rebels were softened and
they ceased their efforts to slay him. By and by,
when their anger had cooled down, they felt very sorry
for their great wickedness in trying to kill their
brother. Then they humbled themselves before him
and sought his forgiveness, which he, in the goodness
of his heart, at once most gladly granted them.
When the company reached the tents of Lehi,
after the usual custom they offered burnt offerings and
sacrifices to the Lord.
While Lehi dwelt in the Valley of Lemuel he had
another remarkable dream. It was like unto this:
He dreamed that a man stood before him and bade him
follow him. This Lehi did. Then they traveled for
many hours through a dark and dreary waste. When
they had thus journe3'ed for so long a time Lehi be-
gan to pray to the Lord to have mercy on him. After
he had prayed he beheld a large and spacious field.
In it grew a tree whose fruit was very desirable to
make one happy. Lehi partook of this fruit. He
found it whiter and sweeter than any fruit he had ever
before seen or tasted. When he had eaten his heart
was filled with great joy, and he was very anxious
that his famil}' should partake of it also. So he looked
round in the hope of seeing some of them, and in do-
ing so his eyes fell upon a river. Its waters were
filthy, and it ran along near the tree upon which the
sweet fruit grew. Not far off was the fountain from
whence the river sprang ; and near by he saw his w..e,
34 STORY OK THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Sariab, and his sons, Sam and Nephi. They stood
there hesitating, as if the}- knew not where to go.
Lehi therenpon beckoned, and called them to come to
him and taste of the frnit. Then they all three came
and partook of it.
Lehi now felt desirous that his two elder sons, La-
man and Lemuel, should also partake ; but when he
called them, the}^ would not come.
Lehi also saw a rod of iron. It extended along the
bank of the river and led to the tree by which he stood.
And there was a straight and narrow path which ran
along by the rod of iron to the tree. This j^ath led
into a broad field, so spacious that it might have been
a world. He then saw vast numbers of people, many
of whom were pressing forward to get to the path which
led to the tree. Then it seemed that as soon as these
people began to walk in the path there arose a great
mist of darkness, that many missed their way, wandered
off, and were lost. Others, by taking hold of the rod
of iron, and clinging thereto, kept in the narrow path,
reached the tree and partook of its precious fruit.
Some of those who tasted the fruit soon appeared
to grow ashamed; and Lehi, casting his ej-es across the
river, beheld on the other side a very large and fine build-
ing, which stood as if it were in the air, high above the
earth.
This building was filled with men and women of
all ages, whose style of dress was verj- rich and grand.
These people were mocking and ridiculing those who
ate of the fruit of the tree. Because of this taunting
and derision some felt ashamed, and they fell away
into forbidden paths and were lost. Lehi also saw
other multitudes groping their way towards the spacious
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 35
building; and some were drowned in the fountain of
filth}' water, and others were lost to sight wandering in
strange roads.
The interpretation of Lehi's dream is this: The tree
which bore the precious fruit, of which Lehi, vSariah,
Sam and Nephi ate, was the tree of life. The rod of
iron which led thereunto represented the word of God;
and whoso will harken unto the word of God, and will
cleave unto it, will never perish, but partake of the fruit
of the tree of life. The river of filthy water shewed the
awful gulf which separates the wicked. from the tree of
life and from the saints of God. The vast and costly
building represented the wicked world, with those who
belong thereto.
Lehi further saw that Laman and Lemuel ate not
of the fruit of the tree, and it gave him much sorrow.
We present a copy of a portion of an ancient
Aztec map or chart, the original of which is about
twenty feet in length, found in Mexico more than a
hundred years ago b}- an Italian gentleman named
Boturini.'-' On a previous page we have inserted a
copy of the first part of this picture map or panorama,
which seems to shew the departure of Lehi from
Jerusalem, his crossing some waters, his journey
* Of Boturini, Humlioklt observes: "This Milanese traveler had
crossed the seas with no other view than to study on the spot the history of
the native tribes of America ; but in traversing the country to examine its
monuments, and make researches into its antiquities, he had the misfortune
to fall under the suspicion of the Spanish government. After having been
deprived of the fruit of his labors, he was sent in 1736 as a state prisoner to
Madrid. The king of Spain declared him innocent, but this did not restore
to him his property ; and this colleAion * * lay buried in the archives of
the University of Mexico ; those valuable relics of the culture of the Aztecs
were preserved with so little care that there scarcely exists at present an
eighth part of the hieroglyphic records taken from the Italian traveler."
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 37
ill the desert, and the names of his family. In
the second part we consider is yet more clearly shewn
Lehi's dream. We can plainly see the tree of life, with
Lehi near by, the rod of iron that led thereto, Sariah,
Sam and Nephi partaking of the fruit; while Lamaii
and Lemuel are not touching it. Then the journey is
continued, and we see them all weeping over one man.
This we think represents the death of Ishmael, of
which we shall speak hereafter. Above again appear
the names of the family. '='
* The priests of the Roman Catholic Church who visited Mexico at
the time of and soon after the Spanish conquest were struck with the jjjreat
resemblance of so large a number of the customs of the Mexican people to
those of the ancient Israelites. To account for these resemblances they in-
vented the theory that the devil had imitated the Lord when he delivered the
Hebrews from their bondage in Egypt, by bringing the forefathers of the
American races from their original home to this continent with many signs
and wonders. Further, that Satan had revealed to these people a spurious
or bastard gospel, as near to the true one as was possible, in order to lead
their souls to eternal perdition. Based on this theory, — that the devil was
the real god of the Indians, Torquemeda, in his "Indian Monarchy," and
others, give the following as the translation of the opening portions of this
chart:
"Although they were all of the same race and lineage, still they did
not all compose a single family, but were divided into four tribes. * * The
Azticas, therefore, quitted their country under the guidance of Zacpaltzin
and Huitzon, in the first of the first circle ; for they commenced the compu-
tation of their years from that period ; and proceeded some stages on their
journey, in which they employed the space of a year, at the end of which
they arrived at a place called Hueycolhuacan, where they remained three
years. In this place (they say) the devil appeared to them in the form of an
idol, declaring to them that it was he who brought them out of the land of
Aztlan, and that he would accompany them, being their God, to favor them
in every thing. * * This being the beginning of the devil's proceedings among
this people, they marched from one place to another, where there was a
large and thick tree where he caused them to stop, at the trunk of which
tliey made a small altar, upon which they placed an idol, for so the devil
commanded, and they sat down under its shade to eat, but whilst eating, a
loud sound proceeded from the tree, and it rent in the middle. The Azticas,
terrified at this sudden accident, considered it a bad omen, and surrendering
themselves up to affliction, terminated the repait."
38 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Nephi was very desirous to have the same dreams
as his father; and he prayed earnesth* to the Lord that
this favor might be granted him. God answered his
prayers, and shewed him man}- of the greatest events
that would take place in the future history of the
world.
For behold while Nephi was pondering these
things in his heart he was caught away in the Spirit
of the Lord, into an exceeding!}' high mountain, which
he had never before seen, and on which he had never
before set his foot. And the Spirit, which was in the
form of a man, shewed him the things which he de-
sired. When the Spirit left him he was shewn Jeru-
salem and other cities, and especially Nazareth, and
therein a virgin exceedingly white and fair. While
gazing upon this scene, he beheld the heavens open,
and an angel came down and stood before him, who
explained to him the various scenes that were brought
before his vision.
The virgin that Nephi saw was named Mary ; she
was the mother of Jesus. And the angel next shewed
him the virgin with the babe in her arms. The
angel also shewed him the Savior; how he should be
baptized of John in the Jordan; how he went forth
among the people preaching the gospel and doing mar-
velous works, and how that he was taken and cruci-
fied, and thus died for the sins of tlie world. Nephi
further saw how the world fought against the disciples
of Christ, and how, in the end, all those who contended
against Heaven and against God's servants were dc-
stro3'ed.
Furthermore he was shewn the land of America
filled with a numerous people, who were the seed oi
VISION OK NEPHI.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. |I
his father. He also saw the terrible earthquakes and
storms that took place on this land at the time of the
crucifixion of the Redeemer.
He saw the Savior visit this land, and how he chose
twelve disciples here and established his holy church.
He saw the reign of profound peace that continued for
three generations, and also the time of terrible wick-
edness that followed this blessed era. And there were
shewn to him the final wars in which the Nephite na-
tion was destroyed.
Nor was this all. Like a vast panorama, the
kingdoms and nations of the Gentiles were presented
to his view. He saw a man inspired b}' the Spirit of
God cross the great waters which separated the Gen-
tiles from the land on which the remnants of his
father's seed dwelt, and that he was followed by nu-
merous hosts of others who came out from the nations
and occupied the land. He saw how the remnants of
the seed of his father, the Indians, were abused, robbed
and massacred b}- the Gentiles. Then the war of the
revolution was shewn to him, the triumph of the
colonies, and the growth of the people of this land in
power and riches.
And again he saw the rise of a great and abom-
inable church which exercised power and dominion
over many peoples. It was the great apostate Chris-
tian Church which held sway after the true gos-
pel ceased to exist on the earth by reason of the wick-
edness of mankind. Nephi also saw the coming forth
of the Book of Mormon, the establishment of the
great Latter-day work, the preaching of the gospel to
Gentile and Jew, and the final triumph of God's cause.
Indeed he saw to the end of the world and thereafter ;
42 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
but much that he had revealed to him he was told not
to write, as the Apostle John would have the same
things shewn to him in a later day, and John would
be instrudled of the Lord to write the things which he
heard and saw.
CHAPTER HI.
MARRIAGES IX THE COMPANY — THE LIAHOXA— THE JOURNEY
CONTINUED— NEPHI BREAKS HIS BOW— DEATH OF ISH-
MAEL — THEY REACH THE OCEAN — NEPHI BUILDS A
SHIP— THEY CROSS THE GREAT WATERS AND REACH
THE PROMISED LAND.
"TTTHILE the two families dwelt in the ^^alle3' of
Lemuel they had a number of marriages. Zo-
rani, Laban's servant, married Ishmaers eldest daugh-
ter, and each of Lehi's four sons married one of her
sisters. We are not told whether Lehi's daughters
were married at this time or not.
Soon after these marriages the voice of the Lord
spake unto Lehi b}- night and commanded him that on
the morrow he should resume his journey. When
Lehi arose the next morning and Mcnt to the door of
his tent he saw a strange object U'ing on the ground
before him. It was a brass ball of xQvy fine workman-
ship. Within this ball were two spindles or needles,
one of which pointed the way that the little company
should travel in the wilderness.
God had prepared this strange instrument or
guide for them. In the days of IVIoses, when he led
the children of Israel out of Egypt, a pillar of cloud
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 43
b}' da}' and of fire by night moved in front of them.
This the Hebrews followed. But to Lehi he gave this
Liahona, or compass, as the ball was called; and it
pointed the way the^^ should travel. It had one
strange peculiarity, which was that it worked accord-
ing to their faith and diligence. When they kept God's
law it shewed them much more clearl\' the way they
should go than when they were careless or rebellious.
Some people have confused this ball, because it
is called a compass, with the mariner's compass, that
sailors use at sea to direct the course of their ships.
But there is a great difference between the two.
The Liahona pointed the way that Lehi's company
should travel, while the needle in the mariner's
compass points to the north. The one shewed the
wa}' Lehi slumld go, the other informs the traveler
which way he is going. The one was specially pre-
pared by the Lord for Lehi and his companions, and
was used through faith only; the other can be used by
all men, whether believers in the true God, pagans or
infidels. At times, also, writing would miraculously
appear on the Liahona, giving directions or reproving
for sin, as the company most needed.
According to the command of the Lord the com-
pany gathered their provisions, their tents, their seeds
and other things and again started on their long and
ofttimes wearisome journey. They traveled a little
east of south, and after four da\'s again rested at a
place to which the}^ gave the name of Shazer. Here
they hunted and killed game for food. When they
had obtained enough for present use the}^ again
started, traveling in ver}^ much the same direction,
and keeping near the eastern shore of the Red Sea.
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46 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
About tliis time a slight accident occurred wliicli
gave cause for much trouble and discontent. It
would appear that Nephi was the chief hunter of the
company. Going out one day to sla}- beasts for food
he broke his bow, which was made of very fine steel.
This made his brothers very angry ^ for they obtained
no food, as their bows had lost their springs. Hungr}^,
angry and deje(5led, they returned to their tents. They
were very much fatigued, and, like most men when
hungry and tired, they were in a ver}- bad humor.
Even Lehi so far forgot himself, at this time, that he
also murmured against the Lord. But Nephi, in
this trying hour, retained his trust in God. He did
not murmur or complain, but, after having reasoned
with the rest of the family, he went to work, and out
of suitable wood he made a bow, and out of a straight
stick he cut an arrow. When he had done this he
went to his father, who had now humbled himself be-
fore the Lord and sought forgiveness, and asked him
where he should go to obtain food.
Then the voice of the Lord came to Lehi and he
was truly chastened because of his murmuring. The
voice said, "Look on the ball." When he looked he
was seized with fear because of the things which were
written thereon, and the rest of the family also feared
and trembled exceedingly when they read the writing.
The writing on the ball also directed Nephi to go
to the top of a certain high mountain, and there slay
game for food. This he did, and brought it with joy
to the tents of his people.
We think it probable that the design near the top
of the accompanying Aztec map is intended to repre-
sent this incident; as the bird has evidently been shot
STORY OF THE BOOK OP^ MORMON. 47
by an arrow from the hunter's bow. The lower por-
tion seems to shew some of the many attempts made
by Nephi's brethren to slay him, when they bound
him to trees in the wilderness and otherwise abused
him. On the other hand, from the fa6l that the faces
of two of the men are painted black, it is not impossible
that the}^ ii^ay represent some persons who had been
killed. The lower picture is evidently a record of the
months or 3^ears occupied in the journe}'.
The journey was thus continued for a long time.
The company would travel for a few days, then rest
and hunt, then again take up its line of march as the
compass dire(9:ed. It generally guided them through
the most fertile portions of the desert. Their journeys
appear to have been frequently disturbed b}^ the bad
condu6l of Laman and Lemuel and of those who
would heed them. Before long Ishmael, who was an
aged man, died, at a place which they named Nahom.
This was a cause of great grief to his children, and a
fresh excuse for Laman and his kind to murmur. They
complained that they had been led into that strange
land to die of want and fatigue, and desired to go back
to Jerusalem. So hard hearted had Laman b}^ this
time become that, with others, he formed a plot to
murder his own father and his brother Nephi. But
the voice of the Lord came to them, chastened them
severely for their sin, and reproved them with such
power that their hearts were softened and the}^ re-
pented. After this the Lord again blessed them.
From this time the compass changed the course of
their travel and the}^ journeyed almost direcftly east-
ward. This must have taken them across the penin-
sula of Arabia to its eastern coast.
48 STORY OF THE KOOK OF MORMON.
It took them eight years to make the journey,
during which time a number of children were born,
including two sons to Lehi's wife. These he called
Jacob and Joseph. As they went the Lord strength-
ened them, that they endured their privations and
labors without fatigue. He would not permit them to
make any fire to prepare their food, but rendered it
sweet to them without cooking.
They had great joy when the}' came to the sea.
The}' gave to it the name of Irreantum, which word
means many waters. The land on the coast they
called Bountiful, because of its much fruit and wild
hone}'. While they rested on the sea shore the Lord
gave Nephi a new command. It was that he should
build a ship to carry the company across the ocean.
As we may suppose, Nephi's brothers made all kinds
of fun of him when they found he was about to try to
build a ship. But this did not affedl him. He knew
that God never told a man to do a thing that he did
not give him power to do. And it was so in this case,
the Lord revealed to Nephi all that was necessary, and
the building of the ship began.
At first Nephi's brothers would not help him in
the least. They treated him as the people did Noah
when he was building the ark. They called him a
fool, and mocked him, and then threatened to throw
him into the sea. But the power of God was so strong
upon Nephi that had his brothers attempted to carry
out their threat they would have withered before him
like a dried reed. As it was, when he stretched forth
his hand towards them they felt a shock, which made
their whole frames quiver. This convinced them that
God was with their brother, for no man could have
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 49
such power unless God was with him. After this the}'
went to work and helped Nephi build the ship; and
a good ship it was, the Lord having directed the way
in which it should be fashioned.
When the vessel was finished the Lord told Lehi
and his people to go on board. They took with them
fruit, meat, hone}', and other food in abundance, with
many other things needful for their comfort; also seed's
to plant in the soil of the promised land. Then they
all embarked — men, women and children — beginning
at the eldest, doMai to the least. A favorable wind
sprang up and they were swiftly carried towards the
promised land. First they crossed the Indian Ocean,
then the South Pacific Ocean, and after mau^^ days
reached the west coast of South America. They
landed at a point somewhere near where the city of
Valparaiso, in Chili, now stands.
But we must not forget to tell you that on the
voyage the}' had another of those ever-recurring out
breaks. Laman, some of the sons of Ishmael and
others, at one time grew very merr}'. By and by
they became boisterous and rude. They danced and
sang and talked very improperly. Nephi reproved
them. This opened the old sore. They said they
would not have him for their ruler, but would do as
the}^ pleased. Then they seized him and bound him,
hands and feet, so tightly that he suffered a great deal.
The result was that the Lord was angry at their
wickedness, and the compass ceased to work. A heav}'
storm arose, a head wind drove them back upon the
waters, the waves threatened to engulf them, and they
were all in danger of being drowned. For three da3's
the rebels continued stubborn in their anger; during
50 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
that time they would not loose Xephi, and even* one
who plead for him or spoke in his favor was threatened
with like tortures. But at last the danger grew so
threatening that the}- released him ; but his legs and
arms had swollen so greatl}' b}' reason of the wa}' in
which he had been tied that he could scarcely use them.
Notwithstanding his great weakness and sufferings,
as soon as he was loosed he took the compass, and in
his hands it began to work. Then the wind fell, the
storm ceased, and there came a great calm. .And Xephi
took charge of the ship and guided it without further
trouble, to the promised land."'
*0n the opposite page we present a reduced copy of a hieroglyphic
drawing in the British IMuseum representing the journey of the forefathers
of the ^Mexicans from Asia to this continent. The original was first given
to the world by the famous Italian traveler Gumelli Farerri in his book
entitled "Giro del Mondo."' Clavigero, Humboldt and others have endeav-
ored to explain the meaning of this drawing. You will notice a palm tree
near a hieroglyphic which much resembles that supposed to represent Jeru-
salem in the commencement of the Boturini manuscript. This is said to
signify the house of God ; here the journey began. Near by is a bird,
which stands for Asia. The tradition runs thus : Huitziton was a person of
great authority amongst the Aztecs, in Asia, who for some reason, not remem-
bered, persuaded his countrymen to change their country. While he was
thus meditating, a bird was heard singing in a bush, ti hui, ti hui, which
means "let us go. " " Do you hear that?" said Zacpaltzin. "it is the warn-
ing voice of the secret Deity to leave this continent and to find another."
Therefore they started, with those they could persuade to go with them,
traveling by Tlapalan, translated, the country of the Red Sea, and after long
journey.-; reached the land where the hieroglyphic leaves them.
CHAPTER R'.
THE PROMISED LAND — CHIIJ — ITS NATURAL PRODUCTIONS
— THE DEATH OF LEHI — HIS BLESSING ON HIS POS-
TERITY—PROPHECIES OF HIS ANCESTOR JOSEPH.
^TTHEN the little colony landed on the promised
land they pitched their tents and began to till
the ground. Thej^ numbered, we imagine, from sixty
to eighty souls, possibly more. From their sowing
they reaped abundant crops. They explored the wil-
derness around them, and found beasts of the forest of
nian}^ kinds; also the ox, the horse, the goat and the
wild goat. In the rocks thej^ discovered ore of gold, of
silver and of copper. Of the gold ore Nephi was com-
manded of the Lord to make some plates on which to
keep the records of his people.
The description given b}' Nephi of the region
where the colon}- landed exactly corresponds with what
we know of the country now called Chili ; and it was
on its coast, the Prophet Joseph Smith informs us, that
the Nephites landed, and there the}- established their
first homes. Chili is favored with one of the finest and
healthiest climates in the world. The soil is exceed-
ingl}^ fertile, and the productions of both hemispheres
seem to thrive equally well there. The most delicious
fruit grows in abundance — the apple, peach, grape,
strawberry, etc. Its forests are magnificent, and fur-
nish many kinds of beautiful wood. The grass, in its
rich meadow pastures, is often so tall and luxuriant as
to hide the cattle grazing amongst it. Chili also pos-
sesses valuable mines, especially of gold, silver, copper,
and coal.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 55
The people of Lelii were so few in number that they
were a quiet and solemn race, with few amusements,
but with an oppressing sense of the vastness of the
land which the}- occupied, and of their own insignifi-
cance. Nor was there entire peace amongst them, for
Lanian and Lemuel, with others, were still fracftious
and turbulent.
In course of time Lehi felt that his earthlj^ life was
near its close, for he was aged and in failing health.
So he called to him his sons and daughters and the
other members of his colon}-, and blessed them in the
same manner as his forefather Jacob blessed his family
before he died. Lehi also prophesied many things that
should happen to his posterity after him, for he was
possessed of much of the Spirit of the Lord. After he
had done this he died and was buried.
Lehi appears to have taken great pleasure in the
knowledge that he was a descendant of that Joseph
who was sold by his brethren, and afterwards carried
into Eg3'pt. In the blessing that he pronounced upon
his own son Joseph. Lehi c|uotes largely from the
prophecies of the former Joseph; prophecies which
are nowhere given us, except in the Book of ]\Ior-
mon. From them we learn that this mighty son of
Jacob was greatly favored of the Lord in having
revealed to him much that related to the future of
his father's house, especially to his own posterity.
He saw the da3's of Moses and the work that that
prophet performed; he saw Lehi's day and his work,
and, more interesting to us than all, he saw the estab-
lishment of the kingdom of God in our day. He
was told that the prophet whom the Lord would raise
up to be the leader of God's people in the latter days
56
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
JOSEPH SOLD HY HIS ]5R1:THRKN.
would be of his seed, and the name of this prophet, and
that of his father also, would be the same as his —
that is, it would be Joseph. Man}^ other matters of
great moment that are even now taking place, were also
made manifest to him by the Lord.
CHAPTER V.
THE NEPHITES AND LAMANITES SEPARATE— THE NEPHITES
SEEK A NEW HOME — NEPHI CHOSEN KING — HE BUILDS
A TEMPLE— INSTRUCTS HIS PEOPLE IN THE ARTS OF
PEACE— WAR WITH THE LAMANITES— THE SWORD OF
LABAN — NEPHI'S DEATH— JACOB, HIS BROTHER, BE-
COMES THE CHIEF PRIEST— JACOB'S TEACHINGS ON
MARRIAGE.
OCARCELY was Lelii buried than fresh trouble arose.
Laman and Lemuel, with their friends, would not be
led by Nephi. They asserted that they were the elder
brothers, and theirs was the right to rule. They would
not recognize Nephi's authority, though they knew
that God had appointed him to be their leader. So,
b}^ the command of Heaven, the two parties separated.
Nephi, and those who would listen to him, moved
away, and left those who clung to Laman in posses-
sion of their first home.
Those who went with Nephi were his own famil}^,
Zorani, Sam, Jacob and Joseph, and their families, and
some others whose names the Book of Mormon does
not give us. Henceforth those who belonged to this
branch of Lehi's house were known as Nephites, after
Nephi, their leader; while those who remained with
Laman were called Lamanites.
The condition of the Lamanites was now pitiable ;
they had cut themselves off from the presence of the
Lord, the priesthood was withdrawn from them, the
records and scriptures were beyond their grasp. Hatred
and malice reigned supreme in their souls ; they had no
inclination for the arts of peace; they were restless.
58 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
cunning and idle, whilst they sought in the wilderness
the food necessar}' to sustain life. Alread}- the curse
of God was falling upon them. Lest they should
appear pleasant to Nephite eyes, their fair and beauti-
ful skins grew dark and repulsive, their habits became
loathsome and filthy, and this same skin of darkness
came upon the children of all those who intermarried
with them.
The Nephites called the new country in which
they made their homes the Land of Nephi. There
Nephi, by the wish of the people, became their king,
though this step was contrary to his own feelings. So
greatly was he beloved by his subjects that when he
died the people called the next king, Nephi the second,
the next, Nephi the third, and so on. All the kings
were thus called Nephi, in the same way as all the
monarchs of ancient Bg3'pt were Pharaohs, and the
emperors of modern Russia are Tzars.
One of the first things that Nephi and his people
did in their new home was to build a temple. This
shewed great faith and courage on the part of so small
a community. And their faith and courage triumphed,
for the temple was finished. It was built after the
manner of Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem, but not so
large, so costly, or so grand. Yet it was a magnificent
edifice for a people so few in number to ere(5l. Here
the Nephites offered burnt offerings according to the law
of Moses, which they strictly observed; and Nephi con-
secrated Jacob and Joseph to be priests, to officiate
therein.
Nephi not only built a temple, but he taught his
people to be industrious and thrift}-, honest and virtu-
ous. He caused them to build dwellings and other
6o STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
edifices, and to work in wood, iron, copper, brass, steel,
silver and gold; for there was a great abundance of
precious ores in the land in which they now dwelt.
Nephi still retained possession of the sword of
Laban; and, taking it as a pattern, he made man}"
swords for his people to use in their own defense should
they be attacked by the Lanianites. This precau-
tion proved a ver}- wise one, for in less than forty
years from the time that Lehi left Jerusalem the
Lanianites had followed up the Nephites and com-
menced war upon them. But the Lanianites were not
successful, for Nephi, wielding the sword of Laban
with his own hands, led his people to battle and drove
back the invaders.
When fift^'-five years had passed away Nephi
handed the small plates which he had made to his
brother Jacob, that he might keep the sacred records
thereon. Sometime after, how long we are not told,
Nephi anointed another man to be king over his peo-
ple; and then, having grown old, he died.
Great was the love of the people for Nephi. He
had been their prophet, priest and king; father, friend
and guide; protestor, teacher and leader; next to God,
their all in all. He labored diligently all the days of
his life to teach the people to serve God, to believe in
Christ, to keep the laws of heaven, and to be and to do
all that God's holy law required. In all these labors
his brother Jacob nobly aided him.
When Nephi died Jacob became the chief relig-
ious teacher of the people. He was a man of much
faith and diligence, and received the word of the Lord
from time to time in great fullness, as the church
needed.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 6 1
We know but little of what occurred among the
Nephites in Jacob's time. The people, however, appear
in some respe(5ls to have fallen into sin. The}' had
grown in worldl}- pride, and devoted far too much of
their time and energies to the search for wealth. B}'
reason of their isolated position, and because the
Jews, their forefathers, had abused the principle of
plural marriage, the people of Lehi had been com-
manded that each man should have but one wife. Some
of them did not heed this special law, but took other
wives, not onh' without God's sanation, but entirel}'
contrary to his express command. Indeed they com-
mitted other grievous sins, excusing themselves there-
for by quoting the anions of king David, and Sol-
omon, his son. At this the Lord was greatly dis-
pleased, and he instru6led Jacob to reprove them
sharply. This he did in the temple. He re-affirmed
the law that the Nephites of that age should have onl}-
one wife; but added, in the name of the Lord of Hosts,
that if he wanted to raise up a holy seed to himself, he
would command his people. This we have reason to
believe, from reading the Book of Alormon, he after-
wards did, though we find therein no dire(?t statement
on the matter.
CHAPTER VI.
THE CONDITION OF THE LAMANITEvS — vSHEREM, THE FIRST
ANTI-CHRIvST — HIS RECANTATION AND DREADFUL END.
TXT'HILST the early Nephites were polygamists, and,
unfortunately for them, unrighteous ones, the
Lamanites were monogamists, which form of marriage
they appear to have ever after retained.
One phase of Lamanite character, originating,
doubtless, in their Israelitish ancestry, is worth}- of
our praise. It was the great strength of their domes-
tic affeAions, their love for their wives and their kind-
ness to their families. As we shall have to refer so
often to their vices, we must, in justice to them, here
insert the description of their virtues given b}- Jacob,
the son of Lelii. He says, "Behold, their husbands
love their wives, and their wives love their husbands;
and their husbands and wives love their children; and
their unbelief and their hatred towards you, is because
of the iniquity of their fathers. " Nor is there an}--
thing in this incompatible with the ferocity- of their
chara(5ler or their bloodthirstiness in war. In the
earlier ages of the Lamanite nationalit}', rigid chastity
was observed by the men as well as b}- the women. In-
deed, it ma}' be said that while the}' manifested most
of the prominent vices of semi-barbarous people, they
also possessed the virtues that such races, uncorrupted
by a more luxurious mode of life, generally shew.
Nor would it be consistent, nor historically true, to
give one general description and apply it to the whole
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 63
Lamanite race, for as their numbers increased the
state of societ}' amongst them grew more complex,
and we read of different grades of civilization in their
midst.
It must not be forgotten that the Lamanites occu-
pied a much wider extent of country than did the
Nephites. In this vast area were found people who
dwelt in cities and- cultivated the arts to the extent
generally found amongst races of the same grade and
chara(5leristics. Whilst others, degraded in life and
habits," roamed in the wilderness, building no houses,
forming no permanent abiding places, but wandering
from place to place, and depending for food and clothing
upon the animals they caught in the chase, the fishes
that abounded in the waters, and whatever the}' could
steal from the hated Nephites, or indeed of their some-
what more highly- civilized fellow-countrymen.
It was in the days of Jacob that the first Nephite
Anti-Christ of whom we have any account appeared.
His name was Sherem. He openl}' and unblush-
ingly taught that there would be no Christ and that
there was no necessity for an atonement. He was a
type of man}' who came after, and a well fitted tool for
his evil work. Bland in manners, fluent of speech,
much given to flatter}-, and withal, well versed in the
learning of the Nephites, he, b}' his sophistries, led
man}' astray. His success fired his zeal and filled him
with conceit. He adlually sought to convert to his
views Jacob, the prophet and presiding priest of the
church, a man rich in wisdom, and the recipient of
many divine revelations; one indeed who had seen
angels and heard the voice of the Lord from time to
time.
64 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Ill the interview that occurred between these two
widely differing men, Sherem charged that Jacob had
changed the law of Moses, which was the right way,
into the worship of a being whom Jacob said should
come many hundred years hence. He added, Now be-
hold, I, Sherem, declare unto 3'ou, that this is blas-
phemy; for no man knoweth of these things; for he
cannot tell of things to come. Thus he denied proph-
ecy, and styled good evil, and exalted error in the
place of truth.
Jacob, being filled with the Spirit of God, con-
founded his arguments, brought forward the testimony
of the scriptures, and proved that the very law of
Moses on which he lay so great a stress, was from
beginning to end but the typQ and foreshadowing
of the more perfe(5l law of the Christ who should
come.
Beaten in his arguments, Sherem fell back upon
that almost universal refuge of the false teacher. He
defiantly called for a sign. A sign Avas given him.
The power of God came upon him and he fell stricken
to the ground. For many da^'S he was nourished, but
ineffec1;ually. He himself perceived that death was
approaching, and with this perception gathered in his
soul all the fears and horrors of an apostate's doom.
But before his death he called the people to him and
confessed his iniquity. He denied the things he had
taught, he "confessed the Christ and the power of the
Holy Ghost, and the ministering of angels." He
avowed that he had been deceived by the power of the
devil, and bitterly bewailed his condition, as the fear
that he had committed the unpardonable sin, in deny-
ing the Savior, weighed his soul down to hell. Having
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 65
made these small amends for his past iniquities, he
could say no more, and gave up the ghost.
When the people who had gathered to hear his
last words witnessed the terrors of his death, they
were softened in their hearts, the power of God
rested upon them, and they fell to the earth. The
corrupt weeds he had sown in their hearts had with-
ered, the truth had been vindicated, the cause of the
Savior extolled, and peace and the love of God was
restored again among the people. Thus was this apos-
tasy eradicated, and God glorified; the Nephites of that
generation from that time searching the scriptures and
cleaving unto the truth.
When Jacob grew old he gave the sacred records
to the keeping'^of his son Enos.
CHAPTER VII.
ENOvS, THE SON OF JACOB— THE NEPHITES AND LAMANITES
OF HIS DAY — HIS TESTIMONY AND PROPHECIES.
TN THE da3\s of Enos the struggle still continued
between the Nephites and Lamanites. The latter
seem to have made it the business of their lives to harass
and annoy their more peaceful brethren. Their hatred
was fixed. They swore in their wrath that if it were
possible they would destroy the Nephites, and also their
records, that they might no longer be compelled to
listen to their warnings, or be tormented by their
appeals for peace and friendship.
66 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
The picture that Enos draws of the degradation
into which the Lanianites had fallen at this early day
is a very pitiable one. He says: They were led by
their evil nature that they became wild and ferocious,
and a bloodthirsty people, full of idolatry- and filthiness,
feeding upon beasts of prey, dwelling in tents, and
wandering about in the wilderness with a short skin
girdle about their loins, and their heads shaven ; and
their skill was in the bow, and in the cimeter, and the
axe. And many of them did eat nothing save it was
raw meat. This last named practice the}- seem to have
inherited from their fathers in the wilderness.
On the other hand, the Nephites at this time were
a rural, pastoral people, rich in grain and fruits, flocks
and herds. They were industrious in their habits,
and committed but few serious offenses. They ob-
served the law of Moses, but were lacking in faith,
hard to understand gospel principles, wa3'ward and
stiffnecked. The terrors of the word had to be
sounded in their unwilling ears more often than the
gentler strains of gospel invitation.
Enos M'as one of the most zealous servants of the
Lord who ministered and prophesied to the early
Nephites. As the son of Jacob, he succeeded his
father in the sacred offices of priest and historian.
He appears to have inherited his father's faith, gentle-
ness and devotion. Of his personal life we have no
particulars, but it is evident that he was a very aged
man at the time of his death. His father Jacob was the
elder of the two sons born to Lehi in the Arabian
wilderness, between the ^'■ears 600 and 590 before
Christ; let us place the event about 594 B. C. Enos,
in closing his record, states that one hundred and
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 67
sevent37-niiie 3'ears had passed since Lelii left Jerusa-
lem. Supposing Enos was born when Jacob was thirty
years old, it would make his age one hundred and
forty-three years at the date of his writing. But we
have no dire6l statement either of his birth or the exadl
time of his death ; all we know is that when he left
this earth he gave the records and the other sacred
things into the hands of his son Jarom.
One incident in the life of Enos is given us which
is very interesting. It affords a deep insight into the
purity and strength of his chara(5ler. On one occasion
when he went into the forest to hunt, his whole soul
was filled with thoughts of the prophecies and teach-
ings of his devout father, and he greatly hungered for
more light regarding eternal things. In this fitting
frame of mind, surrounded by the solitudes of the for-
est, he bowed before the Lord, and in prayers long and
fervent, sought his face. All day long he raised his
voice to heaven, and when the night came he did not
cease. At last his steadfast faith and godly yearnings
prevailed. There came a heavenly voice of comfort to
his heart, saying:
Enos, thy sins are forgiven thee, thou shalt be
blessed.
Lord, how is it done? he anxiously asked.
The answer came : Because of thy faith in Christ,
whom thou hast never before heard nor seen. And
many years pass awa}- before he shall manifest him-
self in the flesh ; wherefore, go to, th}- faith hath made
thee whole.
Enos continued struggling with the Lord for prom-
ises in behalf of both the Nephites and Lamanites. He
received many precious assurances of things yet to be ;
68 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
amongst others, that the Lord would preserve the holy
records and bring them forth unto the Lamanites in
his own due time. Of these things Enos gladl}' testi-
fied to the people, going about in their midst, prophesy-
ing of the mighty events yet in the future, and bearing
record of that which he had both seen and heard.
CHAPTER VIII.
JAROM — OMNI — AHARON — CHKMLSH — ABINADOM — AMALEKI
— MOSIAH — REVIEW OF NEPHITE HISTORY FOR FOUR
HUNDRED YEARS.
npHE days of the prophet Jarom were neither few nor
unimportant. During the sixty years that he had
charge of the holy things (B. C. 422 to B. C. 362) the
Nephites maj- be said to have grown from a powerful
tribe to a wealth}^, though not as yet very numerous,
nation. Indeed, their numbers were far from being
equal to those of the wild and bloodthirst}' Lamanites.
The latter, like their descendants of to-day, spent their
time almost exclusively in the chase of wild aninuils
and in war; yet, notwithstanding their vigorous and
repeated onslaughts, the age of Jarom was to the
Nephites one of marked progress in the arts of peace.
They ceased to be entirely a pastoral people.
They gave much attention to the adornment of their
homes and public buildings with fine and curious work
in wood and metal. Agriculture and manufa(^ure
received a new impetus by the invention of various labor-
saving machines, implements and tools. Their safety
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 69
from successful attack from the Lamanites was also
measurably secured by the introdudlion of more perfect
weapons of war, and the development of a rude sys-
tem of fortification, sufficient, however, to prote6l their
cities and settlements from the means of attack at the
command of their foes.
Though the Nephites of this age were stiffnecked
and perverse, requiring the constant warnings of proph-
ets to keep them from backsliding, 3'et the pervading
tone of their society was simple and unaffe6led, and the
people were generally industrious, honest and moral.
They neither blasphemed nor profaned the holy name
of the Deity, the}^ kept sacred the Sabbath da}^, and
Btri6fly observed the law of ]\Ioses. Their prophets,
priests and teachers not onl}- instruc^ted them in this
law, but also expounded the intent for which it was
given, and while so doing, dire6led their minds to the
coming of the Messiah, in whom they taught the people
to believe as though he had already come. These
pointed and constant teachings preserved the Nephites
from destruction, by softening their hearts and bring-
ing them to repentance, when war, wealth or pride had
exerted its baneful influences.
Shortly before Jarom died he delivered the sacred
plates to his son Omni. Omni kept them for about
forty-four years and then handed them to his son
Amaron ; who in turn transferred them to his brother
Chemish. Chemish, when his end drew near, placed
them in the hands of his son Abinadom, who after-
wards gave them in charge of his son Amaleki.
It is very little that we know of the history of
the Nephites from the death of Jarom to the time
of Amaleki, a period of about one hundred and
yo STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
fifty years. The political records of the nation were
engraved on other plates, which were kept by the
kings, and as there was little that they felt it neces-
sary to write beyond what Nephi and Jacob had
written, their records are very short. From what
little we can glean from these \vritings it is evident
that dnring this era the Nephites had freqnent wars
with the Lamanites, in many of which the}- suffered
severel}'.
The Lord permitted these wild sons of the wil-
derness to be a constant scourge to the people of
Nephi when the}- turned awa}- from him ; and we fear
that the seasons were not unfrequent when they had to
be reminded of their dut}- in this terrible way. It also
seems probable that, to avoid the constant incursions
of the warriors of the house of Laman, the Nephites
had more than once forsaken their homes and retired
farther northward into the wilderness. We judge this
from the fa(5l that in the days of Amaleki, the land of
Nephi appears to have been in or near the region we
call Ecuador, a country far distant from the place
where Lehi's colon}' first landed ; and it is scarcely con-
sistent with the narrative of the Book of Mormon to
believe that Nephi and his little band, when they first
separated from their brethren, made a journey of so
many hundreds of miles before they established their
homes. Then the very fadl that the Lamanites almost
immediately began to harass them in the new land
which they occupied is strong evidence that their first
removal was not so distant but that these enemies
could, without great difficulty, reach them, a thing that
would have been almost impossible if they had gone
dirc6llv to the far distant region of Ecuador.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 7 1
We now come to the days of the first Mosiah.
But before relating the story of his life and reign we
will briefly summarize what we know of the history of
the Nephites during the first three or four hundred
years of their national existence.
They were governed b}' kings who were the dire(5l
descendants of Nephi. These kings were, as a rule,
righteous men and wise rulers. The law of Moses was
stri(5lly observed, and other good and just laws were
enadled to regulate those matters which the Mosaic
law did not touch.
The Nephites multiplied greatly, and also grew
exceedingly rich in the wealth of this world; while
their artisans and mechanics were very expert in the
arts and mariufactures. They also spread abroad on
the face of the land of Nephi and were much scattered.
The Lamanites followed them from the land of
their first possession, and were constantl}^ harassing
them by incursions and invasions, which led to numer-
ous and bloody wars. These were sometimes very
disastrous to the Nephites.
Spirituall}^, the Nephites had man}/ seasons of
faithfulness to God when they listened to and obeyed
the words of his prophets ; and, unfortunateh', the}-
had also mau}^ seasons of apostasy, at which times the
judgments of God fell upon them; the Lamanites
being often used by him as a sharp instument to bring
them to repentance and reformation.
CHAPTER IX.
CAUSEvS THAT LED TO THE MIGRATION FROM THE LAND
OF NEPHI— THE PEOPLE OF ZARAHEMLA — MULEK AND
HIS COLONY — THE FUSION OF THE TWO NATIONS —
MOSIAH MADE KING — HIS HAPPY REIGN.
IV /TOSIAH resided in the land of Neplii, and lived
there as near as we can discover during the latter
half of the third century before Christ. Whether he
was originally a prophet, priest or king, the historian
( Amaleki) does not inform us. Most certainly he was
a righteous man, for the Lord made choice of him to
guide the obedient Nephites from their native country
to a land that he would shew them.
The causes that led the Lord to make this call
upon the Nephites are not stated, but souie of them can
be easily surmised. Amongst such we suggest that:
The aggressive Lamanites were constantly crowd-
ing upon them, ravaging their more remote distri^ls,
entrapping and enslaving the inhabitants of the out-
lying settlements, driving off their flocks and herds^
and keeping them in a constant state of anxiety and
dread, which hindered their progress and sta^-ed the
growth of the work of God. The Lord therefore led
them to a land of peace.
Again, this course of events, coutinucd for so loug
a period, had caused much hard-heartcduess and stiff-
neckedness in the midst of the Nephites. Souie of
the people had remained righteous, some had grown
very wicked. To separate these classes the Lord
called the faithful and obedient to follow Mosiah to
another land.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 73
For a third reason: there was a portion of the
house of Israel, a few hundred miles to the north,
entirely unknown to their Nephite brethren. These
people had sunk ver}- low in true civilization; they
were so degraded that they denied the being of their
Creator, they had had many wars and contentions
among themselves ; they had corrupted their language,
had no records nor scriptures, and were altogether in a
deplorable condition. To save and regenerate this
branch of God's covenant people, Mosiah and his peo-
ple were led to the place where they dwelt.
Few are the words and brief is the statement made
by Amaleki regarding this great migration under ]\Io-
siah. We are altogether left to our imagination to pic-
ure the scenes that occurred at this division of a nation.
Imagine the conflict that perplexed many a heart
between the appeals of love and faith, between dut}^'
and affedlion, when the old homes had to be deserted,
when families had to be parted, and the one stern, un-
compromising feeling of duty to the right and devotion
to God had to be the all-controlling sentiment. Nor
can we tell how many, preferring home, kindred and
friends, and the endearments and associations of their
native land, faltered and tarried behind, whilst the
faithful started on their journey northward into the
untrodden wilderness. Nor are we told what after-
wards became of those who allowed the allurements of
the world to prevail. It is most probable that they united
Avith the Lamanites, were absorbed into that race, and,
like them, became darkened, bloodthirsty and savage.
Neither do we know the proportion to the whole pop-
ulation of those who left with Mosiah and those who
stayed behind.
74 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
The Nepliite evacuation of the cities built in the
Land of Nephi no doubt had a beneficial effecft on those
portions of the Lamanite race that took possession of
them. They thereby became acquainted with some of
the comforts and excellencies of civilization, and, thoni^h
ver}^ slow to learn, their experience at this time laid the
foundation for a slight advance of the arts of peace in
their midst, and from this time we read of two classes
of this people, the one living in cities, the other roam-
ing in the wilderness.
Mosiah gathered up the willing and obedient and,
as directed by the Lord, started on the journey.
Whither they were going they understood not,
onh' they knew that the Lord was leading them. Like
their forefathers under Closes, when in the wilderness
of Sinai, they were taught continually by the word of
Jehovah and were led by his arm. With preachings
and prophesyings they crossed the wilderness and
passed down into the land of Zarahemla.
On the west bank of the river Sidon the people of
Mosiah found a populous city of whose existence they
had never before heard. Its people were a semi-civil-
ized and irreligious race, speaking a strange language,
and with many habits and customs different from those
of the new comers.
The meeting must have been a perplexing one
to both people. Heretofore both had considered
themselves the owners of the whole continent. Now
they were brought face to face, but unable to under-
stand each other by reason of their different modes of
speech. We often read in history of the irruption of
an inferior or more barbarous race into the domains of
a more highly civilized one, but it is seldom, as in this
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
75
case, that the superior race moves in a bod}', occupies
the country, and unites with the less enlightened peo-
ple. It is probable that the first feelings of the old
settlers were akin to awe and dismay as the}^ learned
of the hosts of the invaders that were marching upon
them; but these feelings were soon soothed and an
understanding arrived at b}^ which the two people
became one nation. Though the Book of Mormon
THE JEWS LED AWAY TO CAPTIVITY.
gives us no details on this point, we are forced to the
conclusion that this arrangement could not have been
effected without the dire6l interposition of heaven, by
and through which both people were brought to a
united purpose and common understanding.
When the Nephites began to comprehend the
language of their new fellow citizens, they found that
the}^ were the descendants of a colony which had been
led from Jerusalem by the hand of the Lord in the year
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 77
that that cit}^ was destroyed by the king of Babylon
(say B. C. 589). In that little colony was a child
named Mulek ; he was the only son of king Zedekiah
who had escaped the fnr}- of the Babylonish monarch.
After wandering in the wilderness, they were brought
across the great waters and landed in the southern por-
tion of the North American continent, and in after years
moved southward to the place where they were discov-
ered by Mosiah and his people. At this time their king
or ruler was named Zarahemla (about B. C. 200). He
was a descendant of Mulek, and consequently of the
tribe of Judah and of the house of David. The reason
assigned for their departure from the worship of the
true God, their degradation and the corruption of their
language, was that their forefathers brought with them
from their ancient home in Palestine no records or
copies of the holy scriptures to guide and preserve
them from error in their isolated land of adoption.
When the two races joined, it was decided that
Mosiah should be the king of the united people, though
the Nephites were then the less numerous. This
arrangement probably grew out of the fa6l that though
less in numbers they were the most civilized and, also
being worshipers of the God of Israel, they would not
willingly submit to be ruled by those who had no
knowledge of his laws.
The education of the people of Zarahemla to the
standard of the Nephites, and the work of harmonizing
the two races, were not the task of an hour. It required
much wisdom, patience and perseverance. Alosiah gave
stability to the new kingdom by his own virtues and
wise example, b}' the just laws he established, and by
placing the service of the Lord before all earthly con-
78 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
sideratioiis. It is evident that he built a temple in the
new land, as its existence is particularly mentioned in
the daj'S of his son, king Benjamin, and as the people
observed the law of Moses in the matter of sacrifices
and offerings, a temple would be one of the very first
necessities to enable them to carrj^ out the require-
ments of their religion. But to the forms, types, shadows
and ceremonies of the Mosaic law were added gospel
principles, with a clear and definite understanding of
the coming and divine work of the ^Messiah, all of
which is very evident in the instru(5lions given to their
subjects by Mosiah's two successors.
Mosiah was not only a divinely inspired leader and
king, but he was also a seer. Whilst reigning in Zara-
hemla a large engraved stone was brought to him, and
by the gift and power of God he translated the engrav-
ings thereon. They gave an account of the rise, fall
and destruction of the great Jaredite nation, from the
days of its founders, who came out from the Tower of
Babel, to the time of their last king, Coriantumer, who
himself was discovered b}^ the people of Zarahemla and
lived with them nine moons.
When Mosiah died he was succeeded by his son
Benjamin.
CHAPTER X.
THE REIGN OF KING BENJAMIN— THE PROGRESS OF HIS
PEOPLE — HIS LAST GREAT SPEECH — HE ESTABLISHES
THE CHURCH OF CHRIST — ALL THE PEOPLE COVE-
NANT WITH GOD — MOSIAH II. ANOINTED KING.
A MIGHTY man in the midst of Israel was Benj amin,
^^ the son of Mosiah. Blessed were the people over
whom he reigned, for he governed them in righteous-
ness, and for their welfare he labored with all the might
of his body and the faculty of his whole soul. Holy
and pure in his individual life, he was ministered to by
angels, and was the frequent recipient of revelations
from on high.
The reign of Benjamin was a long one ; he died at
a very advanced age. Some time during this period,
the aggressive Lamanites, not content with occupying
the Land oif Nephi, a(5lually followed the Nephites into
the Land of Zarahemla and invaded that also. The
war was a blood}^ one. King Benjamin led his forces,
armed with the historic sword of Laban, which appears
to have been handed down from monarch to monarch
from the days that Nephi first wielded it, and with his
own strong arm slew many of the enemy. Benjamin
was ultimately successful in driving the invading hosts
out of all the regions occupied b}^ his people, with a
loss to the Lamanites of many thousand warriors slain.
The reign of Benjamin was also troubled with
various religious impostors, false Christs, pretended
prophets, etc., who caused apostasy and dissensions
among the people, much to the sorrow of the good king.
So STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
However, b}- the aid of some of the man}- righteous
men who dwelt in his dominions, he exposed the here-
sies, made manifest the falsit}- of the claims of the
self-styled ]\Iessiahs and prophets, and restored unity of
faith and worship among his subje6ls ; and in such cases
Avhere these innovators had broken the civil law, they
were arraigned, tried, and punished by that law. It
must not be forgotten that freedom of conscience was
absoluteh^ protected amongst the Nephites, and even
the civil law was administered with great mercy in the
days of these kings. In his last great speech to his
people, Benjamin reminded them of the justice and
clemency with which he had caused the law to be
administered, how none of them had been arbitrarily
cast into prison or otherwise punished, except for a6lual
proven violations of the law. He also reminded them
how he, their king, had labored with his own hands
to defray the expenses of ro3^alty, in order that they
might not be ground down by excessive taxation.
No wonder that he was so greatly loved and his name
held in such high reverence by his people. Recorded
history scarcely affords such another instance of kingly
humility and regard for the welfare of his people.
We may presume that the original inhabitants of
Zarahemla, just awakening to a newness of religious
life, were particularly subjeA to the influences brought
to bear by these impostors. They had but lately learned
the mysteries of the plan of salvation and of the com-
ing of the Messiah to dwell among the sons of men.
The glory and beauty of this Divine advent filled their
new-born souls with joyous hope. Looking forward for
the arrival of that happy day, with their first love ^
undiminished and their zeal unslackened, the}- were
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 8 1
especially open to the deceptions of those who cried,
Lo, the Christ is come! or, Behold, a great prophet hath
arisen! To this peculiar phase of spiritual condition
in the midst of the lately consolidated races in the land
of Zarahemla, we ma}- attribute the frequenc\' with
which false prophets troubled the reign of Benjamin.
There was another class who, moved by the spirit
of unrest, were a source of perplexit};- to the king.
The}' were those who, having left the Land of Nephi
with the righteous, still permitted their thoughts and
affedlions to be drawn toward their former homes and
old associations. Like Lot's wife, these Nephites were
ever hankering for that which they had left behind.
The natural consequence was that they were constantl}^
agitating the idea of organizing expeditions to visit
their old homes. The first of these that actually started,
of which we have an account, was led by an austere and
bloodthirsty man. When the}- approached the Land of
Nephi, a great dissension arose in the company. The
leader and some others desired to attack, and if possi-
ble destroy, the Lamanite inhabitants, but others, see-
ing that there was good amongst them, desired to make
a treaty with them. This division of feeling led to a
disastrous battle, in which the members of the expedi-
tion fought against each other with such fur\' that they
ceased not to contend until all were slain except fifty
men, who, in shame and sorrow, returned to Zarahemla
to recount the miserable end of their .venture. Yet
some remained unsatisfied, the\' were still over-zeal-
ous to inherit the land of their forefathers, and, under
the leadership of a man named Zeniff, another company
started on the ill-advised journe3^ Nothing was heard
from them while Benjamin reigned.
82 STORY OF THE BOOK OK MORMON.
When king Benjamin was well stricken with years,
the Lord direcfled him to consecrate his son Mosiah to be
his snccessor on the Nephite throne. Feeling that age
was impairing his energies he directed his son to gather
the people together at the temple that had been eredled
in Zarahemla, and he would then give them his parting
instruAions. ( B. C. 125.) Agreeable to this call the
people gathered at the temple, but so numerous had
they grown that it was too small to hold them. They
also brought with them the firstlings of their flocks that
they might offer sacrifice and burnt offerings according
to the Mosaic law. As the assembled thousands could
not get inside the temple they pitched their tents by
families, every one with its door towards the building,
and the king had a tower erected near the temple from
which he spake.
The teachings of king Benjamin at these meetings
were some of the most divine and glorious ever uttered
by man. He preached to them the pure principles of
the gospel — the duty which men owed to their God
and to their fellows. He also told them how he had
been visited by an angel, and what wondrous things
that angel had shewn him concerning the coming of
the God of Israel to dwell with men in the flesh. So
great were the things that this angel revealed and king
Benjamin repeated to the people that we think it best
to give you his own words. They are:
For behold the time cometh, and is not far distant,
that with power, the Lord Omnipotent, who reigneth,
who was, and is from all eternit}- to all eternit}', shall
come down from heaven, among the children of men, and
shall dwell in a tabernacle of clay, and shall go forth
amongst men, working might}- miracles, such as healing
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 83
the sick, raising the dead, causing the lame to walk,
the blind to receive their sight and the deaf to hear, and
curing all manner of diseases. And he shall cast out
devils, or the evil spirits which dwell in the hearts of
the children of men. And lo, he shall suffer tempta-
tions, and pain of body, hunger, thirst and fatigue, even
more than men can suffer, except it be unto death; for
behold, blood cometh from every pore, so great shall be
his anguish for the wickedness and the abominations
of his people.
And he shall be called Jesus Christ, the Son of
God, the Father of heaven and earth, the Creator of all
things, from the beginning; and his mother shall be
called j\Iary. And lo, he cometh unto his own, that
salvation might come unto the children of men, even
through faith on his name; and even after all this they
shall consider him a man, and say that he hath a devil,
and shall scourge him and shall crucify him. And he
shall rise the third da}' from the dead; and behold he
standeth to judge the world; and behold all these things
are done, that a righteous judgment might come upon
the children of men.
When Benjamin had made an end of speaking the
words which had been delivered to him by the angel,
he observed that the power of his testimony had so
worked upon the Nephites that they, in the deep sense
of their own unworthiness, had fallen to the ground.
And they cried out confessing their faith in the com-
ing Messiah, and pleading that through his atoning
blood they might receive the forgiveness of their sins,
and that their hearts might be purified. After they
had lifted their deep felt cry to heaven, the Spirit of
the Lord came down upon them, and because of their
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 85
exceeding faith the}' received a remission of their
sins.
Their inspired ruler then continued his discourse.
He enlarged therein on the truths of the atonement
and other soul saving do6lrines. Having finished his
address he sent amongst his hearers to know if they
believed and accepted the heavenly truths he had been
teaching. Great was his joy when he found that they
not only believed, but because of the working of the
Spirit of the Lord in their hearts they knew of their
truth. Still more, the Holy Spirit had wrought such
a change within them that they had no more disposi-
tion to do evil, but to do good continually. The vis-
ions of eternity were opened to their minds, their souls
were filled with the spirit of prophecy, they longed to
serve the Lord with undivided hearts, and declared
themselves willing to make a covenant with him to
keep his commandments and do his will the remaindar
of their da3^s.
The king then gave them a new name, because of
the covenant they desired to make, which thing he
greatly desired. The name the}^ were to bear for. ever
after was the name of Christ, which should never be
blotted out except through transgression. Thus was
established the first Christian church in Zarahemla
(B. C. 125), for every soul who heard these teachings
(except the very little children who could not under-
stand) entered into this sacred covenant with God
which most of them faithfully observed.
King Benjamin's trul}^ royal work was now done.
He had lived to bring his people into communion with
their Creator, his spirit was full of heavenly joy, but
his body trembled under the weight of many years.
86 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
So before he dismissed the multitude he consecrated
his son IMosiah to be their king, appointed priests
to instru6l the people in the wa3's of the Lord, and,
with his patriarchal blessing, dismissed his sub-
je6ls. Then according to their respective families the}'
all departed for their own homes.
Mosiah now reigned in his father's stead, whilst
Benjamin, beloved and honored, remained yet another
three 3^ears on the earth before he returned to the
presence of his Father in heaven.
CHAPTER XL
ZENIFF RETURNS TO THE LAND OF NEPHI — HLS TREATY
WITH THE LAMANITES— THE PROSPERITY OF THE PEO-
PLE OF ZENIFF— THE TREATY BROKEN — WAR — PEACE
AND WARS AGAIN — THE DEATH OF ZENIFF — NOAH'S
WICKED REIGN — HIS WARS WITH THE LAMANITES —
THE PROPHET ABINADI — HIS TERRIBLE MESSAGE OF
GOD'S WRATH — HE IS MARTYRED— ALMA — HE PLEADS
FOR ABINADI — IS CAST OUT— FLEES TO THE PLACE OF
MORMON.
TDEFORE proceeding with the stor^- of king Mosiah's
reign, we will return to the land of Nephi, and
learn how matters are progressing there. It will be
recolle(5led that during the reign of king Benjamin a
company started from Zarahemla to return to the old
home of the Nephites. Their leader's name was Zeniff.
What became of him and them was a question that was
n'ever answered during that king's lifetime.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 87
Zeiiiff and his people, having left Zarahemla,
traveled southward towards the land of Nephi. The
blessings of the Lord were not greatl}' with them, for
they did not seek him nor strive to do his will. In the
wilderness the}- lost their way, and suffered from fam-
ine and man}' afflidlions; but after many da3's they
reached the neighborhood of the cit}- of Lehi-Nephi,
the former home of their race. Here Zeniff chose four
of his company, and accompained by them went to the
king of the Lamanites. This monarch received them
with the appearance of kindness. He made a treaty
with them, and gave them the lands of Lehi-Nephi and
Shiloni to dwell in. He also caused his own people to
remove out of these cities and the surrounding countr}-
that Zeniff's people might have full possession. The
king of the Lamanites was in reality not as friendly as
he pretended to be. His object was to get the indus-
trious Nephites to settle in the midst of his people, and
then by his superior numbers to make them his slaves ;
for his own subjects were a laz}-, unprogressive race.
As soon as Zeniff and his followers occupied their
new possessions they went to work to build houses
and to repair the walls of the city ; for the idle Laman-
ites had suffered them to fall into decay. The}' also
commenced to till the ground, and to plant all manner
of seeds of grain, vegetables and fruit therein. Soon,
through their thrift and industry, they began to pros-
per and multiply. This caused King Laman to grow
uneas3\ He desired to bring them into bondage that
his people might reap the benefits of the labors of the
Nephites. But the}- were growing so rapidh' that
he feared that if he did not soon put a stop to their
increase they would be the stronger of the two people.
88 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
To prevent this he began to stir up the hearts of his
people in anger against the Nephites. He succeeded
so well that in the thirteenth year of Zeniff 's reign in
the land of Lehi-Nephi a numerous host of Lanianites
suddenly fell upon his people, while the}' were feeding
and watering their flocks, and began to sla}- them.
The}' also carried off some of their flocks, and the
corn from their fields.
Those of the Nephites who were not slain or over-
taken fled to Zenifif. As quickly as he could he armed
his people with bows and arrows, swords and cimeters,
clubs and slings, and with such other weapons as they
could invent. Thus armed they went forth in the
strength of the Lord to meet the enemy, for in their
hour of peril they had cried mightily unto him, and he
heard their cries and answered their prayers.
Thus strengthened they met their foes. The bat-
tle was an obstinate and a bloody one. It lasted all
day and all night. At last the Lanianites were driven
back with a loss of 3043 warriors, while the people of
Zeniff had to mourn the death of 279 of their breth-
ren. After this there was peace in the land for many
years.
During this time of peace Zeniff taught his peo-
ple to be very industrious. He caused his men to till
the ground and raise all kinds of fruit and grain.
The women he had spin and make cloth for clothing,
fine linen, etc. In this way for twenty-two years they
prospered and had uninterrupted peace; but at the
end of that period the Lanianites again came up to war
against them.
At this time the old king Laman died, and his son
succeeded him upon the throne. Like many young
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 89
men, he desired to distinguish himself in war. So he
gathered a numerous host of the Lamanites and hav-
ing armed them in the same manner as the Nephites,
he led them to the north of the land of Shemlon,
which la}' side by side the land of Nephi-Lehi.
An army of the Lamanites was at this era a
strange sight to look upon. Their heads were shaved,
the only covering of their bodies was a leathern girdle
around their loins, otherwise they were naked. Their
arms were bows, arrows, slings, swords, etc.
When Zeniff learned of the approach of young
king Iranian's armies, he caused the women and chil-
dren of his people to hide in the wilderness ; but every
man, 3^oung or old, who was able to bear arms was
placed in the ranks to go out against the foe. Zeniff
himself was then an aged man, but he still continued
to command his forces and led them in person to
battle. But before doing so he recounted to his sol-
diery the histor}' of the two peoples, stimulated them to
valor by shewing them that in this contest they were
in the right ; then calling upon them to put their trust
in God, he led them to the onset. Strengthened by
the faith Zeniff had renewed in their hearts, the
Nephites gained a great vidlory ; and so numerous were
the slain of the Lamanites that the}?- were not counted.
After this there was peace again in the land, which
continued all the remaining days of Zeniff. Shortly
after this he died, and, unfortunatel}^ for his kingdom,
chose for his successor an unworthy son, named Noah,
who led the people into many sins and ruled with
such folly and weakness that they fell an eas}' prey
to the ever-watchful foe that ever3^where surrounded
them.
90 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
King Noah did not walk in the wa^-s of his father,
for he was a very wicked man. He was filled with lust
and cruelt}^ and ruled his people with a tyrant's hand.
He removed the good priests who had been consecrated
b}' his father, and placed corrupt men, of his own stamp?
in their stead. Then he laj' heavy taxes upon the
people, even one fifth of all the}' possessed, whether it
was gold or silver, grain or fruit, flocks or herds.
These taxes he wasted upon himself and his priests,
upon his wives and concubines, and the harlots with
whom the priests consorted. Noah also built a ver}-
grand palace in Lehi-Nephi for his own comfort, and
spent much in lavishly- ornamenting the temple in
that cit}'. Near the temple he ereifted a ver}' high
tower, so high that an}' one standing upon its top
could see all over the surrounding countr}-. He also
did much building in the land of Shiloni, and there
ere(5led another high tower. Furthermore he planted
many vineyards and made his people a drunken race.
All this he did with the riches which he ground out of
his tax-burdened subjects.
How different was his course to that of the right-
eous Benjamin, who was at that time reigning in Zara-
hemla. We can scarcely conceive of two men more
different in habits and chara(5ler. The great care of
the one was to serve God and benefit his people, the
other had no other thought than to gratify his own
desires and live for his own pleasure, no matter how
much pain or suffering it caused his fellow men.
Again the Lamanites attacked the Nephites while
engaged in their labors, killed them and drove off their
flocks. King Noah then set guards around the land,
but in such small numbers that they were destroyed.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 9 1
He finally sent his armies and drove the Lamanites
away. This victory made him and his people con-
ceited and boastful, and developed a delight in them
to shed the blood of the Lamanites.
At this time a prophet, named Abinadi, appeared
among them, and predidled that they would be brought
into bondage to their enemies unless the}^ repented of
their wickedness. The king and the people were very
angr}' with Abinadi, and sought to take his life.
Two years after he came among them in disguise.
This time he uttered, in the name of the Lord, very
terrible prophecies against Noah and his people. He
told them that they should go into bondage to their
enemies, that they should be smitten like dumb beasts
and be slain. That vultures and dogs should devour
their carcasses. That famine and pestilence should
come upon them, and hail and inse(5ls should destroy
their crops. And in the end, if they did not repent,
they should be utterly destroyed. All of which was
fulfilled in a ver}- few years.
Abinadi was one of the greatest of prophets; he
was filled with the Holy Ghost, but the people would
not heed him, and the more he exposed their iniquites
the more furious raged their anger against him. Neither
did they believe his words ; in their own opinion they
were ever3'thing that was good. They were mighty
in their own strength, and unapproachably wise in their
own conceit. Never, if you could believe them, had a
better, more valiant, more- innocent people lived. Filled
with this spirit of self-conceit the}- took Abinadi, bound
him, and hurried him, with railing accusations, before
the king. There the priests began to cross-question
him, that the}- might confuse him and cause him to
92 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
say something that would give them a pretext for
slaying him. Tliis conducft was providentiall}- turned
to the glor}' of God and to the good of many souls.
It gave Abinadi the chance in turn to question his
accusers, by which he shewed their deceit and iniquity- ;
and it also enabled him to explain many of the prin-
ciples of the gospel of life and salvation. His teach-
ings pricked the hearts of a few, while the}- more
greatly enraged the greater number. Particularl}- did
he impress upon their minds the great truth that Christ
should come, and quoted the words of Isaiah and other
Hebrew prophets to sustain his words. His teachings
are among the strongest and plainest that any of the
scriptures record, and should be read b}- all who desire
to become fully acquainted with the truths of divine
love and merc}^ for fallen humanity.
These do^lrines were, however, exadll}'^ what Noah's
infidel priests did not want. They charged Abinadi
with having reviled the king, and on this charge
obtained Noah's consent for his execution. And
Abinadi was cruelly tortured and burned to death by
his fellow citizens in the sin-stained cit}^ of Lehi-Nephi.
How strange that people can so quickl}^ grow wicked.
In Zeniff's reign they kept God's laws, if only after a
fashion, but in Noah's days, led by his bad example,
they sank to the depth of shedding innocent blood, and
taking the life of one who had done them no wrong,
but whose only fault was to reprove them of their
wrong doings, and to strive -to teach them repentance
and the road to heaven.
Abinadi's last words were ver^' terrible in their
prophetic denunciations. When the flames began to
scorch him he cried out:
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 93
Behold even as ye have done unto me, so shall it
come to pass that thy seed shall cause that many shall
suffer, even the pains of death by fire ; and this because
they believe in the salvation of the Lord their God.
And it will come to pass that ye shall be afili(5led with
all manner of diseases because of your iniquities. Yea,
and ye shall be smitten on ever}^ hand, and shall be
driven and scattered to and fro, even as a wild flock is
driven by wild and ferocious beasts. And in that day
ye shall be hunted, and ye shall be taken by the hand
of 3'our enemies, and then ye shall suffer, as I suffer,
the pains of death b}^ fire. Thus God executeth ven-
geance upon those that destroy his people. O God,
receive my soul.
But all the people did not in their hearts consent
to this great crime. One among them especially,
whose name was Alma, confessed the truth of Abin-
adi's words. He knew that the grave charges the
prophet made were true. He was a young man, one of
Noah's priests, and when the clamor was highest
for Abinadi's death, he went to the king and plead in
Abinadi's behalf. This so angered Noah that he had
Alma cast out of his presence, and then sent his ser-
vants after the young priest to slay him. Alma,
however, hid from his pursuers, and, during his con-
cealment, wrote the words he had heard Abinadi speak,
which teachings now form one of the most important
of the doctrinal portions of the Book of Mormon.
The power and importance of Abinadi's teachings
had sunk deep in the heart of Alma; he not only real-
ized their truth, but he comprehended their saving
value. The first lesson the}' impressed upon his mind
was the necessity of his own repentance. This he did
94 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON'.
sincerely; and then began to teach the same lesson to
others. For fear of the king he did not do this openly,
but secretly as opportunity permitted.
Alma's preaching of God's hol}^ word was not
without fruit. IMau}^ received the truth with joy.
These gathered to a convenient spot on the borders of
the wilderness, but not far off their cit^^ This place
was called Mormon. It was admirably suited for a
hiding-place, having been formerly infested by ravenous
wild beasts, and as such was dreaded and avoided by
the people. Near b}^ was a thicket or forest of small
trees, in which the gospel believers could hide should
they be pursued by the king's servants; here also was
a fountain of pure water, most excellently adapted for
the purposes of baptism. Here was this holy rite first
administered, and here was the church of Christ organ-
ized. How different the circumstances of its organiza-
tion to those which attended the same event in the land
of Zarahemla, under king Benjamin, of which we
have already spoken.
*"/.>. '"--t*i?.
CHAPTER XII.
THE WATERS OF MORMON — ALMA, HEI.AM AND OTHERvS BAP-
TIZED THEREIN — THE CHURCH ORGANIZED— THE KING
WARNED — HE SENDS TROOPS — ALMA AND HIS PEOPLE
FLEE TO THE LAND OF HELAM— THEY BUILD A CITY.
npHE FIRST to go down into the waters of Mormon
for baptism were Alma and a fellow believer named
Helani. When the}^ entered the water Alma lifted his
voice in pra3^er, and besonght the Lord for his Holy
Spirit. This blessing having been bestowed, he pro-
ceeded with the sacred ordinance. Addressing his
companion, he said, Helam, I baptize thee, having
authorit}^ from the Almighty God, as a testimony that
ye have entered into a covenant to serve him until you
are dead as to the mortal bod}^; and may the Spirit of
the Lord be poured out upon you ; and may he grant
unto you eternal lite, through the redemption of Christ,
whom he has prepared from the foundation of the
world. Having said these words, both Alma and
Helani were buried in the water, from which they
came forth rejoicing, being filled with the Holy Spirit.
Others, even to the number of two hundred and
four souls, followed Helam into the waters of baptism,
but in all these cases Alma did not again burj^ himself
beneath the wave, but only the repentant believers.
From this time we may date the organization of the
Church of Jesus Christ in that land, and henceforth its
members assembled for worship and testimony once a
week.
Notwithstanding the care and secrecy with which
the members of the church a6led, Noah soon discovered
96 SrOXV OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
that there was some hidden nio\'einent amongst his
subjedls, and b}- the help of his spies he discovered
what was taking place at Mormon. Making the t3Tant's
usual excuse, that the Christians were in rebellion
against him, he sent his armies to capture and destroy
them. But a greater than he stretched forth his arm
to preserve his people. The Lord warned Alma of
the king's intentions, and by divine direction he
assembled his people, some 450 souls, gathered their
flocks and herds, loaded up their grain, provisions and
other supplies, and departed into the wilderness.
Being strengthened by the Lord, notwithstanding
that they were impeded by their flocks and families,
the pilgrims traveled with sufficient rapidity to escape
the pursuing forces of king Noah, who were reluct-
antly compelled to return to the land of Nephi with-
out having accomplished the obje6l of the expedition.
At the end of eight days Alma's company ceased
their flight, and settled in a very beautiful and pleasant
land where there was an abundant supph' of pure
water. We have no dire6l information with regard to
the course taken by this colony, but it is evident from
the details of their later histor}', that the new settle-
ment lay somewhere between the lands of Nephi and
Zarahemla, though possibly somewhat aside from the
most direcfl route. We think it far from improbable
that it was situated at the head waters of some one of
the numerous tributaries to the Amazon that take their
rise on the eastern slopes of the Andes.
The colonists, whose industry is especially re-
ferred to by the inspired historian, immediately set to
work to till the soil and build a city. The city, with
tlic surrounding territor}^, thc}- named the city and land
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
97
of Helam, Now that they were established as a separate
people, independent of both Lamanite and Nephite
princes, they desired a form of government, and
requested Alma to be their king. This honor he
declined. He rehearsed to them the history of their
fathers; he pidlured to them the infamies of king
Noah's reign; he shewed them how 'a wicked ruler
could lead his subjects into all manner of evil, and
how such things led to bondage; and, on the other
THE LAND OF HELAM.
hand, how much better it was to have the Lord as their
king and ruler, and to be guided b}^ his servants under
his inspiration. This counsel the people wisely
accepted. Alma, though not bearing the title of king,
a6led as their leader, as their high priest and prophet,
and as the mouthpiece of Heaven whenever God's holy
word was graciousl}' given them. In this happ\'
state the people of Helam. continued for some 3'ears,
98 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
the Lord great!}- prospering them and crowning their
labors with abundant increase. Nevertheless, the Lord
saw fit to chasten this devoted people, and to try their
patience and their faith, of which trial and its results
we shall have more to say as we proceed with our
stor}'.
We must now leave Alma and his people for a
time and return to king Noah.
CHAPTER XIIL
KING NOAH'vS vSUBJECTS REBEL — GIDEON— THE LAMANITES
INVADE LEHI-NEPHI — THE NEPHITES RETREAT— A PART
SURRENDER— THE NEW TERMvS OF PEACE — NOAH IS
BURNED TO DEATH— LIMHl MADE KING— NOAH'S PRIEvSTS
ESCAPE — THEY SEIZE SOME LAMANITE MAIDENS —
ANOTHER WAR — THE NEPHITES VICTORIOUS— THE
KING OF THE LAMANITES WOUNDED — MUTUAL EXPLA-
NATIONS.
OOON AFTER the return of Noah's army from their
unsuccessful attempt to capture Alma and his peo-
ple, a great division grew up amongst that monarch's
subje6ls. They were heartily tired of his tyranny and
his debaucheries. One of those most dissatisfied was
an officer of the king's army named Gideon. We have
no reason to believe that he was at that time a wicked
man though he did rebel against the king, but rather
that he was a good, pure and wise man, for in after life
he proved that he possessed all these virtues. In the
disturbances that now arose between Noah and his peo-
ple Gideon sought to slay the king. Hut Noah fled to
vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 99
the tower near the temple. Thither Gideon, sword in
hand, quickly followed. The king mounted to the
top, and there his e3'e accidentally caught sight of an
army of Lamanites in the land of Shemlon. In the
terror caused by this unexpecfted sight, he appealed to
Gideon's patriotism and besought him to spare him. Not
that the king cared for his people, but he made this
excuse for pleading for his own life. Gideon consented,
and Noah in mortal terror ordered his people to flee into
the wilderness from before the advancing hosts of the
Lamanites.
The people obeyed their king's command, and with
their wives and children fled into the wilderness. But
the forces of the Lamanites, unencumbered with women
and children, sooif overtook them. Then the coward
king commanded the men to continue their flight and
leave their wives and children to the merc}^ of their
enemy. Some obe3'ed and fled, others would not, but
preferred to sta}' and perish with those to whom they
were the natural protestors. Those who staj^ed, in the
agony of their terror when the Lamanites drew near,
sent their fair daughters to plead with their enemies
for their lives. This a(5l saved them. For the dark
warriors of Lanian were so charmed with the beautv of
the women that the}- spared all their lives. Yet the}-
took them captives, carred them back to Lehi-Nephi,
and gave them permission to retain that land, but under
some ver}' hard conditions. These conditions were that
the}' should surrender king Noah into the hands of
the Lamanites, and deliver up one half of everything
they possessed, and continue this tribute of one half of
their propert}' 3'ear b}- year.
Gideon now sent men to search for Noah that he
lOO STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
might be delivered up to the Lamanites. They found
that the men who were with Noah, being ashamed of
their cowardly flight, swore that the}' would return;
and, if their wives and children, and the men who
remained with them, had been killed, they would have
revenge. The king commanded that they should not
return, for which they were angry with him, and
burned him to death as he had done Abinadi. His
priests were saved from a like fate by flight. When
the men who put Noah to death were about to return
to the land of Nephi, they met Gideon and his part}-,
and informed them of the end of Noah and the escape
of the priests; and when the}' heard the news that
Gideon brought, they also rejoiced much that their
wives and children had been spared by the Lamanites.
Noah being dead, one of his sons, Limhi by name,
was made king. It was almost an empty honor, for his
people were in bondage to the Lamanites. Still he
made a treaty of peace with the king of the Lamanites,
and because he could do no better he agreed to pay a
yearly tribute of one half of their increase. To prevent
the escape of the Nephites, guards were set all round
the land, for the Lamanites w^ere uom' most anxious
that the Nephites should not escape. They were to
all intents and purposes bond-servants, and the Laman-
ites obtained all the advantages of their labor with-
out any of the responsibilities that generally fall upon
the slave owner. Out of the tribute the guards that
held them in bondage were paid. This state of things
continued without an outbreak for two years.
In these times there was a romantic spot in the
land of Shemlon, on the Nephitc borders, where the
Lamanitish maidens were in the habit of gathering on
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. Id
pleasure bent. Here they sang, danced and made
merr}' with all the gaiety of youthful innocence and
overflowing spirits. One day when a few were thus
gathered they were suddenly surprised, and twenty-
four of their number were carried off by strange
men, who, from their appearance, were unmistakably
Nephites.
On learning of this a6l of treachery the Laman-
ites were stirred to uncontrolable anger, and \vithout
seeking an explanation they made a sudden incursion
into the territory held by king Limhi. This attack,
however, was not successful, for their movements,
though not understood, had been discovered, and their
intended vi(5lims poured forth to meet them.
With Limhi and his people it was a war for exist-
ence ; to be defeated was to be annihilated ; his warriors
therefore fought with superhuman energy and despera-
tion, and eventually the}- succeeded in driving the
Lanianites back. So speedy did the flight become, that
in their confusion the Lanianites left their wounded
king lying amongst the heaps of slain. There he was
discovered by the vi(5lors. In the interview between
him and 'Limhi that followed, mutual explanations
ensued. The Lamanite king complained bitterly of
the outrage committed on the daughters of his people
whilst Limhi protested that he and his subjects were
innocent of the base adl. Further investigation devel-
oped the fa6l that some of the iniquitous priests of king
Noah, who had fled into the wilderness from the dreaded
vengeance of their abused countr3aiien, were the guilty
parties. Being without wives, and fearing to return
home, the}^ had adopted this plan to obtain them.
On hearing this explanation, king Laman con-
I02
STORY OF THE ROOK OF MORMON.
seiited to make an effort to pacif}^ his angr}^ hosts. At
the head of an unarmed bod}- of Nephites he went forth
and met his armies who were returning to the attack.
He explained what he had learned, and the Lamanites,
possibly somewhat ashamed of their rashness, renewed
the covenant of peace.
This peace, unfortunately, was of short duration.
The Lamanites grew arrogant and grievousl}- oppres-
sive, and under their exa(5lions and cruelty the condi-
tion of Limhi's subje6ls grew continually worse, until
the}' were little better off than were their ancestors
in Eg3'pt before jMoses their deliverer arose. Three
times they broke out in ineffedlual rebellion, and just
as often their task-masters grew more cruel and exa(5l-
ing, until their spirits were entirely broken ; they cow-
ered before their oppressors, and bowed "to the yoke of
bondage, submitting themselves to be smitten, and to be
driven to and fro, and burdened according to the desires
of their enemies."
»*^!!»-! "><,^-- '>i^'
iHHHHHHi
CHAPTER XIV.
THE BONDAGE OF THE PEOPLE OF LIMHI — AX EXPEDITION
NORTH — FINDING OF THE JAREDITE RECORDvS — THE
ARRIVAL OF AMMON — THE PEOPLE OF LIMHI ESCAPE
—THE PURvSriT— THE AMULONITE.S — THE PEOPLE OF
ALMA— THEY ARE BROUGHT INTO BONDAGE— THEIR
DELIVERANCE.
A FTER A TIME the Lord softened the hearts of the
Lamanites so that they began to ease the burdens
of their slaves, but he did not deliver the Nephites out of
bondage at once. The\', however, gradual^' prospered,
and raised more grain, flocks and herds, so that they
did not suffer with hunger.
The people of Linihi kept together as much as
possible for protection. Even the king did not trust
himself outside the walls of the cit}' without his guards,
lest he might fall into the hands of the Lamanites.
In this sad condition of bondage and serfdom the
people of Limhi had one hope. It was to communicate
with their Nephite friends in the land of Zarahemla.
To this end Linihi secretly fitted out an expedition
consisting of a small number of men. This company
became lost in the wilderness, and traveled a long dis-
tance northward until the}- found a land covered with
the dry bones of men who appeared to have fallen in
L04 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
battle. Limlii's people thought this must be the land
of Zarahemla and that their Nephite brethren who
dwelt there had been destroyed. But in this they were
wrong, for they found with the dead some records
engraved on plates of ore, which, when afterwards
translated by the power of God, shewed that these
bones were those of some of the Jaredites who had been
slain in war.
They missed the land of Zarahemla, having proba-
bly traveled to the west of it and passed northward
through the Isthmus of Panama.
Shortl}^ after this a small compan}- numbering
sixteen men reached them from Zarahemla. Their
leader's name was Amnion. He had been sent by king
Mosiah to the land of Nephi to find out what had
become of the people or their descendants who left
with Zeniff. When Amnion and those that were with
him reached Lehi-Nephi, king Limhi happened to be
without the walls of the cit}^, and his guards fanc3''ing
that Amnion and his friends were some of the priests
of Noah took them and put them in prison. The next
day the mistake was discovered, and Linihi and his peo-
ple w^ere overjo3^ed to hear from their friends. Soon
plans were laid to effecft the escape of the enslaved
Nephites, which, under the guidance of Limhi, Amnion
and Gideon, was successfulh' accomplished. The
Lamanite guards were made drowsy- with a large present
of wine, and while the}' were in this drunken stupor, the
people of Limhi escaped through an unfrequented
pass, taking with them such things as they could
safely carry away. They were then led by Amnion to
Zarahemla.
When the Lamanites found, to their great surprise,
STORY OF THP: book OF MORMON. IO7
that their bond servants had escaped, they sent an army
after them. It so happened that this corps lost them-
selves in the wilderness. Whilst traveling hither and
thither, not knowing which way to go, they came across
the priests of king Noah, who had fled from the face of
their fellows to escape the j ust indignation their contin-
ned iniquities had aroused. These priests, at the insti-
gation of Amnion, their leader, joined the Lamanite
troops, and unitedly endeavored to get back to the land
of Nephi. Whilst thus engaged, they wandered near
the cit\^ of Helam. •
When the people of Alma first perceived the
approach of this body of men, they were engaged
tilling the soil around their city, into which they imme-
diately fled in great fear. In this perilous hour the
faith and courage of Alma were conspicuous. He
gathered his people around him, called upon them to
cast aside their unsaintly fears, and to remember the
God who had ever delivered those who trusted in him.
The words of their leader had the desired effect ; the peo-
ple silenced their fears and called mightily upon the
Lord to soften the hearts of the Lamanites that they
might spare their lives and those of their wives and little
ones. Then, with the assurance in their hearts that
God would hearken unto their prayers, iVlma and his
brethren went forth out of their city and delivered
themselves up to their former foes.
The Lamanites were in a dilemma, therefore they
were profuse in promises. They were willing to grant
the people of Helam their lives and liberty if they
would show them the way to the land of Nephi. Hav-
ing obtained this information and reached home in
safety, they broke their promises and made Amnion
io8 STORY OF thp: book of mormox.
the king over a wide distridl of country, including the
land of Helani.
Alma and Amnion had known each other in the
days when they both belonged to king Noah's priest-
hood, and with the venom so often conspicuous in
apostates, the latter soon commenced to persecute those
who were faithful to the Lord. He placed task-masters
over them, imposed inhuman burdens upon them,
and otherwise afflicfted them grievously.
In their agony they called continually upon the
Lord for deliverance. Their prayers annoyed their
cruel masters and they were forbidden to pray aloud;
but no tyrants, however powerful or cruel, could prevent
them praying in their hearts. This the people of Alma
continued to do most fervently, and in due time, though
not immediately, deliverance came. In the meanwhile
the Lord comforted and strengthened them in their
afflidlions, so that their burdens were easily borne.
The time of their deliverance finall}^ came, for on
a certain day the Lord promised them that he would
deliver them on the morrow. The night was occupied
in getting their flocks and provisions together, and pre-
paring for their journey. In the morning, when their
Lamanite guards and taskmasters were in a deep sleep,
they set out on their journey into the Milderness.
After traveling all day they pitched their tents in a
valley which they named Alma. The Lord warned
Alma to hasten out of this country, for the Lamanites
were in pursuit, but he said lie would stop them in the
valley where Alma was then camped. Alma and his
company traveled 3'et twelve days, at the end of which
time they arrived in Zarahemla. This, with the eight
days occupied in traveling from the waters of Mormon
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. IO9
to the land of Helam, makes twenty days' travel from
Lehi-Nephi to Zarahemla.
To prevent confusion in the minds of our readers
we desire to draw attention to the fa6l that the city of
Lehi-Nephi and the city of Nephi are not two separate
cities, but one and the same city with two names.
Amnion and the priests of Noah, possibly because
of their Lamanitish wives, soon gained great favor
with king Laman and were made teachers to his peo-
ple. Educated in the language of the Nephites, they
began to instruct the Lamanites therein.
They taught the people nothing of the religion of
their fathers, or of the law of Moses, but instruAed
them how to keep their records, and to write one to
another. All this time king Laman ruled over a numer-
ous people, inhabiting distant regions, governed by
tributary kings and rulers. Having no written stand-
ard, the language of the Lamanites had become greatly
corrupted. The coming of the priests of Noah among
them gave rise to the introdudlion of a higher civiliza-
tion. As a result, the}^ increased in wealth, and trade
and commerce extended among them. They became
cunning and w4se, and therefore powerful, but were still
addi6led to robbery and plunder, except among them-
selves.
CHAPTER XV.
MOvSIAH'S GOOD REIGN — THF CIRCUMSTANCES OF HIS
ADVENT— HE ASSEMBLES THE PEOPLE— THE BAPTLSM
OF LIMHI — CHURCHES ORGANIZED THROUGHOUT THE
LAND.
T^7E AIUST now leave the Lamanites in the land of
Nephi, and return to king Alosiah in Zarahemla.
It will be remembered that we left the people of
Zarahemla at the death of king Benjamin, and the
ascent of his son Mosiah to the throne.
Mosiah was born in the land of Zarahemla, 154 or
155 years before the coming of Christ. He was in-
structed in all the wisdom of the Nephites, and trained
up in youth in the fear of the Lord. By the dire6lion
of the Almighty he was consecrated b}- his father to
succeed him on the throne, which ceremony was attended
to at the time the whole nation had gathered at the tem-
ple to listen to the words of their aged and beloved
ruler; at the same time the}' all covenanted with God
to be his servants ever after. There, in the presence of
his future subjects, under the shadow of the holy house,
he was set apart to rule a people whose sins were all
forgiven through their abiding faith in tlie unborn
Savior. Could a king come to a throne under more
auspicious circumstances? Profound peace with all
outside his dominions, and within its borders reigned
union, contentment, prosperity, happiness, and what is
more, righteousness.
Mosiah was thirty j^ears old when he began to
reign, whicli event happened 476 years after Lehi left
Jerusalem.
STORY OK THP: BOOK OF MORMON. I I I
Mosiali followed in the footsteps of his father,
taught his people to be industrious, and set them the
example by tilling a portion of the earth to maintain
himself and his dependents.
It was in the fourth 3'ear of his reign that Mosiah
sent out the expedition under Amnion to find the people
of Zeniff. Of its success, and the happy advent of
Linilii and his people, and of Alma and his people, we
have already spoken.
Soon after the arrival of Limhi and Alma, Mosiah
gathered all the Nephites to one place that they might
hear how God had dealt with both. First he had the
records of Zeniff and Alma read in their hearing, at
which the}' were greatly amazed ; but when they beheld
the new comers thej^ were filled with exceeding great
joy, mingled with sadness for the loss of their kindred
slain by the inhuman Lamanites, and many tears were
shed for those departed ones. Again, when they
listened to the marvelous deliverances wrought by
heaven in behalf of Alma and his faithful few, the
assembled thousands raised their voices on high and
gave thanks to God. Still another shade of feeling
came across their sympathetic hearts, even of pain and
anguish for the sinful and polluted state of their Laman-
ite brethren, when their condition was explained to
them.
Taking advantage of the presence of so many
of his subje6ls, Mosiah addressed them on such matters
as he deemed necessary and desirable. At his request
Alma also taught them. When assembled in large
bodies Alma went from one multitude to another,
preaching repentance and faith in the Lord. After
hearing his teachings Limhi requested to be baptized^
112 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and so did all his people. Then Alma baptized them
in the same manner as he had their brethren. He
afterwards, by JMosiah's direction, went through the
land, organizing and establishing churches and ordain-
ing priests and teachers over ever}^ church. Thus
were seven churches established at this time in the
land of 2arahemla.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE UNBELIEF OF THE YOUTH OF ZARAHEMLA— THE
YOUNGER ALMA AND THE SONS OF MOSIAH— THEY
ENCOURAGE THE PERSECUTIONS AGAINST THE CHURCH
—THEY ARE MET BY AN ANGEL— HIS MESSAGE— AL-
MA'S AW^FUL CONDITION — HIS VISION AND TESTIMONY—
THE CHANGED LIFE OF THE YOUNG MEN.
TN THE course of years many of the rising genera-
tion gave no heed to the word of God. These were
mostly such as were too young to enter into covenant
with the Lord at the time that king Benjamin anointed
Mosiah to be his successor. Not only did they them-
selves reje(5l the do6lrines of the atonement, the resur-
redlion and other gospel principles, but the}- led away
many of the members of the church into darkness and
iniquity, and abused, reviled and persecuted those who
remained faithful to the cause of Christ. Neither the
fear of the civil nor of the divine law restrained them.
Their course, and that of those in the church who gave
way to evil doing, gave much trouble, and caused deep
/
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1x5
anxiety to Mosiah and Alma, the latter now the High
Priest of the whole chnrcli. When songht in pra3'er,
the Lord diredled what a6lion shonld be taken with
transgressors in the clinrch, and after dne consnltation
with his priests, with Alma and others, Mosiah issned
a proclamation of eqnality to his people, forbidding all
his snbje6ls to persecnte, vex or abuse their fellows
because of their faith or religion, and announcing that
in matters of conscience all men were equal before the
law, and all were the subjects of his protection. Still it
required a greater than an earthly king to bring to
naught the evil intents of the disbelievers, who were
greatl}^ encouraged in their misdeeds by the fadl that
the king's four sons and one of the sons of Alma were
their leaders.
Frequent and fervent were the praj^ers offered by
IMosiah and the elder Alma in behalf of their rebellious
sons, and those pra3'ers prevailed with him who sits on
heaven's eternal throne.
One da}', as Alma and his compan}^ were going
about persecuting the members of the church, an holy
angel descended in a cloud and stopped them in the wa}'.
When he spoke his voice was as thunder, that caused
the whole earth to tremble beneath their feet. Naturally
this manifestation of the power of God spread terror
and dismay in the hearts of those who witnessed it.
They fell to the ground, and so confused and terrified
were the}- that the}- failed to understand the words of
the holy messenger. Arise, xA^lma, and stand forth,
he cried; and when Alma arose, his e3'es were opened
to see who stood before him. Why persecutest thou
the Church of God? he was asked, for the Lord hath
said, This is my Church, and I will establish it; and
Il6 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
nothing shall overthrow it, save it is the transgression
of my people. If thou wilt of tlu'self be destroyed,
seek no more to destroy the Church of God. Besides
this, the angel spoke to him of his father's prayers in
his behalf, and that because of those prayers, he told
him, he was sent to convince him of the power of God.
He also recounted to Alma the captivit}^ of his fathers
in the lands of Helani and Nephi, and of their miracu-
lous deliverance therefrom. But Alma heard none of
these latter sayings, for the terrors of the first saluta-
tion had overpowered him.
When the angel departed Alma was overcome
and, dismayed and soul-stricken, he sank to the ground.
When his companions gathered around him, they found
he could not move, neither could he speak. OutwardU-
he was dead to the world; but the torments of the
damned had taken hold of his soul, and in the most
bitter pain and mental anguish he la}' racked with the
remembrance of all his past sins. The thought of
standing before the bar of God to be judged for his ini-
quities overwhelmed him with horror. He desired
to become extin6l both body and soul without being
brought before his Creator. Thus he continued for
three days and three nights to suffer the pains of hell,
which, to his racked conscience, must have seemed an
eternity.
When his. companions found that he could neither
speak nor move, they carried him to his father, and
related to him all that had happened. Strange as it must
have seemed to them, the elder Alma\s heart was filled
with joy and praise when he looked upon the body of
his much-loved son, fi)r he realized it was God's ])()\ver
that had wrought all this, and that his long-continued
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. II7
pra3^ers had been answered. In his joy he gathered
the people to witness this mighty manifestation of the
goodness and power of Jehovah. He assembled the
priests, songht their co-operation, and unitedly, in God's
own wa}', they prayed and fasted for the stricken youth.
For two da3'S they continued their cries to heaven, at
the end of which time Alma stood upon his feet and
spoke. He comforted them b\' declaring, I have repented
of ni}' sins, and have been redeemed of the Lord,
behold I am born of the Spirit.
In later years Alma, in relating to his son Heleman
the details of his conversion, thus describes the causes
that led him to bear this testimony. He says : Behold,
I remembered also to have heard ni}^ father prophesy
unto the people concerning the coming of one Jesus
Christ, a Son of God, to atone for the sins of the Avorld,
Now as ni}' mind caught hold upon this thought, I
cried within ni}- heart, O Jesus, thou Son of God, have
mercy on me, M'ho art in the gall of bitterness and art
encircled about by the everlasting chains of death.
And now, behold, when I thought this, I could remem-
ber my pains no more ; 3'ea, I was harrowed up b}^ the
memory of my sins no more. And oh, what J03', and
what marvelous light I did behold; yea, my soul was
filled with joy as exceeding as was my pain; 3^ea, I
say unto you m^' son, there could be nothing so
exquisite and so bitter as my pain. Yea, and again I
say unto you, my son, that on the other hand, there can
be nothing so exquisite and sweet as was mj' jo}-; yea,
methought I saw, even as our father Lehi saw, God
sitting upon his throne, surrounded with numberless
concourses of angels, in the attitude of singing and
praising their God ; yea, nu' soul did long to be there.
it8 story of the book of mormon.
From that time to the end of his mortal career,
Alma labored without ceasing- to bring souls to Christ,
and to guide his fellow man in the paths of salvation.
What effe6i had this heavenly visit upon the sons
of Mosiah ? A very great one. From that moment they
were changed men. As the voice of the angel reached
their astonished ears, the essence of divinit}- entered
their souls, they knew, they felt, they realized there was
a God and that the}- had been fighting against him.
The sense of their own utter unworthiness filled their
hearts; remorse and anguish reigned supreme therein,
and they condemned themselves as the vilest of sinners.
By and by the bitterness of their remorse was swallowed
up in their faith in the coming of Christ, and they
determined by God's help, to their utmost strength, to
undo the evil that their previous course had wrought.
These resolutions they faithfully carried out. If they
had been energetic in their wrong-doing they were 3'et
more a(5live in their M'orks of restitution. The}- jour-
neyed from city to cit}', from land to land, and every-
Mdiere bore triumphant testimony of the incidents of
their miraculous conversion, and in no equivocal tones
proclaimed the glorious gospel message of love to God,
salvation to mankind.
KXZIIIZIIIIff-
#*-;SM!ii:-*--^
- *--*^** '.^ Hiiiiiirxixt
CHAPTER XML
THE GROWTH OF THE PEOPLE IX ZARAHEMLA— THEY IU"n.D
MANY CITIES — MOvSIAH'S SONS DESIRE TO TAKE A MIS-
SION TO THE LAMANITES— MOSIAH INQUIRES OF THE
LORD— THE DIVINE ANSWER.
npHE INHABITANTS of Zarahemla at this time
were all considered Nephites, though the descend-
ants of Alulek and his companions were the most
numerous. But the Nephites, though the last comers
to Zarahemla, were the governing race, and the kingdom
had been conferred upon none but those who were the
descendants of Nephi. The Nephites ruled bv the
right of their higher civilization, the possession of tlie
records and the authority of the holy priesthood.
There is another strange fa(5l with regard to the inhab-
itants of South America at this time, it is that the Lani-
anites were twice as numerous as the combined people
of Nephi and Zarahemla. This may have been owing
to the fa6l that when an}- defection occurred among the
Nephites, the dissatisfied portions of the community
generally went over to the Lamauites and became ab-
sorbed in that race.
In these days there was much peace in the land
of Zarahemla. The Lord blessed the people and
they became very numerous, contented and M-ealthv.
When Benjamin was king his people appear to have
all resided in and immediately around the city of Zara-
hemla, as the king directed his son to gather them at
the temple on the morrow, and on the morrow they
were all there, which would have been impossible had
they lived at any great distance from headquarters.
I20 vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
We judge that at that time the majority inhabited the
city and farmed the land around. Up to this time no
other cit}' than Zarahemla is mentioned in that land,
but now the people began to spread abroad, building,
as the historian states, large cities and villages in all
quarters of the land. We may reasonabh' suppose
that at this epoch were founded the cities of Aaron,
Ammonihah, Gideon, Alanti, Melek and others men-
tioned in the annals of the succeeding twenty 3'ears.
Notwithstanding the great good they had done, the
sons of king IMosiah were not content to confine their
labors to the land of Zarahemla. They longed to carry
the glad tidings of salvation to the benighted Laman-
ites. Ignoring the dangers and despising the pains of
such a mission, they plead with their father many da^-s
for his consent for them to go to the land of Xephi.
The bloodthirsty, revengeful charadler of the Laman-
ites was too well known to the king for him to think of
his sons going into their midst without causing him
feelings of dread and apprehension, but he had no
desire to quench their holy zeal towards God and their
love towards their unfortunate fellows, lest he should
sin b}' so doing, and rob thousands of the opjDortu-
nity of hearing the everlasting truths through obe-
dience to which mankind is saved. He therefore
inquired of the Lord. The answer came, Let them
go up, for many shall believe on their words, and tliey
shall have eternal life, and I will deliver thy sons out
of the hands of the Lamanites. With this divine
assurance IMosiah consented, and shortly after, with
some other missionaries, whom they had chosen, these
four valiant God-fearing youths started on their perilous
niission.
rmrmxmrmr
CHAPTER XVIIL
MOSIAH'S SONS REFUSK THE KINCiDOM — HE GRANTS THE
PEOPLE A CONSTITUTION — THE PEOPLE TO ELIvCT
THEIR RULERS — ALMA, THE YOUNGER, FIRST CHIia-
JUDGE.
1\ /TOSIAH now felt that it was time that the question
of the succession to the throne should be settled.
In his magnanimity he sent among the people to learn
whom the}^ would have for their king. The people
chose his son Aaron, but Aaron would not accept the
royal power; his heart was set upon the conversion of
his fellowmen to the knowledge of the gospel. This
refusal troubled the mind of Mosiah; he apprehended
difficulties if Aaron at some future time should change
his mind and demand his rights. Mosiah therefore
issued another address to his much loved subjects, as
usual full of the spirit of divine wisdom and love. In
it, after recounting the peculiarities of the situation, he
sa3^s: Let us be wise and consider these things, for we
have no right to destroy my ison, neither should we have
a right to destroy another, if he should be appointed in
his stead. And if my son should turn again to his
pride and vain things, he would recall the things which
he had said, and claim his right to the kingdom, which
would cause him and also this people to commit much
sin. ''' * '•' Therefore, I will be 3'our king the remain-
der of my days; nevertheless, let us appoint judges, to
judge this people according to our law, and we will
122 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
newly arrange the affairs of this people; for we will
appoint wise men to be jndges that will jndge this peo-
ple according to the commandments of God.
Inspired and dire(?ted by the Lord, the king fnrther
advised many changes of the law, so that all things
might be done b}- the voice of the whole people. These
changes were gladly accepted by the people, as they
gave them greater libert}- and a voice in all important
national affairs. As a law-maker Mosiah may be
ranked among the most eminent this world has pro-
dnced. We regard him in some respe(5ls as the Moses,
in others the Alfred the Great, of his age and nation.
Bnt besides being a king he was also a seer. The gift
of interpreting strange tongnes and langnages was his.
By this gift he translated from the twenty-fonr
plates of gold, found by the people of king Limhi, the
records of the Jaredites. No wonder that a man pos-
sessed of such gifts, so just and merciful in the admin-
istration of the law, so perfe6l in his private life, should
be esteemed more than an}- man by his subjedls, and
that they waxed strong in their love towards him. As
a king, he was a father to them, but as a prophet, seer
and revelator he was the source from whence divine
wisdom flowed unto them. We must go back to the
days of the antediluvian patriarchs to find the peers of
these three kings (the two Mosiahs and Benjamin),
when monarchs ruled by right divine, and men were
prophets, priests and kings by virtue of heaven's gifts
and God's will.
His sons having started on their mission to the
Lamanites, Mosiah chose Alma, the younger, and gave
the sacred plates and the associate holy things into his
care. The elder Alma made this same son the pre-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 23
siding High Priest of the church, and the people
chose him for their first chief judge. The church,
the records, the nation, all being thus provided for,
Mosiah passed away to the joys of eternity. He was
sixty-three years old, and he had ruled his people in
righteousness thirty-three years. When he passed
away no fierce convulsions wrecked the ship of state,
the political atmosphere was calm, the people joyfully
assumed their new responsibilities, and the first of the
judges succeeded the last of the kings without causing
one disturbing wave on the placid waters of the national
life.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE MLSSION OF THE SONS OF MOSIAH TO THE LAMAN-
ITES — THEIR JOURNEY IN THE WTLDERNESS — AMMON
BROUGHT BEFORE KING LAMONI — THE CONFLICT AT
THE \VATERS OF SEBUS— THE MIRACULOUS CONVER-
SION OF LAMONI AND HIS FAMILY — ABISH THE WAIT-
ING WOMAN.
T3EFORE we take up the history of the Nephites,
during the reigns of their judges, we will follow
the sons of Mosiah and their brethren to the land of
Nephi, on the perilous mission that they had under-
taken, to convert the Lamanites. The names of the
four sons of Mosiah were Aaron, Amnion, Onmer and
Himni; amongst their companions were Muloki and
Ammah.
These all took their journe}- into the southern
wilderness during the last ^-ear of Mosiah's reign.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MOR^ION. 1 25
or B. C. 91. They carried with them their bows and
arrows and other weapons, not to wage war but to kill
game for their food in the wilderness. Their journey
was a tedions one; they lost their way and almost lost
heart, and indeed were on the point of returning when
they received divine assurance of their ultimate suc-
cess. Nerved by this assurance, and with much fast-
ing and prayer, the}' continued their wanderings, and
before long reached the borders of the Lamanites.
Commending themselves to God they here separated,
each one trusting to the Lord to guide them to the
places where he could best accomplish the purposes of
heaven.
Ammon entered the Lamanite territory at a land
called Ishmael. Here Lanioni was the chief ruler,
under his father, who was king of all the Lamanites.
Ammon was no sooner discovered than he was taken,
bound with cords and condu(5led into the presence of
Lamoni. It was the custom of the Lamanites to so use
every Nephite they captured, and it rested with the
whim of the king whether the captive be slain, impris-
oned or sent out of the countr^^ The king's will and
pleasure were the onl}- law on such matters.
Through God's grace, Amnion found favor in the
e^'es of Lamoni, and, learning that it was his desire to
reside amongst the Lamanites, the king offered him
one of his daughters to wife. Ammon courteously
declined this intended honor and begged to be accepted
as one of the king's servants, which arrangement
pleased Lamoni, and Ammon was placed in that part of
the royal household that had charge of the monarch's
flocks and herds.
A glance at Lamanite society may not here be out
126 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
of place. It would appear that in Lamoni's days the
will of the sovereign was the law of the land. The
king's power over the lives and propert}- of his subjedls
was unlimited. We read of no constitutions that pre-
scribed or limited his authority. The more degraded
portions of the race wandered in the vast wilderness,
dwelling in tents, and subsisting on what they stole or
killed in the chase. The more civilized Lamanites
resided in cities, were wealth}- in cattle, and followed the
occuptions general among semi-civilized races.
Lanioni was rich in flocks and herds, probabU'
the results of the taxation of the people, but even the
king's property was not secure from theft. Marauding
bands would watch for his numerous cattle as they
approached their watering places. Then with 3'ell
and prolonged shout they would stampede the herds
and drive away all they could beyond the reach of
the king's servants. These would gather up what
few animals, if any, they found, and return to the king
in the full expedlanc}^ of being made to pa}' for the loss
by the forfeit of their lives. They were seldom disap-
pointed, for Lamoni or some of his predecessors had
estabished a somewhat unique criminal code with
regard to stealing the royal cattle. They had adopted
the idea that it was easier and cheaper to make the
herdsmen responsible for the losses and punish them
therefor, than to hunt out and capture the tliieves.
It had at least one virtue, it prevented collusion between
the robbers and the servants; but it produced much
dissatisfa(5lion among Lamoni's subjects.
On the third day of Amnion's service, one of
these raids was made on the king's cattle as they were
being taken to the waters of Sebus, the common water-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 27
ing place. The cattle fled in all diredlions, and the
dispirited servants, with the fear of death before their
eyes, sat down and wept instead of attempting to stop
them. Amnion perceived that this was his opportnnit}'.
He first reasoned with the servants, then encouraged
them, and having sufficientl}- aroused their feelings, he
led them in the attempt to head off the flying herds.
With much exertion tlie}^ succeeded. The cattle were
all gathered, but the robbers still waited at the water-
ing place to renew the attack when they drew near
enough. Amnion perceiving this, placed the servants
at various points on the outside of the flocks and him-
self went forward to contend with the robbers. Though
the}' were many, he knew that he was more powerful
than them all, for God was with him. The idea of one
man withstanding so many was supremely ridiculous
to the robbers. But as one after another fell before his
unerring aim, they were astonished, and dreaded him
as something more than human. Enraged at the loss
of six of their number they rushed upon him in a body,
determined to crush him with their clubs. Amnion,
undaunted, drew his sword and awaited the onslaught.
Their leader fell dead at his feet, and as one after
another raised their clubs, Ammon struck off their
arms until none dared to approach him, but instead re-
treated afar off.
It was a strange procession that returned to the
palace. The fears of the herdsmen had been turned to
joy, and they marched in triumph into the presence of
the king, with the arms of the robbers as testimonies of
the truth of the story of Amnion's prowess. Doubt-
less the}' did not diminish the telling points in the
narrative; the numbers of the band, the courage and
128 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
strength of the Nephite, were each dilated upon with
the vividness of superstitions imagination. When the
king 'had heard their marvelous stor}^ his heart was
troubled, and he came to the conclusion that Amnion
must be the Great Spirit, of whose existence he had
an undefined idea. He trembled at the thought that
perhaps this Spirit had come to punish him because of
the number of his servants whom he had slain for per-
mitting his cattle to be stolen.
Notwithstanding his misgivings, Lamoni desired
to see Amnion, who, a(5ling as though nothing par-
ticular had happened, was preparing the king's horses
and chariots, as the servants had been direcfted. When
he entered the ro3'al presence, the king was too much
filled with emotion to speak to him. More than once
Amnion drew to the king's attention that he stood
before him, as he had been requested, and wished to
know what were his commands. But he elicited
no response. At last, perceiving the monarch's
thoughts, he began to question Lamoni regarding
sacred things, and afterwards to expound to him the
principles of life and salvation. Lamoni listened and
believed. He was conscience-stricken, and with all the
strength of his new-born faith, he humbly begged that
the Lord would shew that same mercy to him and to
his people that he had shewn to the Nephites. Over-
come with the intensity of his feelings he sank to the
earth as in a trance. In this state he was carried to
his wife, who with her children anxiously watched
over him for two days and two nights, awaiting his
return to consciousness. Tliere was great diversit}'
of opinion among his retainers as to what troubled the
king. Some said the power of the Great Spirit was
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORIMON. 1 29
upon him, others that an evil power possessed him, yet
others asserted that he was dead, and with remarkable
acuteness of smell affirmed. He stinketh. At the end of
this time they had resolved to lay him away in the
sepulchre, when the queen sent for Amnion and plead
with him in her husband's behalf. Amnion gave her
the jo3'ful assurance, He is not dead, but sleepeth in
God, and to-morrow he shall rise again. Then he
added, Believest thou this? She answered, I have no
witness, save thy word and the word of our servants,
nevertheless I believe it shall be according as thou hast
said. Then Amnion blessed her, and told her there
had not been such great faith among all the people of
the Nephites.
So the queen lovingly continued her watch b}' the
bed of her husband until the appointed hour. Lamoni
then arose, as Amnion had. foretold. His soul was filled
with heavenly joy. His first words were of praise to
God, his next were blessings on his faithful wife whose
faith he felt or knew. He testified to the coming of
the Redeemer, of whose greatness, glor}^, power and
merc}' he had learned while in the spirit. His body
was too weak for the realities of eternity that filled his
heart. Again he sank overpowered to the earth, and
the same spirit overcame his wife also. Amnion's
rejoicing heart swelled within him as he heard and wit-
nessed these things. He fell on his knees and poured
out his soul in praise and thanksgiving until he also
could not contain the brightness of the glor}^, the com-
pleteness of the joy that overwhelmed him. Uncon-
scious of all eartlih' things he sank beside the yoyrI pair.
The same spirit of unmeasured joy then fell upon all
present and with the same results. There was but
130 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
one exception, a Lamanitish waiting woman named
Abish, who many years before had been converted
to the Lord, but kept the secret in her own bosom.
She comprehended the why and wherefore of this
strange scene. She saw the workings of the Almighty
through which the untutored minds of the Lamanites
could be brought to an understanding of the plan of
salvation. From house to house she went, calling the
people to M'itness what had occurred in the palace. The}'
gathered at her call, but as might naturally be expedled
their impressions were ver}^ conflidling. Some said one
thing, some another; some argued for good, some for
evil ; to some, Amnion was a god, to others, a demon.
One man, who had had a brother slain at the waters of
Sebus, drew his sword and attempted to si a}' Amnion,
but was struck dead b}- an unseen power before he
could carry his rash intent into a6lioii. So fierce was
the contention, so angy grew the controvers}', that
Abish, fearing greater trouble, b}- an inspiration took
hold of the hand of the queen, who thereupon rose to
her feet. The queen's first thought was of her husband.
She took his hand and raised him up, and ere long all
who had been reposing in the spirit stood upon their
feet. The king, the queen, the servants, all rejoiced
with J03' unspeakable. They all bore testimony to
God's abundant love and goodness, and some declared
that holy angels had visited them. Still the contention
was not eiitirel}' appeased until Lainoni stood forth
and explained to them the divine mysteries of which
they were so ignorant. Many believed, others did not,
but Amnion had the indescribable happiness of shortly
after establishing a church to the Lord in the midst of
the people of the land of Ishmael. Ammun's humilit}-,
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. I3I
faith and patience were bringing forth their fruit; while
his soul gathered faith and strength in the fulfilment
of the promises of the great Jehovah in answer to the
pleadings of his faithful, loving father.
CHAPTER XX.
AMMON AND LAMONI START FOR THE LAND OF MIDDONI —
THEY MEET THE OLD KING— HIS RAGE AT SEEING
AMMON— HE ENDEAVoilS TO KILL HIS SON— AARON AND
HIS BRETHREN LIBERATED — A SKETCH OF THEIR
LABORS AND SUFFERINGS — THE CONVERSION OP
LAMONI'S FATHER AND HIS HOUSEHOLD.
"XXTHEN the church was satisfadloril}^ established in
the land of Ishmael, Lamoni arranged to pay a
visit to his father, the great king in the land of Nephi, to
whom he was desirous of introducing Amnion. How-
ever, the voice of the Lord warned his servant not to go,
but instead therof to proceed to' the land of Middoni,
where his brother Aaron and other missionaries were
suffering in prison. When Lamoni heard of Amnion's
intention, and the cause thereof, he decided to accom-
pany him. He felt that he could be of service in
delivering the prisoners, as Antiomno, the king of
Middoni, was one of his special friends, and likely to
grant any favor he might ask. They accordingly
started on their errand of mercy, but on their way were
surprised to meet Lamoni's father, who grew exceed-
ingly angry when he found Amnion in the conipau}^ of
132 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
liis son. All the hatred born and nnrtured of false
tradition boiled np in his breast. He listened impa-
tientl}' to Lamoni's stor}' of Amnion's visit and its
fruits, and when it was finished he broke out in a tor-
rent of abuse towards the Nephite "son of a liar," as
he ungraciously styled him, and ordered Lamoni to
sla}' him. Lamoni at once refused to become the mur-
derer of his most loved friend, whereupon the old
monarch, in the blind fur}' of his anger, turned upon
his own son, and would have killed him if Ammon
had not interposed. Little used to controversy, much
less to dire6l opposition, the king was not softened by
Amnion's interference. Savagely he turned upon him,
but youth, strength, dexterity, and above all the pro-
telling care of the Lord were with Amnion, and he
struck the king's sword arm so heavy a blow that it
fell useless at his side. Realizing he was now in the
power of the man he had so foulU' abused, he made
abundant promises, even to half his kingdom, if his
life were spared. This boon Amnion immediately
granted, asking 011I3' favors for Lamoni and his own
imprisoned brethren. The king, unused to such gen-
erosity and maiih' love, granted all his requests, and
when he proceeded on his journey his mind was filled
with refle6lions regarding Amnion's courage and great
love for his son. He was also troubled in his heart
concerning certain expressions of Ammon on do(5lrinal
points, which opened up ideas that were entirely new
to his mind.
Lamoni and Ammon continued their journey to
Middoni, where, by God's grace, they found favor in the
eyes of king Antiomiio, and by his commands the
prisoners were released from the horrors and inhuman-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 33
ities pradlised upon them. When Amnion met these
faithful brethren, he was greatly grieved because of
their naked, wounded, starved and wretched condition,
but when the}- were delivered the}^ enjoyed a season of
grateful joy, thanksgiving and mutual congratulation.
After this Amnion returned to the land of Ishmael to
continue his labors.
It appears that when Amnion and his brethren sep-
arated on the borders of the Ivamanites, Aaron took
his journe}' towards a land called Jerusalem, which
was situated near the waters of INIormon. Here the
Lamanites, the people of Amnion and others, had built
a great city to M'hich the}' gave the name of Jerusalem.
In this great city the people, man}' of whom were
Nephite apostates, were veiy wicked. The}- would not
listen to his teachings, so he left them and went to a
village called Ani-Anti. There he found Muloki,
Amniali and others preaching the word. But their
efforts were fruitless ; the people of this place would not
receive the truth, therefore they left them and went
over into the land IMiddoni. There the}' preached unto
many though but few believed in their words. Before
long the wicked raised a persecution, and some of the
brethren were cast into prison, whilst others fled into the
regions round about. In prison they were treated with
great cruelt}- ; they were bound with strong cords, which
cut into their flesh ; they were deprived of proper
food, drink and clothing, and otherwise suffered name-
less affli^lions. There they remained until the}^ were
released through the intercession of Amnion and
Lamoni.
Some time after Aaron and his fellow prisoners
were released, he, with some others, went to the land of
134 vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Nephi, or Lehi-Nephi, as it is sometimes called. They
there presented themselves before the old king who
was the father of Lamoni. When this monarch saw
them he was greatl}^ pleased, for his heart had been
touched by the words and condu6l of Amnion. At his
request Aaron explained to him many things relating
to the nature of God; for, though he recognized the
power and might of the Great Spirit, he was altogether
ignorant of things concerning the Deity.
Aaron by degrees explained to him the principles
of the everlasting gospel. He commenced with the
creation of man, shewed how Adam fell that man might
be, and how the plan of redemption through a Savior's
sufferings was devised before the world was, and how
man, by obedience to the gospel, would triumph over
death, hell, and the grave.
His words were gratefulU' received by the king,
who besought Aaron to teach him how he might obtain
this eternal life of which he spoke. Aaron instru(51:ed
him to bow down before the Lord in prayer, and then
in faith ask for the blessings he desired.
The aged king did so. He prostrated himself on
the ground and cried mightily, saj'ing, O God, Aaron
hath told me there is a God; and if there is a God, and
if thou art God, wilt thou make thyself known unto
me, and I will give away all my sins to know thee,
and that I may be raised from the dead, and be saved at
the last day. So great was his emotion, that when lie
had said these words, he was struck as if he were dead.
When the king thus fell his servants ran and told
the queen what had happened. She at once came into
the room where he lay, and seeing Aaron and his breth-
ren standing by she became very angry, as she sup-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 35
posed that they were the cause of the evil that had, in
her estimation, befallen her husband. She, without
hesitation, ordered the king's servants to take the
brethren and slay them ; but they dared not, for they
feared the power which was in Aaron. The queen
was also afraid, but she seemed to think that the best
wa}^ to get rid of the trouble was to destro}' those who
she fancied brought it. As the king's servants refused
to obey her command, she ordered them to go out into
the streets and call upon the people to come in and kill
Aaron and his companions.
When Aaron saw the temper of the queen, he feared
lest the multitude, in the hardness of their hearts,
would raise a great commotion, and be a cause of
hindering the work of God, which had so auspiciously
commenced with the king. Therefore he put forth his
hand and raised the monarch from the earth, and at
the same time said unto him. Stand. The king at once
received his strength and stood upon his feet, at the
sight of which the queen and her servants wondered
greath^ and were filled wdth fear.
Then the king began to explain to them what he
had learned with regard to God and the gospel, and
he spoke with such great power that his whole
household was converted. The multitude also that had
gathered at the call of the queen were pacified by his
words, and when he saw that their hearts were softened
he caused that Aaron and his brethern should teach
them the word of God.
CHAPTER XXI.
THE KING ISvSUES A PROCLAMATION — THE RESULTS OF THE
LABORS OF THE SONS OF MOSIAH— THE PEOPLE OF
ANTI-NEPHI-LEHI — THEY BURY THEIR WEAPONS OF
WAR — ARE MASSACRED BY THE THOUSAND — THEY
REMOVE TO THE TERRITORY OF THE NEPHITES, WHO
GIVE THEM THE LAND OF JERSHON.
A FTER THE king was converted he sent a procla-
mation tliroughont the land forbidding any and all
from persecuting Amnion and his fellow-missionaries,
giving them liberty to preach an^'where and every-
where that they desired. Our readers may be sure
that this privilege was not negle(5led. To use Amnion's
own words, the missionaries entered into their houses
and taught them ; they taught them in their temples
and synagogues, in the open streets and on the loft}-
hills. But often they were cast out, spit upon, smitten,
stoned, bound, cast into prison and made to sliffer all
manner of affliclions, from which the Lord, in his mere}',
delivered them and from which the king's proclamation
afterward protedled them. Nor was the result of their
labors trifling, but glorious in the saving of many thou-
sand souls ; for unto the Lord were converted the people
of the Lamanites who dwelt in the lands of Ishmael,
Middoni, Shilom and Shemlon, and in the cities of
Neplii, Lemuel and Shimnilon; and they became a
righteous, peaceful, God-serving people, and from faith-
ful obedience to his law they never fell away. But
the various bodies of Nephite apostates who dwelt
among the Lamanites universally reje(5led the gospel
message, with the exception of one single Amalekite,
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 37
and of what ultimately became of him we have no
record.
Histor}' often repeats itself, but we have no recol-
lection of any parallel to the events that followed this
marvelous conversion. The Lamanite people now
became two as distin(5l and separate bodies as they and
the Nephites had beforetimes been. But with this
strange complication, the apostate Nephites now occu-
pied the place and did the work of the natural Laman-
ites, while the true descendants of Laman and Lemuel
took the ground previously held by the righteous
Nephites. So clearly defined did . the division become
that the supreme ruler ( Lamoni's father ) , having turned
from the traditions, habits and customs of the Laman-
ites, was determined to also cast aside the old name.
If they were Lamanites in name alone they would cut
that weak cord which alone held them to the past, and be
as new in name as they were in feelings, hopes, loyalty
and religion. So, after advising with Amnion and his
fellow missionaries, he gave to his people the name of
Anti-Nephi-Lehies, and to his son, to whom he trans-
ferred the ro3'al power, that of Anti-Nephi-Lehi.
The renegade Amalekites, Amulonites and others
were not willing to be ruled by a Christian monarch.
They had rejected Christianit}' altogether, and would
not have it as the ruling power, either in Nephi or
Zarahemla. With the old sophistries and falsehoods
they raised a mutiny in the hearts of their associate
Lamanites and urged them on to rebellion against the
rightful king and his believing subje6ls. But the con-
verted Lamanites made no preparations to resist them;
they felt that in times past with unholy hands they
had spilt blood as water on the land; blood that the}'
138 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
could never atone for, but tlie}^ would do it no more.
Passive non-resistance for the future should be their
policy, but the blood of a fellow-being they would never
again shed, no matter how great the peril, how intense
the aggravation. As a witness of the completeness of
this resolve, they took their weapons of war and buried
them deep in the earth with an oath and covenant that
they would never dig them lip again. When the mad-
dened hosts of their embittered brethren rushed upon
them, the}^ came forth unarmed, bowed down before
their assailants, and submitted to their fate. \\'ith
them to live was Christ, to die was salvation. The
vengeful Nephite apostates led the inglorious charge
and shed most of the blood that flowed that da\', when
one thousand and five unresisting mart3'rs glorified the
Lamanite race b}^ the tribute of their lives to God and
the truth. A thousand ransomed souls, washed white
in the blood of the Lamb, that da}' entered the gates of
heaven to stand amongst the saviors on Alount Zion in
the great day of the redeemed. Nor was there J03"
alone in that bright world beyond, but on earth the
church was gladdened by fresh accessions to the cause.
When many of the aAual Lamanites witnessed the
great change that had taken place in their brethren,
that they would quietly, peacefully, joyously lay down
their lives, their consciences smote them; the}- sta^-ed
their hands, and rose in tumult against their Amalekite
leaders, and would no longer be the murderers of their
kin. The blood of the mart3'rs was indeed the seed of
the church, for there were more added to the fold of
Christ on that memorable daj' than those who passed
away to the presence of their God.
Foiled in tlicir attempt to destroy- the Anti-Nephi-
vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 39
Lehies (or Aniiiioiiites as we shall hereafter call them),
the bloodthirst}' Lamanites, led as usual by Nephite
apostates, made a sudden incursion into the land of
Zarahemla, and, in fulfilment of Alma's prophecies,
destroyed the great city of Ammonihah, of which we
shall say more hereafter, but met with most disastrous
defeat later on in the campaign. Still vowing ven-
geance thcA' returned to their own lands, and feeling that
the Ammonites were in S3anpathy with the Nephites,
they satisfied their hatred by again slaughtering many
of these unresisting people, who, as before, permitted
themselves to be slain without making the first effort at
defense. But Amnion and his brethren were not willing
to have the disciples continualh- harassed and eventuall}'
exterminated; thej^ judged that the Lord having so
thoroughly tried the faith of this devoted people, would
provide some way of escape.
Amnion counseled with the king and it was thought
it would be better to forsake their all so far as worldl}^
posessions were concerned, than to sacrifice their lives.
But first let them inquire of the Lord. Amnion did so
and the Lord said. Get this people out of this land,
that they perish not, for Satan has great hold of the
hearts of the Amalekites who do stir up the Laman-
ites to anger against their brethren to slay them ;
therefore get thee out of this land; and blessed are the
people of this generation for I will preserve them.
The word of the Lord thus received was jo3^fully
obeyed. The Ammonites gathered up their flocks and
their herds and departed into the wilderness that la}^
between the lands of Nephi and Zarahemla. There
they rested whilst Aiiimon and his brethren went for-
ward and treated with the Nephites in behalf of the
140 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
persecuted hosts they had left behind. The people, by
united voice, gladl}^ welcomed their co-religionists and
set apart the land of Jershon as their inheritance.
Thither the Ammonites with liapp}- feet repaired, and
there they dwelt until the breaking out of war made it
desirable that they should remove to the land of Melek,
and many thousands in after years emigrated to the
land north. Of their future history we shall speak,
from time to time, when it conne6ls with that of the
Nephites.
CHAPTER XXII.
REVIEW OF THE MISSION OF THE SONS OF MOSIAH — ITS
IMPORTANCE AND GREAT LENGTH — ITS RESULTS TO
BOTH RACES — THE DATES OF ITS LEADINCr OCCUR-
RENCES.
00 FAR as we can gather from the records, the great
mission of Amnion and his brethren to the Laman-
ites was productive of results new to the history- of the
Nephites. On many previous occasions dissenters from
the latter had gone over to the Lamanites, until that
nation consisted of a mixed race. But the Xephite
people appear to have been, almost without exception,
the literal descendants of the first founders of the mon-
archy, Nephi, Sam, Jacob, Joseph and Zoram, and of
the people of Zarahemla. But now a large body of
Lamanites was incorporated in the Xephite nation and
became partakers of the liberties accorded to all other
citizens. As the history of the two nations proceeds,
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 141
the original distiudlions of descent become less and less
observable, as defections from both people were con-
stantly occurring, so that in process of time a Nephite
was not so much a literal descendant of Lehi's greatest
son, as one who recognized the Nephite government, was
an observer of the law of Aloses and a believer in the
gospel ; while the Lamanite was he who dwelt in the
dominions of that people, rejeCled the law and the gos-
pel, and adopted the false traditions of that race.
The mission of Ammon and his brethren was not
onl}' important but it was of great length. They left
Zarahemla in the first year of the Judges (B. C. 91)
and returned in the fourteenth (B. C. 78). It seems
altogether probable that the conversion of king La-
moni took place in the first 3'ear of their ministry,
unless Ammon was detained in prison a lengthened
period before he was brought before the . king (for
which suggestion we find no warrant), as it was only
the third da}' of Ammon's servdce when his confliA
occurred with the cattle thieves at the waters of Sebus.
The conversion of Lamoni was the immediate result.
Yet we judge that the establishment and organization
of the church in the land of Ishmael was a work of
considerable time. We are strengthened in this opin-
ion by the account of the labors performed b}- Aaron
and others during this same period.
In the fifth year of the Nephite Judges (B. C. 87)
the Lamanites invaded Zarahemla and were disas-
trously defeated, about which time m'c suggest Aaron
and his fellows were confined in prison in the land of
Aliddoni, and the results of the war would measurably
account for the great cruelty with which the}^ were
treated by the exasperated Lamanites, as well as for
142 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
the ferocity of the old king when he found his son in
the compan}' of the hated Nephite. After the inci-
dents of that eventful meeting the king was not in a
frame of mind to go to war with the Nephites; the
generous words and magnanimous condu(5l of Amnion
had produced such a deep influence, that though not
3'et converted, his heart had experienced a great change.
Probabl}' a year or two passed before Aaron and his
fellow laborers brought him to a full knowledge of the
true plan of redemption. For these reasons we con-
sider the meeting of Lamoni and his father did not
take place earlier than B. C. 87. The old king's con-
version was followed b}^ the issuance of his proclama-
tion of protection and unqualified religious liberty to
the Nephite missionaries and to all his subjects; of
which proclamation Aaron and his co-laborers took the
fullest benefit by preaching from cit}' to cit\' throughout
the wide Lamanite territory, establishing churches and
ordaining officers therein. This labor occupied some
years. As the church grew the spirit of rebel-
lion developed amongst the unconverted, until they
declared open war against the king, and massacred their
gospel-believing brethren.
Immediately after the massacre of the 1005 Anti-
Nephi-Lehies the angry Lamanites broke out in war
with the Nephites, under the idea that the latter were
the cause of their internal troubles. They made a
sudden incursion into the land of Zarahemla and
destroyed the city of Ammonihah, which event took
place in the eleventh year of the Judges ( B. C. 81 ), and
after that they had many battles with the Nephites,
in which they were driven and slain. After their
return from this inglorious campaign thev wreaked
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 143
their vengeance on their unoffending brethren, and
again commenced to massacre them, which murders, we
suggest, took place during the thirteenth year of the
reign of the Judges ( B. C. 79), as in the year follow-
ing the whole of the believing Lamanites migrated to
the land of Jershon, as before narrated (B. C. 78).
These dates are simply suggestive as far as the his-
tory- of the mission is concerned, but those that relate
to the Nephites are distin6lly stated in the annals of
that people.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE DAYS OF THE JUDGES — THEIR NAMES AND REIGNS —
THE HERESY OF NEHOR — HE SLAYS GIDEON AND IS
EXECUTED — AMLICI'S REBELLION — THE BATTLE OF
AMNIHU— THE CONFLICT AT THE CROvSSING OF THE
SIDON— A THIRD BATTLE.
T^OR A period of about one hundred and twenty j-ears
succeeding the death of king Mosiah, the Nephite
commonwealth was governed b}^ judges. These were
chosen by the united voice of the people, as provided
in the constitution framed under Divine inspiration by
the last king, and acknowledged as the supreme -law of
the nation, through its unanimous acceptance as such,
by the entire people. At the end of this period the
republic was overthrown through the great wickedness
of all classes of the community, and the people divided
themselves into numerous independent tribes.
It is not a^luall}' certain that the Book of Mormon
144 vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
gives us the names of all the Nephite chief judges.
In the earlier portion of the annals of these times the
order of succession is plainh^ stated, but in the record
of later 3-ears the name of the judge is sometimes only
mentioned incidentally in the historic narrative. It is
therefore beyond our power to determine if there were,
or were not, others whose names have been omitted by
the sacred historians. The judges mentioned bv name
or description are twelve in number. Of these, five,
Pahoran II., Cezoram, Cezoram's son (whose name is
not given), Seezoram and Lachoneus II., were assassi-
nated; one, Pacumeni, was slain in battle with the
Lamanites; two. Alma and Nephi, were translated or
taken by the Lord; three, Nephihah, Pahoran I., and
Helaman, died a natural death, whilst of the manner of
the decease of one, Lachoneus I., we have no record.
They judged the Nephites in the following order: i
Alma ( the younger), from B. C. 91 to B. C. 83 ; 2 Nephi-
hah, from B.C. 83 to B. C. 68; 3 Pahoran I., from B. C.
68 to B. C. 53; 4 Pahoran II., from B. C. 52 to B. C.
52; 5 Pacumeni, from B. C. 52 to B. C. 51; 6 Helaman
(the younger), from B. C. 50 to B. C. 39; 7 Nephi,
from B. C. 39 to B. C. 30; 8 Cezoram, from B. C. 30 to
B. C. 26; 9 Cezoram's son, from B. C. 26 to B. C. 26;
10 Seezoram, B. C. — to B. C. 23; 11 Lachoneus L,
from — to — ; 12 Lachoneus II., from — to A. C. 30.
It is possible that some unnamed judge may have
ruled the Nephites for a short time after the murder
of Cezoram's son, and before Seezoram was chosen,
and still more probable that one or more rulers pre-
sided over the destinies of the nation between the
death of Seezoram and the election of Lachoneus I., as
there was a space of fifty-three years between the mur-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 45
der of Seezoraiii and that of Lachoneus II., who suc-
ceeded his father. Alma, the son of Alma, was the
first chief judge of the Nephite republic, having been
called to that high position before the death of king
Mosiah.
It was the first 3'ear of x\lma's reign. Could our
readers have taken a glimpse at the fair capital of the
Nephites at that time (B. C. 91), already- rich in the
awards of human industry, combined with the lavish
productions of nature in that much favored land, they
might have noticed in the principal street a portly, hand-
some man, manifesting in his carriage the evidences
of great bodily strength, combined with vanity, self-
sufiicienc}^ aud subtlet3\ They might have obser\^ed
that his raiment was made of the finest fabrics that
the looms of Zarahemla could produce, lavishly em-
broidered and ornamented with the labors of the
cunning workman in silk, in feathers and the precious
metals, whilst at his side hung a richh' decorated
sword. This man was no king, no governor, no general
of the armies of Israel ; he was simpl}^ Nehor, the suc-
cessful religious charlatan of the hour, to whom the
unstable listened and the weakminded flocked.
Nehor's teachings had at au}^ rate the interest of
novelty to the Nephites, yet some of his theories were
older than Idumea. They had been rejected in the
counsels of heaven before Lucifer, the Son of the ]\Iorn-
ing, fell. He would save all men in their sins and with
their sins; he abolished hell, established a paid order of
priests, and taught doctrines so liberal that ever}' man
could be a member of his church and yet continue to
gratify ever}' vice his nature inclined to. For this
liberality of dodlrine, Nehor expelled in return liber-
146 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
ality of support for himself and assistants, in which
anticipation he was not disappointed. Many adopted
his heresies; his success fired his zeal, and developed
his vanity. He was so used to the sycophancy of his
converts that he was restive under contradi6lion, and
when Gideon, the aged patriot, and teacher in the true
church, one day met him in the streets of Zarahemla
and upbraided him for his wicked course, neither
respecting his great age nor his man}^ virtues, Nehor
drew his sword and smote him till he died. For this
Avilful and unprovoked crime, the murderer was tried,
convi6led, and afterwards executed. His execution
took place on the hill Alanti, and, from the way in
which his death is spoken of, we imagine that he was
hanged.
Though Nehor's shameful life was thus ended,
iinfortunatel}^ his do(5lrine did not die with him. It
was too pleasant to those who desired to gain heaven
by a life of sin. Consequently it spread widely through
the teachings of his followers. In later years the trai-
torous Amlicites, the apostate Amalekites, the blood-
thirst}^ Amulonites and Ammonihahites, were all
believers in his soul-destroying do6lrines. The blood
shed, the miser}^ produced, the treasure expended
through the wickedness and folly of these base crea-
tures, cannot be computed.
The increase of these false teachers among the
Nephites rapidly developed class distinctions and social
divisions; their adherents being generally gathered
from amongst those who loved the vain things of the
world. Naturall}' the}- became proud and overbearing,
and bitter in their feelings towards the members of the
true Church of Christ. Manv of the latter received
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 47
severe persecution at the hands of the dissenters, and
bore it without retaliation, while others returned insult
for insult, and gave blow for blow.
The example of these self-appointed teachers pro-
duced a like spirit throughout their churches, and their
members became idle and full of devices to enable them
to live M'ithout honest toil. The}' gave way to sorcery
and idolatry, to robber}' and murder, and to all manner
of wickedness, for which offenses they were duh-
punished according to the law, whenever convi6lion
could be obtained, and when the intent of the law was
not thwarted b}- their unholy combinations. This
development of priestcraft also gave rise to another
evil. Many belonging to the apostate churches, though
not willing to openlj' plunder or murder for gain, were
anxious for a monarch}- to be established, that thereby
they might be appointed office holders, etc., and fatten
at the public crib. Their hope and intention was to
destroy the Church of God, and, undoubtedly, to despoil
its members.
In the fifth year of the Judges, a willing instru-
ment arose to effect their purpose. His name was
Amlici; a follower of Nehor, corrupt and ambitious, but
cunning in the wisdom of the world. He was chosen
by the enemies of the commonwealth to be the king
of the Nephites. The whole question was brought
before the people at a general eledlion, as provided by
the code of Mosiah. The monarchists were outvoted;
the republic and the church were saved.
This should have ended the matter, but it did not;
the turbulent minority, incited by Amlici, would not
accept this constitutional decision. They assembled
and crowned their favorite as king of the Nephites,
148 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and he at once began to prepare for war, that he might
force the rest of the people to accept his government.
Nor was Alma idle; he also made read}- for the impend-
ing contest. He gathered his people and armed them
with all the weapons known to Nephite warfare. The
two armies of those who so short a time before were
brethren, met near a hill called Amnihn, on the east
bank of the river Sidon. There a bloody battle followed,
in which Amlici's forces were disastronsl}^ defeated
with a loss of 12,532 men, whilst the victors had to
monrn the loss of 6,562 warriors slain.
After pnrsning the defeated monarchists as far as
he was able. Alma rested his troops in the valle}- of
Gideon (named after the martyr slain b}' Nehor). He
there took the precantion to send ont fonr officers with
their companies to watch the movements and learn the
intentions of the retreating foe. These officers were
named Zeram, Amnor, Manti and Limher. On the
morrow these scouts returned in great haste, and
reported that the Amlicites had joined a vast host of
Lamanites in the land oMinon, where unitedly they
were sla3dng the Nephite population and ravaging their
possessions; at the same time the}^ were pushing rapid!}-
towards the Nephite capital with the intent of captur-
ing it before Alma's army could return. Alma at once
headed his troops for Zarahemla, and with all haste
marched towards it. He reached the crossing of the
Sidon without meeting the enemy, but while attempt-
ing to pass to the western bank he was confronted by
the allied armies.
A terrible battle ensued; the Nephites were taken
somewhat at a disadvantage, but being men of faith,
they fervently sought heaven's aid, and in the increased
STORY OF THE BOOK OF M0R:M0X. 149
fervor this faith inspired, they advanced to the combat.
With Alma at their head, the advanced guard forded
the river and broke upon the enemy who stood await-
ing them. By the fnry of their charge they drove in
the ranks of the eneni}', and as they pnshed onward
they cleared the gronnd by throwing the bodies of their
fallen foes into the Sidon, thns making an opening for
the main body to obtain a foothold. In this charge
Alma met Anilici face to face, and they fonght des-
perately. In the midst of this hand to hand combat,
Alma lifted his heart on high, and prayed for renewed
strength that he might not be overpowered, but live to
do more good to his people. His prayers were answered,
and thereb}' he gained new vigor to battle with and
eventuall}' slay Amlici. Amlici slain. Alma led the
attack to where the king of the Lamanites fought.
But that monarch retired before the impetuous" valor of
the high priest, and commanded his guards to close in
upon his assailant. The order was promptl}^ obeyed,
but it did not succeed. Alma and his guards bore
down upon them with such fury that the few of the
monarch's w^arriors who escaped made a hasty retreat.
Pushing steadil}^ on, Alma kept driving the allies before
him, until his w^hole army had crossed the Sidon.
There the enemy, no longer able to meet his well
ordered advance, broke in all diredlions, and retreated
into the wilderness that la}- to the north . and west.
They were hotly pursued b}^ the Nephites as long as
the latter's strength permitted, and were met on all
quarters by patriots rallying to the call of the com-
monwealth, who slew them by thousands. A remnant
eventually reached that part of the wilderness known
as Hermounts. There manv died and were devoured
150 vSTORY OF THK BOOK OK MORMO'
\vn,i)i-;RNKss OK iii;km<hxi>
by the wild beasts and vultures with which that region
abounded.
A few days after this decisive battle, another invad-
ing Lanianite army appeared. This one advanced
along the east bank of the Sidon. xA-lnia, having been
wounded, sent one of his officers, who met the hosts of
the Lamanites, and drove them back to their own lands.
CHAPTER XXIV.
AIvMA RESIGNS THE CHIEF JUDGESHIP — NEPHIHAH CHOvSEN
— ALMA MINISTERS IN ZARAHEMLA, GIDEON, MELEK
AND AMMONIH AH — CONDITION OF THE LAST NAMED
CITY — IT REJECTS THE MESSAGE ALMA BEARS — AN
ANGEL MEETS HIM — AMULEK— THE LAWYER ZEEZROM—
THE GREAT CONTROVERSY — ZEEZROM CONVERTED AND
CAvST OUT— THE MARTYRDOM OF THE RELIEVERS-
ALMA AND AMULEK IN PRISON— THEIR DELIVERANCE.
^HE GREAT losses sustained by the Nephites in
war, not of warriors alone, but of women and
children, together with the vast amount of their property
destroyed, had the effe6l of humbling them and soften-
ing their wayward hearts, so that many thousands,
during the next few 3-ears, were added to the church
by baptism. But the recolledlion of their former dis-
asters was gradually worn away by time and prosperit}^
Three 3'ears later we find great inequality in the
church — some poor and some rich, the more powerful
abusing and oppressing their weaker brethren. This
course proved a great stumbling-block to those who
were not numbered with the church, as well as being
the cause of much sorrow and ill-feeling amongst its
members. Finding that no one man could properly
attend to the duties of his many offices. Alma deter-
mined to resign his chief judgeship, and devote his en-
tire time to his duties as the earthly head of the church.
Preparatory to this resignation, he sele(5led one of the
leading elders, named Nephihah, to be his successor as
chief judge. This choice was confirmed by the people.
(B.C. 83.)
Alma now gave his entire attention to the duties
152 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
of his calling as a preacher of righteousness. He
commenced his labors in Zarahemla. Thence he went
to the cit}^ of Gideon. After ministering there for
some time, he returned for rest to his home in the capi-
tal city.
The next year (B. C. 82), Alma turned his face
westward. He visited the land of Melek, where his
labors were crowned with abundant blessings. Hav-
ing satisfied himself with the good that he had accom-
plished, he traveled three days' journey on the north
of the land of Melek, to a great and corrupt city called
Ammonihah. There he found a godless people, filled
with the falsehoods of Nehor, and committing all
manner of abominations without repentance, because
they cherished the flattering lie, as the foundation of
their creed, that all men would be saved. This cit}'-
was in the hands of a corrupt clique of judges and
lawyers, Avho stirred up sedition, tumult and rioting,
that they might make money out of the suits that fol-
lowed such disturbances. Further than this, they were
secretly plotting to overthrow the government, and rob
the people of their highly prized liberties. Among
such a people Alma labored in vain; none would
listen, none w^ould obey, none ofi'ered him rest and food.
Scorn and mockery were his reward; and he was spat
upon, maltreated and cast out of the city.
Weary in bod}- and sick at heart because of the
iniquity of the people, after many fruitless efforts, fer-
vent prayers and long fastings, Alma sought some
other people more worth}^ of salvation's priceless gifts.
He bent his way towards the city of Aaron; but as he
journeyed, an angel of the Lord (that same angel that
beforetime had been the agent in his conversion to God)
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 153
Stood before him and blessed him. He told him to lift
up his heart and rejoice, for because of his faithfulness
he had great cause to do so. The angel then dire6led
Alma to return to the sin-cursed city he had just left,
and proclaim unto its citizens the awful message that
except the}' repented the Lord would destroy them.
Speedily the prophet obeyed the angel's words.
By another road he drew near the doomed city, which
he entered by its south gate. As he passed in he
hungered, and asked a man whom he met, Will ye give
to an humble servant of God something to eat? With
jo}' the man ( and, strange though it appear, he was
a rich man ) took him to his home and fed, clothed and
lodged him. Furthermore, Amulek, for such was his
name, told Alma that he also had received a visit from a
holy angel who had informed him of the high priest's
coming, and dire6led him to receive him into his house.
Then Alma blessed Amulek and all his household, and
tarried with him and recruited his strength under the
generous hospitality which Amulek's home afforded.
But his rest was not to be a lengthened one; the people
waxed stronger in sin ; the cup of their iniquity was
nearly full. Go, came the word of the Lord, Go forth,
and take with thee m^^ servant Amulek, and prophesy
unto this people, saying, Repent ye, for thus saith the
Lord, Except ye repent, I will visit this people in mine
anger; yea, I will not turn ni}^ fierce anger away. Filled
with the Holy Ghost, these servants of God went forth
and valiantl}' delivered their terrible message.
One of those who most bitterly opposed Alma and
Amulek was a lawyer named Zeezrom. We find re-
corded at great length, in the Book of Mormon, the
details of the controversy that occurred between him
154 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and the two servants of the Lord. As a result we
have handed down to us some of the plainest teachings
regarding the atonement, the resurredlion, the powers of
the priesthood, etc., that are had among mankind. No
matter what Alma and his companion said, Zeezrom
could tM-ist it from its proper meaning; find blasphemy
and heresy in the sublime truths of the gospel, and
extract treason from the simplest of God's laws. He
questioned and cross-questioned, he promised and threat-
ened, he twisted and turned, he abused and villified, but
all to no purpose, he was caught in his own trap. His
heaven-inspired opponents made manifest his thoughts
and intentions, thej^ exposed his h'ing, the}- overthrew
his sophistries and, with a power more than human,
they exhibited the blackness of his heart. As the}' pro-
ceeded the power of God increased upon them, their
words grew yet more forcible until Zeezrom himself
felt their power. As his corruptions were laid bare he
began to tremble, first with rage, then with fear. Bad
as he was, he was not the worst among that people, and
when once he realized the power he was combatting, his
heart began to acknowledge its guilt.
With this feeling he commenced to inquire of Alma,
not in mockery, but in solemn earnestness with regard
to the kingdom of God. The answers he received were
like a two edged sword, piercing to his inmost soul,
bringing to him a terrible sense of his awful position
before God, and encouipassing him about with the pains
of hell. He realized that he had been a leader in
iniquity, that his lyings and deceivings had greatl}- con-
tributed to drag the people down to their existing corrup-
tion, and that he was among those most responsible
for their hardness of heart.
vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 55
In this frame of mind he made an effort to plead
with the people; he acknowledged his guilt, testified
to the virtue and integrity of Alma and Amulek and
interceded in their behalf. But in vain. The degraded
populace reviled him, the}^ mocked at him, they said he
was possessed of a devil, and further, they spat on him;
then thej^ cast stones at him, and ultimately, with some
others, drove him out of their city; while the two
prophets, with many who believed in their holy message,
Avere thrown into prison, there to suffer all the indigni-
ties, persecutions and annoyances that apostate hate
could inflict. Nor was this the worst; these reprobates
took the wives and babes of those believers whom they
had driven away, with such as had accepted the truth
who still remained in the city, and, gathering them in
one body they mercilessly burned them to death in one
great martyrs' fire. Into the torturing flames they
also cast the records that contained the holy scriptures,
as though, in their blind fury, they imagined that the}'
could tliereb}' destroy the truths that were so odious to
them.
In their devilish glee and savage exultation they
next carried the two enchained prophets to the place of
sacrifice, that they might harrow up their souls with
a view of the sufferings of the perishing women
and children. Amulek's brave and impetuous spirit
could ill bear the fearful scene. The groans, cries
and supplications of the tortured innocents carried un-
told agon}' to his soul. He begged Alma to exercise
the power of God that was in them to save the martyrs.
But the Holy Spirit revealed to Alma that this sacri-
fice was by heaven's consent, and he replied, The
Spirit constraineth me that I must not stretch forth
[56 STORY OF THP: BOOK OF MORMON.
mine hand, for behold the Lord receiveth them up unto
himself in glor}^ ; and he doth suffer that the people
may do this thing, according to the hardness of their
hearts, that the judgments which he shall exercise
upon them in his wrath may be just; and the blood of
the innocent shall stand as a witness against them, yea,
and cr}' mightily against them at the last day. Then
Amulek said. Perhaps they will burn .us also. To
which Alma responded, Be it according to the will of
the Lord. But, behold, our work is not finished; there-
fore the}' burn us not.
When the fire had burned low, and the precious
fuel of human bodies and sacred records was consumed,
the chief judge of the cit}- came to the two prisoners
as the}^ stood bound, and mocked them. He smote
them on the cheek, and jeeringl}- asked them if they
would preach again that his people should be cast into a
lake of fire and brimstone, seeing that they had no power
to save those who had been burned, neither had God
exercised his power in their behalf. But neither
answered him a word. Then he smote them again and
remanded them to prison.
After the}' had been confined three days, they
were visited b}- man}- judges and lawyers, priests and
teachers, after the order of Nehor, who came to exult
in the misery of their prisoners. They questioned and
badgered them, but neither would reply. They came
again the next day, and went through the same per-
formance. They mocked at, smote and spat upon the
two disciples. The}' tantalized them with blasphemous
questions, such as the nature of their peculiar faith
inspired. How shall we look when we arc dammed?
sneeringly asked these unbelievers in daiiiiiatiou.
■OBTI^
■^)
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 59
Patiently and silently all this was borne. Day
after day was it repeated. Harder and harder grew the
hearts of the Animonihahites towards their prisoners.
Fiercer and stronger grew their hatred. They stripped
Alma and Amulek of their clothes, and, when naked,
bound them with strong ropes. They withheld food
and drink from them, and in various ways they tortured
their bodies, and sought to aggravate and tantalize
them and harrow up their minds. On the 12th day of
the tenth month of the tenth year of the Judges (B. C.
82), the chief judge with his followers again w^ent to the
prison. According to his usual custom he smote the
brethren, saying as he did so, If ye have the power of
God, deliver yourselves from these bonds, and then
we will believe that the Lord will destroy this people
according to your words. This impious challenge the
crowd one by one repeated as the}' passed b}- the proph-
ets, and smote them in imitation of their leader. Thus
each individual assumed the responsibilit}- of the
defiance cast at the Almighty, and virtually said, Our
blood be upon our own heads.
The hour of God's power had now come — the
challenge had been accepted. The prophets, in the
majesty of their calling, rose to their feet. They
were endowed with the strength of Jehovah. Like
burnt thread the cords that bound them were snapped
asunder and they stood free and unshackled before the
terror-stricken crowd. To rush from the prison was the
first impulse of the God-defying followers of Nehor.
In their fear some fell to the earth, others, impelled by
the crowd behind, stumbled and fell over their pros-
trate bodies, until the}- became one confused mass,
blocking each other's way; struggling, j-elling, cursing,
i6o
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
pleading, fighting; franticall}-, but vainl}-, endeavoring
to reach the outer gate.
At this moment of supreme horror an earthquake
rent the prison walls. They trembled, then tottered,
then fell on the struggling mass of humanit}- below,
bur3'ing in one vast unconsecrated grave rulers and
judges, lawj^ers and officers, priests and teachers. Not
one was left alive of all the impious mob who a few
moments before defied heaven and challenged Jehovah's
might. But Alma and Amulek stood in the midst of
the ruins unhurt. Straightwa}- they left this scene of
desolation and went into the city. When the people
saw the two servants of God, great fear fell upon them,
and the}' fled, as a goat fleeth with her young from two
lions.
Alma and Amulek were then ordered to leave the
city. This they did, and went to the neighboring town
of Sidom. There they found those who had been cast
out of Ammonihah, and in grief and sorrow they
related the stor\' of the burning of the wives and child-
ren of the fugitives, and also the history of their own
miraculous deliverance.
sff5*.-«-sr5<k..-'-*^=*<r
' .1
CHAPTER XXV.
ZEEZROM vSICK WITH FEVER — HIS MIRACULOUvS RECOVERY —
THE DESTRUCTION OF AMMONIHAH — THE INVASION OF
THE LAND OF NOAH — ZORAM, THE NEPHITE COMMAN-
DER, vSEEKS THE MIND OF THE LORD — IT IS GIVEN,
ITS RESULTS — THE WAR ENDED — ALMA'S MINLSTRA-
TIONS.
^\^'rHILB the fearful tragedy that we have just
related was being enadled in Ammonihah, Zeez-
rom — trembling, heart-sick and faint — wandered with
the others to Sidom. The horrors of the damned took
hold of him, until his body succumbed to the agon\' of
his mind. He was scorched with a burning fever, which
continually increased until the glad tidings reached his
ears that Alma and Amulek were safe ; for he had feared
that through his iniquities they had been slain. No
sooner did they reach Sidom than he sent for them, as
his heart then began to take courage. They did not
hesitate, but at once proceeded to where he lay. When
the}' entered his presence, he stretched forth his hands
and besought them to heal him. Alma questioned him
regarding his faith in Christ, and finding that the good
seed planted in his bosom had brought forth fruit, this
mighty high priest cried unto the Lord, O Lord our God,
have merc}^ on this man, and heal him according to his
faith which is in Christ. When Alma had said these
words, Zeezrom leaped upon his feet and walked, to the
great astonishment of all who witnessed it. Alma then
baptized the repentant lawyer, who began from that
time forth to preach the glorious message of eternal
, salvation. His energ}-, wisdom, learning and talents
164 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
were now used towards the upbuilding of the kingdom
of God, with as much zeal as he had before labored for
corruptible riches and worldly fame, for Zeezrom was a
whole-souled, courageous man; he did nothing b}'
halves — when he served the devil, he was a profitable
servant; when he turned to God, he did it with all his
heart. From this time Zeezrom became a preacher of
righteousness, laboring under the dire(5lion of Alma,
and we next hear of him ministering with Amulek to
the people in the land of Melek.
Next 3^ear Ammonihah was destroyed. Less than
four months had elapsed since the two inspired follow-
ers of the Lamb had left it to its fate, when the Laman-
ites fell upon it like a whirlwind in its suddenness, and
as an avalanche in its utter desolation. The dark
skinned warriors of Laman swept over these murderers
of the saints like a tempest of fire, leaving neither
young nor old, babe nor grandsire, to repeat the story
of their woes. Not one of Ammonihah' s boasting
children was left to def}^ heaven.
Nor was the city spared; it, also, was given to the
destroyer, and its palaces and temples, its homes and its
workshops, were consumed by the devouring fire. For
one day the fierce flames consumed the walls and towers
of Ammonihah, Their light illumined the lurid sky,
shone on the distant mountain tops, and lit the neigh-
boring valleys. Then an uninhabitable desolation,
stinking with the rotting carcass of man and beast,
only remained to mark the place where Ammonihah
once stood. As the Desolation of Nehors, it was known
and avoided by the Nephitcs for many succeeding years.
Emboldened by this signal triumph, the Lamanites
entered the borders of the neighboring land of Noah.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 65
There they continued their depradations, canying off
many Nephite captives into the wilderness. At this
juncture Zoram and his two sons (Lehi and Aha),
rallied the Nephite forces, in the hope of intercepting
the Lanianite armies in their return to the land of
Nephi, and of delivering the captives.
Before starting on their march Zoram determined to
inquire of the Lord. He and his sons knew that Alma
was a prophet and revelator to the nation. Wisely
they went first to him and inquired if it was the Lord's
will that the\' should advance into the wilderness in
search of their captive brethren.
Alma laid the matter before the Lord. The divine
answer came: Behold the Lamanites will cross the
river Sidon in the south wilderness, away up beyond
the borders of the land of Manti. And behold there
shall ye meet them, on the east of the river Sidon,
and there the Lord will deliver unto thee thy breth-
ren who have been taken captive by the Lamanites.
Obedient to these plain instru6lions, Zoram and
his sons crossed over the river Sidon with their armies,
and marched southward beyond the borders of the land
of Manti, into that portion of the great southern wil-
derness which la}' east of the river Sidon. There they
came upon the enemy, as the word of the Lord had
declared, and there they joined in battle. The Laman-
ites were defeated, scattered and driven into the wil-
derness, and the Nephite captives were delivered.
Great was the joy in the land of Zarahemla when it
was found that not one Nephite had been lost of all
those taken prisoners; but every one, great and small,
had escaped the horrors of slavery in the hands of the
Lamanites, and the}- all returned in peace to possess
1 66 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
their own lands. Here we have a most happy result of
seeking the word of the Lord and then faithfully car-
rying out his instru(5lions.
Again there was peace throughout the land, and
the name of Zoram is no more mentioned in the sacred
record.
During this period of peace, Alma and his fellow-
priesthood preached God's holy word in the power and
demonstration of the Spirit, and with much success.
Great prosperity came to the church throughout all the
lands of the Nephites. At this happj^ time there was
no inequality among them ; the Lord poured out his
Spirit on all the face of the land, as Alma supposed to
prepare the hearts of his people for the coming of
Christ. Like many others of the ancient prophets, he
ante dated that glorious appearing. He little knew
of the wars and contentions, the apostacies and dissen-
tions, the spiritual tribulation and material commotion
that would precede that blessed da3\ But with this
prospe6l full in view, he labored and rejoiced, preached,
blessed and prophesied, never tiring in his energies,
and feeling sorrowful only because of the hard-heart-
edness and spiritual blindness of some of the people.
In one most glorious event. Alma had unspeakable
joy. His youthful companions, the sons of king
JMosiah, returned from their fourteen ^-ears' mission
amongst the Lamanites, during which time, after man}'
sore trials and great tribulation, they, by the grace of
the Father, had brought nuiny thousands of that
benighted race to a knowledge of the principles of the
everlasting gospel.
Alma was traveling soiitli on one of his missionary
journeys from the land of Zarahemla to the laud of
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 167
Manti, when he met Amnion and his brethren coming-
from the land of Nephi, On hearing the story of the
mission, he at once returned home with them to Zara-
hemla. There the condition of affairs amongst the
Lamanites was rehearsed to the chief judge, who laid
the whole subje6l before the people, so that whatever
was done in relation to the Christian Lamanites might
be done by common consent. The Nephites decided
to give the land of Jershon to these people for an
inheritance. With this cheering news Amnion, accom-
panied b}' Alma, returned into the southern wilderness,
to the place where his people were awaiting the
decision of the Nephites. There the Ammonites were
ministered to and comforted by Alma and others, after
which they resumed their march to the land set apart
for their future abode. There, however, we shall find,
as we proceed with our story, they remained but a few
years.
CHAPTER XXVI.
KORIHOR, THE ANTI-CHRIST —HIS FALSE TEACHINGS AND
BLASPHEMY — HE IS TAKEN BEFORE ALMA — IS STRUCK
DUINIB- HIS ^MISERABLE END— THE HERESY ROOTED OUT.
^HE NEXT notable event in the history of the
Nephites was the appearance of Korihor, the anti-
Christ. (B. C. 75.)
The dodlrines advocated by Korihor were of a kind
that would gain ready adhesion from those who did not
fervently love purity, truth and righteousness, as they
1 68 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
flattered their vanity and gave them liberty to follow
the lead of their passions without fear of the judg-
ment or condemnation of a Divine Being, • Spiritually
he was a Nihilist. He denied the coming of the Mes-
siah, he ridiculed prophec}' and revelation, and asserted
that it was impossible for men to know the future. He
inveighed against the atonement of the Redeemer as a
foolish superstition, and taught, instead of the unchang-
ing truths of the everlasting gospel, the theorv that
every man fared in this life according to the man-
agement of the creature, that e\'ery man prospered
according to his genius, and conquered according to his
strength. Further, he announced that whatsoever a
man did was no crime, for that when a man was dead,
there was an end thereof.
It is almost needless to say that those who accepted
such dogmas gave way to all manner of evil doing.
They became overbearing to others, exceedinglv keen in
business transa6lions, were full of covetousness, duplic-
ity and lasciviousness, and indulged in various wanton
pleasures. Their motto might be said to have been.
Let us eat, drink and be merry, for to-morrow we die;
and what we do here will not be brouo-ht aq:ainst us
hereafter.
Korihor also gained a strong hold anu)ng the dis-
contented, for such are ever found where universal
perfection does not dwell. He railed at the holy priest-
hood with fierce words of falsehood. He charged that
they sought to keep the people down, that they encour-
aged ignorance in the masses, that the}' bound their
minds with foolish traditions; all this, and much more,
that they might usurp power and authority, and glut
themselves with the results of their vidlims' daily toil.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 69
In Alma's answer to this charge we have a pleas-
ing insight into his private life. He said: Thou
knowest that we do not glut ourselves upon the labors
of this people, for behold, I have labored even from the
commencement of the reign of the Judges until now,
with mine own hands, for my support, notwithstanding
m\' many travels round about the land to declare the
word of God unto my people; and notwithstanding the
man}'- labors I have performed in the church, I have
not so much as received even one senine for my labor;
neither has any of my brethren, save it were in the
judgement seat, and then we have received only accord-
ing to law for our time.
As a propagandist, Korihor, for a short time, was a
success. We first hear of him preaching his satanic
do6lrines in the land of Zarahemla, and as he claimed
to fully believe all he taught, the law could not touch
him, as full religious liberty was guaranteed under the
constitution and laws of the Nephite commonwealth.
From Zarahemla he went to the land of Jershon to
inoculate the i\mmonites with his soul-destroying
vagaries. But they were a wiser and more zealous
people for the gospel than were mau}^ of the Nephites.
They took him, bound him, and carried him before
Amnion (son of king Mosiah), their high priest. He
dire(5led that Korihor should be removed beyond the
border of their land, which command having been
obeyed, we next find the unabashed impostor laboring
amongst the people of the land of Gideon. There he
also met with rebuffs. He was arrested b}' the people
and taken before the chief officers in that land. They
found they could do nothing that would be satisfactory
with him, so thev remanded him into the custodv of
170 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
the proper officers, with instru6lions to carry him
before Alma and Nephihah, in Zarahemla.
When brought before these worthies^the highest
dignataries of the church and state — Korihor con-
tinued in his course of loud mouthed blasphemy, defi-
ant assumption, and wilful falsehood.
He argued against the existence of the Father
and the coming of his Only Begotten. Alma accused
him of arguing against his convictions, but this he
stoutly denied, and clamored for a sign to be given, as
he pretended, that he might be convinced. Alma at
length, wearied b}- his impious importunities, told him
that God, as a sign, would smite him dumb. This ter-
rible warning, though it caused the pretender some
uneasiness, only resulted in an attempt at prevarica-
tion on his part. He said: I do not deny the existence
of a God, but I do not believe there is a God; and I
sav also, that ye do not know that there is a God; and
except ye show me a sign I will not believe. Then
Alma answered: This will I give unto thee for a sign,
that thou shalt be struck dumb according to mj- words;
and I sa}' that, in the name of God, 3'e shall be struck
dumb, that ye shall no more have utterance.
Korihor received his sign; Alma's words were ful-
filled; the sign-seeker never more spoke on earth.
When the hand of the Lord fell on him he recanted.
By writing, as he could not speak, he confessed the
power of God, and acknowledged that he had been led
astray by Satan, who had come to him in the form of
an angel of light. He begged that the curse might be
removed, but Alma, well knowing the baseness of his
heart, refused to intercede before heaven in liis behalf,
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 17I
lest when restored to speech he would again strive to
deceive the people.
And it came to pass that the curse was not taken
off Korihor; but he was cast out, and went about
from house to house begging for his food.
A proclamation was next sent throughout all the
land. In it the chief judge recited what had happened
to Korihor, and called upon those who had believed in
his words to speedily repent, lest the same judgments
should come upon them.
This proclamation put an end to the iniquity of
Korihor, for his followers were all brought back again
to the truth. But Korihor, deserted by the devil, a
vagabond and a beggar, still continued to beg his way
from town to town, from house to house; until, one
day, in a city of the Zoramites, he was run over and
trodden down. The injuries that he received at this
time were so great that he soon after died.
CHAPTER XXVII.
ZORAM AND THE ZORAMITES— THEIR PECULIAR HERESY—
THE LAND OF ANTIONUM — THE RAMEUMPTOM— ALMA'S
MISSION TO THESE PEOPLE— THOSE WHO RECEIVE HIS
TEACHINGS PERSECUTED— THEY FLEE TO JERvSHON.
TN OUR last chapter we stated that Korihor, the
anti-Christ, was killed in a city of the Zoramites.
Who was Zoram ? and who were the Zoramites ? are the
questions that now present themselves.
There are two distinct classes of people called
Zoramites in the Book of Mormon. The first, the
172 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
descendants of Zoram, the servant of Laban, who
accompanied Nephi from Jernsalem. The second were
the followers of the apostate Zoram, whose defeclion
and treason cansed so much trouble and bloodshed in
the Nephite republic.
Of the last named Zoram and his individual life
we have no history. We only know him through his
pernicious teachings, and the sad results thereof. But
it is altogether probable that before he started out as a
religious reformer on his own account, he was a fol-
lower of Nehor, as the majority of his adherents appear
to have been gathered from that sedl and to have
belonged to that order.
Zoram assembled his people in a region of the
South American continent, at that time but ver}' thinly
settled by the Nephites. It was called the land of
Antionum, and la}'^ to the east of the river Sidon, while
it stretched from the land of Jershon in the north, to
the great wilderness south, which was infested with the
more savage, wandering Lamanites. To this broad
land the Zoramites gathered, and there built their- cities,
ere6led their synagogues, and grew in material wealth;
until, in the year B. C. 75, they had became an impor-
tant, though undesirable portion of the Nephite com-
monwealth. As friends they were unreliable, as ene-
mies formidable.
In the various apostasies, partial or total, that from
time to time disgraced the Nephites, there is one char-
adleristic feature that seems universal to them all, how-
ever much they may have differed on minor points. It
was the denial of the coming of the Savior in the flesh,,
and of the necessity of His atonement for the sins of
the world. This was the evil one's strong point in his
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 73
efforts to mislead the ancient Nephites. Let him but
persuade any people to reje(5l this, the foundation of the
gospel scheme, and little he cares what else they believe
or disbelieve; for when this fundamental truth is
reje6led their spiritual enslavement is secured.
This was the case with the Zoramites. The}^
claimed to be a chosen and a holy people, separate from
their fellowmen, and eledled of God to eternal salva-
tion, while all around were predestined to be cast down
to hell. This atrocious creed naturally resulted in its
adherents and advocates being puffed up in vanity and
consumed with pride. They became haughty, unchar-
itable and tyrannical, and oppressors of their poorer
neighbors. Thc}^ covered their bodies with the finest
apparel, and profusely adorned their persons with costly
ornaments of gold and jewels. In their arrogance and
self-righteousness the}^ became the Pharisees of their
age and countr}^; but in other phases of iniquity the}^
far exceeded their counterparts in the Holy Land.
They bowed down to idols, denied the coming of
Christ, declared the do6lrine of the atonement to
be a foolish tradition, and, like man}' of the se^ls of
modern Christendom, the}' misinterpreted the teachings
of holy scripture with regard to the being of God.
Their declaration of faith was: Holy, holy God; we
believe that thou art God, and we believe that thou art
holy, and that thou wast a spirit, and that thou art a
spirit, and that thou wilt be a spirit forever.
This strange medley of ideas gave birth to corres-
ponding vagaries of worship. They left off pra^ang.
Being chosen and eledled to be God's hol\' children,
they had no need of prayer. Once a week the}- assem-
bled in their synagogues and went through an empty
174 vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
form, which was a little pra3'er, a little praise and con-
siderable self-glorification. Having done this, they
never mentioned God or hoh' things again throughout
the week; indeed, it was a portion of their creed that
their synagogues were the only places in which it was
lawful to talk or think of religious matters.
Their ceremonies were as absurd as their creed.
In the centre of each of their synagogues was ere^led
a hol}^ stand, or pulpit, called rameumptom, which
stood high above the congregation. From the slight
description given of it in the book of Alma we j udge it
to have been somewhat pyramidical in form, the top
being onU' large enough for one person to stand upon.
Each worshiper mounted to the top, stretched out his
hands toward heaven, and, in a loud voice, repeated
their set form of worship. Having done this, he
descended and another took his place, and so on, until
all who desired to go through the mummery had satis-
fied their conscience or gratified their pride.
The tidings of this defection having reached Alma,
he seledled several of the leading members of the
priesthood, and, as soon as possible, proceeded to the
land Antionum, where the Zoramites had gathered.
Those who accompanied him were his two younger
sons, three of the sons of king Mosiah, Amulek and
Zeezrom. To his anxiety to bring these dissenters
back from the error of their ways, and to avert heaven's
righteous wrath from falling upon them, was added the
fear that if they remained in their wickedness they
would join the Lamanites and bring trouble upon their
more faithful fellow Nephites by urging the renewal
of war.
On the arrival of Alma and his fellow-laborers at
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 75
the seat of this apostasy, they at once commenced their
ministrations. They taught in the synagogues and
preached in the streets. They visited the people from
house to house, using every possible effort to bring
these misguided dissenters to an understanding of their
perilous condition. To these labors we are indebted
for some of the plainest and most powerful gospel
teachings contained in the Book of Mormon, all of
which will well repay our perusal. Suffice it to say,
that many of the poor and humble, those who were
oppressed, abused and trodden down by their false
priests and unrighteous rulers, as well as by the
wealthier portion of the community, received the words
of salvation, while 'the majority rejected it with con-
temptuous scorn. Some of the missionaries were mal-
treated. Shiblon, the son of Alma, was imprisoned
and stoned for the truth's sake, while others fared but
little better. Unfortunately the work of God was
retarded by the miscondu(5l of Corianton, the brother
of Shiblon, who, for a time, deserted his ministerial
duties for the company of a harlot. This folly caused
Alma great sorrow, as it gave the ungodly a pretext
for rejecting the gospel, of which they were not slow to
avail themselves.
When Alma and his associates had done all the
good they deemed possible, they withdrew to the neigh-
boring land of Jershon. No sooner had they left than
the more craft}' of the Zoramites devised a plan to dis-
cover the feelings of the community. They gathered
the people together throughout the land and consulted
with them concerning that which they had heard. In
this way they disco\ered who favored the truth and
who rejedled it. Finding that the poor and uninfluen-
176 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
tial were those who had received it, the}- resorted to
persecution and plunder. They drove the" believers
from their homes and out of the land. Most of these
fled to the land of Jershon, whither the priesthood had
preceded them.
The land of Jershon was inhabited by the people
of Ammon. The}^ also had left home and country' for
the truth's sake, and now that others were suffering from
the same cause, the}^ received them with open arms.
They fed and clothed those who needed such help, and
gave them lands whereon the}' might build up new
homes.
When the wicked Zoramites heard of the kind
reception their injured fellow-citizens had received in
Jershon the}^ were greatly angered. The}- were not
content to spoil them themselves, but they wanted to
make them fugitives and vagabonds on the face of the
whole earth. Their leader, a very wicked man, sent
messages to the Ammonites, desiring them to expel the
refugees, adding many threats of what would follow,
should his cruel demand not be complied with. But the
Ammonites were a brave people ; the}^ had already suf-
fered unto death for the cause of God, and they were
not of the stamp to desert their aflli(5led brethren.
Rather than do so, they would again forsake their
homes and find in some other region a land of peace.
For we must remind our readers that the Ammonites
had entered into covenant with God never again to
bend the bow or draw the sword to take human life.
They, therefore, withdrew to the land of Melek, whilst
the armies of the Nephites occupied the land of
Jershon.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
ANOTHER WAR — MORONI, THE LEADER OF THE NEPHITES —
THE TACTICS OF THE LAMANITES— ZERAHEMNAH— THE
BATTLE AT RIPLAH — DEFEAT OF THE LAMANITES.
''npHE CAUSE which led the Nephite armies to occupy
Jershon was that the Zoramites, finding that their
haughty and unjust demands would not be complied
with, had excited the Lamanites to invade the territory
of the Nephites. The Lamanite forces, which were
commanded almost entirely by Nephite apostates, on
account of their fierce hatred to their former associates,
marched first into the land of Antionum, where they
were joined by the Zoramites. Then the whole of the
invading hosts, under the command of a dissenter
named Zerahemnah, advanced northward towards the
land of Jershon.
This was a day of peril for the Nephites. Their
enemies were much more numerous than the}^, and were
filled with a savage thirst for blood, which was espe-
cially felt against those who were of their own race and
kindred who had bowed in obedience to heaven's com-
mands. At this jun(5lure the Lord raised up one of the
greatest heroes ever born on American soil. He was
not onl}^ a military leader, but a priest and prophet,
and by his inspiration and devoted courage the Nephites
were for many years led to uninterrupted victory.
Such was Moroni, who now, though but twenty-five
178 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
years old, took the chief command of the armies of
his nation.
Though the forces of the Lamanites were much
more numerous, all other advantages were on the side
of their foes. The discipline of the Nephites was
better by far; the bodies of their soldiers were protedled
b}^ armor, breastplates, helmets, shields, etc., and they
were fighting for the sacred cause of their religion and
their country, their altars and their firesides, their waves
and their little ones. Inspired b}^ the justness of their
cause and the extremit}^ of their circumstances, they
fought with a courage and a desperation never ex-
ceeded in their annals.
The Lamanites, on the other hand, had no such
holy impulses to nerve their arms for the combat.
They were the aggressors, and were hasting to shed
the blood of their brethren. Insane and infernal
hatred alone inspired them for the warfare. Besides,
they were ill prepared to meet the Nephites, who had
such a ta6lician as Moroni for their commander-in-chief.
The descendants of Laman were simpl}- armed with
swords and cimiters, bows aijd arrows, slings and stones.
Their bodies were naked with the exception of a skin
wrapped about their loins. The Zoramites and other
dissenters from the Nephites were better clothed; in
dress they followed the fashion of the people from
whom they sprang.
The Lamanites, finding that Moroni was too well
prepared for their attack on the land of Jershon,
retired through Antionum into the wilderness, where
they changed dire^lion and marched towards the head-
waters of the river vSidon, with the intention of taking
possession of tlic land of Manti. But Moroni was too
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 79
vigilant to allow his enemies to slip away without
knowing what had become of them. He had his spies
watch the movements of Zerahemnah's forces, and in
the meanwhile sent to Alma to inquire the mind and
will of the Lord with regard to his future course.
The word of the Lord was given to Alma, and he
informed Moroni's messengers of the movements of
the Lamanites. The young general, with becoming
prudence, then divided his army. One corps he left to
protect Jershon, and with the remainder he advanced
by rapid marches towards Manti, by the most dire6l
route. On his arrival he at once mustered all the men
who could bear arms into his forces, to help in the
defense of their rights and their liberties against the
advancing foe. So rapid had been his movements and
so prompt had been the response to his calls that when
the Lamanites reached the neighborhood of the Sidon
he w^as prepared for their coming.
The battle that was fought when the opposing
armies met was one of the most stubborn and bloody
in Nephite histor3^ Never from the beginning had
the Lamanites been known to fight with such exceed-
ing great strength and courage. Time after time their
hosts rushed upon the well ordered ranks of the
Nephites, and notwithstanding the latter's armor they
clove in their heads and cut off their arms. But the
cost of these charges to their own numbers was terrible.
The battle began at a hill called Riplah, and afterwards
extended to both banks of the Sidon. At one time a
lull too^ place in the carnage, and Moroni, who had no
pleasure in the shedding of blood, made an offer of
such terms of surrender as he considered the circum-
stances warranted. But Zerahemnah and other cap-
l8o STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON..
tains of the Lainanite hosts rejected the offer and urged
their troops to renewed resistance. So the battle recom-
menced with unabated ferocity. At last the faith and
valor of the Nephites prevailed; man}' of the Laman-
ites surrendered and agreed to a covenant of peace.
Even Zerahemnah himself, wounded and scalped by
one of Moroni's body guard, to prevent the total anni-
hilation of his armies, at last consented to the proposed
terms and entered into the required covenant of peace.
So great were the losses on both sides, especially of the
Lamanites, that the dead were not numbered.
Thus ended the war, but not the Zoramite heresy,
for we read, in the history of later wars between the two
nations, of certain Lamanite captains being of the
Zoramites. Foiled in their attempts to destroy their
former brethren and to overthrow the Church of God,
they still adhered to their false faith, and on ever}- pos-
sible occasion made manifest their undjang hatred to
those whose only offense was that the}- would not join
them in their crimes nor consent to the destru6lion of
the liberties of the people.
CHAPTER XXIX.
ALMA'S CHARGE TO HLS vSONvS — HK TRANSFERS THE RECORDS
TO HELAMAN — HE LEAVES THLS WORLD — ZEEZROM'S
LATTER DAYS — HELAMAN'S MINISTRATIONS.
A LMA was now growing old. Notwithstanding his
nnceasing efforts and fervent prayers, the Nephites
M^ere again backsliding into iniqnit3\ To every
Nephite city, and to every Nephite land he went or sent,
to revive the gospel fires in the souls of the inhabitants.
But many became offended because of the stridlness of
the gospel's laws, which forbade not only sin itself, but
the very appearance of sin. As this feeling grew,
Alma's heart became exceedingly sorrowful and he
mourned the depravity of his people.
Like many of the ancient patriarchs, when they
felt that their mortal career was drawing to its close, he
called his sons to him, and gave them his last charge
and blessing; speaking to each as the spirit of instruc-
tion and prophecy inspired. To Helaman, his eldest,
he transferred the custody of the sacred plates, with
many words of warning and caution regarding them.
With hearts strengthened and renewed by the inspira-
tion of his fervent admonitions, his sons went forth
among the people; nor could Alma himself rest while
there was a soul to save or a wrong to make right. He
also went forth once again, in the spirit of his holy
calling, and raised his voice in advocacy of the princi-
ples of the everlasting gospel.
It was in the nineteenth year of the Judges (B. C.
73), that Alma took his beloved son, Helaman, and
after having discovered, through divers questions, the
l82 • STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
strength and integrity of his faith, he prophesied to
him of many important events in the distant future,
especially with regard to the destru(ftion of the
Nephites. This prophecy he commanded him to record
on the plates, but not to reveal to au}^ one. Alma
then blessed Helaman, also his other sons; indeed he
blessed all who should stand firm in the truth of Christ
from that time forth. Shortly after this he departed
out of the land of Zarahemla, as if to go to the land of
Melek, and was never heard of more. Of his death
and burial no men were witnesses. Then the saying
went abroad throughout the church that the Lord had
taken him, as he beforetime had taken ]\Ioses. This
event occurred exadlly one hundred 3'ears from the
time of the elder Alma's birth.
After the departure of Alma we learn no more of
the life of his associate Zeezrom, though his name and
teachings are more than once referred to b}- later serv-
ants of God. We also read of a cit}- of Zeezrom, and,
as it was the custom of the Nephites to name their
cities, towns and villages after whoever founded them,
it is highly probable that, in the colonization of the
country so vigorously carried on in the age that
these men lived, he commenced the building of this
place, and it would not be unreasonable to believe that
he dwelt in the midst of its citizens as their high priest
or chief judge.
Alma's son Helaman appears to have succeeded
him as the presiding High Priest. After Alma's
departure from this earth Helaman and others went
through the cities of the Nephites and regulated the
affairs of the church. Owing to the pnde of many who
would not give heed to the instru(5lions given them, nor
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 85
walk uprightly, dissensions arose, which in after 3-ears
led to numerous evils, among the greatest of which was
a long continued war, or series of wars, between the
faithful Nephites on one side, and the apostates, and
afterwards the Lamanites, on the other. Still, for four
years, Helaman and his associate priesthood were
enabled to maintain order in the church. Man}' died in
full faith of the gospel and in the joyous hope of its
never-ending rewards; indeed, during that period there
was much peace and great prosperity enjoyed by those
who remained faithful.
CHAPTER XXX.
AMALICKIAH — HIS APOSTASY AND TREASON — MORONI'S
TITLE OF LIBERTY — THE NEPHITES RESPOND TO HIS
CALL-LEHONTI-HE IS POISONED BY AMALICKIAH —
THE KING OF THE LAINIANITES TREACHEROUSLY SLAIN—
AMALICKIAH MARRIES THE QUEEN AND IS PROCLAIMED
KING — A DISASTROUS LAMANITE RAID.
TDBACH, however, was but short lived. Internal dis-
sensions created by the intrigues of apostates
and royalists convulsed the Nephite communit}-.
The rebels were led by a descendant of Zorani, the
servant of Laban, named Amalickiah, one of the most
ambitious, cunning and unscrupulous characfters that
ever disgraced the history of ancient America. It was
a perilous day for the Nephite nation when this subtle
creature bent all his brilliant energies to the fulfil-
ment of his ambitious dreams. True, he had been a
184 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
member of Christ's hoh' church, but now the love of
God had given place to the hatred of his serv'ants; he
was the citizen of a republic, but he aspired to over-
throw its liberties, and reign as king over his fellow
citizens. Indeed he had cherished thoughts of still
greater power, even to be monarch of the entire con-
tinent; both Nephite and Lamanite should bow to his
undisputed swa3\ Such were his nightly dreams, and
the continual thoughts of his waking hours, and to
this end he bent all the energies of his mind, all the
craft of his soul, all the cunning of his tongue, all the
weight of his influence. With promises rich as the gold
of Ophir and numerous as the snowflakes in a winter's
hurricane, he beguiled his weaker fellows; men who,
like him, loved power, hated the truth, delighted in
iniquity, but who had not the lofty ambition, the unhal-
lowed valor, and the deep designing cunning that dis-
tinguished their leader. To his call the dissatisfied,
the corrupt and the apostate rallied.
Opposed to him stood Moroni, the dauntless leader
of the armies of the Nephites. Inspired by an
unquenchable love for truth and libert}-, he sensed
with every heart's pulsation that no man could fight
for a holier, more glorious cause than virtue and libert3\
Thus inspired, he tore a portion of his robe from its
surrounding parts, and inscribing thereon his battle
cry, he lifted it high upon a pole. Then girding on his
armor, incasing his head with its fit covering, shielding
his body with its breastplates, placing the proper pieces
round his thighs and loins, he kneeled in humble,
heartfelt prayer before Jehovah, presented his ''Title
of Liberty" before him and asked his blessing, protec-
tion, guidance and vi(5lorious aid in the coming struggle.
-t?.>:
THW
^4:
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 87
Then he gathered the hosts of the Nephites; from
place to place he sped, waving in the air the ensign on
which all conld read the burning words he had in-
scribed: In memor}^ of our God, our religion and free-
dom, and our peace, our wives and our children.
Nor did he cr}- in vain; the patriot Nephites, the
members of the Church of Christ, hastened with ready
feet to the response. The streets of Zarahemla were
alive with the gathering hosts. Each warrior, to show
his devotion to the liberties with which God had
endowed them, and his fealty to the Great Giver, rent
his robe, as the young general had done, and thereby
made covenant with God and his brethren to be faith-
ful and true, in life and in death, in the council chamber
and on the battle field, while an eneni}" remained to
menace their liberties, national or religious.
Nor was Zarahemla alone in the manifestation of
her patriotic love. jMoroni's stirring appeal was spread
far and wide throughout the lands of the Nephites.
Swift-footed, banner-bearinp' " '^sengers hastened down
the Sidon's banks to the dweii. rs in the north, arous-
ing the patriots of each peaceful city to the peril of the
hour. Onward they hurried until Desolation echoed
back to Bountiful the battle cry of libertv. Others
gave no rest to the soles of their feet until Mulek, and
her sister cities that lined the Caribbean Sea had flung
from their tower tops the hallowed banner. Through
the narrow defiles and rocky canyons that lay between
the Andes' lofty peaks, other couriers pushed their
unwearied way into the western wilderness and hence
to the Pacific's strand, until every city held by Nephites
had gathered her sons to the defense of their rights and
their liberties, their altars and their firesides. Nor
l88 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
were Maiiti and the other cities of the south forgotten ;
the faithful and the brave who lined the borders of the
great southern wilderness heard the rallying cry.
From every cit}', every vale, the converging hosts
poured forth with sword and spear, with bow and arrow,
with slings and stones; while from the top of ever}-
tower and citadel throughout the Nephites' land, the
sacred standard fluttered in the breeze. Men of strong
arms and stout hearts were they, of faith unfaltering,
and courage undiminished.
No wonder, then, that when Amalickiah's emis-
saries brought the evil-boding news of this great
awakening to his unwilling ears, that he faltered in his
purpose, that his followers lost heart, that retreat was
deemed the fittest show of wisdom, and discretion the
better part of valor. No wonder that when, b}- Aloroni's
vigilance, that retreat was cut off, that the rebels suc-
cumbed and surrendered,, that Amalickiah .fled for
safety to the Lamanites, and that the "Title of Liberty"
continued to float uninterruptedly from the Atlantic to
the Pacific coast, as far as Nephi's children ruled or
Nephite homes were found, and that Moroni and his
people rejoiced with intensified joy in their liberties,
now more than ever dear to them through the valorous
efforts they had put forth for their preservation.
When Amalickiah fled to the court of the king of
the Lamanites he evolved a plot worth}- of a demon,
which only ceased with life. He was a Napoleon in
ambiticm and diplomacy, and possibly also in military
skill. On the first favorable opportunity after reaching
the Lamanite court, he commenced to rekindle the fires
of hatred toward his former friends. At first he was
unsuccessful, the recollection of their late defeats was
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 1 89
too fresh in the memor}' of the multitude. The king
issued a war proclamation, but it was disregarded.
Much as his subjec5ls feared the imperial power, they
dreaded a renewal of war more. Many gathered to resist
the ro3^al mandate. The king, unused to such objec-
tions, raised an ami}- to quell the advocates of peace,
and placed it under the command of the now zealous
Amalickiah.
The peace-men had chosen an officer named
Lehonti for their king and leader, and he had assem-
bled his followers at a mountian called Antipas.
Thither Amalickiah marched, but with no intention of
provoking a confli(5l; he was working for the good feel-
ings of the entire Lamanite people. On his arrival he
entered into a secret correspondence with Lehonti, in
which he agreed to surrender his forces on condition
that he should be appointed second in command of the
united armies. The plan succeeded. Amalickiah
surrendered to Lehonti and assumed the second posi-
tion. Lehonti now stood in the way of his ambition ;
it was but a little thing to remove him: he died by slow
poison administered by Amalickiah's command.
Amalickiah now assumed supreme command, and
at the head of his forces he marched towards the
Lamanite capital. The king, supposing that the
approaching hosts had been raised to carry the war
into Zarahemla, came out of the ro3^al city to greet
and congratulate him. As the monarch drew near he
was traitorously slain by some of the creatures of the
subtle general, who at the same time raised the hue
and cry that the king's own servants were the authors
of the vile deed. Amalickiah assumed all the airs of
grief, affection and righteous indignation that he
190 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
thought would best suit his purpose. He next made
apparent!}' desperate, but purposely ineffe(5lual, efforts
to capture those who were charged with the crime, and
so adroitly did he carry out his schemes, that before
long he wheedled himself into the affections of the
queen, whom he married, and he was recognised by the
Lamanites as their king. Thus far his ambition was
realized, but it was far from satisfied; ambition sel-
dom is.
Amalickiah now cherished the stupendous design
of subjugating the Nephites and ruling singly and alone
from ocean to ocean (B. C. 73). To accomplish this
iniquitous purpose, he despatched emissaries in all
direAions, whose mission was to stir up the angr}- pas-
sions of the populace against the Nephites. When
this vile objedl was sufficiently accomplished, and the
deluded people had become clamorous for war, he raised
an immense army, armed and equipped with an excel-
lence never before known among the Lamanites. This
force he placed under the command of Zoramite offi-
cers, and ordered its advance into the western posses-
sions of the Nephites, where, amongst others, stood the
cities of Ammonihah and Noah.
The Nephites, during this time, had been watching
Amalickiah's movements and energeticall}'' preparing
for war. When the Lamanites reached Ammonihah
they found it too strongly fortified to be taken by
assault; they therefore retired to Noah, originally a very
weak place, but now, through Moroni's foresight and
energy, made stronger than Ammonihah. The Zoram-
ite officers well knew that to return home without hav-
ing attempted something would be most disastrous,
and therefore, though with little hope, made an assault
vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 191
Upon Noah. This step resulted in throwing away a
thousand lives outside its walls, while its well-prote6led
defenders had but fifty men wounded. After this
disastrous attempt the Lamanites marched home.
Great was the anger of iVmalickiah at the miscarriage
of his schemes; he cursed God and swore he would yet
drink the blood of Moroni.
During the next year the Lamanites were driven out
of the great eastern wilderness, which was occupied by
numerous Nephite colonies, who laid the foundations of
several new cities along the Atlantic coast. Moroni
also established a line of fortifications along the Ne-
phites' southern border, which stretched from one side
of the continent to the other.
CHAPTER XXXI.
A FEW YEARS OF PEACE— TEANCUM — THE CONTENTION
BETWEEN LEHI AND MORIANTON— AMALICKIAH'S TER-"
RIBLE INVASION — HIS SUCCEvSS — HE IS STOPPED AT
BOUNTIFUL BY TEANCUM— TEANCUM SLAYS AMALICKIAH
— AMMORON MADE KING OF THE LAMANITES.
A FEW YEARS of peace and prosperity now fol-
lowed. The Nephites multiplied exceedingly
and grew very rich. They were also greatly blessed of
the Lord; and the sacred historian informs us there
never was a happier time among the people of Nephi
than at this time. Sad to say, this blessed era lasted
but a few years. A local quarrel between two cities on
192 STORY OF THK HOOK OF MORMON.
the Atlantic sea-board regarding their respecflive
boundaries was the cause of the first fresh outbreak.
At this point we are introduced to another great general
of the Nephites, named Teancum.
Teancum appears to have had command of the
Nephite army of the north (under the direction of
Moroni, the commander-in-chief of all the forces of the
republic), and to have had committed to him the
defense of the land Bountiful and the Isthmus of Pan-
ama. His first exploit to which our attenion is drawn
is the defeat of the dissatisfied people of IMorianton,
who, having unjustl}' quarreled with their neighbors,
the people of the city of Lehi, and being apparently
aware of the unrighteousness of their cause, determined
to migrate to the land northward, and there establish
an independent government.
Such a movement being evidenth' dangerous to the
peace and stability of the republic, Moroni determined
to prevent the accomplishment of their scheme. He
dispatched Teancum with a bod}- of troops to head
them off. This the gallant officer succeeded in doing,
but not until the}' had reached the Isthmus, when a
stubbornly fought battle ensued, in which Teancum
slew Morianton with his own hand, and compelled the
surrender of his followers. (B. C. 68.) The prison-
ers vere brought back, the grievances of the two people
were investigated, a union between them brought about,
and both were restored to their own lands.
In the following year (B. C. 67), Anialickiah
commenced his devastating invasion of the Atlantic
provinces of the Nephites. Couiuiencing at Moroni,
on the extreme southeast, he gradually advanced north-
ward, capturing and garrisoning all the Nephite cities
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 193
along the coast, until toward the close of the year he
reached the borders of the land Bountiful, driving the
forces of the republic before him. At this point he
was met by Teancum and a corps of veterans renowned
for their courage, skill and discipline. The Lamanite
leader endeavored to force his way to the Isthmus, with
the intention of occupying the northern continent. In
this he was foiled, for the trained valor of Teancum's
warriors was too much for that of Amalickiah's half-
savage hordes. All day the fight lasted, and at night the
worn out soldiers of the two armies camped close
together, the Lamanites on the sea-beach, and the
Nephites on the borders of the land Bountiful.
It was the last night of the old year, according to
Nephite reckoning. The great heat and the terrible
efforts of the day had overcome both officers and men.
The murmur of the Atlantic's waves sounded a soft
lullaby in the ears of Amalickiah and his hosts, w^ho,
for the first time during the campaign, had suffered a
check in their triumphal march. Even Amalickiah
slept; but not so with Teancum. He was brooding
over the wrongs and perils of his beloved country, as
well as his own sufferings, both the deadl}^ fruit of one
man's unholy ambition. As he pondered he grew more
angry, and at last he determined b}- one desperate stroke
to put an end to the war; or, if not that, at least to slay
the cause of it. Taking one servant with him, he se-
cretl}^ stole out of his own camp into that of the enemy.
A deathlike silence reigned in both. Cautiously and
unobserved he searched out the royal tent. There lay
the foe, there lay his guards, all overcome with resist-
less fatigue. To draw his javelin, thrust it into the
king's heart and then flee, was but the work of a
194 vSTORY OK thp: book ok mormon.
moment, and so adroitl}- did he fulfil his purpose that
Amalickiah died without a struggle or a cry, and it was
not until the morning that his guards discovered that
the hosts of Laman were without a head.
When Teancum returned to his own warriors he
awoke them from their slumbers and rehearsed to them
all that he had done. It is not difficult to imagine
their enthusiasm, which, for fear they should arouse the
eneni}^, they were compelled to restrain. The}-, how-
ever, kept a strong guard on the alert, lest when the
Lamanites awoke and discovered that their king was
dead, they should in their anger make a sudden
onslaught on the Nephite lines. This thought, how-
ever, was not realized. When the Lamanites found
that Amalickiah was slain, thev hastih^ retreated to
the fortified city of Mulek.
Amalickiah was succeeded on the Lamanitish
throne by his brother Ammoron, who continued the
war with unrelenting vindi(ftiveness.
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CHAPTER XXXII.
JACOB THE ZORAMITE— HIS CHARACTERISTICvS— THE STRAT-
EGY BY WHICH MULEK WAS TAKEN— THE FIERCE
BATTLE BETWEEN JACOB AND THE NEPHITE FORCES —
JACOB'S DEATH.
'TT^HE general who commanded the Lamanite
forces at Mulek was named Jacob. He was a
Nephite apostate, who had accepted the errors of the
Zoramites, His appointment was one characteristic of
the prevailing policy of Amalickiah and of his suc-
cessor, Ammoron. It was to give the command of the
Lamanite armies to men who, like themselves, were
traitors to their own government; for, in such cases, to
military knowledge was almost invariably added intense
religious hate, which neither asked nor gave quarter on
the battlefield, but fought to the last extremity with
unconquerable fury.
Such a one was Jacob. He had entrenched him-
self in the strongly fortified city of Mulek, the most
northern of the Nephite cities that had fallen into the
enemy's hands. It was a key to the surrounding
country. While it remained in Lamanite possession it
was very little use for Moroni, the Nephite commander-
in-chief, to attempt to recover the cities that lay along
the shores of the east sea yet farther south. The
Nephite generals did not consider themselves justified
in making an attempt to carry the place by assault.
Such an effort would have cost too many noble lives,
and probably have proven unsuccessful. Moroni had
with him at this time two of his most trusted lieuten-
198 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
ants, Lehi and Teanciim, both of whom were little
inferior to the chief captain in wisdom and valor. At a
council of war it was determined to attempt the capture
of ]Mulek by strateg}-. They had already sent embas-
sies to Jacob desiring him to bring his armies into the
open plain to meet the Nephites in battle, but the
Lamanite commanders were too well acquainted with
the discipline and courage of the Nephite forces to
take such a risk. There was, therefore, but one pl^n
left, other than to patiently sit down before the city
and reduce it by a regular siege, and that was to decoy
a portion of its defenders bej'ond the protection of its
walls, and when it was thus weakened to carry it by
storm. Moroni determined on this course.
By command of Moroni, the gallant Teancum,
with a small force, marched along the sea shore to the
neighborhood of Mulek; while Moroni, with the main
bod}' of the army, unperceived by the enemy, made a
forced march b}' night into the wilderness which lay
on the west of the cit\'. There he rested. Lehi, with
a third corps, remained in the city of Bountiful.
On the morrow, Teancum's small division was dis-
covered b}^ the Lamanite outposts, and from the small-
ness of its numbers they judged it would fall an easy
prey. Jacob at once sallied forth at the head of his
warriors to attack the presumptuous Nephites. On
their approach Teancum cautioush' retreated along the
sea shore towards the city of Bountiful. Jacob fol-
lowed in vigorous pursuit. Moroni, in the meanwhile,
divided his army into two corps, one of which he dis-
patched to capture the cit}', and with the other he
closed in between Jacob's army and Mulck. The first
corps accomplished its work without difficulty, for
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. I99
Jacob had left but a small force behind him, and all
who would not surrender were slain.
The Lamanites crowded after Teancum in hot pur-
suit until they came nigh unto Bountiful, when they
were met b}^ Lehi and the small force under his com-
mand. At his appearance the Lamanite captains fled
in confusion, lest they should be out-generaled and cut
off from their fortifications. Jacob's warriors were
weary by reason of their long and hasty advance, while
Lehi's soldiers were fresh and unfatigued. But Lehi
refrained from pressing too vigorously on his retreat-
ing foes, as his object was not to exhaust his men until
the hour of battle came, and he was anxious to avoid a
conflict till he and Moroni could at the same moment
attack the Lamanites in front and rear.
When Jacob drew near the city he found himself
confronted by the soldiers of INIoroni, who closed in
around his warriors and barred their further progress
southward; while Lehi, putting forth his pent-up ener-
gies, fell with fur}^ on their rear. Wearj- and worn
though his troops were, Jacob would not surrender.
Whatever his faults ma}- have been, and the^^ were
undoubtedl}^ numerous, he had a resolute, unconquer-
able spirit that would fight to the last. He deter-
mined, if possible, to cut his way through to Tvlulek.
With this intent he made a desperate, though inef-
fectual, charge on JMoroni's lines. The Nephites being
fresh and unwearied, never wavered, but received the
shock firm as a rock upon which the waves of the
ocean break in vain. The battle here raged with
indescribable fierceness, and with heav}^ losses to both
sides. The wild Lamanites, in the frenz}' of despera-
tion, dashed with all their strength and prowess against
200 STORY OK THE BOOK OF MORMON.
the well-ordered ranks of the Nephites in the one
absorbing endeavor to force tlieir wa}- through. While
the Nephites, in the heroic courage which religion and
patriotism inspire, stood cool and undisma3'ed, break-
ing the force of the shock of each charge, then
On the wounded and the slain,
Closed their diminished files aj^ain.
to receive the next onslaught. In this desperate
encounter Moroni was wounded and Jacob slain.
While Jacob was thus impetuously charging on
Moroni's corps, Lehi with his "strong men" was as
furiously driving in the Lamanite rear. At last the
soldiers of Jacob in that part of the field surrendered.
Their leader being slain, the remainder of the troops
hesitated between throwing down their arms and con-
tinuing the hopeless strife. Moroni, with his intense
hatred of unnecessary bloodshed, when he noticed
that the}^ wavered, cried out that if they would lay
down their weapons and deliver themselves up he
would spare their lives. His offer was accepted. The
chief captains, who remained, came forward and placed
their weapons at his feet and commanded their men to
do the same. IMost of the warriors obeyed, 3'et num-
bers would not. They preferred death to surrender, and
force had to be used to \vrest their weapons from them.
The Lamanite prisoners were then sent under an escort
to the city of Bountiful, and when counted were found
to exceed in numbers the slain on both sides in the
late battle. Thus fell Mulek, and thus died its de-
fender, Jacob the Zoramite.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE WAR IN THE SOUTHWEvST — ANTIPUS — HELAMAN AND
HIS TWO THOUSAND SONS— THEIR VALOR AND FAITH—
THE REPULSE OF THE LAMANITES.
''npHE WAR had beeu raging several years, and was
working disastrously to the Nephites, when, the
people of Ammon, feeling that they were a burden
rather than a help to their benefadlors, though indeed
they were not, desired to be released from their oath
and covenant never again to take up deadly weapons
against their fellows. The}^ desired in this hour of
extreme peril to take up arms in defense of the liber-
ties of their adopted country. From this rash step
Helaman and his brethren dissuaded them, lest by so
doing they should imperil their eternal salvation.
But they had sons who had grown far towards man-
hood who had not entered into this covenant, and con-
sequently were not shut off from participating in the
dangers and the glories of the war. So with their
fathers' and mothers' consent, faith, prayers and words
of encouragement, two thousand of these 3'ouths were
mustered into the Nephite army (B. C. 66). These
striplings were all men of truth, faith, soberness and
integrity, and were conspicuous for their courage,
strength and adlivity. Being organized they desired
that Helaman, for whom the}- had great love and
respe6l, should be their leader. He consented, and at
their head marched to the relief of the forces of the
republic that were struggling against considerable odds
on the southern borders of the Nephite dominions,
from the shores of the Pacific Ocean eastward.
202 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Helaman found the Nephite forces, iiumberiiig
about six thousand warriors, in a somewhat deplorable
condition. The Lamanites, in the strength of greatly
superior numbers, had captured the cities of ]\Ianti,
Cumeni, Zeezrom and Antiparah, and held possession
of the country round about. These cities had not
been taken without much bloodshed on both sides.
The Nephites especially had lost large numbers in
prisoners, who were generally put to death by their
captors, except the superior officers, who were sent to
the land of Nephi. Antipus, the Nephite commander,
was locked up in the city of Judea, where, despirited
and weakened by excessive toil and fighting, his troops
were making a desperate and painful effort to fortify
the cit}'. The arrival of Helaman and his corps
brought hope and joy again to their hearts, and renewed
vigor to their endeavors.
King Ammoron, learning that reinforcements had
reached the defenders of Judea, ordered all active oper-
ations to be suspended for a season. This suspension
was most providential for the soldiers of Antipus, as it
gave them time to finish the work of fortifying the
beleaguered cit3% and also to recruit their health and
energies. By the commencement of the following year
the works of defense were completed, and the Nephites
became anxious for the onslaught they had so greatly
dreaded a few months previous. But the}' were disap-
pointed. The Lamanites did not feel sufficienth' strong
to renew aggressive movements. They contented
themselves with occupying the Nephite cities they had
already captured. In the second month of this year
(B. C. 65) a convoy of provisions and two thousand
additional warriors arrived froui the laud of Zaraheuila.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 203
The Nephites in the city of Jiidea were now ten thou-
sand strong, with abundant provisions, and they were
anxious for a forward movement in order, if possible, to
retake some of their cities in the hands of the enemy.
Antipus and Helaman resolved on a ruse to entice
the Lamanites from behind their fortifications. It was
decided that Helaman and his command should march
out of Judea with the apparent intention of carrying
supplies to one of the cities in the hands of the Nephites,
that was built near the seashore. In executing this
nianoeuver, they purposel}^ passed at no great distance
from the city of Antiparah, in which was stationed the
most numerous of the Lamanite armies, in the hope
that the Lamanites would notice that their numbers
were few, and thus be led to attack them. The strata-
gem proved successful. The garrison of Antiparah
issued forth in pursuit of Helaman, who, with all haste,
retreated into the wilderness northward, his intent
being to draw his pursuers as far as possible from
Antiparah. When the Lamanites had started in pur-
suit of Helaman, Antipus, with a considerable portion
of his arni}?^, marched out of the city of Judea and fell
in the Lamanites' rear. The retreat soon became a
race. The Lamanites crowded forward with all possi-
ble expedition in the endeavor to reach Helaman before
Antipus caught them. Helaman, on the other hand,
used his utmost energy to keep out of their clutches.
Neither of the three bodies turned to the right or to
the left, but kept straight on in the effort to out-march
their foes. Night came and went, and on the morrow
the double pursuit was still kept up. Another night
fell, but neither dare turn from its course.
On the third morning the race for life and victory
204 vSTORY OF THP: BOOK OF MORMON.
was again renewed, but before long the Lamanites,
concluding the}- could not overtake Helaman, suddenly
stopped, and awaited the coming of Antipus and his
wear}' soldiers, whom they unexpectedh' attacked with
great fur}-, slew Antipus and several of his captains,
threw the Nephite troops into great confusion and
forced them to commence a retreat.
In the meantime, Helaman discovered that he was
no longer pursued, and not knowing the reason, was in
doubt what course to take. He called a hasty council
of war, at which it was determined to return at once,
and risk the chances of being caught in a trap by the
crafty Lamanites.
The statement which Helaman makes regarding
the condudl of his young soldiers at this council is very
interesting. After he had explained the situation to
them, he inquired, What say ye, m}- sons, will ye go
against them in battle? Without hesitanc}- the}-
answered in the affimative, saj-ing: Father, behold our
God is with us, and he will not suffer that we shall fall;
then let us go forth ; we would not sla}^ our brethren if
they would let us alone; therefore let us go lest they
should overpower the army of Antipus. Here Helaman
remarks : Now they never had fought, yet they did not
fear death ; and they did think more of the liberty of
their fathers than they did upon their lives; yea, they
had been taught by their mothers that if they did not
doubt that God would deliver them. And the\'
rehearsed unto me the words of their mothers, saying,
We do not doubt our mothers knew it.
Helaman and his sons arrived none too soon on
the field of battle. The soldiers of Antipus were
already fleeing before .heir more numerous foes, but the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 205
valor and impetuosity of the youthful i\mmonites was
irresistible. They fell on the Lamanite rear with a
daring and miraculous strength possessed only by men
who put their whole trust in God. Thus attacked in
the rear, the Lamanites immediatel}^ halted, changed
front, and threw their whole force against the Ammon-
ites. The surviving officers of Antipus' army, find-
ing that Helaman had come to their rescue, stopped the
retreat, re-organized their scattered bands, and renewed
the attack. The Lamanites were compelled to suc-
cumb ; they could not resist the desperate courage of
the Nephites that was driving them in at both front
and rear. Their legions all surrendered, and, by Hela-
man's orders, were sent as prisoners of war to Zara-
hemla.
And what about the young warriors of Amnion ?
So great was their faith, so potent its workings, tha:;.
w^hen, after the battle, Helaman called the roll of his
youthful heroes, not one was missing. The faith sown
b}' their mothers' words had borne fruit — they were all
preserved. To their undaunted prowess, for they
fought as if with the strength of God, the Nephites
unhesitatingly accorded the glory of the day.
Still the hardly-contested war continued. Six
thousand men, with provisions, reached Helaman from
Zarahemla and the regions' round about (B. C. 63),
besides sixty more young Ammonites who had grown
sufficiently vigorous to assume the hardships of mili-
tary life. The city of Cumeni shortly afterwards
surrendered through the M'ant of provisions, their sup-
plies having been continuously cut off b}^ Helaman's
troops. This surrender threw so many prisoners on
the hands of the Nephites that they were unable to
2o6 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
guard or feed them. An officer named Gid, with a
sufficient force, was detailed to conve}- them to Zara-
hemla, but on their wa}-, passing near to an invading
body of Lamanites, the prisoners made a desperate
attempt to escape. A few succeeded in getting awa}^
but the greater number were slain b}' their guard. Gid
and his command returned to headquarters, as it
proved, just in time, for the Lamanites had made a
sudden and unexpedled attack at Cumeni, and but for
Gid's timeh' arrival the Nephite forces would probably
have received a severe defeat. As it was, defeat was
turned to victory by their coming.
In this desperate battle every one of the young
Ammonites was wounded, but not one was slain.
According to the promise made to them the}- were pre-
served by the marvelous power of God.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
THE RELIEF OF MANTI— THE OVERTHROW OF THE KING-
MEN— PACHUS SLAIN — THE STRUGGLE AT MORONI —
TEANCUM SLAYS AMMORON, BUT AT THE COST OF HIS
OWN LIFE — TEANCUM'S NOBLE CHARACTER.
AFTER THE battle at Cumeni, the Lamanites
"^ retreated eastward to Alanti, which was situated
on the upper waters of the Sidon. Nor was it for sev-
eral months that this city could be taken, as owing to
internal dissensions at the Nephite capital, and the
attempts on the part of some of the people to overthrow
((it'^ I
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 20/
the republic and establish a monarchy, Pahoran, the
chief judge, was unable to supply the necessary pro-
visions and re-inforcements.
In this strait Helanian and his fellow officers called
on the Lord in fervent prayer, which was not un-
answered. They received assurances of deliverance and
vi(5lory. These blessed assurances inspired fresh faith
and infused renewed courage in the war-weary hearts
of those not given to the love of carnage. Fired
with the determination, by God's grace, to conquer,
they entered on a campaign against the city of Manti,
which, by strateg}-, they captured before the end of the
year (B, C. 63). The moral effect of this vi(?lory was
so great that the Lamanites retreated into the wilder-
ness, evacuating the whole of the territory on the west,
but unfortunately taking with them, as prisoners, many
women and children.
For more than a year Moroni could not send the
needed help to Helaman. The rebels in Zarahemla
had driven the chief judge out of the city, and he had
taken refuge in Gideon. From there he wrote to
Moroni to come to his assistance, which that officer did
at the earliest possible moment, leaving the armies in
the northeast under the command of Lehi and Tean-
cum. As he advanced he rallied the people on his
line of march to the defense of the liberties of the
republic, and was so successful that, after having
joined the chief judge, Pahoran, he succeeded in
overthrowing the "king men," killing their leader,
Pachus, and completely crushing the rebellion. This
being accomplished, he sent 6,000 men with the neces-
sar}' provisions to reinforce Helaman (B. C. 61).
The campaign during this year, along the Atlantic
2o8 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMOX.
coast, was a decisive one. At last the soldiers of
Animoron were driven ont of Omner, Morianton, Gid,
Lehi, Nephihah, and every other Nephite city on that
sea-board, except the outlying one, called Moroni, where
the whole of the invading host was massed for a
final desperate stand, and around which Moroni, with
hurried and lengthened marches, had concentrated his
warriors.
It was the night before an expe6led decisive battle,
and the Nephite officers and soldiers were too fatigued
to either devise strategems or execute them. Teancum
alone was in a condition of unrest. He remembered
with intense bitterness all the bloodshed, woes, hard-
ships, famine, etc., that had been brought about in this
great and lasting war between the two races, which he
rightly attributed to the infamous ambition of Amalick-
iah and Ammoron. He refle6led how he had slain the
former, and determined that as he had slain Amalickiah,
so should Ammoron fall. In his anger he stole forth
into the enemy's camp, let himself over the walls of
the city, sought out the king's tent, and when he had
found the objedl of his search, he cast a javelin at
him, which pierced him near the heart. But, unlike
Amalickiah, Ammoron's death was not instantan-
eous. He had time to wake his servant before he passed
away. The alarm was given, the guards started in
pursuit; Teancum was overtaken, caught and slain.
On the morrow Moroni attacked the Lamanites, defeated
them with great slaughter, captured the cit}', and
drove them entirely out of Nephite territory. (B. C.
6i).
The writer of the Book of Alma records: When
Lehi and Moroni knew that Teancum was dead, they
vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 209
were exceedingl}^ sorrowful ; for behold, he had been a
man who had fought valiantl}' for his country; yea, a
true friend to liberty, and he had suffered very many
exceeding sore affli6lions. But behold, he was dead,
and had gone the way of all the earth.
In that glorious galaxy of patriot-priests, or war-
rior-prophets, call them which we may, to whose stem
integrity, inspired valor, and unflinching virtue the
Nephite republic, in the days of which we write, owed
so much of its stability, and was so greatly indebted
for its perpetuity, Teancum shines among the brightest.
View him from whatever point we please, there is no mis-
taking the man. His ardent disposition, his fiery impet-
uosity, his zealous patriotism, his undaunted courage,
his love of liberty, his entire disinterestedness, shine
forth in every adlion. Indeed, we might almost call
him rash, so little did he consider his personal safety
when he thought the good of his country required the
sacrifice.
In picturing the heroes of those days, Teancum
looms up before us almost as a Hotspur or Murat.
In our mind's eye we can see him charging the solid
phalanxes of the Lamanites, rushing at full speed
towards the enemj^ several lengths ahead of his line of
battle; his commanding presence inspiring confidence,
his unwavering voice ringing out the word of command,
his bright armor shining in the sun, and his hair
streaming from beneath his helmet, as, regardless of all
save the liberties of his country, he falls upon the
thickest of the foe, seeking out their chief captains,
that by their death an end may possibly be put to the
horrors of war. Thus we find him sla^-ing with his
own hand, at different times, Morianton, Amalickiah
2IO STORY OF THK BOOK OF MORMON.
and Ammorou. In fa6l, it is quite noticeable that in
nearly all the great battles of this age, the Nephites
appear to have made it a conspicuous part of their
tadlics to slay the commander of the opposing hosts.
So fell Amlici, Morianton, Jacob, Coriantumr and
others.
CHAPTER XXXV. -
PEACE ONCE MORE — THE REvSULTvS OF THE WAR — THE
LABORvS OF HELAMAN — vSHIBLON RECEIVES THE REC-
ORDS—HAGOTH, THE SHIP-BinLDER — ANOTHER WAR —
MORONIHAH— PAHORAN'S DEATH— CONTENTION REGARD-
ING THE CHIEF JUDGESHIP — PAANCHI'S REBELLION —
THE GADI ANTON BANDS — ASvSASSINATION OF PAHORAN
II.— ANOTHER LAMANITE INVAvSION.
TN THE next year after the capture of the city of
Moroni peace was established in all the land ; not a
Lamanite warrior remained on Nephite soil. Then
Pahoran returned to his judgment seat, and Helaman
recommenced his labors in the ministr3^
The long-continued and savage war just closed
had brought various evils to the church. In many
parts of the land it may be said to have been disorgan-
ized. The occupancy of so man}' of the Nephite cities
by the unbelieving Lamanitcs had produced numerous
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 211
demoralizing effe6ls. Murders, contentions, dissen-
sions and all manner of iniquity had become rife, and
the hearts of the people had become hardened. Yet
not altogether so, for there were some who acknowl-
edged the hand of the Lord in all their afflictions.
These humbled themselves in the depths of humility;
and because of the prayers of the righteous, the people
were spared.
Such was the state of affairs when Helaman went
forth to call the people to repentance and set the
church in order. In this blessed work he had much
success, and with the help of his brethren he again
established the Church of God throughout all the
land. These labors he continued until the time of his
death, and his joy therein was greatly increased by the
continued faithfulness of the people. Thev, notwith-
standing their abundant prosperity, which, as ever,
followed their repentance, remained humble, ferA^ent in
prayer and diligent in welldoing. Such was the happy
condition of the people of Nephi when Helaman died
(B. C. 57), he having survived his illustrious father
sixteen \'ears. Shiblon, at the death of his brother,
took possession of the sacred things that had been
delivered unto Helaman by Alma, and held them for
four years.
The next year (B. C. 56) the valiant Moroni, one
of the greatest and most virtuous of God's sons,
passed awaj' from this state of mortalit}- to the glories
of eternity, at the early age of forty-three years. Some
time before his death he had given the chief command
of the armies of the Nephites to his son, Moronihah,
who, from the history of later years, we judge to have
been a worthy son of so illustrious a sire.
212 STORY OF THK BOOK OK MORMON.
The four 3^ears that Shiblon held the plates are
principally noteworth}- for the commencement of Ne-
phite emigration to the northern continent. It was
during this period that Hagoth established his ship-
building yards on the Pacific, near the land of Bounti-
ful. It is probable that ships were built by the Nephites
before Hagoth's time, but he being an exceedingh-
expert mechanic, constructed much larger ones than
had hitherto been built, and thus inaugurated a new
feature in Nephite colonization.'-'
When Shiblon died he committed the records
to the care of Helaman, the son of his brother Hela-
man. The history of the Nephites and Lamanites still
continued a history of wars. In the same 3'ear that
Shiblon died, the Lamanites again raised a numerous
army and went down against their traditional foes. The
campaign was a short one. Moronihah, the son of
Moroni, infli(5led a signal blow upon their advancing
legions, and drove them back to their own lands. Their
loss in this deservedly ill-fated expedition was great.
Still this blood-thirsty race never seemed to gain
experience by the things it suffered. This, no doubt,
arose to a great extent from the continued irritation
kept up by the wily apostates, who had much private
spleen to gratify in the sufferings of the Nephites, and
who held no particular love or respeCl for their credu-
lous dupes and cat's-paws, the Lamanites.
* These ships of Haj^oth carried many colonies U) the laud north-
ward ; as it was their custom to take one load of eniijj;rants and when they
ha<l disembarked, to return for another. Some of these vessels were event-
ually lost; that is, the shi])s aiul their passenj^ers never reached their desti-
nation. It is supposed hy many that a part of them were carried out to mid-
ocean by storms and jiroljahly wrecked ; and that the survivors found safety
and shelter on some of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. In this way, it is
sujjjjjested, the Hawaiian, vSamoan and other islands were first ])e()i)led.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 213
It was in the year B. C. 53 that Helaman took
charge of the sacred plates, etc. In the next 3'ear
Pahoran, the chief judge, died, which event gave rise to
serious contention amongst the Nephite people. Three
of his sons, named Pahoran, Pacumeni and Paanchi,
were ambitious to fill the exalted position left vacant
by their father's death. Each had his adherents and
following, but, according to the national law, the matter
was decided b}^ the voice of the people, and Pahoran
was chosen.
Pacumeni assented to the decision of the citizens,
but Paanchi attempted to raise a rebellion, for which
crime he was arrested, tried by the law, and condemned
to death. Still the more wicked part of the communit}'
supported his unlawful claims. These determined to
slay Pahoran, which resolve they carried into effec^t, and
the chief judge was slain by an assassin named Kish-
kumen. This foul murder was committed while the
chief magistrate was sitting in the judgment seat
administering the law, but through the connivance of
the murderer's associates in iniquity he escaped.
These lawless men bound themselves together by
a secret oath and covenant, that the}- would never
divulge who was the murderer of Pahoran, and they
swore, by the most horrible oaths, one to another, to
conceal each other's crimes, to aid and sustain each
other in their villanies, and to carry out the designs
and dire6lions of their leaders. Over this band of con-
spirators, assassins and robbers, Gadianton stood as the
head.
The next year after Pahoran's assassination, the
Lamanites invaded the lands of the Nephites. The
Lamanite armies were commanded b}'^ a Nephite dissen-
214 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
ter named Coriantumr. He was a descendant of
Zarahemla, therefore, presumedly, of the tribe of
Judah. He determined on new and venturesome tac-
tics, and caused his forces to make an unexpecfled dash
through the Nephite territor3^ The Nephites every-
where gave way before them. They marched through
the center of the country, ravaging its most populous
and richest districts. Before the astonished Nephites
could colle(51; their armies the enemy had assaulted and
captured their beautiful and strongl}- fortified capital,
and for the first time the savage soldiery of Laman
held possession of the towers, temples and palaces of
Zarahemla. On this occasion the chief judge, Pacu-
meni, was slain. Intoxicated with his uninterrupted
successes, the Lamanite general crowded yet further
north, neglecting to keep up his line of communication
in the rear.
Coriantumr's hope was to obtain possession of the
narrow isthmus which was the key to both continents.
In this he failed. The Nephite commander first checked
his progress northward, and then cut off his retreat.
In a fierce battle that followed he was killed, his armies
surrendered, and the remnants hastened ingloriously
home, Moronihah, the Nephite commander, magnani-
mously permitting them to return unmolested. (B. C.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
PACUMENI vSLAIN — HELAMAN CHOSEN CHIEF JUDGE— THE
CONSPIRACY^ TO SLAY HIM — KISHKUMEN KILLED — THE
PROSPERITY OF THE NEPHITRS UNDER HF^lvAMAN.
AS PACUMENI, the chief judge, had been slain at
the capture of Zaiahemla, no sooner was the war
over than an ele^lion took place to fill his vacant seat.
The choice fell upon Helaman, the more righteous of
the people providentially being still in the majority.
Helaman being a God-fearing, just man, his elec-
tion was ver}' distasteful to the Gadianton band and its
sympathizers. The}' resolved to slay him as they had
before slain the younger Pahoran, and place Gadianton
on the judgment seat in his stead. To accomplish
this the same vile instrument was chosen — Kishkumen,
But the protecting hand of the great Jehovah was over
and round about Helaman, and he preserved him from
the assassin's knife. A ser^-ant of Helaman, possibly
a dete(5live commissioned in such times of peril to watch
the movements of the dangerous classes, by disguise
became acquainted with the doings of the robber band,
and of their intentions towards his master.
As Kishkumen was on his way to fulfil his bloody
work, this servant, whose name is not recorded, met
him, and gave him one of their secret signs. This
admitted him into the confidence of the assassin, who
explained his errand, and asked to be conducted pri-
vately into the judgment hall, where Helaman was
then sitting in the performance of his duties. This
was agreed upon; the two proceeded to where the mur-
derer expelled to find his vi(5lim. The strateg}^ of the
2l6 STORY OF THE BOOK OK MORMON.
servant disarmed his suspicions, he was off his guard.
At the opportune moment the servant stabbed Kish-
kumen, and so adroitly did he perform his work, that
the robber fell dead without a groan. The servant
immediatel}^ ran to the judgment hall, and informed
Helaman of all that he had heard, seen and done. With-
out dela}^ orders M-ere issued for the arrest of the band,
but its members, fnding that Kishkumen did not
return, and fearing he had miscarried in his unholy
work, under the guidance of their leader fled precipi-
tately into the wilderness by a secret way, and, in the
depths of its luxuriant vegetation, hid in a place where
they could not be found. (B. C. 50).
The succeeding years were of peculiar prosperit3^
though not of great righteousness, amongst the Ne-
phite people. The}- spread out and colonized in every
dire(5lion. Many thousands emigrated to the northern
continent, among them great numbers of Ammonites,
who were originally Lamanites. Numerous new cities
were built, and old ones repaired; ship building was
largely carried on, and the arts and manufa(5lures
encouraged. Temples, tabernacles and san6luaries
were eredled in great numbers; in fa6l, the people
spread out and covered both continents north and
south, east and west. The sacred historian states that
he has not recorded one hundredth part of the doings
of the people — their wickedness and righteousness,
their wars and contentions, their peace and prosperity ;
but many records were kept, upon which the history of
these things were engraved, and all that is necessary
for the world's good will be brought to light in
heaven's own time.
The annals of the remainder of Helanian's rule
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 217
are very short. In the years B. C. 45 and 44 there
were many contentions in the land, but in the latter
portion of the succeeding year they measurably ceased,
and tens of thousands were baptized unto repentance.
So great was the prosperity of the church at this time,
that even the priesthood were surprised thereat, and at
the multiplicity of blessings that were poured out upon
the people. This happy state of affairs continued until
the death of Helaman, though somewhat marred by the
increasing pride and vanity that long-continued pros-
perity had begotten in the hearts of many of the
Christians.
Helaman himself was a righteous man : He did
observe to keep the judgments, and the statutes, and
the comniandments of God ; and he did do that which
was right in the sight of God continually, and he did
walk after the ways of his father, insomuch that he
did prosper in the land. So writes the historian of
Helaman; what more can be said of any man?
Helaman had two sons to whom he gave the
names of Nephi and Lehi, to remind them, when they
heard their own names called, of the faith and good-
ness of their great ancestors, who, by God's direction,
led their fathers to the promised land. When Hela-
man died he was succeeded by his son Nephi.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
THE SONS OF HELAMAN ,— NEPHI'S RIGHTEOUS RULE;—
THE LAMANITES AGAIN JINVADE JZARAHEMLA — THEY
DRIVE THE NEPHITES INTO THE NORTHERN CONTINENT
— THE MINIvSTRATIONS OF NEPHI AND I.EHI — THE MANI-
FESTATIONS OF GOD'S POWER IN THE CITY^OF NEPHI —
AMINADAB — THE CONVERSION OF THE LAMANITES —
UNIVERSAL PEACE.
TN NEPHI we have one of the greatest prophets that
ever trod the earth, or to whom the God of our
salvation revealed his glorious will. He lived during
the greater portion of the first century before Christ,
and disappeared from the knowledge of mankind but
a short time before the advent of the Messiah as a babe
in Bethlehem. He is first referred to in the Book of
Mormon (B. C- 44) as the elder of Helaman's two sons,
Lehi being the 3''ounger. These two brothers appear
to have been inseparable during their lives. They are
nearly always mentioned as associated in the great and
oft-times perilous labors of the ministry undertaken
for the salvation of either Nephites or Lamanites.
We have no information with regard to the time of
Nephi's birth, but when his father died, in the 3^ear B.
C. 39, he succeeded him as chief judge, the duties of
which ofBce he filled with wisdom and justice for about
nine years, when, owing to the wickedness of the peo-
ple, he resigned that office, and Cezoram was chosen
by the people in his stead (B. C. 30).
The years that Nephi judged his people are some
of the darkest in Nephite history. Owing to their
great pride and iniquity, the Lord left tliem to them-
STORY OK THE BOOK OF MORMON. 219
selves, and they became weak like unto the Lamanties,
man for man. When war was declared, the latter,
being much the more numerous, carried everything
before them. In vain the Nephites struggled for their
homes and their liberties. They were forced back by
the hordes of the Lamanites from cit}^ to city, from land
to land. Manti, Gideon, Cumeni, Moroni, and even
Zarahemla fell. Nor did the war end when the blood-
thirsty Lamanites held high carnival in the midst of its
towers and palaces. Onward swept the invading host;
backward fled the defenders of the commonwealth,
and backward they continued until every town and
city, every tower and fort, from Melek to Moroni, from
Manti to Bountiful, were filled with the savage, half-
disciplined, dark-skinned warriors of. Laman. Not a
place could be found in the whole southern continent
where the soldiers of the Nephites successfully held
their ground. Zarahemla, with its hallowed associa-
tions, its glorious temples, where the daily sacrifice was
unceasingly offered, its proud palaces, its luxurious
homes, its courts of justice, where the chief judge sat
in the magnificence of almost kingl}^ authority to
administer the law — this their queen city, the seat of
their government, the centre of their civilization, the
home of their highest priesthood, was in the hands of
their merciless, vandal-like foes. Nor had the danger
stopped; with hurried hands the Nephites built a line
of defence across the Isthmus of Panama from sea to
sea, for the unnumbered hosts of their conquerors were
still pushing fonvard. This line of fortifications was
eff"e(5lual; it stopped the roll of the barbaric tide north-
ward, and the Lamanite commanders rested with the
possession of a continent.
220 STORY OF THK BOOK OF MORMOX.
In this war the Nephite dissenters took adlive part
against their white brethren, and to this fadl, in part,
ma}' be attributed the sudden success that shone on the
Lanianite arms. But little by little in succeeding years
the half repentant Nephites regained their lost ground,
until (B. C. 31) the most northerly half of their pos-
sessions had again fallen into their hands ; but because
of their only partial repentance, their leaders had not
strength to lead them further, and Zarahemla still
remained in the hands of the warriors. of Laman.
When Nephi retired from the judgment seat it
was with the intention of devoting his entire time to
the preaching of the gospel. He associated his brother
Lehi with him, and commencing at the most northerly
settlement on the southern continent, Bountiful, he
journe3^ed and preached throughout all the land south-
ward in the possession of the Nephites. From thence
the two brothers passed onwards to Zarahemla, where
they found many Nephite dissenters, to whom they
proclaimed the word of God in great power. Numbers
of these confessed their sins, were baptized unto repent-
ance, and immediately returned to their brethren to
repair, if possible, the wTongs the}^ had done, and make
such restitution as lay in their power.
Numbers of the Lamanites also received the truth
gladly, insomuch that eight thousand of that race were
baptized in Zarahemla and the regions round about.
From Zarahemla the prophets proceeded to the
Lamanite capital in the land of Nephi, where yet
mightier power attended them. The voice of God
from heaven sustained their testimony; angels minis-
tered to the people who assembled to see theui ; neither
prisons, nor chains, nor l)onds could restrain or hold
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 221
them, and they accomplished an ever blessed and
marvelous work amongst the benighted children of
Laman (B. C. 30). God's power was manifested at
these times in mercy to the darkened condition of the
minds of the Lamanites, when only extraordinary mani-
festations of his divine goodness could reach their
hearts. They had no records to which they could appeal,
and all their traditions were opposed to the Holy Being
whose message of eternal joy the Nephite prophets
bore. Thus in their weakness they were strengthened
by signs and wonders which a people better educated in
the things of God could with but ill grace claim.
The story of the ministration of Nephi and Lehi
in the land of Nephi is of the deepest interest. When
they reached its chief city they were thrust into that
same prison into which Amnion and his companions
were cast by the guards of King Linihi. Here they
were kept with little or no food for a number of days.
At the end of this time the officers of the Lamanites
went to the prison with the intention of slaying the
Iwo brothers. But to their intense surprise the
Lamanites found them encircled about as if by fire.
At this strange spe6lacle fear fell upon the officers.
They dared not touch the two prisoners lest they should
be burned. Yet when they saw that Nephi and Lehi
were not consumed their hearts took courage, though
they still stood as if struck dumb with amazement.
At this point the two brethren stood forward and
began to explain that what was seen was manifested
that they might learn that no one could harm them,
and that they were the servants of the Most High, and
his almighty arm shielded them. Nor was this all : a
sudden earthquake shook the ground, the prison walls
222 vSTORY OK THK BOOK OF MORMON.
tottered to their foundations, a pall of thick darkness
covered all whom curiosity or other motives had
gathered to the prison. The unburning flame, the
tottering walls, the quivering earth, the impenetrable
cloud of blackness, all conspired to fill the hearts of
the Lamanites with solemn fear and awful dread.
The}' realized the almighty power of God; the}' were
filled with the sense of their own abje(5l insignificance.
A voice, the voice of One whom they knew not, sounded
in their affrighted ears. Once and again, yea, a
third time, and each time that the voice came it was
followed b}' the trembling of the earth and the shak-
ing of the prison walls. All nature quivered'at the
presence of the Majesty on High, whilst the heavy,
palpable, impenetrable, darkness still enshrouded them.
From above the voice descended; it was outside the
cloud; its tones came not to their quaking hearts with
the roar of the pealing thiinder; nor was it like the
tumultuous flow of angry waters; but a still voice
of perfedl mildness, almost a whisper, that pierced to
their inmost souls. That voice was the voice of the
mighty God of Jacob, and he called upon all those who
heard him to repent, and to do his servants no hurt.
With the third repetition of this command were added
marvelous words of salvation that cannot be uttered by
men. And because of the thick pall of darkness that
enveloped them, and the fearful dread that filled their
hearts, none dared to move. Fear, astonishment, appre-
hension of what was to come, had riveted each to the
spot on which he stood.
Among the crowd was a Nephite dissenter, an
apostate from the true church, named Aminadab. This
man, happening to turn his face in the direction in
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 223
which the two disciples stood, beheld that their faces
shone with a glorious light, and that they were convers-
ing with some one who appeared to be above them, for
their eyes were turned heavenward. Aminadab drew
the attention of those who surrounded him to this glo-
rious appearance, and the spell that bound them was
sufficiently removed to enable them to turn towards the
prisoners and to become witnesses of the faA also.
What do all these things mean? they anxiously
inquired. The}- do converse with the angels of God,
answered Aminadab. What shall we do that this cloud
of darkness may be removed? was their next question.
You must repent and cry unto the Voice, even until ye
shall have faith in Christ, he replied. They did cry
unto God with all the energ}^ that their terrif3dng sur-
roundings inspired, and so continued to supplicate
until the cloud was dispersed. Then, to their great
surprise, they discovered that they also were entombed
in a pillar of living fire. Yet this fire did not hurt
them, it did not singe their garments, it did not con-
sume the prison walls, but their terror was swept awa}-,
and they were filled with a joy that was unspeakable,
for the Holy Spirit of God filled their souls, and they
broke forth in marvelous words of praise and rejoicing.
Again a pleasant, searching whisper reached their glad-
dened ears. It said unto them, Peace, peace be unto
you because of your faith in my Well-beloved, who was
from the foundation of the world. Now there were
about 300 souls who heard and saw these things, and
they cast up their e3^es unto heaven, which was opened
to their vision, and holy angels came down and minis- '
tered unto them.
The tidings of this glorious appearing were quickly
2 24 STORY OF THK BOOK OF MORMON.
spread near and far in the lands where the Lamanites
dwelt. So powerful was the testimony, and so great
were the evidences, that the major portion of the people
believed, repented and obeyed the gospel. Then, like
all true Saints, they manifested the sincerity of their
repentance by works of restitution; the}- laid down
their weapons of war, they cast aside their false tra-
ditions, their hatred gave place to love, and they
restored to the Nephites Zarahemla and the other lands
they had taken from them (B. C. 30).
So great was the reformation in their chara(5ler
that thej^ soon exceeded the Nephites in their faith and
good works. Extraordinary as it may appear, instead
of Nephite missionaries visiting the Lamanites, Laman-
ite missionaries were soon ministering the precious
truths of the gospel among the Nephites. Then a
universal peace, such as had never before been known
since the division of the two races, extended over the
whole land. Indeed, from this time the history of the
two nations, to a great extent, becomes one. Together
the}' worshiped the Lord, together the}- rose and sank,
together they battled with the assassin hosts of Gad-
ianton, together they triumphed over those desperadoes,
and together they sought refuge in one vast body when
there was no safety but in massing the people in one
land; together the more unrighteous portions of both
races were destroyed at the crucifixion of the Savior,
and together the more righteous ones witnessed his
appearing, listened to his words, received his law, and
became members of his holy church. Henceforth, for
generations, the}'^ were no more of Nephi, no more of
Laman, no more of Jacob, no more of Ishmael — all
were of Christ.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
GROWTH OF EVIL AMONGST THE NEPHITES— THE INCREASE
OF THE GADIANTON ROBBERS— NEPHI'S ANNOUNCEMENT
OF THE MURDER OF THE CHIEF JUDGE— THE DISCOV-
ERY—NEPHI ARREvSTED — HE IS PROVEN INNOCENTj-
GOD'S COVENANT WITH HIM — INCREASE OF INIQUITY— A
TERRIBLE FAMINE —THE WELCOME RAIN— THE TREND
TO DEATH.
'T^HE GOODIvY reign of universal peace, to which
we referred in our last chapter, brought stability,
stabilit}^ developed wealth, wealth engendered pride,
pride gave birth to numerous sins, to be followed by
contentions, dissensions, and then wars. These evils
begat sorrow, sorrow softened their hearts to repent-
ance, repentance was followed by the blessing of God,
which again brought peace, prosperity and, by-and-by,
riches. At this era of Nephite national life, this is
the one eternal round which their inspired historians
are compelled to chronicle. Within four short years
of the happy time of universal peace we have just
referred to, the riches of the world had induced
stubborness and rebellion towards God, combined with
the insane desire to rob, plunder and murder their
fellow-men. If there ever were a people swift to do
evil, it was the Nephites of this generation. In the
year B. C. 26, Cezoram, the chief judge, was murdered
by an unknown hand, as he sat on the judgment seat,
and his son, who succeeded him, suffered in like man-
ner within the year. The Gadianton robbers grew in
strength, numerically and morally, and were adluall}'
fostered amongst the Nephites, while the more right-
eous Lamanites utterly destroyed all that they found
2 26 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
within their borders. The one people dwindled in
unbelief, the other grew in grace and in the power of
God's divine Spirit.
Nephi, who had gone to the northern continent,
tarried there until the 3'ear B. C. 23, when, his teach-
ings and prophecies having been rejedled by its in-
habitants, he returned in sorrow to Zarahenila; but
he found no comfort there. The Gadianton robbers
filled the judgment seats, and perverted the law to
their own avarice and lust. The life, the property, the
liberty, the virtue of righteous men and women were
counted but things of naught, their playthings or their
spoil.
Nephi's house in Zarahemla was situated on one of
the principal thoroughfares. It led to the chief market-
place. In his garden, near the highway, he built a
tower, whither it was his wont to repair for praj-er.- On
one occasion, shortl}- after his return from the north, he
became so deeply concerned because of the iniquities of
the people, that in earnest supplication to the Lord he
raised his voice so high that he was heard by the passers
by in the street below. A listening crowd soon gathered,
and when the prophet had ended his devotions and
become aware of their presence, he commenced to teach
them. His words were not sugar-coated, to adapt them
to the tastes of his congregation. To the contrary, he
boldly rebuked their sins, their murders, and their
secret wickedness; at the same time, in the love of the
gospel, he entreated and plead with them to amend
their lives and do better. He also warned them of the
terrible judgments that would fall npon them if they
did not turn from their sinful ways.
Towards the conclusion of his address, Nephi
STORY OF THE ROOK OF MORMON. 22/
surprised his hearers b}^ stating that the chief judge
had been murdered by his brother, who was anxious to
obtain the chief judgeship himself. Both these men
were members of the vile band of robbers who owned
Gadianton as their chief.
The people did not believe Nephi's statement that
their chief jndge was murdered, so five incredulous men
ran to the judgment hall to find out the truth of the
matter. When tlie}^ reached there they discovered
Seezoram — for that was the name of the judge — lying
dead in a pool of blood near the judgment seat. The
five messengers were so overcome with fear at this awful
sight that they fell to the earth.
Soon after, other citizens who had not heard Nephi
came in. Finding the dead judge and the five men all
there they concluded that the latter must be the mur-
derers, who, by some manifestation of the power of
heaven, had been prevented from leaving the scene of
their shameful deed. The officers therefore took the
five and cast them into prison.
When the wicked learned that Nephi's words had
proven true, they charged him with being an accom-
plice. The}' did not believe in revelation from God,
so argued that Nephi must have had a hand in the
murder or he could not have known anything about
it. He was therefore taken and bound and brought
before the multitude. Then they cross-examined him,
abused him, and finally offered him money to confess
that he had employed some one to do the dreadful deed.
The^^ were anxious to bring reproach and trouble upon
him that they might have an excuse for not believing
his words and heeding his teachings. How he escaped
their plot we will let the Book of Mormon itself tell.
2 28 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
The conversation is between Nephi and his accus-
ers:
And now behold, I will shew unto you another
sign, and see if ye will in this thing seek to destroy
me.
Behold I say unto you, Go to the house of Seantuni,
who is the brother of Seezorani, and say unto him, Has
Nephi the pretended prophet, who doth prophesy so
much evd concerning this people, agreed with thee, in
which ye have murdered Seezoram, who is your brother?
And behold, he shall say unto you. Nay.
iVnd ye shall sav unto him, Have ye murdered
3'our brother?
And he shall stand with fear, and wist not what
to say. And behold, he shall deny unto you; and he
shall make as if he were astonished; nevertheless, he
shall declare unto you that he is innocent.
But behold, ye shall examine him, and 3'e shall
find blood upon the skirts of his cloak.
And when ye have seen this, ye shall sa}^: From
whence cometh this blood? Do we not know that
this is the blood of your brother? And then shall he
tremble, and shall look pale, even as if death had come
upon him.
And then shall ye say, Because of this fear and
this paleness which has come upon your face, behold we
know that thou art guilty.
And then shall greater fear come upon him;
and then shall he confess unto you, and deny no
more that he has done this murder.
And then shall he say unto you, that I, Nephi, know
nothing concerning the matter, save it were given unto
me by the power of God. And then shall ye know that
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 229
I am an honest man, and that I am sent nnto you from
God.
And it came to pass that they went and did, even
according as Nephi had said nnto them. And behold,
the words which he had said, were true; for according
to the words, he did deny; and also according to the
words he did confess.
Some of the citizens now acknowledged that he
was a prophet, others declared that he was a god, whilst
many remained hardened in their sins. So violent
became the contention that the people gathered in
excited crowds upon the streets, wrangling and disput-
ing about the events of the past two days, and in their
excitement the}- entirely forgot Nephi, and left him
standing alone in the street.
With a sorrowful heart he wended his way home-
ward; but before he reached there, the voice of the
Lord came to him with many words of comfort and
commendation. As with others of his servants, the
Lord made a covenant with him, that he would bless
him forever. That whatsoever he bound on earth
should be bound in heaven, and whatsoever he loosed
on earth should be loosed in heaven; that he should
have power over the elements to bless and to curse ;
to smite the earth with famine and pestilence and
destru6lion.
Notwithstanding the man}- proofs the ungodl}'
Nephites had that Nephi was a true prophet, they con-
tinued to rejecl his teachings. They persecuted him,
and even went so far as to seek his life. But he was
conveyed out of their midst by the power of God, and
ministered among other peoples.
The general chara(5ler of the Nephites now com-
230 STORY OK THE BOOK OF MORMON.
menced to grow worse and worse. The Gadiauton
robbers grew stronger and stronger. For a few years
there was increasing commotion, disunion and blood-
shed. At last, wearied at beholding so much misery
and contention, Nephi prayed that the Lord would
not suffer the people to be destroyed by the
sword, but rather let a famine desolate the land and,
peradventure, bring the people to an understanding
of their awful condition, and cause them to humble
themselves and repent. The Hoh' One heard and
answered his petition, the heavens became as brass
over the land, the rains ceased, the earth dried up,
the crops failed, the people perished for want of food.
Two 3'ears passed (B. C. 19 and 18) and the third
came, and still the refreshing rain was withheld (B. C.
17). During this year the people, humbled by their
sufferings, turned towards the Lord. The}- endeavored
to root out iniquit}' from their midst. They destroyed
the Gadiauton robber bands, and established the govern-
ment on a more righteous foundation. Nephi, observ-
ing the change in their condu(fl and feelings, interceded
with the Lord in their behalf. His praj-ers were ans-
wered, the welcome rain descended on the parchcd-up
soil, and a bounteous harvest once more crowned the
labors of the husbandman (B. C. 16).
The repentant people now regarded Nephi in his
true light; they revered him as a great prophet, and for
a few short j^ears tliej' listened to his teachings. While
they did so the}^ prospered. But the leaven of
unrighteousness had too thoroughly permeated the
national life for their faithfulness to God to be of long
duration. Two, three, or perhaps half a dozen years
they would maintain their integrity, and then corrup-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 23 1
tion would seethe, the vile would snatcli the reins of
government, the good would be oppressed, and conten-
tion and war, with all their horrors, would again reign
supreme. Thus it was after the three years of famine.
For two years there was peace, in the third there
began to be much strife (B. C. 13), in the next, the
Gadianton bands reappeared, and carried havoc amongst
their more peaceable fellow-countrymen. Going on,
year by year they grew in iniquit}^ and ripened for
destrucflion. For many years Nephi strove to stem the
tide of vice. At times partial success rewarded his
unceasing efforts, and he had joy in the baptism of
some honest souls. But the great bulk of the people
had rejedled the gospel, they had no love for its holy
principles, and were unfit for its blessings.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
SAMUEL THE LAMANITE — HIS MISSION AND PROPHECIES —
THE VAIN ATTEMPT TO DESTROY HIM— HE RETURNS
TO HIS OWN COUNTRY.
'\^7E COME now to the days of Samuel the Lanian-
ite (B. C. 6). Without any previous reference to
him, he appears suddenly in the foreground of ancient
American history, bearing a weighty and solemn mes-
sage; a messenger of God's displeasure, he stands a
Jonah to the Nephites, That message is faithfully
delivered; then he disappears forever from our sight.
The condition of society in the days of Samuel
232 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
was somewhat peculiar. The Nephites and Lainanites
had, so far as righteousness is concerned, to a 'great
extent changed places. The former were puffed up
with worldl}' pride, were full of vain boastings, envy-
ings, strifes, malice, persecutions, murders and all
manner of iniquities. They cast out, the}' stoned, they
slew the servants of God, while they encouraged,
exalted and rewarded the false teachers who flattered
them in their vileness and sung in their ears the siren's
song of "all is well." They reveled in all the luxury
that the fatness of the land brought forth; they were
ostentatious in the use of gold and silver and precious
things ; but their hearts never turned in thankfulness
to the great Giver of all these bounties. The majority
of the Lamanites, on the contrary, walked circuni-
spe(?tly before God; they were full of faith and integrity,
were zealous in the work of converting their fellows,
and kept the commandments, statutes and judgments of
the Lord according to the law of Moses.
Such was the condition of affairs when the Laman-
ite prophet Samuel appeared among the sin-stained
citizens of Zarahemla, and for many days preached
repentance in their midst. Their e3xs were blind and
their ears were deaf, sin filled their souls, and in their
anger the}^ cast him out. But the work of his mission
was not yet accomplished. As he was preparing to
return to his own countr}-, a holy angel visited him and
proclaimed the voice of the Lord. That voice com-
manded that he should turn back and prophesy to the
people of Zarahemla the things that should come into
his heart.
He returned to the city, but was refused admission
at its gates. The iniquitous dwellers therein had no
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 233
desire to have their peace disturbed b}' the voice of
divine threatenings. But the prophet had the word of
the Lord burning within him, and could not be
restrained. He mounted the walls of the city, and
from this conspicuous vantage ground, with out-
stretched hands and loud voice, he proclaimed to the
wicked the unwelcome tidings of their coming des-
tru(5lion. Many listened to his proclamation, some few
were pricked in their hearts, repented of their evil
deeds, and sought the prophet Nephi, that they might
be baptized. Others were angry, they gathered up the
stones in the roadway and hurled them at Samuel ; they
drew forth their boM's and shot arrows at him. But
to no effedl ; the prote6ling power of the Holy Spirit
was around him, and he could not be harmed.
When some beheld how wonderfully the prophet
was presented, it was a testimony to them that God was
with him, and they also sought Nephi, confessing their
sins. But the great body of the populace grew more
enraged at the want of success that attended their
murderous efforts. They called upon their captains to
seize and bind him. They cried out. He hath a devil,
and it is by this power he is preserved ; take the fellow,
bind him, and away with him! Following the wild
Satanic cr}^ of the multitude, the officers of the law
endeavored to arrest Samuel. But he cast himself down
from the wall of the city and fled out of the lands of
the Nephites into his own country. There he preached
and prophesied among his own people; but amongst
the people of Nephi he was never heard of more.
The prophecies of Samuel are amongst the most
wonderful recorded in holy writ. He especially fore-
told many things regarding the life and death of our
234 vSTORY OF THK BOOK OF MORiMON.
Savior, aud concerning the future destin}- of his peo-
ple, and of the Nephites.
With regard to the birth of the Redeemer he said :
Behold, I give unto you a sign ; for five years more
Cometh, and behold, then cometh the Son of God, to
redeem all those who shall believe on his name.
And behold, this will I give unto you for a sign at
the time of his coming ; for behold, there shall be
great lights in heaven, insomuch that in the night
before he cometh there shall be no darkness, insomuch
that it shall appear unto man as if it was day.
Therefore there shall be one day and a night, and
a day, as if it were one day, and there were no night;
and this shall be unto you for a sign; for ye shall
know of the rising of the sun, and also of its setting;
therefore they shall know of a surety that there shall
be two days and a night; nevertheless the night shall
not be darkened ; and it shall be the night before he is
born.
And behold there shall a new star arise, such an
one as ye never have beheld; and this also shall be a
sign unto you.
And behold this is not all, there shall be many
signs and wonders in heaven.
And it shall come to pass that ye shall all be
amazed and wonder, insomuch that ye shall fall to the
earth.
Regarding the death of the Lord Jesus he declared:
But behold, as I said unto you concerning another
sign, a sign of his death, behold, in that day that he shall
suffer death, the sun shall be darkened and refuse to
give his light unto you; and also the moon, and the
stars ; and there shall be no light upon the face of this
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 235
land, even from the time that he shall suffer death, for
the space of three days, to the time that he shall rise
again from the dead.
Yea, at the time that he shall yield up the ghost,
there shall be thunderings and lightnings for the space
of many hours, and the earth shall shake and tremble,
and the rocks which are upon the face of this earth;
which are both above the earth and beneath, which ye
know at this time are solid, or the more part of it is
one solid mass, shall be broken up;
Yea, the}^ shall be rent in twain, and shall ever
after be found in seams and in cracks, and in broken
fragments upon the face of the whole earth; yea, both
above the earth and beneath.
And behold there shall be great tempests, and
there shall be many mountains laid low^ like unto a
valley^ and there shall be many places, which are now
called valleys, which shall become mountains, whose
height thereof is great.
And many highways shall be broken up, and
many cities shall become desolate.
And many graves shall be opened, and shall 3'ield
up many of their dead; and many saints shall appear
unto many.
And behold thus hath the angel spoken unto me ;
for he said unto me, that there should be thunderings
and lightnings for the space of many hours :
And he said unto me that while the thunder and
the lightning lasted, and the tempest, that these things
should be, and that darkness should cover the face of
the whole earth for the space of three days.
And the angel said unto me, that many shall see
greater things than these, to the intent that they
236 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
mi^ht believe that these signs and these wonders
should come to pass, upon all the face of this land;
to the intent that there should be no cause of unbelief
among the children of men ;
We shall see as we proceed how wonderfull}^ all
these sayings of Samuel the Lamanite were fulfilled.
He closed his prophec}' with these emphatic words.
First regarding the Lamanites:
Therefore, saith the Lord, I will not utterly- destroy
them ; but I will cause that in the day of my wisdom
they shall return again unto me, saith the Lord.
And now behold, saith the Lord, concerning the
the people of the Nephites, if they will not repent and
observe to do my will, I will utterly destro}' them, saith
the Lord, because of their unbelief, notwithstanding
the many mighty works which I have done among
them; and as surel}^ as the Lord liveth shall these
things be, saith the Lord,
CHAPTER XL.
NEPHI TRANSLATED — HIvS SON NEPHI — TIME OF THE SAV-
IOR'S COMING— THE CONSPIRACY TO SLAY THE BELIEV-
ERS—THE REVELATION TO NEPHI — THE PROMISED
SIGNS APPEAR — INCREASE OF THE GADIANTON ROBBERS
—WAR — LACHONEUS GATHERS ALL THE PEOPLE TO
ONE LAND— THE END OF THE STRUGGLE.
eHORTLY before the birth of Christ, Nephi trans-
ferred the plates of brass and other records to his
son Nephi, gave him charge concerning them, and
departed from the land of Zarahcmla. Whither he
went, or what became of him, is hidden from the knowl-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 237
edge of mankind. That he did not return to the dwell-
ing-places of humanity is testified to by his son some
ten years afterwards.
Six hundred years had now passed since Lehi and
his companions left Jerusalem. The time had arrived,
of which Samuel the Lamanite and other prophets had
borne testimony, when the phenomena should appear
to bear witness of the birth of the Son of God. As the
day drew near, signs and miracles increased among the
people. But the hardened in heart, who were ever on
the watch to entrap those who believed in the words of
the prophets, began to circulate the idea that the time
had passed and the prophecies had failed. Not content
with mocking and reviling those who were anxiously
looking for the promised two days and a night when
there should be no darkness, they went so far as to
appoint a day when all who believed in the coming of
the Savior should be slain, except the sign be first
given.
This gross wickedness caused Nephi great sorrow;
his only recourse was to heaven. Before God, in
mighty pra3'er, he bowed in behalf of his imperiled
people. All the day long he continued his earnest
supplications. At last the word of the Anointed One
came unto him, saying, Lift up your head and be of
good cheer, for behold the time is at hand, and on this
night shall the sign be given, and on the morrow come
I into the world, to show unto the world that I will ful-
fil all that which I have caused to be spoken b}^ the
mouth of my holy prophets. As was thus declared,
so was it fulfilled, for at the going down of the sun it
was as light as day, and so continued until the morn-
ing, when the sun again rose in its usual course. A
238
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
new star had also appeared in the heavens. Then the
faithful rejoiced, their hearts were full to overflowing,
they knew that their Redeemer was born, and that the
great plan of salvation had entered its most glorious
phase ; God, the great Jehovah, was tabernacled in the
flesh. But the wicked quaked with awful dread, they
realized the extent of their iniquity, the\' sensed that
they were murderers at heart, for they had plotted to
take the lives of the righteous, and in the terror that
THE XEW STAR.
this overwhelming sense of their piteous condition
wrought, they sank to the earth as though they were
dead.
Many now believed who previously had scorned
the divine messages that the prophets bore; but others,
inspired of Satan, as soon as thej^ recovered from the
fright which the appearance of the promised signs had
produced, began to explain them away, and, by various
lying rumors, endeavored to nullify the good that had
been done in the hearts of many. Others again com-
menced to teach that it was no longer expedient to
'^'>^iiN,p:!iiiil!ljljjl
m
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 24 1
observe the laws of Moses, drawing their conclusions
from a false interpretation of the scriptures. Not-
withstanding these efforts of the evil one, Nephi
and others went forth among the people preaching,
baptizing many, and bringing a short period of peace
to the land.
But those who were righteous were not strong
enough to overcome the vast hosts of Gadianton robbers,
who, time and time again, swarmed from their mountain
retreats, and carried carnage, rapine and desolation to
the homes of both Nephites and Lamanites.
Year by year these marauding bands repeated
their incursions. Sometimes one party conquered,
sometimes the other. This condition of affairs kept the
people in such a state of terror and anxiety that life
grew a burden to them. Still they repented not in
sincerity of heart, and their many afflidlions were per-
mitted b}' the Lord because of their iniquity.
So great was the misery entailed by these invasions,
that the chief judge, Lachoneus, at last determined to
gather all the people into one place, and by a policy of
masterly inactivity wear out or starve out the invaders.
We can scarcely understand how terrible must have
been the misery endured by the nation at this time, to
have caused the conception and execution of such a
measure. Can we picture to ourselves the scenes that
must have occurred as the people of two continents
converged to one gathering place? From the shores of
the great lakes in the north, from the storm 3' Atlantic
seaboard, from the coast where the mild Pacific ebbs
and flows, from the regions of the southern Andes, the
migrating hosts flowed together to Zarahemla and
Bountiful, the lands selected as the temporary gather-
242 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
iiig place. They came with their flocks and herds,
their grain and provisions, leaving nothing that would
help to sustain the robber bands while they continued
to wage their unhallowed war. (A. C. 17.)
When the people reached the gathering place they
fortified it so strongh' that it became impregnable to
their enemies, tinder Gidgiddoni's instructions the^-
also made themselves strong armor and shields as
well as all kinds of weapons, so that they might be
fully prepared for the da}- of battle. Lachoneus, in the
meantime, preached to them in great power, so much
so that they feared his denunciations, forsook all their
sins, and turned to the Lord in great humility and
devotion.
Game soon became so scarce in the wilderness that
the Gadiantons began to suffer for food while besieging
the Nephite stronghold. In addition to this, the
Nephites made frequent attacks upon them. Seeing
his armies wasting away from famine and the sword,
Zemnarihah, their commander, gave up all hope 6f
success and withdrew from the siege, and formed the
design of marching his followers to the most distant
parts of the land northward.
To have permitted the robbers to escape would
have increased the difliculties under which the Nephites
had so long suffered. Gidgiddoni, the Nephite general,
having learned of their purpose, and knowing their
weakness for want of food and because of the great
slaughter made among them through the successful
attacks of his own troops, sent his armies to cut off
their retreat. During the night the}' got beyond the
robbers, who, when they began their march on the mor-
row, found themselves between the armies of the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 243
Nephites. Many thousands surrendered, and the
remainder were slain. Zemnarihah was taken and
hanged to the top of a tree; which, when he was dead,
the Nephites cut down. They then greatU' rejoiced
and praised God for his mercies and blessings in deliver-
ing them from their enemies.
The soldiers of Gidgiddoni succeeded in taking as
prisoners all the robbers that were not killed. The
word of God was preached to them, and those who
repented of their sins, and convenanted to cease their
evil practices, were set at liberty. The remainder were
condemned for their crimes and punished according to
law. This entirel}' broke up these bands of murderers
and robbers, and peace and righteousness again pre-
vailed (A. C. 21), but it w^as not until five years later
(A. C. 26) that the Nephites returned to and possessed
their old homes.
CHAPTER XLI.
THE LAST CHIEF JUDGE MURDERED AND THE REPUBLIC
OVERTHROWN — THE SIGNS OF THE SAVIOR'S DEATH
APPEAR — A TERRIBLE STORM— THE UNIVERSAL DARK-
NESS—THE UNPARALLELED DESTRUCTION — THE TER-
ROR OF THOSE HOURS.
''npHE NEXT year the laws were revised according to
justice and equity. They had, doubtless, been vio-
lently tampered with during the times that the Gadian-
ton robbers held control of the administration and
elected the officers. Good order now pre.vailed through-
out the whole land. Soon new cities were founded
244 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and built, and nian}^ improvements made. Yet for all
this, the peace Avas short lived. Iniquity and dissen-
sion soon began to again raise their hideous heads, and
the prophets and servants of God were persecuted and
illegally condemned to death.
No officer, according to Nephite law, had power to
condemn a person to death without the authorit}- of the
governor, but many of the prophets were put to death
secretly by the judges. A complaint was entered
against these judges to the governor and they were
tried for their crimes, according to the law made b}- the
people.
The kindred and friends of the offenders, with the
lawyers and high priests, entered into a secret covenant
to destroy the people who were in favor of law and
justice, and to save the guilty judges from the just
penalty of their misdeeds. This was, in fa6l, the
re-establishment of the order of Gadianton. They
proposed to assassinate the governor, set up a king to
rule the country, and destroy its liberties. That same
year they murdered the chief judge Lachoneus, the
younger, as he sat in the judgment seat. The result
was not what the plotters anticipated; for the people,
being dissatisfied with the condition of affairs, divided
into tribes, ever}^ man with his famih' uniting with his
kindred and friends. This completely disorganized the
government and deranged the plans of the conspirators.
Some men had large families and many kindred and
friends, and their tribes were correspondingly large.
Each tribe appointed its chief, or leader, and it was his
special duty to see that the laws they had adopted were
properly carried out (B. C. 30).
While these terrible social overturnings were tak-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
245
ing place on this continent, how different were the
events that were occurring in the midst of the house of
Israel on the eastern continent, for it was in this 3'ear
that Jesus, the Redeemer of the world, was baptized by
John in Jordan, as Lehi, Nephi, and others of the
THE RIVER JORDAN.
ancient prophets had long before foretold; and it was in
this year that he commenced his public ministry, and
began to teach men the law of his gospel.
There was but little to unite the Nephite tribes
except their fear of the Gadianton robbers. This
appears to have led to a confederacy for the purpose of
defense. They agreed to keep peace with one another,
and established laws to prevent one tribe trespassing
upon the rights of the others.
246 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
The secret association that had slain the chief
judge ele(5led one Jacob to be their leader. Seeing
that their enemies, the tribes of the people, were too
numerous to contend with, he commanded his followers
to flee into the northernmost parts of the land, where
they could build up a kingdom to themselves. They
carried out his plan, and their flight was too speed}^ to
be intercepted. In the north they built a large city
which they called Jacobugath.
In this calamitous condition of affairs, Nephi was
called, by the voice of the Lord and the administration
of angels, to labor diligently in the ministry among
this wicked people. At first, but few accepted the
truth; but in the following year (A. C. 32) many were
baptized into the church. As the 3'ear (A. C. 33). was
passing away, the people began to look anxiously for
the fulfilment of the predi(51:ions of Samuel, the
Lamanite, concerning the important events which
would take place at the death of our Savior. Notwith-
standing the many predictions of the prophets already
fulfilled, there was much doubt and uneasiness among
the people concerning that which was yet in the future.
They had not to wait long, however, for the fulfilment
of his words.
On the fourth da}- of the thirty-fourth year the
promised signs of the Savior's crucifixion began. A
horrible and devastating tempest burst upon the land.
All that was ever told of the loudest thunder, and all
that was ever seen of the most vivid lightning, would
fail to pidlure the terrific visitation. The earth quivered
and groaned and opened in wide, unfathomable chasms.
Forests of gigantic trees were uprooted and carried
high above the earth to meet in fearful shocks in the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 247
air and then to be driven down again and shattered
upon the unj'ielding rocks. Mountains were riven
and swallowed up in yawning gulfs, or were scattered
into fragments and dispersed like hail before the tear-
ing wind. Cattle were lifted from their feet and dashed
THE CRUCIFIXION.
over precipices, or were hurried before the blast to
perish in the far off sea. Towers, temples, houses,
were torn up, scattered in fragments or crushed by
248 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
falling rocks, and together with their inmates were
ground to dust in the convulsion. Human beings
were hurled high into the air and driven from point to
point, until they found graves fathoms deep below the
earth's surface. Blue and 3-ellow flames burst from the
edges of sinking rocks, blazed for a moment and then
all was the deepest darkness again. Boiling springs
gushed upwards from sulphurous caverns. Shrieks
and howls from suffering animals, awful in themselves,
were drowned in the overwhelming uproar. Rain
poured down in torrents, cloud-bursts, like floods, washed
awa}^ all with which they came in conta(51;, and pillars of
steaming vapor seemed to unite the earth and sk}-.
This unparalleled storm raged throughout the
land for three hours only — but to those who suffered it
seemed an age.
During its short continuance the whole face of
nature was changed. Mountains sank, vallej^s rose,
the sea swept over the plains, large stagnant lakes
usurped the place of flourishing cities, great chasms,
rents and precipices disfigured the face of the earth.
Many cities were destroyed by earthquakes, fire, and
the tumultuous overflow of the waters of the great
seas.
Three days of unnatural and impenetrable dark-
ness followed the horrors of the tempest, and from the
heavens the voice of the Lord was heard by the
affrighted people, proclaiming in their terrified ears the
destrudlion that had taken place.
Terrible was the catalogue of woes that that
heavenly voice rehearsed. The great city of Zarahemla
and the inhabitants thereof God had burned with fire.
Moroni had been sunken in the depths of the sea and
w
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 25 1
her iniquitous children had been drowned. Gilgal had
been swallowed up in an earthquake and her people
were entombed in the bowels of the earth. Onihah,
Mocum and Jerusalem had disappeared and waters
overflowed the places where they so lately stood. Gad-
iandi, Gadiomnah, Jacob and Gimgimno were all
overthown, and desolate hills and valleys occupied their
places, while their inhabitants were buried deep in the
earth. Jacobugath, Laman, Josh, Gad and Kishkumen
had all been burned, most probably by lightnings from
heaven. The desolation was complete, the face of the
land was changed, tens of thousands, probably millions,
of souls had been suddenly called to meet the reward
of their sinful lives ; for this destru6lion came upon
them that their wickedness and their abominations
might be hid from the face of heaven, and that the
blood of the prophets and the saints might not come
up any more in appeal unto God against them.
CHAPTER XLII.
THE VOICE FROM HEAVEN— THE vSAVIOR TEvSTIFIES OV
HIMvSELF — SILENCE THROUGHOUT THE LAND— HOW OFT
WOULD CHRIST HAVE GATHERED HIS PEOPLE- THE
DARKNESS DEPARTS.
V^THEN THE heavenly voice had finished the
recital of the calamities that had befallen the
land and its inhabitants, the speaker commenced an
appeal to those who yet lived, and revealed to them who
he was. He declared unto them :
O all ye that are spared because 3'e were more
252 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
righteous than the}-, will ye not now return unto me,
and repent of your sins, and be converted, that I ma}^
heal you ?
Yea, verily I say unto you, if ye will come unto
me ye shall have eternal life. Behold, mine arm of
mercy is extended towards you, and whosoever will
come, him will I receive: and blessed are those who
come unto me.
Behold, I am Jesus Christ, the Son of God. I
created the heavens and the earth, and all things that
in them are. I was with the Father from the beginning.
I am in the Father, and the Father in me ; and in me
hath the Father glorified his name.
I came unto my own, and my own received me not.
And the scriptures concerning my coming are fulfilled.
And as many as have received me, to them have I
given to become the sons of God , and even so will I
to as many as shall believe on my name, for behold,
by me redemption cometh, and in me is the law of
Moses fulfilled.
I am the light and the life of the world. I am
Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end.
And ye shall offer up unto me no more the shed-
ding of blood; yea, your sacrifices and your burnt
offerings shall be done away, for I will accept none of
your sacrifices and 3^our burnt offerings ;
And ye shall offer for a sacrifice unto me a broken
heart and a contrite spirit. And whoso cometh unto me
with a broken heart and a contrite spirit, him will I
baptize with fire and with the Holy Ghost, even as the
Lamanites, because of their faith in me at the time of
their conversion, were baptized with fire and with the
Holy Ghost, and they knew it not.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 253
Behold, I have come unto the world to bring'
redemption unto the world, to save the world from sin;
Therefore, whoso repenteth and cometh unto me as
a little child, him will I receive : for of such is the
kingdom of God. Behold, for such I have laid down
my life, and have taken it up again ; therefore repent,
and come unto me ye ends of the earth, and be saved.
After the people had heard this glad message of
forgiveness and redemption, they ceased their mourn-
ing for their dead relatives, and there was silence in
the land for the space of many hours. Then again
was the voice heard, even the voice of Jesus, recount-
ing how oft he had sought to gather his Israel but the}-
would not, and promising in the future that he would
again gather them, if they would listen unto him.
But if they would not heed him, the places of their
dwellings should become desolate until the time of the
fulfilling of God's covenant with their fathers. When
the people heard this awful prophecy they began to
weep and howl again because of the loss of their kin-
dred and friends.
As on the eastern continent, so on this; at the time
of Christ's resurrection, numbers of the saints who
were dead arose from their graves and were seen and
known by many of the living. Christ had suffered for
the sin of the world, he had broken the bands of death,
he had opened the portals of the tomb, and as soon as
he came forth conqueror over death and hell, the faith-
ful ones of many generations, who were prepared for the
glories of eternity, came forth also. This was the first
resurrecftion.
Three days had passed in darkness, in terror and
in woe, when the thick -mist rolled off the face of the
2 54 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
laud, revealing to the astonished eyes of the survivors
how great had been the convulsions that had shaken
the earth. Wlieu the darkness passed away the earth
ceased to tremble, the rocks were no longer rent,
the dreadful groanings ceased, and the tumultuous
noises ended. Then nature was again at peace, and
peace filled the hearts of the living; their mourning
was turned to praise, and their jo\' was in Christ their
Deliverer.
CHAPTER XLIII.
CHRIST APPEARS IN THE LAND BOUNTIFUL — THE TESTIMONY
OF THE FATHER— JESUS CALLS TWELVE DISCIPLES —
HIS TEACHINGS TO THEM AND TO THE MULTITUDE.
OOME TIME after the tribulations that marked the
sacrifice of the Lord of life and glory, exadlly how
long we know not, a multitude assembled near the
temple, which was in the land Bountiful. The sacred
building, it seems, was not destroyed in the late over-
whelming convulsions. Possibly many of the high
priesthood had assembled there to call upon the Lord,
and to officiate in the duties of their calling. At any
rate, those whom Jesus deemed worth}' to be his twelve
disciples had, by some inspiration, gathered there. With
the rest of the multitude they conversed on the marvel-
ous changes that had been wrought by the desolating
earthquakes and their attendant horrors. They also
spake one to another with regard to the Savior, of
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 255
whose death the three days of unexampled, impenetra-
ble darkness had been a sign.
While thus engaged a strange, sweet voice fell
upon their ears, yet it pierced them to the centre, that
their whole frames trembled. At first they wist not
what it said or whence it came; nor even when the
words were again repeated did they understand. But
when they came a third time they understood their
glorious import, and knew that it was the voice of God.
He said unto them. Behold my beloved Son, in whom I
am well pleased, in whom I have glorified my name:
hear ye him. Obedient to this heavenly voice they cast
their eyes upward, and to their joyous astonishment
beheld the Messiah, clothed in a white robe, coming
out of heaven.
Even yet the}^ did not comprehend who it was,
but thought him an angel. As he descended to the
earth and stood in their midst, their wondering eyes
were all turned towards him, but for awe not a mouth
was opened or a limb moved. Then the Redeemer
stretched forth his hand and said unto the multitude :
Behold I am Jesus Christ, whom the prophets testified
should come into the world; and behold, I am the life
and light of the world; and I have drunk out of the
bitter cup which the Father hath given to me, and have
glorified the Father in taking upon me the sins of the
world, in the which I have suffered the will of the
Father in all things from the beginning.
Then the whole multitude fell to the earth, they
remembered the sa3'ings of the prophets, they realized
that their God stood in the midst of them.
Again the risen Redeemer spake : Arise, said he,
and come forth unto me, that you ma}- thrust your
256 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
hands into my side, and also that ye ma}- feel the
prints of the nails in my hands and in my feet, that ye
may know that I am the God of Israel and the God of
the whole earth, and have been slain for the sins of
the world.
Now they who heard him from the first to the last
went forth and assured themselves that it was he of
whom the prophets had spoken. Then with shouts of
praise the}^ cried : Hosanna ! blessed be the name of
the Most High God. And they fell down at his feet
and worshiped him.
Jesus next called Nephi to him, then eleven others,
and gave them authority to baptize the people, at the
same time strictly charging them as to the manner in
which they performed this ordinance, that all disputes
on this point might cease among the believers. The
names of the Twelve whom he chose were: Nephi, his
brother Timoth}', whom he had beforetime raised from
the dead, also his son Jonas, and Mathoni, IMathonihah,
Kumen, Kumenonhi, Jeremiah, Shemnon, Jonas, Zede-
kiah and Isaiah. These Twelve are to sit in the great
day of judgment as the judges of the seed of Lchi,
and be themselves judged by the Twelve Apostles
whom Jesus had called from among the Jews.
After Jesus had chosen the Twelve, he commenced
to teach the people the principles of the fulness of the
gospel. Step by step he led them over the same pre-
cious ground of universal truth as he had done his
followers in the temple at Jerusalem, by the shore of
the Sea of Galilee, and on the hillsides of Judca and
Samaria. Sometimes, through the difference of the
inspired translation of the Book of Mormon and the
wordly-wise one of the Bible, a slight difference is
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 257
noticeable in the wording of the instructions, but as a
rule these differences are trivial, the advantage being
with the Nephites, whose greater faith drew from the
Savior deeper truths than Judah had received, or caused
him to displa}^ greater manifestations of his om-
nipotence and boundless love. From the believers
he would turn to the Twelve, and give them special in-
structions as his ministers, then again he would shed
forth his words of mercy, truth and divine wisdom upon
the multitude; and by and by again address the disci-
ples. So he continued day by day until all was re-
vealed, either to the multitude or to the Twelve, that
was necessary for the eternal salvation of the obedient.
Some have wondered why Jesus should have given
so many of the same teachings to the Nephites as he
did to the Jews. The reason is that those teachings
were perfe(51; and could not be improved. They were
universal, that is, the^^ were adapted to the wants of
all peoples, whether of Israel or of the Gentiles,
whether of Judah or Joseph. They were a portion of
the everlasting gospel and had to be preached to all the
world as a witness, to those who dwelt in America as well
as to those of Asia, Africa and Europe. Thus we hud in
the teachings given to the Nephites what we term
the first principles of the gospel — faith, repentance
and baptism; we also find those divine lessons of love,
truth, humility and duty that glorified the Savior's
"Sermon on the Mount." As we rapidly pass through
these instrudlions we shall find how entirely adapted
they are to the needs of all men who desire to live a
godly life in Christ Jesus.
CHAPTER XLIV.
THE BEATITUDES — DIVERS INSTRUCTIONS AND CAUTIONS—
ON FORGIVENEvSS. CHASTITY, CHARITY, ETC.
AFTER JESUS had given his instrudions to the
Twelve, to which we have already referred, he
turned towards the multitude and taught them. And
thus he spake:
Blessed are 3^e if ye shall give heed unto the
words of these Twelve whom I have chosen from among
you to minister unto you, and to be your servants;
and unto them I have given power, that the}' ma}'
baptize you with water; and after that ye are baptized
with water, behold I will baptize you with fire and with
the Holy Ghost; therefore blessed are ye if ye shall
believe in me, and be baptized, after that ye have seen
me and know that I am.
And again, more blessed are they who shall believe
in your words because that ye shall testify that ye have
seen me, and that ye know that I am. Yea, blessed
are they who shall believe in your words, and come
down into the depths of humility and be baptized, for
they shall be visited with fire and with the Holy Ghost,
and shall receive a remission of their sins.
Yea, blessed are the poor in spirit who come unto
me, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
And again, blessed are all they that mourn, for
they shall be comforted;
And blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit
the earth.
And blessed are all they who do hunger and thirst
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 259
after righteousness, for thay shall be filled with the
Holy Ghost.
And blessed are the merciful, for they shall obtain
merc}^
And blessed are all the pure in heart, for they shall
see God.
And blessed are all the peace-makers, for they
shall be called the children of God.
And blessed are all they who are persecuted for
my name's sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
And blessed ar.e ye when men shall revile you, and
persecute and shall sa}- all manner of evil against you
falsely, for my sake.
For 3'e shall have great joy and be exceeding glad,
for great shall be your re\vard in heaven ; for so perse-
cuted they the prophets who were before you.
Verily, verily, I say unto you, I give unto you to
be the salt of the earth ; but if the salt shall lose its
savor, wherewith shall the earth be salted? The salt
shall be thenceforth good for nothing, but to be cast
out, and to be trodden under foot of men.
Verily, verily, I sa}^ unto you, I give unto you to
be the light of this people. A city that is set on a hill
cannot be hid.
Behold, do men light a candle and put it under a
bushel? Nay, but on a candlestick, and it giveth light
to all that are in the house;
Therefore let your light so shine before this people,
that they may see your good works and glorify your
Father who is in heaven.
Think not that I am come to destroy the law or
the prophets. I am not come to destroy but to fulfil ;
For verily I say unto you, one jot nor one tittle
26o STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
hath not passed awaj- from the law, but in me it hath
all been fulfilled.
And behold I have given you the law and the com-
mandments of my Father, that ye shall believe in me,
and that ye shall repent of your sins, and come unto
me with a broken heart and a contrite spirit. Behold,
ye have the commandments before you, and the law is
fulfilled;
Therefore come unto me and be ye saved; for
verily I say unto you, that except ye shall keep ni}-
commandments, which I have commanded you at this
time, ye shall in no case enter into the kingdom of
heaven.
Ye have heard that it hath been said by them of
old time, and it is also written before you, that thou
shalt not kill; and whosoever shalf kill shall be in
danger of the judgment of God.
But I say unto you, that whosoever is angry with
his brother, shall be in danger of his judgment. And
whosoever shall say to his brother, Raca^ shall be in
danger of the council : and whosoever shall say thou
fool, shall be in danger of hellfire;
Therefore, if ye .shall come unto me, or shall
desire to come unto me, and rememberest that thy
brother hath ought against thee.
Go thy way unto thy brother, and first be recon-
ciled to thy brother, and then come unto me with full
purpose of heart, and I will receive 3'ou.
Agree with thine adversar}' quickl}- while thou art
in the way with him, lest at any time he shall get thee
and thou shalt be cast into prison.
Verily, verily I say unto thee, thou shalt b}^ no
means come out thence, until thou hast paid the utter-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 261
most senine. And while ye are in prison, can ye pay
even one senine? Verily, verily I say nnto you, Nay,
Behold, it is written by them of old time, that thou
shalt not commit adultery.
But I say unto you, that whosoever looketh on a
woman, to lust after her, hath committed adultery
alread}' in his heart.
Behold I give unto you a commandment, that ye
suffer none of these things to enter into your heart;
For it is better that ye should deny yourselves of
these things, wherein ye will take up your cross, than
that ye should be cast into hell.
It hath been written, that whosoever shall put
away his wife, let him give her a writing of divorce-
ment.
Verily, verily I say unto you, that whoso shall put
away his wife, save for the cause of fornication, caus-
eth her to commit adultery ; and whoso shall marry her
who is divorced, committeth adultery.
And again it is written, thou shalt not forswear
thyself, but shall perform unto the Lord thine oaths.
But verily, verily I sa}^ unto you, swear not at all,
neither b}- heaven, for it is God's throne;
Nor b}' the earth, for it is his footstool;
Neither shalt thou swear by thy head, because
thou canst not make one hair black or white;
But let your communication be yea, yea; nay, nay;
for whatsoever cometh of more than these are evil.
And behold, it is written, an eye for an eye, and a
tooth for a tooth.
But I sa}' unto you, that ye shall not resist evil,
but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek,
turn to him the other also.
262 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take
away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also.
And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go
with him twain.
Give to him that asketh thee, and to him that
would borrow of thee turn thou not away.
And behold it is written also, that thou shalt love
thy neighbor and hate thy enemy ;
But behold I say unto you, love your enemies,
bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate
you, and pray for them who despitefully use you and
persecute you;
That ye may be the children of your Father who
is in heaven ; for he niaketh his sun to rise on the evil
and on the good;
Therefore those things which were of old time,
which were under the law in me, are all fulfilled.
Old things are done away, and all things have
become new;
Therefore I would that ye should be perfedl even
as I, or your Father who is in heaven is perfedl.
CHAPTER XLV.
ON ALMS-GIVING— "AFTER THIS MANNER PRAY YE" — ON
FASTING, INTEGRITY, TRUST IN GOD, ETC.
T7ERILY, VERILY, I say that I would that ye
should do alms unto the poor, but take heed that
ye do not your alms before men, to be seen of them;
otherwise ye have no reward of your Father who is in
heaven.
Therefore, when ye shall do your alms, do not
sound a trumpet before you, as will hypocrites do in
the synagogues, and in the streets, that they may have
glory of men. Verily I sa}'- unto you, they have their
reward.
But when thou doest thine alms, let not th}- left
hand know what thy right hand doeth.
That thine alms may be in secret ; and thy Father
who seeth in secret, himself shall reward thee openly.
And when thou prayest, thou shalt not do as the
hypocrites, for they love to pray, standing in the S3-na-
gogues, and in the corners of the streets, that thej'
may be seen of men. \''erily I say unto 3'ou, they
have their reward.
But thou, when thou prayest, enter thou into thy
closet and when thou hast shut thy door, pray to thy
Father who is in secret: and thy Father, who seeth
in secret, shall reward thee openly.
But when ye pray, use not vain repetitious, as the
heathen, for they think that they shall be heard for
their much speaking.
Be not ye therefore like unto them, for your
264 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Father knoweth what things ye have need of before ye
ask him.
After this manner therefore pray ye, Our Father
who art in haven, hallowed be thy name.
Thy will be done on e.arth as it is in heaven.
And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.
And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us
from evil.
For thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the
glory, for ever. Amen.
For, if ye forgive men their trespasses, your
heavenly Father will also forgive 3^ou ;
But if ye forgive not men their trespasses, neither
will your Father forgive j^our trespasses.
Moreover, when ye fast, be not as the hypocrites,
of a sad contenance, for they disfigure their faces, that
they may appear unto men to fast. Verily I say unto
3'ou, they have their reward.
But thou, when thou fastest, anoint th}^ head, and
wash thy face;
That thou appear not unto men to fast, but unto
thy Father, who is in secret; and thy Father, who seeth
in secret, shall reward thee openly.
Lay not up for j^ourselves treasures upon earth,
where moth and rust doth corrupt, and thieves break
through and steal.
But lay up for 3'ourselves treasures in heaven,
where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where
thieves do not break through nor steal.
For where your treasure is, there will your heart
be also.
The light of the body is the eye, if therefore thine
eye be single, thy whole body shall be full of light.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 265
But if thine eye be evil, thy whole body shall be
full of darkness. If, therefore, the light that is in
thee be darkness, how great is that darkness!
No man can serve two masters, for either he will
hate the one and love the other; or else he will hold to
the one and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God
and Mammon.
And now it came to pass that w'hen Jesus had
spoken these words, he looked upon the Twelve whom
he had chosen, and said unto them. Remember the
words which I have spoken. For behold, 3'e are they
whom I have chosen to minister iunto this fpeople.
Therefore, I sa}^ unto j-ou, take no thought for your life,
what ye shall eat, or what ye shall drink ; nor yet for
your body, what ye shall put on. Is not the life more
than meat, and the body than raiment?
Behold the fowls of the air, for they sow not,
neither do the}^ reap, nor gather into barns ; yet your
heavenly Father feedeth them. Are ye not much bet-
ter than they?
Which of 3^ou by taking thought can add one cubit
unto his stature?
And why take ye thought for raiment ? Consider
the lilies of the field how they grow? they toil not,
neither do the}^ spin :
And 3^et I say unto you, that even Solomon, in all
his glor}^ was not arrayed like one of these.
Wherefore, if God so clothe the grass of the field,
which to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into the oven,
even so will he clothe you, if ye are not of little faith.
Therefore take no thought, saying. What shall we
eat? or, what shall we drink? or wherewithal shall we
be clothed?
266 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
For your heavenly Father knoweth that ye have
need of all these things.
But seek ye first the kingdom of God and his right-
eousness, and all these things shall be added unto you.
Take therefore no thought for the morrow, for the
morrow shall take thought for the things of itself.
Sufficient is the day unto the evil thereof.
CHAPTER XIvVI.
JUDGE NOT — THE BEAM AND THE MOTE — '' BEWARE OF
FALSE PROPHETS" — GOOD AND EVIL FRUIT— THE
HOUSE BUILT ON THE ROCK.
AND NOW it came to pass that when Jesus had
spoken these words, he turned again to the multi-
tude, and did open his mouth unto them again, saying.
Verily, verily, I say unto you, judge not, that 3'e be
not judged.
For with what judgment ye judge, ye shall be
judged; and with what measure ye mete, it shall be
measured to you again.
And why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy
brother's eye, but considerest not the beam that is in
thine own eye?
Or how wilt thou say to thy brother, let me pull
the mote out of thine eye; and behold, a beam is in
thine own eye?
Thou h3^pocrite, first cast the beam out of thine
own eye; and then shalt thou see clearly to cast the
mote out of thy brother's eye.
Give not that which is holy unto the dogs, neither
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 267
cast ye your pearls before swine, lest they trample them
under their feet, and turn again and rend you.
Ask, and it shall be given unto you ; seek, and ye
shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto 3'ou,
For every one that asketh, receiveth; he that
seeketh, findeth; and to him that knocketh, it shall be
opened. Or what man is there of you, whom, if his
son ask bread, will give him a stone? Or if he ask a
fish, will he give him a serpent?
If ye then being evil know how to give good gifts
unto your children, how much more shall your Father
who is in heaven give good things to them that ask
him?
Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men
should do to you, do ye even so to them, for this is the
law and the prophets.
Enter ye in at the straight gate; for wide is the
gate, and broad is the way, which leadeth to destrudlion,
and many there be who go in thereat ; because straight
is the gate, and narrow is the way, which leadeth unto
life, and few there be that find it.
Beware of false prophets, who come to you in
sheep's clothing, but inwardly' they are ravening
wolves. Ye shall know them by their fruits : Do men
gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles ?
Even so every good tree bringeth forth good fruit;
but a corrupt tree bringeth forth evil fruit.
A good tree connot bring forth evil fruit, neither a
corrupt tree bring forth good fruit.
Every tree that bringeth not forth good fruit, is
hewn down, and cast into the fire.
Wherefore, by their fruits ye shall know them.
Not every one that saith unto me Lord, Lord, shall
268
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
enter into the kingdom of heaven : but he that doeth
the will of nu' Father who is in heaven.
Many will say to me in that day, Lord, Lord, have
we not prophesied in thy name? and in th}^ name have
cast out devils? and in thy name done man}- wonderful
works? And then will I profess unto them, I never
knew you, depart from me, ye that work iniquit}-.
Therefore, whoso hear-
eth these sa^dngs of mine,
and doeth them, I will liken
him unto a wise man, who
built his house upon a rock.
And the rain descended, and
the floods came, and the
winds blew, and beat
upon that house ; and
it fell not; for it was
founded upon a rock,
^ And every one that heareth these sayings of mine,
and doeth them not, shall be likened unto a foolish
man, who built his house upon the sand.
And the rain descended, and the floods came, and
the winds blew, and beat upon that house; aud it fell,
and great was the fall of it.
-^t
OP THR >^^
((u^tivehsittI
y-^
CHAPTER XLVIL
THE FULFILMENT OF THE MOSAIC LAW— "OTHER SHEEP
HAVE I"— THE TEN TRIBES — THE EVENTS OF THE
LATTER DAYS.
n^HUS did Jesus repeat to the Nephites the teach-
ings he had given to the Jews before he was slain
and had ascended to his Father. But at this point he
perceived that some of his hearers were wondering
what were his intentions regarding the law of Moses,
for they did not understand the saying that old things
had passed away, and that all things had become new.
Therefore he next instru6led them on this principle.
He said :
Marvel not that I said unto you, that old things
had passed away, and that all things had become new.
Behold I say unto you, that the law is fulfilled that
was given unto Moses.
Behold, I am he that gave the law, and I am he
who covenanted with my people Israel: therefore, the
law in me is fulfilled, for I have come to fulfil the law;
therefore it hath an end.
Behold, I do not destroy the prophets, for as many
as have not been fulfilled in me, verily I say unto you,
shall all be fulfilled.
And because I said unto you, that old things hath
passed away, I do not destroy that which hath been
spoken concerning things which are to come.
For behold, the covenant which I have made with
my people is not all fulfilled ; but the law which was
given unto Moses hath an end in me.
270 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Behold, I am the law, and the light; look unto me,
and endure to the end, and ye shall live, for unto him
that endureth to the end, will I give eternal life.
Behold, I have given unto you the commandments;
therefore keep my commandments. And this is the
law and the prophets, for the}^ trul}- testified of me.
How simple yet how grand, how plain yet how
comprehensive are these teachings, both with regard to
himself and to the law which he had given to the fore-
fathers of the Jews and the Nephites! If men would
but receive these instru6lions in the plainness in which
they are gixen, how much controversy would have an
end, how much dissension would never have had an
existence!
After giving these explanations to the multitude,
Jesus again turned to the twelve chosen disciples and
shewed unto them the meaning of his words when he
told the Jews: Other sheep I have which are not of
this fold; them also I must bring, and they shall hear
my voice; and there shall be one fold and one shep-
herd.
These other sheep of which he spake, Jesus said,
were the Nephites themselves, who had been separated
from the Jews because of the latter's iniquit}^; and
because of their continued evil doing and lack of faith
the knowledge of the existence of Lehi's family on
the American continent was withheld from them.
But still more. Jesus had yet other sheep, which were
neither of the Jews nor of the Nephites, nor of the
lands in which they dwelt. They were a people whom
he had not yet visited and who had not yet heard his
voice; but he had received a commandment from his
Father to visit them, to shew himself unto them, and
272 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
teach them, and then they all would be of the one fold
and he would be the one shepherd to them all.
These other sheep, neither Jew nor Nephite, we
understand to be the ten tribes of Israel who were
carried into captivity, but who, unlike the house of
Judah, never returned to their homes in the Promised
Land. We are told they were led away by the power
of the Lord to a land of which no one knows anything,
only that which God has revealed.
Jesus then told his disciples many things relating
to the age in which we live. He explained to them
how the Gentiles living on this continent would have
the truth presented to them, how they would grow
haughty, proud and exceedingly wicked, and how they
would oppress the remnants of the house of Israel
who dwelt on this broad land. Then how these rem-
nants would have the fulness of the gospel brought to
them, and how eventually the house of Israel would
be used to go through among, and tread down the
disobedient of the Gentiles, who should become as
salt that had lost its savor, good for nothing but to be
cast out and trodden under foot of men.
0^®^
CHAPTER XLVIII.
THE SAVIOR 'heals THE SICK — HE BLESSES THE CHIL-
DREN OF THE NEPHITES — ANGELS MINISTER UNTO
THEM.
^TTHEN the Redeemer had finished these teachings
he looked around among the multitude and per-
ceived that their minds were not prepared, at that time,
to receive any more of the word of the Lord, so he told
them to go to their homes, and prepare their minds for
the morrow, when he would come unto them again. But
as he gazed upon them he noticed that they were in
tears, and that they looked beseechingly upon him, as
if they would ask him to tarry a little longer with
them.
These mute entreaties prevailed with him, his
bowels were filled with compassion towards them ; and,
we are told, he said :
Have 3'e any that are sick among you, bring them
hither. Have ^-e any that are lame, or blind, or halt,
or maimed, or leprous, or that are withered, or that are
deaf, or that are afflicted in any manner, bring them
hither and I will heal them, for I have compassion
upon 3'ou; my bowels are filled with mercy;
For I perceive that 3^e desire that I should shew
unto you what I have done unto your brethren at Jeru-
salem, for I see that 3^our faith is sufficient that I
should heal you.
And it came to pass that when he had thus spoken,
all the multitude, with one accord, did go forth with
their sick, and their affli6led, and their lame, and with
their blind, and with their dumb, and with all they that
276 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
were afflidled in au}' manner; and he did heal them
every one as the}^ were brought forth unto him.
And they did all, both they who had been healed
and the}' who were whole, bow down at his feet, and
did worship him ; and as man}- as could come for the
multitude did kiss his feet, insomuch that they did
bathe his feet with their tears.
And it came to pass that he commanded that their
little children should be brought.
So the}^ brought their little children and set them
down upon the ground round about him, and Jesus
stood in the midst: and the multitude gave wa^- till
the}' had all been brought unto him.
And it came to pass that when they had all been
brought, and Jesus stood in the midst, he commanded
the multitude that they should kneel down upon the
ground.
And it came to pass that when they had knelt
upon the ground, Jesus groaned within himself, and
saith, Father, I am troubled because of the wickedness
of the people of the house of Israel.
And when he had said these words, he himself
also knelt upon the earth ; and behold he prayed unto
the Father, and the things which he prayed cannot be
written, and the multitude did bear record who heard
him.
And after this manner do they bear record: the
eye hath never seen, neither hath the ear heard, before,
so great and marvelous things as we saw aud heard
Jesus speak unto the Father;
And no tongue can speak, neither can there be
written by any man, neither can the hearts of men
conceive so great and marvelous things as we both
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 277
saw and heard Jesus speak; and no one can conceive
of the joy which filled our souls at the time we heard
him pra}- for us unto the Father.
And it came to pass that when Jesus had made an
end of praying unto the Father, he arose, but so great
was the jo}^ of the multitude that the}^ were overcome.
And it came to pass that Jesus spake unto them,
and bade them arise.
And they arose from the earth, and he said unto
them, Blessed are ye because of your faith. And now
behold, my jo}- is full.
And when he had said these words, he wept, and
the multitude bore record of it, and he took their little
children, one by one, and blessed them, and pra3^ed
unto the Father for them.
And when he had done this he wept again,
x\nd he spake unto the multitude, and saith unto
them. Behold j-our little ones.
And as they looked to behold, the}- cast their eyes
towards heaven, and they saw the heavens open, and
they saw angels descending out of heaven as it were,
in the midst of fire, and the\^ came down and encircled
those little ones about, and they were encircled about
with fire; and the angels did minister unto them.
And the multitude did see and hear and bear rec-
ord; and the}' know that their record is true, for they
all of them did see and hear, every man for himself;
and they were in number about two thousand and five
hundred souls; and the\' did consist of men, women,
and children.
Can we imagine anything more lovely, more
touching, and more glorious than this scene must have
been? Can we conceive the joy that must have filled
278 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
the hearts of these Nephites as they beheld the
angels of heaven descending from the courts of glory
and ministering to their little ones? How deep must
have been their love for the Savior who had brought
these blessings to them? how strong must have grown
their faith in him? We cannot recall a circumstance
in recorded history that draws earth nearer to heaven
than this, or that seems to bind the ties so strongly
that unite the powers of eternity with the children of
mortalit3\
CHAPTER XLIX.
THE SACRAMENT ADMINISTERED— THE SAVIOR'S TEACHINGS
REGARDING IT — HE CONFERS ON HIS DISCIPLES THE
POWER TO GIVE THE HOLY GHOST — HE ASCENDS INTO
HEAVEN.
JESUS next commanded his disciples to bring him
some bread and wine. While they were gone to
obtain them, he caused the multitudes to sit down upon
the earth. When the disciples returned with the bread
and wine, he took of the bread, and brake and blessed
it. This he gave to the disciples and thej^ did eat and
were filled. He then commanded them to give unto the
multitudes.
When the multitudes had eaten and were filled,
Jesus began to instru(5l the people with regard to the
meaning of the bread the}- had just partaken of. He
said:
And this shall ye always observe to do, even as 1
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 279
havedone, even as I have broken bread, and blessed it,
and gave it nnto you.
And tliis shall ye do in remembrance of my body,
which I have shewn unto you. And it shall be a testi-
mony unto the Father, that ye do always remember me.
And if ye do always remember me, ye shall have my
Spirit to be with you.
After this he gave of the wine to his disciples, and
they drank thereof, and then, by his direction, they
gave it to the people.
After they had done this Jesus continued his teach-
ings ; Blessed are ye, said he, for this thing which 3'e
have done, for this is fulfilling my commandments, and
this doth witness unto the Father that \'e are willing to
do that which I have commanded you.
And this shall ye always do to those who repent
and are baptized in my name; and ye shall do it in
remembrance of ni}^ blood, which I have shed for you,
that 3'e ma}- witness unto the Father that 3'e do alwa3^s
remember me. And if 3'e do always remember me, ye
shall have m3^ Spirit to be with 3'ou.
And now behold, this is the commandment which
I give unto 3'ou, that ye shall not suffer an3' one, know-
ingU', to partake of my flesh and blood unworthily,
when 3^e shall minister it ;
For whoso eateth and drinketh my flesh and blood
unworthih', eateth and drinketh damnation to his soul:
therefore if 3'e know that a man is unworth3' to eat and
drink of m3' flesh and blood, 3^e shall forbid him ;
Nevertheless 3^e shall not cast him out from among
you, but 3'e shall minister unto him, and shall pray for
him unto the Father, in m3' name, and if it so be that
he repenteth, and is baptized in my name, then shall
28o STORY OF THE KOOK OF MORMON.
ye receive him, and shall minister nnto him of nu'
flesh and blood;
But if he repent not, he shall not be nnmbered
among mv people, that he ma}- not destroy my people,
for behold I know my sheep, and they are numbered.
The Lord also gave the people much instruction
regarding prayer. Among other things he told them :
Behold, verily, verily, I saj' unto you, 3'e must
watch and pray always, lest ye enter into temptation ;
for Satan desireth to have you ; that he ma}- sift you as
wheat;
Therefore ye must always pra}' unto the Father in
mv name;
And whatsoever ye shall ask the Father in my
name, which is right, believing that ye shall receive,
behold it shall be given unto you.
Pray in your families unto the Father, always in
mv name, that your wives and your children may be
blessed.
And behold, 3-e shall meet together oft, and ye
shall not forbid any man from coming unto 3-ou when
3'e shall meet together, but suffer them that they may
come unto 3'ou, and forbid them not;
But 3'e shall pra3- for them, and shall not cast
them out ; and if it so be that they come unto you oft,
ye shall pray for them unto the Father, in m3' name;
Therefore hold up your light that it may shine
unto the world. Behold I am the light which ye shall
hold up — that which ve have seen me do. Behold ye
see that I have prayed unto the Father, and ve have
witnessed;
And 3'e see that I have commanded that none ot
you should go awa3', but rather have commanded that
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 281
ye should come unto me, that ye might feel and see;
even so shall jq do unto the world; and whosoever
breaketh this commandment, suffereth himself to be
led into temptation.
When Jesus had made an end of his sayings, he
touched with his hand the disciples whom he had
chosen, one b}^ one. As he touched them he gave
them power to give the Holy Ghost. When he had
done this a cloud overshadowed the multitude, and they
saw Jesus no more that da}-; but the disciples saw
him, and bore record that he ascended into heaven.
CHAPTER L.
JESUS RETURNS AND RENEWS HIS TEACHINGS — HE ADMIN-
ISTERS THE SACRAMENT — HE EXPLAINS THE TEACH-
INGS OF THE PROPHETS— THE WORDS OF MALACHI.
T\7HEN JESUS had ascended into heaven the multi-
tudes dispersed, ever}- one returning home.
All that evening and all that night was the news
spread from mouth to mouth that Jesus had come.
Many were too excited to sleep, and labored diligently
all night spreading the news far and wide, so that
when the morning came the whole people were astir,
wending their wa}' to the place where Jesus was
expelled.
When the multitude had gathered together their
number was found to be so great that the disciples
282 STORY OF THK BOOK OF MORMON.
divided them into twelve congregations, and one of
them taught in each of these bodies.
After they had pra3'ed to the Father in the name
of Jesus, the whole people, led by the disciples, went
down to the water's edge. First, Nephi went into the
water and was baptized; then he baptized those whom
Jesus had chosen. After these had been baptized the
Hol\' Ghost fell upon them, and they were filled there-
with and also with fire. And the fire encircled them
about, and angels came down from heaven and minis-
tered to them.
B}^ and by Jesus himself came, and stood in the
midst of his disciples and taught them. He com-
manded them all, the people and the Twelve, to kneel
down again upon the earth, and the disciples he
instrudled to pra}-.
And they prayed unto Jesus, calling him their
Lord and their God.
When Jesus heard these pra3'ers he went a little
way off, bowed himself to the earth and said:
Father, I thank thee that thou hast given the
Hoh' Ghost unto these whom I have chosen ; and it is
because of their belief in me, that I have chosen them
out of the world.
Father, I pray thee that thou wilt give the Holy
Ghost unto all them that shall believe in their words.
Father, thou hast given them the Holy Ghost,
because they believe in me, and thou seest that they
believe in me, because thou hearest them, and they
pra}' unto me; and they pray unto me because I am
with them.
And now Father, I pray unto thee for thcni, and
also for all those who shall believe on their words, that
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 283
they ma}' believe in me, that I may be in them as thou,
Father, art in me, that we may be one.
When our Savior had ended this prayer he re-
turned to his disciples. He found them still praying.
Then he blessed them, and smiled upon them. When
he smiled the light of his countenance shone upon
them, and in the reflection of his brightness they
became as white as the face or the garments of Jesus ;
— a whiteness like unto which there was nothing upon
this earth.
Jesus, in J03', once more retired a short distance to
commune with his Father in heaven. He prayed:
Father, I thank thee that thou hast purified those
whom I have chosen, because of their faith, and I pray
for them, and also for them who shall believe on their
words, that they ma}' be purified in me; through faith
on their words, even as they are purified in me.
Father, I pray not for the world, but for those
whom thou hast given me out of the world, because of
their faith, that they may be purified in me, that I may
be in them as thou. Father, art in me, that we may
be one, that I may be glorified in them.
And when Jesus had spoken these words, he came
again unto his disciples, and behold they did pray
steadfastly, without ceasing, unto him; and he did
smile upon them again; and behold they were white
even as Jesus.
And it came to pass that he went again a little
wa}^ off and prayed unto the Father;
And tongue cannot speak the words which he
prayed, neither can be written by man the words which
he prayed.
And the multitude did hear, and do bear record,
284 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and their hearts were open, and they did understand in
their hearts the words which he prayed.
Nevertheless, so great and marvelous were the
words which he pra3'ed, that the}- cannot be written,
neither can they be uttered by man.
And it came to pass that when Jesus had made an
end of praying, he came again to the disciples, and said
unto them, so great faith have I never seen among all
the Jews; wherefore I could not shew unto them so
great miracles, because of their unbelief.
Verily I say unto you, there are none of them
that have seen so great things as ye have seen ; neither
have they heard so great things as ye have heard.
The Lord Jesus then commanded all to cease from
praying, but he also told them the}- must not cease to
pra}' in their hearts.
He next dire(5led them to arise; and at this word
the}' stood upon their feet. Then he administered
unto them bread and wine, the emblems of his body
and blood given as a ransom for their sins and the sins
of the whole world.
Where he obtained this bread and wine no one
knew, for neither the disciples nor the people had
brought any with them.
When the multitudes had eaten and drank, they
were filled with the Spirit, and with one voice gave
glor}' to Jesus, whom they both saw and heard.
The Savior then commenced to explain to the
multitudes many of the sayings of the ancient
prophets, more especially those of Isaiah. He dwelt on
the great events of the latter days that should precede
his second coming; drawing particular attention to
those that would concern and be connecfled with the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 285
remnants of the house of Lehi, and in which they
would take part. From his words we learn that in the
latter times the everlasting gospel will be preached in
their midst; that many will receive it; that the}^ will
take a prominent part in the building of the New
Jerusalem, and in many other of the momentous
events that will herald the near approach of that blessed
day when the reign of Christ and the triumph of truth
and righteousness shall extend from pole to pole, over
the whole of this habitable globe.
The Savior also recited to them many of the words
^rhich his Father had inspired the Prophet Malachi to
utter. Now the Nephites knew nothing of Malachi, as
he lived and prophesied to the Jews long after Lehi left
Jerusalem. So, for the comfort and instru6lion of the
Nephites, Jesus rehearsed to them the important things
which he had revealed. In fadl, to use the words of
Mormon : And he did expound all things, even from
the beginning until the time that he should come in his
glor}-; 3-ea, even all things which should come upon
the face of the earth, even until the elements should
melt with fervent heat, and the earth should be wrapt
together as a scroll, and the heavens and the earth
should pass awa}' ;
And even unto the great and last day, when all
people, and all kindreds, and all nations and tongues
shall stand before God, to be judged of their works,
whether they be good or whether they be evil ;
If the\- be good, to the resurredlion of everlasting
life; and if they be evil, to the resurrection of dam-
nation, being on a parallel, the one on the one hand,
and the other on the other hand, according to the
286 STORY OF thp: hook of mormon.
mercy, and the justice, and the holiness which is in
Christ, who was before the world began.
And now there cannot be written in this book even
a hundredth part of the things which Jesus did truly
teach unto the people.
CHAPTER LI.
THE SAVIOR CONTlNUEvS HIS MINISTRATIONS — HE RAISES A
MAN FROM THE DEAD — THE LABORS OF THE TWELVE —
THE NAME OF THE CHURCH— THE THREE WHO SHOULD
REMAIN.
pOR THREE days did the Savior mingle with the
Nephites and instru(5l them ; and even after that
he met with them oft, and with' them partook of the
Sacrament of the Lord's supper.
More than this, he ministered to and blessed the
children of the Nephites. He loosed the tongues
of these little ones, that they spoke great and marvel-
ous things unto their parents, even, we are told, greater
things than Jesus had revealed to the people.
Jesus also healed all their sick. The lame, the
blind, the deaf, were made whole, and one man he
raised from the dead.
From this time the twelve disciples began to bap-
tize and teach as many as came unto them ; and as
many as were baptized in the name of Jesus were
filled with the Holy Ghost. Many of them saw and
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 287
heard wondrous things which are not lawful to be
written.
On one occasion when the disciples were thus
traveling, preaching and baptizing, they united together
in fasting and mighty pra3'er. The subje6l about
which they prayed the most earnestly was, what
should be the name of the church, for its members
were not united on this matter.
While the}' were thus engaged Jesus again shewed
himself unto them, and in answer to their inquiries
regarding the name of his church he told them. What-
soever ye shall do ye shall do it in my name; therefore
ye shall call the church in my name; and 3'e shall call
upon the Father in my name, that he will bless the
church for my sake. He further said to them if they
called the church by the name of a man it would be
that man's church, if by Moses' name it would be
Moses' church ; but being his church it should be called
by his holy name. And many other instructions gave
he unto them at this time.
It was during this interview that the Savior asked
the Twelve, one b}^ one, What is it that you desire of
me, after I am gone to the Father?
Then nine of them said, We desire after we have
lived unto the age of man, that our ministry wherein
thou hast called us, ma}'^ have an end, that we may
speedily come unto thee in thy kingdom.
And he said unto them, Blessed are ye, because
ye desire this thing of me; therefore after that ye are
seventy and two years old, ye shall come unto me in
my kingdom, and with me ye shall find rest.
Then he turned to the three who had not answered,
and again asked them what they would have him do
288 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
for them. But they faltered in their answer; their
wish was such a peculiar one, that they were afraid to
express it. And he said unto them, Behold, I know your
thoughts, and 3^e have desired the thing which John,
my beloved, who was with me in my ministr}-, before
that I was lifted up by the Jews, desired of me;
Therefore more blessed are ye, for 3'e shall never
taste of death, but ye shall live to behold all the doings
of the Father, unto the children of men, even until all
things shall be fulfilled, according to the will of the
Father, when I shall come in ni}- glor}-, with the powers
of heaven;
And ye shall never endure the pains of death ;
but when I shall come in my glory, ye shall be changed
in the twinkling of an eye from mortalit}'- to immortal-
ity: and then shall ye be blessed in the kingdom of
my Father.
And again, 3'e shall not have pain while ve shall
dwell in the flesh, neither sorrow, save it be for the sins
of the world : and all this will I do because of the
thing which ye have desired of me, for 3^e have desired
that }'e might bring the souls of men unto me, while
the world shall stand;
And for this cause ye shall have fulness of joy;
and ye shall sit down in the kingdom of ni}^ Father;
yea your joy shall be full, even as the Father hath
given me fulness of jo}'; and ye shall be even as I am,
and I am even as the Father; and the Father and 1
are one.
These are the three Nephites of whom we some-
times hear and who either singl}' or together have
appeared to believers in this generation.
Then Jesus with his finger touched the nine who
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 289
were to die when sevent3'-t\vo years old, but the three
who were to live he did not touch ; and then he departed.
And behold, the heavens were opened, and they were
caught up into heaven, and saw unspeakable things.
And it \vas forbidden them that they should utter,
neither was it given unto them power that they could
utter, the things which they saw and heard;
The sacred record gives no information as to who
the three were who were not to taste of death. ]\Ior-
mon w^as about to write their names, but the Lord for-
bade him.
Some have supposed that Nephi, the senior of the
disciples, was one of these three undying ones, who
remained to minister on the earth to the people of the
latter days ; that is hid from our knowledge, no doubt
for a M'ise purpose. If he was, he lived through that
most happy era of Nephite histor}-, when all was right-
eousness and joy and peace throughout America's vast
domain ; he lived to suffer, with his two brethren, all
the persecutions which the wicked, in later days, so
frequently imposed upon these three favored servants
of the Lord, and in the end he retired from the midst of
mankind when overwhelming corruption again para-
lyzed the life of the Nephite nation. If he was one
of the nine who passed away to the presence of their
Savior and their God when twelve times six years old,
he must have laid aside mortality under as happy cir-
cumstances as ever prophet or apostle died, surrounded
by a loving, faithful people, amongst whom the practice
of iniquity was a remembrance of the past. No ruffian
hands cut short his life, or tortured his latest hours,
but in the midst of the most holy peace he passed
away to the glories of the eternal.
CHAPTER LII.
THE- LONG CONTINUED ERA OF PEACE AND RIGHTEOUS-
NESS—DEATH OF -NEPHI — HIS SON AMOS — AMOS THE
SECOND.
T\7^HEN JESUS left the Nephites to the care of his
disciples, he had so thoroiighl}- filled the people
with the influences and powers of the eternal worlds
that evil utterly ceased m their midst ; the}^ were united
in all things temporal and spiritual. Universal peace
prevailed. Love, joy, harmou}^, ever3'thing desirable
to make the life of man a perfe6l condition of unal-
loyed, holy happiness reigned supreme. Indeed, it ma}-
be said that a type, a foreshadowing of the millennium
for once found place and foothold among the erring
sons of humanit^^
At this blessed period Nephi, the son of Nephi,
received the sacred plates. His duty, as the recorder
of the doings of his people, was a most happy one ; he
had nothing but good to relate of their lives and
actions, and to record that perfeA peace prevailed on
all the vast continent. The Nephites increased in
numbers (Lamanites there were none), they pros-
pered in circumstances, the}- grew in material wealth,
all of which was held in common, according to the
order of God. They colonized and spread far abroad;
they rebuilt their ancient capital and man}' other cities ;
they also founded man}- new ones. Above all, tliev
were rich in heavenly treasures; tlie Holy Spirit
reigned in every heart and illumined every soul.
When Nephi died (A. C. no) this inexpressibly
happy, heavenly state still continued in undiminished
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 29I
warmth of divine and brotherly love and strength of
abiding faith. All the generation to which Nephi be-
longed entered in at the straight gate, and walked the
narrow way to the eternal city of God ; not one of them
was lost.
At Nephi's death his son Amos became the cnsto-
dian of the holy things; and he held them for eighty
fonr 3^ears (from A. C. iio to A. C. 194). He lived in
the days of the Nephites' greatest prosperity and hap-
piness. The perfect law of righteousness was still
their only guide. But before he passed away to his
heavenly home, a small cloud had appeared upon the
horizon, fatal harbinger of the approaching devastating
hurricane, A few, weary of the uninterrupted bliss,
the perfect harmony, the universal love that every-
where prevailed, seceded from the church and took
upon them the title of Lamanites, which ill-boding
name had only been known to the Nephites by tradi-
tion for more than one hundred years. It may be
asked, how it was possible that men and women should
withdraw from such a holy order of society, where all
was perfe6l peace, where every man dealt justly with
his neighbor, where none inflicted wrongs and none
suffered from injustice done them — where angels min-
istered to the children of mortality, and heavenl}^ rev-
elations were their constant guides? If the inquirer
will answer why Lucifer, the son of the morning, in
heaven itself, rebelled against the Almighty Father,
and led astray one-third of the angelic hosts, we will
reply by saying that he, Satan, tempted the dissenting
Nephites with this same spirit of rebellion to the divine
power, and he succeeded in ensnaring them and lead-
ing them away captive to his will.
292 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
A second Amos succeeded his father as the keeper
of the records. His duties were not the happ}- ones of
his immediate predecessors. Instead of good he had
to chronicle much evil.
Amos himself was a righteous man, but he lived to
witness an ever increasing flood of iniquity break over
the land, a phase of evil-doing that arose not from
ignorance and false tradition, but from diredl and wil-
ful rebellion against God, and apostasy from his laws.
The wholesome checks to vice and misery found in the
plan of salvation were knowingh^ and intentionally
removed or done away; the voice of reason was dis-
regarded ; the promptings of the Hoi 3^ Spirit were defi-
antl}^ repelled; men's unbridled passions again bore
swa}'-; disunion, dissension, violence, hatred, distress,
disma}^, bloodshed and havoc spread the wide continents
over; and from their high pinnacle of righteousness,
peace, happiness, refinement, social advantage, etc., the
people were hurled once more into an ab3^ss of misery
and barbarism, now more profound, more torturing,
and more degraded than ever.
OF TV,K
[TJHIVBRSn .^'
CHAPTER LIII.
THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE APOSTASY— IT GROWS IN
INTENSITY — THE PERSECUTION OF THE DISCIPLES —
LAMANITES AGAIN — REAPPEARANCE OF THE GAUI-
ANTON BANDS — WAR — AMMARON HIDES THE REC-
ORDS.
T)Y THE year A, C. 201, all the second generation
had passed away, save a few; the people had
greatly multiplied and spread over the face of the
land, north and south, and had become exceedingly
rich; they wore costly apparel, which they adorned
with ornaments of gold and silver, pearls and precious
stones. From this date they no more had their prop-
erty in common, but, like the rest of the world, every
man sought gain, wealth, power and influence for him-
self and his. All the old evils arising from selfishness
were revived. Soon they began to build churches after
their own fashion, and hire preachers who pandered to
their lusts; some even began to deny the Savior.
From A. C. 210 to A. C. 230, the people waxed
greatly in iniquity and impurity of life. Different
dissenting se(5ls multiplied, infidels abounded. The
three remaining disciples were sorely persecuted, not-
withstanding that they performed many mighty mira-
cles. They were shut up in prison, but the prisons
were rent in twain by the power of God ; the}' were
cast into fiery furnaces, but the flames harmed them
not; the}^ were thrown into dens of wild beasts, but
they played with the savage inmates as a child does
with a lamb, and received no harm ; they were not sub-
296 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
je(5l to many of the laws that govern our mortal bodies,
they had passed through a glorious change, b}^ which
the}^ were freed from earthly pain, suffering and death.
Not only did the wicked persecute these three immortal
ones; others also of God's people suffered from their
unhallowed anger and bitter hatred; but the faithful
neither reviled at the reviler nor smote the smiter;
they bore these things with patience and fortitude,
remembering the pains of their Redeemer.
In the year A. C. 231 there was a great division
among the people. The old party lines were again
definitely marked. Again the old animosit}- assumed
shape, and Nephite and Lamanite once more became
implacable foes. Those who reje^led and renounced
the gospel assumed the latter name, and with their
eyes open, and a full knowledge of their inexcusable
infamy, they taught their children the same base false-
hoods that in ages past had caused the unceasing hatred
that reigned in the hearts of the children of Laman
and Lemuel toward the seed of their younger brothers.
By A. C. 244 the more wicked portion of the peo-
ple had become exceedingly strong, as well as far more
numerous than the righteous. They deluded them-
selves by building all sorts of churches, with creeds to
suit the increasing depravity of the masses.
When 260 years had passed away, the Gadianton
bands, with all their secret signs and abominations,
through the cunning of Satan, again appeared and
increased until, in A. C. 300, they had spread over all
the land. B}^ this time, also, the Nephites, having
gradually forsaken their first love, had so far sunk in
the abyss of iniquity that they had grown as wicked,
as proud, as corrupt and as vile as the Lamanites. All
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 297
were submerged in one overwhelming flood of infamy,
and there were none that were righteous, save it were
the disciples of Jesus.
Still, a6live hostilities did not break out for some
time; but when war commenced, it scarcel}^ ceased until
that great battle near Cumorah, which brought extinc-
tion to the Nephite race. This war, or series of wars,
was one of peculiar horrors. All the old savagery, ten
times intensified, was rekindled, transforming the com-
batants into fiends. Each race seems to have striven
to out-rival the other in its bloody and infernal inhu-
manity. Mormon, the Nephite prophet-general, in an
epistle to his son Moroni, sorrowingly relates the fate
of the Nephite prisoners — men, women and children
— taken at Sherrizah. He adds: And the husbands
and fathers of those women and children they [the
Lamanites] have slain; and they feed the women upon
the flesh of their husbands, and the children upon the
flesh of their fathers ; and no water save a little do
they give them. And notwithstanding the abomination
of the Lamanites, it doth not exceed that of our people
in Moriantum. For behold, many of the daughters of
the Lamanites have they taken prisoners; and after
depriving them of that which was most dear and
precious above all things, which is chastity and virtue;
and after they had done this thing, they did murder
them in a most cruel manner, torturing their bodies
even unto death ; and after they have done this, they
devour their flesh like unto wild beasts, because of the
hardness of their hearts ; and they do it for a token of
bravery. Such was the horrible condition into which
open, wilful, determined reje6lion of the gospel had
brought both races.
298 STORY OF ,THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Amos entrusted the records to his son Ammaron
in the year 306 A. C.
Owing to the increasing depravity and vileness of
the Nephites, he was constrained by the H0I3' Ghost
to hide up all the sacred things which had been handed
down from generation to generation (A. C. 320).
The place where he hid them is said to have been in
the land Antum, in a hill which was called Shim.
After he had hid them up, he informed Alormon, then
a child ten years old, of what he had done, and placed
the buried treasures in his charge. He instructed INIor-
mon to go, when he was about twenty-four years old,
to the hill where they were hid, and take the plates of
Nephi and record thereon what he had observed con-
cerning the people. The remainder of the records, etc.,
he was to leave where they were.
CHAPTER LIV.
THE LAST LONG SERIES OF WARS — MORMON — THE FINAL
CONFLICT AT CUMORAH— THE LAST OF THE NEPHITES.
TT was in the year 322 A. C. that a6lual war broke
out between the Nephites and Lamanites, for the
first time since the Redeemer's appearing. A number
of battles were fought, in which the armies of the for-
mer were vi(5lorious. Four years later the savage con-
test was renewed. In the interim iniquity had greatly
increased. As foretold by the prophets, men's property
became slippery, things movable were subje(5l to unac-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 299
countable disappearances, and dread and distrust filled
the hearts of the disobedient. When the war recom-
menced, the 3'^outhful Mormon was chosen to lead the
armies of his nation.
The next year saw disaster follow the Nephite
cause. That people retreated before the Lamanites to
the north countries. The year following they met
with still further reverses, and in A. C. 329 rapine,
revolution and carnage prevailed throughout all the
land.
In 330 the Lamanite king, Aaron, with an army of
forty-four thousand men, was defeated by Mormon,
who had forty-two thousand warriors under his com-
mand.
Five 3^ears later the Lamanites drove the degen-
erate Nephites to the land of Jason, and thence yet
further northward to the land of Shem. But in the
year following the tide of viAory changed, and Mor-
mon, with thirty thousand troops, defeated fifty thous-
and of the enemy in the land of Shem; then he fol-
lowed up with such energetic measures that by the
3'ear 349 the Nephites had again taken possession of
the lands of their inheritance.
These successes resulted in a treaty between the
Nephites as one party and the Lamanites and Gadian-
ton robbers as the other. By its provisions the
Nephites possessed the country north of the Isthmus,
while the Lamanites held the regions south. A peace
of ten years followed this treaty.
In the year 360, the king of the Lamanites again
declared war. To repel the expelled invasion, the peo-
ple of Nephi gathered at the land of Desolation. There
the Lamanites attacked them, were defeated, and
300 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
returned home. Not content with this repulse, the
succeeding 3'ear the}- made another inroad into the
northern country, and were again repulsed. The
Nephites then took the initiative and invaded the
southern continent, but being unsuccessful, were driven
back to their frontier at Desolation (A. C. 363). The
same season, the city of Desolation was captured by
the Lamanitish warriors, but was wrested from them
the year following.
This state of things continued another twenty
years; w^ar, contention, rapine, pillage, and all the
horrors incident to the letting loose of men's most
depraved and brutal passions, filled the land. Some-
times one army conquered, sometimes the other. Now
it was the Nephites who were pouring their forces into
the south; then the Lamanites who were overflowing
the north. Whichever side triumphed, that triumph
was of short duration; but to all it meant sacrifice,
cruelty, bloodguiltness and woe. At last, when every
nerve had been strained for conquest, every man col-
leAed who could be found, the two vast hosts, with
unquenchable hatred and unrelenting obstinacy, met
at the hill Cumorah to decide the destiny of half the
world. It was the final struggle, w^iich was to end in
the extermination of one or both of the races that had
conjointly ruled America for nearly a thousand years
(A. C. 385). When the days of that last fearful strug-
gle were ended, all but twenty-four of the Nephite race
had been, by the hand of violence, swept into untimely
graves, save a few, a ver}- few, who had fled into the
south country. The powers, the glories, the beauties
of this favored branch of Israel's chosen race had sunk
beneath a sea of blood ; the word of their God, whom
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 301
they had so long disregarded, was vindicated ; the warn-
ings of his servants were fulfilled.
The Lamanites were now rulers of the western
world, their traditional enemies being utterly destroyed.
But they did not cultivate peace; no sooner were
the Nephites obliterated, than they commenced fight-
ing among themselves. The lonely Moroni, the last
of the Nephites, tells us, A. C. 400, that the Lamanites
are at war one with another ; and the face of the land is
one continued round of murder and bloodshed ; and no
man knoweth the end of the war. And again, yet
later, he writes: Their wars are exceeding fierce among
themselves.
Such was the sad condition of the Lamanite race
in the early part of the fifth century after Christ.
There the inspired record closes; henceforth we have
nothing but uncertain tradition. The various contend-
ing tribes, in their thirst for blood so long gratified,
sunk deeper and deeper into savage degradation; the
arts of civilization were almost entirely lost to the
great mass of the people. Decades and centuries
rolled by, and after a time, in some parts, a better
state of things slowly arose. In Central Amer-
ica, Mexico, Peru, and other places, the foundations
of new kingdoms were laid, in which were gradu-
nally built up civilizations peculiarly their own, but
in manj' wa3's bearing record to the idiosyncrasies
of their ancient predecessors. Of this we have here
little to do; many of their traditions (though disre-
garded by mankind) bear unequivocal testimony to the
truth of the Book of Mormon, and we have the joj'ous
assurance that, as the words of their ancient prophets
recorded therein have been fulfilled to the letter in
302 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
their humiliation ; and as they have drunk to the dregs
from the cup of bitterness of the wrath of God, so is
the glorious da}^ now dawning, when the light of the
eternal Gospel shall illumine the hearts of their des-
cendants; fill them with the love of God; renew their
ancient steadfastness and faith, and make them the fit-*
ting instruments in his hands of accomplishing all his
holy purposes with regard to them, in which also shall
be fulfilled all the gracious, glorious promises made by
Jehovah to this transplanted branch of the olive tree of
Israel.
CHAPTER LV.
THE HISTORIANS OF THE NEPHITES — THE PLATES OF NEPHI
— LIST OF THEIR CUSTODIANS — THEIR LENGTHENED
YEARS.
SHORTLY after the arrival of Lehi and his little col-
ony on the promised land, Nephi received a com-
mandment from the Lord to make certain "plates of
ore" upon which to engrave a record of the doings of
his people. Some time later, or between thirtv and
forty years after the departure of Lehi from Jerusalem,
Nephi was further instru(5led regarding the records.
The Lord then said unto him. Make other plates; and
thou shalt engraven many things upon them which are
good in my sight, for the profit of thy people. Nephi,
to be obedient to the commandment of the Lord, went
and made these other plates, and upon them were
'^Y
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.^ ' .iOi-
engraven the records from which the first portions of
the Book of Mormon are translated; or those parts
known to ns as the First and Second Books of Nephi^
and the Books of Jacob, Enos, Jarom, and Omni.
The two sets of plates mannfa6lured by Nephi
were both used as records of his people and called by
his name; bnt their contents were not identical. Upon
the first set was engraven the political history of the
Nephites, upon the second their religious growth and
development. The one described the acts of their
kings, and the wars, contentions and destructions which
came upon the nation; the other contained the storj^ of
the dealings of the Lord with that people, the ministry
of his servants, their teachings and prophecies. Of
the contents of the first we know but little, simj^ly
that which we gather from incidental remarks made in
the second; but the second is given to us in its com-
pleteness in the translation contained in the Book of
Mormon.
It would have been very interesting to students of
history to have received the detailed account of the
reigns of the kings who governed the people of Nephi,
that is, to those w^ho would accept these records as of
God; but it was far more important that those most
sacred truths contained in the revelations of heaven to
that people should be made manifest to this generation.
The one would be a satisfaction to our intelledlual
natures, but the other is necessary to our eternal sal-
vation ; for the Book of Mormon contains the fulness
of the gospel, and also many things plain and mo^t
precious that have been taken out of the Jewish scrip-
tures, through the craft or ignorance of apostate Jews
and Christians. For this most important reason those
304 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
portions of the Nephite records that are now contained
in the Book of Mormon were first revealed; we should
never have been willing to have accepted the others
without them, for it is upon the basis of religion, not
of history, that the Latter-day Saints accept the Book
of Mormon. We also have the promise that other
plates will be translated and given unto us in the
Lord's due time, and doubtless among them will be
those first plates upon which Nephi recorded, with such
detail, the travels and labors in the wilderness of his
father and associates.
The plates of Nephi containing the sacred annals
of his people were not entirely filled with engraving
until about two hundred years before Christ. They
were made by Nephi between the years 570 and 560
before the advent of the Redeemer; but the record on
them goes back to the time when Lehi left Jerusalem,
or 600 B. C, so they in reality contain the history- of
God's dealings with that branch of the house of Israel
for about four hundred years.
When Nephi died he transferred these sacred rec-
ords to the care of his brother Jacob. From that time
to the time that Moroni finally hid them in the hill
Cumorah, tlic}^ were in the hands of four families, who
had charge of them, as near as can be told from the
abridgement that we have in the Book of Mormon, as
follows: Jacob and his descendants held them from B.
C. 546 to about B. C. 200, when they were transferred
to King Benjamin, who, with his son Mosiah, the
yquuger, held them until B. C. 91, at which time they
were given into the care of Alma, the chief judge; and
he and his posterity retained them until 320 years after
the advent of the Messiah. After these, Moruion and
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
305
Moroni were the custodians until the close of the rec-
ord, in the year 420 after Christ.
In the table that follows, B. C. signifies before
Christ, and A. C. after Christ, counting from the true
date of his birth as given in the Book of Mormon,
and not from the accepted Christian Anno Domini
(year of our Lord), which is now almost universally
admitted to be from two to four years wrong. In those
places where no date is given, the desired information
is not afforded in the Book of Mormon, and therefore
can only be guessed at. We therefore prefer to leave
such places blank. It will also be remembered that
Mormon, just before the great last battle, which
resulted in the extinction of the Nephite nation, hid
up in the hill Cumorah all the records which had been
entrusted to him by the hand of the Lord, save it were
the few plates which he gave to his son Moroni.
The following are the names of the Nephite his-
torians, with the times during which they held the
records :
Nephi, from to 546 B. C.
Jacob, from 546 to .
Enos, from to 422.
Jarom, from 422 to 362.
Omni, from 362 to 318.
Amaron, from 318 to 280.
Chemish, from 280 to .
Abinadom, from to .
Amaleki, from to 200 (about).
King Benjamin, from 200 to 125.
King Mosiah, from 125 to 91.
Alma (the younger), from 91 to 73.
Helaman (the elder), from 73 to 57.
3o6 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Sliibloii, from 57 to 53.
Helaman (the younger), from 53 to 39.
Nephi, from 39 to i.
Nephi (the disciple), from i to 34 A. C.
Nephi, from 34 to no.
Amos, from no to 194.
Amos (the younger), from 194 to 306.
Ammaron, from 306 to 320.
Mormon, from 320 to 385.
IVIoroni, from 385 to 420.
In the above table, one thing will most certainly
strike the attention of the observant reader. It is the
lengthened period that some of the historians held the
records. Jacob and his son Enos held them one hun-
dred and twent3^-four 3'ears. Jarom held them sixty.
In this fa6l we find a ver}'- pleasing confirmation of
the statement of Nephi that during the time he and his
brethren were wandering in the wilderness, living on
raw meat and suffering all kinds of hardships, fatigue
and privations, the Lord so greatly blessed the women
in the company that they were strong, yea, even like
unto the men, having an abundance of milk to suckle
the babes born unto thetn. Jacob was born at this time,
and doubtless inherited an exceedingly strong constitu-
tion, which he transmitted to his posterity.
The second epoch at which the longevity of the
custodians of the plates is remarkable is during that
reign of universal righteousness which followed the
ministry of the crucified Savior. By living unto the
Lord in all things their lives were marvelously pro-
longed; especially were those of the children born
during the continuance of this happy and holy
period and before the effedls of the after apostasy had
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 307
begun to work on them. Thus Nephi, the son of Nephi
the disciple, had charge of the records seventy-six
years, his son Amos eighty-four years, and Amos, the
son of the last named, the wonderful period of one
hundred and twelve years; or father, son and grandson,
three generations, a total of two hundred and seventy-
two years. What a powerful sermon this one fa6l
preaches in favor of entire submission of body and
soul to the perfe6l and perfecting law of God.
CHAFER LVI.
THE WOMEN OF THE BOOK OF MORMON— THEIR CONDITION
AND POvSITION — ABISH — ISABEL — MARRIAGE — AMULEK.
TT is somewhat noticeable how little prominence is
ofiven to womankind in the historical narrative of the
Book of Mormon, and unfortunately when mention is
made of her it too frequently grows out of man's sins
and her misfortunes. Of all the descendants of Lehi
and Sariah, but two women are mentioned b}- name;
one, Abish, a converted waiting woman to a queen of
the Lamanites ; the other, Isabel, a harlot of the land
of Siron, whose meretricious charms seduced Corian-
ton, the son of Alma, from the work of the ministry
among the Zoramites.
Although we have but few individual characlers
standing out in relief from the historical background,
yet from many incidental references as the story of the
3o8 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Nephites is told, we are led to the conclusion that
women among that people enjoyed a much greater
degree of liberty, and wielded a more powerful influ-
ence than the\' did among contemporar}' Gentile
nations on the eastern hemisphere — sa\' in Babylon,
Persia, or Greece. We deem this mainly attributable
to two causes, first, the Israelitish origin of the race;
and again, the power and grace with which the princi-
ples of the gospel were preached b}- a long succession
of prophets, who almost uninterruptedl}^ ministered to
the seed of Nephi. That this latter cause had much
to do with woman's pleasing condition among that
people is evident, for we find from the historical narra-
tive that whenever they turned from the Lord it was
then that tribulation and oppression came upon their
waves and daughters, and they suffered from the iniqui-
ties of their husbands and the fur}- of their enemies.
With regard to the first named cause it is generally
admitted that the Hebrew women of antiquity enjoyed
greater liberty and possessed more privileges than did
those of the surrounding nations of the same period.
Let the Bible and the histor}^ of contemporarj^ nations
be compared and the difference is apparent.
The Nephites lived in a dispensation varjnng con-
siderably from that of the latter days. They observed
the law of Moses, to which was added the higher code
of the gospel. Our readers know how well both
these protedl the rig*lits of woman, and how sacredly
they guard the marriage covenant; infidelity to that
sacred bond of union being regarded, whether in the
man or in the woman, as a most heinous offense, and
wor th}' of the severest penalties.
At the commencement of the Nephite national life,
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 309
when they were few in numbers, they seem for a time to
have been tainted with some of the social vices of
the degenerate people from whom the Lord had
separated them. They committed great immoralities
and took wives for utterly unworthy purposes, and with-
out the fear of the Lord before their eyes ; and after
they had taken them, they frequently abused or neg-
ledled them, until their suffering cries came up before
the Eternal One, and heaven forbade any man among
them taking more than one wife, but adding this pro-
viso: For if I will, saith the Lord of Hosts, raise up
seed unto me, I will command my people; otherwise
they shall hearken to these things. This injun6lion,
we are of the opinion, was afterwards removed, and the
foreshadowed command given, as is evident from the
later history of the Nephites, that in a better era of
their national life polygamy was san6lioned by the law
and pra6lised among them, and that, indeed, by the
men most favored of God. As an example, we will cite
the prophet Amulek, the devoted friend and zealous
fellow laborer of the younger Alma; the only man in
all the vast cit}^ of Ammonihah to whom an angel was
sent, and in whose behalf mighty miracles were
wrought. He expressly mentions his women, and as
he places them next to himself and before his children ^
his father and all his other kinsfolk and kindred, and
nowhere uses the word wife or wives, it is evident that
his wives were meant and not serving women. No one,
surely, would argue that he would give to the latter
the place of honor in his address to his fellow citizens,
before his parents and his children. As another
instance, the great number of Chief Judge Pahoran's
sons is incidentally mentioned.
3IO STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
It was during the brighter da3^s of the rule of the
Judges that M'onian, more than at any time before the
appearance of the Messiah on this continent, seems to
have been most highl}' regarded and esteemed. The
Nephites were then living under that excellent code of
laws drawn up by the inspired king Mosiah, which bear
evidence of having been most admirably adapted to a
people worthy of a large amount of liberty. This age
was adorned with the presence of such men as Alma,
Moroni (the Prophet-General of the Nephite armies),
Ammon and the other sons of king Mosiah, Hela-
man, Amulek and others conspicuous for their devo-
tion to the laws of God and the rights and liberties
of the people. General Moroni, than whom a more
devoted man to the cause of truth and humanity never
lived, is especially conspicuous in his untiring efforts
for the safet}^ and happiness of the wives and little
ones of his people. On the standard to which he ral-
lied the patriot warriors of the republic, which he
named The Title of Liberty, he inscribed, In memory
of our God, our religion and freedom, and our peace,
our wives and our children. This seems to have been
his watchward throughout the long and sanguinar}-
succeeding campaigns, in which he defended the Ne-
phites from the savage onslaughts of their Lamanitish
foes. Again and again we find him rallying the hosts
of Nephi with this soul stirring cr}', and under the
ardor it wrought in their hearts carrying triumph to
their banners and freedom to their land. One series of
events that occurred during this long war sheds
a most pleasing light upon the inner life of the faithful
among the Nephites; it is found in the story of Hela-
man and his two thousand striplings, who though ver}-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 311
young, were so full of the spirit of faith implanted in
their hearts b}' the wise counsels of their loving and
God-fearing mothers, that in the might of Jehovah
they went forth against the enemies of their adopted
country (for they were Lamanites b}' birth), and no
power could withstand them. Their mothers' teach-
ings and their .mothers' prayers w^ere weapons of des-
tru(5lion to their foes and shields of defence to them-
selves. They went forth conquering and to conquer,
and the All-seeing One onl}'^ knows how much the
teachings of those saintly women effected towards the
preservation of the Nephite commonwealth from
imminent destru(5lion.
And what shall we say of the condition of woman
in that blessed Sabbatic era succeeding the glorious
appearing of the Redeemer on this western land, when
for two hundred years this continent enjoyed undis-
turbed and heavenl}' peace; when all men devoutly
worshiped the Lord and dealt justl}^ with their fellows
— men or women? It was an age in which no woman
was wronged, no deserted children pined in the streets,
no abused wives mourned in secret, or lifted their sor-
rowing hearts in anguish to the Great Father of man-
kind; no brazen courtesans flaunted on the broad
highways, or ruined maidens hid their sorrow and
shame wherever seclusion was the most profound.
The inspired historian tells us that if ever there were
a happ3^ people on this earth, there they were found;
and most happy must have been the gentler ones, who
bear in the stubborn battle of life so large a share of
its sorrows and misfortunes.
But this golden age was soon followed by its
opposite, when every virtue seems to have been sup-
12
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
planted b}- a vice, and all good was turned to evil. At
almost lightning speed, the people having once taken
the downward track, the nation rushed to ruin, until
this continent became one vast field of carnage, rapine,
and misery, over which devils gloated and hell enlarged
itself. Indeed, the whole land seemed peopled with a
race of demons who perpetrated cruelties that could
alone be conceived in the hearts of the damned. Dur-
ing these lengthened 3^ears of untold horror the fair
daughters of the land suffered unspeakable barbarities.
Life, virtue, everything was the plaything of the vi(51:or,
be he Nephite or Lamanite, until in the hate of revenge
and the fury of despair they joined their national
leaders on the battlefield, and with their husbands,
sons and brothers, d3^ed their hands in the blood of
the foe. Nor did they arm themselves alone, but with
feelings turned to those of monsters, they put weapons
into the hands of their children and inflamed their
young minds with the savage love of slaughter. The
war was not one for supremacy alone; it was for
national and individual existence; and, midst a sea of
carnage, unparalleled on any land save ours, the
Nephite nation was swept out of existence, leaving
scarce a trace behind, a most terrible instance of divine
merc}' scorned and divine laws abused.
fp
CHAPTER LVII.
DOMESTIC LIFE AMONG THE NEPHITEvS — HOUSEHOLD DUTIES
— DRESS— ORNAMENTS— HOMES — FOOD — MANUFACTURES
— TRANSPORTATION.
T^ROM the casual reference found in the historic por-
tions of the Book of Mormon, we are led to infer
that the domestic life of the Nephites was patterned,
as it very naturally would be, after the manners and
customs of their forefathers in the land of Jerusalem ,
modified, of course, by time and their surroundings.
The changed material conditions, the absence of older
though co-existent peoples and powers, the new and
sometimes strange animal and vegetable produ6lions,
etc., all had an influence in the formation and growth
of their civilization; trivial, perhaps, when considered
separately, but when taken together, and working for
centuries, having a marked effedl on their public polity
and home life. It is, however, necessary to explain
that the details of the latter are very meagre, and only
obtained incidentally, as they may form a link in the
chain of some historical narrative, or be introduced as
an illustration in some doctrinal teaching or prophetic
warning.
In the midst of a people guided or reproved
through their entire national life by an almost continu-
ous succession of inspired teachers, it is but reasonable
to conclude that the domestic virtues were assiduously
cultivated, and all departures therefrom severely re-
buked. Industr}', econoni}-, thrift, prudence, and mod-
eration in dress were evidently as much the subje6l
of the prophet's commendation then as in these latter
days. Zeniff and others dire6lly refer to the labors
314 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and toils of the Nepliite women in spinning and mak-
ing the material with which they clothed themselves
and their households; and the same fabrics which
delight the modern daughters of Israel also appear to
have pleased the eyes of their Nephite sisters in the
long ago. We must, however, say to the praise of
these ancient worthies, the mothers of Mosiah, Alma,
Moroni, Helaman, and of the two thousand striplings
who loved to call the latter father, that the beauty of
their apparel was the workmanship of their own hands.
Steam looms, spinning jennj^s, and their like, were
unknown, so far as we can learn, to the enterprising,
vigorous, God-blessed race that for nearly a thousand
3'ears filled the American continent with the favored
seed of Jacob's much-loved son.
The materials of which the clothing of this race
were made are frequently mentioned in the inspired
record. Fine silk, fine twined or twisted linen, and
cloth of every kind are often spoken of. In one place
good homeU^ cloth is mentioned. By the word homely
we must not understand the writer to mean ugly; the
word is there evidently applied in its original signifi-
cance, as it is used to-day in England, for homelike or
fit for home — such material as was suited to the every-
day life of an industrious^ hard-working people.
The love of ornaments has ever been a character-
istic of Abraham's chosen race. The golden earrings
and bracelets that gladdened the eyes of Rebecca,
when sought as the wife of the patriarch's son, have
had their counterpart in many a more modern instance.
It was so with Sariah's myriad daughters. Time and
again we read of pride and vanity entering the hearts
of the people, and of their affe(flions being set upon
THE MOTHERS OK THE NEPHITES.
3l6 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
their costly apparel and their ornaments of gold, of
silver, of pearls, of precious things (gems?), their
bracelets, ringlets, etc.
Nor would it be just to convey the idea that the
gentler sex were alone guilty of these extravagances ;
the sacred record admits .of no such conclusions. We
cannot judge by the sober drabs, greys and browns
with which the civilized gentleman of to-da}- clothes
himself, of the colors, the styles or the fashions of the
raiment of the Nephite beaux. The only safe conclu-
sion that can be drawn is that they probabl}^ copied to
some extent the gorgeousness of tropical nature by
which they were surrounded. Nor is it reasonable to
suppose that a single description would appl}'- to the
styles in the days of Lehi, of Benjamin and of Mor-
mon, any more than the varied fashions of the days of
the Williams, the Edwards, the Jameses and the Georges
of English history could all be condensed into one sen-
tence. It is not conceivable that dress, or anything
else, remained entirely unchanged throughout a thou-
sand years, though it is quite possible that those
changes were nothing like so sudden or so radical as
have been those that have taken place among the lead-
ing nations of western Europe. On these points, how-
ever, so far as the record of Mormon is concerned, we
can simply surmise, as the military accoutrements,
armor, etc., of the warrior are the only habiliments
with regard to which he gives any particular details.
It is this poverty of information on this and kindred
subjects that makes it so difficult for our artists to illus-
trate, with any assurance of approximate corre(5lness,
scenes and incidents from Book of Mormon history.
Nor can we learn much more with regard to their
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 317
residences than we can concerning their dress. The
most detailed account given of any man's home is that
of Nephi, the son of Helaman. His house was situ-
ated on the main highway which led to the chief market
place of the city of Zarahemla. In front of his house
was a garden, and near the gate opening upon the
highway was a tower, upon the top of which the
prophet was accustomed to pray. These towers, from
the numerous references made to them, either as private
property or attached to their places of worship, as watch
towers or as part of their S3'stem of fortification, must
have formed quite a conspicuous feature in the Nephite
landscape.
The residences of the rich were elegant and spa-
cious, adorned with exceedingly fine wood work, carv-
ing, etc., and with ornaments of gold, silver, copper,
brass, steel and other metals. From the importance
attached to the facT: that but little timber existed in the
northern continent when the Nephites began to spread
over it, and consequently that the immigrants had to
build their houses of cement, it is presumable that
Avood entered largely into the composition of the build-
ings in the southern lands. This idea is strengthened
by the frequent reference made to the skill of their
artisans in wood working, and in the excellence they
had attained in the refining of ores and the manufac-
ture of metal ornaments for their houses and persons.
Regarding one monarch it is written : King Noah
built many elegant and spacious buildings; and he
ornamented them with fine works of wood, and of all
manner of precious things, of gold and of silver, and
of iron, and of brass, and of ziff and of copper; and
he also built him a spacious palace, and a throne in
3l8 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
the midst thereof, all of which was of fine wood, and
was ornamented with gold and silver, and with precious
things. And he also caused that his workmen should
work all manner of fine work within the walls of the
temple, of fine wood, and of copper, and of brass, etc.
This was in the land of Lehi-Nephi.
We next turn to the food of this people. Here,
also, we are without definite information, but we can
measurably judge of their staple articles of diet by
noticing the grains they cultivated most extensively :
to wit, wheat, corn and barlej^, the latter appearing to
have been the standard by which thev gauged the
price of other commodities. Great attention was also
given to the planting of fruit trees and grape vines.
From the fruit of the grape abundance of wine was
manufactured, of which (we think we do the Nephites
no injustice by saying it) the}' were as fond as are the
generality of mankind. The}- were not as attached to
a meat diet as were the Lamanites, who were great
flesh-eaters, but they apparenth' kept large flocks and
herds as a source of food supply-, as well as for wool,
leather, etc., and to provide for the numerous sacrifices
enjoined by the law of Moses, which they carefully
observed, until the offering of that greatest of all sacri-
fices on Alount Calvary, of which all the rest were but
types and shadows.
Thus we ma}' conclude that bread made from
corn, wheat or barley; the flesh of their flocks and
herds, together with that of wild animals caught in the
chase; fruit, wine, milk and honey, formed the basis of
their daily food, differing, no doubt, in details, accord-
ing to the location, climate and other circumstances.
Their methods of locomotion and modes of trans-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 319
portation are not described. The}^ were very rich in
horses, and doubtless made use of them as beasts of
burden. The fa6l that large bodies of this people made
extended journeys in their various migrations and col-
onizings, is be3^ond dispute. From one family they
filled a continent, or more properly two continents.
The use of ships is not mentioned until the middle of
the last century before the Christian era. These were
then used in conveying immigrants, lumber, provisions,
etc., to the northern continent; the first ship-building,
of which we have an account, having been done at the
settlements near the Isthmus of Panama, to which
point good roads had by that time been constru(5led.
In the earlier histor}^ of the Nephites it is probable
that most of their material was transported on pack
animals, as is done to-day in the regions then inhabited
by them. In the dense tropical vegetation of the wil-
derness, and along the mountain slopes of the Andes,
road-making was difficult and expensive, and packing
on the backs of animals (say the horse, the mule, the
llama, the alpaca, etc.,) was the cheapest and most con-
venient to a comparatively poor and small people.
Chariots are mentioned but seldom. The Laman-
ite monarch, Lamoni, had his horses and chariots, to
which reference is more than once made; and in after
years, when the Nephites gathered with all they pos-
sessed into one place, to defend themselves against the
Gadianton robbers (seventeen years after the birth of
Christ), they removed their provisions, grain, etc., by
means of vehicles called chariots. These are the only
instances, of which the writer remembers, where vehi-
cles of any kind are spoken of in the Book of Mormon,
in connedlion with the inhabtants of this continent.
'.^
CHAPTER LA'III.
AGRICULTURE AMONG THE NEPHITES — GRAINS — STOCK RAIS-
ING — IRRIGATION.
]VrO SOONER had Lehi and his little coloii}^ arrived
on the promised land than they commenced the
cultivation of the soil, planting therein the seeds the}'
had brought with them from the land of Judea, which,
to their great joy, yielded abundantly. The grains and
fruits of the Asiatic continent were found to flourish
as luxuriantly in the soil of America as in their native
land. This not only held good in the land of the
Nephites' first inheritance, but also in the lands of
their later possession — Nephi, Zarahemla, etc., as all
through the Book of Mormon we have occasional refer-
ences (incidental to the storv of their histor}') to the
success that attended their farming operations. Nor
must it be imagined that their business was carried on
in the priuiitive manner that characflerizes the labors
of Laman's degenerate descendants to-da}'. Agricul-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 32 1
tural machinery, and all manner of tools of every kind
to till the ground, are mentioned b}' more than one
writer.
Of cereals, corn, wheat and barley appear to have
been, as in the land of their forefathers, the staple
crops. If we mistake not, oats are never mentioned in
the Bible, nor is rye spoken of more than once or
twice. In the Book of Mormon we have no recolledlion
of the mention of either of these grains. On the other
hand they appear to have cultivated grains with which
we are unacquainted, known to them by the names of
neas and sheum. Had there been any English equiva-
lents to these words, we should doubtless have had
them as in other cases, instead of the original Nephite
names.
All kinds of fruit flourished under their careful
cultivation. Special reference is several times made to
vine3^ards and grape culture, as well as to the manufac-
ture of wine. Like the moderns, they understood the
secret of fortifying or strengthening it with liquor or
alcohol, of which knowledge they took advantage when
paying tribute to the Lamanites, in cases when they
intended to escape from their taskmasters while the
latter were under the influence of this intoxicatinef
drink.
It is evident from the sacred record that the
Nephites carried on their farming very much in the
same manner, and for ver}" much the same reasons, as
the earl}^ settlers in Utah. When a new colony was
planted, a town or village was built in a suitable loca-
tion, somewhat after the st3de of our early forts. This
city or settlement was generally named after the
founder or the leader of the colony. The farming land
32 2 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
contiguous was called by the same name. The land
Avas tilled in every convenient place around the city, and
Avhen the Lamanites appeared, or other danger threat-
ened, the people retreated into their place of refuge, in
the center of their lands. As an example, we will cite
the case of the followers of iVlma, in the land of
Helam. When the arni}^ of the Lamanites made their
unwelcome appearance, the people were mosth' engaged
in tilling the soil. iVt the coming of the dreaded foe
the}' gathered with all haste into the cit}- to await de-
velopments and to receive the counsel their wise, brave
and good leader might give them. By his advice, the
men went out of the city in a body, and made a treat}'
with the Lamanites, which the latter, as soon as their
purpose was accomplished, failed to keep.
It is probable that in many parts of the continent
some system of irrigation was adopted to raise the
crops. But this was not necessar}'^ in all portions of
the Nephite possessions ; we are inclined to think it was
not so in the cultivated portions of the valley of the
Sidon. Certain it is that when the righteous Nephi
(the father of one of the Twelve Apostles chosen by
Jesus from among the Israel of this western conti-
nent) called upon the Lord, at his request a famine
desolated the land. The sacred historian records: For
the earth was smitten that it was dry, and did not yield
forth grain in the season of grain. But when the
people had repented and Nephi had pleaded in their
behalf, it is written, And it came to pass in the seventy-
sixth year (B. C. i6), the Lord did turn away his anger
from the people, and caused that rain should fall upon
the earth, insomuch that it did bring forth her fruit in
the season of her fruit. And it came to pass that it
STORY OF THE BOOK OK MORMON. 323
did bring forth her grain in the season of her grain.
We judge from this that in those days the Nephite
agriculturist depended on the diredl rains from heaven-^
for it appears that in the same year that they fell, the
grain harvest was reaped, and the fruit harvest gath-
ered. But it is unsafe to form positive theories on
these points, until we fully understand the great
changes that took place on the face of the land, with
consequent alterations of climate, etc., at the time of
the awful convulsions that attended the crucifixion of
our Lord and Savior.
Except in the da3's of their excessive pride and
ungodly arrogance, the calling of the agriculturist
among the Nephites was a most honorable one, as in
truth it should be among all people. King Mosiah,
the beloved, reminded the people that, to prevent their
taxes being grievous, he himself did till the earth for
his support, and to maintain the expenses of the mon-
archy. With this ro3'al example, it is no wonder that
the farmer and the horticulturist were esteemed
among the greatest of nature's noblemen.
The Nephites were also successful stock-raisers;
their flocks and herds formed no inconsiderable portion
of their wealth. The abundance of their horned stock,
sheep, goats, wild goats, horses, fatlings, etc., is fre-
quently referred to. To this industry the Lamanites,
who were great meat-eaters, also gave considerable
attention. It was a business that suited their semi-civ-
ilization. It did not tie them down so completely to one
spot, as did agriculture and manufacture. But it is a
notable fa6l that whenever any bodies of Lamanites
passed over to the Nephites, they not only adopted the
latter's religion and faith, but also their mode of living.
324 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and became skilled in the pursuits of industry. As an
example, we read, in the da3's of the Judges, of many
of these people joining the people of Amnion (their
former brethren), when the}- did begin to labor exceed-
ingl}", tilling the ground, raising all manner of grain,
and flocks and herds of every kind.
CHAPTER LIX.
SCIENCE AND LITERATURE AMONG THE NEPHITES— THEIR
ASTRONOMY AND GEOGRAPHY — THE LEARNING OF
EGYPT
^npHE NEPHITES were unusuall}- happy in having,
as the founders of their nation, men who were not
only wise in the wa3'S of the Lord, but also learned in
the knowledge of the world. ]\Iost races that have
made a mark in history have had to grope their wa}'
for centuries from darkness to light, from ignorance to
knowledge. Little by little such races have advanced
in the path of civilization, falling into manifold errors,
and committing grievous blunders. With Lehi and
his posterity it was not so. They were taken from the
midst of a people who were surrounded by the most
powerful and refined nations of antiquity, with whose
wisdom and learning Lehi was undoubtedl}- well
acquainted. We can readily conceive that the Lord, in
planting this mighty and vigorous offshoot of the house
of Joseph, on the richest and most favored land of all
the world, would not only choose one of his most faith-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 325
fill, but also one of his most intelligent servants, to
commence the work. Indeed, on the very first page of,
the Book of Mormon, Nephi incidentally refers to the
learning of his father; which learning, we infer from
many passages in the sacred record, was obtained by
Lehi in Egypt, as well as in Palestine, the associations
between the inhabitants of these two countries being,
in his day, very close, and the inter-communication
very frequent.
As the foundation of their literature, Lehi and his
colony carried with them a copy of the sacred scrip-
tures, which contained not only an account of God's
dealings with mankind, from the creation to the age of
Jeremiah, but also the only complete history in exist-
ence of the people who lived before the deluge. The
Egyptians, Chaldeans and other nations had mangled, *
mythic and jumbled-up accounts of man's history
from the creation to the flood; but the Nephites pos-
sessed the details of this epoch in much greater com-
pleteness than even Christendom does to-day. These
scriptures — historical and do6lrinal — being numer-
ously reproduced and scattered among the people,
formed the basis of Nephite literature, giving them the
immense advantage over all other people of possessing
the unpolluted word of God in every age then past,
supplemented by a corre6l and undisputed history of
the results, to the world, of man's obedience or dis-
obedience to these heavenly messages. How much
more complete these scriptures were than the Bible of
Christendom, is shown by the numerous references to
the lives, and quotations from the teachings, of ancient
worthies, Melchizedek, Jacob, Joseph and others; to
the acts and infamies of Cain, etc., not found in the
326 vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Bible, as well as b}' lengthy quotations from ancient
prophets, whose names — Zenos, Zenoch, Neum, Ezias
— are not even mentioned in its pages. How much
modern Christianity has lost by these omissions may
be partially inferred from the beauty, and grandeur of
the extracts given in the Book of Mormon, from the
writings and prophecies of Zenos alone. Take, as a
single instance, his inspired parable of the wild and
tame olive trees, given in the Book of Jacob; no more
important, no more sublime prophec}- can be found in
the whole contents of the holy scriptures.
The connection of Lehi with Egypt, whose lan-
guage he appears to have adopted, doubtless gave him
a pradlical knowledge of the condition of the whole
civilized world in his day, when the glories of Chaldea
had departed, and those of Assyria and Egypt were
passing away; when Babylon was at the zenith of
its power, and the growing strength of Persia and
Greece was as yet scarcely felt. To this personal
information he, like Moses, added an acquaintance
with the learning of the Egyptians, a people wise
above all other uninspired races in the numerous
branches of science and art in which they excelled.
With this knowledge, combined with the information
of immeasurable value contained on the sacred plates,
the foundation was laid for a stable civilization, guided
by past revelation and present inspiration; to which was
added the experience of other nations, as beacon-
lights to warn the Nephites of the dangers to which all
communities are subje(5l, and to guide them to havens
of governmental and political safety.
The Nephites, then, from their earliest day had
at least all the important historical and geographical
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 327
knowledge possessed b}^ the most favored communities
of the eastern hemisphere, with as much more as it
pleased heaven to reveal. The}- had one advantage
over the peoples they had left — they were well ac-
quainted with them and their condition; but of the
Nephites the dwellers in the old world knew nothing.
With regard to the knowledge received through revela-
tion, it is evident, from several incidental expressions
scattered through the record, that the Lord did give to
his faithful servants information with regard to histor-
ical and geographical matters. We will cite one in-
stance : Jacob, the brother of Nephi, in one of his impres-
sive exhortations, while encouraging his brethren
(often somewhat downcast on account of their lonely
condition, so far from the rest of mankind), remarks:
We have been led to a better land, for the Lord has
made the sea our path, and we are upon an isle of the
sea. But great are the promises of the Lord unto they
who are upon the isles of the sea; therefore, as it says
isles, there must needs be more than this, and they are
inhabited also by our brethren.
How could Jacob have known, except by revela-
tion, that the vast continent which the Nephites
inhabited was entirely surrounded by the waters of
the great oceans ? He and his companions had, but a
few short 3'ears before, first landed on its shores, and
had now explored but a very small portion of its
wide extent, and there were no others in communica-
tion with them who could supply the information that
North and South America were one immense island.
Evidently the Lord had revealed this fadl to them.
And, by the way, this simple statement is strong testi-
mony of the divine authenticity of the Book of
328 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Mormon. At the time that this portion of the sacred
plates was translated (A. D. 1 82 7-8), or even when the
whole boot was published and the Church of Jesus
Christ was organized (A. D. 1830), it was not known
to modern science that the American continent was
indeed an island. Joseph Smith could not have received
knowledge of this fa(5l, so unhesitatingly affirmed,
from any learned geographer or pradical navigator.
The hope of centuries, in Europe, had been to discover
a northwest passage to India, but to that date all
attempts had met with disastrous failure, so far as the
chief object was concerned. Little or nothing was
then known of the North American coast, west of
Hudson's Bay. It was not until after repeated expedi-
tions, that in May, 1847, the truth of the statement of
Jacob could be affirmed, from adlual knowledge of the
geographical features of the country, as at that date
the explorations and surveys by land and sea, from
east and west, were brought sufficiently near to leave
the matter without a doubt. It was not until
1854 that the first ship's crew (that of Captain
McClure), which ever sailed across the Ar(5lic Ocean
from the Pacific to the Atlantic, along the northern
coast of America, returned from their perilous voyage.
We thys find that human geographical knowledge
could not have aided the prophet Joseph Smith in
making this statement, had it originated with him and
not with the son of Lehi.
While ancient Greek and other philosophers were
groping among the fallacies of the absurd system of
astronomy given to the world by Ptolemy, and teach-
ing that the sun with all the stars revolved around the
earth, the Nephites were in possession of the true
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 329
knowledge with regard to the heavenly bodies, etc.
Possibly they were the only people of their age blessed
with a comprehension of these sublime truths. It is
altogether probable that among their scriptures were
copies of the Book of Abraham, from which the}^ could
acquaint themselves with the beauties and harmonies
of celestial mechanism. They undoubtedly had the
writings of Joseph the son of Jacob, as these are
quoted in the Book of Alormon; and, as the prophet
Joseph Smith found the writings of Abraham and
Joseph together in the Eg3^ptian mummies, it is far
from improbable that the Nephites, as well as the early
Egyptians, possessed both. To show the astronomical
knowledge possessed by the Nephites, we will draw
attention to the words of two of their prophets. The
first extract is from the reply of Alma to Korihor,
the Anti-Christ (B. C. 75), when the latter asked for a
sign to prove the existence of a God. His words are:
Thou hast had signs enough; will ye tempt your God?
Will ye say, Show unto me a sign, when ye have the
testimony of all these th}^ brethren, and also all the
holy prophets? The scriptures are laid before thee,
3'ea, and all things denote there is a God ; yea, even the
earth, and all things that are upon the face of it, yea,
and its motion; yea, and also all the planets which
move in their regular form, doth witness that there is a
Supreme Creator. The next quotation is from the
refle6lions of one of the servants of God (probably
Mormon) inserted into the Nephite history of about sev-
enty years later. The writer is speaking of the great-
ness and goodness of God, and among other things
declares: Yea, by the power of his voice doth the
whole earth shake; 3'ea, b}- the power of his voice doth
330 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
the foundations rock, even to the very center; yea, and
if he say unto the earth, move, it is moved; yea, if
he sa}' unto the earth, thou shalt go back, that it
lengthen out the day for many hours, it is done ; and
thus according to his word, the earth goeth back, and
it appeareth unto man that the sun standeth still; yea,
and behold, this is so; for sure it is the earth that
moveth, and not the sun. Thus we find that in these
points, the astronomical knowledge of the Nephites
was, at least, equal to that of the moderns.
CHAPTER LX.
THE ART OF WAR AMONG THE NEPHITES— THEIR WEAPONS,
ARMOR AND FORTIFICATIONS — MORONI'S LINE OF DE-
FENSE.
IVrO sooner had the separation taken place between
the families of Nephi and Laman, and the founda-
tion been laid for the two nations that for a thousand
years contested for the supremancy on this continent,
than Nephi, to protedl his people from the threatened
attacks of the Lamanites, found it necessar}^ to prepare
for war. He took the sword of Laban, and, using it
as a pattern, fashioned many others, which he distrib-
* uted among his subje(fts as a means of defense. These
swords, with cimeters, spears, javelins, darts, bows and
arrows, slings and stones, appear to have been the
principal weapons of war used bv the Nephites
throughout their entire national existence, though
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
331
reference is more than once made to nnnamed and
undescribed weapons. Wfe have no reason to imagine
from any of the descriptions of their battles that gun-
powder or any like composition was known to them.
It is more probable that the nnnamed weapons were
something of the same kind as the ancient ballista and
catapult, (machines made by the ancients for throwing
stones, arrows, etc.,) and used for the same purposes.
From the abundance of metallic ore in the regions
most densely populated by the Nephites, and the oft-
mentioned skill possessed by their artisans in the work-
ing of iron, steel, brass and copper, we have no reason
for supposing that less satisfa6lory substitutes were
brought into use in the manufa6lure of their weapons.
There was no necessity for using bone, flint, etc., when
metal was so abundant and its preparation so well
understood.
The accounts we have of the early wars between
the two races are but mere notices of the fa6l of their
occurrence and results. It is not until the da3^s of the
Judges that anything like details are given. At that
time the Nephites had adopted the use of defensive
plate armor for their heads, bodies and thighs ; they
also carried shields and wore arm plates. These arts
for the protection of the soldiers were carried to their
greatest excellence under Moroni, during the first half
of the last century- before Christ. This officer, one of
the greatest, if not a6lually the greatest, generals the
Nephite race ever gave birth to, appears to have made
a great revolution in their military affairs. He re-or-
ganized their armies, compelled more stringent disci-
pline, introduced new tactics, developed a greatly
superior system of fortification, built towers and
332
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
citadels, and altogether placed the defensive powers of
the commonwealth on a new and stronger footing.
The Lamanites, who appear to have developed no
capacity for originating, but were apt in copying, also,
in course of time, adopted defensive armor, and when
they captured a weak Nephite city they frequentl}^
made it a stronghold by surrounding it with ditches
and walls after the system introduced and put into
execution by Moroni.
The foundation of Moroni's S3^stem of fortification
was earthworks encircling the place to be defended.
The earth was dug from the outside, by which means
a ditch was formed. Sometimes walls of stone were
ere(5led. On the top of the earthworks strong defenses
of wood, sometimes breastworks, in some cases to the
full height of a man, were raised; and above these a
stockade of strong pickets was built, to arrest the
flight of the stones and arrows of the attacking forces.
Those arrows, etc., that passed above the pickets fell,
without doing injury, behind the troops who were de-
fending the wall. Besides these walls, towers were
raised at various convenient points, from which obser-
vations of the movements of the eneni}^ were taken,
and wherein corps of archers and slingers were sta-
tioned during the adlual continuance of the battle.
From their elevated and commanding position these
bodies of soldiers could do great injury to the attack-
ing force.
To make this subje6l yet plainer we insert a few
extradls, from the Book of Mormon, that have a bearing
thereon.
In the year B. C. 73 a severe war was being waged,
in which Moroni had command of the Nephite armies
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 333
and Amalickiah of those of their foes. It is writ-
ten that at this time Moroni eredled small forts, or
places of resort; throwing up banks of earth round
about, to enclose his armies, and also building walls of
stone to encircle them about, round about their cities
and the borders of their lands ; yea, all around about
the land; and in their weakest fortifications he did
place the greater number of men; and thus he did for-
tify and strengthen the land which was possessed by
the Nephites.
The year following Moroni caused his soldiers to
dig up heaps of earth round about all the cities,
throughout all the land which was possessed by the
Nephites ; and upon the top of these ridges of earth he
caused that there should be timbers; yea, works of
timbers built up to the height of a man, round about
the cities. And he caused that upon these works of
timbers there should be a frame of pickets built upon
the timbers round about; and the}- were strong and
high; and he caused towers to be creeled that over-
looked those works of pickets, and he caused places of
security to be built upon those towers, that the stones
and the arrows of the Lamanites could not hurt them.
And the}^ were prepared, that they could cast stones
from the top thereof, according to their pleasure and
their strength, and slay him who should attempt to
approach near the walls of the cit3\ Thus Aloroni did
prepare strongholds against the coming of their ene-
mies, round about every city in all the land.
Again, in the same war, the Lamanite prisoners
were set to work digging a ditch round about the
land, or the city Bountiful; and ]\Ioroni caused that
they should build a breastwork of timbers upon the
334 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
inner bank of the ditch; and they cast up dirt out of
the ditch against the breastwork of timbers; and thus
the}^ did cause the Lamanites to labor until the}- had
encircled the cit}^ of Bountiful round about with a
strong wall of timbers and earth, to an exceeding
hight. x\nd this city became an exceeding strong
hold ever after.
The forces of both races appear to have been com-
posed very largely, if not entirely, of infantry. We
have failed to notice any passages that give a definite
assurance that either cavalry or war chariots were used
in their campaigns.
Like nearly all rude or semi-civilized races, the
Lamanites depended on the strength of numbers and
brute force for victory in the open field. They massed
their troops in solid bodies, and with wild cries rushed
to the assault in the hope of bearing down all resist-
ance by their superior numbers, as in almost ever}' war
they greatly outnumbered the Nephites. Indeed it is
doubtful if even the last-named people used much
scientific strategy previous to the da3's of Moroni;
before this time it was a hand-to-hand confli(51;, wherein
the Nephites, though fewer in numbers, had many
advantages over their half-naked foes, by reason of
superior weapons and defensive armor, and, above all,
through the blessing and guidance of the Lord.
In the year B. C. 72 the armies of Moroni drove
the Lamanites out of that portion of the east wilder-
ness bordering on the land of Zarahemla into their own
lands. The northern line or boundary of the latter
ran in a strait course from the sea east to the west.
The Lamanites having been driven out of those por-
tions of the wilderness north of the dividing line,
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 335
colonies of Nephites were sent to occupy the country
and build cities on their southern border, even to the
Atlantic coast. To protedl the new settlers, Moroni
placed troops all along this line and caused them to
ere6l fortifications for the better defense of the frontier.
This fortified line ran from the west sea (the Pacific
Ocean) by the head of the river Sidon (the IMagdalena)
eastward along the northern edge of the wilderness.
Some of the readers of the Book of Mormon have
imagined this line of defense to have been one contin-
uous rampart or wall — after the style of the great wall
of China — reaching from ocean to ocean, and on this
surmise have argued that the completion of such an
immense work in a few years was an impossibility to a
people of the limited numerical strength of the Ne-
phites. To get over this difficulty of their own creation
they have resorted to various theories with regard to its
locality, inconsistent with the geographical details, on
purpose to shorten its distance to what they deemed a
reasonable length, possible for the Nephites to have
built in a few years. The writer holds the opinion that
the Book of Mormon convej^s no such idea; it simply
states that Moroni ere6led fortifications along this line;
or, as he views it, Moroni took advantage of the natural
features of the country, its wide rivers, far-stretching
swamps and ranges of high mountains, and built forti-
fications at ever}' point where the Lamanites could find
ingress, such as at the fords of the rivers and the passes
between the mountains. He there stationed bodies of
troops sufficiently strong to hold their posts, and, if
necessary, defend the surrounding countr}'. This sys-
tem of defense would be more powerful and effective
than ^n artificial wall; high mountains and deep rivers
336 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
largeU' taking the place of earthworks, masonry and
heav}' timbers.
A number of 3'ears later (B. C. 34), the Lamanites
having temporaril}' driven the Nephites from the
southern continent, Aloronihah, the son of ]\Ioroni,
fortified the Isthmus of Panama from sea to sea, and in
this way prevented the Lamanites from pushing yet
further north. This defensive line was again fortified
by Mormon (A. D. 360) in the last great series of wars
between the two races.
It does not appear, so far as can be gathered from
the record, that any very great improvements, either in
the system of fortification, the style of defensive armor,'
or the manufa6lure of their weapons, were made bv the
Nephite commanders who lived after the da3^s of
Moroni.
There is another kind of defensive clothing,
beside plate armor, mentioned as being worn b}^ the
ancient American warriors. It consisted of very thick
clothing, possibly made of cotton or woolen cloth,
thickl}' padded. Moroni uniformed some of his troops
in this manner when he first took command of the
Nephite armies (B. C. 74), and the next year the
Lamanites followed his example and not only prepared
themselves with shields and breastplates, but also with
garments of skins ; yea, very thick garments to cover
their nakedness.
The various enemies that the Nephite armies had
to meet, from time to time, on the field of battle —
Lamanites, Amulonites, Amalekites, Zoramites, Gadi-
anton robbers, etc. — were very differently equipped for
their bloody work. Those who had dissented from the
Nephites naturally held to the same tactics, usod the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 337
arms and protected their bodies with the same armor
as the people to whom they had turned traitors. With
the original Lamanites it was different. At first, when
they came against the Nephites they were clothed with
a short skin girdle about the loins, and with their heads
shaven ; and their skill was in the bow and the cimeter
and axe. The dissenters, while armed and equipped
like the Nephites, set a mark upon themselves by
which they might be known and distinguished on the
battle field. In doing this they unconsciously fulfilled
the word of the Lord to their fathers. Thus, the fol-
lowers of Amlici, the would-be king, marked them-
selves with red in their foreheads after the manner of
the Lamanites, though they did not shave their heads
as did the direA descendants of Laman (B. C. 87).
The description of the Gadianton robbers, as they
appeared when prepared for war (A. C. 18), is a very
terrible one : Thej^ were girded about after the manner
of robbers ; and the}' had a lamb-skin about their loins,
and they were dyed in blood, and their heads were
shorn, and the}^ had head-plates upon them: and great
and terrible was the appearance of the armies of Gid-
dianhi, because of their armor, and because of their
being dyed in blood.
CHAPTER LXI.
THE LAWvS OF THE NEPHITES — THE ROMAN AND NEPHITE
CIVILIZATIONS — THE LAWS UNDER THE KINGS — POSI-
TION OF THE PRIESTHOOD — SLAVERY — CRIMINAL OF-
FENSES.
TF the existence of wise, just and liberal laws,
administered in righteousness, be the rule b}'' which
we can judge of the true greatness of a nation and of
the happiness and prosperity of its citizens, then the
Nephites were a far happier and more prosperous peo-
ple than were their contemporaries on the eastern con-
tinent. If this be not so, then we have not read historj'
aright.
The Nephite nation was co-existent with the great
Roman power that for so long triumphed over and
crushed the surrounding people in Europe, Asia and
Africa. True, Rome was founded more than a century
before Lehi left Jerusalem,'-' but at the time of his
exodus its growing power had scarcely begun to be felt
outside of Italy. At the time that Aloroni's record
closed, the Nephites, as a nation, had become extincft,
and the glory of the mistress of the world was rapidly
fading away. Rome had been sacked by barbarians,
the empire had been divided into two goverments, the
legs of Nebuchadnezzar's great image were forming;
people and nations were rebelling and throwing off the
iron yoke, and the idea of universal empire had become
a thing of the past.')" But how different the theor}'
*The generally accepted date for the foundation of Rome is 753 B. C.
tThe eastern and western empires were divided A. D. 395. Alaric,
the Goth, sacked Rome A. D. 410. Britain broke away from the empire A.
I). 418. Gaul, vSpain and Africa were soon afterwards lost.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 339
and genius of the two nations! The Nephite rulers
governed by the power of just laws, the Romans by
the might of the unsheathed sword. Among the
former, every man was a free man, with his rights
as a citizen guaranteed and protected by just laws.
Among the latter, few could assert, as did the Apostle
Paul, Ciz'is Romamis Smn — I am a Ronmn citizen.
The vast majority of the millions who formed its peo-
ple were either abje61: allies, vanquished enemies or
degraded slaves. J Neither of these had many rights
that the Roman citizen felt himself called upon to
respe(5l. We are apt to be awed by the grand mili-
tary exploits of the Roman generals, and to be dazzled
with the magnificence of Rome in art and architedlure,
but we must recollc^l that the history of that city is
the history of tyrann3^ Its power, during the greater
portion of its continuance, was in the hands of the few,
who used it for the interest of their class. The masses
of the population were the subjedfs of oppression and
violence.
No language could so well describe the spirit of
Roman aggrandizement as that used by the prophet
Daniel when interpreting to the Babylonish king the
import of the terrible image he had seen in his dream.
These are his words : And the fourth kingdom shall be
strong as iron: forasmuch as iron breaketh in pieces
and subdueth all things: and as iron that breaketh all
these, shall it break in pieces and bruise. (Daniel ii.
40.) And thus did Rome rule the eastern world as with
a rod of iron. We need not refer to the other nations
that existed on the eastern continent, for the people
Jln Sicily alone, j^oaded by ill treatment, the slaves rebelled. Their
army numbered 200,000 (B. C. 134-132).
340 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON
that Rome neither conquered nor destroyed were bar-
barians, who, during the existence of the Nephites,
filled but a small page in the world's histor3^
These fa(5ls are presented as worthy of the consid-
eration of all who study the social and political con-
dition of the great and highly-favored people who
flourished ^n this continent for so many centuries; and
we imagine the student cannot fail to be impressed
with the thought that they were at least a thousand
years in advance of their fellow men in the science of
true government; and in their polity find a type of
the most advanced and most liberal forms of govern-
ment of the present age. That this should be so, will
not surprise us when we consider that they were a
branch of the house of Israel, a people who enjoyed
more political liberty (until their own follies had cut
them off therefrom) than any of the other nations of
antiquit}', and that to the law of Moses they had added
the divine teachings of the everlasting gospel, which in
themselves are a perfedl law of libert3\ Further, it is
a noteworthy fa6l which stares us in the face from the
beginning to the end of the Book of Mormon, that
when the people departed from gospel principles, it
was then and then onl}- that they fell into bondage, of
whatever nature that bondage might be.
The political history of the Nephites ma}- be con-
sistently divided into five epochs:
First. — WHien they were governed by kings.
Second. — The republic, when the}- were ruled by
judges and governors.
Third. — A short period of anarchy when they
were divided into numerous independent tribes.
Fourtli. — The Messianic dispensation, when they
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 341
were controlled entirely by the higher law of the holy
priesthood.
Fifth. — The chaotic state of internecine war which
preceded their final extindlion as a nation and as a race.
The first portion of the history of the Nephites
when the}' were governed b\' kings, covers almost
exactly one half of their national existence, or from
the time of the landing of the colony on the coast of
Chili to 509 years after the departure of Lehi from
Jerusalem. Of the laws by which the people were gov-
erned during this period, which, however, we are told
were exceedingly strict, we have few details, for the rea-
son that the plates from which the greater portion of
the Book of Mormon which relates to this period was
taken contain the records of their prophets rather than
the annals of their kings. With regard to these kings ^
they of whose lives we have any particulars, viz :
Nephi, the first king, and ]\Iosiah I., Benjamin and
Alosiah II., the three last, were eminently virtuous,
just and merciful men, who reigned as all mouarchs
should, but few do — with an eye single to the good of
their subjects. Of their kings in general the prophet
Jarom, about 400 3^ears before Christ, remarks: Our
kings and our leaders were might}- men in the faith of
the Lord : and they taught the people the ways of the
Lord. Indeed, we recollect no intimation, in any place in
the sacred record, of tyranny on the part of those who
reigned over the main body of the nation. The gov-
ernment may, we think, be justly considered to approx-
imate nearest to a limited monarchy, in which, as in
ancient Israel, the prophet often exercised more power
than the king. Though this is true of the central
government, it unfortunately cannot be so stated of the
342 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
colony which returned to the land of Nephi in the days
of King Benjamin; that people suffered beyond des-
cription from the tyranny and wickedness, and the con-
sequences resulting therefrom, of their second king,
Noah, the murderer of the servants of the true and
living God.
Of the life and character of the first king of the
Nephites, the father of his people, Nephi, the son of
Lehi, we need say nothing here. Histor}' affords no
better model of the true prince. So thought his peo-
ple, and the}', to retain in remembrance his name, and
to perpetuate the recollection of his virtues, called his
successors, second Nephi, third Nephi, etc., no matter
what their original name might have been.
The right of choosing his successor appears to
have been vested in the reigning sovereign. When
Nephi became old, and saw that he must soon die, he
anointed a man to be a king and a ruler over his peo-
ple. King Benjamin chose his son Alosiah to reign in
his stead, and then gathered the people to receive his
last charge and ratify his sele(5lion. Mosiah gave the
people yet greater liberty, and instead of nominating
his successor dire6led them to make their own choice.
The people highly appreciated this a(5t of grace on the
part of their beloved king, and selec^ted Aaron his son.
Aaron, whose heart was set upon the salvation of the
Lamanites, declined the kingly authorit}', when Mosiah
very wisely advised his subje6ls not to sele(51: another to
fill the throne, lest it give rise, in the future, to blood-
shed and contention, but to eledl judges to be their
rulers, instead of kings, which proposition they ac-
cepted with great joy.
With regard to the Nephite laws in the days of
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 343
the kings, and the manner of their execution, we can
learn most from the parting addresses of kings Benja-
min and Mosiah II. to their subje(5ls. We are fre-
quently told by the sacred writers, from Nephi, the
founder, to Nephi, the disciple, that the people observed
the law of Moses, modified, we judge, in some of its
details to suit the altered circumstances of the Nephites .
from those of their brethren in the land of Palestine.
As an instance we draw attention to the fa6l that, as
there were none of the tribe of Levi in the colony that
accompained Lehi from Judea, the priestly office must
necessarily have been filled and the required sacrifices
and burnt offerings offered by some of the members
of the tribes who were with them. Nephi (doubtless
b}' the direction of the Lord) appointed his brothers
Jacob and Joseph to be the priests for the people, they
being of the tribe of Manasseh, and the care of the
sacred records remained with the descendants of the
first named for several generations. The members of
the various orders of the priesthood, when not actually
engaged in the work of the ministry, in the duties of
the temple, or the service of the sanctuary, were required
to labor for their own support, that they might not
prove burdensome to the people. A merciful provision
was, however, made for the sustenance of members of
the priesthood in cases of sickness or when in much
want.
Though the laws were strict, they were mercifully
and equitably administered, which gave much greater
stability to the government and respect for the law than
if they had been adjudged loosely, and with partialit}^
towards classes or persons. It has been wisely observed
that it is not the severity of the law but the sureness
344 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
of the punishment that deters the evil doer, and in this
respect the Nephite nation had cause for thankfulness.
All men were alike before the law, there were no privi-
leged classes as in Rome, or in feudal Europe in later
years. ]\Iosiah says, Whosoever has committed iniquity,
him have I punished according to the law M'hich has
been given to us by our fathers.
From the charge of king Benjamin to his son
Mosiah we learn that slavery was forbidden. All the
inhabitants of the continent being. of the house of
Israel, they could not observe the law of Moses and
enslave their brethren.
IMurder, robbery, theft, adultery and other sexual
abominations were punished by law, as also was 13'ing
or bearing false witness.
Mormon states that in king Benjamin's days the
false Christs, etc. , were punished according to their
crimes; but we are not informed if those crimes con-
sisted in false personation, etc., or in fomenting, aiding
and abetting treason and rebellion, as was almost uni-
versally the habit of those who apostatized from the
gospel and sought to establish false religions in its
place. King Benjamin also states that he had not per-
mitted the people to be confined in dungeons ; but we
are uncertain whether to infer from this remark that
the king intended his hearers to understand that he had
not done this, as so many tyrants do, without cause and
without trial, or that some other more effectual means
had been found of punishing those transgressors not
deemed worthy of death. We incline to the former
opinion.
When the Nephite kingdom was first established
the people were so few that they could not possibly
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 345
sustain the expenses incidental to royalty. Thus it
became the rule for the kings to sustain themselves.
This unique, though most excellent custom continued
as long as the monarchy lasted, even when the nation
had grown rich and numerous. King Benjamin
reminds his subjects that he had labored with his own
hands that they might not be laden with taxes. Of
Mosiah, his successor, it is written that he had not
exacted riches of the people and that he had granted
unto his people that they should be delivered from all
manner of bondage.
We must not forget that, in connection with the
civil law, the law of the gospel was almost unceasingly
proclaimed during the whole period of the monarchy.
Various false Christs and false prophets had arisen at
different times, but the power of the priesthood had
remained, ministering in holy things, rebuking iniquit}^
and aiding in the suppression of vice. The kings of
the Nephites, as we before observed, were, as a rule,
men of God, holding the priesthood, and were often
prophets and seers as well as temporal rulers. To thi^
happy circumstance we must attribute greatly the
peace and good order that so generally prevailed; the
respe(5l for the law that was so widespread ; the large
amount of liberty accorded to the people and the few
abuses they made of that freedom. To use the idea of
the prophet Joseph Smith, for long 3'ears, they were
taught correct principles, and they (to a great extent)
governed themselves.
In the course of the centuries, as the people
increased and spread far and wide over the land, they
appear to have introduced local customs to suit their
differing circumstances, or in some cases their whims
346 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and notions. Thus, until king Mosiah II. established
uniformity by law, nearly every generation and each
section of the country had its own monej-s, weights,
measures, etc., which were altered from time to time
according to the minds and circumstances of the people.
This custom naturall}' caused confusion, annoj^ance
and distrust, and to obviate these, and possibl}^ greater
evils, ^losiah consented to newly arrange the affairs of
the people; and, if we may so express it, to codify the
law. This code became the constitution of the nation
under the rule of the Judges, which limited the powers
of the officials and guaranteed the rights of the people.
This compilation was acknowledged by the people,
whereupon the historian remarks. Therefore they were
obliged to abide by the laws which he had made. And
from that time they became supreme throughout the
nation. It is stated in another place that this chajige
was made by the direct command of Jehovah.
CHAPTER LXII.
THE LAWS UNDER THE JUDGES — THE VOICE OF THE PEO-
PLE—ELECTIONS— RIGHTS OF THE PEOPLE — CHURCH
AND vSTATE— THE CRIMINAL PROCEDURE.
"XXTB next enter into the consideration of the law
as it existed under the Judges, gathering our
information from various passages in which it is
direcftly referred to, or wherein some historical incident
is narrated which throws light on its powers and man-
ner of execution.
From the death of king Mosiah II. (B. C. 91), the
governmental authority was vested in a chief judge
and other subordinate judges and officers, all of whom
were elected by the voice of the people, to judge accord-
ing to the laws which had been given to and accepted
by the people. Their authority was defined by the law
(the code of Mosiah), but within the bounds therein
prescribed they appear to have held unrestri61:ed pow-
ers. This was especiall}' so in the case of the chief
judge. No civil council or parliament divided with
the chief executive the authority to make war or con-
clude peace, to decide the terms of treaties, or frame
ena6lments for the regulation of public affairs. No
diredl statement is made of the length of the term that
a judge remained in office, but from the historical nar-
rative we gather the idea that he was ele(5led for life
or during good conduct. We have instances of judges
resigning, but none of their removal by the people
because their term of office had expired. Each city
or land appears to have had its chief judge or ruler as
well as its inferior magistrates, all of whom were
348 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
responsible to the chief judge of the whole nation,
whose seat of govennent was located in the Nephite
capital, Zarahemla, when the city was not in the hands
of Lamanites or traitors.
The manner of conducting elections is not clearly-
defined. The result is always spoken of as the voice of
the people. The mode of procedure was uniform, that
is, it was the same throughout the land. In the elec-
tion of the first chief judge (Alma the 3'ounger), the
people assembled themselves in bodies throughout all
the land to cast in their voices, which conveys the
impression that they declared their choice viva voce^ or
by acclamation rather than by lot or ballot. It is quite
possible that the methods were entirely dissimilar to
any known at modern elections; this, however, is but
conjecture.
When the sentiments of the people were greatly
divided and party feelings ran very high, the opposing
factions assembled in separate bodies throughout the
land to cast in their voices, as in the attempt to make
Amlici king. The decisions of the people in these
assemblies or mass meetings were laid before the
judges, who proclaimed the result. In cases where the
petition was made for any particular object, or for a
change in the law, the jndge directed that a special
election (if we may so term it) be held, and the results
were proclaimed according to the voice of the people, as
a whole, or if they were divided, according to the voice
of the majority.
Under the code of Mosiah, the judges received
wages according to the time which they labored to judge
those who were brought before them to be judged;
and their wages were a senine of gold, or its equiva-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 349
lent a senum of silver, for each day that they were
thus employed. As the Nephites had changed the
names and values of their coins from the old Hebrew
standards, we have no dire(5l wa}' of judging from the
record how liberally these officers were remunerated.
Lawyers, also, were hired and appointed by the people
to administer the law at the time of their trials; it is
presumable these a(5led in behalf of the republic some-
what in the capacit}^ of prosecuting attorne3's of the
United States. If trial by jur^- was in vogue among
the Nephites, we have not been able to find any refer-
ence to that method; indeed the evidence is altogether
in favor of the idea that the judge decided as to the guilt
or innocence of the accused, and, if adjudged guilty,
passed sentence on the culprit. The corruption of
these lawyers and judges early became, in some por-
tions of the land, a foundation for the destru61;ion of
the government.
When the chief judge was ele(5led he took an oath
of office, and it is presumable that the lesser officers
did the same. The nature of that oath can be easily
understood b}^ referring to the case of Pahoran. He
was appointed chief judge and governor over the peo-
ple, with an oath and sacred ordinance to judge right-
eously, and to keep the peace, and the freedom of the
people, and grant unto them their sacred privileges to
worship the Lord their God ; 3'ea, to support and main-
tain the cause of God in all his days, and to bring the
wicked to justice, according to their crimes.
The punishment of corruption, or malfeasance in
office, was specially provided for. King Alosiah ex-
plains the provisions of the law on this subject in the
following language: And now if ye have judges and
350 STORY OF THK BOOK OF MORMON.
they do not judge you according to the law which has
been given, ye can cause that the}^ niay be judged b}-
a higher judge: if your higher judges do not judge
righteous judgments, ye shall cause that a small num-
ber of your lower judges should be gathered together,
and they shall judge your higher judges according to
the voice of the people. These safeguards became
strong bulwarks for the protection of the rights of the
individual and the preservation of the liberty of the
whole people.
When Alma, the first chief judge, resigned that
office, so that he might devote all his time and energies
to the work of saving the souls of men, he nominated
or suggested his successor; but whether this was sim-
ply a courtesy extended to him b}^ the people on
account of their great love for his person and respe6l
for his judgment, or whether it was a provision of the
law, is not plain. The passage states that Alma chose
Nephihah as his successor, and gave him power, accord-
ing to the voice of the people, to ena6l laws, according
to the laws which had been given, and to put them in
force according to the wickedness and crimes of the
people.
The rights of the people were:'-'
PERSONAL LIBERTY :
It was contrary to the law of Mosiah that there
should be any slaves among the Nephites.
EQUALITY BEFORE THE LAW:
No privileged classes. All men to enjoy their
rights and privileges alike.
*The i)eoi)k' had doubtless other rijj;hts which we have failed to notice,
or that are not mentioned bv the writers in the Book of ]Morinon.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 35 1
UNIFORMITY OF TAXATION :
The burden of supporting the government fell on
all the citizens, that ever}^ man might bear his part.
THE ELECTIVE FRANCHESE:
Whether the suffrage was confined to men, or
universal, or limited by any particular restrictions, does
not plainly appear.
THE RIGHT OF PETITION:
As examples of the exercise of this right we intro-
duce the following: At the time when Pahoran was
chief judge a part of the people desired that a few
particular points of the law should be altered. The
chief judge refused to alter the law, whereupon a por-
tion of the people petitioned him, and he directed that
an election be held, or rather that the voice of the
whole nation be appealed to. This being done, the
result proved that the majorit}^ of the people objected
to a change. Again, Moroni, the commander-in-chief
of the Nephite armies, sent a petition to the chief
judge for power to compel certain dissenters to help
defend their country against the national enemies, or to
put them to death. His request being according to the
voice of the people, the desired power was given to
him. Here we have instances of the right of petition
exercised, in one case by a large body of the people,
and in the other by a single though important individ-
ual. Both were extraordinary circumstances, and in
the latter case it appears to have required the all-power-
ful z'ox popiUi to give validity to the a(ftion of the
executive.
The statement is frequently made, though in
slightly different phrases, that the law had no power to
352 vSTORV OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
punish a man for his belief; for it was strictly contrary
to the commands of God that there should be a law
which should bring men on to unequal grounds. If a
man believed in God it was his privilege to serve him ;
if he did not believe in him, there was no law to pun-
ish him. '=' ''' A man was punished only for the
crimes he had done; therefore all men were on equal
grounds. Unbelief was handled by the church, not b}-
the civil law. The names of those whose hearts were
hardened were blotted out and they were remembered
no more among the people of God. During the days
of the Judges there was no church established b}^ law;
when the people served God, they ele6led righteous men
for their rulers ; when the masses fell into unbelief and
transgression they chose Gadianton robbers and such
like to administer their laws.
If the rights of women, under the law, were any
different, more or less, than those of men, we have no
information; in fa6l, the inspired record is entirely
silent on this subje(5l.
The criminal law infli(5led the death penalty for
murder, rebellion and treason; for robbery, theft, adul-
tery, sexual abominations, fraud and h'ing, lesser pun-
ishments were infli(51;ed.
The first recorded case of execution for murder
under the rule of the judges is that of Nehor, for kill-
ing the aged patriot, Gideon. Another noteworthy
case is that of Paanchi, the son of Pahoran, of whom
it is written that he was tried according to the voice of
the people, and condemned unto death ; for he had
raised up in rebellion, and sought to destro}- the liberty
of the people.
No high priest, judge or lawyer had power to
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 353
inflict capital punishment. When a man had been
tried and condemned to death by the law his condemna-
tion had to be signed by the governor of the land,
before the sentence could be carried out. The men-
tion of governor in this relation, with other passages
in which the chief judge and governor are spoken of as
diff'erent persons, suggests the idea that as the Nephites
grew in numbers and spread over distant regions, the
duties of the chief judge became excessive, and a sepa-
ration was made between the executive and judicial
responsibilities^ and divided between two officers.
The mode of inflidling the death penalty is not
stated, but we incline to the idea that hanging was
often resorted to. IMilitary offenders were, as a rule,
put to death with the sword. Of Nehor it is said that
he suffered an ignominious death at the top of the hill
]\Ianti, and that, before his death, he acknowledged
between heaven and earth that he had taught false
doctrine. Zemnarihah was hanged upon the top of a
tree until he was dead, and then the Nephites felled
tlie tree to the earth. Alany of the martyrs were
burned to death bj^ unjust judges, or stoned, as was
Timoth}^, afterwards one of the Twelve Disciples ; but
we regard this last a6l as resulting from the violence of
a mob, rather than from any pretended execution of
the law.
The law with regard to debtors seems to have been
somewhat severe. On this point it is stated. Now if a
man owed another, and he would not pay that which
he did owe, he was complained of to the judge; and
the judge executed authority, and sent forth officers
that the man should be brought before him; and he
judged the man according to the law and the evidences
354 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
which were brought against him, and thus the man
was compelled to pa}^ that which he owed, or be stripped,
or be cast out from among the people as a thief
and a robber. If a man desired to pay, but could not
from misfortune, we doubt not but that the law con-
tained some merciful provision in his behalf.
It is more than probable that the mode of proced-
ure in all criminal cases very much resembled the one
cited above, and from it we can gather a very clear
idea of the pra<ftice of their courts, which differs but
little from that of our own day. The complaint was
first made, the proper of&cer was then authorized by
the court to arrest the accused and bring him before
the judge, the trial next took place, the witnesses gave
their testimony, the law and the evidence were exam-
ined, the opposing lawyers were heard, the judgment
was given, the sentence pronounced and lastly carried
out. In times of war the military code seems to have
varied according to the exigences of the situation. As
a rule, the Nephite armies were composed of volunteers.
In times of great danger to the republic, enlarged
powers were given to the commander-in-chief. In one
place we find the statement that IMoroni, having been
appointed by the chief judge and the voice of the peo-
ple, had power according to his will with the armies of
the Nephites, to establish and to exercise authority
over them ; also, he caused to be put to death those of
the Amalickiahites (rebels) who would not enter into
a covenant to support, the cause of freedom and the
rights of their fellow-countr3'men.
Prisoners of war were evidently treated much the
same as in modern civilized nations. Indeed, in one
place, the fact that the necessities of his position com-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 355
pelled Moroni to set his Ivamanite prisoners to work, is
referred to in somewhat of an apologetic tone. When
such prisoners attempted to escape, the)'^ were slain by
their guards. We have numerous instances where
prisoners were released on parole, or on their giving
such promises as were thought necessary to the Nephite
general.
It frequently happened, during the days of the
Judges, that the Nephites, in some of their periodical
spasms of apostasy and wickedness, would clamor for
changes to be made in their just and wise laws, in a
manner to better suit their degraded habits and course
of life. When the majorit}' of the people were on the
side of righteousness, these attempts were in vain.
When w^ickedness abounded, the corrupt majoritv car-
ried their points. The record of their history shows
that in the sixt3'-second 3'ear of the Judges (B. C. 30)
they had altered and trampled under their feet the laws
of Mosiah, or that which the Lord had commanded him
to give unto the people ; and that their laws had become
corrupted, and the}- had grown wicked like unto the
Lamanites. Seven 3'ears later the corruption of the
people had become pitiable. The Gadianton robbers
were filling the judgment seats, having usurped the
power and authority of the land: Laj^ing aside the com-
mandments of God, and not in the least aright before
him; doing no justice unto the children of men; con-
demning the righteous because of their righteousness ;
letting the guilty and the wicked go unpunished,
because of their mone}-; and moreover to be held in
ofiice at the head of government to rule and do accord-
ing to their wills, that the}^ might get gain and glory
of the world; and moreover that they might the more
356 STORY OI' THE ROOK OF MORMON.
easy commit adultery, and steal, and kill, and do
according to their own wills.
Such a condition of affairs, in the course of time,
wrought national disintegration, and would have
brought about that result much sooner than it did, had
it not been that, influenced b}- the might}- preaching of
the inspired servants of God, the Nephites (or portions
of them) had now and again returned to the service of
heaven. But such happ}^ periods were short-lived, and
matters went from bad to worse until thirty years after
the birth of Christ, when the republican form of gov-
ernment was entirely broken up, and the people split
up into numerous tribes, each tribe caring only for
its own interests, and giving obedience to its own
particular chief. This state of things continued only
for about four years, as during the terrible convulsions
at the time of the crucifixion of our Lord Jesus Christ,
the more \vicked portion of the people were destro3'ed.
CHAPTER LXIII.
J.AWS OF THE NEl'HITES CONTINUED— THE DIVISION INTO
TRIBES— THE MESSIANIC DISPENSATION- THE FINAL
CONVULSION.
T^E CAN well understand that the originating or
primal cause of the destruction of the Nephite
republic was the corruption of the people, especiall}- of
those whose duty it was to administer the law. This
class, being greedy for power, formed a secret combina-
tion (as those of old time) to establish a kingdom; and
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 357
as a means to this end, they had the chief jndge
assassinated, while they selected a man named Jacob
for their king. These royalists, or kingmen, were not
as snccessfnl in obtaining the sympathy of the major-
ity of the people as the}^ anticipated ; they therefore
decided to remove in a body to the northernmost part
of the land, and there establish the monarch3\ This
design they successfully carried out. Those who re-
mained at home favored the division of the people into
tribes, and there being none strong enough to effec-
tually oppose this suicidal polic}', the republic became a
thing of the past.
The organization of these tribes was evidently on
the patriarchal principle ; the head, or most influential
member of a family, gathered his kinsmen around
him. The historian states: And the people were
divided one against another, and they did separate one
from another, into tribes, every man according to his
family, and his kindred, and friends.
Each of these tribes chose a chief, leader, or ruler;
as it is written : And every tribe did appoint a chief, or
leader over them; and thus they became tribes and
leaders of tribes. Now behold, there was no man
among them, save he had much family, and mau}^ kin-
dreds and friends.
The laws of the various tribes were not uniform,
but there was a general understanding by which thc}^
prevented the outbreak of actual war. It is stated that
in the thirty-first year (after Christ), They had come to
an agreement that they would not go to war one with
another; but they were not united as to their laws, and
their manner of government, for they were established
according to the minds of those who were their chiefs
358 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and their leaders. But the}- did establish very stridl
laws that one tribe should not trespass against another,
insomuch that in some degree they had peace in the
land.
The destruction of the wicked, the visits of the
crucified Redeemer, the ministr}^ of his disciples, the
universal acceptance of the fulness of the gospel b}'
the people throughout the length and breadth of the
land, brings us to a time when there was no need of
civil law; for all men lived above the law, being con-
trolled and guided at all times by the higher law of
heaven. There was no need of courts of law, for there
were no disputations or contentions. No judges or
magistrates were required, for there were no offenders
or offenses. There were neither envyings, nor strifes,
nor tumults, nor whoredoms, nor lyings, nor thefts, nor
violence, nor murders. For the love of God dwelt in
the hearts of the people; they all dealt justly one with
another ; temptation was removed ; they had all things
in common; they were one, the children of Christ, and
heirs to the Kingdom of God.
It has been said, Happy are the people who have
no history ; and thrice happy were the Nephites of this
era, whose histor}^ was one of continued peace and joy.
Well may it be written of them, There could not be a
happier people among all the people who had been
created by the hand of God. We can scarcel}- conceive
of such a people on this fallen world of ours ; an entire
continent on which dwelt perfect peace; people among
whom there were no rich, no poor — all were alike; a
race in whose hearts dwelt the sweet influence of the
vSpirit of God, the wisdom of which illumined every
mind. How the^^ must have increased; how tliey must
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 359
have prospered; how they covered the land with mil-
lions of hnnian sonls; how the arts and sciences must
have been developed ; and how greatly must true and
heavenly knowledge have been spread abroad! The
law of Moses was no longer observed, but the holy
priesthood, after the order of the Son of God, minis-
tered in might in their midst; the faith of the people
made angels their frequent visitors ; the purity of each
life caused the Holy Spirit to be the constant compan-
ion of every soul. This happy, glorious state of
holiness continued a full two hundred years, and then
commenced the decline of the nation; rapid indeed was
its descent, and great was its fall.
The first signs of the decrease in the righteousness
of the people, recorded in the Book of Mormon, were :
That some became lifted up in pride; these took to
wearing costl}^ apparel, jewels, and the fine things of
the world. The people ceased to have their goods and
their substance in common. They began to be divided
into classes ; rich and poor appeared. They commenced
to deu}'- portions of the gospel, and to build up churches
to suit their peculiar ideas; others began to deny the true
Church of Christ. They administered that which was
sacred (temple ordinances) to the unworthy; and before
long they devised all manner of wickedness, and com-
menced to persecute the servants of God, even to death,
when permitted to do so by the powers that rule in the
heavens.
Thus matters went on, groMdng worse ever}' 3'ear,
until the people were again divided into two nations,
Nephites and Lamanites, with their old traditions and
ways; which, as was natural, ultimately culminated
in war; and such a war! For savageness, brutality,
360 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
and utter devilishness, we doubt if it was ever equalled
in this suffering world. But it is not our province in
this chapter to enter into historical details. The law is
our subject, and of that we can sa}- little. If it were
possible to conceive of such a contradiction, we should
say that the law of anarchy reigned supreme. Might
made right ; and the more numerous Lamanites ulti-
matel}' overcame and annihilated their Nephite breth-
ren. We can well conceive of the nature of the laws
during the fierce struggle that preceded this dire calam-
ity, from the light of this nation's previous history;
they were no doubt framed, enabled and administered
for the benefit of the rich and the strong, and to the
injury of those in whose bosoms burned one lingering
spark of righteousness. The history of the Nephites,
from beginning to end, fully justifies the saying of the
wise man. Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a
reproach to any people.
CHAPTER IvXIV.
THE MONEY OF THE NEPHITES— THEIR COINS — BARI.EY THE
STANDARD {>F VAIvUE.
TN THE early days of the Nephite nation, when its
people were struggling to develop their own pecu-
liar and distindive civilization, each province, distridl
or even city had its particular standards of weights,
measures and money. This state of affairs frequently
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 361
prevails in 3'oiing communities, and is an evidence
that the growth of Nephite civilization was much the
same as in the nations of the eastern hemisphere. As
the population of a nation increases, its powers of gov-
ernment consolidating and its commerce developing,
these various and conflicting standards of exchange
give rise to much unnecessary confusion, many per-
plexing difficulties and frequent misunderstandings
and complications, which hamper trade and commerce,
retard material progress, and delay the unification of
the nation. It thus becomes the work of the far-see-
ing statesman or wise ruler to bring all these various
local rates to one national standard, recognized as legal
and equitable in all parts of the realm.
This work the second JMosiah accomplished for the
Nephites. When he revised and codified the national
law for the goverment of the people under the Judges,
he abolished the local distinctive rates and introduced
one universal standard. Of the ratios of the various
weights and measures, either before or after the enact-
ment of Mosiah's wise law, we are told nothing in the
Book of Mormon ; it is simply stated that the Nephites
had not adhered to the standards in use among the
Jews in Judea, but had altered their reckoning and
their measures, very frequently as caprice, convenience,
or local exclusiveness inspired. As to the ratios of
the coins legalized by Mosiah's code they are highly
artistic, evince a large acquaintance with monetary mat-
ters and point to a high degree of civilization as then
existing among the Nephites.
The following is the table of these coins as given
in the Book of ]\Iormon:
362 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
GOLD COINS. SILVER COINS.
I Seiiine equal to i Senum.
I Seon, 2 Senines, " i Arauor.
I Shum, 4 " " I Ezrom.
I Limnah, 7 " " i Onti.
Of smaller coins —
I Sliiblon was equal to half a Seniiie, or Senum.
I Shiblum " " a quarter of a Senine or Senum.
I Leah " " an eighth of a Senine or Senum.
While an Antion of gold was equal to three Shublons.
Though not dire(5lly so stated, we judge from the
context that the Shiblon, the Shiblum and the Leah
were silver coins.
The names of these coins seem to be identical
with, or derived from those of familiar persons or
places. Thus we have a Leah, a Shiblon,* and an
Amnor,t all names of persons. Also an Antion, which
word is found in AntionahJ and Antionum,§ a Shib-
lum which differs from Shiblom§ only in one letter,
and a Shublon from Shiblon,'^' and a Limnah from
Limhah,§ to the same extent.
This custom of naming coins after well known or
distinguished persons is a practice not confined. to the
Nephites. Other nations have done the same; as for
instance, in France a twenty-franc gold piece is called
a Napoleon.
One little item that in itself ma}* appear trivial is
not without its weight in the consideration of the
minor or incidental evidences of the truth of the Book
* A son of Alma the younj^cr.
t A Nephik- oHk-ct under Alma.
J A chief ruler in the city of Ammonihali.
^ Three Nephile j^enerals killed at Cunu)rali.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 363
of Mormon. A measure of barley is especially men-
tioned as the unit of value on which the monetary sys-
tem, or the value of the coins of the Nephites was
based. One senine was worth one measure of barley,
and its multiples were, of course, multiples of this
measure of barley, but we have no information as to
w4iat the contents of this measure may have been.'-'
Now the old English unit of measurement was a
barley-corn, or grain of barley. Three barle3^-corns
make one inch, is the way the table commenced.
Believing, as the Latter-day Saints do, that the
Nephites were a branch of the house of Israel, and
also that the races whence the English have most
largely sprung had much of the blood of Israel in
their composition, the agreement of these two units
on the grain so frequently mentioned in the Bible (as
with the Nephites all grain seems to have been of equal
price) is not without its value in either argument.
The fa61;, also, that the Nephites made grain the stand-
ard of value shows how highly agriculture must have
been esteemed among that people.
* The payment per day, fixed by law, for a Nephite judge when
acflually engaged in his official duties was one senine, otherwise one mea-
sure of barley.
CHAPTER LXV.
PERSONAL APPEARANCE OF THE NEPHITEvS — THEIR BEAUTY
— TESTIMONY OF REMAINS FOUND — THE DARK-SKINNED
LAMANITES.
"pVER AND anon throughout the Book of Mormon,
we are reminded by the inspired historians of the
beauty of the Nephite race, especially in the days
when the glor}- of righteousness beamed in their e3'es,
and shone in their countenances; then the}- were fair,
ver}' fair — a white and a deli;^litsome people.
And well might it be Sf^. for were they not de-
scended from that kindred c: /.iple, Abraham and his
half-sister, whose great beauty has been proverbial in
every generation, since the}^ graced the earth with their
comeliness? So lovely was Sarah, the fairest of
womankind of her generation, that when she was sixty-
seven years of age, the ro3^al Pharaoh, disregarding the
charms of the darker daughters of Egypt, desired her
for his wife ; and his admiration was doubtless in good
taste, for the Bible tells us that she was then ver^^
fair. And still more remarkable, when yet another
twenty-two years had passed awa}-, and she had seen
nearly ninety summers and winters come and go on this
earth, another monarch, Abimelech, sought to take her
to himself. Nor was her husband's manly beauty less
striking; obedience to God, the observance of the laws
of life, and the cultivation of the generous virtues so
ennobled his existence, that strength and manhood
tarried with him in its force, long after that age when
the sons of modern generations are feebly tottering to
their graves.
Of the commanding beauty of Abraham's descend-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 365
ants, we have many recorded instances , bnt none that
exceed that of his great-grandson Joseph, whose sur-
passing manliness placed him in the greatest jeopardy,
but whose uncompromising virtue and unaffected
innocence brought him off conqueror over temptation,
and raised him to the highest pinnacle of earthly splen-
dor and heavenly favor. It was from this well-favored
Joseph that the Nephites sprang.
God has set the mark of his displeasure on the
Lamanites, whom he has cursed, because of the iniqui-
ties of their fathers, with a darkened skin, uncomely
features, and strait, black, coarse hair. In the begin-
ning it was not so with either Judah or Manasseh.
In confirmation of the testimony of the Book of
Mormon, that the inhabitants of this continent were
once a white and beautiful people, it may be stated that
when very ancient burial places in North and South
America have been opened, the remains of two races —
one dark and the other fair — have been exhumed. The
question msiy arise: How could this be told, when the
skin had long rotted off the bones, and left only the
skeleton behind, which fell in powder as soon as it was
exposed to the action of the air? In this wa}^: The
dry, gravelly soil in which some of these bodies were
buried, had so little affected the mummy, that portions
of the hair still remained in good preservation, and in
numerous instances it was such as is only found on the
heads of light races. We will cite a few examples
given b}^ different inquirers in this field of research.
One writer, speaking of the ancient mummies found
in Peru, says: The hair in general is of a lightish
brown, and of a fineness of texture which equals that
of the Anglo-Saxon race. Again: The ancient Peru-
366 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
vians appear, from numerous examples of hair found in
their tombs, to have been an auburn-haired race.
Another gentleman, a Mr. Haywood, has described
the discovery, early in the present centur^^ of three
mummies, in a cave near the Cumberland River, in
Tennessee; and the color of their skin was said to be
fine and white, and their hair auburn and of a fine
texture. The same investigator mentions several other
cases where mummies were found in the limestone and
saltpetre caves of Kentuck}^ and Tennessee, with light
yellowish hair. One scientist, to account for this pecu-
liarity, suggests that it is possible that the light color
was due to the a6lion of the lime and saltpetre ; but this
suggestion will not affe6l those buried in other forma-
tions of rock, nor will it account for the fineness of the
texture of the hair. Reasoning from other data, other
writers have concluded that the great cities whose ruins
still stand in Yucatan and Central America were the
work of two races, a light and a dark-skinned race
respe(5lively.
The reference to the Anglo-Saxon race, above made,
is not without its value. To us it seems highly proba-
ble that the righteous Nephites, in very many particu-
lars of form and feature, resembled this people and its
kindred races. Our reasons are: first, that there was a
striking similarity in the appearance of the ancient
Israelites and the olden Anglo-Saxons. This likeness
has been remarked and commented upon by various
authors. Again, it is well known to the Latter-day
Saints that there was a large percentage of the blood
of Ephraim in the stock whence the Angles and
Saxons sprung. So much admitted, it is easy to under-
stand how the two half tribes, descended from the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 367
cornel}' Joseph — the one from Ephraim, and the other
from Manasseh — would bear a strong family likeness.
Were we introduced to atypical Nephite, we should
expe(5l to find him well proportioned, ruddy of counte-
nance, auburn haired and light eyed. This, of course, is
simply conjecture, and is entitled to consideration only
as such.
From reliefs found sculptured on the walls of the
ruined cities of Central America, it seems probable
that the ancient Lamanites esteemed flat, receding
foreheads the highest type of beauty. Alost of the
figures on which the greatest artistic skill is displayed
appear to represent persons on whom some artificial
means had been used, in infancy, to flatten the front
part of the head, as their debased descendants, the
Flatheads, do in our day. It is a noteworthy fact, that
other races of Israelitish descent, or who have come in
close contact with the Hebrews, show this same ten-
dency.
Skulls thus flattened have been taken out of tombs
in the neighborhood of ancient Media, where the
Israelites were once in captivity ; also from sepulchres
in Circassia, Scandinavia, Great Britain, etc., and one
was even exhumed from outside the walls of Jerusalem.
It is true the Book of Mormon does not refer to this
custom, but it often speaks of the Lamanites shaving
their heads, which in all probability may have after-
wards grown into the still more hideous practice of
flattening the skull, under the idea that it made them
courageous. Indeed, it is quite possible that it did
make them recklessly bloodthirsty, by injuring their
intellectual powers, and thus tending to develop their
more savage instincts.
CHAPTER LXVI.
LANGUAGE OF THE NEPHITES— THE INFLUENCE OF THE
EGYPTIAN — NEPHITE WORDS — RAMEUMPTOM — LIAHONA
— RABBANAH— THE LAMANITE TONGUE — WORD BUILD-
ING.
'npHERE appears to be a slight difference of opinion
among students of the Book of Mormon with
regard to the language of the ancient Nephites. We
will endeavor to give a sketch of both ideas.
One class of inquirers affirm that it is evident,
from a careful study of the Book of Mormon, that the
people of Nephi were greatly influenced b}' the lan-
guage and ideas of the Egyptians. That language
was the language of their every-day life, altered or
reformed (whether corrupted or improved cannot be
told) so greatly in the course of time, that in his day
Moroni informs us no other people knew it. In the
thousand years that had elapsed between the exodus
of Lehi from Jerusalem and the abridgement of the
record, the Nephites had altered the Hebrew also, so
that neither their sacred nor their common modes of
speech could be understood by other races.
At the very opening of the inspired record Nephi
writes: I was taught somewhat in all the learning of
my father. A little further on he explains what that
learning was. He says: I make a record in the lan-
guage of my father, which consists of the learning
[literature] of the Jews and the language of the Egyp-
tians. It is not strange that Lehi should have been
acquainted with the Egyptian tongue, as from the days
,of king Solomon, for some hundreds of years, it was
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 369
the polite language of the world, as French was in
Europe during the eighteenth century. King Mosiah
in after years confirmed this statement, that Lehi was
taught in the language of the Egj^ptians. It would
be rather unreasonable to suppose that the knowledge
of that language carried no further influence than to
enable the Nephites to converse in it. It brought
them 01 rapport^ so to speak, with those who used it
in its native home in Africa, evidences of which 3et
exist in the Egyptian types of architecture and hiero-
glyphics found in the midst of the ruins of the ancient
cities, scattered far and wide over this western con-
tinent. This similarity has been noticed again and
again by explorers and students, but its cause still
remains to them an unsolved problem.* To the believers
in the Book of Mormon the mystery stands revealed.
Other students incline to the opinion that when
the Egyptian language is mentioned it probably only
means its orthography. Thc}^ sa}^ the Jews seem to
have understood the Egyptian language or writing.
For he [Lehi] having been taught in the language of
the Egyptians, therefore he could read these engravings
[the brass plates]. Laban and his forefathers must
*No claim has been advanced, we believe, which advocates an actnal
Egyptian colonization of the New World, but strong arguments have been
used to show that the architecture and sculpture of Central America and
Mexico have been influenced from Eg>'pt, if not attributable directly to
Egyptian artisans.^. T. vShort.
The hieroglyphics, sym1)ols and emblems which have been discovered
in the temples bear so strong a resemblance to those of the Egj'ptians as to
encourage the supposition that a colony of that nation may have founded,
the city of Palenque or Culhuacan. — Jaurros.
Giordan found the most striking analogies between the Central Ameri-
can and Mexican remains and those of the Egyptians. The idols and
monuments he considers of the same form in both countries, while the
hieroglyphics of Palenque do not differ from those of ancient Thebes.
370 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
have understood the Egyptian, and recorded their
sacred writings, from generation to generation, in that
language. The words "language of the Eg3'ptians"
very probably means little more than Eg^'ptian charac-
ters or an alphabet for spelling Hebrew words. There
seemed to be two sets of characters — the Egyptian and
the Hebrew (see Mormon ix., 32 and 33) for spelling;
but it is doubtful whether the words written were words
of two distinct languages, or words of one language
written in the Egyptian and Hebrew characters.
Which was the fact is not clearly specified.
ANCIICNT i;C.Yl*TIAN CUARACTi:K>
We here reproduce two cuts to show our readers
that there is a distinct family likeness between the
engravings on the plates from which the Book of Mor-
mon was translated and ancient Egyptian characters.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
371
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372 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
One is a copy of the noted passage from the Book of
Mormon taken by Elder IVIartin Harris to Professor
Anthon in New York ; the other a reprodnction of some
ver}^ ancient Egyptian characters engraved on the
rocks not far distant from Mount Sinai.
There are but few Nephite words handed down to
us in the Book of Mormon, as wherever an English
equivalent could be found, it has been given b}- the
Prophet in his inspired translation. Those words are :
N'eas and Sheum — Kinds of grain.
Ziff — A metal.
Rmneumptiwi — A holy stand.
Gaze lent — A name given to a servant of God.
LiaJiona — A diredlor or compass.
Rabbanah — A title, meaning powerful king.
Also the names of their coins, and proper names
of persons, places, etc.
Some would-be-wise folks have seen fit, at different
times, to amuse themselves at the expense of these
words, applying to them various contemptuous terms
and styling them gibberish. But we propose to show
that these words are derived from the Hebrew and
Egyptian tongues, neither of which, all men admit,
were known to the Prophet Joseph Smith at the time
he published the Book of Mormon (A. D. 1829). ^^^
he been worldly wise, he might b}^ his own learning
have fashioned these words; but as he was not, when
we can adduce evidence that they have true Hebrew or
other ancient roots, we have brought forward another
strong argument in favor of the inspiration of the
translation.
It has 1)een wisely said. It is ver}- evident that
pure words of either the Hebrew or Egyptian tongues
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 373
could hardly be expelled in the Book of Mormon, for
the reason that the Nephites had altered the Hebrew,
and their language was so completely changed, that
their speech could not be understood by other races.
But although the structure of their language had thus
changed, it does not follow that all the words had been
replaced by others entirely unlike the former language
spoken and written by them. It is logical to expect
nian}^ remnants of the ancient roots, which, however
ranch changed, may retain so much of their original
t>pes as to be capable of identification. Thus, in the
word Ziff^ which the Prophet Joseph tells us was a
metal, we find a word of the same sound as the Hebrew
word ziph or zeph, which means a metal. The metal
laid over statues was so called. It is true that the word
ziff is not spelled the same, but in its orthograph}- is
like the name of the Hebrew month, Ziff. But the
word ziff means brightness — metallic brightness. (The
word is used in Daniel ii., 31, also in Isaiah xxx., 22,
where it means overlaying metal.)
Rameiiruptoni was the name given by the Zoram-
ite apostates to the elevated place in their synagogues,
from whence they offered up their vain-glorious and
hypocritical praj-ers. Alma states the word means a
holy stand. It resembles, in its roots, Hebrew, and
also Egyptian, in a remarkable manner. Rauioth^
high (as Ramoth Gilead), elevated, a place where one
can see and be seen; or, in a figurative sense, sublime
or exalted. Mpto7n has probably its root in the
Hebrew word translated tliresJwld^ as we are told that
tiie Philistine god, Dagon, had a threshold in Ashdod
(see I. Samuel, v., 4, 5). Words with this root are
quite numerous in the Bible. Thus we see how Ram-
374 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
eumptom means an exalted place to stand npon, a pul-
pit or hoi}' stand.
Shcinu, a kind of grain, is singularly like the
Hebrew Shum (garlic), as found in Numbers xi., 5.
Gazclcm appears to have its roots in Gaz — a stone,
and Aleini, a name of God as a revelator or interposer
in the affairs of men. If this suggestion be correct, its
roots admirably agree with its apparent meaning — a
seer. The text reads : And the Lord said, I will pre-
pare unto my servant Gazelem, a stone, which shall
shine forth in darkness unto light, that I may discover
unto ni}- people who serve me, that I ma}' discover
unto them the works of their brethren: yea, their
secret works, their works of darkness, and their wicked-
ness and abominations.
RabbauaJi is another wonderful word. It is the
title applied by the servants of King Lamoni to Am-
nion, the son of Mosiah, after his miraculous exploits
at the waters of Sebus. It is translated powerful or
great king. Whether it was a Nephite or Lamanite
word is uncertain, as the Lamanites of that age (B. C.
91) had been taught b}- roN-al command in the lan-
guage of the Nephites. It is, however, of little
moment to which of these kindred tongues it belonged,
but its Hebrew derivation is most unmistakable. Its
origin is evidently in abba^ father. Max Muller, the
great modern authority on such points, says the word
king originally meant father; having doubtless taken
this form in the earliest patriarchal days when the king
ruled by right of his fatherhood, and represented God,
the Great Father of us all. This ancient American
word confirms Professor Muller's statement; while it
manifests how remarkablv the unities of the Book of
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 375
IMormoii are preserved, consistent only with its claim
to Divine inspiration. It wonld be the height of folly
to ascribe snch a coincidence to chance; a man must be
far more credulous to so believe, than it can possibly
be claimed such are who place implicit confidence in
the realities of Nephite and Lamanite history.
From the few examples of words and names
before us, we judge the Lamanite language to have
been quite musical. Such names as Rabbanah, La-
moni, Lehonti, Middoni, Antionum, Onidah, etc., are
certainly specimens of a soft, flowing, pleasing form of
speech.
One pradlice, that of word building, or adding
several words together to form a new word, which com-
bination gave expression to the desired idea, obviously
obtained among the Lamanites. As examples we have
the cit}' of Lehi-Nephi, the village of Ani-x\nti and the
people of i\nti-Nephi-Lehi. Such a pracftice is frequent
among many families of their modern representatives.
It was found to exist among the Mexicans — the Aztecs
— by the early Spanish invaders, and to day is pracftised
b\" our near neighbors the Shoshones. This habit
explains the reason for the existence of so many words
of great length found in both of these tongues.
rHHHHSHEa
•SHHHHHSa
CHAPTER LXVII.
NEPHITE PROPER NAMES — BIBLE NAMES — SARIAH — NEPHI —
SAM — MELEK — GERSHON — ISABEL — AHA, ETC., — PRE-
FIXES AND SUFFIXES.
n^HE number of Bible proper names found in the
Book of Mormon has been now and again urged
as an argument against its divine origin. If those
making these obje6lions were to calmly consider the
matter, we believe they would quickly acknowledge that
it would be very inconsistent to expe^l the opposite.
Nearl}^ all devout races are in the habit of naming
their children after the holy men — patriarchs, mart3'rs
and sages — whose lives they reverence, and whose
virtues they desire to see reproduced in their offspring.
It is so with ourselves; nearly all our most familiar
names are English forms of Bible names. For exam-
ple: John, James, Jacob, Joseph and Thomas among
men, and Mary, Anna, Elizabeth and Sarah among
women. So it was with the Nephites. The Hebrew
was the language of their sacred literature; while their
fondest recolle6lions, their holiest pride ran back to the
days of Joseph and Joshua, Samuel and Isaiah, and, like
other races, they named their children after the ancient
worthies they reverenced most. Hence, we find the fol-
lowing Bible names borne by the descendants of Lehi'''
and Sariah: Aaron, Aminadab, Amnion, Ammah, Amos,
Benjamin, Enos, Gideon, Gilgal, Helam, Helem, Isaiah,
Ishmaeljjacob, Joseph, Jeremiah, Jonas, Laban, Lemuel,
* The iiaiiie Ivchi, itself, is to l)e foiuid in /i<di^t'S xi'., g.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 377
Noah, Samuel, Slieni, Timothy and Zedekiah. A few
others are evidently slightl}'' altered Hebrew names, as
Chemish from Chemosh, Sherem from Shaaraim, and
Zenos from Zenas. Indeed, there may be no a^lual dif-
erence; the apparent change may arise from the English
translators inserting a wrong vowel sound in words
where, according to the ancient custom, the consonants
only were written.
We will now consider a few proper names found in
the Book of Mormon, but not in the Bible; for, not-
withstanding the changes made by the Nephites in
their language, the derivation and signification of many
of these names are evident, when considered in connec-
tion with the languages of the races with whom the
ancient Hebrews were brought most closely in conta6l.
SariaJi is obviously Hebrew. It is a name of
extreme beauty and force. Its roots are in Sara, a
princess, and Jah or lah, Jehovah, thus meaning a
princess of Jehovah ; a most fitting name for the mother
of a multitude of nations.
NepJii is another very remarkable name. Its roots
are Egyptian ; its meaning, good, excellent, benevolent.
From very ancient times the Eg3'ptians believed that all
who died had to have their acfts upon earth scrutini^jed
by a council of inquisitors, before they could be pro-
claimed fit to enter the eternal abodes of bliss and stand
in the presence of the god Osiris, the chief lord of the.
land of the departed. One of the names given to this
god, expressive of his attributes, was Nephi or Dnephi
(the D being silent, as in Dniestre, Dnieper, etc.), or
the good, and the chief city dedicated to him was called
N-ph, translated into the Hebrew as Noph, in which
form it appears in Hosea, Isaiah and Jeremiah. Its
378 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
modern English name is ^Memphis. In the Coptic, the
language of the modern Egyptians, the word has the
form of Menfi or Mnefi. Plutarch, the ancient histor-
ian, says that Dnephi was a benevolent person, and an
epithet for Osiris, and was also applicable to ^Memphis,
the sepulchre of that god. The word Xeph frequently
appears in Egyptian proper names before the Christian
era, as iVmoneph, Amuneph, Me-Nephta. From these
fa(fts we conclude that Nephi was a common name in
the Egj'ptian tongue ; and, as far as the founder of the
Nephite nation was concerned, most applicable to his
charadler, which was pre-eminenth' good and benevo-
lent.
The English word, Nephites, that is the people or
famil}' of Nephi, occurs twice in its Hebrew form in
the Old Testament; once in Ezra (ii., 50) as Nephisim,
and again in NcJicniiaJi (vii. 52), as Nephishesim,
which show that the name was common among the
Hebrews of the age of the captivity.
Sam is a name which some shallow-pated oppo-
nents of the Book of Mormon have been disposed to
ridicule. But it is pure Eg3'ptian. It was the dis-
tinctive name of one of the highest orders of their
priesthood. The great Raineses himself belonged to
the order of Sam. The fa6f that Lehi gave to two of
his sons such peculiarly Egyptian names shows how
great an influence the literature of that country must
have had on his life.
Melek is the name given to a region of country
situated west of the river Sidon. No reason is given
why it was so called, but its meaning is evident. It
was the king's land. The ancient Phctnician word
for king is spelled letter for letter the same as in the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 379
Book of IMormoii (Melek), and the Hebrew word is
almost identical.
Gcrshou^ the name applied to the land given by
the Nephites to the exiled Ammonites, means the land
of the expelled, or of the strangers. We think it alto-
gether probable that this significant name was given to
it at the time it was set off for the habitation of these
expatriated Christian Lamanites, as it defines their
condition as exiles, and their relation to the Nephites
as strangers. The name is not mentioned before this
event, and would possibly be the only local name by
which it was known to the compiler of the Book of
Mormon. Before the date of this exodus, it was, we
think, considered a portion of the land of Zarahemla.
Isabel is either a form of Jezebel, the chaste, a
name given in derision to the character who bore it, or
it has its derivation like Isaiah, which means the delight
of Jehovah, and thus signifies the delight of Bel, that
is to say, of her lord, husband or possessor. It may
have been assumed to suggest the supposed jo^'S of
her society. It is a remarkable fact that the land
wherein she dwelt is styled the land of Siron, that is,
the land of the deserters, or apostates. It was situated
at the extreme edge of the Nephite possessions, and
on the borders of the Lamanites, beyond the land of
Antionum, in which dwelt the Zoramite apostates.
The experience of the Saints in this age teaches them
how apt apostates are to draw off to remote corners,
where they fancy the reproofs of the priesthood are
the least likeh' to be heard. In such a place, far from
the Nephite capital, outside the reach of the rigors of
the law of Moses, the enticing Isabel could carry on
her vile vocation with the greatest safety- and impunity.
J
80 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON,
A//a, we suggest means laughter. Sarah, the wife
of Abraham, called her son Isaac — laughter. The
sound of the word also resembles a laugh, and again it
is the name for laughter in the language of the modern
Sioux, as Minne-aha — laughing water.
Without being able to express a positive opinion,
but siniph' as a suggestion, we insert the supposed
meaning of the following words:
Nephihah, Jehovah's consolation.
Amnion, A worker of Jehovah.
Shazer (or Shazeh), Gladness.
Nahom, Comfort.
Zarahemla, From a rising of light, or
whom he (God) will fill up.
Laman, White (another form of Laban).
Manti, Relating to propljets or oracles.
Many others could be inserted, but might possibly
prove irksome.
Before closing this branch of inquiry we will draw
attention to the ancient Nephite prefixes and suffixes.
These matters may not be of great interest to the gen-
eral reader, but to the students of the Book of Mor-
mon the}^ niay prove an incentive to further interesting
research.
Among the most numerous prefixes found in Book
of Mormon proper names, are Am, Anti, Gid and Hel,
of which the first is b}^ far the most frequent. We find
Am in Amnion, Aniaron, Ammaron, Ammoron, Amo-
ron, Amulon, Amnor, Ammonihah, Amalickiah, Am-
nah, Anilici, Aminadi, etc.; Anti in Antionah, Anti-
omno, Antipus, Antionum and Anti-Nephi-Lehi. It
was also used as a suffix, as Ani-Aiiti. The prefix
Gid we find in Giddianhi, Gidgiddoni, Giddonah and
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
381
Gidgidonah: and Hel in Helem, Helani, Helaman and
Helorum.
Not to make this portion of onr investigations
tedious, we will only give two or three examples of the
suffixes that appear to have been most in use.
ah, as Zerahemnah, Giddonah, Cumorah.
am, as Zoram, Lauram, Seezoram.
iah, as Amalickiah, Mosiali.
ihah, as Nephihah, Moronihah, Cumenihah.
om, as Sidom, Shiblom, Jarom.
on, as Mormon, Emron, Corianton.
or, as Amnor, Korihor, Nehor.
en, as Kumen, Kishkumen.
um, as Teancum, Helorum, Moriantum.
us, as Antipus, Archaentus, Lachoneus.
oni, Moroni, Lamoni, Mathoni.
di, Aminadi, Abinadi.
hi, as Nephi, Zenephi, Linihi.
ti, Lehonti, Manti.
doni,'=' as Gidgiddoni, Middoni.
* We suggest that this is a form of the Hebrew word Adoiiai — Lord.
\i=lr=:r=lr=!i
CHAPTER LXVIII.
THE LANDS OF THE NEPHITES — MULEK AND LEHI— ZARA-
HEMLA AND NEPHl — THE WILDERNESS — THE LAND OF
ITRST INHERITANCE— THE JOURNEYS NORTHWARD— THE
WATERS OF MORMON — LEHI-NEPHI.
npO THE ancient Nephites the whole of North
America was known as the land of Mulek, and
South America as the land of Lehi; or, to use the
exa(5l language of the Book of Mormon, the land south
was called Lehi : and the land north was called Mulek.
The reason why these names were so given was
because the Lord brought Mulek into the land north,
and Lehi into the land south, when he led them from
Judea to this greater land of promise.
From the days of the first Mosiah to the era of
Christ's advent. South America was divided into two
grand divisions. These were the land of Zarahemla
and the land of Nephi. During this period, except in
times of war, the Lamanites occupied the land of
Nephi, and the Nephites inhabited the land of Zara-
hemla.
That these two lands occupied the whole of the
southern continent is shown by the statement of the
sacred writer : Thus the land of Nephi, and the land
of Zarahemla, were nearly surrounded by water; there
being a small neck of land between the land northward
and the land southward. The width of this narrow-
neck of land that connected the two continents is in
one place said to have been the distance of a day and a
half's . journey for a Nephite. In another place it is
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 383
called a day's journey. Perhaps the places spoken of
are not identical, but one may have been slightly to the
north of the other along the line of the isthmus.
Both the lands of Nephi and Zarahemla were sub-
divided, for governmental purposes, into smaller lands,
states or districts. Among the Nephites, these lands,
in the days of the republic, were ruled by a local chief
judge, subject to the chief judge of the whole nation;
and among the Lamanites by kings, who were tribu-
tary to the head king, whose seat of government was
at the city of Lehi-Nephi or Nephi.
The land of Nephi covered a much larger area of
country than did the land of Zarahemla. The two
countries were separated b}'- the wilderness which
extended extirely across the continent from the shores
of the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. The northern
edge of this wilderness ran in a line almost due east
and west, and passed near the head of the river Sidon.
The Sidon is generally understood to be the river in
these days called the Tvlagdalena.
All north of this belt of wilderness was considered
the land of Zarahemla; all south of it was included in
the land of Nephi. We are nowhere told its exa(fl
breadth, and can only judge thereof from casual refer-
ences in the narrative of the Book of Mormon.
The river Sidon flowed through the centre of the
Nephite civilization of the days of the republic. After
the convulsions that attended the crucifixion of the
Holy Messiah, the ph3^sical and political geography of
the continent was greatly changed, and the new^ condi-
tions are very vaguely defined by the inspired his-
torians.
On the western bank of the river Sidon was built
384 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
the city of Zarahemla. From the time of its first
occupancy by the Nephites, to the date of its des-
trudtion by fire at the crucifixion, it was the capital or
chief city of the nation, the centre of commercial
activities, and the seat of government. It was the
largest and oldest city within their borders, having
been founded b\' the people of Zarahemla before the
exodus of the Nephites, under the first Mosiah, from
the land of Nephi.
When the Nephites, by reason of increasing num-
bers, the exigencies of war, or for other causes founded
new cities, the cities so built were generall}- called
after the name of the leader of the colony or some
illustrious citizen, and the land immediately surround-
ing, contiguous or tributary to the new cit}' was called
by the same name. As an example we will take the
city or land of Ammonihah, regarding which it is
written: Now it was the custom of the people of
Nephi to call their lands and their cities, and their
villages, yea, even all their small villages, after the
name of him who first possessed them; and thus it was
with the land of Ammonihah.
Some of these lands appear to have been relativel}-
small, more resembling a county, or possibly a town-
ship, than any other division at present prevailing in
this country. Such we suppose to have been the lands
of Helam and Moreanton. Others, such as the lands
of Bountiful and Desolation, embraced wide, extended
tracts of country.
The exa(5l place where Lehi and his little colony
first landed on this continent is not stated in the Book
Mormon : but it is generally believed among the Lattcr-
dav Saints to have been on the coast of Chili in thirtv
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 385
degrees south latitude. In fa6l, tlie Prophet Joseph
Smith so stated.
We do not think it possible, without divine revela-
tion, to determine with accuracy the identical spot
where Lehi and his colony landed. We believe that
the coast line of that region has entirely changed since
those da3's. Even if we do not take into consideration
the overwhelming convulsions that took place at the
crucifixion of our Lord, which changed the entire face
of nature, there remains the general elevation or sub-
sistance of the land which is continually taking place
the world over. Some coasts are rising, some are fall-
ing. The land in South America, on its western or
Pacific shores, has long been rising, some think for
centuries.
If this be so the rise of an inch a 3'ear would en-
tirel}' change the configuration of the sea shore, and
give this generation shallows and dry land, where but a
few centuries ago there were deep waters. But so far
as the results growing out of the terrible earthquakes
that occurred at the death of the Savior are concerned,
we can form no conclusions, for they were variable. In
some regions the \yaters usurped the place of the land,
in others the land encroached upon the waters. Whicli
way it happened near the place w^here Lehi landed we
have no record, and consequentl}^ can sa\^ nothing. For
all we know a huge mountain may now cover the spot,
or it ma}' be hidden beneath the blue waters of the
Pacific, scores of miles awa}^ from any present landing
place.
In the region that Lehi landed there he also died.
Soon after his death, Nephi, and those of the colony
who wished to serve the Lord, departed for another
386 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
country. They did so by dire(5l command of heaven.
The reason for this command was the murderous hatred
shewn by Laman and Lemuel towards Nephi and his
friends. These vicious men determined to kill Nephi,
that he might not be a king and a ruler over them.
Their hearts were wicked, they loved sin and were
resolved that they would not be governed b}- their
virtuous and heaven-favored brother.
Nephi and his company journeyed in the wilder-
ness for many days. By the expression "the wilder-
ness," we understand the inspired writer to mean the
uncultivated and uninhabited portion of the land. This
word appears to be frequently used in after years, with
this signif cation. At other times it is applied to the
desert and uninhabitable regions, the tropical forests,
and jungles infested with wild beasts. The journey of
the Nephites was northward, as is shown by their later
history; but Nephi, in his very brief account of this
migration, says nothing with regard to the direction in
which they traveled.
At the end of many daj-s a land was found which
was deemed suitable for settlement. There the com-
pany pitched their tents, and commenced the tillage of
the soil. In honor of their leader, it was called the
laud of Nephi; or to use the modest language of
Nephi, My people would that we should call the
name of the place Nephi; wherefore we did call it
Nephi.
No doubt the choice of location was made by
divine inspiration. It was a highly-favored land,
rich in mineral and vegetable produ(5lions, and vielded
abundant crops to the labors of the liusl)andniau.
In this happy country the Nephites dwelt, pros-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF INIORMON. 387
pered and increased until they again moved northward.
Perhaps not once nor twice they migrated, but several
times; for we hold it to be inconsistent with the stor}-
of the record and with good judgment to believe that
in their first journe}^ they traveled as far north as
the}' w^ere found four hundred years afterwards, when
they again took up their line of march, and finally
settled in the land of Zarahemla. In the first place
there was no necessity for Nephi and his people taking
such a length}^, tedious and hazardous journey; in the
second place, in their weak condition, it was nigh unto
an impossibilit3^ To have taken a journey of a few
hundred miles w'ould have placed them out of the
reach of the Lamanites; there was no need for them
to travel thousands. Again, in a few years the
Lamanites had followed and come up to them; it is
altogether inconsistent to think that that people, with
its racial chara(5leristics, would in so short a time have
accomplished so marvelous a triumph as to follow,
hunt up and attack their late brethren if the latter
had placed all the distance from Chili to Ecuador
between them and their pursuers. When we consider
the difficulties of travel through the trackless \vilder-
ness, the obstacles interposed by nature, the lack of all
roads or other guides to indicate where the Nephites
had gone, it seems out of the question to imagine that
in twenty j-ears or so, the shiftless, unenterprising
Lamanites had accomplished such a feat. To the con-
trary, we believe that Nephi and those with him trav-
eled until they considered themselves safe, then
settled down in a spot which the}' deemed desirable.
By and by the Lamanites came upon them ; the Ne-
phites defended themselves as long as they could, and
388 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
when they could do so no longer they again moved to
the northward. Their early history was one of fre-
quent wars; and as the Lord used the Lamanites as
thorns in their sides when they turned from him, we
judge for this reason, and that they were found so far
north in the days of Amaleki and Mosiah, that the
savage descendants of Lanian had frequently defeated
them and driven them farther and farther away from
the land of their first possession.
The inquir}^ will naturall}' arise, as a result of
these suggestions: In what portion of the South Amer-
ican continent lay the home of the Nephites in the
days of Mosiah? This cannot be answered authorita-
tively. We are nowhere told its exa(ft situation. Still,
there are many references in the Book of IMormon
from wliicli we can judge, to some extent, of its loca-
tion. Elder Orson Pratt suggests that it was in the
country we now call Ecuador. The writer entirely
agrees with Elder Pratt's suggestion. Other brethren
have placed it considerably farther south ; but in our
reading of the Book of ^Mormon we have found no
evidence to confirm their suppositions, but much to
contradi(5l them.
We believe that the lands occupied b}' the Ne-
phites before they went down into the land of Zara-
henila were situated among the table lands or high
valleys of the Andes, much as Utah is located in the
bosom of the Rocky Mountains and parallel chains.
For these reasons :
First — They were lands rich in minerals, wliicli
all through the American continents are found most
abundantly in mountain regions. We may (so far as
mineral proximity is concerned) compare the country
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 389
east of this portion of the Andes — the nnexplored,
alluvial silvas of the Amazon — to the great plains or
prairies east of the Rocky Mountains. These silvas,
stretching from the Andes to the Atlantic, we regard as
the great wilderness south of Zarahemla so often spoken
of in the annals of the Judges.
Secondly, the climate of the torrid low lands,
almost dire(5lly under the equator, would be intolerable
for its heat, and deadly in its humidity; while the
countr}^ in the high valleys and table lands would be
excellently adapted to human life, especially (we may
presume) before the great upheavals and convulsions
that marked the death of the Redeemer. As the
Nephites spread over the countr}- they located in
regions where fevers were common, possibly in those
parts rendered unhealthy by the overflowing of the
rivers, which, when they receded, left large bodies of
stagnant water covering the surface of the ground for
the greater portion of the year.
It is also probable that in their journeys the
Nephites would follow the most available route, rather
than plunge into the dense, untrodden, primeval forests
of the wilderness ; the home of all manner of savage
animals, venomous snakes and poisonous reptiles;
where a road would have to be cut every foot of the
way through the most luxuriant and gigantic tropical
vegetation to be found on the face of the globe. There-
fore we regard its accessibility as another reason for
believing that the Nephites did not leave the great
backbone of the continent to descend into the unex-
plored depths of the region whose character they
aptly sum up in the one word, wilderness.
Our readers must not forget that there were two
390 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
lands called by the name of Nephi. The one was a
limited distridl immediately surrounding the city of
Lehi-Nephi or Nephi. There Mosiali and the Nephites
dwelt, about two hundred years before Christ. The
other land of Nephi occupied the whole of the conti-
nent south of the great wilderness. This wilderness
formed its northern boundary, and its frontier thereon
ran in a straight course from the east to the west sea,
or, to use our modern geographical names, in a straight
line from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.
As this wilderness, though of great length east
and west, was but a narrow strip north and south, and
its northern edge ran close to the head waters of the
River Sidon (or Magdalena), it is evident that the land
of Nephi covered by far the greater portion of South
America. Within its wide boundaries was situated the
original land of Nephi; as well as many other lands
called by various local names, just in the same wa}- as
there are mau}^ States in these United States, all
together forming one great nation.
It is very obvious how there grew to be these two
lands of Nephi. At first, the small districft around the
capital city comprised all the territory occupied by the
Nephites. As they spread out, whatever valle}-, plain,
etc., they reclaimed from the wilderness was considered
a part of that land; and thus, year by year, its borders
grew wider and wider, while for convenience sake or
govermental purposes, the newl}' built cities and the
land surrounding were called by varied names, accord-
ing to the wishes of the people, most frequentl}^ after
the leader of the out-going colony or founder of the
city. Thus we have a land of Nephi within the land
of Nephi; just as we have now-a-daj-s I 'tali County
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 39I
within Utah Territory; and the city of New York and
the county of New York within the state of New
York. To distinguish the smaller land of Nephi from
the whole country, it is sometimes called the land of
Lehi-Nephi.
We have stated that the small land of Nephi
was a very limited district. We think this is easily
proven. It was so limited in extent that we are told
king Noah built a tower near the temple so high that
he could stand upon the top thereof and overlook not
onl}^ the land of Lehi-Nephi where it was built, but
also the land of Shilom and the land of Shemlon,
which last named land was possessed by the Lanian-
ites. No matter how high the tower, these lands must
have been comparatively small (or at any rate the land
of Lehi-Nephi was) to have enabled a man to overlook
the whole three from the top of one building.
It was on the borders of this land, at the outer
edge of its cultivated grounds, in the forest (or thicket)
of Alormon, that Alma used to hide himself in the
daytime, from the searches of the king, while he min-
istered among the people when the shades of evening
gave him security. It was there he gathered the believ-
ers in his teachings, baptized them in the waters of
Mormon, and organized the Church of Jesus Christ,
From the waters of Mormon to Zarahemla it was
twenty-two da3's' a6lual travel for an emigrant train.
Alma having been warned of the Lord that the
armies of king Noah would come upon his people,
the latter gathered together their flocks, and took of
their grain and departed into the wilderness which
divided the lands of Nephi and Zarahemla. The}- fled
eight days' journey into the wilderness when they
392 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
rested and commenced to build a city, which they
called Helam. Being afterwards compelled to leave
this city, on account of the persecutions of the Laman-
ites and Amulonites, they again took their journey
northward, and reached the homes of the main body of
the Nephites in Zarahemla in about fourteen days.
Here we have a people encumbered and delayed
by flocks and herds, heavily laden with grain, etc.,
making the journey (in two separate stages) in twenty-
two days. It is scarcely supposable that they traveled
in a dire(5l line; mountains, rivers and swamps would
render the journey somewhat circuitous or winding.
But even supposing that they did advance in an almost
diredl line from point to point, it would only make the
distance between Nephi and Zarahemla 220 miles, if
they traveled ten miles a day; 330, if they traveled
fifteen miles; and 440 if they journeyed twenty miles
a day.
Our readers must decide for themselves which dis-
tance per day is the most likely that a company, driv-
ing their flocks and herds before them, would advance
through an unexplored wilderness, full of natural
hindrances, and without roads, bridges, ferries and
other helps to the traveler.
Zarahemla was situated on the Sidon, certainl}- a
considerable distance from its head waters, as other
lands and cities (such as Minon and IManti) are men-
tioned as lying far above it. If we measure the distance
from such a point southward, either 200, 300 or 400
miles, all these measurements will bring us into the
country now called Ecuador.
We are of the opinion that the land of Lehi-Nephi
was situated in one of the higher valle3'S, or extensive
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 393
plateaus of the Andes. In the first place, admitting
it was in Ecuador, it would lie almost immediately
under the equator, and the lowlands, as before sug-
gested, would be unbearable for an industrious popula-
tion on account of the great heat; as well as exceed-
ingly unhealthy by reason 'of chills, fever, and like
complaints.
Again, the crops of which the Nephites raised
most abundantly — barley and wheat — are not those
that flourish in a tropical climate, but can be grown
most advantageously in a temperate region, such as
could be found in these higher valleys.
It was also a land rich in mineral wealth, which is
not probable would have been the case if it had been
situated among the wide-spreading alluvial plains east
of the Andes.
It is likewise spoken of as a hilly or mountainous
country. The hill north of the land of Shilom is
frequently mentioned in the historical narrative. For
instance :
Ammon came to a hill, which is north of the land
of Shilom {Mosiah viz. 5).
King Limhi caused his guards to go to the hill
which was north of Shilom [Mosiak z'li. 16).
King Noah eredled a great tower on the hill north
of the land of Shilom {Alosiah xi. ij.)
For another reason, the expression "up" is almost
always used when reference is made to persons going
towards the land of Nephi. Not only did they travel
from Zarahemla up the Sidon and across the wilder-
ness to Nephi, but also ///> from the land of Ishmael
and other portions of the land of Nephi to the city of
Nephi and its surroundings. In contradistin6lion to
394
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
this, persons leaving Nephi went down to the land of
Zarahemla and other places.
The onh' time in which the word down is nsed,
when referring to persons going towards Nephi, is
when certain persons came down to the cit}- from off
the hill mentioned above.
Some of our readers ma}' objedl to the statement
that the city of Nephi and the cit}- of Lehi-Nephi were
one and the same place ; and that the land round about
was sometimes called the land of Lehi-Nephi, and
sometimes the land of Nephi only. But we think that
a careful perusal of the record of Zeniff, in the Book of
Mormon, will convince them of the fa6l; especiall}' if
they will compare it with the last few verses of the
book of Omni. Zeniff in one place speaks of possess-
ing, by treaty with the Lamanites, the land of Lehi-
Nephi {Mosiah i.v. 6), and a few verses later on (verse
14), he talks of the thirteenth year of his reign in the
land of Nephi.
If we mistake not, the name of Lehi-Nephi occurs
only seven times in the Book of Mormon ; everywhere
else the name Nephi is used when referring to this
land.
CHAPTER LXIX.
NEPHI IN THE HANDvS OF THE LAMANITES — THE LANDS OF
SHEMLON, SHIIvOM, HEIvAM, AMULON, IvSHMAEL, MID"
DONI, JERUvSALEM, ETC.
TN THE second generation the Nephites began to
grow numerous, and iniquity made its appearance
among them. It was then that Jacob their priest (the
younger brother of Nephi), prophesied: The time
speedily conieth, that except ye repent, they [the
Lamanites] shall possess the land of your inheritance,
and the Lord God will lead away the righteous out
from among 3'OU. This prophecy was completely ful-
filled, if not on previous occasions, about 300 years or
so afterwards, when Mosiah, by the command of God,
led the righteous Nephites out of the land of their
inheritance — the land of Nephi — down into the land
of Zarahemla.
From that time the land of Nephi was possessed
and ruled by the posterity of Laman, Lemuel and Ish-
mael ; or by Nephite apostates, who, with superior cun-
ning, worked themselves on to the Lamanitish throne.
During the era that the Nephites dwelt in the land
of Nephi they built several cities. These the Lanian-
ites eagerly took possession of when Alosiah and his
people vacated them. We are not told when and by
whom these cities were founded; such particulars,
doubtless, appear on the plates of the kings. It is
only incidentally that we learn anything regarding
them; reference to them is found in the record of
Zeniff's return from Zarahemla, and re-occupancy, by
396 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
treaty with the Lamaiiites, of a portion of the old
Nephite home.
The Laiiianites of that age were a wild, ferocious,
bloodthirsty and nomadic race, who did not build cities,
for the simple reason that they had neither the inclina-
tion nor the skill. But when they found the Nephite
cities deserted by their inhabitants they immediately
occupied them. Even then, the}- did not enlarge or
repair them, but let them fall into gradual decay.
No sooner had the Lamanites surrendered the
cities of Lehi-Nephi and Shilom to Zeniff than his
people set to work to build buildings and to repair their
walls. In the next generation king Noah caused many
fine buildings and towers to be built in both the lands
of Lehi-Nephi and Shilom.
The two cities above mentioned are the only ones
diredlly spoken of in the Book of Mormon up to this
time. There was most probably a city built in the con-
tiguous land of Shemlon, which was held by the La-
manites, but it is never mentioned b}'' name.
We judge Shilom lay to the northward of Lehi-
Nephi, and in the same valley or plateau; otherwise it
Noah's tower, mentioned in our last chapter. Its relative
could not have been so completely viewed from King
position to Lehi-Nephi appears from the fact that those
who went to or from the land of Zarahemla, generally
did so by way of Shilom ; it seems to have lain in the
direct route between the two capital cities. Amnion,
the Zarahemlaite, and his company entered in that
wa}^ and Limhi and his people escaped in the same
dire(5lion.
The next city that we read of is called Helani. It
was located eight days' journey from Nephi towards-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 397
Zarahemla, and was founded by Alma, the elder, and
his followers, when they fled from the murderous per-
secutions of king Noah. This city and the surround-
ing country were called after the first man baptized by
Alma in the waters of Mormon. His name was Helam,
and he was doubtless a leader among that people.
In the same direction from Nephi as Helam, and
apparently adjoining thereto, lay the land of Amnion.
It was first peopled by the fugitive priests of Noah, when
they fled from the vengeance of the justl}^ incensed
Nephites. The leader of this band of wicked men was
named Amnion, and in his honor the land was so called.
The king of the Lamanites afterwards made Amnion
the tributary king or chief local ruler over the lands
of Helam and Amnion. From this we judge that they
lay side by side, their boundaries extending indefinitely
into the great wilderness.
Our next information regarding the condition of the
land of Nephi is gleaned from the history of the
mission of the sons of king Mosiah to the Lamanites
in that region. This mission commenced B. C. 91, and
lasted fourteen years.
We find the Lamanites of that age considerably
advanced in civilization, many of them inhabiting
populous cities. The country was divided into several
distin6l kingdoms, each ruled by its own king, but all
subject to the head monarch whose court was at Nephi.
The lands speciall}' mentioned in conne6lion with
this mission are those of Nephi, Middoni, Ishmael,
Shilom, Shemlon, Helam, Amnion and Jerusalem.
Shilom and Shemlon we have alread}^ shewn to be
in the neighborhood of Lehi-Nephi; Helam, eight
days' journey for loaded teams to the north, and
398 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Amnion not far distant therefrom. We ma}- next
inqnire what can be learned of the lands of Jerusalem,
Ishmael and Aliddoni.
The location of the land of Jerusalem is clearly-
stated. It was awa\' joining the borders of IMormon,
that is, on the other side, probably east or north from
Nephi. There, somewhere about loo years B. C, the
Lamanites, with Amulonites and other apostate Ne-
phites, built a great and thriving city, which they
called Jerusalem, after their father's ancient home in
Judea.
There Aaron, the son of Mosiah, unsuccessfully
preached the gospel. Its apostate citizens were too
sin-hardened to accept the message he bore. This city
was afterwards destroyed on account of its great wick-
edness and persecution of the Saints, in the terrors
that attended the crucifixion of the Savior, and waters
came up in the place thereof. A stagnant sea, akin to
that which covers Sodom and Gomorrah, occupies the
place where once its proud places and rich synagogues
stood.
The first land visited by the missionary prince,
Amnion, was Ishmael; its situation is not clearly
stated. It was down from Nephi. This leads to the
thought that it lay in the alluvial plains considerably
east of the Andes. It does not seem compatible with
the narrative of Amnion's mission to believe it was
situated in the narrow strip of wilderness that lay
between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Its
relative position to other lands precludes this idea.
Near the highway that conne(5led Ishmael and
Nephi lay tlie land of Middoni. This is shown by the
fa(5l that when Amnion and king Lainoni were travel-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 399
ing from Islimael towards IMiddoni they met Lamoni's
father, the head king of all the land, coming from
Nephi. This leads to the conclusion that the same
road from Ishmael led to both Nephi and Middoni.
Nephi is called up from both these lands; we,
therefore, suggest that, like Ishmael, Aliddoni occupied
a portion of the lower lands on the eastern borders of
the Andes, but somewhat nearer the capital city.
CHAPTER LXX.
THE LANDS OF THE' NEPHITES, CONTINUED — ZARAHEMLA —
JERvSHON — ANTIONUM — MANTI — GIDEON.
AS THERE were two lands of Nephi, the greater and
the lesser, so, for exa(5lly the same reason, there
were two lands of Zarahemla; the one occupying the
whole of South America, from the great wilderness,
which formed its southern border, northward to the
land Bountiful; the other, the distri(51; immediatel}^ sur-
rounding the capital city.
That there was a Zarahemla within Zarahemla is
shewn b}^ various passages in which persons are spoken
of as journeying to the land of Zarahemla, when they
were alread}^ within the borders of the greater land of
that name. For instance, Alinon, on the river Sidon,
is said to have been situated above the land of Zara-
hemla {Alma a. 2^) ; again. Alma took Aniulek and
came over to the land of Zarahemla from Sidon {Ahua
XV. 18). While in many other places, notably where
the boundaries of the possessions of the Nephites are
400 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
given, the name Zarahemla is applied to the whole of
the lands of that people, even sometimes including
Bountiful, which is generally spoken of separately.
In the days of the first Mosiah and his son, king
Benjamin, the greater portion of the Nephites appear to
have been located in and immediately around the city
of Zarahemla. King Benjamin, when about to resign
the royal authorit}' into the hands of his son Mosiah,
commanded him to gather his people together, For, he
adds, on the morrow I shall proclaim unto this my peo-
ple out of mine own mouth, that thou art a king and a
ruler over this people [Mosiah i. lo). The proclama-
tion was sent forth and the people were gathered in an
imnumbered host; a thing that could not have been
done in so short a time had their habitations been widely
scattered over an extended territory.
In the reign of the younger Mosiah, the people
stretched out in all directions, and colonies were
planted in distant regions. This vigorous policy- was
continued, only on a much larger scale, during the
days of the Judges.
After carefully perusing the Book of Mormon, we
suggest that the lands or cities (which in Nephite
geography appear to be frequently used interchange-
ably, or one for the other), included within the borders
of the Nephites, in the da^-s of the Judges, were:
In the extreme north, the land of Bountiful, which
extended southward from the Isthmus of Panama. On
its southern frontier lay the land of Jershon.
On the River Sidon: Zarahemla, Minon, Gideon
and Manti.
In the interior, eastward of the Sidon: Antionum,
Siron, and probably Nephihah.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 4OI
On the shores of the Atlantic Ocean and Carib-
bean Sea: Mulek, Moreanton, Lehi, Omner, Gid, Aaron
and Moroni.
In the interior, west of the Sidon: Melek, Noah,
Ammonihah and Sidom.
Between the upper waters of the Sidon and the
Pacific Ocean, or in the extreme southwest: Cunieni,
Antiparah, Judea and Zeezroni.
Besides the above the following cities are men-
tioned, but onl}^ in connecftion with their destrudlion at
the time of the terrible convulsions that marked the
sacrifice at Jerusalem, of the world's Redeemer:
The great cit}^ of Moronihah, covered with earth.
Laman, Gad, Josh and Kishkumen, burned with
fire.
Gilgal, Gadiandi, Gadiomnah, Jacob and Gim-
gimno, sunk in the depths of the earth ; and
Onihah and JMocum, in whose place waters came
up.
We imagine from the names, that some of the
above were built b}- the Lamanites or Gadianton rob-
bers. But this is simply a conje(5lure, as the sacred
record is entirely silent on the point. ,
We will now very briefly examine, one by one,
some of the more important divisions of the countrv.
JeRvSHON. — This was the name given to the regions
set apart by the Nephites (B. C. 78), as the home of the
Ammonites, or Christian Lamanites. It was situated
far to the north, and was evidently chosen for the
reason that the strength of the Nephite nation might
lie between the fugitives and their former coun-
trymen, the Lamanites, who then thirsted for their
blood. It was bounded by the Caribbean Sea and the
402 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
land Bountiful on the north and east, and by the land
of Antionuni on the south. Its western boundary is
not defined, but we are inclined to believe, from the
context, that it was the river Sidon. Its geographical
situation is partly described in .4 /f/ia .iwi'//. 22, thus:
We [the Nephites] will give up the land of Jershon,
which is on the east by the sea, which joins the land
Bountiful, which is on the south of the land Bountiful.
With regard to its southern boundarj', A/jjia .vxxi. j
(which we shall hereafter quote), states that Antionum
lay to the south of it.
Antionum, the land where the Zoramite apostates
gathered (B. C. 75), was an extensive and thinly-settled
region, extending from the land of Jershon to the great
southern wilderness. Its boundaries are thus defined
{Alma xxxi. j) : Antionum, which was east of the
land of Zarahemla, which lay nearly bordering upon
the sea shore, which was south of the land of Jershon,
which also bordered upon the wilderness south. By
this we understand that it stretched north from the
great wilderness, which passed by the head of the
Sidon, almost to the Atlantic Ocean; that its western
boundary was the land of Zarahemla, and Jershon its
northern limit. Nothing is said of its eastern borders
for the simple reason that at the time this passage was
originally written, the country east was 3'et uninhab-
ited, except possibly b}^ a few wandering Lamanites.
At its extreme southern or southeastern corner, " among
the borders of the Lamanites" of the wilderness, was
the outlaying land of Siron. This place is mentioned
but once in the Book of Alormon {. l/f//(i xxx/x. j).
Manti. — During the days of the republic, Manti
was a distridl of great importance to the Nephites. It
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 403
was situated contiguous to the wilderness at the head
waters of the Sidon {Alma xvi. 6), and lay on the line
of march generally taken b}^ the armies of the Laman-
ites when they invaded Zarahemla. Its exa(ft boun-
daries are not defined; indeed, it is altogether probable
that the}' varied considerably at different periods of
Nephite history. However, it is evident that it was
the most southerly of all the lands inhabited by the
Nephites, in the western half of the South American
continent, after they had moved from the land of
Nephi.
Gideon. — In a valley on the east of the Sidon was
built, during the earl}^ daA's of the republic, an import-
ant cit}^ which was named after the mart3r Gideon.
The valley itself was also known by the same name, and
is frequently called the land of Gideon, for we find no
evidence to lead to the conclusion that the land ex-
tended beyond the valley. Nearly all that we know of
this region is contained in a single passage {A/?ua z'i. 7),
which states that Alma left Zarahemla and went over
upon the east of the river Sidon, into the valley of
Gideon, there having been a cit}- built which was called
the city of Gideon, which was in the valle}- that was
called Gideon, being called after the man who was
slain by the hand of Nehor with the sword.
From the references in the historical narrative we
incline to the opinion that this valley lay either dire(5lly
east, or somewhat to the south of the cit}- of Zara-
hemla. Travelers coming from the north are never
mentioned as passing through it on their way to Zara-
hemla, without the}' had a purpose in so doing, as in
the case where Aloroni marched from the northeast to
the relief of chief judge Pahoran [Ahua I.xii).
CHAPTER LXXI.
LANDS OF THE NEPHITES CONTINUED — MINON — MELEK —
AMMONIHAH — NOAH — SIDOM — AARON — LEHI — MULEK —
BOUNTIFUL — THE SOUTHWEST BORDER.
IV /TINON is mentioned but once in the Book of Mor-
mon. Its location is then diredll}' stated. It is
spoken of as the land of Minon, above the land of
Zarahemla, in the course of the land of Nephi {A/?na
ii. 24). Elder Orson Pratt, in a note to this chapter,
places Minon about two days' journey south of the city
Zarahemla. This is the obvious conclusion to be drawn
from the details contained in the chapter; from these
details and the above quotation, we also judge it to
have been on the western banks of the Sidon, and in
the diredl road between Nephi and Zarahemla. At
this date (B, C. 91) it was inhabited by an agricultural
population, who, at the approach of the Lamanites, fled
before them into the capital city.
As the course of the river Sidon was from south
to north, it is but reasonable to conclude that when the
words above and below are used, when reference is
made to places on its banks or in its neighborhood, that
above means south and below, north. This is a very
common mode of expression in such cases.
MklEK. — The boundaries of this land are very
indistindlly stated b}^ the inspired writer of the Book
of Alma, for it is in that book alone that it is men-
tioned. However, two things are positively stated
(chapter viii.), namely, that it was west of the river
Sidon, and that it extended westward as far as the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 405
narrow strip of wilderness which ran north and south
between the mountains and the Pacific Ocean. We
imagine that its eastern borders touched the land of
Zarahemla and from thence it stretched out as far as
the country proved habitable ; as it appears to have had
a large population, judging from the account given of
Alma's ministrations (B. C. 82). That it embraced a
large district of country is proven by the fadl that when
Alma had finished his labors in the city of Alelek, he
traveled three days' journey on the north of the
land of Melek before he came to the city of Ammon-
ihah (A/ma viii. 6). In later years, when it was con-
sidered unsafe for the Ammonites to remain longer in
Jershon the\^ were removed to Melek, the proximity of
which to Zarahemla, as well as its remoteness from the
lands of the Lamanites, rendered it admirably adapted
as a place of safety for that persecuted people.
Ammonihah. — When Alma had made the three
da3's' journey spoken of above, he reached Ammon-
ihah, the country around which city was called by the
same name. From the text of the passage some
conclude that Alma traveled northward from IMelek,
but to us it conveys the idea that the prophet journeyed
three days westward along or near the northern boun-
dary of that land. We are confirmed in this opinion by
the statement made in another place regarding Am-
monihah's proximity to that portion of the wilderness
which ran along the sea shore [Abna xxii. 2j). In
Alma [xz'i. i>),it is stated: The armies of the Laman-
ites had come in upon the wilderness side, into the bor-
ders of the land, even into the city of Ammonihah. If
Ammonihah had been situated three da3's' journey north
of Melek, we suggest that it could not have been near
406 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
that portion of the wilderness which the Lanianites so
easily reached without discovery; for a march due north
w^ould have taken them close to, or a(5lually through
the lands of Minon, Noah, Melek and Zarahemla, the
most thickl}^ populated portions of the country; or, to
have avoided these, they must have taken a circuitous
route of immense length and great danger. Then
when they attempted to retire, their retreat, owing to
their great distance from Nephi, would have most
assuredl}' been cut off, as was the case with the
Lamanite general Coriantumr under these conditions.
Noah. — Of this land we simply know two things:
First, that it was west of the Sidon ; second, that it was
not far distant from Ammonihah and IVIelek.
SiDOM is only mentioned in the 15th chapter of
Alma. When the persecuted members of the true
church were driven out of Ammonihah by its vicious
citizens, they fled to Sidom. It is not supposable that
these persecuted people were in a condition to travel
far. They would necessarily gather to the first avail-
able place of refuge. It is, therefore, reasonable to
conclude that Sidom was not far distant from Ammon-
ihah.
Aaron. — When Alma was first cast out of Ammon-
ihah he turned his face towards a city called Aaron
{Alma 7'iii. ij). It is natural to suppose that Aaron
was not far distant from Ammonihah ; at any rate, not
on the other side of the continent. Yet the onl}- other
time when a city called Aaron is referred to, it is
spoken of as adjoining the land of Moroni, which was
the frontier distridl in the extreme southeast of the
lands possessed by the Nephites. Our only way out
of this difficulty is to suggest that there were two cities
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 407
called Aarou ; not at all an unlikely thing when we
reflecfl how important a personage Aaron, the son of
Mosiah, was among his people. When chosen to be
king he declined this great honor and the repulDlic was
established. It requires no stretch of the imagination
to believe that a free and grateful people would name
more than one city in honor of this self-denying prince.
When we consider how many places there are in the
United States called Washington, Lincoln, etc., our
only wonder is that we do not find more than two cities
called Aaron.
This same difficulty exists with regard to Nephi-
HAH. We fancy there were also two cities of this
name; one situated on the southern frontier, some dis-
tance east of Alanti and the Sidon {Alnm Ivi. ^5) ; the
other on the Atlantic seaboard, north of Moroni [Alma
I. /</). Of this latter city it is written that in the year
B. C. 72 the Nephites began a foundation for a cit}''
between the city of Aloroni and the city of Aaron, join-
ing the cit}' of Aaron and Moroni ; and they called the
name of the cit}' or land, Nephihah. This is the
region again referred to in chapters 51, 59 and 62 of
the Book of Alma. Elder Orson Pratt, in a foot note
to chapter 56, draws attention to the fa6l that the Nephi-
hah there mentioned is not the one spoken of in the
other chapters.
The Atlantic Sea-board. — It appears, though
it is not altogether certain, that the lands and cities of
the Nephites on the Atlantic sea-board were situated in
the following order, commencing at the north; Mulek,
Gid, Omner, Moreanton, Lehi, Aaron, Nephihah and
Moroni {Alma li. 26).
Moroni was situated by the seashore, on the
4o8 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
borders of the great wilderness, being the farthest
from the city of Zarahemla of all the settlements of
the Nephites in the southeast. Or, to use the lan-
guage of the inspired historian, It was by the east sea;
and it was on the south by the land of the possessions
of the Lamanites {Alma I. ij). As the wilderness ran
in a straight line from east to west, and the Sidon
arose near its northern border, on which border Moroni
was also situated, if the convulsions at the time of the
crucifixion of our Lord did not so alter the face of the
country as to change the locality where this river took
its rise, then Moroni was in the country now called
Guiana, or in the extreme north of Brazil. The city
Moroni now lies covered by the waters of the Atlantic
(/// Ncphi c'l'ii. g). In Guiana, there is a river still
called Moroni, or, as it is generally printed on the
maps, Maroni or Marony. There is also a river Alor-
ona in Ecuador.
Lehi. — The land of Lehi on the Atlantic coast
must not be confounded with the whole of South
America, also called the land of Lehi by the Nephites.
This lesser land of Lehi was the district surrounding
the city of Lehi, and immediately adjoining the land
of Moreanton, whose people indeed claimed, though
unjustly, a portion of its territory.
MuLKK was the most northern of the settlements
of the Nephites south of the land Bountiful, close to
the borders of which it was built. It is positively
stated to have been located on the east sea {A/}iia li. 26)\
west of it was a wilderness, or uninhabited region
{Alma Hi. 22).
B(Ji'NTiFUL. — We believe that there is an idea
held by some that the city Bountiful was situated on
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 409
the Pacific shore. This opinion we think is not war-
ranted by the statement in the Book of Mormon.
Mulek, as we have already shown, was on the Atlantic,
or east sea; Bountifnl was northward of Mulek. When
Teancum retreated before the hosts of the Lanianites,
who poured out of the city of Mulek to capture his
small force, he began to retreat down by tJie sea shore
northward [Ahiia ///. 2j). This course brought him
to Bountiful. From the details contained in this chap-
ter we are forced to the conclusion that he and his
soldiers reached that city on the same da}^ that they
started from outside Mulek. Now, unless the con-
figuration of the coast line has been entirely and com-
pletely changed, no march of one day, or indeed of any
length of time along "the sea shore northward" would
bring a person to the Pacific Ocean. Our only conclu-
sion can be that Bountiful was situated on the sea shore
on the eastern side of the Isthmus, if on the Isthmus
at all. Other passages than the one above show that
Mulek and Bountiful la}^ in close proximity.
We fancy the reason why some suppose that the
cit}^ Bountiful lay on the west coast, is because Hagoth
built his ship yards there. But the record does not
say he built them in or near the city Bountiful. What
is stated is that Hagoth went forth and built him an
exceeding large ship, on the borders of the land
Bountiful, b}^ the land Desolation, and launched it forth
into the west sea, by the narrow neck of land which
led into the wilderness northward {Alma liii. 5).
This narrow neck of land was the dividing line between
the land Desolation on the north, and the land Bounti-
ful on the south. We think it is evident, from the
above, that the city Bountiful and Hagoth's settlement
4IO STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
lay at entirely opposite extremes of this land, the first,
in the southeast near Mulek, the second, in the north-
west near Desolation.
Before the land Bountiful was settled by the
Nephites, it was a wilderness filled with all manner
of wild animals of ever\' kind; a part of which had
come from the land northward for food [Alma xxii. j/).
But the Nephites, to prevent the Lamanites creeping
up through the wilderness along the coasts, east and
west, and thus gain a foothold in the land north-
ward, at as earl}' a date as possible inhabited the
land Bountiful, even from the east to the west sea
( Alma xxii. jj ) .
The city called Bountiful is not mentioned until
B. C. 64 {Alma Hi i)^ though the land of that name is
frequently referred to at earlier dates.
The South wEvST Border. — All we know of the
cities and lands in the southwest is contained in Hela-
man's report to Moroni of the niilitar\' operations in
that department {Alma^ hi., li'iii). Four cities are men-
tioned west of Manti: Judea, Antiparah, Zeezrom and
Cumeni. Of these, Antiparah appears to have been
situated nearer the coast than Judea, while there was
yet another city still nearer the ocean, and apparently
to the north of Antiparah. But we can simply guess
at their relative positions, no positive information being
given us.
Besides the foregoing there was a land called
Desolation. Before the time of the Nephites it was
thickly inhabited by the Jaredites. In the days of the
latter people Bountiful formed its southern border. The
two lands apparently joined at the Isthmus. At first,
like most frontier districts, it extended indefinitely into
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 41I
the uninhabited regions. When other lands were
colonized its boundaries became more definitely fixed.
It is generally supposed to have embraced within its
borders the region known to moderns as Central
America. Its capital was a city of the same name,
probabl}^ built in later 3'ears, as it is never mentioned
but by Mormon in the account of the long series of
wars in which he took so prominent a part.
CHAPTER LXXII.
THE LANDS OF ANTUM, TEANCUM, JOSHUA, DAVID, ETC. —
CUMORAH — THE HILLS OF THE NEPHITES — THE RIVER
SID( >N.
TN THE history of the final wars between the Ne-
phites and Eamanites we find lands and cities men-
tioned that are nowhere else spoken of. It is pre-
sumable that most of them were built during the blest
sabbatic era that followed the visit of the Redeemer.
The greater portion of these places were situated in
North America, but the exa(5l locality can in scarcely
any instance be determined. Among those named
are the lands or cities of Antum, Angola, David,
Joshua, Jashon, Shem, Teancum, Boaz, Jordon, Cu-
morah, Sherrizah and Moriantum.
AxTUM, a land of North America in which was
situated a hill called Shim. In this hill Ammaron de-
posited the sacred records. Mormon afterwards, by
Ammaron's direAion, obtained the plates of Nephi from
412 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
this hiding place and continued the record thereon.
The land of Jashon appears to have bordered on the
land of Antum ; as the cit\' of Jashon is said to have
been near the land where Animaron deposited the
records.
The city of Tkaxx^um was situated by the sea
shore near to, and apparently north of, the cit}- Deso-
lation.
The land of Joshua was on the borders west by the
sea shore, but Avhether in the northern or southern
continent is not clear.
The land of Da\'ID appears to have been located
between Angola and Joshua.
One of the most noted places in ancient American
history was the land in which was situated the hill
known to the Jaredites as Ramah and to the Nephites as
Cumorah. In its vicinity two great races were exter-
minated; for it was there that the last battles were
fought in the history of both peoples. There also the
sacred records of the Nephites found their final resting
place. When iniquity began to increase in their midst
Ammaron hid the holy things in the hill Shim (A. C.
321). About fifty-five years after (say in A. C. 376)
Mormon, seeing that his people were fast melting away
before the Lamanites, and fearing that the latter would
get possession of the records and destroy them,
removed all that had been placed in his care by Amma-
ron, and afterwards hid up in the hill Cumorah all
that had been entrusted to him by the hands of the
Lord, save the few plates which he gave to his son
Moroni. Moroni afterwards concealed the treasures
committed to his keeping in the same hill, where they
remained until they were, by heaven's permission,
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 413
exhumed and translated by the Prophet Joseph Smith
for our edification. We presume all our readers are
acquainted with the faA that this hill is situated about
three or four miles from Palmyra, in the state of New
York.
Besides Cumorah, several other hills come promi-
nently to the foreground in Nephite history. There
were the hills Riplah and Amnihu, near the river
Sidon, in the neighborhood of which desperate battles
were fought in the days of Alma, resulting, in both
instances, in vi(5lory to the hosts of the Nephites.
Again there was the hill Manti. It also was near the
Sidon; on its top Nehor was executed for the murder
of the aged Gideon. Then there was Mount Antipas
on whose summit Lehonti and the recalcitrant Laman-
ites gathered when the}^ refused to give heed to their
king's war proclamation. It was situated somewhere
within the borders of the Lamanites, near Onidah, the
place of arms. There was also a hill Onidah in the
land of Antionum, upon which Alma preached to the
Zoramite apostates.
When perusing the Book of Mormon we have
sometimes inclined to the opinion that before the time
of the crucifixion of Christ the Andes and other ranges
of mountains existed in a much more modified form
than at present. W^e have been led to this conclusion
from the fa6l that no high mountains or stretches of
rugged mountain country such as at present exist in
Chili, Peru, Ecuador and the United States of Colum-
bia, are suggested by the narrative. Individual hills
such as we have drawn attention to, are occasionally
mentioned, showing that the country was of diversified
altitude; but we have little or nothing to lead our minds
414 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
to the contemplation of the stnpendous peaks and ever-
lasting hills that characterize this region now-a-days.
It is also somewhat singular that no reference is made
to an}' rivers in the regions where the Orinoco and
Amazon now course in their vast volume to the Atlan-
tic. Our only answer is that the Book of Mormon is
primarily a religious record, that the geographical and
topographical references are only incidental, and con-
sequently no special importance can be placed on what
is )wt mentioned. Perhaps, also, these rivers, as sug-
gested in the case of the Sidon, ran in different chan-
nels, and possibly with a less volume of water then
than now.
One of the most important places in Xephite his-
tory, for four or five hundred 3'ears, was the river Sidon.
It was their great highway, more to them than the
Mississippi is to this country or the Thames is to Eng-
land. Along its banks were situated their capital and
other prominent cities. Its valleys were the most
densely populated portions of the land. It was also
the grand trunk road to the land of Nephi, and adown
its banks poured the hosts of the dark skinned invaders
when they forced their way into the land of Zarahemla.
To tell all that took place on its borders would be to
rewrite the history of the Judges, and to include much
of the annals of the kings and the story of the Mes-
sianic dispensation.
As stated in other places in this book it is under-
stood that the Sidon of the Nephites is the Magdalena
of to-day; but it is open to question if its course was not
considerably changed during the convulsions that
attended the death of the Savior. We incline to the
opinion that in the ages before those terrible upheavals
STORY OI' THE BOOK OF MORMON.
415
of the lands the Sidon was a far nobler, more placid
river than the Magdalena is now. Nor do we think it
emptied into the ocean at the same spot as at present.
The coast line, we believe, has much changed and with
that change the point of outflow of this river has been
moved.
While journeying on their way through Arabia,
Lehi and his party gave such names to the localities
they passed or at which they rested as they pleased.
The Red Sea is the only place we can distinguish by
the name given to it. At their first temporary abiding
place on its borders, Lehi, in honor of his elder sons,
called the valley where they camped the valley of
Lemuel, and the river that coursed through it the river
Laman. As they proceeded on their journey we read
of Shazer, Nahom, and Bountiful. The last named
must not be confounded with the Bountiful in the
northern part of South America where the Savior, more
than six hundred years afterward, appeared and taught
the Nephites. It was a portion of Arabia Felix, or
Arabia the happy, so called in contradistinc^tion of
Arabia the stony and Arabia the desert, on account of
its abundant productiveness and great fertility. It was
in this blessed region, on the shore of the Arabian sea,
that Nephi built the ship that carried the colony to the
promised land. To the sea itself they gave the name
of Irreantum, meaning many waters.
The course taken b}' Lehi and his people has been
revealed with some detail. We have been told by the
Prophet Joseph Smith the course that Lehi and his
compau}' traveled from Jerusalem to the place of their
destination :
They traveled nearl}- a south-southeast direcftion
4i6
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
until the}' came to the nineteenth degree of north lati-
tude; then, nearl}' east to the sea of Arabia; then
sailed in a southeast dire(5lion, and landed on the con-
tinent of South America, in Chili, thirty degrees south
latitude.
With regard to the cource of Alulek and his
company we are left entirely in the dark; all we are
told is that the}^ landed in the northern continent.
There is an understanding among the Latter-day Saints
that this party traveled westward from Jerusalem.
Some think they went first to Egypt under the guid-
ance of the Prophet Jeremiah ; then b}- the ]\Iediter-
ranean sea either to Spain or Morocco, thence by ship
across the Atlantic. Others fancy they went direct by
ship from Palestine
Reference is made in the Book of jMormon to
man}' lands, places and cities on the eastern continents.
Among the best known lands mentioned are Assyria,
Babylon, Egypt, Ophir, Cush, Elam, Syria, Bashan,
Galilee, Samaria, Palestina, Edom and Moab. Among
cities: Jerusalem, Nazareth, Damascus, Sodom and
Gomorrah. Also Mounts Sinai, Horeb and Lebanon;
the Red or Egyptian sea; and of peoples, the Medes,
Chaldees, Midianites and Arabians.
K"'
CHAPTER LXXIII.
RELIGION OF THE NEPHITEvS — IT IS STATED BY NEPHI —
THE PRIESTHOOD AND ORDINANCES THEREOF — BAP-
TISM—CONFIRMATION— ORDINATION— THE SACRAMENT
— SPIRITUAL GIFTS.
n^HE RELIGION of the Nephites was the gospel of
our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. It embraced,
before his advent, those offerings and sacrifices t3'pical
of his life and death, the observance of which was
enjoined upon the house of Israel by the law of Moses.
As soon as he was offered upon the cross at Calvary
these sacrifices ceased, as the law was fulfilled and its
intent and purpose was accomplished.
Nephi epitomizes the religious faith of his people
in the following graphic and comprehensive language:
For we labor diligently to write, to persuade our
children, and also our brethren, to believe in Christ,
and to be reconciled to God; for we know that it is by
grace that we are saved, after all we can do.
And notwithstanding we believe in Christ, we keep
the law of Moses, and look forward with steadfastness
unto Christ, until the law shall be fulfilled;
For, for this end was the law given ; wherefore the
law hath become dead unto us, and we are made alive
in Christ, because of our faith; yet we keep the law
because of the commandments:
And we talk of Christ, we rejoice in Christ, we
preach of Christ, we prophesy of Christ, and we write
according to our prophecies, that our children may
know to what source they may look for a remission of
their sins.
4l8 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Wherefore, we speak concerning the law, that our
children may know the deadness of the law ; and they,
by knowing the deadness of the law, may look forward
unto that life which is in Christ, and know for what
end the law was given. And after the law was fulfilled
in Christ, that they need not harden their hearts against
him, when the law ought to be done away.
Here are a hundred sermons in a few sentences,
and ever}' sentence is pregnant with the force and glory
of God's eternal truth. Again, how concisely the plan
of salvation is explained in the following passages:
O how great the holiness of our God! For he
knoweth all things, and there is not any thing, save he
knows it.
And he cometh into the world that he may save all
men, if the}' will hearken unto his voice; for behold,
he suffereth the pains of all men; yea, the pains of
every living creature, both men, women, and children,
who belong to the family of Adam.
And he suffereth this, that the resurrection might
pass upon all men, that all might stand before him at
the great and judgment da}-.
And he commandeth all men that they must repent,
and be baptized in his name, having perfe6l faith in the
Holy One of Israel, or they cannot be saved in the
kingdom of God.
And if they will not repent and believe in his
name, and be baptized in his name, and endure to the
end, they must be damned ; for the Lord God, the Holy
One of Israel, has spoken it.
The priesthood of the Nephites was the same as
ours. We read of High Priests, Elders, Priests and
Teachers, in their church, but Evangelists, Bishops and
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 419
Deacons are not mentioned. They also had numerous
Prophets minister to them the pleasing or awful word
of God, as their condition warranted or their lives
deserved. But the spirit of prophecy is not confined to
any particular grade of the priesthood, those holding
none of its powers being frequently endowed with this
most precious gift.
The Twelve special witnesses whom Jesus chose
on this continent, of whom Nephi was the first, are
never called Apostles in the Book of Mormon, but
always disciples; the word apostles is onl\' used in that
book when applied to the Twelve who ministered wdth
the Savior in the land of Jerusalem.
The Nephite church when fully organized in the
ages before the visit of the Redeemer, was always pre-
sided over b}^ a High Priest. He held to them the
keys of the Holy Priesthood. Whether these keys
remained with the Nephites at all times is doubtful.
But many of their presidents were undoubtedly thus
empowered. The Lord made covenant with Nephi, the
son of Helaman, with his own voice as follows:
Blessed art thou, Nephi, for those things which
thou hast done; for I have beheld how thou hast wdth
unwearyingness declared the word which I have given
unto thee, unto this people. And thou hast not feared
them, and hast not sought thine own life, but have
sought my will, and to keep my commandments.
And now because thou hast done this with such
unwearyingness, behold, I will bless thee forever; and
I will make thee mighty in word and in deed, in faith
and in works; yea, even that all things shall be done
unto thee according to thy word, for thou shalt not ask
that which is contrary to my will.
420 STORY OF THP: BOOK OF MORMON.
Behold, thou art Nephi, and I am God. Behold, I
declare it unto thee in the presence of mine angels,
that ye shall have power over this people, and shall
smite the earth with famine, and with pestilence, and
destruction, according to the wickedness of this peo-
ple.
Behold, I give unto you power, that whatsoever ye
shall seal on earth, shall be sealed in heaven; and
whatsoever ye shall loose on earth, shall be loosed
in heaven ; and thus shall ye have power among this
people.
And thus, if ye shall sa\' unto this temple, it
shall be rent in twain, it shall be done.
And if ye shall say unto this mountain, be thou
cast down and become smooth, it shall be done.
And behold, if ye shall say, that God shall smite
this people, it shall come to pass.
And now behold, I command you that ye shall go
and declare unto this people. That thus saith the Lord
God, who is the Almighty, except ye repent ye shall be
smitten even unto destrudlion.
What greater powers than these has God ever
given to man?
The churches in the various lands or distridls
appear to have each been presided over locally b}' a
High Priest, as the different stakes of Zion are in these
days. In this and other respedls a close resemblance
can be perceived between the organization and govern-
ment of the ancient Nephite church and the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. As an example of
these local High Priests we refer to the case of Amnion,
the sou of king Mosiah, who held this office among the
Christian Lamanites in the land of Jershon at the time
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 42 1
that Alma was the presiding High Priest over the
whole church.
The duties, responsibilities and powers of the vari-
ous orders of the priesthood were evidentl}' identical
with those possessed by the same officers in the church
of God in these latter days. Were we arguing from a
do6trinal standpoint we should claim that this must
necessarily be so because of the unity of the church of
the Lamb in all ages ; but we are now simply affirming
that which appears from the statements, historical and
otherwise, that are to be found in the Book of Mormon.
The fa(51: of this identity of duties and powers is appar-
ent in the instructions which are recorded as being
given regarding the ordinance of baptism, the bestowal
of the Holy Ghost, the administration of the Sacrament
of the Lord's supper, the ordination of priests and
teachers, etc.
Not only was the priesthood identical but the ordi-
nances of the church were the same. The same words
were spoken in the baptism of converts as are used
now. The same mode of baptism was observed. The
same persons — the penitent believers — were baptized.
The baptism of little children was forbidden in the
most energetic language.''' When Jesus instructed his
disciples on the subject of baptism he said: On this
* And their little children need no repentance, neither baptism.
Behold, baptism is unto repentance to the fulfdlinj^ the commandments unto
the remission of sins.
Little children cannot repent; wherefore it is awful wickedness to
deny the pure mercies of God unto them, for they are all alive in him
because of his merc\-.
And he that saith, That little children need baptism, denieth the
mercies of Christ, and setteth at naught the atonement of him and the
power of his redemption. — Mormon.
42 2 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
wise shall ye baptize; and there shall be no disputa-
tious among 3'ou.
Verily I say unto 3'ou, that whoso repenteth of his
sins through your words, and desireth to be baptized in
my name, on this wise shall ye baptize them: behold,
3^e shall go down and stand in the water, and in my
name shall ye baptize them.
And now behold, these are the words which ye
shall say, calling them b}' name, saying.
Having authority given me of Jesus Christ, I bap-
tize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son,
and of the Hol}^ Ghost. Amen.
And then shall 3'e immerse them in the water, and
come forth again out of the water.
The words spoken by the Elder or Priest who
blessed the bread or the wine in the administration of
the sacrament, were word for word, identical with those
that we use; and the officers who officiated in the bless-
ing of the emblems, Elders and Priests, were the same.
In ordinations to the priesthood a similar form was
employed to that used in this dispensation, and men
were ordained to the same calling. It is written :
The manner which the disciples, who were called
the Elders of the church, ordained Priests and Teach-
ers.
After they had prayed unto the Father in the
name of Christ, the}' laid their hands upon them, and
said.
In the name of Jesus Christ I ordain ^-ou to be a
Prie.st: (or, if he be a Teacher,) I ordain you to be a
Teacher, to preach repentance and remission of sins
through Jesus Christ, by the endurance of faith on his
name to the end. Amen.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 423
It must be remembered that their various ordi-
nances, so far as we have the record, were all performed
in the name of Jesus Christ, except that of baptism,
which was done in the name of the Father, Son and
Holy Ghost.
With regard to the manner of condu6ling their
meetings we are told, And their meetings were con-
dueled by the church, after the manner of the workings
of the Spirit, and by the power of the Holy Ghost ; for
as the power of the Holy Ghost led them whether to
preach, or exhort, or to pray, or to supplicate, or to
sing, even so it was done.
The same parallel between the two churches can
also be found when we consider the subje(5l of spiritual
gifts. The Savior, when giving his charge to the
Twelve Nephite disciples, said: Go ye into all the world,
and preach the gospel to every creature,
And he that believeth and is baptized, shall be
saved, but he that believeth not, shall be damned.
And these signs shall follow them that believe ; in
ni}^ name shall they cast out devils; the}" shall speak
with new tongues; they shall take up serpents; and
if they drink any deadly thing, it shall not hurt them ;
they shall lay hands on the sick and they shall
recover.
And whosoever shall believe in my name, doubt-
ing nothing, unto him will I confirm all ni}- words,
even unto the ends of the earth.
Moroni, treating on this same subjecft, states:
For behold, to one is given b}' the Spirit of God,
that he may teach the word of wisdom ;
And to another, that he may teach the word of
knowledge by the same Spirit;
424 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
And to another, exceeding great faith; and to
another, the gifts of healing by the same Spirit.
x\nd again, to another, that he may work mighty
miracles ;
And again, to another, that he may prophesy con-
cerning all things ;
And again, to another, the beholding of angels
and ministering spirits ;
And again, to another, all kinds of tongues;
And again, to another, the interpretation of lan-
guages and of divers kinds of tongues.
And all these gifts come by the Spirit of Christ ;
and they come unto every man severally, according as
he will.
And I would exhort you, my beloved brethren,
that ye remember that every good gift cometh of
Christ.
From these tw^o quotations all can percieve that
the gifts of the Spirit were the same in the Nephite
church as among the ancient saints in Jerusalem and
the people of God in these days.
■ 'Mi-r '^:; '^^ ^'' :'T^"'f ■
"- ■xxrKinrxTinTiTT uw. .ttn _ «!» -V iiiiTiXTiixtirmn ■
CHAPTER LXXIV.
MIRACLES AMONG THE NEPHITES — THE MIRACLEvS OF CHRIST
—JOHN AND THE THREE NEPHITES— TRANSLATIONS.
^HE SUBJECT of spiritual gifts leads ns to the
kindred one of miracles. The Book of Mormon
teaches in very strong language that God is a God of
miracles. Were it not so he would cease to be an
unchangeable Being. He would be a partial God, bless-
ing one people more than another.
Such is the teaching of the Book of Mormon on
this point; and we find in the histor}^ of the Nephite
people many remarkable manifestations of the marvel-
ous power of God, either shown through the instru-
mentality of his acknowledged servants, or by the
dire6l interposition of divine power.
Some of the miracles recorded in the annals of the
Nephites bear a strong resemblance to others narrated
in the Bible. There is nothing extraordinary in this :
it is altogether reasonable to believe that in the healing
of the sick, for instance, there ^vould be incidents in
common in many cases. Nor are the miracles of the
Book of Mormon any more difficult of belief than those
of the Bible. In fa(5l, we are of the opinion that had
the people of this dispensation been taught as persist-
ently to believe the Book of Mormon as the}'- have the
Bible, the miracles of the first-named book would
require less faith or explanation than some found in
the latter.
The miracles of the Book of Mormon consist
largely in the healing of the sick, the deliverance of
God's servants, and the punishment of the wicked.
426 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Some of them are given in great detail, others are
referred to in the most meagre language. Among
those of which we have spoken at length in earlier
portions of this work are the judgments that came
upon the impious anti-Christs Sherem'^' and Korihorit
the deliverance of Alma and Aniulek from the prison
in Ammonihah;t the restoration of the lawyer Zeezrom
to health;^ the deliverance of Nephi and Lehi; and the
baptism with fire and the Holy Ghost of the Lamanitcs
in the prison in the city of Ivehi-Nephi;|| the famine
caused and terminated by Nephi's prayer ;^| and the
wonders that attended the ministrations of Amnion and
his brethren during their mission among the Laman-
ites.'-"-' Of these we shall make no further mention.
Nor shall we again review the miraculous signs and
wonders that attended the earthly birth'j^* and deathJJ of
the Messiah. Neither do we think it necessary to take
more than a passing glance at the miracles performed
by Christ during his visits to the Nephites and the
other wonders that glorified those days. But we will
now refer, at slightly greater length, to a few miracu-
lous circumstances that do not come so prominently
into view in the historical narrative.
In the Book of Alma reference is made to an
occurrence which reminds us strongly of Daniel at the
court of king Belshazzar. What is said is very brief
and leaves the reader in entire darkness as to when
and where the event took place. But from the context we
* vSee Cha])tLT vi. ^ Sec- Chai)tt'r xxxviii.
t Cliapler xxvi. ** Chapter xix.
t Chapter xxiv. ft Cha])ter xl.
^ Cha])ter XXV. JJ Cha])tiT xli.
II Chapter xxxvii.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 427
are led to the conclusion that it took place in the land of
Nephi, and certainly not later than the days of the first
IMosiah. The Prophet Aniulek, in the opening of his
address to his fellow citizens of Ammonihah, to prove
his standing in their midst, refers to his ancestry.
Among his forefathers was one Aminadi, a Nephite,
who interpreted certain writing, written b};" the finger
of God upon the walls of a temple. Nothing more is
told us of this exceedingly interesting and important
event, and we are left to conjecture as to what circum-
stances led to this divine interposition, and whether
the words so miraculously written were of instruction,
comfort or reproof {A/nia x. 2).
The raising of Timothy' to life by his brother
Nephi after he had been stoned to death, is another
miraculous circumstance which is only casualh^ men-
tioned. Both these brothers were afterwards chosen
by Jesus among the Twelve whom he selected as his
disciples. The raising of the dead in the name of
Christ manifested how great must have been the power
with heaven possessed by this Nephi, as it was doubt-
less by others of his family — notabl}' his father —
before the time of the ministration of the Savior to this
people.
The miracles that attended the ministry of the
Savior on this land were, many of them, of the same
character as the wondrous works he performed among
the Jews; onh' frequently more marvelous and more
glorious, on account of the greater faith of the
Nephites. He healed the sick, cast out devils, raised
the dead in Bountiful as he did in Judea and Galilee.
But there were other manifestations that were some-
what different; that, so far as the record goes,
428 STORY or THE ROOK OF MORMON.
were entirely dissimilar. In the land of Jenisalem
Jesus miraculously fed five thousand b}- increasing the
store of loaves and fishes that had been provided; in
Bountiful he administered the emblems of his body
and blood when neither the disciples nor the multitude
had brought either bread or wine. Angels ministered
to men during his labors among the Jews; they did so
more abundantl3' during his visits to the Nephites.
Again, though we are told in the Bible of the holy
Redeemer blessing little children, we nowhere read
therein of the glorious manifestations, the outpour-
ing of the Spirit, the ministry of the angels, the
baptism of fire that took place when the risen Re-
deemer condescended to bless the little ones of the
Nephites.
Great were the wonders that attended the labors
of the Three Nephite disciples who were to tarr}' on
earth unto the end. Death had no power over them;
they passed through the most terrible ordeals unhurt.
Swords would not slay them ; fire would not burn them ;
savage beasts would not harm them ; prisons could not
hold them ; chains could not bind them ; the grave could
not entomb them; the earth would not conceal them.
No matter how much they were abused or maltreated
they triumphed over all their persecutors.
The age in which the Three ministered was a pecu-
liar one. Under ordiuar}- circumstances the super-
luinian powers shewn by them would have brought the
wicked to repentance. But the happy age of peace
and innocence that had followed the Savior's ministry
was fast passing away; the people were hardening their
hearts; they were relapsing into iniquity with their
eyes open; they were sinning knowingly and under-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 429
standingly. Angels from heaven would not have con-
verted them; they had given themselves up to Satan,
and every manifestation of the power of God in behalf
of his servants only made them more angry, and more
determined upon the destruction of those who sounded
in their ears the unwelcome message of divine wrath.
The hurricane might demolish the dungeon ; the earth-
quake overthrow the walls of the prison; the earth
refuse to close when the disciples were cast into it;
these protests of nature simply caused their hardened
hearts to conjure up fresh methods of torture and
devise new means to destroy those whom they so
intensely, and yet so unwarrantably, hated. But they
ever failed; the three Nephites still live.
Of what change passed upon John, the Apostle, or
how it was brought about that he should not taste of
death, we are not told; but so far as the three Nephites
are concerned we are informed they were caught up
into heaven, and there experienced a change that is not
explained ; and that they there saw and heard unspeak-
able things. Mormon, writing about them, says:
And now behold, as I spake concerning ' those
whom the Lord had chosen, yea, even three who were
caught up into the heavens, that I knew not whether
they were cleansed from mortality to immortality.
But behold, since I wrote, I have inquired of the
Lord, and he hath made it manifest unto me, that there
must needs be a change wrought upon their bodies, or
else it needs be that they must taste of death;
Therefore that they might not taste of death, there
was a change wrought upon their bodies, that they
might not suffer pain nor sorrow, save it were for the
sins of the world.
430 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Now this change was not equal to that which
should take place at the last day; but there was a
change wrought upon them, insomuch that Satan could
have no power over them, that he could not tempt them,
and they were san(5lified in the flesh, that they were
holy, and that the powers of the earth could not hold
them ;
And in this state the}^ were to remain until the
judgment day of Christ; and at that da}- the}- were to
receive a greater change, and to be received into the
kingdom of the Father to go no more out, but to dwell
with God eternally in the heavens.
In the Bible we read of two men who lived before
the Savior's advent — Aloses and Elijah — who did not
taste of death ; we also read in the Book of Mormon of
two — Alma and Neplii — who were translated.
CHAPTER LXXV.
THP: PROl'HECIKS REGARDING THE SAVIOR — THEIR COM-
ri.ETENESS. AND DETAIL — NAMES AND TITLES GIVEN
TO CHRIST.
/^^NE OF the most noteworthy things conne(5led with
the ancient Nephite church was the great plain-
ness and detail with which the incidents of the birth,
life and death of the Lord Jesus Christ were under-
stood and prophesied of b}^ the servants of God who
'■11 ?
'fTTT7TV"RR"T
^ .■ c, ;
w i £■
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 43 1
dwelt on the earth before he tabernacled in mortality.
Among other things it was declared of him that:
God himself should come down from heaven
among the children of men and should redeem his
people.
He should take upon him flesh and blood.
He should be born in the land of Jerusalem, the
name given by the Nephites to the land of their fore-
fathers, whence they came.
His mother's name should be Mary.
She should be a virgin of the cit}- of Nazareth ;
very fair and beautiful, a precious and chosen vessel.
She should be overshadowed and conceive by the
power of the H0I3' Ghost.
He should be called Jesus Christ, the Son of God.
At his birth a new star should appear in the
heavens.
He should be baptized by John at Betharaba, be-
yond Jordan.
John should testify that he had baptized the Lamb
of God, who should take away the sins of the world.
After his baptism the Holy Ghost should come
down upon him out of heaven, and abide upon him in
the form of a dove.
He should call twelve men as his special witnesses,
to minister in his name.
He should go forth among the people, minister-
ing in power and great glory, casting out devils, heal-
ing the sick, raising the dead, and performing many
might}' miracles.
He should take upon him the infirmities of his
people.
He should suffer temptation, pain of body, hunger,
434 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
thirst and fatigue; blood should come from every pore
of his body by reason of his anguish because of the
abominations of his people.
He should be cast out and rejedled by the Jews;
be taken and scourged, and be judged of the world.
He should be lifted upon the cross and slain for
the sins of the world.
He should be buried in a sepulchre, where he
should remain three days.
After he was slain he should rise from the dead
and should make himself manifest by the Holy Ghost
unto the Gentiles.
He should lay down his life according to the flesh
and take it up again by the power of the Spirit, that
he might bring to pass the resurre(5lion of the dead,
being the first that should rise.
At his resurre6lion many graves should be opened
and should yield up their dead ; and many of the saints,
who had beforetime passed away, should appear unto
the living.
He should redeem all mankind who would believe
on his name.
In the above list we have not inserted those proph-
ecies with regard to the Savior that related to this
continent and were fulfilled hereon. These are referred
to in their place in the historical portions of this work.
Nor have we mentioned the sayings of Isaiah and
other Jewish prophets, which are inserted in the Book
of Mormon, .but which also appear in the Bible.
Among the names and titles given to Christ in
the Bo(.k of IVIormon are: Savior, Mediator, Messiah,
Redeemer, Shepherd, Great and True Shepherd, Lamb,
Lamb of God, Son of Righteousness, Son of the Eter-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 435
nal Father, Onl}^ Begotten of the Father, Creator, The
Eternal Father of Heaven and Earth, King, King of
Heaven, Heavenly King, King of all the Earth, God
of Israel, God of the whole Earth, Most High God,
Ivord Omnipotent, Lord God Omnipotent, Alighty God,
Holy One, Holy One of Israel, Mighty One of Jacob,
Wonderful Counsellor, Prince of Peace, and several
others.
CHAPTER LXXVI.
NEPHITE APOSTATES— THE ORDER OF NEHOR— AMALEKITES
— AMALICKIAHITES — AMULONITES — ABIXADI'S PROPH-
ECY—THE GADIANTONS.
IVTO PEOPLE seem to have been more given to apos-
tasy from the truths of the gospel than were the
Nephites in certain periods of their history. In the
historical portions of this work we have drawn atten-
tions to the defections of Nehor, Amlici, Korihor,
Zoram and others; therefore we need not go over that
ground again. Yet there is one thing that stands out
ver}' prominently in the annals of all these backslid-
ings. It is that the heresies of Nehor, the murderer of
Gideon, were more or less adopted by succeeding false
teachers, and that those who embraced his teachings
and became associated therewith were always among
the most bitter and vehement, the most bloodthirsty
and hardened of all the enemies of the church of God.
They are often spoken of as being after the order of
436 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
Nelior; and we imagine to belong to that order required
the Nephite to conform to certain nnhol}' covenants and
make certain vicious and immoral oaths. Many, if not
all, of the Amlicites, Amalekites, Amulonites, Amnion-
ihahites and Zoramites belonged to this iniquitous
order.
Of the apostate secfts, of whom we have previously
said but little, the most prominent were the Amulonites
and Amalekites.
AmalkkitKvS: a seS: of Nephite apostates whose
origin is not given. jNIan}- of them were after the order
of Nehor, \ er}- early in the days of the republic
the}- had affiliated with the Lamanites and with them
built a large city, not far from the waters of Mormon,
which they called Jerusalem, The}' were exceedingly
crafty and hardhearted; and in all the ministrations of
the sons of ]\Iosiah among them only one was con-
verted. They led in the massacres of the Christian
Lamanites or people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi; and in later
3'ears the Lamanite generals were in the habit of plac-
ing them in high command in their armies because of
their greater force of chara(5ler than the real descend-
ants of Laman, their intense hatred to their former
brethren, and their more wicked and murderous disposi-
tion. In the sacred record they are generall}- associated
with the Zoramites and Amulonites.
Amaijckiahites: The followers of Amalickiah
in his efforts to destroy the church, to uproot the
Nephite commonwealth and establish a monarchy in its
stead. Their leader, finding that they were not as
numerous as those who wished to maintain the repub-
lic, and that many of them doubted the justness of
their cause, led those who would follow him towards
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
437
the land of Neplii, with the intention of joining the
Lamanites. Moroni, the general of the Nephites, by
rapid marches, reached the wilderness, where he inter-
cepted them in their flight, when Amalickiah and a few
others escaped to the L/amanites, while the great major-
ity were taken prisoners and carried back to Zarahemla.
The Amalickiahites were then given the opportunity to
make covenant to sustain the cause of libert}^ or be
put to death. There were but ver}^ few who denied the
covenant of freedom.
Amulonites: The descendants of Amnion and
his associates, the corrupt priests of king Noah. The}'
were Nephites on their fathers' side and Lamanites on
their mothers', but by association and education were of
the latter race. IMany of them however were displeased
wdth the condu6l of their fathers, and took upon them
the name of Nephites, and were considered among that
people ever after. Of those who remained Amulon-
ites, many became followers of Nehor, and were scat-
tered in the lands of Amnion, Helam and Jerusalem,
all of which appear to have been limited distridls in
the same region of country. In latter j^ears the sons
of Mosiah and their fellow-missionaries preached to
them, but not one repented and received the gospel
message; to the contrary, the}^ became leaders in the
persecutions carried on against the suffering people of
Anti-Nephi-Lehi, and were those who, with the Amal-
ekites, slew the greater number of that unoffend-
ing people who suffered martr3'dom. In the suc-
ceeding war with the Nephites (B. C. Si), when
Ammonihah was destroyed, nearl}' all the Amulonites
were killed in the battle in which Zoram, the Nephite
general, defeated the Lamanites. The remainder of
438 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
the Aiiuilonites fled into the east wilderness, where they
usurped power over the people of Laman, and in their
bitter hatred to the truth caused many of the latter to
be burned to death because of their belief in the gos-
pel. These outrages aroused the Lamanites and they
in turn began to hunt the Amulonites and to put them
to death. This was in fulfilment of the words of
Abinadi, who, as he suffered martrydom by fire at the
hands of Amnion and his associates, told them, What
ye shall do unto me, shall be a type of things to come,
by which he meant that many should suffer death by
fire as he had suffered.
And he said unto the priests of Noah, that their
seed should cause many to be put to death, in the like
manner as he was, and that the}^ should be scattered
abroad and slain, even as a sheep having no shepherd
is driven and slain by wild beasts; and now behold,
these words were verified, for they were driven by the
Lamanites, and they were hunted, and the}- were
smitten.
GadiaxT(^ns: Of all the factions that separated
themselves from the Nephites none worked so much
injury to that people as did the bands of Gadianton
robbers. The very fa6l of their organization shews
the deplorable condition of Nephite society, while their
continuance and growth proclaims yet more loudly ar.d
emphatically how debased the communit}' had become.
The Gadiantons were at first (B. C. 52) apparently
a band of robbers and murderers bound together b}-
the most horrible oaths of secrecy and satanic coven-
ants to aid and shield each other in whatever sins and
iniquities they might commit. These covenants did
not originate with Gadianton or any of this crew. The}-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 439
were as old as the days of Cain, into whose ear the
Son of Perdition whispered these bloodthirsty and
infernal suggestions. These same secret societies
flourished among the Antediluvians; and had place
with the Jaredites and other peoples of antiquity. In
the end the}' invaribly wrought ruin and destru6lion
wherever they found a foothold. To their abominations
can be traced the fall and extinction of both the
Jaredite and Nephite races.
As time went on, the Gadiantons among the
Nephites aspired to rule the republic When, by their
combinations, the}' could not carr}^ their points at the
eledlions, the}' would murder, or attempt to murder, any
judge or other officer who was distasteful to them, and
place a more acceptable man in his seat. So fell more
than one of the Nephite chief judges. But they fre-
quently had no need to do this, for as the people
increased in inic^uity they could easily carry the major-
ity or the voice of the people with them. In this way
several of their number were ele6led to the chief judge-
ship.
After the times of the conversion of the Laman-
ites by Lehi and Nephi (B. C. 30) the Gadianton rob-
bers took their place in the history of ancient America.
The divisions then became the righteous Nephites and
Lamanites on one side, and the Gadiantons on the other.
And, strange as it may appear, these robber bands
received greater encouragement and attained to greater
power among the Nephites than among the Lamanites ;
but the fa6l is, that at that era the Lamanites were a
growing race, while the Nephites were a decaying one.
Many wars ensued between these two divisions,
ending sometimes in the temporary suppression of the
440 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
robbers, as in the year B. C. 17. But they soon reap-
peared, as they did five years after the instance here
mentioned (B. C. 12). The most momentous of all
these wars was the one that was waged during the
earthly life of our Savior. It virtually commenced in
the second year of his mortal existence and continued
with slight intermissions until the twenty-first. So
powerful and arrogant had the robbers grown in that
age that Giddianhi their leader, in A. C. 16, wrote an
epistle to Lachoneus, the chief judge, calling upon the
Nephites to submit themselves to the robbers and their
ways ; to accept their oaths and covenants ; and in all
things become like unto them. The presumption of
the robber chief does not appear to have been without
foundation, for so desperate had the condition of the
people become that Lachoneus devised and carried out
the stupendous movement of gathering them all, both
Nephites and Lamanites, to one land, where the}' would
be safe by consolidation, and be able to wear out the rob-
bers by masterly inactivity. In this he succeeded, and
the robber bands were destroyed by privation, famine
and the sword.
After the days of Jesus the Gadiantons again
appeared when iniquity began to prevail ; and by the
year A. C. 300 they had spread over all the land. To
their baneful influence ma}^ be attributed many of the
atrocities and abominations that disgraced the last
wars between the Nephites and Lamanites.
At certain periods of their history the Jaredites,
Lamanites and Nephites were all idolaters. The
Lamanites, as early as the days of Enos, are repre-
sented as bowing down to idols. This statement is
repeated with regard to those of the times of Zeniff
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
441
and of Amnion. The Nephites are sometimes called
an idolatrous people, when the inference seems to be
that they worshiped their gold and silver and the vain
things of this world. On the other hand, it appears
that some of them were adlual worshipers of idols.
Such a charge is plainly made against the Zoramites
in the land of Antionum; and we are of the opinion
that they were not the only ones.
In later times, during the final series of wars
between the Nephites and lyamanites, the latter were
idolaters, and had descended so far in savager}^ as to
offer hiiman sacrifices. They were in the habit of offer-
ing up in this way the Nephite women and children
they captured in war. Special mention is made of this
faA at the taking of the cities of Desolation and Boaz.
Still more horrible was the fate of some of the
Lamanite women who fell into the hands of the Ne-
phites; and it would seem that before the war was
finished both peoples had sunk to the degradation of
eating human flesh. Well might the prophet say :
There never had been so great wickedness among all
the children of Lehi, nor even among all the house of
Israel, according to the words of the Lord, as were
among this people.
CHAPTER LXXVII.
CHURCH DISCIPLINE AMONG THE NEPHITES — TREATMENT
OF THE UNREPENTANT — THE WORD OF THE LORD RE-
GARDING TRANSGRESSORS— THE TESTIMONY OF MORONI.
A S IN other things, the methods adopted in the
^^ Nephite Church in the treatment of those who
turned from righteousness were identical with those
pursued in such cases in the Church of God in other
lands and in other ages. The erring ones were first
labored with by the officers of the church in the spirit
of love and reconciliation; they were visited by the
Priests and Teachers ; and if they repented they were
continued in the fellowship of the Saints; but if they
were obdurate and impenitent they were severed from
:^he communion of the church. This course was pur-
sued throughout their history from the days of Alma,
the elder, to those of Aloroni.
In the land of Zarahemla, when Mosiah was king
and Alma was high priest, there was much hard-heart-
edness and evil doing in the midst of the Nephites. It
may be remembered it was at this time that the sons of
Mosiah, and the younger Alma, were leaders among
those who were opposing the church and persecuting
its members. The iniquity that existed with those who
had made covenant with God, or were their children,
caused Alma much pain and anxiety. The Priests
and Teachers labored frequently in vain, and the
presiding priesthood were in doubt with regard to the
best course to pursue with the wicked. They had no
precedents to guide them, for such a state of things
had never before existed among the Nephites.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 443
Alma applied to the king, but he refused to judge
the offenders. He would not meddle in matters of
church discipline, that he left to Alma; and to him he
returned those who had transgressed the law of the
Lord. In this dilemma Alma appealed with all his
heart to the Lord, and inquired what he should do in
the matter: for he was most desirous to do right in the
sight of heaven. Then the voice of the Lord came to
him saying:
Because thou hast inquired of me, concerning the
transgressor, thou art blessed.
Thou art my servant; and I covenant with thee,
that thou shalt have eternal life; and thou shalt serve
me, and go forth in my name, and shalt gather together
my sheep.
And he that will hear my voice shall be my sheep;
and him ye shall receive into the church, and him will
I also receive.
For behold, this is my church; whosoever is bap-
tized, shall be baptized unto repentance. And whoso-
ever ye receive shall believe in my name ; and him will
I freely forgive.
For it is I that taketh upon me the sins of the
world; for it is I that hath created them ; and it io I that
granteth unto him that believeth unto the end, a place
at ni}^ right hand.
For behold, in my name are they called; and if
they know me they shall come forth, and shall have a
place eternally at my right hand.
And it shall come to pass that when the second
trump shall sound, then shall they that never knew me
come forth and shall stand before me;
And then shall thev know that I am the Lord
444 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
their God, that I am their Redeemer; but they \vould
not be redeemed.
And then will I confess unto them that I never
knew them ; and they shall depart into everlasting fire,
prepared for the devil and his angels.
Therefore I say. unto you, that he that will not
hear my voice, the same shall ye not receive into my
church, for him I will not receive at the last day;
Therefore I sa}- unto you. Go; and whosoever
transgresseth against me, him shall ye judge according
to the sins which he has committed; and if he confess
his sins before thee and me , and repenteth in the sin-
cerity of his heart, him shall ye forgive, and I will for-
give him also ;
Yea, and as often as my people repent, will I for-
give them their trespasses against me.
And ye shall also forgive one another your tres-
passes; for verily I say unto you, He that forgiveth not
his neighbor's trespasses, when he sa3"S that he repents,
the same hath brought himself under condemnation.
Now I say unto you, Go; and whosoever wall not
repent of his sins, the same shall not be numbered
among ni}- people; and this shall be observed from this
time forward.
The sacred historian continues:
And it came to pass when Alma had heard these
words, he wrote them down that he might have them,
and that he might judge the people of that church,
according to the commandments of God.
And it came to pass that Alma went and judged
those that had been taken in iniquity, according to the
word of the Lord.
And whosoever repented of their sins and did con-
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 445
fess them, them he did number among the people of the
church ;
And those that would not confess their sins and
repent of their iniquity, the same were not numbered
among the people of the church, and their names were
blotted out.
In this revelation we have the word of the Lord
to guide the Nephite Church throughout all its dispen-
sations.
The same spirit is manifested in the instrudlions
given by the Redeemer in his teachings to the
Nephites.'^' The}- are full of love, mercy and patience.
On the other hand, they shew that the Church of God
must not be defiled by countenancing iniquity or per-
mitting that which is holy to be handled by the
unworthy. Nearly four hundred years later, Moroni,
speaking on church government sa3'S :
And the}^ were stri6l to observe that there should
be no iniquity among them ; and whoso was found to
commit iniquit}^, and three witnesses of the church did
condemn them before the Elders; and if they repented
not, and confessed not, their names were blotted out,
and they were not numbered among the people of
Christ;
But as oft as they repented, and sought forgive-
ness, with real intent, they were forgiven.
From these quotations we perceive that the spirit
of the ancient church on this continent, with regard to
offenses and offenders, was uniform in all its dispensa-
tions and identical in its methods with those of the lat-
ter days.
* See Chapter xlix.
CHAPTER LXXVIII.
THE DISCOVERY OF THE JAREDITE RECORDS — CORIANTUMR
— ETHER — THE DISPERSION AT BABEL— THE JOURNEY
OF THE J AREDITES — ATLANTIS.
T ET US return to the year 123 B. C. At that time
the Nephites in the land of Nephi were suffering
sore affli(5lions at the hands of the Lamanites. In this
extremit}' Limhi, their king, sent a company of forty-
three men, with instrudlions to discover, if possible,
their brethren in the land of Zarahemla, that perad-
venture they would bring them succor and deliverance.
The expedition was unsuccessful, so far as its immedi-
diate object was concerned. The company missed the
land of Zarahemla, pushed northward into Central
America, and how far beyond we cannot tell. At last
they discovered the remains of an ancient people who
had apparently been destroyed in battle. Among other
things they found twenty-four plates of gold, covered
with engravings. This treasure, with some other relics
of the vanished race, they took back to king Limhi.
When, shortly after, this sedion of the Nephite
people escaped from their Lamanite taskmasters and
returned to Zarahemla, the twenty-four golden plates
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
447
=^v-^'.V
THE TOWER OF BABEL.
were presented to king Mosiah, the younger, and he
being a seer, translated them by the aid of the Urini
and Thummini, or, as described in the Book of I\Ior-
mon, the interpreters, or "two stones which were
fastened into the two rims of a bow."
These plates were found to contain the history' of
the world from the creation to the time of the building
448 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
of the Tower of Babel, and of the race whose remains
had been found by the people of Linihi scattered on
the land northward.
This was, however, not the first intimation that
the Nephites had of the existence of this extindl
people; for in the days of the elder Mosiah a large
engraved stone was brought to him that had been dis-
covered b}' the people of Zarahemla. It gave a very
brief account of this same race, but more particularly
referred to its last ruler, named Coriantumr; which
Coriantumr had himself been known to the Zarahemla-
ites; for he had, previous to his death, resided in their
midst for nine months. This race is known to the
readers of the Book of IVIormon as the Jaredites.
The histor}^ that we have of this remarkable peo-
ple, as given in the Book of Mormon, is Moroni's abridg-
ment of the record contained on the twenty-four plates
of gold. It eutirel}' passes over the earlier portions of
the history, and commences with the dispersion of
the human family, when God confounded their lan-
guage at the Tower of Babel. Interspersed with the
narrative are many interpolations of Moroni's, in the
shape of refle(5lions, prophecies and explanatory re-
marks. As these additions or notes by the compiler
are inserted in the body of the work, and not as foot
notes, the reader of this abridgment has to use care in
its perusal, or his ideas are apt to become confused; and
he is troubled to account for statements which become
perfectly plain wheti it is understood they were written
nearl}' four hundred years after the advent of the Holy
Savior.
The history of the Jaredites is called the Book of
Ether, because the twent^^-four plates from which it is
STORY OF THK ROOK OF MORMON. 449
taken were hidden by a Jaredite prophet named Kther,
in the place where they were afterwards discovered by
the people of king Linihi.
The ancestors of the Jaredites were engaged in
the attempt to build the Tower of Babel. It is proba-
ble they were of the family of Sheni, as they were
worshipers of the true God, and he conferred upon
them his priesthood. How far they had wandered from
the tower, if at all, when the Lord commenced the
revelation of his will to them, is not apparent from the
sacred text. They were commanded by him to go
^^dozuii into the valley which is northward," and as the
expressions up and down, when the}- occur in the Book
of ]\Iormon in connection with geographical locality,
are always used with great exadlitude, w^e may venture
two surmises : that Jared and his friends had already
\vandered into some not far distant hilly region, or that
the valley into which they were commanded to descend
sloped towards the north, the flow of its waters, if any,
being in that dire(ftion. In the daj-s of the Nephites,
the expression down is always used for north when
referring to the places in and about the valley of the
river Sidon, which empties into the Caribbean Sea.
The valley into which the Lord led the Jaredites
was called Nimrod, after that mighty hunter of the
early post-diluvian age. Here the people of Jared
tarried for a time, while they prepared for the long
journey which was before them. Their flocks and
herds they had with them ; they now went to work and
snared fowls; they carried with them hives of honey
bees (known to them by the name of Deseret); and
prepared a vessel in which they transported the fish of
the waters. Everything that could possibly be of use
450 vSTORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
to them they appear to have colle(5led. They were
going to a land that had been swept clean by the
waters of the Deluge; it had been bereft of all its
animal life; the seeds of grains and fruits no longer
germinated in its soil ; and the colon}' had to replenish
the continent with the animal and vegetable life, neces-
sary for their comfort and sustenance, as though it was
a new earth.
When in the valley of Nimrod the Lord came
down and talked with the brother of Jared. But the
brother of Jared saw him not, for the Lord remained con-
cealed in a cloud. And God dire(5led that the company
should go forth into the wilderness, into that quarter
where man had never yet been. As they journeyed the
Heavenly Presence went before them in the cloud
and instrudled them and gave dire6lions which way
they should travel. In the course of their journe}'
they had many waters — seas, rivers, and lakes, to cross,
on which occasions they built barges, as dire(5led by the
Lord. It must have been an arduous labor, requiring
much time and great patience to transport their flocks
and herds, with all the rest of their cumberous freight
across these man}' waters.
We shall not attempt to trace the wanderings of
the company on their way to the promised land. The
account given in the of Book of Ether is entirely too
meagre for that purpose.
Some suppose the}^ went as far north as the
Caspian Sea, which they crossed; then turning east-
ward slowly journeyed along the great central Asian
plateau; thence to the Pacific seaboard, most probably-
on the coast of China. These suppositions may be
corre(5l; the writer does not know enough to either
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 45 1
affirm or deny them; but one thing is certain, the
journey must have been a very long and tedious one,
encumbered as the company was, with the flocks,
etc.. which they took with them to stock the land to
which God was leading them. The region through
which they passed was one in which no man dwelt, they
could purchase no supplies, and if they did not live
entirely on wild fruit, fish and small game, it is proba-
ble that they tarried now and again, at favorable points,
long enough to plant and reap a crop. As they ad-
vanced to a great distance from the centre of population
in western Asia it is possible that they traveled bcA'ond
the limits to which the larger animals had, by that
time, scattered; and if so, the}^ were entirely without
the aid of the food obtained by the chase; on the
other hand, it is probable that the fish in the lakes and
rivers formed a valuable source of food suppl}'; yet it
must also be remembered they carried fish in a vessel
with them. According to the generally accepted chro-
nolog}', which may be right or ma^- be wrong, the build-
ing of Babel commenced a little over a hundred years
after the Deluge.
Through their prayers and faith the founders of
the Jaredite nation obtained many precious promises of
the Lord. Among these was the assurance that their
language should not be confounded, and that the Lord
himself would go before them and lead them into a
land choice above every other land. And again, than
the nation that they should found there should be none
greater upon all the face of the earth. The history of
their descendants proves how fully this last promise
was realized. The cotemporary nations on the eastern
continent — Egypt, Chaldea and Babylonia — were insig-
452 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
nificant when compared with the vast extent of terri-
tory held and filled by the Jaredites ; they were the
sole rulers of the whole western hemisphere, and
possibly the originals, whence arose the stories of the
greatness and grandeur of the fabled Atlantis; for we
have no account in the sacred records that God shut
them out from the knowledge of the rest of mankind
when he planted them in America, as he afterwards did
the Nephites; and late research has shown that the
geographical knowledge of the ancients was much
greater in the earlier ages than at the time of the
Savior and a few hundred years previous to his advent.
CHAPTER LXXIX.
MORIANCUMER — BUILDING THE BARGEvS — THE FINGER OF
THE LORD — THE APPEARING OF THE SAVIOR— THE
VOYAGE.
T ED BY the Lord personally, instructed by his own
mouth, prote(51:ed by his presence, the colon^^ of
which Jared's brother appears to have been the prophet
and leader, at last reached the borders of the great sea
which divides the continents. To the place where they
tarried they gave the name of Moriancumer. Here the}^
remained for a period of four years, at the end of which
time the Lord again visited the brother of Jared in a
cloud and chastened him and his brethren, because of
their negle(5l to call upon his name. Repentance fol-
lowed this reproof, and on their repentance their sins
were forgiven them.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 453
The brother of Jared was then commanded by
the Lord to build eight barges, after the same pattern
as those he had previously constru(5led. This com-
mand he obeyed with the assistance of the company.
The vessels were small, light in construAion and water
tight. As they were dark in the interior, by reason of
being without windows, the Lord, at the entreat}^ of the
brother of Jared, touched sixteen small white stones,
which the latter had moulten out of a high mountain
called Shelem ; and after the Lord touched them they
shone forth and gave light to the vessels in which they
were placed. When the Lord put forth His finger to
touch these stones, the veil was taken from the e3^es of
the brother of Jared and he saw the finger of the Lord ;
and it was as the finger of a man, like unto flesh and
blood. Then the brother of Jared fell down before the
Lord, for he was struck with fear. What followed is
related by Moroni as follows :
And the Lord saw that the brother of Jared had
fallen to the earth; and the Lord said unto him. Arise,
wh}^ hast thou fallen?
And he saith unto the Lord, I saw the finger of the
Lord, and I feared lest he should smite me ; for I knew
not that the Lord had flesh and blood.
And the Lord said unto him. Because of thy faith
thou hast seen that I shall take upon me flesh and
blood; and never has man come before me with such
exceeding faith as thou hast; for were it not so, ye
could not have seen my finger, Sawest thou more than
this?
And he answered, Nay, Lord, shew thyself unto me.
And the Lord said unto him, Believest thou the
words which I shall speak?
454 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
And he answered, Yea, Lord, I know that thou
speakest the truth, for thou art a God of truth, and
canst not lie.
And when he had said these words, behold, the
Lord shewed himself unto him, and said, Because thou
knowest these things, ye are redeemed from the Fall ;
therefore ye are brought back into my presence; there-
fore I shew myself unto you.
Behold, I am he who was prepared from the foun-
dation of the world to redeem my people. Behold, I am
Jesus Christ. I am the Father and the Son. In me
shall all mankind have light, and that eternalh^ even
they who shall believe on my name; and they shall
become my sons and my daughters.
And never have I shewed myself unto man whom
I have created, for never has man believed in me as
thou hast. Seest thou that y^ are created after mine
own image? Yea, even all men were created in the
beginning, after mine own image.
Behold, this bod}^, which 3'e now^ behold, is the
body of my spirit; and man have I created after the
body of my spirit; and even as I appear unto thee to
be in the spirit, will I appear unto my people in the flesh.
All things being prepared, Jared and his people,
with their animals, fishes, bees, seeds and multitudi-
nous other things, went on board; a favorable wind
wafted them from shore, and they gradually drifted to
the American coast. At the end of a voyage of three
hundred and forty-four days the colony landed on this
continent. It is generally understood that the place
where they landed was south of the Gulf of California
and north of the land Desolation, which was north of
the isthmus of Panama.
APPEARANCE OF CHRIST TO THE BKOTHHR OF JARED.
CHAPTER LXXX.
THE LAND OF PROMISE — A MONARCHY ESTABLISHED — THE
KINGS OF THE JAREDITES FROM ORIHAH TO OMER —
AKISH— THE DAUGHTER OF JARED.
T^7HEN the members of the little colony set their
feet upon the shores of America, they bowed
themselves down upon the face of the land, and did
humble themselves before the Lord ; and did shed tears
of joy before the Lord, because of the multitude of
his tender mercies over them. Then they went forth
and began to till the earth, and soon grew strong
in the land, being a righteous people, taught directly
from on high.
Before long the question of government arose, and
the people desired a king. This thing was grievous to
their divinel}- inspired leaders, for they saw that it
would lead to captivity; but perceiving the determina-
tion of the people, the}^ consented. It was difficult to
find any suitable man who would consent to occupy
the royal position; at last the youngest son of Jared,
named Orihah, consented, and he was anointed hing.
It appears altogether probable that this choice was
taken as a precedent, for among this people there seems
to have prevailed a custom entirely opposite to that
of most other nations — that of having one of the
younger, generally the very youngest son, instead of
the eldest, succeed his father on the throne. As the
Jaredites were a very long-lived race, full of vitality,
often having sons born to them to the end of their days,
the number of generations mentioned during the
458 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
period embraced in their history is muclj fewer than
the general average for the same number of centuries,
notabl}' so where the eldest son succeeds to the rank
and title of his sire.
But we cannot be certain that we have every gen-
eration specified ; for in the Book of Ether, as in many
other very ancient records, the words son and descend-
ant are used interchangeably, that is to say, all male
descendants for several generations are sometimes
called sons, while adlual sons are occasionally desig-
nated by the more ambiguous title of descendants.
According to the Book of Ether there were thirty
generations from Jared to Ether (both included), if we
have the ancestral chain without any breaks. The
period covered by these thirty generations is probably
seventeen hundred years, or thereabout. This would
give a little less than fifty-seven years for each genera-
tion, an unusually lengthened period. Between 1066,
when William the Conqueror invaded England, and
1837, the date of the ascension of Queen Vi6loria^
thirty-four monarchs ruled that realm, or an average
of between twenty-two and twenty-three years. \Miat
a great difference between the longevit}- of the Jared-
ites and of the English?
The kings of the Jaredites, in the order of their
succession, were Orihah, Kib, Corihor, Kib restored,
Shule. In the days of Shule the kingdom was divided
in twain, Noah, the son of Corihor, establishing a sep-
arate monarchy over a portion of the land. After his
death he was succeeded by his son Cohor, who was
slain in battle by Shule, when the whole kingdom
again returned to its allegiance to the last named.
Shule was succeeded b}' his son Omer, who was
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 459
deposed and imprisoned by his son Jared, bnt two other
sons afterwards defeated Jared and restored the king-
dom to their father. In this civil Avar between Omer
and his son Jared, when the latter had been defeated
by his brothers, they only spared his life on condition
that he recognize the right of his father to the throne.
Jared became very sorrowful at his defeat, as he
had set his heart upon being king. While in this
state of mind, his daughter, who was exceedingl}' fair,
came to him, and, learning the cause of his discontent,
made a most extraordinary and villainous proposition
to him, which shewed she was as conscienceless as her
father. It was that he should invite a friend, named
Akish, to visit him; when he came she would dance
before him and use her charms to captivate his heart.
If her plan succeeded and Akish desired her to wife,
Jared was to grant his request on condition that Akish
brought him the head of his father Omer. To enable
him to accomplish this, the daughter of Jared reminded
her father of the signs and covenants of the ancients,
whereby they entered into compacfl, one with another,
for mutual aid and protection in carr3dng out any great
wickedness they might desire to commit.
Her plan was accepted and proved in every way a
success. After the manner she suggested, Akish gath-
ered his kinsfolks, and persuaded them to swear, with
terrible oaths, that they would be faithful to him in all
that he might require of them. By these wicked
combinations the kingdom of Omer was overthrown.
But he, being warned of the Lord, escaped to a distant
land called Ablon. Then Jared was anointed king,
and he gave his daughter to Akish for a wife.
But Akish was not satisfied; he plotted with his
460 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
associates, and they slew Jared, as he sat on the
throne, and Akish reigned in his stead. Bnt after
committing these crimes, he became suspicious of his
partners in sin, and grew jealous of one of his own
sons, whom he shut up in prison and starved to death.
Before long other sons of Akish seduced the people
from their allegiance to their father, a civil war of the
utmost magnitude ensued, which ceased not until all
the people were slain, except thirty and those who had
fled to Omer in the land of Ablon. After this, Omer
returned and reigned over the few souls that remained.
CHAPTER LXXXI.
THE KINGS OF THE JAREDITES FROM OMER TO CORIAN-
TUMR— THE MATERIAL PROSPERITY OF THIS RACE.
/^MER was succeeded by his son Emer; he by his son
Coriantumr; Coriantumr by his son Com. Com
was slain by his son Heth, who took possession of
the kingdom after having murdered his father.
In the days of Heth there was a great famine
which destroyed the greater portion of the people,
among them the king himself. He was succeeded bv
She/,, Shez b}- his son Riplakish, who was dethroned
by jVIorianton, whose son Kim afterwards followed him
in the kingly power. Kim was brought into captivity,
through rebellion, and it was not until the next reign,
that of his son Levi, that the usurpers were driven
from the throne. Then follow the reigns of Corom,
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 461
Kisli, Lib and Hearthom. The last named was deposed
after reigning twenty-four years, and was held in
captivity all the remainder of his days. So also were
his son Heth, his grandson Aaron, his great grandson
Amnigaddah, and the latter's son Coriantum.
We are not informed what were the names of the
kings of the usurping dynasty, who reigned while the
royal family served in captivity; but in the daj'S of
Coriantum's son Com, the reigning prince was named
Amgid. Com went to war against him, overthrew
him, and gained possession of the throne of his ances-
tors. Shiblon, the son of Com, succeeded his father,
but was slain, his son Heth being made captive and
thus held all his days.
In the next generation Ahah, Heth's son, regained
the throne and reigned over the whole people for a short
time. Few and iniquitous were his days. Ethem,
called a descendant, and also the son of Ahah, was the
next king. His son ]\Ioron succeeded him; in his days
there were renewed rebellions, which ended, as had
been so frequently the case before, in the captivity of
the king. Moron was a captive all the rest of his life,
aiid his son Coriantor passed his whole earthly exist-
ence in captivity.
Ether, the prophet, was the son of Coriantor. The
king in his day was named Coriantumr, the last of his
race, for the wars that desolated the land in his reign
culminated in the destru6lion of the Jaredites. This
very short sketch of the reigns of tli^ir kings shows
how thoroughly were the fears of Jared and his
brother realized, that the anointing of a king would
lead to captivit3^
Like their successors, the Nephites, the troubles
462 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MOR^ION.
of the Jaredites grew out of their iniquities. Many
might}' prophets ministered to them, but the}' were
only occasionally listened to. Like the Nephites, in
another phase of their existence, they owed many of
their misfortunes to cherishing the secret bands of
Gadianton-like assassins, who, bound by infernal cove-
nants, perpetrated the most unnatural and bloodthirsty
crimes. In the days of Omer, the daughter of Jared
(who in more than one respedl reminds us of the
daughter of Herodias) was the instrument in first
introducing these soul-destroying confederacies with
Satan among the Jaredites ; and in after ages they dwin-
dled or flourished, according to the amount of faith and
faithfulness in the people.
Materially the Jaredites were wonderfully blessed.
It could scarcely have been otherwise; they had all the
treasures of this most choice land at their disposal. In
the days of Emer, the inspired historian describes
them as having become exceeding rich, having all
manner of fruit, and of grain ; and of silks, and of fine
linen; and of gold, and of silver, and of precious things;
and also all manner of cattle, of oxen and cows, and
of sheep, and of swine, and of goats, and also many
other kinds of animals which were useful for the food
of man; and they also had horses, and asses, and there
were elephants and cureloms and cunioms ; all of which
were useful unto man, and more especially the ele-
phants, and cureloms and cunioms."'' And thus the
Lord did pour out his blessings upon the land.
*Somc supi)ose the cureloms and cinn6ms were alpacas and llamas,
others that they were mammoths, the bones of which creatures, as well as
those of the elejiliant, liavinj^ been found on this continent.
PROPHETS PREACHING TO THE JAREDITES.
-P- OF THB
y" OP thr'
X
CHAPTER LXXXII.
THE JUDGMENTS OF GOD ON THE JAREDITES— THE EXTINC-
TION OF THE RACE — THE HILD RAMAH — SHIZ AND
CORIANTUM R— ETHER.
/^WING to their gross and abounding iniquities, the
Lord on several occasions visited them with par-
tial destru6lion. These judgments came in the shape
of fratricidal war, pestilence, drought and famine. In
the days of Hetli, who was possibly a contemporary of
Solomon or David, there was a great dearth in the
land, through which the inhabitants were destroyed
exceedingly fast, while poisonous serpents came forth
"and did poison many people," These serpents drove
the flocks and herds south, and then congregating at
the narrow neck uniting the two great divisions of the
land, hedged up the way so that the people could not
pass, thus adding another factor to their misery, for
their crops were not only destroyed through the lack
of rain, but the resource of animal food was taken
from them. Thus they became a broken people, but
when through their miseries they had suf&ciently
humbled themselves before the Lord, he sent the long
desired rain, and there began to be fruit in the north
countries and in all the countries round about. Other
desolations at various times came upon them because
of their defiant disobedience to the behests of Heaven.
The war which ended in the entire destru(5lion of
the Jaredite race was one of the most bloodthirsty, cruel
and vindi(5live that ever cursed this fair planet. Men's
466 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
most savage passions were worked up to such an extent
that every better feeling of humanity was crushed out.
The women and children armed themselves for the fray
with the same fiendish activity, and fought with the
same intense hate, as the men. It was not a conflict of
armies alone ; it was the crushing together of a divided
house that had long tottered because of internal weak-
ness, but now fell in upon itself.
This war was not the work of a day ; it was the
outgrowth of centuries of dishonor, crime and iniquity.
And as this continent was once cleansed of its un-
righteous inhabitants by the overwhelming waters of
a universal Deluge, and only eight souls left, so this
second time, as a flood, though the promises of the
Lord to Noah, was no longer possible, instead thereof
the wicked slew the wicked until onh' two men
remained, the king and the l^istorian , the one to wan-
der wounded, wretched and alone, until found b}^
]\Iulek's colon}' : the other to record the last dreadful
throes of his people for the profit of succeeding races,
and then to be received into the loving care of his
Father and his God. Both the Nephites and ourselves
are indebted to him for our acquaintance with the
earlier history of this continent, which otherwise
would have been entirel}'^ shut out from our knowledge.
Some four or more years before the final battles
around and near the hill Ramah, otherwise Cumorah,
two millions of warriors had been slain, besides their
wives and children. How many millions acflually fell
before the last terrible struggle ended, and Coriantumr
stood alone the sole representative of his race, it is
impossible to tell from the record that has been handed
down to us, but we think we are justified in believing
ETHER FINISHING HIS RECORD.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 469
that for bloodshed and desolation no such war ever
took place before, or has occurred since in the history
of this world; if the annals of any nation have the
record of its equal, it is not known to us.
The duel between the leaders of the two contend-
ing hosts, when their followers were all slain, was a
unique and horrible one. We will let the historian tell
the stor}' in his own words:
And it came to pass that they fought for the space
of three hours, and they fainted with the loss of blood.
And it came to pass that when the men of Coriantumr
had received sufficient strength that they could walk,
they were about to flee for their lives, but behold, Shiz
arose, and also his men, and he swore in his wrath that
he would slay Coriantumr, or he would perish by the
sw^ord ; wherefore he did pursue them, and on the mor"
row he did overtake them; and they fought again with
the sword.
And it came to pass that when they had all fallen
by the sword, save it were Coriantumr and Shiz, behold
Shiz had fainted with loss of blood. And it came to
pass that when Coriantumr had leaned upon his sword,
that he rested a little, he smote off the head of Shiz.
And it came it pass that after he had smote off the
head of Shiz, that Shiz raised upon his hands and fell ;
and after that he had struggled for breath, he died.
And it came to pass that Coriantumr fell to the
earth, and became as if he had no life.
Coriantumr, when he regained consciousness, wan-
dered forth, aimlessly and alone, the last of his race.
A whole continent lay round about him, but there
was nothing, in any place, to invite him either to
tarry or depart. Companions he had none; ever}-
470 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
creature in the image of God, save himself, had moist-
ened the soil with his life's blood. All had been swept
into unsandlified graves or poisoned the air with their
unburied bodies. The savage beasts alone remained
to terrify him with their hideous calls as the}- held high
carnival over the unnumbered slain. Weak' from loss
of blood, he staggered on, placing as great a distance
as his failing powers would permit between himself
and the horrors of the last battle ground. He passed
onward through each deserted valle}', each tenantless
town ; in neither was there an}'- human voice to greet or
chide him ; the homes of his own people and those of
his enemies were alike — a silent desolation; all the
land was a wilderness.
How long he thus wandered to and fro, wretched,
comfortless and forlorn, we know not; but at last he
reached the southern portion of the northern continent,
thousands of miles from Ramah, and there, to the great
astonishment of both, he found the people of iMulek,
who had been led by the hand of the Lord from Jeru-
salem. With them he spent his few remaining days,
and when nine moons had grown and waned he passed
away to join the hosts of his people in the unknown
world of spirits.
All this was in fulfilment of the prophecies of
Ether, who, years before, had been sent b}- the Lord to
Coriantumr with the fateful message that if he
and all his household would repent, the Lord would
give unto him his kingdom, and spare the people;
otherwise they should be destroyed, and all his house-
hold, save it were himself, and he should only live to
see the fulfilling of the prophecies which had been
spoken concerning another people receiving the land
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 47 1
for their inheritance ; and Coriantumr should receive a
burial b}^ them ; and every soul should be destroyed
save it were Coriantumr,
But Coriantumr did not repent, neither his house-
hold; and all the words of the Lord, through Ether,
came to pass; not the least of them remained unful-
filled.
BOOK OF MORMON CHRONOLOGY.
THE EVEN rs marked y are those about which the record does not
appear sufficiently explicit to make the year certain. It is occa-
sionally difficult to decide whether the circumstance narrated took
place near the close of one year or in the commencement of the next.
The four dates marked thus *'"= are based uf)on the supposition that
Zeniff re-occupied the land of Nephi B. C. 200. This may not be
the exact year, but it is approximate.
The three dates marked thus * are based upon the idea that the
"young man," Alma, was twenty-five years old when the prophet
Abinadi was martyred.
The Book of Mormon appears to furnish no clue to the date of
Lehi's colony landing in South America. It is supposed to have been
about twelve years after its departure from Jerusalem.
B. C. signifies before the birth of Christ; A. C. after Christ; N.
A. signifies Nephite Annals, or years after the departure of Lehi
from Jerusalem; \. J., years of the Judges, or of the Republic.
n.c. N.A. Y.J.
Lehi and colony leave Jerusalem, and journey to the val-
ley of Lemuel, by the Red Sea. The sons of Lehi
return to Jerusalem and obtain the sacred records
kept by Laban. 600 i
Lehi and colony reach the land Bountiful, in Arabia,
where Nephi commences to build a ship. 592 9
Mulek, son of king Zedekiah, with a colony, leaves Jeru-
salem. Lehi and his colony reach South America. 590 11
A temple built, Jacob and Joseph consecrated priests, etc.
before 571 30
Wars and contentions between the Nephites and Laman-
ites, during ten years previous to 561 40
Nephi transfers the records to Jacob. The book of
Jacob opens. 646 55
Jacob, having committed the records into the hands of his
son Enos, the latter transfers them to his son Jarom.
Many wars between the Nephites and l.amaiiites
during the days of I'Jios. 421 180
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 473
II. e. N.A. V.J.
The Nephites have increased and scattered much over the
land; they strictly observe the law of Moses and are
prospered. The Lamanites, much more numerous
than the Nephites, often invade the Nephite lands. 401 200
Jarom transfers the records to Omni. Many wars and
contentions during Jarom's days. 362 239
Omni has frequent wars with the Lamanites. 324 277
Omni transfers the records to Amaron. 318 283
The more wicked portion of the Nephites destroyed; the
righteous preserved. Amaron transfers the records
to Chemish. 280 321
*=f^About this date Zeniff leaves Zarahemla, with a colony,
to re-occupy the land of Nephi. He makes a treaty
with king Laman, and obtains the lands Lehi-Nephi
and Shemlon. 200 401
;!"t;Xhe Lamanites make war with the people of Zeniff, but
are repulsed with a loss of 3043 men. 183 418
Alma, the elder, born in the land of Nephi. 173 428
*^=King Laman having died, his son attacks the people of
Zeniff, but is driven back. 161 440
^"^^Zeniff confers the kingdom on his son Noah. 160 441
Mosiah IL born in the land of Zarahemla. 154 447
* I he prophet Abinadi appears in the land of Nephi, and
reproves Noah and his subjects for their iniquities. 150 451
*Abinadi again appears, prophesies, and is martyred. 148 453
*Alma establishes a Christian Church at the waters of
Mormon, and afterwards; because of king Noah's
persecutions, removes with his people to Helam. 147 454
First Christian Church established in Zarahemla by king
Benjanin, who, at the same time, consecrates his son
Mosiah king. 125 476
A company sent by Limhi, son of Noah, to find Zara-
hemla, wander into the north country, and discover
numerous relics of the Jaredites. 123 478
King Benjamin dies. A company of men, under Am-
nion, start from Zarahemla to find their l)rethren in
the land of Nephi. They succeed, help them to
escape from the Lamanites, and bring them safely to
Zarahemla. 122 479
474 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
B.C. N.A. Y.J.
Moroni, commander-in-chief of the Nephite armies, born. 99 502
Alma, the elder, dies, aged eighty-two. King Mosiah II.
dies, aged sixty-three. Alma, the younger, elected
Chief Judge of the Republic. The sons of Mosiah,
with other Elders, start on a mission to the Laman-
ites in the land of Nephi. Priestcraft first introduced
among the Nephites, by Nehor. Nehor slays the aged
patriarch, Gideon ; is tried, condemned and executed.
jKing Lamoni and his household converted by
Ammon. 91 510 i
Priestcraft spreads among the Nephites; pride and con-
tention develop in the church. fA church established
by Ammon among the Lamanites, in the land of
Ishmael. 90 511 2
Continued peace among the Nephites, notwithstanding
persecutions and increased wickedness. . 89 512 3
Amlici, a disciple of Nehor, desires to be king and to
destroy the true church; his pretensions are rejected
at a special election, by the voice of the people; he
raises a rebellion, and is consecrated king by his
followers. Amlici's forces are defeated by the Ne-
phites under Alma, at the hill Amnihu. The Laman-
ites invade Zarahemla, are joined by the Amlicites,
and the united armies are defeated by Alma, on the
west bank of the Sidon. Another invading Lamanite
army is defeated on the east bank of the Sidon, and
driven back to their own lands. • Peace restored.
Aaron and other missionaries imprisoned by the La-
manites in the land Middoni. 87 514 5
The Nephites, because of their late afflictions, are hum-
ble, and many are baptized, f Ammon and Lamoni
proceed to Middoni, to release Aaron and his breth-
ren. They meet Lamoni's father on the way; he at-
tempts to slay Ammon. jAntiomno, king of Mid-
doni, releases the cajjtive missionaries. 86 515 6
3500 Nephites baptized into the church. Great peace
and prosperity amongst them. jLamoni's father,
king of all tlie Lamanites, baptized. He issues a
proclamation in favor of the Nephite missionaries. 85 516 7
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 475
11. C. N.A. V.J.
Pride increasing in the Nephite church causes envyings,
malice, strife and persecutions. 84 5 1 7 8
Alma, on account of increasing iniquity, resigns the
Chief-Judgcship, and nominates Nephihah as his suc-
cessor, who is accepted by the voice of the people.
Alma devotes himself entirely to the work of the
ministry. He sets in order the churches in Zarahemla
and Gideon. 83 518 cj
Alma, as presiding High Priest, visits and ministers to the
people in Melek and Ammonihah. Amulek visited
by an angel; he receives Alma into his house. They
preach to the people of Ammonihah; are imprisoned
and abused. Zeezrom, the lawyer, converted; after-
wards healed of a fever and baptized. Those who
accept the gospel are cast out of Ammonihah, while
others, men, women and children, are martyred by
fire. Alma and Amulek delivered, by the power of
God, from prison ; the prison is destroyed, and
with it their persecutors. Massacre of 1005 believ-
ing Lamanites. 82 519 10
The Lamanites, as foretold by Alma, destroy Ammoni-
hah, with all its people, but are afterwards disas-
trously defeated by Zoram. 81 520 II
The church greatly increases during this and two follow-
ing years. 80 521 12
f Second massacre of the people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi. 79 522 13
fThe people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi arrive in the land of
Zarahemla. 78 523 14
The people of Anti-Nephi-Lehi established in the land of
Jershon. The Lamanites pursue the Ammonites;
are defeated by the Nephites with great slaughter. 77 524 15
Korihor, the Anti-Christ, struck dumb, and afterwards
killed in a city of the Zoramites. Alma and others
proceed to Antionum and minister among the
Zoramite dissenters; the majority reject their words,
and afterwards cast out their believing brethren.
The latter flee to the land of Jershon, while the un-
repentant ally themselves with the Lamanites and
prepare for war. 75 526 17
476 STORY OP^ THE BOOK OF MORMON.
B.C. N..\. V.J.
The Ammonites remove to Melek. The Zoramites become
Lamanites; the united armies occupy Antionum and
attempt to invade Manti. They are defeated by
Moroni and Lehi near the hill Riplah. The Laman-
ites make a covenant of peace and return to their
own lands. The record of Alma closes. 74 527 18
Alma transfers the records to his son Helaman ; leaves
' Zarahemla, as if to go to Melek, and is never heard
of more. Dissenssions arise in the church ; the dissen-
ters endeavor to make Amalickiah king. Moroni
rears the "Title of Liberty," the people rally thereto,
and Amalickiah retreats into the wilderness; the
greater portion of his followers are slain ; he escapes
to the Lamanites, rises in power, poisons General Le-
honti, kills the king, marries the queen, and is pro-
claimed king. Moroni fortifies the Nephite cities.
The Lamanites invade Ammonihah and Noah; are
repulsed with great loss and return to their own
lands. 73 528 19
Moroni commences his line of defence along the southern
line of the Nephite possessions. The Lamanites
driven out of the east wilderness. The founda-
tions laid of Moroni, Lehi, Nephihah, and other
cities. 72 529 20
Never was a happier time among the people of Nei)hi. 71 530 21
Contention between the people of the cities of Morianton
and Lehi. The former flee northward ; their flight
arrested by Teancum, who defeats and slays their
leader. The difficulty is settled, and both people
return to their own possessions. Nephihah, the sec-
ond Chief Judge, dies; his son, Pahoran, succeeds
him. 68 533 24
(ireat contentions between the "king men" and "free
men." The peojjle decide in favor of the continu-
ance of the Republic, upon which the monarchists
revolt; they refuse to take up arms against the in-
vading Lamanites, but are defeated by Moroni, 4000
slain, and the rest cast into prison. Amalickiah cap-
tures the Nephite cities of Moroni, Nephihah, Lehi,
Ciid, M>)riant()n, Oniner, Mulek, etc., on the Atlantic
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 477
II. C. N.A. V.J.
coast. He is defeated by Teancum. Teancum enters
the T>amanite camp at night and slays Amalickiah.
The Lamanites retreat into Mulek. 67 534 25
Ammoron, brother of Amalickiah, succeeds hiai as king
of the Lamanites, and takes command of their
armeis on the Pacific Coast. Moroni pays a short
visit to the Nephite forces in the southwest. Teancum
fortifies the land liountiful and the Isthmus of Panama.
The Ammonitts desire to assist in the war, but because
of their oath are not permitted; but 2000 of their
sons, under Helaman, join the Nephite armies in the
southwest, where they find, that the Lamanites have
captured the cities of Manti, Zeezrom, Cumeni and
Antiparah. 66 535 26
Moroni gathers fresh troops and reinforces Teancum in
Bountiful. The Nephite forces in the southwest
finish fortifying the city of Judea. fTremendous
battle in the wilderness north of Judea; the Laman-
ites defeated, but Antipus, the Nephite commander,
•- is slain. 65 536 27
Mulek re-captured by Moroni, Lehi and Teancum.
Jacob, the Lamanite general, killed. Lehi placed
in command at Mulek. The Lamanite prisoners
compelled to dig a ditch around and fortify the city
Bountiful. The city of Antiparah vacated by the
Lamanites and re-occupied by the Nephites. 64 537 28
Pachus revolts against the Commonwealth, and endeavors
to establish a monarchy. Moroni re-captures Gid,
and releases large numbers of Nephite prisoners.
Six thousand men, from Zarahemla, join the Nephite
armies in the southwest. The Lamanites surrender
Cumeni. The Nephites drive the Lamanites east-
ward to the land of Manti. They are afterwards
driven out of that region by Helaman. Helaman
writes an epistle to Moroni, complaining of want of
reinforcements. 63 538 29
Pachus drives the Chief Judge out of Zarahemla; he seeks
safety in Gideon. Pachus opens a treasonable corres-
pondence with the Lamanites. Moroni, having re-
47S STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
B.C. N.A. Y.J.
ceived Helaman's epistle, writes twice to Pah o ran ; on
receiving the latter's reply, he gathers up troops and
goes to his aid. The united forces of Moroni and
Pahoran defeat Pachus, who is slain, and the rebel-
lion is put down. The Lamanite troops, driven out
of the southwest, capture the city of Nephihah. 62 539 30
Provisions and 6oco men sent to the relief of Helaman ;
the same to the commanders in the east. A battle
fonght on the road between Zarahemla and Nephi-
hah. 4000 Lamanite prisoners make a covenant of
peace, and are sent to join the Ammonites. Nephi-
hah surprised and captured by Moroni. Lehi and
several other cities on the Atlantic coast recaptured
by the Nephite generals. Teancum slays Ammoron
in the city of Moroni, and is himself slain by Ammo-
ron's servants. The city is captured by the Ne-
phites, and the Lamanites are driven to their own
lands. 61 540 31
Moroni fortifies the southern boundaries of the Nephites,
returns to Zarahemla, and transfers the command of
the Nephite forces to his son Moronihah. Hela-
man and his fellow-laborers re-establish the church ;
great humility of its members. 60 541 ;^2
The Nephites begin to recover from the demoralization
and disorganization incident to the protracted war. 59 542 ;;i^
Helaman dies. jShiblon takes charge of the sacred
plates. 57 544 35
Moroni dies, aged 43. 56 545 36
Five thousand four hundred Nephites, with their families,
leave Zarahemla to colonize the north country.
Hagoth establishes ship-building yards on the Pacific
side of the Isthmus. 55 546 37
Large migration northward. Two of Hagoth's ships
never again seen after leaving port. 54 547 38
Shiblon dies; the sacred records, etc., transferred to
Helaman, the younger. Some Nephites dissent and
go over to the Lamanites; the latter invade Zara-
hemla, but are driven out by Moroniliah. Pahoran
dies. The Book of Alma closes. 53 5 48 39
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 479
H.C. N.A. V.J.
The Book of Helaman commences. Tubaloth king of the
Lamanites. Three of Pahoran's sons contend for
the judgment seat. The people choose Pahoran,
the younger. His brother Paanchi, rebels, for which
he his tried, condemned and executed. One of his
adherents, Kishkumen, assassinates Pahoran. Pacu-
meni chosen Chief Judge. The Gadianton robber
bands organized. ^2 549 40
The Lamanites, under Coriantumr, invade Zarahemla,
capture the city, slay Pacumeni, and advance north-
ward. Afterwards the Nephite forces, under Moroni-
hah and Lehi, destroy the invading army. Corian-
tumr slain. 51 550 41
Helaman elected Chief Judge; Kishkumen attempts to
assassinate him, but is himself slain. Gadianton and
his band flee into the wilderness. 50 551 42
Much contention among the Nephites. Many emigrate
north, as far as the great lakes. 46 555 46
Great contentions. Helaman fills the judgment seat with
justice and equity. 45 556 47
The contentions measurably cease; the church is greatly
prospered ; tens of thousands baptized. The Gadian-
ton robbers secretly increase in the more thickly
settled portions of the land. 43 558 49
Pride increases; the more humble members of the church
persecuted. 41 560 51
Helaman dies ; his son Nephi succeeds him as Chief
Judge. 39 562 53
Contentions and bloodshed among the Nephites ; the
rebellious atifiliate with the Lamanites. 38 563 54
More dissenters go over to the Lamanites, who are all the
year preparing tor war. 36 565 56
The Lamanites invade Zarahemla ; the Nephites, owing
to their dissensions and wickedness, are everywhere
driven before them. 35 566 57
The Lamanites overrun all the Nephite possessions as far
as the land Bountiful. The Nephites fortify the
Isthmus. 34 567 58
The Lamanites obtain possession of all South America. ^^ 568 59
480 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
II. C. N.A. Y.J.
Moronihah reconcjuers the most northern portions of
South America. 32 569 60
The Nephites regain about half their possessions, Zara-
hemla remaining in the hands of the Lamanites.
Under the preaching of Nephi, and others, the
Nephites commence to repent. 31 570 61
No more Nephite successes, on account of the lack of
faith in the people. Nephi delivers up the judgment
seat totezoram. Nephi and Lehi, having preached
to the Nephites, go over to the Lamanites in the
land of Zarahemla ; 8000 of that people are baptized.
They then proceed to the land of Nephi, where they
are imprisoned, but delivered by marvelous mani-
festations from heaven. The voice of the Lord is
heard by those assembled at the prison, and they are
surrounded by fire. The greater part of the Laman-
ites are converted, and they surrender to the Nephites
all the lands they had taken from them. 30 571 62
The Lamanites exceed the Nephites in righteousness, and
many of their missionaries preach in Zarahemla, and
the land northward ; Nephi and Lehi, also, go north.
Universal peace prevails throughout all the continent,
and both Nephites and Lamanites travel, unre-
strictedly, in all parts. 29 572 63
An era of great prosperity. Much preaching and pro-
phecy by the servants of God. 27 574 65
Chief Judge Cezoram slaim by a Gadianton robber ; his
son and successor suffers the same fate. 26 575 66
The Nephites again growing exceedingly wicked, the
greater part unite with the Gadianton robbers; they
also build up to themselves idols of gold and silver. 25 576 67
The Lamanites grow in righteousness, while the Nephites
increase in inicjuity. The Cradianton bands are utterly
destroyed from among the Lamanites, but are so
greatly encouraged by the Nei)hites tliat they obtain
sole management of the government. 24 577 68
Chief Judge Seezoram assassinated by his brother, Sean-
turn. Nephi, rejected by the jjeople in the north,
returns to Zarahemla; he notifies the people of the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 48 1
B.C. .N..\. V.J.
murder of Seezoram, is arrested as an accessory, but
afterwards released. The Lord makes a covenant
with him, and directs him to continue his ministra-
tions. 23 578 69
Nephi, preserved by the miraculous power of God, preaches
from land to land. 22 579 70
Division, even to bloodshed, prevails among the Nephites. 21 580 71
Contentions and wars throughout all the land, ■ 20 581 72
The internal wars, originating with the Gadianton robbers,
still continue. To stay the bloodshed, Nephi prays
for a famine: his prayer is answered. 19 582 73
The famine continues and spreads. 18 583 74
The whole land, both among the Nephites and Laman-
ites, smitten with the famine : thousands die of hun-
ger and pestilence. The people, in their extremity
begin to repent ; they exterminate the Gadianton
bands. 17 584 75
The Lord sends rain, and the earth brings forth abun-
dantly. Nephi is reverenced as a servant of God by
all the people. *" 16 585 76
The people rapidly increase ; the major part of both
peoples belong to the church.
Slight contentions on doctrinal questions.
The controversies increase; Nephi and Lehi receive many
revelations and put an end to the disputes.
Dissenters search out the ancient abominations, re-estab-
lish the Gadianton bands and commence war. 12 589 80
The robbers grow strong ; defy the united armies of the
Nephites and Lamanites ; commit depredations and
carry off many prisoners. Great loss of life on both
sides. II 590 81
The Nephites again begin to forget the Lord. The
Lamanites remain faithful. 10 591 82
The people wax strong in iniquity. 9 592 83
The people do not mend their ways. 8 593 84
The people grow in wickedness and ripen for destruction. 7 594 85
Samuel, the Lamanite, prophesies on the walls of Zara-
hemla ; some attempt to kill him, others believe.
The latter seek Nephi and are baptized. Samuel
15
586
77
14
5«7
78
13
588
79
482 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON,
B.C. N.A. Y.J.
escapes to his own land. Nephi performs many
miracles. 6 595 86
The greater portion of the people remain in their pride
and wickedness, the lesser portion walking more cir-
cumspectly before God. 5 596 87
The people grow more hardened. 3 598 89
The words of the prophets commence to be fulfilled ;
signs and wonders appear, betokening the near
advent of the Savior; angels are seen by many; yet
the people still harden their hearts. The Book of
Helaman closes. 2 599 90
The Third Book of Nephi opens. Nephi departs out of
the land, and is never again seen. Lachoneus, Chief
Judge and Governor. i 600 91
.\.c.
The promised signs of the Redeemer's birth appear, much
to the joy of believers. The two days and nights of
constant light ; a new star appears. The majority of
the people join the church. The Nephites reckon
their time from the Messiah's advent. i 601 92
The Gadianton robbers commit many murders ; the
people not strong enough to overpower them. 2 602
Dissensions increase, owing to many joining the robber
bands, especially among the young. 3 603
Wickedness and unbelief greatly increase. 4 604
Evil continues to gain strength to this time. Gadianton
bands grow so numerous that both Nephites and
Lamanites take up arms against them. 13 613
The robbers driven into their secret fastnesses in the
mountains and the wilderness. 14 614
Owing to dissensions, the robbers gain many advantages. 15 615
Giddianhi, the robber chief, writes an epistle to Lachoneus,
calling upon the Nephites to surrender. Gidgiddoni
chosen commander of the Nephite forces. Lachoneus
decides to gather all the Nephites from both conti-
nents into the lands of Zarahemlaand Bountiful, and
fortify against the attacks of the robbers. 16 616
The people, with all thtir movable substance and seven
years' provisions, gather at the ap|)ointed place. 17 617
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 483
A.C.
In the latter part of the year the robbers sally out of their
hiding places and occupy the lands deserted by the
people. 18 61 S
The robbers, under Giddianhi, attack the Nephites. The
slaughter more terrible than in any previous battle
among the children of Lehi ; Giddianhi is slain,
the robbers are defeated and pursued to the borders
of the wilderness. 19 619
The robbers do not venture to again attack the Nephites
Zemnarihah made chief of the robber bands. 20 620
The robbers surround and ineffectually besiege the
Nephites, who make many sorties and slay tens of
thousands of them; the robbers attempt to concen-
trate on the northern continent, but are cut off, their
armies destroyed, and many thousands taken prison-
ers; among whom is Zemnarihah, who is afterwards
hanged. The Nephites greatly rejoice in their mar-
velous deliverance. 21 621
All the Nephites believe the words of the prophets; right-
eousness prevails. They preach to the robber prison-
ers; all who make a covenant to murder no more are
set at liberty, those who refuse are punished according
to the law. 22 622
The Nephites all return to their own lands on both conti-
nents. 26 626
The laws revised according to justice and equity ; great
order throughout the land. 27 627
Many new cities built and old ones repaired ; numerous
other improvements made. 28 628
Disputingsand contentions re-commence ; pride and other
evils increase. 29 629
Lachoneus, the younger, Governor. The church broken
up, except among a few Lamanites. Many prophets
testify and are persecuted ; some are executed contrary
to law. The officers committing these crimes, on
being called to account, rebel and seek to establish a
monarchy, with Jacob as king. The chief judge is
assassinated, and the ancient iniquitous combinations
re-introduced. The Nephite Commonwealth is
484 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
A.C. X.A.
broken up, and the people divided into numerous
tribes. Jacob leads his followers into the northern-
most part of the land. 3° ^3°
The various tribes more fully regulated. Nephi performs
many miracles; among others, raises his brother
Timothy from the dead. But few are converted to
the Lord. 3^ 631
Nephi continues his preaching and ministry; a few accept
his message. 32 632
Many join the church. 3^ 633
On the fourth day of the new year the signs of Christ's
crucifixion commence. An unparalleled storm rages
for three hours, convulsing the land and destroying
many cities. It is followed by three day's darkness.
The voice of the Lord is heard proclaiming the des-
truction that had happened. Jesus appears to the
people in the land Bountiful. He preaches his Gospel,
performs many mighty works, and chooses twelve
disciples. Nephi, the son of Nephi, takes the records. 34 634
All the people are converted, and the church becomes
universal. The believers have all things in common. 36 636
The disciples of Jesus work many wonderful miracles. 37 637
The people again becoming numerous. Zarahemla and
other cities rebuilt. 59 659
All tlie original twelve disciples, except the three who
were to tarry, have died by this date. 100 700
The first generation in Christ have passed away. Nephi,
the recorder, dies, -and his son Amos takes charge of
the records. 110 710
Amos dies. During his days a few apostatize and take
the name of Lamanites. His son, Amos, takes charge
of the records. 194 794
All the second generation have passed away, except a
few. 200 iSoo
Pride appears in the church; its members have their
goods no more in common, and sects arise. 201 .Soi
Many churches established o])posed to the true church of
Christ. :!io Sio
The wicked increase; the disciples and saints persecuted.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 4S5
A.C. N.A.
300
900
306
906
311
911
321
921
The three Nephites perform many miracles, from the
last date to 230 830
The people divided into Nephites and Lamanites. 231 S31
The more wicked portion of the people have grow^n much
the stronger. 244 844
The wicked build up many expensive churches to their
false faiths. 250 850
1"he members of the true church, or Nephites, begin to
grow proud and sinful. The (ladianton iniquities
are again developed. 260 860
Both Nephites and Lamanites have grown exceedingly
wicked ; none are righteous except the three disciples.
The Gadianton robbers have spread over all the
land.
Amos transfers the records to his brother Ammaron, and
dies.
Mormon born.
Ammaron hides up the records in the hill Shim.
Mormon, the father of Mormon, takes his son to Zara-
hemla. War commences between the Nephites and
Lamanites ; a number of battles are fought in which
the Nephites are victorious. Commencement of
Mormon's record. 322 922
The three Nephites cease to minister among the people,
because of their iniquities. Things hidden in the
earth become slippery. Mormon endeavors to
preach, but his mouth is shut. War re-commences,
and Mormon is chosen general of the Nephite ar-
mies. 326 926
The Nephites, under Mormon, retreat before the Laman-
ites to the north countries. The Lamanites capture
the city of Angola. 327 927
fThe Lamanites drive the Nephites out of the land of
David into the land of Joshua. 328 928
■fRevolution, blood and carnage throughout all the land.
The Nephite warriors gather for battle into one
place. 329 929
The Lamanite king, Aaron, defeated by Mormon. 330 930
486 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
AC. N.A.
Great sorrow among the Nephites, because of their piti-
able condition. 331 931
Mormon obtains the plates, as Ammaron directed. 335 935
Wars, with much slaughter, until 344 944
The Lamanites drive the Nephites to the land Jashon,
thence northward to the land of Shem. The Nephites
fortify the city of Shem. 345 945
Mormon, with 30,000 Nephites, defeats 50,000 Lamanites
in the land of Shem; he i)ursues and again defeats
the enemy. 346 946
The Nephites regain the lands of their inheritance by the
end of the year 349 949
The Nephites as one party, and the Lamanites and
Gadiantons as the other, make a treaty, by which the
Nephites possess the country north of the Isthmus,
and the Lamanites that south of it. Ten years'
peace follows. 350 950
By the command of the Lord, Mormon preaches repent-
ance, but the Nephites harden their hearts, during
the ten years ending 360 960
The Lamanite king declares war; the Nephites gather at
the land Desolation. 360 960
The Lamanites march to Desolation, are defeated and re-
turn home. 361 961
The Lamanites make another invasion and are defeated.
Mormon refuses to lead the Nephites any longer. 362 962
The Nephites invade South America, and are driven back
to Desolation. The Lamanites capture the city of
Desolation. 363 963
The Lamanites besiege Teancum, are repulsed, and the
Nephites re-capture Desolation. 364 964
The Lamanites re-commence war; they capture the ciiies
of Desolation and Teancum, but are afterwards
driven entirely out of the lands of the Nephites. 367 967
The Lamanites again commence war. An exceedingly
fierce battle is fought in the land of Desolation.
The Lamanites capture Desolation, Boaz and other
( ities. Mormon takes up all the records from the
hill Shim. 375 975
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
487
A.C. N.A.
Mormon, having resumed command of the Nephitcs, the
Lamanites twice attack the city of Jordon, and are
repulsed. They burn many Nephite towns. 379 979
The Nephites disastrously routed. 380 980
fMormon writes to the Lamanite king, asking to be
allowed to gather all his people to the hill Cumorah,
and there give battle. His request is granted. 382 9S2
At the end of this year all the Nephites are gathered at
the hill Cumorah. 384 984
Mormon hides all the records entrusted to him in the hill"
Cumorah, save the abridged records, which he gives
to Moroni. The final battle, in which all but twenty-
four Nephites are killed, and a few who escape to
the south. Mormon closes his record. 385 985
Moroni records the death of his father and the extinction
of his people, also that the Lamanites were at war
with each other all over the land. 400 1000
Moroni closes his record. 421 1021
APPENDIX.
THE CO.^IING FORTH OF THE BOOK OF MORMON IX THE
LATTER DAYvS.
TN the course of nature, Moroni died, and in the
Lord's due time he was resurre6led.'-' The sacred
records, with the other holy things that he had buried
in Cuniorah, still remained in his care. On him the
duty fell to watch that no unsandlified hands disturbed
their rest. When the time set in the councils of
heaven for their translation came, he delivered them to
the instrument chosen b}^ the Holy Ones on high. He,
having accomplished his work, returned them to
Moroni, who still keeps ward and watch over these
treasures.
But was there any fear that the records would be
disturbed b}^ unholy hands? We believe there was.
It must not be forgotten that the Lamanites of the days
of Moroni were not the benighted savages of earlier
centuries. They were not the pure blood of Laman
and his associates. They were dissenters from the
Nephites, apostates from the true church; and the}'
were as well acquainted with the fa6l that the records
existed as the prophet himself. In the days of Mor-
mon he removed the plates from the hill Shim, for the
very reason that he feared the Lamanites would get
' *Josc])h Smith 's answer to the (luestion, How and where did you obtain
the Book of Mormon? — Moroni, who deposited the plates (from whence the
Book of Mormon was transhited), in a hill in Manchester, Ontario County-
New York, hcm^ (trad ami raised attain tlierefrom, appeared ini to me, anil
told me where they were, and gave me direolions how to obtain them. I
obtained them, and the Vr'un and Tluimmim with them, by the means of
which I translalL-d llu' ])latis, and thus came the Rook of Mormon.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 489
hold of and destroy them. There were the same rea-
sons for fear should the^- discover their resting place in
Cumorah.
The tradition of the existence of these records
remained for long ages with the Lamanites; undoubt-
edl}^ growing fainter and fainter and more confnsed as
the centnries rolled by, but still not entirely extin-
guished. Indeed the remembrance is not utterly oblit-
erated in the minds of some of Lehi's children to this
very day.
So strong was this recolledlion in earlier days, that
we are told of a time when a council of wise men, with
royal consent, made an attempt to rewrite them. How
successful they were we have no means of telling; but
this we know, that when the Spaniards conquered
Mexico the land was full of sacred books. These so
much resembled the Bible of the Christians that the
Catholic priests came to the conclusion that it was a
trick of the devil to imitate the holy scriptures, and in
this wa}' lead the souls of the Indians to perdition. In
their bigoted zeal they burned ever}- cop}- of these
books or charts that they could find, and infli(5led
abominabl}^ cruel punishments upon those who were
found concealing them. In this way almost every
cop3^ of these valuable works were destroyed.
Though the original records were hidden by the
power of God, it is quite possible that many copies of
the scriptures remained in the hands of the Lamanites
when the Nephites were destroyed. In the Book of
^Mormon frequent reference is made to the abundance
of these copies. No doubt in the last desolating wars
between the Nephites and Lamanites but little care was
taken of these scriptures. Both people had sunken
490 STORY OF THE liOOK OF MORMON.
deep in iniquity; they cared nothing for the word of
God, and probably, as we may infer from ]\Iormon's
apprehensions, the Lamanites destroyed all the copies
of the holy books that they found. Still, it is not
improbable that some few of these works remained
untouched; and when the Lamanites had gotten over
their first overwhelming bitterness and aversion to
everything Nephite, and again began to grow in civil-
ization, they would search for these records, if for
nothing else than as valued curiosities; though we
think they sometimes prized them much more highly.
The plates having been guarded b}- the power of
God, were translated by the same power. No book was
ever translated more accurately ; none, by human wis-
dom, as faultlessly as the Book of ^Mormon.'-'
Joseph Smith, the youth whom God honored by
making him the instrument in his hands of restoring
these precious records to the knowledge of mankind,
was born in the town of Sharon, Windsor County, \'er-
niont, on the 23rd of December, 1805. When about
ten years of age his parents, with their family,
moved to Palmyra, in the State of New York, in the
vicinity of which place he lived for about eleven 3'ears ;
the latter portion of the time in a village called Man-
chester. Joseph helped his father on the farm, hired
out at day-work, and passed his j^ears very much after
the manner common to 3'oung men in the rural dis-
tricts. His advantages for obtaining anything beyond
the rudiments of education were exceedingl}' small:
he could read without much difficult}', write an iniper-
*In council witli llu- Twelve A])Ostk's, Joseph Smith said, I lohi the
brethren that the liook of Mormon was the most correct of any hook on
earth, and the keystone of our relij^ion, :ind a man would get nearer to God
hy ahiflinj^f hy its i)recc])ts, than by any other Ixiok.
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 49 1
feet hand, and had bnt a ver}' limited understanding of
arithmetic.
The circumstances attending Joseph's first vision
in the early spring of 1820, when he saw the Father
and the Son, have been so often published, and must
necessarily be so familiar to our readers, that with this
bare reference to the fact we will pass them by. It is
sufficient for the purpose of our present research to
know that this marvelously important event did
happen. Then and there the corner stone was laid of
the vast fabric to God's glory of which Joseph was the
master builder, when mortal beings alone are con-
sidered.
On the evening of the 21st of September, 1823, ^^
retired to his bed in a serious and contemplative state
of mind. He shortly betook himself to prayer to the
Almight}' for a manifestation of his standing before
him, and endeavored to exercise faith in the precious
promises of scripture. We will continue in his own
words; he saj's: On a sudden a light like that of da}-,
only of a far purer and more glorious appearance and
brightness, burst into the room, indeed the first sight
was as though the house was filled with consuming
fire ; the appearance produced a shock that afife(51;ed the
whole body; in a moment a personage stood before me
surrounded with a glory yet greater than that with
which I was already surrounded. This messenger pro-
claimed himself to be an angel of God,* sent to bring
the jo3'ful tidings, that the covenant which God made
with ancient Israel was at hand to be fulfilled, that the
preparatory work for the second coming of the Messiah
was speedily to commence; that the time was at hand
*Moroni. 1
492 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
for the Gospel, in all its fulness, to be preached in
power unto all nations, that a people might be prepared
for the millennial reign. I was informed that I was
chosen to be an instrument in the hands of God to
bring about some of his purposes in this glorious dis-
pensation. I was also informed concerning the
aboriginal inhabitants of this countr}-, and shown who
they were, and from whence they came; a brief sketch
of their origin, progress, civilization, laws, govern-
ments, of their righteousness and iniquity, and the
blessings of God being finally withdrawn from them
as a people, was made known unto me. I was also
told where there were deposited some plates, on which
were engraved an abridgment of the records of the
ancient prophets that had existed on this continent.
The angel appeared to me three times the same night
and unfolded the same things.
The next day after this glorious appearing Joseph
went to the place which the angel had designated.
There he found the plates and the other holy things.
But he was not permitted by the angel to remove them.
They must remain in the stone box in which Moroni
had placed them until the time determined, b}- the
heavens, for their removal had arrived. But he was
instructed to visit the spot, open the box, and look at
the records, on precisely the same evening of each suc-
ceeding year until he had libert}^ given him to take
them in his charge. This Joseph did; and on each
occasion the angel met him and gave him such instruc-
tions, light, and intelligence as the j-outhful seer
needed.
At length the time arrived for obtaining the plates,
the Urim and Thummim, and the Breastplate. On the
STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON. 493
twenty-second day of September, 1S27, Slaving gone as
usual, at the end of another year, to the place where
the}' were deposited, the same heavenly messenger
delivered them up to him with this charge, that he should
be responsible for them ; that if he should let them go
carelessly or through any negledl; of his, he should be
cut off; but that if he would use all his endeavors to
preserve them, until he, the messenger, should call for
them, they should be protedled.
The same night that Joseph obtained the plates mar-
velous things appeared in the heavens. It would seem
as though all eternit}' was stirred by the greatness of
the events that were about to take place. The powers
of light and of darkness were at war; the hosts of
heaven w^ere marshaled ; Satan's kingdom was totter-
ing; the time had arrived for the commencement of the
preparatory work that would usher in the reign of
Christ as King over all the earth.
The late President Heber C. Kimball relates that on
that eventful night he saw a white smoke arise on the
eastern horizon, which formed itself, with a noise like
that of a mighty wind, into a belt, as it uprose; even-
tually forming a bow across the heavens from the
eastern to the western horizon. He further says : In
this bow an army moved, commencing from the east
and marching to the west; they continued marching
until they reached the western horizon. They moved
in platoons, and walked so close that the rear ranks
trod in the steps of their file leaders, until the whole
bow was literally crowded with soldiers. We could dis-
tin(5lly see the muskets, bayonets and knapsacks of the
men, who wore caps and feathers like those used bv
the American soldiers in the last war with Britain ; and
494 STORY OF THE BOOK OF MORMON.
also saw their officers with their swords and equipage,
and the clashing and jingling of their implements of
war, and could discover the forms and features of the
men. The most profound order existed throughout
the entire army ; when the foremost man stepped, ever}^
man stepped at the same time; I could hear the steps.
When the front rank reached the western horizon a
battle ensued, as we could distin(5lly hear the report of
arms and the rush.
Thus with signs upon earth and wonders in the
heavens was the record of the mighty dead of this con-
tinent brought forth again b}' the power and wisdom of
God.
IVEBSIT7]
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| __label__neg | 0 | storyofbookofmor00reynrich | OL17945435M | OL4867093W | 508 | 1,888 |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 国家哲学社会科学文献中
中际Hationai Conter for Philosoghy and Soclal Sclencos Documentatlon
**SMALL CARVINGS，GREATACHIEVEMENTS：THE STORY OF WONG FENG-DZIA**
**小刻工、大成就：王凤甲的故事**
**19世纪中国规模最大的西式印刷所美华书馆，1844年在澳门开办时雇用四至六名中国工匠，逐渐增加到最多于1904年时雇用190人。在这些中国职工里，除少数职员外，绝大多数是分在铸字、印刷、装订等各部门的工匠。他们都没有留下自己在美华工作的记载，传教士在书信中也不常提及个别工匠的行事，难得一见的是美华主任姜别利(William Gamble)在几年间经常谈论一名刻工及其工作，即使姜别利每次所谈只是简短的片段，但拼凑起来已足以彰显这名刻工王凤甲(Wong Feng-dzia)的不凡成就，他从1861至1865年间以将近四年时间，独自完成“上海活字”，即美华五号活字、Small Pica的7400个字范的雕刻。**
**这套小活字于19世纪后期至20世纪初在中国广一泛流行，在外国也有人使用，因此王凤甲在近代中文印刷史上有特别的地位。**
**中文印刷的时代变局**
**王凤甲的个人与家庭等背景都无从追溯，唯一知道的是他进入美华书馆前就已是木刻印工。他所处的1850与1860年代，中国正在西方势力的压迫与影响之下，连中文印刷也难逃此种影响而展开巨变，来华的基督教传教士为便于印刷与传播书刊，积极推动以西式字模铸造的活字印刷中文，以取代木刻板印和手刻的活字。**
**到1860年时，已有四种西式中文活字问世：香港大活字与小活字、巴黎活字及柏林活字。香港活**
**字由伦敦传教会(London Missionary Society)拥有，在英国殖民地香港生产。巴黎活字由法国人李格昂(Marcellin Legrand)在巴黎铸造，柏林活字由普鲁士人贝尔豪斯(Augustus Beyerhaus)在柏林铸造。**
**这四种活字却各有问题。第一，有的字形太大，香港大活字的尺寸是Double Pica(24点)，柏林活字为Double Small Pica(22点)，巴黎活字为Two Line Brevier(16点)，香港小活字则是Three Line Diamond(13.5点)。其中，香港大活字与柏林活字虽然都是比照当时中文书籍里面的字形大小而造，字体偏大，印成的书刊篇幅太多太厚，不便携带传播，成本也高，印刷中外双语对照时也很难搭配适当的外文活字，外文部分会留下许多空白，既不美观也浪费纸张成本。第**
**二，香港大小活字各只有5500个常用字，遇到其他的字只能以木刻活字应急填充，但木活字与铅活字杂凑并印，字形与吸墨效果不同，版面很不美观。第三，巴黎和柏林两种拼合活字，为了节省逐一打造数万个中文字范(punch)的时间、金钱和人力，而分别打造部首活字和字根活字，两者互相搭配可以拼合成许多不同的中文字，无法搭配的才打造全字。结果拼合而成的字形怪异、生硬不自然，失去汉字的优美匀称，不容易吸引中国人阅读内容。**
**打造西式活字的正常工序，是先打造钢质字范，其次从字范造出字模，最后从字模铸造活字。在这三道步骤中，最困难也最花时间的是第一步在硬度很高的钢质字坯上雕刻字范。拼音文字由于字母数量有限，即使有大小写、正**
**体、斜体之分，加上一些符号、数字等，一套拼音文字的活字数量通常只有150个上下，所以经常有人打造拼音文字的新活字，大小尺寸各异、字体风格变化无穷，为数众多。中文则不同，不但笔划复杂，字数又多达数万个，在19世纪初中期要一一打造钢质字范实在是不可能的任务。香港的两种全字咯耗时二十多年，才完成5500多个常用字，巴黎和柏林两种拼合活字较快，也分别花费了约六年和八年的功夫才完成。**
**尽管打造中文活字不容易，还是有人愿意尝试。那就是1858年来华接掌宁波华花圣经书房的姜别利，而王凤甲也因此承担雕刻一套全新活字字范的任务。**
**宁波的新活字计画**
**华花圣经书房是属于美国长老会外国传教部(Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A.)的印刷所。它于1844年创立于澳门，使用巴黎活字，1845年迁至宁波并改名华花圣经书房。姜别利来华上任吋又带来柏林活字的字模，到1859年7月时铸出整套的柏林活字，接着从1860年起以电镀方式复制香港活字，一旦完成将使华花书房成为唯一拥有四种中文活字的印刷所。姜别利不以此为满足，还构想打造一套新的中文活字。**
**姜别利打造新活字的构想，源自想用低廉的成本印刷小开本的圣经，便于携带传播。因此他的目标是打造Brevier、8点大小，尺寸约0.28x0.28厘米的活字，也已经动手造出一些样品。后来应该是觉得尺寸过小，印成的书不便阅读，不合中国人的阅读习惯，于是决定打造Small Pica、11点大小，尺寸约0.39x0.39厘米的活字，但仍小于已有的香港小活字(约0.48x0.48厘米)。**
在國我擁檻更殚櫃天惆濤效妖臨父睽栻標橋焉格在朧朦殁我爾天沱术檄者狀湃燃榴擅楔所得願汁椰爐殉需成爍撲杵椿
**\>1867年美华活字样本1号宇(局部】 >1867年美华活字样本2号字(局部)**
**尺寸已经很小，若要在字坯上刻出比已有四种活字美观的字形，难度更高，势必要有写刻技巧高明的中国工匠，才能造出大量工整优美的中文字范，也才好进行接下来的字模和活字工序。姜别利发掘出的中国工匠就是王凤甲。t859年7月12尸，姜别利写信告诉外国传教部的秘书：“我雇用一名最好的木刻工匠L有一段时间，我教他如何在金属的活字字坯上刻字，他也刻得非常好，而且刻出只有中国人才能领会到的汉字韵味。”**
**从这封信可以知道，王凤甲到华花书房工作以前已是技沐高明的木刻工匠。进入华花书房后，姜别利又教他在金属字坯上刻字的技术，他也学得很出色，不过姜别利既然要他学金属刻字，可知当时姜别利还是要依照传统工法从钢质字范打造新活字，直到将近一年后的1860年6月25日，姜别利在写给秘书的一封信结束前附带一笔，表示自己已想好一种制造字模的新方法，成本很小，一旦成功将是一件大事。**
**又一个半月后的1860年8月11日，姜别利再度写信给秘书，比较详细地提到王凤甲和新活字的**
**计画：“我曾在一封前信中提到雇用一名木刻工匠，他刻木质字范与钢质字范一样的好。新活字每个字模的成本，包含木刻字、铜版、工资等在内，大约是8分钱，因此若慎选5000个必要的中文字构成一套活字，成本将不会超过400银元，而且字形远胜于在外国所刻。”**
**这封信显示姜别利已经决定要以新技术打造活字。王凤甲原有的中国木刻技巧正符合需要，姜别利有信心他刻的字形会优于巴黎和柏林两种活字。姜别利也估计新活字包含5000个常用字、每个字模的成本与总价等。姜别利发明的打造活字新法结合了中西技术，有两个主要特点，以木质字范取代钢质字范，又以电镀取代人工打造字模，如此可以大大降低技术难度、时间和成本。**
**又两个月后，姜别利在1860年10月15口写给秘书的信中表示，自己上任后有两项重要的创新：一是中文活字架的设计，一是从黄杨木字坯刻字制造字模。后者成功后，预料将会创造中文活字印刷的新时代。姜别利对新活字很有信心，但是他向美国订购的工具和原料还没全部到齐，同**
**时华花书房即将在这年底搬迁到上海，因此新活字的制造要到上海以后才开始，后来还命名为“上海活字”。尽管如此，这套活字计画的确始于宁波，主要的工作人员王凤甲也来自宁波。**
**上海开工与完成**
**1860年12月底，华花书房从宁波迁到上海并改名为美华书馆，王凤甲并没有一起迁移，而是在九个月后的1861年9月才前往位于上海虹口的美华书馆。姜别利于1861年10月4日谈到王凤甲归队后的工作情况：：““宁波那位刻字极好的刻工刚到上海来，已经在进行新活字的工作。他刻的字又小又美观，真是无人可比。可是他一天只能刻成七个字，而我们每个月要付他12元的工资，这使得成本比我当初估计的要高，每个字模从原来的6至8分钱提高为至少10分钱。不过，即使这样，比起以往要打造钢质的字范，这只是一点小钱而已。”**
**姜别利说王凤甲每天只能刻成七个字，原因应该是如下文所述他的身体健康不好，而刻小字又很费视力和精神的缘故。不过，土风甲每月12元工**
**资是很高的待遇，十几年后(1875)同一布道站的两名中国人牧师鲍哲才与黄文兰，每月工资分别才9元和10元而已。姜别利欣赏王凤甲的技艺，并没有计较他的产量和工资是否相配的问题。何况姜别利又认为比起刻钢质字范，王风甲的工资只是戈戈之数。姜别利又在美华书馆1861年的年报中表示，这套新活字完成后，字形的优美将超越历来任何中文活字，他指的不仅是已有的四种西式活字，也包括所有逐字手刻的活字。**
**称赞王凤甲的人不只姜别利。当时长老会上海布道站最资深的传教士克陛存(MichaelS.Culbertson)，也写信告诉秘书：“刻工(即王凤甲)正在刻我们的两套新活字中最小的那一套，我刚看过一些用他所刻活字印出来的字样，确信那是所有中文活字中最好的产品，也将是最有用处的。”**
**1861年9月开工斤，新活字的工作进行顺利，一年后美华书馆的1862年年报简略报导，已经刻成将近两千个字，但还没有电镀成字模。**
**1863年5月初，姜别利写信给秘书报导新活字的**
**进度，并附寄一份以新活字印有一百来字的样张给秘书，并说已经电镀了五六百个字模。当时在新活字以外，美华书馆也在电镀香港小活字，姜别利还得兼顾印刷部门的事务，各项工作彼此影响，难免拖累进度。姜别利决定加紧活字赶工，为此雇用一名上海外人印工帮他照料印刷部门，他自己则专心于铸字，同时增加电镀字模和活字的工匠人数至8人。进度加快后，姜别利于1863年10月6日向秘书报告，新活字已经刻成2900字，电镀成字模的也有2000字，其中1000字已经铸出活字。姜别利又提到王凤甲：“刻工的身体状况不好，进度缓慢，但是他慢工出细活，刻出的字好到连中国人都觉得不可思议。我认为全中国应当没有人可以和他相提并论，因为他的技术是我亲自训练的，中国人还没有这种技术。”**
**在1864年5月21日的信中，姜别利谈到王凤甲每个月完成三百字，已刻成将近五千字。每个月三百字，不计礼拜日，王凤甲平均每天完成超过十个字，比原来每天七个字增加一半产量，这很可能是他在姜别利赶工的压力下，不顾自己的健康尽力而为的结果。至于已刻成将近5000字，姜别利最初在宁波时估计的是新活字将包含5000常用字，到1864年时修正增加为7400字，其中6000常用字为全字(和香港小活字相同)，1400个为部首与字根的拼合活字，可以拼成约19000字，连同全字共可排印约25000字，因此上海活字也是一种拼合活字，可排印字数是在宁波最初估计数丹的五倍，也多于已有的四种活字，用处大为增加。**
**姜别利在1864年5月21日的信中又说，这套新活字已由秘书命名为“上海活字”(Shanghai Font)。秘书之意显然是要这套活字与已有的巴黎、柏林及香港等活字相提并论。不过“上海活字”的名称流传不久，到1868年时姜别利为便于中国人向美华书馆购买活字时称呼，将各种活字名称从大到小重新编成简单易懂的一至六**
**_SxALL PICA CHINESE-Pype $1.80 per lb.-latrices 25 cents cach._**
**RuBY CHINESE-Type $5.00 per 1b.-Hfatrices $1.00 cach.**
家奘三在 保大下
**1865年7月20日，姜别利报告上海活字的字范已经全部刻完。从1861年9月开工，经过将近四年时间，王凤甲终于达成这桩不容易的任务。姜别利随即又交付他新的工作，将500个最常用的汉字刻成更小的字范(Ruby、5.5点，尺寸约0.194x0.194厘米)，大小只有上海活字的四分之一，而他也不负期待完成使命，刻成美华书馆的六号活字。一个疑问是木刻字有时一人写、一人刻，有时一名刻工就包办两者，王凤甲是否又写又刻，包办写和刻两项工作?由于姜别利从头到尾只提王凤甲一人，没有提过另外有人写那些蝇头小楷，上海活字很有可能就是王凤甲又写又刻而成的杰作。**
**令人惊讶的是上海活字还未完工，姜别利已用于印刷图书和开始销售活字了。原来他急于证明上海活字的字小而美，印成书刊所占篇幅和成本都少，的确是价廉物美，所以要王凤甲先刻圣经新约内的2700多个不同的字，到1863年9月刻完后，再经电镀字模与活字，1864年8月起，用于印刷新约。姜别利屡次报导这部书的印刷情况，很有自信其美观将远远超过历来所有的中文圣经。后来这部书有机会赠予北京总理各国事务衙门的几位大臣。据美国驻北京使馆的代办卫三畏(Samuel Wells Williams) 表示，几位大臣对于书中的活字和印刷之美大为赞赏，说是见所未见，也承认即使最上乘的木刻印刷也望尘莫及。卫三畏先前担任来华印工二十余年，非常关注中文活字的进展，早在1863年见到进行中的上海活字时，已称赞字形美观，也预料这套活字将大有用处。后来，他编纂中英双语字典《汉英韵府》(A Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language)， 1874年由美华书馆出版，也以上海活字印刷。**
**至于上海活字的销售，姜别利于1865年6、7月间主动写信给法国皇家印刷所的所长推销，对方**
**也愿意订购。全套活字于1868年时交货，价款1800元。此外，耶鲁学院教授惠特尼(William D. Whitney)于1865年中写信给姜别利，代表美国东方学会(American Oriental Society) 订购一部分上海活字，姜别利迟至1869年3月交货，价款358元。这只是上海活字完成前的两笔交易，等到完成后订购的中国国内外客户就更多了。**
**结局与结语**
**王凤甲完成上海活字的半年后，姜别利于1866年1月25日写信给秘书报告王凤甲辞世的不幸消息：此人(王凤甲)有些非常令人难以置信的事，他就现身在需要他承担任务的时刻，所有人都说从来没见过像他做得这么好的事情，中国的确没有比他更好的工匠了。难得的是他在健康不好的情况下，还能完成上海活字的刻字工作。他在两个星期前的礼拜日(1866年1月14日)受洗成为基督徒，死于上个礼拜日(1866年1月21日)的凌晨两点钟。”**
**在l866年的美华书馆年报中，姜别利逐一感谢秘书等人及美华各部门员工的协助与效率。他特别提到王凤甲，表示上海活字得以完成，归功于他细致**
**入微的技巧和孜孜不倦的耐心，直到过世为止。姜别利发明从黄杨木刻字电镀成活字，是制造中文活字的革命性技术。他也认为这是自己来华的两大贡献之一。这项新技术首先就应用在上海活字的创制，而王凤甲正是实现上海活字的关键人物。**
**王凤甲简直就是专为上海活字而生的，如姜别利所说，在打造这套活字需要人手的时候，王凤甲就出现了；上海活字完成后，他竟然也随之过世。王凤甲除了有高明的手艺，令人印象深刻的是，尽管他的健康状态一直不好，却能坚守岗位，中途还能应需要提高产量，坚持到任务完成。虽然在姜别利的记载以外，难以觅得更多王凤甲的史料，但这些记载已经凸显王凤甲鲜明的形象，就是一位社会地位不高的寻常刻字工匠，凭着高明的技术和坚忍的毅力，创造中国近代印刷史上一套令人赞不绝口，也广泛流行的活字字范。尽管没有多少人知道他，但他开创的上海活字或者说美华书馆五号活字，在数十年中生产了许多中国人的精神食粮。■(编辑：九月)**
**(作者为中国台湾云林科技大学教授，英国伦敦大学图书馆系哲学博士，曾任淡江大学、南华大学教授)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **河南省职业教育发展现状发展研究**
马彦丽
(濮阳职业技术学院，河南 濮阳 457000)
\[内容提要\] 职业教育被视为经济腾飞的“秘密武器”，在国家和地方经济发展中占据重要地位。河南省作为农业大省、人口大省、经济弱省，如何发展职业教育，使我省沉重的人口负担转变为强大的智力优势，走出一条在不发达的经济条件下和剧烈竞争的市场经济环境中推进职业教育现代化的新路子，是摆在我们面前的一个重大课题。
\[关键词」 职业教育；发展现状
**\[中图分类号」(G71 \[文献标识码」 A \[文章编号」 1008-7427(2013)01-0025-02**
**一、河南职业教育发展现状**
积极发展高等职业教育是近几十年世界高等教育发展的一个重要特征，许多工业化国家在经济腾飞阶段为适应经济结构转型和经济快速发展，都适时、适宜地发展了高等职业教育。当今世界，各国政府都把发展教育和开发人力资源作为增强综合国力和国际竞争力的首选战略。教育在综合国力的形成中处于基础地位，国力的强弱越来越取决于劳动者的素质，取决于各类人才的质量和数量。从世界范围来看，职业教育与一个国家和地区的产业结构、经济发展和技术创新息息相关。凡经济发达的国家和地区都有一个完善而充满活力的职业教育体系作为经济发展的支撑。因此，职业教育被一些发达国家和地区当作一中特殊而重要的“战略发展产业”，视为经济腾飞的“秘密武器”和工业现代化的“基石”。
河南省是人口大省、经济弱省，在实现“科教兴豫”伟大战略目标的征程中，职业教育任重而道远。如何通过职业教育功能的发挥，使我省沉重的人口负担转变为强大的智力优势，成为“科教兴豫”的不竭动力和源泉，走出一条在不发达的经济条件下和剧烈竞争的市场经济环境中推进职业教育现代化的新路子，是摆在我们面前的一个重大课题。
改革开放30年来我省的职业教育持续健康发展，职业教育无论在规模、层次，还是在专业调整及师资结构上都从适应社会主义市场经济体制改革和产业结构调整需要出发，基本建成了具初等、中等、高等职业教育相互衔接，又与普通教育、成人教育相互沟通，学历教育和职业培训并举的体系框架。我省的职业教育由小到大，由弱到强，取得令人瞩目的成就，为我省的经济建设提供了大量的人才支持和智力贡献。
但是我省职业教育发展中仍然存在一些问题，主要表现为：职业教育与社会的需求和发展存在着一定程度的脱节现象，学校布局不合理，专业设置重复，学校的规模效益无法提高；培养的职业技术人才，与熟练劳动力的断层太大，职业教育的供给总量和质量与社会需求仍有较大差距；职业教育在教学内容、教学方法等方面存在着知识老化、方法陈旧落后、理论和实践相脱节的现象，行“职教”之名，举“普教”之实；职业教育所培养的学生存在着技能单一，知识面狭窄，缺乏社会发展和科技进步的后劲，难于适应未来社会发展和科技进步的后劲，难于适应未来社会发展需要。
**二、影响河南省职业教育发展的因素**
长期以来，河南省职业教育遵循“坚持中高职方向，服
\[收稿日期\]2012-09-29
务地方经济”的办学宗旨，坚持人才培养要与地方社会经济发展需求适销对路的原则，为地方培养了大量的技术管理型、高级应用型等方面人才。但是从发展的角度看，我省职业教育的发展中目前仍然存在一些问题，这些问题的存在已成为制约职业技术教育进一步发展的瓶颈。
1.专业设置不合理
虽然各职业院校都在为适应地方社会经济发展的需求不断调整和设置专业，但是由于办学条件等各种原因的局限，其专业设置仍不能很好地适应地方社会经济发展的需要。河南省社会经济发展急需的工程技术类、金融类、经管类、农林类、畜牧类等专业相对较少，这是河南省职业技术教育的薄弱环节。我们应充分认识到这一点，在专业设置上既不要为了好招生，一味赶时髦，设置“热门专业”，也不要完全从减少投资着眼，设置“口头专业”，必须遵循“拳头原则”和“服务地方经济原则”，把学校有限的资金集中投入，同时争取地方政府和企业的资金投入，从而加强实训条件，确保职业教育的质量。
2.办学特色不够明显
河南省的职业院校，虽然已明确自己的办学方向是发展职业技术教育，但真正办出特色的还不是很多，不少专业还是本专科专业的“压缩型”，还有的职业院校积极向普通教育靠拢，极力想甩掉“职业”二字，使其职业特色越来越不明显。因此，办出职业技术教育特色仍是河南省职业技术教育的薄弱环节。
3.缺乏强有力的政策导向，宣传不到位
尽管国家出台了一系列加快职业技术教育发展的政策和法律、法规，但是在地方上，真正落实的并不多，不少地市对发展职业技术教育仍旧停留在口头上，在招生、就业、培养经费等方面缺乏必要的政策导向，缺乏必要的宣传。这在一定程度上导致了社会上对职业技术教育的偏见和误解，视职业技术教育为“二等教育”，总觉得职业院校“不正规”因此，如何扩大宣传，消除社会上对技术教育的鄙视心理，使人们对职业技术教育的内涵和作用有一个正确的认识，乐于接受职业技术教育，这也是河南省职业技术教育亟待解决的问题。
4.师资队伍不能满足职业院校的教学需求
一方面职业院校教师在数量上不能满足教学需要，许多学校教师增长的速度，远远跟不上学校规模扩张的速度和学生增长的速度，师生比例极不合理。教师超负荷工作，教学
质量严重下降。另一方面教师队伍结构不合理。职业院校的教师队伍从学历结构、职称结构、年龄结构、双师素质结构及专业知识结构来看，都存在较为突出的问题。年轻教师比例太重，兼职教师缺乏规范管理，大部分教师动手能力、创新意识和创新能力差，整体素质亟待提高。所以增加专门的技能指导教师编制、允许学校从工厂聘请能工巧匠来校作专职的实习指导老师，无疑会对职校的技能教育工作起到积极的促进作用。
**三、实现河南职业教育长远发展的策略和方法**
地方经济发展的需求是高职教育产生与发展的源泉，高职教育产生与发展的动力不仅来自于教育体制内部，更重要的来源是地方经济发展的需求。此外，地方经济水平也将直接影响到高职毕业生的就业状况：大学生就业困难已是当前普遍存在的社会问题，高职毕业生就业形势更不乐观。造成这一社会问题的原因是多方面的，其中经济因素最不容忽视。在东南沿海地区，由于经济发达，各类工业企业发展迅速，从而为当地毕业生创造了大量就业机会，长江三角洲、珠江三角洲等地区出现了人才供不应求的现象，而在中、西部经济欠发达的地区，由于经济条件和自然因素限制，一方面，高职毕业生就业困难，不得不前往东南沿海地区的大城市求职谋生，另一方面，出现了人才相对短缺，所需人才得不到满足。高职教育最终服务于地方经济的本质属性决定了其对地方经济的发展具有较大的能动作用。当高职教育与地方经济发展相适应时将起促进作用，高职教育与地方经济的相适应是指高职的规模、发展速度、层次、质量、培养的人才质量和数量等各项指标均符合当前地方经济的现实需求或承受能力，反之将会起阻碍作用。这就对中、西部地区高职教育发展提出了一些新的要求，河南省作为中部地区省份之一，自然也面临着急需解决的一些问题。
1.制定政策法规，提供制度保障
为了促进高职教育和地方经济协调发展相协调，政府应当根据本省的高职教育和地方经济发展现状，做出科学的判断，准确的定位，围绕发展目标制定切实可行的政策法规，为二者的协调发展提高有力的制度保障。
首先，针对性强是最基本的要求。政府所制定的政策法规一定要针对当前本省高职教育和地方经济的发展现状，为达到协调发展的目的对高职院校和地方经济实体制定政策和法规。其次，要具有可操作性。政府制定的政策和法规，不能只是一纸空文，一定是能够实际操作的，并付诸实践的法律依据。另外，要具有具体性和微观性。关于促进职业教育和地方经济协调发展的规定在全国职业教育会议上曾经多次被提出，但一直未能以法律的形式予以颁布，并且，这些规定大多是一些笼统的要求，对于不按要求执行的行为，并没有相应的惩罚条例，因而在执行过程中，难以取得较好的成效。比如，到目前为止，对于校企合作问题，尽管已经有了相关的政策，但至于如何实施，仍有相当难度。
2.改进人才培养模式，提高培养质量
由于企业的人才来源渠道过于狭窄和在人才的选、育、用、留四个环节上的失衡以及高职培养出来的人才不能满足企业发展需要等原因，人才紧缺已成为制约河南经济产业发展的关键因素，这足以引起行业企业和高职院校的高度重视。对于企业发展来说，人才问题至关重要。人才好比企业的灵魂和生命线，没有人才就没有一切。企业的人才来源主要有两种途径：一是通过企业内部培训；一是从高职院校引进优秀专家教师和适合岗位需求的毕业生。通过企业内部培训人才，确实有很大好处，比如公司内部人员对公司文化、产品、市场、人员等情况较为熟悉，他们更容易融入公司环境，并可以节约培养成本。但并非企业所需要的人才都可以通过内部培训来获得，很多企业的行业性质决定了它与高职教育密不可分的关系。因而，高职院校是企业的另一重要人才来源。
目前企业急需的三类人才，即技能型人才、复合型人才和技术研发人才，除技术研发人才之外，前两类人才都需要依靠高职院校培养，复合型人才尤其是技能型人才是我国高等职业教育的培养目标，因此，高职院校是企业紧缺人才的重要来源。近几年来，高职院校每年都向社会输送大批毕业生，这些毕业生不仅掌握了一定的专业理论知识，而且还有着丰富的实践实训经验，使他们能够很快适应工作岗位的环境，稍加培训即可胜任。企业为引进并留住这批人才，应当为员工创造舒适的工作环境、可观的工资待遇、住房和晋升机会等。而作为高职院校来说，也一定要采取“走出去、引进来”的战略，培养出企业紧缺的技能型人才。高职院校应创新观念，主动与企业合作培养人才。高职院校和企业关于人才培养的合作过程是一个双向的、互惠共赢的项目工程，双方在此过程中应履行相应责任和义务，共同努力推动人才培养工程的顺利进行。企业应不断更新观念，提高认识，把高职作为人才培养的重要基地，并为人才培养提高必要的基地、岗位、人力、经费等支持。高职院校欲达到把学生培养成能够适应地方经济发展的技能型人才的目的，就必须突破传统教学观念，确立以能力为本位，突出实践教学、技能培养、学生主体的教学观念，走校企合作路线。如，濮阳职业学院与濮阳耐火材料公司、中原油田联合办学建立“濮耐班”、“中石油班”，濮阳职业技术学院进行理论培训，濮耐公司和中原油田负责实训，使学生获得了宝贵的接触实践、提升能力的机会。校企双方都从中受益，同时也促进了地方经济的发展。
3.加强专业建设
高职专业设置必须适应区地方经济、社会的发展，即应以市场需求为导向，根据当地产业政策的要求和技术结构、产业结构的调整变化开设适应地方经济发展确实需要的专业。高职教育的专业设置主要是随着产业结构的调整和人才需求的变化而变动，此外，还要综合考虑地方经济发展对各类人才的需求及各类专业建设的产出效益，按照优化教育系统资源配置的原则，实现高职院校各专业的合理布局。近几年来，随着国家政策的放开，高校办学自主权的增大，许多学校为了追求经济效益，无视现有的办学条件，盲目增设一些热门专业。这样势必造成各类院校的新设专业雷同，造成有限的教育资源过于分散，不能充分有效地发挥作用，教育教学质量很难保证。
鉴于这种情况，河南省高职院校的专业建设，首先应确立以本省为主的管理体制，根据现有的校际教育资源进行配置，设置专业。当地政府应根据产业分类和主导产业选择的实际，及时调整专业结构，合理进行专业布点；还应成立地方性的专业建设审议委员会，统筹协调区域内高职院校的专业建设，并严格审查办学条件；根据各校的优势及所属行业部门特点进行统一规划协调。其次，对各高职院校校新设专业根据地方经济社会发展和产业结构调整的趋势要进行审查、评议，防止专业设置的盲目性和随意性；指导并协助各校对传统专业进行调整与改造。另外，要稳定师资建设、教材建设、实训基地建设和实训室建设，从而为地方经济发展培养更多的实用性合格技术人才。最后，要加强特色专业建设，因为特色优势专业是高职院校的支柱和窗口，不仅可以稳定学校教学为学校发挥品牌效应，而且可以增强学校的吸引力和凝聚力。近年来，河南职业技术学院、河南机电高等专科学校和河南交通职业学院在加强品牌专业建设方面，取得了良好效果。
**\[参考文献」**
\[1\]王明伦.高等职业教育发展论\[M\].北京：教育科学出版社， **2005L**
\[2\]严雪怡.再论人才分类与教育分类\[\].职业技术教育，2003，(1)
刘春生，马振华.高技能人才界说.职教通讯，2006，(3).方光罗，郑承志.关于高职校企合作教育的思考\[\].中国职业技术教育，2004，(3). | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 启发式案例教学法在管理类本科专业的应用研究
李雪莲，高建斌
**(井冈山大学商学院，江西吉安3343009)**
摘要：案例教学法虽然已经在管理类专业本科教育中得到普遍运用，但是目前案例教学法还不能完全适应大学本科管理类课程教学。研究通过理论研究和课堂实践研究，分析了管理类本科专业案例教学存在的问题及原因，提出了适合本科层次的管理类专业课程启发式案例教学法的启发形式和实施路径。
**关键词：管理类专业；启发式案例教学；启发路径**
中图分类号： G642.4 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1008-4630(2021)06-0009-04
一、前言
**案例教学法至今已有一百多年的历史，它形成于法学教育，在医学、管理等方面的教育中得到应用。目前，案例教学法的应用已经十分普遍，如果从受教育群体的规模看，大学生无疑是接受这种教学方法的最大群体，原因在于它对社会科学类专业的教学具有很强的适用性，如思政理论课、大学英语课等，都广泛应用了案例教学。相比较之下，案例教学法应用最多的是管理类专业以及相关的管理类课程-4。这主要是由于案例教学方法是在工商管理硕士的培养中发展起来的，与管理学科的特点契合度高；案例教学法能够激发学生的学习动力，有利于培养创新意识和团队合作精神F-7。**
**但是大学层次的管理类专业不同于工商管理硕士，按照目前工商管理硕士的招生条件，大学本科毕业三年或者大学专科毕业五年才有报考资格。工商管理硕士和管理类本科专业之间不仅在教学层次上有所区别，其培养对象的阅历也存在着差异。另一方面，二者在培养目标上存在明显不同，对于工商管理硕士来说，核心目标在于提升管理能力，掌握知识的要求显然次要一些。而大学阶段的培养目标则有所不同，由于学生刚开始接受专业教育，虽然提升专业能力也是目标之一，**
但掌握知识是最基本、也是最重要的目标；特别是对于低年级大学生来说，这一要求更为突出。因此，经典的案例教学法在本科层次的管理类课程应用中还存在不能完全适应之处。
二、管理类本科专业案例教学存在的问题
**案例教学法已经在本科教育中得到普遍运用，特别是在管理类专业中运用更加广泛。这是由于本科阶段是专业教育的起始期，培养目标的基本要求是掌握专业知识，在此基础上提升管理技能，以适应社会发展和职业成长的需要。同时，本科生还没有真正接触社会，对管理活动的认知有限，案例教学把生动鲜活的管理实践搬进课堂，让学生在案例讨论的过程中对管理的具体情境有一定的认识，以达到扩展视野的效果。案例教学改变了传统教学中学生被动接受知识的方式，让学生深度参与进来，成为教学活动的主体，有利于增强学生的学习兴趣，改进教学效果。**
但是，由于经典的案例教学法不能完全适应本科层次的管理课程教学，如何充分发挥案例教学在本科教育中的作用，在整体上还处于探索阶段，有许多问题需要深人思考并加以解决。从直观现象看，问题主要表现在学生在案例教学过程中的反应，具体包括以下几方面。
**收稿日期：2021-06-13**
**基金项目：2020年江西省高校教学改革研究项目“管理类课程本土化案例的开发与教学方式改进”(JXJG-20-9-13)。**
**作者简介：李雪莲(1982一)，女，四川营山人，讲师，博士，主要从事企业管理方面研究；高建斌(1967一)，男，陕西扶风人，教授，博士，主要从事企业管理方面研究。**
**(一)学生参与案例分析的积极性不高**
**目前，我国大学阶段课堂沉默是比较普遍的现象，尽管有人认为这是中国大学生一种独特的学习模式，并不代表学习态度，也不能决定学习效果同，但其负面影响也是明显的，它为师生之间的互动制造了障碍，不利于教师发现学生掌握知识的情况，因而无法因材施教，影响教师的授课情绪，容易形成恶性循环。课堂沉默现象产生的原因主要有：大班教学让学生产生心理压力；学生不愿意参与互动，以免给同学留下夸夸其谈，信口开河的印象；学生缺乏自信，逃避互动；没有融人教学，因而无法互动等P9-10。**
**课堂沉默现象也反映在案例教学中，主要表现是案例讨论的气氛不活跃，学生分析案例过程中缺乏相互讨论。主要原因是学生存在矛盾心理，一方面希望课堂上其他同学对案例能够蹦跃表达观点，以活跃气氛；另一方面又担心他人对自己产生不良评价而不愿意表达观点。因而，学生只愿意作为旁观者，在听和看的过程中产生收获，这是演讲行为研究中所称的“自我形象受威胁”论。**
**(二)传统教学习惯导致角色错位**
**案例教学是一种启发式教学，强调师生之间以及学生之间双向沟通。在案例教学过程中，学生应该成为主角，在案例分析、讨论交流中发挥着主要作用；教师的作用主要是引导，应充当次要角色。二者角色不可颠倒，否则案例教学就会失去意义。**
但是，受传统教学方法的影响，在管理案例教学中，学生习惯于被动接受教师的讲授，担心自己的观点受到质疑，或者认为自己掌握的知识难以对案例有深度的分析，因而参与讨论的积极性不高。于是教师就不自觉地控制了案例教学的整个过程，充当了主要角色，从而影响了案例教学的效果。
**(三)案例教学路径不当**
对于大学本科生来说，知识体系和知识点的讲授过程是学生对理论知识的学习过程。案例教学往往是在一个完整的知识体系讲授之后进行的，巩固理论知识就成为开展案例教学的核心目标；同时，案例分析也离不开理论知识的运用。但是知识的巩固需要从知识体系的结构性和知识点的完整性两个方面人手，经典的案例教学法仅仅是在理论运用中产生“无心插柳”式的巩固，它突出问题导向，以综合性案例为主要分析对象，强调对不同领域理论知识的灵活运用，所用到的知识
是碎片化的，不仅难以体现知识体系的结构，更是无法保证知识点的完整性。
当前，案例教学的研究和实践主要针对工商管理硕士，而关于本科管理类专业案例教学方法的研究不多，导致本科阶段的许多案例教学盲目借鉴工商管理硕士的方法和路径，在巩固知识方面的效果不明显。
**三、管理类本科专业案例教学存在问题的原因分析**
**(一)案例选择不合理**
案例教学法的成功，建立在选好案例的基础之上，要求案例能满足教学目标的需要，符合学生的知识和阅历水平，特别是结合目前本科教育的特点，能够引发学生的参与兴趣，激发学生的参与热情。
目前，由于案例教学在管理类专业中得到普遍运用，许多教材适应了这一趋势，大量引入案例。按照其作用，这些案例可以分为内容导人型、观点佐证型、视野拓展型、理论传授型、知识巩固型等类型，为本科教学提供了丰富的案例素材，但存在着典型性、针对性、实践性不突出等问题，如案例过于简单，主题过于暴露，难以引发争论、缺乏讨论价值，只能成为知识讲授的点缀。有些案例盲目采用工商管理硕士的教学案例，篇幅过长、背景复杂、综合性强，违背本科学生的学习规律，如以企业高层管理者作为案例主角，远远超出本科生分析理解的能力范围。还有一些案例根据新闻报道、报纸评论改写而成，虽然时效性较好，但对材料没有进行系统的加工，或者内容不完整，或者没有理论深度，案例的结果带有很大的偶然性，不能用正常的理论分析出来，导致案例与理论两张皮，无法满足本科教学的要求。
**(二)教学组织安排不合理**
学生参与是案例教学最鲜明的特点，学生的参与程度如何，受到多种因素的影响，其中教师的引导和组织是一个重要因素，对案例教学的效果有直接影响。根据案例教学的一般做法，管理案例教学的组织过程包括了预读案例、个人分析、小组讨论、交流发言、效果评估等，目的在于引导学生提出、分析和解决问题。
在管理类本科专业的案例教学过程中，组织不当主要表现在：第一，注重结论获得，轻视知识的探索过程。这是由于受传统教学理念的影响，
教师没有从方法、内容体系上进行变革，只是在课堂上穿插了某些案例作为补充，最终结果还是简单的理论传授。第二，课堂讨论或者冷场、或者放任自流，没有达到预期效果。这是由于部分教师对案例教学法的研究不透彻，准备不充分，组织不严密，学生既缺乏心理准备，又缺少必要的知识技能，以致感到困惑甚至不知所措。在案例教学之前注意到这些问题并加以避免，能够为案例教学的成功提供良好条件。
**(三)教师引导作用不到位**
案例教学最主要的特色是教师从主角变为次角，其主要作用在于组织和引导学生，把控案例教学的方向，这要求教师必须具备较强的分析、解决实际问题的能力，才能发挥好自身应有的作用，保证案例教学的效果。
在管理类本科专业的案例教学中，教师引导作用不到位的问题比较常见，这首先受到教师实践经验的制约。管理学具有很强的实践性，而大多数教师只是从“校门”到“校门”，没有相应的企业管理实践，也没有机会长期深入企业，无法对案例进行深入的研究和判断，引导学生思考学习。其次，有些教师认为案例教学法就是一种可有可无的辅助教学手段，因而把案例完全抛给学生，任其自由讨论，自己放手不管，从而导致教师的案例点评不够深人、全面，造成案例教学难以达到启发效果。因此，教师要多接触管理实践，努力寻找机会服务社会，向“双师型”教师发展；要重视案例教学的作用，使案例教学方法与传统教学方法相结合，促进教学效果的改进；学会通过案例开发熟悉管理实践，丰富案例信息，从而在教学过程中发挥引导和启发作用。
四、破解管理类本科专业案例教学问题的路径
**研究结合多年教学实践，提出一种适合本科层次的管理类专业启发式案例教学法。这种方式以经典的案例教学为基础，基于大学管理类专业课程，使教师在案例教学中充分发挥引导和启发的作用，增强学生的融人感、参与性，从而提高案例教学的效果。**
**(一)案例启发的设定形式**
**经典的案例教学法面对的是工商管理硕士，其启发作用主要表现在三个方面。首先，案例本身不会提供结论，结论是在案例分析和讨论的基**
础上形成的；其次，案例的结论不是唯一的，正所谓“条条大路通罗马”，同一个问题可以有不同的解决方案和途径，不同的分析结论不能简单的用“正确”和“错误”进行评价，只能区分哪个更优；再次，案例中问题的解决方案无法直接得到，培养对象需要结合专业知识和工作体会，在深入思考甚至激烈冲突的基础上才能得出合适的结论。
在上述案例教学中，按照主体来划分，启发可以分为三种形式。一种是培养对象的自我启发，主要在案例材料的阅读和个人思考分析阶段；二是培养对象之间的相互启发，主要体现在课堂的讨论和学生发言过程中；三是教师的引导启发，主要在教师的课堂点评和案例分析报告的批阅评价环节，所起的作用是方向性的。对于经典案例教学方法来说，这三种启发形式中自我启发和相互启发是主要形式，教师的引导启发则具有方向性。
启发式案例教学法也需要这三种形式的启发，但结合本科阶段培养目标的要求和学生的特点，教师启发的作用更加重要。因此要形成以教师启发为主导、自我启发和相互启发相结合的一套系统方式。
**(二)教师启发的路径安排**
在启发式案例教学法中，教师的启发维度主要表现在以下几个方面。
1.启发学生了解社会、行业发展现状，开阔学生视野，使其认识管理实践的复杂性，为思考和分析案例提供必要的认知准备。由于受阅历的限制，学生对社会缺乏了解，对行业缺乏认识。在案例教学之前，教师可以提早安排学生查找资料，让学生自己动手，对案例背景有一定程度的认知，这也能帮助学生对毕业之后的职业发展有所思考。
2.启发学生将案例中的事件发展过程与管理理论联系起来，在案例分析的过程中巩固理论知识，感悟理论知识的运用方法，进一步认识理论知识的意义。在案例分析的过程中，教师进行方向性把控，让学生结合案例材料准确地选择理论知识，正确地运用理论知识分析问题，从中感受理论知识如何与管理实践有机结合，指导管理实践，从而对理论知识的掌握更加牢固。
3.启发学生融入案例角色，启发思维，以积极的态度直面案例中的问题，通过深人分析解决问题，从中产生收获感。学生进行案例分析的过程是解决问题的过程，遇到复杂问题需要勇气和信心，不能回避矛盾，应该积极启迪思维展开深层次
**思考；即通过教师引导，学生自己寻找解决问题途径，体验成功。**
4.启发学生从案例教学中感受乐趣，产生兴趣。通过上述几方面的启发，一般来说能够达到预期的案例教学效果，学生在巩固知识、培养技能和能力的同时，能够体会到学习的乐趣，增强学习的兴趣，促进学习效果的改进。
**教师的启发路径主要通过设置问题和点评的方式实现。设置问题要根据学生的特点，将案例与相关的知识点联系起来，做到难度适中。不能过于简单，让学生不经过思考，从案例材料中直接照搬答案；也不能难度太大，让学生无从下手。教师对学生案例分析中的观点点评要简要精炼，给学生留有思考的余地，不能作为最终结论，替代学生的思考。为了更加深人地引导学生，教师在点评环节还可以在学生分析结论的基础上，进一步设置问题，让学生在课后围绕案例继续思考。**
**(三)运用相互启发模式，打破课堂沉默**
相互启发是学生在案例讨论和分析过程中，受到其他同学观点的影响，自己对案例所产生的新感悟和新认识。要利用好相互启发的方式促进教学效果。围绕课堂沉默现象产生的原因，促进相互启发的路径如下。
1.建立案例讨论小组。低年级的案例讨论小组人数不能多，以5人为宜，这样可以避免面对全班同学时产生的心理压力，使学生轻松表达自己的观点，参与讨论。随着年级的升高和案例教学次数的增加，学生在这一方面的心理压力会逐步减少，就可以逐步扩大小组规模。在教学实践中，学生进入大二就可以将案例讨论小组的规模增加到8人左右，大三之后还可以继续增加。
2.合理搭配案例讨论小组的成损。每一个案例讨论小组中应该有一些相对活跃的成员，能够起到带头作用，有助于调节小组讨论的氛围；成员应该在课外有比较多的联系，彼此之间关系和睦，有助于减少学生之间的心理距离，为案例讨论创造良好条件；另外，要注意学习程度不同的学生之间合理搭配，从而能够在小组内部产生带动效果，促进相互启发。
3.创设案例讨论的氛围。，一方面，教师在平时的教学中要注意与学生建立融洽的关系，以拉近师生之间的距离；另一方面，在案例讨论阶段，应该以小组成员的角色参与到其中一组学生的讨论中去，协助该小组改进讨论效果。这既为别的
小组提供了讨论的借鉴，也能够发现学生存在的问题，为增强点评阶段的针对性提供依据。最后，教师的点评应该以正面引导为主，负面评价应该中肯客观，避免带人感情色彩。
**(四)促进学生自我启发**
**自我启发是学生通过阅读案例，在理解材料的基础上自己形成的思考，自我启发要产生效果，需要从以下两方面人手。**
1.做好课前准备工作。一是至少提前一周给学生提供案例材料，让学生有充足的消化材料和思考问题的时间；二是引导学生主动融入案例角色，这可以通过问题的设置或是角色扮演来实现，比如“如果你是案例中的某个角色，面对案例中的问题应该如何分析和解决”等，这样能够强制性地引导学生的思维。
2.打好理论基础。对于本科生来说，案例教学一般在一个相对完整的知识单元讲授完成之后进行，案例与相应的理论知识联系比较紧密。要保证自我启发的效果，学生要充分掌握理论知识，打好理论基础，否则，自己对案例的思考就会缺乏理论依据，没有深度。
**参考文献：**
\[1\]顾明远.教育大辞典\[M\].上海：上海教育出版社，1986： **47.**
**\[2\]张文娟.案例教学法在管理学教学中的探析和改进** 经营管理者，2012(16)：344.
**\[3\] 徐拥军，宋扬.案例教学法在本科管理类课程中的应用** \[\].东北农业大学学报(社会科学版)，2017(3)：29-33.
\[4\]王华.案例教学法在管理类课程教学中的应用\[J\].高教 **论坛，2019(12)：43-46.**
**\[5\] Dooley A R， Skinne W. Casing Casement Methods \[\]** **Academy of Management Review， 1977(2)：277-289.**
**\[6史美兰.体会哈佛案例教学\[J\].国家行政学院学报，2005(2)：84-86.**
**\[7\]张丽华.管理案例教学法\[M\].大连：大连理工大学出版社，2000：1-20.**
**\[8\]刘骏，钟坚.留美中国学生的课堂沉默现象探析\[\].现** 代外语，2005(4)：393-402.
\[9\] 张东海.大学生课堂动机性沉默的影响因素及其效应\[\].教育发展研究，2019(1)：40-46
\[10\] 祝振兵，陈丽丽，金志刚.大学生课堂沉默的影响因素分析——基于内隐理论的视角\[\]大学教育科学，2017(6)：50-56，122. | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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图为北京市第71中学的跳绳表演
快乐的“绳中绳
一、指导思想
本课在《体育与健康课程标准》的教学理念指导下，努力贯彻“以人为本，健康第·”的指导思想，注重学生的实践体验、自主探究、合作与交往。以增强学生健身实效为出发点，为学生提供自主学习活动的空间，改变原有的教学模式，以教师为主导，学生为主体，充分发挥学生主观能动性，挖掘学生内在潜力，尊重每个学生的个体差异，满足学生的不同需求，培养学生创新意识。通过多种教学方式，培养学生自学、自练、五评能力，在愉悦的气氛中完成教学任务。
二、教材选择
跳绳是深受小学生喜爱的体育教材内容，经常跳绳对于促进运动器官的发育和内脏机能的发展有重要的作用，尤其能够对发展弹跳力和提高灵敏、协调、速度、耐力等
身体素质具有显著的效果。本课结合新课程标准的理念，根据六年级小学生身心特点，将跳绳教材游戏化，培养学生练习的积极性，针对学生的个体差异，采用分层次教学的方法，满足学生们的不同需求，确保每个学生都受益，通过游戏提高团结、协作、竞争以及群体意识和集体荣誉感，使学生得到全面的发展，在学习中体会快乐，在运动中体验成功的同时培养学生的终身体育意识。
三、教学流程
本课分为热身篇、学习篇、实战篇、游戏篇和欢乐篇五个部分。
1.在热身篇中，“雨点变奏曲”和《兔子舞》为主要热身手段，使学生全身机能均得到调动，为主教材的学习作铺垫。
2.在学习篇中让学生体验跳绳的各种跳法，然后师生共同讨论，一起分析跳绳中绳的方法；在绳中
绳的分组学练中强调学生在练习的过程中相互观察、相互交流，共同探讨正确的方法，使学生在学练的过程中不仅能发现问题，还能在相互合作的过程中找到解决问题的方法，在课的评价阶段，鼓励学生对学习跳绳中绳进行自评、互评。
3.在游戏篇中为了调动学生的学习兴趣和课堂气氛，设计了纵队跳绳比快，提醒学生在练习中注意和同伴密切合作，通过尝试互相照顾配合赢得胜利。
4.在欢乐篇中将运动保健与体育锻炼有机结合，我选用了保健按摩放松。在《幸福拍手歌》的伴奏下，通过教师传授按摩敲打的基本知识和手法，使学生达到既放松身体又能初步学习和掌握保健按摩相关的手法，为其今后学习、生活、锻炼可持续发展服务。
一
| 教学内容 | 1.绳中绳 2.游戏：“纵队跳绳比快” | 重点 | 长、短绳摇转节奏一致 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 教学内容 | 1.绳中绳 2.游戏：“纵队跳绳比快” | 难点 | 掌握好摇绳和跳绳的时机相吻合 |
| 学习标 | 1、让学生探究尝试绳中绳的方法和技巧，并有所进步，发展学生的弹跳能力。2、借助多种跳法的练习、体验合作学习的乐趣，发展学生的灵敏、协调等素质。3、培养学生时间与空间的感觉，激发学生主动参与体育锻炼的兴趣，在练习中培养学生合作创新精神，互相照顾配合赢得胜 利。 | | |
| 安全提示 | 1、衣裤口袋中不要放硬物，如乘车卡、发卡、钥匙等。(课前提示) 2、场地平整，没有尖锐的物体，如小石子、钉子等。(课前检查场地) | | |
热身篇
体育教学2
| 教学内容 | 时间 | 强度 | 组织教法与学练法 | | 场景 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 教学内容 | 时间 | 强度 | 教师活动 | 学生活动 | 场景 |
| 1、课堂常规2、游戏： “雨点变奏曲” 3、简单韵律活动《兔子舞》4、游戏： “捉尾巴” | 1'2 32 | 小 中 | 1、师生问好，教师引出本课内容。 2、创设情境，引导学生进行游戏。 3、领做基本舞步。 4、引导学生尝试多种队形变化5.讲解游戏规则方法。 包对6，和学生.起进行游戏活动。 | 1、整队报告人数。 2、利用身体不同部位发出的声音，模仿下雨的情景。3、跟随教师进行动作学习。 4、积极尝试各种练习方法。 5、进行游戏。 | 四列横队 OOOOOOOOO○X XXX XX XX X X |
分篇分层达成目标 激发学习兴趣，培养良好的组织纪律性。
第年 学习篇
B-9
期
| 教学内答 | 时间 | 强度 | 组织教法与学练法 | | 场景 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 教学内答 | 时间 | 强度 | 教师活动 | 学生活动 | 场景 |
| 1、短绳自由跳2、花样跳绳 3、原地跳绳中绳分组学 练 4、白由创编 | 212 5' | 中 | 1、引导学生自由跳短绳。 2.鼓励学生进行花样跳法。 3、提出问题：如何将短绳与长绳结合起来跳?4、指导学生分组尝试学练。5、讲解绳中绳的各种跳法。 6、教师设疑：跳短绳的同学应怎样和摇绳的同学配合呢?7、适时参与指导帮助。 8，组织学生展示，总结出跳绳中绳的动作要领及重难点。9、提高难度，师生共乐，体验成功。 10、及时总结，鼓励学生进行创造性练习。 11.鼓励学生白评互评。 | 1、学生自由练习。 2、体验花样跳法。 3、分工合作，积极尝试并讨论。4，注意听教师的讲解并思考。5、学生分组尝试，体验。6、与教师交流练习方法。 7、相互观察练习方法并积极练习。 8、积极进行演示跳法，张扬个性。9、顶帮互学，分工合作，积极尝 试：大胆创新，体验成功。 | 散点 6 0000○ 000000 000000 |
分篇分层达成目标 乐下参与跳绳的练习，提高跳的能力，体验体育活动中的心理感受。
游戏篇
| 教学内容 | 时间 | 强度 | 组织教法与学练法 | | 场景 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 教学内容 | 时间 | 强度 | 教师活动 | 学生活动 | 场景 |
| 游戏： H“纵队跳绳比快” | 6' | 大 | \[、讲解游戏规则方法。 2、指导并组织游戏。 3、组织学生交流小组游戏中的问题，及时教育学生增强与他人合作的能力。 4、提高难度，纵队跳两根绳比快。 | 1、进行游戏活动。 2、根据自己参与游戏的体会，回答老师的提问。 3、提高安全意识，避免危险。4、总结经验继续比赛。 5、与教师交流学习的收获。 | |
| 分篇分层达成目标 | | 增强身体素质，提高合作意识。 | | | |
分篇分层达成目标 增强身体素质，提高合作意识。
欢乐篇
| 教学内容 | 时间 | 强度 | 组织教法与学练法 | | 场景 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 教学内容 | 时间 | 强度 | 教师活动 | 学生活动 | 场景 |
| 1、放松练习： 《幸福拍手歌》 2、课堂小结3、师生再见 | 4'1' | 小 | 1.带领学生一起进行2、总结本课学习情况。 3、提出课后练习的要求。4、安排学生回收器材。 | 1、昕音乐进行放松活动。2、认真听总结，明确课后练习的要求。 | Ox○O文X ○ |
| 分篇分层达成目标 | | 乐于参与和展示白我，调解身心。 | | | |
| 活动器材 | 橡皮筋8根 标志物8个接力棒4根 录音机1台桂图一幅 | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 平均心率 | 135次/分 | 课后反思 | 略 |
| 练习密度 | 50% | 课后反思 | 略 | | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 目的论视角下的电视剧字幕翻译
**——以《摩登家族》为例**
**文/梁素文**
**【摘要】影视剧字幕翻译属于文学翻译的主要分支，这种字幕不仅具有译文的主要特征，并且具有实用性。本文以美剧《摩登家族》为例，分析目的论视角下电视剧字幕翻译的特点以及翻译对策。**
**【关键词】目的论；电视剧；字幕翻译；《摩登家族》**
**【作者单位】梁素文，周口师范学院外语学院**
**【基金项目】河南省哲学社会科学一般项目《基于建设郑州航空港探索应用型人才培养的困境和出路》编号：2015BYY006 ；河南省教育厅人文社会科学研究项目《基于认知心理学对翻译过程的实证研究》编号：2014-qn-657。**
**近年来，影视剧作为文化传播的重要载体，经过网络的传播，影响力逐渐扩大。以美剧为例，在近几年全球化的影响下得到了一部分国人的追捧，但是由于受到语言的影响与制约，大多数美剧在引入我国之后需要进行字幕翻译，因此称字幕翻译人员为中美交流的文化使者也不为过货。本文以《摩登家族》为例，分析目的论视角下电视剧字幕翻译的特点以及翻译对策。该剧作为一部伪纪录片形式的情景喜剧，主要讲述了三个美国家庭生活的点点滴滴，其间不乏幽默的话语、搞笑的动作，内容活泼，题材丰富，将其作为案例进行探索具有可借鉴之处。**
**一、目的论的基本概述**
**目的论是由汉斯·弗米尔在凯瑟琳娜·赖斯的研究基础上所形成的一种基础理论1目的论以文本作为实践对象，在进行翻译时注重翻译的目的。目的论强调翻译的互动性以及实用特征，在翻译过程中，所有的目标语境都需要具有”目的性”，翻译的内容还要具备可读性、连贯性、准确性，能够为广大目标人群所接受，在忠于原文的基础上形成一种独特的翻译形式。**
**但是，现阶段目的论翻译仍旧存在诸多弊端与不足，其，由于文化背景的差异导致翻译存在不确定性；其二，严格按照目的论进行翻译，有时候会与原文作者意图背道而驰131基于这两方面的缺陷，诺德提出了”忠诚原则”，即在翻译的过程中译者需要向受众解释为何要这么翻译，积极协调译文与原文的统一性，实现对原文的忠诚。**
**二、目的论视角下《摩登家族》字幕翻译需要遵循的基本原则**
**1.语言风格**
**从目的论角度出发可以清楚地了解到电视剧字幕翻译在语言层面的主要任务，即保证译文的通俗性以及口语化，将电视剧最为真实的情景展现给受众。《摩登家族》剧情节奏变换比较快，语言通俗易懂，口语化特点明显。**
**(1)通俗性**
**在电视剧作品中最为基础的内容便是做到语言通俗易懂。由于国情不同，所以在翻译的时候译者需要从本国国情出发，将通俗性这一特点拿捏到位。**
**例 And wh o's this Cactus Flower ?( 这个仙人球是谁?)**
**字幕中仙人球'一词便可以体现翻译语言的通俗特点，这不仅将剧中人物的体形特点进行展现，所产生的幽默感更是高于原文。**
**(2)口语化**
**电视剧人物之间的对白是极其重要的，《摩登家族》作为一部情景喜剧，其口语化特征比较明显，三个家庭每天的生活琐事是整部剧的亮点，利用简单的口语对话就能够完成叙事。**
**例：Don't feel as if you can hold the whole world in a hug?(你不觉得伸出手就可以拥抱全世界吗?)**
**虽然这句台词比较简短，但是却意味深长，通常告诫别人一个道理会采取长篇大论的形式，但是在剧中，女主角用一句大白话便讲述了一个道理，这样的处理方式不仅可以彰显该剧台词口语化的基本特点，而且也包含了人物对话的主题内容。**
(3)个性化
**《摩登家族》另外一个特点便是每一个人物都个性突出，各具特色，剧中人物对白往往会达到言如其人的效果。**
**例 ：Jay ， Is this like the lob ester ?**
**Do Iget to p ick one for din ner ?**
**杰，这(指马)和龙虾一样能吃吗?晚餐能不能宰一儿?**
**这是Jay的妈妈以幽默的话语询问Jay的一句话，将其如此翻译不仅可以为受众营造良好的幽默氛围，而且在一定程度上也可以体现人物的性格。译者采取目的论理念，可以巧妙地对各个人物个性进行把握，形成独特的翻译技巧。**
**2.文化风格**
**翻译受地域的影响非常大，但文化交流超越语言的限制，翻译人员在对原文进行翻译的时候需要将译本与原文本进行对比，将翻译的重点放在文化的互动之上。此外，从目的论角度出发，翻译的主要目的是让观众能够对电视剧的内容有所了解，因此在翻译的过程中，需要从文化风格角度出发，尽可能照顾受众的观看感受，形成独特的翻译技巧。**
**三、基于目的论视角下《摩登家族》的字幕翻译**
**正如上文所言，字幕翻译属于有目的的翻译活动，在翻译的过程中影视作品的商业性决定了字幕翻译的目的性，要想真正保证受众对字幕内容认可，则需要在翻译的过程中做到灵活应用。《摩登家族》作为较有代表性的美剧，在字幕翻译上呈现了不同的特征，具体如下。**
**1.实现翻译的创新性**
**例：The play ofthe three women in our fa mily.**
**(我们家女人唱的哪出戏?)**
**剧中Phil在下楼的时候发现妻子与两个女儿正在争论一些事情，于是便说出上面的台词。如果进行直译，很多观众由于语言不通，对其内容并不了解，导致"一头雾水”，将其翻译为”唱的是哪一出戏”，很多中国观众则会联想到"三个女人一台戏”的含义，能够对翻译的内容有所了解，并且会欣然接受。**
**2.进行删译或者增译**
**由于地域文化的差异，翻译人员所翻译的内容与原文会存在一定的差别，但是采取删译或者增译的方法则可以帮助观众理解。**
**例：To my g ran dmother...**
**(为我的祖母干杯)**
**翻译人员可以翻译为：**
**For the onetowhom**
**(为那谁干杯)**
**剧中的Gloria是哥伦比亚人，在一次聚会的时候做了一桌子祖母生前的拿手菜招待客人，并且在开始的时候提议为自己的祖母干杯，但是祖母的名字特别长，他们无法记全这么长的名字，很多家人也只能勉强记住前面的部分，而祖母并不是剧中的关键人物，所以翻译人员在进行翻译的时候可以进行删减，否则翻译出来不仅会导致受众不了解含义，并且会分散自己的注意力。因此，翻译人员将祖母名字删减之后可以减轻观众的负担。**
**例 ：He could not hold the hammer like ，he is a law school g rad uat e， career can also be on th e upgrade ，bring home the bacon.**
**(他拿不住锤子怎么样，他是法学院毕业，事业正在上升阶段，并且还可以养家糊口)**
**该句台词是Jay评论自己动手能力比较差的儿子，如果对原文进行直译，那么则会显得缺乏连贯性，但是在翻译的过程中采取增译的方式，则可以让该句话看起来更加自然与饱满.**
**3.替换概念**
**例 ：Listen to me ，you imm ediate ly to the college entrance examin ation ， this is not a min or scien tific experiment。**
**(听我说，你马上就要高考了，这可不是小打小闹的科学小实验)**
**这是Claire对自己女儿说的，在美国高考与SAT考试等级相同，但是如果翻译人员在翻译的过程中选择SAT作为内容，那么很多观众则不会理解，但是如果替换成中国的高考，很多人都会有所了解，这种替换概念的方式不仅可以让观众更快地抓住信息点，并且也能够更好地理解剧情。**
**可见，目的论作为一种具有影响力的理论，对翻译具有十分重要的推动作用。本文基于目的论，着重分析《摩登家族》的翻译特点、翻译需遵循的原则以及翻译的策略，希望相关翻译人员在今后的翻译活动中，能够采取活灵活现的翻译方法以及翻译策略，推动国与国之间的文化交流。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\]李洋洋.目的论视角下的中国特色词汇翻译研究\[J\].海外英语，2012(7)：137-138.**
**\[2\]皇甫超伟.浅谈目的论视角下的英文电影片名的翻译\[J\].剑南文学(经典教苑)，2011(4).**
**\[3\]王冬梅.目的论视角下《功夫熊猫2》的字幕翻译\[J\]1.新乡学院学报(社会科学版)， 2013(3)：98-100.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局的几点思考**
**斌贤**
(浙江省社会主义学院，浙江杭州311121)
**摘要：民主党派作为中国特色社会主义参政党，能够在“四个全面”战略布局中发挥不可替代的独特作用。参政党要围绕“四个全面”战略布局中的重点难点热点问题开展参政议政，针对“四个全面”战略布局实施中存在的突出问题开展民主监督，紧扣“四个全面”战略布局中的重大问题开展政党协商，针对“四个全面”战略布局中的相关问题做好社会服务工作。参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局，要切实提高履职能力，切实加强自身建设，切实构建保障机制。**
**关键词：参政党；四个全面；能力建设**
**中图分类号： D613 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1008-6269(2015)06-0028-05**
**习近平在中央统战工作会议上明确指出，要“坚持和完善中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度，更好体现这项制度的效能，着力点在发挥好民主党派和无党派人上的积极作用”。这从治国理政的高度把国家的战略目标及其要求与中国特色社会主义参政党联系了起来，对参政党在协调推进“四个全面”战略布局中体现职能、发挥作用提出了新的更高的要求。**
**一、参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局的时代背景**
**“四个全面”是以习近平为总书记的党中央在全面建成小康社会决定性阶段和实现中华民族伟大复兴关键时期作出的軍大战略部署，具有战略性、全面性、根本性和纲领性的时代**
**特征。推进这一战略布局不仅需要加强顶层设计，确定方向、明确目标、统筹协调，还需要充分调动广大人民群众的积极性与创造性，发挥各种社会政治力量的优势与作用。民主党派作为中国特色社会主义参政党，不仅是统一战线中重要的合作和依靠力量，而且能够在“四个全面”战略布局中发挥不可替代的独特作用。**
**(一)参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局是多党合作制度效能的体现**
**协调推进“四个全面”战略布局、努力实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦，是一个十分艰巨复杂的系统工程，是具有许多新的历史特点的伟大事业。完成这一艰巨任务，既需要中国共产党的坚强领导，也需要动员广泛的社会力量。这就要发挥中国共产党的政治优势和多党**
DOl：10.13946/j.cnki.jcqis.2015.06.006
**收稿日期：2015-07-28**
**基金项目：** ： **中央社会主义学院多党合作与“四个全面”专项课题(zdzx201509)**
**作者简介：魔斌贤(1960一)，男，安徽寿县人，浙江省社会主义学院、浙江中华文化学院副院长，教授，博士，国务院政府特殊津贴专家，主要从事资源环境经济与管理、社会公共治理与现代社会组织创新发展研究。**
**合作的制度效能，实现最广泛的团结和联合，最大限度地凝聚共识、凝聚人心、凝聚智慧、凝聚力量。习近平在2012年12月26日走访各民主党派中央时指出： “实现我们的奋斗目标，需要全国上下共同努力，需要加强中国共产党同各民主党派和无党派人士的团结合作。”他在中央统战工作会议上强调，人心向背、力量对比是决定党和人民事业成败的关键，是最大的政治。习近平高度重视发挥参政党在“四个全面”战略布局中的作用。2015年2月，他在同各民主党派中央、全国工商联负责人和无党派人士代表共迎新春时强调：各民主党派和无党派人士要发挥自身优势，着力服务“四个全面”战略布局。**
**(二)参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局是多党合作的内在要求**
**紧扣中央重大决策和战略部署履行参政议政、民主监督、政治协商职能，是新形势下参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局的内在要求，是多党合作制度的责任和使命所在，是衡量多党合作成效大小的实践标准，是多党合作制度效能的重要体现。参政党贯彻落实习近平总书记系列重要讲话精神和中央重大战略部署，就要强化思想政治共识和主动嵌入政治体系，把基层组织和广大成员的思想与行动统一到“四个全面”战略布局上来；围绕重大问题建言献策，立足各自优势献计出力，把新形势对多党合作制度的新要求转化为促进经济社会发展、实现国家治理现代化的实实在在的新成果。**
**“四个全面”战略布局在根本上讲的是发展与治国理政问题。如何发挥党的领导、保证作用，实现民主治理、依法治理，有效发挥市场的决定性作用和政府的调控作用，创新和引领经济新常态的发展路径，破解资源与环境的瓶颈、实现社会公平正义，是各级党委和政府高度关注的重大问题，也为参政党履行职能、发挥作用提供了机遇与空间。这要求各民主党派发挥自身优势，围绕重大问题开展专题调研，并通过制度化的意见表达渠道、沟通协商平台建言献策，以形成最大公约数、汇集正能量，**
**促进国家治理决策的科学化、民主化。参政党成员中的专业人士可以发挥特长，在相关专业领域为协调推进“四个全面”战略布局服务。**
**(三)参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局是民主党派优势作用的体现**
**中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度是统一战线的重要制度体现，是党治国理政的重要方面，是党凝聚人心、汇聚力量的战略方针和政治优势。参政党要在履职过程中，围绕经济社会发展、体制改革和机制创新、民主法治和党风建设中的重大问题及关系群众切身利益的实际问题，积极建言献策，发挥凝聚共识、决策咨询、政治参与、利益表达和社会整合作用。参政党能够通过一定的载体或平台，把自身优势转化为现实生产力，为实现“四个全面”战略布局和中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦注入强大力量。参政党还可以发挥社会联系广泛优势、党和人民群众联系的桥梁与纽带作用，为加强党的建设、增强党的阶级基础和扩大党的群众基础贡献力量。各民主党派所联系的一部分社会主义劳动者、社会主义事业建设者和拥护社会主义的爱国者所处的社会政治地位和经济利益存在差异。社会力量的多样性与他们共同利益、共同奋斗目标和思想政治基础的一致性存在矛盾。利益表达和社会整合就成了参政党可以而且应该发挥的作用。**
**二、参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局的主要途径与方式**
**《中国共产党统一战线工作条例(试行)》把民主党派的职能完善为参政议政、民主监督、参加中国共产党领导的政治协商，对民主党派履行职能的内容、程序、形式等作了进一步规范。 《关于加强社会主义协商民主建设的意见》对协商民主建设的途径、原则、程序等提出了具体要求。这些都为参政党着力服务“四个全面”战略布局指明了方向。**
**(一)围绕“四个全面”战略布局中的重点难点热点问题开展参政议政**
**民主党派能够从中国特色社会主义建设目标和自身的特点优势出发，开展服务“四个全**
**面”战略布局的调查研究、决策咨询和建言献策活动。参政议政是民主监督、政治协商的重要途径和形式。三者之间既有联系又有区别，是相互促进、相辅相成的。在我国政治生活中，政党协商在短时间内难以发展到位，民主监督尚未完全找到有效途径。参政党的参政议政作用更加突出，已经成为各民主党派提升形象、发挥作用的重要手段和经常性工作。要加强领导，建立健全参政议政的领导机制、选题机制、调研机制、论证机制、成果报送应用与反馈机制。要发挥参政党的整体作用，整合民主党派内外的各种资源，实现上下左右的互动联动，强化参政议政的组织协调。要突出重点、党派特色和专业特长。**
**(二)针对“四个全面”战略布局实施中存在的突出问题开展民主监督**
**民主监督是民主党派的一项重要职能。在团结合作的政党关系基础上，参政党可通过提出意见、批评、建议等民主方式开展政治监督。中国共产党处于领导和执政地位，需要接受民主党派的监督。参政党民主监督既是-一个理论问题，更是一个实践问题。民主监督作为参政党的基本职能，具有咨询、反馈、警示、督责等功能。习近平指出：“各级党委要主动接受、真心欢迎民主党派和无党派人士监督，切实改进工作作风，不断提高工作水平。”他要求从制度上保障和完善民主监督，探索开展民主监督的有效形式，拓宽民主监督的渠道。“对党外人士而言，要敢于讲真话，敢于讲逆耳之言，真实反映群众心声，做到知无不言，言无不尽。”民主党派和无党派人士既要真诚建言又要理性包容，分清轻重缓急，按照程序开展组织化、理性的民主监督。**
**(三)紧扣“四个全面”战略布局中的重大问题开展政党协商**
**政党协商是中国共产党与各民主党派就党和国家的重大方针政策、重要政治事务进行的直接政治协商，具有政党性、高层性、全局性和制度性的特点。它不仅是中国政党制度的重要内容、社会主义协商民主的首要渠道，而且**
**是中国特色新型智库的重要平台、中国共产党提高执政能力的重要途径，在党和国家工作大局中具有重要地位和作用。2015年2月11日，习近平在同党外人士共迎新春时强调“要着力推动政党协商深入开展”“搞好政党协商，需要中国共产党与各民主党派共同努力”。习近平在中央统战工作会议上对政党协商提出了明确的要求。 “协商就要诚心诚意，认认真真，满腔热情听取意见和建议，有事要商量、多商量，不能想起了、有空了、拖不过去了才协商。要完善政党协商的内容和形式，建立健全知情和反馈机制，增加讨论交流的平台和机会。”要加强政党协商的程序制度、保障机制建设，保证政党协商有序有效运行，切实提高政党协商的质量与水平。**
**(四)针对“四个全面”战略布局的相关问题做好社会服务工作**
**民主党派依托自身优势开展社会服务工作，是助力“四个全面”战略布局的有效途径。民主党派在培训、咨询、扶贫帮困、献爱心和科技、教育、卫生、文化下乡服务方面做了大量的工作，得到了社会各界的充分肯定，为基层和群众解决了许多实际困难和问题。民主党派能够发挥智库作用，针对“四个全面”战略布局中的相关问题为党政相关部门开展决策咨询、科学评价与论证服务；主动与社区、农村、企业结对联系，开展项目对接活动。民主党派成员可以立足本职岗位，发挥自身专长，自觉为社会主义建设作出贡献。在服务“四个全面”战略布局中，民主党派要从自身实际出发，抓住重点、打造品牌，不断开展形式更加多样、内涵更加丰富、外延更加广阔、成效更加明显的社会服务工作，以赢得民心、树立参政党新形象。**
**三、参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局的机制与能力建设**
**参政党服务子“四个全面”战略布局，既是新形势对中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度提出的新要求，又是参政党建设的新任务；不仅需要参政党增强政党意识和助力服务**
**的白觉性，而且需要能力和制度保证。**
**(一)切实提高履职能力**
**履职能力是参政党助力“四个全面”战略布局的前提条件。进人新世纪后，中国共产党提出了参政党能力建设的命题。习近平在中央统战工作会议上强调，民主党派要提高政治把握能力、参政议政能力、组织领导能力、合作共事能力、解决自身问题能力。**
**政治把握能力是参政党及其成员对政治的观察判断与定位选择能力。政治把握能力是首要的根本性的要求，是多党合作制度的核心价值。参政党只有不断提高政治鉴别力，才能在政治方向、政治立场、政治理念及根本原则等大是大非面前，始终做到与党同心同德。坚持党的领导、坚持中国化的马克思主义和中国特色社会主义道路是各民主党派与中国共产党合作的共同思想政治基础，也是多党合作事业的根本所在。**
**参政议政能力是一种主体能力。提高参政议政能力，有利于民主党派在重大问题上发挥决策咨询作用，促进决策的科学化、民主化；有利于民主监督和政治协商职能的实现，发挥参政与合作的制度效能。在助力“四个全面”战略布局中，民主党派既要准确把握助力需求、选好议题，又要开展调查研究和科学论证，还要提出可行的意见建议，使参政议政切合实际、取得实效、体现价值。**
**组织领导能力是参政党组织整合内部资源、充分利用社会资源，做出组织发展决策和驾驭复杂局面、解决突出矛盾与问题的能力。组织领导能力与合作共事能力是基础能力，是参政党履行参政议政、民主监督和政党协商职能的重要支撑。组织领导能力具有统一、导向、控制和放大的功能。衡量其强弱的主要标准是看参政党能否组建科学合理的组织构架，最大限度地调动成员的积极性，有效地整合利用现有的条件、资源，运用有关方法手段促进决策实施。**
**合作共事能力是民主党派的各级班子成员自觉接受中国共产党的领导、维护多党合作制**
**度，并在任何条件下都能同舟共济、亲密团结、通力合作，以及参政党内部团结共事、协商沟通的能力。合作共事能力是对执政党和参政党的共同要求，是正确处理一致性与多样性关系的实践要求。与中国共产党的合作共事是核心，民主党派内部团结协作是基础，沟通协商是方法。合作共事能力不仅表现为一种水平，更是一种境界和政治态度。**
**解决自身问题能力是参政党的自身建设能力。要加强思想、组织、制度特别是领导班子建设，通过自我学习、自我教育、自我完善和自己提出问题、自己分析问题、自己解决问题实现自身建设目标。**
**(二)切实加强自身建设**
**多党合作是以民主党派的存在和发展为前提的。民主党派自身建设水平影响和决定着多党合作的水平。建设什么样的参政党，是参政党建设的首要问题。2013年2月6日，习近平在中南海邀请各民主党派中央、全国工商联新老领导人和无党派人士代表共迎新春时明确提出： “各民主党派是同中国共产党通力合作的中国特色社会主义参政党，无党派人士是我国政治生活中的一支重要力量。、”他首次提出了中国特色社会主义参政党的概念，进一步明确了参政党的性质、地位和作用，为参政党建设指明了方向、提出了要求。习近平在中央统战工作会议上提出“要支持民主党派加强思想、组织、制度特别是班子建设”的要求，进一步明确了参政党白身建设的具体内容。**
**思想建设是参政党建设的灵魂和核心，是参政党发扬优良传统、发挥职能作用的重要保证，也是参政党沿着正确方向前进、实现参政党建设目标、完成参政党一切工作任务的前提。习近平指出： “中国共产党同各民主党派和无党派人士团结合作，是建立在共同思想政治基础上的。今天，我们的共同思想政治基础就是中国特色社会主义。’”他要求不断巩固共同思想政治基础，包括巩固已有共识、推动形成新共识。当前，要进一步增强对实现中华民族伟大复兴中国梦及协调推进“四个全面”战**
**略布局的信心。要引导党外优秀人才自觉学习中国特色社会主义理论，自觉践行社会主义核心价值观，自觉弘扬中华民族传统美德，努力做政治上的明白人。**
**参政党组织建设是民主党派自身建设的基础，也是参政党履行职能、发挥作用的组织保证。参政党建设的主要任务是组织发展、基层组织建设和机关建设。习近平指出“培养使用党外代表人士，首先得有人。党外代表人士队伍规模不小、人才不少，但总体上高层次人才储备不足”‘“民主党派不是俱乐部，不能不加甄别、来者不拒”'。这对民主党派成员发展和人才培养提出了明确的要求。基层组织是参政党的基本单元，是参政党上级组织得以存在与发展的基础，在参政党组织建设中具有决定性作用。解决参政党基层组织建设存在的问题，既要创新组织形式、增强持续发展能力，也要创新工作载体、增强工作创新能力，还要创新活动内容、增强组织的凝聚力。党派机关在参政党组织建设中起着组织协调、参谋和执行的作用。加强民主党派机关建设不仅要建设高素质的民主党派工作队伍，而且要加强制度和保障条件建设。**
**参政党制度建设不仅是民主党派自身建设的保证，也是参政党有序有效履行职能的重要支撑。坚持和完善中国共产党领导的多党合作和政治协商制度，关键在于使多党合作制度化、规范化、程序化。参政党履行参政议政、民主监督和政党协商职能涉及主体、内容、形式、平台等多种因素，需要通过制度使之运行规范有序。参政党制度建设要以法律法规为根本，以基本政治制度为支撑，以有关方针政策为依据，结合参政党自身建设实际，形成科学合理、规范有序、相互衔接、简便易行的制度体系。要从制度层面解决为什么参政、参什么政、由谁参政、何时参政、怎样参政以及参政后如何衡量评价、跟踪反馈等问题，使参政党履职常规化、长效化和稳定化。**
**班子建设既是参政党建设的关键所在，也是多党合作制度对党外代表人士培养使用提出的迫切要求。民主党派的领导班子成员不仅要做政治上的“明白人”、多党合作的“贴心人”、履行职能的“带头人”、合理诉求的“代言人”，而且要能够起到率先垂范、凝聚合力、教育引导和组织协调、整合资源的作用。要把政治素质好、思想品德好、群众基础好、专业水平高、履职能力强、党派工作热情高的骨干成员及时调配到民主党派各级组织的领导班子中去；把他们放到重要岗位上去锻炼，让党外代表人士多接“地气”、聚积履职“正能量”，帮助他们丰富阅历、提升素质、砥励品格、增长才干。**
**(三)切实构建保障机制**
**机制建设是保障多党合作制度常态长效的基础。保障机制是参政党履职的重要制度支撑。它不仅有利于促进多党合作的制度化，而且有利于提高参政党的履职能力。习近平在中央统战工作会议上强调“完善政党协商的内容和形式，建立健全知情和反馈机制”“真正做到从制度上保障和完善民主监督”。《关于加强社会主义协商民主建设的意见》强调，推进协商民主要在制度机制上下功夫。从服务“四个全面”战略布局的角度来看，参政党要加强保障机制建设，进一步健全知情明政机制、议题协商机制、考察调研机制、工作联络机制、协商反馈机制、权利保障与问责机制，以及参政议政、民主监督和政党协商的运行机制，进一步完善参政党资源整合机制、功能优化机制、履职考评与激励机制。机制建设是一项系统工程，需要勇于创新和实践。参政党履职保障机制建设涉及不同主体、层面，受到多种因素的影响，需要在实践中创新、在创新中完善，并与思想、组织、制度和班子建设相结合，发挥更大的效能。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **食品科学与工程专业大学生科研创新能力培养研究\***
吕好新，赵 妍，李 淼，渠琛玲，张咚咚，吴 琼
(河南工业大学粮油食品学院，河南郑州450001)
摘要：以河南工业大学食品科学与工程专业学生为例，提出建立导师班主任团队、核心课程教学团队、科研创新小组等多种教学模式，教师带领学生深入企业开展生产实践活动，培养食品科学与工程专业学生的科研创新能力。开设实训实践类课程、推行“校内+校外”双导师指导制度、建设科研创新平台等措施，形成可推广、可实践的适用于食品科学与工程专业学生的科研创新能力培养方案，全面提升本专业学生的科研创新能力。
**关键词：食品科学与工程；本科生；科研创新能力**
**中图分类号：G642 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-3465(2022)01-0071-03**
创新是一个民族进步的灵魂，国家发展的动力源泉。作为培养创新创业优秀人才的主要场所之一，高校要根据当前社会的多元化需求构建完善的大学生创新创业教育人才培养体系，培养大学生的科技创新意识、不断提高大学生的创新能力。目前，大多数大学生具备扎实的理论基础，但开放性思维和独立思考能力还有一定欠缺。高校要正视创新人才培养问题，打破学科专业课程和创新创业之间的壁垒。
食品科学与工程是多学科交叉、注重应用的工科学科，我国很多学校开设了相关专业。在新工科背景下，工程教育认证要求学校培养高层次创新型人才，更好地服务社会。然而，学生对科研创新的认识不到位、学校对学生科研创新的引导工作不够深入导致学生的科研创新能力不足。本文以河南工业大学食品科学与工程专业学生为例，通过分析学生科研创新能力培养工作存在的问题，提出适合我校食品科学与工程专业学生的培养方案及改革措施。
**一、食品科学与工程专业学生科研创新能力培养存在的问题**
食品科学与工程是衔接生命科学与工程科学的重要桥梁。食品科学与工程专业在食品行业内的技术工程、营养健康、安全检测、监督管理等领域发挥越来越重要的作用。新世纪以来，我国不断出台政策和文件，鼓励高校提升食品科学专业学生的创新
创业能力。目前，食品科学与工程专业学生科研创新能力培养方面存在以下问题：
(一)学生缺乏科研实验兴趣
部分大学生认为自己不具备参与科技创新能力。随着课程门数的增加，学生对科研活动的兴趣和参与度明显下降。大多数高校采取的实验教学模式和以前教学模式基本相同121，教学主要倚重理论课程，实验课程内容和授课方式单一，不能充分发挥学生的创新性及主动性，学生实践、分析和解决问题的能力较为欠缺，难以培养出高质量创新型人才。部分学生认为科学素养和科研意识的高低对他们从事的工作和未来生活影响不大，缺乏科研实验兴趣。
(二)学生参与科研创新的时间有限
根据人才培养方案的规定，学生必须修够一定学分才能取得学位证和毕业证，但是课程任务较重，学校安排学生参与科研创新活动的时间较短。再者，临近毕业的学生忙于找工作，参与科研创新活动的积极性不高。高校本专业需要结合人才培养方案，合理安排科研创新实验，保证学生能够全程参与。
**(三)指导教师时间有限**
科研创新项目指导教师一般是由科研教学岗的教师担任，教师既要承担教学任务又要从事科学研究。学校的考核任务较重，教师分身乏术，难以兼顾学生的科研创新活动。指导教师需要合理分配时
收稿日期：2021-07-20
\*基金项目：2021年度河南工业大学粮油食品学院本科教育教学改革研究与实践项目“全面培养在校本科生科研创新能力改革研究与实践”(院政发\[2021\]26号)
作者简介：吕好新(1989一)，女，河南郑州人，讲师，博士，主要从事粮食储藏理论与技术、粮食微生物、粮食品质控制研究。
间，根据实际情况指导学生的科研创新活动。
(四)缺少创新科研平台
高校科研团队与本科生之间普遍存在信息不对称的现象。教师的科研课题往往不止一个，需要更多学生参与。在传统教育模式下，学生的学习重心是理论知识，部分学生忽略了科学创新能力。学生对学校已有科研团队的科研方向、实验平台以及可以参与的课题了解甚少。对科研感兴趣的学生无法根据个人兴趣选择合适的科研方向。
**二、食品科学与工程专业学生科研创新能力培养的解决措施**
河南工业大学粮油食品学院(下简称粮油食品学院)自设立食品科学与工程专业以来，在学生科研创新能力培养方面做出了许多尝试性改革，初步形成了适用于学生的创新创业型本科培养方案。
**(一)聘用导师班主任**
为鼓励学生参与科研创新活动，粮油食品学院吸纳了一批科研思维活跃、科研经历丰富的青年博士教师，组建了导师班主任团队。每个班级配备一名责任心强的导师班主任，对学生科学启蒙熏陶，适时引导学生科研创新思考，为学生提供专业方面的帮助。
(二)组建核心课程团队
为增强学生专业基础知识，粮油食品学院整合全院教师资源，组建核心课程团队，力求打造一流的专业师资队伍。通过讲述本专业知识及学科发展前景，激发学生的科研兴趣，引领学生走向科研创新之路。粮油食品学院积极举办学术讲座，讲授专业知识，为学生参与科研创新活动打下坚实的理论基础。
(三)创建科研小组
粮油食品学院食品科学与工程专业教师积极组建科研创新小组，吸收本专业学生参与科研创新项目，对进入实验室做科研创新项目的学生进行实验室安全培训；教师对参与科研小组的学生进行实验操作培训；科研经验丰富的博硕士研究生或高年级的学生带领新进学生进行科学创新实验，指导教师在项目实施过程中宏观把控与指导，保障科研创新实验的顺利进行。该措施有助于将科研创新资源转化为人才培养资源，教师、学生相互促进、共同提高的过程，既能提高教师的教学水平和教学质量，又能激发学生的科研创新兴趣。
(四)带领学生深入企业开展生产实践活动
指导教师带领学生前往实践基地参观学习，了解生产实践中遇到的专业问题。例如，食品为什么
会发霉?食品生产中哪个环节容易引发微生物污染?启发学生独立自主思考，引导学生从生产实践中发现问题，鼓励学生自主查阅文献，学习专业知识，了解国内外最新研究动态，结合个人研究兴趣，确定科研创新课题的研究方向。
(五)政策上支持学生科研创新活动
河南工业大学陆续出台一系列政策，鼓励学生参与科研创新活动。学校设立科研创新团队，给予科研创新基金支持；鼓励教师指导学生参加各种类型的创新大赛，比如“互联网+”、全国大学生生命科学竞赛、盼盼食品杯烘焙大赛等。学校对学生取得的科研创新成果给予不同额度的奖励，调动了学生参与科研创新活动的积极性。学校提供好的科研平台，为学生的创新创业项目保驾护航，激励学生申报创新创业项目。
**三、食品科学与工程专业学生科研创新能力培养的改革建议**
创新创业教育和食品科学与工程专业教育相互依托。创新创业教育要服务于食品科学与工程专业人才培养计划，以创新创业教育为抓手，培养学生创新精神和创业能力，实现创新创业型人才的培养规划。结合食品科学与工程专业特点，改进食品科学与工程专业人才培养计划，加大学生专业实训和实践类课程的比例，鼓励学生积极参与创新活动。采用“校内+校外”双导师指导模式，建设科研创新平台，培养学生的科研创新能力。
(一)开展实训实践类课程
实践教学是本专业教学独立的环节，也是最重要的环节。近年来，粮油食品学院不断加强实践教学在教学计划中的比重，将创新类项目引入课堂，学生在上课的时候能积极开展创新活动。课程内容的调整，既满足学生毕业要求，又符合新时期培养创新型人才的需求。学生通过学习实训实践类课程，既培养了科研意识，又完成了学业。
在校内，通过带领学生在模拟仓开展简单的实践项目，比如粮堆表观风速测定、通风系统参数测定、仓房气密性测定等，培养学生的科研创新意识，发现问题、解决问题的能力。在校外，通过带领学生参观粮库，开展生产实习，使学生能够结合生产实践，融会贯通专业知识。以上两方面，既能让学生熟悉各生产环节、储粮技术工艺与环境，又能培养学生独立思考、发现分析问题的能力，激发学生的科研创新能力。
(二)践行“校内+校外”导师培养模式
“校内+校外”导师培养模式，将理论与实践有机融合可以促进师资队伍及师生之间的良好互动3，培养高质量科研创新人才，增强科研育人的效果。践行“校内+校外”导师培养模式的关键在于师资，较高水平的师资，可以更好地指导学生，培养学生的创新意识、创新能力。
校内导师虽然具有丰富的理论知识，但生产实践经验比较有限。企业工作人员长期从事一线生产工作，实践经验丰富。企业人员为校外实践指导教师是粮油食品学院学生获取社会经验、工作技能的重要渠道14\]。“校内+校外”双导师培养模式无疑是最好的选择。
(三)建设科研创新平台
科研创新平台可以共享教师和学生的信息，促进教师与学生的沟通。以项目支持的方式建立以学生为项目负责人的科研创新团队，培养学生的科研创新能力，增强学生的责任感及对项目的整体把握能力。学生科研团队以实验室为依托，指导教师对项目宏观调控。将科研团队与研究成果融入人才创新培养过程，充分调动了教师和学生的积极性，向学生开放学校食品工艺生产线，有助于开发学生的创新思维。
(四)融合创新创业与课程评价体系、考核制度
目前，食品科学与工程专业大部分课程仍采用传统的课堂成绩加期末试卷成绩的方式，只有部分课程含有课内实验等环节。以出勤、课堂作业、课程实验和理论知识考核来评价学生。将创新创业教育融入课程考核中，激发学生建立创新创业思维模式的兴趣和进入实验室参加课题研究的热情，培养学生的创新思维习惯与科研兴趣。
根据学生的个人兴趣对学生个性化培养。在课
程的考核过程中，有针对性地让学生根据前阶段所学内容设计实验，利用实验平台完成所设计的实验，促进学生自主思考，增强学生实践能力，提高学生创新创业能力。
**四、结语**
大学生是推动社会进步的栋梁之才，在促进社会和经济发展等方面发挥着积极的作用。作为培养创新创业优秀人才的主要场所之一，高校必须深入推进科研创新教育改革，为国家战略实施提供人才支撑。在高等教育发展新形势下，河南工业大学根据食品科学与工程专业教学改革实践工作经验，探索学生创新能力培养模式，在食品科学与工程专业教育的基础上，充分挖掘教师和学生及各种社会资源的创新创业潜力，深度融合食品科学与工程专业的专业教育与创新创业教育。在教学过程中，学校不断完善培养方案、教学模式及课程设置，探索适合本专业学生创新能力培养的实践模式，完善提升学生科研创新能力的培养方法。
**\[参考文献**
\[1\]刘志明，唐彦君，孙清瑞.食质专业本科生科研团队建设与实践能力培养\[J\].农产品加工，2021(15)：113-116，120.
\[2\]李斌，孟宪军，辛广，等.农业高校食品科学与工程学科创新人才培养研究：基于新农科与新工科交叉融合的视角\[J\].高等农业教育，2021(3)：58-62.
\[3\]葛雪梅，吴彩娥，李婷婷.多学科融合食品科学与工程专业人才培养的研究\[J\].黑龙江教育(高教研究与评估)，2021(9)： **65-67.**
\[4\]方勇，夏季，丁超，等.经管特色的食品科学与工程类专业大学生创新创业培养体系的构建与实践\[J\].中国农业教育，2021，22(1)：91-97.
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zh | N/A | N/A | **农村水利节水工程的发展应用探讨**
**何建国**
**(前郭县水利局农村水利管理中心站，吉林松原 138000)**
**\[摘 要\]农村水利节水工程是指在农村水利建设、管理以及其他方面的工作，主要包含水资源、水工程以及水环境，甚至包括河流、站、堤坝、沟渠以及配套设施。农村水利实施又包括引水、蓄水、输水、配水、田间灌溉以及防洪除涝等抵御水灾害以及生活供水的实施。本文结合我国农村水利节水工程，对当前农村水利节水建设面临的形势以及应用建议进行了简要的探究和阐述。**
**\[关键词\]农村水利 节水工程 发展 应用 探讨**
**\[中图分类号\] S27 \[文献标识码\] A \[文章编号\] 1003-1650 (2013)11-0231-01**
**缺水干旱作为影响我国经济发展最主要的因素，它严重制约了我国经济可持续发展。目前，我国农村建设以及农业都进入了全新的发展时期，为了实现农村产品工业化、多样化、商品化、产业化转变，必须大力推动农村水利以及节水工程；通过提倡高效的农业节水工程，综合运用模糊评价、平衡原理、工程原理以及富集理论，并且当地节水方法以及国外先进的技术，从水资源入手，从根本上优化节水灌溉、旱地农业，确保水土保持，增强水分生产率。**
**一、农村水利节水工程面临的形势**
**受农村乡镇结构多样化、城镇化等因素影响，让我国农村水利节水现状和农村经济可持续发展始终不太适应，尤其是防涝能力明显不足。由于农村灌溉水利节水利用相对较低，在生产、生活污染严重的环境下，农村水利在科技建设方面不足，从而也让农田水利经营体系有待改善。这些因素都对农村水利节水工程提出了更高的要求。**
**1.产业结构以及水质要求**
**从农业生产领域来看，粮食产量一直是生产的根本目标，所以一般以小麦、水稻、玉米、大豆、油菜等为主，应用的水利工程为了满足作物生产需求；在对农业结构进行调整的过程中，花卉、苗木、瓜果、蔬菜种植区域增加，所以对灌溉、抗旱提出了更高的要求，也给农田水利带来了更多的困扰。**
**另外，由于养殖业规模加大，对水质与水源的要求逐渐增加。一旦水质、水源遭到污染或者破坏，就会对养殖业造成影响，甚至影响农民利益。目前，由于水质不能得到保障，对水资源费用以及工程费用的缴纳也造成了很大的影响。**
**2.宏观环境以及水利产业影响**
**目前，农田水利建设已经由政府逐渐向自主经营的方向转变，在指令性向着指导性规划转变的过程中，必须将以资代劳向着工业化转变，从而也就让投资与政策环境都发生了变化。**
**从农村水利建设项目作用于功能划分情况来看。第一种是以公益性、社会效益为主，也就是农田灌溉、排澇工程；另一种是以经济效益为目标，也带有一定的社会效益，包括水利综合与水面养殖经营等。根据这种划分状态，很多农村水利工程都属于公益性事业，需要政府或者当地部门给予支持。但是也正是这种错误的划分方式，让水利工程主体存在缺陷。从农民的角度来看，这一划分就是将农田灌溉、排涝防洪、农村饮水、水土保持、水环境、水资源治理作为整个政府投资的核心部分。所以在农村水利节水工程中，必须整合农民经济承受能力，再投入对应的公共财产。**
**二、对农村水利节水工程发展应用的建议**
**1.完善农村水利各项硬件措施**
**从目前的农村经营以及发展状况来看：生产用水以及生活用水污染相对严重，农村防洪排涝能力总体情况不够，必须通过大量的水利工程进行保障。根据农村水利工程始终按照农业排涝设计、建设标准，不能保障良性运营等现象，必须进一步完善农村水利节水，确保生产力活跃结构以及新兴部分，在这过程中，也可以将节水成果与技术转化。从目前的经济发**
**展状况来看：节水覆盖材料、旱区设施、机械工业、节水型企业以及焊工企业都得到了大力发展。**
**2.增强农村水利工程利用系数**
**由于我国水利资源缺乏管理，从而造成了极大的浪费，但是为了改变这种状况，必须大力推行水资源保护、利用以及建设过程。农业节水作为我国经济发展的基础行业，实施农业节水，不仅可以推动结构调整，还可以应用水利工程，调整政府运营机制与政策。因此，为了明确节水体系，必须在传统的滴灌、喷灌、防滲、耐旱等基础上，保障相关技术更加物化、成套，确保农业产品价格与质量。通过调动节水主动性，让农民从自身角度做好节水工作的同时，将节水工程与产业化经营、调整以及农业收入融为一体，也只有这样才能让农民始终保持工作信心与兴趣，对节水进行更大的投入；通过积极实施节水技术与设施，在健全配套体系的同时，从根本上保障节水灌溉过程，推动灌溉技术发展。而对于主渠道的灌溉，必须选用恰当的滴灌或者喷灌工程。**
**3.强化农村水利工作**
**为了推动农村经济发展，在农村水利节水工程中，必须以农村增收、增效、稳定为实施目标，通过充分应用水务与水资源等一体化结构，从根本上保障资源、安全与环境和谐发展；通过不断健全水环境、防洪保安、水资源以及农业灌溉过程，从根本上保障产业层次，不断提高农业经济的安全可靠性以及水资源利用过程，进而达到提高生活质量等具体要求。同时，在农业生产中，还必须注重节水灌溉、清淤、防洪除捞以及水资源防治等一系列工作。**
**4.积极实行“三灌”技术**
**为了推动整个社会和谐发展，在注重资源保护与利用的过程中，必须根据法律以及生产要求，从根本上保障水资源，进而根除我国水资源危机。对于我国的节水农业，必须根据经济基础差、缺乏水资源、灌溉区分散以及果园节水等相关特征，积极实施“三灌”技术。在这过程中，三灌，主要指：微灌、滴灌和喷灌，其中喷灌技术最好。**
**三、结束语**
**农村水利节水工程作为影响农业基础发展最根本的要素，对农村经济发展具有重要作用。因此，在实际工作中，必须根据目前农村水利面临的形势以及存在的问题，转变传统的经营与发展观念；通过建立水资源配置、抗灾防縮体系、水环境体系，不断完善水法保障以及管理理念，从而更好的协调水资源、人水关系，让水质、农村用水、城市用水都得到统一管理。另外，为了健全经济体系，必须制定行之有效的经济设计方案与策略，从而逐步推动管理与运行体系。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\] 刘允，赵西建.河北省辛集市农村水利项目综述\[.中国农村水利水电，2007，(6)：51-52.**
**\[2\]倪文进.中国农村水利发展状况与科技需求\[\].农业工程学报，2010，26(3)：1-8.**
**\[3\]张海波.如何实现农村水利可持续发展\[\].农民致富之友，2013，(11)：181-181.**
**\[4\]李代鑫.突出重点扎实工作确保农村饮水安全和灌区节水改造好事办好实事办实门.中国农村水利水电，2007，(2)：1-2.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 论中国歌剧创作民族化与多元化的结合
孙佩珊，李猛
(青岛科技大学艺术学院，山东青岛266061)
\[摘 要\]中国歌剧要坚持自身的民族风格和民族气派，在创作中必须与中国传统文化相结合，符合大众的欣赏趣味和审美心态；同时又要敢于挑战、突破禁锢，秉承多元化的艺术思维、创作技法和发展方向，注重借鉴西方歌剧艺术的宝贵经验，使其整体艺术风格既有民族性，又具时代感。
\[关键词\]中国歌剧；民族化；多元化；结合
\[中图分类号\]J617.2 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1671-7422(2008)04-0023-03
On the Combnation of Na t iona liza tion and D iver sifica t ion of Ch nese O pera Creation
SUN Peishan， LIMeng
(School of Fne Arts， Qingdao University of Science and Technobgy， Qingdao Shandong 26 6061)
\[ Abstract\] To stick ib its n ational style and e thnic style， Chnese opera shou d be combined with traditional Chinese culture to complywith he peop E's nte rest and their aesthetic a ttitude. A t the same time， the creatio n of Chinese op-era should cha llenge the tradition and break he durance， pay attention o absorbing diversified artis tic thinking， crea tion techn iques and comply wih the deve bpng trend， leam the valuable experience of the W est Op en o achieve the goal that the Chinese opera has both natonalism and the sense of modemity
\[ Key word s\] Chinese Opera； natinalization； dive rsification； combina tion
“音乐是没有国界的，但音乐家却是有祖国的"，这句话除了证明音乐家的爱国情怀之外，还可从音乐创作要扎根于民族文化的肥沃土壤中去理解。著名音乐美学家恩斯特·迈耶尔在《音乐美学若干问题》指出："地区与民族传统在音乐中的意义比在其他艺术中要大得多，从表面上看音乐是国际化的艺术，但实际上它比任何艺术都更紧密地与民族传统相结合”，因此，继承和发扬民族性是音乐创作的重要任务。但民族性并不是一成不变的，随着经济、科技的发展和国际交流的增多，各民族音乐文化的碰撞与交融日益增加，人类对不同音乐文化的价值有了更深刻的理解，多元化逐渐成为主流。在所有音乐形式中，歌剧是
对政治、经济、文化和社会生活反映最为敏感的体裁。20世纪的歌剧在题材选择、思想内容、表现手法和演唱风格等方面呈现出多元化的倾向。因此，我们要处理好歌剧创作民族化与多元化的关系，促进中国歌剧健康发展。
一、民族化是多元化的基础，是中国歌剧获得独立艺术品格的前提
音乐的民族化是一个复杂的问题，民族化也是一个曲折的过程。对民间音乐曲调加以发展创造是民族化的一种，对地方戏曲音乐素材加以发展利用也是民族化的一种，而植根于现实生活中，汲取新的音响材料加以升华也是民族化的一种。
\[收稿日期\]2008-04-10
\[作者简介孙佩珊(1966一)，女，山东青岛人，副教授，硕士，主要从事歌剧艺术研究。
国家哲学 科学学术 刊数据库National Social Sclences Database
民族化是艺术创造必须要面对的问题。在实践中，作曲家根据自身的艺术观念、审美追求和价值取向来实现对民族化的不同理解。但值得注意的是，对待民族化不应过于狭窄，要看到构成民族化的基本因素具有相对稳定性，其变化是一个长期的过程，必须立足于本民族文化的肥沃土壤，不遗余力地从民族音乐的丰富遗产中汲取营养。归纳起来，音乐的民族化有两个基本途径：首先，要在对民族基调的把握上继承民族风格，它包含着对本民族文化高屋建瓴的透视、题材民族性特征的运用、音乐思维民族特质的融入和对民俗、意境的讲究等；其次，对民族戏曲艺术和民间音乐的消化、提炼与升华，我们反对照搬照抄，这种现象的出现主要是由于对民族艺术认识肤浅造成的，学习和研究民间音乐并不是"拿来主义”，而是要以开放的精神去继承、转化和发扬，赋予民族艺术遗产以现代精神，从而使民族音乐获得完全独立的艺术品格。
中国歌剧自本世纪20年代黎锦晖先生创作儿童歌舞剧开始，已走过80年的风雨历程，曾掀起过两次发展的高潮。第一次高潮以40年代《兄妹开荒》《夫妻识字》、《白毛女》在解放区的广泛传播为标志；第二次高潮以50年代末60年代初《小二黑结婚》《草原之夜》《洪湖赤卫队》《红珊瑚》、《江姐》的创作和演出为代表，这些经典剧目给人留下了深刻的印象，而两次高潮的到来也都以民族传统歌剧的繁荣为标志。歌剧《洪湖赤卫队》之所以能在40年间演出近两千场，原因在于它具有优美的旋律、浓郁的乡土气息和强烈的时代感，作曲家张敬安、欧阳谦叔在确定该剧基本音乐语言时，就广泛采用了湖北天污花鼓和天门等地区民间音乐素材，使该剧充满了中国文化的鲜明特征；而歌剧《白毛女》采用了具有民族风格的人物性格主题作为主导动机，使人物呈现出鲜明的主题形象和性格特征，如喜儿一角采用民歌《小白菜》的素材，该主题随着剧情的发展而变化，在戏剧情节的推进中充分展现了音乐的独特效果，理想地表达了作品的思想内涵；歌剧《江姐》的成功也归功于作曲家对民歌、戏曲等民间音乐素材的熟练运用，作曲家羊鸣、姜春阳、金砂在创作中以四川民歌为主体，广泛吸取了川剧、四川清音以及婺剧、越剧、京剧等多种戏曲语言，
国家哲学社会科学学7 数括车
使该剧音乐生动形象、深入人心。此外，这一阶段的歌剧作品在唱段设计上也完全遵照民族声乐的发音原则进行创作，有许多唱段借鉴戏曲音乐的演唱特点，在歌剧唱腔的音乐设置上，更多地考虑到汉语四声声调的影响，使得歌居音乐声韵十足、琅琅上口。可见，歌剧创作的民族化不仅是一个创作方法问题，更是一个美学思想问题。
中国几千年的文明史留给我们极为丰富的遗产，从传统戏曲到民族民间音乐，从曲艺表演到各地民歌，都为中国歌剧创作提供了丰富的素材，众多优秀曲目为何能引起人们的强烈共鸣，最重要的原因在于作曲家能够深入生活，通过对中国民间音乐的挖掘、整理和加工，创造出既有民族性、又能反映人民心声的旋律。如歌剧《白毛女》吸取了河北、山西、陕西等地的民歌与地方戏曲调；《小二黑结婚》和《刘胡兰》吸取了山西梆子的音乐特点；《草原之歌》取材于藏族民歌和山歌；《刘三姐》采用了广西壮族民歌；《红珊瑚》吸取了河南地方戏曲的音乐素材；《阿依古丽》展现了哈萨克绚丽的民族色彩，这些歌剧成功的从中国传统戏曲和民间音乐中汲取了多种养分，并与时代特征相结合，它们是中国歌剧民族化的杰出代表。而民族化也是多元化的前提和基础，多元化的形成必须建立在对本民族音乐传统继承和发扬的前提下，在世界音乐文化走向多元共生的时代，保持自己的民族风格和民族气派是歌剧艺术生存的关键。俄罗斯民族歌剧乐派创始人格林卡曾说过：“创造音乐的是人民，作曲家只不过是将它变成曲子、写在纸上而己”，这说明不管是哪个民族，音乐艺术的创作源头在人民，每一首旋律和乐思都凝聚着大众的智慧，歌剧的民族化必须建立在作曲家走入民间、深入生活、融入民情的基础上，加强对民族传统文化、语言特点和风俗习惯的研究，努力探求艺术自身的发展规律，只有这样，中国歌剧创作的民族化才能变为现实。
二、多元化是民族化的创新源泉，是民族化得以多彩呈现的保证
音乐艺术是最能代表一个民族本质和特征的文化形式，又是最能反映各民族不同特点并可直接感受与交流的世界文化现象，音乐的民族性不是纯粹、单一的，而是复杂、多元的，不同国家、民族、地域的音乐相互影响与交融，能给本民族的音
乐文化注入新的活力，并促使新风格、新技法、新体裁的形成，这是音乐艺术发展和变革的重要途径。兼容并蓄外来民族音乐的先进技法和多元素材，可以丰富和完善自己的音乐内涵；反之，局限于本民族的园囿、不求创新，则是一种文化的自杀行为，历史上音乐的大繁荣、大发展几乎都是在各民族文化的大融合时期。对中国歌剧而言，继承民族性，向全方位、多元化发展是其未来的前进方向。在中国歌剧发展史上，创作于1944年的《白毛女》被称为中国第一部真正意义上的民族歌剧，此后便开启了一个"《白毛女代”，相当一段时期内，中国歌剧作品如《赤叶河》、《小二黑结婚》《刘胡兰》等同属这个创作类型，即”话剧加唱”，之后的两部作品《洪湖赤卫队》和《江姐》较前有所突破，在歌剧界也产生了较大影响，但就歌剧的创作形式而言并未做出显著改变，歌剧艺术表现为功能的高度政治化、工具化和创作的一元化，并体现出了保守主义和狭隘民族主义的倾向，这些因素导致中国歌剧难于在思想、文化和审美形态上迈向更深层的创造境地。改革开放和思想解放为艺术创作更新了大环境，中国歌剧开始关注于艺术本身，”弘扬民族音乐，理解多元文化”成为中国歌剧创作的价值观之一。
多元化的出现由以下几个因素促成。一是当代不同层次观众的审美需求引领歌剧创作向多元化领域扩展。由于年龄、职业、兴趣爱好及文化修养的差异，观众对歌剧音乐有着不同的审美需求：有的热衷于乡土气息浓郁、民族音乐语言亲切的歌剧作品；有的喜欢具有一定民族特色，同时又有相对文化品位的歌剧作品；也有部分观众对西方歌剧的经典作品或完全按照西方模式创作的歌剧作品感兴趣，因此，不同地域、不同文化背景、不同欣赏习惯影响着歌剧的创作，作曲家在服从题材、内容以及剧中人物性格的前提下，会创作出多种风格、色彩洛异的作品。二是歌剧音乐创作的方式及其性质决定了其发展必然呈现多元化的态势。歌剧的创作不同于传统戏曲，它具有个体性、激进性与系统性的特征，其中个体性起主导作用，而大部分戏曲作品并不是由专业作曲家创作的，是由众多艺人通过师承关系，代代集体创作的结果，在其传承中，有无数艺人参与加工、润色；反观歌剧则是由专业作曲家根据自己的艺术观念，欣
国 刊数据库
赏习惯和美学追求来创作的，诸如主题音调及音乐风格的确立、采用何种体裁形式、结构方法、创作技法，即无论从内容到形式，从题材到方式，都有自由选择的余地，随着中国歌剧的发展以及中西音乐交流的增多，中国作曲家的自我意识将显现出日益强化的特征，中国歌剧创作的多元化趋势不可阻挡。
歌剧艺术毕竟是“舶来品”，西方歌剧在四百多年的发展历程中积累了许多宝贵的经验，它所展现出来的缜密的整体格局、丰富的创作手法和系统的演唱技法为中国歌剧向多元化、体系化发展提供了成功的典范。因此，歌剧音乐的创作仅仅局限在潜意识民族感情和民族素材的注入是行不通的，必须依靠作曲家自觉的民族意识和丰富的创造力，并借鉴西方歌剧艺术的宝贵经验，将中西完美融为一体，赋予民族化以新的内涵。如歌剧《原野》中，作曲家金湘采用了东北地方戏曲曲调，同时将西洋和声、配器技法与民族语言相结合，走出了一条中西结合、化中西为多元的道路，在国内外歌剧界引起了巨大反响；辽宁歌剧院的《沧海》是一部反映清代台湾历史的作品，作曲家徐肇基深入福建东南部沿海采风，收集了具有当地特色的"南音"曲调，并运用西方歌剧的创作手法，使整部歌剧的音乐抒情委婉、戏剧情节气势磅礴，荣获多项国家大奖；歌剧《司马迁》由陕西歌舞剧院创作演出，作曲家张玉龙将西北民族音乐与歌剧交响乐完美结合，创造性地在西方歌剧的结构框架中填充进洋溢着中国民族风格的音乐素材，实现了中国歌剧创作新模式的有益探索，获得了观众的广泛好评。可见，没有对中国戏曲及民间艺术的继承，中国歌剧的发展是无本之木，而缺少对西方歌剧有益经验的借鉴，中国歌剧的发展则是无源之水，必须在中西融合的基础上，敢于挑战，挣脱禁锢，使其整体艺术风格既有民族性，又具时代感，这是中国民族歌剧发展的必由之路。
三、结语
一个国家音乐艺术的发展程度，往往可以反映这个国家的文明进程，而作为音乐形式中最具综合性和文化性的体裁，歌剧艺术已成为衡量世界各国音乐创作与表演水平的标尺，当代中国歌剧在创作、表演和运营上，依然存在着许多问题，整体发展水平 下转第29页)
则来探讨模糊语义的语用功能。根据得体原则，阐述了模糊语义在语言交际活动当中所具有的亲和功能、满足功能、调节功能、含蓄功能、委婉功能和幽默功能。根据合作原则，阐述了模糊语义在语言交际活动当中所具有的适应性功能、灵活性功能和生动性功能。
第十七章模糊语义学与辞典学。该章考察了语文辞典对模糊语义的释义情况，归纳出了模糊种差法、定量法、形象描写法、比喻法、对比法、否定法、比较法、模糊义素法等解释模糊词语的方法。
总之，《模糊语义学导论》以查德的“模糊集"理论作指导，运用现代语言学和现代语义学的理论精华，从模糊语义学学科的基本概念、研究对象、任务、功用、性质、研究原则着手，详细研究了模糊语义学的研究对象的特征和成因，对模糊语义学的方方面面都作了较为深入细致的论述，有着相当的深度和广度，同时也不乏作者的真知灼见。
从以上分析可以看出，《模糊语义学导论》如此翔实的内容，绝非任何人一朝一夕所能完成的，它是作者长期积累和研究的结晶；这些内容所涉及的诸多学科，也绝非知识面狭窄之人所能胜任的。黎千驹先生研究模糊语言多年，他早在十年前就出版了《实用模糊语言学》，其后又开始不断
(上接第25页)
与人民大众的要求并不相适应。因此，要想在未来谋求更大的发展，中国歌剧必须坚持自身的民族风格和民族气派，符合大众的欣赏趣味和审美心态，同时秉承多元化的艺术思维、创作技法和发展方向，不断探索，勇于创新，相信中国歌剧的再次繁荣定会早日到来!
地搜集模糊语言材料，关注模糊语言研究的动态；他还在训诂学、说文学、修辞学、逻辑学等多个学科领域不懈地耕耘并且收获甚丰。正是由于作者这种长期不懈的努力和广博的学识，才使得这部《模糊语义学导论》的内容如此的丰富，学术价值如此的厚重。它的出版，标志着模糊语义学学科的确立与成熟，使模糊语义研究登上了新的台阶，为模糊语义研究谱写了新的篇章。如果说上世纪的后二十年伍铁平先生开创了中国模糊语言学研究之路，那么在进入21世纪之后，黎千驹先生的《模糊语义学导论》则为中国新时期的模糊语义学树立起了一座新的里程碑。我们坚信：“北伍南黎”4模糊语言研究成果必将把中国的模糊语言学研究引领上宏富发展之路。
参考文献
\[11盛新华.评实用模糊语言学\[J\].吉安师专学报，1996，(4)：42
\[21
张春泉，马芝兰.模糊语义学研究方法的新探索\[J\]楚雄师范学院学报，2006，(11)：36
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黎千驹.模糊语义学导论 \[M\].北京：社会科学文献出版社，2007.
\[41
蒋冀骋.模糊语义学导论·序\[M\]/黎千驹.模糊语义学导论.北京：社会科学文献出版社，2007.
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陈咏梅)
参考文献
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刘庆苏.音乐戏剧艺术——歌剧\[M\]兰州：敦煌文艺出版社，2000
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居其宏.歌剧美学纲论\[M\].合肥：安徽文艺出版社，2002.
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罗辛.中国歌剧，以何种面貌迎接二十一世纪\[J\]人民音乐，2000，(11)：5
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zh | N/A | N/A | **《四库全书总目·茶经》疏证**
**武闻宇**
**摘要：本文对《四库全书总目》之《茶经》条作出疏证：对《四库全书·茶经》的分类进行简单辨析；对陆羽生平和《茶经》的成书过程作简要介绍，对提要所及陆羽所授官职和时间进行订正；考证《四库全书·茶经》的版本；详述“七之事”可以旁资考辨的条目；补充《茶经》的意义与影响。**
**关键词：《四库全书总目》；《茶经》；陆羽；疏证**
**中图分类号：K203 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1006-2335(2020)02-0208-04**
**_An Explanation of The Book of Tea in Siku Quanshu_**
**Wu Wenyu**
**Key words： This article explains the entry of The Book of Tea in the directory of Siku Quanshu (Overall Indexes of Four Categorical Cannons) by simply analyzing its classification， briefly introducing the life of Lu Yu and the writing process of The Book of Tea， revising Lu Yu’s official position and the serving time in the summary. It explores the editions， expatiates items of “seven things” which could be researched， and supplements significance and influence of The Book of Tea.**
**_Key words： Table of Contents of Siku Quanshu (Overall Indexes of Four Categorical Cannons)； The Book of Tea； Lu Yu；_ explanation**
**唐代陆羽的《茶经》是世界上第一部关于茶的专门著作，在茶文化史上的地位和影响都是空前绝后的。关于《茶经》的版本，现存自宋代至民国者共有50余种，其中，《四库全书》本是比较重要的版本之一。对于《四库全书》本《茶经》的校订，前人已有不少成果，如王郁风《<四库全书)版陆羽(茶经)校订》(四库全书)文渊阁本陆羽(茶经)校订(续)》等。**
**但是，对《四库全书总目·茶经》的梳理前人却少有涉及。《四库全书总目》又称《四库全书总目提要》或《四库提要》，是我国古代最重要的目录学著作之一，由清代纪昀总纂。《四库提要》中对所收每一部书都写有内容提要和评**
**论，本文拟对提要中所及陆羽所授官职的时间和职位进行订正，对《茶经》的分类进行辨析，对其版本进行考证，并补充《茶经》的意义与影响。《四库全书总目·茶经》提要原文如下：**
**《茶经》三卷，浙江鲍士恭家藏本。**
**唐陆羽撰。羽字鸿渐，一名疾，字季疵，号桑苎翁，复州竟陵人。上元初，隐于苕溪，征拜太子文学，又徙太常寺太祝，并不就职。贞元初，卒。事迹具《唐书·隐逸传》，称羽嗜茶，著《经》三篇，《艺文志》载之小说家，作三卷，与今本同。陈师道《后山集》有《<茶经》序》，曰：“陆羽《茶经》，家书一卷，毕氐、王氏书三卷，张氏书四卷，内外书十有一卷。其文繁简不同，王、毕**
**氏书繁杂，意其旧本；张书简明与家书合，而多脱误。家书近古，可考正，曰‘七之事'以下，其文乃合三书以成之，录为二篇，藏于家。”此本三卷，其王氐、毕氏之书软?抑《后山集》传写多讹误，三篇为二篇也?其书分十类曰：一之源，二之具，三之造，四之器，五之煮，六之饮，七之事，八之出，九之略，十之图。其曰“具”者，皆采制之用。其曰“器”者，皆煎饮之用。故二者异部。其曰图者，乃谓统上九类，写以绢素张之，非别有图。其类十，其文实九也。言茶者莫精于陆羽，其文亦朴雅有古意。“七之事”所引多古书，如司马相如《凡将篇》一条，三十八字为他书所无，亦旁资考辨之一端矣。\[1\](卷一一五，子部二十五)**
**《茶经》三卷，浙江鲍士恭家藏本。**
**《新唐书·列传·隐逸》记载陆羽著《茶经》3篇，而在《新唐书·艺文志·小说类》中记载陆羽著《茶经》3卷，《新唐书》对这里的不同并没做解释。而在《四库全书》书前提要中则有说明：“盖以一卷为一篇也。”鲍士恭所献《茶经》也是3卷，与今本同。自《新唐书》收录《茶经》之后，其他书也有收录，不过《通志》收在食货类，《郡斋读书志》收在农家类，《直斋书录解题》收在杂艺类，《宋史》又收进了农家类，而《四库全书》则收到子部谱录类。这反映了历代对这部著作认识的不同。“一之源”虽然提到了种植，但全书并不以此为主，茶虽然是饮品，但陆羽除了教人喝茶之外，还想通过茶叶、茶具、煮茶程序建立一套行为规范，所以《四库全书》收在谱录类还是比较合适的。**
**唐陆羽撰。羽字鸿渐，一名疾，字季疵，号桑苎翁，复州竟陵人。上元初，隐于苕溪，征拜太子文学，又徙太常寺太祝，并不就职。贞元初，卒。事迹具《唐书·隐逸传》，称羽嗜茶，著《经》三篇，《艺文志》载之小说家，作三卷，与今本同。**
**陆羽(733~804)，生活于盛唐至中唐时期。在《因话录》卷三中，解释了陆羽名字的由来。陆**
**羽是一名弃婴，不知名姓，长大后以《周易》为自己占卦，得“蹇”之“渐”，卦曰“鸿渐于陆，其羽可用为仪”2\](卷七，P395)，因而有了自己的姓名和字。陆羽的字“季疵”最早出自皮日休《茶中杂咏》的序，皮日休年代距陆羽不远，所说应当无误。陆羽居吴兴(今浙江湖州)时号竟陵子，居上饶(即今江西上饶)号东岗子，桑苎翁是他在南越(今广东)的号。**
**陆羽三岁时被龙盖寺(后改名为西塔寺)僧智积收养。唐玄宗天宝五载(746)，受李齐物赏识，亲授诗集。十一载(752)，与崔国辅交游三年，品茶论水。之后，陆羽又与皇甫冉、诗僧皎然多有来往。肃宗上元元年(760)，陆羽写了自传，其中记述他已完成的著作中有《茶经》一项。**
**提要中写道：“上元初，隐于苕溪，征拜太子文学，又徙太常寺太祝。”这段话有歧义，并且把授官职的顺序弄反了，，下面做一说明。上元初，陆羽在苕溪隐居，可是他征拜太子文学却不在上元年间。大历八年(773)，颜真卿到湖州任刺史，同年，陆羽应颜真卿邀约参加其主编的《韵海镜源》编撰工作。十三年(778)，颜真卿入朝任刑部尚书，之后，在适当的时间奏授陆羽官职，陆羽被任命为太常寺太祝。这个时间不会晚于德宗贞元二年(786)，因为这一年陆羽移居洪州(治今江西南昌)，与戴叔伦相遇，戴做《岁除日奉推事使牒追赴抚州辨对留别崔法曹陆太祝处士上人同赋人字口号》，这里就已经称陆羽为太祝了。贞元五年(789)，陆羽人岭南节度使、广州刺史李复(李齐物之子)幕。到广州后，陆羽的官衔为太子文学，很可能就是李复奏授。**
**陆羽约在贞元九年(793)返回江南，贞元二十年(804)卒于湖州。**
**陈师道《后山集》有《〈茶经》序》，曰：“陆羽《茶经》，家书一卷，毕氐、王氏书三卷，张氏书四卷，内外书十有一卷。其文繁简不同，王、毕氏书繁杂，意其旧本；张书简明与家书合，而多脱误。**
**家书近古，可考正，曰‘七之事'以下，其文乃合三书以成之，录为二篇，藏于家。”此本三卷，其王氐、毕氏之书软?抑《后山集》传写多讹误，三篇为二篇?**
**这篇《(茶经)序》出自陈师道《后山居士文集》卷十六，提要所引乃是节选并有误。其中“毕氐”应为“毕氏”。一，王氏与之并列，紧接着又提到张氏；二，查《四库全书》书前提要为“毕氏”。同样后面的“王氐”应为“王氏”“家书近古，可考正，曰‘七之事'以下，其文乃合三书以成之”，此句有误。据上海古籍出版社景印北京图书馆宋刻本《后山居士文集》此句作：“家书近古，可考正自‘七之事’，其下亡，乃合三书以成之。”这就是说陈师道家的一卷本《茶经》缺“八之出”“九之略”“十之图”，是用另外三个本子补齐的。**
**然陈师道称王、毕氏的三卷本繁杂，而张氏的四卷本反而简明，这是怎么回事呢?原来自《茶经》问世以来，就有人增加茶事和为之作注，又由于早期都是抄本，这些增补的内容就混入了《茶经》原文，形成了“繁杂”的面貌。**
**不过现在这四种版本都已经亡佚了，现存最早的版本为南宋咸淳刊《百川学海》本，后世各版本均由此而来。这段论及《茶经》版本时给出了两种猜测，一是“其王氏、毕氏之书软”否定了《百川》本曾参考陈氏本，推测鲍本直接从王、毕氏本来；二是后一句话又暗示《百川》本与陈氏整理本之间的关系。综合来看，应当是后者，因为陈氏说王本、毕本繁杂，说明增补了相当多的内容，而实际上《百川》本的注释并不多，可算作是简明的本子。**
**_四_**
**其书分十类曰：一之源，二之具，三之造，四之器，五之煮，六之饮，七之事，八之出，九之略，十之图。其曰“具”者，皆采制之用。其曰“器”者，皆煎饮之用。故二者异部。其曰图者，乃谓统上九类，写以绢素张之，非别有图。其类十，其文实九也。言茶者莫精于陆羽，其文亦朴雅**
**有古意。“七之事”所引多古书，如司马相如《凡将篇》一条，三十八字为他书所无，亦旁资考辨之一端矣。**
**十类的分法各本皆同。“一之源”讲茶的本源、种茶方式、茶的功效。“二之具”讲制茶用具的尺寸、质地、用法。“三之造”讲制茶工序、茶叶鉴别。“四之器”记录了饮茶的全部器具。“五之煮”讲煮茶程序、注意事项。“六之饮”提倡只加盐的清饮。“七之事”详列文献对茶事的记载。“八之出”列举全国各地的茶并品评高下。“九之略”讲在何种情况下可以省略茶器具，何种情况下不能省略。“十之图”讲要张挂《茶经》，反复查看。对此，提要解释了具、器、图的含义，因为光看题目很容易产生误解。**
**“七之事”引前代古书47种②，48则，自上古至初唐，汇集了那个时期所能见到的绝大部分茶史史料。在文献资料难以收集的唐代，陆羽能够引用到如此多的古书，跟他参与颜真卿主编的《韵海镜源》是分不开的。其中，所引文献出自已佚古书的至少有12种，如《神农食经》、华佗《食论》以及《永嘉图经》等。他书所无的条目除了提要所举《凡将篇》一条，还有“《方言》：‘蜀西南人谓茶曰鼓。”\[3\](卷下，PlI9)这一条。此外，“壶居士《食忌》：‘苦茶久食，羽化；与韭同食，令人体重’”\[3\](卷下，Pll32)条与宋叶廷佳《海录碎事》卷六所引“茶久食羽化。不可与韭同食，令耳聋”\[4\](卷六，Pl61)不同。因此，四库馆臣说它可以旁资考辨，确实是正确的，但这也只是注意到它在文献学方面的作用，而对《茶经》的意义和影响只字未提，这也体现了四库馆臣对这一类书籍的重视程度不足。**
**最后，笔者拟对《茶经》的意义和影响做一简要说明。作为世界上的第一部茶书，《茶经》被奉为茶文化的经典。《茶经》中礼仪、程序部分大都进入到需要礼仪规范的宗教和一部分民俗之中。世界上最伟大的几个宗教，都和一种特有的饮料相联系在一起。比如伊斯兰教与咖啡，基督教与葡萄酒，而汉传佛教则与茶紧**
**紧相连。而对茶清雅、芬芳的享受则留给了文人士大夫。**
**唐末皮日休在他的《茶中杂咏·序》中认为陆羽《茶经》的贡献很大：“：苦茶，即不撷而饮之，岂圣人纯于用乎?抑草木之济人，取舍有时也?自周已降及于国朝，茶事，竟陵子陆季疵言之详矣。然季疵以前，称茗饮者必浑以烹之，与夫渝蔬而啜者无异也。季疵之始为《经》三卷，由是分其源、制其具、教其造、设其器、命其煮，俾饮之者除瘠而去疠，虽疾医之不若也，其为利也，与人岂小哉!”\[5\](第十八册，卷六一一，P7053)明代陈文烛甚至认为陆羽和后稷的贡献、功劳相当，他在《(茶经)序》中说：“人莫不饮食也，鲜能知味也。稷树艺五谷而天下知食，羽辨水煮茗而天下之饮，羽之功不在稷下，虽与稷并祠可也。”\[3\](前言，P5)**
**自《茶经》出现以后，中国古代③又出现了113种④茶书，其影响不可谓不大。不仅如此，《茶经》还影响到了世界其他地区的茶文化，如日本的茶道、韩国的茶礼，都离不开陆羽的肇始之功。**
**注释：**
**①王郁风《(四库全书)版陆羽(茶经)校订》，《中国茶叶》，2003年第1期；王郁风《(四库全书》文渊阁本陆羽(茶经》校订(续)》，《中国茶叶》，2003年第2期。**
**②这里的古书也包括诗、赋、单篇文章。**
**③截止于1911年。**
**④此数字指现存全部茶事类书籍，包括已佚，不包括茶政类书籍。**
**\[参考文献\]**
**\[1\](清)永琯，纪昀，等.四库全书总目\[M\].清乾隆武英殿刻本.**
**\[2\]黄寿祺，张善文.周易译注\[M\].北京：中华书局，2016.**
**\[3\](唐)陆羽.茶经\[M\].沈冬梅编著.北京：中华书局，2010.**
**\[4\](宋)叶廷硅.海录碎事\[M\].上海：上海辞书出版社，1989.**
**\[5\](清)彭定求，等.全唐诗\[M\].北京：中华书局，1960.**
**责任编辑：郭玉芳** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | **日本《劳务派遣法》对我国劳务派遣的借鉴意义**
**宋晓波**
**(武汉音乐学院 武汉市 430060)**
**\[摘要\]日本劳务派遣业伴随日本经济由高速增长到低速增长的转变和历经多次市场巨变后，形成了较为完善的劳务派遣规制法律体系和有效的管理体制，它对我国规范劳务派遣工作具有重要的借鉴意义。**
**\[关键词\]劳务派遣；日本劳务派遣法；规制**
**\[中图分类号\]F241.2 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1008-8636(2013)04-0057-04**
**二十世纪八十年代以来，日本劳务派遣业迅速发展，它在日本经济危机中促进就业、推动就业结构调整等方面发挥了重要作用。经历多次调整和改革后，日本劳务派遣法律已趋于完善，且建立了完善的劳务派遣运行制度。从比较法的角度分析其派遣业的内涵，解析其具体制度，可为我国劳务派遣业的规制与发展提供有益借鉴。**
**一、日本劳务派遣的具体制度**
**(一)劳务派遣的类型。。日本劳务派遣可分为一般型和特定型两类，一般型劳务派遣又称登记型派遣就业，被派遣劳动者不是劳务派遣单位的正式员工，双方既不签订劳动合同也不发生劳动关系，求职者到派遣单位登记备案，派遣单位按照用工单位的雇用需求，从登记备案的劳动者信息中挑选出符合条件的劳动者进行派遣。在二次派遣的待雇期间，劳务派遣单位不需向其支付工资，不用承担任何法律风险。在日本劳务派**
**遣用工中，一般型是主流，用工比例占全部派遣总数的80%。**
**特定型劳务派遣又称雇佣型派遣就业，被派遣劳动者是派遣单位的正式固定员工，派遣单位对派遣劳动者承担雇主责任，两者之间发生真实完整的劳动关系。劳动者待派期间，派遣单位仍须支付其工资。此类派遣的人数不多，被派遣劳动者工作稳定性强于一般型劳务派遣。**
**由于一般型劳务派遣对劳动者的保障低于特定型劳务派遣，故对运营一般型劳务派遣的公司，政府实行更加严格的申请和管理制度，规定一般型劳务派遣实行许可制，以获得日本劳动省厚生大臣的许可为必经程序，其目的就是严格规制一般型劳务派遣业，将劳务派遣用工控制在“非主流用工方式”的范畴，规范劳务派遣业的良性发展。特定型劳务派遣的劳动者权益保护相对完善，国家对特定型劳务派遣实行登记备案制度，简化申请程序，鼓励特定型劳务派遣的大量**
**\[收稿日期\]2013-08-19**
**\[作者简介\]宋晓波(1984-)，男，湖北宜昌人，武汉音乐学院助教，主要从事劳动法研究。**
**发展。**
**(二)劳务派遣的适用范围。1985年日本劳务派遣法最初制订时，只有16种专业性较强的行业被允许实行劳务派遣。1996年经过修改，扩充为26个。1999年对此法作了大幅修改，劳务派遣由“原则禁止”转为“原则自由”，在一般许可的前提下，采用反向列举禁止使用劳务派遣的行业，如港口运输业、建筑业、医疗业、安全保障业等。2003年，解除了对制造行业的派遣禁止，派遣期限最长为1年，非26种行业的派遣期限，也由以前的1年延至3年。2007年，制造业劳务派遣的期限由1年修改为3年，一旦超过3年，用工单位必须同被派遣劳动者签订雇佣合同。**
**从《劳务派遣法》的多次修订可看出，日本对劳务派遣的限制呈现逐步放松的特点，一定程度上反映出该国政府为打破“终身雇佣”而提倡雇佣形式的多样化。制度上的松绑，使日本劳务派遣劳动者数量呈逐年上升趋势。**
**(三)被派遣劳动者权益的保护。日本劳动法学界对派出单位、要派单位和受派劳动者三者之间的权利义务关系，有着统一的认识：1.派出单位和受派劳动者之间存在劳动关系；2.派出单位和要派单位之间是契约关系；3.要派单位和受派劳动者之间是指挥命令关系。日本认同劳务派遣的“一重劳动关系”，劳务派遣单位是派遣劳动者的唯一雇主，两者发生劳动合同关系，用工单位与派遣单位之间是民事契约关系，用工单位和被派遣劳动者是管理与被管理的关系。**
**日本《劳务派遣法》规定了派遣单位和用工单位的法定义务，劳务派遣单位必须保障被派遣员工的就业、教育和培训机会。劳务派遣单位在劳动者被派遣期间，必须详细向其讲明派遣的工作条件和工作环境。劳务派遣单位有义务安排专人对被派遣劳动者进行业务指导，协同用工单**
**位解决被派遣劳动者的利益诉求，派遣单位必须为派遣劳动者缴纳社会保险和劳动保险。另外，劳务派遣单位必须准备劳务派遣人员的工作情况报告，以备劳动省厚生大臣随时检查。**
**用工单位实际指挥和控制被派遣劳动者，对派遣业务的特定事项负责，如保障被派遣劳动者公民权自由行使、遵守危险工作的禁止性规定、遵从劳动基准法的规定、确保被派遣劳动者的诉求快速解决、依法签订正式劳动合同、提供合适的工作环境，等等。同时，劳务派遣单位在禁止强迫劳动、禁止滥用学徒、保证平等待遇、确保安全卫生等方面，与用工单位承担连带责任。**
**在劳务派遣法约束的基础上，日本人才派遣协会在被派遣劳动者的权益保护方面发挥了重大作用。该协会成立于1986年，到2008年已吸收773家派遣公司为其会员，负责政府、用工单位、派遣单位、被派遣劳动者之间的联系与沟通，以提供咨询、援助和指导，来促进行业内部的良性发展。他们通过劳务派遣服务的长期调研，建立了完备的劳务派遣数据库，积极为被派遣劳动者权益保障开展活动，同时为劳务派遣公司规范发展建言献策，这极大地推动了日本派遣行业的自律与规范。**
**二、日本劳务派遣制度对我国劳务派遣制度的借鉴**
**日本劳务派遣的发展，呈现出严格规制和适度放松的显著特点。我国新修订的《劳动合同法》，曾通过提高劳务派遣企业的注册资本，进一步明确“临时性、辅助性、替代性”(简称“三性”)内涵，强化了劳务派遣从业资质的行政许可，反映出政府从严规制劳务派遣的姿态。但笔者认为，仅靠“三性”界定，难以真正规范不当劳务派遣，以概括式立法确定劳务派遣的适用范围，其可操作性不够强。应通过以下路径来规制我国**
**劳务派遣的适用范围。**
**第一，规制劳务派遣适用的行业范围。应以日本劳务派遣的列举不许可制为借鉴，肯定式列举为辅，在关乎民生或本国的特殊行业中，禁止进行劳务派遣，如建筑业、医疗业、银行业、制造行业、教师行业等，反之则允许劳务派遣用工。以列举式方式立法，可清晰直观的界定劳务派遣适用范围，为监管部门执法判定提供明确的法律依据。**
**第二，严格控制被劳务派遣劳动者在企业职工总数所占的比例。从日本情况来看，劳务派遣员工占用企业职工总人数的比例一直很低，劳务派遣是标准雇佣关系的补充。在我国当前劳务派遣法制不完备、劳务派遣法律关系复杂的特殊情况下，必须严格控制用工企业佣劳务派遣劳动者所占企业职工的比例，将其人数控制在企业总职工数量的10%以内，以强调劳务派遣用工在标准劳动关系中的辅助地位，避免标准劳动关系受到劳务派遣的冲击，影响劳动关系的和谐稳定。**
**我国《劳动合同法》第五十八条规定：劳务派遣单位应与被派遣劳动者订立两年以上的固定期限合同。但其并未涉及要派企业使用劳务派遣人员的工作期限问题。笔者认为，我国的劳务派遣期限偏长，应针对雇佣型派遣和登录型派遣不同形式区别加以规制，因为雇佣型派遣比例较少，派遣员工稳定性高，可对其实行可放开期限管制。而登录型派遣适用比例高，被派遣劳动者数量众多，管理相对复杂，故派遣期限应限制在18个月以内，同时限定派遣次数不得超过3次，用工单位超期限或超次数使用劳务派遣员工的，被派遣劳动者可直接转为用工单位的正式职工。**
**此外，还应建立劳务派遣“转雇佣”机制，法律应确定用工单位每年从被派遣劳动者中吸纳**
**转入正式职工的比例，鼓励被派遣劳动者努力转正，推动被派遣劳动者身份的顺利转换。**
**在日本《劳务派遣法》中，劳务派遣三方关系的平衡，除靠完善的制度设计外，还需要依靠工会与劳务派遣行业协会。这对我国被派遣劳动者权益保障有如下几点启示。**
**第一，应全面推进劳务派遣单位和用工单位的工会组织建设。各地工会应推动企业建立工会组织，因为只有建立了工会，被派遣劳动者才有依靠。建议将劳务派遣企业是否建立工会，作为其申请劳务派遣资质的实质性要件。应鼓励劳务派遣工加入用工单位工会。用工单位是被派遣劳动者的实际控制者，被派遣劳动者有何利益诉求，用工单位工会所掌握的相关情况会更快捷、更全面。另外，还要建立劳务派遣行业协会，吸纳劳务派遣单位为会员，行业工会可为会员单位提供有针对性建议。**
**第二，应加强用工单位和派遣单位工会间的合作。双方工会应积极开展互助沟通活动，认真探讨维护被派遣劳动者权益的长效机制。劳务派遣单位工会应对本单位按时发放劳务派遣人员工资、缴纳社会保险费用、签订劳动合同等方面予以监督；用工单位工会的监督，则重点应放在考察被派遣劳动者同工同酬、劳动防护、加班费支付、安全卫生等方面的落实情况。**
**第三，应建立劳务派遣单位法定义务履行情况报告机制。建立这一机制的目的，是督促劳务派遣单位定期向当地人力资源社会保障部门报告相关情况，如派遣单位与被派遣劳动者的劳动合同、支付被派遣劳动者工资、与用工单位订立、履行的劳务派遣协议等，以此来实现对劳务派遣的全面动态监管。**
**至于劳务派遣单位和用工单位间的权利义务配置，亦为解决劳务派遣诸多问题之关键。我**
**国《劳动合同法》第五十八条和第六十二条对两者之间的责任义务进行了分配，规定劳务派遣单位是劳动者的用人单位，应对被派遣劳动者承担所应当承担的义务。对用工单位，则规定了其在劳动保护、告知义务、支付加班费、岗前培训等方面的义务。在承认派遣单位和派遣劳动者之间一重劳动关系的前提下，合理地分配了派遣单位和用工单位之间的权利义务关系。依照“谁使用谁受益”的法理，劳动力的使用者——用工单位，有义务更有责任对派遣劳工承担相应的劳动保护义务，《劳动合同法》中增加了用工单位的用工义务，对规范劳务派遣关系具有重要现实意义。**
**劳动法的价值目标，是实质正义，有必要在被派遣劳动者权益受损时，要求派遣单位和用工单位承担连带责任，只是其连带责任的适用范围**
**不宜过大。应在关乎劳工基本权益保障的权利上，适用连带责任，如劳动报酬权、社会保险权、劳动保护权、休息休假权、集体劳权(团结权、集体谈判权和集体行动权)等。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]周长征.劳动派遣的发展与法律规制\[M\].北京：中国劳动社会保障出版社，2009.**
**\[2\]喜佳.“劳动派遣”之大陆法、美国法立法比较**
**与启示：劳动派遣的发展与法律规制\[M\].北京；中国劳动社会保障出版社，2006.**
**\[3\]平力群.浅析日本《劳务派遣法》的沿革及其影响\[J\].日本学刊，2009(3).**
**\[4\]薛孝东.国内外劳务派遣立法比较\[J\].中国劳动，2005(6).**
**Japanese Law of Labor Dispatch’s Reference Value for Our National Labor Dispatch Law**
**Xiaobo Song**
**_(Wuhan Conservatory of Music， Wuhan， 430060)_**
**【Abstract】 With Japanese economic transformations， Japanese field of labor dispatch had experienced many economic ups and downs. It had formed a relatively perfect regulation of labor dispatch and an effective administrative system. They are valuable for us to standardize our national system of labor dispatch.**
**【Key Words labor dispatch； Japanese law of labor dispatch； regulations**
**责任编辑** **陆** **路** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 图书在法国人的日常生活中是最重要的文化消费产品之一，法国人用于购买书籍的支出占到家庭文化产品开支的51%，远远超过了 DVD 和电影录像带20%、音乐碟片15%、电子游戏14%的比例。
无处不在的代艺术人文氛围
一
一法国文学书籍的出版、翻译与阅读
心杨状振梁雪
国是一个具有浓厚的艺术人文氛
法
去闱甩和读书环境的国家。普隆出版社 (Plon)说：：“在法国有一种出书表达思想的强烈愿望……在法国说成功，就是生了一个孩子，栽了--棵树和写了一本书。”
图书在法国人的日常生活中是最重要的文化消费产品之一，法国人用于购买书籍的支出占到家庭文化产品开支的51%，远远超过了 DVD 和电影录像带20%、音乐碟片15%、电子游戏14%的比例。
文学奖评选活动多、文学期刊多
法国文学书籍的出版与发行能获得公众如此青睐，与遍布城乡的文学奖评选活动和众多文学期刊的推动有着密不可分的关系。在法国，包括媒体、机关、城市、协会在内的许多机构甚至个人都创办有自己的文学奖评选活动，其中，知名度较高的有龚古尔奖、雷诺多奖、费米娜奖、梅迪西斯奖、 《Elle》奖、RTL卢森堡广播电视奖、法国发展署奖、联盟奖和法兰西学院奖等。这些林林总总的文学奖项，每年都会结合各个层面的读者和领域内的专家学者以及政府机构，展开评选活动。评奖的奖金并不是吸引大家注意力的主要因素，很
多文学奖都没有奖金只有奖章和证书，
有的奖项甚至只是一盒油墨、一-瓶葡萄酒或者一枝玫瑰。吸引大家注意力的在于评奖活动所带给获奖者的“小子”称号，以及由此给其图书的出版和销售所带来的巨大市场号召力。这对创作者、出版企业和图书发行商来说，都是获得巨额利润的好时机，尤其是龚古尔奖和雷多诺奖的获奖作品，始终都是打破图书销售记录的最热门的竞争者。2006年，龚古尔奖获奖作品，美裔作家乔纳森·利特尔的《仁人善士》(Les Bien-veillantes)， 就以 39.5万册的销售量名列年度单种最畅销图书的第三名。
此外，在法国还有众多诸如《读书》 (Lire)、《文学报》 {Le Magazine
在法国，借助于社会公众的热情文
持和政府的大力资助，文学类书籍长期以20%的市场份额稳居图书出版和发行销售的榜首，儿童读物和学校教材则分别以17%和14%的份额排名第二和第三。2007年8月到10月，在短短三个月的时间内，法国90多家出版社就出版了720多种小说和600多种散文，再次创下文学类书籍出版的历史记录。
| 2006年前十名畅销书外国作家 | | | 2006年前十名畅销书法国作家 | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 作家 | 销售量 | | 作家 | 作品 | 销售量 |
| 丹·布朗(美) | 828000 | | 马克·李维 | 《再见》《我的朋友我的爱》 | 1320000 |
| 泽普(瑞士) | 570000 | | 安娜·戈瓦尔达 | 《只要在一起》《我曾爱过你》 | 715000 |
| 哈兰·科本(美) | 399000 | | 纪尧姆·米索 | 《救救我》《以后呢?》 | 609000 |
| 克·鲍里尼(美) | 342000 | | 乔纳森·利特尔 | 《仁人善士》 | 395000 |
| 玛莉·海金斯(美) | 341000 | | 弗雷斯·瓦加斯 | 《在永恒的树林里》 | 250000 |
| 劳伦·维斯贝格尔(美) | 296000 | | 弗-奥·吉斯贝尔 | 《总统的悲剧》 | 239000 |
| 克·史·路易斯(爱尔兰) | 225000 | | 洛朗·杰拉 | 《幸运的吕克》 | 232000 |
| 斯蒂芬·维辛齐(匈牙利) | 220000 | | 集体编撰 | 《法语动词变位》(语法书) | 185000 |
| 帕·聚斯金德(德) | 192000 | | 伯努瓦特·格鲁 | 《星号键》 | 170000 |
| 帕·康薇尔(美) | 172000 | | 桑贝 | 《小淘气尼古拉》 | 169000 |
Jitt f raire) 等文学杂志，这些杂志每月的发行量也都在20万册以上。这些活动和书报杂志的大量存在，不仅为法国的图书出版做了良好的舆论宣传和信息引导，更重要的是在全体公众中形成了热情、积极关注图书和关注出版的整体社会文化环境和消费氛围。
出版社和文学界关系密切
在法国，出版社和文学界的关系十分密切。
在文学界最有声誉的伽俐玛 (Gal-limard) 出版社不仅出版过法国著名作家，如克洛岱尔(Claudel)、马尔罗(Malraux)、加缪(Camus)、萨特(Sartre)、波伏娃 (Beauvoir)、尤瑟纳(Yourcenar)以及萨洛特 (Sarrante) 等人的作品，而且还同加西亚·洛尔迦(Gare f a Lorca，西班牙)、费兹杰拉德( Fitzgerald，美国)、谷崎润一郎(Tanizaki，日本)以及帕维泽 (Pavese，意大利)等外国作家保持着良好的合作关系。
伽俐玛出版社在20世纪30年代初创立的《七星系列丛书》，收藏了世界500多种文学精品杰作，《白色系列丛书》和《黑色系列从书》也都是它与文学创作密切合作的见证。格拉塞出版社是第一家推出文学作品广告的出版企业，它开创了向新闻界赠书的先例，并将初版图书的首印量由上限2000本提高到了10000本。阿尔班·米歇尔(AI-bin Michel) 出版社则是文学“口袋书”的发明者， 自1903年起，它就和罗曼·罗兰 (Romain Rolland)、亨利·巴比塞(Henri Barbusse)以及皮埃尔·伯努瓦(Pierre Benoit) 等著名作家合作，以低廉的价格销售小开本图书，开创了文学书籍出版的新形式，并获得了市场发行的巨大成功。上个世纪20年代，阿尔班·米歇尔出版社还在法国首先开启了外国文学出版的大门，将英国作家吉卜林 (Kipling)、印度诗人泰戈尔(Tagore)、英国小说家柯南·道尔 (Co-nan Doyle)、艾米莉·勃朗特(Emily
Bronte)等人的作品在法国译介发行。创立于1941年纳粹占领时期的子夜出版社 (E ditions de Minuit)， 则是法国“新小说运动”作家的摇篮，包括杜拉斯 ( Duras) 罗伯
一
\-格利耶(Robbe-Grillet)、西蒙 (Simon)和贝克特 (Beckett)等人在内的许多作家的作品的出版，都得到过它的大力扶持。创立于1935年的门槛出版社 (Le Scuil)则出版了泰亚尔·德·夏尔丹 (Teilhard de Chardin)、索尔仁尼琴(Soljenit-syne)、毛泽东等思想先驱者的作品，并为布尔迪厄 (Bourdieu)、罗兰·巴特(Roland Barthes))等学者的作品提供着出版支持。
除以上几家知名度较高的出版社之外，法国还有几百家中小型出版社，它们的成名也往往是由于首家出版了虽在当时默默无闻却在后来扬名世界的作家们的作品，如克里斯蒂安·布格瓦出版社 (Christian Bourgais)之于“跨掉的行者”克鲁亚克 (Jack Kerouac)、 “后殖民小说教父”鲁西迪 (Rushdie)、《戕三部曲》作者托尔金(Tolkien)；南方文献出版社 (Actes Sud) 之于俄国作家妮娜·贝蓓洛娃(Nina Berberova)、保罗·奥斯特 (Paul Auster) 等。此外，法国还有专门翻译出版著名作家和阿拉伯思想家作品的辛德巴出版社 (Sindbad)，专门出版远东地区文学作品的皮基耶出版社 (Picquier) 等。
翻译类图书每年都要占到法国出版社图书出版总量的14%左右，其中主要是英语图书，英
品中，英美两国各有404部，日本110部，德国71部，然后是意大利、西班牙和荷兰等国。
法国出版业和文化外交部门还非常重视国内图书向国外的推广、译介和发行。1990年，法国外交部(现为法国外交与欧盟事务部)图书与多媒体处推出了资助图书翻译与出版工作的特别项目(PAP)，那些还没有很高知名度的作家获得了特别的眷顾，文学著作、人文著作和儿童书籍成为该项目资助的重点。在17年间，法国政府先后将12000种图书翻译成外文，在全球75个国家出版发行。此外，法国外交部、文化部、图书出版商以及法国图书展览中心还联合推出了“图书出版附加项目”，在不影响图书销售连锁的情况下，将图书价格减半甚至下降三分之二在海外市场销售发行。通过签订转让版权的方式，法语图书得以在世界各地出版，引进和输出的比例常年保持在 1：5 的恒定水平。
此外，法国每年都会把约60名左右的作家送往国外居住、创作；在法国驻外使馆的邀请下，国外作家也可以赴法介绍他们的书籍和创作情况。法国文学翻译家协会(ATLF) 及其创办的国际文学翻译学院 (CITI，总部设在阿尔勒)，会定期或不定期地为作家和来自全球各地的其作品的翻译者举行见面会谈活动。 ATLF 还同法国南方文献出版社合作，每年出版一本会刊，并编辑发行《文学翻译》 杂志 (Translitt e rature)，介绍、反映世界各国文学翻译家们的翻泽活动和研究成果。
公众阅读和政府调节
起着重要作用在维护法国文学出版事业的繁荣和整个图书发行环境的良性运作上，法国的公众阅读和政府调节起着重要作用对于市场效益不明显，但思想文化价值深远的学术著作和宗教典籍，法国政府会采取多种措施来维护它们在公众阅读视野中的出现频度和传播效果，包括政府购买、无偿赠阅、税率优惠、公共资助、调整制定雅克·朗法案等。为了加强这一一机制，法国政府还在2007年度创立了“样板独立书店” (LIR) 标示制度，为小众需求的高雅文化和学术书籍发行市场提供保护，这些书店也因此而享受到更加优惠的税率和政府的特别补贴。除政策层面的措施之外，法国遍布全国各地的公共图书馆也起着重要作用、法国生活条件研究和观察中心(Cre doc) 的调查报告显示，图书馆作为法国人常去的文化设施，其频繁程度仅次于电影院。自20世纪80年代以来，在法国文化部(现为文化与通讯部)的推动下，公共阅读网络得到长足的扩大和发展。法国全国现有市属图馆约3000个，工作人员35000名，为全国4300多万城市人口提供现代化的阅读服务。除市立图书馆外，法国还为偏远的农村地区专门设立了97个省级外借图书馆 (BDP)， 配置了具备多媒体服务功能的流动图书车，按计划在乡间巡回为偏远地区的居民提供服务((有些城市也采用这个办法为一些街区居民服务)，省级外借图书馆还在学校、监狱、养老院等地方存放了图书，为大众的阅读活动提供尽可能多的方便。作为社会融合的重要场所和推动文化传播的重要手段，法国公共图书馆和流动图书车不仅对原有的经典古籍和珍本图书进行了现代化的信息改造，同时，也增购了大量知名度低的作家、艺术家的作品，支持了这部分群体的创作，也维护了法国图书出版源头的多样化与均衡性。法国国家图书中心(CNL)是法国
图书出版领域内维护出版生态平衡的重
要机构。CNL由法国文化部图书与阅读司司长兼任主任，公益特色明显，该机构成立60年来，利用对图书产品所征收的复制用品销售税和出版营业税，以每年2200万欧元的行动预算，累计向18000种书籍的出版提供了资助。CNL对法国图书发行链条介人回应的是“种兼具文化性和经济性的目标：文化性在于它支持文学创作以及作品对公众的发行，经济性在于它支持人们冒着经济风险作出选择”。图书中心即以此为出发点，向作者、译者、出版者、图书馆以及书店等书业主体提供贷款、补贴和各种形式的资助。
在法国，和出版活动相配合，读书活动是作为一项国家行为在公众中提倡和推行的。由法国文化部和国家图书中心(CNL)主办，并得到其他相关部门联合协助的“读书节”活动，每年都会在三天的活动时间里，向全国公众推出上百种与读书有关的免费活动。法国每年也都要举办种类繁多的几百个大型书
市，供不同层次和不同需求的读者选购书籍，如美食书市、旅游书市、岛屿书市、政治书市、侦探小说书市、非洲文学书市等。其中，规模最大的是创建于1980年的巴黎书市，作为整个欧洲地区对公众开放的最大书市，2007年巴黎书市吸引了巴黎和其他地区的17万名读者参加。
在公众媒体层面，法国电视1台的《图书广场》、法国电视2台的《-本书》、法国电视3台的《每天一本书》、法国电视5台的《载书的船》、法国电视8台的《八台图书》等读书节目都是在广大民众和专业作家中卓有影响的栏目；法国3台贝尔纳·毕沃(Bemnard Pivot) 主持的电视文学和图书类谈话类节目《Apostrophe》曾经热播15年不衰。出版行业的市场咨询和新书推介，也都会在每年的秋季，被各大媒体作为重要新闻放在头版甚至头条位置予以报道和宣传。厂 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 岳花兰①赵 冬回男吴广辉吴涛李晓璐李 葳 张宏家
**摘 _要_ 全面、有效的学科评估是促进学科建设的先决条件，在常规的学科评估体系中往往存在评估主体单一的问题。因此，根据“十四五”规划中针对科学技术发展的新要求，提出三级甲等医院在今后学科发展中的战略定位和战略目标。运用德尔菲专家调查法，通过院内外多轮专家咨询调查制定学科和亚专科核心竞争力清单，并对某三级甲等综合医院的重点学科以及学科群进行评估。对医院重点学科以及所有临床学科和亚专科的临床和科研核心竞争力的现状、存在的差距和问题实现了全面、系统的评估。**
**关键词学科评估三级甲等医院学科建设 核心竞争力**
**中图分类号 R197.323.2 文献标志码 B 文章编号 1001-5329(2022)04-0042-04**
**Discussion on the Subject Evaluation and Management Path in Tertiary Grade A Comprehensive Hospi-**
**tals/Yue Hualan， Zhao Dong， Wu Guanghui， et al.//Chinese Hospital Management， 2022， 42(4)： 42-44，52**
Abstract Comprehensive and effective discipline evaluation is a prerequisite for promoting discipline develop-ment. There are certain problems in the conventional subject evaluation system， such as the lack of diversity of the main part. According to the new requirements of national science and technology development pointed out in the14th Five-Year Plan of China， the strategic orientation and goal of disciplinary in a tertiary Grade A comprehensive hospital were put forward in the future development. Based on the Delphi Method， the list of core competitiveness of disciplines and sub-disciplines was made through multiple rounds of expert consultation and surveys inside and outside the hospital. A comprehensive and systematic evaluation of the current situation， existing gaps and prob-lems of the core competitiveness of the hospital's key disciplines and all clinical disciplines and sub-disciplines were realized.
Key words subject evaluation， grade A tertiary hospital， discipline construction， core competitiveness First-author's address _S_ Beijing Anzhen Hospital， Capital Medical University， Beijing， 100029， China Corresponding authorZhang Hongjia E-mail： [email protected]
学科建设是医院持续发展的内在动力。加强医院的学科建设可以促进医疗机构提升诊疗技术水平、改善医疗服务能力、增加可持续发展能力和扩大行业影响力，是驱动医院综合竞争力提升的重要抓手，也是引领医院不同学科科技创新、人才培养、教育教学等综合实力提升的关键举措。
**1三级甲等医院学科发展的策略**
为了充分发挥三级甲等医院的示范、引领、指导和辐射作用，带动本区域乃至全国医疗水平、综合实力的提升，其发展模式应以内涵发展为主、规模建设为辅。实现该发展目标，应从以下两点着手：
**1.1 重点学科建设**
通过对医院资源进行合理整合、优化配置，提升资源利用效率，优先建设优势创新的学科发展和科研体系，进一步促进优势专科水平和综合实力的进一步提升，尤其是对疑难罕见危重疾病的救治能力和科研创新能力，从而在本区域、全国乃至全球范围内形成
①首都医科大学附属北京安贞医院北京 **100029**
**②北京市心肺血管疾病研究所** 北京 **100029**
**通信作者：张宏家； E-mail： [email protected]**
医院优势学科在疾病诊疗和科研上的引领优势，保持和不断提升医院重点学科的核心竞争力。
**_1.2_ 学科群建设**
专科细化是促进某一学科迅速发展最有效的途径，但疾病本身的特性决定了疾病的诊疗之本必然是多系统的全面、深度融合。围绕重点学科展开的学科群建设不仅可以打破专业壁垒，促进专科知识融合，而且可以实现思维模式的碰撞和价值观的汇聚，进而促进学科的可持续发展。
**2 学科评估对学科泼展的重要意义**
客观和系统的学科评估是促进和指导学科建设的重要策略，通过建立合理和有针对性的指标体系对各个学科建设情况进行定期、系统和客观的评估，可充分掌握各学科现状，判断各个学科的优势和劣势，确定学科建设上存在的问题并指导其制定有效的学科发展计划。好的学科评估指标体系有益于医院明确总体的发展建设目标并有的放矢地制定近远期规划，促进医院全面可持续发展~。三级甲等医院学科发展对维护和促进人类健康具有重大意义，各个学科的临床和科研实力的竞争是当今医院之间竞争的主要内容。而
学科发展和科研管理通过开发与利用各种资源，引导和促进广大医务工作者为实现医院和各学科的发展和科研目标而共同努力，是医院整体发展的重要保障门。
随着科学技术的不断发展，大数据、人工智能等新技术涌人医学领域，医院学科和科研发展步人快车道，对通过科研管理促进学科发展提出越来越高的要求。新形势下的学科评估可以为科研管理提供理论依据，使管理方式有的放矢，从而实现科研的系统化、高效管理。
虽然医院学科评估的发展速度很快，但是仍存在一些问题，导致学科评估“以评促建、评建结合”的初衷无法实现。第一，学科评估主体单一，以上级部门评估为主，学科自评较为欠缺；第二，学科评估指标体系注重各个学科的共性，所有学科都采用相同的评估指标和标准，但缺乏根据各个学科的特点有针对性地评估；第三，学科评估结果不够具体，难以指导医院学科具体的发展计划，各学科不清楚扣分原因及存在的问题，弱化了评估对学科建设的指导作用5-8。因此，亟待一种新的学科评估方法弥补以上不足，通过定性与定量相结合、方法与效果相结合、可行性与实际性相结合等多角度实现学科评估的精细化管理。外部对医院学科评估常用的指标体系见表1。
**表1 医院学科评估常用的指标体系**
| 一级指标 | 二级指标 |
| --- | --- |
| 学科现状及建设目标 | 学科建设的背景与现状 |
| | 建设目标的先进性和可行性 |
| 学科人才梯队 | 学科带头人 |
| 学科人才梯队 | 学科队伍 |
| | 学科骨干 |
| 医疗工作 | 医疗数量 |
| 医疗工作 | 医疗质量 |
| 医疗工作 | 医疗效率 |
| | 医疗技术水平 |
| 教学工作 | 医疗成果 |
| 教学工作 | 本科生教育 |
| 教学工作 | 研究生教育 |
| | 继续教育 |
| | 教学研究 |
| | 教学成果 |
| 科研工作 | 支撑条件 |
| | 科研项目 |
| | 学术论文和专著 |
**_4_ 学科评估的新思路与方法**
_4.1_ 评估的目的
医院根据“十四五”规划中指出的未来国家科技
发展的战略意图和工作重点，提出学科医院在未来发展中新的战略定位和长久发展的战略目标。学科评估的目的是全面、系统地了解医院重点学科以及所有临床学科、亚专科的临床和科研核心竞争力的现状、存在的差距和问题。并以此为起点，提出“十四五”期间的重点建设任务，有助于更为快速、有效且脚踏实地地实现战略目标。
_4.2_ 评估的方法
_4.2.1_ 学科范围 以重点学科评估和学科群评估为先导，因北京安贞医院是国家心血管疾病临床研究中心，因此我们评估的学科范围包括心血管疾病核心临床学科心内科、心外科(包括心外科、血管外科、体外循环、机械辅助循环和麻醉)和心血管影像相关科室(影像科、超声科、核医学科和介人诊疗科)。
_4.2.2_ 建立学科和亚专科核心竞争技术清单 第一阶段，依据院内外各个学科及亚专科知名专家的建议和反复讨论，建立了具有中心独立知识产权的学科和亚专科核心技术、诊疗能力和科研能力评价清单。根据评价清单设计问卷。问卷调查覆盖范围涉及3大学科：第一，心内科系统，包括12个亚专科(冠心病、心律失常、心血管急重症、心肌疾病与心力衰竭、高血压、心血管代谢、结构性心脏病、肺血管病、肿瘤心脏病学、双心医学、心血管康复、心血管共患疾病)；第二，外科系统，包括心外科8个亚专科(冠心病搭桥、先天性心脏病、主动脉疾病、瓣膜疾病、肺血管外科、外科重症、麻醉、心血管共患疾病)、血管外科2个亚专科(主动脉疾病、外周动脉疾病)、体外循环及机械循环辅助科3个亚专科(体外循环、主动脉内球囊反搏、体外膜氧合)；第三，心血管影像系统，包括心血管超声(胎儿心脏超声一母胎医学、成人心脏超声)、SPECT/PET(冠心病、心肌淀粉样病变、缺血性心肌病)、心脏专用机(冠心病均衡性多支病变、微血管病变)、PET/CT(微血管病变、均衡性多支病变、心力衰竭、缺血性心肌病、心脏肿瘤、血管炎症、心脏结节病、冠脉核医学、肺心病、心肌炎)、PET/MRI(心脏肿瘤、心脏结节病、心肌病、临床科研)、CT(冠心病/冠脉、主动脉疾病、外周血管疾病、肺动脉疾病、先天性心脏病)、MRI(缺血性心肌病、非缺血性心肌病、主动脉疾病、外周血管疾病)、心血管介人影像(冠脉影像核心实验室、主动脉疾病介人治疗、结构性心脏病介人治疗、外周血管介人、其他放射介人)。心外学科清单见表2。
_4.2.3_ 评价内容 核心竞争力的评估内容主要包括3个方面：根据核心竞争力清单列出的一系列核心技术，不同学科/亚学科中不同专业级别的人员根据问卷
| 亚专科 | 核心技术或能力 | 亚专科 | 核心技术或能力 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1.冠心病搭桥 | 1.1冠心病搭桥综合能力 | 4.瓣膜疾病 | 4.1瓣膜外科综合能力 |
| | 1.2病例数量优势 | | 4.2二尖瓣成型 |
| | 1.3体外循环下搭桥 | | 4.3主动脉瓣成型 |
| | 1.4非体外循环下搭桥 | | 4.4房颤外科 |
| | 1.5微创冠状动脉搭桥 | | 4.5微创瓣膜外科 |
| | 1.6机器人辅助下冠脉搭桥 | | 4.6经导管瓣膜替换 |
| | 1.7全动脉化冠脉搭桥 | | 4.7经导管瓣膜成型 |
| | 1.8再次冠脉搭桥 | | 4.8重症瓣膜病多学科 |
| | 1.9冠心病杂交手术 | | 4.9临床科研 |
| | 1.10急性心梗并发症的外科治疗 | 5.肺血管外科 | 5.1肺血管外科综合能力 |
| | 1.11临床科研 | | 5.2肺动脉血栓内膜剥脱术 |
| 2.先天性心脏病 | 2.1先天性心脏病的综合能力 | | 5.3急性肺栓塞的外科治疗 |
| | 2.2病例数量优势 | 6.外科重症 | 5.4肺动脉肉瘤外科治疗 |
| | 2.3胎儿先天性心脏病诊治 | 6.外科重症 | 5.5临床科研 |
| | 2.4新生儿先天性心脏病诊治 | 6.外科重症 | 6.1重症的综合能力 |
| | 2.5<6个月小婴儿先天性心脏病诊治 | 6.外科重症 | 6.2心源性休克的综合治疗 |
| | 2.6先天性瓣膜病变诊治 | | 6.3有创和无创血流动力学监测和评估 |
| | 2.7先天性心律失常 | | 6.4床旁超声 |
| | 2.8复杂先天性心脏病矫治 | | 6.5纤维支气管镜诊断和治疗 |
| | 2.9右侧小切口先心病外科矫治 | | 6.6临时起搏器 |
| | 2.10先心病合并重度肺动脉高压诊治 | | 6.7循环辅助 |
| | 2.11胎儿先心病诊断 | | 6.8多脏器功能的维护 |
| | 2.12先心病介人治疗 | | 6.9心肺复苏及复苏后管理 |
| | 2.13小儿心内科综合水平 | 7.麻醉 | 6.10多学科合作抢救 |
| | 2.14临床科研 | 7.麻醉 | 6.11人文关怀 |
| 3.主动脉疾病 | 3.1主动脉外科综合能力 | 7.麻醉 | 6.12临床科研 |
| | 3.2病例数量优势 | 7.麻醉 | 7.1麻醉综合能力 |
| | 3.3保留主动脉瓣根部手术 | 7.麻醉 | 7.2麻醉可视化技术 |
| | 3.4主动脉弓部替换 | 7.麻醉 | 7.3高级血流动力学监测 |
| | 3.5胸腹主动脉替换 | | 7.4麻醉深度监测 |
| | 3.6急性A夹层外科治疗 | | 7.5血液分离技术 |
| | 3.7主动脉夹层多学科协作 | | 7.6脑、脊髓功能监测技术 |
| | 3.8感染性主动脉疾病 | | 7.7麻醉快通道技术 |
| | 3.9非特异性炎性主动脉疾病 | | 7.8临床科研 |
| | 3.10主动脉杂交技术 | 8.心血管共患疾病 | 8.1心血管病共患疾病外科诊治综合能力 |
| | 3.11主动脉疾病介人治疗 | | 8.2心血管病合并妊娠外科 |
| | 3.12临床科研 | | 8.3心血管病合并肾脏疾病外科 |
| | | | 8.4心血管病合并肿瘤外科 |
的选项选择医院是否具有该项核心技术或诊疗能力；若具有，该核心技术或诊疗能力与国内优势医院相比，属于“引领”“领先”“一般”还是“落后”地位(4个半定量的水平指标)；是否建议优先发展该技术或诊疗能力。
_4.2.4_ 评估方式各个学科和亚专科核心竞争力清单的制定采用德尔菲专家调查方法，通过院内外多轮专家的咨询调查确定最终清单内容。核心竞争力学科内
部评估采用横断面问卷调查的方式。根据各个学科亚专科列出的临床和科研核心竞争力技术清单转化为电子问卷，并邀请心内科系统、心外科系统和心血管相关影像系统所有主任、副主任及具有高级职称的医生参与线上调查，分别对相应的学科和亚专科的核心竞争力进行1轮或多轮评价。第1阶段的调查覆盖重点学科的科主任、高级职称和中级职称的医务人员。
**(D卜下转第52页D)**
于对医疗质量及评价指标的认识存在不同意见，当时的修订并未能完全实现修订的初衷。虽然利用2011年修订后的《住院病案首页》可以更准确地统计新生儿住院死亡率和患者再住院率、区分并存疾病与并发症，但利用2011年修订的《住院病案首页》统计医疗质量指标还是存在局限性，例如无法统计手术风险分级住院死亡率(2011年修订的《住院病案首页》缺乏统计该指标所需的手术切口清洁程度、麻醉分级和手术持续时间数据)。利用2011年修订的《住院病案首页》也无法统计“与使用呼吸机相关肺部感染发生率”“留置导尿管所致泌尿系感染发生率”“使用血管导管所致血行感染发生率”和“手术部位感染发生率”这4个国际上高度重视的患者安全指标。
绩效考核的目的应是帮助公立医院持续改进医疗质量和医疗服务效率11-14)。北京大学医疗质量研究团队研究发现：绝大多数三级医院均希望通过第三方评价帮助他们持续改进医疗质量和医疗服务的效率。如果把绩效考核作为惩罚医院及其主管人员的依据，不但无助于医疗质量的持续改进，而且有可能导致数据造假，从而毁掉公立医院绩效考核的客观数据基础。
**参考文献**
\[1\]国务院办公厅.关于加强三级公立医院绩效考核工作的意 **见\[Z\].2019-01-16.**
\[2\] HAROLDS J. Quality and safety in health care， part i： five pioneers **in qualityJ\]. Clinical Nuelear Medicine， 2015， 40(8)：660-662.**
**(44上接第44页44)**
第2阶段，根据阶段的问卷结果进行汇总、整理、分析及和客观指标的核对，进一步优化进行小样本重复调查。
以学科评估的方式对全院各学科进行“体检”，及时诊断、定时监测学科建设问题，是医院制定规划、修订政策的重要依据，也是推动学科从“全”到“优”的基础。基于重点学科和学科群建设的思想，利用横断面问卷调查和德尔菲法，为新形势下的学科评估提供了一定的启发。新的学科评估思想和方法是对中央精神贯彻落实前提下结合医院自身特点的产物，在保持继承性的基础上，与时俱进、改革创新。学科评估体系仍需不断完善，从而以更好地发挥学科评估对学科发展的积极推动作用。
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\[收稿日期 **2022-01-14\](编辑** 程学薇)
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\[收稿日期2021-12-07\](编辑 程学薇) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | The Child's First History of Rome
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THE CHILD'S
FIRST HISTORY OF ROME.
E. M. SEWELL,
NEW YOKE:
APPLETON AND COMPANY,
049 A BGl BROADWAY.
1878.
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for the SoDtborn District of Sev York.
PREFACE
TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.
Tbi solicitude, so geDorelir duchwd, to mate emrr deputDieiil
rf bmwMge acceoible to the joung b; meaiB of works adapted
to thnr intellectuBl capacity and progren, i* one of ttie meet le-
maiimble chaiactBiiatica of tlie pRsent age. Tbe men ue now
liTiog, wbo can rec(rilec( the peticxl wben inBtniction in oui best
Tered tbtongh the medinin of teit-boDka wliiah were scaicelf in-
eligible even to the teacher ; much 1e« to the pupil comroitted
la hia can ; when wdtIib of |»neral iutbnaatioii, fitted to inatruct
w mil aa amoBB the jnrenila mind, wiitten for its nee and adjust-
ed lo its ponen, would have been ■ooght fof in vain: when, in
Jact, the beet reading of all who were abort of the age of pubut;,
«ompria«d little except absuKl and inoredibtetaleaofenchantmenl
and magic
Now, what a change ! Not only hna the nrindple oT adaptation
lo tbs tnlellectual development of the young been recognised, and,
with nearly maUiematicol precieion, applied in our ecbocAs, but
Buneroos additional Mudiee, acknowledied to be important, have
Iteen iQcceHl^illy iulroduced, and the means <>f pursuing them
amply inovided ; and, instead of tbe wretched campilaCioos from
■n age (tf baibariam and supentitioD, in which tbe young tormerly
band their eotertaimnent at tbe fireside, we have teeming libra-
ries, rich in the various tieasaree of science, of literature, and of
ait ; including worlia in every branch of knowledge, written ei-
pienly for them, and, in the main, admiratily fitted, at the same
hoK, to gratify and excite thiist for information in their tender
The beet things, however, are liable to abuse ; the nablert idaaa
aie everinnnat danger of being puriied loeitremes; and thepre-
I ailing anxiety, daily augnienting, to secure snitabJe and sufficient
iutellBclBal food for the yoong, has been [Hxiduative of some conee-
inences, which cannot be contemplated by the judicious with nn-
aiiied plaasnre : haMly without regret.
One of these may be observed in numeroua^l
■au, to laing certain aatiJeclB of an abstract q)''
within the circle of studies appropriate t
irons altempta made o(
ctq^jAfoMilftB A
le jdBig*asA MvM VF
B PRE FACE.
deeinblu, oven if it wete poanble, to pnnme nich suljecla ducoig t
period of life icarcelr loDg eDoagh to mutei thosa which bib on »
lerel with their powen, snd practically mora important la theil
luccese in life. Yet the adTocalea and pstroiu of the introdnetion
of Buch atodiea ara not few ; nor hare Uieir eotertiona been wholly
without Duccew : with what nnhE^ipy retmlti, time ultimately will
rtiow. la our oinnion, this crowdinK and tasldng the immatun
mind with the coatenti of encycLopediaa, ia acarcely lue la ba d»-
pkned, than the defective inatruction of a fomierdaj.
Another consequence of the preBsnt temper of the public, is a
flood of fioUliouB works deagard for the peruaal of the yonns. In
(h»e works, a series of imaginary faclB is made a yehicle to coii-
Tey moral and rehgioaa inforntatiou^ Such facts, of course, beyond
their iimneiliate use, po»oeB no value ; and it may be aerioualy
qoeeliooed, whether the lesBoiw they convey, wanting', oa they do,
the aolhority which real facta impart, pone^ luore- Be thia as it |
may, all must admit that these lenons rnake but a Hhght jmproa- '
Hiou on the feelings and memory in compBiison with the interest
awakened by the incidents of the stoiy and its pmgrem to the '
catastrophe ; while the distaste thus engendered lot le» eiciltng
thongh infinitely more useful reading, le a podtive iiijiiryfar whjdi
tliey otter no equivalent or compensation whatever.
In the foUowingr wocic by the accomplished Miaa Sewell, both of
the extremes referred to, are shunned. Her subject is neither pro-
fonod nor feigned. Hiiiory ia the narration of real eveats in the
order and circutnstanceB in which they occnrrsd ! and of M his-
tories, that of Btane compriNS a aeiiea of events mne interestiDl
and inetnictive, to ycDthlul readen, than any other that has ever
been written.
Of the manner in which Mia Sewell has eiecuted the woA, wa
can Bcarcely apeak in terms or approbation too Btroi^. Drawing
her maleriala from the best, that ia to >ay, the most leliaUe maicee,
riie has incorporated them in a narrative at once uncatentatioiu,
penpicnoua, and graphic : manifeetly aiming thieuf^tout to be
clearly understood by those for whom ibe wrote, and to imiH'ea
deeply and permanently on their minda irtiat ehe wrote ; and in
both of these aima, we think, she has been emirtenlly succsnful.
On the whole, we ara inctined to believe that the public general*
tr will regard thia work as a very deurable aoceniHi to our Jnve-
«ile literature ; and will heartily approve of Ita repubiioatioD ia Um
pment cheaji and ctmvenient form.
14 EW Tors, JtUg s, lea.
THE CHIID'S
FIRST HISTORY OF ROME.
THE TOUMDAItOH Or ROME,
■,,a 168.
^p 1, If we desire to understand the i»«
II<t>7a3. *'*'7 of *°7 conntiy, that is, what hap*
pened to the- peopIeVbo lived in it in
years paet^ we nmst begin by learning where the
country itself is, and wlfatit is like.
2. The histoiy of nome is the history of a people
who once dwelt ia Italy, and, being extremely braTe,
fought against other nations and conquered them, and
at bst became the masters of a great part of the
world. We shall find Italy in the map of Europe-
Germany and Switzerland lie to the north of it ; the
Adriatic Sea bounds it on the east ; and the Mediter-
ranean on the south and west. Its shape ia curioua,
something hke a man's boot.
3. Italy is a veij beautiful country ; it is much
warmer there than la England ; the wmds are softer,
the sky is of a deeper blue, and many lovely flowers
and shrubs bloom in the open air, which we are
obliged ia keep carefully in green-houses. A high
range of mountains, called the Apennines, runs
through h from north to south ; and below fhesa
10 THE CHILD S FIBST
mountajna there are smooth lakes and fertile valleys
amongst which grow corn and vines, orange grovea
and mulberry-trees, and all which can retdly be de-
wred to support and make life pleasant. Italy bar
often been called the garden of the world.
^ It is natural for us to wish to know who first
inhabited this beautiful eoTmtry — who governed tha
people and made laws for them — but it is very diffi-
cult to find out the truth ; and when we read the
stories which are commonly told upon these subjects,
we must remember that we cannot be as certain of
them as we are of things which have happened in
lat«r years. All that we can really be sure of is,
that in very ancient times Italy was divided mto a
great many httle states, and that the inhabitants were
continually fighting with each other. As to their
region they were heathens, and worshipped false
gocfe ; but ttiey were very particular in keeping up
all their religious customs and ceremonies, much more
so indeed than many persons in these days who say
they beUeve in the True Qod.
5. One of the principal of these Italian States
was called Latium, and its chief city was Alba Longa,
or the long white city. Alba is said to have been
built by the son of jllneas, a famous prince, who
settled in Italy after escaping from Troy, a city in
Asia Minor, which was taken by the G-reeks about
the year B. C. 1184. There were many kings of
Alba whom we know nothing about; but we are
told at last of two brothers, Numitor and Amulitis,
who both wished to have the crown. Numitor was
the rightful king ; but Amuhus was the braver and
richer, and by giving the people money, he persuaded
them to help him m taking possession of his brother's
throne, and compelling him to hve like a common per-
son. Amulius could not have be^i happy after dung
■Bch a wicked thing ; he began to fear lest, some d^
BISTUKT OF HOME. 11
V other, the children of Nmnitor might tir to take bii
crown as he had taken their father's ; and in order to
he safe he killed Namitor's sons, and obliged his
(ianghter, who was called Bbsa Silvia, to be a vestal
virgin. Vffltal virg^ were women whose duty it
Taa to attend to the religious services in the temple
of Vesta, one of the heathen goddesses. One of
their chief dudes was to take care that a particular
fire, which was considered sacred, should never be
allowed to go out. There was a very strict law
against their marrying and having children, and Amu-
liufl supposed, therefore, that if he made Rhea Silvia
a vestal vir^, there would be no fear of any one
after her trying to do him harm.
6. In spite, no we vcr, of this strict law, Rhea Silvia
had two little sons — they were twins, bom at the
same time. Amulius was exceedingly angry when
he heard it, and made up his mind directly Uiat the
poor children should be killed. There was a deep
river, the Tiber, which flowed by his city, and he
ordered them to be thrown mto it. Perhaps he
thought that when the dark waters had hidden them
from sight they would be foi^tten, and no one
would ask who murdered them. The servants of
Amnhus did as they were told ; they put the two
little infants into a basket and took them to the river,
and there they laad them down in the cold stream
aad left them alone to die. Just at that time the
waters of the Tiber had overflowed its banks, and
covered part of the land near. The basket waa
carried down the river till it reached a part where
the water was not very deep, and then it rested upon
the ground ; and so the poor children were saved
from drowning.
V. There was no one, however, to feed them, or
take care of them, and they must atall have di^ if
dtcy had remained there. Bit it happened (or, if
IS THB child's FIKBT
the Btory be really true, we rouat say it was ordered
by God) that Faustulus, a shepherd, found the two
Uttle babies and had pity upon them, and carried
them home to Us wife, and told her that she must
nnrse them and bring them up with hiB own chil-
dren, and he gave them the names of Romuloa and
Remua.
8. All this time Amulius supposed Uiey were
dead, and that he was quite safe ; but Ood, who
punishes wicked heathens as well as Christians, did
not allow him to escape. A great many years how-
ever went by ; Amuhus was still king of Alba, and
bis brother Numitor lived near him, without having
riches or power, and very unhappy, no doubt for the
loss of his children ; and Romulus and Remus grew
up to be young men, and were thought to be the
sons of the shepherd Faustulus. They used to spend
a great part of their time in feeding cattle upon the
hiUs and in fighting against robbers, and this made
them very brave and hardy. Numitor also had
some floc^ and herds which fed on the mountains,
and one day there was a quarrel between his herds-
men and Romulus and Kemns. Remus was taken
prisoner, and the shepherd carried h 'n' off to Numi-
tor, imagining that he would be very angry with him.
But Kumitor liked what he saw of Rmus extreme-
ly ; he thought him a fine, noble young man, and
asked several questions as to who he was, and where
he came from ; and at last he b^^an to suspect that
perhaps be might be one of the little twins who
were supposed to have been drowned in the river
Tiber. Of course he was qiute certain of it when
oe heard all about him from Faustulus ; lud soon it
was known by every one that Romulus and Bemua
were the grandstms of Numitor.
0. Then the two young princes determined not to
let Jkmolins be king any longer, and they brought
BiaroKY or eohk. It
t(^;ether all their friends and companions, and at-
ta^ed tlid dtj. Amulius did bia best to save him-
self, but he could not succeed, for Romulus came fa)
his palace, and forced his tray through the guards,
and at length found his uncle fuid killed him. Numi-
tor iras then proclaimed king again.
10. Bomnlus and Bemus were not contented to
live quietly at Alba after this ; they had a great wisli
to boild a city for themselrea. Thdr grandfather
allowed them to follow th«r own will, and they left
Alba and set out with some followers to find a place
which would suit them. A spot was discovered
amongst some hills, not very far from Alba, which
they thought would do ; hut when thej had fixed
uptm it, they could not agree as to which of them
should b^n the work. So they determmed to settle
the question by consulting on augur. Augurs were
persons who pret«ided to decide what ought to be
done by obseiring such things as the flight of birds,
or by ezanuuiug the appearance of the entrails of
beasts after they were sacrificed. The heathens sop-
posed that their gods declared their will by such
si^^na. Some appearances were thought to be good
auguries, others bad ones. The augurs in Italy had
a great deal of respect paid to them, so that it was
natural for Romulus and Bemus to go to them when
they could not settie a question for themselvea.
11. A particular day was named fot consulting the
augur, ana Bomulus and Remus stood upon different
hills towatchforwhatwoiddappeartothem. Itissaid
that Remus saw ^ vultures first, and Bomul-is twelve
afterwards. The auguis declared that Romolns had
the best omen, and &a,t he was to begin building the
«ty ; and so he did, and called it Rome. He marked
ont the size by yolcing a bull and a cow to a plough,
vhich, as it went along, made furrows wht;re the
trails were to be built ; but the plough was lifted up
J4 THE CHIU>'s FlUST
wherever the gates were to be, because every spot
vhich it had passed over was considered sacred, and
waa never to be trodden on again. T1& was 7fil
yean before the hirth of our Saviour.
12. Remus was greatly disappointed at having lost
the honor of hegiuning the city, and be gave way to
his envious feelings by laughing at his brother, and
leaping over the low walls wid ditches which were
just b^un, and asking if such things as those wonld
be any defence. This made a friend of Romulus e:t-
ceedingly angry, and he etnick Remus, who fell to
the ground. The young prince died on the same
spot, and they carried him to the hanks of the Tiber
and buried bun
CHAPTER IL
BOHULnS,
FIBST Eras OF XOHE, B. O. 7GS
/ -Q Q 1- Romulus was now left to be king
IBS to 710, alone ; hut liis kingdom waa a very poor,
small one. It was only a collection of
huts, with a httle ground about it ; and the walls of
his palace, we are told, were made of rushes, and
covered with thatch. He had besides very few sub-
jects, and he therefore invited all people from tho
neighboring states who were discontented or unhappy,
or who had done wicked things and were afraid of
b^ng poniahed, to come and Lve in hia new city.
2. A good many men came, but there were scarcely
any women ; so that when tiiey wanted wives they
could Dot get tliem. At last Romulus thought of a
plan by which he might bring some women to Rome.
Be ordered a great festival to be kept, witii gamei
HiaTOBT or KOHS. 19
md rejoicings, and asked a tribe of people called Sa-
mnes, who were settled near Rome, to come to it
with thdr familieB. This they agreed to do, and
when the time arrired they ail appeared and the
games began. Then a number of joung Bomana
ntshed in amongst the Sabines, and caught all the
women who were unnuimed, and carried them awaj
in triumph to be thdr wivee.
3. The Salunes were natmally enough exceedingly
angry, and as the Bomana would not give their
dwjghteis back to them, they detennined to declare
trar against them.
i. Both the Romans and the Sabinea were very
brave, and the war went on for a long time without
either of them being conqueraiB. The Sabines, how-
ever, took possession of the citadel or strong fortsess
of the Romans by the help of the governor s daugh-
ter. This womaa'a name was Taipeia. She had
seen the golden bracelets and rings which it was the
custom of the Sabines to wear, and she wished very
much to have some of them for her own. She there-
fore contrived to tell the Sabines that if they would
gVe her what they wore on their left arms she would
t them into the citadel. The Sabines very willingly
agreed to tiiis ; the time was fiaed, and all the arrange-
ments were made. Tarpeia kept her promise, and
managed to unfasten the gates, ^id the Sabines come
in ; but as they passed her they threw their bucklers,
which were earned on their left arms, upon her, and
crushed her to death ; and thus her treachery and
wvetousnesg were punished. Part of the hill upon
which this fortress stood is still called the Tarp^an
rock, and it used to be a custom in Rome to throw
persons headlong from it who were sentenced to di«
for having committed any great crimes.
6. The war was not at an end even when the 8a-
mem hod taken this fortress. It went on much
16 THE child's fibbt
longer ; and at last there vaa a very great battle, and
DO doubt a number of peiBOns would have been killed,
if ^he Sabine women, who had been carried away and
manied to the Romans, had not determined to tr^
and prevent anj more fightuig.
6. We can easily undersbmd why they should hava
wished to make peace, for whichever ^de conquered
they were sure to be unhappy. The Salnnes were
tbeur fathers and brothers, but the Romans were thdr
husbands ; and though they had been taken away by
force at first, by this time they had grown quite fond
of them, The women all marched out of the city
with their children in their arms ; and when ihey
came to the place where the battle was going on, they
rmhed into the middle of it amon^ the soldiers, and
begged them to be friends. Tabus, the king of the
Saomes, listened to them ; and he and Romulus con-
sulted as to what could be done to stop the war. At
last it was proposed that the Romans ^id the Sabinea
should become one people ; that Tatius and Romulua
should reign over them together, and that when they
were dead, a Roman and a Sabine should be chosen
in turn. This was accordingly settled ; and the two
kings took an oath that they would always keep peace
wiui each other for the future.
/" 7. There was a famous t«mple bmlt at this time to
Janus, the god of peace. The gates were kept open
during war, and shut m the lame of peace. We learn
from the Roman wriCera that it was only shut twica
during seven hundred years, which is a proof hotr
cmstantly the Romans were at war. Tatius and
Bomnlus did not r«gn very long tt^ether. Tatius
was murdered after a few years. He refused to pun-
ish some of his friends who had done wrong, and the
persons who were injiired killed him in revenge. No
one was chosen to succeed him, so that Romulus was
DOW king over both the Romans anil the Sabines.
UISTOKT or BOHE. 11
Bb seems to have been carefu] to govern fcell, fur V
chose some of his oldest and best subjects to help
>iim with their advice. They were caUed sen&lora.
\t fiist there were two hundred — one hundred for
the Romans, and the other for the Sabines ; but an*
o&er hundred was added afterwards — so there were
ball three hundred.
8. The Senators used to meet in the Forum or
market-place, which was a large open space, with
corered w^ys or porticoes round it.
9. After a while Bomulus had other subjects be-
sides the Sabines, and those who first j<nned him ;
for some of the little towns and states near were con-
quered hj degrees, and the inhabitants left their
cities and settled at Rome, and were called Plebeians.
Tiie others were called Patiicians.
10. The patricians looked down upon the pie-
beians, and would not give them the same advaut^^
as they had themselves ; and in after years many of
the troubles which happened at Rome were caused
by the quarrels between the patricians and plebeians.
11. llierewere also in Rome persons called Cli-
ents. They were not of high rank, and it is not quite
known where they first came from ; but they were
something like servants or tenants to the patricians :
that U, the chief of the family was obliged to protect
liis client, and take care that he was not treated tm>
justly; and the client was obliged to support his
chief or patron on many occasions. The Roman pa<
tridans were very proud of having a great many
clients. The lowest rank of all were slaves.
12. We haTO not any clear account of the laws
»hich Bomulus made. He is said to have reigned
thirty-seven years, but how and where he died b not
18. This is the story which is told us: — ^Komului
nunmoned a great meeting of the people in a pUoa
(S THB CBILD S FIRST
called the field of Mars. A fierce Btonn arose, flit
eky became qnite dark, aod the multitude, beang
frightened, fled away to their homes. When the
Btorm -was over, Bomuliis coold not be found. The
people said that he waa taken to heaven, and they
norrliipped him as a god,
] 4. That, of course, was a heathen notion, Rom- :
uhia must have died as other men die. Some have
Baid that the senators murdered htm.
15. It may be useful to remember, that when Rome .
was founded the prophet Iswah was living, for by !
pladog tc^ether the facts of sacred and common his-
tory we sometimes gtun a clearer idea of both.
CHAPTER III.
VCUA POUPILtUB,
BEOOSD DMQ OF SOKE, B. O, 116.
2 Q 1. Some time passed after Romnlns
716 to 873. ■"** dead before it was settled who
should succeed him. In the mean time
the senators ^vemed. The Romans at last fixed
upon the Sabme, Numa Pompilius, who was a very
ggp^ man — wise, ^ntle, just, and eitrenrely pmlicu-
lar about every thmg which had to do. witlj^elifflon. '
2. The Romans respected him vw^fTnuch^nd
supposed he was taught by a beautafol goddess
whom they called ^eria. It was Kama's cust,oro
often to go by himself tP-a grotto near Rome, and ]
there they fancied that ^eria appeared to him, and I
told him what kiws to make, Tliis notion we know'
was absurd and nntrue, but certainly Numa did
toany thinga which may be a good examjile to all
p«ncag, Christians as well as he^ens. He -iraa
Mi
KOME. 19
strict in making the Romans keep thdr wcnxl
ne was aa kind to the poor as he was to the rich ;
ud iostead of allowing the Romans to qoairel with
their n^hbois, and go to war with them, he kept
them at peace during the whole of his ragn, bo that
Ihe t«mple of J[apfla wa« never once opened.
3. He rdgncNlalooK while — ^fort; yean and more,
il is said ; and it must have been a sorrowful daj fo:
Rome when good King Nmna died.
CHAPTER IV.
TSiftii Kce or Boios a. o. S18.
j_ Q 1 . Thb nert king who reigned in Rome
(73 to MA '"^ Tullus Hostihufi. He was a Roman
chosen by the Sabinea. He was not a
religions man like Nmna, though he is s«d to hare
taken care of the poor. We do not know much
about him, but he is supposed to hare rdgned thirty-
two years,
3. The principal event that happened in his time
was the destruction of Alba Longa. Borne and Alba
were very near each other, and the people (juarrelled,
and then their Idngs went to war. But mstead of
GghUng a great battle, they determined to settle
their disputes in the following manner. It happened
that the Albans had three brothers in their army
who were very brave, handsome, and noble ; they
were called Cuiiatii. In the Roman army there
were also three brothers called Horatii. The Horatji
ud the Curiatii wera cousins and friends, for tbe
Bster of one of the Hcratii was engaged to be married
lo one of the Curiatii, and because she lored him
so THB child's i l&ST j
very much, she had worked a beautiful nibe for bint
which he used to wear. Yet, thoi^h they were
oousina, it was proposed that they Bhould fight to- I
gether. The Horatii were to fight for the Bomaoit,
and the Guriatu for the Albana, and whichever of th« '
two set£ of brothers conquered, their side was to be
conudered to have gaioed the victory, just as if the I
two armicfl had really fought a battle. |
3. The young men did not mind being choeen in '
this way; indeed they thought it a great honor.
They went out to meet each other Hke friends, and j
promised that they would fight quite furly, and then i
they b^an.
4. Two of the Horatii were soon Klled: the other
knew that he could not defend himself much longer, .
BO he pretended to run away. The Curiatii followed '
him; but because they were wounded, they could
not go very Eitst, and were not able to keep together ;
and when Horatius saw that they were separated, he
tamed back, and attacked them one by one ; and at
last the three brave Curiatii were all killed.
5. Horatius was very much delighted, and set ofi
directly for Rome, where he knew he should have
gieat honors pmd him. Before he went he took oS
the robe which his sister had worked for her cousin,
and put it upon his own shoulders. As he came to
the city his aater met him, and upon perceiving
what he wore, she grew exceedingly angry, and be-
gan to reproach him, calling him a murderer. Ho-
ratius could not bear'thia, and he lifted up his sword
tnd killed ber on the spot.
6. Horatius was ordered to be punished for his
crime, but he was not condemned to death, because
he had just done such great service to his country in
fighting for it : he was, therefore, made to pass under
the yoke. This means that two spears having been
planted in the ground, and another laid aeroes th«
EISTOBE OF KOHE. S\
Hf of them, Horatios vas made to pass under them
u a, sisa of bis being humbled and degraded.
7. There was peaca between the ^bans and Ro-
mans for a little time after this ; but the Albana only
pretended to be friendly, and when the Bomani
found this out, thev took the fiM opportunity of
marching agaoaat Alba, and quite destroyed it. The
walls were completely pulled down and never built
up ag^.
8. King TulluB grew sorry after a time that he
had not been as careful about relk;ion as Numa was.
Some say that be had a painful msease which made
liim thmk of these things. The people must have
had a very bad opinion of him, for when his palace
caught fire, and he himself was burnt with it, they
deckred that he was killed because the gods were
angiy with him. 'Wie are not told where he was
buned, and it is supposed that no honors were p^d
him at his death.
9. This was a great mark of disrespect amongst
s]l nations ; as we read in the Bible, of JehoiaMm uie
wicked king of Judab, who bred about 30 years after
Tullus, that none were to lament for him, and that
he was not to be bnried like other men.
CHAPTER T.
AKCUS HARnns,
rOVBIH EDIS or KOHE, B. a SI*
g^ Q 1. Ascne Mabthjs was the next king,
Ut to ill. ^^ >» B^ t° ^^^ I^^^^ ^^ grandson ol
Numa, and in some respects lie was like
bim, for he showed great regard to religiim.
2. There were, however, some wars in his reign.
and as the Romans were generally conuoerors, then
dominioiiB increased in consequence. The city also
became lai^r, and there were a neat many more
people living in it ; but thia brought trouble to An-
cus, for there were eo many crimes committed, that
he was obhged to build a prison, in which aU tha
wicked persons were kept. A dark and dreadful
place it was, aa may be seett by the remains of it at
Rome at thb day.
8. It happened during the reign of Ancus that a
rich stranger, called Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, came
to settle at Bome, with his wife Tanequil. Tanaqui)
was a very ambitions woman, and wished abore all
things to see her husband a great man. There was
nob much hope of his b^g so in the town where he
had been bring, and for this reason she persuaded
bim to leave it, which accordingly he did, tULd set out
on bis journey in a chariot wi1^ his wife and attend-
ants. Just as they arrived at one of the hills ou
which Bome was built, they looked up and saw an
eagle hovering over their heads. Presently it de-
scended, took off the cap which Lucius wore, and
went up with it Into the air. Then coming down
ag^, the bird placed the cap on the head of Lucius
a second time, and fiew oS.
4. Tanaquil pretended to have great skill in augu-
ry, and to be able to foretell what was goii^ to bap-
pen. She thought the appearance of this eagle was
a good sign, ana declared to her husband that the
gods had sent to let him know that he should one
day be king of Rome. Both Lucius and Tanaquil
were very well received at Rome. They were much
hked because they were rich and agreeable, and
King Ancus himself was pleased with Lucius Tar-
quimus, and by degrees became his great friend, and
consulted him whenever any important questicm vai
to be decided.
A. It seemed, therefore, veiy likely that TauaquQ't
firophecy might some day be folfilled.
6. Ancus reigned twenty-foor yean, and when he
died he gave hia two bodb in charge to Lucine Tor-
qtuohie.
CHAPTER VI.
Lccitrs TAKqniitiiJS priboiib,
FD-ra una or tuntE, b. a Slf.
p n 1. T^HxqnTL had her wish when King
GlTtoBTS. Ancns was dead, for the Romans choae
Lucius Tarqmnius Priscus to succeed
him. Their choice was upon the vhole a good one,
for Lucius proved lumself in many ways the greatest
prince who had yet reigned over them. He waa
^eiy warlike, and increased the Roman dominions ;
and he also took great pains to make the city not
only beautiful but more healthy, by drawing the
water from the swampy ground which lay near it.
The largest of these drains is to be seen now at
Rome, and is called the Cloaca Maxima. It is so
high and so broad that a cart loaded with hay can
pass through it ; and though it has stood such an
uomenso number of years there is not a stone out of
its place.
3. Besides these great works, Ludus Tarqdnius
amused the people oy public games and chariot
races. He bmlt an immense open theatre or circus,
ia which the people used to sit to watch the races.
lluseircus was made so much lai^r afterwards, that
two hundred and fifty thonsand persons could ba
3. The Romans were always exoesEively UmA oI
James and shows.
S4' THE child's FIBaT
4. Bat tfaougli Luuus Tarquinius was much like^
he iras not able to have lus own will in every thing.
There is a strange story told about this, which w«
know however cannot be all true. He wished, it ia
Baid, to increase the number of hia cavalry or hoise-
men, thinking they would help hira in his ware. The
Romans were extremely strict in keeping to all th^
old customs, which they thought bad been settled
by the gods ; and as the number of horsemen waa
fixed, they diA not like the idea of a change. One
of the augurs indeed warned the king that he bad no
right to moke any alteration without the permission
of the gods. But Lucius Tarquinius only scoffed at
him for pretending to know any thing about the wiU
of the gods ; and in order to prove if the augur
really bad more knowledge than other persons, he
asked him whether, what he was then thmking of,
was possible to be done or not. " Yea," replied tbo
augur, " what you are thinking of may be done."
The Idng anuled scornfully, and drew a razor from
beneath bis robe ; then taking a flint in his hand, ho
Baid : " I was thinking whether it was poesible for
thee to cut this flint with this razor." The augur
took the flmt instantly, and without the least difficul-
ty cut it completely uuough ; and from that moment
uie long gave up the wish of doing any thing which
was declared by the auguis to be against the will of
the gods. There is another wonderful story told of
an event that took place about this time. The king,
in one of his battles, took prisoner a woman, whraa
lie carried home to wait upon his wife. Tanaquil
set her free, and allowed her son Serrius Tulhus to
bo brooght up m the palace. One night, as this
child was sleeping in his cradle, a bright flame waa
seen to flicker about his head. The persons who
perceived it were very much friEhtened ; but when
they Bent for TanaqiA she dec&red that the sign
HI8T0BY OF ROME.
ttU a good one, and meant that the boy wculd oii«
day become b great and ^ood man. From that mo-
DKait Tanaquil determined to educate him as her own
child, and when he grew np to be a man, Lncius
TarquiniuB gave him one of his daughl«rB for a vife.
5. The sons of Ancna Martiua were very jealous
of tiie faror shown to young Semus, and especiajy
of his bein^ made the Idiig's son-in-law ; for they
considered themselves the rightful heirs to tiie throne,
and hoped to succeed to it after the death of Luuus
Tarquinins. After a great deal of plotting they de-
termined to murder the king, and if possible to seize
npon the throne before it could be given to Servius.
Accordingly they hired two young men, who dress-
ed thesiselves up like peasants, and began a pre-
tended quarrel. The officeia of the court took them
before the king, and made them UH ih&r story, and
whilst he was listening to them very intently, some
of their companions, who were in the plot, came
near and struck Lucius Torquinius with a hatchet,
and killed him.
6. The sad news was soon told to Tanaquil. She
immediately sent for Servius, and begged him to
eovem in the king's name. This he consented to
do, and Tanaquil then informed the people that their
king was recovering, hut that he wished Servius Tul-
liuB to be their ruler until he vas quite restored. So
BerviuB governed in the king's name for a few days,
and when Tanaouil thought that the people were
accostomed to obey him, she told them the truth,
sod Servius became their real monarch.
7. Liidufi Tarquinius Priscns reigned thirty-eight
THE CHILD a FIEBT
CHAPTER VII.
BBftVIDS TULLlua,
]^ 1. Sebvidb TuLUoa was a good and
fit Id sas ^'^ ^^ > I'll' ^^ patridans, who were
. the chief people in Borne, did not at all
like him to teiga oyer them. All the kings before
him had beea patrimans like themselves ; but Ser-
vius was born whilst his mother was in slavery, and
the proud Romans thought it beneath them to obe^
him. Beddes this, Servius showed great favor to
the plebeians, who were generally treated very
cruelly by the patricians. He took pity especiaJIy
upon all debtors who were plebduis, and bade
them send him a Ust of their debts, which he helped
them to pay. If this bad not been done, the pa-
triciims might have taken all their goods from them
and made them slaves.
2. Servius also mode a change In the mode of
raising taxes, which helped the poor, and prevented
thdr being called upon to pay as much as they paid
b^ore ; and he allowed the plebmns to have some
land to cultivate for themselves, which fonnerly had
been ^ven only to the patricians. In every case,
indeed, he seems to have wished to do what was
just tmd right.
3. All uiese things, however, only made the pa-
tricians bate Servius more and more; but perhaps
they might not have been able to do him harm, if
his own children and relations had not joined with
them in rebelling agunst him.
4. He bad two daughters who were married to
the two sons of Lucius Tarquinius Piiscos. The
vounger of these daughters was named Tullia. She
BISTORT OF HOME. tn
was ao extrctuclf wicked woman, ai:d as sLe did
uot like hfir own husband, Aruna, who was guitlt;
and amiable, she determined to poison bim and her
uster, and then to many her Bister's husband. Tar.
qnimas Superbua, who, like herself, was cruel and
amtntioas.
5. This dreadful deed she committed, but stUl she
was not satisfied. Her wish was that her husband
should be kinjg. She therefore tried to persuade
him that Serrius wns tnldiig his place, and that if ho
was dead, there would bo no doubt of his being made
king himself. Tarquimus must have been nearly as
wicked as his wife, for he listened to all she stud,
and tried in secret to h&r up the patricians still more
against the good old king.
6. At last, one day when the patricians were par-
ticulariy angry with Servius, for endeavoring to
make a law which they did not like, Tarquin entered
the senate like a king, sat down on the throne, and
began to abuse Serrius openly. Borne of the sena-
tors took the king's part, but & great many were
fiightened, and a terrible coniWon followed. Ser-
rius soon heard that there was a tumult iu the sen-
ate, and went in haste to know what was going on.
When he arrived he saw Tarquin, his son-in-law,
seated upon his throne. The s^ht made him exces-
sively angry, and without considering that Tarquin
was a young man, and therefore much the stronger
of the two, he tried to pull him from the throne.
The wicked prince sdzed the old kmg, and dragged
him to the top of some high steps, and then threw
him down headlong.
f . Some of his attendants lifted him up, intenduig
to carry him to his palace ; but Tarquin sent a party
of his followeis after him, who attacked him again,
and killed him. His body was left on the ground,
oorered with blood.
S8 THE CHILB a FIBBT
8. 'follia kpew well what her husband inbaded to
do on this day. She had indeed fiiBt put it into hir
head to try and murder her father, and vhilst Tar-
quin was at the senate, she grew so impatient U
Know whether his plans had succeeded, that she de-
temuned to go heraelf, and leam. Accordingly she
ordered her chsdot tc be prepared, mid drove to
the forum, and there saluted her husband as king.
As she was retmning home, something in the road
prevented the horses from moving on. The dead
body of her father lay oa the ground before her.
" Do you fear to drive over the dead ?" exclmmed
Tulliato the charioteer: "go on." The man went
on, and the blood of the poor old king dyed the
wheels of the chariot, and even stmned the clothes
of his inhuman daughter. Years afterwards that
horrible action was sull remembered by the Romans.
They called the street in which it had beon com-
mitted the "wicked street."
CHAPTER VIII.
TARQOINIUB SI
■n Q 1. Tarqvin the Second is s^d to
tSfi ta 510. 1^^ l^^^ii named Superbus, or the
Proud, because of on insolent and cruel
speech which he made directly after he came to tha
throne. He was asked to allow the body of Servius
to he buried like that of a prince, but he answered
Lhat Romulus had no funeral and therefore Servius
required none. Certainly no one could have ex-
pected any thing good from a person who had com-
mitted a dreadful crime in order to gain the throne,
tad the Romans soon found that Tarquin was a com-
HISTORY OF ROHE. tt
pl^ tyrtuit. Ho treated both the patriciaiu and
the piebeiajiB most severely; and the poor peopla
irere obliged to wor]t so hard at the different buiid-
'ngi which be chose to hare erected, that many of
tt^ killed tbemselyes, vbilet eeTeral of the rich
and noble left Borne, and went to Qabii, a citj a fetr
miles &oin Rome, the iuhabttanta of which were
enemies of Tuquin. One of Tarquin'a chief build-
togs was a t^nple to the god Jupiter. It was placed
upcm a hUl in the middle of the city, and as the
trefkmen were dialing the fonndatdons of this tem-
ple they found a human head not at all decayed,
which was thought to be a great prodigy, and a
eiga that the place would some day become the head
of the world. From hence the temple and the hills
were called the Capitol, because of tba Latin word,
f^Mt, which means a bead. Other buildings were
afterwards placed there, but none so handsome as
the temple of Jupiter, with its bronze gates and o^t
ceilings. Nor was there any part of their city,
which the people of Some from that time looked
upon with more rererence than the Capitol.
2. There were some strange books kept in this
temple of Jupiter on the OaTutohne hiU. They
were said to nave been brought to Tarqiiin by a
abjl or prophetess, who offered to let him have nine
books for three hundred pieces of gold. This seem-
ed a Ifu^ Bnm (tf money to give, and the king re-
fused. The woman went away, but after some time
•he retained ^ain, saying she had burnt three, but
the king might have the remtuning six for the same
money. Tarquin would not listen to her, and sho
■gain left him. But a third time she came, with only
three of the books, and still she asked for three hun-
dred pieces of gold.
S, The king was persuaded then to examine them
DMve, and he consulted his senate as to whether ha
so THE child's FIB^T
Bliould keep them. They were found to be prophe-
cies about Home, and were thought to be of great
value ; and the woman having rec^ved the money,
soon after disappeared, though not till ehe had warned
the Romans to keep the books veir carefully. The
three volumes were called the Sibylline boolra. Two '
persons were appointed to take care of them, and '.
tue Romans always consulted them in any time of
difficulty, to find out from them, if possible, what
was going to happen and what they ought to do.
4. But Tarquin did not occupy himself only in ,
erecting beautiful buildings at Eome ; he carried on ,
several ware with the neighboring states, especially '
with the Volsciaos, and generally speaking he was :
victorious. The city which it gave him the most
trouble to conquer was Gabii, for he laid siege to it I
but could not take it, and at last he formed a plan |
for gettdng possession of it by treachery.
5. His son Seitns went to Qabii, and told the peo-
ple that he had been ill-treated by his father, and j
was come to them for protection. The Gabines re- I
ceived him kindly, and Seztus lived amongst them, j
and learned all their schemes, and was even alTowed
to head thdr troops: still be did not quite know ,
how to betray the city into his father's Mnds. He j
therefore sent a messenger secretly to Rome to ask ,
the king's advice. Tarquin was walking in his gar- '
den when the man arrived. He was afraid to trust .
him with an answer in words, so he walked on as if <
be was thinking what to reply. There were a great ,
many poppies in the garden, and whenever he came near
to a tall one he knocked off its bead. After a time '
Lie turned to the messenger, and said, " I have no an-
swer- to give my son, but tell ^ym how you have seen
me employed." Seitus was quick at understanding ;
■nd when the man repeated to him what he had
■eeiv he knew that bis father me-ant him by degrees
I
to have sll the chief pereooa in Gabii killed vrho
were enemies to Bome. This he managed to do in
different ways, by accusing some of them falsely, and
nosing others to be murdered aecretly ; and then,
when the brareat citizens were gone, the others con-
Bented to submit to the Bomans.
S. All these stories about Tarquin prore what a
wicked person he must have been. His conscience,
DO doubt, told him that he deserved pnnishmeut, for
bs mts always foreboding evil to himself or his femi-
I7. He was a great believer in dreams and omens,
and at last became so frightened at havinc seen what
he thought bad omens, that he determinea to send to
the oracle at Delphi to know what they meant.
7. Delphi was a city in Greece. There was a very
famous t«mple in it dedicated to the god Apollo.
The priestess of this temple was supposed to have
the power of consulting the god, and when persons
were ia doubt upon any point of great importance,
they used to send questions to the priestess and re-
tdve an answer. Two of Tarquin s bods went to
consnlt the oracle, and they took with them a young
maa named Junius Brutus, who was their cousin.
Brutus had suffered a great deal from Tarquin'a
cruelty. One of his near relations was killed by the
tog's order, in the early part of the reign, and Bru-
tus himself only escaped by pretending to be a dull,
Btupid person, almost an idiot. He was really how-
ever very clever and superior, and hated Tarqwin's
iyranny, and was always hoping and watching for
wme opportunity to free his country. The young
men ddivered the kill's question to the oracle at
Delphi, and when the answer was given, pepared to
wtum home. But before they set off, they had an
earnest deiiire to ask one question for themselves :
Who was to be king of Bome after the death of Tar*
(uin? The answers of the oracle were seldom (pvM
S2 THE CHILD 8 TlKST
/ery cleai^ ; tbey could generally be undeistood
two waya, bat the reply whiob was made to this in-
quiry seemed rerr Dtam. " He who first kisees hb
mother shall be King," esid the oracle. Of cotirae
Tarquin'B sons had no doabt of the meaning; bat
Brutus had no mother living, yet be treasured up
the BJiswer in bis memory; and, when be again
landed in Italy, be fell down and kissed the e^th,
which was conndered in those tdmes the common
mother of all men.
8. No doubt tluB visit to Delphi made Bmtus
think more than ever whether it might not be pos«-
hie some day to free bis country, and become a great
man himself ; but [jerhaps he nught never have re>
belled agmnat Tarquin if it bad not been for a circmtt-
stance which made not only Brutua but all the chief
persona in Eome furiously angry with the king's
family. This woe the exceedingly croel, insulting
behavior of Seitus Tarquin, to a very beautiful, amia-
ble lady named Lacretia, the wife of CoUatinoa, a
Roman general.
9. The Bomana used to think that it waa mncli
more noble to die than to live in di^race ; they (M
not know that self-murder is a great crime ; ana Lu-
cretia was so distressed at the insolting condnct of I
Sextns that she resolved to kill herself. She sent a
message to ber bnsband and her father, who were '
both with Tarquin and his army, besieging a town
called Ardea, begging them to come to her directly,
and bring each a fnend with him. Lucretitia, ber j
father, and Collatinus set off instantly for Collatia, i
the place where Lucretda lived, and took with them
Jumua Brutus and Valerius, a person more looked
up to at that time than any one in Rome. On their
arrival, Lncretia told them of the insnlt she bad r»- ,
eeived, and made them swear solemnly that they |
womSd avenge her. Then taking a dagger, which su
HISTOBY OF SOME. 33
bad hidden in her dress, she plunged it into her body,
■nd died.
10. Bmtus Irew forth the dagger, and vowed that
be would kill Seztus, and drive the family of the
IWquios from Borne. The next day he collected a
number of hia fi lends and marched to Rome. There
he called the people together, and informed them of '
ihe ill-conduct of Sextus and the death of Lucretia.
The Btoiy caused the greatest indignation. The Bo-
mans determined immediately to make peace with
Ardea, and eipel Taj^juin from the throne, and the
ceoate and people with one consent swore that there
should never be another king in Bome.
11. Tarquin soon heard of the rebellion ag^nst
bim ; but he had no power to stop it, for he had no
friends to take his part. He escaped with two of hia
sons, and took rrfnge in a neighboring city ; but
Seztus fled to Oabii, where he was killed.
12. Tliis was the end of the kings of Rome, Prob-
ably there were more kings than we have any ac>
eoont of, for the stories which are told of them are
very cOTif>ised
CHAPTER IX.
TBB KEPVBLIC.
B.0.S1O ■'■ ^^^^ Tarquin and his family were
sent away from Rome, Jmiius Brutus was
left to be the chief rulw, but he could i.ot call him-
•elf king, because of the vow which he had made,
that there should be no more kings. He s^d he
ihould wish to have some one to help him to govern,
ud the person chosen was Collatinus, the husband
M THB CHILD B FIB8T
of LuTretia. The Romans had two chief rulers fn •
great many years after this. They were named Ccb-
suls. This hind of govenunent, when there are no
kings, but only magistrates chosen by the people, v
calkd a Bepubhc.
2. Tarqum did not rest contented vhen he lost hit
throne. He determined to try and regtun it, and ai
a begiuiing he sent persons to B<»De to clum the
property which he said belonged to him. These am-
bassadors were allowed to lodge in the dty. There
they b^;an to contrive plots for hia return, and pei^
Buaded two of the sons of Brutus, and some nephewi
of CollatJnus, to j(»n with them. A slave overheard
their plans as they were talking about them at a ban-
quet, and he went and told the consuls. Brutus was a
very stem, determined man, and he did not refuse to sil
upon the judgment-seat to try his own children and
pass sentence upon them. The young men were
brought bto the Forum, and the Hotors, or officers of
justice, stood as guu^ tffouud them. These hctors
earned each a bundle of rods, called faeces, witlx an
ase in the middle, as a mark of their office. Kutus
spoke to his sons as if they had been strangers in
whom he had no mterest. He bade them defend
themselves if they had any excuse to give, but the
unhappy young men had none. " Uctors," exclamied
Brutus, "do your duty." And the lictors seizing
upon lus two sons, scourged them first and then be-
headed them. The Bomans wondered at this dread-
ful action, but they felt that it was strictly just, and
they prdsed Brutus and honored him for it.
8. CoUatinus was not ctmsul very long. It was
thought that he was mclined to favor ^D^uin, whc
was his relation, and he was therefore obliged to give
np his office, and another patridan was made c<HtSQ]
n hia stead.
4, larquin now found that there was no hope o(
HtSTORI OF BOUE. SB
J his throne -without help, and he therefore
persuaded the people of Veil aud another little etata
to assiat him. He aod his son Aruns took the com-
mand of an army and declared vai against Borne.
The Boman consTds marched out against them, and
tiieie was a terrible battle. Aruns saw Brutus in the
distance appealing ia great state with fruards and
attendants, as if he had been a king ; and h«ii^ ex-
•leedii^ly enraged at the nght, spurred his hoise
towards him, exclaiming, " There he is I — the enemy
of my family ! — the usurper of my father's throne !
BmtuB was no less brave than Aruns ; he rushed
agaiast him, and the two enemies met with such fury
t£at both fell dead upon the ground, each pierced by
the spear of the other. The battle lasted tOl evening,
bnt neither party would allow that they were oon-
qnered.
E. There was great sorrow in Borne that night, for
Brutus hod been loved and honored by aU men.
They laid his body in the Forum, and the noble Va-
lerioa stood beside it and proclaimed to the people
bU the glorious actions he had performed. The Bo-
men women mourned his loss for twelve months, and,
in after years, his statue, with a drawn sword in his
hand, was placed m the Capitol in the midst of tha
kings of Borne.
6. Valerius himself was the chief person in Borne,
DOW that Brutus was dead. He was made consul,
uid was called Poplicola, or pleaser of the people.
The people were at one &ne turaid that he intended
to make himself Idng, because he began building a
tery beautiful house for himself on the top of a high
hill; but when Valerius heard what they suspected,
he appeared before the great meeting of the people,
wludi was called "the Assembly of tne Curiae," m a
rety humble way, and assured them he did not in-
tati to do any tl^ng of the Idnd, and he afterwards
S6 THE UHILD S riBST
shoved that he was io earnest, by doing every thing
he could to keep the government just as it was,
7. All this time Tarquin had not given up the idea
of returning to be king. He went to Porsenna, vho
ruled over GluMum, one of the Italian states, and
begged him to be his friend. Poreenna agreed, fuid
raised on immense army, vhich he led himself agsisEt
Rome. The Romans pbced soldiers upon a hill near
the city to defend it, but Potsenna drove them from
it, and followed them to the banks of the river Tiber,
which flowed between this hill and the city. There
was a bridge across the river, which the Rcanans Sed
over as quickly as they could. But three very taave
men determined to fight to the last. One of them
was called Horatius Codes. It was his duty to guard
the bridge, and he knew that if he left it, Poreenna
and his army would cross over it, and take possesion
of Rome. He stood with his two companions in front
of the bridge, fighting, desperately, whilst the rest of
the Roman solaieis crossed safely. Then Horatius
called out to them to break it down, and so prevent
Porsenna from following, and still he and his two
comrades fought on, wnilst the workmen knocked
the bridge to pieces. The companions of Horatiua
escaped before it was quite destroyed. At length
there was a great shout, and the last juece of the
bridge fell crashing into iJie water.
8. Then Horatius himself plunged into the river.
He is s^ to have prayed to the god of the river to
protect him. Perhaps he did pray to the god, he diu
not know any better ; but the True Qm. guarded
him, and we may believe fot^re his ignorance, and
was pleased with him for risking hiB own life to save
bis fellow-creatures.
0. Porsenna's soldiers cast a shower of darts
igainst lum, but he was saved from all dangers, and
ntached the oppoute shore unhurt. His coDiitrymni
BIBTORT OF ROHB. 87
vatebed him mth the greatest oimely, and set up a
•ond sboat of delight as he lauded, and the seiiata
snd people afterwards caused a statue to be erected
to hu honor, and gave him a grant of land as a. sign
ai their gratitude.
10. But though the Romans had escaped better
than they expected in this instance, they were stiU
io great peril, for Forsenna's troops surrounded the
city, and they conld get no food from the country,
and all which they hod with them was fast being
consumed. They were very hard pressed by famine,
but even then they did not forget their gratitude to
Eonitius Cocles, for they all provided him with as
much food as they coula s^re. At last it was de-
termined to try and kill Poraenna treacherously.
Hutias, a young man of high birth, offered to dis-
guise himself and go to Forsenna's camp for this
purpose, and as he could speak the same language
as Porsenna, he thought he should not be foond
11. Mutius did not know Porsenna by sight, and
wben be reached the camp, he saw a person splen-
(lidly dressed arrang^ some business with his
sddiers. This he thought must be the king. He
wmt ap to him directly and stabbed him. The next
instant he wbs s^zed by the soldiers, and carried
before th^ lord. " Hateful assas^ I" exclaimed
Poiaenna, " who art thou ?" " I am a Boman,"
replied Mutius: "my design was to deliver Rome
bom her greatest enemy.'^ The words were spoken
calmly without any ugn of fear, and Porsenna was
uoaied. He had never seen such boldness before.
He warned the young Roman that he would be
jmnished for his treachery by being burned to death,
kntius thrust his right hand into a fire which burnt
near him, and held it there unmoved. This last mark
rf courage softened the ldoj;'a anger. He rose vf.
S8 THE EHILD B FIBST
nnd in the presenc^ of all, gave Mutius hia foi^re-
ness, and bade him return in peace. From this tima
Mulius was called ScktoIe, or left -handed. His rigU
hand was useless.
12. Mutius was grateful to Porsenna, and befwa
he left the camp told turn that it would be well to
nake peace with Eome, as three hundred Bomsna
had taken an oath to kUl him, if Mutius himself
did not do so. This, of course, alarmed Porsenna,
and he began really to think of propo»ng peace.
He wished the Romans to consent that Tarqum
should return, but no one would hear of this, and
be was forced to ^vd up the point. He obliged
. them, however, to restore some lands wliich they
had taken, and to give him hosttwes, that he might
be cert^ of the agreement which was made bwng
properly kept.
13. These hostages were persons of rank, both
men and women. They were dehvered up to Por-
senna with the promise of being well treated, if the
Romans did all they had promised to do ; but if they
broke thor word the hostages were to be punished.
14. One of the hostages was a beautiful young
girl named Clcelia, who was too proud to bear being
a prisoner, and, therefore, swam across the Ilber
and escaped. AU the other ladies followed her ex-
ample. They were sent back to Porsenna, who be-
haved as nobly to them as he had done to Mutius.
He foi^ve Clcslia, and allowed her to gO' back to
Rome with any of her companions whom she chose
to take with her.
15. After this Porsenna departed from Rome with
his anny.
16. It is said that Tarquin fought once more
against the Romans in a great batSe at Lake Re-
gilla* in Tusculum. He was not the chief in com-
uand then, for the battle was between the E
ind eereral other states, and Tarquin only joined with
them. Bomaa writers give wonderful accounts of
this battle, and declare that two young men, like
rits, were seen riding on white horses, and fighting
the Romans, and that before the battle was over
they appeared at Borne a^d told the people that their
nde had gained the victory. The Romans were yery
ready to believe wonderful stories, particularly if they
were for thdr own credit.
17. It is generally believed that Tarquin escaped
alive from tie battle of Be^us, and went to live
at Cnma, with the prince of that place, who was his
hiend. He must have been about ninety years old
when be died.
CHAPTER X
thu inbdrrectiok of the plebsiakb,
El C 4S5 ^' '^^^' ^^^ **' Rome, for some time
after the war with Porsenna, is not bo
mncb about wars with other states as about the
people themselves. The proud patricians tried more
and more to gain power, and the plebeians tried to
prevent them from doing so. Probably, if the pa-
trituans bad been kind to the poor, they might have
governed without much difficulty ; but they were
very selfish, and the plebeians grew worse off every
year.
2. The great cause of the sufferings of the plebe*
uuis was that the laws concerning debt were extremely
hard. Uanv of the plebeians were very poor, and
were obliged to borrow'money to enable them to live.
If a poor man was not able to pay his debt, he wai
10 THC CHIUtS FiRST
given over to his creditor as a slave, and vaa bomd
with chiuna and thrown into piison, or treated very
cruelly in other ways.
3. When the Bomans went to war, all the treaa-
urea which were taken were given to the patriwan^—
the pleb^ana had none ; yet still they were forced to
fight, and were .often ta^en out of a dungeon and
sent to battle, and put in prison ^ain when the war
4. This made the plebeians so angry, that when
there was a war with the Yolscians, B. C. 49S, they
refused to fight at all. It was one particularly hard
case which made them take this resolution. One day,
a poor old man rushed into the Forum, looking ex-
ceedingly thin and ill, and with marks of stripes upon
his back, and told the people a dreadful tale of all
he had suffered. He said he had served in the wars
often ; but whilst he was away his farm was burnt,
and he was, in consequence, forced to borrow money
to pay hk taxes ; and then, because he could not re-
pay it, ha had been sold as a slave.
5. Just at that moment news was brought that
the Yolscians were coming near the dty. The ple-
beian with one consent declared that nothing should
persuade them to go out to battle ; they would not
fight for the rich who oppressed them. This waa
very alarming, especially to the consuls, who had the
command of the armies. One of them, named Ser-
vilius, took the poor people's part, and promised
them, that if they would only Dght this time, they
should be treated much better afterwards. The other
consul was a severe man, and would do nothing for
them. The people, however, beUeved what Sernliua
najcl. They went against the Yolscians, and defeated
them, bat when they came back to Kome, the othai
consul seized upon all who were in debt, and put
tbem in prison jtist the same as liefffl-e.
t, Tliis naturally enough made the case ivorsa
than it -was at first. Some of the rich patriciana, in-
deed, tried to help the plebdans, but they could not
sneoeed in having theu- laws altered ; and the pla-
braaos, beina; quite in despair, used to hold secret
meetings ana plot how to free tjiemselves. At length
they agreed t<^ethcr to leavu Rome entirely, A
leader was chosen, and they all went forth and sta-
tioned themselves upon a hill at some little distance
from the city.
7, The senators and patricians saw now how wrong-
ly and foolishly they had been acting, and they sent
Menenius Agnppa with ten men to the plebeians to
propose to make peace with them. Agrippa was
very clever in persuading by talking, and ne told the
people a fable in order to convince them that they
were doing as much harm to themselves by rebelling
as tbey were to the patricians.
8, " Once upon a time," he' said, '* all the members
of the body took it into their heads not to work for
tbe stomach, because they declared it was idle and
useless. So the hand would not bring food to the
month, and the mouth would not receive any, and
ilie teeth would not chew, and the stomach starved.
Bnt whilst the stomach was starving all the members
were wasting away, and at last they discovered that
by killing the stomach they were killing themselves."
9, The plebeians were much struck by the fable,
snd consented to go back to the city. But before
they went it was agreed that all persona who had
been made slaves for debts should be set free, and
that from thenceforth the plebeians should have o£B-
ters of their own to' take charge of their affairs and
protect them. These officers were to be chosen
every year, and. called Tribunes, There were two at
fiiBt, but afterwards more were appointed. They
irere allowed to forbid or prevent any law which tn*
la TBB child's first
senalors were mclined to make that coold injuie tlie
plebeians, and their persons were conmdered sacred ;
that is. it was made a very great crime to strike them
or. do them any bodily harm. When all these things
were settled the plebeians retu^ed to Borne, hoping
tliat for the futnre they should have rest and com-
fort
CHAPTER XI.
DS MARCIOS CORIOLANUS,
g_(,^gj 1. The next thing which we hear of the
plebeians makes ns feel that they were s^
in danger of being hardly treated. There was a great
famine in Bome about the year 4S1 B. C, and of
course the poor were those who felt it most. Gelo,
king of Sicily, heard of their distress, we are told,
and sent the Roman senators a quantity, of com to
give to the people ; but there was one senator who
was not willing to help them, unless they would con*
sent not to have tribunes to protect them any longer.
Tbis senator's name was Caius Marcius Coriolanus.
He was & brave man, but extremely proud ; and he
thought the people were getting too much power,
and that this was a good opportunity of putting a
stop to it.
2. The tribunes were very angry when they heard
what Coriolanus had proposed. They accused him
of treason against hb country ; and Coriolanus, in-
stead of w^tin^ to be tried, left Rome, and set (^
for Antium, a city belonging to the Volscians. He
arrived there late in the evening, and immediately
went to the house of Attius TuUiua, a powerful Vol-
vaan chief. There was one room b heathen housci
niSTOBY OF ROUE. 48
wlacb vas considered as peculiarly belonging U tha
household gods, or lares, and all persons who entered
it were safe. Coriol^ius went directly to this room,
and sat down,— and after a time Attius came to him.
Coiiolanus had been an enemy of the VoUcians be-
fore ; he had even fought against them ; yet Attius
did not for this reason revenge himself upon him,
now that he was in distress, but received him most
kindly. War was soon declared between the Vol-
scians and Romans, and Coriolanus was made chief
of the Volaoian army, and led it towards Rome. The
senators knew how brave he was, and how skilful as
a general, and they were afraid, and sent ambassadors
to him beg^ff hmi to spare his country. But Cori-
olanus received the ambassadors proudly, and would
not listen to them. The senators sent a second time,
and still the ambassadors were treated with scorn.
At length Teturia, the mother of Coriolanus, and
Volumnia, hia wife, determined to try if they could
prevail. They took the children of Coriolanus with
them, and set out for the camp of the Volscians,
accompanied by several other Roman ladies, Corio-
lanus received them with a great deal of affection ;
but when he heard that they were come to beg for
peace, he said that it would be impossible to grant it,
for 1 was fighting now for the Volscians, and he
must do what was best for them, " My son," ex-
clumed Veturia, " can you refuse my wish ? If I
cannot persuade yon, I have resolved to die in yom
presence. Tou shall not march to Borne without
treadmg on the dead body of your mother," Then
bursting into tears, she threw herself at his feet.
Uis wue and children did tbe same. Coriolanus
could no longer refuse. He turned to Veturia, say-
Bg •• Mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy
wo."
3. Teturia went back to Rome, happy at havin{{
44 TUB CBII.d's FIB0T
done such service to ber country ; but sliu never n«
her 8on again. Coriolanua returned with the amiy
of the Tolscians to their own Btat«, and there re-
mained till bis death. Some persons say that hb
bvei to be an old man ; some declare that he vi»
soon after killed by the Volscians ; and others have i
thought that he died of grief, for having been per- ■
Buaded to do what he felt was unfair to the peopk
whose army he commanded.
CHAPTER XII.
B 468 ^' ■^^^ Romans appear scarcely ever to
have had peace, either at home or abroad, i
As soon as one dispute between the patricians and
plebeians waa ended another began. They were
always quarrelling now about the power of the trib-
unes, which the patricians said was much greater
than it ought to be ; and the only tone when tbey
teemed inclined to agree waa when they were at war
with some other state. Then they were obliged to
be friends and fight for their country, or then- ene-
mies would have ruined them both,
2. About the year 458 B. C, one of these wars
broke out, which is particularly to be remembered
on accoimt of a famous general called Cincinnatus, or
the curly-haired, who is said to have distinguished
himself very much in it.
3. The war waa carried on against the Mqvi, tlie
'phabitantg of one .of the small Italian states. Th»
consul MinuMus, who commanded the Roman knaj,
onfortunately led his soldiers to a place where the*
HISTORY or ROME. 4S
were in rreat danger, for the ^qui surrounded tlictn
on all sides, and no one was near to help them.
Some horeemen, however, contrived to gallop back
to Kome without being taken, and told t£e senate of
the peril the army was in, and entreated that assist-
ance might be granted them directly. The senate
were in great aWm, for both the consuls were ab-
sent, and the only person they could think of to give
theni advice, or command the soldiers whom they
might be able to send, was QuinctJus Cincinnatus.
i. About two years before, Cmcinnatns had left
Rome, indignant at a punishment which was infiicted
upon his SOB, Casso, a proud, insolent young man,
who was constantly ill-treating the plebeians, and
had even insulted one of the tribtines. Cegso did
not deserve much affection from liia father, but Cin-
cinnatus couJd not help feeling for liira, because he
was his son ; and when the young man was obliged
to go into exUe, Cincinnatus left Borne himself, and
went to live at a little farm on the lianks of the Tiber,
at a distance from all his former friends. Csso did
not live long after his punishment ; he wickedly join-
ed a large army of exiles and runaway slaves, and
tried to take possession of the capitol ; but they were
all either killed or forced to retire; and Caeso, it is
supposed, was amongst the number of the slain.
S. Cincinnatus appeared once more at Bome after
tbe death of his son, upon being chosen consul ; but
when his office was over, he returned again to hia
farm. The wisdom he had shown at that time, and
on other occasions, made the senate consider him
as the only person able to ^d Minucius and his army,
in their great difficulty.
S. The messengers who were sent to Cincinnatua
found liim, as we are told m the old Koman legends,
engaged in managing his farm. They informed him
vf the danger in which the army was placed, aw'
IS THE child's riXST
Bud that it ^ras the nish of the senate to make hid
dictator. Now ihe office of a dictator waa higher in
rank than ei'en that of a consul. The Romans onlr
appointed one incase of some pres^ng danger or dif>
ficulty. His power was so great, that every thing
and everyhody were under his control; bat lus office
only lasted a short tjme, not more than sU months.
7. Gincionatus received the message of the senate
without showing any pleasure at the honor paid him.
No grandeur could make up to him for the loss of
the peaceful, happy life, which he led at his little
farm ; but he could not refuse to help his country at
such a time, and after taking leave of his wife and
his quiet home, with sighs and deep regret, he da-
parted.
8. As he drew near the city the senate seat a boat
to meet him and conduct him across the Tiber.
Three of his sons, his friends, and the chief persons
in Rome, wai(«d to receive him as he landed, and all
cipressed the greatest delight at seeing him.
9. Tlie first thing which Ciacimiatus did was to
command every man to enlist who was able to bear
arms, and in three days he had collected a largo
army, with which he marched to the help of the con- ,
■ul Minucius. '
10. They arrived at Mount Algidus, where the
consul's army was. stationed, about midnight. Cin-
cinnatus placed his soldiers in a drcle round the
camp of the JEqxa, and contrived to let UinucitB
know that he was come, and then be burst forth
upon his enemies, AH that night the battle went
on ; and when the day began to dawn the ,£qiu saw
that they themselves were in a worse condition than
the Romans had been. Their enemies were on all
Bides of them, and it was impossible to escape. A
message was instantly sent to Cincinnatua, begging
him to spare them. The dictator order^ the cbinA
HIBTOKY OP ROUE 41
(T the army to be put in diaina ; the rt^t t^'re joadt'
U. pass undor the yoke — the usual sign of being con-
quered.
II. Cincionatus then returned to Rome, and was
received with triumph. A golden crown was given
him as a reward, but he was not tempted by any
honors to renuun at Bome ; and after he had been
dictator sixteen days, he gave up his o0ice and wert
back to his farm.
CHAPTEE XIII.
TBI DBCEHVIBI,
BEun iHm TAu^ B. a 401.
Ul a 461 ^' ^* °^^ come to the govemmen'
of the Decemviri. Amongst the man*
eompl^ts which the plebeians were so often ma-
king, one of the chief was that they wanted fair laws
As it was, the consuls might treat them very muct
M they pleased, wnce there were no just and fixed
laws for them to go by.
2. For a loDg (jme the plebeians had murmured
about this, and tried to prevdl on the patricians to
do something for them, but notlung was arranged
until B few years after the dictatorship of Cincinnv
tos, when the patricians consented that three sena-
tors should be sent to Greece to inquire by what
\sm the people of that country, and especially the
Athenians, were governed, so that they might learn
bow to improve the Roman laws, which were then to
be written down as fixed rules ; and when these seo-
stors came back, ten patricians, called, from their
■amber, decemviri, were appointed to examine the
old Roman laws, and make such changes as they
ihonld think necessary. They began their woik in
IS THE CBlLD'a FIRST
the month of May, in the year B. C. 451, and finisb-
ed it by the neit year. As sooa as it was ready,
they presented it to the people, that erery oae might
have an opportunity of judging whether the laws
which were proposed were just and fair. If any per-
son had an objecdon to make, or an improvement to
recommend, he was invited to do so ; aad when, at
last, the whole were approved, they were engraved
upon two tables of brass, and hung up in the most
public place in the forum.
3. The decemviri had great power allowed them
whilst they were thus employed in arranging the
laws. Itere were no consuls, no tribunes, — they
had the management of every thing ; but it was sup-
posed that when their task was finished they would
^ve up their office. Howevw they did not seem
mclined to do this. Oa some pretence or other, they
stiU kept the government in tlieir own hands ; and ai
last, both the patricians and plebdana grew alarmed,
for they found that the dceemviri were becoming their
tyrants.
4. About this time a war broke out with two of
the neighboring states. Two large armies were raised
by the Romans, but they were both defeated ; and
the general ill-feeling against the. government was
excited to a great degree by an instance of shocldn^
injustice and cruelty shown by one of the deeemvin
to a brave old soldier, Siceius Dentatus. DenEatos
did not at all like the decemviri, and had complained
of them very much. This the decemvir who com-
manded the army knew, and in order to rid himself
of such an enemy, he sent him with some other sol-
diers to try and find out a good place for a camp.
When they came to a lonely part of the countiy,
the soldiers, according to an order which had been
given them, fell upon Dentatus and murdered him.
Ihej left Ids body, and it was found afterwards, and
' HISTORT OF BOUE. 49
erary one guessed the crime which Lid been cam-
mHted.
5. Appiua Claudius, another of the decemviri,
about the same tJme behaved as wickedly at Borne
as his fellow-ruler did m the camp. He was in the
habit of passing through the forum every day to his
iodgment-seat, and on these occasions, often saw a
Deautjful young lady, named Virginia, whom he fell
very much in love with. Virginia, however, was en-
gaged to be married to Icilius, who had once been a
mbnne. She would not see Appiua or listen to ajiy
Jiing he had to say, and at last he determined to
?any her off gainst her will. la order to do this
□e practdsed a most wicked deceit,
6. He ordered one of his clients, named Marcus
Claudius, to seize Virginia, and declare that she waa
bis slave, and bring her before himself that it might
be judged whether she was so or not. He meant
then to allow Marcos to take her away, and after*
wards she was to be brought to his house ; and no
one, he knew, would be able to interfere,
7. This cruel order waa obeyed, and on the very
first opportuiuty Marous brought poor Vii^inia be-
fore Appius, and protested that she was his slave,
Virainius, her father, came with her, lie was a
Boldier of the rank called a centurion, and had been
Mnt for from the camp, at the deeire of Viiginia's
friends, when they found what a falsehood Marcus
was telling. 'When the triial began, Marcus was
called npoQ to prove that what he said was tnie, but
be could bring no real proof; though he declared
that Virginia was the child of one of his slaves, and
that she had been men to the wife of Vilnius
when she was a Uttle infant. After hearing what
•ras to be said on both sides, Appius determined to
put an end to the tri^ ; and decided, as he always
intended to do, in favor of Marcus. The dktresf
80 THE child's FIKST
Kid anger of Vir^niua exceeded all ttat can be inifr
rined, — for he well knew why it was that Appni
nad given such an imjust judgment. He end^vor-
ed, however, to appear calm, and only requested
that he might be- allowed to apeak for a few iiii>
ments with his daughter alone, before she -was taliea
from him forever. The permisKon was given, and
Virginiua drew his daughter aside. A knife wm
lying upon a butcher's stall near. The unhappy
father seized it, and plunged it into the beart of bii
child, exclaiming, " Thus raily can I preserve thy
liberty and honor."
8. Yhginius rushed back to the camp 'with tbe
bloody kmfe in his hand, and told to the whole army
the wicked intentiona of Appius. The soldiers rose
up like one man, and declared they would no longer
be ruled by snob tyrants. They marched towanls
Rome, and when the senators sent to know what it
was they wished for, tbey required that tbe de-
cemviri should be ^ven into their hands to be bumi
to death.
B. This, however, was refused, for it was conside^
ed too cruel ; but all their power was taken away,
and Appius iumself was thrown into a dreadful dun*
geon, where he very soon died.
10. After this the Romans returned to their oU
lorm of govemmmt hy consuls and tribunea.
nsTOEV nr xohb
CHAPTER XIV.
B siESB or TBI:
KO 40G ^" ^^^ °^'* ^"7 iniportant event in
Iho history of Boiae ia the siege of Veil
Die Bomans, as we have sees, were perpetually at
war, and generally successful. Their dominioiis,
therefore, increased quickly. They did not usually
destroy the towns which they took, but allowed the
people still to be gOTerued by their own princes, as
long as they themsSvee were looked up to as their
chief; and, one by one, all the little states in Italy
became subject to them.
2. The war with Veil, however, was carried on a
bag time before the Binnans were conquerors. Veii
iteeu was a very strong town, biult upon a hill, and
llie Romans fought a great many battles in the coun-
try round, before they thought of besieging the
city. At length, in the year B. C. 405, they de-
lved that it would be better to try and take it at
once, and so make themselves masters of the whole
state. Accordingly they went close up to the city,
and surrounded it, and tried very hard to get posses-
ion of it ; but the walls were too strong, and the
people too brave ; and after fighting month after
month, the winter came on, and the soldiers were
obliged to go back to Rome.
S, In the spring they came again, but still ihey
were not successful, and so they went on for several
yeais, tmlil at last they resolved not to go back in
the winter, but to build huta in which the soldiers
Blight live, and continue the war in the cold atonny
weather, as they did in the summer.
4. The old Boman writers tell us that the siege
63 THE CHII.D a Fnat
inated ten years'. Bind they give wonderful accounts
of the way in which the city was takcji at last.
They say that one very dry summer, whilat the
Roman army was besieging Veii, the watere of a
lake called the Alhan lake, rose suddenly to Buch a
height, as quite to cover the rooks near it. This waa
thought a great prodigy], and every cue was tidldjif(
of it. The siege of veii had gone on so long, that
by this time the Boldiere on both sides were ac-
quiunted with each other, and the Veientinea used
sometimes to stand upon the walls and talk to the
Romans below. One day whilst they were con-
versing in this way, about the rise of the Alban lake,
an old soldier of Veil called out, " V«i shall never
be taken till the water has run out of laie Alba."
A Roman sentinel inquired what he meant ; the man
told h'fn that he was repeating an ancient prophecy.
and when he was afterwards taken by the sentinel
and carried to the Roman chief, he declared again
that if the Romans could di^n the water out of the
lake, Veii would be taken.
5. The Romans were great believers in such pro-
phecies, and they sent directly to the oracle at
Delphi, to know if the man's words were true. The
oracle gave them an answer which agreed with the
prophecy, and the Romans immediat^y set to work
to cut a drain that might draw all the water from
the lake, and convey it over the fields near. Such a
dnun is to be seen at tliis day, but whether it was
really made at that tpie no one can tell. The peo-
ple of Veii, it is said, were very much alarmed when
they heard what the Romans were doing, and tried
to frighten them from it, by declaring that it was
foretold that soon after Veii should fall, Rome would
be taken by the Gaub. The Romans, however,
were not to be stopped by any such feare. They
AppfMiited one of their greatest generals, Camillna. tf
iiirroBr op some. 63
be dictator ; tuid he employed a part of the anny in
dij^g a long underground pass^e, vfaich reached
from the outside of the walls quite to the middle ot
the town, and came out at the temple of Juno in the
citadel or caelle. When it was known that all the
water? of the Alban lake were drained off, a plan
waa made for attactdng the city. Some of the sol-
diers clambered up the walls, others tried to break
down the gates, and a third party rushed through
(he long du'k passage, till they were exactly under-
neath the temple of Juno.
6. The king of Veil waa at that very time offering
sacrifices to the goddess, who waa con^dered to be
the especial proWctresa of the city. The Roman
soldiers stood below the temple and heard the very
words which were spoken by the priest, and before
nny alarm could be given, they rushed forth upon
Iheir enemies. It was in vain for the Veientines to
resist. The Romans within the citv opened the gat«s
U> their companions without, ana the whole array
Lured in. The king was killed, numbers of the in-
bitants were taken prisonera, and the whole treas-
ures of the city were given up to the soldiers. The
statue of Juno was carried to Rome, and a temple
vaa built for the goddess upon one of the Roman
iiiUs.
7. Camillus, the dictator, had a splendid triumph
on his return to Rome. A triumph was the great
reward of a successful general. It was a grand pro-
eesdon through the streets of Rome, in which all tha
prisoners and treasures taken in the war were dis-
played.
8. The triumph of OamiUtis, after the fall of Veii,
was disliked by the Roman people, because it showed
loo much pride. He entered tlie city m a splendid
thariot, drawn by four milk-white horses, and painted
Bis face with vermiKon. White horses were used
&4 THE child's FIKST
particularly in honor of Jupiter and of tie Sun ; and
tlie statues of the goda were generally painted with
vermilion. It seemed, therefore, that Ciunillus con-
sidered himself equal to a god, and this the people
were shocked at What caused the soldiers to bfl
Btill more angry, was hia ordering them to return
part of the BpoUs that had been taken from Y^, in
order to assist him in maloDg an offering to the god
ApoUo, which he had vowed to do, but had forgot-
ten. Some time afterwards Camillus was accused of
having hidden some treasures which he ought to have
given up, and was obliged to go into exile.
CHAPTER XV.
K OF THE GAOLS.
B. C 390 ^' CAMi^t-'fs li^d °o* 'eng been in exile
before the Romans felt the want of his
skill as a general ; for the people of Clusium, a state
in the north of Italy, sent to ask their assistance
against the Oauls.
2. The Qauls were the inhabitants of that part of
Europe which we now call France. They were a
fierce, wild people, very tall and strong, with rough
shat^ hair, which gave them a temble look, and
frightened all who aaw then). The Alps lay between
thdr country and Italy ; but from time to time par-
ties of these savages used to cross the bi^h snowy
mountdns, and come pouring down upon tne bright
Gruitful valleys of Italy, to the great alarm o£ the in-
nalHlants.
S, Tluswns the case now. The people of Ulasium
DISTORT or SOME. H
were not etrotig enougK to resist them, and therefor*
lent for help to the Romaite. The Roman senators,
however, did not wish to go to war ; and instead ol
raiong an army they sent three Bona of one of their
senators, Fabiua Ambustus, to try and make peace
between the people of Clusium and the Gauls.
4. When the Roman ambassadors reached th«
camp of the Qaula they were taken before Brennus,
tlie king, who waa assembled with his council. They
told him that they had come to make peace if possi-
ble, and asked mm why he had invaded CluHmn.
Brennua replied, that hia own country was too smalt
for himself and his people. They wished no harm to
the inhabitants of Clu^um. Thej only desired to
share their lands.
5. The Fabii inquired what right they had to dami
the laud of strangers.
6. " Our right is in om" swords," exclaimed the
fierce Oaul, grasping hia weapon. " All things be-
long to the brave." After this speech there was no
hope of peace. A battle followed, in which the three
Fabii fought, and one of them killed a chief officer of
tlie Gauls.
7. It wa^ entirely against the customs of all na-
boDs for an ambassador to fight ; and when the Gauls
heard what Fabiua had done they were eiceeduigly
enraged, and swore that they woidd be revenged for
such an insult, A message was sent to Rome, re-
quiring the senators to make amends to the Gaub
lor the conduct of thdr ambassadors, but nothing
was done to satisfy them ; and a short lime after-
wards the news came that king Brennus and seventy
thousand of his fierce soldiers were approaching to-
wards the city.
e. This was terrible news for the inhabitants. An
•rmy was sent out, but it was defeated about eleven
tailes from Rome, near a small river called the Allia-
U THB CHILD S FIRET 1
e, name which, aa well as the day on wiJch Ihe defeat ,
took place, was ever afterwards coiintcd by the Ro-
mans as unlucky. The Oauls came on nearer and
nearer, whilst the Bomans sent away the women and
children, and then began to make tiie best prepara-
tions they could think of for defending themselves.
d. BrenDus remained for three days before Bome
without ventiiring to attack it. He sent scouts or
messengers to discover what the inhabitants were
doing, and they brought hiin back word that the
gates were open, and not a single human bemg was
to be Been on the ramparts. It seemed difficult to
believe that the Romans had left their city, and |
Brennus feared they wished to deceive him, but at I
length he could wait no longer, and be entered with '
his army. All was still and deserted. The Gaula
could wander through the streets, and no one ap-
peared to stop them ; they could enter the houses, —
they could seize upon every thing they liked, there
was not a person to prevent them. At length they
reached the forum. There sat e^hty agea men in
ivory chwrs of state, and dressed m splendid purple
robes. So still they were — so calm and motionless—
they scarcely looked like living men. Tlie barbarians
approached them, they thought them to be gods.
For some time they gazed upon them with awe.
Then one bolder than the rest put forth bis hand and
touched the long white beard of Marcus Fapirius, a
venerable priest. Papiriiis considered this action as
an insult. He struck the Gaul on the bead. Tlie
soldier's reverence was gone in an instant. He cat
down Fapirius with his sword ; and his companions,
growing eager and angry, instantly followed his ex-
ample. The poor old men were all murdered. And
now the Gauls began to examine the city more closely.
Part of it was built upon a st«ep rock ; and when the
iMrborians looked up they saw a number of armed
HISTORY OF E0M6 M
men standing upon the top of tte strong walls. Tliey
blew then why it -vas that the city had teen deserted.
The Romans able to bear arms had shut themselves
op in the capitoJ, with all the provisions that could
be obttuned, and were determined to defend them-
Belves to the last. A« for the eighty old men left in
the fomm, they were Benatora of very high rank, who
thought that if they gave themselves np to death the
gods would be saUsfied, and would save their fellow-
countrymen.
10. For eight long months from that time the
Komans remamed shut up in the capitol, suffering
dreadfully from hunger, whilst the Gauls surrounded
them below, unable to reach them, because the walls
of the fortress were steep and high, and they could
not clamber up, and yet resolved not to go away,
although they had fully taken their revenge for the
iDBolt ihey had received, by plundering and burning
the city. Rome was now a heap of ruins ; and
where it had once stood them were only wide deso-
late wastes, and a few houses still occupied by the
Ganls.
11. Towards the end of the eight months, how-
ever, there was one attempt made by the barbarians
to surprise the capitol, which had very nearly suc-
ceeded. In walking round the steepest mde, a sol- .
dier observed the pnnt of footmarks. They had been
made bj a daring young Roman, who was sent by
his countrymen in the ndghborhood to tell the Ro-
mans in the capitol some good news ; namely, that
Camillus (who was in exile at Ardea) had collected
an army, and bad defeated some of the Oaids when
they were plundering the country. This young man
iwam across the Tiber and climbed up the capitol,
ud they were his footmarks which the soldier dis-
covered. The Gauls had no sooner found out that
'"t was possible to get up the steep bank, than they
detenomid to try and do it themselves. At night,
whea it was very dark, a party of them made the
attempt. They clambered up one after another, not
'without a great deal of difBculty ; but just as the
nrst Eoldier reached the top, there was a great noise
heard, — the cackling of geese. They were sacred
geese kept in the temple of Juno which was in the
capitol, and the approach of the Gauls had frighten-
ed tbem. The reli^ous feeUng which had kept the
Bomans from meddling with them, notwithstanding
the famine, was now rewarded. The cackling of the
geese woke Manlius, a brave soldier, who started np,
and rushed to the wall just in lime to throw down
the first Oaul, and iis he fell all his companions fell
with him, and so Ihe whole plan came to nothing.
Manlius was much praised and rewarded for what
he had done ; and the Gauls finding that, after all
their efforts, there was no hope of surprising their
enemies, or maldng them yield, at length proposed to
leave the city, if th.e Romans would pay them a large
sum of money.
12, It seemed as if there was nothing else to hf
done, and the proposal was agreed to. The old
writers say, besides, that the Gauls used false weights
in weighing the gold ; and that when the Eomans
complained, Brennus threw hia sword and belt into
the scale, eiclaiming, " Wo to the vanquished."
They also add, that just at this time Camilius came
with a large army, and when he heard what was
going on, put a stop to it, declaring that Rome
shomd not be redeemed with gold hut with steel ;
and that a great battle followed, in which the Ro-
mans wem Tictorious ; but these accounts are not
much to be trusted, and all we know certdnly is,
that the Oauls at length retired to their own oountrv.
HISTORY OF KOHl;.
CHAPTER XVI.
ROMK BBBUILT, B. 0. 889,
&C «89. ^' ■'"^^ Gauls left R«me in a etato (A
complete ruin. Tha first thing to be donb,
therefore, was to rebuild the city. But the people
could not at first ^^ee upon this point. Many of
them 'wished to leave the place altogether, others
could not bear the idea of giving up tbeir ancient
home ; at length the point was settled by what was
considered a lucky omen. Whilst the senators were
uUdng about what waa to be done, a centurion
passed by with his men, and was heard to say —
" Plant the banner here ; for here it is best to stay."
The senators directly came out to the people and
declared they accepted the omen, and immediately
every one set himself to work.
2. It was, of course, necessary to build as quickly
as possible. So the people had bricks given them,
and were allowed to dig stones for themselves ; and
then each petson placed his house where he chose,
and built it to suit his own fancy. The conse-
quence was that the streets were narrow, crooked,
and irregular, and thus they remained for a great
number of years, till tbey were again destroyed by
fire.
3. Camillus was now considered the chief person
in Rome, and his courage and skill were very much
wanted ; for several of the states, which had been
subject to Rome, tried to free themselves now that
the Bomans were so much less powerful. There
vere a great many wars and rebeUions, but CamiUua
wsa Tictorious in almost every case.
4. The affiura of the city, however, were not ai
prosperons within the walls as thej were without
DO THE CHILD 8 FUST
The poor people had suffered grievously from (he
Sluntier of the Gauls, snd the old complaints about
ebts and hardships began agtun.
fi. One of the persons who felt the greatest com-
passion for the oppressed was Marcus Manlius, who
saved the cajxtol. Seong a poor old man carried
away in ch^ns, because he could not pay what he
owed, Uanlius immediately gave the money for him,
and let him go home ; and be then declared that as
long as he had a pound of brass, no one should be
made a slave for debt.
6. From that tjme Manliua made it his duty to
help every debtor that he possibly could ; and it is
said that he aa^t«ij no less than four hundred.
The gratitude of the poor may easily he imagined ;
but the patricians grew jealous, and accused Man-
lius of trying to sdr up the people to rebellion, and
at last they threw him into prison. The plebeians
were so grieved that they put on mournmg, and
crowded round his prison threatening to set him
free. After a Uttle tmie the senators allowed him
to come out of prison ; but Manlius, being a proud
man, was highly indignant at what had been done,
and did really now encourage the plebeians to com-
plain of their rulers ; and at last he went so far
that he was accused of high treason and sentenced
to die. He was safe, however, for some time, for
he shut himself up in the capitol with an armed
hand, but he was at length betrayed. A man came
to him pretending to he his friend, and bring him
some iiseful information ; and whilst they were walk*
ing together along the edge of the Tarpeian rock, the
tiaitorpushed him over and killed him.
9, Tne house of Manlius was polled down, and ntma
of his family ever after took the name of Marcus.
■■WrOKT or KOMS.
CHAPTER XVII
THK AQRARIAH LAW.
UI3NIUH BTOLO UfD LUOIUB HXZTI1TI, ItinnOB,
>. a S76.
B C si(L ^' '^^^ JiSit persons wlio tried to belp
the plebeians were Licinius Stolo and Lu-
cius Sextius, who were tribunea, about the year
B. C. 376. It seems that they must have been veiy
nrach in earnest in what they did ; but there is a
Etory told of the reason why Licinius first began to
think of doing good to the plebeians, which would
take away some of the credit from him if it were
true. There is, however, great reason to doubt it.
2. One of the chief patricians in R<»ue at that
time had, it is s^d, two daughters ; one was married
to Ijoinius, who was a plebeian, the other to Sulpi-
«ns, a patrician, and a consular tribune. Consular
tribunes bad not quite the same power as consuls,
but nearly aa much. Fabia, the wife of Licinius,
was one day visiting her sister, when Sulpicius re-
turned home after his ptibUc bnsinesa was finished.
The lictora came with hun ; for they always attended
the chief magistrates. Pabia was quite frightened
by the noise which they made when they knocked at
the door to announce the arrival of soch a great man.
But her sister laoghed at her, and reproached her
for having married a plebeian. When Fabia went
liome, being very much vexed, she complained to her
father and her nusband ; and from that time they
determined not to rest till the great distinctions be-
Iween the patricians and plebeians were done away
with.
3. Whether this story be true or not. it is certMB
S3 THE CHILD a FIBST
tbat Bome great changes were made about Uiis time in
the laws aod government of Borne ; and tbat greater
honors vere given to the plebeiana. Amongst other
things, it was settled that one of the consiiE should
alwajs be & plebuan. A law was also proposed for-
bidding any person to have the use of more than a
certain quantity of the public land ; all which they
occupied beyond this was to be allowed to the ple-
beians, on condition of paying a small sum to the
slate. (This kind of law about public property is
called an Agrarian law. Before this law was passed
the patricians used to keep for their own use the
laads which had been taken from other states, and
cultivate them, and feed their cattle upon them, with-
out allowing the plebeians to have a fur share in the
enjoyment of them. And this was the cause of many
great disturbances and quarrels at Borne.
4. It was a long time before the patricians would
consent to these atterations ; but Licinius and hie
friend Lucius Sestius went on year after year pro-
posing that they should be made, and at last tbey
gained their point, and Lucius Se^dus was appointed
to be the first plebeian consul. 8till the patriciacs
were determined to keep some power to themselves,
and a new magistrate was appointed, called a praetor,
who th^y s^d should always be chosen from the pa-
tricians. A great deal of the power and dignity be-
longing to the consuls was also given to him, but
particularly the admmistralion of justice.
fi. About this time a dreadful plague broke out in
ftome, and in order to drive it away, the people
chose a dictator, for the express purpose of ham-
mering a nail into the door of one of their temples.
They fancied that by doing this they should please
the gods, who had sent the plague amongst them.
Camillus died of this plague. He was eighty ywn
old.
HISTORY OF BOMB. 63
8. In the same year, we are told that a deep
thasm or pit opeoed in the forum, Tlie augurs said
it would never close until the most precious things
b Rome hsd been thrown into it. A young war-
rior, named Marcus CurtJua, mounted his horse,
rhicli was ornamented with splendid trappings, and,
m\h all his armor on, leaped into the gulf, declaring
that Rome had nothing bo precious as the arms ana
courage of her sons. The ancient writers declare
Ihat the chasm closed, and where it had opened
there was afterwards a lake called the Curtian lake.
7, During this period, frequent mention is made
of different mvaaions of the Qanla ; for although the;
iiad gone back to their own country, they very often
made their way into the heart of Italy again. Sev-
ei-al stories are told of their great »ze and strength,
and of single combats between a Gaul and a Roman
On one occasion, when the Qaula had advanced near
to Rome, a warrior of enormous height, and very
strong, challenged any Roman who was brave enough
to conae out and fight with him. Titus Manhua.ayoung
man, accepted the offer. He dressed himself m plain
armor, and went out to meet the Gaul, taking a buck-
ler in bis hand, and a short sword. The Gaul struck
a heavy blow at him with his long sword, bot Manlius
contrived to escape it, and slipping under the giant's .
shield, stabbed him in two places. The huge Gau]
fell to the groimd, aad Manlius cut off his head, and
took a golden collar from his neck, which from that
time he always wore, and from which he waa sur-
oamed Torquatus, or the Collared. He afterwards
rec^ved a golden crown as a reward.
8. We can scarcely read this anecdote without
thinking of the account given of David and Goliath
n the Bible. At frst eight the two stories seem
very much alike ; but there is one great difference,
vhich can always be discovered between the actionf
S4 THE CHILD'S PIBST
»( heatheoB and of tbe Euncere worship)>e/8 of tht
True God. Titus ManKus went out to flglit for hoH-
or ; he trusted in hia ovm Etrength and Sravery, and
he waa rewarded by the golden crown and the prasea
of his countrymen. When David went against Qo-
liatb, we do not find that he trusted in himself at all.
His hope was in God. His words to Saul wer<^—
"The Lord will dehver me out of the hand of the
Philistine ;" and when the proud giant came forth to
meet him, he exclaimed — " Thon comest to me with a
Bword, and with a spear, and with a shield ; but I
come to thee in the name of the Lord of hosts, the
God of the armies of Israel."
8. The wish of the Roman was that his name should
bo remembered with honor ; the wish of David was
that all the earth might know there waa a God in
Israel. The heathens do not seem to have under-
stood that humility and meekness are virtues.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE FIRST B
R C S4S ^' ^'^^'^ '^ ^^^ Bomans had been
peaceahly inclined, which they certainly
were not, they would have found it difficult to avoii
war ; for they were surrounded by a number of other
states, who were continually disputing amongst them-
selves, and calling upon them for help. Besides this,
they were becoming very powerful, and wished ta
make themselyes chief over the other nations of Italyt
ftnd this could not be done without conquering them.
2. The great rivals of Rome at this time wei« the
Samnites. Samnium waa a very hilly country, ia
BiaTOKY OF ROME. 8A
the Bouth and eaet of the Roman territories. Tbe
inhabitants were hardy and brave, and, Lke tho Bo-
mans, -would hare been very glad to become lordi
over the whole of Italy.
3. Th^re were three great wars between the Ro-
mans and the Samnites. The first broke out in cod-
nequence of a dispute between two little states, one
of which was assisted by the Romans, and the other
by the Samnites.
4. The Romans ffained the first great battle, and
this was of immense importance to them. If they
had lost it, probably they would have been subject
lo the Sajiinites, and we should never have beard of
them as the conquerors of the world. But another
battle which took place about the same time, in a
different part of the countiy, is still more interesting, -
from the accounts that have been «ven of the cour-
age and skill of a Roman officer cafied Decius Mus.
5. It happened that the consul who comiranded
the Rom^ army had led his troops into a very dan-
gerous eituation. They were shut in between steep
Dills, amongst the Apennines, and had no way of es-
cape esceplHhrough a narrow valley, which was en
lirely surrounded hy the Samnites. The Romans
gave themselves up for lost ; hut Decius Mus thought
of a plan by which he saved them. He climbed up
one trf the cliffs that enclosed tte ravine, and made a
band of soldiers follow him. The Samnites were
obliged to pass below this cliff to reach the Romans,
and of course they tried tr drive Decius away. It
was not easy, however, to do this; and whilst they
were fighting with Decius the rest of the army con-
irived to escape. Decius was left then m great dan-
ger, but he and his soldiers defended themselves with
WMiderful courage, and contrived to force thrar way
through their enemies, and the next morrdnK reached
the Roman camp safely.
06 ' THE CHILD fl FIB9T
6. Decius was rewarded b^ a crown of gold, and
also by what waa called the "beaegcr'a crown,"
which waa usually given by the Boldiers to the gen-
erals who had rcUeved a town when it was besieged.
This crown waa made from the grass or wild-flowere
. which grew in the place, and it waa thought the
highest honor a general could receive.
7. It waa the custom amongst the Romans to re-
ward persons who had done good or great actions by
giving them crowns.
8. Thus another reward nearly as honorable aa
this was the civic crown, which was made of oak
leaves. Ttus was granted to a person who had saved
the life of a fellow- citizen. This first war with the
Samnites lasted only two years, for insnrrecladns and
disturbances broke out in the Roman army, and the
eeuators found it desirable to make peace.
9. Deciua Mus waa killed not very long after the
Samnite war. His death made bim even more fa-
mous than his life. It happened in a battle with the
Latins, when he was consul.
10. Both the Roman consuls, It is said, dreamed
that ia this battle the general on one side must be
lost, and the army on the other, and they agreed
that if their own troops began to give way one of
them would devote himself to death to appease tbe
gods. When the battle began, the soltUers whom .
Decius commanded seemed about to yield ; and De- {
cius, remembering hia resolution, repeated a solemn
prayer always used on these occasions, and then '
rushed in amongst the enemy, and was killed fighting
desperately. The Romans after this were v'ctwiou^ I
CHAPTER XESr.
THli eECOKD BAHHin WIK,
B 0. ttA. ^' ^"^ second war iritb the SamniU-i
was caused sometiiiiig in the same way aa
the fiist ; that is, it began by quarrels between Borne
lad other states, in which the Samnitea interfered.
But there is reason to think that the Romans were
looking out for sometliing to complmn of, as they
were too ambitious to be contented until the Sam-
nitea were quite conquered. One of the most re-
markable events of this war is an instance of great
irant of ffluceiity and good fmth on the part <^ thn
Bomaiis.
2. It Beema that they had not profited much by
the danger they were placed in during the last war,
when Declus Mus had aaved them ; tiiey were slill
wry careless in going through the vallej-s amongst
the mountains ; and at last, in one rery narrow place,
called the Caudine Forks, they were attacked by the
Samnites, and completely defeated ; so much so, in-
deed, that they were forced to g^vo up all thoughts
of continuing the war, and to consent to all which
the Sammtes asked. Amongst other things it was
required that the Romans should give up all the pla-
ces they had taken in the war, and that the two na-
tions should be considered equal. The army was
a^ obliged to pass under the yoke.
3. This waa a very dreadful disgrace, but there
was no way of escaping it, and to save their Kves at
»11 waa more than they had reason to expect, for
C'^us Pontius, the general of the Samnitea, might
•asily have killed them if he had not been mercifullv
68 TH£ CHILD B FISBT
inclined. They were all therefore compelled to auh-
mit — even the coBsuk were not spared ; but Pontjiu
showed them Idndsess afterwards, and gave them
clothes and provisions to help them on their jonmey
back to Eome.
4, They reached the city quite overpowered with
Bhan>e ; and the eenatora met t<^ether to consider
what was to be done. After some time it waa pro-
posed that the ^reement which had been made
should not be kept ; but that the officers and soliKers
who had swom to it should be delirered up to the
Samnites, as persons who had deceived tnem by
promising what could not he performed. This waa
a most unfair way of dealing, for the Samnites had
spared the Romans only on account of these prom-
ises. The Sanmites would not have any thmg to do
with the aSair, They would not receive the officers
and soldiera who were sent to them, and they were
go much more noble than the Bomans, that although
they had six hundred hostages in, their hands, they
did them no harm, but allowed them all to go back
to Rome. After thb the war went on as it had dona '
before for more than twenty yeara. Then the Sam- j
nites were obliged to beg for peace, ana acknowledge
the Romans as th^ masters ; but they were iKit en-
tirely subdued until a long lime afterwards.
6. About this time one of the Roman consuls,
Appius Claudius, caused a great road to be made
from Rome to Oapua. It was formed of stone blocks,
which fitted quite closely to each other, and two car-
riaffea conld go upon it abreast. The remmns aro
to be seen at this day, and it is still called the Via
Appia, or the Road of Appius. The Romans said it
was the queen of roads.
■UTOkT OF BOMS
CHAPTER XX.
TBB THIRD SAUNITB Wi
SMAH 1. C. SS8,
B 0. 898. ^' "^^^ i^^iirA Samnite war began lib«
the other two. It broke out in the year
B. C. 298, in consequence of tbs help vhich the
Bamnitea gave to Bome of the enemiea of Rome ;
but the Sanmites must have wished long before to
free themselves from the power of the Romans, and
no doubt were glad to take advantage of the first oc-
casion which offered for quarrelling with them.
2. During this war the Gauls again invaded Italy
nnd joined with the Sanmites ag^nst the Romans.
We are told that in one great battle, when the
Gauls and the Samoitcs had united their forces, and
the Bomana were very nearly defeated, the son of
Decius Mus gave himself up for his country in the
eame way as nis father. He believed that if he de-
livered himself up to death, the gods would favor
the Romans, and he repeated the set foiTa of words,
after the Roman pontiff or chief priest, and then
rushed forward and was slain. Tlie Romans took
courage after this and gained tlie victory.
3. In the last regular battle which was fought be-
tween the Samnites and the Romans, Caius PoQlius,
the SamnJto general, who had been so merciful Ut
the Eomans at the battle of the Caudine Forks, was
taken prisoner.
4. The Romans, instead of remembering his gen-
erosity to them when they were in distress, carried
him to Rome, where he was led in chains througb
the city at the consuls' triumph, and aftemards bu-
TO THE CHIlJ>'s riHST
beaded. This is considered one of the most dis-
graceful BcliooB which the Romans ever committed.
5, The third Samnite war lasted about ei^ht years.
When it was ended the Eomans had gamed thtax
wish, for the Samnitea were entirely subject to
tiidm.
6. The towD of Herculaneum, which lies buried
beneath the lava of Mount Vesuvius, and which is so
interesting to all persons who go to Italy, belun));cd
to the Samnites and was taken. in this wnr.
CHAPTER XXI.
B iX !8l ^' ''■*" Bomans were by this time mas-
ters of a great part of Italy. But they
had atiU some powerful enemies in the south. There i
was a city there called Tarentum, which lay on the
seacoast, with a very fine harbor, and a great dea! i
of rich country about it, particularly famous for its '
flocks of sheep, and the beautiful wool which they
produced. That part of the Mediterranean, on
which the town was dtuated, is still called after it,
the Gulf of Taranto. A quarrel began between tha
inhabitants of this place and the Romana, by the
Tarentines dobg mischief to some Roman ships,
which appeared one day to be making their way into
the harbor. The Ramans sent as usual to ask si^^ '
faction for the outrage ; but their ambassadors Tvertiv J
only laughed at by the insolent Tarentines — and aa 1
KK» as they returned to Rome and told how they
HiBTOBT or Boui:. 71
fcad been treated, it was determined to declare war.
The Tarentdnes, oa their part, were resolved to lesist
the Bomana as much as pos^ble, and tlunldng that
ff they could obtun help from abroad they shoSd be
more likely to conquer, they sent to Pjirhua, king of
Kpirus, begging him to join with them.
2. FyrrhuB was one of the most distinguished
Idngs ot that period. He was then about thirty-
■even years of age ; — his character was generous,
noble, and brave, and he bad soch an art of pleasing
that he mode friends of almost all who came near
him. The idea of carrying on a war in Italy, and
perhaps foonding a Unborn there was very pleasant
to him, and he willingly agreed to the proposal of
thA Tarentinea.
3, He crossed over from Greece in the year B. C.
281, and landed in Italy with an army of men, a
good many horses, siid twenty elephants. The peo-
}>Ie of T^^ntum 9>eie indolent and accustomed to
nxurions habits, anil liked amusing themselves much
better than working or fighting ; but Pyrrhus, as
soon as he came to the city, forced all who could
bear arms to become soldiers, and ordered the the-
atres to he shut ; and, in short, made every prepara-
tion necessuT for a great war. The Romans on
their side were not idle ; they would uot listen when
Pyrrhus sent ambassadors to them to propose to
settle the dispuie between them and the Tarentines,
and it seemed as if they were entirely bent upon
vrar. In the first great battle which took place the
Romans fought most bravely. They advanced seven
dmes against their enemies, and each time they were
forced to retreat, because their horees were fnghten-
ed at the ucrht of the elephants which Pyrrhus had
brought with him. After the seventh time the
irbole Soman army fled, and Pyrrhus took possession
af the enemy's cnmp. ^'bis battle had given him a
la TII3 ohild's fiebt
high opinion of Roman courage ; and when lie riailed
the field of battle the next diiy, and sav that the
mr^n had all fallen with their faces to the enemy, he
exclaimed i — " With such soldiers the world would
be mine, and it would belong to the Romans if I
were their commander." The victory, however, waa
not gained without great loss, and when Pyrrhus
waa congratulated upon having conquered, he re-
plied : " One more such victory, and I should be
obliged to return to Epirus without a single soldier."
4. Peace was now proposed agam, and Fyrrhua
sent an ambassador to settle tlie terms whom he
thought must please the Romans ; Curius was bis
name, he was the greatest friend Pyrrhus had ; his
manners were particularly agreeable, and he easily
persuaded other persona to do as he wished. He
very nearly induced the Romans now to maie peace ;
probably they would have done so, bnt for Appius
Claudius, the same senator who made the great
road mentioned in the last chapter. Appius wa^ at
that time a very old man, lame and blind, but ha
caused himself to be carried into the senate, and
spoke so earnestly sgrnnst submitting in any way to
^yrrhus, that Curius was obhged to go back with-
out having gained his point. Pyrrhus immediately
began the war agMn. Several battles were fought,
and many prisoners taken. The Romans offered
money for tneu' release, but Pyrrhus would not ac-
cept it.- He allowed them however to go to Rome
in order to be present at a great festival, and said
they might remain if the senators would make peace.
The prisoners tried very r-.uch to persuade the sena-
tors to do so, but they could not succeed, and they
"vere therefore all obliged to go back to Pynhus.
The senators even threatened to put any person to
death who should endeavor to stay beland. They
men bo particular about their word being kepL
HISTOaY OF ROME, 73
Afierwards, U is said, that a peison in the anny o(
Pyrrhus offered to poieon the king if the. Komaos
would reward him, but the Romans were exceedmg-
ly indignant, and Fahricius the consul told Pyrrhua
all about it. Fsbricius was a veir honorable man,
who once before bad refused to ao Bomething that
PyrrhM wished when he thought it would be wrong,
and Pyrrhus was now bo struck with his generoeilj
and nobleness, that he exclaimed; — "Noble Fabn-
cins ! it were as easy to turn the sua from his coarse
as that man from the path of honor."
6 . Pyrrhus, in return for this kindness shown him by
the Romans, sent back all the prisoners without ran-
som. A truce was then agreed upon, for a short
time, and Pyrrhus crossed over to Sicily to help the
Sicilians gainst the Carthaginians. Three years
afterwards he came back to Italy again, but he was
not by any means as successful then as he had been
before. The Romans were by this lime more accus-
tomed to his mode of fighting, and knew how to
frJKbten his elephants ; and, at fast, after bdng quite
defeated in one great battle, he left Italy never to re-
turn to it again. Pyrrhus was a noble-minded, brave
man ; hut he was very fond of seeking for adventures,
and took no care of hia own country, whilst he was
warring with others. He was killed in Greece, by a
tile which a woman threw upon his head.
9. After the war with Pyrrhus was ended, the
E^mans had not much diCBculty in making themselves
masters of the whole of Italy. Their dominions had
increased more and more, and we can fancy how sur-
prised thdr firat king, Romulus, would have been if
ae could have known what a great and powerful peo-
ple they had become. But it was the will of God
that they should become yet more powerful, and
eorem a great many countries besides Italy, and of
uus we wit hear something in the next chapter
THE CHILD a rnufl
CHAPTER XXir.
txam K. c. 361.
EO SU 1. It was eaid tliat Pjrrhua, when lie ,
granted a truce with the Bomsiiis, crowed
over to Sicily to help the SicilianB against the Cartha>
ginians. This is the first time that the Carthag^niani
have been mentioned, but they were a people well
known to the Bomans, and had often before made trea-
ties Ttiih them about trade. For they were not so
much given to war, as other nations in those days, but
employed themselves mainly in commerce ; that is,
in carrying goods and merchandise from one country
to uiother, for the purpose of exchaj^. This madle
them understand bow to mant^ sbips, and brought
them a good deal of money ; bo that when tJiey went
to war, they were able to hire troops to fight for
them, without being forced to become soldiers tbem-
selves, and thus neglect tbeir trafSc and business.
The name of their chief wty was Carthage, The
place where it stood may be found by looking to th<i
map of Africa, on the seacoast, eouuiwest of Sicily,
about eleven miles from Tunis. Once it was so large,
that it is said to have been twenty-three miles roimd,
and the riches it contdned were immense. But all
that remuns of it now are some ustems and large
drains or sewers. The inhabitants, in the course o(
their trading, spread themselves along the northern
part of Africa, and passed over to Spain, where in
time they founded a city, which tbey called Hew
Carthage, a name which the place still keeps, only
■lightly changed into Carthagena. They edeo had
-n of no small part of Sicily. The wars be-
I
niSTOSY OF RUMK. TS
tween tlits people and the Bomons are generally
called the Punic Wars ; Punic being another namQ
for Carthaginian, and signifying the im0a of theiF
TtKA . For though it ia not exactly known how long
it was before the building of Borne that Carthage
was fonnded, yet it is agreed that the first settlers
there came from Phcenicia.
2. The first Punic war began in Sicily, whtre, as it
has been said, the Carthaginians had settled them-
■elves. The greater part of the island was tbdis, the
rest belonged to Hiero, king of Syracuse. But a
band of men, called Uamertmes, who were in fact
little better than robbers and plunderers, had come
over from Italy, and by foul means taken poasession
of a town to which they bad not the least right.
The town wluch they seized was Meaaana, a place
that Btill gives its name to the narrow strwt which
diridea Sicily from Itajy, King Hiero tried to punish
them, and gwned several victories over them, upon
which some of them appealed for help to the Romans,
and some to the Carthaginians. The Romans knew
veil what a wicked set these Mamertines were, but
they could not make up their minds to refuse them
as^tance, because it gave them an excuse for gettjng
into Sicily, which they coveted ; and, as they were
more and more jealous of the Carth^nians, they
were in hopes by this means that a regular war would
break out between them : and so it happened.
3. The Carthaginians, who assisted the Mamer-
tines, acted like friends to them, snd persuaded
QleTo to make peace with them ; and then the Ro<
mans had no further reason to interfere. But they
were so bent upon the war that nothing would mduce
them to give it up, and when the Mamertines did
not want their help, they still prepared an army, and
lent them word that they were coming to free them
(rmn the dominion of the Carthaginians. Tliis could
10 ihE child's first
h&ve been nothing but a pretence, yet it served tbeii
purpose, and from that time the war between Car-
thage and Rome began.
4. Hiero, king of Syracuse, was on the side of the
Oarth^nians at first, but after the Bomans bad
gained a victory over him, he consented to become
their friend, and continued so ever after.
5. The Carth^inians were much better off than
the Bomans in one respect. They had a number of
ships which they managed well, and in these they
stuled about the coasts of Italy, landing at different
places, destroying the towns, and doing such mischief
that the Roman senators soon saw that if they wished
to conquer they must have a number of ships also.
They therefore determined to build a fleet, and thejr
orders were obeyed so quickly, that within dzty days
after the trees which were to build the slops were cut
down, a hundred and thirty were finished. They
were awkward vessels, however, and not made to
last long. The Carthaginian ships were very supe-
rior, and the only way m which the Romans could
get the better of them was by throwing a Idnd of
bridge across from their vessels to those which they
were fightJng with. These bridges were fastened
with strong hooks of iron, and then the soldiers ran
across them, and jumped down upon the decks of
the enemy's ships. The first tjme this was tried the
Carthamnians grew frightened and took to flight.
6. Kie war went on for several years without
either party gainmg the upper hand, but at length
the Romans mnded m Africa, took several of the Gar'
thaginian towns, and approached close to Carth^e
itsehf. They must have done a great deal of harm,
for the country about Carthage was very beautiful,
and there were a great many pretty villas or country
houses built near it, which the Bomans destroyed uid
ndtbed just as they chose.
7. Bi^luB waa the Roman consul atthia time;
uid there is a very interesting story told about him.
8. He was a brave and resolute roan, and able to
endure a great many hardships ; but he doea not ap-
pear to hare been a very good general, StiK ha
bad g^ed a victory over the CarthE^nianB at sea,
and it seemed most probable tliat he would conquer
them on ]aad ; for he and his army surrounded Car-
thage, and the inhabitants were shut up in the city,
■ad dying from heat, and fever, and hunger. They
suffered so much, indeed, that they were induced to
beg for peace, and Regnlas might, if he had chosen
it, nave put an end to the war entirely; instead of
which, he asked such hard terms, that the Cartha-
zinians could not consent to them ; and the ambassa-
dors, who had been sent to hhn, went back to the
city to tell the people that they must GtJll go on as
they had done before. There was, however, one
hope for them. Xanthippus, a Greek, a very clever
ni<ui, waa at that time in the city. He had had a
great deal of practice in war, and he undeftook to
train the people and teach them, that they might be
able to withstand the Romans ; and in this he suc-
ceeded BO well, that the Carthaginians left the city,
went out i^mnst the Romans, fought a great battle,
uid took Regulus prisoner,
9. BeguLus was a prisoner for five years ; at the
end of that time the Boraana were so much the con-
qneroT^, that the Carthaginians agaiu began to think
of peace. Regulus was sent to Rome with the Gar*
thaginian ambassadors, to convey the terms of peace ;
but before he set off, he waa obliged to promise that
if the senators would not agree to all wluch the Car-
thaginians wished, he would return to Carthage again
IS a prisoner.
10. It must have been very pleasant to him to go
back to Borne after such a long absence, to tee all
78 THB CniI.D'8 FIRST
hia friends and relations again, and no doubt he long'
ed to rem^ with them ; but when the BbUatOFS asked
him whether he would advise them to agree to nil
which the Carthaginians proposed, he was obliged to
speak honestly, and he told them " So, not erea to
exchtmg« prisoueis."
11. The consequence of this advice was very sad
for Begulus. The Carthagiman ambassadors pre>
pared to go back to Cartht^e, and Bfigulus was to
return with them. Hisfriemu entreatea him to stay,
but he would not listen to them ; and after embra-
cing them for the last time, he set out on his sorrow-
ful jomney to Carthage.
12. When the CarHiagimana heard of the advice
he had ^ven, their anger was furious ; and in order
to punish him, it is said that they cut off his eyelids,
and exposed >iirn to the scorching blaze of the sim,
and afterwards put him into a cask stuck round with
n^ls, the points of which were turned inwards ; and
thus, it is said, killed him with p^, hunger, and j
sleeplessness. The account of these cruel tortures
we Lave reason to beUeve, however, is not true ; al-
though B^ulus died not long after his return to
Carthage.
13. The offer of peace having foiled, war was now
begun once more, and was contmued for about nine
years longer. The Carthaginians bad a very iamous
general to command them some part of the tjme,
e^led Hamilcar Barca, or Ijghtning, who was not only
a brave and good general, but tuso a kind-hearted
eenerous man. On one occasion, having lost a battle,
he sent to the Roman consul to ask for a truce, that
he might have time to bury his dead. The consul
replied harshly and proudly, that he ought to be I
concerned about the hving rather than the dead.
Some time afterwards the Romans had occa^on to
ask the same favor; and Tlnmilcar Barca instantly
BI8T0EY OF BOHE. 79
^reed, saying thilt he carried od war oulf gainst
the living.
14. But all Hamilcar Barca's skill could not prc-
vtsA the Bomans from gaining the victory, They
were much improved now in the management of their
Bhips, and their men were better stulors. Thy were,
in consequence, able to fight with the Cartha^mans,
as well by sea as by land; and the Bomsn citizens
were so determined not to be stopped by any diffi-
culties, that when the first fleet was nearly destroyed,
they fitted out another at thrar own expense. It
was a battle at sea which brought this long war to
an end. The Romans attacked the Carthaginian ves-
seb when they were heavily laden with com, and
took sixty-three of them ; a hundred and twenty
were sunk, and the rest scattered. After this, the
Carthaginians were so completely crushed, that they
w^ere obliged to make peace upon any terms. They
consented to give up the island of Sicily, and all the
other islands between Sicily and Italy, — not to make
war any more with Hiero, king of Syracuse,— to re-
store all the Roman prisoners, without receiving any
rtusom, and to pay a lai^e sum of money. And so,
after twenty-two years, ended tiie first Punic war.
CHAPTER XXIII.
THB sEooNn pnsio wak,
BEOAM B. C. 218.
0,0.218 ^' TiVKKTif-THRaB years passed away
before war was regularly declared again
between Rome and Carthage ; but the two nations
were not friends to each other all the time ; — they
were always inclined to quarrel, though they were
During these twenty-three yean
80 THE CBILD a FIRST
the Bonmna had to defend themselvea ogainBt tbi
Gaula, besides carrying on war with the inhabitanU
of Sardinia and Corsica, and trying to prevent tha
snbjects of Teuta, queen of Illyrio, from robbing ships
at sea; and these troubles gave the Cartha^^niani
time to recover tb«r strength, and prepare for an-
other ctHiflict.
2. Hamilcar Bares was the person whom tbey most
depended upon for advice. His wish was to make a
settlement in 8p^ like that in Sicily, which was now
taken from them. He thought it would be of great
iise in any future wars ; and as the Carthagioiaus
possessed one town there already, he hoped by going
there to g^n the hearts of the people, and by de-
grees make them subjects of Cartmige. The greatest
wish Hamilcar had, was to take revenge upon the
Romans for the injury they had done his country ;
and before leaving Carthage be took his little boy,
Hannibal, to one of the heathen temples, and therv
told him to swear upon the altar, that as long as be
lived he would be the constant enemy of Rome. The
child took the oath, and never forgot it. Hamilcar
Barca commanded the Carthaginian army in Spaia
for about eight years, and very much increased his
own reputation and the power of his country amongst
the inhabitants. He was killed in battle, and his son-
in-law, Haadrubal, bad the command in his stead, and
founded the town of New Carthage or Corthagena.
3. Hannibal by this time had grown up to be a
young man, of a generous disposition, very well in-
formed, fond of study, and extremely handsome, and
with manners so pleasant and winmng that every one
loved lum, When Hasdrubal died, he was at once
fixed upon as the best person to succeed him,
4. The Carthaginians now ruled over all the south
cf Spain, except the dty of Saguntnm. Hannibal
vifhed mnch to obtain posaesuon of this place ; h»
BOB. a. 61
Iherefore induced some of his allies to qiian\il nitit
the S^imtines and then send to hiin for help, whicL
be vas Teiy willing to ^^nt The Saguntjnea on
their part applied to the Romans, and thus the Bo-
mans and CarthE^^ans were once more on the point
of b^ng at open war.
5. iSiis conduct of Hannibal does not appear quite
right, it does not suit with his character for justice
and truth ; but even the best of heathens had very
false notions of right and wrong, and seem rather to
have encouraged ambition aud revenge than not.
6. The Romans sent to warn Hannibal against
meddling with Saguntum, but be would not pay the
least attention to them, and the city was entirely
destroyed. They afterwards dispatched ambassa-
dors to Carth^e to complain of Hannibal. One of
these tmibassadors, Qumtus Fabius, folded his toga,
or robe, as if something was wrapped up iu it, and
■ aaid to the Carthaginian senators, " Here we bring
you peace or war — choose whichever you please." —
" flive us whichever you think proper," was the re-
ply. Fabius unfolded his tc^ and said, " I offer you
war." — "We accept it," exckimed the Carthaginians,
" and shall carry it on ia the same spirit in which we
accept it." ' So the second Funic war was openly
declared in the year B. C. 218.
7. Hannibal no sooner heard that war was pro-
claimed than he prepared to fulfil the oath which he
had sworn, when a boy, and to attack the Boniaua
in their own country. The Alps lay between him
and Italy : they were steep and rocky, and almost
impassable in many parts, from the snow which cov-
ered them ; but Hannibal was not to be kept back by
any difiicuttjes. He gave the command of Spain tA
his brother, and set forth with a large army. Many
at his soldiers became frightened after they had gone
aome way, and several thousands returned home ; but
83 THE CHILD D FIRST
Hannibal still proceeded, with 50,000 foot-soldien
nnd 9,000 horsemen. The Romans heard of his in-
tentioDs, and they sent an army and a fleet, com-
manded hy one of thdr best generals, Coraelina
8<»pio, to stop lum ; but they do not seem to hare
imagined that Hannibal could ever really succeed in
reaching Italy. It appeared almost impossible for
such an army to cross the barren cold Alps, wh^re
there were no roads, and no houses to shelter them.
Scipto, therefore, did not make the haste which he
should have done ; and before he reached Spain,
HiHinibal was far on his way to Italy, He had gone
by the banks of the Rhone, and passed through the
country of the Gauls until he reached the foot of the
Alps. The tribes of Gauls who were settled in this
neighborhood did every thing they could to stop
him, and added greatly to his difficwties. His army
was now much smaller than when he began bis jour-
ney — so many men had died on the road, and thoae
who were left could not see the huge mountains
rising up to the clouds, without great fear as to
whether they should ever be able to cross them. As
for Hannibal himself, nothing seemed to alarm him,
and without any delay he oraered his men to begin
their march upwards. For fifteen days the Cartha-
^nian army had to bear incredible hardships and
danger in crossing these terrible mountdns. The
Gaids hid tbemBefves amongst the rocks and rolled
down large stones upon them; the groimd was in
many parts covered with deep snow, and the sharp
steep rocks and frightful precipices often made it
almost impossible to proceed. Hannibal, however,
cheered bis soldiers by the hope of victory and plenty
which they might g^ in Italy. From a height,
which gave them a view of the fertile plains below,
he pointed in the direction of Rome, and told them
that, by chmbmg the Alps, they had, as it werc^
UISTORV OF ROME.
•caled the walls of that great city. The soldier*
were supported by hJa example ana wunt on cheer-
fnHy, but at length they came to a place where th«
path was completely broken away, and they could
Bee nothing before or on each Mde of them but tre-
mendous precipices. The foot-soldiers began to de-
scend, but the eide of the mountain was covered
with ice and snow ; and their feet Bliptang, they had
nothing to hj hold of. Many rolled down and were
crushed to pieces, and Hannibal saw that it would be
in vain to let the rest follow. There was but one
thing to be done — to cut a new road through the
rock, and this immense work he actually undertook.
The men labored for three days. At the end of that
lime the road waa made, and the whole army — all the
men, horses, and elephants, passed along it, and soon
afterwards reached the foot of the mountdn in safety.
8. The dangers which Hannibal had met with m
passing the ^ps must have made erery thing else
appear light to him ; he might otherwise have had
cause to fear when he found himself in Italy ; his
army containing not half the number of soldiers
whom he had set out with, and the Romans waiting
for him. Scipio was there. He had returned upon
discovering wnat a mistake he had made in not hast-
ening to stop Hannibal at first, but ho still delated
kmger than was necessary, and gave Hannibal tune
to advance some way into Italy before he met with
him. The two armies did meet however at last, on
the banks of the river l^cinus, uid there a battle was
fought, and the Romans were defeated. Scipio him-
self was wounded, and the Romans, now in real alarm,
began to think that Hannibal and the Cartha^nians
would be much more difficult enemies to conquer
than th^ bad suspected. Scipio did not choose to
ri^ another battle until he had help. He therefore
leteeated, and in the mean time the consul, Sempr<^
94 THE child's FIttST
nius, who had been sent by the Biinia
and plunder the coasts of Africa, and so
to the Carthaginiana in their own country, wits quickly
called back to assist in defending Italy.
9. Hannibal followed Scipio ; for he was anxioua
for another battle, hoping that if he could conquer,
he might settle hia soldiers in the towns and th«
country for the winter, and give them rest. But
Scipio WEis not iachned to fight, until ha had re-
covered from his wound and could command hia
army ; and when Sempronius arrived, and expressed
his wish to attack Hannibal, he tried to dissuade
him from it. Sempronius, however, gained his point,
and the battle began. It was fought on the banks
of the Trebia, a broad river, but not deep. The two
armies were on opposite sides. Hannibal told some
of his men to conceal themselves amongst the bushes
and shrubs by the river. The rest he ordered to
prepare themselves for the battle, by eating a good
breakfast and warming themselves at their fires.
Sempronius did not take the same care of his troops.
Before they had eaten any thing, they were com-
manded to wade through the water, although it waa
tMtterly cold, a piercing wind blowing, and the snow
driving ia their faces. The soldiers did as they were
ordered ; but, when they reached the other side of
the river, they were so completely benumbed that
they could not handle thdr arms, and had lost all
spirit to defend themselves. The Carthaginians were
completely victorious, and but a .small part of the -
Roman army escaped to tell the story of their mis-
fortune and disgrace.
10. HanmbfJ after this established his soldiers
peaceably for the winter ; and the Romans, instead o(
giving way to despair, prepared to raise fresh armies.
11. When the spring came, a new general waa
ftppoiilted to command them, the consul Flaminiuai
HISTORY OP KOME 8S
F]aimiiiu9 set out with Iiis army for Ariminum, a
town now called Himini, but on his amval he heard
that Hannibal was on aia way to Bome. To reach
Rome, indeed, was Hannibal's great object, and in
order to obtain it he had marched for three days
and three nights through marBhes, which were so
onhealthy that many of his men and horses died,
and he himself completely lost the use of one eye.
Flaminins followed him directly, and overtook lum
neaf the lake Tranmenus. The hills around this
lake came yery near each other, so as to leave a
narrow valley between them, Flaminlus reached
this valley when it was daik, and pitched his camp
in it. He was not in any fear, for he thought that
the OarthE^iuians were before him. At daybreak
he agtun began bis march. There was a fog nsmg
from the lake, which was at the end of the valley,
and the Romans could not see plainly. Suddenly
they found themselves attacked on all ddes. The
Carthaginians had stationed themselves upon the
heights, and surrounded them. A battle followed,
so dreadful as never to he forgotten. The Romans
and Garthaginiaos fought with such desperate eager-
ness, that an earthquake is said to have taken
place at the time without thdr perceiving it. ITio
consnl Flaminius was eiain, and fifteen thousand of
his army perished ; many were drowned in the lake.
12. When the news of this defeat reached Rome,
the people were in the greatest possible alarm.
Tber inunediately created Fabius Mazimus dictator.
Fabnis was a cautious man, but veiy detormined.
He resolved not to risk any more battles, but to fol-
low Hannibal from place to place, hoping to bring
him into difficulties, and at length weary him out.
It was expected by every one that Hannibal wOold
march immediately to Home, but he could not ven-
ture to do this. Hia annv was much diminished b
tie THE CBILD'b FIBST
mimber, anil no fresh troops were sent him from Car»
thage ; and Rome was too strong a place to be be-
«eged, unless he could be certtun of taking it. He
therefore attacked Eome of the smaller towns, and
his soldiers ravaged the country, and made the people
give them provisions.
13. Fabius followed him wherever he went, never |
attempting a battle, but only skinnishing ; he con-
trived, however, sometimes to bring Hanmbal into
great difGcullies. On one occasion the Carthaginians
were shut up in. a narrow paas, when there seemed
no way of escape ; but when night came on, Hanni-
bal ordered bundles of brushwood to be tied to the {
horns of 2,000 oxen, and settii^ fire to it, drove
them towards bis enemies. The Romans were
frightened at the strange wght and moved away, and
thus the Cartha^nians got out of tbeir hands.
14. The Roman senators began to think after a
time that Fabius waa wrong in being so very cau- j
tious, and they gave orders that Minucius, his master
of the horse, should have equal power, and com-
mand one half of the army. Minucius was rash,
and was soon tempted to fight with Hannibal ; but
he was very nearly defeated. Fabius, however, in-
stead of being contented to leave him to his fate,
helped him as much as be possibly could, and quite
saved the army ; and Uinucins was so struck with
his noble conduct, that when the battle was over he
said he did not wish to command any more ; he would
yield all his power to Fabiua. Fabius soon after gave
up the dictatorship, and then the consuls were generals
16. The next great battle which Hannibal fought
with the Romans was the battle of Cannie in the
following year. Oannn was a iittle town in Apnlia,
on the east side of Italy. The battle waa fought on
the second of August Unfortunately for the Ro-
HISTUSir OF ROME. 67
manB, the wind bleiv the dust into their faces, and
fireventfid them from seeing. It was a very dread-
ol battle for the Romans. Forty-five thousand per-
sona Tere killed, and amonff them one of the consuls,
and so many knishts that three bushels of their rings
are add to have oeen found on the field. Some of
the men of rank, who escaped to a neighboring
town, met t^etber to consult what was to be done ;
and they began to consider whether it would not be
well to leave Italy altogethw, and go to some
foreign court ; but a brave young man, Scipio Afri*
canus, who was ode of the military tribunes, hearing
what they were thinking of doing, rushed into the
room with his sword drawn, and declared that he
would suffer no person to forsake his country. This
he swore solemnly himself, and every one present
then did the same. Scipio Africanus afterwards be<
came very celebrated. He was about eighteen years
of age at that time.
IB. After the battle of Cannie, the commander of
the Carthaginian cavahy, whose name was Maherbal,
wished H^nibal extremely to go to Rome. Han-
nibal refused, declaring it was not possible. Then
Maherbal was very sorry, and exclaimed : — " Alas I
tbou knowest how to gain a victory, but not how to
use one."
17. As Hannibal was now able to give bis soldiers
rest, be placed them in the town of Capua, which
was friendly to him. Capua was a very beautiful
«ty, but the people who lived in it were accustomed
to great toiuries, and indulged themselves in every
way they happened to fancy. When they heard
that Hannibal was approaching, it is said that they
killed all the Romans who were amongst them by
putting them into hot baths and suffocating them.
After this they nllowed the Carthaginians to conw
into the city.
TUB CHILD B FIEST
18. The bad example of the Capunns did gieni
hann to Ilannibal'a ^eoldiera. They lived now at
their ease, and were not inclined to bear hardships,
and after stayiag tlie winter at Capua, they became
like different pereons. The Romans, on the con-
trary, did their very ubnost to make up for th^
paat losses. They never thought of despdring or
BubmittJDg, and would not let any one mourn mom
than thirty days, but set to work to form new armies,
and make greater preparations than ever for war;
and because the public moner was nearly gone, the
senators brought th^ own gold to be used for the
general good.
19. Hannibal, also, was very ansious for fresh
troops, but he had enemies at Carthage who were
constantly trying to injure him ; and when he sent
his brother Mago with a bushel of the knights' rings,
which had been picked up at Oannte, to tell what
victories he had gained, and entreat for more help,—
many of his countrymen could scarcely be persuaded
to tlunk he had done any thing to deserve it. They
did, however, oSer him some lud at last, and hu
brother Haadrubal, who was in Spain, was allowed
to leave that country and join Hannibal in Italy.
£0. The Romans had a great deal to attond to at
this time ; for, besides trymg to drive Hannibal out
of Italy, they were obliged to keep up a war in Spain,
and another in Sicily. We may remember it was in
Sicily that the first quarrel between the Romans and
Carthaginians broke out. The island had been riven
up to the Romans. Hiero, however, king of Syra*
cuse, was allowed to keep his own domimona, and
was always their firm friend ; but he died about this
time, and his successors chose to ally themselves with
the Carthaginians, which caused the war betwe^i
Bome and Cartht^ to be carried on again in Sicily.
21. One of the most remarkable events in the
Siuban irar ia the siege of Syracuae. There mu a
reiy clever man living in Syracuse named Ardume-
des. He was particularly noted for the ironderfid
discoveries be had^ made about air and vater, and the
use at screws and pulleye, and mechanical instni-
menta. l^e stones which are told of what he was
able to do by means of h^ inventions are almost too
sljange to be believed ; but he eertMnly contrived to
defend the city for a long time, and he might have
done so much longer if the Bomans had not found an
opportunity, when the Syracusana were off their
guard, to take it by surprise. Archimedes, we are
told, contmued his studies whilst the siege was going
on, just as quietly as if nothing was the matter. He
was found in this way, seated at his table in his own
room, by a Roman soldier, who struck him on the
head and killed him. The Koman general was very-
sorry for his death, and caused a monument to be
Kused to his memory, which he had planned himself
during his lifetime, describing one of his wonderful
discoveries. Syracuse was one- of the largest and
finest cities in that part of the world, and contdned
a great deal of treasure, with many beautiful pictures
and statues, all of which were sent to Rome. It was
the sight of these which first taught the Bumans to
care for such things. After Syracuse was taken the
Romans g^ed possession of aH Sicily, and the Car-
tha^nians were obliged to leave it entire^.
22, One of the first things which the Romans did,
when the spring returned and they were able to be-
gin the war agam, was to sunxmnd Capua with their
ann^. Hannibal had then left the city, and was at-
tacking some of the smaller towns of Italy : he did
not attempt to save it, and the people of Capua were
too cowardly to defend themselves properly. The
inhabitants were justly afraid of falling into the hands
5f the Rocaans, but at last they made up their inindi
M THB CHILD 8 FIKHT
U) submit. Many persons, however, of the hi^besi
rank, killed themselves before their enomies entereii
the city. The Boinaos treated the inhabitants very
cruelly, for they ivere indignant at the help they
had given to Hannibal. Aa for Hannibal himself,
he still ravaged the country, and once even approach-
ed quite close to the gates of Bome, but he did not
yet attack it ; for the Romans were regaining their
power by degrees, and the only hope that was left
him was the arrival of his brother Hasdrubal from
23. Hasdrubal had received the orders of the Gar<
thagiman senate, and even before they airived would
probably have joined his brother, but the war in Spain
prevented him. There were two brothers who had
been commanding the Roman armies in Spain whilst
Hannibal was invading Italy — Cornelius and Publiua
Scipio. Both were good generals ; but Hasdrubal
at last defeated them, and they were slain within
thirty days of each other. The account of this dia-
ast«r alarmed the Romans extremely. They did not
know whom to send to Spain as a commander, but
a young man whom we have heard of befor^^
Scipio Africanus, the son of Publiua Scipio — pro-
posed to go, and though he was only twenty-four
years of age, his offer was accepted. Scipio Afri-
canus was a handsome, graceful person, and very
much liked, and was especially remarkable for pay-
mg great attention to the forms of rehgion ; but be
afterwards showed himself to be of a proud, over-
bearing disposition. At the time of his arrival in
Spain, Hasdrubal was bent upon setting out for Italy,
and his whole mind was so ^ven to this object that
he paid bat little attentdon to all that Scipio did;
and, even after Scipio had gained a victory over him,
thought it better to hasten to Italy as quickly as be
possibly could. The journey was easier for Imn Ihui
HISTORY OF BOUE. 91
tt had Iwen for Hannibal ; for tlie Qauls did iioi
baiass him in the same way : it was, in fact, per-
foTmed alnioat too quickly, as he arrired in Italy be-
fore Hannibal expected him. The letters, also, -which
were sent to his brother, were Dever received. The
messengers who carried them fell into the hands of
the Eomana, and all Hasdrabal's plans were betrayed
to hia enemies. The consequence was, that before he
conld reach Hannibal, or Hannibal could come tc
help him, the Roman consuls having joined th^
forces, fell upon him as he was endeavoring to get
away, and put his army completely to the rout.
Thousands of his men were slain ; and he himself,
after fighting with desperate coiuwe, rushed in
amongst his enemies, and was lolled likewise. A
Boman cut off hts head. Six days afterwards, the
Roman army returned to the place where Hannibal
was stationed. Some of the prisoners were sent in
chains to inform him of the victory, and instead of
welcoming his brother, Hannibal saw the head ot
Hasdnibu tossed into the nudst of the camp by the
Roman who had killed him. The unfortunate general
gased upon the ghastly features in horror, and ex-
clumed, " Oh Carthage, I see thy doom." Carthage
was, indeed, doomed, though many I attics were to
be fought for its defence.
03 'RV CHILD a riK8T
CHAPTER XSIV.
SECOKD FUNio iTAR — continued.
aaoK AFKicuniB i.ahds ih itsica, b. □. S04
R sot ^" ^^'^''^ remained in Spain ttrce years,
&nd at the end of that tune tlie Romani
were maatera of the whole country. The great wish
of Scipio then was to cross over to Africa, and attack
the Carth^inians in thrar own country, aa Hannibal
had invadea Italy, hoping to take Home. In one re-
spect, Scipio was more fortunate than Hannibal, for
he had atties in Africa, wko engaged to help him.
There were then two princes in Numidia, a country
near to Carthage, named Syphax and Ma^nissa.
These princes were often quarrelling with each other,
because Maunissa laid cl^m to part of the dominions
of Syphax, and they always took Afferent ^des in
the wars between Carthage and Rome. There was
also another great cause of hatred between tbran,
for both had wished to marry the same person-^
Sophonisba, the daughter of Hanmbal Qisco, a Car-
th^^nian of high rank.
2. Sophonisba was extremely beautiful and ac-
somplished, and Masinissa loved her very much,
Dut Hannibal Gisoo s^d she should be the wife of
Syphaz, and from that time Ma^nissa determined
to take part with the Romans ; and sending secretly
to Scipio, promised to support him when he should
reach Africa.
3. As soon as all the necessary preparations were
made, Scipio set saJl for Africa, The Carthagiiu-
ans heard that he was coming, ^et they did not
make any attempt to stop his landing. There werei
however, armies ready to oppose him afterwards,
HT9T0ST or BOHE. 93
mded hj Hannibal Gisco Bnd Sypbai. Masi*
nissa at first pretended to be the enemy of the Ro-
maQB, but be very soon openly went over to them.
Scipio could not at once proceed to Carthage, but
he was very successful in hja schemes against th«
Cartha^niana. One night, in particular, as the Afii-
can soiaiers were asleep in their beds, they wera
irakened by the smoke and flames of a dreadful
fire. The tents were made of straw and dry
branches, and the flames rushed over them with
horrible swiftness. The unfortunate soldiers in de-
spair fled from the camp, but it was only to find
a worse enemy waiting for them. The Boman
troops suiTOUtided the camp, and stood ready to kill
all who tried to save themselves. Hasdrubal and
Syphax escaped, but they hod lost so many men
that but little hope was left them of being able to
defend themselves agwiist the Romans.
4. After tliis disaster Sjphax withdrew to bis
owa country, but Masinissa followed and attacked
him. A battle was fought, in which Syphaz was
defeated. Masinissa took possession of Cirta, the
capital city, in triumph. When he entered the pal-
ace Sophonisba met nim. She must have been very
miserable, for her misfortunes were great ; but that
which she dreaded above all other evils, was that
she ought be given over to the Romans and ei-
hibited in triumph through the streets, walking be-
fore the car of the conqueror. In her agony she
entreated Masinissa to loll her rather than permit
her to suffer such a dreadful disgrace. He swore
to save her, yet it seemed scarcely possible to keep
his oath. She was in fact the prisoner of Scipio,
for Maanissa was only fighting under him ; but ha
thought he could save her if ehe were his wife, and
he offered to marry her that very evening. Sopho-
nisba conseat^d, and when Scipio arrived, Maai-
M TUB CBILD^ FIRST
nissa presented her to him as his vife. The raga
of the Boman general was extreme; he still com-
manded Ma^niasa to ^ve her up, and the prince
wds afraid to disobey. But when he told Sapho-
nisba that she was to be the prisoner of Scipio,
'he added, .that he had one ymj of redeeming ner
from slavery, and that was by death. He then lefi
her, and a slave entering, presented her with a cup
of pdson. Sophonisba took it with perfect calm-
ness. "Let my husband," she said, "know that
I die contented Mnce I die by his orders," and im-
mediately drinking the poison she expired.
fi. The Carthaginians were now brought to great
distress, and they determined to call back Hanni-
bal from Italy. The order was obeyed with sorrow,
for Hannibal remembered the tow he had made to
areuge his country, and he could not bear to give
up the prospect of destroying Rome. But it was
impossible to refuse) and as soon as the necessary
preparations could be made, he set sail for Africa.
Before proceeding to Carthage, however, he thought
it would be desirable to obtam a meeting with Scipio,
and, if posdble, arrange between them terms of
peace.
6. The meeting of the two generals must have
been very mtetesting to both, for they were two
of the most celebn^d men that ever lived. They
did not however agree in giving peace to Carthage^
and the great battle of Zama iolloned. It was the
last of this long war. The Carthaginians fought
with the utmost bravery, but they were defeated;
and Hannibal, in despair, hastened to Gartlu^ to
advise that peace should instantly be made. He
had left the citjr as a youth, following his father,
with the vow of hatred to Rome. Ha returned to
it, a worn, weary soldier of forty-five ; all his proud
hopes were over, his brother whom be loved wat
BIBTOBT OF KOHE 95
icad, and thoTiaands and thousands of the toldiera
who had followed him were dead likewise ; his coun-
tiy was bvaded, and the enemies whom he had
hoped to destroy were about to take poasesaon of
Cfuthage.
7. mave deeds and great names sound welt in
history, but we can littte tell the bitter sorrows
tiiat muat be borne, and the dreadful scenes that
must be looked upon by those who set their hearts
up<m them.
8. The peace which the Carthaginians now made
was in fact submitting entirely to Rome. They
were obl^ed to give tip their possessions in Sp^,
and the islands in the Mediterranean, the whole of
their fleet, except ten ships, and all their elephants.
They were besides compelled to restore all the Bo-
man prisoners — to pay a large sum of money — to ac-
knowledge Maanissa as king of Numidia — to promise
□ever to make war again without the consent of the
Roman people, and to allow Scipio to take away
qrith him a hundred youog men as pledges that these
agreements should be kept.
9. Scipio was honored with a splendid triumph
when he returned to Eome. It was then that the
surname of Africanus was given him. The unfortu*
oate Syphaz was eshilnted in the procesBion, watk<
ii^ in chains. He ivas kept a prisoner for his whole
B.0.20C.
CHAPTER XXX.
WARS rS GREECE.
1. TffB second Punic war Tras now
over ; but the Romans as usual bex^an
another directly afterwards, with Philip the Third,
king of Macedcin. This king had ^ven assistanr« hi
Hannibal whilst he was in Italy, but the Romans
then were too much engaged with the Cartha^nians
to exert themselves much against bim ; now, how-
ever, they were glad to take the first opportunity of
declaring war. Macedonia was close to the states of
GreeM. King Philip inraded Attica, one of these
states, and besieged the city of Athens; and the
Athenians sent to Borne for aid, which was very
willingly ^ven ; since, besides their anger against
Philip, the Romans knew that by interfering with
the' affairs of Greece they might g^n power for
themselves whilst they assisted tneir friends,
2. For three years they carried on the war very
successfully, professing to wish only that the Greelfs
were free from the power of the king of Macedon,
but secretly desiring their own good, and often stir-
ring up the different states to quarrel with each other,
in order that they might be called in, and settle the
dispatea to their own advanti^e. At last the Mace-
donians were so far conquered, that the king con-
sented to make peace, and to leave the Grecian
states at liberty; and then the Romans turned
»gainst another enemy, Antiochus, the king of Syria.
3. Antioohua was the monarch of a great empire,
ruling from the strmts of the DWanelles, then called
the Helleepoat, to Indi-i. He w-w the friend ol
HXa-rORT OP KOHE. 97
Pbiltp of Macedon, and }iad assisted him in hia
wars.
4. There iras at that time a stranger at the court
rf tluB kmg. vbose ad.Tic« mieht have been of the
greatest semce to him — Hacjubal, the Carthwniati.
After the peace proclumed between Rome and Car-
th^e, Hannibal stayed fire yeus in his own cornitrr,
trying to improve the government and do all the
good in his power ; but finding that these endeavors
only made hmi disliked, he at length left Carthage
and took refuge with Antdochus the Great. Antio-
chus rec^ved him with honor; but would not listen
to his advice. He interfered in the afiairs of Greece ;
and because some of the Greek states were discon-
tented at being kept subject to the Romans, notwith-
standing thar bemg called free, he went over to
Greece with an army, and fought several battles
there against the Romans, in which he was defeated.
Then being alarmed, he returned to his own country,
thinking that of course he should be safe there. But
he was mistaken; the Romans followed him, and
had sent aa army into Asia, commanded by a broth-
er of Scipio AMcanus, who was afterw^s called
Aaalicus.
5. Ajitiochus now gave Hannibal the command of
his fleet, and no doubt the Carthaginian general must
have been very glad to have once more a prospect
of fighting agaisst hia enemies the Romans. But
before he could diating^h himself in any way, An-
tiocliua ventured a great battle by land against
Scipio Auaticus, in which he was so entirely defeat-
ed, that he was obliged to flee for his life and con-
sent to make peace, and to do aU which the Romans
chose to ask.
6. Hannibal was then in great danger, for amongst
^he many thmga which were required of Antjochus,
one was that Hannibal should be (riven up to hie
9R THB CiriLO'9 FIBST
enemiea. 'WLen Hannibal heard of tha t _
he fled to tbe court of Fnisias; king of BibhTnia, h
Asia Minor. There the Romans pursued him 'with I
their hatred, and ambassadors vere sent to denmiid
1. Fnisias vbB a coward ; and though he would
not give Hannibal up himself, he told where he
might De found. The Romans surrounded the house,
and Hannibal made one last effort for his life. He
tried to escape, but finding it impossible, and imable
to bear the thought of being carried captive to
Rome, he took some poison which he had long been
accustomed to cany about with him, and destroyed
himself.
8. There is much to admire in the character of
Hannibal ; and when we are shocked at this last ac-
tion of his life, we must remember that according to
the heathen ideas self-murder was not a crime.
9. The same year that Hannibal died his rira. j
Scipio Africanus died also. Swpio's character was j
not as good as that of Hasnibal. He was haughty j
and sometimes cruel, and not as self-denying aod '
simple in his way of life. His countrymen accused j
him of taking to himself some money which was |
due to tbe government; and Scipio's rage was so i
great in consequence, that he left Eome and went to !
uve at his comitry-house in Campania. He died,
and was buried in eiUe ; for he had awoni that his
ungrateful country should not possess even his bones.
10. We must not think that the wars with Mace-
donia were ended, although peace had been made.
Philip, king of Uacedon, died of a broken heart at
having listened to a false accusation against his (Ja- I
vorite son and given his consent to his death. This !
accusation was made by Perseus, another son — a :
cruel, jealous prince, who succeeded to the throne ;
when hia father died. Perseus had many frienda, j
tat lie did not know how to teep them ; for his Iotq
of money was so great that, although he promised to
pay the persons who assisted him in his wars, he
coiild not make up bis mind to keep his word, and
in consequence his aUies deserted bmi. His power,
howerer, made other nations iealoiia of him, and as
he hated the Romans as much as they hated him,
an occasion was easily found of declaring war. This
was very unfortimate for Perseus, for although at
first it seemed a little doubtfnl which would conquer,
the Romans at last defeated him entjrelj, and he was
obliged to escape for his life. The battle which was
fought between them is called the battle of Pydna.
Tbe Romans took possession of Macedonia, and the
onhappy k^ was obliged to i>raoder from place to
place, until at length, in utter despair, he gave him-
^if up to his enemies.
''11. They carried him a prisoner to Borne; and
when the consul who had gained the victory over
him drove through the streets followed hy the shouts
and prases of ms countrymen, Peraeus, the once-
powerful king, was led in the procession ■with his
ron, loaded with chains, and worn with grief and
misery. He remained a prisoner for the rest of his
life, and his son is said to have gained his livelihood
by the practice of turning.
12. The Romans were now acknowledged lords
over Greece, Macedonia, a great part of Spain, and
GauL They had also been called upon to decide in
some quarrels of the kings of Egypt ; and as visual
took the opportumty of gmning a great deal of power
in the country. The inhalutants of the states which
R-ere subject to them were allowed to keep their own
customs, and were in general governed by their own
monarchs ; hut the Romans were in fact the masters ;
IS none of the conquered nations dared do any thing
irhich they forbade,
289377B
100 THE child's FUBT
IS. Tim Romaiis had by this time grown yfsj
wealthy and fond of luxury, Th«r wars with Grewfl
made them more so; for the Greeks were famous for
Ouar elegance and extravagance, and the Bomana
tried to imitate them.
14. Their city also was much, improved in beauty:
now bridges, and colonnades, and theatres were built,
and statues of celebrated people were erected in
temples and public places.
15. Their houses were furmshed magnificently,
and the Bomans prided themselves npon having a
great many slaves and giving expensive entertain-
ments. The ladies spent so much money upon their
dresses that a law was once passed forbtddmg them
to wear very gay clothes, or to have more than a cer-
tain quantity of gold about them ; but they would
not hear this long, and it was done away widi.
16. Yet at tioB very time their religion and man-
ners were most barlwuiDus. They occaaonaUy offer-
ed human sacrifices to their false gods, and delighted
in a cruel amusement, which consisted in seeing men,
called gladiators, fight in pubUc till oQe of them was
killed. Their habits of Hfe were so bad that we
cannot read of them without being shocked, and we
shall find that as their riches and luxuries increased
their vices increased also. And if wealth and ele-
gance will not make men good, neither will clever-
ness, for we read of veir clever men about this IJme,
some of whose works nave come down to os, and
are read and admired at the present day. The
n«ater part of them wrote pUys. Some were
ttomans, others were fordgners who settled in Rome,
There were clever lawyers, and phyacians, and ora-
tors, and architects amongst the Romans ; men, in-
deed, able to do almost every thing, except to find
out how they ought to worship Ooi
atSTORT OF ROME.
CHAPTER XXVI
THE THIRD FUNIC T
V C U9 ^' '^^ '^ ^^ between Rome and
Gartbaga ia one of the most disgraceful
Erls of the Romaa luBtoiy ; for the CarthaginiaDa
pt thu terms ^preed upon most strictly, and the
\j pretence wUch the Bomans could find for war,
was th^ defending themselTes against Uasinissa,
king of Numidia, wha was an ally of the Bomans.
2. Masinisaa was now a very old man, but be did
Qot eeem at all inclined for peace, and was constant-
ly troubling the Cartbaginiana, entering their coun-
try, and tiuung posseasion of their towns and forts.
The Carthagini^is complained to the Bomans, as
they were not allowed to carry on war without their
consent ; but the Romans took part with Masinissa,
and the Carth^inians were then obliged to defend
3. The truth was, that the Bomans secretly long-
ed for the destruction of Carthage. There was one
person esperially at Bome who was constantly ur-
^g it upon them. This was Cato, the censor ; a
rough, st^TL man, exceedingly strict in in^stjng upon
what he thought right ; but at the same time very
harsh and unforgiying. He had beard, from tba
embassadors who were sent to Carthage to settle
the disputes with Masinissa, that the city was be-
coming very rich and prosperous agun, and he de-
clared that it might at any moment turn against
Home ; and, from that time, ha ended every speeoK
which he made in the senate by adding, "Carthage
kiiMt be destroyed."
103 THE CHILD S FIRST
4. This opinioD was Boon taken np by dhen ; ii
woA said that the Garthaeituans had broken ilia
peiice, by fightjng agaJnst Masinissa, and therefore a
targe army was Bent to Sicily, which it was well
known might afterwards proceed to Africa. The
Cartha^nians dispatched ambassadors to Sicily to
esulaln thear conduct, and ask what the Romans re-
qmred ; but the only answer which was given them
was an order to send three hundred of the most dis-
tinguished persona in Carthage, as hosta^s to Rmne.
lie CarthE^nians consented ; but the Romans slili
passed over to Africa, and stationed themselves at
tltica, within a few miles of Carthage. Again th»
Carth^nians sent envoys to inquire what more was '
demanded. They were told that they must give
'ip all thdr weapons; and soon after hundreds oi
suits of armor, swords, javelins, and all kinds of
warLke instruments w«re sent to the Roman camp.
Then at last the Cartha^nians supposed their cruel
enemies would be satisfied ; but another order came
— they were to leave Carthage, and allow it to be
levelled with the groand : they inifht build another
city, but it was to be ten miles distant from the sea,
and without walls or fortifications.
5, The people of Carthage rose with one heart
against this cruel command: they closed the gates
iDStaatly, and carried great stones to the top oi the .
walls in preparation for defence, and, in their in-
dignation, all the Italians who happened to he in the |
city were put to death. Every one was resolved to ;
die sword in hand rather than submit to the proud '
Romans. The account of their exertirais b tdmost
beyond belief. Their weapons had been delivered
up, but the metal which could be taken from their
booses and building was used to replace them.
Prisoners were released, and their chmns formed into
ufitmments of ww. Whsn iron and brass were not
HlaTOK7 OP ROME. 103
10 be had, they melted down BUti.es, vasea, and
even the ornaments of private fmnilies ; and when
tow and Sax were needed for cords, the ladies of
rank cut off their long hair and gladly gave it foi
the use of their country. Men, women, and chil<
dren all joined in the work : palaces were turned
mto workshops, and eTeiy day 144 bucklers, 300
Bwords, 1000 darts, and 500 lances and javelins were
6. This was the bejpnning of a defence which
lasted for five years. The Carthagpnluis were not
entirely without help from without. One of thdr
generals, named, like Hannibal's brother, Masdrubal,
Bad been for some time in banishment with others
of his countrymen, and they now formed an anny
and returned to assist in protecting the city. They
kept outside the walls, and used to skirmish witti
the Romuis, and often were successful ^aiost them,
though their numbers were too few to drive tbem
away. But the chief hope of the Carthaginians was
in the strength of their city, which was built upon
a point of ]^d that stretched far out into the sea.
It yrea thus surrounded by water on three sides,
Bod ships were able to protect it ; and, in order to
defend it on the land side, there were three great
wails built across the Isthmus. The town was also
dinded into three parts; the harbor, Megara a
suburb, and the dtadel. All these different parts
were fortified, so that their enemies could not after
climbing one wall take the city, but were obliged to
make themselves masters of each part separately.
7. The Bomans soon percMved that it would be
much more difBcult to destroy Carthage thui they
had at first imagined, and they sent a new generfil
to command their armies — Scipio .jEmiliaous. This
Scipio was not a very good man, though he was a
brave and sldlful soldier. He had not a great, nolile
104 THE cuii.dU fibst
mind ; for he thought much of himsetf, and loved to
make a display and be admired. He waa the son ol
the general who defeated Ferseua, king of Macedon,
and did not belong to the Scipio family by birth, but
had been adopted as the grandson of Scipio Africa-
nus, on vrhich account the name was given hJm.
8. Scipio jEmilianoB set eful for Carth^e, with the
full beUef that he should subdue it. His intention
was to prevent the inhabitant from obt^ning pro-
vision*, and so force them to yield from hunger.
Immediately upon landing he took the command of
the Komao army, and attacked the suburb of Me-
gara. The Carthaginians could not withstand him,
and he obtained possession of it. Hasdrubal was
now within the city, and in revenge for the lose of
Megara, he placed all the &oman prisoners who were
in bia power on the wall facing Uie camp, and after
torturing them in the most cruel manner, caused
them to be dashed down headlong. The next thing
Scipio did was to build towers ana dig ditches across
the isthmus, .to jirevent any friends of the Cartha-
ginians from helping them by land ; and then he set
to work to stop up the harbor, and hinder any pro-
visions from bong brought by sea. For this purpose
be ordered his men to cast huge stones into the sea
at the entrance of the harbor, piling them one npon
another to make what is called a mole, and at first
the Cartht^^nians laughed their work to scorn. But
the Bomtms went on diligently, and the great wall,
which was to shut out the sea and prevent ships
ttom coming into the harbor, rose higher and higher,
tiU at leng(£ it became a huge broad barrier, which
DO vessel could pass.
9. The Carthaginians did not laugh then— th^
taw that the Etomans had been too ckver for tliem ;
but when men are in great danger they often becoma
rety ingenious. Awl as it wo^ have been in vain
HISTOKY OF ROME. lOfl
lo attempt to destroy the mole, the Cartha^niaas
cut a new passage to the sea Ihrougt some rocka,
tnd built filtj ships quickly and quite secretly ; and,
before the Romans in the least suspected what they
irere doing, the little fleet sailed forth from the har-
bor. It seems aa if the Carthaginians -would then
have done well to attack the Soman fleet at once,
but they did not. After braving their enemies in
this way, the ships went ba«s agmn. Though this
first plan of Scipio's was defeated, he still kept to his
idea of stopping the provisions, and his next endeavor
succeeded. He left Carthage and attacked the town
from which all the food was supplied. When this
was taken the last hope of the imhappy Carthagini-
ans was gone. They were compelied .to bear the
dreadful pangs of hunger, besides being treated in
ihe most cruel way by Uasdrubal, who made himself
a complete tyrant over them. Their state was very
fearful. We cannot wonder that the Romans at
length gained the point for which they had been so
long striving,
10. It was at night that they succeeded in scalmg
the last wall which shut in the dty. Every thing
was then in their power ; the gates were opened, ana
the troops entered. They assembled in the n^irket-
place, from which three steep streets led up to the
citadel. Tall houses, sii stories high, rose on each
side of these streets ; the roofs were flat, and the
frightened inhabitants fled to them, carrying stones
and heavy weights, which they threw down upon
their enemies as they passed along. One division ol
the Romans rushed into the hoiaes to revenge them-
selves. They fought from room to room, conquering
one house after another ; and the Carth^inians op-
posed them at every step, till at last Ihey reached
the roofs of the houses, where many were Idlled by
the Bomana ; and others in desperation flung them-
166 TUB CHILD B FIRST
selves into the Btreets below. The ^ans of Uia
wounded and the djing were iniagled m that awful
hoar with the lond shouts of the conquerors ; but
ihey brought no feehng of mercy to the hearts of the
fierce BtMians. On the? passed, thinking' only of
victory ; whilst the poor famished Carthaginians, who
were Buffered to escape, deronred the dead bodies of
their fellow-citizens to Batisfy their ravenous hunger,
11. At length the Bomans ones more collected to-
[rether before the gates of the citadel, and an order
was given to set fire to the three streets. The mis-
ery of the Carthaginians was then at its height. The
fire spread over the city, destroying palaces, and
pubUc buildings, and splendid honses, with all the
rich furniture and costly treasures that had been
heaped tt^ether year by year, and brining a horri-
ble death upon thousands of the aged and the help-
less, who died by the scorching flames or the crush
ing weight of the falling houses,
12. For mx days the fire raged, and the inhabit-
ants, who had sought refuge m the citadel, gazed
upon it with the certainty that it would be tmd
any longer to rewst their terrible conqnerots. On
the seventh day they humbled themselves to entreat
for mercy. It was granted ; but the mercy of the
Romans was too often cruelty. Fifty thousand men
and women left the citadel, and were sentenced to be
sold as slaves. Hasdrubal, his wife and children, and
800 deserters, whom Scipio had refused to pardon,
remained behind. They stationed themselves in the
temple of .^sculapius, which was bidlt upon the
highest part of the citadel. Scipo drew his army
round it ; but the garrison defended themselves at ^
Eints both by day and night. The cowardice of
isdrulial's character was now shown. Seeing no
posability of escape, he secretly left the temple,
threw himself at the feet of Scipio, and entreated for
BIBTOKT OP KOHK. IffT
his ^e. Sdpio promised to spare him ; but the next
day he brought him forth in ught of the temple, to
exMbit him to his former fiiends. The wife of Has-
dmbal came out upon t}ie roof of the building to
behold him. She waa dressed in her richest robes,
Erepared, it might hare seemed, for a joyful festival ;
er childjea were by her side. \nth bittn tausta
she reproached her husband for his desertion, and
then ordering the temple to be set on fire, she stabbed
her children, threw their bodies into the flames, and
died herself, with her companions, amidst the bum*
13. J^a Bcipio afterwards looked ^m the hoght
of the citadel upon the desolation which war had
cansed, tears, it is said, rushed to hia eyes, and turn-
tng to Ftdybiua, the historian, who bad accompaiued
him from Italy, he repeated two lines of the poet
Homer :
"What do you mean?" inquired Polybius. "This,"
replied Scipio, "may hereafter be the fate of Home."
14. According to a decree of the Boman senate,
Carthage was entirely bmmt and then tazed to the
ground, and a curse was pronounced on whoever
should reboild it; and when Sdpb left A&ica, a
mass of blackoKd nuns marked the spot where one
of the most beautiful, wealthy, and powerful cities in
the world had stood.
15. Three mouths afterwards another dty, famed
for its splendor and its treasures, fell a prey to the
Romans. This was Corinth, in Greece, wMch had re-
belled against the Koman power, together with some
of the otiier Grecian states. It vas first plundered
ind then burnt. tSaay of the beautiful statues and
pictures for which tLa Greeks, and especially the Co-
106 THE CBIU'S FIldT
rintluans, were celebrated, were taken to Rome.
Thus Greece, as well aa Africa, fell into the hands <n
the Romans, and both countries, like Macedonia and
Thessaly, were governed in future by officers sent
from Rome, with the title of proconauia.
16. At this period, the Romaiis completed the
conquest of Spam. Scipio j^milianus, who, like his
adopted grandfather, was called Africanus, on ac-
count of Lis Tictories in Africa, distinguished himself
greatly in this war, but he showed his cruelty abo^
ror, on one occasion, he caused the hands of 400 per-
sons to be cut off, because they were inclined to as-
sist the town of Nuraantia, which he was besi^ng.
17. The inhabitants of Numantia are very famous
for the resistance they made to Scipio. They de-
fended themselves for ten years, and when at last
they submitted, they were so thin, and weak, and
ghastly, from hunger, that only fiftj^ persons could
be found amongst Uiem fit to follow in the triumph
of Scipio when he returned to Rome,
18. During these foreign wars, the Romans were
at peace at home, except about the time when Nu-
mantia was taken. There was then a great insur-
rection amongst the slaves, who had been brought
^m the different conquered countries, and who wore
treated very cruelly. At first it seemed as if this in-
surrection would be dangerous, but afterwards it was
Eut down. Twenty thousand of the slaves were
illed by the sword, and some were nwled on crosses
in the public roads.
19. Crucifixion vras the worst and most shameful
kind of punishment by death amongst the Romans ;
and never therefore inflicted on a Roman citizen, but
only on those whom they considered the vilest and
most worthless of mankind, such as their slaves, "We
have learned to think of it very differently, for a crosa
is DOW the sign of every thing which is most sacred.
HIHTOKT at BOHB. 109
20. Bemdes the conquests of the Romano, their
dominuHia irare aiso at this period increased br the
death of Attains, long of Fergomus, who left lus
Ldngdom to them in his will. He was & weak, wick-
ed prince, and it is suppoeed that the Romans them*
•elves forced him to do it.
CHAPTER XXVIL
B. C 13S. ^' ^^^ bietoiy of the Qracchi, and (A
their attempts to relieve the poorer citizens
of Rome, is the next miportant point to be noticed.
2. Tiberias and Caius Gracchus were the grand'
Eons of the first Scipio AlricEinuB, the rival of Hanni-
bal Their mother, Cornelia, was his daughter. She
wiis a very remarluble person, good fuid clever, as
well aa beautJfuI and elegant. Her daughter Sem-
pronia married Sdpio j^mjlianus.
3. Cornelia took great ptuns to educate her chil-
dren well, and as they grew up she became very
prood of them. . A lady one day came to pay her a
visit, who was dressed very splendidly, and wore a
great many jewels. Whilst they were taUdng to-
gether, she begged Cornelia to show her scone of her
onuonents. Cornelia sent for her sons, and when
the^ appeared, she said, " These are my jewels, and
their virtttcs are my omameota," She had indeed
much cause for satisfaction. Her sons were honor-
sble, kind-hearted, handsome, and enga^ng. Their
fitther had been famous for his uprigh&ess and be-
nerotence, and they were like him, especially l^berius,
the elder, who always took the part of oppressed per-
110 THE CHILD'S PIBST
ijons, and waa particulaiiy desirous that the Bomana
should be less liLiiuious, aad more strict in th«ii
raanners and customs. His mother, we are told,
thought so much of his talents and power, that sha
persuaded him to offer hiinself as a tritnme of the
people, " I am commonly caUed," she said, " by way
tf honor, the mother-in-law of the second Africamis.
Why do they not call me the mother of the Qracchi ?"
8he lired to have her wish fulfilled, hut it brought
her sorrow and desolation for the remainder of her
days.
4. The same year in which Scipio ./^^ilianus took
Ifumantia, B, C. 133, Tiberius Gracchus offered him-
self as a tribune, sod was chosen. The first thing he
did was to bring forward an old law which had been
much neglected, aad which he thought would be a
great benefit to the poor. This law was to prevent
any person from occupying more than a certain por-
tion of the public lands. We may remember that it
had been passed some years before, but the rich did
not chooee to pay attention to it, and still went on
u^ng the land as their own ; or, at least, paying only
a yery small sum of money for it, and employing the
Blares whom they had taken in wars in cidtivating it,
instead of the people of Italy ; so that the poor were
left to lire a& they could, without work, or land, or
money.
6. When Hberiua first proposed to restore the old
law, and to gire the people some of the public land,
almost every rich person in Bome was indignant with
him. He was abused and colled by hard names, and
Octariua, another tribune, declared that it should not
be done; but Tiberius would not be stopped, and
found means to prevent Octavius from holdii^ his
office of tribune any longer.
6. This was considered very wrong in "nberiuB,
and hb enerdes compl^ned ; but he knew that he
HISTOKT OF ROME. Ill '
liad acted for the best, and wbea Oetavius was no
longer tribune, the law was paased. It was about
this time '.hat Attalus, king of Pergumus, left hia
kiogdom and his treasurea to the Eomana, as was
mentioned in the last chapter. Tiberius immediately
proposed that the treasures should be divided amongst
the poor citizens to help them in huyinz cattle and
things necessary for working the lands that were to
be given them ; and the great senators, in conse-
quence, were more angry with him than ever. In-
deed he was so much hated, that his life would have
been in danger, if he had not been a tribune, and his
person therefore held sacred. When the year of of-
fice was over, Tiberius offered himself again to be
chosen, for besides hia wish of doing good, it was the
mly hope he had of safety.
1. The election took place about harvest-time,
when most of the respectable country-people were
engaged, and could not attend. The enemies of Ti-
berius, seeing that he was hkely to be chosen, de-
clared that as so many persons were absent, the elec-
tion was not lawful, and they would not let it be
finished till the following day.
3. IHberiua well knew what this meant, and was
afraid that Eome evil might happen to him if he
went to the senate again ; but lus friends came to
him early the next monung, and persuaded him to
go. The business began, and whilst it was going
on, Fulvius Flaccus, a friend to Tiberius, came up
hi him, and told him that the senators were at
that very moment planning to kill him. As soon
S3 ^berius heard tlus, be gathered his robe around
him, as if preparing for night, and put his hand
Co his bead, which was the signal for calling bis
friends to his assistance. Immediately there was
1 great disturbance. Some persons collected around
Graccbus to defend him, whikt a body of the
112 THE child's F
) ruslied from tbe place of meeting, aimed
with sticks and clubs and the 1^ of the benchea
oa whioli they bad sat, end knocking down every
one who came in tbeir way, Tiberius endeavored
to Bave himself, but in his haste unfortunatelj' fell ;
and whilst attempting to rise, he was struck on
tbe head and stunn^ : a few more blows from
tbe enemies who Burronnded him, killed him. Hib
body was dragged through tbe streets, and thrown
into the Tiber, together with those of three hun-
dred of bis Mends, who were lulled in the tumuli
which followed his death. A wealthy and hard-
hearted patridan, Supio Na^ca, was tbe chief enemy
of Tibenus, and some have even said that it was
he who murdered him ; but he was punished for
his cmelty. for although tbe senators took his part.
the people were so angir with him that he was
obliged to leave Rome. He never returned, but died
in exile.
9. Scipio ^milianus came back to Home about
this time. Though be was. tbe brother-in-law of
^berius Gracchus, he did not agree with him, and
said that if he bad tried to stir tbe people up to
rebellion he deserved to die. Scipio began to op-
pose the plans which Tiberius had brought forward
for the good of the people. One day in particular
he was very earnest upon this subject, and the dis-
cussion which was begun was Mt without being
ended. It was intended to be finished the next
day ; but when the next day came, Scipio .^nulianua
was found dead in bis bed. He had been murdered,
but the senators dared not inquire by whom. When
such a dreadful crime was allowed to pass unnodoed,
tbe Roman government could bave had but very
little power.
10. Cornelia must before this have seen bow
much happier it is to live a private retired Kfe than
aiTTORr OP KOHB. 113
to be put forward in places of antbonty. Sbe no
hmger desired public bonors for her cbildren, and
entreated Caiua, her only Bmriving son, not to fol-
low bia brother's example. She wrote most sad
letters to him, begging him at least to wait till
•he was dead before he ofiered himself for the
triboneBhip, so that she might not feel the misfor-
tones wbich he must brine upon himself by it.
Bat C^us was not to be daunted by fears. He
waa several yeais younger than Tiberius — full of
energy, brave, and without any thought for him-
lelf, and the idea of following out his brother's
plans was so constantly in his mind, that even in bis
dreams the form of l^berius seemed to appear be-
fore bim, reproaching him for delay, and telling bim
that it must be bia mte to live the same life and die
ihe same death.
11. It was about three years after the death of
Hberius Gracchus that his brother Cuus was made
tribune. He immediately began, like Tiberius, to
introduce laws for the good of the poor ; and found
quite as much trouble in consequence. All his
plwis were opposed, and the senators endeavored
lo gain the affections of the people from him, by
bringing forward one of their own party who pre-
len<kd to be as great a friend to the poor as Caiu^
but who in reality only intended to deceive them.
12. Gaius, however, went on very zealously. He
tried in every possible way to benefit hia distressed
fellow-countrymen, but his enemies were too cunning
tor him. The people began to like him less because
GO much was said against hin;i ; and after he had
been twice chosen as tribune, and offered himself a
third time, they would not elect him.
13. Caius, like Tiberius, knew that his life would
not be safe when he once ceased to be a tribune^
ud it was soon clear that the senate were det«r-
114 THE CHILE a FIKST
mined to revenge themadvea upon him, for the)
proposed to do away with all his laws, aiid to giva
the consuls as much power as if they had been dic-
tators. Dictators could do any thing they chose^
nothing could stand against them. When Caius
heard this, he prepared t« defend himself. Ful-
viuB Flaccus, his brother's friend, was his friend
likewise, and proposed that they should collect their
followers and station themaelTes upon Moimt Aven-
tiiie, one of the aeven bills upon which the citT
was built. Caius consented, but he was not at all
willing to fight agtunst his fellow-countrymen, and
took no weapons with him except a d^ger, which
he put under his robe. As be was leaving his
boose, bis wife endeavored to stop him. She held
his little son in her arms, and seizang his robe, en-
treated him for the sake of his child, and for her
own sake, to consider what he was going to do,
and whether the murderers of his brother were not
to tear himself away from her, but she clung to
him, and followed him a little distance, imi^ at
length, worn with misery, she sank down fwnting
in the street, and was carried to the house of her
brother,
14. There was drfl war now in Rome between
Cmus Oracchns and lus Mends on Mount ATentine,
snd the senators and their party in the city. £ut
it did not last very long. When Mount Aventine
was attacked, Fulvius Flaccus was killed, and CeiuB
was obUged to escape for his life; only one per-
son, a slave, was with him. They fled to a wood,
and there they intended to hide themselves, but
their purauers came after them. Cmus dreaded to
fall into the hands of such cruel enemies, and when
be found that thny were close upon him, he com-
HIBTOBT OF KOME. Hi
inaiid«d his slare to kill him. The man pljnged hii.
iiggti into his master's breast, and being resolved
not to outiive him, thrust it also into hia own, and
ei[Hred by hia ude.
15. The head of Orecchus was cut off, and car-
ried to the coaauL A reward had been promised
for it, which waa to be its weight in gold. The
money was given, but it was found upon examina-
tion that the bruns had been taken out, and the
skull filled with lead to make it heavier. The body
of Gracchus was at first thrown into the Tiber,
but it was afterwards taken out and carried to bis
mother Cornelia, who caused it to be buried with
funeral honors, Cornelia never recovered the loss
of her noble sons. She never mentioned them
but with tears, and upon her death a statue was
erected to her, with the inscription which she had
so earnestly desired, " ComeUa, the mother of the
Gracchi"
CHAPTER XXVni.
ITH JUaURTBA, SINQ OF HUMIDIA ;
R a in.
1, After the disturbances at Rome, in
the time of the Oraccbi, the nest im-
portant event is the war with JugurtLa, king of Ku-
midia. Maainissa, the old king, who made himseli
eo famous in the third Pumc war, left his dominions
it his death to his son Micipsa. Micipsa had two
diildren, Hiempsal and Adherbal, and an adopted
son named. Jugurtha. These three he desired should
reign t<^ether. Jugurtha was a young mrai, vcrj
116 T»B child's FJiaT
tlever, very handsome, and agreeable in inanBti ;
but proud, treacherous, and cruel. He did not
choose to reign as aa equal, for he dedred to hava
the kingdom for himself, and to gun this object ha
caused Hiempsal to be mnrdered. This wicked ac-
tion filled Aaherbal with ^rm, as he supposed that
he should share the same fate. He applied to the
Romans for protection ; but when Jngurtha kne^
it, he sent large sums of money to the senators, to
bribe them ; and in consequence, instead of promis-
ing to assist Adherbal, they said they would divide
the Ungdom between him and Jngurtjia, which they
did, tnUng care to give Jagurtha the best share.
Adierbal could not rewat, fca: scarcely any one dared
to resist the Bomans ; but, as was naturally to be
fTpected, he and Jugurtha quarrelled again, and ,
' proceeded to open war. Jugurtha beueged Cirta, i
Adberbal's capital city. The mbabitants forced Ad-
herbal to yield it up, because Jugurtha had prom*
ised"to treat them well ; but he completely broke his
word, for be put the soldia^ and foreign merchants ta
death, and then seized Adherbal, and after torturing
him in the most cruel manner, killed bim.
2. The Romans were forced to take notice of thia,
and they declared war against Jugurtha in the year j
B.C. Ill; but he bribed the generals to make peace, I
and then broke his agreement as be chose. At las'
he was smnmoned to Rome to answer for his con-
duct, and though he was a king, he was obliged to :
SI, because Numidia was subject to the Romans. |
e took with him large sums of money, which he
gave Co the senators to induce them to be bis friends,
and Yery probably he would never have been pun-
ished, if he had not, whilst he was at Rome, caused I
the murder of one of Hasinissa's grandsons, who was
living there. BomUcar, one of his generals, actually
eonumtted the murder ; but it was well known &at
HISTOBV or KOMB. 117
he was ordered to do so by Ju^urtha, and they
were both obliged to leave ILome mfitantly, aad vai
was declared.
3. The Roman seimte made Cecilios Uetellus the
commander of their armies, and he chose Cuus Ma-
rina to be, what was called, his legate or lieutenant,
the next in command to himself. They were both
very celebrated persona, but not at all ahke in charac-
ter. Metellus wu honorable and imselfish, and had
a great deal of energy ; but he bad one great fault,
which was pride, aod this brought many troubles
upon himself and bia country, l^uius was a man of
low birth ; his manners were rough and rude, but he
was very ambitious, and liked power just as much as
if h« bad been bom to it ; and as he had great tal-
eata, he rose from a common soldier to be one of the
£r8t people in Bome. He and Metellus were very
Food fiiends at first, but they were not persons
Ekely to suit each other long. They were success-
ful, however, in the war against Jugurtha, and after
some sieges and battles, bribed Boimlcar, Jugurtha's
general, to take the part of the Bomans. Bomilcar
persuaded another of the Numidiaa generals to da
the same ; in fact, Jugurtha had no one really to de-
pend upon, and though he fought bravely, and com-
muided wdl, he was m great danger of hang env
tirely conquered.
4. During this time Marius and Metellua were
leanung to dislike each other more and more, Ma-
rius found fault with Metellus, and said he could
(ommand better himself, and Metellus was jealous of
Marius, and looked down upon him. Marius hear-
ing that consuls were to be chosen at Rome, pro-
sed to go and offer himself to be one ; but Metel*
I openly scorned him, thinking it absurd that a
■oao of tow birth should be chief ruler over a peo-
^ like the Romans. Marius however did go, and
posed
118 , THE child's Fisar
vas chosen ; and the fiist thing he did afterward^
was to have Meteilus recallea from Africa. This
waa a great trial to Metellos, for Marina was to bare
the command instead of him. But he could not
disobey the order, and he went back to Rome, when
he was in some measure rewarded for lus honorable
■errices, bj a spiendid triumph, and bv baring tbe
name of Nnmidicus given him. Kanus was pro-
roked at this, but he bad other things to thiidc of
now, besides his jealousy of Meteilus, and he set out
for Africa, having as one of his chief officers, Ludus
Homelius Sylla.
5. Sylla, of whom we shall hear a great deal by-
and-by, was a man of noble birth, clerer, and ac-
complished. He resembled Marius in b^ng selfish
and ambitious, but as he waa a person of good edu-
cation, and what we should call gentlemanlike habits
and manners, be knew bow to conceal hia wisbes
and command his temper. Still he was just as
wicked, perhaps more so than Marius, and equally
determined to bave his own way, whalerer Buffering
he might bring upon other people.
6. When Marius landed in Africa, be and Jugurtha
began tbe war in a manner which showed they were
determined to carry it on resolutely. Jugnrtha was
assisted by bis father-in-law, Bocchus, king of Manri-
tajiia, but be could not stand against Marius, who
went on taking one place after another untjl nearly
the whole of Numidia had submitted to him. Tliere
was one place, howerer, the castle of Mulucba,
where all the king's treasures were kept, which it
teemed almost imposwble to subdue ; it was built go
rtrongly upon the top of a smooth rock ih&t na onu
Bould climb up. The only way up to it was hj a
rery narrow path cut in the rock, in which two men
could Bcaruely walk abreast. Marius tried ^ain
and again in diSerent ways t-> take tbe cnstle, but
HIBTUBT OF ROME. 119
never could succeed. Ooe day it happened Ihat ■
mddier who vas filling his pitcher at a Bpriog, ob-
lared Homa snailn crawling up the rock near. He
watched them, and remarked that the cracks in the
rock where thjy were to be fsund were moister than
oa the other ude. He put his feet into these soft
holes, and by that means clambered qnite up to the
lop and came down without heang seen. He did
tbU twice, to be quite sure that it would be poesible
to make use of the discovery, and then he went and
t«ld Marina. Marius collected a party of brave
men, and ordered them to mount the rock whilst
another party pretended to attack the castle on the
other side. This was done, and the men reached the
top of the wall safely, and then sounded a trumpet.
The ncnse fi^htened tiie people in the castle ; tney
ran to the ^aoe from whence the sound came, and
left the direct pathway without a guard, and the
Romans rushed forward, broke down the gate, and
the castle was taken.
7. Jngortha took refuge in the dominions of Boc-
chus, when he found that the Romans were gaining
ground so fast. There was, however, no safety for
Htm there. Bocchus was a selfish man, and willbg
to listen to any plan which might bring him wealth
or power. He lost one great battle, in which Sylla
distinguished himself particularly, and then he began
to thmk that it would be wise to make peace for
himself. He delayed however for some time, being
doubtful what to do, for Sylla, who was sent to Bet-
tie the terms of peace, declared he would not consent
to it, unless Jngurtha was dehvered up ; whilst Ju-
garitio, at the very same time, endeavored to per-
luade Bocchus to s^ze Sylla. Bocchne decided at
last upon Nding with the Romans, and after having
t^dd Jugurtha that if he would meet him at a certiua
place, pyila should be given into his hands, br
1^ TUft CHILD 3 FAST
treacherously caused him to be BiUTOimded by Ih*
Romans and made a prisoner.
8. Marius retumed to Rome as a conqueror, and
was honored with a splendid triumph. Great treaa-
urea of gold and ulver were displayed which he had
taken in the war, and the people gazed upon him,
and wondered and admired, as he passed in his char-
iot through the etreeta ; hut the most glorious, yet
the saddest prize of all, was the unfortunate king of
Numidia, who was led in chains before his conqueror,
dressed ia his royal robes, and accompanied by his
two sons. When the triumph was over, Jugurtha
was stripped of his kingly dress, and the omameDts
in his ears were snatched from him so eagerly that
his fiesh was torn m the cruel haste. He was then
thrust into the dwk, cold dungeon' of the state pris-
on; and after being kept for several days without
food, he died.
9. Jugurtha had murdered Hiempsal and Adher-
bal, and be deserved no better fat«; hut it is diffi-
cult, if not impossible, to tlunk of a king ending hia
life in such a dreadful manner, without feeling pity
for him.
CHAPTER XXIX.
HyASlON OF THB 0IM1
B. 0.101 '' "^^^ ^^ yritii Jugnrtha was no
sooner ended than Manus was called
npon to show his skill and bravery in defending his
own coontry. We have seen how the Bomans ex-
tended th^r dominions, and made themselves lords
•ver all the civilized nations near them ; but notntUi-
HIBTORT OF KI1ME.
itandtng their great power, they wen; theuselres ii
danger from eaemies whom they scarcely knew, and
whom, if they had known, they would probably han
2. Many yean before, the Oanla, as w(i haro
beard, had iavaded Italy, and even taken possession
of Rome ; but the time was long past, and the Ko-
mans since tiien had grown bolcfer and more power-
fuL Some of the Oauls were their allies, and when-
ever there were wars and inaurreetions amongst them,
they were sure to be quickly subdued. Probably
the Romans b^an now to look upon themselres as
the masters of the world. But their notions of the
world were very unlike ours. They did not even
how there was such a continent as America, and
they had bat a very mdistinct idea of the People who
lived in the north of Europe and in A^. The in-
habitants of these last-named countries were fierce
and warlike tribes, who cared nothing for the arts
and luxoties upon which the Romans prided them-
eelves, and werei therefore considered barbarians ; yet
it was ordered by God that these barbarians should
b the end overthrow the vast Roman Empire, and
become as much celebrated themselves for elegance
and refinement as the people whom they conquered.
3. When we first hear of these tribes it seems as,
if they were all alike, and there could be no interest
in distinguishing them from each other. But this is
not real^ the case. The difference is actually seen
and felt to this day amongst persona whom we meet
and live with, and it is especially to be discovered in
language. For instance, we near constantly of a
Bcotch accent, bat we do not often think why, when
persons speak the same words, they should not pro-
Goonce them ahke. It does not enter oor heads that
the difib'ence arises ffnm the fact, that himdreds of
nmrs ago England and Scotland wera overran by
122 TBE C11IU>'S FIHST
di£FereDt tribes, who, when they talked, could iuh w»
derstand eaob other; and tnat the difference hac
come down from father to bod till it has reached u^
BO that, aJthoogh the descendaotB of the tribes who
nettled in Scotland apeak English, they pronounce H,
aa French or Italian peisons might do, with a for^ga
4. The barbariam, who in the time of Marius in-
vaded Oaul and threatened to invade Italy, were thg
Cimbri. Tbey came, it is said, from Asia and the
eastern parts of Europe, and appeared in Oaul be-
fore the war with Jueurtha was ended. The Ro-
mans sent armies to ma the Gauls in defending them-
EelveB, but they were defeated ; uid when they af-
terwards drew near to the Alpe and seemed prepared
to cross into Italy, the Romans grew so alarmed that
they ordered Marius, who had been chos^i consul
fire times since he first offered himself, to assist in
repelling them.
5. The Cimbri were at that time joined by another
tribe, the Teutones ; but only the Cimbri crossed the
Alps. Marius defeated the Teutones first in Oaul,
and then he brought his army back to Italy to attack
the Cimbri, The Cimbri, who had not heard of the
defeat of the Teutones, sent ambassadors to Marias,
asking him to pve themselves and their allies land
on which they might settle, and threatening war if
they were refused. "You ask land for your allies,
the Teutones," answered Marius; "I hare ravea
them some already. Their bodies are now moi3der>
ing in the fields, and their bones are serving as fen-
ces for vineyards." After this haughty answer both
armies prepared for a battle, which was fought on
the 30th of June, B. C. 101. The Cimbri attacked
the Romans with fury ; but the heat of the weather,
which they were not accustomed to, made them faint
■od weak, and they were easily overcome. They
HISTORY OF ROHB. J23
had also tied themselves together witti cords, think
ng tliey should support each other better in conse
quence ; but thia only gave th6 Bomana greater pow-
er over them. Thousands of them were killed, and
thousands more taken prisoners and sold for slaves.
Nearly the whole tribe, ia fact, was destroyed, and
the Bomans were for the time freed from a great
.alamity. Marius was now a sreater person than
ever. He was aUowed a splendid triumph, and was
chosen consul for the aizth time.
6. At this period there was, what is called, a ser*
vile war, that is, an insurrection of slaves, in Sicily.
These slaves were in a wretched oondition, and some
of them being set free, all the others wished to be
free likewise. They rebelled and made two of their
number kings, and kept up a war for four years ; but
they w^ere subdued at last, thongh not till a million
(^ them had perished. It ia said that one thousand
of the number gave themselves up to the Boman
general, who was sent against them, on condition
that their lives should be spared. The promise was
given, and yet this same man sent them afterwards
to Borne to fight with wiM beasts in the public
thows and entert^nments. The poor slaves killed
each other to avoid such a shocking fate.
CRAPTER SZX.
THK SOCIAL, OB HAR9I0 WAR,
tiOKE OCT B. a SO.
fi. a M ^' ■^^ events which happened in Italy
after the inva^on of the barbarians, brought
worse cmwequcncea than my foreign wars. They
nrc cwwed dt disputes between the cititeos of Roms
124 THE CHILD S FIR3T
tad the states of Italy, who were Bubje<^ to Room '
and by the selfiahneaa aad ambition of paj ticnlar pa-
sons, who thought much more of their own int«ras(i
than of the good of their cotiatiy. There had alwaji
been a distinctJon between the citizens of Rome and
the inhabitants of the rest of Italy. The citizena of
Rome hod particular privileges ; amongst other things
they were allowed to vote for tie conaols, and so had
Bome power in the government, and whenever the
Roman senate wished to show favor to a city which
they had conquered, they used to ^ve the inhabitants
what was called the franchise ; that is, the same ad>
vantages as those persons possessed vbo were JUy
mans oy birth. There b a r^erence to this difference
between the Roman cidzens and other Roman subject*
in the New Testament St. Paul, we are told, b^ng
about to be scourged, informed the centurion who
guarded him, that he was a Roman, meaning a Ro-
man citizen. The centurion was then afrmd to punish
him, and went and told the chief captain, saying,
" Take heed what thou doest, for this man is a Bo-
man." The chief captain immediately inquired of
St. Paul whether it was really go, and said, that he
himself had obt^ed the privilege by paying a
great sum. St. Paul replied, " But J was free-boni,"
or bom a citizen ; and ne was in consequence saved
from punishment We see from this that it was con-
sidered a great advantage to be a Roman citJzen.
/ 2. The Italian states were naturally enough very
anxious to have the same privileges as their fellow.
countrymen at Rome, and tried many times to forct
the senate to give them what th£y conradered their
right. There were great differences of opinion in
Rome upon this subject. Marius was in favor of the
franchise being given, for be generally ^ded with any
party who were against the senators ; but he did not
really care ffir any one but himself. His hatred of
nisToRr OF SOME. 135
flylla increased every year, and as Sylla was a friend
to the rich sod great, Marius allied nimself vich the
loirer classes, and endeavored to make himself popu-
lar amongGt them. At one time he joined himeell
with peisons whoee conduct was so disgraceful, that
he was at last obliged to turn against them, and even
fight ag^nst them. If he had not done so his fellov-
cidzens would have turned against him. There was
one honorable person in Eome, who openly opposed
Uarius — and that was Metellus, the general who had
been with him in A&ica, When Marius proposed a
law which he aud was to benefit the people, but
vbich Metellus saw would give them a great de^
more power than was good and right, he boldly re-
fused to voto for it ; and when his friends told hJm
that evil would happen to him if he did not, he an-
swered, that to do well when no danger attended it
was common, but to do well in the midst of dangers
was the pftrt of a truly good and honest man.
3. Umius contrived that Metellus should go into
• lile as a punishment for this refusal ; but he was
afterwards recalled, and there was great joy at his
return, for every one respected him. All the chief
persons in Rome went to receive him, and his house
was Crowded with persons who came to congratulate
him. Marius did not stay long in Rome to see the
triumph of Metellus ; he left It^y about this period,
and travelled into Asia, where he stayed at the court
of Mithridates, king of Pontus, in Asia Minor, who
was inclined to be an enemy of the Romans. Perhaps
lliat was the reason which induced Marius to go
there, when he was angry with his fellow-country-
men ; but he did not please Mithridates, who was a
proud, imprudent, aad bad man. He was too rough
in his manner, and too plain in his speech, and ofTend-
sd the Wng by advising him either to try and make
'imnsdf more powerful than the Romans, or else
126 THB child's first
[jnictly to Bubmit to them. Mithrid^ttes Etud notliing
at the time in reply, but he Eoon afterwards dismisseti
his visiter with presente, and Marius then went bark
to Italy and lived at Home like aprivate penrm; but
he had no friends, for hia ronghnesa and his pride
together made every one dishke him.
4. A few years after this the question about giving
the frani^hise to the Italian states was brought for- .
ward again very eagerly. There was a general dis-
content throughout the whole of Italy, and the
greater number of the states united themselves to-
gether with the resolution to fight until they had
gmned their object, or else to raze the city of Rome
to theground, and form a new repubhc.
6. 'Ttaa war is called the Social, or Marsic wai ;
the Harsians, inhabitants of one of the small but
prond states, being those who took the chief part in
It. It fiist broke out in the year B. C. 90, and
lasted for more than two years. Great misery was
brought upon all concerned in it, for no less than
300,000 persons are s^d to have been killed in it,
and many rich and prosperous cities were ruined ;
but in the end the Italian states gained their object.
One state after another proposed to make peace upon
conditioa of reodving the franchise, and the Romans,
being anxious to bring the var to an end, were induetid
HMTOKY OF BOMB. 137
CHAPTER XXXI.
OtVn. WAR BETWBEH UABIDS AND BTLU.
lUBim ocTLAirsD, K a SB.
1^^ gg^ 1. Thx hatred vhicb Marius and Sylli
felt for each other hroke oiU openly eiiet
tlie social war was ended. Marius was on old maa
nov, for he was Berenty jeaia of age; but his
haish, eurioua disposition waa not at all softened.
He thought himself foi^tten, because great respect
was paid to Sylla, who had shown much courage and
wisdom ia the last war ; and he was resolved to take
the first opportunity of humbling him. Tim oppor-
tunity soon came. A war broke out with Mithriaates,
idag of Pontua, who had ofiended the Romans by in-
terfering in some afiaira which they thought he had
no right to meddle with ; and siao by offering to
assist the Greeks in freeing themselTes from the
power of the Romana. SyU& waa fixed upon as the
general to conduct the war ; but at the time the
appcuntment was made, he was engaged in subduing
one of the Italian stat^ which was still diacon-
tented about the franchise; and Harius cunningly
contrived, during his absence, to have a new elec-
tion, and to be chosen himself Instead. This was
acting treachenmsly and unjustly, and when Sylla
heard that the command was taken from him, he
was exceedingly an^. He set out at once for
Romel aod six of his legions or regiments of sol*
diers, as we should call them, followed him.
2. The gates of the city were shut ; but he soon
broke them down, and entered with his army. The
fflhabitantB were much frightened at his approach,
ud many of them mounted upon the roofs of then
ISt"* THE child's first
bouses, and threw down sbowers of stones upon hut <
and his soldiers ; but Sylla placed bimself ttt the head I
of his troops, and taldng a torch in his hand, threatened
to set fire to the houses if they did not immediately '
leave off. This Stopped them, and the^ allowed him
to' advance as far as the forum. •
3. In the mean time Marina had left the city ; he
could not oppose such on army, and he knew that he ,
should risk his life if he were to stay. Sylla caused |
him to be accused as a traitor to his country, leather
with his son, and many of his friends and followers ; i
and offered a great reward to whoever would seize
and put them to death. Uarius was therefore obliged ■
to keep himself carefully concealed, till he could find |
some way of escape. These events took place m the
year B. C. 88. I
4. For a short time Marius remained hidden in a )
house near Rome, with his son and a. few followers ;
but as they were in want of food, his son left him,
after a little while, to go in search of some ; and be-
fore he came back, Marius began to be so much
alarmed, lest he should be discovered, that he went
away from his hiding-place, with his friends, and
wandered about till tiey arrived at the seacoast,
where they found two small vessels ready to sail. As
a troop of horsemen were just behind them, thev
jumped into the sea to reach the ships, and in this
way were separated ; Uarius being taken up by one
ship, and bis friends by the other. Youn^ Marius,
in the mean time, was in great danger ; for he was
very nearly discovered by some of Bylla'a soldiers,
tnd was only saved by the help of a slave, who was
with him, and who put him into a cart, l<»ded with
beans, and covered him up, and then drove the carl
past the soldiers, and through the streets of Rome,
till young Marius reached his own house, whore hii
'oncealed him. When he knew that his £atikei
HIBTOBr OF KOUE 120
waa gone, he managed to get on board a ship boilnd
for Afiica, and after a <»lm voyage land&d there
safely.
6. Harios himself was not as fortunate as his son.
The sea was very stormy, and he suffered a great
deal from fatigue and ilhiecs. The sailors kept luong
the coast of lUly, and Uarios being quite tired out,
they advised him to land and rest a Uttle, tdil the
wmd should be more favorable. He accordingly t«ofc
thmr advice, and laid down to sleep ; but when be
awoke he found himself alone. The vessel had sailed,
and he was left to his fate. He was now much more
unhappy than before ; his spirits entirely failed, and
be roanaed about among ewampa and marshes, till he
met with an old man who took compassion upon him,
and carried him to a hut, where he said he might
eaaly hide himself. Mariua knew that the part of the
eoonby in which he then was belonged to one of his
greatest enemies, and this made l^im the more anzions
not to' be discovered. He hoped to have been safe
m the but, but he soon heard the voices of soldiers,
and the trampling of horses near it, and then he left
tlie fant, and plunged up to his neck in a muddy
swamp, where he was at length found. The soldiers
dragged him out, by tying a cord round his neck,
and led him to the town of Mintumffi to be executed.
The magistrates threw him into prison, and a slave
waa sent to kiU him. It waa then nearly dark, but
the flaming eyes of the gaunt, fierce old m»i, seemed
to glare upon the slave as he entered the cell yrhen.
lie was confined. With a terrible voice, Marina ex-
claimed, "Dareat thou kill Caius Marins?" Tha
slave dropped his aword in the greatest fear, and
rushed away, saying, " I cannot kill Caius Maiius."
e. The mMjistrates now began to repent of whai
Ihay were gomg to do, for they remembered mimj
Ihines by which Marius had been of use to iot
130 THE CHILD 8 FISST
country, and instead of doing him any Lann, they
took care of him, and assisted him, and in the end
put Mm on board a vessel which vaa about to sail
for Africa. He landed near Carthage, in the bay :
the once beant^fui city lay before him in ruins
Marina seated himself upon a broken colunm, and
we may well beUeve that most sad thoughts prased
through his mind ; for the desolate city was the
image of his own fate. Like him it had fallen,
never, as it seemed, to rise again. Marius was a
wicked man, and had nothmg to cheer him when he
looked back upon his eril life ; but even if he had
been good, he must still then have been wretched,
for he had Utile hope Itit in this world, and had
never been taught to look for happiness in another.
7. Whilst resting amongst the nuns, a messenger
arrived from the governor of the province to warn
him that it was ag^net the laws of ttie R(Hnan senate
for him to remain there. Marius looked at the man
sternly, and replied, " Go, tell voui master that yon
have seen the exiled Marius sittmg amongst the ruins
of Carthage." The governor was probably touched
with pity by the comparison which Mariua thus
made between his own misfortunes and the ruins of
the great dty, and he was suffered to remain there a
little longer, Hia son, who had all this time been
kept as a sort of prisoner by the king of Nutnidia,
managed to escape and join him, and soon after*
wards both of them, thinkmg it safer to leave Africa,
fled to a little island near the coast, where they re-
m^ed, wuting from day to day in the hope of hear-
ing news which might give them a prospect of re-
turning to Rome.
8. In the meanwhile there had been great cbangei
at Rome, and ]Bew persons had started up to cresta
disturbances. Sylla had departed to make mt
igainst Alithridates, in Greece, but he was scaroetf
HlSTOSr OF BOMB. 181
gone before dieputes aroee between the two consuls,
who were left to govern the state ; and one of them,
— Cinna, whom SylU thought was his friend, de-
clared war f^ainat the other, and aent for Maiius to
joia him, Uariua was of course most willing to dt
so. He collected together about five tboosaod des-
perate men, and united himself with Cimia's army,
ftnd then all marched to Rome. One really good,
honorable man joined them — Serloriua, who had
fought in the wars in Spain and against the Cimbri,
uid was much respected for his courage and high
ptinciptcs. He was not a fiiend to Marius, but sup-
ported him because be disapproved of the conduct of
the senators, and of the persons who were then chief
in Rome. The city was well defended, but the in-
habitants began at last to suffer from famine, and
the seoaton sent to Marius and Cinna to propose
peace.
D. Whilst Cinna and the ambassadors were settling
the terms, Marius stood by without speaking, dressed
in very old clothes, with Ins hwr and beard long
and rough, and looking dreadfully stem and fero-
cious ; and when the ^p-eement for peace was made,
and the whole army set out for the city, Marius
stopped at the gate. ' They begged him to go for-
ward, but he said scornfully, that he was a bajiished
man, and the law against him must be done away
with before he could enter. His impatience, how-
ever, would not suffer him really to wait ; and
Bhortly afterwards he rushed in, followed by his
savage guards. Orders were given to these wretches
to kill every person whose greeting Marius did not
return. A most shocking massacre took place in
c(aiBequence. Numbers of persons came up to speak
lo Marius, and were killed before his eyes. The
Bmeul, who had opposed Cinna, was murdered aa h»
■t in his ivory cl^u" of office, named a curule chaiiv
THE CHILD S FI&BT
irhere, on other occa«ons, he would have been sup-
poeed qiutfl safe from hann. Murius seemed del^
ntined DOt to spare any one, and the cruelty and
wickedness of his guards exceeded all belief, and at
last came to such a pitch, that Sertorius and Cinna
could endure it no longer. They agreed together to
destroy them ; and one night, when the guarda were
aJl asleep, they sent a body of soldiers, who killed
them every one.
10. Sylla was not forgotten in the dreadful re-
venge of Marius. His house was seized and his
property taken aw^, and he was declared an enemy
to bis country. Cinna was now restored to the
consulship, and Uarius was appointed to be consul
also for the seventh time. He had always be-
lieved that this would be the case, because of an
omen which had happened when he was a little
child. An e^Ie with seven yonng ones fell into his
lap, and this was supjmsed to mean that he should
be the chief person m the state seven times ; but
no worldly honors could bring happiness to a man
burdened with so many crimes, and knowing that
enemies surroimded hiia on all sides. Letters ar-
rived from Sylla, ^ving a list of his victories, and
endmg with these woi^ : — " For these and other
services, conscript fathers, you have rewarded me by
setting a price upon ray head ; my wife and children
are forced to almdon then- country, — my house is
razed, — my property is taken away. You may ex-
pect to see me shortly at the gates of Rome, with
my victorious armies, to take vengeance for the in-
jiuiea I have received."
11, These letters were like the prophecy of death
(o Marius. He knew that his life would be the first
tacrificed if Sylla were to return, and horrible fanciei
troubled him. Voices seemed to sound in his ears,
u )Mt Uv awake upon his bed at night, tetling bin
HIETOKT OF KOHE. litS
ihal tbe den even of an absent lion ought to ba
Jreaded. la bis anguish he tried tu distract bit
^houghta by excesuve drinking, and a dreadful dis-
i^ase followed in consequence.
12. Seventeen days after having been chosen con-
ml the seventh time, Marius died a madman.
13. There is no need to remark upon his fate.
Even in this world, and amongst a naticm of hea-
Uu;ns, the judgments of Qod are clearly to be seen.
CHAPTER XXXII.
SVLLA,
DICTATOB, B.C. St.
a C 82 ^' ^^^^ Mariua was dead, Cinna waa
the master of Italy, but he was as much
afrud of SyUa's power as Manns bad been ; for
be knew that if Sylla were to return 'with his
nrmy, all those who bad supported Karius would
be severely punished. He persuaded the senate
to appoint another general to command tbe armies
ia Asia, instead of Sylla ; but this only brought
<>D the evil of which be was afrdd. Sylla bad been
successful in all his efforts against Uitbridates, and
had compelled him to make peace ; and many prov-
inces in Asia were now entirely subject to the
Romans, in consequence of his skill and courage;
iie was detennined, therefore, not to yield bis com-
mand to any one, and instead of submitting to
Elmbria, the new general, be brought an army
against him. There was no cause, however, for
i battle. The . RomEuis were fond of Sylla, and
proud of serving under bim, and Fimbria's eddiei*
184 THE CHILD B FIK8T
left him of tliedr own accord, aiid went oTer U
Bylla. Thus tha veir means which were used to
destroy his power only made it greater, and he now
had nothing else to do, but to settle all his affiiira in
Asia, and return to Italy to take vengeance upon his
2. AH this time Sylla had appeared to be more i
careful of the interests of his country than of hia ,
own. He was cruel, indeed, to the Btates which re- ,
belled against the Roman power, and made the
people pay enormous sums of money; but still '
these persons were the enemies of Rome, end he
might have excused himself by saying that it was
hia duty to punish them. But now we shall see
him m his true character, — selfish and bloodthirsty
as Morius, though more polite and refined in his
manners.
3. Before Sylla arrived in Italy, one of his chief
enemies was taken out of his way. Cinna was mur-
dered by his own soldiers, but young M&rius was left
with several others, and their armies were very much
lai^er than his own ; so much so, indeed, that Sylla
might have had reason to be afraid, if his soldiers
had not been @d well trained and so much attached
to him. One person, however, joined him, who was
a great help to him, — Cndus Pompey, afterwards
caUed Pompey the Great, He was then only twen-
ty-three yeara of age, but had already distinguished
himself very much m defending Rome against Marius,'
4. Pompey had great difficulty in joining Sylla ;
many efi'orts were made lo stop Mm ; and Sylla was
so delighted with his asmatance, and with the ac-
count of hia exploits, that he gave him the title of
" imperator," which had never before been granted
to such a young person. As Sylla drew near to
Italy, great preparations were made against him,
but the person wno could best have opposed liitn wu
HISTORI CP ROME. 185
ibeent. This was Bertorius, wbo was then in Bpaln
Yonng l[aHD3 and his friends were not clever enough
to withstand a man like Sylla ; and thdr whole party
had made themselres hated by their cruelty, bo that
nnmbers of persons joined Sylla, hojung diat if bo
were to conquer, the country would be in a better
itat«.
5. Nearly two years passed from the time that
Sylla first disobeyed the orders of the senate, by re-
fusing to give up his command, till he appeared in
the neighborhood of Bome. He was obliged to
travel a great distance, and his enemiea constantly
endeavored to stop his march ; but he was always
victorioira and advanced onwards, gaining strength
every day.
e. The party of Marius seemed to increase in cru-
elty as the danger became greater. They ordered
that all the persons in Bome who were supposed to
favor Sylla should be killed, and numbers of the
highest rank were murdered in consequence. 'This
made Sylla the more anxious to take the chief power
into his own hands, and he hastened on tjll he came
quite close fo the city. Here he met with great re-
sistance from a Samnite army which was fnendly to
the Marian party. They fought against him in the
most brave manner ; but Sylla was successful as
usual, though his troops were nearly worn out with
fatjgae,
7, The general of the Sammtes killed himself in
despair when he saw that the battle was lost, and hit
soldieiB fled. Sylla took eight thousand prisoners,
and as soon as be had obtained possesion of the city,
ordered them to be shut up m prisou. He then
summoned a meeting of the senators, and when they
were assembled, addressed them in a long speech:
ill listened attentively, but their attention was soon
drawn aude by fearful sounds which ai-ose ne^ then'
J36 '^HE child's PIKST
Cries and groans of agony told tliat eonio dreadfu.
deed waa being performed. Sylla alone was quiet
nnd nnconcenied. " Attend," he exclaimed, Bpet^iug
to the senators, "to vbat I am saying, a£d sive
jonraelves no troiible about what is going on else-
where. I iiave only ordered some offenders to be
chastised." The ei^ht thtwsand Samnites were &t
that yery moment bemg murdered in cold blood !
8. Tms was only the beginning of his cruelty, and
he did not attempt to conceal it. " I will not spare
one," he said, "who has home arms agunst me;
all shall perish." He kept his threat moat exactly.
Every day fresh oSendeis were doomed to death.
Some of them were really his enemies, otiheTB were
only called guilty because they had endeavored t«
save the lives of the friends they loved. Catiline, a
man of infamous character, assisted Sylla. He had
some time before killed his brother, and now he beg-
ged that the deed might be made lawful, by his
brother's name bwng pUced in the list of those who
were sentenced by Sylla himself.
9. The anxiety which these dreadful cruelties
catised, at length became quite intolerable ; and a
young man, Caius Metellus, dared one day to stand
up in the senate and inquire when Sylla meant to put
a stop to them. " We do not," he wid, "intercede
for such as you have resolved to destroy ; but only
Rsk you to free those &om uneasiness who may be
allowed to hve." Sylla replied that he did not know
yet whom he should save. " Then," continued Me-
tellus, " publish the list of those who are to die,"
The request was complied with immediately, ^ghty
persons, most of them of high rank, were put into i
the list ; or as it is called, proscribed. The next day ,
220 were added to the number — the da.y after S20
more; and after 8000 persons had been murdered,
Sylla assembled the people, and told them ttiU h«
BISTOBT OP ROME. 1S1
Bad pTDBoribed as many aa he could think of, and ai
for those he had forgotten, they should be proscribed
Iw as Boon as he could call them to hia memory.
10. To increase the misery which these hornbla
cakmitiea caused, Sylla took possession of the prop-
erty of the unhappy people whom he killed, and
passed a law, which long continued in force, thai
none of the descendants of the proscribed should hold
any ofGce in the state.
11. It seems marrelloos that one man should thus
have tyrannized over a whole ci^, yet so it was;
and Sylla not only compelled the Bomans to submit
to his cruelty, but forced them to make him perpet-
ual dictator, in order that he might reform the laws
and government. This was one of the few duties
which he seemed inclined to perform rightly. The
kns made by bis order were many of them wise and
usefuL
12. Sylta was appointed dictator in the year B. C
82, and held the office for three years. Then sud-
denly he det«rmiiied to ^ve it up. He told the
people of his resolution when he had assembled them
at a great meeting, and at the same time he offered
to give an account of all that he had done ; but no
one dared ask him to do so. He was allowed to
leave, the place of assembly free and without com-
pl^t ; and from that period he retired to a beautiful
country-house where he spent his days in luxury, and
employed himself in writing the histoij of his own
life in Greek. But the vengeance of God overtook
him, though he was saved from the vengeance of his
fellovr- creatures. He was attacked by a loathsome
disease, and vermin swarmed over his body. It was
1 complmnt for which there was no cure, and which
must have retidered him an object of intolerable dis-
^t lo eveiT one who approached him. Tet even
m tlus dreadful condition Sylla's ferocious tempe>
198 THE child's rlKST
showed itself. He was joformed that a man icfused
to settle some accounts, hoping that Sylla would sooc
die, and that he should then not be obliged to do bo,
Sylla sent for him, and ordered his sIsTes to strangU
him in his presence. The death of this man brooglit
on his own— the Btnuning of his voice in his extreme
anger caused some interoal mjury, and he died thai
•ame night in agony.
CHAPTER XXXm.
pened at Rome after Sylla gave up thfl
dictatorship.
2. There were then two parties in the state, head-
ed by the two consuls, l^pidus and Catulus. Lepi-
dus desired to undo every thing which Sylla liad
done, and to call back the persbns whom he had ex-
iled ; w!ii]^t Catulus deared to keep all in the same
condition in which Sylla had left it. Pompey, after-
wards called the Great, took the part of Catulus ;
and as he was one of the most distinguished peisoos
in Home, whichever ude he supported was the most
likely to bo uppermost. Pompey was not a cruel
man like Marius and Sylla, at tunes he showed very
high qualities ; but he was not thoroughly sincere-^
his friends could not always trust to his word, and Jos
ambilioa caused him to do many wrong things.
8. Open war broke out after a httle while between
the two consuls ; but Catulus, being assisted by
Pompey, was victorious, and Lepidus was obliged W
flee to Sardinia, where he soon after died. . "Cliort
i
aiBTOBY OF EOHE. 180
wa, however, no hope of peace even tl«n, for a wat
was gwig oa in 8pm, against Sertonus, who had
never yieMed to Sjtla. Sertoriua urea much liked by
ihe Spaniards, who trasted and respected him. Hia
visii was to make the Romans and Spaniards one peo-
ple; and he appointed senators, as there were at
Rome, half of whom were Spaniards and half Bo-
mans ; he also established a school where the yoong
men were to be educated, and in fact did every thijig
:n his power to improve the people. The Spaniarda
thought he was particularly blessed by the gods, he-
cause he was always accomp^ed by a white fawn,
which they supposed was sent him from heaven as a
BJgn of divine approbation. This strong feeling in hia
favor made Sertonus very powerful, and he was able
to defend himself for a long time agwnst all who
were sent to Spain to oppose him. It was not be-
cause he favored Maiius himself, that he did not
jield to Sylla, but because he conmdered Sylla a ty-
rant who would only oppress the people, and that
the party of Mariua cared more for the true good of
their country.
4. Pompey's great ambition was to conquer Serto-
riua, and when Lepidus was defeated he determined
to go himself with an army into SpaJa. It was very
diflicult to carry on a war in that mount^ouB coun-
try, especially against a person like Sertoriua, who
knew exactly where to go, mid how to place his
men in the hest position ; and, as Pompey knew this,
he set a price upon his head ; that is, he offered a
sum of money to Miy person who would kill him.
Sertorius would have submitted oa one condition^
that of being allowed to go back to Bome, for bo
had a mother living there whom he loved more than
■my one else in the world, and whom he longed to
see agiun ; hut a short time after he made this pro-
posal to the senate his mother died, and then bf
14U THB child's FIB8T
bad DO reason for not continuing the ireur as bdiiff&
U is s^d that when be heard of his mother's death
he himself almost died of grief, EUid la^ seven days
on the ground without taking an lulerest m any thing
which was grang on. His frienda, however, per-
suaded him to rouse himself agun, and by degrees
he began to be more cheerful and hopeful, especially
as he had a hope of assistance from Hithridates, king
of Pontus.
5. Mithridates, we know, had always been an
enemy to the Romans. Whilst Bylla was dictator,
he had begun a second war ^^st them, which,
however, did not last very long; but now he thought,
that if he could have the assistance of Sertonos, ha
really might take his revenge for all the injuries he
had received^ Sertorius agreed to be his ally, upon
condition that Mithridates would not attempt to con* j
quer any part of the Boman dominions in A^a, but
only to retake that which was his' own ; and, this
being agreed upon, IGthridatea carried on a wat
against uie Romans in A«a, whilst Sertorius fought
in Sptun, and formed a plan for invading Italy.
Most unhappily, about two years afterwards, Ser-
torius began to suspect that the Spaniards were not
as fwthful to him as they had been, and that they
mtended to go over to his enemies ; and this induced i
bim to commit a most cruet action, which must al- '
ways be a blot upon his memory. He ordered all
the young men who were educated in his coUwe to
be put to death. Perhaps he excused himself by
saymg that their friends were traitors ; but nothing
can really excuse him. He lost the confidence of
the Spaniards from that time, and even the Romans
became less attached to him ; and not long after-
wards, Perpenia, one of his generals, Who was ieal-
DuB of his fame, formed a plot against turn, and hav-
gig invited bim to a banquet, treacherously fdl Bp;n]
HISTOBV OF ROME. 14t
turn whilst he was sittmg at table, and murdered him -
b the year B. 0. 72.
6. The Spaniarda and the Bomans, who uded
with Sertorius, lost every thing when he died ; for
Perpema, who took the command of the army after
him, was a base and cowardly, as well as a cruel
man, and only cared for his own safety. He was
defeated by Pompey, and taken prisoner, and when
he thought that he ehould be sentenced to die, ho
offered to give Pompey all the letters he had found
belonging to Sertorius, on condition of his life being
spared. These letters would have been of gteai
consequence to Pompey, as they would have shown
him who, Eunongst the chief of his fellow-citJzens at
Rome, were the friends of Sertorius ; but he was fa«
too high-minded to take advantage of such meanness,-
and burnt the letters without looking at them, and
ordered Perpema instantly to he executed.
9. The war in Spain was then ended.
CHAPTER XXXiy.
E WAn UNDER SFAR
„ „ ijj 1. After conquering Sertorius and t*er-
pema, Pampey was oa&ed upon to subdue
a very different enemy, an army of rebelhous gladi-
ators and slaves.
2. Qladiators, as we have heard before, were per-
«ons forced to figbt with each other, as a public
show to amuse the people. They were generally
ptisoners taken in war, and bought by mastere who
142 THE OiriLD B FiaST
trained theoi in schools, and tben made them exUlril
at the pubUo games. These amnsements were cmd
and disgraceful, and one of &e chief causes of the
ffreat Tickedneas of tfaa Bomons. They became
hard-hearted in consequence, and fonnd delight id
the fiuffeiings of thejf fellov-creatnres. When a
ffladiator was raaqiiished. he rmsed his fin^r to ask
for pity, and if the epectafors approved of hS bravery,
they turned down thdr thmnbs, and he was spared ;
but if they turned them up, the unfortunate man irai
^led. Sometimes the gladiators were bound by an
oath to their master to fight till they died. They
were rewarded by a Crown of palm leaves, or by
money ; and now and then they were allowed not to
fight any more.
3, The insurrection which Pompey waa obliged to
subdue began at Capua, where there was a school of
these gladiators, who were kept very strictly. Sev-
enty of them escaped from their mflstera, put them-
selves under the command of one of their compan*
ions, named Spartacus, a very clever, brave man,
and established themselves upon e, high mountain,
where they were well able to defend themselves.
They then invited as many other gladiators and
slaves to join them as chose to do so, and in a short
time they had collected a really large army, as many
as ten thousand in number. When the insurrectioD
had increased to such a great pitch, the Roman sen-
ate began to be alarm^ The consuls were sent |
ag^nst them, but they were defeated ; and Spartacus i
and his slaves marehed through the coontiy, their
numbers increasing as they went on, plundermg and
destroying, and taking revenge for the cmdtiea which
had been shown them, (nil they «une to the foot of
the Alps. The senators thsn fixed upon another
general to oppose them— Crassus, who h&i been one
of Sylla's favorite of&cers. CmsEus was a man oaore
HISTOBT OF KOUE. l48
hmoua for his immense riches than for being par-
licnlarlj' clever or having much energy; Spartacua
oa the contrary had great talent and spirit ; and the
■enate knew this, and reaolved, as the war in Spain
was at that time ended, to ^ve the command of tndi
armies, as soon as they possibly could, to Pompey.
4. Before, however, they coold do so, Crassus had
gained a great victory over the eladiators. Sparta-
cus had a foreboding before this oattle began that ha
should lose it ; and he ordered his favorite horse to
be brought to him, Mid slew it, saying, " If I should
win this day, I shell have a great many better horses ;
if I lose it, I shall have no need of it." The battle
lasted long. Spartacus was wounded in the leg, yet
still he fought on his knees, holding his sword mid
buckler. At last he fell hfeless upon the bodies of
those whom he had slmn. Forty thousand of his
men were killed on the spot. The rest fled, but be-
fore they could reach a place of safety they were
met by Poi^ey, who was commg to take the com-
mand from Ciassus. He cut them all to pieces, ami
afterwards sent tliia boasting message to uie senate :
" Craasus has overcome the gladiators in a pitched
battle, hut I have plucked up the war by the roots."
This battle was fought in the year B. 0. 71.
5. Craasus was very nearly becoming the enemy
of Pompey for life in consequence of this boast ; but
he was pacified by Pompey's begging that he might
be made consul. Still they were not heartily friends,
and each tried to gain the love and admiration of the
people for himself. Pompey endeavored to win
their favor by ^ving them power ; and Crassus, who
was unmMsely rich, by feasting them. It is said
that he entertained them in pablic at ten thousand
tables, and distributed com enough amongst the
poor to maintain their families for months. Pompey,
nowever, had much the better chance of the twcs for
144- THE child's first
being famed as a ^nera], he ao<»i had another op-
portimity of becominff famous in a war agmnst the
pirates who infested tbe Mediterranean Sea.
6. These pirates were not common sea-robbers, »a
their name seems to mean ; many of them were per-
sons who had once been well off, but who had been
mined from different causes. Having lost every
thing, they lived by plunder, and as their numbers
increased they became so powerful that even kings
asked for their asastance in their wars. They had
at one tune a thousand galleys or light vessels in
their service, and in these they sailed about the coast,
landing wherever they wished, and taking whatever
they cnose. Sometimes they carried off prisoners ;
and if any of them happened to be Bomans, they
would pretend to treat them very respectfully, and
then, leading them to the side of the vessels, would
push them overboard, saying, they would not by any
means keep n freebom Boman a prisoner.
7. But what was almost worse than any thing,
these pirates robbed the vessels in which provisions
were carried backwards and forwards ; and as the
Romans had their com from Sicily, they were in
danger of famine in consequence. It was the fear ol
this which made them detemune at last to set them-
selves in earnest to conquer the pirates ; and Pom-
pey, being the first general in the state, was appoint-
ed to the command. We must remember that in
former times, the same persons constantly command-
ed both by land and sea.
8. It is generally agreed, that Pompey'a conduct
on this occasion is very deserving of prtuse. He had
enormous power given him, for he was permitted to
rule over all the coasts of the Mediterranean, and
several miles inland ; he was also allowed to nuse as
many seamen and soldiers as he thought fit, and to
take as much money as he liked out of the- public
HI6T0BY UP HOME. 148
beaauty, and this authority was to last for threo
yean. Of cotuse, if lie had wished it, he might
eaaly at that time have endeavored to make himaeH
lord over all the Roman dominions ; instead of which
he did his du^ so thorouehly, that in four months'
Ume the whole of the pirat« ships were taken or
nmk, all the men belonging to them were either
killed or made prisoners, or ob^ged to submit to the
Romans, and the coasts of the Mediterranean were
entirely freed from these terrible robbers. Many of
the pirates were sent by Pompey to settle in different
places, or, as it is called, to become colonists ; and
b this way they bad a hope of again living respect-
^ily and honorably.
CHAPTER XXXV.
THIRD urraitiDATio WIR.
B. C 66 ■'" ^" roust now go back to the history
of the war with Mithridalea, king of Pon-
tus, which broke out, as we have heard, in the time
of Sertorius. Lucullus,, a man famous for his love of
luxury and splendor, was employed for some time as
the chief general, and manned the war so well that
Mithiidates was obliged to flee from his donunions.
Mid take refuge with his son-in-law Tigraaes, Idng of
Armenia.
2, The Romans tried to persuade Tigranea to (pvo
up Mithridalea to them, but this he would not con-
sent to do ; and being a very powerful prince, ha
was enabled to help his father-in-law for some time.
Brfore Lucullus coidd subdue both these monarohs
he was called back to Rome, and a consul was son!
146 THE child's FlKldT
to take his place, -who W!»s not at all equal to lum.
The Boman senate, therefore, soon made another
change, and gave the whole command to Pompey,
This command yras not to be the same as was gener-
ally given to a general ; it was to be as great as that
which Pompey was allowed when he undertook to
lestroj the pirates.
3. Some persons objected to a law being passed
in order to give Pompey such power, but two of the
principal persons m the state were in favor of it, and
BO it was carried. These two persons were Julius
Csesar and Cicero. We shall hear much more about
them by-and-by.
4. Pompey was sailing about near the coast of
Asia, in the year B. C. 66, after completing the de-
struction of the pirates, when the news reached him
of the great authority which had been riven him.
Though he had been long^g for it in hislieai-t, and
inducing his friends to tiy and get it for him, he pre-
tended not to hke it, now that he had it, " What,"
he said, "will Rome burden me with a new war?
must I never have any rest?"
5. He, however, did not think of refusing the
command, but immediately prepared for an underta-
king which he was resolved should bring him more
fame than any of his other exploits. And so it did.
He was successful from the very beginning. He
forced Tigranes to submit te him, and took fiom hiin
a great part of his possessions. He completely de-
feated Mithridates, and obliged him to See to Cdchis
and the wild countries on the borders of the Euxine
Sea, or, as it is now called, the Black Sea. He af-
terwards entered Syria, took the kingdom, and made
Syria, with Phcenicia, a Komau province, and tlien
advanced into Judea,
6. The state of Judea at tliat time is not told uii
B the Bible, but we know from other histories, tkal
HISTORY UF ROME. 147
iher Ezra and Nehemiah had rebuilt the ^mple
snd restored the gOTemment, the Jews ■were placed
under the nJe of their high-priests for many years,
bnt were at the same time considered subject to the
fcings of Peraa. They were also in constant danger
from the nations near them, and were very often at
irar. We learn Bomething of these wars from the
books of the Maccabees, which describe how Jndas
Maccabeus and his brothers, the sons of one of the
high-priests, defended themselves against the kings
of Syria. One of the descendants of this famdy
made himself king, and after this Judea was gener-
ally governed by kbga until the time of our blessed
Saviour,
7. It happened that at the period when Pompey
invaded Syria, there were two princes of the family
of the Maccabees contending for the crown. Their
names were Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. Both of
tliem applied to Pompey for assistance, but he chose
to support Hyrcanus; and when Aristobulus took
refuge m Jerusalem, Pompey resolved to besiege the
city. The Jewish historian, Josephus, gives a long
description of the siege. He speaks of the thick-
ness of the city walls, and the depth of the valley
around them, and tells us how careful the Jews were
to continue their religious services even when thdr
enemies were close at nand. But the city was taken
at last, and Pompey and his conquering army entered
it. It seems that Pompey had some feeing of respeit
for th« beautiful temple ; he refused to recave the
money which was put aside for sacred purposes, and
ordered the building to be cleansed, and sacrifices to
be ofiered as before. But in one instance, he showed
no reverence ; he went into the Most Holy Place —
the Sanctuary, which it was not lawful but for the
high-priest to enter ; and it has been remarked, that
from that time the success which had followed him
I4S TBB CHILD a FlUST
in ereiy thine te undertook began to faiL Cert«nh
his aft^life showed that such glory as he had gunea
is inno v&y to be depended apon as lasting.
8. After Bettlin^ Hyroanus aa high-priest, and
Aiaking Judea subject to Bome, Pompey prepM^
to leave the countiy, canring Aiistobulus with him.
On his way from JeFUsalem to Petra in Arabia, ho
was overtaken by a party of soldiera, bringing him
the news of the death of Mithridates, king d? Fontns.
It was a sad story, ond one which might well have
been a warning to Pompey of the vanity of human
greatness. Mithridates, the great king, had killed
himself in des^ir, at the wickedaeee and cruelty of
his own son, Phamaces, who had rebelled ag^ost
him. The body of the unfortunate monarch was
sent by Phamacea to Pompey, who showed it to his
soldiera, and then ordered it to be bnried with great
splendor; for he was too generous to exult over a
fallen enemy.
9. As Phamaces was willing to submit in all things
to the Romans, there was now no longer any call for '
Pomp^ to remun in Asia, except in order to arrange
the afl^rs of the difterent coontries which had snb-
mitted to him ; and accordingly he went back to Italy
the next year. Wheo he arrived at Bome all the
people came ont to meet him, and his triumph was
the most splendid that had ever been seen. It lasted
two days ; and we are told that 324 prisoners of high
tank marched before his chariot, amongst whom were
Ariatobulus, king of Judea, and a eon of Tigranes,
king of Armenia, besides several of the children of
Mithridates. The treasures which he had taken wer«
worth about three millions of money, besides inimeose
sums wbioh he paid to the government and gave it
his soldiers. But what did him more honor flioa all
the grandeur, was his conduct to his prisoners. In-
uStead of putting them to death, or keeping them in
HISTOBY OP KOKE.
{xiBon, as it was usually the custom to do, he sent
them all back to thrar own countries, except Aristo-
bulus and young Hgranes.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
cilike'b odhbfiract.
B.O.es ^' ^^"-^ Pompe^ was gaimng th(,w
great mtories in Asia, the Romans hod
not been free from danger at home ; for a plot was
formed against the government, which, if it had suc-
ceeded, might have brought complete ruin upon the
country. This plot is called Catiline's conspiracy.
CalJline's name has been mentioned before. He was
the persou who asMsted Sylla in his cruelUea, and
from this it is not difficult to imagine what his char-
acter was. He was very tail, ana enormously strong
in appearance. His disposition was bold and deter*
mined ; and ht was clever, avaricious, and extrava-
gant. These last qualities were the canse of his
engaging in the conspiracy ; for he had brought him-
self mto such great difficulties, and owed so much
Money, that he saw no prospect of freeing himself,
except by upsetting the government and sei^ng upon
whatever he could get. Several other nobles were
in the same condition, and agreed with bjm to murder
the senators, and then rule the country according to
their own fancy. The plot was discovered in the
ye^ B. C. 63, by Cicero, the consul — a senator dis-
tinguished for talent and eloquence, or power of
speaking, and for his great love of his countiy. His
ipeecbes in the senate were some of the most beauti'
LdO THE child's fiks:-
ful that were ever beard, and amongst them there k
not one more celebrated than tbat whicb he made
when hs accused Catiline of conspiring against hia
country. Hia ^reat fault was vanity, and his dispo-
sition was rather wavering ; he did not always lilie to
speak uut boldly, and say which side of a question he
took.
2. Cicero bad long suspected Catiline of some evil ,
design, but be was not certain what the plot really
was till he was told it by a woman named Fulvia,
who was a friend of one of the conspirators. When
he had letuned all the particulars, he assembled the
senate, and declared to tiiem, in the presence of Cati- i
line, the great danger they were in. CatJline listened
to what was said very quietly, and when Cicero had
finished, stood ap to defend bimself ; but be was in-
terrupted by the senators, who, with one accord,
burst forth into reproaches. Catiline, burning with
rage, eiclwmed, " Since you have provoked me to
the utmost, I will not pensb alone. Those who have
Ewom my ruin shall perish in the aame destrnctjon es
myself." Thus saying, he left the assembly, and
that night departed from Rome to put himself at the
head of a rebel army.
3, Fresh proofs were now discovered of CatiHne'e
guilt from letters which felt into Cicero's hands, and
proved that he tmd hia friends had endeavored to
gain the assistance of the Gauls. Some of the prin-
cipal conspirators who remained in Rome were imme-
diately thrown into prison and condemned fo death ;
and when the sentence was passed Oiccro went to
the prison, and in order to be sure tbat there could
be no escape, caused them all to be strangled in bis
Eresence, ITiis action was not against the Roman
.w, but it (ifterwards caused Cicero a great deal of
tronble. The wsy in whicb he told the people that
the v->nspirators we<-3 killed is a curi
HISTOST OF KOHE. 161
tlie superfitlttoua feeling whicb was commm it thai
tame. He cried out : — Viierunt ; " They hare lived,"
He did not venture to say, " They tire dead," because
tlw words were thought to be an ill omen.
4. The rebellion, however, could not be at an end
whilst Catiline was at the head of an army, and tha
BeoatOTS without delay took measures to oppose him.
It was CalJline's wish to lead hia troops iivto Gaul,
where he thought he should find help ; but, before
he could do thie, the aimy of the senatfl came uf
with him, and a battle was fought, in which he was
c<Hnpletely defeated. Catiline ^owed much bravery
cm this occasion ; and when at last he saw that all
hope was gone, he rode into the midst of his enemies
and fell amongst heaps of the sldn.
5. TTie remembrance of having defeated this terri-
ble conspiracy was a satisfaction to Cicero all hia life.
The senators thanked him publicly, and he was called
the dehverer of Bome and the father of his country.
Perhaps we should honor him more if he had thought
less of his own merit. When he gave up the consul-
ship, instead of swearing, as was the usual custom, " I
have kept the laws ;" he swore, " I, alone, have pre-
served the Republic in safety." Cicero might have
imagined, at that lime, that nothing which could
happen would ever make his fellow-countrymen for-
get what they owed him ; but after events showed
tiiat BO services can make us safe from ingratitude.
e. It was about two years from the fflacovery of
Catiline's conspiracy t):^ Fompey returned from
Asia ; and, after enjoying the triumph which 'has
been spoken of, lived for some time as a private per*
son. His ambition however was in truth as great ss
ev&, and one source of continual mortifioatioQ to him
was to see that other persons in the state were ri^^
into notice as well as himself. Julius Ousar was his
principal rival in the favor of the people ; and, from
158 THE child's fikbt
bis teleata and general character, it appeared probft-
ble that be woiJd be a verf dajigerous one. C«sai
U perbapa the most remarliable of all the ^reat mes
whose names have been rendered famous in bistory.
He was not only a most skilful general, but a learned
man, a cleTer writer, an excellent public speaker, and
a wise ruler. He bad great energy, and was very
persevering in all wbicb bs undertook ; and bis dis-
position was honorable and amiable, ' Uany tbinga
mdeed are told of bim which we oumot approve;
but, when we think of tbe manners of the tunes in
which be lived, and of bis utter ignorance of true re-
ligion, we must own that he ia a person to bo ex-
tremely admired.
1. The disagreement between Pomp^ and Caasfo-
did not show itself for some time. Cssar was anx-
ious to be a favorite with tbe people ; and, as P<»n-
pey was much liked, it suited lus purpose to be
friendly with bim. Crassus, also — so famous for bis
riches—joined with them, and the three together
soon managed every thing according to their own will.
They made an agreement to support each other nnder
all circumstances, and from this close alliance they
were called the triirnirirate ; and, in order to render
the connection stjll firmer, Ctesar gave Pompey his
daughter Julia for a wife. '
8, About this time Csesar was made consul ; and,
when bis ofBce was ended, he induced tbe seoatA to
give bim the government of the province of Oaul for
five years— although the custom was that no general
should rule a provmce for more than one year. Be-
fore setting off C^sar offered to take Cicero with him
as bis legate, but the proposal was refused ; for
Cicero was just then afraid to leave Borne, as he well
knew that be had an enemy in tbe city who was jJot-
tinjf lus ruin. Clodius was tbe name of this man ; faa
was a wicked unprincipled p srson, who hated Cicero
HIBTORT OF KOHE. 153
because he hod accused htm of a gi«at ciime of
which he had been guilty ; wid, in order to be re-
venged upon him, caused himself to be chosen a trib-
une, and then brought forward a law, declaring that
any person who had put a Bomon dtizen to death
without a regular trial, should be outlawed. This
law, it was plunly seen, was framed entirely againat
Cicero, who had caused the Catiline conspirators to
be executed before they were regularly tried ; but
though every effort was made by Cicero and his
friends to prevent its b^g carried, it was still sup-
prated by so many persons, that (Hcero saw himself
to be in great danger, and at length was persuaded to
leave the city before he could be actually ctrndemned.
9. For Bizteen months Cicero was an exile. This
was a great trial to him, and he used to complain
bitterly to his friends of the injustJce and ingratitude
which had been shown him, and which were cer-
taJoIy very trying, for besides bdng outlawed, his
property was seized, and his houses were burnt down
"to satisfy the malice of Clodius. At the end of six-
teen months the Romans began to see how madly
and unjustly they had behaved. Petitions were
offered to the senate, b^ging that Cicero might be
recalled, and the request was granted. Cicero re-
turned to Rome as if he had been a general, enjoying
a triumph. The senate went out to meet him, and.
the people shouted for joy at beholding him. His
property was restored and his houses were rebuilt at
the expense of the state, and every mark of favor
was shown him, as a proof that the senate repent«d
liaving consented to the disgraceful attempts whiefe
had been made to min him.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
cabar'b ttars iit qa
BBQcm B. a 68.
on with tbe different tribes, has been vntten by him-
Belf ; so that we have a Tery correct history of all
that went on. He had a hard task to subdue the
country ; but his wisdom and courage made him suc-
ceed at last, aud g^ed him great honor at Rome,
where eyery one admired and respected him. Only
one person at all distrusted him, — Cato, the stem
senator, who loved his country's freedom more than
any glory, and foresaw that Csesar's ambition might
at Bome future time induce him to bring his own
coimtry into subjection, as he was now conquering
her enemies.
2. Ctesar's government in Ganl was, as we know,
to last for five yeare ; but tlus did not satisfy him.
He had set his heart upon invading Britain, the
white clifib of which be could just Bee from the
coast of France. It was a country of which veiy
httle was known. The Pbcenicions indeed had been
accustomed to get tdn from the mines in the west of
the island, but no one had ventured to explore the
Ulterior. Its shores were rocky and difficult of ap-
proach, and all that Oasar could lewn of the man-
ners and habits of the wild people who inhabited it,
was from the Druids, or priests of the Oaids, who
professed the same religion, and used the same cere-
monies as the Druids of Britain. To a general like
Cffisar, who was fond of adventures, and cared noth-
iwt for danger, it was a great temptation to be the
HIBTOBY Ol KOME. ISS
find to sabdne this distant island ; but, in order to do
so, it would be necessary sUll to continue his com-
mand in Gaul. This object he contrived to obtain
b? the help of his two allies, Pompey and Crassus,
who were choeen consuls just in tune to Aiake the
ehMige in the law which was required,
8. These three men still continued to have every
thing according to their own wishes. Gtesar loved .
glory and conquest, and therefore commanded in a
U)reign province ; Pompey desired the favor of his
fetlow-citizens, and although he was made governor
in Spm, sent a legato to govern for him, and re-
m^ed st Home trying to make himself friends, and
watching all that was going on ; and Crasaua, whose
only care was to be rich, went to rule over Syria,
where he intended to eitort immense snnis of money
Irom the nations subject to him,
4. Wb will follow him now to the end of his life, .
(for he was not suffered to Uve long after bis arrival
in Syria,) and see the end of his avarice.
&. Before leaving Borne he mode a boast of the
countries which he was going to conquer ; yet these
countries were at peace with Rome, and he had no
escuse for making war upon them. One of the trib-
unes heard his vaunt, and warned him that he was
going to commit a great crime. Crassus scorned
him ; and the tribune then solemnly cursed him, and
prayed that if he kept to his mtenlions the gods
might t^e Tengeaoce upon him.
6. Crassus, however, cared nothing for religion,
and pursued his own course. He decided war un-
justly, and took large Bums of money irom the people,
phmdering the temple of Jerusalem of the very treas-
ure which Pompey nad refused to recdve. But his
punishment came at last. In a battle with the Par-
thians his army was defeated ; and soon afterwards
bis young son was killed before his eyes, and he hinf
i&6 ' ^8 child's fikst
telf, whilst tiyiug to escape, being made prisoner
was sMn. TitePartbm eoldieia cut off lus bead,
and carried it to thek kin^, who caused it to be £Ued
, with melted gold, esclamuDg — " Sate thjself now
with that metal of which in li^ thou wert so greedy ."
CHAPTER XXXVIII,
Cesar's ooiiciubst of
~ Q gg^ 1. ALtBODOH Cffisar was kept a long
time in Oaul before he could entirely 8ul>
due the different warlike tribes, he never foi^t bia
wish of inva^g Britain. Accordingly, as soon as
he could make the necessary urangements, he col-
lected a number of vessels, and with a body of troops
crossed the narrow channel between Calais and Deal,
which is the shortest passage from France to Eng-
land ; or, as the countries were then called, from
Oaul to Britfun.
2. The natives rushed to the coast when they saw
these invaders approaching their shores, determined
to prevent them from landing. They were a wild,
savage -looking people, clothed with the skins of ani-
mals, and having parts of thar bodies panted blue :
but Cffisar had long been accustomed to make war
upon barbarians ; and, thcugh the Britons made a
brave resistance, he at last succeeded in landinff.
S. This first expedition, however, neither lasted
very long nor proved very important ; for, althoudi
Kime of the British tribes offered to submit to Oto
Romans, it was so late in the year that Cassar waa
afraid to remain and continue his conquest, and
ROUE. 157
Iherefore vent back to Oanl, Batisfied with LuTUig
been the first peraoa who had ventured to attai^
the vaiiike baray inhabitants of the distant island.
4. The next year-he retnmed, landed at the same
place, and then advanced into Kent, irluch was under
the domtokm of a chief named Casuvelannus. The
Britons in vain endeavored to stop bim. He vent
on with hia t^riops as far as what now is the county
of Surrey, till he came to a place where the river
Thames was not as deep as in other parts, and here
be detennined to cross it The Britons drove stakes
into the river to stop bim, and from this the spot
was afterwards call^ Cowey Stakes ; but Cfesar
crossed as he bad intended, and was then able to
take possesion of the capita] of Cassivelaunus, and
to conquer parts of Essex: and Uiddlesei, and by
that tjme Casavelauius saw that it would be wise
to beg for peace. Cnsar granted it, as he was
obliged to return to Gaul. He made the Britons pay
bim tribute, and took back hostages with him, but he
left DO troops in the island ; and, as might naturally
haye been expected, the Britons gave up their obe-
dience as Boou as they were freed from the presence
of the Romans.
CHAPTER XXXIZ.
CIVIL WUa BBTWXBK F0MPB7 AND O^SAR.
EC 4>. '■ Whilst Caesar was thus adding to
his fame by his conquests in foreign coun-
'jies, Fompey was becoming more and more hia
taanf ; for two ambitious persons «re sure to quarrel
iS8 THE t;HILD*B mtT
irith and hate each other, and nnfortimately the otij
real bond of union between them was Boon ds>
Btroyed )ty the death of Julia, Fompey'a wife and
Cebbot'b daughter. She was a very beautiful, amia-
ble person, and Ctesar loved her aearly ; and whoa
Pompey afterwards married Cornelia, the daughter
of Crassos, they had no longer any interest in coin>
mon.
2. The state of Rome at this period was very dis-
graceful : Clodius, of whom we have heard before
as the enemy of Cicero, and Milo, a very wealthy
and powerful senator, were constantly oiaputing;
and not only in words, but they had each a lai^
number of followers who used to fight when they
met. It happened at last, on the occasion of some
great disturbance, that Clodius was kiUed. Persons
B^ that Milo stabbed him ; and, whether this was
true or not, every one saw that it was necesaaiy to
do something to bring back order. It was proposed
therefore that Pompey should be made consul altme,
in order to give him greater power, and this office be
kept for some time ; ^ter which his father-in-law was
joined with him.
3. Pompey was now master in Rome ; and the
nobles, having an idea that he was more inclined to
favor them than before, sided with him entirely. To
show their dislike to Cffisar, they proposed that he
should be recalled from G-aul, and some one else ap-
pointed in his place. Pompey however would not
consent to this ; for he did not choose yet to declare
nimseif Ctesar's enemy openly. He had a law passed,
to allow C«ata to stand for the consulship, even
whilst he was absent from Rome. But the proposal
alarmed the senators ; for they knew fiat U Cssai
was allowed to be consul, and stilt to keep the com-
inan'1 of his soldiers, who had so long fought undet
him, he would in fact he like a king, as lus commanda
BISTOKT. IIP SOME. IfiS
irere eert^n to be obeyed. Instead therefoie of
mBldng him consul, an order iros Bent, after some
delay, requiring him to disband his anny by a par-
ticular day; and declaring that, if he refused, he
should be conmdered a public enemy. Ctesar wa*
then in what was called CiaolDine Qaul, — the country
at the foot of the Alps, in the north of Italy, Tran-
ealpine Gaul was on the other side of the moun-
t^ns. The news of all that was going on at Rome
was brought him by three of his friends, who were
tribunes, and had endeavored as much as possible to
prevent any wrong being done him, Mark Antony
was one of these ftiends ; a person of bad character,
but brave and clever, who afterwards followed Ctessr
faithfully in all his difBculties.
4. Ceesar was not a person to be frightened by
threats, he was quite resolved not to give up his
command ; and whilst he made his plans, and ar-
ranged with his friends what every one was to do,
he was in appearance as quiet and unconcerned as
ever. The very day after Hark Antony and his com-
E anions arrived he made a great feast, and entertained
is guests with a show of gladiators ; but, as the
evening drew on, he excused himself to the party,
and len them, begging them to remain tilt his return,
A chariot was in r^diness, Ccesar threw himself
mto it, drove to the spot where he had apporated
Bome of his officers and soldiers to meet him, and
then proceeded onwards, until he reached the banks
of the little river Rubicon, which divided his prov-
ince of Cisalpine Qaul Irom the rest of Italy, and
which no general was permitted to pass with an
wmy. Here he became silent and full of thought ;
one minute resolved to go forward with his army to
Rome, and the nest thmking it better to go hack.
"If I do not cross the river," he said, turning to
one of his friends, "I am undone. If I dO cross it,
160 THK CHILD a FllST
bow many calamitJes eliall I by this step brins afot
Rome I" Again be paused and considered and
then exckuming, " The die ia east," plunged into the
tiTer. It naa a most impwtant etep, for the cross-
ing of that little river brought a change npmi the
Thole govermnent of Rome.
5. Pompey and the senators were greatly alarmed
when they heard that G«esar was advancing with
his army into Italy, tTntil that moment, Pompey
bad MIy believed that Cnsar's troops were (Ussads-
fied with him, and would forsake him on thdr arrival
in Italy.
6. When Cicero advised him to prepare for his
enemy, and asked with what forces he meant to
oppose him, Pompey proudly answered, "If I do
but stamp with my feet, an army will start out
of the ground." Now, he was reproached with
the vain boast,' and there was no reply to give. His
presence of mind seemed to have forsaken him, and
hastily calUng upon the senators and magistrates to
follow him, he departed from Rome, and retired to
Brundusium, a seaport on the southeastern side of
Italy.
7. In the mean time Ctesar entered Borne in tri-
umph, no xme having authority to oppose him, for
the magistrates had left the city. Cicero remained
in the ndghborhood, hi his villa at Tusculum ; and
Ctesar went to visit bim, hoping to bring bim over
to his side : but Cicero was not to be persuaded,
either by arguments or entreaties. Ctesar s next ob-
ject was to obtain money for carrying out his plans, i
He went to the treasury for tlus purpose and found
it locked, A young tribune was bold enough to ;
forbid its bebg opened. Ciesar laid his band on hia '
■word, and threatened to kill him, adding sternly— .
' This you know, young man, ia harder for me to
lay than to do." The treasury waa accordingly
niBTOST Ot SOME.
teoken open, and as much money taken from it h
vu required.
CHAPTER XL.
BAVtIX or rOABBlLU, B. o. 48.
no. 18. ^' ■^^ 7^* "** ^"^ °* blood had been
shed in the qnarrel between Pompey and
Coesar ; and this was a great tiiiunph to Csesar, who
was not at alt of a cruel diaposition. But it was cer-
tain that such a state of things could not continue,
and he therefore made considerable preparations for
war. Pompey had left Bnmduaium and was gone
to Oreece ; aad whilst he and his friends were col-
lecting allies and forces in Sidly, Africa, Egypt, and
Asia, all which countries were favorable to lum, Cm-
ear seat generals and officers to oppose him, and
went himself to Spain. Spain was Pompey's prov-
ince, as Gaul was Caesar's ; he was, therefore, more
powerful there than in any other place : yet Cfesar's
good-fortune followed him, and in forty days he had
brought over the whole country to his ude, and was
able to return to Borne, and receive the honor of be-
ing made dictator and consul. The dictatorship he
oi3y held for eleven days, during which he passed
several useful laws.
2. By this time Pompey had collected both men
^d money, and had a large fleet at his command.
Many of the chief persons in the state were on hii
Bide : Cicero and Cato amongst the number. There
*as one, however, whom Caesar regretted more than
kll the others, — Marcus Brutus, a stem, silent, but
162 THE child's first
most hoourable man, who had no real friendship fol
Pompey, but followed him entirely because h«
thought that his cause was the best for the country.
Ctesar had a great regard for Brutus, and looked
upon him alm^ as his son ; yet this did not pre-
vent BrutuB from taking part against him. He was
a man who gave up aU personal affection for what
be beheyed to be the cause of freedom.
8. Now that Csesar waa master in Spun, it was
necessary for bipi to attack Pompey hmiself ; and
accordingly he sailed for Greece, where Pompey
was, as soon as possible ; but he had not ships suffi-
cient to cany over hia whole army, and was there-
fore obliged to leave some of his troops at Bmndu-
uum. Mark Antony remained with them, and the
agreement was that they were to join Ctesar quickly.
Several things happened to prevent this being done,
and Ccesar became so impatient at the delay that he
disQ;uised himself in the dress of a slave, and one
night went on board a fisherman's boat mtending to
cross the Adriatic Sea, and find out for himself why
bis troops were detuned at Brundusium. The ene-
my's vessels were scattered about ; but he had no
thought of danger of any kind, and the little boat
BMled from the shore in the middle of the night, and
for some distance all went well. Suddenly a strong
breeze spnmg up, both the wind and the tide were
G<mtrary, and the master of the boat, despmring of
crossing the sea, proposed to pnt hack. Ttien Ciesar
itarted up and taking him by the hand, said : " Go
on boldly, my friend, and fear nothing ; thou bearest
Caesar and his fortune." The men increased their
efforts ; but Ciesar'a presumptuous boast had no
power to command the winds and the waves. He
was obliged to return, weary and disappointed, and
made no second attempt ; and soon afterwards Hark
Antony succeeded in escajvig the enemy's ships and
HIITOKV or KOHS. 169
tQ other perils, and broogbt the troops safely tc
Qreece.
4. Pompey was at that time at Dyrrachium, noif
called Durazzo, a dXy on the coast of niyricum, op-
po6it« Italy, and there Cssar went to besiege him
His men were much tried by hunger, as they could
get very httle food in the country ; whilst Ponpey'a
soldiers had proriMons brought them by sea. But
no hardshipa could crush the spirit of the brave sol-
diers who had followed Ccesar for so many yctus ;
and in order to convince Pompey that he need not
expect them to give up the uege, because they were
sufieriug from famine, they threw their loaves into
the enemy's camp, and sent word that Ccesar'a sol-
dieiB would rather live upon grass than change their
purpose. They were obliged to do so however, for
a disease broke out amongst fhem, and this with the
bmine was more than they could bear. But Pom-
pey did not g^ any great advantage in consequence.
Cesar removed into Thessaly, and Pompev followed
him with bis troops and came up with lum on the
plains of Pharsalia, and there a battle was fought in
the year B. C. 48,'which is one of the most memor-
able m histoiy.
6. A river ran through the plains of Pharsalia,
which were surrounded on all udes by high moun-
tains. Pompey pitched his camp on a spot where it
was very dif^cult to reach it. He was persuaded to
risk the battle against his own judgment; but his
men were sure of victory, and amusea themselves by
preparing for a feast, which was to be enjoyed when
the batue was over. They had even setUed what
great ofBces and treasures they should have on their
return to Rome ; and some had ^ne so far as to
lure houses suitable for the digmty which they in-
tended to acquire. These were young men, boasting
ad presumptuous. CEesar's soldiers were, very dif
164 TBB CHILD FUST
ferent, and Cffisar toot advantage of wliat he knew
to be the character of Pompey s chief ofQcers, ana
told his troops, when the battle began, to strike at
th^ faces inatead of tb»r legs or their bodies, as he
vras coDTinced they were so vun c^ theu* handsome
appearance, that rather than have it injured they
would run away. The prospect of a battle was a re-
lief to Csesar himself ; and he cheered his men by
saying that the wished-for day was come at last,
when they should fight with men, not with disease
and famine.
6. The trompeta sounded and the battle began.
Ciesar's troops rushed forward, whilst Ptnnpey'g
stood to defend themselves. The mode of attack
which Caesar had ordered, was one which they were
quite unaccustomed to ; the voimg patricians vere
unable to bear it, and fled because they feared to
have their faces covered with acara. Pompey was
overcome with anger at the ught ; without endeavor-
ing to rally them, he left the field of battle, and re
tired slowly to his camp, where he shut himself up
in his tent. When, shortly afterwards, news was
brought him that his army was fotally defeated, he
disguised himself as he best could, and departed,
leaving Csesar to take possession of the ricn tents
and pavilions, adorned vith beautiful carpets and
curtams ; the tables spread out with silver, and flow-
ers, and bowls of wine ; and all the preparatdons for
that great feast which he had so confidently expected
to enjoy himself. Cceaar'a conduct upon this occa-
sion WHS merciful and honorable, as usual, ^osa
who fled were not pursued, and orders were given
to spare as many as possible. The letters found in
Pompey'a tent were burnt without being read ; Ca-
B&r prrferring, as he said, to be ignorant of crimen
rather than to punish it. In his moment of triumph
be had no thought of revenge, even against out
HtSTOltT OF SOME. I8fi
irhom he had loved, but vho had foreaken him. He
■ought for Marcus Brutua, and freely pardoned him.
Brutus was too high-minded himself not to be struck
by such generosity. He followed CEe&ar from that
hour, until once more he became afraid of his &ml»<
tion ; and how bitterly he grieved for that one fault,
and how terribly he punibhed it, after events wilt
7. Pompoy's fnende were all dispersed after the
battle of Pharaalia. Cicero went to Italy ; Cato to
Africa; Pompey himself, accompanied by his wife
Cornelia and his son Sextos, stuled for J^pt, hopii^
to find safety with Ptolemy Dionyaus, the king of
that country. Some years before, the father of this
prince had been dethroned by his subjecta, and Pom-
pey Lad assisted him in. recovering his crown. It
was natural, therefore, to hope that Ptolemy Diony-
uus would give him support now in his distress.
But Ptolemy was a young prince, under the guidance
of evil coonsetlors ; and when the intelUgence arrived
that Pompey was approaching, they gave their opin-
ion as to what was to be done, by saying, '* If we
rec^ve him we shall make Csesar our enemy, and
Pompey our master: if we dismiss him, Pompey
will hate us for being inhospitAble, and Cffisar for
allowlhg bis enemy to escape. Dead men cannot
bite."
8. This was a wicked sufi^i^estion for Pompey's
death ; bitt it was not declared openly. Achillas, an
officer of distinction, was sent to meet him, acoom-
puiied by a man named BeptJmius, who had once
been a centurion in the Roman army. Cornelia
parted from her husband on board the vessel, for she
was not to follow him to the shore. She wept UU
xAv as she stood upon the deck, watching the boat
which conveyed him from her. No aviUty was
ihowu him. He spoke to the centuricoi, and oDiiig
160 THB CHILD 8 FIBBT
hkn by his iiame, said, "Metbinlia I should 1aM>w
joa, frieud. Havo we not been formerly fellow-eol
Aiers ?" But the only reply was a moody ncxi of ths
head. Then Pompey took out a little book in which
he bad written a speech in Greek, which be intended
to address to Ptolemy, and thus in silence and gloom
they neored the land. Stilt Cornelia gazed intendy.
She observed pereons of distinction approaching to
meet her husband, and the sight gave her hope ; but
the next minute, Pompey stood up to quit the boat,
and she saw swords glitter in the sunligbt as Sep-
timius lifted up bis band and stabbed Pompey in the
back whilst bis companions joined in the attack.
Pompey fell, covering bia face with his robe. Oome-
lia uttered a wild sbnek, beard even to the shore, and
the sulora without delay weighed anchor, and sidled
from tbe spot where such a cruel murder bad beea
committed. The head of Pompey tbe Great waa
out off, and kept as a present for Cossar ; his body
woi ^eft upon the beach. The mbabitants of the
country came near to look upon it scornfully and
idly ; but there was one person who would not for-
pake bis master's cause even then, Philip, the &eed-
man of Fompey, etood by, watching and guarding
tbe body, and ^ter the careless crowds were gone,
he ivasbed it, and wrapped it in a garment of b3 own,
and coUecting tbe puuiks of a broken fisbing-boat,
made a funeml pile, upon which he burnt it accord-
ing to the custom of the Romans. An old soldier,
who bad once fought under Pompey, came by at the
time and assisted bim ; and thus tbe last honois were
paid to the great general.
0. Csesar followed Pompey to Egypt On his
arrival at Alexandria, Achillas welcomed him by
presenting bim with Pompey's ugnet ring, and iat
bloody bead covered with a veil. He turned away
tus eyes imd burst into tears, 8o generous a person
HI8TORY OP ROME. IS)
could not rejoice over the misfortunes of the man
irho had once been his friend.
10. There was now an opportunity for Csesar to
mterfere with the government of Efypt, and he took
advantage of it. The late king had by will ordered
that Ptolemy Dionysius should, according to the
habits of the country, marry his sister. Those name
was Cleopatra, and reign with her ; but this had not
been done. Ptolemy's governors hated Cleopatra,
and forced her to leave her dominions ; and now she
applied to Caesar for his help. Cleopatra was one
of the most beautiful women that ever lived ; every
one who came near was channed with her : but she
had no right principles, and cared only for luxmy and
self-indulgence. She quite won over Ciesar to her
side, for after seeing her he could not bear to refuse
any thing she asked, and in order to support her
catue be joined his forces to hers, and took posses^u
of the citadel of Alexandria.
11. This war in Kgypt — between Ptolemy on the
one side, and Caesar mid Cleopatra on the other — ia
usu&lly called the Alexandrine war. In the course
of it the library of Alexandria, the most celebrated in
the world, was burnt. It contained 400,000 volumes.
The war lasted several months. Ptolemy Dionysius
was killed, and Cleopatra was crowned queen of Kgypt.
Ccesar caused her younger brother to be made king ;
but he was quite a boy, and she could not b^r
him, and had him secretly murdered in order to
reign alone. It seemed natural to expect after this
that Cseaar would go back to Italy ; but he was so
delighted vrith Cleopatra that be could not make up
his mind to leave her, and remained month after
month wasting his time, and living only to amuse
hunself, until at length the news of a war ha^ng
tntiken out in Pontus roused him, and forced him to
mxt himself. He ahowed then the same energy and
108 THE child's FIHST
courage as ever. He departed for Pontna, dcfeaUd
his enemies, and set off for Italy, in such a wonder-
fully short space of time, that hiB yiot^My was de-
scribed by hunaelf in these words— Veni, ridi, vtei :
or, "I came, saw, conquered,"
CHAPTER XLI.
C'Bear'b power ruLLT establishbd.
R C 4S. ^' ^ii^*^ Ciesar landed in Italy he wai
met by Cicero ; whq had much reason to
fear bis return, as he had always taken Pompey'a
part. But Ceesar, in order to ebow that he bad no
wish for revenge, received him with the greatest
courtesy ; dismounted from his horse to welcome
him, and walked with him alone a long time. All
this attention pleased Cicero esceaaively ; but he
still did not feel quite safe, and chose to rem^ at
a distance from Rome, and occupy himself with his
books, and the writings which have made bis name
famous to this day.
2. There Vas much now for Cjesar to arrange in
the city ; but his chief trouble arose from the bad
conduct of hia friends, especially that of DolabelU,
Cicero's son-in-law, a person of bad character, who,
having spent his own money, wished to have a law
passed doing away with SkU debts. Csesar, how-
ever, soon settled these disturbaiices, for, as he was
chosen dictator for another year, he had full power
to do all that he liked.
a. When we compare Cresar's conduct with that
of Uarius and Sylla, it is imposMble not to respeol
nim. His wish, when he had autliority, aaetaeai tc
HIHTOET OF SOME. 160
M to make good lawt and forget all injuries: but
he could not perenade every one that it was right
he BhouM be at the head of the state ; and Pom-
wy's friends still kept np war against him in dif-
ferent parts of the world. Cato was his chief
enemy. He was in Africa with Jnba, king of
Kumidia, and as soon as Cssar had bronght &me
bto order, he set out ior that country. His osiutl
good fortune followed him. Juba was defeated ;
and Cato, who was at ITtJca, nnable to bear the
di^race of falling mto his enemy's hands, de-
termined to perform what the Romans thought a
noble. deed, and destroy himself. He advised his
friends to leave the dty, and eihorted the inhabit-
ants, when Cesar was expected to enter it, to throw
open the gates, and go out to meet him and beg
for mercy. He himself bathed according to his
custom before supper, and afterwards sat down
cheerfully with his friends, who remuned with him
conversing upon deep and serious subjects. Upon
going to his room be ordered a slave to bring him
his sword, but when the man delayed and hesitated,
having a suspicion of what he intended to do, Cato
burst mto a fit of passion, and struck him with such
violence that he hurt himself ; for although he was
a philosopher, and could discourse upon most deep
and puzzlmg subjects, he had not learned to conunand
his temper, ^e sword however was brought him,
and he seemed then satisfied, and taking up a book,
sat down to read. The boot which he chose wao
the work of one of the wisest and beat of heathens,
Plato, a Greek philosopher. It was upon the immor-
tality of the soul, and doubtless at such a time it must
have encouraged and comforted Cato, weary as he
was of the tnals of this life and longing for rest in
mother. Bat there was notlung certain in it. Plato
ud his followers thought and hoped there was a
170 TBE CBtLD B FIRST
world of hapianess to come, but they ■wero not sun'
nf it, and the knowledge of a litLe Ghiistian child
wotdd, at that moment, have been a blessing beyond
all price to the unhappy Roman ; though it would
have tAught bim that Belf-destruction is a great fan,
and that it would be better to live for yeara the Blavv
of Cseaar rather than commit it. At length, over*
come with fatigue, Cato lay down to rest. He Blept
for Boiae time, and when he awoke made inquiries
about his friends, who were to have left the city. This
made lus son and others who were in the house bapjuer,
and they began to think that he bod do such intention
as they bad suspected ; but when morning dawned, and
they entered His room, they found him lying on the
floor half dead &om a wound which be had ^ven
himself. In distress and bcnrw ibey tried every
means to save his life ; but he would not be assisted,
and thrusting aside the phy^ciana who att«nded him,
tore off the bandages of nis wound, and expired.
i. Csesar arriv^ shortly afterwards. He express-
ed much sorrow for tbe loss of a man bo celebrated
for honor and troth, and excl^med : — " Cato, I envy
thee thy death, since thou hast envied me the glory
of saving thy life."
5. The only enemy remwning for Ctesar to con-
quer when the war in Africa was ended, naa Cdhus
Pompey, the eldest bod of Pompey the Great, who,
with his brother Sextus, was in Spain. Ciesar was
afraid to trust the command to any one but himself,
and therefore went to Spain as soon as he had ar-
ranged bis afituia in Africa. This was the last effcnt
made by Pompey's friends, and it was the most des-
perate of all. Ceesar, however, was victorioua in tbe
end. Cneius Pompey was killed, and Sextus escaped
and iired in concealment until after Csesar'a death
HISTOKT or ROME.
CHAPTER XLII.
JULIUS CfSAB DICTATOR FOR LITB.
B 0.44 ^' "**"* '"^"^' "P*"* ^^^^'^ retutti to
Rome, it would have seemed that hia great
■mbiUon must hare been satisfied ; for be was lord
oi the vast Bomao dtmunions, being made dictator
for life, and the titles of imperator and father of his
tanaiTy were bestowed upon him. The title impera-
tw, or emperor, had a diSerent meaning then from
what it has now. It was properly given to the Ro-
man generals as a higb honor ; but it did not descend
from father to son, and might be granted to any per-
son whom the senate wished to reward. Sylla, we
may remember, gave the title of imperator to Pom-
pey. Beudes these titles, CEesar was made dictator
tor life ; his statue was placed among those of the
kings, and the month in which be was £)m was named
after him — July, from Julius. Yet Ceesar was not
satisfied : earthly ambition never is : there is always
something which we wish for and cannot have. The
wish lurking in Ciesar's heart was to make himself a
kins '■ the title of imperator, as it only signified the
highmt nulitary authoiity, did not satisfy him. He
did not however show this at once, for he occupied
himself diligently in reforming the laws, and doing
good t4) the country ; and in every possible way tried
to gain the affections of the people, and make them
fe^thathe was thdr friend and benefactor. Amongst
other things, he caused Carthage and Connth to be
rebuilt near their former ^tes, and it was to the per-
lons who afterwards lived in Corinth that St. Paul
wrote bis epistles.
S. The suspicions of the Romans as to Caesar's wirii
172 THE CHILD B flKHT
of bdDg a luug, were &^ caused hj some instanoet
of great pride ; such as his sittjng down whea tli«
senate and chief ina^;istrat6s went to him to ooafer
upon him some peculiar honors. He refnsed a orown,
indeed, which his friend. Mart Antony, who knew
what he was lon^ng for, contrived to offer him, uprai
the occasion of some great public festival ; but it wai
erident that he was not displeased at its being shown
that he might have one if he chose it
3. This notion of Cvsar's deuting to be king mad«
many persona extremely angry ; for they believed
that the old foim of government was best, and that
kings were only tyrants. Uarcus Brutus especially
was of this opbion. He had received great favora
from CKSar smce the battle of Pharsaha, but thn
did not prevent bim from seeing and hadng bis ambi
tion ; and at length, contrary to all his natural offeo*
tion and respect, he entered into a plot to take away
his life. Sixty persons were joined with him ; one
of the chief of whom was Cassius, a man whose chief
motive for conspiring gainst Cssar was a personal feel-
bg of ill-will, because an office which he desired bad
been refused him. Cassius it was who first peisoaded
Brutus that it would be for the good of the country
if Cnsar were lulled. Uany of the other conspira-
tors had, like him, taken offence at some neglect or
fani^ed unkindness ; and perhaps there was not one,
except Brutus, who really wished for the freedom of
the country, though all pretended that it was th^
only inducement to commit such a crime.
4. The plot wa3 managed very carefully, and an op-
portunity was soon found for putting it into eiecutitm.
A meeting of the senate was fixed for the 15th, or—
as that day of the month was called in the Roman
calendar — the Ides of March. At this meeting it
was to be publicly proposed that Ctesar ahouldbe
made king of Italy, a prophecy having declared that
BIBTORT OF ItnMB. ITS
MBB but a king should conquer Partlun, irhich conn-
try the RomanB were about to inrade to avenge the
ieath of Crassus ; tad the intention of the conspira-
tors iraa to murder Ceesar upon this occasion. At- .
though ereiy thmg was managed bo secretly, Portia,
the "wife of Bmtus, and the daughter of Cato, soon
perccdved that something was weighing on her hus-
band's mind, and as he £d not tell her what it was,
she supposed he must be afraid that she had not
strength and courage to bear it. Being a person of
great firmness and devotedly fond of Bmtus, she de-
termined to give him a proof that she could keep a
secret, whatever pain it might cost her. She there-
fore gars herseU a wound with a dagger, which
brought on a fever ; but Portia bore all the suffering
BO quietly that no one knew of her illness until it be-
came dangerous. Then she informed her husband
what she had done, and why; and Brutus, who ad-
mired her courage, and respected her sense and
indginent, trusted her with the secret of the plot.
Portia seems to have had as little idea as Brutus that
what be intended to do was wrong, for she allowed
hiia to follow his own coui^ without attempting to
dissuade biin from it.
6. Csesar, in the mean time, was not left without
Bome warning of his danger. Spurina, a famous
augur, had cautioned him to beware of the Idea of
March ; and on the morning of the meeting of the
ssaembly, his wife, Calpumia, entreated him not to
so to H, as she had that night been troubled with a
fnghtfiU dream which wam^ her he would be mur-
dn^ed. Cffisar was inclined to listen ; but one of the
conspirators, bearing that there was some delay,
hastened to his bouse, sod laughmg at Calpnmla ■
'ears, persuaded him to keep to his purpose,
6. As he passed through the street, the augm
Spurina met him, Csesar smiled at him, and said :—
174 THE CBILd's FIB3T
" Spurina, the Ides of March are come." " Yes,"
replied the auffitr ; " but they are not paat." Again
he was stopp^ : a paper was thrust into his hand
cont^nin^ a full account of the conspiracy ; but there
was no time then to read it, and Ciesar passed on.
The oonspiratora were waiting his approach in some
alarm, for they had reason to think that the plot was
discorered. A senator came up to one of them,
named Casca, and s^d: — "You have kept your
secret &om me, but Brutus has told me the whole."
This was a startling speech, hut it meant only that
the senator knew the means by which Casca had
lately become rich. Another senator whispered to
Brutus and Cassius : — " My wishes are with you ;
but delay not, for the afiair is now no secret ; and
the same person went up to Ceesar aa soon as he
reached the door of the great halt, and talked to
him for some time. C«esar appeared to listen very
attentively, and the conspiratots then were nearly
certain they were betrayed ; but at last the senator
kissed Caesar's hand, which was a mark that he had
been making a pedtion, and retired. Ccesar entered
the hall and stood near Pompey's statue, which he
had himself caused to be erected. One of the con-
spirators drew Mark Antony aside, that he might not
be at hand to defend his friend. The others gather-
ed round Ceewr, urging a request for the r^sall of
one of th«r friends, Metellus Cimber's brother, from
exile. Cssar would not agree to it, and Cimber
eaught his robe. This was the dgnal i^^ed upon.
Casca, who stood behind, drew his dagger sai stab*
bed him in the back, and the next instant the -vhole
body of conspirators surrounded him with their
weapons drawn. Ctesar defended himself in des-
peration, t^ he caught sight of Bmtus. The agony ,
oi discovering ingratitude was worse than the piun '
of death; lie no longer stiniggled, but funtly ex<
HISTORY OF SOME. 17S
cLuming, "And thou, too, Brutus — my Boni" cov-
ered bia face 'with his robe, and fell, pitirced with
three-and-twenty vounds, at the foot of his rival's
«tatue.
CHAPTER XLUI.
B OF BOMB AFTER THE DEATH OF C^SAR.
B.C. 43. ^' ^°* death of Caesar is strange and
perplexing to us, when we think that Bru-
tes was concerned in it, for Brutus certdnly was an
honorable, unselfish man : hut we must bear in mind
that Brutus had no knowledge of what is called an
orerruling Providence ; that is, the power of a
Being who ordera all for good, and in whom we
must patiently trust when we cannot help ourselves
without dcaxig wrong. When Brutus saw things, as
he thought, going on badly, he believed it his duty
lo set l£em right at all hazards. He had never
learned that it is a sin to do evil that good may
come, and no doubt satisfied himself by thinking
that it was far better to lull Cteear than to allow
bim to be a tyrant. Persons often deceive them-
selves in the same kind of way now, doing what
they call a little harm in order to gain a great ad-
vantage; and they have not the excuse t^t Bru-
tus had.
2. Caesar was no sooner dead than Brutus stood
'orth in the senate house, intending to explmn the
reasons of his conduct. But no one stayed to
listen to him. The senators hastily left the hall,
CKsar's iriends retired to thdr houses, the couuikhi
176 THE child's fikst
people shut up tii^ shops, and the vhole city vai
in confu^n. Brutos, Cassius, and thdr compan-
tons. marched through the . streets irith daggNB
drawn, and then retired to the capitol, where tiiey
thought it would be better to remain till they could
see Bomctfaiug more of the true feeling of the peo-
ple aa to the death of Csesar.
3, The next day Brutus came down agwn into the
fonmi, and made a speech to the citizens; but he
could discover by th»r sad faces that tiiey were not
pleased at what had been done, for Caesw had been
very hind to them. Still no one proposed to pun-
ish him or his friends; indeed it was not at all
decided whether they had done well or ill. The
senators met together to determine whether Cfesar
was a tyrant or not, and the pomt was only set at
reet by Cicero, who persuaded them to leare the
question undecided, and to decree that all which
had. been done should be left, and neither punished
nor rewarded. When this was agreed upon, the
conspirators ctune into the city, and Cassius supped
with Antony, and Brutus with L^idus, one of Gee-
'i ^atest friends, as a Mgn of their aQ being
4. But this appearance of peace was only a de-
lusion. It was decreed by the senate that Csesar
should have a splendid funeral, and his will be read
publicly; and a strong feeling agwnst Bnitua and
Ihe other conspirators was eicited, when the contents
of tins will were made known. The people then saw
plainly that Ceesar had in reality a great wish to be
their benefactor; for his gardens were left for the
use of the public, and a sum of money was to be be-
stowed upon every poor majt. The greatest por-
tion of his property was bequeathed to his great
nephew, Octarius, who afterwards became so famoua
uder the name (k Augustus ; but Seumus BnitiUt
HISTOBT OF ROME. 171
MM of the conspirators, and Mark Antony, were to
nieoeed to the inheritance if Octaviua died without
5. It was on the occasion of Csesor's funeral that
Mark Antony endeavored to increase the ill-feelii^
Bg^nst the conB[HTatora which the will had cauaetf
Cffisar'a body was then brought into the forum, laid
upon an ivory bed, and covered with cloth of gold
and purple ; and Mark Antony, according to the
nsoal forms, made a speech over it. He reminded
the people of Ciesar'a valor, mercy, and generoBity ;
of the Idndness shown them in hia will; and the
benefits which he had conferred upon his country :
and lifting up the robe which covered bis body,
pointed to the wounds, as if they would best call for
vengeance upon the murderers. This sight excited
the citizens almost to madness. They burst forth
into cries and threats of revenge, s^zed upon the
benches and chairs of the m^^trates, and the coun-
ters and tables from the shops, and rm«ng a funeral
pile, placed the body of Ctesar upon it, tuid burnt it,
as was the Soman custom ; whilst many ladies of
rank threw their jewels and ornaments into the fire,
to mark th«r respect and regret
6. In the nudst of this confusion, Brutus and his
friends left tie rity, perc^ving tb^ it was no longer
safe to remiun there, Brutus proceeded to Mace-
doma, which was a province granted him by Cte-
sar; and Cassius to Syria, which was his province
b the same way. But we must leave them for the
present,
1. Antony was now all-powerful, but he used his
authority in such a way as to make every one dissat-
'sfied, Cssar's papers were in his possession, and
he pretended that what he did was according to
Casar's wish ; but in fact he upset all the old
arrangements, and by the help cf T.epidus, deciiled
THE CHILIiB FIBHT
apoa maldiig changes ia the government of nearly oil
the provinces. Cicero was the only person who dared
to mid fault with him. The Epeeches in which he
complained of his conduct in the senate, were called
Phihppics, and are very celebrated.
8. Antony however had a worse enemy to dread
than Cicero, one whom as yet he had scarcely thought
of. This was Octavius, CtBsar's great nephew and
adopted son, to whom, as was said, he left a large
portion of lus property. Octavius was scarcely nine-
teen at the time of his uncle's death. He had served
nnder him, and Csesar had always felt a great affec-
tion for him, and no doubt had discovered his supe-
rior talents ; for the conduct of Octaviuii at this pe-
riod shows that he must have been very much more
prudent and wise than persons of bis ^e in general.
Octavios came to Rome as soon as he heard of
Oeesar's mnrder, to take possession of his property ;
but to his great emprise he found that this would be
a dif&cult matter. Antony had seized upon it and
used it to pay his own debts, and when Octavins ap-
plied for an acconnt of it, he could get neither infor-
matioD nor assistanca.
9. The promises made to the people in Cesar's
will had beffldea never been kept, ana great discon-
tent had arisen in consequence. The effect of this
mjustJce and dishonesty naturally was to make Oota-
vius and Antony deadly enemies. Octavius assured
the people they should have their rights, and even
pwd what was required out of his own property; and
this guned him great favor. Cicero also took his
part, and continued his Philippics agfunst Antony very
vehemently ; and as great quarreb at that time be-
tween persons of exaSed rank generally brought on
war, it was soon dear that Antony and Octavios
would shortly be in arms t^mnst each other. An-
tony began to collect his forces, under the [ '
qI9T0ItV OB ROME. 179
)f takiog possesion of the province of Cisalf ine Oaul,
vhich was governed by one of the conspimtora, Deci-
mua Brutus; but Octavius knew that these troops
might be quickly turned against him ; and having
Cicero on his aide to make speeches in his favor, and
persuade the senate to do what he wished, he induced
them to declare Antony a public enemy ; whilst an
irmy was actually given to liimself to support Deci-
mus Brutus against him.
10. This was a very strange mixture of persona
and parties ; but every one seems to have been think-
ing of himself, and not to have cared whom he joined
with, as long aa it was for hia own mterest. Octa-
vius was Antony's enemy for some time, and war
was carried on vigOTously in the north of Italy. An-
tony was defeated ; and Octavius, having by this
time gained a great name, farced the senate to midie
him consul, though he was so young, that at first
they quite laughed at the request. A law was im-
mediately passed, declaring that all the murderers o£
Ctesar were outlaws ; and they were in consequence
ihiven from one place to another in fear of their lives,
tiU at length they were nearly all, except Brutus and
CassiuB, killed. After this, Octavius, semg that the
senate were becoming jealous of his power, thought
it might be more for his advantage to take part with
Antony. Accordingly he proposed to make peace
with him, and to meet him and ids friend Lepidus at
a place appointed, where they might settle how they
should together manage the affeurs of the state for
the future. This meeting took place in the year
B. C. 43, and the arrangement which was then made
was like that which had before been agreed upon by
Pompey, Crassus, and J^us Ceesar. '
1 1. Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus formed a second
triiiin\'irate. They were to rule together, to support
M(di other, to divide the government of the provmeea
ISO THE CHILD a FIRST
as tbev close ; and, to g^n the favor (f the aoldien
by ^ving them the lands of the citizens.
12. lien they took the -whole power of the state
into their own l^ds ; and, in order to be certain of
putting their plana in execution, detcrnmied to kiU all
their enemies by proscription. A list was made of
the persons to be murdered. Each had private ene-
mies and private friends ; but this made no difFerence.
The persons mentioned were all to be lolled ; onrf
Lepidus gave up his brother ; Antony his uncle ; and
Octaviua his friend, Cicero.
13. After this moat horrible agreement thoy set
off for Rome. Their soldiers were ordered to take
possession of the city, and one of the tribunes yras
forced to propoae to the people that the agreement
just formed, between Octavius, Antony, and Lepidus,
should be made lawful. So one ventured to stop the
proceeding ; and, as soon as the triumvirate were ea-
tablishad as the governors of the state, they began
their oniel work of destroying their enemies.
14. A proclamation ytas aet forth, threatening all
who protected the proscribed with death, and forbid-
ding their relations to show sottow for their loss ;
and the frightful scenes which foDowed can scarcely
be described. Rewards were offered to those who
would discover where the proscribed were hidden ;
and slaves gave up their masters, and even children
tlieir parents, for the sake of money. Many fled from
the city, and died from want ; the streets were filled
with dead bodies, and it seemed as if Borne was
doomed to destruction.
16. Cicero was at his villa at Tusculuro when the
list of the persons proscribed was published. He
tried to escape ; but, bdng very unwell, was obliged
to be carried in a htter, and his pursuers reached him
before he could arrive at the seacoast. The slaves
irould have defended him, but ho would not allow
BISTOKT OF KOHB. 161
them to do so, and when the horBemen came up, be
quietly stretched out his head, and at one blow it was
BSTered from his body ; iwd his right hand, with which
he had written the Philippics, was also cut off at An-
(ody's desire. It is said that Antony gued on the
head with delight, and sent it to lus wife Fulna, who
was even more cruel than himself, and pierced the
longue with a golden bodkin, which she wore in her
hair, in revenge for the speeches that Cicero bad made
against her husband.
CHAPTER XLIV.
BBUTUB AND OABSI
E C 42. ^' ^^""^ "^ these events were pasamg
in Italy, Brutus and Cassias bad been en-
gaged in defending their provinoes of Macedonia and
Syria agmnst the governors who were sent by
Antony to take possession of them ; but when the
triumvirate was established they met at Sardis, in
A^ Minor, and agreed to jcnn uiw forces and pre*
pare for regular war. Lai^ armies were collected
by them, and they were much asasted by Sextua
Pomprius, the son of Pompey the Great, who had
ventured from his place <x concealment when he
heard of the death of Cssar, and had made himsell
master of Sicily, the island from which the Bomans
procured their com, and wUch was therefore a very
unpoitant place.
2. Bmtus must by thb time have been very un-
happy. He had tried to order events itx himself
aad every thing had failed. The dea'h of Casoi
183 THE CBlLD'a IIBST
had brouglit no good to hia country, for the tihnn-
vira were much worse tyrants than he could ever
bare feared Cssar voidd be. There were also
trials of another kind for lum. Cassias and he wera
not such friends as formerly, CasMua waa an ava-
ricious, loT-minded man ; and Brutus could not bear
he maimer in which he extorted money from the
people under him. They had quarrelled upon thia
subject, and though they were reconciled affain, it
could not be forgotten that unkind wor^ hud
passed between them ; whilst, to increase the bitter-
ness of every other sorrow, Portia, whom Brutus
BO dearly loved, died whilst he was absent from her ;
broken-hearted at the calamities which had befallen
her country.
3. Brutus had now nothing to cheer him but bis
own thoughts, which could only have been sad ones,
and an occurrence, related as having taken place at
this time, increased the weight upon bis spirits. As
he was sitting one night alone in his tent, mu^g
upon the troubled state of public affairs, he sud-
denly perceived a gigantic figure standing before
him, Brutus was startled at the sight, but still
kept his presence of mind ; " What Mt thou 1" he
said ; " and for what purpose art thou come ?" " I
am tMne evil genius, Brutus," rephed the phantom ;
** we shall meet f^ain at Philippi." " I will see
thee there," answered Brutus, boldly ; and (be figure
vanished. This strange circumstance made a deep
impression upon the mind of Brutus, though he en-
deavored to reason himself out of it, espetualiy as
he was then upon the point of crossing over to
Macedonia, and shortly afterwards was forced to face
Antony and Octavius at Philippi. The battle waa
t>egun against the wish of Brutus ; but hia soldiers
were unpafient, and would not be restrained. Oc-
Faviua was ill, and Bmtus was victorious over the
HISTOBT OF ROME. 183
general who commanded in his stead. But GoBaiua
vaa not so fortunate ; his troops were routed by
Antony, firutiu saw it, and sent him dd ; but
Oessius mistook the soldiers for part of Antony's
Umy, and as they drew near gave up his cause for
ost, and calling to a freedman, ordered him to run his
■word through his body; and so, as he supposed,
end all hia troubles. The loss of Cassiua was a ter-
rible blow for Brutus. He forgot his faults, and bit-
terly lamented him ; but there was still some hope
lt:ft, and a few days afterwards he was persuaded to
lisk another battle.
4. This also took place at Philippi, in the year
B. C. 42, and again, it is said, the spectre appeared
to him. If it were so, the prophecy of eyil being
at hand was truly fulfilled. The following day hB
Eirmy was completely defeated, and Brutus galloped
from the field of battle. He was pursued, but one
of hia friends gave himself up to secure hia safety ;
and pretending that he was Brutus, was taken be-
fore Antony. The decdt was instantly discovered,
but Antony forgave it. Brutus, in the mean while,
had fully made up his mind as to what he should
do. He saw that there was now no prospect *(
victory, and resolved to die rather than f^ ahvo into
the bauds of his enemies. He spoke cheerfully to
the persons who remained with him, and said that
he hoped Antony and Octavius would be sa^fied
with his death, and not puisue thdr revenge any
further; and then, retiring to a little distance, en-
treated, his friend Strato to give him the last proof
of affectioii by killing him. Strato hesitated ; but
Brutus pressed him so oamestly that at last he con-
sented, and presenting the point of his sword, Brutug
threw himself upon it and expired.
FHB CHILD a FIKBT
CHAPTER XLV.
iY THS aZCOMV
2^Q ^j 1. Aftee tha battles at Philippi, Antony,
Octavina, and Lepidus divided the govern-
ment of the Boman empire amongst tbem. Antonj
went to A»a, Lepidus to Africa, and Octavius re-
mmned at Rome. But it was not to be supposed
that they would long remain friendly to each other,
and the history of the period which followed is
nothing but an account of quarrels arising from am-
bition, selfishness, and luxury. Octavius was res-
olutely bent upon making himself the sole head of
the empire, and the conduct of Antony and Lepi-
dus was such as to put very few hinderances in his
way. Lepidus was an old man, and when he re-
tired to lus provmoe persons began to forget him ;
and Antony, instead of devoting his time to govern-
ing properiy, seemed to have lost every wish but
that of uving a life of ease mid pleasure. The cause
of this was the influence of Cleopatra, the beautiful
qunen of £^;ypt. Antony summoned her to appear
before him in Asia, and answer for havii^ assisted
Brutus and Casaius ; but on her arrival she charmed
liim as before she had del^hted Cssar, and Antony
left his province and went with her to Egypt, where
he remamed month after month, entirely neglecting
his government, and becoming odious and contempti-
ble to every one who possessed fny sense or right
feeling.
2. His wife Fulvia endeavored to recall him to
HI8TOBY OF ROME. llSb
Italy. She eidted a commotioa in his absence by
malang some of the poor people rebel because they
were Buffeiing from famiae, and the insolent conduct
of the soldiers who were settled amongst them ; and
then she sent to Antony to come and aemt her ; bat
Antony only blamed her for creating such disturban-
ces, and went on just the same as before. He was
afterwards induced to exert himself when a war
broke out in Parthia and Syria, and there was an
idea, at tliat time, that he would ^ve some asrast-
ance to Fulvia ; but before he could reach her the
iosurrectbs was at an end, and FvdTia was obliged
to leave Italy, and soon afterwards died. Octavius
WHS then induced to overlook what had passed, and
proposed that Antony should marry Octaria, his
sister, a lady celebrated for her virtue and beauty,
and much too good to be the wife of such a bod
man ; but who was forced to marry Antony in order
to please her brother, and because it was thought
desu^ble that the two chief rulers in the state should
be connect*jd by marriage.
3. Octavius and Antony now joined their forces
and prepared to attack Sertus Pompeius, who still
had great power at sea and did not entirely submit
to them. They soon however made peace with him,
and Antony went back to Borne and lived for some
time a quiet life with Octavia, as if he had been a
private person, whilst his legates made war for him
in Parthia. The peace with Sextus Pompeius dil
Dot last very long, and when war broke out E^^n,
it caused a great disagreement between Antony am!
Octavius. Octavius wing in need of asastance sent
for Antony to come and help him ; but on his tar-
rival declared that he did not want him. Antony
ras so angry at this, that, if it had not been for
Octavia, there would probably have been a violent
quarrel between them. She, however, persuaded
ISn TRE CHILD a FIKST
them to be friends, and they ^reed to help eaeL
other iiv their different ware, and to continue the tri-
umTJrate for five yeara longer. It 'a very veari-
Eome to read of these perpetual disputes, but there
b nothing else to be expected frcna peraons who
join together selfishly. Octaviua went on steadily,
wming at his one great object, and every thing-
which came in his way he set aside. For this pur-
pose he contrived to bribe tte soldiera of Lepidus,
who were assisting him against Seztns Pompeiua, to
come over to his camp, and thus oblige Lepidus to
give up his authority. The soldiers did bo ; and
Lepidus, without making any effort to regain his
power, went to Rome, where Octavius made him
the chief pontiff, or priest — an office which he held
till he died. Bextus Pompous, being about the
same time defeated, fied to Syria, where he was
killed by Antony's command ; and there was now,
therefore, no rival left for Octaviua to dread, except
Antony himself.
4. Herod the Great, tine of Jndea, in whose ragn
our Blessed Saviour was bom, bodk part in these
wars. He waa first ^vemor of Galilee, and sided
with BnituB and Cassius ; bat, after the battles at
Philippi, he offered to submit himself to Antony,
who phoned him because his father had been a
great friend to Ccesar. Afterwards, when there was
a war in Porthia, the Farthiana invaded Judea, and
Herod was obliged to leave his country and take
refuge with Cleopatra in Egypt. From thence he
went to Rome, where Octaviua iras so deUf^ted
with his manners and appearance, that he nwdA
him hog of Judea.
HIBTOET OF KOHE.
CHAPTER XLVr.
ONT AND OLEOPATRl
_ » ,, 1. Antoki carried on the Partliiiin war
himself, whilst Octavius was occupied in
taldng Bwaj the authority of Lepidus and destroy-
ing Seztus Pompeius. He was very unsuccessful,
but this did not grieve him much, for his only
wish was to be agwn in %ypt with Cleopatra ; and,
as soon as be could possibly arrange his a&irs, he
set off for Alexandria.
2. His wife, Octavia, who had always behaved in
the most excellent manner, did every thing she could
to help him when he was engaged in his wars, and
collected troops for him, and provided them with
money and clothes; but Antony entirely neglected
her, and sent her word that he did not wish her to
follow him, as she had mtendcd ; and at last he de-
clared that she should not be his wife any loiter.
Accordingly he divorced her, and immediately after-
wards married Cleopatra,
3. After this great insult, there could of course be
no peace between Octaviua and Antony. Octaviua
declared war against Cleopatra and her husband ;
and Antony was in the greatest danger. But flat-
tery and power, and the love of pleasure, must by
tbia time have completely turned his head ; for he
behAved not only like a wicked man, but a fool —
caring only for amusement whilst every one else was
ia alarm.
4. Cleopatra encourj^d him in all his absurdity
and extravagance. Theu' mode of life, their dinners
188 TH£ CHILI' a FI8ST
and entertainmeiits, -were the most Bplendid thiit
could be imagined ; indeed, they eeemca to live prin-
cipally for the pleasure of eating and drinking, and
induing themselves in every wish and fancy. On
one occasion, it is said that Cleopatra dissolved a
Jiearl of immense value in vinegar, and drank it ofl
rom a mere whim. But in the nudst of this luxury
Antony vas not at ease. Though he called Cleo-
patra a goddess, and allowed her to have her way
in every thing, he was still afrad of her, and at one
time thought she was intending to poison him.
5. And, whilst all this was going on, Octavius was
Gte&dily following his own plans, and beut upon their
destruction. In the spring of the year, B. C. Si,
he assembled a great fleet, and an army also, and
Antony and Cleopatra took measures for opposing
him. Antony had sdll immense power: he com-
manded all Uie provinces from the river Euphrates
and Armenia to the Ionian Sea and Illyncnm, a
country opposite Italy, to the northwest of Greece,
Six IdngB, subject to Rome, followed him with thdr
armies m person ; and three others, amongst whom
was Herod, kmg of Judea, aent forces to assist him.
Octavius had no for^gn princes in his army ; but his
fleet was better than Antcmy's, more fit for service,
and manned with better sulors.
6. This was a peculiar advantage, for the first
great battle between him and Antony was fought at
sea, at Acdum, on the coast of AcamauJa, in a bay
which is now known as the Gulf of Arta.
1. At the beginning, the victory was doubtful;
but Antony was doomed to be punished by the very
person who had led him to forget all his duties.
Cleopatra was present at the battle, and when sh«
feared that it would he lost, she staled away witJi
nsty of her Egyptian ships,
6. Antcmy heard of her desertion with shame and
HISTOSY OP KOMB 189
■mazement ; yet he followed her, and left, his meL
to continue the battle as they could without him.
Upon overtaking Cleopatra's vessel he was recdved
on board i but his vexation was ao great that he
would not take any notice of her, and, pladng him-
self at the stem of the vessel, sat with his elbows
resting on his knees, and his head on his hands, and
in Uiis state continued for a long time. Cleopatra's
attendants at last persuaded him to see her, and An-
tony, who was really as fond of her as ever, con-
sented to forgive her.
9. The loss of the battle of Actimn dedded Anto-
ny's fate. He tried to raise fresh troops, but in vain ;
and Cleopatra, who saw that their power was coming
to an end, would willingly have fled from £gypt,
and even formed a scheme for transporting all bei
treasures to India, and foanding a new empu:e there ;
but she was surrounded on all sides by the generals
of OctaviuB, and it was impossible to escape. As a
last hope she sent privately to Octavius, offering to
give up her crown if only he would protect herself
and her children. The answer of Octavius was, that
Cleopatra might be spared if she would deliver up
Antoi^. Hub was asking more than Cleopatra could
grant, for she stJll loved Antony; but she gave se-
cret orders that her fleet should go over to Octaniis,
hoping in this way to appease him.
10. When Octavius approached Aleiandria, Cleo-
patra shut ber^lf up, witli her attendants and treas-
ures, in a tower which she had .caused to be built
near one of the great temples. Antony, who had
seen reason to suspect that she was betraying him,
went out to meet his enemy, and was then quite con-
vinced that Cleopatra was treacherous, for all bis
troops deserted him. Overcome with grief, and ut-
terly hopeless, he returned to the city, intending to
revenge himself by killing Cleopatra ; but before bs
190 THE CBIL&'b FIKBT
could reach her the news was bronght that alie wu
dead.
11. All his afiectjon for her came bacV then in m
instant : he declared that he would not long live
without her, and ordered his slave Eros to draw hia
sword and kill him. The faithful slave drew lua
sword as he was commanded, but plunged it into
bis own breast, and fell dead at his master's feet.
Still Antony would not be turned from his purpose :
be took up the sword and stabbed himself, but the
wound did not kill him ; and whilst he was lying on
his couch, fiunt from loss of blood, he was told that
what he bad heard of Cleopatra was not true, for
that she was still living. Immediately he entreated
bis servants to carry him to her. They bronght him
to the foot of the tower, and caused him to be drawn
up to the top by ropes. He was Itud upon a bed,
and Cleopatra stood by him in great grief; but it
was in vain to think of saving his Ufe, and, aftei
recommending her to seek for mercy from Octavius,
Mark Antony expired.
12, Octavius, it is sdd, lamented the death of An*
tony ; yet he showed little mercy to his widow.
Cleopatra thought herself secure in her tower; but
one of the officers of Octavius contrived to enter it
on one side by means of a ladder, whilst she was en-
gaged on the other, and so took her prisoner. She
was treated, however, with conuderable respect, and
was allowed to bury Antony with great honors ; and
for a little while she seemed comforted by having to
arrange the procession for the funeral, and by the
care of embalming her husband's body according to
the i^ptian custom ; but when this was over she
became ill. The thought which preyed upon her
mind was, that Octavius would carry her to Rome
and exhibit her m triumph. She sent for him,
bi^Mng to win his favor, and gave him a list of her
HISTORY OP KOHB. 101
One of her seiranta hinted thai the list
was not correct ; upon which Cleopatra fell into a
violent passion, started up and seized him by the
hEiir, and gave him several blows on the face ; and
at the same time told Octavius that, if she had kept
back any thing, it was onl^ in order to make a pres-
ent of it to his wife, Livia, and his aist'.r, Ocbtvia,
Octavius, however, was not to be won over by any
flattery. He treated her very politely, but kept his
own porpose, and she soon learned that he was bent
upon cfflTying her to Rome, as she had feared. Cle-
opatra then resolved to die. She begged permisHon
to visit the tomb of Antony ; and the request being
granted, she went thither with two of her attendants,
Charmian and Iras, weeping most bitterly, and de-
claring her full intention not to Hnrvive him longer.
After placing flowers upon the tomb, she went back
to the tower, dressed herself splendidly, and partook
of a rich banquet. In the midst of it a slave brought
her a basket of figs, which she took and carried with
her to her chamber, where she wrote a note and sent
it to Octavius.
13. Shortiy afterwards an officer arrived from Oc-
tavius. The first thing he saw when he entered the
room, was Cleopatra, dressed in her royal robes,
stretched Ufeless upon a golden conch. She had
killed herself by means of an asp, a kind of serpent,
which was brought to her in the basket of figs, and
the stjng of which was deadly. Iras was lying dead
at the leet of her mistress ; and Charmian, scarcely
aUve, was placing a crown upon her head. "Was
this well done, Chaimiau?" inquired the messenger
of OctaviuB, "Yes," replied Charmian; "itisveL
done, for such ? death befits a glorious queen."
CHAPTER XLVII.
IISBT EMFiaOK OT SOMX, B. 0. 2?.
U^ Q j,^ 1. The history of the Republic of Rtant
ends with the death of Antony. From
that time the Romans were goremed by emperors,
Lhe first of whom was Octavius, or Augustus, as ha
was called by the senate on his return from Egypt.
This power, however, he only accepted by degrees ;
at first it was given him for ten yeais, then five more
were added, and so on, till at length he became em-
peror for life, and was allowed to leave the title to
hia successor. This was dmte with the full consent
n£ all persons of sense and thought, for they were
weary of the perpetual wars whidi had been going
on for so many years, and saw that the people had
become so turbulent and the nobles so luxurious,
that their only hope of quietness was in ^vin^ all
the authority to one person. Every possible honor,
therefore, was paid to Augustus ; three splendid tri-
umphs were allowed him, and one of the months of
the year, August, waa called after his name. Yet,
if the persons who rejoiced when Augustus Csesar
became emperor of Rome could have looked into fu-
ture years, and known who were to succeed him chi
his throne, they would have felt very differently.
Many of tlie Roman emperors were the greatest
monsters of irickedness wat were ever heard of;
others, who were leas wicked, were weali and siDy,
and brought great miseries upon thor country ; and
the few who really tried to do right were placed in
such difficulty from the crimes, and mistakes, and
bad eiamplbs of the emperors who rrigned before
HIBTOKT or ROMS. 103
diem, that they could do very little to scrre th<ii
conn try.
2. The really iimrartant events of these times be-
long to a very difierent histoir— the history of thi
Chnstjan Church. It was in the reign of AugUBtiu
Ceesar that our blessed Saviour was bom.
8. When ve are Trriting and thinking of common
things Bad merely human actionB, it seems scarcely
reverent to dtrell much upon such a sacred subject ;
bat it might perliaps be well for us to bring before
onr minds, for a few moments, the facts which actu-
ally took place at this time : to imagine the haughty,
Bmbttious monarch — who had suffered hundreds of
his fellow- cituens to he murdered in cool blood, and
had sacrificed thousands and thousands in his selfish
wars — seated upon a splendid throne, flattered by all
who approached him, and obeyed almost by the whole
known world : whilst He who created the heavens
and the earth condescended to be laid in a manger at
Betiilehem. These are very wonderful things to think
<^ ; and the history of Rome must always be most in-
teresting and important, because it is so mixed up
with the history of our blessed Lord and of His
Church.
4. -But we must return to the account of what
happened at Rome after Augoatua Csesar became
emperor. From this time the character of Augostus
seems to have changed : he was merciful and torgiv-
■ng, instead of cruel and revengeful, and appeared to
^ve all his thoughts to the improvement of the laws,
the erection of splendid buildings, and the encourage-
ment of clever men. The Augustan Age, as it is
called, has been celebrated ever since as a time when
learning, and poetry, and accomplishments, were es-
pecially valued. Augustus had a great fiiend named
oas, who was the patron of aU the men of tal-
Italy, He was an indolent person, fond of
194 THE CHIUt's 71R8T
eating and drinkmg ; but taking a great deal of pleaft>
ure in all things which were splendid and elegant :
and if peisoos were really clever, howeTer hombla
they might be by birth, they were sura to recdva
help from Mfeoenas. Tirgil, Horace, and Ovid, wera
the most famous poets of the age. Cornelius Nepoa
wrote biographies or accounts of the Uves of differ«it
persona : and Livy was a diatinguished historian,
6. But although Augustus thus employed himself
for the good of his people, his rdgn was not entirely
peaceful. There were several conspiracies formed
agdnst him ; and be was obliged to carry on wars in
Spain, Africa, Arabia, Egvpt, Oanl, and Qermamy,
The conspiracies were all discovered, and the leaders
sentenced to death. In the wars, he and his gener-
als were for the most part victorious ; but on one oc-
casion, when there was an insurrection in Germany,
the Roman general, Varus, was completely defeated,
and his soldiers were cut to pieces. Augustus was bo
grieved when he heard it, that he was often heard to
cry out afterwards, "Varus, Varus, ^ve me back my
legions I" Some histoiiaos have even said that he
never recovered his former quietness of mind.
6. But, in iiis latter days, Augustus had causes for
sorrow which were more likely to make him misera-
ble thai even the loss of an army. He waa very un-
happy in his own fanuly. He had been married tliree
times : his first wife was named Claudia ; the Bectmd,
Baribonia ; and the third, Ijvia Dnisilla. Augus-
tus and Bcrihonia had (Xie daughter, J^ulia ; and uvia
had two sous before she married Augustus — Tiberiut
and Dmsus. Idvia was a very ambitious, bad persoti,
and liad a great wish that her children should suc-
ceed to the throne. Dmsus, however, died as he was
ei^iaged in a war in Oermtmy ; and afterwards it waa
proposed that Tiberius should marry Julia, who waa
then a widow, having been married twice before, and
HISTORY OF BOHE. 105
oemg left irith two children/ of whom Augustus wat
very food. But these arrangementa turned out very
badly. Julia was a dreadfully wickEd woman, and
l^berius did not like her at bII ; and he was be^dea
very jealous of her two eons, whom he feared would
succeed to the tbroue ; bo he left her and went to
live by himself. Julia became more and more wick-
ed after this, sod at last Augustus was obliged to
exile her. To add to this great grief, her two boys
died, and thus he was left childless, and entirely un-
der the power rf his haughty wife JA-m, who ruled
ereiy thmg after her own wilL
7, The end of the emperor's reign was, from these
circomBtwces, very melancholy. I£s health began
to Btuk, and about the middle of August, A. D. 14,
it was evident both to himself and to others that his
death was near. Such a 'dme must be awful to all,
and we might at first suppose that even the heathen
emperor would then have felt that all the glories of
earth were worthless. But the love of a<£iiiration,
which had been the great motive of all that Augus-
tus eaii and did during the course of a long life,
never left htm ; and calhng his fiiends around him as
he lay upon his dying bed, he asked whether they
iJionght he had played his part in life well ? " If
so," he added, "give me your applause." Then
sinking in the arms of livia he CTpired, at the age of
TBK IBILDS FIRST
CHAPTER XLVm.
TIBSRIUB CflSAR.
;001<I> BNFKROK OV »OHE, A. D.
& IX 14 ^' ^"^ ^'''^ "^ ^'^^ emperois of Romfl
nil] be given but shortly. There is very
little to gun from them. TiberinB succeeded Augus-
tus at tne age of fifty -six. In his early life he had
shown talent and energy ; but the chief points in his
character really were deceit and Buapicion, No one,
however, knew how wicked and cruel he really was
till he came to the throne.
2, The person whom he most hated was his neph-
ew Oermanicus, the son of his brother Drusos, a very
high-ptincipled, eacellent young man, and extremely
beloved by the people. Tiberius had been forced to
adopt him as his son during the lifetime of Augus-
tus, and it was thought be would succeed him ; and
this was ^uite sufficient to make Tiberius his enemy.
The soldiers under Oermanicus were so devoted to
hiin that they offered to moke him emperor instead
of his uncle, but he would not listen to them ; indeed.
all his actions showed that he was unselfish and witl^
out ambition. He suffered, however, from the jeal-
ousy of Tiberius, and died in a strange and sudden
way at Antiocb, in Syria, whilst he was employed in
settlmg matters m the East ; and every one believed
that be was poisoned by the governor of the prov-
ince, who had been placed there by Tiberius on pu^
pose to thwart him. Tiberius was tlie only person
who did not seem sony for his death. His conduct
became much worse after the death of Germanicus.
He had no fordgn wars to occupy him, with the ex-
Beption of a few insurrections, which hia genenila
au^ed without much difficulty ; so that he was abU
HIBTORY or ROME. 197
•o give up all his lime to his afiairs at home, where
he Itecame a complete tyrant. His mother Uvia wai
the only person for whom he had the least real regard ]
but he was very much governed by Sejaniu, the pre-
fect or chief of his guards, who was a man quite ai
wicked as himself.
a. Sejaniis did not tn the least care for Hberius:
he only wished '.o succeed him on the throne, and
therefore persuaded the emperor, after he had reined
about eleven yean, to retire to the island of Gapreas,
in the Bay of Naples, and give up the government to
him. Sejanus theo had hUX power, and murdered
e.very one who was at all likely to come between him
and the crown, which he so much desired. The only
Bon of Tiberius was poisoned ; the wife of Germani-
cus, two of his children, and a great many of hia
friends were put to death ; and his cruelty was so
ffreat that many persons killed themselves to avoid
falling into his hands. Caligula, the youngest son of
GermaiiicuB, escaped, and went to Capreee, and was
afterwards app<unted by Tiberius to be his successor.
4. All this time l^berius shut himself up in his
bland, and took no thought for any thing but his own
pleasure. Every one hated and despis^ him for his
crimes, and feared him because he was always stis-
pectJDjg evil.
fi. Sejanus was at last punished by him. Hberma
found out that he was wishing to be made emperor,
and accused him of high treason, and the senate oon-
denmed him to death. As he was led away to exe-
cution the people insulted and cursed him ; and, after
he was strangled by the executioner, they dragged
his body away and cast it into the Tiber.
6. When Sejanus was dead, Tiberius gave still
farther vent to his n^o by other executions. Some
persons were killed for having been the friends of
BejanuB ; cj^thers for no cause, hut upon false ar^uaa-
lOH THE child's PtRBT
tiona. One old woman was put to death because shs
lamented the execution of her son ; another man anf-
fered because he had written a traeedy, which the
emperor thought waa intended to fina fault with him-
self. The pnsona were crowded. At length, l^be-
rius gave oraers that all the accused sbonla be Idlled
at onc«. The misery which this command caused
cannot be described ; bat, although the unhappy
people who suffered were very wretched, there was
one person more bo— the emperor himself. His Ufe
was a perpetual torment from snspicion ; his health
became very bad ; and in one of his letters to the
senate, he decWed that the gods and goddesses had
BO afflicted and confounded him, that he knew not
what or how to write.
7. As old stge crept upon him he became more and
more miserable, and in the end fell into a kind ot
stupor, from which it was thought he would never be
aroused.
8. CaUgula was then proclaimed emperor ; but, to
his great horror and surprise, "fiberiue soon after-
wards recovered. Caligula natmially thought that
be should be put to death for what he had done. In
his fear he consulted with Uacro, one of the attend-
ants of Tiberius, and they agreed that the unhappy
old man should be Idlled, Accordingly, Uacro went
to his chamber and suffocated him with beds and
pillows.
0. The history of such great crimes shocks ns tha
more when we conoect them with sacred events ; ye^
for one reason, it may be desirable. When we see how
horribly anful men may become, we can more fully
understand how much an atonement and an example
were needed.
10. It was wlulst 'Rbeiius was living at Capree,
and Sejanus ruling at Rome, that our blessed Saviour
was crucified. Pontius Pilate wrote an account of
UtSTOBY OF EOHE. 198
his miracles, and death, and resurrection, to Tiberius ;
utd the emperor proposed to the Roman senate that
He should oe reckoned amongst the number of the
heathen gods: but they would not consent to it.
CHAPTER XLIX.
A. D. ST 1. It is not pleasant to think of Caligula
as the son of the noble-minded Oermani-
cns. The history of his reign, except at the very
b^nnmg, is as l^, if not worse, thaji that of Tibe-
rius. T^e chief difference between them seems to
have been that Tiberius was a gloomy, suspicious,
cruel monster; and Ca^ula a wild, frantic, but
equally cruel madman, Por the first few months of
his reign he did well, EUid made many wise altera-
tions in the man^ement of public affairs, and showed
considerable genero^ty ; but, after that, it is aaii that
he had an iUness which destroyed his reason. We
may hope that this was really the case, for the stories
related of him ore so absurd as well as so wicked, that
we cannot think of them as the acdous of a person of
sound mind. Amongst other things, it is said that
he made his favorite horse consul, and built for It a
marble stable and an ivory manger. He also provided
it with a house, and furniture, and kitchen, that its
Titters might be treated with proper respect ; and
lometlmes he would invite this horse to dine with
him, and ^ve him gilt oats and wine in a golden cup.
He used U> declar<i himself a ffod. and command th»
200 rBE juild'b fiebt
lieople to worship him. He pretended to make war.
and marched over the Alps into Oaul, Baying that
he was gtnng to Bubdue the Oermans. When he
came to tlie liTCr Rhme, he ordered el body of Oer-
msns, who were his guards, to hide themselves on
the other aide, and then he himself sat down to din-
ner ; but in the middle of it he jumped up in a great
hnny, crossed the river, cut down some trees, and
returned back again with the Oenuans who had been
bidden, and whom he Baid were his prisoners. At
another time be set out to invade Britain ; but after
having s^ed a little way out to sea he came back,
order^ his soldiers to collect some shells from the
beach, which he called the spoils of the ocean, and
never went any further.
2. Hia esttavagance was beyond every thing ihttt
can be imaged. We are told that he sometiniea
caused jewelB to he dissolved in the sauce which he
ate. He also ordered ships to be built of cedar-wood,
and adorned with gold and jewels ; the eeuIs were
made of silk ; and mdt-treea were planted upon the
decks, under which Caligula used to dine. And
merely because some astrologer had said that there
was as much chance of Caligula's being emperor as
of his walking across a certun arm of the sea, three
miles and a half broad, he caused a bridge of ships
to be bnOt across it, at an incredible expense. The
ships were placed in two rows, timber was Imd over
them, and, upon the timber, houses were built ; and
then Calkula gave a grand entertainment in honor of
what he had £me.
8. We m^ht be inclined to laugh at these things,
t it were not that Caligula was as cnidi as he wu
foolish ; but the horrors of his reign are almost more
than we can bear to read of. The grandson of Ebe-
rius was put to death, only because it was said that
he wished the emperor not to recover from an illness.
BI8T0&Y O? KOBIB. 201
Caligula's grandmother and Heveral other peisona
were commanded to destroy themaelveB ; and being
m want of money irom hia ezcee^ve extraTagance, he
obtained it by killing persons, and then s^zmg upon
tiieir estates. The sofferinga of these unfortunate
pevple were quite tai amusement to him : indeed, he
seeiiled to t^e delight in cruelty, for he cost num-
bers of old and infinn persona to wild bessta, to rid
the state, as he said, of useless citizens ; and was
heard to wish that all the Roman people had but one
neck, BO that he might destroy them at one blow.
4. Caligula's tyranny last^ for more than three
yeaiB. Then a plot was formed ag^nst )um, and
he vaa murderea in his paiace by one of the prtE>
torian guards, assisted by other conspirators, just
after he bad returned from the exhibition of some
public games.
6, It may be interesting, before we proceed fur-
ther, to know something of the history of Judeo, and
its connection with the Koman empire after the reign
of Herod the Great.
6. Archelaus, the son of Herod, succeeded his
&ther, as we read in the second chapter of the Gospel
of St. Matthew, where it is said, that Joseph, " hav-
ing beard that Archelaus did rdgn in Jodea in the
room of hia father Herod," was afraid to go thither
with our Saviour and hia vii^iin mother. A brother
of Archelaus however disputed his chum to the
throne, and both appealed to Augustus Ciesar, who
was then emperor, to decide between them. Augus-
tus, after considering the questloii, determined that
Archelaus should have half the kingdom, and be
called an ethnaroh; and that the remaining half
shoidd be divided between Herod's tw3 other sons,
Philip and Herod Antipas, who were to be called
tetrarcbs. This division is referred to in the third
chapter of St Luke's Gos'iel, which makes mention
203 I HE child's first
of Herod the tetrarch of Oalilee, and his brothot
Philip, tetrarch of Iturea and the region of Trft-
chomtja. It was this Herod Antipaa, the letrarch,
who put St, J^ohn the Baptist to death, because ha
said it was not lawful for nim to many Herodias, his
brother Philip's wife> and before whom our blessed
Lord vouchsafed to stand whilst the tetrarch aid hii
men of war set him at naught and mocked liim.
7. InthiswayPalestJnewasgaTemedwhileArche-
laus lived : but, when he was dead, his half of the
country was maide a Boman province, over which we
know Uiat Pontius Ptlal6 was at one time a governor ;
so that there were Jewish tetrarcbs over Oalilee and
Trachonitjs, and a Roman governor over the rest of
the land. But when Caligula came to the throne
there was a further change,
S. It happened that a young man named Herod
Agrippa, who was descended from Herod the Great,
was fiving at Rome during the ragn of Tiberius, at
which period'he was one of CaligiUa'a great fiienda.
Tiberius disliked htm, and put him in prison ; but,
when Caligula became emperor, he released him, and
resolved to give him some great proof of his friend-
ship. Philip the tetrarch was now dead ; and CaHg-
ula proposed to ffive his government to Herod
Agrippa, and allow him to nave the title of king.
When the news of this change came to Herod Anti-
pas the tetrarch, it made -him angry and ambitious,
3Jid this bad feeling was much increased by the ad-
vice of Herodias, whom he had kept for his wife,
E^ainst the warning of Bt. John the Baptjst. She
told bun that if Caligula had made a person like
Herod Agrippa a king, he would certainly make bim
one if he woiud only ask the favor, and she peisuaded
bim to go to Cali^a with the request.
9. It seems as if the punishment of Herod for his
tins wns especially sent to him through the perstHi
HISTOBT OF lOHB. 303
whom he bad dtme sg 'wrong in marrying ; for Ca-
ligola was veiy anffiy at his presumption, and, instead
of ranking him a bog, took avay his government and
gave it to Herod Agrippa, and hanished Herod Anti-
pas to Spain, where he died.
10. Punishment also came upon Pontius Pilate.
He was accused of injustice and oppression, and Ca-
Ugtila caused him to be removed from his province
and banished to Oaul, where it is said that he after-
wards destroyed hunself.
11. CaligiUa endeavored to make the Jens place
Ma own statue in thdr temple, that it might be
worshipped ; but the people resisted, and before the
emperor could take measures to force them to obey
him, b(> was murdered.
CHAPTER L.
OLADDIU& O^SAR,
FOVItTB BVFBBOB Of &OKI, A. O. 41.
A.D 41 ^' ^'^"'^^'^ *r^ B<ii^c^<l^ liy ^<s uncle
Claudius, who was a brother of Germani-
2ua. Clanditia had hidden himself from fear at the
time of Caligula's murder; but the conspirators
dr^^d him forth, and proclaimed him emperor.
He was fifty-one years ci age when he began to
rdgn ; his health was very ^id, and bis mind was
wc^ Yet there is reason to think that he was
mercifully and amiably incUned ; though, unfortu-
nately, he was entirely governed by the persons
about him, who were bard-hearted and crueL Clau-
dius was fond of building, and used also to employ
oimsetf in writing history. His books have all beer
204 THE CBiui'a riRsi
lost, but it is not sappoeed that they were veij
clever.
2. The priudpal war carried on in this T*aga wat
in Britain. No Boman amj had invaded firitun
smce the time of Juhus Cnsar, untdl Glandius was
persuaded to undertake the conquest ot the island.
He went there himself, but did not rem^ long ; fi^
hU disposition was not very warlike. His genemk ■
Vespasian and his son l^tus, who were both after-
wards emperors — ^were left to complete what he had
begun. They are said to have fought bloody battles,
and to have taken possession of the Isle of Wight,
ind of several towns,
3. Claudius was married four times. His third
wife, Messalina, was extremely wicked, and made
Claudius do a n^at many wrong and most cruel
actions ; and at length she behaved ho badly, that
he sentenced her to be put to death. He was then
induced to marry Agrippina, the daughter of Ger-
manicus — a person more wicked, if possible, than
Messalina, Agrippina had been married before, and
had one son, whose name was Ifero, She had set
her heart upon this son's succeeding to the throne,
and in order to gain her point, she persuaded Cl&a<
diua to put aside lus own son, Britannicus, and adopt
Nero, Claudius, however, (id not like Agrippina'a
schemes, though be was obliged to submit to tnem :
and, when Agrippina discovwed this, she formed a
plot against his life, and by the help of two other
peisoQs poisoned him, after he had r^gned about
thirteen years.
4. Claudius showed much favor to Herod Agrippa,
king of Judea; hut Herod did not long enjoy his
grandeur. He died after a short rragn.
5. The history of his horrible death is given in the
book of the Acts of the Aposties. He left one son,
named, like hunself, Agrippa ; who did not succet^
BtBTOtr OP KOUE. 20S
tt once to all his father's domimcms, for tie tras very
Toong, and Claudius chose to make Judea again a
Boman province. Wheu Agrippa grew up, howerer,
GlandiuB made him Idng over part of Judea, and sent
Felix to be governor over another ftoL This will
explain to us a difGculty in the book of the Acts,
when we hear of a Bomaa governor and also of a
king. At firet, it does not seem easy to nndeist^uid
bow they could both be ruling at the same time.
CHAPTER LI
Firra cmfebob or jxatM, *. k fi4.
A. D M. ^' ■'^" nam« of the emperor Nero, who
succeeded Claudius, always makes us think
of the most dreadful vice and cruelty ; and yet Nero
was not wicked (or at least no one beSeved him to
be Eo) at the beginning of his reign. For five years
he governed the empire well, and suffered himself
to be guided by Seneca, hk tutor, and BnrrhuB,
the prefect of the pnetorian guards, who were both
eensible men. Seneca, indeed, is famed as one of
the wisest of heathens : his books can be read with
.profit, even now; for he had great knowledge of
religion, and a strong belief in a life after death. It
is dif&cult to believe that he could ever have been
the tutor of such a monster as Nero prcved him-
self to be ; but the fact shows us how much more
powerful example is than words, Nero was taught
well, but his mother and his relf.tions were wicked,
Knd the sight of their conduct must, we may im
£06 THE CHILD B FII13T
Rgine, liave done away with the good effect of hU
tutor's instructions.
2. Nero's first great crime was caused by jeal-
ousy of bis brotber Britannicus, wbom be had buih
planted. He was afr^d that BritanmouB migbt
rdse a party agunst him, and therefore orden^
him to be poisoned. After thia his true character
showed itself. Though bia mother, Agrippina, had
been the means of his obtaining the crown, he bated
her because she mterfered with his authority, and de-
termined to rid himself of her. For this purpose
he caused her to be taken out to sea in a boat,
which was especially contrived to fall to pieces.
Agrippina saved herself by swimming, but her im-
naturai son was stJU determined to destroy her, and
she was assassinated by his command ; and, it b
said, with the consent of Seneca and Burrhus. If
it were so, there is no reason to wonder that Nero
had not profited more by all their good words.
Nero repented of this dreadful crime very bitl«rly,
after it was committed ; but, instead of amending
bis ways, he only indulged himself the more in riot
and dnmkcnness, in order to forget it,
3. Bmrhus and Seneca soon saw that it was out
of their power to control him. Seneca went away
from the court, and about the same time Burrhus
died ; and then, Nero being no longer under the
least restraint, gave free vent to all his fancies and
inclinations.
4. He sent away his wife, who was a virtuous,
amiable woman, and married a very bad person,
named Poppsea ; and he collected around him a
number of the most unprincipled people that could
be met with, who flattered him extravagantly and
were willbg to do whatever he required.
6. IDs vanity was escessive ; he fancied himself
■ great poet and a musician, and bad extreme (\e-
BI9TOET OP EOMB. 207
jght m chariot driring, fancying tliat he surpassed
every one else, and that all the "world woa]ci adnura
hun ; and once he look it into his head to trave.
throuc;h Italy and Oreece, and exhibit his talents
in public. Wherever he went he was applauded ;
for persons Tfere afrad to laugh at him, on account
of lus savage temper : yet it must have been diffi-
cult not to do BO sometimes, espedally vhen, to show
his strength, he caused a pasteboard hon to be brought
on the st^e in a theatre, and knocked it down with
his club.
6. One of the most noted events in the r«gn of
Nero, is the burning of Borne, which lasted for six
days. Some persons think that the emperor caused
the city to be set on fire himself; and it is said,
that he Btood upon a high tower, watching the
raging of the flames, and would not allow any one
to assist in putting them out. The blame of the
fire was, however, cast upon the ChrisUans, who
were, at that time, increasing in number ; and Nero
began to persecute them cruelly. Some were cov-
ered with the skins of wild beasts, and then thrown
to dogs to be torn in pieces ; some were crucified ;
others were wrapped in clothes smeared with pitch,
and burnt alive ; and, at times, when it was a dark
night, the city was lighted up with the flames by
which the Christians were killed, whilst Nero amused
himself by seebg their suffering from his garden.
7. About tlus time St. Pa3 and St. Peter both
came to Rome. St. Paul had been at Rome before,
as we learn from the last chapter of the Acts of the
Apostles, Although a prisoner, he was then allowed
to live in a hired house, and to teach persons who
came to him ; and it has been thought likely that he
was acqu^nted with Burrhus and Seneca; as Bur-
rhus was the chief of the prsetorian guards, and Bene ■
ca was his great friend. We learn, besides, frcnn
20S THB child's fibbt
vhat St. Paul mentions himaelf, tbat lie load friendi
in the emperor's palace ; for, in writing to the Philip*
pians, he says : — " All the s^ts salute you, chiefly
they that are of Ciesar's household :" Ciesar vraa a
name givea to all the early Roman emperors. And
again, " My bonds in Christ are made manifest ia all
the palace."
8. This first visit was about the year of our Lord
58; the second was eight years after. At that time
also he was made a prisoner, hut kept much more
strictly thaa before ; and no doubt he must have
been well prepared for hia fate : for, in the second
epistle to St. Timothy, written at this period, he
speaks certainly of " the time of hia departure" b^ng
at hand ; and says that he had been called upon to
make a defence, " when no man stood with him, but
all men forsook him."
9. He could have had no hope of escape when
others were sufTering, and at last the sentence waa
pronounced which was to free him from all the trials
of life. It was more merciful than that passed upon
St. Peter, because he waa a Roman citizen, St, Panl
was beheaded : St. Peter was crucified ; but with his
head downwards, at his own request.
10. ItispaJnful to turn from the holy deaths of the
m-eat Apostles to the life of their persecutor, Ifero,
Only a few more events of his reign, however, need
be mentioned. In order to free himself from the
suspicion and disgrace of having ordered the burn-
ing of the city, he rebuilt it with great care. The
streets were made wider and more beautiful ; and
tlie mistakes which had been made when it waa
so hastily restored, after the mvasion of the QsuIb,
were done away with.
11. Nero spared no eipenae for his own palace.
tt was called the golden palace, from its magnlfi-
»en'W : the rooms were ornamented with gold, and
BtSTOKY OF KOHS 20B
^ver, and precious etones ; and it was so Iniye
ib&t parka and lakes were contained within the walls.
At tne entraiice there was an enormous statue of
the emperor, a hundred and twenty feet high ; and
the prindpal hall, which was circular, had a roof
that tornea round, to imitate the morements of the
planets. Nero's subjects suffered very much from
lib great extrSTagance, for he mode them pay large
sums of mcmey in conBeq^oeace ; and when his palace
was finished, he only said, that now he wb« lodged
like a joaa.
12, Soon after this, his tutor Seneca was accused
of joining in a conspiracy agunst him, and condemn-
ed to death. Beii^ allowed, as a great faror, to
choose how he wouH be kill^, he caused the veins
of his arm to be opened, hoping that he should
bleed to death ; but, as he was a* old man, the blood
flowed slowly, and his end was hastened by his bebg
put into a d^ stove and suffocated. His wife would
willmgly have died with him ; but though her veins
were opened likewise, they were afterwards bound
ap by tier servants, whilst she was fainting, and thus
she survived her husband. Lucan the poet, a
nephew of Seneca's, was also killed by bleeding,
being accused of the same offence as his uncle.
Both these celebrated persons snowed great strength
of mind in endniiog their trial. Seneca dictated a
discourse to his secretaiy whilst the blood was flow-
ing frmn his veins ; and Lucan expired whilst he was
repeating some veraea from one of lus own poems,
which described a death such as he was called upon
to bear.
18. After this, the empress Popptea died, in ;on.
sequence of a cruel blow given her by her husband,
and Nero then manied another pereon ; but the end
of his tyranny was fast approaching. In the year
A. D. 68 an insurrection broKe-out in Oaul, and ths
210 THE child's FIRSP
soldters, who ■were stationed there, those Serviu*
Galba, one of their officers, for their eiaperor. TITera
thought little of this at first ; but when he found
:hat the prEetonEm guards in Rome were inclined to
take part, with the army in Gaul, he gave up his
cause for lost. Galba was ptoclMmed at Borne ;
and Nero, in great alarra, fled from the city to the
country-house of one of his freedmen. Here he
spent a day in the most miserable state of mind ;
not daring to remain where he could be se«D, but
hiding himself amongst brambles and briers, and
having nothing but a little piece of brown bread
and some water given him for refreshment. He
wished to kill himself, but he had not courage imti]
some soldiers were coming to seize him : then he set
a d^ger to his throat, and contrived by the as-
sistance of his secretary to give himself a mortal
wound. He reigned thirteen years, and died in the
thirty-second year of hia age.
14. There were some wars in the reign of Nero :
one with the Parthians ; and another in BritaJn, where
an insurrection broke out headed by Boadicea, queen
of the tribes who inhabited Norfolk and Suffolk,
Boadicea was conquered, and killed herself to avoid
falling into the hands of the Romans. A third war
was in Judea. The Jews, being much oppressed by
their Roman goremois, rose m rebelhou against them.
Nero sent Vespasian and his sen 15tU8, who had for-
merly been so successful in Bi'itam, to subdue them ;
ud the mi was going on when he died.
RUTOIY or EOME.
^
CHAPTER Lh.
OALBA,
A.U as. ^°" rragn of Galba was extremely
short, lastjng only about uz months. He
was an old man when he came to tiie throne, and
was not liked because he was suspected of Ijeuis fond
of saving money, though most probably hec^ de-
^jai-U) cut'diort the extravagance which had been
practised by the emperors who went before him.' The
persona who had the greatest influence over him were
three favorite servants, or freedmen ; and, by their
advice, be acted in a way which appeared harsh and
caused Viim soon to be out of favor with his subjects.
Bud e&^m^y^Vriih the soldierB.
2. Oalba did not know how much he was dialed,
and imM;ined tliat the great cause of the general dis-
content was because he had no heir to succeed h im ;
accordingly be chose a young mM'jjQiigh chai^cler,
PisD Lucinianus, and ocesegted him to the sopifii^
and to the senate as his a9opted sonj A sum of
money had been promised to the prtetorian guards,
but Oalba unfortunately neglected to fulfil the prom-
ise, and in consequence greatly increased the general
ill-will ; and when Silvius Otho, who bad hoped to
have been adopted himself, tried to form a conspiracy
amongst them to dethrone Galba, they willingly list-
ened to bim. The plot broke out dx days after the
adoption of Lnoinianus ; for the soldiers seized upon
Otho, and declared him emperor, Galba determined
to defend hiraself, but he was killed as he -was oross-
jng the forum; and Piso and many of his othei
friends shared the same fate.
B CHILD a FIEBT
CHAPTER UII,
A. D 69 Otho'b reign was even a .orler tJ)U
that of Galba : he was emperor only fw
three months. During that time he showed a better
disposition than could have been expected, and seem-
ed molined to be just, and even benevolent. It nU
now, however, the practice of the soldiers to choose
their own rulers ; and the legions in Germany, bar-
ing received lai^e sums of money from their general,
Vitellius, determined to make him emperor msC«ad
of Otho. There was a great struggle in conseqtience.
Otho led an anny ag^st VitelUus, and was defeated ;
and, when he found that his cause was hopeless, h*
put an end to his own hfe.s.
CHAPTER LIV.
VTrKLUoa,
BIQHTH EMFEEOB OF BOUZ, A. D. 69.
A. D 69 ■'■ ^^^"-"^^ succeeded Otho. His char-
acter is one of the most disagreeable that
sre read of in history. Eating was his <Hie great
pleasure, and the stories of his gluttony are quite dis-
gusting. He re^ed little more than eight months,
and was then dethroned and murdered by the soldiers,
who were weary of his contemptible conduct, and
chose Vespasian, the general who was carrying on
tlio war in Judea, to Uke the government frran him.
niBTORT OF ROHK , SIS
3. Tbk short accoimt of the first Bomai emperora
has been given in order to bring down the history of
Rome to we reign of Vespasian, and the great event
for which it is remarkable — the destruction of Jeni-
satem.
3. With that we may for the present end. The
fall of Jerusalem is an. event prophesied by our
blessed Saviour, as the type or figure of the destruc-
tion of the world ; and, m speaking of the events
which followed it, a new subject, which cannot be
ntigbtly passed over, must be introduced — the spread
of Christianity, and its power over the great heathen
empire of Rome.
4. . It has been said that Ye8pa«an left Judea to
take upon himself the government of the empire. Ti-
tus, bis son, remained to command the Roman armies.
fi. In both these princes there is much to be ad-
mired. Yeapasian set himself earnestly to reform the
empire he had undertaken to rule ; and Titus carried
on the war which he had begun, with courage, skill,
and mercy,
6. The Jews made a brave defence against their
Roman conquerors; but tbey lost one battle after
another, and one town after another, till at length
anly Jerusalem was left. It was a very strong city,
and, if it had not been for the quarrels of the peo-
ple within, it would have been very difficult for any
army from without to take it. But, instead of join-
ing against their common enemy, the unhappy Jews
spent their time and strength in destroying one an-
other.
7. It was at the feast of the Passover, when great
nnmbera of people were collected together, that Titua
undertook to bedege Jerusalem. He bevan by bat-
tering down the outer wall, and stdll, as he went on
and gained ground, be continued to offer the Jews
pardon, nnd beg them to submit. But they were
214 THE CRILD'a PIBBT
desperately bent upon resisting him ; and even wbei
Titvs Bent Josephus, (ine of their own coimtrj'men,
who had been tak^ prisoner, to entreat them to
yield, they trould not listen to him. At length, "Ktus
sarronnded the city ao completely that the mhabitanta
could neither escape nor gam help from any one with-
out ; and, as their prorisions began to fail, their suf-
ferings from famine became more and more dreadful.
Josephus, who wrote a history of the Jews, and par-
ticularly describes the last siege of Jerusalem, says
that the miseries they underwent were unspeakable ;
but no words can describe what happened so awfully
as the prophecy which was given in the Bible, many
hundred years before, in the tweoty-eighth chapter
of the book of Deuteronomy. Every thing there ■
mentioned was exactly fulfilled.
8. The destruction of Jerasalem was foretold also
by dreadful signs in the heaTCns — chariots, and troops
of horses, and a flaming sword, being Been amongst
the clouds ; but the Jews could no. be persuaded to
believe that their ruin was so near, till the Rom'ans
had taken possession of nearly the whole of the city,
and burnt the buildings near the temple : then they
were driven to desperation, and sought refuge in the
sacred edifice ; but a Soman soldier set fire to a win-
dow, through which there was a passage into the
temple, and in a short space afterwards the whole
was in flames. When Titaa was told what had been
done, he left his tent, and ran to the temple, followed
by his commanders and severd legions, and, calling
to the soldiers, gave them a signal to quench the fire.
But they did not hear nor attend ; for they were fu-
rious with eagerness to revenge themselves for the
length of ^e that their enemies had withstood them,
vtd, rushing into the temple, slew the unhappy Jeyn
without mercy, till their dead bodies lay {^led uonnd
the altar.
yiSroRT OP BOH£. 2l5
9. Even to the last, lltoa strove to restram tus boI-
diers and persuade them to exdnguiGh tlie fire ; but a
higher Power than his had doomed the temple of
Jerusalem to destruction, and, in Bpit« of all hia
efforts, it was burnt to the ground. The Soman ,
end^is were set over ag^nst the Eastern Gate, and
the Romans ofiered sacrifices to their false deities, and
gave praise to their great commander, in the sanctu-
ajy of the true God.
10. The fate of the Jews after the fall of Jemsalem
is well known. Even in our own days we can see
how strictly the prophecy has been fulfilled, which
aaid that they shoula " be led away captive into all
nations," and that "their city should be trodden
down of the Gentiles." .
11. Titus retunied to Rome in triumph, and the
arch which was built to commemorate hia conquest
is to be seen at thia day.
12. There is much to excite our interest in the
eliaraoter of Htus, and the change which took place
in him after he b^same emperor. Before that time
there was reason to fear that he would, like Caligula
or Nero, give way to vice and eztravt^ance ; but
when he came to the throne, after bis father's death,
he cast a^e all his bad habits, and became an exam-
ple of hnmanity and o;oadness.
13. It is said of hiin, that, recollecting one night
tliat he had done nothing during the day to benefit
bis subjects and friends, he exclaimed, "Alasl I
Lave lost a day."
14. Domitian, liis brother, a monster of wicked-
■ess succeeded him. In his reign the CiiriBtians were
smelly persecuted.
15. Thirty-three heathen emperors reigned over
the Boman empire after Dfxnitiaii. Of these tbo
beat were :-^
yttrva— &mod for bis gentleness and merar.
216 . THK child's FJRST
Trajan— a noble, warlike, just prince ; but a greav
memy to the Christians.
Hadrian — >who was not eo good in hU private
character, but goTerned the empire with much wis-
Antoninus Hus— who gave his whole time and
thoughts to making his people happy, cared ver;
little for luxury, and was particularly patient and
courteous. And
itfarcus Aurehus — commonly called the Philoso-
pher — who is described as being severe and con-
BcientJous towards himself, and gentle and considerate
to every one else ; and who was jet mduced to allow
d cruel praecution of the Christians in Gaul.
16. Amongst the worst emperors, were DomitiaD,
(he brother of l^tus ; Commodus, the successor of
Marcus Aurelius ; and Hehc^balus.
17. Constantino the Great succeeded. He was
-onverted lo Christianity early in his reign, by the
■niraculous appearance of a bright cross in the heav-
ens, inscribed with the words, " In this overcMne,"
■>8 he was engaged in a war against a general who
was his rival. This great event took place more
than three hundred years after the birth of oar
'')lessed Lord. Constantine removed irom Borne to
the city of Byzantium, or Constantinople, intending
M make it the capital city, and from that lime the
empire of Borne was divided into two parts, and
governed by two emperors : Bome. bong the capital
of the Western Empire, and Constantinople of the
Eastern.
18. In the course of five hundred years after the
bb^ of our Lord, the Western Empire was ovemui
by the Ooths, Vandals, Huns, and other warlike
tribes from the dblant parts of Europe ; who, find-
ing the ancient mhabitants of Italy, Sp^n, and sev-
wal southem countries entirely weakened bj habita
of luxury and ease, were able to dispossess tliem, and
•cttle themselT^s in their place.
19, The Eastern Empire — or, as it is often called,
the Greek Empire — ^last«d much longer; for, alibough
its power was much lessened, it vras not entirely over-
thrown until the year A. D. 1453, vben the Tur^,
under their sultan Mohammed II., took Coustautv
Bople.
CHAPTER LV.
1. IIaviko learned so much of the history of the
Rornaos, it may be useful to know something of their
dwellings, habits, and manners ; although these can
scarcely be described with perfect correctnesB, as they
must have changed from time to time. The account
which will now be given of them is according to what
they are believed to have been in the days when the
Romans were most civilized.
2. A Roman house was, in many respecto, very
unlike an English house ; for the warm climate en-
abled the people to do many things wluch we cannot
venture upon. There was a sort of court before the
door, round three sides of which the rest of the houee
was built. The street-door opened into a hall, where
a porter was stationed, and a dw frequently kept for
protection ; and beyond the haU was a large apart-
ment called the Atrium, with an opening in the roof
throogfa which the r^-water fell into a cbtem in the
floor. This cist«m was usually ornamented with
statues and columns, and thus made beautiful as well
ts useful : this was the principal room in the house,
and was used for receiving visiters. The images of
tbeir ancestors were placed in it, and the GreplM«
21S THE child's first
vas conmdered sacred, and dedicated to the Idrea, ot
houiiebold gods. It was fitted up very splendidir :
mdeed, the Romans went to a vast expense for the
furnishing and adonunent of their houses; so that
we are told of as much as 30,000^. bdns; given as
*he price cf one ; and of a villa bo mi^nificent, that,
vhen it was burnt, the loss was esUmat«d at mora
han 800,000?.
3, There wbs often a court be»dea, open to the skj
and surrounded by columns, and decorated with trees
and flowers.
4. The rest of the house varied according to the
taste of the peison who lived in it. The bedrooms
were small ; and, as the Eomana generally rested in
the uuddle cf the day, there were apartments <^ this
kmd both for the day and the night. Th^ beds
were rather high, and usually entered by means of
steps. Sometimes they were made of metal ; some-
times of costly wood, omamented with tortoiae-sheU
Hnd ivory. The counterpanes were generally purple,
embroidered with beautiful figures in gold. It b not
known whether they had curtmns. The dining-room
was usually of an oblcog shape, and fitted up with
soft couches ; for the Roman men did not sit up as
we do, but were accustomed to lie one behind another,
with their backs supported by cushions. The ladies
however generally sat. The dishes were placed upt«
a table in the middle.
6. The floors c^ the rooms were usually coveitA
with stone or marbls, or what is called mosaic wwk ;
which is a pattern made of very small pieces ol dif-
ferent colored marbles, inlaid.
6. The Boman houses had but few windows, very
tmall, and high in the wall. In the early times, win-
dows were merely openings in the wall, closed by
- means of shutters : afterwards they werp made of . a
tramparent stone; and. in the times of the emperc^
\ i
HltTOBX OF lOME. SIS
glass . hegaa to be used. The bedrooms miut hare
Been extremely dark ; for the windowa did not gen-
erolly open into the street, bat into the atnom, which
was lighted from the opening in the roof.
7. Instead of stores or fireplaces, the Romans
heated their houses, when they found it necessary, by
braaers of coal or charcoal, which could bo moved
&om one place to another. BometJmes they warmed
the rooms by hot air, conveyed through pipes ; but
the mildness of the climate often enabled them to do
without any thing of the kbd. It is generally thought
that they bad no cblmneyB ; but t^t the amoke es-
caped through the windows, doors, and openings in
the roof.
8. The tops of the houses were flat ; and terraces
were made upon them, with artificial gardens, where
persons might enjoy basking in the sun.
d. The principal Roman meal was like ours — the
dinner, or ccena, taken about three o'clock in the day,
or later. Chilib^n and invahds Bometimes had a meal
of bread and dried fruits very early in the morning,
and it was customary to take a light luncheon about
twelve o'clock ; but the luiury and splendor of their
mode of life was ahown in their dinners. These
usually condsted of three courses. The first was
formed of light dashes, which it was thought would
increase the appetite of the guests ; such as oUves,
sausages, dormice sprinkled with poppy-seed and
honey, fish, thrushes, asparagus, &c. : then followed
the more solid meat, of which pork— especially suck-
ing pi^-eeems to have been the favorite dish, besides
bMr's flesh, venison, and game ; afterwards came the
dessert, consiatiog of fruits — winch the Romans usu-
^y ate uncooked — sweetmeats, and confectionary.
A peacock was considered a great luxury, but a very
expensive one. When the persons who were to en-
. joy this meal first assembled, they took off their shies
320 THE child's fibst
fbr fear trf soHing the coTich, which was often inlaid
with ivory or tortoise-shell, and covered with cloth of
gold 1 next they lay down to eat, the head resting on
^e left elhow, and supported by cushions. Each
person was carefully provided with a napkin, which
was particularly necessEiry, as they had no for^ bat
ate With their fiugers. There were usually three per-
sons on the same couch, the middle place bemg es-
teemed the most honorable. The servants stood near
the tables, with napkins round their waists. Some
removed the dishes, and wiped the tables witb a
rough cloth ; others gave the guests water for their
hands, or cooled the room with fans ; others carried
round dishes to the guests ; and when any thing was
partjcularly wanted, it was called for by a anappmg
of the fingers. They drauk wine ; but usually mixed
it with water, and sometimes with honey and spices.
10. The Romans always bathed, and were anomted
with oil, before they went to dinner : it was one of
thdr greatest luxuries ; and public baths were pro-
vided, where any person might enjoy himself at a
small expense. When a great ipan wished to gain
favor with the people, he would give them a d^y's
bathing. Gardens and libraries were, m later years,
attached to some of the public baths ; so that num*
bers of persons used to meet together there for con-
versation and amusement.
1 1 . With regard to the Boman dress, the toga ws>
tlie principal outer garment worn by men, and at
one time by women. This was a loose robe, nofc
made up into any form like our dresses, but wrapped
round the body. The materiai was usually wool ;
and, when persons wished to stand for any office, they
rubbed then* toga with white chalk : the toga was thew
called "toga Candida." Our word "candidate" is
derived from this custom ; " Candida" being the Latiii
word for white. Black togas were worn '
UISTOKY OF ROME. SSt
mg ; and, on occa^oos of triumph and rejuicing, tlie;
were ornamented and embroidered. Boys wore a
k^ with a broad p mple hem till they were about
fourteen, and this eigmfied that they were not old
enough to take care of their own property or govern
themselves. There wero regular ceremonies used
when this first toga was left off, and the man's toga
was put on : it was considered a very important event
in a boy's life. Oirb wore togas also ; but they
never made any change till they were married : then
they pat on what was called a stola — a sort of loose
frock, fastened round the waist by a girdle, and hav-
ing a flonnce at the bottom. Both men and women
wore tunics, or short garments with sleeves, under-
neath their outer dress ; and, when they wished to
protect themselves from the cold, they used what we
should call blankets— coverings made of the same
rough material, but much omament«d. Blankets of
this kind were common for several pui^rases : some-
times they were spread on the ground, and served
for carpets.
12. The use of shoes was not univeisal amongst the
Romans : for instance, persons sometimes went bare-
footed when they attended a funeral ; but at other
times th«r shoes were either mere Boles fastened to
the foot by bands, or else, like our own, covering the
instep. The toes were frequently uncovered.
13. The art of printing was unknown to the Ro-
mans ; and, when they wished to write, they used
reeds split like our pens, and wrote with a thick kind
of ink, either upon paper made from the bark of an
Egyptian plant called papyrus, or else upon parch-
ment. They also used httle pointed iron instrumente,
with which they inscribed letters upon wasen tablets ,
and, in writing, instead of sitting upright, they gen-
erally lay upon couches, and raismg one knee, rested
the writing material against it.
223 THE GIII^D B VIRBT
14. The public games have already been Bpokn
of; in which, besides the fights of the gladiatora,
they pleaeed themselTea with chariot races, and thg
combata of wild beasts.
Ifi. During the persecution of the Christians, the
martyrs were oft«n killed by wild beasts at their
public assemblies ; and their Bufierings were a source
of amusement to the omel spectators.
16, The Romans do not appear to have known
much about flowers. They had gardens divided into
flower-beds and eeparated by boraers of box, aa we
might have : but the chief flowers which they appear
to nave been acqo^ted with, were roses and violets ;
although fiiey also had the crocus, lily, iris, poppy,
narcissus, gladiolus, and others. The most strilnng
part, in a Boman garden, must have been lines of
lai^e trees planted in regular order ; and alleys form-
ed by closely clipped hedges, and interspersed with
statues, fountuna, and summer-houses. They were
very ,fond of cutting their shrubs into difierent fig-
ures. Conservatories and hot-houses are mentioned
in the times of the emperors.
17. Thesefewparticulars wiUbesufBcient to show
that, however the manners and customs of the Ro-
mans might differ &om ouis, they had a great Iot«
of luxury and refinement, and were in most respeeta
quite as civilized as we imagine onrselves to be.
CHBONOLOQIOAL TABLE
FWKCIPAL OONTEMPORARY EVENTS OF EOKAM ASO
JEWISH HISrOBY.
•.o.
imtB.
I.U.L.
Roal.
wo
Mhm ....
»
ImeL)
TSS
Nunm Pompilliu .
n
Too
HBBKh . . .
]«M,
BIO
8i0
TulhaHoaoiu .
6«(
000
JehoOUa . . .
5et>
<Jud;iti arrled ap-
"^^^^^
■eccaid lempto .
Taoplaflidabed .
S3J
SerThaTnDiu .
T«rqntol« finper-
traa ....
ComblMctaawu
SIO
EirasaU lopsmm
*!T
BwomcU™ of IhB
Plebeian . .
Csiiu Minus Co-
riotomiiiiHUe
C»>cto»tia. dlcM-
4U
«-.„, .
«.
DeoemTirl begb
eu«a of VeU wnt-
U a RO NO LOGICAL TABLE.
..c
J™h.
L..
bulk
^c
Bon.
'•
RomebomlbTtbe
Bol^ rebuuV '. '.
343
3M
lliMBaniidKiinr
Pjnliw, kil^ qf
E^ain
FlnfVicwsrbe-
Betwnd Panic 'inir
la Greece. . .
S9S
sei
919
sat
■JXI
ADHochra EpLphs.
net' crae\ treat-
ment of Ibe Jewe
BeoonUonofdallf
hScaUon of Ibe
lempla by iaiia
170
Ihlnl PoBlo nr
eleoied diliiuie .
as,"?-*
i«
133
101
Sods] or Made
M^MOTtl»Wed :
Beiloriiw mnnlered
go
88
Am Bd, dfidded
17 Pamper • •
„
"paspi;
«
hC
Jou.
I.C
I.U.U
..o
«.«
Camf, tM inn-
■loaofBrUoln .
Rubicon . . .
Death orCUo . .
BrqUi sod Cmtiu
H«DdthaGniil,ai
Idog .'. . .
«
BirtOeofAaium .
THB BIKTH OF JESUS CEmiBT.
fernd Agrlppm
(autOaUiigotaa
Agtlppo, Kng of
nifDrJudss .
FOx ,Roio«ogoT-
F«lu> (Homsn goT-
UUESTIONS.
CH APIEB L— Wliat Is Ow intjeM or tUi AqMrT
« To imdsntBDd the hiBtotr of h onmlrT, vhu
1 WhuittbebiMaiTorBonwsBtd to^sT <
WbU ohiiiMh Bs lo Ihs I ' "' ~~
VVbDt on Iba aontli *ad w
— It an ths pecuUuiUH I.
ulhrongb lt.>od ta what directionT Whsl la
HjiuwcUon wtlh th«e nunmtaiut Whsl hu 11'-
4. In reading III Hrif h]eiay< what mnat vs nmeni
eiui vebacerWnt Wlial waa (he religion orifa
of Italy t In wbal ware aej ibit pgnirataj- ?
f. Whatoneoflbeprlndpal llaUanatalealamentlonedT Wbatwaalbe
umeoTtUohbroltrt Bi vbom is It aald to hate beeo buUt ?
Wlial la Bid or Ita Ui^t What two hrolhen wlabed lo obtain tbo
cmwnT Wbldi i^ Ibem mcwededi aod b; what nuwnil Wbat
did he do to make Ida porar KcureT Wham did ha ohllga
.. .... -Tbst ,u ms duWi^lha TMaf T
— . aireapectl "
0. Wbst occomd, Dotwllhnaadlng Qila le
a vntal TliglD? What waa lbs duWirf' Iha TMalTlrgineT
What law is mentloDod Willi tmiect la ihem^
Vbstoccai»d,DotwilhnaadJiig udalawt On what did Amnlliia IK-
tennbie, aod how order U u be dune I Howwaahiideslgndebaleilt
'. WhabnodttaedilUrenl What did tas do Willi them ! What namM
did hs KITS them?
e. Wbal did AionUut BnppoH r What qnami la menUDnedt Whowai
taken prlaooer T To whoot whb be cATied T
>. What did His ivo princai docids upont What did nomnlna doT
Who waa thm proclahned kiogT
ID. Wbatdid BomulDBaDdRaniBwlahtodat What dlaputa aroa be-
tweoB Ihemt What were Ike angoral
II. InwhoBO&TordldlheydeddsT ViniBltitydMhebnlldt Howdid
^ .. _... ,^..... ,..1 .^g plioghtUled np, and why?
sr" "
CHAPTERII.— WhoialhembjKtirfUiiaGhaplert When did be begla
L What la aald of hia kingdom at that Ume? tVhat of bla nblectal
t OtwhatwaaUHieaacarciljrt Hjr whal plan did Bomulia remedj Um
defldaiCTt
t How did ^ SahioM (tool and act?
" jy whoBB treacheiT t VHM
Whal laths dale of this i
; Alwhatwse Rerana diaspjxdnled, and howdid he actt What (tap
tOfwl ^ , ^. .,__
^dahe nmtriYe to dot WhaHmbBr^ial What used h> be ■
1 I»d
l»B,^c|n«ortheRcRnan brlreiitad thewait Wboat le
QUESTIONS 227
& WbTdldatvirUitoiiukepeMeT WhU dM IW d.< lo alferl llMti
otjeoT To whom did lh«T make their eppedt Wlisl waa U lei«ik
propoMdT WbolookaiiiMUuiiidloda vbait
T. Wh^templenbuiUitaiUtllliet WhMkHiid<^<tBt!Sl«iT WIihI
da vakamnnsctiiiglhBnit Whit happened toTaiLut, eul mm
what eaiieel WtM It nld oT the Bonmineiit a/ler bis deaihl
Whom did Komohii chooae udfiirwbUT WliU were itiw called t
Whal wsa Ihelr nniDbs?
i. When did th« meet!
I. Whii(other>ufal«lahBdR«ii^iia,BiKlvhatwsnllieTCBUedt WhM
other citM vh Ifaeral
IB. How did Ihapatriclaiia treat the ptebe(an>T What happened In em
II. WhM other daiB cJ penona ma (here hi Rome, berides patrtdant
and plebetanar Wlu> ka lOU of them T WhU was Ihe lownt clu
otpenootf
13, WSU 1> aald o(
13. Kelale the aloir
14. What doea the anthn aaj In regard to IhU nory? Wbil tiH be»
15. What pn^^ket vaa living Then Korne vea Ibunded ?
CHAFTEB m.— Who I> tbs lal^ed (^Ihla chapter?
1. What i> aald of the gorerantrait after the death of Komulua T Who
ma at lut fixed upon! WbMwu hiecbanclerf
a. WhalwHlhooghlreqieetli^ blml What naa bla cnatomt Relsia
■MDe othla good acts.
3. Boir hmg did he lelgu I
CHAPTER IV.~Who la Ihe iDbJed ortblschipterT
i. Br whom waa he clioaen r What do we know of blgcbeiacler? Hon
long did he reign ?
Z, Wbat ImportAni erent i& meadODBd as hapwolng To hie lime? Who
3. How d^^TODDgmen meet HKh other?
t. Whal two were ant killed! What did (he other brother do t Betata
what happened to (he Curlatil.
I, Wb»« did Horatlu* go? Beltne golog, what did be do? Who met
S. To what w«a he not oo
hatman?
n Ihs Albana and Bomana after Ihiaf
.. . -pinion ' "'
banppoeedwl
J natioDaT W
CIIAPTER Vr~WholBtbenib|«tortblacbapler?
1. Wboea grandKn wu he. and In what reepeci was be like li
t. What bmiKht him trouble, and why? What la aaid of Ih
bojli?
■. Who latlled taKomedurtng hiareign? What did hlii
Beiate what oecnrred on hia andval at Rome.
I. WbaldidhlBWibpietaMl lot What did ihe tbink a (oc
WhM did As dadare f
QUEBT.ON3.
tbit ber prophecj ml^ be
kiRirtlwGUyt WMLk
QUHIHIMT Vf UK U HU oril *
1 How did be HiOH t
(erwBidi doDB to Itc
I. Of whit ware Ilie Bomina fMKlT
«. About vhU k> (bare ailn^ailciiT told T What did hewldi to dol
b; oa^ of tba ABguimT How did be Innt tbe augur, nod what did taa
■ak hlmt Relate what IbDowed In IliiB Inlerrlew. Bslaie notber
woodaifUl UOfT MM of an erent that look place abont tbla time.
9.OfwbatwenlheBDM0fAjKMUMthB)eaIati>,eDdwhyT Whatdld
Iher detennine to dot HcnrdtdtbneflhcIiheU'purpaeeT
0. WhatdidTaaaqaUtkaodoT WbMlilaebooddid AaisU ihepeoplet
WhBtlnilkd]ilihetelllham,aBdwheiir How 1ib« did T^ulniu*
IciiuHlihehliaT On
wbom did bo take pity, and what did he do Hr tfaem T
S. tnwbaldidbemakeechBiignT Wbatdld healaaaUowT
3. WbBtelbiibadIlie«actioo tbapaliiclaiul
4. To vboTO were two of bia dan^len married T Wh'et wsa the naina
9. WhU did ahe iiy to jienuada ber hnaband to dot What muM be
have been, and whjrf
«. Where did bo go. and what do? Wbatiaaaldof (be aonattml What
■nadoSerriiiBangTrt Wbatdldhedot WbatdidTarqiln theodat
b! WbMiireieledofTullialDreeard tothatmsidrrT Whaldtd ahedo*
ime? What did the Bomans so
tTranuj on Ibo pcMjr and the ric
^Bt are we loM vae caDod t
What lemple did h
CapHol, Mtd whjT
e. Relate what is said ofthe booka kept in Ibia
1. Towhal was Iba king penooded! What
4. What wan did Tsjquln can? on? What ell; gate him Iba n
f. IVhcre was Delphi? What tem|^ did it oontabil WhatpowerWH
Ik. r,ri..,,» „. u,!, lomplB Buppoaed to pmai*! Dpon polDlarf
. did the people do? Who went to oooHlt the
. did tbeftdu with Iheinl For what vaa BnM
auesTioNS. 82t
iKqttng sDdwatchu^t Belalevbat look place bitween Ihe jwuig '
■en Hid Ibe (Hscle.
!l Wbat made BruHu and thp chief penooa <Ji Eoine tonj nlUi th*
king's bmilTt
L Wluudld lut Iba Somani knsir la be acflmeT W^■tdUI Lucrelli
KHdTalodot To whom did she Kndl What did the make thtidi
nsvt Wbiit did die then dor
I), WhudMBrutiuTovr What did he do the beil dav T TVhalUieDT
Wbia did the people of Rome dMenuliwiipoa! What did Ihe i»n-
il. WhIUierdMTarqiiliiiuidSeitnggoT
a, WhslllHiidotDuraccoimuof IheklngiofBaDoel
CHAPTES IX.— Whit la the BDb>ecl %A thia chapiert In what jar
rater alter TarqiiinT What dli
. ... L bad the HomHjw Ibraaambei
vvnaiwere Ihej called?
t. For what did Tuqain Bend smbanadora 1o RinneT Whalplolsdld
ther ooDlriTe. and whom did they peraoade lo Join them? Who
orerbeuH them, and what did be dof What did nol Drtilua refuse
ItclonearTrr How did Brutus BpetUi: to hlsKna? Whatdidbebid
1. Whom did Tanjuin perauado-
5, Wbat waa done with the body of Bnituat Where was hla etatua
1. Who waa cctasal alter the death of Bnitnet What waa he calledf
Ofvbat were the people Bi^ild. and wh;? How did hequlet them?
T. What bad 'ftrquhi notglven up f To whom did he m Ibr aid* What
dklPorseimadoI Wliat le s^ of three men ! Give the nanH of
one of Ibem. What waa It hb duly to guard ! Wbat did he know ?
What was done to prevent PorBenna iiom fo" — ' — '
1-^ Why we
1 wham, and Ibr wbaTla he
ealdlobava
he hormed by the aenale and paopier
IB the Komana Blill In street perU> What did
iHiatwiis Id Isel delormined on! Whooffei^d
they not Itr
IL What loState did 1.0 make! TiJwhom w« be taken on being ax-
replvT How did hlsmsnnerslfeot PoreemiB, and whvf On bring
lob'hewuuktbehumedlodealh.nh^didHmiuBdo? What e^
IMt bad IbU on the king, and wbat dM be dor WbU waa Huliu*
n. What alarmed Ponennar Wbat wonld not the Bomau
.conwmtot
HOflhwnr Who followed her enamplet Whrt
(tartber le told of them ?
i. What did Poisonna do sftei thalT
I. In what battle did IVquhi agdn tliflilf In tl
cso
n. What It belleied ruqiecUng Tuqilut How old mi he (rtua hi
CHAPTER X^WhBt li the anbJeRt oTtliKcbaplert
L Wli*tl«nmarktdorUiebWoi7ar BiHioet Wbst Jt uid of Uia ■»
trieluHandpMieUiBl WhU t> probBble t
I. Kelue UiecauiairflhaniBMngaal'theplebBlBii*.
3. WhUWHEHrenlalheMlrMuuI How wen llie plebeian tnstod T
4. Wbit war Is mamaDedt Haw dM Iba plebeUn b«lutvgl BeUM
wbj the; look ttutt molntlaii.
& WbstwubiougfaljiBtUlbatmomait? HoirdM theplebeliiaactt
WbameapeeWlTdldUitailuTii? Wbo ■Jded wlm the plebeluw,
■Dd vlul did be promlHl WhU oT lbs oth» coiiaiil ? WbUdid
the people do, and bow »nerwanla were Ibey treated I
•. Wtaafliaaidc^aoaertch pUrldaoaT WbU did tlM plebelaiK bold T
What did they at length (k> r
T. WbaidldttaepMridauDowaeeaiiddal WbU dkl Afripp* tcU Iba
0. Rclau (be IkMe.
ft WbaivuUaeBHtt Wbat was agreed t How ofbn wen lhe» on-
cen lo be choien, and wbal cilledt Hownuin were Iberet Wbot
were thsr alloaedr Wbatwatmada acrimef
CHAPTER XL-'Who la tbe anbjMt or lbl> ehaplerT
1. Wbat about Ihia time occurred In Bomet Wbitkli^lami '
Whatdidbedot WbatUaiOdoraseaMorr Whslwi '
CHAFTBR xn.— Who la the anbiMt or tb
1. WbB( la aald of the pUitclani md plebeluur Wben ODif did Ihej
agree, and whiT
S. Wbatlspiutlciiurly tobenmemberedifaidwhjt
Bomaminnfl Whowve lii»l*nD,uidnhrt
1. Who bad left Rome, and wby I Wbne did he go to lire t
>. Whea did bo appear once mora M Rome! What did Ibe MoMe anr
Goortder falni, aod wby f
n. How did Ibe nuMenaen Ond hlin engaged T Wbfn only wu a dicta-
tor afpoiuted t Whatwashispowert HowLougdidhlaolBcelasT
1. How did Clnduoatiu recoive ibe meieage J How did he deput, and
■nerwhal!
a. What dUI Ibe aenate do, and wbo waited to receive him t
t. Whatdidheflrstdo?
W. Where dM be arrive r Wbit did be Iben dol How In the iDamlH
did the £qii) flod themaelveaf What did (bey dot WhU dU
CiDclnnaliiB order ( What waa the ueual sign of being oonqueredl
H WUh wtiU was CInebutttug roc^ved al Booie T What waa glvia f
Hmtcnadldbeglveiipblaofflaer Wbllher did be Ihtn BoF
SSI
t XUt-Who ufl the rnthSed of tlili, die ftst
L W«hBtdldtfaeptebelaii9i±iM/<»m[)lalaI What mlglit Ihc cstMDk
do, ind wbyl
i, WtiatmilhsandactoribeplebelaDgDndu Ihsl traatmeiill IVtah
Bud to whu did Ibt patrlcdanB ouieDlI Wlmm did the; ippointl
WbM were Uie^ called, tnA wbj f For vhai purpose wen uatj ap-
pc^nlsdl Wlien did tberb«t^n,uid howBoon luiah Uielr work!
Wbca ItwvrMdr.vhUdld thejdDl Afier the vbote lud been
uproTsd, wtant «■■ Ottai done t
L Whu la uid or Ibo garenniiait whSle the DeoemTirt were Binzi^liig
the liinT Whet WM it aoppoeed Iber would doF Hon, on the
Ff did thejuti Whatvere the feelUigi of both palridana
WhattirelaledoTherr Wbatdl-..^
t. Whom did he onler to Kite Vlnhila, an
7. Who appeared with «rglnl« br'— ■-
did Apploa dedde I What rei
be theDdo.fmduyT
B. Whither dM be Immediatelr go t What wai the munlDioiia deter-
miuBtliHi or the Boldleni Whither did Uiei march, nod what did
they requin t
I. Wlmt WM duM to the DMemvitl? What naa the fide of Apphis
CUudlDif
10. After that, to That £ina argotemiuealdld the Bomaoa retain t
CRAPTKR XIV.— What ia (he aubject of thit cbapla ?
L What ia aatd of the lowoB tahen b; the RomaniT
1. WballeaaidorViiii? WhU wee decided oobj the Romanar What
1. What dk IhcT do te eeieral leant WhU did ther then iw«Te
todol
1. What do the old Bdhmh wrlleta MBI Wlial pnidigT lamertlDnedr
WbatftaaUoraBoldBDldlert^VeU! Wluu dU°ba leU the amtl-
■hI, anl what dU be dedin T
t. Wlieredid the Boraaaa Moid, and fiiTwbBtT WbMnttwerwugirnit
Wbat did thaKomauBlhendot What did the people of Veil de-
darel Who waaappotnled by the BomanB— to bewbat? What
dMbedoT Wbeu waa a plan of attack loade ? Wbat la said of a
t. Wbat WIS the Ung afVeil then dolngt What did the nbUera hear
Bid dgf Huir £d the annr ent^ Who vbs kUlnI) Wbat Is
aaidof tbeinhablUmtaor VetUand lU treasurea; What alatue vaa
r^l ~What ta'ealTrfVhUe hora«"r~mBlof th^e'eiaiuM'^ri
jdeT Atwhul were IbBpeoplcBhoclted! Wbj were the eoMl.
igijt Ofwbat waaCaiiillluaaccuK>il,ai>dwbuobllgHllodu!
233 QUESTIONS.
IL WbUdldnotlbeRoiDBaiwDUani'lBhT Wbal did Ikn blT
4. BuAhb whom were the uubaaadon uk«it What did ILcj uMf l|
film T Wbat did be i¥ply T
5. WhHl did Lhfl Fahll Inquire T
S.llDwdldBnmiiiuiuigwerT Wbut fgllDwed?
7. Whu HI* agaiwt the cuaUnu of bU DBUouaT What did Ihe Guik
1 Vniit vere erer aflsiraih
,e Gaub Dune ofH wlui did Uitt
•. Whom did Brenoua send out, and what sord did tber bring baAI
Wbat did Brennua fur 1 In That Male did be dnd Rome ? Wbit
could the Gaols dot WbU did tbey b1 lul reBcb T WlioiD did Ibey
npdlherel Wbat ii Kid of Ibelr Eppesrance ! Wbal did tbe boi-
buiana lake Ibsin lo bet Belule wlml roUoved. Who had gtant
Uieia»Iv»Dp,wb<i»,aiid«bHtdHieniibied iDdul WbM li eaid of
ID. UowlonswerelheHoatBiiBebalap InlbecapitoiT Wluri t> anM «<
U. Wbit bad nearljBucceeded? What ixii« nu hnard ? Wbatnera
...... — _..,. ^.. "Tiu dij iiedof Wbat did Uie
GiLulipropmef
i. Wbal btald bTlbeold writen? Wben Uie Roman complal
-"-■ -"-■" lot Who came juMal thai time, lodwtUiwI
Wtanldidheiaf I Wliat faUovedt Wbatianidoft
CUAFTER XVI^Wbat li (he mbject of Ihli chapter?
1. In wbat etals did tbe Cauls le«e ]
peopleagTeet WbjT BjThsIwi
S. Wbatdidaadi persondol Wbaiw
3. WbatlssiidorCudihB? WbT?
L WhatisaaidoTttaepoort
S. WhofMlthegrmeatoHiu-
Wbat did be declare!
(. FnKnibMlin>e,iirhatdid hedot Or what did Iha patrtdan accug*
blmt WhatdldttaerdoT Howveie Uie plebelana aOMlei] br Uiaif
What did HwUuaiHllriHnr dot Of what ma be at bM aceiwd,
and to what HnteiKedt Wbere, and wUb wbom did be nbut him-
selTiip? Howwwhebetis^edt WhatcrhtotaomeandftmUft
OIIAPTER XVIL— Wbatlatheiubjectorthlacbqiterl
1. Wbo next tried to help the plebelanat Wbat were ther, and In what
;eart What do they teem to have been ? What !■ there gnU rea.
HD to doubt?
l With what did Fabla'silater reproadi bert What did her Mher and
her bufiband determlrw ?
& What M oaiiial What wu KtUtd? What law was impaaedt
What la such a lawcalledt Beibre Ihe pasa^e of that law. what
naed the pairldant b> do t Of what wss Uisl the cause t
■he patriclana atin determined on? 1
prtnfcdt What was given to him?
fc What brofceoulaboutlbattiJnBi Wlist wm appohiled, and fbr whal
puniinxt What did tbe people bncyt Wtio died of thai pUgMi
L Wha^ ia aa,id Lo baTa happened In the erne jear whh Ibe ^agaa
aOESTIONS
rian, vbit look pl«M? Who anepled Ifae oD
Df vhAl doflflthiB aDeolote remii"' — * ""'"
can alwv* be dlacorered beim
wofafaippen of (he '^ua God.
laa, aitd what ofDarld t
Whet wen
_ ifl requir«i of
What vu Uia innj obliged lo do ?
X What WBB the name or the Banmlle Bonoral T What mJirht ho oasUy
haradow? WhBhoutheoooIniT.dklbsdDt
vhit reepect weie they more noble thm the Romaust How loof
■Iter thu dJd the trar contlnoe r What were the Samnltfa then
obliged to dot
1 WbiilwaBCaiuwdtobamadB.aiMlt9irhom,abontlhAltlnw? Wbai
teHUofllallimuUoal What it fl am caUed t
CHAPTER ZX^What Is the ml^tct orthli chapterf
I. WhepdLd U break oat r In consequeoce of what?
1. WhathBiHWDeddaiiiulhaliriirT Whu tie we loldl WhaldldIM
boUeref
L Who WH (al
What fimher is lald of it'
reatblml WhUtaHi
Baninlte wu last ! "
FtJ oTUeKulaiioaoit
CI1AF7XR XXI^Who l> the auhjoct of thia chapler' When did ha
tod Id Italy r
U'Wwhrt were the Eomani now maslsn? Whit clly Is moudOMd,
■td b0iTdHQlb<«ir What !■ Kill calle': attar It 1 What qiwni
QULSTIOHS.
whBtt Whom did the BiduuB tend. >&l hm
IT Wnmlgwdof IheLrreiiunlaBfanel WM
To whomdid tbE7i<?Dd,iiid<brwliUt
Wlial iraa Fjnbugf WbU wh UscluiacUr? Wkat nt plimmit
With nhaldM lie laudT What «M the chunder oT Un ^umtlHt
Whudld FirrdiiwdaiThenhecuae loibedVI WbHtmwU iu(
the Romuis do ? What were theTlbrcedtodathtnroneii,sidwbil
Mow did the baltlB endl What did It glTa PjirUta J ■■"—'--—
--■■-- -ildajT Whrt did he »»- — '■"' ^'-
, . le w on b^ng: coDgnt , , .
4 WhUvaipnipaHdr Whom did tj^n Hud, aod Ibr wbMt WbK
■"■"■ i-j-i Bntlijrwbomwould UiejpiobablThawdoDelit
AppiDiT What did I^nbiBlhen dor Wbatthai
. , , — rbit dU (be Beuuitt ottel WhU did Pj'irtnu a]-
? What dtd lbs pri»Den 11710 dot Towbatirentbey obUgod?
Ilbeprio
What WM IhrBKlaued?
do? Wbat eSd had Ihla upon IbeKomanit WhU la aald of Fa-
brtclus aod Pjrrhtu !
£, Wbum did Fjrriiui and bade, and for whatT Wbit ma ngned,
wbllher did PjTvhiBjiD, and forwhatf Wtul laa«d of hlaretuniT
What la laid of the Kbmaiiat Of what vaa I^rrfana Ibnd! WbetB
4, Kelils what la latd of the Bomaoa ader the war with Pyirbiu VM
CHAPTEE XXn,— What H ihB anhjoet of this ^apterl
U Id what were the CarthaglDlBog chled; employed! What waa (be re-
aull of Ihij? Wbat waa IbBnameof Iheirehlef dlyl ByhwkiiiE
on what, m^Ibe place wbve it ilood be RiuDdt WhU lunldaC
iu ^teT What 0? lu remfilns? Whllber did thej apiHd Ihem-
MlT«r Whatel^dldlb^lbiiDd,aiidwbat]al(iiowcd]edr What
t. Whetta aaMiirthe beaming of tbeSst Funic war? Who had M
\» agreed iwecttng Carthage!
A be^nnhw of the nrst PuDic wl . -.^^ . ^ ^
V ttrm Utift Ofvh^ (awa bod they taken pogee«loD?
at doea it a&l give lla namet To whom did the; appeal, an
uequenceof what? To irbal could not the Komaiia make up Ibdr
«ts, and why!
did the Cahhagliilaiu act tovarda ihe MamerthifBT Ou what
re the Komaiu benl, sod what did they do ?
■t lA a&ld of the pan lakea by Hleiuf
h"! KSped were (he GarthaglDlBna better off than (be KomaaaT
Cartba^BlMi rii j»f Whulae^doflhoee brfdgoi't
What did the Roman ienatonucoaeer What did the; detennine
todof How were (helrorden oboyedt How did the Romana get
the belter of Ihe CartbagiDlan thips? Whaliaealdofthoee brfdgeat
(. Wtaeredid (he BomuB taod, auif what do t Whal must (heybare
dotia, and why f
T. Who WM cooaul at that UmeT
B. What doea he iio( appear to bare been? IVhat, ootwithetandbig^ bvl
begahiedl What aeemed ponlble, and why f What might Bifnihia
haiodonet luelead of that, wbat did be do ? Who vent back, and
what did Ibey (ell the people! Wbo wae in (he dty ? What did be
oudertakBt How didlie auceeed f
( Howtamwaa Bwulus > prisoner! Whal were the Komam M the
MdofthatUmaf WhBtwaaRajulii>obllgedlopronila8,aalwl^I
Ml. Wbat mint have been Terj plsaeaut! What waa he talced, and how
QUESTiONa. 3SS
JL milt ettxt hod bis idylce on Uw Cuthielaluii ! Hovii 11 mH
Ikey puMdisd blm ! What bAient csbwd lo belisTsT
a. WbU vug u6iF begun agun. and how hng contiDueil? 'What tt
A Whal vere Ih
— ■■ otUiBBoniandUisM? Wl
it PMuJlJ Wbnl were Dm l___„ i,._
■ loi« did Uie Dm Puiia
CFIAPIER XXIIL— Viliil Ib the Bubjul of this chiptra !
L tluw manj /e&r« passed hefuro ivar vb* Bj^aln decl&i«d f What la said
!L On whom dl. _
thagB) vhAt did hi
I, Wliu Is said of Hannibal ? As wbat wai be Hied Bpou, nod when !
4. Of what did he wish lo obtain pom— jpnl What did be thHcftm do t
Wbal [he SBguoUnej I
II What Isaald of that conduct orHsnzdbalT Wbat oTIhebeitheBtlieagr
1, Whatwaa Ihu faleor Bsguntunj! What Bfterwaidi did Ihe Rumans
dot Wbo was ODO of those ambaseulan! Repeel wbat panad be-
, What no* did Hannibal prepare to do I What l^lietween him and
llalTf Whal is aiid dT ibeml How were bis soUlen aOgclntT
Willi wbatdldbeptweadl WhatdidtheBomahsiuwdD? What
appeund almoBi Impoaslbiel Wbenwaa Haonlbil, belbn Sdplo
■--'■'— dnt Wbat route did he take r What added lo Us iUf-
~ ' aaidofbiiBniiyMlhatliinat WbU ofHumibal
nimaiuir nepuak die account of bis paaslnK the AlpL
. Wbal (Ud DOi faia annr Dow nnlalbl Wbei« vas Sdplo? What
mistake had he made at flnl, and wbal did he sUn do? When did
the two armiei meet, and with what renilif What did ihfi iinmm.
uow bogia io thinlit Whal did not Sdi^ cb
therefora, did be do f "-— — .^..i-. .
idSuint K
EsT^Vbatlsi
' What did Bot SemnailiB dot Wbalwi
num Boidien oidered to do. and betbra wbUT What wu
dlUml Whatwt--'--— -•*■- " '
a After Ibis, what di
A Bow wei« the people of Rm
ttor InuuedirtAy doT Wb>
Wmtdld ererroiHaipsctl WMt reuoDi an glm la UihI
dotaEllT WhHUKnCjredJdliedot
a. WbZconnedid FiMupunuer What did be BiiHtlBH eoatrl**
lodol ReliUMiliiMnice.
14. Wloldld thaBoiiuDHiulonailBl[,>Ddi>bM onlerl IbwbMvM
Minadiii temptedl Wtuu ma the eondnet of FaMn In IbU tn-
MMWBt WliUMnld lohwebaeii Hi eSsamMlnudiHt VVlul
did Fibbu toon tnar da?
IlL Wlut gml bslttewH ftnigbl the mt }W? Whit n CuiiiwT
OanhBt d^of tbsmoDUiWH URniglii! Wh* ma It > diwdiiil
CUT )br tbe Horaaoil What !• iBkl of ■ome of Ihe men ot nntl
WhU ii mo of Sclpla AMcanusI
15, Wbo BdrliBd H^nwltwi to go la Rome f On hie leflolng, what dU
IT. vnien did Hannibal piece hli H^ienT Whet la >aUI of Ihe padpic
ofCepiuT On heariugDffl&nnib&l'ji approach, wbBt did Ihej dor
13. WhetlaiBldorHuuUbal'tinldlen! WbU of IheRomwaT
19. For whMwa* Hannibal verr enxtoiu? Whom did he aend to CBf-
ttaage, and with whatt What laaald of maoj of hlacounUTmenT
WhMi honreror, did Uwy dot
U. WhT had (be BonuugK great deal to itlend to Bl thai UmeT What
- KsardloSlcUy? What, aAei hia death, had
o Sioeen to doT
~' ■■■ warT Who WM Hilng IB
What ia Hid of SjiBcuaet
Hamdbal doing T
t n aaia 01 ino DBODB 01 laouai vynaioimi '■'■-
vAatdklnot. _._
13 WhatiBiBidofHaadnibal^i
vd^^
erlbrbbn Ibaolbrhii
. — __ , . , .J bla enemlnt Wha_
1 What nBBlbe conduct and end c^Hodrutal?
Oman anuj return, and bow boo
III Imaodfbr what? WbatttilM
CHAPTER XXIV.— What lathand^ectoflhltchaptert luwhatfw
did Sd|^ lead hi AMcat
1. How long did he rem^n In Bpaint At the end of that UnH whet
bad the Boraana become? What waa the trrcAt wiah of Bdpio? In
what iMpect was he more Ibftnnala than Hannibal? What princee
ofhnred waa there?
L Whatlaaaldf^Bc^onlabat Wbolavedher? What did hw Uher
aar? From that lime what did Muinina deiermlne to do?
1 A*IooaBawbalweramBde,dideclploBetiaUIiir AMcaT Whatdio
lomeihlm? Wbetdi
didhenrair? WlutiHiiwdiaiHJ7[i«ilbla,(iiid*bjT BowdM
he lUBk be Bwld mn herT Wbeo Sdplo irriTed. irtau dtd tU
BnbeadDT WhitliiaM <tf tbo KomugHKnlT Wbit did «l«t
□!«■ Hj to BophcoMAT Wbat acmrwl aAw be bwl lift bert
Wbal IMMin ifid ihe Had to bnr I. inhMl !
L Whit did Iba Ctttbuglnliiiii aon
tlieonl«obej«i,BnlwhjI Itl. _ _,..._ _ . ...,
be dot Wbst did bs think dalnble,belbnpruaedli« to Cu(Iii»\
IL Whu must thitmgMli^ bave been, uidwbyt In vhst did ihe; not
■Eree.iiid«bU£)1lD««l) Bfirbom wn It gBloedT Wblthudid
nuinlbalbBlemuidfarwhatT WbU !■ nU of bll return T
7. WbUI> Hid or bnie deed) md gnat umegt
e. WbatllHidorihepeacewlilchlbeCHtb^iituaDawnuddl Whnt
wen the; obliged togire npt Tonbat bealdat woe tbrj com-
>. Wlih wbat WH Bdplo bODond ? Wbat wai thm gtvm him ? Whai
ia Mated of eiphu?
OUAFTER XXV^Wbal H Uw rabject oflhb cbapterT
1. WHbwbomwMwarDowbBgan? Whatbadhadon*! Wjaldldha
luvtide,iiDdvbst bealege; Wbal did Ihe Boawoe rerr nULugl; do,
i. Id cwrjiiig « (he mr, what did ttae Romana pnlfea T Wbit did Ihej'
aecrellf ^dSfuref Among vbmo did Ihey hUt Dp quurelB, wtd for
whatpurpoaet To what dU Ibe MacednnlaD king cooaent t AgaluM
vtaom did the Romaoi tbra tnml
3. (XwhatwaaAuaodnamiHianhl Of wbom wu ha the Hand r
I. What Dlnnger was It UaoonrtT Wbst 1b Mid of bla Max lifc (od bia
depannre bran Canbage 1 Howdld AnUochoalicalUmt Inwbal
did Antlocbng Interibrel What I wnoii la Mtignag R>r hli gofng onr
loanece? Wbu aucoeM bvl he thaeimuberdldlientum,
aodbiwbalwBihemMalnal WbatdUOMBomaiiadoT
9l Of what did AnHochna glte HaoDlbal Ihe command t Bakm he bad
hadacbance todlatlngulahhlTnaeU^ wbfUooeunfdt
0. Whf wa> Hiumlbid at thai Ume in great daua! WbUhcr did ba
lleet WhUdldtheRomanado?
T. What la aald of Pnuiaa ! Relate what fbllnwal.
S. WbotliBtld of Uanalbal'acbandert What moat we remsmber, and
IL Who died in the eema jeor wilb Hiuuilbal ? Wbal la aald of bla
" "■ ■ ■ ----- -jgi bid thai upon
11 Whet had ba
IOl WbUmnrtwetiM (hinkT Wbal la nU of Fhitlp'a death 1 Who
made IhauciBaUonl What laaald of bla Meuda) What of bia
k>T« of monejf Wbal of bia power? Of whalwaa an ocdson
eiwlly ibiiDd, and why! Why was that unlbrtunste for Peneus*
WhatbaUlewaifiiughll Of what did Ihe Romain take ponenlonl
To wbat waa PvrHua obliged, and what did he at lut do r
11 What were the Boino™ now Bcfaiewledgixl ! What bad Ihej- beea
]f IheRomtuHt Wliat btf a
character? (
238 QUESTIUNS.
JL Wbal [« UieLr boosei? Upon whsl did Ihej pride
WtiiU taw wai pBHBd. »od why f
K Wh&t[iwldor{h«lr rsUglnuandmiinnenT Wtis((>rih«irnciiasH
lavhuamnwrneiitdld ihe^ dellghi? Wbu la uld oT th^r hBbW
oruret WbU la wld or the vrilen wbo lived sboot Uut Uioel
WhUofoLbucliiaetial
aUPTERXXVI^WhattollieeablectorUiliclieplerr WboidUK
bHMktHt!
1. WbBtliBldof Uiitirai', aodwhrT
L HoHdM Hadnlen Iroubla the Carthagliilswt To wbom did Oi^
cfHaplaln, BndvInT Wbal did llH Roinuii do?
X FiH wbU ivd the Romam Hcntijr kngT Wbo vb miulully nrgtaiS
le baud, add
viiUdidbedficlaief With what did be end ererj ?peeeb hi
t. WbatvuaUeged •golDst Ibe CBiUiaaiiilaiist Wblther did
tbailnluudi^UcliBiabBBaadoniBDd^tiHwtaatf WhBtwu
imswer ginwibeml Whu did Ihe; do ! Silll, what did
- maiu do? WhBl did the OirihaglDiaDB again aend, aud k
campt What now did Ihs Carttaagliiisas aappoier Wb
S. What elfccl bad Ibat on Iba people or CBTthagel Wbat pre
did tbej inatantl^ make for dufeoce ¥ Whom did Ibey put u
. What did the Romans BOOD perceive I Whom did the; Knd, and Rir
what; What was hU charadetj WlioM son waj he( A«wbai
, With whu twlief did Sciplo^miUaniu set B^ tbrCartbageT What
waaithieiDlcnlionlodo? Wbat did he do on Imdiiig r Whatdid
HaBdmbai noiv do, and why t What waa (he next thing UiM Bciotu
did t What then did he aet to wort to do f For that piirpoae, what
dtdheorderf How did the Carthal^nlani tieat their woit I Wbat
IB aald ofiM progreta and completion *
. What Is add or men In greet danger! What did the Garthagiidan)
ouwaoT What doei It eeem they ehould have done? Towbatdld
Scipio Btill keep) Wtial did he attack! What waa now gnu-t
What vera they compelled loboar! What cannot we wonder att
C. What had the Romana no* auciweded In doUig! Stale wbat ocoir-
red arier their entnnce into the cilj.
I. Wheiedid IteEomansoDcamotBcollectf What order was given!
What ifl Bald of the progresa of the Are !
i How long did the Are r^! What la said or those who had sought
IB a'dd of Roman merf^ 7 How inanj left the ctlailel, uid To what
wera tbt^; aentenced? Who remaiued tiebiad? Where did they
BLaliun themselvea! What did Bdpio do, and what Is It said Uie
garTiaon did! Wbat waa now ebowul How! What did Sopio
promiaeT What on the next Oa-T did be do! Whu la ralated Ql
lUadmbai'a wUfc!
3. How waa Bciplo aflbcted on viewing the deaolaUon ttom the citadel
«. Wbat rnrther was done to Carthage, and accorllng lo ■hat iteaf
WDM laanid oru when Bciiuo Ian Alhca!
What-weie ulieD loBomol Wbs( Jell Inio the bio
BBDB? How wemlhe^giirenied! LUieirliiilt
U. fVbBtdid ttae BamBiBixmpleteBIlluilpaiodl Who
blnuelfr Wliatvu hecsIlHLBiidwliTt W but did
bowt
17. WhaaieAmaiis,aullbrwhatI ReklowbUismid orthei
19. IVbal la Kud of Iha KomuB duiiDg Ihou lurclgii vaa 1
curred f Wbal fUrtber is said of Lt 1
ML What la vid of h poculiar pLinlahmeot amoogBt the Bouluu
bare we learned, and why 1
ML liow wmti tha Romaji dumLnlDiu increaaed at thai period*
CHAFTEE XXVIL— Wbo are tbe aubject of Ibis chsptorl
1. What is (he next important point iD be nodcedt
a. Wbowaa tbe rival of Hannibal? Of whom wash ^ —
Ofwhom IhH&iher? Whailesaidof bett Wbalof hardaugnuri
3. To do what did ConeUa lake great painat Ofuhat waa ebe pcoud ?
Whu nnecdole la reluted? Whj bad ehe cause Ibr aalie&^iont
Wlial ia said of Tibcriuat What did hia moUiur penuida him to
*. As what did Tlberlui offer himself and wbenT What vaa Ibe Sist
i, Al wbom were the rich indignant, snd why F How naa be Dealal t
What did llberiuB Bnd meaue to do?
& Wb^ as mentioned in the prflceding chtpter, occurred about tbat
timoT Wbal did Tlberiua proposer What la »ld of Ibe anget and
haired- eidled by UiU propouiion T When hi! year of office waa
nnr. wh>l did Tihapliiii H.,. and whyf
elBCUwi tool! placet Whatdidtha
'"bod
iwn, Ineeiher with
1 what has been sa
tbe chief enemy of Tlberiua. Bod what baa been said of him I Wbal
waa he obliged to do, and why?
I. Who retained to Rome about thai Ume? HowlFBB be related to TI-
bertuB ? What, notwitbalauding^ did be aay f What did he oppoee f
What ii aald of bia death t
ID. Wbu must ComeUa betbn thli have aeen ? What did ahe no longei
desire? To wbom did ahe wrile, aod what beg hbn to do F Uaw
IL WhBtwaaC(>luaiiii«de,widwhenr What dldbebcginlodot Whsl
did the aenaton endealor to do, end bow ?
IZ. WbaldidOalue Uytodof What iaaald of hIa enemleaT Why did
the people like him loaa ? What would they not now do ?
II. What (fid Calua, Uke Tiberiua, know 1 WbU was Boon dear, and
why? Wbotls «ald of dlclalora? Oohearingofwhatwaaprmjoaed
to the mute, what did be dor WbowaahlsMend? Whatdldbe
propose ? To do what, wan be unwilUng ? Relate what la aiid ol
hie wlie'a eBbrta to atop him,
14. Whatdidnot laetlongT Who waa hilled! Whither did Oaloa w
eape, and with whom? Inlo what did he Iter u bll) FbullDg
them doaa upon bim, what did be dor What la aaid of hia bIbto ?
1. WhU «» carried to Ibe coosul r What reward had been pmmlaed
Ho prrun:
240 auHBTioKa.
bod^T Wlut la Ailed ariba grief of Cpnulii) Upouberdi^
CBAITEB XZVOL— WhU Is llie «bject ol (bit dinpttr T
L Who nade hlnMlf Aodoiu, and when f To vbom dtd he leerg hk
^ Whal children had JUIduaT What did
uov IB JonnhB denrlbed f tVhol did be desire, and
BBiB hiaendT Wtaowas ailed vrilh bIbjui, utd whTf
appij, Bud Rh- niiat t WhU did Jugsnfas then dof WbH
uiu Hje aeruUon nj and do f What eould oot Adh«1wJ dos aul
whyf Wbaltook place between AdliertiBl «id Jus-mhaT What
dtj waa jldded up toJugunhal What Jud Iw promiaed ? "Whati
S. or whit were the Eomana forced to lakenoUceT What didlb^dok
and when I Whom did Jugunha. brllie t TodowhatT Wtiatdld
belheodo? Wbalias^d orbia betag^ummuned! OfwhEt^ima
murder} What was well koowp
JqgiirthaV dtuaUoQ at Lhat timeT
On what tenni were Heteilus and Hariin during thatthner Whither
did HariuB propoao lo co, and for « half Kow did Meteiiua tn^
him,aDdwhy? What, buwever, did Harius dut ARet tHtias cbo-
aen coneul. what ma the Bret thing ho did ? How was Melellus re-
Whal place dM U aeem (lOMist imposible i
hitt For what «i
lat did Boccbuad
I, What iaaaidofaibnnorlnvaaioQ bilheGaolaT What
Bomana aince then? Wiiat did tb^ now
'oTldl Wltet did the; nnt know,
icl ideal What deacrtptlon la
F.anipa and AalsT What wia
to think
auEaTioNS),
L Wtaa tbRslened fa> iar^t Ildrl Wbmee did Ihn eoH tad *b(n
■ppecrr WbMi)IIBtlilU«Bomuidid ftirtbeGuilit Wbndid
I. WhojDloed Hie ClnAlT Whoonned ttia Alnt VrbmiUd H*-
riiudefcatl WhM dh. be Umb do 1 WhU ««n< Kni b> Hiriiu, b;
wt»in.>nd ivvtull WhU dkl Ihcjlhnileal How diil Hsriui
of tba UUek br the dtnbrlt ^J wen Bier emir oiercomet
Wlnt gare the BomiiiiB gnaur power om ibem T WburunbHrl*
■UdortheOnibrll WIiitliiBUDrHirlint
•object of Ihll ch^>Urt
[ItlyT Bj whom, >Dd w
hed (here tlws}* bevn
wh> } Wbut appoeltlnp Ig obterred In (he conne pnraoed >>• Sjlle
anilMvluT W^U wu be obliged bt do, ud wbTl Wbooppoud
hhnT WbenT Whet did hia Moida Ml hln, ond whU dU he
L WbetUltuhlUiiliiaoaiitrlTedl From vbel wu UeteQia recsUed I
How ■» he recelTedt Whllhur did Hurliu now gck nod where
Kay t What reaioD probablj' Uiduced Marine lo kd thera ? What
waeUieihimelafof MllhrtdalMl Why did no( Mirim nl»M him,
end hivw did he oObod Umt How did Mllhridilea tnU hlml
WbilberdldM»riiHgot Ofwhai waahe d««lraie,»nd why-
1. Wbalafcwyearaanerwiabniu^tRirwiudiT Whaimlled'' —
HXld«i[h vhnlnwtlittir-*
■ henwolTed lodol Wfaal war broke
t Who waaflied upon, and for what)
,^ tinier What did Mario, do I For what
llalsl) aet oiU, and by whB(WBBhe foUoiredT
■■'-— — Kstalo Ibadtyf What waa donebythe
Bylla do, and what (tarealeot Whal ful-
That bed MarlOB done, end why? Whatlaaaldol
r Whal or a reward! What waa Mariag, la ton-
lodol When did Ibeseefentaht^pen?
rhere did Marina remain hlddenl For what did
I? Whywaa Marine alarmedr Whiiher dU he
, U did be Snd there? Who wera Kparated, and
bowT Whywaa yonng Ueiina In dangerT Haw wis he uledl
^Vhat did be do whan ha Ibnnd hia hlher wM Bono T
Inwhat iHpectwuHuiuB lenfortunalethiDbliBDnT With whom
didham^r Whywaabe' ....
Wbatonuad hlu la lears I
Wtomidl WbetdMlhaK
Ma what followed.
I. W1ii>lM«aiUirep«il.ud(if whitt Btur did Iber do" treat U*riH
■odwlvt Wlien did Huiua land T On whu did bs Beat IiImk^
Wbat Dw wa ireD tKllare, and whr t Erea U he had baea s good
BUS, «taT mix HMJM HUI bsTs beu metchad T
I. WtaiM Maiiu naiad Uiu aniidit Itae ndn of CutbMS, *Iia antraiL
iDddlrwluKI WbUwaalhenplrof HariiBt WEo Joioad UblI
(hpMedl BatwavAom did diniulfa aiiael WbM was Iba nuoa
ofoaeartbeiat Wbit did he do f Wlw marched to Borne t Wbo
ioliwd Ibaal mutlauidorUml To vbomwubeDOlaniBidt
WlifdldheiafooithlinT Whaldidtbeaemtondaiiiidirtift
t. Wliat laialditfHarlui,iibilatllwUni»or p«uie van being ■etHal t
tl libit did lie HopI What was hebeg^lodo, bulwbudjd be
— • <»_.>_.• 1. _■... j^j 1., JX. lan... — 1 — nrereglv-
iolaei UMalWhUlaiaidorUiiil Tovbo
WhydldhaiofooitUinT What did the aei
, Wbat la laid itfHBrlui,iibilat Uw Unas or p«i
AlKbitdidbeilaiil What was he beg^
Kyt ShoRlT BAairanla, «bat did ba dot What
ttil Wbat ibHowad I tVbat came to snch > pllcli
BeRotlniooald endure il no longarT What cUd U
IX How did Uartni niB«e talnneir oo BjHiT What la said tf anna
ud Maiful Wbat bad Maiiui alwsTB bellsTed noukl be llMi ate,
■idKbTt WhUwaaUieoownt WW uiired mm SjUal With
lAat wivda did Ike; eodt
IL WbMirm thaw kOan like to Marlut What dU he know T WluU
h related of the atate oObk IBkid r
U. Whu li nld or hia de«h I
13. Wbat ndeeUoa la made upon big Rde T
CHAPTER ZXXIL— Who la Ibe solject of Ihia chiqilerT
L AR«r Ibe death of Harin, wbo was inaaler <f Ilalyf Of what wee bo
abtU, and nbj^ Wbal brougtal on the aril «hkb he Iteredt
WhaltaMldarSTUa'inicgcBt Who waa eent to oomnuul In hia
placot lBletd(^>ubmlllii«,«hBtdid S^Dadot What Isaaid of
FlmbrlaHBiiUlHat WhUoiilrbadaTllaiKnrtadaT
1. Wlut hadHiFUaall tbavtaUeqipeBied loha? What ia nld of hla
onellrt HowtluiUwanoweeeUmt
' i. Wbo had be«i takea out ot hia var, and bf wbom T Who elill unn
IM! WbatlaHidorttaalramiliat WbatofSjlU^aoldient Win
JoioBdhlMT What ma hi* aio, and what bad he doner
1. What tUle did ByllaiiTabim, and Ktaj! What waa done aa SyDa
drew near Italrl Wbo ooold beM have unoaed him I Wben waa
hel What la aatd oT HariuB ami hta (Hand* ( Wbat c« their {wn; I
Tfarongh what hope did namberaJcda^Lla?
8. How wg was it from Ibe Ume he refused to vlve up hia oommandt
lUl he appeared in the neigbborhood of Ronie?
1. WbatUMidoflhepanjof Manuat What did Iheyonlert What
did thai make SyUaaiulaiia to dot Bvn)iBtwii>ben»lHedt Wbal
is said of the battle which was fbughlV
I. Whallaaaidoflbegeneralof f-- — — — ■ "---.—"-■—. — —
poaaeialua of the city, what di
When IhsT Hoe aHombled, *
u Ihat meeting. Wbat act oruiwi.j waowiMuiincm
t \Vbtu did not SvDa allempi lo conceal? Whaldldhenyt IVhal
occurred evHTdar? What la aald of them f WhoanlelBd Srllal
What had he dooe aome Ume belbro. and what did he now Iwg i
« What iHcaiiie quite hiloierablcl What la aald of a yomiB maof
What did he wish Sylla to puhllah ? What was a peraoD put into
Ihal liU, said to be} Wben did SjUa awmble &e peopla, m^
a.Orwluddld^llBltuiiflliflSHtisloii! ^Vlial tndli.be OS
IL Wba> did he force Iha Kutoaus lo aake hini, and vh;
Hid ot hlB Isng f
It What dk> SyUE
! WhMli
Udki SyUs delermine to glv« upT When wu lie appolnte
omce-audbowloiigdidbehoUil? What did be ofer U
.at did no one daie tut hlmt WbU vag he sUowed U>
What
Wbliherdianereiire! wnu<
'ertwk him! What
ive nralered him i Wb»l ii
lo is the subject of Ihis chaptw!
hicb the Mate vu divif
al Oalulim Who tool , .
luenceT WhatorbtacbaiKtat
iDtl WhEt did beeeUbligbt What did the Bpanlarda thl^
] why ? \Vhal vaa the result of the fheline of the Spuiiajdii in
Ihyor i Wba reOBon ii giTea Ibr bin oppo^ig SiUa?
3l wu rompey^ Breat aalbitioiif aod what did hu determlneT
hat ia II said ibat PODiper lineir, and what consequeuUj did ba
! On what ccndldon woidd Serloriua have suhmlUed, and wh;T
rwbBt had he no reHui, and why 1 What li said ot hta grlefT
-.am whomhadbeahopeof Ha el Bla Ji ce?
I. WbatbsdMitliildatesalwaTBbeen! \VhBtdidhi
*■ •" ■ 'is! W
VbU did he laaefrmnihiit
<. Who Ifltf every Uiing when Settariui died, and wht I What did Pei>
pcroaoOfeflQ do-when, and OB what condition! What (DRher M
saidorihoaeletKn; sod nhalof Fompey'sbigh-mbidediteia!
I WbU ended Uie wat in Ep^n!
CHAPTEK XXStV^Whatli the Bnt^ectoT Ibis ch^iter!
t! What ia Slid on&gladlatont Or what wete Ihoee amueemenf one
of the chief causes! How dh) IbeT aflect the chsracler of the Bo-
muaa! What occurred wben a ftladiatorwaaTwiqiiiBhed! To whal
were gtadlalon! •onwUniM bouDd? How were they rewarded I
t Where did an inaumcdoobeghi! What a^oo] did ileontaln! What
numbereec<pe<l.aDduuIer whom did they put UieniaelTnl WbU
In a ahort time had tbeydone! Who were tentagalnit tbem, and
wilti what encceea ! WhatiaaaldofElpanacvaaiidhlBsIaveel Who
VM now Sxed npou 10 oppose Ibem ! What to aald of bim! What
otSparUcua! What did the senate reeolve to do !
I B^ore they eoaM da Uiat, what occurnd ? What fbrebodlng had
SportaousI What did he order, and whal lay! What further ia
Tested of Snutacng! What was the (hleof blaanDj! What mes-
aaee •M Paia«y aend to the sonata! Whal la the dais of that
batUel
I Wbal la said of that boast of Fompeyl How wag Oama padAadt
o! tiwhatwayT WhailanidofM
Whaldld theyea , _
—^"-'"' ""lent given byPompey! Of w
344 aUEBTIONS.
1 Bdata whit la nld of tbow piFata*.
T. What TMHl* did UwjrDbf Wlieoce had Ihc Komun Ihtti SKBl
Wlul madg Uihh M IiM detenainn loamqiur UwpiralMl WhM
la add of PoBpert WliBtiiias(iieniiieinb«r?
fl. WhBt 1» feaenllraenedl What eoonnnn poweF ma giTsa Ub
Vnut, Ir bB Had wtih«d, might be baie done T Instead of iba^
what did b« do! How did bH dUpow oC Uiv piniaa !
UllAFTER XXXV^WhallatheaaliJaolofUUachapterr
I. TowbU must veHDHgD baiAT Wbo wi> Ittr aoms ttme ths diM
gODurtl? For What waa ha ftmuKiat Wliat la aaid c^ blB joaonip^
t. What TfTUJd not Tignrta conamt lo do
being csllnlbaok to BumeT Wbslol
Wbal pover waa given him f
1. Tovhatdid aums penonaoliJectl Wbsl tn
1 Wbatwaa PDDiperdolDBnfaonUwDemrachsdhlml Wbatdidhe
Xtsnd— Uiau«b wbut WbU did he ur I
1 dtd he ImmedlatelT do f Bshearse hli aocoeaa in (he war
BgaliMTlgniieauidHlthrldBtea. Whai anerwanladidhedoT
S. What knot laid na la Iha Bible I Whol do «o know (hom other his-
loriM? Whatda tbebDotiDrihe Macabeeadncrlbat Whaiia
aaldoribagoTemmantof Judsa.
T. WhatoooleatwaaBUlngtinlnSFrla.whenFDmpeTliivBded Itt What
vecetbalrnamaVWbaldtd both ofthem dot What did Poniw;
cboon! Wbatd^did Fomper b«aleeer Who had tafeen rel%8
theni Who glTe( & long daicrlptloD of the sege I OT what duea
he speak, md wbat lellnal Wbal does 11 aeem Fampejr had, ant
vfart iDirhal^dheabownoTeTerBnar What has been remark-
edf Wbatdaeablaaflar^lftahow?
& Afler doing what, did Pompej prepflr? to leave the conntrj 1 ^Vbom
WbMDevedldtheTbrh«r What'le lald of h|gdwtht°To wh^
■ waa bla bodf Bsnti and bj whom ? What dldPompey do wlih Ut
». What waa IhoTB now DO longer any call for, and why T Whither did
hagOiBud wheat What Is aaid or his anivol U Rome T Wbatla
related oT hia triumph t What orihelreoanrcehehedUkeDl Wliat
did blmUie moat bonorT How did he tnat Ibem ?
CHAPTER XXXVL— Wbst is the mbiectorthlsdiaptar I i
1. In what onnnectloDhHCBtmn^nams been menlloDedbefhret What
ii obaarred of hla perem and chancier 1 What ouallUn were (he
oanaaorhlaengigiDginQiecoiinilnciriaod wbjl What waa agreed
Dpon. and Iwtweea whom t Whan waa the piol dlacovered, and br
wbomt For what waa ha dlaUngulahed ? What Ls aald or hla
■paeobeaT What i;real tknil had bet What is said of hla dinw^
tioBl WhMdldhemtilwqvllketodol
t. BywhomffsiCleerohilbrmedorihe plot? When he had learned (ha |
pazUcQlan, tfhat did hedof Balale what followed at that meellnt
1 WhufellinUOceroHhandhmdwhtadld thejrpraret Whallaadd |
of Borne or the principal nmipinlan T Whu dji Cioao do ? What
atdldbec^outl wfu^h) ,
liathsppenadbrtirebaconlddolliat i
i
IVhIl vaa II luual lo nvesr on gicii« uj ~
WhaldidBnei
mpey^ retam lo EomaT Ab whai, fbr
infiBHidof blaupblUon? What wu
lo wu hU prbuLpfiJ
... U,V ^Jy
rlTB] f What oppfland prubabH And Itora what T Heheorae wj
is flmbH nJd of C«(Br, imd« this secUon.
T. WhUdLduolihDWiUdf fbrtometiipef Wbo Joined lb em t Wliat
igivemoiit did ihej nuket From Oat aJ]lBiu», whni vura lh«T
caUedl WhsldldCsHU-do, tonuderibe HUiauceelillSnnert
I. WbU Bboul Ihla Ume vu Chbt nude ? Whu did lie loduos llM
Knsle lo do, when hli oOceiTBa endedt Wbit wu Uw cubuhs T '
Whom did Ciesar Dll^ to lakevflh hlin,uid BwliWt WbJ did
Cicen) rcCiiael Whit wu bla mme T WbU wu big duiractsr, uid
la Cicero? Wbst did hedoinonler lolHI«i^lg«l
m? VibMl »u plain]]' neul WbM
aiy-balf
CicerolTiexUeJ Of wliol did liB complaint How hi
' .? WhiU did the BomBna iKgin I
eipcnseof wbalT What *a>
e wl^ect of this chspUtJ
. ___ir himself t WhM did ha find a banl
tatkt Whallsuld or blavisdom Bod CDunge! Who bIdu dl>
t WhaldidnotBtial^Ciesarl On what wu hIahaulKt? What peo-
ple bhd visLled It^ and fur what pmpose f What la said of Cievj^B
knowledgijor (he InbabllBnli! Wbal nu a preat lemptallon t To
i. Wbti did the trtum?^?^ coDllnue lo have ! Hot ii Hut shown ?
t Whom are »e DOW lu Mow U Xbe end of hln life, and what ibaU we ,
i. or what did he buaat before leaving KnmeT What bnid of those
countries? Of what wan he warned, and bj whom ? UowdtdOar
•oatrBalblmt What Is " -■' "-— "- "- - -"-' *
! Wballempledld b
What iauki of hilar
9d lo Iho Parthian kj
? Of bias
rget ? AuordlnglT, wl
sand England called ?
t How an the natiiea at Britain deacribad ?
I.WIiUlamdqrtli!aanleiipedlllrakT With what waa Uenr tBdaoed
I. What did be do Itas next jeart Wbal did lbs Brilona attempt la
Tain? Aa bras what, did Cesaar B0 1 TowhatplacedldhetoOMl
How ^dlhnBrilow think loBlopblmT What waa that place bHv
i.—u.jo What, ootwilhalanding, did Ceiar dof Whaiwai
246 QUESllQKa.
CnAPTER XXXIX.— What ta the »abject of Itl. jhaplefl
_ What li said of Ciemj and PodipejJ What oftwo Binbtia»p(nDa*
WhoH death ia menUonedt Whet «tis<l»lni^ bj ber deMh
WhallsBiid otber? Whom did Puiopsy Ihen many t WtaMilta
t WhaiDoir waa thaUUeorEDmef Who were oondanUy diR>ntii«
What wutbaomdua of their foUowersT Wbo wu kllledt H-taal
didperBOHBaTt What irag Ken b; ever; ons? What, IhorefofB,
X What oowv^Fompe]'? Whaldid Iha aobleado,SDd wh;r! Whal
peyi»aasiit,aiidwhjl Whiillawdiitbe)uvepa»edi Wliomdid
that dlBim, and whjt What order was sent to Otesir J Whalwai
Uudecland! WlinswaaCiBtar at that UmeT What vas on ths
other >Ue oftbe AlpaT What newi was brought to Caiaar, and b;
vhom? WbonsoaeoIlheiaT Whal la aatd nf hfm »
L Whal ma Caaar resolred not la dot What la be said to hare be«i |
In u^naisnce— and wbilat what! Whom did ho enlertaln. when, I
Bodtowt AaoTBnlogdKwoii,whBldid hodoJ IniowhUdldhe
throw hinuein WhlSiot did he drivo ! Whllher did he then pro- |
ceedT EehearBB what la related of Csaar when be arrived there.
What vaB a most Unporlajit atep^ and why f
S, Who went alarmed, and when T Unlil then, what had Pompey be-
A. What did Cicemadvlae, and what aak? ^Vhatwaa Pompey^a ro|^;T
7. Whal in Buid of Cssar'e entry into Rome t Where did Cicero remain t |
Who riutcd him, and for what? What auueaa had ha? Whal '
was CsHBr'a next objHctf Tell where he went for that purpmot and
CIIAPTIIB XL.— WhatiitheaabjeclorUihch^Mr?
1. What iraa a gnsl Irlumph to Cietart Whal was certain, and what
did ho IberefOre do ? WblUier bad Ponipey gooei What did h*
and hta frloDds oiilect, and wheret Whilst (hey were Ihus engagedi
Cnmr's EDod Ibnnnef Whllher did be return, and what rec^ie!
What te nld of hie dictaloiahip T
S. What had Pompoy accompUahed by tbla UmeT Who were on hia
Mdel What two men are raentionedf Of all, whom did Qesar
mosL rognit? Whal did not proTont Bmtua from l^log part aeainal
Cffiur? Whatdidheslyenp.andforwhal!
1. Whilbcr did Caaar lall, and with whal punneeT Whal wan he
obliged lo loa.e, snd whore? Why? Who remained with Ihe
troops? Whal was the agreement? At what delay did Cieaar be-
come trnpaUenl? Hon did he diagniso himself? What did hcBO
men? What of Pompej's Sdlera? Whal was dnue by CKSar'a
Bordleie — tocouTlnco Fompey of what? What wcrd did Iberaeud?
Whal, however, were ibey obliged lo do, end why I Whither did
Pompey foUow Ceear? Where waa ■ batUe fought, and In whal
I Whal lareraai-ked of Iheplahaof PbaraaHa? To what WM Fompey
QUESTIONS. 247
IIiwiiiIimT WbBt hock tbej aeUled? Hair &r lui Has (ma
WbUCtd GteBT leU hl> Onipi, and wb;?
i. Wlutni IhaiesuU or thai modear ulBckt Hov wu Pompef aF
Acted bT tb^ GCDdnetl On leaning ibbt him urnij raa doffialHl,
irhiU dill he dol Or vbst did ba leave CieHi to laka poweoaion !
IVbMltwldofCesar^coDduct! WbU onJera did be gtie ! How
did bediapoaeof Pompev'ilaltent Wbal did beuy be preferred I
iDtalamanifiitortiiiuiipb.DrwluitlifidheDo Uiouehil Wbaiwu
biBcoiidiKtIairaidaBruniat WhateSed bad [batuponBruluif
7. Wbat la Bid or Fompej^ IHeiKIa aAer ihe baiUa t Whni iiro an
meolioDed, aod vhitfaer did Ibej go ! Wbllher, and accompooled
bj wbom, dM Pompey hlnuelf goT Wlib Hhom did ha hope in
dndsal^? WbBtarevelotd or thethlberof Uiatprince! Wbai,
iherefbre, was nacotalT By whoi
WhU opinion did Ibe; givo^
' CorneHa and Pompoy f Wbal ocxuired b
eentiDioi) t What had Pompey wriiiaa F
ander Ibe obaerration of CoTDella, Wbal
coDDlry! What U said of one person! t
». Wbilberdid Cieur follow Pamper? Hoir waa ba welcomed, and by
whnmT H'fiw wah CiEiai- aliadlHl by Uia KightT
now take adTHntagef what had Ibe tato king
oTlt what wat bnrat f
o waa kilted, and who cffn
— .- reign alone, what did CJeopatra
D expect! What la aald of hla rurU—
him loeiart hlmwlf? What did ui.
do Id a TUT ohort apace of time f lu what words did bo dcacribt*
hiavicioryl
Lia GbapterT
ailTlaa bil ftKnd* M
le iDhabllauaT Wbal did he blnualT do T On gcrii«
>u Ills luuui, what did be order t The awiird being bnnghl, what
didbedat Whatlaaaldof IhebookhecboaeT Wtaalwaa Itnponl
What nniithaTebeenltalUliHsceDnOBia,andwhyT What la re-
markedi^PlaioaiidhlalbUawenT IVhatoralllUaairlaUaBcbUdl
What would It baietaiighthbnl What rtuUier 1* nlated of Cato!
t, What did CieBar «i ' -■- '-■-"
' WhUwaa named sRerhimT WtaU is remaitHl
oreuUily unblUiHif What irBa Gmiar's wish r Whu did not ■UlaQ
hlm.and Hby? Howdid he occup; blmeelf ? Whsl ineverjmj
done* WhUlBBaldorCorinlh?
L What lAKid uf some EnatAoi^va of great pddef VVhot Instaooo Is re*
lited) WhallasUUfldotacrownf WiiU wm ertdenl t
1. What made many peiwtu adBTJ, ai
( Whoi
himr Wlml nmober of p.
meetins what waa to be t>fuposGd T What had q
I. Wlul ins not Cbmt left without r Who bad
wtaatt Whatdklhlavue entreat hlmiwl I
W related or one oT the eiHuplntant
(L Aa Cesnr paiaed Ihrauj^ tlM street, who met
thn ooonnadl WbU wai throat into Cssai
Amdwhatdidfaei^'T Whn did ho mReii f What isasid
of snother aenatorf Orvlutwere the eonspirauir« nearly cartJUn —
wheD? What did Cow enter, and where Btaod? Whom did ooe
or Die conipiratore draw uMe,(uid (brwhai! WhMdirl Uie othen
dor WbaEwonldnotCeiaragreeto? What was the ^gnal agreed
npool WhatiaUaled ofCBBCa! Wbalocc^ined Iba oent instutr
flowdldCsewdeltad himaelf-lilt whatr KtKdle what followed, to
CHAPTER XLIIL— Whatlatheaabjectorthiaeh^ter?
L What la perpleidng to iM, and why? What mnsl wa bB»r in mind ?
What bid Bnuua oerer learned ? What la aaid ot penons of the
3. WhatoccniTedlnUieaenBte-honaeT How did the eenalAra deal bimf
'^B friends and the common people f What (tf
J, WhatdidBrntusdothaneitdBj! What oonld b(
did no one propose, and what waa not at all decide
set at rest r When that waa agreed upon, what d
1 What did »ie senate decree r Against whom was i
cited, anil when! What did Uie people Ihen k
Csaar boqnealh lie gte&ler portion of his eatalet
died wiihout heirs ?
il( Fl^whatwS
how.waelhepotat
WhatlfOOaviiu
t. What did Anionj endeator lo Invreoee, and on whs
toccBBlont What
Whali.rri«edol
! What did Uie clUieDS dot What is
1 Who IsK the citT, ud vhjT Wliiiher did Brai
CMriusT
t What is said cfAnlony^povert Whatwne ta 1
Mil <Ud ha pi«lendr What Is Diet dU be do t flTi.tX It miii M
Cleavl .Vliat of hfai qieecba (
i Whit wone Bnemi Ui>ui Ciceiv, had Antmj to dresd? What u
i4vleil of hli .0^7 Wbai doei his conduct at that piiriod ibov T
Wbok, aod tot wbM, did he same to Bvmet Whu tud AuUxir
done wlUi Itt
I. Fnjtn whu bad gicM diKontent triaeii T What gained Oetiilni gi«at
fcvcr? What laaaidof CU»n>! What nnwBclua'I Whatdkl
Anioi^ begin to do, and ondBr wbat pretencel What did Octariu '
TiuliHwihAivAKt«|adaT For wlut van an anDj givflo hhnT
vM -^m euried on vigorouelri tad whan t Who
WW had Odailiu gained, and whU did ho
WhallBW wa«liian»diBleWpa«aed? What
wu tiia cuua^wrDoe f After Lbat, wiial did OctaTiua see and thEnk f
What, accordiogl;. did lia prapDMt When did that meetiiig IsJu
U. mm' formed iha lecood iriumHraiel Wbat were thoj to do!
(Vboee lavar wurt Lhet to aaiu, and howt
lit. WhU did thFv lake iplo their hiodi ! n-bat did Uie; delcnnine Ic
glTonop bjlapldua! BTAnlonj! BjOcUrtus?
13- ATter that aerecment, wbliher did tfaey go } Wbat otder did ttaer
gije their BoldieraT What wm a uibuoe foxed to pnjpoiu t
K What proclamation waa let Ibrllil To whom weie rewardi dferedf
WhallbUowed?
IS. Wliere waa CIcsro when the llit of Iha pmcribed waa psbbehed 1
Beheane what la related of him. What waa cut oO, and U whole
derirst What la nialadothli bead!
CHAPTER XUV^Wbolatbantjeclorthlacbiptral
L la what bad Ihirf been on^affod while the erenta iiut daierlbed were
panbigt Wheredid thajmoeUaod when? What did Iticf agree
lodo! B; wtaooi ware Iber aaalaed ; On hearing of the death ol
WbT maM ^-utua br Ihia time hare been Terr nohappT T Ktiate
_...,,.„,j -<,... ^.,. -"-jendoflbeaecllon.
heerhlmTBelatean
Weight upiBi hiB apkrita. What n
iu.k«.»u„l Wbil la mated of the battle ( W^^. .^.^w.^ ..i
C^HluamikeT What ta etaled of hia death t How wai Bnitue af-
fected by 11 1 Wbat won aflerwaida waa BnunB perauaded to do f
1 Where did it take phHW, and when ? What again appeared to Bntoii?
Brulual WbaldidBmtuioowiecaiHlwbst resolve? Whomdid
1. How WB. the Boveniment of the rainlre diyideUT Whol waa out to
■nca bi bia^wa*? Wh_al°li lald of Ixipidiu? What did Anton;
t Who Bodea.orBd lo' recall him lo Ilalji Howl Bow did Anlonf
la anlilancef When waa ha Induced toeiteit
I IVbo nmr Joined Iheii ftrras, Dtd tor wh« ( \VhBl, howont. dw
lira IherB ! What did Dol laM roiy Jodk 1 What was aumd bj Ih*
But turOcUTitmihUvonld IberebsTe bomT WbU did ghe dol
Wlist WH Bireed upoq beiweea them ? How Is Li nid Oc4aTiiia
weutoaT Wtiat did hsconviTe lodoT Wtillfasr did Lepldna n>—
■ilbomwJiBH WhalwMhonudaf Whal Is Mid of Sejliu Pom-
t. WbUUnglaAparllDlhnewai? WhUlirelated uChim?
CHAPTEE SLVL— WhoarethoiuttleciofOitadiapler?
1. In whit was AntouTTerTUDflaocflHAilt Wliy did not Lbat griere him
much;
a. WhUIsnlaMoTbiBWinT How did AdIodt Uast hei? Wbal at
did thej ■eeoL pnoclpal^ lo Ui
whHl did ClBapitrs i
luiurrT OfHhDmiruheBfrakt.iiDdv1uildHlbe
i. What, all the lime, was OctiTliudDlngt WhaldL
when? What did Anton/ and Qeopaira doT
AiiU«iy*i powf"" ■■'■--^ -• ■-' ■-- --'■ — ■■
^halbadiiDt OcUiTliii? WhUlasti
itage, and whyT
ledt Who was that! What to ita
a. What wore Aolonj'i (beHngi od hesrbig of hw desottionT Yet how
didheactT What runheriarelaledothimat thai umeT
I, What decided Anlonj'a sue f Whaldid ha UTin vain lodoT Wh»l
wasKon byOeopaliBf Wbu scheme did aho lorm t What wai
IvpOiflible, aul whj T Ai a loat hope, what did ehe da T What «b«
Itaeauiwerot Oclavluat Whu coulil ahe oot do, ud why t What
onten did abe glvot
ID, Witea Oct&Tiua approached Alexarulria, what did CleopatA do?
WhM bed AnUHW aeea reason lo suspect? By whom »aa he de-
■erled, and vhtufWUIbar did he relum, and biwbU stale ! WbM
didhelnlendl Whatnewawaabrouebt?
.1. WhUknldorblcaflMUoo! What did he declat?, and what otdaT
— ■ - -■ — *-• "—■-"-■• .-.-, whotwwhB
itWBi hldWd by
it, and whit did
ULESTKJNS. SSI
B XLVD.— WlA le Ihe mltjecl of IbLa cbiplor 1
L W[lh wbU da« the bMorr of Iha Hamui republic end ', iU whi
perorl Wliat lielsUd Inregard lu ThBl poverT Wllb h
WHUwuca
_. Wbit to laid of many Ri
int WbUofolben? Wliat of Ltae few who tully u
ri«titt
I. Wliiit Is Bid or llie reaOr Iniportaot ei
greal «TeiiC occurred Vd lb ' *■"
X BebeuH Ibe vbole of Ibli secuaii.
4.TD wfaUmuMirenilunit What ig nliled of the cbandet or Atuufr
tint WtaBtbu beencdebnted— uwbitT WhU greU fh«nd bul
AugnttnaT or wbora «• be the pMn» T Wbal fitnha ii relaiod
orhimr Wlul«lebnted«TUeninDi«UonedT
5. WhU ii Bid or Uie nign of Augunns? WliU «sre fottiied BgHinM
blm? Wben VB he obliged to arTT on nan ? Whu l> MUnl ui
the couplnolal Wtud oT Iha wan r
6. WbUlauldor IhetaUerdnBoTAugui
p^l How oftao bad be besD muTinl <
tM *nibT The KomdT The thirdr
WbU WB Ibe chuKter of UtIb? W. .
" WhelnBanansBtopropowd! WhUwi
glieupiUl blitiiiie.uidwbj) Wbai did ba become T For
oniT had ha aii; rMi iwani f Br vhooi wb be govenisl T
i WhU did edanuB wub t Wb ■' ■ - . ■ ■
to dsufa ! What effect had taa
i. What la Btaled or Tiberlaa, all U
ja.»Den»i.iiua.a.ueau> °'-^""L
a" WliedF'i^ "°™ ™'""" "" °™" '
oui^ euner t What la urn or tbB pnaona r w nel orden at LejigUi
wenglienT Wbatwai Ihewreu^al state of lIliBtluit
K What heppened b age crept upon him f
1, Wbo WB Iheu piwlBlDi^ emperor? What oceurrcd, ta hli gresl
honoit Wbatdld hetblDfe? Wbom did he cooaolt, aad what wu
Boned t What, accaMiagij, WBB done f
i wSet la icnuvked of nich oimear What can w* mote Ihltr tuidir-
leatb of ou' SBThmrl WhalwBwilHM
_..._. (Ii« few nn)Blb«ofC»ligiito'>reJiDf .
E. WhBiliirelal«dorhlieilnvBgsu»I
a. Whet la reliled ofhii ciueli/T
4. IVIiUwuUiadDnlkniorblalTrBnnTt Wlut Is relBled oThli duUi.'
5. Wbti nay It bo InierMlIng lo know J
0. WbU done r«d,u(l«h»Bl What is said IbareT WboK cUn
wu dlHpuLed, and bj vJiomt Ta wbom did tta»T niwalf How did
bsdeUiiHinsT Wbere it llist dlrMon refined lo r OfybatdoM
IhUmikemenUont WliBt linollcedorilerod Antlp«T
UHdii; U Rome, aad vhen t How wet he Irealed by Tibe-
rius UH1 Culi^at Wbo w&B now dead? WhU wbb proiHfl* ' '
CiJlinilil Wliu ImldofHetodAndpur WhU vu ha lold
LlThUwuCaliguliiaagr;? luBteador m&Uiig him Usg, wliBldid
CHAPTEa L^WholgthenttleetorUileclkqiUirT
I. WhUwuhMiget WhUliHldorblaheBlUiuid mlDdT
lUt WbUliBBkloCblBbooksT
i. -^bo. 1
berpatnt.«hstdld rtiedo! What dl
dldBtaalbnm
4. What ii BlBled of Herod A^rlppsT
!i. In whUli Ihehlatoryof hlBdallir'''™' What child did he leaTel
1)} whaldidhennln»»ed,siidiTliTT When he B>e<r up, nhat iM-
cuned 1 Wlial duea thai eiplain t
CMAPTEB L[<— Who lathe subject or IhlB shelter?
1. WlH(to>a<dorUkahi«lnnliKofhtirelgn? Bt irhora wan be guided,
■ud bow long ? Howdld ha gnvem daring that time? Aawhali*
t^eealbmedT IVhat 1b said of hij boolu, >uid why I WbaiigdIF
llcull to beliBYB f What, howerer, duea the na ahowt Wi»t la
t. Bt what vaa Nero's flmctlmecauBHit Whatdldhsordei, and wbT?
What after Ihia thowed llseift Whom did he hale, and wbfl
tairhUt Howdiii ufeasTBliluselfl Wwtaa'lhen done lo her,
. JS*^"^ ""*""*' loDrderloforgeimwhaididhedoI
1i What te laid at BmhiB and SeiwoiT ^Vhat of Hen, afla- Ihar •«•
■uns did IivhikI awayt What li mid of h«T tVhim illd ba
" w nunyt Whom (Ud ht " ' "
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zh | N/A | N/A | _王_ 熙
**广东理工学院**
**论弗罗斯特诗学思想的审美特质\***
\[提 要】 弗罗斯特是美国现实主义诗人的杰出代表。他创作了大量思想深邃、热情奔放、直抒胸臆、感情真挚、艺术精湛的传世诗篇。本文主要从语言艺术、韵律与抒情和哲理诗三者的抒情审美特质人手，对弗罗斯特诗学思想的审美特质进行深入地阐释，以期对挖掘弗罗斯特诗歌的美学思想与审美内涵提供借鉴参考。
【关键词】 弗罗斯特、诗学思想、审美特质、抒情方式
**\[中图分类号】 H319 \[文献标识码】 A \[文章编号】 _209_ 5-9648 (2022) 03-0086-05**
**DOI：10.19502/j.cnki.2095-9648.2022.03.011**
**引言**
美国诗人罗伯特·李·弗罗斯特(Robert Lee Frostt)是现当代最受大众欢迎的诗人之一。他把诗歌的审美感情与艺术审美情感融为一体，无论是诗学思想还是诗歌文体风格都表现了他的独特的思想意识与诗歌的艺术特质。弗罗斯特主张诗歌创作应该体现平等观念和自由精神，其诗歌的语言风格、抒情风格和抒情方式无不体现弗罗斯特独有的艺术审美特质。弗罗斯特将自己敏锐及独特的美学思想贯穿在其诗歌创作之中，凝聚了诗人对生活中美的事物的认识能力和审美评价能力。弗罗斯特以其独特的创作形成了独特的诗学思想与诗歌创造的艺术审美特质。
**_2_ 语言艺术审美特质**
弗罗斯特喜欢从农村生活中汲取题材，充满浓厚的自然气息。正如威勒德·索普所说： “弗罗斯特之所以受人欢迎，主要是由于他的山水诗有着独特的语言风格”79(威勒德·索普1984：46)。。众所周知，美国城市化以后，许多美国人时常与家人朋友一起前往风景秀丽的地方游览，领略湖光山色，亲近大自然。身为一位“新英格兰的农民诗人”，弗罗斯特结合自己多年的乡村体验，在朴实无华的田园生活中找寻自我，以众多的乡村意象来书写乡村之子的乡土情感，表达
对乡村生活的向往和追求。评论家昂特迈耶说道：“弗罗斯特将普通人使用的话语变成了诗歌语言，......日常琐事的故事素材到了弗罗斯特的诗中具有了普遍意义” (程爱民1994：66)。弗罗斯特诗歌中也经常运用戏剧独白和对话艺术手法，但是与19世纪英国诗人勃朗宁不同，他善于在传统中传达心声，以旧瓶装新酒的方式，使用人们熟知的诗歌韵律和通俗易懂的语言传情达意。弗罗斯特的诗歌语言带有大自然的浓郁气息，善于在朴实无华的乡村生活和田园风景中提炼语言意象。新英格兰普通人的口语词汇、谈话声调、对话成为了他诗歌语言特色，形成了富有诗意的语言艺术审美特质。例如短诗《牧场》：
**我去清理牧场的水泉，我只是把落叶撩干净，(可能要等到泉水澄清)不用太久的——你跟我来，我还要到母牛身边，把小牛犊抱来。它太小，母牛舐一下都要跌倒，不用太久的——你跟我来。**
**(弗罗斯特 1985：12)**
诗歌中“把落叶撩干净”“把小牛犊抱来”“不用太久的——你跟我来”等富有口语化的声调构建了全诗的韵调和色调，形成了“语言力求浅白，但佳作中意蕴颇深” _73_ (赵毅衡1985： 11)白的艺术特色。弗罗斯特诗篇中的词汇来自于普通词
米本文系2020年广东省“十三五”社科规划外语专项课题“基于“新文科’视域下消减英语专业学生‘二化’现象的必要性研究”的阶段 **性成果，项目号： GD20WZX02-11。**
汇，主要是写劳动人民的生活场景，写他们的思想情感，写他们的独立自由，他们的痛苦，怨而不怒。威勒德·索普((1984：45)认为弗罗斯特的诗“幽默而智慧，有助于指引美国人的思想，在心灵上可信地描绘了我们自己的和全人类的典型”。弗罗斯特曾坦言乡村经历对其诗歌创作产生过深远的影响： “每当春天来临，我都会来到乡村。，.….正如弗罗斯特自己所言乡村的优美风光和生机勃勃让我有了写诗的冲动” (Parini2000：136)。每当目睹季节的更替，看到这些象征着希望的新生事物，诗人的喜悦之情从心底油然而生，朴实无华的语言成为其传情达意的重要载体，也正因为这些充满生机和活力的普通诗句成就了他诗歌的语言艺术特质。诗歌语言的朴实无华使得他的作品细致而含蓄，耐人寻味。而这一切都归根于诗人独特的诗学思想对“意义之音”的追求和实践。
**3 韵律与抒情方式的审美特质**
弗罗斯特善于通过诗歌节奏与韵律来增强音义间的内在联系。在其田园抒情诗歌中，诗人娴熟地采用抑扬格的韵律写诗，这种韵律吟唱时节奏自然平缓，如潺潺流水，比较适用于表现农村田园风光那份恬静淡雅之美。弗罗斯特对抑扬格抒情方式情有独钟，他大部分诗都用抑扬格、四音步，押韵在 AABB、BBCB、CCDC、DDDD。他既不同于艾略特与庞德在其诗作中将“重音体”格律(重音间的弱读音节的数目不相等)和“音强——音节体”格律揉合在一起，也不同于当时美国诗人的一般写法。弗罗斯特自己也说： “对英语诗歌而言，抑扬格和稍加变化的抑扬格是唯一自然的韵律”(曹明伦2002：1059)。他的诗一般都遵从英语语音的自然韵律节奏，在韵律押韵方面写得相当出色的是他的双行体、三行体、四行体等。他稍加变化的抑扬格也体现诗歌音乐的韵律感，富有大自然的节奏美与和谐美。他创造性的韵脚和转韵艺术特质，产生了前后呼应的音韵，造成一种迥环往复的声韵效果。其自然韵律的抒情艺术特质体现在语言与韵音中参错的统一，在和谐与运动中获得的均衡，在繁杂格律中获得自由。这些抒情诗是自由体，但实际又受着诗歌章法的制约。如同他的《熟悉黑夜》既是自由的
**又是格律的：**
我已熟悉黑夜，熟悉黑夜。
**我曾冒雨出去又冒雨回来。**
**我到过街灯照不到的郊野。**
**它宣称时间没错，但也不正确。**
我已经熟悉这黑夜，熟悉黑夜。
**(弗罗斯特2002：327)**
全诗共十四行，每行有10个音节，共740个音节，其中有18个音节含有双元音 \[ai\]。诗歌采用三行诗节隔句押韵的方式，其韵式为 aba， bcb， cdc， ded。 诗行使用五音步抑扬格形式，使得诗歌具有强烈的节奏感与韵律感。在这里，弗罗斯特把传统诗体的格式(十四行诗等))与一种纯正的美国方言韵律——新英格兰农民那种夹杂着个人偏好的词汇与句法的方言融合一体。可以说， “在美国20世纪现代诗歌创作以自由诗体为主流的背景下，弗罗斯特却坚持运用传统诗歌创作模式进行诗歌创作，成为了美国现代主义诗歌创作中一个传统诗歌创作的守望者与捍卫者”(赵彤、罗伦全2011：40)。
弗罗斯特认为大千世界时刻都在变化，因此他的诗歌的抒情艺术方式具有多变性特质。他诗歌的抒情最大的特征就在于他善于运用各种抒情表现诗人的内心世界。这种多变的抒情方式大致归纳为三类：1.第一人称主观方式，即以抒情主人公“我”的方式直抒胸臆。他的《雪夜林边小驻》《未选择的路》等诗歌都是直抒胸臆的代表作。2.第二人称对话方式，即诗人在抒情中通过对话来表达思想，以《我的蝴蝶：一首哀歌》《少年的意志》等为代表。3.第三人称客观抒情方式，即诗人在诗歌中客观地表现人、事、物。以《疯狂》《大自然不是你想象的那样》《山间》《有一片林场》等为代表。诗人独有的诗歌抒情方式源于诗人对诗歌艺术风格的独特的认识，源于他不迷的创作实践中的创新与发现。作为一位杰出的抒情诗人，弗罗斯特善于采用第一人称直接抒情。诗人通过“我”或“我们”抒发了主人公的真情，呈现抒情方式的审美效果。比如在《黄昏漫步》中弗罗斯特直抒“我”的获得之情：
我漫步穿过秋收后的原野，
**只见一大片无穗的草根，**
如带露的茅屋顶静静躺着，
**掩蔽了通往花园的路径。当我漫步走进那座花园，忽听一阵凄清的鸟鸣，从那缠结的枯草中传出，比任何歌声都哀婉动人。我没走多远便止住脚步，从正在凋谢的紫菀花群，**
采上一束蓝色的翠菊，再一次把花奉献给您。
**(弗罗斯特2002：22-23)**
诗人在此重复使用“我”来书写诗人秋后黄昏时节的思想情感， “无穗的草根”“凄清的鸟鸣”“蓝色的翠菊”这些自然景物无不传递出诗人的强烈感情，表现了“我”的喜悦之情，倾诉诗人对大自然浓厚热情。正如苏珊朗格所言：“艺术品是将情感呈现出来供人观赏的，是由情感转化成的可见的或可听的形式。它是运用符号的形式把情感转化成诉诸人的知觉的东西”(苏珊·朗格 1983：24)。可以说弗罗斯特诗歌的抒情方式具有独特的艺术特质，他随心所欲而不逾矩的诗歌技巧后面蕴含了诗人对人、对物、对事的独特而又深邃的认识和理解，表现了诗人对自然、心灵等本质问题的探索，自然能够引起读者的联想、想象和回忆，让读者获得心理愉悦，从而达到了审美的效果。
弗罗斯特抑扬格的韵调摆脱了单调气息，独特的抒情方式给读者带来不可言传的愉悦之情，这种自然的韵律为读者带来了“味外之合”。诗歌中的“墙高有睦邻”“篱笆牢，邻居好”“朽木要无烟，就得慢加添”等以合乎诗人个性化的抒情方式刺激读者的感官，让读者体现到了诗人博大的诗学思想与他的胸襟。基于这些诗学思想的艺术特质，弗罗斯特成为世界诗歌史上一位举足轻重的诗人，他诗歌中的清晰自然、含蓄隽永、耐人寻味的艺术魅力让读者感受到诗歌的诗情画意及声调、色调。
**_4_ 哲理诗的抒情审美特质**
弗罗斯特是一位思想家式的诗人。他创作的哲理抒情诗触摸了心灵、良知、正义、忧虑与痛苦，体现了诗人热爱生活，关心民众生活的现
实情怀，凸显了诗人的真善美的艺术特质，突显了人性姿态与人格力量的真实，彰显了诗人对真善美的抒情审美艺术特质。作为一位对现实生活有担当的诗人，他十分重视诗歌在现实生活中的表现功能，重视公民意识。他的诗歌让人感受到了诗人诗学思想的可贵，以及诗人的“真切”审美特质。弗罗斯特的第一部诗集《孩子的心愿》就体现这样的诗歌创作原则： “凡事超过真实反显得无力”。“真”的体现既由其生活环境所决定，更是他自觉所为，由其人格的“真”所决定。这两者又是相互联系的。正由于他人格的“真”，他才把乡村故土作为他的乐园，而呆在城市则无异于从“乐园跌入愁苦人世。”诗人在《黄金时代难久留》一诗中把对“真”的审美作为自己诗歌的创作艺术原则，也是他生活追求的诗歌艺术目标。诗人手持着镰刀去“割草”、爬上梯子去“摘苹果”，正是这种对“真”的生活参与，才会有那“真”的诗歌创作。因而这使得“他的同胞，由于身陷嘈杂和贪婪的巨笼中，都喜欢弗罗斯特，热爱他那宁静的生活。，…...每个美国人都梦想成为这种人”(李乃坤1984： 22-25)。
弗罗斯特诗歌的真善美与作者精神上的艺术特质联系在一起，与作者感知世界的独特视角联系在一起。而这些，正好反映了诗人对现实生活中的真善美态度。美国历史上最年轻的总统肯尼迪在就位宣誓那天，弗罗斯特朗诵自己二十年前写的一首诗：诗人借诗表达出自己的期待，即新的总统应该“全心全意的奉献”，因为“这大地先属于我们”， “我们才是她的人民” (弗罗斯特2002：436)。诗篇充满了朴实无华的诗风特质，这是源于他真正地与普通民众同呼吸共患难，源于诗人独立的真实与普通人的心灵。这些展现安静、自知、自信、独立的哲理诗篇成就了诗人的朴实无华的抒情艺术特质。
弗罗斯特的许多哲理诗篇表现了对人生哲学思考的审美特质，凸显了独特的审美视角，形成了诗人独特的诗学思想的美学观。弗罗斯特诗歌最大的特色就是善于描写眼前平淡无奇的事物去表达一个深刻的哲理，开创了哲理诗抒情审美派，呈现出不同的艺术审美特色：如他的《未选择的路》：
**黄色的林间出现了两条路**
**可惜一个人不能同时涉足**
**瞭望着二条通向远方的路**
我伫立在路口选择去何处
呵，留下一条路等改日再见但我知道路径延绵无尽头恐怕我难以再回返也许多少年以后
**我将轻声叹息把往事回顾**
**黄色的林间的两条路**
而我却选择了人迹更少的一条
从此决定了我一生的道路。
**(弗罗斯特2002：142-143)**
这首哲理抒情诗是弗罗斯特最喜爱诗歌之一。 Brooks & Lewis (1973： 1871)有这样一段评论： “因为它拥有吸引读者的特质，能够给读者带来惊讶甚至困惑的能力”。不难看出贯穿全诗的中心词是“路”，这里的“路”凸显了诗歌的深刻哲理内涵，使其艺术思想的审美愈加精妙。这一具体形象象征人生之“路”的取舍，“走自己独有的路……”是诗人自己的选择，同时也给读者带来了富于哲理的象征意蕴。 “走什么样的路”永远是一个值得思考的人生哲学问题。“路”是诗人诗学思想自白，主题取材普通而寄托深远，它唤起读者相似的生活体验，使之深受触动，引发深思。弗罗斯特坚持自己的抒情方式与审美风格，他不随波逐流，不附庸风雅。他把对生活及其人格的真实追求贯注其诗歌创作之中。他的哲理抒情诗及其背后的哲学内涵如同其他的抒情诗一样给我们带来的是一种清新纯朴的“双重意义”和一种宁静、自知、独立的感受。
弗罗斯特不同于美国同时代的其他诗人，他善于寻找人与自然的和谐，通过对自然景物的描写来传达深邃的哲理，不仅礼赞自然的优美姿态，也揭示自然的残酷无情。在诗人的哲理抒情中，大自然的魅力与威力、明亮与阴暗、理想与现实、希望与苦闷体现了诗人诗学思想的矛盾对立。这种矛盾对立构成了弗罗斯特诗歌的独特魅力，增强了诗歌的思想内涵。如《修墙》中那堵要修的“墙”象征着人类总存在许多有形的或无形的“墙”，诗人说：“这地方，根本就不用砌墙/他种的是松树，我种的苹果/我的苹果不会越过边
界/到他树下吃松子，我告诉他。”但是他却用祖上的格言加以回绝， “墙高有睦邻”。在这里，诗人以修墙来隐喻人类的信念。一方面，传统的祖上信念根深蒂固，一一方面“我”对此提出不同的观点，“在跟墙为难，盼墙倒塌”。诗人想要以修墙的方式隐喻人与人之间需要铲除心灵的隔阂，如此才能实现人与人之间的交流与对话，这种深刻的哲理需要读者通过理解修墙的隐喻之意才能理解。
弗罗斯特在他的诗歌中以表现现实生活本质和社会意义为己任，他把带有泥垢的马铃薯展示在读者面前，表明什么是真实的马铃薯；但是他同时也把刷洗干净的马铃薯示人，充分展示了诗人独特的现实主义审美特质。譬如他在《家葬》和《苹果摘了以后》的诗中质疑道：当人不能接受自己所处的现实状况时，他或许会尽最大的努力走出了黑暗，但是是否能让上帝满意呢?他在《小树林中》一诗中吟唱了树枝枯叶终将被绿叶取代，即使飘落入土也“定将被抽芽的花径顶穿/簇拥在翩跹起舞的野花眼前。”这虽然是实实在在自然界的新陈代谢，但同时也是社会、人生的某种历史进程的真实展示。所以我们说弗罗斯特既是第一种现实主义审美者，又是清除现实中污秽的第二种现实主义审美者。美国桂冠诗人里塔·达弗 (Rita Dove)长期一直在为严肃文学奔走呼吁，她多次强调要重视诗歌的主导性，她提出：：“要对艺术负责，要为美国下一代着想”(潘利锋2004：164)。弗罗斯特正是这样一个为下一代着想的诗人，他的哲理抒情诗非常注重文学功能，注重艺术家的社会政治效果和个性的力量。他的哲理抒情诗不仅突出诗人自身的精神美和人格美相结合，也释放了人性美和人格之美；诗人的哲理抒情艺术不仅突出诗人自己对精神美和个性美的结合，同时也体现了诗人的人格之美。
**5 结语**
弗罗斯特的诗学思想开创了美国诗歌中的传统抒情方式和现代抒情方式的独特风格。他把诗歌的审美感情与艺术审美情感融为一体，无论是诗学思想还是诗歌文体风格都表现了他独特的思想意识与诗歌的艺术特质。他较为个性化的生活
方式和诗学思想观念对其抒情方式的选择产生了一定的影响。诗人所追求抒情方式和实践，使他在20世纪美国诗坛走出了一条创新之路，追求形式的革新成就了他在美国诗坛的地位。他的诗学思想与他的抒情诗的审美特质与传统意义的循世和回避现实截然不同，体现了他对现实怀着深诚的愿望。他诗歌中的抒情艺术特质不仅追求对抒情语言、抒情方式的审美，而且也把对生活中“真”的追求贯穿于诗歌之中，让读者在吟唱中感受到诗歌的独有魅力。弗罗斯特的诗歌技巧蕴含了诗人对人、对物、对事的深邃认识和理解。作为一位“交替性的诗人”，弗罗斯特在传统的诗歌形式中呈现了现代诗歌的特质，从描写新英格兰的自然景色中传递诗人的哲理思辨。他的抒情诗歌在朴实无华的语言中传递了诗人的审美理念，形成了诗歌独有的美学特质，细致含蓄，耐人寻味。
**参考文献**
**Brower， R. A. 1963. The Poetry of Robert Frost ： Constellations** **of Intention\[J\]. A merican Literoture(2)：242.**
**Brooks. C. & R. W. B. Lewis. 1973. A merican Literoture： The** Makers and the Making \[M\]. St. Martin's Press：1871.
**Parini， J. 1999. Robert Frost ： A Life \[M\]. New York： Herry** **Holt and Company， Inc.**
**程爱民，1994，弗罗斯特的诗歌艺术\[J\]，《外国文学》(4)：64-68**
**弗罗斯特，2002，曹明伦译，《弗罗斯特集》(上下卷)\[M\]。沈** 阳：辽宁教育出版社。
李乃坤，1984，罗伯特·弗罗斯特——农民诗人略议\[J\]，《美国 **文学研究》(2)：22-25。**
**潘利锋，2004，真诚与广博的统一：弗罗斯特诗歌的特质\[J\]，《外国文学研究》(2)：163-166。**
**苏珊·朗格，1983，滕守尧、朱疆源译，《艺术问题》\[M\]。北京：** 中国社会科学出版社。
威勒德·索普，1984，濮阳翔等译，《二十世纪美国文学》M\]。北京：北京师范大学出版社。
赵毅衡编译，1985，《美国现代诗选》(上)\[M\]。北京：外国文学出版社。
赵彤、罗伦全，2011，简论罗伯特·弗罗斯特的诗歌艺术\[J\]， **《外国语文》(3)：39-41.**
(潘利锋：广东理工学院外国语学院教授；
王泽熙：广东理工学院外国语学院讲师，博士)
**收稿日期：2022-04-29**
通信地址：526100广东省肇庆市广东理工学院外国语学院
翻译研究经典著述汉译丛书
**丛书主编：王克非 傅敬民**
2001—2010年，上海外语教育出版社推出“国外翻译研究丛书”，引进出版了四十余部国外翻译研究名著，极大推动了我国翻译研究事业的发展。2020年起，上海外语教育出版社陆续推出“翻译研究经典著述汉译丛书”，从“国外翻译研究丛书”中精选出已然在我国译学界产生广泛影响的经典著作并陆续纳入更多富有学术价值的新作。
本译丛由王克非教授、傅敬民教授主编，译者均为我国外语学界的优秀学者，熟谙原著所涉专业领域，中英文素养深厚，保证了译著的忠实性、精确性和可读性。相信译丛将为国内翻译研究带来新的启示，进一步推进我国翻译研究学术著述的汉译工作。 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **调整单位建筑面积电气设计容量重要性的研究**
**乔伟**
**(内蒙古神舟硅业有限责任公司 内蒙古呼和浩特 010010)**
**摘要：近年米，随着我国经济的飞速发展和城市化建设进程的不断加快，进一步推动了建筑业的发展速度，各类建筑工程项目随之日益增多。与此再时，建筑能耗也呈现出逆步升高的态势，这一情况引起了国家的高度重视，并出台了一系列与建筑节能降耗有关的政策，法规。越要真正实现建筑节能，除了宏观调控之外，还必须重视建筑电气设计，这是解决建筑能耗过高的根本途径。基于此点，本文就调整单位建筑面积电气设计容量的重要性展开研究。**
**关键词：电气设计容量 变玉器 建筑节能**
**中图分类号：U445 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-3791(2013)03(c)-0080-02**
**1 对单位建筑面积电气设计容量进行优化调整的重要性分析**
**在国家大力提倡节能减排的背景下，建筑电气节能逐渐受到了人们越来越多的关注和重视，在相关人员的不懈努力下，建筑节能工作虽然取得了一定的成果，但是仍有很多问题亟待解决，具体体现在以下几个方面上。**
**1.1建筑电气设计问题**
**建筑电气设计在很大程度上与电气系统的节能息息相关，换言之，建筑电气设计容量选择的合理，能够使电气系统的能耗大幅度降低，从而达到节能的目的，若是建筑电气设计容量选择的不合理，便会导致电气系统的能耗增大。然而，在实际中，由于设计部门及相关设计人员对建筑电气设计容量的重要性认识程度不足，加之大部分建筑工程都存在设计周期短等问题，使得一些设计单位只重数量轻视质量，这就造成了设计的系统不但前期投资相对较大，而且运行能耗也非常之髙，严重超出了国家有关标准的规定要求。由此可见，对建筑电气设计容量进行优化调整显得尤为重要。**
**1.2对建筑电气运行原理了解不够**
**目前，有些设计人员对建筑电气的运行原理知之甚少，在进行电气系统设计的过程中，都是照搬以往的设计经验，还有部分设计人员根本不考虑设计出来的系统节能效果如何，而是一味追求新技术，他们认为只要技术先进就能达到节能的效果，但实际上却并非如此，每一种设计方案都有自己的使用条件和范围，正因如此，使得建筑电气设计容量不是过大就是不足，严重影响了节能效果。**
**1.3变压器选型问题**
**目前，我国大部分建筑节能设计规范、标准都没有将完整的电气节能纳人其中，有些规范中虽然也有涉及但却并不全面，这使得一些工程项目由于负荷计算不合理或是用电数据不全导致了变压器容量选择不当，致使变压器的总体运行效率较低。**
**1.4对照明用电考虑的不周全**
**近年来，随着我国城市化建设进程的不断加快，各类建筑如雨后春笋般拔地而起，这虽然有效缓解了人们的住房压力，但却导致了能源消耗量激增，尤其是建筑照明用电水平较之以往明显提升，传统的照明控制方式已经无法满足高标准的照明需求。若是在建筑电气设计时，对照明用电的考虑不周全，则有可能影响到整个电气系统的设计，从而造成不必要的能耗损失。**
**2 单位建筑面积电气设计容量优化调整的有效措施**
**2.1运行方式优化**
**通常情况下，变压器自身都会存在一定的阻抗，而这部分阻抗会造成电能消耗。有些工程中采用的是降低变压器的负载率来减少电路中的电能损耗，这样虽然能够达到节能的目的，但却会导致工程前期投资成本增大。从本质上讲，变压器节能就是降低有功功率损耗，提高运行效率。配变低压侧输出电网应尽可能形成环网结构，这样有助于随负荷变化采取及时切换，或是在不影响各个环节电力供应的前提下，考虑投人运行的变压器台数。对于季节性变化负荷，则可采取并联运行的方式降低能耗，而昼夜变化较大的负荷若是采用上述方法来降低变压器能耗显然是不合理的，这是因为**
**会造成变压器开关操作次数增大，从而导致开关检修量增加，使用寿命也会缩短。在变压器中，铁芯是电磁感应的磁路，变压器运行时，由于磁通会在铁芯中产生交变，这样便会引起磁滞和涡流损耗。以非晶态合金作为铁芯的变压器具有较为特殊的磁特性，其与普通材料相比在同等容量的条件下，能够降低75%左右的损耗，这种变压器现已在我国逐步推广应用。此外，由于电网的运行负荷不可能保持全天24小时不变，必然会出现高低起伏的情况，起伏的时间和幅度一般都是有规律的，也就是我们常说的负荷高峰和低谷，以曲线波形来表示峰谷值，波形越趋于平坦状态就表明电能的利用越充分，为了使变压器自身的损耗能够将至最低，可通过调整负荷及改变运行方式来实现变压器自身的节能降耗。**
**2.2选用大容量变压器**
**合理选择变压器的容量是提高变压器经济效益和节能的有效途径。如果是多台变压器并联供电的前提下，可以按照实际负荷的大小安排投入运行的实际台数，这样可以使变压器自身损耗达到最小；若是容量大并且需要选用多台变压器时，应当在合理分配负荷的基础上，尽量减少变压器的台数，并选用容量较大的变压器，如装机容量为2000 kVA，可以选用两台1000 kVA的变压器，而不选用四台500的，变压器台数减少有助于节能；对于有两台以上的配变用户，若是两台变压器的负载率相同，则其负载损耗最小，因此应当采取相应的措施确保变压器负荷均衡，借此来使其负载率相等。若是变压器的负载率不相等，可按照变压器的实际负载率对负荷进行相应调整，并将负荷较大部分的负载切换到负载率较小的变压器上，借此来使各台变压器都能够处于最佳负载率的运行状态：变压器应当尽可能设置在距离负荷中心较近的位置处，这样可以减少供电距离，所以当建筑物煤层面积在1万平方米左右时，需要设置两个变电所，借此来减少干线的长度，达到节能的目的。**
**2.3减小变压器有功损耗的措施**
**变压器有功功率损耗可用下式表示：**
**上式中， AP 为变压器的有功损耗：β为变压器负载率：P代表空载损耗：P为变压器线损。其中空载损耗又被称之为铁损，其主要是由铁芯的漏磁和涡流两部分损耗构成，损耗值的大小与铁芯的制造工艺和硅钢片的性能有关。通常情况下，当变压器一次绕组外加电压及频率恒定时，该值是固定不变的，与负荷的大小基本无关，损耗值一般可以通过空载试验进行测定。变压器应当尽可能选用节能型变压器，如S9，S11等等，这些变压器采用的都是高导磁冷轧晶粒取向硅钢片和先进的制造工艺，因为经过了取向处理，从而使硅钢片的磁场方向趋于一致，有效减少了铁芯的涡流损耗；变压器线损主要与绕组电阻电流的大小有关，并与负载率的平方成正比。所以在选择变压器时，应当尽可能选用阻值相对较小的绕组，如铜芯变压器。与无励磁调压变压器的空载和短路损失相比，采用铜芯变压器能够使10kV系列的空载损失和短路损失分别降低40.9%和13.8%。**
**3 结论**
**总而言之，对单位建筑面积电气设计容量进行优化调整是一**
**项较为复杂且系统的工程，其最终目的在于通过优选变压器、合理确定变压器容量等措施，来实现建筑节能、节省建筑工程总体造价。我国是能耗大国，而建筑能耗在总能耗中所占的比重最大，所以加大建筑节能力度已经势在必行。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\]那日森.如何使建筑电气设计中电气设备的初期投资与运行费用达到经济合理\[J\].经济研究导刊，2011(7).**
**\[2\]胡志辉.建筑电气设计和节能技术方法的探讨\[A\]//第78场工程科技论坛暨第五届长三角科技论坛-** **能源安全与可持续发展论文集，2008(10).**
**(上接55页)**
**的插值，灰度形式的基于形状的插值，基于非线性过滤序列切片灰度插值方法，神经网络方法，引入形态学骨架的方法等。**
**2插值质量的评价**
**对图像插值质量的评价有主观评价和客观评价。**
**图像插值的主要目的是提供更好的视觉效果，而人眼对图像边缘最敏感，因此人的主观视觉评价也是一个很重要的标准。但这种主观评价难以做到定量评价。**
**图像插值的客观评价标准有：计算源图像和插值后图像的均 _ESM=_**
**3本文方法**
**3.1把数字图像构造为曲面片**
**数字图像是离散化的点阵数据，因此，可以用三维曲面来重建一幅数字图像。而数字图像又具有不连续性和突变型，整个数字图像构造成一张三维曲面是不现实的。因此把每个16×16点阵构造成一个曲面片，把曲面片连接起来就构成了整个数字图像。而Coons曲面不仅适合构造各种类型曲面片，而且可以保证曲面片间跨界导矢一阶连续，因而本文采用Coons曲面片构造数字图像。**
**双三次Coons曲面片可表示为；**
**通过把离散的数字图像构造为连续的曲面，可得到任何位置的像素值。**
**3.2边缘检测**
**3.2.1图像边缘特征**
**边缘是图像灰度值不连续的结果，有三种常见的边缘：阶梯状、脉冲装和屋顶状，如图1所示。阶梯状的边缘是图像中两个具有不同灰度值的区域之中，脉冲状的边缘是细条状区域，屋顶状的边缘上升下降都比较缓慢。**
**3.2.2边缘检测的方法**
**数字图像的边缘检测是借助微分算子通过卷积完成的。对于**
**\[3\]郑彦涛.浅谈如何处理新建住宅供电设计与建筑电气设计的衔接问题\[J\].北京电力高等专科学校学报：自然科学版，2011(9).**
**\[4\]张文才.从建筑节能改造谈建筑电气设计中应注意的一些问题\[A\]//2012重庆建筑电气与智能建筑技术及产品交流年会暨重庆市两会一网学术年会论文集，2012(5).**
**\[5\]陈启萍.薛春雷.建筑电气设计中节能设计的应用及发展前景的探析\[J\].城市建设理论研究：电子版，2012(1).**
**函数 f(x，j)，在(x，y)的梯度可表示为：Vf(x，y)=G.G.』，对G.和G，各用一个模板。**
**常用的边缘检测方法有：Roberts算子、Prewitt算子和Sobel算子。**
**Roberts算子定位比较精确，但由于不包括平滑，所以对于噪声比较敏感。Prewitts算子是平均滤波，Sobel算子是加权平均滤波。 Sobel算子对灰度渐变低噪声的图像有较好的检测效果。本文采用Sobel算子。**
**3.3基于图像边缘的自适应插值**
**用边缘检测的方法，把数字图像分为边缘区域和非边缘区域。像素点都是整数的情况下，把原像素点的像素值直接平移过来。对于非边缘区域，采用双三次插值，对于边缘区域，采用本文3.1的方法。**
**_4_ 结果与分析**
**为了比较本文方法的插值效果，我们分别用双线性插值，双三次插值和本文算法对图像放大4倍。先将图像通过双线性插值方法缩小4倍，然后用不同的插值算法放大4倍。(见图2)**
**从图2中我们可以看出，双线性插值方法和双三次插值方法的插值图像边缘比较模糊；应用本文方法得到的插值图像边缘比较清晰，保留了图像细节，插值效果较好。**
**对不同插值方法的峰值信噪比 PSNR 如表1所示。**
**表1 几种图像插值方法性能比较**
| **插值方法** | **双线性** | **双三次** | **本文方法** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **PSNR** | **15.41** | **15.45** | **20.81** |
**用本文方法，图像的峰值信噪比有了较大的提高。**
**5结语**
**通过图像插值实验结果，表明这种基于边缘的自适应插值算法能较好的消除插值图像产生的锯齿，保持了图像边缘的清晰度，改善了图像插值的视觉效果。**
**参考文献**
**\[1\]梁云，朱为鹏，李峥，基于几何分类的自适应图像插值算法\[J\].中山大学学报，2011，4.**
**\[2\]张善文，戎蒙恬，李萍.基丁非均匀采样重构的图像插值算法\[J\].信息技术，2011，3.**
**\[3\]赵旦峰，王博，杨大伟.一种边缘定向平滑图像插值算法\[J\].电子与信息学报，2012，7.**
**\[4\]叶森，丁勇，王翔，等.基于三次拉格朗日插值的自适应图像缩放\[J\].小型微型计算机系统，2012，6.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **远程高等教育终端学习中心运营管理探究**
**一以广东中山奥鹏学习中心为案例**
谢 晖
**(中山市广播电视大学教育发展处，广东中山 528403)**
**摘要：终端学习中心的运营管理直接关系到整个远程高等教育的运营管理效果。文章在分析影响终端学习中心运营管理的关键因素后，提出了确立学习中心运营战略、建立合理高效的组织机构、准确匹配工作人员等提高终端学习中心运营管理的思路分析，并以中山电大奥鹏学习中心为例，提出了提高终端学习中心运营管理的策略措施。**
**关键词：终端学习中心；运营管理；提升途径**
**中图分类号：G727 文献标志码：A 文章编号；1009-4156(2012)07-052-03**
**远程教育作为一种新型的教育形式，在构建学习型社会中起着重要的作用，其教育对象、手段、方法等与传统的课堂教育形式相比，无论是教的过程还是学的过程都在时空上分离了，学生们的学习过程是在校外分散进行的，学校如何掌握学生的学习情况，保证远程教育的质量?在这种情况下，公共服务体系应运而生，它担当着协助学校对学生学习过程进行辅助管理，以及为学生提供学习支持服务的重任，它的服务质量好坏在很大程度上直接影响和决定着学生的学习质量。对学生学习过程的管理和支持服务实质上是远程教育公共服务体系质量保证体系中不可分割的重要组成部分。而终端学习中心作为远程教育公共服务体系的最前沿，运营管理水平的高低直接影响到整个远程教育服务体系运营管理的效果。**
**一、影响终端学习中心运营管理的关键要素**
**运营管理(OM)是指：“对生产和提供公司主要的产品和服务的系统进行设计、运行和改进。”(理查德·蔡斯)终端学习中心通过有效的管理手段，利用有限资源(人、财、物)投人，取得最佳的社会效益和经济效益，这就是高效的运营管理。笔者认为，影响终端学习中心的运营管理有以下三个关键要索：**
**(一)运营战略**
**终端学习中心的运营战略是决定终端学习中心的运营活动成败的关键因素，因为它决定了学习中心的发展目标、发展方向，如何发展实现的策略规划等。学习中心能否实现使命，关键就在于对运营战略的选择是否科学，是否合理。战略服务于使命是学习中心及全体员工的行动纲领。**
**(二)组织机构设置**
**终端学习中心的运营战略确立后，接下来要**
**考虑什么样的管理模式、组织结构、权责关系、内部制度和流程才能支持学习中心的运营战略，这是组织机构的内容，是学习中心实现有效运营和治理的基础。组织机构设置是否完善及各组织机构之间的关系是否协调和有效率，直接关系着学习中心运营的效果。学习中心应该思考自身的运营战略，以确保效率和资源上的高效配置。**
**(三)人力资源**
**人是学习中心各项活动的执行者和监督者，如何发挥人的最大潜能，并分配到最合适的位置上，是使各项活动得以最佳完成的重要保证。终端学习中心的人力资源一方面包括有效配置，另一方面包括能力的配备，使人力资源与物力资源实现更完美的结合，以产生最大的社会效益和经济效益。通常在企业进行快速膨胀规模和业务外拓时会无暇顾及人员的合理配置，终端学习中心同样存在这种情况，迅猛发展下的终端学习中心，经常是新员工匆匆上任，甚至来不及岗前培训，上岗后边工作边学习，或是边工作边自己摸索。这石在一定程度上影响了远程教育的服务质量。**
**二、提高终端学习中心运营管理的思路分析**
**(一)运用 SWOT 法有效分析、确立学习中心运营战略**
**战略是终端学习中心的核心方向价值，因此如何分析并确立有效的运营战略成为关键的工作。分析制定学习中心运营战略可以采用“明确使命、对环境和自身进行 SWOT分析、确立目标和决策内容”等三个步骤。**
**1.明确使命：通常终端学习中心在制定战略目标前首先要明确远程教育终端学习中心的使命，为目标的确立与战略的制定提供依据。**
**2.对环境和自身进行 SWOT分析：终端学习**
**中心应在确立使命后，进行外部运营环境的调查和分析，对中心现有业务进行审计，运用SWOT法进行分析。**
**3.确立目标和决策内容：经过分析评价，针对学习中心进行战略业务的设计和财务类比，科学规划学习中心的未来发展，制定出适合本学习中心的战略目标，包括长期、中期和短期目标以及如何实现目标的策略规划。**
**(二)立足服务、基于成本，建立合理高效的组织机构**
**目前，远程教育终端学习中心主要有直属学习中心、依托电大的学习中心和依托其他单位建立的学习中心，其中，以依托电大建的学习中心数量最多，分布最广，这类学习中心的组织机构最为复杂，但多为机构重叠，运营的效率、人员的配置、成本上往往存在各种问题。学习中心秉承着发展和业绩的使命，当学习中心的学员达到一定规模时，为保证教学服务的质量，应对竞争，满足客户需要，最好以目标、使命、绩效为核心，成立高效的组织机构。**
**(三)以能力为核心，准确匹配工作人员**
**学习中心需要加强对于人员招聘与配置的管理，应根据学习中心内部的运营战略、业务流程的情况进行合理的人员配置，做到人岗匹配。同时建立和维护完善员工栏案，详细记录和跟踪员工结构、经验、知识水平等，为进行人员调整和配置提供有力的依据。学习中心还应定期调查各部门对现有员工的满意度及岗位需求趋势，包括数量需求以及素质需求，充分做好员工的储备工作，培养和建设梯队。**
**三、中山电大奥鹏学习中心运营管理改革案例**
**中山电大奥鹏学习中心(以下简称为中山学习中心)为奥鹏公共服务体系的终端学习中心，于2007年正式开始招生，由于其地处珠三角经济发达地区，近些年发展迅猛，但由于超常规发展，使得学习中心在表面欣欣向荣的景色下隐藏着一定的危机。**
**(一)中山电大奥鹏学习中心运营管理存在的问题**
**中山学习中心一直以来缺乏战略目标，工作人员对今后的发展没有长远的想法。在合作高校由2所增加到9所，学员人数从几十人增加到2000人时，工作人员却只有6名，需要包揽从招生到毕业全部的工作。同时，由于学习中心缺乏健全的管理制度和规范的服务流程，使得学习中心未把握好“质量与规模”之间的关系，工作人员疲于应付，学员们的投诉也呈快速上升趋势。如何在现有情况下改革学习中心的体制运作，给学员提供更加优质的服务，同时在管理和制度上下工**
**夫，以更加精细化的专业服务助力于服务质量的全面提升，是中山学习中心面临的关键问题。**
**(二)中山奥鹏学习中心终端运营管理的改革策略**
**1.确立“一个中心、两个基本点、三个面向”的战略发展目标。中山学习中心目前首要的任务是确立战略发展目标。而为实现战略发展目标，学习中心充分利用电大和奥鹏的优势互补应对来自国内外各个竞争对手和自身机制碰撞的挑战，充分发挥电大系统多年来举办远程教育的经验，引人国内外先进的服务理念和运行机制，努力让学员们方便快捷地享用到优质的教学资源。学习中心依据“以学习者为中心”的使命，建立终端服务模式，并确立以一个中心(品牌建设为中心)、两个基本点(以质量和规模为基本点)、三个面向(面向企业、面向行业、面向社区)的战略发展目标。**
**2.以战略目标为总纲，设置匹配的组织架构，进而调整岗位设置。为了更好地实现一个中心、两个基本点、三个面向的战略发展目标，中山学习中心根据具体情况，自2011年9月，对学习中心的结构和人员进行了大幅度的调整。**
**图1 中山电大奥鹏学习中心战略发展目标学习中心主任**
**图2 中山电大奥鹏学习中心部门结构图**
**针对学习中心质量和规模间存在的问题，调整工作岗位和人员，为改善学习中心学生服务上的弱项，新引进了一名高素质的硕士来加强学籍、学务的管理，并配备了多名兼职斑主任，以学习者为中心，努力做到学员规模大幅上升的同时保证服务质量。**
**面向企业方面，针对团购的大企业，采用专职班主任管理，专门来协调团购单位大批量学员各方面问题，解决了学员们许多学习上的实际问题，获得了团购单位和学员们的欢迎，也为后续招生奠定了基础。**
**面向行业和社区方面，增加了一位渠道主管，专门对中山市有代表性的行业和社区进行研究和调查，根据各行业的学历学习需求、特点和各社区**
**的成员结构状况，制定专门的学历教育方案。**
**3.健全管理制度，优化服务流程，支撑战略目标。当机构、人员、场地到位之后，学习中心将健全管理制度、优化服务流程当做工作的重点来抓，目的是使学习中心形成较完善的学习支持服务体系。学习中心制定了一系列制度，以《班主任工作制度》为例，班主任负责某所高校的某一个或几个批次的所有学生，从学习者的需求分析和学习困难分析入手，对导学、助学、促学、督学等四个环节的全过程进行动态控制，根据学习者个体文化水平、知识结构、学习能力等差异，在关注所有学员的同时对那些学习上有困难的学员给予特别关注，使其适应网络学习形式并主动参与小组学习，提高其自主学习能力，最终完成学业。**
**4.配合组织结构的调整，建立有效的绩效考核制度，激活人员动力。学习中心将绩效考核指标加以分解，形成中心内部各环节、各岗位的指标要求，再与学习中心所有员工共同讨论通过。为了使考核指标更加科学有效，充分利用了北京奥鹏每个月发布的《学习中心支持服务管理过程积分通报》，与全国1000多家学习中心进行比较，特别注重向先进的学习中心进行比较和学习，找到不足，及时加以改进，提高各方面水平，同时也充分显示了考核的公开性和公平性。**
**5.针对岗位能力，加强人员培训，提升运营能力。根据工作人员对制度和流程不熟悉的特点，学习中心内部定期每个月举办两次专项培训，培训的方式多种多样，有讲座式、边学边练式和行动学习法等，目的是帮助教师们尽快熟练掌握远程教育学习中心的业务流程。培训中注重共同分享各自在工作中的体会，鼓励新教师克服困难，积极工作；认真听取教师们的意见或建议，并积极改善工作方式和方法；主动咨询教师工作和生活上的困难，并帮助协调；有效地向学员或教师解释工作中的出现的问题，并帮助解决。**
**6.培养创新意识，推动运营运转。学习中心鼓励教师们发挥主观能动性，积极创新，探索如何通过改进工作使劳动量下降。有班主任提出，每次期末考试时，学员们都为找考试试室而忙碌并常常求助于教师，浪费了不少时间和精力。如何方便学员们在期末考试时能方便快捷地知道考试的科目、时间和具体试室呢?班主任们自主研发了学习中心学员准考证系统，学员可直接在网上查询并可直接打印准考证。学习中心支持教师们的改革创新，针对教师们提出的改革建议，先进行小范围的改革试点，根据试点结果再对规章制度进行调整和完善。所有的教师就不仅仅是制度的**
**执行者，同时还是制度的制定者和修订者，工作起来更有主动性和创造性。**
**(三)改革成效**
**通过半年的实践，中山学习中心改革成效初步显现：**
**1.战略目标成为行动纲领。学习中心以学习者为使命，以一个中心、两个基本点、三个面向的战略目标，使学习中心的凝聚力和向心力大大增强，教师们心中都有了美好的愿景，以主人翁的精神来建设品牌，维护品牌。**
**学习中心还针对以往忽视统考，本科生统考自理的现象进行了改善，各本科班主任对本班需参加统考的所有学员通过各种渠道进行通知，如班级Q群、飞信、手机短信、群发邮件、电话等，确保每一位学员得到准确信息，并协助学员办理统考报名的工作，获得了学员们的赞扬。**
**2.机构、人员为实现战略目标提供了保障。由于组织机构设置科学，人员配置合理，大家普遍感觉原来混乱、疲于应付的中心工作状况得到了较大的改善，教师们现在分工明确，工作流程逐渐规范，工作制度日趋完善。如学员投诉和教师工作失误明显减少，中心虽然增加了不少新教师，但是大家上手很快，而且教师们非常注重运营管理的提升，走进办公室，最常见的就是针对工作上的问题，教师们在讨论如何更加方便、高效地完成工作，深刻体会到运用工具来提高工作效率的重要性后，积极主动地学习各种快捷工具，如学习图片批处理软件等，令学习中心呈现出蓬勃的生机。**
**参考文献：**
\[1\]郭 **炯，黄荣怀，陈** **庚.我国现代远程教育运行现状及质量保证措施——基于“在京现代远程教育校外学习中心评估”的研究\[J\].开放教育研究，2009，(1)：40-45.**
**\[2\]贺** **湖.远程教育学历培训存在的问题与保障对策一—以校外学习中心为例\[J\].湖南师范大学教育科学学报，2011，(8)：74-76.**
**\[3\]陈玉明.网络教育校外学习中心的建设和管理\[J\].现代教育技术，2009，(4)：82-84.**
**【基金项目：中山市广播电视大学2012年重点课题“中山电大奥鹏学习中心运营模式探究”(编号：KT1210)阶段性成果】**
**【谢** **晖：中山市广播电视大学教育发展处副教授，硕士，主要从事远程教育的教学与研究】** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **高职美术院校提升学生人文素养有效途径的分析**
陈中华
**(辽宁经济管理干部学院服装装饰系，辽宁宁沈阳110122)**
**摘 要：人文素养是一种人的内在品质和文化积淀，它决定着一个人是否具有健全的人格和心理素质。针对当今高职美术学生人文素养缺失的现状，学校需要改革教育方法，提升教师素质，同时发挥第二课堂作用，重视校园环境建设，**
**关键词：高职美术院校；人文素养；缺失；提升；措施**
**中图分类号：G642.4 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-5646(2010)01-0078-02**
**人文素养是一个内涵十分丰富的概念。对于高职美术学生来说主要是指由知识、能力、观念、情感、意志等多种因素综合而成的一种人的内在品质和文化积淀，表现为一个人的气质、修养，涉及文化品位、知识视野、审美情趣和对自己对他人的责任意识等。人文素养的高低最终决定着一个人能否具有高尚的人格和健全的心理素质。作为现代美术应用复合型人才培养摇篮的高职美术院校如何提升学生的人文素养就成为尤为迫切和必要的话题，**
**一、造成高职美术学生人文素养缺失的原因**
**造成高职美术学生人文素养缺失的原因很多，但究其根本，不外乎个人、家庭、社会、教育这四者。**
**(一)个人因素的影响**
**作为受教育的主体，高职美术学生人文素养的培养与其个人的学习兴趣、学习态度紧密相关。有无正确的人生目标，积极主动的学习态度，直接决定着其人文素养的高低。**
**(二)家庭因素的影响**
**90后的学生大多生活在一个“众星捧月”的甜蜜环境之中，周围人的不当呵护与溺爱，加之一些不良风气的影响，使学生的人文情怀日益淡漠。如：道德修养浅薄，胸怀狭窄，自我中心化，人生观、价值观不健全，缺乏社会责任感等等，表现为：谈吐粗俗，格调不高，接人待物悦、小器，缺乏感恩意识和挫折意识等。虽然这种情况不甚严重，但却普遍存在。另外，个别的问题家庭也造成了一部分学生人文素养的畸形。**
**(三)社会因素的影响**
**面对日益严峻的就业压力，社会对学生专业知识和技能的考量日趋突出，面对人文素养的要求还未形成充分认识，于是许多学生只重视专业知识的学习，忽视了人文素养的补充。而急功近利的风气又一度使社会产生了这样偏激的认识：孩子学习太差了，让他去学美术吧。学习美术成为升学的补救途径，“学习美术者”似乎成了后进生的代名词。家长的无奈，社会的“歧视”，使得学生也**
**就没了学习动力，整天浑浑噩噩，人文素养的提升自然也就成了被边缘化的对象。**
**(四)教育因素的影响**
**近年来，随着我国对高等教育的反思，学历教育模式受到批判，而高职教育适应社会的发展，在专门人才的培养上取得了显著成绩，于是就有人将学历教育与高职教育对立起来，认为高职教育就是培养学生“一技之长”从而产生一系列教育误：或者简单地把“索养教育”等同为“知识教育”，或者偏重职业技能的培养和提高，人为地弱化了素养教育…·.这样，也就影响了学生对人文素养的认知，放松或完全放弃了自身人文素养的提升。**
**二、提升高职美术学生人文素养的措施**
**提升高职美术学生的人文素养需要学生自我意识，自我提高，但这是远远不够的，还需要学校、礼会、乃至家庭的积极参与与营造。**
**(一)提升教师素质，开创全程育人新篇章**
**爱因斯坦曾经说过“只是用专业教育人是不够的。通过专业教育，可以使人成为一种有用的机器，但是不能成为一个和谐发展的人”。作为施教主体的教师要转变观念，强化职业道德，着力提升自己在文、史、哲及综合艺术等方面的人文素养，增强授课的艺术性；同时，重视对学生专业课程外的人文关怀，强调教师在学生面前“言之有物、言之有理、行之有礼”，做到“言传”和“身教”统一，使学生对抽象的规范和要求有“范”可依，在潜移默化中提升学生的素养。所谓“师者，范也。其身正，不令而行”。**
**(二)发挥第二课堂作用，构建立体育人新体系**
**深化教学改革，重新构建学生能力的构成要素及评估体系，优化课程设置，科学设计教学内容，合理分配教学时间和空间，充分开发第二课堂的资源优势，用丰富的形式去充实学生的课余生活，使学生在“厚德、崇学、精业”的艺术氛围中汲取营养，提升自己。**
**1.充分开发和利用隐性课程，提升学生文化品位。实施“国学教育”，引人“传统文化”“社交礼仪”等课程，引**
**作者简介：陈中华(1977-)，男，汉族，辽宁盘锦人，讲师，学士，主要从事美术教育研究。**
**导学生形成良好的品德和规范的礼仪，培养学生的厚德意识；开设“书法教育”课程，让学生在点画的书写训练中了解我国博大精深的传统文化，在字形结构的安置搭配中磨练意志、陶冶情操，净化心灵。**
**2.贴近学生的兴趣取向，拓展学生知识视野。兴趣是最好的老师。以兴趣为切口，整合教育资源，采用第二课堂的形式，开设诸如陶艺、茶艺、形体训练、艺术欣赏、文学讲坛等拓展类课程，让学生自主选择，愉快参与，主动学习，在过程中接受熏陶。同时有意识地引导学生阅读更多人文类书籍，适时穿插学术报告，聘请专家学者前来讲学，拓展学生的知识视野。**
**3.实施高雅艺术进校园，提升学生审美情趣。高雅艺术是人类文明的结晶，它凝结了艺术家的“忧患意识、载道意识，饱含人文精神”，它会“诱发我们的情绪，打动我们的心灵”。实施高雅艺术进校园，举办校园音乐会、音乐讲座等，由专业人员进行解析，介绍每种乐器的特色、每部作品的欣赏方法，以帮助学生去理解作品表现的情感和思想内容，使学生的审美追求在润物无声中得以升华。**
**(三)改革教育方法，树立人文素养教育新理念**
**当代大学生思维活跃，特立独行，个性张扬，传统的简单说教已渐失效用，而课外活动由于形式多样，内容丰富，符合当今大学生的特点，对于提升高职学生人文素养是不无裨益的。**
**1.开展体验感悟类活动，为学生素养提升搭建平台。借鉴“拓展训练”模式，依据体验式学习的基本原理，开展形式多样的游戏活动。整个活动中，老师只给出任务、目标，做好过程管理，而其它则由学生自主研究、策划、组织实施；过程中期，由老师组织学生进行活动感言：谈体会、谈心得、总结经验教训，调整方法、策略；活动最后再由老师组织学生总结，公布活动目的，使学生自觉地结合活动日的联系自己或团队在活动中的表现寻找得失，体悟哲理。通过活动，既愉悦了学生身心，又起到了磨练意志、完善人格、陶冶情操、提升能力、培养责任感、熔炼团队的作用。**
**2.挖掘节日、纪念日内涵，升华学生情感境界。中华民族有着悠久的传统和曲折的历史，各种法定节日、传统节日，杰出伟人、历史事件纪念日等特殊日子，都蕴藏着宝贵的情感道德资源。挖掘其深厚的思想内涵，结合实际组织各种主题鲜明的纪念、庆祝活动，让学生重温历史，感受传统，使学生在活动中受到感染，升华境界。如：利用“清明扫墓”宣传爱国主义、英雄主义精神，利用“端午节”感受屈原的忧国忧民情怀，通过组织红色旅游、观看“优秀爱国影片”等活动，用鲜活的事例来启迪心扉，使学生树立正确的人生观、价值观。**
**3.支持“社团活动”，丰富学生课余生活。支持学生进行社团活动，尤其鼓励学生开展文、史、哲、艺等方面的社团活动。学生社团作为活跃在校园里的民间组织，形式多样、自由，易于被广大学生所认可和接受，从而让广大学生找到自己的能力舞台。因为是学生社团，教师在其中只扮演活动顾问的角色，给学生以充分的自主性，由此可以培养和锻炼学生的决策能力、组织协调能力以及领导才能。加之学校一定的物质和精神鼓励，既使学生获得了成就感，又可以深化学生的研究、进取意识，以点带面，逐渐形成一种独特的校园文化。支持学生社团“走出去”。结合校**
**情，开展校际间的文化、活动交流，加强不同文化氛围对学生的影响，使学生在竞争中提升自己，在交流中完善自己。**
**(四)重视校园环境建设，营造人文素养教育新气息**
**“蓬生麻中，不扶而直；白沙在涅，与之俱黑。”这句话充分说明了环境对于人的重要影响。创建一个良好的教学环境对于陶冶学生的情操，美化心灵，增強自豪感，激发他们的学习和工作热情具有事半功倍的效用。**
**1.营造良好的人文环境感染人。人文环境是指弥漫在校园生活中的精神风貌。它如同一个“场”，无形无象，却又无时无刻不在熏陶人、感染人、鞭策人。挖掘并提升学校的文化底蕴(如提升办学理念、治学精神，树立积极高尚的校风校气等)，营造自由、舒适的人文风尚(如宽松的思维空间、和谐的人际关系、良好的团结协作氛围、具有校园特色的休闲方式等)，使之凝聚成为健康、和谐、取的“场”，从而对学生产生春风化雨般的作用。**
**2.打造优美的校园环境陶冶人。从建筑设计、整体布局到生态营造要以人为本，富叮艺术气息，从徽章标志到校服、校歌的创设也要尽显匠心独具。此外，挖掘校史，修建“文化长廊”，增加校园的文化意蕴；以园艺装饰、道路(楼宇)命名等形式，彰显学校的人文精神……这样，通过环境建设，让校园中的一切事物都在说话，让每个地方都起到怡情养性的作用，使学生在不知不觉中提升道德品质，健全人格。**
**(五)机制保障**
**没有规短，不成方圆。提升学生索养，还需建立和完善多元化的保障机制。**
**1.建立网土互动机制，完善选课系统、社团管理系统，学院及时掌握学生趣向，做出相应调整，学生则可在网上申报选修课，申请加入社团。**
**2.规范师生的“教”“学”行为，制定切实可行的“教”“学”标准，完善师生考评奖惩体系。**
**3.启动“大学生文化素养科研工程”定期组织来自不同学科背景的教师在一起研讨，相互启发，更新思想，为学生人文素养的提升提供持续的智力支持。**
**三、结束语**
**十年树木，百年树人。提升高职美术学生的人文素养任重道远，它是一项长期、持续、多方位、全员、全过程的系统工程，需要各方面总结经验教训，转变观念，创新思路，协调合作，为着共同的理想、信念和追求而努力。**
**参考文献：**
**〔I\]张莉莉.高职院校学生人文素养教育刍议\[J\].中国校外教育理论，2008，(4).**
**\[2\]姚利权，黄秒秒.论高雅艺术对当代大学生的积极影响和作用\[J\].2009，(1)：22.**
**\[3\]谢圣明，等.中国青年百科全书\[M\].北京：华夏出版社.**
**\[4\]李刚.隐性课程在高职院校素质教育中的作用分析\[J\].中小企业管理与科技，2009，(3).**
**\[5\]陈彬，等.发挥环境育人功能，培育全面发展人才\[Z\].实施“环境育人”的实践与探索课题组，2003.**
**(责任编辑** **煜** **旸)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 周立波游记赏析
周 为
(体坛周报社，北京 100062)
摘 要：周立波游记作品分为早期游记、战地游记和建国后红色游记，周立波游记观察记叙入微，善于发掘景观文化内涵，语言生动，文风质朴。
关键词：周立波；游记；赏析
**中图分类号：I206.7 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-1942(2010)03-0017-03**
著名作家周立波(1908-1979)以200多万字的文学作品贡献于中国文学宝库。在他的散文中有一部分游记，为数虽不多，但至今仍以其艺术特色吸引读者。
周立波早期的记行性作品关注底层，以真切的感受，真实的记叙，反映了底层民众的真实生活。写于20世纪30年代的《游行妓》《船上》《泪罗》《当》，记叙了周立波从湖南到武汉途中的见闻与感受。他描写“病态社会的不幸的人们”，对其境遇表示哀怜，以此控诉黑暗社会。
其中《泪罗》是一篇典型游记，发表于1935年1月5日上海《大晚报·火炬》。文章抓住火车泪罗停靠的短时间，以屈原追求的光明与现实的黑暗对比，以“一碗馄饨”“一杯茶”两个细节描绘现实，抒发感受。作品结尾描绘了自然景色：
田野是一片灰白，那被三四个月烈火般的太阳烧焦了的水田和溪流，都裂着许多长大的口，好象要吞食地上的一切；那灰尘满叶的树木，那骷髅一样的水车木架，那凋敝倾记的稻草茅棚，那一切荒墟，一切童山，还有那在田陇上走着的菜色的农民。\[1\]
这里作家没有一点寄情山水、陶醉自然的情致，而是对祖国山河颓败，底层民众不幸的哀怨。
在他早期游记中有一组湘西通讯：《湘西苗民的过去和风俗》《湘西行》《雾里的湘西》这是作家1939年在沅陵《抗战日报》工作时采访湘西写的。这一组作品介绍了剽悍勇敢、不甘屈辱的湘
西苗族儿女英勇反抗压迫、剥削的斗争史，揭露了反动统治者对苗民剥削与压迫的罪恶史。同时，作家也出色描写了湘西的民俗风情与自然风光。如湘西人民的“赶场”，就被作者记叙得细致入微：
今天是乾城的场期。乾城的场，是湘西各县规模最大的。远方的买卖人常常走过几县到这里来赶场。现在虽然不是太平日子，据说赶场的人也还是不少。
到了中午，各村各寨的背着背篓，担着担子的男女越来越多了。乾州东门外的旧校场，摆满了货物，挤满了人，人声好像远处的涛声一样，轰然的传进城里。
人虽然多，场中的排列，一点都不乱。各种货物都陈列在一定的地方。卖狗肉的屠夫不能和看相的术士混在一起。卖牛羊的贩子，分立在蔬菜瓜果商人的两边，布匹，粮食，和各种各样的手工业品，都一行一行的排列着。没有警察和法律干预他们的位置，一切都依着习惯安排。
周立波的战地游记也写得很出色。1938年，周立波担任美国记者斯沫特莱与美国军官卡尔逊的翻译，到八路军山西战区采访，1944年又参加八路军三五九旅南下，留下了杰出的报告文学《战场三记》。其中有的篇章是精彩的战地游记，如《滹沱河畔》《落雪的山野》《五台山麓》《九华山下》等等。这些战地游记有战地人物与事件的记叙，有风土人情与历史典故的介绍，也有壮丽山川的描绘。《九华山下》把祖国的大好河山、民族抵抗
**收稿日期：2010-01-22**
**作者简介：周为(1977-)，男，湖南益阳人，编辑，硕士，主要从事新闻采编业务研究。**
侵略的光荣历史，眼前的英勇抗日穿插起来写，抒发了作者的爱与恨，也抒发了一种豪情：“我的眼前浮现了一群穿军服穿草鞋的年轻男女，他们还在困难中前进，他们要永远保卫九华山，保卫大武汉，保卫我中华民族充满魅力的江山和充满光荣的历史”。
《五台山麓》记叙了八路军的英勇抗战，也写了作者在战斗中的闲情逸趣：：“今天很舒服”，因为听了庙里充满温和绚丽的女性美的音乐，吃了喇嘛佳美的饼千和濾沱河有名的大米，又骑上了充满勇武要强的男性美的小蒙古马走了一天。
《落雪的山野》描写部队经过吕梁山雪野的情景，写出了雪野的“色”“声”“影”和“味”。“马蹄踏在冻结的千雪上，嚓嚓地作响。路边蒿草上的人马的影子，有着一定间隔的急速的移动。寒冷的空气里白杨树中发出强烈的优美的香气。”
战地游记中，作家善于描写透露战斗气息的自然风物。如《滤沱河畔》写道：
到春天，这河的沿岸一定很美丽。春水涨了，梨花开了，稻田里的新秧绿遍了原野。这些春景会破除冬天北方的黄土地的单调。
但是现在，这里实在有点难于忍受的乏味，田野没有草，，山上没有树，河里没有船，风吹得口里和眼里都有灰沙，天冷得要命。如果这里没有火花一样的民族解放斗争，如果这里没有许多可敬或爱的人物，那这冬天的北方，是太寂寞，太荒凉了。
濘沱河的流水，不管一切寂寞与荒凉，正急湍地流着。寂寞荒凉的冬天，想用坚冰来束缚这活跃的河流，但是没有成功，河水漂着碎块的浮水，依然不停不息地流逝。
三
建国后周立波写的游记算得上是最早之红色游记，大体分为三组：一是前苏联游记。1950年周立波在前苏联访问三个月写下的14篇游记，1953年结集为《苏联札记》，由人民文学出版社出版。二是韶山游记。周立波说：“全国解放后，出于对毛主席的热爱和敬仰，我常去韶山，瞻仰毛主席的旧居。”他相继发表了《毛泽东同志的故居》《韶山五日记》《韶山的节日》等文章。三是农村纪游。有《宁乡见闻》《游南三联岛》《韶山灌区两日记》《窗外》等。
周立波关于韶山的游记既质朴又很有意境。《毛泽东同志的故居》写于1955年，发表于是1956年5月《北京文艺》创刊号。这篇游记语言活泼，文风质朴，体现出周立波行文的特点：
跨过塘基，到了上屋场，这是一座靠山修建的典型的湖南农舍。正屋和左首的两栋横屋盖的是青瓦，右首的一栋横屋盖的是稻草。后山里松林和竹丛高出屋顶，显出了一片青翠，周围十分幽静，只有山里鸟雀的啼噪，有时打破这沉寂。风把稻草的气息，泥土的气味，树叶和茶子树花的清香，一阵阵刮来。
上屋场的后山里的那些竹子和松树是很有意思的。它们的枝叶联成了一片青苍，给农舍添加了鲜丽的色彩。它们生长在毛泽东同志的故居的后山是最恰当的了，因为它们有着中国人民喜爱的品性。\[2\]
这结尾真是点睛之笔。作家将竹子、松树的品性寓意着毛泽东的品性，也就是中国人民喜爱的品性，于轻描淡写之中，提升了游记的品位。
《苏联札记》中《托尔斯泰的故乡》是一篇经典游记。这篇游记代表了周立波游记的写作特点。首先，作者具有独到的观察能力，他把观察作为“文苑的耕耘方法之一”，认为“观察本身就是一种艺术”他强调要把事情的经过、人物的真容、场地的实景审察清楚了，才能提笔伸纸。图对托尔斯泰故乡，周立波作了深入细致的观察，抓住了典型景观、典型细节。从早晨六点钟从莫斯科出发到中午在博物馆喝托尔斯泰农场的新鲜牛奶，文章按参观的时间顺序记叙了托尔斯泰文学展览室、住室和墓地的典型场景。记叙了托尔斯泰文学展览室、列宁的评价、托氏主要作品的创作过程、托氏与农民的关系。
参观托尔斯泰住室，作家特别观察到并记叙了托氏的餐厅、餐具，托氏晚年吃素，托氏餐厅里的钢琴，托氏在这里自己操琴接待客人，等等。由于作家抓住典型细节进行详细记叙，一个栩栩如生的托尔斯泰呈现在我们面前。对托氏墓地，周立波只作了简单记叙，托氏死于火车站及死后群众的悼念写得很生动。
其次，善于发掘景观的文化内涵。托尔斯泰故乡博物馆，包括文学展览室、住室与墓地无疑是一个具有世界意义的人文景观。周立波对托氏进行过深入研究，《周立波鲁艺讲稿》中有三篇关
于托尔斯泰的讲稿。当他亲临托尔斯泰故居时，他在记叙中注重发掘了这一景观的文化内涵。例如当周立波看到普希金女儿与斯呵基娜两位女士照片，他写道：“从这里，人们可以看出托尔斯泰是怎样地创造他的人物的。安娜·卡列尼娜就是一个女人的外貌与另一个女人的生活故事混合起来的典型。”周立波还在文中指出：“《战争与和平》的五百五十九个人物的模特儿，大半是这个庄园和它的周围的人物，或是和这庄园有关的亲友。”
周立波还分析了托尔斯泰思想的矛盾：一方面过着地主富裕的生活，另一方面又同情农民困苦。作者抓住景观“一张楼梯”来表述这一点：
围绕着他的巨大庄园的一切小屋里，住着过去是他家的农奴。后来又是租他地种的农民，他熟悉每一家农民，知道他们无法摆脱的穷困。他的良心驱使他思考他们的贫困的原因。他也常常邀请农民到他家里来谈话。他的夫人看着农民的沾着泥土的脚走过漂亮的厅堂，心里总是不高兴。为此，托尔斯泰在后门另外作了一个楼梯，让农民从后面悄悄来到他的楼上书斋里。4
再次，这篇游记文风通俗畅快，语言口语化，但又十分精练，通篇娓娓而谈。例如文章一开头，作家用洗练的笔墨描绘了托氏故居幽美的环境：
上午十时，我们到了目的地，一片青翠的树林里，露出一些白色的屋宇的屋角，这就是驰名世界的雅斯那雅·波利雅那村，这就是“给了俄国生活一幅无比的图画”的天才艺术家的故居和坟墓所在的地方。
车子开进这个古老庄园的进口，在大树林里的一条小路上缓缓地前进，最后停在一幢雪白的楼房前面。我们下车来，环顾这座大庄园。它是幽美的。它的面积是二百八十公顷，这里除了微风、鸟语，没有任何其他烦杂的声音。空气里飘散着花的香气、草的香气，潮湿的泥土和败叶的气味。托尔斯泰在这里住了六十年，在这里，他为人类文化添加了丰富的财富。
《托尔斯泰的做乡》这篇近万字的长篇游记，是一篇优美的游记范文，也是研究托尔斯泰的重要文献。一篇游记写出如此水平，真是难能可贵。
据考证，周立波钻研过德国诗人海涅的旅行记、美国小说家杰克·伦敦的游记，美国小说家辛克莱的社会通讯，特别是翻译了捷克记者基希的报告文学《秘密的中国》，从中吸取了丰富的文化营养与创作经验。他“以正确的世界观和抒情诗人的喜怒”写出的游记，明快而又深刻，至今仍十分耐读，是我国游记文学百花园里赏心悦目的佳作。
参考文献：
\[1\]周立波.汇罗\[M\]//周立波选集：卷4.长沙：湖南人民出版 **社，1983：11.**
\[2\]周立波.毛泽东同志的故居\[M\]//周立波选集：卷4.长沙：湖南人民出版社，1983：127.
\[3\]周立波.谈通讯报道\[M\]//周立波文集：卷5.上海：上海文艺出版社，1981：602.
\[4\]周立波.托尔斯泰的故乡\[M\]/周立波选集：卷4.长沙：湖南人民出版社，1983： 116.
**The Appreciation of Zhou Libo’s Notes on Tourism**
**_ZHOU Wei_**
**(Titan Sports News Weekly Beijing1100062， China)**
**Abstract： Zhou Libo’s traveling works can be divided into three stages such as early time of tourism， battlefield traveling and red traveling after liberation. Zhou Libo’s notes of traveling are perceptive and narrative to detail， and he is good at exploring landscape and cultural connotations. His language is vivid and the style is simple.**
**Key words： Zhou Libo； tourism； appreciation**
(责任编校：彭 **萍)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 基于全链条视角的山西省资源型产业转型分析
李 慧
(太原学院， 山西 太原 030032)
\[摘 要」 实现资源型产业转型是资源依赖型城市保持经济持续发展的必经之路。以产业技术创新为驱动力的产业转型最主要的表现形式是产业链延伸。全链条的概念更强调全领域、全范围的发展理念。从全链条视角出发，对山西省资源型产业转型发展进行分析。山西省产业转型虽然已经取得了一定的成绩，但是在转型过程中，观念、体制和配套等方面在很大程度上制约了转型发展的进程，阻碍了技术向经济效益的转化。推动山西省资源型产业转型，必须从可持续发展角度，实现产业链延伸，推动产业共融发展。
\[关键词」\] 全链条；资源型产业；产业转型
\[中图分类号」F127 \[文献标识码」\] A \[文章编号」 1009-6043(2020)01-0063-02
一、引言
在“十五”和“十一五”规划期间，依赖煤炭、钢铁等资源型产业发展起来的山西经济在近年出现了疲软状态。资源型产业转型，尤其是寻求一条可持续发展道路，成为山西经济发展的第一任务。2018年2月国务院正式批复太原为首批国家可持续发展议程创新示范区之一，作为山西省会城市，太原市始终在山西省产业转型升级中起到“排头兵”作用。可持续示范区的建设也对山西省资源型产业转型发展提出了更高的要求。
以产业技术创新为驱动力的产业转型最主要的表现形式是产业链延伸。“产业链”概念明确提出是在中国，其体系的完善补充一直伴随着中国产业发展进程。产业转型包括产业结构转变、产业发展的主要驱动要素转变、产业梯度转移、高附加值产业产值比重增加等，绝对不是摒弃原有产业基础而盲目发展所谓的新行业。传统观念强调企业内部价值链升级，这与现在强调的全链条是部分和全部的区别。“全链条”是一个跨学科概念，与产业发展理论中的“产业链”概念相关，更强调全领域、全范围的发展理念。在产业转型的过程中，政府、社会和企业是一个有机整体，任何一个环节的漏洞都会产生负面的连锁影响，甚至影响转型最终的结果。
二、山西省资源型产业转型发展的现状
山西省工业发展受政策和历史进程影响巨大。地理位置和资源禀赋造就了山西省以煤炭为主体的工业结构。资源的不可持续性和产业升级换代的趋势成为制约煤炭等传统制造业发展的主要原因。山西省资源型产业
是时代发展的产物，也必然要跟随技术进步和产业改造的脚步进行升级。与其他中部省份相比，山西省的区域位置使得承接产业转移并不是山西省资源型产业转型的最优之选。依靠产业的内生性发展，从技术层面的产业改造才是必经之路。
“煤炭黄金十年”过去之后，经济增长方式有了全面转变。经济发展初期的粗放式开发带来了短暂的较大经济效益，这种效益的不可持续性使得企业、社会和政府都陷入了调整转型的瓶颈期。“十二五”建设以来，思路转变为先导，行为紧跟变得越来越急迫；“十三五”建设的开展将产业转型推向了全面实施阶段，并取得了一定的成绩。
图11山西省煤炭生产量和本省消费量 (单位：万吨)数据来源：山西省统计年鉴(2012-2018)
通过图1可以看出，“十二五”规划至“十三五”规划期间，在“去产能”和“供给侧改革”战略指导下，山西省煤炭生产量和本省消费量基本无大变动，趋势平稳。产能低，污染严重，设备落后的企业或停产关闭，或兼并重组，低效产能状况已经得到了较好地改善。从供给侧角度的改革初见成效，过剩产能退出，产能利用效率提升，收入利润增加，有效缓解了供求关系。具体数据见表1。山西省煤炭行业规划2020年退出过剩产能1亿万吨，截至目前，已经完成过半。
\[作者简介\]李慧(1985-)，女，山东肥城人，讲师，硕士，研究方向：产业创新。
\[基金项目\]：山西省软科学：科技引领资源型产业可持续发展对策研究——以山西省为例(2018041047-7)。
表1山西省煤炭钢铁行业化解过剩产能(2016-2018)
| | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 项劵目 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 |
| 关闭煤矿数量(年) | 25 | 27 | 36 |
| 退出煤炭过剩产能(万吨) | 2.325 | 22 65 | 2330 |
| 退出钢铁过剩产能(万吨) | 82 | 170 | 190 |
数据来源：山西省发改委官网，山西省政府工作报告
同时，我们也应该看到转型发展形势依然严峻。考虑到统计口径和可比性，我们选取了2011年、2015年的山西省工业细分行业增加值排名数值进行对比，工业增加值前六位所占比重均在八成以上。煤炭开采和洗选业增加值占比2010年为58%2016年为48%比重仍然较大。具体见表2。发生变化的是2011年前六位细分行业中有化学原料及化学制品制造业，2016年则是计算机、通信和其他电子设备制造业跃居第四位。产业转型发展需要高端装备的配套，如果本身装备制造业无法匹配，则需要花费大量资金购买，这又为产业转型加大了难度。
表2山西省工业细分行业增加值排名
| 排名 | 2011年 | 2016年 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 1 | 煤炭开采和洗选业 | 煤炭开采和洗选业 |
| 2 | 黑色金属冶炼和压延加工业 | 电力、热力、燃气生产和供应业 |
| 3 | 石油加工、炼焦及核燃料加工业 | 黑色金属冶炼和压延加工业 |
| 4 | 电力、热力、燃气生产和供应业 | 计算机、通信和其他电子设备制造业 |
| 5 | 化学原料及化学制品制造业 | 石油加工、炼焦和核燃料加工业 |
| 6 | 有色金属冶炼及压延加工业 | 有色金属冶炼和压延加工业 |
数据来源：山西省统计年鉴2012年和2017年
三、全链条理念在山西省资源型产业转型中的路径分析
图2全链条产业发展内涵
在产业全链条发展中，从定位出发，企业是核心，政府和社会的作用虽然重要却是辅助性质的；从要素出发，强调技术、人才，即使是初级生产要素，也要建立在可持续发展的前提下；从生产模式出发，精细加工是发展主导；从结构出发，创新是嵌入到整体产业链中的，嵌入式创新和学习型组织是最主要的结构形式；从激励机制考虑，以数量为主的激励模式转变为以效率为主的激励模式：从文化出发，以遵守制度转变为创新为主。主要层面包括以下几点。
(一)企业主导角度
主要着力于创新载体的建设，包括现代企业管理制度建设、质量保证体系建设、企业创新激励机制的建设、员工培训的强度和方向、企业信息化水平、企业创新文化的建设等。山西省国有企业数量多，资产比重大，又以煤炭产业为主，改制进程较慢。启用有魄力有行动力有创新力的领
导层，充分发扬企业家精神是国企改革的关键之举。
(二)政府引导角度
第一，产业转型理念引导。将现有的旧产品进行升级改造，生产出市场实际需要的新产品，这样才能达到有效需求，这样的有效供给循环才会使得市场推动产业改革。产业转型并不是放弃原有的传统型产业，而是将传统型产业通过技术的引进改造升级，延伸产业链。第二，技术研发环节，企业和主要投资者只能在看见经济效益的时候才会介入，当基础研发阶段没有办法让投资人看到经济效益的时候，只能靠政府的力量。目前，政府对研发有很多相关的优惠政策和支持，但是研发人员却因为资源不对称和并不熟悉政府工作相关流程无法获取，本质上是一个体制方面的问题，需要有一个信息资源整合的平台，通过这样的平台来整合数据和有效配置资源。
在政府和企业进行合作的方面的新模式，现在深圳等地区已经推行。由专业中介公司进行双向资源整合，
—
方面，将政府相关招标项目进行整合；另一方面，将企业资源进行整合，打造一个企业白名单。通过专业的团队对项目和企业状况进行评估，签订合同，收取佣金，明确责任，在这个过程当中权责明确，减少寻租空间。研发人员也可以将自己的技术和知识转换为股权，但是如果技术没有产生实际的经济效益，也会被淘汰，在这个过程当中建立起淘汰机制，来激发研发人员的积极性。
(三)社会支持角度
关键技术攻破和资金来源是产业转型中的两大难题。这两项都需要社会各界的支持。中科院山西煤化所作为太原理工大学位于山西省省会太原，服务于山西经济发展，在煤炭转化研究领域取得了一定成绩，继续泼挥高校研究团队的专业优势，结合企业生产实际，解决实际生产难题，以科研战略联盟的形式推进产学研一体化深度合作。传统融资方式是国有商业银行放贷，企业以资产抵押借贷，毫无新意和动力。全链条产业发展中的融资渠道从金融机构拓展到民间资本，而山西省的资本市场发展仍然停留在初级阶段。此外，山西省尚没有专业的煤炭相关产业尤其是煤转化产业的职业技术院校，技术工人需要从省外招聘，这都是急需改变的局面。
四、结论
基于现状分析和全链条产业发展内涵的解释，山西省资源型产业转型可以从以下几点着手。
(一)创新驱动战略
科技力量是全要素生产力提高的根本源泉。以技术为核心构建产业链，建设创新基地，培育创新型企业。既要鼓励引导当地企业，又要引进外来优秀企业：既主张自主创新，也认可协同创新。探索适合本土特色的创新道路。
(二)人才体制改革
依托本土科研机构中科院山西煤化所和太原理工大学先进的研发人才团队，打造本土研发团队。除此，急需
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测范围，并建立贸易摩擦信息共享平台，及时追踪保加利亚、欧盟的市场状况，帮助企业把握市场动态灵活应对贸易摩擦。其次，行业协会应充分发挥自身优势，及时搜集本行业贸易摩擦信息，并通过杂志、网站、官微等多媒体渠道推送给企业；还可以组织行业研讨会、专家座谈会，为企业应对贸易摩擦提供专业指导。
(二)加强政策沟通与协调
首先，中国应加强与欧盟的政策沟通与协调，为中保合作营造良好的外部环境。当前欧盟对华敌对性强，我国政府应主动推进与欧盟的高层互访、对话协商、人文交流与经贸合作，积极进行政策沟通和解释，寻求双方共同利益，以缓和欧盟对华政策的攻击性。同时中保经贸合作应坚持去政治化，打消欧盟的疑虑，减少合作的外部阻力。其次，中保双方应加强政策沟通和协调，为中保经贸合作提供强大的内生动力。一一方面，中方应积极敦促现有双边贸易、投资等合作协议的落实，加快相关项目的推进速度，以减少未来政策变动所带来的损失。另一方面，中国政府应争取签署更多经贸领域的双边协议，为中保经贸合作增添新动力。中国和保加利亚在2019年7月3日发表的关于建立战略伙伴关系的联合声明，将中保双边关系提升到了一个新高度。我国应利用当前良好态势，挖掘双边经贸合作潜力，建立更深层次的经贸联系。
(三)拓宽双边合作领域
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建立山西省自己的煤化工专业技术院校。培养高端研发人才的同时还要培育有真正技术含量的、可以留在本地的技术工人。
(三)产业共融战略
依托智慧城市建设的大力开展，优化营商环境，城乡共赢，“一、三”产业，“一、二”产业和“二、三”产业都可以寻求新的共融发展模式。产业共融主要是从“供应链”角度出发，借助现代信息技术，客户需求渗透到全产业链条中，最终可以快速适应市场，实现销售增长，多方共赢。
(四)生态文明建设促转型
生态文明理念已经深入人心，社会各界已经达成共识，坚决按弃高消耗、重污染、低效益的传统发展模式，坚持走科技含量高、经济效益好、资源消耗低、环境污染少、
保加利亚国内资金缺口巨大，政府欢迎外国资金流入。因此金融合作可以作为深化中保经贸合作的重要突破口。在现有金融合作基础上，政府应积极推进涵盖短中长期的金融合作机制建设。短期内搭建相关负责人沟通协商平台：中期侧重于形成金融监管体系；长期则应促成信息共享和金融网络安全机制。
(四)加大对保基础设施投资
保加利亚落后的基础设施严重阻碍了中保经贸合作的开展。而我国在公路、铁路、港口、机场建设等方面具有竞争优势。因此，我国政府应引导企业投资于保加利亚的公共交通和其他设施建设，构建科学、合理、高效的城市交通体系，形成铁路、公路、航空、港口“多位一体”型联通渠道。政府可以与私有企业、民营企业合作，以扩大资金来源。在投资方式的选择上，中国企业既可以借鉴海航司的经验，采用品牌或者管理模式输出的方式，也可以采用交钥匙合同、许可协议、技术标准输出等方式，降低投资风险。通过这些方式改善保加利亚的基础设施水平，降低双边经贸合作的成本。
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\[1\]崔卫杰，李泽昆.中国与中东欧贸易合作：现状、问题
与建议\[J\].国际经济合作，2018(11)：43-46.
\[2\]刘夏，武靖凯.“一带一路”框架下中国与中东欧国家实现经贸“精准合作”探讨\[J\].对外经贸实务，2018(9)：85-88
在现有的合作成果基础上，中保双方应进一步扩大市场准入，拓宽双边合作领域。中保双方农业资源优势互补，具有共同利益。以农业为抓手进一步深化经贸合作有助于减少政策阻力。我国应加大力度推进中保农业合作示范园区的建设，加快中保农业对接和技术交流。在此基础上，我国应充分发挥电商优势，利用跨境电商平台输出中国产品、引入保加利亚特色产品，提高双边贸易的速度和规模。同时中保双方应继续加强海关监管、质量标准、检验检疫等方面的合作，提升双边贸易便利化程度。当前
\[3\]叶夫根尼·坎迪拉罗夫，王永香.中国-中东欧国家外
交关系40年回顾：成就、挑战与展望——基于保加利亚
的视角\[J\].西安交通大学学报(社会科学版)，2018，38(6)：76-82.
\[4\]高歌.入盟十年：保加利亚和罗马尼亚的政治不稳定\[J\].俄罗斯东欧中亚研究，2017(5)：126-138+158.
\[5\]张滢.中国与中东欧国家经贸金融合作中的障碍及完善策略\[J\].对外经贸实务，2017(2)：57-60.
\[责任编辑：史朴\]
人力资源优势得到充分发挥的新型工业化道路。但是从理念到行动落实仍然是一个艰巨的任务，政府主要是引导、鼓励和支持作用，必要时可以果断采用法律法规手段。
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\[1\]刘福海，张伟，刘惠军.兰州中小企业创新发展现状及
对策研究\[J\].科技进步与对策，2002(4)：35-38.
\[2\]刘志迎，赵倩.产业链概念、分类及形成机理研究述评
\[J\].工业技术经济，2009(10)：51-55.
\[3\]王海兵.产业转型升级的过程、特征与驱动要素
美国经验与启示\[J\].河北科技大学学报(社会科学版)，2018，18(1)：9-16.
\[4\]魏勇强，乔彦芸.资源型地区主导产业选择研究-
—以山西省为例\[J\].改革与战略，2018(5)：80-86.
\[责任编辑：史朴\] | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 严格执法对于法治现代化的意义与路径
**刘永红，王蔚苒**
(西华师范大学法学院，四川南充637009)
**摘 要：全面推进依法治国，实现法治现代化，关键在于保障法律的严格执行，做到严格执法。严格执法是构建现代法治政府的题中之意，是法治现代化的基本要求。新时代，严格执法在保障公民权利，规范公共权力，确保行政权力的合法行使等方面都对实现法治现代化具有十分重要的意义。当前，行政执法领域还存在严格执法、依法行政观念不够，有法不依、执法不严、执法不公以及执法过程缺乏有效的监督等问题，严重影响政府严格执法的成效。为此，必须强化执法人员严格执法的观念，推进执法改革和创新，强化对行政执法的监督和制约，完善行政程序法律制度，健全执法责任追究制度等，推进严格规范公正文明执法，实现法治现代化。**
**关键词：严格执法；依法行政；法治现代化**
**明代著名改革家张居正曾说：“天下之事，不难于立法，而难于法之必行。”这说明一个基本的道理，如果光有法律的制定，而没有法律的有效实施，再多的立法也是一纸空文，法治国家建设就会成为一句空话。党的十八届四中全会《关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定》指出：“法律的生命力在于实施，法律的权威也在于实施。各级政府必须坚持在党的领导下、在法治轨道上开展工作，创新执法体制，完善执法程序，推进综合执法，严格执法责任，建立权责统一、权威高效的依法行政体制，加快建设职能科学、权责法定、执法严明、公开公正、廉洁高效、守法诚信的法治政府。”2J在党的十九大报告中，习近平总书记将建设中国特色社会主义法治体系、建设社会主义法治国家确定为新时代全面推进依法治国总目标。并特别强调要“建设法治政府，推进依法行政，严格规范公正文明执法”\[3党的十九届四中全会《关于坚持和完善中国特色社会主义制度推**
**进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化若干重大问题的决定》也进一步强调要“严格规范公正文明执法，规范执法自由裁量权，加大关系群众切身利益的重点领域执法力度”这说明，党和国家已经把严格执法作为了全面依法治国，推进国家治理体系与治理能力现代化的重要内容。可以说，新时代政府严格执法对于依法行政，建设法治政府具有重要意义。全面推进依法治国，推进国家治理现代化最终目的就是要实现国家的法治现代化，没有国家治理的法治现代化，国家治理现代化就没有应有的基础。而要实现国家的法治现代化，建设社会主义法治体系与社会主义法治国家，关键就在于保障法律严格执行，做到严格执法。**
**一、严格执法对于法治现代化的意义**
**法治现代化以良法为存在的前提，以良法获得普遍的遵守为保障。法治现代化前提下的普遍**
**收稿日期：2020-12一17**
**基金项目：四川省教育厅重点课题项目(17SA0187)**
**作者简介：刘永红(1962一)，男，四川苍溪人。教授，硕士生导师，主要从事法理学研究。**
**守法不仅要求公民普遍守法，更要求政府自觉守法，严格执法。政府享有人民赋予的权力，同时也必须承担相应的责任，履行相应的义务。严格执法是政府及其工作人员普遍守法的重要体现。因此，政府严格执法是法治现代化的应有之义，成为法治现代化的关键。如果说有法可依属于治理体系的范畴，那么，有法必依则属于治理能力的范畴。严格执法体现国家制度的执行能力，它不仅是法治发展以及法治现代化的必然要求，也是国家治理能力现代化建设的必然要求。“政府是最主要的执法主体。从‘执法必严、违法必究'到“建设法治政府’，体现了对执法标准的升级和对执法内涵的深化。”\[5\]只有推动严格执法，强化国家制度的执行能力，才能不断推进法治现代化的进程。**
**(一)严格执法是构建现代法治政府的题中之意，是法治现代化的基本要求**
**法治现代化必然要求建设现代法治政府。现代法治政府就是强调把政府工作全面纳入法治轨道，所有政府行为都要于法有据，严格执法，不允许政府及其公务人员法外施权，滥用政府权力。法律的生命力在于实施，法律的权威也在于实施。“坚持严格执法就是坚持严格规范文明执法，严格规范公正文明是一个有机统一的整体，其中严格是执法基本要求，规范是执法行为准则，公正是执法价值取向，文明是执法职业素养。”6\]“为了推进行政执法的规范化，就要严格公正执法，建立一套比较完备的执法程序，约束和规范各类执法行为，确保法律得以严格实施；减少行政执法层级，加强基层执法力量，整合执法主体，推进综合执法，理顺城市管理执法体制，提高执法和服务水平，加强对行政执法的监督，明确执法责任，杜绝利益性执法。”执法是国家权力中与人民群众联系最直接、最广泛的领域，执法的法治化程度是法治国家的重要衡量标准，是法治现代化的题中之意。只有严格执法才能确保法律的落实，也才能确保现代法治政府的建成。**
**在我国，是否坚持依法行政、严格行政执法，是直接关系到人民当家作主、管理国家事务的意志能不能实现的重大原则问题，直接关系到宪法所规定的“中华人民共和国的一切权力属于人民”的宪法原则能否落到实处的具体体现。党的十九大报告指出，要推进依法行政，切实做到严格规范**
**公正文明执法，到2020年实现法治政府基本建成的目标。党的十八届四中全会《决定》也指出，要创新执法体制，完善执法程序，推进综合执法，严格执法责任。这充分说明依法行政、严格执法对于法治政府建设的极端重要性。为此，我们必须深刻领会严格执法的基本内涵，把握严格执法的基本要求，在实践中真正做到严格执法，建设规范高效透明公正诚信的现代法治政府。**
**(二)严格执法对于保障公民权利，规范公共权力，激发公民的积极性和创造力具有重要的保障意义**
**保障公民权利，规范公共权力是现代法治的核心价值，是法治现代化的本质内涵。“以人民为中心”，一切为了人民是政府工作的根本出发点和归宿，推进依法行政，建设法治政府，有利于摆正政府自身的位置，处理好政府工作人员摆正与人民群众的关系，进一步落实全心全意履行为人民服务的宗旨；有利于促进各级政府依法履行职责，规范和约束行政权力，保障人民群众依法享有各项权利和自由；有利于政府及其公职人员自觉接受人民群众的监督，克服官僚主义和杜绝腐败现象，真正做到执政为民。**
**严格执法，依法行政，建设现代法治政府可以充分调动公民的积极性，激发他们的创造活力。“实施创新驱动发展战略”是党的十九大报告的重要内容。民主在于使每个人的权益得到充分的实现，法治在于使每个人应有的权益获得切实保障。由于严格执法，依法行政，建设现代法治政府能够创造民主法治的社会环境，这样就可以使各方面的积极因素得到广泛调动，人的权益得到充分实现和切实保障，人的积极性就会得到最大程度激发，从而积极参与到物质文明、精神文明、政治文明、社会文明、生态文明的建设中去，整个社会自然就会充满活力。**
**(三)严格执法对于政府遵循法定规则、法定原则、法定程序，确保行政权力的合法行使，实现社会的公平正义具有重要的规范意义**
**法律赋予给公民、法人的权利能否得到实现，维护社会公共利益和国家利益的规定能否得到遵守，社会公平机制能否建立和维系，在很大程度上取决于行政机关的依法行政、严格执法的效果。如果政府能够依法行政、严格执法，就能通过政府**
**引导和规制形成稳定有序的社会局面。在这种局面下，国家的经济发展就比较稳定，人民生活就能够安居乐业，社会进步就比较平稳，就会形成社会稳定和谐的良性运行状态，并促进各项事业的蓬勃发展。**
**严格执法、依法行政、建设法治政府可以推动社会公平正义的实现。公平正义是法的核心价值，是社会文明进步的重要标志，是法治现代化的基本要求。政府的权力来源于人民，因此其本质是公共权力，理应成为主持公平正义的坚强力量。然而实践中，一些政府及其公务人员滥用行政权力、违法行政反过来却损害了社会的公平正义，激化社会矛盾，破坏安定团结，影响社会稳定与和谐。因此严格执法、依法行政、建设法治政府可以使政府树立公正良好的形象，正确、合理、有效配置社会资源，正确处理社会矛盾和纠纷，从而推动社会公平正义的实现。**
**(四)严格执法对于处理政府与社会公众的矛盾和冲突，建立政府与公众之间良好的互信关系，保持社会的安定有序具有重要的促进意义**
**政府是国家机关中对经济和社会发展影响最大，与公民关系最密切，权力也是相对较大的一个部门。政府和公民、法人以及其他社会组织之间在行政法律关系上是管理与被管理的不平等关系，再加上政府倾向于追逐行政效率，使得政府往往疏于法律和法定程序去执法，这种行政权力运行的结果，常常会使政府与公民、法人及其他社会组织之间出现矛盾和冲突，政府往往成为社会公众的对立面。如果政府带头守法、严格执法，使行政权力授予有据、行使有规、监督有效，就能使广大社会公众心悦诚服地接受政府的管理，并在较大程度上理解政府的工作，支持政府的工作，形成政府与公众之间良性的互动效果，这对于营造政府与公众之间良好的互信关系意义重大。**
**安定有序是法治国家的基本元素。秩序是法的基本价值之一，法治是法律所追求的法律秩序的体现，而严格执法、依法行政、建设法治政府又是法治的基本要求，因此严格执法、依法行政、建设法治政府对于法律秩序的建构和整个社会的安定有序具有关键的作用。与法治政府相对的则是人治政府，人治政府由于缺乏对行政权的有效制约，必然导致违法行政、以权谋私、滥用行政权等**
**腐败现象，从而威胁到社会的安定有序，政权的合法性就面临危机，进而严重威胁到政局的稳定。因此建设严格执法不仅是社会安定有序的保证，而且也是建设法治国家，实现法治现代化的必然要求。**
**(五)严格执法对于加强政府自身建设，提高行政管理水平，建构诚信政府具有重要现实意义**
**严格执法、依法行政、建设法治政府，可以促进各级政府树立正确的政绩观，全面履行经济调节、市场监管、社会管理和公共服务的职能，提高行政管理效能，增强政府工作人员依法行政的能力，妥善处理人民内部矛盾和其他社会矛盾，维护国家利益和公共利益。政府的自身建设搞好了，就可以通过政府自身的示范作用带领全社会成员遵守法律，形成良好的社会秩序。**
**法治政府必然要求建构诚信政府，严格执法有助于推动政府诚信建设。社会信用体系由公民个人信用、企业信用、政府信用构成，而政府信用是整个社会信用体系的核心，政府诚信的缺失必然引导公民法律和道德意识的恶性发展，最终使整个社会风气败坏。诚实守信是法治政府的基本要求，法治政府要求政府提供的信息全面、准确、真实，并坚持信赖保护原则，这样就有利于树立政府诚实守信的良好形象，树立政府的影响力和公信力，引导整体社会诚信水平的提高，建构良好的社会信用体系。因此严格执法、依法行政、建设法治政府必将大大推进社会诚信建设向前发展。**
**二、当前政府严格执法存在的问题**
**在规范国家行政机关严格执法，建设法治政府方面，我国已先后制定了《行政诉讼法》《行政复议条例》、《国家公务员暂行条例》、《国家赔偿法》等法律法规。这些法律、法规都为政府及其公务人员正确运用手中的权力，严格执法、依法行政、建设法治政府提供了基本的行为规范和活动准则，发挥了重要的作用。但是，在实践中，仍然出现一些问题，有些政府机关的所作所为离依法行政、严格执法的要求还有很大的差距，行政执法活动中执法违法的现象仍然比较严重，有些现象表现得还相当突出，一定程度上激化了矛盾，损害了党和政府的形象。**
**(一)有法不依、执法不严、执法不公现象还在一定范围一定程度存在**
**一些政府机关及其执法人员有法不依，不按国家法律法规执法，有的政府的内设机构以自己的名义行使政府执法权；有的对法律规定视而不见或一知半解；有的执法人员没有受过专业培训，既没有专业知识，也不懂法律，有的甚至就是法盲；有的政府人员滥用职权，枸私枉法，导致行政执法难，直接影响行政执法效果；有的执法人员收受贿赂、枸私舞弊，搞权钱交易。有的领导干部唯上、畏上、唯权、畏权，以言代法，把自己的话变成法上之法；有的以权代法，超越规定的职权范围行使权力；有的只重视上级领导的讲话、批示，忽视法律的规范、引导功能，讲话没有准则，办事随心所欲，导致行政执法水平不高；有的任意干预行政执法，严重影响行政执法活动的正常进行。**
**执法行为不公则表现为少数执法人员工作原则性不强，随意性较大，在执法问题上，对人不对事，对事不依法，对同样的事取双重标准，滥用自由裁量权，降低了执法部门在人民群众中的威信。**
**{二)执法过程中的违法现象较为突出**
**行政执法权是国家赋予国家行政机关的一项特殊权力，任何单位和个人都无权享有。实际工作中，有的政府机关擅自将政府执法权交由其所属事业单位行使，有的随意委托聘用不合格的组织和人员行使政府执法权。更有甚者，有的还把政府执法权力“出租”给某些单位和个人，谋取单位或个人好处，致使国家利益受到严重的损害，使政府的公信力严重降低，造成很坏的社会影响。还有的政府机关及其公务人员执法简单粗暴，不注意执法的技巧，不讲究执法的程序，不严格按照法律的规定严格执法，有的暴力执法严重，损害行政相对人的人身和财产权利，严重影响政府的形象。**
**当前的政府执法中，个别政府机关及其公务人员受利益驱动，无视国家法律法规，以权谋私，逐利执法，向行政行为相对人“吃、拿、卡、要”，甚至索贿受贿，有的还走上违法犯罪的道路，给国家和人民造成损害，影响政府应有的良好形象。**
**(三)严格执法、依法行政观念不够**
**严格执法、依法行政首先需要具备严格执法、依法行政的现代法治理念。“法治观念不仅是人**
**们对法治的一般性认知，还表现为对法治的态度、喜好，是法治情感认同与法治思维习惯的融合，是法治规则意识与价值理念、实体观念与程序意识、思想认同与行为服从相统一的结果。”8\]现代法治理念将行政机关作为被法律规制的主体，要求其在法律所赋予的框架内谨慎地实施权力。在法律规定存在欠缺之时，遵循行政执法原则来解决具体问题。根据2020年6月30日，北京市第四人民中级法院公布的2019年度行政案件司法审查报告显示，行政机关执法规范化有待加强，对合理行政的认识不够充分。判决行政机关败诉的一审案件中，被诉行政行为存在违反法定情形的案件占23%。该报告说明部分行政机关对于正当程序原则及合理行政原则的理解仍停留在形式阶段，对于执法过程需遵循的法律规则仍属于消极的态度。其实质是行政机关对依法行政的认识同社会主义现代化法治的要求相比，存在不匹配、不相符的现状。**
**另外，长期以来形成的“管制行政”观念与严格执法、依法行政的本质和要求背离。传统的“管制行政”体现在以政府为主体，通过指令、命令、指示作为管制手段来进行社会治理。而严格执法和依法行政的要义之一在于法律是行政行为和执法行为所依据的唯一准则。部分行政机关仍存在“官尊民卑”的官僚主义心态，习惯于用国家公权力来进行社会控制，认为公权力不可侵犯，漠视公民的权利，忽视公民的主体地位。“管制行政”中行政权力被放大，成为社会生活治理各方面的管控手段，行政行为难以进行规制和约束。长此以往，这种“管制行政”观念就会违背严格执法是为人民服务的理念与初衷，在实践中导致政府与人民群众的距离与隔膜，影响政府与广大人民应有的良好和谐的关系，增加政府工作的难度。**
**(四)执法过程缺乏有效的监督与制约**
**党的十九大报告强调，必须构建决策科学、执行坚决、监督有力的政府权力运行体系，形成科学有效的权力制约和监督机制。现实中，由于长期以来形成的“管制行政”，政府总是会以对公民的管理者甚至统治者的身份出现，公民处在政府权力的管制之下，导致监督与制约观念以及监督与制约实效无法取得理想的效果。一些行政执法监督缺位，未形成系统化、制度化、经常化和全面化**
**的执法监督与制约格局，造成依法行政、严格执法发展水平的不平衡。一些行政执法监督滞后，注重执法的事后监督，而忽视执法的事前监督和事中监督，导致违法行为得不到有效预防和控制，造成政府权力与责任脱节，责任追究制度不健全，致使大部分监督都成了“软监督”造成一些违法不究的现象。这种流于形式的监督与制约不仅使公民无法参与和监督制约行政管理，助长了政府滥用权力、违法行政，同时侵害了人民群众合法权益和公共利益，破坏了法律的权威，损害了政府执法人员的形象，也使得政府行为的合法性、合理性与科学性因此大打折扣。**
**三、严格执法推进法治现代化的路径**
**法律的生命力在于实施，法律的权威也在于实施。严格执法就是要求在执行法规或掌握标准时，不放松、不走样，做到严厉、公平、公正，不搞“态度执法”关系执法”人情执法”，不搞下不为例、情有可原。i习近平总书记曾在多个领域明确提出严格执法要求，要对所有对象一视同仁。比如，在互联网领域，习近平总书记强调：“无论什么形式的媒体，无论网上还是网下，无论大屏还是小屏，都没有法外之地、舆论飞地。”1\]严格执法就是要保证法律法规的最终落实，保证政府权力的合法行使，保障公民权利的有效维护，达到国家权力与公民权利的平衡，维护社会的稳定和谐有序，促进经济社会的向前发展。坚持严格执法，保证法律的有效实施，是社会主义法治原则的基本要求，是检验和衡量执法成效的基本标准，更是国家治理现代化以及法治现代化重要体现，具有十分重要的现实意义。为此，必须多措并举，推进严格执法，建设法治政府，努力实现法治现代化。**
**(一)强化执法人员的严格执法观念**
**严格执法首先要强化政府公务人员的法治观念，提高法律素质，树立法律意识。法治观念作为中国特色社会主义法治的思想基础，能够正确地指导和规范行政机关的执法行为。因此增强行政机关的法治观念，培养领导干部的法律意识是严格执法的基本理念要素。为此，必须着力提高执法人员的执法观念，树立法律信仰和法律权威，建立规则意识，使其从内心深处尊重法律。要将法**
**治精神融入到执法活动中，向社会传递正确的价值取向，并起到积极的示范作用。要加强对广大执法人员的职业伦理教育，使他们树立正确的权力观和责任意识。进一步加强行政执法队伍建设，高度重视行政机关工作人员依法行政意识与能力的培养。行政机关工作人员特别是领导干部要带头学法、尊法、守法、用法，牢固树立以依法治国、执法为民、公平正义、服务大局、党的领导为基本内容的社会主义法治理念，自觉养成依法办事的习惯，切实提高运用法治思维和法律手段解决经济社会发展中突出矛盾和问题的能力。**
**与此同时，行政机关还应当转变“官本位”唯权力论”的思想，向“民本位”权利本位”的方向迈进。抽离其自我意志在执法过程中所起的主导作用，代之以法律。即，由人治变为法治，由管制意识转变为服务意识，确立和保障公民的基本权利，满足现代法治对于行政执法的要求。**
**(二)以建立政府合理治理结构为目标推进执法改革和创新**
**政府部门及其公务人员要严格执行行政许可法，积极推进行政执法改革和创新，提高依法行政水平。**
**一方面，加快转变政府职能和管理方式。这是完善社会主义市场经济体制的关键环节，也是建设法治政府的重要内容。现在，政府职能转变滞后于经济社会发展的要求，要通过实施行政许可法，促进政府职能加快转变。在市场经济条件下，政府管理总的方向是减少行政许可，把政府不该管的事交给企业、社会和中介组织，更大程度上发挥市场在资源配置中的基础性作用。各级政府必须切实转变管理理念和管理方式，不能一讲管理就是搞审批、就是发许可证。当然，政府该管的事一定要管好，实施行政许可法不是放松管理。今后，对需要实施行政许可管理的事项，要严格依法进行，加强制约和监督，确保有关行政许可真正发挥作用；对不需要行政许可但需要政府管理的事项，要强化间接管理和事后监督，充分发挥行政规划、行政指导、行政合同的作用。**
**另一方面，继续深化行政审批制度改革，严格依法设定和实施行政许可。这是行政管理体制改革的重要内容，也是政府职能转变、严格执法的具体表现。要改变那种以批代管、只批不管、重审批**
**轻服务的做法，要推进投资体制改革，减少政府对资源的直接配置，增强企业和整个社会的活力和效率。严格按照行政许可法对行政许可的设定范围、设定权限、实施程序、经费保障等方面所做的规定，做到严格公正规范执法，符合实体法律与程序法律的要求。**
**(三)强化对行政执法的监督和制约**
**应进一步强化对行政执法的有效监督和制约。孟德斯鸠指出：“一切有权力的人都容易滥用权力，这是一条万古不易的经验。有权力的人们使用权力一直到遇到有界限的地方才休止，从事物的性质来说，要防止滥用权力，就必须以权力约束权力。”12\]因此严格执法、依法行政、建设法治政府的核心是制约行政权尤其是行政执法权。“据人民网北京2020年9月30日电，司法部‘行政执法监督批评建议'平台在中国法律服务网上线运行。行政执法监督批评建议平台的上线运行，对于贯彻落实党中央关于全面推进依法治国、加快法治政府建设的重大决策部署，及时了解广大人民群众反映强烈的执法领域突出问题，切实加强行政执法监督工作，推进严格规范文明执法，完善行政执法监督机制具有重要意义。”13\]加强对执法权力的监督和制约，实质是确保人民赋予的权力真正用来为人民谋利益，建设为民、廉洁、务实的政府。各级政府执法人员特别是领导干部要进一步规范行政执法行为，自觉地为人民掌好权、用好权，自觉地接受人民监督，始终坚持执政为民、廉洁从政，坚决反对以权谋私、权钱交易等腐败现象，努力做人民满意的公仆。**
**(四)完善行政程序法律制度，健全执法责任追究制度**
**没有程序就没有依法行政，就没有严格执法，就不可能建成法治政府，实现法治现代化 _J_ 。 _o_ “行政程序发达与否经常成为衡量一国行政法治程度的重要标志。”\[14\]自1989年《行政诉讼法》颁布实施以来，中国加快了行政程序方面的立法，然而就总体情况来看，行政程序的现状离程序法治的要求还相距甚远。为适应严格执法、法治政府建设的**
**紧迫要求，我们必须进一步完善行政程序法律制度，进一步建立健全信息公开制度、回避制度、听证制度、权力监督制度和权利救济制度，争取尽快实现行政执法程序法治化。**
**权力和责任是一对相伴而生的概念。“责任一方面有对权力的明示作用，即责任包含对权力的性状、行使范围的明确规定，成为对政府权力的确认和保护；另一方面责任对政府具有制约作用，即一旦政府的权力超越了责任边界，责任就会构成对政府权力越界的一种惩罚，体现为对政府行为的矫正和心理的惩戒。责任是政府运行的动力，也是政府运行的压力。”\[15\]“严格执法要求依法惩处各类违法行为，完善执法程序，建立健全行政裁量权基准制度、加强行政执法信息化建设和信息共享，全面落实行政执法责任制。”16J近几年国家在健全政府执法渍任追究制度方面有了很大进步。《国家赔偿法》行政处罚法》《行政许可法》等对政府工作人员的行政执法责任追究作出了相应规定，行政执法责任追究已基本上能够做到有法可依。重大责任事故的“高管问责制”已经取得明显的成效。但行政执法责任追究制度距离依法行政、严格执法的要求还相距甚远。为建设法治政府，强化严格执法，必须进一步健全行政执法责任追究制度，明确行政执法渍任范围和责任对象、责任追究主体和责任追究程序等，使政府执法行为做到有法必依，违法必究，真正落实政府行政执法法律责任制。**
**严格行政执法问责就是要严格执行国家监察法、公务员法、公职人员政务处分法、行政机关公务员处分条例和关于实行党政领导干部问责的暂行规定，坚持有错必纠、有责必问。对因有令不行、有禁不止、行政不作为、失职渎职、违法行政等行为，导致一个地区、一个部门发生重大行政执法责任事故、事件或者严重违法执法行政案件的，要依法依纪严肃追究有关部门直至行政首长的责任，督促和约束政府机关及其工作人员严格执法，依法依规行使执法权力、严格履行执法职责。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]张居正，潘** **林.张居正奏疏集：请稽查章奏随事考成以修实政疏\[M\].上海：华东师范大学出版社，2014：422.**
**\[2\]中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定\[EB/OL\].\[2014-10-29\].https：//baike. baidu. com/i**
**tem/中共中央关于全面推进依法治国若干重大问题的决定/15855555?fr=aladdin.**
**\[3\]习近平.决胜全面建成小康社会，夺取新时代中国特色社会主义伟大胜利——在中国共产党第十九次全国代表大会上的报告\[M\].北京：人民出版社，2017：19.**
**\[4\]中共中央关于坚持和完善中国特色社会主义制度推进国家治理体系和治理能力现代化若干重大问题的决定** \[N\].人民日报，2019-11-06(01).
**\[5\]江必新.习近平全面依法治国新理念新思想新战略对法治理论的发展\[J\].法学杂志，2020(05)：1一16.**
\[6\]郭声琨.坚持严格规范公正文明执法\[N\].人民日报，2014-11-13(06).
**\[7\]马怀德.新时代法治政府建设的意义与要求\[J\].中国高校社会科学，2018(05)：4-18+157.**
**\[8\]汪习根.人民要论：让法治观念深入人心\[N\].人民日报，2018-11-23(07).**
\[9\]北京第四中级人民法院2019年度行政案件司法审查报告\[EB/OL\].\[2020-6-29\]. https：//www. sohu. com/a/413445150 120051578.
**\[10\]“四个全面”党员干部读物\[M\].北京：北京联合出版，2015：222.**
\[11\]习近平主持中共中央政治局第十二次集体学习并发表重要讲话\[EB/OL\].\[2019-01-25\]. http：//www. gov. **cn/xinwen/2019-01/25/content 5361197. htm**
**\[12\]孟德斯鸠.论法的精神：上册\[M\].张雁深，译.上海：商务印书馆，1961：154.**
**\[13\]申亚欣.司法部“行政执法监督批评建议平台”上线运行\[EB/OL\].\[2020-9-30\]. http：//www. gov. cn/xin门-一** wen/2020-09/30/content 5548734.htm.
**\[14\]姜明安.行政法与行政诉讼法\[M\].北京：高等教育出版社，1999：260.**
**\[15\]沈荣华.现代法治政府论\[M\].北京：华夏出版社，2000：209一210.**
\[16\]洪向华.着力提高四种治理能力\[EB/OL\].\[2020-8-18\].http：//theory. people. com. cn/n1/2020/0818/c40531 **\-31826116.html.**
**\[责任编辑** **加晓昕**
**The Significance and Path of Strict Law Enforcement for the Modernization of the Rule of Law**
LIU Yonghong，WANG Weiran
(Law School of China West Normal University，Nanchong Sichuan 637009，China)
Abstract： To comprehensively promote the rule of law and realize the modernization of the rule of law， the key is to en-sure the strict implementation of the law and to strictly enforce the law. Strict law enforcement is the meaning of the con struction of a modern government ruled by law and the basic requirement of the modernization of the rule of law. In the new era， strict law enforcement is of great significance to the modernization of the rule of law in the protection of civil rights， the regulation of public power， and the legitimate exercise of administrative power. At present， there are still some prob-lems in the lield of administrative law enforcement， such as the lack of strict law enforcement and administrative concept ac-cording to law， non-compliance with laws， lax law enforcement， unlair law enforcement and lack of ellective supervisior in the process of law enforcement， which seriously alfect the effectiveness of the government's strict law enforcement. Therefore， it is necessary to strengthen the concept of strict law enforcement of law enforcement personnel， promote law enforcement relorm and innovation， strengthen the supervision and restriction of administrative law enforcement， improve the legal system of administrative procedures， and improve the accountability system of law enforcement， so as to promote the strict， lair and civilized law enforcement and realize the modernization of the rule of law.
Key words： strict law enforcement；administration according to law； modernization of the rule of law | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 浅析动词作宾语的谓宾动词
张学会
(安徽大学中文系，安徽合肥230039)
摘要：对动词带动词作宾语情况的研究，吕叔湘先生在《汉语语法分析问题》中从两个角度进行了分类。我们从动词的种类、动词的价、动词的含义指向及适应的句式等新的角度加以考察，以便深刻了解动词带动词作宾语这种语言现象。
关键词：动词的价；语义指向；句式转换
作者简介：张学会(1981-)，女，安徽合肥人，安徽大学中文系硕士研究生，从事现代汉语研究。
中图分类号：H042文献标识码：A文章编号：1006-2165(2008)01-0099-03收稿日期：2007-11-06
吕叔湘先生在《汉语语法分析问题》里第75个问题中先列举了动词带动词作宾语的三种情况。“(1)两个动词表示的是一个人的动作，如·他喜欢唱歌!我想回家’；(2)两个动作表示的不是一个人的动作，如'他命令撤退1我们欢迎批评’；(3)两个动词表示的可以是一个人的动作也可以是两个人的动作，如·他要求参加!他要求放他走'(参加是他自己参加；放他走是别人放)。”
1.对以上动词类别进行分析
情况(1)中的“喜欢、想”是心理动词。心理动词可以分为两大类，表示状态类心理动词和表示活动类的心理动词。范晓认为，心理动词表示情感、意向、认知、感觉、思维方面的心理活动或心理状态。
“喜欢”是心理动词中的情感动词。情感是一种对外界的刺激作肯定或否定的心理反应。情感动词是状态心理动词中重要的部分，数量多，所带宾语的情况也较复杂。表示“爱慕、尊敬、满意、思念、同情”类心理动词后常带名词性客事宾语；“留意、害怕、发愁、相信、怀疑、担心”类心理动词可带名词、动词和小句充当的客事宾语或原因宾语；“爱、喜、羡慕、欣赏、感激、恨、嫌、厌恶、嫉妒、在意、鄙视”类后同样可带名词、动词小句充当客事宾语或原因宾语，有的也可带形容词充当客事宾语；“后悔、遗憾、奇怪、得意、庆幸”类后一般只带由动词或小句充当宾语，表示已然的事实。
以上种类的心理动词都是表示人们对外界的刺激所持的一种态度，当它们带动词作宾语的时候，表示的是一个人对这个动词带来的刺激所作的心理反应，如“他喜欢唱歌”表示他对“唱歌”给自已带来的刺激是“喜欢”，自然这两个动词表示的是一个人的动作。
“想”是心理动词中的意愿动词。意愿动词表示人从事某种活动的主观愿望和心愿，意愿动词有：希望、想(希望)、高兴(带着愉快的心情去做某事)、愿意、乐意等。意愿动词表示的不是说话人的看法，而是体验者本身的愿望和心愿，意愿动词前可加“很”类副词修饰，属状态心理动词，可带代词、动词和小句宾语。当佗带动词作宾语时前后两个动词表示的都是体验者一个人的动作。“我想回家”意思是我的愿望或心愿是“想”“回家”这两个动作都是“我”发出的。
情况(2)中的“命令”是使令动词。表示使令意义的动词称为使令动词。
三价使令动词的主体是动作行为的发出者或当事者，客体是使令动词直接涉及的对象情节，是事件所要达到的目的，所以三价使令动词选择施事、受事和意图三种语义角色。“主体”是一切运动的主体，是作为静态和动态的各种运动的主体之事物。“客体”是事件主体所涉改变的客观事物。“情节”是引起事件的缘故、事件发展的结局以及事件的意图、范围或数量。12“他命令撤退”是“他”(主体)改变"客体”原状态为“撤退”，主体和客体
指代不同的事物，自然不会表现一个人的动作。
情况(3)中的“要求”等动词多半是表示请求、允许，请求允许做的事的主语可以和前面的动词的主语可以一致也可以不一致。“他要求參加”是他要求自己参加(军队、合唱团等)；而“他要求放他走”则是他要求别人放他走。当一句话可以作两种理解时便产生了歧义。如：“他允许另写一篇”，可以是“他允许小张1小王另写一篇”，也可以是“他自己另写一篇”(他被别人允许)。
2.从动词的价的角度来看：
情况(1)中动词是二价动词；情况(2)、(3)中动词是三价动词。
价就是指一个动词可以支配多少个属于不同语义角色的名词词组。一个动词如果只能技配一个行动元，也就是说动词后面不能带宾语，那它就是一价动词；如果可以带一个宾语，那就是二价动词；如果可以带两个宾语，那就是三价动词。
对上面动词从价的角度分析，情况(1)的结构是 NP1+V1+或 V2(或 NP2)；其中 NP1 是施事， NP2 是受事，V2 此时可以理解为动名词，如英语中的 I like singing. Singing 即是动名词；或者将V2理解为是动作施事(NP1)心理动词(V1喜炊或想)的一种动作行为，与V1表示的是一个人的动作。情况(2)、(3)其结构是 NP1+V1(+NP2)+ V2(+NP3)；情况(2)中NP2与NP1 不一致，因为 V1 多是使令动词，使令动词一般是针对他人而言，所以'V1、V2表示的也就不是一个人的动作；情况(3)中表示请求、允许等，请求、允许可以针对自己也可以针对别人，即NP2 与 NP1既可以-致也可以不一致，所以 V1、V2两个动词既可以表示一个人的动作也可以表示两个人的动作。
仍然是动词拿动词作宾语，吕叔湘先生还指出另外三种情况。 “(1)有的动词后面必须带疑问词，如：‘研究怎样加快进程1讨论在哪里修大坝。(2)有的动词后面必须带疑问词，如\*会下围棋I擅长说相声。(3)有的动词后面可带可不带疑问词，如“学会\[怎么\]开汽车I试验\[怎样\]用麻醉做手术。’
1.对以上动词类别进行分析
利用马庆株先生的“来|去+V+0+来1去”坚定格式来分辨自主和非自主动词，我们发现情况(1)“研究、讨论”能进入这个格式，是自主动词，情况(2)、(3)“会、擅长；学会、试验”不能进入该格式，是非自主动词。
自主动词的语义特征是从语义上说是表示有意识或有心的动作行为的，\[自主\]，\[动作\]，即能由动作发出者作主、主观决定、自由支配的动词。如“研究、讨论、学、分析、考虑”等。当它们带动词
作宾语时，必须加上疑问词。如“研究(怎样)加快进程1讨论(在哪里)修大坝1学(怎么)开汽车1分析怎样解决问题|考虑如何通过考试”等。自主动词还可以表示有心的动作，但有时也可以是无意识的，用作暗示手段。如“合(眼)、眨(眼)”等。
非自主动词是无意识无心的功作，即动作行为发出者不能自由支配的动作行为，也表示变化和属性。\[-自主\]，\[变化\]1\[属性\]。依据马先生区.别非自主变化动词和非自主属性动词的方法(即离开“了”不能单说、不能单独作谓语、述语的非自主动词是变化动词；离开“了”可以单说、可以单独作谓语，述语的非自主动词是属性动词)，我们发现情况(2)中“会”“擅长”是属性动词，情况(3)中“学会”“试验”是变化动词。
表示\[属性\]的动词是动词所具备的属性，静态的，具有恒久性，因而无须加疑问词。情况(2)中的“会、擅长”是主语已经具备的属性，不具有可选择性，“会或者不会，擅长或者不擅长”，只具其一，所以不能加疑问词。情况(3)中的“学会、试验”表示的是一个\[变化\]的动词，动态的。口“试验”这样的一个变化过程可能有也可能没有一个固定的结果，因而可以加也可以不加疑问词；“学会”，当它偏重“学”时，它具有一定的自主性，需要带疑问词；当偏重于学的结果“会”时，它表示一定的属性，无须带疑问词，从而造成该词可带可不带疑问词的情况。
2.从语义指向的角度分析
狭义的语义指向是在句中某个句法成分与哪个句法成分发生联系。
情况(1)中的动词语义指向的是其后的疑问词，如“研究”的是“怎样”(加快进程)；“讨论”的是“在哪里”(修大坝)，而不是“研究加快进程”“讨论修大坝”。“加快进程和修大坝”是我们要达到的目的或是一种客观现实，无须我们自主的“研究、讨论”。既然该类动词的语义指向是疑问词，显然疑问词是必须带而不能省略的。
情况(2)类中的动词“会”的语义指向是“下”，而不是“围棋”。“擅长”的语义指向依然也是其后的动词“说”而不是“相声”，“下围棋”“说相声”已经是主语所具备的属性，没有疑问因素，所以这一类动词无须加疑问词。
情况(3)类中的动词兼具情况(1)、(2)中动词的语义指向特点，可以指向其后的疑问词也可以指向其后的动词，“学会”的语义指向可以是指向“怎样”也可以指向“开”(汽车)；“试验”的可以是“怎样”也可以是“做”(手术)，只是在“做手术”前有了一个状语“用针刺麻醉”。当动词语义指向它们后面的动词时疑问词就可不带；指向疑问词时，疑
问词就不能省略。
3.采用变换句式的方式来给以上兰类句子加以区分
方式一：转换成“把”字句
受事把字句中的“受事”是谓词表示的动作行为所涉及的对象，或受该动作行为支配的人或事物，结构类型为：\[施事\]+把+\[受事\]+DB(动补结构)。情况(1)、(3)可以转换为“把”字句，“把怎样加快进程研究”，“把在哪里修大坝讨论”；“把\[怎样\]开汽车学会”“把\[怎样\]用针刺麻醉做手术试验”。而情况(2)不能转换成“把”字句，不说“把下围棋会”，“把说相声擅长”。
由于“把”表示一个物体对另一个物体的作用和影响，所以把字句成立的条件之一就是“把”的宾语一定要受到作用、影响，否则，把字可就不成立。即主体通过动作有意识地对客体发生作用或者产生影响，因此进入把字句的动词首选是白主的动作动词。所以情况(1)中的自主动词可以进入把字句。
把字句还可以表示致使，致使就是主体有意识的或者无意识地通过某种方式导致客体出现某种状态或者结果，因此把字句的动词除了自主的动作动词以外，还可以是非自主的动作动词(如跌、摔、滑等)、致使动词等。情况(3)中的“学会”是主体有意识地通过学的方式导致的客观结果；“试验”是非自主的动作动词，它们可以转换为把字句。
情况(2)是表示属性的非自主动词，或许是主体通过一定方式导致的结果，但它已经是主体所具
备的属性，不具有一定的动作性，所以不能进入把字句式。
方式二：转换成“被动包”
情况(1)、(3)能进入把字可，当我们把“把”字句的宾语提前时，即转换成为被动句，“怎样加快进程被研究”“在哪里修大坝被讨论”，“\[怎样\]开汽车被学会”，“\[怎样\]用针刺麻醉做手术被试验”。
而情况(2)不能转换为被动句，一般不说“下围棋被会”或“说相声被擅长”。因为“下、会”等是表示属性的非自主动词，具有恒久性，是说明主语所具备的属性和特征等，一般是放在主语的后面很少采用被动语态。
由以上分析可见，动词带动词作宾语可以从动词的种类、动词的价、动词的语义指向及适应的句式等多个角度加以考察，新的角度有利于我们发现更多的新东西，更好地了解动词带动词作宾语这种语言现象。动词带动词作宾语的种类较多，值得我们更深人地研究。
\[参考文献\]
\[1\]丰竞.现代汉语心理动词的语义分析\[J\].淮北煤炭师范学院学报：哲学社会科学版，2003(1).
\[2\]赫琳.诗经使令动词陪价研究\[J\].长江学术，2006(4).
\[3\]马庆株.汉语动词和动词性结构\[M\].北京：北京大学出版社，2005，
\[责任编辑：金颖男\]
Analysis on Verbs with Verb as Objects
ZHANG Xue -hui
( Chinese Department， Anhui University， Hefei 230039， China)
Abstract： Lv Shuxiang， in Problems in Chinese Grammatical Analysis ， classifiies the verhs with verh as objects from two aspects. In order to know more about the language phenomenon of verbs with berb as objects， we investigate it from new aspects， such as classification of verbs， value of verbs， semantic reference of verbs and sentence pattern of verbs， etc.
Key words： value of verb； semantic reference； sentence transformation | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 语课堂教学目标管理大存在问题分析
◎广东农工商职业技术学院 陈
光
一、目标管理的含义
英语教学管理是一门语言教学理论与管理学理论相结合的应用学科。
现代管理理论中的目标管理(Management by'objectives) 是20世纪50年代中期出现于美国，以泰罗的科学管理和行为科学理论为基础形成的一套管理制度。管理专家德鲁克1954年在著名的《管理实践》中最先提出，其后他又提出“目标管理和白我控制”的主张，德鲁克认为，并不是有了工作才有目标，而是有了目标才能确定每个人的工作。因此，如果一个领域没有目标，这个领域的工作必然被忽视。目标管理引人学校管理后，在学校众多的管理方法和手段中，目标管理有其独到之处并日益发挥和显示出其功能和效益。
《英语课程教学要求》(试行)规定：“英语的教学目标是培养学生英语综合应用能力，特别是听说能力，使他们在今后工作和社会交往中能用英语有效地进行口头和书面的信息交流，同时增强其自主学习能力，提高综合文化素养，以适应我国经济发展和国际交流的需要”。课堂教学是学校教学的基本组织形式，教学的任务主要是依靠课堂的教学来完成。“外语教学目标的实现，必须通过课堂教学来进行…课堂教学实际上就是外语教学目标的具体执行过程。课堂教学又是个人与组织融为一体的教学形式，是有目的、有任务的教学活动，因而具有目标管理的条件，可以实行日标管理。
二、课堂教学目标管理过程中存在的问题
2008年3月至6月，研究者采用定性研究方法，以随堂听课形式观摩了贵州50位英语教师的课堂，分别，从教师课堂的指导性功能、引导性功能、应答功能和反馈功能等角度观察教师课堂行为表现，观察结果统计见下表。
1.课堂教学目标不明确
53%的教师不清楚教学目标，用大量的课堂时间
演示多媒体课件。课件设计有大量的图片、声音和动画，这些感观的过度刺激和教学环境场所的变化，使学生很容易分散注意力，精力不是集中在教学内容上，而是被漂亮的界面和外部环境所吸引，导致学生注意力涣散、反应迟钝。34%的教师在课件制作过程中过分重视课件的美工制作，课件中常常出现与教学内容无关的图片，界面繁琐、内容与形式牵强附会。这显然与教育心理学的原则相违背，造成学生注意力不集中，冲淡教学主题，冲淡学生对学习重点、难点的关注，最终影响教学目标的实施效果。
| 教师课堂行为表现 | | | | | |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 分类 | 优(%) | 良(%) | 中(%) | 合格(%) | 不合格(%) |
| 1，教学整体设计 | 2% | 8% | 13号 | 43% | 34% |
| 2、教学目标明确程度 | 652 | 2% | 11% | 28% | 53% |
| 3、教学步骤分解 | 5% | 9% | 6% | 49% | 31% |
| 4、课堂组织与管理技巧 | 18% | 15% | 21% | 25% | 21% |
| 5、课堂控制力度与方法 | 3% | 16% | 20% | 24% | 37% |
| 6.多媒体课件设计与展示水平 | 5% | 31% | 35% | 22% | 7% |
| 7、讲授方式、时间与效率 | 12% | 17% | 18% | 33% | 20% |
| B、教学手段选择与使用效果 | 5% | 7% | 27% | 39% | 22% |
| 9、课堂提问策略与处理技巧 | 5% | 37% | 24% | 21% | 13% |
| 10、课堂师生关系与互动 | 69 | 15% | 24% | 28% | 27% |
| 11、课堂总结、扩展设计与处理 | 18% | 20% | 20% | 27% | 1.5% |
| 12、对学生个性差异人文关注程度 | 5% | 8% | 23% | 32% | 32% |
| 13、作业设计与处理方法 | | 25% | 32% | 13% | \]5元 |
| 14.学习方式与能力培养 | 12% | 9% | 36% | 18% | 25% |
| 15、教学整体目标实施效果 | 8% | 2% | 16% | 19% | 36% |
2.教学目标控制措施不得力
由于多媒体课件的使用而使教师的讲解脱离了过去的边讲解边板书的教学模式，课文的知识点切换较快，学生笔记的速度跟不上，部分学生会因为一味低头抄笔记而影响了上课效果。为了完成教学任务，37%的教师向学生无休止地灌输知识，变成现代化的填鸭式教学；而课件演示速度太快，使英语基础稍差、
又想做笔记的学生跟不上教师的速度；再加上长时间看屏幕，很疲劳，易造成精力不集中，这样就慢慢失去了学习兴趣；也使教师难以控制教学目标。
三、课堂教学目标管理策略
教育界人士认为，“教学目标是整个英语教学过程的首要前提，一切教学形式、方法、手段都是根据教(试行)落实到课堂上?如何进行有效的课堂教学目标管理?下面从目标的三个阶段提出应对策略。
要实现高效的课堂教学，就必须要有讲求科学性和艺术性的课堂设计。多媒体教学离不开课件，许多教师能够熟练制作课件，但作为一线教师，主要工作是教学，一个学期能够独立制作一两个课件已经相当不错，更多的是运用问题。教师如何组成备课小组，共学目标来确定的。那么，怎样把《英语课程教学要求》同将手中已有的多媒体资料和各自的课件进行整合|再加以运用，这是对教师教学能力的更高要求。互联网加快了信息的传输和资源的共享，但是教师不能机械地照搬照抄，而是应该取其精华，为我所用，有借目标分解就是将总体目标从上到下层层分解、落鉴、有选择、有创新地体现教学大纲的要求，以期达到最好的教学效果。因而，教学管理者应制定教案检查的评分标准，对备大纲、备教材，备教法、备学法、备实验、备练习等要求作出详细的规定。
1.目标建立初期，教师参与决策，进行目标分解
实的过程。目标分解是明确目标责任的前提，是使总体目标得以实现的基础。根据德鲁克的“目标自我控制理论”，目标的分解过程应遵循“教师参与决策”的方式，“由上而下”，结合“由下而上”，共同参与H标的选择，并对如何实现目标达成一致意见。参与决策的主要优点是能够诱导个人设立更高的目标，使个人发挥出潜能。教师参与决策，很大程度上可以鼓舞在实际教学时，首先，教师要发挥自己的指导作用，讲教师的士气，使教师普遍对自己选择的目标满意，也充满信心，因为教师是在主动挑战自我设定的用标，对目标|分清楚，这为目标的实现打下了良好的基础。
分解目标时，首先做到完成每课的小目标，其次完成好单元的部分日标，最后达到完成总目标的目的。教师在上新课前，先弄清本课的教学目标、教学用书上提示的教学步骤，再分析学生达到这个目标的难点是什么。并根据学生的学习基础、学习习惯、学习方法以及兴趣爱好，反复钻研教材，明确教学目标，确定每课的重点和难点，同时把教学目标及时交给学生，让学生心里有数，从而达到了教有目标、学有目标、指导检查也有目标，使教师在课堂上能有的放矢地进行教学，顺利完成制定的教学目标。
简洁明快，以提高教学效果为根本目标。不能过分追求技术表现和形式的花哨，技术的运用和形式表现要为课程内容服务，教学的日的是把内容讲清楚，切忌因课件制作不当而过多分散学生的注意力。
2.目标实施过程中，进行目标监控，确保目标实施力度
“教学大纲和教材中的指导思想和要求，只有在课堂上才能得到具体的体现。课堂也是教师和学生交流的主要场所，是教师控制学生情感因素，协调学生学习行为，保证语言输入之质量的地方。”因此，课堂的常规监控非常重要，尤其是对备课、课堂讲授、作业和测试的监控。
》同|鉴也定，指：要忌在交 生堂业
(1)监控备课
(2)监控课堂
“现代教学的一大特点是讲究创造性，要求培养学生的动手能力、独立思考能力和批判思维方式。授时做到深入浅出，画龙点睛，一语道破。其次，教师还应精心设计，分析哪些材料让学生自学；哪些材料由教师精讲；哪些材料用讲练结合形式进行；考虑精讲火候；研究怎样才能使讲解富于启发性，把教学的重点从“教”转移到“学”上，使学生变被动为主动，真正成为教学活动的主体。这样才能培养学生独立学习和对所学学科本身的兴趣，激发他们的求知欲望，增强学习信心和主动学习的积极性。
因此，课堂教学控制应留有空间，课件的内容不能过于繁琐，要给学生留有一定的余地，便于培养学生思考问题、解决问题和丰富想象的能力。另外，课件播放的速度也要根据讲课内容恰当控制，在时间上给学生留有思考问题的余地。课件运用要摆正课件的位置，而不能将课件作为教学的全部，否则，教师的主导因此，教学课件的设计和制作要结构清晰、内容：作用就不能得到真正的发挥，教师成了制作课件、展示课件的机器，那将违背教学的真正目的。另外，课件的结构要灵活，要具有一定的弹性，给教师以更多发挥的空间，充分调动教师讲课的主观能动性。
参考文献
\[1\]陈坚林.现代英语教学——组织与管理.上海：上海外语教学出版社，2005.
\[2\] Peter F Drucker.The Practice of management.
New York：Harper Press，1954.
\[3\]教育部.英语课程教学要求(试行).http：//www.edu.cn.2004-01-20.14：20：45. | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 借力文化润德，实现学科育人
王芳(江苏省南通市通州区金郊初级中学226300)
摘要：语文教学是传承与弘扬中华民族优秀传统文化的重要阵地。传统文化是我国最宝贵的文化财富，也蕴含丰富的育人价值，初中语文学科因其人文性和综合性，在传统文化育人方面有着天然的优势。教师应以课本为典范，以活动为载体，促进语文教学与中华优秀传统文化的水乳交融、相得益彰，使学生在文化熏陶中涵养道德品质，提升个人修养。
**关键词：初中语文 传统文化 学科育人**
中华民族拥有上下五千年文明，孕育出了无数璀璨广袤、精深渊博的优秀文化，它们不仅是民族精神的载体，更是民族发展的动力。新课改背景下，学科育人理念深入人心，初中语文教材中也新增了许多传统文化内容，教师应巧妙抓住传统文化的融入点，挖掘其中的育人价值，让学生在文化洗礼与熏陶下，逐渐丰富自身的文化素养，激发文化传承意识，塑造优秀品格。
**一、助力学生汲取古诗词文化之精髓**
现行的初中语文教材中选编了许多经典古诗词，尤其是爱国类诗词，着重颂扬了诗人强烈的爱国主义情怀，颇具育人价值。教师不妨从品读古诗词着手，引导学生在创作背景的指引下了解诗人处境，领会诗人情感；在反复诵读中汲取诗词精髓，体会传统文化魅力，助力学生树立文化传承意识，培养爱国主义精神，让学科育人在传统文化的熏染下发挥出最大的价值。
例如，在教学统编版初中语文八年级上册第六单元《茅屋为秋风所破歌》这首古诗时，教师可以先向学生介绍其创作背景，《茅屋为东风所破歌》是“诗圣”杜甫在761年所写，当时正值安史之乱时期，整个国家动荡不安，百姓在战争中流离失所，而当时的诗人也正处于人生低谷，穷困潦倒之际，所住的茅屋又为秋风所破，心中感慨万千，遂写下这首经典之作，既表达了诗人对国家、人民的担忧之情，
又抒发了对自我处境的无奈、悲苦之情。即使如此，诗人仍心存希冀，在最后写下“安得广厦千万间，大庇天下寒士俱欢颜”这句诗，就是希望有一天国家能安定，百姓居有定所，生活无忧。了解了诗词的创作背景后，学生纷纷被诗人的爱国情怀所打动，在产生情感共鸣的同时，自然也会培植自身的爱国主义情怀。随后，教师还可以利用多媒体设备播放相关的诗词朗诵视频，为学生营造生动的古诗情境，带领学生走进诗人的内心世界。通过观看视频，学生一边学着用低沉且激昂的声调吟咏，一边品味诗中的意境和情感，渐渐读出诗人的忧国忧民，读出诗中的理想抱负，体会到古诗词的韵律美、意境美和情感美，感受到了传统文化的独特魅力。
教师借助诗词背景、视频元素，为学生创设了吟诵情境，既让学生感受到了诗词之美，体会到了传统文化的多样魅力，又用知人论世的理念，让学生懂得了诗词中的爱国情怀，进而助力学生形成强烈的爱国主义精神，收获了良好的德育效果。
**二、引导学生体验戏曲文化之张力**
陶行知先生曾言：“要解放孩子的头脑、双手、眼睛、嘴、时间和空间，使他们充分得到自由的生活，从自由的生活中得到真正的教育。”给予学生充分的自由是一切教育的基石。戏曲也是中华民族的传统艺术之一，其表演形式多样，内涵丰富，文化底蕴丰厚，教师在进行传统文化渗透时，也可以从
戏曲文化着手，并给予学生充分的创造空间，让学生在创编、表演戏曲的过程中逐渐了解和喜爱戏曲文化，掌握基本的戏曲技能，从而更好地提升自身想象创造能力，传承戏曲精神，树立优秀品格。
例如，在教学统编版初中语文七年级下册第四单元《社戏》一文时，教师就可以先向学生介绍一下社戏的基本情况，让学生了解社戏是中国戏剧文化中的一种，其代表地区有绍兴、黄冈以及安顺等。随后，再让学生通读课文，在阅读中体会作者浓烈的思乡之情和对戏剧文化的喜爱之情。为了进一步深化学生对课文的理解，教师还可以播放相关的社戏视频，甚至拓展其他的戏曲文化，如豫剧、京剧、黄梅戏、昆剧等，让学生组成表演小组，每个小组可以任选其中一种戏曲，自编自导自演一出精彩的戏剧。面对充满趣味的活动，学生自然十分感兴趣。最后，学生依据课堂所学，再结合网络资料，不仅创编出了精彩的戏剧剧本，表演也是活灵活现，既让人体验到戏曲文化的张力，又让人感受到传统文化的艺术魅力。同时，在表演过程中，学生也学习到了许多英雄人物身上的优秀品质，德育的种子由此根植学生内心。
教师正是通过引导学生自主创编、表演的方式，让学生经历认识戏曲、表演戏曲，最后爱上戏曲的过程，从而逐渐领会传统文化的丰富内涵，有效实现文化传承，让学科育人理念真正得到落实。
**三、指引学生解读节日文化之内涵**
中国节日文化源远流长，每个节日不仅蕴含了独特的传统习俗，还流传着许多美好典故和趣味活动，这些都象征着我国古代人民的多彩生活，保留着传统节日光芒四射的文化印记。因此，教师可以借助语文的魅力，以传统节日为引，开展各类趣味活动，通过点拨、激发、引领，努力在每个学生的记忆里种下传统文化的种子，让传统的“中国节”根植学生内心。
例如，统编版初中语文八年级下册第四单元《春酒》一课讲述的就是浙江温州地区过春节的一些习俗和文化，向读者展示了一幅热闹的春节画卷。在教学这篇课文时，教师可以趁机向学生渗透传统
节日文化，让学生体会传统节日的精彩和趣味。首先，教师可以从生活实际出发，激发学生对传统节日的研究兴趣。随后，教师可以引入新课，带领学生一起了解作者的家乡是如何过春节的。在课文阅读中，学生会逐渐了解到浙江温州地区的节日风俗，体会到作者强烈的思乡之情，也明白了春节对于中国人的意义。为了使学生更好地进入节日情境中，教师可以组织学生在课堂上开展“春节体验活动”，如写春联、贴春联、制作灯笼等，制作完后再让学生张贴、悬挂在教室中，营造浓厚的春节氛围，增强学生对传统节日文化的认识。教学结束后，教师还可以组织学生开展“传统节日我知道”的知识抢答比赛，在游戏中适时拓展更多的节日文化知识，如中秋节、端午节等节日的风俗、典故及饮食文化，让学生在抢答中进一步内化节日知识，丰富自身的文化储备，积淀文化素养。
传统节日是历代文人常选的吟咏主题之一。教师可以有选择地在课堂中渗透一些传统节日文化，让学生在趣味活动和游戏中进一步感受到节日文化的丰富多彩，领悟传统节日内涵，更好地培养学生热爱家乡的情感，进而认识、热爱我们的传统节日。
**四、结语**
在初中语文教学中渗透传统文化是实现“学科育人”的重要途径，也是进行文化传承的必要手段。教师应更新教学理念，不断探索多元化、创新化、趣味化的教学策略，利用古诗词、传统节日、经典戏曲等形式，激发学生的文化兴趣，让学生在文化熏陶中树立传承意识，增强文化认同感，树立正确三观，养成优秀品格，从而在“学科”教学中达成“育人”目标。
**参考文献**
\[1\]张仙山.中华优秀传统文化在初中语文教学中的渗透\[J\].甘肃教育，2022(13)：107-109.
\[2\]沙莉.试论初中语文教学中的传统文化教育 \[J\].教学管理与教育研究，2022，7(11)：34-35.
\[3\]李润平.初中语文教学中渗透传统文化的策略\[J\].语文教学通讯·D刊(学术刊)，2022(04)：20-22. | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 论老年罪犯合法权益的保障
——以河南为视角
朱小玲
(河南司法警官职业学院，郑州450002)
摘 要：在全球进入老龄化社会的背景下，老年罪犯合法权益的保障成为迫切需要解决的重大问题。基于此，以河南为研究视角，探讨老年罪犯权益保障面临的困境，即老年罪犯大多年迈体弱、老年罪犯亲情缺失、监狱难以承受巨额的医疗费用和大量的人力资源投入。同时，从司法实践层面和立法预防层面进行老年罪犯权益保障的探索。
关键词：老年罪犯；权益保障；立法探索；司法预防
中图分类号：D924.11 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1673-291X(2020)31-0154-03
美国经典电影《肖申克的救赎》，生动地再现了老年犯从入狱改造、适应并享受监狱生活，到被监狱体制化，最终走出监狱后无法融入社会的悲惨境遇。老年犯年迈体弱、孤病残居多，行刑成本高昂；有幸假释，仍然承受污名，重新社会化困难，其权益保护素为各界所忽略。虽然中美两国制度、文化、经济发展等各方面情况存在巨大差异，但我们相信老年犯类似的遭遇在我国也不同程度地存在，同样性质的问题也困扰着我国的司法实践者。
中国逐渐进人老龄化社会，河南的情况也是如此。每十个河南人中就有一个老年人。刑法第八修正案的通过，增加了对重刑犯限制假释的规定，以及对判处死刑缓期执行的罪犯期满后有重大立功表现的减为二十五年有期徒刑之增加规定，使滞留在监狱中的老年罪犯人数日趋增加。
据河南多座监狱的调研资料统计，老年罪犯带给监狱的压力空前沉重，这种负担不仅仅是物质上的，常常是一个老年罪犯生病，国家就要花费巨大的物力和警力投入，尤其是在老年罪犯病重和病危的情况下，常常一个老年罪犯生病，需要四个干警轮流看守，在一个病重的老年罪犯被国家和监狱耗费了巨大的物力、财力进行抢救却最终与世长辞之后，监狱还要面临罪犯家属恶狠狠的哭闹和漫天要价的勒索。
本该安享晚年，子孙绕膝，享受天伦之乐，但是随着老年罪犯的增加，这些白发苍苍的父亲、母亲、祖父母、外祖父母却又多了一个给家庭蒙上羞辱且为社会所不齿的身份——老年罪犯。
一边是高墙、电网、戒备森严的监狱、穿着制服的干警——代表着强大的国家公权力，另一边是白发苍苍的脑袋、脚上的镣铐、羼弱的身体、空虚孤独和焦虑的内心——弱小的老年罪犯群体。
在这一强烈的对比和视觉效果冲击下，我们不得不感
叹——刑罚的人道主义思想和中国传统文化的人文关怀在老年罪犯这一弱势群体上究竟有没有得到最好的体现，应该怎么体现?刑罚人道主义和刑法功能的悖论怎么才能得到更好的协调?
刑罚作为犯罪的对立物，它必须而且生来就带有惩罚的性质，但是老年罪犯与生俱来的不同特征，决定了刑罚这把利剑落在他头上的时候，除了让人从感情的角度为之怜悯和捧一捧热泪之外，如何对其合法权益保障从立法层面、社会实践和司法层面进行理性探索成为一个新时代的重大课题。
一、老年犯权益保障面临的困境
此处所指老年罪犯是指60岁以上的男性老年罪犯以及55岁以上的女性罪犯，既包括入狱时就已经达到上述年龄的罪犯，也包括随着服刑时间的推移，逐步跨进这一年龄段的罪犯。根据笔者在河南多家监狱调研发现，老年罪犯的合法权益保障面临如下困境。
第一，老年罪犯大多年迈体弱。河南省第一监狱和平原监狱的统计数字显示，老年罪犯中 70%左右都患有疾病，相当一部分都已经丧失劳动能力，还有一部分病残生活无法自理、长期卧床。从老年犯人的身体健康状况看，身体较差的占55%，偶有小病的占25%，而身体健康的只占到20%。在现有监狱现行减刑与假释的制度框架下，老年犯处于劣势，因此为数不多的减刑和假释的机会被其他处于优势的罪犯获得。
第二，老年罪犯亲情缺失。由于亲属探监次数少，亲情电话打得少，特别是来自农村的贫困老年罪犯，这种情况表现得更为突出，这就导致其产生心理不稳、意志消沉等一系列问题。在监狱心理矫治人员不足的情况下，往往采用打电话的方式进行心理咨询治疗，但一对一的心理矫正治疗方式运用得不够熟练和到位；另一方面，由于很多老年罪犯患有疾
收稿日期：2020-04-16
作者简介：朱小玲(1979-)，女，河南开封人，副教授，硕士研究生，从事刑法学研究。
病，语言表达能力和自我认知能力大幅下降，因而其存在心理咨询和心理矫正治疗的困难。
第三，巨额的医疗费用和大量人力资源投入使监狱难以承受。我国建立了全民医疗保险制度，但老年罪犯的医疗保险在监狱往往处于真空状态。患重病或长期患病的老年罪犯在监狱得不到有效的救治，而送往医院救治意味着巨大的医疗费用。从河南省一监和平原监狱来看，很多老年罪犯在身患重病的情况下，往往要由四名干警轮流值班和守护，这对于本来警力不足的监狱来说又增加了一笔成本的投入。
第四，老年罪犯保外就医权利行使遭遇困境。由于保外就医过程中老年罪犯家属的不配合、不合作甚至对抗的心理状态，大量患有疾病的老年罪犯在符合保外就医的条件下仍然不能接受保外就医。本来这是属于老年罪犯的一项权利，但是现实却与立法者的理想背道而驰，家属拒保的情况屡见不鲜，很多情况下干警费尽九牛二虎之力，罪犯家属仍然不为所动，使老年罪犯的权益保障雪上加霜。犯人一旦死于狱中，部分家属则往往动辄讹诈钱财。部分孤寡病残老年犯被长期的监狱生活体制化，不愿承受污名走向社会，认为这种无依无靠、生活无着的生活比监狱的生活还痛苦无助。
二、老年犯权益保障的司法实践探索
监狱中一些好的做法可以尝试着先在本市、本省推广，经验摸索成熟了可以向外省市乃至全国推广。在调研过程，笔者发现了监狱中一些好的做法，有效地保障了老年罪犯的合法权益。
第一，监狱服刑中对老年罪犯的悔改表现和立功表现从宽掌握。以河南省第一监狱为例，在实践中对老年犯的减刑和假释予以从宽掌握。在悔改表现和立功表现方面，河南省第一监狱是这样认定的：“在服刑期间获得了两个表扬，就认定为是有悔改表现；一个表扬、一个记功，就认定为是有重大立功表现，相对于普通犯人重大立功表现的认定条件(即具有一个记功，三个表扬才认为是有重大立功表现)来说，实践中的这种做法体现了宽严相济的刑事政策，对于缓解监狱中老年犯人人多为患的困境起到了一定的作用，但立法中并没有对这一标准进行明确，实践中各个监狱做法也各不相同。目前当务之急是对于老年犯人的减刑和假释条件在立法中做出明确规定，在相关的司法解释中对于标准进一步做出可操作性规定，使零星的做法上升到立法的高度，才能使立法确实起到指导司法和执法的作用。
第二，建立一座老年犯监狱，对老年犯集中关押、分类管理，招募年轻犯人参与管理和照顾老年犯人。由于不能马上建立老年犯监狱，河南省第一监狱的做法是把老年犯人集中关押、分类管理，让年轻犯人看管老年犯人。目前，河南一监建立了老年犯监区。以十二监区四分监区为例，该分监区是河南省一监老病残罪犯的集中关押点。监狱根据老年犯的健康状况，将老年犯分为身体健康、年老体弱和身患重病等三类，针对那些被家属遗弃和患严重疾病导致悲观厌世的老年犯，监狱开设了特定监房，安排专门护理员进行生活照顾。同时，监狱结合老年犯的特点，对老年犯进行全方位、全时段、
全过程管控，防止意外事故发生。其中99名是老病残者，年龄最大的93岁。这里的服刑人员，除了99名是老病残者，另外的服刑人员是老病残服刑人员的护理员和心理互助员。有的要照料帮助老病残服刑人员日常的生活起居，对老病残服刑人员的病情变化、言行举止等进行全天候监控，以便及时发现异常情况。有的协助狱警对精神异常的服刑人员进行心理疏导和心理咨询。目前，四分监区设立了20名护理员、12名心理互助员，担任“两员”的服刑人员都是认罪服法、表现较好、身体健康的罪犯凹3年来，他们先后报告重要情报线索30多条，使10多名重度病犯得到及时救治、挽回了生命，使5名精神异常者犯病症状明显减轻。这一做法既有效缓解了警囚比例不足的矛盾，也使年轻犯人的改造积极性得到了很大的提高。
第三，做好家属工作，积极促进符合条件的老年罪犯保外就医和监外执行。老年罪犯由于其特殊的生理和心理状况，在保外就医和监外执行问题中呈现出与其他成年罪犯截然不同的特点，即符合保外就医和监外执行的罪犯比例高于其他成年罪犯，但法律规定和实践的矛盾在于部分符合保外就医和监外执行的罪犯，其成年子女家属或者配偶基于经济因素、不愿意照顾等动机，态度十分消极，不予配合，想尽一切办法，甚至编造许多理由，以达到将老年罪犯继续滞留狱中的目的。以河南省一监的老年犯赵某某为例，赵某某今年79岁，其所在监区领导为了他能顺利保外就医，多次给其家属和当地公安机关做工作，最终于今年6月份将其成功保外就医。赵某某听到这一消息后，高兴地一下子从床上坐了起来，病一下子减轻了几分。
在给家属做工作过程中，应晓之以情动之以理，从中华民族传统的美德——孝道入手，同时对其进行普法教育，让他们了解刑事诉讼法有关保外就医和监外执行的规定、条件、程序，让他们了解法律规定，做尊法守法的好公民。
三、老年犯权益保障立法层面的探索
刑法第八修正案基于刑法人道主义和刑罚个别化对有关老年人犯罪的许多条款进行了修改，加强了对老年罪犯自由权的刑法保护和刑法保障，但死缓犯限制减刑的增加规定和自由刑刑期的延长，使监狱中的老年罪犯日趋增加。老年罪犯的增加给监狱狱警和监狱行刑带来了新的困境，为了解决这一困境，尝试从立法方面做以下突破。
(一)对老年罪犯建议多适用恢复性司法
犯罪不仅是一个单纯的法律问题，更是一个复杂的社会问题，体现了多种多样的关系：国家与罪犯之间的关系，罪犯与被害人之间的关系，国家与被害人之间的关系……..刑罚是社会正义的最后一道防线，是经过许多年法律实践探索出的对付犯罪的最有效的宝贵经验。目前许多国家确立了以自由刑为中心的刑罚体系，自由刑有其无可替代的优点，在自由刑执行期间将罪犯与社会有效隔离，将罪犯的人身危险性降到最低，但是罪犯的再社会化也成为这类刑种执行完毕后要面临的挑战。
传统的报应性司法更多地去关注国家和社会的公共利
益，受制于罪刑相制约的模式，认为已然之罪制约刑罚，去体现刑法的正义，以期达到惩罚犯罪的目的；刑罚制约已然之罪，体现刑法的功利原则，以期更好地达到预防犯罪的目的。在这种模式中，通过对罪犯进行惩罚，被害人的情感得到了很大的补偿，但是因为犯罪而遭受的物质损失却往往难以得到补偿。2001年，被称为我国“辩诉交易第一案”的孟广虎故意伤害案在牡丹江铁路运输法院审结。该案基本案情为：被告人孟广虎与被害人王玉杰因车辆争道引发争吵，后孟广虎及同伙将王玉杰打成重伤。后公安机关未能抓获孟的同案犯罪嫌疑人，为尽快了结案件，经公诉方和辩护人协商，只要被告人认罪并承担民事责任，控方同意建议法院对被告人减轻量刑，并适用缓刑。法院审查后核准了控辩双方的协议，最后以故意伤害罪，判处被告人孟广虎有期徒刑3年，缓刑3年并且赔偿被害人损失4万元网。
老年罪犯的犯罪类型中以财产性犯罪居多，许多犯罪动机并非出于贫困，而是出于孤独，对于这些老年罪犯来说，如果同被害人达成了自愿赔偿的协议，并且其子女愿意承担赔偿责任并与老年罪犯一起生活，那么其再犯的动机就会归零，其再犯的可能性就大大降低。通过辩诉交易对老年人犯罪减轻和免除处罚，体现了刑罚的人道主义和刑罚个别化。
刑法第72条规定，对于被判处拘役、三年以下有期徒刑的犯罪分子，同时符合下列条件的，可以宣告缓刑，对其中不满18周岁的人、怀孕的妇女和已满75周岁的人，应当宣告缓刑：一是犯罪情节较轻；二是有悔罪表现；三是没有再犯罪的危险；四是宣告缓刑对所居住社区没有重大不良影响剛。
应当宣告缓刑的老年罪犯，可以把年龄放宽至年满60周岁的老年罪犯。
(二)降低对老年罪犯减刑和假释的标准
如前所述，实践中已经有些监狱对老年罪犯的悔改表现和立功表现进行了从宽掌握，当务之急是给这种实践以理论支持和立法支持。减刑和假释对于鼓励罪犯认真遵守监规、接受监狱改造、争取宽大处理具有十分重要的激励作用，为服刑人员点燃了希望的灯盏，这是就整体罪犯而言的，具体
到老年罪犯，由于老年罪犯相比年轻罪犯而言接受新思想新事物没有那么快，学习能力也较为薄弱，再加上由于其高龄这一生理特点，劳动能力也有所下降，使得老年罪犯在劳动改造的过程中，在量化积分这一环节与其他成年罪犯相比处于劣势，再加上实践中对罪犯减刑和假释的比例总是会有一定的限制，监狱在罪犯减刑和假释的运用中具有建议的权利，是决定罪犯能否顺利减刑、假释的第一道重要关口。实践中老年罪犯由于其生理和心理特点适用减刑和假释的比例存在过低的现象，不利于老年罪犯的改造，也给监狱从警力、经费等方面造成紧张。
为了改变这一不公平现象，促使老年罪犯在减刑和假释权利的实际运用中与其他成年罪犯处于平等地位，笔者建议：一是对于老年罪犯的减刑在掌握标准上可以比照其他成年罪犯依法适当放宽。老年罪犯能够认罪服法，遵守罪犯改造行为规范，认真参加学习，完成一定劳动，即可以视为确有悔改表现予以减刑，其减刑幅度可以适当放宽，间隔时间也可以相应缩短吗。二是对于老年罪犯，在刑罚执行期间确有悔改表现，不致再危害社会且假释后符合监管条件的罪犯，可以不受法定执行期间的限制，适用关于特殊情况的规定予以假释向。
(三)对老年罪犯判处五年以下有期徒刑的可以易科为罚金刑和社区服务刑
罚金易科开在西方被视为“减轻国家建筑监狱经费最合理的方法”，是“最经济、最无污染的刑罚方法”。在许多国家，比如意大利、日本、巴西、德国、瑞士、罗马尼亚、朝鲜等，都将其规定为主刑，而且在英国，除谋杀罪之外，几乎对任何犯罪都可以采用罚金。社区服务刑也有适用越来越广泛的趋势。
许多老年罪犯不予关押，其再犯的人身危险性也很低，为了最大程度地节省行刑成本，体现行刑经济化原则，可以设想在条文中具体这样规定：“根据老年人犯罪的事实和老年罪犯的人格以及身体状况，对于老年人犯罪应该判处五年以下自由刑的，可以易科为罚金刑和社区服务刑。”\[
参考文献：
\[1\]南汇监狱邀请家属集体探监\[N\].解放日报，2010-10-16.
\[2\]在监狱里度过最后时光的老人们\[EB/OL\].今报网，2010-10-15.
\[3\]周领军.试论诉辩交易何以可行——由国内诉辩交易第一案谈起\[J.政法论丛，2002，(4).
\[4\]中华人民共和国刑法\[M\].北京：法制出版社，2020.
\[5\]苏惠渔刑法学\[M.北京：中国政法大学出版社，2016：218.
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苏惠渔.刑法学\[M\].北京：中国政法大学出版社，2016：219.
\[7\]
陈兴良.刑法哲学\[M.北京：中国政法大学出版社，2004：446-447.
\[8\]朱小玲.我国老年人犯罪改革之述评\[J1河南司法警官职业学院学报，2013，(3).
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zh | N/A | N/A | 略论庄子的消费思想
尹世杰
【湖南师范大学 商学院，长沙 410081
\[摘 要\]文章首先论述庭子的价值观、消费观，接着分析在价值观、消费观的影响下，庄子的消费思想有很多正确的东西，但也有不少错误的东西。有精华，也有精粕。最后论述如何取其精华，去其糟柏，以利于促进消费和谐，为建设社会主义和谐社会服务。
\[关键词\]消费思想；天人合一；节位；社会和谐
〔中图分类号\] F014.5 〔文献标识码〕A 〔文章编号\]1008-2107 (2007) 05-0033-03
On Zhuangzi's Thoughts on Consumption
YIN Shi -jie
(Instisute of Consumer Economics， Hunan Normal University； Changsha 410081)
\[Abstract\] This paper first presents Zhuangzis viewpoints of value and consumption and then analyses that there are both the good and the bad， both essence and dross in Zhuangzis thoughts on consumption under his view-points of value and consumption. Finally the paper discusses how we can accept the essence and refuse the dross so as to promote the harmonious consumption and serve for consutructing socialist harmonious society.
\[ Key words\] consumption thoughts； the harmonity of heaven and human； thrift； harmonious society
庄子不仅继承了老子很多思想观点，而且在不少方面有所发展，成为我国古代思想界一个重要人物。但多年以来，一些专家、学者对庄子的哲学思想评论较多，而且分歧较大。对庄子的经济思想、特别是消费思想，研究得却很少。因此，我在这里就他的消费思想作些初步的探讨，以就教于各界同仁。
一、庄子的价值观、消费观
庄子继承了老子的“道法自然”的人生哲学，强调顺应自然，遵循自然规律。提出“人和”、 “人乐”、 “天和”，“天乐”：“夫明白于天地之德者，此之谓大本大宗，与天和者也；所以均调天下，与人和者也。与人和者，谓之人乐；与天和者，谓之天乐。”(《天道》)。他特别强调“天乐”：“故知天乐者，无天怨，无人非，无物累，无鬼责……言以虚静推于天地，通于万物，此之谓天乐。天乐者，圣人之心，以畜天下也。”(同上)。他还以庖丁解牛为例，提出人的养生的关键在于顾应自然，自由自在，不为外物所扰。认为人的精神世界，应反映宇宙的本质： “万物皆出于机，皆人于机”。(《至乐》)，这样才能得到最大的快乐。这样就可以搞“逍遥游”，追求绝对自由，去作美丽的“蝴蝶梦”。
这些都说明：庄子的价值观、消费观是建立在遵重大自
然的基础上，个人自由自在、无拘无束的极端个人主义的、虚浮飘渺的价值观、消费观。这就成为他的消费生活的指导思想。这就决定了他的消费思想和行为，有一些正确的、合理的东西，但也有很多极其错误的。我们在下面作些具体说明。
二、庄子消费思想的精华
庄子的消费思想，有很多正确的东西，有不少精华，值得发扬光大。
例如，关于“天人合一”的思想。庄子在这方面讲了不少。““天地与我并生，而万物与我为一。”《齐物论》)。他还把人与天不相对立的人，称之为“真人”：“天与人不相胜也，是之谓真人。”(《大宗师》)。还提出“圣人”就是要尊重自然，要观察天地宇宙的发展、变化： “圣人者，原天地之美，而达万物之理。是故圣人无为，大圣不作，观于天地之谓也。”(《知北游》)。如前所述，他不仅强调“和”，而且把“和”分为“天和”、 “人和”，强调“天和”、““人和\*，强调和谐协调，因而得到“天乐”、、“人乐”，这样天下就安宁了。“天乐者，圣人之心，以畜天下也。”(《天道》)，庄子还歌颂自己与天和而享受大自然之美的乐趣：“山林与，泉壤与，使我欣欣而乐与。”(《知北游》)。
〔收稿日期\]2007-06-08
〔作者简介〕尹世杰，男，湖南洞口人，湖南师范大学商学院教授，博士生导师。
庄子的“天人合一”思想的精髓，就在于：以天道为师，回归自然，尊重自然，顺乎自然，返朴归真，达到人与大自然和谐协调，从而得到精神上的超越，享受精神之乐。正如庄子自己所说的：“日出而作，日人而息，逍遥于天地之间，而心意自得”。(《让王》)。
庄子的“逍遥游”，是“上下与天地同游”，自由自在，说明与天地一体，实现人的精神自由，心灵得到彻底解放。“吾游心于物之初”。(《田子方》)“且夫乘物以游心，托不得已养中，至矣。”(《人间世》)。是心灵的漫游，精神的漫游。其特点是“天人合一”：““无受天损易，无受人益难。无始而非竿也，人与天一也”。(《山木》)“其一也一，其不也一、其--与天为徒，其不一与人为徒，天与人不相胜也”(《大宗师》)。这些都体现了人的悠闲自在、高雅超越的境界，正如庄子自己所说： “吾与日月参光，吾与天地为常”(《在有》)。“独与天地精神相往来"。(《天下》)。这样就使人无忧无虑，得到精神上的享受。
庄子还提出：人要返朴归真，回归大自然，不能沉迷于物欲： “与物柏刃相靡，其行进为驰，而莫之能止，不亦悲乎!终身役役而不见其成功，荣然疲役而不知其所归，可不哀耶!人谓之不死，奚益!其形化，其心与之然，可不谓哀乎!”(《齐物论》)。这里批评一些人“与物相刃相靡”，结果只能是“悲乎”、“哀乎”，这种人活着也没有什么益处。这些说法，虽然有些过份，但反对“人为物役”、反对人的“异化”，强调“心”，强调精神上的超脱，这是必要的。他还强调“朴素”：“朴素而天下莫能与之争美”。(《天道》)。这些思想应该说是很正确的。
庄子虽然讲虚浮飘渺的“逍遥游”，但实际上他自己还是搞了一些娱乐活动。例如，庄子喜欢观鱼，有一次与惠子游于濠梁之上，庄子说：“鱼出游从容，是鱼之乐也”。惠子说：“子非鱼，安知鱼之乐?”庄子说： “子非我，安知我不知色之乐”。两人还展开了争论。(《秋水》)。他还喜欢自己钓修：“庄子钓于濮水”。(《秋水》)。他还喜欢观鸟：“东海有鸟焉。其名日意息……引援而飞，迫胁而栖.” (《山林》)。很赞美鸟的自由自在、天然纯真的姿态。他甚至作梦也想变为鱼、变为鸟。 “梦为鸟而历于天，梦为鱼面没于渊”。(《大宗师》)。 “昔者庄周梦为蝴蝶，栩栩然胡蝶也、自喻适志与!”(《齐物论》。)
庄子还主张以音乐来陶冶性情：“以仁为思，以义为理，以礼为行，以乐为和，薰然慈仁，谓之君子”。(《IE子·天下》)，还把这种人称之为“君子”。
庄子还喜欢旅游，他生活虽然困难，但仍能逍遥地周游名山大川，并不是完全过着呆在家里的孤寂生活。
上面这些都说明：庄子在“天人合一”思想的指导下，在人们的消费方面提出一些重要的思想、观点，并身体力行，是很可取的。
三、庄子消费思想的糟粕
前面已经说过，庄子强调“天人合一”，强调尊重大自
然，顺应大自然，这是对的。但有时却强调得过分，以致完全否认人的作用。如他说：“天地有大美而不言，四时有明法面不议，万物有成理而不说。”(《知北游》)。怎么能说："万物有成理而不说”呢?人为万物之灵，有理也不要说，甚至连“圣人”也不要说什么，听其自然，这就完全否认人的作用了，这种“圣人”又有什么作用?庄子这些思想是很片面的!
庄子在消费生活方面，特别强调“无知”、 “元欲”：“同乎无知，其德不离；同乎无欲，是谓素朴；素朴而民性得矣。……性情不离，安用礼乐?五色不乱，孰为文采?五声不乱，孰应六律?”(《马蹄》)。“古之畜天下者，无欲而天下足”。(《天地》)。“古之真人……其食不甘"。(《大宗师》)。“君欲盈嗜欲，……...则性命之情病已”(《除无鬼》)。他还具体提出五种失性，会造成生命的祸害：“且夫尖性有五：一日五色乱日，使目不明；二日五声乱耳，使耳不聪；三日五臭乱鼻，困扰中菊；四白五味浊口，使口房爽；五一趣舍滑心，使性飞扬。此五者，皆生之害也”。(《天地》)：这就完全否定了人的正常的欲望，否定了人的消费生活、特别是物质生活，陷入虚无缥缈的唯心主义的泥坑里去了，因而是完全脱离实际的，正如有些同志所批判的“是虚无主义、阿Q式的精神的体现”。这些都是很错误的!
他自己也乐于过艰苦的生活，靠编织草鞋为生，有时找人借米吃。他还穿着大麻布缝的衣、穿着一条麻布捆的鞋子去见梁惠王。他甚至鼓吹虚无飘渺的消费生活，塑造“藐姑射之山”的“神人”：“不食五谷，吹风饮露，乘云气，御飞龙，而游乎四海之外”。(《逍遥游》)。“不食五谷”，专靠“吹风饮露”，人能生存吗?还能“游乎四海之外”吗?这只能说是神话，完全脱离实际了!我国著名史学家郭沫若说这是厌世的庄子“幻想出来的”，恐怕真是如此!庄子还标榜自己：“出入六合，游于九州，独往独来，是谓独有。独有之人，是之谓至矣。"(《在有》)。“独往独来”，没有一个朋友.孤苦寂寞，还说是“至矣”，真是怪哉!
庄子还认为：：一切顺乎自然，个人消费无所谓差别，没有什么客观标准：“天地之差也一，登高不可以为长，居下不可以为短”。(《徐无鬼》)。“民食刍，麋鹿食荐(草)，螂蛆甘带(蛇)，鸥鸦嗜鼠，四者谁知正味?”(《齐物论》)：在任何社会，任何时候，每个人的收人水平不同，个人爱好不同，市场的供应情况不同，个人的消费生活总不能完全一个模样，而是有差别的。说人们的吃、穿、用、住、行等各个方面都是一个标准，没有差别、这不是痴人说梦吗?
庄子对闲暇消费极为鄙视，认为是“无为”，是“避世”：“就薮泽，处闲旷，钓鱼闲处，无为而已矣；此江海之士，避士之人，闲暇者之所好也”。小“夫恬淡寂漠，无虚无为，此天地之平，而道德之质也。……平易恬淡，则忧患不能人，邪气不能袭，故其德全而神不亏”。(《刻意》)。到山林湖洋走走，钓钓鱼、搞点闲暇活动，有什么不好呢?这种人就是“闲暇者”?“闲暇者”又有什么不好呢?只有“恬淡寂漠”、“无虚无为”就会很好吗? “平易恬淡”，德就
全”、神就不“亏”吗?这不都是偏见吗?
庄子也和老子---样，主张“绝圣弃知”，不要“圣人”，不要知识：“故绝圣弃知，大盗乃止；摘玉毁珠，小盗不起；焚符破玺，而民朴鄙；抬斗折衡，而民不争，”(《脚箧》)。他还说： “吾生也有涯，而知也无涯，以有涯随无涯，殆已”。(《养生主》)。Q2“绝圣弃知而天下大治。”(《在宥》)。不要知识，不要科技，不要文化，天下就安宁了?这不是把人回到原始社会么?这不是搞愚民政策?那种生活又有什么意义?其结果，只能是像他自己那样，你为一个美丽的蝴蝶梦而已。近代著名学者胡适曾批评庄子这些思想，是代表东方旧文明的“懒惰圣人”，是很对的，
庄子还反对工商活动，反对工艺技巧的发展： “故纯补不残，谁为牺尊?白玉不毁，谁为璋?……五色不乱，熟为文采?五声不乱，孰应六律：夫残朴以为器，工匠之罪也。(《马蹄》)。“故圣人……上为商……不货，恶用商”。(《德无符》)。工匠把“残朴”作为器皿，还有罪过，这是什么回事?不要“五色”、、“五声”，不要消费品，人们怎样进行消费生活?这不是“主观唯心主义”、“神秘主义”吗?
庄子还说： “夫天下之所尊者，富贵寿善也；所乐者，身安厚味美服好色音声也；所下者，贫贱夭恶也；所苦者，身不得安逸，口不得厚味，形不得美服，目不得好色，耳不得声音；若不得者，则大忧以惧。其为形也亦愚哉。”“至乐无乐，至誉无誉”。(《庄子·至乐》)、“富贵寿善”有什么不好呢?“厚味”、，“美服”、““好色”、一“声音”“安逸”，有什么不好呢?人们追求这些东西，就是“愚哉”?怎么能说：最大的快乐就是没有快乐、最大的荣誉就是没有荣誉呢?这不是天大的笑话吗?
四、认真取其精华去其糟粕
我们在前面已经说了，庄子的消费思想，有不少精华，值得进一-步发扬光大，使古为今用；也有不少糟粕，需要彻底排除。如何真正取其精华，去其糟粕，是很值得研究的问题。下面提出几个具体问题，以供探讨。
一是关于“天人合一”的问题。庄子在这方面有很多论述，有的还很精彩。我们如何结合我国当前实际，认真坚持“天人合一”，大搞可持续发展，大搞资源节约和环境友好，大搞“天和”、“人和”，使“天地与我并生”，“万物与我为一”。这样处理好人与大自然之间、人与人之间、人与社会各方面之间的关系，和谐协调，促进社会和谐，从而得到“天乐”、“人乐”，这就大大有利于构建社会主义和谐社会。这里还需要强调的是：在处理人与大自然的关系方面，我们要尊重大自然，反对人类中心主义。但也要充分发挥人的作用，主动治理、保护生态环境、社会环境，开拓创新，决不能像庄子所说的：“万物有成理而不说”，一切听任自然，完全否认人的作用：人为万物之灵，一切以人为本。我们在反对人类中心主义的同吋，还必须反对“大自然中心主义”这些问题是应该明确的。
二是关于节俭的问题。庄子强调“朴素”，强调节俭，反对物欲，反对铺张浪费，这是很对的。但我们现在所讲的节俭，决不是降低人民的消费水平，而是在不断扩大消费需求、优化消费结构的基础上，反对铺张浪费，反对骄奢淫逸。不是像庄子所强调的“无知”、“无欲”，不加分析地、完全反对“五色”、“五声”、“五奥”、“五味”。去过虚无飘渺的生活。众所周知，社会主义生产目的，就是要不断满足全体人民日益增长的物质、文化需要，提高消费水平和质量，促进人的全图发展：促进社会经济、文化的协调发展。在这过程中，节约资源，反对铺张浪费，反对高消费，反对奢侈消费；；而不是简单地节衣缩食，降低消费水平。节俭的真谛，决不是庄子所说的“无欲”。这也是应该明确的。
三是关于消费方式问题。庄子搞“逍遥游”，，“乘云气，御飞龙，面游乎四海之外”(《逍遥游》)，这只是“神人”的“神话”，是虚尤飘渺的。我们现在的消费方式，应该是多样化、大众化、文明化，在生产不断发展、消费水平不断提高的过程中，不断优化消费方式，提高消费质量，例如，闲暇消费已成为当代消费--大趋势，成为人们一种重要的消费方式。通过闲暇消费，促进人的身心健康和全面发展，促进生产力、消费力的提高，已成为当代人的共识。但庄子却反对闲暇消费，认为是“无为”，把“闲暇者”仅限于“钓鱼闲处”，这就把闲暇消费方式看得太简单了，把“闲暇者”看得太无用了，这是很片面的!我们就是要发展闲暇消费，扩展、优化消费方式，丰富消费内容，培育优秀的“闲暇者”，排除庄子所说的“含嘴面熙，鼓腹面游”(《马蹄》)，反对那种虚无飘渺的、不切实际的消费方式。
四是关于“至治”问题。老子虚拟了一个“小国寡民”的太平世界，庄子也有这种观点，说得更具体： “甘其食，美其服，乐其俗，安其居，邻国相望，鸡狗之音相闻，民至老死而不相往来，若此之时，则至治已”。 (《庄子·肢箧》)。把这种虚拟的社会和消费生活，还称之为“至治”，真是很玄妙了。特别是要人们回到原始社会去，“民至老死而不相往来”，这就太不近人情了。这种虚拟的孤独的消费生活，怎么会存在呢?人是一切社会关系的总和，人怎么能离群索居呢?马克思恩格斯早就说过：“只有在集体中，个人才能获得全面发展其才能的手段，也就是说，只有在集体中，才可能有个人自由……，在真实的集体的条件下，各个人在自己的联合中并通过这种联合获得自由”。离群索居，独往独来，怎么能“获得全面发展其才能的手段”，怎么能“获得自由”呢?怎么能得到“至治”呢?这种“至治”不就是“无治”吗?这种人又有什么意义和价值?正如有些同志所说的：我们要从“神本主义”回到人本主义啊!
总之，我们对庄子的消费思想，需要认真分析，取其精华，去其糟粕，为促进人的全面发展、促进社会经济、文化协调发展、为促进社会和谐、促进社会主义和谐社会服务。这也是我们研究庄子的消费思想的最终习的， | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 深挖基础住歧移民热火朝天盖新居
**“十一五”期间，水库移民安置工作进展顺利，库区和移民安置区的经济社会和谐稳定、持续发展，水利水电工程建设顺利。**
**一、认真执行条例，严把项目审查关**
**“十一五”期间，组织或参与审查审核了十二个水利水电项目的移民安置规划大纲和移民安置规划，它们包括江西洪屏抽水蓄能电站、廖坊灌区工程、石虎塘航电枢纽工程、武宁下坊水电站、峡江水利枢纽工程、语溪口水利枢纽工程、跃州水电站、鄱阳湖二期第六个单项防洪工程、五河防洪整治工程、定南县应急水源工程、信丰五洋水电站、于都峡山水电站等，共涉及11个设区市35个县(市、区)，规划需搬迁安置移民61162人，生产安置移民36702人，静态移民投资达575635.14万元。通过审查移民安置规划，我们了解了移民意愿，完善了安置方式，控制了搬迁成本，有效地保护了移民群众的切身利益和水利水电工程的顺利建设。**
**二、加强监督管理，狠抓规划落实率**
**在经审的项目中，我们时常组织对部分已开始移民安置工作的项目进行督导调研，了解移民安置规划实施中的问题，规范搬迁安置行为。目前，已开展移民搬迁安置工作的峡江水利枢纽工程、洪屏抽水蓄能电站、武宁下坊电站、石虎塘航电枢纽、伦潭水利枢纽等工程都进展顺利，移民安心满意，库区和安置区呈现一派和谐稳定的态势。**
**三、激发主观能动性，争创安置新亮点**
**在移民安置过程中，我们加强宣传动员，鼓励移民克服安土重迁的心理，激发移民群众和各级移民干部的积极性和主动性。此外，结合多种资源打造移民安置示范点，争创移民安置新亮点。峡江水利枢纽吉水住歧移民安置点、洪屏电站宝峰移民安置点、伦潭水库茶场移民安置点，即是朝着“生产发展、生活宽裕、乡风文明、村容整洁、管理民主”目标打造的移民新村的典型代表。**
**峡江水利枢纽住歧移民新村全貌(住歧移民新村共规划宅基地261栋，212户搬迁户正在积极地建造新房，其中：一层在建20户，一层完工162户，二层在建10户，二层完工17户，三层在建3户。)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | A crusade of brotherhood
author: Beard, Augustus Field, 1833-1934
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A CR.USADE OF
BF.OTHERHOOD
AUGUSTUS FJ£LD BEAED
/
A CRUSADE OF BROTHERHOOD
A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN
MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
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CRUSADE OF BROTHERHOOD
A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN
MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
BY
AUGUSTUS FIELD BEARD
AUTHOR or "THE STORY OF JOHN FREDERIC OBERUN"
BOSTON
THE PILGRIM PRESS
NEW YORK • CHICAGO
C /cd/./f' 3.^^
CO LLEG E I
Copyright^ igoQ
By Augustus F. Beard
THE UNIVBItSmr PKISSy CAMBKIDGI, U. S. A.
THE significant facts of the American
Missionary Association history are scat-
tered here and there in our American
Missionary magazine through sixty volumes. I
have quoted freely what has seemed to me to
be useful for correct appreciation of passing
events, and have endeavored to exclude all else.
My purpose has been to entrench these facts
in the reasons of the great movements for which
they stand; to show something of the evolu-
tionary processes by which they came to be, and
to take on their distinctive characteristics. I
have endeavored to keep close to the principles
and policies which appear in our various records,
and not to advance personal theories of my own.
The concrete facts and figures which are
repetitiously — and necessarily repetitiously —
set forth in our magazine, The American Mis-
sionary, from month to month through sixty
years have seemed to me to be the less impor-
tant part of the story. The passing years have
brought many of the same experiences to view
PREFACE
pT are in all normal and healthful life,
year is much like another when things go well.
The thought of the builders and the influences
of their thought, their faith and patience, their
consecration to their convictions, and how all this
has worked itself out with struggle and trial,
through misapprehensions and oppositions, ap-
pears to be the main thing to be remembered.
The resolute men who organized and carried on
the Association, who did the things which have
been done, are the real history.
As I have sought to recognize this, it has
brought me to relate incidentally rather than
formally the principles of the Association, its
theories and methods of administration, edu-
cation and evangelization, that they may vindi-
cate themselves in the visible results which have
been accomplished, e. g., in educational institu-
tions and churches established and carried on, in
the spirit in which the work has been done, and
in the esteem and approbation of leading South-
ern educators like Curry, Haygood, Galloway,
and others, who have given the testimonies of
personal knowledge.
Finally. I have sought to give a brief and
comprehensive statement of present conditions
and the outlook of to-day. In this I have
placed the stress — where I think it belongs —
PREFACE
it work and its challenging prolj-
lems during the four decades of our service
among and for the negro people, without neg-
lecting to present in their proper proportion and
relation the other features of our endeavors.
Before I began my researches I thought there
would be more incident and story than I have
been able to 6nd. The early days were serious
even to sadness, with work done under clouds,
as in all initial reforms. The workers in the
mission fields appear to have had little time or
inclination except for the constant appeal and
pressure in behalf of the work. They were too
hard-pressed, too sensitive to the sorrows about
them, and too earnest to see the humors of the
situation. The later times, happier in a larger
recognition, have yet been one constant struggle
to keep up with the demands of the work on short
allowances, and too strenuous and severe both
in office and field for much romantic interest; but
the whole of it taken together is nevertheless a
story of the " faith and patience which inherit
the promises," and of God's gracious providences
which it were not well to leave unrecorded.
Augustus Field Beard.
CONTENTS
Page
I. Conditions which Created the American Mis-
sionary Association i
II. Foreign Missions — In Africa 33
III. Foreign Missions — In Various Places ... 49
IV. Mission among the North American Indians . 63
V. The Home Department — West and South . 95
VI. **Thb Morning Cometh, and also the Night" 105
VII. Schools Following the Armies 119
VIII. PoucY AND Development 143
IX. SiGNmcANT Years 165
X. Concentration 195
XI. Welcome and Unwelcome 317
XII. New Fields and Old 335
XIII. Experience and Justihcation 349
XIV. Survey and Outlook 371
XV. In Northern Alaska, Porto Rico, Hawaii . . 395
XVL **The Just shall Live by Faith" 311
Index ^ ^37
IX
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Secretary Geoige Whipple, D.D Frontispiece
Rev. Josiah Brewer 40
Rev. Dan B. Bradley, M.D., Missionary to Siam ... 56
Normal Training School, Santee, Neb 73
T. L. Riggs, LL.D. 74
A. L. Riggs, D.D 82
J. A. R. Rogers, D.D 102
General S. C. Armstrong at the age of thirty- three . . 126
Hon. William Jackson 128
Hon. Lawrence Brainard 132
Edward N. Kirk, D.D 134
Arthur Tappan 138
First Buildings, Fisk University, 1866, former Military
Barracks 152
Erastus M. Cravath, D.D 154
General Clinton B. Fisk 156
Jubilee Hall, Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn. . . . 158
Theological and Livingston Halls, Fisk University . . 160
General O. O. Howard 172
Foster Hall and DeForest Chapel, Talladega, Ala. . . 176
Foster Hall and Campus, Talladega, Ala 178
Chapel, Tougaloo University, Miss 186
Beard Hall, Tougaloo University, Miss 186
Straight University, New Orleans, La 194
xi
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Allen Hall, Tillotson College, Austin, Texas • . . . 316
Dodge Hall, Pleasant Hill Academy, Tenn. 340
Avery Normal Institute, Charleston, S. C 343
Secretary James Powell, D.D 348
Daniel Hand 258
Secretary M. E. Strieby, D.D 368
Girls' Dormitory, Piedmont College, Demorest, Ga. • • 374
Beard Hall, Joseph K. Brick School, Enfield, N. C. . . 378
Chapel, Joseph K. Brick School, Enfield, N. C. . . . 378
Lincoln Academy, King's Mountain, N. C 380
Joseph E« Roy, D.D 330
XII
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED THE
AMERICAN MISSIONARY
ASSOCIATION
Two germinant civilizations. — New England and Vir-
ginia. — The introduction of slavery. — Its decrease in
New England and increase in the South. — Its abolition
in Vermont, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Connecticut,
Rhode Island, New Hampshire, New York, and New
Jersey. — The conscience of both sections against it. —
Testimony of Thomas Jefferson. — The action of the
general government to prohibit slavery in the Northwest
Territory and its failure. — Sentiments of Washington,
Hamilton, Patrick Henry, Madison. — The invention of
the cotton-gin and great increase of profits by slave labor.
— Consequent efforts for the perpetuation of slavery. —
Local antislavery societies formed. — Limdy and Garri-
son: their methods. — Alliance of New England com-
merce and Southern slavery. — Agitation in the North.
— Elxperience of Prudence Crandall and others. — New
National Antislavery Society formed and determination
to hold fast to the churches. — The widening movement
against slavery. — Silence of the churches and religious
societies. — The African captives in 1839. — Trial and
freedom. — Return to Africa. — The Mendi Mission. —
Organization of the Association in 1846 as a national
society. — Subsequent absorption of the local antislavery
societies.
THE AMERICAN
MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED THE
AMERICAN MISSIONARY
ASSOCIATION
THE " irrepressible conflict " which called
The American Missionary Association
into life and work was an evolution the
beginnings of which are traceable in the first
settlements of the country. In these, above all
other immigrations, two distinct types were de-
veloped which greatly determined, not only their
own future history, but also that of the nation.
These were of the North and the South, Each
section with its own heredity made its own en-
vironment, and as each developed after its kind
the original stamp was distinct and clear. The
United Colonies of New England accentuated
the motives and institutions of a pure deniocracy.
The Virginia colonists lived on their own estates
and maintained the life of the cavaliers. A
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
rugged climate and a not too friendly soil called
the New England settlers to severe personal labor
in their conquest of the wildern|gs. The Vir-
ginia colony under more congenial skies took on
an aristocratic and easier form of social life.
Each colony was strong enough to include in
its distinctive characteristics other immigrations,
but these two stand out in emphasis.
These original differences were intensified by
the introduction of slavery. The iniquity of
human bondage was not realized in that day suf-
ficiently to prevent its adoption North as well
as South. That the Christian conscience of the
New England colonies with their theories and
modes of life should follow the example of the
Virginia colony is not easy to explain. There
was no demand for slaves in the Northern colo-
nies, nor was slavery in harmony with their life
and social conditions. That it had feeble hold
and comparatively short existence in New Eng-
land does not wash away the stain upon its his-
tory. On the other hand, the social order of the
South — its ideas of class privilege — the climate,
and the agricultural industries, were such as to
favor slavery, so that after one hundred and fifty
years, the six hundred and seventy-five thousand
slaves were chiefly in the South. This is not to
assert that one section was more righteous in
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
principle in this respect at this time than the
other.
But the social conscience both in the North
and in the South had begun to awaken to the
iniquity of the system. Oglethorpe, the founder
of Georgia, in 1733 bore earnest testimony
against it, declaring that " slavery is against the
gospel as well as against the fundamental law
of England." As trustee he refused to make a
law permitting " such a horrid crime." He found,
however, the greed of the people more alive than
their consciences, and the founder of Georgia,
discouraged, gave up the battle and returned to
England.
As time passed, the convictions of the thought-
ful increased. On the 30th of October, 1774,
twelve colonies, which met for relief from British
oppression, feeling the incongruity of their com-
plaints as contrasted with their conduct towards
the oppressed at their own doors, passed unani-
mously the following declarations, solemnly
binding themselves and their constituents: " We
will neither import nor purchase any slave im-
ported after the first day of December next, after
which time we will wholly discontinue the slave
trade, and will neither be concerned in it our-
selves nor will we hire vessels, nor sell our
commodities or manufactures to those who are
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concerned in it." Agreeably to this all the colo-
nies closed their ports against the foreign slave-
trade, and abolished it before the date of the Con-
stitution. Anlislavery societies were formed in
the Southern colonies and thousands of slaves
were emancipated in Virginia alone.
With the war for independent nationality came
a new discussion of human rights. It was im-
possible to hold the logic of the Declaration of
Independence and fail to see that the institution
of slavery was a gross contradiction of it, and
a violation of the very fundamental claims of the
colonies for their freedom from oppression. John
Adams declared his abhorrence of the practise of
slaveholding, and said that " every measure of
prudence ought to be assumed for the eventual
total extirpation of slavery from the United
States." A society in favor of its abolition had
Benjamin Franklin for president and Benjamin
Rush for secretary. Similar associations were
founded about the same time in different parts
of the United States. The Northern slates in
quick succession abolished slavery: Vermont in
1777, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts in 1780,
Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire
in 1784, New York in 1799, and New Jersey in
1804. Meanwhile the general government, by
the ordinance of 1787, undertook to stop the
6
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
future extension of slavery, prohibiting it in its
whole Northwest Territory.
Perhaps the strongest protests came from the
South, where the evils of slavery were more
manifest. The wisest political foresight of the
South predicted the inevitable consequences of the
wrong. Thomas Jefferson, in 1774, wrote, " The
aboHtion of slavery is the great object of desire
in the colonies." He presided at the Fairfax
County convention in 1774, and took part in fram-
ing the resolves then adopted which expressed
" most earnest wishes to see an entire stop put
to such a wicked, cruel, and unnatural trade."
He could not have used stronger words when
he said : —
What an incomprehensible machine is man who can
endure toil, famine, stripes, imprisonment, and death
itself, in vindication of his own liberty, and the next
moment be deaf to all those motives whose power sup-
ported him through his trial, and afflict on his fellow
men a b<Midag«, one hour of which is fraught with
more misery than ages of that which he rose in rebel-
lion to oppose. . . .
When the measure of their tears shall be full —
when their groans shall have involved heaven itself
in darkness, doubtless a God of justice will awaken
to their distress, and by diffusing light and liberty
among their oppressors, or at length by his exterminat-
ing thunder, manifest his attention to the things of this
7
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world, and show that they are not left to the guidance
of a blind fatality.
In 1784 he reported in Congress an ordinance
that provided for the prohibition of slavery after
the year 1800 in all the Western country above
the parallel of thirty-one degrees, north latitude.
The proposed interdiction applied to what after-
wards became the states of Alabama, Mississippi,
Tennessee, and Kentucky as well as the North-
west Territory. This was lost by a single vote.
Jefferson, two years later, wrote: " The voice of
a single individual would have prevented the
abominable crime. Heaven will not always be
silent : the friend to the rights of human nature
will in the end prevail." Washington also voiced
the feeling and the conscience of multitudes of
Southern people when he repeatedly urged upon
the legislature of his state the necessity of taking
measures which would result in the gradual ex-
tinction of slavery. Madison, Hamilton, and
Patrick Henry all reprobated the system. There
was no question with these leaders of opinion as
to the wrong of slavery and the evils consequent
upon it. Madison in the Constitutional Conven-
tion earnestly opposed the section which delayed
the prohibition of slave-trade until 1808.
It was not merely that the profits of imrequited
labor outweighed the consciences of those who
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
wished to see slavery abolished, and who saw the
wickedness of buying and selling' men and women
as cattle. The trend of Southern civilization, the
aristocratic social state which in itself made for
class privilege, and the feudal theories of life
added strength to the commercial selfishness
sufficient to resist the promptings of the Chris-
tian conscience and the prophetic appeals of
statesmen.
The invention of the cotton-gin in 1793, which
fostered slave labor, found in the Southern theo-
ries of civilization a good soil for the perpetua-
tion of the system that Jefferson had charac-
terized as " an abominable crime against human
nature." History does not show many more
striking expositions of the apostle's words to
Timothy, " For the love of money is the root of
ail evil: which while some coveted after, tliey
have erred from the faith, and pierced themselves
through with many sorrows." What had prom-
ised to be a general consent, that slavery was too
evident a wrong to be tolerated, was followed —
when it was found to enrich slaveholders — by
a most servile acceptance of its continuance and
even by determined efforts for its extension.
Greed for the ungodly profits appealed not only
to Southern planters; those engaged in North-
ern commerce alike bandaged their ears and
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closed their eyes to what but a little time previous
had been a confessed wickedness against hu-
manity, to be forsaken as soon as pwssible.
The moral and humane expectations of the
Fathers were thus outweighed in the scales by
slavery, and slave-breeding became " no evil, no
scourge, but a great rehgious and moral bless-
ing." Meanwhile, Southern assertion and North-
ern actjuiescence had forced into the Constitu-
tion a toleration of the slave-trade until the year
1808, and had increased the Southern vote by
counting each slave as three>fifths of a voter.
The slave was thus " three-fifths a man and two-
fifths a chattel." This raised slavery to its throne,
and gave it the practical control of the govern-
ment. Thus entrenched it held the country firmly
in hand.
The first evidence of its political purpose and
power — after thirty years when the attention
of the country was upon other absorbing inter-
ests — was in 1820. when the question came upon
the admission of another slave state. Missouri
and Maine were applying for statehood at the
same time. The price for the admission of Maine
was that of Missouri as a slave state. There
were long debates in Congress, and slavery won.
but with the proviso that it should never extend
north of thirty-six thirty degrees.
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
Out of this debate from this time onward a
determined spirit of opposition to slavery arose
in the North. It was too deep-seated to accept the
current apologies for the wrong on the ground
that the responsibility was upon the South alone,
and that the North had no right to disturb what
the Constitution of the United States accepted
and was pledged to protect.
The pioneer of this opposition was Benjamin
Lundy, of Quaker origin, born in New Jersey
in 1789. He removed when nineteen years of
age to Virginia, where his attention was first
directed to the subject of slavery. In 1815 he
originated in Virginia an antislavery associa-
tion, called the " Union Humane Society." He
also formed antislavery societies in North Caro-
lina which together numbered three thousand
members. In 1828, visiting the Elastern states,
he made the acquaintance of Arthur and Lewis
Tappan and other prominent antislavery men.
Meeting WiUiam Lloyd Garrison in Boston, he
found a coadjutor sympathetic in purpose, but,
as it proved, not in metliods. Lundy, who wrote
and spoke " the truth in love," and with such a
spirit that he was tolerated in the slave states,
secured Garrison's cooperation in publishing in
Baltimore his paper, The Genius of Universal
Emancipation. While Ltmdy traveled and lee-
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tured, the Genius in the hands of Garrison at
once took on his own attitude and methods of
bitter denunciation, for which he was soon ar-
rested and imprisoned. Arthur Tappan, a mer-
chant of New York, while he did not approve
of Garrison's methods, believed in his sincerity
and his devotion to the oppressed, and paid the
fine which released him. The Cettius of Lundy
was ruined by the methods of Garrison, who re-
turned to Boston with his heart aflame, and at
once started The Liberator, his partner, Isaac
Knapp, and he being editors, workmen, composi-
tors, pressmen, and all hands. In his salutatory
Garrison wrote, " On the subject I do not wish
to speak with moderation;" and he never did.
He would have served his cause better if he had.
Garrison's contribution to antislavery was in the
truth he uttered in spite of the bitterness of his
temper. Lundy was wiser. As the opposition
to slavery grew, the South and its Northern
partizans made desperate efforts to prevent the
e-xpression of opinion respecting it, while the
churches in the slave states " searched the Scrip-
tures " to prove that human bondage was divinely
appointed and was morally right. The churches
in the North were mostly silent. They certainly
regarded slavery as a great wrong and mourned
its existence, but they felt estopped by the con-
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
stitutional rights of independent states from doing
more than wishing that it did not exist. To go
beyond this was Hke meddling with the affairs
of a foreign country.
Not all in the North, however, went as far as
this in their attitude toward slavery. The alH-
ance of New England commerce with Southern
slavery greed corrupted the conscience of North-
em society and succeeded in making the caste
of color about as rigid and narrow in the North
as Southern assertion could demand; this, too,
in communities where it would be least expected,
and which now regret that the unhappy facts
of history cannot be expunged. There are liv-
ing to-day those who remember an endeavor to
establish a manual labor school in New Haven,
Connecticut, for colored people, who were then
excluded from other schools. The leading citi-
zens of the city government rose together in their
indignation and defeated it. There are those
now living who can recall the time when the in-
telligent state of Connecticut, after a full discus-
sion, passed a law making it a crime to instruct
any colored child from another state.
It was in Canterbury, Connecticut, that Miss
Prudence Crandall, who had a girl's boarding-
school, received into it as a pupil a Christian
young woman, a negro, who wished to be edu-
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cated suflGciently to teach children of her race.
It was decided by the citizens that such a pro-
cedure could not be countenanced In Canterbury.
Miss Crandall pondered this injustice in her heart.
Here was one of God's children for whom she
believed Christ had lived and died, and who was
his disciple, forbidden by the community to seek
instruction in the one place where she could get
it. Upon this, Miss Crandall resolved to open
a school exclusively for colored girls, and this
she did in the spring of 1833. How cruelly she
was persecuted, how shamefully traduced, and
how bravely and patiently she bore her trials are
all in the story. As there was no law, however,
to prevent her, personal and political influence
persuaded the legislature of the state to pass the
act above referred to, making it a personal of-
fense punishable by fine and imprisonment for
any one in the state to instruct colored children
from another state. Miss Crandall knew that she
was right, and four or five different trials were
had in the courts, for her persistence in recog-
nizing the " higher law." The 6rst resulted in
her committal to jail. In the last trial before the
supreme court of errors she won. The law was
pronounced unconstitutional, and the result was
that Windham County, when it thought it all
over, became the most antislavery county in the
14
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
state. New Haven also repented and brought
forth fruit meet for repentance, as we shall ob-
serve later on in these pages.
In all this yielding to prejudice and unchris-
tian caste, Connecticut was not a sinner greater
than the other states. Wherever commerce
touched the South, there the convictions of the
North were silenced, and the entire North seems
to have been inoculated with the virus of slavery.
It was inevitable that this condition of things
should result in the formation here and there
of antislavery organizations. Naturally, those
which were most radical and denunciatory re-
ceived the first attention. With the wicked spirit
of caste in the North, the growing assertiveness
of the slave power, and its demands for North-
em silence and acquiescence, these organizations
had sufficient fuel for their red-hot publications.
There are always those who are susceptible to
fiery appeals.
Garrison, the chief of the denunciatory leaders,
found a constituency, but his following was com-
paratively small. Had his ideas and methods
received imiversal adoption in the North, slavery
would be in existence in the South to-day.
Equally determined and greatly wiser were they
who formed The American Antislavery Society,
which held its first meeting in Philadelphia in
>
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
December, 1833. Perhaps its most prominent
members were the brothers, Arthur and Lewis
Tappan, of New York, merchants of high stand-
ing and men of well-balanced and admirable char-
acter. We shall have more to say of these in later
pages. The sixty-four who organized this society
were almost all members of churches. Twenty-
one were Congregationalists or Presbyterians,
nineteen were Quakers, and one was Unitarian.
Such names as Joshua Leavitt, Elizur Wright,
John G. Whittier, and Samuel J. May, were on
that notable roll. The constitution was carefully
drawn to safeguard the society against the im-
putation of unconstitutional or anarchic tenden-
cies. It declared that the right to legislate for
the abolition of slavery existed only in the legis-
lature of each state, that the society would appeal
to Congress to prohibit the interstate slave-trade
and to abolish slavery in the District of Colum-
bia, and that the society would not countenance
the insurrection of slaves. It was declared that
their principles led them " to reject, and to en-
treat the oppressed to reject, the use of all carnal
weapons for deliverance from bondage." Their
measures, they said, would be " such only as the
opposition of moral purity to moral corruption,
the destruction of error by the potency of truth,
and the abolition of slavery by the spirit of re-
16
A
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
pentance." The society opposed the formation
of a distinct antislavery political party, deeming
it wiser to diffuse their principles among the
members of all parties. These men were not in
accord with the methods of Garrison, though he
was present and wrote a declaration of principles
which was adopted. But he and these men were
wide apart except in a common hostility to slav-
ery. He denounced the Constitution; they did
not. He held that all human governments were
sinful and to be ignored as resting on force, or to
be submitted to passively without taking part;
they held to the exact opposite. He declared the
Union should be dissolved because it was a com-
pact with slaveholders; they believed that the
Union must and should be preserved. To him
the churches " were cages of unclean birds and
synagogues of Satan," but these men were mem-
bers of churches. It was a matter of course,
therefore, that there should be a division of anti-
slavery forces, and it came to pass that the term
"Abolitionist," which in the South was applied to
all who wished to see slavery abolished, had quite
a different signification in the North. The name
■' Abolitionist " did not usually signify those who
were opposed to slavery, but who held that op-
position along with other political tenets and not
as a supreme article of faith. These were best
17
lOt ^^m
est ^M
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
included under the general term of " antislavery
men." The vituperative methods of Garrison and
those who hated iniquity after his fashion did
not appeal to those who, equally disinterested,
equally determined and earnest, were well bal-
anced, broader and wiser. No less radical in
their views as to the iniquity of human bondage,
they realized the complexity of the problem, the
absolute necessity of patience in reforms, and the
faith that can wait upon the developments of
time. That slavery was a system opposed to
Christianity did not contain all the terms of the
problem.
The fact that so many of the churches were
oblivious to the great evil did not lead these
people to cut loose from the churches. They re-
mained true to them even when they clearly saw
that they failed to recognize all that duty de-
manded. They believed they could do more
toward correcting opinion within than by stand-
ing without and screaming against those who did
not agree with them; by working with such
political alliances as could further in some de-
gree their convictions rather than by refusing
to have anything to do with any of them because
they failed to compass the entire obligation. To
swell the current of true public opinion by direct-
ing what streams of influence they could, was
i8
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
better than standing upon the bank and criticiz-
ing the sluggishness of the movement and the
crookedness of the channel.
In 1835 this American Antislavery Society
had two hundred and twenty-five auxiliary so-
cieties. A year later these had increased in
number to five hundred and twenty-seven, and
in 1837 there were twelve hundred with about
one hundred and twenty-five thousand members.
At the seventh annual meeting of this Anti-
slavery Society, May, 1840, the expected divi-
sion of the body took place, and a new national
society was formed named " The American and
Foreign Antislavery Society." Arthur Tappan,
after he had declined a reelection as head of the
old society, was chosen president.
A large executive committee of leaders was
appointed who realized that the methods of Gar-
rison and his followers were impossible. They
repudiated a hostile attitude toward the churches
nnd unsound positions respecting the Constitution
rjHl the government. This committee, consisting
of the Tappan brothers, Mr. Birney, Mr. Stan-
ton, William Jackson, John G. Whittier, Ger-
rit Smith, Judge William Jay, Joshua Leavitt,
W. H. Brisbane, Edward Beecher, and others,
made no delay in placing their case before the
country, giving the grounds of disagreement in
19
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
the antislavery ranks and a statement of prin-
ciples. The antislavery sentiment almost every-
where turned to the organizations in accord with
this new society.
Thus the aggressive and ever-widening move-
ment against slavery went steadily on through
defamations, mobs, and outrages that were a
scandal for a civilized country. In part by means
of these the evolution went on. The kingdom
of God comes, not only in spite of the conflicts
of human will, but often by means of them. His-
tory is full of movements which themselves were
big with injustice, and from which painfully
evolved the very arguments to overcome them
and deliver the people from their evils. " Great
destinies," says Emerson, " grow out of their im-
pediments and draw might out of them." The
progress of mankind has thus been through storm
and against head winds. The course has sel-
dom been a straight one, as men planned, but a
crooked one, as men made it, like a ship beat-
ing its way against hard and furious weather.
Providence assuredly was not tarrying. The
various antislavery societies here and there
were printing their pamphlets, distributing their
tracts, and making friends as well as enemies.
The Rev. Dr. R. S. Storrs, while president of
the American Board of Foreign Missions, thus
A
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
reviewed the conditions of the country at this
time:
The authority of the slave-power seemed established
at Washington, dominant over Congress, supreme in
the courts : and no hmit was apparent to pohtical sagac-
ity beyond which that power might not be pressed. . . .
The churches at the South were practically unani-
mous in the contention that slavery was right in itself,
that it had ample Biblical warrant, in patriarchal ex-
ample, and particularly In the direction of St. Paul
that servants should obey their masters, and in his
sending back to Philemon the escaped Onesimus,
Whatever occasional injustice to individuals might
occur under local slave laws they held that the sys-
tem, as such, had these superlative sanctions, and ought
to be maintained, while the abuses, wherever practi-
cable, should be relieved or removed. This sentiment,
of course, practically and profoundly affected churches
at the North, Tlie great Methodist Episcopal Church
divided on the issue, with almost geographical exact-
ness, and two General Conferences ihereafter occupied
the area previously for sixty years covered by one.
Other communions in this part of the country, while
not so distinctly rent asunder, were painfully divided
by the impact of Southern feeling upon them. The
Old-School Presbyterian Church was widely permeated
l^ this feeling. The Episcopal Church, with noble
individual exceptions, was apathetic on the subject.
The Congregationalists, less closely connected with the
South than either of the others, were distributed by
the question, according to their Christian or ethical sym-
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
pathies, in different directions. Distinguished presi-
dents and professors in colleges and seminaries were
sometimes open supporters of the system, or confess-
edly tolerant of it, or, more frequently, they stood
toward the whole momentous subject as dumb and
cold as stone statues. Yoimg men who should have
known better seemed sometimes to take an eccentric
pleasure in devising plausible arguments for the right
of one man, under special circumstances, to own an-
other. Prominent city pulpits were glad to present in
persuasive forms what was distinctively styled " the
South-side view "; and ministers who resisted and an-
tagonized such tendencies were apt to be regarded as
presumptuous radicals. The influence affected great
religious institutions. The American Tract Society,
which issued profuse tracts against dancing, novel-
reading, and similar iniquities, was utterly dumb before
this colossal national wickedness, and even the really
infernal laws which authorized the master to separate
wives from their husbands, children from parents, and
sell either or all in public markets, failed to stir its
torpid types. The society must live long to outlast
the memory of that disgraceful and damaging silence.
The American Sunday School Union was in like man-
ner practically fettered and stifled; and repeated efforts
to induce the American Board of Foreign Missions to
take decisive antislavery ground, while carrying on
its work among Cherokees and Choctaws and other
slaveholding peoples, wholly failed of success, out of
which failure came, however. The American Missionary
Association, since so justly honored and so widely and
nobly useful.
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
But the spirit which disputed and strove to arrest
such tendencies at the North was not dead, nor even
sleeping. For the most part, certainly, the Congrega-
tional ministers of New England, especially through-
out the rural districts, were intelligently and consist-
ently hostile to slavery, and were ready to take their
respective shares of service and sacrifice on behalf of
their convictions. The same was widely true of other
than the Old-School ministers in the Middle States,
and yet more widely of those at the West; while the
general ethical sense of our Northern communities was
being impressed and sharply stirred, not so much by
what might be said in pulpit or on platform, as through
what passed from one to another in neighborly con-
versation and fireside talk. It was a matter of common
observation that laymen were often in advance of those
who should have been their moral leaders, on the ques-
tion of slavery: and that, while the special antislavery
jiapers had limited circulation, there was a constantly
rising ground-swell of resistance to the ideas under-
lying ihe system, among all classes not personally or
financially allied with it.
In this evolution one of the providences which
led directly to the organization of The American
Missionary Association was an event which ex-
cited the attention of the nation.
In the spring of 1839 a number of Africans
near the West coast were kidnapped by some of
their own countrymen who acted as agents of
Spanish slave-traders, placed on board a Portii-
33
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
guese slaver, which took them to Havana, where
they were sold to two Cubans, the largest pur-
chaser taking forty-nine of them for $450 each.
A little schooner of about sixty tons was char-
tered to take them to Guanaja, another Cuban
port. They had been brought over in irons, but
it was thought to be unnecessary to chain them
down on this short coasting voyage. One of
them asked the cook where they were being
taken, and was told that they were going to be
killed and eaten. This cruel jest was taken for
literal fact, and since they were to be killed, it
seemed to tliem that it could be no worse if they
were killed in making a strike for their liberty.
Their chief was a tall, stalwart African with a
bold spirit. During the second night and under
his lead they rose against their captors. The
captain of the schooner was killed by this chief,
as was the cook whose ill-timed pleasantry roused
the captives. The cabin-boy, Antonio, a mulatto
slave of the captain, and Ruiz, one of the slaves'
purchasers, were secured and bound. The other
purchaser, Montez, was severely wounded. The
crew took to one of the vessel's boats and escaped.
It was thedesign of the captives now to attempt the
voyage back to Africa, of which they knew only
that it was " three moons distant and eastward."
By threats and signs they made Ruiz and Montez
A
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
take the wheel by turns and steer toward the
east, but every night as soon as the sun had
gone those at the helm would bring the schooner
gradually about and head for the north. They
were two months zigzagging in this way, when
<»i Sunday, August 25, they cast anchor on what
proved to be the northern coast of Long Island,
not far from Montauk Point. A party of them
on a tour of discovery came ashore, their only
clothing being a handkerchief twisted around
their loins; those not having this protection wore
blankets thrown over their shoulders. They went
to the neighboring houses for food and water,
and had Spanish gold, which they took from the
schooner for the purchase. On Monday, while
they were upon the beach, a number of the
neighboring inhabitants drove up to find out
who these strange, costumeless creatures might
be. One of them, " Banna," who knew a few
English words, tried to communicate with them.
His first inquiry indicated what kind of influ-
ence these negro people had received from visi-
tors who had gone to their native land from
civilized countries. It was, " Have you any
rum?" at the same time exhibiting Spanish
doubloons. It is a shame to record that they
received a bottle of gin in excliange for some
of their money. The chief who was on board
I
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
of the schooner was now sent for, who immedi-
ately asked through Banna if this coiuitry made
slaves. The reply was, " No." " Are any Span-
iards here? " " No." At this the chief whistled
and the Africans sprang up shouting for joy.
The white men, frightened, ran to their wagons
for their guns, hut the blacks showed them that
there was no danger by presenting them with
their own guns, of which they had two, and a
knife.
On the afternoon of this day a coast survey
brig, the IVashington, came into this part of the
Sound, and, attracted by the strange appearance
of the schooner, which seemed to be in distress,
sent a boat's crew to her assistance. They found
the negroes on deck armed with cane-knives.
The boarding officer, at the point of a pistol, sent
them below, and the two Spaniards who had
purchased these Africans for slaves were re-
leased. The chief, upon this, sprang into the
water and made for the shore. He was pur-
sued, retaken and handcuffed. Tlie Africans
now numbered forty-four, three of whom were
young girls. Ten had died on the night of the
capture. The IVashhigion took her prize across
the Sound into the harbor of New London. The
Africans were committed to jail in New Haven,
charged with the crimes of murder and piracy,
36
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
and the whole forty-four crowded into four apart-
ments in New Haven County jail. " Here on the
soil of a free state were a body of men in confine-
ment on a charge of murder, because when kid-
napped against law on a Spanish vessel, they
had risked life for liberty." The slave power
saw clearly what was involved in the issue and
was excited. The government took the Southern
view that the crime must be punished and res-
toration be made to Spain, but these unfortunate
people were not to go undefended.
Rev. Simeon S. Jocelyn, subsequently a secre-
tary of The American Missionary Association,
Rev. Joshua Leavitt, and Lewis Tappan volun-
teered to act as a committee in their behalf, to
receive funds for their defense, and to provide
them clothing and other necessities. They found
a friend also in Professor Gibbs of the Yale
Divinity School, who, having learned the sounds
of some of their words, went to New York and
about the shipping in the harbor until he found
an African sailor-boy from Sierra Leone who
recognized the words. He had some acquaint-
ance with English, and accompanying Professor
Gibbs to New Haven on September 9, the cap-
tives were moved to tell their story and to com-
raunicate freely. Professor Gibbs, with the in-
terpreter's aid, set out to make a vocabulary of
27
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
their language, which was that of the Mendi
country, north of Liberia, and was soon able
to converse with most of them.
It was in September when the case went to
court before Judge Thompson, whose decision
was that " while slavery is not tolerated in Con-
necticut, it does not follow that the right of these
Spanish claimants cannot be investigated here in
the proper court of the United States." The
discharge of the Africans was therefore refused,
but as Judge Thompson had decided that they
had committed no crime against our laws, they
were now given much more freedom, and on
pleasant days were taken out on the New Haven
green for exercise. Within the jail also they
had much more freedom.
The appeal was now to the District Court.
Judge Judson, who presided, had been best
known as having brought the criminal proceed-
ings against Prudence Crandall for setting up
a boarding-school at Canterbury, his own town,
for colored girls. His decision, after a trial
which lasted a week, was that the prisoners were
free-born and only kidnapped into slavery, were
free by the law of Spain itself, and that they
should be delivered to the President of the United
States to be by him transported back to Africa.
The claimants of the Africans had one more
38
i
I
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
chance. Appeal to the Supreme Court at Wash-
ington could not be denied them. John Quincy
Adams was added to the counsel in behalf of the
negroes, and with Roger S. Baldwin the case
went to the Supreme Court for decision. The
hearing was reached in February, 1841, and in
March the captives were declared " free to be
dismissed from the custody of the court and go
without delay."
It had been a great battle. Adams had brought
his learning and ability with supreme earnest-
ness, Roger S. Baldwin had argued with resist-
less power, but while the captives were free,
" their freedom," as Baldwin said, " was a barren
gift. . . . They were here separated from their
homes by the distance of half the globe and in
a slate where they might be pitied but were not
wanted." The imited committee resolved not to
relinquish their labors until the Africans had
been safely restored to their native land. New
appeals for subscriptions were made and the
necessary funds were secured. In 1842 these
people found themselves again in their own
native country, accompanied by two Christian
missionaries.
The first suggestion was that they should be
sent back in this way under the auspices of The
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
39
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Missions, and the Amisfad Committee offered
what funds they had collected to the Board for
this purpose, provided they would make it an
antislavery mission. The Board declined the
proposition, and the committee went forward on
its own responsibility in establishing the " Mendi
Mission," the first mission on the Dark Con-
tinent, the funds for which were largely fur-
nished by Arthur Tappan.
This same year there was organized in Hart-
ford, Connecticut, a society with the same aim
as the Amistad Committee, viz., " to discounte-
nance slavery, and especially by refusing to re-
ceive the known fruits of unrequited labor."
The Amistad Committee soon afterwards be-
came merged in this, named The Union Mission-
ary Society, and under its auspices the mission-
aries directed the mission station at Kaw-Mendi, |
where a church was organized, a school estab-
lished, and a decided influence exerted in that
region against the slave-trade.
In 1837 an independent mission had been
undertaken among the emancipated people of
Jamaica, which was intended to be self-support-
ing. This, upon trial, was found to be imprac- 1
ticable, and in 1844 a committee to provide for 1
and direct this was organized under the name I
of a " Committee for West Indian Missions."
CONDITIONS WHICH CREATED
Early in 1846 a call from Syracuse, New York,
was issued for a convention of " friends of Bible
Missions " to be held in Albany in September.
Upon the call, the " friends of Bible Missions "
assembled. In the call it was asserted that " The
time has come when those who would sustain
missions for the propagation of a pure and free
Christianity should institute arrangements for
gathering and sustaining churches in heathen
lands, from which the sins of caste, polygamy,
slaveholding, and the like shall be excluded. To
bear such crimes in silence, not to say to direct
practice or fellowship therein is enough to para-
lyze the faith and hope of the church," etc.
Two days were occupied in a free and har-
monious discussion. At last, when it appeared
that there was no other way to be free from the
complications of slavery, those who could not
sustain it and who could not keep silent, formed
a constitution and elected officers. Hon. William
Jackson, of Massachusetts, was elected President,
George Whipple, of Ohio, Corresponding Secre-
tary, and Lewis Tappan, Treasurer.
Thus The American Missionary Association
began its life.
The executive committee were located in the
city of New York. As the founders of this
Association largely composed the local societies
31
A
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
above mentioned, these soon merged themselves
into the new association which should be na-
tional and unify their work. Arthur Tappan,
who was the chief mover in the Amistad Com-
mittee, and its head, became chairman of the ex-
ecutive committee of The American Missionary
Association.
These societies having transferred their funds
and missions, the Association vigorously entered
upon its work of strengthening the missions al-
ready begun, and establishing or accepting the
care of others, — one missionary at the Sand-
wich Islands, two in Siam, and a number among
the colored refugees in Canada. " The Home
Department " was conducted with a special view
to the preaching of the gospel, " free from all
complicity with slavery or caste."
Two years later the " Western Evangelical
Society," which had been formed in 1843 to
prosecute missionary operations among the In-
dian tribes of the West, likewise transferred its
missions to The American Missionary Associa-
ton and ceased to exist.
II
FOREIGN MISSIONS
IN AFRICA
The outlook of the new society. — Appeal of the ex-
ecutive committee. — The coming of Secretary Whipple.
— The Mendi Mission in the foreground. — An industrial
school at Kaw-Mendi. — Views of Rev. Josiah Brewer,
one of the founders of the Association and member of the
executive committee. — Theory of self-sustaining mis-
sions. — Rapid death-rate of white missionaries in Africa.
— Three central stations, with schools and churches. —
Generous gift of Rev. Charles Avery of Pittsburg for
African Missions. — The increased death-rate of mis-
sionaries. — Decision to send colored graduates of our
higher institutions. — Unsuccessful experience. — Trans-
fer of the Mendi Mission in 1882 to "The Society of
United Brethren."
FOREIGN MISSIONS
IN AFRICA
IN this way faith had its vision and its call.
People who believed in God looked out upon
another people, children of a common Father,
who were born under the skies of a common
country in a land of churches and Bibles, and
saw them, not only with no legal rights, but not
even with the rights of their own persons — chat-
tels under the laws — bought and sold as things,
in sin and degradation and without hope in the
world. Their faith saw more; it looked into the
future. It saw this people free and walking as
erect men; it saw them listening to a gospel
whose saving grace should bring with it clean
hands and a pure heart. Its vision took in men
and women going, in self-sacrificing love, to in-
terpret the love of God and the brotherhood of
man to those who had been in darkness and in
the shadow of death. Their faith did not know
how this was to be, nor when it was to be. They
had their vision, and they had their call. They
35
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
could not be silenced because of the power which
worked in them.
It is God who causes the hearts of men to burn
within them when they look with his look upon
the sufferings which come through sin. When
the ear of faith hears this call of God, then people
find themselves confronted by problems which will
no longer wait; then come the tides in the affairs
of men; then God's time and God's people find
themselves face to face. So it was. To all ap-
pearance, the way that The American Missionary
Association had elected appeared most hopeless.
Those who comprised it were few, and were
not accounted wise. They were " fanatics " and
" men of one idea." The sentiment of most of
the churches and the strength and wealth of the
nation were against them. The slave power was
increasing. The annexation of Texas had opened
a great field for it. This not only meant new
votes in the Senate and in the House of Repre-
sentatives, but several new states out of its im-
mense territory. The question of slavery exten-
sion had become more than ever insistent. The
proslavery administration of James K. Polk was
dominant, and political life was everywhere fever-
ishly sensitive.
This little society, with faith as its chief asset,
set its face against this. In the first issue of its
36
FOREIGN MISSIONS
"Magazine" in October, 1846, the executive
committee refers to the address of the conven-
tion which organized the Association for a state-
ment of its principles, and asks " the prayers of
the friends of Bible Missions everywhere that
they may always speak the truth in love." It
closes its appea! for Christian sympathy and co-
operation as follows : —
The field is unrestricted. Beginning with our own
highly favored and guilty country, the Association
will, as it may be able, preach the gospel to the poor,
assist feeble churches, sustain missionary operations
amongst the free colored population, and preach de-
liverance to the crushed and stricken slave. It will
endeavor to strengthen and extend the interesting mis-
sion to the Indians. The fugitive slaves in Canada
present an important field of missionary effort. The
West India Mission among the emancipated slaves of
Jamaica has great and pressing wants. The Mendi
Mission should be enlarged immediately, and many
reasons induce the committee to turn their earliest
attention to India and China.
In the issue of December, 1846, we read: " The
Executive Committee have the pleasure to an-
nounce that the Rev. George Whipple, of Ohio,
has been appointed Corresponding Secretary of
The American Missionary Association, that he
has accepted the appointment, and is now in the
city entering upon the duties of the office. They
37
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
bespeak for him the prayers of the members and
friends of the Association and the friends of
missions."
At once the Mendi Mission in Africa appears
in the foreground of the Association's first work.
Two missionaries had accompanied the return-
ing captives to their African home when the As-
sociation took charge. One had already died.
Rev. R. Raymond and wife were now at Kaw-
Mendi with an assistant native teacher who could
speak English. A school had been immediately
established — a manual labor school. This pio-
neer missionary, in 1846, writes: " The school is
continually increasing. It now numbers thirty-
nine, six of whom are girls. Twelve of these are
apprentices — ten to the carpenter's trade, one to
the sawyer's and one to the blacksmith's. Part
are in school all the time. Those who are in
school in the morning are with the carpenters
in the afternoon and vice versa. Each division
of the school takes its turn in cooking. The girls
assist in the cooking and in taking care of the
house and are learning to sew. You can easily
see that the object of all this is to teach them
industry. My plan is to make this in the end
a self-supporting mission."
This was twenty-one years before the school
at Talladega tn Alabama was founded, where the
^
industrial idea in the schools of the South had
its first introduction. The missionary in Sierra
Leone certainly had the gift of prophecy, but
we shall be surprised as we follow the develop-
ment of this African mission if we find that it
ever became "self-supporting"!
In 1847 the Rev. Josiah Brewer, one of those
who organized The American Missionary Asso-
ciation at Albany, and who was upon its first
executive board, a missionary who had returned
from Turkey in Asia, — the honored father of
the honored son whose learning serves his coun-
try upon the bench of the United States Supreme
Court, — wTites to the editor of The Missionary
as follows: —
Manual labor missionaries are wanted among many
unevangelized nations to make labor honorable. Slav-
er)-, we all know, tends to degrade labor. Barbarism
turns it over in undue proportions upon females, I
well remember before laboring in foreign lands, when
spending a few weeks among the poor Indians on the
Penobscot, an incident in point. Having provided my-
self with several hoes, in the intervals of school I went
out into the corn-fields and began to work. On see-
ing this the Indian boys said in their broken English,
" Schoolmaster no hoe ; woman he hoe." By perse-
verance, however, before summer was past not a few
of the boys got quite in the habit of helping their
mothers in this work.
39
L
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Let it not be objected that such missionaries can-
not be all the while engaged in public teaching; neither
was Paul. Missionaries of this class are needed on
account of their knowledge of men and things and
their experience in the common affairs of life. Mis-
sionaries are required in all the varied departments
of honest industry to perform the different kinds of
mechanical labor and business on strictly Christian
principles. ... I deem it one of the felicities of our
new society that we shall not feel ourselves tied down
in all things to precedents whose existence dates back
little more than one generation.
The forerunners, " not tied down to prece-
dents," certainly did not get their ideas of in-
dustrial training from those who introduced it
twenty years later. It was good for Africa in
1847, as it always is for the masses of peoples
developed or undeveloped. Mr. Raymond's hope
of " self-sustaining missions," however, never
had large realization. The theory is right, but
in practise " self-supporting missions " have usu-
ally proved to be financially very expensive.
Again in 1847 this earnest missionary, Ray-
mond, in Africa, writes: "I have in every way
encouraged industry and have set the example,
working with my hands. I have commenced me-
chanical and agricultural departments with my
school. Every boy in this school large enough
must work; whether he is the son of a king or
40
FOREIGN MISSIONS
a slave, it makes no difference. There are some
who within a year liave been sold like cattle,
yet they are on the same footing with the sons
of the king."
When the first year of the Association closed,
Mr. Raymond's manual labor school numbered
one hundred pupils. The second Annual Report
publishes " the most afflictive providence that has
befallen the Mission in the death of its first mis-
sionary to Africa." Mr. Raymond's work was
one of heroic and incredible labor and remark-
able accomplishment. The early progress of the
Mission had been embarrassed by the outbreak-
ing of a native war, yet during all this unpro-
pitious period, the Mission school had greatly
prospered, and its influence was felt far and
wide. But by Mr. Raymond's death in 1847 the
Mission lost its leading spirit, who had wisely
shaped its early development. Thomas Bunyan,
a converted native of Mendi, who had acted as
interpreter and teacher, and who had become
an efficient helper, was left in charge until re-
enforcements arrived from the United States in
the persons of Rev. George Thompson and Anson
J. Carter, who reached Kaw-Mendi in July, 1848.
Mr. Carter died eight days after he had arrived
at the Mission. In November, 1849, Mr. Thomp-
son was gladdened by the annoimcement of the
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
coming to his aid of Mr. and Mrs. John S. Brooks
with Miss Sara Kinson (Mar-Gru, one of the
Amistad captives who had remained in this
country for eight years and had been educated
here), but Mrs. Brooks died in Sierra Leone of the
African fever before reaching Kaw-Mendi station.
At this time the mission church numbered forty
members, and tlie missionaries reported great en-
couragement in the signs of increasing religious
interest. A whole village gave up idolatry and
were ministered unto by three native missionaries
sent to them.
The war between the tribes, which had been
raging for several years, was at last brought
to a close through the persistent eflforts of Mr.
Thompson. He was chosen umpire by contend-
ing chiefs, and after repeated and trying excur-
sions to interview and influence the dilTerent
parties, he at length succeeded. It was a grand
achievement which made for the extension and
success of the Mission. "Already." he wrote,
" there is a desire for the gospel and for living
teachers such as was never known in this coun-
try." The rulers and the people met him, eager
to hear him preach. Another of the Amistad cafn
tives, Kinna, had become an earnest evangelist
among his countrymen. In 1850 Mr. Thompson
returned to the United States to recruit his health
J
FOREIGN MISSIONS I
and to arouse the churches here to interest them-
selves in African missions and also to secure re-
enforcements for his field, Mr. Brooks being left
in charge.
In 1851 eight missionaries arrived at Sierra
Leone on their way to join the Mendi Mission,
three of whom died of African fever in quick suc-
cession soon after their arrival.
The year 1851, which began with such bright
hopes for the Mission, was darkly shadowed by
these swift-following bereavements, but still the
working force was larger than ever, and all the
conditions seemed to facilitate the labors of the
missionaries. The chiefs and their tribes were
ready to hear the gospel; many gave up their
idol-worship, and at the close of the year four-
teen new members were added to the church.
In 1S53 seven new missionaries, five of them
young women, joined the Mission. Everything
promised well when war broke out again in the
surrounding country. Mr. Brooks, as the head
of the Mission, convinced that the planting of
new mission stations would be the most effective
method of securing and preserving peace among
jealous chiefs, started two new missions, one
quite a httle distance in the interior, which he
named " Mo-Tappan," and another on Sherbro
Island called " Good Hope."
43
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
It was another sad blow to this Mission when
Rev. Mr. Condit, whose preaching had been at-
tended with marked success, died in 1854.
The church at Kaw-Mendi, the original mis-
sion station, now numbered ninety-six members.
In January, 1855, three more young Christian
women from the United States joined the Mis-
sion. There had been thus far established the
three central stations — Kaw-Mendi, Mo-Tappan,
and Good Hope — and several out-stations, where
schools were kept by natives who had been pre-
pared by the missionaries. But it had now
become evident that Kaw-Mendi was so ex-
tremely perilous to health as to make it a duty
to distribute the missionaries among other and
healthier stations.
In 1856 Rev. Mr. Thompson, after eight years
of most faithful service, retired from the field.
This was a great loss to the missions. Three
new missionaries were sent out in 1857, one of
them dying at Freetown before he had arrived
at his mission station. Eight others joined the
missionary forces in 1858. The death in this
year of Mrs. Brooks — a second wife — who was
a most efficient worker and who had remarkable
success in the management of her school, was
another severe blow to the Mission.
Mr. Jowett, a young native, and Mr. Johnson,
J
FOREIGN MISSIONS
Bother native somewhat advanced in years, were
at this time ordained to preach the gospel, and
at the beginning of 1859 four additional mis-
sionaries with their wives, undismayed by the
fact that each year was flecked with sorrow by
the respective deaths of those who had devoted
themselves to this work, gave new strength to
the enterprise. Another promising young native
also was licensed to preach by the " Mendi Asso-
ciation." More than a thousand Mendi words
had been collected, defined, and reduced to writ-
ing. A primer had been compiled and was in
process of printing. A translation of the Gospels
had been begim. The work at the out-stations
continued.
Avery Station, one hundred and twenty miles
southeast on the Bargroo River, named in com-
memoration of the generous endowment of this
mission to the amount of $100,000 by Rev.
Charles Avery of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, es-
tablished in 1859, was particularly prosperous.
Within four years, five missionaries had been
added to the force to make good the vacancies
occasioned by death or to take the places of those
who felt compelled to retire.
Thus the years went on. In 1874 Barnabas
Root, a native of the Mendi country, was sent by
the Mission to the United States to prepare for
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
his work among his own people. Educated and
graduated at Knox College and Chicago Theo-
logical Seminary, he returned to his native land,
having given promise here of a signally useful
career. He began his work with enthusiasm and
wisdom, but was soon stricken down by death.
It is unutterably sad to think how many mis-
sionaries fell before their work had fairly begun.
The results so far as statistics may give them in
this first field of the Association were about fifty
missionaries heroically laboring with varying de-
grees of success and for longer or shorter terms
in five central stations with other points occu-
pied as preaching stations. The churches organ-
ized lived and gjew, and the schools established
taught successive generations of youth the ele-
mentary studies and the duties of life. The first
sawmill ever known in western Africa was in
successful operation at Avery Station and had
already paid for itself. It was regarded as a
most useful adjunct of the Mission.
The Association thus maintained the Mendi
Mission for twenty-seven years. White mission-
aries fearlessly followed each other with a rapid
death-rate surely facing them and with many
consequent changes and interruptions of prog-
ress. That measureless holy influences were
created and untold good was done is evident,
i^
46
J
FOREIGN MISSIONS
lit it was at the cost of many precious lives. In
view of this, it was decided to make trial of the
freedmen of America, educated and trained in the
higher institutions of the Association, as mis-
sionaries. They could stand the climate, and it
seemed to be a fitting thing that they should
teach their own race the way of life. Seventeen
of these in the years 1877-8, thought to be quali-
fied for this work, took the places of those who
had recently withdrawn from the missions and
who had left them greatly weakened. It was
hoped that thus the Christianization of Africa
by ministers of African descent might be so suc-
cessful as to prove that a way had been found to
carry on this missionary enterprise without the
bitter experience of the loss of so many precious
lives.
Owing to immaturity, both of experience and of
judgment, the experiment was not satisfactory.
The results proved it to be advisable for the As-
sociation to return to its former methods. It was
too soon — then, at least; the children of tfie
freedmen were not far enough removed from
their antecedents. The last attainment in edu-
cative development is a wise administrative abil-
ity. Executive wisdom is the gift of long he-
redity. It was too much to expect this fitness
and power in young men not a score of years
47
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
out of slavery. The enthusiasm of humanity with
a controlling consecration and with wise admin-
istration does not come at once to an undeveloped
people. The experiment would be more hopeful
now than it was twenty-five years ago.
In 1882 the question of a transfer of the for-
eign work of the Association in the interest of
greater concentration upon the pressing prob-
lems of the homeland was considered, and early
in the next year the Mendi Mission with its five
mission stations and their property, its mis-
sionary steamer used for transportation, and its
thirty-five years of history was transferred to the
" United Brethren," who already had an adjoin-
ing mission on the West coast. Since that time
the African missions under the care of the United
Brethren have been largely and successfully
developed.
Ill
FOREIGN MISSIONS
IN VARIOUS PLACES
Sandwich Islands Mission. — West India Missions. —
Siam Mission. — Rev. Dan Beach Bradley, m.d., Mission-
ary intelligence. — Patriotism. — Mission closed in 1874.
— Five years among the Cc^ts in Egypt — Mission
among the refugees from slavery in Canada.
Ill
FOREIGN MISSIONS
IN VARIOUS PLACES
Sandwich Islands Mission
IN 1846 the Rev. J. S. Green and wife, former
missionaries of the A. B. C. F. M. in Ma-
kawao Maui, came imder the care of the
Association. The church, consisting entirely of
natives at this place, then numbered five himdred
and thirty-nine members, with a large and flour-
ishing Simday-school. The mission had already
become self-sustainiiig, — the first of the kind
of which we have heard, — and as such was en-
tirely successful.
Three years later, Mr. Green writes : " As to
the prospects of the people, I cannot conceal my
fears. Not less probably than one-tenth of the
Hawaiian nation have died since October, 1848."
He adds : " As a church I am fully of the opinion
that there is as much consistent piety as in
most churches of my acquaintance in the United
States; that Qiristians of the Sandwich Islands
who some twenty-five years since were enveloped
SI
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
in a darkness which might be felt, who were
gross and stupid idolaters, addicted to all the
vices that disgrace human nature, should in such
short time become alert, intelligent, and in every
respect pure and consistent Christians would be
an anomaly in the Church of Christ. That many
of them are aiming to become thus I believe."
In confirmation of Mr. Green's statement a
quotation from the Annual Report of 1852 says:
" The church, which is self-supporting, raised the
past year $800 toward building a place of wor-
ship. It also contributes to the antislavery cause
in the United States. One native church has
sent $100 to be expended in a prize tract on the
sinfulness of American slavery. The interest of
these Christian Hawaiians in behalf of the con-
version of the oppressed in our own land is very
cheering."
In 1855 we read that Rev. Mr. Green has two
churches under his care with an aggregate of
one thousand members.
The interest of the Association was active in
the Sandwich Islands until the year 1873, when
the Committee on Foreign Missions at the an-
nual meeting made a report recommending with-
drawal from the foreign field, since " Providence,
which had unmistakably directed the first work .
to foreign missions, had of late years directed ■
FOREIGN MISSIONS
to a concentration of effort in behalf of the col-
ored race in the United States."
West India Missions
The missions among the emancipated negroes
in the Island of Jamaica came under the care of
the Association in 1847. They consisted of four
central stations and three out-stations. Year by
year the reports expressed the hopes and fears,
the joys and trials, of mission life. In 1851, for
example, one writes, " I believe there never was
a more important time to work in Jamaica than
now." The enlargement of operations is strongly
recommended. " There are great destitutions all
over the island, and requests are continually com-
ing' in to us to establish new stations. We
must, however, have more men if we would
successfully prosecute the work of evangelizing
Jamaica." Again in 1853 we read: "In many
respects this field is a hard one. The inheritances
of slavery are not easily overcome; the vices
which it engendered have still strong hold, and
the mission has already realized that the hope
of the future is in the youth whom they are
educating and training away from the evils
which corrupt and destroy." A year later eight
churches and ten schools, with over seven hun-
53
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
dred pupils, were reported. Thus the mission
went on as evangelistic work does and as Chris-
tian schools do, gaining Httle by Httle upon the
ignorance and hereditary vices of the poor people
whose liard lot in slavery left them not greatly
better than their ancestors in Africa. But dur-
ing all this steady, patient, and inconspicuous
service, others besides the black people of Ja-
maica were being educated. Though at the time
they comprehended it not, all this process and
experience with schools and churches was pre-
paring the Association and its officers for the
greater mission which was in the womb of the
future and to be born in the fulness of time.
There is a science of missions which comes by
observation and experience extending through
the years. The thoughts and plans of mission-
ary workers, their tentative endeavors, successes
and failures, are the material out of which this
science is evolved. The lessons of non-success
and the reasons which appear in practical expe-
rience are sometimes as useful in the way of
caution and teacliing what may not be under-
taken, as are the lessons of achievement which
indicate the methods of a wise and energetic
development. The missions among the emanci-
pated blacks of Jamaica were rich in lessons, both
negative and positive, which were to make the As-
J
FOREIGN MISSIONS
soaatton a providential agency when God's pur-
poses should ripen; and they were ripening fast.
The mission was continued until 1873, when the
schools were made over to the government of
Jamaica. Later the churches were transferred
to the watch and care of the Baptist denomina-
tion, and the Association withdrew from the
island.
SiAM Mission
The Siam mission was adopted in 1848 by a
curious kind of transfer from the American
Board. Rev. Dan Beach Bradley, m.d,, who
had been a missionary of the American Board
in Siam. but whose " views were thought to be
incompatible " with that body, explained to the
Association the inharmonious relations of himself
and his associate. Rev. Jesse Caswell, with it, and
gave an interesting history of the mission. That
the Association did not consider the " heresies "
dangerous, appears from the adoption of the fol-
lowing resolution: "Resolved. That the estab-
lishment of a mission at Siam, and the accept-
ance by the Executive Committee of the service
of our esteemed brethren, Messrs. Bradley and
Caswell, meet with the full approbation of the
Association ; that it be recommended to the Ex-
ecutive Committee to sustain this interesting
55
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Mission." Letters from the Prudential Commit-
tee of the A. B. C. F. M. highly commendatory
of these brethren and dismissing them from con-
nection with the Board, made allusion to the
alleged " doctrinal errors " which in the judg-
ment of the Board ended their usefulness as
missionaries in Siam. It will be interesting in
this year of our Lord to know what was so
objectionable as to warrant this action. It is
contained in the statement of Mr. Caswell, to
which Dr. Bradley gave his substantial assent,
adding that since he had come to this country
he had been led to question the propriety of
infant baptism. He thought the *' Biblical au-
thority " for this rite " somewhat doubtful." He
frankly informed the Executive Committee that
the separation from the American Board was
" not from choice, nor made until it had been
requested." The statement is as follows: —
I believe and teach that the provisions of grace are
such as to authorize the Christian to look to Christ
with the con6dent hope and expectation of receiving
all the aid he needs to enable him to do all the will
of God, or, in other words, to love God with all his
heart and his neighbor as himself. Consequently, I
do not, as some suppose, set aside the grace of Christ
or the constant dependence on that grace. Whatever
available power to obey God we have is a free gift
of his grace.
SIS
FOREIGN MISSIONS
I believe that the answer to the 149th question in
the " Larger Catechism," which says. " No mere man
is able either by himself or by any grace received in
this life perfectly to keep the commands of God, but
doth daily break them in thought, word, and deed,"
goes beyond what can be proved by the Bible,
While I have not thought that any actually kaz'e
attained or u-ill attain in this life to a state of entire
and continued exemption from sin. 1 believe that to
affirm the converse of this proposition is going be-
yond what we have Scripture authority for so doing.
The Association felt that if there were no
greater heresies than these, there was no dis-
qualification for missionary service, and Dr.
Bradley returned to work with his colleague.
Siam proper, at whose capital, Bangkok, the
mission was created, comprised about one hun-
dred and sixty square miles, and had then a pop-
ulation of about four million people who spoke
twelve different languages and formed as many
different classes. The prevailing religion of
Buddhism challenged all the faith and courage
of those who sought to displace it with the gospel,
but these brethren, strong in the faith that the
gospel of Christ is the true power of God unto
salvation, under this new society, which was not
afraid of their theological errors, went cheerfully
to their work.
The new year had scarcely opened when the
57
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
tidings came of Mr. Caswell's death. Three
months after he had received the notice of his
appointment and while the thanksgivings of the
Association for the gift of so valuable a mis-
sionary were being expressed, he was suddenly
called to higher service in the heavenly world.
Dr. Bradley wrote, " While I have had moments
of feeling that I should sink under this last bil-
low of sorrow, yet my head has been kept above
its crest by a present service."
The letters of Dr. Bradley, published from
time to time in The American Missionary, are
models of missionary intelligence, describing the
climate, soil, physical characteristics, and prod-
ucts of the country, the people, their dress, their
dwelhngs, their streets, their habits of thought,
their methods of life, their schools, their indus-
tries, the mines and minerals, and whatever is
peculiar to Siam, with the moral and religious
conditions and capabilities. They are intensely
interesting reading for their vivid expression and
literary excellence, now after the events which
he so graphically pictured are three-score years
away. In his pleading for missionary aid, for
example, he writes : " True, it is a long way from
our native land, but it is rapidly becoming nearer
every year. When the Oregon railroad is done
it will be within thirty-five days of New York!
58
FOREIGN MISSIONS
iid when our telegraph wires are made to cross
Behring Strait, we can hold converse with our
friends by lightning power."
His letters are most optimistic also as to
the rehgious future of Siani, but he confesses
at the same time that his hopes do not rest
in any marked visible results. " It seems to
me," he writes in 1851, "that the truths of the
gospel are spreading and increasing the light,
and my confidence that now God is going to
perform a great work here does not fail me."
At the same time he adds, " I am not aware that
any of my hearers for the last seven or eight
months have been brought into the kingdom."
In 1852 the mission reports " great encour-
agement." Dr. Bradley has been made physi-
cian to the king and the royal family, and has
preached to several large assemblies within the
palace walls ; at the same time the mission labors
without much apparent success.
An illustration of the spirit of Dr. Bradley
is seen in a quotation from his letter to the
Association dated Bangkok, Siani, August 19,
1863:—
I wish to devote $300 of the enclosed draft as a
small item of aid to our government in carrying on
the war for crushing out that atrocious rebellion.
My whole heart ascends to God in prayer continu-
59
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOaATION
ally for our war cause. Please pay over to the War
Department as soon as you well can the sum above
named.
I have a son in his twentieth year who would, I
doubt not, enHst as a volunteer in the army if he were
living in the States. And I feel that in such a case
I should not dare to do anything to withhold him
from it. He as well as myself and his mother con-
sider $300 as a very cheap substitute for his services
in the army one year.
For twenty-six years this mission, with six
devoted missionaries most of the time, labored
on in hope and in disappointment. Ten years
had passed when The American Missionary re-
ported, " We doubt whether an amount of mis-
sionary labor equal to what has been employed
in Siam has ever before been expended with so
little visible result," and yet the same pages said,
" Siam as a missionary field is at the present more
inviting than it has ever been." During the
entire period the work in Siam continued after
this manner, characterized by consecrated abiUty,
fidelity, and patience, and with little apparent
result, when Dr. Bradley died in 1874 and his
son, the only male missionary remaining, re-
turned to this cotmtry, and the Siam Mission was
closed.
FOREIGN MISSIONS
Among the Copts in Egypt
A mission among the Copts was undertaken in
1854. It did not prove to be hopeful, and after
five years was discontinued. In 1859 it was
taken up by the United Presbyterians.
Canada Mission
In 1848 the Association followed the slave
refugees into Canada. Fugitives in great num-
bers who had settled here and there in Canada
were distressingly poor and pitiably ignorant.
The most reliable estimates of the number of
these fugitives who had reached Canada desti-
tute and in want of all things placed them at
about forty thousand. Schools were established
for these, and teachers for them were sent from
the States. Several little churches were organ-
ized, one of them reporting one hundred mem-
bers and another sixty-one.
After twelve years of this endeavor we read
in the Annual Report of i860: " Missionary labor
lias accomplished all that under the circumstances
could reasonably be expected, and is an encour-
agement to increased efforts to supply these fugi-
tives with educational and religious advantages.
61
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Good schools and a faithful ministry ought to
be liberally sustained."
In 1863 the supreme demand of the newly
emancipated slaves claimed and almost absorbed
the care and the strength of the Association and
made the withdrawal from this work in Canada
a strategic missionary necessity.
6a
IV
MISSION AMONG THE NORTH
AMERICAN INDIANS
i
Mission among the Ojibwas in the Territory of Min-
nesota, Red Lake, Cass Lake, and Lake Winnipeg; the
Ottawas at Grand Traverse Bay, Michigan. — New In-
dian policy in 1870 through Gen. U. S. Grant, President
of the United States. — The Board of Peace Commis-
sioners. — Rev. E. P. Smith given general supervision
of the Association's Indian Missions. — Great improve-
ment among the tribes. — Transfer of the Indian Mis-
sions in the great Sioux Reservation in Dakota Territory
by the A. B. C. F. M. to the Association in exchange for
African Missions. — Development of educational work
under Rev. A. L. Riggs, d.d., at Santee, Nebraska, and
at Oahe under Rev. T. L. Riggs, d.d. — Missions at Fort
Berthold under Rev. Charles L. Hall. — Missions minis-
tered unto by Miss Mary C. Collins. — Rosebud. — Fort
Yates. — The story of Yellow Hawk. — Testimonies of
Rev. Mary C Collins as to results in twenty-five years,
and of Dr. Thomas L. Riggs upon the dianged and
changing conditions of the Indian tribes and the causes
of these changes.
IV
MISSION AMONG THE NORTH AMERICAN
INDIANS
WHILE these events were transpiring in
foreign lands, earnest attention was
given to Indian missions in our own
country. These could scarcely be designated as
" foreign," and yet they were not embraced in
what was called " The Home Department." In
the second Annual Report of the Association,
1847, we read of the "new work among the
Ojibwa or Chippewa Indians in the reservations
of the Territory of Minnesota." These were
a part of the Algonquin race, one of the two
most powerful races of the continent. Their lan-
guage was remarkable as being singularly per-
fect and euphonic, with some striking analogies
to the Hebrew.
At the Red Lake Station there were six hun-
dred Indians, about one-half of whom were
under sixteen years of age. They were cultivat-
ing one hundred and fifty acres of land and had
harvested within the year more than two thou-
sand bushels of com and fourteen hundred
S 65
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
bushels of potatoes, besides other products of
their garden. The Indian families had also
made an average of from four hundred to five
hundred pounds of sugar each. There were
eight native members of the church.
In the Cass Lake Station, the whole number
of Indians was two hundred. " When the sta-
tion was commenced in the spring of 1846, but
four or five families planted their grounds.
Nearly all depended on the precarious supply
of wild rice which they could gather from the
swamps along tiie margin of the lake."
In a few years twenty-five families had their
little fields of corn and several of them had
builded houses for their families. Some chil-
dren from every family were in the well-attended
school. In 1857 these missions, owing to diffi-
culties among the Indians and the disturbed con-
dition of the country, were removed from the
reservation to the west shore of Lake Winnipeg.
Two years later, letters from the mission in-
dicated that the missionaries were rapidly com-
ing to the conclusion that after thirteen years
the discouragements had become so great that
this particular field should be relinquished.
At the same time the Association took under
its care a mission among the Ojibwas and the
Ottawas in the northwestern part of Michigan at
66
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
Grand Traverse Bay. The church consisted of
fifty-eight members, seven of them being whites.
This mission continued until 1869.
In 1870 a new Indian policy and work was
inaugurated. President Grant has the honor of
being the first chief magistrate of the nation to
propose citizenship for the Indians. He had the
sagacity to see that the Indians could never hope
to attain to the degree of civilization essential
to citizenship under the conditions which then
existed. In his inaugural address he had fore-
shadowed his policy. " The proper treatment of
the original occupants of the land — the Indians
— is one deserving careful study. I will favor
any course toward them which tends to their
civilization and ultimate citizenship."
Up to that time for scores of years the tutorage
by agents and speculators in the schools of fraud
and whisky had well-nigh destroyed all the efforts
of the schools and churches and missionaries to
introduce a policy of truth, justice, humanity, and
peace. To set on foot a system of education and
reform was one of the acts of President Grant's
administration to be remembered. It was the
f>eginning of a new day for the Indian. The first
inovement was the appointment, under an act of
Congress, of a Board of Peace Commissioners
composed of men from different parts of the
67
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
country whose names carried the assurance of |
wisdom and honesty. The next step was to in-
vite the cooperation of Christian missionary so- I
cieties, and to give to them the selection of Indian
agents under whom the appointment of govern-
ment teachers, physicians, carpenters, and black-
smiths provided for by treaty was made. The
American Missionary Association was requested
to select from these agents, and was the first to
accept and adopt the new work offered. The
appointments and assignments were as follows:
Rev. E. P. Smith, Agent of the Chippewas of
the Mississippi; Rev. S. M. Clark, Agent of the
Chippewas of the Superior; Rev. W. T. Richard-
son, Agent of the Menomonees and Oneidas in
Wisconsin; Edwin Eells, Agent of the Skoko-
niish Indians in Washington Territory. Rev. E.
P. Smith held the position of secretary of the
Indian missions with the general supervision of
this work of the Association among the Indians.
At the commencement of this policy to reclaim
the Indians from their wandering, savage life,
and to turn their thoughts away from cruel pas-
sions toward peace and good-will, not one family
in fifty, the Oneidas excepted, were living in
houses, and even these who were thus sheltered
had no land to which they had any title. Nearly
all were living in blankets and wigwams.
68
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
In 1872 the four Indian agencies had become
seven: the Chippewa in Minnesota, Lake Supe-
rior and Green Bay in Wisconsin, Fort Berth-
old and Sisseton in Dakota Territory, Skokomish
in Washington Territory, and the " Mission In-
dians " in Cahfornia. These agencies contin-
ued for ten years, which were, on the whole,
years of great advancement for all the tribes,
though after the administration of General Grant
had passed, there was less sympathetic coopera-
tion with the missionary societies in the Depart-
ment of the Interior at Washington. In the
thirty-fifth Annual Report of the Executive Com-
mittee we read; "The peace policy of General
Grant, whidi was continued by President Hayes,
has been productive of great and lasting good
to the Indians^ but . . . reasons have served to
diminish the interest once taken by the officials
at Washington in the cooperation of the religious
bodies."
The year 1882 marked a significant advance
in the Indian missions of the Association when
it transferred the mission in Africa to the Ameri-
can Board, and took on the mission in Dakota
and Nebraska, which the American Board had
fonnerly maintained.
Two problems which immediately presented
^emselves were the development of the educa-
69
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
tional work which has its center at Santee, Ne-
braska, under Rev. A. L. Riggs, d.d., the head
of a school which numbered one hundred pupils
of both sexes and all ages; and the extension
of the evangelizing work which had its main
center at Oahe in Dakota, under the superin-
tendence of Rev. Thomas L. Riggs, d.d. The
whole Sioux tribe of twenty-five thousand souls
had received but comparatively little missionary
attention. At Santee the Indians, under the ten
years of successful mission work of the American
Board, had accepted Christianity and maintained
a church with more than two hundred members
presided over by a native Indian pastor. They
were settled on their farms and were developing
in intelligence and enterprise. At Oahe, two hun-
dred miles up the Missouri River from Santee,
and near the center from north to south of the
great Sioux Reservation, some twenty-five In-
dian families had settled as home traders. These
also had become Christians and conducted their
meetings with fervor and decorum. Beyond these
two stations, the Indians in their encampments,
in their natural conditions untamed, and but re-
cently off from the war-path, dwelt in tents and
log huts, wholly ignorant of agriculture, and fed
by the rations of the government. They ap-
peared, however, to be willing to learn farming
70
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
and desirous to know more of " the white man's
ways." From these two centers there seemed to
be in the situation a strong appeal for enlarge-
ment of mission work.
Beyond the great Sioux Reservation at the
northern edge of Dakota Territory, almost to
the British line, was Fort Berthold, under the
care of Rev. Charles L. Hall. Here were three
different tribes speaking entirely different tongues
from that of the Dakota Sioux who had l>een for
years their bitter foes. As yet they were unin-
fluenced by Qiristian instruction, though some
of them had made a beginning in the way of
agriculture. Outside of these mission stations
the barbarism and rudeness of life cannot well
be understood by those who have not seen it.
This was the condition of the Indian fields and
work when the Association entered upon its new
duties in 18S2.
An immediate advance was made in missionary
endeavor at Santee Normal Training School and
at Oahe. New buildings were constructed and
a large number of instructors appointed. New
stations also were undertaken in different locali-
ties. Miss Mary C Collins was transferred
to the special charge of the mission at Grand
River. Rev. James F. Cross was appointed to
a new mission at Rosebud Station, and Rev.
71
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
George W. Reed to Standing Rock, otherwise
called Fort Yates. These were new recruits
from Yale and Hartford Theological Seminaries.
Many new out-stations both for white and for
native teachers were soon entered upon, several
native churches were organized, and buildings
were erected for them. Thence onward as before,
the Riggs brothers patiently and quietly have
devoted their lives. The young men — now no
longer young — have seen great transformations
in the quarter century of their missionary con-
secration. Miss Collins' teaching and ministry
have been of most effective and heroic service.
The Indian work has been out of sight, and has
not been greatly heralded, but the Indian friends
have not been ignorant of the faithful efforts
made to save the wild tribes of the original in-
habitants of our country. No adequate recog-
nition can be made of the moral and spiritual
results of such a life-work as that of the Rig^s
brothers and their equally devoted wives, or of the
noble consecration of Miss M. C. Collins, or of
the quarter century of faithful and earnest work
of the missionaries Hall, Reed, and Cross in their
isolated stations.
Twenty-six years have passed since the trans-
fer of the Indian missions from the American
Board to the Association. The years have been
72
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
largely those of readjustment, and the settling
into place on the part of the tribes. The uncon-
scious movement toward civilization has made it
hard for the native Christian Indian to keep up
with the steadily advancing procession, yet, writes
Dr. Thomas L. Riggs, " The Christian Indian
is the only man of them all who anywhere near
keeps his place and holds fast what he has. The
pace is more rapid than ever before." The work
is, and doubtless will be, full of diflRculties that
often try the faith and patience of these devoted
missionaries; at the same time it is rewarded
with encouragements that cause them to say,
" We are more than thankful that it has been
given us to live and be a part of it."
The story of " Yellow Hawk," as told by Gen.
Charles H. Howard, while it may not be repre-
sentative of all Indians, is typical of very many.
In 1872 Dr. Thomas L. Riggs with General
Howard drove to Yellow Hawk's village. " We
found the tall young chief standing by his log
cabin. He was idle and listless in aspect, in-
dustry and education being the farthest from his
thoughts. He had on blanket and leggings, and
the partings of his hair were painted yellow;
otherwise his features and expression were of
the better Indian type.
" Five years later, in the autumn of 1877, I
73
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
landed from a steamboat at Peoria Bottom, to-
gether with Dr. Stephen R. Riggs, Dr. Alfred
L. Riggs, and a number of others, who had come
to attend the 'Annual Mission Meeting' of the
Dakota Indian churches, held for the first time
in this Teton country. Delegates had come over-
land from the SJsseton tribe, on the Minnesota
border, some two hundred and thirty miles dis-
tant, and others had come up from the Flandreau
settlements, and from Yankton and the Santee
agencies, three hundred miles away.
" It is not within the purpose of this sketch
to describe this meeting, though it was in its
encampment and Indian customs picturesque and
interesting. One of the discussions, conducted
wholly in the Dakota tongue, related to marriage,
and was suggested by the fact that some of the
candidates for church-membership had more than
one wife. Yellow Hawk had three wives, though
Spotted Bear, another chief, had but one. It
was decided, after sympathetic considering of all
the difficulties, that the candidate must be mar-
ried in Christian fashion to one of the wives,
and that he was to put away the others, but see
to their support.
" I again saw Yellow Hawk. Five years older,
he had greatly changed in looks. He was now
wearing citizen's clothes, could read, having
74
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
learned with some seventeen others of the adult
Indians in a night school, the first winter it was
established. He attended some of the meetings
and was reading his Bible. He had a fairly
good field of corn, and had begun to show a
disposition to work.
" Mr. Riggs had secured the survey of the
bottom lands for the purpose of settling the In-
dians upon farms. In 1880, as soon as the sur-
vey was filed, Mr. Riggs went with two of the
chiefs. Yellow Hawk and Spotted Bear, to the
land office at Springfield, near Yankton, and
assisted them in making homestead entries. The
United States registrar thought he had no right
to accept the filing of an Indian, and so the
party went to the United States judge of the
district, and the two Indians were regularly
naturalized. This was a novel thing for one
who was American-born, and whose ancestors
had been natives of the country. Since then it
has been decided officially to be unnecessary.
Twenty-one other homestead entries were sub-
sequently made by these Indians on Peoria
Bottom.
" In 1882 my duties as Indian Inspector
brought me again in this vicinity, and I saw
Yellow Hawk and Spotted Bear. They both had
become members of the church which had been
75
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
organized here in 1879. Two of Yellow Hawk's
wives had died — one some years before — and
he was formaUy married to the one remaining
at the time he united with the church. Any
other candidates who had more than one wife
followed the rule mentioned, and were married
to the one who had been the first wife, and kindly
cared for the other or others. As a matter of
fact, it should be stated that there was not gen-
erally a plurality of wives among these Indians.
The greater number had but one wife.
" At the time of this visit, ten years after ray
first meeting with Yellow Hawk, I heard him
lead in prayer in the chape!, and also saw him
in his field riding a mower which he had bought.
He had also acquired some cattle.
" My next opportunity for observing, in this
personal way, the effect of missionary teaching,
was in the winter of 1885, when Yellow Hawk
accompanied Mr. Riggs in a tour through New
England, visiting the churches and public meet-
ings, and presenting the cause of Indian Mis-
sions. Yellow Hawk made his own talk, and
Mr. Riggs interpreted. Great indeed was the
contrast between the appearance of the blanket
Indian I had seen leaning against his cabin in
1872, and Yellow Hawk in 1885 as he now stood
on the platform, erect, manly, addressing cul-
76
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
tured audiences, and telling what he and his
people had been, and what the gospel had done
for him."
At the present writing, over twenty-one years
later, Yellow Hawk and Spotted Bear each holds
the position of pastor to a native church and mis-
sionary station, elected by the members. Among
these Indians pertaining to the Cheyenne River
Agency, Dr. Thomas L. Riggs has at the pres-
ent time eight organized churches under his
charge. His work has also been extended north-
ward about one hundred and twenty-five miles
to Grand River, where Miss M. C Collins, who
was formerly with him here at Oahe, has been
laboring efficiently for many years and where she
has now under her care five stations among the
followers of Sitting Bull. On this same reserva-
tion (Standing Rock) farther north are also five
stations under the care of Rev. G. W. Reed.
The similar gospel work among the large
tribes of the Rosebud Reservation, located one
hundred and fifty miles to the southwest, has
greatly prospered. Dr. T. L. Riggs now has
the supervision of finding native helpers for these
tribes, Rev. J. F. Cross, formerly in charge, hav-
ing been transferred to Alaska.
I have asked these missionaries to give me
their own estimates of the results of these patient
77
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
years. Those of Rev. Mary C. Collins and of
Dr. Thomas L. Riggs may stand for all. Says
Miss Collins, " When the Indians were without
Christ it needed a standing army to control them.
The banks of the Missouri River were dotted with
military posts, and thousands of soldiers were
stationed along its banks, well-armed with rifles,
and ready at a moment's warning to go after
hostile Indians who were committing severe
depredations among the early settlers or upon
other tribes. This has all practically passed
away. One after another the forts were aban-
doned as churches increased. The last to go was
the one on this Standing Rock Agency. Thus
the missionaries are saving to the government
millions of dollars. The old restlessness of the
tribes is passing away; they are settling down on
their own allotted lands and building up homes,
and the little children are no longer happy in
the roving life, but when night comes cry for
home. Nothing could have brought about this
change but the religion of Christ. For scores
of years the military tried to subdue the people
and it was impossible. But when the churches
took up the matter in earnest and we placed the
Bible in the homes and taught the people to
read it, the story of Jesus with his love and
wonderful power won their hearts, and many
78
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
have bowed in submission to the laws of man,
because they accord with the laws of God. The
building of a church and beside it a Y. M. C. A.
house, makes a social as well as a religious
center; and the Christian influence going out
from it causes a wild and insubordinate race
of people to become gentle, kind, and industri-
ous. They cannot pray to the heavenly Father
daily without being uplifted to a better life.
" Where the wigwam was the only home, and
wild deer and the buffalo the only larder, we
find now the two- or three-room cabin, the well-
washed floor, the neat beds and pillows. We
find the cellar in the side stored with potatoes
and other vegetables, corn and oats in the stable
ready for the patient steed that must round up
the flocks or draw freight for the government
to earn their daily bread. For years these people
were fed by the government and cared for by the
United States Army, but the government could
not civilize them, and only as fast as the mis-
sionaries could reach and teach them were they
subdued.
" Our mission schools have sent out hundreds
of young men and women to act as living, work-
ing object-lessons among the people from every
tribe. These Christian fathers and mothers, home-
niakers and home-keepers, teachers and minis-
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
ters, doctors and lawyers, all owe their present
honored and useful position in hfe to our good
Christian schools. Santee, the largest and old-
est, furnishes every year a large number of well-
trained young men and women to lead the van
on the way to the best civilization. Its shops
furnish blacksmiths and carpenters. Its fields
send us farmers, and its homes send us women
of character to be a light unto the people.
" But the work is not done. The temptations
coming now are not the temptations of the war-
path, the wild dance, or the painted faces and
scalp-locks. They have come from the very civi-
lization that we are trying to teach them to
meet. The white man comes, — in many cases
an outlaw, — and when he arrives in these
far-off places he is lawless indeed, and leaves
none of his vices behind him; but his skin is
white, and to the unskilled child of the prairie
with the red skin he is a man of the new civi-
lization. His faults and vices make him a hero,
and the weak fall under his influence. More
solid Christians, men and women, are needed to
hold these white men upright. The American
Missionary Association has built twelve or four-
teen new churches for the Indians. It has put
on the field three new men to superintend mis-
sionaries. It has taken up several new stations
So
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
for work, and planted the banner of our Lord on
the outposts. It has struggled to keep it there
and not to retreat. But the officers of an army
cannot win a battle; that is fought by the great
army of men behind them. So a great body of
Christians must stand back of the Association
in its working out of its great desire."
Especially it would be impossible to trace the
gracious influences of the school at Santee dur-
ing the past twenty-six years as it has been ad-
ministered by Rev. Alfred L. Riggs, d.d. Year
by year these children of nature have come half
wild to Santee. Aboriginal, yet foreign, unable
to speak our language, unacquainted with the
ways of civilization, ignorant of Christianity,
they have acquired from text-books used in our
best schools a good English education with facil-
ity in the accurate use of the English tongue
without losing their own, a practical knowledge
of the handicrafts and of successful agriculture,
and best of all the way of life taught by Him
who said, " I am come that they might have life,
and that they might have it more abundantly."
Dr. Thomas L. Riggs contributes the follow-
ing as his experience of the changed and
changing conditions of our first Americans:
" The native American is conservative. He
does not change readily in "his habits of life, his
» 8i
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION 1
customs, or his speech. That which has been has
served his fathers, and why should it not answer
for his fathers' sons? Nevertheless the changes
that have taken place affecting him are marked
and far-reaching. From being a rover at will
he has now come to have a more or less settled
abiding-place. From getting his living as a
hunter of the abundant games of the woodland
and vast prairies, and from the life of a warrior,
he has become a peaceful tiller of the soil, a
stock man, a freighter, and a day-laborer for
hire, that he may support himself and keep the
wolf from his door. And instead of the old
tribal organization in which the chief stood for
the tribe in dealing with others, and in a measure
controlled and directed the movements of his
followers, we now have as the social imit the
family and the individual. While in some cases
the tribal organization is still partially in force,
it nowhere has the vitality and importance for-
merly existing. This change is so great and
marks so important a growth as to call for more
than mention only. To those who know Indians
and have had direct dealings with them, there
is but little meaning in the word ' chief.' The
utter looseness of Indian political life is little
known to the outside world. From the usually ,
published account of visitors every other ]
82
ther IndiaflHl
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
seems to be a ' chief ' or a ' chief's ' son. This
is to be accounted for by the fact that in addi-
tion to the recognized leaders of the tribe there
are sub-chiefs and heads of important families,
and moreover every Indian has the happy faculty
of assuming himself to be the representative of
his tribe. He enjoys the joke there is in fooling
the white man. There are, however, those who
are no chiefs. Chiefs sometimes, though rarely
in my own acquaintance with the Dakotas, oc-
cupy their positions by virtue of inheritance —
being in the royal line, the sons of chiefs. The
more common path to chieftainship is that of in-
dividual ability. And, even then, the man comes
into prominence by the support of his followers.
The political life of the Indian is largely demo-
cratic. No chief can long disregard the wishes
or run counter to the traditions and hopes of
his following. The individual, though intensely
democratic, glories in the fact that he belongs
to the tribe, and he follows his chief because the
chief represents him, — represents his thought
and purpose in life. Thus it is readily seen that
in the nature of things, as with the average poli-
tician among ourselves, the head of a tribe is
rarely progressive. Tribal organization in itself
has always opposed civilization. It could not do
otherwise, for civilization means its downfall.
83
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION!
And without any qualification it may be here
remarked that where any form of this organ-
ization exists, however loose and stripped of its
former power, there you have a chilling shadow
in the way of civilization and progress. It is
therefore with peculiar satisfaction that the stu-
dent of Indian affairs and worker for his uplift
sees the overthrow of the tribal organization.
" I call attention also to the fact that in the
changes already noted — change in habitat,
change in occupation, and change in tribal or-
ganization — the Indian has been acted upon
from without. It has been by no choice of his
that he became a Reservation Indian, and through
the years of government support has come under
the system of working for his own support. It
has been by no wish of his that the old tribal
organization has largely come to its end. These
changes have been forced upon him. This should
be borne in mind, and I shall refer to it again.
" Self-support and self-government are two
changes now taking place. With these the In-
dian is already face to face, and whether he likes
it or not he must become a self-supporting in-
dividual. All others will sooner or later go to
the wall. And to a certain extent the Indian is
learning how to do this. Self-government comes
slowly. As yet the spell of the old order is upon
84
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
him. He cannot readily free himself from that
to which he has been accustomed, which brought
control and redress from powers outside his own
will. The individual has always looked to his
tribal head or to his tribe for protection, and
later, when suffering a real or fancied injury, to
the government Indian Agent. When he was
the aggressor he escaped punishment altogether
if he could.
" Another change that is surely coming — and
already partly has come — is accountability to
law and protection by law. In a measure fed-
eral laws are enforced upon the Reservations and
state laws off the Reservations. As might be ex-
pected, the Indian comes in contact with law in
punishment for transgression quite frequently
before he recognizes in it the protection it offers.
Nevertheless this also is coming. An old French-
man who had an Indian wife and a large family
Hving on the Cheyenne River Reservation, and
who had grown wealthy in cattle, died not long
ago, leaving his property by will duly executed
to be divided equally between his wife and nine
children. The executor, — a son-in-law, — on
the suggestion and advice of his attorney, at-
tempted to shut out two of the daughters from
their inheritance. Suit was brought by one of
the daughters, and the estate was ordered settled
8S
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
according to the terms of the will. A single
case of this kind is of far greater value than
any amount of preaching.
" Industrial competition is another of the
changes that are coming, and for which it must
be confessed the Indian is not yet prepared.
You cannot expect him to compete with his white
neighbors. He has not been taught by the school
of adversity and hard knocks, nor has he learned
to care for and save what he has under the new
conditions of life. It takes more than the allot-
ment of land, the purchase of full farming equip-
ment and a cow, the cutting of his hair and
clothing him in trousers to fit him for this. He
must be taught values, — the value of time as
well as property, thrift, and stick-to-itiveness.
His character must be established, and the man,
the man with a mind and a soul, must be devel-
oped under his new conditions.
" There is but one other outward or national
change that I shall mention, namely, Absorption
into our body politic. This change is already tak-
ing place, though so gradually as not to be noticed.
It does not mean that the race is to die out; but
it means that there will be no Indians as such;
all will be citizens of our common country. This
change will not be completed in a day nor yet
in a year. All changes that have taken place,
86
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
and those now in the making, as well as of the
near future, are summed up in this. Difficult
problems are to be adjusted — economic, social,
and educational. Influences that have been
brought to bear on the outer man alone, pro-
ducing changes external and changing form
rather than spirit will sink into insignificance as
compared with those that go to the making of
character. Nothing else will stand the test and
nothing else will safely carry the Indian across
the rivers of difficulty and evil that flow around
and over him. Our government with all the
agencies it commands and with all the millions
it expends cannot supply to the Indian this one
thing most needful. And by character I mean
not only mental equipment and training but that
which makes such equipment and training fruit-
ful, — the training of conscience, the training of
soul, a training so broad and deep as to make life
honest and true, and which shall bring the man
into relations with his God.
" Now consider the active forces that have
brought about these changes already accom-
plished and have to do with preparing the In-
dian to meet the conditions of life in his new
environment. Chief of these are the following:
The Reservation and the ration system, industrial
instruction at large, the schools, the allotment of
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
land in severalty and Christian missions. All
these have had a part in the changes. As active
agencies some are outgrown, some have only
begun to be effective, and some have not had
due recognition, though long active and with
the largest opportunities and possibilities for the
future.
" Not to mention the Reservation with its evils,
and the government method of issuing rations,
both of which have been influences against in-
dependent manhood, and both of which were
forced upon the Indian, I come to the agency
of industrial instruction. For as if to make
amends for evils we did not foresee — and with
the best of motives — we diligently set about
training the Indians in the industries of civilized
life. They were to be taught how to farm
and to raise cattle. Year after year many
thousands of dollars were expended in sending
to them as teachers farmers who did not know
how to farm, and whose time was usually taken
up in entirely different lines; in the purchase of
seeds by the ton that often reached the Indian
too late to be planted; and in the purchase of
stock cattle, that sooner or later in most cases
were killed and eaten by the recipients. In some
cases, indeed, there has been careful oversight
of these matters by the agent in charge; then,
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
again, all that was gained has been lost by a
change of agents. This branch of well-intended
education has been shamefully mismanaged.
Haphazard administration and shiftless govern-
ment oversight has been the history of the years
that have gone by. The results therefore have
been discreditably small for the vast expenditures
of money. To be sure, the Indian has had his
hair cut and wears trousers and a hat, and in-
directly doubtless has learned something by it.
" Following, and partly coordinate with, this
industrial experiment an active educational cam-
paign was begun in the schools. There are
now twenty-five non-reservation schools, ninety-
one reservation boarding-schools, and one hun-
dred and sixty-three reservation day-schools car-
ried on by the government. It would not be
just to say that these schools are not doing good
work. Probably the most of them are, but I
think much greater good would have followed
had a rational system of true education obtained
from the beginning. I agree with the honorable
Commissioner of Indian Affairs in rating the day-
school as the most helpful and important, and
probably go beyond him in his condemnation of
the government boarding-school on the Reserva-
tion as a system and in its present almshouse
and pauperizing condition. Very possibly there
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
may have been justification for the large non-
reservation school in the past, but with an an-
nual expenditure of two million dollars we have
a right to ask larger and more satisfactory re-
sults than those of the past.
" Another agency that is doing its work m
showing the Indian the way out of his past, and
into the new condition of life, is the allotment
of land in severalty, and the breaking up of the
Reservation system. Much has been said about
this movement and much was expected to come
from it. There were, however, difficulties in the
way. The less advanced Indian would have none
of it, and many who received land waited only
till they could dispose of it for a 'mess of pot-
tage.' The dreams of good men were thus soon
disturbed. The plan has not worked. It has
been found necessary to safeguard the allotments,
and the end desired, namely, industrious Indians
supported by their own labor on their own farms,
may not be universally assured for some time to
come. However, men learn by their mistakes
as well as by their successes, and in like manner
there doubtless have been gains of a sort to the
Indian.
" The last agency that I shall name as active
in the effort to open the eyes of the Indian that
he may see clearly his changed environment and
NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
fit himself for its new duties and its privileges
is that of Christian missions and Christian
schools. Christian missions among the Indians
have from the first aimed at their moral uplift;
aimed to open their eyes and awaken their souls
that they may see clearly and choose for them-
selves that which is good. This agency has
looked to the development of the man from
within, rather than from without; has stood for
the growth of character, and has counted all else
as secondary and subordinate to this. In this
lies the great difference between Christian mis-
sions, Christian schools, and all other agencies.
The one has endeavored to help the man as a
thinking, reasoning being; the other agencies
have greatly overlooked this and have endeav-
ored to change his outer appearance; teaching
him industries, not as giving him power to con-
trol himself, but as an occupation; teaching him
the English language, not as a means to an end,
but as the end itself.
" Through our Christian missions there is a
change in attitude on the part of the Indian, a
change in thought and outlook of far more im-
portance than all others, for it marks the growth
of manhood, and gives us permanent hope for
the future. The Indian is coming to think of
himself in relation to others. He is recognizing
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
the life and aims of civilization as that of which
he is a part. He is looking to the meaning of
things and to their effect on the future. The
spirit of Christianity — even with those not
professing Christianity — has greatly changed
the Indians' thought. This has been an uncon-
scious movement, and slowly but powerfully is
transforming whole tribes. But this has not come
without open and persistent opposition.
" The Indian missions of The American Mis-
sionary Association have endeavored all these
years to build up character, to make men of char-
acter, to make thinking, reasoning men. In this
wc have not failed. We have taught the gospel
of Christ, — that Christ came to save men from
evil; that every man, Indian or white, must do
his part; that life means work; that religion is
more than an outward change; that also means
a change of heart which calls for and ensures
outward changes.
" Our missions and schools have been the
only constant agencies to follow consistently
this rational plan to save the Indian. No other
agency than that which is positively Christian
has in view the religious nature of the Indian.
No other schools than Christian schools can be
expected to raise up religious teachers for these
people, and, as a matter of fact, no other agency
93
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NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS
provides such men of character and power as
does that which seeks to save in the name of the
Master/'
These testimonies of long-time experience on
the part of those who have proven by their lives
among the Indians the value of their knowledge
may stand for the approval of our missionary
endeavors among the " First Americans." If the
story has not been striking, the history has never-
theless been great.
93
V
THE HOME DEPARTMENT
WEST AND SOUTH
Missions in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wiscon-
sin, Minnesota, and Iowa. — In Kentucky under Rev.
John G. Fee. — The irrepressible conflict. — Violence. —
First plea for a coll^;e at Berea, Kentucky, in 1857. —
Rev. John A. R. Rogers, the first Principal in 1859. —
Mob expulsion of all missionaries of the Association from
Kentucky and North Carolina. — Reopening of Berea
school after the war in 1865 imder Professor Rogers. —
The first " college " class in 1869.
THE " Home Department " was organized
to embrace two distinct fields, the West
and the South. Those engaged in the
Western field were located in Ohio and in the
states west of it, — Indiana, Michigan, Illinois,
Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa. The work in
these states was conducted with special purpose
to bear decided testimony against slavery and
the sin of caste.
The missions in slave states had the distinc-
tion of beginning the first decided efforts to or-
ganize churches and schools in the South on an
avowedly antislavery basis. The pioneer in this
movement was Rev. John G. Fee, of Kentucky,
the son of a slaveholder, disinherited by his
father on account of his antislavery principles.
He, then in the vigor of young manhood, of
great faith, and, as it proved, of great courage,
collected a church of non-slaveholders, and ap-
7 97
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
plied to The American Missionary Association
for a commission. Warmly welcomed, his com-
mission was dated October lo, 1848.' In his first
most optimistic letter to The American Mission-
ary, three months later, he writes from Ken-
tucky, " My most sanguine expectations three
years since did not anticipate such freedom of
speech as we now have, nor did I expect to see
such progress among the people in antislavery
sentiment." The next year he adds, " Our con-
gjecations are regularly increasing in size and
intei^est. The general impression through the
community now is that an antislavery church
can exist and prosper in a slave state. We have
peace and can circulate antislavery documents
with great readiness."
In 1854 his letters show that he has lost noth-
ing of his convictions, nor of his determination
to express them. " Since my last report, we have
organized one more church. A whole gospel can
be preached in the South, and churches having
no fellowship with slavery are organized and
have fair prospects of success. Within the life-
time of some now living, we must see from six
to twelve millions of bondmen with responsibili-
ties and influences of freedom. Twenty or thirty
years from this time, what will hold these slaves
in bondage? No power on earth will do it, as
THE HOME DEPARTMENT
I believe. Redemption to the poor slave will
come. But hovi' shall it come? Shal! it be by
moral means? If freedom shall not come by
moral means, then will it be by physical, by war
and carnage? "
The young man was preaching and praying
that it might not be " by war and carnage," but
within six years from this date, " redemption to
the poor slave " had come, and, alas, by dreadful
war and carnage.
It could not possibly be, in the exciting events
now hastening on the " irrepressible conflict,"
that sentiments like these should go unchallenged.
Slavery, ever vigilant, saw the danger. The first
personal indication of it to Mr. Fee came soon.
He may relate the experience in his own words :
Preparations had been made for a discussion with
a young lawyer. He had actually entered upon it and
made his opening speech at one of my previous ap-
pointments. I went at the tipie appointed expecting
a pleasant debate. I found the accustomed good and
attractive audience absent, and a lawless band of
wicked, profane men — about forty — in their stead.
They presented resolutions accusing me of teaching
immoral doctrines and of rebelling against law, and
insisted that I desist, adding, " This is peremptory."
I demanded to be brought before the law tribunals, if
I had violated law. If I was teaching error, I asked
some lawyer, doctor, or preacher, or any half dozen
99
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
of them, to appear before the people and show it, and
let me have the chance of reply. They replied, " We
want no discussion," and demanded that I should prom-
ise not to preach any more there, and that I should
leave the house, threatening violence if I did not. I
refused, saying I should do no one thing that had the
appearance of retreating or of surrendering a right.
They swore I should, and took me by force, put me on
my horse, and then with boards and sticks forced my
horse along, pouring upon me vile abuse and constant
threats of violence. I regretted it because of the
effect upon the minds of many friends who were just
beginning to lend a favorable ear, yet to me it has
been a blessing. It has driven me nearer to God, my
strength cast down but not destroyed.
It was two years after this that Mr. Fee made
his first plea for a college in Berea. It would
seem a strange time to think of founding a col-
lege, but his triumphant faith writes in 1857,
after the reign of terror had begun,
Free churches and free schools can be sustained.
We want teachers, not merely antislavery teachers, but
Christian teachers, who shall labor to redeem their
pupils from all sin.
We need a college here which shall be to Kentucky
what Oberlin is to Ohio, an antislavery, anti-caste,
anti-tobacco, anti-sectarian school, — a school under
Christian influence; a school that will furnish the best
possible facilities for those of smalt means who have
energy of character that will lead them to work their
J
THE HOME DEPARTMENT
way through this world. Is it practical? It is. I
know places where improved lands can be bought for
ten or twelve dollars per acre. Three or four hundred
acres would secure a village, a home for a colony.
Faith, persevering trust in God, will overcome all diffi-
culties. The place for the college is here in the interior
of Kentucky.
Thus Berea College began its history in the
brain of John G. Fee while he was a missionary
of The American Missionary Association. The
idea soon became a fact, and Rev. John A. R.
Rogers, likewise commissioned by the Association,
was associated with Mr. Fee from the first. Born
in Cornwall, Connecticut, and from Mayflower
ancestry. Mr. Rogers was prepared for Yale Col-
lege, but his father having moved to the West,
he entered Oberlin College, from which he was
graduated in the class of 1850, and from the
Theological Seminary in 1854. In 1858 he went
to Berea, and in 1859 the school was opened with
Rogers as its head. Previous to the opening the
question arose, " Should colored children be ad-
mitted into the schoolroom with white chil-
dren?" The discussion was lively and opinions
were divided. Two sets of directors were put
in nomination, and Mr. Fee writes to the As-
sociation, " The directors for the anti-caste school
were elected by a majority of more than two to
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
one, this, too, at an unusually large meeting of
the voters of the district." No doubt this result
was in part due to the steadfast opposition to
caste on the part of the incoming principal, for
Mr. Fee writes, " Brother Rogers, who has the
care of the school, announced his purpose not
to enter it imless it should be open to all."
Immediately Mr. Fee went North to interest
those who would listen to him in behalf of this
new endeavor. It was in the days when the
Association and all identified with it were looked
upon with distrust as disturbers of the peace of
the churches, and though Mr. Fee found few
friends among the wealthy, he secured sufficient
aid to encourage him to go forward. Had he
received only rebuffs, and they were many, there
would have been to him no discouragement. The
meaning of the word was beyond his comprehen-
sion. He never turned to it in his dictionary.
The school had begun when Mr. Fee faced
another mob. While he was preaching thirty or
forty armed men demanded that he should cease
and promise to be silent in the future. " It is
not impossible," he replied, " that some of you
may yet want me to come and pray with you,
and I should hate to be under a pledge not to
do it." He could not " make a pledge that might
conflict with future duty." Upon this they com-
THE HOME DEPARTMENT
pelled him to ranove part of his clothing before
plying their whips upon him. He knelt to re-
ceive the blows, but for some unaccountable
reason they desisted without striking a blow.
The next year brought the expulsion of
all the missions of the Association from Ken-
tucky and North Carolina. The onset began at
Berea, while Mr. Fee was in the North solicit-
ing funds for the school, when a committee of
sixty-two persons appointed at a public meeting
held at Richmond, the county-seat, came to Berea
and warned the principal men to leave the place
within ten days. Upon this they appealed for
protection to the governor of Kentucky. He
assured them that he could not give it, and thus
thirty-six persons were expelled from the state.
After the war in 1865 the school was re-
opened and again under Professor Rogers with
a large attendance. Immediately the question of
caste presented itself for reconsideration. Three
colored pupils applied for admission and were
accepted, — the first time that colored students
in the South had been admitted to a school with
the whites. Most of the white students left, but
later on many returned.
In 1869 the first college class in the institu-
tion sustained by the Association was started,
consisting of five students, all from Kentucky.
"3
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
At this time Dr. Rogers declined to accept the
presidency, but remained as a professor of Greek
until 1878. He died in 1906 at the age of seventy-
eight years. Both he and Mr. Fee — heroic
souls — had lived to richly inherit the promises
of great faith and great patience. For many
years Berea College received appropriations from
the Association.
104
VI
"THE MORNING COMETH, AND ALSO.
THE NIGHT"
Dark days. — Distrust and prejudice. — The spirit of
the Association. — Persistent purpose. — The Fugitive
Slave Law. — Commerce and conservatism. — The sur-
render of Thomas Sims in Boston in 1850. — Excitement
and " Indignation Meeting " in Tremont Temple. —
The American Missionary Association honored by the
speakers. — Attention called to its stand for principle. —
Gaining friends. — Light breaking. — The influence of
the great Avery legacy. — The announcement of war and
a new field of mission labor.
"THE MORNING COMETH. AND ALSO
THE NIGHT"
THROUGH many discouragements and
dark days the Association held on to its
work. It had not secured general pub-
lic consideration, and only limited recognition
from churches. Not many wise and not many
mighty were willing to risk themselves and
their popularity against the prejudice and dis-
trust which this agitating "disturber of the
peace of the churches " carried with itself.
Its annual meetings were conspicuous for the
absence of the familiar and influential names
which were wont to figure on the platforms of
other benevolent societies. Strong and leading
men, who at heart disapproved of the silence of
other societies, were nevertheless not ready to
identify themselves with this. Its friends, how-
ever rich they might have been in faith, were
not among the wealthy, and its yearly income had
hardly reached $50,000.
At the same time, while the pages of The
American Missionary of these days tell the
107
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
story of struggle, they also show that during
these trying years, when friends were few and
sympathy was small, the Association never
bated a jot of heart or hope. While there was
a persistent antagonism on its part to the atti-
tude of such societies as maintained any com-
plicity with slavery, its pages show no hardness
or bitterness. The patient persistence of an
unconquerable purpose, " speaking the truth in
love," is discernible in all its records, and is in
striking contrast to the utterances and methods
of those who thought that denunciation strength-
ened principle and that bitterness attested sin-
cerity. The spirit of that day is thus indicated :
We regret the necessity of devoting any portion of
our columns to a discussion of the relations of other
Missionary Boards to slavery. It would be much more
congenial to our feelings to address ourselves to the
work of giving the gospel to the destitute portions of
our own and other lands without this hindrance. It
is not that we undervalue the good which other mis-
sionary societies have accomplished, or would curtail
their power to increase their beneficial effects, that we
allude to what they have done, or neglected to do, on
this subject. Painful as it may be, we are constrained
in fidelity to our principles, and by regard for the
welfare of the oppressed, to give a decided testimony,
even though in so doing we hazard the loss of the
good opinion of some whom we love but who do not
loS
"THE MORNING COMETH
think as we do. Were the rehgious papers of the
country open to our communications, we might prefer
those channels ; but as they are not — witli scarce an
exception — we must make use of the best instrumen-
tahty within our reach. Our object has been to en-
force correct principles and to secure correct action,
with the hope uUimately of benefiting all organiza-
tions and injuring none. We hope we may be guided
by the spirit of faithfulness and love.
One who reads the records of those early days
will certainly not fail to recognize " the spirit
of faithfulness " written large.
The Association kept on expressing its con-
tinued confidence in the correctness of its dis-
tinctive principles. It felt called on to live and
work because it believed that these principles did
not find adequate exemplification in any existing
missionary organization. To afford relief to the
consciences of such as were aggrieved by the
policy of silence upon the doctrine that man could
hold property in the body and spirit of his fellow
men, to rectify public opinion, and especially
Christian public opinion, was God's call to the
society; it was far from being popular.
At its fourth annual meeting in 1850, among
its " resolutions " reads the following : —
Resolved, that we believe the Christianity of the
nation is about to be tested, in view of the late act
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
of Confess for recovery of fugitive slaves, which
appears equally at variance with the principles of the
Association, the Constitution of the country, and the
law of God, and that as Christians we do solemnly
covenant with each other and our colored brethren
that we cannot obey it, nor any law that contravenes
the hig-her law of our Maker, whatever persecution or
penalty we may be called to suffer.
This reads tamely enough now, but it was suf-
6ciently wild in 1850. No one in all the land is
now disturbed by the constitution of the Associa-
tion, but if a minister had quoted it at this time
with approval, most of his congregation would
have needed the " long prayer " to calm their
minds; for it meant disturbance. On the side
of the oppressor were numbers and power. Men
are still living who remember the Castle Garden
Meeting called by the New York merchants for
the avowed purpose of showing to the slave-
holders of the South that they had no sympathy
with such an utterance as this society put forth.
At that meeting the most brilliant young lawyer
in New York, the son of a New England minis-
ter, was one of the principal defenders of the
infamous fugitive slave law, and " prostituted his
keen intellect to the task of cheering on the
bloodhounds that were chasing human beings,
whose only crime was that they fled from slav-
"THE MORNING COMETH"
ery." The religious papers, the theological semi-
naries, and the great majority of the churches
practically said, Amen. If the Fugitive Slave
Law was felt to be a calamity, it was one which
could not be escaped. The great Daniel Webster
hesitated before it, and tottered to his fall.
Other Northern statesmen surrendered their con-
sciences on the ground that the Fugitive Act was
"warranted by the Constitution." Thus, while
commerce and conservatism consented that slave-
hunters might traverse the free states to search
for fugitives, and while Boston was sending back
handcuffed captives without trial into slavery,
the Association was lifting up its voice as well
as it could in behalf of righteousness. " Little
can be hoped," it continues in its missionary
appeals, " from politicians until the Christian
churches can be brought to unite prayer and
effort for its overthrow."
To one who personally witnessed the surrender
of Thomas Sims in Boston in the year 1850, we
are indebted for a look upon the scene : —
They marched him down to the end of Long Wharf,
and fastened him to a stanchion in the fouI-smelUng
hold of the big Acorn — owned by the same Boston
merchant who had once before in a similar way dis-
graced the name. A tug hauled the Acorn out into
the harbor; her sails were raised, and like a guilty
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
specter she stole away in the gray of the morning,
leaving humiliated and disgraced the city of John
Hancock, Samuel Adams, and Paul Revere. When
the crowd retired from witnessing the sailing of the
Acorn, Court Square was again filled with angry citi-
zens. It was Wendell Phillips who suggested an ad-
journment to Tremont Temple that evening. The
Temple was packed with intellectual, thoughtful men.
If Boston had been carried away by excitement in
the morning, she had come to her senses before even-
ing. The speeches were neither excited nor extreme.
They were rather conservative and temperate, with J
a somber cast which gave expression to the morti-T
fication and shame and dishonor which seemed to fill I
every heart. I cannot remember which of the speakers!
first struck the note to which so many hearts re- 1
sponded: " When God is with us, why do we forget
him in this war with slavery?" and from that mo-
ment the war-cry was that of old crusaders, " God
with us! God with us! " The name of The American
Missionary Association ever since that evening has
been in my memory inseparably connected with that
meeting. Whether I then first heard its name, or
whether it was commended as a model for uniting
men in opposition to slavery upon Christian as well
as moral grounds, I cannot now recall, but from that
night opposition to slavery in the free states took on
a new form. Men saw that slavery had thrown oflF
all disguises, denied its solemn agreements, and en-
tered upon a campaign of aggression that had no
bounds, which could not be successfully resisted unless
there should be union and harmony of action among
"THE MORNING COMETH"
all the societies in the free states laboring for the
spread of the gospel and the repression of every form
of crime.
This meeting in Tremont Temple adjourned to meet
in convention fi-ve days later. This convention, at
which Horace Mann presided, was unquestionably one
of the most important ever held in New England. The
American Missionary Association was again highly
commended by the speakers and brought conspicuously
into public notice as the best agency for the protec-
tion of the colored race- And from that time the
growth of the Association had a remarkable impulse.
Its name became familiar. It was seen by many for
the first time to be a practical agency for the protec-
tion and improvement of the colored race and a model
for effective opposition to the increasing agression
of the slave power; and it will ever remain a truth
of history that opposition to slavery made no substan-
tial progress until it came upon the ground of the As-
sociation, to enlist the powerful agencies of the pulpit
and the church, and that the first attempt to raise
this opposition to that high level was the organization
and work of The American Missionary Association.
As God's purpose ripened, the Association
gained friends. The current had slightly changed,
and it is easier to steer with the current. Secretary
Whipple writes that he is " laboring in the midst
of obloquy," but certainly this was both weaker
and reduced in quantity as the strange ways of
God were justifying the faith of those in whom
his gracious love and power had been working
"3
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
for the redemption of the oppressed and for the
purity of his churches. At this time the Annual
Report deplores the instances " where men in
high position in the church have apologized for
the Fugitive Slave Law " and advocated its
claims to obedience. Showing how compacts de-
signed to secure freedom had been swept away,
how free territory had been violently possessed
by the slave power, how the purity of the ballot-
box had been destroyed, and how men professing
godliness had been prominent in these acts, it
exclaims, " Surely the time is near at hand when
the church will clearly see that the moral evils
of slavery cannot be abated while those who are
involved in its support are received in good stand-
ing in the Christian churches and have a voice
in the control of benevolent societies. Providen-
tial causes at work in this land make more evi-
dent to all the necessity of our principles in the
work of Christian missions and philanthropy."
Nevertheless, though tlie night had been long
and dark, the day had begun to break.
" Faith walks in night, yet is not of the night ;
And Hope, her fellow, looks into the east,
Where marking the long cloud-bars all of gold,
It says, ere day is up, ' Behold the sun ! ' "
It is not necessary to follow in detail the sev-
eral steps by which the slave power had so far
"THE MORNING CX)METH "
maintained and now sought to increase its as-
cendency in the Union. For a century it had
been aggression on the one side and servile ac-
quiescence on the other. The addition of slave
states, successful slave legislation, the Missouri
Compromise, the annexation of Texas, and, at
last, the Fugitive Slave Law, with the Kansas-
Nebraska bill, and the Dred Scott decision were
parts of one purpose to make slavery national.
The cup of Northern acquiescence to protect and
perpetuate the crime against humanity was nearly
full.
The testimonies for the principles of the As-
sociation came now from new adherents. Albert
Barnes, in 1857, wrote: —
There never has been a time when the system of slav-
ery has been so bold, exacting, arrogant, and danger-
ous to liberty as at present, when so much could be
done in favor of the rights of man by plain utterance
of sentiment; when so much guilt would be incurred
by silence. It cannot be right that any one who holds
the system to be evil . . , should so act that it shall
be impossible to understand his opinion in relation to it ;
so act that his conduct could be appealed to as imply-
ing an apology for slavery.
At this period a great legacy, exceptional in
amount for those days, came to the Association
which not only brought it new courage, but em-
phasis also to its work. The Rev. Charles Avery I
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
of Pittsburg, a local preacher in the Protestant
Methodist Church, left somewhat more than
$100,000 as " a perpetual fund for disseminat-
ing the light of the gospel of Jesus Christ and
the blessings of Christian civilization among the
benighted black and colored races inhabiting the
continent of Africa, to be intrusted, managed,
and applied under the direction of the Executive
Committee of the Association for the uses afore-
said and for no other, but leaving to the discre-
tion of the Association the time and manner of
its application." Here was confidence. What it
meant to the missionary society with the general
distrust that had been its lot, can only be imag-
ined. Walking by faith was well, but the sight
of a hundred thousand dollars in its treasury
strengthened faith immensely.
The time soon came when faith received its
justifications. The providences of God, working
together in natural combination and dependency,
brought recognition and sympathy with the posi-
tions which the Association had maintained, and
when the slave power without disguise demanded
that slavery should be national, with the alter-
native of war, the free country was ready with
the reply : " We cannot consent to extend and
perpetuate slavery. We cannot permit the sun-
dering of the nation."
116
"THE MORNING COMETH"
Now, it was not only evident that God had
been educating his people in the churches to a
larger and better comprehension of their duty
to the oppressed, so that when his clock of time
struck the hour for their decision they were ready
for the question, but it was also manifest how
in the experience of its years the Association had
been unconsciously prepared to enter upon a serv-
ice, the magnitude and opportunity of which
would have staggered its faith, had not its pre-
vious history made it ready to confront the new
problem full of promise and the new work full of
grandeur. When the voice from heaven came,
" Behold, I have set before thee an open door,"
what could not have been done in the toils of
centuries now became possible, and the Associa-
tion, disciplined, tried, experienced, and ready,
entered into its new inheritance of service. The
first suggestion of this was almost immediately
after President Lincoln had issued his proclama-
tion calling for troops upon the bombardment of
Fort Sumter. It read ; —
The whole country is in great excitement. War has
begun. The President of the United States has issued
his proclamation calling for troops, and muUitudinous
hosts are responding to the call. When the war ceases
the slave states will, we believe, present one of the
grandest fields for missionary labor the world ever
"7
J
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
furnished. Should the prayers of the friends of free-
dom be speedily answered in the emancipation of the
slaves, a field of usefulness may be opened before us
that will call for renewed exertion on a greatly in-
creased scale compared with which our past efforts
have been preparatory work.
And before five months had elapsed after the
declaration of war, the Association announced:
" Providence has, in a singularly marked manner,
opened to the Association special fields among
the African race in Western Africa, in Jamaica,
in Kentucky, and in North Carolina, and at the
present time a new field of missionary labor in
Virginia among our colored people, who are
under the protection of our military force
there."
ii8
VII
SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
Rev. L. C. Lockwood at Fortress Monroe in 1861. —
The Association's first school. — Mrs. Mary Peake. —
Schools at Norfolk, Newport News, and other localities.
— The " Butler School." — General Armstrong appointed
by the Association. — Property purchased by the Asso-
ciation for Hampton Institute. — Hampton beg^n and
carried on by the Association under General Armstrong.
— Opening schools in the track of the Union armies. —
The North, East, and West coming over to the position of
the Association. — William Jackson, its first President. —
Lawrence Brainard, David Thurston. — Dr. E. N. Kirk
of Boston elected Presicjent in 1865. — His ringing words
for the Association. — The National Council of Congre-
gational churches acknowledge and approve the Asso-
ciation and ask the churches for $250,000 for the com-
ing year. — Collecting agencies organized. — Rev. W. W.
Patton, D.D., and Rev. J. C. Holbrook, d.d., sent to Great
Britain. — Rev. C. L. Woodworth in Boston, Rev. E. P.
Smith in Cincinnati, and Rev. J. R. Shipherd in Chicago. —
The Freedmen's Bureau and General O. O. Howard. —
Arthur Tappan. — Enlargement of the work. — Religious
interests of the Freedmen. — The first chapel built at
Memphis, Tennessee, in 1866. — Avery Institute, Storrs'
School in Atlanta, Georgia, and Lewis Normal, now Bal-
lard, in Macon, Georgia, the same year.
VII
SCHOOLS FOLIjOWING THE ARMIES
IN September, 1861, Rev. L. C Lockwood,
commissioned by the Association, was at
Fortress Monroe, and from that place
writes, " I ask especial interest in your prayers
that I may be endowed with wisdom and gjace
for these peculiar and momentous responsibili-
ties." He makes a requisition for " 1,500 Sun-
day-school primers with pictures attached."
" Parents and children are delighted with the
idea of learning to read." "There are 1,800
contrabands here ; yesterday I opened a Sabbath-
school in Ex-President Tyler's house. Little did
he think it would ever be used for such a pur-
pose. AH felt that it was the beginning of
better days for them and for their children."
It is here that we have our introduction to
Mrs. Mary Peake, who has the distinction of
being the first teacher of the first day-school for
the freedmen in America. A woman identified
with the colored race, though herself nearly
white, began what was in due process of time
lai
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
to become and to be known the world over as
Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute.
Mr. Lockwood writes: " A day-school was com-
menced last Tuesday, Sept. 17th, with about
twenty pupils, and since in one week increased
to forty or fifty. It was suggested by the chil-
dren themselves. Mrs. Peake is a free woman,
quite light colored, with qualifications for the
post. She is devotedly pious and highly re-
spected among her own people in the commu-
nity. She will make a good permanent teacher
worthy of compensation. Mrs. Peake had made
the most of her chance for education in the Dis-
trict of Columbia before the schools there were
closed to her race, and in slavery times, and at
great persona! risk, had taught, not only her hus-
band, but scores of negroes who had come to
their cabin by night to learn to read."
To her God allotted the privilege of opening
the first reading and writing school among this
peculiar people, and singular it was that she
should have been identified with both the white
and the colored races. Mrs. Peake was born
in Norfolk, Virginia, in 1823. Her maiden name
was Mary Smith Kelsey. Her mother was a free
colored woman, very light, and her father a
white man, an Enghshman of education and cul-
ture. She was educated about as a white girl
rl
J
SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
of good family would have been until she was
sixteen years of ag^e, when she united with the
First Baptist Church in Norfolk. In 185 1 she
was married to Thomas Peake, formerly a slave,
but afterwards a free man, light colored, intel-
ligent, pious, and in every respect a worthy
husband.
When Mr. Lockwood secured from the govern-
ment a cottage for a schoolroom with a family
room above, Mrs. Peake without pledge of pay
gave what remained of a life that was ebbing
away to fifty children every morning and to a
large class of adults every afternoon.
Early in the year of 1862 Mrs. Peake's health
began to decline, and when she learned that she
must die, she sent her love to the Executive Com-
mittee of the Association in New York and to
all her friends of the Mission, saying that she
was "assured that their cause would triumph;
that the Association was -sowing seed which
would spring up and become a great tree for
the shelter of a down-trodden people." What
would Mrs. Peake have said could she have seen
the evolution from her first teaching to the pres-
ent greatness of Hampton Institute?
I quote from Miss Helen Ludlow: " From the
room above the school, on Saturday, February 22,
1862, as the ' All 's well ' of the midnight watch
123
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
sounded through the window of the cottage from
the war-ships in the Roads, her brave soul crossed
the bar. Two more weeks, and the early gath-
ering Sunday-school of the ' Brown Cottage '
trooped after Mr. Lockwood to the shore's edge
to watch with hundreds of praying refugees the
battle of the Monitor and the Merrimac."
Other teachers were soon sent down by the
Association and Mrs. Peake's pioneer school be-
came the nucleus of a school which soon num-
bered over three hundred pupils, to hold which
the walls of the burned court-house were roofed
and repaired by the Association and dedicated to
their new use in October, 1862.
When the supreme event of the war came on
January 1, 1863, confirming the freedom of those
who were under the protection of our armies
and proclaiming the emancipation of all who
were in slavery, the eager cry for education was
heard everywhere throughout the South. The
Association was not slow in responding. In ad-
dition to Hampton, schools ' were opened at Nor-
folk and Newport News, Portsmouth, Suffolk
' The second school in the Soulh opened under Northern leachen tor
colored people wms it Hilton Head early in the year 1862. A party of
tstchen Knt from Boston under the direction of Edward L. Pierc«. three
of whom were graduate! of Yale, opened EChooU on the Sea Islands,
several of which continue until now. Prominent among these pioneer
leacherR was Rev. W. E. Park, D. D., then of Andover, Mast achn set ts,
who wu lUlioned at Si. Helena Island.
124
SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
and Yorktown, Virginia; in Beaufort, Hilton
Head, St. Helena, Port Royal, South Carolina,
and at Washington, following the army closely.
The year closed with eighty-three teachers and
missionaries. At Hampton, General Butler or-
dered the construction of a larger schoolhouse,
which was turned over to the Association in 1865
by General O. O. Howard, who was then commis-
sioner of the Freedmen's Bureau, and the Hamp-
ton court-house, which had been used as a
schoolhouse, was given back to the town by the
United States government. The little school
of the Association, now grown to a classified
body of over six hundred pupils, under the super-
intendence of Rev. Charles P. Day, with a corps
of missionary teachers, was again in the loca-
tion where it began. It was still called the "Butler
School."
On the 12th of March, 1866, Brigadier-General
S. C. Armstrong, late Colonel of the Eighth
United States Colored Troops, arrived at Hamp-
ton to take charge as Freedmen's Bureau Super-
intendent of ten cotmties in tide-water, Virginia,
with headquarters there. The interests of the
" Butler School " and other freedmen's schools in
his extensive district were part of his varied
charge. His reports bearing frequent testimony
to The American Missionary Association as the
"5
J
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
greatest financial power interested in n^;ro edu-
cation, suggested that Hamptcm was the spot for
a permanent and great educational work, and rec-
ommended that a valuable estate called " Little
Scotland," comprising one htmdred and fifty-nine
acres fronting on Hampton River and then in
the market, be purchased. The Association, upon
consideration, decided to do this, and to found
an institution which should combine a practical
schoolroom education with mental and moral
uplift of industrial training and self-help.
The Association was the more ready to meet
this suggestion of General Armstrong, since the
theory was not a new one to the committee. The
Rev. Josiah Brewer had championed these fea-
tures of missionary endeavor both for the mis-
sions in Africa and in Jamaica, and they had
been adopted and carried out on a small scale
in both places with such advantage as the local
direction in these missions made possible. The
Association had also at that time arranged for
an agricultural department at Talladega. As the
one whom the Executive Committee had consid-
ered for principal declined, they realized at once
that General Armstrong was a born master, and
decided that if he could be secured to direct the
new enterprise, there would be no question as
to its successful administration.
126
/' Vfc/^^
4
SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
'Note
3 help,
t expecting to have charge bui
I was surprised one day," wrote Armstrong in
his biography, " to receive a letter from Secre-
tary Smith of The American Missionary Associa-
tion, stating that the man selected for the place
had decHned, and asking if I would take it. I
wrote ■ Yes.' Till then my future had been blind ^)
it had been made clear that there was a work to /
be done for the ex-slave and where and how |
to do it."
While the matter of the full purchase money
for " Little Scotland " was " hanging in the air,"
the executor of the Avery estate, in which was
a legacy of $250,000 for negro education from
the man who had already made large contribu-
tions to The American Missionary Association,
" at the suggestion of the Association paid a visit
to Hampton." He was impressed with the adapt-
ability of the location to institutional purposes,
and shortly after gave to The American Mission-
ary Association the $10,000 which were still
needed for the purchase. The property was
added to the $9,000 already in hand. This was
the material beginning of Hampton. With Gen-
eral Armstrong as principal, the school began
its phenomenally successful life.
While these events were transpiring a flatter-
ing ofifer was made to General Armstrong to
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCUTION
take charge of Howard University at Washing-
ton. In his autobiography he writes: " I refused
for two reasons. First, I was in honor bound
to The American Missionary Association that had
so warmly supported me here and carried out
all my plans. Secondly, I consider my own enter-
prise here has better possibilities (is more central
with reference to freedmen and has important
advantages)."
Academic Hall was erected in 1870, and the
same year the young institution was incorporated
as " Hampton Normal and Agricultural Insti-
tute." In view of General Armstrong's mas-
terful activity and administrative gifts, the
Association, in February, 1872, made over the
title to the property to a board of trustees, of
which Secretary George Whipple was the presi-
dent. The story of Hampton under the direction
of General Armstrong does not need to be told
here. It has interwoven its history with that of
the nation. The Association is happy and grate-
ful in the splendid development and far-reaching
and blessed influence of its first child — the first
school planted by the North for the education
of the children of slavery.
Alert to opportunity, every advance of the
army meant a corresponding one for the Asso-
ciation. The year 1864 was marked by the elec-
R " J
SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
tion of Rev. M. E. Strieby as corresponding
secretary with Dr. \\'hipple, the addition of
schools at Memphis, Tennessee; New Orleans,
and Port Hudson. Louisiana; Vicksburg and
Natchez, Mississippi; Little Rock and Helena,
Arkansas. The track of the Union armies can
thus be traced by that of the close- following
teachers and missionaries, many of whom were
the bravest of brave young women. The num-
ber of these had increased to two hundred and
fifty. The thing which was anathema but a score
of years ago had now become the model of true
patriotism. The contested convictions of 1846
were the gospel of 1864. The people who in the
face of opposition had kept on preaching right-
eousness saw the entire North and East and West
coming to its side. The men of 1846 were no
longer misguided reformers; they were prophets.
One of these, who died in 1855, was the first
president of the Association for eight years.
William Jackson was bom at Newton, Mas-
sachusetts, in 1783. He engaged in business in
Boston at an early age, was prominent as a
member of the Massachusetts legislature, and
was the principal agent in constructing the Provi-
dence and Worcester Railroad. Subsequently,
while a member of Congress, he became familiar
with the movements of the slave power, and as
9 139
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
a consequence was one of its most determined
opponents. Against the remonstrances of his
poHtical friends in the Whig party, with whom
he had always acted, amidst much obloquy, he
united with the Liberty party and was their first
candidate for governor of Massachusetts. Those
who dishked his adherence to his principles were
constrained to acknowledge his sincerity, honesty,
and consistency. The strength of all his excel-
lences was in his decided and uniform Christian
character. When in Congress, he belonged to
the small band of members that met regularly
for devotional exercises. During his last illness
he said: "I never felt so fully the value and
importance of antislavery labors as I do now.
Nothing gives me so sweet a satisfaction in look-
ing back as my labors in the antislavery cause.
I am thankful that I did not follow the fashion
in that matter."
William Jackson was followed in the presi-
dency of the Association by Hon. Lawrence
Brainard of Vermont. Rev. David Thurston of
Maine was the third president. These all serving
with a faith that never faltered and with a fidel-
ity which only a great faith could insure, awaited
the justifications of God.
In the nineteenth Annual Report in 1865 we
find the Association rejoicing in the presidency
130
SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
of Rev. E. N. Kirk, d.d., of Boston. Those who
had preceded him had not found the position one
of unquestioned honor. They could often say
with the apostle, " As it is written. The reproaches
of them that reproached thee fell on me." The
bombardment of Fort Sumter had been heard
by many who had never listened to the speakers
from the Association's platform, and when the
mission schools were organized in the footsteps of
our soldiers, the conversions to the principles and
work of the Association were frequent and happy.
But when in 1865 Dr. Kirk was elected president
of the Association, it was on his part no recent
conversion. In the published story of his life
we read that when he was seventeen and a half
years of age, in his senior year at Princeton Col-
lege, — when Wendell Phillips was a child of
nine years, and full twenty-one years before
Joshua Giddings made his first speech upon
slavery, and twenty-six years before the Asso-
ciation was born, — Edward Norris Kirk took
the position from which he never swerved.
The nation at this time was attent upon the
"Missouri Compromise." At Princeton College
it required courage for a student to stand forth
and say of slavery: "What an employment is
this for a free-bom American who professes
to esteem liberty more than life itself I Let
131
J
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
me call on every American to bring the case
home to himself. Think how ineffably distress-
ing their situation is: sold like beasts and sub-
jected to the lash of the cruel, mercenary master
wherever it suits his caprice. Bring this home;
I repeat it. Suppose you were thus treated, I ask
what would your feelings be and what would
be your actions? If instant despair did not cease,
would you not risk even your life to escape?
Who, then, will dispute whether slavery shall be
checked or extended, that is, whether Missouri
shall or shall not be admitted to the rights of
a state without the restrictions of slavery?"
More than two-score years after this youth-
ful utterance was made the eminent pastor of
Mount Vernon Church in Boston did not fear to
speak, but he was cautious. Nine-tenths of the
Congregational ministers were comparatively
silent, hoping that the question might be set-
tled by some compromise or by some peaceable
change which should eventuate in the destruc-
tion of slavery. When, however, in 1854, it
was moved in Congress to repeal the Missouri
Compromise and decree slavery to Kansas and
Nebraska, Dr. Kirk could no longer hope against
hope that the South would come to a better mind.
Thoroughly antislavery before, he now was out-
spoken. His sermons and addresses ring with
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SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
calls to the people in behalf of the doctrines o£
liberty and brotherhood, and the city of Charles
Sumner and Wendell Phillips had no more earn-
est champion of the principles for which Tlie
American Missionary Association was standing
than Dr. Kirk. It was fitting then, after ten
years of noble testimony on his part, during
which slavery had been destroyed, that he should
honor the representative position of president of
the Association with its history of struggle for
nineteen years. He closed his discourse — the
annual sermon — by saying: " We are to do our
part in forming a correct public sentiment. This
is the sovereign in this country before whom noth-
ing can stand. Assert the manhood of the negro;
make it appear horrible to defraud him, as it is
to defraud a white man of his rights. Insist
that every human being on this part of God's
earth shall stand on a perfect level with every
other man before the law." Could Dr. Kirk
have left a better legacy of counsel for the As-
sociation in these last days?
It was during this year that the Congrega-
tional National Council which met in Boston in
June recommended the Association to the Con-
gregational churches, and asked that $250,000
for the year might be contributed to it. As
yet the Association was without adequate agen-
133
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
cies for collecting the funds, and the first
step was taken to perfect its organization for
this purpose. Rev. J. C. Holbrook, d.d., and
Rev. W. W. Patton, d.d., were invited to rep-
resent the Association in England and Scot-
land. Since over $100,000 had been contributed
and used in the British island of Jamaica by
the Association for the missionary work there
among the blacks, it was felt that now our
Christian friends in Great Britain would cor-
dially respond to opportunities and demands
which had come through the emancipation of
slaves here.
Three district secretaries were also appointed :
Rev. C- L. Woodworth, to be located in Boston,
Rev. E. P. Smith in Cincinnati, and Rev. J. R.
Shipherd in Chicago. The deputation to Great
Britain was successful, and, with the other
agencies, the aggregate cash collections for the
year lacked but ten per cent of the $250,000
recommended by the National Council. Most
efficient aid and encouragement were rendered by
Major General O. O. Howard, the head of the
Freedmen's Bureau. This conscientious Chris-
tian officer, in his devotion to the higher interests
of the freedmen, in his impartial attention to all
who were laboring for their good, in his able
administration of the Bureau with its untried
134
SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
difficulties and perplexities, well deserved the
thanks of the whole country and the gratitude
of the emancipated people.
It is well to remember, as we pass, those who
pointed the way to this liberty which was now
everywhere accepted. Perhaps the most promi-
nent was Arthur Tappan. It was on the Lord's
Day, July 23 of this year, 1865, that this great
Christian philanthropist, the early tried and faith-
ful advocate of the freedom of the slave, in his
eightieth year ceased from his earthly life. He
more than any other had made the Mendi Mis-
sion possible. Doubtless no one person was more
responsible than he for the organization of the
Association in 1846. His influence likewise was
incalculable in preventing the antislavery people
at that period from turning away from the
churches when the churches were slow in in-
dorsing their principles.
Arthur Tappan was a charter member of the
Association, one of its vice-presidents, and al-
ways, from 1846 to the time of his death, an
influential member of the executive committee.
His life was interwoven with the first twenty
years of the Association's history. Born in 1783
in Northampton, Massachusetts, he had conse-
crated himself at the age of thirty years, all
he was and all he had, all he might become
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION!
and secure, Jn devotion to Christ and through
him to his fellow men. From this time there
seemed to be no limit to his endeavors to prove
his discipleship. Entering into business in
Portland, Maine, and subsequently in Montreal
until 1817, when he established himself as
a silk merchant in New York, he had already
evinced his energy and large powers. For
twenty years onward his successful career made
him one of the most prosperou.'? of the distin-
guished merchants of the city. He had the con-
fidence of all in his unbending integrity, while
his business extended throughout the whole coun-
try. His benevolences were wide-spread and
large in Christian causes. In the great com-
mercial crisis of 1857 he suffered immense losses,
but he still retained his ability to contribute gen-
erously to the Association and all other benevo-
lences, though on a diminished scale during his
protracted life. It was he who in the early
struggles of Oberlin College sent to them Presi-
dent Finney, who at his death wrote, " Although
Arthur Tappan failed to do for Oberlin all that
he intended, yet his promise was the condition of
the existence of Oberlin as it has been." His
wise counsels, his energetic determination and
generous contributions made him the strongest
and most influential friend of the Association
136
SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
during all of its struggling and often stirring
history of twenty years.
For thirty years he had been a shining mark
for every weapon of insult and abuse that op-
pression could wield. " Thief," " hypocrite,"
" incendiary," " fanatic " were in the familiar
vocabulary with which he was wont to be pelted.
His only retort was the constant bestowment of
thousands from his wealth in evidence of heroic
fidelity to his convictions of duty. He outlived
the largeness of his material fortune, but he also
outlived the narrow and hateful criticisms which
these convictions brought to him. More; he had
outlived the iniquity of slavery which he had so
keenly realized. He had held out against popu-
lar sentiments and the tyranny of commercial
greed until the nation had come to see and feel
the righteousness for which he had prayed and
lived. He did not die until his eyes had seen the
salvation of the Lord and he was ready to say,
" Now lettest thou thy servant depart in peace."
The executive committee of the Association
placed upon their permanent records the deep
" appreciation of his distinguished liberality and
his earnest labors and sacrifices for the freedom
of the slave and the welfare of the oppressed.
His benevolence knew no distinction of race,
clime, condition, or color, and we gratefully ex-
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
press our thanks to the Abiiighty God that he
was permitted to witness with exultation the
downfall of the accursed system against which
he had so long striven."
The Rev. Dr. Leonard Bacon, in a discourse
preached a week after the death of Mr. Tappan,
outlining his great life, said: "Of course, his
name in every part of the country was associ-
ated with all terms of opprobrium. The memo-
rable anti-abolition riots in the city of New York
raged with special fury against him. But no
violence could move him from the cause he had
deliberately taken in the fear of God. Year by
year it became manifest that the churches and
their ministry, whether right or wrong in their
judgments, were not apostate from Christ, and
that the people of the North, however they might
have been misled, were not false to liberty. All
this our venerable fViend observed with growing
thankfulness, and when the war was ended in the
vindication of constitutional liberty and in the
complete extinction of slavery, his joy was full."
With the memory of Arthur Tappan preserved,
the Association will keep its rudder true in all
seas.
With the accession of funds, the work of the
Association now greatly enlarged. Schools at
Wilmington, North Carolina; Savannah, Geor-
138
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SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
gia; and Jacksonville, Florida, were added. The
250 teachers and missionaries had become 320,
and these in 1866 had increased to 353, the states
of Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, Alabama,
and Texas having been added to those already
entered.
At the same time the religious advancement of
the freedmen was going forward, though less ob-
viously. It was clearly seen that in the real prog-
ress of religion, anything reasonable, stable, and . 1 ^ '
permanent must begin and keep pace with Chris- i /jf
tian education. If emphasis appears to have
been placed upon the schools, it was because they
were the foundation for churches. Fidelity to
the spiritual nature of these poor people was
largely — almost entirely — dependent upon en-
hghtcnment of the mind. But from the first
the school was an embryo church. Every-day
services and Sunday-schools found their home in
the schoolhouse.
In 1 866 the first chapel built by the Associa-
tion in the South for the special use of the col-
ored people was opened at Memphis, Tennessee.
It was burned with all the colored churches in
Memphis in a riot against the race that same
year. A lot also was secured for a church in
Atlanta, Georgia.
The first notice of the school that is now Avery
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Institute was given in the Charleston Daily News
in May, 1866. It is interesting as a picture of
the time, a single year after the close of the
war: —
We received an invitation to be present at the ex-
amination of the colored school in the Normal build-
ing on Thursday afternoon. The scene was novel :
colored " exhibitors " in Charleston are still in their
infancy. The school is supported by The American
Missionary Association of New York. Rev. F. L,
Cardozo, a native of this city, who finished his studies
at the University of Glasgow, is the principal, as-
sisted by a corps of twenty teachers, ten of whom are
from the North and the remainder colored natives
from Charleston. The school has about one thousand
pupils with an average daily attendance of eight hun-
dred. The studies comprise the entire range of ele-
mentary branches from the English primer to the
Latin grammar. The institution was opened in Oc-
tober, 1865. One-fourth of the pupils were bom free,
and these comprise the more advanced classes. The
school, therefore, must not be considered as giving a
fair average of colored education in this city. As it
is the design to make this a school for the education
of teachers, the best material has been retained so far
as practicable and the remainder sent to other schools.
Thus in some of the classes scarcely a single pure
black is seen. The greater number in the more ad-
vanced classes are very fair, but all hues are repre-
sented. All were very neat and well dressed, and
bore themselves with great credit to themselves and
to their teachers.
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SCHOOLS FOLLOWING THE ARMIES
A school in Atlanta, Georgia, afterwards
named " Storrs School," and dedicated in 1867,
and which continued till 1905, giving a good
foundation for advanced education to thousands,
and also one in Macon then named Lewis Normal
but now called Ballard Normal, sent in their first
reports this year.
141
VIII
POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
Long looks forward. — Permanent policy adopted and
reasons. — Theory and methods of education for an un-
developed people. — Higher institutions needed to prepare
teachers and preachers. — Fisk University founded in
Nashville, Tennessee, in 1866. — The story of Fisk Uni-
versity and its subsequent history. — General Clinton B.
Fisk. — President Cravath. — Professor Bennett. — Spence
and Chase. — Plans in education to include handicrafts
and industries.
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POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT j
y%T first the Association opened temporary
r^L schools in barracks and warerooms be-
longing to the army and in such confis-
cated buildings as could be secured. The teach-
ing was very elementary and the work plain.j
The mission had meant simply attention to thel
immediate pressing duty. The work in hand
claimed the entire attention. But when it be-
came more complex, it was realized that the
enthusiasm and missionary consecration which
for short periods of service had been so ready
and free, must become a permanent factor; that
it must have concentration for efficiency and
careful supervision and direction for economy.
Thorough organization and concentration became
missionary wisdom. Not only were the relative
fields to be considered, but the relative needs of
the varied parts. There must be long looks for-
ward, for it was evident that millions of people
whose antecedents were barbarism and centuries
of slavery could not be upraised to Christian
civilization and privilege by ever so much mere
» 145
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:,,AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
elementary education. It was missionary strat-
egy to collect the scattered forces that were tem-
porarily distributed in rural districts, reaching
I only obscure localities and hamlets as they had
followed the armies.
I The question now had come before the Asso-
ciation as to what should be the permanent policy
— the principles not only, but the methods, of
their new missionary endeavor. So far the Asso-
ciation had made less account of the future than
it did of the fact that God was leading on, and
that the Association was assuredly following that
leading. But now it was face to face with a long
future. No transient purpose and no transient
work would do. The salvation of an absolutely
undeveloped race with a long heredity of igno-
rance, superstition, and degradation meant gen-
erations as to time and called for permanent
institutions. This at once introduced the theory
and methods of education and indicated whati
should be attempted. The prophetic men whol
were directing the Association believed that
what experience had proved to be wise and
efficient influences for Christianizing and civiliz-
ing white people ought to be equally good for
black people. Indeed, the evidence already be-
fore them seemed to be suflicient to justify this
judgment. The Association had gone far enough
^
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146
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POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
to confirm the opinion that the black people could
be enlarged in thought and mind by the same
influences and methods of discipline which had
proved their power in other peoples; this much
against the opinions of the Southern people, who
held for the most part to the essential incapacity
of their former slaves for anything beyond ele-
mentary improvement. At all events, said these
' men in the direction of the Association, we must
work toward the possibilities. No race can be
permanently dependent upon another race for its
ultimate development. This negro race must be
taught to save itself and how to do it; to work
out its own future with its own teachers and edu-
cators. Therefore, reliance must be placed on
permanent institutions and permanent teachers
for them, and for the steady and determined con-
secration of those ready to take up the work with
this high conception of it. Evidently it would not
be within the power of this Association or any
other to upraise the masses numbering millions
by a sheer dead lift. It could not be wisdom to
undertake this. Our work must be to save those
who will go out and save others, and for this they
must have wisdom and strength. The elementary
work must be given to teachers of their own race
as soon as they can be ready to take it. The com-
mon schools, which at first sprang up in great
M7
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
numbers, must give way to graded schools ; these
graded schools must take on normal departments
with teachers of experience and devotion who
shall prepare their pupils for such instruction as
they in turn may impart in smaller places. This
theory at once made necessary higher institutions
with the collegiate intention, which should receive
exceptional pupils prepared at the secondary
schools who were approved and encouraged by
their teachers to seek exceptional education.
Meanwhile, parochial schools must be continued
in connection with the little churches of ignorant
people, the teachers working in the churches as
well as in the schools.
For this plan of permanent efficiency it be-
came necessary to provide the schools with
" Teachers' Homes," as it was impossible other-
wise for those who were willing to teach col-
ored people to secure board and shelter. These
were intended to be, not only homes for teachers,
but " social settlements " also for those who
needed to be taught how to live, — centers of
Christian evangelism and missionary endeavor.
From these should go out the influence of per-
sonal character and example in home life. The
emphasis of the service from first to last was to
be on the word " missionary." and with the les-
sons in schools it was to be religion all the week,
148
POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
permeating and vitalizing character; a mighty
social and civic movement as well as a positively
Christian one.
The fathers of forty years ago an ticipated the I
criticisms of later years as to the wis dom of col-
leges for the development of a backward race.'
So, they said, let it be granted that other lines
of education are imperative; colleges also cer-
tainly are needed, and we must set the standards
for the education of the race now! Thorough
training, large knowledge, and the best culture
possible are needed to invigorate, direct, purify,
and broaden life; needed for the wise adminis-
tration of citizenship, the duties of which are as
sure to come as the sun is to shine, though to-day
or to-morrow may be cloudy; needed to over-
come narrowness, one-sidedness, and incomplete-
ness.
They took their theories of education from
their estimates of men. If what "is possible"
was to be demonstrated, there must be institu-
tions for those whose gifts, attainments, char-
acter, and example should make them a constant
and large uplifting hope for others; a steadying
power and a wise guidance for those not equally
privileged or endowed, and which should give
opportunity for the youth of the future, whose
intellectual capacity might justify the largest
149
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
mental furnishing. Therefore, they said, edu-
cate, educate, educate! in all ways, from the
lowest to the highest, for whatever is possible
for a full-orbed manhood and womanhood. This,
of course, predicated the education of the highest
part of one's nature. Their theory was right,
if education does not make for spiritual life and
spiritual power, it is lamentably insufficient.
Therefore, the gospel of Christ was to be put into
every study, into every science, into every line of
thought, and into every form of work. The hope
of the race must find itself by being in the cur-
rents of God's holy love and will and providence.
In accordance with these views the first year
after peace was declared a school was opened
in 1866 with the exalted name of Fisk University.
It is mentioned in the records as a " Colored High
School," held in the buildings previously used as
a military hospital. Nashville was then a mili-
tary camp under the command of the late General
ainton B. Fisk. The record reads : —
This Association, already endeared to the colored
people, has purchased a parcel of ground in the western
part of the city, and has procured extensive buildings
from the government, in which will be opened for
colored children graded schools, a normal school, and
in time a first-class college. This broad Qiristian
foundation will exert a widespread influence upon
»5o
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POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
city of Nashville and the state of Tennessee. It will
receive liberal patronage from the friends of educa-
tion in the North. General Fisk had his heart upon
the inaugfuration of the two movements above noted
in behalf of the colored people of Nashville and now
rejoices in their success. Professor John Ogden of the
Western Freedmen's Aid Commission and Rev. E. M.
Cravath of the American Missionary Association will
be superintendents of the institution.
L
A little later the record follows : —
A large concourse of teachers and pupils, with a
number of distinguished invited guests, — Governor
Brownlow, Chancellor Lindsley of the State Univer-
sity and superintendent of the city schools, Senator
Bossom, General Fisk, and a goodly number of other
civilians and officers, — were present to witness the
opening of this institution. After prayer by the Rev.
R. E. Allen of the " Presbyterian Church, Rev. E. M.
Cravath gave a brief statement of the foundation and
objects of the school." Dr. Cravath 's statement was:
" The buildings were secured by General Fisk. The
object was to establish a free school for colored chil-
dren, equal to the best in the country. The building
when properly furnished would accommodate from
twelve hundred to fifteen hundred pupils. Children
would be taught without charge, and the teachers would
be among the best in the country. They desired also
to train good teachers in the Normal department. It
was to be a permanent affair and would be kept up
at least eight months of the year, if good friends in
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
the North kept their pledges. It was called the Fisk
School. The name honored the school, and he trusted
that the school would honor tlie name."
Superintendent Cravath was followed by Gen-
eral Fisk, who said he rejoiced that he was per-
mitted to stand as godfather at the baptism of a
new and free school. He had been led to take a
retrospective glance at his own life to-day. Well
did he remember when, more than a half cen-
tury ago, his poor widowed mother in midwinter
bound him out to an old farmer. He remem-
bered how the farmer sat in his mother's cabin
and how the contract was written by which he
was bound out; how he was clothed and sent
to school; how his bundle was tied up and he
was put upon a horse behind the farmer with
his mother's blessing and tears. " These chil-
dren are much better clad than I was at that
time." He continued: "Chancellor Lindsley
gave you a good thought. This war terminates,
not in slavery, but in liberty for the land. It
struck the shackles off from the slaves and gave
liberty to four million of people. And now,
while yet in the smoke and flame of battle, be-
fore peace has come and brooded over the land,
we find these generous people of the North com-
ing down with all these advantages and giving
them to the rreedmen freely."
IS3
POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
Governor Brownlow said: " Your naming this
Fisk School is a just compHment to a meritorious
man, and I will be pardoned for saying in the
presence of General Fisk that if a man less pru-
dent, less kind, less reasonable, and less just, both
towards white and colored persons, had been
placed at the head of the Bureau in this city, it
would have proved a failure. I can only say by
the way of admonition and encouragement to the
colored friends: Attend your schools, learn to
read the word of God, and then learn to love
and practise it; and by way of caution and ad-
vice, I admonish you to be mild and temperate in
your habits and spirit, and your conduct toward
the white people. As a friend, loving the insti-
tution and desiring the prosperity of what you
have undertaken, I advise the teachers, male and
female, to be exceedingly prudent and cautious,
and do nothing offensive to the predominant
party here. You may think it a little strange
that I give such counsel. I do it because if Gen-
eral Thomas were to take away his soldiers and
pull up stakes and leave here, you would not be
allowed to occupy this schoolroom a week, not
a week." These teachers were thought to be
mistaken philanthropists who worked their con-
sciences overtime.
After interesting remarks from Rev. R. H.
153
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Allen, Mr. Walker, and Rev. Mr. Harris, — these
last colored men, — Rev. E. M. Cravath arose
and announced that the school would be open
for pupils at nine o'clock to-morrow, saying:
" It is deeply gratifying to see an official recog-
nition from Tennessee in the person of its gov-
ernor and from the superintendent of the city
schools of Nashville. The principal. Professor
Ogden, is a teacher of large experience in Nor-
mal schools."
One more record of a few months later:
"Nashville, June 15: The great 'Fisk' free
school for colored children closed its first term
to-day. A large number of citizens crowded the
chapel to witness the examination. Nearly one
thousand pupils are taught in this school by fif-
teen excellent teachers. The examination to-day
was a brilliant success."
So the University with its large name was on
its way. A university suggests institutions dow-
ered with great resources, rich with the treasures
of scholarship, with buildings the growth of
years, and appliances for research in all the sci-
ences and the 'ologies, with their graduate stu-
dents and postgraduate scholars; and here was
Fisk University in barracks, with the majority
of its classes in the primary grades. Very well,
Moses was Moses as truly in the bulrushes as
IS4
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tKMtVS M. ClUVATH, U-U,
POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
when, " come to years, he refused to be called the
son of Pharaoh's daughter," and " way down in
Egypt land " stood face to face with the king
and said, " Let my people go." Oxford when it
began more than a thousand years ago was
not Oxford of to-day. Yale University, which
lately celebrated its two hundredth birthday, be-
gan when half a dozen ministers of the gospel
brought together a few books and said, We will
give these for the founding of a college. The
name is in the interests and purpose, in the faith
of what is to be, and in the hope of final achieve-
ment. Let us wait two hundred years and then
ask whether or not this child was rightly named
University.
After the school had existed one year The
American Missionary Association published a
report from its annual meeting voicing the
thought and purpose of education in the new
institution. It read thus: —
The true method is to show the colored people the
possibilities of their own race, and inspire in them,
by visible and living examples, a noble ambition. This,
sooner than anything else, will remove unworthy preju-
dice against them, and raise them to respectability and
influence- It is impossible that a whole people should
all advance equally. In common as well as in military
life there must be leaders, and the mass will advance
more rapidly because these march ahead. These leaders
155
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
must be trained,
needful.
For this, Christian colleges are
r
In a recent volume entitled From Servitude to
Service, in which the president of Fisk Univer-
sity ably set forth the justification of this early
purpose of the founders of this institution, we
have a perfect demonstration of the profound
wisdom of the educational work thus entered
upon; of the essential necessity of such educa-
tion and the fruitfulness of it in the progress
of a people — a wonderful advancement within
forty years.
As the institution advanced we read; —
Providentially there has been developed in connec-
tion with our educational work in Fisk University a
reinarkabie power of song. There have been added to
the students those who possess special musical ability,
until a choir of eleven has been selected, whose ren-
dering of the popular standard pieces of music has
attracted so much attention that the teachers and trus-
tees and friends of the institution have felt they had
a mission to accomplish in behalf of the struggling
University in which they are being trained and in
behalf of the education of their race. Under the
management of Professor G. L. White, who has been
their instructor in their training and who originated
the idea of relieving the pressing necessities of the
University by using the talent of the students, this
choir has commenced a series of concerts in the North,
156
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POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
This was the beginning of the musical depart-
ment which has won fame for this institution,
and the beginning and completion of Jubilee Hall.
The writer of this remembers well when this first
troupe made its debut at the National Council
in Oberlin in 1871. When a resolution was of-
fered thanking it for " the sweet songs of Zion,"
some minister arose to say they were sweet
songs, but it was not correct to call them " songs
of Zion." The answer was, " That depends upon
what you mean by Zion."
Let us remember here these " Founders." My
own acquaintance with Genera! Fisk began in the
winter of 1885, when I came from my parish in
France to be secretary of The American Mission-
ary Association. General Fisk sat in the execu-
tive committee of the Board, a goodly figure to
look upon, with a commanding presence, thought-
ful and large-minded, prompt and regular in at-
tendance, like a soldier. I soon discerned that he
was one of the most lovable of men. Distin-
guished in the councils of the Methodist Church
and loyal to it as became him, he was yet broad
enough to identify himself thoroughly with a
society whose officers were members of another
church family. All the years until his death we
had the wealth of his wisdom, his large experi-
ence, his exceptional ability, and his most sincere
'57
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION (
and earnest Christian devotion. He was a cort
spicuous example of a nobly inspired and divinel^
consecrated life, constantly held sacred to the '
good of others. When one is shining like a radi-
ant star in witnessing to what is right and noble
in Christian citizenship, in a world where selfish-1
ness is so common and so mighty in its dominion,^
where materialism has its own gospel, it is well
for us to recall the reality and power of convic-
tions to truths which were unpopular, and firm
adherence to principles, when such adherence did
not meet with prevailing approval. The memory
of such a man is a perpetual and triumphant
testimony to the power and glory of the religion
of Jesus Christ, an inheritance for our contem-
plation and imitation in the duties and fidelities
of life. Such a one was the man whose honored
name Fisk University bears. May it never cease
to cherish the memory of one whose whole life
was expressed in the old Latin phrase, " I am
a man, and whatever interests man, interests
me "! His subsequent benefactions to the school
amounted to nearly thirty thousand dollars.
President Cravath was chiefly known to Fisk
University by his administration there. He en-
tered upon it in 1875, when the school, scarcely
nine years old, was yet unformed, and was presi-
dent of it for a quarter of a century. He put
158
POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
his own stamp upon it. Of large vision, of great
faith, of prophetic purpose, with positive convic-
tions and strong will, he had the qualities of
greatness. While he did not shrink from being
identified with an unpopular cause, he held his
convictions with such love for mankind and such
charily for those who did not share his opinions,
that he won their personal regard and disarmed
many prejudices against the institution. His in-
tellectual power was crowned with Christian
sincerity and devotion, and his influence upon
thousands of students will go on in their lives
for many generations. All tliis is true and more,
and yet the early records of The American Mis-
sionary Association indicate that perhaps Dr.
Cravath's most significant work was not as presi-
dent of Fisk after all. For ten years previous,
as superintendent and lield secretary of the As-
sociation, he traversed the Southland, planning
with wondrous wisdom for the system of schools
which in all the years to come should give light
and save life. He selected sites, purchased prop-
erties, organized schools of every grade, and
found the principals who should manage, govern,
and direct them, and those who should teach.
When Atlanta University in Georgia, Storrs
School in the same city. Talladega College in
Alabama, Straight University in New Orleans,
1S9
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOaATION
Tougaloo University in Mississippi, Le Moyne
Normal School at Memphis, Avery Institute in
Charleston, Gregory Normal in Wilmington, Bal-
lard Normal in Macon, and very many more were
in their first stages of evolution, he was there.
The first building of Atlanta University came
from The American Missionary Association, and
Dr. Cravath was the man who supervised its erec-
tion. If he did not create the institutions, he
rocked their cradles and led them up from their
beginnings. This service in his career was a large
part of a great life, and as one generation passes
and another comes, so Dr. Cravath lives in thou-
sands made better by his influence and in the
presence of the good diffused among multitudes
who do not know their indebtedness.
Others have brought repute to Fisk Univer-
sity among the educational institutions of our
country. There was Professor A. K, Spence, the
scholar, for a time head of the school, who left
an attractive chair of Greek in Michigan Uni-
versity to give his large and loving life there,
yet well content so he could be nearer God's
heart and feel the solemn pulses sending blood
through all the widespread veins of endless good,
a pure-minded, public-spirited, noble man, strong
in goodness. There were Professor H. S. Bennett
with his true mind and heart, helpful and earnest
i6<?
J
I
POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
and faithful, and Professor F. A. Chase, conscien-
tious, exact, genuine, the soul of sincerity and
unselfish consecration. I may not mention those
who happily remain, who have had their full
share in making Fisk University what it is.
There is a story in mythology which tells us
that Jupiter once offered the prize of immortality
to him who was most useful to mankind. The
court of Olympus was thronged with competi-
tors for the reward — the soldier who had fought
for his country; the philanthropist whose deeds
of love for his fellows had caused his name to
be universally honored; the artist, painter, and
sculptor whose creations had given form to noble
ideals and made the earth less gross and dull ; the
poet by whose genius the people had their songs;
the musicians who had incarnated the harmonies
and melodies to cheer and uplift burdened lives
were brought forward. A venerable man among
the observers looked on with intense interest
in the scene to see which one would be awarded
the coveted prize. Jupiter seeing him, asked
who he was. " I am only a looker-on," said the
sage ; " these competitors were my pupils."
"Then," said Jupiter, " this is my judgment:
crown the faithful teacher with the prize awarded
to the most useful of mankind! "
Certainly those who are thus educating a people
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
" to attain their highest possibilities " are among
the most useful of mankind. The process of this
work, inconspicuous though it may be, in which
graduates have become known and esteemed, and
it may be eminent, through the teaching and
fidelity of their instructors, has become not
merely Christian salvation for multitudes, but
has been a mighty social and civic blessing to
many communities. This service cannot be told
here, but it is written in God's " Book of Remem-
brance," and whether duly recognized or not
while the work is quietly going on, in the day
when the love of God shall be justified to men
it will receive its reward.
The story of Fisk University in its beginnings
has been dwelt upon here because it is a type
original and permanent. There is nothing so
indelible as an original stamp. The die which
gives the impression to coin does not merely
make its mark upon the surface. Every particle
under the die feels the impact, and when in the
years by constant abrasion the stamp no longer
appears on the surface, it nevertheless, put to
scientific test, shows that the die went through
the coin. So in twoscore years, though many
changes appear on the surface, the character
works and will work toward the name. The men
who planted it were not mistaken when they
163
POLICY AND DEVELOPMENT
said, " There should be an education which
should demonstrate the possibilities of the race."
In the adjustment to existing conditions, the
question of industrial training has not been for-
■>\ gotten. For a people beginning their history
with the rights and privileges of freedom this
also was absolutely essential. The Association's
theory was to make industrial training a con-
tributing force to Christian education. It did
not accord with the modem Southern theory of
negro education that it should be distinct from
other education and compose about all the needs
of these poor people destined to be a permanent
peasant class, and no more. At the same time,
it was plain enough that the vast majority of
this people — as indeed all peoples — must live
by bodily labor. They must earn their bread.
They must therefore be taught and trained to
do this in such a way as will contribute to the
honorable life to which every negro boy should
aspire. Upon the superstructure of mental en-
lightenment tiiey must build themselves up by
intelligent industries. Hence, with the planting
of permanent schools leading up to higher edu-
cation, plans were at once made for such indus-
trial training as seemed to be practical in nearly
all schools for girls, and, whenever possible, for
boys. As soon as funds could be secured shops
163
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
were erected for work in wood, iron, and various
other handicrafts. Labor was honorable and to
be honored. Thus the creed with which the As-
sociation began took in the school of the mind,
the conscience, and the heart; the school for
handicrafts and for the culture of the soil. Farms
were connected with several of the higher in-
stitutions that students might be instructed in
agriculture.
164
IX
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
The school in Charleston, South Carolina. — Relief So-
cieties. — Freedman's Bureau. — General O. O. Howard.
— A new feature in administration. — New churches. —
Organization of Talladega Normal School. — Development
to Talladega Collie. — Department of theological study.
— Emerson Institute in 1868. — Reconstruction and the
Fourteenth Amendment. — Straight University. — B^^-
ning of Tougaloo University in Mississippi. — Character-
istics and features. — The Fifteenth Amendment. — Proc-
lamation of President U. S. Grant — Comments of Carl
Schurz. — Georgia governor's examination of Atlanta
University. — Testimony of examiners. — Seven new
chartered institutions. — Twenty "normal" schools. —
Sixty-nine " common *' schools within seven years after
slavery.
IX
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
THOUGH peace had been declared, the
records of the Association show that
our work was not permitted to go for-
ward in peace. In some sections great violence
was manifested towards the freednien; their
newly founded churches and schoolhouses, and
frequently their habitations, such as they were,
were destroyed, Personal violence towards the
negro — most innocent cause of the war — did
not hesitate at life itself. " The schools " were
" execrated " by the majority of the whites —
the teachers ostracised, and " some suffered per-
sonal violence."
It will not have escaped the attention of the
reader that in the report from Avery Institute
in Charleston, South Carolina, within a year
after Lee's surrender, ten of the twenty teachers
were natives of Charleston and identified racially
with the negro people. These were from the fami-
lies of free negroes who had been previously
educated in Charleston. These free negroes, who
numbered two hundred and sixty-two thousand
167
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
persons in the South in i860, with property es-
timated at twenty-five million of dollars, — while
they were subject to much unfriendly legislation,
and were denied admission to public schools, —
were not legally excluded from such education
as they could secure among themselves. Hence,
from the youth among the free negroes many
teachers for the elementary grades in the rapidly
extemporized schools of the Association were
found in several cities where its schools were
located.
What was especially remarked also when our
sdiools began was the proportion of pupils who
were far more Anglo-Saxon in their parentage
than they were African. Indeed, a Southern au-
thority in a careful work entitled The Resources
and Population of South Carolina, published in
1883 with the state imprint, writing of the negro
people, uses the following words: " One-third has
a large infusion of white blood. Another third
has less, but still some; and of the other third
it would be difficult to find an assured specimen
of pure African blood. If the lineage of these
negroes whose color and features seem most un-
mistakably to mark them as of purely African
descent be traced, indisputable evidence may often
be obtained of white parentage more or less
remote."
168
^
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
The teachers who went down from the North
were soon disillusioned if they were at all influ-
enced by any other than the most serious mis-
sionary spirit. Ostracism is a mild term for
the disesteem with which they were regarded as
' nigger teachers." Moreover, colored people
themselves were not remarkable as being exempt
from the ordinary characteristics of human
beings. There were all sorts, — the pious and
the profane, the virtuous and the vicious, the
trusting and the jealous, the faithful and the
treacherous, the industrious and the lazy, the
prudent and the careless, the bright and the
stupid, the sprightly and the sullen. Out of
such families the children came. The teachers
needed the thirteenth chapter of First Corin-
thians — and needed it every day — with the
emphasis on the climacteric and supreme grace
of all, in order to get on; and many of them
had the chapter by heart.
The Association had now reached a stage of
steady progress and the year 1867 presents but
few incidents. The work in Africa, the missions
among the North American Indians, in the Sand-
wich Islands, and in Siam were duly reported,
and the customary comments and resolutions
made: but the attention and interest was upon
the rapidly developing work among the freed-
169
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
men. In 1861, when the ignorant, half-clad,
half- famished negroes numbering thousands in
all had fled to the protection of our armies,
various " Relief Societies " were formed in the
North devoted largely to physical help. These
societies multiplied rapidly and were soon so
numerous that their labors became conflicting.
■ In May, 1866, they were finally concentrated and
united into the " American Freedmen's Union
Commission." After this event, the American
Missionary Association and this Freedmen's
Commission were recognized by " The Freed-
man's Bureau " and the country as the two cen-
tral institutions in the freedmen's work. This
" Union Commission," however, had scarcely
been organized before it began to disintegrate.
The Cincinnati Branch, the oldest of the West-
ern societies, withdrew and united with the
American Missionary Association in 1866, and
the " Cleveland Branch " followed in 1867. The
Chicago ofhce closed in 1868, which left the As-
sociation as the sole national organization. The
Boston, Philadelphia, and Maryland branches,
however, still continued in active operation.
The " Freedman's Bureau," created by an act
of Congress in 1865, is constantly acknowledged
in the papers of the Association at this period
with the highest praises for the Chief Commis-
170
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
sioner, Major General O. O. Howard. Under
his wise and impartial administration the Bureau
was a constant defense to the Association in times
of danger, and a most efficient helper in making
provision for the constantly growing needs of
its work by the wise disposal of funds to the
Association for the erection of school buildings.
Rev. Dr. Wm. W. Patton and Rev. Dr. John
C. Holbrook were in Great Britain in behalf of
the Association, which had now entered upon
an experiment in office administration quite at
variance with its former and with its present
method. It was decided to divide the Associa-
tion into three departments, — the Eastern, the
Middle West, and the Western; the Eastern, as
the central office, being located at New York;
the others at Cincinnati and at Chicago. The
Middle West Department, with its own secretary,
treasurer, and Advisory Board, administered
upon the missionary operations, schools, and
churches in Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and
a part of Georgia. The Western Department,
with its secretary and treasurer, administered
upon the work in Kansas, Illinois, Missouri,
Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Texas.
The Eastern Department contained by far the
larger number of schools and teachers and had
for its administrative territory the District of
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Columbia, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North
and South Carolina, a part of Alabama, and a
part of Georgia. It was thought that thus the
increasingly exigent work would be prosecuted
with greater vigor and would doubtless appeal
with more urgency to the different parts of the
country for financial support. The foreign fields
remained as heretofore under the direction of
the ofllice at New York. This arrangement was
entered upon in the hope of financial consolida-
tion of other agencies, which after a few years
was brought about when the organization was
perfected by centralizing the entire administra-
tion at New York. This period witnessed the
formation of churches in Charleston, South
Carolina; Atlanta, Macon, and Andersonville,
in Georgia; Chattanooga, Nashville, and Mem-
phis in Tennessee; Talladega and Selma in Ala-
bama, and Camp Nelson and Berea in Kentucky.
All of these were ministered unto by white pas-
tors from the North. The new school buildings
at Charleston, South Carolina, and Savannah,
Georgia, were dedicated, and schools were opened
at Selma, Marion, and Athens in Alabama.
At Talladega, Alabama, in November, 1867, a
school was organized with three teachers and
one hundred and forty pupils. For two years
previous the " Cleveland Freedman's Aid Com-
17a
J
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
mission " had maintained an excellent school at
this point, so that most of the pupils to enter
the new school had already received primary in-
struction. Aided by the government, the Asso-
ciation had purchased " a fine college property
consisting of thirty-four acres, and a handsome
brick building which had been erected before the
war at a cost of thirty-four thousand dollars."
When the General Field Agent six months
subsequently visited the school, he reported, " We
began last year and now have at Talladega one
of our best Normal schools in fine working
order." Nine counties adjacent, thickly popu-
lated, had no school of any sort. The principal
was importuned for teachers. He met some of
the colored people in their log churches and told
them there was but one way in which they could
secure a teacher. " Pick out the best specimen
of a young man you have for a teacher, and
bring to church with you next Sunday all the
corn and bacon you can spare for his living. I
will take him into my school and make a teacher
of him."
Following his advice, some brought their corn,
from a handful to four quarts, — more often a
handful, — in the pocket, or tied in a handker-
chief, and laid it on the altar in front of the
pulpit, singing as they marched aroimd the aisle.
173
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Eight or nine young men were selected from
the different locahties and furnished with rations.
These came to Talladega ten, twenty, and thirty
miles on foot with sacks of corn and bacon on
their backs. There were positively no accommo-
dations in Talladega for them, and they were
obliged to sleep on the floors of such cabins as
could receive them and give them a chance to bake
their corn bread by the fire. This they did. For
their studies, they began with the alphabet, and
after six months, by giving their whole time to one
thing, were able to read in the Second and Third
Readers, and had been taught " by practice upon
other pupils " in the school " how to teach read-
ing." In the summer these pupils went home to
teach " bush " schools until the fall term opened,
when they were back on time at Talladega and in
force. The principal had applications from fifty
more young men and women who wished to come
in the same way and on the same terms, bringing
their rations, mostly corn-meal, asking only for
a place to bake it and a shelter for their heads,
When the General Field Agent pronounced this
" one of our best Normal schools," he must have
had the prophetic vision to see what the years, not
the months, would develop. Normal schools, two
years after Appomattox, with ex-slave boys and
girls for pupils, could only have existed in name,
174
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
as a babe is given the name which he is to wear
when it stands for somewhat other than a babe.
In the faith of what was to be, many institutions,
which have since justified their right to be so called,
were named " Normal schools," and the young
teachers who went forth able to read fairly well
in the " Second Reader " doubtless in time were
able to prove both their faith and fidelity in their
larger attainments. The school developed step by
step with the development of the people. The
teachers who began the work here proved to be
teachers of great faith, willing to identify them-
selves with a service which, not imderstood, was
distrusted by the intelligent white people, who as
yet could not have been expected to welcome these
unknown mission teachers from the North with
confidence, nor to look upon their work with cor-
diality. However, one of the most vitalizing
forces of this early work was the religious zeal
and consecration which surrounded it with an
atmosphere so surcharged with power and love
that the teachers thought of little else than their
mission. They lived with their students, worked
for salaries which barely sustained them, assumed
burdens in and out of school hours that only de-
votion to their Lord and the salvation of his
needy ones could inspire. The supreme and
ultimate purpose which called forth this self-
175
f needy ones cr
ultimate purpc
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION j
sacrificing missionary spirit was the same as that
of the churches from which these people of great
faith came.
This faith, great and prophetic as it was, could
not have forecast the Talladega College of to-day.
It was then housed in one building, erected by
slaves as a school for the sons of their masters,
and which in war times had been converted into
a prison for the Federal soldiers. The Associa-
tion had purchased this school building for the
race whose labor had reared it, and whose free-
dom was due to the army which furnished the
prisoners. The story of this stately building has
other points of interest. Its slave carpenter, who
sawed the first plank and chipped the first shav-
ing for the edifice, sorrowing most of all because
his children would never have a chance for edu-
cation like the children of his masters, has
lived to see three of them take diplomas in the
young college, and pursue advanced studies in
a recitation room containing a window-pane on
which in 1862 a Yankee soldier had cut the
words, " Prisoners of war." These children of
the former " slave carpenter " were for years
teachers in the institution, and one surren-
dered her teachership only to become the wife
of a minister who was trained in the
school.
176
he same I
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
It is a far cry from that day to the present
Talladega College, with its twenty buildings clus-
tered about the original campus, its thirty pro-
fessors and instructors, and its annual average
attendance of five hundred and fifty pupils in its
several departments, — preparatory, normal, col-
legiate, college, theological, — with its indus-
trial departments in woodworking, in iron and
printing, and its agricultural, with its farm of
eight hundred acres, its machinery, tools, and
stock.
Now when twoscore years have passed, the
visitor at Talladega College will not find the same
local conditions which existed at the beginning.
The citizens who could only have been expected
to meet the school at the outset with distrust and
perhaps with fears for the outcome, and who
could not have been other than painfully at vari-
ance with Northern people and their ideas, are
counted as their steadfast and greatly appreciated
friends. They do not hesitate in their cordial
opinions and commendations of what they see
every day. Their cordiality is founded upon the
careful observation of years. They are repre-
sented on the Board of Trustees.
In 1868 a church was organized, and teaching
for preachers was advertised. This brought to-
gether eighteen students for the ministry but
" 177
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
three years out of slavery. Now, ten churches i
may be counted as the direct outgrowth of this I
first Congregational Church. In 1873 a distinct
department of BibHcal study was opened. Nearly
two hundred ministers have received their train-
ing in this theological department, and many have J
served in different denominations in important
churches. To Professor George W. Andrews, d.d., i
in thirty-two years' continuous service must be
accredited most of the instruction and training j
of these. He began his work in 1875.
In 1S79 the institution, with a look forward to I
the beginning of a four years' college course,
elected the Rev. Henry Swift DeForest, a gradu-
ate of Yale in the class of 1S57. subsequently an ]
instructor at tiiat university, and who had been
drafted into the army in the war between the
North and the South. In his service as chaplain
he made his first acquaintance with the South.
His entrance upon his work at Talladega sixteen
years later was his second visit. If his welcome,
either the first time or the second, failed to be im-
pressive to him, he yet lived long enough to win
the full confidence and hearty regard of the people
among whom he wrought out his Christian work,
and in a way that has made his memory in the
town as well as in the college both precious and
permanent. During his administration the regu-
178
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
lar college course was entered upon, though pre-
vious to this time certain college studies had been
blended with the theological course.
This institution, of highest grade for the col-
ored people in the state, with a constituency of
six hundred thousand to draw from, certainly
has had a most interesting history. It carries
the banner as being the first boarding-school for
the freedmen in Alabama and the first in the
United States to introduce among them indus-
trial training, which has always had its place
at Talladega. Instruction has been given in
agriculture, gardening, woodworking (such as
cabinet-making and carpentry with architectural
drawing), ironworking, bricklaying, brickmak-
ing, printing, and cobbling. The girls have been
taught nursing, domestic science, such as house-
keeping, millinery, and making of garments and
laundering. These studies are obligatory.
The present value of the property at Talladega is
about $250,000. Additionally above $160,000 have
been invested in endowments and scholarships.
The year 1868 introduces us to Emerson Insti-
tute in Mobile, Alabama, bearing the honored
name of Ralph Emerson of Rockford, Illinois,
who made a generous contribution towards the
necessary purchase money. The principal re-
ports it as a " college " from the time of its be-
179
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
ginning. " We hope to make the institution one
of the greatest instrumentalities for good in the
land." This optimism was not unnatural. The
Avery Institute at Charleston in 1869, but three
years of age, sends a report of progress that reads
like fiction, and yet it is the careful statement of
Professor Warren, a conscientious and disci-
plined educator. He writes, " I assumed charge
of this school in January, 1869. I have taught
a class of fifteen in Algebra who have made excel-
lent progress. They understand Algebra as well
as any class of whites I ever saw; are as quick in
solving, as apt in explaining. I am daily learn-
ing to see more differences between individuals
and less between races."
As the year closed, it was found that for every
teacher commissioned by the Association there
had gone out from the freedmen themselves two
teachers who had been trained in our schools;
in all, numbering three hundred and fourteen
negro recruits as teachers for the negro schools
in the South within four years.
Reconstruction was yet in preliminary stages,
but order was gradually emerging out of chaos.
The Fourteenth Amendment had made freedom
secure for those who had been slaves, and the
Fifteenth had been passed, confirming the freed-
men in their liberty and in their civil and political
iSo
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
rights. But what should be done to prepare these
poor and illiterate persons, living among those
hostile to their citizenship, for their new and
weighty responsibilities?
The Association sought to answer this ques-
tion so far as it could for the state of Louisiana
in founding an institution which it was hoped
would grow into a full-fledged college. Antici-
pating this future, the school, like others, at once
took on the exalted title of " University." The
thought of those who were responsible for the
large name probably was that this would not
merely magnify the character of the school for
the present, but would also help the institution
to work more rapidly and consistently towards
its name. It was no doubt a mistaken judgment,
but in part it has accomplished the original pur-
pose in holding unwaveringly to the theory and
policy of affording the largest possible develop-
ment for the exceptional students who have
sought its instruction. This definite and deter-
mined purpose to further a broad and generous
education for those who should prove capable
and worthy, has alone saved the name of " Uni-
versity " from ridicule.
Early in the year i86g the school was chartered
as Straight University, taking its distinctive
name from a generous patron, Hon. Seymour
i8i
I iiujiie iruiii
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Straight, of Ohio. Like all schools for the freed-
men, it opened with the primary grades. But
the A. M. A. officers rightly believed that such
was the native abiHty of its colored people, and
such their eagerness to learn that higher courses
of study would soon be in demand, and results
have partially vindicated their faith and fore-
sight. In seven years from the founding a class
of eight was graduated in law; in six, the first
normal class came out, and in ten the first college
class.
The establishment of the public school system
in the South soon after the beginning of recon-
struction created a demand for teachers, and to
this end special attention was directed to the devel-
opment of the normal department with a very
thorough course of studies. In due time college
studies were introduced and certain students have
availed themselves of its provisions to secure its
advantages for themselves. Meanwhile the insti-
tution wears its name as an ideal of what it hopes
some day to realize.
A theological class was started in 1870, which
in time developed into a distinct department.
Over forty now in the active ministry and hon-
oring their college in their work, owe much of
their impulse and interest as well as the intelli-
gence to sustain them in their gracious service to
J
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
the instruction and influence of this department.
Their churches have become centers of life and
light for large regions of the state.
For about ten years a flourishing law school
was maintained, but this has now become an inde-
pendent school. The church in connection with
the school radiates its influence in all the depart-
ments, and impresses a distinctly Christian stamp
upon all exercises.
What Straight University has done or is doing
for Louisiana and adjoining states cannot be
expressed in figures, nor be estimated by the
large number of graduates from the different de-
partments. Probably for the last fifteen years or
more the attendance has ranged between five and
six hundred each year, so that a great host of
young people have received the elements of an
English education; have been quickened morally
and made stronger for the serious work of life.
They are scattered all over this section of the
South, where the colored population is especially
dense, and are found in all the trades and pro-
fessions. Many of them are successful and rising
physicians; many of them are pharmacists and
dentists ; many are in law and the ministry ; and
a large per cent are teaching.
If we bear in mind the fact that the nine hun-
dred and odd colored public schools are dependent
•83
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION!
almost wholly on the missionary institutions for
\\y properly qualified teachers, and that Straight has
furnished more than her proportion, her vital
relation to the social, moral, and intellectual life
of the colored people of the Gulf States becomes
strikingly apparent. But for the leading part her
students have taken along these lines, the great
progress of these thirty odd years of freedom
would have been impossible, and the friction be-
tween the white and colored races, which is even
now so serious, would have been tenfold more
perplexing and dangerous. ' The position of
S traigh t as an institution unsurpassed in the
quality of its work has often been recognized by
Southern people. Several of its trustees are citi-
zens of New Orleans.
What Straight has done is only preliminary to
the greater work that lies before her. The de-
mand for the college and professional courses
grows apace, as the colored people realize more
and more that the question of self-help, in which
lies the preservation of their liberty and citizen-
ship, must be wrought out under leaders of their
own race in a large part. Along this path lies the
independence of character which is the founda-
tion of selfhood. And that she may be able to
continue, on a larger scale and in greater perfec-
tion, the noble educational ministry that distin-
184
n
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SIGNIFICANT YEARS
guishes the thirty years of her history, for which
the colored people cherish such deep gratitude,
it is earnestly and ardently hoped that some phi-
lanthropist and patriot, wishing to benefit his
kind and country by investing in some institu-
tion of learning that will yield sixty or a
hundredfold in the noble fruits of righteous-
ness, may furnish her the means to enlarge her
buildings, increase her library, and endow
professorships.
In 1870 a new institution at Tougaloo, Missis-
sippi, ten miles from Jackson, is reported as being
in the process of preparation. Two dormitories
had been nearly completed. One hundred acres
of excellent land were purchased for cultivation
on the part of the students. A main feature of
the institution was to be a normal department for
colored teachers. Here again we have the be-
ginning of a normal school with a university
title. The optimism which anticipated the distant
future has, however, been less harmful to genuine
advancement in fundamental studies from the
fact that the teaching (faculties) of all these in-
stitutions have recognized the actual situation,
and have labored as faithfully in laying the foun-
dations for an education as if the institution were
not overweighted with its name. There is this
to be said, however, that in thus naming their
185
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
institutions intended for development in higher
studies the missionary societies were but fol-
lowing the nomenclature of the South, where
it was and is the popular custom to designate
all schools that maintain a certain grade as a
" college."
Tougaloo, after thirty-six years of history,
stands unique among the higher schools of the
Association in its location. Fisk, Talladega,
Straight, Tillotson, are located in large towns or
cities; Tougaloo is in the country. Jackson, the
state capital and the nearest town, is seven miles
away. At Tougaloo there is not even a village;
a railroad station, post-office, store, two or three
small houses are all that one finds on alighting
from the Illinois Central train. ?Iidden from the
railroad by the woods are tlie admirably located
dozen buildings of the school. Back of the build-
ings are broad stretches of cultivated lands, or-
chards, and grazing-lands, under student care.
In the country and in the state, made up mostly
of plantations, having few large towns or cities,
in the very heart of the " Black Belt," Tougaloo
University draws its students mainly from the
plantations. Mississippi furnishes most of them,
but Arkansas, Louisiana, Tennessee, Alabama,
and Texas are usually represented. Not more
than one other of the great schools of the South
i86
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
touches so closely the great plantation population,
— the population most ignorant, most needy,
most important, most hopeful. In the uplifting
to character and religious education of the young
men and women from the plantation lies a large
hope for the negro race.
The institution is chiefly devoted to secondary
and academic grades. The Normal and Academy
courses are intended to fit for general life and to
prepare for entrance to college. College work
was undertaken in 1897 and exceptional students
have persevered to secure a college diploma. No
other similar school in the State provides instruc-
tion in a complete college course. As the years
move on it is expected that the school will enter
into the full inheritance of its name.
Manual training and industrial work has been
in progress at Tougaloo for two decades. It was
one of the earliest schools to provide for it, and
it has had continuous development. Probably no
other school of its kind under the care of the
Association has more thoroughly coordinated it
with its regular school work. The extent and
thoroughness of the manual training work in the
courses have been based chiefly on those of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The
girls are instructed in the various arts of house-
keeping, needlework and in domestic science.
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
The agricultural feature of the school is espe-
cially emphatic.
Tougaloo is a thoroughly religious school.
Christian character is the aim of all its work.
Rarely have any been graduated from the school
who are not Christians, and its graduates have
done good Christian work. The record of some
of them is a noble one. The testimony of one
of the most distinguished citizens of Mississippi
is, " I believe Tougaloo is possibly the most
potential factor in developing the negroes of
our state for the high functions of useful citi-
zens." Several gentlemen of Mississippi are
upon the Board of Trustees.
As this year closed, the Association catalogued
thirty-five churches, seven chartered institutions,
sixteen graded schools and one hundred and
forty-seven common schools with about 20,000
pupils in all, and a permanent school property
costing over a half million of dollars.
The year was exceptionally memorable in the
act of Congress amending the Constitution of the
United States, the Fifteenth Amendment. The
Proclamation of President Grant was an unusual
notification of an unusual event. The importance
of the Act, however, justified the departure from
usual custom when he said, " The adoption of the
Fifteenth Amendment constitutes the greatest
J
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
civil change and the most important event that
has occurred since the Nation came into Hfe. I
call the attention of the newly enfranchised race
to the importance of tlieir striving in every hon-
orable manner to make themselves worthy of the
new privilege. To the race more favored here-
tofore by our laws, I would say, witlihoM no legal
privilege of advancement to the new citizen. I
would therefore call upon Congress and upon the
people everywhere to see to it that all have the
opportunity to acquire knowledge which shall
make their share in the Government a blessing
and not a danger."
It was not deemed out of place for the Ameri-
can Missionary Association to call attention to
the fact that its very charter of work in the South
was upon this basis, and that its five hundred mis-
sionary teachers had given and were giving the
enfranchised people both the hope and the help
indispensable for this legal privilege. Believing
that our form of government cannot endure un-
less education and intelligence are generally dif-
fused among the people, it had planted its schools
among the ignorant to show them not only that
they could learn for themselves, but also that they
could teach others what is necessary for good
citizenship.
This act, pronounced by the President of the
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
United States to be " a measure of grander im-
portance than any other one act of the kind from
the foundation of our free government to the
present time," now, after more than three dec-
ades, is not only challenged with respect to its
wisdom, but has been practically nulHfied and
trampled upon by most of the Southern states.
The assertiveness of this disfranchisement, and
the political emphasis given to several acts of
several states to accomplish this has led many in
the North to question the political sagacity of the
Congress which passed the Amendment and of
the President who approved it. To meet this sen-
timent, — for it cannot be justly digni6ed with
, any stronger expression, — the Hon. Carl Schurz
whose dealing with the question has the moral
authority wliich comes from a man who never
allowed any consideration of policy to obscure its
ethical meaning, and who wrote from an intimate
knowledge of all phases of what is called the
" Negro Problem," declares that the Amendment
was not only politically wise but was a moral ne-
cessity. He suggests that had it not been for
this, the South would have continued under mili-
tary government, or the colored people would
have been relegated to a condition of practical
bondage; their freedom effectively neutralized
by state and municipal action.
190
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
No one well acquainted with the drift of things in
the South at that period will have the slightest doubt
that such a policy, viz., leaving the states lately in
rebellion " entirely to themselves," would have resulted
in the substantial reenslavemeut of the freedmen with
incalculable troubles to follow. It was foreseen that
if the exercise of suffrage by the bulk of negroes in
the South might be undesirable in the long run, it
might not prove as deplorable as would be an in-
definite military rule. It was hoped that the Southern
people might see fit to subject the suffrage in their
states to suitable qualifications equally applicable to
whites and blacks.
" That the suppression of the Negro franchise by
direct or indirect means is in contravention of the
spirit and intent of the Fifteenth Amendment hardly
admits of doubt. The intent of the provisions of the
State Constitution in question as avowed by many
Southern men is that the colored people shall not
vote. . . , Tliis is evidently a political condition which
cannot continue to e.xist. It cannot possibly be per-
manent. There will be a movement either in the direc-
tion of reducing the negro to a permanent serfdom,
or a moz'ement in the direction of recognising him
cts a citizen in the true sense of the term. One or the
other will prevail. ... I risk little in predicting that
the reactionists are in this respect preparing new
trouble for the South, and that only their failure can
prevent that trouble: the reactionists are the worst
enemies the Southern people have to fear,"
Mr. Schurz in his discussion gives the hopeful
view that high-minded Southern men of high
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
standing will not consent to be permanently set
at naught by the reckless among the white popu-
lation who are using race antipathy and race an-
tagonism to further their purposes. The united
efforts now being made for education in the
South, heartily and effectively supported by wise
and patriotic and conscientious citizens, can do
much for a solution of the problem in harmony
with our free institutions.
It is not thinkable that the Fifteenth Amend-
ment can be repealed. It is not probable that the
country will ever consent to the practical reen-
slavement of a race once made free. Let us hope
that the Act of 1870 which President Grant hoped
might be " a blessing and not a danger " may yet
have the recognition of a united and loyal people.
Let us hope.
In 1871 the Governor of Georgia appointed a
" Board of Visitors," all Southern gentlemen,
" to attend the examination of Normal and Pre-
paratory departments of Atlanta University" and
report to him. The school had then been in active
operation about two years. The examinations
continued through three days. The examiners,
nine in number, transmitted their experience,
saying, " at every step of the examination we
were impressed with the fallacy of the popular
idea which, in common with thousands of others,
193
J
SIGNIFICANT YEARS
the majority of the undersigned have heretofore
entertained, that the members of the African race
are not capable of a high grade of intellectual
culture. The rigid tests to which the classes in
algebra and geometry and Latin and Greek were
subjected unequivocally demonstrated that under
judicious training and persevering study, there are
many who can attain a high g^ade of intellectual
culture. Many exhibited a degree of mental cul-
ture which, considering the length of time their
minds have been in training, would do credit to
members of any race." This testimony which
cheered the hearts of President Ware and Pro-
fessor Chase has not only been confirmed in the
subsequent history of the institution, but also
greatly accentuated.
But seven years had elapsed since the close of
the war, and less than a decade had passed since
the Association had begun to work out its mission
with any degree of definiteness. As the fruit of
this decade there were reported seven chartered
institutions, consisting of Hampton, Fisk, Berea,
Talladega, Atlanta, Tougaloo, and Straight, to-
gether with the Theological department of How-
ard University, twenty graded schools with a
certain amount of instruction called " Normal,"
with special reference to the preparation of
teachers, and sixty-nine common schools, chiefly
k
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
luider white teachers. Forty-seven students were
for theological studies, and fifty-six were enrolled
in regular college classes. Certainly this is a
good record for seven years out of slavery.
The number of schools and pupils reported was
fewer than in the immediate beginning of the
work in the South, but those which existed had
become far more significant.
194
CONCENTRATION
Withdrawal from all foreign fields except Mendi. —
Special attention to preparatory schools. — Also to the
organization of churches. — Rev. G. W. Andrews, d.d.,
in Alabama. — Religion in the schools. — Gifts of Mrs.
Daniel Stone of Maiden, Mass. — New buildings for
Atlanta, Tallad^^a, Fisk and Straight chartered institu-
tions. — Hostility developed in the South. — Ku Klux
Klan. — The Southern idea of the " problem " versus the
theory and practise of the Association. — Standing for
colors. — Death of Rev. E. P. Smith in Africa. — His
work in the South and in the Indian field. — Death of
Secretary Whipple. — His character and work. — Death
of Lewis Tappan. — Death of Rev. Simeon S. Jocel)m. —
Dr. Strieby's estimate. — The coming of Henry Swift
DeForest to Talladega College. — His impressions of his
work.
TEN years had established the Association
in its theory of missions to the negro
people. The educational results so far,
both in extent and quaHty, had brought a com-
plete reversal of judgment to those who had ques-
tioned their capacity and who had believed their
inferiority to be innate and inherent. But mil-
lions for whose presence in our country the nation
was responsible were yet untouched by any positive
Christian influences. It was, therefore, decided,
now that the missionary work was thoroughly
organized, in the interests of concentrated effort
and in view of the responsibility for this larger
field, to withdraw from all foreign work with the
exception of the Mendi Mission in Africa.
Meanwhile the Southern people, who with
splendid endeavor had adjusted themselves to
their new and hard conditions, had inaugurated
a public school system to afford elementary in-
struction in which they had so far advanced that
in many cities and larger towns secular schools
for the negro children made the duty in this direc-
197
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
tion on the part of the Association less pressing.
Thoroughly quahfied teachers for these, however,
were as yet few — the product of the schools
founded and carried on by Northern faith and
benevolence. Many educated in our schools were
already doing remarkably well relatively as
teachers in elementary instruction when the con-
ditions, the lack of heredity, of early home-
training, or of any wide and generous reading
are remembered. But the overwhelming major-
ity of teachers for the public schools within ten
years could themselves be but little more than
beginners.
It was increasingly evident that Christian
benevolence, which looked beyond this secular
elementary and inadequate instruction afforded
in such public schools as had been started, must
not stay its hand in the larger missionary neces-
sity for positively Christian schools, whose char-
ter should be in the supremacy of Christian
faith which should do the teaching. The teacher
who visited the pupils in their homes so that the
poverty and barrenness of home life felt her ele-
vating touch, was more than a teacher of geog-
raphy and arithmetic. It was faithful instruction
in the studies of the books but it was also religion
through the week, the Christian influence of the
Christian school permeating and vitaUzing homes
J
CONCENTRATION
and character with its saving power. The Asso-
ciation schools were not only far in advance of
the purely secular schools in their methods and
standards of study, but they were also working
out the teaching of the New Testament in the
development of character so that principles and
conduct should be Christian. The state schools
were not chartered to undertake this kind of
work. They could not do it.
There was no question therefore for the Asso-
ciation as to what was the right way. The public
schools could relieve it from much of its merely
elementary work, and they were already doing
this. This accounts for the fact that the enrol-
ment of pupils at this period showed a great
decrease while our work was being concentrated,
and while the courses of studies and the stand-
ards were continually being strengthened in
thoroughness and enlarged in scope.
It was during this second decade of develop-
ment that particular endeavor was made for the
organization of Congregational churches. The
pleadings for them were constant, and there were
many tentative experiments to meet these urgent
requests. It certainly was not because the Asso-
ciation was indifferent that these churches in-
creased in no greater numbers, — far from this,
— but because many endeavors to organize them
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION |
were found in their first steps to be practically
useless. For the old excitement to give place to
intelligent conviction, tradition and superstition
to Bible knowledge, and the sensual enjoyment
of religious emotion to Christian principle and
duty, all called for time. The Congregational
way of self-government in many cases asked for
a fitness for self-government which did not exist
At the same time, such churches as managed to;
live proved in their sound, healthy, religious influ-
ence that no discouragements should cause the
Association to relax its efforts to plant churches
which might live. The Rev. George W. An-
drews, D.D., who was largely identified with the
planting of new churches in Alabama, eight hav-
ing been organized within a short period, wrote,,
in 187s, as follows:
No tongue can tell the greatness of the need that
such work be done here as the Association is doing.
Let me say that there is here a vast wilderness of
ignorance and sin scarcely entered by the light of a
Christian civilization. Though this wilderness is alive
with people, you may travel a hundred miles into it
and not find a schoolhouse or scarcely a church edifice
without turning from the way to hunt one, and when
found you could scarcely guess what the building is
for. The curse of two hundred years hangs heavy
upon the people and the land. A true son of the S
said to me this week, " The future of the negro raci
I
I
CONCENTRATION
looks dark. The only hope is to educate the colored
people; the North must do this, for the South is not
able, and, moreover, is utterly indifferent to it,"
But SO completely at one with the missionary
purpose of the church work were the schools
in religious character and influence that it was
difficult to draw a line between the two depart-
ments to tell where the one ended and the other
began. For example, in 1879, of fifty-two grad-
uates of Atlanta University fifty, at their gradua-
tion day, proved to be consistently professing
Christians. Fisk reported additions to the Col-
lege Church at every communion. At Talladega
College all but six of the boarding students were
professing Christians. The pastor at Hampton
wrote, " Nowhere can teachers be found more
earnestly evangelical, laboring often beyond their
strength to bring souls to Christ." At Berea all
the graduates of the year were professing Chris-
tians. These Christian students, as they went
out to their school work in vacations, had learned
to preach also. It was carefully estimated that
in this one year one hundred and fifty thousand
pupils were taught by the students of these higher
schools. The churches in number had risen to
sixty-seven.
^^'e had now come to the close of the second
term of the Presidential administration of General
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION ]
Grant. Conditions had greatly changed since
the war. The country had been rapidly increas-
ing in population and in wealth. The Atlantic
and Pacific oceans had been linked with a lini
of continuous rail. In the North there was a'
general improvement in educational methods.
Literature in the North had reached a higher
level than ever. The Association felt the impulse,
and its higher institutions for the preparation of
teachers absorbed in a large measure its vigor-
ous efforts and its resources. Through the gen-
erous gifts of Mrs. Daniel Stone of Maiden,
Massachusetts, of $150,000, new buildings had
been added to Atlanta, Talladega, Fisk, and
Straight chartered schools. Meanwhile white
people with courage and noble endeavor were
adjusting themselves to their new conditions, but
the Association was meeting a hostility it had
not experienced before. The barbaric element
among the whites — and slavery had left a deep
taint of barbarism — came out in its worst insults
to the " nigger teachers " with the burning
our schoolhouses here and there. The Ku KI1
Klan, which I find characterized in our magazii
as the " Thugs of America," an organization
overawe the negroes, often sought to terror!
their teachers, while the better social element
naturally looked askance at those whose present
CONCENTRATION
ivas a reminder of conquest and humiliation.
These teachers had gone to the blacks with a
feeling of obligation to those who never before
pad their human rights acknowledged and who
Bfcre needy in body and soul. Meanwhile the
Be of the negro no longer enlisted in the North
t same degree of early sentiment which charac-
l^erized it. It had come to be a calm and cool —
iomewhat too cool — consideration of Christian
buty and missionary obligation. It was, never-
ttheless, felt to be the great problem before the
pation.
The Southern solution of the problem was
largely one which relegated the negro to perpet-
ual inferiority. He was to " keep his place " as
a member of a subject race, and if necessary he
was to be compelled to stay in his place. This is
not to say that there was no exception to this
theory — only that it was the dominant one. The
best elements of Southern society wished the
negro well. They would have him better his con-
dition, to be a more useful factor in their political
economy. They favored his education along lines
that would make him a better laborer and more
thrifty in his honest acquirements, but they did
not wish him to aspire socially or politically. He
must never forget that he is a negro, belonging
to a race constitutionally inferior.
The American Missionary Association, with no
L^
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
rpOK M political theories to exploit, with no social doc-
trines to teach other than those of human brother-
hood, went to the negro people with the theory
that God had made of one blood all on the face
of the earth and that there was one common
Saviour, whose way of redemption was revealed
for all men. It simply predicated the manhood
of the negro as entitled to all that a Christian civ-
ilization had to give so far as he should prove
himself capable of receiving it. Whatever knowl-
edge, whatever influences a Christian civiliza-
tion has to offer to invigorate and enlarge the
souls of men anywhere, should not be forbidden
to the negro or withheld from him.
It was inevitable at this period that the Associ-
ation must look for its support to those who ac-
cepted its principles. It was not influencing or
antagonizing those who did not accept these
principles. In whatever disturbances and perse-
cutions which came through the hostility of those
who were violent, there was only patience and
hope for a better day. The records of the
American Missionary are singularly free from ex-
hibitions of bitterness. Tt had no lessons of hos-
tility towards those who differed. It went with
its broad principle of love to God and good-will
to man, and never yielded an iota from the duty
and privilege included in this principle.
204
CONCENTRATION
How, through all the excitement of this trying
period, it kept on its work of regeneration, stand-
ing by its colors, teaching and preaching with
success, can only be explained as we now review
the history of those days, by the fact that it had
the guidance of God, and that it was following
and outworking a wisdom higher than that of
man. Said John Wesley in his day, " The best
of all is God with us." The prediction that the
theories which the Association was outworking
would fail, was constantly disproved in the Chris-
tian results of its Christian work.
It was in 1876 that intelligence came from
Africa of the death of one whose work for the
Association for ten years had been very promi-
nent and efficient. The Rev. E. P. Smith, who
early entered into the service of the Association
as District Secretary, stationed at Cincinnati,
was asked to visit Africa with reference to the
reconstruction and enlargement of the mission
work there, and while on this mission he died,
after an illness of two days, of African fever.
Mr. Smith was born in South Britain, Connecti-
cut, and was graduated at Yale College in 1849.
He studied two years in Union Theological Semi-
nary, New York, and while there associated him-
self with Charles Loring Brace in his work of
reclaiming and finding homes for destitute and
205
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
vagrant children. He completed his theological
studies in Andover, Massachusetts, and was set-
tled at Pepperell in that state. At the breaking
out of the war Mr. Smith gave his services to the
Christian Commission, where he demonstrated
his administrative ability to such a degree that
when the war came to an end he was sought for
by the Association. After a brief service in Cin-
cinnati he was called to take charge of the field
work of the Association in the South, and was
eminently useful in the work of planting schools
and colleges for the freedmen. When General
Grant announced his Indian policy, and invited
the different benevolent societies to appoint
agents to cooperate with the government in the
work of Indian civilization, Mr. Smith offered
his services and was appointed to Indian tribes
in Minnesota. His work here brought him after-
wards an appointment as " Commissioner of
Indian Affairs " in Washington, D. C. Here he
met a merciless opposition from designing men
who sought to profit at the expense of the Indians.
His faithful administration of the office of Indian
Commissioner, which he filled with signal ability,
made him many enemies, and on the retirement
of the Secretary of the Interior Mr. Smith re-
signed and was elected President of Howard
University. This position he was to assum? upon
206
CONCENTRATION
his return to America. His sudden death in
Africa was felt to be a great loss to the Associa-
tion. His services were such as richly deserve
its remembrance.
The heaviest bereavement that had fallen upon
the Association came at tlie end of this second
decade of its Southern work in the death of its
senior Secretary, Dr. Whipple. From 1846, when
the little society was a thing of derision and pity,
for thirty years he had held this post of respon-
sibility. With a faithfulness and spirit of self-
sacrifice that they only knew who were in the
office closest to him, he had held on against popu-
lar consent to wrong until he had seen the world
come over to his side.
One of the early graduates of Oberlin College
and of its theological school, Dr. Whipple had
been a professor of mathematics and natural
philosophy in his alma mater for nine years. He
brought to the new-bom Association not merely
a radical championship of the rights of man and
an intense conviction of the sin of slavery, but
with it a considerate and irenic spirit, a calm and
judicial mind that had much to do with the char-
acter which the society took on of positive and
fearless testimony for its convictions, with the
gentleness and freedom from the bitterness so
often seen in those who plead for reforms.
207
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
large physical stature, with a poise and dignity
that were attractive, the first Corresponding Sec-
retary began his Hfe-work. It was a laborious
and anxious life, but it was a great one, more
than fulfilling the hopes of those who had called
him from the quiet of his studies and his teach-
ing at Oberlin.
A clerical assistant, who later came into inti-
mate knowledge of his quality and character,
thus writes of him : —
My first introduction to Secretary Whipple was on
an afternoon as he sat at his desk in the little upper
office of 56 Reade Street. There was another desk
in that room that I was hoping^ to use for a few months
if all should be satisfactory, and it was therefore with
a Httle trepidation as well as a great deal of interest
that I looked upon the Senior Secretary. . , . His
well-knit form and broad shoulders, gray hair — a
silver halo above his face — a fine broad forehead, and
kindly eyes looking forth from under VVebsterian eye-
brows gave me the impression of a man of unusually
strong character and intellect. As I came to know liim,
I felt that the patrician element was in his inner nature
as well as in his outward appearance. If I were asked
to name the principal characteristics of Secretary
Whipple as I knew him in the time that followed.
I should certainly say, " sound judgment and fairness."
. . . These wer^strikingly preeminent. But there were
other qualities I should wish to name. His devotion
to details was a strong point in all his office work, for
208
CONCENTRATION
an accurate knowledge of the subject in hand, so that
praise or blame should fall only where it was merited,
formed the basis of his fairness. He knew to the
minutest detail whereof he spoke and wrote. He was
industrious to the extreme. I never took my seat in
the morning without passing a long table in the outer
office which had this true legend connected with it.
In the early days when struggle and self-sacrifice were
prime factors in carrying on the Society's work, Sec-
retary Whipple burnt bis candle at both ends, some-
times even writing in his office till one or two o'clock
in the morning; then, wrapping himself in a blanket,
he would throw himself upon this table for a few hours'
sleep, rising and resuming work by four or five o'clock.
Even when I knew him it was difficult to get ahead of
him in the morning, for he always was very early at
his desk, working through the day, hardly taking time
for a hasty luncheon. Vacation or respite «'as not in
all his thought. In his letter dictation there was a sort
of balance as if he were weighing what he was saying.
Persistency was also a strong characteristic. Sensi-
tiveness to what was right and wrong made him all
his life such an intense champion of human rights and
freedom. His judgments were never quick, but when
once his opinions were formed, they were so clear to
his own mind and so reasonable that they carried con-
viction to other minds. This well-balanced judgment,
together with his dignity, candor, and noble bearing,
made him a strong force when he visited Washington
for conferences with the government on Indian or edu-
cational affairs. All these stem virtues commanded
respect. I should be unjust to him, and to myself, if
»* 309
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
I did not add the more genial virtues of simplicity,
generosity, and kindliness. Thougli always busy, he
was ever ready to he!p others when he could. He
so tempered his fervor with simplicity, his strength
with modesty, his profound thought fulness with kind-
heartedness that no one felt the severity. He was
kindness itself. If he had the quality of humor, he did
not have time to indulge it, his life was given so in-
tensely to more serious things. The nearest approach
to humor that I recall is that when in looking over a
letter that he had himself written, which did not quite
suit him for accuracy, he said to me in a very severe
tone, " When you make such a blunder as that. I wish
you would do it in your own handwriting." But as
his assistant I have no remembrance of a single unjust
or unkind remark. On the contrary, he was always
appreciative of work done, and thoughtful of the
comfort and well-being of those with whom he was
associated. When death suddenly called him after
thirty years in the secretaryship, and he left us, it
was a well-beloved friend who had gone, and he be-
queathed a great inspiration for others to carry on
the work he had so well begun and in which he was
3 pioneer.
Of the other heroic men associated with Dr.
Whipple in the early and dark days of the anti-
slavery struggle and of the Association's history,
many had fallen in death. Five of its presidents
had in succession died. Mr. Lewis Tappan, to
whom the Association perhaps more than to any
other one man owed its organization, and who
310
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for twenty-seven years had been identified with
its administration, died in 1873. Like his dis-
tinguished brother, Arthur Tappan, he was
deeply interested in the antislavery missions
which preceded the organization of the Associa-
tion. He was prominent in the movement which
rescued the Amistad captives, and which served
so largely to arouse the nation to the arrogance
and aggressions of the slave power. It was he,
with the Rev. S. S. Jocelyn and Rev. Joshua
Leavitt, who raised the funds to defend these
captives in the courts. When at last they were
released, John Quincy Adams, the old man elo-
quent, took pleasure in recognizing the en-
ergy and transcendent ability of Lewis Tap-
pan towards the final success. By many Lewis
Tappan was regarded as " a man of one idea,"
whose whole being was absorbed in the work of
emancipation. He was far from that. His pas-
tor, Henry Ward Beecher, at his funeral did not
overstate the facts when he said, " He joined him-
self to whatever was pronounced in morals or in
religion, whatever was most aggressive, what-
ever would be to him the mightiest attack upon
the kingdom of Satan, whatever would carry for-
ward best the kingdom of the Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ. To these causes, whatever might
be their humility, however feeble, he gave himself
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION!
heart and soul with the personal influence and all
the power of pecuniary influence which he could
command." His frequent benefactions were
large, and for years he gave his unrequited serv-
ices as treasurer of the Association. Few per-
sons had broader sympathies; he was the effi-
cient friend of other missionary societies; he
aided in the education of young men and in the
endowment of colleges, and was personally active
for the rehgious welfare of his fellow men. He
lived to see his leading positions vindicated in the
admissions of many who once most strenuously
opposed them, and to realize some of the tno^
cherished aims of his zealous life.
Another of the heroic spirits of 1S46 laid aside*
his armor in the last year of this second decade
of new work in the South. The Rev. Simeon S. _
Jocelyn, who died in 1879, was a Puritan hen
In 1839 he was the active chairman of the con)
mittee to defend and protect the Aniistad captives.
He was prominent in the organization of the
Association. For seven years he was its Record-
ing Secretary, for ten out of the subsequent years,
from 1853 to 1863, Corresponding Secretary
with charge of the Home Department, and from
that date to 1879, until his death, a member of the
Executive Committee. A bold and determined |
man, but as gentle as he was brave and as cautioi
313
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n S.^||
lero^^^l
:om^^H
ives. ^^n
^^Vl CONCENTRATION ^^H
I as he was intrepid. Said Dr. Strieby, who was
I much of the same spirit himself: —
I It is a great mistake to suppose that the bold and
; determined men who take front rank in great moral
1 conflicts are destitute of kindly impulses. Mr. Jocelyn
I was utterly uncompromising where duty called, yet I
have seldom known a man of more tender sympathies,
I of quicker, almost womanly, sensibility to sorrow or
j suffering. Nor are all such men, as is often imagined,
I so intent on pushing great reforms as to overlook the
I rights of others. Mr. Jocelyn was most scrupulous in
I regard to the claims of all men, even of his opponents.
' Nor are all such seemingly rash and headlong men lack-
ing in caution. He was the most cautious man I ever
knew. The marvel is that such a man could have risked
1 reputation, property, and even life itself in an enter-
prise so doubtful of success and beset wiih so many
[ dangers to the peace of the church and the nation.
I The only explanation was in his clear perception
' through all glosses of the path of duty and the over-
I whelming impulse of conscience to pursue it in spite
of all dangers. Of such stuff are moral heroes
made.
j Mr. Jocelyn was bom in 1799, and with a well-
rounded life of fourscore years he inherited the
' promises.
■ "One generation goeth, and another genera-
i tion cometh." The last offices of loving regard
I had only been uttered when we hear from an-
j Other of such like spirit and temper as to cause
I "3
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
one to feel that the mantle of the departed had
fallen on him.
Rev. Henry Swift DeForest, a graduate of
Yale, and subsequently an instructor in that col-
lege, after a few years of successful ministry, had
just accepted the presidency of Talladega College
in Alabama. He wrote his reasons: —
First, I am needed. This is a great work and the
workmen are few. It is not here that men stand carpet-
bag in hand wailing for a chance to preach. We have
more of a field than we can occupy. On all sides comes
up the Macedonian cry, " Come over and help us." I
am often weary on Saturday, and poorly enough pre-
pared for Sunday, but I am spared the anguish of not
knowing where to go or what to do. Few would care
for my shoes, but I hope to wear them myself and wear
them here.
Second, there is here perhaps an unsurpassed oppor-
tunity for influencing men, I am not only a " home
missionary," but also a foreign missionary to Africa,
and that last with special facilities. I am master of the
language, and do not work at the disadvantage of a
half-learned and half-mastered tongue. Without the
honors of a foreign missionary, I am also without many
of his disadvantages. It is a double missionary field.
Third, the most pressing work in our own country
is here. As surely as in 1861 our national peril is in
the South. Patriotism as well as humanity and Chris-
tianity keep me here, and no campaigning in our recent
war seemed more of a duty of loyalty than that in
which I am now engaged. Certainly just now I would
214
It in I
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CONCENTRATION
rather be here than in any other part of the universe of
God. Tell our friends at the North that we do not
need their sympathy but we do need their help.
He was a good type of the workers of the
Association in 1880.
In 1 88 1 Tillotson Collegiate Institute at Aus-
tin, Texas, was established and opened to stu-
dents. It was named in honor of Rev. George J.
Tillotson of Connecticut, whose generous con-
tributions made it possible.
315
XI
WELCOME AND UNWELCOME
The fluctuations of Southern sentiment regarding the
work of the Association. — Favorable views. — Rev.
A. G. Haygood, d.d. — Reaction. — The Glenn Bill in
Georgia. — The two civilizations, one of righteousness
and the other of force. — The color line in churches. —
Caste prejudice. — Caste and social distinctions. — Back-
ward glances. — Brave women. — Tribute of an eloquent
negro to the women teachers of this period.
WELCOME AND UNWELCOME
I
IT is interesting to notice the fluctuations of
Southern sentiment and the waves of popu-
lar opinion regarding the work of the Asso-
ciation among the colored people, as its methods
and results had become better known. The fears
that negro education would lead to danger were
proved to be without foundation. The mission-
ary magazine in 1881 reports the annual closing
exercises of various institutions and uses these
words with reference to the growing spirit of
brotherhood between the North and the South;
Perhaps the influence of our institutions upon the
leading minds of the South, and especially upon those
interested in the popular education, never was so great
as now. Governors of southern states, mayors of
cities, presidents of southern colleges, representatives
of the pulpit, the bar, and the press attend our anni-
versary exercises and enter heartily and with apprecia-
tion into the spirit of the work. In this we find much
occasion for thanking God and taking courage. It is
fidelity to the principles that have actuated the Asso-
ciation for nearly forty years that is winning the hearts
of the people, and every year confirms the conviction
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
that we have only to press forward in order to achieve
the best results for the whole southern portion of our
country.
An ex-mayor of the city of Atlanta, at the
dedication of the First Congregational Church,
said that " the thrift, orderly habits, and acqui-
sition of property " in a certain portion of that
city were " mainly due to the school and the
church of The American Missionary Associa-
tion." As an illustration of the favorable feeling,
one among many, the Memphis Daily Appeal, the
Daily Avalanche, and the Public Ledger devoted
a large space to the reports of the anniversary
exercises of Le Moyne Institute, with accom-
panying editorial commendations and apprecia-
tions, from one of which we quote: —
The feeling in the city in favor of universal educa-
tion \V3S never stronger than it is now. This is plainly
shown by the interest everywhere manifested in the
Le Moyne Institute for negroes which gave so enjoy-
able an entertainment Monday night. A number of
prominent citizens who were present expressed the
greatest surprise and astonishment, and the opinion was
general that the inculcation of ideas such as those of
which the graduates seemed possessed was bound to
do good to them and by reflection upon the whole
community.
Said an old planter, " I attended the exhibition
out of pure curiosity, never dreaming that it
would impress me as it has done. I have always
32g
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WELCOME AND UNWELCOME
scouted the idea of negro education, and I may
say I have been its enemy. I am perfectly will-
ing to give way now, however." These were
common sentiments among the better class of
Southern people twenty years after our work
began in all the states.
Nor must we fail to recognize at this period
the noble impulse given to this friendly Southern
sentiment, and the truly Christian sympathy
given to " our brother in black " and tliose who
were seeking the education and elevation of the
children of the freedmen in the person and work
of the Rev. A. G. Haygood, d,d. A gallant ex-
Confederate soldier, — a Southerner by birth and
breeding, and the son of a slaveholder, brought
up in the wealthy planting section of Georgia, —
he entered upon his, at first, self-appointed task
in behalf of negro education as a mere private,
a volunteer in the ranks where he found so many
noble workers- But his knowledge of the negro,
of his capacity and his needs, and the best methods
of reaching practical educational results, soon
marked him for the high position to which he was
called as the trusted confidential agent of the
Slater Fund, bequeathed by a benevolent man of
Connecticut. Already in the first year of the
fund this good, strong man found himself plead-
ing on every possible occasion for the practical
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
system of education so long pursued by The
American Missionary Association. Like all
prophets. Dr. Haygood was far in advance of his
time, but he did not fail to find within the hearts
of thoughtful Southern people a sense of brother-
hood with the lowly ones of another race and a
desire to do justly by them. His visits to the
schools of the Association carried with them
hope to the pupils who were struggling up, and
his addresses were full of Christian teaching and
human sympathy. Professors and teachers alike
greeted his presence as that of a forerunner who
brought the assurance that the morning of the
day had come when the North and South should
see eye to eye and should be found in emulation
and in happy cooperation to solve the hard prob-
lem which was the inheritance of slavery and for
which North and South were both responsible.
" The negroes," said Dr. Haygood, " need edu-
cated Christianity, and they must have Christian-
ized education to get it. This the state does not
give, and cannot give. To achieve this most de-
sirable and necessary result the schoolhouse and
the church must work together. There must be
Bibles in the schools that are to train teachers
among this people, and there must be Christian
men and women in them who both teach and prac-
tice religion. Your Association is doing this
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most necessary work on a very broad scale. You
are raising up in these schools men and women
who can teach and who must teach the children
of their people. I say ' must,' for Christianized
education must by its instruction and directing
impulses perpetuate and diffuse itself." " This
problem," continued Dr. Haygood, " cannot be
solved by legislation. It must be Christian
schools and the Church of God."
That was a great heart as well as a wise head
which a quarter of a century ago, when memories
of the bitter conflict were so fresh and the diffi-
culties of brotherhood were so many, could quote
from the platform of an antislavery society the
words of a great leader in antislavery days, Dr.
Leonard Bacon, of New Haven, and, endorsing
them, say : —
One word concerning the future of the Society;
that word is conciliation, conciliation by meekness, by
love, by patient continuance in well doing. The field
is wide open for schools and for the preaching of the
gospel — two great forces operating as one for funda-
mental reconstruction. In both these lines of effort
the work of conciliation, conciliation of the South to
the North, and to the restored and beneficent Union;
conciliation of the races to each other, white to black
and black to white; conciliation of contending sects
opposed with traditional bigotries to the simplicity of
the truth as it is in Christ Jesus.
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION ^
" Thomas Jefferson," added Dr. Haygood,
" who in 1782 said that the two races equally free
cannot live in the same government was not a
prophet. Leonard Bacon was. But this work
of fundamental reconstruction is a slow process.
It will take generations. Lifting up a nation or
a race is a slow process. Wherefore, the great-
y est necessity for wisdom and patience in your
work. Certainly you find more sympathy and
more of the spirit of cooperation than you found
ten years ago. You have learned your work
better, and we of the South have learned perfectly
its value. Your methods are good. They are
yielding happy results."
These were the gracious, grateful words of 3
Christian patriot, a large-minded, great-hearted,
and whole-souled man. Would that he might
have lived on ! for such men were few, and soon
were more needed than ever. What a difference
there would have been for the honor of the state
he loved so well, for the honor of the nation which
held his greater love, could such a presence and
such a voice represent both his state and nation
in the United States Senate with his pleadings
for reverence of law, and for justice and mercy
to " our brother in black," in place of the utter-
ances of hate and bitterness which we are now
humbled to hear 1
WELCOME AND UNWELCOME
But the progress of mankind in its moral evo-
lution does not come to its fruitage with the first
blossoming of promise. Tins kindly appreciation
and the generous expression of it was the very
thing to stir prejudices anew and reexcite the
oppositions of those who objected to the elevation
of the negro. With the realizations of advance-
ment and the possibihties of intellectual strength
came a mighty wave of reaction on the part of
lesser minds and lesser souls always everywhere
in the majority. It was at this time that our
records abound in allusions to the " infamous
Glenn bill " in the legislature of Georgia, when
the agitation began which removed Southern sup-
port from Atlanta University, and which in due
time reached the legislatures of other states, and
deprived other institutions of the cooperation
which their good results had previously secured.
There had been no change in the kindly meth-
ods and good-will of the Association. The re-
action was indeed the natural result of its suc-
cesses, the constitution of the public in the South
being what it was. The class that " see not and
hear not, neither understand," but who have
votes, often bring discouragements and disap-
pointments, and make the progress of others
apparently slow and fitful. In this reaction
the two civilizations which in the Civil War
■i
aaS
1^^
.VK
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
had their struggle for mastery came once more
\.j into view.
'y' \ ^^That for which the Association stood in 1846,
^ which it had unswervingly maintained, and which
has never been reversed, whether or not it has
always been able to hold it against specific trans-
gressions, is based upon righteousness. Its chief
doctrine next to the obhgations which find their
supreme expression in the love and holiness of
.Jiod is the brotherhood of man. This asks for
lity of rights, for justice in all human rela-
f reedom for every soul to work out all that
is possible in the way of human good and achieve-
ment. It especially calls for the elevation of the
moral, intellectual, and spiritual in man to the
supreme place.
TEeTJthei urrH«ittion, buiU on force, has its
doctrine of inferiority and superiority. It
stratifies humanity: the weaker must serve the
stronger. Might shall be the equivalent for right.
This civilization, if it is worthy of such a name,
flies in the face of the teachings of our Lord, who
said, " Ye know that they who are accounted
to rule over the Gentiles lord it over them; and
their great ones exercise authority over them.
But it is not so among you: but whosoever
would become great among you, shall be your
minister; and whosoever would be first among
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WELCOME AND UNWELCOME
you, shall be servant of all." This civilization
of force, often dominant among imperfectly de-
veloped peoples like the ignorant masses of the
South, creates burdens grievous to be borne
by those better and wiser souls whose lot is
cast in locations where appeals can be made to
prejudice and to passion. Confounding power
with right, the civilization built on force may
be dominant for a time, but it will pass away.
The lovter will give way to the higher in our
country. The civilization of Christ will be the
final one. Through what experiences this shall
come to pass no one can foretell. Otherwise
the nation must fall into the long procession of
those that have already proved their falsity to
God in their dishonor and destruction. The duty
remains for all who wear the name of Christ to
stand by and for his teaching, without wavering.
This civilization of force as it began to realize
the development of latent power in the graduates
of higher institutions of learning and their aspi-
rations for the privileges and duties that a sense
of true manhood brings, started the agitation
against schools with the taking motto, " Teach
the negro to work," the underlying interpreta-
tion of which was, teach the negro nothing but
work. Out of this attitude of a feeling and pur-
pose which overrode the real wisdom of nobler
337
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
thought in the South came the necessity for the
Association to proclaim anew its principles and
restate its reasons for them. We were not, as it
was charged, seeking to change or regulate so-
ciety anywhere. We were not called to do this.
Our distinct work was and is to bring in the king-
dom of heaven in the spirit of the gospel and to
inculcate the principles of that kingdom, a king-
dom of faith in God and good-will to man.
Perhaps it was out of this atmosphere of re-
newed discussion that the agitation of the " color
line " in churches grew. Here again the Asso-
ciation had no disposition to agitate questions
which excited the prejudices of the Southern
people; far from it. It had no wish or purpose
to force the races together in any relation ; but
in church work, under the care of the Associa-
tion, it was only consistent to maintain that a
Christian church ought to stand ready to fellow-
ship any one of any race whom Christ fellow-
ships, and that it should turn no one away from
its communion because of his race or color, or
because his father or his mother had been a slave.
The Association stoutly maintained that there
was no reason which would meet the teachings
of Christ, why there should be entire state or local
organizations of churches which refused to fel-
lowship churches the membership of which dif-
228
WELCOME AND UNWELCOME
fered in race. The Association could not be true
to its history, or true to its convictions, or suc-
cessfully face the bitter prejudices of Jew and
Gentile with the broad invitation, " Whosoever
will, may come," and accept any less interpre-
tation of Christianity. The churches planted,
and in most cases partly sustained, as missionary
churches by the Association, appealed to it to
stand by them in their cry for this recognition of
Christian manhood.
This accounts for the reconsideration and dis-
cussions of the question of caste to which much
attention is given in our records of this period.
Dr. Strieby pleaded against it with all his soul.
From his heart came the words: "The Associa-
tion was born an opponent of slavery. Amid
poverty, sneers, and reproaches from the best of
men as well as from the worst of men, it pressed
forward in its opposition till the glorious end
came. It must oppose caste as it did slavery. It
began its work as the avowed enemy of caste.
Caste prejudice is sin. It hinders the progress
of its victims. It shuts up the avenues of trades,
professions, schools, and churches through which
alone those who have been emancipated from
slavery can escape from ignorance and degrada-
tion. If they rise it must be in spite of all the
obstacles that caste can throw in their way. Here
339
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
is a call for an appeal to conscience." Dr. Strieby
never questioned for a moment that the power
of the living God which had destroyed slavery
would be the one power in the land that would
finally be irresistible. He was absolutely sure
that the barriers of caste would eventually go
down before that power.
At the same time, there was no failure to draw
/'the line sharply between caste and social distinc-
tions. The cry for social equality had become
a battle-cry. The Association insisted that caste
and social distinctions are by no means identical.
They rest on different principles. Companionship
has its own qualifications. Social distinctions will
take care of tliemselves. We have no mission to
prevent the existence of classes in society. Classes
will doubtless always exist, here and hereafter.
Companionship is one thing, but caste is another.
It means special class privilege. It excludes
people from common rights and privileges. It
degrades people on the ground of race or color.
It denies equal rights, civil, political, and reli-
gious. It is seen in its worst forms when it has
the consent of Christian gatherings, and when
it appears in religious bodies. Christ, who linked
hi? life to the lowly, had his sympathetic com-
panionships, but the spirit of caste never was his.
Those who wear his name decline his spirit when
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WELCOME AND UNWELCOME
they proclaim the fatherhood of God and refuse
the brotherhood of man. In his name the Asso-
ciation has always protested — and, please God,
always will protest — against imposing on a race
the weight of an impassable caste, so that an es-
tablished ruling class shall direct a permanent
serving class, or that Christians of one race shall
deny fellowship to that of another.
V But while these contentions for principles were
(going on the work was also going on. The Asso-
f elation in its annual reports appears to have had
a reminisce.it tendency. It loved to look back-
ward, but in no sense did it ever live retrospec-
tively. If it took frequent occasions to review the
past it was only to gain fresh courage and purpose
for the future. It seems to have been practically
quoting the song of the Psalmist when he said,
"The Lord hath been mindful of us; he will
bless us." The past was the pledge and the ear-
nest of the time to come. One of its backward
glances at this period brought out the fact that
up to this time not less than three thousand differ-
ent missionary laborers had been enlisted in the
service of the Association, and that fully two
thousand of them had been women. What a i
muhitude of gospelers for two decades! It was |
found also that the time when the number of the I
missionary workers ran highest was the Ku Klux |
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
J period, when the brave women could stand in
\ places where men could not live.
It is well to remember how in Mississippi at
midnight one of these heroines was waited on by
a Ku KIux company in masks and gowns. After
a hasty robing she was obliged to open the door.
The ruffian crew were abashed and ashamed
as their leader exclaimed in surprise, " Why, you
are a lady!" They could offer no harm to a
defenseless lady, but they gave her twenty-four
hours in which to leave, notifying her that they
would be around to see that she had obeyed.
" Low down fellows," the citizens said. " No,"
she replied, " such men don't wear fine top-boots
and have an address like theirs." The lone
woman surrendered to their demands for her
departure, saying that she scorned to tell them
that though she was an Illinois girl she was the
granddaughter of Rev. Dr. Allen, of Huntsville,
Alabama. Another woman's school at Austin,
Texas, was broken into by roughs. Then the post
commander sent a guard to stand by day at her
school door and escort her home at night and
back to her school in the morning. She held her
post. At another place in Alabama the Ku Klux
Klan drew up in line before the lady teacher's
castle of a schoolroom, and fired a volley of beans
and shot through her windows on each side of
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WELCOME AND UNWELCOME
the chair where she was sitting. This dehcate,
fearless principal, graduate of Mount Holyoke,
did not run away, but remained, developing a
flourishing school for more than a score of years
until age forbade her to teach longer. Another,
having her school in North Carolina in an old
Confederate gun factory, when a man offered to
be one of twenty to put her on the cars by force
if necessary, and send her away, said, " I was
sent by The American Missionary Association,
and when that says ' Go," I will, and not before."
She also remained for many years and never lost
her courage.
These are not exceptional illustrations of the
greatness of heart and devotion to service whose
records are in the unprinted annals of the As-
sociation. They went as missionaries to en-
lighten the ignorant, to lift up the needy, to
preach the gospel to the poor, to bring them all
to Christ, quietly, patiently, lovingly, and stead-
ily, as they had a right to do, and as they felt
it their duty to do, — yoimg women of education,
of refinement and culture, — nobly they ftilfilled
their mission.
No words of appreciation could unduly ex-
press their worthiness. A colored man, an emi-
nent type of his race, from a sense of good re-
ceived, wrote in his eloquent tribute to them : —
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
A worthier band has never furnished theme or song
for sage or bard. These noble women left homes,
their friends, their social ties, and all that they held
dear, to go to the far South to labor among the re-
cently emancipated slaves. Their courage, their self-
sacrificing devotion, sincerity of purpose, and purity
of motive, and their unshaken faith in God were their
pass keys to the hearts of those for whom they came
to labor. They were sustained by an unbounded en-
thusiasm and zeal amounting almost to fanaticism.
No mercenary or sordid motive attaches to their fair
names. They gave the highest proof that the nine-
teenth century, at least, has afforded, that Christianity
has not yet degenerated into a dead formula and
barren intellectiialism, but it is a living, vital power.
Their works do follow them. What colored man is
there in all this land who has not felt the uplifting
effect of their labors? Their monument is buiided
in the hopes of a race struggling upward from igno-
rance to enlightenment, from corruption to purity of
life. These are they who sowed the seed of intelli-
gence in the soil of ignorance, and planted the rose of
virtue in the garden of dishonor and shame. It is
said that gratitude is the fairest flower which sheds
its perfume in the human heart. As long as the human
heart beats in grateful response to benefits received,
these women shall not want a monument of living
ebony and bronze.
" Those women which labored with me in the
gospel," said the apostle, " with other my fellow
laborers whose names are in the book of life."
234
XII
NEW FIELDS AND OLD
Bureau of Woman's Work. — Educational and evan-
gelistic work in the hill-country of Kentucky. — Williams-
burg School and Church. — Anti-caste pledges given. —
An exciting incident. — Church organized at Williams-
burg. — Northern capital in Southern mountains. —
Magic towns and great promises for future commercial
centers. — Colored schools and institutions pleading for
expansion. — Church extension. — Concentration as a
policy. — Death of District Secretary G. D. Pike. —
Death of Rev. E. A. Ware, President of Atlanta Univer-
sity. — Death of Corresponding Secretary James Powell,
D.D. — An earnest life.
NEW FIELDS AND OLD
IN 1883, with a view to some partial recog-
nition of the large share which educated
Christian women had in this work from the
beginning at Hampton, Virginia, the Bureau of
IVoman's Work had been organized. Its main
purpose was to give Christian women fuller in-
formation as to ways of cooperation on their
part, and to assist in devising plans for help; to
promote correspondence with Sunday-schools
and missionary societies which might wish to
undertake work of a special character; in short,
to further missionary interests among women in
such ways as might present themselves. Miss
D. E. Emerson, who had had large experience
as a teacher in the field, and who subsequently
was the efficient assistant of the corresponding
secretary, was appointed to this work.
It was at this time, also, that particular atten-
tion was called to the pitiable condition of much
of the mountain coimtry inhabited largely by peo-
ple of European descent who in the movements
of civilization had been passed by and whose in-
337
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
tellectual, spiritual, and material poverty pre-
sented a strong appeal to Christian sympathy.
The popular impression was that the Associa-
tion was particularly organized to labor among
people with dark skins. Quite otherwise, its mis-
sion was to do Christian work among the needy
without reference to race distinctions, its special
inspiration being to carry on this without com-
plicity with slavery and without tlie prejudices
begotten of slavery. It made, and makes, dis-
tinct appeals for peoples of different races only
as a convenient classification. Its thought
towards all is that of a common humanity — to
remember the bond of brotherhood, and the de-
mand for Christian help.
In view of the deplorable ignorance and the
evils flowing from this among the mountain peo-
ple, a special fund in 1884 was asked for "to
carry on educational and evangelistic work in the
mountain regions of Kentucky, Tennessee, and
the adjacent states."
A special missionary in the service of the As-
sociation reported Williamsburg, Kentucky, as a
place of special need where a Christian school on
an anti-caste basis could be planted with great
benefit to a large and surrounding region in great
destitution. The town was sixty-seven years old,
yet it had never had a church edifice; nor had
238
J
NEW FIELDS AND OLD
the county with a population of fourteen thou-
sand ever had a church edifice finished and dedi-
cated to the worship of God. There were few
schools in the country around, and what there
were could not be considered as worthy of the
name. In Williamsburg a tasteful church was
erected. An academy building followed, and able
and experienced teachers were put in charge.
When it came time for these two buildings to be
dedicated, the executive committee was repre-
sented by Dr. William Hayes Ward, and the As-
sociation also by Secretary Powell and Superin-
tendent Roy. The church and school were dedi-
cated to the service of God for the maintenance
and spread of a free gospel and Christian educa-
tion. Special emphasis was placed upon the fact
that over the entrance to these edifices was writ-
ten, " Whosoever will may come." This was
emphasized because in a country where popular
sentiment might otherwise close the doors to
some upon a caste theory, it was felt that silence
regarding that wrong would itself be wrong. The
principles upon which the mission of the Associ-
ation rested, and upon which it had entered the
mountain country with its funds for the support
of its institutions were made prominent at the
dedication.
The school soon was crowded with pupils eager
239
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
to receive its privileges. But suddenly a cloud
the size of the face of a colored child was suffi-
cient to shut out the light of the Dayspring from
on high. A lad with a dark skin asked for ad-
mittance. Letters came to New York with re-
monstrances. It would never do. Could the
Association have meant what it said at the dedi-
cation, or was it simply hypocrisy and a pious
fraud? The answer of the Association flew as
fast as lightning could travel, " Admit all appli-
cants irrespective of color." There was no time-
serving about that telegjam. It was simple hon-
esty; and when other tests of the sincerity and
truthfulness of its principles arise there are but
two ways to meet them ; either fairly and openly
to disown the principles and relegate them to
the receptacles of errors which once passed for
truth, or to honestly live up to them. To claim
to hold them, and yet to disown them, is not
Christian.
Following the dedication of a church and school
at Williamsburg, several churches in that general
region were erected. If they have not been alto-
gether successful, perhaps a sufficient reason may
be found in the lack of members. The safe way
to develop churches is to secure at least a nucleus
of earnest, devoted Christians who are willing to
sacrifice for a church and to stand by it in its
340
NEW FIELDS AND OLD
struggles. To erect church buildings without
this essential is to have a body without a soul.
Where the conditions of success existed the
churches have lived and are living.
The attention given to the development of
schools and churches in the Southern mountains
became quite a distinctive feature. As the rail-
ways pushed through the gaps of the mighty
mountain wall, which has so long fronted the
forces of modem progress, Northern capital had
eagerly entered to develop the hidden wealth of
the hills in coal, iron, and timber. The people
who had long been passed by, and who remained
in this new period in their history as poor as they
had ever been, yet began to reahze some of the
reasons for their backward conditions. The
schools and churches introduced by the Associa-
tion were no small foundations for the new hopes
and new life that had to some degree been awak-
ened by the recent commercial activities. But
here also great caution and wisdom were needed
against new enterprises which were exploited by
prospectors and promoters without substantial
basis. Towns and cities were to spring into being
and importance, — and did so on paper, — and
all of them were calling for churches, and many
of them for " colleges." To go slowly when
magic towns were clamoring for immediate action
t6 241
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
was often felt, by those excited by extraordinary
and exaggerated promises, to be insufficiently
sympathetic with the pressing demands of the
hour, but as the years passed on and the syndi-
cates collapsed, and the places that were certain
to become great commercial centers did not even-
tuate, the careful regard for such churches and
schools as had reason for continued existence be-
came justified. The Association was not obliged
to retreat from unfortunate experiments.
Meanwhile the institutions founded particu-
larly for negro people were reported year by year
to the benevolent people who were sustaining
them. Berea, Hampton, Fisk, Atlanta, Talla-
dega, Tougaloo, Straight, and, last, Tillotson
were each asking for more room and larger facil-
ities. The institutions classed as " Normal "
were Avery at Charleston, Le Moyne at Mem-
phis, Gregory at Wilmington, Lewis at Macon.
Emerson at Mobile, Beach at Savannah, Lexing-
ton in Kentucky, Storrs at Atlanta, Trinity at
Athens, Alabama, Warner at Jonesboro, Brewer
at Greenwood, South Carolina, Dorchester at Mc-
intosh, and Burrell at Selma. Williamsburg in
Kentucky was the sole school in the mountain
country which had attained to this classification.
Ten schools classified as Normal, founded and for
some years maintained by the Association, were
NEW FIELDS AND OLD
no longer on its rolls. Seven of them were sold
to boards of education in the cities in which they
were located and were continued under their
auspices. Three had been closed from lack of
funds to properly maintain them. /f^;'
Twenty-five years had gone into our history iCWnJ n(Tj
when the Association reported under its care tn ]
the South one hundred and twelve churches with 1
eighty-nine pastors, thirty of whom were white
and from the North. The transitional move- '
ments of the colored people often made it neces-
sary also to take from the rolls in view of their
unpromising conditions the lifeless churches
which began with hopefulness and which had I
lost their membership. This could not be pre-
vented and could not always be explained. Some-
times it seemed to constituents that this exceed-
ingly important part of missionary service pro- I
ceeded slowly. It did, and necessarily, yet the
gain which was steady was actual, and the I
churches which really stood for their name com-
pared well with young churches in the West.
Several had come into independent self-support; |
these, usually, where our schools had made this
possible. At the same time it came to be under-
stood more fully by those intelligently interested
in the Association, that the distinction between
school work and church work differed more in
343
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
name and form than it did in reality. The su-
preme thought of each was to bring souls to
Christ and to educate for Christ, and the schools
were doing much work usually done in other than
missionary churches. The influence of the daily
Biblical and ethical teaching upon young people,
and the organized meetings for prayer and wor-
ship under the leading and example of conse-
crated teachers was most fruitful for the ultimate
evangelism of the colored people.
The specific theological departments, which
existed in all our chartered institutions, had
proved to be a gracious and successful agency in
sending forth a more capable and more worthy
ministry into other communions as well as our
own. So far it appears to have been a good part
of our mission to leaven with our teaching and
to help churches which sadly needed aid, all of
which did not count in our denominational sta-
tistics, rather than to multiply churches which
should wear our name but not show forth our
principles or our character. Our most permanent
successes for churches were where we were suc-
cessful in laboring to displace ignorance with
intelligence in our schools. Churches could have
been planted more rapidly if the Association
would have yielded to the temptation to plant and
support them for the name of it. Come-outers
244
NEW FIELDS AND OLD
from other denominations, where there had been
church difficulties, with uneducated and self-
elected preachers, often turned to the Association,
ready to take our denominational name as soon
as they could successfully pronounce it. En-
gaged, however, as we were in a serious effort to
reconstruct the religious life of a people, the Asso-
ciation, while steadily seeking to build good foun-
dations against the time to come, has felt it a
duty to guard against hopeless expenditures
which did not promise permanence and purity.
The Association had largely centralized its
educational work in six chartered higher insti-
tutions and in fourteen normal and graded
schools. Its rural common schools numbered
thirty-six. The pupils in these Southern schools
totaled eight thousand eight hundred and twenty-
three.
The year 1885 was marked by particular be-
reavement in the death of Dr. G. D. Pike, a long
time District Secretary, well known and wel-
comed in the churches which he was wont to visit
with the tidings from the fields at home and from
Africa. Dr. Pike was a man of vigorous intel-
lect, strong faith, and undivided devotion. At
the age of fifty-four years he had put the best
part of an earnest life into the service for the
people emancipated from slavery.
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
In this same year the Rev. E. A. Ware, Presi-
dent of Atlanta University, was suddenly stricken
down by disease of the heart in his forty-eighth
year. President Ware was graduated from Yale
College in 1863, and began his work in the South
the year following the close of the war. For a
full period of nineteen years — with the excep-
tion of a single year of rest enforced by exhaus-
tion and physical needs — he toiled with signal
devotion in this chosen field with most gratifying
and remarkable results. He was active in secur-
ing the foundation of Atlanta University and its
development; he witnessed its steady growth and
prosperity from the beginning. In consecrating
his mind with all its culture, and his heart with
all its affectionate strength to the work of the
elevation of the colored people, President Ware
set a noble example of sacrifice for the cause of
Christ. The original stamp placed by him upon
the University will long remain to testify to his
great life.
The death of Rev. James Powell, d.d., Corre-
sponding Secretary of the Association, on Christ-
mas Day, his birthday, in 1887, was deeply felt
and profoundly mourned by all who knew him.
Dr. Powell was born in Wales, December 25,
1847. At an early age he came to this country,
and partly by his own exertions and partly by the
346
NEW FIELDS AND OLD
help of friends whom he had won to himself by
his happy disposition and evident indications of
exceptional future usefulness, he obtained a gen-
erous education, graduating from Dartmouth
College in 1866 and from Andover Theological
Seminary in 1869. He was immediately settled
as pastor of the Congregational Church at New-
buryport, Massachusetts, his only pastorate, until
1873, when he was appointed District Secretary
of the Association and was soon selected to take
charge of the Western Department with his
office in Chicago. Here he remained for nearly
ten years. In 1883 he was elected Assistant
Corresponding Secretary, and in 1885, Associate
Corresponding Secretary with special supervision
of the collecting field.
Dr. Powell was a magnetic orator, brilliant and
persuasive. Impassioned and imaginative, he
was yet characterized by a cautious judgment and
excellent administrative gifts. His genial nature,
his warm and devoted Christian character, won
all hearts. He was a prince of good fellowship
and full of good humor. No one with him ever
had a dull hour. One of the most companionable
of men, he carried his heart on his sleeve. He
was not capable of a mean act. With strong
convictions he knew how to stand firm in his
sincerity.
247
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Moved very largely by his urgent and repeatw
solicitations, the writer of this history became in
1885 officially associated with him, attracted by
his generous sympathy and his missionary zeal.
He was all that anticipation had hoped for and
more. Not old in years when he died, he had yet
lived a long life, — a life of grand sacrifice, of
patient and undeviating love for the oppressed,
whose necessities had become his own until he
gave to them his life which Christ had saved.
The real glory of his consecration cannot be
chronicled in these pages, but the shining name
in God's Book of Life in the days of God's remem-
brance will stand out like a radiant star in the
heavens. The influences which he set in motk
" shall like a river run and broader flow."
XIII
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
Financial experiences. — A new getieration of teachers.
— Conflicting thought of Southern white people respect-
ing the emancipated race. — Transitional phases of life
among the colored people. — EflFect upon church life and
stability. — The great gift of Daniel Hand of Connecti-
cut.— His " Deed of Trust." — Sketch of his life.— Great
enlargement in school work. — Twenty-one advanced
schools added. — Higher standards of studies. — Fer-
ment in the Southern opinion and hostility to negro prog-
ress. — Appeals at the Annual Meetings of the Asso-
ciation. — Dr. Charles H. Richards, Dr. L3rman Abtx>tt,
and others. — True and false estimates. — Dr. Stricby.
— Death in 1899. — The Association's ideals stated by
Rev. C. A. Patton, d.ix
■XIII
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
DURING these later years, when the work
moved steadily forward, developing on
permanent foundations, the experiences
which belong to all voluntary benevolent work
kept alert those who were responsible for its ad-
ministration. One year would begin with the
jubilation, " We are free, all debts are paid, and
we start anew with courage," and in another
year, with the same management and care, the
captions of the " financial condition " were clothed
in deep mourning. Editorials of The Ameri-
can Missionary would be " cheered by the gener-
ous benevolences which are reporting them-
selves," only to be followed by " great regrets in
view of diminishing receipts." The yearly finan-
cial reports as we review them remind one of
the children's seesaw with its recurring ups and
downs. The apostle who said, " I know both how
to be abased, and I know how to abound," little
thought what a text of common and trying expe-
rience he was uttering for a missionary society.
251
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
It is the transition from gladness to sadness that
tests the souls of missionary managers. An even
success, over which there is no call for special
exultation and no reason for disquieting discour-
agement, is an ideal yet to be realized, but to be
upon the Mountain of Transfiguration with heav-
enly visions of the blessed to-day, only to be hur-
ried down into the valley of humiliation to-
morrow, with a strenuousness which is in painful
contrast to the hopeful ascent, to find the sun gone
down and the darkness everywhere is a cross
which is no easier to bear because the experience
is frequent. Nevertheless, the hymn which de-
clares that " some way or other the Lord will
provide " has much more of truth than poetry to
commend it, and we find that year by year the
schools open and increase in strength, the teachers
do not fail to appear, and do not fail to bring a
blessing to those who hunger for light on their
dark and rugged paths. The churches grow in
number and many of them in grace ; the preachers
are found to minister to them, and many with
final justification for their faith and patience;
and so the education of the needy people goes on
— the education of the soul, the mind, and the
body. The story of it all can never be told, but
the accomplishment is visible in part.
A new generation of teachers, with few excep-
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
tions, has now taken the places of those who began
the work. Then Christian men and women were |
filled with pity for the poor negroes, shown by a I
movement of missionaries and of money that was
wonderful ; but we have now come to a time when i
the enthusiasm peculiar to the early period has I
passed, when with the coming of a new genera- 1
tion this service must go on by the forces born of il
a fixed conviction and a consecration of unques-
tioning faith — a time of patient work, steady I
giving, and constant praying.
It is in this last decade of the history of our
Southern work that we trace more evidently the
conflicting thought of the white people of the
South as to the attitude which should be main-
tained towards the emancipated race. The
prophets and seers, the apostles of a day of right-
eousness towards all classes and conditions of
men, beg^n during this period to find a growing
resistance to their appeals for human rights. The
appreciation which the work for the elevation of
the negro was gaining from large-minded and
thoughtful people in the South was the hopeful
and cheering feature, but the increasing expres-
sions of opposition gave concern for the future.
So far as the results of thirty years were consid-
ered there was every encouragement. Beyond
question, the hopes of the fathers had been more
353
(T
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
than justified in those who had gone forth from
schools and churches to take to others the bless-
ings which they had received. But it was increas-
ingly evident that this very success of those edu-
cated in the higher institutions of the South for
colored people excited the hostility of a large class
of white people, and did not win the favor of an-
other large and influential class. This spirit
which was unsympathetic combined with that
which was hostile, while it occasioned both regret
and anxiety, brought no change of our purpose
and no thought of relaxing our eflForts.
We have come to a time when the transitional
phase of the colored people has become particu-
larly marked. Not only those who were supposed
to be practically permanent in rural districts, but
also those who had flocked to the large towns and
cities are coming and going. The tendency to
drift into cities, due in part to the better school
facilities which the cities afford, presents impor-
tant educational and evangelistic suggestions.
Under conditions which make for unrest in rural
sections, localities which at one time appeal for
help at a later date appear to be well-nigh
deserted. This seldom affects happily located
schools to any great degree, inasmuch as there
are more who wish to attend them than can well
be cared for.
254
J
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
The transitional conditions, however, are more
likely to add to the uncertainty of life and growth
of rural churches, and make the problem of evan-
gelization among those who greatly need it in-
creasingly difficult and sometimes disappointing.
Added to the fact that our more sober methods
of church life and our insistence upon purity and
Christian integrity demand an intelligence and
elevation of character seldom realized apart from
permanent educational influences, we find that the
growth of hopeful churches resembles the oak,
which asks time for root and branches rather than
the cotton-plant with its quick and short life. But
with the constant leaven of education our ideas
and ideals are becoming better known to the
younger generation, and we may hope for a safe
and heahhful increase of churches like those
which have already proved their vitahty, and
which in many places are exerting positive Chris-
tian influence. We accentuate the fact, therefore,
that the mere statistics of evangelism which ap-
pear under the caption of " Church Work " do'
not at all adequately represent the leavening
power of the gospel, which is constantly and
widely felt among the colored people. The lead-
ing and example of consecrated teachers day by
day in their close relationships with life when
character is forming and is most susceptible, make
»SS
■
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
our schools like our churches, centers of redemp-
tive power.
This period was particularly memorable in
the reception by the Association of the largest
gift from a living contributor ever made, up to
that time, to a missionary society. The writer
well recalls the day in October, 1888, when the
Hon, Luzon B. Morris, afterwards governor of
Connecticut, the trusted legal and financial ad-
viser of Daniel Hand of Guilford, entered the
office to transfer securities to the amount of " one
million eight hundred and ninety-four dollars
and twenty-five cents," to be designated " The
Daniel Hand Educational Fund for Colored
People." The gift was one of mature delibera-
tion, made after careful examination of the work
of the Association extending through a period of
many years ; made during the lifetime it avoided
the possibility of future litigation. It was be-
stowed upon a race with whose wants Mr. Hand
had become thoroughly conversant. It was given
to a society with whose history, amid obloquy and
distrust, he was perfectly familiar, and it was
made a permanent fund, — the income only to be
available, — thus insuring its perpetual useful-
ness. The generous giver, formerly a merchant
in the South, had acquired his fortune tliere, and
personally knew of the ignorance and needs of
356
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
the colored people. The Deed of Trust was as
follows :
THE DEED OF TRUST
Memorandum of Agreement made this 20th
day of October, A. D., 18S8, between Daniel Hand
of Guilford, in the State of Connecticut, and the
American Missionary Association of the city,
county, and State of New York.
The said Daniel Hand, desiring to establish a
permanent fund, the income of which shall be
used for the purpose of educating needy and indi-
gent colored people of African descent, residing,
or who may hereafter reside in the recent slave
states of the United States of America, sometimes
called the Southern States; meaning those states
wherein slavery was recognized by law in the
year a. d., 1861, and in consideration of the prom-
ises and undertakings of the said American Mis-
sionary Association, hereinafter set forth, does
hereby give, transfer, and deliver unto the said
American Missionary Association the following
bonds and property in trust, viz.: [Here follows
a list of the property transferred, amounting at
par value to $1,000,894.25. The market value is
more than that sum.] Said bonds and property
to be received and held by said American Mis-
sionary Association, uf>on trust, and for the fol-
lowing purposes, viz. : To safely manage the said
trust fund, to change investments whenever said
Association may deem it necessary or advisable
to reinvest the principal of said trust fund in such
securities, property, and investments as said
Association may deem best, and to use the income
17 257
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
thereof only for the education of the colored
people of African descent residing in the recent
slave states of the United States of America
hereinbefore specified.
Such income to be appUed for the education of
such colored people as are needy and indigent,
and such as by their health, strength, and vigor
of body and mind give indications of efficiency and
usefulness in after life.
Said American Missionary Association and the
proper officers thereof shall have the right, while
acting in good faith, to select from time to time
such persons from the above described class as
are to receive aid from the income of said trust
fund, hereby confiding to said Association the
selection of such persons as it shall deem most
worthy and deserving of such aid, but I would
limit the sum of $ioo as the largest sum to be
expended for any one person in any one year
from this fund. I impose no restrictions upon
said Association as to the manner in which they
shall use such income for the education of such
colored people, whether by establishing schools
for that purpose, and maintaining the same, or
by furnishing individual aid; trusting to said
Association and the officers thereof the use of
such means in the execution of said trust as in
their judgment will be most for the advantage
of that class of people.
Said trust fund shall be set apart, and at all
times known as the " Daniel Hand Educational
Fund for Colored People." And the said Asso-
ciation shall keep separate accounts of the invest-
ment of this fund, and of the income derived
therefrom, and of the use to which such income is
258
4
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
applied, and shall publish monthly statements of
the receipts from said fund, specifying its source,
object, and intention.
The said American Missionary Association,
acting herein by Henry W. Hubbard, its Treas-
urer, and M. E. Strieby, its Corresponding Sec-
retary, who are duly authorized by said Associ-
ation to accept the foregoing gift, m trust, in the
name of the Association, hereby accepts the same
subject to all the conditions hereinbefore imposed
thereon, and hereby agrees to perform said trust,
and execute all the duties thereof in good faith,
so as to carry out the wishes and intentions of
the grantor. And the said American Missionary
Association hereby acknowledges the receipt from
said Daniel Hand of the above-mentioned bonds
and property, in trust, and for the purposes here-
inbefore specified.
The giver of this noble fund died December
17th, 1891. He had lived to see in some measure
the working of his great bestowment, and to give
frequent expression of absolute confidence in the
Association, and his gratitude that God had
spared him to behold the beginning of his mag-
nificent charity. It was found that in his will,
after having made such provision for his dis-
tant relatives as seemed wise to him, he had
added to his munificent trust the residue of his
fortune, making the Association his residuary
legatee to the amoimt of more than another half
million of dollars.
359
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Daniel Hand was born in Madison, Connecti-
cut, July i6, 1801, and was therefore ninety
years of age at the time of his death. His an-
cestors had resided in that town for several
erations. He was the fourth of seven sons,
viving them all. When sixteen years of age he
went to Augusta, Georgia, under the direction
of his second brother residing there, whom he
succeeded in business. Mr. Hand remained in
some part of the Southern Confederacy during
the entire war. His partner, Mr. George W.
Williams, who was conducting a branch of the
business at Charleston, South Carolina, protected
the capital of Mr. Hand from the confiscation
seriously threatened, in view of his being a North-
em man of undisguised antislavery sentiments.
After the war, when Mr. Hand came North,
Mr. Williams adjusted the business, made up the
account, and paid over to Mr. Hand his portion
of the long-invested capital and its accumula-
tions, as an honorable merchant and trusted
partner would do. Bereaved of wife and chil-
dren for many years, his benevolent impulses led
Mr. Hand to form plans to use his large wealth
for the benefit of his fellow men. He was a man
of striking presence, of strong mind and strong
convictions, earnest in his modes of thought
vigorous and terse in their expression. His
360
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
gious life and character were formed upon the
model and under the influence of his Puritan
ancestors. Uniting with the First Presbyterian
Church in Augusta, Georgia, when twenty-eight
years of age. for thirty years he presided over its
Sunday-school as its superintendent. In his old
age, as he laid his hand upon his well-worn Bible,
he said, " I always read from that book every
morning, and have done so from my boyhood
except in comparatively few cases of unusual in-
terruption or special hindrance." Such being the
man, his splendid philanthropy is a natural se-
quence. It is well to hold his honored name and
his benefactions in lasting gratitude.
From 1886 there is a record of great enlarge-
ment, twenty-one advanced schools having been
added to those previously existing. The additions
of those of normal grade were one in Virginia,
five in Georgia, one in Florida, four in Alabama,
six in Tennessee, two in Kentucky, one in Missis-
sippi, and one in Arkansas. This was in part
made possible through the gift of Daniel Hand.
The number of schools developed through the
Daniel Hand fund was fourteen, which in 1892
had increased to twenty-eight. Most of them
had enlarged their teaching forces and had ad-
vanced their standards of instruction.
Meanwhile, Christian education in school and
261
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
church is finding its justification and encourage-
ment in the gradually changing hfe of the colored
people. The slave is becoming a memory. The
\ religious " spirituals " are giving way to " Gos-
Ipel Hymns"; there is an evident gain upon
iuperstition ; the ideas of liberty and manhood
ire being better understood; increasing numbers
)f educated young men and women are proving
heir culture and their powers in helping to teach
md uplift the unfortunate ones of their race still
fin ignorance and degradation. There is a steady
/gain upon the great mass of those unreached by
f any of the Christianizing agencies. These de-
graded ones are many, and their condition fur-
nishes critics with their assertions that the entire
race is deteriorating. This is not true. As a
race the colored people are surely rising. There
are more good homes. There is acquisition of
property. Many are accumulating wealth. It
is this evident development, indeed, that is pro-
ducing a ferment at the South which our records
at this time particularly recognize. As the race,
no longer enslaved, grows in self-consciousness
and takes on a worthy ambition, the antagonisms
of those who are unfriendly become more pro-
nounced. It is the advancement, indeed, of the
negro which excites unrest in those hostile to his
progress. This, no doubt, is a necessary process.
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
taking people as tliey are, and human nature
being what it is. All transitional periods in indi-
viduals and in peoples are trying, both to those
who are passing out of one stage into another
and to those who have to bear with the experience !
The situation in many parts of the South can-
not be better outlined than by the following pas-
sage written by a colored pastor:
As you know, we are engaged in a life-and-death
struggle to secure protection of life and property
against mob violence and lynch law. We are trying
to arouse a righteous public sentiment throughout the
South and to bring about the passage of stronger and
better laws. Yet when laws are passed, the work will
only be begun. The social chaos of the South is due
to the moral chaos. So long as one race is strong and
wicked and the other weak and wicked mobs and lynch-
ings will continue.
The conditions at this period which confronted
the Association find expression in an " Appeal of
the colored people of the United States," in these
words :
We pray for patience, which, counting the blessings
we enjoy rather than the ills we endure, inspires us to
bear and forbear. We pray for wisdom to decide be-
tween the good and the evil side, for race integrity.
We pray not only for ourselves; we pray for the
civilization which, after two thousand years of Chris-
263
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
tian teaching, exults in deeds which would bring ta
the cheek of barbarism the blush of shame. We appeal
to the intelligence and fairness of the American people
to extend to colored citizens of the Republic the same
rights, privileges, and immunities that are extended
to foreigners for the asking. We appeal to the civiliza-
tion of the world for that human sympathy which our ]
unfortunate position warrants; also for that whole- ■
some interest which of itself will tend to check law-
lessness and make effective our rights of citizenship.
The response to such pathetic appeals on the
part of the Association may be seen in its utter-
ances at this time. Said Dr. Charles H. Rich-
ards, then of Philadelphia, at our Annual Meet-
ing in Lowell, Massachusetts;
There is a new South coming to the front. If I
had the ear of that better South to-day I would say
to it, " Here is your glorious opportunity. It is for
you to bring to bear upon this vast element of danger
such influences as will change it into immeasurable
help and blessing to the South and to the world. And
how can you do this? Can you do it by robbing the
negro of those rights which- the common law of our
country has solemnly declared to be his? Can you do ]
it by lynching him ? A thousand negroes in the South '
have suffered death by this lawless and barbarous
method within the past ten years, many entirely inno-
cent of the crime of which they were accused. , . .
Put away the coward fear of negro equality. Prevent
this not by keeping the black man down, but by <
364
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
stantly rising higher yourselves. Nobody can catch
up with you if you only keep far enough ahead. The
salvation of the South is the salvation of the black
race in the South. We would aid you In this great
work. Welcome us as yourjellowj^orers." ,
Dr. Lyman Abbott voiced the sentiments of
the Association in the Annual Meeting in Boston :
It means the same kind of law for the black man
that there is for a white man. We protest against the
heathen barbarism that hangs a white man for a crime
after trial and bums a black man for crime without
trial. , . . We claim for him equal political rights.
The law which says to a thrifty negro, "You shall
not vote," and to a thriftless white man, " You may
vote," is an unjust and inequitable law. The law
which provides one kind of educational qualification for
this man because his skin is tanned and another for
that man because his skin is not tanned is an unjust
and inequitable law. We stand, too, for this, that all
the redemptive influences which have been about us
shall be about them ; that they shall have the same
educational and religious facilities and the same stim-
ulus to intellectual and moral growth. Any scheme
of education which proposes to furnish the negro race
only with manual and industrial education is a covert
contrivance for putting him in serfdom ; it tacitly
says that the negro is the inferior of the white race,
and therefore we will educate him to serve us. The
race must have an education which in its final outcome
shall be complete for the race as a race, which shall
include (he curriculum of education, and which shall
265
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
open opportunities for the highest culture of which
any individual of that race is capable.
I stop a moment to speak with reverence to those
who in the last quarter of a century under the auspices
of this and similar societies have been carrying on
this work in the South, These workers in our South-
ern fields better illustrate and exemplify incarnation
and atonement than any words of preacher ever have
done. If ever in human history there was a body of
men and women who have felt the breath of the
Master on them, and heard his word, saying, " As the
Father hath sent me into the world even so send I
you," it is these men and women whose lives have been
lives of long self-sacrifice, prosaic service unhonored
and unsung of men, but not unhonored nor unsung \
above. I
Such testimonials, which might be multiplied at
length, are the answer of the Association to the
appeals of the colored people, and they are the
answer to those who through the reiteration of
those hostile in the South were continually insist-
ing that the work of educating the children of the
freedmen has been one of mistaken benevolence.
Those who are looking chiefly at the degradation
of the colored people not yet raised from their low
estate, and at the evils which attend upon degra-
dation, are asked to remember that empty minds
have neither within themselves nor in their en-
vironment protection against evil, and that the
degradation is not because the race is losing
266
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
ground once possessed. The condition of those
still submerged is simply made more apparent
because the race is gaining. In slavery when all
were down in the bogs together, the race had no
element of comparison, but now when the stand-
ards of the race are higher, the contrast is strik-
ing, and the condition of the residuum is not
evidence that the race is deteriorating. There
are those who judge the entire negro race by five
per cent of degenerates out of the ninety-five per
cent of the ignorant half. The truer judgment
looks at the fifty-six per cent of the entire race
that have been upraised to a worthy moral and
intellectual condition, and have within a genera-
tion attained a degree of material thrift and
pure life, and a general regard for law and
order that will not suffer in comparison with the
attainments of similar white people North or
South.
It was permitted to Dr. Strieby to live to hear
such testimonials and to recall the days when
few of those who were prominent were able to see
their way to cast their influence for a society
which courageously stood for human rights
and brotherhood when these were thought
to be the idle speculations of impracticable
dreamers. Dr. Strieby entered the service
of the Association as Corresponding Secretary
267
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
with Dr. Whipple in 1864, when he was forty-
nine years of age. After graduation from Oberlin
College and Seminary, he was pastor at Mt. Ver-
non, Ohio, for eleven years. He next organized
the church at Syracuse, New York, and, as at
Mt. Vernon, proved his ability as a pastor and
preacher. But his larger work was accomplished
after middle life. No one can measure his influ-
ence in the development of the work of the Asso-
ciation during his secretaryship of thirty-five
years. He had a prophet's look beyond the work
of the hour, and saw the relation of things. His
convictions were realities and he had the grace
to hold them firmly. Often misunderstood and
criticized, he was more sorry for his critics than
angry with them, and in the stormiest sea his
attitude of mind was, " You may sink me if you
will, but I will keep my rudder true." Not
anxious for praise, he was not afraid of blame
when he felt that he was right. He could wait
for the justification of time, which sets all things
even, and he never doubted that clouds would
break, never thought, though right were worsted,
that wrong would triumph. He was too much of
a prophet to be a time-server or to trim for any
temporary advantage. Not many men of all the
nation were doing more for the country than he
in administering upon the broad schemes for the
a68
EXPERIENCE AND JUSTIFICATION
Christian education and evangelization of the
ignorant and needy peoples to whom he had de-
voted his life. When he died at Clifton Springs,
New York, March i6, 1899, there was no lack of
testimony to the wisdom and greatness of his
accomplished work.
As the years progress, they differentiate mainly
in the necessary and varying problems of admin-
istration and development ^ problems never free
from difficulties, and sometimes large with dis-
couragements, but always marked by a conscien-
tious performance of a constant purpose. The
words of Rev. C. A. Patton, d.d., of St. Louis,
Missouri, son of the early champion of the
Association in its brave beginnings, are well
chosen as he reviewed the years and their con-
clusions :
I thank God for the American Missionary Associ-
ation. Through all these years it has anchored us to
the conception of a universal brotherhood. Some
churches have cared nothing for these things. Some
have openly advocated the disruption of the races
in the very house of the Lord. We have stood firm;
we have refused to lower our standards a hair's breadth
under the pressure of prejudice or expediency. Please
God, we never shall. This Association stands su-
premely for the highest ideal of humanity; we beheve
it with all our souls. We are confident of its increas-
ing success. Our progress may be slow, for the ten-
369
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOQATION
dencies we combat are as old and as mighty as human
wrong, but the result is sure. It matters not if we
meet widi indifference, criticism, or opposition; the
cause is the cause of htunanity and has bdiind it the
eternal purpose of God.
270
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SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Atlanta University, also a child of the Associ-
ation which has come to self-provision, has been
no small factor in the problem of the redempticm
and regeneration of a race.
Berea College, still another child of the Associ-
ation with a hke early history, helped through its
hard struggles for life and power to stand alone,
rejoices in its successful ability to work out the
prayer of its heroic pioneer educators, and to
realize in its great mission the dreams of those
who had faith in the promises, " having seen
them afar off."
Of the institutions now under the Association's
watch and care, Fisk University stands promi-
nent with its long list of college graduates, men
and women, many of whom having achieved dis-
tinction in the higher callings of life, have re-
flected honor upon their college and upon their
race.
Talladega College, next in order of time, drew
its first breath of life in 1S67; and there are
no scales now large enough to weigh the com-
manding influences, intellectual and religious,
which have gone forth to uplift and upbuild the
tens of thousands who have felt its power.
Tougaloo University, in the center of the Black
Belt of Mississippi, wins from eminent white citi-
zens of the state the highest testimonials and the
274
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
fullest sympathy. One of its most distinguished
citizens writes : " I rejoice in the missionary zeal,
born of the Holy Spirit, which has sent so many
cultured and consecrated men and women to
labor among the negroes of the South. I live
within a few miles of Tougaloo University; I
believe it to be possibly the most potential factor
in developing the negroes of our state for the
higher functions of useful citizenship. I can but
applaud the wise policy you have adopted and the
splendid efficiency of your administration,"
Straight University in New Orleans in thirty
years of its history, sending out large numbers
of well-prepared teachers for public schools and
devoted pastors for churches, has not only en-
couraged a spirit of kindliness and confidence
between the races where this was greatly needed,
but has often been held up before Southern
citizens by Southern educators as an exam-
ple of what an institution of the kind should
be. Its graduates scattered throughout this sec-
tion of the South are found in all the trades and
professions.
Tillotson College in Texas, younger and less
prominent, has not failed to place its permanent
impress upon that great state. Those of its stu-
dents who have had their ambitions stirred to
seek the larger advantages of New England col-
375
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION"!
leges have won laurels for scholarship and haw
placed themselves high in the ranks of acknowlJ
edged ability.
Piedmont College in Georgia, our latest acces-
sion of advanced institutions, in answer to ap-
peals from our white brethren in those Southern
states which were the scene of our exciting mis-^
sionary experiences before the war, is extending
Christian education among the people of the
highlands and the lowlands, and cementing the
friendships of those who were strangers and who
accounted us as foreigners. Through institu-
tions such as these, we " are no more strangers
and foreigners, but fellow-citizens with the
saints," at least, and with many who may not
strictly be so classified.
One of the most interesting schools of the Asso^
ciation was organized in the fall of 1895 throu^
the large benevolence of Mrs. Julia A. Bridt
of Brooklyn, New York. Her gift of a beauti-
ful plantation of one thousand one hundred and
twenty-nine acres with several fine builditiga
thereon, gave the name to the institution, in honor
of her deceased husband. The Joseph Keasbqr
Brick Agricultural, Industrial and Normal School
is situated three miles from Enfield, North Caro-
lina, on the Atlantic Coast Line. The fourteeSf
years' history and growth of the school have i
376
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
ready realized in large measure her dream to
ameliorate the sad conditions which existed when
Mrs. Brick made her large bestowments to this
work. No more fitting monument could have
been built to the memory of her husband than this
splendid school.
Within the past twenty years, while our work
has been that of concentration, the Association
has increased its normal and graded schools from
fourteen to forty-four, its corps of instructors
from 218 to 476, and the pupils under instruction
from 8462 to 14,429. Within this time the
higher grades in the schools have enlarged them-
selves from 2,348 to 5,580. The teachers a score
of years ago who had college degrees were twenty-
two. There were in 1906, 136 graduates of col-
leges teaching in our various institutions. The
construction of buildings in this period for educa-
tional purposes is represented by an additional
insurance of more than half a million dollars.
These statistics of present conditions, encour-
aging as they are. by no means represent the full
achievements of faith, nor adequately measure
the work and influences of a single score of years.
The benevolences of the churches and the legacies
of those who have remembered the salvation and
amelioration of the neglected peoples who have
needed help for the way of life, have kept the
277
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AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Association in the front rank of all the agencies
for this missionary work.
As an illustration of the way in which these
schools extend their influences, a single incident
may be mentioned. Two ofilcers of the Associa-
tion on a recent tour of inspection in the South
visited the State Normal Industrial College for
the education of colored youth in North Carolina.
The president of this state institution received
them with cordial welcome, the more expressive
because he had " been educated in one of the
Association's schools." Passing to the next
room, the teacher informed the visitors that she
was " a product of the American Missionary
schools." At the head of the mechanical depart-
ment was an able director who gratified them by
saying that he also had " received his prepara-
tory education in one of the schools of the Associ-
ation." Thus, three of the heads of departments,
including the president, were passing on the work
of the Association to others — a single instance
among hundreds who have gone out from the
schools of the Association with acquired power
and new ambitions to help build up other South-
em institutions.
Among the latest responsibilities assumed in
the South is the experiment of a theological
school located in Atlanta, Georgia. Our subven-
278
J
HEAKI, lim. JoSLh'll K. HkltK S..h......l, Knuhl. N.(
Chapkl, Juskph K. B«icit Scjiooi, Ehfielo, N. C.
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
tion to this, it is hoped, will bring large results
in the ministry of reconciliation among the people
who are in Georgia.
The Association has been greatly encouraged
in its work by helpful sympathy which the years
have brought in the communities where our insti-
tutions are located. It was natural that when our
work began it should be looked upon with sus-
picion. The wounds of the Civil War were not
over, much less healed. In order to lift the lowly
the teachers felt that they must not hesitate to
take the black hand with the grasp of Christ ; they
must stand with those whom they were seeking
to save; they must help the people in their rude
homes and teach them how to live; the poverty
and the barrenness must feel the elevating touch
not only of pity but also of sympathy. Those
who looked upon this kind of consecration and
did not understand it could have no other feel-
ing than that of apprehension. The distrust of
motives was natural. The fear of " social equal-
ity " was ever present. The traditional ideas as
to a servile race, the relationships to social en-
vironment together with the keen sense of great
material losses all stood in the way of apprecia-
tion and of cooperation. But as the years have
passed and the fruitage of the early planting has
ripened, the spirit of the mission has been better
279
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
comprehended and the larger-minded and wider-
visioned have been able to readjust their feelings
and opinions. Many have come to be in cordial
cooperation with the Association, some as trus-
tees of institutions and others as friendly visitors.
The brave example of the wise men in the
South who stand for the education and elevation
of the negro is most grateful to the Association
which has had this service upon its heart for half
a century. It appreciates the moral courage and
purpose of those who thus put prejudices aside
in behalf of the needs of a less fortunate race, and
who are resolute enough to plead with outspoken
sympathy for its welfare in the face of an ad-
verse sentiment increasingly popular among the
masses and cruelly dominant.
The assertion in the South, yet too common,
that it " understands the negro question," and if
" let alone " will settle it for itself, proceeds upon
the supposition that a certain element in the
South speaks for all of it. It takes little account
of those larger in mind and heart, and wiser in
thought but less numeroiis, while it dismisses
from any consideration whatever a South of nine
millions of souls which have human rights and
whose personal concern for these rights has every
claim to be consulted and regarded. As a mis-
sionary society, born of zeal for righteousness
380
1
^^^
L
d
p
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
of the public conscience in its application to the
oppressed, and working since for millions re-
deemed from slavery, it would be a guilty silence
for us not to lift our voices in sympathy for them
in this hour. To fail in protest against the spirit
and purpose which would reduce the race to the
perpetual injustice of a subject state, and make
their freedom a bitter mockery, would be to sin
against our history. Meanwhile, we believe that
the people who would disfranchise the negro and
deprive him of education needed for his advance-
ment to an intelligent right to citizenship will
finally be found on the losing side. Their partial
realization of this doubtless explains in some
degree the violence of their vociferousness.
As we consider the years since i860, let us not
forget the other agencies which have represented
the churches of Christ in the missionary work of
Christian education.and evangelism. The Freed-
men's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal
Church North has a.blessed and shining record
since 1866. The Presbyterian Church North, be-
ginning at the same time with like theories and
methods, has pursued its work with the same fun-
damental purpose. The Baptist churches of the
Northern states for more than thirty years have
developed their schools with the best ideas of
Christian educators. The Protestant Episcopal
3S1
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION" I
Church has added its faith and works to uplifl
the children of the freedmen to Christian intelli-
gence and character. The Society of Friends and
many independent schools have during some parta
of these years supplemented this service for the
salvation of a race.
The American Missionary Association, whidl
was the pioneer to feel the poverty and degrada-
tion of the negro, has found with each succeed-
ing year the fruitful confirmation of its faith and
the wisdom of its methods in this common re-
demptive work. At least fifteen millions of dol-
lars have passed through its treasury to repre-
sent and stand for this faith as its expression.
We may not here undertake to show what ait
the results of those who have given their live!
and of those who have thus consecrated theii
benevolences.
It has been the fashion, mostly recent, on th<
part of those to whom the wish is father to th<
thought, to discredit the work which has beer
accomplished. Educated Southern men hav<
been quoted as saying that " the money contrib-
uted to negro education by Northern philan-
thropy has been for the most part HteraUjj
wasted." By persistent asseverations, diligentM
circulated assertions of this kind have gained ill
certain quarters considerable currency. One od
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
those educated through this Northern philan-
thropy thus replies: "This, in the face of the
fact that it was through this same Northern phi-
lanthropy that one-third of the population of the
entire South has received its first and chief im-
pulse for better and higher life; that these insti-
tutions of Northern benevolence prepared the
thirty thousand negro teachers' for the positions
they hold in the public schools: and that the men
and women who owe all of their elevation to this
same philanthropy are those who are lifting the
general life to a higher level, and doing all they
can do to control and restrain the ignorant and
vicious masses which have as yet been unreached
by like influences."
These people who disparage what has been ac-
complished, and who persist in judging a race by
its criminal class rather than by those who nobly
represent it, would not wish the white race to be
subject to the same misjudgment. The problem
of ignorance, laziness, brutality, and criminality
surely is not confined to any race or section.
Wherever it is, it can only yield to time and
patient work. With patient work it does yield
to time. " If," said Kelly Miller, " it takes
twenty-five years to educate a white boy, it must
require an incalculably larger period to educate
a black race.
a83
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
" We hear much of criminality. The chief evil
of slavery was that the negro did not act from
moral choice. When he was well-behaved, he
was so upon compulsion ; when physical restraint
was removed, there had been no convictive moral
restraint to take its place. When freedom of
action and liberty of choice came, the negro was
not prepared for it, and yet the criminal average
of the South Atlantic Division of states, where
the colored race is densest, has by the Eleventh
Census less criminals to a million people than the
North Atlantic Division, and also less than the
Western section, in each of which the negroes are
relatively few. New York and California have
a higher criminal record than Alabama and
South Carolina."
Alas, there is criminality! Ignorance begets
crime. It remains true that without such serv-
ice as Christian teachers have been giving, and
are giving, millions would sink into hopeless
degradation, favorable to crime. The products
of the Christian schools have met every expecta-
tion from the standard of character and conduct.
If they have not banished all ignorance and all
poverty, and obliterated all vicious tendencies,
they have yet made a greater and more blessed
record than words can express.
A worthier testimony than that of confessed
?84
J
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
hostility comes " from the honored secretary and i
administrator of the Slater and Peabody funds,
Dr. Curry, than whom there could be cited no |
higher authority. This eminent Southerner says:
" It is absolutely necessary to both races that edu-
cation should go on. As a rule the criminals j
among Southern negroes are not only the prod-
uct of post-bellum life; they are uneducated. It i
is the rarest thing that an educated negro com-
mits crime against virtue and life. In our ex-
tremity we look to the wise and just people in ,
the Northern states to help us, to help the race. ,
Without Northern cooperation conditions will go I
from bad to worse." With all the fervor of his I
large knowledge, Dr. Curry gave his answer to i
the strange theory that Christian education is a
failure in that it does not prevent crime among j
those who as yet are beyond its saving power.
There is no criticism that will stand the tests I
of candid incjuiry as to the character and con-
duct of those who go forth from a continuous
course of study and discipline of our schools.
They are at work uplifting their people. They \
are leavening the millions of their race. That 1
the negro people are thus contributing to solve
the problem of their salvation is a fact full of
cheer. A mighty army of coworkers, many of I
them wide-visioned and wise, are both in them-
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
selves and m their work confirming the faith of
the fathers and the wisdom of their far-reaching
methods.
For the past, then, there is every reason for
gratulation, and for the future there is Httle call
for doubt. The Association has not been infal-
hble. This it has never claimed, but it has been
providentially led. Let it be true that the fervor
of Northern philanthropy is largely over; that
the higher education is challenged by many who
once actively supported it; that the negro has
lost his vote in the Southern states and that many
Southern people insist upon the astounding propo-
sition that all education is a mistake for the negro ;
it remains that the Association has no reason to
reconsider its principles, nor to change its gen-
eral methods. The results show that they have
everywhere been a saving grace and a trans-
forming power, a grand and fruitful investment
with wonderful returns in character and in life.
They have made thousands of good homes out
of poor cabins and hundreds of good churches
out of superstitious congregations. They have
stimulated the virtues of industry and economy.
They have successfully taught that character
means advancement in life and in possessions.
The evidences are to be seen in every town and
village in the South.
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
The Association looks out upon a negro popu-
lation to-day of more than nine million. These
are estimated to hold more than $400,000,000 of
property or two-thirds as much as was held by
nine million of whites in this country a century
ago. The Association sees the negro people
to-day operating thirteen per cent of the whole
number of farms in the United States and thirty-
seven per cent of the farms in the Southern
states. The continued development of the race
for forty years is simply phenomenal.
At the same time, it is true that nearly one-
half of the race is yet in deplorable ignorance.
Among these are the shiftless and indolent with
a low mental and moral life. From these the
criminal class is recruited. Among these are
the idlers who are seen in the streets and about
the saloons of white men, clad in ragged gar-
ments and covered with impossible head-gear.
People do not see, unless they look for them, those
who are not idling, those who are doing honest
work with steady industry, those who have been
quickened with ambition to improve, those who
are teaching others, those who are making great
sacrifices to keep their children in school. But
because there is an idle residuum who will work
only enough to maintain an impoverished exist-
ence, there are those ready to pronounce all forms
287
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION!
of education failures. It is intellectual and spir-
itual ignorance which interprets itself in indus-
trial inefficiency.
An authority no less than Dr. Talcott Wil-
liams has repeatedly testified that in the con-
sistent application of an impartial Christian civili-
zation the Association has proved itself to have
possessed and used the true social remedy for the
development and salvation of an undeveloped
race.
" Granted," he says, " that the negro race re-
quires an industrial training and natural selec-
tion, the negro must be provided with higher edu-
cation which will prevent him from being a mere
stratum at the base of industry.
" If the negro group is to be more than a caste,
it must develop its aim, its aspirations, and its
future by the aid of a wide training which puts
it in touch with the past, and this training must
be at hand close to the negro population.
" Neither college nor industrial training can
be spared. If the republic is at length to fuse
and assimilate all within its sovereignty, it can
only be as all enjoy the possibility of every advan-
tage open to any. The final object of all Ameri-
can effort is a more perfect union, and can only
come by closing no door to any man.
" The negro came of a race which had never
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
known letters. The serf came of a stock which
had inherited the learning of the Byzantine em-
pire. Forty years have passed. Among the serfs
not one in ten can read and write ; not one child
in fourteen is attending school. Only three per
cent of the population — three out of every hun-
dred — enter a schoolroom from year's end to
year's end. The negro began environed with
statutes which made his education a crime. After
forty years fifty-five per cent of this adult popula-
tion can read and write, where of the Russian
serf seventy per cent are still illiterate. Thirty-
five per cent of his population against three per
cent of the Russian are at school; and of his chil-
dren, not one in fourteen, but two, are regularly
attending their classes. The gate of all higher
education is closed to the serf by administrative
order. Two thousand negroes, many of them
owing their education to this Association, have
taken their college degrees. There is much to
discourage, doubtless, in the condition of the
American negro, but when I remember the prog-
ress made by four million negroes in the United I
States, I feel more strongly that freedom is jus- ,
tified of her children, whatever their color, and '
that the experience of the past is the just enlarg-
ing hope of the future."
In the " Social Study of the Negro Qiurch,"
'9 289
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
under the direction of the Eighth Atlanta Con-
ference, the rehgious condition of the children of
the freedmen in their various communions is
carefully examined. As to the general character
of the churches and preachers, there is yet much
to be desired. Inquiry by correspondence of some
two hundred negro laymen of intelligence in all
parts of the South with a schedule of questions
indicated a great crying need of religious effort
and moral aspiration among the masses of the
colored people — the need of an earnest, educated,
and consecrated ministry. On the whole, the
older type of preachers is gradually passing, and
the churches more and more are demanding posi-
tive Christian character and intelligent leader-
ship. This process of emancipation from the
old order of ignorant and often morally unfit
preachers is going on largely under the leader-
ship of educated and godly men from the mis-
sionary schools. In our own Congregational
affiliation the churches are both few and small
in comparison with the great number of negro
churches. Requiring first of all the reality of
Christian life and experience, and standing for
high religious, moral, and intellectual aims, as
against the heritage of superstitions and the
errors of ignorance, the growth necessarily has
been slow, and the influence has been that of the
ago
J
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
leaven in the lump rather than o£ outward obser-
vation. The majority of churches which bear
the Congregational name are only partly self-
supporting, but there are several whose member-
ship presents a very high average of intelligence,
and are not only self-supporting, but are exercis-
ing the grace of Christian benevolence and serv-
ice in behalf of missions both at home and in for-
eign lands. The next generation will see the
negro churches of the South exerting a stronger
religious and moral influence upon the negro race
than they are visibly doing to-day.
Our brethren of other communions found a
natural constituency among the negro people who
bore their denominational name, and who only
needed to be brought into an enlightened appre-
ciation of its meaning. The Association did not
The Congregational name was new, and by the
.great multitude interpreted as a new religion.
Nevertheless, more than two hundred Congrega-
tional churches live to plead for an ethical reli-
gion, and for a Christianity which means purity
and character. Intelligent preachers have dis-
placed the ignorant and boisterous, and the gos-
pel, proclaimed by ministers whose minds have
been enlarged by the discipline of the schools and
expanded by a knowledge of the world's life and
thought, is doing much towards an intelligent
391
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATIOl
apprehension of Christianity and the significance
of the ministry of Christ. A large part of the
justification of our church hfe among the negro
people is in its leavening influence in other de-
nominations, and in their steadfast example for
purity and integrity.
Looking backward, then, for sixty years, the
Association can take up the song of the Psalmist
who in reviewing the past of his people, and
recognizing the good hand of God, was impelled
to say, " He led them forth by the right way."
It was in the current of God's gracious providence
that the Association was brought into life. Its
early years of struggle and ofttimes of apparent
defeat were the days of its education and testing.
When the fiery trial of war came, the accumulated
strength of a patient overcoming was a posses-
sion that enabled it to take up the great work of
the redemption of a race without hesitation or
delay. Since that time the providence of God
has been a continuous providence, and if the work
of redemption to any seems to have moved for-
ward less rapidly than they hoped, we may re-
member that the logic of evolution is not less con-
clusive for reasoning slowly. What God in his
purposes may have in store for the people whom
his providence brought from the jungles of
Africa and whom his providence emancipated.
SURVEY AND OUTLOOK
we cannot know until his providence shall have
ripened. This much we have learned, that God
has overturned the purposes of man.
When men proposed to make the chains of the
enslaved stronger, God snapped them. Enough
has already been concluded to give us a pledge
of God's purposes that he intends this people at
least to be really and truly free, and to have their
own opportunity for manhood and womanhood.
That which has been settled in heaven will not be
unsettled on earth. On man's part possession
must wait upon preparedness. It is a salvation
which must be worked out with fear and trem-
bling. As to time, this salvation will move on
with the movement of Christianity and the power
of Christian faith in our land. Those who are
working together with God are engaged in that
which is assured. There is no uncertainty as to
the final result. There may be opportunities, hin-
drances, and what to us are discouraging delays,
but He who came to " bring forth judgment unto
truth shall not fail nor be discouraged."
With the same faith, fortified by the fact that
God has been mindful of us in our mission for
the children of slavery, we apply ourselves to the
appeals of our brethren of the Indian tribes on
the reservations of the West, to the Chinese and
Japanese throng^g our ports on the Pacific, to
293
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
the neglected souls, dwellers in our insular pos-
sessions, to the poor and degraded Eskimos of
the North. To the needy peoples under the shel-
ter of the flag of our country God has called the
Association with an unmistakable voice. In the
light of our experience the way before us is
plain. Our commission to preach the gospel to
the poor, and to heal the broken-hearted, to
preach deliverance to the captive, and recovery
of sight to the blind, remains the same as afore-
time. We may well keep on believing in the
certainty of the kingdom of our Lord and re-
joicing that " all things are given unto his hand."
294
XV
IN NORTHERN ALASKA, PORTO RICO,
HAWAII
Northern Alaska: — Arrival of two missionaries at
Cape Prince of Wales in Northern Alaska, July 4, 1890.
— Mr. Thornton and Mr. Lopp. — A dwelling-house
erected and also a school building. — Condition of the
Eskimos. — The introduction of reindeer by Dr. Sheldon
Jackson. — Marriage of Mr. Thornton and also of Mr.
Lopp. — The murder of Mr. Thornton in August, 1891.
— The rescue of sailors by the heroic service of Mr.
Lopp. — The methods of reindeer administration. — The
result of fourteen years' missionary ministry. — One hun-
dred church-members, one mission school. — The pres-
ent condition of the Eskimos. -^ A new order of life.
Porto Rico : — Condition of the Island when visited by
the officers of the Association. — Work begun. — Schools
at Lares and Santurce. — Evangelistic work. — Transfer
of school at Lares to the Presb)rterian Mission. — School
at Santurce takes name of " Blanche Kellogg Institute."
— Evangelistic work in Fajardo. — Church edifices erected.
— Six churches organized. — Great encouragements.
Hawaii : — Withdrawal of American Board. — Incom-
ing of foreigners from Asia. — Mission taken by the As-
sociation. — The urgent appeal of the President of the
Association.
IN NORTHERN ALASKA, PORTO RICO,
HAWAII
NORTHERN- ALASKA
IN the summerof 1890 two young men at the
suggestion of Dr. Sheldon Jackson and at
tlie call of The American Missionary Associ-
ation, left San Francisco on a whaling vessel to
establish a new mission among the Eskimos in
Northern Alaska. Mr. Thornton was from Vir-
ginia and Mr. Lopp from Indiana. On the fourth
of July they arrived at Cape Prince of Wales, the
farthest western point on the North American
continent. They knew nothing of the people, who
had been described as a savage and hostile race.
Within ten days they had so far put together the
building which they had brought with them that
they could shelter themselves. The vessel sailed
away, and they were then left in a settlement of
about five hundred Eskimos. Another frame
building was soon erected for a school.
The natives had never before seen a house, and
began hammering away at the doors and win-
297
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
dows, for they had no idea that they should be
kept out. The missionaries, by means of the few
words they had learned, and by signs, did their
best to pacify them. They continued, however,
to batter at the doors for several days, but this
was found to be simply a matter of curiosity. The
Eskimos were really disposed to be friendly in-
stead of being hostile. Within a short time the
missionaries had no fears of violence from them,
and soon they had gathered a school of some
sixty pupils. They found the people with only
their spoken language and with no positive
ideas of God or of a future life, and no religious
observances.
The only danger from Eskimos was due to
their intoxication when they could barter skins
for whisky with sailors from our ships. When
under the influence of drink the people became
boisterous and rude and sometimes violent, and
there were stormy times. " We were determined,
however," wrote the missionaries, " not to let
the natives see that we were afraid of them; so
we taught our school, took our exercise, and went
hunting our fresh meat as usual, finding it much
more tolerable to take some risks than worry
ourselves with constant thoughts of danger."
Gradually the natives, as they came to under-
stand the teachers, behaved more peaceably.
398
IN NORTHERN ALASKA
During the autumn the troubles of the mis-
sionaries were complicated by a terrible epidemic
of pneumonia which carried off many of the
people. The superstitious Eskimos attributed
this epidemic to the presence of strange mission-
aries. It was really due to a cold west storm
which came on as the people were preparing to
move from their summer tents to their imder-
ground houses for the winter.
The mission prospered, nevertheless, and the
school was largely increased in numbers, despite
annoyances by children and adults clambering
on the roof of the house, knocking on the walls
and yelling at the windows. When it was found
that these disturbances could be much reduced
by suspending the school for a few days, good
order was restored.
As soon as the missionaries had attained suffi-
cient knowledge of the language they began
specific religious services. They found that the
natives believed, in a vague way, in good and evil
spirits — about as children believe in ghosts —
but they proved to be receptive of the binding
obligations of truthfulness, honesty, and other
Christian virtues.
The natives were living ten months of the year
in underground houses, often damp, always ill-
ventilated and ill-lighted, but their open-air
399
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
exercise in hunting and fishing kept them, upon
the whole, stout and hardy and healthy. With-
out chairs or tables, they ate with their fingers
from wooden dishes, sitting on the floor. Their
cooking consisted in boiling alone, without other
condiment than a little sea-water. Their dress
was mainly of deerskins and sealskins. Inasmuch
as these could not be washed, they were always
infested with vermin.
The missionaries early undertook to introduce
houses made with drift-logs, and to improve the
condition of the people by bringing better appH-
ances for fishing and hunting which secured their
livelihood. They dressed themselves in seal-
skins and deerskins in the Eskimo way, and
really suffered but little more from the cold than
when at home. Hunting with the natives, they
found them to be persevering and courageous.
In 1892 Dr. Sheldon Jackson with statesman-
like foresight secured an appropriation for intro-
ducing reindeer from Siberia into Alaska as a
food supply and a means of enabling the natives
to become more and more a pastoral people. This
nearly seemed to be the only hope of their con-
tinued existence, for supplies of food were not
only precarious but also decreasing. The intro-
duction of reindeer by Dr. Jackson was a pro-
phetic movement for the civilization of the Eski-
1.
IN NORTHERN ALASKA
mos. The wisdom of this action cannot be too
highly appreciated. It has not only brought them
better food and more of it, but has led to new
ideas of industrial life. Our mission has found
large value in many ways in the reindeer herds.
At the present time there are more than five thou-
sand reindeer distributed in various centers in
Alaska. The largest herd in Alaska is in charge
of the mission of The American Missionary Asso-
ciation at Cape Prince of Wales.
In 1892 our missionaries reported a slow but
unmistakable growth among the Eskimos in the
apprehension of civilized ideas and of godliness.
The Sunday church services were well attended.
In short, the old superstitions were slowly be-
ginning to give way. The idea that the school
bell frightened away the seals was put aside. The
chief magic doctor, who stabbed himself in order
to secure a good whaling season, found less con-
fidence on the part of the people.
On August 19 of the next year Mr. Thornton
— who in the meantime had returned to New
York, married, and taken his wife to the mission
station, as had also Mr. Lopp — was awakened
about midnight by loud raps at the door. Going
to the door with the idea that some one was sick
and needed medicine, he was shot dead by three
natives, who were probably crazed by drink.
301
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
Mrs. Thornton wrote afterwards: " We did not
fear the people when they were sober, but when
they were drunk we felt the peril." In the morn-
ing the friendly Eskimos came and lifted the body
of her murdered husband to a couch, and then
carried the terrible news to the settlement. The
natives at once went out, hunted down the mur-
derers, killed them, and dragged their bodies up
to the house, insisting that Mrs. Thornton should
come out and look at them and know that they
were punished. There was great mourning in
the village. Nearly the whole village came to
the door. " You need not be afraid. We are
friends, we will not hurt you," they said.
After this tragedy Mrs. Thornton returned
home to this country, and Mr. Lopp with his
family continued in successful charge of the
mission.
One of the most noteworthy events in the his-
tory of this mission was the heroic service of
Mr. Lopp in the rescue of three or four hundred
sailors at Point Barrow, where the crews of eight
trading vessels had been frozen up in the Arctic
Ocean. At the request of the government Mr.
Lopp undertook to drive over the wilderness of
ice the mission reindeer herd seven hundred miles
for the rescue of the ice-imprisoned seamen. It
was a perilous journey, and even the Eskimos
302
J
IN NORTHERN ALASKA
predicted he could never reach his destination.
■* It was a great trial," he wrote, " but we knew
we would be remembered at the weekly prayer-
meeting of our Eskimo Christians." He was
successful in his endeavor, and later on the gov-
ernment renewed the mission herd to its former
number.
The method of the administration of the rein-
deer herd lias been to give yearly a certain
number of the deer to those Eskimos who are
sufficiently trained to take care of them. This
furnishes to them and their associate friends a
supply for food, for service and clothing. There
are now nine separate groups owned by the Eski-
mos amounting to nearly one thousand deer, while
nearly six hundred other deer still remain in
direct charge of the mission. This feature has
contributed largely to the improvement of the
people.
As a result of this fourteen years' missionary
ministry, there was in 1904 at the Cape a practi-
cally transformed community. These Eskimos
are already known all along the coast for their
morals, industry, and a new spirit of enterprise.
Many of them are faithful Christians. About
one hundred are church-members. The mission
school numbers one hundred pupils. The story
of tlie mission is a striking illustration of the en-
303
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
lightening and saving power of the gospel. A
printing-press given by the " Boys' Missionary
Society " of the Church of the Pilgrims, Brook-
lyn, has been found very useful, and some of the
schoolboys have not only learned to set type but
have made some rude woodcuts which indicate
an undeveloped talent in this line.
In 1905 the Alaska Mission at Cape Prince of
Wales came under the care of Rev. James F.
Cross, who had a large previous experience in
Indian work upon the western reservations. He
was greatly impressed with the importance of the
work and of the opportunity for it. He found
that with the coming of the mission, the schools,
and the court, the degradation of women had
nearly ceased; that with the growing market for
native products, the eager spirit of the native for
religious instruction, the prospect and hope for
the native Alaskan is bright. A new order of life
has begun in the knowledge and acceptance of
American civilization and Christianity. The visit
of Dr. Jackson more than eighteen years ago,
when he introduced to The American Missionary
Association the proposition that it should enter
upon missionary work at Cape Prince of Wales,
was certainly eventful. The great good that has
resulted from this visit and from his urgency in
behalf of the neglected, uncivilized, and benighted
^
IN PORTO RICO
Eskimos in this mission alone, must cause him to
be regarded by these rapidly developing people as
their first and greatest benefactor.
The successor of Mr. Cross found the most
northern Congregational church in the world
with a membership numbering two hundred and
sixteen people, who are living consistent Chris-
tian lives. The younger people of Wales have
taken on our own langiiage with the gospel, and
the mission was never more rewarding or even
promising than it is to-day. History does not
give us many such wonderful changes in conduct
and character as is seen in this mission station
in the short period of eighteen years.
PORTO RICO
When Porto Rico came into the family of the
United States, the Association was the first to
make anything like a thorough study of the
islands in missionary interests. It was then in
the first months of military rule imder General
Henry, an able administrator, earnest for civil
improvements, and a Christian man who honored
the Christian faith.
We found a beautiful tropica! country with
vegetation abundant and varied, and with a soil
rich beyond any signs of exhaustion. With prac-
30s
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
tically one season of the year for seed-time and
harvest, the sowing and reaping could be done at
pleasure. We found a population of nearly a
million classified in round numbers as 500,000
whites, 400,000 colored — made up of a mixture
of white, Indian, and negro blood — and 100,000
pure negroes. Of this million of people it was
estimated that 800,000 were in absolute illiteracy,
without knowledge beyond that of their own huts.
One-tenth of the fraction who could read had not
advanced to where they were able to write. In
every town there were those who were educated
and who held the responsible local positions, but
who had entirely failed to realize any responsi-
bility for this mass of ignorance around them.
We found churches but no people in them. The
Church of Spain, which for four hundred years
had unhindered opportunity with the patronage
of the State, so grievously failed to interpret
Christianity that it had produced this fruitage.
The mental and spiritual poverty were paralleled
in the low-down material condition of the great
body of the people.
With a climate healthful and soil of great nat-
ural productiveness, it would seem that the
people ought to enjoy more than the ordinary
blessings of life and to be easily living in com-
fort. Instead, their physical condition, like their
306
J
IN PORTO RICO
moral state, was found to be pitiful beyond
expression.
When this degradation came to the considera-
tion of the Association, the duty appeared to be
plain, since this people now belonged to us and
since we belonged to them, that we must seek
their salvation. Such mental and spiritual degra-
dation must not continue.
In accordance with this sense of duty, two
schools each with several teachers were at once
opened — one in the center of the island at Lares
and one next the capital — on the military road
in Santurce. This action was followed as speedily
as possible by the beginnings of a purely evangel-
istic work looking forward to the organization
of churches which should stand for the truth and
purity of Christian life.
After years of successful work at Lares, when
the government had opened an excellent school in
the village, the same necessity did not seem to exist
for our presence there in an educational form,
and as our brethren of the Presbyterian Church
were willing to assume the responsibility for evan-
gelistic work at Lares the Association transferred
its interests to the eastern portion of the island.
The school at Santurce has been since this early
beginning a center of earnest Christian influ-
ence. With the Bible as one of the text-books,
307
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
it has put the lessons of Christianity into the re-
ceptive hfe of young people year by year, and
has been a blessed ministration of the gospel in
the fidelities of Christian teachers. Plans have
already been made for an enlarged development
of this school under the name of " Blanche Kel-
logg Institute," when, with increased facilities
for extended and advanced work, we hope to
make a large central institution as a worthy ex-
pression of our faith and love.
The evangelistic work of the Association, apart
from that which takes the educational form, has
been directed from Fajardo, a seaport upon the
eastern coast. This has been crowned with the
favor of God. Two tasteful and commodious
church edifices have been erected. The pastor
at Fajardo rejoices in the membership of a hun-
dred and twenty-five who have been hopefully
converted. A church at Humacao, housed in a.
fine building, numbers one hundred and seven
members who have come out of great darkness
into the light of the gospel. In all six Congrega-
tional churches have been organized with four
hundred and thirty members. These are most
cheering figures, but they fail to represent the
greatness of the blessing which has followed the
endeavors of our missionaries. A census has its
significance in what it stands for, but when we
308
IN HAWAII
recall what the conversion of these people means"
— the difference between a miserable Porto Rico
shack and a Christian home, the redemption from
degradation to a true Christian civilization, and
the ideas of life and duty which it includes and
carries forward — the process of numeration falls
short of the reality. What we have to encour-
age is much, but as yet we have only begun to
plow the ground and sow the seed. In good hope
we await the response of the future to the ques-
tion, " What shall the harvest be? "
Another outpost of civilization is Hawaii. The
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions occupied the Sandwich Islands as its
first-field of missionary labor in i8ig. The story
of the heroism and wonderful work of the early
missionaries is one of the brightest pages in
Christian achievement.
Upon the withdrawal of the American Board,
the " Hawaiian Evangelical Association " ap-
pealed to The American Missionary Association
for aid in carrying on the mission work in these
islands. While the Hawaiians have been greatly
reduced in numbers, the Chinese, Japanese, and
Koreans have recently come in by tens of thou-
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
sands. As the native race is dying out, the Ori-
entals with their paganism have hurried in. And
since the islands are novi^ a part of our country,
these foreigners from Asia have for a time at
least come to be members of our national family.
For a time we say; we know that in time many
of them will return to their former homes. They
are with us now, five thousand miles nearer than
the lands from which they have come.
These peoples are ready for the gospel. Alert
for our civilization, they are inquiring for the
reasons and motives of our religious life. They
will make good foreign missionaries if we suc-
ceed in leading them to Christ. The call to the
Association to aid in this work seemed to come
with the imperative of God's own appointment.
In the words of the President of the Association,
" Whatever the cry from other lands, for a little
time at least, this appeal of Hawaii should have
no second place with those who desire the evan-
gelization of the world." Let us hope that a
great company of Chinese, Japanese, and Kore-
ans will carry with tliem to the Orient the gospel
and its blessings which they shall receive at our
hands.
ti
XVI
THE JUST SHALL LIVE BY FAITH"
XVI
"THE JUST SHALL LIVE BY FAITH"
THE group of men who represented the
Association at its beginning organized
themselves for the heroic work before
them with the following Executive Committee:
Arthur Tappan
Theo. S. Wright
Simeon S. Jocelyn
Amos A. Phelps
Charles B. Ray
J. R. Johnson
S. E. Cornish
WiLLLAM H. Pillow
William E. Whiting
J. W. C. Pennington
JosiAH Brewer
Edward Weed
Of these the most noted was Arthur Tappan,
a sketch of whose life has been given in a pre-
vious chapter. Two of these original members
belonged to the negro race. Josiah Brewer, the
father of the honored Associate Justice Brewer
of the United States Supreme Court, brought
with him both missionary experience and large
personal influence. He served on the Board for
seventeen years. Only one, W. E. Whiting, who
remained on the Committee for thirty-six years,
was a member of the original company at the
time of the Civil War.
3*3
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
During the war, among those who shaped the
history of the Association as its Executive Com-
mittee were Rev. WilHam B. Brown, d.d., 1855-
1880, and Rev. John Milton Holmes, 1S62-1869.
At this time the Corresponding Secretaries and
Field Secretaries were members of the Executive
Committee and were largely responsible both
for the plans of the work and for their execution.
They had personal acquaintance with existing
conditions and had their facts at first hand. They
were familiar with the South, and theirs was the
chief influence both in respect to the location of
the institutions and the direction of their policies.
Of prominent names on the Executive Committee
since, there were Hon. Samuel Holmes, who
served with great faithfulness and constancy of
devotion for thirty-three years; General O. O.
Howard; General Clinton B. Fisk, 1875-1890;
Mr. Charles L. Mead, 1875-1898; Dr. Lyman
Abbott for ten years; Dr. A. J. Lyman, fourteen
years; Dr. J. W. Cooper, sixteen years; Dr.
Elijah Horr, twelve years, and Dr. Nehemiah
Boynton, ten years. Of the present members
those longest in service are Mr. Charles A. Hull,
twenty-five years, and for several years chair-
man of the Committee; Dr. William H. Ward,
twenty-seven years; Dr. L. C. Warner, sixteen
years, and Dr. Lewellyn Pratt, eleven years.
314
"THE JUST SHALL LIVE BY FAITH"
It will be seen that while frequent changes have
occurred in the membership of the Committee
a historic continuity has been preserved which is
exceedingly important in view of the many prob-
lems that have confronted the Association.
The duties of the Executive Committee, which
holds its regular meetings on tlie second Tuesday
of each month, call for constant and most careful
attention. To a " Committee on Finance " is en-
trusted the special regard for the property of the
Association, both land and buildings, and of all
the trusts in its hands. The legacies, endow-
ments, investments, and the like are under their
special oversight and direction when once passed
upon by the General Committee.
A " Committee on Missions " hears the reports
from the respective fields, decides upon recom-
mendations for their varied claims and necessi-
ties, and in genera! furthers the efiiciency and
economy of the missionary work of the Associa-
tion, whether it be in churches or schools. This
is subject to the supervision and direction of the
Executive Committee. A " Committee on Sup-
port " considers methods of promoting a mis-
sionary spirit throughout the churches and of
securing funds for the support of the work and
for the pressing demands for its enlargement.
Each of these committees appoints its own meet-
3^5
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
ings and keeps its own book to record its proceed-
ings, the minutes of which are read at the regular
meetings of the Executive Committee ; and each
of them is in regular consuUation with the Cor-
responding Secretaries whose information and
advice is sought on all questions that present
themselves to the Association.
Additionally a special " Committee on Appro-
priation " has for its duty the consideration of
the work of the Association and the presentation
to the Executive Committee of a detailed state-
ment of the amounts necessary for each depart-
ment of the work, and the recommendation as to
the amounts which should be appropriated for
the ensuing fiscal year.
The Corresponding Secretaries, previous to
changes which came by the outbreak of the Civil
War, were Rev. George Whipple, d.d., from
1847 to 1876, and Rev. S. S. Jocelyn, from 1853
to 1863. In 1864 Rev. M. E. Strieby. d.d., suc-
ceeded Mr. Jocelyn and continued until 1895,
when he was appointed " Honorary Secretary,"
which office he held until his death. Rev.
J. R. Shipherd served for two years, from
1866; and Rev. W. W. Patton, d.d., for two
years from 1868. Rev. James Powell, d.d., who
had served both as District Secretary and As-
sociate Corresponding Secretary, was Corre-
3-6
"THE JUST SHALL LIVE BY FAITH"
spending Secretary in 1887 and died in the same
year. Rev. A. F. Beard, d.d., who was called
from the American Church in Paris, France, to
be Associate Corresponding Secretary in 1884,
was elected Corresponding Secretary in 1887.
After a service of eighteen years in this capacity,
Dr. Beard was elected " Honorary Secretary and
Editor." Rev. Frank P. Woodbury, d.d., was
Corresponding Secretary from 1890 to 1905.
Rev. C. J. Ryder, d.d., who was Assistant Cor-
responding Secretary in 1892, became a Corre-
sponding Secretary in 1895. Rev. James W.
Cooper, D.D., was elected Senior Corresponding
Secretary in 1903.
The duties of these officers named above have
been the charge and direction of the work of the
Association under the Executive Committee.
Responsible for plans and suggestions, for facts
and intelligence from the varied institutions in
the field; for general watch and care of every
interest as well as for the proper presentation
of these interests to the churches and the public,
the position is one of unceasing thought and
anxiety.
The treasury is a department the importance
of which every one can realize, but which those
who have not particularly informed themselves
can but partially appreciate. To receive all money
317
contributed or entrusted to the Association, and
to keep clear and accurate accounts of sums re-
ceived and expended, were this all its functions,
would be comparatively easy. The correspond-
ence immediately relating to this department is
large and calls for constant consideration. It in-
volves not simply the payment of teachers and
missionaries, the insurance of properties in very
many states, but also the care of all deeds, the
watchful protection of all endowments and in-
vestments and estates, that no losses may any-
where occur. The books and accounts are ever
open to the inspection of any member of the
Executive Committee and are submitted month
by month to the Finance Committee for their
examination.
The first Treasurer, Lewis Tappan, served,
from 1846, nineteen years. He was succeeded
by Edgar Ketchum, who was Treasurer from
1866 to 1879. In 1876 Henry W. Hubbard was
called from Fisk University as Assistant Treas-
urer, and was appointed Treasurer in 1879. The
thirty-three years of the Treasurership filled by I
Mr. Hubbard have witnessed a good part of
the development of the Association, and there
is no one at the present time who has an equal
memory of the facts and incidents of the earlier
history. If fidelity coupled with ability and con-t
P ' 1
"THE JUST SHALL LIVE BY FAITH"
stanl loyalty to all the interests and principles of
the Association call for appreciative record in
this story of its life and work then this testimony
on the part of the writer of this history is but a
partial recognition of difficult work well done.
Among those who have linked the work of
their lives with the history of the Association was
Rev. Joseph E. Roy, d.d., who for ten years as
Field Superintendent and eighteen as District
Secretary at Chicago, made a deep impression
and exerted a wide influence in each capacity.
When he died he was the last of those truly large,
broad-minded, wide-visioned men who espoused
an unpopular cause in its beginning and conse-
crated themselves in full-hearted sincerity and
without question to the oppressed and to their
uplifting. Dr. Roy was simply revered among
the colored people of the South. He had not only
their absolute confidence, but the abundant wealth
of their affection as a loving friend of their race.
The influence of his personality will not pass
away with his earthly life.
One of the forces of the Association from its
first days has been The American Missionary.
Not a great magazine, it has had its full share
of influence in developing and holding the special
constituency which has supported the work.
Upon its pages are the stories of its hopes and
319
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
fears, its struggles and its successes. Those who
have welcomed it to their homes have been the
steadfast friends of all that the Association rep-
resents. These are they whose constant flow of
benevolence has made the columns of figures
in the financial reports from month to month
and year to year swell into the great total of mil-
lions of dollars which have gone into the lives and
characters of millions of people. This transmu-
tation of gold into character in human life has in
part been effected by The American Mission-
ary, which has always been a chief agency in
spreading the intelligence of its work, thus inter-
esting those who have contributed, not money
only, but themselves, their sons and daughters
for the service of the Association in its mission
to the lowly and the needy. A distinguished
negro, who is not tn denominational affiliation
with us, writing upon " The Progress and Devel-
opment of the Colored People." says;
Among the forces that have helped to make this
progress possible I place the kindly sympathy that has
been manifested by our white friends. I do not believe
tliat in the history of the world there ever went into
a needy fieki a nobler band of men and women than
those who went into the Soiuh at the close of the war
for work among freedmen. Too much emphasis can-
not be placed upon the type of white men and women
with whom this race first came in contact in its efforts
330
i
"THE JUST SHALL LIVE BY FAITH"
to rise, and of those who have largely had control of
the great philanthropic movements for its uplift. The
boys and girls, the young men and women, who came
in comact with these early missionaries and teachers,
can never forget them, nor can the impressions made
upon them ever be effaced, Tlie spirit of these early
missionaries and teachers survives in some of tlie
men and women who are still laboring in the Southern
field, who are now teaching in the schools, colleges,
and universities, for which we are profoundly grateful.
All the great religious denominations of the country
have had a hand in this work of development, but of
them all the contribution made by the American Mis-
sionary Association, in my judgment, has been of
greatest value. More than any other organization
you have recognized the manhood of the negro: and
in all your dealings with him you have more largely
than any other organization, so far as I know, treated
him as a man and a brother; and so you have been
swayed less than any other organization, so far as I
know, by colorphobia; and I believe of all organiza-
tions that have been working among us as a race, your
great Association has shown most of the spirit of
what I call true, genuine Christianity.
There are some things that the men and women who
make up the church of Jesus Christ ought to grapple
with, and one of them is race prejudice. The reli-
gious sentiment of the country has been powerless to
check it because it has never concerned itself very
much about it. Instead of lifting up the standard for
the people, it has been too willing to follow the stand-
ard which a non-Christian world has set up. Such
« 331
>uch I
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION
has not been the case with this Association. For
example, the little periodical which you publish. The
American Missionary. I know of no magazine in
the country in which the negro question is discussed
more intelligently, more sympathetically, more cour-
ageously, or on higher Christian principles. It is never
afraid to touch the question, or to speak out frankly,
fearlessly for the negro, not because he is a negro,
but because he is a man and brother; it never stops to
ask whether what it is about to say is acceptable to a
negro-hating public sentiment or not; its aim has been
not to placate such a sentiment; not to express itself
in such a way as to give no offense to such a sentiment,
thereby throwing its influence practically in favor of
such a sentiment, but to lift up a standard for the
people — a standard which reflects not the spirit of
race hatred, the spirit of caste, but the spirit of Jesus
Christ, Wherever this magazine has gone, it has car-
ried this gospel of the fatherhood of God and the
brotherhood of man; it has revealed the spirit of the
men who have spoken through it, and it has shown that
they were men who fully believed in the negro as a
man and brother.
Thus we have come to the sixty-second year of
our missionary endeavor. After having gradu-
ated several institutions and churches into inde-
pendence and self-support, there remain upon our
lists in the South alone, four theological schools,
four colleges, twenty-nine secondar)r institutions,
seventy-three schools of all grades, with five hun-
332
i
"THE JUST SHALL LIVE BY FAITH"
dred and sixty officers and teachers, and more
than fifteen thousand pupils under our watch and
care. One hundred and ninety-four churches
organized by the Association have nearly twelve
thousand church-members. In Porto Rico, with
one noble central school, there are numbered eight
churches with live hundred and fifty-six church-
members. Added to this are twenty-one churches
among the North American Indians with some
fifteen hundred devout church-members, and one
Nonnal and Training School with eighteen in-
structors. The Eskimo mission reports one hun-
dred and forty-two members in its church at Cape
Prince of Wales. Significant additions have
been made to our mission plants, — notably at
Fisk, Tougaloo, and Straight universities, and
at Talladega College. Many of our secondary
schools have been enlarged. Eight churches and
branch churches have been organized among the
Chinese and Japanese in California. Our inter-
est in Hawaii has been abundantly rewarded.
The year 1908 completes a period of twenty
years since Daniel Hand, in his lifetime, made to
the Association the great gift of $1,000,894.25 in
securities. There has been added to this fund
from time to time, from the estate of Daniel
Hand, the sum of $464,965.00, making tlie total
of the Daniel Hand Educational Fund received
323
AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION!
to September 30, 1908, $1,465,859.25
and the income received have been kept separate
and distinct from the other funds of the Associa-
tion, and the accounts have also been as required
by the terms and conditions of the trust. There
has been collected as income from this fund
during this period of twenty years the sum of
$1,232,180.05, and there has been expended the
simi of $1,229,582.54.
In reviewing this twenty-year period of the
Daniel Hand Fund, it will be of interest to note
that the current receipts and endowments to the
Association — exclusive of the Daniel Hand Fund
and its income, and exclusive of income from the
Avery Fund, assigned for support of missionary
work in Africa — have been $6,928,237.81, and
including the Daniel Hand Fund and income and
the income for missionary work in Africa, the
total receipts for the twenty years have been
$10,230,569.87.
Finally, the question before us is the same as
when we began sixty-two years ago. To quote
Secretary Cooper: "The question before us is:
Whether the churches of America have the moral
power to meet the moral problems of America.
It is the test of our Christianity. The moral en-
thusiasm of the nation which sent a milUon men
into our Civil War to fight for the freedom of the
3*4
"THE JUST SHALL LIVE BY FAITH''
slave, is something utterly unknown to the young
men of the present generation. It required a
great national crisis, the precipitation of open
conflict, all the pomp and circumstance of war, to
call forth the moral heroism, the dauntless cour-
age, the supreme self-sacrifice of 1861, when men
* offered themselves willingly among the people,'
and * jeoparded their lives even unto death in the
high places of the field/ Have we the faith in
Christ and the enthusiasm for humanity which
will inspire in us the same heroic devotion now?
Have we the strength of purpose, the consecra-
tion, the love of man, the impartial hope, to carry
through to a successful issue this less dramatic
but no less serious or strenuous struggle for
htmianity to-day ? '*
3^5
INDEX
INDEX ^^^^B
A
Ballard Normal, Macon, Ga., I4i< 1
160 1
Bangkok, SUm, 57. 59 J
Abbott. L-jmaa, 365, 314
Barnes, Albert, 115
Abolition of Sl»«iy, 6, 7, 16
Beard, A. F.. D.D., 317
Adam*. John, 6
Bctcher, Edward, 19
Adams, John Quincy, jg. ail
Bennett, Prof. H. S., 160
Africa, 38, 48
Berea. Ky., 100, 104, 374
Alaska, in Northern, 295, S97
A. B. C. F. M., «. 309
Boynton, NehemJah, D.D.. 314
American Church, Paris, France,
Biainard, Hon. Lawrence, 130
3'T „
Bradley, Rev. D. B., 55, 60
Brave Women, 331
Am. S. S. Union, 31
Brewer, Rev. Josiab, 39, 136, 313
American Tract Society, la
Brick. Joseph Keaabey Agricul-
33. 30. 43
School. 376
Andrews, George W., D.D., 178,
Brick, Mrs. JuUa A.. 376 |
100
Brisbane, W. H.. 19
AntislBvery Sodelies, 6, 11, 15, 19
Brooks. Mr. and Mrs. John S..
Appeal of the Colored People, 363
43, 44
Ar;iic Ocean, 30J
Brownlow, Govenuir, 153
Brown, Rev- William B., 314
»73
Bunyan, Thomas, 41
Atlanta. G«., 139
Burrau of Women'* Work. »37
AtlanU Tbeoloeica] Seminary, 978
Butler, Gen,, and School, 135
AlUinla Univeraity. 159, 160, 174
Mlanta University Board of Visi-
c
lora, 19J
Avery Institute, Charleston, S. C,
Canada Mission. 61
1J9. 160, 167, 180
Cape Prince of Wale*. 397, 304
Avety, Rev. Charles, 45. "S. "6.
Carter. Anson J^ 4*
117
Cass Lake Suiion. Minn.. 66
Avery Station, Africa, 45
Caile and Anti-ourte, 15, 97. lo<.
loj, 339, 130, 339
B
Castle Garden Meeting, lio
Caswell. Rev. Jesat, SS. S9
B»con, Leonard. D.D, 138, laj,
Chase, Prof. F, A., 161 I
Cheyenne River Agency, 77 1
Baldwin, Roger S.. 39
Chippewa Agency, Minn., 69 1
3'9 T
^^^P INDEX ^
^^^^H Chrislian loi
E
^^^^^W Churches, North and South, ii,
^^H i;, 13S
^^^^^^1 Church formation and tvork, 173,
Eells. Edwin, 68
Emancipation Prociamaiion, 134
^^^^^^H Church of Spain, jo6
Emerson Institute, Mobile, 179
Emerson, Miss D. E., 337
^^^H Clark. Rev. S. M., 68
Emerson, Ralph, jjg
^^^H Collins, Miu Mary C, 71, 7'. 77.
^^^H 78,81
Emerson, Ralph WaJdo, 10
^^^^H 240
Eskimos, 39S
Eskimos, Christiana, 303
^^^^H Color line in Churches, 328
^^^^^1 Commerce and Conservatism, 111
F
Comralltce on Appropriation, 3J6
Commiltee on Finance, 315
Fairfan County Convention, 7
Commitlee on Missions, 315
Fajardo, 308
Committee on Support. 315
Favorable Southern sentiment.
Concentration, 157, 14s
J30, 334
Condi t. Rev. John, 44
Fee, Rev. John G,. 97, 104
Conditions which created the
Financial E:ipericnccs. 351
A. M. A., 3
First Assoc, chapel, South, 139
ConQicting thought in South, 353,
Fisk, Gen. Clinton B., 150, IJ3,
363
>S7. 158, 314
Connecticut. 13. 14. IS
Cooper, J. W., D.D.. 314, 317.
3'4
Fisk University. 150, 156, 174
Fluctuations of Southem Benttmeiit.
aig
Copts in Egypt, 61
Foreign Missions, 34, 63
Cornish, S. E., 313
Fort Berthold Agency, N. D., 69,
71
Fortress Monroe and Ei-Pres.
Conn,, 13, 14
Tyler's house, iii
Cravath, E. M., D,D., 151. 151.
Fort Sumter, 117
.58, .39
Fort Yates Agency. 73
Cross, Rev. Jaa. F., 71, 77, 304
Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amend-
Cuny, J.LJI., LL.D., »8s
ments, 180, 188, 191, 193
Franklin, Benjamin, 6
D
Frecdmcn's Aid Society. M. E.
Church, North, iSi
Dark Days, 107
Day, Charles P., 125
arics, 47
Death-mlc in Africa, 41, 46, 47
Freedmen's Bureau, 135, 170
Deed of Trust, an?
Free Negroes, 167, 168
DcForesl, a S., D.D.. 178, 314
Friends of Bible Missions, 31, ■
District of Columbia, 16
37
District Secretaries appointed, 134
Fugitive Slave Law, 110, iii, 114,
Dislnist and Prejudice, 107
"S J
Division into Departmcnia, 171
Fund, Daniel Hand, 334
330
INDEX
Garrison, William Lloyd, ix, xa,
X7, x8
Genius of Universal Emancipa-
tion, XI
Gibbs, Professor, 37
Glenn Bill, 335
Good Hope, Africa, 43, 44
Grand River Station, 71, 77
Grand Traverse Bay, Mich., 66
Grant, Pres. U. S., 67, 69, 188
Great Britain, X34
Green Bay Agency, Wis., 69
Green, }. S., and wife, 51, 5a
H
Hall, Rev. C. L., 71
Hamilton, Alexander, 8
Hampton N. and A. Institute, las,
128
Hand, Daniel, 256, 258, a6i, 323
Hawaii, 295, 309
Hawaiian Evangelical Association,
309
Haygood, Rev. A. G., D.D., aai,
224
Henry, Patrick, 8
Hilton Head, 124
Holbrook, J. C, D.D., 134, 171
Holmes, Hon. Samuel, 314
Holmes, Rev. John Milton, 314
Home Department, West and
South, 96, X04
Horr, Elijah, D.D., 314
Hostility in the South, 20a
Howard, Gen. Charies H., 73-77
Howard, Gen. O. O., 125, 134,
Hubbard, Henry W., 3x8
Hull, Charies A., 314
Humacao, 308
Indian Work, 64, 93
Industrial Training, 38, 163
Infusion of white blood, 168
"Irrepressible Conflict," 3, 99
J
Jackson, Sheldon, D.D., 297, 300
Jackson, William, X9, 31, 129
Jamaica Mission, 30^ 53, 55, 134
Jay, Judge William, X9
JefFerson, Thomas, 7, 9, 224
Jocelyn, Simeon S., 27, 212, 213,
3^3y 316
Johnson, J. R., 313
Jowctt and Johnson, Mendi Miss.,
Indian Mission Meeting (first), 74
Indian Peace Policy, 67, 69
Jubilee Singers, 156, 157
Just — "The just shall Uve by
faith," 311
Kaw-Mendi, 38, 41, 42, 44
Retchum, Edgar, 318
Kinna (Amistad Captive), 42
Kinson, Miss Sara (Mar-Gru), 42
Kirk, E. N., D.D., X31, 133
Ku Kluz Klan, 202, 23a
Lake Superior Agency, Wis., 69
Lares, 307
Leavitt, Joshua, 16, 19, 211
Le Moyne Institute, Memphis, 160
Liberator, The, 12
" Uttle Scotland," X27
Lock wood, L. C, 121
Lopp, Mr., 297, 30a
Ludlow, Miss Helen, 17$
Lundy, Benjamin, the Quaker, xx
Lyman, A. J., D.D., 3x4
M
Madison, James, 8
Mann, Horace, xxj
331
INDEX f
Manual labor, J9, 41
Palton. W. W., D.D.. 134, i7«, *
May, Samuel J., 16
316
Mead, Charles L., 314
Peace Policy (Gen. Grant), 67,
Memph[s. Tennessee Church, 139
69
Mendi Mission, 30, 38. 48
Peake, Mrs. Mary, lai
Miller, Kelly, 383
Pennington, J. W. C, 313 ,
Missionary Boards and Slavery,
Phelps, Amos A., 313
io3
Phillips, Wendell, iti |
Missionary, The Amen'cao, 319
Piedmont College, 176
Mission Indians, Cal., 69
Pike. Rev. G. D.. 145
Missouri and Maine, 10
Pillow, WilUam H., 313
Missouri Compromise, 131
Point Barrow. 302 .
Mob ezpulsion of Missionaries,
103
PoMo Rico, 39S, 30s 1
Morris, Luzon B., 356
Powell, James, D.D.. 146, 316 I
Mo-Tappan, 43. 44
Pratt, Lewellyn, D.D„ 314 1
Presbyterian Church, North. 181 1
Protestant Episcopal Church, aSi '
National Council (1865), 133
R 1
New England Colonies, 3, 4, 13
Ray. Charles B.. 313
New Fields and Old, 337
Raymond, Rev, R.. and wife, 38,
North American Indians, 64, 53
40, 41
North and South, 3, 4. 5, 10,
Red Lake Station, Minn., 65
"S
Reed, George W., 73, 77
Northern Capital in Southern
Relief Societies, 170
Mountains, 341
Richards, Chas. H-, D.D., 364
Richardson, Rev. W, T., 68
Northwest Territory. 7
Riggs, A. L., D.D., 70, St
Number of Missionary Workers,
Riggs, T, L„ LL.D., 70, 73. 77.
331
j8, 81, 93 1
Riggs, Stephen R.. 74 ■
Riol in Memphis, 139 '
Rogers, Rev. J. A. R.. loi, 104
Oahc, S. D., 70, 71
Rosebud Agency. 71. 77
OBdcn, Prof. John. 151
Root, Barnabas, 4S
Oglethorpe and Georgia, 5
Roy, Joseph E.. D,D., 319
Organization. 31
Ryder, C. J., D.D.. 317
Organizaiion of Churches, 199
OslTw:ism, 169
Our Brother in Black, ul, 314
Sandwich Islands Mission, 51,
P
5^
Sanlee, Neb., 70. 71, 81
Park. W. E., D.D., 134
Santurce, 307
Paiion. C A.. 369
Savannah, Ga., 138
3
1
2
INDEX ^1
School, following the Armies.
1
Srhure. CmI, 190. tga
Talladega College, AU,. 38. 159,
Seven Yc«r» out of Stavery,
I7>. 179. J74
'93
Tapp»n, Arthur. 11. 16, 19, 30, 31.
Sherbro I»l«nd, Africi, 43
MS. 138.313.3*8
Shipherd, Rev. J- R., .34, 3'6
Tappan. Lewis, 11, 16. 31, jio.
Sixrn Miasion, 55, 60
Sierra Leonr, 39, 48
Theological Dcputments, 344
Sims, Thomas, .11
Thompson, Rev, George, 41, 43,
Sioux Reservation, 70, 71
Siiselon A^ncy, Dak., (hj
Thornton. Mr,, J97. 301
"Sitting Bull," 77
Thurston. Rev. David, 130
TilloCson College, 275
Staler Fund, an
Tougaloo University, 160, 185,
SUvcry — introduction, decrewc,
174
abolition, 4. 6
Transfer of African Missions, 48,
Smilli, Gerrit, ig
69
Smith. Rev. E. P., 68, ij* aoj
Transfer of Indian Missions, 69
Social Sludf of the Negro Church,
Transfer of Jamaica MiaHons.
289
5S
Society of Friends, »8»
Transitional Phases, 154
Soulhcm solution of Negro proh-
Ttemoni Temple Meeting, 113
TwoCiviliiations. jj6
Spence, Prof. A. K.., .60
Type of higher cductUon, i6a ^^J
Spirit of the Association, 109
^^^^H
•■Spotted Bear." 74. 77
^^1
Standing Roct Agency, 7), 77.
78
Union Commiation. 170 ^^^^H
State Normal InduslnaJ College,
N. C. 378
United BrcthiT^n. 4S ^^^H
Suiement of Piiodplea, 37, 109,
^^^H
146. 150, 155, J04, 3i6. ajo
^^H
Statistics, 188. 193, 231, m.
3*S
Violence, 99, loo, im ^^^H
Stone. Mrs. Daniel, Gift of, 103
Virginia Cokiniea, 3, 4 ^^^M
Storra. Richard Salter, D.D., jo
Storrs' School. Atlanta, Ga., 141,
^m
Stiaight. Seymour. iSi
Ward, WillUm H., DJl., 314 ^^^|
Siraigbi Univcrsitj. 159. j8i, 185,
Wat^ Rev. E. A., 146 ^^^H
»7S
Warner, L. C, IX.D, 314 ^^^1
Stricby.M.E.,D.D.,is9,M9,»67,
Washington, George, 8 ^^^B
3'6
Webalrr, Daniel, iil ^^^H
Weed, Edward, jtj ^^^M
•91
Welcome and Unwelcome, 117 ^^^H
Survey and Outlook, ijt
3
■dical Society, 3* ^^^H
I
INDEX
West Indiui Miauona, 30, 53, 55
Whipple, George, D.D., 31, 3;
113, 118, 307, no, a68, 316
White, Prof. Geo. L., 156
.Whiting, Williun E., 313
Whiltier, John G., 16, 19
Williamsbuig, Ky., 23S
Williuns, Takott, LL.D, aSS
Wilmington, N. C, 138, 160
Winnepeg Lake, Minn., 66
Women Teacher*, TribnU
Woodbury, Fnnk P., D.D., .
Woodworth, C. L., D.D., 13.
Wright, Eliiur, 16
Wright, Tfaeodon S., 313
"Yellow Hawk," 73,7;
I
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zh | N/A | N/A | 功勋卓著 一代名将
——纪念粟裕同志诞辰100周年
军事科学院
关键词：粟裕 百年诞辰
中图分类号：E297文献标识码： A文章编号： 1002-4883-(2007)04-0006-06
粟裕同志是中国共产党久经考验的忠诚战士，无产阶级革命家，，杰壮的军事家。他以精湛的军事指挥艺术，，创造了战争史上的种种奇迹；更以磊落的胸怀感召了无数同时代人和后来者。他文武兼备、有胆有识。今年是粟裕诞辰100周年。他的丰功伟绩和高风亮节给我们留下了宝贵的精神遗产，我们永远怀念他。
粟裕是湖南省会同县侗族人，，是中央军委确定的36位军事家中唯一一位少数民族军事家。
投身革命洪流，参加南昌起义和井冈山斗争。1924年春，粟裕在湖南常德省立第二师范学校读书时，参加了中国共产党领导的学生运动。1926年11月加入中国共产主义青年团。1927年“四一二”反革命政变后，粟裕毅然参加革命，加入中国共产党。在革命遭受严重挫折的关头，他意志坚定，毫不动摇，成为大浪淘沙保留下来的革命精华。8月，他参加了周恩来等领导的南昌起义，任革命委员会警卫队班长。起义军主力在广东潮安)汕(头)地区失败后，粟裕坚定地跟随朱德、陈毅转战闽粤赣湘边地区，最后走上井冈山，同毛泽东领导的秋收起义部队胜利会师。从此，他在毛泽东、朱德的直接领导下，历任中国工农红军的连长、营长、团长、师长、红4军参谋长、红7军团参谋长等职，参加了井冈山艰苦卓绝
的斗争，参加了创建中央苏区的斗争和历次反“围剿”斗争。
深入敌腹， 开展浙南三年游击战争。1
1934
年7月，粟裕任红7军团暨红军北上抗日先遣队参谋长，转战闽浙赣皖边。1935年1月，他同刘英率500余人突破封锁线到浙南，任中国工农红军挺进师师长、闽浙军区司令员，在国民党统治的腹心地区开辟浙南游击根据地。在与上级党组织失去联系的情况下，粟裕和刘英领导部队实行了从运动战向游击战的转变，坚持了艰苦卓绝的南方三年游击战争。他摒弃“左”倾冒险主义的影响，从实际情况出发，调整政策，注意团结中间阶层，重视群众经济利益，把公开的武装斗争与隐蔽的群众工作结合起来。他创造性地应用游击战争的十六字诀，提出了“敌进我进”的指导方针，挫败了国民党军多次“进剿”和两次兵力各达40个团的大规模“围剿”使浙南游击根据地得到巩固和发展，成为中国革命在南方的战略支点之一。
威震大江南北， 发展和巩固华中抗日斗争新局面。全国抗战爆发后，粟裕任新四军第2支队副司令员、先遣支队司令员，率部挺进江南敌后，首战韦岗告捷，鼓舞了军心民气。接着率领第2支队在南京、芜湖、溧水地区抗击日军。11939年11月， 粟裕任新四军江南指挥部副指挥同陈毅一起，执行中共中央关于发展华中和新四军东进北上的方针，造成了跨越长江两岸发展的有利态势。。1940年7月，他率
部挺进苏北，任新四军苏北指挥部副指挥兼参谋长。10月协助陈毅指挥黄桥战役，粉碎了4倍于己的国民党顽固派军队的进攻，奠定了新四军苏北根据地的基础，打开了华中抗战的新局面。皖南事变后，他出任新四军第1师师长(后兼政治委员)、苏中军区司令员兼政治委员、中共苏中区委员会书记，领导苏中党政军民，挫败了日伪军频繁的“扫荡”、“清剿”和“清乡”：巩固了苏中抗日根据地。从1944年3月开始， 他率部对日军发动局部反攻，组织指挥车桥战役，创华中敌后歼灭战的范例。同年12月率第1师主力南渡长江，执行向苏浙皖敌后发展的任务。1945年指挥所部在天目山区对国民党顽固派军队进行了3次自卫反击战，缴获大批美械装备，率先在新四军实现以游击战为主向以运动战为主的转变。
愈出愈奇，解放战争建奇功。解放战争时期是粟裕军事生涯中最辉煌的时期。日日本投降后他率部回师江北，任华中军区副司令员、华中野战军司令员，指挥了高邮战役和陇海线徐(州)海(州)段战役，歼灭拒降日伪军2万余人，为迎击国民党军的进攻准备了内线作战的有利条件。全面内战爆发后，他指挥苏中战役，七战七捷，一个半月中歼敌 5.3万余人，鼓舞了解放区军民敢打必胜的信心，为解放战争初期的作战指导提供了实践经验。中央军委将苏中作战经验通报全军，要求各区“仿照办理”1946年10月，，山东、华中野战军会师后，，根根据中共中央决定，粟裕负责战役指挥。此后，他指挥了宿北、鲁南、莱芜、泰蒙、孟良崗等战役，共歼敌7个军(整编师)和1个快速纵队。我军转入战略进攻后，他同陈毅一起率华东野战军主力挺进鲁西南，掩护刘邓大军主力南下大别山。沙土集战役后，，他与陈毅率部在豫皖苏地区实施战略展开，与刘邓、陈谢大军成犄角之势，互相配合，从而形成了逐鹿中原的胜利局面。1948年5月， 粟裕任华东野战军代司令员兼代政治委员。他指挥华东野战军主力和中原野战军一部进行豫东战役，歼
敌9万余人，取得了大规模攻城打援作战的胜利改变了中原、华东战场的战略态势，打乱了国民党军的防御体系，为尔后进行更大规模的歼灭战创造了有利条件。9月指挥济南战役，攻克坚固设防的大城市济南，7歼敌10万余人。9月24日，他提出进行“小淮海战役”的建议经中央军委批准，中原、华东野战军并肩作战，，将“小淮海战役”演变为歼灭国民党军55万余人的淮海决战。 1949年2月，粟裕任第三野战军副司令员兼第二副政治委员 (仍代理司令员、政治委员职务)在渡江战役中指挥所部追歼逃敌5个军于皖南郎溪、广德地区，解放南京、杭州。55月，他指挥上海战役，歼敌主力8个军于上海外围，使上海免遭严重破坏。他还先后兼任上海市军管会副主任、南京市军管会主任、南京市市长、华东军政委员会副主席。
鞠躬尽瘁，为国家安全和军队建设日夜操劳。解放战争后期和建国初期，毛泽东主席曾两次点将，要粟裕担任主要战略方向即解放台湾和抗美卫国的指挥员。。」1951年粟裕任人民解放军副总参谋长， 协助聂荣臻总参谋长为抗美援朝战争的胜利作出了巨大的贡献。1954年粟裕任总参谋长。他坚持真理，实事求是，深入研究国防战略，制定作战计划，，探索未来反侵略战争的战略方针、作战指导和国家战备等问题，提出诸军兵种建设方针和富有战略创见的设想，使总参谋部在军队现代化、正规化建设中发挥了重要的组织领导作用。1955年粟裕被授予大将军衔。1958年在军委扩大会议上粟裕受到错误的批判，并因此长期受到不公正的对待。同年他调任国防部副部长兼军事科学院副院长，后任军事科学院第一政委，协助叶剑英元帅发展我国的军事科研事业。他在逆境中坚持实事求是研究军事科学。中共十一届三中全会后，他提出要在军事领域解放思想，研究和回答现代战争提出的新问题，是军事科学研究实践的一位开拓者。粟裕还曾担任全国人大常委会副委员长、中共中央顾问委员会常务
一
从南昌起义到全国解放的22年间粟裕始终战斗在第一线，，长期在一个独立的游击区域、战略方向和战略区担任主要指挥员，亲自组织指挥和参与组织指挥了大量战役、战斗，立下了赫赫战功，被誉为“常胜将军”。刘伯承元帅说： “粟裕将军百战百胜，是解放军最优秀的将领之一，”粟裕作为优秀的军事指挥不论是带领小部队战斗还是指挥大兵团作品都表现出卓越的军事才能，形成了鲜明的军事指挥特色。
胆咯超人，
年
气吞山河。粟裕善于组织大兵团作战 纵横驰骋，进退自如。特别是在解放战争时期，他作为华东战略区作战指挥上的主将，统率数十万大军，决战决胜，战功卓著。在敌强我弱、形势对我不利的情况下，粟裕履危难而弥坚，临大敌而愈勇，敢同大敌、强敌作战。黄桥战役歼灭顽军翁达旅，苏中战役首歼整编第83师，鲁南战役首歼整编第26师和号称R“E国军精华”的第一快速纵队，。都是把首歼目标、主要打击方向指向强敌，出奇制胜。孟良圈战役中，整编第74师是蒋介石的嫡系“王牌”号称“御林军”名列国民党军“五大主力”之首，师长张灵甫骄横不可一世，在数路大军的密集队形掩护下，气势汹汹，企图一举全歼我华野主力。粟裕集中华野全部主力，，以“百万军中取上将首级”的英雄气概，硬是把“王牌”中的“王牌”从敌重兵集团中挖出来，一举全歼，宛如虎腹掏心。从这些惊心动魄的大仗、硬仗、恶仗、险仗中，我们可以深切地感受到粟裕敢于斗争的非凡革命胆略。
用兵灵活，不拘一格，毛主席曾经表彰粟裕：“指挥正确，既灵活又勇敢，故能取得伟大胜利.”粟裕以灵活用兵、善用奇兵著称。他善于从战场实际出发，反复分析敌情、我情、时间、地形等因素牢牢掌握时机、地
点、部队三个环节，只要符合上级的意图，哪里好消灭敌人就在哪里打，什么时候好消灭敌人就在什么时候打，哪部分敌人好打就打哪部分敌人。他审时度势，机敏果敢善于捕捉战机Ls2掌握战场主动权。苏中战役第一仗粟裕的几次“反常”用兵，大大出乎敌人意料。他一反我军常用的诱敌深入战法没有诱敌深入至我根据地中部或后部再寻机歼敌而是以苏中根据地的前部作为初战的作战地域：二反我军先打弱敌的通常做法，选中整编第83师这个强敌。莱芜战役中，他“示形于鲁南，击敌于鲁中”一面派地方武装进逼充州，在运河上架桥，摆开一副西去的态势，一面带领部队隐蔽急速北上，一举抓住李仙洲集团打了一个漂亮的歼灭战。正是在这一战后，I陈毅同志说“粟裕将军的战役指挥一贯保持其常胜记录
愈出愈奇，愈打愈妙。”
周密运筹，以小胜大。粟裕敢于集中兵力，善于转用兵力，真正抓住了集中优势兵力、各个歼灭敌人的精髓。他对这一原则领会之深，运用之妙，达到了炉火纯青的程度。粟裕指出，从战略防御中改变敌我形势，争取胜利基本上靠集中兵力这一着。苏中战役敌我兵力对比为41黄桥战役约为51敌人占绝对优势，但在粟裕的精妙指挥下，通过灵活机动地调整兵力，使我在局部对敌形成绝对优势。苏中战役中，我军每战集中3到6倍的绝对优势兵力，积局部小胜为全局大胜，创造了歼敌5万余人的辉煌战绩。其中宣泰战斗，我以15个团吃掉敌2个多团；李堡战斗，我从海安主动撤退，诱敌分兵以夜间袭击的战法集中14个团打掉敌3个团。孟良崮战役中，我军在优势敌军齐头并进过程中，依靠“耍龙灯”战术调动敌人，，使我军对敌整编第74师形成了5\*1的绝对优势。
粟裕的军事才能不仅表现在善于组织指挥作战特别是大兵团作战，而且表现在他善于体察军事、政治形势的发展，总是能够站在战略全局的高度，以深邃的战略眼光对重大问题进
行独立思考，敢于和善于提出对全局具有重大意义的战略性建议，多次得到中央军委和毛泽东同志的嘉许。毛泽东在为中央军委起草的复电中，多次以“完全同意”、“极为正确”、“计划部署均很好”、“请即照此施行”等语予以批准。
解放战争战略防御阶段，粟裕就内线作战问题向中央建言。1946年夏，国共和谈全局破裂，国民党军向解放区大举进犯。中央设想了外线出击的战略方针，即以山东、晋冀鲁豫和华中3支野战军进入国民党统治区向南作战，并指示华中野战军主力兵出淮南，与山东野战军主力配合作战。粟裕深感筹划这样规模的大战对未来战局的发展关系重大，但目前各战略区之间不宜过早进行战役性配合，华中主力应继续留在苏中作战，然后再考虑外线作战，于是就此向中央提出建议。中央和毛主席采纳了他的建议。此后，粟裕指挥华中野战军主力，取得了苏中七战皆捷的重大胜利，实现了对国民党军的战略侦察。正是在总结包括苏中战场在内的解放区各战场的作战实践的基础上，中央军委和毛泽东确定了战略防御阶段实行内线歼敌的战略方针。苏中战役的实践经验，为明确和完善这一方针，提供了重要依据。
战略进攻阶段，粟裕就华东野战军用兵方向大胆向中央提出建议。1948年春，中原战场还有较大的机动兵团可以调动。在这样的形势下，运用什么方针进一步改善中原并进而打开全国局面，是中央军委和毛主席重点考虑的问题，中央曾设想继刘邓大军千里跃进大别山之后，遂行第二个战略跃进。准备由粟裕率领华东野战军3个纵队南渡长江，插到敌战略后方去执行宽大机动作战任务， 调动敌20至30个旅回防江南，以策应刘邓大军，为我中原战场创造歼敌战机。粟裕一面执行中央军委命令，积极准备南下，一面从大局出发，积极领会中央的意图，思考南进方案的可行性。他领会到
中央的出发点在于创造战机，大量歼灭敌人有生力量，改变中原局势，从而争取战略上的全面主动权。他从这个总的战略意图出发经过深思熟虑，大胆向中央军委提出了自己的建议：华野3个纵队留在中原，与中原野战军和华野其他兵团，形成更大的拳头，依托或不远离老根据地，集中兵力打更大的歼灭战。这一重大建议受到了中央军委和毛泽东的高度重视。中央决定华野3个纵队暂不过江。粟裕随后组织指挥了豫东战役，一举歼敌9万余人，使中原、华东战场的形势出现了新的转折，为确定我军全部集中在江北作战的决策提供了根据，大大加快了我军战略进攻的胜利进程，为顺利转入战略决战创造了良好条件。
战略决战阶段，粟裕又率先提出进行淮海战役的建议，淮海战役进行过程中又就一些战役全局问题提出自己的主张并得到采纳。1948年9月，在济南战役行将结束时，粟裕及时向中央军委并华东局、中原局建议举行淮海战役，攻占两淮和海州，歼灭援敌。这就是人们所说的“小淮海战役”计划。中央军委于次日迅速批准了这个建议。在战役进行的过程中，粟裕又及时向中央军委和中原野战军首长提出截断徐蚌线，抑留敌人于徐州地区，力争把国民党军队主力就地逐步歼灭等多次重要的建议。中央军委采纳了粟裕和中原野战军首长的意见，统一筹划，使淮海战役发展成为一次战争时期三个具有决定意义的战役之一。
新中国成立后，粟裕先后担任了副总参谋长、总参谋长、军事科学院第一政委、中央军委常委等重要职务。在这些重要位置上，他先后就国防和军队建设中的重大问题提出了许多具有真知灼见的战略性建议。他重视总结中国革命经验，密切注视世界各国军事科学的新发展，深刻认识现代科学技术在军事上的应用和影响，结合现代战争中我军可能面临的新情况、新问题，对国防建设和军队建设的战略方针、未来战争的作战指导、指挥机关建设、战
场建设以及军事科研工作等，都有许多重要论述。1979年1月，粟裕在为军事学院和中央党校所作的《对未来反侵略战争初期作战方法几个问题的探讨》的重要报告中，从敌我双方都已发展、变化了的情况出发，系统地提出了未来反侵略战争初期作战的战略、战术构想，冲破军事领域里的禁区，提出了按照唯物辩证法办事，活跃军事学术思想，发展我军战略战术的问题。报告在全军掀起了研究战争初期问题的热潮，在军内外引起了强烈反响。
三
粟裕同志征战沙场，戎马一生，不仅展现了他无产阶级军事家的非凡革命胆略和卓越军事才能更为我们树立了具有坚韧革命精神和崇高思想品德的无浐阶级革命家的光辉形象。
粟裕同志具有坚定的共产主义信念，始终不渝地坚信党，忠诚于党的事业。在漫长的战争年代里，无论环境多么艰苦，战斗多么频繁，情况多么险恶，他始终保持坚定的共产主义信念，坚持战斗在革命战争的第一线。1927年，正当革命遭到残酷镇压，白色恐怖极为严重之时，他响应党的召唤毅然投笔从戎，参加革命，加入中国共产党。从此，他坚定地走进了党领导的革命军队行列，再也没有离开过片刻。他参加的南昌起义部队进军潮汕遭到失败时，他不灰心，不气馁，跟随朱德、陈毅艰难转战虽然负了重伤，仍然坚持斗争，走上了井冈山。在坚持浙南敌后三年游击战争中，面对常人难以想象的困难E，，他突出地表现了共产党人的革命坚定性和革命胆略。在22年的革命战争中，他先后6次负伤，却从不退缩畏难，总是勇敢顽强地坚持战斗在革命斗争的最前线。。十年动乱期间，他坚决地同林彪、江青两个反革命集团进行斗争。他一直关注着国防安全和军队建设，，并且不止一次向周恩来表示，一旦打起仗来，还要重上前线。面对自己遭受的不公正待遇，曾有人劝他向上提出申诉，他严肃地说： “我绝不利用党内政治风浪
的起伏，我相信自己的几十年革命实践是足够说明自己的”采取一种极为克制的态度来对待自己的遭遇。垂暮之年，他仍抱病工作，孜孜不倦地撰写战争回忆录，总结革命战争经验。逝世的前十天，他还在春节茶话会上作了语重心长的书面发言，对实现四个现代化充满信心，并和老同志互相勉励，要为党为人民发出最后的光和热。
粟裕同志一贯实事求是，敢于坚持真理。1958年受到“反教条主义”的错误批判后，他由总参谋长调任军事科学院副院长，此后长期受到不公正待遇，他的业绩和思想也被有意无意地埋没和歪曲。尽管这样，他仍然一如既往，积极从事党分配给自己的工作系统总结建军作战的丰富经验，努力探索现代战争条件下人民战争的特点和规律。他针对林彪一伙对毛泽东军事思想的教条化的错误做法，提出要学习和运用军事辩证法，这对于肃清军事学术领域中“左”的影响，冲破禁区，活跃军事学术思想，起到了促进作用。他多次深入边海防要地调查研究，探索现代条件下人民战争的特点和指导规律，向中央军委提供了不少重要报告和建议。由于他的这些意见和观点与当时占统治地位的观点相对立，上报之后均无结果，但他仍旧孜孜不倦地思索和探讨我军适应现代战争的真理，始终保持一种不唯书、不唯上的科学态度。粉碎“四人帮”之后，和坚决贯彻党的十一届三中全会以来的路线方针政策，积极响应中央关于解放思想的号召，对现代条件下的人民战争进行了深入的思考。粟裕同志党性极强，他有一个显著特点就是从不隐瞒自己的观点，不顾个人得失有什么想法和建议，总是要向上级提出来的。采纳了，坚决执行，不采纳也坚决服从。
粟裕同志光明磊落、谦虚谨慎，勇于自我批评，勇于承担责任。粟裕身经百战功勋卓著，但他从不居功自傲，始终保持谦虚谨慎的美德。他常说自己是人民革命事业的“沧海一粟”，总是把功劳归于党，归于人民从不计
较个人名利得失。1945年10月，中央曾任命粟裕为华中军区司令员，张鼎丞为副司令员，粟裕再三恳请中央，自己担任副职，协助张鼎丞工作。中央接受了他的请求，又重新作了任命。1948年5月，陈毅调中原工作时，中央曾决定华东野战军由粟裕领导，粟裕坚持认为陈毅是华野众望所归的统帅，“华野离不开陈军长”经他一再恳请，中央决定陈毅仍任华野司令员兼政治委员，陈毅不在位期间，其职务由菜裕代理。粟裕“两让司令”的故事，在华东部队传为美谈。粟裕严以律己，有高度的批评和自我批评精神，对部队作战和工作中出现的问题他都主动承担责任。孟良适战役后，华野部队为配合晋冀鲁豫野战军的进攻行动，进行了南麻、临朐战役，预定歼灭整编第11师和第8军主力。由于种种原因，未能达到预期的目的，部队遭到了一些伤亡，为此粟裕致电中央自请处分。
粟裕同志待人诚恳，平易近人，热诚地关心和保护同志。他善于把思想政治上和工作上的严格要求同方式方法上的耐心说服教育、启发诱导的民主作风相结合，注重言传身教，帮助干部战士认清形势，改进工作，促进他们迅速成长。无论在军队还是在国务院工作，尽管自身也处在被“炮轰”、被打压的境地他仍旧尽自己最大的努力保护老部属。1967年1月，海军副司令、东海舰队司令陶勇同志被害，粟裕极为震惊和悲痛，他多次为陶勇提供政治上清白、对敌斗争坚决的证明，促当时海军领导为陶勇平反。 1970年粟裕被排挤出部队，在国务院协助周恩来分管铁路、交通和邮电部门的工作，刚上任不久，就收到交通部副部长彭德清夫人的求救信，粟裕想方设法帮助她，不仅查出彭德清的下落，还积极帮助她向周总理反映终于使得彭德清走出牢狱。
粟裕同志廉洁奉公从不以权谋私，，始终保持艰苦朴素的优良作风。战争年代他与干部、战士同甘共苦，从不要求超出制度以外的
享受，即使是部队、地方送来的慰问品，也要分给机关留下来的也都要和身边工作人员共同享用。解放后，进驻大城市，他仍然严格要求自己，一如既往地过着简朴的生活。在北京工作的30多年里，他一直住在一栋老式平房里，业务部门几次要帮他翻修和扩建房子，他都不同意，一再表示：房子能住就行，现在国家经济还很困难，要把钱用在经济和国防建设上。粟裕对待子女既是慈父，又是严师，他十分注重培养子女独立生活的能力和吃苦耐劳、勇敢顽强的作风总是要求他们服从组织分配主动到艰苦的岗位工作从普通战士做起自己也决不利用手中的权力和关系为他们安排舒适的工作。他临终的遗愿就如同他的为人，朴素而真诚：不要举行遗体告别不要举行追悼会，只要把他的骨灰撒在他曾经频繁转战的江西、福建、浙江、安徽、江苏、山东、河南几个省市的土地上，与长眠在那里的战友们在一起。
今天我们纪念粟裕同志诞辰100周年，就是要缅怀他的丰功伟绩，学习他非凡的革命胆略和高超的指挥艺术；学习他胸怀全局，坚定地贯彻执行党中央、中央军委的方针政策的大局意识：学习他对党和人民无限忠诚和无比热爱，对共产主义事业坚贞不渝的革命情怀；学习他实事求是、坚持真理、追求真理的创造精神；学习他忍辱负重、鞠躬尽瘁的奉献精神；学习他坦荡乐观、严于律己的博大胸怀；学习他勤政爱民、始终保持同人民群众的血肉联系、清正廉洁、艰苦奋斗的高尚品德。承前启后，继往开来， 让我们继承粟裕等老一辈无产阶级革命家的遗志，紧密团结在以胡锦涛同志为总书记的党中央周围，坚持以邓小平理论和1“三个代表”重要思想为指导，深入贯彻落实科学发展观，振奋精神，锐意进取，扎实工作不断开创军队建设新局面，为构建社会主义和谐社会做出新的贡献。
责任编辑：：郭
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zh | N/A | N/A | **心一燃似AI让T七ENA七心今七**
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zh | N/A | N/A | 广西五保村建设内涵的高校思政教育资源分析
陈文庆，兰瑞芳，钟来全，唐复柱1，张红燕2
(1、贺州学院，广西 贺州 542800；2、昭平县教育局，广西 昭平 546800)
\[摘 要\]广西五保村建设蕴涵着丰富的思想政治政育资源，挖掘和利用五保村建设内涵的思政资源，创造条件让大学生通过志愿服务，社会调查等多种形式参与五保村建设活动，有助于他们正确地认识和理解立党为公、执政为民的理念，公平正义、和谐发展的思想，共同富裕的社会主义本质以及个人与集体辩证统一的理论。有助于弘扬尊老敬老、扶危济困的传统美德。
\[关键词\]广西五保村建设；高校思政教育；教育资源
\[中图分类号\]G641 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1673-8861(2008)02-0009-03
在中国的弱势群体中，最孤苦最无助的当属农村的五保老人。他们栖身危房，深居简出，每逢雨季便面临房毁人亡的威胁；他们年迈体衰，丧失劳动能力，难以自食其力；他们没有子女，孑然一身，无所依傍，极度的贫困把他们逼近崩溃的边缘。广西五保村建设以救助农村五保户这一最弱势群体为目标，以帮助五保老人摆脱困境为己任，力保五保老人“居有其屋，食有其源，乐有其所”。\[1\]成为广西基层党委和政府立党为公、执政为民的成功范例。人类社会的发展从来不能回避对弱势群体的关注，一个社会对弱势群体的关注程度，往往折射出这个社会文明进步的程度。广西五保村建设蕴涵着丰富的思想政治教育资源，挖掘和利用五保村建设内涵的思政资源，创造条件让大学生通过志愿服务、社会调查等多种形式参与五保村建设活动，对于大学生思想政治教育及教学工作的开展有着重要的现实意义。
一、立党为公、执政为民的理念
高校思想政治教育承担着对大学生进行系统的马克思主义理论教育的任务，即通过理论教学帮助学生树立坚定的马克思主义、社会主义信念；引导学生正确认识自身肩负的历史使命，并以实际行动，努力使自身成为建设中国特色社会主义事业的建设者和接班人。作为党的事业的接班人，首先要正确地认识和领悟党的执政理念。广西五保村建设最初虽然只是救助灾民的应急措施，但是，当时正值各地狠抓
“三个代表”重要思想的贯彻落实，狠抓民心工程、德政工程建设，因此五保村建设作为贯彻落实“三个代表”重要思想的切人点，成为立党为公、执政为民的具体行动。农村中的五保对象往往年迈体衰，丧失劳动能力，其经济来源仅靠政府少量的补助和他们责任田的微薄收人，他们寡居陋室，缺住少医，生活质量很低，是农村特困户中最困难最需要帮助的群体，是难中之难，困中之困的弱势群体。如果能抓好五保村建设这项工作，能改变五保户这个最弱势群体的生活困境，提高他们的生存能力，就在实践上充分体现了我党以人为本、立党为公、执政为民的执政理念。实践证明，卓有成效的广西五保村建设具有高度的政治性。在我们的调研中接触的五保老人，他们作为这一行动的受益者，无不交口称赞说这是党和政府的关心，说党的政策好。在五保村中我们看到老人贴在门上的春联，看到老人发自内心写出的感谢信，他们对党和政府的感激之情跃然纸上，那是真情实感的自然流露和朴素表达，他们由衷感谢党和政府对孤寡老人的关心。在我们走访的村民中，很多群众说这是党和政府为群众做的一件好事和实事。
广西五保村建设是我党立党为公、执政为民的理念的现实诠释。五保户是农村中被边缘化的群体，而基层政府组织能把这一少数的特殊群体的安危冷暖放在心上，事实上是肯定了每一个人的基本尊严和价值，强调对社会全体成员的人性关怀。从毛泽东
\[收稿日期\]2008-04-10
\[作者简介\]陈文庆(1969-)，女，广西宾阳人，副教授，硕士。主要研究方向：高校思想政治理论课教学。
\[基金项目\]广西新世纪教改工程“十一五”第三批立项项目(资助项目)2007(71)
国家哲学社会科学学术期刊数据库
同志的全心全意为人民服务到邓小平同志的“三个有利于”，把人民的满意、赞成、答应作为衡量党和政府工作得失成败的标准；从江泽民同志的“三个代表”重要思想到胡锦涛同志的以人为本的科学发展观，乃至到党的十七大和近期的“两会”，其轴心都是“人”“人民”，解决民生问题是我党的工作重心。五保户虽然是占人口少数的部分弱势群体，但是对这些最困难最需要帮助的群众的关心和救助，是我党为广大人民排忧解难，以民为本的政治观的折射。大学生参与五保村建设，实实在在的看到五保户生活境遇的改变，并从五保户发自内心的朴素情感的表达中，深刻的感受到我们党没有特殊的利益，人民的利益高于一切。时刻把人民群众的安危冷暖放在心上，情为民所系，利为民所谋，权为民所用，为民办实事，切实解决人民生产、生活中的困难是我党执政和理念和理想追求。
二、公平正义、和谐发展的思想
中国传统观念中有“不患寡而患不均”\[2\]的思想，强调物质财富分配的均等和公平，它虽然带有平均主义的色彩，但也隐含着反对两极分化、追求共同富裕、谋求全体幸福的理想和愿望。长期以来，“大同世界”是中国人的理想目标，在大同世界里，“人不独亲其亲，不独子其子，使老有所终，壮有所用，幼有所长，矜寡孤独废疾者皆有所养”。131可见，推进人类的整体利益，并惠及社会全体成员，让每个人过上有保障有尊严的生活，标志着人类社会的文明与进步，是人们梦寐以求的理想。关注弱势群体，建立互助体系，增进社会福利，促进社会和谐，是新中国成立以来我们坚持不懈的事业。和谐社会，首先是关注社会全体成员的生存权、生命权，尽可能地提供较好的生存、生活环境，确保一定的生活质量，并且尽可能减小社会成员间的生活差距，力求让社会全体成员共享社会进步和经济发展的成果的社会。因而，胡锦涛同志提出把共同建设、共同享有和谐社会贯穿于和谐社会建设的全过程，真正做到在共建中共享、在共享中共建的重要思想。把共建共享落到实处，就是要让广大群众(包括弱势群体)在和谐社会的建设中得到最大的实惠。
广西五保村建设把着眼点放到五保户这一社会最弱势、农村最特殊的群体身上，以解决其住房为起点，以确保其生存为基础，通过提供固定的生活救济金，改善他们的生活状态。通过提供社会救助，使农村弱势群体摆脱困境，从社会政治伦理的角度看，这是追求社会和谐、践行可持续发展观的重要举措和实际行动。它表明，社会中的每一个人都是平等的，
都应该共享人类文明的成果，即使是这些社会中最弱势的群体都不应该被忽视、被遗忘，可以通过政府的自觉行为，通过社会救济等多种方式让他们获得最大的利益。广西五保村建设这一举措和行动的直接受惠者虽然只是五保户，但在如何理解公平、正义、和谐理念，如何促进社会可持续发展上提供了鲜活的实例。五保老人敲锣打鼓、欢天喜地而又情不自禁、热泪盈眶人住五保村场景会让亲历其中的大学生感动。五保老人在五保村建设中感受到党和政府的关心，感受到社会的关爱和人间的温暖，他们那种喜悦、满足、感激等情感，自觉不自觉地传递给走人五保村的大学生，这种情感传递，不仅有助于激发大学生团结互助、同情、关爱他人的美好情感，而且有助于大学生正确理解公平正义、和谐发展的思想。
三、共同富裕的社会主义本质
我国底子薄，疆域辽阔，人口众多，各地经济文化发展很不平衡，再加上人的先天禀赋不同，个人的劳动能力，劳动技能等有很大的差别，要齐头并进，同步实现共同富裕是不可能的。因此，我们党从中国的具体国情出发，制定了让一部分人、一部分地区，通过诚实劳动、合法经营先富起来的政策，并且希望这部分先富起来的人和地区，在富裕之后能帮助和带动那些尚不富裕的人和地区，最终实现共同富裕。这是社会主义不同于资本主义的本质特征。由于生产资料的公有制，人民在根本利益的一致性，社会主义经济发展的结果不是两极分化，不会出现富的越富、穷的越穷的马汰效应。一部分先富裕起来的人们和地区，有责任、有义务关心、帮助那些还处于贫困落后状态的兄弟姐妹。
广西五保村建设体现了共同富裕的理念。对于五保户这一特殊群体，若依靠他们自身的力量是无法摆脱困境的。然而通过五保村建设这条具体可行的途径，社会各界给予了力所能及的关心和帮助，一方有难、八方支援，凭借集体的力量，就可以有效地解决他们个人难以解决的问题。国家扶持、政府指导、村委负责、多方参与的五保村建设模式，使大学生切身地体会到社会主义互相关心，互相帮助，同甘苦共患难的集体主义精神的力量，有助于提高对先富带动后富，最终实现共同富这一社会主义的本质的认识。
四、个人与集体辩证统一的理论
人不仅是自然的生命个体，而且是以一定方式联系起来从事生产劳动的社会人。人的社会性使人渴望在集体中获得一种归宿感，这种归属感是一种以集体为生存需要的心理或情感满足，只有归属于
集体，才能更好地获得集体的支持和保护，才能更好地摆脱孤独和寂寞，使情感、精神有着更稳定的寄托，使人们能够以更为乐观向上的心态面对生活的挑战。集体归属感建立在集体安全感的基础上，集体安全感主要来源于人们在社会的生活中既各守本份、各得其所，又团结互助、患难与共的情感体验，来源于人们对集体力量的认可。
五保村建设采用广泛动员、多方参与的建设模式，充分发挥基层组织的号召、领导、组织、指挥作用，广泛调动社会各界有钱出钱、有力出力、有物出物，在全社会很快掀起了一股同儿协力献爱心、不讲回报讲奉献的救助热潮，在农村形成了一个群情激昂、突飞猛进的五保村建设场面。五保村建设是为困窘者解困、给无助者救助、给无望者希望的行动，它让人们感受到了人间温情和社会关爱的存在，让人们认识到人与人之间团结互助的必要性和重要性。同时它还深化了人们对人生价值的理解。长期以来，人们从人的社会性出发，习惯于以社会贡献的大小来评价人生价值，认为一个人的社会贡献越大，人生价值就越大，反之则越小，甚至没有价值。这样一种人生价值观，有助于人们树立远大人生理想，培养高尚的道德，力求做一个有益于社会有益于人民的人。然而，以这样一种人生价值观评判弱势群体时，因他们对社会贡献不大，有时甚至成为社会的负担，就可否定他们的人生价值吗?如果他们的人生是无意义的，那么他们是否理所当然就应该受到鄙视、排斥甚至打击呢?通过了解和参与五保村建设，大学生可以解答这一问题。首先，生存权、生命权是人生最基本的权利。人类社会是由一个个个体生命组成的，每一个人都是组成社会的单元和细胞，因此，无论成就高低，无论力量大小，无论他是强者或是弱者，生命存在本身对社会就是一种价值。像五保户这样的弱势群体，虽然他们没有通过自己的劳动去创造物质财富和精神财富以满足自身及社会的需要，从而对社会做出贡献，但是，他们作为人，仍然是构成社会的有效成份，他们存在的价值是不应抹杀的：生存权、生命权即是其人生最基本的价值。通过参与五保村建设的实践活动，帮助大学生学会尊重生命，那怕是一个非常卑微的生命。其次，独立自主是生命价值的最基本要求。生命价值实现的最基本要求是独立自主，尽量不依赖他人，力求通过自己的努力谋求个人的生存和发展。五保户在农村受到歧视，他们的人格得不到尊重，价值得不到认可，一个主要的原因是他们生活极度贫困，他们不是通过独立自主、自力更生谋求个人的生存，而是需要他人的接济和社会的救
助，他们对社会没有做出多少贡献。从五保户的人生境遇上可使大学生树立自立、自强、自信、自尊的意识。最后，利他是实现生命的社会价值的有效方式。人的社会性使其人生价值不仅体现在个人财富的拥有上，还体现在个人以自己的劳动和创造满足他人及社会的需要上。这就要求人们不能仅仅局限于个人生活的满足，而要注重个体生命存在的社会意义，注重在为社会做出更大的贡献中提升个体生命的价值。广泛动员、多方参与，各尽所能，有力出力，有钱出钱，有物出物，只讲奉献，不讲回报的五保村建设模式，有助于大学生深入理解、正确领悟生命在于奉献的含义。
五、尊老敬老、扶危济困的传统美德
以家为本位、家国同构的中国，尊老爱幼、扶危济困是我们的传统美德。早在西周就讲“敬德保民”强调亲亲、尊尊，讲求“惠民”，那怕是对那些无依无靠、孤苦伶仃的鲽民，也要爱护有加，施以恩惠，“怀保小民，惠鲜鳜寡”。4\]春秋讲“爱人”“忠恕”“仁爱”，不仅仅要爱亲人，而且包括血亲以外的其它社会成员，要“爱众”“因民之所利而利之”，(5\]“博施于民而能济众”。\[6\]“爱人若爱其身”。\[7\]对待自己的友人“饥则食之，寒则衣之，疾病侍养之，死丧埋葬之”\[8\]对待民众也要如此。“亲亲，仁也；敬长，义也”，\[9\]“老吾老以及人之老”。110\]在中国传统文化中，尊老敬老、扶危济困成了处理人际关系的基本准则。
广西五保村的建设不是单纯的政府行为，而是以政府为主导、多方参与的救助社会弱势群体的活动。在资金的筹措上，几乎所有的县市都是采用“几个一点”来解决问题的。有钱出钱，有力出力，各尽所能扶危济困。在2004年6月16日，广西五保村建设工作会议钦州市民政局材料中写道：灵山县佛子镇大坡村全体村干每人垫资3000多元共约2万元支持五保村建设，蒋家村村支书上官强章拿出儿子打工积蓄了多年的2万多元支持五保村建设；从贺州市民政局获悉，贺州市桂岭镇2004年于部群众投工投劳总数达 800 余个工作日；还有无偿出让自家土地的情形。在广西五保村建设中，展现了一个个一方有难、八方支持的感人场面，涌现一件件不计得失、助人为乐的感人事迹。这是中华民族扶危济困精神在新时期的发扬光大。守望相助、扶危济困、同呼吸共命运使中华民族形成强大的凝聚力和向心力，成为坚不可摧的整体。对五保户的救助，实质上是对生命的尊重，是在真正的意义上关心人、尊重人、爱护人。在处理人际关系问题上，(下转第15页)
力的支撑。
第三，要打破人才流动障碍，促进人才在不同区域、校际、学科合理流动，使之与高校和谐发展相适应。面对人才队伍的不断扩大、人才开发日趋国际化的趋势，应采取切实有效的措施，促进人才合理流动。
综上所述，“科学发展观”“以人为本”、“和谐社会”三大理念，是一个统一的整体。我们应牢牢抓住
这三大理念思想精髓，坚持以科学发展观统领高校发展全局，坚持以人为本，创建和谐社会，正确把握中央关于“人才是第一资源”“人才强国战略”和“党管人才”的科学论断，深刻理解“关于进一步加强人才战略工作的决定”的精神内涵，为人才战略实施提供坚实的理论支撑和实践指导，打造出一支高素质人才队伍。
\[参考文献\]
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\[3\]刘小兵.现代政治的人文精神与政治家的人文修养\[J\].学术论坛，2006，(3).
\[4\]陆杰荣.论哲学境界与人文精神品位的内在契合\[J\].新华文摘，2003，(5).
(上接第11页)它为我们提供一种平等互助的道德理念，它强调不能因经济上的差距而歧视任何一个人，每个生命个体的存在都是有意义的，都应该得到尊重，都应该给予关爱。在处理人与社会的关系时，它诠释了社会对于个人的意义，它昭示社会是一个大集体，是人类共同生活的互助体，对于身处困境的人们，社会都应该在人道的意义上给予扶助和救济。
五保村建设体现了我们民族的团结互助精神，无疑是尊老敬老传统在当代中国传承发展的高度浓缩和现实写照。大学生通过志愿者服务等形式参与救助五保户的活动，能帮助他们学会尊重人、关心人，继承和弘扬尊老敬老、扶危济困的传统美德，培养高尚的道德情操。
\[参考文献\]
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\[6\](清)孙治让注释.墨子间话\[M\].上海：上海书店，1986(1)：70.
\[7\]杨伯峻，杨逢彬注释.孟子\[M.长沙：岳麓书社，2000(1)：13.
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zh | N/A | N/A | 跨文化交流中的文艺功能及策略分析
**·前沿探索·**
**跨文化交流中的文艺功能及策略分析**
——以中美交流为例
李伟东
内容摘要：文艺既是人类社会生活中表达观念、情感的艺术方式，也是特定民族、国家文化价值观的载体。因为隐蔽性、持久性、艺术性等特定功能特性，在跨文化交流中，文艺作品具有战略功能。美国善于运用具有传播便利度和大众景响力的影视艺术，进行成功的文化价值观输出，影响中国青年群体的文化选择，并占有中国文化市场。针对于此，我们应择善而从、借力打力，着力做好主旋律文艺作品、夺回文化市场、加大外推力度，通过创作优秀文艺作品提高文化软实力，实现跨文化交流中的文化输出目标。
关键词：跨文化交流；文化价值观；；文艺功能
中图分类号：I200 文献标识码：AA文章编号：2097-1761/(2022)03-0101-07
作为意识形态产物的文艺，既是人类社会生活中表达观念、情感的艺术方式，也是特定民族、国家文化价值观的载体。在跨文化交流中，文化价值观是不同民族、国家之间交流的核心内容，也是每个民族、国家对外文化输出的着力点。文艺作品包含着国家利益、政治诉求、文化策略，因为形式隐蔽且具有娱乐性而易于被接受。因此在跨文化交流中，文艺其实是一件隐蔽的文化武器，具有相当的战略价值。在中美文化交流中，美国就非常善于运用文艺形式，尤其善于运用具有传播便利度和大众影响力的影视艺术，实现其文化渗透的目标。这一点需要引起我们的警惕，并应择善而从、借力打力，同样以文艺手段做好战略设计和准备，在文化价值观的隐蔽战线进行一场持久的文化角力。
**一、跨文化交流中文艺功能特性**
文艺具有隐蔽性、持久性、艺术性等特殊的社会功能特性。依据这些特性，文艺战略是跨文
**作者简介：李伟东，社会学博士，北京市社会科学院社会学所副研究员**
化交流中以文艺形式展开的争夺文化话语权的战略设想和部署。而文化话语权是影响一个国家在国际关系中地位的最具长效性和决定性的力量。早在1871年，英国人类学家爱德华·泰勒就在《原始文化》中为“文化”做出了定义：“文化或文明是一个复杂的整体，它包括知识、信仰、道德、艺术、法律、风俗以及作为社会成员的人所具有的其他一切能力和习惯。”正因为文化本身的复杂性，跨文化交流才会在隐秘中发生不同影响、走向各种可能。随着我国与美国跨文化交流范围的扩大、速度的加快，作为战略手段的文艺的内在影响力日益彰显。为打好这场特殊战争，我们先要了解它的特性。
(一)隐蔽性
文艺战略最突出的特点是它的隐蔽性。因为文学艺术是人类共同的传达志趣和表达情感的方式，是以审美形式对人类生活进行的艺术表达，它内含的政治经济意图往往被忽略。美国就非常善于将政治经济意图隐藏于文艺作品中，借助传播技术优势，隐蔽地输出其国家意识形态、回收文化资金。接受者则往往在不知不觉中受到美国文化影响，将美国文化视作先进文化，在文学、戏剧、电影、音乐、舞蹈、美术等各门类艺术样式中，主动选择美国文艺作品，进而膺服于这些作品背后美国文化所包含的知识、信仰、道德、艺术、法律、风俗。在中美之间没有硝烟的文化战争中，将文艺作为工具无疑最有助于美国的文化渗透。因此，认识到文艺战略的隐蔽性，是清醒分析判断美国文艺作品内蕴价值及其政治经济目的的前提，也是我们设计自己的文艺战略与进行创作实践的基础。
**(二)持久性**
纳入文艺战略的“文艺”不同于一般意义上的“文艺”，不为表现柴米油盐的日常，也不为突破常规的实验创新，它有战斗性，以“制胜”为目的。而以文艺手段争取胜利，绝非一朝一夕之事。因为它作用于人的思想观念，又不以强制手段进行，因此是一项长期工程。当代国际关系中，武力冲突越发谨慎，殖民统治已然失效，这些相对能在短期实现“制胜”目的的战争手段，或因伤害性过大而被自觉控制，或因有违人类追求和平的愿望而遭到摒弃，因此当代国际关系中潜在的、持久的较量将发生在文化领域。认识到这一点，就要做好充分准备。一方面在战略层面做好对外输出的文艺作品的设计，从创作到传播，从观念到表现，皆有的放矢；另一方面要有足够的耐心，这是一场马拉松，眼光放长，不能急功近利，同时也要有耐力。
**(三)艺术性**
所谓艺术性，就是非强制性。文艺作为文化领域较量的手段之一，其作用更多发生在电影、电视、商业戏剧、动漫等艺术领域。因为以艺术形式为载体，以色彩、线条、声音、动作等构筑艺术形象，使人产生闻其声、见其人、临其境的艺术感受，文艺形式便以其显见的艺术性区别于其他战略手段。这种“共情”效果就是文艺战略内含的天然优势，它不同于标语口号、不同于战斗檄文、不同于论辩演说，不以直接的、激烈的方式去占领人的精神世界，而是靠熏陶、靠濡
**①\[英\]爱德华·泰勒：《原始文化》，连树声译，上海：上海文艺出版社，1992年，第1页。**
染、靠渗透，一句话：靠“化”。《易经》上说：“关乎人文，以化成天下。”文化一词即由此而来。这个“化”字动态毕现，妙不可言。认识到这一点，借助文艺作品的艺术性特征，于潜移默化中进行文化渗透，即有可能无招胜有招，达到“不战而屈人之兵”的最高境界。
中美之间文化领域的较量是一场无形的战争。具有隐蔽性、持久性、艺术性的文艺手段是这场无形战争中的一种高级斗争形式，也是国家文化软实力的集中体现。在文艺战略中充分认识到这一点，我们就既能发现美国推向中国的大众文艺作品的意识形态内涵，能够分析其使用的话语策略，也能在知己知彼的前提下部署我们的文艺战略，进行文化反渗透。
**二、美国文艺战略要义**
近二三十年来，在日益开放和频繁的国际文化交流中，中国文化市场面临了“东方不亮，西方亮”“中国不亮，美国亮”的严峻现状。“美国”不但是发达资本主义国家的代表，而且成为一个文化符号，影响着中国年轻一代的文化选择，进而影响他们的价值认定与行为方式。在世界文化传统格局中，中国和欧洲都曾居于艺术中心，但美国崛起后，通过电影、电视剧等文艺手段掀起的大众文化潮流波及了全世界。从大众传播度来看，影视艺术是一种更为便捷的承载文化观念、进行文化战争的艺术手段，美国的文化战策略即大量蕴藏在影视艺术中。而所有文化战争的深层都是政治经济目的，美国借助自己的影视作品，要完成的是价值观输出、主导年轻一代生活方式以及占领中国市场的任务。
**(一)成功的文化价值观输出**
虽然文化的内涵包罗万象，但文化价值观始终是文化的核心。美国现代文化人类学家A.L. 克罗伯和K.科拉克洪在1952年发表的《文化：一个概念定义的考评》中，分析考察了100多种文化定义，最后指出：“文化存在于各种内隐的和外显的模式之中，借助符号的运用得以学习与传播，并构成人类群体的特殊成就，这些成就包括他们制造物品的各种具体式样，文化的基本要素是传统(通过历史衍生和由选择得到的)思想观念和价值，其中尤以价值观最为重要。”美国借助自己的文艺产品所进行的就是文化价值观输出。
20世纪世界电影业的迅速发展，与好莱坞的推动密切相关。好莱坞，这个位于美国洛杉矶的娱乐影视城，几乎成为美国电影的代名词。据统计，20世纪初至今，好莱坞电影在国际电影市场的占有率达到80%。而好莱坞最擅长塑造的就是美国式救世英雄。这类英雄身手超凡、伸张正义、忠于爱情、有个性、有怀疑精神、不服从指挥，能够力挽狂澜。他们往往并不想成为英雄，但为了一个非常个人化的初衷，如挽回爱情、保护家庭、个人复仇等，在特定情境中成为了拯救世界的英雄。事实上，他们所承载的就是以美国救世和个体价值为主体的美国价值观。美国救世，打的是正义牌；个体价值，打的是情感牌。通过这两张牌，美国英雄征服了无数观众， _一_
① **D李鹏程：《当代西方文化研究新辞典》，长春：吉林人民出版社，2003年，第307页。**
方面树立了美国的正面国家形象，另一方面培养了接受者对美国的信任。随着在影视帝国中地位的确定，美国于无形中成功输出了一种价值观：美国才是世界的领导者、和平的维护者。美国用这种价值观书写了自己的文化寓言。
**(二)明确的目标群体定位**
要想影响一个国家的未来，就要抓住青少年群体。不得不承认，美国在这一点上定位明确，其影视文化已经对中国改革开放后成长起来的一代产生了深刻影响。改革开放后，中国青少年是在美国动画片陪伴下成长的。中国“80后”的童年时代有《猫和老鼠》《米老鼠和唐老鸭》陪伴，少年时代与《成长的烦恼》相互印证，青年时代在《泰坦尼克号》中唏嘘、《阿凡达》中漫游。同时，《老友记》《白宫风云》《欲望都市》《纸牌屋》《越狱》《绝望的主妇》等风靡一时的美剧也成为他们的日常娱乐。甚至于北美票房遇冷的《极限特工3：终极回归》(北美票房4489万美元；中国内地票房1.7亿美元)，北美口碑票房皆低迷的《生化危机：终章》(北美票房2583万美元；中国内地票房1.6亿美元)与《变形金刚5》(北美1.3亿美元；内地2.38亿美元)，在票房上也获得了中国观众的全力“拯救”。.①毫不夸张地说，美国影视剧抓住了中国“80后”“90后”“00后”群体，既成为其成长环境中的一部分，也成为他们日常的、流行的生活方式。如同人的口味是一种童年舌尖记忆，文化品位也是一种幼功。近二三十年来，美国影视剧潜移默化地影响着中国青年一代，使之在价值认同与审美习惯上唯美国独大。在人格养成过程中，有很多人“形成了以自我为中心的人格，不善于与别人合作，缺乏团队精神”②。
而今，“80后”已成为中国社会建设的中坚力量，即便1989年生人，也已过而立之年。在对这一群体文化品位的培养中，美国标准产生了影响。眼下，信息网络更为年轻的一代提供了井喷式传播与追逐、效仿美国流行生活方式的可能。美国文化作为流行文化主流依然影响着中国青年群体。
**(三)有效的市场传播策略**
随着中国文化消费市场的成熟和壮大，美国文化资本开始关注中国市场。影院、电视、网络及各种数字终端产品的先后普及，为美国影视剧的大规模涌入提供了物质基础。为了提高中国市场占有率，美国最主要的市场传播策略是在电影中增加中国元素。他们或者使用纯中国元素，直接面向中国市场，譬如连拍3集的《功夫熊猫》，片名即兼“功夫”与“熊猫”这两个独属中国的元素；或者使用中国演员、中国场景，增强票房号召力与文化亲近感，早些年成龙、李连杰进军好莱坞，能在美国电影中露脸似乎就很光荣，近年美国大片不断出现中国影星面孔，如《敢死队》系列中的李连杰、“007”系列中的李冰冰，显然是美方占领中国消费市场的主动选择。步子迈的更大的，是“中国拯救世界”的寓言，灾难片《2012》就以这样一种猜测结尾。但是，不要相信表象，这些不过是他们的传播策略，其目的在于经济收益。何况仔细分析，中国人形象在这些作品中从未光彩照人，即便在所谓“中国拯救世界”的寓言中，美国也依然是智慧的领导者、
D **陈维：《美国影视剧对中国80后受众的影响研究》，学位论文，中央民族大学，2012年。**
**参见石天然：《美国影视文化传播对我国大学生价值观的影响及对策》，《影视传播》2017年第7期。**
跨文化交流中的文艺功能及策略分析
设计者，中国人不过是完成美国设计的打工者。这些中国元素不过是虚晃一枪，美国的核心目的依然是既传播价值观又赚个盆满钵满。
美国擅长争夺市场的文艺战略，就是用艺术这个工具进行的从文化到经济领域的博弈。美国大力推广的商业化、娱乐化大众文化，裹挟中国影视产业启动商业化模式，又用科技优势压倒中国，使中国商业电影无法与美国抗衡，进而使中国观众更加依赖、信赖美国。中国人自愿掏腰包支持美国票房，恰恰说明了美国影视作品在中国文艺市场上的号召力，也从另一个侧面说明我们不甘心承认的事实：：中国本土文艺作品吸引力不足，文化软实力尚不能与美抗衡。而这些，正是我们思考对策的基点。从价值观输出到目标群体培养，再到市场占有，美国在文艺战略上的作为启发我们也从这几个角度去寻找对策。
**三、未来中国文艺战略设想**
有道是“打铁还需自身硬”。面对美国以影视艺术为主体的文化威胁，我们必须一一寻找积极、有力的对策。这是一场审美领域的争夺战，更是政治、经济领域的角力。为了让中国受众对美国文艺作品和文化价值观有更客观、理性的认识，不被美国牵着鼻子走，不唯美国马首是瞻，我们既要了解美国的文化策略，也要了解自己存在的不足。在此基础上，设计面向未来的文艺战略，在价值观、目标群体、市场培育等方面力争有所作为。白一方面力求收复失地，另一方面要以更为艺术的方式培塑本民族文化价值观，发掘本民族文化资源，增强本民族的文化认同感。
**(一)做好主旋律文艺作品**
文化价值观作为决定人的思想观念和行为习惯的第一要素，是我们的文艺作品需要率先关注的。它是文艺作品的灵魂，也是文艺战略“铸魂”工程的核心。艺术地弘扬社会主义核心价值观，是中国文艺战略制胜的关键。近年文艺领域存在一个现象：除影视领域一些成功作品外，大多主旋律作品很难在市场竞争中脱颖而出。一提到主旋律，接受者便往往因联想到某些审美范式而缺乏兴趣。这种尴尬是若干年来，创作者对主旋律的僵化理解与表现导致的。为改变这种局面，不妨从以下三个方面进行“铸魂”尝试。首先，注入血性。莫言的《红高粱》之所以成为战争文学的经典，-一个非常重要的原因就是表现了血勇先辈的英雄气概。由于长期处于和平环境，现实题材文艺作品多表现平面化的日常生活，缺乏对个体与民族精神筋骨的关注。而文艺作品有责任呼唤民族生命伟力、高扬刚勇的民族精神、再造强悍的民族性格，并由此建立本民族健硕的文化价值观和文化自信心。其次，面对问题。文艺作品要有“问题意识”，尤其以歌颂、肯定为主导方向的主旋律作品，不妨换个角度、提出一些问题。军委政治工作部话剧团2016年的作品《从湘江到遵义》在这一点上是个范例，作品让牺牲了的英灵提出革命理想是否都已实现的追问，以一系列追问触动当下反思。其实，不避矛盾和问题，恰恰是为了确认价值、指明方向。再次，以情动人。鲁迅说，无情未必真豪杰。要想打动人，必须动之以情。从艺术社会学与审美心理学角度看，文艺创作的起源虽有“言志”与“缘情”等不同学说作为解释，却都与“情动于中”密不可分。
文艺作品始于“情动于中”，走向“以情动人”。然而，“乐人易，动人难”，要想感动人，必须追求真、善、美，杜绝假、丑、恶。只有感动人，文化价值观的传递才能于无形中完成，才能达到春风化雨、润物无声的最高境界。
**(二)夺回中国文化市场**
未来的文艺战略要以夺回中国文化市场为重要目标。而为夺回中国文化市场，就要锁定自己的目标群体，分析目标群体特征，研究目标群体文化消费心理、文化消费习惯，提高作品接受度。具体说，一方面要在讲故事上下功夫，讲好中国故事；另一方面在审美上下功夫，提高观赏性。美国电影的市场号召力主要来自他那些救世的平民英雄、超级英雄。美国人非常善于讲英雄故事。相比之下，“英雄摆脱模式化、脸谱化”依然是我们经常探讨的话题。
上世纪五六十年代以来，我们文艺作品中的英雄往往一出场就是定型的，身上只有优点，没有缺点，没有软肋；心里只有大我，没有小我；甚至没有七情六欲，个个都是光棍。这一方面使得英雄人物身上充满了神圣的光辉，另一方面则造成了他们性格的扁平化、符号化，使他们成为不食人间烟火的“神化”英雄。“神化”英雄至今依然屡见不鲜。他们虽神圣可敬，但因距现实生活和普通人太远而令人只能仰望、难以亲近。正因此，美国式平民英雄，那些情深义重的个人主义者，在关键时刻超越个人局限的人，才受到中国接受者的追捧。
为改变这种局面，让中国英雄替代美国英雄，我们可以尝试塑造“有错的英雄”，讲人性故事，不抽象地拔高英雄。早在上世纪80年代初期，军旅文学领域“英雄是人”的创作潮流，已经做出了成功示范。近年来，相对滞后于文学的其他艺术领域虽然也进行尝试，但影响较为有限。近年，真正与美国形成争锋的作品虽不多，但也有些在“师夷长技以制夷”的艺术尝试中取得了成功。世纪之交热播的电视剧《历史的天空》《亮剑》和近年赢得好口碑的电影《战狼》《战狼2》《红海行动》《湄公河行动》《烈火英雄》等，都强化了英雄的个性色彩，有以报私仇为出发点的、有实战中会胆怯的、有失职受处分的。但是，这些作品中的英雄又不同于美国英雄。美国英雄是以“世界”为舞台的，仿佛守护万物的上帝，这与美国文化价值观输出的自我定位相关；中国英雄则始终以国家利益、集体利益为最终选择，这是中国文化价值观的体现。
除了讲好中国故事、塑造好中国英雄，提高观赏性也是非常必要的。而提高观赏性，需要审美品位培育，也需要科技力量支撑。只要做到这两点，就能让中国形象、中国精神、中国产品夺回中国文化市场。
**(三)加大向外推介力度**
中国市场是未来文艺战略立足之本，走向世界、扩大对外传播度是我们必有的志向。因为文化自信既来自于自我价值认定，也少不了外界认同。不过，在加大外推力度时，需要回答两个问题。
第一个问题：我们要向外传播什么样的文艺作品?答案是：树立中国的正面形象，以正面、乐观的人物和生活为主要创作素材。自2011年起，北京师范大学做了一个持续八届的项目：系
跨文化交流中的文艺功能及策略分析
列微电影“看中国·外国青年影像计划”。这个项目是在中国资金支持下，邀请外国青年来华体验中国文化、用影像讲述中国故事。在具体实践中，通过外国青年的眼睛发现改革开放以来中国在经济、文化、社会、生态等领域发生的巨大变化，其以微电影为载体的成果在世界范围内产生了积极而广泛的影响。未来文艺战略设计中，要传播中国文化、改变以美国为代表的西方对中国的成见，除了将《红海行动》《战狼2》等电影推向海外之外，用微电影形式反映美丽中国也是一个有效手段。
第二个问题：我们怎样分享美国市场?答案是：要有过硬的产品，也要有商业性计划和设计。首先要通过文艺作品，为美国展现值得认可甚至羡慕的中国生活。认可和羡慕常常是购买的前奏。而为了购买的持续性，我们不妨学习美国电影的品牌化、系列化办法。眼下，我们负有盛名的《战狼》刚刚出到第2集，而美国贴着文化LOGOL的那些电影早经历了几代，譬如《复仇者联盟》出到了第4集，《谍影重重》出到了第5集，《碟中谍》和《变形金刚》都续到了第6集，《星球大战》和《速度与激情》则续到了第9集，“007”系列甚至已经拍了25部。这些数字不仅仅是一个计数标识，更多彰显着美国商业化策略的成功。我们在扩大对外传播力度的努力中，应该去学习借鉴。
说到底，文艺战略的目标是借助文艺作品所传达的文化价值观获得文化认同，从而以文化软实力在国际格局中立于不败之地。近些年，“软实力”是一个越来越被重视的概念。最早提出软实力概念的是美国哈佛大学肯尼迪政府学院院长约瑟夫·奈。上世纪90年代初，约瑟夫·奈发表一系列文章，提出“软实力”说。这一学说的核心在于把权力区分为硬实力和软实力两个方面。在他看来，实现影响别人以达到自己目的的能力的方式有三种：大棒威胁、胡萝卜利诱、吸引自由选择。前两者属于硬实力，第三者为软实力。不难看到，在历史发展中，美国的硬实力为它带来了军事、经济上优势。但在维护世界和平呼声越来越高的当下，文化价值观的软实力将日渐彰显，成为决定未来文化战胜负的关键。
中国在加大步伐为自己积蓄硬实力的同时，自当格外重视提高软实力，在文化价值观念、社会制度规则、生活方式等抽象资源上自我完善，以提高对以美国为代表的西方的吸引力与影响力。如果能够借助文艺工具，通过文化渗透影响以美国为代表的西方，我们便有可能在跨文化交流这一看不见的战线上实现“不战而屈人之兵”的理想。
责任编辑：程倩
**①** D **这个项目由黄会林主持。“看中国·外国青年影像计划”是由北京师范大学会林文化基金赞助、中国文化国际传播研究院主办的** 一项中国文化体验项目。2018年度“看中国·外国青年影像计划”全系列103部影片获得评委会全“金天使奖”年度最佳系列微电 **影奖；同时，“看中国·外国青年影像计划”项目获得“中华文化传播力奖”。**
② **\[美\]约瑟夫·奈：《美国霸权的困惑：为什么美国不能独断专行》，郑志国、何向东、杨德、唐建文译，北京：世界知识出版社，2002年版，第5页。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **家族势力影响下的村落治理研究**
**王江成，李怡婷**
**(云南大学公共管理学院，云南昆明650091)**
**\[摘 要\]村落治理是村落政治的主要内容，同时也是村落政治整合的内在要求，而要实现村落社会的善治和村落政治在国家制度范围内的合理发展，完善村治结构是其关键。通过对农村村落治理现状的考察，发现：家族势力等自生秩序对村落治理影响较深，特别是能控制村治机构的产生，已经威胁到现代国家治理体系在村落的构建。这就需要强化国家权力的主导作用，整顿并整合村落家族势力：一要提升村落社会的自治能力；二要实现村落权力主体间良性互动；三要帮扶落后村落搞好经济建设；四要引导村落建立现代政治文化。**
**\[关键词\]家族势力；村落治理；村治结构**
**\[中图分类号\]C916 \[文献标志码\]A \[DOI\]10.3969/j. issn. 1009 -3729.2014.02.004**
**村落治理作为我国农村政治研究的主要领域越来越受到学界的关注。村落治理是村落政治的主要内容，同时也是村落政治的内在要求，而要实现村落社会的善治和村落政治在国家制度范围内的合理发展，完善村治结构是其关键。正式村落权力和非正式村落权力是村治权力结构的重要内容，而在村治权力结构中何种权力形态起主导作用关系到村治结构的合理与否。合理的村治结构能使村落权力在村治机构中实现良性互动，发挥其积极作用。长期以来，学者们多是从宏观层面探讨村治结构问题，特别注重村治结构的变迁，而对中观、微观层面的村治结构建设关注不够。本文拟通过对目前村落治理中所面临的困境的分析，找寻实现村落有效治理途径。**
**一、村落治理结构中的多元权力形态**
**村落治理是国家权力在农村重建和村落社会自身再造的过程，这一过程既是整合村落政治的过程，同时也是完善村落治理结构的过程。刘伟认为，村落终究将整合到现代国家的治理体系中，而国家**
**也将在全国范围内实现规则的普遍适用；王建新121指出，转型社会实质上是传统型权力权威逐渐消失、法理型政治权力权威逐渐形成的过程。如何实现国家权力与自生秩序的有效衔接是整合村落政治的重要环节，同时也是实现村落有效治理的切入点。要实现自生秩序与国家权力的双向互动，一方面，国家权力应渗人村落社会，帮助各村落共同体实现民主转型，重塑国家治理体系内的村落治理；另一方面，各村落共同体应发挥自生秩序的积极作用，在国家治理体系内实现某些非村落公共事务的自治，以减少国家治理成本，激活村落社会的积极性。简言之，村落治理既要鼓励、尊重村落自生秩序，同时又要在村落确立基本的现代公共规则。**
**村落政治建设中的党的建设、国家建设、社会建设3个方面的任务决定了未来村落治理的主体或者说治理结构必然是多元的。村落本质上是基于一定的历史、自然和传统而形成的共同体，只要村落还存在，就必须维系村落的共同体状态，因而也就必须维护村落社会的自生秩序。然而，幻想只依靠村落的自生秩序来实现村落的有效治理无疑是不现实的。**
**\[收稿日期\]2013-12-03**
**\[作者简介\]云南大学研究生科研课题资助项目(ynuy201230)**
**\[作者简介\]王江成(1990一)，男，云南省罗平县人，云南大学硕士研究生，主要研究方向：村落政治。**
**实践表明，现代化过程推进的不均衡决定了在国家权力渗透不足的偏僻村落，自生秩序作用的肆意发挥会影响国家权力的合法性及村落治理的完成；同时，国家权力与制度一旦无法有效地进入村落，其整合力和合法性就会面临挑战，村落社会一旦失序，村落政治与国家的稳定就会受到冲击。然而单纯依靠国家权力又会使村落社会丧失活力，不易形成民主集中、生动活泼的政治局面。“你离不开我，我离不开你”的村落社会治理结构，决定了村落治理中应当实现国家权力与村落自生秩序的有效衔接：一方面要让自生秩序在其应当发挥积极作用的空间发挥作用；另一方面应调整国家权力介入村落治理的范围和方式。1**
**从制度创新的角度来解读村落社会治理结构，可以预见，未来我国的政治体制改革的范围还会波及到农村，因为任何一个想要实现现代化的国家都离不开农村的现代化，都必须把村落整合在国家的治理体系内。目前推行的村民自治是经实践检验较为可行的村落政治整合形式，其能否最大效度地发挥作用，取决于村落社会集体经济的繁荣程度和村民个人的政治面貌和经历(郭正林在分析村民选举与农村经济社会发展的关系时，认为参与选举的动机与村民个人政治面貌和经历呈正相关)，但受农村经济发展方式单一影响和地域限制，中国的农民自农村非集体化改革以来很难取得收人方面的新跨越。大多数村落的经济社会结构因为土地、集体资源等限制而难以实现有效转型，城乡差距不断拉大直至变成2个经济、社会甚至文化不一的共同体：城市受现代化的洗礼变得越来越繁荣，农村则因为现代化推进的不均衡而发展缓慢，现代化的权利义务观念对地处偏僻的村落影响依然较小。在这样的背景下，国家意志作用下的村民自治或许只是国家的一厢情愿，不少村民只把村民选举当成发财致富的平台，没有也不去真正领悟村民自治的真谛。不同的经济社会结构和实际的政治环境决定了村民自治的推行不能搞“一刀切”，国家在不断探索，村落社会也在不断地实践着，这就决定了未来村落社会治理结构必将是多元的。因此，对村落社会的治理和对村落政治的建设，应当从村落经济结构和村落实际的政治环境出发来寻求解决之道。在中国这样一个超大规模的社会中开展任何一项政治改革都不应该走片面的、绝对的路线，而应走全面的、相对的道路来解决村落治理问题。所谓“全面”就是村落**
**治理的主体不应该是单方面的，而应是国家主导、村民自治，利益互动；所谓“相对”就是根据村落自生秩序与国家权力之间互动格局的不同类型，采取不同的模式解决村落治理问题。**
**二、村落治理面临的困境**
**现代价值观念和政治权利义务观念对偏远地区的村落影响较小，传统的村落家族文化存在的理由没有发生根本性的变化(王沪宁14)认为村落家族文化存在的理由有：生产水平、资源总量、自然屏障、社会调控、生育制度、文化因子等)。村落家族为了各自的利益将村民笼络在一起，家族超越了姓氏的界限发展成为家族势力，家族势力通过其粘合的一部分利益共同体操纵选举进入村委会，这样，在村治机构中就形成了家族势力控制的村委会与国家权力支持的村党支部之间的利益博弈，有时国家权力无法及时补充，就会造成家族势力支持下的村委会更有实权，如果党在村落政治中的基层组织也被家族势力占据，村落治理中的国家权力和自生秩序就有了某种程度的合力，村治机构就变成了家族势力在村落获取资源的平台。**
**在村落治理中，村委会选举往往被家族势力左右，村民被蛊惑或操纵，从而造成选举行为出现偏差。在家族势力的干扰下，贿选、拉票、暗地操纵、伪造选票甚至家族间的械斗等时有发生，正常选举无法进行，村民在选举过程中由于只考虑自身短期利益而不顾村落长远发展，因此家族势力施予村民小恩小惠就能改变村落政治选举的结果。许多村民在选举过程中会首先考虑自己家族势力的影响而选择同姓家族的候选人，属于弱势群体的村民即使另有心仪的候选人，但迫于家族势力的威胁也会改变自已的意愿而转投家族势力推选的候选人，这样德才兼备的村落精英在政治选举中就不能获得成功。而当村党总支书记也是家族势力的代表时，一种家族化的村治机构就会形成，如果任其发展，村落恶势力就会形成，村治秩序必然遭到破坏。当村民意识到通过选举能为家族赢得更多利益、家族在村落政治中的地位取决于其代理人在村治机构中的实际地位时，有实力的大家族就纷纷参与到村落政治中来，出现政治的家族化。可以说，家族势力的存在深深地影响着村治机构的产生和运作。**
**三、摆脱村落治理困境的出路**
**当前我国特殊的村落治理环境要求我们强化国**
**家权力在村落中的政治存在一乡镇政权和具有官方权威性质的村治机构。下面我们从村落自治能力、村落权力主体互动、村落经济发展、村落政治文化转变4个方面分析如何强化国家权力在村落治理中的主导作用。**
**1.巧妙利用家族中的正义力量，提升村落社会的自治能力**
**村落社会的自治能力包括自我管理、自我教育、自我服务3个方面，而“农村社会的治理空间和能力影响其内部力量的凝聚和团结，社会选择理论表明，利益的特殊性或者说团体内部的特殊利益的多少是团体凝聚力的重要影响因素”5\]。提高农村社会的治理空间和能力的关键在于提升和凝聚村落社会权力主体的特殊利益。村治机构和家族势力作为村落社会两股重要的组织力量，代表着各自不同的利益。村治机构在村落公共事务、调解民间纠纷、维护社会治安、利益表达等方面均可巧妙利用家族中的正义力量，鼓励家族内部团结，搞好自然村经济发展，提升村落社会的有序性。**
**2.巧妙利用家族势力的监督作用，实现村落权力主体间良性互动**
**家族势力在村落社会中并不具有政治合法性，但由于其与村民具有较深感情，有一定的群众基础，因此乡镇政权应引导家族势力朝着有利于村落经济社会发展的方向活动，积极促进村落政治主体多元化，鼓励其优秀代表通过合法的选举担任村治机构的干部，村治机构与家族势力相互监督，以实现村落权力主体间良性互动。为了避免二者的竞争走向极端，乡镇政权还要发挥国家权力宏观控制的作用，确保国家意志的贯彻执行。**
**3.依靠国家权力帮扶落后村落搞好经济建设**
**落后村落发展经济的重要路径，就是要以战略为导向，提升地区开放程度，构建完善的人才回流与引进机制。因此国家权力在落后村落的介人就显得十分必要。首先，应改变以往片面的发展观念，要把经济建设与社会建设有机结合起来。经济的发展依赖于社会每个个体的全面发展，而要实现社会每个个体的全面发展离不开村落教育的发展，因此办好公共教育对于落后村落来说刻不容缓，这就需要政府(国家权力)更加注重均衡城乡公共服务。其次，应促进落后村落与外界的联系，拓展村民的眼界，这就需要政府(国家权力)采取有效措施提升落后村落的开放程度。最后，政府(国家权力)应解决好大**
**学生村干部的待遇问题，使他们能够扎根农村，把自已的命运与村落的命运结合起来。**
**落后村落的经济发展之所以需要国家权力的介人，其根源还在于村落经济发展方式单一。村落之所以会出现家庭势力群体，其根源在于村民为了依附有实力的家族获取更多的村落资源。当村落社会中有实力兴办家族企业的势力增多时，村民为了获得更多的经济利益，则会摆脱血缘关系的束缚，一旦经济得到发展，以前的地方家族势力将转变为带领村民致富的各行业带头人，这时村民就会选择能给他们带来实惠的新生力量。于是，以往一家独大的村落政治会被更多的致富带头人所代替，每个致富带头人带领一群他的支持者，村落政治将会变得更加活跃，而这一切的获得无不需要国家权力的帮扶。**
**4.依靠国家权力引导村落建立现代政治文化**
**从实体上看，对家族势力的管控可以从体制机制及管理方法上入手；从观念上看，则可从发展具有现代性的村落文化及其现代性的村民人手，“持现代观念的人则承认变化的可能性，并且相信变化的可能性”口，创建了一整套以自由、民主、平等为核心的价值理念\[8。现代性的村落文化有利于培养村民的权利意识，进一步扩大农村有序的政治参与，同时能够培育自我管理、自我教育、自我服务的社会主义新农民。针对特殊的村落治理环境，发展村落文化的关键还在于提升村落权力主体的综合素质，特别是家族势力代表们的素质，转变家族势力发展经济的观念，不应把目光紧盯在村落稀有的集体资源上，应学会放眼世界。在经济社会得到发展的基础上，乡镇政府应积极组织村委会干部和地方比较有影响力的家族代表外出参观学习，尤其是学习一些家族企业发展的新路子、产品培育的新技术。同时村委会干部要做文明的传播者、文化的践行者，在村落社会事务的处理上要以身作则，树立榜样，感化村民；要积极开展村民自治，做到依法选举，保证选举的公平公正，从而形成一种和谐有序的选举文化。此外，要继续实施大学生村干部计划，提升村委会干部的业务水平和综合素质，把外界先进的文化理念带人村落社会，同时抬高村委会干部选拔时学历层次上的要求；严厉打击家族势力控制的黑恶势力，还村落社会一份安宁，保持村民对国家权力的敬畏感，改变村民长期依附家族势力的村落社会现状，鼓励村民运用国家权力维护自身利益，培养独立自主的**
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**种瓦解、破坏性冲击。如果说，在普罗泰戈拉那里，“人是万物的尺度”还没有公开完全否认理性思维作用的话，那么该命题中隐含的感觉主义倾向发展到极端，就必然会走向否定理性思维的极端感觉主义。智者学派发展到中晚期愈来愈极端且愈走愈远的历史事实正是如此。另一方面，在社会政治观、价值论、伦理观意义上，绝对肯定个人及其感觉与行为的可靠性、合理性，就必然会否定其他人与已不同的感觉、利益及行为，甚至只顾自己而不顾他人，从而走向极端个人主义。这种思想虽然对当时的民主政治、民主生活起了一定的积极作用，但如果长期贯彻下去就会对城邦国家向统一国家的转化、大一统国家规模和范围的扩大起消极破坏作用。**
**再次，“人是万物的尺度”内蕴着怀疑主义和不可知论。既然主要强调以个人及其感觉为万物的尺度，那么对象物本身有无稳定性状态与本质，对象物本身及其本质是否能被人认识，人们能否形成关于同一对象物的统一而正确的认识，能否形成关于同一对象物本质的真理性认识，按照“人是万物的尺度”，其结论必然是否定的、至少是存疑的。其后的智者高尔吉亚“三命题”(无物存在，物不可认识，认识不可表述)及后期智者，就是把“人是万物的尺度”中所蕴涵的怀疑主义和不可知论倾向发展为露**
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**思想观念；严格按照《村民委员会组织法》《村民委员会选举法》办事，对因家族势力的贿选、拉票等不正当手段当选村委会干部的坚决予以取缔，同时积极宣传村民自治的相关法律，规范村委会选举和村治机构的产生；在家族势力和普通村民间倡导政治平等、选举自由的思想观念。文化形成的基础在于长期行动的养成，当村落政治选举公平公正成为一种习惯时，说明民主自由的观念已经深人人心，此时的村落社会就会逐步摆脱家族势力控制的困境。**
**总之，要摆脱目前村落治理受家族势力影响的困境，就应当强化国家权力在自生秩序较强势的村落中的主导作用，培养和树立国家政治权威。国家权力的强化与家族势力的整合是同步进行的，强化国家权力的同时也就整合了家族势力，家族势力被整合好了，也就说明国家权力强化了，两者是此消彼长的关系。在目前的村落社会经济结构和实际政治环境下，要改变家族势力的长期影响，实现村落社会的有效治理只能主要依靠国家权力，至于在村治过程中，国家权力具体以何种方式介人是值得我们进**
**骨的极端怀疑主义、不可知主义。只肯定个人当前的具体利益，怀疑和否定统一的客观真理、统一的道德原则和人们共同的整体利益，是智者学派的共同思想特征。这种思想在当时虽有一定合理性、起了一定积极作用，但是把认识过程中必要环节之一的“怀疑”扩展到认识全过程、把“手段”当作目的和结论，却是错误的，对哲学与社会都有破坏作用。**
**总体上看，无论在当时还是在后世，无论对哲学还是对社会，该命题的合理因素、积极作用是主要方面，但也不能忽视其消极影响。只肯定甚至夸大其合理因素与积极作用，或者只看到甚至夸大其消极因素与破坏作用，都是片面的。对“人是万物的尺度”这个命题应该作出全面而公允的评价，对这个命题的使用或解释、转述、记载，都应该根据时代和场合，具体问题具体分析。**
**\[参** **考文献\]**
\[1\] **北京大学哲学系外国哲学史教研室.古希腊罗马哲学\[M\]，北京：生活·读书·新知三联书店，1957：138.**
**\[古希腊\]柏拉图.普罗泰戈拉篇\[C\]//柏拉图全集(第2卷).王晓朝，译.北京：人民出版社，2002：488.**
**\[3\]** **王蓉拉，姜燕萍.试论“人是万物的尺度”的价值意义\[J\].社会科学，2003(05)：82.**
**一步研究的问题。**
**\[参** **考** **文** **献\]**
\[1\] **刘伟.难以产出的村落政治——对村民群体性活动的中观透视\[M\].北京：中国社会科学出版社，2009.**
**L2J** **王建新.加强我国社会转型期权力文明的研究\[J\].河南师范大学学报：哲学社会科学版，2005(5)：11.**
3 **郭正林.国外学者视野中的村民选举与中国民主发展：研究述评\[J\].中国农村观察，2003(5)：70.**
L4\] **王沪宁.当代中国村落家族文化\[M\].上海：上海人民出版社，1991：286.**
**\[5\]** **黄红华.农村政治中的权力与交换\[D\].杭州：浙江大学，2002.**
**徐勇.中国农村与农民问题前沿研究\[M\].北京：经济科学出版社，2009.**
7 **\[美\]塞缪尔·P·亨廷顿.变化社会中的政治秩序\[M}.王冠华，刘为，译.上海：上海人民出版社，2008：25.**
\[8\] **百度百科.现代性\[EB/OL\].(2013-10-27)\[2013-11 -20\]. http：//baike. baidu. com/link? url=NGdY-IXM4j3XKImlry60VDI. qTFaqYf3Td71bgF2iGW** \_ **Ybhlxr-Wtyh PVNFsfkwD7M9.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 中世纪晚期西欧的实验科学思想
刘丽锋\*
(北京师范大学哲学与社会学学院 北京 100875)
\[提 要\]自然科学在近代得到了巨大的发展，但是追根溯源，离不开早期的思想萌芽，17世纪是大多数人所认同的科学开始快速发展时期，人们往往在承认文艺复兴对近代科学发展影响的同时，忽视了被称为“黑暗的”中世纪的这段时期。而正是在中世纪的后期，开始于罗吉尔·培根等人的实验科学思想不断发展：在黑暗中闪现出一丝微光，并直接影响了后来的自然科学的发展。
\[关键词\]中世纪晚期 实验科学 科学发展 罗吉尔·培根
\[中图分类号\]B03 \[文献标识码\]A \[文章编号\]1009—8267\[2008\]4一0043—03
近代科学的显著特征之一是注重科学实验，这在诸多近代科学家如伽利略、牛顿那里已发展得相当成熟。但若考究近代实验科学传统的起源，则可以回溯到文艺复兴和宗教改革，最终可直接追溯到中世纪晚期特别是13世纪西欧的实验科学思想。
13世纪的西欧，随着大翻译运动的兴起和大学的建立，希腊科学思想特别是亚里士多德的科学思想开始在西方复兴，为西欧学者所研究。中世纪晚期的实验科学思想是在反思、批判和发展亚里士多德科学研究程序基础上形成的。我们知道，在亚里士多德那里，科学是对自然的解释，这一解释过程是一个从观察中归纳出解释性原理，再从解释性原理中演绎出新的科学结论，这些结论又回到观察中去的过程。亚里士多德科学研究程序已接近于弗兰西斯·培根的近代科学研究程序，而且运用这一程序，他曾对鸡的胚胎发育做出深刻研究。但是亚里士多德更为强调的是这一程序中的演绎逻辑方法，他的追随者也都偏重于演绎方法，并形成了一套公理化的研究传统。这一传统在中世纪晚期表现为基督教意识形态下的繁琐论证(经院科学)，亚里士多德的科学研究程序也被称为“论证科学”。正是在这样一个“论证科学“的背景下，罗吉尔·培根、格罗塞特、司各脱和奥康等人提出了实验科学思想。他们重视科学研究的经验基础，主张对知识的实验研究和实验检验，倡导
一种实验科学。
一、实验科学思想
1.罗吉尔·培根的实验科学思想
罗吉尔·培根是第一个使用“实验科学”概念的人。他的“实验科学”是和当时流行的“证明科学”相对的。13世纪人们所说的科学主要是指亚里士多德的以几何学为模式的演绎式的“证明科学”，证明科学的前提是自明的、确定的命题，如同几何公理那样，科学是以必然命题为前提的演绎系统，它是必然的知识。在罗吉尔·培根看来，实验科学优越于其他科学，可以“通过实验来审查一切科学的崇高结论，”实验科学通过科学实验、科学操作，从而获得第一手经验，这才是确定无疑的真知。罗吉尔·培根指出，推理和经验是两种获得知识的途径，推理达到结论并使我们认可这一结论，但并没有给予我们摆脱一切怀疑的确定性。如果一个从未见过火的人用推理证明火能灼伤人、毁坏物品，他那接受这一结论的心灵仍不信服。除非他用实验证明理论的道理，把可燃物置于火中，那么这时他是不会不避开火的。“只有当他有了关于燃烧的现实经他的心灵才全踏实，才会安于真理的光辉之中”2因此，培根这样说：“没有经验，就没有东西可以被充分地认识，”\[3\]“一切事物都必须被经验所证实。\*\[4\]“证明总得伴有它相应的经验，单纯的证明是不可能理解的”\[5\]
\[作者简介\]刘丽锋，女，北京师范大学哲学与社会学学院思想政治教育研究所硕士生。
罗吉尔·培根从三个方面论证实验科学的优越性，首先，实验科学的实证功能，培根指出，仅仅依据证明科学的推理，而不通过实验去证明，那么这种知识是不完整的，没有确定性。而实证科学的考察验证功能可以弥补不足。他以对虹的解释为例，说明实验和演绎的差别。亚里士多德在《气象学》卷三中称，虹为太阳与星星之间的垂直线，塞尼卡称之为神的教杖，彩虹是日冕，这些说法是不可证实的，罗吉尔·培根设想用晶体做实验，看一看晶体的折射光的七种颜色，再看一看车轮用出的水珠折射出同样的颜色，心灵便可知道虹是水气反射太阳光而形成的自然现象。其次，是实验科学的工具功能。罗吉尔·培根认为实验高于思辨和学艺，他说：“凡是希望对于在现象背后的真理得到毫无怀疑的欢乐的人，就必须知道如何使自己献身于实验。6最后，是实验科学的实用功能。在这一点上，罗吉尔·培根的认识大大超出了他的时代，近代实证科学的实用现实证明了培根的论证。培根在当时提出的许多著名的科学设想和幻想，如“可建造一种无须来的航海装置，使得大型航海船只用一人之力就可驾驶前进，并且比全部使用聚还要迅捷得多。同样也可制造一种车辆，完全不用牛马，能以难以想象的速度疾驰；一一种飞行机器，人乘其中，驾驶着能象鸟一样振动空气的双翼前进。”这些后来也在人类生活中成了现实。
2.格罗塞特的实验科学思想
格罗塞特是早于罗吉尔·培根的英国经院哲学家，也是牛津大学的第一任校长，他对数学、医学和农学等很有研究。格罗塞特的实验科学思想表现在一方面提倡数学的应用，另一方面强调观察、实验的作用。他认为理性和实验是自然哲学两条不可缺少的途径。“他推动了实验传统和数学传统的结合：并提出“实验科学”的理论模式：其三大特点是： ‘归纳的、实验的和数学的。”单纯的实验没有理论的指引发展的是工匠的技术，而实验与理性的结合才是自然科学赖以建立的基础。人类在科学的不断发展中看到了这点，也依据这一点来发展科学。
3.司各脱和奥康的实验科学思想
司各脱和奥康是继罗吉尔·培根之后维续对实验科学思想做出贡献的两个英国人。他们的工作主要是指出亚里士多德“论证科学”的缺点，在理论上给予“实验科学”支持。
司各脱通过研究认识的动力与过程，按照知识性质区别了演绎知识与归纳知识两类知识，他指出，归纳知识也能满足亚里士多德对于科学知识“必然性”与“三段式推理”这两个要求，因此，归纳也是科学知识。通过归纳得来的知识具有足够的证据，在科学上这一证据表现为观察实验，所以，司各脱的“归纳科学知识”思想实际上是肯定了实验科学成果的有效性，是对罗吉尔·培根“实验科
学”思想的继承。
与司各脱一样，奥康也区分了两种知识——自明知识与证据知识。自明知识来自抽象认识，证据知识来自直观认识。奥康关于两种知识的区分是针对亚里士多德“证明知识”的观念提出的。按亚里士多德的解释，科学在严格意义上是证明知识，它以自明的直观中获得的命题为前提演绎出必然结论，直观的自明性和三段式规则的必然性保证了证明知识的可靠性。亚里士多德“科学”概念的狭隘性是没有考虑到直观的偶然性以及经验证据在推理过程中的作用。司各脱对归纳科学的论述突破了这一狭隘观念，奥康的区分更猛烈地冲击着这一观念。他指出，直观到的证据和逻辑推理并不是前后相贯的认识过程，它们属于两类知识，两者存在着平行、并列的关系。证据不能给予逻辑所需要的自明性，逻辑也不能增强证据的说服力。就证据知识与自明知识的重要性而言，他认为寻找证据是比寻找证明更高、更重要的目标，证据知识不但可以知道自明知识推理的结论，而且可以知道非自明的东西。另外，奥康主张哲学与神学分离，这种二元论“虽然从本质上来说仍然是不完备的，不能令人满意的，但是要想使哲学从‘神学的婢女’的束缚中解放出来，以致可以自由地与实验相结合，而产生科学，这却是一个必须的阶段。\*\[91
二、实验科学的具体实践
中世纪晚期欧洲实验科学思想虽有发展，但由于时代局限，实验科学具体实践还远落后于实验科学思想的发展。从事具体实践科学的人还属少数，有些只将其作为业余工作。
波列哥雷努斯是13世纪最为著名的实验物理学家、科学家。他是用实验法研究磁学的鼻祖。波列哥雷努斯曾做了磁学方面的许多实验，写过一部关于磁学的系统的著作《磁学初步》。在书中，他“论述了磁的基本现象、吸铁、南北极的区别及两者的相互作用力，铁棒越过磁铁后的磁化，磁感应，以及如指南针之类的用途。”10\]
波列哥雷努斯认为，科学的成效只有在操作中获得，实验很容易纠正那些在自然哲学和数学中永远也发现不了的错误。他的这些思想深刻启迪了罗吉尔·培根，因此被罗吉尔·培根称为“实验大师”。罗吉尔·培根曾这样颂扬波列哥雷努斯：“他从实验懂得自然科学，还懂得医药、炼丹术以及天上的和地下的一切事物。如果任何平常人、老妇、村夫或士兵懂得一点有关土壤的事为他所不悉，他就要惭愧。所以他熟悉浇铸金属法，以及处理金、银、其他金属和一切矿物的方法…·他却藐视荣誉和奖励，因为它们将妨碍他在实验工作方面达到伟大成就。11\]
中世纪晚期西欧对光学的实践研究开始于格罗塞特，他进行了一系列的光学研究，并通过实在经验来证明透镜的折光现象。后经过罗吉尔·培根的实验研究和阿拉伯光
学思想的传人，到13世纪末14世纪初，出现了三部光学实验研究著作；皮坎姆的《全透视》、第里希的《光学汇编》和威特罗的《光学》。这三个人通过一些实验研究，对光学做出了较大的贡献。。“这三位学者自然也都探讨了虹的问题。第里希的解释进展最大。他认为，水珠内的光线在水珠壁上依次发生折射、反射，然后再发生折射。他还清楚地知道副虹的成因。\*2
三、实验科学的影响
13世纪由罗吉尔·培根开创，司各脱和奥康等人发展的实验科学思想，不仅从理论上强调了归纳的经验基础，而且主张对演绎前提直接进行实验验证，将实验置于一个极为显著的地位，这对排除科学活动中隐含的错误起到积极作用。罗吉尔·培根等人的思想大大超越了他们所处的时代，所以没有得到推广和认同，只是一盏很快熄灭了的明灯。但是当时西欧的炼金术和巫术却对实验科学思想进行了一定的吸收和采纳。文艺复兴时期，达·芬奇成为倡导科学实验的第一人，实验在那时已为大多数人所接受，实验科学思想也为众多科学家所传承运用，出现了一批科学成果。到了弗兰西斯·培根，实验科学思想已被发展成为一套成熟的实验一归纳方法，启迪了包括伽利略、牛顿在内的近代科学家，成为近代科学的经典研究方法。这一方法的兴起，对于近代物理、化学、生物、天文、地学等各门自然科学以及各门技术科学的进步都带来了不容低估的影响。
罗吉尔·培根等人所倡导的“实验科学”集中在对科学方法论中的实验方法的强调，还远未涉及其他方法及这些方法所形成的系统。罗吉尔·培根等人的“实验科学”方法在13世纪西欧科学的暗淡时期得不到应用，所以只好沦为一种思想。贝尔纳对此曾做过合理的评价：“中古时代的人对于推理以及设计和执行实验，都完全胜任。不过这些实验老是孤立的，也同希腊人和阿拉伯人所做的那样，基本是表演，而不能导致决定性的进步。这一撮中古时代的实验者的成就虽然很值得表扬，他们并不曾多多利用这些方法来研究自然，更少去控制自然。他们是圣职者，故有许多其他的正务。”13
中世纪的主流思想是与源白古希腊的科学精神不同的，但是实验科学的思想却是一种对于古希腊思想的认同，而面向蓬勃发展的近代自然科学，从中世纪的后期到文艺复兴，实验科学的思想已经开始影响人们对自然科学的认识了，就像著名的科学史家丹皮尔说的那样：产士“文艺复兴时代的人，，一旦摆脱了经院哲学权威的桎梏，就吸取了经院哲学的方法给予他们的教训。他们本着自然是一致和可以了解的信念，开始进行观察，用归纳的方法形成的假定以便
结实他们的观察结果，然后又用逻辑的推理演义出推论，再用实验加以检验。”\[14中世纪后期的实验科学思想就可以看作是古希腊科学和近代科学之间的纽带，虽然这条纽带的力量还不是很强大。
综上所述，中世纪晚期由罗吉尔·培根开创的实验科学思想经过司各脱和奥康等人的补充论证已经发展较为成熟。到文艺复兴时期，实验已为大多数人所接受，实验科学思想也为大多数科学家传承运用。他们运用这套方法对自然进行了有效的探索，取得了丰硕的科学成果。对此达·芬奇这样表述：“科学如果不是从实验中产生并以一种清晰实验结束，便是毫无用处的、充满谬误的，因为实验乃是确定性之母。”153文艺复兴后，科学家们一方面运用观察实验，用归纳的方法形成假说以便解释其观察和实验结果另一方面又运用逻辑的推理演绎出推论，再用实验加以检验，从而形成了一套完整的科学认识程序。这套程序不仅是近代科学所能运用的传统经典方法，就是在现代科学方法中亦占有十分重要的地位。到了17世纪科学得到快速发展的时期，正是实验思想使得科学发展有了巨大动力，也得益于弗兰西斯·培根对实验思想的大力提倡，默顿在他的著名的著作《17世纪英格兰的科学技术与社会》中就指出了蕴涵着实践操作的实验思想对科学发展具有巨大的推动力，而西欧的科学在实验思想的促进下得到了持续到今天的发展。
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\[10\]\[12\]\[荷兰\]R.J.弗伯斯，E.J.狄克斯特霍伊斯.科学技术史\[M\].刘珺珺等译，求实出版社，93一94.
\[11\]\[13\]\[英\]贝尔纳.历史上的科学\[M\].伍况甫等译，科学出版社，1957，188、183.
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zh | N/A | N/A | 又看到了其中的浮躁：有的"活动内容繁多，蜻蜓点水C有的“活动主题虚化走过场(有的“活动场面异化看似热闹实则杂乱无章等等☆如一位老师在组织秋天到了的活动时，短短 40分钟，引导学生开展了说唱(跳口画写C体验等多种形式的找秋天活动还用了尝一尝猜一猜C做一做等方法品尝秋天的果实，与此同时教师还给学生展示了花样繁多的多媒体课件学生看得眼花缭乱C忙得晕头转向而又兴高采烈可是下课以后问及这节课的内容学生却是一片茫然，试问这种看似热闹的课堂学生究竟从中感悟到了什么呢?所以我们判断一节品德课是否成功不是看教师设计的活动次数有多少活动内容多有趣多精彩，而是要看在这些活动中学生做了什么，体验到了什么收获了什么☆
三I激发精彩生成形成品德与生活社会“灵气“的课堂
新的课程标准中指出：教学在内容上既依据教材又不拘泥于教材提倡和鼓励教师从儿童实际生活中捕捉有教育意义的内容或与儿童合作选择内容或利用儿童自己的选择来组织活动教学活动在形式上不拘一格形式服从内容，可根据具体目标内容条件资源的不同因地制宜因校制
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总之要想真正提高品德与生活(社会)教学的有效性，就必须从学生实际出发，根据不同目的不同内容不同对象采取不同的教学方法，给品德与生活(社会)教学注入真实○扎实(灵气的养分我们的课堂就会不但生动而且有效，品德与生活(社会)的教学质量也就会真正有一个质的飞跃☆
开展与推进班级团体心理辅导活动课的尝试与思考
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班级团体辅导活动课是以教学班为辅导单位，针对中小学年龄特点和成长发展的实际需要而设计的，它可以在辅导目标内内容策略及课时作灵活的调整是学校心育工作的重要载体☆在教学过程中是对老师自身发展和成长的一种考验，它与传统的文化课程“重目标O重控制心重质量评价不同要求老师在课堂上尽量少讲一些适时引导学生主动参与辅导活动课的各类活动，挖掘内心世界的真实想法，让学生自己从心灵深处得到体验和感悟☆一堂好的心理辅导课包括情景体验Q组讨论和活动C角色扮演(故事接龙等环节★
**1.班级团体辅导活动课的整体布局**
当老师们具备一定的心理学知识后，2012年9月开始学校再利用二年时间由德育处管理“心育教研组指导继续深化心理健康的培训成果开展教师地实践研究★
第一年根据心理健康内容和我校的实际情况，分年级确定主题☆班主任以自愿认领和抽签等方式挑选26个心理辅导课主题，以孙义农主编心理健康教育课和钟志农著心理辅导活动课操作实务汕为教材，原创撰写好一个教案课件资料等☆第一学期在本班上好一节“展示课“全体“心育“教研组老师参加听课评课；第二学期借班再上一节同样主题的“巩固课：一年里“心育教研组多次对七C\\九年级学生进行调查，发现学生普遍喜欢上班级团体心理辅导活动课认为能反映学生的实际(形式活泼内容丰富C能说能唱能哭也解决困惑并希望多开这类课☆班主任也乐意这样做因为只需集中精力设计一个活动方案减轻了负担，同时通过上课领会了心理健康辅导原则C辅导技巧★许多班主任反映在轻松平等的课堂氛围中协调了师生关系，了解学生真实的想法☆各主题分工如下：
| **号** | **上电内容** | **册上任** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **1** | **如何制定学习计划从计划：门计划、期中或期未计划转1** | **七(l)赵** |
| **2** | **面对愤器(换位思考、理性分析、情绪ABC理论等)** | **七12)徐** |
| **1** | **如何规范学习作业(作业本，纠销本：学习喷利等** | **七(3)例** |
| | **明于承担过铝与尚任(W有责评感的人》** | **L14)微** |
| **5** | **亲是我的依靠或感思教育处现学生与永长的小盾》** | |
| **fi** | **学生合理的滑费行为、如何过生日或过节或办庆祝活动** | **七t)调** |
| **7** | **野美别人、快乐自己程重的鼎要)** | **6(7)H** |
| **8** | **学习动机(理想与人生观证求、健康人生等)** | **L68)赵** |
| **Q** | **相信日己(自信的川养)** | **L9)科** |
| **10** | **培养学习能力：问视，思准：：动丁操作、创造力等** | **我(1)卜** |
| **11** | **细何山附考试(考试厂始前，考试中，考试后)** | **八(2)就** |
| **12** | **正确认识自己(青存期的第二性试，长大的男孩和女孩等)** | **A(3)间** |
| **13** | **面对师生的误解(处理师生网的矛盾+** | |
| **14** | **校外休闲辅导(假明时间的安排，合理上网，活动方式的选择等)** | **A(5)施** |
| **15** | **培养学牛良好的学习乐趣(学科、课堂、比赛等)** | **八(6)卢** |
| **111** | **7会并性交往(青春期男女生的正常文社)** | **A(7)章** |
| **17** | **校内体闲辅释(建家生活、课回体息，零花钱的使用等)** | **八(日)钱** |
| **18** | **《同学学会自我保护(浏重自身保健、自身的预防鞋** | **九1E** |
| **19** | **维诸的男因理论：成功靠个人努力** | **九121陈** |
| | **国防性犯软外(女国学遇例坏人怎么办限** | **儿(3)至** |
| **21** | **如何复习(课陶复习、单元复习、学期复习导)** | **九(4)周** |
| | **学会对国学说“不面对吸烟，打型，作心秘本良事件** | **儿(5)英** |
| **23** | **性保健.预防性钱树牌** | **北(6)朴** |
| **24** | **后供国学友演(处理学生国的子盾!** | **儿(7)许** |
| | **力何和料学习过度康超(+妈是考试叭心，** | **儿(85陆** |
| | **毕宝内通与种男、几学与川业技巧辅导等** | **L(9】网** |
第二年从学校2013年9月班主任开始借班上课C推广“战果“并编写一本心理健康教案集，以此为契机推动心理健康方面其他工作的全面展开☆
2.发挥小组合作的作用
为了推动学生团体的互动关系，团体心理辅导课积极采用小组合作学习模式一般呈”马蹄型心圆桌式等☆学生以自愿原则为主，每组6人左右分组名单也可视情况而定，有老师在上寝室生活快乐同住时，全班按男生女生寝室成员分成6个组有老师在上规范作业时全班按语文数学科学英语(社会政(综合类等学科分成7个组等；有老师在上女生应学会自我保护时多次分组因辩论分成男生组和女生组因对某个观点意见分成同意组和反对组等总之小组必须有效☆以下是区别有效小组与无效小组的方法★
**掌** 滤德握
之潜移默化的在其一生中成为内在需求的概念，从而形成终身体育参与的概念★
四I以快乐参与作为学校体育发展的心理基础
当今社会追求和谐社会对于学生个体而言也要追求身心和谐发展☆在当今严重的升学压力下，学生的锻炼时间不可避免地受到了冲击★对学生个性的发展和天性的释放产生了必然的压抑☆即便是学校体育教学过程中，初中学生也面临着体育中考成绩的压力☆绝大多数的学生并不能从体育教学活动中获得愉悦★这跟学校体育的根本背道而驰了☆学校体育活动应该是轻松活泼C快乐(积极进取的而不是紧张○严肃仍抑唯分是图的☆
要使学校体育活动成为学生必备的学习内容并使学生乐于接受教学并在考试过程中取得满意的成绩，仅仅依靠课程课程表上硬性规定的体育课C体育活动以及大课间活动的时间是远远不够的★还必须使得学生在参与学校体育活动的过程中真正被课程吸引，并在学习过程中心情愉悦不知不觉地达到健身的目的★学校体育的发展不能成为学生学习的负担而应该是让学生通过体育运动释放在其他学习过程中
_六_ _AA分六_
**(上接第81页】**
| | **有爱小组** | **无数小组** |
| --- | --- | --- |
| **11雅成** | **成当自您组合，个人民标与小肌月标协调统** | **目标是强制的，小组拼堵而成、** |
| **(20小讯** **成予沟题** | **组内成链能车动动结待作、其同田谋划策，分享想小，上动配合同学，在小州词论合作的基础上上相沟话。** | **各白为战，很步与同学仓作交流、分享想法，压制情感表达-** |
| **(3)组径** | **考虑每个小组成员的感受，认真国听同学的想法，努力计每个人都能在讨论中机得到一个非愉快的经精。** | **很少考您别人的感受和想** |
| **(41小川活动** | **在组K的带铺下积极影与活动，并日相互帮助，维ǎ为小组出点了，百小阳活动川表现的书活仙欢，根极梦行活动，大胆发了，生动读自己的想法或建议** | **小组以沉默为书.组易选择** **不参与活动，很少发剪。** |
| **(5)效果** | **冲突提开了认识，适风了生活和学习，在网龄人的启发下白我成长，成为能自我实现的“有个性的人”** | **没解决问题，成为一个程** **序的“问题人“** |
3.要抓住课堂的“闪光点“
**班主任都是一线搞教学的老师与其他学科一样课前大量的准备，一环扣一环的教学环节★团体心理辅导课与其他学科不同要求辅导老师随机应变调整原有的活动方案，紧紧抓住“一闪而过“却很有代表性的辅导个案并展开讨论★**
汪老师上赞美别人快乐自己的团体心理辅导课时整堂课老师为了赶程蜻蜓点水匆匆忙忙☆学生的所谓对别人的“赞美非常勉强流于形式★课后“心育教研组要求她，
所积累的压力，从而让学生有更饱满的精神状态投入到学习生活中去☆从体育中考角度出发应试教学往往是有一定的强制性，需要依靠学生有较坚强的意志力去努力达到目标，因此初中阶段体育发展过程需要各级部门和基层体育教师勤于思考不断地将快乐因素融入到体育教学中，从而建立良好的体育发展心理基础★
学校体育的发展就必须把课程内容尽量的丰富扩大作为基准★让学生在教学活动过程中获得身心的满足，并积极与班级其他同学，甚至与学校其他同学积极合作参与，从而使自身身体C理社会交往产生积极的影响☆此外还要教师还要善于整合教学资源，改造教学项目，引进具有特色的群体项目(比如三门球毽球花式跳绳等)★吸引学生浓厚的学习兴趣提高积极健身的效果☆最后要能有目的有计划的弱化一些项目的技术规范和规则要求，使学生能通过教学很容易上手并主动积极投身其中通过一段时间的学习掌握后学生自然会对项目提出更高的要求这个时候教师再在技术规范规则要求上进行提高必然能使学生产生更高的学习兴趣从而达到让更多的学生投身学校体育活动的目的☆
砍掉一些“藤条“捕捉一些“闪光点￥如：第二个环节学生在谈生活中赞美别人的故事时重点选一个例子展开讲来感受○体验赞美的技巧和魅力食如有同学说：双休日妈妈烧肉时盐放得太多，很咸!但我赞美了他妈妈很高兴，爸爸也吃了好几块☆这时可以让老师当妈妈学生当孩子问：怎样的赞美妈妈既高兴又能解决难堪?如果学生体验到位就不会有后面假话空话等流于形式的赞美!如：虽然咸一点但依然很好吃，菜的样子蛮好看的，有时换换口味也蛮好的，比学校里的菜好吃多了如再淡一点那味道更好等等☆
四“船“与“水“的反思
虽然老师们知道“心育主要理念是使学生获得积极的情感经验关注学生的健康态度价值观和责任感的形成☆但有些班主任只为完成任务与学科教学没区别空洞无味☆水能载舟也能覆舟节这样学生就可能会对二周一节的心理辅导课失去期盼食之无味★要亲密“船与“水的关系我们只有加快磨合理论与实践的距离这也是我们以后上班级团体心理辅导课努力的方向!如老师如何倾听和回应学生；老师如何表达关注与同理心；老师如何做才能让学生感到课堂的安全感；老师如何赏识和期待学生老师如何开展课堂学生交流与合作等等☆
新的学校新的开始★春天来临，春水就会涨起来，从前推不动的“蒙冲巨舰“一定会轻快畅游在河道上! | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
en | hf cc0-1.0 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/storytracer/US-PD-Books | The George Eliot birthday book
author: Eliot, George, 1819-1880
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THE
GEORGE ELIOT
Birthday Book
Til).
BOSTON :
HALL & WHITING,
1SS2.
Copyright, 1S82.
By Hall & Whiting.
Printed by Wright & Pottsr Printing Company.
vri
PREFACE.
If the students and lovers of George Eliot's works fail to find all their
favorite passages in this little volume, let them remember onr "erabarras des
richesses " ; and moreover if it pains them to miss loved passages, it has been a
pain to us to omit them. Our Birth-Day Book would need to be issued in
volumes, did it contain all the noble thoughts of this great writer, which it
would be well for us to lodge in our meinories, and ponder in our hearts from
day to day. We have tried to introduce those which express our Great Teacher's
favorite lessons.
We confess to feeling a little audacious in selecting quotations for one hundred
and fifty women, especially when George Eliotherself says " Attempts at descrip-
tion are stupid : who can all at once describe a human being? " Let those in-
clined to criticise our selections reflect that in most instances it is impossible to
seize upon more than one point in a character. As women are many-sided, how
can we expect in a few lines to describe " that iridescence of character — that
play of various, nay contrary tendencies?"
Anothei" difficulty has been to And the birth-days of women. We had not
thouglit of this as anytliing but a very simple matter. We had supposed it an
affair of a few minutes to discover Martha Washington's birth-day, whereas no
living person has any knowledge of it. We thought anyone who had stood by
Mrs. Browning's grave in Florence must know the day of her birth, but we
find recorded there only the day of her death. When Kobert Browning declares
that he does not know his wife's birth-daj% and confesses to feeling no curiosity
about it, we drop the search, feeling it would be bad taste in us to know more
about it than does the great poet himself.
In all cases where thei'e is not a reasonable certainty as to any woman's birth-
day, we have placed a star against her name in the index.
E. S. N. G.
Presentiment of better things on earth
Sweeps in with every force that stirs our souls
To admiration, self-renouncing love,
Or thoughts, like light, that bind the world in one ;
Sweeps like the sense of vastness when at night
We hear the roll and dash of waves that break
Nearer and nearer with the rushing tide,
Which rises to the level of the cliff.
Because the wide Atlantic rolls behind,
Throbbing respondent to the fai'-off orbs.
A Minor Prophet.
January 1.
Man can do nothing without the make-believe of a beginning. No
retrospect will take us to the true beginning ; and whether our prologue
be in heaven, or on earth, it is but a fraction of that all-presupposing
fact with which our story sets out.
Daniel Deronda.
— ^^ —
Youth thinks itself the goal of each, old life.
Age has but travelled from a far-off time,
Just to be read}' for jouth's service. Well,
It was my chief delight to perfect 3'ou.
A.RMGAUT.
January 2.
I WILL elect my deeds, and be the liege,
Not of my birth, but of that good alone
I have discerned and chosen.
Our deeds still travel with us from afar,
And what we have been makes us what we are.
MiDDLEMARCH.
January 1.
Maria Edgeworth, 1767.
January 2.
T^^^^^-^vuzr: n^^^ ^'^^ '^^"^
6j^,&J\!^mZ
January 3.
Persons attracted him, as Hans Meyrick had done, in proportion to
the possibiUt}^ of his defending them, rescuing, telling upon their lives
with some sort of redeeming influence.
Daxiel Deronda.
January 4.
Mrs. Glegg chose to wear her bonnet in the house today — untied
and tilted slightly, of coui'se, a frequent practice of hers when she was
on a visit, and happened to be in a severe mood : she didn't knovv what
draughts there m-ight be in strange houses. For the same reason slie
wore a small sable tippet, which reached just to her shoulders, and was
very far from meeting across her well-formed chest.
The Mill os the Floss.
January 3.
Lucretia Mott, 1793.
January 4.
January 5.
Examine your words well, and you will find that even when 3'ou have
no motive to be false, it is a very hard thing to say the exact truth, even
about your own immediate feelings — much harder tha,n to say something
fine about them which is not the exact truth.
Adam Bede.
January 6.
Her inspired ignorance gives a sublimity to actions so incongruously
simple that otherwise they would make men smile. Some of that ardor
which has flashed out and illuminated all poetry and history was burning
today in the bosom of sweet Esther Lj-on.
Feux Holt.
January 5.
Madame Rc^musat, 1780.
January 6.
'Joan of Arc, 1402,
January
People Avho live at a distance are naturally less faulty than those im-
mediatel}' nnder our own ej'es ; and it seems superfluous when we con-
sider the remote geographical position of the Ethiopians, and how very
little the Greeks had to do with them, to inquire further wh}' Homer
calls them " blameless."
The Mill on the Floss.
January S.
Our lives make a moral tradition for our individual selves, as the
life of mankind at large makes a moral tradition for the race; and to
have once acted greatly seems to make a reason why we should always
be noble.
ROMOLA.
January 7.
JANUARY S.
January 9.
Mr. Lydcatr, —
"'Don't you think men overrate the necessity for humoring ever}'-
body's nonsense, till they get despised by the very fools they humor?
The shortest way is to make your value felt so that people must put up
with you whether you flatter them or not."
Mr. Farebrother, —
" With all my heart. But then j'ou must be sure of having tlie value,
and you must keep }'our independence."
MlPDLEMAUCli.
January 10.
In the career of a great public orator who yields himself to the inspira-
tion of the moment, tliat conflict of selfish and unselfish emotion whicli
in most men is hidden in the chamber of the soul, is brought into terrible
evidence ; the language of the inner voices is written out in letters of fire.
ROMOLA.
10
January 9.
January 10.
11
January 1 1.
And young Mr. Lammeter, he'd have no way but he must be married
in Janiwar}', which to be sure 's a unreasonable time to be married in,
for it is n't like a christening or a burying, as you can't help.
Silas Marnek.
January 12.
It is dreadful to think on, people placing with their own insides in that
way ! And its flying i' the face o' Providence ; for what are the doctors
for if us are n't to call 'em in? And when folks have got the mone}' to
pay for a doctor, it isn't respectable, as I've told Jane many a time.
I'm ashamed of acquaintance knowing it.
The Mill on the Floss.
12
January 11.
January 12.
Hdu.(l:^^jcU, ^tr^^. /<^§
18
January 13.
If we want to avoid giving the dose of hemlock or the sentence of
banishment in the wrong case, nothing will do but a capacity to under-
stand the subject-matter on which tlie immovable man is convinced, and
fellowship with human travail, both near and far, to hinder us from
scanning any deep experience lightly.
Daniel Dejjonda.
January 14.
After all has been said that can be said about the widening influence
of ideas, it remains true that they could hardly be such strong agents
unless they were taken in a solvent of feeling.
Uqmola.
14
January 13.
January 14.
15
January 15.
O BUDDING time !
O love's best prime !
Two Lovers.
Young delight that wonders at itself
And throbs as innocent as opening flowers,
Knowing not comment, — soilless, beautiful.
The Spanish Gypsy.
January 16.
A WOMAN mixed of such tine elements
That were all virtue and religion dead
She'd make them newly, being what she was.
The Spanish Gypsy.
o^^l^
It is lawful to marry again, I suppose, unless we might as well be Hin-
doos instead of Christians. Of course if a woman accepts the wrong man
she must take the consequences, and one who does it a second time
deserves her fate. Middlemakch.
16
January 15.
Margery Fleming, 1803.
January 16.
Sister Dora (Dorotlay Wiiidlow Pattison). 1832; Mrs. Thrale, 1740,
January 1'
And it is in the nature of exasperation gradually to concentrate itself.
The sincere antipathy of a dog towards cats in general necessarily talvcs
the form of indignant barking at the neighbor's black cat which malvcs
daily trespass ; the bark at imagined cats, though a frequent exercise of
the canine mind, is yet comparatively feeble.
Felix Holt.
January IS.
Mr. Craig was not above tallcing politics occasionally, though he
piqued himself rather on a wise insight than on specihc information. He
saw so far beyond the mere facts of a case, that realh' it was superfluous
to know them.
Ada:\i IJkdi;.
18
January 17.
January 18.
19
January 19.
Here undoubtedly lies the chief poetic energy in the force of imagina-
tion that pierces or exalts the solid fact, instead of floating among cloud-
pictures.
Daniel Deuonda.
January 20.
There may come a moment when even an excellent husband, who has
dropped smoking under more or less of a pledge during courtship, for the
first time will introduce his cigar-smoke between himself and his wife,
with the tacit understanding that she will have to put up with it.
Daniel Deronda.
20
January 19.
Sarah Helen Whitman, 180,3.
January 20.
21
January 21.
But what great mental or social type is free from specimens whose in-
significance is both ugly and noxious. One is afraid to think of alt that
the genus " patriot" embraces ; or of the elbowing there might be on the
day of judgment for those who ranlced as authors, and brought volumes
either in their hands or on trucks.
Daniel Dekonda.
January 22.
Mrs. Tl'lliver had lived thirteen years with her husband, jet she re-
tained in all the freshness of her early married life a facility for saying-
things which drove him in the opposite direction to the one she desired.
Some minds are wonderful for keeping their bloom in this way.
The Mill ox the Floss.
January 21.
January 22.
^r^ GoHy^dUL ^CL^Cn<r Tf^f^JL /^^44
January 23.
There are so many things wrong and difficult in the world that no man
can be great — he can hardly keep himself from wickedness — unless he
gives up thinking much about pleasures or rewards, and gets strength to
endure what is hard and painful.
l\OMOLA.
January 24.
Mr. Borthrop Trumbull had a kindly liquid iu his veins ; he was an
admirer by nature, and would have liked to have the universe under his
hammer, feeling that it would go at a higher figure for his recommenda-
tion.
MiDDLKMARCII.
24
January 23.
January 24.
January 25.
1 UAVE often wondered whether those earl}- Madonnas of Raphael, with
the bland faces and somewhat stupid expression, kept their placidit}' un-
disturbed when their strong-limbed, strong-willed boys got a little too old
to do without clothing. I think they must have been given to feeble
remonstrance, getting more and more peevish as it became more and
more ineffectual.
The Mill ox the Floss.
January 26.
We sit up at night to read about Cakya-Monui, St. Francis, or Oliver
Cromwell ; but whether we should be glad for any one at all like them to
call on us the next morning, still more to reveal himself as a new rela-
tion, is quite another affair.
Daniei. Dekond.v.
26
January 25.
January 26.
January 27.
But under his calm and somewhat self-repressed exterior there was a
fervor, which made him easily find poetry and romance among the events
of every-da}' life. And perhaps poetry and romance are as plentiful as
ever in the world. They exist very easily in the same room with the
microscope, and even in railway carriages : what banishes them is the
vacuum in gentlemen and lady passengers.
Daniel Dekonda.
January 28.
The presence of a noble nature, generous in its wishes, ardent in its
charity, changes the lights for us. We begin to see things again in their
larger, quieter masses, and to believe that we toocan be seen and judged
in the wholeness of our character.
MlDDLEMAKCn.
28
January 27.
* Dinah Mulocb Craik, 1826.
January 28.
29
January 29.
There are few prophets in the world, — few sublimely beautiful women,
— few heroes. I can't afford to give all my love and reverence to such
rarities ; I want a great deal of those feelings for mv every-day fellow-
men.
Adam Bede.
January 30.
Depend upon it vanit}' is human, — native alike to men and women ;
only in the male it is of denser texture, less volatile, so that it less im-
mediatel}' informs you of its presence, but it is more massive and capable
of knocking you down if you come into collision with it ; while in women
vanity lays by its small revenges .as in a needle-case always at hand.
Theophha.stui? Such.
30
January 29.
January 30.
r.i
January 31
This is what I call debasing the moral currenc}' ; lowering the value of
every inspiring fact and tradition so that it will command less and less
of the spiritual products, the generous motives which sustain the charm
and elevation of our social existence.
Theophkastus Sucu.
32
January 31.
33
Thkre is nolliing like settling with ourselves as there 's a deal we must
do without i' this life. Its no use looking on life as if it were Treddles'ou
fair, where folks go to see shows and get fairings. If we do, we shall
find it different.
AuAM Bkde.
34
At the division of tlie Promised Land, each has to win his portion by
hard fighting ; the bestowal is after the manner of prophecy, and is a
title without possession. To carry the map of an ungotten estate in
your pocket is a poor sort of copyhold. And in fancy to cast his shoe
over Edom is little warrant that a man shall ever set the sole of his foot
on an acre of his own there,
Daniel Deronda.
35
February 1.
To a fine ear, that tone said, as plainly as possible : " Whatever re-
commends itself to me, Thomas Jerome, as piety and goodness, shall
have my love and honor. Ah, friends, this pleasant world is a sad one,
too, is n't it? Let us help one another, let us help one another."
Janet's Repentance.
0^^
No curse has fallen on us till we cease
To help each other.
The Spanish Gypsy.
February 2.
She felt the largeness of the world, and the manifold wakings of men
to labor and endurance. She was a part of that involuntary, palpi-
tating life, and could neither look out on it from her luxurious shelter as
a mere spectator, nor hide her eyes in selfish complaining.
MiDDLEMARCH.
36
February 1,
February 2.
Hannah More, 1745.
37
February 3.
Look at his hands ; they are not small and dimpled, with tapering
fingers that seem to have only a deprecating touch ; they are long,
flexible, firmly-grasping liands such has Titian has painted in a picture
where he wanted to show the combination of refinement with force.
Danikl Deuonua.
February 4.
Am I a sage whose words must fall like seed
Silentl}' buried toward a far-off" spring?
I sing to living men, and my effect
Is like the summer's sun, that ri[)ens corn
Or now or never. If the world brings me gifts,
Gold, incense, myrrh — 'twill be the needful sign
That I have stirred it as the high year stirs
Before I sink to winter.
Ai{m<;aiit.
38
February 3.
February 4.
* Mrs. Oliphanr, ISlSo
39
February o.
This figure hath high price : 'Twas wrought with love
Ages ago in finest ivor}' ;
Nanglit modish in it, pure and nol>le lines
Of generous womanhood that fits all time.
MiDDLEMARCH.
February 6.
His veiy faults Avere middling. It was not in his nature to be superla-
tive in anything ; unless, indeed, he was superlatively middling, the
quintessential extract of mediocrity.
Amos Barton.
40
February b.
Madame 8evign(:', 1626.
February 6.
Qneen Anne, of England, 1664.
41
February 7.
The deed of Judas has ])een attributed to far-reaching views, and the
wish to hasten his Master's declaration of Himself as the Messiah.
Perhaps — I will not maintain the contrary — Judas represented his
motive in this wa}', and felt justified in his traitorous kiss ; but m}' belief
is that he deserved to be where Dante saw him.
THEf)PHKASTTTS SuCH.
February 8.
I HAVE all my life had a sympathy for mongrel, u'lgainly dogs, who are
nobody's pets ; and I would ratlier surprise one of them by a pat and a
pleasant morsel than meet the most condescending advances of the
loveliest sky-terrier who has his cushion l)y m}' lady's chair.
Amos Bakton.
42
February 7.
February 8.
February 9.
Neither Luther nor John Bunyan would have satisfied the modern
demand for an ideal hero, who believes nothing but what is true, feels
nothing but what is exalted, and does nothing but what is graceful.
Janet's liEPENTANCic.
February 10.
But truth-venders and medicine-venders usually recommend swallow-
ing. When a man sees his livelihood in a pill or proposition, he likes
to have orders for the dose, and not curious inquiries.
Feux Holt.
44
February 9.
February 10.
45
February 11.
Though all the luminous angels of the stars
Burst into cruel chorus on his ear,
Singing " We know no merc^'," he would cry
" I know it " still, and soothe the frightened bird
And feed the child a-liungered, walk abreast
Of persecuted men, and keep most hate
For rational torturei's.
Thk Spanish Gypsy.
February 12.
Second sight is a flag over disputed ground. But it is matter of
knowledge that there are persons whose yearnings, conceptions — nay,
travelled conclusions — continual!}' take the form of images which have
a foreshadowing power : the deed they would do starts up before them in
complete shape, making a coercive type ; the event they hunger for or
dread rises into vision with a seed-like growth, feeding itself fast on un-
numbered impressions.
Danikl Dekonda.
46
February 11.
Lydiii Alalia Child, 1802.
February 12.
February 13.
But my liiisbaiurs tongue 'ud have been a fortune to anybody, and
there was man}' a one said it was as good as a dose of pliysic to liear
him talk ; not but what that got liini into trouble, but he always said, if
the worst came to the worst, he could go and preach to the blacks. But
he did better than that, Mr. Lyon, for he married me.
Felix Holt.
February 14.
Young love-making — that gossamer web ! p]ven the points it clings
to — the things whence its subtle interlacings are swung — are scarceh'
perceptible ; momentary- touches of finger-tips, meetings of rays from
blue and dark orbs, unfinished phrases, lightest changes of cheek and
lip*, faintest tremors. The web itself is made of spontaneous beliefs
and indefinable joys, yearnings of one life toward another, visions of
completeness, indefinite trust.
MlDDLKMARCH.
48
February 13.
February 14.
49
February 15.
I 'vE no opinion o' the men, INIiss Gun — 1 don't know wliat you \\ix\Q.
And as for fretttng and stewing aljout what they 'II think of you from
morning till night, and making your life uneasy about what thej' 're
doing when the}' 're out o' your sight — as I tell Nancy, it 's a foil}' no
woman need be guilty of, if she 's got a good father and a good home ;
let her leave it to them as have got no fortin' and can 't help themselves.
Silas Mauneu.
February 1G.
There is no sense of ease like the ease we felt in those scenes where
we were born, where objects became dear to us before we had known the
labor of choice, and where the outer world seemed only an extension of
our own personality ; we accepted and loved it as we accepted our own
existence and our own limbs.
Thk Mill ox tue Floss.
50
February 15.
Susan Anthony, 1820.
February 16.
51
Agatha.
February 17.
Dear
As all the sweet home things she smiles upon,
The children and the cows, the apple-trees.
The cart, the plough, all named with that caress
"Which feigns them little, easy to be held,
Familiar to the e3'es and hand and heart.
February IS.
That 's what I jaw m}' old mother for. I sa3-s " ^-ou should ha' sent
me to a school a bit more," I says — " an' then I could ha' read i' the
books like fun, an' kep' my head cool an' empty."
The Mill ox the Floss.
52
February 17.
Rose Terry Cook, 1827
February 18.
53
February 19.
Hek body was so slight,
It seemed she coidd have floated in the sky,
And with the angeUc choir made s^'mphouy,
But in her cheek's rich tinge, and in the dark
Of darkest hair and eyes, she bore a mark
Of kinship to her generous Mother Earth,
The fervid land that gives the plumy palm-trees birth.
How Lisa Loa'ed thk Kino.
<#;>|o
Welly laike a linnet, wi' on'y joust body anoof to hold her voice.
Mh. Gilkili;.s Love-story.
February 20.
(), horrible
To be in chains ! Why 1, with all ni}' bliss,
Have longed sometimes to tt}' and be at large ;
Have felt imi)risoned in my luxury
AVith servants for m}' jailers. O my lord.
Do 3'ou not wish the world were ditlbreut?
The Spanish Gyps v.
54
February lu.
Adelaide Fatti, 1843.
February 20.
Angelina Giinike Weld.
65
February 21.
I 'vE ;x strange feeling about the dumb things as if they wanted to
speak, and it was a trouble to 'em because tlicy couldn't. I can't help
being sorry for the dogs always, though perhaps there 's no need. But
they ma^' well have more in them than tliey know how to make us under-
stand, for we can't say half what we feel, with all our words.
Adam Bkdk.
February 22.
The greatest gift the hero leaves his race
Is to have been a hero. Say we fail !
We feed the high tradition of the world.
.... I will not count
On aught 1)ut being faithful.
Tun Spanish Gypsy.
.56
February 21.
February 22.
57
February 23.
She is a royal changeling : there 's some crown
Lacks the right head, since hers wears naught but braids.
Fi:li\- IIoi.t.
However, she had the charm, and those who feared her weie also fond
of her ; the fear and fondness being perhaps both heightened by what
may be called the iridescence of her character — the play of various, nay,
contrary tendencies
Daniel Deuoxda.
February 24.
Loud men called his subdued tone an undertone, and sometimes im-
plied that it was inconsistent with openness ; though there seems no
reason why a loud man should not be given to concealment of anything
except his own voice unless it can be shown that Holy Writ has placed
the seat of candor in the lungs,
MiODLKMAKCU.
58
February 23.
Mrs. Emma Wilkird, 1787.
February 24.
r>\)
February 25.
Mrs. Bulstrode's naive Avay of conciliating piety and woiidliness,
tlie notliingness of tliis life and the desirability of cut glass, the con-
sciousness at once of filthy rags and the best damask was not a sufficient
relief from the weight of her husband's invariable seriousness.
MiDDLEMARCn.
February 26.
Bright February da3-s have a stronger charm of hope about them than
any other days in tire year. One likes to pause in the mild rays of the
sun, and think th.at tiie beautiful 3'ear is all before one. The birds seem
to feel just the same : their notes are as clear as tlie clear air.
Adam Bkde.
GO
February 25.
February 26.
61
February 27.
Oh, there's pleasure in knowing one's not a fool, like half the people
one sees about. And managing one's husband is some pleasure ; and
doing all one's business well. Wh}', if I 've onl3'got some orange-flowers
to candy, I shouldn't like to die till I see them all right.
Felix Holt.
February 28.
Think you I felt myself a prima donna ?
No, but a happy, spiritual star
Such as old Dante saw, wrought in a rose
Of light in Paradise, whoseonly self
Was consciousness of glory wide-diffused,
Music, life, power — I moving in the midst
With a sublime necessity of good.
Armgart.
62
February 27,
February 28.
Racbel, IS.'l.
63
February 29.
When I was young, Mr. Lydgate, there never was any question about
right and wrong. We l<new our catechism, and that was enough ; we
learned our creed and our duty. Everj' respectable Church person had
the same opinions. But now, if you speal< out of the prayer-book
itself, you are liable to be contradicted.
MlDDLEMARCH.
64
February 29.
The wintiy da3's passed for Romola as the white ships pass one who
is standing lonelj' on the shore — passing in silence and sameness, and
yet each bearing a hidden burden of coming change.
ROMOLA.
66
We could never have loved the earth so well if we had had no child-
hood in it, — if it were not the earth where the same flowers came up again
every spring that we used to gather with our tiny fingers as we sat lisp-
ing to ourselves on the grass, — the same hips and haws on the autumn
hedges, — the same red-l)reasts that we used to call " God's birds " be-
cause they did no harm to the precious crops.
The Mill on the Floss.
Mapxh 1,
Natdre has her language, and she is not unveracious ; but we don't
know all the intricacies of her syntax just yet, and in a hasty reading we
may happen to extract the very opposite of her real meaning.
Adam Bede.
March 2.
I II AYE often seen the image of my earl}' youth, when it seemed to rae
astonishing that the philosophers had left so many difficulties unsolved,
and that so man}^ great themes had raised no great poet to treat them.
THEOPiiiiASTUs Such.
68
March 1.
March 2.
69
March 3,
On, Aristotle ! if 3-011 had had the advantage of being " the freshest
modern " instead of the greatest ancient, would you not have mingled
j-our praise of metaphorical speech, as a sign of high intelligence, with a
lamentation that intelligence so rarely shows itself in speech without a
metaphor, — that we seldom declare what a thing is except by saying
it is something else ?
The Mill ox the Floss.
March 4.
I THINK we had the chief of all love's joys
Onl}- in knowing that we loved each otlier.
Slowly she moA'cd to choose sul)limer pain :
Yearning yet shrinking, wrought upon by awe.
Her own brief life seeming a little isle
Remote through visions of a wider world
With fates close crowded.
The Spanish Gvpsy
70
March 3.
March 4.
Rebecca Graty, 1781 ; Baroness Biinscn, 1791,
71
March 5.
Ay, ay, you 're right there : there 's allaj's two 'pinions ; there 's the
'pinion a man has of hirasen, and there's the 'pinion other folks have on
him. There'd be two 'pinions about a cracked bell, if the bell could hear
itself.
Silas Marner.
March 6.
The way in which I have come to the conclusion that human nature is
lovable — the way I have learnt something of its deep pathos, its sub-
lime masteries — has been by living a great deal among people more or
less commonplace and vulgar, of whom you would perhaps hear nothing
very surprising if you were to inquire about them in the neighborhoods
where they dwelt.
Adam Bede.
72
March 5.
March 6.
73
March 7.
It is undeniable that a too intense consciousness of one's Icinsliip with
all frailties and vices undermines the active lieroism which battles against
wrong.
Theophrastus Such.
March S.
Yet surel3% sureh' the only true knowledge of our fellow-man is that
which enables us to feel with him, — which gives a fine ear for the heart-
pulses that are beating under the mere clothes of circumstance and
opinion. Our subtlest analysis of schools and sects must miss the
essential truth, unless it be lit up by the love that sees, in all forms of
human thought and work, the life and death struggles of separate human
beings.
Janet's Repentance.
74
March 7.
March 8.
75
March 9.
We get tired of a " manner" in conversation as in painting, when one
theme after another is treated with the same lines and touches. I begin
with a liking for an estimable master, but b}' the time he has stretched
his iuterpi'etation of the world unbrokcnl}' along a palatial gallerj-, I have
had wliat the cautious Scotch mind would call " enough" of him.
TiniOPHRASTus Such.
March 10.
He thought all loveliness was lovelier,
She crowning it ; all goodness credible,
Because of the great trust her goodness bred.
The Spanish Gypsi
76
March 9.
March 10.
Queen Louise, of Prussia, 1776.
77
March 11.
" Ah ! " said Mrs. Poyser, " an' it's poor work allays settiii' the dead
above the livin'. We shall all on us be dead sometime, I reckon ; it 'iid
be better if folks 'ud make much on us beforehand, i'stid o' beginnin' when
we are gone. It's but little good you'll do a-watering the last 3'ear's
crop."
Adam Bede.
March 12.
The calendar hath not an evil day
For souls made one by love, and even death
Were sweetness, if it came like rolling waves
While they two clasped each other and foresaw
No life apart. Middlemarch.
— ^np —
It lay in the probabilities of things that gentr3''s intellects should be
peculiar : since they had not to get their own living, the good Lord might
have economized in their case that common sense which others were so
much in need of. Felix Holt.
78
March 11.
March 12
Lady Hester Stanhope, 1776; Mary Howitt, 1799.
79
March 13.
For I have observed this remarkable coincidence, that the select
natures who pant after the ideal, and find nothing in pantaloons or petti-
coats great enough to command their reverence or love, are curiously
in iniison with the narrowest and pettiest.
Adam Bede.
March 14.
He felt for the first time that loving awe in the presence of noble
womanhood which is, perhaps, something like the worship paid of old to
a great nature-goddess, who was not all-knowing, but whose life and
powei" were something deeper and more primordial than knowledge.
KOMOLA.
80
March 13.
March 14.
Aspasia, about 460 B. C.
81
March 15,
Hkat is a great agent and a useful word, but considered as a means of
explaining tlie universe it requires an extensive knowledge of ditferences ;
and as a means of explaining character, " sensitiveness" is in much the
same predicament.
Daniel Dkkonda.
March 16.
We will watch the spheres,
And see the constellations bend and plunge
Into a depth of being where our eyes
Hold them no more.
TuK Spanish Gypsy.
He was gradually discovering the delight there is in frank kindness
and companionship between a man and a woman who have no passion to
hide or confess.
MiDDLEMAKCH.
82
March 15.
March 16.
Caroline Herschel, 1750; Miss Berry, Horace Walpole's friend, 1763.
83
March 17.
Like the sweet blackbird's fragmentary chant,
Yet wakes again, with varying rise and fall,
In songs that seem emergent memories
Prompting brief utterance.
Yes, dearest, it is true.
Speech is the broken light upon the depth
Of the unspoken ; even your loved words
Float in the larger meaning of your voice
As something dimmer.
The Spanish Gypsy.
March IS.
And rank for her meant duty, various,
Yet equal in its worth, done worthily.
Command was service : humblest service done
By willing and discerning souls was glory.
Agatha.
84
March 17.
Jean Ingelow, 1830,
March 18.
Princess Louise, wife of Marquis of Lome.
85
March 19.
But uow, she was glowing like a dark-tipped yet delicate ivory-tinted
flower in the warm sunlight of content, thinking of an}" possible grief as
part of that life with Deronda which she could call b^'no other name than
good, Mirah was ready to believe that he had been a rescuing angel
to many besides herself. The only wonder was that she, among thsm
all, was to have the bliss of being continually by his side.
Daniel Deuonda.
March 20.
She stretched forth
Her tender hands, that oft had lain in his.
The hands he knew so well, that sight of them
Seemed like their touch.
The backward years —
O she would not forget them — would not drink
Of waters that brought rest, while he far off
Remembered. — " Father, I renounced the joy,
You must forgive the sorrow." Middlemakch.
8G
March 19.
Margaret Klopstock, 1728.
March 20.
Heloise, about 1102.
87
March 21.
In fact there was a general sense in the Featherstone blood that every-
bod}' must watch everA'body else, and that it would be well for ever3body
else to reflect that the Almighty was watching him.
MlDDLEMARCH.
March 22.
A SOFT light fell from the upper windows on sleek brown or gra}^ flanks
and haunches ; on mild equine faces looking out with active nostrils over
the varnished brown boarding, on the ha}' hanging from racks and on
the pale-golden straw scattered or in heaps.
"Do you take oflT your hat to the horses?" said Grandcourt with a
slight sneer. " Why not ? " said Deronda.
Daniel Deronda.
March 21.
March 22.
Rosa Bonheur, 1822.
89
March 23.
As Diuali expressed it, " She was never left to herself, but it was always
given to her when to keep silence and when to speak." And do we not
all agree to call rapid thought and nohle impulse by the name of inspira-
tion ? After our subtlest analysis of the mental process, we must still
say as Dinah did, that our highest thoughts and our best deeds are all
given to us.
Adam Bede.
March 24.
Hamlet, Prince of Denmark, was speculative and irresolute, and we
have a great tragedy in consequence. But if his father had lived to a
good old age, and his uncle had died an early death, we can conceive
Hamlet's having married Ophelia, and got through life with a reputa-
tion for sanity, notwithstanding many soliloquies and some moody
sarcasms towards the fair daughter of Polonius, to say nothing of the
frankest incivility to his father-in-law.
The Mill on the Floss.
90
March 23.
March 24.
91
March 25.
A man's mind — wiiat there is of it — has alwaj's the advantage of being
masculine, — as the smallest birch-tree is of a higher kind than the most
soaring palm, — and even his ignorance is of a sounder quality.
MiDDLEMARCH.
March 26.
I KNOW it is difficult for people in these instructed times to believe in
Uncle Pullet's ignorance ; but let them reflect on the remarkable results
of a great natural faculty under favoring circumstances. And Uncle
Pullet had a great natural faculty for ignorance.
The Mili. ox the Floss,
98
March 25.
^^'^^-^^^^ ^cu.cLU, ZudLsA^ , /|?^6
March 26.
n
March 27.
But was not Mirah to be there ? What furniture can give such a
finish tearoom as a tender woman's face? And is there an}' bar mo nj'
of tints tliat has such stirrings of delight as the sweet modulations of her
voice ?
Daniel Deronda.
March 28.
The strong emotions from which the life of a human being receives a
new bias win their victory as the sea wins his ; though the advance maj'^
be snre, they will often, after a mightier wave than usual, seem to roll
back so far as to lose all the ground they had made.
» Janet's Repentance,
94
March 2'
March 28.
95
March 29
What quarrel, what harshness, what unbelief in each other can subsist
in the presence of a great calamit}', when all the artificial vesture of our
life is gone, and we are all one with each other in primitive mortal needs?
The Mill ox thk Floss.
March 30.
It is a sad weakness in us, after all, that the thought of a man's death
hallows him anew to us; as if life were not sacred too, — as if it were
comparativel}' a light thing to fail in love and reverence to the brother
who has to climb the whole toilsome steep with us, and all our tender-
ness was due to the one who is spared that hard journe3\
Janet's Ivepentance.
96
March 29.
March oO.
97
March 31.
I a:m not sure that the greatest man of his age, if ever that solitary
superlative existed, could escape unfavorable reflections of himself in
various small mirrors ; and even Milton, looking for his portrait in a
spoon, must submit to have the facial angle of a bumi)kin.
MiDDLEMAKCn.
98
March 31.
09
She thought it was part of tlie hardship of her life that tliere was laid
upon her the burden of larger wants than others seemed to feel, — that
she had to endure this wide, hopeless 3earning for that something, what-
ever it was, that was greatest and best on this earth. Poor child ! she
was as lonely in her trouble as if she had been the onh' girl in the civil-
ized world of that day who had come out of her school-life with a soul
untrained for inevitable struggles, with much futile information about
Saxon and other kings of doulitful example, but unhappily quite without
that knowledge of the inevitable laws within and without her, which,
governing the habits, becomes morality, and, developing the feelings of
submission and dependence, becomes religion.
The Mill on the Floss.
100
There are various orders of beaut}' causing men to make fools of
themselves ; but there is one order of beauty which seems made to turn
the heads, of men, but even of women. It is a beautj- like tliat of
kittens, or very small, downy ducks, making gentle, rippling noises with
their soft bills, or babies just beginning to toddle and to engage in con-
scious mischief.
Hetty's was a spring-tide beaut}^ ; it was the beautv of young, frisk-
ing things, round-limbed, gambolling, circumventing you by a false air of
innocence — the innocence of a young star-browed calf, for example,
that, being inclined for a promenade out of bounds, leads you a severe
steeple-chase over hedge and ditch, and only comes to a stand in the
middle of a bog.
Adam Bhdk.
101
April 1.
But the sweet spring came to Milby notwithstanding : the elm-tops
were red with buds ; the church-yard was starred with daisies ; the lark
showered his love-music on the flat fields ; the rainbows hung over the
dingy town, clothing the ver}' roofs and chimneys in a strange trans-
figuring beauty.
Janet's Repentance.
April 2.
It 's a strange thing to think of a man as can lift a chair with his
teeth, and walk fifty miles on end, treml)ling and turning hot and cold at
only a look from one woman out of all the rest i' the world. It 's a
mystery we can give no account of; but no more we can of the sprouting
o' the seed, for that matter.
Adam Bede.
102
April 1
April 2.
in;;
April 3.
Imagination is always based on a keen vision, a keen consciousness of
what is and carries tlie store of definite knowledge as material for the
construction of its inward visions. Tiieophrastus Such.
— "^^^ —
For they the ro3'al-hearted women are
Who nobly love the noblest, yet have grace
For needy suffering lives in lowliest place,
Carrying a choicer sunlight in their smile,
The heavenliest ray that pitietb the vile.
How Lisa Lovkd the King.
April 4.
The creature we help to save, though only a half-reared linnet, bruised
and lost by the wa3'side — how we watch and fence it, and dote on its
signs of recovery ! Our pride becomes loving, our self is a not-self for
whose sake we become virtuous, when we set to some hidden work of
reclaiming a life from misery, and look out for our triumph in the
secret joy — " This one is the bettor for me."
Daniel Dekonda.
Kl-t
April 3.
Harriet Prei^cott Spofford, 183.5; Mary Carpenter, 1807
April 4
Dorothea Dix, 1809.
105
April 5.
Sprinkle food before a delicate-eared bird ; there is nothing he would
more willingly take, yet he keeps aloof, because of his sensiliility to
checks which to 3'ou are imperceptible. And one man differs from
another, as we all differ from the Bojesman, in a sensibility to checks
that come from a variety of needs, spiritual or other.
Our consciences are not all of the same pattern, an inner deliverance
of fixed laws : They are the voice of sensil)ilities as various as our
memories.
Daniel Dekoxda.
April 6.
But always there is seed being sown silently and unseen, and every-
where there come sweet flowers without our foresight or labor. We
reap what we sow, but Nature has love over and above that justice, and
gives us shadow and blossom and fruit that spring from no planting of
ours.
Janet's Repentance.
106
April o.
April 6
April 7.
The rush of the. water and the booming of the mill bruig a dream}'
deafness, which seems to heighten the peacefnlness of the scene. They
are like a great curtain of sound, sliutting one out from tlie world
beyond.
The Mill on the Floss.
April 8.
In speech and look
A touch of graceful wildness, as of things;
Not trained or tamed for uses of the world ;
Most like the Fauns that roamed in da3's of o!d
About the listening, whispering woods, and shared
The subtler sense of silvan ears and eyes
Undulled by scheming thought.
Tni: Spanish Gypsy
10s
April 7.
April 8.
• Bright Eyes," Siizette La Fleche, 1854.
109
April 9.
Happy the man, 3'ou would have thought, whose eye will rest on her
in the pauses of his fireside reading — whose hot, aching forehead will
be soothed by the contact of her cool, soft hand — who will recover him-
self from dejection at his mistakes and failures in the loving light of her
unreproaching eyes.
Amos Barton.
April 10.
Strange and piteous to think what a centre of wretchedness a delicate
piece of human flesh like that might be, wrapped round with fine raiment,
the poor self within her sitting in sick distaste of all things.
Daniel Deronda.
A CHIEF misfortune of high birth is that it usually shuts a man out
from the large sympathetic knowledge of human experience, which
comes from contact with various classes on their own level.
Theophrastus Such.
llu
April 9
April 10.
Queen Hortcuse, of Holland, 1783.
in
April 11.
Society never made the preposterous demand that a man should
think as much about his own qualifications for making a eliavming girl
happ}- as he thinks of hers for making himself happy. As if a man
could choose not onh- his wife, but his wife's husband ! or as if he were
bound to provide charms for his posterity in his own person !
MlDDLEMARCH.
April 12.
As for them best Holland sheets, I should repeut buying 'em, only
they '11 do to lay us out in. An' if you was to die tomorrow, Mr. Tulli-
ver, they 're mangled beautiful, an' all ready, an' smell o' lavender as it
'ud be a pleasure to lay them out, an' they lie at the left-hand corner o'
the big oaken chest, at the back — not as I should trust anybody to look
'em out but m^'self.
Thk Mill ox rnr': Floss.
112
April 11.
April 12.
113
April 13.
A TOUNG lad}' of some birth and fortune, who knelt suddenly down
on a brick floor by the side of a sick laborer, and prayed fervently, as if
she thought herself living in the time of the Apostles — who had strange
whims of fastinp- and of sitting up at night to read old theological books !
Such a wife might awaken 3-ou some fine mornhig with a new scheme for
the application of her income.
MiDDLEMAKGH.
April 14.
He dreaded, as if it were a dwelling-place of lost souls, that dead ana-
tomy- of culture which turns the universe into a mere ceaseless answer to
queries, and knows, not ever3-thing, but everything else about every-
thing— as if one should be ignorant of nothing concerning the scent of
violets except the scent itself, for which one had no nostril.
Damel Dkuonda.
114
April 13.
Madame Guyon, 104S.
April 14.
115
April 15.
The saints were cowards who stood b}' to see
Christ crucified : they should have flung themselves
Upon the Roman spears, and died in vain —
The grandest death, to die in vain — for love
Greater than swap's the forces of the world.
Thk Spanish Gypsy.
O memories !
O past that is !
April 16.
Two Lovers.
To he right in great memorable moments, is perhaps the thing we need
most desire for ourselves.
What we call illusions are often, in truth, a wider vision of past and
present realities — a willing movement of a man's soul with the larger
sweep of the world's forces — a movement toward a more assured end
than the chances of a single life.
Felix Holt.
IIG
April 15.
Mrs. Brown, wife of John Bro\i n, of Ossawottamy.
April 16.
117
April 17.
The responsibility of tolerance lies with those who have the wider
vision.
The Mill ox the Floss.
That subtle result of culture which we call Taste was subdued by the
need of far deeper motive ; just as the nicer demands of the palate are
annihilated by urgent hunger.
ROMOLA.
April IS.
There is a terrible coercion in our deeds which may at first turn the
honest man into a deceiver, and then reconcile him to the change ; for
this reason : that the second wrong presents itself to him in the guise of
the only practicable right.
Adam Bede.
118
April 17.
April IS.
119
April 19
She felt a deep stillness within. She thirsted for no pleasure ; she
craved no worldly good. She saw the years to come stretch before her
like an autumn afternoon, filled with resigned memor}'. Life to her
coukl nevermore have an}' eagerness ; it was a solemn service of gratitude
and patient effort.
Janet's Kepentance,
April 20.
She uad the essential attributes of a lady — high veracity, delicate
honor in her dealings, deference toothers, and refined personal habits.
Silas Marnek.
It is terrible, the keen bright eye of a woman, when it has once been
turned with admiration on what is severely true ; but then the severel}'
true rarely comes within its range of vision.
Felix Holt.
120
April 19.
Liicreria ll:ii),l,,lf Oarficld. 18^2.
April 20.
Joanna Baillie, 1762.
]?1
April 21.
This was the work of Jabal ; he began
The pastoral life, and, sire of joys to be.
Spread the sweet ties that bind the famih'.
O'er dear, dumb souls that thrilled at man's caress,
And shared his pain with patient helpfulness.
The Legend of Jlbal.
April 22.
She was one of those satisfactory creatures whose intercourse has the
charm of discover}' ; whose integrity- of faculty and expression begets a
wish to know what they will sa}' on all subject's, or how they will perform
whatever they undertake ; so that they end by raising not only a con-
tinual expectation, but a continual sense of fulfilment.
Daxiel Deronda.
122
April 21.
April 22.
Madame de Stael, 176C.
12£
April 23.
No great deed is done
B}' falterers who ask for certainty.
The Spanish Gypsy.
The world has made up its mind rather contemptuously about those
who were deaf to Columbus. Middlemarch.
I WILL not feed on doing great tasks ill,
Dull the world's sense with mediocrity,
And live by trash that smothers excellence,
One o'ift I had that i-anked me with the best.
Ar.mgart.
April 24.
The uncertainty of things is a text rather too wide and obvious for
fruitful application ; aud to discourse of it is, as one may sa^', to bottle
up the air and make a present of it to those who ai'e already standing
out of doors.
Felix Holt.
121-
April 23.
Queen Isabella, of Castile, 1451 ; Charlotte Bronte, 1816.
April 24.
]2l
April 25.
I will so live they shall remember me
For deeds of such divine beneficence
As rivers have, that teach men what is good
By blessing them.
The Spanish Gypsy.
Heva dog, Miss — They're better friends nor an}' Christian.
The Mill on the Floss.
April 26.
Oh, I can live unmated, but not live
Without the bliss of singing to the world,
And feeling all my world respond to me.
Armgakt.
Heaven knows what would become of our sociality if we never visited
people we speak ill of; we should live like Egj'ptian hermits in crowded
solitudes.
Janet's Repentance,
126
April 25
Baroness Burdett-Coutts, 1814.
April 26.
Alice Caiy, 1822.
127
April 27.
A self disturbed
By budding growtlis oi" reason, premature,
That breed disease.
The Spamsh Gyps v.
While this is tlie social air in which mortals begin to breathe, there
will be collisions such as those in Dorothea's life, where great feelings
will take the aspect of error, and great faith the aspect of illusion.
MlDDLEMAKCH.
April 28.
That 's what a man wants in a woman mostly ; lie wants to make sure
o' one fool as '11 tell him he 's wise. But there 's some men can do wi'-
out that — they think so much o' themselves a' read}- ; an' that 's how it
is there 's old bachelors.
Adam Bede.
128
April 27.
Mary WoUstonecraft Godwin, 17S9.
April 28.
129
April 29.
One may prefer fresh eggs though laid ]\y a fowl of the meanest ini-
derstanding, but why fresh sermons ?
Theophhastus Srcn.
A sermon heard with all the more satisfaction because it had been
heard for the twentieth time ; for to minds on the Shepperton level, it is
repetition, not novelt}', that produces the strongest effect ; and phrases,
like tunes, are a long time making themselves at home in the brain.
Mk. Gilfill's Loye-Story.
April 30.
The firmaments of daisies since to me
Have had those mornings in their opening ej'es,
The bunched cow^slip's pale transparency',
Carries that sunshine of sweet memories.
Brother and Sister.
The soul without still helps the soul within.
And its deft magic ends wliat we begin.
The Legend of Jubal.
130
April 29.
April 30.
131
It was in the prime
Of the sweet spring-time,
In the linnet's throat
Trembled the love-note,
And the love-stirred air
Thrilled the blossoms there.
Little shadows danced,
Each a tiny elf,
Happy in large light
And the thinnest self.
The Spanish Gypsy.
132
1 MIGHT mention all the divine charms of a bright, spring day,
bnt if you had never in your life utterly forgotten yourself in straining
your eyes after the mounting lark, or in wandering through the still
lanes when the fresh-opened blossoms fill them with a sacred, silent
beauty like that of fretted aisles, where would be the use of ni}' descrip-
tive catalogue ? I could never make you know what I meant by a briglit,
spring day.
132
May 1.
Capable of conceiving and choosing a life's task with far-off issues,
yet capable of the unapplauded heroism which turns off the road of
achievement at the call of the neai'er dut}- whose effect lies within the
beatings of the hearts that are close to us, as the hunger of the un-
fledged bird to Ihe breast of its parent.
Daniel Deronda.
May 2.
But 3'ou — you claimed tlie universe ; nought less
Then all existence working in sure tracks
Towards 3'our supremacy. The wheels might scathe
A myriad destinies — nay, must perforce —
But 3'ours tiic}' must keep clear of.
Armgart.
134
May 1.
Fidelia Fisk, 1816.
May 2.
Empress Catherine II., of Russia, 1729.
135
May 3.
Our delight in the sunshine on the deep-bladed grass today might be
no more than the faint perception of wearied souls, if it were not for the
sunshine and the grass in the far-off ^ears, which still live in us, and
transform our perception into love.
The Mill on the Floss.
May 4.
Behold my lady's carriage stop the wa}'.
With powdered lacque}' and with champing bay ;
She sweeps the matting, treads the crimson stair.
Her arduous function solely " to be there,"
Like Siriiis rising o'er the silent sea.
She hides her heart in lustre loftily.
Daniel Deronda.
136
May 3.
May 4.
* Lad}' Martha Washington, 1732.
137
May 5.
All the world was hers.
Splendor was but the herald trumpet note
Of Jier imperial coming.
The Spanish G\tsy.
The great story of this world reduced for her to the little tale of her
own existence — dull obscurity everywhere, except where the keen light
fell on the narrow track of her own lot, wide onl}- for a woman's
anguish.
Felix Holt.
May 6.
And for my part, I can call no age absolutely unpoetic ; how should it
be so, since there are always children to whom the acorns and the swal-
low's eggs are a wonder To be quite fair toward the ages, a
little ugliness as well as beauty must be allowed to each of them, a
little implicit poetry even to those which echoed loudest with servile,
pompous and trivial prose.
Theopiikastus Such.
138
May 5.
Empress Eugenie, 1826.
May 6.
139
May 7.
The temptations of beauty are much dwelt upon ; but I fancy they
only bear the same relations to those of ugliness, as the temptation to
excess at a feast, where the delights are varied for e3'e and ear as well as
palate, bears to the temptations that assail the desperation of hunger.
Does not the Hunger Tower stand as the type of the utmost trial to
what is human in us?
The Mill ox the Floss.
May 8.
But, for the point of wisdom, I would choose
To know the mind that stirs l)etween the wings
Of bees and budding wasps, or fills the woods
With myriad murmurs of responsive sense
And true-aimed impulse, rather than to know
The thoughts of warriors.
The Spanish Gypsy.
140
May
May S.
141
May 9.
^Iany legends were afterwards told about the blessed Lad}' who came
over the sea, but they were legends by which all who heard might know
that in times gone by a woman had done beautiful, loving deeds there,
rescuing those who were ready to perish.
ROJIOLA.
May 10.
Though I were happy, throned beside the king,
I should be tender to each little thing ;
With hurt warm breast, that had uo speech to tell
Its inward pangs, and I would soothe it well
With tender touch and with a low, soft moan
For company.
How Lisa Loved the King.
142
May 9.
* Florence Nightingale, 1820.
May 10.
Mrs. Emily Warren Appleton, Foundress, of the Boston Society P. C. A., 1818.
143
May 11.
A FOUNTAIN mere, vase-shapen and broad-lipped.
Where timorous birds alight with tim' feet,
And hesitate and bend wise listening ears,
And fly away again with undipped beak.
The Spanish Gypsy.
May 12.
She minds what she is doing, and that is a point in a woman. A
man whose life is of an}' Value should think of his wife as a nurse ; that
is what I should do, if I married ; and I believe I have lived single long
enough not to make a mistake in that line. Some men must marry to
elevate themselves a Utile, but when I am in need of that, I hope
some one will tell me so — I hope some individual will apprise me of the
fact.
MlDDLEMAPCH.
144
May 11.
CLtCWvCA. /u* i<Lb4cci»n.*.jly i r^ \c ^
May 12.
145
May 13.
But you were born to reign.
'T is a compulsion of a higher sort,
Whose fetters are the net Invisible
That holds all life together. Royal deeds
May make long destinies for multitudes,
And 3-ou are called to do them. You belong
Not to the pett}' round of circumstance
That makes a woman's lot.
The Spanish Gypsy.
May 14.
What sort of earth or heaven would hold any spiritual wealth in it fur
souls pauperized by inaction ? If one firmament has no stimulus for our
attention and awe, I don't see how four would have it.
A CHANGE came over her face — that subtle change in nerve and
muscle which will sometimes give a child-like expression even to the
elderl}' ; it is the subsidence of self-assertion.
Daniel Deronda.
146
May 13.
Maria Theresa, 1717.
May 14.
Mrs. Delany, 1700.
147
May 15.
We are often startled by the severity of mild people on exceptional
occasions ; the reason is, that mild people are most likely to be nnder
the 3^oke of traditional impressions.
Adam Bede.
May 16.
Like all 3'outhful creatures, she felt as if the present conditions of
choice were final. And in one sense she was under no illusion. It is
only in that freshness of our time that the choice is possible which gives
unity to life, and makes the memory a temple where all relics and all
votive offerings, all worship and all grateful joy are an unbroken history
sanctified bv one religion. Felix Holt.
You always see what nobody else sees, yet you never see what is quite
plain. MiDDLEMAROH.
148
May 15.
May 16.
Elizabeth Palmer Peabody, 1S04
149
May 17.
If we had lost oui- own chief good, other people's good would remain,
and that is worth trjing for. Some can be happy. I seemed to see
that more clearly than ever, when I was most wretched. I can hardly
think how I could have borne the trouble if that feeling hud not come to
me to make strength.
MiDDLEMARCH.
May 18.
To be a poet is to have a soul so quick to discern that no shade of
quality escapes it, and so quick to feel that discernment is but a hand
playing with finel3'-ordered variety on the chords of emotion — a soul in
which knowledge passes instantaneously into feeling, and feeling flashes
back as a new organ of knowledge.
MiDDLEMAUCH.
150
May 17;
Lady Byron, 1792
May is,
EIizal)cth Barrett Browning, 1809.
151
May 19.
Full souls are double mirrors, making still
An endless vista of fair things before
Repeating them behind.
A Minor Prophet.
May 20.
This brave, active man, who would have hastened toward any danger
or toil to rescue Hett}^ from an apprehended wrong or misfortune, felt
himself powerless to contemplate irremediable evil and suffering. Ener-
getic natures, strong for all strenuous deeds, will often rush away from a
hopeless sufferer, as if they were hard-hearted. It is the overmastering
•sense of pain that drives them.
Adajvi Bede.
152
May 19.
Mrs. Jameson, 1797.
May 20.
153
May 21.
It seems to mo that beauty is part of the finished language by which
goodness speaks. Romola.
Her profile, as well as her stature and bearing, seemed to gain the
more dignity from her plain garments, Avhich by the side of provincial
fashion, gave her the impressiveness of a fine quotation from the Bible —
or from one of our elder poets — in a paragraph of today's newspaper.
How can we live and thinic that anyone has trouble — piercing
trouble — and we could help them and never try. Middlemarch.
May 22.
That solid, imperturbable ease and good-humor which is infectious,
and, like great grassy hills in the sunshine, quiets even an irritated
egoism, and makes it rather ashamed of itself.
MlDDLEMAKCII.
15i
May 21.
Duchess of Sutherland, 1806; Mrs. Elizabeth Fry, 1780.
May 22.
155
May 23.
She was a creature full of eager, passionate longings, for all that was
beautiful and glad ; thirsty for all knowledge ; with an ear straining
after dreamy music that died » away and would not come near to her ;
with a blind, unconscious yearning for something that would link to-
gether the wonderful impressions of this mysterious life, and give her
soul a sense of home in it. The Mill on the Floss.
A SENSE of contributing to form the world's opinions makes conver-
sation particularly livel}'. Middlemarch.
May 24.
A woman's rank
Lies in the fulness of her womanhood ;
Therein alone she is royal. Armgart.
In this, her woman's lot was perfect ; that the man she loved was her
hero ; that her woman's passion and her reverence for rarest goodness
rushed together in an undivided current. Felix Holt.
156
May 23.
Margaret Fuller, 1810.
May 24.
Queen Victoria, 1819.
lol
May 25.
It is for this rare, precious quality of truthfulness that I delight in
many Dutch paintings, wliich lofty-minded people despise. I find a
source of delicious sympathy in these faithful pictures of a monotonous,
homely existence, which has been the fate of so many more among my
fellow mortals than a life of pomp or of absolute indigence, of tragic suf-
fering or of world stirring actions. Adam Bedk.
May 26.
She did not want to deck herself with knowledge — to wear it loose
from the nerves and blood that fed her action. . . But something she
3^earned for by which her life might be filled with action at once rational
and ardent. Middlemarch.
158
May 25.
May 26.
Lady Mavy Wortley Montagu, 1689.
159
May 27.
Who can all at once describe a human being .
Lo ! she turns — immortal youth
Wrought to mortal stature,
Fresh as starlight's aged truth —
Mauy-uamed Nature.
Daniel Deronda.
MiDDLEMARCH.
May 28.
Family likeness has often a deep sadness in it. Nature, that great
tragic dramatist, knits us together by bone and muscle, and divides us
by the subtler web of our brains ; blends yearning and repulsion, ani
ties us by our heart-strings to the beings that jar us at every movement.
Adam Bede.
160
May 27.
Julia Waj-d Howe, 1819.
May 28.
ici
May 29.
I MEANT, all life is but poor mockery ;
Action, place, power, the visible wide world
Are tattered masquerading of this self,
This pulse of conscious myster}' ; all change.
Whether to high or low, is change of rags.
The Spanish Gypsy.
Certainly if a bad-tempered man can be admirably virtuous, he must
be so under extreme difficulties.
Theophrastus Such.
May 30.
Even people whose lives have been made various by learning, some-
times find it hard to keep a fast hold on their habitual views of life, on
their faith in the Invisible — nay, on the sense that their past joys and
sorrows are a real experience, when they are suddenly transported to a
new land, where the beings around them know nothing of their history,
and share none of their ideas, where their mother Earth shows another
lap, and human life has other forms than those on which their souls have
been nourished.
Silas Marner.
162
M^vY 29.
Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough, 1660.
May 30.
163
May 31.
Wife. "What are the Madicojurabras and Zuzitotzuras? I never
heai\l you talk of them before. What use can it be troubling yourself
about such things ? "
Husband. " That is the way Julia ! That is the way wives alienate
their husbands, and make any hearth pleasanter to him than his own."
Theophrastus Such.
1G4
May 31.
165
But it is almo'":t certain that 3'ou,' too, have been in love — perhaps
even more than once, though you ma}' not choose to say so to all your lady
friends ; if so, you will no more think the slight words, the timid looks,
the tremulous touches, by which two human souls approach each other
gradually, like two little quivering rain streams before they mingle into
one, than you will think the first-detected signs of coming spring trivial.
Those slight words and looks and touches are part of the soul's lan-
guage, and the finest language is chiefl}' made up of unimposing words
such as "light," " sound," " stars," " music" — words really not worth
looking at, or hearing in themselves ; it is only that they happen to be
the signs of something unspeakably great and beautiful.
Adam Bede.
166
3
There was one time of the year which was held in Raveloe to be
especially suitable for a wedding. It was when the great lilacs and
laburnums in the old-fashioned gardens showed their golden and purple
wealth above the lichen-tinted walls, and when there were calves still
young enough to want bucketfuls of fragrant milk.
People were not so busy then as they must become when the full
cheese-making and the mowing had set in ; and besides it was a time
when a bridal dress could be worn with comfort and seen to advantage.
Silas Marxer.
167
June 1.
In the screening time
Of purple blossoms, when the petals crowd
And softly crush like cherub cheeks in heaven,
Who thinks of greenly-withered fruit and worms ?
Tun Spanish Gypsy.
June 2.
All honor and reverence to the divine beauty of form ! Let us culti-
vate it to the utmost in men, women and children — in our gardens and
in our houses ; but let us love that other beauty, too, which lies in no
secret of proportion, but in the secret of deep, human sympathy.
Adam Bede.
168
June 1.
7 ^
June 2
169
June 3.
Mr. Irwine was like a good meal o' A'ictnal — 3'ou were the better for
him without thinking on it ; and Mr. Rvde was like a dose o' phj'sic —
he griped you and worrited you, and after all he left 3'ou much the same.
AdjUM Bede.
June 4.
And now above them pours a wondrous voice
(Such as Greek reapers heard in Sicil^')
With wounding rapture in it, like love's arrows ;
And clear upon clear air as colored gems
Dropped in a crystal cup of water pure,
Fall words of sadness, simple, lyrical.
The Spanish Gypsy.
170
June 3.
June 4.
Sappho, about 610 B. C.
171
June h.
Yet love is not quite even,
For feeble creatures, little birds and fawns,
Are shaken more by fear, while large, strong things
Can bear it stoutly. So we women still
Are not well dealt with — yet would I choose to be
Fedalma loving Silva.
The Spanish Gypsy.
June 6.
There are faces which nature charges with a meaning and a pathos
not belonging to the single human soul that flutters beneath them, but
speaking the joys and sorrows of foregone generations. Eyes that tell
of deep love which doubtless has been and is somewhere, but not paired
with these eyes ; just as a national language may be instinct with poetry
unfelt by the lips that use it.
Adam Bede.
172
June 5.
June 6.
1 7;!
June
Is it out of the question tiiat we should entertain some scruple about
mixing our own flavor, as of the too cheap and insistent nutmeg, with that
of every great writer, and every great subject — especiall}' when our
flavor is all we have to give, the matter or knowledge having been
already given by somebody' else ?
Theoi'iiuastus Such.
June S.
O God, we know not yet
If bliss itself is not young misery
AVith fangs swift growing.
The Spanish (ivpsv.
But it was not entire!}' out of devotion to her future husband that she
wislied to know Latin and Greelv. Those provinces of masculine Ivuowl-
edge seemed to her a standing ground from which all truth could be seen
more trui}-.
MiDOI.EMAHCH.
174
June 7.
(XLcl ^^ajuu^. IS-^i^.
June S.
Lady Jane Gra}-, 1,537.
175
June 9.
These gems have life in them ; their colors speak,
Say what words fail of. So do many things :
The scent of jesamine, and the fountain's plash,
The moving shadows on the far-off hills,
The slanting moonlight and our clasping hands.
The Spanish Gypsy.
June 10.
When the Bible 's such a big book, an' thee canst read all thro 't, an'
ha' the pick o' the texes, I canna think why thee dostna pick better
words as donna mean so much more nor they say. Adam does na pick
pick a that'n ; I can understan' the tex as he 's alias's a-sayin', " God
helps them as helps theirsens."
Adam Bede.
176
June 9.
June 10.
177
June 11.
Rosamond was particularly forcible by means of that mild persistence
which, as we know, enables a white, soft, living substance to make its
way in spite of opposing rock.
MiDDI.EMARCH.
June 12.
The faith that life on earth is being shaped
To glorious ends, that order, justice, love.
Mean man's completeness, mean etfect as sure
As roundness in the dew-drop — that great faith
Is but the rushing and expanding stream
Of thought, of feeling, fed by all the past.
A MixoK Prophet.
178
June 11.
June 12
Harriet Martineau, 1802.
17!)
June 13.
Her look was something like that of a fawn, or other gentle animal,
before it turns to run awa}' ; no blush, no special alarm, but only some
timidity which j'et could not hinder her from a long look before she
turned.
Daniel Deuonda.
^»
That moment will not come again ; applause
Ma}' come and plenty ; but the first, first draught !
Music has sounds for it : I know no words.
Akmgart.
June 14.
It is more than a woman's love that moves us in a woman's ej'es — it
seems to be a far-off', mighty love that has come near to us, and made
speech for itself there ; the rounded neck, the dimpled arm, move us by
something more than their prettiness, by their close kinship with all we
have known of tenderness and peace.
Adaji Bede.
180
June 13
Fanny Burney, 1752.
June 14.
181
June 15.
A CRYSTAL mirror to the life around,
Flashing the comment keen of simple fact
Defined in words ; lending brief, lyric voice
To grief and sadness ; hardly taking note.
Of difference betwixt his own and others ;
But rather singing as a listener
To the deep moans, the cries, the wild, strong joys
Of universal Nature.
The Spanish Gypsy.
June 16.
It 's the same with love and happiness as with sorrow — the more we
know of it the better we can feel what other people's lives are, or might
be, and so we shall onl}^ be more tender to 'em and wishful to help 'em.
Adam Bede.
183
June 15.
Harriet Beecher Stowe, 1812.
June 16.
183
June 17.
It is this living force of sentiment in common which makes a national
consciousness. Nations so moved will resist conquest with the very
breasts of their women, will pay their millions and their blood to abolish
slavery, will share privation in famine and all calamitv, will produce
poets to sing " some great stor}' of a man," and thinkers whose theory
will bear the test of tlie action.
Theophkastus Such.
June 18..
This afternoon the dog-roses were tossing out their pink wreaths, the
nightshade was in its 3'ellow and purple glory, the pale honey-suckle
grew out of reach, peeping high up out of a holly-bush, and, over all, an
ash or a sycamore every now and then threw its shadow across the path.
Adam Bede.
184
June 1'
June IS.
I8i
June 10.
But I must observe that goodness is of a modest nature, easily dis-
couraged, and when mucli elbowed in early life, is apt to retire into ex-
treme privac}', so that it is more easil}' believed in by those who construct
a selfish old gentleman theoreticall}^ than b}^ those who form the narrow-
est judgments based on his personal acquaintance.
MlDDLEMARCII.
June 20.
The finest child-like faces have this consecrating power, and make us
shudder anew at all the grossness and basel3^-wrought griefs of the world,
lest the}- should enter here and defile.
Daniel Deijonda.
He's eighty-three, you know. It's really an unconscionable age.
It 's only women who have a right to live as long as that.
Adam Bede.
186
June 19.
June 20.
Mrs. BarbauUl, 174:5.
is;
June 21,
And the women, he observed, could never do anything but put finger
in eye at a wedding. Even Mrs . Poyser could not trust herself to speak as
the neighbors shook hands with her ; and Lisbcth began to cry in the
face of the verj' first person who told her she was getting 3"oung again.
Adaai Brdk.
June 22.
If there must be women to make trouble in the world, it's but fair
there should be women to be comforters under it ; and she 's one — she 's
one. It's a pity she 's a Methodist; but there's no getting a woman
without some foolishness or other.
Adam Bedk.
188
June 21.
June 22.
189
June 23.
All men who watched
Lost her regretfully, then drew content
From thought tlmt she must quickly come again,
And filled the time with striving to be near.
Deep despair
Fills all your tones as with slow agony,
Speak words that narrow anguish to some shape ;
Tell me what dread is close before you?
The Spanish Gypsy.
June 24.
There is a charm of eye and lip which comes with every little phrase
that certifies delicate preception or fine judgment, with evei-y unosten-
tatious word or smile that shows a heart awake to others ; and no sweep
of garment or turn of figure is more satisfying than that which enters as
a restoration of cofidence that one person is present on whom no inten-
tion will be lost.
Daniel Deronda.
190
June 23..
Empress Josephine, 1763.
June 2^
191
June 25.
For in the multitude of middle-aged men who go about their vocation
in a daily course determined for them much in the same way as the tie
of their cravats, there is always a good number who once meant to shape
their own deeds and alter the world a little. Tlie story of their coming
to be shapen after the average is hardly ever told even in their con-
sciousness.
MlDI)I,EMARCH.
June 26.
At the gate there was half the dairy of cows, standing one behind the
other, extremely slow to understand that their large bodies might be in
the way ; at the far gate thei'e was the mare holding her head over the
bars, and, beside her, the liver-coloi'cd foal, with its head toward its
mother's flank, apparently still much embarrassed by its own straddling
existence.
Adam Bedk.
192
June 25.
June 26.
193
June 27,
My lord, I will be frank, there 's no such thing
As naked manhood. If the stars look down
On any mortal of our shape, whose strength
Is to judge all things without preference,
He is a monster, not a faitiiful man.
The Spanish Gypsy.
June 28.
Eyes that could see her on this summer-day
Might find it liard to turn another way.
She had a pensive i^eaut}' ; yet not sad ;
Rather, like minor cadences that glad
The hearts of little birds among spring boughs.
How Lisa Lovko thk King
194
June 27.
June 28.
195
June 29.
Until one height
Showed him the ocean, stretched in liquid light,
And he could hear its multitudinous roar,
Its plunge and hiss upon the pebbled shore.
The Legend of .Tubal.
June 30.
When one sees a perfect woman, one never thinks of her attributes —
one is conscious of her presence.
What do we live for, if it is not to make life less difficult to each
other ?
Dorothea herself had no dreams of being praised above other women,
feeling that there was always something better which she might have done
if she had been better and known better.
MiDDLEMARCH.
196
June 29.
Celia Thaxter, 183.5.
k^tijLi^ 'jCc^cCuAU^ i^^r-'/ccrrTTzC JJ^f
June 30.
Harriet Winslow Sewall.
197
You love the roses — so do I. I wish
The sky would rain down roses, as they rain
From off the shaken bush. Why will it not ?
Then all the valleys would be pink and white,
And soft to tread on. They would fall as light
As feathers, smelling sweet ; and it would be
Like sleeping and yet waking, all at once.
Over the sea, Queen, where we soon shall go.
Will it rain roses ?
The Spanish Gypsy.
198
A HUMAN life, I think, should be well rooted in some spot of a native
land, where it may get the love of tender kinship for the face of earth,
for the labors men go forth to, for the sounds and accents that haunt it,
for whatever will give that early home a familiar, unmistakable difference
amidst the future widening of knowledge : a spot where the definite-
ness of early memories may be inwrought with affection, and kindly
acquaintance with all neighbors, even to the dogs and donkeys, may
spread, not by sentimental effort and reflection, but as a sweet habit of
the blood.
Daniel Dekonua.
109
July 1.
A spirit framed
Too proudly special for obedience,
Too subtly pondering for mastery :
Born of a goddess with a mortal sire,
Heir of flesh-fettered, weak divinity.
Doom-gifted with long resonant consciousness
And perilous heightening of the sentient soul,
But look less curiously ; life itself
May not express us all, may leave the worst
And the best, too, like tunes in mechanism
Never awakened.
The Spanish Gypsy.
July 2.
And as wood-lilies that sweet odors bring,
Might dream the light that opes their modest eyne
Was lily-odo)"ed.
So the miniatuz'e.
Perplexed of her soul's world, all virgin pure.
Filled with heroic virtues that bright form.
How Lisa Loved the King.
200
July 1.
George Sand, 1804.
July 2.
201
July 3.
Such tragedy' as lies in the conflicts of young souls, hungry for joy,
under a lot made hard to them, under the dreariness of a home where the
morning brings no promise with it, and where the unexpectant discontent
of worn and disappointed parents, weighs on the children like a damp,
thick air, in Avhich all the functions of life are depressed.
The Mux on tuk Floss.
July 4.
The greatest question in the world is how to give every man a man's
share in what goes on in life — we want a freeman's share, and that is to
think and speak and act about what concerns us all, and see whether
these fine gentlemen who undertake to govern us are doing the best they
can for us.
Felix Hon.
202
July 3.
Frederica Soybia Wilbemina, 1709.
July 4.
^AtAM^ ^X^tiZ UUCULJ^JU. /<^^^
203
July 5.
Ant great achievement in acting, or in music, grows with tlie growth.
Whenever an artist has been able to say " I came, I saw, I conquered,"
it has been at the end of patient practice. Genius at first is little more
than a great capacity for receiving discipline.
Daniel Deronda.
July 6.
I 'd sooner ha' brewin' day and washin* da}' together than one o' these
pleasurin' days. There 's no work so tirin' as danglin' about an' starin'
an' not rightly knowin' what 3'ou 're goin' to do next ; an' keepin' your
face i' smilin' order like a grocer o' market-day, for fear people should na
think 3'ou civil enough. An' 3'ou've nothing to show for 't when it's
done, if it isn't a y allow face wi' eatin' things as disagree.
Apa.m Bedk.
204
July 5.
Mrs. Siddons, 17o.;
July 6.
'm:.
July 7.
How should all the apparatus of heaven and earth, from the farthest
firmament to the tender bosom of the mother who nourished us, make
poetr}' for a mind that has no movements of awe and tenderness, no
sense of fellowship which thrills from the near to the distant, and back
again from the distant to the near?
Daniel Deuoxda.
July 8.
One long summer's day
An angel entered at the rose-hung gate,
With skirts pale blue, a brow to quench the pearl,
Hair soft and blonde as infants', plenteous
As hers who made the wav}^ lengths once speak
The grateful worship of a rescued soul.
Yet her years were few,
Her outward beauties all in budding-time,
Her virtues the aroma of the plant
That dwells in all its being, root, stem, leaf,
And waits not ripeness. * Aoatiia.
20G
July 7.
July 8.
Maria White Lowell, 1821.
207
July 9.
These familiar flowers, these well-remembered bird-notes, this sky
with its fitful brightness, these furrowed and grassy fields, each with a
sort of a personality given to it by the capricious hedge rows — such
things as these are the mother tongue of our imagination, the language
that is laden with all the subtle, inextricable associations, the fleeting
hours of our childhood left behind thou.
The Mill on the Floss.
July 10.
The angel was a lad}', noble, young,
Taught in all seemliness that fits a court,
All love that shapes the mind to delicate, use,
Yet quiet, lowly as a meek white dove
That with its presence teaches gentleness.
Agatha.
208
July 9.
Ann Radcliff, 1764.
6iL^j)jL^-iH/
July 10.
Margaret Roper, daughter of Sir Tbomas More, and friend of Erasmus, 1503.
209
July 11.
To the far woods he wandered, listenhig,
And heard the birds their little stories sing
In notes whose rise and fall seem melted speech —
Melted with tears, smiles, glances.
The Legend of Jubal.
July 12.
It is more needful that I should have a fibre of sympathy connecting
me with that vulgar citizen who weighs out my sugar in a vilely-assorted
cravat and waistcoat, than with the handsomest rascal in red scarf and
green feathers ; more need that my heart should swell with loving admi-
ration at some trait of gentle goodness in the faulty people who sit at
the same hearth with me, than at the deeds of heroes I shall never know
except by hearsay.
Adam Bede.
210
July 11.
July 12.
211
July 13.
This sort of passion had nested in the sweet-natured, strong Rex, and
he had made up his mind to its companionship, as if it had been an
object supremely- dear, stricken dumb and helpless, and tui-ning all the
future of tenderness into a shadow of the past. But he had also made
up his mind that his life was not to be pauperized because he had to
renounce one sort of joy ; rather he had begun life again with a new
counting-up of the treasures that remained to him.
Daniel Deuonb.a.
July 14.
P\)R the first time, he felt that he was alone — that da}' after da}-,
month after month, 3'ear after 3'ear, would have to be lived through with-
out Milly's love. Spring would come, and she would not be there ; sum-
mer, and she would not be there ; and he would never have her again
■with him by the fire-side iu tlie long evenings. The seasons all seemed
irksome to his thoughts ; and how dreary the sunshiny days that would
be sure to come ! She was gone from him ; and he could never make up
for omissions in the past by filling future days with tenderness.
Amos Baktox.
212
July 13.
July 14.
.lane Welsh Carlylc, 1801.
213
July 15.
When our indignation is borne in submissive silence, we are apt to
feel twinges of doubt afterward as to our own generosity, if not justice ;
how much more when the object of our anger has gone into everlasting
silence, and we have seen his face for the last time in the meekness of
death.
Adam Bede.
July 16.
His sister was quite used to the peculiar absence of ceremony with
which he marked his sense of blood-relationship. Indeed she, herself,
was accustomed to think that entire freedom from the necessity of
behaving agreeably was included in the Almighty's intentions about
families.
MiDDLEMAUCU.
214
July 15.
July 16.
215
July 17.
Mrs. Stelling was not a, loving, tender-hearted woman ; she was a
woman whose skirt sat well, who adjusted her waist and patted her curls
with a pre-occupied air when she inquired after your welfare. These
things, doubtless, represent a great social power, but it is not the power
of love.
TuK Mill ox thk Floss.
July IS.
Though Death were King
And cruelty his right-hand minister,
Pit3% insurgent in some human breasts,
Makes spiritual empire, reigns supreme
As persecuted faith in faithful hearts.
TiiK Spanish Gypsy.
i'k;
July 17.
July 18.
Miss Louisa W. King, of Georgia, 1848.
217
July 19.
When he had something painful to tell, it was usually his way to intro-
duce it among a number of disjointed particulars, as if it were a medi-
cine that would get a milder flavor by mixing.
MiDDLEIMARCH.
July 20.
It was the first sign within the poor child of that new sense which is
the gift of sorrow — that susceptibility to the bare offices of humanity
which raises them into a bond of loving fellowship.
Maggie could make no answer but a long, deep sob of that mysterious,
wondrous happiness, that is, one with pain.
The Mill on the Floss.
218
July 19.
July 20.
- ; '.)
July 21.
For the sanctity- of oaths
Lies not in lightning that avenges them,
Bnt in the injury wrought by brolven bonds
And in the garnered good of human trust.
TiiK SpAxrsn Gypsv.
The real tie lies in the feeling and expectations we have raised in
other minds. Else all pledges might be broken, when there was no out-
ward penalty. There would be no such thing as faithfulness.
The Mill on the Floss.
July 22.
Sfie is one of those respectable witnesses wlio would testif}' to the
exact moment of an apparition, because any desirable moment will be
as exact as another to her remembrance ; or who would be the most
worthy to witness the actions of spirits on slates and tables, because the
action of limbs would not probably arrest her attention.
Theophh.vstus Such.
220
July 21,
July 22.
221
July 23.
I AM not descrying the life of the true artist. I am exalting it. I
say it is out of the reach of any but choice organizations — natures
framed to love perfection and to labor for it ; ready like all true lovers,
to endure, to wait, to say, I am not yet worthy, but she — Art, my
mistress — is worthy, and I will live to merit her. An honorable life?
Yes. But the honor comi'S from the inward vocation and the hard- won
achievement ; there is no honor in donning the life as a livery.
Daniel Dehonua.
July 24.
Will's generous reliance on the intentions of tlie uni-\'erse with regard
to himself, he held to be a mark of genius ; and certainly it is no mark
to the contrary, genius consisting neither in self-conceit nor humility,
but in a power to make, or do, not anything in general, but something in
particular.
MiDOLEMARCH.
222
July 23.
Charlotte Cushman, 1816.
July 24.
223
July 25.
The true cross of the Redeemer was the sin and sorrow of this world,
— that was what hxy heav}' on his heart, — and that is the cross we shall
share with him, if we would have any part in that Divine Love which is
one with his sorrow.
Adam Bedk.
July 26.
Between him and her indeed there was that total missing of each
other's mental track, which is too evidently possible even between per-
sons who are continually thinking of each other.
MiDDLEMARCH.
224
July 25.
sALOA-lM^*^ CXC^ L^criu^ . / fL
■I-
July 26.
July 27.
" Hearing m3-self," he said, " hems in my life,
And I will get me to some far-off land
Where higher mountains under heaven stand,
And touch the hlue at rising of the stars,
Whose song they hear where no rough mingling mars
The great, clear voices."
The Legend of Jubal.
July 28.
As if all the great poetic criminals were not women ! I think the men
are poor, cautious creatures. Daniel Deronda.
Soothing, unspeakable charm of gentle womanhood ! which supersedes
all acquisitions, all accomplishments. You would never have asked, at any
period of Mrs. Amos Barton's life, if she sketched or played the piano.
You would even perhaps have been rather scandalized if she had
descended from the serene dignity' of heing. to the assiduous unrest of
doing. Amos Barton.
226
July 27.
July 28.
i^'harlotte Conlay, 1768.
fS^/S/Cu (h^^ChuJl, /S&¥,
227
July 29.
It is a pretty surprise when one visits an elderly couple, to see a little
figure enter in a white frock, with a blonde head as smooth as satin,
round blue eyes, and a cheek like an apple-blossom. A toddling little
girl is a centre of common feeling which makes the most dissimilar
people understand each other.
Jankt's Repentance.
July 30.
The thirtieth of July was come. Nature seems to make a pause just
then -^ all the loveliest flowers are gone ; the sweet time of early growth
and vague hopes is past ; and yet the time of liarvest and ingathering is
not come, and we tremble at the possible storms that may ruiu the
precious fruit in the moment of Its ripeness.
Adam Bede.
228
July 29.
July 30.
22ry
July 31.
Mrs. Garth was not without her criticism on other women, being
more accurate!}' instructed than most matrons in Middlemarch, and —
wliere is the blameless woman ? — apt to be a little severe toward her own
sex, which in her opinion was framed to he entirely subordinate. On
the other liand, she was disproportionatel}' indulgent towards the failings
of men, and was often heard to sa^' that these were natural.
MiDDLKMARCH.
230
July 31.
Mrs. Sarah Alden Ripley, 1793.
231
Every limit is a beginning as well as an ending. "Who can quit young
lives after being long in company with them, and not desire to know
what befellthem in after years? For the fragment of a life, however
typical, is not the sample of an even web ; promises may not be kept,
and an ai'dent outset may be followed by declension ; latent powers may
find their long-waited opportunity ; a past error may urge a grand
retrieval.
MlDDI.EMAKCH.
232
But now the Red Deeps had the charm for Maggie, which any broken
ground, any mimic rock and ravine have for the eyes that rest habituall}'
on the level ; especiallj' in summer, when she could sit on a grassy hol-
low nndi-r the shadow of a branching ash, stooping aslant from the steep
above her, and listen to the hum of insects, like tiniest bells on the gar-
ment of Silence, or see the sunlight piercing the distant boughs, as if to
chase and drive home the truant heavenly blue of the wild hyacinths.
The Mill on the Floss.
233
August 1.
Solitude in any wide scene impressed her with an undefined feeling of
immeasurable existence aloof from her, in the midst of which she was
helplessl}^ incapable of asserting herself. The little astronomy taught
her at school used sometimes to set her imagination at work in a way
that made her tremble.
Daniel Deronda.
August 2.
Paikt us an angel if you can, with a floating violet robe, and a face
paled b}' the celestial light ; paint us yet oftener a Madonna, turning her
mild face upward, and opening her arms to welcome the divine gloiy ;
but do not impose on us any esthetic rules which shall banish from the
region of Art those old women scraping carrots with their work-worn
hands.
Adam Bede.
234
August 1.
Maria Mitchel, 1818.
August 2.
23o
August 3.
We may not make this world a paradise
By walking it together hand in hand
With eyes that meeting feed a double strength,
We must be only joined by pains divine
Of spirits blent in mutual memories.
The Spanish Gypsy,
August 4.
O, I am sick at heart. The e3'e of day,
The insistent summer sun, seemed pitiless,
Shining in all the barren crevices
Of weary life, leaving no shade, no dark,
Where I ma}- dream that hidden waters lie.
The Spanish Gypsy-.
23fi
August 3.
Arabella Stuart, 1577.
T tuJl(^ (3- ^^-^XU^-^Jv^JL I $"^0
August 4.
Letitia Elizabeth Landon, 1802.
^^Ic^^ Jlu/.^i^ •Xs-y^e—
2? 7
August 5.
The inhabitants of Raveloe were not severely regular in their church-
going, and perhaps there was not a person in the parish who would not
have held that to go to church every Sunday in the calendar would have
shown a greedy desire to stand well with Heaven, and get an undue
advantage over their neighbors.
Silas Marker.
August 6.
Women who are never bitter and resentful are often the most querulous ;
and if Solomon was as wise as he is reputed to be, I feel sure that when
he compared a contentious woman to a continual dropping on a very
rain}- day, he had not a vixen in his eye. Depend upon it, he meant a
good creature, who had no joy but in the happiness of the loved ones
whom she contributed to make uncomfortable, putting by all the tidbits
for them, and spending nothing on herself.
Adaim Bede.
238
August 5.
August 6.
239
August 7.
I SHOULD think his countenance is pleasant indeed ! And him a gentle-
man born an 's got a mother like a picter. It's snmmat like to see such
a man as that i' the desk of a Sunday ! As I say to Poyser, it 's like
looking at a full crop of wheat, or a pasture with a fine dairy of cows in
it ; it makes you think the world's comfortable like.
AvAM Bedk.
August S.
She was in all respects a woman of scrupulous conscience, so eager
for duties, that life seemed to offer them too scantil}' unless she rose at
half-past four, though this threw a scarcity of work over the more
advanced hours of the morning, which it was a constant problem to
remove.
Silas Marner.
240
August 7.
August 8.
241
August 9.
For high device is still the highest force ;
And he who holds the secret of the wheel,
May riiake the rivers do what work he would.
"With thoughts impalpable we clutch men's souls,
"Weaken the joints of armies, make them fl}'
Like dust and leaves before the viewless winds.
Tell me what's mirrored in the tiger's heart,
I'll rule that too.
Thk Spanish Gvpsv,
August 10.
Strange, that some of us, witli quick, alternate vision, see beyond our
infatuations, and, even while we rave on the heights, behold the wide
plane where our persistent self pauses and awaits us.
MiDDLEMARCir.
242
August 9.
August 10.
243
August 11.
My work is mine,
And, heresy or not, if my hand slacked,
I should rob God — since he is fullest good. _
Steadivarius.
But emotion, I fear, is irrational ; it insists on caring for individuals ;
it absolutely refuses to adopt the quantitive view of human anguish, and
to admit that thirteen happ}- lives are a set-off against twelve miserable
lives, which leaves a clear balance on the side of satisfaction. This is
the inherent imbecility of feeling. Janet's KEPENTA^-CE.
August 12.
Scotch tunes go on with the same tiling over and over again, and
never come to a reasonable end. Anj'body 'ud think the Scotch tunes
had always been asking a question of somebody as deaf as old Taft, and
had never got an answer yet.
Adam Bede.
244
August 11.
Mrs. M. B Piatt, 1836.
O^f^t^c* tr"' /i^**>e>f>^ . 6 4
August 12,
245
August 13.
Mirah's was the sort of voice that gives the impression of being meant
like a bird's wooing for an audience near and beloved.
Whose life was much checkered by resistance to her depreciation as a
girl.
MlODLEMARCH.
August 14.
He is n't one o' them gentle folks as go to cry at waterin'-places when
their wives die ; he 's got summat else to do. He looks fine and sharp
after the paiish — he does. He was at me to know what I did of a Sun-
day, as I didn't come to church. But I told him I was upo' the travel
three parts of the Sundays, an' then J 'm so used to bein' on my legs, I
can't sit on end ; " an lors," says I, " a packman can do wi' small 'lowance
o' church ; it tastes strong," says I ; "' there 's no call to lay it on thick."
The Mill on thk Floss.
246
August 13.
Lucy Stone Black well, 1818.
August 14.
247
August 15.
Mr. Irwine had taken off his l)oots and put on slippers before he
came up stairs. Whoever remembers how many things he declined to
do even for himself, rather than have the trouble of putting on or taking
off his boots, will not think this last detail insignificant.
Adam Bede.
August 16.
The middle-aged, who have lived through their strongest emotions,
but are yet in the time when memory is still half passionate and not
merely contemplative, should surel}' be a sort of natural priesthood,
whom life has disciplined and consecrated to be the refuge and rescue of
early stumblers and victims of self-despair.
The Mill on the Floss.
248
August 15.
August 16.
249
August 17.
The dowry of in}' daughter is to be
Chief woman of her people.
This sweetest virgin reared
As ganlen flowers to give the sordid world
Glimpses of perfection.
Tin: Spanish Gvpsy.
August IS.
The commonest man, who has his ounce of sense and feeling, is con-
scious of the difference between a lovely, delicate woman and a coarse
one. Even a dog feels a difference in their presence. The man may be
no better able than the dog to explain the influence the more refined
beauty has on him, but he feels it.
Adam Bkde.
260
August 17.
The Duchess of Kent, Mother cf Qiioen Victoria, 1786.
August 18.
231
August 19.
A FACE, not seraphic any longer ; thoroughl}- terrestrial and manly ;
but still of a kind to raise belief in human dignity which can afford to
acknowledge poor relations. And often the grand meanings of faces, as
well as of written words may lie ehiefl}^ in the impressions of those who
look on them.
Danikl Dekonda.
August 20.
She sung with a sul)dued but searching pathos, which had that essen-
tial of perfect singing, tlie making one oblivions of art and manner, and
only possessing one witli tlie song.
Daniel Deronda.
252
August 19.
August 20.
Christine Nilsson, 1843.
258
August 21.
He is no longer in his spring-tide ; but having been always busy, he
has been obliged to use his own impressions as if they were deliberate
opinions, and to range himself on the corresponding side in ignorance of
mind that he commits himself to.
TiiEOPHRASTUS Sucn.
August 22.
We must learn to accommodate ourselves to the discovery that some
of these cunningly-fashioned instruments called human souls have only
a very limited range of music, and will not vibrate in the least under a
touch that fills others with tremulous rapture or quivering agon}'.
Adam Bede.
2.-)4
August 21,
August 22.
255
August 23.
The instances are scattered but thinly over tlie galleries of Europe in
which the fortune or selection even of the chief masters has given to art
a face at once young, grand and beautiful, wliere, if there is any melan-
choly, it is no feeble passivity, but enters into the foreshadowed capability
of heroism.
Daniel Dekunda.
August 24.
The growth of higher feeling within us is like the growth of faculty,
bringing with it a sense of added strenyth ; we can no more wish to
return to a narrower s^'mpathy, than a painter or a musician can wish to
return to his cruder manner, or a philosopher to his less complete
formula.
AoAM Bede.
256
August 23.
August 24.
Countess of Huntington, 1707.
257
August 25.
Mr. Ely never got into a warm discussion ; he suggested what might
be thouglit, but rarely said wliat he thought himself; he never let either
men or women see tliat lie was laughing at them, and he never gave an}'-
one an opportunity- of laughing at him. In one thing onl3' he was inju-
dicious. He parted his dark, wav}' hair down tlie middle ; and as his
head was rather flat, that style of coiffure was not advantageous to him.
Amos Bahton.
August 26.
The secret of our emotions never lies in the bare object, but in its
subtle relations to our own past ; no wonder tbo secret escapes the
nns3-mpathizing observer, who might as well put on his spectacles to
discern odors.
Adam Bepe.
258
August 25.
August 26.
25'J
August 2/.
No man believes that mai\y-textured knowledge and skill can come
late and of a sudden ; yet many will not stick at believing that happiness
can come at any da}^ and hour solely by a new disposition of events ;
though there is nought less capable of a magical production than a mortal's
happiness, which is mainly a complex of habitual relations and disposi-
tions not to be wrought b^' news from foreign parts, or any whirling of
fortune's wheel, for one on whose brow Time has written legibly.
Felix Holt,
August 28.
For her reliance, in her smallest words and deeds, on a divine
guidance, always issued in that finest woman's tact, which proceeds
from acute and ready sympathy.
Adam Bede.
260
August 27.
August 28.
Mrs. Lucy Webb Hayes 1831.
2(11
August 29.
Besides, she objected Avitli a sort of physical repulsion, to being
directly made love to. With all her imaginative delight in being adored,
there was a certain fierceness of maidenhood in her.
D.vNii:i. Dp:ronua.
— ^i° —
You daring modesty ! You slnink no more
From gazing men than from the gazing tlovpers
That, dreaming sunshine, open as you pass.
Till': Spanish Gypsy.
August 30.
But in Dorothea's mind there was a current into which all thouglit and
feeling were apt, sooner or later, to tiow — the reaching forward of the
whole consciousness towards the fullest truth, the least partial good.
MlI)I»LEAIAK':H.
c^^
A FACE wliich liad the look of habitual, meditative abstraction from
objects of mere personal vanity or desire, which is the peculiar stamp of
culture.
Fklix Holt.
262
August 29.
Hypatia, about 385 A. D.
August 30.
Elizabeth Stuart Pbelps, 1844.
2C3
August 31,
I SHOULD never have been happy in any profession that did not call
forth the highest intellectual strain, and yet keep me in good warm con-
tact with ni}' neighbors. There is nothing like the medical profession
for that : one can haA'e the exclusive scientific life that touches the dis-
tance, and befriend the old fogies in the parish, too.
MlDDLEAIAUCn.
2CA
August 31.
Dr. Maiy Jacolti.
2C,i
It must be sad to outlive aught we love,
80 I shall grieve a little for these da^-s
Of poor, unwed Fcdalma. Oh, thej' are sweet.
And none will come just like them. Perhaps the wind
Wails so in winter for the summer's dead.
And all sad sounds are nature's funeral cries
For what has been and is not.
The Spanish Gypsy.
266
The sunshine was on the fields ; the early autumn sunshine which we
should know was not summer's, even if there were no touches of 3'ellow
on the lime and chestnut ; the Sunday sunshine, too, whicli has moi'e
than autumnal calmness for the working-man ; the morning sunshine,
which still leaves the dew-crystals on the fine gossamer webs in the
shadow of the bushy hedge rows.
September 1.
Interpreting all things largel}', like a mind prepossessed with high
belief.
EOMOLA.
Her person suited diamonds, and made them look as if the}' were
worth some of the money given for them.
Daxikl Deronda.
September 2.
With hand and arm that pla}' upon the tool
As willing!}' as any singing bird
Sets him to sing his morning roundelay,
Because he likes to sing, and likes the song.
StUADINARIUSo
208
September 1.
Lady Blcssington, 1790; Lydia H. Slgournry, 1791.
September 2.
Miss Anne Whitney.
2C>'J
Septemeer 3.-
HowivER, I am not denyin' that women are foolish ; God Ahnight}'
made 'em to match the men.
It 's the flesh and blood folks are made on as makes the difference.
Some cheeses are made o' skimmed milk, and some o' new milk, and it's
no matter what j'ou call 'em, 3-ou may know which is which by the look
and smell.
Adam Bkde.
September 4.
But the fuller nature desires to be an agent, to create and not merel}'
to look on. Strong love hungers to bless, and not merel}' to behold
blessing.
Daniel Deuonda.
The happiest women, like the happiest nations, have no histor}'.
The Mill ox the Floss.
270
September 3.
September 4.
Phcjebe Cary, 1824.
271
September 5.
The bucolic character at Ha3'slope, you perceive, was not of the
entire!}' genial, merry, broad-grinning sort apparently observed in most
districts visited by artists. The mild radiance of a smile was a rare
sight on a field-laborer's face, and there was seldom any gradation
between bovine gravity and a laugh.
Adam Bede.
September 6.
Overworked Mrs. Dagle}' — a thin, worn woman, from whose life
pleasure had so entirely vanished that she had not even any Sunday
clothes which could give her satisfaction in preparing for church — had
already had a misunderstanding with her husband since he had come
home, and was in low spirits, expecting the worst.
MlDDLE^IAKCH,
272
September 5.
September 6.
September 7.
I HAVE breathed my soul ;
I lie here now the remnant of that whole,
The embers of a life, a lonely pain ;
As far off rivers to my thirst were vain,
So of my mighty years nought comes to me again.
The Legend of Jhbal.
September 8.
For Adam, though j'ou see him quite master of himself, working hard
and delighting in his work after his inborn, inalienable nature, had not
outlived his sorrow — had not felt it slip from him as a temporary bur-
den, and leave him the same man again. Do any of us? God forbid.
Adam Bede.
274
September 7.
Queen Elizabeth, of England, 1533.
September S.
September 9.
I'll tell 3-011 what's the greatest power under heaven, and that is
public opinion — the ruling belief in society about what is right and
what is wrong, what is honorable and what is shameful.
Fklix Holt.
September 10.
There is no compensation for the woman that feels that the chief rela-
tion of her life has been no more than a mistake. She has lost her
crown. The deepest secret of human blessedness has half whispered
itself to her, and tlien forever passed her by. Romola.
^iSo
On solitary souls, the universe
Looks down inhospitable ; the human heart
Finds nowhere shelter but in human kind.
Tni<: Spanish Gypsy.
27(;
September 9.
September 10.
September 1 1,
No life would have been possible to Dorothea which was not lilled with
emotion, and she had now a life filled also with beneficent activity which
she had not the doubtful pains of discovering and marking out for
herself.
MiDDLEMARCH.
September 12.
The Miss Linnets were in that temperate zone of old raaidism, when
a woman will not say but that if a man of suitable yeais an(] character
were to offer himself, she miglit be induced to tread the remainder of
life's vale in company with him.
Janet's Hepextaxck.
278
September 11.
Sarah Franklin Bacbe, 1714.
September 12.
279
September 13.
He was alwa3's prone to believe that be could make moncA- liy the pur-
chase of a horse which turned out badly — though this, ]\Iary observed,
was of course the fault of the horse, not't)f Fred's judgment.
MiDDLKMARCH.
c^^
I HAVE a knack of hoping, which is as good as an estate in reversion,
if one can keep from the temptation of turning it into certainty, which
may spoil all.
Danikl Drkoxda.
September 14.
Mr. Ham dealt a1)ly in books in ihe same way that he would have
dealt in tins of meat and other commodities — without knowledge or
responsibilit}' as to the proportion of rottenness or nourishment they
might contain. Damel T)ki;oxi>a.
Oh, sir, the loftiest hopes on earth
Draw lots with meaner hopes ; heroic breasts
Breathing bad air, run risk of pestilence.
MlDDLK.ArAHCH.
280
September 13.
7k<w.«. Uno^ Zi^^yjtu^ 1^^"^-
September 14.
2^;i
September 15.
I SING for love of song and that renown
Which is the spreading act, the world-wide share
Of good that I was born with.
AHMGART.
o«»=
However slight the terrestial intercourse between Dante and Beatrice,
or Petrarch and Laura, time changes the proportion of things, and in
later daj's it is preferable to have fewer sonnets and more conversation.
MlDDLKMAUCH.
September 16.
But that simplicity of hers, holding up an ideal for others in her
believing conception of them, was one of the great powers of her woman-
hood. He felt that his brief words would only profit by their brevity
when Dorothea had to interpret them. He felt that in her mind he had
found his highest estimate.
MiDDLEMAKCn.
282
September 15.
Mrs. A. D. T. Whitney, 1824.
September 16.
2SP>
September 17.'
But he also made up his muid that his life was not to be pauperized
because he had had to renounce one sort of joy ; rather he had begun
life again with a new counting-up of the treasures that remained to him,
and he had even felt a release of power such as may come from ceasing
to be afraid of your own neck.
Daniel Dehonoa.
September IS.
Hev a dog, Miss — I can't give you Mumps, 'cause he'd break his
lieart to go away from me, but there 's a pup — if you didn't mind about
it not bein' thoroughbred. She means more scMise wi' her bark nor half
the chaps can put into their talk from breakfast to sundown. There 's
one chap carries pots — a poor, low trade as any on the road — he says,
''Why Toby 's naught but a mongrel — there 's naught to look at in her."
But I says to him, " Wh}' what are you yoursen but a mongrel? There
wasn't much pickin' o' ?/o?tr feythcr and mother, to look at you." Not but
what I like a bit o' breed myself, but I can't abide to see one cur grinnin'
at another. ^^^ The Mill ox the Floss.
September 17.
September 18.
285
September 19.
She 's sure to have a word to say as 'il help us to set things ou their
right end.
She saves a little pepper to sprinkle over her talk — that's the reason
why she never puts too much into her pies.
Silas Marner.
September 20.
With some even admirable persons one is never quite sure of any
particular being included under a general head, A proWncial physician,
it is said, once ordering a lady patient not to eat salad, was asked
pleadingly by the affectionate husband whether she might eat lettuce, or
cresses, or radishes.
Theopiirastus Stjch.
286
September 19.
Abagail Dodge (Gail Hamilton), 1830.
SEPTEMBeR 20.
287
SEx'^tember 21,
I THINK there are stores laid up in our Imman nature, that our under-
standings can make no complete inventory of. Certain strains of music
pfFect me strangely — I can never hear them without changing my whole
attitude of mind for a time, and if the effect would last, I might be
capable of heroisms.
Thf. Mill ox iuk Floss.
September 22.
O, MY dear, when you have a clergyman in your family, you must
accommodate your tastes ; I did that very early. When I married
Humphrey, I made up ray mind to like sermons, and I set out by liking
the end very much. That soon spread to the middle and to the begin-
ning, because I couldn't have the end without them.
MiDDLEMARCH.
288
September 21.
September 22.
289
September 23.
Oh, pleasure has cramped dwelling in our souls,
And V hen full Being comes must cull on ^.ain
To lend it liberal space. Armgart.
She felt the intensity of life which seems to tx-anscend both grief and
joy- in which the mind seems to itself akin to elder forces that wrought
out existence before the birth of pleasure and pain.
ROMOLA.
September 24.
I 'vE known husbands who 've laid plans for tormenting their wives
when the}- 're underground — tying up their money and hindering them
from marrying again. Not that I should ever wish to marry again ; I
think one husband in one's life is enough in all conscience — but it's
aggravating to be tied up in that way
Janet's Repentanck.
September 23.
September 24.
291
September 25.
She was not coldh" clever, but adorably simple and full of feeling.
She was an angel beguiled. It would be a unique delight to wait and
watch for the melodious fragments ia which her heart and soul came
forth so directly and ingenuously. The ^Eolian harp again came to his
mind.
MiDDLEMARCH.
September 26.
By opinions you mean men's thoughts about great subjects, and by
taste 3'ou mean their thoughts about small ones ; dress, behavior,
amusements, ornaments. Felix Holt.
o|^
You thought to hide things from her — sat upon your secret and looked
innocent, and all the while she knew b}' the corner of 3'onr c^'e that it
was exactly fi\e pounds ten you were sitting on ! As well turn Ihe ke}'
to keep out the damp. Daniel Deuoxda.
202
September 25.
Mrs. Felicia Ilcmans, 1794.
September 26.
298
Septembek 27.
That was a time of color, when the sunlight fell on glancing steel and
floating banners, a time of adventure and fierce struggle — nay, of living
religious art and religious enthusiasm ; for were not cathedrals built in
those days, and did not great emperors leave their western palaces to die
beneath the infidel's strongholds in the sacred East? Therefore it is that
these Rhine castles thrill me with a sense of poetry ; they belong to the
grand histoi ic life of humanity, and raise up for me the vision of an
epoch.
The Mill on the Floss.
September 28.
Man thinks
Brutes have no wisdom, since they know not his ;
Can he divine their world ?
O, THEY have long tradition and swift speech,
Can tell with touches and sharp darting cries
Whole histories of timid races taught
To breathe in terror by red-handed man.
The Spanish Gypsy.
294
September 27.
September 28.
Mrs. Caroline Earle White, 1833.
29.-
September 29.
For what is love itself for the one we love best? — an infolding of
immeasurable cares, which yet are better than any joys outside our love.
Daniel Dkhonda.
The early months of marriage often are times of critical tumult —
whether that of a shrimp-pool or of deeper waters — which afterwards
subsides into cheerful peace.
MiDDLEMAKCU.
September 30.
Yet these commonplace people — many of them — bear a conscience,
and have felt the sublime prompting to do the painful right ; they have their
unspoken sorrows, and their sacred joys ; their hearts have perhaps gone
out towards their first-born, and they have mourned over the irreclaim-
able dead. Nay, is there not a pathos in their very insignificance — in
our comparison of their dim and narrow existence with the gloriouc pos-
sibilities of that human nature which they share.
Amos Bahton.
296
September 29.
Septembei^ 30.
297
In the checkered area of human experience the seasons are all mingled
as in the golden age ; fruit and blossom hang together ; in the same
moment the sickle is reaping and the seed is sprinkled ; one tends the
green cluster and another treads the wine-press. Nay, in each of our
lives harvest and spring-time are continually one, until Death himself
gathers us and sows us anew in his invisible fields.
Daniel Deronda.
208
How is it that the poets have said so many fine things about our first
love, so fev,- about our hilcr love? Are their first poems tlie best? or are
not those the best which come from their fuller thought, their larger
experience, their deeper-rooted affections? The bo3''s flute-like voice
has its own spring charm ; but the man should yield a richer, deeper
music.
ADA^r Bede.
290
October 1 .
It's like the night and the morning, and the sleeping and the waking,
and the rain and the harvest — one goes and the other comes, and we
know nothing how nor where. We may strive and scrat and fend, but
it's little we can do arter all — the big tilings come and go wi' no
striving o* our'n — they do — that they do.
Silas Marxer.
October 2.
'• Happen 3'ou 'd like Mumps for company, Miss. He 's rare company
— Mumps is ; he knows iverything, an' makes no bother about it. If I
tell him, he '11 lie before you an' watch you — as still — just as lie watches
my pack. You'd better let me leave him a bit ; he '11 get fond on you.
Lovs, it's a tine thing to hev a dumb brute fond on you ; it'll stick to
you, an' make no jaw."
" Yes, do leave him please," said Maggie — "I think I should like to
have Mumps for a friend."
The Mill on the Floss.
300
October 1.
October 2.
301
October 3.
It mayn't be good luck to be a woman, but one begins with it from a
baby : one gets used to it. And I shouldn't like to be a man — to cough
so loud, and stand straddling about on a wet day, and be so wasteful
with meat and drink. They're a coarse lot, I think.
Felix Holt.
October 4.
Miss Pratt was an old maid, but that is a no more definite descrip-
tion than if I had said she was in the autumn of life. Was it autumn
when the orchards are fragrant with apples, or autumn when the last 3'el-
low leaves are fluttering in the chill breeze?
Janet's Repentance.
302
October 3.
October 4.
303
October 5.
Looking at the mother, you might hope that the daughter would
become like her, which is a prospective advantage equal to a dowry.
MiDDLEMARCH.
She was intensely of the feminine type, A'^erging neither toward the
saint nor the angel.
Felix Holt.
October 6.
Armgart. — I was blind
With too much happiness ; true vision comes
Only, it seems, with sorrow. Were there one
This inbment near me, suffering what I feel,
And needing me for comfort in her pang —
Then it were worth the while to live : not else.
Walpdrger. — One — near 3'ou — why, they throng ! You hardly stir
But 3'our act touches them. We touch afar.
AUMGAKT.
30 1
October 5.
October 6.
SOh
October 7.
"We can only have the highest happiness, such as goes along with being
a great man, by having wide thoughts and much feeling for the rest of
the world as well as ourselves ; and this sort of happiness often brings so
much pain with it that we can onlj' tell it from pain by its being what we
would choose before everything else, because our soul sees it is good.
ROMOLA.
October 8.
O THE anguish of the thouglit, that we can never atone to our dead
for the stinted affection we gave them, for the light answers we returned
to their plaints or their pleadings, for the little reverence we showed to
that sacred human soul that lived so close to us, and was the divinest
thing God had given to us to kuov,'.
Amos Barton.
30G
October 7.
October S.
.•?07
October 9.
'T IS rare delight ; I would not change my skill
To be the Emperor Avith bungling hands,
And lose my work, which comes as natural
As self at waking.
Sti.'auivakhs.
October lO.
" Well," said Craig, " I like a cleverish woman — a w^oman o' sperrit
— a managing woman."
" You are out there, Craig," said Bartle. " You don't value your peas
for their roots, or 3'our carrots for their flowers. Now, that 's the way
A'ou should choose women : their cleverness '11 never come to much ; but
they make excellent simpletons, ripe and strong-flavored,"
Adam Bede.
30S
October 9.
Harriet Hosmer, 1830.
October 10.
309
October 11.
We are apt to bo kinder to the brutes that love iis than to the women
that love us. Is it because the l)rutes are dumb?
AiJAAi Bi:i>K,.
In many of our neighbors' lives there is much not only of error and
lapse, but of a certain ex(|nisite goodness which can never be spoken —
only divined by each of us, according to the inward instruction of our
own i)rivac3".
October 12.
We must be patient with the inevitable mako-shift of our human
thinking, whether in its sum total or in the separate minds that have
made the sum. Columbus had some impressions about himself which we
call superstitions, and used some arguments which we disapprove ; but he
had also some true physical conceptions, and he had the passionate
patience of genius to make them tell on mankind.
Daniel Deuonda.
310
October 11.
October 12.
;!ii
October 13.
The fruit trees wore their studded coronal,
Earth and her children were at festival,
Glowing as with one heart and one consent,
Thought, love, trees, rocks, in swift, warm radiance blent.
Thk Le(;k.\d of Juijal.
There is a fine presence ahoiit Mr. Harold. I remember 30U used to
say there was some people you would always know were in the room,
though they stood round a corner, and others you might never see till
3'ou were against them. Felix Holt.
October 14.
To rob words of half their meaning, while they retain their dignity as
qualifications, is like allowing to men who have lost half their faculties,
the same high and perilous command which they won in tlieir time of
vigor.
Thkopukastus SL'CH.
312
October 13.
October 14.
313
October 15.
One of those benignant, lovely souls who, without astonishing the
public and posterit}', made a happy difference in the lives close around
them, and in this way lift the average of earthly joy.
Theophrastus Such.
Ever in his soul
That larger justice which makes gratitude
Triumped above resentment. 'T is the mark
Of regal natures, with the wider life,
And fuller capability of joy. Daniel Deronda.
October 16.
Freshening life's dusty road with babbling rills
Of wit and song, living 'mid harnessed men
With limbs ungalled by armor, ready so
To soothe them weary and to cheer them sad.
The Spaxish Gypsy.
il4
October 15.
Mrs. Inclibakl, 1753.
October 16.
Helen Hunt Jackson.
October 1'
When a tender affection has been storing itself in us through man}- of
our years, the idea that we could accept any exchange for it seems to be
a cheapening of our lives. And we can set a watch over our affections
and our constancy as we can over other treasures.
MiDDLEMARCH.
October IS.
You can never imagine what it is to have a man's force of genius in
3'ou, and yet to suffer the slavery of being a girl. To have a pattern
cut out, this is what you must be ; this is what you are wanted for. A
woman's heart must be of such a size, and no larger, else it nuist be
pressed small like Chinese feet. Her happiness is to be made as cakes
are, by a fixed receipt.
D.A^'iEL Deroxda.
UG
October l7
October 18.
317
October 19.
It would be a poor result of all our anguish aud wrestling, if we won
nothing but our old selves 'at the end of it — if we could return to the
samebUnd loves, tlie same self-confident blame, the same light thoughts
of human suffering, the same frivolous gossip over blighted lives, the
same feeble sense of that unknown toward which we have sent forth irre-
pressible cries in our loneliness.
Adam Bede.
October 20.
Even mucli stronger mortals than Fred Vine}- hold half their rectitude
in the mind of the being they love best. " The theatre of all m}' actions
is fallen," said an antique personage when his chief friend was dead ;
and they are fortunate who get a theatre where the audience demands
their best.
MU5DLEMARCTI.
318
0.:.T>)-JER 19.
October 20.
319
October 21.
Yes, yes; it's rather too bad when these great singers marry them-
selves into silence before they have a crack in tlieir voices. And the
husband is a public robber. I lemember Leroux saving a man might as
well take down a peal of church bells and carry them off to the steppes.
Danikl Deuonda.
October 22.
I.S it no offence
To wish the eagle may find repose
As feebler wings do, in a quiet nest?
Or, has the taste of fame already turned
The woman to a ]Muse? Armgart.
It is very pleasant to see some people turn round ; pleasant as a sud-
den rush of warm air in winter, or the flash of firelight in the chill dusk.
Adaji Bede.
320
October 21.
Jenny liind Goldschinidt, 1«24.
October 22.
Annie Louise Cary (Mr.s. Raymond).
321
October 23.
In transactions between fellow-men it is well to consider a little what
is fair and kind toward the person immediately concerned, before we spit
and roast him on behalf of the next century but one. On the whole, and
in the vast majorit}' of instances, the action b}' which we can do the
best for future ages is of the -sort which has a certain beneficence and
grace for contemporaries.
Theopiirastus Such.
October 24.
But his endurance was mingled with a self-discontent which, if we
know how to be candid, we shall confess to make more than half our
bitterness under grievances, wife or husband included. It alvva3S remains
true that if we had been greater circumstance would have been less
strong against us.
MiODLEMAKCH.
October 23.
October 24.
323
October 25.
The sadder illusion lay with Harold Transom, who was trusting in his
own skill to shai)e the success of his own morrows, ignorant of what
many yesterda3s had determined for him beforehand.
Felix Holt.
1st Gent. — Our deeds are fetters that we forge ourselves.
2d Gent. — Ay, truly : but I think it is the world
That brings the iron.
MiDDLEMARCH.
October 26.
For Mrs. Renfrew, the Colonel's widow, was not only unexception-
able in point of breeding, but also interesting on the ground of her com-
l)laint, which puzzled the doctors, anC seemed clearly a case wherein the
the fulness of professional knowledge might need the supplement of
quackery.
MiDDLEMARCH.
324
OCTOBEK 25.
October 26.
325
October 27.
Ingenious philosophers tell 3'ou that the great work of the steam-
engine is to create leisure for mankind. Do not believe them ; it only
creates a vacuum for eager thought to rush in. Even idleness is eager
now — eager for amusement, prone to excursion trains, art museums,
periodical literature, and exciting novels ; prone even to scientific
theorizing and cursory peeps through microscopes.
Adam Bedk.
October 2S.
1 HAVE spoken to as rough, ignorant people as can be found in the
villages about Snowfield — men that look very hard and wild ; but they
never said an uncivil word to me, and often thanked me kindly as they
made way for me to pass through the midst of them.
Adam Bede.
326
October 27.
October 28.
Anna Dickinson, 1842.
327
October 29.
Ah yes ! all preciousness
To mortal hearts is guarded by a fear ;
All love fears loss, and most that loss supreme,
Its own perfection, — seeing, feeling change
From high to lower, dearer to less dear.
TiiK Spanish Gypsy
October 30.
I AM not glad with that mean vanit}'
Which knows no good beyond its appetite
Full feasting npon praise ! I am only glad.
Being praised for what I know is worth the praise ;
Glad of the proof that I myself have part
In what I worship !
I accept the peril.
I choose to walk high with sublimer dread
Rather than crawl in safety. And besides,
I am an at tist as 3'ou are a noble ;
I ought to bear the burthen of my rank. AuMCiAirr.
328
October 29.
October 30.
Adelaide Anne Proctor, 182.5; Angelica Kaufman, 1741.
Oxw-U^ i>(A-rOuUJu, (lidijjjucn>.<L Oa^<4^ S'f.
^29
October 31.
Our caresses, our tender words, our still rapture under the influence of
autumn sunsets, or pillared vistas, or calm, majestic statues, or Bee-
thoven symphonies, all bring with them the consciousness that they are
mere waves and ripples in an unfathomable ocean of love and beauty ;
our emotion in its keenest moment passes from expression into silence ;
our love at its highest flood rushes beyond its object and loses itself in
the sense of divine mystery.
Adam Bede.
330
October 31.
381
The crane, with outspread wing, that heads the file,
Pauses not, feels no backward impulses :
Behind it summer was, and is no more ;
Before it lies the summer it will reach
Or fall in the mid-ocean. And you no less
Must feel the force sublime of growing life.
New thoughts are urgent as the growth of wings ;
The widening vision is imperious.
The Spanish Gypsy.
332
And then the tiled roof of cottage and homestead, of the long cow-
shed where generations of the milky motliers ha^e stood patiently, of the
broad-shouldered barns where the old-fasliioned flail once made resonant
music, while the watch-dog barked at the timidly venturesome fowls
making pecking raids on the outflying grain — the roofs that have looked
out from among the elms and walnut trees, or beside the yearly group
of hay and corn stacks, or below the square stone steeple, gathering their
gray or ochre-tinted lichens, and their olive-green mosses under all min-
istries — let us praise the sober harmonies the}^ give to our landscape.
TnKopHiiA.sTUs Such.
November l,
For Mrs. Hackit regulated her costume by the calendar, and brought
out her furs on the first of November, whatever might be the tempera-
ture. She was not a woman weakly to accommodate herself to shilly-
shally proceedings. If the season didn't know what it ought to do, Mrs.
Hackit did.
Amos Bakton.
November 2.
Life is a various mother ; now she dons
Her plumes and briUiants, climbs the marble staij-s
With head aloft, nor ever turns her e^'es
On lackeys who attend her ; now she dwells
Grim-clad, up darksome alleys, breathes hot gin,
And screams in pauper riot.
Daniel Deronda.
— i^^ —
She 's cut out o' different stuff from most women ; I saw that long ago.
She 's never eas}' but when she 's helping somebody.
Adam Bede.
November 1,
November 2.
Maria Antoinette, 1755; Harriet McEv.en Kimball.
3ol
November 3.
It was as necessary to her mind to have an opinion on all topics, not
exclusively masculine, that had come under her notice, as for her to have
a precisely marked place for ever}^ article of her personal property ; and
her opinions were always principles to be unwaveriugl}- acted on. They
were firm, not because of their basis, but because she held them with a
tenacity inseparable from her mental action.
Silas Marnek.
November 4.
The l:)est augur}^ of a man's success in his profession is that he thinks
it the finest in the world.
But I fancy it is so with most work when a man goes into it with a
will. Brewitt, the blacksmith, said to me, the other day, that his
'prentice liad no mind to his trade ; " and j-et, sir," said Brewitt, " what
would a young fellow have if he does'nt hke the blacksmithing?"
Daniel Dehonda.
336
November o.
November 4.
November 5.
Tito and Romola never jarred, never remonstrated with each other.
The\' were too hopelessly alienated in their inner life ever to have that
contest which is an effort towards agreement. ... In the first ardor
of her self-conquest, Romola had made many timid efforts towards the
return of a franlc relation between them. But to her such a relation
could onh' come by open speech about their differences.
KOMOLA.
November 6.
By desiring what is perfectly good, even when we don't quite know
what it is, and cannot do what we would, we are a part of the divine
power against evil — widening the skirts of light, and making the
MiDDLEMARCH.
338
November 5.
November 6.
3:5<)
November 7.
I NEVER said a woman should make a black patch of herself against
the background. It 's a shame for a woman with 3'oar hair and shoulders
to run into such nonsense — leave it to women who are not worth paint-
ing. What ! the most holy Virgin herself has always been dressed well ;
that 's the doctrine of the Church.
KOMOLA.
November 8.
For an enthusiastic spirit to meet continually the fixed indifference of
men familiar with the object of his enthusiasm is the acceptance of a slow
mart3'rdom, beside which the fate of a missionary tomahawked without
any considerate rejection of his doctrines seems hardly worth}' of com-
passion.
Daxiei, Dkuoxda.
;uo
November 7.
November S.
:ui
November 9.
We in our wedded life shall know no loss,
We shall new-date our ^-ears. What went before
Will be the time of promise, shadows, dreams ;
But this, full revelation of great love.
For rivers blent take in a broader heaven.
And we shall blend our souls.
The Spanish Gytsy.
November 10.
The struggle of mind attending a conscious error had awakened some-
thing like a new soul, which had better, but also worse, possibilities than
her former poise of crude self-confidence. Among the forces she had
begun to dread was something within her which troubled satisfaction.
Daniel Dehoxda.
,'U2
November 9.
November 10.
343
November 11.
What greater thing is there for two human souls, than to feel that
they are joined for life — to strengthen each other in all labor, to rest on
each other in all sorrow, to minister to each other in all pain, to be one
with each other in silent, unspeakable memories at the moment of the
last parting?
Adam Bede.
November 12.
The prevarications and white lies which a mind that keeps itself ambi-
tiously pure is as uneasy under as a great artist under the false touches
that no eye detects but his own, are worn as lightl}' as mere trimmiiio;s
when once the actious have become a lie. Silas Marxkk.
When a woman feels purely and nobly, that order of hers which
breaks through formulas too vigorously urged on her by daily practical
needs, makes one of her most precious influences ; she is the added
impulse that shatters the stiffening crust of cautious experience.
Fioux Holt.
■AU
November 11.
Mrs. Abagail Adams, 1744 (O. S).
November 12.
Mrs. Amelia Opie, 1767; Elizabeth Cady Stanton, 1816.
345
November 13.
In the wonderful mixtures of our nature, there is a feeling distinct
from that exclusive passionate love of which some men and women (by
no means all) are capable, whicli yet is not the same with friendship, nor
with a merely benevolent regard, whether admiring or compassionate.
Daniel Dekonda.
November 14.
So Eppie was reared without punishment, the burden of her misdeeds
being borne vicariously by Father Silas. The stone hut was made a soft
nest for her, lined with downy patience ; and also in the world that lay
beyond the stone hut for her, she knew nothing of frowns and denials.
Silas Marner.
346
November 13.
Lady Caroline Lanil), 178.5.
November 14.
November 15.
A WIDOW at fift3'-five whose satisfaction liad been largol}' drawn from
what she thinks of her own person, and what she believes others think of
it, requires a great fund of imagination to keep her spirits buo3'ant.
llOJIOLA.
November 16.
Much of our lives is spent in marring our own inlluence and turning
other's belief in us into a wide!}- concluding unbelief, which the}' call
knowledge of the world, while it is reall}' disappointment in ou or me.
Daniki. ])ki;<^xda.
Let the wise be warned against too great readiness at explanation ; it
multiplies the sources of mistake, lengthening the sum for reckoners
sure to go wrong.
MiDDLEMARCn.
US
November 15,
NovEMBER 16.
349
November 17.
I HATE that talk o' people, as if there was a way o' making amends
for everything. They'd more need be brought to see as the wrong the}'^
do can never be altered. When a man 's spoiled his fellow-ereature's
life, he 's no right to comfort himself with thinking good ma}' come out
of it.
Adam Bede.
November IS.
No man has too much talent to be a musician. Most men have too
little. A ci'eative artist is no more a mere musician than a great states-
man is a mere politician. We help to rule the nations and make the age
as much as any other public men. A man who speaks effectively through
music is compelled to something more difficult than parliamentary
eloquence.
Daniel Deronda.
850
November 17.
November 18.
351
November 19.
FcR the moment, Will's admiration was accompanied with a chill
sense of remoteness. A man is seldom ashamed of feeling that he can-
not love a woman so well when he sees a certain greatness in her,
— Nature having intended greatness for men. But Nature has some-
times made sad oversights in carrying out her intentions.
MiDDLE.MAKClI.
Ndvember 20.
Op natures you call ro3'al, who can live
In mere mock knowledge of their fellows' woe,
Thinking their smiles may heal it.
ARMG.iRT.
And it is of the nature of vanil}- and arrogance, if unchecked, to
become cruel and self-justifying. There are fierce beasts within.
Theophrastus Such.
362
November 19.
November 20.
Catherine de Medicis, 1519.
853
November 21.
Say, why, I say as some folks' tongues are like the clocks as run on
strikiu', not to tell you the time o' the day, but because there 's summat
wrong i' their own inside.
Adam Bede.
November 22.
How will yon know the pitch of that great bell
Too large for you to stir ? Let but a flute
Phiy 'neath the fine-mixed metal; listen close
Till the right note flows forth i\ silvery rill,
Then shall the huge bell tremble — then the mass
With myriad waves concurrent shall respond
In low, soft unison. Middlemarch.
For what is fame
But the benignant strength of One, transformed ^
To joy of Many.? Tributes, plaudits come
As necessary breathing of sucli joy.
The Spanish Gypsy.
354
November 21.
November 22.
George Eliot, 1820.
356
November 23-
What he felt was a profound sensibility to a cry from the depths of
another soul ; and accompanying that, the summons to be receptive
instead of supercilious!}' prejudging. Receptiveness is a rare and mas-
sive power, like fortitude ; and this state of mind gave Deronda's face
its utmost expression of calm, benignant force.
Daniel Dekonda.
November 24.
Life never seems so clear and easy as when the heart is beating faster
at the sight of some generous, self-risking deed. We feel no doubt,
then, what is the highest prize the soul can win.
ROMOLA.
356
November 23.
November 24.
Grace Darling, 1815.
357
November 25.
We perhaps never detect how much of our social demeanor is made
up of artificial airs, until we see a person who is at once beautiful and
simple ; without the beauty, we are apt to call simplicit}^ awkwardness.
The Mill on the Floss.
November 26.
It is hard to sa}' how much we could forgive ourselves if we were
secure from judgment by another whose opinion is the breathing-medium
of all our joy ; who brings to us with close pressure and immediate
sequence that judgment of the Invisible and Universal which self-flattery
and the world's tolerance would easily melt and disperse.
Daniel Deronda.
358
November 25.
November 26.
359
November 27.
I AM an artist by my birth,
By the same warrant that I am a woman ;
Nay, in the added rarer gift I see
Supreme vocation : If a conflict comes,
Perish — no, not the woman, but the joys
Which men make narrow by their narrowness.
Armgaht.
November 28.
Sorrow and joy have each their peculiar narrowness ; and a religious
enthusiasm like Savonarola's, which ultimately blesses mankind by
giving the soul a strong propulsion towards sympathy with pain, indig-
nation against wrong, and the subjugation of sensual desire, must always
incur the reproacli of a great negation.
llOMOLA.
360
NOVEMHER 27.
Frances Ann Kemble, 1809.
November 28.
361
November 29.
It is really surprising that young ladies should not be thought com-
petent to the sarae curriculum as young gentlemen — I observe tliat their
powers of sarcasm are quite equal.
Janet's Kepentance.
So that if she came into the room on a rain}' day when everyone else
was flaccid, and the use of things in general was not apparent to them,
there seemed to be a sudden , sufficient reason for keeping up the forms
of life.
Daniel Deronda.
November 30.
The pathos of his country's lot pierced the youthful soul of Massini,
because, like Dante's, his blood was fraught with the kinship of Italian
greatness, his imagination filled with a majestic past that wrought itself
into a majestic future.
Theophrastus Such.
362
November 29.
Louisa May Alcott, 1832.
}
November 3d.
o(J3
For if it be true that Nature at certain moments seems charged with a
presentiment of one individual lot, must it not also be true that she
se^s unmindful, unconscious of another? For there is no hour that
has not its births of gladness and despair, no morning brightness that
does not bring new sickness to desolation, as well as new forces to
genius and love. There are so many of us, and our lots arc so different,
what wonder that Nature's mood is often in harsh contrast with the great
crisis of our lives? We are children of a large family and must learn,
as such children do, not to expect that our hurts will be made much of —
to be content with little nurture and caressing, and help each other the
more.
Adam Bede.
864
But old Christmas smiled as he laid this cruel-seeming spell on the
out-door world, for he meant to light up home with new brightness, to
deepen all the richness of in-door color, and give a keener edge of delight
to the warm fragrance of food ; he meant to prepare a sweet imprisonment
that would strengthen the primitive fellowship of kindred. His kindness
fell but hardly on the homeless — fell but hardly on the homes where the
hearth was not very warm, and where the food had little fragrance. But
the fine old season meant well ; and if he has not learnt the secret how
to bless men impartially, it is because his father, Time, with ever-unre-
lenting purpose, still hides that secret in his own might}', slow-beating
heart.
The Mill on the Floss.
365
December 1.
You will make rank seem natural, as kind
As eagles' plumage, or the lion's might —
A crown upon your brow would seem God-made.
The Spanish Gypsy.
December 2.
I SHARE with you this sense of oppressive narrowness, but it is neces-
sar}' that we should feel it, if we care to understand how it has acted on
3'oung natures in many generations, that in the onward tendency of
human things have risen above the mental level of the generation before
them, to which they have nevertheless been tied by the strongest fibres
of their hearts. The sulfering, whether of martyr or victim, which
belongs to every historical advance of mankind, is represented in this
way in every town, and by hundreds of obscure hearths.
The Mill on the Floss.
3G0
December 1.
Alexandra, Princess of Wales, 1844.
December 2.
367
December 3.
That childish world where our two spirits mingled
Like scents from vtirj'ing roses that remain
One sweetness, nor can evermore be singled.
Yet the twin habit of that early time
Lingered for long about the heart and tongue ;
We had been natives of one happ}' clime,
And its dear accent to our utterance clung.
But were another childhood world m}^ share
I would be born a little sister there.
Brother and Sister.
December 4.
Is it any weakness, pray, to be wrought on by exquisite music ? to feel
its wondrous harmonies searching the subtlest windings of your soul?
If not, then neither is it a weakness to be so wrought upon by the
exquisite curves of a woman's cheek and neck and arms, by the liquid
depths of her searching eyes, or the sweet, childish pout of lier lips.
Adam Bede.
368
December 3.
Mary Lamb, 1767.
December 4.
Madame I? ccamier, 1777.
369
December 5.
There's no pleasure i' living, if 3-01; 're to be corked up for iver, and
only dribble 3'our mind out by the sly, like a leaky barrel. I shan't
repent saying what I think, if I live to be as old as th' old squire ; and
there's little likelihoods — for it seems as if them as aren't wanted here
are the only folks as are n't wanted i' the other world.
Adam Bede.
December 6.
So, if I live or die to serve mj' friend
'T is for my love — 't is for my friend alone,
And not for any rate that friendship bears
In heaven or on earth.
Daniel Deronda.
— .^^ —
For effective magic is transcendant nature ; and who shall measure
the subtlety of those touches which convey the quality of soul as well
as body.
MiDULEMAUCH.
370
December 5.
December 6.
Caroline Bowles SoTitbcy, 17S6.
37]
December 7.
The most powerful movement of feeling with a liturgy is the prayer
which seeks for nothing special, but is a yearning to escape from the
limitations of our own weakness, and an invocation of all good to enter
and abide with us ; or else a self-oblivious lifting up of gladness that
such good exists.
Daniel Deronda.
December 8.
Was she beautiful or not beautiful? and what was the form and expres-
sion which gave the dynamic quality to her glance? Was the good or
the evil genius dominant in those beams? Probably the evil ; else why
was the effect that of unrest rather than of undisturbed charm?
— cft.^§; — Daniel Deronda.
Our daily familiar life is but a hiding of ourselves from each other
behind a screen of trivial words and deeds, and those who sit with us at
the same hearth are often the farthest off from the deep human soul
within us, full of unspoken evil and unacted good. Janet's Repentance.
Her finely touched spirit had still its fino issues, though they were not
widely visible. Middlemakcii.
December 7.
ay/e^ /Yt^^^^ccx^^^^ ^-^y^2^^^t?-ert:^ ^
December 8.
Lady Ann Barnard, 1750; Mary, Queen of Scots, 1542.
873
December 9.
The refuge 3'ou are needing from personal trouble is the higher, the
religious life, which holds an enthusiasm for something more than our
own appetites and vanities. The few may find themselves in it by an
elevation of feeling ;"but for us who have to strugi^le for our wisdom, the
higher life must be a region ia which the affections are clad with
knowledge.
Daniel Deroxda.
Decembeh 10.
I HAVE usually found that it is the rather dull person who appears to
be disgusted with his contemporaries because they are not always
strikingly original, and to satisfy whom the party at a countr}' house
should have included the prophet Isaiah, Plato, Francis Bacon, and
Voltaire.
Theopiirastus Such.
374
December 9.
December 10.
375
December 11.
It is right and meet that there should be an abundant utterance of
good, sound common places. Part of an agreeable talker's charm is that
he lets them fall continually with no more than due emphasis. Giving a
pleasant voice to what we are all well assured of, makes a sort of whole-
some air for more special and dubious remark to move in.
TiiEOPHKASTus Sucn.
December 12.
" Ah ! I often think it 's wi' th' old folks as it is wi' the babbies," said
Mrs. Poyser; "they are satisfied wi' looking, no matter what they're
looking at. It 's God A'mighty's way o' quietening 'em, I reckon, afore
they go to sleep.
Adam Bede.
376
December 11.
December 12.
377
December 13.
Then Memniy disclosed her face divine
That like tlie calm nocturnal lights doth shine
Within the soul, and shows the sacred graves,
And shows the presence that no sinilight craves,
No space, no warmth, but moves among their all.
The Legend ov Jubal.
December 14.
Our dead are never dead to us until we have forgotten them ; they can
be injured by us, they can be wounded ; they know all our penitence, all
our aching sense that their place is empty ; all the kisses we bestow on
the smallest relic of their presence.
Adam Bede.
378
December 13.
December 14.
;i7ii
December 15.
The doctor's estimate was apt to rise and fall with entries in the day-
book ; and I have known Mr. Pilgrim discover the most unexpected vir-
tues in a patient seized with a promising illness. Gradually, however,
as his patients became convalescent, his view of their characters became
more dispassionate ; when they could relish mutton-chops, he began to
admit they had foibles, and by the time they had swallowed theii- last
dose of tonic, he was alive to their most inexcusable faults.
Janet's IIepentancr.
December 16.
Peaceful authorship ! living In the air of fields and downs, and not in the
thrice-breathod Ijreath of criticism — bringinii no Dantesque leanness; rather,
assisting nutrition by complacency, and perhaps givinn' a more suffiisive sense of
achievement than the production of a whole Divina Coramedia.
Daniel Dekonda.
And what is a portrait of a woman? Your painting and plastic are poor stuff,
after all. They perturb and dull conceptions instead of raising them. Language
is a finer medium, gives a fuller image. After all, the true seeing is within ; and
ptiintiug stares at you witii an insistent impei'fection. This woman whom yon
have just seen, for example : How would you print her voice, pray? But her
voice is much diviner tliiin anything you have seen of her.
MlDDLKMARCU.
3S0
December 15.
December 16.
Mary Russell Mitford, 1750; Jane Austun, 177o.
381
December 17.
We do not expect people to be deeply moved by what is not unusual.
That element of tragedy which lies in the very fact of frequency has not
yet wrought itself into the coarse emotion of mankind, and perhaps our
frames could hardly bear much of it. If we had a keen vision and feel-
ing of all ordinary human life, it would be like hearing the grass grow
and the squirrel's heart beat, and we should die of tlie roar which lies
on the other side of silence.
MiDDLEMAKCH.
December 18.
The worst of miseries
Is when a nature framed for noblest things
Condemns itself in youth to petty joys
And, sore athirst for air, breathes scanty life
Gasping from out the shallows.
The Spanish Gypsy.
382
December 17.
December IS.
Queen Christina, of Sweden^ 1G26.
^^ i. , f Cc ^iuLx-cj»- ^r^c.^:^
?,s;]
December 19.
I, TOO, rest ill faith
That mail's perfection is the crowiiiug flower,
Toward which the urgent sap in life's great tree
Is pressing- — seen in puny blossoms now,
But in the world's great morrows to expand
With broadest petal and with deepest glow.
A Minor Pkopiiet.
SixGS God-taught such marrow-thrilling tales
As seem the very voice of dying Spring,
A flute-like wail that mourns the blossoms
And sinks, and is not, like their fragrant breath,
With line transition on the trembling air.
The Spaxisii Gypsy.
December 20.
How long is it? — onl}' two centuries since a vessel carried over the
ocean the beginning of the great North American nation. The people
grew like meeting waters. They were various in habit and sect. There
came a time, a century ago, when they needed a polit}', and there were
heroes of peace among them. What had they to form a polity with, but
memories of Europe, corrected by the vision of a better?
DaXIKL DKnONDA.
.•;.s4
December 19.
Mary A. Livcnnore, 1821 ; Eiuilj' Broiiti', 1819
December 20.
.•'.85
December 21.
Much quotation of any sort, even in English, is bad. It tends to
choke ordinary remarlv. One xjouldn't carrj' on life comfortably without
a little blindness to the fact that everything has been said better than we
can put it ourselves.
Danief. Deuoxda.
December 22.
A >rixD consciously, energetically moving with the larger march of human
destinies, but not the less full of conscience and tender heart for the footsteps
that tread near and need a leaning place.
Daniel Deroxda.
Whex ray Father comes,
He breathes into my soul his generous hope, —
By his own greatness making life seem great.
The life we choose
Breathes high, and sees a full-arched firmament.
Our deeds shall speak like rock-liewn messages,
Teaching great purpose to the distant time.
The Spanish Gypsy.
38G
December 2 j
December 22.
Francos Power Cobb, 1822; Sara Coleridge, 1S02 ; Anna H. Jiidson, 1787.
;ss7
December 23.
And poor, aged, fretful Lisbeth, without grasping any distinct idea,
without going through any course of religious emotions, felt a vague
sense of goodness and love, and of something right lying underneath
and beyond all this sorrowing life.
Adam Bede.
December 24.
I NEVER cheat anybody- as doesn't want to cheat me, Miss — lors, I'm
a honest cliap, I am ; onl^- I must bev a bit o' sport, an' now I don't go
wi' the feiTcts, I 've got no varmint to come over but them haggling
women. But I '11 leave off that trick wi' m}' big thumb if you don't
think well on me for it, Miss — but it 'ud be a pit}', it would — I
couldn't find another trick so good — and what 'ud be the use having a
big thumb ?
The Mill on the Floss.
38S
December 23.
December 24.
r)80
December 25.
Those green boughs, the hymn and anthem never heard but at Christ-
mas— even the Athenasian Creed, which was discriminated from the
others only as being larger and of exceptional AMrtue, since it was only
had on rare occasions — brought a vague, exulting sense, for which the
grown men could as little have found words as the children, that some-
tliing great and mysterious had been done for them in keaven above, and
in earth below.
S1LA8 Makner.
December 26.
Plow the great planet glows, and looks at me.
And seems to pierce me with his effluence !
AVere he a living God, these rays that stir
In me the pulse of wonder were in him
Fulness of knowledge.
The Sp.\Nisn Gyp.sy.
December 25.
December 26.
Mrs. Mary Somerville, 1780.
391
December 27.
For the men are mostlj' so slow, that their thoughts overrun 'em, an'
they can only catch 'em by the tail. I can count a stocking-top while a
man's getting ready ; an' when he's out with his speech at last, there's
little broth to be made on 't. Howiver, I 'm not denyin' the women are
foolish ; God Almight}^ made 'em to match the men.
. Adam Bede.
December 28.
A 3-earning for some hidden soul of things.
Some outward touch complete on inner springs
That vaguely moving bred a lonel}^ pain,
A want that did but stronger grow with gain
Of all good else, as spirits miglit be sad
For lack of speech to tell us thev are glad.
The Legend of Jubal.
yy2
December 27.
December 28.
;!i.):;
December 29.
Her full nature, like that river of which Alexander broke the strength,
spent itself in channels which had no great name on earth. But the
effect of her being on those around her was incalculably diftusive, •
MiDDLEMAKCH.
December 30.
Why could he not make up his mind to the al)sence of children from
his hearth brightened by such a wife ? I suppose it is the way with all
men and women who reach middle life without the clear perception that
life never can be thoroughly joyous ; under the vague dulness of the
gray hours, dissatisfaction see'ks a definite object, and finds it in the
privation of an untried good.
Silas Marxek.
394
December 29.
Susannah AVeslej', 1670.
December 30.
395
December 31.
The fields are hoar}^ with December's frost,
I, too, am hoary with the chills of age.
But through the fields and through the untrodden woods
'Is rest and stillness.
Felix Holt.
— =1^ —
For the growing good of the world is partl}^ dependent on unhistoric
acts ; and that things are not so ill with 3'ou and me as they might have
been, is half owing to the number who lived faithfully a hidden life and
rest in unvisited tombs.
Mlddleiiakch.
396
December 31.
397
O MAT I join the choir invisible
Of these immortal dead who live again
In minds made better by their presence ; live
In pulses stirred to generosity,
In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn
For miserable aims that end with self,
In thoughts sublime that pierce the night like stars,
And with their mild persistence urge man's search
To vaster issues.
George Eliot.
398
INDEX OF NAMES.
Warren,
Adams, Abagail, .
Alcott, Louisa May,
Alexandra, Princess of Wales,
Anne, Queen of England, .
Anthony, Susan, .
Antoinette, Maria,
Appleton, Mrs. Emily
Aspasia,
Austen, Jane,
Bache, Sarah Franklin,
Baillie, Joanna,* .
Barbauld, Mrs., .
Barnard, Lady Ann,
Berry, Miss, .
Blackwell, Lucy Stone,
Blessington, Lady,
Bonheur, Rosa, .
Bright-Eyes,
Bront6, Charlotte,
345
363
367
41
51
335
143
81
381
279
121
187
373
83
247
269
89
109
125
Bront(?, Emily,
Browning, Elizabeth Barrett,
Brown, Mrs. John,
Bunsen, Baroness,
Burney, Fanny, .
Byron, Lady,
Carpenter, Mary, .
Carlyle, Jane Welsh, .
Cary, Alice, ....
Gary, Phoebe,
Catherine II., Empress of Russia
Child, Lydia Maria,
Christina, Queen of Sweden,
Cobbe, Frances Power,
Coleridge, Sara, .
Cook, Rose Terry,
Corday, Charlotte,
Coutts, Baroness Burdett, .
Craik, Dinah Muloch,*
385
151
117
71
181
151
105
213
127
271
135
47
383
387
387
53
227
127
29
399
INDEX OF NAMES.
Cushman, Charlotte, .
223
Darling, Grace, ....
357
Delaney, Mrs., ....
147
Dickinson, Anna,
327
Dix, Dorothea, ....
105
Dodge, Abagail,* ....
287
Dora, Sister, ....
17
Eliot, George, ....
355
Edgeworth, Maria,
3
Elizabeth, Queen of England, .
275
Eugenia, Empress,
139
Fiske, Fidelia, ....
135
Fleming, Margery, ..."
17
Fry, Mrs. Elizabeth, .
155
Fuller, Margaret,
157
Garfield, Mrs. Lucretia Randolf, .
121
Godwin, Mary Wollstonecraft, .
129
Goldschmidt, Jenny Lind, .
321
Gratz, Rebecca, ....
71
Gray, Lady Jane,
175
Guyon, Madame,
115
Hayes, IMrs. Lucy Webb, .
261
Hamilton, Gail,* ....
287
Heloise,*
87
Hemans, ISIrs. Felicia, .
293
Herschel, Caroline,
83
Hortense, Queen of Holland,
111
Hosmer, Harriet, .
Howe, Julia Ward,
Howett, Mary,
Huntington, Countess of,
Hypatia,*
Inchbald, Mrs., .
Ingelow, Jean,
Isabella, Queen of Castile,
Jackson, Helen Hunt, ,
Jameson, Mrs.,
Joan of Arc,*
Josephine, Empress,
Judson, Mrs. Ann H., .
Kaufman, Angelica,
Kemble, Frances Ann, .
Kent, Duchess of,
Kimball, Harriet McEwcn,
King, Louisa W., .
Klopstock, Mrs. Margaret,
Lamb, Lady Caroline, .
Lamb, INIary,
La Flcche, Suzettc,
Landon, Letitia E.,
Livermore, Mrs. Mary A.,
Louisa, Queen of Prussia,
Louise, Princess, .
Lowell, Maria White, .
400
INDEX OF NAMES.
Martlneau, Harriet,
. 179
Mary, Queen of Scots,
. 373
Medicis, de, Catherine,*
. 353
Mitchell, Maria, . • . .
. 235
Mitford, Mary Russell,
. 381
Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, .
159
Moore, Hannah, ....
37
Mott, Lucretia, ....
5
Nightingale, Florence,*
143
Nilsson, Christine,
253
Oliphant, Mrs.,* ....
39
Opie, Mrs. Amelia,
345
Patti, Adelaide, ....
55
Patterson, Dorothy Windlow, .
17
Peabody, Elizabeth Palmer,
149
Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart, .
263
Piatt, Mrs. M. B., ...
, 245
Procter, Adelaide Anne,
329
Rachel, Madame, ....
63
RadclifF, Mrs. Anna, .
209
Recamier, Madame, .
369
Remusat, Madame,
7
Ripley, Mrs. Sarah Alden, .
231
Roper, Margaret,
209
Sand, George,
201
Sappho,
171
Sarah, Duchess of Marlbprpugh,
163
Sevign^, Madame,
Sewall, Harriet Winslow,
Siddons, Mrs.,
Sigouney, Lydia H., .
Sonierville, Mrs. Mary,
Southey, Caroline Bowles,
SpofFord, Harriet Prescott,
Stael, de, Madame,
Stanhope, Lady Hester,
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady,
Stowe, Harriet Beecher,
Stuart, Arabella,*
Sutherland, Duchess of,
Theresa, Maria, .
Thrale, Mrs.,
Thaxter, Celia,
Victoria, Queen of England,
Washington, Lady Martha,*
Weld, Angelina Grimk6,
Wesley, Susannah,* .
White, Mrs. Caroline Earle,
Whitman, Sarah Helen,
Whitney, Miss Anne, .
Whitney, Mrs. A. D. T., .
Wilhemina, Fredrica Sophia,
Willard, Mrs. Emma, .
401
| __label__neg | 0 | georgeeliotbirth00elio | OL24133269M | OL15210390W | 432 | 1,882 |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 创新：鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值
鲁迅研究的---种总体性视角论纲
冯光廉
什么是鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值?鲁迅在当代中国最重要最根本的意义是什么?对此学术界的认识是并不一致的。其中较有代表性的观点有：批判精神是鲁迅的精神核心；鲁迅的精神核心是反抗；鲁迅在当代中国最重要的价值是对于中国人精神的深刻反思和对于黑暗的坚韧反抗；“立人”是鲁迅精神的灵魂。应当肯定，上述观点都以自己的独特视角，从不同方面贴近了鲁迅的本体，揭示了鲁迅在当代中国的重要价值和意义。不过我总觉得，问题似乎还不能到此为止，一些提法尚需作进一步的研究，诸多观点之间的关系亦待作更周密的辨析和说明。其关键之处在于：如何真正从总体的联系上把握鲁迅的精神核心，如何找到切实贯通鲁迅的昨天和今天和明天的思想主线，如何深人洞见鲁迅和当代中国最重要最根本的关联之处。为了有助于问题的探讨，我在这里拟提出一种新的总体性视角，即以创造革新作为鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值，由此对鲁迅重新进行一些阐释，尝试解决鲁迅研究中所面临的若干疑问和困惑问题，以促进新的研究重心和研究系统的建立与深化。
一、、创新视角的总体包容功能
对于任何问题的研究，都有一个视角的选择和优化问题。特别是总体性的大视角，对其功能品格的要求是相当高的。其中首要的是它的包容性问题。如果其涵盖面只局限于某一个方面，而遗漏其它众多的方面，其价值功能和说服力便大大减少，以偏概全、轻重不分、主次颠倒之类的批评便难以避免。因此，我认为，巨大的包容性是建构学术视角的根本要求之一，也是检验学术视角价值功能的一个重要根据。
虽然从严格的学理意义和历史流变性上说，对于创造、革新的理解和表述不尽相同，但总观词书资料的解释，其基本意思是大体一致的，即革除旧的不正确不合理的东西，做出以前未曾有的新的东西。我以为，创造革新是包容非常宽广而又非常深邃的概念，不管是哪种人，哪种事情，哪种东西，只要是对旧的不正确不合理的有所革除，对从前未曾有的有所创造，都可以置于这一总体视角之下，予以认识，予以阐述，予以评价。这是一种历史的比较的方法，通过与过去的相同、相
似和相关事物的比较，对其做出科学的历史的评价。所以列宁曾强调指出：“判断历史功绩，不是根据精神活动家没有提供现代所要求的东西，而是根据比他们的前辈提供了新的东西。”①同时，创造革新是一种总体性的认识范畴，能够将所论及的事物的方方面面包容于一个共同的系统之中，从而有利于对其整体的根本特质的把握，做出科学的历史的定位。
创新视角的总体包容功能对于认识鲁迅、评价鲁迅是非常有效的，颇有意义的。鲁迅的精神文化遗产作为一个母系统，其各个子系统都可以涵盖其中。例如鲁迅的思想层面、文化层面、文学层面、艺术层面、学术层面、翻译层面、编辑出版层面，等等，都能包容进来。在鲁迅的文学创作层面中，小说、杂文、散文诗、新旧体诗、文学批评等，亦可以包容进来。在鲁迅的小说、杂文、散文诗等各种创作中，思想内容、艺术形式、创作方法、审美特点、语言操作、历史地位等方面，同样可以包容进来。就是当前大家仍在热烈讨论的现代性问题，也可以纳入这一总体性视角之中：看鲁迅在这些众多领域内各有什么创造革新，如何在继承前人的基础上提供了新的东西，实现了增值，为思想文化、文学艺术和学术的发展做出了新的贡献。可以看出，创新视角具有巨大的包容功能，它所统摄的内容丰富多样，所涉及的领域宽广深邃，而又内在地联系在一起，构成一个宏大的整体系统。这种包容功能比仅仅从某一个层面，哪怕是非常重要的层面，要广泛得多，顺畅得多，切实得多，明晰得多，由此来评价鲁迅的总体性成就、总体性贡献、总体性价值、总体性特色，也自然得多，显豁得多，完整得多。偏窄、牵强、以偏概全、绕弯之类的缺点和弱点，都可以得到较好的克服。
二、 创新视角的总体贯通功能
创新视角的价值功能不仅可以从总体的
包容性上进行评估，还可以从总体的贯通性上进行考察，认识其在连接过去、现在和将来上的巨大作用。党的十六大报告指出：“创新是一个民族进步的灵魂和历史进步的动力源泉。”一部人类文明的历史，实际上就是人类不断冲破旧的思想牢笼、革除旧弊、建构新意、实现创造革新的历史。创造革新是人类社会的永恒主题，始终不会停止，永远不会完结。。一代又一代的人们不仅不断地用自己的聪明才智去从事创造革新，也从创造革新去考察以往杰出人物的成果，评估这些成果的历史价值和意义，并由此去发掘对今人和后人的启示和借鉴作用。因而，创新便成为连接历史的昨天、当前的今天和未来的明天的最恰当、最鲜明、最长久的一种总体性线索，古人和今人和未来的人及其成果，都在创新这一主题——主线上联系着，形成人类历史上丰富多彩、生生不息的文化景观。由于着眼点、关注点、侧重点都在创新这一被高度概括和紧相连接着的主线上，因而由此所总结所揭示出来的创新性成就、特点、经验、规律、价值，便具有永恒的价值，而不至于随着具体时空的变化、历史条件的变化而失去其价值和意义，种种“鲁迅过时论”的思潮才比较容易由此得到化解，得到澄清，得到匡正。
鲁迅是中国近现代史上一个杰出的创造革新家。他在众多领域所从事的创新实践，所取得的创新成果，所提供的创新经验，不仅在过去具有巨大的历史价值，对于当今和今后也有很大的启示意义。这里我拟参照学术界的一些研究成果②，从一个特定的角度，简要地加以概括和说明。
(一)创新欲求
不满现状是向上的车轮，是创造革新的动因，反映了主体对历史对现实的超越和对美好未来的向往。满足现状，因循守旧，停滞不前，和改革创新精神是绝不相容的，也是鲁迅最为深恶痛绝的。这是理解鲁迅创新精神的重要关键点之一。鲁迅痛切地感受到中国
社会的腐朽和黑暗，广大民众的愚昧和麻木，中国文化艺术(包括文学和学术)的硬化和衰落。为了改变这种现状，鲁迅认为必须进行彻底的改革，实行多方面的创新，否则中国人就要亡国灭种，被开除球籍。鲁迅痛感创造革新是极为艰难复杂的事情，会遇到种种顽强的阻挠和拼死的抵抗，甚至要付出血的代价，而且即使流了血也未必能改变什么。因而创造革新者必须意志坚定，锲而不舍，进行韧性的持久的战斗，执著地从荆棘丛中开辟出一条走向光明新生的道路。鲁迅强调创造革新者要振奋精神，要敢想敢说，敢于冲破旧的思想牢笼，敢于标新立异，发出自己的声音，做破旧立新的闯将。为了真正解放主体的创造力，鲁迅大声疾呼，必须彻底根除一切奴性，实现人的人格独立和思想自由，这样才能创造出新的社会人生，新的思想文化，人才能成为“真的人”。鲁迅创新欲求的强烈性、急切性和崇高性，鲁迅创新意识的坚定性、坚韧性和彻底性，为他的创造革新提供了强大的内在动力和不竭的精神源泉。
(二)创新思维
创新思维是实现创新欲求，取得创新成果的中介和桥梁，没有良好的创新思维能力，所谓创新将是一句空话。鲁迅强调思考问题和处理事情一定要尊重事实，从铁铸的事实出发，反对空想和空谈。他对旧事物的怀疑和否定，对新事物的赞成和支持，都是根据铁的事实做出的。他的思想判断和行为选择的调整和转变，也是根据事实来决定的。这就确保了他的创新成果的坚实可靠。鲁迅具有坚定的主体意识，他不迷信古人的老例，也不迷信洋人的教条，他大胆地提出了“从来如此，便对么?”的伟大诘问，坚持一切价值之重估。鲁迅一向重视怀疑一求异一创新思维的运用，善于从相近、相同的事物中发现其不同的特点，善于从习闻常见的东西中洞察出值得关注的问题，提炼出新的思想观点。鲁迅的思维带有极大的开放性。他主张放开思
路，不仅要研究中国的情形，也要研究世界的大势，“别求新声于异邦”。不仅要研究中国人和中国文化，还要研究外国人和外国文化，以便“外之既不后于世界之思潮，内之仍弗失固有之血脉，取今复古，别立新宗”③。鲁迅所提出的“拿来主义”是他的开放性思维的极好概括。他主张广为择取，博采众长，融合新机，将民族性和世界性、外来文化和本土文化融合起来，以求更好地创造新的思想文化。鲁迅非常重视比较思维，主张通过古与今、中与外的比较，找出其中的差别，寻出中国国民性和中国文化的弱点，以便进行切实的改革。鲁迅的这些思维方式的优长，有力地保证了他的创新成果的独到坚实，丰厚深刻。
(三)创新能力
创新能力是研究主体在创新欲求(意识)的支持和驱动下，通过创新思维的组织运作，形成革除旧弊(弱点、缺点、错误等)、创造新成果(新观点、新思路、新体系、新技法等)的能力。鲁迅为了改变中国人的精神病态，坚韧地致力于思想启蒙的伟大实践，画出了国民的沉默的萎靡的灵魂。他以思想的深刻和格式的特别，成功地创作了中国现代白话小说，揭开了中国文学史的崭新的一页，并为中国和世界读者创造出阿Q这一世界艺术典型。他致力于社会批评和文明批评，写出了大量的杂文，记录了现代中国人的生活和精神的眉目，成为二十世纪前期中国社会的百科全书。他创造出杂文这一崭新文体，丰富了中国文学的体式宝库。他的散文诗集《野草》感受深刻，格式多样，语言精练优美，成为中国散文诗创作的丰碑。鲁迅的《中国小说史略》第一次对中国古代小说的发展历史作了清晰的勾勒，结束了中国古代小说无史的历史，公认为是中国古代小说史的开山之作、扛鼎之作和样板之作。在思想文化领域内，鲁迅对人的解放问题的思考，对个与群的关系的论述，对奴性的剖析，都显示
出见解的深刻独到。鲁迅在上述领域的建树，充分展示出他的创新能力的高强。他对问题的洞察发现能力，对问题的开掘分析能力，对问题的总结概括能力，对问题的提升拓展能力，对问题的革旧布新能力，对问题的审美表现能力，无不具有很高的经典价值。
(四)综合素质
创造革新需要主体具有优良的综合素质。鲁迅在诸多领域内的创造性贡献，是他的优良的综合素质的集中体现。他的知识领域宽广博大。他对中国古代文化文学的熟悉，对有关古代文献资料的考辨，对有关外国文化文学的了解，都可以说达到了超群出众的程度，实现了多种文化文学的融会贯通。鲁迅是博古通今、学贯中西的文化大师。没有良好的综合素质，没有丰厚的文化积累，没有高度的聪明智慧，没有精深的思想修养、文学修养、语言修养和审美修养，鲁迅不可能取得如此巨大的成就。鲁迅是中国过渡期的产物，是历史和时代造就了鲁迅，同时也是鲁迅自己造就了自己。他以坚忍不拔、锲而不舍的刻苦努力，取得了巨大的多方面的成功。
以上我从创新欲求(意识)、创新思维、创新能力和创新综合素质这四个方面概括了鲁迅创造革新系统的一种基本架构(当然还可以提出其他一些框架结构)，总括了鲁迅创造革新的一些重要品格特点，强调这些东西赋予鲁迅的创新成果以旺盛持久的生命活力。鲁迅的创新实践表明，一切有志于创造革新的人们，必须不断地强化自己的创新欲求，不断地优化自己的创新思维，不断地增强自己的创新能力，不断地提升自己的创新综合素质。鲁迅的这些宝贵经验不仅在当时具有重大的历史价值，而且对未来也保持着长久的启示意义。
三、 创新视角的总体补正功能
创新视角及其所生成的观点，同我在开头所引述的几种观点以及其它有关看法是怎
样的关系呢?这是必须回答的重要问题。
关于“批判精神”说。的确，坚决地持久地批判旧势力旧思想旧文化旧文学和旧学术，是贯穿鲁迅一生的一个重要特点。这种批判不但在当时发挥了积极的作用，而且对实现中华民族的伟大复兴也有直接的意义。但现在我们所面临的问题是，批判精神在鲁迅的价值体系中是否居于主导的核心的地位，是否能把批判精神看作鲁迅在当代中国最重要最根本的意义?我认为值得作进一步地推敲。首先，从总体上讲，批判虽然有思想方面的内容，但更多的属于手段和方法的范畴，它既不是目的，也不是出发点和归宿。它是为实现崇高的创造革新目的而使用的一种精神武器。所谓批判，也就是我们通常所说的“破”，虽然可以说“破字当头，立在其中”，但是破和立终归是有区别的。破不等于立，破坏不等于建设。对此鲁迅是说得很清楚的：“无破坏即无新建设，大致是的；但有破坏却未必即有新建设”④，“革命当然有破坏，然而更需要建设”⑤；“但自然也有破坏，这是为了未来的新的建设。新的建设的理想，是一切言动的南针，倘没有这而言破坏，便如未来派，不过是破坏的同路人，而言保存，则全然是旧社会的维持者。”⑥我们不仅要看到鲁迅对“暂时做稳了奴隶的时代”和“想做奴隶而不得的时代”的批判，还要看到鲁迅对“创造这中国历史上未曾有过的第三样时代”的强烈期待和真诚呼唤。过去由于我们过于强调鲁迅的破，强调他的批判和破坏，研究的关注点和着重点大都集中于这些层面，而对于鲁迅的积极的创新性方面，对于鲁迅的立和建设方面，则往往缺乏更深入更具体更充分更扎实的揭示和阐述，因而在实践中便容易使人产生误解，甚至曲解。在这方面余英时先生的话是最有代表性的。他说：鲁迅是“高度的非理性”的人物，他“不但是反中国的传统，也反对西方的东西”“他
没有正面的东西，正面的东西什么都没有”，
“他没有一个积极的信仰，他要代表什么，他要中国怎么样，他从来也没说过，尽是骂这个骂那个的”。⑧鉴于过去长期的历史教训，为了更好地贴近鲁迅的本体真实，我主张把破与立、目的和方法手段既要联系起来，更要区分开来，将批判精神作为鲁迅价值系统的一个重要组成部分，而不将其视为鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值，真正起主导和决定作用的因素应该是创造革新。我以为如此理解似乎比较能够抓住问题的本质和关键，克服片面性和表面性的弊端。
关于“反抗”说。现在有的学者将鲁迅对黑暗的反抗作为鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值，认为这是鲁迅在当代中国最根本的价值和意义所在。我认为这种看法同上述的“批判精神”说颇为相似，同样有值得认真推敲之处。这是因为，对黑暗势力的彻底地坚韧地反抗，仅是鲁迅精神和实践活动的一个方面。其目的乃在于迎接光明，实现民族的独立和人的解放，到达理想的人国。从根本性和总体性考虑，与创造革新相比，它仍然是从属性的，居于比较次要的地位。只要认真回顾一下建国以来鲁迅研究的历史便可以发现，几乎每到强调建设、强调稳定的时候，种种“鲁迅过时论”的思潮便屡屡浮现出来，传播开来，前些年媒体报道的“鲁迅渐离我们而去，孔夫子正向我们走来”的社会思潮动向，清楚地说明了这一点。“鲁迅过时论”的频频出现和广为流布，其原因固然是多方面的，但毋庸讳言，同我们对鲁迅思想和价值系统的阐述的片面性和表面性，恐怕是有一定关系的。因为到了新中国，特别是到了新时期，三座大山被推翻了，人民翻身得解放，要实行改革开放，国家面临的最重要最迫切的任务是发展社会生产力，最大限度地满足人民不断增长的物质需要和精神需要。在这种情况下，不少人便容易产生片面的认识，认为批判精神强烈的鲁迅，坚韧反抗黑暗的鲁迅，便显得有些过时了，不那么需要了。我们当
然可以批判这种认识的片面性和危害性，但我认为仅仅这样做还不够，还需要正视我们鲁迅研究工作中的弱点和局限，即对鲁迅的批判和反抗讲得多，对鲁迅的立和建设和创造革新讲得少，对鲁迅作品的现实战斗性讲得多而重而深，对鲁迅作品的超时空的经典性价值和长远意义讲得少而浅而弱。这就提醒我们，必须认真反思我们的鲁迅研究，调整鲁迅研究的视角和重心，加强对鲁迅经典性问题的研究，把那些具有超时空意义、具有持久价值的思想观点开掘出来，传播开来，使鲁迅研究能够与时俱进，保持永不过时、永不枯竭的生命活力，真正成为“说不尽的鲁迅”。(当然，对于鲁迅的创新问题的研究，应该严格坚持实事求是的科学理性原则，切实从鲁迅的本体实际出发，既不能压低，也不能拔高，既不能缩小，也不能夸大，既讲其成就，也讲其局限，既讲其经验，也讲其教训。要注意防止这两种不良倾向的产生。这样才能够保持学术研究的科学性、说服力和生命力。实事求是地说，要真正地做到这一点是很不容易的，需要付出长期的艰苦的努力。)
关于“反思”说。有的学者把反思-对中国人精神的深刻反思，作为鲁迅精神的核心价值和在当代中国最根本的意义。应该说这一观点的提出和强调是很有意义的，值得关注。不过，按照我的理解，论者所说的对中国人精神的深刻反思，实际上指的就是或近似于我们过去长期探讨的改造国民性的命题，由此所引出的结论是：必须进行思想启蒙和思想革命，促进人的觉醒，使人从“本能的人”提升为清醒的人、真的人”。人类前行的历史告诉我们，任何的改革都需要与之相适应的思想作为自己的前提和保证，以扫清前进的障碍。强调批判旧思想，进行思想反思，对于今天实现中华民族的伟大复兴，确实具有积极的现实意义。这是毫无疑问的。不过，我认为，对于鲁迅来说，仅仅从改造国民精神的层面来理解来阐述似乎还很不够，还
要考虑更多更深层的方面。只要认真思考一下便可以发现，鲁迅所要坚持改造的不仅有思想和精神，而且还有社会和人生。他所热切希望实现的不仅有个性的解放和人格的独立，而凡还有国家的独立和民族的席强。他所衷心期待的不仅要人摆脱精神的奴役，而且还要摆脱生活的贫困。他不仅执着于批判旧思想旧文化旧学术，而且还要积极创造新思想新文化新学术。鲁迅破旧立新精神的宽广性、深刻性、丰富性和彻底性，正是他作为伟大创造革新家的可贵特质的表现。显然，鲁迅精神宝库里如此丰厚深广的内涵，决不是改造国民性思想所能够包容的。不仅如此，对当今的时代而言，创新具有更为重要、更为根本的意义。因为创新是当今最突出的时代主题，最迫切的战略任务。在激烈的竞争中，创新力如何将决定民族的命运和国家的前途。精神反思、思想启蒙、思想革命之类的命题，只有归属于、置放于创新这一重要的时代主题、时代精神、时代主潮的宏大格局中，才能充分显示其价值和意义。所以，我认为，从总体上考虑，以精神反思作为统摄鲁迅、包容鲁迅、贯通鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值，似不如创新说更加贴近鲁迅创造新的社会、新的人生、新的思想、新的文化(包括文学和艺术)、新的学术的本体真实，更能够扣紧当今的时代主题和时代精神，在学理上更具有科学性和说服力。
关于“民族魂”说。从1936年鲁迅逝世到现在，几十年来大家都用“民族魂”来评价鲁迅。总观以往学术界对于“民族魂”的解释，几乎都是从鲁迅的战斗精神来立意来进行阐述的。认为鲁迅的反抗斗争精神，刚毅不屈、锲而不舍、绝不妥协的思想品格，是民族精神的集中体现。我这里说鲁迅的伟大创造革新体现了中华民族的聪明智慧和开拓进取精神，完全可以、而且非常应该包含在“民族魂”这一总概念之内。从创新的角度解释鲁迅是“民族魂”，不仅能讲得通(囚为“创
新是民族进步的灵魂”，创新精神是民族崇高精神的一个重要组成部分)，而且能使“民族魂”的内涵变得更为充实，更为开阔、更为丰富，更加富有时代特色，更加体现当今理论创新、制度创新、机制创新、文化创新、技术创新的时代要求，更能反映中华民族实现伟大复兴的时代精神。这对于拓展鲁迅研究的视野，开掘鲁迅遗产的内涵，对于建构鲁迅研究的格局，无疑具有积极的意义。
最后，关于“立人”说。近二十多年来，鲁迅的立人思想受到了空前广泛的重视，得到了高度的评价。这的确是鲁迅研究中的·项重大收获。有的研究者强调“立人”是鲁迅精神的灵魂，强调人的觉醒和解放，强调人的独立和自山，强调人的全面的发展，这些的确是鲁迅非常深刻、非常值得关注的思想亮点，是值得继承和发扬的伟大思想成果，具有长久的价值。因此，从这个角度说，将立人作为鲁迅精神的灵魂和价值核心，我以为是可以的，说得过去的。不过，我感觉问题似乎还可以从另一些层面去进行探究。其一，鲁迅曾经说过，美术家的“制作，表面上是一张画或一个雕像，其实是他的思想与人格的表现”9鲁迅还说过：“非有天马行空似的大精神即无大艺术的产生。”D鲁迅的论述为我们提供了深人思考这一问题的方向和线索。鲁迅的文学创作和学术研究的创造性，正是他的思想特质和人格精髓的表现。水管里流出来的都是水，血管里流出来的都是血。鲁迅在文学创作中的独特创造，在学术研究中的独到见解，正是他的独立意识和自由精神的-种外化，是其立人思想的一种反映，并且是其精髓的集中的高度的呈现。从这个意义上我们同样可以说，创造革新是鲁迅立人思想的另一种表述。不过，我认为对于作为伟大作家和学者的鲁迅来说，从创造革新的视角来立意来阐述来标识，也许显得更明确、更贴切一些。正是基于这种认识，我觉得将创新作为鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值是可以
成立的，起码能够成为一家之言。第二，用立人来统领鲁迅的文学创作和学术研究，自然并无不可，但仍需要拐一个弯：有什么样的思想品格的人，便写出什么样的作品，做出什么样的学术。只能用这种绕弯的、带间接性的推导方式进行连接，然后才能进入对具体的文学创作和学术研究的分析，如创作中的各种文体的写作，学术中的小说史的编撰等等。很清楚，这种连接和贯通显得并不非常直接、非常通畅。而如若从创新的视角切入，则各类学术问题、各类作品的具体组成部分，便非常紧密、非常自然、非常顺畅、非常鲜明地连接起来，构成一个统一的有机的整体。正是虑及以上两点，所以我认为，以创新作为鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值的提法，不仅能够讲得通，而且具有相当大的优越性。
综上所述可以看出：如何恰当地认识和分析鲁迅精神文化遗产诸多部分之间的关系，如何恰当地理解和阐述对“鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值”问题诸多不同观点之间的关系，是一个带根本性的问题。这就要求我们必须进行缜密的辩证的分析。这里必须确认一个理论前提，即在一个复杂的有机整体中，可以进行主要与次要、重点与一般、主导与从属、核心与边缘之类的解析，承认这些概念之间是有区别的，其所占的地位和所具有的作用与意义是并不相同的。按照词书的解释，核心即中心，是事物的主要部分。在鲁迅精神的总体价值系统里，确实有主要与次要之分，有目的与手段之别。多中心多核心实际是无中心无核心(从这个意义上说，将对中国人精神的深刻反思和对于黑暗的坚韧反抗这两个方面一并作为鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值，恐怕是并不怎么科学的)。中心与核心是客观存在的，不能随意地进行解构和颠覆，也不能采取不承认主义。我在文章中既承认“批判”说、反抗”说、反思”说的重要意义，又指出其不能认作鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值的理由。同时，承认“民族魂”说
和“立人”说的正确性，又指出以往阐述中存在的某些狭隘性、不明晰性和不通畅性等局限，而将“创新”说补人其中，并加以强调，加以拓展，加以提升，予以新的阐释，从而使其内涵变得更为准确，更为充实，更为丰富，更加富有时代意义和现实价值，并力求从学理上和逻辑上体现准确、通畅、自然、显豁的特点。我在本部分中所标示的“总体补正功能”，其内涵和要旨及寓意正在这里。
学术发展的历史告诉我们，研究视角的选择、调整和转换，对于学术研究有着非常重要的意义。一种研究视角的长期的凝固，往往会导致学术思维的板结，学术活力的丧失，学术发展的停滞。而一种新的研究视角的开辟与拓展，则常常会带来视域的扩大和研究的深人，能够发现以往许多被遮蔽、被弱化的学术空间和学术内涵，促使学术研究的突破和增值。从一定的意义上说，学术发展的历史就是研究视角不断调整、更新、优化的历史。树立自觉的视角意识是学术创新的必然要求，也是学者获得学术灵感、创造新的学术成果的重要条件。这只要回顾一下建国后学术研究的历史便可发现，每一次重大的研究视角的调整和转换，都为鲁迅研究开辟了新的学术天地，带来了新的学术突破。新时期以来，“鲁迅过时论”的思潮不断地冲击着鲁迅研究，鲁迅同时代的联系，鲁迅的精神文化遗产的长久意义不断被怀疑、被削弱、被否定，而不少的鲁迅研究的文字依旧H停留在着力阐述与鲁迅当时的时代历史文化的联系上(当然，看到并阐述这种联系是必要的，有意义的)，而找不到包容鲁迅诸多领域的内在关联，找不到贯通历史、现实、未来的新的重要线索，找不准鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值究竟是什么。这不能不引起我们的认真的思考。我的“创新：鲁迅精神的灵魂和核心价值”这一总体视角、观点的提出，正是为了促使这一问题的解决。按照这一总体要求，我们必须认真研究鲁迅在创造革新(特别是原
创性的)方面究竟有哪些成就和贡献?这些成就和贡献是怎样取得的?其成因为何?有哪些经验和规律性的东西具有超时空的价值和意义?特别要认真研究鲁迅的创新个性和最可贵的特色是什么。我们应该进行全方位、多层次的研究，并且注意从古与今、中与外、现代与当代的多重比较中，进行深人的研究和有说服力的阐释。我相信这一总体视角的开辟和强化，可能有助于拓展鲁迅研究的学术空间，将鲁迅研究向前推进一步。
学术发展的历史还告诉我们，任何具有创新意义的视角和观点的提出，都不是凭空产生的，而是在前人和今人研究成果的基础上形成和发展起来的。这中间或是能够从正面给予一定的启示，或是能够从反面给予一定的推动，两者对于研究主体都具有某种积极的、不可或缺的意义。我在收集和阅读相关材料的过程中，非常突出地发现，从一个个具体的方面论述鲁迅创新的书文是非常多的，从总体上论及鲁迅精神的超时空的意义的也为数不少。这些都给我以很大的启发，成为我的研究的重要参照和坚实依托。就是那些我并不怎么赞同的观点，也从一些重要方面给我以有力的激发和推动，促使我去做进一步的思考。实际上，我所做的工作主要是：用明确、简要、精练的话语体式，将创造革新提到总包容、总贯通的高度加以强调，加以
突出，揭示其价值和意义，并对相关的观点发表了个人的看法，从而引发学术界对鲁迅创新问题的重视，以加强这方面的研究。如此而已。粗疏不当之友，敬请批评指正。
2008.11.20于青岛大学
注释：
①
《列宁全集》第2卷第150页，人民出版社1954年版。
②
如路甬祥《面向知识经济，培养创新人才一一序(院士成才录>》、邱存平《智者的思考》等。
③④⑦⑨
)
《鲁迅全集》第1卷第57、202、225、346页，人民文学出版社2005年版。
⑤
《鲁迅全集》第4卷第239页，人民文学出版社2005年版。
⑥
《鲁迅全集》第7卷第374页，人民文学出版社2005年版。
⑧
转引自袁良骏《为鲁迅一辩-—-与余英时先生商榷》，《鲁迅研究月刊》1995.9。
10《鲁迅全集》第10卷第257页，人民文学出版社2005年版。
①
如林非《鲁迅与中国文化》、张梦阳《中国鲁迅学通史》、彭定安《鲁迅：对于当代中国的意义》等。
(作者通讯处：青岛市宁夏路306号4号楼201户。邮编：266071) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 拉普拉斯变换在互感电路分析中的应用
宋玉玲，鲁道邦，海 涛，崔本亮，高振海，王
(南阳师范学院物理与电子工程学院，河南南阳473061)
摘 要：拉普拉斯变换是分析复杂线性动态电路系统的有力工具，但对含互感电路进行复频域分析的文献不多。研究拉普拉斯变换方法在互感电路中的应用，简化了电路的求解过程。
关键词：拉普拉斯变换；互感；s域元件模型
中图分类号： TM 131.41 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1671-6132(2008)06-0030-02
互感在工程中应用极其广泛，因此对互感电路进行分析非常必要.常见的基本分析方法有时域分析法、频域分析法、复频域分析法.由于互感电路本身的复杂性，采用时域或频域进行分析都很繁琐.本文从复频域角度，首先对互感元件进行s域变换，然后对互感电路进行复频域分析.
拉普拉斯变换
对于具有多个动态元件的复杂电路，用直接求解微分方程的方法比较困难.例如对于一个n阶方程，直接求解时需要知道变量及其各阶导数在t=0.时刻的值，而电路中给定的初始状态是各电感电流和电容电压在t=0.时刻的值，从这些值求初始条件的工作量很大.拉普拉斯变换和傅立叶变换都是积分变换，但它比博立叶变换有更广泛的适应性，是求解高阶复杂动态电路的有效面重要的方法之一(-4.在傅立叶变换中，引人衰减因子e\*\*(c为实常数)，根据不同信号的特征，适当选取r的值，使乘积信号f(t)e“当t→±o时信号幅度趋近于0，从而使f(t)e“的定义式积分收敛.
其积分结果为s(s=小+jw)的函数，则
则F
F
(
(
s
s
)
)
\=
\=
\[r(+)e"di
即为双边拉普拉斯变换对或复傅立叶变换对.引入拉普拉斯变换后，傅立叶变换中不能解决的零初始状态下的系统响应也可迎刃而解.
2 电路的s域模型
分析电路的基本依据是基尔霍夫定律(KCL和 KVL)和元件端电压与其电流的约束关系.在时域分析中，利用微分方程研究电路，当电路的网络结构复杂(支路和节点较多)时利用微分方程显得相当繁琐.为简化分析过程，可先对电路进行s域变换，再把变换后的电压与电流用KVL和 KCL 联系起来.
2.1 s域元件模型-2J
R、L、C元件的s域关系为
其中sL，一，因具有阻抗的量纲，称为电感和电容的等效阻抗.Li(0)，(0)是由初始条件引起的附加电源.R、L、C元件的s域模型，可用电压源与等效阻抗的串联表示，如图l所示.
图1 R、L、C元件的s域模型
也可以用电流源与等效阻抗的并联表示，如图2所示.
图2 R、L、C元件的：域模型
2.2
互感元件的s域模型
互感元件时域模型如图3所示，其时域关系为
对以上两式两边进行拉普拉斯变换可得到其：域关系，
工感元件：域模型如图4所示.
收稿日期：2008-03-15
作者简介：宋玉玲(1974-)，女，河南开封人，顾士，主要从事信号处理方面的研究.
尚子杠云斗子子人棚效巘车
图3 互感元件
图4 互感元件：域模型
也可以用互感化除后的电路，其s域模型如下图5所示.
图5 互感化除后互感元件s域模型
2.3 电路定理的推纩
时域中的 KCI.定理为>i(t)=0，变换到s域为乏I(s)=0；
时域中的 KVL定理为XV(t)=0，变换到s域为艺V(s)=0；
在线性稳态电路中各种分析方法在进行s域分析时均适用.
3 利用元件s域模型求响应
根据上面的讨论，我们可以求图6所示电路开关闭合后的电流i().当t≥0时该电路的s域等效电路图如图7所示.当tc0时，i(t)=i(t)=0A，即i(0.)=i(0\_)=0A.
图6 电路原理图
R，
图7
由图7即可根据KVI.定理，求出
可求出其逆变换：(t)=0.5(e-6.671-
一巴
\-20)A.
4
总结
在互感电路分析中，动态元件(如L、C)的电压和电流间的约束关系是电压或电流变量间的导数或微分，所以基于这种约束关系的关系式一般是以时间：为自变量的高阶微分方程，对其求解相当休难.但利用。域的代数方程式，即可方便地对网络进行分析求解；另外，拉普拉斯变换将电压和电流变量的初始值自动引人到代数方程式，而不必像时域分析时对初始条件要单独考虑.可见，拉普拉斯变换亦是分析复杂动态电路的有效工具.
参
考
文
献
\[1\]
尖大正.信号与线性系统分析\[M\].北京：高等教育出版社，2006.
邱关源.电路\[M|.北京：高等教育出版社，2006.
郑君里，应启珩，杨为理.信号与系统\[M」、北京：高等教育出版社，2005.
\[4」
Sinton Haykin，Barry Van Veen. Signals and Syslems\[M\]. Bei-jing： Publishing House of Eleclronies Industry，2004.
Application of Laplace in analysis of mutual inductance component circuits
SONG Yu-ling， LU Dao-bang， HAI Tao，CUI Ben-liang， GAO Zhen-hai. WANG Chong
(School of Physies and Electronic Engineering， Nanyang Normal University， Nanyang 473061， China)
Abstract：Laplace transform is an effective tool for analysis of complicated dynamic circuits. Literature about s-domain analysis for mutual inductance circuits are not nearly reported. This paper studies on the application of Laplace transformation on analysis of mutual inductance circuits，which simplify the solving process.
Key words：Laplace transformation； mutual inductance； component model in s-domain
National Social Sciences Database | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 2
帐概啦
：增加农民收3 要有便措施叶兴层
千二方百计增加农民收人，提高农村购买力水平，是扩大和培育内需十分重要的方面。从1997年到2000年，全国农民人均纯收人增长幅度连续4年下滑。2001年农民人均纯收人虽然出现恢复性增长，但支持收人增长的一些因素，如粮食、畜产品价格回升等难以继续发挥作用。农民增收缓慢，制约着农村消费需求的扩大。全国县及县以下消费品零售额占全社会消费品零售额的比重，1990年为46.40%，2000年下降为 38.2%。农民增收缓慢，导致城乡差别进一步扩大。目前的城乡差别是改革开放以来最大的。城镇居民人均可支配收人与农民人均纯收入的比例，1978年为2.57：1，1984年一度缩小为1.83 ：1，2000年又扩大为 2.79：1.不增加农民收人，扩大内需就没有基础；任由城乡差别继续扩大、社会稳定就缺乏根基。
中央在部署1999年农村工作时，作出了农业发展进人新阶段的重要判断，并在随后几年相继提出推进农业和农村经济结构战略性调整、增加农民收人是新阶段的中心任务和主要目标。三年多来， 上上下下绞尽脑汁，苦思良策，尽管农业和农村经济结构战略性调整有所进展，但增收效果不
尽人意。按照去年年底中央经济工作会议的部署，为了较快增加农民收人，今年要突出抓好中西部退耕还林、粮食主产区和农业大省税费改革以及深化粮绵流通体制改革等工作。方方面面感到仅靠这二条措施难以收到明显效果。在这三条措施之外，到底还有哪些措施可以明显增加农民收人?笔者认为，增收的措施还是有的，至少以下几个方面可以一试。
这几年国家财政收人大幅度增长，调整财收支出结构是有条件的。1999年、2000年和2001年全国财政分别比上年增收1500多亿元、1900多亿元和2500多亿元。以1998年为基数，三年累计增收1.1万多亿元。财政增收这么多，主要用于涨工资和城市建设、农业、农村和农民受益较少。1999年到2001年，由于大幅度增加机关事业单位职工的基本工资，国家财政累计增加支出 4800多亿元。为了确保按时发放城镇下岗职工基本生活费和离退休人员基本养老金，为了保障城市低收人者的生活，这几年国家财政也
花了不少钱，今后一个时期，如果真想增加农民收人，就要采取类似给机关事业单位职工涨工资、给城市下岗职工和低收人者增加收人这样的大措施，大幅度增加财收预算对农业、农村和农民的投人。这里要回答两个问题：
第一，增加财政对农业、农村和农民的投入，是否符合世贸组织规则?回答是肯定的。按照世贸组织规则和我国人世承诺，财政增加农业补贴的空间还很大。“绿箱”补贴不受限制，“黄箱”补贴最高可以达到农业总产值的 8.5%，我国目前仅为2.4%，增加补贴还有潜力。
第二，增加财政对农业和农村的投入，究竟可以干哪些事?除了增加农、林、水等涉农部门常规工作的投人外，目前来看，可供选择的事情至少还有三件：一是调整和完善农村税黄改革方案、加大中央财政转移支付力度，5更大幅度地减轻农民员担。取消提留统筹、按 7%的税率征收农业税、按农业税的20%征收附加费(农业税实际税率为 8.4%)的农村税费改革方案，是“用农村的税源支撑农村基层政权和公益事业”这一传统思维的延续，而这正是城乡二元体制的典
型特征。要真正达到减轻农民负担之目的，就必须树立“用全社会的税源支撑全社会的政权和公益事业”的公共财政理念、尤其需要指出的是、农业生产承担8.4%的实际税率，使我国农业的国际竞争力大大削弱，因此，无论从减轻农民负担，还是从增强我国农业国际竞争力的角度来看，在农村税费改革中都应当降低农业税实际税率，由此造成的收支缺口由中央财政弥补。二是扩大农业税和农业特产税突软减免力度。按照税法规定，避受白然灾害、出现减产吋可以减免农业税和农业特产税：但农业生产受自然和市场双重制约，在没有自然灾害，但市场价格大幅度下降的情况下，也应该对农业生产实行减免税的政策。由此而减少的地方财政收人，由中央财政给于转移支付补助。三是探索对农民的直接补贴途径。在这个问题上，持反对意见者的主要理由是不好操作。其实，浙江等地前几年就实行过直接补贴粮食生产者的办法，这几年中西部地区在退耕还林的实践中也已经摸索出粮食和现金直接补贴到户的做法。在总结这些成功经验的基础上，可以探索新的直接补贴农民的途径。
燃
至
这几年在财政收人大幅度增长的同时，国家还发行了巨额国债。1998年以来的四年间，累计增发建设国债5100亿元， 其中与农业和农村多少沾点边的农林水利项目和生态环境建设项目，共安排1400亿元，仪占同期国债投资总规模的28%。而且这些项目主要是大江大河治理等，各行各业都从中受益，实实在在与农民增收关系密切的项日不多，难以直接带动农民增收。今后几年积极的财政政策还难以“淡出”，2002年国家将继续增发国债1500亿元，应提高用于农业和农村的比重，并调整投资方向，把小型
基础设施项目放在更加重要的位置。在当前情况下，增加节水灌溉、人畜饮水、农村沼气、农村水电、乡村道路和草场围栏等农村小型基础设施投人，与农民利益更密切，农民参与更广泛，促进农民增收的效果更显著。
20世纪80年代.我们讲城市要带动农村，主要着眼于围绕城市大工业的需要在农村发展配套工业，把一些零配件的生产扩散到农村。目前看，增强城市对农村的带动作用，要更多地着眼于为农村剩余劳动力提供就业机会。这是新时期城市对农村的最大支持和带动。目前Ⅰ资性收人已成为农民收入增长的重要来源，工资性收人占农民人均纯收人的比重，1995年为22.4%，2000年上升到31.2%，提高了7.8个百分点。2000年农民人均纯收人比上年增加43.08元，其中工资性收人增加72.04元，弥补了家庭经营收人的减少。要清理、取消不合理的限制和各种乱收费，为农民进城务工经商提供方便，使进城农民享受“国民待遇”：
四培熊保护和大衣
促进整个国民经济持续快速发展，必须培育、保护和扩大内需。同理，在日前农产品供大于求的情况下，靠发展农业生产以增加农民收人，也必须以培育、保护和扩大对农产品的需求为前提。对农产品的需求不增长，农业生产就难以发展。这里有三个问题需要注意：
一是要发现和壮大对农产品新的消费增长点。虽然目前城镇居民对农产品的消费水平比以前有了很大提高，但并没有达到普遍饱和的状态，有些产品的消费水平还很低。一个突出例子是牛奶。我国城市居民的牛奶消费量很低，扩大牛奶消费的潜力很大。
这要从城市青少年抓起。1999年国家学生奶计划正式启动，按规划，全国7500 万城镇中小学生中，2005年要有1500 万人、2010年要有2500万人参与此项计划。从北京、上海、天津、沈阳和广州5个试点城市看，影响计划实施的主要问题，是定点企业为了降低成本，在包装、配方上做文章，既易出现质量安全事故，又降低了营养价值。如果各城市政府财政能给予补贴，让学生能够喝上免费奶，学生奶计划就可以加快实施。这既有利于增强城市学生的体质，又可以带动农村特别是粮食主产区发展奶牛养殖业。
二是要注意培育和提高城镇低收入人群对农产品的消费需求。现阶段城镇居民农产品消费需求的收入弹性仍很明显，不同收人水平的城镇居民对农产品的消费水平差异较大。据城镇住户调查资料，2000年全国城镇困难户人均消费猪牛羊肉14.62公斤、家禽3.45公斤、鲜蛋 8.81公斤、白菜96.42公斤、鲜瓜果29.03公斤，分别比城镇居民的平均水平低5.44公斤、1.99公斤、2.4公斤.18.32公斤和20.1公斤。如果考虑到困难户在外消费的机会较少，差距就更大一些，可考虑惜鉴发达国家向低收人人群发放食品券的做法，把对城镇困难户的少量现金补助改为发放食品券。这样既可以扩大农产品需求，又有利于确保城镇困难户的基本营养需要。
三是对农产品质量安全状况的宣传要掌握好分寸。近几年对蔬菜中农药和重金属残留超标、猪肉中含瘦肉精”等问题太过炒作，影响城市消费者对这些产品的消费。2000年全国城镇居民人均猪肉和蔬菜消费量分别比1995年减少0.51公斤和1.73公斤。对农产品质量安全问题，工作上要抓紧，但要注意内外有别、多做少说这是保护农产品需求很重要的·个方面。
\[作者单位：国务院研究室农村司) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | Tational Social Scl Database
**论章学诚治学特点及对其学术业绩的影响**
**张玲琳**
**(绍兴图书馆，浙江 绍兴312000)**
**摘 要：章学诚是中国清代的重要史学家，他的史学成就卓著，他“成一家之言”的治学抱负，“经世致用”的治学理念，“学以明道”的治学使命，开辟了学术新风气，研究章学诚的治学特点，对现代学术文化建设具有重大意义。**
**关键词：章学诚；治学；特点；学术业绩**
**中图分类号：B249 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1008-293X (2013) 06-0007-03**
**章学诚，字实斋，号少岩。浙江会稽(今绍兴)人，生于清乾隆三年(1738)，卒于嘉庆六年(1801)，终年64岁。其生活的时代，正是历史上所谓的“乾嘉时代”。**
**乾嘉时代，曾被后人看成清代历史的一个“盛世”，“乾嘉学派”又被视为这个“盛世”学术繁荣的象征。然而，正是在这个时代，统治者推行了空前的文化专制主义高压政策，把整个学术文化纳人考据轨道。这种考据学是一种严重畸形发展的学术文化，它虽然在考据领域内做出了不小的成绩，但考据之风脱离现实，专事训诂，如此学风，禁锢了学人的思想，束缚了人们的创见，阻碍了学术的发展。在这种背景下，章学诚自己不惜“乖时人好恶”、“逆于时趋”，向主宰学界的考据学风发起挑战，最后结撰成体现他全部学术思想和史学价值观的《文史通义》、《校雠通义》、《史籍考》等等，以及一系列方志理论和方志案例，其成果具有很高的学术价值，并对清末启蒙思想有很大影响，章学诚能取得如此成果，这是与他的治学思想、精神、方法有密切关系的。**
**一、“成一家之言”的治学抱负**
**章学诚一生以著述为主，传承优良传统，开创一代新风，以“成一家之言”为治学抱负。**
**一是立志“成一家之言”。在年轻的时候，章学诚就立下大志，要对《汉书·艺文志》进行研究，校雠其书，申明微旨，“又取古今载籍，自六艺以降，讫于近代作者之林，为之商榷利病，讨论得失，拟为《文史通义》一书，分内外杂篇，成一家言”。章学诚的“成一家之言”是要对历史文献“商榷利病，讨论得失”，发现规律，提出新的史学观点，研究新的史学理论。章学诚的学术实践也正是这么做的，他在史学领域大胆发挥，“自信发凡起例，多为后世开山。”21为千古史学开辟了新的道路。**
**二是继承浙东“贵专家”的史学传统。浙东史学是在中国历史上较有影响的学术流派，其特点是提倡学术交融，反对门户之见；专攻精研专家，崇尚独创精神；注重实际效果，推崇经世致用。其中“贵专家”是浙东史学的传统。章学诚说：“吾于史学，贵其著述成家，不取方圆求备，有同类纂。”3\]显然章学诚是继承了浙东史学的优秀传统，着眼点还是在“成一家之言”。**
**三是坚持“持风气”而不“徇风气”。清乾嘉年间，学术上是一个封闭沉闷只重考据的年代，因为政治压迫，文化禁锢，许多学者不敢成一家之言，维有埋头古书，做做考据的文章。章学诚胸怀大志，开展校雠心法和史学研究，在学术上独辟蹊径。他的学术道路十分艰难，以至于不合时趋，遭人讥讽，被视为异类，饱受精神上的压抑和物质上的窘迫。但他意志坚强，认定目标决不退却。他提出了学术研究要“持风气”，而不要“狗风气”的主张， “持风气”就是要开创一种新的学风，创造一代新的业绩；而“徇风气”就是随波逐流，在腐败的学术风气中消沉。章学诚坚持强调开辟学术新风气，并主**
**\*收稿日期：2013-12-02**
**国家作者简介：张玲琳(1962-)，女，浙江绍兴人，绍兴图书馆地方文献室，副研究馆员。**
National Social Sclences Database
**一**
**动身体力行，纠正学术风气的偏颇，闯出了一条史学新路，成就了一代学术伟业。**
**二、以“经世致用”为治学理念**
**与当时脱离实际的学风相反，章学诚一再旗帜鲜明地强调做学问应当经世致用，他说：“学问所以**
**经世，而文章期于明道，非为人士树名地也。”章学诚“经世致用”的治学理念具体表现在三个方面：一是坚持史学经世论。章学诚在《文史通义》内篇二《浙东学术》一文中说：“史学所以经世，周非空言著述也。”又在其后自注曰：“整辑排比，谓之史纂；参互搜讨，谓之史考，皆非史学。”这里，章学诚明确提出了“史学所以经世”的观点，并认为如果做不到经世致用，就称不上是“史学”，也无资格来谈论史学。章学诚史学经世理论的提出，不仅是对古代史学传统的总结和发扬，更重要的是，它反映了时代的要求，强调学术研究要为现实社会政治服务。与现实社会紧密结合，是章学诚社会政治思想和学术理论的一个显著特点，也是他的治学主张。他认为学术文章如果无补于世教风俗，就毫无存在价值。尽管他在学业上注重创造发明，但更强调经世致用。**
**二是做学问要“持世而救偏”。章学诚说：“学问经世，文章垂训，如医师之药石偏枯，亦视世之寡有者而已矣。以学问文章絢世之所尚，是犹既饱而进粱肉，既暖而增狐貉也。”4章学诚在致钱大昕的书札中说：“惟世俗风尚，必有所偏……苟欲有所救挽，则必逆于时趋。”53他看到了当时的考据学，已脱离了社会现实，所以要“逆于时趋”，而救挽学术。章学诚倡导学术研究不能趋于时俗，而应“持世救偏”，让学术风气回归中正，让学问真正为世所用。**
**三是将经世致用的观点付之于实践。章学诚对时局十分关心，密切关注着现实社会和时事政治。他十分重视研究当代，强调学术要为现实政治服务。他那倡言变革和进化的社会发展史观，力主“澄清吏治”和反腐倡廉的政治改革方案都是“经世致用”的具体体现。**
**由于生活贫困，只好以文笔吃饭，经常受聘为地方修志，他也就将经世致用的观点自觉地运用于修志之中，说“丈夫生不为史臣，亦当从名公巨卿，执笔充书记，因而得论列当世，以文章见用于时，如纂修志乘，亦其中之一事也。”\[6\]他曾经明确谈到，修志不是为了美观，而是为了实用。他认为方志不是地理书，而是“一国之志”。他认为“史志之书，有裨风教者，原应传述忠孝节义，凛凛烈烈，有声有色，使百世而下，怯者勇生，贪者廉立……..况天地间大节大义，纲常赖以扶持，世教赖以撑柱者乎!”161他在总结前人修志经验的基础上，提出了一整套系统完整的方志理论，从而为中国古代方志学建立起比较完整的理论体系。**
**三、、“学以明道”的治学使命**
**贫困和饥寒时刻困扰着章学诚，耗费了他大量宝贵的时间和精力，但章学诚还是利用点滴时间发愤治学，正如他自己所言，他的许多文章都是在“车尘马足之间”写成的。他之所以能做到这样，是因为受其“学以明道”的使命感所驱使。**
**一是“为学之要，先戒名心”。章学诚认为，一个人要在学术上取得成就，有所建树，名利思想必须淡薄。他自己一生不追逐名利，虽然穷困潦倒，藉笔墨为生，也从不愿“舍己以从时尚”，把全部精力都用于文史校雠之业。章学诚坚持认为，做学问要专心致志，对目标要坚定不移，对世人的评说要淡然处之，他说“世之所重而非吾意所期与，虽大如泰山，不追顾也；世之所忽而苟为吾意之所期与，虽细如秋毫，不敢略也。趋向专，故成功也易；毁誉淡，故自得也深。””如果没有独创，随波逐流就很难得到高深的造诣。在章学诚看来，做学问既然是为了“辨章学术，考镜源流，”为了“明道”、“经世”、“非为人士树名地”，那么首先就要立定志向，按照自己所长，努力去钻研，决不为社会风气所左右。**
国
**二是“以约驭博”、“学贵专精”。博与约之间的关系是每一位从事科学研究的人都要面对的问题。章学诚的《文史通义》内篇《博约》上中下三编专门探讨了这个问题，他认为博与约之间是辩证关系，博是约的基础，约是博的归宿。换句话说，约是目的，博则是达到这一目的的手段，在博与约这一对矛盾中，约似乎更重要一些。他说“学贵博而能约，未有不博而能约者也。以言陋儒荒俚，学一先生之言以自封域，不得谓专家也。然亦未有不约而能博者也。以言俗儒记诵，漫滤至于无极，妄求遍物，而不知尧、舜之知所不能也。”8一个人做学问，要想无所不知，无所不能是不可能的，也是不必要的，**
**关键看你是否能在某一方面成为专家。而要成为专家，当然需要在某一专门领域狠下功夫，所以他说：“名有由立，非专门成学不可也，故未有不专而可成学者也。”.8章学诚强调做学问要有所发现，贵在专精，成为真正的学问大家。**
**三是“学与功力，似而不同”。章学诚对于中国史学上的第一个大贡献就是记注和撰述的分家。换句话说，就是他能够把中国二千年来材料和著作珍域不分的习惯和流弊完全廓清了。章学诚说：：“记注欲往事之不忘，撰述欲来者之兴起。”在他看来，记注为藏往之学，而選述为知来者之学。他不承认以记注为内容的纂集之书为理论著作，他明确指出：“功力之与学问，实相似而不同。记诵名数，搜剔遗逸，排纂门类，考订异同，途辙多端，实皆学者求知所用之功力尔!即于数者之中，能得其所以然，因而上阐古人精微，下启后人津逮，其中隐微可独喻，而难为他人言者，乃学问也。今人误执古人功力以为学问，毋怪学问之纷纷矣。”\[10\]章学诚认为做学问应当从事理论研究，揭示事物的发展规律，即在于“明道”，“学与功力，实相似而不同”，不能把两者混为一谈，凡事思所以然，要努力掌握“明道”的真才实学。**
**章学诚的治学思想，是其成就学术功绩的重要前提，也对后世学界有重大影响。今天，我们研究章学诚的治学思想，对弘扬优秀传统文化，推进学术文化建设，仍然具有十分重要的借鉴意义。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]章学诚.上晓微学士书\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：外篇三，仓修良，编注.杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：649.**
**\[2\]章学诚.家书二\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：外篇三.仓修良，编注.杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：817.**
**\[3\]章学诚.家书三\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：外篇三.仓修良，编注.杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：819.**
**\[4\]章学诚.说林\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：内篇四.仓修良，编注，杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：226、228.**
**\[5\]章学诚.上辛楣宫詹书\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：外篇三.仓修良，编注.杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：657.**
**\[6\]章学诚.答甄秀才论修志第一书\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：外篇四.仓修良，编注.杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：842.**
**\[7\]章学诚.与朱沧湄中翰论学书\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：外篇三.仓修良，编注.杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：709.**
**\[8\]章学诚.博约中\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：内篇二.仓修良，编注.杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：117.**
**\[9\]章学诚.书教下\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：内篇一.仓修良，编注.杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：36，**
**\[10\]章学诚.又与正甫论文\[M\]//文史通义新编新注：外篇三.仓修良，编注.杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2005：807.**
**On Scholarship and Academic Performance of Zhang Xuecheng**
**Zhang Linglin**
**(Shaoxing Library， Shaoxing， Zhejiang 312000)**
**Abstract：Zhang Xuecheng， a historian in the Qing Dynasty whose spirit of scholarship and research is unique， has made an out-standing historical achievement. It is of great significance to the construction of modern academic culture to study Zhang Xuecheng’s academic features.**
**Key words：Zhang Xuecheng； scholarship； feature； academic performance**
**(责任编辑** **周一农)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **基于胜任力的高职院校教师评价体系研究**
◎何 璐 李 振
**摘 要：文章分析了现行高职院校教师评价体系存在的主要问题，阐述了基于胜任力的高职院校教师评价体系的优势，提出了构建基于胜任力的高职院校教师评价体系的原则、主要内容以及具体实施过程中应该注意的问题。**
**关键词：高职院校；教师胜任力；教师评价**
**教师评价是高校师资队伍建设的重要内容，它不仅是组织奖励和分配的基础，也关系到学校人力资源管理政策的制定。近年来，虽然高职教育发展迅速，高职院校师资队伍建设水平不断提升，但是许多学校采用的教师评价体系仍存在一些问题，不能适应当前高职教育发展的需要，在一定程度上造成师资队伍建设的滞后。高职院校亟待根据自身的实际情况，建立一套科学有效的教师评价体系。**
**一、目前高职院校教师评价体系存在的主要问题**
**(一)评价理念错位**
**许多高校的教师评价尚处于单纯地给教师打分、排名次层面，评价结果直接影响教师的职称评定、职务晋升、评优评先和汇资福利等。现行的评价体系更多地关注外在表象，忽视了教师的发展评价。教师评价应该是一种促进教师发展的“手段”，而不应该蜕变成奖惩教师的“日的”。评价理念错位将导致教师的工作以“评价”为中心，严重影响了教师队伍的健康发展。**
**(二)评价导向异化**
**高职院校的主要任务是培养高素质技术技能型人才。目前，许多高职院校现行的教师评价体系未能正确处理教学与科研的关系，存在“重科研、轻教学”的导向，论文、课题等指标的权重较大，而教学效果的评价比重不高。高职教师的主要精力应用于培养学生技术技能和职业素养，虽然对高职教师提出科研要求是正常的，但是不能片面地对教师科研成果**
**作者简介：何** **璐九江职业技术学院讲师：李** **振，九江职业技术学院讲师。**
**进行硬性规定。如果评价时不重视教学工作量和教学效果、不能够正确判断教师的实际工作能力和育人效果，将严重影响教师投人教学的积极性，降低人才培养质量。**
**(三)评价方式偏差**
**在具体的评价过程中，许多高职院校未能有效处理好定性评价和定量评价之间的关系，甚至存在两种极端情况，一种极端情况是对所有评价指标进行量化，甚至对教师思想认识、情感等极俱价值的评价内容也进行勉强的量化，导致教师的创新意识和潜能被抑制。另一种极端情况是完全采用定性评价，主观因素影响大，难以形成准确考核结果。显然，只有将定性考核与定量考核有机结合在一起，才能对教师进行科学的评价。**
**(四)忽视结果应用**
**对教师进行科学有效的评价，并将评价信息反馈给教师，有利于促进学校和教师的共同发展。此外，教师评价的相关信息也是学校在制定人力资源管理政策时的重要参考依据。但是，许多高职院校对教师进行评价后，未能对评价结果和相关数据进行深入分析，没有透过考核结果探寻教师发展中存在的问题及其成因。许多高职院校重视教师评价，但是忽视了评价结果的应用，教师评价变成了给教师分类排队的手段。**
**二、基于胜任力的高职院校教师评价体系的优势**
**目前，许多高职院校采用的教师评价体系在评**
**价理念、评价指标、评价模式、评价方法和评价结果应用等方面都不够完善且存在问题。基于胜任力的高职院校教师评价体系注重的不只是外在的表现，更注重这些外在表象下的教师的内在特征。它不仅关注工作中可以直接计算的结果即硬性指标，还关注教师完成任务过程中的行为表现及其折射出的胜任能力特点，涵盖了教师个体所具备的专业知识、教学能力、科研水平、价值观、社会责任感等各类因素，实现了教师“做什么”与“怎么做”之间的动态平衡，教师可以根据评价结果清楚地了解自己的胜任力情况，明确进一步改进和提高的方向，做好职业生涯规划，不断提升自身素质和业务能力。**
**三、基于胜任力的高职院校教师评价体系的构建**
**(一)构建原则**
**一是坚持全面性与重点突出相结合，即分别在评价内容与评价主体上做到全面与重点相结合。二是坚持客观性与导向性相结合，既要对教师工作业绩进行客观公正的评价，又要注重评价的正确导向性。三是坚持定量与定性相结合，尽可能采用合理量化的指标进行评价。**
**(二)主要内容**
**1.构建教师胜任力的基本模型**
**每所高职院校都有其自身特点，同时人们对胜任力的界定和理解也存在差异，因此，每所学校应该根据实际情况构建符合学校要求的胜任力模型，鉴于不同模型之间也会存在较大差异，我们可以根据现有研究成果和规律，建立具有通用特性的教师胜任力模型，再结合具体职位分析将其细化。**
**对于教师胜任力模型因子，可以结合调查问卷，利用因子分析法来确定。例如，通过分析得到了研究特征、服务特征、教学技能特征、认知特征、学生导向特征、人格特征等3个层面的6个不同但义相互影响的因子。再根据这6个因子的内涵来确定评价指标体系中的级指标和二级指标。进一步分析评价模型可以发现，可将评价模型划分为测评维度层、测评内容层和指标权重层三个层次。对于不同的评价对象，我们可以根据层次分析法或德尔菲法等常用方法为评价指标设定权重，对教师的6个方面特征进行较为全面的评价。**
**2.职位分析**
**职位分析的日的是在以人为本的前提下，确定不同职位的工作性质和任务对任职者的具体要求。**
**在对不同教师的职位特征要素进行分析时，可以确定各要素的分值和权重，完成胜任力调查问卷的设计，从而实现职位量化分析。**
**在进行职位分析时需注意以下几个问题： _一是_ 要结合不同工作岗位性质和工作内容的差异对教师进行职位分析，合理调整相应评价指标的权重，避免出现以偏概全的情况。二是要突出不同岗位和不同层次教师的核心关键要求，力求通过这些核心要求反映教师的真实工作水平。三是要结合职位分析建立不同岗位、不同层次、不同学科的教师胜任力模型。**
**3.评价方法的选择**
**评价过程中，评价者的选择对于保证评价结果的客观公正至关重要。由于不同评价者的评价价值取向存在差异，所以要保证评价者的多元性，避免单一评价者。综合分析，考评体系实施过程中建议采用360°评价法，评价者包括领导、同事、学生以及被评价者个人，对各评价者的评价权重予以合理设定，从而实现全方位评价，得到客观、公正、全面的评价结果。**
**基于胜任力的高职院校教师评价体系是一种相对客观公正的评价体系，但是基于胜任力的评价误差难以掌握，尤其是一些关键胜任特征没有明显的外在结论式表现，需要主观推断来进行评价，所以，如何准确提炼胜任力的具体要素及其权重是有待深人研究的问题。此外，教师胜任力评价是一个动态的过程，教学任务、教育对象、教学组织等都会不断发生变化，高职院校要根据自身实际情况适时调整评价指标及其权重，发挥评价体系对教师个人发展的积极推动作用。**
**基金项目：江西省高校人文社会科学研究项目(批准号：GL1442)**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]季海君.基于胜任力的高校教师评价研究\[D\].苏州：苏州大学，2008：21-26.**
**\[2\]陈岩松.基于胜任力的高校辅导员绩效评价研究\[D\].南京：南京航空航天大学，2011：70-80.**
**\[3\]刘晓英.基于胜任力的企业高层管理人员绩效评价体系研究\[\].企业经济，2011(1)：80-82.**
**\[4\]焦伟红.基于胜任力的高职院校教师考核\[\].河北能源职业技术学院学报，2012(3)：15-16.**
**\[5\]刘吉良，我国高校教师胜任力评价体系研究\[D\]长沙：湖南师范大学，2009：24-41.**
**责任编辑** **张晓雁** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **高校开展阳光体育的途径和方法**
**刘晓云李仕美刘晓薇，**
**(1.北京科技大学，100083；2.甘肃政法学院体育教学部，730070)**
**为使我国青少年身体和心理素质得到良好的锻炼和健康成长，最近，教育部、国家体育总局和共青团中央联合发出通知，号召在全**
**国开展学生“全国亿万学生阳光体育运动”。 _口_ “阳光体育”是学校体育教育的崭新科学理念，它有利于广大青少年增长知识、培养品德：有利于青少年养成良好的锻炼习惯和健康的生活方式；有利于青少年形成热爱体育、崇尚运动、健康向上的良好风气。**
**1开展“阳光体育”运动，必须以营造良好的校园氛围为基础**
**学校是学生接受教育的主要场所，加强宣传，引导学生积极参与，通过各种宣传手段吸引学生注意“阳光体育”、热爱“阳光体育”进而参加“阳光体育”活动，是开展好“阳光体育”活动的基础性工作。**
**学生活动的相关领导和部门，应该利用墙报、校园广播、网站、校园体育辩论赛等对“阳光体育”进行广泛的宣传；通过开设专题讲座，有针对性地进行系统讲解，提高学生的体育意识，从理论上引导学生正确认识体育。同时，利用课外活动时间，组织形式多样的学生群体性体育活动，特别是贴近学生生活的、趣味性较强的体育活动：还可以组织教职工团体体育活动，以充分发挥教师的榜样和示范作用，促进形成一种人人热爱体育，人人参加锻炼的校园气氛。在进行校园宣传和组织各项活动的同时，对做出突出贡献的先进个人和涌现出的先进事迹予以表扬，以此带动更多的班级和学生参与到体育活动中，使阳光体育普及到更广阔的范围中去。**
**2开展“阳光体育”运动，必须坚持多样有趣的运动项目竞赛为形式**
**激发受教育者的兴趣和爱好，是高质量完成教育过程的前提。“阳光体育”运动，不管**
**是在体育课上还是课外体育活动中，都应以学生兴趣爱好人手，开展学生喜闻乐见的体育活动，突出特色，培养和激发学生对体育运动的兴趣，促使养成良好的体育锻炼习惯。多挖掘开展一些学生比较感兴趣的，又有挑战性的与生活密切相关的体育项目，那么长久困扰广大体育教师的锻炼难、体育弱的问题应该可以得到改善和解决。所以说有趣的运动项目竞赛应该是普及阳光体育的一个重要前提。**
**体育竞赛对学生有很大的吸引力。比赛的输赢更能激发学生的热情，加上比赛多与集体主义精神紧密相连，所以不管是班级、各系还是学校规模的体育比赛，都能让学生更加积极地参与其中。同时，体育竞赛能够提高学生的竞争意识，让学生从中发现不足，促使学生自发参加锻炼。因此，定期举行一些院系间的比赛，由教师指导、学生参与和组织。以这些大型体育比赛和娱乐活动为有效载体，培养学生运动健身理念，激发他们的户外活动和体育锻炼的兴趣。比赛场上，运动员和观众情绪高涨，体育比赛对他们的激励作用很大。在比赛过程中更为深人地了解比赛和次项运动，这对他们日后养成良好的日常锻炼习惯也有很大的促进作用。**
**3开展“阳光体育”运动，必须夯实基础性条件为保障**
**3.1坚持提供专业体育知识指导**
**在普及阳光体育的过程中，为了更好地发挥体育运动的作用，专业系统的体育知识指导是不可缺少的。目前，在多数大学，体育教师结构比较合理、专业水平较高，体育师资力量比较雄厚，具有组织和开展集体项目的业务素质。不管在课堂内外，教师都可以根据需要，对学生进行专业的体育指导.这样的体育活动形式可以让学生更积极地参与其中，更容易对体育活动产生兴趣。这样的教学，教师得心应手，学生积极主动，两者相互激励，形成良性循环的教学局面，对培养学生体育**
**乐趣、提高体育教学效果具有重要意义。**
**3.2坚持逐步完善硬件设施**
**许多体育活动需要借助硬件设施得以完成，学校作为学生最主要的活动场所，要在思想上认识阳光体育的重要性，要为学生创造良好的运动场地和器材，使学生真正有效地有条件锻炼，使学生可以有条件参与到丰富多彩的体育运动中来。**
**完善的硬件配套设施对开展阳光体育活动的意义重大，学校应该尽可能地完善校园的体育设施，从政策上予以支持，从而达到参与阳光体育，提高身体素质的目的。**
**3.3坚持逐步提高管理水平**
**实施“阳光体育”活动管理的重点，是完善学生体质健康档案管理。开展“阳光体育”运动，要以全面实施《学生体质健康标准》为基础。建立和完善学生的体质健康档案，是实施“阳光体育”活动科学管理的基础。**
**在学生的体质健康档案中，还应该完善学生体质健康检测体系，记录青少年的成长过程，将每次测试的成绩记人学生的体质健康档案或学生素质报告书。大学生的体质健康档案要进人学生档案，作为毕业、就业的重要依据。通过各种手段督促学生认真参加“阳光体育”活动，努力提高自己的身体素质，使自己的身体更健康，让自己生活的更“阳光”。**
**参考文献：**
**\[教育部.关于学习贯彻《中共中央国务院关于加强青少年体育增强青少年体质的意见》的通知**
**2胡泓.全日制学校学生体育权利研究\]，天津体育学院学报.2001，16(2)：45-47.**
**\[教育部.2002年全国教育事业发展统计公告N.中国教育报，2003-05-13.**
**\[4\]曲宗湖.狠抓落实讲究实效\[\].体育教学，2000，01)：1.**
**\[5\]曲宗湖，王龙.谈新世纪学校体育改革的三项工作同.体育教学.2000，(1)：6.王利** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 关于考勤打卡制度得失的讨论
王和平，赵继红
(山西省图书馆，太原030001
摘 要：考勤打卡十分盛行。人们对它的看法毁誉参半。文章讨论了考勤打卡制度的得与失。
关键词：考勤；打卡；制度；管理；讨论
中图分类号：G251 文献标识码：B 文章编号：1002-1248 (2007) 08-0097-03
Discussion on the Gain or Loss of Attendance Card Stamp system
WANG He-ping， ZHAO Ji-hong
(Shanxi Provincial Public Library， Taiyuan 030001， China)
Abstract： The attendance card stamp is used check on work attendance that is very current. The public views have a mixed re-ception to it. Who is right and who is wrong outcome? How is ever it advantages or disadvantages and gains or losses? It is just different people， different views.
Key words： check on attendance， card stamp， rules， management， discussion
在各级、各类图书馆中，近年来考勤打卡制度颇为盛行，谈到理由与好处，则不外乎是有利于科学管理，客观公正。如果在互联网上键人“考勤打卡”一词，会出现数十万个相关网页，亦足见其炙手可热之程度。而实际上这个由海外传人并为外资、合资企业率先使用的管理办法，目前已广泛渗透到各级、各类企事业单位，大有愈演愈烈之势，并非只在图书馆盛行一时。而公众对打卡制度的看法则是毁誉参半，见仁见智。本文将以对话的形式就这些观点作一个简单的梳理和粗浅的讨论。
赞同者：打卡作为一种考勤办法，它的积极意义和必要性是显而易见的。国有国法，家有家规。没有规矩，不成方圆。作为企事业单位当然应有一系列制度和办法来强化职工的组织纪律观念，维护正常的工作秩序；而从一个普通人的角度来讲，不迟到、不早退乃是对自身的最起码的要求，在任何条件下，都只有出工才谈得上出力，因此，为了考察一个人的工作情况而记录他的出勤情况，无可厚非。况且任何人都会有惰性发作的时候，而这个时候就需要借助他律。我们可以想一想，如果一个单位连作息时间都难以保证，又何谈高层次管理!
反对者：首先申明，我们不反对严格管理，不反
对任何有助于加强组织、纪律性的规章制度，但是我们认为打卡治标不治本，是典型的形式主义。首先，它无法避免代打卡现象。事实上，在很多已经实行打卡考勤的单位里，逍遥卡外者大有人在。就是说打卡考勤所管的还是那些不需要管就能自觉遵守纪律的人，而那些不自觉的人仍然管不住。其次，它无法解决出工不出力的问题。众所周知，在打卡制度下，熬时间、磨洋工者不乏其人。一些原本不努力的人即使你强行把他的人圈了起来，他的心还是不在岗位上，也许还会影响到一些原本认真工作的人。其三，倘若忘了带卡是应先回去拿卡还是直接进入工作?前者将会无谓地耽误工作时间，如果家住较远的话更是不现实。倘若是后者，则将意味着你今天没有上班，因为机器里没有你的考勤记录。这的确是一个令人头痛的二难选择，更是一个不容回避的现实问题。其四，打卡管理的使用维护成本高，需专人管理。还要对有关数据进行处理，计算也颇为复杂，不容易统计。同时，工作中总是惦记打卡的时间，不仅影响了工作质量，也影响了工作效率，相对减少了工作时间。此外，打卡制度以机器取代人情，让现代社会的冷漠感更加增强，太不人性化，容易引起抵触情绪。总之，打卡管理的漏洞很多，加之无端的资金、人力、物力
收稿日期：2007-03-09
作者简介：王和平(1960-)，女，本科，山西省图书馆特藏部副主任，副研究馆员，已发论文数篇。
浪费，实在是百无一是。
赞同者：道高一尺，魔高一丈。这是历史的规律。目前的指纹签到就是适应杜绝代打卡行为这一需求而产生的新技术，指纹识别机具有不可伪造、单一性和排他性的特点，彻底解决了日益突出的代打卡问题，同时也使忘记带卡的问题不复存在。同时，管理成本也相对降低。它不用专人看管，使管理更加客观、公正，是现代化技术手段应用于管理的一种有益尝试，是管理现代化的具体体现。是管理工作的进步。至于上班磨洋工的问题，原本就不属于打卡考勤所管理的范围，而是需要管理者通过更加有效的制度与激励机制去调整的问题。指纹识别机代替传统的打卡机正说明了文明的进步，是制度性进步，制度在塑造人，人也在完善制度。而出工必须出力的问题也正需要通过制度的完善来得到很好的解决。
反对者：技术的进步并不是必然地带来制度的完善与文明的发展。指纹识别机尽管解决了代打卡与忘带卡的问题，但同时也产生了不少新的问题：指纹机十分敏感，假如手未洗干净，或者手出汗，就会出现拒认或误认，反而造成不必要的麻烦。这样，往往按一次不行，要一次次反复按，相对于手签、打卡更费时费事。试想那人声鼎沸的场景定然“很精彩”也“很无奈”。总不能为了避免拥挤让员工提前到吧，也不能为签到而误了工作吧。此外，如果手指受伤，又如何签到呢?
实际上，我们相信技术会在不断的矛盾斗争中得到迅速的发展，也许很快会有替代指纹识别的新技术的产生，比如什么人脸识别、基因技术等等，但是技术不能改变一切，不能包打天下。我们仍然希望能够在一种相对宽松的环境里、在一种比较温馨舒适的状态下进行自己的工作，而不是把自己与其他工作人员当成一个没有情感与欲望的机器，而这些是无论多么先进的机器、多么高级的发明都无法实现的。
有这样一个事实，在我周围的很多单位都安装了打卡系统，但是在这些单位里也都有一些公开的秘密：上班打卡后，接着离岗去办私事、买菜、吃早点者并不鲜见，甚至直到下班时才回来打卡者也不是没有。试问这些人的打卡记录又有什么实际意义?又能说明了什么?非要较起真来，即使是那些每天早来晚走，老老实实坐办公室的人，谁又能证明他一天8小时都在工作?所以说，只记录一个人的上下班时间并不解决根本问题，因为天天按时打卡并不等于敬业，任何工作都是需要责任心、热心、积极性和主动性
的，而调动他们有两种办法，一是硬的，钉是钉，铆是铆，说一不二，无回旋余地，就是把员工当成没有情感的、只具有机械服从的机器人。另一个办法是软的，即对员工在事业上引导，感情上亲近，生活上关心，同时，领导要身先士卒，率先垂范，用自己的模范带头作用去督促影响带动员工、属下，让他们身心愉快地工作。只要他们的事业心有了，责任感有了，那工作效率就会大大提高，否则，即使签了到了，出工不出力，身在曹营心在汉，工作效率得不到提高，不仅无法体现现代管理的进步，反倒成为现代管理的悲哀。
赞同者：制度培养自觉与人文关怀并不矛盾、抵触，只要一项制度能维护大多数人的利益，那就是最大程度的人性化。新加坡之所以成为文明之城，与其严格的社会管理是分不开的。在新加坡没有人敢随地吐痰。在公共场所抽烟会被认为是小事，但如果你违犯了这些制度，等待你的将是无情的鞭刑。这个缺乏人情味的制度恰恰造就了空前的自觉意识，很值得我们深思。
强制有时会培养自觉，没有责任和制度的制约，即使是最勤勉的乐手也会逐渐变成滥竽充数的南郭先生的。虽然大部分人的素质较高，但并非所有人均能做到自觉遵守规章制度。因此，任何制度在制定时必须考虑到大多数的整体。在当前我国生产力水平不很高的情况下，相应的管理水平不高，所以运用一些强制手段是可以理解的。
事实上打卡考勤这种做法在国外也很普遍，像日本人就习惯于打卡。其实，这些强制措施，不只是针对少数不遵守制度的人，对于那些遵守制度的人也是一种警示。只有有形式的制度约束，才能维护大家的自觉意识，同时，制度也要通过一定的形式来实现。否则，没有一定的形式，则只能停留在口头上，造成制度的浪费。这样的事例并不鲜见。
反对者：制度是必不可少的，但制度也要考虑对人的尊重。要能引导人积极向上。马斯洛说，任何一个人均有把工作做好的愿望，都有进取奋发的想法。人人都希望在充满人情味的氛围中工作，所以我们在讲究效率和责任之外，应加入对人的尊重。而打卡却不够温柔，稍失雅量。有的单位规定，出门要打卡，上厕所要打卡，时间精确到几分几秒，令人不寒而標，不被信任的阴影常常挥之不去。难以想像， 一个才华横溢的建筑师、工程师、设计师在这样的环境笼罩下怎能超水平发挥。
管人的关键是管心。领导的职责不是看群众，而是既领又导。管理的任务不只是管，而是既管又理，准确讲是轻管重理。表面上看是管群众之身，实质上是理群众之心。因为人的身体可以管，而人的思想却只能理。这理有理解、理顺之意。
很多企事业单位采用人性化管理办法，不打卡不签到，员工受到尊重，其积极性被极大地调动起来。摩托罗拉总裁格林克尔曾精辟的说：我们的原则是善用各国优秀人才，对优秀人才保持尊重并予以授权，唯有尊重和授权才会让人有担起责任和使命感，然后才谈得上创造出好的成绩。惠普公司提倡永远没有打卡和考勤制度，要相信员工。百度员工也不打卡。微软公司不规定上下班时间，员工可以自己选择上下班时间。结果大多数人为了完成任务都比一般上下班的人工作时间来的长。微软的要求是完成工作，而不是工作时间的长短。微软对知识型人才的充分尊重与理解无疑是高明的、理性的。
在欧洲，面临日益突出的堵车、地铁不准时等问题，一些公司开始革新打卡制度，使之更加合乎常情。英国企业根据工作性质差异采取不同的作息制度，给员工半小时以内的浮动。即如果早晨晚到半小时，可在下午多干半小时补足。还有企业采取累积工作时间制。法国的一些公司对迟到的员工进行自我补偿制，即如果迟到时间不多，可在公司需要加班时来“弥补”过失，当然加班弥补的不是迟到的时间，而是要多工作半天或是一天，加班的工资自然一分不少。这些人性化改革，是建立在情商基础之上的。这种对人性的体察和对情感的关注，可让员工的潜力发挥到最大点，即可充分调动员工的积极性。
相形之下，我们有的管理者，常用怀疑的眼神，监视的态度，动辄挥舞“下岗”、“解聘”的大棒，
.1
简单压服，让员工时时处在为保住饭碗而工作的低境界中，因而缺乏主动性、责任感，更谈不上创造性和积极性。这种缺乏人文关怀的做法人为地扼杀了员工的创造性和灵感，的确应引起注意和思考，那种将员工当作假想敌，时时提防、处处猜疑是万万要不得
，
据悉有单位实行笑容签到，即领导每天轮流站在大门口，迎接每位员工，大家相互问候，亲切舒坦，倍感温馨。这种人性十足的办法值得推广和借鉴。
结束语
关于考勤打卡这种管理模式，我们不能简单地用赞成或反对作答，更不能盲目地以否定或肯定表态。凡事均应以联系的、发展的、全面的观点和方法客观的、冷静的去做深人的分析、判断和思考，而不能用孤立的、静止的、片面的观点和方法主观地得出肤浅的结论。有的单位将之作为一个过渡性措施，权宜之计，偶尔为之，未尝不可。有的单位有其难言的苦衷，不得已而为之，也应予以理解。但世界上绝没有万应灵丹，也没有一劳永逸的妙计。管理是一门深奥的学问，又是一种高超的艺术。需要管理者认真学习，深刻领会，反复揣摩和实践。管理的最终目的是最大限度地调动人的主观能动性。我们应根据具体情况，顺应形势，因势利导，切忌生搬硬套，造出买读还珠的笑料。山西晚报曾登载一篇“晋人刷卡”的事例，其教条的程度不亚于古代的郑人买履，成为现代笑柄。所以一味追风赶潮，不顾具体现实，都不是明智之举。
参考文献：
\[1\]指纹考勤“上岗”，禁绝代打卡\[N\].泉州日报，2005-10-13.
\[2\]职场：自愿还是强迫，白领为何爱加班? \[N\]海峡都市报，2005-11-08.
\[3\]打卡：人性化改革\[N\].晶周环球报，2003-05-25.
\[4\]马建堂.马斯洛人性化管理经典\[M\].北京工业大学，2002.
\[5\]海滨.把打卡的钱花在培训上\[OL\].www.2.ccw.com.
cn/00/0050/f10050f03-3asp
\[6\]水边烁.从打卡考勤的管理方式说开去\[OL\].www.sushang.
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zh | N/A | N/A | **涉“猴”熟语研究**
闫金玲
(大连外国语大学文化传播学院辽宁大连116044)
摘要：语言是文化的镜子，不仅反映使用者的日常生活，更映射出这一民族的文化发展与思维模式。在文明发展中，猴与人类关系密切。研究猴熟语不仅对于汉民族全面理解猴文化有重要作用，更能促进二语学习者恰当地使用相关汉语。本文基于语料库文本，通过.“语言的文化阐释法”，，解构涉“猴”熟语，解读汉民族的思维方式和文化心理。
关键词：猴熟语语义色彩文化意象
中图分类号：H136 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1009-5349 (2019)07-0103-02
猴，在中国文化中出现已久。早在远古就有猴崇拜，并在图腾文化下诞生了包括猴在内的十二生肖。民间存在大量的猴神话、传说以及有关猴习性、智慧的熟语。“猴”熟语以及与“猴”相关的文化意象早已深深地刻在中国文化中，成为汉语表达中不可或缺的一部分。
我国古籍对于猴类动物名称记载众多，各类不辨。即使在分类相对科学的《本草纲目》中，猴、猿、猩猩分开立类，但在猴下的小类中也有“其类有数种……似猴而长臂者，缓也”的描述，同样混淆了猿、猴。事实上，汉语中的猴是对灵长目动物的总称，多指猕猴(我国境内主要的猴的种类)，也包括猿、猩猩等。所以在研究“猴”熟语时，根据出现频率、常用范围等，，也涉及了猿、猩猩等作为关键词素的熟语。
熟语是人们常用的定型化了的固定短语，包括成语、谚语、惯用语和歇后语。熟语的“熟”与常用语的“常”不同，它不仅使用频率高，且为人熟知，多是智慧的总结，被赋予了深厚的文化内涵， _7_ 不仅具有字面义，还常有引申义、比喻义等，是经过高度浓缩、长久积淀形成的。研究熟语有利于对语言背后的文化内涵、思维方式、民族心理进行深入探索，帮助汉语为母语的人系统理解“猴文化”，也对汉语国际教育中“熟语”词汇教学具有指导作用。
成语的来源非常广泛，从神话、历史到诗文、俚语，都有演化为成语的，因而比起谚语、歇后语、惯用语，它更能系统、全面、深刻地表现文化意义。风格典雅，多是小故事或诗文浓缩成的四字词语。涉“猴”成语主要有以下几类：
A. 智力类：猿猴取月(猴子救月、猴子捞月)沐猴而冠(沐猴冠冕、衣冠沐猴) 轩鹤冠猴
猴类虽为灵长类，但较人智商低，人们拿猴子取笑，作为愚笨的象征。 “猿猴取月”，见水中有月亮，群猴便想捞起，结果“枝折一齐死”；用猴喻人，常常有徒有其表或者装模作样的意思。但也有例外， “火中取栗”讲猴子为烤熟栗子，将其放入火中，然后哄骗猫用爪子把栗子取出，比喻受人利用，冒险却无所得。但这一成语是从法国预言诗《猴子和猫》 中得来的，不是本土故事。
B.动作行为类：狐媚猿攀意马心猿惊猿脱兔猿惊鹤怒杀鸡骇猴 (宰鸡教猴、杀鸡做猴) 檻猿笼鸟树倒
湖孙散猴头猴脑猿穴坏山水晶猴子猫孙入布袋
猿猴善攀援、倚树群居、山中打穴、胆小、警惕性高等特点被人们观察记录下来。“狐媚猿攀”喻说追求事物时不择手段； “猿穴坏山”与“千里之堤毁于蚁穴”意义类似，指要防患于祸患之初；“水晶猴子”指圆滑刁钻的人，出于姚雪垠《李自成》。。@“湖孙入布袋”指聪明灵活的人被捆入口袋而摆脱不掉，形容虽有能力却无法摆脱困境。
C.性格类：猕猴骑土牛弄鬼掉猴(耍歪掉猴)穷猿投林教揉升木猿鹤虫沙
李白怀才不遇时，曾写下诗句“沐猴而冠不足言，身骑土牛滞东鲁”，表达自己久被埋没的郁闷心情； “弄鬼掉猴”常用来形容调皮捣蛋，见《红楼梦》第十六回，“穷猿投林”指猿遇险时往往慌不择路，比喻人到危急时刻也往往慌忙失措 “猿鹤虫沙”传说周穆王南征时，军队中君子都幻化为猿和鹤，小人都幻化为虫和沙。借用这四种动物，比喻将士出征，战死沙场。在成语中的“猿”常常比“猴”的意义要正面。
除了上述举出的带“猴”“猿”“揉”词素的成语，常用成语还有“朝三暮四”“火中取栗”。示例中的汉语本土成语共26个，除“栅猿笼鸟”“猿鹤虫沙”之外，感情色彩义均为贬义。
谚语是人们通过观察客观事物、总结经验教训得出，具有哲理性、最接地气的固定语句。它原汁原味地反映了人们对自然的认识，对生活的思考。惯用语短小精悍、搭配灵活。涉“猴”谚语和惯用语有：①猩猩能言，不离禽兽；鹦鹉能言，不离飞鸟。②猴子穿上绸缎也还是猴子。③猿锁空房性犹耍。④猴嘴里掏枣，虎口内走人。⑤猴子不钻圈，多筛几遍锣。 (猴子不爬杆，你就多敲锣。)⑥猴不上杆是敲锣少，狗不咬人是哄家少。⑦猴子燎了屁股。⑧猩猩饮醇醪。
在谚语和惯用语中，几乎全部用于贬义：如①猩猩兽性难改，，比喻人没有教养；②③意义类似；④以猴子暴躁护食，比喻链而走险；⑤⑥里是“猴戏”中总结出来的经验，猴子淘气不按规定套路走，只驱赶、吼叫是不行的，要用敲锣来鼓励，引申出遇到难事要另想办法去解决；⑥中究因，比喻不好的行动必定有人挑唆；；⑦猴子被火烧后，上蹿下跳，抓耳挠腮着急的样子，喻人着急的样子。⑦中
作者简介：闫金玲，大连外国语大学在读研究生，研究方向：汉语修辞研究。
以猩猩饮酒无节制，比喻事情不到走投无路不肯罢休。
歇后语，是类似于谜语的固定语句。一一般前部分或比喻，或引人思考，再由后部分说明，喻指意象或是谐音来源，指出说话目的，令人恍然大悟，诙谐幽默。以猴为喻的歇后语有：
A.性情类：猴子的屁股-—坐不住(猕猴坐禅——坐不住) 猴子屁股――摸不得
发了疯的猴子——上蹿下跳猫猴子的脸——说变就变猴子托生的—―一肚子心眼
猴子拉稀――坏了肠子断臂的猴子―—高攀不起
这组歇后语多从猴子的性格出发，一语双关，表达中性、贬义或讽刺。猴子生性好动，喻人闲不住的样子；它臀部皮薄，，血管多，非常敏感，触摸不得；猴子性格急躁易怒，用来比喻人的情绪多变；失去前肢，难攀高枝，词多义， “高攀不起”，也是客套话中指与比自己级别高的人拉关系。
B. 动作行为：猴子偷桃兆——毛手毛脚猴子偷瓜连滚带爬猴子爬竹竿——上窜下跳
猴子杠大梁――受不了猴子吃大象――亏他张得开口猴拿虱子——瞎掰
猴子捞月亮——空欢喜(猴子捞月亮——空忙一场)猴子长角——出洋相
猴子吃辣椒——红了眼(湖孙上了辣椒树—―蹿跳不停猫孙跳上煎饼锅 一瞎蹦跹)
猴子拾着一块姜——-胡思乱想猴洗孩子——不等毛干
这组谚语从猴子的动作行为出发，展现了猴子一系列的生活画面，轻松诙谐，惹人发笑，形象生动，贬义了然纸上。
C. 喻人类：小猴子戴草帽—―充人(湖孙罩头巾——假装也是人) 猴儿背着手走——装人相
猴子看书—―假斯文猴子坐轿——不识抬举爬樱桃树――粗人吃细粮猴子扫地-——只顾眼前湖孙穿衣裳―—像煞一个人猴子放爆竹――自放自惊毛猴子说话—―不知轻重猴子照镜子――里外不是人猴子戴凉帽——不知几品猴戏学走路—―假惺惺(猩猩)赖猴子
猴子模仿能力极强，又与人相似，所以常用猴子模仿人来讽刺、比喻做作、不聪明的样子，也属于贬义类。以人喻猴，多是戏谑的口吻。
D.猴戏类：湖孙耍把戏――有啥本事都拿出来耍猴的丢了猫孙——没甚弄了猴子唱戏―—想起一出是一出猴子带胡子- 要哪出没哪出猫猁耍把戏-我——老一套
我国很早就开始驯猴，在街头巷尾、店铺门前表演猴戏，以娱乐观众讨赏钱或招徕来生意。在观看猴戏时，创造出了这类歇后语，多是贬义。
E.文学作品类：孙猴子跳出水帘洞——好戏在后头跟孙悟空比跟头—―差了十万八千里
猴带纱帽——瘟官一个花果山猴子——无法无天孙猴子封了个弼马温――不知官大官小六耳称猴充悟
空——冒牌货孙猴子变山神庙――露了尾巴孙悟空到了花果山—―称心如意白骨精遇上孙悟空——，-原形毕露
文学作品《西游记》塑造了“齐天大圣”孙悟空这一形象。它以猴子为原型，丰满生动、深入人心。其中有趣的情节也被人们创造成谚语流传下来，偏重于孙悟空形象中的“猴性”，多属贬义。
F.其他：猴托生的——猴里猴气湖孙画像-——一副猴相猴子爬山崖——有能耐
在猴类谚语中，褒义的很少。这组谚语在词典中的释义分别为聪明灵巧、机灵顽皮、有能力。只约占搜索到的全部谚语的5.7%。
汉语熟语中， “猴”类往往是被讽刺的对象，是急躁易怒、难以专心、装模作样、自作聪明、目光短浅、只会模仿、缺乏创造力、野性十足、桀骜不驯的形象。但在汉语词汇中，“猴”除了表示灵长类动物的义项之外，还有乖巧、机灵的义项，多用于指代称呼语，如猴儿、猴儿崽子、猴头等。因此在汉语词汇教学中，需要强调“猴”语素在一般词汇和熟语中的感情色彩是不同的。
通过涉“猴”熟语的研究，系统地看待词语的相关性和文化性，梳理其文化的起源、发展、演变，可以更加深入地明白猴在汉语类似意象的原理；第二语言学习者从文化视角识记猴词汇，也可以更加系统掌握猴词语词义和猴词语背后的中国文化内涵。
**注释：**
①第一卷第十四章： “他是吃秦椒长大的水晶猴子，不光刁滑，肚里还辣。
②《单父东楼秋夜送族弟沈之秦》。
③《红楼梦》四六回：“又怕那些牙子家出来的 **|vryyrs** 买了来三日两日，又弄鬼掉猴的。 **2**
④《太平御览》卷九百一六《羽族部·鹤》中引《抱朴子》曰的内容。
**参考文献：**
\[1\]中国成语大辞典\[Z\].上海：上海辞书出版 **社，2008.**
\[2\]汉语惯用语词典\[Z\].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1985
\[3\]中国俗语大字典\[Z\].上海：上海辞书出版 **社，1989.**
\[4\]汉语歇后语辞典\[z\].北京：商务印书馆，2000.
\[5\]中华谚语大全\[Z\].杭州：浙江古籍出版社，2014
\[6\]黄伯荣，廖序东.现代汉语(增订五版)\[M\].北京：高等教育出版社，2011.
\[7\]申小龙.文化语言学\[M\].江西教育出版社，1993
\[8\]华惠伦等.猴\[M\].上海：上海科学技术出版 **社，1991(12).**
**责任编辑：张蕊** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **基于创造峰值年龄的高校科研人才管理策略漫议**
**姜国钧 宿文琳**
**摘 要：科学创造的最佳年龄区在25岁到45岁之间，平均创造峰值年龄为40岁。因此，高校应创造条件，让正处在最佳创造年龄区的年轻教师充分发挥他们的创造力；同时，应该加快引进和培养35岁以下的青年教师，弥补现在已经显现的高校后备科研力量不足的缺陷。自然科学家在40岁左右达到创造高峰年龄，而人文学科学者到60岁才达到最高峰。因此，不同学科领域应该有不同的职称评定评价标准；不同领域的科研项目与经费应该向不同的年龄层次倾斜；科研项目管理、科研人员退休等政策也应作相应的调整。创新的困难不断加大，创造峰值年龄也在不断增长；到21世纪末，最佳创造年龄将移至下限45岁。有必要适当放宽人才引进的年龄限制，优先引进和培养复合型人才，建立起团体协同创新的激励机制。**
**关键词：：创造峰值年龄；最佳创造年龄区；创造力；创造性；科学创造；科学劳动；科研政策；激励机制中图分类号： G647 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1671-1610(2020)06-0039-07**
**创造峰值年龄的概念最初是由科学学家基于统计事实提出的，晚近受到创造心理学家的关注，却还没有引起教育研究者的足够重视。科学学把一个人记忆力和理解力都好的年龄段称为科学创造最佳年龄区，把记忆力最强、理解力最好的年龄称为科学创造的峰值年龄。不同学科的创造最佳年龄区和创造峰值年龄存在明显差异。20世纪以来，创新越来越难，创造峰值年龄也在迅速后移。高校教师肩负着教学与科研的双重任务，部分教师以科研为主，科研人才管理策略是否有利于充分发挥正处于创造峰值年龄的教师的创造力，科研人才引进和培养策略是否适应创造峰值年龄后移的新变化，都是值得探讨的问题。由于创造峰值年龄与高校科研管理、科研人才培养等诸多方面的问题相关，本文采取漫议的写作方式，提供一个观察高校科研管理问题的新视角，提出一些解决问题的建议，以期引起对这些问题的深入讨论。**
一、依据平均创造峰值年龄制定有利于发挥青年教师创造潜力的政策
**20世纪80年代，赵红州就开始研究科技创造**
**的最佳年龄。他将科技人员记忆力好、理解力强的年龄段称为科学创造的最佳年龄区。\[1\]20-21处于最佳创造年龄区的科技人员精力充沛，思维敏捷，富于想象，知识面广，实践经验丰富，既有驾驭大量材料的能力，又有敢想敢干的创新精神。统计16世纪以来的重大科技成果之后，赵红州发现：科学创造的最佳年龄区在25岁到45岁之间，平均创造峰值年龄为37岁左右。\[1\]20-21科学创造最佳年龄每35年增大1岁。\[2\]36依此推算，当今科技创造峰值年龄约为39岁。麦克克雷(Robert R. McCrae)、阿伦伯格 (David Arenberg) 和科斯达 (Paul Cos-ta) 从1959年到1972年追踪研究从17岁到101岁的825名男性，要求他们完成6项不同的创造性测试。研究结果表明：40岁以下的被试测验分数逐渐上升，而40岁以上的被试则逐渐下降，由此证明被试的创造峰值年龄为40岁。3塞蒙顿(Dean Keith Simonton) 也发现：创造性的产出通常是职业年龄的倒U形曲线，峰值年龄为40岁；年龄与创造性想法年产量之间呈20岁至40岁陡升、40岁至80岁缓降状态。4研究中国中科院杰出人才取得科研成果的年龄，白春礼发现：一般而言，26岁首次发表索引论文，31岁首次独立申请并获得研究资助，科学研究活跃期持续至35岁，36岁到40岁取得突出**
**收稿日期：2020-01-01**
**作者简介：姜国钧(1962一)，男，湖南宁乡人，中南大学公共管理学院教授，从事教育原理、高等教育学、教育史研究；长沙，410083。宿文琳(1993一)，女，山东平度人，山东省平度市第九中学教师，从事英语教学研究；青岛，266700。Email：** Niguojun62@ qq.com。al Sciences Database
研究成果，索引论文发表量逐渐达到高峰，41岁到45岁被同行所承认，成为科研的中坚力量。笔者曾对 1949年以后普通高校毕业10年到25年的人数与重大科技成果数的依存关系作分析，发现中国科技创造的峰值午龄为41岁。
不过，对丁一些有伟大创造力的人来说，什龄的增长似乎并不能侵蚀他们的创造力。对包括14位诺贝尔获奖者在内的91 位有杰出贡献的创造者进行研究之后，创造心理学家希斯赞特米哈伊(Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi)发现： “随着年龄的增长，保持不变的不仅是作品的数量，还有作品的质量。他们的职业生涯中一些最令人难忘的成就是在晚年做出的”7204。
根据以上研究，基本可以确定：科学创造的最佳午龄区在25岁到45岁之间，平均创造峰值午龄为40岁。这个规律是一个统计规律，创造力与什龄的关系显然还存在较大的个性差异。对高校科研人员的管理，既要给丫处于最佳创造年龄区、特别是创造高峰期的教师更多的支持，也要根据个性差异，给予那些具有持久创造力的教师同样的关照。随后将要论述的不同领域的最井创造年龄和创造年龄后移的问题同样既存在统计规律，也存在个性差异。
图1根据普通高等学校专任教师午龄情况绘制。拿这出线图与差蒙顿建立的倒工型出线对照，不难发现3个切显的现象。一是35岁到44岁的青年教师是中国高校专任教师的主体，高峰止好在35岁到39岁之间。这表明中国高校有 ·支多数成员处丁创造最佳午龄区的什轻的专任教师队伍。二是当前的中国高校教师年龄结构处于最佳的状态，但30岁以下的年轻教师偏少。三是处于最佳创造年龄区的教师以中级职称为主，副高职称的教师在35岁到54岁之间有一个平缓的高原，正高职称集中在50岁到54岁之间。这表明中国高校职称的年龄结构与创造最佳年龄区的理论模型并不·致，大多数处丁创造高峰期的教师并没有获得高级职称。
很显然，科研政策对处丁创造最佳什龄区的年轻人并不十分有利。针对这些现象，有必要采取以下措施。
高级职称和科研项目向创造最佳午龄区的教师第一、创造条件，充分发挥止处丁最佳创造年居库集中，而不是偏向丁创造力正在逐渐衰退的教师，
图1 2017年普通高等学校专任教师年龄结构折线图
2008年，美国国家文理学院(American Acad-emy of Arls and Sciences) 发表重要报告《推动科学与工程研究：资助年轻研究人员，鼓励高风险高回报研究》。针对百次获得美国国家卫生研究院(National Tnstilules of Health) 重安资助项日研究人员的平均年龄高达42.4岁并且呈Ⅰ升趋势等问题，报告提出多项建议，如：；改变评价体系，向年轻的研究人员提供种子基金，激励他们对未知的事物进行探索：9J22-23对年轻研究人员的特定需求，如生育和幼儿看护，要制定针对性政策予以解决。\[9\]23-25同样的问题，在中国也存在甚至更加严重，但至今没有引起足够的重视。
教育部发展规划司公布的2017年全国普通高校专任教师年龄情况表显示：30岁到44岁处于创造最佳年龄区的专任教师中，正高职称的只占4%，副高职称的也只凸26.4%，55.7%足中级职称，还有13.8%只有初级职称或未定职称。也就是说，标志学术成就的高级职称较少授予创造最佳什龄区的年轻教师。国家自然科学基金委网站公布的数据显示：2017年国家自然科学基金重点项目获得者的平均年龄为50.93岁，31岁到45岁的获得者只占19.64%，仅比56岁以上的获得者多0.45%；18，947 项面上项目获得的经费达1，068，590 万元，而17，523项青年基金获得的经费只有400，270万元。10\]青年基金的资助力度大约只有面上项目的一半。
**变高校职称和科研项目的评定规则，让更多处于创造最佳年龄区，特别是正处于创造峰值年龄的年轻教师脱颖而出，让他们成为科学研究的主要力量，并且获得与其科研能力和科研贡献相一致的职称。**
**另外，为了让处于创造最佳年龄区的青年教师能够全力以赴从事科研和教学，有必要改善青年教师的生活待遇，减轻他们的生活压力。关于“青椒”生活压力的话题近年讨论热烈。有调查显示近1/4的青年教师收不抵支，以致多名政协委员提议增加高校青年教师的工资待遇。L11创造性活动是一种自由的活动，人们可以为生活所迫从事繁重的体力劳动，却不能在生活的巨大压力下从事创造性的自由学术研究。古希腊时期，自由学术就是专属于自由人的。自由人不仅要有闲暇，还要有财产。中国古代的重要经典都形成于先秦，秦以后改封建贵族制为郡县制，贫苦的读书人为“颜如玉”“黄金屋”读书，很难取得很高的学术成就。当今世界早已不可能回到封建贵族制时代，但是，在生活水平普遍提高的今天，保障大学里的教师在不为生活发愁的条件下安心做研究应该不是难事。**
**第二，加快引进和培养35岁以下的青年教师，弥补现在已经显现的高校后备科研力量不足的缺陷。**
**目前，34岁以下的专任教师占30%，35岁到44岁的专任教师占38%，45岁到59岁的专任教师占30%，60岁以上的只占2%。这是一支理想的、最具创造力的教师队伍。但是，由于34岁以下的年轻教师占比较少，这支队伍很快将会老化，5年以后，高峰年龄将移至45岁；如果不从现在开始加紧引进年轻教师，10年以后，当前的专任教师高峰年龄区将退出科技创造最佳年龄区，科研队伍将全面老化。**
**高校后备科研人才不足的问题在很大程度上已经引起各高校的重视。但是，高校所采取的应对之策主要是开出种种优惠条件加大引进年轻的高水平人才的力度，并且将毕业学校、已有科研成果等指标定得很高。这样做带来两个不良的后果。一是形成对博士生尽快多出成果、出高水平成果的倒逼，造成博士生无暇顾及个人生活和家庭生活、心理压力大、科学研究的理论基础不牢固等问题，因而科研的后劲不足。这很可能是造成赵春晓所发现的**
**岁到40岁年龄段的人多的原因之二\[12。如同高中阶段神经紧绷，到了大学放松学习一样，博士和博士后在高压之下读书做研究，急功近利做出了一些成果，但进了高等学校后放松下来，再加上生活中种种琐事的干扰，科学研究的热情开始消退。二是造成高校之间人才引进的恶性竞争，对地方高校和中西部高校的发展十分不利。正确的做法是注重引进人才的科研潜力；加大各高校自己培养青年教师的力度；为已经引进的青年教师创造更好的教学科研条件和生活条件。**
二、依据不同领域的创造峰值年龄制定不同的科研人员管理政策
**1953年，勒曼(Harvey C. Lehman)发表《年龄与成就》，用大量证据表明不同领域的个体到达创造性高峰的年龄是不同的：物理学家的高峰在20多岁、30多岁，生物学家和社会科学家的高峰在40多岁，作家和哲学家的高峰贯穿一生。13J郭有過整理了勒曼等人对不同领域的创造峰值年龄的研究成果：科学、发明和技术领域的创造峰值年龄区在30岁到39岁；心理学家与经济学家为38岁到40岁；哲学家、音乐家、文学家以及政治领袖为50岁到70岁；生理技能方面表现杰出的年龄为25岁到35岁。14J**
**根据邓尼斯 (Wayne Dennis) 的研究，索耶(Keith R. Sawyer) 将人文、科学和艺术三个创造性领域个体的实际创造性，绘制出年龄曲线图(见图2)。\[15\]325从图中可以看出：三个不同领域的创造者都在20岁以后创造力迅速攀升，30岁左右达到第一个峰值，然后平缓上升，艺术家和科学家在40岁左右达到高峰，而从事人文学术研究的学者到60岁才达到高峰。达到高峰后，艺术家的创造力迅速下降，科学家的创造力平缓下降，到60岁之后迅速下降，人文学者到70岁仍然保持很高的创造力。L15J325同一领域还有更细致的区分，在科学领域，物理学家的倒U形曲线在30岁左右达到高峰，其他学科的高峰出现的时间则晚一些。在人居库文社科领域，社会科学家通常在四五十岁达到高**
**图2 不同领域的最佳创造年龄**
希斯赞特米哈伊认为：“领域可以通过几种方式来促进或阻碍创造力，其中有3个特别相关的主要维度：结构的清晰性、文化的中心性和知识的可获得性。”936知识更结构化、更中心化、更具可获得性，更有可能实现创新。像数学这样的知识内容1.分明晰，知识结构逻辑严密的学科，“年轻人比较容易快速地吸收规则，在几年之中就跃店领域的最前沿”71%；由丁同样的原因，当一项新的成果被提出时，能够很快被承认和接受。，736与此相对的是，“社会科学家和哲学家需要数十年的时间来掌握他们的领域”\[7\]37，如果他们提出一个新理念，所处的学界也需要用很多年的时间来评估它是否是一个值得加入基础知识中的创新。7737
既然不同领域的创造峰值年龄不同，针对不同领域的教师，高等学校就应制定不同的管理策略。
第 ·，职称评定制度方面，不同学科领域应该制定不同的评价标准。
虽然高校职称评定不同学科领域有不同的标准，但并没有真正体现不同领域创造的特点。仅从创造峰值年龄来看，理工科的知识结构明晰，知识容易获得，新观点容易被理解和承认，创新所需要的更多的不是知识的积累而是观察的细致和头脑的敏锐，因而年纪轻轻就能取得创造性的成果，尤其在数学、物理等学科单一、知识非常以晰的领域，年轻学者获得创造性成果的可能性更大。而在综合化的高新技术领域，由于所综合的学科涉及多个领
的技术又不像理科知识那样是公开的，甚至已经获得专利的技术仍然是保密的，创新所需要的时间显然比单纯的理科要多。在人文社科领域，知识的复杂性、不确定性、多样性、整体性、关联性和变化性都远远超过科学技术知识，人文学者不仅需要有深厚的、广博的知识基础，还要时刻跟进研究领域的最新变化和最新成果，创新所需要的时间远远超过科学技术领域。
现行的职称评定标准中，人文社科和理工科仅仅是科研经费、项目和论文的多少有区别， ·般说来，人文学科的要求比理工科要低，并没有考虑不同学科的创造峰值年龄的不同。这就带来两个问题。首先，山丁人文学科成才较晚，如果要和理工科教师在相仿的年龄评同级职称，就不得不降低对人文学科的要求。这样做容易造成人文学科水平不高，容易评职称等贬损人文学科的假象。理工科教师瞧不起人文学科的观念和态度就是这样形成的。在高校行政权力普遍出理工科学者掌握的当下，这种观念和态度极不利于人文学科的发展。其次，迫使人文学科的什轻教师急功近利，在学术基础还很不牢固的时候就急丁报课题、写文章、山著作。很多学术垃圾就是这样产生的。这又反过来让整个社会瞧不起人文学科。
要改变这样的局面，就要根据不同学科创新的特点，制定不同的职称晋升评价标准。理工科教师能在年轻的时候表现出非凡的创造力，就应该以成果的新颖性来评判学术水斗。人文学者年轻的时候正是打学术基础的时候，到50多岁以后才表现出非凡的创造力，我们建议人文学者的中级职称主要看学术基础，副高职称仍然主要看学术基础，适当提高对学术成果的安求，正高职称则主要看学术成果。学术基础主要看对人文经典是否熟悉、人文经典是否内化为个人的人文精神、能否融会贯通运用人文经典等。这只能由同行专家作质性评价。
第二，不同领域的科研项门与经费应该向不同的年龄层次倾斜。
不同领域的最佳创造峰值年龄不同，科研项口和经费也应该根据学科领域的不同而向不同的年龄段倾斜。在科学技术领域，30岁到40岁的年轻人创造力最强，项片和经费应该多支持他们，数学、物理等知识结构十分清晰的学科，还应该向25岁引库到35岁的更年轻的教师倾斜。社会科学领域则要域，甚至沙及人文、社会和艺术的领域，在研发ase支持那些35岁到45岁的中年人。而在人文学科领
**域，则要更多地支持那些50岁以上的中老年学者。目前的问题是，一方面从事科学技术研究的年轻教师得不到更多的资助，另一方面正处在出成果的最佳年龄、从事人文研究的老年学者得不到资助。**
**第三，退休政策、教学科研管理政策也应作相应的调整。**
**除非是希斯赞特米哈伊所说的具有伟大创造力的学者，科学技术领域的专家60岁以后创造力显著下降，60岁退休的制度对他们来说是合适的。人文学者60岁才达到创造峰值年龄，只要身体不出现大的问题，他们的创造力可以一直延续到生命的晚期，完全可以由他们自己决定是否退休。理工科学者40岁以前正是从事科技创新的最佳年龄，可以让他们少上课，把主要精力投入到科学研究中。人文学者知识积累的过程是漫长的，年轻时可以让他们结合多门本科课程的教学，广泛地学习人文经典，时刻紧跟学术前沿，将文史哲一气贯通。到了50岁以后，则让他们少上本科生的课，多带研究生，主要从事学术研究。科研经费的使用也应考虑不同领域创造的特点。人文领域的年轻人主要是读书打基础，游历看世界的时候，每年应有一笔专项经费给他们买书和游历。老了出成果的时候，应该给他们建立专项的出版基金。社会科学研究需要作社会调查，科学技术研究需要做实验，则可以采用项目制，并且要求把经费用在具体的项目上。**
三、依据创造峰值年龄后移改革人才培养政策
**赵红州发现：1500年代，科技创造的峰值年龄大约是25岁，但到1960年代增大到37岁，约35年增大1岁。2\]36研究700名20世纪诺贝尔奖得主和科技发明家后，琼斯(Benjamin F. Jones)发现：取得重大科技成就的年龄越来越大，平均创造峰值年龄在一个世纪的时间里增长了6岁。L16J1增长的速度比赵红州的统计快将近一倍。依此速度增长下去，到20世纪末，平均创造峰值年龄将达到45岁左右，接近最佳创造年龄区的下限。人生七十古来稀，古人以36岁为人生的一个转折点。今人就算活到90岁，45岁也是人生的转折点。赵红州的研究表明：最佳创造年龄的后移速度为每一百居年3.5岁，而寿命峰值的后移速度为每一百年2.5ase等教育。\[16\]1由于科学研究对理论基础的要求越来**
**岁，这说明由知识量增长所造成的最佳创造峰值年龄的后移速度要大于寿命峰值的后移速度。L1J243也就是说，创造的周期难以逾越生命的周期，总有一天人类到达创造峰值年龄的时候，理解力和记忆力、体力和精力同时下降，成为阻碍创新的主要因素。**
**赵红州解释说： “科学创造最佳年龄的增大，反映出科学劳动困难程度的增大，反映出不同时代科学劳动所消耗的创造力的增加。”\[1\]226**
**当今科学技术的发展呈现出以下趋势。一是科学技术知识迅速增长。从20世纪60年代开始，“知识爆炸”的问题引起广泛的讨论。到21世纪以后，知识增长的速度更加迅猛，学科领域的专家仅仅阅读完本学科的文摘都是困难的了。庄子“吾生也有涯而知也无涯”的感叹深深地困扰着现代人，特别是大学里做研究的人。。二是科学研究走向综合化和复杂化，对技术的依赖程度越来越高。在宏观的领域，科学技术一方面正在走向综合，学科之间的界限变得模糊，形成了许多交叉学科、边缘学科；另一方面正在向遥远的宇宙空间扩展。在微观的领域，科学家们已开掘到粒子层次。在中观的领域，生命科学受到青睐。无论哪个领域的研究，取得成就的难度越来越大。当代科学的突破在很大程度上是研究技术的突破。无论是对宇宙空间的探索，还是对微观世界的探索，抑或是对生命密码的探索，都需要尖端的仪器设备。因而，技术和科学的界限变得模糊起来，科学与技术正在走向融合。技术中往往包含有大量的、多学科的科学内容；科学中也包含有大量的技术内容。三是技术研究综合化趋势更加明显，不仅不同技术之间走向综合，技术与人文也在走向综合。四是核心技术领域竞争激烈，取得突破越来越难。**
**随着知识的迅猛增长和科学技术研究的综合化和复杂化，创造峰值年龄已经移到40岁左右，再过半个世纪，将移到45岁，接近最佳创造年龄区的下限。但是，人类的创造不但不会停止，而且还将加快速度发展，知识按指数级增长的规律不会改变。为此，高等教育的管理也应做出相应的调整。**
**第一，适当放宽引进人才的年龄限制。**
**琼斯认为：创造峰值年龄的上升源于科学家在创造力生命周期早期创新产出的急剧下降，因为科技工作者有必要在他们创造力最旺盛的时候接受高**
**越高，因此，琼斯提出出“延长教育时间推迟创造力生命周期开始时间”16\]6的主张。美国比较高等教育学家克拉克(Burton R. Clark) 主张将科学研究推迟到研究生教育阶段。他说： “在学校层次，实现科研与教学和学习统一原则的最重要的有利条件，是正式建立一个研究生教育层次。”17\]258-259学生在本科阶段接受普通教育之后，选择一个他们所喜欢的主科；到了研究生阶段，才“自由地尽情地强调科研”\[17\]259。有研究发现，1920年代，与创造峰值相一致的教育水平大约在大学三四年级。到1980年代已经转移到研究生学习的中期。￥18\]依此推算，当今的创造峰值已经转移到博士、博士后阶段。我们也曾建议专业教育向研究生阶段推移，并适当延长科学学位研究生教育的学制。19\]现在高校研究生教育普遍采用弹性学制，学生获得学位，特别是获得博士学位所需要的时间越来越长。学生获得学位的时间延长了，引进人才的年龄也应相应地放宽。**
**第二，优先引进和培养复合型人才。**
**早在20世纪30年代，高等教育学家就注意到知识的激增和知识的碎片化给高等教育带来的挑战。加塞特 (Jose O. Gasset) 注意到，“如今，在世界范围内，知识已处于一种分散、零碎的状态。”20\]92因此，他提出：“从各个方面看，我们迫切需要对知识进行一次新的整合。”20\]92赫钦斯(Robert M. Hutchins) 也曾说过， “在任何领域，如果学生要成为受过教育的人，就必须掌握科目的整体发展所依据的那种永恒的学习。”21**
**复合型人才要么在学习期间借由选修制、主辅修制和自学涉猎多个学科领域的知识，要么本科、研究生阶段攻读不同学科的学位，要么攻读多个硕士学位或博士学位。总之，他们比在单一学科领域攻读学位的学生需要付出更多的努力，是科学研究综合化时代急需的和难得的人才，引进人才的政策应当向他们倾斜，更大幅度放宽年龄限制，给予更多的优惠。另外，学校有必要自己培养复合型人才，选送青年教师进不同领域的博士后科研流动站做研究是可取的策略。**
**第三，建立团体协同创新的激励机制。**
**创造峰值年龄后移，很快将要接近个体最佳创造年龄区的下限，但是，人类的创造力并不会下降，未来的科技创新将越来越依赖团体的创造力。据库**
**术研究越来越依靠科学家之间的协作，协作研究所形成的社会集团研究能力，可以大大超越历史上任何时代个体研究能力的简单相加。1\]19曼福德(Mi-chael D. Mumford) 和嘎斯达芬 (Sigrid B. Gustafson)也指出：“与任务有关的有意争论在合作性的团体背景下会提高决策制定的质量和创造力。”22J索耶发现：“现今的商界领袖们相信，在团体中工作的个体比独自工作的个体更具有创造力……合作正迅速成为科学和发明中的普遍现象。”15\]264**
**发展团体创造力从教育的角度看需要培养协作精神和协作能力，从教育管理的角度看需要建立协同创新的激励机制。索耶指出：“每个人的想法都以其他人的想法为基础，因而在任务完成时，没人能想起谁做出什么贡献。”\[15\]279在团体创新中，每个人都是以“混合自我”平等参与。他还指出：每个人都平等参与，“一般要求每个人都有着相似的专长和权威水平”，这样，团体的表现才能达到最佳的状态，形成推动团体创新顺利进行的“团体流”。\[15\]279目前，高等学校科研业绩的计算和奖励偏向于项目负责人和第一著作权人，课题申报也有明确的负责人和参与者的区别，这些政策都不利于团体的协同创新。每一个成员平等参与，创造成果时每一个成员都是“混合自我”15\]279，成果就应该共同分享，每一个参与者都应该被平等地对待。**
**我们所生活的时代团体的创造力越来越强大，依靠信息共享和相互合作，我们这个时代整体的创造力大大超过了过去的任何时代。更多地依靠团体的创造力，人类必将创造出更加美好的明天。**
**参考文献**
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**\[4\] Simonton， D. K. Creative Productivity： A Predictive and** **Explanatory Model of Career Trajectories and Landmarks\[J\]. Psychological Review， 1997 (1)：69.**
**\[5\]白春礼.杰出科技人才的成长历程——中国科学院科技人才成长规律研究\[M\].北京：科学出版社，2007：42-60.**
**有色金属高教研究，1994(4)：107-113.**
**\[7\]希斯赞特米哈伊，M.创造力——心流与创新心理学\[M\].黄钰苹，译.杭州：浙江人民出版社，2015.**
**\[8\]中华人民共和国教育部发展规划司.专任教师年龄情况(普通高校)\[EB/OL\].中华人民共和国教育部.发展规划司.(2018-08-04)\[2019-03-09\]. http：//www.** moe. gov. cn/s78/A03/moe \_560/jytjsj\_2017/qg/201808/ **t20180808** \_ **344755.html/.**
**\[9\] American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Advancing Re-search in Science and Engineering-Investing in Early-Career** **Scientists and High-Risk， High-Reward Research\[M\]. Cam-bridge， Massachusetts： American Academy of Arts and Sci-ences， 2008.**
**\[10\]国家自然科学基金委员会.国家自然科学基金资助项目统计资料：2017年度\[EB/OL\].国家自然科学基金委员会.资助项目统计.(上载时间不详)\[2019-03-09\]. http：//www. nsfc. gov. cn/publish/portal0/tab505/.**
**\[11\]赵丁琪.高校“青椒”：光鲜背后的心酸与无奈\[N\].人民政协报，2015-11-16(5).**
**\[12\]赵春晓.统计视角下的高校科研情况分析与管理对策\[J\].科技管理研究，2016(21)：140-143.**
**\[13\] Lehman， H. C. Age and Achievement \[M\]. Princeton：Princeton University Press， 1953：3-21.转引自：Sawyer，** **R. K. Explaining Creativity： The Science of Human Inno-**
**vation\[M\]. Oxford： Oxford University Press，2012：76.**
**\[14\]郭有通.创造心理学\[M\].北京：教育科学出版社，2002：222-232.**
**\[15\]Sawyer， R. K. 创造性：人类创新的科学\[M\].师保国，译.上海：华东师范大学出版社，2012.**
**\[16\]Jones， B. F. Age and Great Innovation** \_ **J\]. The Review of** **Economics and Statistics， 2010(1).**
**\[17\]克拉克，B.探究的场所——现代大学的科学研究和研究生教育\[M\].王承绪，译.杭州：浙江教育出版社，2001.**
**\[18\]Simonton， D. K. Genius， Creativity and Leadership\[M」.** **Cambridge： Harvard University Press， 1984：70 -73.**
**\[19\]姜国钧.现代大学理念视野中的中国高等教育\[M\].北京：电子工业出版社，2017：95.**
**\[20\]加塞特，O.J.大学的使命\[M\].徐小洲，陈军，译.杭州：浙江教育出版社，2001.**
**\[21\]赫钦斯，R.美国高等教育\[M\].王利兵，译.杭州：浙江教育出版社，2001：43.**
**\[22\]Mumford， M. D. ， & Gustafson， S. B. Creativity Syn-drome： Integration， Application and Innovation\[J\]. Psy-chological Bulletin，1988(1)：27-43.**
**(责任编辑** **张** **芊)**
宝折
中ase
**Faculty Management Based on the Age Dynamics in Scientific Creativity**
**Jiang Guojun Su Wenlin**
**Abstract： Studies have found that scientific creativity peaks between the ages of 25 to 45， and the average age for peak creativity across various fields is 40. Therefore， colleges and universities should recruit plenty of new faculty under age 35 to build a flourish tal-ent pool for scientific research， and at the same time， give full support to faculty members within the age range for peak creativity so as to help them reach their creativity potential. It is also found that researchers in the natural sciences often hit their creativity peak around the age of 40， while those in the humanities tend to peak in their sixties. Taking into consideration these age-related， field-specific var-iations， we should re-design the performance evaluation criteria， research support policies as well as mandatory retirement age for facul-ty members in different fields. Last but not least， so-call “peak age” is not fixed but shifting gradually， with 45 being the predicted prime time for researchers at the end of this century. That is to say， future researchers would peak rather late in life， and accordingly， it is necessary to relax the upper age limit for recruiting new faculty in higher education institutions.**
**Key words： peak age for creativity， age range for peak creativity， scientific creativity， research policy**
**Elective Doctoral Courses Taken by Tao Xingzhi during His Study at Columbia University： An Analysis Based on Primary Sources**
Ke Wentao Liu Xunhua P83
**Abstract： Tao Xingzhi (1891—1946)， a renowned Chinese educator and reformer， went abroad to study for his PhD degree in educa-tion in Teachers College， Columbia University from 1915—1917. During his doctoral study there， Tao took plenty of elective courses， which though not mandatory， had helped broaden his academic horizons and shaped his educational philosophy. Nevertheless， due to the lack of primary sources， Chinese researchers knew very little about Tao’s study abroad experience， except for a few preliminary studies done by Atsushi Makino， Abe Yo and Zhu Dangqian. Therefore， it is quite necessary to re-examine primary sources available now， esp. Columbia University archives， including “ Announcements of Teachers College” and “ Catalogues of the Officers and Students of Columbia College” published during the above mentioned period， so as to get a better understanding of Tao’s life experi-ences and philosophical ideas.**
**Key words： Tao Xingzhi (1891—1946)； Teachers College， Columbia University； studying abroad； history of education； education-al reforms； educational thoughts**
**A Qualitative Analysis of University Students’ Silence (or Absence) in Discourse Based on Bourdieu’s Theory of Capital**
**Shi Guangjun Gu Qingyun**
**P101**
**Abstract： Students’silence (or absence) in discourse， a phenomenon rather commonplace in education settings in China， has fre-quently been interpreted as a lack of academic ability or effort. Nevertheless， a qualitative analysis based on Bourdieu’s theory of Cap-ital (concerning economic capital， cultural capital and social capital) shows that university students frequently use their silence (or ab-sence) in discourse to attain certain Capital： 1) they may try to avoid disputes by keeping silent and work hard at the same time so as to accumulate their cultural Capital； 2) they may show their goodwill by keeping silent so as to build their social Capital； 3) they may give tacit consent by keeping silent in exchange for economic or social Capital. In a word， whether students would remain silent or not is determined by how much Capital they can expect to get from that. Silence (or absence) in discourse-contrary to a common misrecog nition that regards it as mere surrender or submission-can be used by students as a means of Capital Reproduction， which helps them acquire some Capital in addition to their inherited one， so as to finally achieve success in the Field. To make the best use of silence， it is therefore necessary for students to identify first of all the corresponding Capital for specific Field.**
**Key words： Pierre Bourdieu (1930—2002)，silence (or absence) in discourse， Capital； Reproduction， misrecognition， Field** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **新形势下高校实验室设备配置管理模式的构建与实践**
落巨福 田 鹏
**(天津师范大学，天津300387)**
**摘要：高校实验室设备配置管理是高校教学、科研、资产和预算管理的交集，加强配置管理是保障实验室设备使用效益充分发挥、经费投入科学合理的第一道关口，也是实现固定资产管理与财务预算管理教学、科研需求管理有机结合的桥梁。本文在分析当前高校实验室设备配置管理新形势的基础上，针对高校设备存在的问题，构建了使用年度预算经费、上级专项经费和科研经费配置实验室设备的审批和论证管理体系，**
**关键词：高校；实验室；设备配置；设备管理**
**中图分类号：G647**
**A Management Model of Laboratory Equipment Allocation for Colleges and Universities under the New Situation**
**LUO Jufu， TIAN Peng**
**(Tianjin Normal University， Tianjin 300387， China)**
**Abstract：The management of equipment allocation is closely related to teaching， scientific research and the management of university assets andbudgets. Strengthening the management of equipment allocation ean guarantee the quality of laboratory equipment， put resources to rational and scientific use， and combine the management of fixed assets， finance and budget with the demand management of teaching and scientific research. Based on an analysis of the new situation and focusing on the existing problems of colleges and universilies， the authors created a system for making the best use of annual budget funds and special funds as well as the approval and managemenl of scientific research funds for laboralory equipment**
**Key words：colleges and universities； laboratory； equipment allocation： equipment management**
**高校实验室仪器设备是指为实现高等学校的教学、科研和社会服务工作目标，在一定的环境下通过购置、研制等手段形成的装备条件总和，在充分发挥使用效益成为高校设备管理主要目标的背景下，如何加强实验室设备配置管理，从设备进入学校这一根本环节上保障设备**
**配置的必要性，可行性，是当前提高高校经费投资效益和设备使用效益必须面对的现实问题。国内学者和高校设备管理C作者对实验仪器设备配置与管理的科学化体系进行研究，提出了精细化管理方法。本文在阐述高校实验室设备配置管理的定位和管理内容的基础上，结合实际**
**作者简介：落巨福(1981一)，男，实验师，研究方向：实验室与设备管理。**
**基金项目：2012年高校实验室工作研究会学术研究计划项目(SY2012-21)：天津市高校实验室工作研究会学术项目(201212)**
**工作，初步构建了适应当前发展形势的高校实验室设备配置管理模式，旨在为加强设备配置管理，提高使用效率提供参考。**
**一、高校实验室设备配置管理的内容和意义**
**1.内容与定位**
**高校设备管理系统的要素包括申请、论证、审批、采购、验收、上账、使用保养、维修、处置以及效益考核，设备配置管理主要包括其中的论证和审批两个要素。其中，论证是从技术层面出发，对设备配置计划拟达到的目的、技术选型及预期效益、运行保障环境、队伍保障进行的客观评估，主要方式是主管部门通过聘请专家形成专家组，以专业知识为依据对申请单位提供有效建议，是一项技术服务工作；审批是从管理层面出发，对学校资产配置的目的、经费需求额度与学校事业发展规划、年度预算经费安排的契合度进行综合考量后作出的代表学校行政意志的主观判断，主要方式是学校各级主管部门根据学校发展规划和年度工作要点，结合经费使用情况进行审批。**
**由上可知，配置管理涉及设备购置经费预算、使用需求、效益产出和运行保障等多项内容，故此我们认为高校实验室设备配置管理是高校教学、科研、资产和财务预算管理的交集(见图1)，其管理运行机制不可避免的受学校职能部门和学院等多个层面的共同影响。**
**图1 高校设备配置管理的定位**
**2.加强高校实验室设备配置管理的意义**
**加强配置管理是保障实验室设备使用效益充分发挥、经费投人科学合理的第一道关口，能有效避免教学设备的低水平重复配置和过度超前配置造成的闲置浪费：也是实现固定资产管理与财务预算管理、教学、科研需求管理有机结合的桥梁，并对现代大学制度的探索有重要的现实意义。**
**二、高校实验室设备配置管理面临的新形势**
**由于高校实验室设备配置管理既与教学、科研工作密切相关，也是推进高校预算管理与资产管理相结合的关键切人点，所以当前高等教育的发展趋势和新财务制**
**度实施的要求是影响高校实验室配置管理的外在因素。高校内部职能结构的组成和管理运行机制是影响高校实验室配置管理的内在因素。**
**1.高校新财务制度对实验室设备配置管理的新要求**
**《高等学校财务制度》(财教\[2012\]488 号)在高等学校财务管理的主要任务中，与高校实验室设备配置管理密切相关的内容有：合理编制学校预算、提高资金使用效益、加强资产管理、合理配置和有效利用资产等，从配置经费预算管理角度对设备配置管理提出了更高的要求。**
**2.高等教育改革对实验室设备配置管理的新要求**
**高等教育改革主要包括教育理念、方法和内容这三个方面的改革。实验室设备作为开展教学、科研工作的主要工具和手段，不仅是教育方法和教学内容改革的基础，也是影响教育理念的改革。因此，高等教育改革的推进势必要求进一步加强高校实验室设备配置管理，实现设备配置的科学合理，满足人才培养、科研成果产出和社会服务的需求。**
**3.高校实验室设备配置管理中存在的问题**
**(1)缺乏统筹规划**
**由于没有学校层面的整体教学、科研或其它硬件平台建设的中长期规划，在各类专项经费启动申报之后的短时间内，设备配置计划的编制经常处于应急状态，导致设备调研不充分，且经常出现相近学科或专业间的重复配置，直接影响资金使用效益。**
**(2)管理体制落后**
**由前可知，实验室设备配置涉及教学、科研、财务和资产管理等多个方面，是一项需要统筹运行的系统性管理工作，要求构建系统、科学的管理体制来保障其工作的有效性。但在具体实验室设备配置方面，特别是使用专项经费的设备配置管理中，高校仍以各职能部门共同参与、职责不清的形式开展工作。这种落后的体制导致各职能部门在管理工作中常出现越位和缺位，以致设备配置的效果不佳、效率不高。**
**(3)技术论证有待加强**
**技术论证是确定设备选型与需求契合度的主要手段，论证专家的专业性、论证程序的严谨性和论证结果的准确性是决定技术论证有效性高低的重要因素。目前，高校设备配置的技术论证管理偏向于贵重仪器设备，对批量购置的一般设备覆盖性较低；由于经费管理和论证管理分属不同职能部门，论证的严谨程度和论证结果的有效应用尚需提高。**
**三、实验室设备配置管理模式的构建**
**在新形势下，针对高校实验室设备配置管理存在的上述问题，基于系统化管理模式，以资产配置与预算管理**
**相结合为原则，构建不同来源经费的实验室设备配置计划论证、审批模式，可有效解决基础设备论证不充分和多头管理的问题，**
**1.构建以经费来源为基础的设备配置计划审批体系**
**经费来源主要包括：学校年度预算经费、上级专项经费和科研经费，**
**(1)学校年度预算经费**
**使用学校年度预算经费的设备配置计划以年度申报为主。学校财务主管部门启动下一年度预算经费申报后，使用单位向设备主管部门提交实验室设备配置计划，设备主管部门组织教学、科研主管部门及专家组实施论证，明确技术需求和设备选型的必要性和可行性，结合申报单位现有同类设备的数量和使用效益， ·并形成初审意见提交财务主管部门。财务主管部门将其统一纳人学校年度预算报批程序，由学校根据各类经费的具体情况，予以批复、落实，形成年度设备配置计划，反馈设备主管部门编制政府采购计划，交由采购部门和申报单位，及时实施采购、验收、付款和上账工作(见图2)**
**图2 使用学校年度预算的设备配置计划审批流程**
**(2)上级专项经费**
**上级专项经费额度确定后，项目负责部门向固定资产主管部门和专项投资主管部门提交设备配置预算申请；固定资产主管部门和专项投资主管部门组织专家论证、并根据专家论证意见和现有同类设备数量、使用效益，形成设备配置预算中请计划；由专项投资主管部门向学校或上级专项管理部门报批；固定资产主管部门根据批复后的计划形成政府采购计划，反馈给申报单位，同时转政府采购主管部门及时实施采购、验收、付款和上账工作(见图3)**
**图3 使用上级专项经费的设备配置计划审批流程**
**(3)科研经费**
**科研项目立项且经费到位后，科研项目负责人到科研主管部门和财务主管部门进行经费立项，然后根据经费批复情况和科研工作需要编制设备配置计划，经科研土管部门审批通过后，设备主管部门根据批复计划形成政府采购计划，交政府采购主管部门组织实施采购(见图4).**
**图4 使用科研经费的设备配置计划审批流程**
**2.提高实验室设备配置论证的科学性和有效性**
**(1)集中实施事前论证**
**针对实验室设备配置计划编制时间短，调研和论证不充分的现象，参照学校年度预算经费的管理模式，每年应定期组织实验室设备配置需求计划的申报和论证工作，由设备主管部门和教学、科研部门一道组织同行专家对各单位提交的实验室设备配置计划，特别是贵重仪器设备配置计划进行论证，最终形成各单位的年度设备配置计划，待各类经费到位后纳入审批流程进行上报，待批复后实施采购。这种事前集中论证，为调研不足的(下转第60页)**
**学工作量，进行综合评定，做出考核结果，并决定是否继续聘任以及表彰，在年度评优、职称晋升等方面倾斜于成绩突出的导师。**
**同时，学生的表现也要与第二课堂学分，荣誉称号评定、推优人党等挂钩，充分调动导师和学生的积极性。**
**4.搭建“三层次”创新实训平台凸显全程导师制的实际效用**
**根据学生学习阶段的不同，借助“挑战杯”企业创新创意大赛等活动，鼓励学生参与各类创新竞赛，形成“三层次”的较为完善的创新训练体系**
**以初识创新、培养学生创新积极性为目的，针对新入校学生开展的“甜点大赛”活动为基础层，让学生自己动手制作创意食品；以借助教师的科研优势，开展针对较高年级学生的多个校企合作创新大赛为应用层，进一步激发学生的专业兴趣和创新能力，培养学生科研意识和科学素养，比如：丹尼斯克学生创意大赛、美国大杏仁创意大赛，耐特食品创新大赛等等；以“挑战杯”学术科技创新竞赛为龙头，组织高年级学生参加以“挑战杯”学术科技创新比赛为主的各类大型比赛为提高层， _.._ 与各地高校的**
**\-20**
**(上接第48页)设备进一步完善技术选型提供了充足的时间，有利于提高设备配置计划的必要性和可行性。**
**(2)通过加强论证促进设备配置的统筹规划**
**在设备配置论证中，要求申报单位结合学科建设、专业发展等需求，就本单位实验室设备平台建设的中短期规划进行阐述、并说明每次申报设备在平台中的地位和作用，聘请业内同行专家进行论证，更加精准地把握每台设备，特别是贵重仪器设备配置的必要性和可行性，确保经费的有效使用。**
**四、结束语**
**从上述设备配置计划论证和审批管理模式上可以看出，注重集中申报，有利于提升经费和设备的使用效益，促进学校各单位加强发展规划编制的规范性和准确性，是探索高校资产管理和预算管理相结合的重要基础。但是，该管理模式不能及时解决临时性设备的配置问题，所以我们将上述二类经费的配置管理统称为预算内资产配置，将学校临时性固定资产配置称为预算外资产配置，学校的固定资产配置以预算内资产配置为主，预算外资产配置是其有益的补充。预算内资产配置按照上述程序集中开展论证、审批，根据经费落实情况，及时启动采购。预算外资产配置则按照项目需求情况独立开展论证审批，并根据经费落实情况及时实施采购**
**实验室设备配置计划的论证、审批管理模式是我校在进行设备系统化管理、政府来购计划审批、设备维修管**
**优秀学子同场竞技，不断提升专业素养、发掘自身潜能、开阔眼界。**
**通过阶梯式，不断深人的指导模式，加强导师对学生的全程指导，打造学院创新实训平台，以克赛带学，以学促竞赛的模式凸显全程导师制的实际效用。**
**总之，作为推进思想政治教育工作的有效载体，全程导师制致力于促进学生的全面成长成才，重视学牛在学习生活上的需求和质量，满足学生个性化的发展需要，同时教师通过育人过程能够增进理论与实践方面的交流和完善，不断促进“导”的水平，达到教学相长。**
**参考文献：**
**\[ll 李鹏.关于在食品专业本科生实施全程导师制的实践与探索\[J\].科技信息，2014(1).**
**\[2\] 周爱前，黄素梅.实施本科生导师制的必要性和有效途径-----基于江苏科技大学的分析\[Jj.中国电力教育，2010(25)**
**\[3\] 陈世永，大学生学习生活方式的实证研究\[\].学理论，2014(8).**
**理、资产管理队伍建设及资源共享等一系列高校固定资产管理研究的基础上，结合学校教学、科研、实验室及安项投资管理等方面的探索形成的，通过实际运行、规范了我校设备配置管理过程，提升了设备配置论证的有效性，促进了设备使用效益的提高。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]武晓峰，高晓杰.高校实验室建设发展报告|M\].北京：清华大学出版社，2014：3**
**\[2\]落巨福，田鹏，张月琪.高校实验室设备管理初探\[\].中国轻工教育，2014(2)：54-57.**
**\[3! 任可，冉栋刚，常翠鸣.高校实验仪器设备配置与管理的科学化体系\[J\].实验技术与管理，2012，29(12)：212-215.**
**\[4\]王喆，吴兵.优化高校资产配置的精细化管理方法\[J.实验技术与管理，2013，30(4)：221-223.**
**\[5\]王惟远，落巨福，孙学通，等.基于信息化手段的高校政府采购管理模式研究\[J\].实验技术与管理，2013，30(5)：215-218.**
**\[6\]落巨福，陈欧.高校仪器设备维修管理研究\[J\].中国现代教育装备，2014(7)：7-9.**
**\[7\]张月琪，落巨福，接励.关于高校资产管理队伍建设的思考\[J\].实验技术与管理，2014，31(3)：207-209，213.**
**\[8\]武向侠，落巨福，王惟远.高校可共用资源管理模式和运行机制研究\[J\].实验室科学，2013，13(1)：187-189.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 各民族交往交流交融视域下拉萨世居穆斯林日常生活史研究
单增卓玛
(西藏大学马克思主义学院 西藏拉萨 850000)
摘要拉萨作为西藏自治区首府城市，是西藏各民族交往交流交融的重要汇聚地。文章从拉萨世居穆斯林群体的身份认同，在服饰、饮食、居住和休闲等日常生活史中与当地藏民族交往交流交融的“深描”，切近各民族交往交流交融内在逻辑及实践路径。文章认为拉萨世居穆斯林是在西藏逐步繁衍生息，并与当地的藏族群体交往、交流、交融而形成的，一种既遵循伊斯兰教宗教习俗，又吸收藏族传统服饰和居住习俗的独特文化现象，体现了两者在日常生活中相互交往、彼此依存，形成文化上相互借鉴、经济上相互互补、宗教上相互尊重的交往交流交融形态。二者的历史与现实的交往表现出民间、互补、日常、持久的特征，其中，语言是不同群体间交流交往的重要桥梁，日常生活习惯则是不同群体间长期交流交往的外在呈现，通婚是不同群体间长期交流交往的深度体现。
关键词生活史；民族交往交流交融；拉萨世居穆斯林；日常生活研究
DOI：10.16249/j.cnki.1005-5738.2022.03.009
**引言**
民族关系是民族生存和发展过程中相关民族之间相互交往、联系和作用、影响的关系，是具有特定内涵的特殊的社会关系"。民族交往是民族关系的一个具体形式，是动态的。民族交往是社会性的双向交流。人类社会进入阶级社会后，也可以说就是在民族交往中发展。民族交往是最富历史意蕴
的交往活动，人类文化的延续和传播正是通过民族交往而实现的，各民族的交往交流交融贯穿着人类文明发展进步的始终。
拉萨作为西藏政治、经济、文化的腹心地带，历史上就是西藏多民族迁徙交往共处之地，各民族在经济、文化、日常生活中频繁而深入的交流交融，塑造了拉萨以藏族为主体、其他民族共同参与的交往交流交融的“多元一体格局”。拉萨世居穆斯林作
收稿日期：2022-07-20
基金项目：2021年度西藏自治区哲学社会科学专项资金青年项目“西藏世居穆斯林研究”(项目号：21CMZ01)、2020年度西藏大学研究生高水平人才培养计划项目“拉萨世居穆斯林日常生活史的调查与研究”(项目号：2020-GSP-B042)阶段性成果。
作者简介：单增卓玛，女，藏族，西藏拉萨人，西藏大学马克思主义学院博士研究生，讲师，主要研究方向为马克思主义民族理论与政策。
为西藏民族关系双向互动交往的一个重要历史实践群体，他们在饮食、服饰和居住习俗等方面既遵循了伊斯兰教信仰，又传承了藏族传统习俗，形成独具一格的文化现象。日常生活史多涉及民众、地方、琐事。本文从日常生活史的视角对拉萨世居穆斯林社区进行研究，试图从以往社会生活史研究中见物不见人的不足，发现那些细腻生动且可以充分展示民众日常生活世界的内容。以拉萨世居穆斯林人口最集中、最具穆斯林文化特色的社区——拉萨市河坝林社区为田野点，探讨蕴藏在拉萨世居穆斯林生活史中体现的民族交往交流交融内在逻辑及实践路径。
**一、拉萨世居穆斯林的来源及其认同**
(一)概念界定
西藏本地人对世居拉萨的穆斯林群体统称为“蕃卡契”，“蕃”藏语，即西藏或藏，“卡契”一词是藏语，是“克什”一词的谐音，“克什”一词指克什米尔，最初代指历史上入藏的克什米尔穆斯林群体，后来泛指所有穆斯林。对于来自拉达克的穆斯林，则称之为“拉达卡契”。拉萨世居穆斯林是泛指身着藏装，操着流利藏语，除了保留有伊斯兰信仰及部分习俗以外，在生活习惯各方面与当地藏族并无二致的世代居住在拉萨的穆斯林群体。
随着内地穆斯林群体入藏人数的增多，为作区分，当地人又习惯将来自内地、讲汉语的流动穆斯林称为“甲卡契”甲”即汉族，“卡契”即回族或穆斯林，意为讲汉语的穆斯林。所以，根据拉萨本地藏族人的分类习惯，他们对穆斯林的称呼和区分首先是以地源和语言为依据作划分。可见，“卡契”一
词己成为拉萨藏语中穆斯林的代名词。如，藏族人称清真寺为“卡契拉康”，“拉康”在藏语里意为“神殿”。而“卡契”一词成了现今在西藏所有信仰伊斯兰教的穆斯林的泛称。
**表1概念界定中所涉及的相关藏语词汇及其含义**
| **序号** | **名称** | **藏文** | **含义** |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| **1** | **蕃** | | **藏/西藏** |
| **2** | **甲** | **烈** | **汉/汉地** |
| **3** | **卡契** | | **穆斯林** |
| **4** | **蕃卡契** | | **讲藏语的西藏穆斯林** |
| **5** | **甲卡契** | | **讲汉语的西藏穆斯林** |
| **6** | **拉康** | **号柜51** | **寺/寺庙** |
| **7** | **大清真寺** | | **大清真寺** |
| **8** | **小清真寺** | | **小清真寺** |
(二)拉萨世居穆斯林的两大来源
关于拉萨穆斯林最早的记载，见于藏族英雄史诗《格萨尔王传》中，其中《大食财宗》即以吐蕃与大食两大军政集团征战往来的故事为主要内容。尤其值得一提的是，在《新唐书》中记载了唐朝军队于公元801年大败大食、吐蕃联军图。此外，公元982年的穆斯林地理学著作《世界境域志》第十一章“关于吐蕃及其诸城镇”中记载着“拉萨是一座小镇，有许多偶像寺和一个清真寺，其中住着少数的穆斯林。”由此可以推断，早在吐蕃时期，西藏地方已经居住有信仰伊斯兰教的群体。而据《拉萨文物志》记载：五世达赖喇嘛曾将位于拉萨西郊的“林卡”地方赠予伊斯兰教圣人彼尔·亚古夫@作为其礼拜的场所。这一记载证明了五世达赖喇嘛时期西藏信仰伊斯兰教的群体已初具规模，且已具有一定的社会影响力，而随着穆斯林群体不断进藏，伊
①格萨尔王传是世界上唯一的活史诗，至今仍有上百位民间艺人，在中国的西藏、四川、内蒙古、青海等地区传唱着英雄格萨尔王的丰功伟绩。
②《世界境域志》是著于10世纪是著于10世纪末期的一部波斯文地理著作，或称《图曼斯基手稿》，原文为手抄本，作者不详。参见：世界境域志\[M\].王治来，译.上海：上海古籍出版社，2010：64.
③《拉萨文物志》是西藏自治区文物管理委员会编的地方志。
④藏语，指园林或公园，这里指穆斯林礼拜之地。在《中国民间故事选·泽玛姬》中可见：“王子和泽玛姬在林卡里玩。”字样的记载。
**⑤在拉萨西郊的“箭达岗”墓地碑文上记载：“公元1650年，五世达赖喇嘛时期，从此地向八方射箭，以落箭地为界，划拨给贵** 人彼尔·亚古夫等常驻在八角街的穆斯林们。
斯兰教开始在西藏地方得到发展。礼拜之地的赏赐，亦说明当时主政西藏地方的甘丹颇章地方政权对穆斯林宗教信仰群体的尊重和包容，为穆斯林群体在西藏的扎根发展提供了相对良好的政治和社会环境。由此，也进一步催生了穆斯林群体与西藏地方社会的交流和融合。
拉萨世居穆斯林除来源于克什米尔等地的穆斯林群体外，还有从我国西北地区入藏的，以回族为主的内地穆斯林群体。具体可分为三类：一为入藏商人。他们沿着丝绸之路，一路贸易，途中多定居青海，并在与藏族交易过程中，辗转进入拉萨。二为从军入藏的回族群体。现主要居住在拉萨清真大寺、昌都清真寺、日喀则邦江康清真寺周围，从寺内留存匾额及拉萨北郊夺底乡的“格格霞”(藏语，意清真墓园)保留的墓碑，都可证实驻藏清军中确有不少是回族官兵问。三为逃难入藏的回族群体。16世纪末期中国社会动荡，穆斯林群体从西藏相邻的甘、青、川、滇、陕等地来到昌都，还有一部分是回民反清失败后辗转逃入昌都。可以上这三类群体构成了拉萨世居穆斯林群体的主要来源。
由此也可看出，拉萨世居穆斯林可分为两个系统，一是来自克什米尔等地的域外穆斯林；一是来自我国内地，如青海、甘肃、四川等地的内地穆斯林群体。域外迁来的穆斯林群体，宗教活动场所主要以拉萨的小清真寺为主。据《拉萨文物志》记载，“小清真寺是本世纪二十年代专门为在拉萨做买卖、短住或长住的克什米尔、拉达克、不丹、尼泊尔、英国等信奉伊斯兰教的人做礼拜而筹资、捐资修建。”该群体的墓地则是五世达赖喇嘛时期赏赐的礼拜之地即“箭达岗”。又据《西藏志·卫藏通志》记载：“卡契园，在布达拉西五里许，劳湖柳林内，乃缠头回民礼拜之所，有鱼池、经堂、礼拜堂，花草芳
菲可人。”内地迁居的穆斯林群体宗教活动场所主要在拉萨大清真寺。据史料记载：“乾隆五十八年(1793)平定了廓尔喀以后，进藏击退廓尔喀侵军的清朝官兵后裔聚居在拉萨河大坝下，因此这个地方称为河坝林。其中部分回族与藏族通婚，在河坝林修建了一座清真小寺，后来这座小寺与查喜清真小寺合并扩建形成今天的大清真寺。”该群体的墓地位于拉萨市北郊的夺底村一带，藏话称作“格格霞”，其初建年代与大清真寺基本相同。由此，拉萨世居穆斯林群体的雏形基本形成，并随着几个世纪的发展壮大，逐步融入到西藏的社会文化中，成为西藏地方除汉族以外另一个主要的群体。罔
本文的田野调查点河坝林社区位于拉萨市城关区的最南端，拉萨河的北岸，社区总面积达0.78平方公里，总人口约8707人，其中常驻人口4984人，流动人口3723人，辖区共有藏、汉、回等9个民 _族_ 天 _。_ 。②巴社区内回族人数为1727人，占河坝林社区总人数的20%。藏族3293人，占38%；汉族3325人，占38%；其他民族362人，占4%。
(三)拉萨世居穆斯林的认同
“认同”是一个从个体心理学引入文化研究的重要概念，其原意是个体所有的关于他的自我确认的意识。通常我们在汉语中使用的“认同”一词，表达的是英文中identification 和 identity 两词的联合意义。而“社会身份”(social identity)是指在与他者(the other)相联系的过程中形成的自我定义。\[需要指出的是，“认同”与“身份”并不矛盾：自我认同无非是对自我的身份之认同，在认同过程中包含了个人对其身份的心理建构和实践建构。我们也可以对身份与认同的关系作这样的解释：认同使身份处于一种被质疑、可变动的状态。换言之，由于认同的作用，身份不再是命中注定的
①中国清初以汉文编纂的西藏地方志书。对有关西藏历史、地理、寺院、习俗，以及清朝在西藏推行的政治、军事、财经制度等，都有较全面的叙述。
②笔者于2018年经过实地调研访谈拉萨市河坝林社区居委会并所得到的数据。
③实际人数更多。通常户籍部门统计的西藏世居穆斯林人数，均按照“回族”身份进行统计，故许多成份为“藏族”，而信仰伊斯兰教的群体没有被计入在这个数据里。拉萨各事业单位和公务员身份的群体也没有计入，因按照各单位的要求，事业单位和国家公职人员的户口需跟随自己的工作单位和所在社区。
或一成不变的。n\]
经美国著名心理学家埃里克森(Erik H.Erik-son)的使用，认同表示自我与他人的关系。从这层意义出发，学者们才把民族、国家等一些客体对象纳入到认同理论研究中。I12认同主要有三层含义：一是“同一”，一个事物的性质和属性没有发生改变；二是“归属”和“确认”，一个群体的成员通过共同特征的辨识而归属于某一个群体；三是“赞同、同意”。本文将遵循这一理念，对拉萨世居穆斯林的内部认同和社会认同两个方面给予考察。拉萨世居穆斯林主要以族群和宗教信仰确立自己的认同和归属，内部又根据地域认同，分为“内地”穆斯林和域外穆斯林两个群体。在宗教实践即“做礼拜”时，分别去往拉萨的大清真寺和小清真寺；在葬礼和墓地的选择上，分属拉萨西郊的“箭达岗”墓地和拉萨北郊的“格格霞”墓地。另外，从地域性的角度，拉萨世居穆斯林的群体认同中还有一个较为特殊的情形即“藏回”“藏回”是指信仰伊斯兰教的各族穆斯林和当地藏族女性因婚恋而组成的家庭及其后代。穆斯林的信仰属性没有改变，但在生活习惯等方面基本遵循藏族的传统习惯，尤其在服饰、饮食、居家生活以及在给孩子取名等习俗方面表现得尤为突出。在访谈中他们表现出多元认同倾向：
“我的父亲是回族，来自内地河南，母亲则是藏族。我的父亲是在解放前经商入藏，后来在拉萨遇见母亲，之后就定居在这里。我的父母非常恩爱，母亲也是跟随父亲信仰伊斯兰教，我从出生就生活在拉萨。正因为我母亲是藏族，父亲是回族，所以我有两个名字，一个回族名字，一个藏族名字。我的藏族朋友都称呼我藏族名字。”圓
“父亲来自克什米尔，母亲是藏族，我是土生土长的拉萨人，当时民族识别时，家里人给我们几个兄妹选择藏族。我自己也一直觉得自己是藏族，是信仰伊斯兰教的藏族。因为自己从小生长在这片
土地上，这里就是我的故乡。我既有回族名字，也有藏族名字。”④
拉萨世居穆斯林的内部认同及其社会层面对其的认同具有趋同性和契合性。在内部认同中，把宗教信仰作为首当其冲的甚至是惟一的认同条件。而在语言和生活方面则尽量追求融入地方民俗传统。他们一般都可以讲一口流利的当地藏语。在服饰、饮食、居住等方面也几乎和藏族的生活习惯完全一样。
在社会认同方面，宗教信仰作为对其群体认同的重要指标。所以，在西藏，特别是拉萨社会中，已普遍把“藏回”视为穆斯林的一部分。尽管他们和社区的藏族居民，在生产、生活等很多方面都有密切的交往和联系。吃一样的饭菜、穿一样的衣服、住一样的房子。在生活习惯方面，可以说几乎是藏化的，但唯有在举行相关宗教仪式时，这一群体则完全遵循伊斯兰教信仰的相关规矩和内容。这时，他们则从拉萨藏族传统社会中剥离抽脱出来，边界感和距离感也相应的凸显出来。
无论是从自身内部的身份认同和归属感的确立，或是从外部社会层面对其身份的认同，虽然有时表现的复杂多样，但把宗教信仰作为认同的首要条件则是相同的。由此，我们可以看出，宗教信仰认同高于族群认同，族群认同服从于宗教的归属和认同。所以，在实际的生活案例中，当一个藏族女性和穆斯林男性结婚组成家庭后，以身份证为标志物的国家法律层面，仍然可以保留藏族的民族成分。但在实际的社区生活中，无论她本人还是社区居民的民族认同中则基本失去了藏族的民族身份。宗教信仰的认同和归属优先于民族身份的认同和归属。“藏回”无论从自身还是社会两个角度，都被认同为“回族”。但在世俗生活层面，“藏回”群体几乎完全接受藏民族的民俗生活文化。这种“剥离”和“融入”，或许是他们面对现实生活世界时的一种“自我调适”。
①“箭达岗墓地”位于拉萨市西郊，罗布林卡以西1.5公里处，建于公元1650年，五世达赖喇嘛时期，距今已有360多年的历史。
②“格格霞墓地”位于拉萨市北郊多底村北，南距拉萨市约10公里，当地群众称之为“卡契林卡”，意为回族的林园。
③访谈对象：HS，65岁，访谈地点：访谈对象家中；访谈时间：2021年4月2日。
④访谈对象：ZH，62岁；访谈地点；河坝林社区伊苏茶馆；访谈时间：2021年4月2日。
**二、与本土深度交融的世居穆斯林日常生活**
生活史，即生命个体从孕育、生长、繁殖到死亡的完整生命历程。生活史作为一种研究视角或者研究路径与方法，强调眼光向下、关注大众日常生活；强调主体性问题，意在通过对个体生命过程、经验、感受等的描述与分析，以其标志性特征为主线进行呈现，最终在此基础上透视其背后的整体社会生活与文化。而个体生命历程的呈现，则通过日常饮食、服饰、居住、日常休闲方式和信仰生活等四个方面的日常行为与活动予以彰显。
(一)双向互动的饮食习俗
“民以食为天”，饮食是人类赖以生存和发展的首要物质条件，也是社会进步的基础，因而饮食文化作为饮食为载体而产生和发展起来的文化现象，在人类全部物质文化中，处于最重要的地位。
世居穆斯林的饮食受到了藏族饮食文化的影响，如吃楷粑@、喝酥油茶等饮食习俗受到穆斯林群体的接受和喜爱。当然除了藏族饮食文化对穆斯林群体的生活产生了重要影响外，相应的穆斯林的饮食习俗亦对西藏本地的饮食文化产生了影响。这种双向互动的饮食习俗为西藏地方独特且多元的饮食文化形成奠定了坚实的基础。据田野访谈，拉萨最初的甜茶馆便是由世居穆斯林群体开办，他们的特色食品“布鲁”@“油香”“比里里”等都是藏族非常喜爱的食品。时至今日这些代表性的饮食文化依旧在西藏地方随处可见，甚至成为了藏历新年时迎接贵宾必备的佳肴美食，体现了世居穆斯林与藏民族间日常食俗与年节食俗在文化中的共享性、适应性和交融性的特点。
拉萨世居穆斯林群体是严格遵循伊斯兰教规
定的饮食禁忌，不吃猪肉及其相关制品，也不吃动物血液、自死动物等，其食用的肉类必须经阿匐宰杀。在访谈中，他们一再强调：“肉类必须经阿匐宰杀”不吃猪肉”，二者是最凸显的宗教禁忌性标识。伊斯兰教信仰规约的饮食习惯与藏族类同的生活习俗又充分融于一体：
**“我父亲来自四川，母亲是当地的藏族，我们家有3个女儿，我是老大。他们20多岁到的拉萨，听父亲讲他是经商到拉萨的，后来和母亲结婚就定居在了拉萨。宗教上，我们是严格遵守伊斯兰教戒律的，但生活上我们是藏族的习俗”。**
即便在年轻群体中这种认同与区隔也一样存在：
“从小家里人对我们三个小孩在宗教、生活各方面要求很严。让我们从小就学习伊斯兰教的教义、教规，还要背诵《古兰经》。所以，我在饮食上是严格遵守戒律，不抽烟也不喝酒。这和我从小受到的家庭教育有很大的关系。”图
“宗教符号的作用在于诱发信徒对于宗教意识的响应，此种响应是指人的内在情绪和动力，亦即在某些特定环境中的感觉。在象征符号的影响之下，人们有时可以做出反常的行动，从慷慨解囊到自我献身。”拉萨世居穆斯林日常生活中诸如“宰杀不吃”等的象征符号，既具有警醒作用，也使得穆斯林群体在饮食上更严格遵守教规教义。
拉萨世居穆斯林与当地藏族居民在饮食习惯上大致趋同，但又严格遵循自身的宗教禁忌，表征他们由宗教信仰构建的身份认同与归属的同时，对西藏传统饮食文化的传承与适应，体现了两个群体在饮食文化方面交流交融，凸显了多民族交往交流交融的客观实际。
①这里的双向是指拉萨世居穆斯林与藏族在世俗生活层面的双向互动。
②耀粑是以青裸磨成粉为原料，经炒熟后，以酥油为粘合剂制作而成的。其做法是：先将酥油溶化在热奶茶中，然后加上适 **量的青裸粉，搅拌成团状后，用手捏成形状后直接进嘴吃。**
③酥油茶是将砖茶用水煮好，加入酥油，牦牛的黄油，放到一个细长的木桶中，用一根木棒用力地搅拌，使其成为乳浊液。现 **在，西藏大部分人打酥油的方式已改用电器酥油桶。**
④布鲁是用牛奶、糖和面油炸而成的甜品。
⑤油香是用滚沸的牛肉汤烫面再油炸而成的饼子。
⑥比里里是用牛奶、糯米粉和糖熬制成的甜品。
⑦访谈对象：MY，女，58岁；访谈地点：河坝林鲁仓茶馆；访谈时间：2021年5月2日；访谈者：单增卓玛。
⑧访谈对象：RMZ，男，38岁；访谈地点：访谈对象家中；访谈时间：2021年5月10日；访谈者：单增卓玛。
(二)本土化的服饰习俗
服饰是静态物态的，它只有与各种鲜活的民俗行为结合起来才变得生动和有意义，穿在人身上才具有动态之美和华丽之感。往往也作为一种在特殊事件、特殊地点展现自身身份的一种外在表现。
拉萨的世居穆斯林，由于世代居住生活在藏文化的腹心地带，和藏民族相杂而居，受到地域传统文化的影响和渗透，女性往往身穿藏装，头戴白帽或盖头，民族服饰和信仰的外标，即刻统一在个体生命之中，也构成了拉萨世居穆斯林穿衣打扮的一大习俗和特点，让人一眼就能辨识。这是随着穆斯林群体在西藏的扎根发展，既要保留信仰的不变，又要融入当地的生产和生活，在同步完成这两大诉求的演化过程中出现的结果。特别是在跨族跨宗教形成的婚姻家庭事实后，信仰生活和世俗生活在服饰文化中的统一和折中。穆斯林本土化即藏化的服饰习俗，是在首先尊重其宗教信仰的基础上，与当地藏族交流、交往、交融，在服饰文化方面的体现，体现了入乡随俗、生活第一的文化和生命属性。
拉萨世居穆斯林对本土化的服饰习俗有一套自己的规制和逻辑：
“我们平常就穿藏装，我是说妇女。也佩戴藏族饰品，对妇女来讲在服饰方面没什么禁忌。但是，对于男性在任何场合他们都不穿藏装也不佩戴任何藏族饰品。对于藏族带有宗教符号的任何饰品，我们也是不佩戴的，这一点男女都一样。我因为去麦加朝圣过两次，所以我会在头上带一个棉布(盖头)，这个是区别于有没有去过麦加的一个标志。但是，一般外出时我还是会在上面再戴一个帽子的。”
“我是开茶馆的，平常因为工作关系，只有在节日、婚庆和过林卡时才穿藏装。我有各式各样的藏装，平常和朋友聚会或者外出时也喜欢穿藏装。我给两个女儿也买了很多套藏装，因为藏装既保暖又时尚，感觉穿上藏装特别端庄，很有仪式感。我由于还没去过麦加，所以还不能戴盖头，我妈妈就有资格戴。”②
通过上述访谈，我们可以看出，世居穆斯林的服饰习俗既是藏民族自身服饰文化的传承，同时兼具伊斯兰教的信仰特点，体现出“藏”和“伊斯兰”服饰混合搭配的习俗和两种服饰文化共同传承的在地化特点。值得注意的是，拉萨世居穆斯林妇女，特别是年龄稍大的妇女，在佩戴盖头的情况下，在盖头上会再戴一顶时下流行的女性帽子，使得盖头一般很难从外面被人看到，显得和藏族女性没有太大、太明显的区别，反映出她们一种趋同性的心理。也体现了生活在藏文化为主体的社会空间里的世居穆斯林们为了适应社会和生活方便及身份认同等方面做出的调适。尤其是在日常里的走亲访友和聚会等轻松的环境里，世居穆斯林妇女一般着藏装，但是不佩戴带有佛教元素的饰品，这体现了他们对伊斯兰教教义的遵循和对藏族服饰及文化语境的传承和尊重。如当下，在一对“藏回”的婚礼仪式上，新郎一般着西装，穆斯林身份的新娘一般会着一袭藏装，并佩戴“卡乌”但在头上会佩戴盖头。不过，这个特殊场合里所戴的盖头，是大红色的，以呼应和符合婚礼仪式的喜乐欢庆场面。但盖头，作为信仰伊斯兰教的服饰符号，明确地向外界传达了新娘的信仰身份。婚礼上，这种带有显著伊斯兰教信仰标识的宗教符号和藏族的传统服饰文化相组合，凸显了文化主体在文化上的时空性特征。
(三)藏化的居住习俗
居住习俗是作为一个国家、民族或地域的广大民众在居住活动中所创造、享用和传承的属于本群体独特的民俗习惯模式。体现在居所内部家具等物品的摆设，家庭成员住房的分配以及住房之间功能的相互协调等。
拉萨世居穆斯林主要居住在河坝林社区，其民居布局，往往以宗教职业场所为中心，为方便宗教实践，围绕清真寺而聚居，形成“寺坊”。这是拉萨世居穆斯林的通常居住格局。在所居房屋的建筑技艺和内部装饰上，则与藏族传统民居习俗完全一样。住宅多为藏式建筑，石木结构、红瓦白墙、平顶梯窗。室内装饰也多注重雕刻和彩绘，常见西藏传
①访谈对象：HLM，女，80岁；访谈地点：访谈对象家中；访谈时间：2021年5月15日；访谈者：单增卓玛。
②访谈对象；AXR，女，52岁；访谈对象：河坝林社区伊比热茶馆；访谈时间：2021年5月20日；访谈者：单增卓玛。
③“卡乌”是藏语的汉文音译。藏文写作“g"意指藏区佩戴的饰品，一般佩戴在胸前，外面镶嵌金银和美丽小巧的绿松石。
统文化特色的吉祥纹样，体现了世居穆斯林群体在世俗生活层面呈现一种藏化的居住习俗。
“我们家世代生活在河坝林这一带，听爷爷讲，以前的清真寺规模没有现在这么大，这是后来在原来旧址上重新修建的。我们觉得住在清真寺周围，对于我们日常生活和做礼拜，都有很大的便利。因为，我们一天要做五次礼拜，如果住的太远，那肯定是不能做到的。家里的装修风格都是藏式的，外形上看和藏族的房子没什么区别。”
“我们家一直都是在河坝林一带住的，亲戚大部分也都在这里，再加上清真寺离我们住的很近，所以，家里的老人、男的做礼拜时就很方便。虽然，现在年轻人由于工作等原因，一天也做不到五次礼拜，但是，周末他们一般都是要去(清真寺)的。所以，我们在别的地方虽然有房子，但是也只是租给别人，自己居住还是喜欢住在清真寺附近。”
从世居穆斯林在居住点的选址上，我们可以看出，围绕清真寺而聚居是他们的首选，这符合穆斯林群体“寺坊”而居的居住特点，也体现了他们对自身宗教信仰认同的第一性。其原因可分为以下几点：首先，对于穆斯林群体而言，“寺坊”而居有利于他们开展一天五次的宗教礼拜活动。其次，“寺坊”而居也能够满足穆斯林群体对饮食上的基本要求。再次，这种居住特点对于世居穆斯林群体构成一种“熟人社会”的文化圈，这也完全符合其对饮食习俗、宗教实践、婚丧嫁娶等多种层面的现实需求。
在西藏普通老百姓家中，一般会专门设立一间“佛堂”。@据笔者观察和调研，在大部分被采访者的家里也有一间“礼拜堂”用于做礼拜。这可能也
是以满足自身的宗教信仰为目的，借鉴藏族传统居住模式而形成的居住特点，这既是神圣空间和世俗空间的对立统一，同时，也是信仰生活和世俗生活在该群体身上的表现。
(四)“过林卡”：地域民族特征的休闲生活
随着物质生活水平的提高，人们日益追求精神生活上的丰盈。在西藏，过林卡作为藏族群众最普遍的休闲娱乐方式，深受各地藏族人的喜爱。每年夏天，西藏各地的人们会选择在当地树木较多、环境优美、山水环绕的地方以家庭或朋友为单位“过林卡”。
拉萨世居穆斯林也深受当地“过林卡”文化习俗的影响，每年夏天，他们也会与当地的藏族群众一起“过林卡”。但在选择“过林卡”的地点上，他们一般会选择在穆斯林的墓地旁“过林卡”。墓地与“过林卡”的地点之间有一堵墙隔开。选在墓地附近“过林卡”，忌音乐歌舞，过林卡前，还要在墓地内的清真寺里做礼拜。所以，世居穆斯林选在墓地旁边过林卡，除了在选址上遵循就近原则并开展有节制的休闲外，还有一种缅怀逝者的意味。
拉萨世居穆斯林的林卡(墓地)@有两个，分别是位于拉萨市西郊的“箭达岗”林卡(墓地)和北郊的“格格霞”林卡(墓地)。西郊的“箭达岗”林卡(墓地)位于“罗布林卡”以西约1.5公里处，与拉鲁湿地相邻。克什米尔穆斯林的礼拜堂和墓地，都位于该林卡的中央地带，距今已有313年的历史。北郊的墓地称作“格格霞”林卡(墓地)，位于拉萨市北郊的夺底村。当地群众称之为“卡契林卡”，意为回族林园。整个墓地东西宽约200米，南北长约320米，总面积约64000平方米。
①访谈对象：MHL，男，53岁；访谈地点：河坝林社区凉山茶馆；访谈时间：2021年5月22日；访谈者：单增卓玛。
②访谈对象：YB，女，30岁；访谈地点：访谈对象家中；访谈时间：2021年5月22日；访谈者：单增卓玛。
③在西藏普通老百姓家中都会设立一间供佛而用的佛堂，藏语写作“gs：”，是指用于供奉佛像的房间。
④据调研得知，拉萨的世居穆斯林，在条件容许的情况下，一般都会在家里专门留一个房间用于做“礼拜堂”。由于伊斯兰教属于方向性崇拜，所以，该“礼拜堂”里没有任何摆设和佛像，房间里只有一张垫子用于主人做礼拜。
⑤林卡，是藏语的汉文音译。藏文写作“副”，意为树木、林苑、花园。“过林卡”是藏族人最普遍的休闲娱乐方式，过林卡多集中在每年6-9月间。人们会在林地里搭起帐蓬，架起炉灶，摆上各种点心、菜肴、饮料，并拌以歌舞、棋牌等而进行的一种娱乐活动。
⑥对于拉萨世居穆斯林群体而言，两处林卡地方在实际生活中既作为拉萨世居穆斯林群体的丧葬地点外，受当地藏族过林卡习俗的影响，还具有文化活动场所的功能。
⑦“卡契”藏语，是西藏当地人对穆斯林的俗称。
“我爸爸来自克什米尔，妈妈是藏族，小时候我记得很清楚，每年拉萨雪顿节的时候，我们一家老小会带帐篷和吃的、喝的去北郊夺底林卡呆上一周左右，大人们上午要去墓地念经、祷告，下午我们会聚会。然后，一起享用各种美食。现在，因为过林卡的地方变多了，我们过林卡选择的地方也不止这一处了”
“我爸爸来自甘肃，是回族，妈妈是藏族。爷爷跟我说，以前穆斯林没有过林卡的说法，是因为到拉萨以后，每年雪顿节藏族人都要去罗布林卡过林卡。因为，夺底沟离我们比较近，加上那里风景很好，适合夏天聚餐，所以，老一辈在夏天的时候，都会带我们去那里过林卡，有的时候会待一个月左右”
笔者了解到，拉萨的世居穆斯林群体，不管是属于克什米尔群体还是内地穆斯林群体，每年夏天，特别是在拉萨的“雪顿节”期间，他们都会选择到北郊的“格格霞”林卡(墓地)“过林卡”。
世居穆斯林的“过林卡”不仅带有地域民族文化特征，同时，也充分体现了自身宗教特色。这种伊斯兰信仰文化与藏地民俗文化互动的行为，既是拉萨世居穆斯林传承、享受西藏文化的具体体现，又是两个不同宗教信仰的民族和谐相处、共同促进民族交往交流交融的现实写照。正如有言：“在当前世界范围内民族和宗教纷争不断的形势下，两个不同宗教信仰的民族在青藏高原的友好共存具有世界性的意义，为研究我国边疆民族地区的稳定提供了样板。”\[15\]
**三、日常生活是民族交往交流交融的重要载体**
涂尔干强调学术的基础是对“社会事实”的把握。“社会需要叙事来建立对社会事实起码的共识。在现代国家的公共领域，有事实就出议题，有议题就能够产生共同思想。看到思想的表达，才见到人之成为人；在共同思想中才见到社会。”马克
思则指出：“社会——不管其形式如何——究竟是什么呢?是人们交互作用的产物。”?也就是说，没有人与人之间的交往，社会这种人类共同体就不会形成。在民族结构多元的情境中，没有不同民族个体之间、不同民族群体之间持续的社会交往，多民族社会将无以为继，更不可能在此基础上形成共同体意识。所谓民族交往就是族际之间的接触与互动，其对于共同体意识形成的基础性作用有着坚实而广泛的理论和实证基础。“同时族际交往的这些积极效应还可以通过接触效果的泛化与接触方式的拓展而得到超乎想象的放大，整体性地作用于民族关系和民族团结的大局。”可见，族际交往的社会事实需要观察并加以分析解释。而“人生史或译为‘生活史’(Life History)"作为一种从社会学中产生的分支学科，把关注社会整体的方法与焦点转向活生生的个人和社会中的每个个体，从日常生活中、从人人部分的历史构建对社会整体的认知。\[9\]生活史的视角，亦如马林诺夫斯基提出的“双重性”方法，即用“最当地的当地现象”(most local local )来讨论“最全球的全球问题”(most global global )相契合，强调在最平常中寻找普世意义，无疑是观察社会事实的有益路径。
本文以拉萨世居穆斯林作为调查对象，分别从世居穆斯林的饮食、服饰、居住以及休闲等四个方面呈现他们的生活史，以及蕴含其中的族际交往历史与现实。阐述这一群体在西藏地方逐步繁衍生息，并与当地的藏族群体双向互动的交往、交流、交融过程中，形成一种既遵循伊斯兰教宗教习俗，又传承藏族传统服饰和居住习俗的独特文化体系的过程及内在逻辑。回、藏文化作为两种异质文化，二者通过协调和互惠合作的方式交流、互动与融合。拉萨世居穆斯林的形成本身是一个漫长的文化互融过程。这种文化互融的过程在衣食住行、婚丧嫁娶等日常事务中无处不在。拉萨世居穆斯林与藏族在日常生活中相互交往、彼此依存，形成文
①访谈对象：RMZ，男，35岁；访谈地点：河坝林社区鲁仓茶馆；访谈时间：2021年6月2日；访谈者：单增卓玛。
**②访谈对象：RJ，女，40岁；访谈地点：访谈对象家中；访谈时间：2021年6月4日；访谈者：单增卓玛。**
③雪顿节：藏语“雪”是酸奶的意思，“顿”是“喝”的意思，雪顿节就是喝酸奶的节日，每年的藏历七月一日就是拉萨的雪顿节
为期一周。
化上相互借鉴，经济上相互互补，宗教上相互尊重的交往交流交融形态。二二者在历史与现实的交往中，体现四个特征：民间、互补、日常、持久，其中，语言是不同群体间交流交往的重要桥梁，日常生活习惯则是不同群体间长期交流交往的外在呈现，通婚是不同群体间长期交流交往的深度体现。二者间的族际通婚进一步促进了文化互融。在伊斯兰教与佛教、回族与藏族之间产生的亲属关系，又进一步形成了将两种文化有机融合并兼顾传承的群体：他们几乎都有两套称呼系统，围绕着每套称呼形成更大的社交群体，他们在两种文化中游刃有余，既是承载者又是传播者，他们把两种文化最大公约化，在尊重或秉持文化内核的同时，在衣食住行等日常生活方面彼此吸收、融合，形成“和而不同”的群体。中国新型的民族关系则进一步促进了各民族“一体多元”的关系特征，民族平等和谐与社会凝聚力不断增强。
正如费孝通先生在《中华民族多元一体格局》中所指出的那样，在长期的历史进程中，许多分散孤立的民族单位，经过接触、混杂、联结和融合，形成了一个你来我去、我来你去，我中有你、你中有我，而又各具个性的多元一体。\[20\]拉萨世居穆斯林这种文化现象，诠释了建构民族交融团结的社会状态是通过长时的族际交往互动、相互学习借鉴、空间与结构上的相互嵌入的历史过程形成的，良好的社会环境和平等的民族关系是两种文化共荣共存的前提和基础；充分体现了中华民族多元一体格局的构建是基于“多元之和”与“一体之合”的思维意识和现实实践，这既有助于保留并促进文化多元，同时又构建民族交往、交流、交融的平台，也因此，坚持“和而不同”一体多元”的辩证关系，是推进民族交往交流交融，铸牢中华民族共同体意识的有效路径。
**结论**
不同民族间交往交流交融是衡量民族关系和谐与否的具体呈现，也是促进民族团结、铸牢中华
民族共同体意识的重要途径。拉萨作为西藏政治、经济、文化的腹心地带，历史上就是西藏多民族迁徙交往共处之地，拉萨世居穆斯林则是西藏民族关系双向互动交往的一个重要历史实践群体。文章以拉萨世居穆斯林人口最集中、最具穆斯林文化特色的社区——拉萨市河坝林社区为田野点，以生活史的视角，呈现拉萨世居穆斯林群体的身份认同，以及在服饰、饮食、居住和休闲等日常生活史中体现的族际交往内涵，探讨蕴藏在拉萨世居穆斯林生活史中的民族交往交流交融历史与现实，切近各民族交往交流交融内在逻辑及实践路径。
拉萨世居穆斯林在饮食、服饰和居住习俗等方面既遵循了伊斯兰教信仰，又传承了藏族传统习俗，形成独具一格的文化现象。这反映了拉萨世居穆斯林与藏族在日常生活中相互交往、彼此依存，形成文化上相互借鉴、经济上相互互补、宗教上相互尊重的交往交流交融形态。二者在历史与现实的交往中，体现出民间、互补、日常、持久的特征，其中，语言是不同群体间交流交往的重要桥梁，日常生活习惯则是不同群体间长期交流交往的外在呈现，通婚是不同群体间长期交流交往的深度体现。
习近平总书记所强调的“各民族要相互了解、相互尊重、相互包容、相互欣赏、相互学习。”\[22也是强调和而不同，求同存异。拉萨世居穆斯林与藏族大杂居小聚居。在长期的历史互动中和谐相处、共同发展，正体现了共存共荣的民族交往交流交融的历史。新中国成立后，以民族平等和民族团结作为中国民族政策基石与根本原则，有力促进了中国各民族大发展。党的十八大以来，党中央统筹谋划和推进新时代党的民族工作，以铸牢中华民族共同体意识为主线，推动民族团结进步事业。拉萨世居穆斯林与藏族交往交流交融的现实无疑也是我国民族团结进步事业的生动写照，蕴含新时代民族工作创新推进的鲜明特征，能够为推进民族交往交流交融与铸牢中华民族共同体意识提供参考，为加强中华民族大团结，为构建中华民族命运共同体提供鲜活的个案。
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\[22\]中国共产党员网.习近平在第二次中央新疆工作座谈会 **上强调坚持依法治疆团结稳疆长期建疆团结各族人民建设社会主义新疆\[EB/OL\].https：//news.12371.cn/2014/05/30/VI-** DE1401411301432311.shtml?isappinstalled=0，2014-05-30.
A Research on the Daily Life History of the Muslims Living in Lhasa from the Perspective of Inter-ethnic Exchanges and Integration
**Dendzin Droma**
**(School of Marxism， Tibet University， Lhasa， Tibet 850000)**
Abstraet： "Life History" as a research perspective or research path and method， has been widely used in sociolo-gy， anthropology， ethnology， folklore and other humanities and social sciences. An investigation and study has been done on the life history of the local Muslimresidents in Lhasa from the four aspects：their diet， clothing， hous-ing and leisure， by applying the new research perspective "life history" proposed by Wang Mingming. It is found thatthe population of this group is gradually increasing in Tibet， and in the process of interact with the local Ti-betanpeople they has formed a unique cultural system that not only follows the religious customs of Islam， but al-so inherits the traditional dressing and living customs of the Tibetan people. This article explains the realistic practice of friendly coexistence of two ethnic groups，one is the Tibetan people who mainly believe in the Tibetan Buddhism and the other is Muslims who believe in Islam， which provides a reference for further studying the multi-integrated cultural exchange and integration of the ethnic minority areas in the border areas of China. Thus， it provides theoretical support and practical example for consolidating the sense of community for the Chi-nese nation.
**Key words： life history； local Muslims； Tibetan； multicultural**
\[责任编辑：切吉卓玛\] | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **太极拳教练员裁判员培训班圆满结束**
**2010年7月16日至18日，湖南省太极拳教练员裁判员培训班在湖南省疾控中心商务酒店举行。湖南省体育总会专职副主席冯湘江，国家体育总局武术研究院研究发展部主任、中国武术协会副秘书长罗卫民，省太极拳协会副主席、原省委宣传部副部长李凌沙，湖南师范大学体育学院教授张继生，湖南省体育专科医院院长白云峰，省太极拳协会副主席、湖南山猫集团执行总裁吴晖，省太极拳协会顾问黑世梅、易俊文等领导和专家出席开幕式。湖南省太极拳运动协会秘书长黄建良主持开幕式。湖南体育职业学院党委书记、省太极拳协会主席杨再辉出席了太极拳交流表演并讲话。**
**本次培训班出湖南省体育局主办，省太**
**极拳运动协会承办，共有150多名来自全省各地的太极拳爱好者参加培训。在期三天的培训中，学员们学习了传统太极拳理论、太极拳的运动训练、太极推手执法艺术、太极拳套路裁判法与实践、太极拳竞赛的组织与策划、中国武术礼仪文化的价值与反思、太极拳运动中的伤病防治等课程。**
**举办这次省太极拳教练员裁判员培训班是为了加强我省太极拳教练员、裁判员队伍建设，更好地办好我省各类太极拳竞赛工作，充分发挥太极拳教练员的积极性、创造性，提高训练教学水平和指挥、管理能力，建设适应太极拳运动发展需要的太极拳教练员队伍。**
**根据新闻出版总署《关于开展新闻记者证核发情况自查工作并重申有关规定的紧急通知》(《2009》299号)、《新闻记者证管理办法》、《关于2009年换发新闻记者证的通知》等要求，我单位《搏击》杂志社(报社、杂志或广播电视台等)已对申领记者证人员的资格进行严格审核，现将我单位已领取或拟领取新闻记者证人员名**
**单进行公示，公示期2010年8月2日一一8月9日。举报电话为0351-4956066。**
**拟领取新闻记者证名单：**
**王基福尹永京张高生田文波赵旭文** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **石景山区：以学习型党组织建设促进石景山区战略转型**
**随着北京城市总体规划修编和首钢涉钢产业搬迁调整，石景山区被赋予“一区三中心”新的功能定位，即：首都功能拓展区和城市职能中心、综合服务中心、文化娱乐中心。为此，石景山区确立了打造“首都文化娱乐休闲区”(CRD)的发展定位，全力推动传统工业石景山向绿色生态石景山转型。在推进学习型党组织建设中，石景山区坚持学以致用、学用相长，促进学习成果的使用和转化，与石景山区战略转型紧密结合，把加快经济发展方式转变作为解决经济社会发展的重大问题，着力研究解决。**
**一是把加快推进经济结构调整作为落实加快经济发展方式转变重要内容，统筹区域经济协调发展。二是把加快推进产业结构优化升级作为落实加快经济发展方式转变重要内容。大力发展文化创意产业、商务金融、高新技术、休闲娱乐、旅游会展等五大产业，取得明显成效。三是把加快推进以民生为重点的社会建设作为落实加快经济发展方式转变重要内容。围绕教育、就业、收人分配、社会保障、医疗卫生、社会管理等方面的工作，抓好政策的落实，加大对民生领域的投入，着重解决好弱势群体、薄弱地区的公共服务需求问题，朝着基本公共服务均等化的目标迈进。召开社会建设推进大会，制定下发《关于进一步推进社会建设的若干意见》，积极探索社会建设的模式，高度重**
**视首钢搬迁后的社会建设管理问题，圆满完成的“持卡就医、实时结算”试点工作，在流动人口管理过程中探索的“新居民互助服务站”服务管理模式等，都有效推进了社会建设管理。**
**记者短评：在学习与工作结合上下功夫**
**石景山区的经验告诉我们：建设学习型党组织，重在学习，贵在实践。其中，学习是与工作紧密相连的学习，学习的成效要体现在推动实际工作上。**
**第一，在推动本地区本部门的工作上下功夫。建设学习型党组织，要同研究解决本地区本部门改革发展稳定的突出矛盾和问题结合起来，提出化解矛盾、解决问题的有效措施和办法；要同研究解决人民最关心最直接最现实的利益问题结合起来，始终关注群众的安危冷暖，加大改善民生力度，努力实现好、维护好、发展好人民群众的根本利益。**
**第二，在学习与工作有机结合上下功夫。一是通过学习提升智慧，用中国特色社会主义理论体系武装头脑，把科学发展观作为想问题、办事情的根本出发点，领会马克思主义的立场、观点、方法，培养科学的思维方法，提高工作的系统性、预见性、创造性；二是通过学习增进知识，在面临具体问题时，不断通过学习开阔视野、打开思路；三是通过学习凝聚共识，在团队学习中，消除工作阻力，形成共同合力。口**
**本市宣传系统学习型党组织建设工作会召开**
**本有讯 日前，市宣传系统组织召开学习型党组织建设工作会议，总结：本市宣传系统开展学习型党组织建设工作情况，并对下一阶段学习型党组；织建设工作进行部署。市委宣传部常务副部长陈启刚出席并讲话。前线杂志社等六家单位分别汇报了本单位本系统结合实际，开展学习型党组织建设的做法和经验。**
科学发展。： ·
**会议要求，宣传系统各级党组织和广大党员要带头学习贯彻中央、市委关于推进学习型党组织建设精神，深 _：3_ 刻认识建设学习型党组织的重大意义，全面理解和把握中央要求和市委战略部署，把加强学习和推动发展紧密结合起来，着眼长远，常抓不懈，不断提升广太党员干部和党组织的素质能力，为加快首都宣传文化事业的科学：发展，推动人文北京、科技北京、绿色北京和中国特色世界城市建设，提供有力的思想保证：舆论支持和文化条件。**
**会议指出，中央、市委作出建设学习型觉组织的决策部署以来，全市宣传系统签单位高度重视，把学习型党组织建设作为一项重大的政治任务切：实抓紧抓好，结合创先争优活动，多措并举，学习型党组织建设取得了明显成效，有力地推进了宣传文化事业的：高度重视，精心安排，切实数好工作落**
**会议强调，推进学习型党组织建设，任务艰巨责任重大。各单位一定要**
**实把学习型党组织建设进一步推狗深入。要加强组织领导，把此项工作列入.党委(党组)的重要议事日程；要突出工作重点，始终把加强理论武装作为学习型党组织建设的首要任务：要学以致用，把学习与推动工作结合起来，通过学习推动工作创新，推动事业发展；当前要重点抓好党的十七届五中全会精：神的学习，把对五中全会精神的学习与总结“十一五”期间的工作、落实“十二五"规划结合起来，切实组织引导各级党组织和广大党员干部把思想行动统一到五中全会精神上来，把力量凝聚到实施\*十二五规划上来，为完成好下一个五年工作做出应有的贡献。圆(蔡庆悦)** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **射影几何观点下圆切线作法的理论研究与应用**
**况周炜，赵临龙**
**(安康学院数学与统计学院，陕西安康725000)**
摘要：利用射影几何二阶曲线切线作法探讨欧式几何圆的切线作法，揭示了射影几何与欧式几何圆切线作法的内在联系，解决了圆切线相关的几何问题，使几何证明与作图相统一，对于椭圆、双曲线、抛物线都成立，从宏观角度给出问题的本质属性。
关键词：射影几何；圆切线作法；欧式几何；二阶曲线
**中图分类号：0175.1 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1674-8646(2021)11-0068-02**
**Theoretical Study and Application of Circular Tangent in Projective Geometry**
**Kuang Zhouwei， Zhao Linlong**
**( School of Mathematics and Statistics， Ankang University， Ankang 725000， China)**
**Abstract： Through using the tangent method of second order curve of projective geometry， the research discusses the tangent method of Euclidean geometric circle， reveals the internal relation between projective geometry and Euclidean geometric circular tangent method， and solves the geometric problems related to circular tangent， so that its geometric proof and drawing are unified. And this also exists in ellipse， hyperbola and parabola. The essential attributes are provided from the macro-perspective.**
**Key words： Projective geometry； Circular tangent method； Euclidean geometry； The second order curve**
**问题背景**
**射影几何是研究二次曲线几何性的重要方法，比如对二阶曲线过其外一点作切线就可以通过极点与极线的关系来实现"。而对于二次曲线特殊的圆，欧氏几何中也存在过其外一点作切线2-41，其作图方法与射影几何作图法有所不同，两者之间是否存在联系值得讨论。**
**_2_ 二阶曲线切线的射影几何作图**
**问题1：已知二阶曲线「及不在『上的一点P，求作点P关于二阶曲线T的切线。**
**作法：如图1。**
**图1**
**Fig. 1**
**收稿日期：2020-08-19**
**基金项目：陕西省高等教育教学改革研究项目(19BY120)；安康学院硕士点培育学科专项(2016AYXNZX009)**
**作者简介：况周炜(1997-)，男。研究方向：数学教育。**
**①过点P作过二阶曲线Ⅰ的两条割线与二阶曲线Ⅰ分别交于点A、B、C、D。**
**②连接 AD、BC交于点Q。**
**③连接 AC、BD 交于点I。**
**④作过Q、Ⅰ的直线交二阶曲线「于点H、G。**
**⑤连接 PH、PG，则 PH、PG 就为二阶曲线T的 _切线。_**
**证明：. ABCD 为完全四点形，而且PQI 为完全四点形 ABCD 的对边三点形，.：(AB，PE) =-1，( CD， PF)=-1，..E、F为二阶曲线T的调和共轭点，所以HQ 为点P的极线，即 PH、PG 为二阶曲线T的切线。**
**3 圆的欧氏几何作图**
**问题2：已知圆与圆外任意一点P，作过点P关于圆的切线。**
**作法：如图2。**
**①过点P作过圆的两条割线与圆分别交于点A、B、C、D且割线 PAB 过圆心。**
**②连接 AD、BC 交于点I。**
**③连接 AC、BD 交于点R。**
**④作过R、I的直线交圆于点 H、G。**
**⑤连接 PG、PH，则 PH、PG 就是圆的切线。**
**证明：连接 OP交 HG 于点E，连接OH、OG。**
**图2**
**Fig.2**
：在人AB中D八C、P共线.品惯-=1(梅涅劳斯定理) (2)
：(0H)’=(0G)’=0E·OP，.. PH、PG 为圆的切线。
**可见，过圆外任意一点P作其圆的切线都可以利用射影几何方法来实现，但对于特殊的圆要用到圆的直径，能够将圆与二次曲线过其外任意一点P作其切线统一起来。**
**_4_ 圆作切线的应用**
**命题1：如图3，PA、PB 为圆的切线，切点为A、B， PCD 为圆的割线，点E在 CD 弦上且满足p，则点E在切点弦AB上。**
**图3**
**Fig.3**
**证明：连接 OP、OA，OP 与 AB 交于点G，作OHL CD，垂足为点 H。设 AB 交PD 于点 E，则LOHP=LOGA=90°，..OGE'H四点共圆，.PE·PH=PG _·PO_**
**在 Rt△OGA 中，由射影定理和切割线定理得：PA _\=PG·PO=PC·PD，又.2PH= PC +PD，..PE·PC+PD_ _\=PC·PD，：p+p_ 2**
.g-pc+poo：点E与E'重合，即点E在点弦AB上。
**在命题1中，极点P 与极线AB 的调和共轭点关系为(CD，PE)=-1。**
**由此得到命题。**
**命题2：如图3，PA、PB为圆的切线，切点为A、B，**
**PCD 为圆的割线交切点弦AB 于点E，则则一21 _PEPC_ 1\[5-6\]**
**十 _PD_**
**命题2是根据2001年TI杯全国初中数学竞赛试题得到的新命题，从统一的作图法可以看出，命题1的结论完全可以推广到二次曲线，对于椭圆、双曲线、抛物线都成立。**
**命题3：如图3，PA、PB 为二次曲线的切线，切点为A、B，PCD 为该二次曲线的割线交切点弦AB于点E _2_ 11**
**的充分必要条件是 _FPEPC+PD_**
**5 解题启示**
**射影几何作图不仅可以解决欧式几何的作图问题，还能将问题由圆推广到二次曲线，充分揭示圆与二次曲线的内在关系，从宏观角度给出问题的本质属性。但射影几何也不是万能的，只是通过讨论几何图形的位置来给出相应结果7-101。**
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]赵临龙.过圆锥曲线上一点作切线的统一认识\[J\].数学通讯(教师版)，1997，(02)：37-38.**
**\[2\]朱成志.圆的切线直尺作图法\[J\].武汉教育学院学报，1995，(03)：35.**
**\[3\]马广军.过圆外一点作圆的切线的简易方法\[J\].中学数学教学参考，1995，(05)：40.**
**\[4\]陈兵兵，赵临龙.圆切线的几种尺规画法及证明\[J\].中学数学教学参考，2015，(Z3)：82-83.**
**\[5\]郭锐，赵临龙.调和点列的妙用\[J\].中学教研(数学)，2010，(01)：26-27.**
**\[6\]赵临龙.调和点列对称性的妙用\[J\].中学教研(数学)，2010，(10)：30-32.**
**\[7\]赵临龙.利用仿射变换研究椭圆内接四边形面积的最值\[J\].中学数学研究，2020，(08)：33-37.**
**\[8\]赵临龙.利用蝴蝶定理求一道高考题的最大值点\[J\].中学数学研究，2020，(05)：42-44.**
**\[9\]赵临龙，朱亮卫，于婷.蝴蝶定理对合对应关系的统一形式及其应用\[J\].河南科学，2020，38(05)：689-693.**
**\[10\]李欢，赵临龙.利用高等几何知识解初等几何题例谈\[J\].山东工业技术，2019，(11)：222.** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **DOI：10.19618/j.cnki.issn2096-319x.2021.04.008**
**从自然权利到法定权利：教师教育惩戒的历史演进与未来发展**
黄庆丽
**(青岛大学教育发展研究院，山东青岛266071)**
摘 要：教师教育惩戒的依据是合法社会化、教育公正和教育权力。其历史演进经历了古代教育惩戒、近代教育惩戒和现代教育惩戒三种形态，逻辑是从自然权利演进为社会权利再演化为法定权利，不同历史时期的形态特征与儿童身份地位、师生权力关系和教育价值文化密切关联。未来教师教育惩戒的主体形态将以柔性的象征性惩戒为主，而面向需要特殊指导的学生以及严重行为问题的惩戒，将由专职教师和包括学校在内的专门机构来实施。
关键词：教师教育惩戒；自然权利；法定权利
在当前中国的教育语境中，惩戒是一个难题和被关注的焦点。一是在实践中人们忧虑教师若是缺失教育惩戒权，那些叛逆不服管教、有暴力冲动甚至存在反社会倾向的学生得不到管束，他们的健康成长和人格健全发展会遭遇障碍，社会也将面临寻衅滋事、扰乱秩序与暴力犯罪等潜在威胁。二是在学理上研究者对其性质和归属存有争议：一种观点认为教师惩戒权隶属于国家教育权下的准行政权力，1另一种观点认为其是有别于国家教育权的社会教育权。121因而人们呼吁进行专项立法以把教育惩戒权还给教师，并规范惩戒行为，防止惩戒不足、失范或过度。笔者认为造成这一难题的根本原因是教师教育惩戒和学校教育惩戒没有得到明确区分，前者是在教育伦理的框架下进行，后者则主要受法律制度的规约。因此，明确两者涉及的权利、义务和责任，避免因概念混淆不清而带来实践的操作不当就尤为重要。基于此，笔者拟考察教师教育惩戒在历史文化中的变
**迁，探讨其未来可能的走势，为进一步理解和解决当前的难题提供参照。**
**一、教师教育惩戒的合理依据**
当我们把研究视野聚焦于教育实践难题时，对教师为什么要实施教育惩戒这个更为本原的理论问题可能会有所疏忽。若是教师教育惩戒仅受法律制度规约，则难以解释其在古代教育中业已存在的事实，因为直到近代，教育权利方从教会和私学中收归国家所有，教育相关的法律制度才初步建立。可以说，最初形态的教师教育惩戒是在常识和礼俗范畴中进行的，其中在我国，最为经典的当推《礼记·学记》“夏楚二物，收其威也”的记载，孔颖达疏谓“学者不劝其业，师则以夏、楚二物以答挞之。所以然者，欲令学者畏之，收敛其威仪也。”\[3\]650教师教育惩戒被视为教之大伦，目的是使学生产生对教师、对学习的敬畏之情，以实现整肃学生言行的育人价值，其依据有如下三个
**收稿日期：2021-11-04**
**基金项目：教育部人文社科一般项目“教师教育惩戒的育人机制研究"(21YJA880020)；青岛大学公费师范生培养专项项目“U-S协同推进公费师范生实践教学模式优化研究”；泰山学者工程专项经费资助。**
**作者简介：黄庆丽(1979一)，女，安徽定远人，青岛大学教育发展研究院副教授，教育学博士，主要从事教育基本理论研究。E-mail：** hqlide@ 163.com
方面。
一是合法社会化。学校教育承担着让未来一代公民初步社会化的基本职责，无论是儿童青少年时期的初级社会化还是成年早期直至终生的次级社会化，惩戒皆为促进其社会化的重要手段。惩戒可以让被惩戒的与涉身观看的学生共同认识到那些细致而微的规则、要求和秩序；让教师作为社会的代言人，真正将价值观念、道德信念和行为准则灌输到学生的认知及行为系统，使其内化成为学生观念及人格深处的核心要素。尤为重要的是，学校作为缩微形态的社会，其中教师是成人权威的代表，学校是制度规范的化身，学生们在被惩戒中能够体认到何谓制度、公正和信任，将来进入社会可以对这些观念和行为作正向迁移。当他们认识到法律、制度和规则公正并合法时，会出于义务而选择自觉地遵守，这正是社会化的主要目的；反之则会偏离其相关要求。因此，惩戒为社会治理奠定良好的心理基础和行为规范，人们遵守法律及规则并非是恐惧其能带来责罚的后果，而是相信这些立法、制度和行政机构能够公正地对待自己并保护自身的合法权益。
二是教育公正。惩戒最基本的原则是让学生得其应得、责罚一致，让教师遵循教育正义的宗旨，惩之有因，惩之有度，惩之有效。如前所述，“学者不劝其业，师则以夏、楚二物以答挞之”3\]650，惩其身是为了正其心，正其心是为了劝其学，劝其学是为了成其人。惩之有因是指教师对明知故犯、动机不良、行为不端者采取适当的惩戒措施，让有过错的学生认识到错误所在，并产生改正的意愿、意志及方法。因而教师在惩戒前要向学生讲道理，在惩戒时要和学生沟通感情，在惩戒后要反思是否促进了学生人格的健全发展。惩之有度是指惩戒能起到劝导、威慑和感化教育作用的合理尺度，像对传统教育中教师惩戒的集体记忆“教鞭高高举起，轻轻落下”那般，施加在精神上的痛苦可转化为学生自我省思、自我要求和自我成长的动力。惩之有效是指教师教育方式上的“惩”达到了学生发展实质上的“戒”，在对教师尊重、信任和敬爱等多种亲师性因素的影响下，学生脱离旧有不良行为习惯的束缚，成为具有自我更新、自我发展能力的人。因而可以推断，当前学校教育中出现的虐童和打骂学生的现象，并非属
于惩戒失当，而是有意伤害和故意作恶犯罪，已经脱离了教师教育惩戒的范畴。
三是教育权力。无权力，不惩戒，教师惩戒学生是行使教育权的表现。教育权力是带有强制性质的支配和影响关系，要求学生服从规则并正面回应所接受的教导，反映教育中流传深远的向善信念和坚定不移的教化意志。相对于正向教导，惩戒是负向干预措施，即针对学生的错误行为及不良认知付出额外的教育智慧和情感劳动，这对教师和学生来说既是压力源，也是实现教师专业成长的契机以及学生人格发展不可或缺的促动力。教师在解释惩戒动因时，将学生犯错后的自然反应当作自身教育职责所在，为学生的成长负责。在此教师坚信自己掌握着教育权力和教育真理，合理地运用它们有利于学生的前途和福祉，即便可能引起家校冲突、师生冲突或伦理冲突，可相对于学生的改进、成长和进步，也是符合教育良知的正当做法。教育权力的行使受到多种因素的制约，因而教师教育惩戒能否发挥育人功效，受师生关系、教风学风、教师人格、学生个性和社会支持体系的广泛影响。因此，不能把教师教育惩戒简化处理，认为通过法律和制度的增权赋能即可一蹴而就地解决问题，而应把它还原为复杂的理论和实践议题。本文拟考察其在不同历史阶段教育中的发展进程，以此追溯教师教育惩戒的形态演进及各阶段的主要特征。
**二、教师教育惩戒的历史演进**
回顾教师教育惩戒的发展历程，可清晰地看到其在古代教育、近代教育和现代教育中，依据儿童身份归属、成人一儿童权力关系和教师职业属性的不同而呈现出不同的形态特征。其演进逻辑是从自然权利向社会权利再向法定权利的次第演进，在此脉络主导下，可理解现代教育因何强调专门立法以规范教师的惩戒行为。
**(一)自然权利：古代形态的教师教育惩戒**
古代的教育惩戒和其他方式的刑罚制度一起，共同构成先民生活中的惩罚体系。《尚书·舜典》记载：“象以典刑，流有五刑，鞭作官刑，扑作教刑，金作赎刑。債灾肆赦，怙终贼刑。钦哉!钦哉!惟刑之恤哉!”孔颖达疏曰：“官刑鞭扑俱用，教刑惟扑而已，古属扑于教。”蔡沈进一步注
释：“扑作教刑者，夏楚二物，学校之刑也。”4\]追溯教育惩戒的起源，是用夏(也写作“桢”)木和楚木坚韧的树枝做成刑杖，责打那些违背礼义、不专心修道勤业的学生，若是有所依仗、不加悔改，则要施加刑罚。汉代继承了荀子倡导的礼刑之说，以为“制礼以崇敬，作刑以明威”，圣人“制礼作教、立法、设刑，动缘民情而则天象地。”由此可知，古代教育惩戒不仅是象征意义上的心理威慑，更是通过实施扑刑以带来肉体的痛苦，杜绝学生重复犯同样的错误，后来引申为用戒尺或教鞭责打学生，是整个刑罚体系中责罚相对较轻的一种。对此惩戒，历代正史典籍中皆有连续性记载。
在古代惩戒观念中，教师责罚学生依据的是圣人的礼教刑法，更为终极更为上位的是对天地的敬畏与顺从，对顽劣、悖逆和不服从管教的孩子施以教刑，是不可逾越的自然之道和伦常之理。在此天人合一中，教师教育惩戒是自然权利，惩戒学生是天经地义的事情，也非常合乎民情民心。“天地君亲师”的垂直权威结构决定了引导学生并把他们领向正道是每个成年人的天命，维系着人类社会的生生不息、繁荣向上，保障社会伦理始终朝着文明良善的方向不断运动。 “动缘民情而则天象地”，教师教育惩戒是洞察了教育运行规律中的人心所向，是顺应民情，依照天地的法则来管理孩子；刑罚是模仿上天降下灾殃，宽厚仁爱则是效仿天地养育万物。因此，古代教师惩戒洞悉了宽严相济的辩证法，“仁爱依靠恭敬就不会败坏，恩德必有威严才能长存”，遵循天地人文一体的基本伦理规范，拥有坚实的道德基础和法律规范，具有自然权利的根本属性。人为天地所育，成人具有惩戒儿童的合法权力，这既不会遭到理性的质疑，更不会遇到行为上的反抗，教育惩戒被放置于稳固的伦理之链中，作为其中一环而发挥着应有作用。
**(二)社会权利：近代形态的教师教育惩戒**
随着人类社会进入近代，儿童从自然的孩子和人类共同的孩子转变为国家的孩子，教育惩戒亦从自然权利演化为社会权利。近代的教师已经具备专业化的专门职业的雏形，学校教育成为社会分工中相对独立部分，教育规模逐渐扩大且日益普及，惠及人口占大多数的普通民众弟子。然而教育权力并非完全独立，而是融合在政治权或
宗教权当中，教育、生活和职业是融合的。在此意义上，康德说：“人是惟一必须受教育的被造物，我们所理解的教育，指的是保育(养育、维系)、规训(训诫)以及连同塑造在内的教导。据此，人要依次经历婴儿、儿童和学生这样几个成长阶段。”513康德对教育的认识仍保留自然主义的余韵，认为儿童应当接受的具体教育形态和其成长阶段是密切对应的，而具有惩戒意味的规训、训诫和塑造是儿童青少年时期的主要任务。原因是“规训或训诫把动物性转变为人性”【5\]3“规训防止人由于动物性的驱使而偏离其规定：人性。比如，规训必须限制人，以使其不会野蛮鲁莽地冒险。因此训诫是纯然否定性的，也就是那种把野性从人身上去除的活动，与此相对，教导则是教育的肯定性的部分分。””5\]4
康德从人性的强制性要求来看待规训，这种否定性教育方试可以发展出人的理性与节制的美好品德，克服人的野蛮性及情感冲动；而理性能给人带来启蒙及启蒙后的自由，因而是否接受规训与能否享有自由存在内在一致性。康德言及的规训并非完全等同于惩戒，可他强调的否定性、去除野蛮性和非人性、及早进行、法则的强制，都和惩戒高度契合。并且他认为耽误规训比耽误教导更严重，因为教导的疏忽可后续弥补，而错过规训的教育时机则无法补救。这和我国当前对惩戒的重视是一致的，对学生犯错的漠视会导致无法及时矫正，进而违背了立德树人的教育初衷。与康德同时期的赫尔巴特和洛克等人同样强调教师教育惩戒对学生成长的重要价值，这些教育思想家都是教育惩戒的拥歪，体罚也是被他们允许或是被默认的。近代由于教育普及，家庭教育的职责和权限部分让渡于学校，儿童青少年的规训任务成为教师的主要职责。家庭和社会将孩子托付给学校和教师，古代教育与生活高度合一时的自然惩戒权利，转变成为管理学生公共事务时的社会权利。教师是守护者、惩戒者和教导者，当学生发生危险时及时提醒，产生错误时适当责罚，表现良好时不吝表扬，如此才能实现康德所说的合乎人性的教育形式，才能实现朝向未来的、更加幸福的人类生活前景。
**(三)法定权利：现代形态的教师教育惩戒**
教师教育惩戒成为社会权利，部分原因是成
人和儿童权利及地位不平等条件下的自然赋权，部分原因是家庭和社会委托学校及教师照看、保护和教导儿童，惩戒是成人履行社会嘱托的一种义务。卢梭的《爱弥儿》被后世称为“儿童的发现”，认为其唤醒了对儿童之独立地位的承认。他推崇道德教育的自然后果法，不主张成人有意识地实施惩戒。此后，儿童权利的观念深入人心。1924年，第一份《儿童权利宣言》诞生。1989年，第44届联合国大会通过《儿童权利公约》，随后得到一百多个国家签署。《儿童权利公约》的通过表明，尊重儿童的身份、权利和尊严，保护其生命权、自由言论权和最大化利益成为共识，自然权利和社会权利框架下的教育惩戒需要对其合法性进行重新评估。最初对教育惩戒形成大规模挑战的是对体罚的全面禁止：1979年瑞典第一个全面禁止体罚，其后欧洲国家、美国的一些州和日本都明令禁止体罚；1611986年《中华人民共和国义务教育法》明确规定“不得对学生实施体罚、变相体罚”。虽然禁止体罚并不必然造成对惩戒的全面质疑和否定，但这意味着教师已无法依据自然赋权和社会赋权就能惩戒学生，因而要为其提供法理依据，即国家教育法律和学校教育制度赋予教师的正当权利。
之所以对惩戒要进行立法规制，一是保障教师合法行使教育权和惩戒权，二是保护教师和学生双方的合法权益，三是在观念上肯定惩戒的正当价值。教师教育惩戒成为法定权利既符合依法治教的要求，体现出教育现代治理和治理能力现代化的水平；也是在师生平等、儿童人格独立等宏观背景下对教师惩戒行为进行的规范，使教师专业化发展和实践智慧落到实处、做在细处。在成为法定权利后，一方面教师教育惩戒有了法律文本为依据，符合程序正义和实质正义，即惩戒什么、怎么惩戒、惩戒到什么程度及目的为何都有详细的规定。一些保障性制度如听证制度、审议制度、申诉制度和救济制度得以建立，明确了教师教育惩戒的道德底线及法律要求。另一方面也影响了教师惩戒学生的内生动力及伦理反思，此时教师并非单一依据专业量权和教育智慧、教育良知来惩戒学生，他们也会衡量自身行为是否符合法律及制度标准。这使惩戒既有坚实的伦理基础，亦有合理的法律保障，避免教师在惩与不惩之
间犹疑不定，错失了教育良机，如康德所言一旦错失惩戒将难以弥补。
**三、教师教育惩戒面临的现实挑战**
现代以来，国家全面规划对学校教育的所有权、管理权和领导权，儿童权利的最大倡导者和保护者是国家，家庭和社区必须大力参与其中，共同构筑对未成年人生命、尊严和自由的保护网络。因此，作为一项管理儿童的社会公共事务，惩戒必须得到国家的授权和委托，获得家庭的许可和支持，以及取得社区和媒体的协同配合。美国公共教育之父贺拉斯·曼认为：“公共学校是人类的最大发现。其他社会机关是医疗的和补救的，这个机关是预防的和解毒的。”【7\]2教育惩戒正是发挥着这样预防的功效，因此不同国家都通过立法来保障、制约和规范它，赋予教师正常的惩戒权利。可由于学生个性的复杂多样、问题行为的性质与严重程度不同，现代惩戒形态整体上变得隐形且依赖技术，在现实情境中如何合情合理地实施惩戒，对教师来说仍然具有一定挑战。
**(一)学生心理脆弱性使强制性惩戒有时失灵**
教师教育惩戒有三个显著特点：一是强制性，二是否定性，三是情境性。惩戒有制度性建构的强硬一面，也有取决于情境性、互动性及智慧性的柔性一面。师生主体间互动时对彼此意图、动机和情感的领会及回应，会影响惩戒最终实现育人目标的效果。未成年人自身权利意识的高涨，成人主流文化和青少年亚文化的融合、冲突与对话，加之生活于日益开放的信息社会，造成他们心理素质的差异性、丰富性与脆弱性；现代社会的高流动性、高风险性和高压力性，造成部分学生焦虑、压抑和抑郁等心理问题。由此带来的叛逆、反抗、学业不良和违规违纪等问题行为，既是惩戒的直接对象，也影响着惩戒的实施效果。媒体报道和现实生活中偶尔可见的学生对惩戒的极端反应，表现出来的过度非理性及对抗性，可能会使教师在选择是否使用惩戒这种教育手段时，陷入惩还是不惩的两难处境。四川仁寿一名初中生因不满班主任劝阻他在校园内骑自行车，在教室里拿着砖头从背后连续击打该教师头部，致使该教师身亡。18虽然此类极端个例并不代表普遍现象，但
也表明学生有时无法从正面理解惩戒的积极意义，容易采取敌对、过度反抗或无所谓的态度，以致教师无法顺利实现育人的初衷，这也要求相关制度重新调整惩戒的内容、方式、强度和合法程序。
**(二)部分严重行为问题非个体教师的惩戒能够解决**
一般来说，绝大部分学生的多数日常行为表现是正向的或中性的，无须惩戒，按照康德所说的塑造、教导和教化即能引导他们健康成长。即使需要惩戒，也是以柔性的象征性惩戒为主，主要起到警醒、提示和威慑的作用，不以惩罚为主要目的。因为学生尚未达到完全社会化的水平，惩戒只是为他们提供认识自我、改过自新的机会。通过戒断不良行为习惯、不当认知、不文明情感，更好地完善自我、实现自我。因此，教师教育惩戒的强度和不良行为的出现频率成正比，不良行为增加，则惩戒的次数和程度都增强。然而针对严重的问题行为，仅凭班主任或相关科任教师的一己之力，即使实施了严格的惩戒，也难以从根本上解决。因为像行为障碍、情感障碍和品行障碍等严重心理问题，虽然其外部表征也是不遵守纪律要求，无法克制冲动性情感和不良行为等，但单纯依靠惩戒往往无法得到彻底改善，而是需要不同教育主体持久、耐心的工作才能见效。针对严重性质的问题，惩戒仅能起到辅助性的干预作用，若是能够和学校心理咨询部门、儿童青少年专业辅导机构及家庭通力合作，共同对严重问题行为的个案开展科学评估、系统指导和长期辅导，则能从学生心理发展的根本上来解决问题。这也要求研究者针对问题类型、学生个案和具体情境对惩戒理论及其实施进行深入的研究。
**(三)整体的教育惩戒变得隐形深入且技术依赖**
现代教育有技术治理的特征，除了通常理解的学校主体和教师主体外，一系列隐藏在管理技术、文化技术和社会技术中的规训方式与奖惩规则，如同教育中“看不见的手”，时刻发挥着类似惩戒的作用。这使教师教育惩戒被裹挟在复杂而缜密的教育治理技术中，使传统的师生主体互动为主的惩戒方式转变为师生与技术的密切互动。对学生严格的日常管理，学生间激烈的学业竞争，
标准化教育质量体系，教育的阶层固化、人才选拔及社会分层功能，以算法为中心的大数据教育测评等，无不带有强制性权力的意涵，使师生按照其要求来形塑自身的行为。这对教师教育惩戒的影响是，当体罚从教育法令中被排除后，教师教育惩戒从传统的身心一体化惩戒转向以心理惩戒为主，由成人实施的显性可视化惩戒转向以制度化教育生活施加的隐形惩戒为主，由他人施加的外在惩戒转向混合着由自我实施的内在惩戒。福柯提出的规训与惩罚，布迪厄阐释的社会区隔和符号暴力，以及当前盛行的大数据管理对学生的分类、鉴定和评估，无不包含着对处境不利、天赋不高和不勤奋努力学生的否定性评价与强力矫治。高度技术化的全方位隐形惩戒，压缩了教师惩戒的物理时空，减少了教育改变命运以及教师运用教育智慧来改变学生人生方向的机会。
**四、教师教育惩戒的未来形态**
教师教育惩戒的历史古老而漫长，在当前面临着新的境况和实践难题。教育是有未来性的，考察教师教育惩戒的未来走向，需以教育发展趋势为宏观背景。教师教育惩戒面临着基本悖论：若是学生无意改过，惩戒只是对不良行为后果的惩罚及报复，达不到育人的目的；若是有意改过，领会到教师的惩戒意图和教育意向即可，不需要施加实质意义上的惩戒。“大学之法，禁于未发之谓豫，当其可之谓时，不陵节而施之谓孙，相观而善之谓摩。此四者，教之所由兴也。”9\]“豫、时、孙、摩”的教之所兴四原则，提前预防、适当时机、适度渐进、观摩行善，同样适用于教师惩戒这种具体情境。构想其未来发展形态，仍要与其古典精神保持一致，即不过度放大惩戒的育人功能，慎重使用、适时适度、用之有效。
**(一)教师教育惩戒以柔性惩戒为主**
惩戒是一门教育艺术，需要教师高深的实践智慧。“惩”针对的是不当行为造成的不良后果，“戒”是防患于未然，针对可能产生的不良行为或不良意图。
学生正在或将要犯错误时，会反复揣摩教师惩或不惩的可能性，若惩戒的可能性大，学生则会遏制自身的不良行为动机；若是不惩的可能性更大，学生心理上的防线就会放松。因此，教师教育
惩戒既要针对已成事实的违规违纪行为，也要针对学生可能要犯错误的动机或意图，这和法律意义上的惩处或社会意义上的惩罚性质皆不同，即仍然以教育和引导为主，旨在帮助学生养成良好的行为习惯和健全的人格。教师针对学生一般性违规违纪现象和不良行为习惯，可以通过语言训诫、暂时剥夺受教育权、布置额外任务等惩罚方式，帮助学生矫正认知、端正行为和培育正向情感。2020年底，教育部发布的《中小学教育惩戒规则(试行)》根据程度轻重把教师惩戒分为一般教育惩戒、较重教育惩戒和严重教育惩戒三类。一般教育惩戒是针对轻微违规违纪行为当场实施的，使用频率较高；而较重教育惩戒与严重教育惩戒需经过学校德育负责人和学校管理层的同意，针对较重情节或恶劣情节。110因而在教育现场发生的教师教育惩戒行为，以言语劝导和轻度处罚的柔性惩戒为主，以宽严相济的方式实现立德树人的长远目标。而较重教育惩戒和严重教育惩戒由相关负责的学校领导或以学校为主体来进行，教师主要发挥着知情报备、监督执行的辅助职责。
**(二)教师教育惩戒走向融合状态**
惩戒是教育的一种手段，而要培养好学生和好人，只依靠一种教育方式是不够的。趋向中庸和融合的理想状态是：教育惩戒和自然后果法、惩戒和自我惩戒、重要他人的要求和自我教育相结合相融通，运用多种教育方式的合力，为儿童青少年的健康成长筑牢防线。缺乏惩戒，教育是阴柔的，是不完整的；过于注重惩戒，教育是生硬冰冷的，始终被紧张、压抑的气氛笼罩着。好教师的形象是刚柔相济的，惩戒以爱和责任为前提，若是学生感受不到严格要求背后的仁慈之心，则难以服从教师的训诲，如此惩戒也失却了教育的意涵。教师爱学生，一定不会任由其发展，对学生负责，则会恩威并施，严加管教；放纵学生，则是无知无能和不负责任的表现。就学生而言，对教师充满敬畏的同时，能够爱戴他们，意味着建立起终身受益的良性师生关系。随着教育民主的深入开展，学生更注重人格独立和正向的情感体验，因此发端于刑罚体系的惩戒需要作出相应调整。“尊重个人自由和人类关系中的礼让和仁慈的原则，最终将使人们确信，这些原则同压制、强迫和暴力的方法相比，会有助于使更多的人获得更好的经
验。”\[7\]255杜威的这句话意味着弱化惩戒汲其带来的压抑与强制，和现代社会的民主治理的基调是一致的。师生共同生活中体验到的友善及合作，更适合当前教育文化倡导的价值观念与行为方式。
**(三)较重教育惩戒和严重教育惩戒由专业人员和专门机构实施**
倾向于采取柔性惩戒，并与其他教育手段综合使用带来的问题是：对那些有严重行为问题并难以服从管教的学生怎么办?谁来为其改进和成长负责，促进他们的社会化和文明教化?当法律赋予教师惩戒权后，是否意味着教师必须要承担惩戒的责任，即不惩戒是不负责任和不作为，就是失去管教学生的权利与能力，背负道义上的自责及制度性压力；惩戒则意味着付出更多的情感劳动，可能会激发更多的师生冲突和家校矛盾。可见法定赋权只是解决问题的起点，而非最终方案。随着教师专业化的深入推进，较重教育惩戒和严重教育惩戒需由专门负责的德育教师和专业部门来实施，而不是普遍化为所有教师的责任。大部分教师担负的仅是针对常见的违规违纪行为问题进行日常教学和班级管理中的轻度惩戒。因此，为全面落实教师的惩戒权，应由多元的惩戒主体分类施策，一是建立相互合作的社会支持体系，发动法律部门、干预和矫正严重不良行为的专业服务机构、社区的教育力量和家庭充分参与；二是加强学生的心理素质建设，培养其权利意识和抗逆能力，能够承受惩戒带来的压力及后果，领会并配合教师的教育意图，尽量减少因心理脆弱性而产生的过激行为或极端后果。
结 语
教师教育惩戒是柄双刃剑，它既可能改善或解决儿童青少年发展过程中出现的问题，也可能加剧问题的严重程度或产生新的问题。在经历了漫长的历史演化后，随着儿童权利意识的觉醒，后喻文化时代的到来，教师教育惩戒对师生双方而言既是直接的压力来源，也是促进教师专业精深成熟和学生人格健全发展的重要契机。因此，当前仍要进一步探索如何更加正当、合理地行使学校和教师的惩戒权。作为法定的职务行为，在实施教育惩戒时既要遵照法律规章，也要尊重教师
自身的自由裁量权和专业自主性，兼顾不同教师教育观念和教育风格的差异。同时，要考虑学生的个体差异和班级文化等综合性因素，以学生行为的改善、认知的进步和人格的健全发展为最终衡量标准。尤其在实施较重教育惩戒和严重教育惩戒时，需要对学生进行专业的行为评估和心理画像，通过不同利益相关者的共同努力，持续性地改善学生的发展性问题。
**参考文献：**
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\[2\]管华.教师惩戒行为及其规制\[J\].华东师范大学学报(教育科学版)，2020(3)：27-33.
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\[4\]史靖妍.礼记尚书\[M\].桂林：漓江出版社，2017：313.
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\[6\]彭志敏.教育惩戒的法律研究\[D\].桂林：广西师范大 **学，2002：8.**
\[7\]约翰·杜威.我们怎样思维·经验与教育\[M\].姜文闵，译.北京：人民教育出版社，2005.
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**\[9\]高时良.学记\[M\].北京：人民教育出版社，2016：121.**
\[10\]中华人民共和国教育部.让教育惩戒有尺度、有温度- -教育部政策法规司负责人就《中小学教育惩戒规则(试行)》答记者问\[EB/OL\].(2020-12-29)\[2021-10-08\].http：//www. moe. gov.cn/jyb\_xwfb/ **s271/202012/t20201229 507960.html.**
(责任编辑：何 **艳)**
**From Natural Right to Legal Right：The Historical Evolution and Future Development of Teacher Education Discipline**
HUANG Qing-li
_( Institute of Educational Development， Qingdao University， Qingdao Shandong 266071， China )_
**Abstract： The legitimate basis of teacher education discipline is legal socialization， education justice and education right.Its historical evolution has gone through three forms of ancient education discipline， modern education discipline and contemporary education discipline. Its logic is to evolve from natural right to social right and then to legal right. The morphological characteristics in different historical periods are closely related to the status of children， the right relationship between teachers and students， and the education value culture. In the future， the main form of teacher education discipline will be flexible symbolic discipline， and the disci-pline for students who need special guidance and have serious behavior problems will be implemented by spe-cial teachers and specialized institutions including schools.**
**Key words： teacher education discipline； natural right； legal right** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **文/郭菁**
**微信PK短信：腾讯大胜**
**Micro Message PK Short Message： Tencent Got Victory**
**家工信部近期发布的统计数据显国示，2012年全国移动短信发送量8973.1亿条，同比增长仅2.1%，增幅为4年来最低，人均短信发送量下滑了9%左右。DCCI互联网数据中心的统计更让运营商胆战心惊：2012年全国运营商的整体短信量比2011年下降20%，彩信量下降25%，电话业务量甚至也下降了5%。**
**“就像BP机的时代结束一样，短信时代也许很快就会结束。”艾媒 CEO 张毅表示。短信量的下滑是一个标志，数据流量占主导的年代开始了。**
传统短信陷入四面楚歌
**1992年，世界上第一条短信在英国沃尔丰的GSM网络上通过个人电脑向移动电话发送，至今短信已经有20年的历史。有统计显示，短信20年已带来超过5000亿美元收入，被称作“拇指经济”。**
**中国的移动通信网络早在1994年**
**就具备了短信功能。但是短信只经历了20年鲜有竞争的“黄金期成长期”，就在微信、QQ、微博、iMessage 等低成本、高效率、多样化新型即时通讯工具的挑战下，显现出“未老先衰”的现象。**
**2009年，中国移动用户人均发送短信108条；2010年，这一数字减少到101条，到了2011年，继续萎缩到88条。人均短信发送量的剧烈减少始于2010年，刚好是中国微博用户开始大肆扩张的一年。进入2012年，微信等语聊软件的爆发式流行，更加速了这种趋势。如今，微博和微信成为人们使用最多的两种3G应用。它们凭借实惠、便捷和更优的多媒体属性，一步步蚕食着短信的“江山”。其中，又以用户量超3亿的微信最为凶猛。**
**2011年1月21日，微信诞生； _：_ 2012年3月，微信用户达1亿；9月17**
**日，微信用户破2亿；2013年1月15日，**
**腾讯宣布微信用户数过3亿。从2亿到3亿，仅用了不到4个月时间。这个集文字通讯、图片分享、语音对讲、LBS、“摇一摇”、漂流瓶、视频会话等诸多社交手段于一身的产品，将人们从打字的窠臼中解放出来，在满足用户本身对社交、沟通的渴望的同时，也延展了关于沟通宽度与深度的无限可能。微信形成了一个沟通矩阵：横坐标是语音、文字、图片、视频，纵坐标是手机客户端、QQ、微博、邮箱。微信的威力在于QQ关系链，并整合了QQ邮箱、QQ离线留言、腾讯微博私信等产品。2012年，腾讯与央视“3·15晚会”合作，微信首次成为央视晚会收集线索及与观众互动的重要通道。**
**面对竞争，移动、联通、电信三大运营商分别推出了“飞聊”、“沃友”和“翼聊”通讯软件，初衷是与腾讯旗下拥有数亿用户的微信抗衡，但收效甚微。**
**在去年12月的全球开发者大会上，中国移动总裁李跃表示，“随着移动互联网发展，传统运营商业务正在受到猛烈冲击，尤其是OTT企业对传统运营商的挤压非常明显，这些业务使得运营商原来的短信、话音，甚至包括国际电话业务都受到了很大挑战”。**
**事实上，微信刚诞生时并没有引起运营商的警觉，甚至腾讯自己都没当回事。真正让运营商们紧张起来是在微信增加视频/语音通话功能之后。随着微信用户越来越多，不少人减少了电话、短信的使用量，转而利用微信的语音、文字、图片形式来交流。也正因此，腾讯被冠以“第四大运营商”的称号。很多年龄较大的用户，此前并没有QQ，但是在微信诞生后，他们也从此成为了腾讯的用户。微信等手机应用本身的优势更令人瞩目，多媒体文本的模式开拓了用户的自身需求。除了微信， YY语音、**
**手机旺旺，甚至飞信等运营商推出的移动手机应用都在挤占短信发送量。**
**新兴技术引发市场变革**
**类微信业务对短信的冲击，最直接的起因就是资费。目前运营商每条1毛的基础短信资费已沿用了很久很久，相比之下发一条微信的流量费要低得多。微信、QQ等软件产生的上网流量费由网络运营商收取，即便按照每兆流量1元钱的资费，也可以发上千条文字小消息。 _口_ 这对于购买不限量数据服务的用户来说，发送消息的成本几近于零。同时，微信、QQ等能即时发送文字、语音、图片和视频，还能“面对面交流”，而手机短信和彩信则只能发送文字和图片。此外，智能手机持有量和采用率的攀升，也为新型通讯工具的普及提供了平台。即时通信软件的优势，一是支持文字、语音、图片甚至视频等多种**
**候可以直接发送语音，看到美景想发给好友可以直接拍照发送(再想想运营商那些个彩信套餐收费吧)。这些都是传统短信体验不好甚至无法做到的，在一开始，这些方式给人以新鲜的感觉，而且简单易用，让人非常愿意尝试，而如今，发送语音、图片等方式已经慢慢融入我们的生活，渐渐成为常用的沟通方式。**
**对于来自外界产品对短信业务的冲击，产品本身的更替只是一部分原因，更主要的是短信诞生20年来并没有任何**
**的改进，用户对短信失去了新鲜感。20年前什么样，现在还是什么样。相对于语音通话业务资费的迅速下降，短信业务的资费已经失去了相对优越性。一到国外，微信的优势就更显出来了。短信本身的缺陷导致发送量下降是既有的趋势，微信等应用的出现只是加速了这一趋势。**
**1992年开始投放市场进行商用的短信，至今已经有20多年历史。在电信通讯领域，消失的技术与设备已有不少，大哥大、BP机、小灵通等等，新兴技术的冲击迫使短信走向没落。**
**短信平台必须更新换代**
**当很多人都在预言短信业务将被替代时，也有人不以为然。**
**知名电信专家、、飞象网总裁项立刚认为，谈到比如KIKI和微信这类即时通信工具未必会取代传统短信。原因在于，目前手机用户对传统短信的依赖和关注的程度依然很高，用户已经养成了听到铃声就查看短信的习惯，对用户来**
**说，传统短信具有很强的存在感，用**
**户的及时交流感觉也很强，至于短**
**信的费用问题，现在的标准在用户白的承受和接受范围之内，价格并没有让传统短信在用户心中形成一个可以让其他产品替代的临界点。虽然即时通讯软件的势头很猛，但是短信在一段时间之内仍然有着它不可替代的作用，例如在企业通讯方面短信仍然是不可或缺的工具。因为短信有着一项特性，那就是信息直达，无需通过加好友验证，只要有号码就能发送接收。这对于一部分群体来说颇为便捷，但这其实也是一柄双刃剑，因为正是这样，许多垃圾广告和诈骗信息被肆无忌惮地发送到用户的手机**
**传统短信受到了即时通信的威胁，在这种新的形势下，传统短信的更新换代就不可避免了：不仅在容量上需要扩大，还需要加入图片、表情、视频等时下流行的多种元素。例如瓦力短信就是一款传统短信工具中用户量很大的产品。此外，面对微博、IM等的低资费，运营商可以考虑降低短信资费，寻求新的盈利模式。在移动互联网时代，短信应该与其他新业务“联姻”，将短信与运营商拥有的即时通信软件融合起来，打造渗透率更高的业务。即时通信应用适合于个人应用，而在行业应用里，基于信息采集、信息传递为基础的“企讯通”“校讯通”等应用，更适合短信平台的发展。**
**值得一提的是苹果的 iMessage，它并非微信这样的APP， 而是内置于苹果iOS系统中的信息服务，，一旦开通，只要是苹果设备之间，系统会在发短信时默认为“iMessage”通道。按照目前三大运营商在手机行业内的号召力，完全可以通过技术手段，将自己的飞聊等类微信服务像 iMessage 一样，内嵌在定制手机的短信功能中。虽说不能完全抵消微信的影响力，但至少能在资费环节挽回用户感受上的劣势。加之与短信功能合一，便利性大增，再通过宣传攻势反击“过顶传球”，绝非难事。**
**不过一旦这样做，传统文字短信业务的下降将远远不止20%。事实上这种“纠结”已然出现在了“飞聊”业务上，这款和微信类似的中国移动应用本身也在蚕食着移动的短信业务。面对来自OTT企业的竞争，首先要学习他们的创新精神。只是，运营商想要具备这种精神，有时也必须放弃赖以生存的既得利益，相当于去革自己的命。这就像要广电系统全面开放互联网电视一样，确实有点左右为难。** | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **邵永铁路引入永州铁路地区方案研究**
Study on the Scheme of Introducing Shaoyang-Yongzhou Railway into Yongzhou Railway Terminal
_魏_ _召_
**WEI Zhao**
(中铁工程设计咨询集团有限公司线路站场设计研究院，，北京 100055)
(Alignment and Station Design Research Department， China Railway Engineering Design and Consulting Group Co.， Ltd.， Beijing， 100055， China)
摘 要：邵永铁路是国家中长期铁路网规划中呼南通道的组成部分，在路网中具有重要意义和作用。根据永州铁路地区内既有线路概况，以及永州城市总体规划及客运需求，综合考虑相关规划线路建设时序，研究邵永铁路引入永州铁路地区方案，即接入既有衡柳场方案和新建永州东站2套建设方案及其子方案系统。通过比较分析各项地区接入方案的线路布局方式、工程投资额度及对城市规划的影响，推荐采用邵永铁路引入永州站衡柳场并改造车站咽喉、预留高速场方案，从而实现邵永铁路与永州铁路地区其他铁路的分工协同，减少对既有铁路的运营干扰，提高永州铁路地区运输能力利用率。
关键词：：永州铁路地区；铁路枢纽；联络线；方案比选，总图规划
Abstract： As a component of Hohhot-Nanning Railway corridor in the national medium and long-term railway network planning， Shaoyang-Yongzhou Railway is of great significance in the railway network. Considering the construction sequence of related planned railway， two sets of construction schemes and its sub-program system for introducing the Shaoyang-Yongzhou Railway into the Yongzhou area through the existing Hengliu yard and newly-built Yongzhou East station were analyzed based on the current situation of existing railway in Yongzhou area and the overall planning and passenger transport demand of Yongzhou city. Through comparing and analyzing the line layout scheme of connection， project investment quota and impact on urban planning， the scheme of connecting Shaoyang-Yongzhou Railway with Hengliu yard at Yongzhou station was recommended， through renovating the station throat， and reserving high-speed yard. The recommended scheme can facilitate the division of labor and coordination between Yongzhou Railway terminal and other railway lines in Yongzhou area， reduce operational interference to existing
railway lines and increase the utilization rate of railway line capacity at Yongzhou railway terminal.
Keywords： Yongzhou Hub； Railway Terminal； Contact Line； Scheme Comparison and Selection； General Layout Planning
**1召邵永铁路引入永州铁路地区概述**
1.1 地区铁路建设概况
新建邵永铁路(邵阳一永州)位于湖南省西部，北起益湛铁路(益阳一湛江)邵阳站，衔接怀邵衡铁路(怀化南一衡阳东)，经邵阳县，南讫衡柳铁路(衡阳东一-柳州)永州站，建筑长度 92.237 km。项目北接邵阳地区，通过既有益湛铁路娄邵段(娄底一邵阳)、沪昆通道(上海虹桥一昆明南)、规划的益娄高速铁路(益阳南一娄底南)等沟通长江中游城市群、长三角等地区，南连永州铁路地区，通过既有衡柳铁路、规划广清永高速铁路(广州一永州)沟通北部湾城市群、粤港澳大湾区。邵永铁路是国家“八纵八横”高速铁路主通道之呼南通道(呼和浩特东一南宁东)的重要组成部分，同时也是京港澳通道(北京西一深圳北)的辅助通道。永州铁路地区已建成并规划有多条铁路线路、衔接方向较多，研究优化邵永铁路引人永州铁路地区方案在该铁路规划阶段具有重要意义。
永州铁路地区现有衡柳铁路、湘桂铁路(衡阳一凭祥)和益湛铁路3条铁路干线，衔接邵阳、衡阳、桂林、贺州4个方向。湘桂铁路自东北折
路永州铁路地区扩能工程，即易家桥(不含)至永州站(含)新建湘桂第三线；②新建永州北站，并对永州站进行改造；③地区内永州东货场将迁移至永州北，湘桂第三线引入永州北站，实现永州铁路地区的客货分站格局，永州北站为地区内区段站和物流中心。
(2)拟建铁路。在建铁路为兴永郴赣铁路(兴义一赣州)，规划为160 km/h客货混单线铁路，目前处于前期研究阶段。
(3)规划研究铁路。①广清永高速铁路，规划为 350 km/h 高速铁路；②南永高速铁路(南宁东一永州)，规划为350 km/h高速铁路。
研究年度各条铁路的引人地区，相互影响、相互关联，对铁路地区线网分布及客站格局将产生重大影响。因此邵永铁路引人地区方案应综合考虑与其他铁路的相对关系，近远结合做好规划预留。
**_1.22_ 永州城市总体规划及客运需求**
1.2.1 永州城市总体规划
2030年永州中心城区规划人口125万人，建设用地控制在 135 km²以内。中心城区的总体规划结构为“一圈一带一轴三组团”。“一圈”指中心城区外围的高速公路圈；“一带”指湘江风光带；“一轴”
向西南贯穿地区，在高溪市站与永州站间与衡柳铁路共线；益湛铁路自北向南贯穿地区，并在永州站形成“十”字交叉地区总图格局Ⅱ。在衡柳铁路和湘桂铁路组成的湘桂通道中，形成了高溪市一永州段双线(衡柳铁路)，其他地段三线(衡柳铁路与湘桂铁路)的格局。永州铁路地区内共有11座车站，其中永州站为地区主要客运站，车站规模为5台面13线(含正线3条)，永州东站为技术作业站。永州铁路枢纽布局如图1所示。
永州铁路地区目前在建、拟建及规划铁路情况如下。
指永州大道城市发展轴；“三组团”指北部冷水滩组团、中部生态新城(滨江新城)组团、南部零陵组团。
依托零陵城区、冷水滩城区的发展基础，中心城区以南北相向发展、湘江东部联城为主要空间拓展方向，其他方向控制、优化和适度发展。重点发展湘江以东的中部生态新城(滨江新城)组团旧。通过对城市总体规划的分析解读，永州铁路地区新建客站应优先选择在中部生态新城(滨江新城)组团设站。永州城市总体规划图如图2所示。
_1.2.2_ 客运需求
研究年度(2020—2045年)内，永州铁路地区客流以通过列车为主，其中动车组列车又占多数。地区近、远期办理旅客列车总对数为158对/d、192对/d(含动车组列车121对/d、155对/d)，其中通过旅客列车对数分别为136 对 /d、162对/d(含动车组列车102对 /d、128对/d)，占总对数的86.07%和 84.37%。
邵永铁路旅客列车对数近、远期分别为90对/d、118对/d，始发终到列车近、远期分别为2对/d、3对/d，占总对数的2.22%，2.54%；邵永铁路邵阳至衡柳铁路(远期南永高速铁路)桂林方向车流近、远期分别为44对/d、52对/d，邵永铁路邵阳至广清永高速铁路广州方向车流近、远期分别为44 对/d、63对/d。
邵永铁路车流以通过列车为主，且分别与衡柳铁路、广清永高速铁路的交流量相当。邵永铁路引人永州铁路地区应重点研究与衡柳铁路、广清永高速铁路的衔接关系。
邵永铁路引入永州铁路地区方案研究魏 召
**图2 永州城市总体规划图**
**Fig.2Master Plan of Yong zhou city**
流和相关铁路建设时序，，引入既有站方案研究车场布置、联络线设置方案【4-5\]，③根据既有线能力、地区交流需求以及相关铁路建设时序对邵永铁路引人永州铁路地区方案进行综合比选。结合相关铁路的引人、既有站分布和城市总体规划，考虑发挥已建成投产项目效益【6-8\]，研究邵永铁路引人永州站方案(方案Ⅰ)和新建永州东站方案(方案Ⅱ)2个系列方案。弓人方案研究框架如图3所示。
**2 _2_ 邵永铁路引入永州铁路地区方案研究**
研究从以下3个层面展开：①结合相关铁路走向方案、既有站分布和城市总体规划，考虑发挥已建成投产项目效益，研究引人既有永州站和新建客站方案；②根据既有站车场分布和车站周边建筑物情况，结合地区交
**2.1 引入永州站方案(方案Ⅰ)**
根据既有站车场分布和车站周边建筑物情况，结合地区交流和相关线路建设时序，研究引人既有衡柳场方案(方案I-1)和新建高速场方案(方案I-2)。
2.1.1 引入既有衡柳场方案(方案1-1)
考虑充分利用既有衡柳场能力，结合相关铁路的规划建设时序及车站改造条件，研究先期引人衡柳场、预留接引高速场方案(方案I-1-1)和直接引入衡柳场方案(方案I-1-2)2个方案。
(1)先期引入衡柳场、预留接引高速场方案(方案I-1-1)。邵永铁路自地区西北侧引人，沿益湛铁路西侧向南引人永州站衡柳场。车站北咽喉需进行改造，站内湘桂及益湛正线向西改移，站房同
对全站进行拆改，改建衡柳铁路双线 4.15 km， 益湛单线 4.08 km，湘桂单线4.25 km， 对既有线运营干扰严重，施工难度大，研究后舍弃。
2.1.2亲新建高速场方案(方案I-2)
结合永州站两侧场地情况研究东侧新建高速场方案(方案I-2-1)和西侧新建高速场方案(方案I-2-2)。东侧新建高速场方案虽然高速场靠近城区，旅客乘降方便，但需要拆除还建既有站房，资源浪费；路内路外房屋拆迁量大，约3万m；侵占既有站前广场，协调困难，实施难度较大，研究后舍弃。重点研究西侧新建高速场方案。
结合既有衡柳铁路平纵断面条件和永州站布置形式，西侧新建高速场方案研究站前联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-1)、站后联络衡柳铁路方案(方
侧增加到发线1条。预留接引永州站西侧高速车场条件，待规划研究的广清永高速铁路建设时实施高速场并与邵永铁路贯通。方案I-1-1示意图如图4所示。该方案新建邵永铁路 23.3 km，广清永高速铁路51.224km，南永高速铁路 51.074km，联络线10.854 km， 改建既有线 1.8km。该方案新建线路短，充分利用永州站既有能力，近远结合较好，路网适应性强。。研究后纳入进一步比选。
(2)直接引入衡柳场方案(方案I-1-2)。线路引入永州站衡柳场与广清永高速铁路贯通，衡柳铁路改为外包邵永铁路，车场混场布置，共设9台面11线，预留南永高速铁路引人条件。益湛铁路及湘桂车场向西侧改移，兴永郴赣铁路并行益湛铁路西侧引入永州站，普速场规模合计2台面5线。方案I-1-2示意图如图5所示。该方案客运场靠近城区，旅客乘降方便，但车场混场布置，站内车流交叉严重，需要
**一桂林**
**诚**
图4 方案I-1-1示意图
Fig.4 Sketch map of I-1-1
图5 方案I-1-2示意图
Fig.5 Sketch map of I-1-2
案I-2-2-2)和分上下行联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-3)。
(1)站前联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-1)。邵永铁路自地区西北侧引人，沿益湛铁路西侧向南，在永州站西侧新设高速车场，设2台面4线，预留广清永高速铁路和南永高速铁路引人条件，高速场总规模6台面8线。车站北端设联络线引入衡柳场，湘桂、益湛铁路局部向西改移。方案I-2-2-1示意图如图6所示。该方案新建邵永铁路 29.923 km， 广清永高速铁路 44.601 km， 南永高速铁路 50.054km，站前联络线 10.854 km， 改建既有线 1.8km。
(2)站后联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-2)。邵永铁路自地区西北侧引人，沿益湛铁路西侧向南，
优缺点分析如表1所示。
综上分析，新建高速场方案推荐站前联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-1)。该方案近期利用既有衡柳场办理邵永铁路至南宁方向跨线旅客列车，旅客乘降方便，邵永铁路近期联络线最短，投资最小。
站前联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-1)与先期引入衡柳场、预留接引高速场方案(方案I-1-1)远期方案一致，主要区别为高速场的实施时机。邵永铁路始发终到列车数很少，主要是与衡柳铁路的交流，既有衡柳场能力满足邵永铁路近期作业需要。广清永高速铁路和南永高速铁路为规划研究线路，建设时机未定，邵永铁路若先期实施，则高速场利用率较低。研究后引人既有站方案推荐先期引
在永州站西侧新设高速车场，设2台面4线，南端设联络线衔接衡柳铁路，预留广清永高速铁路和南永高速铁路引人条件，高速场总规模6台面8线。方案I-2-2-2示意图如图7所示。该方案新建邵永铁路29.923 km， 广清永高速铁路 44.601 km， 南永高速铁路 48.967 km，站后联络线13.813 km。
(3)分上下行联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-3)。邵永铁路自地区西北侧引人，沿益湛铁路西侧向南，在永州站西侧新设高速车场，设2台面4线， 下行联络线引入衡柳场，上行联络线自车站南端引出，于衡柳铁路区间接轨，预留广清永高速铁路和南永高速铁路引人条件，高速场总规模6台面8线。方案I-2-2-3示意图如图8所示。该方案新建邵永铁路 29.923 km，广清永高速铁路 44.601 km， 南永高速铁路50.054km，下行联络线 5.437km，上行联络线 6.829 km。
(4)优缺点分析及推荐意见。引人永州站新建高速场方案
**一桂林**
**图6 方案I-2-2-1示意图**
**Fig.6 Sketch map of I-2-2-1**
**本桂林**
**物桂林**
**图7 方案1-2-2-2示意图**
**Fig.7 Sketch map of I-2-2-2**
**冬**
**图8 方案1-2-2-3示意图**
Fig.8 Sketch map of I-2-2-3
**表 引入永州站新建高速场方案优缺点分析**
**Tab.1 Analysis on the advantages and disadvantages of the scheme ofintroducing the new high-speed depot in Yongzhou Station**
| | 站前联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-1) | 站后联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-2) | 分上下行联络衡柳铁路方案(方案I-2-2-3) |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 邵永铁路双线段长度/km | 29.923 | 29.923 | 29.923 |
| 联络线单线长度 /km | 10.854 | 13.813 | 12.266 |
| 改建既有铁路单线长度/km | 1.8 | 0 | 0 |
| 邵永铁路工程投资/亿元 | 49.44 | 51.45 | 50.21 |
| 广清永高速铁路双线段长度/km | 44.601 | 44.601 | 44.601 |
| 南永高速铁路双线段长度/km | 51.074 | 48.967 | 50.054 |
| 总投资/亿元 | 178.60 | 177.76 | 177.99 |
| 旅客进出站便捷性 | 邵阳至桂林方向旅客列车在衡柳场办理，靠近城区，旅客进出站方便 | 高速铁路客运作业集中在西侧新建场，远离城区，旅客进出站走行距离较远 | 近期下行客车在衡柳场作业， 旅客进出站方便；上行客车 在新建场办理，旅客进出站走行距离较远 |
| 站内组织及管理 | 高速铁路客运作业主要集中在衡柳场，便于集中管理，旅客流线清晰 | 高速铁路客运作业集中在新建场，便于集中管理，旅客流线清晰 | 高速铁路客运作业分散在衡柳场和新建场，作业分散，旅客流线较混乱 |
| 对既有线影响 | 引起益湛、湘桂正线向西侧改造，7对既有线运营有一定干扰 | 联络线区间接轨，对既有线运营干扰小 | 分上下行联络线接人衡柳铁路，既有线改建工程较少，对既有线影响较小 |
| 施工难度 | 车站北端立交关系复杂，施工有一定难度 | 车站南端立交关系复杂，施工难度较大 | 立交关系简单，施工难度较小 |
| 工程投资 | 邵永铁路新建高速场，联络线最短，邵永铁路投资最小；远期总工程投资略高 | 邵永铁路新建高速场，联络线最长，工程投资最高；远期总工程投资最小 | 邵永铁路新建高速场，联络线较长，工程投资较高；远期总工程投资较小 |
人衡柳场、预留接引高速场方案纳入进一步比选。
_2.2_ 新建永州东站方案(方案Ⅱ)
速铁路 52.051 km， 南永高速铁路 56.204 km，联络线 10.258 km 。该方案新建线路短，投资最小，充
研究先期引人既有站、预留接引永州东站方案(方案I-1)及直接引人永州东站方案(方案I-2)2个方案。
2.2.1 先期引入既有站、预留接引永州东站方案(方案
**清州**
**【一11**
邵永铁路经联络线利用衡柳铁路引入永州站，永州站增设到发线1条。预留正线引人永州东站条件，线路所至永州东站部分线路工程与广清永高速铁路同步实施，广清永车场规模6台面8线，预留南永高速铁路引人条件。方案Ⅱ-1示意图如图9所示。新建线路邵永铁路 22.8 km，广清永高
**一拆除线路及设备**
图9 方案Ⅱ-1示意图
Fig.9Sketch map ofII-1
邵永铁路引入永州铁路地区方案研究魏 召
分利用永州站既有能力。研究后纳入进一步比选。
_2.2.2_ 直接引入永州东站方案(方案Ⅱ-2)
邵永铁路自地区东北侧引入，向南跨越衡柳铁路、二广高速和湘江后，在中部滨江新区东侧设永州东站，预留广清永高速铁路和南永高速铁路引人条件。永州东站本工程设2台面4线，广清永高速铁路引人后车站规模为6台面8线。邵永铁路经联络线利用衡柳铁路引人永州站，永州站增设到发线1条。方案Ⅱ-2示意图如图10所示。新建线路邵永铁路 42.704 km，广清永高速
**_妙_**
图10 方案Ⅱ-2示意图
**Fig.10Sketch map of II-2**
铁路 32.147 km， 南永高速铁路 56.204 km， 联络线 10.258 km。该方案新建线路长，投资高。如果广清永高速铁路建设时机滞后，永州东站将成为尽头站，邵永铁路始发终到列车很少，利用率极低，研究后舍弃。
**_2.3_ 方案比选**
2.3.1 方案优缺点分析
从线路长度、工程投资、客站格局、城市总体规划等角度比较人选的2个方案，邵永铁路引人永州铁路地区方案优缺点分析如表2所示。
**表2 邵永铁路引入永州铁路地区方案优缺点分析**
**Tab.2 Analysis on the advantages and disadvantages of the scheme of introducing Shaoyong Railway into Yongzhou area**
| | 先期引人衡柳场、预留接引高速场方案(方案I-1-1) | 先期引人既有站、预留接引永州东站方案(方案II-1) |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 邵永铁路双线段长度/km | 23.3 | 22.8 |
| 联络线单线长度/km | 10.854 | 10.258 |
| 改建既有铁路单线长度/km | 1.8 | 0 |
| 邵永铁路工程投资/亿元 | 40.50 | 38.99 |
| 广清永高速铁路双线段长度/km | 51.224 | 52.051 |
| 南永高速铁路双线段长度/km | 51.074 | 56.204 |
| 总工程投资/亿元 | 178.60 | 185.13 |
| 客站格局 | “一站”客运格局，管理方便。充分利用既有客运设施，客运作业集中，管理方便 | 形成地区“两站”客运格局，客运设施分散，增加运营管理成本 |
| 城市总体规划 | 客站位于老城区西北侧，对城市规划新区发展不能起到有效促进引导作用 | 车站设于城市规划重点发展区域，可以带动城市发展 |
| 市政配套及出行便捷性 | 既有站临靠老城区，市政配套齐全。主城区旅客出行方便；普速、城际、高速铁路各线客流换乘方便 | 车站位于规划发展区，周边需要新增市政配套设施；老城区旅客出行距离增加；普速、城际、高速铁路客流之间换乘不便 |
| 对既有线影响 | 直接引人既有站，施工期间对既有站运营有一定干扰。“一站”客运格局，后期若再新增线路，地区引人灵活性较差 | 联络线区间接轨，对既有线运营干扰较小。两站客运格局，高普分站而设，若再新增线路，地区引人灵活 |
| 工程投资 | 邵永铁路近期新建线路长，投资略高；远期南永高速铁路短，总投资较低 | 邵永铁路近期新建线路短，总投资略低；远期南永高速铁路长，总投资较高 |
综上分析，研究推荐先期引入衡柳场、预留新建高速场方案(方案I-1-1)，该方案采用地区“一站”客运格局，充分利用既有客运设施，客运作业集中、管理方便，高、普速客流换乘方便?，临靠老城区，市政配套齐全；各条线路总长度短，投资低。该方案预留西侧高速场及广清永高速铁路和南永高速铁路引人条件，高速场与广清永高速铁路建设同步实施，地区客运作业集中在永州站办理。
根据客流预测及地区旅客列车开行方案，永州站办理近、远期普速列车始发终到作
**一拆除线路及设备**
图11 推荐方案永州铁路地区总图格局
**Fig.11CGeneral layout of the Yongzhou railway area of the recommended scheme**
业3对/d、3对/d，通过列车34对/d、34对/d；办理动车组始发终到列车近、远期11对/d、13对/d，通过列车58对 /d、13对/d。永州站规模为6台面14线(拟建兴永郴赣铁路引人后共有7个站台面)，经检算车站能力满足需求。预留新建高速场近、远期办理动车组列车始泼终到作业8对/d、14对/d，通过列车44对/d、115对/d，高速场规模为6台面8线，经检算车站能力满足需求11，10\]
_2.3.2_ 引入后地区总图格局
按照推荐接轨方案，永州铁路地区将规划形成衔接邵阳、广州、衡阳、桂林、靖州、郴州、贺州7个方向，益湛、湘桂、衡柳、兴永郴赣铁路，邵永、广清永、南永7条干线铁路的“米”字型格局，普速铁路在永州北站“水”字交叉，高速铁路在永州站“人”字交叉的总图格局。推荐方案永州铁路地区总图格局如图11所示。
(1)客运系统。客运系统为永州站“一站”客运格局，办理地区内的益湛铁路、湘桂铁路，兴永郴赣、衡柳、邵永、广清永高速铁璐等全部旅客列车的始发终到及通过作业。
(2)解编系统。湘桂三线扩能改造完成后，永州北站为地区内技术作业站。永州北站按一级二场规模新建区段站，承担地区内所有货物列车的技术
作业。
(3)货运系统。永州北站为二级铁路物流基地，地区内货运作业集中在永州北站办理；滩头湾站和永州南站为专用线接轨站。规划永州站动车存车场高速铁路物流设施。
**3结束语**
邵永铁路是国家“八纵八横”高速铁路主通道之呼南通道的重要组成部分，同时也是京港澳通道的辅助通道，在路网中具有重要作用。邵永铁路引入永州铁路地区方案通过结合线路功能定位，统筹考虑既有铁路概况和铁路规划，推荐引入既有永州站充分利用既有铁路实施设备，可以发挥衡柳铁路的能力富余，同时综合考虑了其他铁路引人和建设时机并预留了引人条件。研究所得结论对永州铁路地区总图规划、国土空间规划和相关铁路引人方案研究具有一定的指导意义，同时对于类似规模的地区研究多条铁路线路引人的情况有一定的借鉴参考作用。
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\[5\]张小虎.潍新高速铁路引人新沂铁路地区方案研究\[J\].铁道运输与经济，2020，42(5)：65-70. **ZHANG Xiaohu. A Study on the Scheme of Introducing** **Weifang-Xinyi High-Speed Railway into Xinyi Railway** **Area\[J\]. Railway Transport and Economy， 2020，42(5)：65-70.**
\[6\]李鹏斌.包海通道西渝高速铁路引人安康铁路枢纽方案研 **究\[\].铁道运输与经济，2018，40(4)：85-89，** **LI Pengbin. A Study on the Scheme of Xi’an to Chongqing** **High-Speed Railway in Baotou to Haikou Channel tc**
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\[7\]刘建光.张吉怀铁路引人怀化铁路枢纽方案研究\[J\].铁道运输与经济，2016，38(9)：61-65. **LIU Jianguang. Research on Plan for Introduction of** **Zhangjiajie-Jishou-Huaihua Railway into Huaihua Railway** **Hub\[J\]. Railway Transport and Economy， 2016，38(9)：61-65.**
\[8\]贾存成.新建兰合铁路引人兰州铁路枢纽接轨方案研究\[J\].铁道运输与经济，2019， 41(9)：46-52. **JIA Cuncheng. Study on the Program of Linking Lanzhou-Hezuo Line to Lanzhou Railway Terminal\[J\].Railway** **Transport and Economy， 2019，41(9)：46-52.**
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收稿日期月： **2021-01-05**
基金项目 中铁工程设计咨询集团有限公司科技研究开发计划课题(研2020-2)
贵任编辑：魏然
**YANG Yaohua. A Study on the Plans of Linking Laixi-Rongcheng Railway with Weihai Railway Area\[J\].Railway** **Transport and Economy， 2020， 42(6)：71-75.**
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收稿日期 **2020-11-26**
月基金项目引中铁第一勘察设计院集团有限公司科研项目(院科19-05)
贵任编辑：魏然 | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 企业税收筹划面临的问题及对策
**常州国瑞税务师事务所有限公司徐旭琴**
**摘要：税收筹划是企业寻求利益降低税负的必然行为，也是企业的合法权利，有利于国家利益和企业利益的提升，它是市场经济的产物，贯穿于企业经营活动的各个环节。企业做好纳税筹划是企业财务管理的重要工作，也是值得财务人员进行深入学习。本文立足于此，探讨相关的内容，希望能够对企业有所帮助。**
**关键词：企业税收筹划问题对策必要性**
中图分类号：F810.424 文献标识码：A 文章编号：2096-0298(2015)10(b)-130-03
**税收筹划是企业的合法经济行为，企业在研究税法政策后在现行的税收环境中及合法的前提下，对自身的经营、投资、融资等行为进行规划和安排，达到降低税负的目的。它是市场经济的必然产物，是国家允许和鼓励的行为，随着我国税制改革的深入和经济的发展，企业越来越需要提升自身的管理水平，而开展税收筹划也是非常必要的管理措施，企业要深刻理解税法，降低纳税风险学习相关的政策，结合自身业务，做好税收筹划。**
**1企业进行税收筹划的意义**
**1.1企业进行税收筹划是获取税收利益以降低税负的重要措施**
**企业经营的目标在于利润最大化，作为独立的核算主体，企业需要自负盈亏，需要提升自身的经济效益，减少成本费用。随着市场经济的竞争不断增大，现代企业的经营压力不断提升，企业需要不断降低产品的成本以提升其市场**
4结语
**总之，名牌战略是一项宏伟的系统工程，是社会的事业，需要企业政府、广大消费者长期共同努力，不断创新工作方式真正形成企业自主、政府主导、社会推动"的名牌建设工作局面，成功创建昆明区域品牌，打造昆明城市品牌"和品牌昆明”增强城市的吸引力和凝聚力，实现名牌对企业和地方经济的引领和推动作用。**
**参考文献**
\[1\]王健，张克，初宁城市名牌战略管理模式研究汇\]战
**竞争的优势，而税收优惠可以通过合理利用现有的税收政策，降低企业的整体税负，通过这些降低的税负转移到产品的成本费用中，从而降低产品整体的运营成本提升企业的利润。同时，企业的税收筹划也可以筹划税收缴纳的时间，通过延迟缴纳税收的行为，获得资金的时间价值，提升企业的现金流和效益。**
**1.2企业进行纳税筹划是提升企业纳税意识和管理能力的重要措施**
企业要进行纳税筹划必须提升企业的财务人员水平，通过聘用一些经验丰富的财务人员或者加强内部的培训，这样才能够做好税收筹划，同时内部的各个运营和管理也需要与财务部门进行配合。而通过这种方式，企业的财务管理水平也将提升，为了做好税收筹划，企业的财务人员需要了解相关的税收政策，反思自己的税收工作这样可以提升税收意识而且纳税筹划本身也是合法的，需要自身的财务信息真实，账目核算规范，因此这样子都可以提升企业的管
略研究，2008(5).
\[2\]石薛桥.地方政府与区域名牌战略門\]山西省高等学校社会科学学报，2004，16(8).
\[3\]赵!.云南绿色区域经济优势与名牌发展战略\[\]国土与自然资源研究，2003(4).
\[4\]王文静.昆明市区域经济差异研究\].中国经贸导 **刊，2010(16).**
**理能力和纳税意识。**
**1.3企业进行纳税筹划有利于国家经济结构调整政策的实施**
**企业要进行纳税筹划必须熟悉了解并充分利用好国家的税收政策利用各地的税收优惠，而国家在制定税收政策的时候是结合经济发展的需要，有意识的通过税收优惠等方式，引导企业加大技术研发、投资新兴产业等，为了更好的运用税收政策，提升企业的纳税筹划深度，企业必然需要对其生产经营进行调整。这样的调整符合企业的利益，也有利于国家政策和意图的实现，达到国家宏观调控的目的。同时，企业在税收筹划后提升自身的利润水平，通过产业的调整实现业务的整合和利润的提升这样最终也是有利于国家的税收和经济结构的调整，因此税收筹划可以实现企业利益和国家利益的统一。**
2企业进行税收筹划面临的问题
**2..11企业对税收筹划的重视程度不足，对税收筹划理解存在偏差**
**很多企业高层管理者对税收筹划的认识不到位认为税收筹划就是避税，利用国家税法的漏洞或者擦边球为企业谋取利益，对税收筹划重视程度不够，很多企业认为税收成本不足以成为影响企业决策的因素，没有在企业决策的环节就开始考虑税收的成本。因此企业的税收筹划就是根据既成业务进行筹划，筹划的空间不足，企业的税收筹划变成主要是利用税收的优惠和折扣进行筹划，很多企业的管理层也不认为税收筹划是企业的正当权利，影响了税收筹划的发挥。**
2.2财务基础工作不扎实，税收筹划手段较落后
**随着营改增的不断深入，企业的税收筹划越来越需要原始凭证和票据的支持，对于增值税这种流转税，企业税负的高低受流转环节中的发票齐全及规范所影响，很多企业基础性工作不到位发票管理意识不强其他部门的合作意识也不够，在客户选择、合同签署、票据获取和业务开拓上没有为税收筹划留足空间。一些企业的税收筹划手段和方式较为落后没有在内部建立起运行有效的财务管理机制和平台，财务管理工作者无法获取必要的数据影响了税收筹划的效率。**
**2.3忽视税收筹划的成本，不能衡量综合税负水平**
**税收筹划也是有成本的要做好成本效益分析，不能什么税种都筹划，而且在筹划的时候要有整体性。企业进行税收筹划面临着不仅仅是因税收筹划而发生的培训、咨询等经济和时间的费用，还包括放弃其他方案的潜在成本等，一些企业没有进行综合的考虑，造成了企业的税收成本效益不明显。有些企业的税收筹划没有重点突出，在做好一些税种的筹划同时也提升了其他税种的税负，造成企业整体税负的提升这种都是不可取的。**
2.4税务代理机构不足，人才相对缺芝
**很多企业在税收筹划的时候会选择与外部的机构进行合作，但是目前我国的税收代理机构主要是集中于如何进行报税，如何遵守税收条款等，主要是咨询为主，在税收筹划上的机构较少。很多税务代理机构的人员素质不高，专业能力不强，也没有跟进学习国家最新的税法规定和各地的税收优惠等影响了税收筹划中企业机构的市场意愿。总体而言，我国的税务代理机构的服务水平不够业务层次较低，同时人员水平也需要提升。**
3企业加强税收筹划的对策
**3.1企业和政府应重视税收筹划事项，正确认识税收筹划**
**对于企业而言，税收筹划是其正当的权利，企业应当利用好税收筹划降低企业的整体成本，提升企业的内部管理水平加强对税务工作的规划，对企业的税收筹划进行正确的定位，确保企业的税收筹划可以得到真正的重视。企业要对税收筹划的意义有深刻的理解。重视税收筹划在整体经营决策中的作用和意义。在企业经营决策中，一方面要保证正常的经营得到顺利的实施，另外一方面要充分利用好国家的税收政策，对业务经营中的相关环节进行适当的调整，减少企业的整体税负，企业高层管理人员和财务人员要正确认识税收筹划，将税收成本纳入企业管理的战略决策。对于政府而言，各地税务局要深刻认识到企业税收筹划的合理性及其对国家长远发展的好处积极适应市场经济的变化，不能一味的为了提升自身的短期税源，滥用权力，修正规定以减少企业税收筹划的空间。在日常企业的沟通和交流中也要引导企业进行税收筹划，利用国家的政策进行业务的调整和产业结构的升级促进经济的长期可持续发**
展，促进地方经济的升级。
3.2密切关注税法的变化和税收优惠的内容，掌握相关的知识
**企业要进行纳税筹划就需要对国家的税法和各地的税收规定进行认真的学习，认识到税收筹划和避税的差异，积极思考和沟通国家及地方税法、税收规定的立法本意，自觉维护税法的严肃性，结合立法本意和自身的业务特点进行税收的筹划，减少违规的可能性。目前我国的税制改革不断深入，未来税法的变化也更加频繁，企业需要通过多渠道获取相关的税法规定，收集与企业经营相关及与未来可能涉入领域的相关税法，并加强与税务机关的沟通交流，及时了解税法和税收规定的变化，探讨企业可能的税收筹划空间和方法，灵活运用税法及其规定，做好税收筹划。企业在掌握税法及其规定的内容时要结合自身的业务考虑影响税基的因素，利用不同纳税主体及不同地区的税收优惠进行筹划，及时调整业务经营模式和产品结构，提升税收筹划的空间。**
3.3设置专门的税务会计，聘请专业的税务筹划人员，建立信息平台
**企业要转变税收筹划的模式，由被动式筹划变成主动式筹划，积极思考税收筹划的方法。要加强主动式的税收筹划，企业需要有相关的人才，并加强行业内的交流，与中介机构进行合作，建立起信息化平台，规范财务信息，提升票据管理的齐备性和规范性。为了做好这方面工作，企业首先要设置相应的税务会计岗位，该岗位主要是确认计量相关的收入、成本核算税收金额，编制纳税申报表，同时做好税收的筹划，对未来的税金进行预测，降低企业的实际税负。很多企业没有专职的税收会计，在考虑成本和效益的前提下，企业可以考虑设置相关的专职人员，聘请熟悉外部法律环境、税法和税收规定、具有扎实的会计功底的人员。其次企业要加强与外界的沟通交流，企业可以加强与中介机构的联系聘请专业的纳税筹划师，通过其专业的筹划，运用好税收优惠等，同时企业要加强与行业的交流充分运用行业的优秀案例进行学习，熟悉税收筹划的筹划点和重点，加强与税务机关的沟通，避免在理解税法和税收规定中出现误区。国家也要积极推动专业的税收筹划中介机构和专业人才的成长。同时企业要建立起完善的财务信息平台和**
**运营平台，让税收筹划人员可以及时获取必要的财务数据和经营数据，及时制定税收筹划策略。**
**3.4进行成本效益分析，牢固树立风险意识，加强部门协作**
**企业的税收筹划也不能一味为了税收筹划而损害企业的整体利益，企业需要综合考虑税收筹划相关的显性成本、隐性成本，结合企业的战略部署，做好税收筹划，不能为了税收筹划而让企业失去发展的机会。企业在税收筹划的时候也需要重点突出主要围绕着如何降低税基和税率两个指标，而不能沉迷于一些太过细致的内容，从而分散企业的精力。企业在税收筹划享受收益的同时要控制税收的风险，通过完善自身的内部控制系统，做好正确申报和及时纳税，及时收集税法的变化避免因为税收筹划而带来风险，及时发现存在的可能风险，提升税收筹划的安全性。同时部门之间的良好协作也是企业税收筹划成功的基础。企业要宣传税收筹划的意义，提升其他部门对财务部门的支持，税收筹划本身也是对成本费用的筹划，各个部门都是成本费用的承担者，需要对财务部门的工作进行支持。部门也要做好票据的保管和收集，及时上交财务部门，特别是增值税的票据，企业的业务部门、合同审定部门等都需要对此有前期的把控避免增值税专用发票无法获得，企业也无法进行进项税的抵扣导致企业的税负增加，任何部门都要意识到自身也是税收筹划环节的参与者要积极配合财务部门的工作，按照规章制度做好自身的工作，加强部门的协作，提升税收筹划的效率。**
**企业纳税筹划是提升企业管理水平和纳税意识的重要措施，也是实现国家宏观调控的一个引导方式，实施良好的税收筹划有利于实现企业利益和国家利益的统一，目前我国企业的纳税筹划还存在一些问题针对以上问题笔者提出了一些措施，希望能够对企业有所帮助。**
**参考文献**
\[1\]蔡安英.论中小企业税务筹划\[\].市场研究，2015(04).
\[2\]程相芝.小微企业税收筹划问题研究|\].商场现代化，2015(07).
\[3\]谭宗林.浅谈我国税收筹划法律环境存在的主要问题及完善|\].法制与经济(下旬)，2014(05). | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 文章编号：1672-2795 (2007) 01-0027-04
李
伟
从崇尚王羲之书法看太宗朝文化渊源和审美理想
摘要：初唐时期的书法界渗透着王羲之书风的深刻影响，此种风尚的发展起源于南朝特别是萧梁时期文化的转变。由此可见，从历史的纵向角度，唐代与南朝萧梁有着密切的文化渊源关系。同时，这种崇尚王羲之书法的背后体现着唐太宗以典雅中正的审美观念改革南朝尚丽美学的内在要求。
关键词：王羲之；萧梁；典雅中正
中图分类号： J292.1 文献标识码：：A
On Cultural Origin and Aesthetics in the Tang Dynasty from Advocating Wang Xizhi’s Calligraphy
LIWei
Abstract： Wang Xizhi's calligraphic style has a profound influence on calligraphy cireles of early Tang dynasty， which originated from a cultural change of Southern dynasties especially the Liang dynasty. From the vertical viewpoint of history， there is close cultural relationship between the Tang and Liang dynasties. Meanwhile， advocating Wang Xizhi’s calligraphy reflects Emperor Taizong’s pursuit of graceful and neutral aesthetics in the Tang dynasty rather than the magnificent aesthetics of Northern dynasties.
Key words： Wang Xizhi； the Liang dynasty； graceful and neutral
“书圣”王羲之在唐太宗时期曾受到书法艺术界的普遍推崇。唐太宗御撰《晋书·王羲之传》，把王羲之视为理想书风的代表。前人对此现象从书法艺术史的角度进行了深人的研究，并能从中见出当时的审美风尚，体现了跨学科门类横向研究的开阔视野。但这也说明了较少从纵向发展的线索发掘崇尚王羲之书风的渊源。同时已有成果中存在着一些对王羲之书风代表的审美风尚的误解，这就影响了对太宗审美理想的判断。本文拟针对这两个问题进行探讨，以加深这方面的理解。
初唐时期，书法艺术界被东晋王羲之的传统书风所笼罩，不仅由南人北的大书法家欧阳询、虞世南等在创作上直接受到王羲之的影响，更为重要的是唐太宗从理论上不遗余力地大加推崇王羲之的书法，其提倡之功必然会对当时书法界学习王羲之的风气产生积极的推动作用。在这样的时代背景下，唐太宗于《晋书·王羲之传》以“传论”的方式赞誉王羲之的书法：“详察古今，研精篆素，尽善尽美，其惟王逸少乎?观其点曳之工，裁成之妙，烟霏露结，状若断而还连；凤泰龙蟠，势如斜而反
收稿日期：2006-10-12
作者简介：李伟(1982一)，男，山东充州人，陕西师范大学文学院古代文学唐宋方向硕士研究生。(西安
710062)
直，玩之不觉其倦，览之莫识其端，心慕手追，此人而已。其余区区之类，何足论哉!”：这一评价把王羲之的书法推到了至高的位置，更奠定了后世对王羲之的总体认识。
唐太宗的这种理解并非来得突兀，而是有着深远的历史渊源。对其的追溯必须从当时的书法史的大背景中去寻找。魏晋南北朝是我国古代书法艺术取得突飞猛进的时期，产生了一大批享誉书法史的大书法家，他们的书法成为后世书家取法描摹、心慕手追的对象，其中以王羲之、王献之父子最为著名，对后来者的影响也更大。虽然王氏父子出现的时代较为接近，但是他们代表的书法风格和对后世产生的影响却有很大的不同。王献之的书法产生之后，即在南朝宋齐得到大多数书家的推崇，形成“比世皆高尚子敬”的局面，成为当时的主流书风。像晋宋时期的羊欣和邱道护，刘宋时的谢灵运、范晔等当世书法名家都是王献之书法的传人，甚至于文化建设颇有建树的宋文帝刘义隆在书法上也“规模子敬”，其中尤以羊欣最为著名，时有“买王得羊，不失所望”之谚，羊欣摹习王献之书法的近似程度由此可见一斑，这也反映了时人受到王献之影响之大。
这种书法界重视王献之的风气到了南朝萧梁时期才得以扭转。梁武帝是促成此一转变的关键人物。作为南朝时期在文化上最具修养的帝王，萧衍提倡复古之风，其初衷并非以王羲之反对王献之的书风，而是主张师法曹魏书法大家钟繇。但是由于当时距离钟繇所处的时代已远，作品存留无多，因此学习钟书在当时是有心无力，难以推广。这时只能退而求其次，那就是学习王羲之的书法，且此时其书迹尚多。因此当时的名家都以王羲之为取法对象。《颜氏家训·杂艺》：“梁氏秘阁散逸以来，吾见二王真草多矣，家中尝得十卷，方知陶隐居、阮交州、萧祭酒诸书，莫不得羲之之体。故是书之渊源，萧晚节所变，乃是右军少时法也。”2根据颜之推的描述，陶弘景、阮研等萧梁书家的风格与王羲之之体相似，而萧子云“晚节所变”也为右军早年的书法风格。大同年间的周兴奉梁武帝编撰的《千字文》，其中负责抄写的殷铁石以羲之之体书之，此书后被梁武帝分赐诸王，在当时上流阶层造成很大的影响，王羲之之书也因此流行开来。这种《千字文》到陈朝时已在民间流传，而且当时的书家智
永以弘扬王羲之书法为己任，可见原来在上层流传的王羲之书风此时已深人民间。
这种崇尚王羲之之风不仅在南方兴起传播，而且也随南北文化交流日盛而影响到北方风气。当然，北方对王羲之书法的学习有一个由浅人深的过程。北魏后期时，王羲之《小学篇》就已传入北方。《魏书·任城王传附元顺》：“顺，字子和，九岁事师乐安陈丰，初学王羲之《小学篇》数千言，昼夜诵之，旬有五日，一皆通彻。”可见元顺所学《小学篇》是以王羲之字体写就，这也和北魏实行汉化政策后于文化方面取法南朝的大趋势相一致。而要说北方大规模接受南朝文化的标志性事件，那就是西魏末年南方大书法家王褒人关。《周书·王褒传》：“褒识量渊通，志怀沉静。美风仪，善谈笑，博览史传，尤工属文。梁国子祭酒萧子云，褒之姑父也，特善草隶。褒少以姻戚，去来其家，遂相模范。俄而名亚子云，并见重于世。”可见王褒书法源自萧子云，而据《颜氏家训·杂艺》的记载，萧子云的书法源自王羲之少年之体。那么王褒的书法必然会受到王羲之书风的影响。而且王褒也属琅琊王氏之后，和王羲之同属一门，渊源一脉，在人关之时曾携带世代相传的王家书迹北来，其中唐代武周时由王褒曾孙进献的王羲之作品《万岁通天帖》，就是王褒所携之物。最为重要的是，王褒的到来引起了北朝书风的彻底转变，正如庾信的到来之于北朝文学的作用一样。《周书·赵文深传》：
：
“及平江陵之后，王褒人关，贵游等翁然并学褒书。”这正说明南朝文学艺术的发展水平远高于北方，因此南方文士的到来促进了南学北渐的过程，加速南北文化的交融。
当时北周学习王褒书法的贵族中就有唐太宗的父亲李渊。唐朝窦蒙《述书赋注》：“高祖(李渊)师王褒得其妙，故有梁朝风格焉。”\[31不仅李渊之书师法王褒，而且据《旧唐书·后妃传上》载：“高祖太穆皇后窦氏”，，“善书，学类高祖之书，人不能辨。”\[4\]可见唐太宗父母的书风都属王褒遗脉，这必定也对太宗的书法审美趋向产生深刻的影响
通过对南朝萧梁到初唐太宗书法史的简单勾勒，我们可以清晰地看到正是由最初弃王献之而慕钟繇，进而学习王羲之，最终确定以王羲之为主流书风的演变历程，贯穿其中的是对王羲之的推崇由自发自为到自觉学习。随着这种认识的逐步加深，唐太宗对王羲之近乎痴迷的崇尚也就成为书法史发展的必然结果。由此我们可以看到两点艺术发展的规律。首先是通常所讲的“复古”并非简单的学习古
人，更不是泥古，而是斟酌古今、扬弃并举的辩证过程。梁武帝最初欲以钟繇古法改变王献之的妍媚“今体”，但是在当时崇尚文采的意识深入人心且于文化艺术有所裨益的情况下，完全抛弃“今体”成就中的审美因子而回到钟繇代表的古朴鄙质的汉隶古意，明显是抱残守缺的泥古败举。所以推崇王羲之所代表的文质彬彬、耀文含质的书风，既能达到梁武帝的变革“今体”的复古初衷，也能吸收当时已经充分发展的“今体”书风中的审美特色，传统与当代的结合必然指示的是未来书法文化发展的正确道路，唐代书法的兴盛正是这种发展观催生出的优秀成果。其次魏徵在《隋书·文学传序》所言之南北文化交融问题并非是两种地域文化的简单相加，具体到实践层面则是一个复杂漫长的历程，其中北方文化要想取得进步，必要经历学习模仿南方先进文化的过程，在这种学习之中逐步渗透进北方文化的可取因素以变革之，最后才能达到南北文化的交融。因此在政治家那种宏观视野观照下的问题往往显得粗略，而艺术家对此的实践则要复杂艰难得多。
唐代书法艺术的发展过程正是在首先学习南朝书法的基础上进行的，最后还是初唐时期欧阳询、虞世南等南方书家在接受南朝艺术的熏陶下开始探索将北朝险劲质朴的汉碑书风融人正羲之的书法，使之更具骨力，超越前代而结出了初唐书法的硕果，并深刻影响了后来如褚遂良、薛稷等书法家。可见初唐的文化艺术是从南朝的文化传统中走出的，而其中梁武帝时期文化的审美趋向对初唐的影响更是不可忽视。因此我们有理由说，在文学艺术领域，南朝特别是梁武帝时期的文化建设是初唐文化的一个极为重要的渊源。
关于对王羲之书法的崇尚之风代表的是何种审美理想，有一些认识的误区，其中代表性的观点认为这是推崇南方文化的鲜明体现，甚至有的学者在分析唐太宗时期文化中的南方文化审美特征时，都会以对王羲之书法的崇尚作为重要的论据。其实这其中隐含着一个理解的前提，那就是对“南方文化”内涵的认识问题。换言之，就是看待“南方文化”的角度，对此问题的不同理解将会影响到判断王羲之书风与“南方文化”的关系。如果仅从出现的地域方面考虑，东晋时的王羲之及其书法显然可以归到“南方文化”的范畴，这也是大多数人分析此问题的基本思路。
相对于这种较为简单表面化的认识，美学意义上的“南方文化”则一直为人所忽视，而从这一角度再来分析王羲之书法与“南方文化”的关系，我们可以有一个更为深刻的认识。魏晋南北朝的书法艺术对我国书法史最明显的贡献是日趋妍媚的“今体”书法占据了主流书风，得到当时多数书家的认同，并体现于很多书家的创作实践中。这种“今体”书风是相对于“汉隶古意”而言的。刘师培《中国美术学变迁论》的“南派疏放妍妙，行草之体盛行，羊、刘、萧、王，师法羲、献，姿态既逞，隶意日泯”51说的就是这种情况。就书法家推动书风发展来说，以“今体”人古意的书法家是王羲之，而对这种风尚推波助澜并向妍媚之风更进一步的是王献之，因此王氏父子的书法是变革汉法、趋向“今体”的标志。这种变化趋势并非是孤立地出现的，而是有其深刻的审美文化背景，美学意义中的“南方文化”正是其核心概念。
在当时的各种文学艺术创作领域，都出现了质朴之气渐隐、尚丽之风日盛的美学转变趋势。以诗歌为例，承接东晋质木无文、淡乎寡味的“玄言诗”之后，南朝开启了中古诗歌的新变，即清代诗论家沈德潜所言之“性情渐隐，声色大开”的“诗运转关”61。这时的诗歌大家多崇尚文字的华美、色彩的鲜艳和结构篇章的精心组织，而在情感表达和言志抒情方面开拓无多。像著名的山水诗人谢灵运就是其中的代表，他的诗歌讲究铺排意象，用心于文采的华丽和词句的对偶，描写山水景物时采取的视角多为“移步换景”式的逐个取景，在这种细致的观察中力图全面地把所观之景反映到作品中，因此谢灵运笔下的山水景致近似我国古代绘画中的“工笔画”，他的创作方法也是以穷形尽相的“赋”法为主，而缺乏比兴寄托和情感体悟，这当然是山水诗歌发展之初艺术经验逐步完善过程中的必要环节，但也对当时乃至后来的诗风产生深刻的影响，沿着这条道路踵事增华、变本加厉，最后是情感更为浮靡纤弱，文采却更见华丽的宫体诗。对这段诗史，刘勰在《文心雕龙·明诗》中曰：“俪采百字之偶，争价一句之奇，情必极貌以写物，辞必穷力而追新，此近世之所竟也。”71《定势篇》则具体论述
道：“自近代辞人，率好诡巧，原其为体，讹势所变，厌默旧式，故穿凿取新，察其讹意，似难而实无他术也，反正而已。故文反正为乏，辞反正为奇。效奇之法，必颠倒文句，上字而抑下，中辞而出外，回互不常，则新色耳。”\[8\]可见南朝诗歌沉浸在崇尚俪采之风中，只是在文字的安排和句法的运用中求得点滴的创新，风气之末流近乎文字游戏，而把抒情言志的优良传统弃之不顾，美学意义上的“南方文化”即是指这种弃骨面尚丽之风。
此风蔓延所及，书法亦有是趋势。曹魏书法家钟繇继承的汉魏古隶在书法界日渐式微，为更具审美性的“今体”书风所取代。王羲之将隶书的平板质朴推进到具有欹侧之态，化字势的横张为纵敛修长，体态更趋匀称整饬，融隶书骨力于妍巧之形，尤其是王羲之的正楷，既得钟繇之神，又将笔势、笔意推向内敛，因此其楷书的端庄精致具有形巧势纵的境界。这点深得唐太宗的赞许。可见王羲之的书法集前辈各家之长而去其所短，成为书法史上承前启后的里程碑。但是王献之相比于王羲之，则在新妍的方面更进一步，这就造成其书法骨力的某些弱化，因此有“骨势不及父而媚趣过之”的说法。于是王献之的书法给人以逸气纵横、超凡洒脱之感，与王羲之的将法度和超越两相结合还是有区别的。沈尹默先生曾指出，笔法方面，大王主要是内压，小王是外拓，内压重骨力，外拓重风采。因此王羲之趋古，王献之尚新，这两种审美趋向构成了中国古代书法不同特质的重要分野，而这与南北文化的美学意蕴差别一致。地域之南北古已有之，但审美文化的南北差异则要根据艺术发展的过程来分析。而且相比于政治的分裂，书法美学的南北之分并非同步进行，而是要更晚一些。对这点，刘师培在《中国美术学变迁论》中指出：“美术之分南北始于东晋。”这是就时代而言。具体到个人，则是王羲之和王献之的书风差异，代表了这种书法史审美风尚转变的分界。
就审美风格言。王献之新妍的“外拓”之法具有明显的丽采气息，这符合美学意义上的“南方文化”的尚丽特色，而王羲之的书法则具有亦古亦今、既文且质的审美风格，因此从美学意义上说，唐太宗推崇王羲之书法并非是欣赏具有丽采之气的“南方文化”，而是与其在初唐呼唤“文质彬彬”的审美理想密切相连，这在唐太宗和当时的主要文士那里随处可见。唐太宗希望自己创作的诗歌能够“皆节之以中和，不系之于淫放”，显然是要以儒家倡导的“文质彬彬”的“中和”之风革新齐梁以来流荡文坛的浮靡之气。以魏徽为代表的初唐史官更是此种理想的推波助澜者，《隋书·文学传序》：：“若能掇彼清音，简兹累句，各去所短，合其两长，则文质彬彬，尽善尽美矣。”调和南北文风，折中不同的美学特色，最终达到“文质彬彬，尽善尽美”的理想。因此这些认识都可以为唐太宗推崇王羲之书法作注脚。那么从这种美学意蕴的角度分析，唐太宗心中的王羲之书法是其“中和”审美理想的最佳代表，而不是体现“南方文化”的妍丽之态。《书断·行书》对此曾有明确评价：“若逸气纵横，则羲谢于献；若簪裾礼乐，则献不继羲”\[10\]，就是说明王羲之的书风更趋于儒家礼乐审美理想的“典雅中正”，与王献之代表的“南方文化”之新妍媚趣有明显不同。
综上所述，通过对从南朝到初唐书法史的梳理，主流书风发生了由学习王献之向王羲之的转变，而这与由梁武帝开启的复古之风紧密相连。“北方文化”的复苏也正与这种风气遥相呼应，最终在唐太宗时期取得合流的结果，王羲之书法的崇高地位因此得以确立，由此可见南朝萧梁的文化建设在文学艺术方面成为初唐时期文化的一个重要渊源，初唐艺术的发展很大程度上是从学习南朝成果开始的。同时对王羲之书法的推崇成为唐太宗在初唐时期提倡“中和”审美理想的重要内容，而这正是变革“南方文化”尚丽美学的举措之一，我们对此应从美学艺术的角度予以理解才会有清醒的认识。
参考文献：
\[1\]房玄龄.晋书\[M\].点校本、北京：中华书局.
\[2\]颜之推，颜之推全集译注\[M\].济南：齐鲁书社，2004.
\[3\]\[10\]张彦远.法书要录\[M\].刘石，校点.沈阳：辽宁教育出版社，1998.
\[4\]刘晌.旧唐书\[M\].点校本.北京：中华书局，
\[5\]\[9\]赵慎修、清末民初文人丛书·刘师培\[M\].北京：中国文史出版社，1998.
\[6\]沈德潜.说诗碎语\[M\]、霍松林，校注.北京：人民文学出版社，1998.
\[7\]\[8\]刘勰，文心雕龙\[M\]、范文澜，注，北京：人民文学出版社，1958. | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | **欧盟科技安全风险监测预警机制新动向**
肖 轶
(中国科学技术交流中心，北京 100045)
摘要：本文主要介绍近年来欧盟为维护其核心战略利益、捍卫欧盟整体安全、实现战略自主、推动技术主权和减少技术对外依赖，在保障科技安全、防范科技风险领域的主要措施和做法。包括：出台科技安全领域系列战略、法规和政策措施；加强前沿战略性技术研发投入；正式实施新出口管制条例；出台外商投资审查法；积极推动民主国家科技政策联盟成立等。在此基础上，本文就欧盟科技安全风险监测预警机制主要特点进行了概括分析。
**关键词：欧盟；科技安全；风险监测**
中图分类号： G321 文献标识码：A DOI： 10.3772/j.issn.1009-8623.2022.04.006
2020年7月，欧盟出台《欧盟新安全联盟战略》(2020—2025)，提出近期欧盟安全重点优先领域，其中以捍卫欧盟网络安全、数字技术、关键基础设施及其技术、生物技术、人工智能、区块链等领域为代表的科技安全是欧盟整体安全战略的重要组成部分“。为实现欧盟战略自主、推动技术主权、减少技术对外依赖，增强科技全球竞争力，近年来欧盟在涉及网络安全等科技安全的领域出台了一系列政策措施；通过“地平线欧洲”研发框架计划等加强前沿战略性技术研发投人，保持或力争相关领域全球领先位势；加强技术出口管制，正式实施新出口管制条例；积极推动民主国家科技政策联盟成立，建立美欧贸易和技术理事会(TTC)；出台外商投资审查条例，严审影响欧盟利益的外商投资关键技术项目或计划等策略、政策和工具，从而加强科技安全风险监测预警机制建设，保障欧盟科技安全服务欧盟内外部安全整体战略。
**围绕网络安全、数字技术等领域科技安全出台系列战略、法规和政策措施**
欧盟将以网络安全、数字等领域为代表的科技
安全视为欧盟整体安全的重要部分，认为新兴技术迅猛发展在促进欧盟经济社会繁荣的同时，也为其政治、经济和社会带来不确定性和不稳定性。因此，防范新兴技术的“负面效能”冲击，加强科技安全风险预警，是维护欧盟核心价值观和利益的重要环节耳
相继出台欧盟网络安全法和网络安全战略等，加强网络安全治理
2019年6月，欧盟出台网络安全法，形成欧盟网络安全监管框架核心。该法主要内容包括两部分：一是建立健全欧盟网络安全机构。依法将欧盟网络和安全管理局设为常设性机构，授权新职责，包括支撑欧盟网络安全领域政策实施(例如欧盟网络和信息系统安全指令)，开展欧盟及其成员国网络安全能力建设，支持欧盟信息通信技术(ICT)标准化和 ICT 网络安全政策制定，协调响应大规模跨境网络安全事件和危机管理等；二是建立以网络安全认证制度为标志的特色制度框架。该法为 ICT产品、服务和流程提供一套欧盟认证的规则、技术规范、标准和程序，形成欧盟范围内有效的网络安全证书通用框架。
**作者简介：肖轶(1974一)，男，工程师，主要研究方向为国际科技创新政策、科技创新合作管理。**
2020年12月，欧盟发布《欧盟数字十年的网络安全战略》，旨在规范和塑造更安全的网络空间，为欧盟数字化转型战略和数字经济发展提供网络监管支撑。战略提出欧盟未来十年三个行动领域的监管法规、投资和政策工具的具体建议，包括：(1)弹性、技术主权和领导力；(2)建立预防、制止和应对危机的行动能力；(3)促进全球开放网络空间，加强对网络空间国际规范和标准的领导。
欧盟近来还重点关注5G网络安全规范和治理。2020年1月欧盟出台“5G网络安全工具箱”指导性文件，要求欧盟成员国评估5G 供应商的风险情况，对所谓“高风险”供应商设限。对于5G网络运营商，文件称成员国要提高安全要求，包括严格控制访问权限、制定安全操作和监控规则、限制特定功能外包等；对于 5G网络供应商，文件称要评估供应商风险情况，对于欧盟认定的重要敏感资产，要对“高风险”供应商设限。文件建议，为避免长期依赖某一供应商，欧盟成员国应维持多元化和可持续的 5G 供应链。
**1.2 为实现欧盟2030 数字转型战略，加大对数字领域安全保障**
为实现欧盟2030数字转型战略，2021年3月，欧盟正式发布2030数字罗盘计划，以增强欧盟数字竞争力，摆脱对中美两国的依赖。该计划四大核心内容包括：一是培养熟练使用数字技术的公民和专业化数字人才。到2030年，欧盟至少4/5的成年人掌握基本数字技能；拥有2000万信息技术领域专业技术人才。二是构建安全、高性能和可持续的数字基础设施。到2030年，欧盟所有家庭应实现千兆网络连接，所有人口稠密区域实现5G 网络覆盖；欧盟生产的高端半导体至少占全球总产值的1/5。三是聚焦企业数字化转型。到2030年，75%的欧盟企业应使用云计算、大数据和人工智能。四是加强公共服务数字化。到2030年，欧盟核心公共服务都应提供网络服务；4/5的公民应使用电子身份证。
2021年9月，欧盟推出落实2030数字转型战略的具体计划——‘“数字十年之路”计划。该计划基于欧盟与成员国的年度合作机制建立监管机制，以实现上述四大核心内容领域2030数字十年目标。此外，该计划还旨在确定和实施涉及欧盟及其成员
国的跨国大型数字项目。在欧盟及其成员国年度合作机制方面，包括：构建基于数字经济和社会指数(DESI) 的监测系统，用于衡量每一个2030目标的进展情况；发布成员国数字十年年度报告，欧盟评估进展并提供措施建议；制定成员国多年度数字十年战略路线图，概述支撑2030 目标所采用或计划的政策和措施；建立结构化年度框架，通过欧盟与成员国的建议和共同承诺讨论和解决进展不足的领域的问题。在跨国大型项目方面，欧盟确定了一份初步领域清单，包括：数据基础设施、低功耗处理器、5G通信、高性能计算、安全量子通信、公共行政、区块链、数字创新中心和大众数字技能。欧盟希望通过跨国大型项目，聚集成员国资源，在加强欧盟数字主权和推动欧盟复苏的关键领域建立数字能力。
**1.3 在其他涉及欧盟核心利益的颠覆性技术领域加强规划和监管**
欧盟近来加快对人工智能伦理规范的制定。2019年4月，欧盟发布《建立以人为本的人工智能信任》文件，作为欧盟在人工智能方面的伦理和道德准则。该文件强调，保障欧洲核心价值观是成功研发和应用人工智能、形成人工智能可信任环境的关键。为此，欧盟提出可信任人工智能七大关键条件可：(1)受人类监管；(2)技术的稳健性和安全性；(3)隐私和数据管理；；(4)透明度；(5)多样性、非歧视性和公平性；(6)社会和环境福祉；(7)问责制。
欧盟将区块链视为未来20年市场化预期最高、广泛采用可能性最强的颠覆性技术之一。2019年9月，欧盟发布《共享、构建和部署：欧洲区块链战略》，对欧盟区块链未来发展制定顶层设计规划。其战略聚焦于实现欧盟区块链在相关核心领域的广泛应用，以支撑欧盟数字战略发展。具体而言，欧盟拟利用区块链技术，重点推进金融、交通运输与物流、能源、卫生医疗与制药、公共服务等领域数字化转型升级，加快欧盟数字单一市场成型。
欧盟一直强调对数据的监管和治理。2020年2月，欧盟发布《欧洲数据战略》。战略提出在未来五年实现数字化的三个关键目标，即创造以人为本的技术、维持公平竞争的经济以及确保开放、民主和可持续的社会。该战略的目标是保障欧盟成为
以数据为驱动的社会典范。拟建的欧洲数据空间，将使数据在欧盟内部自由流动，形成欧盟单一数字市场，推动欧盟成为数据经济的全球领导者。2020年11月，欧盟发布《数据治理法》提案。该法将促进跨部门和成员国间数据共享，为社会创造新财富，加强企业和公民对数据的管理和信任。2021年底，欧盟委员会还密集推出一系列有关数据的法规提案，如旨在促进数据在企业间和政企间共享的《数据法》、加强对网络巨头数据垄断监管的《数字服务法》、加速数字单一市场成型的《数字市场法》等。
**2 通过地平线研发框架计划等加强前沿战略性技术研发投人**
欧盟通过地平线研发框架计划等加大前沿战略性技术领域的研发投人，激励公私部门广泛用人工智能技术。在地平线2020框架研发计划(2014—2020)期间，欧盟人工智能研发投人年增长70%，其中2018—2020年间研发投入15亿欧元，旨在连接和加强欧洲人工智能研究中心基础设施建设；推动构建欧洲人工智能按需平台，促进欧洲人工智能利益相关方合作，打造欧盟人工智能生态系统；加强人工智能在关键行业应用研发。自2020年开始，在未来十年内，在欧盟成员国共同推动下，欧盟拟在每年的人工智能研发投入超过 200亿欧元。
2016—2019年间，欧盟通过地平线2020框架计划(2014—2020)向区块链技术项目提供1.8亿欧元拨款。2020年，欧盟投资基金(EIF)注资1亿欧元成立欧盟人工智能/区块链投资基金，主要通过股权投资形式，增强创新型和高风险型的人工智能和区块链公司融资渠道，支持人工智能和区块链技术研发和新市场培育。从2021年开始，欧盟通过投资欧盟计划(InvestEU)， 与成员国国家政策性银行、公私金融机构等建立区块链技术投资平台，计划募集10亿~20亿欧元，对欧盟区块链公司进行投资。
欧盟投资欧洲数据空间和联合云基础构架高影响力项目，并推动数据技术发展。为加强欧盟数据基础建设，支持欧盟数据共享设施，完善欧盟数据构架和治理机制，促进数据共享及其生态系统创新，欧盟将在2021—2027年间投资欧洲数据空间和联合云基础构架高影响力项目。该项目总预算为40亿~60亿欧元，其中欧盟投资20亿欧元，成员
国及相关行业匹配投资。项目第一阶段计划2022年启动实施。
近年来，欧盟借第二次量子革命之机，通过“大手笔”的量子旗舰计划，以量子前沿研究为基础，在量子通信、量子计算、量子传感、量子模拟四大应用领域加强研发和创新。2018年10月欧盟正式启动该计划，拟用十年时间，投资 10亿欧元。为使欧盟未来在量子领域处于全球领先位置，欧盟于2019年6月启动欧洲量子通信基础设施计划(Euro QCI)，目前已有25个成员国加入该计划，拟建造覆盖全球的量子通信基础设施。
**3 应对新兴技术安全风险，正式实施新出口管制条例**
技术出口管制是欧盟出于政治、经济、军事和对外政策的需要，维护其技术优势、保障其科技安全和防卫安全的重要手段。欧盟最重要的技术出口管制法规是2009年出台的《建立控制两用物项的出口、转移、代理和过境共同制度条例》(428/2009条例)。为有效应对不断变化的安全风险和新兴技术发展，欧盟于2021年5月在428/2009 条例基础上，对该条例更新升级，并丰富欧盟出口管制工具箱内容。9月新条例正式生效。
该条例旨在加强欧盟对两用物项——民用物品和可能用于军事或安全用途技术的贸易控洗，增强欧盟保护人权、支持战略物资安全供应链的能力，并加强欧盟应对新安全风险和新兴技术的实力。新条例允许欧盟采取一系列重要行动汇集专业知识应对特定挑战，特别是在网络监控领域，目前欧盟正在制定相关尽职调查指南。
新条例通过提高欧盟及其成员国磋商和报告的层级和水平来提高透明度，并加快欧盟出口管制电子许可平台开发，该平台已在四个成员国试点运营。新条例还为欧盟在多边、诸边和双边采取行动提供法律基础，即承认出口管制的有效性取决于与主要技术厂商的合作，并基于现有多哒出口管制框架(瓦森纳协定)，该框架构成欧盟层面众多法规设限的基础。
新条例是欧盟出口管制的全面系统升级，通过以下措施使现有欧盟出口管制体系更加有效：(1)推出新的“人类安全”范畴，以便欧盟可以应对新兴
两用技术挑战，特别是对国家和国际安全构成风险的网络监控技术，以及保护人权；(2)更新关键概念和定义，如“出口商”定义同样适用于参与两用技术转让的自然人和研究人员，未来欧盟将加强“视同出口”管制；(3)简化和协调许可程序。通过简化许可程序，允许欧盟修改受特定形式管制的物品或目的地清单，从而使出口管制体系更加灵活； (4)加强成员国许可管理机构和欧盟的信息交流，以增加许可决策的透明度； (5)协调和支撑强有力的管制措施，包括加强许可和执法机构间的安全电子信息交流机制； (6)为欧盟成员国的许可和执法机构制定能力建设和培训计划；(7)通过欧盟成员国和利益相关者具体磋商、发展与私营部门的结构化关系，深入相关行业，并提高与利益相关者的透明度； (8)加强与第三国对话，并在全球范围内实现公平竞争环境。欧盟将就出口管制机制加强与其他国家(地区)的协商，加强管制物项的互认，共同构建多边管制机制。
**_4_ 出台外商投资审查法，加大对外资高技术领域收购统管力度**
此前，欧盟层面的外资安全审查呈现无中心化、碎片化特点。由于缺乏统一立法，外资安全审查是欧盟权力的真空地带，欧盟在该领域不具有决定权，也几乎无影响力。近年来，美国、中国等国对欧投资规模持续扩大，投资格局发生变化，引发一些欧洲大国的担忧。
高技术领域投资增长使得欧洲一些国家感到利益威胁。欧盟对高技术领域的外资并购非常审慎，担心其威胁欧盟核心利益。这些领域包括航空航天、可再生能源、生物技术、消费电子产品、电子元件、化学品、发动机/涡轮机、医疗设备、制药、半导体、软件/IT服务、空间/防御等。欧盟认为，外国国有控股公司在上述领域的收购可能会损害欧盟的技术优势，也使得欧盟安全或公共秩序陷入危险。
基于以上考虑，欧盟于2019年3月通过旨在强化审查力度的《欧盟外资审查框架法案》。该法案于当年4月11日生效，2020年10月10日正式实施。法案确立了欧盟外资审查合作与信息交流机制，扩大了欧盟话语权，但同时保留了成员国最终决定权。法案文本共17条，规定了适用范围、审查机制、审
查因素、合作机制、年度报告、影响欧盟利益的外资项目、信息要求、国际合作、评估等内容。
从基本原则看，欧盟成员国在国家安全领城仍具有独立的责任和权力；成员国仍保留各自外资安全审查机制，并具有建立、调整、修改的权力；欧盟及第三国可对成员国外资安全审查提出建议，但成员国掌握最终决定权。
从审查范围看，包括：
一是需考虑影响安全或公共秩序的投资领域：(1)关键基础设施，包括能源、交通、水资源、卫生、通信、媒体、数据处理或存储、航空、防卫、选举或金融设施，敏感设备，以及相关的重要土地和房地产；(2)关键技术，包括人工智能、机器人、半导体、网络安全、航空、防卫、能源存储、量子与核能技术，以及纳米和生物技术；(3)关键供应，包括能源或原材料，以及食品安全；(4)敏感信息获取，包括个人数据或对其的控制能力；(5)媒体自由和多元化。
二是需考虑影响欧盟整体利益的外资项目：主要指涉及较大金额或比例的欧盟资助项目，或被关键基础设施、技术或投人领城的欧盟法律所涵盖的项目，包括欧洲卫星导航系统、哥白尼计划、地平线 2020等欧盟主要科技创新计划。欧盟会视情对项目清单进行修订。
三是需针对外国投资者的特别考虑因素：(1)外国投资者是否由第三国政府直接或间接控制； (2)外国投资者是否已有影响欧盟成员国安全或公共秩序的行为； (3)外国投资者是否存在从事非法或犯罪活动的严重风险。
**_5_ 积极推动民主国家科技政策联盟成立，建立美欧贸易和技术理事会**
近来，欧盟在科技安全风险防控方面进一步加强国际合作，特别是与所谓志同道合、具有共同价值观的国家开展科技安全风险共同防控，积极推动民主国家科技政策联盟成立，与美国建立共同科技安全风险防控机构——美欧贸易和技术理事会(TTC)，共同应对科技安全风险。
**5.1 欧洲智库首度提出组建技术联盟相关政策建议**
2020年6月，欧洲知名当代中国政策研究智库——德国墨卡托中国研究所认为中国在疫情爆发
后通过加强健康应用程序和实时监控技术等做法，进一步完善所谓“技术专制”，提出欧洲应与具有共同价值观的国家建立技术联盟，应对中国科技挑战，实现欧洲技术主权。
智库建议欧盟及其科技领先的成员国，如德国、法国、荷兰，并加上美、加、日、韩等具有共同价值观的国家建立技术联盟，即创建旨在协调跨国科技政策的新机构。该联盟将通过保护关键性技术、加强协同创新，并将新兴技术的使用和治理纳人民主价值范畴三大策略维系竞争力和安全。智库提出与中国开展技术竞争的主要具体路径，包括：(1)利用多边机制就关键性技术出口中国进行管控；(2)加大投资力度以保持5G、量子通信、人工智能等关键领域的领先性；(3)协调部署和管理新兴技术，使其成为保护团结欧洲价值观的前沿和中心。
5.2 欧美峰会敲定联盟基调，并建立专门机构推进
2021年6月，美国总统拜登和欧委会主席冯德莱恩在布鲁塞尔召开欧美峰会，就科技和贸易宣布建立广泛的伙伴关系，旨在反击中国并推动民主价值观。一是建立主要由美国主导的跨大西洋国际贸易和技术标准合作以反击中国，同时致力解决新冠疫情期间出现的关键供应链问题，如半导体芯片等。二是聚焦促进数字领域的民主价值观。包括阻止专制政府对互联网局部封锁和促进民主原则。双方将重点加强科技领域竞争政策和执法方面的协调，包括成立专门的政策工作组以研究数字反垄断问题。三是加强欧盟和美国更大规模的创新和投资。双方将致力于与中国自上而下的经济模式竞争，包括动用欧美经济力量，成立专门的合资企业，推动量子计算等新兴技术研发。
双方宣布建立美欧贸易和技术理事会，以引领基于价值观的全球数字化转型图。美欧贸易和技术理事会定期举行政治层面的会议，首次会议于2021年9月在美国匹兹堡召开。美欧贸易和技术理事会的主要目标包括：扩大双边贸易投资，避免形成新技术壁垒，就技术、数字、供应链等关键政策领域开展合作，支持联合研发，共同推广兼容性国际标准，便利监管执法合作，推动双方企业的创新和领导力。
美欧贸易和技术理事会设立十个工作组，包括
技术标准合作、气候和绿色科技、保护供应链(包括半导体)、通信技术安全和竞争力、数据治理和技术平台、应对技术滥用对安全和人权的威胁、出口管制、投资审查、促进中小企业应用数字技术、全球贸易挑战。双方还设立了技术竞争政策联合对话机制。
欧美希望以美欧贸易和技术理事会为代表的技术联盟能使欧美在竞争中加快步伐，并解决一系列问题，包括来自中国的复杂技术供应链、开展数字项目的共同投资等。同时，该联盟将与其他国家和组织合作，如澳大利亚和日本，以及世贸组织等国际机构。根据美欧贸易和技术理事会首次会议签署的联合声明，欧美双方达成以下合作意向：
在外商投资方面，双方强调加强外资收购审查的重要性，将辅以必要的执法机制，专门解决国家安全和欧美内部公共秩序风险。组建专门工作组并开展定期会面与交流，积极寻求与其他国际伙伴的多边合作。
强调出口管制是确保遵循国际义务和承诺的保障，对有效保护国际安全和全球公平竞争环境十分必要。重点关注应用于国防和安全领域时易引起严重关切的新兴技术及其对人权的影响。承诺对某些两用物资贸易进行控制，采取协调一致的方式控制敏感技术转让，防止其可能导致的严重侵犯人权行为或国际人道主义名义被滥用现象。
强调人工智能发展应以人为本，以可靠为基础，同意使用基于风险控制的方式，使全社会在确保必要保护水平的前提下获得人工智能便利。成立共同工作组，协调制定人工智能领域标准。
强调通过与利益相关者协商和采取恰当激励措施来提高半导体价值链韧性；承诺在阻止外国企业收购半导体产业方面采取协调一致的举措。
**6 欧盟科技安全风险监测预警机制主要特点分析**
(1)以维护欧盟整体安全为目标，科技安全益发重要。
从2003年欧盟首次发布的《欧洲安全战略》，到2016年发布的《欧盟外交与安全政策全球战略》，再到2020年出台的《欧盟新安全联盟战略》(2020—2025)，欧盟逐步认为如气候变化、能
源问题、全球健康问题、网络安全问题等对欧盟的安全尤其是非传统安全不断形成全球性挑战，从而影响欧盟整体安全。而应对上述全球性挑战，科技创新发挥着重要的支撑作用。此外，欧盟认为，人工智能、5G网络、数字技术、生物技术等新兴科技的迅猛发展对全球治理、地缘政治、国际关系等带来前所未有的深远影响，因此科技安全在欧盟整体安全中扮演越来越重要的角色。
(2)注重科技安全“六要素”内容，预警机制系统全面。
欧盟注重包括科技成果安全、科技人员安全、科技产品安全、科技活动安全、科技应用安全和科技设施安全在内的科技安全“六要素”全方位风险防控。通过制定法规、推出政策、设立标准、建立机构、投入资金等一系列组合举措，在科技成果、科技人员、科技产品、科技活动、科技应用、科技设施等六方面进行风险监测预警机制建设。例如：通过不断修订出口管制条例等，加强对技术成果和技术应用的风险管控；推出《欧盟应对外国干预高校和科研机构概念文件》草案，加强欧盟科研人员与国外机构及其人员合作与交流管理；出台《欧盟外资审查框架法案》，严控外资收购欧盟关键科技基础设施等。
(3)紧跟全球科技创新发展趋势，优先考虑监管规范。
欧盟是全球重要的科技创新力量，前沿基础研究底蕴深厚。同时，为保障科技创新全球竞争力，推进欧盟“技术主权”，防止科技发展受制于人，减少对外依赖，欧盟在前沿技术、新兴技术和战略性高新科技等领域持续发力，特别是在人工智能、5G 网络安全、数字技术、区块链、生物技术、量子技术、新能源等关乎欧盟核心利益的领域，欧盟从整体安全战略出发，在积极扶持相关技术创新的同时，始终将监管规制放在首位，突出标准规范先行，强调“有序”防范“无序”，力导“健康”避免“过热”，引导相关产业良性发展。
(4)不断加大欧盟层面防控力度，集中管控科技风险。
近年来，为加强欧盟层面在科技安全风险防控方面的协调能力，应对各成员国科技安全风险监测发展不平衡、不充分等问题，欧盟采取多种措施和手段，如制定适用于欧盟成员国的法律法规、成
立欧盟层面相关机构等，提高欧盟整体科技安全防控能力。如前文所述，欧盟出台《欧盟外资审查框架法案》，提升欧盟在外资审查方面的话语权，从欧盟层面保护核心关键科技基础设施不受外资收购控制。新冠疫情爆发后，欧盟为应对疫情和未来卫生危机，填补欧盟层面在卫生医疗领域的“权力真空”，在现有欧洲疾控中心、欧洲药品管理局等机构外，于2021年9月正式成立欧洲卫生应急管理局(HERA)例，以预防、发现和快速应对突发卫生事件。欧洲卫生应急管理局将通过收集情报和建立必要的响应能力来予测威胁和潜在的健康危机。发生突发事件时，欧洲卫生应急管理局将确保药物、疫苗和其他医用物资的研发、生产和分配。
**参考文献：**
**\[1\]European Commission. EU Security union strategy：connecting the dots in a new security ecosystem\[EB/OL\]. \[2022-01-10\]. https：//ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip** \_ **20** \_ **1379.**
2小 **European Commission. Regulation (EU) 2019/881 of the** **European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019on ENISA (the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity)** **and on information and communications technology** **cybersecurity certification and repealing regulation (EU)** No 526/2013 (Cybersecurity Act)\[EB/OL\].\[2022-01-10\]. **https：//eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/881/oj.**
3 **European Commission. Secure 5G networks： commission** **endorses EU toolbox and sets out next steps\[EB/OL\]. \[2022-01-10\]. https：//ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip** \_ **20** \_ **123.**
\[4\] **European Commission. Europe’s digital decade： digital** targets for 2030\[EB/OL\].\[2022-01-10\]. https：//ec.europa. eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/europe-fit-digital- **age/europes-digital-decade-digital-targets-2030** \_ **en.**
5\] **European Commission. Legal provisions of COM(2019)168-building trust in human-centric artificial intelligence\[EB/** OL\]. \[2022-01-10\]. https：//www.eumonitor.eu/9353000/1/ **j4nvhdfcs8bljza** \_ **j9vvik7mlc3gyxp/vkxhedj2bkzc.**
**6European Commission. Setting up a union regime for the** **control of exports， brokering， technical assistance， transit** and transfer of dual-use items (recast)\[EB/OL\]. \[2022-01-
**10\]. https：//eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ：L：2021：206：FULL&from=EN.**
\[7\] **European Commission. Establishing a framework for** **the screening of foreign direct investments into the** union\[EB/OL\].\[2022-01-10\]. https：//eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/452/oj.
\[8\] **European Commission. EU-US Trade and Technology**
**Council inaugural joint statement\[EB/OL\]. \[2022-01-30\]. https：//ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/STATEMENT\_21\_4951**
**9European Commission. Health emergency preparedness and response authority\[EB/OL\].\[2022-01-30\]. https：//ec.europa.eu/info/departm ents/health-emergency-preparedness-and-response-authority\_en.**
**The New Trends of EU Technology Security Risk Monitoring and Early Warning Mechanism**
**XIAO Yi**
(China Science and Technology Exchange Center，Beijing100045)
Abstract： This paper mainly introduces the main measures and practices of the EU in safeguarding its technology security and preventing technology risks in order to protect its core strategic interests， defend overall security， realize strategic autonomy， promote technology sovereignty， and reduce external dependence. The main measures and practices are as follows： introducing a series of strategies， regulations and policy measures in the field of technology security， strengthening investment in research and development of cutting-edge strategic technologies； formally implementing new export control regulations； implementing the FDI screening regulations； promoting the establishment of Democratic Countries Science and Technology Policy Alliance， etc. The paper makes a general analysis of the main characteristics of the EU technology security risk monitoring and early warning mechanism as well.
Keywords： EU； technology security， risk monitoring
**(上接第25页)**
\[7\] EPSRC. Peer review college\[EB/OL\].\[2021-11-20\]. **https：//epsrc.ukri.org/funding/assessmentprocess/college/.**
\[81MRC. External peer review\[EB/OL\].\[2021-11-01\]. https：// **mrc.ukri.org/funding/peer-review/external-peer-review/**
\[9\]\] **MRC. MRC expert external referee selectors\[EB/OL1.\[2021-11-01\]. https：//mrc.ukri.org/about/our-structure/research-boards-panels/mrc-expert-external-referee-selectors/.**
**Peer Review of Research Proiects in the UK**
WANG Jing
(Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China， Beijing100862)
Abstract： Peer review is an important method of science and technology evaluation， which is widely used in the research projects assessments. The UK is the birthplace of the peer review， and a stable and standardized system has been formed in the peer review of research projects. This paper introduces the principles， process， assessment standards and expert selection of peer review of research projects in the UK， and proposes several suggestions for peer review of research projects in China.
Keywords： the UK； science and technology evaluation； peer review | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
|
zh | N/A | N/A | 学生发展与管理xuesheng fazhan yu guanli
赏识教育应该有原则性
江苏姜堰市二中姜立东
近日，笔者看到一则学生日记，其中写到：近一段，我们班主任的脾气、性格都发生了很大的变化。她突然一反常态，出现了一些”怪现象”：从前对学生的训斥、指责、甚至讽刺挖苦等不好的现象烟消云散，而一概变成了对学生的”赏识"；她不吝褒奖，不管在什么场合，什么地点发生了什么事情，总是对学生说：你非常聪明大脑反应快"你接受能力强，能够学好每一门学科"、你极有天赋，将来会有很大的前途”等等。刚开始时，对老师的变化，我们感到了一阵轻松和愉快，尝到了愉快教育”的甜头，再也没有了心理上的压抑
了，还美滋滋的。可是时间一长，我们就感觉不对劲了老师对每一个学生都进行这样的评价无论是谁有了问题，如考试不好、作业质量不高、上课开小差等，班主任都会大而化之地加以肯定：你一定会成功的"”你是最棒的”，而并不是帮助他们找出急需解决的问题。久而久之，我们都弄不清自己的真实情况了，也不知道自己在学习中究竟还存在什么问题。在班主任一个劲的”赏识”声中，我们的问题越积越多而且似乎失去了转化和进步的机会。
从学生日记中，我们可以看出该班主任也许是受到了某种教育理念的启发，正在尝试一种新的
教育方式。班主任的用心很好，赏识对学生的培养也确实有着不可低估的作用。但是，赏识教育并不像这位教师理解的那么简单。出现上述问题的原因实际上是班主任还没有弄清赏识的尺度、方法与原则，以致走进了”赏识”的误区。教育如果没有使学生得到应有的成长与发展，那就是一种失败，这种”赏识”是建立在廉价的、没有原则的基础之上的更深一点说是一种虚伪的教育。该班主任的工作由全盘否定到大肆夸奖实际上是走向了另一个极端某种程度上也可以说是对学生的不负责任。
学会赏识是班主任工作的艺术，最有价值的赏识应该发自内心。由此可见，赏识教育应遵循-定的原则性：
/.针对性原则
正确的评价和赏识首先来源于班主任对学生全面、正确的认识和了解。班主任必须全面了解和把
握每个学生的个性差异、家庭环境、认识水平及成就需要的层次，并善于把一般的赏识转化为具体的激励。适当的评价和赏识，可建立师生之间的正向交流对学生赏识过高或过低都会在学生心目中失衡，影响学生的客观判断力。班主任应尽可能了解不同学生的长处，充分赏识学生的每一个方面，看到学生的进步和发展有针对性地鼓励学生，才能激发其潜能。
2.合理性原则
赏识要合理要针对学生的需要。学生的需要有合理和不合理之分，即使是合理的，也要分成目前能解决的和今后才能解决的。对于后进生，因其基础较差，坏习惯较多，如果想在赏识中急于求成，反而欲速则不达。班主任应坚信：没有落后的学生，只有落后的观点和方法；学生时刻处于不断地变化和前进的过程中，全面发展者是好学生成绩暂时平平但确实努力者也
是好学生，每个学生都能在班主任的教育和帮助下愉快、健康地成长。苏霍姆林斯基说得好：对一个学生来说，5分的成绩是标志，而对另一个学生来说，3分就是了不起的成绩班主任要善于确定每一个学生在此时此刻能够做到什么程
3.教育性原则
赏识本身要有内涵，盲目的赏识只能适得其反。赏识要针对学生的实际问题解决其实际需要(情感的、心理的、动力的需要等等)；也要通过赏识，不断提高他们的需要层次，使学生能持续地追求新的成就，开发自身的潜能；还要根据学生的兴趣、爱好、特长，激发其求知欲，增强其兴趣；更要善于发现学生的闪光点，引导学生调动自己的潜能和学习的积极性，让不同的学生在不同的目标上获得成功。
(编辑
张
葳)
管理不宜表格化
笔者认为，表格化的管理模式实在是弊多利少。
管得了量管不了质。表格化管理偏重于量化考核，很难对"质”进行科学考核，况且”质”的优劣又很难在短时期内作出正确评价。
管得了教管不了学。学生学业成绩的优劣往往并不与教师劳动量的多少成正比，它与班风学风、学生基础等诸多因素有关。仅凭考核教师所得的种种”硬指标”评优劣、定奖罚，既不科学也不全面。
管得了人管不了心。如果领导处处防着教师，甚至监视教师，势必产生对立情绪。也许人被管死”心却没能管住。
管得了勤管不了懒。勤奋的教师，即绝大多数教师都能保质保量完成工作任务，管得太多，管得太死，反倒成了一种负担，工作的主动性、积极性自然也就差了。而懒惰的照样可以偷懒、取巧，在形式上完美无缺，实际上多在弄虚作假，到头来还能评优得奖。这既不合理又不公平。
管得了内管不了外。事实上，凡严格实行坐班制的学校，学生成绩也并不见佳，甚至反而差些，为什么?也许与教师在”外”少了责任心不无关系。
(湖南
潘久泰) | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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zh | N/A | N/A | 消费税筹划初探
文/刘世慧
摘要：消费税是我国流转税中的一个重要税种，享受的税收优惠政策相对较少。如何在有限的空间内尽可能降低消费税的纳税成本，对于增加企业营业利润，实现其财务目标，具有重要意义。
关键词：消费税；筹划；计税依据
消费税是在增值税普遍调节的基础上，发挥特殊调节的功能，为达到一定的调节力度，有的消费品的消费税税率高达45%，直接关系企业的利润水平，因此对消费税进行税收筹划是当前企业财务工作中一个重要问题。
一、征税范围的税收筹划
消费税的征收范围比较窄，仅仅局限在14类商品中。这14类应税消费品分别是：烟、酒及酒精、化妆品、贵重首饰及珠宝玉石、鞭炮及焰火、成品油、汽车轮胎、摩托车、小汽车、高尔夫球及球具、高档手表、游艇、木制一次性筷子、实木地板。在企业投资决策的时候，就可避开上述消费品，而选择其他符合国家产业政策、在流转税及所得税方面有优惠措施的产品进行投资。如：高档皮具、高档服装、电子产品等，达到规避消费税税收负担的目的。
二、计税依据的税收筹划
1.设立独立核算的销售机构
除金银及钻石、钻石饰品在零售环节课税以外，其他应税消费基本在生产环节课税。在生产环节之后还存在着批发、零售等若干个流转环节，这在客观上为纳税人选择一定的方式节税提供了可能。如果企业设立独立核算的门市部，以较低但不违反公平交易的销售价格将应税消费品销售给其独立核算的销售部门，则可以降低销售额，从而减少应纳消费税税额。独立核算的销售部门，由于处在销售环节，只缴纳增值税，不缴纳消费税，可使集团的整体消费税税负下降，但增值税税负不变。这里值得注意的是：生产厂家向经销部出售应税消费品时，只能适度压低价格，如果压低的幅度过大，就属于税法所称“价格明显偏低”的情况，税务机关可以行使对价格的调整权。
如果经销部为非独立核算形式，税法规定，纳税人通过自设非独立核算门市部的销售的自产应税消费品，应当按照门市部对外销售额或者销售数量计算征收消费税。那么，企业仍需要按照经销部对外销售的价格计算缴纳消费税，则起不到节税的效果。
例：某酒厂主要生产粮食白酒，本市的一些商业零售户、
酒店、消费者每年到工厂直接购买的白酒大约10000斤， 每斤60元。为了提高企业的盈利水平，企业在本市设立了一独立核算的白酒经销部。该厂按照销售给其他批发商的批量销售价格50元/斤销售给经销部，经销部再以每斤60元的价格对外销售。粮食白酒适用消费税税率25%。
若不设经销部，应纳消费税为：
0.5×10000+60×10000×25%=155000(元)
若设经销部，应纳消费税为：
0.5×10000+50×10000×25%=130000(元)节税额为25000元。
2.利用包装物进行税收筹划
消费税的计算方法有从价定率和从量定额两种，对实行从价定率办法计算应纳税额的应税消费品，如果包装物连同产品销售，无论包装物是否单独计价，也不论会计上如何处理，包装物均应并入销售额中计征消费税。但如果包装物并未随同产品销售，而是借给购货方周转使用，仅仅收取包装物押金的话，只要此项押金在规定的时间内退回，可以不并入销售额计算纳税。因此，企业可以考虑在情况允许时采用出借包装物的方式，一方面有助于减少计税依据，降低税收负担，另一方面在归还押金之前，企业可以占有这部分押金的利息。
例：某企业销售商品100件，每件售价500元，其中含包装箱价款50元，如果连同包装物一并销售，销售额为50000元。若消费税税率为10%，应纳消费税税额为50000×10%=5000元。如果企业不将包装物随同消费品出售，而采用收取包装物押金的方法，规定要求购货方在6个月内退还， 就可以节税50×100-(1+17%)×10%≈427.35元。
3.将应税消费品用于其他方面的筹划
纳税人自产自用的应税消费品，除用于连续生产应税消费品外，用于其他方面的，于移送使用时纳税。其他方面指用于生产非应税消费品、在建工程、管理部门、非生产机构，提供劳务以及用于馈赠、集资、赞助、广告、职工福利、奖励等方面。在税法上，用于这些方面应作为视同销售处理，缴纳消费税。在计算消费税时，计税销售额可按以下顺序进行选
择：第一，按纳税人当月生产的同类消费品的销售价格；第二，当月同类消费品的销售价格的加权平均或上月或最近月份的销售价格；第三，组成计税价格=(成本+利润)-(1-一消费税税率)。
例：某摩托车厂只生产一种摩托车。某月将自产摩托车100辆赠送给摩托车拉力赛赛手使用，应纳消费税。假设当月生产的摩托车的销售价格为5000元/辆。则计税销售额Al=5000×100=500000(元)；设当月按5000元/辆销售400辆，按5500/辆销售400辆。则计税销售额A2=(400×5000+400×5500)-800×100=525000(元)；假设A生产摩托车的成本为4500元/辆，成本利润率为6%，消费税税率为10%。则计税销售额A3=4500×(1+6%)-(1-10%)×100=530000(元)从以上计算结果可以看出： A3>A2>A1。由此表明只有在第1种情况下企业的消费税才缴得最少。这就要求企业建立健全会计核算制度，应有清晰明了的价目表，会计记录清楚，以避免会计记录混乱而增加额外的税收负担。
三、兼营行为的税收筹划
兼营多种不同税率的应税消费税产品的企业，应当分别核算不同税率应税消费品的销售额、销售数量。因为《中华人民共和国消费税暂行条例》规定，未分别核算销售额、销售数量，或者将不同税率的应税消费品组成消费品出售的，应从高适用税率。这无疑会增加企业的税收负担。例：某酒厂既生产税率25%的粮食白酒，又生产税率为10%的药酒等，还生产上述两种酒的小瓶装礼品套酒(粮食白酒400克/瓶，药酒400克/瓶)。2007年1-6月该厂生产粮食白酒100吨，计销售金额560万元，又生产药酒等50吨，计销售金额380万元，生产上述两种酒的小瓶装礼品套酒共计15000套，计销售金额96万元。
若采用综合核算法，则应交消费税为：(560+380+96)×25%=259万元。若分开核算，粮食白酒应交消费税=560×25%=140万元。药酒应交消费税=380×10%=38万元。小瓶装礼品套酒应交消费税=5600000-100000000×400×15000×25%+3800000-50000000×400×15000×10%=84000元+45600=129600元。共计交纳消费税=1400000+380000+129600=1909600元。分别核算不同税率的两类酒与混合在一起核算相比，少纳消费税为：2590000-1909600=680400元。
四、混合销售行为的筹划
从事货物的生产、批发或零售的企业，以及以从事货物的生产、批发或零售为主，并兼营非应税劳务的企业的混合
销售行为，视同销售货物，应当征收增值税。若货物为应税消费品，则计算消费税的销售额和计算增值税的销售额是一致的，都是向购买方收取的全部价款和价外费用。价外费用包括价外向购买方收取的手续费、补贴、包装物租金、运输装卸费、代收款项等诸多费用。例如化妆品厂既向客户销售化妆品，又负责运送所售化妆品、并收取运费，则运费作为价外费用，就应并入销售额计算征收消费税。如果将运费同应税消费品分开核算，则可以减少销售额，少纳消费税，运费部分只纳3%的营业税，而无须按应税消费品的高税率纳消费税，节约了纳税支出。
五、加工方式的税收筹划
企业经营方式有委托加工或自行加工这两种。选取全部委托加工还是自行加工，存在一个以外部加工费金额为参考的平衡点。在平衡点处两种方式的税后净利相同；在平衡点以上时，自行加工方式较优；在平衡点以下时，全部委托加工方式为优。
例：A公司是一个生产化妆品的企业，现将一批价值80万元的原材料委托B公司加工成成套化妆品，加工费为X万元(不含增值税)，而B公司无同类消费品销售价格，按组成计税价格代扣代缴消费税。该批化妆品售价为420万元，化妆品消费税税率为30%，适用的企业所得税税率为33%，城建税税率为7%，教育费附加为3%。若企业自行加工，加工费用为110.4万元。若自行加工，A公司应纳消费税为420×30%=126万元，应纳城建、教育费附加为126×(7%+3%)=12.6万元，税后利润为(420-80-110.4-126-12.6)×(1-33%)=60.97万元。若全部委托加工，B公司应代扣、代缴消费税，消费税组成计税价格为(80+X)+(1-30%)×30%万元，应纳城建、教育费附加为(80+X)+(1-30%)×30%×(7%+3%)万元，税后利润为\[420-(80+X)+(1-30%)×30%×(1+7%+3%)-80-X1×(1-33%)万元。
当两种方式净利润相等时，(420-110.4-80-126-12.6×(1-33%)=\[420-(80+X)-(1-30%)×30%×(1+7%+3%)80-X\]×(1-33%)，得出X=143.59万元。因此很容易得出：当X>143.59万元时，选择自行加工合算；反之当X<143.59万元时，选择委托加工合算。
作者单位：聊城大学会计系
参考文献：
\[1\]李鹏洲，加工方式选择的税收筹划\[J.税收征纳，2001，9：39-41.
\[2\]陈碧香.试论消费税的税务筹划\[J\].商业会计，2006，1：26-27、
\[3\]谭光荣.应税消费品连续加工的税务筹划\[刀.财会通讯(综合版)，2006，1：42. | __label__neg | 0 | null | null | null | null | null |
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